System For Ophthalmic Dispensing 3rd Edition - Brooks, Borish - 2006

11830 Westline Industrial Drive
St. Louis, Missouri 63146
SYSTEM FOR OPHTHALMIC DISPENSING, THIRD EDITION

ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7480-5
ISBN-10: 0-7506-7480-6
Copyright 2007 by Butterworth-Heinemann, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Some material was previously published.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elseviers Health Sciences Rights Department in
Philadelphia, PA, USA: phone: (+1) 215 239 3804, fax: (+1) 215 239 3805, e-mail:
healthpermissions@elsevier.com. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier
homepage (http://www.elsevier.com), by selecting Customer Support and then Obtaining
Permissions.
Notice
Neither the Publisher nor the Authors assume any responsibility for any loss or injury and/or
damage to persons or property arising out of or related to any use of the material contained in
this book. It is the responsibility of the treating practitioner, relying on independent expertise and
knowledge of the patient, to determine the best treatment and method of application for the
patient.
The Publisher
Previous edition copyrighted 1996
ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-7480-5
ISBN-10: 0-7506-7480-6
Publishing Director: Linda Duncan

Senior Editor: Kathy Falk
Senior Developmental Editor: Christie M. Hart
Publishing Services Manager: Pat Joiner
Senior Project Manager: Karen M. Rehwinkel
Designer: Amy Buxton
Working together to grow

libraries in developing countries
Printed in China
Last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org
This book is dedicated to our students, whose interest and desire

to master the subject prompted its writing.
Preface
he original goal for creating System for Ophthalmic Dispensing was not to create a comprehensive
textbook. Rather, we envisioned a student manual
to aid in the teaching of how to dispense prescription
eyewear. As the manual developed, Professional Press
learned of the project, expressed an interest, and
requested sample chapters. It became evident that such
a publication might be useful beyond the con nes of
teaching at Indiana University.
Once a preliminary manuscript copy was available, it
was sent out for review. This resulted in a request for the
addition of material on the optics of lenses. Thus the
second section of the book was added. Perhaps because
of the large number of photographs and illustrations, the
rst edition was found to be useful in both educational
programs and in ophthalmic practices.
Ophthalmic dispensing of eyewear is basic throughout the eye care world. And so is an understanding of
how ophthalmic lenses perform. Both are essential for a
new employee in an optical dispensary who is learning
on the job and for an experienced eye care practitioner.
Knowing the varied backgrounds of the reading audience, an attempt was made to write in a manner that
would be understandable to someone new to the eld,
but would also include the type of information needed
by those with years of ophthalmic experience.
The second edition built upon and updated the original edition, adding sections on lens material and lens
design. The second edition contained large numbers of

photosall in black and white. For the third edition the
decision was made to start all over again, with color
photos throughout. Hundreds of photos were taken,
each from the point of view of the eye care provider.
There are major changes in the second half of the book
concerning ophthalmic lenses. All of these chapters have
been extensively reorganized and rewritten. Included are
large amounts of new material on progressive lenses,
occupational progressive lenses, aspheric and atoric
lenses, and absorptive lenses. There are also two completely new chaptersone on the optical aspects of aniseikonia, the other on how lenses are edged.
All of these changes have been made in an attempt to
address the needs of two groups of professionals. The
rst group consists of eye care providers who must stay
current themselves, but also must individually train new
personnel. The second group is made up of ophthalmic
educators and students in formalized educational programs. Both groups need well-illustrated, comprehensive educational resources.
The process of attempting to fulll these needs has
been both time consuming and painstaking. You now see
the results. We hope that you will nd the new third
edition of System for Ophthalmic Dispensing to be informative, easy to use, and personally benecial.
vii
Acknowledgments
or help in preparing the rst edition, the authors

would especially like to thank Jacque Kubley for
the original photography and many of the illustrations; Sandra Corns Pickel and Sue Howard for serving
as models; and Dr. Linda Dejmek, Kyu-Sun Rhee,
Dennis Conway, and Steve Weiss for the artwork and
illustrations. For all the help received for the rst edition,
we continue to be very grateful.
For the second edition, again thanks to Jacque Kubley
for his continued assistance in photography and a number
of the graphics. In the second and now the third edition,
thanks to Glenn Herringshaw, who manages Indiana
Universitys optical laboratory, for many helpful ideas
and suggestions; and to Glenn and Regina Herringshaw
for serving as models for a number of the photographs.
Also thanks to Pam Gondry and Dr. Eric Reinhard for
joining in the modeling team for the third edition. A
specic word of appreciation goes to Robert Woyton of

Hilco for reviewing the chapter on repairs and supplying
a number of photographs for both the second and third
editions.
Thanks to Ric Cradick of IU Photographic Services
for taking the multitude of new color photos for the
third edition. His professional expertise is much
appreciated.
To our students, we owe a debt of gratitude. They
suffered through preliminary manuscripts, yet were
exceedingly helpful in pointing out omissions, making
valuable suggestions, and asking just the right questions.
Finally, special thanks to our many friends within the
profession for offering suggestions and supplying ideas
for improving the text. Without your advice and the
information you provided, it would have been impossible
to complete the task.
ix
CHAPTER 1
Frame Types and Parts

he purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the
reader with the basic terminology used in
eyewear. This knowledge is essential to avoid
misunderstanding the terms used later in the text to
describe in detail the actual dispensing procedures.
between the butt end and the bend is called the shank or
shaft, and that portion beyond the bend and behind the
ear is referred to as the earpiece, bent-down portion, or curl
(Figure 1-2).
BASIC PARTS
CONSTRUCTION
The frame is that portion of the spectacles that holds the

lenses containing the ophthalmic prescription in their
proper position in front of the eyes.
A frame generally consists of the front, which in one
form or another contains the lenses, and the temples,
which attach to the front and hook over the ears to help
hold the spectacles in place. Frames occasionally do not
have temples and are instead held in place by pressure
on the sides of the nose (pince-nez), by attachment to
another frame (clip-ons), or by being held in the hand
(lorgnettes).
Frames
Frame Fronts
That area of the frame front between the lenses that rests
on the nose is the bridge. The rim going around the
lenses is known as the eyewire or rim. The outer areas of
the frame front, to the extreme left and right where the
temples attach, are known as the endpieces. A few plastic
frames may still have a metal shield on the front of the
endpiece to which rivets are attached to hold the hinge
in place (Figure 1-1).
The hinges hold the temples to the front, and consist
of an odd number of intertting barrels, the total number
being three, ve, or seven. Hinges may vary in construction, but for simplicity are usually classied by the total
number of barrels they have when assembled, such as a
three-barrel hinge.
Some frames have nose pads, which are plastic pieces
that rest on the nose to support the frame. These may
be directly attached to the frame or to connecting metal
pieces known as guard arms or pad arms.
Temples
The portion of the temple that is nearest its attachment
to the front is known as the butt portion or butt end. The
place on the temple where it rst bends down to go over
the ear is called the bend. The portion of the temple
Frames without an eyewire going completely around the

lens are called mountings. Lenses are inserted into
frames, but mounted into mountings. Frames themselves can be classied in a simplied manner by one of
the following categories of frames or mountings.
Plastic
Plastic frames are made of some type of plastic material.
Plastic frames were occasionally referred to as shell
frames, dating back to the time when eyeglass frames
were made of tortoise shell. This term has fallen into
disuse. Another general term that many still use for
certain plastic frames is zyl, since at one time zylonite
(cellulose nitrate) was a commonly used material. Zylonite
is highly ammable and no longer used for spectacle
frames. The name zyl continues to be used, but usually
refers to the most commonly used plastic materialcellulose acetate. Now, with the emergence of many new
materials, either the exact name of the plastic material
is used or the frame is simply referred to as plastic
(Figure 1-3).
Metal
Metal frames are those made of all metal parts, except for
the nose pads and the posterior temple sections, which
are plastic covered. The eyewire runs completely around
the lens (Figure 1-4).
Nylon cord frames
Nylon cord frames, sometimes called string mounted frames
or nylon supras hold the lenses in place by means of a
nylon cord that ts around the edge of the lens. This
gives the glasses the appearance of being rimless. Usually
the top of the lens is tted into the upper rim of the
frames. The rest of the lens has a small groove cut into
an otherwise at edge (Figure 1-5).
3
Ophthalmic Dispensing P A R T O N E
Combination
Combination frames are commonly frames having a metal
chassis and plastic top rims and temples (Figure 1-6). The
chassis includes the eyewire and center or bridge section.
Although this is the most common construction, technically any frame with a combination of metal and plastic
could be included in this category, as in the case of a
Shield
Bridge
Endpiece
Nosepad
Eyewire or rim
Figure 1-1. The frame front.
Butt portion
Shaft (shank)
Bend
Shield
ec
rpi
Ea
Dowel
hole
D.J.C
Figure 1-2. Parts of a temple.
frame with plastic eye-wires and metal bridge and

temples.
Half-eye
Half-eyes are frames made especially for those who need
a reading correction but no correction for distance. They
are constructed to sit lower on the nose than normal,
and are only half as high as normal glasses. This allows
the wearer to look over the top of the glasses. They may
be of plastic, metal, or even nylon cord construction
(Figure 1-7). Less common are half-eyes for distant
vision, which allow the wearer to look under the lenses
for reading.
Rimless, Semirimless, and Numont
Rimless mountings hold the lenses in place by some method
other than eyewires or nylon cords. Often screws are
used, but cement, clamps, and plastic posts have been
used. Most rimless mountings have two areas of attachment per lens, one nasally and one temporally (Figure
1-8). Rimless mountings are sometimes referred to as
3-piece mountings.
Semirimless mountings are similar to the rimless except
for a metal reinforcing arm, which follows the upper
posterior surface of the lens and joins the centerpiece of
the frame to the endpiece. The centerpiece of a mounting consists of bridge, pad arms, and pads (Figure 1-9).
Numont mountings hold the lenses in place only at
their nasal edge. They are seldom seen today. The lenses
are attached at the bridge area and the temples are
attached to a metal arm that extends along the posterior
Figure 1-3. An example of a plastic frame.
Figure 1-4. One version of a metal frame.
CHAPTER 1
Figure 1-5. A nylon cord frame or string mount holds the lens in place with a cord that
ts around the edge of the grooved lens.
Figure 1-6. Examples of combination frames.
Figure 1-7. Half-eye frames in use. Half-eyes are made especially for those who need a
reading correction but no correction for distance vision.
Figure 1-8. An example of a rimless mounting. The central area of the frame is not connected
to the endpieces. The only connecting points are the lenses themselves.
Figure 1-9. A semirimless mounting has a bar behind the top

of the lens connecting the endpieces to the bridge area.
Figure 1-10. A Numont mounting has only one nasal point

of attachment per lens.
surface temporally. Thus there is only one point of

attachment per lens (Figure 1-10).
Currently most dispensers refer to any of these three
variations of a rimless mounting as rimless. They do
not differentiate between the three.
Other Mountings
Balgrip mountings secure the lens in place with clips
attached to a bar of tensile steel that ts into a nasal and
a temporal notch on each side of the lens. The lens can
be easily removed by pulling the clips back from the lens.
For this reason, this type of mounting can be used with
more than one pair of lenses for the same frame. Sunlenses, special purpose lenses, or tinted lenses could then
be used interchangeably with the patients regular lenses
(Figure 1-11). Notches are now more often used in combination with drilled holes in rimless mountings to lend
stability to the mounting.
Bridge Area
The bridge area of a frame can be constructed of either
plastic or metal. Because of the variety of nose shapes,
B
Figure 1-11. A balgrip mounting. In this form of rimless
mounting, the slotted lenses (A) are held in place with clips
(B).
there is also quite an assortment of bridge constructions

in both materials.
Plastic Bridges
The bridge area of a plastic frame is preformed and sits
directly on the bridge of the nose. It is important, then,
in picking out a plastic frame that the frame t the nose
well, since adjustments to this part of the frame are
extremely difcult. Bridge adjustments for certain plastics, such as nylon, carbon ber and polyamide, are not
possible.
The saddle bridge is shaped like a saddle in a smooth
curve and follows the bridge of the nose (Figure 1-12).
This spreads the weight of the frame evenly over the
sides and crest of the nose.
CHAPTER 1
Figure 1-12. The saddle bridge closely follows the contour of

the nose, evenly spreading the weight of the frame.
Figure 1-14. Besides having an identifying shape, the keyhole

bridge supports the frame weight upon pads.
Figure 1-13. The modied saddle bridge has xed nose pads
attached at the back to increase the weight-bearing area of the
frame.
In the modied saddle, the bridge area looks much the

same as the saddle bridge does when viewed from the
front. The difference is that there are nose pads that are
part of the back of the bridge. These pads help to carry
some of the weight of the frame (Figure 1-13).
The keyhole bridge is shaped like an old-fashioned
keyhole. At the top, the bridge ares out slightly. The
bridge rests on the sides of the nose, but not on the crest
(Figure 1-14).
Metal Bridges
The bridge commonly used in metal frames is the pad
bridge (see Figure 1-8). In the pad bridge, nose pads are
attached to the frame by metal pad arms. In this case,
the pads alone support the weight of the glasses.
When a metal frame is equipped with a clear plastic
saddle-type bridge, the bridge type is referred to as a
comfort bridge.
Figure 1-15. Metal saddle bridges were originally designed to

rest directly on the crest of the nose. They may still be used
as originally designed shown in the frame pictured. Often a
metal saddle bridge is just for decorative purposes and is used
in conjunction with nosepads.
Metal and rimless frames were, and sometimes still

are, constructed with a metal saddle bridge (Figure 1-15)
and enjoyed widespread use for a period of history. It
may yet appear exactly as before or decoratively in conjunction with nosepads.
With rimless mountings, the crest of the bridge does
not include the pads or straps, but is the center most
area.
Endpiece Construction
Endpiece construction, like the bridge area construction, can be of either plastic or metal.
Plastic Endpieces Construction
There are three general types of endpiece construction
in plastic frames (Figure 1-16). The most common
*Historically the metal saddle bridge was called a W bridge.
Figure 1-17. This traditional metal endpiece has a turn-back

design.
C
Figure 1-16. Endpieces of plastic frames classied as mitre
(A), butt (B), and turn-back (C).
endpiece construction is the butt type, in which the front

is straight and the temple butt is at, and both meet at
a 90-degree angle. The mitre endpiece causes the frame
front contact area and temple butt to meet at a 45-degree
angle. In the turn-back type, the frame front bends
around and meets the temple end to end.
Metal Endpiece Construction
The traditional metal endpiece has a construction similar
to the turn-back endpiece of the plastic frame (Figure
1-17). There are now a wide variety of metal endpiece
designs.
Endpieces are also noticeable by their absence. Instead
of an endpiece, some frame fronts and temples are made
as one continuous piece (Figure 1-18).
Figure 1-18. Some metal endpieces are not really endpieces

at all. The endpiece and temple are one continuous piece of
material as in this wrap endpiece design.
Temple Construction
Temples also vary greatly in their construction. In
general, there are ve major categories (Figure 1-19).
1. Skull temples bend down behind the ear and follow
the contour of the skull, resting evenly against it.
The bent-down portion is narrower at the top of the
ear and widens toward the end.
CHAPTER 1
Figure 1-19. Categories of temples are: A, Skull; B, Library;

C, Convertible; D, Riding bow (in plastic); E, Comfort cable
(in metal).
frames. Rimless construction varies considerably. The

classic rimless point of lens attachment contains a strap
or straps. This is the part of the mounting that contacts
the front and back surfaces and the edge of the lens,
holding the lens in place. The traditional strap consists
of the shoe and the ear.
The shoe, also known as the shoulder or collar, contacts
the edge of the lens, bracing it and keeping it from
rocking back and forth in its mounting. On some traditional mountings, there is a small metal spring between
the shoe and the lens, which helps keep the lens tight in
the mounting.
The ear, or tongue, is that portion of the strap that
extends from the shoe, contacting the surface of the lens.
There are sometimes two ears per strap, one on each lens
surface, with a screw passing through both ears and the
lens to hold the lens in place. The term straps is sometimes used to refer only to the ears (Figure 1-20).
The arm is that part of a semirimless mounting that
extends posteriorly along the top edge of the lens (see
Figure 1-9). The arm is not to be confused with the pad
arm, which is part of the nose pad assembly. This arm is
sometimes referred to as a bar or brow-bar.
The endpieces of rimless fronts are the same as those
listed for metal frames. In addition, rimless endpieces
also have straps to hold the lenses, as well as hinges for
temples.
Coloration
2. Library temples usually begin with an average width
at the butt and increase in width posteriorly. They
are practically straight and hold the glasses on
primarily by pressure against the side of the head.
They are also known as straight-back temples.
3. Convertible temples were originally designed so they
could be bent down to take on the form of skull
temples, and converted from the straight-back to
the skull design. Because this temple is versatile and
can be made to t people with a variety of temple
length requirements, it is commonly used. However,
it now comes already bent down for a certain temple
t. If the bend is in the wrong location, the temple
may be easily straightened out and then re-bent to
t the wearer.
4. Riding bow temples curve around the ear, following
the crotch of the ear where the ear and the head
meet and extend to the level of the earlobe. They
are sometimes used in childrens and safety frames.
5. Comfort cable temples are shaped the same as riding
bow temples, but are of metal construction with the
curl, or behind the ear portion, constructed from a
exible coiled cable.
Classic Rimless Fronts

The centerpiece of a rimless front consists of the bridge,
pad arms, and pads. These parts are the same as for metal
Plastic frames may be partially classied by coloration.

A solid frame is all one color. A vertically gradient frame
is darker all the way across the top, including the bridge,
and is lighter across the bottom. A horizontally gradient
frame is darker at the temporal portions and lightens
toward the central area. Clear bridge frames somewhat
resemble the horizontal gradient, but are dark at the top,
except for the bridge area. The bridge, along with the
lower half of the frame, is clear plastic. The multitude
of color combinations available now makes categorization beyond this difcult.
FRAME MATERIALS
Plastic Frame Materials
The rst classication of a frame is by the material used
in its construction: either plastic or metal. Several types
of both are used to make frames.
The rst plastics used for spectacle frames were made
from bakelite and galalith.1 These did not perform well in
cold weather because of their brittleness. Later cellulose
nitrate (zylonite) was widely used. Cellulose nitrate accepts
a good polish, but is ammable if brought to a sufciently high temperature. Because of the danger posed,
cellulose nitrate has been banned by the FDA and is no
longer used for spectacle frames. However, because these
zylonite frames were the only plastic frames commonly
used for a period of time, plastic frames were known as
10
Figure 1-20. The strap area in a classic-style rimless mounting has the same construction at
both center and endpiece locations. Contemporary rimless mountings do not necessarily have
this classic-style construction.
zyl frames. In spite of zylonite disappearing from the

market, the zyl nickname for plastic frames remained.
Now that nickname is primarily used to refer to cellulose
acetate material.
Cellulose Acetate
A material used extensively for spectacle frames is cellulose acetate. The basic cellulose material may be extracted
from cotton or wood pulp and then further processed.1
When derived from cotton, the material used is the ber
that adheres to the cottonseed after ginning and is too
short to be used for making textiles. These bers are
called cotton linters.2 This cotton or wood material is
treated with a mixture of anhydride and acetic acid using
sulfuric acid as a catalyst. Plasticizers and aging stabilizers are then added to this material.2 Nevertheless, cellulose acetate does become brittle with age.
Some allergies are attributed to wearing cellulose
acetate frames, though this is rare. More often skin
problems are not so much allergic reactions to the material itself, but to those things which can be absorbed by
the material. Higher quality cellulose acetate frames are
coated in order to seal the surface. When left uncoated,
cellulose acetate may absorb materials which might be
allergen producing. A good frame coating will contain a
UV inhibitor.* This inhibitor in the coating keeps frame
color from fading.
*A UV inhibitor blocks out the suns ultraviolet rays.
Cellulose acetate can be formed into sheets of plastic

from which frame parts can be cut, or it can be made
into acetate granules that are used for injection molding.
For spectacle frames, cellulose acetate is generally made
into sheets and milled (Figure 1-21).
Propionate
Cellulose aceto-propionate, more commonly referred to
as propionate, has many of the same characteristics as
cellulose acetate and works better for injection molding.
Propionate has less color stability than cellulose acetate
and, unless it is covered with a high quality framecoating material containing UV absorbers, will fade
within a relatively short period of time. Propionate
frames are made beginning with granules of the material
that are heated until liquid, then injection molded to the
desired frame shape. Granules may initially be colorless,
allowing the frame parts to be dyed to the desired color
after they have been molded. Propionate has a slight
weight advantage over acetate, in that it is about three
quarters of the weight.
Optyl
Epoxy resin is used for spectacle frames and is known
under the trade name of Optyl. A liquid resin and a
hardener are mixed together and drawn into the frame
molds using a vacuum process. The material is thermoelastic. This means that it will bend when heated and will
return to its original shape when reheated. (Cellulose
acetate is thermoplastic. This means that it will bend when
CHAPTER 1
B
Figure 1-21. Frame fronts and temples can be milled from
slabs of cellulose acetate. They are nished in steps until being
polished, and usually coated to protect the frame material
from sunlight and to decrease the possibility of allergic reactions in sensitive wearers. A, The frame front is being milled
from a slab of plastic. B, One method for making temples. First
the cellulose acetate is formed (top). Then the metal hinge and
core (middle) is injected into the plastic (bottom). From this
point, the temple is milled to the desired form and shaped.
heated but does not return to its original shape when

reheated because it does not have a plastic memory.)
Optyl is approximately 30% lighter than cellulose
acetate.2 Because of its stability, Optyl is appropriate for
those who might be allergic to other types of frame
materials. (For more information on working with Optyl
material, see Chapter 7, Insertion into an Optyl Frame.)
11
Nylon and Nylon-Based Materials

Nylon. Nylon is a material of high exibility. When
used alone in spectacle frames, nylon will lose that exibility unless periodically soaked in water overnight.
Otherwise, over time, it will become brittle. Pure
nylon was previously used extensively for sports eyewear.
It has also been used for over-the-counter sunglasses.3 It
is now being combined with other material for added
strength and stability, remaining a part of the array of
frame materials in use. (See Chapter 7, Insertion into a
Nylon Frame.)
Polyamide/Copolyamide. Polyamide is a nylonbased material that is quite strong. Because it can be
made thinner and is only 72% of the weight of cellulose
acetate, polyamide has a real weight advantage. Polyamide frames can be made opaque or translucent. Frames
made from polyamide are resistant to chemicals and solvents, and are also hypoallergenic.3 (For more on polyamide frames, see Chapter 7, Insertion into a Polyamide
Frame.)
Grilamid. Grilamid is a nylon-based material used in
sports and performance type of eyewear. Unlike plain
nylon frame material, grilamid has a large variety of
color possibilities. Some manufacturers have fused Grilamid with titanium to create a strong, comfortable variation of this frame material.
Carbon Fiber
Carbon ber material is used to create a thin, strong
frame. This material is made from strands of carbon
bers combined with nylon. It is not adjustable and is
consequently used mainly for frame fronts. The temples
are generally made from another material. In other
words, if a carbon ber frame does not t well in frame
selection, do not plan on making it t well later on. The
principle advantage is the light weight that can be
achieved. Carbon ber is 60% the weight of cellulose
acetate. Not only is the material light weight, but because
of its strength, it can also be made thinner. Since carbon
is black, frame colors will be opaque and are limited.
Some problems may be encountered with breakage in
cold weather. Because of the thermal problems, it is
imperative that the material not be directly worked with
right after it has been outside. (For more information on
working with carbon ber material, see Chapter 7, Insertion into a Carbon Fiber Frame.)
Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate is a material usually associated with lenses,
but can be molded into frames. Frames made from polycarbonate are primarily for sport or safety purposes.
When made for nonprescription purposes, the lenses
and frame are molded as one unit.
Frames (and lenses) made from polycarbonate are very
impact resistant. Unfortunately, polycarbonate frames
do not work well for conventional eyeglasses because of
their resistance to adjustment. They are better suited for
12
Figure 1-22. Polycarbonate sports frames can be ordered from the manufacturer with plano
lenses already in place. They can also be ordered without lenses for prescription use.
memory plastics. Memory plastics are tough and exible.

They can be bent or twisted and still return to their
original shape.
Not all composite plastic materials are memory plastics. Other composite plastics combine various materials
to produce frames and frame parts for specic needs and
purposes.
Metal Frame Materials
Figure 1-23. Safety frames with plano lenses can be molded

as one unit. In the sample shown, both the frames and lenses
are molded together from polycarbonate material.
the type of sports glasses that are held in place with

elastic straps (Figure 1-22) or for shield types of glasses
that may be used either alone or worn over conventional
glasses (Figure 1-23).
Kevlar
Kevlar is a material that is also mixed with nylon. It, too,
is a strong, lightweight ophthalmic frame material.
Kevlar will remain stable over a large temperature range,
but is difcult to adjust. Although it becomes pliable
with heat, it will not shrink or stretch.
Rubber
Some sports eyewear and sunglass frames may be made
from a combination of nylon and rubber. As would be
expected, these frames are exible and will return to
their original shape, but are not adjustable.4
Combinations of Plastic Materials
There are numerous possible combinations of plastic
materials. These include materials sometimes called
In the past, gold-containing alloys were the more predominant metals used for spectacle frames. (See Chapter
2, Gold Classications for Metal Frames with Substantial
Gold Content.) Today few frames contain any gold.
Great progress has been made in metal frames because
of the electrolytic treatment techniques, which allow for
corrosion resistance and nished beauty. Any nostalgia
over the disappearance of gold alloy frames from the
marketplace should be dispelled by the beauty and serviceability of the product that has taken its place.
It is also common for frames to be made with more
than one material. The temples may be from one material for exibility, the frame front from another, and the
connecting pieces something different still.
Nickel-Based Materials
Nickel is a material that is often used for eyeglass frames.
It is strong and malleable. The main disadvantage is the
number of people who may have an allergic reaction to
nickel. It is reported that 10% of the population may be
allergic to nickel.5 Fortunately high-quality ophthalmic
frames are coated with a protective material that both
prevents corrosion and keeps the metal from coming in
direct contact with the skin while the coating remains
on the frame.
Pure Nickel. Nickel resists corrosion. Because of
malleability, pure nickel frames are easily adjusted.
Nickels characteristic of accepting color well makes
these frames versatile.
CHAPTER 1
Nickel Silvers. Nickel silvers contain more than 50%

copper, 25% nickel, and the rest zinc. But nickel silver
contains no silver. Copper gives the material its pliability, zinc adds strength, and nickel gives the alloy a whitish
appearance. When the nickel content of nickel silver
exceeds 12%, the copper color no longer shows through.1
Another name for nickel silver is German silver.
Monel Metal. Monel is whitish in color, is pliable for
good adjustment, resists corrosion, and accepts a high
polish. It is made from nickel, copper, iron, and traces
of other elements. The largest component of the material
(63% to 70%) is nickel. The second largest component
is copper. Iron constitutes only 2.5%, and there are
traces of silicium, carbon, and sulfur.1 Monel is used
quite often as a frame material.
Aluminum
Aluminum is both strong and extremely lightweight. It
can be nished in a wide variety of colors and does not
corrode. Aluminum does not solder or weld well, so must
be made such that its parts are assembled with screws or
rivets.6 It holds the adjustment well, but has no exibility.
If it bends, it stays that way.
Stainless Steel
In the nineteenth century, some frames were made from
regular (nonstainless) steel material. Stainless steel was
developed in the early 20th century. It is made mainly
from iron and chrome and is highly resistant to corrosion. Stainless steel is strong. When made very thin, it
has an element of springiness and exibility that makes
it well suited for temples. Yet that very springiness means
that adjustments are difcult and often do not hold.7
Stainless steel is one of the more nonallergenic
materials.
Titanium
Titanium is a versatile and abundant material that has
become increasingly common for use in ophthalmic
frames. The advantages include the following:
Titanium is extremely light in weight. When
compared with conventional metal frame materials,
titanium is 48% lighter.8
Titanium is very strong, which allows titanium
frames to be designed exceedingly thin. Thinness
also contributes to still more weight reduction.
Titanium is very corrosion resistant. This makes
titanium an excellent choice for people in hot
climates or those working in conditions where they
would be perspiring a great deal.
Titanium is hypoallergenic. It should be noted that
titanium is often used in combination with other
metals. If the wearer is allergic to another of the
metals in the alloy, then, unless the frame is
appropriately coated, allergic reactions could still
occur. But when titanium is not mixed with other
metals, it is the metal of choice for those with skin
13
allergies related to frame wear. This makes titanium

a very attractive frame material for those with skin
allergies.
When used in combination with other metals,
titanium allows frames to be made so that they are
very exible. It should be noted that some frames
use titanium in combination with nickel to increase
exibility. Without an appropriate coating on the
frame, this would increase the likelihood of an
allergic response for some.
The disadvantages of titanium are fewer. These include
the following:
Titanium is hard to solder or weld.
Because the manufacturing process is more
demanding, titanium is more expensive than
conventional materials.
Titanium Marking Guidelines and Classications.
The Vision Council of America (VCA) has established
voluntary marking guidelines for frames containing titanium. The reason for these guidelines was to end some
of the confusion that arises when frames are labeled
titanium but are actually only part titaniumor do not
contain titanium at all.9 Because these are voluntary
guidelines, this means that there may still be some confusion in marking. However, if frames are marked
according to VCA standards, then the buyer should
know what that particular frame contains. To be certied, the titanium content of the frame must be tested by
an independent accredited laboratory. Here are the
guidelines:10
Certied 100% TitaniumAll major components of
the frame are at least 90% titanium by weight and,
to assure there will be no problems with wearer
allergy, the frame must not contain any nickel
(Figure 1-24, A).
Certied Beta TitaniumAll major components of
the frame are at least 70% titanium by weight, and
there must be no nickel content (Figure 1-24, B).
Certified beta
Certified 100%
TItanium TItanium
Vision Council
of America
A
Vision Council
of America
B
Figure 1-24. The Vision Council of America marking guidelines for titanium uses a symbol that would normally appear
on the demonstration lens of the display frame. A, Certied
100% Titanium means 90% titanium and there is no nickel
contained in the frame. B, Certied Beta Titanium means
70% minimum titanium with no nickel content.
14
Not included in the Vision Council of American classication is what has been called combination titaniuma
name applied to frames with titanium for the major parts
of the frame and trim pieces made from other metals.8
The name nickel titanium or shape memory alloy (SMA) is
applied to a titanium alloy made with 40% to 50% titanium and the rest nickel.11 Sometimes simply called
memory metal,12 this material is extremely exible and
returns to its original shape after being twisted or exed.
(It should be noted that there will be other types of metal
frame materials that will also function like a memory
metal.)
Bronze
Bronze is a metal alloy traditionally made from copper
and tin. It is suited for spectacle frames because it is corrosion-resistant, lightweight, and takes color well.
Magnesium
Magnesium is even lighter in weight than titanium.
Frames made from magnesium are extremely lightweight
and exceptionally durable. The exterior of the frame is
normally sealed because of the corrosiveness of raw magnesium. Magnesium is also used as part of an alloy in
combination with other metals.
Other Materials and Alloys
There are other materials that are also suitable for
frames, including cobalt, palladium, ruthenium, and
beryllium.
As would be expected, there are many different possible combinations of the previously listed metals that
may be combined to optimize certain characteristics.
Some have trade names applied especially for a particular combination used by a given frame manufacturer.
One, for example, called FX9 is a combination of copper,
manganese, tin, and aluminum engineered to yield a
hypoallergenic, lightweight, and malleable material.13
Another, referred to as Genium, combines 12% carbon,
17.5% to 20% manganese, 1% silicone, 17.5% to 20%
chrome, and 58.9% to 63.9% steel. These materials are
combined to create a hypoallergenic frame that is thin,
strong, lightweight, exible, and durable.14 As frame
designs change, metal alloy combinations will vary to
meet these new design demands.
ALLERGIC REACTIONS TO
FRAME MATERIALS
As previously noted, most frame manufacturers will use
a coating on their plastic frames to protect the frames
and also to reduce any possibility of allergic reactions.
However, sometimes this is not enough.
To reduce the possibility of a reaction for people who
have a history of skin reactions to wearing frames, use
frame materials that are known to be hypoallergenic.
Here are some that are reported to be hypoallergenic:
Optyl material
Polyamide/Copolyamide
Titanium
Stainless steel
If a person is already having a reaction to their frame,
here are some things that may be done to the frame to
reduce allergic reactions:
Have a clear coat nish applied to a frame.
Companies that specialize in frame repairs may offer
this service. (Incidentally, some dispensers have tried
to just coat the inside of the temples with clear nail
polish to solve the problem. Unfortunately, this does
not work for very long.)
Use ultrathin, clear heat-shrink tubing over the
temples. Optical shrink tubing is available from
optical suppliers of spare pairs, pliers, and
accessories.
If a person has an allergic reaction to nosepads, there
are replacement pads available that will eliminate the
problem. These pads are:
Gold-plated metal nosepads
Titanium nosepads
Crystal nosepads
(See also the section in Chapter 10 on Hypoallergenic
Nosepad Materials.)
For allergic reactions to metal cable temples, use a
temple cover to cover the temple. Temple covers come
in plastic, vinyl, and silicone materials. There is also
heat shrink tubing sold for this purpose, which reportedly takes care of eliminating allergic reactions. (For
more on this see the section in Chapter 10 on Adding
Covers to Cable Temple Earpieces.)
An additional note on allergies: There is a liquid lens
liner sometimes used in the groove of a frame to make
a loose lens more secure. This material contains latex
and should not be used on frames whose wearers have
latex allergies.
REFERENCES
1. Ophthalmic optics les: 8. Spectacle Frames, Paris,
undated, Essilor International.
2. Todays frame material for tomorrow, Munich, Germany,
undated, Optyl Holding GmbH & Co.
3. August EC: Professional selling skills and frame materials,
Eye Quest Magazine, 2:40, 42, 1992.
4. Bruneni JL: Perspective on lenses 1995, Merrield, Va,
Optical Laboratories Association.
5. Parker L: Titanium tacticspart 2: translating titanium
into sales, Eyewear, 1999.
6. Barnett D: Whats in a frame? Eyecare Business, September, p.76, 1988.
7. DiSanto M: Rimless eyewear: making the right choice,
20/20, New York, NY, 2004, Jobson Publishing.
8. Szczerbiak M: The ABCs of titanium frames, Visioncareproducts.com, vol 2, no 1, January/February 2002.
9. OMA debuts titanium guideline, Eyecare Business,
August, p. 22, 1999.
CHAPTER 1
10. Vision Council of America, Titanium marking guidelines,
http://www.visionsite.org/s_vision/sec.asp?TRACKID=
&CID=266&DID=397, February 2006.
11. Hohnstine, Nicola, Spina: Make it a lite...a titanium lite,
20/20 Online, 30:11, 2003.
12. What are the different frame materials? Essilor website:
Http://www.essilorha.com/frames.htm, excerpted from
15
OLA Perspective on Lenses, Optical Laboratory Association, 1997.

13. OKeefe J: Make mine metal, Visioncareproducts.com, vol
4, April 2004.
14. OKeefe J: Frame materials go beyond zyl and monel,
Visioncareproducts.com, vol 3, May 2003.
Prociency Test
(Answers can be found in the back of the book.)
Match the name of the frame with its description:
1. ____ Commonly has a metal
chassis and plastic top rims.
2. ____ Has two holes per lens
and a metal reinforcing arm
that follows the upper
posterior surface of the lens.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Balgrip
Half-eyes
Combination
Semirimless
Numont
6. ____ Secures the lenses in place

by means of a small string that
goes around the lenses
8. ____ lorgnettes
9. ____ aluminum
10. ____ half-eyes
11. ____ shell
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
hand-held
zyl
reading
curl
only nasal
anodized
straight back
has memory
string mount
13. ____ nylon cord
Match the name of the frame with its description:
5. ____ Secures the lenses in place

with clips attached to a bar of
tensile steel that ts into a slot
on each side of the lenses
7. ____ Optyl
12. ____ convertible
3. ____ Holds the lenses in place

only at their nasal edge.
4. ____ Made especially for those

needing a reading correction
but no distance correction
Match the following terms:
a.
b.
c.
d.
balgrip
half-eyes
semirimless
nylon cord
14. ____ Numont

15. ____ earpiece
16. Which type of temple curves around the ear
following the crotch of the ear where ear and head
meet, extending to the level of the earlobe? This
type of temple is usually plastic, and is often used
in childrens and safety frames.
a. library
b. skull
c. riding bow
d. convertible
17. This follows the bridge of the nose smoothly,
spreading the weight of the frame and using nose
pads attached to the back of the bridge.
a. keyhole bridge
b. modied saddle bridge
c. saddle bridge
d. pad bridge
e. none of the above
16
Match the description with the correct frame material:

18. ____ A frame material that is
generally made into sheets
and milled to make frames.
19. ____ A material of high
exibility that will maintain
that exibility when soaked
overnight periodically.
20. ____ Frames from this
material can be made thin
and are lightweight. Frame
colors are primarily opaque
and some problems may be
encountered with breakage
in cold weather.
21. ____ Used primarily for sport
or safety purposes. Does not
adjust well. Does not work
well for conventional
eyeglasses.
22. ____ Frames made from these
materials are made beginning
with granules that are heated
until liquid, then injection
molded to the desired frame
shape.
23. ____ A nylon-based material that
can be made translucent, not
just opaque.
24. ____ This material is made from
a liquid resin and a hardener
that are mixed together and
drawn into the frame molds
using a vacuum process.
a. nylon
b. carbon
ber
c. polyamide
d. Kevlar
e. cellulose
acetate
f. polycarbonate
g. propionate
h. optyl
Match the description with the correct frame material

so that all answers are used and no answer is used
more than once:
25. ____ Is often used for
temples because of its
strength and exibility.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
26. ____ Extremely light in

weight and will not rust.
Can be made thin.
Monel metal
aluminum
pure nickel
titanium
stainless steel
German silver
27. ____ Is lightweight and can

be nished in a variety of
colors.
28. ____ A synonym for nickel
silver.
29. ____ Is whitish in color,
pliable, resists corrosion, and
accepts a high polish.
30. ____ Resists corrosion,
malleable, accepts color well.
Match the following titanium frame material
classications with the most appropriate answer:
31. ____ Shape memory
alloy
32. ____ Certied 100%
titanium
33. ____ Certied Beta
titanium
a. All major components

at least 70% titanium
by weight. No nickel.
b. Combination of
titanium and nickel.
c. All major components
by weight. No nickel.
d. All titanium and no
other metal present.
e. All major components
by weight and
remainder nickel.
CHAPTER 2
Frame Measurements
and Markings
amiliarity with frame measurements and how they

are marked is essential to proper ordering of prescription glasses. Knowledge of measurement procedures assures receipt of the proper size when ordering
a replacement for a broken part. The purpose of this
chapter is to give the reader a complete understanding
of frame dimensional properties. The condence and
capability achieved as a result of this is the base on which
to develop skill in frame selection.
THE OLDER DATUM SYSTEM
monly referred to as the horizontal midline or the 180degree line.
Geometric Center
The center of the lens is the point on the horizontal
midline halfway between the two lens-bordering vertical
lines. It is known as the geometric center or boxing center
of the edged lens. This term does not imply anything
about the optical positioning of the lens.
Size
The boxing system improved on the foundation provided by the datum system. The datum system used two
horizontal linesone against the top and the other
against the bottom of the lens. The boxing system kept
these two horizontal lines and added two vertical lines.
These vertical lines are placed against right and left
edges of the lens. All four lines form a box around the
lens (Figure 2-2).
The size of the lens then is the length and depth of the
box containing the lens. The horizontal length is now
commonly referred to as the eye size when referring to
the frame and the lens size when referring to the lenses.
Both are measured in millimeters.
When most practitioners speak of lens size or eye size,
they are referring primarily to the horizontal measure
of the lens, denoted by the letter A in Figure 2-2. Some
frames list an eye size value that is different from and
unrelated to the frame A dimension. Such procedures
attempt to relate this eye size number to a tting value.
This is not a recommended practice and leads to confusion, but is so commonplace that frame reference materials will usually list both an A dimension and an eye size,
even if they are the same value.
The letter B denotes the vertical measure of the box
enclosing the lens. Both A and B are in a sense independent of lens shape. The letter C refers to the width
of the lens itself along the horizontal midline.1 (This can
vary considerably from the A dimension.) The C dimension of a lens is seldom used. In the older datum system,
this was the eye size of the frame. Some people still
mistakenly measure the eye size this way.
The C dimension of a lens should not be confused
with the C-size of a lens. C-size is the circumference
of the edged lens and is sometimes used to increase
accuracy when duplicating an old lens size when
edging.
Horizontal Midline
Measurement
There is a horizontal line halfway between the top and

bottom of the lens. In the datum system, this was called
the datum line. This name continues to be used.
However, in the boxing system, this line is more com-
In determining the horizontal boxing dimensions of a

frame, the measurement begins at the inside of the groove
on the left side of the imaginary enclosing box and
extends horizontally across the lens opening to the
The previously used datum system for measuring lenses

was established as a system of reference points for frames
and lenses so that placement of lens optical centers and
bifocal segment heights would be consistent.
With the lens placed as it should sit in the frame,
horizontal lines were drawn at the highest and lowest
edges of the lens (Figure 2-1). A line drawn halfway
between the two horizontal lines and parallel to them
was known as the datum line. The width of the lens along
this line was called the datum length or eye size. The
point along the datum line halfway between the edges
of the lens is the datum center. The depth of the lens,
measured as the vertical depth through the datum center,
was the mid-datum depth.
The datum system preceded the currently used boxing
system.
THE BOXING SYSTEM
17
18
farthest part of the groove on the right side of the box

(Figure 2-3). Do not lt the box.
In measuring a lens, the measurement begins at the
apex, or point, of the bevel on the left side of the box
enclosing the lens and extends to the apex of the bevel
on the right side of the box. Remember, the A dimension
is the width of the enclosing box. It is not the width of
the lens at the middle of the shape.
Effective Diameter
Datum
Line
Mid-datum
depth
The effective diameter of a lens is found by doubling the

distance from the geometric center of the lens to the
apex of the lens bevel farthest from it (see Figure 2-2).
Datum center
Figure 2-1. In the datum system, the middatum depth may

not always be equal to the distance between the horizontal
tangents. The datum eye size is the width of the lens at the
level of the datum line. The datum system eye size and the
boxing system eye size are not the same. Some measure
the eye size according to the datum system, thinking they are
using the boxing system. The two eye size measures are not
the same.
This measurement helps determine the smallest lens

blank from which the lens can be cut. (See Chapter 5:
Determining Lens Blank Size.)
Frame Difference
The difference between the horizontal and the vertical
measurements is known as the frame difference and is
measured in millimeters. The larger the difference, the
more rectangular the enclosing box appears (Figure 2-4).
Frame difference is sometimes referred to as lens
difference.
Distance Between Lenses (DBL) or Bridge Size

The boxing system also makes it possible to de ne the
distance between lenses (DBL). The DBL is the distance
between the two boxes when both lenses are boxed off
in the frame. This is usually synonymous with bridge
size, although it is important to note that manufacturers
not adhering to the boxing system may mark a bridge
size that does not correspond to the distance between
lenses.
Bridge size or DBL is measured on the frame as the
distance from the inside nasal eyewire grooves across the
bridge area at the narrowest point (Figure 2-5). This
distance is measured in millimeters. Naturally, two
frames having the same DBL will not necessarily t the
same person in the same manner because of variations
in lens shapes.
Geometric Center Distance (GCD)

The distance between the two geometric centers of the
lenses is known as the geometric center distance (GCD).
A
Lens size or
eyesize
Geometrical
center
(GC)
DBL
or
Bridge
size
Datum line
Effective
diameter
(ED)
B
C
Seg drop
(ED)
Seg height
Geometrical center distance

(GCD or frame PD)
Figure 2-2. In the boxing system, the A dimension is the horizontal boxing width. If the
frame is properly marked, the eye size will be equal to the A dimension of the frame. The B
dimension is the vertical boxing length. The C dimension is the width of the lens along the
horizontal midline. This dimension is seldom used today. The C dimension should not be
confused with the C-size of a lens. The C-size of a lens is the distance around the lens
(i.e., its circumference). The dispenser uses the C-size to ensure that a lens ordered by itself
(without the frame) will be exactly sized for that frame.
CHAPTER 2
Figure 2-3. To measure the horizontal dimension of a frame,

the measurement begins at the inside of the groove on one side
and extends across the lens opening to the farthest part of the
groove on the other. We cannot see the inside of the groove
when looking from the front. This means we can estimate
where it will be and hold the ruler so that the zero point is at
the position of the left-hand side of the groove. Then we need
to read the ruler at the position where the groove will be on
the right. If the opening itself is measured, then about mm
per side needs to be added to the measure to allow for the
depth of the groove. This may vary somewhat, depending
upon the depth of the groove.
Frame Measurements and Markings
19
Frame difference
of 20
28
48
48
Frame difference
of 10
38
Figure 2-4. The difference between the horizontal and vertical measurements of a frame is known as the frame
difference.
It can be measured more easily as the distance from the

far left side of one lens opening to the far left side of the
other (i.e., from the left side of one box to the left side
of the other box.) Or the geometric center distance can
be calculated by simply adding the eye size to the DBL.
The result is the same.
Figure 2-5. A, The DBL or bridge size is measured on the

frame as the distance from the inside nasal eyewire grooves
across the bridge area at its narrowest point. When measuring
the bridge size, we cannot see the inside of the groove and
must estimate its location. B, If the measurement is made from
lens opening to lens opening, then approximately mm per
groove must be subtracted from the measure depending upon
the depth of the groove.
The GCD is also known by three other names:

1. Distance between centers (DBC)
2. Frame center distance
3. Frame PD
The term frame PD is commonly used in dispensing, but has no relationship to the wearers
20
screw hole will match the position of the butt end of the
temple. But this is not always the case. Also, when measuring the overall temple length, it is necessary to
measure around the bend and not in a straight line,
unless of course the temple is straight. The easiest way
to do this is shown in Figure 2-7, A through D.
Comfort cable temples are measured in terms of
overall length. The actual measurement is done by
grasping the tip and extending the temple along the
ruler (Figure 2-8).
Overall temple length
th
ng
Le
Length to bend
of
dr
op
Front to bend
Length to Bend (LTB)

An older method of measuring temple length is in terms
of the length to bend (LTB). This is measured from the
center of the barrel to the middle of the bend (Figure
2-6, B). The distance from the middle of the temple bend
to the end of the temple is known as the length of drop
(see Figure 2-6, B).
Front to Bend (FTB)

C
interpupillary distance or distance between pupil

centers.*
If the endpieces wrap around in a swept-back manner,

there is a distance between the plane of the frame front
and the actual beginning of the temple. In this case,
the temple length could be specied as frame to bend
(FTB) (Figure 2-6, C), which would be slightly longer
than LTB. This measurement method is seldom used.
Seg Height
FRAME MARKINGS
Figure 2-6. A-C, Various methods used in specifying temple

lengths.
When specifying bifocal or trifocal segment height, the

reference points are given in millimeters as either (l) the
distance below or above the horizontal midline (called
seg drop or seg raise), or (2) the distance from the lower
line of the boxing system rectangle enclosing the lens
shape (called seg height). In the actual measuring process,
the level of the lower line of the box corresponds to the
lowest point in the eyewire groove. This level may be different from the depth of the point on the lens edge found
directly below the pupil as can be seen by looking carefully
at Figure 2-2.
TEMPLE LENGTH
Most temples are currently marked with the total, or
overall, temple length. Temple lengths are expressed in
millimeters. Temple length may be measured in one of
the following ways.
Overall Temple Length

The overall temple length is the distance from the center
of the center barrel screw hole to the posterior end of
the temple, measured along the center of the temple
(Figure 2-6, A). Many times the center of the barrel
*The term Frame PD may have originated when frame size was
determined by selecting the correctly tting bridge size, then choosing an eye size so that the wearers pupils would be at the geometric
centers of the frames lens openings.
Most frames are marked according to size with three

measurements: eye size, DBL, and temple length. Metal
frames that are manufactured from rolled gold are also
marked as to the amount of gold found in the frame.
Rolled gold frames were used regularly a good while ago.
Any new rolled gold frames are very expensive.
Eye Size and DBL

When a frame marking such as 50 20 is seen, it means
that the eye size is 50 mm and the distance between
lenses is 20 mm. The box between the numbers means
that the eye size is measured according to the boxing
method; it also serves to separate the two numbers and
prevent confusion. The eye size and DBL are sometimes
simply marked 50-20 or 50/20.
Location of Markings
On a plastic frame the marking may be found in any of
several places. It may be printed on the inside of the
nosepad, or it may be found on the upper outer section
of the eyewire. Some frames had the size printed on the
back side of the endpiece, and the temple must be folded
closed to nd it. Sometimes the eye size is printed on
one endpiece and the DBL on the other. As it should be,
temple length is printed on the inner side of the temples.
Some manufacturers put all three measurements on the
temple. This is done because most frames are sold as a
complete unit rather than a frame front with a matching
CHAPTER 2
D
Figure 2-7. Measuring overall temple length. A, Here is a temple marked with a temple length
of 140. We will be measuring this temple and comparing our results with what is marked.
B, Begin the measurement by placing the zero on the ruler at the center of the hinge barrel,
as seen in this measuring view. C, Looking at the temple from the side it is evident that the
zero point is not at the butt end of the temple. Often times the position of the center of the
barrel and the butt end of the temple are at the same location. It is obvious from the photo
that in this case they are not and the beginning point for measuring does not start at the end
of the temple. D, Turn the ruler around the temple bend and note where the end of the temple
falls on the ruler scale. This is the overall temple length.
Figure 2-8. The overall temple length for a cable temple is obtained by stretching the cable
temple along the ruler.
21
22
set of temples. Unfortunately this leads to confusion

when temples are exchanged.
On metal frames and frames with metal chassis, the
eye size and DBL are usually on the inside of the bridge,
although occasionally they are printed on the underside
of a top reinforcing bar, or again, on the temples.
Frame Manufacturer Name, Color, and Country

of Origin
Frames should also be marked as to country of origin,
manufacturer, and frame name. Many frame manufacturers use a number rather than a name. This can be
confusing if the frame color is also specied by number
and both numbers are stamped on the frame. Consulting
a frame reference catalog or database will help.
Safety Frame Markings

Frames that are suitable for use as safety glasses must
have Z87 or Z87-2 and the name or logo of the
manufacturer stamped on the frame front and on both
temples. This is as specied by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) in their standard called
American National Standard Practice for Occupational and
Educational Eye and Face Protection . The standard is numbered as Z87.1. If a pair of glasses has safety lenses, but
is not in a frame marked Z87 or Z87-2, the glasses
are not safety glasses. (For more on safety eyewear, see
Chapter 23.)
Gold Classications for Metal Frames With

Substantial Gold Content
Metal frames may not have any gold or any signicant
amount of gold in the frame. This does not imply anything about the quality of the frame. (See Chapter 1 for
more on frame materials.) When a frame has a substantial gold content, numbers other than those indicating
the size of the frame are printed on the frame to indicate
the nature of the gold content. Gold or part-gold articles
can be classied as ne gold, solid gold, gold lled, or
having gold plating or gold ashing (Table 2-1).
The color of a frame with gold content has nothing
to do with its quality. The color depends on what type
TABLE 2-1
Gold Classications
Name
Meaning
Fine gold
Solid gold
100% pure gold

Gold plus base metal evenly mixed
throughout
Base metal inside a solid gold coating
A base metal thinly plated with gold
A base metal with gold thinly and quickly
applied in a manner similar to that of
gold plating
Gold lled
Gold plating
Gold ashing
of metal is used in combination with gold to make the

gold alloy.
The karat system is used to determine the amount of
gold present. The number marked on the article is the
amount of gold by weight in comparison to a total of 24
units: an article marked 12k is an alloy made up of onehalf gold and one-half another metal.
Fine Gold
Fine gold is the name used for an article that has no metal
in it other than gold. The gold found in it is chemically
pure. Although this is the purest form, it is not always
the most practical, as is the case in spectacle frames.
Frames of ne gold would be too malleable and would
bend and dent too easily to be practical. Using the karat
system, ne gold is 24 karats ne, which means that by
weight, 24 parts out of 24 are gold.
Solid Gold
Solid gold articles are actually an alloy of gold and another
metal, a mixture of gold and a base metal. Thus the term
is misleading, as it does not mean all gold. The solid gold
article is made entirely of the gold alloy. It maintains its
luster regardless of how far down it is worn through
use.
The symbol q is used to denote a 10k solid gold bridge;
the symbol to denote a 12k solid gold bridge.
Gold Filled
Gold-lled articles are made of a metal other than gold
and then covered with a gold alloy. The term does not
indicate that the article is lled with gold, but rather
the opposite: an outer wrapper of gold alloy is lled
with a baser metal. To be classied as gold lled, a
minimum of one twentieth of the articles total weight
must be gold.
Articles in this classication are marked with a fraction, a karat rating, and the abbreviation for gold lled.
The fraction shows what part of the total weight of the
article is represented by the gold alloy covering. The
karat rating shows, as always, the amount of gold by
weight in the gold alloy in comparison to a total of 24
units. The GF classies the article as gold lled. For
example:
1/1010% of the total weight of the article is alloy.
12k12 parts out of 24 parts of the covering alloy
by weight are gold.
GFThe article is classied as gold lled.
Thus the article would bear the marking of 1/10 12k
GF.
A gold-lled article retains its luster until the gold
covering eventually wears through.
If a frame is made from parts having different percents of gold, the frame must be marked according to
the part containing the least amount of gold. If, for
example, the temples are 1/8 12k GF and the front is
1/10 12k GF, the frame must be marked 1/10 12k GF.
CHAPTER 2
23
Gold Plating
Gold plate articles are made of some other metal, the
surface of which is plated with gold, usually by an electrolytic process. Articles classied as gold plate have no
minimum requirement as to the total amount of gold
used. Gold plate articles maintain luster only until the
thin plating is worn through and the base metal is
exposed.
bath instead of an acid-based bath.2 It produces an

extremely thin layer of gold. If it were not for the protective coating, which works very well, the gold would not
be very durable. A large percentage of spectacle frames
have gold ashing and because of the coating are very
serviceable.
For a summary of gold classications, see Table 2-1.
Gold Flashing
Gold ashing is a method of gold application that is done
in almost the same way that gold plating is done, only
faster. Gold ashing is applied using a cyanide-based
REFERENCES
1. Fry G: The boxing system of lens and frame measurement,
part IV, Optical J and Rev Optom 98(17):32-38, 1961.
2. Sipe J: As good as gold, Eyewear Feb:44, 1998.
Prociency Test
There may be more than one correct response to some of the
multiple choice questions found below.
1. True or false? In the boxing system, the effective
diameter is the diagonal of the box.
2. True or false? The frame difference for a frame
with a circular lens shape is always zero.
3. Answer yes or no to each of the following: Is the
geometric center distance the same as:
a. the eye size plus the bridge size?
(yes/no)
b. the wearers PD?
(yes/no)
c. the frame PD?
(yes/no)
4. Would the above GCD change if the lenses were
decentered in 3 mm each?
5. A frame has the following dimensions:
A = 51
B = 47
C = 49.5
DBL = 19
Seg drop (distance below the horizontal midline) =
4 mm
What is the seg height?
a. 19.5 mm
b. 20 mm
c. 21.5 mm
d. 23.5 mm
6. The larger the frame difference, the __________

the lens shape.
a. rounder
b. more squared off
c. narrower
d. wider (i.e., deeper)
7. If a frames dimensions are A = 50 and C = 48,
with a frame difference of 8, what is B?
a. 58 mm
b. 56 mm
c. 52 mm
d. 46 mm
e. 42 mm
8. A frame is marked 5218. The lens shape is round.
What is the effective diameter of the lens?
a. 70 mm
b. 61 mm
c. 58 mm
d. 52 mm
e. 18 mm
9. What is the geometric center distance of a frame
marked 5217?
a. 52
b. 60.5
c. 69
d. 72
e. equal to the persons PD
24
10. What gold classication(s) has/have no minimum

requirement as to the total amount of gold used?
a. ne gold
b. solid gold
c. gold lled
d. gold plated
e. gold ash
11. The color of a frame with gold in it depends on:
a. the quality of gold used.
b. the quantity of gold used.
c. the kind of metal used to make the alloy.
d. the kind of base metal used in the frame.
12. An article made out of a metal other than gold and
then covered with a gold alloy may be:
a. ne gold.
b. gold lled.
c. gold plated.
d. rolled gold.
e. gold ash.
13. What is the name used for an article that has no
metal in it other than chemically pure gold?
a. ne gold
b. gold lled
c. gold plated
d. gold ash
14. A frame marked 1/10 12k GF

a. has 10% gold by weight.
b. has a 12k solid gold bridge.
c. has a l0k solid gold bridge.
d. is 50% gold by weight.
e. is 10% gold by volume.
Matching
15. ____ A
a. 2 (longest radius)
16. ____ B
b. vertical boxing dimension
17. ____ ED
c. A + DBL
18. ____ GCD
d. eye size
e. C
19. Safety frames must be marked with

a. The manufacturers name on both of the
temples and the frame front.
b. Z80 or Z80-2 on both of the temples and
the frame front.
c. Z87 or Z87-2 on both of the temples and
the frame front.
d. The manufacturers name and Z80 or Z802 on both of the temples and the frame front.
e. The manufacturers name and Z87 or Z872 on both of the temples and the frame front.
CHAPTER 3
Measuring the Interpupillary

Distance
his chapter provides the methodology for measuring the interpupillary distance (PD). Failure
to accurately determine the interpupillary distance results in a misplacement of the optical center of
the lenses. This induces unwanted prismatic effects,
requiring the wearer to turn his eyes inward, or even
outward, to keep from experiencing double vision. Over
time, this effort causes visual discomfort and can result
in a decreased ability of the eyes to work together in
binocular vision.
DEFINITION
The anatomic PD is the distance from the center of one
pupil to the center of the other pupil, measured in millimeters. Before ordering prescription glasses or even
before doing a visual examination, the distance between
the pupils must be determined. It can be measured in a
variety of ways.
DISTANCE PD
Binocular PD
The most common method used to measure the PD also
requires the least amount of equipment. The technique
uses a simple millimeter ruler, commonly referred to as
a PD rule.
Technique
When the PD is to be measured, the dispenser should
be positioned at a distance of 40 cm (16 inches) directly
in front of the subject, with his or her eyes at the same
vertical level as those of the subject. The PD rule is
positioned across the subjects nose with the measuring
edge tilted back so that it rests on the most recessed part
of the nose. The dispenser holds the PD rule between
thumb and fore nger and steadies the hand by placing
the remaining three ngers against the subjects head.
The dispenser closes the right eye and sights with the
left (Figure 3-1). The subject is instructed to look at
the dispensers open eye while the dispenser lines up the
zero mark of the rule with the center of the subjects
pupil.
When the zero mark is lined up correctly, the dispenser closes the left eye and opens the right. The subject
is instructed to look at the dispensers open eye. The

PD for the distance prescription is read off as that
mark falling in the center of the subjects left pupil
(Figure 3-2).
The dispenser now closes the right eye and opens the
left. The subject is again instructed to look at the dispensers open eye. This step is primarily a recheck to
make sure the zero mark is still properly aligned. (This
technique is summarized in Box 3-1.)
When difculty is experienced in determining the
exact center of the pupil, the edge of the pupil may be
used as a measuring point if both pupils are the same
size. Measurement is read from the left side of one pupil
to the left side of the other. Measuring from the inside
edge of one pupil to the inside edge of the other would
give an articially low reading; from the outside edge of
one pupil to the outside edge of the other, an articially
high reading.
When a person has dark irises or unequally sized
pupils, it may be difcult to use either the center or the
edge of the pupil. In this case, the dispenser may use the
limbus edgethe sharp demarcation between white
sclera and dark iris (Figure 3-3). (Because the pupil is
displaced 0.3 mm nasal ward from the center of the
limbal ring,1 a limbal measure will be approximately
0.5 mm greater than the measure found using pupil
centers.) The same rule must be applied when using the
limbus edge as when using the pupil edge: the same sides
of the limbus (both left or both right) must be used, or
an extremely large error is induced.
Common Difculties and Their Solutions
Dispenser Cannot Close One Eye. Occasionally the
person doing the measuring is unable to close one eye
independent of the other. This can be remedied by
occluding (covering) the eye with the free hand. The
practice of holding the lid down with one nger gives an
unprofessional appearance, especially when wearing
glasses. Occluding the eye with the hand held at appears
to be a natural part of the test and does not reveal a
persons inability to close only one eye.
Dispenser Visually Impaired in One Eye. If the dispenser is blind in one eye, or has visual acuity too poor
to allow the ruler to be read accurately, then the technique is modied. The dispenser places the good eye
25
26
directly in front of the subjects right eye and at the

normal distance. The zero mark is lined up as usual. The
dispenser then moves sideways until the good eye is
positioned in front of the subjects left eye and the measurement is read. Unfortunately this method can easily
lead to parallax errors. The most desirable solution for
someone with this difculty is to use another type of
instrument that only requires the use of one eye.
Subject Is Strabismic. The strabismic subject, whose
eyes are in a tropic position (i.e., with one eye pointing
in a different direction from the other) presents a special
problem, since the PD rule method of measurement may
then give an articially high or low reading. To determine a true reading, simply cover the subjects eye not
being observed. This ensures that the subject is xating

with the eye under observation and ensures that it is not
turned unless eccentric xation is present. Even if eccentric xation is present, the PD measurement is still
correct, since the subject never uses this eye in any other
position relative to the dominant eye.
In some instances where one eye turns out constantly,
the prescribing doctor may determine that the wearer is
better served if the lenses are centered in front of the
pupils, even for the eye that is turned. This will require
that a separate measure be taken for each eye. One
measurement will then be considerably larger than the
other.
Subject Is an Uncooperative Child. If the subject is
young or uncooperative, making normal PD measurements impossible, the dispenser may have to take a
canthus-to-canthus measurement. (The canthus is the
corner of the eye where the upper and lower lids meet.)
This is done by measuring from the outer canthus of one
eye to the inner canthus of the other eye. Unfortunately,
BOX 3-1
Steps in Measuring the Binocular Distance PD
Figure 3-1. Position of the dispenser for beginning the PD

measurement using just a PD ruler.
1. Dispenser positions at 40 cm (16 in).

2. Dispenser closes right eye, subject xates on
dispensers left eye.
3. Dispenser lines up zero point on subjects right eye
at the pupil center, left pupillary border, or left limbus.
4. Dispenser closes left eye, opens right eye; subject
xates right eye.
5. Dispenser reads off scale directly in line with left
pupil center, left pupillary border, or left limbus.
6. Dispenser closes right eye, opens left; subject
xates left eye.
7. Dispenser checks to make sure zero point is still
correct.
Figure 3-2. The dispenser uses his or her left eye to establish the zero point of the PD rule
in the center of the pupil of the subjects right eye as shown here. The subject is looking at
the dispensers left eye. Next the subject looks at the dispensers right eye. The dispenser uses
his or her right to read the pupillary distance at the center of the subjects left eye. (This is
not what is seen in this photo.)
CHAPTER 3
Measuring the Interpupillary Distance
27
Figure 3-3. When the subject has dark irises, the outside edge of the limbus may be used as
the zero reference point and the inside limbal edge of the other eye as the measuring point.
this measurement is not entirely exact, since the inner

canthi of the eyes encroach farther across the sclera with
younger children.
Common Causes of Errors
There are several common causes of errors inherent in
using a PD rule.2
1. There will be an error in measurement if the
measurers PD differs signicantly from the
subjects because the lines of sight are not parallel.
For example, if the measurers PD is 16 mm larger
than the subjects, the reading will be 1 mm too
high because of this parallactic error.
2. The above error will be increased if the PD rule is
not tilted on the subjects nose so that the scale is in
the most recessed area. The most recessed area
corresponds to the approximate position where the
spectacles will be worn.
3. Just as error will be increased when the measurers
PD is signicantly different from the subjects, the
parallactic error will also be increased even more if
the dispenser is too close to the subject. Too close is
closer than the normal 40 cm (16 inch) distance.
4. A signicant error will be induced if the subject is
strabismic (one eye turns in or out) or if the subject
does not xate binocularly* during the PD
measurement.
5. An error can result if the subjects head moves.
6. An error can result if the person measuring moves
his or her head.
7. An error will result if the person measuring does
not close or occlude one eye at a time to ensure
sighting from directly in front of the subjects eye
under observation.
8. The subject may not look directly at the measurers
pupil during the test, as he or she should, which will
result in an error.
*What does not xating binocularly mean? It means that one eye
may have a tendency to turn in or out when the subject is not concentrating. In simple terms, they will only be using one eye to see
instead of both eyes. When this does happen, one eye usually turns
outward somewhat and the measurement is then too large.
Monocular PD
Since faces are not always symmetrical, it is often necessary to specify the PD for each eye independently. The
main goal in taking the PD is to eventually place the
optical centers of the lenses directly in front of the subjects eyes to prevent any undesired prismatic effect.
If one eye is set closer to a persons nose than is the
other and the optical centers of the lenses are placed
symmetrically in the frames, the wearers lines of sight
will not pass through the optical centers of the lenses.
The error is not too serious if the lenses are of the same
power and are not strong. If, however, one lens is very
different from the other, the centers must be placed
accurately to prevent unwanted binocular prismatic
effects (Figure 3-4). Monocular PDs are also important
when using aspheric lenses or high index lenses, including polycarbonate lenses. High index lenses have more
chromatic aberration than crown glass or regular (CR39) plastic lenses. The negative effect of chromatic aberration on vision is increased if the eye is not looking
through the optical center of the lens. (For more information on high index lenses, see Chapter 23. For more
information on aspheric lenses, see Chapter 18.)
Procedure for Measuring Monocular PDs
Using a Ruler
The monocular PD is best taken using a pupillometer.
When a pupillometer is not available, monocular PDs
are taken by measuring from the center of the nose to
the center of the pupils. The procedure consists of the
following three steps:
1. Measure the binocular PD as described earlier in
the chapter. Use the center of the pupil as the
reference point.
2. Before moving the ruler, note the scale reading on
the ruler at the center of the nose. This is the right
monocular PD.
3. Subtract this reading from the binocular reading to
obtain the left monocular PD.
For example, the binocular PD is 66. The scale reading
at the center of the nose is 32. The monocular PD for
the right eye is then 32. To calculate the monocular PD
28
32
32
64
64
2 mm
30
34
2 mm
NOSE
Figure 3-4. Here the PD has been measured binocularly as shown on the top measurements.
However, the wearer has very different monocular PDs. Even though the distance PD is 64,
the monocular PDs are not 32 and 32. Instead they are 30 and 34. When the lenses are made
as if the wearer had 32/32 monocular PDs, in this case there will be unintended Base Out
prism caused by the misplaced lenses.
Figure 3-5. To measure monocular PDs using a marking pen and a frame with lenses in the
frame, the same procedure is followed as would be used with a ruler. It is essential that the
wearer be looking at the dispensers eye that is directly in front of the eye being measured.
In other words, to mark the location of the wearers right pupil center, the wearer looks at
the dispensers open, left eye. (The dispensers right eye is closed.) To mark the location of
the wearers left pupil center, the wearer looks at the dispensers open right eye. (The dispensers left eye is closed.)
for the left eye, subtract 32 from 66, to get a reading of

34. The procedure is the same as in taking a binocular
PD measurement, except that the two readings are independent of one another and, for purposes of measuring,
the center of the pupil is always used. (There are other
methods that are considerably more dependable than
this method in their ability to yield consistently accurate
results.)
Procedure for Measuring Monocular PDs
Using the Frame
One error inherent in using a ruler alone appears when
a person has an asymmetrical nose. An asymmetrical
nose often occurs when a nose has been broken. In this
case, the frame positions itself somewhat to the left or
right. For the lenses to be accurately placed, this factor
must be taken into account. It is possible to use an overhead transparency marking pen and the glazed* lenses
*Glazed lenses are also called coquilles, dummy lenses, or
demo lenses.
in the sample frame. If the sample frame does not have

glazed lenses, clear tape may be placed over the lens
opening of the empty frame.
The procedure for measuring monocular PDs begins
by adjusting the frame. The frame should occupy the
exact position it will have with the lenses in place. The
dispenser should be at the same level as the wearer and
approximately 40 cm away. The dispenser closes the
right eye. The wearer is instructed to look at the dispensers open left eye. Since there is no ruler used, the
dispenser uses an overhead transparency marking pen
and marks a cross on the right glazed lens. If there is no
lens in the frame, the clear tape placed over the lens
opening is marked instead, directly over the center of
the wearers right pupil (Figure 3-5).
Next the dispenser closes the left eye and opens the
right eye. The subject is instructed to look at the dispensers open eye. The dispenser then marks a cross on
the lens or tape directly over the left pupil center.
Because of the movement involved in marking pupil
centers and the ease with which unintentional head
CHAPTER 3
29
BOX 3-2
Steps in Measuring Monocular PDs Using
the Sample Frame
1. The selected frame is adjusted in exactly the same
manner as it will be when worn.
2. Dispenser positions at 40 cm from the wearer and at
the same level.
3. Dispenser opens left eye, closes right eye, and
instructs wearer to look at dispensers open (left)
eye.
4. Dispenser marks location of wearers right pupil
center on glazed lens.
5. Dispenser opens right eye, closes left eye, and
instructs wearer to look at dispensers open (right)
eye.
6. Dispenser marks location of wearers left pupil
center on glazed lens.
7. Dispenser rechecks the locations of the marked
crosses by repeating steps 3 and 5 and notes the
positions of the marked crosses.
8. If one or both crosses are wrong, the frames are
removed and the cross(es) erased using a damp
cloth.
9. When crosses are accurate, monocular PDs are
measured from frame center to cross center.
movement can occur, it is important that these markings

be carefully rechecked.
When the dispenser is condent that pupil centers are
accurately marked, the frames are removed and the distances from the center of the bridge to the center of each
cross are measured and recorded. (These steps are summarized in Box 3-2.)
PD Measuring Instruments
The interpupillary distance is most easily measured by
using an instrument especially designed for this purpose.
Readings taken using this instrument are not nearly as
subject to parallax errors as those taken using a PD rule.
Such a device also solves the problems caused when the
person doing the measuring is monocular or is amblyopic in one eye.
Most instruments have an occlusion system, which
allows for individual monocular measurements, with
each eye xating alternately in cases of strabismus.
A well-designed PD measuring instrument should
rest against the bridge of the subjects nose exactly as a
frame would. This most accurately approximates the way
the glasses will position themselves. It should also position the measuring plane at the approximate spectacle
plane.
The subject will see a ring of white or colored light
around a dark, central dot within the instrument. The
dispenser will see the subjects eye and a scale appearing
on it, from which a direct measure is read. Alternately, in
some instruments, a split image of the pupil may be seen.
Figure 3-6. The digital version of Essilors pupillometer displays monocular PDs for the right and left eyes, as well as the
binocular PD. It can be set to measure distance or near PDs.
Instruments Using Corneal Reexes

Although some instruments use a method of taking the
PD where the reference point is the geometric center of
the pupil itself, the popular alternate corneal-reex
method is used in instruments such as the Essilor pupillometer (Figure 3-6) or the Topcon PD-5, PD Meter.
The instruments are supported by means of pads positioned so as to cause the instrument to rest on the nose
where the average frame would rest. This is superior to
a forehead support system used alone.
The dispenser asks the subject to hold his or her end
of the pupillometer so that the pads rest on the nose
(Figure 3-7). The forehead support should be against the
forehead. The dispenser uses one eye to look into the
instrument. (A real advantage for dispensers with good
vision in only one eye.)
An internal light produces an image by reection on
each cornea, and the hairline within the device is moved
until coincident with this corneal reection (Figure 3-8).
The measurement is assumed to correspond with the
subjects line of sight, but is an objective measurement
of the position of the corneal reection rather than the
position of the line of sight. In addition to a distance PD,
near PD may be measured for near points from 30 or
35 cms to in nity.
The line of sight is dened as a line passing from the
center of the pupil to the object of regard. This is the
line that desirably passes through the optical center of
30
Figure 3-7. To use a pupillometer, the subject (on the right)

holds the pupillometer so that the pads rest on the nose in the
manner of normal eyeglasses. The dispenser views the subjects eyes through the instrument.
Figure 3-8. The corneal reection as seen through Essilors

pupillometer. The hair line is adjusted to the center of the
corneal reex. (Courtesy of Essilor, Inc.)
the lenses and is the basis upon which the measurement

of interpupillary distance rests.
Corneal reections are observed along a line which
intersects perpendicularly the center of curvature of the
anterior surface of the cornea. (Technically this line is
referred to as the pupillary axis.) This line intersects the
line of sight at the entrance pupil of the eye. It varies in
its orientation by an angle,* which for the average eye
is approximately 1.6 degrees.1 This places the corneal
reection somewhat toward the nose. Thus a PD determined on the basis of corneal reections will vary slightly
from that determined by the centers of the pupils.
It is possible to use a corneal-reection-style instrument to measure a PD based on pupil center distances.
To do this, the hairline within the device is moved to
the center of the pupil rather than the center of the
corneal reection. The corneal reection method is
de nitely the method of choice when measuring a PD
for someone with pupils dilated from a recent eye
examination.
*This angle is angle lambda, but is often commonly designated as
angle kappa.
Using Corneal Reections to Measure the PD without

a Pupillometer
It is possible to use corneal reections to measure interpupillary distance with even a PD ruler, or by using the
frame with glazed lenses. Procedures need only be
slightly modied. The dispenser should be positioned at
the near working distance. The dispenser holds a pen
light directly below his or her eye and shines it into the
eye of the subject. The subject looks either at the pen
light or the dispensers eye. The reection of the pen
light on the cornea is used as the reference point instead
of the geometric center of the pupil. The sequence of
measurements is followed exactly as outlined in Boxes
3-1 and 3-2, except that the dispenser must position the
pen light directly below his or her open eye throughout the sequence.
Photographic Instruments for Measuring PD
There are instruments available for taking a wearers
interpupillary distance that make use of a photograph of
the wearers eyes with the frame in place. The frames
are adjusted as they are to be worn. The wearer xates
a light in the instrument, and the photo is taken. PD and
segment height measurements are determined using the
picture. Up to this point, no photography-based PD
measuring system has successfully penetrated the U.S.
ophthalmic market.
NEAR PD
The near PD is required for single vision reading glasses
or for multifocals.
For single vision reading glasses, the lenses are set so that
their optical centers will be in the lines of sight of the
eyes when the eyes are converged for reading.
For multifocals, the distance portion is ground to correspond to the distance PD, while the bifocal or trifocal
portion is decentered inward to be properly situated for
near vision. The near PD can be either measured or
calculated.
Measuring Near PD With a PD Rule

To measure the near PD with the PD rule, the dispenser
is positioned at the subjects working distance; that is, at
the distance for which the reading portion is
prescribed.
Closing his or her poorer eye, the dispenser aligns his
or her better eye directly before the subjects nose and
instructs the subject to look into that open eye.
The PD rule is lined up with the zero point corresponding to the center of the subjects right pupil. It
should also be held in the same place that the subjects
new frames will rest because this will also affect the
reading.
The dispenser then notes the mark corresponding to
the center of the subjects left pupil. This is the near PD
(Figure 3-9). The subject is not required to shift gaze,
CHAPTER 3
Subject
Spectacle plane
0
31
PD for the distance from the subject to the

dispenser.
The dispenser now continues the steps for nding the
binocular distance PD as listed in Box 3-1.
61
Taking Near PD Using a Pupillometer

Usually a PD measuring instrument will allow both distance and near PD to be measured. This is done through
the use of a movable internal lens that changes the image
distance and convergence for the subject. The near readings are carried out in the same manner as the distance
readings.
Dispenser
USING THE NEAR PD FOR BIFOCAL INSET

Figure 3-9. Using a PD rule, near PD may be taken with the
dispenser positioned as shown. The distance between dispenser and subject is equal to the subjects working distance.
BOX 3-3
Steps in Measuring the Near PD
1. Dispenser places his or her dominant eye in front of
subjects nose at the subjects near working
distance. This is the distance for which the near
prescription is intendednormally 40 cm (16 in).
2. Dispenser closes the nondominant eye.
3. Subject xates dispensers open eye.
4. Dispenser places zero point of PD rule at center of
subjects right pupil.
5. Dispenser reads scale marking at center of subjects
left pupil.
and the dispenser is not required to change eyes during

the procedure. (See Box 3-3 for a summary of this
technique.)
It should be added that it is also possible to use the
edge of the pupil or the limbus for reference points in
taking the near PD, as long as only the right or only the
left edges are used, and not both outer or both inner
edges.
In practice, many who use a PD rule to measure the
binocular distance PD, measure the near PD at the same
time. This is done as follows:
(The rst three steps are how binocular distance PD
measures begin.)
1. Dispenser is positioned at 40 cm.
2. The dispenser closes his or her right eye and the
subject, using both eyes, xates on dispensers left
eye.
3. Dispenser lines up zero point of ruler on center of
subjects right pupil. (This next step allows for the
near PD measurement.)
3A. The dispenser looks over at the subjects left eye
and reads the scale on the ruler at the location of
the left pupil center. This is a measure of the near
For the near reading area of a pair of glasses to be used

most comfortably, it must be positioned accurately in the
lens. Horizontal placement of the near segment viewing
area is determined by the near PD. (Vertical placement
depends on frame depth and the individuals visual need
and will be covered extensively in Chapter 5.)
The horizontal position of bifocal segments is specied as the distance from the farpoint PD that the segments are set in toward the bridge. The total inset is the
difference between the distance PD and the near PD.
Because of the possibility of unequal monocular PDs,
segment inset is usually specied individually for each
eye. Ordinarily segment inset is the difference between
the distance PD and the near PD, divided by 2:
Segment Inset =
(distance PD) (near PD)

2
For example, if the distance PD is 68 and the near PD

is 64, then the segment (seg) inset for each eye is
2 mm.
Where inequality of the monocular PDs exists, this
rule may result in errors, since both eyes may not be
required to converge equal angular amounts for near
xation. The actual amount of error is usually so slight,
however, that it is usually ignored. The exceptions would
be cases of very marked differences in monocular PD or
very strong lenses.
If there is a large difference in monocular PDs, insetting the bifocal segments accordingly may result in a
rather unusual-looking pair of glasses (Figure 3-10).
This effect can be made less noticeable by using a bifocal
with a wider segment.
Calculating the Near PD

There are several other factors to be considered when
calculating the near interpupillary distance, most notably
those that cause differences in segment inset.
Calculation
The most logical way to calculate the interpupillary distance is to draw a triangle with the center of rotation of
32
the eyes being two points of the triangle and the near
point of xation being the third. A similar triangle is
then constructed by drawing a line corresponding to the
spectacle plane.
By similar triangles, the monocular near PD can be
calculated from the monocular distance PD (Figure
3-11).
When using a prewritten prescription, the working
distance will normally never exceed the reciprocal of the
power of the near addition. For example, a +2.00 diopter
near addition will indicate a working distance no further
than 50 cm.
1
= 0.50 meters = 50 cms
+2.00
Figure 3-10. If there is a large difference in monocular PDs,
insetting the bifocal segments from these points may result in
a rather unusual-looking pair of glasses. Using a wider segment
size or changing to a progressive addition lens is a better
choice.
Unless the professional situation or physical build of

the wearer indicates otherwise, the customary near
working distance can be assumed to be 40 cm. If,
however, the power of the near addition (add power) is
greater than +2.50 diopters, then the working distance
a
Center of rotation
13.5 mms
Vertex distance
b
Spectacle plane
40 cm
Figure 3-11. a = monocular distance PD; b =

calculated monocular near PD. The distance
from the front surface of the cornea to the center
of rotation of the eye is normally considered to
be 13.5 mm. (The diagram is, for clarity, not
drawn to scale.)
CHAPTER 3
33
TABLE 3-1
Segment Inset as Determined by the Wearers Distance PD and Near Working Distance
For PD (mm)
Near Working Distance (cm)

50.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
70.0
75.0
100.0
50.0
40.0
33.3
25.0
20.0
16.7
14.3
12.5
11.1
10.0
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.0
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.0
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.3
2.5
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
2.6
2.8
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.8
3.1
3.4
3.8
4.1
4.4
4.7
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.1
5.5
4.2
4.6
5.0
5.4
5.8
6.3
4.7
5.1
5.6
6.1
6.5
7.0
5.2
5.6
6.1
6.7
7.2
7.7
5.6
6.1
6.7
7.2
7.8
8.3
1.00
2.00
2.50
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
10.00
Dioptric Demand*
*The dioptric demand is the reciprocal of the working distance expressed in meters.
will be the reciprocal of the add power. For example,

a +3.00 diopter add indicates a working distance of
331/3 cm.
1
1
1
= 0.33 meters = 33 cms
+3.00 D
3
3
Gerstman3 has simplied the calculation of the near
inset with a rule which he calls the three-quarter rule.
The three-quarter rule states that for every diopter of
dioptric demand, the optical center of each reading lens,
or the geometric center of each bifocal addition, should
be inset 0.75 (three-quarters) mm. Dioptric demand is
the inverse of the reading distance in meters and is independent of the actual bifocal addition power.
Example 3-1
For a reading distance of 40 cm, and an add power of +1.00
D, what is the inset per lens?
Solution
To nd the answer, we rst need to know the dioptric demand.
The dioptric demand is the inverse of the working distance,
not the inverse of the +1.00 add power. Therefore since
the working distance is 40 cm or 0.40 m, the dioptric
demand is
1
= 2.50 D
0.40
Having found the dioptric demand, we can nd the inset
per lens by multiplying by three-quarters, as the rule name
implies. Therefore the inset per lens is
2.50
3
= 1.9 mm
4
The three-quarter rule tends to give the appropriate inset

at all reading distances for the typical adult. Gerstman
denes the typical adult as one whose interpupillary distance is between 62 and 68 mm. For those whose PDs do
not fall within this range, it becomes necessary to refer to
an inset table (Table 3-1). This table is a quick reference for
determining the segment inset when reading distance
(working distance) and distance PD are known.
The Inuence of Distance Lens Power on

Segment Inset
The power of the distance prescription has an effect on
bifocal inset. When a person looks at a near object, the
eyes turn inward and are no longer looking through
the optical centers of the lenses. Negative power, or
minus lenses, keep the eyes from converging as much as
they normally would because of the Base In prismatic
effect at this point on the lens. Positive power, or plus
lenses, cause the eyes to converge slightly more than
they normally would because of their Base Out prismatic
effect.
For positive lenses then both the measured or the
Gerstman-calculated near PD would need to be reduced
(i.e., the segment inset of the bifocal increased). For
minus lenses, the near PD would need to be increased
(i.e., the inset of the segment reduced).
The position of the near reading area becomes more
important when the reading area is small. This means
that for progressive addition lenses, the position of the
intermediate and near readings areas is very important.
Progressive addition lens designers are now taking distance power into consideration when determining how
much inset the near viewing area should have.
Segment Inset Formula. There have been several
factors listed as having an effect on segment inset. These
were:
34
The distance the lenses are from the eyes

The distance PD
The near working distance
The power of the distance lens
Taking all these factors into consideration, Ellerbrock4 derived the following formula for segment inset.
i=
P
1 1
1+
s f
Summary of Factors
Fortunately the variations in segment inset caused by all
these factors are not radically different from that found
using the measured near PD. This assumes, of course,
that the near PD is measured at the appropriate working
distance.
Table 3-2 summarizes the effect of distance lens
power on segment inset for the normal working distance
(40 cm or 16 in).5
Recommendations For Finding The Near PD

where P is one half the distance PD, w is the distance of
the lens from the working nearpoint, s is the distance
from the lens to the center of rotation of the eye, and f
is the focal length of the lens in the 180-degree meridian. All measurements are expressed in millimeters.
Example 3-2
What would the segment inset be for a person with a 70 mm
distance PD who is wearing a prescription of +6.50D?
Assume they are wearing a +2.50 add, but are working at a
near working distance of 20 cm. The spectacle lenses are
25 mm from the center of rotation of the eye to the back of
the lens.
Solution
We are using Ellerbrocks formula. In Ellerbrocks formula P
is half the distance PD, so
P=
70
= 35 mm.
2
The value of w is the distance from the lens to the near

working point in millimeters. This distance is given as 20 cm,
which is the same as 200 mm.
The focal length of the lens is the reciprocal of the power
of the lens. This is
1
= 0.1538 Meters
6.50
= 153.5 mm
Since the lens is a sphere, the power in the 180-degree
meridian is the same as the power in any other meridian.
The distance from the lens to the center of rotation of the
eye is given as 25 mm, so s = 25 mm.
Inserting all of this into Ellerbrocks formula results in
P
1 1
1+
s f
35
=
1
1
1 + 200 i
25 153.5
= 4.5 mm
i=
So the inset per lens for this wearing situation is 4.5 mm

per eye.
After all of these possibilities, what is the most appropriate way to determine segment inset? Here are some recommendations for different situations. The idea is to
provide the best accuracy without making it too difcult.
Keep in mind that just using a PD ruler may not be the
most reliable method.
Recommendations for Finding the Correct
Segment Inset
When the working distance is normal (40 cm)
1. Measure the near PD with a pupillometer or a
PD ruler.
2. If the distance lens powers are high, use Table
3-2.
When the working distance is less than 40 cm
1. Again, measure the near PD with a pupillometer
or PD ruler. Be certain to set the correct
working distance in the pupillometer before
measuring. When measuring with a PD ruler,
the dispenser must be at the shorter working
distance.
2. If the working distance is less than that allowed
for in the pupillometer, use Gerstmans threequarter rule (assuming adult PDs between 62 and
68 mm), or use Table 3-1.
When the distance lens powers are especially high
1. If the working distance is normal (40 cm), use
Table 3-2.
2. If the working distance is closer than 40 cm, use
Ellerbrocks formula. (Ellerbrocks formula could
actually be used in any of the above
circumstances, but it is unhandy to work with.)
Examples for Finding the Near PD

Here are some examples. Both the power of the prescription and the distance PD are known. Use the most
appropriate method to nd the segment inset and then
the near PD.
Example 3-3
A spectacle lens wearer has the following prescription
R: 1.00 D sphere
L: 1.00 D sphere
add: +2.00
CHAPTER 3
35
TABLE 3-2
Insets to Make Reading Fields Coincide at 16 Inches

Power of distance
lens in 180th
+15
+14
+12
+10
+9
+8
+7
+6
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
Distance from Nose to Center of Pupil

27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
1
1
1
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
1
1
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
1
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1
3
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
3
3
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
3
3
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
3
3
3
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
3
3
3
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
3
3
3
3
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
The distance PD is measured as 64 mm. For a 40 cm working

distance, what is the expected near PD?
Solution
Since the working distance is 40 cm, simply measure the
near PD with a pupillometer (or PD ruler). If a pupillometer
is not available, use Table 3-2. In the table, we nd the inset
for a 32 mm monocular distance PD with a 1.00 D power
to be 2 mm. Therefore the binocular near PD would be 4 mm
less than the distance PD. Since 64 4 = 60 mm, then the
near PD equals 60 mm.
Example 3-4
Suppose an individual has a distance PD of 64 mm, a distance prescription of 1.00 D sphere for both eyes, and a
bifocal add of +2.00. (These are the same lens powers as
given in the previous example.) What would the near PD be
if the near working distance was 25 cm instead of 40 cm?
Solution
Since the working distance is less than 40 cm, we would
nd the near PD either by a direct measurement using a
pupillometer (or PD ruler) or by using the three-quarter rule.
To nd the near PD by measurement, the best option would
be to use a pupillometer. Unfortunately, most pupillometers
only measure up to 33 cm. However, it is possible to use a
PD ruler. If a ruler is used, the dispensers face must be at
the subjects near working distance.
If the near PD is to be calculated, it is possible to do these
calculations with Gerstmans three-quarter rule. To use the
three-quarter rule, begin by the nding the dioptric demand.
Dioptric demand is the reciprocal of the working distance in
meters. In this example, the working distance is 25 centimeters or 0.25 meters. Therefore
Dioptric demand =
1
= 4D
0.25 meters
36
Next, to nd the inset per eye, the dioptric demand is

multiplied by 3/4.
3
4 = 3 mm per eye
4
The other way to nd the near PD would be to use the

three-quarter rule. This is done by multiplying the dioptric
demand (3.5 D) by 0.75.
Which is:
(0.75) (3.5) = 2.625 mm per lens
Thus the near PD will be
Now the near PD is
Distance PD (segment inset 2)

Or
64 6 or 58 mm.
This means that a prescription for a person with a bifocal
add and a 25 cm working distance should have the distance
optical centers set for a far PD of 64 mm and the segments
set for a near PD of 58 mm.
Using Table 3-1 would have yielded an inset of 3.3 mm per
eye and a near PD of 57.4 mm. Remember that the threequarter rule is a close approximation and because the table
does not list every PD and working distance, it may also be
a close approximation.
Example 3-5
A prescription reads as follows:
R: +1.50 1.00 180
L: +1.50 1.00 180
add +3.50
The distance PD is found to be 61 mm. What should the near
PD be?
Solution
A near addition with a power greater than +2.50 D should
be a red ag to the dispenser. An add greater than +2.50 D
means that the working distance will be less than 40 cm.
The near PD is best found by direct measurement with a
pupillometer or PD ruler. The three-quarter rule is not as
accurate because the PD is smaller than the normal 62 to
68 mm range. The next best thing is to use Table 3-1.
To measure directly with pupillometer or PD ruler, the
working distance must be known. When an add power is
greater than +2.50 D, unless another distance is specied
the working distance is found by taking the reciprocal of the
add power.
1
Working Distance =
= 0.29 M or 29 cms
3.5
Now the near PD may be measured for this 29 cm working
distance with the pupillometer or at this 29 mm working
distance with a PD ruler.
Table 3-1 is not ideal, because neither the distance PD
nor the working distance can be found directly and must
be interpolated, choosing a number in between those given
in the table. If the number halfway between is chosen, this
makes the closest seg inset to be 2.75 mm per lens. This
makes the near PD
Near PD = 61 (2 2.75)
= 61 5.5
= 55.5 mm
Near PD = dis tan ce PD (2 seg inset )

= 61 (2 2.625)
= 61 5.25
= 55.75
Either inset number will yield a similar answer and both
answers will round to 56 mm for the near PD.
Example 3-6
R: 8.50 D sphere
L: 8.50 D sphere
add = +1.50
For this prescription, we will assume that the distance monocular PDs have been measured. The right monocular distance PD was measured as 28 mm and the left as 31 mm.
For a 40 cm working distance, nd the near monocular PDs.
Solution
For high-powered lenses, calculated near PDs will be more
accurate than measured near PDs. This is because measured
near PDs do not take the prismatic effects of high plus or
high minus spectacle lenses into consideration. (Looking
nasally through high minus lenses causes a base-in prismatic
effect and reduces the amount the eyes converge for near
viewing.) However, there is one situation for high-powered
lens prescriptions where measured near PDs are as accurate
as calculated near PDs. This occurs if the near PDs are
measured while the prescribed distance lenses are being
worn. So if the wearer has the same existing prescription in
single vision lenses or multifocals, a PD ruler may be used
while the person is wearing their existing frame and lenses.
This prescription is for the normal working distance. The
easiest method to nd the near PD for this high-powered
prescription is to consult Table 3-2. For the right and the left
lens, Table 3-2 shows segment inset to be 1.5 mm per lens.
Therefore the monocular near PDs are
R: 28 mm 1.5 mm or 26.5 mm
L: 31 mm 1.5 mm or 29.5 mm
REFERENCES
1. Loper LR: The relationship between angle lambda and
residual astigmatism of the eye, masters thesis, Bloomington, Ind, 1956, Indiana University.
2. Hofstetter HW: Parallactic P.D. pitfalls: the refraction
letter, Rochester, NY, 1973, Bausch & Lomb Inc.
3. Gerstman DR: Ophthalmic lens decentration as a function
of reading distance, Brit J Physical Optics, 28 (1), 1973.
4. Ellerbrock LR: A clinical evaluation of compensation for
vertical imbalances, Arch Amer Acad Optom, 25:7, 1948.
5. Borish IM: Clinical Refraction, ed 3, vol 2, Stoneham,
Mass, 1975, Butterworth/Heinemann.
CHAPTER 3
37
Prociency Test
1. True or false? When taking PD measurements,
the person measuring covers or closes one of his
eyes at a time. He never covers one of his subjects
eyes.
2. When is it especially important to use monocular
PD measurements? (There may be more than one
correct response.)
a. When eyes are asymmetrically placed.
b. When the prescription lenses are of high
power.
c. When the lenses are aspheric.
d. When the two lenses are considerably different
in power from one another.
e. When progressive addition lenses are used.
3. For bifocal lenses with a high plus correction, the
near PD should be:
a. increased slightly over the measured value.
b. decreased slightly over the measured value.
c. left the same as the measured value.
4. True or false? The Essilor pupillometer measures
the PD using a corneal reex.
5. True or false? Because of optical considerations, it
is always best to decenter bifocal segments
asymmetrically if there are high amounts of
difference in the measured monocular PD
positions. This is true even if the cosmetic result
of the oddly-placed segment appears to be
somewhat unusual.
6. To measure monocular PDs using the glazed

lenses in the frame and an overhead transparency
pen:
a. the dispenser should mark the glazed lenses on
the horizontal midline, directly below the pupil
center.
b. the wearer should look at the bridge of the
dispensers nose. The dispenser should view
the wearers right eye with his or her left eye
and the wearers left eye with his or her right
eye.
c. the dispenser should spot the glazed lenses at
the center of the wearers pupils. The wearer
can view either the bridge of the dispensers
nose or a distant object, as long as the gaze is
held xed.
d. the dispenser should spot the glazed lenses at
the center of the wearers pupils. The distance
between the marked dots is measured. This
distance divided by 2 will yield the right and
left monocular PDs.
e. There is a aw in every one of the above
answers. None of them are true.
7. May the limbal edge be used as a reference point
in taking monocular PDs?
8. The distance PD measures out to be 64 mm, and
the near PD calculates out at 59 mm. What is the
seg inset per lens?
9. A person has a prescription that calls for a +4.00
add power. For what distance would you measure
the near PD?
a. 40 cm
b. 30 cm
c. 25 cm
d. 20 cm
e. arms length
38
10. A prescription reads:

OD: +1.00 sph
OS: +1.00 sph
+5.00 add
According to Gerstmans three-quarter rule, how
much must each lens be decentered?
11. Near PD can either be measured or calculated.
When measured, the distance from the dispensers
eye to the subjects eye should be:
a. the proposed working distance.
b. the near point of accommodation.
c. 40 cm.
d. 33 cm.
e. arms length.
12. Given the following specications for a pair of
glasses, what should the binocular near PD be
when calculated using Ellerbrocks formula?
_____ Monocular PDs for right and left eyes are
32 mm each
_____ Distance from the back of lens surface to the
center of rotation of the eye is 33 mm
_____ Lens power for both right and left lenses is
+4.00 +2.00 90
_____ Add power is +2.50
13. A person has a distance PD of 66, a low distance
prescription, and a bifocal add that requires the
reading material be held at 25 cm. Rounded to the
nearest 0.5 mm, what should the seg inset be for
each lens?
a. l.5 mm per lens
b. 2.0 mm per lens
c. 3.0 mm per lens
d. 4.0 mm per lens
14. Suppose an individual has a distance PD of

64 mm, a distance prescription of 1.50 D sphere
for both eyes, and a bifocal add of +3.00. What
would the near PD be if the near working distance
was 20 cm instead of either 33 or 40 cm?
15. A spectacle lens wearer has the following
prescription
R: 1.00 D sphere
L: 1.00 D sphere
add: +2.50
The distance PD is measured as 58 mm. For a
40 cm working distance, what is the expected near
PD?
16. Suppose an individual has a distance PD of
64 mm, a distance prescription of 1.00 D sphere
for both eyes, and a bifocal add of +2.50. (These
are the same lens powers as given in the previous
problem.) What would the near PD be if the near
working distance was 30 cm instead of 40 cm?
17. A prescription reads as follows:
R: 6.00 D sphere
L: 6.00 D sphere
add = +2.50
For this prescription we will assume that the
distance monocular PDs have been measured. The
right monocular PD was measured as 32 mm and
the left as 34 mm. For a 40 cm working distance,
nd the near monocular PDs.
CHAPTER 4
Frame Selection
rame selection entails considerably more than just

helping a person try on frames. At the very least,
a working knowledge of basic facial shapes is necessary. The person aiding in selection must have the
ability to know what the frame will look like with lenses,
and how it will perform in fullling the wearers needs.
This chapter provides the knowledge necessary to acquire
basic competency in frame selection.
USING THE WEARERS OLD FRAME

Sometimes a person wants to use their old frames instead
of selecting something new. This may or may not be
appropriate.
There are a number of valid reasons for wanting to
use the old frame and not purchase a new one. These
include cost, comfort of the old frames, and sometimes
the inability of the wearer to look in the mirror with any
other frame and still have what they see look right to
them. Even though any of these could be considered
valid, there are other factors that could outweigh keeping
the old frame. If none of these others are overriding
factors and the frames are in good condition, then there
is no reason not to use the old frames. However, even if
there are valid reasons not to use the old frames, if the
wearer has been fully informed of the pitfalls and still
persists, their desires should be respected.
Factors to Consider Before Using the Wearers

Old Frames*
There are certain precautions that must be considered
before using the old frame for the new prescription.
These are the most common:
Putting new lenses in an old frame may involve
putting additional stress on the frame. Older frames
may not withstand that stress very well, particularly
older plastic frames that have become brittle with
age. Sometimes frames will withstand the stresses of
the new lenses, but be weakened, only to break
shortly thereafter.
*Many of the factors listed in this section are from the following
brochure: Cook P: Should I use my old frames, Item No. BRO011,
1999, Diversied Ophthalmics.
It is hard to predict how long an old frame will

last. Will it last the life of the new lens prescription?
If the frame breaks, it is not a simple task to nd
another frame into which those new lenses will
t.
If the old frame needs repairing in the future, will
there be parts available? A used frame may already
be discontinued. If it has been and there are no parts
available, any savings could be lost when both
frames and lenses need to be repurchased.
Usually people keep their old glasses as a backup
spare pair in case they lose or break their new pair.
Using the old frames eliminates the emergency
backup.
Sometimes old lenses can be tinted and the older
pair be transformed into prescription sunglasses.
This is particularly true if the only change in a
multifocal prescription is in the near vision portion.
A person could get a second pair of prescription
eyeglasses for the cost of tinting the old lenses.
If the existing frames have not been discontinued
and the wearer decides to get exactly the same
frame, there is an advantage to having
interchangeability of parts should the new frame
break.
Does the lab need the old frames to make the new
lenses correctly? If so, can the wearer do without
their current glasses while the frames are at the
laboratory?
Are the old frames out of style or nearly out of style?
If they are nearly out of style, what will these older
frames look like by the time the wearer is ready for
the next prescription change?
In summary, there are a number of reasons why a
person may not be well-served in keeping their old
frames. These reasons have to be logically and carefully
explained; otherwise the wearer will conclude that the
dispenser is only interested in their own nancial gain.
COSMETIC CONSIDERATIONS
From an esthetic point of view, glasses are of no small
importance to the person wearing them. Each individual
expects and should receive help, not only with sizing, but
also with the cosmetic aspects of a frame.
39
40
The habitual wearer often needs just as much help in

frame selection as the nonwearer because individuals are
used to seeing themselves in the frame style they are
presently wearing. Any new frame will represent a change
and will look strange. The wearer who is forced to
change frames because the style has been discontinued
will be especially dependent on the advice of the person
tting the frames.
Despite continuous changes in frame styles, there are
still certain basics that can be used to arrive at an aesthetically pleasing and comfortable frame. The wearer
ultimately has the nal choice of what will be worn, but
should not be allowed free rein in selecting a frame.
Frame selection is often a process of trial and error,
can be time consuming and is frequently frustrating. An
experienced tter aware of the basics of frame selection
can save considerable time and earn the wearers gratitude by being able to readily select several frames that
are obviously suitable.
Proper assistance in frame selection is especially
important for the type of person who may be inclined to
accept the rst frame presented. Unless such a frame
consists of a good bridge t, proper eye size, and an
acceptable shape, the tter may inherit the almost impossible task of attempting to adapt a frame to a face for
which it was not designed.
At the same time, what is cosmetically correct for a
given face must be related to whatever styles are in vogue.
At a time when narrow frames are in fashion, a person
whose face requires a deep frame will not wear one quite
as deep as when larger, deeper frames are in style. The
person with a narrow interpupillary distance can wear a
wide frame more acceptably when everyone is wearing
large frames than when everyone is wearing smaller
frames. Just as changes in styles of clothinglonger or
shorter hemlines, wider or narrower necktiesbecome
customary by repetitious display, so do variations in
spectacle designs. Thus when basics in frame selection
are noted, it is understood that they are applied within
the framework of current eyewear trends.
Frame Shape and Face Shape

Since frames are exceedingly obvious on the face, their
shape tends to emphasize or deemphasize characteristics
of the face. A good frame selection can be simplied by
considering rst which facial lines are complimentary to
the person. Those lines should be emphasized through
repetition, usually by the upper and lower eyewires. On
the other hand, uncomplimentary lines should not be
repeated by the frame line.
Because a hairstyle can also alter the apparent shape of
the face, frames are generally chosen to compliment the
face as it appears with the hairstyle being worn at the time
of frame selection. A radical change in hairstyle may also
radically change the effect that the frame has on the face.
Few faces meet the artistic ideal in bone structure and
conformity. A well-selected frame can increase the
attractiveness of a face by emphasizing those planes and

lines more closely approaching the ideal and by drawing
attention away from those most contradicting it. Conversely, a frame that tends to overemphasize or repeat
the less desirable aspects of a face can make that face
more unattractive.
In most instances, the lines of the frame selected
should create the effect of balancing facial planes that
are not components of idealized proportions. The idea
is the same as using vertical stripes to enhance the
appearance of a short or an obese person.
Facial Types
Knowledge of basic facial shapes is not essential for
appropriate frame selection, but it is a valuable aid in
making a quicker and more accurate decision about a
specic frame. The average tter can tell how appropriate a frame looks after it has been placed on the face.
The accomplished tter who has an understanding of
facial shapes will know how a frame will look before
placing it on the face.
The awareness of the considerable inuence that
spectacle frames can have on the basic facial shape,
either positively or negatively, is essential to competent selection of the ultimate frame for each specic
face.
Generally, there are seven basic facial shapes:
1. Ovalconsidered to be the ideal type
2. Oblongthinner and longer than usual, with the
sides of the head being more parallel to one another
than in the oval type
3. Roundmore circular than the oval
4. Squareagain, the sides of the face are more
parallel than in the oval, with the face being wider
and shorter than usual
5. Triangularthe lower part of the face is wider than
the upper part
6. Inverted triangularthe upper part of the face, the
temple area, is wider than the lower jaw area
7. Diamondthe central section of the face is wider,
with the upper and lower extremities of the face
narrowing down considerably (Table 4-1)
To simplify the face shapes to help choose frame
width and depth, the seven shapes can be condensed to
the following ve shapes.1 The oval face is considered
normal and can wear almost any frame, so only the
general rules apply. The oblong face is simply referred
to as long. Both the round and the square face fall into
the category of the wide face. The erect or base-down
triangular face is a category that does not lend itself to
condensation. For tting purposes, the diamond face is
included in the inverted or base-up triangular classication, since these shapes are all t in basically the same
manner. Using this simplied system, a face may deviate
from the normal in four essential ways: it may be either
too long, too wide, or too triangular, with the base of
the triangle up or down.
CHAPTER 4
TABLE 4-1
Fitting By Face Shape

Fitting
Shapes
Fitting
Suggestions
Oval
Normal
May wear most

any type
Oblong
Long face
Deep frame
Low temple
attachment
Narrow frame
High temple
attachment
Round
Square
Wide Face
Base down
triangular
Diamond
Inverted
(base up)
Triangular
face
Contrasting shapes
Inverted
triangle
Erect (base
down)
triangular
face
Contrasting
shapes
Basic
Facial
Shapes
Fit size to
largest part of
lower facial
area
Dark colors or
bolder look
are in order
Unobtrusive
frame (metal
or rimless
works well)
Light or medium
weight frame
Lighter color is
in order
Rounded lens
shape
Delicate
characteristics
of frame for
women
Affecting the Length of the Face

For purposes of frame selection, we are concerned with
the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the frame, the
roundness or squareness of the frame shape, and the
coloration of the frame front.
For simplication, discussion of the shape of frame
suitability can be broken down into two categories. The
rst concerns the width and depth of the frame (dimensions) and whether the emphasis should be in the upper
portion of the frame, as with a gradient frame, or across
the entire frame, as with a frame that is solid in color
(emphasis/coloration). These considerations all relate to
the length and breadth of the face. The second category
deals with the angularity or roundness of the frame line
(shape) as related to the angularity or roundness of the
face and the eyebrow line.
The proper width of the frame* can be gauged as
approximately equal to the widest part of the skulls
*The width of the frame is taken as the outer width of the frame
itself, and not simply the outer edges of the lenses.
Frame Selection
41
facial bone structure. This rule is subject to modication with style changes, but the widest bony part of the
face is always used as the reference point.
The bone structure is used instead of the actual width
because excess body and face weight may cause the wearers features to appear to be set in toward the center of
the face; a frame based on the width of the actual face
rather than structure would cause the person to appear
cross-eyed.
As a general rule, the longer the face, the greater the
vertical depth (distance from the upper to the lower rim)
should be to keep the frame proportional to the face.
The shorter the face, the smaller the vertical depth. In
other words, a deeper frame is more complimentary to
a long face, while a narrower frame lends itself more
easily to a wide face. In a sense, the frame covers part
of the face and covering more of a long face gives the
illusion of reducing its length.
Frame fronts may be vertically gradient, horizontally
gradient, or a solid color. A darker, solid-colored frame
will aid the effect of shortening a long face more readily
than a vertically gradient frame. Included in the vertically gradient category is any frame that draws the
viewers attention to the upper part of the frame. For
example, a nylon cord frame with a dark upper portion
would fall into this category. A solid frame seems to
curtail the length of the face in the area extending from
the dark lower rim to the chin.
On a frame with a dark upper rim section and a lower
rimless or nylon cord section, the reference point for
face length is from the dark part of the frame at eyebrow
level (the part that immediately catches our eye) to the
bottom of the chin. Thus these frames have a facelengthening effect, making them more compatible to the
wide face.
The outer areas of the frame may also be used to
advantage in giving the illusion of shortening or lengthening the face. The eyes are actually set very close to the
vertical center of the head, although they are usually
assumed to be at the top because the visual reference is
from the hairline to the eyes and from the eyes to the
bottom of the chin.
Spectacle temples interject an articial dividing line.
The lower the line, the shorter the face appears; the
higher the line, the longer it appears. Thus for long
faces, frame fronts with lower endpieces shorten the face.
For wide faces, temples with high endpieces add length
to the face.
When the face is viewed from the side, it is divided
by the location of the spectacle temple, which interposes
an articial dividing line.
If the temple attaches high on the frame front, there
is more facial area below this line, and the face appears
lengthened (Figure 4-1, A). If the temple is attached
lower on the frame, there is less distance from this line
to the bottom of the chin, and the face appears shorter
(Figure 4-1, B). If the face is too long, lower endpieces
42
Figure 4-1. A, If the temple attaches high on the frame front,

there is more facial area below this line, and the face appears
lengthened. B, If the temple attaches lower, there is less distance from this line, and the face appears shorter.
will help give the appearance of less length; if the face is

wide and short, higher endpieces are desirable.
An extreme case of the wide face would be one with
smallish features that appear to be bunched centrally in
the middle of a large face.1 Actually, as the person gains
weight, head size increases but features remain stationary, giving the face a bunched-up look. The width of
the frame should be gauged by the bone structure of
the face and not by the actual widest part of the head.
Otherwise the persons face will be overpowered by
the frame or the eyes will appear abnormally close
together.
The same rules that apply to tting the wide face also
apply to the pudgy face, but must be adhered to more
strictly. The less obvious the frame, the better. In a
plastic frame, a medium to lightweight plastic would be
appropriate, but a better alternative is the thin metal,
nylon cord, or even rimless frame. Attention also must
be given to the vertical dimension of the frame.
Affecting Facial Balance
With faces somewhat wider in one area than in another,
frames can be used to balance out a wider area and to
shift the facial emphasis.
The widest part of the base-down triangular face is the
lower area. Simply wearing glasses often enhances the
appearance of the face because the frames lend balance.
The frames themselves should be approximately the
same width as the lower facial area. The actual width
will vary somewhat, depending on current frame
styles.
An oval or upswept shape is preferable, as opposed to
one of rectangular design. This is particularly true of
the lower rim, which, if it is a straight line paralleling
the jawline, tends to emphasize the width of the base of
the triangle. Frames for men in these cases may appear

satisfactory with somewhat squared-off shapes because
the lower line is not continuous and angular lines in a
mans face are not considered uncomplimentary. For
women, a frame with rounded lines will give a softer,
more feminine look and squared-off lines a more assertive look.
The frame should be a dark color for emphasis to
further balance the overall facial shape: solid if the face
is long, vertically gradient or with emphasis on the upper
part of the frame if the face is short.
The base-up triangular face is somewhat more difcult
to t. It is not possible to use the mere location of the
frames to counterbalance the wider part of the face.
Obviously a prominent frame on this type of face draws
attention to the wider facial area.
To avoid undue emphasis, the frame should be as
unobtrusive as possible. The frame should be the minimal
width that still stays within current fashion lines. Keep
in mind that the farther out the frames extend from
the side of the head, the more pointed the chin will
look.
The frame should be of light or medium weight and
of a lighter color when possible. Metal or rimlesslike
varieties lend themselves well to this type of face.
A heavy lower line sometimes helps to counterbalance. A rounded lens shape will soften the triangularity
of the face, but a squared-off frame will emphasize it.
This type of face on a woman usually has a certain delicateness to it; thus the frame should also have delicate
characteristics.
Frame Lines
Repeating a facial line through the line of the frame
emphasizes the facial line. This can be used to advantage
provided the line being repeated is complementary or
used to achieve a desired effect. Inadvertently repeating
an uncomplimentary line can, by the same principle,
have an undesirable effect.
The lines of the frame are determined by the curve
or squareness of the upper and lower rimsin other
words, by the basic shape of the lens. At this point, the
depth and width of the desired frame should be fairly
well known, depending on the length, width, or triangularity of the face.
As a general rule, when using the frame shape for
cosmetic emphasis, the upper areas of the frame are
determined by the eyebrow line, while the lower
frame areas are determined by the lines of the cheek
and jaw. The lower eyewire area near the nose should
follow the nasal contour of the face, as discussed
previously.
The upper frame area, or upper rim, should have the
same basic shape as the eyebrow itself. Too much deviation from this line creates a disharmonious look to the
face, roughly similar to the confused effect of wearing
stripes with plaids. Ideally the upper rim should follow
CHAPTER 4
the lower edge of the eyebrow, leaving it visible. At its

highest possible position, the upper rim bisects the
eyebrow. This is not always possible or desirable. Some
even prefer an above-the-eyebrow position.2 In any case,
the most important thing to be kept in mind when dispensing conventional eyewear is to follow the basic line
of the eyebrow with the upper line of the frame.
Balding males may benet from a frame with a straight
browbar.3 The theory underlying this is that the browbar
takes away some of the forehead area, detracting from
the appearance of a large forehead.
As far as the lower frame area is concerned, apart from
a squared or rounded effect, which is determined by the
squared or rounded aspects of the face, the most important thing a lower rim can do is add a lift to a face that
has begun to sag with age. Using an upsweep on either
upper or lower rim of a frame tends to counteract the
downward lines of the face. In general, a frame with a
downward line, which emphasizes the undesirable characteristic, should be avoided.
Frame lines can somewhat alter the mood expression
of the face, causing the wearer to have a happier, sadder,
more stern, or even a somewhat surprised look, depending on the interaction of the frame lines with the background facial conguration.
Another important effect that may be accomplished
through the use of lower rims is to help conceal the bags
that many people have under their eyes. Helpful camouage is attained by choosing a frame with fairly thick
lower rims of a dark color, properly positioned to cover
the lowest part of the bags.
Frame Color
Up to this point, frame color has been noted essentially
in regard to how certain effects can be emphasized
through the use of a darker color or deemphasized
through the use of a lighter color. Although the actual
color chosen may be left to the wearers, the dispenser has
a responsibility to guide them toward the nal choice.
Hair color, skin color, feature size, and eye color can
all give valuable clues to the suitability of eyewear color.
With all the possible shades and degrees of translucence
in available frames, plus innovative uses of color combinations, rm rules to guide color selection are
difcult.
Clothing and Accessories. The common sense rules
that apply to clothing and accessories also apply to the
proper choice of eyewear. Certainly the favorite or dominate color that the individual regularly wears ought not
be overlooked. Choosing a frame color should not be
done based on skin, eye, and hair color at the exclusion
of habitual dress. Eyeglasses are considered to be accessories and, as Dowaliby states, It is traditional... that the
best dressed are identied by accessories repeating tones
in the ensemble.4
Considering that most people do not wear the same
colors continually, it should be understood that one
Frame Selection
43
single frame cannot be expected to coordinate with every

possible mode of dressboth in color and in effect.
Those who choose one pair of glasses to serve in every
work or recreational situation, with every style and color
of clothing, should be aware of the limitations this
imposes.
Hair. Frames in pale tints of blue or rose benet gray
hair. People with thicker, darker hair are able to wear
heavier, darker, bolder frames than individuals with
lighter, ner hair. A lighter-colored, more delicately
styled frame is recommended for the person with light,
ne hair. A bold dark frame on a person with light, ne
hair draws attention to itself much more emphatically
than it would on someone with thicker, darker hair.
When a metal frame is to be dispensed, those with
blond, light brown, or red hair can wear gold well; those
with gray hair can wear silver well. Those with black or
extremely dark hair can wear either color well. Individuals with salt-and-pepper hair, or hair that is just starting
to gray will nd that choosing a silver frame will make
the salt component of their salt-and-pepper hair more
noticeable.3 It should be kept in mind that not everyone
may consider choosing a frame color that will emphasize
beginning grayness to be a detrimental choice. Much
depends upon the image the individual wishes to project.
Therefore the role of the dispenser becomes that of an
aide in helping a person nd a frame that produces the
desired effect, while avoiding any unintentional changes
the wearer may consider unpleasant.
Facial Features. As far as facial feature size is concerned, the smaller and more delicate the features, the
lighter the frame color can be; the heavier the features,
the darker the frame color allowable.
Narrow and Wide-Set Eyes. A person whose eyes are
set close together in comparison to the total width of the
face will want to choose eyewear that does not draw
attention to the center of the frame. Low-set, thick,
dark-bridged frames will make such an individual look
as though the eyes are so close together there is hardly
room for the frame to sit on the nose. Instead, this
person should choose a frame with a clear bridge (little
central emphasis) but with distinctive upper temporal
areas. In this way the observers attention is drawn
outward and away from the close-set eyes.5
An individual with extremely wide-set eyes needs the
exact opposite. The best choice is the frame with a lowset, dark, thick bridge. The space between the eyes is
lled in and the eyes do not appear as widely spaced.
Frame Color by Season. In spite of suggestions given
on frame color up to this point, it is very difcult to
determine rules that work consistently. It is true that
some people can wear certain colors better than others.
The difculty lies in nding which colors are best suited
for each individual.
In an attempt to facilitate nding the colors that are
most complimentary for a given individual, one approach
divides individuals into one of four basic groups. Each
44
group is identied by one of the four seasons. For just

as nature has divided herself into four distinct seasons,
Autumn, Spring, Winter, and Summer, each with its
unique and harmonious colors, your genes have given
you a type of coloring that is most complimented by one
of the seasonal palettes.6
To determine which season a person is, skin tone,
hair color, and sometimes eye color are evaluated.
Finding the correct season is reportedly best done by
trial and error using colored fabric drapings to discover
those that are most complimentary to a persons skin and
hair color. All individuals, regardless of season ...can
wear almost any color; it is the shade and intensity that
count.6 If someone already knows which shades and
intensities of color he or she looks best in, frame color
selection may be simplied. If not, trying on one frame
after another while looking for the best effect is certainly
simpler than rst trying to determine season, then selecting frame color.
In summary, although it may be possible to nd a few
starting points for frame color selection, the process
does not lend itself to simple answers. Most probably, in
the end, personal tastes in color combined with trial and
error will prevail.
Lens Tint
There are many purposes for a tint in prescription
eyewearso many, in fact, that a complete chapter in
this book is devoted to the subject. Yet sometimes the
only reason a person wants tinted lenses is to make the
glasses look better. When this is the case, the color of
the tint is usually coordinated with the frame.
Frame Thickness
Many of the effects caused by the lightness or darkness
of a frame go hand in hand with frame color. As with
frame color, the smaller and more delicate the features,
the lighter (thinner) the frame should be. The larger and
broader the features, the heavier (thicker) the frame
should be.
One exception is a man with large, broad facial features who is smaller in stature than would be expected
for the ruggedness of the face. To help neutralize the
effect of a head out of proportion to the body, a frame
weight lighter than normal might be used.7 The size
must not be too small for the face, however, because a
frame that is too small for the face is still too small,
whatever the size of the body. A bold frame look can be
created by using a dark color in spite of the reduction in
frame thickness (Table 4-2).
Children and women with childlike features are especially complimented by a thin frame. Using a frame too
thick for these features will easily overpower the face and
create a puny appearance rather than add a complimentary facet to the face.7
Occasionally the tter will encounter a person whose
features are not strong enough for a heavy frame but who
B
Figure 4-2. To lengthen the nose, a frame is chosen that
exposes as much of the nose as possible. The frame in A is
correct; the frame in B is incorrect.
TABLE 4-2
Fitting By Frame Weight

Frame Weight
Indicated for
Heavy
Medium
Large, broad features

Normal features, large features, and small
stature
Small, delicate features, women with
childlike features, children
Light
wants the heavy frame look. The answer is to use a frame

of medium thickness in a very dark color. The dark color
makes the frame appear heavier. Similarly, a frame with
clear lower rims makes the weight appear less than it
really is.
When in doubt as to which frame weight to choose,
always select the lighter weight.
Bridge Design
Frame selection can cause the nose to appear longer or
shorter than it really is, depending on the frame bridge
chosen. Apparent nose length depends on the extent of
nose visible beneath the frame bridge, just as apparent
face length depends on the area of face observed below
the frame.
To lengthen the nose, choose a frame that exposes
as much of the nose as possible (Figure 4-2). An openbridged frame allows most of the nose to be seen because
it rests on the sides and not on the crest of the bridge.
Dark frame colors draw attention to the surrounding
facial area and tend to emphasize whatever characteristics are created by the t of the frame. In the case of the
CHAPTER 4
Frame Selection
45
A
A
B
B
Figure 4-3. The lower the bridge, the greater the impression
of shortening the nose. The bridge in A is correct; the bridge
in B is incorrect.
keyhole bridge, using a dark frame color will increase

the illusion of nose length. If for reasons of physical t
the keyhole bridge must be used on a person with a long
nose, the lengthening effect will not be as emphasized if
the bridge is clear or light-colored or if a frame with
darker endpieces is used.
The saddle bridge is designed to cut across the crest
of the nose. The lower the bridge, the greater the effect
of shortening the nose (Figure 4-3). A darker color will
give a sharper demarcation and make the nose look
shorter still, while a lighter color has a tendency to
reverse the effect.
Up to this point, the discussion has been on how
frame bridge design affects the apparent length of the
nose. Yet with some individuals the length of the nose
may not be of primary importance, but rather the width
of the base of the nose may matter most. (The base of
the nose refers to the lowest point of attachment at the
sides of the nostrils.) If the base of the nose is narrow,
the bridge of choice is one that is relatively high and thin.
Whereas if the base of the nose is wide, the best bridge
design will be one that is low-set and vertically wide
(Figure 4-4).
FITTING CONSIDERATIONS
Many difculties associated with adjusting a pair of
spectacles appropriately rest with errors in the initial
tting or selection of the frame. Once the lens size and
shape have been selected, the essence of the well-tted
Figure 4-4. A, If the base of the nose is narrow, choose a

frame with a high, thin bridge style. B, If the base of the nose
is wide, choose a frame with a low-set, vertically wide bridge.
(Reprinted with permission from Wylie S: Eyewear Beauty
Guide: Dont Choose Your Eyewear Blindfolded! Oldsmar,
Fla, 1986, Varilux Press.)
frame rests in the choice of the proper bridge and the

proper temple style and length. The spread of weight or
force over the largest surface is the objective for both
pads of the bridge and the behind-the-ear portion of the
temple.
The Bridge
When the bridge is xed, as in most plastic frames, the
choice of the appropriate bridge is determined by how
well the weight of the frame is borne on the nose. If the
bridge is not properly selected, attempts to adjust the
frame and the bridge to secure wearer comfort are
exceedingly difcult and essentially hopeless.
The appropriate bridge is determined by its width, the
position of its pads, the frontal angle of the bridge at the
pads, the are or splay angle of the pads, and the vertical
angle of the pads. The bridge selected should not allow
the eyewires to ride on the cheeks.
The Signicant Nasal Angles for Fitting
If the nose is observed from the front, it will be noted
that the two sides form a frontal angle with each other,
which if projected, would have its apex somewhere on
the forehead and its base across the nostrils and tip of
the nose. The angle with which each side deviates from
the vertical is called the frontal angle (Figure 4-5).
The splay angle is seen as the nose widens from front
to back. It can be best visualized as if viewed from above
and is at the level where the nosepads of the frame will
rest (Figure 4-6).
46
Figure 4-7. With the frame pictured here, the frame frontal
angle is too vertical for the angle of the nose. As a result, the
frame has a tendency to rest on the bottom rims.
Figure 4-5. The angle with which each side of the nose deviates from the vertical is called the frontal angle.
Figure 4-6. The splay angle (b) of the nose is the angle formed
by the side of the nose as viewed from the top. The drawing
shows a cross section of the nose at the level where the nosepads will rest.
Both of these angles are of prime importance to the

proper t of the frame. These frontal and splay angles
may vary greatly among individuals.
The Frontal Angle. If a frame has a frontal angle
which does not parallel the sides of the frontal triangle
of the nose, either the inner bottom rims of the frame
front or the top of the bridge crest will rest on the nose
rather than the pads which should support the frame
(Figures 4-7 and 4-8). Matching the angle becomes
particularly important if the bridge is xed and
unadjustable.
It should be remembered that the pads will lie on the
side of the nose only if the width of the bridge (or DBL)
is proper, even after the angle has been matched. If the
bridge is too wide, even if the angle is correct the frame
will still either rest on the bridge crest or will rest low
Figure 4-8. With the frame pictured here, the bridge area is
too ared for the nose. Since the nose and frame frontal angles
do not correspond, the top of the bridge crest is the only part
supporting the weight of the frame.
on the nose with the lenses too low. The lines of sight
will then be close to the upper rim, or the lower rim may
touch the cheeks. A keyhole bridge that is too large may
t like a saddle bridge.
If the bridge is too narrow, the upper rim may be
above the eyebrows, the lines of sight may pass through
the lenses near the lower rim or in the bifocal, and the
lower rims may carry the weight on the side of the nose
rather than on the pads.
To check bridge size, lift the frame very slightly from
the nose and move it to the left or right. There should
be about 1 mm of clearance between the nose and free
side of the bridge.
With noses that exhibit very broad frontal angles,
rather at crests, and wide splay angles, it is recommended that a bridge design at least somewhat lower
than others be used.8 This type of frame is depicted in
Figure 4-4, B. Despite the wide area of the crest, a rather
narrow bridge is recommended so that the actual pads
can be bent back enough to place their at surfaces on
the sides of the nose.
If the bridge is adjustable, it is possible to align the
pads to the matching angle by bending the pad arms. If
it is not adjustable, the frontal angle of the pads (corresponding to the frontal angle of the nose) can be altered
within limits by changing the shape of the lenses.
When the wearer has a nose that ares out too much
for the frame selected and there is no suitable alternative
frame available, it is possible to reshape the lenses using
CHAPTER 4
Frame Selection
47
Figure 4-10. If the frame is such that its bridge area does not
are enough when the wearers nose exhibits a wide splay
angle, the back of the bridge area will cut into the side of the
nose. The drawing is a top view in cross section and has been
exaggerated for clarity.
Figure 4-9. The drawing shows the position and amount of

material removed from the lens when using a nasal cut technique. Unless the dispenser species otherwise, the amount
usually removed is approximately 1.5 mm.
a nasal cut technique (Figure 4-9). With rimless mountings, this is extremely simple; some of the lower nasal
corner of the lens is cut away (hence the name nasal cut).*
An alternative for plastic frames consists of heating the
empty frame eyewire and reshaping the eyewire to conform
to the wearers facial requirements. A pattern may then
be made from this modied shape, or the shape may be
traced with a frame tracer. Both lenses are cut to the new
conguration.
The Splay Angle. The nose becomes wider as it
approaches the inner corners of the eyes, therefore the
pads must not only have an appropriate frontal angle, but
must also exhibit an appropriate splay angle so that the
weight of the spectacles is distributed over the entire at
surface of the pad.
If the angle of the pads is such that the backs of the
pads are about the same distance apart as are the fronts,
but the nose exhibits a wide splay angle, the backs of the
pads will cut into the sides of the nose. With a heavy
frame this will produce painful and obvious grooves in
that area of the nose (Figure 4-10).
If the angle of the pads is such that the backs are
farther apart than are the fronts and the amount exceeds
the splay angle of the nose, the fronts of the pads or
eyewires will cut into the sides of the nose (Figure
4-11).
The Crest Angle
Observing the face from the side reveals the crest angle
of the nose: the angle from base to top compared with a
vertical plane roughly parallel to the brows and cheeks
(Figure 4-12).
This angle is not of great concern in bridge selection
unless a saddle or contoured bridge is used. Then the
angle of the inside of the contour should parallel the
Figure 4-11. If the frame is such that the are of the nose
area exceeds the splay angle of the nose, the fronts of the
bridge area may cut into the sides of the nose. The drawing is
a top view in cross section and has been exaggerated for
clarity.
*If lenses are edged in-house an extra pattern for the selected
frame can be reshaped. When the altered pattern is used, left-right
lens shape symmetry is assured.
Figure 4-12. The crest angle is that angle of the nose from
the base to the top compared with a vertical plane roughly
parallel to the brows and cheeks.
48
Figure 4-13. A, Notice how there is more support at the bottom of this nosepad, making it
more suitable for children. B, Compare the nosepad in (A) with an adult-style nosepad.
crest angle so the bridge contacts the nose with its full
expanse.
Adjustable Pads
The position of the pads on the nose is of utmost importance. The essential objective is that the full at surfaces
of the pads rest on the sides of the nose. Since the pad
arms that carry the pads are malleable, the pads can be
adjusted individually for each side of the nose. In selecting a frame with adjustable pads, the principal criteria
therefore are:
1. The DBL should be such that the pads can be easily
set to rest on the sides of the nose without either
stretching the pad arms a great deal laterally or
compressing them together.
2. When heavy frames or lenses are being selected, the
following factors inuence pad comfort.
a. The inclination of the frontal angle of the nose
on which the pad surface will rest. The closer to
vertical the pad is, the greater will be the
pressure on the nose to hold the frame in place.10
b. If the surface of the pad is almost vertical, it is
best to use lightweight lenses. Pads made from
silicone material do not tend to slip as much as
regular plastic pads.
3. The questions of proper vertical angle, splay angle,
and full contact of the broad side of the pad are
usually handled by bending the pad arms. (Refer to
Chapters 8 and 9 for detailed descriptions.)
In selecting a frame with an adjustable bridge,
however, care must also be given to the type of pad
arm and its attachment to the eyewire. Certain
frames carry the pads via practically straight, very
short, vertically attached pad arms. Such arms allow
only very limited adjustment of the pads. Any
attempt to raise and lower pads with these pad arms
is almost impossible. Selection of frames with this
type of pad arm requires that the DBL and the lens
position be correct almost from the beginning and
that adjustment of the pads be minimal. (For more
on adjustable pads, see Chapter 9.)
4. The center of gravity of a heavy frame is closer to
the front. If the pads are set closer to the frame
front, the frame moves closer to the face. This

places the center of gravity farther back, resulting
in the frame staying in place more easily. Thus it is
desirable to set the pads as close to the front as
facial construction, lash length, and so forth, will
allow.
Larger pads, which distribute the weight over a
larger area on the nose, can also be used as the mass
of the spectacles is increased.
Childrens Bridges
It has been found that in children between the ages of 3
and 18 years there is only a slight change in the crest
angle of the nose (the slope from the crest to the tip of
the nose).11 The main change is in the splay angle (the
slope from the crest of the nose to the cheek) and in the
depth of the nasal bridge.
What this means in terms of tting children is that
there needs to be (1) more support at the bottom of the
nose pad area, and (2) a larger pad splay angle (more are
to the pad). A larger pad or contact surface area helps
the frame sit better (Figure 4-13).
Temples
The distribution of forces necessary to hold a frame in
place on the face generally shifts from the nose to the
ears as the head is bent forward. Thus the activity of
the wearer and the intended use of the spectacles should
be considered to determine the temple style ordered.
Because temple style is greatly dependent on wearer
preference, these considerations should be pointed out.
Spectacles with at, straight-back, or library temples
are suitable when their removal and replacement without
altering adjustment is desired. This situation would arise
when the spectacles are to be worn only occasionally or
mainly for reading or desk work.
A skull temple is applicable if the wearers activity
requires the normal amount of movement or constant
wear. If the head is to be lowered markedly or the individual is physically active, riding bows or comfort cable
temples are preferable.
All temples help hold the lenses in place primarily by
the area of contact with the side of the head and not by
CHAPTER 4
Frame Selection
49
TABLE 4-3
Fitting Temple Styles

Temple Style
Indicated for
Contraindicated for
Comfort cable or riding bow
Active people
Jobs requiring unusual head positions
Young children
Especially heavy frames and/or lenses
Off and on wear
Straight back
Off and on wear
Heavy lenses
Persons with parallel-sided noses
Persons with at noses
Frames with weak fronts
Skull
Normal, everyday wear
Jobs requiring unusual head positions
pressure at the tip of the temple or against the upper

crease in the ear. The choice of proper length is therefore important in frame selection. The temple should be
long enough so that the bend of the temple takes place
just barely past the top of the ear (see Figure 9-12).
The exact t of the bent-down portion or earpiece
against the head can be achieved during adjustment of
the frame.
Table 4-3 summarizes the temple styles suitable when
considering both the activity of the wearer and the
intended use of the spectacles.
Selecting Frames for the Progressive Addition

Lens Wearer
A progressive addition lens wearer needs a frame with:
1. A minimal vertex distance.
2. An adequate pantoscopic tilt.
3. Sufcient vertical depth in the nasal portion of the
frame shape.
A minimal vertex distance* is required because of the
relatively narrow viewing areas afforded by the progressive optics of the lens for intermediate and near distances
(see Chapter 20). The closer the progressive viewing
zone is brought to the eye, the wider the intermediate
and near viewing areas will be.
Using a frame with an adequate pantoscopic tilt will also
help bring the lower (reading) half of the lens closer to
the eyes. When the eyes are turned downward for near
viewing, the reading width will be increased.
The shape of the frame is important with progressive
addition lenses. If the lens has too much of the lower
nasal area cut away, as with the classic aviator shape, the
reading area is reduced (Figure 4-14, A). Also, when the
lens is narrow vertically, much of the near viewing area
will be lost. This loss may be prevented if a progressive
lens specically designed for frames with narrow vertical
dimensions is chosen (Figure 14-14, B). However, frames
with an extremely narrow vertical dimension will not
*Vertex distance is the distance from the back surface of the lens
to the front surface of the eye.
work well for progressive addition lenses. A good frame

shape for a progressive lens has a suf cient vertical depth
and not much nasal cut (Figure 4-14, C). The best design
for a progressive addition lens is one that has extra vertical depth in the inferior, nasal portion of the shape
(Figure 4-14, D). Unfortunately, style and function do
not always agree.
Selecting Frames for the High Minus Wearer

Although lenses are usually chosen for optical appropriateness, the cosmetic effects of certain types of lenses
also should be considered. These are usually lenses at
extreme powers of minus or plus, which notably minify
or magnify the eyes and face behind them. Several cosmetic factors must be taken into account when tting
the high minus correction wearer (Box 4-1).
Size
Size considerations include avoiding frames with lenses
that are very large, since the lens edge gets thicker
farther away from the center. Frames with rounded
corners should be used when possible for this same
reason.
A frame wider than the wearers face at the temple
area should also be avoided, since high minus lenses
make the side of the wearers head look narrower through
the lenses (Figure 4-15).
Excessive decentration should be avoided or the outer
lens edge will be much thicker than the inner edge. An
alternative is to use a wider bridge and smaller eye size.
The nose pads can be brought closer together, if necessary, rather than decentering too much. For example, a
48 20 can be used instead of a 50 18. (For 12.00 D
lenses, this will also reduce the weight of the lenses by a
considerable amount.)
Lens Material
Lens edges are thicker with low-index CR-39 plastic.
Using a lens of a higher index material will reduce the
edge thickness. High index plastic lenses are chosen over
high index glass because of the weight factor. High index
50
BOX 4-1
Fitting the High Minus Wearer
D
Figure 4-14. The best shapes for progressive addition lens
wear have sufcient vertical depth and are not restricted in the
inferior nasal lens area. A, This frame choice is not a good
choice for progressive lenses. The area nasally where the progressive lens near zone is located is cut away by the aviatorstyle shape of the frame. B, This frame shape will work for a
progressive if the progressive lens style chosen is designed for
frames with a narrow vertical dimension. A frame with a
narrow vertical dimension should not be used with standardstyle progressive lenses. C, The best frame style for progressive lenses is one that has enough vertical depth to allow full
use of both intermediate and near viewing areas of the progressive lens. D, Though not always cosmetically appropriate,
a frame with a generous inferior-nasal lens area is optically
ideal for a progressive addition lens.
plastic lenses are an excellent choice for high minus

lenses.
Polycarbonate lenses offer both a weight and edge
thickness advantage. Polycarbonate lenses can be made
with a thinner center thickness because of their high
impact resistance. This translates into a thinner edge.
Even if a polycarbonate lens has the same center
thickness as a regular plastic CR-39 lens, the edge of
the polycarbonate lens will still be thinner than the
CR-39. This is because the polycarbonate lens has a
higher index of refraction (1.586) than the CR-39 lens
Use
Avoid
Smaller eye size

If in between sizes, use
the smaller indicated
eye size and larger
indicated bridge size
Rounded corners
Low density (light weight)
lenses if weight
reduction is important
Midindex or high index
lenses, such as
polycarbonate or high
index plastic
Flatter or hidden bevels
Polished or rolled and
polished edges
Large lenses
Excessive decentration
Squared-off corners
Crown glass lenses
Low index lenses, such as

CR-39 plastic lenses
Full V bevels
Nonpolished, frostedlooking edges causing a
concentric-ring appearance
Thin rims in combination
with lenses having
unpolished edges
Without rolled and/or

polished edges, use
frames with rims that
hide lens edges
combined with bevel
placement that balances
Antireection coating or a Frames that extend beyond
light tint (AR coating is
the side of the wearers
preferred over a light tint)
head
Aspheric or atoric lenses
Flat, non-AR-coated front
curves
For exceptionally high
minusbiconcave or
minus lenticular lenses
Figure 4-15. High minus lenses minify objects. When high

minus lenses are worn in a frame that is too large, the observer
sees the wearers face minied through the lenses. This makes
the head look narrow in the area behind the lenses compared
with the rest of the face.
CHAPTER 4
Frame Selection
51
BOX 4-2
Fitting the High Plus Wearer
Figure 4-16. A, A regular 40-degree bevel is inappropriate

for a high minus lens. Fortunately, it is almost never used.
B, A at bevel reduces some of the internal reections and
concentric rings that would otherwise be seen with a regular
40-degree bevel. However, the edge will still appear thick.
C, A rolled and polished bevel reduces edge thickness.
(1.498). (For more information on lens materials see

Chapter 23.)
Reections, Base Curve, and Lens Bevel
Reections, curve, and bevel are additional considerations.
The larger the bevel, the more reection rings will be
noticeable because these rings are a reection of the lens
edge. Using a now-standard hidden bevel as shown in
Figure 4-16, B (rather than the older 40-degree bevel as
shown in Figure 4-16, A) reduces the problem.
The edge of a high minus lens can be made less
noticeable by rolling the edge. This is especially true for
metal or thin plastic frames. Rolling the edge changes it
from at to rounded, as shown in Figure 4-16, C, giving
a nice appearance to the lens when polished and often
reducing measured edge thickness by as much as 2 mm.
Polishing the edges will make the lens look better to an
observer, but unless an antireection (AR) coating is
used, such polishing will introduce internal reections,
which are disturbing to many wearers. Thus the combination of roll and polish looks very good. Some recommend using a roll and polish with caution because of the
possibility of wearer dissatisfaction because of the distortion caused by the rolled area in the periphery of the
lens. An edge does not have to be rolled to be polished.
A conventionally beveled lens edge can also be polished.
With better manufacturing techniques, polish edges are
much easier to produce and are coming to be expected
on lenses with visible bevels.
Unless antireection coated, a front curve reduced
below +2.00 D will result in a high reection of light
from the front. Unfortunately, high minus lenses made
with ordinary spherical curves require a fairly at front
curve to give good optics. It is possible to use an aspheric
design to allow for a different front curve and to slightly
thin the edge of the lens by steepening the lens in the
periphery. An aspheric high minus lens may have a better
Use
Avoid
Smaller eye size

Rounded lens shapes
Large lenses
Unusual shapes and long
corners
Lenses with effective
diameters greater than
the eye size +2 mm
Lenses with effective

diameters (EDs) no
larger than the eye size
+2 mm
Shapes with small frame
differences
Sturdy construction
Short vertex distances
Adjustable (nosepad)
bridges
Cable or securely tting
temples
High index plastics
AR Coatings
Aspheric or atoric designs
Shapes with frame

differences that are
greater than 9 mm
Flimsy construction
Large vertex distances
Fixed bridges
Library and straight-back
temples
Glass and CR-39 lenses
Nylon cord frames
Normal, spheric designs
(Above +7.00 D nothing
works well optically except
aspheric)
cosmetic appearance than a conventional, spherically

based lens of the same power. (For more information on
lens design and aspherics, see Chapter 18.)
Even though a light tint will reduce internal lens
reections, an antireection (AR) coating does a much
better job. Even lenses with at front curves will lose
their mirrorlike reective appearances with an AR
coating. Antireection coatings also eliminate the concentric rings, which are frequently seen with high minus
lens prescriptions.
For wearers with excessively high minus lenses, a
minus lenticular design is an option. (For more on the
subject see Chapter 18.)
Miscellaneous Factors
An interesting consideration is that high minus lenses
tend to cause eye makeup to show up less, whereas high
plus lenses cause any type of makeup to be more
noticeable.
Selecting Frames for the High Plus Wearer

Size and Thickness
Size and thickness are considerations with high plus lenses
(Box 4-2). Large lenses should be avoided because of
excessive weight and the increase in center thickness.
High plus lenses magnify the wearers eyes. When lens
size increases, so does center thickness, causing an even
greater magnication problem.
Because of differences in frame shapes, eye size is
not the only inuence on lens thickness. The effective
52
50 mm
43.5 mm
=
.D.
58
50 mm
mm
43 mm
=
.D.
51
mm
Figure 4-17. The larger the effective diameter of a plus lens

for a given eye size, the thicker the edge appearance will be in
certain meridians. Because a larger lens blank size is required,
the center thickness will also be greater.
Figure 4-18. When the effective diameter is close to the

frame eye size, the edge thickness will be more uniform and
held to a minimum. Small effective diameters also make possible a lens of minimal center thickness. (For a further explanation of effective diameter, see Chapters 2 and 5.)
46 mm
34 mm
Difference
of
12
Figure 4-19. In the case of the high plus lens, the larger the frame difference, the thicker
the lens will appear on the top and bottom. The case is reversed with the high minus lens,
however, since the thicker edges will then be in the horizontal meridian.
diameter of a lens is increased whenever a lens deviates

from a round or oval shape. The more the lens deviates
from round or oval, the larger and thicker the lens will
be (Figures 4-17 and 4-18). A good rule of thumb for
very high plus lenses, such as the older cataract lenses,
is to avoid frames with an effective diameter more than
2 mm larger than the eye size.
(see Chapter 2). Frames with narrow lens openings

(where the difference between horizontal and vertical
measurements is large) cause a high plus lens to be thick
on the top and bottom edges (Figure 4-19). This causes
the strong plus lens to look even stronger. For the high
plus lens wearer, frame differences greater than 9 mm
should be avoided.
Frame Difference
The frame difference is an additional factor when
selecting a proper frame shape for the high plus wearer
Cataract Lenses and UV Protection

Cataract lenses are very high plus lenses that were used
after cataract surgery before the advent of intraocular
CHAPTER 4
Frame Selection
53
B
Figure 4-20. The lens in A is positioned with a large vertex distance, whereas in B the vertex
distance is minimal. The same lens was used in both photographs, which were taken under
circumstances that were as identical as possible. The only difference between the two photographs is the distance from lens to eye. In both cases the eye is magnied, as can readily be
seen by comparing the eye behind the lens with the eye without the lens. However, the eye
behind the lens in B shows less magnication than the eye behind the lens in A.
lens implants. They are now uncommon. Cataract lenses

usually range in power from +9.00 D to +22.00 D,
depending upon the wearers lens prescription before
surgery. The prescription was this high because it had
to replace the power of the crystalline lens of the eye
that was removed during surgery. Fortunately the crystalline lens is now replaced with a small lens implanted
into the eye. People who have had cataract surgery and
have not received an intraocular lens implant are aphakic
(which means without lens). They are referred to as
aphakes. Aphakes must either wear contact lenses or high
plus cataract spectacle lenses. Fortunately intraocular
lens implants are now the standard for cataract surgery
and such situations are rare.
Aphakes are often more light-sensitive than other
individuals as a result of crystalline lens removal. To
prevent damage to the retina of an aphakic individual
caused by ultraviolet (UV) light, protection is essential.
Only lenses with UV inhibiting properties should be
used for aphakes. (For more information on UV protection see Chapter 22, Absorptive Lenses.)
Frame Characteristics
There are certain frame characteristics that are absolutely necessary for properly tting high plus lenses.
With medium power plus lenses, these characteristics
can be considered as suggested guidelines, but with

high plus or cataract lenses they are mandatory
prerequisites.
Frames should be chosen for their ability to hold their
alignment. Flimsy construction allows the lenses to slide
down the nose. This is not only irritating to the wearer,
but also has some rather serious optical side effects.
These include:
1. The blurring of distance vision as a result of an
increased effective lens power.
2. A smaller eld of view.
3. An increase in the magnication of objects viewed
by the wearer.
4. An increase in the apparent size of the wearers eyes
to an observer (Figure 4-20); as the vertex distance
decreases for plus lenses, the wearers eyes look less
magnied when viewed by an observer.
A frame should be chosen that allows the distance
optical center of the lenses to be positioned properly
before the eyes. See Figures 4-21 and 4-22 for further
explanations.
Because eld of view is increased and magnication
decreased as plus lenses are moved closer to the eyes, the
frame selected should hold the lenses as close as possible
to the eyes. The wearers eyelashes should just clear the
back surfaces of the lenses.
54
4 mm
Optical center
Figure 4-21. To avoid adversely affecting the optical performance of the lens, for every
millimeter that the optical center is below the wearers line of sight, there must be 2 degrees
of pantoscopic tilt. For example, as pictured here, the optical center falls 4 mm below the
lenses, requiring 8 degrees of pantoscopic tilt in relationship to the plane of the face.
Optical center
Figure 4-22. When the pupil corresponds to the optical center of the lens, there should be
no pantoscopic tilt. Any lens tilt added will change the sphere power of the lens and cause an
unwanted cylinder component to be manifested. For low power lenses, the power effect is
negligible, but with a higher power lens it can be quite evident. (For further explanation see
Chapters 5 and 18.)
Adjustable nosepads become more of a necessity as the

power of the lenses increases. They offer the advantage
of versatility in allowing modication of the vertical
position of the frame. This allows the major reference
point height, bifocal height, or progressive lens tting
cross height to be exactly adjusted.
Adjustable nosepads also allow the lenses to be positioned at varying distances from the eyes. This allows
more precision in the refractive power of the correction.
Unless a high-powered lens is tted at the refracting
distance used during the eye examination, an error in
power will result. Unless a compensation for the vertex
distance change is made, signicant error results. For
example, if a +15.00 D lens is intended for a 12 mm vertex
distance between the cornea and rear lens surface, but is
tted at 17 mm, the lens will be almost +1.25 D too
strong. It is obvious then that with high-powered lenses,
power compensation for variations in vertex distance is
a necessity for bridge designs not using adjustable pads.
(For how vertex distance power compensations are done,
see the Effective Power section in Chapter 14.)
Serious consideration should be given to using comfort
cable temples when the anatomic features of the nose do
not lend themselves to keeping the glasses in place or if
the prescribed glasses tend to be somewhat heavy. Cable
temples help keep the glasses from slipping down the
nose and thus help avoid the difculties listed above.
Selecting Frames for Children

When selecting frames for children, safety should be the
rst concern. Children are always doing things that are
unexpectedly hazardous, and childrens eyeglasses can be
expected to endure much abuse. The main concern is not
so much that the frames and lenses hold up to such abuse,
but rather that the child is not put at risk because of a
poorly chosen frame.
Remember, a frame that is small and sold for children
may not necessarily be the best design for children.
Because style is important to children, too, childrens
frames often mimic adult styles.
Childrens frames should be sturdy. Look for solidly
built frames, be they plastic or metal. The lens grooves
should be deep so that the lenses are more securely
seated in the frame.
It is advisable to avoid nylon cord frames because the
thin cord does not hold the lenses in place securely
enough for rough-and-tumble play.
When available, high quality spring temples are a
good option. When hit from the side, the spring takes
much of the shock, instead of transferring all of it to the
side of the nose. In addition, spring temples will save trips
back to the dispensary to have the frames realigned.
Although not directly related to the subject of frame
selection, it is important to note that polycarbonate
CHAPTER 4
BOX 4-3
Frame Selection for Children
Use
Avoid
Sturdy frames
Lightly constructed copies

of adult frames
Frames with shallow
grooves
Nylon cord frames
Deeply grooved frame

fronts
Quality spring temples
Bridges that give support
in the area of the lower
portion of the nosepad
High impact lenses such
as polycarbonate or
Trivex
Sports protection when
applicable
Any lenses that are not

highly impact resistant,
especially glass lenses
lenses or Trivex lenses are the lenses of choice for children. The increased safety far outweighs any considerations given to the tendency for a polycarbonate lens to
scratch. In short, children need high-impact-resistant
lenses and dispensers have a responsibility to make sure
that parents know why.
Both polycarbonate and Trivex lenses have the added
benet of giving children ultraviolet (UV) protection at
no additional cost. The crystalline lens of a childs eye
will let more light through than will the lens of an adult.
UV light can begin to take its toll early in life, and with
the increased radiation because of the earths decreased
ozone layer, it is never too early to begin protection.
If a child leaves the dispensary with lenses other than
high impact lenses, the record should contain a dated
statement noting that the parents were informed of the
advisability of using such lenses and refused that option.
A form to that effect signed by a parent is a further precaution against liability, but is not a legal requirement.
(For more on the issue of liability, see Chapter 23.)
With an increased emphasis on sports for children,
specialty sports glasses should not be overlooked. Children who participate in sports such as baseball may be
at greater risk than adults who play the same sport. Not
all children can react quickly enough to avoid a ball in
the eye. Carelessness by other children when throwing
balls or swinging bats also adds to the risks. A conscientious dispenser will be aware of options in sports eyewear
for children and make them available. (For more on
sports eyewear, see Chapter 23.)
See Box 4-3 for a summary of factors in selecting
frames for children.
Selecting Frames for Older Wearers

When selecting frames for older wearers, perhaps the
most important factor to consider is weight. With age,
the skin looses its elasticity. This causes nosepads to
depress the skin and underlying tissue, leaving marks
Frame Selection
55
that do not rebound easily. When the eyeglasses are

heavy, red marks on the nose and ears can easily develop
into sores that are slow to heal. Therefore choosing a
frame that is lightweight and combining that selection
with a lightweight lens material will do much to prevent
problems.
The bridge of the frame must t correctly. If the
bridge tting principles that were explained earlier in
the chapter are exactingly applied, the frame will be
comfortable. Remember, with older wearers there is less
room for error. The bridge must seat itself over the
largest area possible to evenly spread the weight of the
glasses. For this reason, when selecting a frame with
adjustable pads, it is helpful to use a frame with larger
pads when available.
Unless the wearer has no distance prescription, the
shape of the frame must leave enough room for the type
of multifocal design selected. (See the section in this
chapter on selecting frames for progressive addition lens
wearers.)
It should not be assumed that the older wearer will be
unconcerned with style, or will only be interested in the
same type of frame as they have been wearing. Older
individuals appreciate being accorded the same frame
styling options given everyone else.
Selecting Frames for Safety Eyewear

Safety frames are no longer limited to drab colors and
S7 safety frame shapes, but are available in a large
variety of styles. In many cases they are not easily distinguished from regular dress eyewear. Although
function is paramount, rules for selecting a well-tting,
nice-looking frame do not change dramatically when
selecting safety eyewear.
Remember that a safety frame is not just a sturdy
frame with thick lenses. A safety frame must comply
with specic standards and be identied with the mark
Z87 or Z87-2 on both the temples and frame front.
Metal frames should be avoided when electrical
hazards are present, and side shields are necessary when
eye injuries from the side are possible.
There are several factors other than the t of the
frame and the few obvious considerations listed here that
must be taken into account when dispensing safety
eyewear. Therefore before ordering it would be advisable
to review the appropriate section on the subject found in
Chapter 23.
Devices That Help in the Frame

Selection Process
One problem in selecting frames occurs when uncorrected visual acuity is so poor that the frames cannot
be seen without glasses. There are several possible
solutions.
1. Bring a friend
People who have been in the awkward situation of
not being able to see the new frame on themselves
56
often bring a friend along to help them chose

something suitable. Bringing a friend, however, does
not really deal with the root problem.
2. Use a trial lens
If there is a trial lens set available, choose the
spherical equivalent for the preferred eye. The
spherical equivalent of a lens is one half of the
cylinder power added to the sphere power.
(Incidentally, if the wearer requires a near addition,
it may be helpful to add about one half of the
prescribed near addition power to the spherical
equivalent.) With the frame on, the wearer holds
the lens in front of the preferred eye and looks in
the mirror. Although sometimes helpful, this
solution does not win high praise.
3. Use a Visiochoix
One system that addresses the problem of not being
able to see the frame on the wearer consists of using
a set of lenses mounted in a clear plastic panel. Each
plastic panel has a handle and can be held in front
of the eyes. The person selecting their frames can
see the frames he or she is wearing behind the
lenses because the entire mounting is made of clear
plastic. The lens pair closest to the prescription is
chosen from the Visiochoix set,* and the wearer is
able to use both eyes. This solution is usually much
preferred over the single trial lens method.
4. Use a video system.
Just using a standard video camera will make it
easier for someone to see themselves clearly with a
new frame. An individual can put on a number of
frames, one after the other. Each time a frame is
tried on, the wearer can turn his or her head rst
one way, then the other, so that the frames in place
can be seen from the side as well. Once a series of
frames have been tried, the tape is rewound and the
person can view the tape while wearing his or her
own prescription. However, there is a better video
system for aiding in this process that offers much
more than just a video camera. This makes use of a
computerized image-capturing system.
Computerized Image-Capturing Systems
Imaging systems that are made especially for the dispensary will offer several advantages over a standard video
camera and VCR. A computerized imaging system can
display an image faster and easier. Here are some of the
other features available at the time of this writing. Not
all features are available on all systems.
Shows images of the same frame from different
angles of view (Figure 4-23).
Permits side-by-side comparisons of different frames
on the same screen (Figure 4-24).
May allow certain measurements to be calculated by
the system, such as PD and multifocal segment
* Available from Bernell Corp., South Bend, IN.
Figure 4-23. Computerized image-capturing systems can

show images of the same frame from different angles of view.
Figure 4-24. Here the image system permits side-by-side

comparisons of different frames on the same screen.
heights after the frame shape has been outlined

(Figure 4-25).
May show the thickness of certain lens prescriptions
from a side view of the lens, (Figure 4-26). An
accompanying on-screen table comparing two lens
materials for thicknesses and weight may be present.
It may also be possible to take the image of the
wearer with the prospective frames being worn and
show what the lenses would look like:
1. If AR coated.
2. If tinted to a certain solid or gradient
transmission.
3. If made from a photochromic material.
Included in some systems are simulations of how
different scenes might appear to the wearer with and
without an AR coating on the lenses.
In addition to the spectacle lens applications, some
systems show an individual what they would look like if
they were wearing tinted contact lenses of different
colors.
CHAPTER 4
A few systems allow web access by the wearer. This

would include:
Web access to previously recorded images of what
certain frames look like while being worn. A
password is required.
Frame Selection
57
Web access to a virtual frame try-on service from a

home computer. This requires the wearer to have
a previously recorded image of their face placed in a
database at the optical dispensary. Then any frame
in a data bank of possibilities can be superimposed to
scale on the image of the wearers face. This means a
person could check later on to see if there were any
new frame styles available that they might like.
Closing the Frame Selection Process
Figure 4-25. Some computer-based systems allow certain

measurements to be calculated by the system after the frame
shape has been outlined, such as PD and multifocal segment
heights.
Selecting a frame is a decision-making process. And

making decisions is difcult. A good dispenser can
help in making that process easier. Here are a few
suggestions.
1. Do not prejudge a persons nancial situation by
only showing less expensive frames. Let each person
make his or her own decision on how much to
spend.
2. Do not voluntarily categorize a persons face as
being a certain shape for them. They may not agree
with you. Be diplomatic.
3. Do not insist on a certain frame if the wearer does
not like it, even though it may look best and be
optically sound.
4. Do not allow the wearer to select a frame or lens
style that you know would be unsafe or optically
unsound.
5. Do not have a large number of frames spread out at
any one time. People forget what they have looked
Figure 4-26. This image-capturing system shows the expected thickness of a lens prescription as seen from a side view of the lens. An accompanying on-screen table comparing two
lens materials for thicknesses and weight may also be possible.
58
at and rejected. Too many frames out at once may

cause a person to become confused or overwhelmed.
If a frame choice is unsatisfactory, return the frame
to the display or put it out of sight. Try and keep
the number of frame styles being considered at
three or less at any given time.
6. Do not ask if; ask which. Presenting
procrastination as a possible alternative is a
disservice to those who nd the decision-making
process difcult. Helping to narrow the choice to
two possibilities simplies matters.
7. Do not overlook the possibility of more than one
pair. In many cases one pair is not enough. Some
people want or need more than one pair because:
a. They like both and can afford both.
b. They need a back-up pair and know it.
c. Their visual needs vary in different work
situations.
8. Be sure to point out the positive aspects of the
frames that are being considered. People want to
know they are buying an appropriate, quality
product. The typical wearer of eyeglasses usually
knows very little about frames and lenses. Telling
the wearer why these frames and lenses are good
will help them to feel condent in their decision.
A WORD ON FRAME MANAGEMENT

Good frame selection is based on the availability of a
variety of quality frames in the dispensary. No matter
how many frames are on the frame boards, if those
frames are all the same style, the frame selection process
will not lead to a successful outcome. The person responsible for buying frames needs to be aware of the various
types of individuals who will be selecting frames and
choose frames to buy with that in mind.
Left alone, frame inventory will most certainly obey
the Second Law of Thermodynamics and go from order
to disorder. Below are a few examples of what can happen
with frame inventory in the dispensary. The solutions
given are not limited just to the example stated, but are
generally applicable to the dispensary.
Example 4-1: TOO MANY DOGS
People seem to be having an increasing hard time nding
frames they like. The staff has trouble helping them. It
seems that most of the frames are just not very appealing.
What went wrong?
Solution
The person buying frames buys a logical selection of frames.
Some frames sell immediately. Unfortunately, they are not
reordered. The ones that were not popular do not sell and
stay on the board. Another frame representative arrives and
the same scenario is repeated. Before long the dispensary
has an overwhelming number of frames that nobody really
wants.
To prevent this from happening, keep a log of which frames

are selling and replace those frames immediately. If a frame
requires a long time to sell, do not replace that frame when
you sell it unless it is in the dispensary to serve a certain
type of clientele. It is advisable to consult with your frame
representatives as they know what frames are selling in your
area.
Example 4-2: SOME FIND FRAMES EASILY; OTHERS CANNOT

EVEN GET STARTED
Unlike the previous situation where it is difcult to nd the
right frame, in this situation frame selection is frustrating
with some people, but not everybody. It is not just wearer
indecision. The staff has trouble helping certain individuals
nd something that looks right for them, too.
Solution
When a frame representative comes into the ofce, there
are one or two of the staff that looks over the new available
frames trying to decide what to buy. In the process, the staff
tries on the frames to see what looks good. As a result, over
time the dispensary is lled with frames that look great on
the staff, who may have one facial type or one particular
taste in style. People with other tting characteristics are
unable to nd frames that are appropriate for them.
To keep the inventory balanced, the buyer needs to think
about what is necessary for different facial types and different tastes in frames, such as conservative versus trendy.
Example 4-3: BACK-STOCK DRAWERS AND CABINETS

ARE FULL
Every dispensary has some place where extra frames are
stored. There should be a limited number of frames in back
stock. In this case, however, every drawer is full. What
happened?
Solution
There is more than one reason why this situation could
occur. The proper contents of these storage areas are
backups for frames that are moving very quickly. If all of the
stored frames are discontinued or frames that just will not
move, then Example 4-1 above has been solved by removing the dogs from the board and ordering new frames. Here
is an example of what can be happening if backups are not
in this category.
Frame companies often have promotionals. With a certain
sized order, the company may give away a premium. This
could include such things as trips, watches, or computerrelated prizes. If the buyer nds these things desirable, it
does not take long to end up with too much stock. Do not
buy frames just because they come with rewards.
Example 4-4: EVERYTHING IS DISCONTINUED

You have picked out just the right frame, but the color is
wrong. You try to order the needed color, but the frame has
been discontinued. Unfortunately, this is becoming a regularly occurring problem. What is wrong?
CHAPTER 4
Solution
Some discontinued stock is unavoidable. But when the issue
just keeps growing, there is a problem somewhere. Here
are some typical causes and/or solutions. Most of them
are just generally good practices for responsible frame
management.
1. You may be buying frames from too many places.
Having too many companies will make it difcult to
track what is really happening with frame sales. Use a
limited number of frame companies and know your
representatives well. If you are not a large account for
anybody, then your individual frame representatives do
not have much of an interest in seeing that your frames
are up-to-date. If you know your frame representatives
and they know you, it should be in their best interest to
work with you for the long-term benet of your
dispensary.
2. If you receive a notice that a frame is to be
discontinued, act now. You have a limited time to return
it for credit. Do not miss that time. If you miss the cutoff, how to get rid of the frame is your problem.
3. Be careful of deals where you can get a large number
of frames for a very low price. Those frames may be
scheduled to be discontinued or already be
discontinued.
4. Before you bring a new frame company on board, ask
about their return policy. Tell the representative of that
company that you expect them to keep you informed of
frames that are to be discontinued.
5. Allocate a frame representative from a certain company
a certain given number of spaces on your frame board.
Let them know that it is their responsibility to work with
you to keep those frames current and moving. It will be
in their best interest to determine which frames sell
best in your practice and which do not. They will not
want any discontinued frames taking up space in their
area.
6. Although it is good practice to immediately re-order
frames that are selling quickly, it is not good practice
to automatically re-order everything. If a frame is not
Frame Selection
59
selling, do not re-order when it does sell. If you notice

that a frame is not moving, do not wait to exchange it.
7. If the problem exists already, try to recover without just
moving mountains of discontinued frames into a spare
parts box. Figure out ways to move stock that has not
sold, is not returnable, and may still have value. Here
are some ideas: Mark it down. Put plano sunglass
lenses in the frame and sell them at an attractive
price. If there are some frames that still will not move,
donate them to a charitable organization for a tax
write-off.
REFERENCES
1. Drew R: Professional ophthalmic dispensing, Stoneham,
Mass, 1970, Butterworth/Heinemann.
2. Wilson C: Frame dynamics, nine ways to t the perfect
frame every time, Eye Talk, May/June, p. 33, 1983.
3. Dispensing Fashion Eyewear: The eye-glassery, Melville,
NY, 1990, Marchon Eyewear, Inc.
4. Dowaliby M: Dr. Margaret Dowalibys guide to the art of
eyewear dispensing, Fullerton, Calif, 1987, Southern California College of Optometry.
5. Wyllie S: Eyewear beauty guide: dont choose your eyewear
blindfolded, Oldsmann, Fla, 1986, Varilux Press.
6. Jackson C: Color me beautiful, New York, 1980, Ballatine
Books.
7. Dowaliby M: The fundamentals of cosmetic dispensing,
Stoneham, Mass, 1966, The Professional Press,
Butterworth/Heinemann.
8. Wirz JR: Styling for blacks: follow the four Cs, Eye Talk,
p.53, 1980.
9. Brooks C: Essentials of ophthalmic lens nishing, St.
Louis, MO, 2003, Butterworth/Heinemann.
10. Fleck H, Mutze S: Sehhilfenanpassung, Berlin, 1970, VEB
Verlag Technikpp.
11. Marks R: An investigation of the anatomical changes in
the shape of childrens noses, Rochester, NY, 1959, Shuron
Division of Textron.
60
Prociency Test
Match the correct frame characteristics with the face
shape. (There may be up to two correct answers for
each.)
1. ____ Oblong
2. ____ Round
3. ____ Inverted
triangular (base-up)
4. ____ Triangular
(base-down)
a. darker colors or bolder

look
b. narrow frame
c. rimless
d. deep frame
e. low temple attachment
f. high temple attachment
5. Which of the following is indicated and should be

used when tting the high minus lens wearer?
a. rounded corners
b. large lenses
c. 40-degree V-bevels
d. crown glass lenses
e. excessive decentration
6. Which face shape most lends itself to wearing
glasses?
a. the wide face
b. the long face
c. the base-down triangular face
d. the base-up triangular face
e. the diamond face
7. Which of the following would be examples of a
frame appropriate for a wide face?
a. a frame with a large difference between
horizontal and vertical measurements
b. a frame where the temples attach high on the
frame
c. a frame where the temples attach low on the
frame
d. a frame where the lenses are deep, covering a
larger facial area
8. In tting the base-up (inverted) triangular face,
choose a frame that is:
a. fairly heavy to add necessary emphasis to the
upper facial area
b. somewhat wider than normal
c. a dark color
d. medium to lightweight to be as unobtrusive as
possible
9. When deciding upon the upper frame line design,

a. it is desirable to choose an upper eyewire line
that follows the basic line of the eyebrow.
b. it is best to choose an upper eyewire line that
contrasts with the eyebrow line somewhat.
c. the best design is one that starts below the
eyebrow, crosses the eyebrow at the midpoint,
and continues on above the eyebrow.
10. Using an upsweep on either the upper or lower
rim of a frame:
a. always results in a surprised look and should be
avoided.
b. can add lift to a face that has begun to sag with
age.
c. brands the wearer as being out-of-date.
11. True or false? Choosing the favorite or dominant
color a person wears for their frame color should
be avoided, since the color repetition calls too
much attention to the glasses.
12. True or false? A lighter-colored, more delicately
styled frame is recommended for the person with
light, ne hair.
13. True or false? Individuals with salt-and-pepper
hair, or hair that is just starting to gray will nd
that choosing a silver frame will make the salt
component of their salt-and-pepper hair more
noticeable and should be routinely avoided.
14. True or false? When in doubt as to which frame
weight to choose, select the heavier weight frame.
15. The lower the frame bridge, the greater the effect of:
a.shortening of the nose.
b. lengthening of the nose.
Match the following meases types with the indicated
temple style.
16. ____ Active people
17. ____ On-and-off wear
18. ____ Normal, everyday wear
19. ____ Jobs requiring unusual
head positions
20. ____ Especially heavy frame
a. straight back
b. comfort cable or
riding bow
c. skull
CHAPTER 4
21. The frontal angle is:

a. the angle from which the front crest of the nose
deviates from the vertical when viewed from
the side.
b. the angle from which the side of the nose
deviates from the horizontal when viewed from
above.
c. the angle from which the side of the nose
deviates from the vertical when viewed from
straight ahead.
22. When part of the lower, nasal portion of a lens
shape is removed to allow for a better t, it is
called a ________________________.
23. Which of the following is not an important
criterion in choosing a frame for a progressive
addition lens wearer?
a. a minimal vertex distance
b. adequate pantoscopic tilt
c. sufcient vertical depth in the nasal portion of
the frame shape
d. All of the above are important criterion when
choosing a frame for a progressive addition lens
wearer.
24. Which of the following should be avoided when
tting a high minus wearer?
a. a high index lens material
b. squared-off corners
c. aspheric lenses
d. smaller eye size
e. an antireection coating
25. Which of the following is not a good frame
characteristic for a person having a high plus lens
prescription?
a. small lens size
b. adjustable bridge
c. library temples
d. high index lenses
e. as regular a lens shape as possible
26. With high plus lenses, should more or less eye
makeup than average be used for an equal
cosmetic effect compared with what would be
worn without spectacle lenses?
Frame Selection
61
27. To check bridge size, lift the frame very slightly

from the nose and move it to the left or right.
There should be about ________ millimeter(s) of
clearance between the nose and free side of the
bridge.
a. 0.5
b. 1.0
c. 1.5
d. 2.0
28. True or false? All metal pad arms and pad bridges
lend themselves to versatility in adjusting the nose
pads.
29. What is the best way to reduce ring reections in
a high minus prescription?
30. List at least four characteristics of frames that you
could choose to keep the frame of a high plus lens
wearer from sliding down the nose.
31. Of the frame characteristics listed below, which is
the least desirable for children?
a. deeply grooved frame fronts
b. nylon cord frame construction
c. bridges that give support in the area of the
lower portion of the nosepad
d. spring temples
32. True or false? Rules for selecting a well-tting,
nice looking frame change dramatically when
selecting safety eyewear.
33. True or false? When buying frames for the ofce,
one of the fastest and best ways to select
appropriate frames is for the staff to try them on.
34. It becomes evident that there are a great many
frames on the board that are discontinued. Which
of the following is least likely to be a contributing
factor to this situation?
a. All frames are automatically re-ordered when
they have been sold from the board.
b. Large numbers of frames are being purchased
at low-cost special prices.
c. Frames are being purchased from a large
number of sources.
d. Frame representatives have been allocated a
given number of board spaces and come in on a
regular basis to check on how their frame
product is moving.
CHAPTER 5
Reference Point Placement,

Multifocal Height, and Blank
Size Determination
o matter how accurate the visual examination

has been, if the lenses, either single vision or
multifocal, are improperly positioned before
the eyes, the nished product is of inferior quality. The
purpose of this chapter is to present the many ne
points in lens positioning. A dispenser must master
these ne points in addition to the general tting rules
to achieve consistency in excellence. Failure to put these
points into practice can result in genuine visual hardship
to wearers.
POSITION OF THE FRAME

If the frame is not properly positioned on the face for
the initial measurements, both the frame and the lenses
may not be in the correct positions when the frame is
dispensed and properly adjusted.
With metal frames, the best policy is to adjust the
nose pads to a correct angle and position before any
measuring is done. This ensures a more correct bifocal
height and bridge size evaluation.
With plastic frames, it is fairly simple to evaluate the
bridge size. If the bridge of the sample frame is too small,
the frame will sit too high; if it is too large, it will sit
too low.
OPTICAL CENTERING FOR SINGLE

VISION LENSES
Horizontal Placement of the Lenses
in the Frame
Normally when spectacles are made, the lenses are positioned so that the optical center (OC) of the lens will line
up with the pupil of the eye. Therefore the optical center
becomes the major point of reference for the lens. When
light goes through the optical center of the lens, it does
not bend, but travels straight through. If the light did
not travel straight through, but was bent, there would be
a prismatic effect at that point. At the optical center of
a lens there is no prismatic effect. Prism in spectacles is
undesirable unless prescribed.
Prismatic Effect
To avoid undesired prismatic effects, the optical centers
(OCs) of the lenses are placed the same distance apart as
62
the wearers lines of sight. The measurement techniques

for nding the interpupillary distance (PD) are covered
in Chapter 3.
In some cases, a lens prescription calls for a certain
amount of prism. The optical center of the lens has no
prism, so it will not be placed in front of the wearers
pupil. Instead a point on the lens where the amount of
prism equals that called for in the prescription is chosen.
This new point on the lens is now the point of major
importance. This major reference point where the
prismatic effect equals the prescribed amount of prism
is called just thatthe Major Reference Point (MRP).
Succinctly stated, the point on the lens where the prism is
equal to that called for by the prescription is called the major
reference point (MRP).
Note that when there is no prism called for in the
prescription, the OC and the MRP are at exactly the
same point on the lens. But when there is prism in the
prescription, the eye no longer looks through the OC.
In other words, with prescribed prism the OC and MRP
are in two different locations. The MRP is in front of
the line of sight of the eye, whereas the OC is somewhere
else.
If the wearers eyes are at different distances from the
nose, and if the two lenses are different in power, then
the MRPs of the lenses must be placed according to the
monocular PD rather than the binocular PD, to avoid
inducing unwanted prism (see Figure 3-4).
Prentices Rule
The amount of prism induced by improper lens placement depends on the power of the lens and the distance
the OC is displaced. It is calculated according to Prentices rule, which states:
= cF
where is prism diopters of displacement, F is the dioptric power of the lens, and c is the distance from the OC
in centimeters.
For example, if the lens power is +2.00 D and the OC
varies from the wearers interpupillary reference point
(usually the center of the pupil) by 6 mm, the induced
prism will be:
CHAPTER 5
Reference Point Placement, Multifocal Height, and Blank Size Determination
= 0.6 2.00 = l.2

The base direction for plus lenses is toward the center
of the lens, and the base direction for minus lenses is
toward the margin of the lens.
Face Form
There is also a relationship between the placement of the
OCs in the frame and the extent to which the curve in
the frame front varies from the classical four-point touch
position (see Chapter 8 for an explanation of four-point
touch). This curve in the frame front is often referred to
as face form, because the frame front more closely
conforms to the curve of the face.
This curve serves both the cosmetic purpose of
improving the frame appearance and the optical purpose
of aligning both surfaces of the lenses with the wearers
line of sight.
Allen1 has shown the correct and incorrect face form
relating to the wearers PD (Figure 5-1). If the wearers
PD equals the frame PD (eye size plus bridge size),
then no face form is required; the frame front should be
straight (Figure 5-2).
If the wearers PD is less than the eye size plus the
bridge size of the frame, then the frame front should be
given face form by bending it at the bridge, allowing
both cosmetic and optical alignment (Figure 5-3). A perfectly straight alignment of the frame front will tilt the
OCs with reference to the line of sight and cause
unwanted sphere and cylinder powers (Figure 5-4).
If the wearers PD is greater than the frame eye size
plus the bridge size, then theoretically the bridge should
be bent to curve the frame opposite to the normal curve
of the face. Although this permits proper optical alignment, it is cosmetically unsatisfactory, and thereby
impractical (Table 5-1). Such a frame adjustment should
not be done.
Vertical Displacement
Unless otherwise specied, an optical laboratory will
make a single vision lens so that the MRP is centered
verticallyhalfway between the top and bottom of the
frame. Low-powered lenses made from traditional materials seldom need an MRP height specied. Optical
problems caused by a vertical MRP placement that might
need to be above or below the vertical frame center are
so minimal with low-powered lenses that few wearers are
ever bothered. However, this is not the case when lens
powers increase, when different lens materials are used,
or when aspheric lens designs are employed. In these
instances, vertical MRP placement becomes important.
Optically Correct OC Placement
Consider a lens placed before an eye with the OC of the
lens directly in the eyes line of sight (Figure 5-5). As
light passes through the OC of the lens, it enters and
leaves the lens at right angles to both front and back
63
TABLE 5-1
Amount of Face Form Required

If
Then
1. PD = Eye size + bridge size

2. PD < Eye size + bridge size
3. PD> Eye size + bridge size
No face form
Positive face form
Negative face form (this is
impractical and should
not be carried out)
TABLE 5-2
Amount of Pantoscopic Tilt Required*

If
Then
1. Eyes at OC
2. Eyes above OC
3. Eyes below OC
No pantoscopic tilt
Pantoscopic tilt required
Retroscopic tilt required (this, however,
is impractical and should not be
carried out)
*For each millimeter the eyes are centered above or below the
optical centers of the lenses, two degrees of lens tilt are
required.
surfaces. The optic axis of the lens and the line of sight
of the eye fall in the same place.
Note, however, that a lens with its OC directly in
front of the eye should not be tilted. Figure 5-6 shows
this incorrectly tilted lens. Tilting the lens when the
OC is directly in front of the eye will both induce an
unwanted cylinder component and alter the sphere value
of the lens. (An optical explanation of this is found in
Chapter 18.)
With most frames, the eye is slightly higher than the
center of the lens. This is shown in Figure 5-7. The
alignment shown in Figure 5-7 is not an optically correct
alignment, since the optic axis of the lens does not pass
through the center of rotation of the eye. Even though
the lens is not tilted, light passing through the center of
rotation of the eye also passes through the lens at an
angle to both lens surfaces.
Fortunately, lenses are usually worn with the lower
lens edge tilted toward the face. This pantoscopic tilt is
the amount the frame front is tilted with reference to
the plane of the face. To avoid the lens aberrations
that would otherwise be caused by lens tilt, light following the line of sight through the center rotation of the
eye must still pass through the lens OC at right angles.
This can be accomplished by lowering the OC of the
lens 1 mm for every 2 degrees of pantoscopic lens
tilt and is shown in Figure 5-8. (Table 5-2 summarizes
the relationship between pantoscopic tilt and OC
placement.)
In Figure 5-1, Allen1 shows several examples of correct
and incorrect pantoscopic tilt with respect to vertical
64
OC
OC
CR
CR C1 C2
C1
C2
Correct face form
for when wearers PD
equals frame PD
Correct pantoscopic angle
A
F
OC
OC
CR C1 C2
OC
Correct pantoscopic angle
CR
CR
C1
C2
Correct face form
for when wearers PD
is less than frame PD
C1
C2
Incorrect face form
for when wearers PD
is less than frame PD
CR C1 C2
OC
Optically correct retroscopic angle,

but cosmetically incorrect
DO NOT USE
H
OC
CR
C1
C2
OC
CR
Incorrect face form

for when wearers PD
is greater than frame PD
C1 C2
Incorrect pantoscopic angle;

either the frame is too high
or the pantoscopic angle is too great
I
OC
CR
OC
CR C1 C2
C1
C2
Incorrect pantoscopic angle;

either the frame is too low
or the pantoscopic angle is not great enough
Optically correct face form,

but cosmetically incorrect;
wearers PD is greater than frame PD
DO NOT USE
Figure 5-1. Here are a series of illustrations demonstrating both correct and incorrect use
of pantoscopic angle and face form, depending upon the placement of the lens optical center.
The symbols C1 and C2 show the location of the centers of curvature for the rst and second
lens surfaces. They also indicate the position of the optic axis of the lens. The location of the
center of rotation of the eye is denoted by CR and the optical center of the lens by OC.
Illustrations C and J are theoretically correct, but should not be carried out. They may be
avoided by using good frame selection procedures. (Modied from Allen MJ: How do you t
spectacles? Indiana J Optom 32:2, 1962.)
CHAPTER 5
OC
OC
4-point touch
NO FACE FORM
CR
Optic axis and line of sight
CR
Figure 5-2. When the optical centers of the lenses are at the horizontal center of the frames
lens openings, the geometric center distance (Frame PD) equals the wearers interpupillary
distance. The lenses should have no face form (a 4-point touch). When this is the case, light
entering along the line of sight strikes at right angles to the front and back surfaces of the
lens. This prevents inducing unwanted sphere and cylinder power changes caused by tilting
of the optical center.
OC
OC
CR
CR
Figure 5-3. To prevent optical error caused by lens tilt, when the wearers interpupillary
distance is less than the frames geometric center distance (Frame PD) face form is required.
This is because more of the lens blank has been removed nasally than temporally during
edging. The object of adding face form to a spectacle lens prescription is to keep the lens
surfaces at the optical center perpendicular to the line of sight.
65
66
Optic axis (not line of sight)

perpendicular
to lens surfaces at OC
OC
OC
Line of sight
Line of sight
CR
Optic axis
Optic axis
CR
Figure 5-4. In this gure, the

glasses are not adjusted to include
face form. Because the wearers
interpupillary distance is smaller
than the geometric center distance, the line of sight crosses the
lens optical centers obliquely. This
results in lens tilt, inducing
unwanted changes in the sphere
and cylinder components of the
prescription.
Lens optic axis

and
line of sight
Figure 5-5. A properly adjusted lens

allows the line of sight to pass through the
optical center of the lens at right angles
to the front and back surfaces. If the eye
is midway between the top and bottom of
the lens, and the optical center is directly
in front of the eye, the proper adjustment
contains no face form.
CR
Lens optical center
CORRECT
Lens optic axis
Line of sight
CR
Lens optical center
INCORRECT
Figure 5-6. When the optical center is

measured for center-pupil height, if the
glasses have any pantoscopic tilt, the
optic axis of the lens will not pass through
the center of rotation of the eye.
CHAPTER 5
Not at right angles
Line of sight
CR
Lens optic axis
Lens optical center
INCORRECT
Figure 5-7. When the eye is above the horizontal midline of the lens, without pantoscopic
tilt the optic axis of the lens will not pass through the center of rotation of the eye. This
means that the wearer will experience lens aberrations corresponding to the effect of altering
lens sphere and cylinder values.
Lens optic axis
CR
Line of sight
Lens optical center
CORRECT
Figure 5-8. A correctly t pair of glasses will drop the optical center 1 mm for every 2 degrees
of pantoscopic tilt. This is also a good tting situation because the average viewing area is
not centered on a point on the lens directly in front of the eye. The average patient moves
his eye through a eld of view, which is centered in a slight downward position, since we
seldom have occasion to look as far above the horizontal as we do below. Even for viewing
tasks other than through the bifocal segment, we look down at the sidewalk, down at store
counters, even somewhat downward to drive a car to look at the road directly in front of
us.5
67
68
Pupil center
height
Figure 5-9. To measure pupil center height, mark the location

of the pupil on the glazed lens with a short horizontal line or
a cross. Pupil center height is the horizontal distance from the
lowest level of the inside bevel of the lower eyewire, up to the
pupil center.
alignment, and correct and incorrect face form with

respect to horizontal alignment.
As a general rule, eyeglasses need to be adjusted so
that the lower rims of the frame are closer to the face.
This widens the viewing area for the wearer and is more
cosmetically appealing. The correct tting procedure is
to rst adjust the empty frame for pantoscopic tilt. This
angle of tilt in degrees is noted. Next the pupil center
height is measured. Afterwards 1 mm is subtracted from
the height of the OC for every 2 degrees of pantoscopic
tilt. This gives the MRP height.
Summarizing How to Determine MRP Height
MRP height is determined by rst measuring pupil
center height. Pupil center height is measured with the
dispensers eyes positioned at the same level as the subjects eyes. The subject looks at the bridge of the dispensers nose. Using a water-based overhead projector
pen, the dispenser draws a horizontal line on the glazed
lenses through the pupil center for both right and left
eyes (Figure 5-9). If there are no glazed lenses in the
frame, transparent tape may be used. (The use of transparent tape is described in the section on measuring
bifocal heights found later in this chapter.) Next
compensate for pantoscopic tilt using the 2-for-1 rule of
thumb.
Example 5-1
A metal frame with adjustable pads and a 40 mm B dimension is selected. The frame and pads are adjusted so that
the frame sits on the nose and face as it should after dispensing. The frame front is tilted to the correct pantoscopic
angle and is observed to be straight on the face. Neither
lens is higher than the other. The frame front has a 10degree pantoscopic angle. Measure the MRP height and
modify this amount to compensate for the pantoscopic tilt.
Solution
In measuring the pupil center height, the distance from the
lowest point on the inside bevel of the lower frame eyewire
up to the pupil center is measured and found to be 28 mm.
If the pantoscopic tilt is 10 degrees, then the height must
be lowered by 1 mm for every two degrees of pantoscopic
tilt; which in this case is 10/2 or 5 mm. The new MRP height
Figure 5-10. If the chin is raised until the frame front is perpendicular to the oor, major reference point height can be
measured without compensating for pantoscopic tilt.
is 28 5 or 23 mm. (Normally the MRP height would be on
the horizontal midline at a height of 20 mm.)
Simultaneously Compensating for Pantoscopic Angle

While Determining MRP Height
There is a simple method that makes it possible to compensate for pantoscopic tilt while determining MRP
height. The dispenser is positioned at the same level as
the subject. With the frame fully adjusted for height,
pantoscopic tilt, and straightness, the subject is instructed
to look at the bridge of the dispensers nose. Next the
dispenser places a nger under the subjects chin and tilts
the subjects head back until the frame front is perpendicular to the oor (Figure 5-10). With the subjects
head in this position, a horizontal line is drawn on the
glazed lens at the level of the pupil center. The distance
from the lowest portion of the inside bevel of the lower
eyewire to the horizontal mark on the lens is the MRP
height. This height has already been corrected for pantoscopic tilt and does not require any compensation.
(This is summarized in Box 5-1.)
MRP Placement for Polycarbonate and Other High
Index Materials
It is especially important to measure PDs monocularly
and to consider the vertical position of the MRP when
using polycarbonate and high index materials. Many of
these materials have more chromatic aberration* than
crown glass and regular (CR-39) plastic.
Fitting eyewear correctly will help keep many types
of aberrations under control (for more on lens aberrations, see Chapter 18). If other aberrations are minimized by good tting techniques, a small amount of
*Chromatic aberration causes objects with high contrast border
areas to have rainbowlike color fringes. Chromatic aberration may
be visible with high-powered prescriptions made from lens materials
with low Abb values.
CHAPTER 5
69
BOX 5-1
Steps in Measuring MRP Height
1. Frames are adjusted to t the wearer, giving
attention to nosepads, frame height, pantoscopic tilt
and straightness of the frame on the face.
2. Fitter positions himself or herself on the same level
as the subject.
3. Subject xates on bridge of tters nose.
4. Fitter tilts wearers chin back until frame front is
perpendicular to the oor.
5. Fitter marks the location of the pupil centers with
short horizontal lines on the glazed lens.
6. Fitter measures MRP height as distance from lowest
portion of the inside bevel of the lower eyewire to the
line on the glazed lens.
Optical centers
Figure 5-11. Moving the optical center of a high minus lens

too far upward will cause the lower edge of the lens to be too
thick.
chromatic aberration is less likely to push overall aberration problems into the troublesome area. It should also
be noted that the farther from the OC the eye looks, the
more evident chromatic aberration may become.
Optical centers
MRP Placement for Aspherics

An aspheric lens typically has a central zone of constant
lens surface power, with the power gradually changing
toward the periphery of the lens. This means that the
central zone must be well positioned both horizontally
and vertically. Monocular PD and measured MRP
heights are important.
Other Ways of Positioning MRP Height
Some dispensers measure pupil height and do not lower
the MRP from this position to compensate for pantoscopic tilt. Although this may help prevent chromatic
aberration with distance viewing for polycarbonate and
high index lenses, it can cause aberrations because of lens
tilt and also result in a thicker lens. Raising the OC of
a minus lens makes the top thinner and the bottom
thicker (Figure 5-11). Raising the OC of a plus lens
makes the top thicker and sometimes increases center
thickness (Figure 5-12). Therefore before ordering a
high-powered lens with a high OC, it is advisable to
consider the resulting edge thickness.
If the dispenser fails to specify an MRP height, the
laboratory will center the lens vertically in the frame.
For most low-powered crown glass and CR-39 plastic
lenses, no problems will be encountered. For polycarbonates, aspherics and high index lenses, the MRP height
should be measured.
Notes:
1. It is not advisable to move an MRP height below
the horizontal midline (datum line) of the glasses
unless the lenses are intended exclusively for near
work.
2. When the pantoscopic angle is especially large, it
may be advisable to (a) reconsider the frame selected
Figure 5-12. These two high plus lenses have the same refractive power. The lens on the left has the optical center half way
between the top and the bottom. The lens on the right has the
optical center too high for a lens of this power. As a result, the
upper edge is excessively thick.
and choose one that will place the eyes higher in

the frame, (b) reduce the pantoscopic tilt, or (c) just
not lower the MRP by the full 2-for-1 amount.
Vertex Distance
Vertex distance is the distance from the back surface of
the spectacle lens to the apex of the cornea. A 14-mm
distance is considered average, although the best t for
spectacles is usually obtained by tting the frame as
close to the eyes as possible without having the lashes
rub the lenses.
The depth of the base curve affects the nal vertex
distance, since each increase of 1 diopter in the depth of
the base curve increases the depth of the vertex distance
by approximately 0.6 mm. The exact amount of vertex
distance increase will depend on the size of the lens.
Vertex distance is important when tting someone with
long lashes. Be sure to observe the person from the side
with the sample frame. Have the person blink to note
the lash clearance. Vertex distance becomes more of a
concern in higher powered prescriptions because a
70
change in vertex distance induces a change in both the

spherical and cylindrical power of the lenses.
Measuring Vertex Distance With the Distometer
The instrument used to measure vertex distance is the
distometer (Figure 5-13). The following technique is used
to measure vertex distance: With the spectacles in place,
the subject is instructed to close the eyes. The at side
of the scissors end of the distometer is placed against
the closed lid. When the end of the distometer is pressed,
the other side of the scissors moves out to touch the
back surface of the spectacle lens. When the two parts
of the distometer touch the lid and lens simultaneously,
vertex distance is read from the instrument. The instrument takes average lid thickness into consideration so
the reading does not have to be compensated (Figure
5-14).
For more on how prescription powers change with
changing vertex distances, see Chapter 14.
MEASURING FOR MULTIFOCAL HEIGHTS

The methods used for segmented multifocals and those
used for progressive addition lenses are very similar. The
eye reference points are not the same. Progressive lenses
use the center of the pupil for reference. Chapter 20 deals

specically with progressive addition lenses. For how to
measure for progressive addition lenses, see the section
titled Measuring for and Ordering the Progressive in
Chapter 20.
Measuring for Bifocals

The actual techniques for measuring bifocal height are
not any more difcult than measuring the PD. There
are, however, a few more considerations that must be
taken into account to prevent certain difculties.
Measurement for segment height should be done
using only the actual frame that will be worn, or one
of exactly the same size and type. Any variations in
size must be precisely compensated for, as previously
explained at the beginning of the chapter. The frame
must be carefully positioned to sit at the same height at
which it will be worn.
Lower Limbus Method
The dispenser positions himself on the same level as the
subject and directly in front of him. The subject is
instructed to xate a point straight ahead at eye level
most often, the bridge of the dispensers nose.
When using the PD rule to measure bifocal height,
hold it vertically with the scale extending downward and
align the zero point with the lower limbus (Figure 5-15).
The bifocal height is indicated by the gure on the scale
of the ruler that corresponds to the level of the lowest
part of the groove inside the lower eyewire (Box 5-2).
Figure 5-13. A distometer measures the distance from the

back surface of the lens to the front surface of the eye.
Figure 5-14. The distometer is positioned so that the stationary part of the instrument is against the closed lid. When the
probe touches the back surface of the spectacle lenses, the
vertex distance may be read from the scale.
Figure 5-15. Measuring for bifocal height. When using the

inside edge of the lower eyewire as reference, an additional
amount must be allowed for the depth for the lens bevel in the
groove. Although this may vary somewhat, an additional
0.5 mm added to the measure is normally suitable. Alternately,
it may be easier to estimate the depth of the groove and
measure directly to this estimated location.
CHAPTER 5
The lowest portion of the eyewire must be used, even

if it is not precisely under the limbus. Certain frames
have a lower eyewire that slants, a problem best illustrated by the aviator frame shape. The distance from the
top of the seg to the eyewire immediately below it is
notably different from the distance to the lowest part of
the eyewire (Figure 5-16).
Lower Lid Margin Method
The lower lid margin is often used as a reference point
for measuring bifocal height instead of the lower limbus.
The difference is frequently academic because the two
are usually in approximately the same position.
BOX 5-2
Steps in Measuring Bifocal Height Using Lower
Lid or Limbal Method
1. Fitter positions himself or herself on the same level
as the subject.
2. Subject xates the bridge of the tters nose.
3. Holding frame in correct wearing position, the tter
places the PD rule vertically in front of subjects right
eye. The zero point is at lower limbus and the ruler
scale is positioned downward.
4. For a rimmed frame, the tter reads the scale at the
level of the lowest point where the inside of the
groove would be. For a rimless frame, the reference
is the level of the lowest point on the demo lens.
5. Repeat for left eye.
Note: If the lenses are being marked for reference instead of using
a ruler in front of the face, the glazed lenses are marked at the
level of the limbus with a marking pen. When both lenses have been
marked, the tter removes the frames from the subject and measures from the mark down to these reference points.
Incorrect
71
The lower lid margin position can vary considerably

more than the lower limbus position, however, making
the latter a more consistent reference point.
Subjective Determination
Subjective determination is the most accurate means of
determining the seg height and of assuring the wearer
that the bifocal will be positioned properly. The proper
bifocal position for each person, of course, is determined
with the occupational and personal characteristics of the
individual in mind.
Marking on the Glazed Lens. When the sample
frame has glazed lenses, the level of the bifocal can be
marked on each lens with a marking pen instead of measuring with the PD ruler. With the dispenser and wearer
on the same level and the wearer looking straight ahead,
a short horizontal mark is drawn at the proposed level of
the bifocal segment line (Figure 5-17). This can be
checked before ordering by lengthening the line to simulate the width of the bifocal (Figure 5-18). This way the
wearer can be given the opportunity to evaluate the suitability of the proposed height. Ask the wearer to stand
and evaluate the position of the line.
Figure 5-17. Using a marking pen, the proposed level of the

bifocal can be drawn on the glazed lens in the new frame. If
the wearer will be using old frames, the mark is made on the
old lenses.
Correct
Figure 5-16. The lowest portion of the lens as positioned in

the frame must be used in measuring seg height. This is true
even if the height at the center of the seg has a different measurement. (Note: The segment height is not measured using the
outside of the frame. The edge of the lens is the reference
used.)
Figure 5-18. Drawing a complete line at the proposed bifocal

height will allow the wearer a realistic evaluation of where the
segment will be located after the nished lenses are in the
frame.
72
Figure 5-19. To simulate the level of a bifocal segment, a strip

of transparent tape is placed across the lower half of each
eyewire.
Figure 5-21. Subjectively checking seg height: The wearer

should be readily able to locate reading or near point material
within the transparent tape area. The same is true when using
a frame with glazed lenses that have been marked for height
with a lens marking pen.
Figure 5-22. Fresnel press-on segments are removable and

reusable. They offer a greater degree of reality when asking
the wearer to subjectively judge the most appropriate segment
height.
Figure 5-20. The simulated bifocal height is measured from
the lowest part of the inside of the lower eyewire.
Give the wearer something to hold in the reading

position. Encourage the wearer to simulate normal
working conditions and evaluate whether the line is too
high, too low, or just right. If the line is too high or too
low, redraw the line and have the wearer reevaluate the
new height. When the level is judged as satisfactory,
measure the distance from the lowest level of the inside
bevel of the lower eyewire up to the drawn bifocal line
for each lens.
Using Transparent Tape. The method using transparent tape is slightly more time consuming, but is useful
for checking when there are no lenses in the frame. This
method also works for checking unequal seg heights. A
strip of tape is placed across the lower portion of the
empty frame at exactly the level of the proposed segment
(Figure 5-19). The proper height is checked in the same
way as a regular bifocal (Figure 5-20), and the tape is
readjusted if necessary. When the wearer looks into the
distance, the taped area should not interfere with vision.
When looking up close, the nearpoint material should
be seen as if located within the area covered by the tape
(Figure 5-21).
Using Fresnel Press-On Segments

By using Fresnel optics, it is possible to produce a uniformly thin, exible, stick-on lens or prism. Such lenses
are normally used to provide high amounts of prism in
visual training or to apply prism in certain sections of a
lens. However, Fresnel lenses are also available as temporary at-top bifocal segments. By obtaining a series of
Fresnel press-on segments in increasing powers, it is
possible to stick the lenses on the wearers old single
vision lenses, or on the glazed lenses in the new frame
(Figure 5-22). Having the wearers prescribed near power
in the removable segment will add a dimension of reality
that will enable the wearer to judge more accurately the
most useful bifocal height for a given work situation.
Measuring For Trifocals

The techniques for measuring trifocals are identical to
those for measuring bifocals, except the reference is the
top of the trifocal intermediate segment rather than the
top of the lower near segment. The trifocal height is
the top line (Figure 5-23).
Bifocals enable the wearer to see at two distances
clearly: (1) off in the distance through the upper portion
of the lens, and (2) at reading distance for the smaller
CHAPTER 5
73
Distance portion
Intermediate portion
Trifocal
height
Near portion
Figure 5-23. No specication for lower seg line is necessary when ordering trifocal lenses.
The style of trifocal ordered dictates this position. The top of the intermediate portion is the
position measured.
Thus if the seg height for a trifocal measures 18 mm

from the edge of the pupil, the net seg height ordered
would be 17 mm.
Figure 5-24. Measuring for trifocal height starts as shown.

Subtract a full millimeter so that the intermediate seg does not
get in the way for distance viewing. If the frame has a groove
for the bevel, that must also be considered.
segment area in the lower portion of the lens. When

it becomes necessary to see clearly at an intermediate
distance (usually an extended arms length), trifocals
are used. Trifocals differ from bifocals only through the
addition of an intermediate portion immediately above
the near portion, giving the wearer three distances of
clear vision instead of two.
Lower Edge of Pupil Method
The lower edge of the pupil method is similar to the
lower limbus and lower lid margin methods used for
bifocals. For trifocals, however, the lower pupil margin
is aligned with the zero mark of the vertically held PD
rule. The reading is that point where the scale intersects
the level of the inside groove of the lower eyewire (Figure
5-24). Then 1 mm is subtracted to compensate for pupil
clearance during xation of the eye in distance viewing.
Subjective Determination
The subjective technique is again similar to that used for
bifocals, with the addition of a test for the third section
of the lenses. When an overhead transparency pen and
glazed lens are used, the two trifocal lines may be drawn
on the lens. The area in between is colored in with the
pen. Objects viewed through this colored intermediate
area will appear tinted.
If the total seg height is lowered, the near portion area
will be reduced, and vice versa. For example, assume that
a trifocal with a 7-mm intermediate portion is to be
tted 17 mm high in the eyewire. This leaves 10 mm for
the near portion of the seg (17 total 7 intermediate =
10 near). If the top of this intermediate seg is too high,
lowering it reduces the reading portion. If the reading
portion is increased, the top of the trifocal is raised.
The feasibility of using a trifocal in a given frame can
thereby be easily ascertained. If the trifocal seg is deliberately set very low, the resulting small near (reading)
portion will probably permit too little reading area; but
on the other hand, increasing the reading area may place
the trifocal intermediate portion high enough to interfere with distance vision. When no suitable trifocal position in the selected frame is possible, a frame with a
greater vertical depth is indicated.
Comparison With Old Lenses

When a person who is currently wearing bifocals is retted with new bifocals, the segment position may be
maintained or changed. If a person is dissatised, the
complaint will indicate the necessary change in position.
If the bifocals were always in the way, the seg height
was too high. If the seg height was too low, the wearer
will complain of stiffness of neck caused by constant
head-tilting.
Any change that is made, however, should be done via
the same techniques described for new multifocal wearers
74
to ensure correct positioning. This is also true for a

bifocal wearer changing to trifocals. If the trifocal is
merely added to the bifocal height, the tops may intrude
into the pupillary area.
Seg Height Factors
If a person is satised with the seg height currently worn,
but is changing any aspect of the frame, the specications necessary to achieve the previous seg height may
be different. Only with exactly the same frame shape and
size will the seg height measurements be identical to the
previous order.
One factor that inuences the position of the seg is
the bridge. The shape and size of the bridge determine
the height at which the frame sits on the nose. For
example, two frames might both have a vertical dimension of 38, but the bridge on one frame might hold the
eyewire higher on the face than a differently shaped
bridge on the other frame.
The inuence of lens size on segment height is evident
in the vertical depth if one frame is a 38 eye size and the
other 42. Even if the bridges hold both frames in relatively the same position, as the horizontal size increases,
so does the vertical size.
Lens shape inuences segment. The seg height might
be 15 mm for a narrow frame and 20 mm for a deep
frame, yet both frames could place the segment line right
at the lower limbus.
When measuring to match the segment height of a
new bifocal lens with that of an old bifocal lens, have the
person wear his or her old glasses. Note the location of
the segment line on the face or in relation to the lower
lid. Measure from the lower lid to the seg line: plus if
above the lower lid, minus if below it (Figure 5-25, A).
Place the new frames on the face. Measure the distance
from the lower eyewire to the lower lid, then add or
subtract the distance from the lower lid to the old seg
line (Figure 5-25, B).
-2 mm
14 mm
B
Figure 5-25. Duplicating the old seg height positions for use
in the new frame or for a second pair of glasses is done by rst
measuring from the lower lid, down (or up) to the seg line.
The measure will be plus if the old seg line is above the lower
lid and minus if it is below it. In the gure, this measurement
is 2 mm. Next, with the new frame in place, the distance from
the lower lens edge up to the lower lid is measured. In the
gure, this measurement is 14 mm. The distance in (A) is then
added to the distance in (B) to determine the seg height for
the new or second pair of glasses so that both old and new
segment heights match. For the example, this is 2 mm
+ 14 mm = 12 mm.
Other Methods
When a frame lacks glazed lenses, plastic segmentmeasuring devices are handy and accurate alternatives to
the PD-rule method of measuring bifocal height. Such
a device may be held in place in one of several ways. One
type uses expandable wire springs. Another uses the
same principle, but is held in place by three vertical
plastic strips: two strips are positioned behind and one
strip in front of the upper eyewire. A third design uses
double sided tape to hold the device to the frame. In all
instances, the scale can be read directly because the clear
plastic segment portion is marked in millimeters. Because
such devices sit inside the frame bevel, there is no need
to compensate for bevel depth. An additional advantage
is the fact that they enable comparison of the segment
heights of both eyes simultaneously (Figure 5-26).
Because frames come with demonstration lenses to
Figure 5-26. Measuring for seg height using a segment measuring device allows for easy comparison of seg heights between
left and right eyes.
CHAPTER 5
75
Example 5-2
h'
13-14 mm
Figure 5-27. The double seg lens. Most double seg lenses have
a 13 to 14 mm distance between segs. Measure h is therefore
dependent upon seg height h and the vertical dimension of the
frame chosen.
A new prescription calls for a + 2.00 add. It is possible that

the wearer would benet from an occupational, double-D
segment. What power Fresnel seg should be chosen for
demonstration purposes?
Solution
Subtract 0.50 D from the +2.00 D add. This reduced
+1.50 D add will be the add power of the chosen segment.
Find this power in a Fresnel segment. Position the segment
upside down so that it adheres to the upper portion of the
wearers old eyeglass lenses, exactly where the upper, occupational segment will be. This demonstration will be realistic
if the distance power of the old prescription is not too much
different from what the new prescription will be.
Unequal Seg Heights

increase frame stability, these devices are used much less
that previously.
Measuring For Double Segs

A double seg lens has near segments in both the lower
portion and the upper portion of the lens (Figure 5-27).
This upper seg allows the wearer to do near work more
comfortably when the working area is above eye level.
Double segs are available in several seg shapes.
Measuring for a double seg is done in practically the
same manner as for the normal bifocal. The only initial
consideration is the lower seg height. This can be measured by any of the methods described previously.
When a double seg lens is ordered, the lower edge of
the top segment will automatically be 13 to 14 mm above
the lower seg line position. With the frame in place, note
the position in the frame where the upper seg will begin.
If there will not be a large enough eld of view in the
upper seg, either a different frame with more area above
eye level must be chosen or the lower seg must be placed
deeper in the frame to bring down the upper seg. A reasonable minimum area for the upper seg is considered to
be 9 mm.2
The opposite problem can result if the subject has
previously worn the bifocal seg lower than normal. The
upper seg will be so low that it will partially obscure
distance vision. The lower seg then has to be raised until
the upper seg is high enough that it is no longer disturbing the wearer.
When the wearer is unsure of the applicability of
double segments to his or her situation, it may be helpful
to use a set of Fresnel segments* to demonstrate the
application. To do so, subtract 0.50 D from the power of
the new bifocal add and select Fresnel segments of this
power. Position the Fresnel segments upside down and
14 mm above the wearers old bifocals.
*Fresnel segments were described under the Subjective Determination section earlier in this chapter.
Both eyes should be measured independently for bifocal

or trifocal heights (Figure 5-28). If one eye is higher than
the other and the segments are placed at equal heights,
the wearer will have a blur area considerably larger than
normal; one eye sees the segment line rst as the person
looks down, then as that eye begins to clear, the other
eye sees the line and begins to clear later.
Before prescribing unequal segment heights, be sure
to check (using the actual frame to be worn) to be certain
that the frame sits straight on the face. A crooked frame
obviously will result in unequal segment heights.
When unequal segment heights are used, they should
be called to the wearers attention. Otherwise they will
be discovered as an error.
Transparent Tape or Drawn Line Methods
Used Subjectively
To subjectively check the relationship of the two segment
heights to one another, have the person look at a given
near object and slowly tilt his or her head back until the
line, or top of the tape, rst hits the object. Next,
alternately occlude the wearers eyes to determine
whether the line is at the same point for each eye. If
not, move the tape until there is an equalization. Then
measure the height of the tape or drawn line from the
lower eyewire for each lens (Box 5-3).
Transparent Tape or Drawn Line Methods
Used Objectively
To check the segment height relationship objectively
using the transparent tape or drawn line methods, have
the wearer look at the bridge of the dispensers nose, as
the dispenser tilts the wearers head back slowly and
notes which segment reaches the lower pupil edge rst.
The tape level is readjusted until both lines reach the
pupils at the same time (Box 5-4).
Segment Height and Vertical Prism
A prism causes the light to deviate from its path to a new
direction. A ray of light will be bent toward the base of
76
Figure 5-28. A difference in prescribed seg heights is sometimes required so the persons
eyes will meet the bifocal line simultaneously on downward gaze.
BOX 5-3
Steps in Subjectively Checking Equality
of Seg Heights
1. On empty sample frame use tape at seg level; on
glazed lens, draw a bifocal line with a marking pen;
on wearers old glasses, use the existing bifocal line.
2. Wearer is positioned in normal reading position.
3. Wearer xates a given reading line through the
distance portion of the lens.
4. Wearer tilts head back until he experiences a blur of
the xated line.
5. Fitter alternately occludes wearers eyes to see if
same reading line blurs for both eyes.
6. If not, glasses are (tape or line is) adjusted.
7. Repeat until equal.
BOX 5-4
Steps in Objectively Checking Seg
Height Equality
1. Fitter positions himself at wearers eye level.
2. Wearer xates bridge of tters nose.
3. Fitter places nger under wearers chin and slowly
tilts wearers head back.
4. Fitter observes seg lines to see which line reaches
the pupil rst.
5. Glasses (or tape or drawn line level) adjusted.
6. Repeat until even.
the prism, causing the image of the object viewed to

be displaced in the direction of the apex. This also
causes the eye to turn in the direction of the perceived
object.
A prism may be necessary in a prescription if there is
a slight paralysis of one or more extraocular eye muscles.
Without the help of the prism, the person may experi-
ence diplopia, or double vision. Even if a person does not

have double vision, a prism may be prescribed for ocular
comfort. If a tendency for the eyes to turn is present, the
person is said to have a phoria condition (i.e., a tendency
of the eyes to turn, but with no actual turning manifested) and must exert constant effort to keep both eyes
pointing straight ahead. This can lead to fatigue and
headaches. A prism can be used to relieve this discomfort. If one eye tends to turn down or up, a vertical prism
with the base of the prism up or down is prescribed. If
the eyes turn in or out, a horizontal prism with the base
of the prism out or in may be prescribed.
When a vertical prism is prescribed, one eye is allowed
to turn up slightly more than the other (Figure 5-29).
Given equal seg heights, when a person with vertical
prism in the prescription is wearing bifocals or trifocals
and looks down toward an object in the near eld of view,
there is a point where one eye crosses the bifocal line
before the other. This inequality is not detected in measuring for seg heights if the condition prescribed for is
only a phoria.
The inequality of turn can be calculated, however,
using the de nition of a prism diopter: 1 cm displacement of the image of an object at a distance of 1 m.
Assuming 30 mm distance from the back surface of the
spectacle lens to the center of rotation of the eye, the
difference in the vertical position of the two eyes at the
spectacle plane can be calculated. This is the difference
in seg height from that which was measured.
According to Figure 5-30, for one prism diopter it can
be seen from similar triangles that:
10
x
=
1030 30
and so
= 0.29 mm
CHAPTER 5
77
Image of
object
Object
Eye turns
toward apex
Figure 5-29. A vertical prism causes the eye to turn. This requires an alteration of seg
height.
Spectacle
plane
10 mm
X
CR
30 mm
1000 mm
Figure 5-30. Diagram showing required difference in seg heights (X ) when one prism diopter
of vertical prism is prescribed.
TABLE 5-3
Segment Height Change Indicated in the Presence

of Vertical Prism*
Prism Diopters
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total Segment Height Difference (mm)

0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
*When vertical prism is present in a pair of glasses, segment height

must be compensated. Each of the prism amounts listed on the
left requires a compensated segment height difference as shown
on the right.
or approximately 0.3 mm difference for every diopter of

vertical prism prescribed.3
Therefore, a good rule of thumb for prescribing differences in seg heights is to allow 0.3 mm for every prism
diopter, as summarized in Table 5-3.
The seg top is always displaced from its original location in
the direction of the apex or point of the prism. (The seg line
should be moved in the direction the prism apex points.)
If a prescription included three diopters of prism base
up before the right eye, then the right seg height should
be lowered approximately 1 mm from its measured
position.
Example 5-3
A wearer selects a new frame. The dispenser uses the newly
selected frame to measure seg height. Both right and left
seg heights are measured as 21 mm. If the right lens has 3
of base down prism, what segment heights should be
78
ordered so that the pupils reach the segment lines at the

same time once the prism is in place?
Solution
Because the right lens has base down prism, the right
eye will turn upward toward the apex of the prism. The
amount the eye will turn equals 0.3 mm for each diopter of
vertical prism. Therefore the eye turns 0.3 3 = 0.9 mm, or
1 mm, when rounded. This means that the right segment
height must be raised 1 mm. The nal seg height should be
ordered as:
R: 22 mm.
L: 21 mm.
Example 5-4
Suppose a wearer has a prescription that reads as
follows:
R: 2.50 1.00 180 2.5 Base Up
L: 2.50 1.00 180 4.5 Base Down
+2.00 add
The selected frame is properly adjusted before seg height
measurements are taken. Seg heights are measured using
the empty frame. They are found to be:
R: 21
L: 21
How should the seg heights be adjusted to allow for the
inuence of the prescribed vertical prism once the lenses
are in place?
Solution
To solve the problem, rst decide which seg height will be
raised and which lowered. Because the seg height will be
displaced in the direction of the apex (i.e., opposite the base
direction), the right seg height will be lowered and the left
seg height raised.
To continue solving, next consider how far each seg height
must be moved. Remember that each prism diopter yields
0.3 mm of movement. For the right eye, this is 2.5 0.3
= 0.75 mm of movement. For the left eye we nd 4.5
0.3 = 1.35 mm. Therefore, to the nearest millimeter the seg
heights will be:
R: 20 mm
L: 22 mm
The same principles that are explained here for segment
heights also apply to progressive addition lens tting cross
heights. For more information on how vertical and horizontal
prism affects tting cross heights and monocular PDs, see
Chapter 20.
Variations of Seg Height

It is not reasonable to expect every person to be best
served with a bifocal segment height that comes to the
level of the lower limbus. But because some starting

point must be used for seg height determination, the
lower lid or limbal margin technique was described. It
should be understood that these rules should be used as
a basis, or starting point, for professional seg measurement. Other variations inuence nal seg height
placement.
Posture
Perhaps the most obvious inuence on segment height
is posture. The person who walks tall or erect and
carries the head back may nd that the normally placed
segment is constantly interfering with distance vision.
This person would benet from a segment placed at a
level lower than usual because tilting the head back
moves the segment higher and into the line of sight.
The person with the opposite tendency (i.e., that of
carrying himself or herself in a somewhat stooped-over
manner) could wear the segment slightly higher than
usual.
These extremes in posture should be noted when
apparent, although they are not the norm.
Height
A tall person sometimes needs segments set slightly
lower than normal because the eyes must turn downward
to a greater degree to sight the oor. The bifocal line
would be more likely to interfere if placed at the normal
level. Shorter persons, however, should not be given
higher than normal segs.
Occupational Need
The person who works at a desk all day may need a
higher (and wider) segment than the person who works
outdoors and who seldom is required to do any close
work.
Round Segs
Different types of segs need to be set at different heights
because of variance in the distance to the OC of the
bifocal segment and in the shape of the seg top. Specically, round bifocals need to be positioned about 1 mm
higher than at-top bifocals because their upper area is
less useful, being limited in extent, and because their
OCs fall much farther from the top. The round bifocal
is positioned only l mm higher because it would be difcult to raise it signicantly more without interfering
with distance vision.
For example, a round, 22 mm-wide seg has its OC
11 mm from the top. Its widest usable area is also located
at that 11-mm-from-the-top distance. If a seg were tted
14 mm high, the center of the seg and the widest usable
area would be 3 mm above the frames lower rim. If a
at-top seg were used at the same height in the frame as
the round seg (i.e., 14 mm high), the OCs would be
9 mm above the lower rim of the frame, as would the
widest part of the bifocal.
CHAPTER 5
79
The blended area is proportionately less visible in low

powers than in higher ones. The tendency for the lens
segment to be slightly visible increases with an increase
of power in distance or near portions.
Figure 5-31. A blended bifocal works well for those who

desire an invisible near addition, but either do not want or
cannot afford a progressive addition lens. (Courtesy of Essilor
of America, St. Petersburg, Fla.)
Blended or Invisible Bifocals

The so-called blended bifocal follows the optical characteristics of the usual round-seg bifocal, except that the
demarcation line between the distant portion and the
bifocal is obliterated by a polishing process of the lens
or lens mold that substitutes a narrow nonoptical transition area for the line of demarcation.
A blended bifocal is not a progressive addition lens.
The only resemblance is that in both lens designs the
near segment is not obvious. Optically a blended bifocal
performs the same as a standard bifocal because only two
actual zones of focus exist: one for distance and one for
near. Consequently, no aberration or unwanted cylinder
is noticeable peripherally.
Distortion is produced around the bifocal segment by
the blended area, which varies in width from less than
3 mm to just under 5 mm, depending on the power of
the add and the base curve (Figure 5-31). This area
serves as the boundary of the bifocal, and permits the
lens to be tted according to the same provisions that
affect an ordinary visible bifocal. Both the height of the
segment and near PD need to be specied.
Because most blended bifocals are of the round seg
type, and because the blend is wider than the usual
demarcation line, the bifocal may require either slightly
higher placement of the top of the segment or greater
depression of the gaze for reading. The manufacturer
recommends tting this bifocal 1 mm higher than is
usual for other types of bifocals. The frame used should
provide sufcient space in its lower area to contain the
bifocal.
High Powered Lenses

Looking away from the center of a high plus lens will
cause decreased visual acuity because of lens aberrations.
This is especially noticeable in regular, nonaspheric
lenses and very strong plus lenses such as are used for
aphakic corrections.
For example, a regular nonaspheric +12.00 D lens
with a 3.00 D back surface curve will show a power of
+11.40 D sphere in combination with a 0.94 D cylinder
at a point 25 degrees from the OC. Therefore, it may be
seen that the farther from the central area of the lens a
person looks, the greater will be the departure from the
desired power. Since the power is increasingly affected
as a person looks farther from the OC, it is desirable that
the reading area of the lens be as close to the distance
OC as possible. For these reasons, a straight-top bifocal
is more likely to meet this requirement than a round one,
and the higher the bifocal is placed in the lens (closer
to distance OC), the better the optical requirements
can be met.
Children
Bifocals are seldom prescribed for children because of an
inability to focus near point material. More often their
need for a bifocal stems from a binocular visual problem.
Children will normally see clearly through both distance
or near portions when viewing near objects. Unless the
seg height is properly placed, the child may unconsciously
use the distance portion above the seg line for reading
or near point work instead of the bifocal portion. To
assure that the near addition is being used, the bifocal
should be measured and placed so that the seg line bisects
the pupil. For measuring purposes, the tter should be
on the same level as the child. This ensures that no parallax error occurs. Children adapt quickly and are not
bothered by the high seg placement.
The type of bifocal seg commonly used is a wide attop style. A wide near area helps to guarantee that the
whole near eld will be covered by the add, ensuring its
prescribed use. (Some practitioners prefer using a progressive add lens for children who need a near addition
because the seg is invisible.) If a progressive addition lens
is used for children, the tting cross is placed 4 mm
higher than normal (i.e., 4 mm above the pupil center).
Summary
As can be seen, a considerable number of factors can
inuence the bifocal height. Not all of these have been
noted here, but those covered in this section can be summarized as follows.
1. Head backseg lower; head downseg higher.
2. Tall persons: seg lower.
80
3. Adapt the height to the occupational need. Ofce

professions (close work)seg higher; outdoor
occupations (distance vision)seg lower.
4. Set round segs 1 mm higher.
5. Set seg tops in high plus lenses as high as is
practical.
Inuence of Vertex Distance on Apparent

Seg Height
The apparent height of the segment is dependent on the
distance that the lens is from the eye, or the vertex
distance.
If a wearer complains that the new bifocals are too
high and always in the way, yet from the front the segs
look to be exactly the same height in relation to the eyes
as the old pair, the lenses are very likely sitting farther
from the face than the old ones were.
To illustrate, imagine standing 3 feet away from a
window and looking over the window sill at the ground.
Approaching the window, more of the ground can be
seen, even though the actual height of the sill has not
changed. The same is true of the dividing line of bifocals. If the bifocals are farther from the face, they interfere with vision just as if they were placed higher.
The solution is to decrease the vertex distance by
changing the adjustment of the pad arms on metal or
combination frames (see the section on nose pad adjustments in Chapter 9) or to increase the pantoscopic angle
of the frame, tilting the lower edge of the frame toward
the face (Figure 5-32). The pantoscopic angle can be
increased on almost any type of frame and provides a
workable solution because the bifocal section is apparently lowered when it is moved closer to the face.
Because of the relationship between apparent seg
height and vertex distance, one seg will appear higher to
the wearer than the other if one lens is closer to the face
than the other. This possibility should always be investigated if the wearer complains of unequal seg heights
(Box 5-5).
Prism-Compensated Segs
When a person has anisometropia (a large difference in
power between the left and right eyes), unequal prism is
induced when looking through any area of the lenses
except the center.
An individual who does not require bifocals is able to
avoid the prism by turning the head and keeping the
lines of sight of both eyes close to the optical centers of
the spectacles. When reading, the chin is dropped to
keep the OCs lined up with the material. The amount
the eyes turn inward from these points is usually small
enough to elicit only a low amount of prism. The prism
base is horizontal and is easily compensated.
If the wearer attempts to read by lowering the eyes
rather than the lenses, the eyes will move away from
the OCs and additionally induce de nite amounts of
vertical prism. This may be clinically signicant. Some
B
Figure 5-32. A, Decreasing the vertex distance of a lens from
the wearers point of view will cause a reduction in the apparent height of the seg. B, Increasing the pantoscopic angle of a
frame also reduces the apparent seg height for the wearer.
BOX 5-5
Seg Adjustments Listed in Order to Be Tried
Segs Seem High
Segs Seem Low
1. Increase pantoscopic tilt.

2. Decrease vertex distance.
1. Narrow pads.
2. Bend pads down by
adjusting pad arms.
3. Increase vertex
distance.
4. Reduce pantoscopic
tilt.
5. Shrink bridge (plastic
frame).
3. Spread pads.
4. Move pads up by
adjusting pad arms.
5. Stretch bridge (plastic
frame).
individuals with anisometropia, however, learn to compensate for this.

When an anisometrope is forced to use bifocals or
trifocals, the prismatic consequences of the prescription
can no longer be avoided because the reading segments
must be placed away from the OCs of the distance correction. To predict if this will be a problem, ask the
wearer to read through the old (nonbifocal) glasses. If
the wearer drops the head to read, he or she is looking
through the OCs and may need help in the form of slaboff prism to counteract the unequal prismatic effects.
If, however, he or she drops the eyes to read and
looks through the bottom of the lenses, the wearer is
CHAPTER 5
81
accustomed to reading through this portion of the glasses

and will probably not need any prismatic compensation
in the seg (see also Chapter 21).
COMPENSATING FOR AN INCORRECTLY

SIZED SAMPLE FRAME
At the very beginning of the chapter, the importance of
a properly positioned frame was emphasized. Before
measuring for lens placement, the frame must be positioned on the face where it will be worn, otherwise the
measurements will be wrong. So with metal frames, the
nosepads are positioned for proper height. And as stated
earlier, with plastic frames, if the bridge of the sample
frame is too small, the frame will sit too high; if it is too
large, it will sit too low. But what should be done if the
sample frame is not the same size as the frame that will
be worn? Unless allowances for frame size differences
are made, the lens measurements will be wrong.
If the eye size is too large or too small, the depth of
a given frame style will vary uniformly from one size to
the next, according to the boxing concept of lens size.
If the eye size is incorrect, the segment height ordered
will need to be changed to allow for the difference in
lens depth. Since the usual difference in vertical dimension from one given eye size to the next is 2 mm, the
change required in either the optical center (OC) or seg
position from the bottom of the eyewire is 1 mm.
Obviously the chance of error is much greater when
using a sample with a correct eye size but an incorrect
bridge size because compensation for eye size is relatively simple.
When the Eye Size Is Incorrect

Suppose a person needs, for example, a 5220, but the
closest available sample is 50 20. The bifocal is measured
using the 50 20, and the height is determined to be
15 mm. If the lenses are ground for the larger frame, a
15-mm bifocal height will place the seg line too low. The
question is how much higher must it now be placed?
To determine the answer, consider that a given frame
may use the same pattern for all eye sizes. When the eye
size is increased by 2 mm across the A dimension, there
is effectively 1 mm of lens material being added to the
outside edge in every direction (Figure 5-33). This means
that the distance from the geometric center to the lower
bevel will be increased by 1 mm. At the same time, the
distance from the desired seg top position to the lower
eyewire also increases 1 mm. Therefore, if a 50 20
frame requires that the seg line be 15 mm high, a 5220
will mandate a 16 mm high seg to maintain the location
of the upper line at the desired level. By the same reasoning, a sample frame having an eye size 2 mm too large
will measure 1 mm higher than actually required.
Rule of thumb: For an improper eye size, the seg height
is corrected by one half the difference between sample
frame eye size and desired frame eye size.
16
15
Figure 5-33. The actual sample frame eye size is represented

by the solid line. The desired eye size to be ordered is represented by the dotted line and is 2 mm larger. Hence the seg
height to be ordered will be 1 mm greater.
As with any rule of thumb, exceptions do occur. They

are:
1. If the bridge of the frame is constructed
proportionally higher (or lower) in the frame as the
eye size changes, the variations will not be constant.
(To check this, for an individual frame style, the
distance from the bridge crest to a line running
tangent to the upper rims is measured. The
difference in these measured values between eye
sizes should be half the difference between the two
eye sizes, as in the rule of thumb.)
2. Because of the wearers nose-cheek formation, if it
appears that a larger eye size will cause the inner,
lower eyewire sections of the larger frame size to
rest on a different anatomic part of the face, a larger
eye size may rest higher on the face than might be
expected. Appropriate care should therefore be
taken.
If the Correct Bridge Size Is Unavailable

Now consider the case where the correct eye size is available, but the bridge is one size too small. It is still not
possible to measure directly using the frame as it sits
normally when placed directly on the face. When the
bridge size is too small, the whole frame will sit too high
on the face. Any uncompensated direct measure will
result in a seg that is much too low. The right bridge size
will allow the frame to be at its correct lower position.
Unfortunately, there is no conversion factor possible
using a sample frame with the wrong bridge size. Instead
the tter must move the frame down the nose until
properly positioned, then hold it in place while measuring for seg height. (This presumes that the tter is able
to accurately estimate where the correct size will place
the frame.)
The Alternatives
Of the two situations presented, the more predictably
accurate involves an incorrect eye size combined with a
correct bridge size. If the tter has a choice between
82
using either (1) an incorrect eye size and correct bridge

size, or (2) a correct eye size and incorrect bridge size,
then the rst instance should be chosen.
INSTRUCTING THE NEW BIFOCAL WEARER

New multifocal lenses represent a completely foreign
experience for the rst-time wearer. Some of the resultant problems may be prevented by direct advice ahead
of time.
Because of the magnication produced by plus lenses,
the wearer can expect objects seen through bifocals to
appear magnied, creating the impression that these
objects are closer because they appear larger. Curbs look
higher than they really are, and staircases become real
hazards when observed through the bifocal add. Distance judgment returns to normal after a period of adaptation despite the magnication, and the height of stairs,
curbs, and so forth, are properly judged.
The new bifocal wearer will experience differences
from well-established habits, and the necessary adjustments to compensate for the differences should be
explained to him or her. For example, before wearing
bifocals:
1. The oor could be seen by keeping the head erect
and dropping the eyes into the lower portion of the
lenses.
2. A book could be read by holding the eyes at the
center of the lenses and dropping the chin and head.
To correctly use bifocals:
1. The oor is seen by holding the eyes at the center
of the lenses and dropping the chin and head.
2. A book must be read by holding the head erect and
dropping the eyes into the lower portion of the lenses.
These differences may be contradictory to the wearers well-established habits. A period of adaptation is
required, and the wearer can more easily master the new
responses required if he or she understands them ahead
of time.
DETERMINING LENS BLANK SIZE

A lens blank is a lens before it has been edged to t into
the frame. It may be either nished or seminished. A
nished lens blank has the correct powers called for in
the prescription and needs only to be edged. A seminished lens blank has only one side of the lens nished,
usually the front side; the back side needs to be ground
and polished to the correct power.
The dispenser is concerned with lens blank size for
several reasons. For single vision lenses, the question is
especially pertinent if lenses are to be edged in-house.
The lens blank size determines if an in-house edging lab
will be able to edge the prescription from nished lenses
that are in stock or if the prescription will have to be
sent out for surfacing. For multifocal lenses, the question
is, given the seg height and PD requested, can the lenses
be made for the frame selected?
MBS for Single-Vision Lenses

The PD measurement in essence determines the position
of the OCs of the lenses and helps decide the total size
of the nished lens blank required for the designated
frame. It will be recalled from Chapter 2 that the effective diameter (ED) of the spectacle lens is found by taking
the distance from the geometric center of the lens to the
edge point of the lens farthest from the geometric center
and doubling it (see Figure 2-2). If a persons eyes are not
at the geometric centers of the frame, the centers of the
lenses must be displaced or decentered so they are vertically aligned with the centers of the wearers pupils.
For example, if the OC of the lens falls at the geometric or boxing center of the frames lens shape, then a lens
blank with a diameter equal to the frame shapes ED is
large enough to ll the frames lens opening. But if the
lens must be decentered, then as a general rule 2 mm
must be added to the ED of the lens blank for every
1 mm the lens is decentered.*
Using a Formula to Find MBS for Finished
Single-Vision Lenses
Minimum blank size (MBS) for nished, single vision
lenses can be summarized as a simple formula. The
formula is:
MBS = ED + 2(decentration per lens) + 2
where MBS is the minimum blank size and ED is the
effective diameter of the frame shape. The decentration
per lens is the difference between the frame GCD (the
A plus the DBL) and the wearers PD, all divided by 2.
Expressed as a formula, this is
Decentration per lens =
( A + DBL ) PD
2
Twice the decentration per lens equals total

decentration.
In other words,
total decentration = (A + DBL) PD.
This means that the formula for minimum blank size
could also be written as
MBS = ED + total decentration + 2 mm
* This rule holds true only when the longest radius from the geometric center of the lens opening is opposite in position (nasal or
temporal) to the decentration direction. In other words, if the
longest radius of the lens opening is temporal and the lenses are
decentered inward (nasally), the rule holds true, as it does if the
longest radius is nasal and the lenses are decentered outward
(temporally).
CHAPTER 5
83
80 70 60 50 40
Figure 5-34. Single-vision minimum blank

size chart. The blank size chart shown is used
as follows: (1) Place the frame front face down
on the chart with the right lens opening over
the simulated lens circles. (2) Center the
frame bridge over the correct binocular distance PD as indicated by the scale on the left.
(3) Ensure vertical centration. This is done by
positioning the lowest point on the inside
groove of the lower eyewire on the lower
chart scale. The correct level is one half the
B dimension of the frame. (If a vertical positioning for the optical center of the lens is
specied, use this height instead.) (4) Note
which diameter lens circle will just enclose
the lens opening of the frame including the
eyewire groove. This is the minimum blank
size required for a nonprismatic, single vision
lens. (Reprinted with permission from Brooks
CW: Essentials of ophthalmic lens nishing, St.
Louis, 2003, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
70
60
65
75
10
15
20
25
30
80 70 60 50 40
The last factor in the MBS formula is + 2 mm.

These additional 2 mm add a slight amount of extra lens
material to allow for possible defects on the edge of the
lens. Here is an example of how to gure out the MBS
for nished single vision lenses.
Example 5-5
What would the MBS be for a nished, single-vision lens
that is to be placed in a frame having the following
dimensions?
A = 52 mm
DBL = 18 mm
ED = 57 mm
The wearers PD is 62 mm.
Solution
First nd total decentration.
Total decentration = (A + DBL) PD
In this case,
total decentration = (52 + 18) 62
= 8 mm
Now that the total decentration is known, MBS is determined by
MBS = ED + total decentration + 2 mm
= 57 + 8 + 2
= 67
Therefore if the prescription has no prescribed prism, the

smallest nished lens blank that could be used has a diameter of 67 mm.
Determining MBS for Finished, Single-Vision Lenses

Using a Drawing
It is possible to use the newly selected frame in combination with a scale drawing to determine the minimum,
nished single-vision lens size necessary. This drawing
is shown to scale in Figure 5-34. Follow the directions
given with the gure legend.
Determining MBS for Multifocal Lenses
Using a Drawing
For multifocal lenses, the location of the segment in the
frame determines whether or not the semi nished lens
blank will be large enough. If the bifocal or trifocal
segment is too high, there may be an air space between
the bottom of the edged lens and the frames lower
eyewire. It is always an embarrassment to the dispenser
when the surfacing lab calls to say that the lens will not
cut out for the chosen frame. This can sometimes mean
that the wearer must be asked to return to select a new
frame. Therefore it is best to try and avoid problems in
questionable cases by verifying lens blank size ahead of
time. This may be done using actual-size drawings or
charts. An example of a chart is shown as Figure 5-35.
All charts basically mimic the semi nished lens. The
frame is placed on the scale drawing of the lenses and
moved vertically and horizontally to position the lens
segment as it will appear in the frame. If the frames lens
84
80 70 60 50 40
Center of Seg top
10
15
20
25
30
80 70 60 50 40
Seg heights
Figure 5-35. To use a multifocal minimum blank size chart, place the right side of the frame
face down over the chart. Move the frame left or right until the near interpupillary distance
line corresponding to the ordered near interpupillary distance is directly in the center of the
frame bridge. Move the frame up or down until the correct seg height corresponds to the
lowest part of the inside bevel of the lower eyewire. The smallest circle that completely
encloses the lens shape is the smallest blank possible for this manufacturer. Because
manufacturers lens blanks will vary, blank size charts for multifocal lenses are not
interchangeable.
BOX 5-6
How to Use Scale Lens Drawings to Determine
Minimum Blank Size for Multifocal Lenses
1. Place the frame face down on the drawing.
2. Move the frame up or down until the inside bevel of
the lower eyewire is over the line corresponding to
the correct seg height.
3. Move the frame left or right until the center of the
bridge is over the line corresponding to the near PD.
4. Note whether the lens blank completely encircles the
frames lens opening.
5. If encirclement is complete, the blank is large
enough. If it is not, the blank is too small.
opening is completely covered by the drawn lens, the real

lens blank will be large enough (Box 5-6).
If the Multifocal Lens Will Not Cut Out
Sometimes a lens will not cut out because the seg ordered
is especially high or unusually low. If a lens will not cut
out for this reason, it is possible to move the frame up
or down until the drawn lens covers the frames lens

opening, thus determining how much the segment height
will need to be decreased or increased so the lens will
cut out. This modied height may be read directly from
the drawing. Now the dispenser must make a judgment.
Can the seg height be modied, or should a different
frame or new multifocal lens style be chosen? Often a
small change in seg height will allow the chosen frame
to be used.
Sometimes a lens will not cut out because the wearers
near PD is too small to permit enough lens decentration.
This may be a warning that the frame selected is
too large for the wearer. Moving the frame left or right
on the minimum blank size chart will show what
the near PD must be so that the lens will cut out. (In
some cases, it may be permissible to modify the near
PD if the bifocal segment is wide enough. For more on
this subject, see Brooks: Essentials for Ophthalmic Lens
Finishing.4)
REFERENCES
1. Allen MJ: How do you t spectacles? Indiana J Optom, 32:2,
1962.
CHAPTER 5
2. Dowaliby M: Practical aspects of ophthalmic dispensing.

Chicago, 1972, The Professional Press, Inc.
3. Riley HD, Hitchcock JR: Segment height adjustment and vertical prism, Optom Weekly, 66:889-902,
1975.
85
4. Brooks CW: Essentials of ophthalmic lens nishing, ed 2,

St Louis, 2003, Butterworth-Heinemann.
5. American Optical Corporation: Lens information kit;
optical cosmetic and mechanical properties of ophthalmic
lenses, Southbridge, Mass, 1968.
Prociency Test
1. True or false? When measuring for multifocal
heights, the place on the eyewire directly below
the pupil is used as a zero point.
2. The OC and the MRP are at exactly the same
point on the lens except:
a. when there is a measured MRP height.
b. when there is prescribed cylinder present in the
prescription.
c. when there is prescribed prism present in the
prescription.
d. when a bifocal segment has a raise instead of a
drop.
e. the OC and the MRP are never at exactly the
same point on a lens.
3. When the wearers PD is less than the A plus the
DBL measurements of the frame, then:
a. positive face form is required.
b. negative face form is required.
c. no face form is required.
d. pantoscopic tilt is required.
e. retroscopic tilt is required.
4. You have a very small, fashion oval lens shape. The
eye size is only 30 mm. The bridge size is 22 mm.
The lens powers are 3.50 D spheres. The wearers
PD is 62 mm. In practice, how would you adjust
the frame for face form?
a. a very slight amount of face form
b. no face form
c. a very slight amount of antiface or negative face
form
d. a moderate amount of antiface or negative face
form
5. True or false? Tilting the wearers chin back until
the plane of the frame front is perpendicular to
the oor, and then marking the pupil height is a
short cut measuring method for placing the MRP
of the lens at the appropriate tting height.
6. For every 2 degrees of pantoscopic tilt, the OC

should be:
a. raised 0.5 mm above the pupil center.
b. raised 1 mm above the pupil center.
c. lowered 0.5 mm below the pupil center.
d. lowered 1 mm below the pupil center.
e. There is no relationship between pantoscopic
tilt and the vertical placement of the OC.
7. Here is a theoretical question. There are two
frames. Both are for the same wearer. In fact, both
are the same frame style and size exactly. However,
one will be worn with no pantoscopic tilt. The
other will have a lot of pantoscopic tilt. Which one
should have the highest MRP when the lenses are
ordered?
a. The one with no pantoscopic tilt.
b. The one with lots of pantoscopic tilt.
c. There should be no difference in ordered MRP
height at all.
8. You measure an MRP height to be 26 mm. The B
dimension of the frame is 44 mm and the
pantoscopic tilt of the frame is 12 degrees. How
high should you order the MRP? (Watch out! This
question may not be as straightforward as it
appears.)
a. 26 mm
b. 24 mm
c. 22 mm
d. 20 mm
e. 18 mm
9. A distometer is used to:
a. measure the distance between lenses and the
frame eye size.
b. measure the power of a spectacle lens.
c. measure the PD.
d. measure the vertex distance.
e. measure the segment height.
86
10. The left lens is closer to the face than the right
lens. Therefore:
a. the left seg will seem higher to the wearer than
the right.
b. the right seg will seem higher to the wearer
than the left.
c. there will be no effect on the apparent
subjective height of the segs.
11. Which of the following is not a legitimate use of a
Fresnel press-on segment?
a. As an aide for determining segment height.
b. As a temporary bifocal addition.
c. As a means of changing the distance power of
the wearers existing glasses until such time as
their new glasses arrive.
d. To demonstrate how a double segment lens
would work for occupational purposes.
12. For every one diopter increase in base curve, what
happens to the vertex distance?
a. It increases by approximately 0.6 mm.
b. It decreases by approximately 0.6 mm.
c. It increases by approximately 1 mm.
d. It decreases by approximately 1 mm.
13. The wearers Rx comes back from the lab, but
their lashes brush the backs of the lenses with each
blink. They do not want to go to a different frame.
You cannot alter the bridge. You have done
everything you can by adjusting tilt and face form.
You still need 1 more millimeter of vertex distance
to clear the lashes. You decide to reorder lenses
with new base curves. How should you change the
base curves?
a. Increase the base curve by 1 D.
b. Increase the base curve by 2 D.
c. Increase the base curve by 3 D.
d. Decrease the base curve by 1 D.
e. You cannot solve the problem this way. Change
frames.
14. In measuring for a trifocal, we nd the distance
from the inside bevel of the lower eyewire to the
lower edge of the pupil to be 22 mm. What
trifocal height should be ordered?
a. 22.5 mm
b. 23.5 mm
c. 24 mm
d. 20 mm
e. 21 mm
15. You are measuring a trifocal height for a nylon
cord frame in the dispensary. The frame comes
with display lenses. To determine trifocal height,
you begin by measuring the distance to the
bottom of the pupil. This distance measures
21 mm. What seg height would you order?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
22 mm
21.5 mm
21 mm
20.5 mm
20 mm
16. How should round segment heights be ordered

compared with at-top segment heights?
a. Round segment heights should be ordered
1 mm lower than at-top segment heights.
b. Round segment heights should be ordered
2 mm lower than at-top segment heights.
c. Round segment heights should be ordered
1 mm higher than at-top segment heights.
d. Round segment heights should be ordered
2 mm higher than at-top segment heights.
e. Segment shape has no inuence upon segment
height.
17. An individual wears 6 of prism base-down before
the left eye for a phoria condition. An empty
frame is used to measure for bifocal height. What
alteration to the measured bifocal height must be
made for the left eye?
a. The left bifocal height must be raised 1 mm
above its measured value.
b. The left bifocal height must be raised 2 mm
above its measured value.
c. The left bifocal height must be lowered 1 mm
below its measured value.
d. The left bifocal height must be lowered 2 mm
below its measured value.
e. The left bifocal height should be left exactly as
measured.
18. An individual wears 3 base-up before the right
eye and 3 of prism base-down before the left eye
to alleviate a phoria problem. If an empty frame is
used in measuring for bifocal height, what
alteration in those measured values must be made?
a. Raise the right bifocal 0.5 mm and lower the
left bifocal 0.5 mm from their measured values.
b. Raise the right bifocal 1 mm and lower the left
bifocal 1 mm from their measured values.
c. Lower the right bifocal 0.5 mm and raise the
left bifocal 0.5 mm from their measured values.
d. Lower the right bifocal 1 mm and raise the left
bifocal 1 mm from their measured values.
19. A new bifocal wearer must:
a. keep the head erect and drop the eyes to see the
oor.
b. drop the eyes to read a book.
c. drop the chin and head to engage in near work.
CHAPTER 5
20. An individual selects a frame with the following

dimensions:
A = 48
B = 44
DBL = 20
The wearers PD is 62 and the seg height is
measured at 21 mm.
The seg style chosen is a double-D occupational.
How much vertical near viewing area will there be
at the top of the lens once the lenses are edged and
inserted in the frame? (There are two answers
below that could be considered as correct,
depending upon the brand of lens chosen. You
need only select one of the two.)
a. 5 mm
b. 6 mm
c. 7 mm
d. 8 mm
e. 9 mm
f. 10 mm
g. 11 mm
h. 12 mm
i. 13 mm
j. 14 mm
k. 15 mm
l. 16 mm
21. How should bifocal height be positioned for a
child?
a. At the lower limbus
b. Between the lower limbus and the lower edge of
the pupil
c. 1 mm below the lower edge of the pupil
d. At the lower edge of the pupil
e. At the center of the pupil
f. 4 mm above the center of the pupil
22. You are measuring a child for bifocal height. Here
are some measurements: From the inside bevel of
the lower eyewire to the lower limbus is 15 mm.
From the inside bevel of the lower eyewire to the
bottom of the pupil is 19 mm. From the inside
bevel of the lower eyewire to the center of the
pupil is 21 mm. How high would you order the
bifocal?
a. 15 mm
b. 18 mm
c. 19 mm
d. 21 mm
e. 25 mm
23. The seg position for the new Rx in a newer-style
frame should duplicate the seg position in the old
pair of glasses. The old seg height was 14 mm.
However, the bifocal line is 2 mm below the lower
limbus. For the new frame, the distance from the
lowest part of the inside bevel of the lower eyewire
up to the level of the limbus is 17 mm. What
87
bifocal height would you order for the new pair so

that the new pair matched?
a. 14 mm
b. 15 mm
c. 16 mm
d. 17 mm
24. True or false? To lower the apparent height of a
bifocal segment from the wearers perspective, it is
possible to increase the pantoscopic angle.
25. A person chooses a frame with an A dimension of
50 mm and a DBL of 20 mm. There is no frame of
this size available. The frame must be ordered. It
is still necessary to measure for progressive
addition tting cross height. Only a 48 20 frame
is in stock. The tting cross height measured with
this frame is 21 mm. What tting cross height
should be ordered?
a. 19 mm
b. 20 mm
c. 21 mm
d. 22 mm
e. 23 mm
26. A frame with an eye size of 48 mm and a bridge
size of 20 mm is necessary. The only frame
available is one with a 50 mm eye size and a
20 mm bridge size. You determine that for a
50 mm eye size frame you would need a bifocal
height of 17 mm. What would you order for the
48 mm eye size frame so that the bifocal line will
come out at the right place?
a. 16 mm
b. 16.5 mm
c. 17 mm
d. 17.5 mm
e. 18 mm
27. A semi nished lens blank:
a. has both front and back surfaces already ground
to the correct curves and power, but has not yet
been edged.
b. has been made to the correct thickness, but
does not have the correct surface powers on the
front or the back surfaces.
c. has the front surface at the correct curve, but
the back surface is not yet ground to the needed
curvature to produce the required lens power.
28. A frame has the dimensions of 49 19 with an ED
of 52 mm. The patients PD is 68 mm. What is the
minimum lens blank size required?
a. 50 mm
b. 52 mm
c. 54 mm
d. 63 mm
e. 71 mm
88
29. What is the smallest lens blank size possible for a

50 mm round eye size frame if the lens must be
decentered 3 mm per lens?
a. 50 mm
b. 52 mm
c. 54 mm
d. 56 mm
e. 58 mm
30. What is the ED of the frame in Question 29?
a. 48 mm
b. 50 mm
c. 52 mm
d. 56 mm
e. 63 mm
31. True or false? Lens blank size charts that are made
for multifocal lenses are basically a drawing of the
semi nished lens that is to be used for the
prescription.
32. True or false? If a lens will not work in a certain
frame because the lens blank is too small, the seg
height or near PD should never be modied so
that the frame and multifocal lens style can still be
used.
CHAPTER 6
Ordering and Verication
his chapter is basically a guide to procedures

followed when ordering and verifying prescriptions from an optical laboratory. Using uniform
terminology and a checklist approach assures a minimum
of errors, which in turn improves the quality of service
to the spectacle wearer.
ORDERING
When ordering a prescription, use the manufacturers or
suppliers own printed form or enter it online if possible.
This will prevent many errors or omissions in processing. Online ordering can help prevent errors because the
program will often keep the order from being sent until
all necessary information is present.
With paper forms, it is very important to print the
necessary information. Poor or illegible handwriting
usually results in errors.
General Procedures for Forms

Use a separate form for each job ordered, since the form
itself may travel with the materials during laboratory
processing.
When ordering less than a total frame and both
lenses, specify this clearly on the order form. For printed
forms, write this in fairly large letters or check the
appropriate places on the form.
Do not include superuous data or information on
any forms if such data are not necessary or applicable to
the order. For example, do not supply eye size and bridge
size if only a temple is being ordered.
Lens Information
When writing the prescription in paragraph form, such
as in a letter, always write the data referring to the right
lens rst, followed by the data for the left lens. For
example, Mr. Hensley was issued a prescription of OD:
3.00 D sphere, OS: 2.75, 1.50 175. When written
on a blank prescription pad, such a prescription would
be written with the left lens value directly below that of
the right lens. This would appear as follows:
OD: 3.00 D sph
OS: 2.75 1.50 175
(OD is, in this instance, the abbreviation for right

eye from the Latin words oculus dexter, whereas OS is
the abbreviation for the Latin words oculus sinister, or left
eye.) Always use at least three gures for the sphere and
cylinder components. If the dioptric unit is less than 1.00
D, use a prefatory zero before the decimal point, as for
example, +0.75 D. Carry gures two places after the
decimal point, as for example, +2.00 D (not +2 D) or
1.50 D (not 1.5 D). State the axis as x, but do not put
a degree sign after the numbers representing the cylinder axis because it may be mistakenly read as an extra
zero. For example, 10 degrees may be misread as 100
when written out with the degree sign in longhand as
10. Many also use 3 numbers for the axis. Therefore it
is normal to see a 5 degree axis written as 005.
Check the base curve of the wearers old lenses,
particularly when only one lens is being replaced.
(For information on how to measure base curve, see
Chapter 13.)
Frame Information
Be sure to specify the style of temple desired if more than
one style is available. Print the name of the frame and
include the name of the manufacturer (Figure 6-1).
REORDERING FROM EXISTING

SPECTACLES
Sometimes it is necessary to use a persons existing spectacle lenses as the basis for ordering another pair of
glasses. This can occur in an emergency situation if the
person has cracked or broken a lens and the lenses are
still in the frame. It may also happen that an individual
has a pair of glasses and wants a second pair, but no
longer has the written prescription.
Obtaining Lens Information for

Existing Spectacles
Although it is possible to read the prescription directly
from the current eyeglasses, it is best to contact the
prescriber or previous dispenser to verify what was
orderednot just what was received. For example, when
taking a prescription from an existing pair of glasses, one
may misread a cylinder axis as 170, when the lens is really
axis 168. Yet the original order could have called for axis
89
90
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6-1. Example order form. Order forms vary considerably from laboratory to laboratory. It is crucial that an order
form be completely and correctly lled out. Errors in completing the order form can result in glasses being improperly
made, necessitating a costly remake. At the very least,
an incomplete order form could delay the order or require that
the wearer return so that the missing information can be supplied. Instructions for completing each general area of the
form are given below. Areas left blank are self-explanatory.
(1) Some recommend that the wearers last name be written
here in all capital letters, be underlined, and be listed before
the rst name. This is followed by a comma and the rst name
printed in small letters.
(2) List only if ordering special base curves. Otherwise
leave blank.
(3) List the MRP height only if it is other than at half
the B dimension. Otherwise this is left blank. Often this is
where tting cross height is listed for progressive addition
lenses.
(4) Do not give both binocular and monocular PDs. Use
either one or the other, but not both. If you use a binocular
PD, write it once, right on the line between left and right
boxes.
(5) You must indicate a lens material.
(6) Normally you do not specify a thickness for the lens.
Be sure to indicate if the lens is a regular thickness or is for
safety eyewear, however. If the frame is a Z87 safety frame,
circle safety and the lenses will be properly marked to
conform to Z87 requirements.
(7) Indicate multifocal type and seg size, or progressive
lens brand when appropriate.
(8) Indicate as specically as possible what color lens you
want. Indicate the desired transmission or shade. If the lenses
have no tint, write either clear or white. Circle either
solid for a uniform tint, or grad for a gradient tint.
(9) If slab-off is being ordered, indicate the prism amount
of the slab-off.
(10) The frame name may be anything from Harry to
T849. The name alone is not enough; the manufacturer must
be listed as well. It is not uncommon for more than one manufacturer to use the same name or number.
(11) Color may be a number.
(12) Examples: skull, cable, riding bow, library.
(13) Circle one on this row. Frame to Follow means the
frame is not with the order. It is to be sent later.
(14) If the order is for lenses only (edge only), one way
to ensure a more accurate t is to remove the lens from the
frame and measure the circumference of the lens with a circumference gauge. This will allow for better duplication of the
lens size. However, a digital frame tracer works best.
(15) Indicate whether the frame is metal, plastic, or rimless.
This is especially important when the frame is not present. Be
even more specic as to lens material if possible.
(16) Special Instructions is for calling attention to anything unusual about the prescription. SRC means scratch
resistant coating; UV means add ultraviolet protection (plastic
lenses only); ARC means antireection coating (plastic or
glass); roll means to roll the edges of the lens to make the lens
look thinner; polish means to polish the edges.
(17) Signature of the person or the name of the ofce that
is ordering the prescription.
(18) This section is for laboratory pricing.
91
165. So an axis 170 lens is ordered. But what if the new

lens comes in as axis 172? The dispenser will likely accept
the lens because it is only two degrees off and within
ANSI standards. What the dispenser does not realize is
that the axis of the lens is really off by 7 degrees, compared with the original prescription.
Take New Facial Measurements
Even when duplicating an old pair of glasses, it is still
important to take new facial measurements. Retake the
wearers PD. You may still wish to use the distance
between the OCs found in the old glasses, but you need
to know the wearers measured PD. Large differences
may indicate the presence of prescribed prism.
If the lenses are either bifocal or trifocal lenses, note
where the segment line falls in reference to the lower
limbus. This is important if the new segments are to
match the old ones. If the lenses are progressive addition
lenses, nd the location of the tting cross on the old
lenses to verify that it falls in the center of the pupil (see
Chapter 20, Progressive Addition Lenses).
When the Wearers PD Does Not Match the Distance
Between Optical Centers
If the wearers PD that has just been measured does not
match the distance between the OCs in the glasses that
are being worn, the dispensers best options are to:
1. Find out where the prescription originated and call
to verify the prescription. Specically ask if the
prescription contains prescribed prism. This is
always the correct rst option, even when the
prescription can be easily read from the existing
glasses because an error still may have occurred.
2. If the wearer has no idea where the prescription
originated and does not want to have a new eye
examination, use the PD found in the existing
glasses.* You cannot be sure this is not part of the
*The exception to this generalized rule would be for lenses with
very low powers in the horizontal meridian. If the optical center of
a very low powered lens is off, there is very little horizontal prismatic
effect produced. This possibility will become more obvious once the
reader is familiar with ANSI Z80 Standards for PD and horizontal
prism. For low-powered lenses, the distance between optical
centers can miss the wearers ordered PD by a relatively large
amount and still produce only a negligible horizontal prismatic
effect. When this occurs, the glasses are still considered to be
within tolerance.
For example: A lens pair has a power of 0.50 D sphere in both
eyes. The wearers PD is 60. However, the measured distance
between lens centers in the old glasses is 64 mm. This means that
the resulting prismatic effect will only be 0.20 prism diopters.
Unwanted horizontal prism of this amount is well within ANSI standards of acceptability. And it is also highly unlikely that the original
prescription included prescribed prism of an amount less than even
one quarter diopter.
To summarize, familiarity with ANSI standards for PD-horizontal
prism will make it easier to discern when differences such as these
are due to allowable tolerances and when there is a truly prescribed
prism present in the prescription.
92
Figure 6-2. A manually-operated lensmeter has certain basic parts common to most
instruments.
original prescription and thus should duplicate what

is being worn. (Besides, changing an existing
prismatic effect may present adaptation problems for
the wearer.) You should be certain that the reason
for ordering a PD other than the wearers measured
PD is well documented in the record.
Obtaining Prescription Information for

Single-Vision Lenses
The heart of the lens prescription is the sphere, cylinder,
and axis. These measures of lens power are found using
a lensmeter (Figure 6-2). Most lensmeters use line targets,
but others have targets consisting of a circle of dots.
There are lensmeters with internally viewed targets and
those with targets projected on a screen. Lensmeters
may also work manually or automatically. The most
commonly used lensmeters are manual and use a crossedline target.
How to Find Single-Vision Lens Powers Using
a Crossed-Line-Target Lensmeter
When using a lensmeter, begin by focusing the eyepiece
to assure an accurate reading. When looking through
the eyepiece, imagine sitting on top of a tall building and
looking at the street below. This will help relax your
accommodation and keep your eye from changing focus,
which can contribute to inaccuracies. First, rotate the

eyepiece so that it moves toward the operators eye
away from the rest of the instrument. Then looking at
the crosshairs and concentric circles (not the crossed-line,
illuminated target), slowly turn the eyepiece back toward
the rest of the instrument until the crosshairs and concentric circles rst come into sharp focus. If you turn too
far and pass the rst clear focus, again rotate the eyepiece away from the instrument; then slowly rotate it
back toward the instrument to the rst best focus.
The focusing procedure is only done once and need
not be repeated for each pair of spectacles being measured. However, this eyepiece focal adjustment will be
different for each individual. When more than one
person uses the instrument, the procedure must be
repeated for each individual. (Time may be saved by
having each person who uses the instrument mark the
edge of the eyepiece for their own zero point.)
Reading Sphere and Minus Cylinder Axis Powers.
When reading a spectacle lens prescription, which lens
should be veried rst? Here is how to decide.
It is proper to begin with the strongest lens rst. For
this purpose the strongest lens is de ned as the lens
with the strongest power in the 90-degree meridian.
If the lenses have similar powers and there is also
prescribed vertical prism in the prescription, then
CHAPTER 6
begin with the lens with the most prescribed vertical

prism.
If it is not evident which lens is stronger and there is
no prescribed vertical prism, begin with the right
lens.
Place the glasses in the lensmeter so that the back side
of the lens is against the lensmeter aperture.
There are two ways to read or write a prescription.
One is to read the cylinder in the prescription as a minus
cylinder. The other is to read the prescription so that the
cylinder is given as a plus power. We will rst consider the
prescription as being a minus cylinder form prescription.
To read a prescription in minus cylinder form, begin
by turning the power wheel in the high plus direction.
Now slowly turn the wheel back in the minus direction.
If the prescription is a sphere, with no cylinder component, the illuminated target will clear all at once as
shown in Figure 6-3. In older instruments, the target
may consist of a single line, which represents the sphere,
crossed by three widely spaced lines, which represent the
cylinder. A more common conguration consists of three
closely spaced lines for the sphere, crossed by three
widely spaced lines representing the cylinder.
If the prescription contains a cylinder component, the
sphere and cylinder lines will not focus simultaneously.
Thus after the power wheel has been turned to the high
plus, slowly turn the power wheel in the minus direction.
This will cause either the sphere or the cylinder lines to
begin to clear. The sphere lines need to be cleared rst. If the
narrower sphere lines begin to focus rst, but do not
fully clear, the axis wheel should be turned until the
sphere lines do clear (Figure 6-4). (It may be necessary

to alternately adjust both the power wheel and the axis
wheel until the sphere power lines do clear.) If the cylinder lines begin to clear rst, the axis wheel should be
rotated 90 degrees, causing the sphere and cylinder lines
to transfer places. The sphere lines will then be clearer
than the cylinder lines. When the sphere lines appear
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 6-3. When the illuminated target shows both sphere

and cylinder lines that are both clear at the same time, the lens
is a sphere.
Sphere lines
4
3
2
Out of focus
cylinder lines
93
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 6-4. Whether the operator is reading a spherocylinder lens in plus or minus cylinder
form, the sphere lines must come into focus before the cylinder lines.
94
Sphere
5
R:
Cylinder
4.00
Axis
135
4
L:
3
2
A
Sphere
Cylinder
Axis
4.00
0.75
135
1
R:
L:
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 6-5. If the sphere line will not focus and appears to be
diagonally broken, the axis of the cylinder is off. Turn the axis
wheel until the sphere lines sharpen. When the sphere lines
sharpen, the axis is being read correctly.
B
Figure 6-6. A, When recording the power of a prescription
while reading a lensmeter, the rst two components to read
are the sphere and cylinder axes. They may be recorded immediately. B, After the sphere wheel is turned to nd the power in
the second meridian, the difference between the rst and second
sphere wheel readings is recorded as the cylinder power.
clear and unbroken, the value indicated on the power

wheel is recorded as the spherical power of the prescription. Note the value seen on the axis wheel, and record
this value as the cylinder axis.
Finding the Cylinder Power. To nd the cylinder

power, continue turning the power wheel farther in the
minus direction. The sphere lines will blur and the three
wide cylinder lines will come into focus (Figure 6-7).
When the three cylinder lines are in focus, note the new
power wheel reading. The difference between the
sphere reading and this new reading is the power of the
cylinder. This cylinder value is recorded as a negative
number.
Example 6-1
Example 6-1 continued
A lens has an unknown power. Find the sphere power of the

lens and the axis of the cylinder when the prescription is to
be written in minus cylinder form.
Solution
The power wheel is turned into the high plus, then back
into the minus direction. The target does not begin to clear
until the power wheel is well into the minus. When it does
begin to clear, the three cylinder lines are clearing rst
instead of the sphere lines. The axis wheel reads approximately 45 degrees. To make the sphere and cylinder lines
change places, the axis wheel is rotated approximately 90
degrees. Now the axis is at about 135 degrees, but the
sphere lines are still not quite clear. Rather, they appear to
be diagonally broken (Figure 6-5).
Lines which appear broken and run diagonally to their
intended course indicate that the target lines are not in the
proper axis position. The axis wheel is rocked back and forth
while the power wheel is ne-tuned until the lines are
restored to continuity. (A nal reading with the power wheel
is done by moving the wheel from the minus to the plus
direction,1 then stopping when the lines are rst clear.) In
this example, the sphere lines become clear when the power
wheel reads 4.00 D and the axis wheel reads 135 degrees.
These rst two parts of the prescription are written as shown
in Figure 6-6, A.
In the example given earlier, we had found a sphere power

of 4.00 D and a cylinder axis of 135. Find the power of the
minus cylinder.
Solution continued
Now we continue by turning the power wheel farther in the
minus direction. The sphere line blurs, and the cylinder lines
begin to come into focus. When the power wheel reaches
4.75 D, the cylinder lines are clear. The power of the cylinder is the difference between the rst and second power
wheel readings. The difference between 4.00 D and 4.75
D is 0.75 D. Because the procedure is for a minus cylinder
lens, the cylinder power is recorded as 0.75. This is shown
in Figure 6-6, B. (See Box 6-1 for a summary of this
procedure.)
Reading a Lens in Plus Cylinder Form. Some prescriptions are written with the cylinder as a plus value
instead of a minus value. When written this way, the
prescription is said to be in plus cylinder form. To read a
prescription in plus cylinder form, lensmeter measuring
procedures are basically the same as when reading in
minus cylinder form, with one exception. When nding
the sphere power, turn the lensmeter power wheel rst
in the high minus direction, instead of the high plus
CHAPTER 6
95
5
Cylinder lines
Out of focus
sphere lines
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 6-7. Once the cylinder lines are clear, cylinder power can be gured. Cylinder power
is the difference between the current power wheel reading and the reading noted earlier when
the sphere lines were clear.
BOX 6-1
How to Find Spherocylinder Lens Power Using
a Standard, Crossed-Line-Target Lensmeter
1. Focus the eyepiece.
2. Turn the power wheel into the plus until the
illuminated target blurs out.
3. Turn the power wheel slowly in the minus direction
until the sphere lines clear.
4. Adjust the axis wheel for optimum sphere line clarity.
5. Record sphere power and cylinder axis.
6. Turn the power wheel farther in the minus direction
until the cylinder lines clear.
7. Take the difference between the two power wheel
readings and record as a minus cylinder.
direction. When the target is blurred out and the power

wheel is in high minus numbers, slowly turn the wheel
back in the plus direction. If the prescription is a sphere,
the illuminated target clears all at once. If the prescription contains a cylinder component, however, the sphere
lines must come into focus rst. Turn the axis wheel to
achieve this. Sphere and cylinder axis may be recorded.
(Note that the cylinder axis will be 90 degrees away from
what it was when the lens was recorded in minus cylinder
form. The sphere value will also be different.)
Next, turn the power wheel further in the plus direction until the three cylinder lines are clear. The difference between the sphere power reading and this new
reading is the cylinder power. The cylinder power is
recorded as plus. (Note that the numerical value of the

cylinder is the same, whether recorded as plus or minus
cylinder power, only the sign is different.)
For more on how to transpose from the plus to minus
cylinder form of prescription writing, see the Toric
Transposition section in Chapter 12.
Find and Spot the Optical Center of the Lens. After
nding the sphere, cylinder, and axis, locate the optical
center (OC) of the lens by centering the illuminated
target at the intersection of the cross hairs in the eyepiece reticle. This is done by moving the glasses left or
right on the instrument table, and moving the instrument table up or down. (In practice, this is done at the
same time as sphere, cylinder, and axis values are being
found.) Once centered, the lens is spotted using the lensmeter spotting mechanism.
If the cylinder power is high, the sphere and cylinder
lines cannot be seen simultaneously. This makes centering of the lens difcult. To center the lens, move it until
the sphere line crosses the center of the reticle cross
hairs. Then focus the cylinder lines and recenter the lens
so that the middle cylinder line crosses the center of the
cross hairs. Then repeat the process, going back and
forth between sphere and cylinder lines until both are
centered without moving the lens.
After the rst lens is spotted, move the second lens in
front of the lensmeter aperture and determine sphere,
cylinder, and axis values for the second lens. Locate the
OC of the second lens by centering the target on the
reticle horizontally. Do not try to center the lens vertically. Do not move the instrument table up or down.
96
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
100 90
80
70
110
60
120
50
130
40
140
150
30
20
10
100 90
80
70
60
50
40
30
160
20
170
10
Figure 6-8. When reading a spherocylinder lens with a

corona-style lensmeter target, the dots will elongate clearly in
one direction. The rst clear elongation denotes the sphere
power.
If the target is not centered vertically, record the

amount of resulting vertical prism seen in the instrument. (How prism is recorded will be explained in more
detail later.) Spot the lens once. Now move the instrument table up or down until the target is centered vertically. Spot the lens a second time. The second spotting
shows the OC height. It will also be used later on to tell
if the prescription is within standards for unwanted vertical prism. The rst spotting is used to measure the
horizontal distance between left and right OCs.
If there is no prescribed prism in the prescription, this
horizontal distance between OCs should equal the wearers PD. In practice, there is a certain amount of allowable tolerance for error. Tolerances will be covered later
in the chapter in the section on lens verication.
The heights of the OCs are measured as the vertical
distance from the lowest portion of the lens bevels, up
to the level of the spotted OC. When there is no prescribed prism present, the OC and MRP are one-andthe-same. When this is the case, measuring OC height
is the same thing as measuring MRP height.
How to Find Single-Vision Lens Powers Using
a Corona-Target Lensmeter
Some lensmeters use a circle-of-dots target instead of a
crossed-line target to measure lenses. To nd the power
of single-vision lenses with a circle-of-dots (corona) type
of instrument, begin by focusing the eyepiece. This is
done in the same manner as previously described for the
crossed-line lensmeter.
To nd the sphere power, turn the power wheel into
the high plus direction until the circle of dots disappears.
Slowly turn the wheel back toward the minus direction.
If the whole circle of dots clears simultaneously, the lens
is a sphere. Sphere power is read directly from the power
wheel.
If the dots elongate into clear lines as shown in Figure
6-8, the lens has a cylinder component and the reading
Figure 6-9. With a spherocylinder lens, the circle of dots will

elongate a second time. Turn the eyepiece crosshair so that it
parallels the direction of elongation. This is the cylinder axis.
Here the cylinder axis reads 70 degrees.
BOX 6-2
How to Find Spherocylinder Lens Power Using
a Corona-Target Lensmeter
1. Focus the eyepiece.
2. Turn the power wheel into the plus until the
illuminated target blurs out.
3. Turn the power wheel slowly in the minus direction
until the dots in the target elongate into clear lines.
4. Record the sphere power.
5. Turn the power wheel farther in the minus direction
until the dots in the target elongate into clear lines
in the other direction (90-degrees away).
6. Turn the measuring hairline until it parallels the
direction of elongation.
7. Record the cylinder as the minus difference between
the two power wheel readings, and the axis as the
degrees indicated by the measuring hairline.
just found is the sphere component of this spherocylinder

lens. To nd the cylinder, turn the power wheel further
into the minus direction. The elongated dots will blur
and re-elongate at right angles to their original direction.
When they are once again clear, note the power reading.
The difference between the sphere power and this second
power wheel reading is the cylinder power.
To nd the cylinder axis, use the rotating hairline and
degree scale found in the eyepiece. Rotate the hairline
until it parallels the direction of elongation of the circle
of dots. Note where the hairline falls on the degree scale.
This is the axis of the cylinder (Figure 6-9). (For a
summary of this procedure, see Box 6-2.)
CHAPTER 6
Obtaining Prescription Information for

Multifocal Lenses
Distance powers for multifocal lenses are measured in
the same way that powers for single vision lenses are
measured. A multifocal differs from a single vision lens
because it has additional plus power for viewing at near.
This near addition is plus power that is added to the
power of the distance prescription.
To measure the distance power of multifocal lenses,
place the glasses in the lensmeter in exactly the same way
as would be done for single vision lenses (Figure 6-10).
The distance power is measured in the manner previously described for single vision lenses.
To measure the add (near addition) power, turn the
glasses around backward in the lensmeter so that the
front of the lenses are against the lensmeter aperture.
Now remeasure the distance power. When measured
this way, the power is called front vertex power. When
measured in the normal way, from the back, the power
measured is called back vertex power. For higher lens
97
powers, it is not unusual to nd a difference between

front and back vertex powers.
It will be noted that the lensmeter-measured cylinder
axis for the front vertex power is the mirror image of the
axis for the back vertex power. In other words, a lens
having a 30-degree back-vertex-power axis will manifest
an axis of 150 degrees when turned around.
When remeasuring the distance power as front vertex
power, do not measure the lens at the OC. Instead
measure the distance front vertex power at a location
above the OC. That point should be as far above the OC
and inward as the point where the add power will be
measured is below the OC and inward (Figures 6-11 and
6-12). This technique ensures that any power variations
caused by lens aberrations or lens thicknesses will be the
same in distance and near power measurements.
Next measure the power of the lens through the near
segment (Figure 6-13). (For a summary of measuring
near add power, see Box 6-3). The difference between
distance and near power readings is the power of the
near addition. When the lens is a spherocylinder lens,
the near addition is the difference between the distance
sphere and the near sphere power components.
Example 6-2
A lens has a distance front vertex power that reads +3.87
1.00 020. The front vertex power through the near addition reads +5.87 1.00 020. What is the add power?
Figure 6-10. To measure the power of single vision lenses or

the distance power of segmented multifocals, the glasses are
placed in the lensmeter as shown. This measures the prescription in the correct manner. The power being measured is
known as the back vertex power.
Solution
The add power is +2.00, because +5.87 (+3.87) = +2.00.
The sphere power through the add is 2.00 D higher than the
sphere power through the distance portion.
Sometimes when lens powers are high, it is difcult to see
both sphere and cylinder lines through the add at the same
time. It may only be possible to see the cylinder lines through
the near segment. This happens because of the prismatic
effect that is manifested off the center of the lens. Yet it is
still feasible to nd the near addition power. Simply take the
difference between the distance power wheel reading and
the near power wheel reading using the cylinder lines. In this
example, the cylinder lines in the distance are clear at +2.87
D. At near the cylinder lines will be clear at +4.87 D. The
Front vertex power

measured here
Equal distances
Optical center
Near addition
measured here
Figure 6-11. When measuring the add power of a lens, rst turn the lens around. Remeasure
the distance power at a point above the optical center. This point should be as far above the
distance optical center as the near verication point is below the optical center.
98
Figure 6-12. To measure multifocal lens power, the glasses

must be turned around backward in the lensmeter and distance
power measured again, this time as front vertex power. Note
that the power is measured as far above the optical center of
the lens as the near verication point in the multifocal segment
is below the distance optical center of the lens.
B
Figure 6-14. A distance lens is meant to meet the needs of a
farsighted eye using a plus lens (A) or a nearsighted eye with
a minus lens (B). This is done by taking parallel light from a
distant object and bringing it to focus at the far point of the
ametropic eye.* A lensmeter is made to optically position the
illuminated target at that far point. The light from the lensmeter target travels backward through the lens.
difference is still the same +2.00 D add power found using

the sphere lines.
If the prismatic effect of the decentered lens causes the
entire illuminated target to disappear off the viewing area,
it may be necessary to use an auxiliary prism or prismcompensating device to bring it back into view. The use of
auxiliary prisms or a prism-compensating device is described
later in the chapter.
Figure 6-13. With the glasses still backward, the power

through the multifocal segment is measured. This difference
between distance and near powers is the power of the near
addition.
BOX 6-3
How to Measure Multifocal Add Power
1. Turn the glasses around backward in the lensmeter.
2. Measure the sphere value of the front vertex
distance power.
3. Measure the sphere value of the front vertex, near
power.
4. The difference between the two values is the add
power.
Why Spectacles Should Be Turned Around to

Measure the Add Power
The purpose of a distance lens is to take parallel light
and bring it into focus. For a plus lens, this will be a real
image (Figure 6-14, A), and for minus lenses this will be
a virtual image (Figure 6-14, B). To measure this type
of lens, the illuminated lensmeter target is optically
placed at the focal point of the lens. The light from the
lensmeter target travels from behind the lens, going
through the back of the lens, and out the front. When
the light comes out the front of the lens, the rays are
parallel and going into the eye piece section of the lensmeter. Thus the distance lens is being measured under
the same circumstances as when it is being worn.2 When
being worn, parallel rays enter the lens from the front.
(Light paths are reversible.) The focal length is refer*The ametropic eye has a refractive error and requires a lens prescription for distance vision.
CHAPTER 6
99
+2.50 D Add
40 cms
A
+2.0 D Add
50 cms
B
Figure 6-15. The additional plus lens (which becomes the
near addition) will change diverging light rays from a near
object and make them diverge less. To test for add power
accuracy, the reference is in front of the lens, making front
vertex power the correct power measurement. Both a +2.50 D
add (A) and a +2.00 D add (B) will cause light diverging from
their respective focal points to appear as if coming from optical
in nity.
Figure 6-16. When a near object is located at the focal point

of the near addition, diverging light is caused to leave the
segment as parallel rays. When rays enter parallel, the emmetropic eye* does not have to accommodate in order to see
clearly.
enced as the distance from the back side of the lens.

Therefore the power being measured is called the back
vertex power.
Whereas a distance lens is designed to take incoming
parallel rays of light and bring them to a focus, a reading
addition must take diverging rays of light coming from
a near object and change them so they appear to be
coming from farther away. In Figure 6-15 diverging
light from an object at the focal length of the near
segment is seen to be changed to parallel rays when
going out the back side of the segment. This is easier to
understand when shown together with a distance lens of
zero power as shown in Figure 6-16. The person wearing
this bifocal lens will not have to focus for a near object
viewed through the segment of the lens.
*An emmetropic eye has no refractive error and does not require
any distance prescription.
B
Figure 6-17. The function of a near addition is to take light
from a near object and reduce the divergence of the rays. For
both a plus-powered distance lens (A) and a minus-powered
distance lens (B), a near add has the ability to convert diverging light from the near add focal point so that it enters the
distance lens parallel.
From the previous gure, it is evident how a near

(reading) addition is really just a small plus lens which
is added to the distance lens. To tell if this plus
lens segment is focusing the light as intended, we nd
the focal point by turning the lens around in the lensmeter. This allows the illuminated target to be optically
placed at the focal point and referenced from the front
surface of the lens. We are now measuring front vertex
power.
Combining both distance and near lenses together
when the distance lens has plus or minus power gives
the situation shown in Figure 6-17. The near addition
takes light from a near object and refracts the rays so
that optically the rays from the near object resemble
light rays coming from a more distant object. Now
the distance lens is able to bring the light to a focus to
meet the refractive demands of the near or farsighted
presbyope.
Measuring the Near Addition When Lens Powers
Are Low
It should be noted that when distance and add powers
are both low, there will be little difference between add
powers found using front and back vertex powers. For
this reason, many use the easier method of measuring
adds with back vertex powers instead of turning the
glasses around. As soon as distance or near powers
increase, however, multifocal adds measured with back
vertex powers will give wrong results.
100
Segment
size
A
Segment
size
Figure 6-18. The width of a bifocal or trifocal segment is

measured at the widest part of the segment.
Identifying Multifocal Segment Style and Size

When ordering a replacement pair or second pair of
glasses from an existing pair, it is important to identify
the multifocal type. Multifocals are identied by segment
style. The most commonly used visible segment styles
are at-top (sometimes called D segs), curve-top, and
round segs. (For a more complete listing of visible
multifocal styles, see Chapter 19, Segmented Multifocal
Lenses. For progressive addition lenses, see Chapter 20,
Progressive Addition Lenses.)
Measuring Segment Size
Once segment style is identied, segment size must be
found. Segment size is measured across the widest
portion of the segmentnot the top of the segment
(Figures 6-18 and 6-19). Trifocal sizes are identied by
two numbers. The rst number is the vertical size of the
trifocal section in millimeters. The second number is the
widest horizontal measure of the multifocal segment.
Measuring Segment Height
To measure and duplicate the segment height of an existing prescription, rst the old segment height for the
existing prescription is measured. If the frame will
remain the same, so will the old segment height. If a
different style frame is to be used, then the location of
the old segment line as it appears on the wearer must be
duplicated.
For record keeping purposes, the segment height of
the existing prescription must be measured. Segment
height is the vertical distance from the lowest part of the
lens bevel to the top of the bifocal or trifocal segment
line. (This has been previously explained in Chapter 5
[pp. 70-71] and was illustrated in Figure 5-16.)
The wearer should be asked if he or she is satised
with the segment height of the old glasses. If so, the
dispenser follows the procedures explained in Chapter 5
Segment
size
B
Figure 6-19. The width of a round segment is determined by
its diameter. This remains true, even if most of the segment
has been edged away, making a physical measurement impossible. In such cases, the size of the segment is determined by
estimating the location of segment borders.
[pp. 73-74] for duplicating an old segment height in a

new pair of glasses.
If the wearer is not satised, or if the dispenser judges
the old height to be inappropriate, a new segment height
should be determined. How this is done is also explained
in Chapter 5 beginning on p. 70.
Identifying Base Curve

The front curve of a multifocal lens is called the base
curve. If an individual has more than one pair of glasses
of the same power, it is advisable to use the same base
curve for both pair of glasses. This is more critical for
multifocal lenses than for nished single vision lenses
because multifocal base curves change in bigger steps.
Changing the base curve may affect the way objects
appear to the wearer. Straight lines may seem curved,
objects may seem larger or smaller than they actually
CHAPTER 6
101
TABLE 6-1
Lens Material Possibilities Based on Minus Lens Center Thickness*

If Minus Lens Center Thickness Is:
Possible Material or Function Is:
<1.0 mm
=1.0 mm or between 1.0 and 2.0 mm
1.5 mm
Foreign-origin glass lenses

Polycarbonate, Trivex, and some high index plastics
If glass, the lens may be made from certain Corning materials, such as Thin & Dark
or Corning Clear 16 glass
If plastic, some high index plastics
CR-39 plastic
Glass
Basic Impact safety lenses made from any material
1.9-2.2 mm
2.2 mm
>3.0 mm
*Warning: It is not possible to identify lens material on the basis of lens thickness!
Glass lenses purchased outside the United States do not have the same impact resistance requirements and may be exceptionally thin.
It is important to note that a thick lens is not a safety lens unless it has been marked on the surface as a safety lens with the manufacturers
identifying mark.
are, and the ground looks to be closer or farther away.

Wearers usually adapt to normal base curve changes
when lens powers change. But when base curves change
and lens powers do not, switching back and forth between
two pair of glasses is harder.
Base curves are measured using a lens clock* (lens
measure). (For an explanation of how to use a lens clock
to measure the base curve of a lens, see the section in
Chapter 13 called Finding the Refractive Power of a
Lens Surface Using a Lens Measure.)
Identifying Lens Material

It is important that an attempt to identify the lens material in the existing prescription be made. It is simple
enough to tell the difference between glass and plastic.
Lightly tapping the lens with a metallic object, such as
a ring, will result in a characteristically different sound
and feel.
Plastic materials are not as easy to differentiate one
from another. When a polycarbonate lens is dropped on
a surface with its backside down, some compare the
sound to that of a poker chip. But a lens already in a
frame will not be removed just to perform this
procedure!
Polycarbonate and higher index plastics are often
made thinner than regular plastic lenses of equal powers.
Lens center thickness is measured with lens calipers.
Center thickness can be used to help determine the type
of material from which the lens is made. Minus lenses
have their thinnest point at the optical center. Table 6-1
has some center thickness clues for determining what
type of material was used to make minus lenses of certain
thicknesses. Center thickness is measured at the location
*For aspheric and progressive lens surfaces, a lens clock is not a
reliable method for nding base curves. Another method must be
employed, such as measuring the back non-aspheric curve, lens
thickness and back vertex power, then, knowing the index of refraction, calculate the base curve. (ANSI Z80-2005 Standards, pp
24-25)
Figure 6-20. In preparation for measuring lens thickness, the

optical center of the lens is spotted using the lensmeter. Then
the center thickness of the lens may be measured with a pair
of calipers as shown in this photo.
of the lens OC as shown in Figure 6-20. But the bottom

line is this. Whenever new glasses are made, the wearer must
be advised of the safety factors related to the different available
lens materials.
Suppose a dispenser uses regular CR-39 material to
replace a pair of glasses that had been made in a safer
102
material, such as polycarbonate. Without active wearer

involvement and documentation in the record, this decision could spell disaster. And since people do not always
remember what material they have been wearing, their
answer cannot be depended upon. In short, the dispenser
should treat the choice of lens materials as if the individual
was getting glasses for the rst time.
Identifying Lens Tint

The lens tint of the old pair of glasses should be identied and recorded. (For information on tint types, see
Chapter 22). Tints should be considered afresh each time
new glasses are ordered. It should not be assumed that
the wearer wants the same tint (or lack of tint) as he or
she had before.
What to Keep in Mind When Ordering One Lens

Instead of Two
Occasionally, it becomes necessary to order one lens
instead of two. This occurs when only one lens power
changes from the previous examination or when one lens
is damaged or broken.
When a single vision lens is being replaced, the major
reference point (MRP) height of the remaining lens in
the prescription should be measured. The MRP height
of the new lens should match that of the remaining
partner lens.
When only one lens is replaced in multifocal lenses,
the lens should be ordered so that the two segment
heights match. This is true unless there is a measured
seg height difference between the wearers left and right
eyes.
It is also important that the MRP height of the lens
that is not being replaced be measured. This is because
many optical laboratories do not place the MRP on the
180-degree midline for multifocals with a segment that
is set high in the frame. This means that in order for the
new lens to match the old lens, both MRP and seg heights
should be specied. This is true even if MRP height was
never specied in the original order (Figure 6-21).
In some countries a lens manufacturer may place the
major reference point on their bifocal lenses at a standard
distance above the segment line, regardless of segment
height. With increasing globalization, this may occur in
some lenses sold in the U.S. With this in mind, ANSI
Z80.1-2005 Prescription Recommendations de nes the
term Distance Reference Point or DRP. (DRP is commonly
used with progressive addition lenses, but is not often
used for segmented multifocals.) The Distance Reference Point is de ned as That point on a lens as specied
by the manufacturer at which the distance sphere power,
cylinder power and axis shall be measured.* Therefore
if a certain lens manufacturer always places the MRP
*ANSI Z80.1-2005 American National Standard for OphthalmicPrescription Ophthalmic Lenses-Recommendations, Optical Laboratories Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006, p 8.
Actual MRP location

Expected MRP
location
Horizontal
midline
Seg
height
MRP
height
Figure 6-21. When a laboratory receives no specic instructions for MRP height, the MRP is normally placed at midlevel
(on the horizontal midline). However, when the seg height is
specied at a level that approaches or goes above this horizontal midline, many laboratories place the MRP 3 mm above the
seg line. Therefore, when replacing only one lens of a multifocal prescription, the dispenser should either send the old
glasses to the laboratory, or tell the laboratory the segment
height and the MRP height for the new lens. This way the new
lens will match the old lens. Failure to specify MRP height
when ordering one lens only may result in unwanted vertical
prism in the nished pair of glasses.
5 mm above the bifocal segment, then for this manufacturer the distance power would be measured at that
point.
ORDERING LENSES ONLY

Ordering Lenses Only Using a Remote
Frame Tracer
Sometimes a wearer wants new lenses for an old frame,
but does not have a spare pair of glasses. When the order
cannot immediately be done in-house and the wearer
must keep the frame, the order to the laboratory is for
lenses only. The danger in ordering lenses only and
just specifying frame name and size is that the lens can
easily be too large or too small. The error is only evident
when the wearer returns, and the dispenser attempts to
insert the off-sized lens pair into the old frame. In this
situation the method of choice is to remove the lenses
from the frame and use a remote frame shape tracer that
is connected to the computer in the optical laboratory.
With a frame tracer, a stylus can trace the inside bevel
of the eyewire. Both shape and size are electronically
sent directly to the laboratory (Figure 6-22). In the laboratory this frame information is downloaded into the
laboratory computer. The lenses are cut exactly to the
traced shape and size. Assuming that the frame did not
distort during tracing, after the lenses are returned from
the lab, the new lenses should t into the old frame.
Ordering Lenses Only by C-Size

Sometimes there is not a frame tracer available. Without
a tracer, it is still possible for the wearer to keep the
CHAPTER 6
103
Figure 6-22. A frame tracer uses a stylus to trace the inside bevel of the frame, recording
the shape. This shape is then sent to the optical laboratory and downloaded into their lens
edger so that the lenses may be edged to exactly t the measured frame.
frames and still order the lenses. When the shape of the
frame is well known, the laboratory may have a factory
pattern or an electronically stored shape on hand.
However, there may be a variation in size. Simply ordering the size stamped on the frame may not be good
enough. In this case, the lens may be removed and a
circumference gauge (Figure 6-23) used to nd the Csize* or circumference of the lens (Figure 6-24). When
lens circumference is known, lens size can be reproduced
with more accuracy.
Ordering Lenses Only for a Frame of

an Unknown Shape
If the frame name or lens shape is unknown, or if the
pattern is not readily available at the laboratory, then it
will be necessary to trace the lens and measure for Csize. The procedures for shape tracing and C-size measurements are:
1. Using the lensmeter, spot the distance OCs and
the 180-degree line.
2. Remove the right lens from the frame without
disturbing the three lensmeter dots (this may
*C-size should not be confused with the C dimension of the lens.
The C dimension is used in the boxing system for measuring lenses
and frames, and is the width of the lens along the horizontal
midline.
Figure 6-23. A circumference gauge is used to nd the circumference of an edged lens.
require spotting over them with a nonwatersoluble marking pen; nonwater-soluble marks can
be removed later using a solvent.)
3. Use a form, such as the one shown in Figure 6-25,
and keeping the 180-degree line horizontal, center
the lens as if making a pattern (Figure 6-26). In
practice one of these forms may not be available. If
not, draw an x and y axis on graph paper and
104
Figure 6-24. To measure the circumference of a lens, place the lens in the gauge front-sideup. Close the tape around the lens and read the circumference directly from the tape.
Frame Name
Frame Manufacturer
Mens/Womens (circle one)
A=
Measured DBL
(or measured frame PD
B=
Lens circumference =
Frame Material (check one)
Plastic
Rimless
Metal
(Grooved? Y/N)
Other
Lens traced is a (right/left) lens (circle one)
It is customary to trace the right lens
Figure 6-25. Here is an example of one type of form that may be used to trace a lens of
unknown shape for a lenses only order.
record the necessary information. Graph paper will

work just as well.*
4. Trace the lens onto the graph paper, using a sharp
pencil. Keep the pencil perpendicular to the paper
the whole time the lens is being traced.
*It is even possible to draw a horizontal line on a blank sheet of
paper, then place the lens on the paper with the three dots on the
drawn line. Draw around the lens and record all the necessary
measurements.
5. Measure the actual lens A and B dimensions (not

the dimensions of the lens tracing) and record
these dimensions. An easy, more accurate
alternative* to a simple ruler is to use a Box-OGraph to measure the lens (Figure 6-27). The
tracing is only used for shape, not dimensions.
*An even more accurate method uses the same principle as the
Box-o-Graph, but features a digital readout. This alternative, sometimes used by optical laboratories, is the Digi-sizer by Precision Tool
Technologies. (http://www.precisiontooltech.com)
CHAPTER 6
105
Frame Name
Frame Manufacturer
Mens/Womens (circle one)
A=
Measured DBL
(or measured frame PD
B=
Lens circumference =
Frame Material (check one)
Plastic
Rimless
Metal
(Grooved? Y/N)
Other
Lens traced is a (right/left) lens (circle one)
It is customary to trace the right lense
Figure 6-26. Center the lens so that it is exactly in the middle of the grid both horizontally
and vertically. The three lensmeter dots must be exactly horizontal but do not have to be
exactly on the line; nor does the center lensmeter dot need to be at the origin of the x and y
axes.
9. Indicate whether the lens is a right or a left lens.

(It is preferable to use the right lens.) Mark N
for nasal on the nasal side of the tracing.
10. Replace the lens in the frame and clean up the
lenses.
VERIFICATION
Always use the original examination or prescription
form rather than the actual order form to verify a prescription received from the laboratory. This will reveal
any errors made when lling out the order form as well
as any errors made by the laboratory.
Figure 6-27. For a lens or pattern to be measured correctly
using a Box-o-Graph, it must be placed on the surface of the
Box-o-Graph in the same orientation as it has in the glasses.
Therefore it is helpful to put three lensmeter dots on the lens
rst so that the 180-degree line is known. If spotted, the three
dots on the lens should all fall parallel to the horizontal lines
on the device. Both horizontal and vertical Box-o-Graph bars
are pushed securely against the lens, and the A and B dimensions read from the scale.
6. Measure the DBL of the frame. Do not rely on the

bridge size marked on the frame.
7. Using a circumference gauge, measure the
circumference of the lens and record.
8. Record whether the lens is for a plastic, metal,
nylon cord, or other type of frame.
Verifying Lens Powers and Determining

Error Tolerances
Lens power is veried using the lensmeter, and in the
United States tolerances for ophthalmic lens prescriptions are set by the American National Standards Institute.
The American National Standards Institute, abbreviated
ANSI, is a nongovernmental agency made up of representative segments of industry. The specic standard for
prescription lenses is identied by the number Z80.1 and
is titled American National Standard for OphthalmicsPrescription Ophthalmic LensesRecommendations. The main points of this standard are summarized
in Appendix A in the back of the book.
Each aspect of a spectacle lens prescription has a small
range of tolerance within which that particular variable
of the eyeglass prescription can fall and still be considered acceptable. It must be recognized that it is a difcult
106
task to fabricate a prescription that meets ANSI standards in all variables.

Tolerance for Error in Sphere Power and
Cylinder Axis
The technique for using a lensmeter to measure a lens
of unknown power was explained earlier in this chapter.
Verifying a lens of known power with the lensmeter is
much the same.
After focusing the eyepiece, the lens with the strongest power in the 90 degree meridian is placed in the
lensmeter. If the lenses have similar powers and there is
also prescribed prism in the prescription, then choose
the lens with the most vertical prism and start with that
lens.*
The power wheel of the lensmeter is preset for the
expected sphere power, and the axis wheel is preset for
the expected axis. If either of these two values is incorrect, the lensmeters illuminated target will blur.
With the sphere power and axis preset, center the
lensmeter target on the reticle. If the mires are unclear,
focus the power wheel or axis wheel and note what the
sphere power and cylinder axis reads compared with
what was ordered.
The question is, how far away from the expected value
can the sphere power of the prescription be and still be
considered acceptable? According to older ANSI standards, for most lenses, the allowable error tolerance was
0.12 D and for higher powers, the allowable error tolerance increased. Now the power standard is not based on
the sphere power, but on the meridian of highest absolute power. To know if this power is off, we may need to
nish reading the full spherocylinder prescription before
we can tell if the power is acceptable. So before deciding
on power acceptability, we will write our sphere nding
down and go on to the cylinder.
Cylinder axis error tolerances vary, depending on the
strength of the cylinder power. For small 0.25 D cylinders, the axis can deviate up to 14 degrees either way. If
the cylinder power is equal to 1.75 D or greater, however,
the tolerance drops to 2 degrees. An easy way to visualize axis tolerances is to think of a cross with the 0.25 D
cylinder on the bottom and 1.75 D on the top. This is
shown in Figure 6-28.
Cylinder Power Verication and Error Tolerance
Cylinder power verication is done by nding the difference between the sphere power reading (where the
narrowly spaced sphere lines focus) and the power wheel
reading where the three broadly spaced cylinder lines
focus. The ANSI standard cylinder power tolerances
vary depending on the strength of the cylinder. For cylinder with a power of 2.00 D or less, this tolerance is
*Z80.1-2005, American National Standard for OphthalmicsPrescription Ophthalmic LensesRecommendations, Optical Laboratories Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006, p 21.
1.00 D
Cylinder
power
Axis
tolerance
1.75 D
1.25 D
1.50 D
0.75 D
0.50 D
0.25 D
14
Figure 6-28. Drawing an Axis Tolerance Cross is a simple

way to remember the cylinder axis tolerances for each cylinder
power.
0.13 D. For cylinders from 2.25 D through 4.50 D,

tolerance is 0.15 D. Above these powers the tolerance
is 4% of the cylinder power. When using a standard
lensmeter, this means the cylinder power tolerance is
close to 1/8th diopter. These tolerances are slightly
greater for progressive addition lenses. Exact tolerances
are listed in Appendix A.
Meridian of Highest Absolute Power Error Tolerance
As stated earlier, the power standards for prescription
eyewear have changed from looking at sphere power to
looking at the power of the lens in the meridian of
highest absolute power. So what does that mean? Basically, power standards are stricter for low powers. Up to
6.50 D, the tolerance is 0.13 D. For powers above 6.50,
the standard is 2% of the power. (Slightly more error
is allowed for progressive addition lenses.)
So what about power standards for a prescription
written in minus cylinder form that has a power of 6.00
4.00 180? The sphere power is 6.00 D. This would
give the appearance of requiring a standard of 0.13 D.
But what if this lens were written in plus cylinder form?
In this case, the lens would be written as 10.00 +4.00
090. So is the sphere power for this prescription 6.00
D or 10.00 D? The answer to this question makes a big
difference when applying standards that are stricter for
low powers and less strict for high powers. For this
reason, the power tolerance is no longer based on sphere
power, but on the meridian of highest absolute power.
So how can the meridian of highest absolute power be
found and veried? The meridian of highest absolute
power can be found and veried in two ways.
CHAPTER 6
107
10.15 D
10.00 D
6.00 D
6.15 D
Figure 6-29. To help in reasoning through and understanding lens power verication, put
the lens power that was ordered on a power cross. The ordered power in the text example is
shown in (A). After the completed eyeglasses have been returned from the lab, place those
lens powers on a power cross. The text example for the completed pair is shown in (B).
BOX 6-4
How to Write the Prescription So That the Sphere Power Is the Meridian of Highest Absolute Power
If the sphere power is:
And the cylinder power is:
Then do this:
Minus sphere
Minus sphere
Minus cylinder
Plus cylinder
Plus sphere
Plus sphere
Plus cylinder
Minus cylinder
Convert the prescription to plus cylinder form

Leave the prescription in plus cylinder form
[Exception: If the cyl power is more than twice as strong as the
sphere power, then convert the prescription to minus cylinder
form.]
Convert the prescription to minus cylinder form.
Leave the prescription in minus cylinder form.
[Exception: If the cyl power is more than twice as strong as the
sphere power, then convert the prescription to plus cylinder
form.]
To convert between plus and minus cylinder forms of prescription writing:

Add the sphere and cylinder powers. This is the new sphere power.
Change the sign of the cylinder from plus to minus or from minus to plus. This is the new cylinder value.
Add or subtract 90 from the cylinder axis. This is the new cylinder axis.
The rst method is to put the ordered lens powers on

a power cross. In our example, the power cross would
appear as shown in Figure 6-29, A. The two meridians
show 6.00 D and 10.00 D. The meridian of highest
absolute power is the one with the 10.00 D power. Next
we read the power of the lens. Suppose the lens veries
as 6.15 4.00 180. Initially this looks like the lens
power fails the standard because the power standard for
a 6.00 D power is 0.13 D. But if we place this on a
power cross (Figure 6-29, B), we have 6.15 in one
meridian and 10.15 in the other meridian. The power
standard for a 6.00 D power is 0.13 D, but for a 10.00
D power the standard is 2% of the lens power, or 0.20
D. So looking at it this way, the lens would pass.
The second method for nding and verifying the
meridian of highest absolute power is to rewrite the
prescription so that the meridian of highest absolute
power is the sphere. Then we can verify it as sphere
power, cylinder power, and cylinder axis in the same
manner we are accustomed to reading lenses. Box 6-4
shows how to write the prescription so that it always has
the meridian of highest absolute power as the sphere

power. So for our example, we convert the prescription
to plus cylinder form, which is 10.00 +4.00 090. We
read the lens in plus cylinder form and nd 10.15 +4.00
090. We see that sphere power, cylinder power, and
cylinder axis are all in tolerance.
For more on this subject, be sure to read and look at
the examples in Appendix A in the back of the book.
Checking for Unwanted Vertical Prism
There are two methods for checking for unwanted vertical prism. The rst is the more traditional method. It
does not use the refractive power of the lens as part of
the decision-making process. The second method uses a
cut-off power to help in making the decision, simplifying
the process some.
The Traditional Method for Vertical Prism
Tolerances. After the sphere, cylinder, and axis for the
rst lens have been veried, spot the lens and slide
the spectacles across the lensmeter table to measure the
second lens. Remember the lens with the highest power
108
TABLE 6-2
Allowable Unwanted Vertical Prism Based on Lens

Power
> 1mm ?
Figure 6-30. This lens has been spotted twice: once at the
actual optical center and once where the optical center should
be located. Does the vertical difference between the place
where the optical center should be and the place where it is
really located exceed 1 mm? If it does and the amount read on
the lensmeter is also above 0.33, then the lens pair will be out
of tolerance for vertical prism.
in the 90-degree meridian is the rst to be veried.

When the second lens power has been veried, spot the
OC of this second lens.
In the event that the second lens will not center, but
shows the illuminated target above or below the intersection of the eyepiece crosshairs, the lens is showing
unwanted vertical prism. Prism amount is indicated by
the numbered concentric circles on the reticle mires (or
screen in some lensmeters.) With the illuminated target
centered exactly above or below the middle of the crosshairs, read the amount of vertical prism present. If the
amount is 0.33 or less, the prescription is within ANSI
tolerances for vertical prism. If it is greater than 0.33,
the dispenser must double-check to be sure that the lens
pair has too much vertical prism.
To make this additional check, be certain the lens is
centered horizontally, even though the target is off vertically. When it is horizontally centered, spot the lens.
Next move the lensmeter table up or down until the
target centers vertically. Spot the lens a second time.
Remove the spectacles from the lensmeter, and measure
the vertical distance between these two spots. This is
shown in Figure 6-30. If the vertical difference between
these two dots is greater than 1 mm, the lens pair is out
of tolerance for vertical prism.
It should be noted that both criteria must fail for the
lens pair to fail. If the amount of vertical prism exceeds
0.33, but the vertical difference is less than 1 mm, the
lens pair passes. If the vertical difference is greater than
1 mm, but the amount of vertical prism is less than
0.33, the lens pair passes. The lens pair only fails when
the vertical prism is greater than 0.33 and the vertical
difference exceeds 1 mm.
A Power-Based Method for Vertical Prism Tolerances. ANSI Z80 standards now show a power-based
method for determining whether or not unwanted vertical prism is within acceptable standards. The same basic
procedure is followed as was explained in the preceding
section and the end result is exactly the same as the
method just explained above. Here is how it works.
If the power in the vertical meridian of the lens is low
(from zero to plus or minus 3.375 D), then the only thing
If the Power in the

Vertical Meridian is
The Allowable Imbalance

Tolerance is
3.25 D or less
0.33 or less of vertical prism
3.50 D or more
1.0 mm or less of vertical difference

in MRP locations
to worry about is whether or not the amount of unwanted

vertical prism is above 1/3 prism diopter. If it is above this
amount, the prescription is not within allowable
tolerances.
If the power in the vertical meridian of the lens is high
(above plus or minus 3.375 D), the amount of vertical
prism is not an issue. The only thing to be concerned
with is how far the optical centers are away from each
other vertically. If they are more than 1 mm apart, then
the prescription is out of tolerance. These criteria are
summarized in Table 6-2.
Here is the specic procedure for carrying out the
power-based method of checking for unwanted vertical
prism.
1. Verify the sphere, cylinder, and axis for the rst
lens.
2. Spot the lens and slide the spectacles across the
lensmeter table. Verify and spot the OC of this
second lens.
3. If the second lens will not center, move the lens
sideways until the illuminated target centered
exactly above or below the middle of the
crosshairs. Read the amount of vertical prism
present and spot the lens.
a. If the prism amount is 0.33 or less, the
prescription is within ANSI tolerances for
vertical prism.
b. If the prism amount is greater than 0.33 and
the power in the vertical meridian is 3.25 D or
less, the prescription fails.
4. If the prism amount is greater than 0.33 and the
power in the vertical meridian is 3.50 D or more,
the lens pair may still pass. To nd out, continue
on with the following steps.
5. Move the lensmeter table up or down until the
target centers vertically. Spot the lens a second
time.
6. Remove the spectacles from the lensmeter, and
measure the vertical distance between these two
spots as was shown in Figure 6-30.
a. If the vertical difference between these two
dots is 1 mm or less, the prescription passes.
b. If the vertical distance between these two
spots is greater than 1 mm, the prescription
fails.
CHAPTER 6
Measure
this distance
A
Where the OCs really are
PRP locations (where the OCs should be located)
B
Figure 6-31. A, Measure the horizontal distance between the
two center lensmeter dots (the locations of the lens optical
centers). B, Now compare this distance to the distance between
the Prism Reference Points. The PRPs are where the ordered
distance PD locations should be found. If the difference is less
than 2.5 mm, horizontal prism is within tolerance. If the difference is greater than 2.5 mm and the lens pair shows greater
than 0.67 of horizontal prism, the prescription is out of tolerance. When there is prescribed prism in the prescription, the
PRP location is where the prescribed prism should be correct
(i.e., still at the distance PD.)
Checking for Unwanted Horizontal Prism

By now the spectacle lens pair has both lenses spotted.
To check for unwanted horizontal prism, measure the
horizontal distance between the center lensmeter dots
on the two lenses as shown in Figure 6-31, A. Compare
this distance to the PD that was ordered. If the difference between the ordered PD and the measured PD is
2.5 mm or less, the prescription passes. If the difference
is greater than 2.5 mm, the prescription might fail. We
will not know this, however, until we check for horizontal prism tolerance limits.
There are two methods to check for horizontal prism
tolerance limits. The rst method is easier to understand, but harder to do. The second is harder to understand initially, but is nally easier to do. The second
method is the one recommended by ANSI.
Method 1: Spotting the Location Where the Optical
Centers Should Have Been. The rst method requires
spotting the prism reference point or PRP location. The
prism reference point is where the OCs should have
been. This is done by measuring from the center of the
bridge. Find the right PRP using the right monocular
PD (or one half the binocular PD). It is measured
from the center of the bridge. Mark this PRP location
109
on the lens by dotting or drawing a vertical line using

a lens marking pen. Do the same for the left PRP
using the monocular (or half binocular) PD (see Figure
6-31, B).
Next, center this new PRP mark on the right lens in
front of the lensmeter stop. Read and note the amount
of unwanted horizontal prism from the lensmeter. Do
the same for the left eye. Add both left and right horizontal prism amounts together. If these two amounts are
two thirds of a prism diopter or greater, the prescription
is out of tolerance. If they are less than two thirds of a
diopter, the prescription is within horizontal prism
tolerance.
Method 2: Determining if the Wearers PD is
Within the Two-Thirds Diopter Limit. To check for the
location of horizontal prism tolerance limits, put the
spectacles back in the lensmeter and do the following:
1. For the rst lens, place the center lensmeter dot in
front of the lensmeter stop. (The stop is that part of
the lensmeter against which the back surface of the
lens rests.)
2. Note where the wearers PD should be. (This
location is called the PRP or prism reference point.)
3. Move the spectacles so that the PRP (the point
where the wearers PD should be) moves toward the
lensmeter stop. Watch the illuminated target as the
glasses are moved. The prismatic effect seen will
increase as the glasses are moved. Keep moving the
glasses in this same direction until 0.33 results.
4. Spot the lens.
5. Repeat this procedure for the second lens.
6. Measure the distance between the two new
lensmeter dots on the two lenses. If the distance
between the two new dots equals or passes the
wearers PD, the prescription passes. If this distance
does not reach the wearers PD, the prescription
fails.
A Power-Based Method for Horizontal Prism
Tolerances. As with the vertical prism tolerances, there
is a power-based method for determining whether or not
unwanted horizontal prism was within acceptable standards. Again, the end results are exactly the same as in
the previously explained methods for determining horizontal prism. This is the procedure.
If the power in the horizontal meridian of the lens is
low (from zero to plus or minus 2.75 D), then the only
thing to worry about is whether or not the amount of
unwanted horizontal prism is above 2/3 prism diopter. If
it is above 0.67 , the prescription is not within allowable
tolerances.
If the power in the vertical meridian of the lens is high
(above plus or minus 2.75 D), the only thing to be concerned with is how far the optical centers are away from
each other horizontally (i.e., how far the PD is off). If
the OCs are more than 2.5 mm away from the wearers
PD, then the prescription is out of tolerance. These criteria are summarized in Table 6-3.
110
Location of the optical center.

This is the location of lensmeter stop before the frame
and lenses are moved.
(As frame and lenses are moved to the left,
the lensmeter stop does not move.)
63 mm
54 mm
58 mm
Lensmeter dots indicating location of lens optical centers
This is where the PRP should be.

Move frame and lenses to the left
until 1/3 D results.
(The PRP is the expected location of the wearers PD.)
Figure 6-32. To check for horizontal prism tolerances, move

the spectacles so that the lensmeter stop travels toward the
Prism Reference Points. The PRPs are at the intended location
of the wearers PD. Keep moving the spectacles until 0.33
results.
Lensmeter dots indicating location where of 1/3 of horizontal

prism is read
PRP locations (The place where the optical centers should be
so they will match the location of the wearers actual PD.)
Figure 6-33. In this case, the distance between the optical

centers measures 63 mm, but the wearers actual PD is 58 mm.
However, because we can move the glasses all the way in to
55 mm before a 0.33per lens reading occurs, the prescription passes. (A 0.75 D sphere prescription could have the
optical center separation vary anywhere from 49 to 67 mm and
still not fail ANSI Standards for horizontal prism. The lower
the refractive power, the farther the optical centers can be off
without reaching a total of 0.67 for the pair.)
TABLE 6-3
Allowable Unwanted Horizontal Prism Based on

Lens Power
If the Power in the Horizontal
Meridian is
The Allowable
Imbalance
Tolerance is
From 0.00 D to plus or minus 2.75 D
0.67 prism diopters
Above plus or minus 2.75 D
2.5 mm total
Example 6-3
Suppose a prescription has a distance power of 0.75 D
for both right and left lenses. The wearers distance PD is
58 mm. We want to verify the prescription for horizontal
prism. When the lens OCs are spotted, the distance between
them is 63 mm. Is the prescription out of tolerance for horizontal prism?
Solution
Because the optical centers for this prescription are 63 mm
apart when they should be 58 mm, the spectacles clearly
exceed the 2.5 mm tolerance criterion for horizontal prism.
The 2.5 mm criterion would only allow the OC distance to
vary from 55.5 mm to 60.5 mm. But this alone does not
indicate that the prescription fails ANSI standards. The lens
pair has not yet been checked for 0.67 horizontal prism
tolerance. (Since the power of the prescription is less than
2.75 D, the amount of prism is critical.) To check for horizontal prism tolerance, place the right lens in the lensmeter
with the OC at the lensmeter stop as shown in Figure 6-32.
Set the lensmeter for the correct sphere power and cylinder
axis and be certain that the target is clear.
Because the wearers PD is smaller than the distance
between the OCs and this is a right lens, the glasses are
moved to the left. Look into the lensmeter, move the glasses
to the left, and watch the amount of horizontal prism
increase. Stop and spot the lens when the prismatic effect
reads 0.33.
Repeat this for the left lens. This time move the glasses
to the right until the prismatic effect reaches 0.33. Spot
the lens. The glasses now look like those shown in Figure
6-33.
Next measure the distance between the new lensmeter dots. This distance proves to be 54 mm. Because this
distance overshoots the wearers PD, the prescription
passes, even though it failed the 2.5 mm criterion. (For a
summary of horizontal and vertical prism standards, see
Appendix A.)
Verifying For Prescribed Prism

A lens that has prescribed prism included as part of the
prescription is not centered the same in a lensmeter as a
prescription without prism. The prismatic prescription
is not centered correctly if the illuminated lensmeter
target is at the intersection of the crosshairs. Centering
of a prismatic prescription is correct when the illuminated target is located at the point that matches the
prescribed prism. When this happens, the lens may be
dotted for verication.
Example 6-4
A right lens prescription reads:
+3.00 1.25 135, 2.00 Base Out

How must the lens be centered before it is spotted?
CHAPTER 6
1
2
111
1
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
Figure 6-34. In this example, the illuminated target indicates

2 of Base Out prism, assuming the lens is a right lens. (If the
lens being measured were a left lens, the prism would be 2
Base In.)
Figure 6-35. This prismatic effect reads 1 Base Down

whether the lens is a left or a right lens.
Solution
To verify this prescription, the lens must be placed in the
lensmeter and moved until the illuminated target is located
2 units to the left (temporal) of the crosshair origin (Figure
6-34). (Target center location always corresponds to prism
base direction. This is true whether the lens is plus or minus
in power.)
Example 6-5
Another right lens prescription reads
+3.00 1.25 135, 1.00 Base Down
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
How must the target be centered for this lens before it is

spotted?
Solution
Everything except prism is identical to the previous prescription. Therefore in this case, the only difference is that the
illuminated target is moved until it is located directly below
the cross hair origin, 1 unit down, as shown in Figure
6-35.
Example 6-6
Suppose a right lens prescription with the same refractive
power as in the previous two prescriptions calls for horizontal and vertical prism. Prism values ordered were 1 Base
Down and 2 Base Out. How must the illuminated target be
positioned for accuracy in verication?
Figure 6-36. If a right lens is being veried for prescribed

prism of 2 Base Out and 1 Base Down, it must be positioned
as shown before the lens can be spotted.
Solution
When both horizontal and vertical prism is called for, the
illuminated target must be moved both horizontally and vertically. The correct positioning is shown in Figure 6-36.
Verifying High Amounts of Prism

When verifying high amounts of prism with the lensmeter, it is not uncommon for the prism to displace the
center of the illuminated target off the lensmeter viewing
112
Figure 6-37. An auxiliary prism is used to help verify a lens

with a large amount of prism in the prescription. The prism
base of the auxiliary prism is placed opposite the prism base
direction found in the prescription.
screen. This will leave only sphere or cylinder lines in

view, but not both. When this happens, the prism amount
is read using one of two methods, depending on the
type of lensmeter. One method uses a loose, compensating prism. The other requires a prism compensating
device.
Using Loose Auxiliary Prisms to Measure Large
Prismatic Effects. Some lensmeters, such as the B&L
Reichert, come with prism lenses that are placed in a
special lens-holding cell in the instrument. The prism
lens is oriented with its base direction opposite to the
spectacle lens prism base direction so that the illuminated target center will be returned to the screen. The
sequence of steps for nding prism is as follows:
1. An attempt to read a prescription with a high
amount of prism is made, but the lensmeters
illuminated target center is displaced off the viewing
screen. Once this has happened, look at the
prescription and estimate prism base direction.
Estimating is done by observing lens thickness
differences. The thickest edge of the lens indicates
prism base direction.
2. Measure or look up the wearers PD. Dot the
location of where the MRP should be for right and
left lenses according to the wearers PD. (This
procedure was explained in an earlier section of the
chapter called Method 1: Spotting the Location
Where the Optical Centers Should Have Been.)
3. Estimate the amount of prism that will be necessary
and put the auxiliary prism in the cell of the
lensmeter so that its base direction is opposite to the
base direction of the prism in the spectacle lens
(Figure 6-37). Keep the auxiliary base direction of
the prism either totally horizontal or totally vertical.
4. Set the lensmeter cylinder axis at 180 degrees and
the sphere power on zero. Look into the lensmeter
and slightly rotate the auxiliary prism until the

center line of the illuminated lensmeter target
crosses the middle of the crosshairs. This will
ensure that the prism base direction is exactly zero
or 180 (Base In or Base Out) with no vertical
component.* If a large amount of vertical prism is
being measured, this will ensure that the base
direction is 90 or 270 (Base Up or Base Down), with
no horizontal component.
5. Next, place the spectacle lenses in the lensmeter and
center the MRP of the lens over the lensmeter stop.
If the target does not appear, increase the amount of
prism by choosing the next higher auxiliary prism.
(Each time a different auxiliary prism is placed in
the cell, the alignment process described in the
previous step must be repeated.)
6. When the illuminated target is visible on the
screen, note the prismatic amount seen in the
lensmeter. To gure the total amount of prism,
reverse the base direction of the auxiliary prism and
add it to the prism amount shown in the lensmeter.
In other words if the prism on the screen shows 1
Base Out and the auxiliary prism is 6 Base In,
change 6 Base In to 6 Base Out and add it to 1
Base Out. The amount of prism present in the lens
is 7 Base Out.
Example 6-7
A lens cannot be read in the lensmeter without the help of
compensating prism. A 5 Base In auxiliary prism allows the
target to be seen. The illuminated target shows up at a point
on the screen that measures as 4 Base Out and 1 Base
Up. How much prism is there in the lens?
Solution
The 5 auxiliary prism is oriented with its base opposite that
of the prism in the lens. To gure the amount of prism
present in the lens, change 5 Base In to 5 Base Out. Now
add the 5 Base Out that was neutralized by the auxiliary
prism to the 4 Base Out and 1 Base Up that was viewed
on the screen. This makes the total amount of prism 9
Base Out and 1 Base Up.
Using a Prism Compensating Device to Measure

Large Amounts of Prism. Some lensmeters, such as the
Marco and Burton lensmeters, come with a prism compensating device (Figure 6-38). To nd prism amount
and prism axis direction using a prism compensating
device, begin by placing the Prism Reference Point over
the lens stop. The Prism Reference Point or PRP is That
point on a lens as specied by the manufacturer at which
*Contributed by Dr. Sarah Huseman.
A prism compensating device is based on the Risley prism principle. A Risley prism consists of two rotating prisms that work together
to vary prism power. Prism power will be zero when the bases of
the 2 prisms are oriented in opposite directions. Prism power will
be at a maximum when the bases are both in the same direction.
CHAPTER 6
113
BOX 6-5
Using a Prism Compensating Device to Read
Large Amounts of Prism
Figure 6-38. A prism compensating device, such as the one

shown here, allows a highly prismatic lens to be veried. For
lensmeters with prism compensating devices, the lensmeter
must always be checked to ensure that the compensating
device is zeroed. Otherwise the lensmeter appears to be detecting prism in a lens when there is none.
the prism value of the nished lens is to be measured.*

The PRP will correspond to the location of the wearers
monocular PD or to one half the wearers binocular PD
for a given pair of glasses. This is where the MRP of the
lens should be.
Turn the power wheel to the sphere power of the
prescription and the axis wheel to the correct cylinder
axis. Next, move the illuminated target using the prism
compensating device so that the larger prismatic component (either horizontal or vertical) may be read.
(Compensating prism power is increased or decreased
by turning the knob on the compensating device. Base
direction of the compensating prism is changed by physically moving the knob so that it rotates around the axis
of the lensmeter.)
Again using the prism compensating device, move the
illuminated target onto either the horizontal or vertical
crosshair on the measuring reticle. This is done by using
just horizontal or just vertical prism. In other words,
leave the base direction of the prism compensating
device at either 90 or 180. (Remember, the base direction
for the lens may be estimated ahead of time just by
looking at the thickness differences between temporal
and nasal lens edges or by the thickness differences
between top and bottom edges.) Read the larger prismatic component that has been neutralized from the
prism compensating device. Read the smaller prismatic
component directly from the reticle. (See Box 6-5 for a
summary of these steps.)
*ANSI Z80.1-2005 American National Standard for OphthalmicPrescription Ophthalmic Lenses-Recommendations, Optical Laboratories Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006, p 9.
1. Dot the location of the wearers eye on the lenses

from monocular PD measurements.
2. Place the point of reference over the lens stop.
(Use the center pin on the lensmeters dotting
mechanism to be certain that the marked reference
point is exactly centered.)
3. Turn the power wheel to the sphere power of the
prescription and the axis wheel to the correct
cylinder axis.
4. Estimate which prism component is larger, horizontal
or vertical.
(To do this, look at the thickness differences
between temporal and nasal lens edges, and
between top and bottom edges, and nd the thickest
edge.)
5. Physically move the knob on the prism compensating
device to position the prism base direction to 180 if
horizontal prism is larger, to 90 if vertical prism is
larger.
6. Move the internal illuminated target onto either the
horizontal or vertical crosshair on the internal
measuring reticle.
(Turning the knob on the prism compensating device
will accomplish this by increasing or decreasing
prism amount.)
7. Read the larger prism component from the external
prism compensating device.
8. Read the smaller prismatic component from the
reticle scale inside the instrument.
Using an Autolensmeter to Verify Lenses

An autolensmeter offers the advantage of requiring less
operator expertise than that required for manual types.
It also provides a permanent record of the reading when
equipped with a printer.
Autolensmeters come in varying degrees of sophistication. The basic sequence for use involves the
following:
1. Select lens form and accuracy.
The operator indicates whether the lens is to be
read in plus or minus cylinder form. The level of
accuracy is also indicated, since many instruments
will read lens power to the nearest quarter diopter,
eighth diopter, or even hundredth of a diopter.
2. Position the rst lens.
The lens is positioned by moving it until centered.
Instead of viewing a conventional crossed-line or a
corona target, the image may consist of a cross that
appears on a small screen (Figure 6-39, A). As the
lens is moved, this cross can be made to approach a
large central cross. When the small cross reaches
the center of the large cross, the smaller one may
become bolder as with the Humphrey Instruments
Lens Analyzer (Figure 6-39, B).
114
Figure 6-40. Some models of the Humphrey Lens Analyzer

autolensmeter will allow the transmission of a lens to be measured. The readout is in the form of a transmission curve.
B
Figure 6-39. To center a lens with the Humphrey Lens
Analyzer model LA 360, the lens is placed in the lensmeter.
This may cause the viewing screen to appear as shown in (A),
with the small white cross off center. The lens is moved until
the small movable cross is centered with the large stationary
cross (B).
Some instruments like the Lens Analyzer shown

allow the instrument to be operated with or without
centering the lens. In one mode, the spectacle lens
is positioned with the location of the known PD in
front of the instruments reading stop. The
instrument reads both power and prismatic effect at
that point. This mode is used when monocular PDs
are known.
The second mode allows a reading to be taken at
any position on the lens. Once the second lens
reading is taken, the instrument uses power and
prismatic effect to calculate OC locations, giving
the PD of the glasses.
3. Spot the lens.
The lens may be spotted with the customary three
lensmeter dots if it has been centered as initially
described in step 2 above.
4. Position and spot the second lens.

The next step for a single-vision lens pair is to
position and spot the second lens. Some
autolensmeters have an intermediate step for
multifocals whereby the add is measured before the
second lens.
5. Print out the results.
Using an Autolensmeter to Verify Transmission. The
usual method for nding the transmission of a lens is to
use a light transmission meter. (A photo of such a meter
may be found in Chapter 22, Figure 22-3.) Yet it is also
possible to nd the transmission of a lens with the Humphrey Lens Analyzer. The transmission is given as a
transmission curve. (Figure 6-40.)
Verifying Lens Segments and Surfaces

Verication of the Multifocal Segment
To verify the size and location of the multifocal segment,
check the following:
1. Check segment height.
2. Check at-top bifocals for tilt by placing a ruler
across the seg tops.
3. Measure seg width with a ruler at the widest part of
the seg.
CHAPTER 6
115
Near PD
Figure 6-41. When both multifocal segments are identical, it

is easier to measure near PD from the left side of one segment
to the left side of the other than from center to center.
Wave
4. To verify the near PD ordered, measure the

distance from the left side of one seg to the left side
of the other (Figure 6-41). A lens pair should be
within 2.5 mm of the ordered amount to be within
standards.
Checking Lens Surface Curves, Size, and Tint
Using a lens clock, check the base curve and look for the
presence of warpage. Warpage is revealed by two different surface powers (indicating cylinder power) found on
both front and back surfaces instead of on just one
surface.
Check the lens size, particularly in a lenses only
order. Be sure the tint corresponds with that ordered.
Checking for Small Surface and Media Defects
Check for internal media defects, such as bubbles and
striae in the lens material. A stria is a streak seen in a lens
caused by a difference in the refractive index in the material. When seen, a stria occurs in a glass lens. The streak
causes a distortion in the object viewed and is not a physical streak like a mark on or in the lens. Also inspect the
surface for scratches, pits, or areas of grayness.
The surface is also inspected for waves. A wave is a
defect in lens surface curvature, which causes a slight,
irregular variation in the surface power. It is created
during the lens surfacing process and can occur with any
type of lens material. Check for waves by holding the
lens about 12 inches from the eye and viewing either a
grid or some object having a straight edge. Move the lens
slowly back and forth. The straight edge should appear
smooth. It should maintain its smoothness and become
increasingly curved as the straight edge approaches the
edge of the lens.
If there is a localized distortion present (Figure 6-42),
mark the area and view it through the lensmeter. If the
area distorts the lensmeter target, the defect makes the
lens unacceptable. However, if the defect is outside of
the 30-mm circle that is centered on the MRP, or if the
defect is within 6 mm of the lens edge, the lens may be
considered acceptable. In fact, the same applies to any
small isolated material or surface defects and not just
Figure 6-42. To inspect for a wave in the surface of a lens,

view a grid or straightedge through the lens, moving the lens
slowly so that the image of the line traverses the surface slowly.
An irregularity in the otherwise smooth image shows the presence of a wave.
waves. If small, isolated defects are outside of the

30-mm circle or within 6 mm of the lens edge, they are
acceptable.
Verication of Frames and Quality of Mounting

First check the quality of the mounting (the lens insertion). The security of the lenses will be revealed by the
presence or absence of an air space between lens and
frame. Note if the bevel is even, or if chips or other
defects are present at the edges.
Check to be sure that the frame concurs exactly with
all ordered specications: (1) style and color, (2) eye size
and DBL, and (3) length of temple. Be sure to inspect
for possible frame damage, such as scratched or marred
surfaces, or rolled eyewires.
Overall Verication
Check the extent of frame alignment (see Chapter 8). In
many instances, frames will not be properly aligned but
can be adjusted to standard alignment in the ofce. In
some cases this may not be possible because the frame is
distorted or stretched too greatly, or because the lens has
been twisted because of an error in the position of the
cylinder axis.
Errors that are adjustable in the ofce are probably
best corrected by the dispenser. Much time is saved if
116
the prescription does not have to be returned to the

laboratory. Errors that cannot be salvaged by the dispenser, however, should not be passed on to the recipient.
This violates basic ethical principles, and it will eventually result in general dissatisfaction with the dispenser.
It may also cause the laboratory to denote the dispenser
as careless or unsuspecting. The dispenser who insists
on correct and careful work from a laboratory generally
receives it.
REFERENCES
1. ANSI Z80.1-1999 American National Standard for Ophthalmics: Prescription ophthalmic lensesrecommendations, Merrield, Va, 2000, Optical Laboratories
Association.
2. How bifocal adds should be measured, Ophthalmic Lens
Data Series, Bausch & Lomb, undated.
Prociency Test
a. The new lens centers set at the wearers
measured PD.
b. The new lens centers set at the same distance as
the old lens centers were set.

What is wrong with each of the following (Questions
1-4):
1. OS: 4.25 0.75 010
OD: 4.50 sphere
2. +4.5 1.0 017
3. +0.50 1.75 12
4. +2.00 .75 033
5. True or False? Always use the actual order form to
verify a prescription received from the laboratory.
6. An individual with badly scratched lenses wants a
new pair of glasses. You read the existing
prescription from the old glasses to make the new
pair. You also measure the wearers PD. The
distance between the OCs in the existing
spectacles is found to be signicantly different
from the wearers PD. Which of the following
reasons for this are possible?
a. There may be cylinder present in the
prescription.
b. There was an error in making the original
glasses.
c. There is prescribed prism in the original
prescription.
d. Both lenses in the prescription are simply
spheres.
7. A wearer breaks her glasses. It is still possible to
measure the lens power and distance between OCs
in the broken glasses. The prescription is fairly
high and there is a large difference between the
wearers measured PD and the distance between
OCs found in the broken glasses. The wearer
cannot identify the prescriber or place where the
prescription originated or the glasses were made.
In this case, the glasses should be made with:
8. In using a lensmeter, it is possible to nd the

power in either plus cylinder or minus cylinder
form. Assume you are to nd lens power in minus
cylinder form. The correct procedure is listed
below. Fill in the blanks with the correct missing
words so that the procedure is correct for minus
cylinder form. Also list the numbers you would
nd if the prescription you were reading had a
power of +2.00 4.00 015.
a. Turn the power wheel into the high ________
numbers.
b. Slowly advance the power wheel in the _____
direction.
c. Rotate the axis wheel to cause the ________
lines to come into focus rst.
d. When in focus, record the ______ and _______
values.
(When reading this particular lens, the
numerical values are equal to _______ and
______.)
e. Move the power wheel a second time, still in
the ______ direction, until the _________ lines
come into clear focus.
(This numerical reading is______.)
f. The difference between rst and second power
readings is the cylinder and is recorded as a
________ value.
9.
A conventional crossed-line-target lensmeter is

being used to nd the power of a lens. To measure
the prescription in plus cylinder form, begin by
turning the power wheel:
a. In the high plus direction.
b. In the high minus direction.
c. In either direction.
CHAPTER 6
10. A. A lensmeter is used to measure a lens. The

single line is clear at 3.00 D, and the axis
wheel reads 20. With the axis wheel still at 20,
the triple lines are clear at 2.50 D. Is this lens
being read in plus or minus cylinder form?
a. Plus cylinder form
b. Minus cylinder form
B. What is the power of this lens when written in
minus cylinder form?
11. True or False? The proper way to measure near
addition power is by turning the glasses around in
the lensmeter so that the temples are pointing
toward you, then measuring distance and near
powers, taking the difference between the two as
the near addition power.
12. When a lens is measured in the normal manner,
with the back side of the lens against the lensmeter
stop, the power being measured is called:
a. The equivalent power
b. The effective power
c. The front vertex power
d. The back vertex power
13. A lens has a front vertex power in the distance
portion that reads +4.87 1.25 165. The front
vertex power through the near addition reads
+6.62 1.25 165. What is the add power?
14. It is necessary to order one lens only for a frame
that cannot be sent to the laboratory. The frame is
a common frame, and the laboratory has a pattern
for it. Leaving off what piece of information when
ordering could result in a lens that is unacceptable
optically?
a. The frame difference measurement
b. The height of the lens OC
c. The ED of the frame
d. The circumference of the existing lens
15. True or False? When using a pencil or pen to
physically trace around a lens to make a drawing
for a lenses only order, it is also necessary to
draw the axis of the cylinder on the lens tracing.
16. True or False? When ordering lenses only for a
frame of unknown name, suppose a hand drawn
lens tracing is made. The tracing is only used for
shape, not dimensions.
17. A Box-o-Graph may be used to measure:
a. The C dimension of a lens.
b. The circumference of a lens.
c. The ED of a lens.
d. The A dimension of a lens.
117
18. True or False? These all mean the same thing: (1)
lens C-size, (2) the C dimension of a lens, and (3)
lens circumference.
19. True or False? When making new lenses from an
old prescription, the same lens material that was
used in the old prescription should always be used
in the new lenses.
20. As the power of the cylinder component of a
prescription increases, the American National
Standards Institute tolerances for how far the
cylinder axis can be off mean that:
a. High cylinder powers require the axis to be
more exact.
b. High cylinder powers allow the axis to be less
exact.
c. High cylinder powers require the same amount
of exactness as low cylinder powers.
21. When verifying lens powers for a pair of glasses,
always:
a. Start with the right lens.
b. Start with the left lens.
c. Start with the lens with the highest power in
the 180-degree meridian.
d. Start with the lens with the highest power in
e. Start with the lens with the highest power in
the axis meridian.
22. The American National Standards Institute
recommends the following tolerances for
acceptable limits of unwanted horizontal prism in a
lens pair:
a. If the PD is more than 2.5 mm off and
horizontal prism exceeds 0.67, the prescription
is outside of acceptable limits.
b. If the PD is more than 2.5 mm off and
horizontal prism exceeds 0.33, the prescription
is outside of acceptable limits.
c. If the PD is more than 2.5 mm off or horizontal
prism exceeds 0.67, the prescription is outside
of acceptable limits.
d. If the PD is more than 2.5 mm off or horizontal
prism exceeds 0.33, the prescription is outside
of acceptable limits.
118
The American National Standards Institute

recommendation for vertical prism or MRP placement
for lenses in a frame is (Questions 23 to 25):
23. a. 0.12
b. 0.33
c. 0.50
d. 0.67
e. 1.00
or
24. _____mm difference between left and right MRP
heights when no prism is ordered.
a. 0.5 mm
b. 1.0 mm
c. 1.5 mm
d. 2.0 mm
e. 2.5 mm
However, when the prescription comes back from the

laboratory, you nd the variables to be as follows:
R: 1.37 2.65 178
L: 0.25 0.70 008
add = +2.25
PD = 69/64
seg height = 21.5
vertical prism shows 0.25 Base Down OS
horizontal prism shows 0.10 Base In
Tell whether or not the parameter listed is within the
standards specied by the American National
Standards Institute (Questions 28-37).
28. Right lens meridian of highest absolute power
a. Yes
b. No
25. and the prescription is acceptable:

a. if both aspects pass.
b. if either one or the other aspect passes.
29. Left lens meridian of highest absolute power

a. Yes
b. No

recommendation for segment height in a mounted
or unmounted lens pair is ____.
a. 0.5 mm.
b. 1.0 mm.
c. 1.5 mm.
d. 2.0 mm.
e. 2.5 mm.
30. Right lens cylinder power

a. Yes
b. No

recommendation for near PD tolerance for a
mounted lens pair is:
a. 0.5 mm.
b. 1.0 mm.
c. 1.5 mm.
d. 2.0 mm.
e. 2.5 mm.
For the following questions indicate whether the
prescription is within tolerance according to the Z80.1
Recommendations for Prescription Ophthalmic
Lenses. The prescription calls for the following:
R: 1.00 2.75 175
L: 0.25 0.75 004
add = +2.25
PD = 65/62
seg height = 21
31. Left lens cylinder power

a. Yes
b. No
32. Right lens cylinder axis
a. Yes
b. No
33. Left lens cylinder axis
a. Yes
b. No
34. Far PD/horizontal prism
a. Yes
b. No
35. Near PD
a. Yes
b. No
36. Seg height
a. Yes
b. No
37. Unwanted vertical prism
a. Yes
b. No
CHAPTER 6
38. In trying to measure a lens, it is found that the

prism amount present in the prescription is so
high that the illuminated target is off of the
lensmeter screen. Using the prism compensating
device, the illuminated target is moved onto either
the horizontal or vertical crosshair on the
measuring reticle. This is done by using either
only horizontal or only vertical prism.
a. The larger prismatic component is read from
the prism compensating device. The smaller
prismatic component is read directly from the
reticle.
b. The smaller prismatic component is read from
the prism compensating device. The larger
prismatic component is read directly from the
reticle.
c. It makes no difference which prism element is
read from the prism compensating device or
reticle.
39. Lens warpage is revealed by:
a. Cylinder found on the front surface.
b. Cylinder found on the back surface.
c. No cylinder found on either surface.
d. Both a and b
e. None of the above reveals lens warpage.
40. To check for strain in a lens, what instrument is
used?
a. Ophthalmoscope
b. Retinoscope
c. Colmascope
d. Lensmeter
e. c or d may be used
119
41. Which error is of no consequence in verifying

correctness of frames and lenses?
a. air space between lens and frame
b. chips in the lens edge between bevel and lens
surface
c. distortion (unevenness) in lens edge between
bevel and lens surface
d. lens strain in a glass lens near the eyewire in a
metal frame
e. All of the above are of consequence.
42. What is the meridian of highest absolute power for
this prescription: 1.50 2.75 180?
a. 1.50 D
b. 2.75 D
c. 4.25 D
d. 1.25 D
e. None of the above are correct responses.
43. Write each of these prescriptions so that the
meridian of highest absolute power is the sphere
power.
a. +3.00 2.00 180
b. 3.00 2.00 180
c. +3.00 +2.00 180
d. 3.00 +2.00 180
CHAPTER 7
Lens Insertion
nserting a lens into a frame so that the end result is

both neat and professional in appearance requires a
skill only developed by considerable practice. Numerous techniques are available, and any are acceptable if
the end product meets the expressed standards. This
chapter presents the steps involved in lens insertion,
some of the methods used, and also some of the difculties that must be avoided.
AN OVERVIEW OF INSERTING LENSES INTO

PLASTIC FRAMES
The steps involved in inserting a lens are standard for
most plastic frames. The major variant is whether or not
heat is used in the processand if heat is to be used, how
much heat is required. When no heat is used, the lenses
are snapped into place. This is called cold snapping.
Adaptations of these basic procedures of lens insertion
for special materials are explained later in the chapter.
Table 7-1 gives an overview of lens insertion for different
frame materials.
Lens Insertion Into Normal Plastic (Cellulose

Acetate) Frames
Here are the procedures used to insert a lens into a
plastic frame. Although specic for cellulose acetate
frame material, there is little difference in technique for
other frames.
Heating the Frame
Lenses should be inserted into the frame without
bumping the temples. When the endpieces of the frame
are hot, if the temples are bumped, the hinge may loosen
or become misaligned. Because most plastic frames have
hidden hinges, which do not go all the way through the
plastic, a loose temple is very difcult to repair.
Begin heating the frame by noting the curvature of
the lens meniscus compared with the curve of the eyewire
(Figure 7-1). Since the lens usually curves more than the
eyewire, it is advisable to preshape the upper and lower
sections of the eyewire to conform to the meniscus of
the lens edge. This makes lens insertion somewhat easier.
Before heating the frame, it is advisable to do a dry
run. Hold the lens frame in exactly the position you
intend to use when actually putting the lens in the frame.
120
You must be able to return the frame to this position

immediately after it has been heated. Frames cool rapidly
and lose pliability quickly, and the few moments salvaged
by this preparation may be vital.
Hold the lens with one hand and the frame with the
other, in exactly the same manner as they will be held
when beginning lens insertion. It is much better to hold
the frame by the frame front and not the temples.
Holding the frame by the temples vastly increases the
possibility of loosening a hinge. Heat only the portion
of the frame that is actually going to be manipulated. In
the case of lens insertion, this is just one half of the frame
front (Figure 7-2, A).
Some frame warmers blow hot air onto the frame
from both sides of a frame, others only blow air from
one direction. When using an air blower that blows from
one direction only, be sure to heat both the front and
back or top and bottom of the frame front alternately to
prevent overheating any one portion.
When using a salt pan, rst stir the salt to equalize
the temperature, then push some of the salt into a mound
in one portion of the pan. Place the section of the frame
to be heated just beneath the surface of the salt mound,
leaving that portion not to be heated out of the salt and
as parallel to the surface of the salt as possible (Figure
7-2, B). Move the frame continually and very slowly
while under the salt to avoid marking the soft plastic
with salt granules. Do not permit the frame to become
so heated that it sags or distorts. If salt sticks to a dry
frame, additional talcum powder should be added to the
salt. (The only two components of the salt bath are salt
and ordinary talcum powder. Salt conveys heat well,
while talcum powder prevents salt from lumping and
sticking to the frame.) CAUTION: Because many frame
materials are sensitive to excessive heat and coated lenses
can be damaged by the high heat of salt pans, it is much
safer to use a hot air blower, rather than hot salt. An
expensive anti-reection (AR) coating can easily be
ruined by using hot salt to heat the frame.
Inserting the Lens
As stated earlier, begin by noting the curvature of the
lens meniscus compared with the curve of the eyewire
as was shown in Figure 7-1. Heat the frame and preshape
the upper and lower sections of the eyewire to conform
121
CHAPTER 7
Lens Insertion
To Shrink Material
Notes
Plunge in ice water.

Will shrink if
previously
stretched.
Cellulose acetate is the

standard material used
for most plastic frames.
TABLE 7-1
Comparing Lens Insertion By Frame Material

Amount of Heat
Heating Methods
Edged Lens
Size
Cellulose
Acetate
Use minimal
heat till pliable.
Hot air best. Hot

salt or beads
acceptable.
On size or up to
0.5 mm above
frame size.
Cellulose
Propionate
Cold snap the

lenses in place
if possible. If
not possible,
use minimal
heat.
Use hot water.
When necessary use

a low heat setting
(40 C/105 F) on
an air warmer.
Avoid using hot salt.
On size.
Hot water preferred

for penetration.
Hot air used if
hot water not
available.
When heat used,
hot air at low
temperature.
0.2 mm larger
than frame
size.
Material does not

shrink.
On size to just
slightly larger
in some cases.
Material does not

shrink.
Hot air for temples

only.
Exactly on size.
Material shrinks
slightly when
heated.
Material does not
shrink.
Material will not
shrink, but
instead expands
with heat.
Gradually
returns to size as
temperature
cools.
Nylon
Carbon
Fiber
Polyamide
None to minimal.
Preferred
insertion
method: cold
snap.
No heat. Cold
snap lenses in
place.
Polycarbonate
None.
Cold snap.
On size.
Optyl
High heat. Heat

till material
bends under its
own weight.
Hot air, high

temperature.
0.6 to 1.0 mm
oversize.
May help to heat a little

at a time to avoid
overheating.
To retain adjusted shape,

hold frame in the
desired shape until cool.
(Running cold water
will speed cooling.)
Types of carbon ber
material will vary.
So will heat and
insertion techniques.
After insertion, loose
lenses may be
tightened by heating
the frame slightly.
Material does not adjust.
Material returns to
original shape when
reheated. Quick cooling
stops shrinking process
and results in loose
lenses.
Figure 7-1. The top edge of the frame is compared with the top edge of the lens. If the frame
is rst curved to conform to the lens, the end result will often be more cosmetically
acceptable.
122
Figure 7-3. To make the frame rim t the lens better, preshape the rims to conform to the meniscus curve of the lens.
B
Figure 7-2. A, Heat only that portion of the frame that is
going to be manipulated. Here a hot air frame warmer is being
used to heat the frame. Hot air is the safer method of heating
a frame compared with hot salt. B, If hot salt is to be used, the
frame should be moved slowly under the surface of the salt to
help heat it uniformly. Moving the frame also causes it to heat
faster, since heat is continually leaving the salt immediately
adjacent to the frame and entering the plastic. (Remember:
With newer plastic frame materials and many lens treatments,
it is not safe to use a salt pan.)
to the meniscus of the lens edge as shown in Figure

7-3.
Method 1Insert the temporal (outer) edge of the lens
into the corresponding portion (outer edge) of the
frame (Figure 7-4, A). With the thumbs on the surface
of the lens and the ngers on the nasal (inner) edge
of the frame eyewire, snap the lens into the frame
from the nasal (inner) side by applying pressure with
both the thumbs and ngers (Figure 7-4, B).
Method 2Insert the upper outer (temporal) edge of

the lens into the frame groove (Figure 7-5, A),
push the upper inner (nasal) edge into the eyewire so
that the whole upper edge of the lens is in the frame
(Figure 7-5, B), push the lower temporal edge in
(Figure 7-5, C) and conclude by snapping the lower
nasal corner in (Figure 7-5, D). (See Table 7-2 for a
review of these methods.)
Most frame construction makes it easier to insert
lenses from the front. Lenses should denitely be inserted
into safety frames from the front so they will not be as
likely to come out of the frame when struck from the
front.
If the frame cools too much before the lens is fully
inserted, by whatever method, it is advisable to totally
remove the lens before reheating the frame. A heated
lens is difcult to handle; also, a frame without lenses
heats more uniformly and will stretch more evenly as the
lens is inserted.
When pulling the eyewire using any of the methods,
the pulling action must be straight and caution must be
taken not to roll the eyewire. This rolling results in
the front of the eyewire covering less lens than the back,
or vice versa, as if the groove were turned at an angle
(Figure 7-6). A rolled eyewire holds the lens less securely
and disturbs the nished appearance of the spectacles. It
also may cause some visual disturbance if the lens bevel
is revealed and refracts light.
If during the insertion procedure, the eyewire appears
to become rolled, it is helpful to change the direction of
insertion (back to front, or vice versa) so that the stress
put on one portion of the eyewire is equaled by stress on
the other, reversing the direction of the roll.
After inserting the lenses into a conventional plastic
frame (made of cellulose acetate) and checking for adjustment, it may be helpful to plunge the frame and lenses
into ice water to set them. This procedure shrinks the
CHAPTER 7
Lens Insertion
123
Figure 7-4. Method 1. A, Place the temporal edge of the lens in the frame groove. (The rst moments of lens insertion are crucial
in proper alignment of the lens bevel with the frame groove and must be done quickly.) B, The lens should snap in place fairly
easily. If extreme force must be used in attempting to snap the lens in place, the process is better carried out using method 2.
Figure 7-5. Method 2. A, Method 2 also starts with alignment of the lens bevel and frame groove, beginning in the upper temporal
corner. B, When the upper and lower rims of the eyewire have been preshaped to the lens conguration, lens insertion into the
entire upper half of the frame may be completed well before the frame cools. C, When the upper part of the lens is in the frame,
start temporally and begin pulling the lower eyewire around the lens. D, Conclude the insertion process by snapping the bevel of
the lower nasal part of the lens into the groove.
124
TABLE 7-2
Procedures for Inserting Lenses Into Plastic Frames

Method 1
Method 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Heat and curve frame top to match lens top

Heat eyewire
Place outer part of lens in outer part of frame
Push inner edge of lens in with thumbs
Heat and curve frame top to match lens top

Heat eyewire
Place upper outer edge of lens in frame
Place upper inner edge of lens in frame (top of lens is now in frame)
Pull lower eyewire around lens beginning temporally and ending nasally
Figure 7-7. After putting the rst lens in the frame, lens
orientation for the inserted lens should be compared with
the empty eyewire. This frame shows too much temporal
upsweep.
Figure 7-6. This insertion attempt caused the lower eyewire

to be rolled forward.
frame and may help to prevent loose lenses later. Be sure,

however, to check the insertion and all adjustment points
before setting the lenses. A notable exception for using
this treatment is the Optyl frame that shrinks as it slowly
cools. Plunging such a frame in cold water stops the
shrinking process and can result in loose lenses.
Adapting for a Lens That is Too Small
If new lenses have been ordered for an old frame, they
may be too small if the frame has been stretched around
its old lenses. In these cases, it may be possible to shrink
a regular plastic frame to reduce the circumference of
the eyewire to accept the new lenses rmly.
First heat the frame front thoroughly until it is quite
pliable, then immediately immerse it in very cold water
as cold as possible. Allow the frame to rest in the cold
water until it is completely cold to the touch.
If the frame is still too large, repeat the process two
or three times. If the frame is still too large after the
third treatment, the technique probably will not
succeed.
This process can also be used on new frames, although
they rarely respond more than slightly.
Checks After Lens Insertion

After inserting lenses, check to be sure the lens is entirely
in the groove of the eyewire. Be sure the eyewire is at
or uniformly rounded on the outside; if it is slanted, the
eyewire has been rolled. A roll can be corrected by
heating that portion of the eyewire involved and either
twisting it with the ngers or pressing the frame against
a at surface with a counter-rolling motion. If uncorrectable by this method, it is best to remove the lens and
correct the lower eyewire without the lens in it. Then
reinsert the lens properly after heating the frame.
Compare the eyewire containing the lens with the
empty eyewire adjacent to it. Be sure the lens ts squarely
all around and has not been twisted. Note whether or
not the eyewire containing the lens is still parallel to the
empty eyewire. Observe the upper rim near the bridge
and compare it with the empty side. If the plastic is
humped or stretched in comparison, the lens is not
matching the eyewire shape and is probably altering the
initial frame shape (Figure 7-7).
When both lenses have been inserted, an empty
sample frame of the same shape may be used to assess
the inserted pair. This may be necessary, especially for
an untrained eye, because the lensmeter will not reveal
a twist of the lens in all cases, such as when the lenses
are spherical, or if the bridge or endpiece is askew.
Lens-twisting pliers (Figure 7-8) are used to correct
a rotated lens. First, heat the frame and inspect the lens
and pliers to be sure that all surfaces are free of salt. Hold
the frame in one hand with the upper eyewire toward
CHAPTER 7
Lens Insertion
125
Figure 7-10. If the bifocal is a straight top, both bifocal lines

will run parallel to the straight edge. Here there is an error
present and the left lens is obviously twisted. It should be
mentioned though that parallel bifocal lines do not guarantee
that the lenses are not twisted in the frame. The frame front
should still be examined for temporal upsweep or nasal
humping.
Figure 7-8. Many different types of lens twisting pliers are

available. There are two important variations in these pliers.
1. One is the throat depth of the pliers. The farther the pads
are from the central joint of the pliers, the less likelihood there
is of inadvertently marking the frame in twisting. 2. The
second variation is the vertical dimension of the pads that grip
the lens surfaces. Some pads will be too large vertically for
frames with narrow vertical depths to the lens.
Figure 7-9. Here the frame is being held correctly. However,

carelessness in holding the frame results not only in a rotation
of the lens, but also in a twisting of the frame bridge.
the palm. When working on the lenses, the fore nger,

second nger, and thumb should grasp the area around
the endpiece while the third and little nger brace the
bridge area (Figure 7-9). Using the pliers to hold the
lens, rotate the frame so that the upper eyewire always
remains towards the palm when shifting from one lens
to the other. The difference then is that for one lens the
hinges face away from the palm whereas for the other,
they face towards the palm.
The pliers should grasp the lens close enough to the
lower eyewire to prevent contact between the eyewire
and the metal of the pliers. If the pliers press against the
hot eyewire, they will invariably dent it.
The same lens adjustment can be made using the
ngers of the free hand instead of the pliers to grasp the
lens. This adjustment must be performed immediately
after lens insertion and before the frame has cooled.
Checking a Bifocal or Progressive Addition Lens
With straight-top bifocals, the position of the lenses can
easily be checked using a straight edge. This is placed
horizontally across the front surface of the lenses at the
level of, and parallel to, the straight tops of the bifocal
segments.
If both lenses are correctly inserted, both segment
tops will run adjacent or parallel to the straight edge. If
one or both lenses are improperly inserted, the segment
top of one lens will appear at an angle to the straight
edge when the straight edge is parallel to the segment
top of the other lens (Figure 7-10).
If the segment tops of the lenses are parallel but one
lens still appears poorly positioned by the criteria previously mentioned (comparing the frame with lenses versus
an empty frame), then the lens blank has been edged in
a rotated position. The error cannot be corrected by
adjustment; it requires the manufacture of a new lens.
By holding the lenses back to back, it is possible to
determine before insertion if either bifocal lens has been
edged in a rotated position. The bifocal portions should
overlap exactly if equal seg height and decentration were
ordered (Figure 7-11). This is true for any type of multifocal lens.
126
Figure 7-11. When two lenses are held back to back, any
error in lens rotation becomes immediately evident. The same
technique may be used to check a lenses only order when
one bifocal seg has been ordered a different height from the
other. Their differences will be obvious and measurable.
These same helps may be used with progressive addition lenses that still have lens markings in place. There
are two circles or other marks that denote the 180degree line. These may be used to check for lens straightness just like the tops of bifocals were.
Judgment of round-seg bifocals depends a good deal on
noting whether the lenses look like they are straight in
the frame and not rotated. (Again, compare the frame
with lenses versus an empty frame.) A good reference
point for observation is the point where the nasal edge of
the seg meets the eyewire. If both bifocals were ordered
with equal seg height and decentration, the inner edges
of the segs should meet the eyewires at symmetrical
points. If one point appears higher up the eyewire nasally
than the other, use the lens-twisting pliers to correct it,
provided this adjustment does not place the cylindrical
correction off axis. If the axis is disturbed, the lens has
been erroneously cut off pattern.
To be certain that single-vision cylindrical lenses are in
the frame straight, preset the lensmeter at the correct
sphere power and set the axis reading at the axis called
for in the prescription. If the lines in the lensmeter
appear to be off axis, the lens has been inserted in a
rotated or twisted position. Raise one side of the glasses,
then the other, from the lensmeter table until the lines
in the lensmeter appear straight and unbroken (Figure
7-12).
Note the angle at which the frame is sitting, keeping
in mind that the rotated lens has now been turned to the
proper axis position. (In essence, the frame needs to be
twisted around the lens until it sits at on the lensmeter
table again.) To bring the lens to its proper position, dot
the lens with the lensmeter marking mechanism. Then
heat the eyewire and twist the lens around until these
three dots are horizontal in the frame. The lens is then
Figure 7-12. Ordinarily, during verication, glasses are positioned to rest at on the lensmeter table. To aid in determining
which way a rotated lens should be turned for lens realignment, it is helpful to set the instrument at the desired axis and
rotate the glasses.
at its proper axis, which should also result in a symmetrical-looking frame.

If there is nasal humping or a temporal upsweep
present for one lens but not the other, the lens has slipped
in the edging process or was improperly positioned at
the time of the original edging. The only alternative is
a new lens.
After the lenses are straight in the frame, adjust the
frame into standard alignment.
Removing a Lens
To remove a lens, heat the frame front and place the
thumbs on the back side of the lens in the lower, nasal
area (Figure 7-13). Brace the front of the eyewire with
the ngers. A towel may be placed around the lens to
prevent burning of the ngers. (Lenses that were inserted
with a cold snap method will also be removed cold.)
Push the lens in one direction by pressing with the
thumbs and bracing or pulling the eyewire in an opposite direction with the ngers.
Insertion Into a Cellulose Propionate Frame

Cellulose propionate material is very similar to cellulose
acetate. However, it is more heat sensitive. It may even
be advisable to cold snap the lenses in place. When using
heat, the frame warmer should be set for a low temperature (40 C/105 F). The closer the edged lens size is to
the frame size, the less heat will be necessary. For that
reason, it may be helpful to edge the lenses on size.
Because it is not always possible to tell a cellulose acetate
frame from a regular plastic frame, and because a number
of other frame materials are also sensitive to heat, it is
generally advisable to heed the following:1
Use the lowest amount of heat necessary to
accomplish the task.
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7-13. To remove a lens, pressure is applied to the back

of the lens at the lower nasal portion.
Heat the frame until it is pliable; not until it actually

softens.
Never leave a frame unattended in a frame warmer.
Insertion Into a Nylon Frame

Insertion of lenses into a nylon frame must be done following the manufacturers directions to prevent
problems.
Because nylon frames do not stretch as much as ordinary plastic frames, the lenses must be edged closer to
the frame size than usual. Care must be taken to avoid
cutting the lenses too small; this hazard is a common
tendency, encouraged by the difculty of stretching the
nylon about the lens. Lenses cut too small will t loosely
after insertion because of the depth of the bevel.
Nylon frames cannot be heated uniformly enough by
the usual methods to permit the stretching necessary for
lens insertion. The hot air and salt pan methods tend to
heat the outer layers of the nylon excessively and leave
the deeper portions too cool to stretch. Hot water penetrates the nylon better and permits the eyewires to
stretch properly to accept the lenses.
To adjust a nylon frame, the best method is to heat
the plastic, bend it as desired, and then hold the frame
in the new conformation as it cools. If the frame is
released before it is cool, it tends to resume its initial
conguration. Holding the frame to the adjusted conguration while running cold water over it may help.
Insertion Into a Carbon Fiber Frame

There are many different carbon frames on the market.
The actual material will vary, depending on the manufacturer. This means that the properties of the material
will vary some as well. The recommendations of the
individual frame manufacturers should be followed.
Great care must be taken if carbon ber material is
heated. Carbon ber material does not lend itself to
adjustment. Although carbon ber will become some-
Lens Insertion
127
what pliable with heat, the recommended method of lens

insertion for carbon ber fronts without eyewire screws
is to cold snap the lenses in place.
Cold snap lens insertion is just what its name implies.
The lenses are cut to t the size of the frame exactly.
The frame front is not heated. Instead, the lenses are
inserted without heat. They are pushed into the frame
in the same manner as they would be for a normal plastic
frame. Pressing on the lens snaps the lenses into the
cold frame.
Because of the reputed tendency of a standard CR-39
plastic lens to shrink very slightly over time, some labs
use a small amount of heat to insert the lens. The lens
may then be ground slightly larger. If heating carbon
ber material, it is much better to use hot air instead of
salt or glass beads. A hot air warmer should be on low
temperature and the frame heated for 10 to 20 seconds.
Be advised, however, that heat can soften the frame
nish, making it easy to scrape the coated surface with
the sharp edges of the lens. This can result in a frame
that is chipped or aked, exposing the dull base
material.2
Many carbon ber frame fronts come with an eyewire
screw like that found in regular metal frame fronts. The
screw opens and closes the eyewire to accept the lens.
Lens insertion is done as if the frame were a metal frame
(see Lens Insertion into a Metal Frame later in this
chapter).
Insertion Into a Polyamide Frame

Most of the guidelines for working with carbon-ber
frames also apply to polyamide frames. The nylon-based
polyamide material is thin, light, and resists adjustment.
The lenses should be sized exactly and cold snapped into
place. Oversized lenses simply will not go in, since the
material will not stretch. One of the unique features of
this material is its tendency to shrink slightly when
heated in excess of 230 F.3 Therefore heating a polyamide frame to insert a correctly sized lens will cause problems. A correctly sized lens would then be too large for
the frame. On the other hand, this tendency to shrink
somewhat can be an advantage if a lens is a bit too small.
After the lens has been cold snapped into place, the lens
t can be tightened by heating the lens and frame
together. The polyamide shrinks, and the eyewire contracts around the lens. Do not plunge the frame into cold
water.
For polyamide frames, it is best to use a hot air type
of frame warmer even when adjusting the temples.
Insertion Into a Polycarbonate Frame

Polycarbonate material is used for certain sports eyewear
frame fronts. Polycarbonate does not adjust. Because
polycarbonate does not become pliable when heated,
lenses must be cold snapped into place. Lenses should
be cut close to the actual frame size, since polycarbonate
neither stretches or shrinks.
128
Insertion Into a Kevlar Frame

Kevlar is also a nylon-based material. It neither stretches
nor shrinks with heat, but does exhibit a degree of pliability. This pliability allows for a more conventional
lens insertion. In other words, the lenses do not have to
be cold snapped into place. Yet the lenses still need to be
cut exactly to size or insertion will prove troublesome.
Insertion Into an Optyl Frame

Optyl, rst developed in 1968 by Wilhelm Anger Co. of
Traun, Austria, is a material that belongs to the group
of epoxy resins. Optyl frames are cast molded rather
than cut. They are also 20% to 30% lighter than the
more conventional frame materials.4
Optyl frames can be identied by trade name and by
the characteristic clear colors in which the material
is made. Originally, there was always an absence of a
metal reinforcement through the temples. They were
clear Optyl material and an identifying characteristic.
However, Optyl frames also come with temples having
traditional metal core reinforcements that have a different composition. Unlike the rst type of Optyl temples,
these are adjusted with little or no heat.
Because Optyl will not shrink, it is better to cut the
lenses slightly oversize. A margin of 0.6 to 1.0 mm too
large is customary.
Frames made from the original Optyl material do not
begin to soften until the heating temperature reaches
80 C; they can safely be heated to a level of 200 C
without bubbling or distorting. Should the frame become
distorted, it will go back to its original molded shape on
being heated. This can be an advantage when the frame
is distorted during lens insertion, but it can also be a
disadvantage during frame adjustment, because heating
the frame may cause it to loose its adjustment and go
back to its original molded form.
To allow lens insertion, the frame should be heated
until pliable enough to bend of its own weight: usually
about 30 to 60 seconds. The lenses are not so much
pushed into the eyewires as placed in them. If the
eyewires are not properly surrounding the lenses, the
frame should be reheated; the eyewires will adapt to the
lenses as the frame attempts to resume its original
molded shape.
The lenses must never be forced into a frame that has
not been heated to pliability, nor should the frame be
plunged into cold water to try to shrink the plastic about
the lenses. Optyl expands with heat and returns to size
through slow cooling. Plunging the frame into cold
water stops the shrinking process and has the exact
opposite effect of that desired.
If a glass lens is off axis or inserted in a rotated position, it should be rotated into its proper position only
after the frame has been reheated, never while cold. If
the lens is plastic, however, it should be removed and
reinserted. If plastic lenses are not removed but only

rotated, they will be loose after the frame and lenses
cool.
Frames made of the original Optyl material do not
bend while cold. Attempts to adjust them without heating
almost always result in breakage. Since the material
bends only when heated, properly adjusted Optyl frames
tend to stay in adjustment until again heated.
To adjust the frame, heat only the portion of the
frame requiring bending. Since this may be difcult to
do for limited areas, such as a portion of the temple about
the ear, use a heating unit that can direct heat to a
limited area, such as a forced-air unit with a cone attachment that directs the ow of heat. Hold the frame so that
the portions adjacent to the area being heated are protected from the heat and do not lose their adjustment.
LENS INSERTION INTO A METAL FRAME

Lenses to be inserted into a metal frame must be edged
to the exact size. Therefore, it is more likely that the
order will be correct if the laboratory has the wearers
actual frame. In certain instances, however, it will be
necessary to order lenses only. When ordering lenses
only for a metal frame, then the dispensary must trace
the lenses using a remote frame tracer and send the
digitized shape to the lab electronically.
If there is not a frame tracer in the dispensary, the
laboratory must have the pattern for the frame in question. If there is any doubt about whether the laboratory
has the pattern, they should be asked before the order is
sent. Without an exact pattern, the frame will have to
accompany the order. Once it is determined that the
laboratory has the pattern, the chances of getting a good
t for a lenses only order are increased by measuring
the circumference of the existing lenses. (This is
explained in detail in Chapter 6.)
To put a lens in a metal frame, begin by comparing
the meniscus curves of the top and bottom of the lens
to the corresponding curves of the upper and lower
frame eyewires. If they do not match, the lens bevel will
not seat squarely in the eyewire groove. Although in
most cases these curves will match closely enough to
allow a good lens t, it will occasionally be necessary to
use eyewire forming pliers (Figure 7-14) to reshape the
frame eyewire. Eyewire forming pliers have curved
nylon jaws. To increase the meniscus curve, position the
pliers along the eyewire, as shown in Figure 7-15, and
squeeze lightly. It may be necessary to continue to reposition the pliers stepwise along the upper and possibly
lower eyewire until the new curve is evenly formed. (If
the eyewire has too much curve, the eyewire forming
pliers may be reversed to take some of the curve out of
the eyewire.)
The best policy is to remove the eyewire screw, put
the lens in the rim, and replace the screw. Simply loosen-
CHAPTER 7
Lens Insertion
129
Figure 7-14. Eyewire forming pliers are used to cause the

frame eyewire to conform to the meniscus curve of the lens
bevel.
Figure 7-16. Eyewire closure pliers are made to t into the
top and bottom of the eyewire barrel.
Figure 7-15. To increase the curve of the eyewire of a metal

frame, position the eyewire forming pliers as shown in
the photo and gently squeeze, repositioning the pliers as
necessary.
ing the screw until it is possible to place the lens in the

eyewire may cause the lens to chip during insertion. It
is helpful to use eyewire closure pliers (Figure 7-16) to aid
in seating the lens in the eyewire groove. With closure
pliers it is also possible to tell if the lens will be of the
correct size (Figure 7-17).
If the lens is too large, some dispensers will attempt
to reduce the size of the lens with a hand edger to make
it t. Before attempting this, the dispenser should
remember these points:
1. Evenly reducing the size of a lens is difcult.
Uneven size reduction will produce gaps between
the lens and the frame.
2. Only nonglass lenses should be hand edged. Heattreated glass lenses may the break during hand
Figure 7-17. By using eyewire closure pliers to squeeze the

eyewire around the lens, it is possible to see how well the lens
will t without having to replace the screw. Such pliers are
especially handy in the edging laboratory.
edging, and hand edging will destroy the effect of

the lens hardening process. Hand edging chemically
hardened glass lenses should be following by
rehardening, as impact resistance is reduced by hand
edging.
Once the lens is seated in the eyewire, the eyewire
screw is tightened. Forcibly tightening the eyewire screw
so that it places excessive stress on the lens may cause a
glass lens to chip along the edge if struck or may cause
a plastic lens to warp. Excessive edge strain may be
checked for by using a colmascope, which is a set of
crossed polarizing lters.
130
Figure 7-19. When removing an old cord from a nylon cord

mounting, a dental pick can catch the tight loop to get the cord
out of the holes.
Figure 7-18. When it is difcult to remove a nylon cord from

the frame channel of a nylon cord frame, a dental pick makes
the job easier.
LENS INSERTION INTO A NYLON

CORD FRAME
An alternative to the traditional method of beveling a
lens and inserting it into a grooved frame is the nylon
cord frame. A nylon cord frame requires that the lens be
made at on the edge. A small groove is cut into the
edge, usually all the way around the lens. A thin nylon
string, attached to the frame, is slipped into the grooved
lens to secure it in the frame. A nylon cord frame is also
referred to by a number of names, including nylon supra,
a string mount, rimlon, Nylor, and suspension mounting.
Mounting a new grooved lens in a nylon cord frame
or replacing an old or broken cord on an existing frame
requires similar procedures. Once the technique for
replacing an old or broken cord is mastered, mounting a
new lens in a new frame can be easily done. Therefore,
the rst procedure outlined is that of replacing an old or broken
cord. We are assuming that at least part of the cord is missing,
so we will have to resize the cord to match the lens.
Replacing a Nylon Cord of Unknown Length

1. First remove the old cord. Sometimes it is difcult to
remove the end of the cord from the frame groove
because it has been wedged securely into the
groove. If this is the case, a dental pick can be
handy for pulling the end of the cord out of the
frame groove (Figure 7-18).
2. Pull out the old cord. Next catch the loop with the
dental pick (Figure 7-19) and pull out the cord.
Figure 7-20. Cutting the nylon cord at an angle makes it

easier to thread through the holes in the frame and allows it
to seat smoothly in the groove under the lens. Here the length
of the new cord is being estimated from the old cord that broke
off near the point of attachment.
3. Cut the new cord at an angle. Since the old cord is

missing and the length unknown, start with a very
long section of cord. Remember, whenever cutting
the nylon cord, always cut the cord at an angle.
Both ends of the cord should be cut at an angle to
make threading easier and so that the cord seats
nicely in the frame. Using a single-edged razor
blade is best (Figure 7-20).
4. Thread the cord into one side. The cord will need to
be attached to the mounting at two locations. Each
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7-21. The cord is threaded into the lower hole from
the inside and back into the upper hole.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
point of attachment consists of two small holes.

Some prefer to start with the nasal point of
attachment, others the temporal. For illustration
purposes, we will start temporally.
Starting with the temporal point of attachment,
thread one end of the nylon line into the lower
hole from the lens side. Then thread the same end
into the upper hole, leaving a length of 2.0 to 3.0
mm (Figure 7-21).
Size the cord to the lens. Slip the other end of the
cord through the lower hole at the nasal point of
attachment. Do not thread it through the upper
hole. Remember, the cord is rst threaded from
the lens side. With the end of the nylon cord still
loose, slip the lens into the upper part of the
frame. Thread the cord around the lens and pull
the cord snug (Figure 7-22). Do not forcibly pull
the cord so that it stretches.
Remove the lens without losing your place. Hold the
excess end of the cord with the thumb, so that it
does not slide out, and remove the lens. (Since the
cord was not pulled tight, it should be possible to
remove the lens without losing the point of
reference for length on the cord.)
Take up the slack in the cord. Because the cord was
not pulled tight around the lens, it is necessary to
pull the cord 1.5 to 2.0 mm farther through the
lower hole so that the lens will be tight enough.
Thread the excess cord through the remaining hole.
Thread the excess cord through the upper nasal
hole while maintaining the new position of the
cord in the lower hole.
Clip off the excess cord. Clip the excess cord, leaving
2.0 to 3.0 mm inside the eyewire. (If the cord is
clipped at an angle it may lay down in the groove
Lens Insertion
131
Figure 7-22. In this instance, we need to nd the necessary

cord length when the cord, or a good portion of the cord is
missing. When replacing a nylon cord of unknown length, the
cord is pulled snug around the lens, but not stretched.
more smoothly. Nail clippers work as well as

regular cutting nippers.)
10. Press the end of the cord into the frame groove. First
press the cord into the frame groove with the
thumb (Figure 7-23, A). To get it all the way into
the groove, it is helpful to next use a pair of halfpadded nylon jaw pliers to push the loose end of
the cord down into the groove (Figure 7-23, B).
(Failure to tuck the cord into the groove will cause
the lens to chip or ake because of the pressure of
the cord between the edge of the lens and the edge
of the eyewire.) Do this both nasally and
temporally.
11. Secure the lens in the upper half of the frame. The
lens is inserted into the frame, beginning in the
nasal area (Figure 7-24, A), followed by the
temporal area (Figure 7-24, B). The lens should
come in behind the nylon cord so that the cord
rests on the front surface of the lens.
12. Stretch the cord into the groove around the lens. To
secure the lens in the frame, the cord must be
stretched to t into the lens groove. This is done
using a plastic strip. (Some use a fabric ribbon.
However, a ribbon will often fray, leaving threads
wedged between the lens and the cord. It is
extremely difcult to remove these threads.) Start
out with the cord on the front side of the lens. Slip
the plastic strip between the nylon cord and the
lens, folding the strip back and grasping both ends
together. Begin temporally and use the strip to
pull the cord around the edge of the lens, seating
it into the lens groove on the way around (Figure
7-25).
(Caution: There are metal hooks made
specically for stringing lenses. The main hazard
132
A
A
B
Figure 7-23. The cord is cut to the correct length and
threaded. Before putting a lens in the frame, the end of the
cord is pressed into the groove of the frame. In (A) the end of
the cord is being pressed into place with the thumb. This may
not get the cord all the way in the groove, but will get it
started. In (B) half-padded pliers are used to press the end of
the cord fully into the groove.
of these hooks is the possibility of causing a small

ake of the lens to chip out at the groove area.
When this occurs, the lens must be replaced.)
13. Check the cord tension. Cord tension can be checked
in one of at least two ways.
a. Check the tension at the corner of the lens right
after the cord drops into the groove (Figure
7-26), or
Figure 7-24. To put the lens in the frame, begin with the
upper nasal corner as shown in (A). Once the upper nasal
corner of the lens is in place, the upper edge of the lens can
be more easily aligned by moving across the upper rim, as
shown in (B).
b. Check the tension of the cord by sliding the

plastic strip toward the bottom of the lens until
it is close to the midpoint of the lens cord. Pull
fairly hard on the cord with the strip. The strip
should pull the cord about 0.5 to 1.0 mm away
from the edge of the lens.
14. Try to rotate the lens. Once the lens is in place,
grasp the lens as shown in Figure 7-27 and attempt
to rotate it in the frame. If the lens rotates easily,
the cord is not tight enough.
If the tension is incorrect, the lens should be
removed and the length of the cord altered.
(It may be necessary to use the dental pick to
free the end of the cord from the frame groove.
Most often when the t is wrong, the cord will
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7-25. The cord must now be pulled around the lens.
To slip the nylon cord into the groove in the lens, begin temporally and pull the cord around the lens in a nasal direction.
The cord must start out on the front side of the lens.
Figure 7-26. Pull fairly hard on the plastic strip to check the
tension of the cord. As shown in the gure, the cord should
stretch some, but there should be no more than 1.0 mm
between the cord and the lens. (Some prefer to check for cord
tension at the center of the bottom of the lens.)
be loose and will have to be shortened. If this is

the case, repeat the above steps, beginning with
step 8.
15. Remove the plastic strip. Once the lens is securely
seated, move the plastic strip to the center of the
lens edge, release one end of the plastic strip and
pull it from between the lens and cord (Figure 728). Trying to remove the strip at a corner can
pull the cord out of the groove. (For a review of
these steps, see Box 7-1.)
Replacing an Old or Broken Nylon Cord

If the nylon cord is old or broken with both parts still
intact, the new cord can be cut to match the length of
Lens Insertion
133
Figure 7-27. Once the lens is in, grasp the lens between
thumb and ngers and try to rotate the lens. If the lens rotates
easily, the cord is not tight enough.
Figure 7-28. Move the strip to the center of the lens before
attempting to remove it. If the strip is at or near a corner of a
lens when being removed, it may pull the cord out of the
groove.
the old cord. The procedure is basically the same as just

described for replacing a missing cord, except that we
can line up the new cord with the old cord and cut it to
match. Remember to cut both ends of the new cord at
an angle. If the old cord is in two pieces, line up the
longest piece of the old cord and allow extra for the
estimated length of the short piece of the broken cord.
Cut the new cord to match.
Both temporal and nasal edges are threaded into the
frame as described above. Hereafter the remaining steps
are the same as previously described.
Cautions for Lenses With Thin Edges

When a lens used for a nylon cord frame has thin edges,
the edge may not leave much room for the groove. This
means that thin lens material on either side of the groove
134
BOX 7-1
Procedure for Inserting Lenses Into a Nylon Cord
Frame
1. If necessary, remove the old cord.
2. Cut the end of the new cord at an angle.
3. Thread the nylon cord through the lower, temporal
hole from the lens side and continue through the
upper hole leaving 1.5 to 2.0 mm.
4. Put the lens in and pull the cord snug to size the
lens.
5. Hold the excess end of the cord with the thumb
and remove the lens.
6. Take up 1.5 to 2.0 mm of slack in the cord.
7. Thread the remaining cord through the upper hole.
8. Cut the cord off 1.5 to 2.0 mm past the hole.
9. Press the excess cord into the frame groove on
both sides.
10. Insert the lens in the upper half of the frame.
11. Stretch the cord around the lower half of the lens
using the plastic strip.
12. Check cord tension. (Cord should give 0.5 to
1.0 mm.)
may have a tendency to chip, especially during insertion

and removal. Plus lenses and thin, high index minus
lenses with narrow vertical dimensions may have notably
thin areas. Here are some suggestions to avoid chipping
thin lens edges:5
When putting the nylon cord into the lens, if possible,
start with the thinnest part of the lens and nish with
the thickest.
To remove a nylon cord, do the reverse; start with the
thickest part of the lens edge and end with the
thinnest.
Retightening a Loose Nylon Cord Lens

If a lens in an old nylon cord frame is loose or has
fallen out, it is prudent to simply replace the cord,
as above, rather than retightening the existing cord.
Over time an old cord may have lost some of its elasticity.
The new cord will have more elasticity, and replacing the old cord avoids the possibility of it breaking
later on.
Some dispensers have resorted to removing the
lens and heating the old cord. The heat will cause
the cord to shrink. When the lens is reinserted, it will
be tighterbut only temporarily. Tightening a lens
in this manner is not a good practice. The cord will
not remain tightened long, and the lens may fall out
unexpectedly, this time to break or become badly

scratched.
Nylon Cord Frames With Liners

Some nylon cord frames have liners that t into the top
eyewire channel of the frame. These liners are called
gure 8 liners because when viewed from the end (in cross
section) the liner looks like the number 8. One part of
the 8 is smaller than the other.
If it is necessary to replace the gure 8 liner in the
top eyewire, take a knife blade, le, or dental pick and
dig into the liner, sliding it out either end. Measure the
old length of liner and cut a new piece of the same
length. To aid in inserting the gure 8 liner back into
the top eyewire, make sure the new piece is cut at an
angle.
Using the smallest side of the gure 8 rst and beginning either nasally or temporally, slide the liner into the
top eyewire channel. Feed in the entire piece of liner and
center it in the channel. If the liner seems loose, turn it
around and use the larger side. Care should be taken not
to block any of the four holes used to hold the nylon cord
in place.
Frames With Metal Cords for Rims

Some frames are made with very thin metal rims. When
lenses for these frames are edged with at edges and then
grooved, the rim of the frame slips into the groove in
the same manner as a nylon cord would. Because the
metal rims are thicker than a nylon cord, the groove
must be made wider than it would for nylon cord
frames.
CLEANING FRAMES AND LENSES

In the past, the simplest method of cleaning frames and
lenses was to immerse them in a mild detergent solution,
rub with the ngers or a soft cloth, and dry with a soft,
lint-free cloth. Difcult-to-remove lens spots were taken
care of using acetone, with care being taken to avoid
getting any acetone on the plastic frame. Now, however,
the situation is not so straightforward.
Using some detergents as the last cleaning agent for
antireection-coated lenses is incorrect because some
detergents contain additives. Use no detergent that contains citrus (which leaves a residue), and none having
creams or abrasive material. Acetone should not be used
on polycarbonate lenses.
Tables 7-3 and 7-4 summarize the cleaning agents
that should be used or avoided for different frame and
lens materials.
CHAPTER 7
Lens Insertion
135
TABLE 7-3
Cleaning Of Frames
Frame Material
Use
Avoid
*
Cellulose acetate
Propionate
Polyamide
Mild detergent
Ultrasonic unit with ultrasonic cleaning solution
Acetone or acetone replacers

Alcohol
Nylon
Carbon-ber
Optyl
Mild detergent
Alcohol will work for stubborn spots
Acetone or acetone replacers
Polycarbonate
Mild detergent
Alcohol
Solvents such as acetone
Metal
Mild detergent
Alcohol
Acetone or acetone replacers (which may remove painted

trim)
*
A mild detergent is one that has no citrus (which leaves a residue), and no creams or abrasive material. A clear detergent, such as clear
Joy, works well.
Propionate material is sensitive to alcohol. Because it is difcult to tell the difference between cellulose acetate and propionate frames, it
is safer to avoid alcohol.
TABLE 7-4
Cleaning of Lenses
Lens Material
Use
Avoid
Glass and
CR-39 plastic
Mild detergent, alcohol, acetone, or acetone replacer such

as Solves It*
Abrasives
Polycarbonate and
High Index Plastic
Mild detergent or alcohol
Acetone
AR Coated Lenses
AR Coating Lens Cleaner (It is possible to use a mild

detergent rst, then an AR lens cleaner.)
Detergents with citrus, creams, or abrasive

material
Acetone
Ultrasonic cleaning units
Available from SeeGreen, Los Angeles, Calif.
REFERENCES
1. Hilco TempMaster Frame Warmer Instructions, Plainville,
Mass, Hilco.
2. Bruneni J: Heating carbon frames, Optical Dispensing
News, no 33, 2003.
3. Ophthalmic frame: plastic materials guidelines: Bell Optical

Laboratories, Dayton, Ohio, undated.
4. How to work with Optyl: Norwood, NJ, 1976, Optyl
Corp.
5. Tibbs R: Cord counsel, Optical Dispensing Newsletter,
Oct 24, 2000.
136
Prociency Test
1. True or false? When inserting a lens, if success is
not achieved on the rst try, heat the frame and
the partially inserted lens together, then push the
partially inserted lens the rest of the way into the
bevel.
2. True or false? The lower eyewire of the frame is
rolled forward (i.e., front side slanted down) when
the lens is inserted. After several attempts to
straighten it and reinsert the lens, the forwardrolled eyewire still remains a problem. One
solution is to straighten the eyewire and try
inserting the lens from the back.
3. If salt from a salt pan sticks to the frame, what
may be done to alleviate the problem?
a. Use newer salt.
b. Have the heating element checked.
c. Add talcum powder to the salt.
d. Use a better product line of frames.
e. Wash the frames ahead of time.
4. A pair of edged multifocal lenses are held back to
back. Their segments overlap exactly. Which of
the following statements should not be made?
(There may be more than one correct response.)
a. The cylinder axes are correct.
b. There will be no unwanted vertical prism in the
prescription.
c. Neither of the lenses was edged in a twisted
position.
d. The segment heights are equal.
e. The total segment insets are equal.
7. What frame material(s) shrink(s) when plunged

into cold water?
a. polyamide
b. cellulose acetate
c. Optyl
d. carbon ber
e. propionate
8. What frame material(s) may shrink slightly when
heated?
a. polyamide
b. cellulose acetate
c. Optyl
d. carbon ber
e. propionate
9. Which frame materials do best by cold snapping
the lenses into place?
a. polyamide
b. Optyl
c. carbon ber
d. polycarbonate
e. Kevlar
10. Types of frame materials that do not adjust very
well are:
a. polyamide
b. Optyl
c. carbon ber
d. polycarbonate
e. cellulose acetate
11. True or false? Polycarbonate frames neither stretch
nor shrink when heated.
5. The best way to heat nylon frames is by using:

a. salt.
b. glass beads.
c. hot forced air.
d. hot water.
e. sand.
12. A pair of frames is labeled Optyl. The temples

have metal reinforcing running the length of the
temples. These temples:
a. require a considerable amount of heat before
being adjusted.
b. do not require very much heat before being
adjusted.
6. What type of frame may be heated until it bends

under its own weight?
a. cellulose acetate and propionate frames
b. Optyl frames
c. nylon frames
d. polyamide frames
13. How much should an edged lens for an Optyl

frame usually deviate from the marked frame size?
a. 0.2 to 0.4 mm smaller than marked
b. exactly as marked
c. 0.2 to 0.6 mm larger than marked
d. 0.6 to 1.0 mm larger than marked
e. 1.0 to 1.4 mm larger than marked
CHAPTER 7
14. To remove the lenses after a cellulose acetate

frame is heated, it is easiest to push a lens out by
placing the thumbs on the:
a. front side of the lens temporally, pushing the
lens with the thumbs while pulling the eyewire
with the ngers.
b. front side of the lens inferior nasally, pushing
the lens with the thumbs while pulling the
eyewire with the ngers.
c. back side of the lens centrally, pushing the lens
with the thumbs while pulling the eyewire with
the nger.
d. back side of the lens superior temporally,
pushing the lens with the thumbs while pulling
the eyewire with the ngers.
e. back side of the lens inferior nasally, pushing
the lens with the thumbs while pulling the
eyewire with the ngers.
15. Eyewire closure pliers are used:
a. to press a stubborn lens into an eyewire that is
otherwise too small for the lens.
b. to form the eyewire of a metal frame to the
meniscus curve of the lens.
c. to close the eyewire of a metal frame around
the lens to allow for lens size evaluation.
d. to grasp the eyewire of the frame while
tightening the eyewire screw.
16. True or false? Hand edging a chemically treated
glass lens without retreating it is acceptable. It is
not necessary to chemically treat the lens again
like it is necessary to reheat treat a heat-treated
glass lens after hand edging.
17. When restringing a nylon cord mounting, the ends
of the cord are threaded through two holes in the
nasal and two holes in the temporal side of the
frame. Which hole is threaded rst?
a. The cord is always threaded through the upper
hole rst.
b. The cord is always threaded through the lower
hole rst.
c. It does not matter which hole is threaded rst.
18. We are inserting a grooved lens in a nylon cord
frame. The nylon cord is the correct length and in
the mounting. Now the upper part of the lens is
pressed into the upper eyewire of the frame. When
this is being done, where should the cord be?
a. On the front surface of the lens.
b. In back of the lens.
c. Cord position does not matter.
Lens Insertion
137
19. To get the end of a nylon cord out of the groove

mounting when it is stuck in the groove, the best
thing to use is:
a. your ngernail.
b. nger nail clippers.
c. a tooth pick.
d. a dental pick.
20. For a nylon cord frame, the tension of the cord is
checked before removing the plastic strip used to
slip the cord into the lens groove. The strip is
positioned toward the bottom of the lens until it is
close to the midpoint of the lens cord. The cord is
pulled fairly hard with the strip. The strip:
a. should pull the cord about 0.5 to 1.0 mm away
b. should pull the cord about 1.5 to 2.0 mm away
c. should pull the cord about 2.5 to 3.0 mm away
d. should not pull the cord away from the edge of
the lens at all.
21. True or false? When the cord of a nylon cord
frame has lost its elasticity, remove the lens and
heat the cord. This will shrink the cord,
retightening the lens. The lens will remain tight
almost as long as it did after rst being inserted.
22. When the lens is completely inserted into the
frame bevel, yet the lower edge appears to be
sticking out slightly, what is the problem most
likely to be?
23. What type of lens will not give evidence of being
twisted or rotated in the frame when being
checked in a lensmeter?
24. A pair of glasses is being veried. One lens is
obviously in a rotated position, yet the axis of the
cylinder for this lens is correct when read on the
lensmeter. What might be the cause?
25. If a cellulose acetate frame has been stretched by a
previous lens that was ground too large (making
the new lenses too small for the frame), what is the
best way to remedy the problem?
26. What is the easiest way to check for a rotated lens
after lens insertion when the lenses are at top
multifocals?
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
dispenser must be able to bring a frame into

proper alignment before he or she can make a pair
of glasses t properly. Actual manipulative procedures required in tting are rst studied and mastered
while learning to true the frame. This chapter both
teaches proper standard alignment and prepares the
groundwork for frame tting.
STANDARD ALIGNMENT OR TRUING

OF FRAMES
A frame received from an optical laboratory is theoretically supposed to have been trued (i.e., brought into standard alignment). A frame in standard alignment has been
adjusted to certain impersonal standards that are independent of the type of face to which it is to be tted.
Standard alignment is intended to ensure that adjustments required to t the wearer are responsive to the
wearers physical characteristics and not to irregularities
in the frame itself that may be produced while the frame
is fashioned in the laboratory.
Since, in actual fact, some frames may not have
received this adjustment in the laboratory, it is essential
that it be performed by the dispenser before attempting
to adjust the spectacles for the individual wearer. The
best time to preadjust is when the prescription is being
veried.
Truing spectacles is a good starting point for adjusting them, especially spectacles that have been worn for
a long time without recent adjustment. The same would
apply to spectacles brought in by someone other than the
wearer, or spectacles that have been stepped on, run over,
or damaged in some other way. These frames must be
brought back into standard alignment before additional
adjustments can be attempted.
A general rule for standard alignment is to begin with
the bridge, then work with the endpieces, and handle the
temples last. Obviously, changes made in one part of a
frame may inuence the alignment in another part.
Bending the bridge, for example, may change the relationship of the temples. Handling the bridge rst, and
the other parts in order, helps to eliminate having to go
back and realign parts.
Adjustable plastic frames must almost always be heated
to be aligned. Metal frames and parts do not require
138
heating, except for metal parts that are covered with

plastic.
This chapter is divided into sections on bringing
plastic frames, metal frames, nosepads, and rimless
frames into standard alignment. For instructional purposes, it is easier to consider each of these as separate
and distinct types. In practice, however, there are a great
variety of frames having characteristics that cross over.
Some frames are hybrids of two or more types. This
means that, in the end, the dispenser must often use the
techniques learned in more than one section on a single
frame.
It is advisable to rst read the section on plastic frames
before jumping to the metal or rimless sections. This is
because the rst section introduces terminology that is
used, but is not as thoroughly explained, in the later
sections.
SECTION A
Standard Alignment of Plastic Frames
HEATING THE FRAME
Standard plastic frames* must be heated for any alignment. Standard procedure for adjusting the frame should
be followed, beginning with the bridge.
Only that area of the frame requiring adjustment
should be heated to avoid the possibility of disturbing an
aligned area by mistake. Frames may be heated using
forced hot air, or a salt pan containing heated table salt,
or a pan containing heated small glass beads. The method
of choice for heating frames is forced hot air.
Hot Salt or Glass Beads

Even though an explanation of how to use hot salt or
glass beads is included, it should be noted that it is not
recommended. Forced hot air is preferable because some
of the newer frame materials are adversely affected by
heating them using a salt pan. In addition, lens coatings
may be damaged by the heat and abrasion of hot salt
against the surface. Even if the coating appears undamaged after heating using a salt pan, the coating may not
Cellulose acetate and cellulose propionate frames are considered
to be standard plastic frames. For more on how various plastic
frames respond to heat, see Chapters 1 and 7.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
139
BOX 8-1
Points to Remember in Heating Frames
WITH HOT AIR:
1. Heat only the portion of the frame to be worked on.
2. Rotate the frame in the heat. (This is especially
important for warmers having heat coming from one
direction only.)
3. Check the type of frame material. Some materials
can stand more heat than others.
Figure 8-1. An example of a frame that has been overheated,

resulting in bubbling of the plastic on the upper rim.
last as long. If lenses are returned in an unexpectedly

short time because of a haziness or crazed* surface when
normal care has been exercised by the wearer, the difculty may have begun right in the dispensary. New dispensers have difculty identifying frames or lenses that
would be damaged with indiscriminate use of a salt pan.
Therefore, if a salt pan is being used in the practice, it
is safer to require novices to use a forced air warmer.
When using a salt pan, stir the salt to equalize the
heat before inserting the frame. A wooden spoon is an
excellent tool for this purpose; it does not get hot to the
touch and can also be used to push the salt into mounds
for heating specic parts.
Insert the frame into the salt just under the surface
and as parallel to the surface as possible. The frame may
bubble or distort if it is angled so that one portion is too
close to the heating element (Figure 8-1). Moving the
frame about while in the salt also helps to prevent this
problem. If the frame is not moved, even cellulose acetate
frames may acquire small indentations in the plastic
surface. These small indentations will appear to dull a
smooth, highly polished jet black frame. For this reason,
some advise against using a salt pan for black frames.
Talcum powder may be mixed with the salt to prevent
the salt from sticking to the frame and from lumping.
Salt will also stick to a frame that has been cooled in cold
water and again placed in the salt while still wet. For this
reason, warm-air heating is preferable for a wet frame.
Forced Hot Air

The method of choice for heating frames is forced hot
air. When using hot air to heat a frame, move or rotate
the frame to prevent overheating of one area and to
ensure even heating of the different surfaces, especially
*Surface crazing is microcracking that looks like dried mud.
WITH SALT OR BEADS:

1. Ask yourself, Should this frame material or these
lenses be subjected to salt or beads? If there is
any doubt, use hot air.
2. Always stir the salt (or glass beads) rst.
3. Keep the area of the frame being heated parallel to
the surface of the salt.
4. Keep the frame moving slowly.
5. Heat only the portion of the frame to be worked on.
if the hot air warmer only supplies air from one direction. The surface plastic of a frame will bubble if overheated by forced hot air on one side only. This may
happen before the frame is hot enough to become
pliable.
For a summary on heating frames, see Box 8-1.
THE BRIDGE
Since a number of things may be in error in relation to
the bridge, the bridge itself is judged mainly by the effect
it has on the plane of the lenses. Readjusting the lenses
to their proper planes is accomplished by rst heating
the bridge area, then grasping the frame by the lens areas
and adjusting according to the correction desired.
When using a salt pan to heat the bridge, stir the salt
in the pan and form it into a centrally located peak
running across the pan. Place the frame in the pan,
temples up, and draw the bridge through the peak of the
salt mound. Repeat until the bridge is pliable enough to
be bent (Figure 8-2).
When using hot air, concentrate the air stream on the
bridge. This may be done with a cone attachment placed
over the air exit or by partially closing the exit depending
on the type of warming unit being used. Move the bridge
through the hot air stream until it becomes pliable. Once
the bridge is pliable, it can be adjusted as necessary to
effect the desired correction.
The bridge can be out of alignment because one lens
is pushed up or one lens is pushed back in relation to the
other. If one lens is higher than the other, they are said
to be out of horizontal alignment. If one lens appears to
be farther forward or backward than the other, they are
said to be out of vertical alignment.
140
Figure 8-2. To heat the bridge area, rst form the salt into a
centrally located peak running across the pan, then draw the
bridge through the peak of the salt mound.
Figure 8-4. An example of a skewed bridge. It will be noted

that neither of the lenses shows any twisting. The error is
manifested by one lens being higher than the other. (This
photo shows the frame from the front. The next photo, correcting the problem, is taken from the back of the frame.)
Figure 8-3. Checking for horizontal alignment. This frame

shows proper alignment because the distance between ruler
and endpiece reference point is equal on both sides.
Horizontal Alignment
It is not easy to check for horizontal alignment of a
plastic frame because there are not always clear reference
points. To check for horizontal alignment, place a ruler
or straight edge across the back of the frame at the top
of the pads, if any. If there are no pads, there may be a
point where the sculptured shaping of the bridge area
ends (this area serves as a nosepad). Both endpieces
should be equidistant from the straight edge when it is
aligned horizontally (Figure 8-3). A practiced eye may
be more helpful than a ruler.
Rotated Lens
There are two common causes for a frame being out of
horizontal alignment: a rotated lens and a skewed bridge.
A lens rotated in the frame will cause the top of the
eyewire to either hump up at the nasal bridge or one
endpiece to appear upswept in shape. (See Figure 7-7
in the previous chapter.) To correct the problem, use
lens rotating pliers. How this is done is explained in
Chapter 7.
Skewed Bridge
When viewed from the front, a skewed bridge will
cause one lens to appear higher than the other (Figure
8-4). This problem usually only happens after the glasses
have been dispensed and something has happened to
them.
Figure 8-5. To correct for a skewed bridge, heat the bridge

and force one side up and the other down. This is the same
frame as was shown in the previous gure, but the frame is
now facing in the other direction. (Note which way the temples
are pointing.)
To correct a skewed bridge, rst heat the bridge,

then grasp the front with an eyewire in each hand as
shown in Figure 8-5. Force the eyewires in opposite
directions until the tops of the eyewires are parallel. Of
course, the lens must be in the frame for this procedure
to succeed. When pressing the lenses in opposite directions, it is important that their frontal planes be kept
parallel so that X-ing of the frame is not inadvertently
introduced. X-ing will be described in more detail
below.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
141
Figure 8-7. For those frames that will not or should not
conform to a perfect four-point touch, the nasal sides of the
eyewire should be equidistant from the ruler.
Figure 8-6. Checking for four-point touch. The frame eyewire

touches at each place where the ruler crosses the eyewire. This
indicates correct alignment when the frame PD equals the
wearers interpupillary distance.
Vertical Alignment (Four-Point Touch)

To check for vertical alignment, or four-point touch, place
a ruler or straight edge so that its edge goes across the
inside of the entire front of the spectacles below the
nosepad area. Theoretically the frame eyewire should
touch at four points on the ruler (i.e., at each place where
the ruler crosses the eyewire [Figure 8-6]). However,
this ought to only be the case if the frame is small compared with the wearers head size,* otherwise face form
is required.
Face Form
Face form or wraparound is when the frame front is just
slightly rounded to the form of the face. Most frames are
constructed with at least a degree of face form. This is
especially true of large frames and thick metal frames.
Frames with face form will not conform to the fourpoint touch test, but must be symmetrical nonetheless.
The temporal sides of the eyewires should touch, and the
nasal sides should be equidistant from the ruler (Figure
8-7).
Too much face form would be evident if the two nasal
eyewires are a great distance from the ruler. Too little
face form is the case if neither temporal eyewire, but only
the nasal eyewires, touch (Figure 8-8).
The remedy for either too much or too little face form
is to alter the bridge. First warm the bridge until it is
pliable, then grasp the frame by the lenses and eyewires
with thumbs on the inside and ngers on the outside.
Bend the bridge by turning the lenses inward or outward
(Figure 8-9).
A strict four-point touch should be used only if A + DBL = wearers
PD.
For an explanation of why the frame should have face form and
how much it should have, see the section on Face Form in
Chapter 5.
Figure 8-8. An example of a frame with negative face form.
Figure 8-9. As is often the case in dispensing, symmetry is

important. To achieve a good bend when changing the face
form of a frame, the glasses are grasped symmetrically, immediately adjacent to the bridge.
X-ing
Another type of vertical misalignment may also be discovered while checking for four-point touch. The frame
front may be twisted so that the planes of the two lenses
are out of coincidence with each other. This is called Xing because the eyewires of the frame front form an X
when viewed from the side (Figure 8-10). From below,
the frame with X-ing appears as shown in Figure 8-11.
X-ing causes the temples to be out of line with each
other. Whenever the temples do not appear parallel, the
142
Figure 8-10. X-ing may be identied by the characteristic X

the eyewires make with one another when viewed from the
side.
Figure 8-12. In grasping the frame to correct an X-ing error,
the wrists move in opposite directions.
Figure 8-13. Here is an example of lens planes that are variant

or out of coplanar alignment. In spite of the improperly bent
bridge, the lenses remain parallel to one another.
Figure 8-11. This is how a frame with X-ing appears when
viewed from below.
frame should rst be examined for X-ing before other

methods of realigning the temples are tried.
X-ing is corrected by grasping the eyewires as shown
in Figure 8-12, and rotating the hands in opposing directions until the planes of the lenses are parallel.
Variant Planes
Another form of vertical misalignment is when the lens
planes are variant, or out of coplanar alignment. In this
situation, the lens planes are parallel, but one lens is
farther forward than the other (Figure 8-13). This error
usually becomes apparent when the four-point touch test
is used, although it may easily be overlooked
otherwise.
To correct a frame with lenses out of coplanar alignment, rst heat the bridge and grasp the frame in the
manner shown in Figure 8-9, just as would be done in
correcting a frame having too much face form. This
time, however, push the entire eyewire away from you
on one side, and pull it toward you on the other side, all
the while keeping both lens planes parallel to each
other.
THE TEMPLES
After horizontal and vertical preadjustments have been
made to the bridge and eyewires, the third area considered in truing a frame is the temple area. The open
temple spread is checked rst because the adjustments
may affect the endpieces. After this, temple parallelism
is considered, followed by alignment of the temple ends.
Finally the temple fold angle is corrected.
Open Temple Spread

The open temple spread, or let-back, is that angle that each
open temple forms in relationship to the front of the
frame. To afford a true picture of the temple spread initially, the temple shafts must be straight. Before going
further, stop and straighten the temple shafts. Any curve
to the temple shaft should be eliminated by heating the
temple and straightening it with the hands.
It is the normal condition of the temple to be opened
out slightly farther than a 90-degree angle; usually 94-95
degrees. Before actually tting the wearer, it is not always
desirable to spread the temples to more than 90 degrees
because it may be necessary to bring the temples back in
again. This often proves more difcult than was aring
them out originally.
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8-14. The temples on this frame are spread too far for
a frame in proper alignment. The spread should be decreased
until the temple and the frame front are at a 94- to 95-degree
angle to one another.
Temples Spread Too Far

Temples aring out more than 95 degrees are spread too
far for standard alignment (Figure 8-14). There are
several methods for correcting this problem, but all
involve the same principle: The endpiece must be heated
and bent around so that the temple will not be able to
open out as far.
With the temple spread to the wide-open position,
begin the procedure by heating the desired area. Having
the temple fully spread makes it easier to tell when the
endpiece has been bent enough. This is because it is possible to see the extent to which the temple is being forced
inward. If the frame has a hidden hinge, take care to
avoid bumping or knocking the temple because this can
loosen it.
The following methods can be used for endpiece
adjustment to reduce temple spread:
1. Using the thumbWhen the endpiece is hot, hold
the frame by the eyewire and push on the endpiece
with the thumb (Figure 8-15). If there is a metal
shield on the frame front, place a cloth between the
thumb and the front to prevent burning the skin.
2. Using a at surfaceHeat the endpiece and grasp
the eyewire and lens with both hands. Use a at
surface, and press the endpiece of the frame down
on the surface to force it backward (Figure 8-16, A
and B). The surface must be smooth and free from
grit or salt grains. An irregular surface or foreign
matter, such as salt grains, will mark the front of
the frame when the frame is pressed against the
surface.
Often the corner of the lens may pop out when
this method is used. If this happens, turn the frame
around and push the corner of the lens with the
thumbs while supporting the eyewire from behind
Standard Alignment
143
Figure 8-15. One method of decreasing temple spread involves

holding the frame by the lens and eyewire while pushing the
endpiece back with the thumb.
with the ngers. This will pop the lens back into
the frame. This may occur several times during the
procedure in especially difcult cases and is to be
expected.
3. Bend eyewire and endpieceWhen the endpiece will
not bend enough using the above two methods, take
the lens out of the frame. With the frame empty,
the eyewires and endpiece may be bent backward
more easily (Figure 8-17). After reshaping the
frame, reinsert the lens.
Before concluding that the temple has been
brought in sufciently by any of the above methods,
however, check between the endpiece and the end of
the temple. If a salt pan was used, a few grains of
salt can become lodged here and prevent the temple
from opening as far as it normally would. The
frame appears to be aligned until it is washed off,
then the salt dissolves and the temple opens back
out.
4. Bend the butt portion of the templeIf none of the
previous three methods proves successful, this
method can be used. It is usually only employed
with older frames, and as a last resort because the
cosmetic appearance of the frame suffers.
Heat the temple and grasp the butt end of the
temple with half-padded pliers as near the hinge as
possible. (Half-padded pliers are shown in Figure 818.) Then grasp the temple near the pliers with the
free hand and bend the temple inward (Figure 8-19).
5. Sink the hidden hinge deeper into the frame frontIn
cellulose acetate frames with hidden hinges, the
temple spread can be reduced by sinking the front
hinge slightly deeper into the plastic. This is done
by removing the temple and heating the hidden
hinge with a soldering iron or a Hot Fingers unit. It
does not take very much depth change to
144
Figure 8-17. Brace both eyewires with the fore nger and
press the endpiece with the thumb to decrease the temple
spread.
B
Figure 8-16. One of the easiest and most successful methods
of reducing temple spread is pressing the endpiece against a
at surface. A and B, Here are two views of how this is
done.
signicantly decrease the temple spread. (For more

on how to do this, see the section on Hidden
Hinges in Chapter 10.)
Temples Not Spread Enough
Occasionally the temples are not spread enough after the
lenses have been inserted and the bridge area straightened. There are at least three things that may be done
to correct the problem when this occurs:
1. The lens may not be completely in the frame at the
endpiece. Check to see if the lens is in place. If not,
press the lens back into the groove. This may solve
the problem.
2. The endpiece needs to be bent outward. Heat the
endpiece area and pull the endpiece outward with
the ngers while supporting the lens with the
Figure 8-18. Half-padded pliers hold the frame securely. The

nylon-padded jaw prevents the frame from being marred by
that jaw of the pliers. The unpadded jaw may be at or
rounded.
thumbs (Figure 8-20). Never pull on the temple

because this will only loosen it and will not get to
the root of the problem.
3. File the butt end of the temple. When neither of the
previous methods work, it may be necessary to le
the temple. This may occur when the temples come
inward considerably, as when lenses with steep front
curves are used. The reason may be the additional
curve added to the frame front because the eyewires
are shaped to conform to the curved lenses.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
145
Figure 8-19. If no other method proves successful, it is possible to bring the temples in by grasping the temple butt with
half-padded pliers and bending the temple with a free hand.
A
To correct this problem, le the end of the
temple at the hinge area where it contacts the
front of the frame, using a fairly rough le (Figure
8-21). It is extremely important to note that ling
for this purpose is done only on the templenever
on the frame front. Individual replacement temples
of identical manufacture will often t at varying
angles on the same front. If the front were led
instead of the temple, the result might be an
unusually large temple spread if the temples were
replaced.
To le the temple, brace the glasses against
something solid or hold the frame with the temple
folded, with the knuckle of the index nger over
the edge of a tabletop for support (Figure 8-22).
File the end evenly and uniformly. Periodically,
open the temple fully so that its abutment against
the endpiece may be observed. Note whether or
not the end of the temple is fully touching the
endpiece.
One common ling error results in a gap at
either the top or bottom of the butt end area of
contact with the endpiece (Figure 8-23). A second
common error, if the temple is led too much on
the inside, leaves only a small area of contact
between the temple and the frame front (Figure 824). The rst error is particularly undesirable
cosmetically. Both errors cause difculty after a
period of wear because the area under concentrated
pressure eventually gives way and allows the temple
to are out too far, loosening the glasses.
It is usually not possible to le very far before
hitting what appears to be a metal reinforcing piece,
which is actually a part of the hinge itself. It does
not damage or weaken the frame to le on this
B
Figure 8-20. To spread the temples, heat the endpiece and
pull back with the ngers while pressing with the thumbs.
(This is shown from two different views in A and B.) This
should cause the angle of temple spread to increase. If, by
chance, the lens was not completely in the temporal groove of
the frame, it could be a major cause of the temple being insufciently spread. If the lens is not in the groove, this action
should also cause the lens to pop back into place.
piece; in fact, it is unavoidable if much ling is

required.
4. Bend the temple outward. If none of the above
solutions are possible, as a last resort bend the
temple outward at a location approximately -inch
down the temple from the endpiece. This is usually
done using half-padded pliers to hold the butt end
of the temple and the other hand to bend to temple
outward, similar to the bend that was shown in
Figure 8-19.
For a summary of temple spread problems and their
solutions, see Table 8-1.
146
3
4
Figure 8-21. Standard les used in dispensing. From top to bottom: 1, Zyl leused to le
plastic parts of a frame. Although both ends are coarse, one is less coarse than the other for
variations in speed of ling. 2, Pillar le ner than the zyl le, this le is often used to le
metal parts of a frame. 3, Rifer lethis spoon-shaped le is good for getting at small, hardto-reach areas. It is used with thumb or nger in the arc of the spoon. 4, Slotting leused
for reslotting screws, or making a slot where none previously existed. 5, Rat-tail lefor
classic-type rimless mountings this le was used to reduce lens thickness in an area to allow
for proper lens strap grasp. It is also used to smooth the inside of a drilled lens hole.
Temple Parallelism
For frames to be in standard alignment, the temples need
to be parallel to one another. One temple should not be
angled down more than the other. When looking at the
glasses from the side, the angles the temples make with
the frame front determine temple parallelism. The angle
spoken of here is often called the pantoscopic angle. Pantoscopic angle is the angle the frame front deviates from
the vertical when the glasses are held with the temples
horizontal.*
Viewing the frames from the side, the angle is designated as pantoscopic when the lower rims of the frame
front are closer to the face than are the upper rims. A
proper pantoscopic angle may vary from as little as 4
degrees up to 18 degrees. If the glasses were to be adjusted
so that the lower rims are tilted outward from the face,
the glasses are said to have retroscopic instead of pantoscopic tilt. Retroscopic tilt is seldom ever appropriate.
In any case, to test whether or not the temples are
parallel, position the glasses upside-down on a at surface
with the temples open. Then note if both temples sit at
or if one temple is not touching the at surface. If it is
difcult to tell, rst touch one temple and then the other
to see if the frame wobbles back and forth or if it sits
solidly. This procedure is known as the at surface touch
*The technically correct denition of the pantoscopic angle refers

to the angle formed between the frontal plane of the face and the
plane of the frame front when the glasses are being worn.
Figure 8-22. Even though a specially designed bench brace is

the method of choice, a frame may be successfully held for
ling by bracing one knuckle over the edge of a table.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
147
B
Figure 8-23. The frame pictured in (A) shows the proper
abutment between temple and frame front, whereas the frame
in (B) is the result of uneven or hurried lings.
test (Figure 8-25). If the frame wobbles, it needs correction or it will sit on the face at an angle.
A common mistake is to check for temple parallelism
with the glasses placed on the table right side up instead
of upside down. If this is done and the bent-down portion
of one temple is bent down even the slightest bit more
than the other, or if one temple bend is located even the
least bit farther forward than the other bend, the at
surface touch test for temple parallelism will not work.
There are ve possible sources for incorrect temple
parallelism:
1. Incorrect temple parallelism will result if the
endpiece is not straight. This can happen because:
a. The lens is not inserted into the frame squarely
at the endpiece area. Check this rst. It will
cause the overall temple angle to be affected. If
the lens is only slightly out of the eyewire, heat
that area of the frame and press the lens back
B
Figure 8-24. Viewed from the top, the frame in (A) shows
how temple and front should abut. The improperly led temple
in (B) will not hold alignment. Because so much force is on
such a small area, within a short period of time the plastic will
be compressed, allowing the temple to open too far.
into the groove. It is usually not necessary to

remove and reinsert the lens.
b. The endpiece is simply angled improperly. If the
endpiece was bent upon insertion of the lens,
heat the endpiece area. Use the ngers, protected
by a lab towel, to bend the endpiece.
2. Another cause of error could be a bend in the temple
shaft itself (Figure 8-26). This should also be
148
TABLE 8-1
Plastic Frame Temple Spread Problems and Their Solutions

Problem
Solution
Temples spread too much
1.
2.
3.
4.
Temples spread too little
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Heat the endpiece, press it back with the thumb.

Heat the endpiece and press it against the table top.
Remove the lens and bend the endpiece and the eyewire near the endpiece. Reinsert the lens.
When the frame is old or will not respond to the above methods, grasp the temple butt with
half-padded pliers and bend the temple as close to the pliers as possible.
Sink the hidden hinge deeper into the frame front using a soldering iron or Hot Fingers unit.
Check to see if the lens is in the temporal groove of the frame.
Bend the endpiece forward.
File the temple where it abuts with the front.
If none of the above are possible, bend the temple outward at a location approximately -inch
down the temple from the endpiece.
Figure 8-25. Testing for parallelism using the at surface

touch test.
Figure 8-26. A bend in the shaft of one temple may cause the
glasses to wobble when placed on a at surface with the temples
open.
checked early on as it can easily occur, but is also

easily corrected. This situation is readily solved by
heating and straightening the temple shaft.
3. It is even possible for temples to stray from parallel
because the bridge of the frame has been twisted.
This problem should have been discovered earlier in
the alignment process and is called X-ing. It was
explained earlier.
4. For frames without hidden hinges, the problem

might be that of loosened or broken hinge rivets.
This should also be ruled out. The rivets are most
likely involved if the temple seems wobbly even after
the screw has been fully tightened. (For more on
this, refer to the section called Repairing the Hinges
in Chapter 10.) A loose hidden hinge could also
cause the same problem. (Again, see Chapter 10.)
5. After the above problems have been ruled out, the
hinges themselves are likely at fault and may require
straightening. Here is how to solve the problem.
Close the temple a few degrees from the completely
opened position. Grasp the frame front near the
endpiece with one hand. Angle the temple by
grasping it with the other hand near the butt area
and forcing it up or down (Figure 8-27).
Since it is not always possible to change the pantoscopic angle using the hands only and no tools, here is a
tool-based method to change the angle:
If the endpiece has enough space, grasp it with halfpadded pliers. The padded jaw of the plier should be in
the front and the unpadded jaw in the back. The jaw
in the back is braced against the hinge rivets in the
endpiece to support them. Use a second pair of angling
pliers (Figure 8-28) to grip the hinge by the top and
bottom of the screw. Angle the hinge by twisting the
pliers until one temple is level with the other (Figure
8-29). As when making the adjustment without pliers,
the temple should be closed very slightly so that the
temple butt end is not in contact with the endpiece. If
this is not done, the bend is hindered by contact between
temple and endpiece.
If there is not enough space to grasp the endpiece, use
the angling pliers alone, and hold the frame front with
the hands to change the pantoscopic angle.
NOTE: The frame should not be heated when any of
the pantoscopic angling operations are performed, since
softening of the plastic may result in loosening of the
rivets. A hidden hinge may accidentally be detached
entirely from the front if the frame is heated.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
149
Figure 8-27. This photo shows a commonly used method for changing the pantoscopic angle
of the temple. This will not be successful if the temple is fully opened. If it is, there is no
space to angle the temple. The butt of the temple must not quite be in contact with the frame
front.
B
Figure 8-28. Angling pliers. Traditional angling pliers are shown in (A). Note the indentations on the inside of the jaws used to grip the screw. Since these pliers are a bit bulky and
sometimes difcult to get into hard-to-reach areas, a modied, a narrower version is shown
in (B).
For a summary of possible sources for unevenness of

pantoscopic angles, see Box 8-2.
Aligning the Temple Ends

Proceeding toward the back of the frame, the next area
to be aligned is the bent-down portion of the temple: the
temple ends. When the temple ends are to be bent down,

a good standard alignment demands that both ends of
both temples be bent down equally as viewed from the
side (Figure 8-30).
Both temple ends should also be bent inward very
slightly (Figure 8-31) because the average head has this
150
Figure 8-29. This technique for changing the pantoscopic angle is excellent, but cannot
always be carried out because of endpiece design. With wrap around endpieces, the endpiece
can be grasped at another location.
Figure 8-30. In this photo, the temple ends are not bent down
equally. Standard alignment requires that both be bent to the
same angle.
BOX 8-2
Possible Problems If Pantoscopic Angles
Are Uneven (The Frame Fails the Four-Point
Touch Test)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The lens is not fully in the temporal frame groove.

There is a bend in the endpiece.
The temple is bent along the shaft.
The frame has a twisted bridge (X-ing).
For frames with hinge rivets, a rivet is loose or
broken.
6. The hinge is bent, or needs to be bent.
Figure 8-31. The ends of temples should be bent inward

slightly to conform to the average head shape. The inward
bend should be symmetrical, not like the example shown
where the left earpiece is bent farther inward than the right.
conformation. If heating is done with a salt pan, it is

important that the ends of the temples be held in the pan
parallel to the surface (Figure 8-32, A) and not perpendicular (Figure 8-32, B). If the temple end is inserted into
the salt, the tip is usually overheated.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
151
Figure 8-32. In heating the ends of the temples, it is important that they be held in the salt
parallel to the surface, as shown in (A). Sticking the temple end perpendicularly into a salt
pan as shown in (B) often results in overheating the tip and should be avoided.
Figure 8-33. Changing the temple-fold angle using a pair of angling pliers.
Temple-Fold Angle
The nal alignment step is to fold the temples to the
closed position and observe the angle formed as the
temples cross. The temples should fold so that they are
parallel to one another or form slight angles from parallel. These angles should be symmetrical and should cross
each other exactly in the center of the frame, in line with
the center of the bridge. Proper adjustment to this conguration permits the spectacle to easily t into a standard case for glasses.
There are two common methods of changing the
temple-fold angle:
1. In the rst method, the frame front is held with one

hand. Angling pliers grasp the top and bottom of
the hinge screw and are used to do the actual
bending (Figure 8-33). Since the hinge being bent is
metal, it is not necessary to heat the frame.
2. The second method of angling the temple fold uses
nger-piece pliers. These pliers have jaws that are
parallel and have space between the jaws when fully
closed (Figure 8-34). They are also referred to as
Fits-U pliers. These pliers were originally designed
for adjusting the old nger-piece mountings, but
are also excellent for adjusting the temple-fold
152
Figure 8-34. Finger-piece pliers were originally designed for

adjusting the old nger-piece mountings. These pliers are an
excellent tool for adjusting the temple-fold angle.
angle. With the temple folded, the pliers are held

parallel to the endpiece hinge screw, so that the
hinge is grasped on both sides (Figure 8-35). While
the frame front is held with the other hand, the
hinge is angled until it reaches the proper position
(Figure 8-36).
Changing the temple-fold angle by simply bending
the temple with the hands does not work as successfully
as using pliers as in the techniques described above.
Using hands alone, without pliers, may cause the temple
to split at the hinge.
For an overall summary of steps to follow in standard
alignment, see Box 8-3.
SECTION B
Standard Alignment of Metal Frames
Metal frames are aligned according to the same principles as plastic frames and, when in standard alignment,
should meet approximately the same standards as well.
The primary difference lies in the methods of manipulation used to bring the frame into alignment and the
presence of adjustable nosepads.
Metal frames require heating only in those places where
plastic coats the metal. All other bends are done cold.
Pliers are used for the majority of adjustments. Since
the pressure of metal jaws may mar or disgure the nished surface of the frames, it is essential to use padded
pliers or to cushion at least one jaw of nonpadded pliers
by attaching friction or adhesive tape to it.
The order of procedure for aligning metal frames is
the same as that used for plastic frames, beginning with
the bridge.
Figure 8-35. With the temple folded, nger-piece pliers are

held parallel to the endpiece hinge screw so that the hinge is
grasped on both sides.
THE BRIDGE
As with plastic frames, the planes of the lenses are
observed to determine bridge alignment as it relates to
the overall vertical and horizontal alignment.
To check for horizontal alignment of a metal frame,
place a ruler or straight edge across the front of the
frame at the point of attachment of the pad arms. In most
frames, the endpieces will be considerably higher than
the level of the pad arms, making the horizontal alignment judgment difcult. The endpieces should be equidistant from the ruler.
Rotated Lens
For metal frames, like plastic, there are two common
causes for a frame being out of horizontal alignment.
The rst is a rotated lens, a condition characterized by
a nasal or temporal upsweep in one lens causing the tops
of the lenses to be out of parallel. To correct for a rotated
lens in a metal frame, loosen the eyewire screw and turn
the lens until it aligns correctly with its partner; then
retighten the screw.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
153
BOX 8-3
Steps in Standard Alignment or Truing of Frames
Step 1. Horizontal alignment
a. Check for a rotated lens.
b. Check for a skewed bridge.
Step 2. Four-point touch (vertical alignment)
a. Check for X-ing.
b. Check for variant planes (or lenses out of
coplanar alignment).
Step 3. Open temple alignment
a. Check the temples for straightness of shaft.
b. Check for angles of the temples when fully
opened for symmetry.
Step 4. Temple parallelism (at surface touch test)
a. Check for bent endpiece.
b. Check for loose or broken rivets or loose
hidden hinge.
c. Check for bend in the temple shaft.
d. If none of the above is at fault, the hinge is
to be bent.
Step 5. Alignment of the bent-down portion of the
temple
a. Check for equality of downward bend.
b. Check for equality of inward bend.
Step 6. Temple-fold angle
a. Check for central crossing of the temple
shafts when folded.
b. Check for a fold that permits the insertion of
the spectacles into a standard case.
Figure 8-36. While the frame is held with the other hand,
the hinge is angled until it reaches the proper position as
shown.
inner parts of the frame eyewires is more often impossible than possible. The test is used to analyze the symmetry of the frame front.
Skewed Bridge
The second cause of horizontal misalignment is a skewed
bridge, in which case both lenses are oriented identically
but one lens is somewhat higher than the other. Correcting a metal frame with a skewed bridge can be difcult,
depending on the bridge design.
To correct bridge skewing with only the hands, grasp
the front as was done for a plastic frame, with one eyewire
in each hand as was shown in Figure 8-5. Force the
eyewires in opposite directions until they are level. Much
care must be exercised with this procedure because it is
carried out with the lenses in place, making the danger
of chipping a lens high.
Horizontal skew cannot always be corrected using
pliers because of bridge construction. Metal frames of a
bridge construction similar to the rimless variety may
be altered as described in the section on rimless and
semirimless mountings.
Face Form
Metal frames are usually designed with face form, especially in the larger eye sizes. Some very stout metal
frames are not intended to meet the literal requirements
of the four-point touch test and cannot be adjusted to do
so. When checking vertical alignment, there are two
questions to keep in mind:
1. Does the frame have a four-point touch or a faceform curve?
2. If the frame has face form, are the two nasal
eyewires equidistant from the ruler or is one farther
from it than the other?
Either pliers or hands may be used to change the
degree of face form in a metal frame. If using pliers, use
two pairs to grip the bridge near each eyewire. Rotate
the pliers in opposite directions to each other to either
increase or decrease the bridge curvature (Figure 8-37).
The jaws of both pairs of pliers should be padded to
prevent marking the frame.
Frames with reinforcing bars at the bridge do not lend
themselves readily to the application of pliers. Most
metal bridges may be altered by grasping the lenses and
eyewires between the thumbs and fore ngers and carefully bending the bridge (Figure 8-38). Undue stress at
the lens/eyewire area must be avoided because at this

As when performing the four-point touch test with
plastic frames, a ruler or straight edge is necessary to
determine whether or not the frame is in alignment.
Metal frame construction is so varied, however, that
establishing a four-point touch when straddling the
154
Figure 8-39. When lenses are out of coplanar alignment in a

metal frame, the correct procedure for realignment is considerably harder than that with zyl frames.
Figure 8-37. These double-padded pliers are rotated in opposite directions to either increase the bridge curvature (add face
form) or decrease it. Pliers jaws coming in contact with metal,
especially the outer side of a metal frame, should be padded to
avoid marring the nish.
Figure 8-40. In beginning the correction of lenses out of

coplanar alignment, the pliers holding the bridge portion
nearest the wearers face (pliers A) are used to hold the frame,
while pliers B serve as the bending pliers.
8-37. Pull on one plier while pushing on the other to

make the lenses parallel. Using pliers may reduce stress
otherwise placed on the eyewires.
Figure 8-38. This is how the hands are held to either change
the face form of a metal frame or to remove X-ing. Care must
be taken because undue stress at the lens/eyewire area may
result in chipping of the lens edge.
point stress may result in aking (chipping the edge) of

the lens.
X-ing
The misalignment known as X-ing is exactly the same
in metal frames as in plastic and can be discovered by
the same means. With metal frames, X-ing may be corrected by grasping the lenses and eyewires between the
thumbs and ngers as in changing the face form, but
apply the pressure in a rotary or twisting manner to
align the lenses. As noted, care must be exerted to prevent
stress at the lens/frame edge.
It may be possible to correct X-ing with two pairs of
pliers. Using double-padded pliers, grasp the bridge in a
manner similar to that shown in the previous Figure
Variant Planes
When the misalignment is that of the two lenses being
in different lateral positions, yet still parallel to each
other (Figure 8-39), the frame can be corrected in one
of two ways.
A metal frame with the problem of lenses out of coplanar alignment can often be handled in the same manner
as was done for a plastic frame, but without heating it.
The frame is bent with the hands by grasping the lenses
and eyewires with the thumbs and ngers and forcing
the frame into alignment as was seen in Figure 8-9.
If the rst method will not work, the second method
for variant plane correction uses two pair of pliers and
involves two procedures. First, grasp the bridge with two
pliers, each a short distance from either eyewire. The
pliers holding the bridge portion nearest the wearers
face (pliers A) are used to hold the frame, whereas the
pliers gripping the bridge portion farthest from the face
(pliers B) serve as the bending pliers (Figure 8-40). Bend
the bridge as if increasing the face form, until the nasal
side of the bridge (which had been forward) is on the
same plane as that of the other side of the bridge. The
lenses will now appear to be angled in relation to each
other (Figure 8-41).
Now using pliers B, which previously did the bending,
as a holding pliers, move pliers A to that portion of the
bridge between the eyewire and pliers B (Figure 8-42).
Bend the bridge outward at this point with pliers A until
the lenses are parallel (Figure 8-43).
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
155
Figure 8-41. The bridge is bent as if the face form were to be

increased until the nasal side of the bridge, which had been
forward, is on the same plane as that of the other side of the
bridge. The lenses now appear angled in relation to each other.
B
Figure 8-42. Now pliers B that previously did the bending

are used as holding pliers. The other pliers (pliers A) are moved
to that portion of the bridge between the eyewire and pliers
B. The bridge is bent upward at this point by pliers A until the
lenses are parallel.
Figure 8-43. The nal stage in correcting for lenses out of

coplanar alignment returns the metal frame to a proper fourpoint touch conguration.
THE TEMPLES
As with plastic frames, the temples are used to gauge
how the next area is adjusted, starting with the open
temple spread. Adjustments often affect the endpieces.
After open temple spread, temple parallelism is again
checked, temple ends are aligned, and lastly the temple
fold is adjusted.
Open Temple Spread

The temple should be at the same angle to the front as
it was for a plastic frame; that is 94 to 95 degrees. Also
as in the case of plastic frames, it is not usually desirable
to spread the temples to more than 90 degrees before
tting them to the wearer.
Temples Spread Too Far (Decreasing the
Temple Spread)
If the temples are spread too far apart, there are several
ways to bring them back into alignment. Here are a few
selected methods.
First method: Use a pair of half-padded pliers as
bending pliers. Half-padded pliers have a small metal
jaw on one side and a nylon-padded jaw on the other.
Grip the outside of the endpiece (Figure 8-44). Hold the
front rmly near the endpiece with the free hand. (When
B
Figure 8-44. If the temples are spread too far apart, a pair
of half-padded pliers may serve as bending pliers and grip the
outside of the endpiece. A, Side view. B, Top view.
156
the endpiece is wide enough, use a second pair of thin

pliers to hold the endpiece where it joins the eyewire.)
Rotate the bending pliers around until the temple has
reached the desired temple-spread angle.
Second method: Close the temple and grip the hinge
from below with the thin pliers. (Since no visible external
frame areas are being gripped, it is not essential that the
pliers be padded.) Rotate the pliers, bending the endpiece
area inward (Figure 8-45). Because of the risk of chipping
the lens, whenever there is sufcient space available, use
a second pair of pliers to grip the frame near the lens so
that the eyewire area is not stressed (Figure 8-46).
Third method: The endpiece can be bent using
another method that does not involve pliers, but only a
smooth at surface. With both hands, hold the frame by
the lens and eyewire just adjacent to the endpiece. (The
closer to the endpiece the frame is held, the less danger
there is of breaking a lens.) Hold the frame front perpendicular to the table surface, and push the endpiece
against the surface until there is enough bend to hold
the temple at its proper spread angle (Figure 8-47).
Temples Not Spread Enough (Increasing the
Temple Spread)
When the temple spread is too small, it can be increased
by using the reverse of the rst two methods described
above for decreasing the temple spread.
First method: This is exactly the reverse of method
one above. Grasp the outside section of the endpiece
with padded pliers. (This was shown in Figure 8-44.)

Bend the endpiece outward to the proper spread while
supporting the front at its junction with the endpiece.
Second method: Use the reverse of the second method
listed above. Close the temple, grasp the hinge, and bend
the endpiece outward. As noted before, certain kinds of
frames allow enough space at the endpiece to permit a
second pair of pliers next to the eyewire as holding pliers.
This takes any possible strain off the eyewire, reducing
the possibility of chipping a lens.
For a summary of temple spread problem solutions,
see Box 8-4.
BOX 8-4
Alternative Methods of Increasing or Decreasing
the Temple Spread on Metal Frames
1. a. Grasp the endpiece with the hand (or when
possible, use thin half-padded pliers as holding
pliers).
b. Use thin-padded or half-padded pliers as bending
pliers and grasp the endpiece near the hinge.
Bend the endpiece in or out.
2. Close the temple, grip the hinge barrels, and bend
the endpiece either inward or outward.
3. Push the outside of the endpiece against a at
surface to bend the endpiece inward.
Figure 8-45. Use the hand to grasp the frame front rmly at the endpiece. Decrease temple
spread with the pliers. If there is risk of chipping the lens, remove the lens rst.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
157
Figure 8-46. The risk of lens chipping can be reduced by using holding pliers while reducing
temple spread.
Figure 8-47. To decrease temple spread, the frame front may

be held perpendicular to a at surface and the endpiece pushed
against it.
Temple Parallelism (Changing the

Pantoscopic Angle)
Temple parallelism refers to the relative pantoscopic
angles as viewed from the side. Testing proper temple
parallelism is done in exactly the same manner for metal
frames as for plastic.
Place the glasses upside down on a at surface and
note if one or both temples touch the surface (at surface
touch test). If the frame wobbles, the pantoscopic angle
must be adjusted.
The normal pantoscopic angle varies anywhere from
4 degrees to 18 degrees. By keeping this in mind, it is
relatively easy to decide which temple to bend up or
down. If the difference between the two angles is
extreme, it may be necessary to bend one temple up and
one down to make the angle equal on both sides.
Figure 8-48. Double-padded pliers help to prevent marks on

the frame during frame adjustment.
There are several ways to change the pantoscopic

angle of a metal frame:
1. Hands only. The simplest way is to grasp the eyewire
and lens close to the endpiece on the same side of
the frame as the temple that needs to be angled and
bend the temple up or down by hand. The frame
will bend at the endpiece or at the hinge.
Though not desirable, it is sometimes necessary to
close the temple a few degrees to allow the hinge to
bend. One disadvantage to this method is that it may
leave a V-shaped gap at the point where the temple
butt and endpiece join. This should be avoided.
2. Two padded pliers. Using a pair of bracing pliers with
one metal and one nylon jaw (half-padded pliers),
hold the endpiece on the front of the frame if there
is room, or just anterior to the hinge if there is not.
The second pliers, used for bending, should be
double-padded pliers (Figure 8-48) to grasp the
158
Figure 8-50. When the endpiece is too small, the pantoscopic

angle can be changed without holding pliers. If the frame does
not have enough exibility, the lens may be removed rst.
B
Figure 8-49. To change the pantoscopic angle, hold the endpiece, grasp the top and bottom of the hinge area, and reangle
the temple.
temple close to or directly on the hinge. It may be

prudent to remove the lens if the frame is stiff or
there appears to be a possibility of chipping the
lens. Grasp the frame as shown in Figure 8-49, and
reangle it up or down.
3. One hand and one double padded pliers. It may be
possible to do the bend as described in the previous
method without a pair of bracing pliers. This may
be done by grasping the endpiece and temple from
the front with the double-padded pliers parallel to
the temple as shown in Figure 8-50.
4. One hand on frame front and angling pliers. Another
method of changing the temple-angle is to bend the
endpiece with angling pliers. Grip the hinge by the
screw head and tip of the screw with the angling
pliers (Figure 8-51, A and B). Holding the frame front
rmly, rotate the angling pliers until the desired angle
is reached. The front may be held by the hand near

the endpiece, or the endpiece may be secured with
pliers to better ensure against chipping the lens.
5. Gripping the eyewire screw. When one method does
not seem to work, or helps but does not fully
accomplish the task, there must be other ways to do
the same thing. With some frames it is possible to
change the pantoscopic angle by grasping the eyewire
screw and angling the temple as shown in Figure
8-52. Only frames constructed in certain ways will
allow for this. And this should not be used as the rst
attempt to change the pantoscopic angle, either.
6. Angling pliers and one hand on temple. Angling pliers
may be used to change the pantoscopic angle without
affecting the endpieces. This may be useful if the
endpieces appear to be even. Grip the hinge with
angling pliers in the customary manner. This time,
however, do not rotate the pliers; instead use them as
holding pliers. With the other hand, bend the temple
shaft down (Figure 8-53). The pantoscopic angle
correction is produced by a change in the hinge angle
instead of by a change in the endpiece angle.
For a summary on changing the pantoscopic angle
with metal frames, see Box 8-5.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
159
Figure 8-51. The pantoscopic angle of the temple angle may be changed by gripping the top
and bottom of the temple screw with angling pliers and bending the temple upward or downward. This is shown from a side view in (A) and from a top view in (B).
BOX 8-5
Alternative Methods of Changing the Pantoscopic
Tilt on Metal Frames
Figure 8-52. Here the pantoscopic angle is changed by grasping the eyewire screw instead of the hinge. Notice that thin
angling pliers are used because the standard angling pliers may
be too bulky to get into this small area.
1. a. Grasp frame front close to hinge.

b. Bend temple down by hand.
2. a. Hold the endpiece with half-padded pliers (see
Figure 8-48).
b. Grasp temple on top and bottom of hinge with
double-padded pliers.
c. Bend up or down.
3. a. Hold frame front with hand (see Figure 8-50).
b. Grasp temple on top and bottom of hinge with
double-padded pliers.
c. Bend up or down.
4. a. Hold front near endpiece with hand (see Figure
8-51).
b. Grip hinge with angling pliers.
c. Bend with pliers.
5. a. Hold front near endpiece with hand.
b. Grasp eyewire screw with angling pliers (see
Figure 8-52).
c. Bend with pliers.
6. a. Hold hinge steady with angling pliers (see Figure
8-53).
b. Grasp temple with hand and bend down.

The endpiece, or bent-down portion of metal frame
temples are aligned in the same manner as that used for
plastic frames. Several precautions must be taken,
however, to keep from damaging the frame during the
adjustment process.
160
Figure 8-53. The temple angle may be changed by bending the hinge instead of the endpiece
itself. This can be done using angling pliers to hold the hinge while the temple shaft is bent
down with the other hand.
The conventional skull temple on a metal frame

usually has a plastic covering over the end of the temple.
This affords a more comfortable t. Because of the
plastic, it is usually necessary to apply some degree of
heat to this part of the frame before it can be manipulated to effect adjustments. Different types of temples
require varying amounts of heat.
Temples with a clear plastic covering heat very quickly
and should be heated only slightly (just slightly warmer
than body temperature). The plastic can easily be bubbled
by overheating or distorted by being bent while too
pliable. New frames bend quite satisfactorily at low or no
temperature. The plastic in old frames, however, is usually
too brittle to bend without more extensive heating.
Other frames have a fairly heavy piece of metal
running through the temple ends. These frames exhibit
more resistance to bending because of the thickness of
the metal. A common error is to assume that this resistance is due to insufcient heating. The result is overheating and distortion of the plastic when it is bent. To
prevent this error, heat the entire plastic portion slightly,
but concentrate the heat on the portion that must absorb
the bend. Quite a bit of force may be necessary even
when the heating is done correctly.
Temple-Fold Angle
The procedure for changing the temple-fold angle in a
metal frame varies according to the type of endpiece
being used. Two common methods are presented here.
One uses double-padded pliers and the other uses halfpadded pliers.
In the rst method, hold the frame front rmly in one
hand and grip the top and bottom of the hinge area with
double-padded pliers similar to the manner pictured in
Figure 8-54, A. Rotate the pliers in the direction neces-
B
Figure 8-54. To change the temple-fold angle on commonly
used types of metal frames, hold the frame front in the hand
rmly, temples closed. Grip the top and bottom of the hinge
area with double-padded pliers as shown in (A) and bend the
temple so that it returns to and maintains its correct parallel
alignment as seen in (B).
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
161
Figure 8-55. The temple fold angle may be changed using

half-padded pliers on the endpiece and bending the folded
temple to parallel.
sary to line up the temples in their correct parallel alignment (Figure 8-54, B).
In the second method, the frame front is held by hand
in the same manner as method one. With temples closed,
the endpiece is gripped with the half-padded pliers as shown
in Figure 8-55. The temple is turned until parallel.
Figure 8-56. In standard alignment of nosepads, the angle

most clearly seen when viewing from the front is termed the
frontal angle.
SECTION C
Standard Alignment of Nosepads
As with the frame front and the temples, there is a specic standard alignment for nosepads that should be used
during the preliminary adjustment of the frame. Obviously, nal adjustment of the pads will vary extensively
with the individual shape and are of the nose of the
intended wearer. However, pads adjusted to a proper
standard initially facilitate individual adjustment later.
There are three basic angles that are used for reference when aligning nosepads. These are the frontal,
splay, and vertical angles. To be in standard alignment,
these angles must fall within certain limits and be the
same for both right and left nosepads.
FRONTAL ANGLE (VIEWED FROM

THE FRONT)
The frontal angle of the nosepads refers to the vertical
position of the pads in relation to each other when viewed
from the front. The tops of the pads should be closer
together than the bottoms, angling in toward each other
approximately 20 degrees from a true vertical (Figure
8-56).
Most pads can be rocked about a swivel joint. The
pads should be slanted for the frontal angle by the same
amount. This is most easily done using pad-adjusting
pliers to grip the pad as a whole. Pad adjusting pliers are
made in a variety of ways, depending upon the construc-
Figure 8-57. The type of pad-adjusting pliers used will depend

on the type of pad on the frame.
tion of the nosepads for which they are intended (Figure

8-57). The frame front is held securely in one hand and
the pad angled by turning the pliers to the angle desired
(Figure 8-58).
When evaluating one of the pads, the play exhibited
by that pad should be equal on each side of the desired
position for the correct frontal angle. In other words, a
pad should not have to be rocked to one extreme in order
to match the frontal angle of the other pad.
If one pad has a lot more play in the amount of rock it
shows, the amount of play may be reduced on some pad
types by tightening the looser pad with pliers. The way
this might be done depends upon how the pad is made.
162
Figure 8-58. The correct method for using pad-adjusting pliers.
For example, it may be done on some pads by pressing

on the attachment point with one jaw while the other
rests on the face of the pad. For pads which slip into a
small box on the pad arm, tighten the amount of rock by
crimping the box into which the back of the pad snaps.
Pad Spacing
While viewing the frontal angle, observe the amount of
space between the eyewires and pads. Both pads should
be equidistant from their respective eyewires. An estimated ideal position is for the face of the pads to appear
approximately 1 mm closer to the nose than the eyewire
itself (Figure 8-59). If the pads are spread too far apart,
the rim of the frame could possibly rest directly on the
nose. Both pads should also be equal distances from their
respective eyewires; otherwise, the frame will not center
properly on the face. Proper correction procedures for
these errors are described in detail in Chapter 9 when
discussing changing the distance between pads.
1 mm
Figure 8-59. An estimated ideal position is that in which the

faces of the pads appear approximately 1 mm closer to the nose
than the eyewire itself. Both pads should also be at the same
height, as shown by the horizontal red line.
Pad Height
A third point of observation is whether or not both pads
occupy the same horizontal plane (again, see Figure
8-59). If one pad appears higher than the other, the pad
arm may be bent upward. It is essential that both pads
be in identical rocking positions because if one is erect
and one is slanted, their heights may appear dissimilar.
Again, specics of adjustment technique are described
fully in Chapter 9 in the sections that review changing
the height of pads.
SPLAY ANGLE
Remembering that the nose is wider at the base than at
the bridge and that the face of the pads should rest fully
on the nose, it is apparent that the back edges of the pads
should be farther apart than the front edges. This difference then between the back and front edges of each
pad, viewed from the top or the bottom, is the splay angle.
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
163
25-30
Figure 8-60. The second angle of concern in the proper

alignment of nosepads may be seen by viewing the frame from
above. This angle is referred to as the splay angle.
For initial alignment, a splay angle of 25 to 30 degrees

is satisfactory (Figure 8-60) and may be achieved through
the use of the pad-adjusting pliers.
VERTICAL ANGLE (VIEWED FROM

THE SIDE)
The angle most often neglected in the standard alignment of nosepads is the vertical angle. This angle is especially important in ensuring proper weight distribution
under the pad. Ideally the longitudinal (top to bottom)
axis of the pad face is in contact with the nose surface in
the direction of gravity. In other words, the longitudinal
axes of the pads should be vertical on the face. (If the
nosepads are round instead of elongated, there is no
vertical angle.)
Since most spectacles are worn with a certain amount
of pantoscopic tilt, the pads will need to be inclined so
that the bottoms are slightly closer to the frame front
than the tops. Then when the glasses are positioned on
the nose with their proper pantoscopic angle, the pads
will be approximately vertical (Figure 8-61). For the
initial alignment, a vertical alignment angle of approximately 15 degrees is acceptable. This may be achieved in
one of three ways:
1. Using pad-adjusting pliers. Grasp the pad on its
surface with the pliers as was shown in Figure 8-58
and rotate. (In some instances it may be necessary
to grip the pad from the top instead of the bottom
to adjust the vertical angle.)
2. Thin-nosed pliers on the pad arm. For adjusting the
vertical angle, because there may not be room to do
this adjustment with pad adjusting pliers, thin-nosed
pliers are used. The pad arm is grasped directly
behind the pad from above or below.
3. Grasping the box behind the pad arm. Some nosepads
are attached to the pad arms with a small box. It is
possible to reangle some pads by grasping the box
behind the pad. This is shown in Figure 8-62.
Ch008-H7480.indd 163
Figure 8-61. The angle most often neglected in the standard

alignment of nosepads is the vertical angle. This angle is especially important in ensuring proper weight distribution under
the pad. When the glasses are worn, the frame front will not
be straight up and down, but will be angled. The long axis of
the pad will be straight up and down.
Pads Must Have Equal Distances From the

Frame Front
While viewing from the side to check for the proper
vertical angle, also note the distance of each pad from
the front of the frame. Both pads should extend back an
equal distance. The pads should be equal not only in
height and inclination, but also regarding this distance.
If these three details are precise, one pad will practically
hide the other when the pair is observed directly from
the side. To correct for an error of this nature, use the
techniques described in Chapter 9 in the sections on
changing the height and vertex distance of pads.
A Humorous Way to Remember the Three

Pad Angles*
Here is a clever way to remember which pad angle is
which and how they move:
1. Put your thumbs under your arms and ap your
arms like a chicken. This movement corresponds to
the frontal angle.
*Contributed by Dr. Michelle Chen.
7/27/2006 5:37:41 PM
164
Yet when the appropriate tools are used and procedures

followed, results and safety are excellent.
Newer mountings use a variety of methods to give
extra stability to the mounting. In the past, the lens was
held in place with one hole nasally and one hole temporally. Now there may be more than one hole, or a hole
and an edge notch used in combination. As a result, these
constructions hold their adjustment.
Appropriate Lens Materials
Figure 8-62. If one of the pad angles is out of adjustment, it

is possible to correct the angle by grasping the box behind the
pad with the pliers and adjusting the angle. Some silicone pads
have a tendency to split or tear with stress. This technique
avoids the pressure that would be applied to the pad were the
pad face to be grasped.
2. Hold your hand straight up in front of you and

rotate your wrist in the typical Miss America
wave. This mimics the splay angle.
3. Imagine being the person on the tarmac at the
airport using two orange ashlights to direct an
airplane taxiing toward you. To get the plane to
move directly toward you, you hold the ashlights
straight up and down. Now, bending your elbows,
move both ashlights forward and backward. This
corresponds to the vertical angle.
SECTION D
Standard Alignment of Rimless Eyewear
RIMLESS CONSTRUCTION AND LENS
MATERIALS
In the past, rimless eyewear was the most fragile of
eyewear. This made the alignment and adjusting of
rimless glasses tedious and risky because it was very easy
to chip the lens. This is still the case when older mountings or inappropriate lens materials are used. Rimless are
still more difcult to adjust than plastic and metal frames.
Ch008-H7480.indd 164
If appropriate lens materials are used for rimless mountings, lens chipping is vastly reduced. At the time of this
writing, the best lens materials for rimless mountings are
Trivex and polycarbonate. Both hold up extremely well,
but Trivex is less likely to develop small stress splits next
to the drilled hole. Some labs will only warranty Trivex
or Trivex and polycarbonate.
Many high index plastic materials are suitable for
rimless, though not performing as well as Trivex and
polycarbonate. Though still used some, conventional
CR-39 plastic is not a good choice.
Although glass lenses used to be used in rimless mountings years ago, they should not be used now. Chemically
tempered glass is physically possible to use with rimless,
but inappropriate. Heat-treated glass lenses are impossible. The combination of strain patterns produced by the
heat treatment and the induced strain at the mounting
points will result in a broken lens in short order.
ALIGNING THE BRIDGE

Whereas the bridge or pad arm origins and the endpieces serve as the line of reference for frames, the
mounting line serves as a line of reference for rimless
mountings. The mounting line is de ned as the line
which passes through the points on the eyewires or
straps at which the pad arms are attached.1 The endpieces may be attached on this line, or as may be the
case, above or below this line.
Horizontal skew can be noted by placing a straight edge
at the mounting line or parallel to it. If the temples are
attached to the lenses on the mounting line, all four
points should line up on the straight edge. If the temples
are not on the mounting line, the nasal points should be
on the straight edge, and the points of attachment of the
temples should be equidistant from the straight edge
(Figure 8-63).
If the lens is out of horizontal alignment and the
frame is new, there is a chance that one lens has been
improperly drilled. It may be more likely, however, that
the bridge of the frame is bent. Figure 8-64 shows a
mounting that is out of horizontal alignment. The
problem may be corrected as follows:
1. Using rimless bracing pliers and double-padded pliers.
One of the issues with rimless mountings is
7/27/2006 5:37:43 PM
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
165
Figure 8-63. Checking the horizontal alignment of a rimless pair of glasses. Here the ruler
is placed on the temporal holes. The nasal holes should be equidistant from the ruler.
Figure 8-64. This rimless mounting is out of horizontal

alignment.
protecting the lens mounting points from stress

during the adjustment process. Too much stress on
the lens at the mounting point can cause the lens to
loosen or fracture. The type of pliers that is
designed for reducing stress is referred to as rimless
bracing pliers. One example of such pliers is shown
in Figure 8-65. The bridge may be realigned by
holding a nasal drill point with bracing pliers,
grasping the bridge with double-padded pliers, and
bending the bridge as shown in Figure 8-66.
2. Using two pair of double-padded pliers. A rimless
bridge can also be corrected for horizontal
misalignment using two pair of double padded pliers
as shown in Figure 8-67.

After the horizontal alignment has been corrected, the
next step is checking for a four-point touch. This is done
in approximately the same manner as for plastic or metal
frames. Place a straight edge on the inner sides of the
lenses somewhat below the pads (Figure 8-68, A). In
Ch008-H7480.indd 165
Figure 8-65. Rimless bracing pliers are used to hold rimless

eyewear at the point of attachment to the lens. With this particular type of pliers, one jaw is xed and one jaw pivots. The
jaw that pivots (in this gure, the jaw on the left) is to be placed
on the front surface to compensate for the lens base curve.
theory the nasal and temporal sides of both lenses should

touch the straight edge. Then repeat the test by placing
the straight edge somewhat above the pads (Figure 8-68,
B). The nasal and temporal sides of both lenses should
again touch the straight edge. (In practice, because the
wearers PD is usually smaller than the frame PD, the
nasal lens edge may not necessarily touch the straight
edge, but must be equidistant from it.)
X-ing
If the nasal and temporal sides of both lenses in both
upper and lower positions do not touch the straight edge,
X-ing of the lenses has occurred. Because of the way
rimless lenses are mounted, it would be possible to have
a four-point touch exactly in the center of the lenses but
still have X-ing. For that reason, the four-point touch test
is done at both the top and the bottom of the lenses.
Face Form
While testing for a four-point touch, it may be found
that too little or too much face form exists. To increase
7/27/2006 5:37:44 PM
Figure 8-66. Here is one method for adjusting horizontal alignment using a combination of
rimless bracing and double-padded pliers. To correct the horizontal misalignment shown in
Figure 8-64, hold the nasal point of attachment with the rimless bracing pliers and bend the
bridge downward with the double padded pliers.
Figure 8-67. Horizontal misalignment may also be corrected by grasping the bridge with
two pair of double-padded pliers. This is still the same frame with the same misalignment as
was shown in Figure 8-64. Here the frame is viewed from the top. The left pliers hold the
bridge, replacing the rimless bracing pliers. The right pliers bend the bridge downward to
realign it.
Ch008-H7480.indd 166
7/27/2006 5:37:46 PM
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
167
B
Figure 8-68. A, The check for four-point touch on a rimless mounting is begun by placing
the straight edge on the inner side of the lenses below the pads. B, The check for four-point
touch on a rimless mounting is completed by placing the straight edge on the inner side of
the lenses above the pads. By checking both above and below the nosepads, it is easier to tell
if the bridge has any propeller-like, X-ing effect.
or decrease face form, grasp the mounting at a nasal

point of attachment with rimless bracing pliers and bend
the bridge backward or forward using double-padded
pliers (Figure 8-69). The bend in the bridge will take
place between the two pliers. For maintaining symmetry, it may sometimes be helpful to partially bend the
bridge, then switch the rimless bracing pliers to the nasal
point of attachment of the other lens and complete the
bend.
THE TEMPLES
In the sequence of standard aligning rimless mountings,
the temple area is considered next, just as it is with plastic
and metal frames.
Open Temple Spread

If the spread of one or both temples is at too great
(Figure 8-70) or too small an angle, the error may be
Ch008-H7480.indd 167
Figure 8-69. To increase or decrease face form, grasp the

mounting at a nasal point of attachment with rimless bracing
pliers and bend the bridge backward or forward using doublepadded pliers.
7/27/2006 5:37:49 PM
168
Figure 8-70. The right temple of this rimless mounting is

spread too far and must be realigned.
corrected by bending the endpiece. To do this, grasp the

temporal point of attachment of the lens with rimless
bracing pliers. Then grip the endpiece with half-padded
pliers from either above (Figure 8-71, A) or below (Figure
8-71, B). The unpadded jaw of the pliers must be on the
inside of the endpiece. If the temple is spread too far, the
endpiece is bent inward as is shown in Figure 8-71, C.
It is also possible to increase or decrease the temple
spread by using tri-angling pliers. Tri-angling pliers*
have two round parts to one side of the pliers and a
single, rounded section on the other jaw. By positioning
and squeezing the pliers as shown in Figure 8-71, D, the
temple spread may be increased or decreased. (This type
of pliers may also be used to adjust other types of frame
corners or to reshape a clip-on to match the shape of the
frame.) Care must be taken not to mark the frame.
If it is not possible to bend the endpiece, then bend the
temple. Do this by gripping the butt end of the temple
with pliers as close to the hinge as feasible. Then grasping the temple as close to the pliers as possible with the
thumb and forenger of the free hand, bend the temple
itself.
Temple Parallelism
Using the at surface touch test previously described for
plastic and metal frames, check the parallelism (relative
pantoscopic angles) of the temples. If one temple does
not touch, the cause may be a bend in the temple itself,
either at the attachment to the frame or just before the
curl of the endpiece. This can easily occur with comfort
cable temples, as seen in Figure 8-72. Or the bend may
also be gradual, extending the length of the shaft. The
solution here is to remove the unwanted bend, usually
using the hands alone.
*Available from Western Optical Supply, Inc. Santa Fe, New
Mexico.
Ch008-H7480.indd 168
If the temple itself is not bent, the fault lies in the

angle of the endpiece. Figure 8-73 shows what this error
looks like. Here are some commonly used methods for
correcting this problem (basically a difference in right
and left pantoscopic angles).
Using rimless bracing and double-padded pliers. Open
the temple and grasp the lens at the temporal mounting point with the rimless bracing pliers. Using
double-padded pliers, grasp the endpiece as shown in
Figure 8-74, A or B. Then rotate the double-padded
pliers so that the pantoscopic angle of the temple is
increased or decreased, causing the temple to move
down or up.
Using rimless bracing and endpiece angling pliers. This
method is the same as the one above with one difference. Instead of double-padded pliers, endpiece
angling pliers are used to grasp the top and bottom
of the temple screw (Figure 8-75). The endpiece
angling pliers are rotated, bending the endpiece and
moving the temple upward or downward.
Bending the temple by hand. It is possible to hold the lens
at the temporal point of attachment and bend the
temple up or downward by hand as shown in Figure
8-76. This is probably the least satisfactory method
because it is not as easy to control the place where the
frame is actually bent. Using two sets of pliers assures
that the bend takes place between the locations of the
two pliers.

Procedures used to align the bent-down portion of the
temple for skull temples on a rimless mounting are the
same as outlined for metal frames.
Cable temples are best aligned using the hands alone.
Cable temples must be bent much farther than other
temples because they tend to spring back to where they
were before.
Temple-Fold Angle
The temples, when folded, should meet the same requirements as described for plastic and metal frames. The
same general adjustment routine is followed as for plastic
and metal frames, except that the point of attachment to
the lens must be held with rimless bracing pliers to
prevent undo stress on the lenses and their points of
attachment.
Fold the temples to a closed position and look at how
they cross one another. They should preferably overlap, or
at least cross at the center of the frame. Figure 8-77 shows
a rimless mounting with uneven temple fold angles.
To correct the temple fold angle, grasp the temporal
point of attachment with rimless bracing pliers and the
endpiece and butt portion of the closed temple with doublepadded pliers. Angle the temple upward or downward with
the double-padded pliers as shown in Figure 8-78.
7/27/2006 5:37:52 PM
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
169
Spreading
the temple
Ch008-H7480.indd 169
Bending the
temple inward
Figure 8-71. A, To increase or decrease the temple spread for a

rimless mounting, grasp the temporal point of attachment of the
lens with rimless bracing pliers. Then grip the endpiece with
half-padded pliers from above and bend the endpiece either
outward or inward. B, Some may prefer to grip the endpiece area
from below with both pliers to bend the endpiece in or out.
C, Hold the frame front steady with rimless bracing pliers (left)
and rotate the half-padded pliers to bend the endpiece, bringing
the temple inward or outward. D, Tri-angling pliers may be used
to increase or decrease temple spread on certain rimless frames
without putting stress on the lenses.
7/27/2006 5:37:54 PM
170
Figure 8-72. An unwanted bend may occur at the position on

a cable temple where metal coiling begins.
Figure 8-73. The temples of this rimless drill mount are not
parallel. The difference in the two pantoscopic angles will
cause the frame to fail the at surface touch test.
OTHER RIMLESS ADJUSTMENTS

Rimless Nosepad Alignment
The nosepads of rimless mountings should meet the
same specications laid down for metal frames. The
chief distinction in technique is that the bending of the
pad arms should not be attempted unless the base of the
pad arm is sufciently supported to prevent stress on the
mounting point and lens.
This support can be given by holding the mounting
point with rimless bracing pliers while adjusting the pads
with pad adjusting pliers. Sometimes it may be sufcient
to support the lens mounting point by holding the
mounting point tightly between thumb and fore nger.
A Loose Lens
Any drilled rimless lens may loosen if the lens screw is

not tightened down sufciently.
If the fault lies with the screw, it need simply be tightened. The screw may be tightened using a regular screwdriver, but care must to taken not to slip off the screw
and scratch the lens. There is a screwdriver with a sleeve
around the blade that helps to stabilize the screwdriver
and keep it from slipping onto the lens (Figure 8-79).
Keep in mind that an overtight screw may crack the lens.
This lens screw used for a rimless lens is sometimes
Figure 8-74. A, To correct for unequal pantoscopic angles,

the dispenser grasps the lens at the temporal mounting point
with the rimless bracing pliers and rotates the temple with
double-padded pliers. B, This method of grasping the endpiece of a rimless mounting is just a variation of that shown in
A. The temple is still rotated upward or downward.
Ch008-H7480.indd 170
7/27/2006 5:38:10 PM
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
171
Figure 8-77. A rimless mounting with unequal temple fold

angles.
Figure 8-75. A very popular variation on changing the pantoscopic angle uses endpiece angling pliers to angle the
temple.
Figure 8-78. Holding the temporal mounting point of the

lens, angle the temple with double-padded pliers.
Figure 8-76. A quick alternative for changing the temples

pantoscopic angle uses rimless bracing pliers to hold and
makes the bend with the free hand.
Ch008-H7480.indd 171
Figure 8-79. A screwdriver made especially for rimless lens

screws. The plastic sleeve stabilizes the screwdriver and lessens
the risk of slipping off the screw and scratching the lens.
7/27/2006 5:38:13 PM
172
referred to as a glass screw because in former days the

screw went through glass lens material.
Some nd it helpful to protect the surface of the lens
by placing several layers of transparent tape over the lens
surface so that if the screwdriver slips, it is less likely to
damage the lens surface. If the tape leaves a residue,
remove it with alcohol.2
REFERENCES
1. Cline D, Hofstetter HW, Grif n JR: Dictionary of visual
science, ed 4, Radnor, Pa, 1989, Chilton Trade Book
Publishing.
2. Carlton J: Fitting tip: Scotch tape to the rescue, Optical
Dispensing News, no 139, June 25, 2003.
Proficiency Test
7.
1. True or false? Truing means the same thing as

standard alignment.
2. True or false? It is safer to use hot salt to heat
frames than hot air.
3. When the frame front is tested for four-point
touch, but only touches on the two temporal
eyewires, the frame:
a. is skewed.
b. has face form.
c. is out of coplanar alignment.
d. has X-ing.
e. none of the above.
4. A rotated lens can be detected:
a. when checking horizontal alignment.
b. when checking vertical alignment.
c. when checking for four-point touch.
d. when checking for equality of pantoscopic
angle.
5. A situation where the frame front is somewhat
twisted, with the planes of the two lenses being
out of line with one another, is called:
a. twisting.
b. a skewed bridge.
c. X-ing.
d. wraparound.
6. An error in standard alignment where, when
viewed from the front, one lens appears to be
somewhat higher than the other, is called:
a. X-ing.
b. propeller effect.
c. wraparound.
d. lens out of coplanar alignment.
e. skewed bridge.
Ch008-H7480.indd 172
When one lens is farther forward than the other,

the frame:
a. has a skewed bridge.
b. has too much face form.
c. has X-ing.
d. is out of coplanar alignment.
8. The temples of a frame do not open far enough.

The dispenser standard aligning the frame does
not know how wide the wearers head is.
Therefore, when putting the frame in standard
alignment, it is not always a good idea to spread
the temples to more than how many degrees?
a. 85 degrees (with reference to the frame front).
b. 90 degrees (with reference to the frame front).
c. 95 degrees (with reference to the frame front).
d. 100 degrees (with reference to the frame front).
e. The degree spread is not important as long as
both temples are spread equally.
9.
(Indicate which of the following statements are

true and which are false.) To decrease the temple
spread for standard plastic frames, one could:
a. heat the endpiece and press it against a at
surface.
b. le the frame front.
c. le the butt end of the temple where it contacts
the endpiece.
d. heat the endpiece and push on it with the
thumb.
10. To increase the temple spread for standard plastic

frames, one should rst try to spread the temple
by heating the endpiece and bending it outward. If
this and all other measures fail, then it is possible
to increase the temple spread by ling. To do this:
a. le the frame front only.
b. le the temple only.
c. le both front and temple evenly.
d. le temple rst and then the front. But le the
front only after reaching the metal piece in the
temple.
7/27/2006 5:38:18 PM
CHAPTER 8
Standard Alignment
173
11. When ling temples on a plastic frame, ling the

metal piece (a part of the hinge) in the temple:
a. is permissible.
b. should be avoided because it decreases the
holding power of the temples.
c. never comes into question because the metal
never comes back that far in the temple.
d. none of the above.
16. Of all the tools listed below, which could be a

good choice for changing the temple-fold angle of
plastic frames?
a. cutting pliers
b. a zyl le
c. half-padded pliers
d. square-round pliers
e. nger-piece pliers
12. (Indicate which of the following are true and

which are false.) A frames inability to meet the at
surface touch test could be caused by:
a. the lens not being all the way in the groove
causing the endpiece not to be straight.
b. broken or loose hinge rivets.
c. a bend in the temple shaft.
d. a bent hinge.
17. True or false? The angle that the temple forms,

when fully opened, in relationship to the front of
the frame is called let-back.
13. When checking for equality of pantoscopic angle

in the standard alignment process, it is best to rst
place the glasses on the table which way? As in A
or B?
a. A, right side up
b. B, upside down
B
14. Suppose the bent-down portion of one temple is
bent down more than the other. The frames are
placed on a table as in gure A above.
a. When viewed in this way, the left and right
pantoscopic angles will appear unequal even if
they are not.
b. When viewed in this way, the left and right
pantoscopic angles will appear unequal. This is
a sure indication that they really are unequal.
15. One should not use heat in adjusting a
conventional plastic frame when:
a. bending the endpieces.
b. changing the bridge area.
c. changing the pantoscopic angle.
d. bending the temple earpiece.
e. one should always use heat when adjusting a
plastic frame.
Ch008-H7480.indd 173
18. The temples of a plastic frame, when fully opened,

do not open wide enough. This problem may be
corrected in one of several ways. Which is not a
possible solution to this problem?
a. The lens may not be completely inserted into
the frame groove at the location of the
endpiece. Heat the frame and insert the lens
completely.
b. Heat and bend the endpiece outward.
c. File the butt end of the temple.
d. Heat the butt end of the temple and bend the
temple outward.
e. Use a soldering iron or Hot Fingers unit and
heat the hidden hinge so that it will sink deeper
into the frame front.
19. Retroscopic tilt is manifested:
a. When the top of the frame front is closer to the
wearers face plane than the bottom of the
frame front.
b. When the bottom of the frame front is closer to
the wearers face plane than the top of the
frame front.
c. When one lens is closer to the wearers face
plane than the other lens.
d. When one lens is higher on the wearers face
than the other lens.
20. True or false? In standard alignment, the temple
fold angle is not correct until both temples are
parallel, even if the temples cross in the center of
the frame.
21. True or false? When changing temple spread on
metal frames, a method that would never work is
to push the outside of the endpiece against a at
surface.
22. Identify the angle illustrated.
a. nasal angle
b. vertical angle
c. retroscopic angle
d. frontal angle
e. apical angle
7/27/2006 5:38:18 PM
174
23. Which nosepad angle is best viewed from the top

or bottom of the frame?
a. Frontal
b. Splay
c. Vertical
24. Which nosepad angle is most closely related to the
pantoscopic angle?
a. Frontal
b. Splay
c. Vertical
25. Which nosepad angle disappears when the
nosepads are round instead of elongated?
a. Frontal
b. Splay
c. Vertical
d. None of the nosepad angles disappear.
e. With round pads, none of the nosepad angles
matter.
26. On an adjustable pad bridge frame, the tops of the
two nosepads should normally be closer together
than the bottoms of the two nosepads. If this is
not the situation, but instead the bottoms of the
pads are closer together than the tops, which
nosepad angle is off?
a. Frontal
b. Splay
c. Vertical
d. Cannot tell from the information given
27. In standard alignment, the distance of the face of
the pad from the nasal eyewire of the frame is
normally how many millimeters?
a. 0 mm
b. 1 mm
c. 2 mm
d. 2.5 mm
e. 3 mm
28. Pad adjusting pliers
a. grip the pad arm behind the pad
b. grip the face of the pad and the back of the pad
29. When remembering nosepad angles in a humorous
way, which pad angle corresponds to the angle
mimicked by a chicken apping its wings?
a. Frontal
b. Splay
c. Vertical
Ch008-H7480.indd 174
30. Where should a four-point touch be checked on

rimless spectacles? (Choose the best, single answer
from the choices given.)
a. below the nosepads on the backs of the lenses
b. above the nosepads on the backs of the lenses
c. both above and below the nosepads on the
backs of the lenses
d. at the level of the pad arm attachments on the
fronts of the lenses
e. at the level of the pad arm attachments on the
backs of the lenses
31. When checking the four-point touch in a rimless
mounting, it is found that the straight edge
contacts the four proper points above the
nosepads, but below the nosepads the straight edge
only touches the left lens and not the right. What
error has occurred?
a. too much face form
b. too little face form
c. lenses out of coplanar alignment
d. horizontal misalignment
e. X-ing
32. Of the lens materials listed, which material is most
likely to break, crack, or develop stress splits at the
mounting point when used for rimless drill
mountings?
a. CR-39 plastic
b. Polycarbonate
c. Trivex
33. Of the lens materials listed, which material is least
likely to break, crack, or develop stress splits at the
mounting point when used for rimless drill
mountings?
a. CR-39 plastic
b. Polycarbonate
c. Trivex
34. The use of two pairs of pliers at one time is most
likely to be of benet with which type of frames?
a. Cellulose acetate plastic
b. Metal frames
c. Rimless mountings
d. There is no difference
7/27/2006 5:38:18 PM
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
he purpose of this chapter is to convey the fundamental principles required for the mastery of
an art: tting the frame properly. If the material
covered here is not mastered, many of the other principles learned in other sections of the text will not work
because the spectacles may not be worn as intended.
CAUSES OF COMPLAINT
The role of the physical features of a pair of spectacles
and how well they are t to the individual is crucial to
satisfaction and the ability of the individual to adapt to
the new prescription. Kintner,1 in his study of the relative role of the physical features serving as factors affecting the wearing comfort of spectacles, concluded that
the overwhelming majority of complaints were related
to the t of the framesa direct result of the frame
selection and spectacles adjustment. Many wearers seem
more likely to tolerate spectacles in which the prescriptions are slightly awry if the frames t comfortably. A
wearer is not as likely to tolerate spectacles if the frames
t poorly even if the prescription is correct.
The comfort and suitability of the tting seem to be
the most signicant criteria for satisfaction.
adjustment, the tter should recognize this and remove

the frame immediately so that the wearer does not
become falsely concerned that the glasses may not be
right for him or her.
To place the spectacles on the wearer, hold them by
the temples, pulling slightly outward to facilitate slipping the glasses on easily, and guide the ends of the
temples just over the ears and down (Figure 9-1). If the
temples must be spread a great deal to get them on, use
one of the methods outlined in Chapter 8 to adjust the
temple spread. This will allow the temples to open wide
enough to permit the frame to rest on the nose without
pressure against the side of the head.
Triangles of Force
The tting triangle described by Stimson2 is composed
of the three points where the spectacles contact or put
pressure against the head. The apex of the triangle is the
contact point on the crest of the nose, and the endpoints
of the base of the triangle are the two pressure points
just above the roots of the ears, one on each side of the
head (Figure 9-2). Since pads are often used for frames,
there may actually be two resting points to the apex of
the triangle.
Achieving the Proper Temple Spread
SECTION A
Overall Frame Adjusting
THE FITTING PROCESS
A new frame should be in standard alignment (refer to
Chapter 8) when it is received by the tter. As discussed
previously, however, this is not always the case, so it is
wise to check the frames and put them into standard
alignment, if necessary, before attempting to adjust them
to the wearers face.
All rules applying to the tting of new frames for a
rst dispensing will also apply to the readjustment of
frames that have been worn over a period of time and
have come out of alignment.
Putting the Frames On

It is preferable to begin the tting procedure by having
the tter put the frame on the wearers face for the rst
time. If the frame requires a good deal of additional
The temple-spread angle of the frame should be such

that the shafts of the temples exert no pressure, even if
touching, on any area of the face or temple before the
point of the head at which they should exert pressure
just above the root of the ears. This position is usually the
widest portion of the head.
Temples Not Spread Enough
If the temples are not spread far enough, there will be
too much pressure on both sides of the head, causing the
temples to bow out (Figure 9-3). This forces the frame
forward until the temples are opposite a narrower
part of the head. When the frame slides forward, the
pressure that tends to bend them is somewhat relieved
(Figure 9-4).
If the glasses are tted in this manner and the temple
spread is never corrected, the glasses will not only tend
to slide down, but as they do so, the bent-down portions
of the temples will pull against the backs of the ears.
175
176
Figure 9-1. The tter holds the spectacles by the temples,

usually spreading them a bit more than they are set for to avoid
forcing them on the head.
Figure 9-3. Even though the illustration is exaggerated, it can

be seen how pressure is exerted on the head and a negative bow
in the temples created.
Figure 9-2. The tting triangle is the connection of only

three points upon which pressure may be exerted. These are
the crest of the nose and the sides of the head just above the
roots of the ears. The pressure on the nose is from the weight
of the frame.
Then not only do the glasses slip down as if they were

loose, but they hurt behind the ears as well. The wearer
experiences the disadvantages of both loose and tight
glasses at the same time.
The rst step in the entire adjustment procedure is to
achieve the temple-spread angle that permits the front
to rest easily on the nose without being forced forward.
This is done by adjusting the endpieces so that the
temples do not exert pressure against the sides of
the head at any point in front of the ears. The temple
shafts may touch the sides of the head, but should not
exert pressure. The adjustment should be such that the
corner of a sheet of paper may be slipped between the
temple shaft and the side of the head. The only place
where pressure is allowable is above the root of the
ears.
If the head is very round or is wider in front of the
ears than above the ears, it may be necessary to bend
the temples into an arc that follows this wider portion
of the head, but eventually presses the head only at the
desired point (i.e., immediately above the root of the
ear).
Figure 9-4. In an attempt to return to their original shape,

the temples cause the glasses to slip. This creates a situation
with the worst characteristics of both tight- and loose-tting
glasses. Not only do the glasses slip forward, but they may also
hurt behind the ears.
Temples Spread Too Far

If the temple angle is too wide for the patients head, the
glasses will tend to slide down the nose. More often this
occurs if the frame has been worn for some time. The
specic methods used to reduce the temple-spread angle
can be found in Chapter 8.
Equality of Lens Vertex Distance
At this point, it is advisable to check the glasses for
equality of vertex distance. This is done by having the
wearer tilt his head forward while the dispenser views
the glasses from above (Figure 9-5). If the glasses have
been properly aligned and the wearers head is symmetrical, both lenses will be the same distance from the wearers face. If, however, the temple spread is unequal with
one temple angling farther in or out than the other, or
if one side of the wearers head is somewhat wider than
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9-6. If the wearer complains of the frame hurting

one side of the nose, unequal temple-spread angles might be
suspected.
TABLE 9-1
To Move One Lens Closer to the Face (IN With IN,

OUT With OUT)
Problem
Solution
If left lens is IN
Bring left temple IN

or
or
(and)
If right lens is OUT
Bring right temple OUT
If right lens is IN
Bring right temple IN

or
the other, one lens will be closer to the face than the
other.
The necessary correcting procedures for this inequality will be directly indicated by the way the frame positions itself. If, as in Figure 9-5, the wearers right lens is
farther from the face, there is more pressure over the
wearers right ear than the left, forcing the right side out.
(The principle is the same as was described in Figure
9-4, except that one temple is under more stress than its
partner, forcing that side forward.) The remedy to the
problem can be approached two ways.
1. It may be that the right temple is not spread far
enough, making this side t too tight. The solution is to
open the temple out farther. This is done in the same
manner as for standard alignment.
2. It could also be that the right temple is correctly
tted, but the left temple is too loose. The right only has
the effect of pushing its side forward because of the lack
of counteracting pressure on the left side. Here the solution is to bring this left temple inward, decreasing the
spread. Again, the techniques used are the same as those
described for standard alignment of the frame.
In practice, often both temples are adjusted somewhat,
one being brought in, the other opened out. As stated
before, regardless of whether the problem lies with the
glasses or the head shape, the solution is the same, and is
indicated by the way the frame positions itself. Table 9-1
presents a simple way to remember these adjustments.
If the glasses should be dispensed incorrectly, with
one temple not spread sufciently, after being worn for
some time the ear on this same side and the opposite side
of the wearers nose will become sore. This results from
the clothespinlike effect of the tighter side of the frame
pinching the face (Figure 9-6). Therefore if a person
complains of the frame hurting one side of the nose, an
improper temple-spread angle might be suspected.
It should be noted that in approaching the problem of
vertex distance inequality, it is a good idea to rst check
to see if one of the temples is not straight, but bowed in
or out. If the temple is bowed or bent, straighten it rst.
177
(and)
or
Figure 9-5. The lens in front of the wearers left eye is closer
because one temple is pressing harder on the side of the head
than the other.
Adjusting the Frame
If left lens is OUT
Bring left temple OUT
A single bowed temple can cause a vertex distance

inequality in the same way as differences in templespread angles.
THE FRONT
The adjustment of the frame front takes place after
making certain the temple spread angles are right. Here
is the two step overview:
First, the proper pantoscopic angle or tilt of the
frame front is set.
Next the straightness of the frame on the face, when
viewed from the front, is adjusted.
It is clear that proper pantoscopic angle and frame
straightness should precede any bridge adjustments.
This is because changes in the angle of the frame front
will directly affect how the nosepads rest on the nose. If
the nosepads are adjusted so they sit at on the nose rst,
and then the whole frame front is reangled for a new
pantoscopic angle, a problem has been createdthe pads
will no longer be sitting at on the nose.
*The primary denition of pantoscopic angle that relates to tting

is the angle that the frame front makes with the frontal plane of
the wearers face when the lower rims are closer to the face than
the upper rims (see Glossary). However, during the standard alignment process, pantoscopic angle usually refers to that angle by
which the frame front deviates from the vertical . . . when the spectacles are held with the temple horizontal.
To Move One Lens Higher on the Face (UP With UP,

DOWN With DOWN)
Problem
Solution
If left lens is UP
Bend left temple UP
(and)
If right lens is DOWN
Bend right temple DOWN
If right lens is UP
Bend right temple UP

or
Straightness of the Frame on the Face

If the frame is crooked on the face, adjustment of the
pantoscopic angle at each endpiece will allow the frame
to be leveled when viewed from the front.
The rst possible cause of a crooked frame is incomplete standard alignment. If the temples are not parallel
and fail the at surface touch test, then the frames cannot
be expected to sit straight on the face. However, even if
the temples are parallel, there may still be a problem.
Most heads are not symmetrical. One ear is often
slightly higher than the other. In such instances, even
previously standard-aligned glasses with temples parallel
will appear tilted on the face when viewed from the
front.
The solution is the same whether the cause is the
frame or the face. The pantoscopic tilt* (or more concisely, the angle the temple makes with the frame front)
needs to be changed on one or both sides.
If the right side of the frame is too high, the right
temple must be angled up. This allows the frame to drop
down farther on that side before the temple contacts the
top of the ear.
However, it may not be advisable to decrease the pantoscopic angle on the higher side. Sometimes this will
cause the frame front to have too little pantoscopic tilt
when viewed from the side. If this is the case, the opposite temple may be angled down instead. This increase
in the pantoscopic tilt of the opposite side accomplishes
the same result because it raises the side that is too
low.
Often both raising one temple and lowering the other
are required. One bend alone may be insufcient to level
the frame. Stated simply, if the right side of the frame
front is up, bend the right temple up. Or looking at it
from the other sideif the left side is down, bend the
left temple down. Table 9-2 shows this in an easy-tomemorize chart.
When the ears are at unequal heights on the head,
changing the pantoscopic angle to straighten the glasses
TABLE 9-2
or
The usual tilt of the frame front may be anywhere from

4 to 18 degrees from the vertical. It will only approach
the upper (18 degree) extreme in the case of exceptionally protruding eyebrows. In evaluating the pantoscopic
angle, the lenses or rims of the frames should touch
neither the brows nor the cheeks.
(The optical reasons for varying amounts of pantoscopic tilt were described in Chapter 5.)
or
Pantoscopic Angles
(and)
If left lens is DOWN
or
178
Bend left temple DOWN
on the face will cause the glasses themselves to lie

crooked when placed on a at surface. If this is not
pointed out to the wearer, he or she may think the glasses
are in error and be suspicious of the quality of the tting.
Always call this to the wearers attention.
Reference Points
Although it is helpful to refer to the eyebrows when
determining the level of the frame, facial asymmetry can
cause one lens to appear higher than the other even when
this is not really the case. The frame front should not be
aligned solely on the basis of eyebrow height or the position of the eyes in the head because either of these features may be asymmetrical. Instead, overall appearance
of both eyes and brows should be used. If due to facial
asymmetry the frame conforms better to facial features
when tted slightly higher on one side, then it should be
t that way.
If bifocals are being dispensed and have been correctly measured using a properly adjusted frame for each
eye independently, the logical reference point is the relationship between the bifocal line and the lower edge of
the pupil. To judge this objectively, tilt the wearers head
back and note whether or not both segment lines intersect the pupils at the same point. (For a more complete
description of both objective and subjective techniques,
see Chapter 5.) The same may be said for the tting cross
markings of progressive addition lenses. Fitting crosses
should be centrally positioned before the pupils.
Other Sources of Error Causing the Frame Front to
Appear Crooked
When the glasses are crooked, the following areas should
also be checked in determining the source of error.
1. Are the unequally angled temples caused by bent
endpieces or just the hinges?
2. Are the temples themselves bent?
3. Is the bridge skewed?
4. Is one ear farther back than the other? (If the
temples are the same length, this may cause one
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
179
bent-down portion to strike an ear at a different

position of the bend than the other, giving the same
effect as one ear being higher.)
THE TEMPLES
When all adjustments having to do with the front of the
glasses have been doneopen temple angle, pantoscopic
angle, height, vertex distance, and pad positions on the
nose nal attention is paid to the adjustment of the
temples.
If the previous front adjustments are satisfactory, the
spectacles will stay in proper position on the face if the
head is held erect even though the temples are not fully
adjusted. This is true as long as the rst point of contact
of the temples is at the sides of the head just above the
ears. Note: This is the correct time to adjust the nosepads. We have not yet covered nosepads. If the frame
does have nosepads, they need to be adjusted before the
ends of the temples are adjusted. Nosepads are covered
in Section B of this chapter.
Lateral pressureThe pressure of the temples against
the sides of the head just above the ears is increased, if
necessary, by decreasing the temple spread. This can be
done by any of the methods described earlier in Chapter
8, such as bending the endpiece areas in.
The correct amount of lateral pressure is such that
the patient feels no pressure or, if pressure is felt, no
discomfort. The glasses should stay rmly in place even
if the head is lowered. This should be true even though
the backs of the temples have not as yet been adjusted.
An important point to remember in tting temples is
that the best way the glasses are held in place is with
friction, not pressure. Friction is increased when the
contact with the side of the head is maximized. With
that in mind, adjustment of any type of library or skull
temple will work best if the inside of the temple is parallel to the head in three places: 1) along the temple shaft,
2) above the root of the ear (Figure 9-7), and 3) along
the slope of the head behind the ear.
This may require rotating the temple about its long
axis. To do this, heat and twist the temple.
Earpiece or curlWhen the lateral pressure is satisfactorily applied, attention is given to that portion of the
temple that lies past the top of the ear. Adjustment varies
depending on the type of temple used and will be considered according to temple type.
Fitting Straight-Back and Skull Temples

A straight-back or library temple has no vertical bend
behind the ear. As the name implies, it goes straight
back. A skull temple is bent down behind the ear.
Many temples can be t with or without a bend at the
ear as a skull or straight-back temple. To begin with, we
will consider how to t a temple without a bend. In doing
so, we can consider rst the way the temple ts against
the side of the head. Later we can add the bend.
Figure 9-7. A library or skull temple should be adjusted so

that the whole side of the temple is parallel to the slope of the
head above the root of the ear. A, Proper parallel t. B, Not
parallel.
Figure 9-8. A common dispensing error committed by an

untrained tter is that of bowing the temples to achieve a snug
t.
All the principles applying to a straight-back or library

temple also apply to the skull temple.
Adjustment of straight-back temples consists of
bending inward that portion of the temple that lies just
past the top of the ear. This is done in such a way that
the inside surface of the temple lies fully against the
portion of the head directly behind the top of the ear.
The temple must contact the head continuously from the
top of the ear back, exerting uniform pressure all along
that area.
A common error used to tighten up a frame that slides
down the nose is to bend the very last portion of the
temple too far inward. The result is that the end of the
temple exerts excessive pressure at a single point on
the head. This maladjustment usually bows the rest of
the temple away from the head (Figure 9-8). At rst the
wearer is happy because the glasses no longer slide down
the nose. But the inward bend of the temple displaces
the upper lobe of the ear and eventually digs a painful
180
Figure 9-10. Pressure created by bowing the temples is transferred to frame bridge and endpiece areas, causing them to
give over a period of time. The illustration shown is a natural
outcome of continually increasing temple bowing to maintain
a snug t.
Figure 9-9. The error in the previous gure is shown in this

photo of a skull temple. Note how the temple presses both
outward on the lobe of the ear (arrow A) and inward against
the side of the head (arrow B).
pit into the side of the head where the tip presses against
it (Figure 9-9). This all too common error is seen with
both straight-back and skull temples.
When bent inward too far, the excessive pressure of
the tips against the head causes the endpieces and the
bridge to give, bending out. This in turn eventually
releases the lateral pressure that holds the frame up. For
the inexperienced tter unaware of the source of error,
the erroneous remedy is usually more of the same.
This means increasing the temple arc to restore the tips
contact against the side of the head. A vicious circle
occurs, resulting in widely bowed temples and an excessively bent frame front (Figure 9-10).
If the structure of the skull is such that there is a dip
or hollowed-out convolution in the side of the head, heat
the temple and bend it to follow the side of the head as
precisely as possible. The objective is to establish as
much friction through contact of the surfaces as possible
so that a disc brake action is introduced. The dispenser
may heat and press an indentation into the bent-down
portion of a skull temple with both thumbs. Because of
this, many call this adding a thumbprint to the temple.
If this is too difcult to do with the thumbs, eyewire
forming pliers can be used as shown in Figure 9-11.
(These pliers were pictured earlier and are normally
used to shape the eyewire of a metal frame as was seen
in Figures 7-14 and 7-15.)
Figure 9-11. The end of this temple is being shaped to

conform to a slight hollow in the side of the wearers head.
This dip in the temple is often referred to as a thumbprint
because it may be pressed into the temple using both thumbs.
Here it is being pressed into the temple using eyewire forming
pliers.
If the frame front has been properly adjusted, the

lateral temple pressure correctly applied, and the friction
contact of the temple ends well established, then the
spectacles will remain secure without hurting.
Positioning the Temple Bend

The proper position of the bend in the temple lies just
past the top of the ear. The downward slant of the earpiece should parallel the slope of the back of the root of
the ear. If it even touches the root of the ear, it should
just barely touch it (Figure 9-12). Above all, the temple
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
181
Figure 9-14. Properly positioning the location of the bend is

incomplete if the bent-down portion of the temple stands away
from the side of the head.
Figure 9-12. A properly positioned temple bend occurs just
behind the top of the ear. This allows the bent-down portion
of the temple to parallel the upper root of the ear.
Figure 9-13. With the ear folded forward, the arrow points
out the most sensitive portion of the ear. Pressure from the
temple on this area should be avoided.
must not press into the crease between ear and head or
on the small cord of cartilage that helps in connecting
the ear to the head (Figure 9-13).
The earpiece portion of the temple should not be just
bent down (Figure 9-14). It must be positioned against
the side of the head, usually requiring inward angling.
Shape the descending earpiece portion to match the

convolutions of the mastoid process, which is a lump on
the side of the head behind the ear. It should exert even
pressure throughout its length, just as with the straighttemple types.
Temples Too Long or Too Short
If the temples are too long or too short, the position of
the temple bend can be modied. There are, of course,
limits as to how far the bend can be moved because too
radical a change will result in the earpiece being too long
or short. A change of the bend position is more easily
and satisfactorily performed for plastic temples than for
temples made entirely from metal. Some metal temples
may need to be replaced by properly sized temples.
Since temples are manufactured in steps of 5 mm,
there is always a possibility that a temple may not t
quite as precisely as desired on a given head. If this is the
case, the position of the bend can be changed. The position of the bend also needs to be changed in cases where
the correct length is not available or where an error in
ordering the correct length has been made. The suggested procedure for changing the position of the bend
is as follows:
1. Note bend positionThe front should be positioned
so that the glasses are seated as they will be when
worn. Often new glasses or frame samples t much
too loosely, allowing the glasses to slip down on the
nose. When this happens, the temple slips forward
until stopped by the ear. As a result, the temple
bend appears to be properly situated, when in
actuality the temples are too long. To avoid this
problem, stand with the wearer seated, and grasp
the glasses around both endpieces with the left
hand. Hold them on the face where they should
182
Figure 9-15. The desired location of the temple bend is accurately determined only if the glasses are properly positioned.
Error in bend placement is prevented by holding the frame in
place.
actually sit. The right hand is then free to move the

hair back or bend the ear forward to inspect for
proper t (Figure 9-15). For the left temple, switch
hands and repeat the procedure. It cannot be
assumed that both temples will t the ears correctly
just because one does. Faces are not symmetrical;
sometimes two separate temple lengths are
indicated.
If the shaft is too long, the bend will occur beyond
the desired position, which is just barely past the
top of the ear (Figure 9-16). This permits the
spectacles to move forward until the earpiece rests
against the cartilage in back of the ear.
It is possible to simply increase the angle of the
bend in the temple until the bent-down portion just
touches the back of the ear. The fallacy here is that
there are only two points of contactthe top of the
ear and the back of the earresulting in an
extremely painful spot behind the ear after
continued wearing. Instead the position of the bend
in the temple should be moved so that the temple
ts correctly.
If the shaft is too short, the bend will occur
forward of the top of the ear, causing the bent-down
portion to rest on the posterior slope of the
cartilage. This usually raises the temples up off the
ear so that the bend itself is visible along the side of
the head and the end of the temple pushes against
the back of the ear (Figure 9-17).
2. Estimate new bend positionObserve the relationship
of the bend to the position it should occupy above
the ear and estimate a new position for the bend.
Observe each ear separately because the two sides of
the head and face may not be symmetrical.
3. Straighten and bend, or bend and straightenHeat
both the original bend area and that portion of the
shaft where the new bend is desired. Hold the shaft
of the temple rmly in one hand and grasp the bent
portion with the ngers of the other hand, with the
thumb braced on the bend (Figure 9-18). Pull the
end up so that the entire temple is straightened.
Figure 9-16. If the temple shaft is too long, the bend will
occur past the desired position.
Move the ngers of the hand holding the temple

shaft so that the temple is braced at the new bend
point by the thumb and fore nger. Push the
protruding end with the thumb of the other hand
until it bends over the forenger of the holding
hand to the desired angle (Figure 9-19).
For some, it may be too difcult to add a new
temple bend with the hands alone. In this case,
there is a pair of pliers that is designed for this use.
Temple bend pliers may be positioned at the desired
location of the temple and the bend added as shown
in Figure 9-20.
The desired position of the bend may be more
exactly marked with a water-soluble felt-tipped
marking pen or a grease pencil to eliminate the
guesswork. It may be necessary to reheat the temple
before adding the new bend if the resistance to
bending is great.
Physically Lengthening and Shortening of Temples
Some metal frames come with bent-down portions that
have a metal core, but a plastic outer portion. These
types of temples are unique in that they may be shortened or lengthened beyond what would be expected. It
is even conceivable to shorten some plastic temples. Both
possibilities are explained in Chapter 10.
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
183
Figure 9-19. A well-tting bend is a sharp bend. Creating a

good, sharp bend may be done by forcing the end of the temple
over the knuckle.
Figure 9-17. If the shaft is too short, the bend will occur too
far forward. Note how this raises the temple up off the ear so
that the bend itself is visible.
Figure 9-20. A temple bend may be added using temple bend

pliers. The temple will still need to be heated, but should not
be overheated to avoid marking the plastic.
Figure 9-18. Straightening the temple to move the bend to a

new location may be done as shown. If the bend is to be moved
forward, it may also be done by rst placing a new bend at the
desired location; then removing the old bend.
Summary of Temple Fitting Criteria

In summary, the temples should meet all of the following
criteria:
The shaft of the temple should not exert pressure
on the face or head at any point in front of the
position just above the ears. The point just above
the ears should receive the lateral pressure of the

temples.
The bend should be just at the point immediately
following the top of the root of the ear, so that it
does not rest on either the top of the root of the ear
or push against the back of the origin of the ear
(Figure 9-21).
The bent-down portion should be angled so that it
approximately parallels the posterior descending
slope of the root of the ear (crotch of the ear)
without either pressing into the crease between the
ear and the head or the cord located there.
The cross section of the shaft, if other than round,
should be parallel to the slope of the head and lie
with its widest part against the head.
The bent-down portion (earpiece) should slope with
its widest part at against the side of the head. It
should be so shaped and convoluted that it follows
the depression behind the ear (the ischium hollow)
and the elevation following below it known as the
mastoid process. There should be even pressure
184
to their original molded form when heated. The second

type is called LCM, or light coated metal.
Pressure
No pressure
Fr
ic
tio
Figure 9-21. The proper location for the temple bend is at

the point immediately behind the top of the root of the ear.
The only place where pressure is indicated is against the side
of the head immediately above the ear. Beyond this point, the
hold should be by friction on the order of a disc brake.
Figure 9-22. A temple will be more comfortable and hold the

frame in place better if it parallels the anatomical shape of both
head and ear.
throughout the entire area (Figure 9-22). The ends

of the temples should not gouge the back of the head
or exert greater pressure than the balance of the
earpiece.
Optyl Temples
Temples made of Optyl are adjusted to meet the same
criteria as temples made of other materials. There are
two basic types of Optyl temples. The rst is made from
the same material as the Optyl frame front and can be
identied by the lack of a metal reinforcement running
the length of the temple. A special technique is required
for this type of temple, since Optyl frames will return
Adjusting Temples Made From Original

Optyl Material
Adjusting temples made from the original type Optyl
material requires sufcient heat for bending. Attempts
to bend an Optyl temple without heat or without sufcient heat will result in a broken temple. Heat only that
portion of the frame that requires bending. Hold the rest
of the temple so that the adjacent portions not being
adjusted are protected from the heat. After heating and
bending the temple to the desired position, hold the
temple in that position until it cools enough to retain the
new shape. (Some frame warmers have a cool air option
that can be used to cool down the heated area.) Because
heated Optyl material will return to its original shape,
failure to hold it in position will allow it to revert somewhat. When making a second bend in a new area of the
temple, the rst area must be shielded from heat. Otherwise the progress made thus far will be lost.
It is possible to extend the length of an Optyl temple
having no metal reinforcing wire by heating the temple
so that it is hot enough to allow it to be pulled and
stretched. In so doing, it may be possible to use a temple
that would otherwise be too short even if the bend were
moved as far back as possible.
Adjusting Optyl LCM Temples
The second type of Optyl temple has a plastic of a different composition covering a metal core. It is referred
to as an LCM temple and should be marked with the
letters lcm. These LCM temples are extremely malleable and can be adjusted with only a minimum of heat.
In contrast to the original Optyl material temple, the
LCM temple does not return to its original shape when
heated. Remember, to tell the difference between the
two temples, look for a lack of a metal reinforcing wire
to identify the original material temple, and the presence
of the initials lcm to identify the light-coated metal
temple.
Spring Hinge Temples

Temples with spring-loaded hinges have been much
improved. When spring temples were rst introduced,
they were much more appealing to the wearer than to
the dispenser. Because they did not originally have the
strength and resiliency of todays designs, it was necessary to t them so that they were stretched halfway open
when t. In other words, the midpoint of the tensionspread area would fall at the natural position of the
temple when placed on the wearer.
Better engineered spring hinges have changed all
that. Now the spring hinge temple is t in exactly the
same manner as any other temple. It should t on
the head so that under normal wearing circumstances,
the spring hinges are not exed. The advantage of spring
CHAPTER 9
X
A
Adjusting the Frame
185
Y
B
Figure 9-23. The so-called crotch of the ear may follow different contours, three of which are shown. (Redrawn from
Stimson RL: Ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Springeld, Ill,
1971, Charles C Thomas.)
temples is not that they hug the head any differently than
normal, well-tted temples. They do not. The advantage
of a good quality spring hinge is that it allows the frames
to retain their adjustment longer.
When people put their glasses on and take them off
day after day, there is a certain amount of stress placed
on the frames. The temples are forced open beyond the
point for which they were adjusted. Eventually, they
begin to loose their adjustment. Temples with spring
hinges prevent that stress because the spring in the hinge
absorbs it.
Frames with spring hinges are less likely to require
readjustment or repair when struck with a ball, an elbow,
or when knocked from the face. This is because, once
again, the spring hinge allows the temple angle to bend
outward, then rebound, rather than to bend and stay
bent.
Spring temples are adjusted behind the ears exactly as
any other temples. The same rules apply to the position
of the temple bend as well.
Figure 9-24. Here is what the end of a cable temple looks like
before the tip of the temple has been adjusted.
Riding Bow and Cable Temples
Figure 9-25. The end of the cable temple is bent so that the
end will not dig into the crotch of the ear. Hold the temple
right next to the double-padded pliers so that the bend will be
sharp and well-de ned.
Riding bow or cable temples can be used in situations

where a skull temple will not hold the spectacles adequately, such as for children or for individuals engaged
in rough physical activity. Riding bows are made from
plastic; cable temples from coiled metal.
To t a cable or riding bow temple, the temple should
follow around the root of the ear but should not press
against the root of the ear at any point before point X at
the back of the ear as shown in Figure 9-23, A. The cable
should lie close to the root of the ear from point X
to the end of the temple because it is this contact that
holds the spectacles in place. The very last few millimeters of the temple should be turned back away from the
ear to keep the end from digging in. Figure 9-24 shows
the end of the temple before it has been adjusted. The
end of the cable should be bent back and slightly away
from the side of the head. This is done with doublepadded pliers as shown in Figure 9-25. The completed
bend is shown in Figure 9-26.
When the shape of the cable corresponds to the shape
of the portion of the ear, which attaches the ear to the
Figure 9-26. Here is what the tip of the cable temple will look
like after the bend at the tip is complete.
186
head, as shown in Figure 9-23, B, the cable should pass

the point marked Y without pressure before curling to
grasp the balance of the ear.
When the ear is shaped as shown in Figure 9-23, C,
the temple should exert pressure on the ear only during
the last 10 or 15 mm of the temple length. This type is
difcult to adjust because the temple bend is almost at
right angles.
Temple Length
When the necessary cable temple is not on an available
sample, the proper length may be estimated by adding
0.75 inch, or approximately 20 mm, to the length of the
equivalent, correctly tting skull temple.
A cable temple of the correct length should stop just
short of the lower lobe of the ear (Figure 9-27, A). Cable
temples that are too short will not have enough length
to grip the lower area where it is needed (Figure 9-27,
B). Cable temples tted too long have a tendency to dig
into the lower earlobe (Figure 9-27, C).
Hearing Aids and Fitting Eyewear

For a time, a large number of hearing aids were made to
t in the temples of a persons spectacle frames. With
the continued development of smaller hearing aids, combined with rapidly changing eyeglass frame fashions,
in-temple hearing aids are now rare.
Most aids t in or behind the ear, or are a combination
of both. In-the-ear aids require no special considerations
when tting and adjusting temples. Hearing aids with a
behind-the-ear component work best if the temple style
chosen is as thin as possible. One of the very best choices,
although not readily available, is the cable temple. The
cable hugs the base of the ear and is out of the way of
the hearing aid.
Skull temples that are thin enough can sometimes be
adjusted to closely match the t of a cable temple, at least
for the upper part of the back of the ear. They must
closely follow ush against the side of the head. The
thinner the bent-down portion of the temple is, the less
will be the interference with the aid.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO THE WEARER

ON FRAME HANDLING
There are many different sets of instructions appropriate
for different types of wearing situations. Bifocal wearers
will be given different advice on use than progressive
addition lens wearers. Those instructions and precautions are addressed in the section of the text that covers
each particular topic. As for the handling of eyeglasses
in general, here are a few suggestions:
1. To keep eyeglasses in adjustment better, glasses are
best taken off using two hands.
2. When removing glasses with the right hand only,
grasp the right endpiece, lift the right temple off the
ear, and move the glasses to left side of the face so
C
Figure 9-27. In judging correct cable temple length, observe
where the temple ends as it wraps around the ear. A, The
correct length cable temple should stop just short of the lower
lobe of the ear. B, Cable temples that are too short do not have
the length to grip the lower portion of the ear where it is most
necessary. C, Cable temples t too long have a tendency to dig
into the lower ear lobe. If no shorter temples are available, it
is possible to clip off the end of the temple with cutting pliers
and solder the new end. A small ball of solder at the tip
will make a smooth surface and keep the coiled cable from
unraveling.
that the left temple comes off the ear easily. Do the
opposite for the left hand only.
3. For frames with cable and comfort cable temples,
grasp the right endpiece with the right hand and the
tip end of the left cable temple with the left hand
(Figure 9-28). Pull the left temple off the ear and
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
187
however, that increasing or decreasing the distance

between pads will not only lower or raise the frame on
the face, but also allow the frame to t closer to or
farther from the eyes.
There are primarily two types of adjustable pad arms.
The older type is shaped like a question mark; the more
common like an upside down U or a gooseneck.
PROPER PAD ANGLES FOR

ADJUSTABLE PADS
Figure 9-28. Taking frames with cable temples off the face is
done by grasping the tip of one temple and pulling it back and
around the ear while holding the other temple near the frame
front.
swing the glasses to the right so that the right cable

temple comes off the ear easily.
4. To lay the glasses down on a table or dresser with
the temples open, place the glasses on the surface
upside down. When the temples are closed, place
the glasses with the folded temples down. Never
place the glasses on a surface with the lenses facing
down.
5. Do not leave the glasses on the dashboard of a car
or where they will be exposed to heat.
6. When not being worn, glasses do best in a case.
This is especially true when being carried in a purse
or pocket.
7. Rinse the lenses before wiping them with a cloth,
unless the cloth is specically designed for the
lenses. Remember that the frames need cleaning
too. Washing frames and lenses in a mild detergent,
as when doing dishes, is appropriate.
For more on cleaning frames and lenses, see Cleaning
Frames and Lenses, Chapter 7, including Tables 7-3 and
7-4.
SECTION B
Fitting Adjustable Nosepads
Adjustable nosepads give tremendous versatility when
tting and adjusting frames. Unfortunately, many are
unfamiliar with the basics of how to adjust nosepads
correctly and are afraid of making changes. This section
presents step-by-step methods for doing just what is
needed to correctly position the frame.
Where adjustable pads and pad arms are available, the
frame can be altered in height by widening or narrowing
the distance between the pads. It should be remembered,
With any pad adjustment that moves a pad arm, it can

be expected that afterwards the face of the pad may
no longer sit at on the nose. The pads must then be
realigned to their proper positions so that frontal, splay,
and vertical angles are once again correct. These angles
were explained in Chapter 8, pages 161-164.
Remember: Adjust the pantoscopic angle (tilt of the
frame front) rst before adjusting the three pad angles.
The tilt of the frame front changes how the pads sit on
the surface of the nose. Adjusting the pantoscopic angle
after aligning the pads means that the pads will have to
be aligned all over again a second time.
Achieving the Proper Pad Angles for

Adjustable Bridges
The adjustment of rocking pads is most easily performed
using pad-adjusting pliers. (See Figure 8-57 in Chapter
8.) These special pad pliers come in a variety of congurations. They should be chosen for the pad attachment
type on the frame. Attachment styles change with the
times, so the type of pad adjusting pliers that has been
in the ofce for years may no longer be appropriate for
the frames being currently used.
Pad adjusting pliers, when chosen properly, have one
jaw that holds the base of the pad securely without crushing the pad socket or attachment, and another jaw
that cradles the face of the pad. The pad can readily be
adjusted for splay, vertical, and frontal angles using these
pliers. Snipe-nosed or other at-jawed pliers can also be
used and are intended to be used on the pad support arm.
If used on the face of some pads, they may indent or mar
the pad face surface.
For pads to be adjusted to rest correctly on the surface of the nose, they should fulll the following
criteria:
1. The pads should rest halfway between the crest
of the nose and the inner corner of the eye
(Figure 9-29).
2. The long diameter of the pads should be
perpendicular to the oor when the head is erect (as
also seen in Figure 9-29).
3. The full surface of the pads should rest uniformly
on the nose. If either the lower, upper, inner, or
outer edge of the pad presses unevenly on the
surface of the nose, the nose will show imprint or
188
cutting marks after wear, or may become too

sensitive for continued wear.
To correct these problems, the pad face should be
readjusted as listed below:
1. If the lower edge cuts in (as in Figure 9-30), change
the frontal angle by moving the bottom of the pads
apart.
2. If the top edge cuts in (as in Figure 9-31), change
the frontal angle by moving the lower part of the
pads closer to each other.
3. If the front edge cuts in (as in Figure 9-32), decrease
the splay of the pads.
4. If the back edge cuts (as in Figure 9-33), increase
the splay of the pads.
5. If the cutting edges seem oblique, the pad is not
vertical. Alter the vertical angle and readjust to
correct for one or more of the errors listed above.
6. If the upper part of the pad surface seems to be
parallel to the nose, but the lower part cuts in, or
vice versa, change to a exible, silicone pad that will
conform more readily to changes in nasal angles.
When Pad Angles Are Correct, But Still Slide

Down or Hurt
Sometimes even when the pad angles are correct and the
frame is adjusted properly, the glasses still have a tendency to slide. This may occur when the frontal angle
of the nose is almost straight up and down. When this
happens, replace the nosepads with replacement pads
Figure 9-29. The proper resting position for adjustable pads
is halfway between the crest of the nose and the inner corner
of the eye. The long axis of the pad should be perpendicular
to the oor.
If the wearer does not like the feel of silicone pads, it is possible
to heat the stiff plastic pads and bend them to match the curve of
the nose surface. This condition may occur where the very upper
part of the bridge of the nose is thin and straight, and the nose
suddenly ares and splays widely within the dimension of the
pad.
Figure 9-30. Here the lower edges of the pads cut into the nose surface. If the skin on the
nose is accid, the error is not as visible. It can be detected if the glasses have been worn for
a period of time by U-shaped red marks on the nose. The frontal angle is wrong and must
be corrected.
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
Figure 9-31. If the upper edges of the pads indent, the frontal angle must be more vertically
oriented.
Figure 9-32. This illustration, viewed from the top in cross section, shows a pad splay angle
too great for the nose. The splay angle of the pads must be decreased.
B
Figure 9-33. In A the splay angle of the pads needs to be increased. The back edges of the
pads will cut into the esh of the nose unless corrected. In B the same situation is shown
schematically in cross section.
189
190
B
Figure 9-34. A, Depending upon frame construction, holding the lens with rimless adjusting
pliers while adjusting the pad angle may prevent damage to the lens at its point of attachment.
For this particular frame this is actually not the best option since the pad arm is attached
directly to the bridge. A better option is shown in B. B, If the frame is constructed with the
pad arm attached more to the bridge, holding the bridge while adjusting the pad may be
sufcient.
made from silicone material. This assumes, of course,

that the pads are not already of the exible silicone
variety.
Another alternative is to replace the existing pad with
a larger pad. This is especially helpful when the pad is
causing an irritation to the skin, as often happens in
older wearers as the skin loses its elasticity.
A third possibility is to replace both pads with a strap
bridge. A strap bridge is like two adjustable nosepads that
are joined together in straplike fashion. The strap bridge
increases the surface area upon which the frame weight
rests and is shown in the next chapter as Figure 10-44.
Strap bridges are adjusted like regular nosepads
because each side of this exible bridge has its own pad
arm. To get full benet from the replacement bridge,
care should be taken to assure that the upper strap area
rests on the crest of the nose and assists in bearing the
weight of the frame.
Adjusting Pad Angles for Rimless or

Semirimless Mountings
When adjusting the pads of a rimless mounting, certain
precautions should be taken to prevent damaging the
lens at the point of attachment. A good option is to use
rimless adjusting pliers (as were shown in Figure 8-65)
to hold the lens at its nasal point of attachment, while
adjusting the pad angle with pad adjusting pliers (Figure
9-34, A). Some frames may not make this an absolute
necessity because the pad arm is attached to the top of
the bridge. In this case, or when rimless adjusting pliers
are not available, it is possible to hold the bridge of the
frame while adjusting the pad, as in Figure 9-34, B.

Another option is to hold the lens with the thumb and
forenger at the point of attachment while adjusting the
pads (Figure 9-35). Which option may be best may
depend upon the construction of the frame.
FRAME HEIGHT AND VERTEX DISTANCE

Achieving the Correct Frame Height
Once the pantoscopic angle has been established satisfactorily, the next step is to place the frame at the correct
height. Most judgments for single-vision lenses are based
on the position of the frame relative to the brows and
orbits (Figure 9-36). It is not difcult to change the
vertical height for frames with adjustable pad bridges.
For frames with adjustable pad bridges, frame heights
can be changed by widening or narrowing the distance
between pads.
The primary reasons for widening or narrowing the
bridge area are shown in Box 9-1.
Proper Vertex Distance

On occasion it becomes necessary to change the distance
between the frame and the face. This is referred to as
changing the vertex distance, or more specically, the
distance from the front surface of the eye to the back of
the spectacle lens. This type of change might be required
if, for example, the top of the frame were resting against
the brows or the bottom eyewire touching the cheeks
and neither error could be corrected by a change of
pantoscopic angle. Increasing the vertex distance is also
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
191
Figure 9-35. If there are no rimless adjusting pliers available,

a precaution while adjusting pad angles is to hold the lens
tightly between thumb and fore nger at the point of attachment. This helps remove some of the stress from the lens
during adjustment. The most appropriate procedure from the
three shown in this and the previous two gures will depend
upon frame construction. In this gure sequence (Figures 934, A, 9-34, B, and 9-35) the most appropriate procedure for
the frame is shown in Figure 9-34, B.
BOX 9-1
Reasons for Widening or Narrowing the Frame
Bridge Area
WIDENING THE BRIDGE AREA WOULD BE APPROPRIATE IN CASES
IN WHICH:
1. The frame is too high on the face.
2. The bifocal or trifocal segments are too high.
3. The progressive addition tting cross heights are too
high.
4. The bridge is too small for the nose.
5. The lenses are too far from the eyes
NARROWING THE BRIDGE AREA WOULD BE APPROPRIATE IN
CASES IN WHICH:
1. The frame sits too low on the face.
2. The bifocal or trifocal segments are too low.
3. The progressive addition tting cross heights are too
low.
4. The bridge is too large for the nose.
5. The lashes rub the back surface of the lenses.
often necessary to keep the eyelashes from brushing

against the back surface of the lens.
Decreasing the vertex distance, or bringing the frame
closer to the face, may be required for purely cosmetic
reasons. Decreasing the vertex distance will also provide
a wider eld of corrected vision. For example, the closer
a person stands to a window, the farther to the left and
right he or she can see. By the same principle, the closer
the frame is to the face the more side area is visible
through the lens, with a resulting increase in the overall
eld of view (Figure 9-37, A). Increasing the pantoscopic
C
Figure 9-36. For conventional eyewear, frame height is based
on a combination of eye, eyebrow, and orbit positions. In A
the frame rides too high. In B the height is correct for the
frame shown. In C the frame is too low. In the past, some large
frames have even been designed with upper rims above the
brows. As fashion continues to circle around, this could happen
in the future. In any case, such frames should still be tted at
a height that conforms to standards discussed in Chapter 4,
Frame Selection.
tilt also increases the lower eld of view (Figure 9-37,

B).
For the bifocal wearer, moving the frame closer to the
face increases the eld of view above the bifocal without
the necessity of lowering the segment. (This same effect
can be produced by increasing the pantoscopic tilt. See
Chapter 5 for specics.)
When quite strong lenses are involved, precise vertex
placement becomes very important. In some instances,
small alterations in the vertex distance of the nished
spectacles may affect vision profoundly.
ADJUSTING NOSEPADS WITH INVERTED

U-SHAPED PAD ARMS
Changing the Distance Between Pads for
Inverted U-Shaped Pad Arms
The inverted U-shaped pad arm varies in how much it
may be adjusted, depending upon how high the U arches.
If there is not much length to the pad arm, the extent
that it may be adjusted is limited. But if there is extra
192
1. First tilt the top of the pliers outward (temporally).

The pivot point is at the point of attachment of the pad
arm. This will cause the top of the U to tilt away
from the nose, bending the pad arm at its base
(Figure 9-39, B). This moves the pad temporally and
changes the frontal angle.
2. Next, without removing the pliers from the pad, tilt
the bottom of the pliers outward. Now the pivot point
should be the top of the pad arms inverted U. This will
cause the U to bend at the top, with the center of
the pad moving temporally (Figure 9-39, C). While
the rst bend will change the frontal angle of the
pad, the second bend will restore it. Figure 9-39, D
shows the left pad widened and the right pad still
in the original position.
A
Figure 9-37. When a lens is moved closer to the eye, the eld
of view increases (A). Pantoscopic tilt also increases the eld
of view in the lower lens area (B). This is particularly helpful
for increasing the near viewing area through bifocals, trifocals, and progressive add lenses.
Narrowing the Distance Between Pads

To decrease the distance between pads, the same type of
two-step sequence occurs as was described for widening
the distance between pads, except that the bends are in
a nasal or inward direction instead of outward.
1. For the rst bend, the top of the pliers are tilted
inward (nasally). Again the pivot point is at the point of
attachment of the pad arm.
2. For the second bend, follow up by tilting the
bottom of the pliers inward, completing the bend,
and restoring the frontal angle. The pivot point is the
top of the pad arms inverted U.
Moving the Frame Left or Right

(This adjustment uses a combination of the two adjustments
that have just been explained: narrowing the distance between
pads and widening the distance between pads.)
A frame may sit too left or right on the face as shown
in Figure 9-40. There are two possible causes for this
problem.
1. The nosepads on the frame are asymmetrical.
2. The wearers nose is asymmetrical.
A
Figure 9-38. The U-shaped pad arm (A) has sufcient length
to allow frame height and vertex distance changes. The pad
arm (B) will allow only minimal changes in height and vertex
distance, although it may allow some change in the distance
between pads.
length to work with, the dispenser will have more latitude in making frame height and vertex distance changes
(Figure 9-38).
Most pad adjustments may be done in two movements. The rst move makes the change; the second
move completes the change and restores the proper pad
angle. (This assumes we get it right the rst time!)
Widening the Distance Between Pads
When the distance between pads is too small and does
not t the nose, we need to widen the distance between
pads. To widen the distance between pads, grasp the pad
with pad adjusting pliers (Figure 9-39, A).
When the Nosepads Are Asymmetrical

The rst possible cause for a frame sitting too far to the
left or right on the wearers face is that the nosepads on
the frame are asymmetrical. If the fault is with the frame,
the pads themselves are moved slightly too far to one
side or the other, even though they may sit at on the
nose and be comfortable (Figure 9-41). The problem is
corrected by moving one pad nasally and the other pad
temporally. The procedure for moving one pad nasally
is the same as was described for decreasing the distance
between pads. The procedure for moving the other pad
temporally is the same as was described for increasing
the distance between pads.
Adjust both sets of pad arms so that they are mirror
images of each other. The left and right pad arms are
made to be symmetrical.
When the Wearers Nose Is Asymmetrical
The second possible cause for a frame being too far left
or right is that the persons nose is asymmetrical. This
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
193
Point of rotation
Continued
B
Figure 9-39. To increase the distance between pads for frames having U-shaped pad arms:
Grasp the pad with pad-adjusting pliers (A).
Tilt the top of the pliers outward temporally (B). The point of rotation is at the point of
attachment of the pad arm. This will decrease the frontal angle.
194
Point of rotation
is quite a common occurrence because many people have

had a broken nose at one time or another. If the break
was far enough back on the nose it will cause the frame
to sit off center, even though the pad arms and pads are
symmetrical.
To check for such an error, look at the frame from the
straight-ahead position. If the frame is toward the right
side of the wearers face, bend the pad arms at their bases in
the direction of the wearers right lens and then realign the
pad angles. If the frame is toward the wearers left, bend
the pad arms toward the left lens. The direction of the
bend may be remembered logically by keeping in mind
that moving the pad arms one way pushes the frame in
the opposite direction. It may be remembered by rote by
thinking Frame to the right, move pads to the right.
Figure 9-39. contd

Next turn the bottom of the pliers temporalward with the
pivot point being the top of the pad arms inverted U (C).
This will move the face of the pad temporally and will
allow the frontal angle of the pad to be returned to the
necessary angle.
D, The pad on the left pad has been widened (moved
outward).
RIGHT-RIGHT, and Frame to the left, move pads to

the left. LEFT-LEFT.*
Up to this point we have simple consistency for memorization purposes between observed error and proper correction of that error.
The consistent relationship between the direction of the error and
the direction of correction for that error helps simplify any required
memorization.
For equality of vertex distance: One lens in, bend same temple in:
IN-IN. One lens out, bend same temple out: OUT-OUT.
For straightness of the frame on the face: One side up, bend same
temple up: UP-UP. One side down, bend same temple down:
DOWN-DOWN.
For symmetry of the frame on the face: Frame to the right, move
pads to the right: RIGHT-RIGHT. Frame to the left, move pads to the
left: LEFT-LEFT.
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9-40. An example of a frame that sits too far to

the wearers left. Note that when the pads are shifted to the
wearers right, the frame shifts to the wearers left.
Figure 9-41. In this photo, the pad angles are basically symmetrical, but the pads themselves are moved too far to one
side. This defect as shown from above will cause the frame to
sit too far to the wearers left, as was shown in the previous
gure.
Changing Frame Height, But Not

Vertex Distance
Changing the Height of Pads for Inverted U-Style
Pad Arms
Most of the time a frame will be moved higher or lower
on the face by narrowing or widening the distance
between pads. (This procedure was described earlier.)
However, narrowing or widening the distance between
pads will also cause the frame to move farther from or
closer to the eyes. The distance from the lenses to the
eyes is called the vertex distance. To keep the vertex
distance the same, the distance between the pads must
remain the same. This means that in order to change the
height of the frame, the location of the pads relative to
the frame front must move up or down.
Moving the frame higher or lower on the face without
changing the distance between pads is accomplished for
inverted U-style pad arms by changing the location of
the bend or loop at the top of the U in the pad arm.
Lowering the frame can be accomplished by one of two
Adjusting the Frame
195
methods. The rst is easier and requires only two

primary bends.
Lowering the Frame: Method 1. To lower the frame
on the face without changing the vertex distance, the
location of the bend in the pad arm is moved closer to
the pad. This is shown in Figure 9-42. The adjustment
itself may be made with two bends. These are:
1. Grasp the pad with pad adjusting pliers as seen in
Figure 9-43, A. While exerting an upward pull on
the pad, bend the pad arm until the posterior part
of the U is almost perpendicular with the frame
front (Figure 9-43, B). The pad arm is now shaped
more like an L than a U.
2. Bend the pad arm back down, while pushing upward
with the pliers (Figure 9-43, C).
It may be necessary to repeat these two steps if the
pad has not moved up enough. Without an upward pull
during step 1 and an upward push in step 2, there will
not be any appreciable change in pad height. The nished pad is shown in Figure 9-43, D. The other pad is
then adjusted to match.
This method will usually work. But if the frame pad
will not move enough using this technique, then the
more complicated Method 2 technique may be used.
Lowering the Frame: Method 2. Using this method
to move the frame lower on the face, the bend in the
inverted U must still be moved closer to the pad. The
new bend can be placed more easily if the old bend is
removed rst.
Here are the Method 2 steps for moving the frame
lower on the face:
1. Begin by grasping the pad with pad adjusting pliers
as shown in Figure 9-44, A.
2. Bend the pad up far enough to practically straighten
the pad arm (Figure 9-44, B).
3. Once the pad arm is straight, use square-round,
snipe nose, bent-snipe, or a similar type of thin
pliers to grasp the pad arm closer to the pad (Figure
9-44, C). How close the pliers are positioned in
reference to the pad will depend upon how much
higher on the face the frame must be moved.
4. Rotate the pliers until the full U-shaped bend is
restored (Figure 9-44, D). By comparing the
position of this pad to the other one (Figure 9-44,
E), it can be seen that the newly adjusted pad is
noticeably higher.
5. Next equally alter the other pad.
In the end, both pads should still have the same horizontal distance between them. Therefore they will rest
on the same position of the nose as before. Because they
have been moved higher, the frame will be lower on the
face.
Raising the Frame Without Changing the Distance
Between Pads
Raising the Frame: Method 1. To raise the frame
on the face without changing the vertex distance, the
location of the bend in the pad arm is moved closer to
196
To lower frame height only:

move pads up by changing bend location
Move frame bend

from here
To here
Pad moves up
relative to frame front
A.
Moving pads up
without changing the distance between pads
lowers the frame on the face
B.
Frame on
face
Figure 9-42. To lower the frame on the face without changing the vertex distance, the pads
are moved up, but the right and left pads are still the same distance apart. This means that
the pads will rest on the nose as they did before. However, this means that the frame, being
lower relative to the pads, will also be lower on the wearers face. A, If the bend in the pad
arm is moved closer to the pad, the pad moves up. B, Because the pad will sit on the nose
where it did before, the frame will be lower.
the frame. This method is the reverse of that described

in Method 1 for lowering the frame and does not work
as easily. Even though it is theoretically feasible to make
this adjustment with two bends, it may need to be
repeated.
1. Grasp the pad with pad adjusting pliers. While
exerting a downward pull on the pad, bend the pad
arm until the posterior part of the U is almost
perpendicular with the frame front.
2. Still exerting a downward pull on the pad, bring the
pad arm back to its correct angle. (Care should be
taken so as not to inadvertently pull the pad away

from the frame front.)
Raising the Frame: Method 2. Method 2 for lowering the frame is practically a repeat of Method 2 for
raising the frame, with only minor changes. Here is how
it is done.
1. Begin by grasping the pad with pad adjusting pliers.
2. Bend the pad up far enough to practically straighten
the pad arm.
3. Once the pad arm is straight, use square-round,
snipe nose, bent-snipe, or a similar type of thin
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
C
Figure 9-43. To raise the pad (lowering the frame on the face), grasp the pad with the pad
adjusting pliers (A). The pad may be raised in two moves. First bend the pad horizontally
while pulling up (B). Second the pad is returned to its former location. While turning the
bottom of the pad back downward, simultaneously push the top of the pad upward as shown
in (C). The upward pull (B) and upward push (C) cause the location of the bend in the U to
move closer to the pad. This raises the position of the pad relative to the frame front. D, The
difference in pad height produced by this adjustment.
197
198
Figure 9-44. A, To begin Method 2 for moving the frame lower on the face, start by grasping the pad with pad adjusting pliers. (It is also possible to use thin-nosed pliers and grasp
the pad arm instead of the pad.) The point of rotation will be the top of the bend in the pad
arm. B, The pad arm has just been straightened. By removing the bend, the pad arm can be
rebent at a new location. (At this point in the sequence, the pad could either be raised or
lowered, depending upon the location of the new bend.) C, In this gure, bent snipe-nosed
pliers have been moved closer to the pad in preparation for placing the new bend. When the
bend occurs, the point of rotation will be where the pliers are grasping the pad arm. D, The
new bend location is much closer to the pad than it had been. E, The bend is now complete
and pad height location between left and right pads may be compared. The pad on the right
is considerably higher. After the pad on the left is adjusted to match, the frame will be higher
on the face by an amount equal to what now shows as the difference in pad heights.
pliers to grasp the pad arm closer to the point of

attachment of the pad arm to the frame front. How
close the pliers are positioned depends upon how
much lower on the face the frame must be moved.
4. Rotate the pliers until the full U-shaped bend is
restored.
5. Next equally alter the other pad.
Both pads should still have the same horizontal distance between them, will rest on the same position of
the nose, and because they have been moved lower, will
cause the frame to sit higher on the face. This is illustrated in Figure 9-45.
Changing Vertex Distance, But Not Height

It is possible to change the vertex distance by narrowing
or widening the distance between pads. A secondary
effect is an increase or decrease in the overall height of
the frame. When frame height changes must be avoided,
pad bridges should be adjusted another way.
Moderately Increasing the Vertex Distance for

Frames With Inverted U-Style Pad Arms
The sequence for moderately increasing the vertex
distance can be done with just two bends. This is shown
in Figure 9-46. Here is how it is done:
1. The pad is grasped with pad-adjusting pliers and
the top of the pad is rotated away from the frame
front (Figure 9-46, A). The point of rotation is at
the point of attachment the pad arm. The pad arm
bends at the point of attachment. This changes the
vertical angle of the nosepad.
2. The vertical angle can be immediately corrected
without repositioning the pliers. The angle is
changed by moving the lower part of the pad away
from the frame front. The point of rotation is the
top of the inverted U. The rotation of the pliers is
indicated by the arrow shown in Figure 9-46, B.
This corrects the vertical angle (Figure 9-46, C).
The end result is seen in Figure 9-46, D.
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
199
To raise frame height only:

move pads down by changing bend location
Move frame bend

from here
To here
Pad moves down
relative to frame front
A.
Moving pads down

without changing the distance between pads
raises the frame height
Nosepad stays
at the same location
on the nose:
frame front moves
higher on the face
B.
Figure 9-45. To raise the frame on the face without changing the vertex distance, the pads
are moved down, but both right and left pads are still the same distance apart and rest on the
nose where they did before. But the frame will be higher on the wearers face. A, If the bend
in the pad arm is moved closer to the pad arms point of attachment, the pad moves down.
B, Because the pad will sit on the nose where it did before, the frame will end up higher.
Signicantly Increasing the Vertex Distance for

Frames With Inverted U-Style Pad Arms
The idea behind signicantly increasing the vertex
distance with upside down U-shaped pads is a simple one.
Imagine a piece of coat hanger shaped into an
upside down U. To increase the distance between the legs
of the U, imagine grasping both legs and strenuously
pulling them apart. The coat hanger wire is
malleable and yields easily. The legs are now farther
apart, but the top of the upside down U is longer and
at. Fortunately, this radical adjustment is seldom
required.
To signicantly increase the vertex distance for a

frame having inverted-U style pad arms, we must atten
the top of the pad arm. To begin the process, use squareround pliers and position them at the upper area of the
bend in the pad arm. Remove the bend by rotating
the pliers as shown in Figure 9-47, A. Next, position
the pliers closer to the pad arms point of attachment.
Position the round jaw where the inside of the bend
will be (Figure 9-47, B). Rotate the pliers so that the
pad arm turns straight back (Figure 9-47, C). The new
bend causes the pad arm to have an approximately 90degree angle. Now slide the pliers closer to the pad
200
Point of
Rotation
Figure 9-46. Here is the sequence for increasing the vertex distance without changing the height of the frame on the face. A,
The pad is grasped and the top of the pad moved away from the
frame. B, The bottom of the pad must now be moved away from
the frame to complete the adjustment. C, The adjustment is
complete. D, The pads are shown from the top and the difference
between left and right pads is evident. Now the pad on the left
will be adjusted in an identical manner to match the pad on the
right.
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
201
(Figure 9-47, D) and place another 90-degree angle in

the pad arm. When complete, the pad arm should appear
as seen in Figure 9-47, E.
Decreasing the Vertex Distance for Frames With

Inverted U-Shaped Pad Arms
To decrease the vertex distance, the pads must be positioned closer to the frame front. As with most of the
more common pad adjustments, this adjustment may be
done with just two bends. The pad is grasped with pad
adjusting pliers as in Figure 9-48, A. Here is the
sequence:
1. Bend the bottom of the pad away from the frame
front while pressing the top of the pad in toward
the frame front as shown in Figure 9-48, B.
2. Next swing the bottom of the pad toward the frame
front without allowing the top of the pad to move
(Figure 9-48, C). If the pliers do not have enough
room to swing the lower part of the pad inward,
turn them upside down and grasp the pad from
above.
The completed work is shown from the top in Figure
9-48, D where right and left pad distances can be compared. The pad should still have the same alignment
angles as before (frontal, splay, and vertical). It is just
farther forward. When both pads are completed, the
frame will rest closer to the eyes.
ADJUSTING NOSEPADS WITH QUESTION

MARKSTYLE PAD ARMS
E
Figure 9-47. A, To remove the bend, the pliers are rotated as
shown. Here the square-round pliers are shown with the
square jaw on the inside so that the point of rotation is the
center of the round jaw. (If the bend is too tight to allow this,
the round jaw may need to be placed on the inside of the curl.)
B, To effectively lengthen the pad arm, a new bend will be
placed nearer to the point of attachment with the frame. The
new bend will not be the only bend. C, In accomplishing this
bend, the round jaw of the pliers was placed on the inside of
the bend. The pad arm has been bent so that the top of the
new curl will be at. D, Next the pliers are rotated as shown.
E, This is the theoretical appearance of a completed vertex
distance change. The individual bends will not always look as
neatly squared off in practice.
Nose pads supported by pad arms that look like a question mark when viewed from the top were the predominant type of pad arm. Now they are de nitely a minority.
However, they do continue to appear, sometimes as part
of a hybrid combination of the inverted U and question
mark. These types of pad arms are very versatile and in
some ways allow easier changes in frame height and
vertex distance.
Changing the Distance Between Pads for

Question MarkStyle Pad Arms
Regardless of pad or pad arm style, widening the distance between pads will lower the frame and allow it to
sit closer to the face. Narrowing the distance between
pads will raise the frame and cause it to sit farther from
the face.
Widening the Distance Between Pads
(Question Mark Style)
When working with question mark style pads, some
prefer to use pad adjusting pliers on the face of the pad;
others would rather use thin-nosed pliers and grasp the
pad arm directly.
Square-round pliers as shown in Figure 9-49. When
using square-round pliers, the round jaw will be the
pivot point of the pliers (Figure 9-50). It is easier to use
202
Point of rotation
D
Figure 9-48. The vertex distance may be reduced in just two
movements. A, The pliers are positioned, but have not been
moved yet. B, The top of the pad is pressed forward. To get
the top of the pad solidly forward, the bottom of the pad is
rotated back some. C, The bottom of the pad is pressed and/or
rotated forward. (If there is not enough room for the pliers
from below, grasp the pad from above or use thin pliers to grip
the pad arm itself.) D, The pad on the right is seen to be closer
to the frame front than the pad on the left. When the pad on
the left is equally adjusted, the frame will sit closer to the face
and eyes.
Figure 9-49. The square-round

(at-round) pliers are used for
pad arm manipulation. A, The
left side of the jaw is round, the
right side is squared off and at
on the inner surface. This is seen
more easily from above (B). The
design allows the pad arm to be
solidly gripped and smoothly
bent.
CHAPTER 9
thin-nosed pliers with question mark style pads than

with inverted U-shaped pad arms because the pad arm
is more easily accessible from the top or the bottom.
Widening the distance between pads can be done in
two moves with either type of pliers. The rst changes
the position of the pad arm, but messes up the splay
angle. The second move reangles the splay angle. Here
are the two moves for widening the distance between
pads using pad adjusting pliers:
1. Grasp the pad with pad adjusting pliers and move
the pad arm temporally (outward). The bend takes
place at the point of attachment of the pad arm and
rotates around that point (Figure 9-51, A).
2. Correct the splay angle by rotating the pliers with
the point of rotation at the center of the pad-arm
Figure 9-50. To use square-round pliers most effectively,

position the pliers so that the round jaw is the pivot point for
the bend.
Figure 9-51. A, To widen the distance between pads for frames

with question mark style pad arms, there are two moves required.
This sequence uses pad adjusting pliers. The rst move is to grasp
the pad with and bend the pad arm outward. The bend takes place
at the pad arms point of attachment. B, Here, for the second
move in widening the distance between pads, the splay angle is
corrected. The pad face is rotated as shown. C, The left pad has
been moved to the widened position, the right pad has not yet
been adjusted. The center line is for reference so that the change
in pad distance will be more readily evident.
Ch009-H7480.indd 203
203
curl (Figure 9-51, B). Compare the right and left

pads in Figure 9-51, C. The pad distance on the left
has been widened; the one on the right has not.
Here are the two moves for widening the distance
between pads using square-round pliers:
1. Grasp the pad arm near the base with square-round
pliers held vertically. Bend the pad arm outward.
Remember to place the round jaw on the side of the
direction the pads are to be moved. Pivot the pliers
around the round jaw.
2. Holding the pliers vertically, grasp the pad arm
directly in back of the pad and reangle the splay
angle.
Narrowing the Distance Between Pads (Question
Mark Style)
Narrowing the distance between pads is done the same
as widening the distance between pads, except the direction of movement is nasal (inward) instead of temporal
(outward). Here are the moves (Figure 9-52):
1. Bend the pad inward.
a. When using pad adjusting pliers, grasp the pad
and bend the pad arm inward so the bend takes
place at the point of attachment of the pad arm.
b. When using square-round pliers, grasp the pad
arm near the base with square-round pliers held
vertically and bend the pad arm inward. Place the
round jaw on the side of the direction the pads
are to be moved and pivot the pliers around the
round jaw as shown in Figure 9-50.
Point of rotation
Adjusting the Frame
Point of rotation
7/29/2006 7:52:14 PM
204
2. Correct the splay angle of the pads.

a. Use pad-adjusting pliers to correct the splay angle
of the pad, or
b. Use square-round pliers to do the same thing as
shown in Figures 9-51, B and 9-53.
A
Moving the Frame Left or Right With Question

MarkStyle Pad Arms
(Remember that this adjustment uses a combination of the two
adjustments that have just been explained: narrowing the
distance between pads and widening the distance between
pads.)
When the frame sits too far left or right on the face
as was shown in Figure 9-40, remember that there are
two possible causes for this problem:
1. The nosepads on the frame are asymmetrical.
2. The wearers nose is asymmetrical.
To correct the problem, bend one pad arm inward (as
in narrowing the distance between pads) and the other
outward (as in widening the distance between pads). The
entire sequence when using square-round pliers is shown
in Figure 9-54.
Changing Frame Height but not Vertex

Distance for Question MarkStyle Pad Arms
D
Figure 9-52. Summarization of the sequence of steps for narrowing the distance between pads with question mark type pad
arms. Only one pad is adjusted for the sake of comparison.
To change the frame height, but not the distance from

the frame to the eyes, the distance between the pads
must remain the same, but the pads must be either higher
or lower. This will move the frame down or up.
Point of
rotation
Figure 9-53. Square-round pliers being used to correct the splay angle of the nosepad and
complete the pad narrowing process (top view). The point of rotation is at the center of the
round jaw of the pliers.
Ch009-H7480.indd 204
7/29/2006 7:52:15 PM
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
205
Raising the Frame: Question Mark Pad Arms

To raise the frame, the sequence is the same as for lowering the frame with one exceptionthe pad arm is bent
downward instead of upward. The procedure is:
1. With the pliers held horizontally, grasp the entire
pad arm between the pliers jaws and bend the pad
arm upward.
2. Correct the vertical angle of the pad. To adjust the
angle of the pad, use square-round pliers held
vertically and grasp the pad arm behind the pad.
Increasing the Vertex Distance Only for Frames

with Question MarkStyle Pad Arms
C
Figure 9-54. A, Even though both pad surfaces are correctly
angled, both pads are too far to the left. This will cause the
frame to be shifted to the right. Bending the pad arms back to
their proper position throws the pad angles off (B). These
must be reangled as shown in B to achieve correct alignment
(C).
Suppose we change the question mark style pad arms

so they angle downward when leaving the eyewires
instead of coming off at right angles. If the pads now rest
on the same place on the nose as previously, the lenses
will be situated higher on the face in relation to the eyes
than previously. The reverse is true if the pad arms are
angled up.
Lowering the Frame: Question Mark Pad Arms
To lower the frame, the adjustment is done in two
moves. The rst bend moves the pad upward; the second
corrects the messed-up vertical angle. Here is the
procedure:
1. With the pliers held horizontally, grasp the entire
pad arm between the pliers jaws and simply bend
the arm upward. (Figure 9-55, A shows how the
bend is done, and Figure 9-55, B shows what the pad
looks like after this rst step is completed.)
Correct the vertical angle of the pad. To adjust
the angle of the pad, use square-round pliers held
vertically. Grasp the pad arm behind the pad
halfway into the curl area and return the pad to its
original angle (Figure 9-55, C and D). It may be
necessary to grasp the pad arm from above to
complete the bend and to fully return the pad to the
correct vertical angle.
2. Pad-adjusting pliers can also be used to correct the
vertical angle if sufcient room between pad and
eyewire is present and if care is taken not to
accidentally bend the pad arm back to its original
position.
Ch009-H7480.indd 205
Extending the pad arms will increase the vertex

distance between the lenses and the eyes. Here is the
sequence of adjustments for pad bridges with question
mark style pad arms:
1. Open the pad arm curl. Position the square-round
pliers so that the square jaw is inside the pad arm
curl and the round jaw is outside. Open out the curl
of the pad arm by compressing the jaws and rotating
the pliers slightly (Figure 9-56, A). This adjustment
increases the distance from the lens to the pad.
When a radical increase in vertex distance is
necessary, it is possible to open the pad arm out
completely (Figure 9-56, B). This is done by
squeezing a section of it at a time, gradually moving
the positions of the jaws closer to the pad while
squeezing with the large part of the pliers near the
pliers throat until the pad arm is absolutely
straight.
2. Replace the curl nearer to the pad. Flattening the
curl of the pad arm, by whatever method, will turn
the pad away from its proper angle so that its
surface faces straight back, or nearly so. The pad
arm will now require a new curl, which should be
placed closer to the pad than it was previously. To
put the curl in correctly, hold the square-round
pliers vertically and grip the pad arm at the desired
position of the curl. Position the round jaw so that
it will be on the inside of the new curl (Figure 9-56,
C). Using the round jaw as a pivotal point, rotate
the pliers until the pad reaches its proper position.
Figure 9-56, D shows an example of how the pad
arm should look when nished.
If difculty is experienced in getting the curl to bend
exactly at the desired place, it may be helpful to use a
second pair of pliers as holding pliers. With these, the
pad arm can be held rmly at a point approximately
halfway between the pad and the point of attachment to
the frame. This two-pliers technique is extremely useful
for antique rimless mountings where bracing is necessary to prevent chipping the lens near the pad arm. It
also allows the pad arm to be curled without inadvertently bending it at its base.
7/29/2006 7:52:16 PM
206
Point of rotation
A
Point of
rotation
D
C
Figure 9-55. A, To raise the pads on frames with question mark pad arms, thin pliers are
used to grasp the entire pad arm and bend it upward. This will lower the frame on the face.
B, After the question mark type pad arm has been bent upward, the pad will be considerably
higher, but has an incorrect vertical angle. The pad must be reangled. C, Reangling the pad
to correct the vertical angle after having raised the question mark style pad arm is done by
grasping the curl close to the pad. This can be done with square round (or thin-nosed) pliers
as shown here. D, Note how much higher the pad on the right is than the pad on the left.
When both pads are adjusted, the frame will sit considerably lower than previously.
Decreasing the Vertex Distance Only for

Frames with Question MarkStyle Pad Arms
Bringing the pads closer to the lenses will decrease the
vertex distance. Here is the two-step sequence used to
bring about this change for pad bridges with question
mark style pad arms. (See Figure 9-57, A to see what the
pads look like before starting the adjustment.)
1. Grasp the pad arm at its base with the round jaw
toward the temporal side of the frame (Figure 9-57,
B). Bend the pad arm towards the lens. This will
throw the splay angle off (Figure 9-57, C).
Ch009-H7480.indd 206
2. Position the square-round pliers in the curl of the

pad arm with the round jaw on the inside of the
curl (Figure 9-57, D). Tighten the curl by rotating
the pliers around the round jaw. This should move
the pad closer to the frame, correct the splay angle,
and return the pad it to the original distance
between pads.
When the adjustment is complete, the reangled
pad should duplicate its original angle (Figure 9-57,
E).
7/29/2006 7:52:16 PM
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
207
B
A
D
C
Figure 9-56. A, Increasing the vertex distance without changing frame height: To straighten
the question mark type pad arm, the curl of the arm is attened by compressing the jaws and
rotating the pliers slightly. Note the location of square and round jaws. Because the curl must
open up, the square jaw is on the inside of the curl. (Frame shown from below.) B, Here the
pad arm curl has been opened up and the pad faces back. (Frame shown from above.) C, A
new curl is to be placed in the pad arm so that it has a longer effective length. By noting the
position of the square-round pliers, it is possible to predict the location of the new curl. (Frame
shown from above.) D, The pad arm on the left has been lengthened. That on the right is in
its normal position. (Frame shown from above.)
Ch009-H7480.indd 207
7/29/2006 7:52:17 PM
208
Point of rotation
C
B
Center of
rotation
D
Figure 9-57. A, Here is how the pads and pad arms appear before shortening the effective
length of the pad arms. This will decrease the vertex distance from frame to eyes. The pad
on the left will be moved. (Frame shown from above.) B, To decrease the vertex distance,
bend the pad arm temporally. The bend takes place at the point of attachment of the pad arm.
(Frame shown from below.) C, The pad arm on the left has been bent outward at the base in
the rst part of decreasing the vertex distance. The splay angle has been thrown off. (Frame
shown from above.) D, To complete the decrease in vertex distance, tighten the curl of the
pad arm. This moves the pad closer to the frame, corrects the splay angle, and returns it to
where the distance between pads will be the same as it was before. Note that the square-round
pliers grasp the curl with the round jaw on the inside of the curl. (Frame shown front view
from below.) E, The pad arm on the left has been effectively shortened. The pad arm on the
right is positioned normally. After the pad arm on the right has been adjusted, the vertex
distance will be considerably less than before. (Frame shown from above.)
Ch009-H7480.indd 208
7/29/2006 7:52:22 PM
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9-58. Use hot salt scooped up in a wooded spoon to

heat xed pads on a plastic frame in preparation for changing
their splay angle. Hot air works equally well or better.
SECTION C
Nonadjustable Bridge Adjustments
ACHIEVING THE PROPER FITTING ANGLES
FOR NONADJUSTABLE PLASTIC BRIDGES
For plastic frames without adjustable pads, checking for
correct bridge t at the time of frame selection is essential. The size must be right and all tting angles correct.
Nonetheless, in certain circumstances it may still be
possible to correct a problem after the fact.
Modifying Fixed Pad Bridges

A limited number of plastic frames have a bridge with
small, built-in pads made from the same material as
the frame. They should sit at on the nose from the
beginning and should not have to be adjusted. But
suppose a frame bridge without adjustable nosepads, but
with these small, xed pads has the correct width and is
parallel to the nose when viewed from the front. The
bridge size and frontal angle have been correctly chosen.
In spite of this, the splay angle is incorrect, and the
attached plastic pads are in such a manner that their
inner edges project into the backward sloping surface of
the nose and indent it. This condition will produce both
visible and potentially painful signs.
The are of the pads can be altered by heating the
pads and modifying their angle of attachment to the
front. To heat the nosepads, use a spoon to scoop up
some hot salt from the salt bath and hold it against the
pads (Figure 9-58), or direct a concentrated stream of
hot air against the pad. To are the pads outward, use
pressure from a smooth at object, such as a spoon bowl
(Figure 9-59).
Modifying Sculptured Bridges

A frame with a sculptured bridge has no pad at all.
Rather, the bridge area of the frame rests directly on the
Ch009-H7480.indd 209
Adjusting the Frame
209
Figure 9-59. Bending the pads back on a plastic frame using

the back surface of a wooden spoon. If hot salt is used to heat
frames, a wooden spoon is commonly used to stir the salt and
makes a handy at surface to angle the xed pad back.
nose. Frames that have a sculptured bridge rather than

pads cannot be altered in angle unless the plastic is led
to a new form. When a coarse le is used, the area should
be subsequently smoothed down with ne-grain emery
paper. Bufng the area afterward using a rag wheel and
buf ng rouge will restore a good polish to the frame for
cellulose acetate or propionate frames. If no wheel is
available, acetone may be applied repeatedly until an
acceptable smoothness results. (Newer frame materials
may require the application of a polyurethane furniture
nish.) It should be kept in mind that ling the bridge
as described may cause the frame to sit somewhat lower
on the face than previously. When a sculptured bridge
does need alteration, it is usually a result of poor frame
selection.
FIXED BRIDGE HEIGHT AND VERTEX

DISTANCE CHANGES
Properly selected xed bridge frames should already be
at the correct height. If they need to be changed in their
height, there are certain limited ways to accomplish it.
In plastic frames and other nonadjustable xedbridge frames, the height can be affected only by altering
the distance between the lenseseither by narrowing or
widening the bridge. This adjustment forces the frames
to ride on either a wider or narrower part of the nose.
Since the nose widens from top to bottom, the frames
will be correspondingly either higher or lower than they
were before the change in bridge width.
In xed-bridge frames, even the vertex distance position can usually only be attained by widening or narrowing the bridge. (Again the necessity of altering vertex
distance should have been prevented by proper bridge or
frame selection during the tting.)
7/29/2006 7:52:26 PM
210
B
Figure 9-60. A, Bridge-widening pliers. B, The procedure for using those pliers. The design
of the pliers works better for keyhole bridges than saddle bridges.
If the bridge is widened, it will not only lower the frame

but also permit it to sit farther back on the nose, bringing
it closer to the eyes. On the other hand, if the bridge is
narrowed, it may not only raise the frame, but will cause
it to sit forward on the nose, farther from the eyes.
It should be noted that when the physical width of the
bridge is widened or narrowed, this will also widen or
narrow the distance between the optical centers of the
lenses. While this may be tolerable for lower-powered
lenses, it may cause problems with unwanted prismatic
effect as the power of the lenses increase. Thus, if any
adjustments to the physical width of the bridge are being
considered, remember:
1. Low-powered lenses may make alterations to the
distance between lenses acceptable. Acceptable
would mean that the change would not cause the
lens prescription to go outside of ANSI Z80
Recommendations for Prescription Ophthalmic
Lenses.
2. Adjustments to the physical bridge size that will
affect the distance between lens centers should be
done before the lenses are ordered so that the
wearers PD will be correct when worn.
3. If the above two situations cannot be accomplished,
then the adjustment should not be done.
obtain a starting measurement. Heat the bridge area of

the frame. To widen the bridge, place bridge-widening
pliers (Figure 9-60, A) in the bridge area, and squeeze
(Figure 9-60, B).
To narrow the bridge, bridge narrowing pliers are
sometimes used (Figure 9-61, A). Again, place the pliers
on the heated bridge area and squeeze (Figure 9-61, B).
Note the amount of change by remeasuring until the
proper width is achieved, then try the frame on the
wearer to verify the alteration. The use of widening or
narrowing pliers does not guarantee success. In actual
practice, such pliers are successful with only a very
limited number of plastic frames.
Plastic Frames
Using a Staking Tool to Change Bridge Size

A staking tool is a multiple-use tool used in the repair of
frames. It is possible to purchase an accessory for the tool
that allows the bridge to be reformed (Figure 9-63). It
works in a manner similar to the bridge-reducing pliers.
This does not have a very good success record either.
There is no staking set accessory for widening a
bridge.
Changing the distance between lenses in plastic frames

can be accomplished in several different ways. The following methods are those primarily used:
Using Pliers to Change Bridge Size
To use pliers to change the bridge size of a plastic frame,
measure the width of the bridge from lens to lens to
Ch009-H7480.indd 210
Using a Dowel Rod to Change Bridge Size

Vertical sections of dowel rods are used for changing
bridge size. A 3/8 -inch rod is used for narrowing, and a
5
/8 -inch rod for widening the bridge. To change bridge
size using a dowel rod, hold the frame by the eyewires
and pull the preheated bridge around the dowel while
keeping the lenses parallel (Figure 9-62).
On the narrow dowel rod, this procedure increases the
bow of the bridge and moves the lenses closer to one another.
On the wide dowel rod, the bridge is stretched, decreasing the bow and separating the lenses farther apart.
7/29/2006 7:52:27 PM
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
211
A
Figure 9-61. A, Bridge-narrowing pliers. B, The procedure for using narrowing pliers is
shown.
Figure 9-62. The technique used for narrowing a plastic

bridge when using a dowel rod.
Using the Hands Alone to Change Bridge Size

Many dispensers prefer to modify the bridge using only
the hands. This preference is a personal one and may be
due to the possibility of marking the frame or because
of either a lack of or dissatisfaction with other tools. To
change the bridge size using the hands alone, do the
following:
Heat the bridge only. Leave the lenses in the frame
and try not to heat any other part of the frame.
To widen the bridge, heat the bridge considerably and
grasp the frame around each lens. Pull outward. With
materials used today, it may only be possible to widen
the bridge by millimeter.
To narrow the bridge, heat and reheat the frame. That
is, heat the bridge until it is very hot (but not so hot as
Ch009-H7480.indd 211
Figure 9-63. A bridge reducing accessory is available for

staking sets. The accessory works on the same principle as the
bridge-narrowing pliers. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
7/29/2006 7:52:28 PM
212
to bubble the plastic) and wait just a bit, then reheat it

till very hot again. Repeat this several times. Set the
frame down for about 10 to 15 seconds, and then reheat
the bridge one last time. Now wait about 8 seconds
before pushing the lenses together.
Grasp the frame front by the eyewires, hold the frame
against the midsection of the body for stability, and
either push the eyewires together or pull them apart,
depending on the modication desired.
The reason for heating and reheating the frame in
this manner is so that the outer skin of the bridge will
be cooler than the inside of the bridge. Now when the
bridge is compressed, the center will bulge forward
without wrinkling the outer surface.3
When attempting to widen or narrow the bridge, take
care to avoid simply pushing the lower sections together
or pulling the bottoms of the eyewires apart (adding
unwanted upsweep to the frame). This is especially
important when the prescription has a cylinder component because the axis can be shifted. Recheck the cylinder axis after changing the bridge to make sure that such
a shift has not occurred. If none of these four methods
work very well, there are ways to customize the frame
that may do the job.
Changing the Bridge Size by Customizing the Frame
The plastic frame can be customized in one of several
ways. These methods are often more successful than
those just described above. These customizing methods
include:
Adding adjustable pad arms or a unit bridge. This is
done by drilling and press tting, or by using a Hot
Fingers unit. (See Retrotting Plastic Frames with
Adjustable Nosepads, Chapter 10.)
Using build-up pads. The bridge on a plastic frame can
sometimes be altered to t an especially narrow or
unusual nose by using build-up pads (Figure 9-64). Even
silicone stick-on nose pads will cause a slight narrowing
of the bridge. Both types of pads are attached to the
area of the frame that would normally rest on the nose.
For a complete explanation on how acetate or silicone
build-up pads may be used to change both frontal and
splay angle, and how they are applied, see the section
entitled Replacing Nosepads on Plastic Frames in
Chapter 10.
RECHECKING THE FRAME FIT

After completing the steps in tting the frame as given
in this chapter and as summarized in Box 9-2, recheck
the following before considering the t nal.
1. Are the glasses at the correct height vertically?
2. Is one lens or one multifocal segment higher than
the other, or are progressive lens tting crosses
directly in front of the pupils?
3. Is the pantoscopic tilt correct?
4. Are right and left vertex distances equal?
Ch009-H7480.indd 212
Figure 9-64. Silicone nose pads mounted onto plastic frames

with adhesive or with small drilled holes will not only reduce
slippage, but also slightly narrow the effective width of the
bridge.
BOX 9-2
Steps in Fitting
STEP 1: TEMPLE/ENDPIECE ANGLE
a. Check for proper temple spread angle.
b. Check for equality of lens distances from the eyes,
viewing from the top.
STEP 2: PANTOSCOPIC ANGLE
a. Check tilt of lenses from a side view.
b. Check for straightness of the frame on the face from
a front view.
STEP 3: NOSEPADS OR BRIDGE AREA
a. Adjust the frame for proper height when necessary.
b. Adjust the frame for proper vertex distance when
necessary.
c. Adjust nosepads for maximum surface contact.
STEP 4: TEMPLES
a. Temples are adjusted to exert slight pressure over the
tops of the ears.
b. The temple bend is moved to its proper position when
necessary.
c. The bent-down portion is contoured to match the side
of the head and back of the ear.
After the fitter gains experience, it will be found that
many of the steps can be done simultaneously because
it will be possible to see and correct more than one thing
at a time.
5. Is the temple pressure along the side of the skull

correct?
6. Is the temple bend positioned correctly relative to
the tops of the ears?
7. Does the bent-down portion of the temple angle
downward correctly?
7/29/2006 7:52:30 PM
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
213
BOX 9-3
Summary of Adjustments for Moving the Frame on the Face
TO
1.
2.
3.
MOVE FRAME AWAY FROM FACE

Narrow adjustable pads (also raises frame)
Increase effective length of pad arms
Shrink (narrow) bridge of plastic frame (also raises
frame)
4. Decrease face form (make front straighter)
TO
1.
2.
3.
MOVE FRAME CLOSER TO FACE

Spread adjustable pads apart (also lowers frame)
Decrease effective length of pad arms
Stretch (widen) bridge of plastic frame (also lowers
front)
4. Increase face form (make front more curved)
TO MOVE FRAME OFF THE CHEEKS
1. Decrease pantoscopic tilt
2. Raise the frame by narrowing bridge or pads or
bending pad arms down
3. Increase vertex distance by narrowing bridge or pads or
extending pad arms
TO MOVE FROM OFF THE BROWS
1. Increase pantoscopic tilt
2. Lower the frame by widening bridge or pads or by
raising pad position
3. Increase vertex distance by extending pad arms
8. Do both right and left bent-down portions of the

temples follow the contour of the side of the head?
(In other words, does the posterior portion of the
temple need to be formed to follow the curvature of
the side of the head?)
When nosepads are present, recheck these points:
1. Is the distance between pads correct for the
wearer?
2. Are the pads sitting on the correct part of the nose
for the wearer?
3. Do the frontal angles of the pads correspond to the
frontal angles of the wearers nose?
4. Do the splay angles of the pads correspond to the
splay angles of the wearers nose?
5. Are the longitudinal axes of the pads perpendicular
to the oor? (In other words, does the vertical angle
of the pad equal the pantoscopic angle of the frame
front when the glasses are being worn?)
6. Overall, do the pads sit at on the surface of the
nose?
Test for equality of temple tension on each side by
lifting the temples off the ears slightly and pulling the
front forward gently. Equality of temple adjustment can
also be checked by placing the thumbs on the sides of
the temples of the frame and the ngers directly behind
the wearers ears (between the back of the ear and the
bent-down portion of the temple). Do this simultane-
Ch009-H7480.indd 213
Note: attempting to move frame forward by narrowing bridge

or pads may raise it further.
TO
1.
2.
3.
4.
MOVE FRAME HIGHER ON FACE

Shrink or narrow the bridge (plastic)
Add pads to plastic bridge
Narrow distance between adjustable pads
Lower vertical position of adjustable pads
TO
1.
2.
3.
MOVE FRAME LOWER ON FACE

Stretch or widen the bridge (plastic)
Spread adjustable pads apart
Raise vertical position of adjustable pads
TO MOVE ONE LENS CLOSER TO THE FACE

1. If left lens is IN, bring left temple IN and/or if right
lens is OUT, bring right temple OUT
2. If right lens is IN bring right temple IN and/or left lens
is OUT, bring left temple OUT
TO MOVE ONE LENS HIGHER ON THE FACE
1. If left lens is UP, bend left temple UP and/or if right
lens is DOWN, bend right temple DOWN
2. If right lens is UP, bend right temple UP and/or if left
lens is DOWN, bend left temple DOWN
ously for both ears, using both hands, to obtain an accurate estimate of equality of adjustment.
The wearer should put the glasses on and take them
off several times to see if they rest in the proper place.
This exercise will reveal if the wearer puts his glasses on
in such a way that they rest in some unusual manner,
such as with the temples high on the head or in the hair.
In such cases, it may be necessary to alter the frame by
changing its vertical position, pad angles, or pantoscopic
tilt.
The wearer should be made aware of any deliberate
irregularities in the glasses, such as unequal seg height
or pantoscopic angles.
If attention is not specically called to these irregularities, the wearer is often mistakenly left with the
impression that something is wrong with the glasses.
(For a summary of adjustments on how to move the
position of the frame on the face, see Box 9-3.)
REFERENCES
1. Kintner EA: The relative role of physical features of spectacles as factors in wearing comfort. Masters Thesis,
Bloomington, Ind, 1970, Indiana University.
2. Stimson RL: Ophthalmic dispensing, ed 2, Springeld, Ill,
1971, Charles C Thomas.
3. Yoho A: Back in plastic, Eyecare Business, March 2003, pp.
44-47.
7/29/2006 7:52:32 PM
214
Proficiency Test
1. Which of the following may not be a cause of one
lens being higher than the other?
a. one earpiece being bent down considerably
further than the other
b. an upward bend in one of the temple shafts
c. a skewed bridge
d. one ear higher than the other
e. nosepads spread too far
2. If the frame is crooked with the right side higher
than the left:
a. bend the right temple down
b. bend the right temple up
3. If a bifocal wearer complains that the bifocal line
is too high and the frame has adjustable nosepads,
and if cosmetics will allow:
a. decrease the distance between pads.
b. increase the distance between pads.
4. Which is not a possible solution for the frame
sitting too high on the face?
a. increase the distance between adjustable
nosepads
b. move the vertical position of adjustable
nosepads downward
c. choose a different frame
5. If the eyelashes rub the back surface of the lenses,
the tter should:
a. spread the temples.
b. raise the frame.
c. increase the vertex distance.
d. spread the nosepads.
6. Which of the following is not a possible cause of
both lashes touching the lenses?
a. not enough pantoscopic tilt
b. base curves that are too at
c. adjustable nosepads that are positioned too close
to the frame front
d. adjustable nosepads that are too close together
7. If the top of the frame front touches the eyebrows,
what is not a possible solution to the problem?
a. choosing a different frame
b. moving the adjustable nosepads farther away
from the frame front
c. increasing the pantoscopic angle
d. All of the above are possible solutions to the
problem.
Ch009-H7480.indd 214
8. One lens is closer to the wearers face than the

other. How could this be corrected?
a. Increase the temple spread (bend the temple
outward) on the side closest to the face.
b. Increase the pantoscopic tilt on the side closest
to the face.
c. Decrease the temple spread (bend the temple
inward) on the side closest to the face.
d. Tighten the temple tension behind the ear on
the side farthest from the face.
9. If the wearer complains that the glasses feel snug,
but still slip down the nose, one likely cause is
that:
a. the bridge size is too large.
b. the bridge size is too small.
c. too much pressure is being applied by the
temple shafts on the sides of the head in front
of the ears.
d. too much pressure is being applied to the sides
of the head behind the ears by the very tips of
the temples; no pressure is being applied to the
sides of the head in front of the ears.
10. True or false? Narrowing the distance between
adjustable nosepads causes the frame to sit higher
on the face, and somewhat closer to the face.
11. True or false? Strap bridges are a replacement for
adjustable nosepads. They help increase the
weight-bearing area. Unfortunately, they are not
adjustable like the pads they replace.
12. The wearer has a previously broken, crooked nose.
The new frame has an adjustable pad bridge.
When the glasses are put on the wearer, the frame
front sits too far to the wearers left. (Any
references to left or right in the responses below
are from the wearers point of view.) What should
be done to correct the problem?
a. Move both right and left pads to the right.
b. Move both right and left pads to the left.
c. Move the right pad to the right and the left pad
to the left.
d. Move the right pad to the left and the left pad
to the right.
7/29/2006 7:52:32 PM
CHAPTER 9
Adjusting the Frame
215
13. When viewing the wearer from the front, it is

discovered that the frame sits too far to the
wearers right. What might be causing this?
a. Both pads are too far to the wearers left.
b. Both pads are too far to the wearers right.
c. The wearers nose is crooked.
d. Both a and c are possible causes.
e. Both b and c are possible causes.
21. The temples on a frame do not open the same

amount. One has a greater temple spread than the
other. When this is the case, the lens that will be
closer to the eye will be the lens:
a. on the same side as the looser (more widely
spread) temple.
b. on the same side as the tighter (less widely
spread) temple.
14. True or false? The wearer is looking straight ahead.

If the dispenser views the glasses from the side and
the nosepads are properly adjusted, the long axis of
the pads should be perpendicular to the oor.

other. When this is the case, the side of the nose
that could become irritated is:
a. on the same side as the looser temple.
b. on the same side as the tighter temple.
15. True or false? Most pad adjustments may be done

in two movements. The rst move makes the
change; the second move completes the change
and restores the proper pad angle.
16. If both nosepads press at against the side of the
nose, yet hurt or cause indentations on the nose,
what is a possible cause?
a. The temple spread is not even.
b. The pads need to be spread farther apart.
c. The pads are too small for the weight of the
frame.
17. A correctly tting cable temple should have the tip
of the temple located where?
a. at the lower lobe of the ear
b. slightly past the lower lobe of the ear
c. just short of the lower lobe of the ear
18. Which of the following statements about temples
with good quality spring hinges is false?
a. Frames with spring hinges are less likely to
require readjustment or repair when struck with
a ball, an elbow, or when knocked from the
face.
b. Spring temples are adjusted behind the ears
exactly as any other temples would be.
c. The temple bend location is positioned exactly
the same for spring hinge temples as for
temples without spring hinges.
d. Frames with spring hinges should be adjusted
so they are tighter than frames with normal,
well-tted temples.
19. True or false? When choosing a frame for
individuals with behind-the-ear hearing aids, the
best temple design is one that is thin and conforms
to the back of the crotch of the ear.
20. True or false? Here is the procedure for taking off
a pair of glasses that have cable temples. The
wearer should grasp the left endpiece with the left
hand and the tip end of the right cable temple with
the right hand. The right temple is pulled off the
ear and the glasses swung to the left so that the
left cable temple comes off the ear easily without
causing the glasses to lose their adjustment.
Ch009-H7480.indd 215

other. When this is the case, the ear that is likely
to become irritated will be:
a. the ear on the opposite side of the tighter
temple.
b. the ear on the same side as the tighter temple.
24. When a wearers frames are both slipping down
the nose and hurting behind the ears, the most
probable solution would be to:
a. move the temple bend farther forward on the
temple.
b. move the temple bend farther back on the temple.
c. increase the temple spread.
d. decrease the bridge size.
e. angle the tips of the temples inward.
25. A wearer comes into the ofce. His frames are out
of adjustment. The left lower rim touches his left
cheek and the right side of the frame front is
higher than the left side. It also appears that there
is just a bit too much pantoscopic angle on the
frame. Given the choices below, if you can only
make one choice, which choice would be the best?
a. Bend the left temple upward.
b. Bend the left temple downward.
c. Bend the right temple upward.
d. Bend the right temple downward.
e. Bend the left temple upward and the right
temple downward.
26. Which of the following problems would not be
helped or solved by widening the frame bridge?
a. The frame is too high on the face.
b. The bridge is too small for the nose.
c. The lashes rub the back surface of the lenses.
d. All of the above problems would be helped or
solved by widening the frame bridge.
7/29/2006 7:52:33 PM
216
27. When being worn, the only appropriate place for

eyeglasses to exert pressure is:
a. on the sides of the head at the very ends of the
temples.
b. on the sides of the head directly above the ears.
c. in the crease between the back of the ear and
the side of the head.
d. There should never be any pressure exerted by
the frame.
28. True or false? Attempts to conform the temple
earpiece to follow the depression in the side of the
head behind the ear do not result in sufcient
improvement in t to make tting efforts
worthwhile.
Ch009-H7480.indd 216
29. Contemporary frames having spring hinge temples

should be adjusted so that:
a. the temple pressure against the sides of the
head is considerably less than for frames
without spring hinges.
b. the temple pressure against the sides of the
head is slightly less than for frames without
spring hinges.
c. the temple pressure against the sides of the
head is the same as for frames without spring
hinges.
d. the temple pressure against the sides of the
head is slightly greater than for frames without
spring hinges.
e. the temple pressure against the sides of the
head is considerably greater than for frames
without spring hinges.
7/29/2006 7:52:33 PM
C H A P T E R 10
Frame Repairs and

Modications
n important service that should be provided is

frame repair. Most necessary repairs will be
minor, although occasionally a major job will be
requested. Going hand in hand with repairs are modications to frames that must be performed to make a
frame t just right. This chapter provides methods and
hints for performing these tasks as quickly and efciently as possible.
SCREW REPLACEMENTS AND REPAIRS

Most major frame repairs require a lot of time. As a
result, replacement of broken parts is usually more cost
effective. Occasionally, however, a major repair can
provide a vital service to a wearer if it enables him to
continue wearing a much-needed prescription.
Minor repairs also take time but usually not more
than would be expended in aligning a new pair of glasses.
Perhaps, more important, is how much these repairs are
appreciated.
This chapter begins with the two most common problems: screw repairs and pad replacements, followed by
the third most common, temple repairs.
Correctly Using an Optical Screwdriver

When using an optical screwdriver, the screwdriver
should not be held like a pencil (Figure 10-1). Instead,
place the handle end in the palm of the hand, as shown
in Figure 10-2, A. (Typically the end of the handle is
made to rotate, making this technique work more
smoothly.) Grasp the screwdriver, as shown in Figure
10-2, B. Now brace the frame on the edge of the workbench (Figure 10-3) or on a bench block so that if (or
rather when) the screwdriver slips, the sharp tip will not
go halfway into your nger.
A Note on Screwdriver Types
There are many different types of optical screwdrivers
available, from ones with brass shafts and no-roll handles,
to others having large, round hardwood handles that ll
the palm of the hand. There is also an ergonomic type
shown in Figure 10-4 with a handle that can be bent to
conform to the hand.
It can be tricky enough just to hold a tiny screw
between thumb and forenger. Getting it screwed into
the hole far enough to get started is even harder. Here

are two options to help in this matter.
There is a pick-up screwdriver with spring-loaded
retractable jaws for holding small screws until they
catch the threads in the barrel.
Another option is a special screw-holding tool that
grips the screw so that it can be more easily pressed
into the hole (Figure 10-5).
Check to make sure that the blade of the screwdriver
is in good condition. Damaged blades can damage screw
heads. And regardless of what screwdriver is used, the
blade size needs to match the screw. (Most optical screwdrivers have reversible blades with different widths on
each end.)
Another helpful tool is a screw-lift tool. This is used
after the screw is loose and ready to be removed. This
tool is used to lift the screw from the hole without dropping and losing it (Figure 10-6).
Loose Screws
The constant opening and closing of temples sometimes
turns the temple screw and loosens it. Although a loose
temple does not necessarily affect the t or stability of
the glasses, most wearers would like to see the problem
xed. If the screw is loose and has not been fully turned,
simply tighten it.
Sometimes even after tightening a temple screw, the
temple may still be loose and oppy. In this case the
temple barrels may need to be realigned. Realignment
of temple barrels is discussed later in the Misaligned
Hinge Barrels section.
Using a Sealant to Keep Screws Tight
One solution for a screw that continually loosens is
to use a screw-locking adhesive sealant on the screw
threads to hold it tight. A sealant does not just keep
the screw from loosening. It also keeps it from corroding. A corroded screw will lock up over time, making
removal difcult. Most optical suppliers carry these
products.
Some prefer to use clear nail polish instead of a sealant,
painting the head of the screw and the threads to prevent
turning. This method is most successful on screws
located in a recessed position (Figure 10-7).
217
218
Figure 10-3. Safety rst. Always brace the frame against

something. Do not hold the frame so that when (not if, but
when) the screwdriver slips, it will not penetrate your other
hand.
Figure 10-1. This is the wrong way to hold a screwdriver.
B
Figure 10-2. A, This photo shows how to grasp the optical screwdriver so that the rotating
end of the handle is in the palm of the hand. B, With the handle end cradled in the center
of the palm, grasp the optical screwdriver as shown.
CH A P T ER 10
Figure 10-4. There are a large variety of optical screwdrivers

available, including this ergonometric one that bends to nd
the size and shape of the hand.
Frame Repairs and Modications
219
Figure 10-7. Use clear nail polish to seal a tightened screw in

place and prevent it from loosening up. This combination
frame has an eyewire screw recessed under the top rim.
Figure 10-8. Flaring pliers will are a rivet or screw tip to

prevent it from backing out.
Figure 10-5. The screw-holding tool places the screw in

hard-to-reach places where ngers cannot always go.
Figure 10-6. The screw-lift tool allows a loosened screw to

be removed with less chance of being dropped.
Peening Screw Tips to Keep Screws Tight

For temple screws whose tips protrude beyond the
barrels, it is possible to put a rivetlike head on the
end of the screw. This can be done in one of several
ways including:
1. Tapping it rmly with the small end of an opticians
hammer to keep the screw from backing out.
2. Using aring pliers designed to are out the ends of
the screws and rivets (Figure 10-8).
3. Peening down the end using a staking set, such as
the one shown later in the chapter in Figure 10-53,
but with a concave-end peening tool.
Once the tip of the screw has been ared, it may later
be necessary to le the tip to remove the screw.
Using Replacement Self-Locking Screws to Keep
Screws Tight
Self-locking replacement screws have an epoxy type of
coating on the threads that keeps the screw from backing
220
Spring hinge screw
Figure 10-9. This type of self-locking replacement screw has

an epoxy type of coating on the threads that keeps the screw
from backing out. It is removable and can be used again. As
would be expected, each time it is taken out and replaced, it
loses some of its adhesive characteristics.
Figure 10-10. The spring hinge screw is tapered at the tip.

This allows the screw to more easily slip into the small open
area between the nonaligning temple and frame front barrel
holes. (Courtesy of Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
BOX 10-1
How to Keep a Loose Screw in Place
1. Use a sealant on the threads and in the barrel.
2. Use clear nail polish on the head, especially if the
head is in a recessed area.
3. Flatten or peen the tip of the screw.
a. Use an opticians hammer.
b. Use aring (peening) pliers.
c. Use a staking set with a peening tool.
4. Use self-locking replacement screws.
out (Figure 10-9). These screws can be removed and

used again, as when an eyewire screw must be removed
and replaced when changing prescription lenses.
The preceding methods of keeping screws tight are
summarized in Box 10-1.
Other Methods Used to Keep Screws Tight
Some frames have built-in systems to keep the screws in
place. These frames are designed with a small setscrew
in the side of one of the barrels or with a small nut that
grasps the tip of the protruding screw.
Optyl frames present a slightly different situation
because many times the hinge area is protectively coated
with Optyl material. To tighten, loosen, or remove a
screw, the hinge area must be heated before the screw
can be turned.
Replacement Screws for Spring Hinges
In many spring hinges, the screw holds the spring within
the temple in tension. Because of this it is often difcult
to line up the barrels on the endpiece with the barrel on
the temple when replacing a temple screw. Unless some
special tools or specialty screws are used, accomplishing
a screw replacement may take more than two hands.
When attempting to insert a screw and turn it into
place when the temple barrel is under tension, it is not
uncommon to have the screw go in at an angle instead
of straight up and down. If the screw is screwed in at an
angle, it may cause the threads in the barrel to strip. In
an effort to prevent this, Hilco makes a self-aligning
spring hinge screw. This stainless steel screw is longer
and has a tapered tip. The tip acts as a lead to align the
hinge barrels (Figure 10-10). Once the screw is seated,
the excess screw that sticks out can be snapped off with
regular pliers; cutting pliers are not needed. The broken
Figure 10-11. This picture shows that when spring hinge

temples are placed on the frame front, their barrel holes do
not line up. They do not line up because the spring in the
temple is not stretched.
end may be peened down with peening pliers or a staking

tool for a neater look and more secure hold.
Once the screw is in place, ex the temple outward to
see how good the action on the spring temple is. If it
opens but will not spring back as it should, loosen the
screw slightly. The tension of the tight screw may be
holding it open. The use of lubricating oil, such as 3in-1 may help in keeping the spring working well
without sticking.
Spring Hinge Alignment Tools. Because of the difculty of putting a spring hinge temple back on a frame
while inserting the screw in the temple, several types of
spring hinge alignment tools have been developed. Here
is how to use one such tool.
Figure 10-11 shows how the barrels in the temple and
frame front do not line up exactly. The spring in the
temple is not stretched to allow the hole in the temple
barrel to line up with the holes in the barrels on the
frame front.
There are two parts to this particular spring hinge
alignment tool. One part is a tiny wrench with a small
tip on the end (Figure 10-12). The tip ts into the temple
barrel hole to pull the barrel and extend the spring, as
shown in Figure 10-13, A and B. (These two gures are
for demonstration purposes only and are not a part of
the screw replacement process.)
The second part of the tool is shown in Figure 10-14.
It has a slide that will lock it in place after the tool has
a grip on the temple. There is also the small tooth on
the angled head of the tool. Here is the procedure:
CH A P T ER 10
221
Figure 10-12. This is the wrench used with one type of

spring hinge alignment tool. The small tip on the end slips
into the spring hinge barrel.
Figure 10-14. This part of the spring hinge alignment tool
grasps the temple. The tooth on the end will slip into the
notch on a notched spring hinge casing and holds the spring
in the extended position. For spring hinge casings without a
notch (called at front casings), the angled head of the tool
holds the barrel in the extended position.
Tooth goes
in casing
notch
Push
down
Spring extended
Figure 10-15. The temple is gripped with the spring hinge

alignment tool, the wrench extends the barrel outward, and
the tooth slips into the notch in the casing to hold the barrel
in the extended position.
B
Figure 10-13. A, The wrench slips into the temple barrel
and will extend the spring. B, Here the spring in a spring hinge
temple has been extended. Note how far it has been pulled out
compared with the previous gure.
1. Put the temple in the tool with the head of the tool
behind the barrel and at the front of the casing that
surrounds the spring hinge.
2. Place the wrench in the barrel hole and extend the
barrel (Figure 10-15). When the spring hinge casing
is notched (as shown in the gure) the tooth slips
into the notch. This holds the barrel in its extended
position.
3. Hold the tool tightly and move the slide forward
to maintain a solid grip on the temple (Figure
10-16).
222
Figure 10-16. While squeezing the spring hinge alignment

tool to keep the barrel extended, slip the slide forward so that
the alignment tool will not open.
Figure 10-18. Compressing the barrels together somewhat to

help tighten up a loose temple is best done with pliers whose
jaws are parallel when open. In this instance, hollow snipenosed pliers are being used.
pried apart (sometimes breaking a barrel off) before the

other part of the hinge can be returned to position.
In some instances this compression can be performed
with both hinges in place, actually allowing the barrels
to be tted together while in position. This, however, is
usually more difcult.
Replacing a Missing Screw
Figure 10-17. Now the temple will t into the frame front,
and all of the barrels will line up. The screw should now go in
as if the frame had a normal temple barrel conguration.
4. Now the temple barrel can be slipped into the

barrels on the frame front. They will line up as a
regular temple would.
5. The screw may now be placed into the barrels and
tightened (Figure 10-17).
(Note: Some casings do not have a notch. For this
kind of temple, the angled head of the tool is used to grip
the at front of the casing and not the tooth.)
Misaligned Hinge Barrels

When a temple is still loose even after tightening the
screw, the problem may be that the barrels of the frame
and temple hinges are mismatched. To correct this
problem, remove the screw and the temple and note
which hinge has the greater number of barrels (usually
the front). Apply parallel-jawed pliers, such as hollowsnipe pliers, to this hinge. Compress the barrels of this
front hinge to narrow the spaces into which the barrels
of the other hinge t (Figure 10-18). Take care not to
compress the barrels too much; otherwise they must be
The most difcult aspect of replacing a missing screw is

nding the right sized replacement. Fortunately the
industry is gravitating to a common screw diameter of
1.4 mm and a length of 3.0 to 4.0 mm.
Table 10-1 shows the most common sizes of currently
used replacement screws for regular spectacle frames,
quality sunglasses, over-the-counter sunglasses, nosepads, and trim.
For the more unusual sizes, Hilco makes a Fast-Find
Screw and Hole Gauge Kit that includes two gauges and
a booklet or chart with numerous pictures and dimensions of screws. These gauges allow one to easily match
an existing screw or quickly nd the dimensions of a
missing screw using the frame.
To nd the size of an existing screw, measure the
diameter. This is done by putting the screw through the
presized holes on the rulerlike device, as shown in Figure
10-19. Next, measure the overall length of the screw,
including the head, using the slots on the same device.
To nd the length of a missing screw, use the slots on
the ruler-type device to measure the depth of the barrels
as shown in Figure 10-20, compensating an additional
amount for the screw head. To nd the diameter of the
missing screw, use the round, spoked tool. Each spoke
has a different diameter. These spokes are inserted into
the empty barrel of the frame to nd the unknown
diameter, as shown in Figure 10-21.
CH A P T ER 10
223
TABLE 10-1
Common Replacement Screw Diameter Sizes for Spectacle Frames

Type of Screws
Most Common Replacement Screw Size
Screws for regular spectacle frames, including both hinges

and barrel-closing screws
Screws for quality sunglass frames
Screws for cheap, over-the-counter sunglasses
Screws for nosepads
Screws for spectacle frame trim
1.4 mm
1.6 mm
1.8 mm
1.0 mm (If this will not t, a 1.1-mm or 0.8-mm diameter will)
1.2 mm, 1.4 mm (sometimes 2.0 mm) (lengths from
2.9 mm-3.6 mm)
Data obtained from Woyton R: How can I nd a replacement screw quickly when a customer comes in with a frame that needs one? Hilco,
Plainville, Mass, undated.
Figure 10-19. To nd the diameter of the screw, slip the

screw through each hole until a match is found. Incidentally,
this 1.4 mm diameter is the most commonly used diameter for
optical screws.
Figure 10-21. To nd the diameter of a missing screw, slide

the different sized spokes of the hole gauge through the barrels
until the correct t is found.
a gift for organization can generate their own system of

vials or drawers. Or one can buy a system that has the
most commonly needed parts, such as the one shown in
Figure 10-22, and replenish it as necessary.
Titanium Screws
Figure 10-20. To nd the screw length for a missing screw,

measure the depth of the barrels and compensate an additional
amount for the screw head. (Note: In other areas of industry,
the head of the screw may not be included in its length.)
Finding a Screw From Inventory

One of the more frustrating aspects of screw replacement is just nding a matching screw. Without an organized system, the dispenser is reduced to searching
through a tray or jar full of extremely small screws, all
of which begin to look like one another. A person with
Because titanium is so strong, the threads on a titanium

screw do not give. So if a titanium screw enters the
barrels at even a slight angle, it will bind. If this happens,
do not force the screw. Just back the screw out and start
over. If it continues to bind after several attempts, put a
drop of cutting oil into the barrel. (In the absence of
cutting oil, which works best, use household oil such
3-in-1.)1
Broken and Stuck Screws

Sometimes a screw will not come out or breaks off in the
barrels of the frame. Suggestions on how these problems
may be corrected are outlined here and summarized in
Box 10-2.
Removing Stuck Screws
If the entire screw is still in place but cannot be turned
with a screwdriver, either the screw may have corroded
224
BOX 10-2
How to Remove Stuck or Broken-Off Screws
TO REMOVE A STUCK SCREW:
1. Immerse in an ultrasonic unit.
2. Use penetrating oil.
3. Place screwdriver in slot and lightly tap the
screwdriver with a hammer.
4. Use a soldering iron or Hot Fingers unit.
5. Deepen the slot or cut a new slot at right angles to
the old slot.
6. Drive the screw out.
a. Use press-out, punch-out, or shoot-out type of
punch pliers or
b. Use a Bulls-Eye Screw Extractor or
c. Use a pointed tool and anvil.
7. Drill the screw out.
a. Rethread with tap or
b. Use a self-tapping replacement screw or
c. Use a screw with a hex nut.
8. Replace the part.
Figure 10-22. Much searching time will be saved if an organized system for storing small frame parts is in place. This is
a commercially available example of a stackable system that
can be added to as needed.
in the barrel or the screw slot may have been

destroyed.
If corrosion is the problem, the screw can be loosened
by immersing the affected area in an ultrasonic cleaner
(Figure 10-23) or by treating it with a penetrating oil
(Figure 10-24).
Some dispensers remove frozen screws by supporting
the tip of the screw on the edge of a small anvil or vise.
After placing an optical screwdriver in the screw slot, the
screwdriver is gently tapped with a hammer once or twice,
breaking corrosion or adhesive. (This method may
require three hands.)
One idea for removing screws that have been previously bonded in the barrels with an adhesive is to use a
soldering iron set on low.* The iron is held on the tip of
the screw for 10 to 20 seconds until the hardened adhesive melts, allowing the screw to be removed normally.
(Caution: Do not use this method on plastic frames.)
The Hot Fingers unit works just as well as a soldering
iron, if not better. Grasp the top and bottom of the screw
with the Hot Finger tips (Figure 10-25). Heat the screw
for 10 to 15 seconds. The metal expands when heated
and contracts as it cools, helping to break the screw
loose. The high heat also burns away any remaining
adhesive. (Caution: Do not use this method on a plastic
frame.)
To make both the soldering iron and Hot Fingers
work even better, as soon as the screw area has been
*
Thanks to John Moulton, Sarnia, Ontario, for this idea.
TO
1.
2.
3.
REMOVE A BROKEN-OFF SCREW:

Use a screw extractor.
Slot the tip of the screw.
Drive the screw out.
a. Use press-out, punch-out, or shoot-out type of
punch pliers or
b. Use a Bulls-Eye Screw Extractor or
c. Use a pointed tool and anvil.
4. Drill the screw out.
a. Rethread with tap or
b. Use a self-tapping replacement screw or
c. Use a screw with a hex nut.
5. Replace the part.
Figure 10-23. Ultrasonic cleaners will loosen frame screws

while the frame is being cleaned. This can be used to advantage in loosening an especially stubborn screw.
CH A P T ER 10
Figure 10-24. Penetrating oil, such as Liquid Wrench automotive penetrating oil, helps cut corrosion and loosen stuck
screws.
225
Figure 10-26. When the slot in the head of a screw has been
destroyed, a new one can be created using a thin le known
as a slotting or ribbon le. (It is sometimes possible to slot the
tip of a broken screw as well. This allows a screwdriver to be
used to turn the remaining part of the screw out of the bottom
of the hinge.) (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
pliers that will punch out broken and stripped screws.

(The pin in the pliers is replaceable.)
It is also possible to drill the screw out. This is described
in the following section.
Figure 10-25. A soldering iron or Hot Fingers unit held on

the tip of a previously sealed screw will often allow the screw
to be removed normally. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
heated, quickly put a drop of oil on the screw. The heat

thins the oil, and the oil is drawn between the threads,
dissolving corrosion and lubricating the interface.2 If
neither a soldering iron nor a Hot Fingers unit are available, even heating the screw area with a frame warmer
and then applying oil should help.
If the slot of the screw has been worn away, use a at
slotting le to restore and deepen the slot so the blade of the
screwdriver can again turn the screw (Figure 10-26). If
the slot is widened and damaged, try ling a new slot in
the screw head. The new slot should be at right angles
to the original slot.
If the screw is so corroded that it cannot be loosened
and removed by any of the above methods, it can be
punched out. This is done with a small hand pliers variously called punch-out, knock-out, or shoot-out
Removing Broken Screws

Occasionally a screw will break into two parts. The head
can easily be removed if the slot is still usable, or it may
fall out by itself. The other part of the screw remains
stuck in the barrels.
The best tool for this job is a screw extractor (Figure
10-27). This device resembles a screwdriver, but has a
barbed end that digs into the stem of the screw and turns
it. The extractor comes in a variety of sizes to suit the
variations in screw diameters.
To use a screw extractor, attack the screw from the
bottom (Figure 10-28). Apply hard downward pressure.
If the broken-off portion remaining in the barrels is long
enough, turn the screw clockwise. This will drive the
screw out through the top barrel. If the broken-off
portion is not long enough to go back out the top, turn
the screw counterclockwise to bring it on out of the
bottom. Hint: The screw extractor tip can be mounted
in a Dremel tool having a standard Jacobs chuck or in a
hanging drill. (The Hilco Hanging Motor Drill is shown
in Figure 10-29. The extractor mounted in the chuck of
the drill is shown in Figure 10-30.)
There is a device called the Bulls-Eye Screw Extractor (Figure 10-31), which can be very helpful and remove
the screw without having to drill it out. This exerts a
large amount of turning power in a controlled manner.
226
Figure 10-29. A drill with a hanging motor allows for more

exibility. It can be used for purposes other than drilling.
Pictured here are attachments for grinding, sanding, cutting,
and polishing. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Figure 10-27. In a set of screw extractors, each extractor

insert has two tips of different sizes. The extractor tip may be
reversed in the same manner as with a two-ended screwdriver
blade.
Figure 10-28. A screw extractor is used to gouge and grasp

the tip of a broken-off screw so that it may be turned. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
If this tool is unavailable or cannot be used and if a

portion of the screw protrudes at the end, use the slotting
or ribbon le to make a slot in the tip of the screw and
then turn the screw out with a screwdriver.
If none of these methods work, it may be feasible to
drive out the remaining portion of the screw.
If all else fails, drill out the screw or its remaining
portion (Figure 10-32). Use a drill bit slightly smaller
than the diameter of the screw. Most screws in hinges
and closing barrels are 1.4 mm in diameter. The drill size
most commonly used for these screws is a 0.0430 (No.
57) bit.
Drill from the bottom of the screw. (The lower portion
of the barrel is the threaded portion.) The conventional
way of drilling starts by ling the screw ush with the
barrel. Make a punch mark in the center of the screw to
act as a guide in drilling. Center the drill carefully on
the screw so as not to drill away the metal of the barrel
surrounding the screw. Drill the screw out slowly, drilling and pausing to keep from overheating and ruining
the drill bit. Always use a cutting or a household oil as
a lubricant and/or coolant when drilling.
There is a drilling guide made special for the purpose
of keeping the drill bit on course so that it drills just the
screw and not the hinge next to the screw. This is called
the Bulls-Eye Screw Drilling Guide. The guide is clamped
to the barrels with the bottom jaw of the guide over the
head of the screw (if the head is still there). After clamped
in place, put a drop or two of oil into the top of the guide.
Use a 0.043 (No. 57) drill bit. The drill bit ts into the
top of the drill guide, as shown in Figure 10-33 and drills
out the screw.
The threads are destroyed whenever a drill bit or
punch pliers is used to drive out a screw. Use a tap to
CH A P T ER 10
227
Figure 10-30. Mounting a screw extractor blade in a drill will allow extra torque to be applied
when trying to remove a broken-off screw. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Figure 10-31. This simple device will place a lot of pressure

on a broken-off screw and accomplish the same thing that a
regular screwdriver-like screw extractor may not be able to
do.
restore the threads (Figures 10-34 and 10-35). The tap can
be either regular or oversized, depending on the hole
drilled. A standard screw can be reapplied if a regular
tap is used, but a special oversized screw must be used if
an oversized tap is used.
When a tap cannot be used to restore the threads or
is not desired, here are two alternatives:
1. Use a self-tapping screw. (This is explained in more
detail in the next section.)
Figure 10-32. A hanging motor drill is used to drill out a

broken screw. The frame is being braced against an opticians
anvil.
228
Figure 10-33. The Bulls-Eye Screw Drilling Guide is

clamped to the screw. The drill is guided exactly onto the
screw by going through a hole in the drilling guide.
Figure 10-34. A tap is a screw threader. It is held in a chuck

with a handle. Threaders of varying size may be mounted in
the chuck. The same handle can be used to mount a small drill
bit for hand drilling plastic.
Figure 10-36. A glass screw and hex nut will serve when
rethreading is no longer feasible. It is not always an attractive
option. Look at the construction of the frame to see whether
the nut should be at the top or bottom. The position that
conceals the nut best is the preferred choice.
Figure 10-37. A self-tapping screw cuts its own threading.

After the screw is fully in place, the excess is broken off with
pliers. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
2. Use a longer boltlike screw, often referred to as a glass

screw,* in combination with a hex nut on the end to
hold it tight (Figure 10-36).
Glass screws are longer than temple screws. They
were made to pass through thick lenses and hold them
in place in a rimless mounting. While tightening such a
screw with a screwdriver, hold the hex nut with a hex
wrench. Clip off the portion of the screw that protrudes
beyond the hex nut and le the end of the screw smooth
to the surface of the nut.
Self-Tapping Screws
Self-tapping screws offer a simple alternative to rethreading (Figure 10-37). In most cases they are superior to
using glass screws with hex nuts.
Self-threading screws are longer than common screws.
After being screwed into place, any excess length extending beyond the end of the barrel should be removed.
Self-tapping screws are not cut off with cutting pliers,
Figure 10-35. Using the tap to restore the threading involves

nothing more than turning the tap clockwise into the
barrels.
*Glass screws are, of course, not made of glass, but were used to
mount a lens in a rimless mounting. Because the screw went
through a glass lens, it is called a glass screw.
CH A P T ER 10
but snapped off using regular pliers, such as at-round

or needle-nose pliers.
When replacing screws with an oversized or a large
self-tapping screw, make sure the screw will freely pass
through all the upper barrels that are not supposed to
have threads in them. If the self-tapping screw is too
large, it can break off before it is screwed in all the way,
forcing the dispenser to start the process from the beginning. If the screw is too big to pass through the upper
barrel, it is possible to enlarge the hole with either a drill
bit or a rattail le.
229
Nut
Metal washer
Nylon washer
Lens
Screw or other hardware
Replacing Rimless Screws

Sometimes a screw that holds the lens in place in a
rimless mounting will break, loosen, or have to be
replaced. There are a large variety of mounting methods
for rimless eyewear, making it difcult to describe repairs
on every conceivable type. However, when lenses are
held in place with screws, there are three basic types of
assemblies. Each of these assemblies has more than just
a screw with a nut. There are a combination of bushings
and washers that protect the lens surfaces and remove
some of the stress from the screw and nut.
Here are the basic components commonly used in the
rimless assembly:
A screw The screw must be long enough to go
through the mounting and full thickness of the lens.
The thickness of the lens varies, so after assembly
the screw is cut off ush with the nut and led
smooth.
A nut The nut used can be either a hex nut or a
star nut. The hex nut is screwed on to the screw
with a nut driver (hex wrench); the star nut requires
a star nut driver.
Washers There are both nylon and metal washers
used. The nylon washer goes up against the lens
surface and cushions the lens. The metal washer is
the last thing between the nut and the rest of the
assembly. The metal washer stabilizes the stress
around the holes and acts as a barrier between the
nut and the softer nylon washer or bushing surface.
Bushings Bushings are small, hollow cylinders that
t into the hole in the lens. The screw passes
through the bushing instead of directly through the
lens and cushions the lens. Top hat bushings are
commonly used for rimless assemblies. These have a
rim on the bushing that both holds the bushing in
place near the surface of the lens and works like a
nylon washer. Top hat bushings are the type of
bushings normally used for rimless mountings.
Figure 10-38 shows how three common rimless screw
assemblies are put together using these components.
Note: Even if the existing assembly on the wearers old
frame was put together with only a screw and a nut, when
making a change, add a nylon washer between the lens
and the nut. Better still, use a nylon bushing to protect
the lens from the screw.
Nut
Metal washer
Nylon washer
Lens
Nylon washer
Nut
Metal washer
Top hat bushing
Lens
Top hat bushing
Figure 10-38. Here are three basic rimless assembly designs

that might be used. Which is used will depend upon the frame
design. Some designs use an entirely different method of
securing the lens in place. A, A simple rimless screw assembly
consists of a regular or decorative screw, a nylon washer on the
back to protect the lens, a metal washer to stabilize the stress
areas, and the nut. The nut may be a hex or a star nut. B, A
common assembly cushioning both the front and back of the
lens with nylon washers. C, Top hat bushings replace nylon
washers, protect the hole in the lens, and add stability to the
assembly.
NOSEPAD REPLACEMENTS
There are many different types of nosepad assemblies.
The screw-on and push-on type nosepad assemblies are
the most dominant. Every eyecare professional must
carry both versions. The most common types are
described here. Some of the more uncommon and antique
styles are discussed in Appendix 10-A at the end of this
chapter. These include clip-on, twist-on, Zeiss bayonet,
split-clamp, stirrup, and rivet types.
230
Figure 10-39. The push-on nosepad design slips into an

indented box on the pad arm.
Figure 10-40. A pad popper is used to remove push-on pads

without affecting the pad arm alignment.
Push-On
The push-on pad is one of the easiest pads to remove and
replace. It has a small I-beamlike shape that snaps into
an indented box on the pad arm (Figure 10-39). The part
of the pad that slips into the box may be either metal or
hard plastic.
Although a push-on pad can be removed without the
aid of tools, it is possible to use a small device called a
pad popper. This device is slipped between the pad and
the pad arm attachment, as shown in Figures 10-40 and
10-41.
There are pliers specically designed to aid in attaching a push-on pad to the pad arm. Known as Push-On
Pad Pliers, they have a curved nylon jaw on one side that
cradles the pad face and a at, metal jaw on the other
side to hold the pad arm in place.
Figure 10-41. A, The thin edge is slipped between the pad

and the pad arm. B, The back of the pad has been pressed out
of the box on the pad arm.
If a push-on pad will not stay in the box securely, use

a pair of pliers to squeeze and narrow the horizontal
dimension of the box slightly.
Screw-On
The screw-on type of attachment has a small post on the
back of the pad with a horizontal hole in the post. The
post slips into either a boxlike assembly or a rounded
piece on the pad arm (Figure 10-42). A screw is threaded
from one side of the box to the other, passing through
the hole in the pad post. The screw is so small that a
special screwdriver is usually required.
The greatest problem with the screw-on pad design
is having a properly tting replacement screw available.
If someone has the unmounted pad but not the screw, it
may be difcult to nd a suitable replacement screw. The
most common nosepad screw diameter is 1.0 mm. If this
CH A P T ER 10
231
Types of Pad Materials
Figure 10-42. The screw-on pad design requires a small screw

to secure it to the pad arm.
Figure 10-43. This Logic nosepad serves as a replacement for

either the screw-on or the push-on type of nosepads.
screw is too small, a 1.1-mm screw should do the job.

Since most companies list screw diameters, getting to
know the most common sizes can really be helpful in
nding replacement screws.
As a last resort, if no replacement screw is available,
the nosepad can be temporarily tied on using the same
type of nylon line as is used to string mount lenses.
The excess line is cut off using cutting pliers or a razor
blade.
Logic
There is a specialty replacement nosepad with an insert
that ts both push-on and screw-on types of pad arms.
This pad, called the Logic pad, comes in round or oval
shapes and is symmetrical, making left and right pads
interchangeable. This reduces the need to keep as many
pads in inventory (Figure 10-43).
Pad Sizes
Pads are manufactured in various sizes. Sizes can be
changed to match the nasal area available or to increase
the bearing area when the pressure from the weight of
the frame on the nose is too concentrated. Oval pads
measuring 13, 15, 17, and 20 mm in their vertical axes
and round pads measuring 9 and 11 mm are the most
common sizes, though other sizes are available.
Replacement pads are available in a number of different

materials, having more or less exibility. Here are the
three most common materials:
Acetate pads Pads made from cellulose acetate
material (sometimes just called acetate) are hard and
do not ex. Cellulose acetate is the same material
used for a great many plastic frames.
Vinyl pads There are also pads made from a soft,
vinyl material. Although these pads are exible, they
do not grab the nose, but will slide on the nose
more easily than a silicone pad.
Silicone pads Silicone pads do not have a tendency
to slide down the nose, even when perspiration or
skin oil are present. This is not to say that the pads
do not slide at all, but rather they slide much less.
Although this is advantageous, it may irritate some
peoples skin because they may feel a pulling
sensation on the skin. If an individual complains that
the nosepads seem to pull and irritate the skin, it
may be helpful to switch to an acetate or vinyl pad.
(The wearer should, of course, be made aware that
the glasses will slide more easily. The solution is a
trade-off.) Silicone pads come in a soft silicone,
rm silicone, and ex silicone. The softness or
rmness of the pad does not depend on the basic
material, but rather on the mounting insert that is
molded into the silicone pad. Soft silicone pads
have a small metal mounting inside the pad,
whereas rm silicone pads have a metal insert
imbedded in a nylon core within the pad. Flex
silicone pads do not have a metal insert, but rather
a thin nylon core.
Hypoallergenic Nosepad Materials
There are wearers who are sensitive to standard nosepad
materials, such as silicone, vinyl, and acetate. Some pads
may also contain latex or other materials that cause an
irritation around the nasal area. Here are some options
that usually satisfy these wearers:
Gold-plated metal pads There are pads made from
gold-plated nickel silver. The gold plating comes in
yellow-gold (gold colored) or white-gold (silver
colored) and, although nickel is problematic if
directly against the skin, the gold plating becomes a
barrier that prevents an allergic skin reaction.
Titanium pads Titanium is extremely well tolerated
by those with skin allergies. These nosepads are
made of 100% titanium.
Crystal pads There are pads made of crystal. These
look more like regular nosepads and solve the
problem of allergic reactions.
Replacing Adjustable Pads with Strap Bridges

A strap bridge is like two adjustable pads whose tops are
linked together with a strap. The strap is of the same
232
mount the right temple on the left side, or vice versa. If

this is done, the bent-down portion will turn up instead
of down. If the temple will look acceptable, heat the
temple bend and bend the earpiece down.
Replacing from a Set of Replacement Temples
A variety of plastic and metal replacement temples can
be purchased through an optical accessories supplier. To
ensure that the temple will match the front, the butt
portion of the temple is longer than necessary. This
portion is cut off at the proper angle with a le or coping
saw. The angle will depend on the type of endpiece or
temple abutment as seen in Figure 1-16.
Figure 10-44. A strap bridge replaces two adjustable pads. It

distributes frame weight over both the traditional nosepad
areas and across the crest of the nose. The exibility of the
material allows both pads to still be adjusted separately.
material as the pads and is really an extension of them;

the pads and strap are one unit (Figure 10-44). A strap
bridge increases the pad bearing area to include the crest
of the nose. Strap bridges are attached to the pad arms
in exactly the same manner as are adjustable pads. They
are also t to the nose in the same manner. Since the
whole piece is exible, left and right halves adjust
independently.
TEMPLE REPAIRS
Replacing Missing or Broken Temples
If a pair of glasses has an irreparably broken temple, it
must be replaced. The rst choice is to replace it with a
new, identical temple. Unfortunately a new, matching
temple will not always be available. The frame style may
have been discontinued, and it may be impossible to
obtain a matching replacement.
Replacing With an Old Temple
Most dispensaries keep a selection of old temples that
can be used for temporary replacement purposes. The
most difcult task is to nd a temple that both looks
good and has a hinge with a barrel conguration that
matches the frame front. If no match is found, it may be
feasible to modify the temple barrels. The end result may
be less than ideal but functional.
For example, suppose one barrel is a single, thick
barrel and slightly large for the other two matching
barrels. In such a case, it may be possible to le either
or both the top and bottom of the large, single barrel
down so that it ts into the smaller space between the
other two barrels.
Eyeglass frame temples come as either a right or a left.
Sometimes a left temple is necessary and all that is available is a right temple. For some hinges, it is possible to
Replacing the Plastic Earpiece Covers

on Metal Temples
Most metal temples are made so that the end of the
temple is plastic covered. This allows for greater comfort.
If the plastic temple cover becomes damaged, it may be
replaced. Plastic replacement temple tips come in a large
variety of colors and shapes. They are also available in
silicone material to help decrease slippage. The most
popular core diameters are 1.4 mm and 1.6 mm.
To replace a temple tip,3 heat the plastic end of the
temple, straighten it out completely, and pull the plastic
cover off.
Determine the size of the metal core by measuring or
using actual-size diagrams provided by the manufacturer of the replacement tips. (One way to quickly nd
the diameter of the core wire is to use the same type of
gauge used to measure screw diameters.) Match the
shape and color of the tip as closely as possible.
Push the replacement tip onto the metal core. (If the
core is round instead of rectangular, it is easier to use a
back-and-forth twisting motion to get the replacement
tip on the temple.) It may be necessary to heat the
replacement tip.
The temple may now be rebent so that the bend is
just posterior to the top of the ear as described in
Chapter 9.
Adding Covers to Cable Temple Earpieces

Some people who need cable temples may be bothered
because they nd the cable uncomfortable or because
they have an allergic reaction to the metal cable. An
allergic response is usually caused by the nickel content
in the frame material. Signs of this reaction are a rash
behind the ear or the cable turning green.
It is possible to cover the end of a cable temple with
a plastic cover. Covers for cable temples are available
through optical supply houses. They come in plastic,
vinyl, and silicone materials. There is also heat-shrink
tubing sold for this purpose.
Shrink tubing is a simple solution to covering the end
of a cable. The inside diameter of a heat-shrink temple
cover is larger than the diameter of the cable temple. To
apply this tubing, do the following:
CH A P T ER 10
233
Figure 10-45. It is possible to cover the end of a cable temple with heat-shrink cable tip
covers. Find the correct diameter, cut to length, and slip over the end of the cable temple, as
shown in A. Heat using a frame warmer on the highest setting, as shown in B. Heat-shrink
cable tips tighten up snugly, as seen on the temple shown in C. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville,
Mass.)
1. Determine the diameter size of the shrink tubing

needed so it will slip over the end of the cable.
2. Measure how much length is needed. (Allow 10%
over the measured length to allow for shrinkage.)
3. Cut a strip to length and slide the cover over the
end of the cable temple (Figure 10-45, A).
4. Heat both temple and cover with a hot air frame
warmer at the hottest setting (Figure 10-45, B) until
the tubing shrinks to t the temple snugly (Figure
10-45, C).
5. Trim off any excess material.
6. Heat the trimmed area to smooth the edges.
Covering the Temples to Reduce Allergic

Reactions
If a wearer has an allergic reaction to the temple along
the side of the head, the frame may be sent out to a frame
repair center to be entirely coated.
A second option is to use clear, ultrathin shrink tubing
that places a thin, clear barrier over the temple. This is
done by sliding the tubing over the temple and then
heating both tubing and temple with a hot air frame
warmer.
Lengthening and Shortening of Metal Temples

Metal temples usually come with bent-down portions
that have a metal core, but a plastic outer portion. These
types of temples are unique in that they may be shortened or lengthened beyond what would be expected.
To lengthenSometimes the desired frame is not
made with temples that are long enough for the wearer.
Even if the bend is moved by heating and rebending,
there is insufcient length for a suitable t. If this is the
case, there are two alternatives:
1. The rst alternative is to heat and straighten the
temple. Then pull on the temple cover as if to
remove it, but only let it slide off part of the way.
For example, if the temple is 5 mm too short, pull
the temple cover so that it slides 5 mm out. Now
rebend the temple so that it is of the proper size.
Figure 10-46. Resizing a metal temple using plastic temple

tip sizers is no harder than simply replacing the plastic ends.
All three of these temple ends will interchange to t the same
temple. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
This method does not provide as much support and

makes the end of the temple weaker than it would
be otherwise.
2. The second alternative is to replace the plastic
temple ends. Optical suppliers have temple sizer kits
that will allow adding 5 to 15 mm in length to the
size of a metal temple just by changing the plastic
temple ends (Figure 10-46).
To shortenIf the temple is too long (Figure 10-47,
A) and cannot be made sufciently short by moving the
temple bend, the temple must be shortened. To shorten
the temple, heat the temple end, straighten it (Figure
10-47, B), and pull the plastic cover completely off. Clip
off the end of the metal core (Figure 10-47, C). (The
amount clipped should equal the amount the temple
must be shortened.) Slip the plastic cover back on; it will
now go on farther than it did before, making the temple
shorter (Figure 10-47, D). Complete the adjustment by
rebending the temple to the appropriate length.
Sometimes it is necessary to le down a temple shoulder if the cover will not go on past the shoulder without
splitting. (That part of the metal temple that is still
at, just before the temple narrows down to a small,
round diameter, is called the shoulder.) If this is the case,
le either or both the top and bottom of the shoulder
(Figure 10-48). The shoulder must be thin enough to
allow the temple cover to slide all the way up without
splitting.
234
C
Figure 10-47. Sometimes just moving the location of the bend will not make a temple short
enough without leaving an excessively long and unsightly bent-down portion. A, Metal
temples with plastic temple ends, such as the one shown, can be shortened another way.
B, To shorten this type of temple, the bend is straightened, and the plastic cover pulled off.
This temple has an overall length of 145 mm. C, Once the plastic cover is removed, the tip
of the metal core is clipped. D, The temple cover is replaced and is measurably shorter.
When the plastic cover is slipped back on, it will now

go on farther than it did before, making the temple
shorter.
Figure 10-48. Some metal temples widen close to the location

of the plastic end cover. The place where the temple widens is
called the shoulder. If a temple has been clipped short and the
plastic end cannot be put back on without splitting the plastic,
the shoulder must be led.
Help in Making Temple Tip Changes Easier

There can be some challenges when changing temple
tips. Here are some hints to make the job easier4:
If the old, damaged temple cover will not come off
just by heating and sliding it off, use pliers to crush
the old plastic until it does come off.
File any rough places off the metal core of the
temple, making certain that the end is led smooth
and rounded.
Before trying to slide the new temple cover on, heat
up the metal core. Slide the temple tip on as far as it
will go, then heat the tip with the frame warmer
until it will slide on the rest of the way.
Changing Cable Temple Lengths

Cable temples may be shortened by clipping, and either
lengthened or shortened by replacing the curled end.
CH A P T ER 10
Shortening Cable Temples

If it becomes necessary to shorten a cable temple that is
too long, shortening is done by simply clipping off the
excess portion of the cable with cutting pliers. The rolled
metal cable must be sealed so it will not unravel. To seal
the cable, touch the cut end with a soldering iron, apply
a small amount of solder, and allow the solder to form a
small ball at the end. (It may be desirable to combine
this with a heat-shrink cable tip cover.)
Lengthening, Shortening, or Replacing Cable Temple
Ends with Silicone Cable
Hilco makes a silicone replacement cable end that may
be used to either lengthen or shorten a cable temple. The
curled silicone does not have a metal core, but rather one
made of acetate. To replace the curled end, use the following sequence of steps:
1. Determine the desired overall temple length.
2. Determine what length of curled cable is to be
replaced and get the pair of replacement cable ends
in the desired size and color.
3. Subtract the length of the temple to be replaced
from the overall temple length.
4. Measure from the hinge center along the temple
until the length determined in step 3 is reached.
Mark the temple at this point.
5. Measure back an additional 8 mm and mark the
temple a second time. This is the cutoff point.
6. Cut the temple off at the second mark and discard
the cutoff portion.
7. Heat the replacement cable with a hot air frame
warmer for 20 to 30 seconds.
8. Slide the replacement cable onto the core wire
until the front of the replacement cable reaches the
rst mark measured.
9. Cool the whole temple in water to contract the
replacement cable for a rm hold.
Example 10-1
A cable temple is too short. It is 160 mm long and needs to
be 170 mm in length. Replacement cable ends come in a
variety of sizes. The appropriate length is the length that will
allow a proper t around the back of the ear (shown earlier
in Figure 9-27, A) and end at a logical point of attachment
to the straight portion of the temple. In this case we will say
that our replacement cable end length is 90 mm. To what
length should the cable temple be cut to achieve the new
length?
Solution
If the overall desired length is 170 mm, we subtract 90 from
170, which equals 80 mm (170 mm 90 mm = 80 mm). This
80-mm length is measured back from the center of the hinge
barrel and marked. Then an additional 8 mm is measured
(at 88 mm) and also marked. The temple is cut at the second
mark, and the 90-mm replacement part attached.
235
Converting Standard Plastic Temples

to Cable-Style Temples
The same replacement cable ends that were used for
the procedure just described above can also be used to
convert a standard plastic temple to a cable-style temple.
The procedure is very similar to that of changing the
length of a cable temple and replacing it with a silicone
cable.
First, determine the desired overall cable temple
length and the length of the curled replacement cable
end that will t correctly. Match size of the replacement
cable end to the wearers ear and the color of the replacement to the original plastic temple.
Subtract the length of the replacement cable end from
the desired overall cable temple length. Measure from
the center of the plastic temple hinge until that length
is reached. Mark the plastic temple at this point and also
at a second point 8 mm farther down the temple (Figure
10-49, A).
Cut the temple off at the second mark (Figure 10-49,
B) and throw out the cutoff end (Figure 10-49, C). Using
a razor blade or exacto knife, cut through the plastic at
the rst mark to the depth of the metal core all the way
around the temple (Figure 10-49, D). Slip the 8-mm
piece of plastic off (Figure 10-49, E). It may be necessary
to le and buff the plastic around the core wire to a
smooth and somewhat tapered shape so that the transition between plastic temple and replacement cable
appears natural.
The replacement cable should be heated with a hot air
frame warmer for 20 to 30 seconds and slipped onto the
exposed 8-mm temple core wire (Figure 10-49, F). When
the replacement cable completely covers the core wire,
the whole temple should be cooled in water to contract
the replacement cable rmly around the core wire.
Assuming the appropriate color match has been made,
the nished product should look as if it were originally
intended to be a cable-style temple (Figure 10-49, G).
Shortening Plastic Temples

It may be possible to special order a shorter pair of
temples from the manufacturer if the current pair for a
plastic frame is unacceptably long. This option should
not be overlooked. Another option is to check for a suitable replacement pair. (See section Replacing from a Set
of Replacement Temples earlier in this chapter.)
Should neither option be viable, there is a method that
can be used to shorten the length of plastic temples.* It
requires care, or the results may reveal the modication.
This technique is used when no other satisfactory frame
is available and is done with the full knowledge and
consent of the wearer. The procedure parallels that used
to shorten the length of a metal temple having a plastic
cover.
*Contributed by Dr. Jerry Bizer, Jeffersonville, Ind.
236
G
Figure 10-49. A, Converting a plastic skull temple to a cable-style temple begins by making
two marks on the temple. The position of the rst mark in millimeters equals the desired
cable temple length minus the length of the replacement cable end. The position of the second
mark equals rst mark location plus 8 mm. B, The plastic temple is cut off at the location of
the second mark. C, The temple has been cut at the second mark. D, The plastic between
the rst mark and the cut end is cut then stripped from the core wire. E, This shows the
exposed core wire as it appears before adding the replacement cable end. F, After tapering
and polishing the cut area of the plastic temple, the replacement cable end is slipped over the
exposed 8 mm of core wire and heated. G, The skull-to-cable conversion is complete.
CH A P T ER 10
237
Hinge
Rivets
Shield
Figure 10-50. Top view of a riveted hinge construction.
To begin, heat and straighten the plastic temple. With

a sharp knife or razor blade, cut around the metal core
of the temple about inch in front of where the temple
bend should be positioned. If the cut is made to the depth
of the metal reinforcing wire, the end of the temple may
be pulled off the wire. If it does not pull off easily, heat
the temple again.
Next, cut off a section of plastic from the loose temple
end adjacent to the rst cut. The amount removed should
equal the amount that the temple needs to be shortened.
Now cut off the end of the metal reinforcing wire. (The
amount of wire cut away should be slightly longer than
the amount that the temple needs to be shortened.)
Slip the plastic end of the temple back on the wire.
Reseal the two pieces with acetone. After the area has
dried and hardened, it may be led and buffed.
REPAIRING THE HINGES

The hinge area of a frame is especially susceptible to
damage. A blow or other impact to the side of the head
can break the hinge area by forcing the joint between
the temple and the front to open farther than it was
designed to.
Riveted Hinges
The structure that usually gives way in a plastic frame
with riveted hinges is not the hinge, but the rivets that
hold the hinge to the frame. A riveted hinge is identiable by a visible shield on the outside of the endpiece.
Since the rivets are attached to the shield, a new shield
is required when the rivets break (Figure 10-50). When
the barrels of the hinge break, both hinge and shield
must be replaced. Before any repairs are made to riveted
hinges, the temple must be removed.
Removing the Rivets and Shield

First le the rivets on the inside of the hinge (Figure
10-51) until they are almost ush with the metal, leaving
only a small amount of the rivets visible to act as a guide
for pushing out the rivet. Then remove them, using one
of the following methods:
Figure 10-51. To remove a riveted hinge, it is necessary to

le the rivets almost ush with the inside of the hinge, leaving
only enough rivet visible to act as a guide when pressing them
out. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Punch pliers Punch pliers have a ne, rounded,

rodlike projection that is placed against the led end
of the rivet. The pliers are squeezed to push the
rivet out of the plastic.
Anvil and punch To use the anvil and punch
method, brace the endpiece or temple ( led rivet
ends up) on an opticians anvil or on the base of a
hinge punch set. If no anvil or punch base is
available, brace the temple on some other at surface
in such a way that the movement of the rivet out of
the plastic is not obstructed. Next, place a punch on
the led end of the rivet. Tap the end of the punch
with a small hammer until the rivet moves out of the
endpiece (Figure 10-52).
Staking tool A staking tool may also be used to
punch out old rivets (Figure 10-53). Most staking
tools come with both a single and a double punch.
The single punch is safer to use; the double punch
may put too much pressure on the part all at once
and damage it. To remove the rivets with a single
punch, rst push a little on one rivet, then a little on
the other. Alternate back and forth between the two,
working them free gradually.
Once the rivets are free from the hinge, the hinge
comes off the temple or front. The rivets are attached to
the shield and are still in the plastic.
Cutting pliers Cutting pliers serve well for pulling
out the shield because the jaws are narrow and can
get behind the shield (Figure 10-54, A and B). They
must be held without squeezing and used only for
pulling. Inadvertently squeezing the pliers will cut
the shield from the rivets.
(As an aside, it should be noted that some cutting
pliers are not able to cut especially hard materials, such
as stainless steel or titanium. Using the wrong pliers on
these materials can ruin the pliers.)
238
Figure 10-52. One method for removing rivets is tapping the

old rivet out with a hammer and punch.
B
Figure 10-54. The most common type of cutting pliers is
shown in A. There are other designs that cut from the side of
the pliers jaw area, rather than the top, as shown in B.
Figure 10-53. A staking tool with interchangeable attachments may be used to press the old rivets out. (Courtesy Hilco,
Plainville, Mass.)
Replacing the Shield

Use a shield that matches the old shield that has been
removed as nearly as possible. Since an exact duplicate
may not always be available, it may be necessary to use
a shield that ts but does not look exactly the same. In
these cases it is best to have the wearer approve the substitute shield before proceeding with the repair.
For the new shield to t, the spacing between the
rivets of the new shield must be identical to the spacing
in the old shield. When the hinges themselves need
replacing, the number of barrels and the spacing and
type of rivet holes must match the original hinge. Most
hinges are made for either the left or the right side, but
check to be sure that this is the case.
Place the new shield on the outside of the endpiece or
temple so the rivets pass through the plastic or metal.
Af x the hinge to these protruding rivets and reduce the
excess rivet length to about 1 mm using cutting pliers
(Figure 10-55).
Round these excess rivet ends into rmly holding
heads, using either peening pliers or a staking set with
a peening tool. (The peening tool has a concave, cupped
end.) When using peening pliers, one jaw rests on the
shield while the other presses and rounds the rivet head.
This operation can also be accomplished by placing the
shield rmly on a at surface or anvil, with the exposed
rivet ends up, and tapping the ends into a rounded head
with a hammer (Figure 10-56).
For a summary of how to repair riveted hinges, see
Box 10-3.
Rivets can loosen over a period of time, allowing the
temple to wobble even when the screw is tight. The rivets
can be retightened by hammering or repeening them.
Hidden Hinges
Most plastic frames have a hinge anchored directly in
the plastic instead of being fastened with rivets and a
CH A P T ER 10
239
Figure 10-55. Reducing rivet length too much will not allow
for a sufcient hold, whereas cutting rivets too long causes
them to bend over when compressed rather than form a
head.
Figure 10-57. The probe of the Hot Fingers unit allows the
object being heated to be grasped easily. The Hot Fingers unit
may be used to replace or repair hidden hinges, do repairs on
plastic frame breaks, and to add adjustable nosepads to plastic
frames.
BOX 10-3
Repairing Riveted Hinges
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Figure 10-56. When cut to the proper length, rivets are easily
hammered to form a rounded head. If the lens is in the frame,
the thumb should be placed over the lens near the hinge so
that the lens is protected from the hammer.
shield. Such a construction is referred to as a hidden

hinge since no shield is visible from the front.
To repair a damaged hidden hinge, it is necessary to
have a soldering iron, or better still, a unit made especially for this purpose, such as a hidden hinge repair kit
(several types are available from a number of optical
suppliers) or Hilcos Hot Fingers. A moderately priced
hidden hinge repair kit is considerably easier to use than
a soldering iron because it has tips included to allow
better contact between the hinge and the hot metal. The
Remove the temple.

File the rivets.
Press the rivets out.
Pull the shield off.
Put a new shield on.
Put the hinge back on.
Clip off the rivets.
Peen the rivets down.
Hot Fingers unit is more expensive, but offers convenience, including the ability to pick up small parts with
the tip of the probe (Figure 10-57) and a foot switch for
instant heat when necessary.
Repairing a Loose Hidden Hinge
To repair a loose hidden hinge, begin by removing the
temple. Hold the tip of the heating unit to the loose
hinge until the hinge becomes hot enough to begin to
melt the surrounding plastic. Make certain that the
hinge is not crooked and plunge the hot area into cold
water (Box 10-4).
Repairing a Hidden Hinge That is Completely Torn
Out of the Frame
If a hinge has torn completely out of the frame, it may
be repaired using the sequence given here and summarized in Box 10-5:
240
3. Plunge the whole area into cold water to set the

plastic.
4. Trim any excess plastic off using a razor blade.
Figure 10-58. The Hot Fingers is used to grasp a torn out

hidden hinge, put it back in the frame front, and heat it so that
the plastic will be remolded around it.
BOX 10-4
How to Repair a Loose Hidden Hinge
1. Remove the temple.
2. Hold the tip of a hot instrument on the hinge until
surrounding plastic softens.
3. Check for hinge straightness.
4. Plunge hinge area in cold water.
BOX 10-5
How to Repair a Torn-Out Hidden Hinge
1. Cut off tiny pieces of a junk frame, make lings from
a junk frame, or use virgin plastic pellets.
2. Put a few junk plastic pieces, a plastic pellet, or
plastic lings in the hinge hole.
3. Place the hinge squarely in the hole.
4. Hold the tip of a hot instrument on the hinge until
surrounding plastic softens.
5. Recheck the hinge for straightness.
6. Plunge hinge area in cold water.
7. Trim away excess plastic.
1. First cut off very small pieces, or using a coarse le,

produce a quantity of loose plastic lings from an
old junk frame made of the same type of plastic as
the one being repaired. Alternatively, use virgin
plastic pellets available from an optical supplier.
2. Put a few small pieces or lings into the hole where
the hinge belongs. Replace the hinge in the hole,
making absolutely certain that it is straight. Hold it
in place with the Hot Fingers tool (Figure 10-58) or
touch it with a soldering iron until the metal
becomes hot enough to cause the plastic around it
to remold itself to the hinge.
Repairing a Hidden Hinge That is Damaged or

Broken Off *
If the barrels of the hidden hinge are split or broken, the
old hinge must be removed and replaced with a new
hinge. This is most easily done using the Hot Fingers
unit because it allows a protruding hinge part to be
grasped with the pincerlike end of the heated tool or, if
the hinge is broken off ush with the frame, to be pried
out with the picklike edge of the tool.
To make the repair, place the Hot Finger tips on the
top of the hinge base and depress the foot pedal to heat
the hinge. Once the surrounding plastic begins to soften,
the hinge will start to rise out of the plastic. When this
happens, take one point of the Hot Fingers and pry the
hinge out. Use the pincers of the tool to grasp a new hinge
by the barrel. The new hinge will have an anchor or
wider area at the bottom to help hold the hinge in the
frame. Heat the new hinge. Then take a pellet of new
acetate or a piece of plastic from the scrap frame. Since
the hinge is hot, the plastic should stick to the hinge
(Figure 10-59). Place the hinge base with the scrap plastic
into the hole in the frame. Heat the hinge. As it is heated,
it will begin to sink into the plastic. Continue heating
until the base of the hinge is ush with the surface (Figure
10-60). Remove your foot from the foot switch to turn
off the heat, but do not let go of the hinge. Hold it steady
for about 10 seconds to let the frame and hinge cool
without moving. This will help set the hinge more securely
in the frame. Last, plunge the frame in cold water.
After repairing a hidden hinge, the temple is put back
on the frame front. Check that the temple spread is
correct. If the temple is spread too far, the hinge has not
been sunk deeply enough into the plastic. Remove the
temple and reheat the hinge until it sinks a little deeper.
If the temple will not open far enough, the hinge is sunk too
deep. Instead of trying to pull the hinge out to some
degree, simply le the butt portion of the temple as
during standard alignment of a frame.
A note on frame materialsThis method works for
frames made from cellulose acetate, propionate, polyamide, nylon, and carbon ber. It will not work on Optyl.
The ller material used to secure the hinge must be the
same material as the frame being repaired. In other
words, if the frame is made of nylon, use only nylon scrap
for ller, acetate for acetate, and so forth.
Repairing an Optyl Hidden Hinge
At the time of this writing, it is almost impossible to
repair a hidden hinge on an Optyl frame without a Hot
*Special thanks to Robert Woyton and Ted Rzemien of Hilco, A
Division of the Hilsinger Corp., Plainville, Mass., for information
contained in this and the Optyl hinge repair section.
CH A P T ER 10
241
Figure 10-59. Instead of using plastic lings or cut-up pieces from an old frame, it may be
helpful to purchase virgin plastic pellets to ll in the extra space when replacing or repairing
a hidden hinge. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Figure 10-60. The hinge is placed back into the hole and heated until the base of the hinge
sinks into the plastic and is ush with the surface. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Fingers unit. This unit is the only piece of equipment

that appears to be capable of getting the hinge hot
enough to melt Optyl.
To make the repair, grasp the broken hinge with the
Hot Fingers and suspend the frame in midair. Use the
other hand to lightly hold the other side of the frame so
the frame will not fall when the hinge comes out. Begin
heating the hinge.
After about 20 seconds, the material around the hinge
will start to smoke (Figure 10-61, A). Let the frame drop
away from the hinge without applying pressure. Trying
to pry a hinge out of an Optyl material frame will cause
the material to shatter. It should be burned out instead
of pried out. Once the hinge is out, cool the cavity in

cold water.
Next, clean out the cavity (Figure 10-61, B). This is
done with a small burr using a Dremel hand tool (available
in hobby shops or hardware stores) or a hanging motor tool
(available from optical suppliers). Be sure all burnt material
is removed and the hole is deep enough for the new replacement hinge. (Try putting the new hinge in the hole ahead
of time to make sure the hole is deep enough.)
When the hole is deep enough, put two or three drops
of strong adhesive or epoxy in the hole. Place the new
hinge in the hole so that it is seated properly and at the
correct angle. Allow the adhesive to dry overnight.
242
nately, none of these methods guarantees an attractive

repair.
B
Figure 10-61. A, When removing a hidden hinge from an
Optyl frame, the hinge must get hot enough to burn its way
out. It is already possible to see smoke leaving the hinge area.
B, After the hinge has been burned out of an Optyl frame, the
hole that remains should be cleaned out with a small burr so
that the hinge will bond well when glued in place. (Courtesy
Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
BRIDGE REPAIRS
Ordinarily, if a frame has a broken bridge, it takes less
effort and looks better to replace the entire frame front
than to repair the bridge. On occasion a different frame
can be used, if perhaps only temporarily, until a proper
replacement is secured. Sometimes, however, either by
the wearers choice or because no other expedient solution is possible, it is necessary to attempt to attach the
broken halves of the bridge to each other.
Broken Plastic Bridges

Broken plastic bridges can be repaired using a variety
of glues, several forms of wire braces, or several possible combinations of materials and methods. Unfortu-
Glues
There are several types of glue that can be used to cement
the broken parts of bridges back together. Some of
these can also be used in conjunction with wire braces;
these applications will be discussed in the following
sections.
Epoxy. The use of epoxy glue will result in a strong
repair. There are a number of different types of epoxy
on the market. Using a type especially designed for
plastic will help. One such epoxy is a superadhesive
called Plastic Welder and dries to 80% strength in 15
minutes and full bond strength in 1 to 2 hours. Plastic
Welder is made by Devcon Corp., Danvers, Mass.
Although different types of epoxy glues require
varying amounts of time to dry, the major problem is
holding the two parts together properly until the epoxy
is set. A special dual-spring vise, used by jewelers, is
especially effective for this task. If this vise is not available, make a holding apparatus from modeling clay by
simply surrounding the parts with enough clay to hold
them in alignment.
Acetone. An old-fashioned method for repairing
cellulose acetate frames uses acetone to melt or soften
the plastic so that the two separated portions unite and
adhere when the plastic hardens.
Since some of the plastic is melted during this process,
a slightly narrower distance between lenses may result.
To prevent this, melt some excess plastic from an old
frame chassis (or other part made of clear plastic) in
acetone and apply a bit to each end of the broken bridge
before uniting the two parts.
Because acetone is absorbed through the skin, use a
cotton-tipped applicator or other tool so that direct
contact with the skin is avoided. There are other reasons
for caution when using acetone. Acetone is an extremely
ammable liquid and there are strict regulations for use
and storage. This is especially true when storing larger
quantities.
Instant Cements. There are a number of quickdrying cements suitable for eyeglass frames that are sold
in hardware and other stores. Cements marketed specically for the purpose of repairing eyeglass frames are
sold through optical supply houses.
Vigor Super Glue is a quick-drying glue that is sold
specically for ophthalmic frames and is available professionally from Vigor, Austell, Ga. Other super glues
are widely available in hardware stores and are also used
extensively to repair frames. Only a small amount of glue
is required and will repair almost any break as long as
the surfaces are clean, dry, and t absolutely ush. The
glue dries in seconds, so no special holding device is
necessary. Once bonded, it holds extremely well, although
the permanency of the bond over a long period of time
is unpredictable.
CH A P T ER 10
243
B
A
Figure 10-62. A-D, One functional (but unsightly) method

of repairing a broken bridge with a wire brace.
B
Extreme caution is required to prevent contact with
the eyes and to guard against inadvertently gluing the
ngers together because these glues bond skin instantly
on contact. If this occurs, no attempt should be made to
pull the skin apart. There is a debonder made for super
glue (also available from Vigor) that is useful. It will
clean a broken surface before an application of instant
cement, unglue a previous repair, clean up excess glue,
or unglue ngers. If no debonder is available, glued
ngers may be soaked in acetone or nail polish
remover.
Note: Individuals with broken frames may order a new
pair of glasses, but request that their old frame be
repaired temporarily. It may be prudent to require a
deposit for the new glasses. With the repaired frame
they are no longer in crisis and may not pick up and pay
for the new pair.
Wire Braces
Several methods of repairing a broken bridge use wires
as braces. The most common method entails drilling
holes in each portion of the broken bridge and inserting
a thin wire through the holes to hold the two parts
together, either using the wire alone or in conjunction
with a glue or cement material. An alternate method
pushes the wire brace directly into the plastic.
The plastic is best drilled by using a small drill bit in
either a hand or variable-speed drill; a high-speed electric drill tends to melt the plastic.
Twisted Wire. Drill a hole perpendicular to the frame
front in each broken half of the bridge. Cut a U-shaped
piece of a wire brace or paper clip and insert one end
through each hole (Figure 10-62, A and B). Twist the
protruding portions of the clip about each other with
small pliers until the bridge is held securely together
Figure 10-63. A, To repair the bridge, holes are drilled into

the broken parts of the bridge parallel to the frame front. B,
Glue is applied to both halves, and a thin wire (such as a piece
of the stiff wire reinforcement used in frame temples) is
inserted into the broken parts. The parts are pressed
together.
(Figure 10-62, C). Clip away the excess wire and le the
sharp edges smooth (Figure 10-62, D).
This method works best when used in combination
with glue, acetone, or epoxy resin.
Imbedded Core Wire. A hole is drilled into the center
of each half of the broken surface parallel to the frame
front (Figure 10-63, A). The two halves of the bridge are
pushed together over a small, thin, stiff piece of wire
reinforcement, such as is used in frame temples. The
holes should have the same diameter as the wire (Figure
10-63, B).
This method works best when used in combination
with glue or epoxy resin.
Stainless Steel Screws and Super Glue.* An
improved version of the imbedded core wire that was
shown in Figure 10-63 is accomplished with stainless
steel screws and super glue.
Using a 0.0430 (No. 57) drill bit, drill two holes into
one broken end of the bridge. Next, screw a 1.4-mm
diameter stainless steel screw into each hole, but not all
the way in. Leave enough of the screw sticking out so
that the screw head can be clipped off and still have 3 to
4 mm of threaded screw sticking out. With the screws
securely in the drilled half of the bridge, clip the end off
so that 3 to 4 mm of the screws are left protruding.
*Thanks to Robert Woyton of Hilco, A Division of the Hilsinger Corp.,
Plainville, Mass., for suggesting this method.
244
In the other broken half of the bridge, drill two holes

in as close to the same location as possible, using a slightly
larger drill bit. Try to put the two pieces together to see
if they will t correctly. It may be necessary to open up
the holes slightly larger to ensure a ush, even t.
When everything ts properly, put a couple of drops
of super glue on the screw threads and press the two
halves together. The bridge should be allowed to dry
overnight before the frame is used.
Imbedding Staples Using the Hot Fingers Unit. One

effective method uses the Hilco Hot Fingers unit to
repair a broken bridge. (For more information on Hot
Fingers, see the section on how to repair hidden hinges
earlier in this chapter.)
To repair a bridge using the Hot Fingers unit, rst
repair the break using glue. The Hot Fingers unit has a
staple adapter that allows for easy insertion of a -inch
industrial staple. Place the staple ends into the adapter
holes (Figure 10-64). Depress the foot pedal to heat the
staple. Because the staple is thin, it will heat quickly.
Slowly and rmly press the staple into the back of the
frame bridge so that one staple leg is on either side of
the break (Figure 10-65). Do not stop pressing the staple
into the frame when the staple top is ush with the
surface of the frame bridge. Instead, keep pressing the
staple into the bridge. The staple should be imbedded
approximately halfway through the thickness of the
bridge. This will give extra stability to the broken area
and hide the staple somewhat better.
Once the correct depth is achieved, take your foot off
the foot pedal and hold the staple in place approximately
10 seconds. Next, cool the bridge area in water and clip
off the protruding ends of the staple. The ends should
be led smooth. If the design of the bridge allows, a
second staple can be inserted through the top of the
bridge for added stability (Figure 10-66).
Replacing Nosepads on Plastic Frames

Figure 10-64. The Hot Fingers repair unit can be used to x
a broken bridge with a commercial grade -inch staple. The
staple is grasped securely with the staple adapter. (Courtesy
Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Replacing Broken-Off Plastic Pads

Though less common, some plastic frames have distinct,
plastic nosepads that are attached to the frame. (An
example may be seen in Chapter 1, Figure 1-14.) If a
Figure 10-65. Placing the staple on the intended spot, the heat is turned on and the staple
pressed into position. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
CH A P T ER 10
Top view
245
TABLE 10-2
How to Orient Wedge-Shaped Build-Up Pads for the

Best Fit
Vertically
placed staple
Horizontally
placed staple
Desired Effect
Recommended Action
Increase frontal angle

Decrease frontal angle
Increase splay angle
Decrease splay angle
Orient pad with thick part up

Orient pad with thick part down
Orient pad with thick edge forward
Orient pad with thick edge toward
back of frame
Use uniform thickness stick-on or
press-on pads
Narrow bridge without

changing angles
Back view
Figure 10-66. Recommended staple positions for repairing a

plastic bridge. It is possible to repair a plastic bridge with only
one staple. However, whenever possible a second stable should
be imbedded into the plastic. Afterwards the ends are clipped
off using cutting pliers and then led smooth.
plastic nosepad of this type breaks off the bridge, it can

readily be replaced by simply cementing a replacement
pad to the area that held the original pad. Either plastic
cement or acetone is used.
To begin the replacement, le the residue of the original nosepad off the frame and smooth the area with ne
sandpaper. File a clear plastic replacement nosepad of the
proper size at its contact edge. File the edge to the angle
that will allow the pad surface to t the nose correctly.
When properly led, the replacement pad should display
the proper splay angle when attached to the frame.
Apply plastic cement or acetone to the area of the
frame that will receive the pad and also to the contact
edge of the pad until that edge softens. Press the two
edges together at the proper splay angle.
After the joint dries, acetone is applied to smooth the
nasal surface. For the best results, apply the acetone in
combination with a drop of household oil using a cotton
swab. The application should be done using small, quick
strokes, all in the same direction. Strokes made in
varying directions may ball the plastic or imprint the
surface.
Adding Cement or Stick-On Pads to a Plastic Bridge
It is possible to modify the shape and width of a plastic
frame bridge to t an especially narrow or unusual nose
by using cement, stick-on, or otherwise mounted pads
(see Chapter 9, Figure 9-64). They can be used to narrow
the t of the bridge or change the frontal and splay
angles.
These pads are attached to the area of the frame that
would normally rest on the nose and are secured in place
with acetone or an adhesive. (Pads being added to Optyl
frames are fastened in place with an epoxy resin.)
Such pads come in varying thickness. Some are uniformly thick and others are thicker at the top than the
Note: Adding pads directly to a plastic bridge will always have the
effect of narrowing the bridge.
bottom and at the front than at the back. Such

wedge-shaped pads can be used to change both frontal
and splay angles. Therefore how the pads are applied will
determine how well the nished product ts. (See Table
10-2 for how to apply such pads.)
If the t of the bridge needs to be further modied
with the new build-up pads in place, acetate pads can be
led to the right shape after they are dry.
Applying Silicone or Acetate Press-On Pads Directly
to a Plastic Frame Bridge
If a frame slips or is uncomfortable on the nose, it may
be advisable to apply silicone nosepads directly to the
frame bridge area. Acetate or silicone pads can be used
to build up the frame bridge area to narrow the bridge
or change the way the bridge ts. It is possible to purchase a whole kit (Figure 10-67) or pads only.
To put these pads on the frame, use the marking
template that comes with the kit. Mark the bridge area
where the pads will rest (Figure 10-68, A). Next, drill
holes where the bridge is marked (Figure 10-68, B). The
pad comes with two protrusions. These protrusions are
pressed into the drilled holes (Figure 10-68, C). When
nished the pad sits ush with the frame bridge.
Remember, since these added pads have thickness
they will cause an effective narrowing of the bridge.
How much the bridge is narrowed depends upon the
thickness of the pad chosen. Decreasing the distance
between pads will raise the frame on the face and increase
the vertex distance slightly.
Retrotting Plastic Frames With Adjustable
Nosepads
It is possible to put a pair of adjustable nosepads on a
plastic frame if there is a sufcient thickness of plastic
in the nasal area of the frame. The pad arms come individually or linked together as a pair. Both kinds are
shown in Figure 10-69. The single pad arms are available
in either low- or high-mount designs. The design chosen
depends upon the thickness of the bridge of the plastic
246
Figure 10-67. Here are the necessary items for mounting press-on build-up pads to a plastic
frame. All items are available as a kit. Pads are available in either acetate (regular hard plastic)
or silicone (pliable, slip-resistant material). (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
C
Figure 10-68. A, Either a measuring gauge or clear templates can be used to determine
where the bridge area should be drilled. Here the template allows for exact premarking. B, A
drill bit mounted in a chuck handle is used to bore out the needed holes for a replacement
press-on pad. C, The protrusions on the backs of the press-on pads are squeezed into the
drilled holes, mounting them rmly to the bridge. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
CH A P T ER 10
247
f. It may be necessary to use a razor blade or small

surgical knife to cut away excess plastic from
around the point of attachment (Figure 10-70, D).
5. Last, attach the pads to the pad arms.
Note: All of these services are available through
Hilcos repair center and through many local laboratories if the dispenser is uncomfortable with attempting
them alone.
THE EYEWIRE AND LENS
Figure 10-69. Adjustable pads may be added to a plastic frame

if the frame has sufcient thickness in the area where the pad
arms are to be mounted. Because of design variety in pad arms,
chances of nding a suitable match are good. Here are some
of the pad arms and pads available, along with tools that are
used in mounting. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
frame. There must be a sufcient depth of plastic so that

the prongs on the pad arms will not hit the lens bevel or
go all the way through the plastic. If the frame does not
have enough thickness on the rim, then a one-piece
bridge can be mounted on the cross portion of the frame
bridge. Here is the sequence for mounting the pad
arms:
1. First, decide which pad arms are most appropriate.
2. Next, le the existing plastic pads off the frame and
smooth the led area (Figure 10-70, A). Even
though this area of the frame may not be visible
when worn, it may be advisable to buff the area with
a bufng wheel and polishing compound to restore
the nish.
3. To be certain of getting both pad arms
symmetrically placed (or a one-piece bridge properly
centered, if this is being done), mark the proposed
location of the prongs (Figure 10-70, B). Use a
template, if provided.
4. Mount the pad arms by either drilling holes in the
frame or heating the pad arm and pressing it in
place using the Hot Fingers unit. (If the Hot
Fingers unit is not available, it is possible to
purchase a Pad Arm Conversion Kit that contains
a small hand drill from Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
Drill the holes and press the pad arm into place.
a. If the Hot Fingers unit is used, grasp the bridge
or individual pad arm using the Hot Fingers tool
with the prongs positioned at the previously
marked location (Figure 10-70, C).
b. Turn the heat on with the foot switch.
c. Press the pad arm slowly into the plastic until
it is fully seated.
d. Release the foot switch rst, then the pad arm.
e. Immerse the frame in cold water and check for
tightness.
Attempts to repair a broken plastic eyewire are often

unsuccessful since the strain of the lens on such a small
area tends to rebreak the repair when the frame is repeatedly taken off and put back on. Some forms of eyewire
repair can be attempted in emergencies when it would
be extremely difcult for the wearer to do without the
glasses.
Repairs to the eyewire that do not relate to an actual
break in the eyewire are generally more successful.
These procedures concern the t of the lens in the
eyewire of the frame.
Broken Eyewires
The simplest approach is to attempt to repair the eyewire
using the methods described for repairing the bridge of
a plastic framewith epoxy and fast-drying glues being
the most successful.
The most difcult part of repairing an eyewire is
reinserting the lens without rebreaking the frame. Only
that portion of the eyewire that is still intact should be
heated.
If the repair is to be temporary, it is best to attempt
doing the repair with the lens in place.
If all else fails, encircling the lens itself with glue and
cementing the frame to the lens provides a temporary
means of holding the lens in the frame. This avoids both
the necessity of reinserting the lens and of attempting
to stretch the frame to encircle the lens.
Epoxy or other glues of that type should not be used;
if it will eventually be necessary to remove the lens,
scrape off the glue and reinsert the lens in a new frame.
Acetone should not be used because it will not adhere to
lenses and will damage a polycarbonate lens. An inexpensive model airplane type of glue works best.
Lower Edge Appears Out of the Frame

If the lenses have been inserted unsatisfactorily, particularly in a plastic frame, either the lower or upper portion
of the lens may not t properly in the eyewire and may
give the impression that the lens is about to fall out of
the frame.
If the lower eyewire of a plastic frame has been rolled
during lens insertion, the lower edge of the lens will
appear to be out of the frame. This condition can readily
be noted by observing the frame from the side (Figure
10-71).
248
Figure 10-70. A, To mount single pad arms or one-piece pad-arm bridges to plastic frames,
begin by ling off any existing plastic pads and le or buff the area clean. B, The next step
in mounting pad arms to a plastic frame is to mark the proper position for the insertion.
C, To mount the adjustable arm in the plastic frame, pick up the pad arm with the Hot Fingers
tool. Carefully place the pad-arm anchor on the position marks. Firmly, but slowly, let the
heated pad arm seat itself in the frame. Release the foot pedal, then the pad arm. Cool the
frame in water and check the implant. D, After the pad arm has been securely mounted in
the plastic frame, trim away any excess plastic with a razor blade or knife. (Courtesy Hilco,
Plainville, Mass.)
Incorrect
Correct
Figure 10-71. Observing the frame from the side for a lower
eyewire that has been rolled during lens insertion.
To remedy this situation, remove the lens and reheat

the lower portion of the frame. Grasp the eyewire
between thumb and fore nger and rotate it back until
the bevel again faces directly upward. Shield the ngers,
if necessary, with a towel or other protective padding.
The eyewire may have to be reheated and turned several
times until it is completely aligned. When the eyewire

is straight and the bevel directly vertical, the lens is
reinserted, taking care not to roll the eyewire again. It
might be helpful to insert the lens from the back of the
frame if the eyewire was rolled forward if an attempt to
put the lens in from the front continues to result in a
rolled eyewire.
If the lower edge of a lens in a metal frame appears to
be out of the frame, the eyewire has not been properly
shaped to follow the curvature of the lens edge.
To correct this problem, remove the screw holding
the eyewire. Hold the eyewire around the lens so that
the bevel of the lens completely ts the groove of the
eyewire. Then reinsert the screw. It may be necessary to
prebend the eyewire to match the lower curve of the lens
edge while the lens is out. This may be done with the
ngers or with eyewire shaping pliers. (See Chapter 7.)
CH A P T ER 10
Incorrect
Correct
249
Overall looseness is corrected in cellulose acetate and

propionate plastic frames by removing the lenses and
shrinking the eyewire size by heating and chilling as
described in Chapter 7. The process is repeated several
times, if necessary. When the eyewire reaches a size that
is slightly too small to accept the lens, the frame is again
reheated, and the lens is inserted. After the lens has been
inserted, immediate chilling of both lens and frame
should secure the lens. (For how to shrink frames
made from other materials, see Chapter 7.)
Occasionally the lens appears secure, but a small gap
or space is visible between the lens and the frame. The
area standing away from the lens is heated and compressed against the lens bevel. Holding the plastic against
the lens while immersing the frame and the lens into
very cold water will further shrink the frame around the
lens and secure the corrected position of the rim.
Sometimes a lens interliner is used with plastic frames,
even though it is intended primarily for metal frames.
This is explained in the section below under metal
frames.
When the Lens Is Too Small for a Metal Frame

Figure 10-72. An exposed upper bevel gives an unsightly
appearance, but is readily correctable.
Upper Edge Appears Out of the Frame

If the bevel of the lens is excessively visible from the top,
the frame probably does not conform to the curvature
of the top of the lens (Figure 10-72). This situation is
more likely to appear at the top than at the bottom of
the eyewire because most lens shapes have a longer,
straighter top. The curved front of the lens is more
evident at the top, and the frame may not follow the
curve as well. This is especially evident with high pluspowered lenses.
With a plastic frame, it is sometimes possible to heat
the plastic without removing the lens. Pull the eyewire
over the bevel, and while holding it there, dip the lens and
frame into cold water to x the position.
If this cannot be done, the lens should be removed,
the eyewire heated and reshaped to match the lens curvature, and the lens then reinserted.
When the upper bevel of a lens in a metal frame sticks
out, the lens must be removed, and the eyewire reshaped.
The methodology is the same as described in the previous section on reshaping the lower eyewire.
When the Lens Is Too Small for a Plastic Frame

If a lens which ts too loosely has been inserted into a
plastic frame, it may rattle or rotate within the frame.
When the frame appears to be too large for the lens, the
lens must be remounted so it is secure.
When a lens is loose in a metal frame, the most probable

cause is that the screw holding the eyewire together has
loosened. As an automatic rst measure, check the screw
and, if loose, tighten it.
If tightening the screw does not accomplish the
desired result, it is probable that the lens has been cut
and nished with a circumference slightly too small to
rmly t the eyewire. For a new prescription, this is a
quality control issue. The glasses should be returned to
the laboratory to be redone. However, if the problem is
with an old prescription, there are ways to make the
lenses t better.
Acetate Lens Interliner (Lens Washer)
One method of correcting the problem is to loosen the
screw and insert a plastic (acetate) lens liner, commonly
referred to as a lens washer, in the bevel between the lens
and the eyewire. This more common, nonadhesive form
of lens liner comes in different thicknesses, is bevel
shaped on the outside to t the eyewire, and contains a
bevel on the inside to hold the lens. It is sold in a roll
and may be cut to any desired length.
When using acetate liner, it is best to use the 0.010 mm
interliner size. It is far less obtrusive than the 0.020 mm
interliner. Here are three ways to keep the liner in place
while inserting the lens. The rst is the currently recommended method:
1. Use a very small amount of super glue to hold the
acetate interliner in place. To apply the glue, place a
drop on some scrap paper and slide the back side of
the interliner through the glue (Figure 10-73). Hold
the interliner in the eyewire groove for 20 seconds,
and it should stick.
250
Figure 10-73. To hold acetate interliner in place in the groove while reinserting the lens,
drag the outside of the interliner through a drop of super glue.
2. Soak the liner in acetone. When the liner is soft and

sticky; place it directly in the bevel of the frame. It
will stick in the groove, and the lens can easily be
inserted.
3. Tape the liner to the lens with transparent tape
and insert the lens in the frame with the tape
still in place. When the lens is securely positioned,
cut the tape away using a razor or exacto-type
knife.
Double-Sided Adhesive
Another form of liner is a double-sided, clear plastic
tape. This tape is thin and hence inappropriate when the
amount of looseness is considerable. It is much easier to
use than the beveled liner, however, because it can be
stuck directly to the lens bevel.
If the lens is extremely small for the eyewire and a
sufcient amount of room is present, rst apply the
double-sided adhesive liner to the lens bevel, then fasten
the thicker, beveled liner to the double-sided liner. This
arrangement provides added bulk and simplies the task
by holding the thicker liner in position.
Latex Liquid Interliner
Instead of using conventional lens liner, there is a liquid
liner that can be applied (Figure 10-74). It is dispensed
right from the bottle into the V groove in the frames
eyewire and can be applied to the entire inside portion
of the eyewear, if necessary. Liquid liner dries in about
1 minute and can be used in almost any situation where
acetate liner would is used. It may be necessary to use
more than one application, depending upon how loose
the lens is.
There is one word of caution. Some people are allergic to latex. It should not be used for such individuals.
Figure 10-74. Soft Latex Lens Interliner is a liquid latex

material that can be applied directly from the bottle to the
groove of the frame. It dries is about a minute and, when done
properly, is not visible when the glasses are being worn.
Gap or Air Space

If a gap or air space appears in a metal frame between
the lens and the eyewire, place a strip of liner between
the lens and the eyewire directly opposite the gap to force
the lens into the gap (Figure 10-75).
A gap is totally unsatisfactory for a new lens. Such
repairs should only be used if the glasses were not initially supplied by you. Inform the wearer that although
the repair is less than satisfactory, it is the best that can
be done without replacing the lenses.
Because of the shape of most lenses, any sizable
amount of liner will be far more obvious when placed
along the upper bevel of the lens than when used to ll
CH A P T ER 10
251
If the gap is here

Apply lens
liner here
Figure 10-75. To ll an air hole between the lens edge and

the frame, lens liner is applied in the area opposite the position
of the gap.
Figure 10-77. Reducing the circumference of the metal

eyewire in the case of a loose lens by ling the barrel is only
feasible on type A. The surface indicated by the arrow has
been led. Type B does not lend itself as readily to ling.
Trim On Plastic Frames

Figure 10-76. Care is taken to le evenly so the barrel section
will continue to t ush as before.
the lower bevel. Consequently, from a cosmetic standpoint, it is less noticeable to place the liner in the lower
bevel when only a short strip is necessary.
Any of the previously listed procedures may be used
as a temporary measure while a new lens of proper
dimensions is made.
Lens Slightly Loose
If the lens is only slightly loose in the frame, reduce the
circumference of the metal eyewire itself by removing
the eyewire screw and ling the barrel surface. The
ling must be done evenly so the barrel sections continue to t ush (Figure 10-76). This is only possible on
barrels that come together at and not on barrels that
have a wedge-shaped abutment (Figure 10-77).
(It is preferable to le the nonthreaded portion of the
barrel rather than the side that accepts the tip of the
screw.)
The disadvantage of ling is that if the lenses are later
changed and the same frame used, the new lenses could
appear to be slightly too large for the eyewire, even if
actually ground to the original size.
FRAME TRIM
Trim on frames goes in and out of style. Not all trim is
attached in just the same way. This section addresses
some of the methods for replacing or repairing trim.
When a plastic frame adorned with metal trim breaks,

the plastic chassis can be replaced and the original trim
reapplied to the new chassis. The trim is usually attached
by screws through holes in the chassis. These screws may
have fancy heads that hold the trim or may be part of
the trim itself. The screws are fastened in back of the
chassis with hex nuts.
To reapply trim, begin by removing the hex nuts and
forcing the trim off the old frame by inserting a screwdriver blade between the trim and frame near the screws
by pushing on the protruding screws, or both.
Align the trim with the holes in the new chassis and
push new screws (where separate) through the trim and
the frame with the thumb. Tighten new hex nuts with
their rounded surface inside the barrel of the hex wrench
onto the ends of the screws (Figure 10-78). The nuts
must t precisely into the wrench and can sometimes be
picked up and held in place more easily if the tip of the
wrench is moistened as with saliva.
Cut off the excess screw ush with the surface of the
nut (Figure 10-79) and le the end smooth with a small,
curved, spoon-shaped rifer le (Figure 10-80). If the
end is not led smooth, the rough edges may catch in
the patients brows or prove otherwise irritating.
After the trim has been attached, heat the eyewire and
the lens. Apply most of the heat to the portion of the
eyewire not covered by trim (usually the lower portion)
since heating and stretching the covered portion may
raise it above the trim and result in an unsightly appearance. A metal plaque may need to be shielded while
heating the frame since it usually becomes too hot to
touch.
252
Figure 10-78. Attaching the hex nut to the screw that secures
the metal trim to the plastic chassis.
Figure 10-81. This hex wrench has a knock-out pin that

ejects a stuck hex nut from the end of a hex wrench.
Figure 10-79. The screw is clipped off close since any portion
left protruding must be led.
It is possible that the plastic of the chassis will stretch

and become too thin to allow the drilling of such holes.
It is also conceivable that the original hole could be
moved so far by the stretching process that it would no
longer be fully covered by the trim. Even if neither of
these situations occurs, the cosmetic effect may be out
of balance since one eyewire may stretch somewhat
differently from the other.
A Note on Hex Wrenches
Those who have worked with small hex nuts and the
optical hex wrench will know that sooner or later a
removed hex nut will become lodged in the socket of the
wrench and momentarily defy removal. Using a hex
wrench with a Teon-coated socket will help. It should
also be noted that there is an optical hex wrench available
with a knock-out pin. The pin easily ejects the hex nut
from the wrench tip (Figure 10-81).
Metal Plaques on a Metal Chassis
Figure 10-80. The rough end of the clipped-off screw is led

smooth with a rifer le.
Although it may appear easier, inserting the lens

before attaching the plaques may stretch the upper part
of the eyewire. As a result, the predrilled holes in the
chassis separate slightly so that the screws that pass
through the plaque no longer pass through the holes in
the chassis. In this event, drill one or more new holes to
reattach the plaque.
One type of metal frame consists of a metal chassis with

a narrow eyewire. Broad plaques are joined to the chassis
at the brow area, much like a combination frame. These
plaques also contain the endpiece hinges for the temple.
They t over and enclose the upper eyewire of the metal
chassis by means of a small, specially-designed screw and
a slot attachment.
Frequently, these screws become loose or fall out,
causing the frame to disassemble. The size and thread
of these screws are of special dimensions. When the
screw has simply turned until it has fallen out and the
threads in the eyewire are intact, the screw can simply
be replaced.
CH A P T ER 10
Sometimes this proves difcult to do with the lenses

in since the plaques t at one end in a slot in the chassis
with the screw at the other end. If the hole in the plaque
does not line up exactly over the hole in the eyewire
when the eyewire slot is tted into the catch in the
plaque, there is no alternative but to remove the lens and
force the eyewire to line up with the plaque.
It is possible that a new screw will not hold because
the threads in the eyewire have been ruined by constant
retightening of the screw. In such cases, the plaque must
be removed and a larger hole threaded with a tap that is
equivalent in diameter to a glass screw. The plaque is
replaced (without the lens if necessary, as above) and
fastened securely with a glass screw clipped to the length
necessary to t the eyewire thickness.
CLEANING THE FRAME

From time to time, because of repair work or just because
of normal wear, frames need to be cleaned. Also, on
occasion the action of chemicals in perspiration, the use
of tools on the plastic, or the circumstances of overheating a plastic frame, may result in discoloration, blemishes, or marks in or on the plastic. In these instances,
the defects need to be removed if the frames are in excellent operational order otherwise.
Cleaning Technique
Frames may be cleaned with ordinary soap and water so
long as the soap contains no abrasive pumice material.
An old toothbrush serves best for scrubbing hardto-reach areas, such as the pad arms or trim.
An ultrasonic cleaning unit is a most useful cleaning
instrument. Leaving the frame (lens side up) in the small
tank loosens dirt that might not otherwise be dislodged.
After cleaning a frame in such a unit, be sure to check
all screws for tightness since the vibrations tend to loosen
them.
The following two types of spectacles should not be
cleaned in an ultrasonic unit:
1. Glasses whose lenses are held in place by screws
passing through the lenses, such as rimless or
semirimless. The intense vibrations of the ultrasonic
unit may cause lens breakage.
2. Frames with glued-in rhinestones or other small
jewels should not be cleaned ultrasonically because
the stones may be dislodged.
It is not advisable to clean antireection (AR) coated
lenses in an ultrasonic unit.
Discoloration
Discoloration usually occurs on the inside of the temples
of plastic frames where they contact the hair and the skin
and most often appears as a whitish lm. With age, cellulose acetate and propionate frames may exhibit a lm,
which is caused by plasticizers within the material
migrating to the surface.5 In either case, a bufng wheel
253
used with polishing compound will remove the discoloration and will also repolish the plastic.
When a buf ng wheel is not available, apply acetone
and oil with a cotton-tipped applicator and rub over the
entire length of the temple. Dip the applicator in the
mixture and run the length of the temple in one direction. Each time the temple is brushed it should be with
fresh acetone and oil and in the same direction. Repeat
this process as often as necessary until the color is
restored. If acetone without oil is used, the brushing
action must be rapid to avoid leaving prints in the softened surface. If the wet surface is blown on or exposed
to moving air, condensation may again whiten the
temple.
Surface Marked by Pliers

If the plastic has been marked by the jaws of pliers, an
attempt to restore the surface can be made. Heating the
frame at the area of the mark will hopefully cause the
compressed portion to expand back to its original dimensions. The area can be reheated repeatedly as long as the
plastic is not overheated until it bubbles because this
would compound the problem. When it appears that the
frame has reexpanded as far as is likely, the area is buffed
with buf ng compound on a rag wheel.
Restoring Finish on Optyl Frames

The nish of an Optyl frame can be damaged if the
frame is inadvertently rubbed against a rough surface. If
the frame surface has been marred, remove the defect by
bufng the area.
To restore the sheen after bufng, coat the area with
polyurethane nish, such as is used in furniture re nishing. Either satin or glossy polyurethane will prove
satisfactory.
Bubbles
Bubbles result from overheating the plastic and cannot
actually be removed because they ordinarily extend well
into the plastic.
An attempt to salvage the aesthetic appearance of the
frame can be made, however, by ling the bubbled area
smooth and then bufng it to restore the luster.
If the frame looks asymmetric as a result of the one
area having obviously been thinned, the mirror portion
of the frame is also led and buffed to match.
SOLDERING
Soldering is the only possible way to repair a broken
metal portion of a frame unless the entire front or temple
is replaced. The techniques used for soldering spectacles
are similar to those used for soldering jewelry and are
sometimes performed by jewelers.
Most people hesitate to solder in the ofce because of
the amount of time involved, but since the time involved
is still less than would be required to send the frame back
254
Figure 10-82. Solder comes in a variety of forms and must be

used in conjunction with soldering ux. Flux is shown in the
upper left-hand container. There is a silver solder paste that
combines both solder and ux. This is seen in the upper righthand container. Solder is available in rod form, as pictured in
the plastic envelope in the center of the photo. The chip form
of solder, at the bottom of the photo, is particularly useful for
electric soldering. (Courtesy Hilco, Plainville, Mass.)
to the laboratory or elsewhere for repairs, soldering

sometimes provides a denite service to the wearer. It
also sets the ofce apart from others and provides another
unique service.
It is a poor risk to solder frames of inferior quality
since they tend to come apart at their points of assembly
when the frames are heated during the soldering process.
It is also difcult to solder metal eyewires because the
solder tends to ll the bevel groove into which the lens
must t.
Special solder must be used because of the metals and
alloys used to make frames. Only a high quality solder
of the type designed for jewelry or frames can be used;
normal electrical solder will not work.
Hard solder is available in chip form (to be mixed with
liquid or paste ux), paste form (with the ux already
mixed in), or rod form (Figure 10-82). Hilco offers a rod
form solder called Pallarium. It melts at a temperature
of 1060 F. This temperature may seem high, but compared with other solder melting temperatures is considered very low. Pallarium is a hollow rod with ux running
through the center for ease of application. Because it
melts at such a low temperature, when used properly it
minimizes discoloration of frame components.
It should be noted that titanium frame materials
cannot be soldered through conventional frame repair
techniques. It is possible to solder the top plating
together, but such a repair is usually not strong enough
to withstand much use.
Titanium can only be repaired by laser or induction
welding machines. It is a very sophisticated process that
is dependent on the grade of titanium being welded. The
welding process must also be performed in an inert
B
Figure 10-83. A, Here is a jig or third hand is used to hold
the frame in place while soldering. B, The jig holds the frame
in place during soldering.
atmosphere, usually an enclosed chamber, to successfully bond the material.
Flame Soldering
Some ame soldering units use one gas, butane. Others
use two independently regulated gases, either oxygen
and acetylene or oxygen and butane. The oxygen will be
used up at twice the rate of either the acetylene or the
butane. The single gas unit is less cumbersome to operate.
It is recommended when soldering is done in small quantities or only irregularly.
To ame solder, remove the lenses from the frame; if
the soldering is to be done near the bridge, remove the
nosepads too. If the frame is bent, readjust it before
attempting to solder it.
One of the most important aspects of soldering is the
proper positioning of the parts. Use a special jig, or
third hand, that consists of adjustable clips mounted
on a base to hold the frame in place while soldering
(Figure 10-83).
255
Solder is placed here

3/
4
to 1 inch
Figure 10-86.
1 inch
Figure 10-84.
Figure 10-87.
Figure 10-85.
only on the outside

of an eyewire
Electric Soldering
256
Figure 10-89.
Figure 10-88.
Touch-Up Plating
Discoloration
APPENDIX 10-A
Push-On
Screw-On
257
Appendix Figure 10-2.

A.O. twist system
B & L clamp style
twist-on
clip-on
CLIP-ON
clip-on design,B & L clamp style,
ZEISS BAYONET
Zeiss bayonet style pad
TWIST-ON
twist-on
method
A.O. twist system
Zeiss bayonet
258
RIVET TYPE
A.O. split
split-clamp
SPLIT-CLAMP
REFERENCES
A.O. split-type
STIRRUP
stirrup type
34-36,
Prociency Test
Screws
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
259
8.
15.
Nosepads
16.
17.
9.
18.
10.
19.
11.
12.
20.
13.
Temples
21.
14.
260
22.
30.
23.
31.
Hinges
24.
32.
Bridges
25.
Trim
33.
26.
Eyewires
27.
Cleaning
34. not
28.
Soldering
29.
temporarily
35.
C H A P T E R 11
Review of Elementary
Mathematical Principles
1 m = 39.37 in
1 cm = 0.394 in
1 in. = 2.54 cm
his chapter reviews the mathematical principles

used in basic optics. If you are well versed in
mathematics, you may omit this chapter and
use it for reference. The Prociency Test may help
you determine your mastery of this subject. If the
questions are easy for you, continue on to the next
chapter.
THE METRIC SYSTEM

When using the metric system of measurement, it is best
to develop such familiarity with it that it is no longer
necessary to think of it in relation to the English system.
For example, it is much simpler to know how long a
centimeter is than to gure out what fraction of an inch
it might be. This can be done without much effort since
most rulers now have a metric scale on one edge. Additionally the interpupillary distance (PD) rule, which no
dispenser can be without for measurement of PD, uses
the metric scale exclusively.
The unit of measure upon which the metric system is
based is the meter (m). All other units are expressed as
either multiples or fractions of that unit.
Just as there are 10 dimes in a dollar, so also are there
10 decimeters (dm) in 1 m. Just as there are 100 cents in
a dollar, so also are there 100 centimeters (cm) in 1 m.
And just as the wormlike millipede is reputed to have
1000 legs, so also does 1 m have 1000 millimeters
(mm).
A kilometer also has reference to a thousand, but this
time 1 kilometer = 1000 m.
Therefore:
1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm
and
1 km = 1000 m
(Weight measures are in multiples of 10 as well,
retaining the same pre xes as the previously discussed
linear measures. The basic unit of metric weight is the
gram.)
If conversion from metric to English linear measurements becomes necessary, conversion factors are:
REVIEW OF ALGEBRA
Algebra uses positive and negative numbers and letters
or other symbols to express mathematical relationships
(Table 11-1). These relationships are used in formulas or
equations. Letters or systematic symbols take the place
of a number that is either unknown or subject to change
to allow for dimensional variations.
Algebra offers versatility by allowing an equation to
be altered to a new form for a specic need. For example,
the formula:
a+b=c
is in the best order if a and b are known, and c is unknown.
(If a is equal to 1 and b is equal to 2, what is c?)
This form of the equation is not as easily used if a is
the unknown. In this case it would be better to transform the equation to make for greater ease in solving
for a.
Transformation
To transform an equation, the components are moved
from one part of the equation to another. If a component
is moved across the equal sign, the sign of the number
moved must be changed from plus to minus or minus to
plus. To follow the logic behind a required change in
sign, it is noted that the same number (or symbol for a
number) may be added to or subtracted from both sides
of an equation. If
1+2=3
the two sides of the equation are still equal even if 2 is
subtracted from each side:
1+22=32
263
264
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
and because
TABLE 11-1
Commonly Used Algebraic Symbols

Operation
Symbol
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
a+b
ab
a b or a b or ab
a
a b or
b
a2
a
Division
Quantity squared
Square root
a
=1
a
then
b=
c
a
The equation is the same as before, but expressed in

a different form.
Naturally, if one side of the equation contains more
than one term, both terms are affected by the transformation. For example,
ab = b + c
Therefore if
ab b + c
=
b
b
a + b = c,
then
ab b + c
=
b
b
a + b b = c b.
Since
a=
b b = 0,
then
a = c b,
and the transformation is accomplished.

Transforming when multiplication or division is
involved is the same as multiplying both sides of the
equation by the same number. For example, if
23 = 6
Use of Parentheses
When symbols are multiplied or divided or otherwise
have a mathematical operation performed on them as a
group, they are symbolically held together by parentheses. For example,
3(a + b) = c
means that both a and b are multiplied by 3. In fact
another valid way to write this equation would be:
3a + 3b = c
Then
223 = 26
b+c
b
If the equation were written as

3a + b = c
or if
23 = 6
then
2i3 6
=
2
2
without the parentheses, it would not be the same equation at all. Only a would be multiplied by 3, showing the
importance of the parentheses. In a transformation,
those items within parentheses are treated as a single
item. For example,
x(a + b) = 2(c + d)
In each case the quantities are still equal, and the

equation remains valid. Expressed in more generalized
terms, if
then
x ( a + b ) 2 (c + b )
=
(a + b)
(a + b)
ab = c
then
aib c
=
a
a
since
(a + b)
=1
(a + b)
C H A P T E R 11
Review of Elementary Mathematical Principles
265
+2.00
55
+5
50
45
+4
40
35
+3
2.00
30
25
+2
20
15
+1
10
5
0
5
10
15
20
25
Figure 11-1. The concept of positive and negative numbers

is easily illustrated by use of a number line and is seen commonly on instruments, such as a thermometer.
then the equation becomes

2 (c + b )
x=
(a + b)
Positive and Negative Numbers

Positive and negative numbers are continuous with one
another on the same line. Both start at zero but begin
counting in opposite directions (Figure 11-1). Most
everyone uses both positive and negative numbers daily.
For example, when the thermometer drops below zero,
negative numbers are used to describe the temperature.
When something is indicated as being 300 feet below sea
level, it can be said to be at 300 feet. In this case sea
level is the zero point.
In working with negative numbers, one must remember how they relate in their distance from positive
Figure 11-2. Illustrating the relationship between positive

and negative numbers, the prescription shown has a value of
+2.00 4.00 90. The difference between positive and negative meridian is the value of the cylinder, which is 4.00 D.
numbers. Again this can be most easily illustrated using

the thermometer concept. How many degrees colder is
10 than +10? When the mercury drops from +10 to
10, it travels 10 units to reach zero and another 10 units
to reach 10. The drop in temperature is a total of 20.
In optics this is most directly applicable to cylinder
values. If the 90-degree meridian has a power of +2.00 D
and the 180-degree meridian a power of 2.00 D, how
strong is the cylinder (Figure 11-2)? (The cylinder value
is the difference in power between the two major meridians of a lens.) On a number line, such as found on conventional lensmeter scales, it is readily seen that a total
of 4 units must be traveled in going from the +2 mark to
the 2 mark. Therefore the value of the cylinder is 4.
Use of the Reciprocal

The reciprocal of a number is obtained by dividing that
number into 1. For example, the reciprocal of 2 may be
written as 1 2 , or 1/2, or 0.5. Conversely, then the
reciprocal of 0.5 is 1 0.5, or 1/0.5 or 2.
In optics reciprocals are used to convert focal lengths
into dioptric units of lens power. If the focal length of
a lens is 0.20 m, the dioptric power of the lens is the
reciprocal of that focal length.
1
= 5 D of lens power
0.20 m
Roots and Powers

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be
squared. For example, 10 squared = 100, which is another
way of saying 10 10 = 100. Squared is abbreviated
266
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
mathematically by a superscript 2 written above and to

the right of the number. The number indicates that 2
units of that same number are to be multiplied by each
other. Ten squared (1010) would be written as 102. It
may also be spoken of as 10 to the second power. If 102
equals 100, the root from which the result of 100 has
grown was the quantity 10 squared. Therefore the
square root of is 100 is 10. To nd the square root of a
number, the operation is indicated by the symbol
enclosing that number. For example,
100 = 10
A number can be raised to any given power; in other
words, a number can be multiplied by itself any number
of times. This operation is again indicated by a
superscript:
10 = 101010 = 1000
Y Axis
+4
II
I
(+2, +3)
+3
+2
(2, +1)
+1
X Axis
4
+1
+2
+3
+4
1
2
(+4, 3)
3
III
IV
104 = 10101010 = 10,000

a5 = aaaaa
and so forth.
When indicating that the quantity is multiplied by
itself a given number of times, it is also possible to place
the superscript outside a parenthesis. This indicates that
the whole quantity within the parentheses is multiplied
by itself the number of times indicated by the
superscript.
For example,
(ab) 2 = (ab)(ab)
REVIEW OF GEOMETRY
Since geometry is used fairly often in optics, a basic
understanding of it is essential. It might be said that the
concept of geometry is built on a triangular foundation,
which is to say that understanding the mathematics of a
triangle is the basis for understanding geometry.
The Cartesian Coordinate System

The Cartesian coordinate system is a method of graphical localization of a point in space. In two-dimensional
space, which is a at plane, such as a sheet of paper, localization may be done with a paired set of numbers, x and
y. These two numbers symbolize the horizontal and vertical location of a given point with reference to an original point: x is the number of units to the right (+) or to
the left () of the zero point, whereas y refers to the localized point above (+) or below () this point (Figure 11-3).
The reference point, or origin, is specied as (0,0). The
horizontal location (x) is always given as the rst number
in the pair, and the vertical ( y), as the second. The Cartesian coordinate system allows for ease and clarity of
localization of any point, line, or geometric gure.
Figure 11-3. The Cartesian coordinate system allows the specic, repeatable localization of points in space. The x- and
y-axes divide an area into four quarters known as quadrants.
The upper right-hand quadrant is termed the rst quadrant,
or quadrant I. Quadrant II is the upper left quadrant, quadrant
III the lower left, and quadrant IV the lower right.
Triangular Forms
There are 360 degrees in a complete circle. The wedged
end of a pie-shaped piece of the circle contains a given
number of these 360 degrees. The number of degrees
contained between the two edges of the piece of pie that
meet at the point is the degree measure of the angle
formed.
A triangle contains three such points, or angles. The
sum of the three angles contained within a triangle
always equals 180 degrees.
If any one of these three angles is a 90-degree angle,
the triangle is known as a right triangle (Figure 11-4). It
obtains its name from the angle itself since 90-degree
angles are known as right angles. The side of the triangle
opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. If one of
the angles of a triangle is 90 degrees, it logically follows
that the sum of the two remaining angles must be 90
degrees.
In any right triangle, there is a certain relationship
that exists between the lengths of each of the sides. This
relationship states that for a right triangle, the length of the
hypotenuse squared is equal to the sum of the squares of the
remaining two sides. This relationship is referred to as the
Pythagorean theorem (Figure 11-5) and may be abbreviated as a2 + b2 = c 2 where c is the length of the hypotenuse
and a and b the lengths of the two remaining sides.
Triangles even more specic in shape than the right
triangle also can have more specic established relationships between their sides. For example, a triangle whose
angles are 45 degrees, 45 degrees, and 90 degrees has two
C H A P T E R 11
nuse
267
80
Hypote
Altitude
90
10
Base
Figure 11-4. A right triangle contains one angle that is 90 degrees.
60
c
2
1
90
b
Figure 11-5. The Pythagorean theorem states that a2 + b2 =

c 2. This theorem is valid only for right triangles.
30
3
Figure 11-7. The relationship between the lengths of the
sides for a 30-degree, 60-degree, and 90-degree triangle.
45
Similar Triangles
When two triangles have exactly the same shape but

different sizes, they are said to be similar triangles. Similar
triangles have (1) corresponding angles that are equal
and (2) corresponding sides that are proportional in size
(Figure 11-8). This corresponding size relationship helps
considerably in nding unknown linear measurements
when other corresponding measures in a similar geometrical conguration are known. Simple algebraic
equalities may be used to nd these unknown dimensions using side-length relationships of
a
b
c
=
=
a b c
90
45
(See Figure 11-8.)

1
Figure 11-6. The relationship between the lengths of the

sides for a 45-degree, 45-degree, and 90-degree triangle.
sides of equal length. If each of these sides is taken as

being 1 unit long, then the hypotenuse will be 2 units
long (Figure 11-6). This follows from the Pythagorean
theorem. (If this triangle occurs, algebraic equalities may
be used to simplify solutions to a given problem.)
Another triangle with specic side-length relationships is the 30 degrees-60 degrees-90 degrees triangle.
In this case if the shortest side is taken as 1 unit of
length, the second side will be 3 units, and the hypotenuse 2 units (Figure 11-7).
Example 11-1
If a vertical stick protruding 0.80 m out of the ground casts
a shadow 0.30 m long, how high is a agpole nearby that
casts a shadow 5 m long?
Solution
Referring to Figure 11-8, a corresponds to the 0.80 m stick,
b to the 0.30 m shadow. The 5-m agpole shadow corresponds to b and the unknown height of the agpole to a.
In other words,
a = 0.80 m
b = 0.30 m
b = 5 m
268
Ophthalmic Lenses P A R T T W O
B
c
Figure 11-8. Similar triangles facilitate calculation of unknown dimensions from those
which are already known. Capital letters represent angular measures; small letters stand for
side lengths. In similar triangles, angles A = A, B = B, and C = C.
0.80 =
(0.80)(5)
.30
us
ten
po
Hy
e
us
ten
po
Hy
Adjacent
0.80 0.30
=
a
5
Opposite
a
b
=
a b
since
(0.30) i a
5
= a
a = 13.33 m
A
Adjacent
Opposite
Figure 11-9. Although the position of the hypotenuse remains

constant, the sides termed opposite and adjacent vary as to which
of the angles is being referred to.
This means that the agpole is 131/3 m high.
REVIEW OF TRIGONOMETRY
The section on geometry demonstrated how unknown
length dimensions can be found when one dimension of
a triangle is known along with the dimensions of a similarly shaped triangle.
This can also be done when only one dimension of
a triangle is known using the angular measures of the
triangle. This method uses trigonometry.
If the specic angles of a given triangle are known, it
is possible to predict the ratio of any two sides of a triangle using a concept of similar right triangles. One can
determine unknown dimensions of a triangle through
the use of these predetermined ratios, which are known
as trigonometric functions.
For a given angle of a triangle, there are three main

ratios of importance. In Figure 11-9, if angle A is the
angle being used, then the ratio of
the side opposite angle A
= the sine of angle A
hypotenuse
The ratio of
the side adjacent to angle A
= the cosine of angle A
hypotenuse
And the ratio of
the side opposite angle A
= the tangent of angle A
this side adjacent to angle A
C H A P T E R 11
These are abbreviated more commonly as
0.17632 =
opp
hyp
adj
cos A =
hyp
opp
tan A =
adj
269
opp
6
sin A =
Using algebraic transformation,

opp = (0.1763) (6)
= 1.06 m
Sine, cosine, and tangent ratios are found by using a

calculator preprogrammed for these functions.
This indicates that the image is displaced 1.06 m from its

original position by the prism.
Vector Analysis
Example 11-2
The image of an object 6 m away from a prism is displaced
upwards 10 degrees by that prism. How far above the original position does the image now appear to be? (Figure 11-10
shows this situation.)
Solution
The ratio used for the 10-degree angle must include the
known dimension and the dimension that needs to be calculated. In this case the needed dimension is that which is
opposite the 10-degree angle, and the known dimension is
the one adjacent to the angle. The proper trigonometric
function must contain both of these sides. The function
containing both opposite and adjacent sides is the tangent
of the angle.
Therefore if
tan =
opp
adj
then
tan 10 degrees =
opp
6
A calculator tells us that the tangent of 10 degrees

is 0.17632. So tan 10 degrees = 0.17632. This means
that
A vector is a mathematical quantity that conveys both

magnitude and direction. It may be represented by a line
of a given length pointing in a specic angular direction.
Vectors are both additive and subtractive. Two vectors
combined produce a resultant vector sum, which may be
different from the two original vectors in both magnitude and direction. For example, a tractor pulls northward on an object with a force of 300 lb (Figure 11-11,
A). A second tractor is hooked to the same object and
also pulls in the same northward direction with a force
of 300 lb (Figure 11-11, B). The sum total of pull is 600
lb northward. This can be found with vector analysis by
placing the second vector on the rst, tail-to-head
(Figure 11-11, C). If drawn to scale, the measured sum
of the two vectors gives the resultant vector sum. If the
second tractor were pulling south, however, the resultant
directional force would be zero. This time when the
second vector is placed tail-to-head on the rst, the
head of the second ends up back on the starting point,
indicating no net resultant force (Figure 11-11, D and
E).
Thus far the forces have been entirely complimentary
to one another or completely opposing one another.
When the vector forces are related to each other at
angles other than 0 or 180 degrees, results are somewhat
?
10
6 Meters
Figure 11-10. How far is the image displaced by the prism?
270
PA R T T WO
0 lbs Ne force
300 lbs
300 lbs
300 lbs
300 lbs
300 lbs
600 lbs
Ophthalmic Lenses
Figure 11-11. Vector analysis is the net

sum of forces. A, Represents a tractor
pulling northward with a force of 300 lb.
The two forces (B) result in the vector
sum (C). If two equal forces pull in
opposite directions (D) when the vectors
are plotted tail-to-head, the head of
the second arrow returns again to zero,
showing no net force (E).
30
lb
lb
30
lb
lb
424 lbs
30
0
30
Figure 11-12. When forces are exerted

in nonparallel directions, the principle
of plotting these forces as tail-to-head
may yet be used. The result is a straight
line from origin to endpoint.
different. To illustrate: If one of these tractors were now

pulling northeast and the other northwest, there is a
cumulative effect of the two, but it is not as great as if
both were pulling in the same direction. (On a 360degree scale, one of the tractors would be pulling at 45
degrees, the other at 135 degrees.) Vector analysis can be
done by again placing the second vector tail-to-head
on the rst, leaving its angular direction unchanged
(Figure 11-12). If the two forces are carefully drawn to
scale and their angular directions maintained, the resultant vector can be obtained by measurement. In this
example, the vector sum is 424 lb of force being exerted
in a northward, or 90-degree, direction.
Another way of thinking of vector analysis is in terms
of completing a parallelogram. A parallelogram is a
four-sided geometrical gure with opposing sides parallel. Two vectors originating at the same point become
the rst half of a parallelogram, and it is then completed
by drawing in the two missing sides parallel to those
already present (Figure 11-13). The vector sum is the
diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point of
origin to the opposite corner.
The solution procedure just described has been
graphical, in that the vectors are often drawn on a graph
to aid in accuracy. It is possible to use trigonometric
functions to obtain more accurate results.
Vector analysis may be used in optics to determine
the sum of two crossed prisms or two obliquely crossed
cylinders.
C H A P T E R 11
271
Figure 11-13. A, A representative pair of vector forces. Instead of plotting these vectors
tail-to-head, it is possible to realize their sums by using them to complete a parallelogram
(B). The resultant vector may now be drawn from the point of origin to the opposite corner
of the parallelogram (C).
Prociency Test
1. How many centimeters are there in a meter?
a. 12
b. 10
c. 100
d. 1000
e. 0.01
2. The basic metric unit of weight is the:
a. meter.
b. centimeter.
c. cubic centimeter.
d. gram.
e. pound.
3. In mathematical transformations, if a complete
component is moved across the equal sign to the
other side of the equation:
a. the number is squared.
b. the number will always become a negative
number.
c. the sign of the number is changed.
d. the operation cannot be performed.
e. the operation is possible, but not as described in
any of the answers above.
4. The opposite of 4 is:
a. 4.
b. Zero.
c. +4.
d. (4).
e. both c and d are correct.
5. Solve for a:
(3) i (7)
a. a =
4 1
b. a = (3 + 7) (4 2)
( 4 i 9) + 2
c. a =
8
a+4
d. 5 =
3
7 i 3 + 2)
(
e. 7 =
a
4 i a) 3
(
f. b =
4
ab
g. 4 =
(3 + 2b )
4b a
h. c =
2b
6. Which of the following are not equal to 2(a + a)?

a. 2a + 2a
b. 2a2
c. (2 + 2)a
d. 4a
e. All of the above are the same as 2(a + a).
272
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
7. Find the reciprocal of each of the following

numbers.
a. 20
b. 1
c. 4
d. 100
e. 0.5
f. 0.25
g. 1/8
h. 3/4
8. Square each of the following.
a. 10
b. 2
c. a
d. (10 3)
e. 12
f. (5 3)
9. Find the square root of each of the following.

a. 121
b. 64
c. 484
d. b2
e. (6 4)(6 4)
f. (5a) (5a)
10. Solve for each of the following.

a. 73
b. 9
102
c.
10
2
10
d.
10
2
10 i 10
e.
10
f. a 2
g. 24
11. In the late afternoon, a stick stuck in the ground
vertically casts a shadow 1.36 m long. A telephone
pole also casts a shadow that is 22 m long. If the
stick is 1 m high, how high is the telephone pole?
12. A board 3 m long is leaned against a wall. The
base of the board is 50 cm from the wall. How
high up on the wall does the top of the board
touch?
13. A ladder is leaned against the side of a house at a
60-degree angle (measured from ground to ladder).
If the ladder is 4 m long: a. How far away from the
house is the base of the ladder, and b. How far up
the house is the top of the ladder?
14. A point on the Cartesian coordinate system is

denoted by the paired (x, y) set as (+8, +3): a. How
far from the origin in this point? b. If a line is
drawn from the origin (0, 0) to this point (+8, +3),
what angle will this line make with the x-axis?
15. A line is drawn from the origin (0, 0) on the
Cartesian coordinate system at an angle of 120
degrees. If the line is 12 cm long, at what paired
(x, y) coordinate set does the line end?
16. A plane takes off to y to a destination that is due
east, 130 km away. Unfortunately, although ying
in a straight line, instead of ying due east it ies
east, northeast 10 degrees off course. When due
north of its destination, how many kilometers has
the plane own since takeoff?
17. A vacant lot is rectangular in shape, measuring
25 m wide and 73 m long: a. If a string is strung
diagonally across the lot, how long must the string
be? b. What are the three angles within the equal
triangles now formed?
18. Which of the following is not a parallelogram?
a. square
b. rectangle
c. triangle
d. diamond
19. Bill and Fred attach ropes to a stump in the
ground in an attempt to pull it out. Bill pulls in
the direction of due north (90 degrees) while Fred
pulls due east (0 degrees). Bill, being stronger,
pulls to create a force of 175 lb, while Fred pulls
with a 110-lb force: a. What is the net force
applied to the stump? b. To the nearest degree, in
what direction is that force?
20. In question 19, Bill and Fred were unable to
dislodge the stump. In another attempt to dislodge
it, Bill moves nearer to Fred so that their ropes are
now at a 20-degree angle to each other. Fred does
not move from his position. Both men pull their
maximum, Bill with 175 lb of force and Fred with
110 lb of force. What is: a. The net force applied
to the stump? b. To the nearest degree, what is its
direction?
C H A P T E R 12
Characteristics of
Ophthalmic Lenses
n understanding of lens optics begins with basic

study of the action of a single ray of light and how
it is affected when passing into or through a transparent optical surface. Principles of reection and refraction of light form the basis for understanding the nature
of prism.
Vision takes place when rays of light from an object
or objects are brought together in focus on the retina of
the eye. Once again the process of refraction, or bending
of rays, is involved. This time, however, a curved refracting surface is required so multiple rays will all be either
directed toward or away from a specic point in space.
Understanding the action of a curved surface on more
than one ray of light is the basis for comprehending the
optics of lenses.
THEORY OF LIGHT
To understand the way light behaves for lenses, we need
to look at the nature of light itself. In simplistic terms,
when light travels, it behaves in two ways:
1. Like a wave generated by dropping a rock into a
pond (Figure 12-1).
2. Like a particle or photon. This could be compared
with a controlled and continuing explosion of
light that might be visualized in Figure 12-2.
For our purposes, we can best understand light as a
wave.
Dening Light Waves

A light wave has certain characteristics as shown in
Figure 12-3. The highest part of the wave is called the
crest, and the lowest, the trough. The vertical distance
from the trough to the crest is called the amplitude. The
greater the amplitude is, the greater the intensity of the
light. The horizontal distance from one crest to the next
is called the wavelength. As wavelength changes, so does
the perceived color of the light.
The Visible Spectrum
The wavelengths of light that are visible to the human
eye vary in length from 380 to 760 nm. These are only
a small part of what is called the electromagnetic spectrum.
The electromagnetic spectrum goes from very short
cosmic or gamma rays to extremely long radio waves
(Figure 12-4). Human vision is sensitive to only a very

small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
When the sun radiates visible light, it includes the
entire visible spectrum. When we see the whole spectrum of visible wavelengths together, we perceive the
light as being white; when we see only one wavelength
of light or several wavelengths that are very close to one
another in length, we see that light as one specic
color.
Colored Light
When white light is broken up into its component colors,
it has a specic order of colors. Those colors of the
rainbow were memorized by most people in elementary
school by using the acronym for the imaginary name
Roy G Biv (Figure 12-5). The letters refer to the colors
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. In
optics we order colored light according to wavelength,
starting with the shortest and going to the longest. The
shortest visible wavelength is blue, and the longest is red.
Therefore we need to consider the Roy G Biv acronym
as being spelled backwards (vib g yor).
Technically, each wavelength has its own color.
However, the changes in color from one wavelength to
the next are so small that we can only discriminate in
wavelength areas. Figure 12-6 shows approximate wavelengths and their associated colors. Interestingly enough,
different cultures make the color break at different
places. For example, at the border between blue and
purple, some cultures will identify that in-between
wavelength area as blue, whereas another will call it
purple.
A luminous or primary source is one that generates
light. A candle would be an example of a primary source
of light. The color of such an object depends upon the
wave length(s) of light that the luminous source
generates.
A secondary source of light is one that is reecting
light from a primary source. The moon is a secondary
source of light, or a sweater would be a secondary source.
The color of a secondary source of light depends upon
what wavelengths it is reecting. A white shirt reects
all wavelengths of light. A blue shirt reects only blue
light and absorbs all other wavelengths. A black shirt
absorbs all wavelengths of light. With this in mind, it is
273
274
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 12-1. Light can be thought of as traveling away from

its point of origin in waves, much like what happens when an
object is thrown into a smooth pond, causing a wave to travel
outward.
Figure 12-2. Light can also be thought of as particles of
energy leaving the source.
Crest
Wavelength
Amplitude
Trough
Figure 12-3. Light waves have crests and troughs, with a wavelength being measured from
crest to crest.
understandable why white shirts are cooler on hot, sunny

days than black shirts.
For more on the visible spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared radiation, see Chapter 22.
REFLECTION
Unless interrupted, a single ray of light travels in a
straight line. Placing a highly reective object in its path
causes the light to bounce back at an angle. This type of
reection is called regular or specular reection (Figure
12-7). The angle at which the light strikes the surface is
known as the angle of incidence (Figure 12-8). It is mea-
sured from a line perpendicular to the reecting surface

at the point of reection known as the normal to the
surface. The angle at which the ray is reected is known
as the angle of reection. This also is measured from the
normal.
The angle at which the light is reected is predictable
if the angle at which it strikes the surface is known since
the angle of incidence (i) is always equal to the angle of re ection (r).
When light strikes matte or dull (irregular) surfaces,
it is still reected, but variable scattering of the light rays
occurs. This type of reection is called diffuse reection
(Figure 12-9).
CHA PTER 12
Characteristics of Ophthalmic Lenses
275
Te
le
Ra visio
di n
o
w
wa av
ve es
s
s
M
ic
Ra row
d a av
r e
vio
l
s i b e t re
gi
le
o
s
In
fra pec n
re
tr u
d
re m
gi
on
Vi
Ul
-r
tra
ay
s
The Visible Spectrum is Only a

Small Part of the Larger
(Not to scale)
Figure 12-4. Visible light is only a small part of the larger electromagnetic spectrum that
includes everything from very short gamma rays to extremely long radio waves.
Regular (specular) reflection
Roy G. Biv
V I
Figure 12-5. When we consider light, we generally go from

left to right, starting with the shortest violet wavelengths and
ending with the longer red wavelengths. So when looking at
the order of the colors, the traditional acronym, Roy G Biv,
will be spelled backwards.
Reflecting surface
Figure 12-7. Specular or regular reection occurs with a

smooth surface.
"Normal"
Angle of
incidence
i
Orange
Red
620
450
Yellow
590
380
Green
560
Blue
490
Violet
Angle of
reflection
r
60
20
90
60
90
50
Figure 12-6. How color and wavelength correspond.

Figure 12-8. For reected light, the angle of reection always
equals the angle of incidence. Both angles are measured from
a line perpendicular to the reecting surface known as the
normal.
276
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Diffuse reflection
as in a vacuum, we use air instead of a vacuum as the

standard when calculating refractive index. Since the
value for refractive index obtained is relative to air
instead of to a vacuum, the refractive index obtained in
this manner is called the relative refractive index. This is
expressed as the fraction:
Speed of Light in Air
Speed of Light in New Substance
= Relative Refractive Index
Diffuse reflecting surface
Figure 12-9. Diffuse reection occurs when light strikes a

surface that is matte or irregular.
THE SPEED OF LIGHT AND

REFRACTIVE INDEX
Light is able to travel faster through some materials than
through others. Simply stated, some materials have more
resistance to the speed of light than others. There is no
resistance to light in a vacuum because there is nothing
in a vacuum. Light travels at its maximum speed of about
186,355 miles/sec (or 299,792,458 m/sec). However, when
light enters a clear medium, such as water, there is resistance, and the speed of light slows. The medium of less
resistance (such as air) is said to be the rarer medium.
The medium of more resistance is said to be the denser
medium.
The amount of resistance to the speed of light that
slows it down is represented by a number. This number
is referred to as the refractive index. The more the material slows the passage of light, the higher is its refractive
index.
The number for the refractive index of a given
substance is obtained by comparing the speed of light
in a vacuum with the speed of light in the new substance. It is written as a fraction. The speed of light in a
vacuum is on top (the numerator) and the reduced
speed of light in the new substance on the bottom (the
denominator). The speed in the denominator is always
the slower speed and smaller number; thus the fraction
will always come out greater than 1. Here is how it is
written:
Refractive index is commonly abbreviated as n, and

the number we use when speaking of refractive index is
really relative refractive index.
REFRACTION
When light strikes a new, transparent medium straight
on (at a 90-degree angle, perpendicular to the surface),
the light slows down, but continues on in the same
direction.
But when light strikes a new substance or medium at
an angle, the change in speed in the new media causes
the light to change direction. Consider, for example, the
case of light passing from a low refractive index medium,
such as air, to a higher refractive index medium, such as
water or even glass, which are both denser than air. To
understand what is happening and why, consider the
analogy of a car traveling on a smooth substance with
little resistance, such as a smooth, paved road. In a
moment of inattention, the car drifts to the side and
encounters a rough substance, such as the gravel shoulder of the road. When the right wheel hits the rough
gravel, in which direction does the car want to go?
Because the right side of the car slows faster than the left
side, the car pulls to the right.
When a light ray passes from a rarer medium (low
refractive index) and strikes a denser medium at an
angle, the light will be bent, or refracted. The direction
of the refraction is toward the normal to the surface
(Figure 12-10). Remember, the normal to the surface
is a line perpendicular to the surface at the place where
the light strikes the surface.
Snells Law
Speed of Light in a Vacuum
Speed of Light in New Substance
= Absolute Refractive Index
Because there cannot be less resistance to the speed
of light than nothing at all (a vacuum), this number
for the refractive index is called the absolute refractive
index.
However, we live on earth where most everything is
surrounded by air. Since light travels almost as fast in air
If the refractive indices of both media through which

light is traveling are known, the angle of refraction for
a given angle of incidence is predictable. It may be calculated geometrically using the sines of the angles of
incidence and refraction. It is expressed algebraically
as:
n sin i = n sin i.
This is known as Snells law.
CHA PTER 12
277
Low refractive index

(like air)
Angle
of
incidence
n (lower index)
n (higher index)
High refractive index

(like water)
i
i
Angle
of
refraction
Figure 12-10. The gure shows the bending or refraction of

light going from a rarer to a denser medium. To see how light
is bent going from a denser to a rarer medium, simply turn the
gure upside down and visualize it traveling in the opposite
direction.
Figure 12-11. The angle of deviation is the angular change

in light direction from its original path.
Therefore
sin i =
(1) (0.5)
1.523
= 0.3283
Example 12-1
Suppose a ray of light is traveling from air of refractive index
1 to glass of index 1.523. If the ray strikes the glass at an
angle of 30 degrees, what will be the angle of refraction?
Solution
We know that:
n = 1 (refractive index of air)
n = 1.523 (refractive index of glass)
i = 30 degrees (angle of incidence).
But we do not know the angle of refraction.
i = ? (angle of refraction)
If
n sin i = n sin i,
then for our example
(1) (sin 30) = (1.523) (sin i).
Since sin i is the unknown, the above formula can be rearranged algebraically as follows:
(1) (sin 30)

1.523
= (sin i )
Using a calculator capable of generating trigonometric functions, it is found that:

sin 30 = 0.5.
Again using a calculator it is determined that 0.3283 is

the sine of 19.2 degrees. (This is done by nding the inverse
sin[sin1] of 0.3283.) Thus the resulting angle of refraction
is 19.2 degrees.
Angle of Deviation
The angle of refraction is the angle of the refracted ray
with reference to a line perpendicular to (normal to) the
refracting surface. It does not directly tell how much the
ray has deviated from its original path. This amount of
that the light has deviated from its original path is called
the angle of deviation (d) (Figure 12-11).
It can be seen from the geometry of the gure that
for light leaving a rare and entering a dense medium,
i = d + i. Therefore the angle of deviation is d = i i.
Example 12-2
Example 12-1 asked for the angle of refraction for light entering a new medium at an angle of incidence of 30 degrees.
The angle of refraction was found to be 19.2 degrees.
Knowing this, what is the angle of deviation?
Solution
We know that the angle of deviation is:
d = i i.
Since the angle of incidence (i) is 30 degrees and the angle
of refraction (i) is 19.2 degrees, then:
d = 30 19.2
= 10.8 degrees.
278
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Object appears
to be here
Object is here
Figure 12-12. When light from an object in another media,

such as water, is seen at an angle, the light rays are bent,
making the object appear to be somewhere other than its
actual location.
The angle of deviation is calculated as d = i i because

light is leaving a rare medium and going into a dense
one. When the opposite situation exists and light is traveling from a dense medium and entering a rare one, the
angle of deviation would become d = i i. An example
of light coming from a dense medium, like water, and
traveling into a rare medium, like air is shown in Figure
12-12. This gure helps to explain why objects that are
viewed below the surface of water are not always where
they appear to be. Attempts to spear the sh in gure
12-12 would be unsuccessful unless the spear sherman
compensated for the apparent location of the sh.
PRISM
When Light Goes Straight Through
Parallel Surfaces
When light leaves air and enters a slab of glass, the light
travels more slowly in the glass. If the two sides of the
glass slab are parallel and the light enters perpendicular
to the front surface, it does not bend at all. It simply
slows down. And when the ray of light strikes the back
surface of the glass, it is still perpendicular to the surface
and does not bend. It comes out the other side of the slab
of glass unchanged in direction. The light leaves the
other side of the glass at exactly the same 90-degree
angle that it rst entered (Figure 12-13). (Incidentally,
when the light leaves the glass and goes back into air, it
speeds back up to its original, expected speed in air.)
When Light Goes Through Parallel Surfaces at

an Angle
If light strikes a parallel-surfaced slab of glass at an angle,
the ray will be bent at each surface in accordance with
Figure 12-13. A ray of light entering a parallel-sided slab of

glass perpendicular to both surfaces will pass through without
ever changing direction.
Figure 12-14. Light entering a parallel-sided slab of glass at

an angle is bent at both front and back surfaces. If the media
on both sides of the material are the same, as when the slab is
surrounded by air, the ray of light will leave parallel to its
original direction. Although traveling in exactly the same
direction, the ray of light will be displaced laterally. The
amount of displacement depends on the thickness of the slab.
the rule of refraction. Since the indices of the glass and

of air at both surfaces are the same, the emergent ray
and the incident ray will be parallel, just as when the ray
struck the glass from straight ahead. The only difference
is that it will be slightly displaced laterally. The amount
of displacement depends upon the angle at which the
incident ray struck the glass and the thickness of the
glass (Figure 12-14).
When the Two Surfaces Are Not Parallel

Suppose that the two surfaces of glass are not parallel to
one another as shown in Figure 12-15. In this gure
a ray of light strikes the rst surface straight on, at a
90-degree angle. It is not bent from its original path.
However, the second surface is at an angle to the rst
surface, giving the glass a prism shape.
The ray of light continues to pass through the glass
and strikes the second (angled) surface at an angle. In
CHA PTER 12
279
How diverging rays become parallel
Figure 12-17. By looking at light passing through a series of

apertures, it is easier to see that the farther from a source light
rays travel, the less they diverge from one another. And the
less they diverge from one another, the more parallel they
become.
Figure 12-15. Here light strikes the rst surface straight on

and is not bent until it reaches the second angled surface. Now
it is bent and leaves in a different direction.
Apex
Apical angle
HOW CURVED LENSES REFRACT LIGHT

Refraction of Multiple Light Rays
Up to this point, we have seen how light acts when it is
viewed as a single ray and strikes a at surface. However,
light does not come as a single ray, but many. And lenses
have curved surfaces instead of at surfaces. With a
curved refracting surface, multiple rays will all be either
directed toward or away from a specic point in space.
Light rays emanate from a light source or object in an
ever-increasing circle similar to the way a ripple goes out
from the place where a stone is thrown into water. As
these rays go out from their source, they are said to be
diverging. The outer border of this ever-growing circle
of light is called the wave front. The farther from the
object source this wave front is, the less that light rays
passing through an aperture or hole of a certain size
will be diverging. In essence they become more parallel,
as seen in Figure 12-17. After traveling far enough away
from the object, these light rays no longer appear to be
diverging. At an innite distance from the object, they
become parallel.
Focusing Light
Base
Figure 12-16. Basic prism terminology.
this case the angle that the light strikes the surface is
equal to the angle of tilt of the second surface. Because
the ray of light is going from a denser to a rarer medium,
it will be bent away from the normal to the surface by
an amount greater than its angle of incidence. This will
cause the light to be bent downward toward the base of
the prism. The amount of this deviation is predictable
using Snells law. Light is always bent toward the base of a
prism.
The tip of a prism is called the apex. The wider,
bottom part of a prism is called the base (Figure 12-16).
More information on how prism works will be found
in Chapters 15 and 16.
Suppose it becomes desirable to divert parallel rays

coming from an object at innity to bring them to focus
at one image point. If it were only a question of two
parallel rays, the problem could be solved easily using
principles explained earlier in the chapter. Since a prism
deviates light at a known angle, if two prisms were placed
base to base so as to interrupt these two rays, the rays
could be caused to meet at a specied point, known as
the focal point (Figure 12-18). Rays traveling toward one
specic point are said to be converging. In our example,
the position of the focal point can be arbitrarily changed
by merely increasing or decreasing the power of the two
prisms.
If there were four parallel rays to be focused, however,
the two-prism concept would no longer be feasible
(Figure 12-19). Stronger prisms would be required to
deviate the two outer rays enough to bring them to the
same focal point. It would be possible to stretch this
system by cutting off the tops of the original prisms and
replacing the tops with prisms of stronger power (Figure
12-20). It quickly becomes obvious, however, that the
280
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Focal plane
F'
Figure 12-18. If only two parallel rays of light have to be

brought to a single point of focus, the job would be fairly
simple. Just use two prisms placed base to base.
Focal
length
(f')
Oops!
Figure 12-19. A two-prism system cannot be expected to

bring light to a single point of focus if there are more than two
rays of light.
Figure 12-21. The point where parallel light entering a lens

is brought to focus is known as the second principal focus of
the lens. The distance from the center of the lens to this principal focus is the second focal length. In this gure, parallel
light rays coming from an object at in nity converge to form
a real image of the object. The lens is drawn with the front
surface at so that it is easier to see how the curved back
surface has a changing angle. If a ray of light strikes the lens
at the exact center, the curved back surface is actually at, and
the light ray passes through without being bent. The farther
toward the outside edge of the lens, the more the back surface
will be angled. The more the back surface is angled, the more
the incoming ray of light will be bent.
Second principal
focus
F
Figure 12-20. If just prisms were used to bring light to a

focus, a different prism would be necessary for each incoming
parallel ray to form a single point focus.
more parallel rays there are, the more new prisms will
be required.
Fortunately the problem may be solved by creating a
curved surface to replace the theoretical series of stacked
prisms. The curve of the surface is in the form of an arc
of a circle (Figure 12-21).
The shorter the radius of curvature, the more light is
bent when striking the surface and consequently the
closer to the lens the focal point will be.
FOCAL POINTS AND DISTANCES

For a source at in nity, the specic point at which an
image will be focused is known as the second principal
focus (F) of the lens. The distance from the lens to the
second principal focus is known as the second (or secondary) focal length of the lens (f ) (Figure 12-22).
The rst principal focus (F) of a lens is that point at
which an object may be placed so that the lens will form
an image of that object at innity. In other words, the
Second
focal length
Figure 12-22. When parallel light enters the front surface of

a lens, light is brought to a focus at what is called the second
principal focus of the lens.
object is placed so that light rays leaving the lens are now
parallel. The distance from the lens to the rst principal
focus is the rst (or primary) focal length of the lens (Figure
12-23.
For spectacle lenses the more important focal point is
the second principle focus.
QUANTIFYING LENSES
Sign Convention
Up to this point, when prisms or lenses have been shown,
the rst surface has usually been a at surface and perpendicular to the light. (In optics a at surface is called
CHA PTER 12
a plano surface.) All light entering the prism or lens has

been parallel light. If the rst surface is at and perpendicular to the entering light, then light passes through
the rst surface undeviated (without being bent). It is not
bent until it reaches the tilted or curved second surface.
There has therefore been only one factor to consider: the
second surface.
To have a common groundwork for understanding
the action of a lens on other than parallel light and lenses
with both surfaces curved, it is necessary to adhere to
accepted conventions.
These sign conventions serve to prevent confusion and
errors in describing the optics of lenses. Some of these
conventions include the following:
1. Light is traditionally represented in optical drawings
as traveling from left to right.
2. Any measurements are made with the lens at the
center of the system. It is as if the lens is at the zero
point of a number line. All distances to the right of
the lens are expressed as positive and all distances to
the left as negative (Figure 12-24).
3. When measurements must be made anywhere other
than left or right of the lens, all positions above a
281
horizontal line passing through the lens center are

considered positive; all positions below a horizontal
line passing through the lens center are negative.
4. Lenses that cause parallel rays of light to converge
are designated as having plus power, whereas those
causing parallel rays of light to diverge are identied
as being minus.
Surface Curvature
To enable the steepness of curvature of a surface to be
quantied, a unit of measure based on the radius of
curvature (abbreviated r) has been chosen (Figure 12-25).
So a surface can be quantied by its radius of curvature.
But the reciprocal of the radius of curvature in meters
First principal
focus
First
focal length
Figure 12-23. When an object is placed at the rst principal

focus of a lens, light rays will leave the lens parallel to one
another.
Figure 12-25. A spherically curved surface may be quantied

by the radius of curvature of that spherical surface.
Light goes left to right
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
+1
+2
+3
Figure 12-24. Sign convention for lens optics.
+4
+5
+6
282
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Convex surface
Concave surface
Figure 12-26. A convex surface.
is the measure commonly used and is referred to as

Curvature. Curvature is expressed in units of reciprocal
meters (m1) and is abbreviated R.
R=
1
r
Example 12-3
If a lens has a surface that would complete a circle having
a radius of +5 cm, what is its Curvature?
Solution
The radius of curvature is plus. This means that the center
of the circle with this radius falls to the right of the lens
surface. To nd Curvature, the radius of curvature must rst
be converted to meters:
+5 cm = +0.05 m.
Then we take the reciprocal of the radius in meters to nd
Curvature (R).
R=
Figure 12-27. A concave surface.
is symbolized by F. Because ophthalmic lenses are generally referenced by their second focal length and are worn
in air, the relationship between focal length and focal
power is expressed by the formula:
F=
1
f
The focal length ( f ) must be in meters when calculating lens power.

F=
1
f
Example 12-4
If a lens has a secondary focal length of +20 cm, what is
the power of the lens?
Solution
Focal length must rst be converted to meters:
1
= +20 m1
+0.05
+20 cm = +0.20 m.
Then lens power may be found as:
Convex and Concave Surfaces

Suppose the front surface of a lens has a radius of curvature of 20 cm. If the center of the radius of curvature
is to the right of the front lens surface, then the surface
is a convex surface (Figure 12-26).
If the radius of curvature of the front surface of a lens
is centered to the left of the lens surface, the front surface
is a concave surface (Figure 12-27). For a lens in air,
convex surfaces are positive (plus) in power, and concave
surfaces are negative (minus).
Units of Lens Power

The total power of a lens or lens surface to bend light is
referred to as its focal power. Units of focal power are
expressed as diopters (D) and are related to the focal
length of the lens or lens surface. The focal length is
symbolized by f or f , for primary or secondary focal
length, whereas the focal power (in diopters) of the lens
F=
1
f
1
+0.20
= +5.00 D (diopters of focal power)
=
Positive Lenses and Real Images

Up to this point, the type of lens spoken of has been the
type that causes parallel light rays to converge, or come
together. This type of lens is referred to as a positive or
a plus lens.
Light from an object brought to a focus by a lens will
form an image of that object. In the case of converging
rays, this image can be intercepted, forming an image
on a screen, just like a camera forms an image on the
lm in the back of the camera. This type of image is
known as a real image.
CHA PTER 12
283
Second principal
focus
First principal
focus
F
F
Second
focal length
First
focal length
Figure 12-28. A minus lens causes parallel incoming light to

diverge. The point from which light appears to diverge is called
the second principal focus. The image formed by the backward
projection of these diverging rays is a virtual image.
Figure 12-29. For light to leave the second surface of a lens

as parallel rays, entering light rays must be converging toward
the rst principal focus of the lens.
Negative Lenses and Virtual Images
Next the focal power is found by taking the reciprocal of the

focal length.
According to sign convention, a lens whose focal point

is to the left of the lens will have a negative focal power.
When parallel rays enter a lens that has a negative focal
length (and therefore also a negative power) rays leaving
the lens diverge or spread away from one another instead
of converge toward one another.
Whereas a positive lens was described as analogous to
prisms placed base to base, a negative lens can he compared with the action of two prisms placed apex to apex.
The focal point of a negative lens is found by extending
the diverging rays backward to a point from which they
appear to originate (Figure 12-28). This is called the
second principal focus of the lens.
However, if rays of light leave the lens parallel, they
must have been converging when entering the lens. The
point toward which they are converging is called the rst
principal focus of the lens (Figure 12-29).
When rays diverge on leaving a lens as shown in
Figure 12-28, the image of the object cannot be focused
on a screen. This is because the image is formed by a
backward projection of the diverging rays to their apparent point of origin. Even though they do not originate
from that point, they appear as if they do. This type of
image is referred to as a virtual image.
Example 12-5
If a lens has a focal point which is 40 cm to the left of the
lens (40 cm from the lens), what focal power does the lens
have?
Solution
To solve the problem, the focal length is rst converted to
meters.
40 cm = 0.40 m.
F=
1
f
1
0.40
= 2.50 diopters
=
The lens is found to have a power of 2.50 D.
Surface Power and the Lensmakers Formula

When a lens is thin, that lens derives its total power from
the combined powers of its front and back surfaces.
The amount light is bent by a lens surface depends on
the radius of curvature of that surface and on the refractive index of the lens material. The formula taking these
two factors into consideration when light is passing into
the rst surface of a lens is:
F1 =
n n
r
where F1 = the surface power of the rst surface expressed

in diopters,
n = the refractive index of the lens (i.e., the
medium into which the light is entering),
n = the refractive index of air (the medium the
light is leaving), and
r = the radius of curvature of this rst lens
surface in meters.
This formula is often referred to as the Lensmakers
formula.
It can be seen from this formula that just because two
lens surfaces have the same radius of curvature it does
not necessarily mean that they will have the same ability
284
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
to refract (or bend) light. The index of refraction of the

material also has an effect. Therefore two surface powers
will not be the same if the index of refraction of the two
materials is different. Consider, for example, a CR-39
plastic lens of index 1.498 and a higher index plastic lens
of index 1.66. Both have a front curve with a radius of
curvature of +8.66 cm. Using the Lensmakers formula,
we nd the lens surface power of the CR-39 lens to be:
n n
r
1.498 1
=
0.866 m
= +5.75 D
F1(CR 39) =
However, the lens surface power of the 1.66 index plastic

lens is:
n n
r
1.66 1
=
0.866 m
= +7.62 D
no longer come to a focus at the secondary focal point

of the lens, but at some other point. That point may be
determined by using both:
1. A quantitative value for the vergence of light
entering the lens and
2. The power of the lens.
Finding a Value for Converging and Diverging Light
The quantitative unit value for vergence is expressed in
diopters in the same way that lens focal powers are.
When light is converging, it is converging to a certain
point in space. When it is diverging, it appears to be
coming from a given point in space. There is a specic
distance from this image or object point to the lens. This
distance is abbreviated using the symbol l or l. The
dioptric value of the vergence itself is abbreviated by L
or L. The relationship between the two is:
n
=L
l
F1(HI ) =
It can be seen that what may appear to be a small

change in refractive index can create a considerable
change in surface power.
The surface power for the second surface is calculated
in the same manner, except that the values for n and n
are reversed. This time light is leaving the lens and
reentering air. Therefore the equation for the second, or
rear, lens surface power becomes:
F2 =
n n
r2
where n is 1 (air) and n is the index of the lens.

One way to nd the power of the lens is to add the
powers of the front and back lens surfaces together.
When lens power is found in this way, it is called the
nominal power of the lens. So
Nominal power = F1 + F2
For low-powered thin lenses, this proves to be a fairly
accurate measure of lens power. But for thick lenses, the
thickness of the lens also inuences lens power. Most
low-powered ophthalmic lenses can be considered thin
lenses. Thick lenses will be considered in Chapter 14.
THE ACTION OF A LENS ON OTHER THAN

PARALLEL LIGHT
The Concept of Vergence
Up to this point, only parallel light that is entering the
lens from straight ahead has been considered. Such light
is brought to a focus at the focal point of the lens. If light
entering the lens is not parallel, light leaving the lens will
and
n
= L
l
How do we distinguish between references to object
or image points? When referring to the object, symbols
l and L are used; when referring to the image, symbols
l and L are used (Figure 12-30). In air the relationship
simplies to:
1
=L
l
and
1
= L
l
There is a relationship between the entering vergence
of light and the exiting vergence of light. It is as follows:
The vergence of the light entering the lens added to the
dioptric value of the lens is found to equal the vergence
of the light leaving the lens. This can be expressed in
the form of an equation:
L + F = L
This equation is commonly expressed in transposed
form as F = L L, called the Fundamental Paraxial
Equation. For single refractive surfaces it is written in
the more basic form:
F=
n n
l l
where n is the refractive index of the second media into

which light is entering and n is the refractive index of
CHA PTER 12
285
Lens power
(F)
L + F = L
Entering
vergence
(L)
Exiting
vergence
(L)
Object
point
Image
point
l
In air, 1/l = L, and 1/l = L.
Figure 12-30. Diverging or converging light may be quantied using vergence. Object and
image points that correspond (as shown here) are referred to as conjugate foci.
the rst or primary media. For spectacle lenses that will

be worn in air, this simplies to:
F=
1 1
l l
What is the situation when talking about lens surfaces

only, instead of whole lenses? In the instance of a single
surface that separates two media, the relationship
between object and image distance is determined in basically the same manner. If
The vergence of light entering the lens is zero. Therefore

L = 0.00 D.
The power of the lens is +10.00 D so:
F = +10.00 D
If
L + F = L
then
n n
r
is substituted for the surface power F, then the equation
for vergence becomes:
n n n n
=
r
l l
This fundamental paraxial equation is a paraxial equation because it remains valid for those rays in the paraxial or central region of the refracting surface. (Rays
that are a great distance away from the center of the lens
are affected by lens aberrations. They no longer fall
exactly at the focal point.)
Example 12-6, A
Use vergence concepts to nd the convergence of light leaving
a +10.00 D lens if the light entering the lens is parallel.
Solution
Since parallel light neither diverges nor converges, its vergence value is zero. Therefore in the case of parallel light
entering a +10 D lens, we can nd the vergence of light
leaving the lens as follows:
0.00 D + 10.00 D = L
and
L = +10.00 D
Therefore the vergence of the light leaving the lens equals
+10.00 D, which as expected corresponds to the focal power
of the lens. Because the vergence of the light leaving the
lens is plus in power, we know that it must be converging
light. By sign convention a + connotes a point of focus to
the right of the lens.
Example 12-6, B
What is the distance from the lens to the point of focus for
this +10.00 D lens if the light entering the lens is parallel?
Solution
Using vergence concepts, the distance from the lens to the
point of focus is determined by:
L =
And we know that
l
l
286
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
+6.50 D
L + F = L
Entering
vergence
(-2.50 D)
Object
point
Exiting
vergence
(+4.00 D)
40 cm
Image
point
25 cm
Figure 12-31. This diagram shows how vergence may be used to nd the image point for
an object that is at a known distance from the lens.
+10.00 D =
l
l
Now we can use the fundamental paraxial equation to

solve for the vergence of light leaving the lens.
L = L + F
= 2.50 + 6.50
= +4.00 D
which transposes to
l =
1
= +0.10 m = +10 cm
+10.00
So the point of focus is 10 cm to the right of the lens.

Because the entering light was parallel, this corresponds to
the focal point of that lens.
If the vergence of light leaving the lens is +4.00 D, we can

now nd the distance from the lens to the image point. That
distance is symbolized by l. Therefore
L =
1
l
or in transposed form
Example 12-7
Light is coming from a point 40 cm in front of a +6.50 D
lens. Use vergence concepts to determine where the image
of the object formed.
Solution
We can solve the problem with vergence using the fundamental paraxial equation.
L + F = L
We know that, in air
1
L
1
=
4.00
= 0.25 m
l =
Converting 0.25 m into centimeters tells us that the distance of the image point from the lens is 25 cm.
Example 12-8
L=
1
l
(Now as the answer progresses, follow along using Figure

12-31.)
In the example problem, the distance from the lens to the
object is 40 cm. So l is 40 cm. It is negative because it is
to the left of the lens, and sign convention makes it negative.
It also needs to be in meters for the equation, making l equal
to 0.40 m.
L=
1
l
1
0.40 m
= 2.50 D
Light is diverging from an object 50 cm to the left of a

+10.00 D lens. Use vergence concepts to determine where
light will come to focus to produce an image of the object?
Solution
First we need to nd the vergence of light entering the lens.
We can nd that vergence because we know the lights point
of origin; it is 50 cm to the left of the lens.
l = 50 cm = 0.50 m
The value is negative since the point of reference is to the
left of the lens. As a result, light diverges from this point.
Now we can nd the dioptric value of that divergence.
L=
1
= 2.00 D
0.50 m
CHA PTER 12
So the divergence is 2.00 D. To complete the problem,

we know that F = +10.00 D. We use the equation:
L + F = L
L =
287
l
l
and substituting 12.00 D for L, we get
and nd that
12.00 =
2.00 D + 10.00 D = L
l
l
resulting in
and
L = +8.00 D
l = 0.083 m
= 8.3 cm
So the vergence leaving the lens has a value of +8.00 D.

Now we can nd the distance from the lens to the focal
point. This is done by taking the reciprocal value of the
vergence.
This tells us that light leaving the minus-powered lens

diverges as if it were coming from a point 8.3 cm to the left
of the lens.
1
+8.00 D
= +1.25 m
= +12.5 cm
l =
It can be seen that if light leaves an object that is 50 cm

to the left of a +10.00 D lens, it will not come to a focus at
the normal focal point of the lens. Instead, light coming from
an object closer to the lens than innity will focus farther to
the right of the dened focal point of the lens than it normally
would for parallel incoming light.
Example 12-9
We know that a minus lens causes incoming parallel light to
diverge. This places the focal point to the left of the lens,
making the lens value negative and the image of the object
virtual. Now for the problem:
We have the same situation as described in the previous
example. However, the +10.00 D lens is replaced with a
10.00 D lens. Now where will the image point be for an
object point 50 cm to the left of the lens?
Solution
Since the object is still 50 cm to the left, L still equals
2.00 D.
The basic equation remains
SPHERES, CYLINDERS, AND

SPHEROCYLINDERS
Spheres
All lenses considered thus far have a single point where
light is brought to a focus. This is true even if that point
must be found by extending diverging rays backward as
in the case of minus lenses. When a lens has a single
point focus, it is referred to as a spherical lens.
The surface curvature of a spherical lens duplicates
the surface curvature of a sphere, or ball. A plus spherical
surface can be compared with a slice off the side of a
glass ball, whereas a minus spherical surface would form
an exact mold for a ball of equal radius of curvature
(Figure 12-32).
L + F = L
In the case of the 10.00 D lens, the appropriate substitutions are
2.00 D + (10.00 D) = L
so
L = 12.00 D
The vergence of light leaving the lens has a dioptric value
of 12.00 D. Knowing this we can nd the image point.
Knowing that
Figure 12-32. A plus spherical surface has a shape as if cut

from the side of a sphere, whereas a minus spherical surface is
shaped as though molded from a sphere.
288
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 12-33. A spherical surface has the same radius of curvature in every meridian.
Spheres Correct for Nearsightedness

and Farsightedness
The sphere is the most basic type of ophthalmic lens used
and is used to correct both nearsightedness and
farsightedness.
Plus spheres are used for the correction of hyperopia,
or farsightedness. This occurs when light focuses behind
the retina of the eye. A plus lens adds more convergence
to incoming light and draws the focus point up onto the
retina.
Minus spheres correct for myopia, or nearsightedness.
Myopia occurs when light focuses in front of the retina.
A minus lens causes the light to diverge (or converge less)
before entering the eye and allows the focal point to drop
back onto the retina.
The Problem of Astigmatism

If a refracting surface of the eye is not spherical, the eye
cannot bring light to a single point focus on the retina.
For example, the front surface of the eye (the cornea)
should have a front surface that is spherical, like a spherical ball, such as a basketball (Figure 12-33). But instead
it may be shaped more like the surface of a football.
There are now two different curves to consider: one
being from tip to tip of the football and the other running
around the central part at right angles to the rst curve
(Figure 12-34). Each of these two curves has its own
radius of curvature. When this happens, a single point
focus is no longer possible.
When an eye has two different curves on a single
refracting surface, the condition is known as astigma-
Figure 12-34. A toric surface has different radii of curvature

in each of two major meridians.
tism. A situation can occur that may require a correction

in only one of those two refracting meridians.
Cylinder Lenses
A lens that only has power in one meridian can be visualized as one that is cut from the side of a clear glass cylinder (Figure 12-35). A commonly occurring example of
something cylindrical in shape is a pillar used to support
the porch of a house. A rod is also cylindrical in shape.
The lens that optically behaves as if it were cut from the
side of a glass cylinder takes on the name of the structure
from which it is cut. It is therefore known as a cylinder.
Because a cylinder lens can be turned from an upand-down to a sideways position (or to any orientation
between the two), a method for specifying its exact orientation must be chosen. That method is to specify the
axis direction. The axis of a cylinder can be thought of
as being equivalent to the string threaded through the
center of a cylindrical bead (Figure 12-36). As this
string is tilted, the angle of tilt is specied by degrees.
Horizontal is considered zero. The angle in degrees the
string or cylinder axis makes with this horizontal line
species orientation (Figure 12-37). When the cylinder
axis is horizontal, instead of writing 0 degrees, it is conventional to write 180 degrees. Zero and 180 are both
on the same horizontal line and, for cylinder axes, are
the same. Only degrees 0 through 180 are necessary for
complete specication because, as in the example of
Figure 12-37, 210 degrees is the same as 30 degrees.
CHA PTER 12
289
String
Axis of
cylinder
Figure 12-35. A lens shaped as though cut from the side of a

clear glass cylinder is referred to as a cylinder lens.
Figure 12-36. The axis of a cylinder is the reference for determining its orientation. The axis of a cylinder parallels an
imaginary string running through the center of a cylindrical
bead.
Figure 12-37. The orientation of a cylinder is specied in degrees from 0 degrees through
180 degrees. Specifying beyond 180 degrees is unnecessary because it duplicates 0 degrees
through 180. (Zero degrees and 180 degrees are really the same axis. By convention 180 is
used instead of 0.) In this gure, the axis of the cylinder shown is oriented at 30 degrees.
290
Ophthalmic Lenses
180
PA R T T WO
grees goes ri
ght
80 de
to
to 1
o
l ef
r
90
e
t!
Figure 12-38. When looking at the person wearing spectacle

lenses, the cylinder axis degree scale goes counterclockwise,
from right to left. This is the same for both right and left
eyes.
Figure 12-39. Light striking a cylinder along the cylinder

axis is not bent. For a plano cylinder, such as the one shown,
both surfaces are at along the axis.
If a person is wearing a cylinder lens in a pair of

glasses, the scale is always counterclockwise, or right to
left, as shown in Figure 12-38. It is as if the wearers eye
was directly behind the scale, looking through it. This is
true for both right and left lenses.
Optics of a Cylinder Lens
As previously stated, a cylinder can be used to compensate for the eye that does not bring light to a point focus.
This can happen if the shape of the cornea in the 90degree meridian is more curved than it is in the 180degree meridian. A cylinder lens is suited for correcting
this difference because light that strikes the lens along
the axis of the lens will pass through that lens undeviated
(Figure 12-39).
The meridian of the lens paralleling the cylinder axis
is called the axis meridian. Along the cylinder axis, both
the front and back surfaces of the cylinder are at. So
the cylinder lens has no light refracting power along the
axis of the cylinder.
Light striking the cylinder at any other point on
the lens will be bent in accordance with the power
the curved meridian of the cylinder has (Figure
12-40).
The meridian of the cylinder lens at right angles to
its axis has one at surface and one curved surface. This
means the lens has power in this meridian. This meridian is called the power meridian of the cylinder. The axis
of a cylinder is always at right angles to the power meridian
of the cylinder (Figure 12-41).
Writing Cylinder Power
As with spherical lenses, the power of a cylinder is also
specied in dioptric units. Remember that the full power
of the cylinder is only in the meridian opposite the axis
Figure 12-40. Light striking a cylinder at any other location

than on the axis will be focused along a line parallel to the
cylinder axis and at a constant distance from the lens.
of the cylinder. As a result, when quantifying a cylinder

lens, not only must a dioptric power be specied, but also
the orientation of the lens axis. For instance, a cylinder
may have +3.00 D of power in the horizontal meridian
and zero power in the vertical meridian. The specication would therefore be +3.00 D cylinder power with axis
at 90 degrees. This may be abbreviated +3.00 90, with
the x being short for axis. Because any lens with an axis
orientation must be a cylinder, it is unnecessary to write
cylinder or cyl.
Spherocylindrical Combinations
A cylinder lens compensates for the astigmatic eye that
does not bring light to a single point focus. The proper
cylinder lens will fully compensate for astigmatism.
Unfortunately, much of the time astigmatism may not
Axis meridian
CHA PTER 12
Po
we
rm
erid
ian
291
as in the football example, there are two separate curves

on the same lens surface.
With the addition of a sphere to the cylinder, rays
traveling through the axis meridian no longer remain
unbent in parallel paths as was shown in Figure 12-39,
but now are caused to converge or diverge by the power
of the added sphere lens (Figure 12-43, A). The rays
striking the lens, as was shown in Figure 12-40, will be
caused to focus on a line even closer to the lens than
before if the added sphere is plus in power as in Figure
12-43, B. The combined effect is shown schematically in
Figure 12-43, C.
Writing Spherocylinder Power
To write the power and orientation characteristics of a
spherocylinder combination lens so as to be understandable, it becomes necessary to include sphere power,
cylinder power, and cylinder axis. Such a combination is
written in exactly this order: sphere, cylinder, and axis
orientation in degrees.
If the sphere lens used was +5.00 D in power and the
cylinder a +3.00 D lens with the orientation of its axis at
90 degrees, the lens combination could be written as
follows:
()
+5.00 D sph.
+ 3.00 D cyl 90
()
(The symbol means in combination with.)

The above combination can be further shortened to
Figure 12-41. For a plano plus cylinder with a at rear
surface, imagine placing a pencil on the front surface of the
lens on the cylinder axis. It rests at on the lens. Because the
back of the lens is also at, it is easy to see that there is no
power in the axis meridian. In the power meridian, however,
a pencil would not sit at on the front surface. The pencil
would rock because the lens surface is curved. There is power
created by the lens curve.
be the only deciency. Once the light entering an astigmatic eye is corrected to a point focus, it may be found
that the point focus is still not on the retina where it
should be. The eye may still manifest myopia (nearsightedness) or hyperopia (farsightedness) and additionally
need correcting with either a plus or a minus sphere lens.
When this happens it becomes necessary to use both
sphere and cylinder lenses to correct the persons refractive error. When both sphere and cylinder lenses are
required, the result is referred to as a spherocylinder combination (Figure 12-42, A).
In the case of a spherocylindrical combination, the
effect of the two lenses together may be duplicated in
the form of a single lens (Figure 12-42, B). For example,
if both the cylinder and the spherical lenses were plus,
such a lens could be ground in a form as if it were cut
from the side of a barrel. It can be seen from this that,
+5.00 +3.00 90
Minus Cylinder Lenses

Cylinder lenses previously described and used in examples have all been plus in power. It is also possible to
have a cylinder lens that is minus in power. As with a
minus sphere, a minus cylinder lens has an oppositely
curved, or concave, refracting surface. The surface is
such that it would cradle a cylindrical rod of equal radius
(Figure 12-44). It is as if it were molded from a cylindrical rod.
As with the plus cylinder lens, the axis of a minus
cylinder parallels the area of equal lens thickness. On a
plus cylinder, this is along the line of maximum lens
thickness; with the minus cylinder, the axis runs along
the line of minimum lens thickness. To continue the
analogy, a minus cylinder axis can be thought of as the
imaginary string through the center of a cylindrical rod
or bead against which a minus cylinder lens could rest.
This meridian on the lens where the axis is found is
referred to as the axis meridian.
There is also no power found in the axis meridian of
a minus cylinder; maximum power is found 90 degrees
away from it. The meridian of maximum power in a
minus cylinder is still referred to as the power meridian
(Figure 12-45).
292
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
B
Figure 12-42. A spherocylinder combination can be thought of as just thata sphere lens
and a cylinder lens placed together (A). This combined power combination may be constructed as a single lens with two curves on one surface (B).
LENS FORM
Lenses can be made in a variety of forms, with many
forms possible for a lens of the same power. One lens
form may be steeply curved, whereas another of identical
power may appear quite at. It is also possible to manufacture a lens of a specied power with a cylinder component on either the front or back surface.
Lens Forms a Sphere May Take

The nominal power of a lens is the sum of its front and
back surface powers. When expressed as an equation,
this is F1 + F2 = F TOTAL . Up to this point, most lenses
have been shown with one at surface of no power and
one curved surface. The curved surface makes the lens
either plus or minus in power. The at surface is referred
to as plano, or without power.
If one surface is plano and the other an outwardcurved plus surface (i.e., a convex surface), the lens is
referred to as planoconvex. If one surface is plano and the

other curved inward for minus power (i.e., a concave
surface), the lens is planoconcave (Figure 12-46). If both
surfaces are convex or both concave, the lens is biconvex
or biconcave (Figure 12-47). This form does not specify
that both surfaces necessarily be equal in power. If this
were the case, the lens could be further classied as
equiconvex or equiconcave (Figure 12-48). For example, a
biconvex lens of +4.00 D of power could have surface
powers, such as the following:
F1 + F 2 = F T
(+2.00 D) + (+2.00 D) = +4.00 D
(+3.00 D) + (+1.00 D) = +4.00 D
(+0.50 D) + (+3.50 D) = +4.00 D
It is also possible to have a lens with one side convex
(plus) and the other concave (minus). This is the most
CHA PTER 12
293
F
90
F
180
B
F90
F180
C
Figure 12-43. This lens is the same spherocylinder lens combination as was shown in Figure
12-42. A, Rays previously unbent in the 90-degree cylinder axis meridian are now brought
to a focus because of the addition of a plus sphere component. B, Rays in the 180-degree
power meridian of the cylinder that were previously brought to a line focus by the cylinder
are now refracted more by the additional plus sphere power. C, The net effect of both sphere
and cylinder components results in two line foci.
common ophthalmic lens and is referred to as a meniscus*

lens (Figure 12-49). The same +4.00 D lens power might
then have any one of the following forms, which represent only a fraction of the possibilities.
F1 + F 2 = F T
(+7.00 D) + (3.00 D) = +4.00 D
(+8.00 D) + (4.00 D) = +4.00 D
(+10.00 D) + (6.00 D) = +4.00 D
* Originally a meniscus lens was one that had a 6.00 D surface
curve either on the front (+6.00 D) or on the back (6.00 D). Now
it has come to mean a lens with a convex front surface and a
concave minus surface.
Lens Forms a Cylinder May Take

Even a pure cylinder may take several forms. These
forms are limited only in that one meridian must have
a net power of zero and the other a net power equal
to the cylinder value. To keep the two meridians
of a cylinder separate, it is helpful to use the concept of a power cross. A power cross is a schematic
representation of the two major meridians of a lens
or lens surface. For a pure cylinder, these two meridians, at right angles to each other, are the axis meridian and the power meridian. A +4.00 D 90 cylinder
is schematically represented on a power cross in
Figure 12-50.
294
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 12-46. Two planoconvex lenses are shown on the left,

two planoconcave on the right.
Axis meridian
Figure 12-44. A minus cylinder lens can be thought of as if

molded from a cylindrical rod.
Pow
er m
Figure 12-47. Two biconvex lenses are shown on the left, two
biconcave on the right.
eridi
an
Figure 12-45. Power and axis meridians shown for a minus

cylinder.
Figure 12-48. Equiconvex and equiconcave lenses must have

the same curvature on both front and back surfaces.
CHA PTER 12
295
Plano (0.00 D)
+ 4.00 D
Figure 12-49. A meniscus lens has a plus (convex) surface on

the front and a concave (minus) surface on the back.
Figure 12-50. This is a power cross for a +4.00 090 cylinder
lens. The outlined cylinder is for reference only, never appearing on an actual power cross.
Front
Figure 12-51. For this lens, the front

surface is the toric surface with two
different lens powers. The back surface
is spherical, so both 90-degree and
180-degree back surface meridians
have the same power. The total power
of the lens can be found by adding
corresponding
surface
meridians
together90 with 90 and 180 with
180.
+ 2.00 D
Back
Total
- 2.00 D
Plano
- 2.00 D
+ 6.00 D
F2
F1
In the original, or most easily visualized form, this

lens has two front curves. One is a plano surface curve
of zero power in the 90-degree meridian, the other a
+4.00 D powered curve in the 180-degree meridian. The
back surface is at, or plano, in both meridians. In this
lens form, since the back surface has zero power, the
front surface creates the total power of the lens.
Suppose, however, that the back surface of the lens has
a power of 2.00 D in both meridians. It is still possible
to construct a cylinder lens with the same total power.
For example, suppose the front surface powers are as
follows:
F1 at 90 = +2.00 D
F1 at 180 = +6.00 D
With the back surface power of F2 = 2.00 D, the total
lens power is still +4.00 90. Figure 12-51 shows a series
+ 4.00 D
FT
of three power crossesone for the front surface, one

for the back surface, and a third power cross for the total
lens power. Both 90-degree surface meridians are added
together to obtain the total lens power in the 90-degree
meridian, and both 180-degree meridians are added
together to obtain the total lens power in the 180-degree
meridian.
When a lens has two separate curves on a surface,
neither being plano but both having power, the surface
is said to be toric.
Example 12-10
Suppose a lens has a toric front surface. F1 at 90 is
+4.00 D, and F1 at 180 is +6.00 D. If the back surface has
a surface power of 4.00 D, what is the total power of the
lens?
296
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Front
Back
F1
F2
+ 4.00 D
- 4.00 D
+ 6.00 D
Total
FT
- 4.00 D
B
+ 4.00 D
+ 6.00 D
- 4.00 D
- 4.00 D
Plano
+ 2.00 D
C
Figure 12-52. Steps in solving lens form power problems consist of: A, drawing the appropriate series of crosses; B, writing all known lens powers on the crosses; and C, solving for
the remaining unknown factors.
Solution
The simplest method of solving the problem is to rst draw
three empty power crosses representing F1, F2, and F T (Figure
12-52, A). Next the known component may be written in at
the proper meridians for F1 and F2 (Figure 12-52, B). Surface
powers are then added together to obtain the total power of
the lens (Figure 12-52, C). Last, these powers are taken off
the power cross and written in abbreviated form. In this case
a +2.00 90 cylinder is obtained.
Plus and Minus Cylinder Form Lenses

When the lens obtains its cylinder power from a difference in power between two front surface meridians (i.e.,
a toric front surface lens), the lens is said to be ground
in plus cylinder form. If, on the other hand, a lens has a
cylinder component, but the cylinder power is a result
of a difference in power between two back surface meridians (i.e., a toric rear surface lens), it is a minus cylinder
form lens. In other words, the plus cylinder form lens has
two curves on the front and one spherical curve on the
back, whereas a minus cylinder form lens has one spherical curve on the front and two curves, making up the
cylinder component, on the back.
Example 12-11
If a lens has dimensions of F1 = +6.00 D, F2 at 90 =
8.00 D, and F2 at 180 = 6.00 D, what form does the lens
have and what is its total power?
Solution
Because the cylinder component is on F2, the back surface,
by denition the lens is minus cylinder in form. To nd the
total lens power, the front and back surface power crosses
are mapped out and added together (Figure 12-53).
F1 at 90 = +6.00 D
F2 at 90 = 8.00 D
F1 at 180 = +6.00 D
F2 at 180 = 6.00 D
FT at 90 = 2.00 D
FT at 180 = 0.00 D (plano)
The power of this cylinder is at 90, which means that the

axis is at 180. In abbreviated form the lens may be written
2.00 180.
Lens Forms a Spherocylinder May Take

Minus Cylinder Form
As seen earlier, either a sphere or a cylinder lens may be
constructed in several different forms, all having the
CHA PTER 12
Front
+ 6.00 D
Back
Total
- 8.00 D
- 2.00 D
- 6.00 D
+ 6.00 D
F1
F2
297
Plano
FT
Figure 12-53. The lens represented on this power cross series is minus cylinder in form since
the toric surface is on the back of the lens.
Front
+ 3.00 D
Total
+ 3.00 D
Back
Plano
+ 3.00 D
F1
- 2.00 D
F2
+ 1.00 D
FT
Figure 12-54. Front and back curves and total lens power for a spherocylinder lens.
same total power (F T). In the same way it is also possible

to construct a spherocylinder lens in several different
forms, all having the same total spherocylinder power.
Example 12-12
A lens has the following form:
A spherical front surface power (F1) of +3.00
A cylindrical back surface where
F2 at 90 equals 0 and
F2 at 180 equals 2.00 D
Is the lens constructed in plus or minus cylinder form?
What is the power of the lens?
Solution
To tell if the lens is constructed in plus or minus cylinder
form, we need only look to see which surface has two
powers. If the cylinder power comes from the front surface,
the lens is plus cylinder in form. If the cylinder power is on
the back of the lens, the lens is minus cylinder in form. This
lens has the cylinder on the back and is a minus cylinder
form lens.
To nd the power of the lens, draw three sets of power
crossesone for the front surface, one for the back surface,
and one for the total power of the lens. Enter the front and
back surface powers on the front and back surface power
crosses as shown in Figure 12-54.
Just looking at the powers entered on the rst and second

power crosses tell us that this spherocylinder lens will have
a sphere power of +3.00 D and a cylinder power of 2.00
90. This becomes apparent because the lens form is constructed as if a plano convex sphere lens of +3.00 D front
surface power with a at back surface were placed ush
against the at front surface of a plano minus cylinder lens.
So the spherocylinder combination could be written as
+3.00 sph 2.00 cyl 90, or in the more commonly used
abbreviated form, as +3.00 2.00 90.
However, very few problems lend themselves to such
obvious interpretation. So now the same problem will be
done in the more conventional manner.
Once front and back surface powers are entered on the
power crosses, add the front and back surface 90-degree
meridians together.
(+3.00) + 0.00 = +3.00
The +3.00 D power is entered on the 90-degree meridian
for the total lens power.
The same is done for the 180-degree meridian.
(+3.00) + (2.00) = +1.00
The +1.00 D power is entered on the 180-degree meridian
for the total lens power.
In a pure cylinder lens having no spherical component,
since one meridian is zero, the other meridian shows
298
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Front
+ 8.00 D
Back
- 7.00 D
+ 8.00 D
F1
Total
+ 1.00 D
- 6.00 D
F2
+ 2.00 D
FT
Figure 12-55. This spherocylinder lens is a minus cylinder form lens.
the exact cylinder power. The cylinder power is then the

difference between the two meridians. In the case of a
spherocylinder lens where both meridians have power,
the cylinder power is still the numerical difference between
the two meridians. In the example, the difference between
+1.00 and +3.00 is 2.00. This means that the cylinder
power is 2.00 D. It may be either a +2.00 D or a 2.00 D
cylinder, depending upon how the prescription is to be
written.
Power can be interpreted from information given on a
power cross as follows: If the prescription is to be written
with the cylinder as a minus cylinder (in minus cylinder form),
the greater plus (or least minus) value is the sphere power.
In this case the +3.00 is the sphere power because it is the
most plus.
Since the cylinder value is 2.00 D less than the +3.00 D
sphere, the difference is the power of the cylinder (2.00).
The abbreviated minus cylinder form for this lens combination then becomes +3.00 2.00 90. It is helpful to remember that the cylinder axis always falls in the meridian that
represents the spherical power of the lens.
Example 12-13
Suppose a lens has a front surface power of +8.00 D.
The back surface power is 7.00 D in the 90-degree meridian and 6.00 D in the 180-degree meridian. What is the
total power of the lens when written in minus cylinder
form?
Solution
Again, draw three power crosses for front surface, back
surface, and total lens power. Enter the +8.00 D on both
meridians of the front surface power cross. A spherical
surface always has the same power in every meridian.
Enter the back surface values on the second surface
power cross as shown in Figure 12-55.
Now add the 90-degree powers together and the 180degree powers together to get the total as again shown in
Figure 12-55.
To write the resultant lens formula in minus cylinder form,
the most plus meridian becomes the sphere component
(+2.00). The difference between the two meridians is l.00.
The prescription, written in minus cylinder form, becomes
+2.00 1.00 180.
Plus Cylinder Form

A minus cylinder form lens gets the cylinder power from
the back surface of the lens. A plus cylinder form lens
has the cylinder power difference on the front surface.
So a plus cylinder form lens may be constructed such
that the front surface is toric and the back surface spherical. A lens with the same power may be constructed in
plus cylinder form or minus cylinder form.
Example 12-14
Find the power of a lens having a toric front surface of F1 at
90 equal to +7.00 D and F1 at 180 equal to +8.00 D. The
power of the back surface is 6.00 D. Write the results in
plus cylinder form.
Solution
The data are entered on a set of power crosses shown in
Figure 12-56, and total power (FT) is calculated. Notice that
the power cross reects the same results as were found for
the minus cylinder lens of Figure 12-55, even though the
lens has a different form.
The difference between the two power meridians for the
total lens power is 1.00 D. However, if we are to write this
lens as a plus cylinder lens, we need to write the cylinder
power as +1.00 instead of 1.00. So which power on the
power cross is the sphere power? Is it the +1.00 D power
or the +2.00 D power?
Expressing the written lens power in plus cylinder form
means that the cylinder value is in addition to the value
of the sphere. The value of the sphere is therefore the least
plus (or most minus) of the two values. In Figure 12-56 this
is the +1.00 D. The second meridian is 1.00 D greater than
the sphere value, so the cylinder is +1.00 D.
By denition the axis of a cylinder is 90 degrees away from
the cylinder power meridian (i.e., in the sphere power meridian). In our example, the plus cylinder axis is at 90 degrees.
The lens prescription written in plus cylinder form will therefore be
+1.00 D sph in combination with +1.00 cyl 90
or
+1.00 +1.00 90.
CHA PTER 12
Front
+ 7.00 D
Back
- 6.00 D
+ 8.00 D
F1
299
Total
+ 1.00 D
- 6.00 D
+ 2.00 D
F2
FT
Figure 12-56. The spherocylinder lens shown here is in plus cylinder form. Notice that this
gure and Figure 12-55 have the same F T values despite differences in cylinder form.
Toric Transposition
It has been shown that it is possible to have a spherocylindrical lens of the same power expressed in at least two
different lens forms and written in two different ways,
either the plus or the minus cylinder form of prescription writing. Most logically one would assume that the
plus cylinder form of prescription writing would be used
exclusively for lenses with a toric front surface and the
minus cylinder form of prescription writing for lenses
with the toric surface on the back. This, however, is not
the case. Instead of indicating the location of the toric
surface for the prescribed lens, the written form usually
only indicates the type of lenses used during the examination process. In the past, optometrists wrote prescriptions in minus cylinder form, and ophthalmologists
wrote prescriptions in plus cylinder form. This is no
longer universally true. However, prescriptions of both
forms are commonly seen.
However, there is a high consistency in how spectacle
lenses are made. Almost every lens used for prescription
eyewear in the United States has the toric surface on the
back and is thus a minus cylinder form lens.
Because lens prescriptions may be written in either
plus or minus cylinder form, it is necessary to be able to
convert or transpose from one form to another. This
process is known as toric transposition.
Steps for transposing from one form to the other are
as follows:
1. Add the sphere and cylinder values to obtain the
new sphere value.
2. Change the sign of the cylinder (plus to minus or
minus to plus).
3. Change the axis by 90 degrees. (This can be done
by addition or subtraction since the end result is the
same. The answer for the axis, however, must be
from 1 to 180 degrees. An answer of 190 degrees,
for example, is not acceptable.)
Example 12-15
Crossed-Cylinder Form
Another possible abbreviated form of prescription
writing is the crossed-cylinder form. This form is never
used to write a prescription for spectacle lenses. However,
an understanding of this form of prescription writing
aids in a more complete understanding of lenses. The
crossed-cylinder form of prescription writing is also the
way that keratometer readings are written when measuring the front surface power of the cornea for contact lens
purposes.
To understand the crossed-cylinder form of prescription writing, think through the following:
If two spherical lenses are placed together, a
new sphere power results from the sum of the
two.
If a sphere and a cylinder are placed together, a
spherocylinder results.
If two cylinders are placed together with axes 90
degrees apart from one another, a sphere, a cylinder,
or a spherocylinder may result.
Suppose, for example, +1.00 180 and +2.00 90
lenses are placed together. These are both cylinders and
their axes are crossed in relationship to one another.
In abbreviated crossed-cylinder form this reads
+1.00 180
()
Transpose the written minus cylinder lens prescription of

+2.00 1.00 180 into plus cylinder form.
Solution
1. The sphere and cyl values are added: (+2.00) +
(1.00) = +1.00. The new sphere value is
+1.00 D.
2. Change the sign of the cyl. The new cyl becomes
+1.00 D.
3. Change the axis by 90 degrees. If 90 degrees is added
to 180 degrees, a value of 270 degrees is obtained. If
90 degrees is subtracted from 180 degrees a value of
90 degrees is obtained. It can be seen that a cylinder
axis actually runs through both 90 and 270. By
convention only values between 0 and 180 are used,
making 90 the appropriate value. The new cyl axis is
90.
4. The new written lens form is +1.00 +1.00 90.
+2.00 090
300
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
times the powers are referenced to their own meridians

instead. The +1.00 cylinder has power at or in the 90degree meridian. The +2.00 cylinder has power at or in
the 180-degree meridian. So the power could be written
as
+ 1.00
+1.00 @ 090/+2.00 @ 180

+ 2.00
This is spoken as plus one at ninety in combination

with plus two at one-eighty. This form is seen in contact
lens practice when reading or writing the keratometer
reading of the front surface of the cornea. Of course the
powers are considerably higher and might look something like this:
+42.50 @ 090/+43.75 @ 180
FT
Figure 12-57. Writing lens power in crossed-cylinder form is

easier when the cylinder components are visualized on a power
cross. In crossed-cylinder form, the prescription represented
would be +2.00 090/+1.00 180.
or
+1.00 180/+2.00 090
This would be spoken as plus one axis one-eighty in
combination with plus two axis ninety. On a power
cross this would appear as shown in Figure 12-57. Note
that the combination of these two crossed cylinders
results in the same total power as shown in Figures 12-55
and 12-56. Because all three of these lenses have the
same total power, these two crossed cylinders can be
written in crossed-cylinder form, plus cylinder form, or
minus cylinder form.
The simplest and most direct method of transposing
from plus or minus cylinder form into crossed-cylinder
form is to rst place the powers on a power cross. In that
form, the power observed for each major meridian is the
power of one of the two crossed cylinders. The location of the axis for each of these two cylinders is 90
degrees away from its meridian of power.
An Alternate Crossed-Cylinder Form
The normal way of writing a lens prescription in crossedcylinder form is done just like writing a plano cylinder.
When the +1.00 180 and +2.00 90 lenses were placed
together in the example just given, the crossed-cylinder
combination was written as
+1.00 180/+2.00 090
The powers were referenced to the axis meridians
because the lens was considered as if it was two plus
cylinders combined as was shown in Figure 12-57. Some-
The Spherical Equivalent

A spherocylinder lens will correct for astigmatism and
myopia or hyperopia. If it was necessary to correct a
nearsighted or farsighted person who also has astigmatism, but there were no cylinder lenses available, what
would be the best correction using only a sphere lens?
Looking back to Figure 12-43, C, we see how a spherocylinder lens has two focal lines. If only a sphere lens is
to be used, the best lens will be one that has a focal point
at a dioptric value that is halfway* between these two
focal lines. (The location that is halfway between the
two dioptric values of the spherocylinder lens is called
the circle of least confusion. The rays of light do not come
to a point focus, but instead form a circle at this location.) That compromise sphere lens is called the spherical
equivalent.
How to Find the Spherical Equivalent
To nd the spherical equivalent of a spherocylinder
lens:
1. Take half the value of the cylinder and
2. Add it to the sphere power.
In other words, as a formula the spherical equivalent
is
Sphere +
Cylinder
= Spherical Equivalent
2
*The halfway location is not at the physical halfway point between

the two focal lines. Instead it will be at a point that is based on the
dioptric value halfway in between. For example, a lens with a power
of +1.00 +2.00 x 180 has two focal linesone for the +1.00 D
power meridian, the other for the +3.00 D power meridian. These
lines are at 100 cm and 33.3 cm from the lens. The physical
halfway point would be 66.7 cm from the lens. However, the location
of the circle of least confusion is determined by the spherical
equivalent of the lens. The spherical equivalent is +2.00 D. The
focal point of +2.00 is at 50 cm, not 66.7 cm. Therefore the circle
of least confusion is at 50 cm.
CHA PTER 12
301
Example 12-16
Example 12-17
What is the spherical equivalent for this lens?
What is the spherical equivalent for a lens having a power

of 4.25 1.25 135?
+3.00 1.00 180

Solution
Using the formula for the spherical equivalent we have:
1.00
Spherical Equivalent = ( +3.00) +
2
= ( +3.00) + ( 0.50)
= +2.50 D
Solution
Again using the formula we nd the spherical equivalent
as:
1.25
2
= ( 4.25) + ( 0.625)
= 3.625 D
Spherical Equivalent = ( 4.25) +
Prociency Test
1. A ashlight is shone on a pond at an angle. The
angle of incidence of the beam is 40 degrees. Some
of the light is reected by the surface, and some is
refracted. To the nearest degree, what are the
angles of reection and refraction? (Water has a
refractive index of 4/3, or 1.33.)
a. angle of reection = 59 degrees; angle of
refraction = 40 degrees
b. angle of reection = 50 degrees; angle of
c. angle of reection = 40 degrees; angle of
d. angle of reection = 40 degrees; angle of
2. A scuba diver swimming underwater shines a
ashlight up out of the water (refractive index
of 4/3, or 1.33). The beam of light strikes the
surface at an angle of incidence of 37 degrees.
Is the beam bent toward or away from the normal
(perpendicular) to the surface? Just what is the
angle of refraction (to the nearest degree)?
a. away, 27 degrees
b. toward, 53 degrees
c. toward, 27 degrees
d. away, 53 degrees
3. A ray of light strikes a slab of clear plastic at an

angle of incidence of 8 degrees. The plastic has an
index of refraction of 1.5. If the plastic slab is 5 cm
thick with parallel sides, assuming the surrounding
medium is air, with what angle does the light leave
the plastic after passing through it?
a. 5.0 degrees
b. 5.3 degrees
c. 8.0 degrees
d. 12.0 degrees
4. A lens has a focal length of +66.67 cm. What is its
power?
a. +1.50 D
b. +3.00 D
c. +6.67 D
d. +0.02 D
5. If a lens has a power 7.12 D, what is its focal
length?
a. +13 cm
b. 0.1404 m
c. +14.04 cm
d. 5 in
6. A +2.50 D lens has a focal length of +40 cm. In
this particular instance, if the power of the lens is
doubled, the focal length:
a. is doubled.
b. is halved.
c. is quartered.
d. remains the same.
302
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
7. Light that enters a lens in parallel rays produces a

virtual image 0.50 m in front of the lens. What is
the power of the lens?
a. +0.50 D
b. 0.50 D
c. 2.00 D
d. +2.00 D
e. +5.00 D
8. A lens of refractive index 1.50 has a radius of
curvature of +8.00 cm. To the nearest 0.125 D,
what power does the lens surface have in air?
a. +0.50 D
b. +6.25 D
c. 0.62 D
d. 3.25 D
9. An object is located 15 cm from a 15.00 D lens.
How far from the lens is the image point located?
a. +l cm
b. 1.2 cm
c. +12 cm
d. 1 cm
e. 12.00 cm
10. A lens has a surface power in air of +3.50 D. If the
radius of curvature is 20 cm, what index of
refraction does the lens have?
a. 1.33
b. 1.50
c. 1.60
d. 1.70
e. 1.80
11. An object is positioned 50 cm in front of a 4.00 D
lens. How far from the lens will the image of this
object be?
a. +50 cm
b. 50 cm
c. 16.67 cm
d. 19.33 cm
12. A lens has +2.50 D of power and causes an image
to form at +33.33 cm. Where is the object point
located?
a. +2.00 m
b. 50 cm
c. 18 cm
d. +18 cm
13. A cylinder lens has a power of +2.00 D and an axis
orientation of 25 degrees. Where is the meridian
of minimum power?
a. 25 degrees
b. 115 degrees
c. 70 degrees
d. 160 degrees
14. For a plano cylinder, light passes through the

__________ meridian undeviated.
a. power
b. axis
c. major
d. minor
15. An object is situated at normal reading distance
(i.e., 40 cm away from the lens.) If this lens has a
power of 2.25 D, with what vergence will the
light leave the lens?
a. +2.25 D
b. 0.25 D
c. +0.25 D
d. 4.75 D
16. If an object is 33.33 cm from a +4.50 D lens,
where will the light come to a focus?
a. 66.67 cm to the right of the lens
b. 13.33 cm to the right of the lens
c. 33.33 cm to the right of the lens
d. 33.33 cm to the left of the lens
17. An image forms 50 cm to the right of a +10.00 D
lens. Where was the object?
a. 8.33 cm from the lens
b. +8.33 cm from the lens
c. 12.5 cm from the lens
d. 10 cm from the lens
e. At the plane of the lens
18. A lens surface has a power of 5.00 D in air. What
power does the lens surface have in water? (Index
of lens = 1.523; index of water = 1.333.)
a. 1.81 D
b. l.94 D
c. +1.94 D
d. 0.02 D
19. A lens has a refractive index of 1.523. If the front
surface has a radius of curvature of 22 cm, what is
the Curvature of the surface?
a. 2.38 m1
b. 4.55 m1
c. 0.02 m1
d. 0.05 m1
20. F1 of a lens is +3.25 D, and F2 is +3.25 D. The lens
may be said to be:
a. biconvex.
b. meniscus.
c. equiconvex.
d. both a and c.
e. both b and c.
21. If F1 = +8.00 D and F2 = 8.00 D, the lens is:
a. equiconvex.
b. equiconcave.
c. planoconvex.
d. biconvex.
e. meniscus.
CHA PTER 12
22. A 2.00 D thin lens having a front surface power

equal to +6.00 D could be described as:
a. equiconcave.
b. biconvex.
c. meniscus.
d. planoconcave.
e. planoconvex.
23. In the transposition process, which of the
following is an incorrect step?
a. Subtract the sphere from the cylinder value to
obtain the new sphere value.
b. Change the sign of the cylinder (plus to minus,
minus to plus).
c. Change the axis by 90 degrees.
d. None of the above.
e. Two of the choices in a, b, and c are incorrect
steps.
24. Transpose the following prescriptions as indicated:
a. +3.50 1.25 012 into plus cylinder form.
b. 0.50 +1.00 075 into minus cylinder form.
c. 0.50 +1.00 075 into crossed-cylinder form.
25. A power cross has a power of 4.00 D in the 90degree meridian and 1.00 D in the 180-degree
meridian. This lens can be written in prescription
form as:
a. 4.00 1.00 180.
b. 3.00 l.00 090.
c. 4.00 3.00 080.
d. 1.00 3.00 180.
26. The prescription pl 3.00 010 can also be written
as:
a. pl +3.00 100.
b. +3.00 3.00 100.
c. 3.00 +3.00 100.
d. +3.00 10/3.00 100.
e. None of the above.
303
27. Transpose the following Rx to two other forms:

+l.25 165/3.00 075.
28. Transpose the following Rx to two other forms:
+0.75 1.25 013.
29. What is the spherical equivalent for a
spherocylinder lens with a power of 6.00 1.00
180?
a. 5.50 D
b. 6.50 D
c. 6.00 D
d. 7.00 D
e. 7.50 D
Challenge Question
30. Two thin lenses in air are separated by a distance
of 80 cm. Both are +5.00 D in power. An image
point formed by the rst lens becomes the object
point for the second. If an object is 40 cm from
the rst lens, where will the image point for the
second lens be?
a. +40 cm to the right of the second lens
b. +13.33 cm to the right of the second lens
c. 66.67 cm to the left of the second lens
d. +28.57 cm to the right of the second lens
C H A P T E R 13
Lens Curvature and Thickness
major factor in how a lens will perform depends

upon how the lens is shaped. Shape is de ned by
how the lens is curved, starting with the base
curve. The chapter begins by looking at how lenses are
shaped, and how that shape, or curvature, is measured.
Lens curvature and lens thickness are related. To know
how a lens with a given prescription will look in a frame,
an understanding of lens thickness is needed. The latter
part of the chapter explains how lens thickness can be
predicted from lens power.
CATEGORIES OF OPHTHALMIC LENSES

Ophthalmic lenses may be divided into the following
three broad categories:
Single vision lenses
Segmented multifocal lenses
Progressive addition lenses
Single Vision Lenses

Single vision lenses are the most basic type of lens. These
lenses have the same power over the entire surface of the
lens. Single vision lenses are used when the same optical
power is needed for both distance and near vision. They
are also used when a person requires no prescription for
distance, but needs reading glasses. Whenever possible
single vision lenses are edged from lenses kept in stock
at the laboratory. Because these lenses are nished optically to the correct power on both the front and back
surfaces, they are called nished lenses. Finished lenses are
also referred to as uncuts because they have not yet been
cut to the correct shape and size (Figure 13-1, A).
When single vision lenses are in uncut form and do not
require that a surface power be ground onto the lens,
they are called stock single vision lenses.
A stock single vision uncut lens is less expensive than
a custom surfaced lens. However, if the stock lens is too
small for the frame, then a stock single vision lens will
not work. Instead the lens must be produced in the surfacing section of the optical laboratory. The surfacing
laboratory puts surface power on the lens. They start
with a lens having only one surface that is ready to use,
or nished. This is usually the front surface. The laboratory must grind and polish the second surface to the
required power. A lens with only one of the two surfaces
304
nished is called a seminished lens because it is only half

nished. The pre x semi- means half (Figure 13-1, B).
Finished uncut and semi nished lenses have not
been edged. Before a lens has been edged, it is called a
lens blank.
Segmented Multifocal Lenses

Segmented multifocal lenses have more than one power.
Each power is located in a distinct area of the lens bordered clearly by a visible demarcation line. When two
different areas exist, the lens is called a bifocal (Figure
13-2, A). When three areas exist, the lens is called a trifocal * (Figure 13-2, B).
Multifocal lenses may be created in one of several
ways. Here are the two ways most often used:
1. Multifocals may be individually ground and
polished to power by a surfacing laboratory from a
semi nished lens blank.
2. Multifocals may be individually cast molded to the
prescribed power. Cast molding creates the lens
from a liquid resin material. It is the same process
used to make both plastic semi nished lenses and
stock single vision plastic lenses. Cast molding
multifocal lenses to power skips the semi nished
lens stage. Cast molding to power may be done by a
larger wholesale facility or, if equipment is available,
on a small scale in conjunction with a nishing
laboratory.
Progressive Addition Lenses

Progressive addition lenses are used as an alternative to
a segmented multifocal lens. They have distance power
in the upper half of the lens. Lens power gradually
increases as the wearer looks down and inward to view
near objects.
With exception of some high-end product, progressive addition lenses are prepared for the nishing laboratory in the same way as segmented multifocal lenses.
*There are a few exceptions. For example, a lens with a near section
at the bottom and a second near section at the top will have three
sections, but is a double segment occupational lens and not a
trifocal.
CH A P TER 13
Finished
surfaces
Finished
surface
Not yet
finished
Finished lens
(an uncut)
305
Figure 13-2. When a lens has a different power for near vision
than distance vision, the lens area is divided between distance
and near powers. A, A segment area for near vision is placed
within the distance power lens. A lens with two different
powers is a bifocal lens. B, Two segment areas are included:
one for intermediate viewing and one for near viewing. This
type of lens is a trifocal lens. Both lenses are at-top-style
multifocals.
Semifinished
blank
Figure 13-1. A, A nished lens is also referred to as an uncut.

Most single vision lenses are premanufactured to power as
nished lenses and are also referred to as stock single vision
lenses. B, Most any type of lens of any material may be made
beginning with a semi nished lens.
Front
+ 6.00 D
Base curve
Back
5.00 D
Sphere
curve
Figure 13-3. The base curve of a plus cylinder

form single vision lens is the weaker curve on the
front surface.
+ 8.00 D
Cross curve
F1
BASE CURVES
Single Vision Lens Curves
In constructing an ophthalmic lens, one of the lens
curves of one surface becomes the basis from which the
others are determined. This beginning curve, on which
the lens power is based, is called the base curve. In single
vision prescription ophthalmic lenses, the base curve is
always found on the front surface.
For spherical lenses: In the case of spherical lenses,
the front sphere curve is the base curve.
For plus cylinder form spherocylinder lenses: If the
lens is in plus cylinder form, there are two curves on
the front. The base curve is the weaker, or atter, of
the two curves. The other curve becomes the cross
curve (Figure 13-3). The back surface is quite
naturally referred to as the sphere curve since it is
spherical.
For minus cylinder form spherocylinder lenses: If
the lens is in minus cylinder form, the front
spherical curve is the base curve. The weaker back-
5.00 D
F2
surface curve is known as the toric base curve; the

stronger back-surface curve is known as the cross
curve (Figure 13-4). Optical laboratories refer to the
toric base curve of a minus cylinder form lens as the
back base curve. (On a plus cylinder form lens the
base curve and toric base curve are the same
curve.)
Example 13-1
If a lens has a power of +3.00 2.00 180 and is to be
ground in plus cylinder form, what front and back curves
would be used if a base curve of +6.00 D were chosen?
Solution
The way to solve this is summarized in Box 13-1. We will
solve the problem using these steps for plus cylinder form
lenses.
1. A series of power crosses should be drawn. The rst
power cross is for the front surface, the second power
cross for the back surface, and the third power cross for
306
Ophthalmic Lenses
Front
+ 6.00 D
PA R T T WO
Back
8.00 D
Cross curve
Base
curve
+ 6.00 D
F1
6.00 D
Toric base curve
Figure 13-4. For a minus cylinder

form single vision lens, the base curve
is the front sphere curve.
F2
BOX 13-1
How to Find Lens Curves if Lens Power and Base
Curve Are Known
FINDING LENS CURVES IN PLUS CYLINDER FORM
1. Make front surface, back surface, and total lens
power crosses.
2. Put the total lens power on the power cross.
3. Locate the base curve meridian. (Look on the F T
power cross. Find the least plus meridian. If the front
surface has plus power, this least plus meridian will
correspond to the base curve meridian on the front
surface.)
4. Find the back curve power for that same meridian.
5. The other back surface meridian will be the same
power.
6. Find the front cross curve power from the total power
and the back surface power. (F1 + F2 = F T)
7. Check for cylinder accuracy on the front surface to
be sure you chose the correct base curve meridian.
FINDING LENS CURVES IN MINUS CYLINDER FORM
1. Make front surface, back surface, and total lens
power crosses.
2. Put the total lens power on the power cross.
3. Put the base curve on the front surface power cross.
4. Algebraically nd the back surface curves.
curves. Therefore it corresponds to the meridian of least

plus power. In the example, we look at the powers on the
last power cross and nd that the least plus is in the 90degree meridian. Therefore +6.00 D is entered on the F1
power cross at 90, as shown in Figure 13-5, A.
4. Now both F1 at 180 and F2 may be calculated by simple
algebra. If F1 at 90 is +6.00 D and F T at 90 is +l.00 D,
then
F1(90) + F2(90) = FT(90)
In this example
+6.00 D + F2(90) = +1.00 D
F2(90) = +1.00 D 6.00 D = 5.00 D
The value 5.00 D may now be entered on the power cross
at F2(90) .
5. Since F2 is spherical, not only is F2(90) 5.00 D in power,
so is F2(180) .
6. This leaves only the cross curve as an unknown. This
can be solved in either of two ways. The rst is to use
the system:
F1(180) + F2(180) = F T(180)
which gives
(F1(180)) + (5.00D) = (+3.00)
the total lens power. All initially given data should be

entered on the power crosses. Here is how it is done.
2. The total lens power can be placed on the last of the
three power crosses. This is the F T or total lens power
cross shown in Figure 13-5, A. Here the sphere power
corresponds to the 180-degree axis meridian since
there is no cylinder power in the cylinder axis meridian.
When writing spherocylinder lens power on a power
cross, enter the sphere power on the axis meridian.
Then add the cylinder power to the sphere. In this case
we add a 2.00 to a +3.00 to get +1.00.
3. Now we can enter the base curve on the front surface.
But because the cylinder power is on the front, on which
meridian will the +6.00 D curve be found? The base
curve is, by denition, the weaker of the two front
Transposed this is the same as:

(F1(180)) = (+3.00D) (5.00D)
= (+3.00D) + (5.00D)
= +8.00D
7. We can check our work by using a second method of
solving this problem. We see that the power of the
cylinder is 2 D. Knowing this and realizing that the
entire cylinder is on the front curve, it becomes
apparent that the cross curve must be 2.00 D stronger
than +6.00 D, which results in +8.00 D. Since this is
the same value we found in step 6, the answer checks.
CH A P TER 13
Front
+ 6.00 D
Figure 13-5. For plus cylinder form lenses,

to nd the unknown curves, rst enter the
known values (A). The base curve can only
go on the 90-degree meridian for this lens,
because the weaker power is in the 90degree meridian. The remaining curves (B)
may be found by algebraic additions. The
base curve (and toric base curve) is
+6.00 D. The cross curve is +8.00 D. The
sphere curve is 5.00 D.
Back
Total
+ 1.00 D
+ 3.00 D
F1
F2
FT
+ 6.00 D
5.00 D
+ 1.00 D
+ 8.00 D
5.00 D
FT
+ 5.00
1.50
+ 5.00
+ 3.00 D
F2
F1
Figure 13-6. For minus cylinder form

lenses, enter the known values on the power
crosses rst (A). Then calculate the unknown
values (B). The base curve (and sphere
curve) is +5.00 D. The toric base curve
(sometimes called the back base) is
6.50 D. The cross curve is 7.50 D.
307
2.50
F1
F2
FT
+ 5.00
6.50
1.50
+ 5.00
F1
Example 13-2
If a lens has a power of 1.50 1.00 090 and is to be
ground in minus cylinder form, what front and back curves
would be used if a base curve of +5.00 D were chosen?
Solution
The way to solve this minus cylinder base curve problem is
also summarized in Box 13-1 and will be solved using these
steps for minus cylinder form lenses.
1. The three power crosses are drawn.
2. The sphere power is written on the 90-degree cylinder
axis meridian of the last power cross as 1.50 D. The
power in the 180-degree meridian is:
7.50
2.50
F2
FT
because the lens is a minus cylinder form lens and the

front curve is spherical, having the same power in all
meridians (Figure 13-6).
4. Lastly, we nd the second surface powers algebraically.
For the 90-degree meridian this is:
(+5.00) + (F2(90)) = (1.50)
(F2(90)) = (1.50) (+5.00)
(F2(90)) = 6.50 D
For the 180-degree meridian we nd
(+5.00) + (F2(180)) = (2.50)
(F2(90)) = (2.50) (+5.00)
(1.50) + (1.00) = (2.50)

3. The base curve is +5.00 D and is entered on both
curves of the front surface power cross. This is
(F2(90)) = 7.50 D
The toric base curve is the weaker of the two curves. The
weaker of the two curves is the 6.50 D curve in the
308
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
The lens measure does not have a scale showing a

direct measure of the sag, but rather shows dioptric value
for the surface power. This power is based on an assumed
index of refraction of 1.53. (Most tools found in a U.S.
optical laboratory are based on an assumed index of 1.53.)
The power shown on the lens measure is obtained by
using the sagittal depth of the surface.
90-degree meridian. The cross curve is across from the

base curve. It is the 7.50 D curve in the 180-degree
meridian.
Multifocal Lens Base Curves

The base curve of a segmented multifocal lens is always
on the same side of the lens as the segment. If the bifocal
or trifocal segment is on the front, so is the base curve.
If on the back, the base curve will be on the back as well,
contrary to single vision lenses. Because a toric surface
will not be ground on the same side as the multifocal
seg, the base curve is always a sphere curve.
The Sagittal Depth Formula

Steps for nding the dioptric value for a lens surface
begin with a geometric construction, as shown in Figure
13-9. We need to know r, the radius of the circle, to nd
the front or back surface powers of a lens (F1 or F2 ).
From the geometry of right triangles, the triangle
FGC has a relationship between its three sides that,
MEASUREMENT OF LENS CURVATURE

When ordering a replacement lens or supplying the
wearer with a duplicate second pair of glasses some time
after the initial order, one factor in wearer acceptance of
the new glasses is consistent duplication of base curves.
A change in base curve will change the way peripherally
viewed objects are perceived, even though lens power
may be identical. To measure a preexisting lens curve for
accurate duplication or verication, a lens measure (sometimes referred to as a lens clock), is used (Figure 13-7).
The Lens Measure

The lens measure operates on the principle of the sagittal
depth (sag) formula. The sagittal depth, or sag, is the
height or depth of a given segment of a circle (Figure
13-8). If both the sag of a lens surface and the index of
refraction of the lens material are known, the surface
power may be calculated.
The lens measure has three legs, or points of contact
with the lens surface. The outer two are stationary, and
the center contact point moves in and out. The vertical
difference between the positions of the two outer contact
points in reference to the position of the center contact
point is the sag for the arc of a circle. This circle can be
thought of as having a chord, the length of which is the
distance between the outer contact points of the lens
measure (Figure 13-9).
SAG.
Figure 13-7. A lens measure may use direct plus and minus
scales as shown here, or an outer minus scale for concave surfaces and an inner plus scale for convex surfaces.
SAG.
Figure 13-8. The sagittal depth or

height of the chord of a circle is shown
as it applies to lens surface measurements. The chord of the circle is represented by lines DF.
CH A P TER 13
309
Once r is determined using the sag formula, then the

lens makers formula for surface power may be used to
solve for F1 or F2 in air.
E
s
F1 =
n n 1 m(lens)
=
r2
r2
F2 =
r
rs
1
n n m(lens)
=
r1
r1
Figure 13-9. A lens clock works by mechanically determining

the sagittal depth of a chord, the length of which is equal to
the distance between the outer contact points of the lens
clock.
because of the Pythagorean theorem, can be written

as:
A lens measure is calibrated for an index of 1.530,

which becomes the n of the lens value in the above
formulas. (Commonly used crown glass material has an
index of 1.523. When used on crown glass lenses with
low surface powers, the lens measure still gives fairly
accurate surface power results. However, most lenses
are plastic and have a variety of different refractive
indices.)
So
y2 + r 2 2rs + s2 = r 2
By transposition:
1.530 1
r1
F2 =
1 1.530
r2
and
y2 + (r s) 2 = r 2
This is the same as:
F1 =
For now we will ignore the lens measure and its

assumed 1.53 index, and just use sagittal depth and the
lens makers formula to nd lens surface power.
Example 13-3
y2 + s2 = r 2 r 2 + 2rs
And again by transposition:

y 2 + s2
=r
2s
A certain lens of index 1.523 has a convex spherical front

surface. The sag of the front surface is 1 mm for a chord
whose length is 20 mm. What is the power of the front
surface?
Solution
Using the sag formula,
and
r=
r=
y 2 s2
+
2s 2s
y=
giving one form of an equation referred to as the sagittal

depth or sag formula*
y2 s
r=
+
2s 2
*The more commonly seen form of the sag formula is s = r (r 2 y 2 ),

which nds the sagittal depth when radius and chord semidiameter
are known. This is exactly the same equation, but in transposed
form. This transposed form of the equation is introduced later in
the chapter when discussing lens thickness.
y2 s
+
2s 2
chord length 20 mm
=
= 10 mm
2
2
s = 1 mm
Since
r=
y2 s
+
2s 2
We can use this equation and nd that

r=
102 1 100 1
+ =
+
2(1) 2
2
2
310
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
and
r = 50.5 mm = 0.0505 m
Therefore
1.523 1
r1
0.523
=
0.0505
= 10.36 D
F1 =
The front surface power of the lens is +10.36 D.
Using the Lens Measure to Find the Nominal

Power of a Lens
Because it is possible to measure lens surface values
directly for materials at or near an index of 1.53 using a
lens measure, it is also possible to use a lens measure for
nding the nominal or approximate power of such lenses.
Examples of lenses with an index of 1.53 would be the
plastic materials Spectralite and Trivex. Crown glass has
an index of index 1.523. (Remember, the nominal power
of a lens is the sum of the front and back surface powers.
Nominal lens power ignores the effect lens thickness
may have on lens power.)
For example, if a spherical lens has a measured front
curve (F1) of +6.00 D and a measured back curve (F2) of
4.00 D, then the nominal power of the lens will be
+2.00 D.
Not all lenses are spherical. This makes it necessary
to check more than one lens surface meridian for differences in power. To do this, hold the lens measure such
that the center contact point of the lens measure is at the
center of the lens and is perpendicular to the lens surface
(Figure 13-10). The lens measure is rotated around this
center contact point with all three contact points against
the lens.* If the indicator on the lens measure dial remains
stationary, the surface is spherical. The spherical surface
value is as shown on the lens measure. If the indicator
shows a changing value, the surface is toric, with two
separate curves. The values of these curves are indicated
when the lens measure shows its maximum and minimum
values. The orientation of the three contact points on
the lens at maximum and minimum readings corresponds to the major meridians of lens power.
Example 13-4
When rotating the lens measure on the front surface of
a crown glass lens, it is found that all meridians read
+6.50 D. On the back surface, if the three contact points
are horizontally aligned exactly along the 180-degree meridian, a maximum value of 7.50 D is found. When the three
contact points are oriented in the vertical (90-degree) meridian, a minimum value of 6.00 D is found. What is the
*If there is a chance that the lens or lens surface may be scratched
by rotating the lens measure on the surface of the lens, alternately
lift and reposition the lens measure instead.
Figure 13-10. A lens measure is held perpendicular to the lens

surface with the center contact point at the optical center.
Tilting of the lens measure results in a variation in the measured power.
nominal power of the lens? Is the lens made in plus cylinder
form or minus cylinder form?
Solution
The lens measure has found the major meridians of the
lens. The values read may be transferred directly to power
crosses for calculation of the total nominal lens power
(Figure 13-11).
Using methods previously discussed, the total lens power
could be written in one of three possible forms:
1. +0.50 1.50 090
2. 1.00 + 1.50 180
3. +0.50 180 / 1.00 090
Because the toric surface is the back surface, the lens is
minus cylinder in form.
Use of the Lens Measure With Multifocals

When the lens measure is used on a segmented multifocal lens, positioning of the contact points depends on
lens construction. Multifocals may be fused or one
piece.
The fused multifocal segment uses glass of a different
refractive index from that in the rest of the lens. The
junction between distance and near portions is visible,
but cannot be felt since the glass segment is fused into
the lens such that there is no change in lens surface
curvature. A lens measure may therefore be used normally on the lens surface. Its reading will indicate only
the surface power for the main lens. It does not read
segment power.
A one-piece multifocal lens construction uses the same
lens material for distance and near portions. Power differences between distance and near portions are brought
about by a change in lens curvature. One-piece bifocals
may be identied by either a ledge or by a change in the
surface curve. The change may be felt by rubbing the
CH A P TER 13
Front
+ 6.50
Figure 13-11. Lens clock readings may be transferred directly to power crosses for lens power
calculation.
F1
nger over the juncture. In this case to determine lens

surface power for the main lens accurately, none of the
three contact points must rest on the segment portion.
To measure a one-piece bifocal, the lens measure is
placed on the lens with all three contact points horizontally positioned in the center of the lens and above the
multifocal line.
Why Measured Base Curves Do Not Always

Come Out As Expected
When using a lens clock to measure the base curve of a
lens, the values measured do not always come out the
same as the manufacturers stated value. A seminished
glass lens may arrive at the optical laboratory with a base
curve of +8.25 D marked on the box. But when the front
lens surface is measured, it may be slightly less than
+8.25 D. Or a plastic lens could be marked as having a
base curve of +10.25 D, but measure as +10.50 D. Some
assume that the lens measure is inaccurate; others assume
that variations are due to differences in the index of
refraction of the lens and the lens measure scale. Actually, neither assumption is correct.
The real reason for the mismatch stems from the fact
that there are several different front-surface lens curve
terms used to describe the same lens surface curve.
These terms are:
1. The nominal base curve
2. The true base curve (or so-called true power)
3. The refractive power
The Nominal Base Curve
The nominal base curve was originally established as a
reference number for the convenience of the optical
laboratory. When low-powered crown glass lenses had
their surfaces ground to power without the help of computerized lens surfacing programs, the correct back
curve was found by subtracting the front surface from
the needed lens power. For example, if the lens is supposed to have a power of +1.25 D and the base curve
of the lens is +6.50, then the back surface curve
should be:
+1.25 6.50 = 5.25 D
As the plus power of the lens increases, however, so
does its thickness. Because of increased thickness, simple
Back
6.00
+ 6.50
311
Total
+ 0.50
7.50
F2
1.00
FT
subtraction will not work. To make it possible for laboratory personnel to continue using the same simple calculation, lens manufacturers changed the front curve of the
lens slightly to compensate for the effect of increasing
thickness; but they left the listed base curve as the same
number. When this is done, the value of the base curve
is not the real power of the surface. Thus it is called the
nominal base curve. (This is not to be confused with
nominal lens power, which is the sum of the rst and
second surface powers.)
With plastic lenses, the base curves vary from their
marked values for a different reason. Plastic lenses start
out as liquid resin and are molded. When their surfaces
cure during manufacture, once removed from the mold,
the nal curve of the surface may vary from the curve
of the mold. Initially, it was difcult to predict the exact
nal lens curve value. Although the nal curve of the
lens after being removed from the mold is now predictable, the difference between marked surface power (the
nominal base curve) of a plastic lens and measured
surface power remains.
True Base Curve (True Power)
The so-called true base curve of a lens is the value of the
front surface as measured using a lens measure. Synonyms for true base curve are true power and actual
power. This lens clock used to measure surface curvature
is calibrated for an index of 1.53. Lenses at or close to
this refractive index are Spectralite and Trivex plastic
at 1.53, and crown glass, having an index of 1.523. The
true base curve is the 1.53 indexed value. Many, or perhaps
even most, lenses are not at all close to an index of 1.53.
Because of differences in refractive indices, it is easy to
see that the true base curve measured with a lens clock
is unlikely to be the refractive power of the lens
surface.
The Refractive Power of the Lens Surface
The refractive power controls what happens to light at the
surface of the lens. It will be recalled that surface power
is dependent on three factors. These are:
1. The refractive index of the lens surface
2. The refractive index of the media surrounding
the lens
3. The radius of curvature of the lens surface
312
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
For the front surface of the lens this refractive power

is found using the lens makers formula:
F1 =
n n
r1
1.498 1
=
0.0883
= 5.64 D
F1(CR 39) =
n n
r1
As previously stated, lens clocks are calibrated for lens

material having a refractive index of 1.53. If a lens made
from material of a different refractive index is used, compensation must be made so that surface refractive power
can be found using a lens clock.
Finding the Refractive Power of a Lens Surface
Using a Lens Measure
To nd the refractive power of a lens surface using a lens
clock, the true power reading from the lens clock must
be converted to refractive power. This is done with the
help of the lens makers formula shown above.
When using the lens clock, we are indirectly determining the radius of curvature of the surface in question, regardless of its refractive index.
The front surface refractive power for the CR-39 lens is

+5.64 D. Because the lens has a lower refractive index, the
lens surface does not have as much refractive power as
shown by the lens clock.
Using a Conversion Factor

It is possible to reduce the process of converting from
lens clock readings to surface refractive power by using
a formula-generated conversion factor. This is done as
follows:
If, for the lens measure,
F(lens measure) =
then
r=
Example 13-5
The front surface of a lens is measured with a lens clock.
The lens clock shows a value of +6.00 D based on an
assumed index of 1.530. What is the radius of curvature of
the lens surface?
Solution
The information given allows all terms of the lens makers
formula to be lled in except r1 .
F1 =
+6.00 =
Therefore,
1.53 1
r1 =
+6.00
0.53
=
+6.00
= 0.0883
F(new material) =
Suppose that instead of having an index 1.530, the above

lens material is CR-39 plastic with an index of 1.498. What
front surface refractive power does this lens have?
Solution
Again the basic surface power equation may be used and
the known values substituted to nd the unknown value for
F1(CR-39) .
n 1
r
then
r=
n 1
F(nm)
Since both equations are referring to the same lens

surface, then both r values are the same. As a result we
can combine the two equations, giving the following:
0.53 n 1
=
F(lm)
F(nm)
Transposing gives the refractive power for the new
material.
The lens surface has a radius of curvature of 0.0883 m.
Example 13-6
0.53
F(lm)
and if, for the surface of different index material
n n
r1
1.53 1
r1
1.53 1
r
F(nm) =
(n 1) F(lm)
0.53
This means that for any given lens material, we can

substitute the refractive index of the new material for n
into the formula and obtain a conversion factor.
Example 13-7
What is the conversion factor for converting the lens measure
reading to refractive power for a lens surface made from
1.586 polycarbonate material?
CH A P TER 13
Solution
Substituting 1.586 into the formula for n results in the
following:
F(nm) =
=
=
(n 1) F(lm)
0.53
(1.586 1) F(lm)
0.53
(0.586) F(lm)
0.53
= (1.106) F(lm)
The conversion factor is 1.106.
Example 13-8
313
The conversion factor is 1.245.

Applying the conversion factor to the rst surface we nd:
F(nm) = (1.245) ( +2.00)
= +2.49 D
Applying the conversion factor to the back surface in the
90-degree meridian results in:
F(nm) = (1.245) ( 6.87)
= 8.55 D
and in the 180-degree meridian we get:
F(nm) = (1.245) ( 6.00)
= 7.47 D
Adding front and back surface powers together gives:
Use the conversion factor for polycarbonate to nd the

surface refractive power for the front surface of a polycarbonate lens. The lens clock measures a true power of
+8.12 D for the lens.
FNo min al = F1 + F2
F90 = ( +2.49) + ( 8.55) = 6.06 D
F180 = ( +2.49) + ( 7.47) = 4.98 D
Solution
We use the conversion formula with the 1.106 conversion
factor to nd:
This is shown in Figure 13-12. Rounding to more realistic

values gives 6.00 D in the 90 and 5.00 D in the 180. In
minus cylinder form, the lens power is written as
F(nm) = (1.106) F(lm)

= (1.106)(8.12)
= +8.98 D
The surface of the lens is +8.98 D or, if rounded, is +9.00
D of refractive power.
Using the Lens Measure to Find Lens Power for

Lenses of Different Refractive Indices
If it is possible to use the lens measure to nd front
surface refractive power, it is also possible to measure
both front and back surfaces in an attempt to nd a
nominal lens power. It should be noted that for a thick
lens, the lens power found may still not be exact. Remember, the lens power obtained by adding front and back
surfaces is called the nominal power of the lens and
should not be confused with the nominal base curve.
Example 13-9
A lens clock is used on the front and back surfaces of a
lens. The front surface value found is +2.00 D. The back
surface measures 6.87 D in the 90-degree meridian and
6.00 D in the 180-degree meridian. The lens has an index
of refraction of 1.66. What is the power of the lens expressed
in minus cylinder form?
Solution
To answer the question, we rst need a conversion factor.
F(nm) =
=
(n 1) F(lm)
0.53
(1.66 1) F(lm)
0.53
= (1.245) F(lm)
5.00 1.00 180.
The Compensated Power Method

It is possible to nd the power of the lens by adding front
and back surface lens-clock-measured values before multiplying by the conversion factor. This will save a step
and give the same results.
In the previous example, adding together front and
back surface lens measure values gives:
FNo min al = F1 + F2
F90 = ( +2.00 ) + ( 6.87) = 4.87 D
F180 = ( +2.00 ) + ( 6.00 ) = 4.00 D
These two values are called compensated powers.* Multiplying the compensated powers (4.87 D and 4.00 D)
by the 1.245 conversion factor gives 6.06 D and
4.98 D in the 90- and 180-degree meridians, respectively. These are the same values as found by the rst
method. The logic of the process is shown by noticing
the arrows drawn in Figure 13-12.
Using the Lens Measure on Plastic Surfaces
It should be mentioned that when a lens measure is being
used on a plastic lens, care should be taken to prevent
*Before computer software programs became readily available, the

optical laboratory used the compensated power concept to determine the back surface powers needed to surface minus lenses.
The ordered back vertex power was converted into a 1.53-based
compensated power. Then the correct 1.53-indexed surfacing
tools were found by subtracting the 1.53-referenced front-surface
power from the compensated power.
314
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Front
+ 2.00 D
Lens
measure
+ 2.00 D
Back
6.87 D
6.00 D
FT
+ 2.49 D
+ 2.49 D
High index
lens (1.66)
4.00 D
F2
F1
Total
4.87 D
8.55 D
7.47 D
F1
F2
6.06 D
4.98 D
=
FT
Figure 13-12. A lens measure is used on a lens having an index of refraction of 1.66. The lens
measure readings for the front and back surfaces are entered on the rst and second power
crosses (A). The actual lens power may be found in one of two ways. The rst way is to correct
both front and back surface powers for refractive index and then add them together. This is
shown in the gure by converting the numbers for the front and back surfaces (A) and entering
them on the power crosses directly below (B). Then the new front and back surface powers
(B) are added together and entered on the F T power cross (B). The second, easier way to nd
actual lens power is to rst add the original lens measure readings for the front and back surfaces together. This total is shown as the third F T power cross (A). Then these values are
corrected for index of refraction. The results are entered directly on the third F T power cross
(B).
scratching the surface. Instead of simply twisting the

lens measure with the contact points directly on the lens
surface, lift the lens measure and place in a new location.
Turning the lens measure and dragging the contact
points over the surface may damage the surface material.
Lens measures are designed with rounded points to
reduce this possibility, but care should nonetheless be
taken during the measuring process.
When to Specify Base Curve1

There are certain situations where base curve should be
specied when ordering a prescription. These are:
When replacing one lens in a pair: Base curve
choices are made as a pair. When only one lens is
ordered, the laboratory will not know what the other
lens is if the old lenses do not accompany the order.
And even if they do accompany the order, they
might not be checked.
When ordering an identically powered second pair:
Base curve should also be specied when ordering
an identically powered second pair of glasses. This
second pair of glasses will be worn interchangeably
with the rst pair. The curve of a lens affects how
shapes and straight lines appear. Two pair of glasses
made using different base curves will cause shapes to
distort differently. Some individuals are more
sensitive to this than others. To prevent the
possibility of difculty when changing back and

forth with different pairs of glasses, the safest policy
is to keep the base curve powers of the two lens
pairs as close to one another as possible.
When specifying a certain base curve, remember that
semi nished lenses come in only so many base curves.
Ordering a +8.00 base curve may result in one that is
close, but not exactly +8.00. ANSI Z80.1 Prescription
Standards allow a base curve tolerance of 0.75 D. To
help in getting a lens with the exact same base curve, try
ordering from the same optical laboratory that was used
for the rst pair. The brand of lenses they use is more
likely to allow an exact match.
When Not to Specify Base Curve

There are some situations where a base curve should not
be specied so that the laboratory can pick the best base
curve for the prescription ordered.
Do not insist on matching the base curve of the new
glasses to the wearers previous lenses. Prescriptions
change. And as the power of the lens changes, to
prevent unwanted lens aberrations, the power of the
base curve should be expected to change too. A base
curve should not be expected to perpetually be the
same for the life of the wearer.
Do not request a atter base curve to get a thinner,
better-looking lens. Flattening a base curve will
CH A P TER 13
often make a plus lens look much better. It will

usually reduce magnication, decrease thickness,
and even reduce the weight a bit. However, there
will be an increase in unwanted aberration in the
periphery of the lens because of using a base curve
that is not correct for the power of the lens.
Do not change the base curve to solve ghost-image
internal lens reection problems. Before
antireection coating, the common solution for
getting rid of ghost images was to change the base
curve. Changing the base curve will shift the size
and location of those ghost images, but will not drop
them out like an antireection coating will. Only
use a base curve change to help with ghost images if
an antireection coating is not an option.
Do not automatically steepen the base curve for
people with long eyelashes. Try to solve the problem
of lashes touching the lens with a good frame
selection. It is true that steepening the base curve by
2 D will give about 1.2 mm of extra lash clearance.
But it will mean that optimal optics from a good
base curve selection will be lacking.
ADDING CYLINDERS
Lenses are able to be added together. This is done routinely during the eye examination. Small spherically
powered lenses are added to large spherically powered
lenses. For example,
(+3.00 D sphere) + (+0.25 D sphere)
= +3.25 D sphere.
Sphere lenses are added to cylinder lenses, resulting
in spherocylinder lens combinations, as with these two
lenses.
(+3.00 D sphere) + (pl 1.50 180 cylinder)

= (+3.00 1.50 180)
In the same way that power crosses are used when adding
front and back lens surfaces together to nd total lens
power, so also may power crosses be used as a help when
adding two or more lenses together. To visualize how lens
meridians add together for the sphere and cylinder lenses
in the above example, see Figure 13-13.
Adding Cylinders Having the Same Axis or With

Axes 90 Degrees Apart
Just as spheres and spheres and spheres and cylinders
may be added, so also may cylinders and cylinders be
added. Here we will be looking at adding cylinders whose
axes are either the same, or 90 degrees away from each
other.
Example 13-10
What is the resulting sum of two cylinder lenses, both having
a power of pl 2.00 180?
Solution
To nd the solution, make three power crosses, with the rst
two adding to equal the third. Place the powers of the two
cylinder lenses on the rst two power crosses. Because both
lenses are identical, they will look the same on the rst two
power crosses. The axis is 180, so there is zero power in
the 180-degree axis meridian. The power is 2.00, so 2.00
is written on the 90-degree power meridian. This is shown
in Figure 13-14.
Next the powers in the 180 are summed. Zero plus zero
equals zero. Then the 90-degree powers are summed.
(2.00) + (2.00) = (4.00).
+ 3.00
Figure 13-13. Power crosses allow a sphere and

cylinder to be added together to form a
spherocylinder.
315
1.50
+ 3.00
+ 1.50
pl
+ 3.00
Sphere
Cylinder
Spherocylinder
2.00
2.00
4.00
pl
Figure 13-14. When two plano-cylinder lenses

are placed together axis-to-axis, the resulting cylinder power is the sum of the cylinder powers.
Cylinder
pl
Cylinder
pl
Sum of the
lens powers
316
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
The resulting power cross may be written in minus cylinder

form as pl 4.00 180.
Example 13-11
We will now take the same two cylinder lenses, but with axes
oriented differently, and sum them. What is the sum of a pl
2.00 180 lens and a pl 2.00 090 lens?
Solution
Again placing these two lenses on power crosses helps in
visualizing what is happening. The rst lens has zero on the
180-degree meridian and 2.00 on the 90-degree meridian.
The second lens has zero on the 90-degree meridian and
2.00 on the 180-degree meridian. When the two lenses
are added together in each meridian, as shown in Figure
13-15, the result is a 2.00 D sphere.
and an equal and opposite amount of minus power in the

other. An example of a Jackson crossed cylinder is shown
in Figure 13-17.
A Jackson crossed cylinder is written as if the lens
were two cylinders of equal and opposite powers.
Example 13-13
What would a 1.00 JCC look like on a power cross? From
what two plano cylinders is it derived?
Solution
A 1.00 JCC has a power of +1.00 in one meridian and
1.00 in the opposite meridian. Figure 13-18 shows what
this could look like if the +1.00 were in the 90-degree meridian. It is the same as crossing two cylinders of equal and
opposite value. In this case these two cylinders would be
pl + 1.00 180/pl 1.00 090.
Example 13-12
Add these two lenses to nd the resulting
spherocylinder lens.
pl 1.25 090
pl 2.25 180
Solution
Draw three power crosses and enter the cylinder lenses
shown above on the rst two, as shown in Figure 13-16.
Sum the 90-degree meridians, then the 180-degree meridians. The result is a lens with a power of 1.25 1.00
180.
By ipping the cylinder over using its handle positioned

halfway between the major meridians of the JCC lens, the
minus and plus powers trade places. When looking through
rst one orientation of the lens, then ipping the JCC by 90
degrees to the opposite orientation, exaggerated views
through the opposing cylinders are seen. Exaggerating the
differences makes it easier to know the answer to the familiar question asked during refraction, Which (view) is better,
one or two?
Example 13-14
Jackson Crossed Cylinders

A Jackson crossed cylinder ( JCC) is a lens used in the eye
examination process to help in determining cylinder axis
and cylinder power. It has plus power in one meridian
2.00
pl
pl
2.00
2.00
A 1.00 JCC is held so that the plus power is in the 90degree meridian. This was the situation shown in Figure
1318. A JCC lens can also be written as if it were an ordinary spherocylinder lens combination. If 1.00 JCC lens
2.00
Cylinder
Cylinder
Sum of the
lens powers
pl
2.25
2.25
1.25
(pl 1.25 090)
pl
(pl 2.25 180)
1.25
( 1.25 1.00 180)
Figure 13-15. When two equal powered plano

cylinders are placed together with axes 90 degrees
away from one another, the resulting lens is a
sphere.
Figure 13-16. When two unequally powered

plano cylinders are placed together with axes 90
degrees away from one another, the result is a
CH A P TER 13
317
were to be written as a spherocylinder lens combination, how

would it be written?
Solution
If written in minus cylinder form, the meridian of highest plus
or least minus is the sphere power. The difference between
the two meridians is the cylinder power, and the axis location
is the meridian of sphere power. Therefore this 1.00 JCC
has a spherocylindrical power of +1.00 2.00 90.
Obliquely Crossed Cylinders
B
Figure 13-17. Jackson crossed cylinders are used during lens
refraction to nd cylinder power and cylinder axis.
It is considerably harder to add two cylinders or spherocylinder lenses together whose axes are neither the same,
nor at 90 degrees away from one another, but are crossed
obliquely. For example, one may have an axis of 35 and
another may have an axis of 65.
Obliquely crossed cylinders can occur clinically. From
a spectacle lens standpoint, when a person is wearing an
existing pair of glasses and, for some reason, a refraction
is done over the existing lenses, there may be a spherocylinder in the original glasses and a second spherocylinder lens combination in the overrefraction. These
auxiliary lenses may be clipped to the wearers glasses
with a refracting cell to hold the lenses. From a practical
standpoint, the easiest way to nd the resultant combination is to take the wearers glasses with the cell and auxiliary lenses in place to the lensmeter and simply read
the total lens combination.
Another clinical situation occurs when a person is
wearing a toric contact lens that contains a cylinder
power. The power may not quite be right. The examiner
refracts over the contact lenses. The overrefraction must
be combined with the existing spherocylinder contact
lens power to nd the needed contact lens power.
In doing an obliquely crossed cylinder calculation,
there are three ways that are used to arrive at an accurate
answer. These are:
Use a graphical method.
Use a formula method.
Use a computer program.
The graphical method is helpful in that it not only is
able to furnish a usable answer, but will help in conceptually understanding how obliquely crossed cylinders
interact to give a resultant spherocylinder lens power. It
is the basis for the formula method. The formula method
is complex, but favored by those who love math. It is the
basis for writing a simple computer program.
+ 1.00
Figure 13-18. A 1.00 Jackson crossed cylinder is

the same as a plano +1.00 cylinder and a plano
1.00 cylinder with axes 90 degrees apart. If this
particular lens were written as a spherocylinder
lens, it would have a power of +1.00 2.00 090.
+ 1.00
1.00
1.00 Jackson
crossed cylinder
pl + 1.00 180/pl 1.00 090
1.00
318
Ophthalmic Lenses
Sphere
PA R T T WO
Cylinder
Axis
Spherical
equivalent
A
+
Figure 13-19. A template to help

in calculating the resultant of two
obliquely crossed cylinder lenses.
=C
The Graphical Method

The graphical method uses vectors to nd the power and
axis direction of the combined cylinder lenses. However,
it is not exactly like normal vector problems, but requires
some modication. The reason for this is because a cylinder of power 2.00 000 is not equal and opposite of
a cylinder of power 2.00 180 degrees. If these are
added together, the resulting cylinder would be 4.00
180. This is because axis 0 is the same as axis 180.
The two degree values that are opposite from a vector
stand point are 0 (or 180) and 090. In other words, if
2.00 000 and 2.00 090 are added, the cylinders
cancel out. The result is a 2.00 D sphere. Therefore if
a problem like this is to be solved with vectors, the cylinder axes need to be doubled.
With that in mind, here is a graphical method for
nding the resulting power of two obliquely crossed
plano cylinders or spherocylinders.
1. Convert the two cylinders to be consistent with one
another. In other words, both must be written as
plus cylinders or both written as minus cylinders.
2. Construct a set of boxes for ease of calculation
(Figure 13-19). Write the lens powers of the two
spherocylinder lenses in the appropriate boxes.
3. Compute equivalent spheres for the two lenses and
add them together, entering the sum in the
spherical equivalent C box. (If two spherocylinder
lenses are combined, the resulting lens has the same
spherical equivalent as the sum of the spherical
equivalents.)
4. Plot and construct vectors of the two cylinder values
and nd the resulting vector sum and axis. Heres
how its done.
a. Double the axes of the cylinders for vector
drawing purposes. (This is because a cylinder
axis of 90 is opposite from a cylinder axis of 180.)
b. Draw the cylinder powers to scale as written, but
draw the axis as doubled.
c. Draw out the resultant vector and measure its
length. This is the resultant cylinder power.
d. Read off the angle of the new cylinder vector and
divide by two. This value is the new cylinder
axis.
5. Enter the new cylinder power and axis in section C

of Figure 13-19.
6. Take the spherical equivalent of the new cylinder
power and subtract* it from the equivalent sphere
power found in spherical equivalent C box. This
gives the new sphere power of the resultant
Example 13-15
Use the graphical method just described to nd the resultant
spherocylinder lens power when these two obliquely crossed
cylinders are combined.
pl 2.00 180
2.00 + 2.00 135
Solution
1. One lens is a minus cylinder, the other a plus cylinder.
Converting them both to minus cylinders results in:
pl 2.00 180
pl 2.00 045
2. The lens powers are written in the box shown in Figure
13-20.
3. The spherical equivalent of pl 2.00 180 is 1.00 D
sphere. This is also the spherical equivalent of the
other lens. So 1.00 is entered into the rst two
spherical equivalent boxes for A and B. These are then
added together and 2.00 is entered into the C
spherical equivalent box.
a. To plot these cylinder values, we need to double
each axis. Doubling axis 180 gives 360. (Since axis
180 is the same as axis 0, this is the same as
saying 0 doubled is 0.) Doubling axis 45 gives 90.
b. The cylinder power vectors are entered at 0 and at
90, as shown in Figure 13-21. (When drawing
cylinder powers, negative signs are ignored.)
c. The new cylinder power is measured out to be 2.83.
(Actually we cannot measure to this degree of
*If the lens is minus cylinder in power, you will be minusing a
minus value.
CH A P TER 13
Figure 13-20. The template for

nding the result of two obliquely
crossed cylinders crossed at a 45degree angle.
Spherical
equivalent
Sphere
Cylinder
Axis
0.00
2.00
180
1.00
0.00
2.00
45
1.00
0.58
2.83
22.5
2.00
2.
83
=C
319
cylinder
sphere = spherical equivalent
2
2.83
= 2.00
2
= 2.00 ( 1.42 D)
= 0.58 D
The new spherocylinder lens power will be 0.58 2.83
22.5.
Figure 13-21. Graphically plotting two equally powered

obliquely crossed cylinders:
For pl 2.00 180 the axis is doubled and drawn at axis
zero.
For pl 2.00 45 the axis is doubled and drawn as 90.
The resultant power is 2.83 along the 45-degree meridian.
The resultant axis is 45/2 or 22.5 degrees.
Example 13-16
Use the graphical method to nd the resultant spherocylinder lens power when these two obliquely crossed spherocylinder lenses are combined.
1.00 2.00 020
2.50 3.00 080
accuracy, but we can be close.) So the cylinder

power is 2.83.
d. The new cylinder axis measures 45 degrees. We
divide 45 by 2. This result of 22.5 degrees is the
axis of the new cylinder.
4. The new cylinder power and axis values are written in
section C of Figure 13-20.
5. Now we know everything except the new sphere power.
Since we know the spherical equivalent of the new
lens, we can nd the sphere value by taking half of the
new cylinder power and subtracting it from the spherical
equivalent. In other words, if:
Solution
1. Since both these lenses have the same sign for the
cylinder, neither needs to be converted.
2. The powers of these two lenses are entered into
Figure 13-22.
3. Since
Spherical Equivalent = sphere +
cylinder
2
then for the rst lens

2.00
2
= 1.00 1.00
= 2.00
Spherical Equivalent = 1.00 +

Spherical Equivalent = sphere +
cylinder
2
Then
And for the second lens

cylinder
So, for the problem at hand,
3.00
2
= 2.50 1.50
= 4.00
Spherical Equivalent = 2.50 +
320
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Sphere
Cylinder
Axis
Spherical
equivalent
1.00
2.00
20
2.00
2.50
3.00
80
4.00
=C
4.68
2.64
60
6.00
These are entered into the A and B spherical equivalent

boxes, then added together. The 6.00 D spherical equivalent sum is entered into box C.
4a. The cylinder axes are doubled so that the rst will be
40 and the second 160.
4b. The cylinder powers are left as is, and vectors are
constructed as shown in Figure 13-23.
4c. The resultant vector is measured to be 2.64 units
long.
4d. The axis read is 120. This value is divided by 2,
making the new cylinder have a cylinder axis of 60
degrees.
5. The value 2.64 060 is entered into section C of
Figure 13-22.
6. The new sphere power is found as:
cylinder
2
2.64
= 6.00
2
= 6.00 ( 1.32)
= 4.68
The new spherocylinder lens is then 4.68 2.64 060.
The Formula Method

By using the graphical method, it is possible to develop
a formula for nding the resultant of two obliquely
crossed cylinders. This formula can be used to solve the
problem or to construct a computer-based program to
solve obliquely crossed cylinder problems. Without
going into the derivation, the formula method is as
follows:
1. If both cylinders are not in the same form,
transpose one lens so that both are plus or both
minus.
2. Find the difference between the two cylinder axis
angles. The angular difference in degrees between
Fcy11 and Fcy12 will be called a. We will call the
cylinder with the smaller axis Fcy11 and the cylinder
with the larger axis value, Fcy12.
3. Find how far the new cylinder axis is from the
cylinder with the smaller axis value (Fcy11) by using
the formula:
Figure 13-22. The template with

two obliquely crossed spherocylinder lens powers entered.
tan 2 =
Fcyl 2 sin 2a
Fcyl 2 + Fcyl 2 cos 2a
Where:
Fcy11 = the power of the rst cylinder
Fcy12 = the power of the second cylinder
a = the difference between the two cylinder axes in
degrees, and
= how far the axis of the new cylinder is from the
rst cylinder axis
4. Find the axis of the new cylinder. This is done by
adding to the axis of the rst cylinder (the
cylinder with the smaller axis).
5. Find the sphere power (S) resulting from the two
cylinders crossing. This is done using the formula:
S = Fcyl1 sin2 + Fcyl 2 sin2 ( a )
(Note: This is only the power of the new spherocylinder
combination if the lenses being combined are just plano
cylinders. If there are sphere components to the combining lenses, these will be added in later.)
6. Find the new cylinder power (C), using the formula:
C = Fcyl1 + Fcyl 2 2S
7. Find the new total sphere power (STotal) by adding the
sphere powers in the original two lenses (S1 and S2)
to the sphere power (S) resulting from the crossing
of the cylinders.
STotal = S + S1 + S2
Example 13-17
Use the formula method to nd the resultant spherocylinder
lens power when these two obliquely crossed spherocylinder
lenses are combined. (These are the same lenses as used
in Example 13-16 that were combined using the graphical
method earlier.)
CH A P TER 13
321
4
2.6
Figure 13-23. Graphically plotting

two unequally powered obliquely
crossed cylinders.
For 2.00 20, the axis is doubled and
the power drawn at 40.
For 3.00 80, the axis is doubled and
the power drawn at 160.
The resultant power is 2.64 along the
120-degree meridian.
The resultant axis is 120 /2 or 60 degrees.
1.00 2.00 020

2.50 3.00 080
Solution
1. Both cylinders are minus cylinder form lenses and do
not need to be transposed.
2. The difference between the two cylinder axis angles is:
80 20 = 60 degrees
3. The distance from the smaller cylinder axis to the new
cylinder axis is:
tan 2 =
=
=
=
=
120
3.0
0
00
2.
160
40
4. The new cylinder axis is 20 + 39.6 = 59.6 degrees.

Rounded to the nearest degree, the new axis is 60
degrees.
5. The sphere power resulting from the crossing of the
cylinders (and not including the sphere powers of the
combining spherocylinder lenses) is
S = Fcyl1 sin2 + Fcyl 2 sin2 ( a )
=
=
=
=
2.00 sin2 39.6 + 3 sin2 (60 39.6)

2.00 (0.41) + 3.00 (0.12)
0.82 0.36
1.18 D sphere
Fcyl 2 sin 2a
Fcyl1 + Fcyl 2 cos 2a
3 sin (2 60)
2 + 3 cos (2 60)
3 sin 120
2 + 3 cos 120
3 (0.866)
2 + 3 ( 0.5)
2.60
0.5
tan 2 = 5.2
2 = 79.1 deg rees
= 39.6 deg rees
6. The new cylinder power is:

C = Fcyl1 + Fcyl 2 2S
= 2.00 + 3.00 2 ( 1.18)
= 2.64 D cyl
7. The new total sphere power is:
STotal = S + S1 + S2
= 1.18 + ( 1.00) + ( 2.50)
= 4.68 D sphere
322
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Therefore the new spherocylinder lens resulting from the

obliquely crossed spherocylinder lenses is 4.68 2.64
060.
Conceptual Questions for Anticipating the Sum of

Two Obliquely Crossed Cylinder Lenses
In reality few people will be using either the formula
method or the graphical method to nd the result of two
obliquely crossed cylinders. Instead a computer program
will be used. However, it is useful to understand enough
about lenses to know how two obliquely crossed cylinders or spherocylinders will interact. Here are some conceptual questions to help in understanding how two
cylinder lenses will sum. Examples are included for two
cylinders that are not at oblique angles with one another.
Each question represents an important aspect in understanding how cylinders add together. The answers were
obtained by exact calculations. Exact calculations are not
important, however. The important thing to notice is
the relative power of the cylinder and position of the
new axis.
Question 1. True or false? The sum of the spherical
equivalents of the two obliquely crossed spherocylinders will always equal the spherical equivalent of the
resultant lens.
Answer: True
Question 2. True or false? If the axes of either two plus
cylinder or two minus cylinder lenses are the same,
then the resultant cylinder power will be the sum of
the two cylinders.
Answer: True
For example, if a pl 2.00 180 is combined with pl
2.00 180, the result equals pl 4.00 180.
Question 3. If the axes of two cylinders are very close
to one another, what can be said about the power of
the new cylinder?
Answer: The resultant cylinder power will closely
approach the sum of the two cylinders. The sphere
power will increase only slightly, closely approaching
no change.
For example, pl 2.00 002 combined with pl 2.00
178 equals 0.02 3.96 180.
Question 4. If the axes of two equally powered cylinders
are 90 degrees away from one another, what will be
the result?
Answer: The cylinder power will be zero, and the sphere
power resulting from the two combined cylinder
components will change by the full power of the
cylinder.
180 equals 2.00 sphere.
Question 5. True or false? If the powers of two obliquely
crossed cylinders are equal, the axis of the new cylinder will be halfway in between the two.
Answer: True
070 results in 0.47 3.06 050.
Question 6. If the cylinder powers of two obliquely

crossed cylinders are unequal, what happens to the
axis of the cylinder?
Answer: The resulting cylinder axis will be pulled in the
direction of the axis of the stronger cylinder.
070 results in 0.31 2.39 042.
Question 7. If the axes of two equally powered plano
cylinders are very close to being 90 degrees away from
one another, what will be the result in terms of sphere
and cylinder powers?
Answer: The cylinder power will be close to zero, and
the sphere power change resulting from the two combined cylinder components will change by nearly the
full power of the cylinder. The cylinder axis of the
resultant cylinder will be halfway between the axes of
the original cylinders.
002 equals 1.86 0.28 45.
Question 8. If the axes of two unequally powered cylinders are 90 degrees away from one another, what
happens to the resulting sphere and cylinder
powers?
Answer: The new cylinder power will be the difference
between the two cylinder powers, and the sphere
power will increase by the amount of the smaller
cylinder.
180 equals 1.00 1.00 090.
Question 9. If the axes of two unequally powered plano
cylinders are very close to being 90 degrees away from
one another, what happens to the resulting sphere and
cylinder powers?
Answer: The cylinder power will be close to the difference between the two cylinder powers. The sphere
power will increase by close to the amount of the
smaller cylinder. (The axis will be close to the axis of
the lens with the higher powered cylinder.)
002 equals 0.99 1.02 084.
Conceptually Understanding Obliquely
Crossed Spherocylinder Lenses
By using the concept questions for adding cylinder lenses
just presented in the previous section, it is relatively easy
to apply these concepts to spherocylinders. To anticipate
the resulting spherocylinder powers and axis when
adding two spherocylinders together without doing
actual calculations. Start with just the cylinders and
ignore the spheres. First estimate the sum of the cylinders. Afterwards add back the sphere powers.
For example, in Question 5, when a pl 2.00 030 is
combined with a pl 2.00 070, the exact result is a lens
with a power of 0.47 3.06 050. Since the cylinder
powers are equal, the resulting axis will be exactly
halfway in between. (The resulting cylinder power could
be estimated as greater than either cylinder alone, but
CH A P TER 13
less than both together. The new sphere would then be

halfway between the sum of the two original cylinders
and the new resultant cylinder.)
If the two lenses where spherocylinders with powers
of 1.50 2.00 030 and 1.25 2.00 070, remove the
spheres, then sum the cylinders. The cylinders by themselves sum to 0.47 3.06 050. Now add the old
spheres together [(1.50) + (1.25) = (2.75)] and combine
them with the new sphere [(2.75) + (0.47) = (3.22)].
The new spherocylinder power is 3.22 3.06 050.
y 2 + (r s)2 = r 2
Figure 13-24. A knife-edged plus lens has the same center

thickness that the edge of an in nitely thin minus lens would
have when both diameters and curvatures are the same.
The formula that is the basis for determining lens thickness is the sagittal depth, or sag formula, which was introduced previously in the chapter. Sagittal depth is the
depth of the lens surface curve and is shown in Figure
13-24. Remember that a chord is a straight line joining
two points on a curve. In Figure 13-24, the two points
on the curve are at the edges of the lens, and the length
of the chord equals the diameter of the lens.
To nd the sagittal depth, it is necessary to know the
length of the chord and the radius of curvature of
the lens surface. Figure 13-25 shows the radius (r) as the
hypotenuse of a right triangle. (Notice that this uses the
same principles as were discussed for the lens clock previously in the chapter. Figure 13-25 is another view of
what was shown in Figure 13-9.) The other two sides are
y, which is one half of the chord (or the lens diameter),
and (r s), which is the radius minus the sag. Because
this triangle is a right triangle, the Pythagorean theorem
can be used to nd the sag: (When discussing the lens
measure we used the Pythagorean theorem to nd the
radius of curvature [r].)
SAG
Sagittal Depth
SAG
rs
LENS THICKNESS
323
Figure 13-25. The geometry of the gure shows how the sag
formula is derived from the Pythagorean theorem. Here y2 +
(r s) 2 = r 2.
The Approximate Sag Formula

Before the advent of hand calculators, simplied formulas yielding an approximate result were used to nd the
sag of a curved surface. To simplify calculations, the
more complex formula of
simplied to
s=r
(r 2 y 2 )
was
By transposition,
(r s)2 = r 2 y 2
and
rs=
(r 2 y 2 )
which simplies to
s = r +
(r 2 y 2 )
s=
y2
2r
( the approximate sag formula)
The approximate sag formula only works when the

diameter is small and the radius of curvature is long. In
other words, it only approximates well for small lenses
with low-powered surfaces. Because it enjoyed such
widespread usage, it is still seen and referred to. However,
using the accurate sag formula is no longer as difcult
and yields accurate results over the whole range of lens
sizes and powers.
and results in
Example 13-18
s=r
(r
This last equation is called the accurate sag formula.
A certain lens surface has a radius of curvature of 83.7 mm.

The lens has a diameter of 50 mm. What is the sag of the
front surface of the lens?
324
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Solution
Using the accurate sag formula,
s=r
(r 2 y 2 )
The value for r has been given as 83.7 mm. The value of y
is half of the lens diameter. Since the lens has a diameter
of 50 mm, y is 25 mm. Therefore
s = 83.7 (83.7)2 (25)2
= 83.7 79.9
= 3.8 mm
Example 13-20
A lens has a true base curve (TBC) of +7.19, a diameter
of 52 mm, a plano back surface, and an edge thickness of
1.6 mm. What is the center thickness (CT) of the lens?
Solution
We have already calculated the sag of the front surface of
this lens in Example 13-19. To visualize what this planoconvex lens looks like, see Figure 13-26, A. From the gure
we can see that the CT of the lens will be equal to the sag
of the front surface (s1), plus the edge thickness (ET). Therefore the CT of this lens is:
The s, r, and y can be expressed in meters or millimeters,

as long as all are in the same units. In this case all three
are expressed in millimeters. The sag of this surface is
3.8 mm.
Example 13-19
Suppose a lens has a true base curve (TBC) of +7.19 D. If
the diameter of the lens is 52 mm, what is the sag of the
front surface at the full 52-mm diameter?
Solution
To nd the sag of the surface, we need to know r and y. The
y value is easy to nd, since it is half of the 52-mm (chord)
diameter. In other words, y = 26 mm. However, to nd the
radius, we must use the lens makers formula:
r=
n1
F
CT = s1 + ET
CT = 4.7 mm + 1.6 mm
= 6.3 mm
In Figure 13-26, the edge thickness has been drawn
exceptionally thick to keep front and back surface sagittal
depth labels (s1 and s2) from overlapping. If drawn to scale,
the edge would be much thinner and would correspond more
accurately to the example.
Thickness of Meniscus Lenses

Although a few ophthalmic lenses worn today may be
plano concave or plano convex, most lenses have a convex
front surface and a concave back surface. These lenses
are referred to as meniscus lenses. To determine the thickness of a meniscus lens, calculations must be made for
both the front and back surfaces.
Because the true base curve is based on a lens clock

value and the lens clock uses an assumed index of refraction
of 1.53, then n = 1.53, or
r=
1.53 1
F
To nd r for a +7.19 D TBC surface, we use:

1.53 1
+7.19
0.53
=
+7.19
= 0.0737 m
S1
ET
r=
The sag formula requires that all the terms in the equation
be expressed in the same units. Converting 0.0737 m to
millimeters makes r = 73.7 mm. Now we can use the sag
formula:
S1
s = r (r 2 y 2 )
= 73.7 (73.7)2 (26)2
= 73.7 5431.7 676
= 73.7 4755.7
= 73.7 69.0
= 4.7 mm
The sag of a +7.19 D TBC surface on a 52-mm lens is
4.7 mm.
S2
ET
Figure 13-26. A, For a plus lens with a convex front surface

and plano (at) back surface, lens center thickness is equal to
the edge thickness plus the sagittal depth of the front surface
(s1). B, A meniscus lens has a convex front surface and a concave
back surface. The center thickness of a meniscus lens is equal
to the edge thickness plus the sagittal depth of the front
surface (s1) minus the sagittal depth of the second surface (s2).
CH A P TER 13
To better understand the construction of such a lens

and how calculations are carried out, think of the meniscus lens as being two lenses glued together. A meniscus
lens can rst be thought of as a plano-convex lens, as
shown in Figure 13-26, A. For a plano-convex lens,
center thickness is equal to the sagittal depth of the rst
surface (s1) plus the edge thickness, or:
CT = s1 + ET
After center thickness calculations have been carried
out for a plano-convex lens, imagine grinding a minus
curve on the back of the lens, as shown in Figure 13-26,
B. This reduces the CT by the sag of this freshly ground
concave surface. The CT then becomes:
CT = s1 + ET s2
or

Lens power = +3.00 D
Index of refraction = 1.53
Lens form is plano convex (+3.00 D front curve and a

plano back surface).
Edge thickness is zero. (A lens with a zero edge thickness
is said to be knife edged.)
The lens has no decentration. (The optical center is exactly
in the middle of the edged shape.)
Solution
In learning to conceptualize lens thickness, it is helpful to
try to draw a picture of the lens as soon as possible. In this
case because the lens is round and the optical center is in
the middle of the lens, the chord diameter is the same as
the eye size or the A dimension of the frame.
This information will allow us to draw a cross section of the
lens, as shown in Figure 13-27. This makes the semidiameter (y) equal to:
CT = s1 s2 + ET
chord diameter
2
50
=
2
= 25 mm
y=
where s 2 is the sag of the second surface.

Sagittal depths are found using the accurate sag
formula:
s = r r2 y2
as previously described.
Concepts in Understanding Lens Thickness

One of the motivations for understanding lens thickness
concepts is so that it is easy to visualize how a given
prescription will look in different types of frames. In fact
knowing thickness concepts will keep one from ordering
a lens prescription for a frame that is either unsightly or
even unsuitable. In going through the next section, here
is a quick review of the formulas needed for working the
problems in the sequence they will normally be used.
chord diameter
2
n1
2. r =
F
3. s = r r 2 y 2
4. CT = s1 s2 + ET
1. y =
As we progress through this section, some of the

examples may seem overly simplistic. This is done intentionally to make certain that each conceptual step is
understood.
Center Thickness for a Plano-Convex Lens
325
The radius of curvature is found using the lens makers

formula where:
n1
F
1.53 1
=
3.00
0.53
=
3
= 0.1766 m or 176.7 mm
r=
The sagittal depth of the lens surface is:

s1 = r r 2 y 2
= 176.7 (176.7)2 (25)2
= 176.7 31223 625
= 176.7 30598
= 176.7 174.9
= 1.8 mm
We can use the formula for center thickness. But even
before using the formula, we know that the center thickness
will be 1.8 mm. This is because there is no edge thickness,
and the back of the lens is at. Because the lens is at, the
S1
50 mm
Example 13-21
What is the center thickness for a lens with the following
dimensions?
Figure 13-27. The center thickness of a plano-convex lens

with a zero edge thickness is equal to the sagittal depth of the
convex surface.
326
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
sagittal depth of the second surface (s2) is equal to zero.

Here is the formula solution:
CT = s1 s2 + ET
= 1.8 0 + 0
= 1.8 mm
Figure 13-29, the center thickness in both horizontal and

vertical cross sections will always be the same because both
are part of the same lens.)
Example 13-23
Before nishing the problem, we need to look at the whole

lenscenter, left edge, right edge, and top and bottom
edges. To look at the lens in horizontal and vertical cross
sections, see Figure 13-28.
Example 13-22
A lens is a +3.00 D sphere with the same dimensions as
the previous lens, except that this lens is ground so that the
resulting edge is 1.0 mm thick. What is the center thickness
of the lens?
Solution
The answer here is intuitive. If the previous lens has an edge
thickness of zero and is 1.8 mm thick in the center, then
this lens with a 1.0 mm edge thickness will be 1.0 mm
thicker everywhere, resulting in a lens of 2.8 mm center
thickness. But the example was introduced to further the
reasoning in nding lens thickness.
The lens is drawn as shown in Figure 13-29. We nd s1, the
sagittal depth of the rst surface, exactly as before. The
gure shows us (and the formula tells us) that:
center thickness = the sag of the front surface +

edge thickness
A. What is the center thickness of a cylinder lens with a

power of pl +3.00 090 that is edged to a 50-mm
round shape and has no decentration? The thinnest
edge of the lens is zero. In other words, at its thinnest
point the lens is knife edged. This lens has a plano
back surface, and the index of refraction is 1.53.
B. Where are the thin knife edges located?
C. How thick are the thickest edges?
Solution
A. If this lens is drawn, as shown in Figure 13-30, we see
that the axis meridian is at 90 and the power meridian
at 180. The lens has the same +3.00 D power and
50-mm chord size as the +3.00 D sphere in the
previous example. Therefore since it is knife edged and
plano convex, the sagittal depth is the same 1.8 mm
that we found in the previous example. This equals the
center thickness of the lens.
B. The knife edges are on the left and right sides of the
lens in the 180-degree horizontal power meridian. This
is shown in Figure 13-30.
C. Because the lens is plano in the 90-degree axis
meridian, the thickness remains the same all along the
axis. If this plano cylinder lens is 1.8 mm thick in the
center, it is also 1.8 mm thick at the top and bottom
edges.
Edge Thickness for a Plano-Concave Lens

The methodology used for nding edge thickness of
minus lenses is practically the same as that used to nd
the center thickness for plus lenses.
In other words,
CT = 1.8 mm + 1.0 mm
= 2.8 mm
The sag of the second surface is zero, so it does not factor
in. (Incidentally, when drawing gures like the one shown in
s1
Vertical
cross section
Vertical
cross section
E.T.
s1
Horizontal
cross section
Figure 13-28. Cross sections of a knife-edged plano-convex

lens.
E.T.
Horizontal
cross section
Figure 13-29. When a plano-convex lens (with no decentration) has edge thickness, the center thickness of the lens equals
the sagittal depth of the convex surface plus the edge
thickness.
O.C.
Vertical
cross section
B = 50 mm
CH A P TER 13
s2
A = 50 mm
s2
327
Vertical
cross section
s2
s2
Horizontal
cross section
Figure 13-31. Horizontal and vertical cross sections of a

plano-concave lens with an in nitely thin center. With zero
center thickness, the edge thickness equals the sagittal depth
of the concave (minus) surface.
Horizontal
cross section
Figure 13-30. Cross sections of a plano-convex cylinder lens

in the major meridians of the lens. When the plano-convex
cylinder (shown with axis at 90 degrees) is edged to a round
shape, the horizontal cross section in the power meridian looks
like a normal plus lens. The center is thick, and the edges on
either side are thin. In the vertical (axis) meridian, the thickness of the lens is the same at center and edges.
If we were to use the formula to nd edge thickness, we

would use:
CT = s1 s2 + ET
or
ET = CT s1 + s2
ET = 0 0 + 1.8 mm
ET = 1.8 mm
Example 13-24
Example 13-25
What is the edge thickness for this minus lens that has been
edged to a 50-mm round shape if the optical center is
exactly at the center of the edged shape? Here are the lens
parameters:
The front surface curve is at (F1 = 0).
The back surface curve has a power of 3.00 D (F2 =
3.00 D).
The refractive index is 1.53.
The lens is innitely thin in the center. In other words, the
lens has a center thickness of zero.
A lens is a 3.00 D lens with the same dimensions as the

previous lens, except that it has a 1.0 mm center thickness.
How thick are the lens edges in the horizontal and vertical
meridians?
Solution
Set the problem up with a drawing. That drawing is shown
in Figure 13-31. Here we see the round lens with horizontal
and vertical cross sections. Because the lens is round, with
the optical center in the middle of the lens shape, both horizontal and vertical cross sections are identical. Because the
lens has zero center thickness and the front of the lens is
at, the sagittal depth of the back surface equals the edge
thickness of the lens.
The sagittal depth of the back surface is found in the
same manner as was done for front surface sagittal depth.
The same dimensions have been chosen as in earlier examples, conveniently allowing us to know that s2 = 1.8 mm.
Solution
As the center increases in thickness, so does the edge. So
if the sagittal depth of the second surface in 1.8 mm, and
the center thickness is 1.0 mm, then the edge thickness will
be 2.8 mm (Figure 13-32). This should be intuitive. However,
the formula sequence is:
ET = CT s1 + s2
= 1.0 0 + 1.8
= 2.8 mm
The object here is to intuitively know how center and edge
thickness work, not to work a formula. It is highly unlikely
that someone will sit down in an optical dispensary and calculate center or edge thickness. However, it is very important
to conceptually know what an ophthalmic lens prescription
will look like in a given frame shape and lens material when
completed, even before it is ever ordered.
328
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
CT = 1.0 mm
s2
s2 = 1.8 mm
ET = 2.8 mm
Figure 13-32. The edge thickness of a plano-concave (minus) lens is the sum
of the center thickness and the sagittal depth of the concave surface.
nesses on both sides of the 180-degree meridian are

2.8 mm. As before:
1 mm
ET180 = CT s1 + s2
= 1.0 0 + 1.8
= 2.8 mm
Vertical
cross section
Center and Edge Thicknesses for

Meniscus Lenses
Here are some example problems for plus and minus
meniscus lenses using the same principles that have
already been covered up to this point.
s2
s2 = 1.8 mm
} = 2.8 mm
C.T. = 1.0 mm
Horizontal
cross section

plano-concave cylinder with center thickness. The thickness
along the cylinder axis does not change.
Example 13-26
A
lens has the following parameters:

Power = pl 3.00 090
Lens form: a plano-concave cylinder
The lens is edged 50 mm round.
The optics of the lens are centered in the edged shape
(i.e., there is no decentration).
Index of refraction is 1.53.
The center thickness of the lens is 1.0 mm.
What are the edge thicknesses in the horizontal and vertical meridians?
Solution
Begin by setting up the problem as a drawing. Figure 13-33
shows a plano minus cylinder oriented at axis 90 degrees.
Now imagine edging that cylinder to a 50-mm round shape
by drawing a circle over it. (The at plane drawing of the
circle will not exactly mesh with the three-dimensional
aspects of the plano cylinder drawing, but should be
understandable.)
Now draw horizontal and vertical cross sections of the
lens. A plano minus cylinder lens has the same thickness
along its axis meridian. Therefore the top and bottom edges
of the lens have the same thickness as the center of the
lens (1.0 mm).
The plano minus cylinder lens thickens toward the edge
in the power meridian. Edge thickness along the power
meridian is equal to the center thickness plus the sagittal
depth of the second surface in the meridian. In this case as
before, the sagittal depth is 1.8 mm. So the edge thick-
Example 13-27
What is the center thickness for this +2.00 D lens that is
edged to a horizontally oval shape? The lens parameters
needed to solve the problem are:
F1 = +8.00 D (front surface power)
F2 = 6.00 D (back surface power)
n = 1.53
Minimum edge thickness = 1.5 mm
A = 50 mm (This is the horizontal dimension of the oval
shape.)
B = 30 mm (This is the vertical dimension of the oval
shape.)
The optical center of the lens is in the center of the lens
shape.
Solution
Before we start any calculations, we need to know where the
thinnest edge(s) of the lens are found. The easiest way to
nd the location of the thinnest edge(s) is to conceptualize
the lens. To do this, ignore the fact that the lens is a meniscus lens. Imagine it as a plano-convex lens of power
+2.00 D. If we draw it out this way, it would appear as shown
in Figure 13-34. We know that a plus lens is thickest in the
middle and thins gradually as the distance from the center
increases. Therefore the thinnest edge of a plus sphere lens
will be the edge farthest from the lens optical center.
Both left and right edges are equally far from the optical
center and are the points that are farthest from the
optical center. The top and bottom edges are closer to the
optical center and are thicker.
Knowing this we can redraw the horizontal cross section
as shown in Figure 13-35. If we can nd the sagittal depths
for the rst and second surfaces, we will know what the
center thickness is.
For the rst surface:
CH A P TER 13
O.C.
Vertical
cross section
s1
329
CT = 1.5 mm
s2 S1 = 1.3 mm
S2 = 1.7 mm
ET = 1.9 mm
s1
E.T.
Minimum edge
thickness
s2
CT = 1.5 mm
S1 = 3.6 mm
S2 = 4.9 mm
ET = 2.8 mm
Horizontal
cross section
Figure 13-34. When a plus sphere lens is edged to an oval

shape, edge thickness will be greatest for the edge closest to
the optical center of the lens.

minus sphere meniscus lens that has been edged oval.
Example 13-28
s1
E.T. = 1.5 mm
s2
Figure 13-35. The center thickness of a meniscus lens is

equal to the sagittal depth of the rst surface (s1), minus the
sagittal depth of the second surface (s2) plus the edge thickness
(CT = s1 s 2 + ET ).
n 1 1.53 1
=
8.00
F1
= 0.06625 m = 66.25 mm
r=
s1 = r (r )2 ( y )2
= 66.25 (66.25)2 (25)2
= 66.25 4389 625
= 66.25 61.35
= 4.9 mm
For the second surface:
1 n 1 1.53
=
F2
6
= 0.08833 m = 88.33 mm
r=
s2 = r (r )2 ( y )2
= 88.33 (88.33)2 (25)2
= 88.33 7803 625
= 88.33 84.72
= 3.6 mm
Therefore center thickness of this lens is:
CT = s1 s2 + ET
= 4.9 3.6 + 1.5
= 2.8 mm
2.00 D lens has the following parameters:

F1 = +6.00 D
F2 = 8.00 D
n = 1.53
Center thickness = 1.5 mm
It is edged to a horizontal oval shape, where
A = 50 mm (horizontal dimension)
B = 30 mm (vertical dimension)
How thick are the lens edges in both the horizontal and
the vertical meridians?
Solution
Notice rst of all that the lens in this example and the plus
lens in the previous example have much in common. Even
their surface curves are the same, except that now the 6
diopter curve is on the front and the 8 diopter curve on the
back. Remember that a minus lens is thinnest in the center
and gradually increases in thickness toward the edges. The
edge closest to the center is thinnest; the farthest edge
thickest. To solve the problem, begin by drawing it out. This
is shown completed in Figure 13-36.
For the horizontal meridian:
To nd the edge thickness of the horizontal meridian, we
know the chord diameter is 50 mm. The index and surface
curves are the same as in the previous problem. Therefore
for the +6.00 front curve, the sagittal depth (s1) is 3.6 mm.
The second surface of 8.00 has a sagittal depth (s2) of 4.9
mm. This gives an edge thickness of:
ET = CT s1 + s2
= 1.5 3.6 + 4.9
= 2.8 mm
For the vertical meridian:
Even though the curves in the vertical meridian are the
same as the horizontal meridian, the sagittal depths will be
different because the chord diameter (or chord length) is
smaller. For the +6.00 D surface, we already know that the
surface radius is 8.33 mm. The semidiameter of the vertical
chord diameter is:
330
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
chord diameter (or length)

2
30 mm
=
2
= 15 mm
y=
Decentration
OC
So sagittal depth for the rst surface in the 90-degree

meridian is:
s1 = r r 2 y 2
= 88.33 (88.33)2 (15)2
= 88.33 7803 225
= 88.33 87.05
= 1.3 mm
The sagittal depth for the second surface in the 90-degree
meridian is:
s2 = r r 2 y 2
= 66.25 (66.25)2 (15)2
= 66.25 4389 225
= 66.25 64.53
= 1.7 mm
This makes the top and bottom edge thickness equal to:
ET = CT s1 + s2
= 1.5 1.3 + 1.7
= 1.9 mm
So the horizontal edge thicknesses of this lens are
2.8 mm and the vertical edge thicknesses are 1.9 mm.
Determining Lens Diameter for

Noncentered Lenses
The lens diameter needed to nd the correct sag value
depends on both the frame size and the location of the
optical center. Normally the optical center is not in the
middle of the lens once it has been edged. To visualize
the situation, mark the point on an edged lens where the
optical center will fall. Next draw a line from the optical
center (OC) to the point on the lens edge that is farthest
from the OC (Figure 13-37). The resulting line is the y
value we are interested in. Twice y is very close to the
minimum blank size (MBS).* In fact when considering
single vision uncut lenses, the diameter we are interested
in is equal to the minimum blank size, but it does not
include the 2-mm safety factor for lens chipping that is
included in the MBS formula. The formula for this
diameter, which we will call the chord diameter, is:
Chord diameter = ED + (A + DBL Far PD)
*For more on Minimum Blank Size, see Chapter 5.
The MBS formula for single vision lenses is MBS = ED + (A + DBL

PD) + 2 = ED + (decentration per lens) 2 + 2
Figure 13-37. The diameter used in calculating lens thickness is basically the same as that used for minimum blank size.
The only difference is that the chipping factor is ignored.
where
ED
A
DBL
Far PD
=
=
=
=
the
the
the
the
effective diameter of a lens*

boxing eye size
distance between lenses
wearers interpupillary distance for
distance viewing
This chord diameter formula may be used for both

single vision and multifocal lenses.
Estimating Edge Thickness

It can be very useful to be able to estimate edge thickness
quickly. Such estimates are useful when asked, How
thick will my lenses be? It is not possible to accurately
know edge or center thickness without calculating chord
diameter and sag values. To make estimations easier,
calculations can be dropped by assuming equal decentration for all cases and by using the effective diameter
(ED) of the frame instead of chord diameter. This means
that for a lens having an ED of 50 mm we can use a
constant (K ) of 0.7 and multiply it by the power of the
lens. The constant used for lenses with an ED of 50 mm
is 0.7. Lenses with a 58-mm ED call for a constant of
1.0. If the numbers (50, 0.7) and (58, 1.0) can be remembered, constants other than 0.7 and 1.0 can be estimated,
depending upon how close the ED of the frame is to 50
or 58. (These estimations are for low-index glass or
plastic lenses. To estimate thickness for higher index
materials, it is feasible to reduce the constants of 0.7 and
1.0 to somewhat smaller values. The higher the index
of refraction is, the lower the value of the constant
will be.)
Example 13-29
Estimate the edge thickness of a 6.00 D lens that has a
center thickness of 2.2 mm and is to be placed in a frame
with an ED of 55 mm.
*For more on effective diameter, see Chapter 2.
CH A P TER 13
331
Solution
A 55-mm E D is more than halfway between 50 and 58. This
means that the constant chosen will be more than halfway
between 0.7 and 1.0. (Halfway is 0.85.) The constant chosen
will be 0.9. Edge thickness is:
Edge Thickness =
=
=
=
K(F) + center thickness

0.9 (6.00) + 2.2
5.4 + 2.2
7.6 mm
The lens has an estimated edge thickness of 7.6 mm.

Axis meridian
When a lens has prism as part of the prescription, for

estimation purposes one half of the prescribed prism
amount is added to lens thickness. (The reason why
prism changes the thickness of a lens will be explained
more fully later in the chapter on prism.)
Thus the rule of thumb can be expressed as:
Pow
Center or edge thickness = K(F) + (edge or center

thickness) + P/2
er
Meridian
where
K = the constant
F = the power of the lens
P = the power of the prism
Example 13-30
Estimate the edge thickness of the lens in Example 13-29
if it is also to have 3 prism diopters of base-out prism.
Solution
The thickness factor for prism is an estimated 0.5 mm
for every diopter of prism. This increases the estimated
thickness by 1.5 mm. Therefore the estimated edge
thickness is:
P
Edge thickness = K(F) + CT +
2
= 0.9 (6.00) + 2.2 + 1.5
= 9.1 mm
It should be understood that this method of estimation is
intended to provide only a rough estimation and cannot be
unerringly depended on.
Figure 13-38. A plano, plus cylinder has no power in the axis

meridian. The refractive power in the power meridian depends
on the index of refraction of the material and the radius of
curvature.
the axis meridian. The surface is at. In the power

meridian, the surface has maximum curvature. Therefore there is zero curvature along the axis of the planocylinder lens surface. Along the power meridian, the
curvature is R. In between the axis meridian and the
power meridian, curvature will increase by degree.
(Figure 13-39). The specic curvature of the surface may
be found using the equation:
R = Rcyl sin2
CURVATURE IN AN OBLIQUE MERIDIAN

When specifying lens curvature, the curve can be
denoted by either its radius of curvature (r) or by the unit
Curvature.
A spherically curved surface has a specic radius of
curvature, r. By denition, the Curvature of a surface,
specied with R, is the inverse of the radius of curvature
in meters, or reciprocal meters (m1). In other words,
R=
1
r
A plano plus cylinder appears as shown in Figure 1338. In the gure, there is no curve to the lens surface in
where
R = Curvature in the oblique meridian
Rcyl = Curvature in the power meridian
and
= the angle between the oblique

meridian and the cylinder axis.
The short-cut method says that since, for a lens
surface in air,
332
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
F = Fcyl sin2 .
q
rq
Unfortunately, this assumption is not entirely correct.

Although the curvature of a cross section changes, and
power in an oblique cylinder meridian may be read
using a lens clock on the surface, technically a plano
cylinder does not vary in power along an oblique meridian, only in curvature. This sine-squared approximation
method can be helpful in certain circumstances,
however.
To use the sine-squared approximation method for

nding the power of a cylinder in an oblique meridian,
use the following steps:
1. Find theta.
Theta () is the difference between the meridian in
question and the axis of the cylinder.
2. Apply the sine-squared formula (Fq = Fcyl sin2q) to
the cylinder power.
Cylinder axis
Ob
liq
ue
m
er
idi
an
Using Sine-Squared q to Find the Power of

the Cylinder in an Oblique Meridian
Example 13-31
Figure 13-39. The radius of curvature, r , in an oblique
meridian of a plano, plus cylinder lens will vary depending
upon the power of the cylinder curve and the angle () of the
oblique meridian.
F=
n1
r
or
F = (n 1) R
Solution
To nd theta, we nd the difference between the cylinder
axis and the 180-degree meridian. This difference is the
same as the axis of the cylinder (Figure 13-40). To nd the
power of the cylinder in the 180-degree meridian, we use
the formula F = Fcyl sin2 .
By substitution we have:
F = Fcyl sin2
= ( +2.00) sin2 30
= ( +2.00)(0.25)
= +0.50 D
Therefore, the power of the cylinder in the 180-degree
meridian is +0.50 D.
then
R=
F
n1
It would seem logical then that if

R = Rcyl sin2 ,
then we should be able to say that
Fcyl
F
=
sin2
n1 n1
and
What is the power of a pl + 2.00 030 cylinder in the

180-degree meridian?
Thickness in an Oblique Meridian

The sine-squared method for nding the curvature of a
lens in an oblique meridian means we can nd the radius
of curvature in an oblique meridian. With radius of
curvature and chord diameter it is now possible to nd
sagittal depth in an oblique meridian. Sagittal depth in
an oblique meridian leads directly to lens thickness in
that oblique meridian. Thus using sine-squared principles, we should be able to nd lens thickness for any
point on a lens. It is left to the reader to take this concept
further and nd lens thickness for any given point on
a lens.
CH A P TER 13
333
is
ax )
er rees
d
g
lin
Cy 0 de
3
t
(a
Figure 13-40. Finding the power

of a plus cylinder lens in the 180degree meridian can be visualized as
shown in the gure.
180-degree
meridian
REFERENCES
1. Brooks C: Specifying base curves: the dos and dont, Rev
Optom 45-48, 1996.
Prociency Test
Lens Surface Powers and Base Curves

1. A lens has the following specications
F1 = +7.25 D
F2 at 90 = 6.00 D
F2 at 180 = 8.00 D
What is the base curve?
a. 6.00 D
b. 8.00 D
c. +7.25 D
2. A lens has the following specications:

F1 at 90 = +6.00 D
F1 at 180 = +8.00 D
F2 = 7.00 D
What is the base curve?
a. +6.00 D
b. +8.00 D
c. 7.00 D
d. 1.00 D
e. +1.00 D
3. If the lens +2.00 + 1.00 090 is ground in minus
cylinder form with the following dimensions, what
is the toric or back base curve?
F1 = +8.00 D
F2 at 90 = 6.00 D
F2 at 180 = 5.00 D
a. +8.00 D
b. 6.00 D
c. 5.00 D
334
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
4. If the lens +2.00 + 1.00 090 is ground in plus

cylinder form with the F2 surface being 4.00 D,
what is the base curve?
a. +6.00 D
b. +7.00 D
c. 4.00 D
d. +2.00 D
5. True or false? Base curve and toric base curve are
always synonymous terms.
6. True or false? The toric base curve is on the back
of a minus cylinder lens.
7. A lens prescription of 3.25 D cylinder is made
up on a +6.00 D base curve. The ocular surface
could be:
a. 3.25 D sph
b. 6.00 D/9.25 D
c. 6.00 D sph
d. 9.25 D sph
e. either b or d
8. True or false? It is highly unlikely that lenses
today will be made in plus cylinder form. At
present, almost all lenses are made in minus
cylinder form.
9. A single vision lens has a power of +3.00 + 2.25
030. If the lens is ground in minus cylinder form
having a base curve of 6.00 D, what are the
remaining two curves?
a. +3.75 D and 0.75 D
b. 0.75 D and 3.00 D
c. +8.25 D and 3.00 D
d. 3.75 D and 3.00 D
10. A lens has a power of +1.25 2.00 180. If it is
ground in plus cylinder form on an 8.00 D base
curve, what are the surface powers and in which
meridians are they?
11. A lens has a power of +3.00 1.00 180 and a
+8.00 D base curve. What are the possible lens
dimensions?
a. F1 at 180 = +8.00 D
F1 at 90 = +7.00 D
F2 = 5.00 D
b. F1 = +8.00 D
F2 at 180 = 5.00 D
F2 at 90 = 6.00 D
c. F1 at 90 = +8.00 D
F1 at 180 = +9.00 D
F2 = 6.00 D
d. both b and c
e. all of the above
12. A lens has a 6.00 D base curve. The Rx is +1.25

2.00 090. What are the two possible forms the
lens may have? (Give front and back curves in
their proper meridians for both lenses.)
13. On the back surface of a lens having a plano front
surface, a lens clock shows +1.25 in the 67-degree
meridian and 1.75 in the 157-degree meridian.
Assuming that the lens is made from a material
with an index close to 1.53, what is the lens
prescription?
a. +1.25 l.75 067
b. 1.75 + 3.00 157
c. 1.75 3.00 067
d. +1.25 3.00 157
14. A lens clock reads as follows in the major
meridians:
In the 10-degree
meridian
In the 100-degree
meridian
Front Surface
+7.12 D
Back Surface
7.50 D
+8.25 D
7.50 D
Assuming that the lens material has an index close

to 1.53, what is the prescription in minus cylinder
form?
15. A lens clock reads as follows on the major
meridians:
Front Surface Back Surface
In the 20-degree
+8.00 D
6.00 D
meridian
In the 110-degree +8.00 D
7.00 D
meridian
Assuming that the lens material has an index close
to 1.53, what is the prescription in minus cylinder
form?
16. A lens surface has a refractive power of +8.25 D. If
the lens is made from material having an index of
1.53, what is the radius of curvature of the lens
surface?
17. A lens surface has a refractive power of +8.25 D. If
the lens is made from material having an index of
1.74, what is the radius of curvature of the lens
surface?
18. If a plus lens surface has a radius of curvature of
64.24 mm, what surface power would it have if
made from a 1.74-index material?
19. A certain lens of index 1.66 has a concave back
surface. The lens is small and has a diameter of
40 mm. The sagittal depth of this back surface is
0.8 mm. What is the power of the back surface of
the lens?
CH A P TER 13
20. A lens clock calibrated for index 1.53 is used on a

lens of index 1.70.
The front surface of the lens is measured on the
major meridians as follows:
Measured Front Surface:
90-degree meridian
4.54 D
180-degree meridian
3.79 D
a. What are the refractive powers for the front
surface of the lens?
b. What is the value of the cylinder, assuming the
back surface to be spherical?
21. A lens clock measures F1 at 90 = +8.00 D, F1 at
180 = +5.00 D, F2 = 4.00 D.
a. If the lens clock is calibrated for 1.53, what is
the nominal lens power of the lens measured?
b. What would the power be if the lens were made
from plastic of index = 1.49?
22. A lens clock calibrated for index 1.53 is used on a
lens with an index of refraction of 1.80. The lens
clock measures the surface as follows:
F1 at 90 = +10.33 D
F1 at 180 = +9.00 D
F2 = 3.00 D
Assume the lens to be a thin lens. Without taking
lens thickness into consideration, what is the lens
prescription?
a. +11.25 2.25 180
b. +11.05 1.33 090
c. +9.06 + 1.33 090
d. +9.06 + 2.00 180
23. A lens of index 1.70 is ordered, and the base curve
specied. The specied base curve is +8.25 D.
When it arrives, the base curve is checked with a
lens clock and is found to be +8.17 D. What are
the nominal, true, and refractive powers for this
lens surface?
24. You measure the front surface of a spherical
polycarbonate lens with a lens clock. What are you
measuring?
a. the nominal base curve
b. the true base curve
c. the refractive power of the surface
d. It is not possible to tell from the information
given.
25. A lens has an index a refraction of 1.498 and a
nominal base curve of +6.25. What is the true base
curve?
a. +6.13
b. +6.20
c. +6.25
d. +6.33
e. cannot be determined from the information
given
335
26. You would like to nd the refractive power of a

number of lens surfaces. All of the surfaces are on
lenses of index 1.67. You use a lens clock (lens
measure) on the surface. This gives you a reference
surface power, but not the refractive power you are
looking for. You could nd the refractive power by
multiplying your lens clock power by:
a. 0.791.
b. 0.916.
c. 1.092.
d. 1.264.
e. It is not possible to nd surface refractive power
in this manner.
27. True or false? A person comes in for an eye exam,
and the prescription has increased slightly. When
ordering the new pair of glasses, one should always
check the base curve of the old glasses and order
the same base curve for the new glasses.
28. True or false? When ordering an identically
powered pair of glasses as a second pair, it is
advisable to check the base curve of the rst pair
and order the same base curve for the new glasses.
Crossing Cylinders and Spherocylinders

29. A 1.00 D Jackson crossed cylinder is placed in
front of a 2.50 sphere lens. You read this lens
combination in a lensmeter. What power would
you expect to nd?
a. 2.00 1.00 something
b. 3.50 2.00 something
c. 2.50 2.00 something
d. 3.00 1.00 something
e. 1.50 2.00 something
30. A 1.00 D Jackson crossed cylinder lens oriented
90/180 is placed in front of a +2.00 D sphere lens.
Which spherocylinder lens power could be a
resultant of these two lenses?
a. +3.00 1.00 090 or 180
b. +2.00 2.00 090 or 180
c. +4.00 2.00 090 or 180
d. +2.00 1.00 090 or 180
e. +3.00 2.00 090 or 180
31. Give the sum of these two lenses: +2.00 2.00
090 and pl 2.00 180. (Give your answer to the
nearest quarter diopter.)
a. +2.00 4.00 045
b. +2.00 3.00 045
c. +2.00 sphere
d. pl 2.00 090
e. 0.00
336
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
32. Give the sum of these two lenses: pl 3.00 015

and pl 3.00 165. (Give your answer to the
nearest eighth diopter.)
a. pl 5.25 090
b. 0.50 5.25 180
c. 0.50 5.25 090
d. pl 3.25 180
33. Give the sum of these two lenses: +3.00 + 1.50
110 and +2.00 + 2.25 130. (Give your answer to
the nearest eighth diopter.)
a. +7.00 + 2.12 126
b. +5.00 + 3.62 119
c. +4.62 + 3.25 124
d. +5.00 + 3.75 118
e. +5.12 + 3.50 122
The next three questions (Questions 34, 35, and,
36) are based on the following text.
You order a toric soft contact lens having a
power of
3.50 2.00 015.
The contact lens stabilizes and orients exactly as
you expected it would. It is not rotated.
You do an overrefraction. Your results yield a
power of
+0.50 1.25 075.
You need to order another contact lens
incorporating your overrefraction. What contact
lens should you order? For sphere and cylinder
power, order to the nearest quarter diopter, for
cylinder axis, order to the nearest 5 degrees.
34. To the nearest quarter diopter, the correct sphere
power is:
a. 2.75.
b. 3.25.
c. 3.75.
d. 4.25.
35. To the nearest quarter diopter, the correct cylinder
power is:
a. 1.00.
b. 1.50.
c. 1.75.
d. 2.75.
36. The correct cylinder axis is:
a. 35.
b. 40.
c. 60.
d. 70.
37. Give the sum of these two lenses: pl 3.25 180

and pl 3.25 045. (Give your answer to the
nearest quarter diopter.)
a. 1.00 4.50 023
b. pl 6.50 068
c. pl 4.50 068
d. pl 4.50 023
You should not have to do any hard calculations
for any of the following ve questions (Questions
38-42). They are concept questions and should
not require a calculator.
38. What would the resulting lens power be for a
2.00 1.00 090 lens and a 2.50 1.00 180
lens placed one on top of the other in a lensmeter?
a. 2.25 1.00 045
b. 4.50 2.00 045
c. 4.50 DS
d. 5.50 DS
1.50 1.50 085 lens and a 3.00 1.50 005
Give the answer rounded to the nearest 1/8 diopter
that will be closest to the actual calculated values.
a. 4.50 3.00 045
b. 4.50 1.50 045
c. 5.75 0.50 045
d. 6.00 1.50 045
e. 6.00 DS
1.50 1.50 050 lens and a 3.00 1.50 040
that will be closest to the actual calculated
values.
a. 4.50 3.00 045
b. 4.50 1.50 045
c. 5.75 0.50 045
d. 6.00 1.50 045
e. 6.00 DS
1.50 1.00 010 lens and a 2.50 1.50 020
that will be closest to the actual calculated values.
a. 4.00 2.50 016
b. 4.00 2.50 015
c. 4.00 2.50 014
d. 2.00 1.25 015
CH A P TER 13

1.00 0.50 085 lens and a 3.00 2.00 005
a. 4.00 2.50 045
b. 4.50 1.50 010
c. 4.50 1.50 035
d. 4.50 1.50 045
e. 4.50 1.50 075
Lens Thicknesses
(Read the next three questions [Questions 43, 44, and
45] carefully. They are not trick questions, but you do
have to pay attention.)
43. A lens has a power of pl 2.00 090. It is
decentered 2 mm nasally and edged 50 mm round.
Which edge is thickest?
a. top and bottom
b. nasal
c. temporal
44. A lens has a power of +2.00 D sphere. It is
a. top and bottom
b. nasal
c. temporal
45. A lens has a power of pl + 2.00 090. It is
a. top and bottom
b. nasal
c. temporal
46. A lens has an index of refraction of 1.67. The lens
is plano concave in form. The power of the lens is
2.75 D sphere. The lens is to go into a
horizontally oval frame with an A dimension of
48 mm and a DBL of 20 mm. The wearers PD is
66 mm. If the center thickness of the lens is 1 mm,
what is the thickness of the thickest edge? Choose
the answer that is closest to the correct answer,
even if you cannot nd your exact answer.
a. 2.3 mm
b. 2.9 mm
c. 3.7 mm
d. 4.2 mm
e. 5.0 mm
337
47. A lens has a power of +2.00 4.00 180. It is

edged 50 mm round and decentered 2 mm nasally.
a. top and bottom
b. nasal
c. temporal
48. A plano-convex, round lens with no decentration is
surfaced to a 50-mm diameter. It is surfaced until
the edge has no thickness (a knife edge). The lens
is made from polycarbonate (index 1.586). If the
front surface of the lens has a radius of curvature
of 95.1 mm, what is the center thickness of the
lens?
a. 1.87 mm
b. 14.2 mm
c. 3.23 mm
d. 3.34 mm
49. Using the Rule of Thumb for estimating lens
thickness, estimate the expected edge thickness for
the lens below. Assume the lens to be crown glass
or CR39 lenses. (There is more information given
than is needed to answer the question.)
Power = 9.00 D sphere
A = 50
DBL = 18
ED = 56
PD = 62
center thickness = 2.0
a. 6.3 mm
b. 6.9 mm
c. 8.1 mm
d. 8.3 mm
e. 10.1 mm
C H A P T E R 14
Optical Considerations With

Increasing Lens Power
s lens power increases, previously insignicant

factors such as thickness and positioning before
the eye affect lens power. Unless compensation
for these inuences is made, the nished product fails to
perform as anticipated.
LENS POWER AS RELATED TO POSITION

The principal point of focus of a lens is always the same
distance from the lens. So when the lens is moved, the
point of focus moves as well. If the lens position has to
be changed, but the focal point must stay in the same
place, a new lens power is required.
For example, if a camera has a distance of +10 cm from
the lens to the lm, there is only one power of lens that
will cause an object at innity to focus on the lm. The
proper lens power may be calculated knowing that the
focal length of the lens must be +10 cm or +0.10 m.
Since
F=
1
f
then
F=
1
= +10.00 D
+0.10 m
If, however, the camera has a distance of +12.5 cm

from lens to lm, the +10.00 D lens is inappropriate,
since it would focus light 2 cm in front of the lm,
producing a blurry image. This is true whether the lm
moves or the lens moves. As long as the distance between
lens and lm changes from +10 to +12.5 cm, the power
of the lens must be changed. To focus on the lm at a
distance of +12.5 cm, a power of +8.00 D is required
less power than for the shorter distance (Figure 14-1).
Positional Lens Power Problems

Example 14-1
If a lens of power +5.00 D is mounted so as to focus light
on a small screen, what new power lens will be required if
the lens mounting is moved 5 cm farther away from the
screen?
338
Solution
A +5.00 D lens has a focal length of +20 cm. We know then
that the mounting was originally 20 cm away from the screen.
If the mounting is moved 5 cm farther from the screen, it is
now 25 cm away. To cause parallel rays of light to focus on
the screen, a lens with a focal length of +25 cm must be
chosen. The reciprocal of 0.25 m is 4. Therefore a +4.00 D
lens must be chosen.
Example 14-2
Parallel light enters an optical system and must be made to
diverge. A 12.50 D lens gives the correct amount of divergence. The system is redesigned, and this lens must be
moved 2 cm to the right (light is assumed to be traveling
from left to right). According to the new system, the light
must still diverge as if from the same point. What new lens
power must be used at the new location to give the same
effect?
Solution
The situation described is shown in Figure 14-2. In the old
system, since the focal length of a 12.50 D lens is 8 cm,
light appeared as if it were coming from a point 8 cm to the
left of the lens. The new system requires that this point be
maintained, but the lens must now be 2 cm farther from it.
The old lens may not be used since moving it 2 cm to the
right would also move the focal point 2 cm to the right. To
maintain the integrity of the system, the focal length of the
new lens must be 2 cm longer than that of the old, which is
8 cm +2 cm, or 10 cm to the left of the lens. The diverging
lens that has a focal length of 10 cm has a refractive power
of
1
= 10 D
0.10 m
Effective Power
The power of a lens is normally designated by its dioptric
power. Dioptric power depends on focal length. When
light leaves the lens, the exiting light rays are either
parallel, converging, or diverging. The amount of convergence or divergence of light rays is a dioptric value.
Lenses get their dioptric power based on the reciprocal
of the distance from the lens to the point of focus.
However, as the light travels closer to the point of focus,
its vergence value changes.
C H A P T E R 14
+ 10.00 D Lens
Optical Considerations With Increasing Lens Power
339
the point of focus, they have a vergence of +10.00 D. At

a reference plane one centimeter closer, the same rays
now have a vergence of:
Focal point
Film
1
or +11.11 D
0.09 m
Still another centimeter closer and the vergence will
be:
1
or + 12.50 D
0.08 m
10 cm
+ 10.00 D Lens
Focal point
Film
10 cm
To help in understanding effective power, suppose a

+10.00 D lens is to be replaced by a different lens
positioned 2 cm to the right of the original +10.00 D
lens. Remember, the same focal point must be maintained. Therefore to have the same effective power
as the +10.00 D lens, the replacement lens must be a
+12.50 D lens.
As a second example, suppose a +10.00 D is to be
replaced by a different lens positioned 5 cm to the right.
To have the same effective power as the +10.00 D, but
at a position 5 cm to the right, a +20.00 D lens would be
required (Figure 14-4).
12.5 cm
Effective Power as Related To

Vertex Distance Changes
+ 8.00 D Lens
Focal point
Film
12.5 cm
Figure 14-1. The relationship between lens power and desired

focal plane may be illustrated using the example of a camera.
In (A) the +10.00 D lens is correct for the cameras 10-cm
depth. Placing that same lens in a deeper camera (B) however,
results in a blurred image. The lens is farther from the lm,
and the image falls short. Choosing a lens of longer focal
length (C) resolves the problem.
The vergence power a lens produces at a position

other than that occupied by the lens itself is known as
the effective power of the lens for that particular reference
plane. The effective power of a given lens in air may be
obtained by taking the reciprocal of the distance in air
from the new reference plane to the focal point of the
lens (Figure 14-3).
For example, if light rays are converging towards a
given point in air, when these rays are 10 cm away from
The distance from the back surface of the spectacle lens

to the front surface of the wearers eye is known as the
vertex distance. Traditionally, for purposes of calculation,
a distance of 13.5 mm was considered average. In actual
practice, vertex distances vary considerably. Positioning
the glasses at a vertex distance other than that used
during the refraction means that the effective power at
the refracting distance is now different from that originally intended. For a low-powered lens whose focal
length is long in comparison with the vertex distance,
there is very little difference. But for higher powered
lenses, a small change in vertex distance can make a
considerable change in effective power.
Example 14-3
A person is refracted at a 12.0-mm vertex distance and
found to need a +8.50 D lens. A frame selection is made
and the lenses tted at a 17-mm vertex distance. (Incidentally, this is not a good frame selection for this prescription.)
What power lens must be used at 17 mm to give the same
effective power recorded for the refracting distance?
Solution
A +8.50 D lens has a focal length of +11.765 cm. If the new
lens has a vertex distance of 17 mm, this is 5 mm to the
left of the original position. To achieve the same refractive
effect for the wearer, the focal length of the lens dispensed
must be 5 mm longer than for the refracting lens.
340
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
12.50 D
8 cm
Figure 14-2. If the position of a lens

changes, to maintain the same effect,
a lens of a different power must be
chosen.
2
?D
8 + 2 cm
Figure 14-3. Vergence of light in air is

the reciprocal of the distance from the
reference plane to the point of focus.
4 cm (+ 25.00 D)
6 cm (+ 16.67 D)
8 cm (+ 12.50 D)
9 cm (+ 11.11 D)
10 cm (+ 10.00 D)
+ 8.33 D + 10.00 D
+ 12.50
+ 20.00
5 cm
8 cm
10 cm
12 cm
Figure 14-4. It can be seen that for

different planes of reference, the
effective power of the original lens is
different from the marked value.
Thus the effective power of a +10.00
D lens at a point 2 cm to the left of
where it actually stands is +8.33 D.
In other words, the lens that would
be used to replace a +10.00 D lens at
a point 2 cm to the left of it would be
a +8.33 D lens.
C H A P T E R 14
+11.765 cm + 0.5 cm = +12.265 cm

If the new focal length must be +12.265 cm, the new lens
power must be:
1
= +8.15 D
+0.12265 m
Effective Power of a Spherocylinder Lens

When calculating the new power needed for a
spherocylinder lens at an altered vertex distance, the
power in each major meridian must be considered
separately.
341
Effective Power Written as a Formula

Effective power can be written as a formula. As a formula,
effective power is as follows:
Feff =
1
1
d
Fv
where Feff is the effective power, Fv is the back vertex

power of the lens, and d is the distance in meters from
the original position of the lens to the new position of
the lens. It is not advisable to memorize the formula
instead of trying to understand the concept of effective
power.
AS LENS THICKNESS INCREASES

Example 14-4
If a +14.00 3.00 090 lens is prescribed at 12-mm vertex
distance and the frame selected is positioned at 15 mm,
what will the new prescription be?
Solution
The major meridians are:
F180 = +11.00 D
F90 = +14.00 D
The new effective power for the 180-degree meridian is calculated by rst nding the focal length:
f180
=
1
= +9.09 cm
+11.00
The new lens will be 15 12 or 3 mm farther from the line

foci of the lens. Therefore since the lens is plus, the focal
lengths will be 3 mm longer.
New f180 = +9.09 cm + 0.3 cm = +9.39 cm
1
= +10.65 D
+0.0939 m
To nd the new power in the 90-degree meridian:
So the new F180 =
since F90 = +14.00,

then f 90 = +7.14 cm
New f 90 = +7.14 + 0.3 = +7.44 cm
Therefore
New F90 =
1
= +13.44 D
+0.0744 m
If new F180 = +10.65 D and new F90 = +13.44 D, then the new
lens power will be +13.44 2.79 090. Not only has the
sphere power changed, but also the power of the cylinder.
In this case it is not valid to calculate the power of the
sphere (+14.00 D), then calculate the power of the cylinder
(3.00) independently. The cylinder value is the difference
between two meridians and not an independent entity.
As a lens becomes thicker, there is an increase in distance

between front and back surfaces. Changing the position
of the rst lens surface with respect to the second means
that the effective power of the rst surface at the plane
of the second surface is no longer the same. This in turn
causes a change in total lens power. The actual amount
of change may be calculated using vergences.
Vergence of Light As It Travels Through a Lens

When light strikes a lens, it is refracted at the front
surface and then travels through the thickness of the
lens. It is again refracted when reaching the back lens
surface. For thin lenses, the distance traveled from front
to back surfaces makes no appreciable change in total
lens power. The thicker the lens becomes, however, the
more of a discrepancy there is between nominal or
approximate power (F1 + F2) and the actual measured
power of the lens. As light strikes the rst surface of the
lens (F1), its vergence is changed, converging or diverging to a greater or lesser extent than previously. It has
an additional vergence change when reaching the second
surface (F2).
Vergence for Thin Lenses
For a thin lens, when the vergence of the entering light
is zero (parallel rays), the light exiting the lens has a
vergence equal to the dioptric powers of the rst and
second surfaces (F1 + F2).
For example, if F1 = +5.00 D and F2 = +1.00 D, when
light strikes F1 it is caused to converge. It now has a vergence of +5.00 D. Because the lens is thin, it immediately
strikes the back surface before its vergence changes.
Now the back surface (F2) causes light to converge
an additional +1.00 diopter. So on leaving the second
surface of the lens (F2), the light now has a vergence of
+6.00 D.
Vergence for Thick Lenses
For a thick lens, the converging light leaving the rst
surface would have a chance to travel a signicant
342
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
distance before reaching the second surface (F2). As will

be recalled from the previous section on effective power,
as converging or diverging light travels through the lens,
by the time it reaches the second surface, F2, it will have
a slightly different vergence value from what it had when
it left the rst surface, F1. This is because it is now a
different distance from its plane of reference. It is this
new vergence (the effective power of F1 at F2) that is
altered to produce a different vergence leaving the lens.
However, with thick lenses, vergence is affected not only
by the thickness of the lens, but by the refractive index
of the lens material.
(The question really asks, What effect will the refractive index of water have on the distance perceived compared with what it would otherwise appear to be in
air?)
We can assume that the glass separating the air and
water is thin enough to be of no concern in calculations.
The situation is one in which light leaves the object (a
snail), and diverges for 100 cm until it reaches a refractive surface (the front of the aquarium). Therefore since
the side of the aquarium is at:
F = 0.00 D,
l = 100 cm or 1.0 m,
n = 1.33, and
n = 1.00
Reduced Thickness and Refractive Index

Light passing from one medium to another through a
curved surface experiences a change in vergence, which,
expressed as shown previously, is quantied by the
equation:
F = L L
(The distance l is taken as minus, since the surface of

the tank is the refracting surface and light is traveling
rst through water before it reaches the surface of the
tank.)
The equation
This equation, called the fundamental paraxial equation, may also be written as:
F=
n n
l l
To see the interrelationship between distance (l or l)

and refractive index (n or n), consider the familiar situation of looking into an aquarium lled with water.
Suppose the aquarium is 100 cm from front to back.
The observer is standing in front of the aquarium observing a snail on the back surface (Figure 14-5). How far
away from the front surface will the snail appear to be?
F=
n n
l l
results in
0=
1 1.33
l 1.0
which algebraically transforms to:

1.33 1
=
1.0 l
100 cm
75 cm
Figure 14-5. The most familiar example

of reduced thickness is seen with an ordinary aquarium. Looking at the contents
through water makes individual objects
seem to be closer than they would otherwise appear if viewed only through air.
Snail
n = 1.33
C H A P T E R 14
1.0
1.33
= 0.75 mm

F1 = L1 L1
l =
So the snail and the back surface of the tank appear to

be 0.75 m or 75 cm from the front surface.
Interestingly enough, this example clearly shows that
the light entering and leaving the front surface of the
front glass has exactly the same vergence, for if F = 0,
then L = L. The distance in water as compared with that
in air is reduced because the light is traveling more
slowly in water than in air. This concept is referred to
as reduced thickness because objects of a higher refractive
index than air appear thinner than they actually are
when compared with the equivalent air distance. The
relationship between the reduced thickness, the actual
thickness (t), and the index of the medium in question
(n) can be stated simply as:
343
Substituting the correct numerical values, we nd that:

+12.00 D = L1 0
or
L1 = +12.00 D
Light leaving F1 has a vergence of +12.00 D.
The light is now converging toward a point to the right of
the front surface. That point in air would be found by taking
the reciprocal of the vergence.
L1 =
l
l1
and
t
reduced thickness =
n
Vergence of Light Striking the

Second Surface of a Thick Lens
For a thick lens, after light has left the rst surface, F1,
it travels for a time inside the lens. The lens has a refractive index that is higher than that of air. Because vergence depends on the relationship between refractive
index and distance:
L=
+12.00 =
l1 = +0.0833 m
The distance in question is +0.0833 m.
The light must travel through glass for 7 mm before reaching air, however. To nd the vergence of light at F2, the
reduced thickness of this lens must be subtracted from l1
because the point of focus is now closer to the new plane
of reference, which is the back surface of the lens.
Therefore the new distance (l2) is:
n
l
the vergence of light leaving F1 and striking F2 may not

be calculated in terms of distance alone.
Initially, one would think that the new vergence would
be found by directly adding or subtracting lens thickness
from the image distance of light leaving the rst surface
(l). This was the case in previous effective power problems because in air this proves true. But here it is
necessary to nd the new vergence at F2 by adding or
subtracting the reduced thickness of the lens from the
reciprocal of the vergence. This keeps the reference
medium as air. This is the better choice since calculations are easier when the nal results are for rays converging or diverging in air.
Example 14-5
Parallel light enters a 7-mm thick crown glass lens that has
a front surface power of +12.00 D and a refractive index of
1.523. What vergence will the light have by the time it
reaches the back surface (F2)?
Solution
After leaving F1, the light has a vergence that can be calculated from:
l
l1
l2 = l1
t
n
t
is the reduced thickness of the lens. (Thickness
n
must be expressed in the same units as l1.)
where
0.007 m
1.523
= 0.0833 m 0.0046 m
= 0.0787 m
l2 = 0.0833 m
The vergence of the light entering F2 is the reciprocal of

0.0787 m.
L2 =
1
l2
1
0.0787 m
= +12.71 D
=
The vergence of light entering F2 is +12.71 D. It can be seen

from the above example that if F2 were plano, the vergence
of light leaving F2 would also be +12.71 D. This is not the
result that would be expected if lens power were assumed
to be the sum of the two lens surface powers.
344
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
FRONT AND BACK VERTEX POWERS

It has been shown that because of lens thickness the
nominal or approximate power of a lens does not accurately predict the actual power of the lens. It will be
recalled that when parallel light enters the front of a lens,
it is refracted and exits from the rear surface of the lens.
The image, be it real or virtual, falls at the second principal
focus.
The reciprocal of the distance in air from the rear
surface of the lens to the second principal focus is a
specic measure of the power of this lens and is known
as the back vertex power (Fv). (This is the measure of
power of most importance in ophthalmic lenses.)
(Note: Chapter 6 has information on how to measure
lens power using the lensmeter. The material found
there is relevant to this section as well.)
If parallel light enters from the rear surface, the place
where the image forms is known as the rst principal
focus. The reciprocal of the distance in air from the front
surface of the lens to the rst principal focus is another
measure of the power of the lens. This measure is referred
to as the front vertex power (Fv) (Figure 14-6). It is not
unusual to nd front and back vertex powers to be different. If the lens is equiconcave or equiconvex, the front
and back vertex powers will be the same. If the lens has
any other form and is thick, there may be a measurable
difference between front and back vertex power.
F1
F2
fv
F2
F1
fv
B
F1
F2
F
fv
fv
Calculating Front and Back Vertex Powers

Front and back vertex powers may be found by nding
vergence as light approaches and leaves each lens surface.
They may also be found using a formula summarizing
the necessary vergence factors. By following the vergence methods for solving this type of problem, it will
result in a much better understanding of the action of a
lens on light than will simple formula memorization.
Both methods are described.
Solving for Front and Back Vertex
Powers Using Vergence
If light enters the front surface of a lens as parallel rays,
the back vertex power of a lens will be equal to the vergence these light rays have when leaving the back surface
of the lens. If the form, thickness, and refractive index
of that lens are known, the back vertex power may be
found by systematically tracing the path light rays take
through the lens.
Example 14-6
A lens has the following dimensions:
F1 = +8.00 D
F2 = 2.00 D
t = 5 mm
n = 1.523
What is the back vertex power of the lens?
C
Figure 14-6. When light enters a lens from the front, the
focal length, and consequently the measured focal power, can
be different from when light enters a lens from the back. A
and B show the difference between front vertex and back
vertex focal lengths ( fv and fv). These focal lengths will directly
determine front and back vertex focal powers (Fv and Fv). (B,
drawn with the lens backward to allow better visual comparison between the front and back vertex focal lengths.) C, The
conventional manner of representing front and back vertex
focal lengths diagrammatically. (F = rst principal focal point;
F = second principal focal point; fv = front vertex focal length;
fv = second vertex focal length.)
Solution
Light entering the lens must be from an object at innity to
determine back vertex lens power. The rays entering the front
surface of the lens will then be parallel, having a vergence
of zero (Figure 14-7). Since
L1 = F1 + L1
and
L1 = 0.00 D
C H A P T E R 14
L1 = + 8.00 D
345
L2 = + 8.27 D
L1 = 0.00 D
L2 = + 6.27 D
F1 = + 8.00 D
Fv
Figure 14-7. Lens curvature and

thickness have a de nite bearing on
the nal back vertex power of a lens.
F2 = 2.00 D
t
t = 5 mm ( n = 0.0033 m)
2.00 D
1.99 D
Figure 14-8. Reversing a lens may

change the position of the image. For
some lenses, front and back vertex
power may be quite different. Here,
the lens shown in Figure 14-7 has
been reversed to more easily use a
vergence method of nding its vertex
power.
0.00 D
+ 6.01 D
Fv
2.00 D
+ 8.00 D
t = 5 mm
then
then in this case,

L1 = +8.00 D + 0.00 D
L2 = 2.00 + 8.22
= +6.22
or
L1 = +8.00 D
To nd the vergence of light at F2, the reduced thickness is
subtracted from l1.
l2 = l1
t
n
1
0.005 m
+8.00
1.523
= 0.125 m 0.0033 m
= 0.1217 m
=
Since back vertex power is the vergence with which light from
an object at innity leaves a lens, the back vertex power (Fv)
for this lens is +6.22 D. This is noticeably different from the
nominal power of the lens, which equals +6.00 D.
Example 14-7
What would the front vertex power be for the lens described
in the previous problem?
(This is the same procedure as nding the effective power

of F1 at F2.)
Now since
Solution
To simplify the construction, it is easier to nd the front
vertex power by turning the lens around and considering light
to be entering from the back as was shown in Figure 14-6,
B. In this manner then, sign conventions are maintained and
less confusion results. The same methodology may be used
as in nding the back vertex power, Fv. To prevent confusion
in terminology, the back surface of the lens now becomes
F1 (since light now enters it as if it were the front surface),
and the front surface will become F2 (Figure 14-8).
Now since
L2 = F2 + L2
L1 = F1 + L1
Therefore the vergence of light at F2 is:

L2 =
1
1
=
= +8.22 D
l2 0.1217
346
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Solving for Front and Back Vertex Powers Using

Formulas
The previous vergence methods may be summarized
into formulas. The formula for back vertex power is:
and
L1 = 0.00 D
with the new
Fv =
F1 = 2.00 D
then
L1 = 2.00 D + 0.00 D
= 2.00 D
And the formula for front vertex power is:

Fv =
Again, the vergence of light at F2 is found as reduced thickness subtracted from l1.
l2 = l1
t
n
1
0.005 m
2.00
1.523
= 0.50m 0.0033m
= 0.05033m
1
1
= 1.99 D
L2 = =
l2 0.5033 m
=
F1
+ F2
t
1 F1
n
F2
+ F1
t
1 F2
n
The above formulas give results that are accurate and

identical to those found by the vergence method. Simplied formulas that approximate Fv and Fv front and back
vertex powers and have been derived from the above
formulas by using higher mathematics are:
Fv = F1 + F2 +
2
t
(F1 )
n
Fv = F1 + F2 +
2
t
( F2 )
n
and
Now
L2 = F2 + L2
= +8.00 D 1.99 D
= +6.01 D
The front vertex power for this lens is +6.01 D, which is
extremely close to the nominal power of the lens. If the
surface of the lens that light was entering had been plano,
this vertex power would have been equal to the nominal
power. The more curved the entering surface, the more the
vertex power of the lens will differ from its nominal power.
These formulas are approximations and, although

somewhat easier to work, are not expected to give the
accuracy of the more exact forms. The approximations
were more widely used before small calculators became
available.
Prociency Test
1. If a +11.00 D lens is worn at a 13-mm vertex
distance, what must the Rx be changed to if it is to
be worn at an 10-mm vertex distance?
2. A prescription for a myodisc reads:

O.D. 27.50 DS
O.S. 24.00 DS
Refracting distance 14 mm.
If the Rx were to be worn at 11 mm, what would
the necessary lens powers be?
C H A P T E R 14
3. If a person with a high minus spectacle Rx

switches to contact lenses, the power in the contact
lens would be ______ the power in the spectacle
lens.
a. greater than
b. less than
c. the same as
4. A persons eyes were examined at a vertex distance
of 14 mm and found to require +8.50 D sphere
power. A frame having a vertex distance of 11 mm
is desired. If the Rx is to be worn at 11 mm, what
must the power of the lens be to give the same
visual correction? (Round off to the nearest 1/8 D.)
5. A prescription of +6.00 +3.25 15 is determined
using a vertex distance of 14 mm. If the frame is
unwisely t for a 22-mm vertex distance, what
must the theoretical power of the lens be?
a. +9.99 3.69 105
b. +8.61 2.88 105
c. +5.73 +3.25 15
d. +7.69 2.39 105
6. A +13.25 1.75 180 lens is worn at a 13-mm
vertex distance. What is the equivalent
prescription for a zero vertex distance contact lens?
a. +16.00 -l.75 180
b. +11.25 1.25 180
c. +11.25 1.75 180
d. +16.00 2.50 180
7. A prescription lens has a high plus sphere
component and a moderate cylinder component. If
the vertex distance is increased, what would have
to happen to retain the correct optical effect
before the eyes?
a. The sphere component must increase, and the
cylinder component decrease.
b. The sphere component must decrease, and the
cylinder component decrease.
c. The sphere component must decrease, and
the cylinder component increase.
d. The sphere component must increase, and the
cylinder component remain the same.
e. The sphere component must increase, and the
cylinder component increase.
8. If a single-vision lens is placed in the lensmeter in
the reverse position (concave side toward the
observer), the power value obtained is a measure
of:
a. equivalent power.
b. effective power.
c. back vertex power.
d. front vertex power.
e. true power.
347
9. A thick lens has a convex front surface and a plano

back surface. Which of the following statements
about this lens is true?
a. The front vertex power is greater than the back
vertex power.
b. The back vertex power is greater than the front
vertex power.
c. Front and back vertex powers will be equal.
d. Such a lens will always have the seg on the back
surface.
e. None of the above are true.
10. What is the back vertex power for a lens ground to
these specications?
Front surface curve +13.00 D
Back surface curve plano
Center thickness 10 mm
Index of the lens 1.5
a. +11.87 D
b. +13.00 D
c. +13.50 D
d. +13.87 D
e. +14.12 D
11. A lens has the following dimensions:
F1 = +8.00 D
F2 = 1.00 D
n = 1.70
t = 5 mm
What is the front vertex power of the lens?
12. When measured with a lens clock, a lens having an
index of 1.53 measures as +10.00 D on the front
surface and plano on the back surface. The lens is
4 mm thick.
a. What is the nominal power?
b. What is the back vertex power?
13. A lens has a front surface power of +8.00 D. It
must be ground 5 mm thick from material of
refractive index 1.5. To obtain a back vertex power
(Fv) of 2.00 D, what power must the back surface
of the lens have?
14. A minus cylinder form lens has a base curve of
+6.00 D and is to be ground 5 mm thick from
material of index 1.523. For the lens to have an Fv
of +6.00 1.00 180, what must the back surface
curvature be?
a. F2 = 0.25 D at 90, F2 = 1.25 D at 180
b. F2 = -l.25 D at 90, F2 = 0.12 D at 180
c. F2 = 0.08 D at 180, F2 = 1.00 D at 90
d. F1 = +5.00 D at 90, F2 = 0.12 D sphere
348
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
15. A lens is thick, high plus in power, and meniscus

in form. It also has a cylinder component. To
obtain the same back vertex power as indicated by
the prescription:
a. if the cylinder is ground on F1 it must be
greater in power than the cylinder value
indicated in the prescription.
b. if the cylinder is ground on F2 it must be less in
power than the cylinder value indicated in the
prescription.
c. if the cylinder is ground on F1 it must be less in

power than the cylinder value indicated in the
prescription.
d. if the cylinder is ground on F1 it must be the
same power as the cylinder value indicated in
the prescription.
e. Two of the above are correct.
C H A P T E R 15
Optical Prism: Power and Base

Direction
lens causes incoming light to change in its vergence by making that light converge or diverge.
A prism causes light to change direction without
changing its vergence. The image of an object can be
optically repositioned with a prism. People who have
problems with how their eyes work together as a team
can be helped by the use of prism. In this chapter we
look at what a prism is and how it is used in eye care.
OPHTHALMIC PRISMS
Example 15-1
If a prism has an apical angle of 8 degrees and is made
from CR-39 plastic with a refractive index of 1.498, how
many degrees will the prism deviate the light ray from its
original path?
Solution
When working through this example problem, refer to Figure
15-2. Notice that light entering the rst surface is perpendicular to the surface and is not bent. It is bent at the second
surface and, according to Snells law,
A prism consists of two angled refracting surfaces. The

simplest form of a prism is two at surfaces that come
together at an angle at the top. The point is called the
apex of the prism; the wider bottom of the prism is called
the base.
The Relationship Between Prism Apical Angle

and Deviation of Light
Suppose a prism is oriented so that incoming light strikes
the rst surface perpendicularly. When light strikes the
rst surface it is going from a low refractive index material (air) into a higher refractive index material (the
prism). However, it does not change direction because it
enters the surface straight on. Light will continue to
travel through the prism without being bent until it
reaches the second surface (Figure 15-1). This ray of
light then strikes the second surface at an angle. Because
the light has not been bent by the rst surface, the angle at
which it strikes the second surface is equal to the apical angle
of the prism (Figure 15-2). As this ray of light approaches
the second surface of the prism, it is traveling from the
denser (high refractive index) medium of the prism to a
less dense medium (air) and will be bent away from the
normal* to the surface. Light is always bent toward the
base of a prism.
What is the relationship between the apical angle of
a prism and the amount of deviation of the light produced by that prism?
n sin i =
where n =
n =
sin 8 =
n sin i
1.498
1.0,
0.1392
So by substituting,
(1.498) (0.1392) = (1.0) (sin i)
sin i = 0.2085
Next using a calculator we nd the inverse sine (sin1) of
0.2085 to be:
i = 12.03 degrees
The angle of refraction is the angle at which the light ray
leaves the second surface. To nd the angle of deviation
(i.e., how many degrees the light is deviated from its original
path), subtract the angle of incidence from the angle of
refraction.
(angle of deviation) = (angle of refraction)
(angle of incidence)
d = i i
= 12.03 8.00
= 3.97 degrees
In this instance, the resulting angle of deviation is 3.97
degrees, or rounded off, 4.0 degrees.
Example 15-2
*Remember, normal to the surface means perpendicular to the
surface.
A prism is made from polycarbonate material having an index

of 1.586. It has an apical angle of 5 degrees. What is the
angle of deviation that it produces in air?
349
350
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Solution
Again using Snells law,
n sin i = n sin i
We can substitute and nd:
(1.586)(sin 8) = (1.0) (sin i)
(1.586) (0.0872) = sin i
sin i = 0.1382
Next the inverse sine of 0.1382 is found.
i = 7.95 degrees
The angle of deviation is:
d = i i
= 7.95 5
= 2.95 degrees
So the angle of deviation is 2.95 degrees.
Simplifying for Thin Prisms
Figure 15-1. The more wedge shaped a prism is, the greater
is its ability to divert light in another direction.
In an effort to simplify, there is a shortcut for nding

the angle of deviation that may be applied for thin
prisms.
We know by looking at Figure 15-2 that:
The angle of incidence (i2) equals the apical angle of
the prism (a), or (i2 = a)
The angle of refraction (i2) is the sum of the apical angle
(a) plus the angle of deviation (d), or
(i2 = a + d)
(Apical angle)
i2
(a)
Angle
of
incidence
Angle
of
refraction
i2 (= a)
Angle of
deviation
Figure 15-2. This prism is oriented with the rst surface perpendicular to the incoming
light ray. This means that the angle of incidence at the second surface (i2) is equal to the apical
angle of the prism. Note also that the angle of refraction (i2) equals the apical angle (a) plus
the angle of deviation (d).
CH A P TER 15
Optical Prism: Power and Base Direction
d = a(n 1)
This means if we begin with:

n sin i2 = n sin i2
In this case by substituting we get:

d = a ( n 1)
= 9 (1.7 1)
= 9 (0.7)
d = 6.3 degrees
We can substitute and get:

n sin a = n sin (a + d)
When angles are small (10 degrees or less), the sine
of the angle is the same as the angle measured in radians.
If this is the case, it is possible to say that:
351
The angle of deviation is 6.3 degrees.
Example 15-4
(n) (a) = (n) (a + d)
Because the prism is in air, n = 1, and the equation
becomes:
(n) (a) = (a + d)
To nd d, we can transpose the equation and get:
A prism made from CR-39 plastic has an apical angle of

8 degrees. Using the thin prism approximation, what is the
angle of deviation?
Solution
This is the same problem as given in Example 15-1. This
time, however, we can use the most simplied form of the
thin prism approximation since CR-39 plastic is so close to
1.5 index. Therefore
d = (n) (a) a
a
2
8
=
2
= 4 degrees
d=
or, written another way,

d = a(n 1)
For this equation, it does not matter if the angle is in
radians or degrees. It still works. So for prisms with an
apical angle of less than 10 degrees, the angle of deviation equals the apical angle times the quantity index
minus 1. (Remember that this formula is an accurate
approximation for thin prisms only, but quickly loses
accuracy once a prism increases in thickness.)
For material with an index of 1.5, the calculation is
even easier and reduces to:
d = a (n 1)
= a (1.5 1)
= a (0.5)
a
d=
2
In other words, when the lens is made from index 1.5
material (CR-39 plastic has an index of 1.498), then the
angle of deviation is equal to half the apical angle.
Finding Apical Angle from Degrees of Deviation

It is possible to nd the apical angle from degrees of
deviation by transposing the same thin prism simplied
equation of:
d = a(n 1)
that was described previously to:
a=
Example 15-5
A prism made from 1.66 index material is shown to deviate
light 6 degrees. What is its apical angle?
Solution
Using the equation:
a=
Example 15-3
A prism with an index of refraction of 1.70 has an apical
angle of 9 degrees. Using the thin prism approximation, what
is the angle of deviation?
Solution
Because the prism index is far from 1.5, we cannot use the
very simple approximation and just divide the apical angle
by 2. Instead we use:
d
n1
d
n1
We can substitute and nd:

6
1.66 1
6
=
0.66
= 9.09 degrees
a=
352
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
So the apical angle of the prism is approximately 9.1

degrees.
Finding Prism Displacement for Any Distance

If prism displacement can be written as:
The Prism Diopter ()

The power of a prism could be quantied in terms of
apical angle. The problem is that prism power would
vary depending upon the refractive index of the prism.
So this does not work very well.
A prism could also be quantied in terms of the angle
of deviation in degrees that it produces. This is better
because it is independent of index. However, angle of
deviation is not as easy to work with for ophthalmic
purposes.
A third way of quantifying prism power is to express
it in terms of how far it displaces light when measured
on a at screen. In other words, how far was light displaced from the point it would otherwise have struck at
a given distance from the prism had it not rst been bent
by the prism. This type of unit is called the prism diopter
and is abbreviated by the Greek delta symbol (). The
prism diopter is an angular measure derived by using the
tangent of the angle of deviation. The prism diopter is
the unit of angular measure whose tangent is 0.01 or
1 .
100
Remember, in trigonometry the tangent of an angle
opp
is the opposite over the adjacent tan d =

(Figure
adj
15-3). This means that for a screen 100 cm away, if a
prism displaces the image 1 cm, the prism has a power
of 1 prism diopter. So from the geometry of Figure 15-4
we see that:
tan d =
P
100
where P is the number of centimeters that the image is

displaced at a distance of 100 cm (1 m). By de nition P
will also be the number of prism diopters () of prism
displacement power.
tan d =
We can also determine prism diopters if we know the

amount of displacement of the ray for any given distance
from the prism. If the displacement is x units on a at
plane that is located y units from the prism, then:
tan d =
tan d =
P
x
=
100 y
or
P
x
=
100 y
Notice that both x and y must be the same units of
measure. If x is centimeters, then y must also be centimeters (See Figure 15-4, B.)
Example 15-6
A prism displaces light a lateral distance of 9 cm at a plane
300 cm from the prism. What is the power of the prism in
prism diopters?
Solution
Using the equation:
P
x
=
100 y
d
Opposite
nuse
x
y
This means that:
Adjacent
Hypote
P
100
Figure 15-3. A trigonometric rationale

for converting degrees of deviation to
prism diopters.
CH A P TER 15
353
(1 meter)
100 cms
1 cm
1D
(One prism diopter)
x
y
tan d =
y
tan d =
P
100
100 cms
P
C
Figure 15-4. A, We see that, by denition, a prism having a power of one prism diopter (1)
will displace a ray 1 cm at a distance of 100 cm. B, We notice that the angle of deviation
caused by the prism (d), and the amount of displacement (x) on a plane at a given distance ( y)
x
from the prism can be described by tan d = . C, Knowing what we see in B, we can relate
y
P
prism diopters to the angle of deviation with the relationship: tan d =
100
and knowing that x = 9 cm and y = 300 cm, then:
P
9
=
100 300
(9)(100)
P=
300
= 3 cms
So basically we used similar triangles to nd that for a

displacement of 3 cm at a distance of 100 cm, this prism
has a power of 3. This is because, by denition, a 3-cm ray
displacement at a distance of 100 cm is 3 prism diopters.
If we were to use the equation:
P
x
=
100 y
354
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
And change the units of measure for the distance from the
prism to the screen into meters, then we would have:
P
x centimeters
=
1 meter
y meters
or
P=
Example 15-9
How many prism diopters are produced for each degree of
deviation?
Solution
For 1 degree of deviation, we begin by nding the tangent of
1 degree.
x centimeters
y meters
tan 1 = 0.0175.
using:
Example 15-7
tan d =
How much prism power does a prism have if it displaces a

ray of light 5 cm from a position it would otherwise strike at
a distance of 1 m from the prism?
Solution
If displacement (x) is 5 cm and screen distance is 1 m,
then:
x centimeters
y meters
5 centimeters
P=
1 meter
= 5
P
100
tan 1 = 0.0175 =
P
100
So
P = (0.0175)(100)
= 1.75
P=
So each degree of deviation produces 1.75 prism diopters.
Example 15-10
The answer is 5.
How many degrees of deviation are produced by 1 prism

diopter?
Example 15-8
Solution
This time we are going the other way.
How much prism power does a prism have if it displaces a

ray of light 5 cm from a position it would otherwise strike at
a distance of 5 m from the prism?
Solution
The only change in the above problem is the screen distance, which increases to 5 m. So if:
P=
x centimeters
y meters
P
100
1
tan d =
= 0.01
100
tan d =
Finding the inverse tan of 0.01 gives a value of:

d = 0.573 degree
So for small amounts of deviation one can simply remember
that 1 degree = 1.75, and 1 = 0.57 degrees.*
Then
5 centimeters
5 meters
= 1
P=
Conversion From Degrees of Deviation to

Prism Diopters
It is possible to convert back and forth from degrees of
deviation to prism diopters using trigonometric functions as described earlier and shown in the equation:
tan d =
P
100
The Prism Centrad ()

A seldom-used method of quantifying prism deviation is
the centrad (abbreviated ). A centrad is similar to a
prism diopter in that a ray is displaced 1 cm at a distance
of 1 m from the prism. The difference between the two
is that a prism diopter is measured on a at plane 1 m
away, whereas the displacement of a centrad is measured
*At this point, it should be mentioned that some manufacturing
opticians refer to prism diopters by using the term degrees. Although
sometimes used in the trade and understood to be the same thing
as a prism diopter, this use of the term degrees is technically inaccurate and must not be confused with either degrees of deviation
or apical angle as expressed in degrees.
CH A P TER 15
355
r)
(1 mete s
100 cm
1 cm
1
(One centrad)
Figure 15-5. One (1) centrad equals one hundredth part of a radian. The one hundredth part
is measured on the circular arc. If the radius equals 100 cm, then 1 centrad () is 1 cm measured on the curved arc.
on the arc of a circle having a 1-m radius (Figure 15-5).

The centrad is thus a more consistent unit of measurement, but it is not used clinically. For small angles of
prism deviation, the centrad and the prism diopter are
nearly equal. However, as the amount of prismatic deviation increases, the two become increasingly different.
Image Displacement
If a prism is placed before an eye, the deviated ray enters
the eye. The eye itself has no way of knowing that the
ray has been deviated. It simply appears to be coming
from a different direction. Since this ray comes from a
specic object, the object itself appears to be displaced.
Since there is no actual displacement, what the eye sees
is a displaced image of that object. The phenomenon is
referred to as image displacement and is shown in Figure
15-6.
The amount of image displacement is predictable
from the power of the prism and can be expressed in
prism diopters. This corresponds exactly to the previous
denition. As seen in Figure 15-7, if a ray of light is displaced 1 cm at a distance of 1 m from the prism, the
image of an object in front of the prism will be correspondingly displaced 1 cm for each meter the object is
from the prism.*
*For objects closer to the prism than innity, the divergence of the
rays striking the prism causes a ray displacement (and consequently an image displacement as well) that is slightly different than
that manifested for an object at innity. This is called effective
prism power and is explained later in this same chapter. Rays from
an object at innity strike the prism with neither divergence nor
convergence, but are parallel rays.
Figure 15-6. When looking through a prism, the image of an

object appears to be displaced from its actual location.
Direction of Image Displacement

As previously seen, a single ray of light is deviated in the
direction of the prisms base. From the point of view of
an observer holding the prism before his or her eye, the
prism causes the image of a viewed object to be displaced
in the direction of the apex of the prism. To remember
this easily, think of the prism as being an arrow with its
apex pointing in the direction of the displaced image.
The eye turns in the direction the prism points.
Practical Application
Prism is used in a spectacle lens prescription to either
cause or allow the eye to turn from the normal straightahead viewing direction. If one eye turns upward, a
prism may be placed with its base down before that eye.
This causes an object to appear as if it is farther up than
it actually is. When this is done, the image the eye sees
will correspond to the position where the deviant eye is
looking so that both eyes may more easily work together
as a team. In this simplied example, the direction of
356
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Ray displacement
1 cm
1M
Image displacement
cm
Figure 15-7. How prism diopters correspond for both displacement of rays or displacement
of images.
prism orientation would depend on which way the eye

tended to point.
How to Specify Prism Base Direction

There is more than one way of specifying prism base
direction. Lens prescribers tend to use one method
because it ts in more with how they measure the amount
of prism needed. The optical surfacing laboratory uses
another method because prism can only be ground in a
certain manner.
The Prescribers Method
The person prescribing prism generally uses the wearers
face to reference the prism direction. The top and bottom
of the wearers face and the nose or sides of the head are
used to specify base direction. If the prism is right side
up, with the base pointing downward and the apex
pointing upward, the prism is said to be a base-down
prism. If it is upside down, the prism is said to be base

up (Figure 15-8).
If the prism is on its side, so to speak, the base of the
prism will be oriented either in the direction of the nose
or outward away from the nose. Prism oriented with its
base toward the nose is said to be base in (Figure 15-9).
Prism turned with its base away from the nose is referred
to as being base out (Figure 15-10). This is perfectly
adequate for those doing the prescribing since vertical
and horizontal prism elements are considered separately.
If both horizontal and vertical prism corrections are
required, then two prism elements are prescribed.
Unfortunately, this is somewhat limiting for the
optical surfacing laboratory. First of all, if base-in or
base-out prism is prescribed, it depends on which eye is
being referenced as to which direction the base of the
prism actually faces. For the right eye, base-in prism
means that the base goes to the right, but for the left
CH A P TER 15
357
Base out
Base out
Base up
Base down
Base in
Base in
Figure 15-8. It is not necessary to know which eye a prism is

on to be certain what base down or base up means.
(However, base down before the right eye has the same effect
for the wearer as base up before the left. They are not opposite
effects.)
Figure 15-9. When horizontally oriented prism is prescribed

for both eyes, it is almost always either base in for both eyes
or base out for both eyes. Base-in prisms on both right and left
eyes do not cancel each other, but rather augment the desired
effect.
eye, a base-in prism means that the base goes to the

left.
A 360-Degree Laboratory Reference System
Although the prescribers method of specifying prism is
well suited for those examining eyes and those dispens-
Figure 15-10. Even though the prism bases go in opposite

directions, both are classied as base out. It is not possible
to know exactly which way a base-out prism is oriented until
a right or left eye is specied.
ing eyewear, it is not adequate for the optical laboratory.

The optical laboratory uses either a 360-degree system
or a 180-degree system of specifying prism base
direction.
The 360-degree laboratory reference system uses the
standard method of specifying direction in degrees, as
shown in Figure 15-11. When a lens is viewed from the
front (convex side facing the observer), the base direction
is specied as follows: If the base is pointing to the right,
it is specied as base 0 degrees. If the base is oriented in
an upward direction, it is base 90 degrees. To the left
is base 180 degrees, and straight down is base 270
degrees.
The prescribers method uses a rectangular coordinate system of horizontal and vertical measures. The
laboratory method uses a polar coordinate system of
degrees.
Converting the Prescribers Method to the
Laboratory System
Suppose a prescription calls for 2 diopters of base-down
prism. What is that in the 360-degree laboratory reference system?
Base-down prism is below the 180-degree line. Therefore it must be greater than 180 degrees. Since there are
only four directions in the prescribers method, it must
be either 0, 90, 180, or 270 degrees. The 270-degree
direction is straight down. Therefore 2 diopters of basedown prism corresponds to base 270.
When there is only one prism element to the prescription lens, there is little difculty in converting (Figure
358
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
90
120
60
5
4
150
30
3
2
180
0 (360)
1
210
330
2
3
240
300
4
270
Figure 15-11. The degree system for prism is close to that

used for specifying cylinder axis.
Figure 15-13. When the target is centered in a lensmeter, the

optical center of the lens has been located.
Up
(90)
Out
(180)
Up
(90)
In
(0)
Down
(270)
in
(180)
Out
(0)
Down
(270)
Figure 15-12. Prism base orientation is specied by eye as

up, down, in, or out. Base orientations may also be specied
in degrees, although prescriptions for an individuals glasses
are seldom written as such.
15-12). However, if there are two elements, the conversion may result in any one of the full 360 degrees.
Converting from the Prescribers Method When Two
Prism Elements Are Involved
Sometimes a prescription calls for two amounts of prism
in two different directions, both on the same eye. When
lenses are ground, it is not possible to work with two
prisms. Instead the two prisms are combined into one
new prism. Fortunately the end result is the same.
Using one prism instead of two is like taking a shortcut across a eld. Instead of walking 2 miles east and 2
miles north, it is possible to walk 2.83 miles northeast
and arrive at exactly the same location. (Those familiar
with geometry will recognize this as simply the sum of
two vectors.) Therefore instead of grinding 2 diopters of

base-out prism for the right eye (prism at 180 degrees)
and 2 diopters of base-up prism (prism at base 90 degrees),
it is possible to grind 2.83 diopters of prism halfway
between (which in this case corresponds to base 135
degrees).
Although this may seem difcult to visualize initially,
anyone who is accustomed to using a lensmeter has
already been using this system for some time. The lensmeter uses a system of rings inside the instrument to
indicate the amount of prism being measured. If the
lensmeter is focused, the lines on the target cross at
the location of the optical center of the lens. Normally
the lens is moved until the target lines are superimposed
on the center of the lensmeter reticle, as in Figure 15-13.
If the target lines are not centered, the place on the lens
where the lensmeter is measuring creates a prismatic
effect. The amount of prism is indicated by the location
of the intersection of the target lines.
For example, if the target lines intersect on the reticle
ring marked 1, the lens shows 1 diopter of prism. If the
target lines are on the 1 reticle ring exactly above the
center of the reticle, as shown in Figure 15-14, the prism
direction is base up. As would be expected, a base-in or
base-out effect will be seen to the left or right, depending on which lens is being measured (Figure 15-15).
If a lens is placed in the lensmeter and the intersection of the target lines occurs at a location other than
on the vertical or horizontal reticle line, then both vertical and horizontal prism are being manifested. The
amount of each is found by drawing imaginary lines
from the target center to the horizontal and vertical lines
CH A P TER 15
Figure 15-14. If a lens shows this in the lensmeter, there is 1

prism diopter of base-up prism at the point on the lens being
looked through. This is true regardless of whether it is a left
or a right lens.
359
27
Figure 15-16. Assuming that this lens is for the right eye, the
prismatic effect shown is 2 base in and 1 base up. The base
direction of the resultant prism is 27 degrees. It should be
noted that the tilt of the triple and single target lines do not
tell base direction. Within the eyepiece is a hairline that is
turned until it crosses the center of the target. This hairline
indicates the correct number of degrees. (The interior degree
scale is not shown.)
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 15-15. For this lens, the amount of prism is 1 prism

diopter. However, since we do not know whether the lens is
for the left or right eye, we do not know if the prism is base
in or base out. If the lens is intended for the right eye, the base
direction is base out.
of the reticle. In Figure 15-16, if the lens is a right lens,

the amount of prism manifested is 2 prism diopters base
in and 1 prism diopter base up. However, the location of
the center of the target really shows only one prism. By
looking at the gure it can be seen that the amount of
prism is really about 2.25 prism diopters. The base direction is approximately 27 degrees. (Most lensmeters have
a degree scale within the reticle that can be used to
measure the angle.) We now have a simple system for
converting the prescribers method to the laboratory reference system of recording prism. Since looking into a
lensmeter each time is somewhat inconvenient, an alternative is to use a device called a resultant prism chart. This
chart is shown in Figure 15-17. Such a chart is used in
the same manner, but without the lensmeter.
Here are some typical problems for converting the
prescribers method to the laboratory method.
Example 15-11
If a right lens calls for 1 diopter of base-in prism, what is
that in degrees?
Solution
When visualizing prism direction, the lens is always thought
of as if the lens (or glasses) has the convex surface facing
you (in other words, looking at the glasses as they would
appear when being worn by someone else). Therefore for a
right lens a base in direction is toward the right. On the prism
chart this is in the 0-degree direction. Thus the answer is 1
prism diopter, base 0.
360
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
10
90
9
100
80
70
110
8
120
60
130
50
140
40
5
150
30
4
160
20
2
170
10
1
10
180
9
9 0
10
1
10
170
2
20
160
4
30
150
5
40
140
50
130
60
70
9
80
90
120
110
100
10
Figure 15-17. A resultant prism chart. This chart is really the same thing as a lensmeter
target, but with both a background grid for visualizing the rectangular coordinate system
(base in, out, up and down) and the polar coordinate system.
Example 15-12
What if the prescription for the left eye in Example 15-11
also called for 1 diopter of prism base in? Expressed in
degrees, what would that base direction be?
Solution
When viewing a left lens from the front, the nose will be to
the left. Therefore the base direction is to the left. It can be
seen from the prism chart that the base is now in the 180degree direction.
The answer is 1 prism diopter base 180. So now, even

though the prescribers method indicates base-in prism for
both the right and left lenses, the right-eye prism is base 0,
and the left-eye prism is base 180.
Example 15-13
A prescription indicates that the right eye requires 1 BI (1
prism diopter base in) and 2 BU (base up). Express this in
terms of the laboratory reference system.
CH A P TER 15
361
Base 64
10
90
9
100
80
70
110
8
120
60
130
50
140
40
5
150
30
4
2D Base 90
160
20
2
170
10
1
10
180
9
9 0
10
1D Base 0
10
170
20
160
4
30
150
5
40
140
50
130
60
70
9
80
90
120
110
100
10
Figure 15-18. Prism chart for Example 15-13.

(Courtesy Coburn Equipment Catalog, Coburn Optical Industries, Muskogee, Okla.)
Solution
Looking at the prism chart in Figure 15-18, we nd the location of 1 base 0. Next we nd the location of 2 base 90.
If we complete a rectangle using these two points as corners,
we nd the location of the result as 2.25 base 64
degrees.
More practice problems are given at the end of

the chapter. Answers are provided at the back of the
book.
A Modied (180-Degree) Reference System

Since people in the optical industry are familiar with a
180-degree system when specifying cylinder axis, many
prefer to use only 0 to 180 degrees when specifying
prism base direction. With cylinder axis there is no difference between axis 90 and axis 270. The cylinder axis
is one continuous line. This is not the case, however,
with prism base direction. With prism a base 270 direction is exactly opposite a base 90 direction. Thus when
using only 0 to 180 degrees, the number must be fol-
362
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
lowed by either up or down. Therefore base 90 is

base 90 up, and base 270 is base 90 down.
In practice if the base direction is between 0 and 180
degrees, the word up is dropped. But if the base direction corresponds to more than 180 degrees in the 360degree system, 180 degrees is subtracted from the
number, and the word down is always added. For
example, in the 180-degree reference system, base 270 is
(270 180), or base 90 DN (down).
Prism Base Direction for Paired Lenses

Prism is normally prescribed to compensate for difculty the eyes have in working together (i.e., for the
purposes of addressing a binocular vision problem).
Because eyes work as a team, prism placed in front of
one eye affects both eyes. Therefore the full prism correction may be placed before one eye, or the correction
may be divided between the two eyes. Dividing the
prism may be done as an even split or by placing an
unequal portion before one eye and the remainder before
the other.
Splitting Horizontal Prism
Very often horizontal prism is split evenly in front of
both eyes. Both prisms will be base in, or both will be
base out.
It is perfectly legitimate to split prism unevenly. For
example, instead of splitting prism as:
R: 2 base out
L: 2 base out
the prescriber may cause the same effect binocularly
with
R: 3 base out
L: 1 base out
or even
R: 0 prism
L: 4 base out
The net effect will be the same. One reason prism
may be split unevenly may be because of eye dominance.
In other instances, the choice of how to split prism may
be made in an effort to either improve the cosmetic
appearance of the lenses or equalize lens thicknesses.
Base-out prism in front of the right eye gives the same
optical effect as base-out prism in front of the left eye.
Base-in prism in front of the right eye gives the same
optical effect as base-in prism in front of the left eye.
Splitting Vertical Prism
Vertical prism may also be split evenly or unevenly
before the two eyes. An example of prism split evenly
would be:
R: 2 base up
L: 2 base down
For example, the prescriber may cause the same effect
binocularly with
R: 3 base up
L: 1 base down
or
R: 0 prism
L: 4 base down
With vertical prism, base up in front of one eye creates
the same effect as prism base down in front of the other
eye.
This concept is more easily understood by remembering that a prism allows the eye to turn in the direction
of the prism apex. Therefore if the right eye turns up, a
base-down prism before the right eye will allow the eye
to turn upward (in the direction the prism apex points)
and should help in preventing eyestrain or double
vision.
To summarize:
Right eye
Left eye
Base out
Base out
Base in
is the same as
Base in
Base up
Base down
Base down
Base up
COMPOUNDING AND RESOLVING PRISM

As seen earlier, a prescription may require both horizontal and vertical prism in the same lens. In the manufacturing process, one simple prism may be calculated such
that it produces exactly the same effect as the two specied prisms combined would have. When two prisms are
combined in power and base orientation to form one
prism that is the equivalent of both, the process is known
as compounding prism.
The reverse of compounding prism is the process of
taking a prism whose base orientation is oblique and
expressing it as two prisms oriented perpendicularly to
one another. The process of expressing a single oblique
prism as two perpendicular components is known as
resolving prism.
When using a lensmeter to analyze a prescription pair
of glasses containing both horizontal and vertical components, the two components appear as one compounded
prism with the base oriented obliquely. This prism may
be resolved into horizontal and vertical components.
This may be done easily when the compounding and
resolving processes are understood.
Compounding
Compounding of two prisms into one is done by exactly
the same process used for obtaining the sum of two
vectors (see Chapter 11). The two prisms are drawn to
CH A P TER 15
scale as vectors, the unit length of each corresponding

to the units of prism power. The arrow points in the
direction of prism base orientation.
O.D.
Example 15-14
V = 2DBU
Nose
A prescription for the right eye calls for 3 base in and 2

base up. What compounded prism must be ground onto the
lens surface to arrive at the desired prescription?
Solution
The prisms are drawn to scale as shown in Figure 15-19, A.
A parallelogram is completed (Figure 15-19, B), and the
resultant prism drawn (Figure 15-19, C). This prism is measured and found to be 3.6. The prism base orientation is
measured using a protractor and found to be 34 degrees.
Therefore the resultant compounded prism is 3.6 base at
34 degrees.
This problem may also be solved using geometry and trigonometry. The horizontal prism component is designated H,
the vertical component V, and the resultant prism R. The
new base orientation of the resultant prism is . Because
this graphic construction contains a right triangle, the value
of the resultant is found using the Pythagorean theorem.
363
H = 3DBI
A
O.D.
V = 2DBU
Nose
H = 3DBI
R2 = V 2 + H 2
R = V 2 + H2
Since V = 2 and H =3,
R = 22 + 32
= 13
R = 3.61
B
O.D.
The base orientation is found from

tan =
V
H
V = 2DBU
because the side opposite angle is the vertical component,

and the side adjacent, the horizontal.
By using a calculator, the function inverse tan (tan1)
allows the angle to be found as 33.69 degrees.
Therefore the resultant prism is 3.61 base at 33.69
degrees.
Resolving
Reversing the previously described process resolves one
oblique prism into horizontal and vertical components.
First, the oblique prism is drawn to scale as a vector and
oriented so that it points in the prescribed base direction. Horizontal and vertical lines are drawn from the
tip of the arrow to the 90-degree and 180-degree axis
line (x- and y-axes of the Cartesian coordinate system).
The positions of intersection with the x- and y-axes mark
the power of the horizontal and vertical prism resolved
from the original prism.
Nose
H = 3DBI
C
Figure 15-19. A, Compounding two prisms into one using a
graphic method begins by entering two vectors on the axes of
a Cartesian coordinate system. B, From the two prism vector
representations, a parallelogram is completed. C, The compounded prism that results is the diagonal of the parallelogram, beginning from the origin. (BI = base in; BU = base
up.)
364
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Example 15-15
A wearers right lens is placed in a lensmeter and prism
found. That prism reads 2.00 base at 30 degrees. What
horizontal and vertical prism values does this prove to be?
Solution
This prism is drawn on a coordinate system as shown in
Figure 15-20. Horizontal and vertical lines are dropped from
the tip of the vector to the x- and y-axes, and the distance
from zero measured. The vertical component measures
1.00 base up. The horizontal component measures 1.70

base in. (If this were the left lens, the base direction would
be away from the nose and would be read as base out.)
In the example given, the target of the lensmeter, representing the spherical and cylindrical powers, will be displaced from its center position to the same degree and in
the same direction as the resultant arrow in the graphic
method would be (Figure 15-21). By mentally extending lines
from the lensmeter target center until they intersect the xand y-axes, the power of the prisms are determined.
The resolving of prism may also be calculated trigonometrically using equations derived from the geometry of the
gure. These are:
V = P sin
H = P cos
2
30
Nose
where P is the power of the oblique prism and the base

orientation. Using the previous problem,
V = 2.00 sin 30
= 2.00 0.5
= 1.00
A
3
2
30
Nose
B
1
D
2
30
Nose
2
C
Figure 15-20. A, Resolving a single prism into its equivalent
horizontal and vertical components begins by placing a vector
on a graph such that it is representative of the prism power in
length and represents base orientation in degrees. B, Individual component lengths are found by dropping perpendiculars
to the x- and y-axes. C, In essence by dropping perpendiculars,
a parallelogram has been constructed in reverse, using its
diagonal. The horizontal and vertical components are easily
measured from the lengths of the two sides.
Figure 15-21. The most familiar example of resolving prism

occurs daily when using a lensmeter. The intersection of the
sphere and cylinder lines gives the location of the prism base.
Perpendiculars from this intersection point, down and across
to the x-, y-coordinate positions on the inner scale indicate the
amounts of the horizontal and vertical prism components.
(Because sphere and cylinder target lines may be turned in
directions other than 90- or 180-degree positions during verication of a spherocylinder lens, simply following these lines
to their intersection with the x- and y-axes will not always give
the correct answer as might be initially imagined from the
simplied construction of the gure.)
CH A P TER 15
So as before, the vertical component is found to be
1.00.
For the horizontal component
The base direction is base up or base 90 (i.e., 3.00 base

90). The horizontal component is:
H = P cos
= 5 cos 37
= 5 (0.799)
= 4.00
H = 2.00 cos
= 2.00 0.86603
= 1.73
The horizontal component has a power of 1.73. Base direction is evident from the orientations of the original prism.
Combining Two Obliquely Crossed Prisms

At rst glance, the problem of combining two oblique
prisms into one single prism seems difcult. However,
there are no new concepts here. In general terms, this
can be done as follows:
1. Take each oblique prism and resolve it into its
horizontal and vertical components.
2. Add the horizontal components from the two prisms
together into one.
3. Add the vertical components from the two prisms
together into one.
4. Combine the resultant vertical and horizontal
components into a new, single prism.
Here is an example:
365
The base direction is right, or base 0 (i.e., 4.00 base 0).

Now we can add the two horizontal and the two vertical
components as shown in Figure 15-22, C.
2.00Base90 + 3.00Base90 = 5.00Base90
2.00Base180 + 4.00Base0 = 2.00Base0
If we only needed horizontal and vertical components, we
would be nished. If this was a right eye, the answer would
be 5.00 base up and 2.00 base in. If it was a left eye, it
would be 5.00 base up and 2.00 base out.
However, to complete the problem so that the answer is
a single prism, we need to nd the vector sum of both
prisms. This is shown in Figure 15-22, D and calculated as
follows:
P 2 = V 2 + H2
P = 52 + 22
= 25 + 4
Example 15-16
= 29
P = 5.4
Combine these two oblique prisms together into one

prism:
2.83 base 135
5.00 base 037
Solution
Draw these two prisms as vectors to help in visualizing the
problem. This is done in Figure 15-22, A Take the 2.82
base 135 prism and nd the horizontal and vertical components. By plotting this out as shown in Figure 15-22, B1, we
can see that the vertical component is:
V = P sin
= 2.83 sin 45
= (2.83)(6.707)
V = 2.00
The base direction is 90. The vertical component is 2.00
base 90.
Because the triangle is a right triangle with two 45-degree
angles, we know the horizontal component will also be 2.00
, and the base direction will be to the left or 180 (i.e.,
2.00 base 180.
The second oblique prism of 5 base 37 is drawn as
shown in Figure 15-22, B2. The vertical component is:
V = P sin
= 5 sin 37
= 5 (0.60)
= 3.00
The base direction is found this way:

V
H
5
tan = = 2.5
2
= 68.2 degrees
tan =
So the nal prism amount is 5.4 base 68.2. Incidentally,

it would have been possible to graph the two prism vectors
to scale and nd the resultant prism vector of 5.4 base
68.2 by measuring it. This is shown in Figure 15-23.
ROTARY PRISMS
There is an application of obliquely crossed prisms that
is used on a regular basis in ophthalmic practice. That
application is called a rotary or Risleys prism. A rotary
prism is a combination of two prisms. These prisms are
placed one on top of the other. Initially, their base directions are exactly identical, but as the prisms are rotated,
their bases move by equal extents in opposite
directions.
For example, suppose two prisms of 10 each are
placed on top of one another base-to-base. The total
prismatic effect is 20 (Figure 15-24, A). But if they are
placed base-to-apex, then their total prismatic effect is
zero (Figure 15-24, B).
2.
83
135
37
B1
2.
83
B2
3
5
2
2
5.4
C1
68.2
Figure 15-22. A, When combining two obliquely crossed prisms, consider each prism independently and split each prism into horizontal and vertical components. B1, A 2.83 base
135 prism becomes 2 base left or base 180 and 2 base up or base 90. B2, A 5 base 37 prism
becomes 4 base right (or base 0) and 3 base up (or base 90). C, When horizontal and vertical components of the two obliquely crossed prisms are added, they become 2 base right (or
base 0) and 5 base up (or base 90). D, When 2 base right (or base 0) and 5 base up (or
base 90) are combined, they become 5.4 base 68.2.
C2
5.4
CH A P TER 15
2.
8
68.2
135
37
Figure 15-23. When drawn to scale, obliquely crossed prisms

can be combined graphically and the resultant prism amount
and base direction measured directly without calculating the
result using trigonometry, as shown in the previous gures.
B
Figure 15-24. A, A Risleys or rotary prism is really two
prisms, one on top of the other. When these equally powered
prisms are placed base-to-base, their combined prism amount
is at a maximum. B, When a Risleys or rotary prism has the
two prism elements base-to-apex, the resultant amount is
zero.
367
Now suppose we begin with both 10 prisms base

down. Together they total 20 base down. Next we
rotate one prism base 37 degrees clockwise and the other
base 37 degrees counterclockwise. Now what prismatic
effect is being manifested?
We plot each prism in vertical and horizontal components as seen in Figure 15-25. This shows that the horizontal components are equal and opposite. They cancel
out. The vertical components are both 8 base down,
which when added equal 16 base down.
As the prisms continue to be rotated in opposite
directions, the horizontal components increase equally
and continue to cancel out, and the vertical components
decrease. This continues until both prisms are fully
horizontal-one base left, the other base right. Now there
is neither horizontal nor vertical prism. The prismatic
effect is zero. If the two prisms continue to be rotated
past the horizontal, base-up vertical prism begins to
increase and continues to increase until both prisms
are fully base up. As these prisms were being rotated,
there was never anything but vertical prism being
manifested.
The same thing may be done to produce varying
amounts of only horizontal prism. To produce only horizontal prism, begin with both prisms base left. Rotate
the base of one prism clockwise and the other counterclockwise in equal amounts (Figure 15-26). Now horizontal prism varies, and vertical prism remains at zero.
There are two common forms of the Risleys or rotating prism in ophthalmic practice. One, found on the
phoropter, is used to measure phorias and ductions
(Figure 15-27). The other is found on some lensmeters
and is used to measure large amounts of prism in spectacle lenses (Figure 15-28).
HOW THE EFFECTIVE POWER OF A PRISM

CHANGES FOR NEAR OBJECTS
A prism displaces a ray of light consistently. However, it
will affect the eye somewhat differently when looking at
a near object than it does when looking at a distant
object. The eye will turn less when looking through a
prism at a near object than it will when looking through
that same prism at a distant object. Therefore the effective power of the prism, when measured as the angle that
light enters the eye, will decrease as an object moves
closer to the prism being worn. So although a prism
displaces a ray of light consistently, the power of the
prism, when measured by the angle that light enters
the eye, will be less the closer the viewed object is to
the prism.
For an object at in nity, a prism will cause that object
to be displaced such that the angle of displacement, (d)
equals the angle of rotation of the eye (de) (Figure 15-29).
In other words, for distance vision, the prism causes the
light to deviate or bend by the angle d. This is equal to
the actual (effective) turn of the eye de.
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
37
37
Ba
se
Base
Base
10
10
Base
Base
368
se
Ba
16
Base
Figure 15-25. For this Risleys prism combination, the base direction for both 10 prism
elements started out as base down and totalled 20 base down. Next they were rotated in
opposite directions, one clockwise, the other counterclockwise. This causes their equal and
opposite horizontal components to cancel each other out. Their vertical components are
additive. Here they add up to 16 base down.
CH A P TER 15
369
Horizontal rotary prism
Resulting prism base left
Zero prism
Resulting prism base right
Figure 15-26. Here the combining actions of the two prism components in a horizontally
oriented Risleys or rotary prism are shown as vectors.
Figure 15-27. The Von Graefe prism test used to measure

phorias and duction during refraction makes use of a Risleys
or rotary prism. Here the rotary prism is set to measure horizontal prism. Turning the small thumb gear at the bottom
causes the two linked prisms to rotate in opposite directions.
For near vision, the light is also deviated the same

amount by the prism as it is for distance because the
prism itself is the same. The amount of deviation of the
light by the prism is d, as before. However, for near
vision light, is diverging as it enters the prism (Figure
15-30). Though the ray of light is bent the same amount
by the prism, the angle at which it enters the eye (de) is
not as great as it was for distance vision. The effective
deviation, de, is less than the angular deviation, d.
If we convert the angular measures d and de to prism
diopters, P prism diopters corresponds to d and Pe prism
diopters (effective prism diopters) corresponds to de
(effective deviation). By the de nition of a prism diopter,
we are able to say that:
Figure 15-28. The auxiliary prism found on some lensmeters

measures high amounts of prism that would normally be
beyond the limit of the viewed target area. This auxiliary
prism is an example of a Risleys or rotary prism. The red lettering is the amount of prism in one direction, the white lettering on the same ring shows the amount of prism in an
opposite base direction. The degree lettering shows the orientation of prism base direction. When the compensating
rotary prism axis is on zero, one direction on the prism power
scale is Base In and the other Base Out. When the compensating prism axis is on 90 (as shown here), one direction on prism
axis scale is Base Up and the other Base Down.
370
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Pri
sm
a
obj ticall
ect y d
at i ispla
nfin ce
ity d
d = de
Object at infinity
de
d
Figure 15-29. For light coming from in nity, a prism with an actual power of P will cause
the light from that object to be displaced by the amount of deviation shown in the gure as
d. de is the amount the eye must turn to see the object. For distance vision, these amounts are
equal. When d and de are expressed in prism diopters, they are P and Pe, respectively. Pe is the
effective power of the prism. Therefore for distance vision, the actual power and effective
power of the prism are the same.
Prismatically
displaced near
object location
Near
object location
d =/ de
de
d
Figure 15-30. For near vision, light is diverging. Therefore when it strikes the prism, it is
bent the same amount (check the angle for each of the two rays). However, it enters the eye
at a different (and smaller) angle. This causes the effective power of the prism (Pe) to be less
than the actual power of the prism (P).
CH A P TER 15
371
P
y
=
100 l
If expressed in words, the effective prism power

formula reads:
The l is written as an absolute value because, by optical

sign convention, the lens or prism is at the zero point on
a number line. Distance measured from the prism to the
right is plus and from the prism to the left is minus.
For the near diagram,
Effective Prism Power =

Actual prism power
Distance from prism to center of rotation
1
Distance from prism to near objecct
l = the distance from the prism to the near point,

s = the distance from the prism to the center of rotation of the eye
y = the displacement of the image
By the geometry of Figure 15-30
Pe
y
=
100 l + s
We know that in this instance our l value will be minus.
So, in order to maintain sign convention and have the
resulting equation work correctly, we write the two previous equations as
P
y
=
100 l
and
Pe
y
=
100 l + s
By transposing the rst equation we get
P ( l )
100
y=
Example 15-17
A 5 base-in prism is prescribed for distance vision. The
prism is worn at a vertex distance of 20 mm. What is the
effective power of the prism for objects at 40 cm?
Solution
Before trying to solve by just using the equation, notice that
vertex distance was givennot the distance to the center
of rotation of the eye. If we use the effective prism power
formula, we need to know the distance from the prism to
the center of rotation of the eye. The unknown quantity is
the distance from the front surface of the cornea to the
center of rotation. This distance is usually assumed to be
13.5 mm. If we assume that the distance from the cornea
to the center of rotation is 13.5 mm, then the distance from
the prism to the center of rotation will be 20 mm + 13.5 mm
or 33.5 mm.
Note that because of sign convention, the distance from
the lens (prism) to the near object is a negative number
(400 mm). So when putting the numbers into the formula
we have:
5
33.5
1
400 mm
5
5
=
=
1 ( 0.084) 1.084
= 4.61
Effective Prism Power =
And by transposition the second equation becomes

y=
Pe ( l + s)
100
Now we have two values for y that must be equal to one

another. Therefore we can combine the two as:
P (l) Pe ( l + s)
=
100
100
This reduces to
p (l) = pe (l + s)
and becomes
Pe =
P ( l )
(l + s)
When transposed the result is what is referred to as the

effective prism power formula:
Pe =
s
1
l
So the effective power of the prism for near objects can
be compared mathematically with the actual power of the
prism for objects at innity with the above formula.
The effective power of a 5.00 base-in prism, when used to

view an object at 40 cm, is 4.61 base in.
Example 15-18
Suppose an object is at a distance of only 10 cm from a
base-down prism having a power of 6. If the prism is worn
at a distance of 25 mm from the center of rotation of the
eye, what is the effective power of that prism?
Solution
Since l = 100 mm, s = 25 mm, and P = 6, then
Pe =
P
1
s
l
6
25
1
100
6
=
1 + 0.25
= 4.8
=
372
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Note: As an object approaches the plane of the prism, the

effective power of the prism continues to drop, losing power
rapidly until the object nally touches the front of the prism,
and the effective power essentially drops to zero.
Prociency Test
1. A prism has an apical angle of 4.5 degrees and is
made of plastic of index 1.49. What is the angle of
deviation of the prism?
a. 2.2 degrees
b. 3.0 degrees
c. 4.5 degrees
d. 6.7 degrees
2. Using the simplied equation for thin prisms, nd
the angle of deviation for a prism having an apical
angle of 5 degrees and an index of refraction of
1.5.
a. 2.0 degrees
b. 2.5 degrees
c. 3.0 degrees
d. 3.5 degrees
e. 5.0 degrees
3. A prism with an apical angle of 9 degrees deviates
light by 6 degrees. What is the refractive index of
the prism material?
a. 1.49
b. 1.53
c. 1.59
d. 1.67
e. 1.70
4. A person covers his or her left eye, and a prism is
placed before the right eye. The base of the prism
is oriented out toward the temporal side of the
head. From the point of view of the person looking
through the prism, in which direction will the
image be displaced?
a. to the right
b. to the left
c. upward
d. downward
e. There will be no displacement.
5. A prism deviates light 1.5 degrees. How many

diopters of power does this prism have?
a. 1
b. 1.5
c. 2.6
d. 0.9
6. Light entering a prism in air is deviated in the
direction of the:
a. base.
b. apex.
c. base or apex, depending on the refractive index
of the prism.
7. A prism displaces the image of an object at in nity
6 degrees upward. What is the power of the
prism?
a. 8.75
b. 99.50
c. 6
d. 10.50
8. What is the base direction of the prism in the
above question?
a. base up
b. base down
c. base in
d. base out
e. base at 6 degrees
9. How far will a 3.25 prism appear to displace the
image of an object 4 m away?
a. 3.25 cm
b. 13 cm
c. 1.3 m
d. 12.3 cm
CH A P TER 15
373
10. For a 6 prism, a point on the wall 6 m away will

be made to appear _____ cm away from its actual
location.
a. 36
b. 1
c. 6
d. 60
16. A prescription is written with Rx prism of 2.0

prism diopters base in for the right eye. How
would this be written in the 360-degree laboratory
system?
a. 2.00 base 0
b. 2.00 base 180
c. 2.00 base 90
d. 2.00 base 270
11. An object is displaced 18 cm by a prism of

unknown power. If the prism is 4 m from the
object, what is the prism power?
a. 0.22
b. 7.2
c. 4.5
d. 22
17. A prescription for Rx prism for the left eye reads:

4.00 base in
2.00 base down
Using the 360-degree laboratory reference system,
what is the amount of prism and base direction?
What would this be when expressed in the 180degree reference system?
12. If an image of an object 1.75 m away is displaced

1.75 cm, approximately how strong is the prism?
a. 1.75
b. 3.06
c. 0.10
d. 3.50
13. An object is displaced 4 cm. If the prism is 0.50
in power, how far away is the object?
a. 2 m
b. 20 cm
c. 8 m
d. 8 cm
14. One prism has a power of 25, a second prism has
a power of 25. Which prism is stronger in its
ability to deviate light?
a. the 25 prism
b. the 25 prism
c. The prisms are equal.
15. If a prism has its base direction to the right (the
wearers left):
a. What base direction is this in reference to the
wearers right eye?
(1) Base down
(2) Base up
(3) Base in
(4) Base out
b. What base direction is this in reference to the
wearers left eye?
(1) Base down
(2) Base up
(3) Base in
(4) Base out
18. What is prism 3.25 base 287 in the 180-degree

reference system?
19. What is prism 1.50 base 1 DN in the 360-degree
reference system?
20. A prescription calls for prism in the left lens as
follows:
5.00 base in
2.00 base up
What is this when written as one prism? Give
amount and base direction.
21. Suppose a prescription calls for Rx prism in the
left lens. The amounts are:
3.00 base in
1.50 base up
What is this when written as one prism? Give
amount and base direction.
22. a. What are the two other ways of writing 4.00
base 330 for a right lens? (Give the specic base
directions and amounts.)
b. What would the answer be if the lens were a
left lens?
In the following instances of prescribed Rx
prism, how much prism in what direction
would be surfaced onto the lens? (Give the
answer in both full 360-degree convention and
the method that employs only 180 degrees of
reference.)
Two Prism Amounts
Combined Resultant Prism
23. R: 3.00 BO
2.50 BU
L: 3.00 BO
2.50 BU
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
24. R: 1.50 BO
2.00 BD
L: 1.50 BO
2.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
374
Ophthalmic Lenses
Two Prism Amounts
PA R T T WO
Two Prism Amounts
25. R: 6.00 BO
5.00 BU
L: 6.00 BO
5.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
37. R: 1.25 BI
0.75 BD
L: 1.00 BI
1.00 BU
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
26. R: 3.00 BO
4.00 BU
L: 3.00 BO
4.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
38. R: 3.25 BO
0.50 BU
L: 3.00 BO
1.50 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
27. R: 4.50 BI
3.00 BD
L: 0.75 BO
4.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
28. R: 5.50 BO
1.00 BD
L: 2.25 BI
4.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
39. a. True or false? The prism pair (R: 2 BI, L: No

prism) will give the same net prismatic effect
binocularly as (R: 1 BI, L: 1 BI).
b. True or false? The prism pair (R: 2 BI, L: No
binocularly as (R: No prism, L: 2 BO).
c. True or false? The prism pair (R: 2 BU, L: No
binocularly as (R: No prism, L: 2 BU).
29. R: 3.00 BO
3.00 BD
L: 3.00 BO
3.00 BU
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
30. R: 0.75 BI
2.50 BD
L: 0.75 BI
2.50 BU
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
31. R: 2.50 BO
4.25 BD
L: 2.00 BI
4.25 BU
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
32. R: 0.50 BI
1.75 BU
L: 0.50 BI
1.75 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
33. R: 4.00 BI
0.75 BU
L: 4.25 BI
0.75 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
34. R: 4.25 BI
2.00 BU
L: 3.75 BI
2.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
35. R: 4.50 BI
2.75 BU
L: 3.50 BI
4.00 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
36. R: 0.75 BO
1.00 BD
L: 0.25 BO
1.25 BD
180
360
180
360
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
40. In the lensmeter, a left lens has prism, which reads

2.00 base at 150 degrees. Resolve this prism into
vertical and horizontal components (to nearest 1/4
D).
a. 1.00 base up, 1.75 base out
b. 1.00 base up, 1.75 base in
c. 1.75 base up, 1.00 base out
d. 1.75 base up, 1.00 base in
41. A 3.00 base-up prism is combined with a 4.00
base-in prism before the left eye. What is the
compounded prism and its base direction that
results from this combination?
42. Prism base 45 degrees before the right eye is the
same as prism base:
a. up and out
b. up and in
c. down and out
d. down and in
e. cannot be determined
43. What is the prism resulting when each of these
sets of two obliquely crossed prisms are combined?
Give your answer rst in the rectangular
coordinate system, then in the polar coordinate
system.
a. 5 base 37
5 base 143
(Right eye)
b. 2.5 base 53
2.5 base 217
(Left eye)
c. 1.41 base 45
5 base 323
(Right eye)
CH A P TER 15
44. A person is wearing 4 base down before the right

eye and 4 base up before the left eye.
a. What is the effective power of the prisms at 40
cm if the lenses are worn at a vertex distance of
12 mm, and the distance from the cornea to the
center of rotation of the eye is 13.5 mm?
b. This single vision lens wearer works at a very
close 15-cm working distance from time to
time. What is the effective power of his prism
prescription for this working distance?
375
45. What is the effective power of a 6 prism when

viewing an object at a 20-cm viewing distance?
a. 6.99
b. 6.00
c. 5.25
C H A P T E R 16
Optical Prism: Decentration

and Thickness
he relationship between a normal plus or minus

spectacle lens and optical prism can sometimes
be difcult to understand. For example, when
the optical center of a lens is moved away from its
expected position in front of the eye, that lens now causes
a prismatic effect. The farther the lens is moved or
decentered from its original position the greater the
amount of resulting prism. This chapter explains how
this happens and how prism is related to thickness differences across a lens. Grasping these concepts leads to
a much greater understanding of prism and lens
prescriptions.
DECENTRATION OF SPHERES
When light goes through the optical center (OC) of the
lens, it goes straight through. It is not bent. When light
goes through any other point on a lens, the ray of
light is bent. The farther from the optical center that a
light ray strikes a lens, the more that ray will have to
bend to pass through the focal point of the lens. This
lens characteristic may be used to advantage when prescribed prism is required in a prescription. However, it
will also cause problems if the lens has not been properly
centered before the eye.
A Centered Lens
At the exact OC of a lens, front and back lens surfaces
are parallel to each other. The line that passes through
the OC of a lens is known as the optical axis. Light from
an object at innity is focused somewhere on the optical
axis. The exact location of the focal point depends on
the power of the lens.
If the optic axis of a lens passes through the center of
the pupil, the lens is centered in front of the eye. If the
lens is moved so that it does not coincide with the line of
sight of the eye (for our purposes at the center of the
pupil), it is said to be decentered.
A Decentered Lens
Normally an individual wearing corrective lenses has
each lens positioned with its optical center in front of
the eye. In this position, when the wearer looks straight
ahead there is no displacement of objects from their
actual positions (Figure 16-1).
376
What happens when the lens is moved so that the

center of the lens is no longer in front of the center of
the eye? To understand what happens, consider the shape
of a plus lens. From the side (in cross section), it appears
to look much like two prisms placed base to base (Figure
16-2). A minus lens gives the impression of being a combination of two prisms, but this time placed apex to apex
(Figure 16-3). When the wearer looks right through the
center of the lens, the object is not displaced from its
actual location. But when a plus or minus lens is moved
off-center in relationship to the location of the eye, the
object appears displaced as shown in Figures 16-2 and
16-3. This means that a decentered lens causes a prismatic
effect.
Prentices Rule
Remember that prism power is the amount light is displaced in centimeters at a distance 1 m away from the
lens or prism.
The relationship between focal length (f ) and decentration (c) is shown in Figure 16-4 using similar triangles. This relationship is the same as the de nition of
prism power: the displacement in centimeters over the
distance in meters.
By similar triangles, as shown in Figure 16-4, B and
C, we see that:
image displacement in cm
c (cms)
=
f (meters)
1 meter
And we know from the de nition of a prism diopter
that
=
image displacement in cm
1 meter
Therefore, we can see that

c
=
f
So if we know lens decentration in centimeters (c) and
lens focal length (f), the prismatic effect caused by the
decentration may be calculated.
C H A P T E R 16
Optical Prism: Decentration and Thickness
377
Eye
Image
is not
Figure 16-1. When a lens is positioned with its displaced
optical center directly in front of the eye, there is

no prismatic effect.
Lens centered
before eye
Image
moves
upward
Figure 16-2. Moving the optical center of a plus

lens downward will produce a base-down prismatic
effect.
Figure 16-3. Moving the optical center of a minus

lens downward will produce a base-up prismatic
effect.
Plus lens
moved
downward
Image
moves
downward
Because
Minus lens
moved
downward
Prism Base Direction With Decentration

1
F=
f
the relationship further simplies to

= cF
The equation = cF is commonly known as Prentices
rule.
Example 16-1
If a lens having a power of +3.00 D is decentered 5 mm
away from the center of the eye, how much prismatic effect
will this cause?
Solution
To nd the prismatic effect, simply multiply the distance in
centimeters that the lens has been displaced by the power
of the lens. Since 5 mm equals 0.5 cm,
Prism diopters = 0.5 3.00
= 1.5
When a lens is decentered, a prismatic effect is created.

With decentration, both prism power and prism base
direction are manifested. The power of the prism depends
on the amount of lens decentration and the refractive
power of the lens being decentered. The prism base orientation depends on the direction of decentration and
whether the lens is positive or negative.
As noted before, a plus lens resembles two prisms
placed base to base. Both bases are at the center of the
lens. Therefore for a plus lens, the base direction created
by decentration will correspond to the direction of the
decentration. A plus lens decentered down will result in
prism with the base down (see Figure 16-2).
A minus lens resembles two prisms placed apex to
apex. Both apices are together at the center of the lens.
Thus if a minus lens is decentered down, the result will
be prism with the base up, opposite to the direction of
decentration (see Figure 16-3).
Example 16-2
If a 4.00 D spherical lens is decentered 5 mm upward, how
much of a prismatic effect is induced, and what is the base
orientation?
378
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
1M
f (in meters)
c (in cm)
d
F c
Displacement
in cm
1M
f (in meters)
c (in cm)
F
d
Displacement
in cm
1M
f (in meters)
c (in cm)
Displacement
in cm
C
Since
tan d = c
f
and
then
tan d = D
1 (meter)
D = c = cF
f
Figure 16-4. A, When a lens is decentered, the geometry of the displaced ray as it travels
through the lens focal point may be illustrated as shown. B, Because the deviated ray passes
through the focal point, degrees of deviation (d) may be found from the two known parameters (f and c) by using the relationship:
tand =
c
f
C, Once a value for d is known, it can be seen from the gure how prism value expressed in
prism diopters may be established. From this relationship, Prentices rule may be derived as
shown in the boxed equation at the bottom left of the gure.
C H A P T E R 16
Solution
Prentices rule is used to nd the prismatic effect.
= cF
In this instance
= (0.5)(4.00) = 2.00
(Normally when using Prentices rule, the absolute value of
the lens power is used. Plus and minus signs are ignored.)
The decentration induces 2.00 of prism. Since the lens is
minus in power, the base direction is opposite to that of the
decentration. Therefore the complete answer is 2.00 base
down.
379
An exceptionally large frame is chosen. The frame is so large

that it will not allow the correct interpupillary distance (PD)
unless an extra large lens blank is used. Using conventional
lens blanks will not allow enough decentration. A gap is
created temporally where there is not enough lens material
to ll the frame. If the blanks were to be used anyway, the
situation would require an incorrect placement of the lenses
at a PD of 64 mm. How much prism would be induced and
in what direction if this wrong PD is used?
Solution
The problem is shown diagrammatically in Figure 16-5. If the
lenses have their OCs 64 mm apart, each lens is erroneously
decentered 2 mm outward from the line of sight. It can be
seen from the gure that the induced prism is base in (opposite the direction of decentration).
Prentices rule shows that:
Example 16-3
= (0.2)(5.00)
= 1
A +6.50 D lens before the right eye is decentered 3 mm

nasalward. What amount of prism is induced, and what is
the base orientation?
Solution
Prentices rule is again applied as follows:
= cF
= (0.3)(6.50) = 1.95.
The lens is plus so the base direction corresponds to the
direction of decentration. Since nasalward is inward, the
base direction is in. This gives a nal answer of 1.95 base
in.
The incorrect lens placement was done in order to avoid

using large lens blanks. However doing so would cause 1
base in of unwanted prism before each of the two eyes.
Horizontal and Vertical Decentration of Spheres

When a sphere lens is decentered both horizontally and
vertically, the most straightforward solution for nding
the prismatic effect is to consider each component by
itself.
Example 16-6
Example 16-4
A +4.00 D sphere lens is ordered for the right eye. The prescription also calls for 2 of prism base out before the right
eye. How should the lens be decentered to obtain the correct
amount of prism?
Solution
This time the missing parameters are the amount and direction of decentration. Amount is found by a simple algebraic
transformation of Prentices rule.
= cF
c=
F
2
c=
4.00
= 0.5 cm
Because the lens is plus, decentration must also be outward.
The lens must be decentered 5 mm out.
If a +3.50 D sphere is decentered 4 mm in and 5 mm down,

what is the resulting prismatic effect?
Solution
In this situation, the two decentrations may be handled
independently.
The horizontal decentration results in:
= (0.4)(3.50) = 1.40
or 1.40 base in
The vertical decentration gives:
= (0.5)(3.50) = 1.75
or 1.75 base down
64 mm
60 mm
Example 16-5
The following Rx is ordered:
OD: 5.00 D sphere
OS: 5.00 D sphere
PD = 60 mm
Figure 16-5. For a minus lens, a cross-sectional view suggests

two prisms apex to apex. By visualizing the movement of these
two prisms before the eyes in decentration, solving for base
direction is considerably simplied.
380
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
In most cases these results may be left as is. If a single

compounded prism is desired, it may be calculated in the
manner previously described in Chapter 15 in the section
Compounding and Resolving Prism.
Example 16-7
A right lens of power 7.00 D sphere is decentered 3 mm
out and 4 mm up. What are the resulting horizontal and vertical prismatic effects?
Solution
The horizontal component is:
A
= (0.3)(7.00) = 2.10
or 2.10 base in
This is shown in Figure 16-6, A.
The vertical component is:
= (0.4)(7.00) = 2.80
or 2.80 base down
Which is shown in Figure 16-6, B. The combined decentration is shown in Figure 16-6, C.
Oblique Decentration of Spheres

When a sphere lens is decentered in an oblique direction,
the resulting prismatic effect and base direction will also
be along the same meridian of decentration.
Example 16-8
A right lens of power 7.00 D sphere is decentered 5 mm
up and out along the 127-degree meridian. What is the
resulting prismatic effect and base direction?
Solution
The prismatic effect for this lens decentration is:
= (0.5)(7.00) = 3.50 prism diopters
The base direction for a minus lens is exactly opposite the
direction of decentration. Therefore the base direction is:
(127) + (180) = 307 degrees
So the resulting prismatic effect and base direction is 3.50
base 307 (Figure 16-7). A 307-degree base direction is base
down and in for a right eye.
Notice that the previous two examples are really identical. Decentering a lens 3 mm out and 4 mm up is the
same thing as decentering that same lens 5 mm up and
out along the 127-degree meridian. If we split 3.50 base
307 into its vertical and horizontal components, we
would nd it to be 2.10 base in and 2.80 base down.
This is because a decentration of 3 mm out and 4 mm
C
Figure 16-6. A, The 7.00 D sphere lens has been decentered
3 mm out, resulting in base-in prism. B, The 7.00 D sphere
lens has been decentered 4 mm up, producing a base-down
prismatic effect. C, The combined up and out movements have
produced prism base down and in. It may be expressed as two
prismatic effects or these two prismatic effects may be combined into one single prism.
up is the same decentration as 5 mm up and out along

DECENTRATION OF CYLINDERS
Cylinders produce varying prismatic effects when decentered. These prismatic effects depend not only on the
C H A P T E R 16
381
Figure 16-7. An oblique decentration of a sphere lens
produces prism in the same meridian as the meridian of

decentration.
power of the cylinder but also on the orientation of the

cylinder axis.
Decentration Along Major Meridians

If the axis of a plano cylinder is oriented in the direction
of decentration, there will be no prismatic effect induced
regardless of the amount of decentration. This is because
there is no power in the axis meridian of a plano cylinder.
If, however, the cylinder axis is at right angles to the
direction of decentration, the amount of prism induced
varies according to Prentices rule.
Example 16-9
A plus cylinder lens of power plano +5.00 180 is decentered 5 mm to the right. What prismatic effect is
produced?
Solution
There is no prismatic effect produced. The decentration is
along the axis meridian as shown in Figure 16-8. As long as
the eye is looking through any point along the axis of a plano
cylinder, there is no prismatic effect.
B
Figure 16-8. The cylinder in (A) is producing no prismatic
effect. B, Even though the plus cylinder lens has been decentered to the right, there is still no prismatic effect produced.
The eye is still looking through a point on the cylinder axis.
With plano cylinder lenses, the prism power induced

depends only on how far the axis of the cylinder is from the
original position. In most cases the original position will be
the pupil center. It does not necessarily depend on how far
the lens was moved.
To illustrate imagine that the cylinder lens in the above
example was rst decentered 3 mm inward, then 3 mm
upward (Figure 16-9). The horizontal decentration will have
no prismatic effect at all. The second decentration3 mm
upwardstill has the same effect of 0.60. The question is
somewhat akin to asking how far a straight ruler will be from
a certain point on the ground if, while remaining in contact
with that point, the straight ruler is slid 3 cm to the right,
then lifted 3 cm above the point. Of course, the shortest
distance from point to ruler is still 3 cm.
Example 16-11
Example 16-10
How much prism will be induced and in what direction will
the base be oriented by decentering a pl 2.00 180 right
lens a distance of 3 mm upward?
Solution
Placing the prescription on a power cross reveals that the
vertical meridian is 2.00 D in power. Decentering upward
causes a base-down prismatic effect for a minus-powered
lens. Prism amount is readily determined by:
= cF
= (0.3) (2.00)
= 0.60
The prism induced is 0.60 base down.
A pl +4.00 090 cylinder is decentered 5 mm up and 2 mm

out. What is the resulting prismatic effect?
Solution
The 5 mm vertical decentration has no prismatic effect at
all. This is because the cylinder axis is also up and down
(axis 90). However, the horizontal 2 mm out movement is at
right angles to the cylinder axis. The horizontal decentration
causes this prismatic effect.
= cF
= (0.2) (4.00)
= 0.80
The lens is plus in power. Therefore the base direction is the
same as the direction of decentration. The prismatic effect
382
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 16-10. A, A nondecentered lens having a cylinder component allows the axis of the cylinder to pass through the pupil
center. B, Decentering a cylinder lens 3 mm outward does not move the axis 3 mm away from the pupil center. (The pupil remains
at the origin of the x-, y-axes.) C, To nd the power and base orientation of the induced prism, the shortest distance to the cylinder
axis is determined.
axis. This means that one base direction is 120 + 90, or

210 degrees. The other is 120 90, or 30 degrees.
To solve a decentration problem for an oblique cylinder, one
of the simplest procedures represents a combination of
graphical and algebraic methods. It also helps to understand
the concept of what is happening when an oblique cylinder
is decentered. And understanding conceptually what is happening is the most important part.
A
Example 16-13
A right lens has a cylinder power of +4.00 030. What
prismatic effects will be caused if the lens is decentered
3 mm outward?
B
Figure 16-9. If a minus cylinder axis 180 is moved 3 mm to
the right, then 3 mm up, there is no prismatic effect caused by
the horizontal movement to the right. When the cylinder is
moved at right angles to the cylinder axis, there will be a
prismatic effect just as with spheres. A, No prismatic effect.
The eye is looking through the axis. It will still be looking
through the axis even after the lens is moved 3 mm to the right.
B, The minus-power cylinder lens was moved 3 mm to the
right and then moved 3 mm up. The base direction of the
prismatic effect produced is down. The base-down prismatic
effect is due only to the vertical movement.
Solution
If such a lens were properly oriented before the eye, it would
appear as shown in Figure 16-10, A. To solve this problem,
a graph is constructed showing the axis position of the lens
after the 3-mm decentration has taken place (Figure 16-10,
B). The power of a cylinder lens is at right angles to the axis.
A line is therefore drawn from the point of origin (in this case
the eye) to the cylinder axis, meeting the axis line at right
angles (Figure 16-10, C). When drawn to scale,* this line
can be measured and is found to be 1.5 mm long. The distance to this point on the axis is termed the effective decentration and abbreviated de because the result is the same
as if the cylinder lens were decentered to this point.
Because the effective decentration of the cylinder is 1.5 mm
away from the point of origin to the axis, the power of the
prism may be determined using Prentices rule.
= (0.15)(4.00) = 0.60
caused by both vertical and horizontal decentration is purely

horizontal (i.e., 0.80 base out).
Decentration of Cylinders Oriented Obliquely

When decentering a plano plus cylinder or a plano minus
cylinder, the resulting prismatic effect is always at right
angles to the axis of the cylinder. In other words, if a
plus cylinder with axis 90 is decentered, the resulting
base direction will always be along the 180-degree
meridian. It will always be either base 0 or base 180.
Example 16-12
A cylinder is oriented with its axis at 120. It is then decentered. What are the only two possible resulting base
directions?
Solution
There are only two possible answers, regardless of direction
of decentration. Both are 90 degrees away from the cylinder
The eye is looking through that part of the plus cylinder below
the axis, making the base direction above the eye. There are
only two possible base directions120 and 300. (Both
are 90 degrees away from the cylinder axis.) And since the
base direction is above, or up, the correct base direction is
120.
The induced prism is 0.60 base at 120 degrees. This
prism could further be resolved into horizontal and vertical
*It helps to draw 1 centimeter for each 1 millimeter of decentration.

If a drawing is too small, the result cannot be measured accurately
enough.
Results may also be obtained purely on the basis of calculations

using the formula
de = y cos + x sin
where de equals the effective decentration, x equals horizontal
decentration, y equals vertical decentration, and equals the angle
of the cylinder axis. (For the right lens, the angle is the cylinder
axis, but for the left lens angle is 180 degrees minus the cylinder
axis.)
C H A P T E R 16
is
ax
er
d
li n
Cy
Nose
30
xis
ra
de
n
i
l
Cy
Nose
3 mm
decentration
is
ax
er
d
n
yli
Effective
decentration
Nose
383
384
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
is
Ax
B
Figure 16-11. A, A minus cylinder lens with an oblique axis appears schematically before
the eye as shown here. B, If this same oblique cylinder is decentered from its previous location
by a purely horizontal movement, it will cause a prismatic effect with an obliquely oriented
base direction.
components, as shown previously in Chapter 15. If resolved

it would be found that the majority of induced prism would
be vertical, even though the decentration was purely
horizontal.
Using this formula requires a unique sign convention whereby

nasal is positive and temporal is negative. The sign convention is
summarized as follows:
If the point of unknown prismatic effect is nasal to the original
position, which we will call the optical center, (technically a
cylinder lens does not have an optical center, but only a cylinder
axis), then x is positive.
If the point of unknown prismatic effect is temporal to the
optical center, then x is negative.
If the point of unknown prismatic effect is below the optical
center, then y is positive.
If the point of unknown prismatic effect is above the optical
center, then y is negative.
If the lens is a right lens, then equals the cylinder axis.
If the lens is a left lens, then is 180 degrees minus the cylinder
axis.
When angle is acute (less than 90 degrees), then sine is plus,
and cosine is plus. (Your calculator will do this for you.)
When angle is obtuse (greater than 90 degrees), then sine is
plus, and cosine is minus. (Your calculator will do this for you.)
Example 16-14
A left lens has a power of pl 4.00 045. The lens is
decentered 4 mm outward from the pupil center. What is the
amount and base direction of the prism induced?
Solution
A properly positioned plano cylinder will position the axis
across the pupil center, as shown in Figure 16-11, A. When
the cylinder lens is decentered 4 mm outward, prism is
induced. The base direction with either be 135 or 315. The
eye is looking above the cylinder axis. Since the cylinder is
minus, the prism direction is away from the axis and has an
up component. Therefore the only possible prism base
direction is base 135. Base up and in at 135 degrees is
induced (Figure 16-11, B).
When drawn to scale, the shortest distance from pupil
location to the cylinder axis can be found by direct measurement. The distance in centimeters multiplied by the cylinder
power gives the amount of prism. In this case the axis is
2.83 mm from the pupil.
Therefore the power is found by:
= cF
Once de is found, the prism power is calculated as usual using

Prentices rule.
= deFcyl
Because the lens is a plano cylinder, the base direction will always
be 90 degrees away from the cylinder axis. Base direction will be
either upward or downward along this axis.
which, more specically, is

= (0.283)(4.00)
= 1.13
C H A P T E R 16
So the answer is 1.13 base 135 (Figure 16-12, A) The
prism found may be resolved into separate horizontal and
vertical components, as shown in Figure 16-12, B, giving
0.80 of base-up prism and 0.80 of base-in prism.
Horizontal and Vertical Decentration of Oblique

Cylinders
Prism induced by decentration of a cylinder lens both
horizontally and vertically is found in exactly the same
manner as just described. Once the decentered point is
located, an axis line is drawn through it. Thereafter the
procedure follows as previously described.
Example 16-15
A right lens has a power of +3.00 2.00 090. The lens is
decentered 7 mm out and 2 mm down. What is the prismatic
effect induced?
= cF
= (0.7)(3.00)
= 2.1
And the base direction is the same as the decentration
direction because the sphere is plus. So the horizontal component is 2.1 base out.
The vertical component of the sphere is:
= cF
= (0.2)(3.00)
= 0.6
Since decentration for this plus lens is up, the base direction is up, resulting in 0.6 base up.
For the cylinder, the axis is 90, or vertical, so the full
amount of the cylinder power is used for the horizontal
decentration.
= cF
= (0.7)(2.00)
= 1.4
The base direction induced by the cylinder is opposite the
direction of decentration or base in, resulting in 1.4 base
in. Because there is no power in the 90-degree meridian for
the cylinder, the 2 mm vertical decentration of the cylinder
causes no vertical prism.
Now we add the prismatic effects together. The total horizontal prismatic effect is:
(2.1 base out) + (1.4 base in) = 0.7 base out
1.13D Base at 135
0.8D BU
0.8D BI
385
Solution
Considering the sphere rst, the horizontal component is:
DECENTRATION OF SPHEROCYLINDERS
An accurate solution for prismatic effects induced by a
spherocylinder lens may be found in several different
ways:
1. Calculate for the sphere and cylinder separately and
combine the results.
2. Transpose the prescription to crossed cylinder form.
Each cylinder may then be worked independently
and the results combined.
3. Use higher mathematical computations.1
Perhaps the easiest way is to simply calculate the
sphere and cylinder independently. Then results from
the sphere decentration and results from the cylinder
decentration can be combined for the nal answer.
B
Figure 16-12. A, A 1.13 prism, base at 135 degrees, may be drawn as a vector. B, The 1.13
prism vector resolves into horizontal and vertical components, both having 0.80 of prism
power.
386
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
There is only one vertical component of 0.6 base up.

These horizontal and vertical components may be left as
they are or combined into a single oblique prism.
NOTE: When the direction of decentration is in the same
meridian as one of the major meridians of the cylinder, it is
actually easier to draw a power cross and consider each
meridian. In this example, the horizontal meridian would
have a power of +1.00.
IMPORTANT: Notice that the form of the question has

changed. Up to this point, the examples were of the lens
moving and the eye staying stationary. This time the eye
moves and the lens does not.
Solution
Calculate the cylinder component.
Begin by drawing the situation to scale as shown in Figure
16-13. The eye is now 3 mm up and 5 mm out. This is the
same as saying the lens was decentered 3 mm down and
5 mm in. Figure 16-13 also shows a perpendicular dropped
to the cylinder axis from the point in question (the eye).
When measured this effective decentration (de) is 5.7 mm
long. Since the power of the cylinder is 2.00 D, the prismatic effect induced by the cylinder using Prentices Rule
is:
= cF
= (0.7)(1.00 )
= 0.7
The vertical meridian remains the same. Although this is
easier in this case, it will not work in the case of an oblique
cylinder. So next we will consider the case of a spherocylinder with an oblique axis.
2.00 0.57 = 1.14.
Example 16-16
The base direction must be either 160 or 340. The cylinder

is minus so the base direction is away from the cylinder axis
line. The eye is above the axis so the base is upward. The
only possible answer is base 160. Therefore the prism
A right lens has a power of +5.00 2.00 070. What prismatic effect would be found at a point 3 mm up and 5 mm
out on this right lens?
Decentered
point in question
Cyl
axis
3
5.7
O.C.
Figure 16-13. The rst step in nding prismatic effect produced by decentering an oblique
cylinder is to nd the effective decentration. When nding the effective decentration, remember that this distance is the shortest distance to the cylinder axis. (Do not gure the distance
from the point in question to the point marked OC. This would yield an incorrect answer
of 5.83 mm.)
C H A P T E R 16
induced by the cylinder portion of the lens is 1.14 base
160.
Next we convert 1.14 base 160 from the polar to the
rectangular coordinate system. To do this we need to make
a separate prism diagram as shown in Figure 16-14. Do not
try and continue using the previous diagram. Here is how
the resulting vertical and horizontal prism components are
obtained.
y
1.14
y = 0.39 base 90
x
cos 20 = 0.94 =
1.14
x = 1.07 base 180
sin 20 = 0.342 =
Calculate the sphere component.

The vertical prismatic effect induced by the sphere portion
of the lens is:
= 0.3 5
= 1.50 base down
The horizontal prismatic effect induced by the sphere portion
of the lens is:
= 0.5 5
= 2.50 base 0
Combine sphere and cylinder results.
The combined prism induced by both the cylinder and the
sphere are:
Vertical =
=
Horizontal =
=
1.50
1.11
2.50
1.43
BD + 0.39 BU
BD
base 0 + 1.07 base 180
base 0 (base in)
387
Decentration of Spherocylinders Using

an Approximation
The optical laboratory needs to be able to move the
optical center of a lens away from the boxing center of a
frame and over to a location in front of the eye. The
laboratory does this by grinding prism into the center of
the lens. This moves the optical center to another location. The amount of prism needed for grinding will be
the amount that should be found at the boxing center of
the lens with the optical center in front of the eye. The
laboratory calculates the prism that should be expected
at the boxing center of the lens, then grinds that prism
amount at the boxing center. The optical center ends up
where it is supposed to be.
There is an approximation method for nding decentration prism that was used in the optical laboratory for
years. It has now been largely replaced since decentration
prism can be found more exactly with the aid of laboratory computers. It is still used in some other instances.
The approximation method uses the concept of curvature in an oblique cylinder meridian. This concept was
explained in Chapter 13. In that chapter, we found the
curvature of a plano cylinder in an oblique meridian (see
Figures 13-38 and 13-39).
The curvature of the surface in an oblique meridian
was found using the equation:
Rq = Rcyl sin2q
where
Rq = Curvature in the oblique meridian
Rcyl = Curvature in the power meridian
and
q = the angle between the oblique meridian and
the cylinder axis.
From that we derived the equation
1.14
F q = Fcyl sin2q
160
20
Figure 16-14. Once prismatic effect of the decentered oblique

cylinder is found, this prism at an oblique angle is drawn on a
different diagram, and the horizontal and vertical components
are determined.
As noted before, this assumption of power in an

oblique meridian is not entirely correct, but can be
helpful in certain circumstances.
To nd the power of a cylinder in an oblique
meridian:
1. First nd Theta () is the difference between the
meridian in question and the axis of the cylinder.
2. Then apply the sine-squared formula (Fq = Fcyl sin2 )
to the cylinder power.
Example 16-17
What is the power of a pl +3.00 060 cylinder in the
180-degree meridian?
388
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Solution
To nd theta (), take the difference between the cylinder
axis and the 180-degree meridian. Here this is 30 degrees.
Find the power of the cylinder in the 180-degree meridian,
using:
F = Fcyl sin2
= ( +3.00) sin 30
= ( +3.00)(0.75)
= +2.25 D
2
The power of the cylinder in the 180-degree meridian is

+2.25 D.
Using the Sine-Squared Method to Approximate

Prism for Decentration
To use the sine-squared method to approximate prism
for decentration, the following steps are used2:
1. Find the needed decentration.
2. Find the power of the cylinder in the 180-degree
meridian. This is done by using the formula.
3. Add this reduced cylinder value to the sphere power
to nd the total power in the 180-degree meridian.
4. Use the total power in the 180-degree meridian to
nd the prism needed to move the OC. This can be
done using Prentices rule.
= cF
where
= prism power
c = decentration in centimenters
F = the power of the lens in the 180 degree
meridian
5. Find the base direction of the prism.
Example 16-18
A left lens has a power of 2.00 1.50 070. What is the
power of the lens in the 180-degree meridian? How much
prism for decentration is needed to move the OC of a lens
nasally 3 mm? (Stated another way, how much prism will
there be at a point 3 mm temporal to the desired OC
location?)
Solution
1. Using the steps listed above, we already know the decentration. It is given as 3 mm.*
2. The power of the cylinder in the 180-degree meridian
is:
*
If it were necessary to gure the decentration amount needed to
grind prism for surfacing a lens, we would use the formula
decentration per lens =
A + DBL PD
.
2
F = Fcyl sin2
= ( 1.50) sin2 70
= ( 1.50)(0.88)
= 1.32 D
3. Adding the reduced cylinder value of 1.32 in the 180degree meridian to the sphere power of 2.00, we get a
power of 3.32 in the 180-degree meridian.
4. Now we can use the power in the 180-degree meridian
to nd the needed prism using Prentices rule. This is
= cF
= (0.3)(3.32)
= 1.0
5. The lens power in the 180-degree meridian is minus. The
point of reference on the nished lens is 3 mm temporal
to the OC. Therefore prism base direction is base out.
(For the left eye, base out can also be written as base
0.)
Pitfalls of the Sine-Squared Method

For grinding prism for decentration with single-vision
lenses in a surfacing laboratory, the sine-squared method
works well. There are two pitfalls, however, that prevent
it from working every time with every type of lens.
The major pitfall is the failure of this method to take
vertical prism into account. Finding a horizontal prism
amount by using the power in the 180-degree meridian fails to account for the vertical component induced
by an oblique cylinder. To see how this works, place a
spherocylinder lens in a lensmeter at an oblique axis.
Focus the lensmeter and position the lens so that the
illuminated target passes through the center of the cross
hairs in the lensmeter. Looking through the focused
lensmeter, move the lens left and right. Not only will the
illuminated target move left and right, but it will also
move up and down. The vertical movement is a result of
the vertical prism caused by the oblique cylinder. If this
vertical prism is not factored into the surfacing process,
the OC will be higher or lower on the lens than expected.
This can present problems in multifocals.
The second pitfall of the sine-squared method is that
the amount of horizontal prism calculated will not
exactly duplicate the amount of horizontal prism found
using one of the more accurate methods.
Ground-In Prism Versus Prism by Decentration

As we have seen in the previous sections, prism may be
created by the decentration of a powered lens. Prism may
also be created by grinding the surface of the lens at an
angle during the surfacing process.
There is no optical difference between prism created
by decentration and prism that has been ground in.
Neither is superior nor inferior to the other. It may be
that it is possible to create a thinner prismatic lens by
surfacing instead of by decentering a nished lens. That
C H A P T E R 16
Knowing the thickness difference between the base

and apex of a prism allows the amount of prism to be
found using the formula:
is an issue of lens blank thickness rather than prism

quality, however.
PRISM THICKNESS
P=
Thickness Differences Between Prism Base

and Apex
P = the amount of prism

g = the difference in thickness between the apex and
the base of the prism
n = the refractive index of the lens material, and
d = the distance between the apex and base of the
prism
See Figure 16-15 and be sure to read the caption
carefully.
100 g (n 1)
d
where
A prism causes light to change direction. This is because

light must pass through two surfaces that are not parallel
with one another. Because the surfaces are at an angle to
one another, the prism is thin at the top (apex) and thick
at the bottom (base). Prismatic power is determined by
the angle the front and back surfaces make with one
another and by the refractive index of the material.
Because lens surfaces of a prism are angled, adding prescribed prism to a lens will cause a change in lens
thickness.
Figure 16-15. When using the prism edge-thickness formula:

P=
389
100 g (n 1)
d
d is the distance between the two measured points, and g is the thickness difference between
the points measured. The prismatic effect, P, is for that point halfway between the two points
measured. Note that in (A) the dimension marked as g does not go the full width of the prism
base. The g dimension is the width of the top of the prism subtracted from the width of the
bottom of the prism (i.e., the thickness difference). For the plus lens (B) the prismatic effect
at the halfway point (marked with an arrow) is the same as (A) even though the lens has a
dioptric power. This is because the thickness difference, g, is the same. C, This lens is a minus
lens. Even though the lens has minus power, the same thickness difference principle holds.
The prismatic effect at the point halfway between the measured points is independent of the
refractive power of the lens. In these gures, the measured points were the tops and bottoms
of the lenses. They would not have to have been measured at the edges of the lenses, however.
Thickness difference will determine the prismatic effect halfway in between the two measured points in the meridian of measurement, regardless of where the points are measured.
To summarize: In A the prism amount is the same across the entire lens, because the prism
has only prism power () and does not have refractive power (D). In B and C where the lenses
have refractive power as well, the prismatic effect is calculated for the halfway point, but will
vary at other points across the lens. The amount calculated is for the halfway-between point
only.
390
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
The thickness difference (g) between the top and

bottom of the prism can also be found if the amount of
prism is known by simply rearranging the formula to
read:
g=
dP
100 (n 1)
The prism thickness formula is reliable for all lenses

and not just plano prisms. It does not matter if the lens
has a plus or minus refractive power. The thickness difference between measured points is still a predictor of
prism power halfway between those two points.
Example 16-19
A lens is made from a material having an index of refraction
of 1.5. It is 50 mm in diameter. The top of the lens is 2 mm
thick, and the bottom of the lens is 5 mm thick. How much
vertical prism is present in the middle of the lens?
Solution
We may use the formula:
P=
100g (n 1)
d
to nd the answer.
In this example, the thickness difference (g) between the
top and the bottom of the lens is:
g = 5 2 = 3 mm
The diameter of the lens is 50 mm, and the index of refraction as 1.5. Therefore we may substitute those values in the
prism thickness formula to nd:
100 3 (1.5 1)
50
300 (0.5)
=
50
= 3
P=
Notice in this particular circumstance, when the index is

near 1.5 and the diameter is 50, that the thickness difference is a direct predictor of prism amount.
Example 16-20
Suppose we have a 6.50 D lens that is made from polycarbonate (index = 1.586). The lens is edged oval for a frame
with an A dimension of 48 mm. The nasal edge has a thickness of 4.2 mm, and the temporal edge is 5.8 mm thick.
What horizontal prismatic effect is found exactly in the center
of the lens?
Solution
To nd the answer, we again use the prism thickness
formula:
P=
100 g (n 1)
d
In this case,
g = 5.8 4.2 = 1.6 mm
d = 48 mm, and
n = 1.586
Substituting these values in the formula, we get
100 1.6 (1.586 1)
48
160 (0.586)
=
48
= 1.95
P=
Because the temporal edge is thicker than the nasal edge,

the prism base is temporalward, or base out. So the amount
of horizontal prism present in the middle of the lens is 1.95
base out. (Note that even though the 6.50 D refractive
power of the lens was given in the problem, it was not
needed to determine prism.)
How Prescribed Prism Affects Lens Thickness

If prism is present in a lens, the lens center thickness will
change. Most of the time it is assumed that a lens will
be thicker by one half of the prism thickness difference,
or g when prism is present, regardless of how the prism
base direction is oriented. This simplies the problem,
but it is not always true. The base direction determines
just how much the Rx (prescribed) prism will change the
center or edge thickness. How this works is summarized
in Box 16-1 and explained in the following sections.
BOX 161
Lens Thickness Changes for Rx Prism
PLUS LENSES
Base in: Center thickness increases by one half of the
prism thickness difference.
Base out: Center thickness decreases by up to the full
thickness difference, depending upon the amount of
decentration present.
Vertical prism with small frame B: Center thickness
does not change.
Vertical prism with large frame B: Center thickness
increases by up to one half the thickness difference.
MINUS LENSES
Base in: Center thickness increases slightly (The OC is
the thinnest spot on the lens, and it is displaced
with Rx prism.)
Base out: Center thickness increases slightly (The OC is
the thinnest spot on the lens, and it is displaced
with Rx prism.)
C H A P T E R 16
Plus Lenses
A plus lens is normally decentered inward because of the
wearers PD. After the lens is in the frame, the thicker
portion of the lens edge will be found nasally and the
thinner portion temporally (Figure 16-16, A). This
means that if Rx prism is positioned base inward, the
thickest portion of the lens will become even thicker
(Figure 16-16, B). The thinner temporal portion though
must retain the same minimum thickness. Therefore the
center thickness of the lens will increase by an amount
equal to almost half of the difference between base and
apex thickness.
This increase in center thickness is necessary because
the prescribed prism will be located at what had been the
optical center of the lens. With prescribed prism, this
location now becomes the major reference point.
Example 16-21
A plus-powered crown glass lens with a chord diameter of
54 mm is calculated to have a center thickness of 3.4 mm
without Rx prism being considered. If the prescription also
calls for 2.5 prism diopters of base-in prism, what will the
center thickness become?
Solution
To gure the thickness induced by the prism, we begin from
the formula:
P=
100 g (n 1)
d
and transpose it to:

g=
Nose
Nose
391
(54)(2.5)
100 (1.523 1)
= 2.58 mm
g=
The thickness in the center of the prism will be half of this

g
value, or .
2
g
2
2.58
=
2
= 1.3 mm
Increase in center thickness =
The new center thickness will be

3.4 + 1.3 = 4.7 mm
Base-Out Rx Prism If the Rx prism is base out, the

thicker portion of the prism is turned outward. This
corresponds to the thinnest part of an inwardly decentered plus lens. The net effect is a lens that is closer to
the same thickness both nasally and temporally. If the
lens has sufcient center and nasal edge thickness, it may
be thinned by an amount up to the full prism thickness
difference g. Therefore a nasally decentered plus lens
with base-out Rx prism can be made thinner than it
would be without Rx prism (Figure 16-17).
Base-Up or Base-Down Rx Prism Small amounts of
base-up or base-down Rx prism will not affect the center
thickness of the lens if the vertical (B) dimension of the
frame is small compared with the A dimension. However,
for prescriptions with larger amounts of prism or for
frames with larger B dimensions, center thickness will
be affected. The amount of center thickness increase
dP
100 (n 1)
The thickness difference between the thick edge and the

thin edge is thus:
Figure 16-16. A, Plus lenses that have been decentered inward

to correspond to the wearers PD are thicker nasally. B, If
base-in prism is prescribed for the plus-lens wearer, the lens
will be thicker still.
Nose
Nose
Nose
Figure 16-17. When base-out prism is prescribed for a pluslens wearer, the lens will become thicker temporally. Now
because the thinnest edge is thicker, the whole lens may be
thinned.
392
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
MRP (and OC)
Displaced OC
(Thinnest portion
of lens)
MRP (Center
thickness
maintained)
C
Figure 16-18. A, Here is a nished but unedged lens with no
decentration and no prism. The major reference point (MRP)
and optical center (OC) are at the same location. B, This
minus lens has prism. Simply adding extra thickness to a minus
lens by an amount equal to one half the prisms apex-base
thickness difference will cause the lens to be unnecessarily
thick. C, Thinning a minus lens with signicant prism back
to a normal minimum thickness at the MRP will cause the
minus lens to be excessively thin at the now displaced OC. The
displaced OC will be at a location other than the MRP.
may then approach one half of the calculated prism

thickness difference.
Minus Lenses
With minus lenses the amount of prism affects edge
thickness. Base-out prism increases the thickness of the
temporal edge by an amount equal to the base thickness
of the prism.
Center thickness will increase somewhat when baseout or base-in Rx prism appears in minus lenses. The
thinnest point on the lens moves from the major reference point to the location of the displaced optical center,
as shown in Figure 16-18.
REFERENCES
1. Long WF: Decentration of spherocylindric lenses, Optom
Weekly 66:878-880, 1975.
2. Brooks C: Understanding lens surfacing, Newton, Mass,
1992, Butterworth/Heinemann.
Prociency Test
1. A +4.00 D lens is decentered 3 mm inward from
the center of the pupil. What prismatic effect is
induced, and what is its base direction?
2. A lens is decentered up 3 mm and creates a 2.10
base-down prismatic effect. What is the power of
the lens?
3. A minus lens has its optical center displaced too
far temporally. What kind of prismatic effect will
be produced?
a. base in
b. base out
c. cannot tell from information given
4. A person wearing an Rx with O.D. 1.25 +0.25

180 requires 1.00 base-up prism. The frame is
rectangular with a vertical dimension of 40 mm.
How much decentration is required to create this
amount of prism?
a. 8 mm up
b. 8 mm down
c. 10 mm up
d. 10 mm down
5. When looking through a point on a spherical lens
7 mm to the right of the OC, it is noted that the
image of an object 6 m away is displaced 42 cm to
the right. What is the power of the lens?
a. +7.00 D
b. 7.00 D
c. +10.00 D
d. 10.00 D
C H A P T E R 16
6. In verifying a pair of glasses, it is known that the

wearer has a PD of 60. The distance between the
centers of the lenses is 68, and the lenses both are
4.00 D. How much prism (to the nearest 0.25),
in what base direction, is being worn for both eyes
together?
a. 2.50 BI
b. 1.50 BO
c. 1.50 BI
d. 3.25 BO
e. 3.25 BI
7. A wearer has a PD of 70 mm. The distance
between the OC of a pair of 6.25 D lenses is
63 mm. There is no prism indicated in the Rx.
How much prism is included and in what
direction? (Do not round off.)
8. Wearers binocular PD is 66. The eyes are
symmetrically placed, and the Rx is:
O.D. 5.00 D sph.
O.S. 8.00 D sph.
The OCs were erroneously placed at 62 mm.
What is the prismatic effect induced?
9. A pair of glasses read as follows on the lensmeter:
R +2.75 1.00 180
L +2.75 1.00 180
Distance between OCs is 56 mm. The wearers PD
is actually 66 mm. How much prism, and in what
direction, is this person wearing? (Putting the Rx
on a power cross may help in working the
problem.)
10. A pair of glasses reads as follows on the lensmeter:
O.D. 2.00 1.00 180
O.S. 3.00 1.00 090
(Watch the cylinder axis.) Distance between OCs is
76 mm. (Both dots are equal distances from the
center of the glasses.) The wearers PD is 66 mm.
How much total prism, and in what direction, is
being worn? (Assume the eyes to be symmetrically
placed in the head [i.e., monocular PDs are equal].)
11. An Rx is:
O.D. 3.50 1.00 090
O.S. 5.50 1.50 090
The PD is 64 mm. To keep from using oversized
blanks, the laboratory pushed the PD so that the
OCs are 2 mm too far out per lens giving a
binocular PD of 68 mm. How much total prismatic
effect is induced?
12. The following Rx is ordered:
1.00 1.75 090
1.50 1.75 090
393
Wearers PD is 59. The frame chosen has a large

eye size. When the Rx is returned from the
laboratory, in dotting the lenses the OCs are
found to be 63 mm apart. Using prevailing prism
tolerance standards of 0.67 prism error for both
eyes combined, is the 63 PD acceptable?
a. yes
b. no
c. insufcient information present
13. A right lens of a pair of spectacles is examined
through the lensmeter. The lens is positioned so
that initially the lensmeter stop is positioned on
the horizontal midline of the lens and temporal to
the lens geometric center. As the lens is moved to
the operators left, the target is observed to move
from the lower half of the eld (prism base-down
effect) to the upper half. What may be said about
the lens?
a. It contains prism.
b. It contains base-down prism.
c. It contains an oblique cylinder, with the axis of
the minus cylinder between 90 and 180.
d. It contains an oblique cylinder with the minus
cylinder between 0 and 90.
e. It is not possible to make any of the above
statements with the information given.
14. A right lens of power pl 3.00 045 is decentered
out. What is the resulting prismatic effect?
a. Base up and out
b. Base down and in
c. Base down and out
d. Base up and in
e. Base in
15. (This is a concept problem. You should not be doing any
calculating,)
The right lens shown below has already been
surfaced. The OC has been moved nasally. The
lens is facing you, convex side up. There are
several possible lens prescriptions listed. For each
lens prescription, there will be prism present at the
location of the blank geometric center. Tell what
base direction(s) you would expect for the prism at
this location. (If you are using the rectangular
coordinate system and both horizontal and vertical
prism are present, there will be more than one
base direction.)
394
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
The Rx is veried and found to have a PD of 67.

Assuming the wearers eyes are symmetrically
placed, how much combined vertical and
horizontal prism results O.U.?
Blank geometric
center
(Nose)
Lens
optical
center
xis
ra
de
n
yli
a. +4.00 D sphere (Ignore the cylinder axis drawn

on the lens.)
(1) Base in
(2) Base out
(3) Base up
(4) Base down
b. pl 3.00 040
(1) Base in
(2) Base out
(3) Base up
(4) Base down
c. Expressed in the polar coordinate system, what
is the base direction for the prism at the blank
geometric center for the lens in b above?
d. +4.00 +1.00 040 (Note: The lens is a plus
cylinder lens.)
(1) Base in
(2) Base out
(3) Base up
(4) Base down
e. +4.00 1.00 040 (Now the lens is a minus
cylinder lens.)
(1) Base in
(2) Base out
(3) Base up
(4) Base down
16. A right lens has an Rx of 6.00 +1.00 090 with
3.00 of prism base in. How far nasalward or
temporalward from the MRP is the OC?
a. 6 mm temporalward
b. 5 mm temporalward
c. 5 mm nasalward
d. 6 mm nasalward
17. The following Rx is ordered:
pl 2.75 015
pl 2.75 165
PD 63
18. A right lens having a power of pl +3.50 075 is

decentered 5 mm out. How much prism, expressed
as vertical and horizontal components, is induced?
19. A 4.00 2.00 055 right lens is decentered 3 mm
out. How much prism, expressed in vertical and
horizontal components, is created before the eye?
20. A 3.50 2.75 030 left lens is decentered 3 mm
out. How much prism, expressed in vertical and
horizontal components, is created before the eye?
21. An Rx reads as follows:
O.D. 4.00 2.00 055
O.S. 3.50 2.75 030
If this Rx were ground with OCs separated by
65 mm, what would the total net prismatic effect
be if worn by someone having a 59-mm PD?
22. Find the power in the 180-degree meridian for
each of the following lenses using the sinesquared " method:
a. pl 2.00 180
b. pl 2.00 090
c. pl 2.00 020
d. pl 2.00 070
e. 1.00 2.00 090
f. 1.00 2.00 150
23. A right lens has a power of 3.00 2.50 120.
Using the shortcut sine-squared method, answer
the following questions.
a. What is the power of the lens in the 180degree meridian?
b. How much horizontal prism for decentration is
needed to move the OC of a lens nasally 4 mm?
(Stated another way, how much prism will there
be at a point 4 mm temporal to the desired OC
location?)
24. A right lens has a power of +4.00 1.50 020.
Using the shortcut sine-squared method, respond
to the following questions.
a. What is the power of the lens in the 180degree meridian?
b. How much horizontal prism for decentration is
needed to move the OC of a lens nasally 2 mm?
(Stated another way, how much prism will there
be at a point 2 mm temporal to the desired OC
location?)
25. A 1.80-index lens, edged oval, has a temporal edge
thickness of 4.2 mm and a nasal edge thickness of
3.2 mm. The lens has an A dimension of 54 mm.
What is the prismatic effect at the geometric
center of the edged lens?
C H A P T E R 16
26. A right lens with a power of +4.75 D sphere has an

index of refraction of 1.66. It is edged and in the
frame. You dot the MRP of the lens. You measure
the thickness of the lens at a point 20 mm nasal to
the MRP and again at a second point 20 mm
395
temporal to the MRP. The thickness of the lens

20 mm temporal to the MRP is 7.8 mm. The
thickness 20 mm nasal to the MRP is 5.4 mm.
What is the prismatic effect and base direction at
the MRP?
C H A P T E R 17
Fresnel Prisms and Lenses
ormal lenses and prisms vary in thickness

depending upon the power of the lens or prism
and upon the size of the lens or prism. This is
not the case with Fresnel lenses and prisms, since they
are constructed differently. Though not a replacement
for normal lenses, Fresnel lenses and prisms are
highly versatile and are very useful in certain specic
circumstances.
WHAT IS A FRESNEL PRISM?

A traditional prism has two at, nonparallel surfaces.
Parallel light entering the prism is bent toward the
base of the prism and leaves the back surface at an
angle. A prism is thicker at the base than at the apex.
The larger the prism, the thicker the base of the prism
will be.
A Fresnel prism attempts to circumvent thickness by
building a tower of small, wide prisms. To understand
how a Fresnel prism works, imagine cutting off the tops
of a large number of equally powered prisms and gluing
them, one above the other, onto a thin piece of plastic
(Figure 17-1). Although a Fresnel prism is molded into
one exible piece, its construction duplicates this imaginary example (Figure 17-2). A Fresnel prism is only
1 mm thick.
What Are the Disadvantages of

a Fresnel Prism?
Fresnel prisms look different than conventional lenses.
They are different enough that they may be noticed by
others. Because Fresnels have a number of small ledges,
they are harder to clean than conventional lenses.
High-powered prisms will cause a slight decrease
in visual acuity. Most of this is due to the chromatic
aberration and distortion associated with prisms. This
decreased acuity occurs in both conventional and Fresnel
prisms. Fresnel prisms also cause a slight loss of visual
acuity caused by reections at the prism facets, especially
under certain sources of illumination. The minimal
acuity decrease through Fresnel prisms may be slightly
less than a line on a Snellen chart at a 90% contrast level
compared with acuity through conventional prisms.1
WHEN ARE FRESNEL PRISMS USED?

There are a variety of clinical applications for Fresnel
prism. The following six sections discuss major
applications.
High Amounts of Prism

Because of its thickness advantage, Fresnel prism is
especially useful for high amounts of prism.
What Are the Advantages of a Fresnel Prism?
Use and Reuse
There are several advantages of a Fresnel prism. First, it

is very thin and extremely lightweight. It is exible and can
be applied to an existing spectacle lens, making it possible
to apply the lens in-house, without an in-house optical
laboratory.
Because the lens is made from a soft, exible material,
it can be cut to any shape with scissors or a razor
blade. This means that it can be cut and applied to one
sector of a lens. (Practical applications are explained
later.)
Because conventional prisms have a large increase in
thickness from apex to base, a high-powered prism is
troubled by magnication differences and changes in
power across the lens. Although Fresnel lenses do not
eliminate this problem, they do reduce magni cation
differences considerably.
Fresnel prism lenses are easy to apply and remove. They

may be used and reused. This is helpful when determining how a given prism amount will work long term or
for use during visual training.
396
Sectorial Application
A partially paralyzed extraocular muscle may result in a
different amount of prism needed for different directions
of gaze. A Fresnel lens can be cut to t that particular
lens area. Prism is present only where it is needed.
For Vertical Imbalance Correction
When a person may require a correction for vertical
imbalance, Fresnel prism can be applied to existing
lenses to see if a vertical imbalance correction of a certain
amount will be helpful before it is actually ordered.
C H A P T E R 17
397
(For more on vertical imbalance correction, see Chapter

21.)
For Horizontal Prism at Near
For a prescription with horizontal prism for near only,
it is feasible to use Fresnel prism applied to the lower
portion of the lenses only. (For more on horizontal prism
at near, see Chapter 19.)
Visual Field Defects
Figure 17-1. A, Fresnel prism is thin because it is really a

series of prisms stacked one on top of the other. The concept
of individual prisms attached to a thin piece of plastic is shown.
B, In actuality, the Fresnel prism in molded from one piece of
material.
With visual eld defects, prism may be applied in one

section of the lens with the base direction in the direction of the defect and the edge of the prism close to the
central visual area. This way the eye travels only a short
distance before it picks up the image through the prism.
The image appears closer to the center and can be seen
without moving the head.
A person may have a visual eld defect where the right
half of the visual eld is blind for both right and left eyes.
The defect is call homonymous hemianopia. Fresnel
lenses can be applied to the right side of both lenses. In
this instance, prism base direction would be base right.
With prism in place, the wearer looks to the right, but
does not have to turn the eyes as far to see an object in
the right-hand eld of view.
If the defect is a constricted visual eld down to 5 to
15 degrees of viewing area, prism from 20 to 30 prism
diopters could be placed base out on the temporal sides
of the lenses and base in on the nasal sides.2
Homonymous Hemianopia Application
To measure for correct placement of a prism on one half
of the spectacle lens in the case of homonymous hemianopia, the spectacles, properly adjusted, should be on
the subjects face. The subject looks into the viewing eye
of the practitioner. The eye with the visual eld loss
nasally is occluded, usually with a cover paddle. A nearpoint card or other straight edge is brought in from the
temporal, nonseeing side. When the subject rst reports
seeing the card, the location of the card is marked on the
lens with a vertical line (Figure 17-3, A). The edge of the
prism is placed 3 to 5 mm temporalward from this position (Figure 17-3, B).3 The amount of prism may vary.
Though others have used Fresnel prism, Lee and Perez
used 12 prism diopters of sectorial prism,* but not Fresnel
prism, maintaining that Fresnel prism reduced acuity
too much.
In the past sectorially applied prism for homonymous
hemianopia has been placed on each eye in the blind
area. Many practitioners are using only a single sectorially applied prism on the eye with the temporal eld
defect.
Figure 17-2. A Fresnel lens has a series of slightly visible lines

on the surface. These lines are really ledges that indicate the
location of the base of the prism. The base direction is at right
angles to the direction of the visible lines.
*Slab-off prism may be ground vertically instead of horizontally as

is normally done for the correction of vertical imbalance. There are
other types of low-vision prism options available.
398
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 17-4. These temporary 30 to 40 base out Fresnel

prism segment areas are used to create peripheral diplopia for
those who have homonymous hemianopia visual eld loss.
They will later be replaced with prism segments constructed
within the carrier spectacle lens.
3 to 5 mm
Slowing of Nystagmus
B
Figure 17-3. A, To position a Fresnel prism for homonymous
hemianopia, occlude the eye with the nasal eld loss. On the
eye with the temporal eld loss, move the card from the temporal side until the person rst sees the card. Mark the position of the card. (Marks are shown in red.) B, Measure back 3
to 5 mm from this point to nd the location of the apical edge
of the prism and apply the prism to the temporal portion of
the lens.
Eli Pelis High-Powered Prism Segment

Another method of sectorial application of prism for
helping the person with homonymous hemianopia places
high-powered (30 to 40 ) prism in certain segment
areas of the lens.4 Two prism segment areas, with their
base-apex axis in the horizontal position, are placed on
the lens prescribed for the eye with the visual eld loss.
The upper one is placed above the pupil in alignment
with the upper limbus and the lower one below the pupil
in alignment with the lower limbus (Figure 17-4). These
prisms are placed base out and create diplopia in that eye.
Objects seen through the segment areas are shifted from
the nonseeing to the seeing part of the visual eld. With
adaptation the individual is able to visualize the parts of
the objects viewed through the prism in the areas where
they would normally be located, expanding the visual
eld area by up to 20 degrees.
Such prisms may be constructed as a prism segment
within the carrier spectacle lenses. The rst trials are
done with Fresnel prisms cut to the expected dimensions
of the nished prism segment areas.
Cosmetics of Nonseeing Eyes

In Chapter 21 of this text, the use of prism to improve
the appearance of a blind or prosthetic eye is discussed.
Fresnel prisms can be used in such instances.
Nystagmus is a condition characterized by a constant

back and forth movement of the eyes. Such movement is
involuntary and reduces vision. In some cases nystagmus
may slow when the person looks to one side or the other.
For example, if the examiner sees that movement slows
when the person looks to the right, equal amounts of
prism may be applied to both lenses. The correct base
direction would be base left. Because the eyes turn
toward the apex, prism base left will keep the head
pointed straight while the eyes turn to the right. Since
the eyes are turned to the right, nystagmus slows. For a
summary of Fresnel prism uses, see Table 17-1.
WHAT IS A FRESNEL LENS?

Chapter 12 explained how a lens works. Figure 12-20
presented the concept of how a plus lens is like a series
of prisms, each more powerful than the one before. The
front and back surfaces at the optical center (OC) of a
lens are at. But as the distance from the OC increases,
the lens surface becomes more angled.
A Fresnel lens is similar to a series of concentric
prisms, each with a slightly higher prismatic effect
(Figure 17-5). When the concentric surfaces are angled
correctly, a plus or minus sphere of any desired power
may be created. Advantages and disadvantages of Fresnel
lenses parallel those of Fresnel prisms.
When Are Fresnel Lenses Used?

Nonspectacle Uses
Fresnel lenses are not just used for spectacles. A common
application may be found when looking through the
writing surface of an overhead projector. (Adjust the
focus to be slightly off and see the concentric rings of
the lens projected on the screen.)
Large minus Fresnel lenses are sometimes applied to
a window to create a wider eld of view, or are used for
the warning beams of seaside lighthouses so that the
illumination projected from the source within the building is increased.
C H A P T E R 17
399
TABLE 17-1
Clinical Applications for Fresnel Prisms

Use
Comments
High prism amounts

Temporary prism
Keeps lens thin

The practitioner can get an idea of how the prism will work before ordering
It is possible to change prism amount without remaking glasses
Can apply to half the lens or to any portion of the lens
Sectorial application of prism for palsied

muscle
Visual eld defects such as homonymous
hemianopia
Prism in bifocal portion only
Cosmetic improvement of blind, turning
eye
Treatment of nystagmus
For those who cannot sit up in bed
Use as a partial occluder
Place the sectorially applied prism in the blind area

Orient the prism base toward the blind area
Can be horizontal and/or vertical prism
Use inverse prism (e.g., if the eye turns out, give base out prism)
Used yoked prism to reduce eye movement (e.g., both base left or both base right)
Use yoked base-down prism of 1530
(Note: There are also recumbent spectacles that are specially made for these
purposes)
Place prescribed prism over the nonamblyopic eye as Fresnel prism to slightly
decrease acuity
Short-Term Wear
Clinically, Fresnel lenses are useful on a temporary basis,
such as during vision training or frequent changes in
refraction that may result from unstabilized diabetes or
certain postsurgical situations.
Creating Adds
Fresnel lenses can also be applied to one portion of
the spectacle lens. High add powers can be created for
low-vision or occupational purposes.
Fresnel lenses are available as precut at-top bifocal
segments in powers ranging from +1.00 D to +6.00 D.
These segments will also work well in the dispensary to
give a realistic simulation of bifocal heights (see Chapter
5, Figure 5-22).
Fresnel lenses or lens segments can be used to create
special occupational lenses. For example, if a person has
a need for a double D occupational lens, the current
bifocal or progressive add lens can be converted to an
occupational lens using an upside-down Fresnel bifocal
segment at the top. If Fresnel segments are placed on a
pair of single-vision sunglasses, it changes them into
prescription bifocals.
For a summary of Fresnel lens uses, see Table 17-2.
Figure 17-5. The Fresnel lens shown here is in the original
container, but has been turned around so that the rings will
be more readily apparent. When worn, the rings will be much
less visible than their appearance in the photograph because
they will be on the back surface of the Fresnel lens, and the
Fresnel lens will be on the back surface of the carrier spectacle
lens.
How to Apply a Fresnel Lens or Prism to

a Spectacle Lens
Fresnel prisms and lenses are applied using the following
steps:
1. For lenses, mark the desired position of the lens OC
on the front of the carrier lens. (The carrier lens is
the spectacle lens already in the eyeglass frame.)
For prisms determine correct base direction. (In
the presence of horizontal and vertical prism,
determine what single prism amount and base
400
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 17-2
Clinical Applications for Fresnel Lenses

Use
Comments
To create a thin lens

Temporary lenses
Fresnel lenses are always thin, regardless of lens power

Fresnel lenses can be especially handy during visual training or for unstabilized
diabetes when lens powers may need to be changed frequently
Application to optical surfaces is easy
Underwater diving masks, swimming

goggles, etc.
Sectorial applications
Trial bifocals
Plus lenses of normal or high powers can be used as a multifocal add; this add can be
used temporarily or permanently for certain unusual occupational needs or for lowvision needs
Available in powers from +1.00 to +6.00 D
Used for accurate determination of bifocal height, for temporary wear, or for making
prescription sunglasses into multifocals
direction will result from the combination of the

two prisms.)
2. Take the carrier lens out of the spectacle frame.
3. Place the Fresnel lens or prism on the back of the
carrier lens with its smooth side against the carrier.
Be sure the OC or base direction is properly
oriented.
4. With a razor blade, trim the Fresnel lens or prism
ush with the beveled edge of the carrier lens. (It is
also possible to use sharp, high-quality scissors.)
5. Remove the Fresnel lens or prism and reinsert the
carrier lens into the frame.
6. Wash both carrier and Fresnel lens with a weak
solution of lotion-free, liquid detergent.
7. In a bowl of warm water, or under a stream of warm
water, apply the smooth side of the Fresnel to the
carrier. Work out any air bubbles that may be
trapped between the two surfaces.
8. Give the lenses to the wearer, but instruct the
wearer to handle with care for 24 hours until drying
is complete.
It is possible to substitute rubbing alcohol for water
when applying Fresnel lenses and prisms. The lens is said
to adhere faster, the bubbles slide out easier, evaporation
is faster, and the lens can be dispensed sooner without
fear that the Fresnel prism will slide out of place.5
How to Clean Fresnel Lenses or Prisms

The manufacturers recommended method of cleaning
these lenses is to rinse under warm running water. If the
lenses have dirt in the grooves, use a soft brush. Blot dry
with a soft, lint-free cloth. Hard contact lens cleaning
solutions have also been used to clean Fresnel optics.
REFERENCES
1. Flom MC, Adams AJ: Fresnel optics. In Duane TD, editor:
Clinical ophthalmology, vol 1, Philadelphia, 1995,
Lippincott-Raven.
2. Tallman KB, Haskes D, Perlin RR: A case study of choroideremia highlighting differential diagnosis and management with Fresnel prism therapy, J Am Optom Assoc
67:421-429, 1996.
3. Lee AG, Perez AM: Improving awareness of peripheral
visual eld using sectorial prism, J Am Optom Assoc
70(10):624-628, 1999.
4. Peli E: Field expansion of homonymous hemianopia by
optically induced peripheral exotropia, Optom Vis Sci
77(9):453-464, 2000.
5. Rubin A: Fitting tip: applying Fresnel prisms, Opt Dispensing News (215): 2005.
C H A P T E R 17
401
Prociency Test
1. If a Fresnel prism is to be placed base out, will the
visible lines on the lens be horizontally or vertically
oriented?
a. horizontally
b. vertically
2. True or false? Visual acuity is better with Fresnel
prisms than with conventional prisms.
3. True or false? Fresnel lenses and prisms are not
reusable.
4. Fresnel prisms and lenses are applied:
a. to the back of the spectacle lens with the smooth
side out.
b. to the front of the spectacle lens with the smooth
side out.
c. to the back of the spectacle lens with the smooth
side in.
d. to the front of the spectacle lens with the smooth
side in.
5. Prism is to be used to slow nystagmus. If the

nystagmus slows when the individual turns the head
to the left while still looking straight ahead, the
prism should be applied:
a. base to wearers right for the left eye and base to
the wearers left for the right eye.
b. base to the wearers left for the left eye and base
to the wearers right for the right eye.
c. base to the wearers right for both right and left
eyes.
d. base to the wearers left for both right and left
eyes.
e. This type of prism use for slowing nystagmus is
not valid.
6. For those with homonymous eld defects, an
increase in eld (or at least an increase in the
ability to quickly view more of the blind eld area)
is achieved by placing Fresnel prism (or slab-off
prism) on the spectacles in the defect area. If this is
done, the base direction should be:
a. base toward the side or direction of the defect.
b. base away from the side or direction of the
defect.
C H A P T E R 18
Lens Design
well-designed lens has excellent optics both

through the center and the periphery of the lens.
In addition, the lens should be as attractive as
possible and easy to wear. This chapter attempts to bring
understanding in what to look for in a lens and how to
make an appropriate choice of lens design.
A SHORT HISTORY OF LENS DEVELOPMENT

Lenses have gone through several stages of development.
To quickly summarize, here are some general categories
and time lines.1 These describe not the theoretical
development of the lens, but when these lenses were
introduced and available.
1. Flat lenses (1200 to 1800): Actually the word at
is deceiving, since neither side of the lens was at.
Instead the lens was bean shaped, like a lentilthe
bean that resembles the shape of a lens. The lenses
worked well for central vision, but vision was poor
through the edges.
2. Periscopic lenses (1800s): An improvement in
peripheral vision occurred when a 1.25 D back
surface was used.
3. Six-base meniscus lenses (Beginning in the 1890s):
These lenses improved vision in several ways. The
quality of peripheral vision increased markedly.
The lenses could also be t closer to the eye because
the vault of the lens cleared the lashes. Six-base
lenses were still used up until the 1960s. During the
1950s and 1960s, the use of six-base lenses moved
almost entirely to places that were known for lowend pricing. Eventually, companies simply stopped
producing these types of lenses.2
4. Corrected curve lenses (early 1900s): In 1908 the Carl
Zeiss Company introduced Punktal lenses that
corrected for oblique astigmatism found in the lens
periphery. These lenses required a very large
number of base curves and became available in the
United States in 1913. In 1919 American Optical
introduced a corrected curve series of lenses that
also corrected for oblique astigmatism, but, unlike
the earlier Punktal lenses with a large number of
required base curves, the AO lenses were designed
with base curves that changed in 1 or 2 diopter
402
intervals. This made stocking semi nished lenses

much more practical. In the 1960s there was a
transition time while single vision lenses were being
converted from plus cylinder form (with the toric
surface on the front) to minus cylinder form to
match the back surface torics that were already
being used for multifocals.
5. Aspherics: Aspherics have been available for very
high plus cataract style corrections beginning in
the early part of the twentieth century. They have
been available in lower powered plus and minus
single vision lens form during the latter part of the
twentieth century, but only began to enjoy more
widespread use as higher index plastic lens materials
became available.
6. Atorics: Atorics are rapidly replacing aspheric lens
series for new lines of single vision nished lenses.
However, atorics are generally not available in
multifocal lenses. The exceptions to this are those
progressive lenses that are individually designed and
custom produced by free-form generating
techniques.
LENS ABERRATIONS
To understand the developments and characteristics of
these lens designs, it is necessary to understand what
problems the designer is attempting to prevent. Such
problems, which cause lenses to deliver less than a perfect
image, are known as aberrations.
When light from a point source goes through a correctly powered spectacle lens yet fails to create a perfect
image, the cause is lens aberration. There are several types
of lens aberrations that can contribute to an imperfect
image. These aberrations can be grouped into two major
types: chromatic aberration and monochromatic aberration.
Chromatic aberration is color related. It causes an
image to have a colored fringe. Monochromatic aberration occurs when the light source contains only one
wavelength (one color).
Chromatic Aberration
There are two manifestations of chromatic aberration. One is called longitudinal chromatic aberration.
C H A P T ER 18
Lens Design
403
Lateral
chromatic
aberration
Red
image
(Red ray)
(Blue Ray)
Blue
(Red ray)
image
(Blue Ray)
Object
Longitudinal
chromatic
aberration
Figure 18-1. Chromatic aberration has two aspects. One is longitudinal chromatic aberration. This means that light of different wavelengths will focus at different focal distances from
the lens. The other aspect is lateral chromatic aberration. Lateral chromatic aberration is
shown here and in Figure 18-2.
Longitudinal chromatic aberration occurs when a point

light source that is composed of several wavelengths
(e.g., white light) forms a series of point images along the
optical axis. Each of these images is of a different color,
and each has a slightly different focal length.
The second manifestation of chromatic aberration is
called lateral chromatic aberration. This type of chromatic
aberration will produce images of slightly different sizes
at the focal length of the lens, depending on the color of
the light.
Longitudinal (Axial) Chromatic Aberration
Since each color or wavelength undergoes a slightly different degree of refraction at the same surface curvature,
longitudinal chromatic aberration results in a series of
foci spread out along the optic axis (Figure 18-1). Thus
longitudinal chromatic aberration can be expressed as
the dioptric difference between two extremesblue
light (FF ) and red light (FC). Written as a formula,
longitudinal chromatic aberration is:
longitudinal chromatic aberration = FF FC
Longitudinal chromatic aberration is not directly
related to prismatic effect. Therefore plano prisms do
not have longitudinal chromatic aberration.
Normally, we think of glass or plastic lens material as
having one specic index of refraction (n). In actuality
lens material has a slightly different index of refraction
for each wavelength. The index of refraction we memorize for a given lens material is really the index of refraction for yellow light. Lens materials that are relatively
free of chromatic aberration have indices of refraction
that are nearly the same for each wavelength. Materials
that have a lot of chromatic aberration, such as the glass
for crystal chandeliers, have indices of refraction that
span a larger range.
Longitudinal chromatic aberration can be written
another way. To nd out how, we start with the
Lensmakers formula:
F = (n 1)R
Where
F = the power of the lens,
n = the refractive index of the lens (for yellow light),
and
R = the curvature of the lens.
(NOTE: R = R1 R2, where R1 = the curvature of the
rst lens surface and R2 = the curvature of the
second lens surface.)
This means that since:
longitudinal chromatic aberration can also be expressed
as:
longitudinal chromatic aberration
= (nF 1)R (nC 1)R
= (nF 1 nC + 1)R
= (nF nC )R
The quantity (nF nC ) helps to de ne the chromatic
nature of the material and is called the mean dispersion.
Since lens power is specied in terms of yellow light,
F can also be more specically written as FD.
If
F = (n 1)R
then
FD = (nD 1)R
which can be transposed and written as
R=
FD
nD 1
And because
longitudinal chromatic aberration = (nF nC )R
404
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
it can also be written as
TABLE 18-1
longitudinal chromatic aberration = (nF nC )
FD
nD 1
or even as
n nC
longitudinal chromatic aberration = F
FD
nD 1
The quantity
nF nC
nD 1
is useful for quantifying chromatic aberration of a given
material. It is called the dispersive power. Dispersive power
is abbreviated as the Greek letter omega, or . This
means that longitudinal chromatic aberration can be
written as:
longitudinal chromatic aberration = wFD
The Abb Value
Because the value for dispersive power ends up as a
decimal value, working with it can be unwieldy. It is
easier to work with its reciprocal value. The reciprocal
of dispersive power comes out as a whole number. The
reciprocal of (dispersive power) is symbolized by
the Greek letter nu, or . In other words,
1
=
Lens Material
Refractive
Index
Abb
Value
Crown Glass
CR39 Plastic
Corning Photogray Extra (Glass)
Trivex (plastic)
Spectralite (plastic)
Corning 1.6 index PGX (glass)
Essilor Thin-n-Lite (plastic)
Essilor Stylis (plastic)
Schott High-Lite Glass
Polycarbonate
1.523
1.498
1.523
1.532
1.537
1.600
1.74
1.67
1.701
1.586
58
58
57
43-45
47
42
33
32
31
30
the longitudinal chromatic aberration for this lens in both

crown glass and polycarbonate.
Solution
Longitudinal chromatic aberration can be found by dividing
the power of the lens by the Abb value of the material from
which the lens is made. Polycarbonate has an Abb value of
30 and crown glass an Abb value of 58. Beginning with
polycarbonate we nd:
F
6
=
30
= 0.20 D
Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration(polycarb) =
Glass has a longitudinal chromatic aberration of:
The value has three different names. It is called the

nu value, the constringence, or the Abb number or value.
The Abb value is the most commonly used number
for identifying the amount of chromatic aberration for a
given lens material. The higher the Abb value, the less
chromatic aberration present in the lens. The lower the
Abb value, the more likely it will be that color fringes
will be seen through the lens and that visual acuity will
be reduced in the periphery of high-powered lenses.
Table 18-1 shows the Abb values and refractive indices
for some representative ophthalmic materials.
Using the Abb value means that longitudinal chromatic aberration can even be written as
longitudinal chromatic aberration =
Abb Values for Some Representative Lens

Materials
Example 18-1
We are interested in knowing how longitudinal chromatic
aberration compares between two +6.00 D lenses when one
is made from polycarbonate and the other crown glass. Find
6
=
58
= 0.10 D
Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration(crown glass) =
Lateral (or Transverse) Chromatic Aberration and

Chromatic Power
Lateral chromatic aberration is expressed either as
differences in image magnication or differences in
prismatic effect.
Magnication Differences With refractive lenses,
lateral chromatic aberration is thought of in terms of
magni cation differences. A magnication difference is the
difference in size between the images formed by two
different wavelengths, such as red and blue (see Figure
18-1).
Differences in Prismatic Effect When quantied by
prismatic effect, the lateral chromatic aberration of a
prism is the difference in prismatic effect for light of two
different wavelengths (Figure 18-2). As a formula this
would be expressed:
C H A P T ER 18
Lens Design
405
White light
Prismatic effect
for red light
Prismatic effect
for blue light
Lateral chromatic
aberration
Figure 18-2. Lateral chromatic aberration occurs when a prism bends light of two different
wavelengths by different amounts.
lateral chromatic aberration = (prismatic effect

for blue light) (prismatic effect for red light)
or
lateral chromatic aberration = blue red
Lenses have prismatic effects as well, but for a
lens, the prismatic effect will depend on the distance
from the optical center (OC) of the lens. We know that
prismatic effect increases as we look farther away from
the center of the lens. Prismatic effect for a given point
on a lens is determined by Prentices rule. Prentices rule
states:
= cF
FF FC =
If both sides of the equation are multiplied by d

(decentration), we see that:
d (FF FC ) = d
Looking at the left-hand term in the equation, we

recognize the formula for lateral chromatic aberration.
This means that lateral chromatic aberration can also be
written as:
dF
Pr ismatic Effect
=
lateral chromatic aberration =
where c is the distance from the OC in centimeters, and

F is the dioptric power of the lens. Sometimes the letter
d (for distance) is used instead of c (for centimeters). This
is the case when working with lateral chromatic aberration. Therefore since
blue = dFF and red = dFC
and
lateral chromatic aberration = blue red
then
lateral chromatic aberration = dFF dFC
= d(FF FC )
For longitudinal chromatic aberration, both the
formulas:
and
longitudinal chromatic aberration =
are useable and equal to one another. Therefore we know

that:
Since is the Abb value, it is now possible to nd

lateral chromatic aberration quickly if the Abb value of
a lens is known.
When lateral chromatic aberration refers to differences in prismatic effect, as shown previously, it is sometimes called chromatic power.
The concept of chromatic power allows us to see that
as prismatic effect increases, the effects of chromatic
aberration become more powerful and hence more
disturbing to vision.
Example 18-2
In the previous example, we found the longitudinal chromatic
for a +6.00 D lens. Lateral chromatic aberration is a function
of prismatic effect. We can nd the lateral chromatic aberration for a prism of a certain material. But we cannot simply
ask What is the lateral chromatic aberration for a +6.00 D
lens of a certain material. However, we can ask (and are
asking) this question. What is the lateral chromatic aberration for a point 8 mm away from the optical center of a
+6.00 D lens when it is, (A) made from polycarbonate material, and (B) made from crown glass?
406
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
1.
0.9
Relative visual acuity
0.8
0.7
60
55
50
45
40
0.6
0.5
35
0.4
30
0.3
0.2
25
0.1
20
0
10
12
14
16
Prismatic effect
Figure 18-3. Chromatic aberration can be measured as an Abb value. In the graph, the
Abb value is shown on the right. Prismatic effect increases toward the periphery of a strongly
powered lens. The graph shows what happens to visual acuity as prismatic effect increases.
The more chromatic aberration present in a lens, the faster visual acuity will be affected.
(From Meslin D, Obrecht G: Effect of chromatic dispersion of a lens on visual acuity, Am J
of Optom Physiol Opt 65:2528, 1988. Figure 2, The American Academy of Optometry,
1988.)
Solution
For a prism, lateral chromatic aberration is the prism amount
() divided by the Abb value ().
For a certain point on a lens, to nd the lateral chromatic

aberration, we need to know the prismatic affect at that
particular point. For a lens with power, the prismatic effect
is the power of the lens times the distance of the decentered
point from the optical center, or = dF. This makes the
lateral chromatic aberration equal to:
dF
For a point 8 mm from the center of a polycarbonate lens,

the lateral chromatic aberration is:
lateral chromatic aberration(polycarb) =
(0.8)(6)
30
= 0.16
For the same point on a crown glass lens, the lateral chromatic aberration is:
lateral chromatic aberration(crown glass) =
(0.8)(6)
58
= 0.08
When Does Chromatic Aberration Reduce Visual

Acuity? Suppose a person is wearing a pair of prescription spectacle lenses and is looking at an object directly
through the OCs. When the wearer looks through the
OCs, there is no prismatic effect and thus no chromatic
power.
As the wearer looks to the right or left, the prismatic effect of the lenses increases. So does the
chromatic power. The more the chromatic power
(lateral chromatic aberration) increases, the more the
image blurs. There is more prismatic effect in the periphery of a high-powered lens than in the periphery of a
low-powered one. So peripheral visual acuity drops off
faster for high-powered lenses than it does for lowpowered ones.
The higher the chromatic aberration, the lower the
Abb value. The lower the Abb value, the faster the
reduction in relative visual acuity peripherally. (This is
shown in Figure 18-3.)3
Fortunately the peripheral areas of a lens are
seldom used for intensive viewing during normal spectacle lens wear. Instead if something needs to be seen
clearly, the head is turned. Otherwise, lens materials
with low Abb values would not be as well tolerated as
they are.
To reduce the possibility of chromatic aberration
becoming troublesome, the dispensing factors shown in
Box 18-1 should be considered.
C H A P T ER 18
Lens Design
407
BOX 18-1
Important Dispensing Factors for Lenses With
Low Abb Values (Polycarbonate and Some HighIndex Materials)
1. Use monocular interpupillary distances.
2. Measure major reference point heights, considering
pantoscopic angle (see Chapter 5).
3. Use shorter vertex distances.
4. Have sufcient pantoscopic angle, but not more than
10 degrees for high lens powers.
5. Give attention to comparative edge thicknesses (OCs
that are too high above the horizontal midline of the
edged lens will cause large differences in top and
bottom edge thicknesses).
Example 18-3
What is the expected visual acuity when looking through
a point 12 mm temporal to the distance optical center of
a 7.00 D CR-39 lens with an Abb value of 58? How would
this compare with a polycarbonate lens when looking through
this same point?
Solution
To nd the answer to this question, we will use Prentices
rule to nd prismatic effect and to look up relative visual
acuity in Figure 18-3. Prismatic effect is:
= cF
= (1.2)(7)
= 8.4
Looking up a prismatic effect of 8.4 for a 58 Abb-value
material shows a relative visual acuity of 0.82. To nd this
in Snellen acuity equivalent:
measured visual acuity
max imum visual acuity
measured visual acuity
0.82 =
20
measured visual acuity = (0.82) (20)
= 24
Figure 18-4. An achromatic lens is constructed from two

different materials, each with a different refractive index
chosen to counteract the effects of chromatic aberration.
Achromatic lenses are not used in normal spectacle lenses.
power and light from the F (blue) and C (red) spectral

lines must focus at the focal point of the lens. Such a lens
is called an achromatic lens or a doublet (Figure 18-4).
Acromatic doublets are not used for ordinary spectacle
lens wear.
To create an achromatic lens, this is what must
happen:
1. The longitudinal chromatic aberrations of the two
lenses must neutralize each other. That is
F1 F2
=
1 2
2. And the two lenses must equal the desired power, so
that the needed power is
F = F1 + F 2
3. Combining these two equations give this equation
for the rst lens in the doublet.
Re lative visual acuity =
20
.
24
Looking up the same 8.4 point for a polycarbonate lens
20
and calculating acuity will yield a Snellen acuity of
.
29
F1 =
4. Once F1 is found, then the second lens (F2) can be

found from
F 2 = F F1
So for the CR-39 lens, the Snellen visual acuity is
Achromatic Lenses
A lens would be considered totally without chromatic
aberration if all of the wavelengths across the visible
spectrum focused at one point. This does not happen
with ophthalmic lens materials. To create a lens that is
considered achromatic, a plus lens of one material is used
in combination with a minus lens of another material.
The two lens powers must add up to the needed lens
F1
1 2
Example 18-4
What would the two needed lens powers of an achromatic
doublet be for a lens having a needed power of +6.00 D?
Use these two lens materials to make the lens:
Index 1.523 with an Abb value of 58
Index 1.701 with an Abb value of 31
Solution
To nd the rst component of the lens, use the equation
408
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
F1
1 2
(6)(58)
=
58 31
348
=
27
= +12.89 D
F1 =
The second component is:

F 2 = F F1
= 6 12.89
= 6.89 D
The Monochromatic Aberrations

Aberrations can occur in a lens even when the light
entering the lens is only one color. These aberrations,
called monochromatic aberrations may be more troublesome for cameras or optical systems than for prescription ophthalmic lenses, but are still of de nite concern
when designing a spectacle lens and evaluating visual
performance.
Seidel Aberrations
When rays of light pass through a lens, we expect them
to focus at one predictable location. When those rays are
paraxial (or central) rays, we can predict the location of
focus using the fundamental paraxial equation:*
F = L L
which, written another way is:
L = L + F
The fundamental paraxial equation is derived
from Snells law on the basis of an assumption. The
assumption is that for small angles (measured in radians
instead of degrees) sin = . However, a still more accurate approximation for sin is a polynomial series expansion given as:
sin =
3 5 7
+
+...
3 ! 5 ! 7!
The rst term represents the paraxial approximation

sin = . If we use both the 1st and 2nd terms of this
equation we are using third order terms for sin . In
other words, instead of saying sin = , we say that
3
sin =
(again measured in radians instead of
3!
degrees). This substitution gives us the next higher order
*See the section in Chapter 14 called Reduced Thickness and

Refractive Index.
of approximation. This third order approximation is

used as a basis of comparison when determining the
quality of how well a given wave front of light is able to
come to a proper focus after passing through a lens, a
lens surface or a lens system. In the process of passing
through a lens, the wave front may lose some of its
spherical shape. This reveals aberration and a resulting
imperfect focus.
Using third order terms, Seidel classied aberrations
into 5 categories. The 5 are interrelated. Making a lens
change to reduce the amount of one aberration can affect
the magnitude of other aberrations. These 5 aberrations
have become known as the Seidel or 3rd order aberrations.
(There are other aberrations that will occur when using
higher order approximations such as 5th or 7th order.) The
5 Seidel aberrations are spherical aberration, coma, oblique
(radial or marginal) astigmatism, curvature of eld (power
error), and distortion. These will be described shortly.
One of the drawbacks of expressing aberration as
Seidel aberrations is that all lens surfaces are assumed to
be spherical. To better describe aberration for surfaces
that may not be spherical, such as the refracting surfaces
of the eye, a different system works better.
Classifying Aberrations Using Zernike Polynomials
There are other systems for classifying how a given wave
front deviates from a perfect sphere when leaving a
refracting surface, a lens, or a refracting system. One
system that describes aberrations of the human eye uses
Zernike polynomials. The use of Zernike polynomials is
a more complete representation of the aberrations that
could be present in a lens or eye. Furthermore it does
not assume spherical surfaces, which Seidel aberrations
do. The Zernike system has gained visibility because of
an ever increasing interest in aberrations within the
human eye. This interest is driven by several factors,
including
1. A desire to see into the eye clearly to detect diseasedriven changes. The aberrations of the eye degrade
the view of retinal elements within the eye.
Correcting these aberrations will allow earlier
diagnosis of ocular disease.
2. The challenge of refractive surgery. Unfortunately
aberrations of the eye are often increased because of
refractive surgery. Ideally one would want to not
only correct sphere and cylinder refractive errors,
but also reduce other aberrations so as to enhance
visual performance.
3. A desire to measure ocular aberrations so that they
might be corrected. If ocular aberrations can be
measured, the next logical step is to gure out a way
to correct them. Options will include not only
refractive surgery, but also contact lenses or other
methods.
As stated earlier, the use of Zernike polynomials has
become a popular system to describe and measure ocular
monochromatic aberrations. Zernike polynomials use a
C H A P T ER 18
Spherically aberrated
focal points
for
peripheral rays
Lens Design
409
Focal point
for
central (paraxial)
rays
Figure 18-5. This exaggerated depiction shows that when spherical aberration is present, the
closer to the edge of the lens the rays are, the shorter their focal length will be. The peripheral
rays have an increasingly shorter focal length than the central (paraxial) rays. (This particular
form of spherical aberration is positive spherical aberration. There is a form of spherical
aberration called negative spherical aberration where the peripheral rays have a longer focal
length than the central rays.)
numbered term that describes a geometric shape for the

aberration. These terms are grouped into orders. (These
orders are not the same as those described in the previous section on Seidel aberrations, although some Zernike
terms are similar to certain Seidel terms.) Here are how
the Zernike orders describe some of the commonly
known aberrations related to the eye.10
Order
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th to 10th
Aberration
Prism
Defocus and astigmatism
(Defocus includes spherical refractive error
such as myopia and hyperopia)
Coma and trefoil
Spherical aberration and other modes
Higher order irregular aberrations
According to the orders within this classication,

second order aberrations are errors which are corrected
by the written ophthalmic eyeglass prescription. These
aberrations of the human eye are corrected using
sphere and cylinder lenses. Those aberrations classied
as 3rd order and up are referred to as higher order
aberrations.
The Five Seidel Aberrations

Spherical Aberration
Spherical aberration is a Seidel aberration that occurs
when parallel light from an object enters a large area of
a spherical lens surface (Figure 18-5). When spherical
aberration is present, peripheral rays focus at different
points on the optic axis than do paraxial rays. (Peripheral
rays are those that enter the lens nearer the edge than
the center. Paraxial rays are those that pass through the
central area of the lens.)
Spherical aberration occurs when the object point is

on the optical axis of the system. All of the other Seidel
aberrations occur when the object point is off the optic
axis.
Because the pupil of the eye limits the number of rays
entering the eye for any given direction of gaze, spherical
aberration is not a large problem in ophthalmic lenses.
Coma
The second Seidel aberration is coma. When the object
point is off the axis of the lens, there is a difference in
magnication for rays passing through different zones
of the lens. (Zones could be considered to be imaginary
doughnut-shaped rings on the lens, each having a longer
radius.) The focal areas of the peripheral zones lie in
a different location than those of the more central rays.
Instead of forming a single point image off the optic axis,
the image appears comet or ice cream cone shaped. The
point of the cone points toward the optic axis. This aberration is known as coma (Figure 18-6).
Oblique Astigmatism
Oblique astigmatism is another Seidel aberration that
occurs when rays from an off-axis point pass through the
spectacle lens. When a small bundle of light strikes the
spherical surface of a lens from an angle, oblique astigmatism causes the light to focus as two line images,
known as the tangential and sagittal images, instead of a
single point (Figure 18-7). It is as if the light were passing
through an astigmatic lens, rather than a spherical lens.
The distance between the two line foci that occurs in
oblique astigmatism is called the astigmatic difference.
When expressed in diopters, this difference is called the
oblique astigmatic error. Oblique astigmatic error is a
measure of oblique astigmatism.
Oblique astigmatism is troublesome for the spectacle
lens wearer and must be taken into consideration when
designing spectacle lenses. Oblique astigmatism may be
410
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
reduced by nding the optimum base curve for a given

lens power. There is a graph that shows the best lens
form(s) for eliminating oblique astigmatism at a particular off-axis viewing angle. This graph is in the shape of
an ellipse and is called Tschernings ellipse (Figure 18-8).
The size of the ellipse may vary, depending on the
Figure 18-6. Coma is an aberration that causes light from

peripheral areas of the lens to be focused farther from the true
image point than it should be. Because light farther in the
periphery is displaced increasingly farther from the point
focus, the image is distorted in cometlike fashion as shown.
The drawing is simplied to show the way the image is created.
In actuality there are unlimited circles of blur that blend
together in a ared appearance like the tail of a comet.
viewing distance and angle the lens designer uses when

trying to reduce oblique astigmatism.
There are two synonyms for oblique astigmatism.
These are radial astigmatism and marginal astigmatism.
The Effects of Tilting Lenses
Oblique astigmatism is also manifested when lenses are
tilted in front of the eye. This happens because the optic
axis of the lens tilts with the lens. The object of regard,
which used to be on the optic axis of the lens, now
becomes an off-axis object or point. Because the lens is
angled in reference to the object of regard, oblique astigmatism will affect the image of that point. Before the
tilt, the object, located on the optic axis, formed a singlepoint image based on the actual spherical power of the
lens. With tilt the image is now formed as if it were
refracted through a new sphere and cylinder.
The new sphere and cylinder powers manifested
through the old tilted lens can be determined by rst
nding the effective powers in the sagittal and tangential
meridians of the lens.4 It turns out that the sagittal
Sagittal focus
Tangential focus
Tangential plane
A
diff
tic
ma
g
i
t
s
ere
nce
Sagittal plane
Op
tic
s
axi
Off-axis
object point
Figure 18-7. Oblique astigmatism is caused because light striking the lens in the tangential
plane focuses at one line focus, whereas light striking the lens in the sagittal plane focuses at
another line focus. (The tangential plane of the lens is the plane that intersects the optic axis
and the off-axis object point. The sagittal plane is 90 degrees away from the tangential
plane.)
C H A P T ER 18
Front surface power
+10
+10D
5D
10D
20D
+5
+5D
ce
ar
Ne
tan
411
where
+20
Dis
Lens Design
Back vertex power
Figure 18-8. A Tschernings ellipse graphically shows the

base curves needed to correct for oblique astigmatism. There
is a different ellipse for each viewing distance. (From Keating
MP: Geometric, physical and visual optics. Boston, 1988,
Butterworth-Heinemann.)
meridian coincides with the axis of lens tilt. For a

pantoscopic tilt, the axis of tilt is along the horizontal or
180-degree meridian, and so the horizontal meridian is
the sagittal meridian. For a face-form tilt, the axis of tilt
is along the vertical or 90-degree meridian, and so the
vertical meridian is the sagittal meridian. (The tangential meridian is perpendicular to the sagittal meridian,
as shown in Figure 18-7.)
The effective power in the sagittal meridian is:
sin2
Fs = F 1 +
2n
Where
Fs = the power in the sagittal meridian
F = the power of the lens being tilted (i.e., the old
lens)
= the angle of tilt and
n = the refractive index of the lens.
The power in the tangential meridian is:
2n + sin2
FT = F
2n cos2
The difference between sagittal and tangential powers
is the amount of astigmatism induced. In other words,
the cylinder power induced is:
induced cylinder = FT FS
F = the power of the lens being tilted (i.e., the old

lens) and
= the angle of tilt.
The sign (+ or ) of the induced cylinder is the same
as the sign of the tilted lens. The axis of the induced
cylinder is the same as the axis of tilt. Finding the
induced cylinder with this equation is not as accurate as
nding the difference between tangential and sagittal
powers.
Wrap-Around Prescription Lenses Wrap-around
prescription eyewear presents unique optical problems
that can require compensating power changes in lens
powers to keep the optical effect of the prescription as
intended. Here are some examples of what can happen
optically to a prescription placed in a wrap-around
frame.
Example 18-5
A person orders wrap-around sunglasses with a drop-in prescription front. The prescription lenses are made from 1.50
index plastic and have a power of 5.75 D sphere. The wraparound design of the front causes the drop-in front and
lenses to be angled 9 degrees. In the drop-in front there is
no decentration. In other words, the wearers interpupillary
distance equals the A + DBL of the front. What is the effective power induced by the wrap around?
Solution
If there is no decentration, no face form is required (see
Chapter 5). Yet the lenses are tilted 9 degrees. Since the
lens tilt is from wrap around, the angle of tilt is in the 90degree meridian.
We begin by nding the sagittal power. This will become the
new effective sphere power. Using the formula previously
given, the sagittal power equals
sin2 9
Fs = 5.75 1 +
2 (1.5)
0.02447
= 5.75 1 +
3
= 5.75 (1.008)
= 5.80 D
To nd the effective cylinder power, we will use the alternate
equation, which gives an approximate answer and is:
induced cylinder
F tan2 q
5.75 (tan2 9)
5.75 (0.025)
0.14 D
For a spherical lens, the equation for tangential power

is sometimes skipped, and the induced cylinder is directly
approximated by:
The axis of the induced cylinder is the same as the axis of

tilt, 90 degrees. Therefore the lens effectively becomes:
induced cylinder F tan2 q
5.80 0.14 90
412
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
In this example, the effect of tilting the lens is relatively

small. A larger lens power or an increased lens tilt will
produce a greater amount of change.
Example 18-6
Now suppose that this same 5.75 D lens is made from
polycarbonate material of index 1.586 and is placed in a
wrap frame having tilt around the 90-degree axis of 25
degrees. (Some wrap frames can approach 30 degrees in
their tilt.5) Again, there is no decentration required since the
wearers PD equals the (A + DBL) of the frame front. What
will the effective power of this tilted lens be, when placed in
this frame?
Solution
Repeating the same computations as before, we nd the
sagittal power that will become the new effective sphere
power.
sin2 25
Fs = 5.75 1 +
2 (1.586)
0.1786
= 5.75 1 +
3.172
= 5.75 (1.0563)
= 6.07 D
This time we will nd the tangential power in the other meridian, allowing a more exact cylinder power.
2n + sin2
FT = F
2n cos2
2 (1.586) + sin2 25
= 5.75
2 (1.586) cos2 25
3.172 + 0.179
= 5.75
(3.172)(0.821)
3.351
= 5.75
2.605
= 7.40 D
Taking the difference between sagittal and tangential meridians, we nd the effective cylinder power to be:
induced cylinder = FT FS
= 7.40 (6.07)
= 1.33 D
The lens effectively becomes:
6.07 1.33 90
It is evident that the effect of tilting the lens can

become large and will be problematic unless the effect
of tilt is considered and the power of the lens changed
to compensate for the induced change in sphere and
cylinder. Some prescriptions will be signicantly affected
by lens tilt when placed in a frame with a large amount
of wrap around.
Example 18-7
What powered lens would be needed to produce a 5.75 D
sphere after the frame has been given a face-form wrap
around that tilts the lens 25 degrees?
Solution
This is essentially asking how we must compensate a 5.75
D sphere prescription so that it comes out right in a frame
with a 25-degree tilt for each lens. To gure this out, we
need to work backwards. In other words, using the
formula:
sin2
Fs = F 1 +
2n
We need to end up with Fs equal to 5.75 D. We need to
nd the value of F for the meridian of tilt. In this case the
meridian of tilt is the 90-degree meridian.
sin2
Fs = F 1 +
2n
sin2 25
5.75 = F 1 +
2 (1.586)
0.179
5.75 = F 1 +
3.172
5.75 = F (1.056)
5.75
F=
1.056
F = 5.45 D
So the needed power in the 90-degree meridian is
5.45 D.
Since the lens is a sphere we also need to end up with a
power of 5.75 D in the tangential (180-degree) meridian.
Here we also work backwards using the formula:
2n + sin2
FT = F
2n cos2
We want a power of 5.75 for F T when we are nished.
Therefore:
2n + sin2
FT = F
2n cos2
2 (1.586) + sin2 25
5.75 = F
2 (1.586) cos2 25
3.172 + 0.179
5.75 = F
(3.172)(0.821)
3.351
5.75 = F
2.605
5.75 = F (1.286)
5.75
F=
1.286
F = 4.47 D in the 180
If we have 5.45 D in the 90 and 4.47 D in the 180, the
theoretical lens needed is 4.47 0.98 180. The lens
used would be 4.50 1.00 180.
C H A P T ER 18
Tilting of Spherocylinders When tilted, a spherocylindrical lens also has induced power changes. For either
pantoscopic or face-form tilt of a spherocylinder lens
with axis 90 or 180, the tilted spherocylindrical lens acts
similar to a spherocylinder with a new sphere power and
a new cylinder power. The principal meridians of the
old (or untilted) lens are horizontal and vertical. The
lens power chosen to calculate the effective sagittal
power (FS) is the power of the spherocylinder in the
sagittal meridian. The lens power chosen to calculate
the effective tangential power (F T ) is the power of the
spherocylinder in the tangential meridian.
After calculating the new powers, one can then put
them on a horizontal and vertical power cross and from
it determine the new (or effective) spherocylindrical
parameters (sphere, cylinder, and axis) in the usual
manner.
For pantoscopic or face-form tilt of a spherocylindrical lens with an oblique axis, there is an effective change
in cylinder axis and an effective change in the sphere and
cylinder powers. Here the computations are more complicated and require resultant calculations combining
obliquely crossed cylinders. It is also feasible to work
backwards as we did above to nd what prescription must
be placed in a wrap-around frame to prevent unwanted
power changes. For an explanation of how this may be
done, see Keating MP: Geometric, Physical, and Visual
Optics.4
Induced Prism with Wrap-Around Eyewear There
are also induced prismatic effects associated with tilting
lenses. To see how this works, take a lens prescription
and center the optics in a lensmeter with the prescription
correctly neutralized. Then tilt the prescription to simulate a wrap-around effect. The prism that appears is a
result of that lens tilt.
This prismatic effect depends on the angle of tilt, the
steepness of the base curve, the index of the material,
and the thickness of the lens. It is predictable using the
equation6
t
= 100 tan F1
n
Where
= the prism induced
= the angle of tilt
t = the thickness of the lens at the reference point
in meters
n = lens refractive index
F1 = the front curve of the lens
Notice that the refractive power of the lens does not
enter into this equation for prismatic effect, only front
curve lens power.
The base direction of the prism induced is determined by the angle at which the light enters the lens. If
Lens Design
413
D Deviation
q
Op
tic
ax
is
a
tic
Op
xis
D Deviation
Figure 18-9. Lens tilt will cause a slight amount of prismatic

effect. The amount of prism deviation is equal to
= 100 tan
t
F1.
n
In this gure is the angle between the optic axis and the
incoming central ray.
the light enters the lens from above the optic axis, the
orientation of the prism will be base down. If the light
enters the lens from the left of the lens, then the base of
the induced prism is to the right.
For lenses with pantoscopic tilt, the bottom of the
lens is tilted in toward the face. Light coming from
straight ahead strikes the lens as if it were entering from
above. Therefore the prism induced is base down. Since
the induced prism is base down for both right and left
lenses, there is a net prismatic effect of zero. Both lenses
cause the image to move up by basically the same amount
so no compensation would be required.
For wrap-around lenses, the right lens is tilted such
that light coming into the lens from in front of the
wearer is striking the lens as if it were coming from the
left (Figure 18-9). Therefore the prism base direction is
base right. For the right eye, base right is the same as
base out. For the left eye, the base direction will be base
left, which is also base out. With both eyes having base
out prism, the eyes must turn slightly inward to retain a
single image of the object viewed. To compensate for
induced base out prism, base-in prism would need to be
used. This is true even for wrap-around lenses that have
no power when made with a curved lens. However, if the
front of the lens is at, then the prismatic effect drops
to zero.
414
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Example 18-8
A prescription is to be placed into a pair of wrap-around
frames with a wrap angle of 25 degree for each lens. It is
ground onto a +8.00 D base curve polycarbonate lens with
a 2.0-mm center thickness. What would be the amount of
prism induced and in what base direction? If compensatory
prism is placed in the glasses to counteract the induced
prism, what base direction would be used?
Where light actually focuses when

curvature of field is present
(Petzval surface)
Where the lens should focus light
(Far point sphere)
Solution
Using the formula for prism induced by tilt, the prism amount
is:
t
= 100 tan F1
n
0.002
8
= 100 tan 25
1.586
= 0.47
The amount of prism is 0.47. Since the light enters the
lens at an angle on the nasal side, the prism base direction
is on the other side, which is base out. The induced prism
is 0.47 base out per eye. The prism needed to compensate
for induced base out is base in.
For orders with signicant wrap around and a moderate to high-powered prescription, use a laboratory that
is experienced with making any necessary compensatory
changes in refractive power and prism caused by lens
tilt.
Intentionally Tilting a Lens to Prevent Problems
Earlier lens tilt examples present situations where the
wearers interpupillary distance and the frame A + DBL
dimensions are the same. In other words, there is no
necessity for decentration. Yet most prescriptions do
require at least a small amount of decentration inward
since the wearers PD is generally smaller than the
frames A + DBL measurements.
If a prescription does require some decentration
inward, then the frame front should have a certain amount
of face form. A lens with decentration inward and no face
form will end up having tilt at the optical center. This
is explained in more detail in Chapter 5. (Note especially
Figures 5-2, 5-3, and 5-4.) Decentration that is compensated for with a certain amount of face form will
actually prevent the decentered lens from being tilted at
the OC. However, adding more face form than the
needed amount will end up causing those unintended
sphere and cylinder power errors that have been just
described.
Curvature of Field (Power Error)
If a designer makes a lens that is completely free of
oblique astigmatism, there will still be another aberration the wearer encounters when looking through the
periphery of the lens. This fourth of Seidels ve aberrations is called curvature of eld or power error. Power
Image shell
error
Figure 18-10. The aberration curvature of eld occurs when

light entering the peripheral areas of the lens does not focus
where it should; namely, on the far point sphere. (The far point
sphere is curved because the eye turns to see objects toward
the periphery of the lens.) Instead it focuses on the Petzval
surface. The Petzval surface is formed when oblique astigmatism is corrected. Another name for the Petzval surface is the
image sphere.
error is the most descriptive term because this aberration

causes the spherical component of the lens to have the
effect of being off-power in the periphery when worn
(Figure 18-10). (The dioptric difference between the
place where the image actually focuses and where it
should focus is called the image shell error.)
It is important to use the manufacturers recommended base curve for each given lens power. The
optimum base curve will ensure that oblique astigmatism and power error are held to a minimum. When
using the wrong base curve, the wearer will not be able
to see as well through the periphery of the lens.
Distortion
The last of the ve Seidel aberrations is distortion. Distortion occurs because there is a different magnication
at different areas of the periphery of the lens in proportion to the distance of those areas from the OC of
the lens. For plus lenses, magnication increases proportionately toward the periphery, whereas in minus
lenses, the magnication decreases proportionately.
When looking at the center of a square window through
a high plus lens, the corners of the window are farther
away from the center of the lens than the middle of the
sides (or the middle of the top and bottom). This means
the corners will be magnied more, making the window
look like a pincushion (Figure 18-11). This is known as
pincushion distortion.
For minus lenses, the corners would receive less magnication than the middle of the sides, causing barrel
distortion.
Spectacle Lens Design

As noted previously, some aberrations are more important than others when designing spectacle lenses.
To summarize:
C H A P T ER 18
Image
Object
Pincushion distortion
(Usually occurs with
plus lenses)
Object
Image
Barrel distortion
(Usually occurs with
minus lenses)
Figure 18-11. Magnication occurs with plus lenses and

minication with minus lenses. However, the magnication is
not even across the lens. This results in the types of distortion
of the magnied or minied images shown here.
Chromatic aberration is important when considering

possible high-index materials to use for spectacle
lenses or when choosing the fused multifocal
segment of a glass spectacle lens.
Because of pupil size, the Seidel aberrations of
spherical aberration and coma are less problematic.
The three Seidel aberrations proving to be most
troublesome in ophthalmic lenses are oblique
astigmatism, power error, and distortion.
Looking at design possibilities simplistically, there
are three possibilities:
1. A lens designer can correct the oblique astigmatism
completely, leaving the power error uncorrected. A
lens designed in this fashion is referred to as a point
focal lens.
2. A designer can concentrate on eliminating power
error, but choose to leave residual astigmatism
uncorrected. This type of lens is referred to as a
Percival form lens.
3. A designer can design a lens referred to as a
minimum tangential error form that is a compromise
between the rst two choices. At this point in time,
designing a lens that is strictly a point focal or a
Percival form lens is not likely. A lens which
compromises between the two forms is common
practice.
It should be noted that all three of the above choices
are referred to either as corrected curve or best form lenses.
Four Variables of Lens Design
There are four variables the designer can use to arrive
at the best form for an individual lens of a specic power.
These four are:
1. Vertex distance
2. Lens thickness
3. Refractive index
4. Front and back lens surface powers
For a single vision series of lenses, the rst three
variables must be decided for the whole series. Therefore
Lens Design
415
the only practical variables left to work with are front

and back surface powers.
The Importance of Using the Correct Base Curve for
Surfaced Lenses
When a laboratory receives a single vision series of
nished lenses, the base curve of the lens is set. When
the lens is removed from the package, the only choices
left are related to lens edging. When a lens has to be
surfaced, however, the laboratory looks at the desired
lens power and chooses a lens blank with a front (base)
curve appropriate for that particular power. Lens designers have already recommended certain base curves for
specic lens powers so the laboratory usually tries to
remain within those guidelines.
Failure to select the correct base curve for a given lens
power will not affect the quality of vision a person has
through the center of the lens. It will reduce the quality
of vision through the periphery of the lens, however.
By using the correct base curve, the most troublesome
monochromatic aberrations can be reduced. By looking
at Tschernings ellipse (see Figure 18-8), we see that it is
possible to completely correct for oblique astigmatism*
for sphere powers ranging from approximately +7.00 D
to 23.00 D. For powers outside of this range, there is
no spherical base curve that will eliminate oblique astigmatism. There is another option, however. That option
is to use an aspheric lens.
The Tschernings ellipse also shows that there are
really two base curves that correct for oblique astigmatism. The lower half of the ellipse corresponds to the
lenses that are customarily used today.
APPROPRIATE BASE CURVES

It is possible to create the same power using an almost
in nite variety of lens forms. A lens with a front curve
of +2.00 D and a back curve of 6.00 D will produce
virtually the same power that a lens with a +3.00 D front
curve and a 7.00 D back curve will produce. If many
lens forms produce the same power, is there a particular
front curve that should be chosen for a given lens
power?
Although there is a range of possible lens forms that
will prove acceptable, there are limits beyond which the
overall results will be poor. If an incorrect base curve is
selected, the quality of vision is acceptable while looking
straight ahead. But vision will be degraded when turning
the eyes to view an object off to the side. This effect is
due to lens aberrations brought about by an incorrect
lens form.
*The phrase completely correct for oblique astigmatism means
that for one viewing distance at one oblique viewing angle, oblique
astigmatism can be eliminated. At other viewing angles and distances, oblique astigmatism will be considerably reduced, but not
entirely eliminated.
416
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Manufacturers Recommendations
Lens manufacturers recommend specic base curves for
each lens power. These recommendations list the range
of powers and tell which base should be used for those
powers.
A General Guideline
BOX 18-2
Vogels Formula for Base Curves*
Plus lenses:
Base curve = spherical equivalent +6.00 D
Minus lenses:
The power of a lens determines its shape.

Plano lens powers usually have back surface curves
close to 6.00 D.
As lens power becomes more minus, the back surface
steepens, and the front surface attens.
As plus lens power increases, the back surface
becomes progressively atter, while the front curve
becomes steeper.
From the front, minus lenses look atter, and plus
lenses look steeper.
Base curve =
spherical equivalent
= +6.00 D
2
Where
cyl
2
Spherical equivalent = sphere +
*Note: These base curves are estimates for glass and low index
plastic lenses and will estimate a somewhat higher base curve for
plus lenses. They are for general reference purposes and should
not be used for actual lens production.
Base Curve Formulas

One method for estimating the range in which an appropriate base curve might be found is to use a simplied
formula derived from precalculated base curves. Such a
formula is not a replacement for manufacturers recommendations. One such formula is Vogels formula,7 which
states that, for plus lenses, the base curve of the lens
equals the spherical equivalent of the lens power plus 6
diopters. Written as a formula this is:
Base curve (plus lenses) = spherical equivalent + 6.00 D
(The spherical equivalent of a lens is the sphere power plus
half of the cylinder power.) For minus lenses, Vogels
formula for base curve begins with the spherical equivalent of the lens, divides the spherical equivalent by 2,
then adds 6 diopters. Written as a formula this is:
Base curve(min us lenses) =
spherical equivalent
+ 6.00 D
2
These formulas are summarized in Box 18-2.

(Remember that this formula is to help in determining approximately what base curve might be expected for
a given lens power. Actual base curves for lenses will
vary. Plus lenses will be somewhat atter than calculated
and lenses of higher index of refraction may be considerably atter.)
Example 18-9
Using Vogels formula, nd an approximate base curve for a
lens having a power of +2.00 D sphere.
Solution
For spheres there is no need to calculate a spherical equivalent. So for this lens, the base curve is:
Base curve (plus lenses) = + 2.00 D + 6.00 D
= 8.00 D
Example 18-10
Suppose a lens has a prescription of +5.50 1.00 70.
Using Vogels formula, what is the base curve?
Solution
Since this lens has cylinder, we begin by nding the spherical
equivalent of the lens.
Spherical equivalent = +5.50 +
(1.00)
= +5.00 D
The approximate base curve is:

Base curve (plus lenses) = +5.00 D + 6.00 D
= +11.00 D
Example 18-11
A minus lens has a power of 6.50 1.50 170. Using
Vogels formula, what is the approximate base curve?
Solution
The spherical equivalent of 6.50 1.50 170 is:
Spherical equivalent = 6.50 +
= 7.25 D
1.50
2
The base curve formula for minus lenses is different than

that for plus lenses; therefore the approximate base curve is:
7.25
+ 6.00 D
2
= 3.62 D + 6.00 D
= +2.38 D
Base curve(min us lenses) =
Rounded to the nearest 1/2 D, this is +2.50 D. (In practice

this would be rounded to the nearest base curve in the
series stocked by the laboratory.)
C H A P T ER 18
Considering Right and Left Lenses As a Pair

Up to this point, we have only been choosing the base
curve on the basis of the power of one individual lens.
This works ne as long as both left and right lenses have
exactly the same power. But if the powers are different
in the left and right eyes, one lens might call for one base
curve, whereas the other lens requires a different curve.
This could be problematic in certain instances.
Consider for instance, the situation where one lens in
a pair has a power that is only 0.50 D stronger than that
of the other. Yet when looking at manufacturers recommendations for each lens, the right and left base curve
powers straddle two available base curves. (Lens blanks
come in power jumps, such as 2, 4, 6, etc.) One lens calls
for a +6.00 base, whereas the other calls for a +8.00. If
the lenses were chosen with two different base curves,
there would be both a visible difference in the appearance of the two lenses and a difference in magnication
created between the images seen by the right and left
eyes. Therefore a decision needs to be made to modify
the base curve(s).
Because an error in base curve selection is worse for
high-powered lenses than for lenses closer to zero power,
from an optical standpoint, the higher powered lens
would drive the choice.
This would mean that:
1. In instances where both lenses are plus, the steeper
base curve (higher numerical base curve) of the two
would be the correct optical choice. From a
cosmetic standpoint, this choice may not always be
followed.
2. If both lenses are minus, the atter base curve of the
two should be chosen.
3. If one lens is plus and one lens is minus, again, from an
optical standpoint the base curve for the lens with
the highest numerical value should be chosen.
It is usually advisable to maintain individual lens base
curve choices when the difference between the right and
left base curves is greater than 2 diopters. A correctly
chosen base curve will produce clear vision, regardless
of whether the wearer is looking through the center or
off toward the edges. If the recommended base curve is
changed too much, vision in the periphery of the lens
will be poor. (Aniseikonia considerations may also inuence base curve choice. For more on Aniseikonia and
base curve, see Chapter 21.)
Other Factors That Modify Base Curve Choice

Most metal frame eyewires are curved to best accept a
lens with a six-base curve since this is the most common
base curve. For this reason, prescriptions that would
normally have steeper base curves may have those curves
attened somewhat so that the lenses will stay in the
frame better. (Instead of attening the lens, a better
choice would be to use an aspheric lens. Aspherics can
be made on a atter base curve without degrading optical
quality.)
Lens Design
417
Plastic frame styles that have a poor lens retention

record may retain their lenses better if the lenses have
atter base curves.
Prescriptions with large amounts of prism end up being
thicker. Lens thickness increases lens magnication and
makes the eye look larger. This is especially true for plus
lenses. Much of this magnication comes from a steep
front curve. This means that magnication may be
reduced by using a atter base curve. As an added benet,
large prisms are easier to work with when produced on
a somewhat lower base curve.
ASPHERICS
What Is an Aspheric Lens?
The term aspheric means not spherical. The degree of
curvature of a spheric lens is continuously uniform with
a consistent radius of curvature throughout its entire
surface, like that of a ball or sphere. An aspheric lens
surface changes shape. It does not have the same radius
of curvature over the entire surface. Aspherics are, generally speaking, based on a surface curvature that comes
from a conic section. A conic section is a slice through
a cone. There are 4 basic types of conic sections (Figure
18-12). These are:
1. A circle: A circle is the shape formed by a horizontal
plane, or slice through an upright cone.
2. An ellipse: An ellipse is a shape formed by an angled
plane through a cone that does not intersect the
base of the cone.
3. A parabola: A parabola is a curve that is formed by
the intersection of a cone with a plane having one
side parallel to the side of the cone.
4. A hyperbola: A hyperbola is a shape formed when a
cone is intersected by a plane that makes a greater
angle with the base of the cone than the side of the
cone makes with its base.
When these shapes are used as the shape for the front
of a lens, they compare as shown in Figure 18-13.
The type of asphericity used on a lens surface is often
classied by p-values. P-values refer to the value p in
the equation8:
y 2 = 2rOx px 2
This equation describes the conic sections referred to
previously. The ro value is the radius of curvature at the
vertex of the conic section. Knowing the p value will
differentiate the conic sections from each other, as shown
in Box 18-3.
These were shown in Figure 18-13. Thus knowing
the p-value of an aspheric surface helps to understand which type of asphericity is being used and
how far the surface departs from a circular or spherical
shape. For example, a surface having a p-value of 3.0
is a hyperbolic surface. This surface departs further
from a spherical shape than one having a value of +0.5.
418
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Circle
Ellipse
Parabola
Hyperbola
Figure 18-12. Conic sections create the curves that are often used for lens surfaces. The
circle is used for spherically based lenses. The ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola are used for
aspheric surfaces.
z axis
Oblate ellipse
(p > 1)
Circle (p = 1)
Prolate ellipse
(0 < p < 1)
Figure 18-13. This gure shows how

geometric conic sections could be used
on front or back lens surfaces to produce
different types of asphericity. The type
of asphericity used on a surface may be
classied by p-values. P-values refer to
the value p in the equation and describe
the varying shaped conic sections
referred to in Figure 1812. Using a
different approach it is also possible to
classify asphericity by Q-values, with
Q being a measure of conicoid asphericity. Using Q-values, a circle has a value
of zero compared with this system in
which a circle is classied with a p-value
of 1. (From Jalie M: Ophthalmic lenses
& dispensing, ed 2, Boston, 2003,
Parabola
(p = 0)
y axis
Hyperbola (p < 0)
BOX 18-3
p-Values for Aspheric Surface Shapes
If the p-value is:
p>1
p
0
p
p
(p is greater
than 1)
Then the type of aspheric

surface will be:
Oblate ellipse (The long

axis of the ellipse is
vertical)
=1
(p is equal to 1) Circle
< p < 1 (p is between
Prolate ellipse (The long
0 and 1)
axis of the ellipse is
horizontal)
=0
(p is equal to 0) Parabola
<0
(p is less than 0) Hyperbola
One having a p-value of +0.50 is a prolate elliptical

surface.
Aspheric surfaces have a changing radius of curvature
and thus a varying amount of surface astigmatism everywhere except at the center of the lens surface. This means
that it is possible to select a specic type of aspheric
surface that will neutralize unwanted oblique astigmatism. For example, suppose we want to use a lens that
has a considerably atter base curve than normal. Just
attening the base curve on a spherically based lens will
mean increased oblique astigmatism resulting in poor
peripheral optics. Yet this atter base can be used successfully if a type of aspheric surface that has a matching
C H A P T ER 18
RP
RRE
6.5
0
Bas D
ec
urv
e
BLU
10
Ba .0 0 D
se
cu
rve
Perceived power
+5.50 D
Perceived astigmatism
0.75 D
Perceived power
+5.00 D
RP
RP
SHA
SHA
30
e
ph
eri
Sph
al
ric
c al
30
Figure 18-14. The normal base curve for a plano lens is

+6.00 D. The +10.00 D front surface of this +5.00 D lens looks
considerably steeper and causes more magnication. However,
this spherical corrected curve lens will give sharp vision both
centrally and peripherally. (From Meslin D: Varilux practice
report no. 6: asphericity: what a confusing word!, Oldsmar,
Fla, November, 1993, Varilux Press. Figure 1A. Courtesy
Varilux Corp.)
Figure 18-15. Flattening a +5.00 D lens from a +10.00 D

spherical base curve lens back to a +6.50 makes it look more
like a low-powered plus lens. With this at curve, it is no
longer optically sound. Even though the center may produce
20/20 vision, the periphery suffers from both power error and
oblique astigmatism. (From Meslin D: Varilux practice report
no. 6: asphericity: what a confusing word!, Oldsmar, Fla,
November, 1993, Varilux Press. Figure 1B. Courtesy Varilux
Corp.)
but counterbalancing amount of surface astigmatism is

chosen.
RP
SHA
Purposes for Using an Aspheric Design
Asphericity for Optical Purposes

As stated earlier, for most powers, it is possible to produce
a lens that is optically sound using regular, spherical
surfaces. Once lens powers go beyond the +7.00 D to
23.00 D range, however, it is necessary to use an aspheric
design.
In the middle, an aspheric lens surface starts out as
any other spherical surface. Then at a certain distance
from the OC, the lens surface gradually changes its
curvature at a rate calculated to offset peripheral aberrations. (This concept will be discussed in greater depth
in the section on high plus lenses later in the chapter.)
Asphericity for Flattening Purposes
For lenses with spherical base curves, higher plus power
always results in steeper base curves (Figure 18-14).
Unfortunately, for high plus lenses the steeper the base
curve, the worse the lenses look. Choosing a atter base
Perceived power
+5.00 D
RP
SHA
heri
30
Asp
There are at least ve good reasons for producing a lens

that has an aspheric surface.
1. The rst reason is to be able to optically correct
lens aberrations.
2. The second reason is to allow the lens to be made
atter, thereby reducing magnication and making
it more attractive.
3. The third reason is to produce a thinner, lighterweight lens.
4. A fourth reason may be to ensure a good, tight t in
the frame.
5. The fth reason is to make a lens with progressive
optics.
6.50
Bas D
e cu
rve
SHA
419
Lens Design
Figure 18-16. Properly using aspherics, it is possible to atten

a lens and still overcome peripheral aberrations. Here, this
+5.00 D lens has been attened to have a +6.50 front curve,
yet because the front curve is aspheric, vision remains clear in
the periphery. (From Meslin D: Varilux practice report no. 6:
asphericity: what a confusing word! Oldsmar, Fla, November
1993, Varilux Press. Figure 1C. Courtesy Varilux Corp.)
curve will make the lens look less bulbous and also
reduce magnication. Cosmetically the lens looks much
better. It even looks considerably thinner than before,
although in reality it is only slightly thinner. Because at
base curves reduce magnication, the wearers eyes do
not look as big.
Unfortunately, just attening a regular lens results in
bad optics. In the periphery, the sphere power will be off
(because of power error), and there will be unwanted
cylinder (because of oblique astigmatism) (Figure 18-15).
If the attened lens surface is aspheric, it is possible
to get both good cosmetics and good optics (Figure 1816). Such a lens may even change the degree of asphericity when approaching the edge of the lens to further
atten the lens.
420
Aspheric
(geometric)
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Spherical
Aspheric
(geometric)
Decrease size
Figure 18-17. When using asphericity for the purpose of

thinning a plus lens, the front surface is attened to give the
edge more thickness. For a plus lens, center thickness is limited
by edge thickness. If edge thickness can be added with asphericity, then the whole lens can be thinned, and center thickness
will be reduced. (Dotted lines show the shape of the unthinned,
spherical lens.) (From Meslin D: Varilux practice report no. 6:
asphericity: what a confusing word! Oldsmar, Fla, November
1993, Varilux Press. Figure 2A. Courtesy Varilux Corp.)
Another Reason for Flatter Base Curves

The steeper the base curve, the easier it is to dislodge
the lens from a metal frame. So it is not unusual for a
laboratory to atten a base curve to make it t more
securely in the frame. Yet rather than attening a regular
lens, a better option is to use a atter, aspherically
designed lens.
Asphericity for Thinning Purposes
(Geometric Asphericity)
Asphericity can be engineered with the express purpose
of making the lens thinner. To do this for plus lenses,
the lens front and back surface are attened quite a bit
toward the edge. Flattening the periphery makes it possible to grind the whole lens thinner (Figure 18-17). Of
course there are several aspects for thinning lenses,
often combined with one another. Figure 18-18 shows
how lens thickness responds to a decrease in lens diameter, an increase in lens index, and a change to an aspheric
design.
To thin minus lenses, either the peripheral portion of
the lens front surface is steepened, or the peripheral
portion of the back surface is attened toward the periphery, or both. This reduces edge thickness (Figure
18-19).
To Ensure a Good, Tight Fit in the Frame
Most frames are made to best hold a lens with around a
6 D base curve. Using ordinary methods for edging
lenses, the steeper the base curve is, the harder it is to
keep the lens tight in the frame. Since a lens can be made
closer to a 6 D base curve in an aspheric design without
compromising peripheral vision, an aspheric design will
help in ensuring that the lens stays in the frame.
Asphericity for Producing Progressive Power Changes
By denition, any lens surface that is not spheric is
aspheric. Progressive addition lenses achieve their add
42 mm diameter
55 mm diameter
Increase index
1.5 index
1.7 index
Change to
aspheric
1.5 index
spherically based
1.5 index
aspheric
C
Figure 18-18. A plus lens may be thinned by decreasing the
overall diameter of the lens (A), increasing the refractive index
of the lens (B), and changing from a spherical surface to an
aspheric surface (C).
C H A P T ER 18
Aspheric
(geometric)
Spherical
Aspheric
(geometric)
Figure 18-19. Asphericity can be used to thin the edge of a

high minus lens. This is done by steepening the periphery of
the front and/or attening the periphery of the back curve.
(From Meslin D: Varilux practice report no. 6: asphericity:
what a confusing word! Oldsmar, Fla, November 1993, Varilux
Press. Figure 2B. Courtesy Varilux Corp.)
power gain from a progressively steepening surface

curvature. So progressive addition lenses are also aspheric
lenses.
Most progressive addition lens designs continue to
follow the same rules as spheric base curve lens designs.
In other words, their distance portion will have the same
base curve as one would expect for spherically based
corrected curve lenses.
A progressive lens can also be made with a atter base
curve for the distance portion. To prevent unwanted
aberrations, the front surface should be aspherically
compensated as in any other nonprogressive aspheric
lens. (As would be expected, the combined asphericities
will become considerably more complex to design.)
ATORIC LENSES
A spherically based lens using a properly chosen base
curve to create a corrected curve design can do a very
good job of minimizing peripheral lens aberrations. So
can an aspheric lens. In fact an aspheric lens is able to
create a lens that has a atter base curve and is often
thinner and lighter while still maintaining corrected
curve quality for reduction of aberrations.
Yet like the spherically based lens, the base curve
and/or asphericity combination of an aspheric lens is
designed for one specic lens power. The problem is
when a lens corrects for astigmatism and introduces a
cylinder component into the prescription, the lens has
two powers. A lens with two curves on the same surface
is called a toric lens. Which power will be used to determine the correct amount of asphericity? Choosing to
correct one power means that correction for peripheral
aberrations for the other power will be less than ideal.
Usually a compromise power somewhere in between the
two is chosen, with neither being optimum.
An aspheric lens changes the curvature of the surface
in all directions equally. With two lens powers, the rate
of change in surface curvature would have to be different
for each power meridian. Changing the curvature at
Lens Design
421
different rates for each of the two meridians means that

each rate of change can be optimized for the power in
that meridian. When each meridian is optimized on a
toric lens, the design is called an atoric lens. For a lens
having cylinder power, an atoric design is able to expand
the peripheral range of clearer vision beyond what is
found for either a well-designed (best form) spherically
based lens or an aspheric lens (Figure 18-20).
Atoric lenses should be recommended for all cylinder
powers above 2.00 D, even when the spherical component of the prescription is low. They may also prove
advantageous for anyone with cylinder power beyond
1.25 D. Fortunately, many of the newer high-index single
vision series of lenses being marketed are now being
made as an atoric series and not just aspheric.
Comparing the Construction of Spherically

Based Lenses, Aspherics, and Atorics
Here is a quick and general comparison of the way single
vision lenses are constructed for spherically based,
aspheric, and atoric lenses.
Spherically based lenses
For simple spheres (no cylinder), the front surface is
spherical, and the back surface is also spherical.
For spherocylinders, the front surface is spherical,
and the back surface is toric.
Aspheric lenses
In most cases, for simple spheres (no cylinder), the
front surface is aspheric, and the back surface is
spherical.
For spherocylinders, the front surface is aspheric.
The back is toric. It is not possible to correct both of
the major meridians of a cylinder lens for aberrations
when a lens is designed this way.
Atoric lenses
There are both spheres and spherocylinders in a
given lens series that use an atoric design. This
means that in the case of spheres, the lens is really
an aspheric. Technically it cannot be an atoric
because it has no cylinder power.
There are several ways atoric lenses can be made. It
can be anticipated that the number of these
possibilities will expand.
1. A nished single vision lens with the front surface
spherical and the back surface atoric.
2. A semi-nished single vision lens with the front
surface having the gradual changes in power
associated with the lens atoricity. The back
surface is the normal toric surface correcting for
cylinder power. So the back surface takes care of
the refractive power of the cylinder, whereas the
front surface makes atoric changes for peripheral
aberrations.
3. A third category is an atoric design in
conjunction with a progressive addition lens.
In the past, atorics had only been available in single
vision lenses. Atorics had been out of the question with
422
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
SPH
SPH
CYL
CYL
Atoric Design
Best Form and Aspheric Designs
Field of Perfectly Clear Vision Comparison*

Best Form Poly
Aspheric Poly
ViZio Atoric Poly
Rx:
+ 4.00 2.00
Rx:
6.00 2.00
C
Figure 18-20. A, This is conceptual drawing showing the zone of optimum vision
for a best form spheric or an aspheric spherocylinder lens when the design is optimized for the sphere power meridian. The cylinder power represented in this drawing
is fairly high. Here the wider area produced by the sphere meridian happens to fall
in the narrower vertical meridian because of cylinder axis orientation. B, In B an
atoric lens allows the design to be optimized for both sphere and cylinder power
meridians, resulting is a larger area of better vision. (Illustrations A and B courtesy
of Darryl Meister, Carl Zeiss Vision.) C, Here is a comparison of the size of sharp,
clear vision for three polycarbonate lenses in best form, aspheric, and atoric forms
for two specic spherocylinder lens powers. There is little difference in peripheral
lens clarity between the best form (corrected curve) spherically based lens and the
aspheric design, assuming that both lenses are t correctly. Because an atoric lens
can correct peripheral aberrations for both astigmatic meridians independently, the
atoric design is able to widen the peripheral area of sharp, clear vision. (From Meister
D: ViZio the next generation of aspheric lenses, Sola optical publication #000013910460,
10/98.)
C H A P T ER 18
Lens blank
Geometric center
of the
lens blank
Desired shape
after edging
Optical center location
achieved by grinding
prism for decentration
Figure 18-21. When the unsurfaced, unedged lens blank is

small or the frame is large, it may be necessary for the laboratory to move the OC away from the center of the lens blank.
This is done by grinding prism in the center of the lens blank
so that the OC will be properly placed after the lens has been
edged.
multifocals and progressives. The segment or progressive zone of the lenses requires that the lenses be surfaced to prescription to correctly place the cylinder axis
direction. The segment or progressive zone is already on
the front of the lens. Since there was no practical way to
grind and polish atoric optics onto the back side of the
lens, atorics were only made in single vision lenses. Now
free-form generating and polishing is making atorics
available for an increasing number of newer custom progressive lens designs.
WORKING WITH ASPHERICS AND ATORICS

An Aspheric Design Prohibits Grinding Prism
for Decentration
When a conventional (nonaspheric) single vision lens is
surfaced, the laboratory can move the OC to any location on the lens. This is done by grinding prism for
decentration and is especially helpful when using large
frames. Grinding prism for decentration moves the OC
away from the center of the lens blank. On a spherically
based lens, the OC may be moved without creating any
new optical problems (Figure 18-21). Decentration prism
is helpful when the lens blank would otherwise be too
small for the frame size.
But what will happen if the OC is moved away from
the geometric center of an aspheric lens blank? If the OC
of an aspheric lens is moved, the asphericity will be misplaced relative to the position of the eye (Figure 18-22).
When the eye looks one way, it reaches the aspheric
portion too soon. When it looks the other way, the
aspheric area is not reached soon enough. In short
the OC of an aspheric lens must remain locked to one
position on the lens blank.
Rx Prism Still Works With Aspherics
Just because aspherics do not allow prism for decentration does not mean that aspherics cannot be used for
prism prescriptions. They can be used with Rx prism.
The prism must be ground in prism done in the surfac-
Lens Design
423
ing laboratory so that the correct amount of prism will

be found at the center of the aspheric zone. A nished
single vision lens cannot simply be decentered to create
a prismatic effect as is done with normal spherically
based lenses. Decentering a stock aspheric lens to create
prism will mean that the wearer will no longer be looking
through the middle of the aspheric zone.
Identifying a Lens As an Aspheric or

Atoric Lens
When someone comes into the ofce already wearing
glasses, it is helpful to know if the lenses being worn are
aspheric lenses. It is not always easy to tell. Here are
some possibilities for identifying an aspheric lens.
Use a lens clock: By placing the three pins of a lens
clock on the front surface of a lens and moving the
lens clock sideways, it may be possible to identify
some aspherics. If front surface lens power changes,
the lens is aspheric. However, if the lens is edged
and in the frame, it is not possible to move the lens
clock very far. Therefore many, if not most aspherics
may be missed.
Use a grid pattern: View a grid pattern through a
higher plus lens. Not seeing distortion of the grid
may identify certain types of aspherics, but not all
types.
Notice lens curvature: Notice the atness of the front
(and back) curve compared with other lenses of
equal powers. Of these rst three suggestions for
identifying the possibility of having an aspheric lens,
this may be the best.
Look for identifying markings: Fortunately, some
manufacturers are putting identifying markings on
the front surface of their lenses. This will allow the
identication of a lens as being a specic brand of
aspheric, much like the system used for identifying
progressive addition lenses. Remember, however,
that whereas progressive lens marks will appear
along the 180-degree line, aspheric lens markings
may appear in any lens meridian because of the lens
being rotated during edging.
Why Dispensing Rules Take on Special

Importance for Aspherics
A well-designed aspheric lens can produce excellent
optical and cosmetic results. There is one thing that
must be kept in mind, however. Aspheric lenses are not
as forgiving of dispensing errors as regular lenses. If a
regular lens is t without adhering to all the proper
tting rules, vision may still be acceptable enough to
produce a happy wearer. But if an aspheric lens is t
improperly, the lens can end up being optically worse
than a regular spheric-based lens would have been.
Fitting Guidelines for Aspherics
Fitting rules for aspherics are really no different than
careful tting rules for any other lens. Remember to
424
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Aspheric portion
Central spheric zone

of the lens
Optical center
(Correctly centered
no prism for decenentration)
Aspheric portion
Central spheric zone

of the lens
Incorrectly ground optical center
(lens has ground-in prism
for decentration)
B
Figure 18-22. A, An aspheric lens should always have the OC in the middle of the central,
spheric portion of the lens. This way as the eye looks left and right, the lens is used as intended.
If an aspheric lens is ground with prism for decentration as shown in B, the eye will run into
aspheric changes too quickly in one direction and not quick enough in the other direction.
(The eye is slightly above the OC to allow for pantoscopic tilt and reading.) Note: Do not
confuse prism for decentration with prescribed (Rx) prism. Prism ground onto an aspheric
lens as Rx prism is always acceptable.
always use monocular PDs, measure for MRP height,

and use the correct amount of pantoscopic tilt.
Use Monocular Interpupillary Distances
The eye must be horizontally centered in the concentric
aspheric rings of the lens. Taking monocular interpupillary distances will ensure that this happens.
Measure Major Reference Point Heights and
Compensate for Pantoscopic Angle
First, measure MRP heights in the conventional manner
(see Chapter 5). Then use the rule of thumb for tilt
compensation (i.e., subtract 1 mm of MRP height for
each 2 mm of pantoscopic tilt). Aspheric areas concentrically surround the lens OC. Therefore do not move the
MRP more than 5 mm below the pupil, even if the rule
of thumb for tilt calls for more than 5 mm. Moving the
MRP too far downward can cause the peripheral aspheric
area to interfere with normal distance vision. Because
the MRP should not be dropped more than 5 mm below
the pupil, it is not advisable to use more than 10 degrees
of pantoscopic tilt with high-powered aspheric

prescriptions.
Alternative Method for Determining Major Reference Point Height: Tilt the Head and Measure An
alternative method for nding MRP height is to rst tilt
the wearers head back until the frame front is perpendicular to the oor. Next measure MRP height with the
subjects head tilted back. (If the frame has a large
amount of pantoscopic tilt, remeasure height without
tilting the head. The difference in measurement should
not exceed 5 mm.) This head-tilt method should give the
same results as compensating for pantoscopic tilt and is
certainly easier. (See Chapter 5 for more details regarding MRP height.)
Caution: Some laboratories assume that the MRP
height specied on the order form places the MRP in
front of the eye. Since this is incorrect in the presence
of pantoscopic tilt, some laboratories drop the MRP
below the ordered amount to compensate for tilt. You
will need to know how your laboratory is treating socalled MRP heights.
C H A P T ER 18
BOX 18-4
Fitting Guidelines for Aspherics
1. Use monocular interpupillary distances.
2. Measure major reference point heights in the
conventional manner. Then subtract 1 mm for each
2 mm of pantoscopic tilt. (The OC should not be
more than 5 mm below the pupil.)
Alternative method for nding major reference
point height: First tilt the wearers head back until
the frame front is perpendicular to the oor. Next
measure the major reference point height in this
position. This alternative method should give the
same results as compensating for pantoscopic tilt
will give.
3. Remember that the laboratory cannot grind prism for
decentration with aspheric lenses. Moving the OC
away from the center of the aspheric zone will
destroy any aspheric optical advantage.
The guidelines for tting aspherics are summarized

in Box 18-4.
Full Versus Nonfull Aspherics
When thinking of aspherics, we generally think of the
lens surface radius of curvature changes as beginning
nearly at the optical center of the lens. The changes start
gradually and increase more rapidly as distance increases
from the center of the lens. This type of aspheric lens is
referred to as a full aspheric lens. Because changes start
almost centrally, it is important to follow recommended
tting guidelines. If the eye in not correctly located in
the aspheric conguration, this poor tting can produce
results worse than would be experienced if spherically
based lenses were poorly t.
To help reduce poor tting problems, some aspheric
lenses are designed with a spherical central area or cap
that may vary in size depending upon who makes the
lens. In this central area, the lens behaves like a spherically based lens. If the eye is not properly centered, the
consequences are not supposed to be as noticeable. Such
a lens is referred to as a nonfull aspheric.9 Another advantage is that the lens may be able to be decentered for
smaller amounts of prism without having as many adverse
affects.
When to Recommend Aspherics and Atorics

For Plus Lens Wearers
For plus lenses, an aspheric may easily be recommended
when the power goes above +3.00 D. However, opinions
vary on when to recommend aspherics with beginning
points ranging from +2.00 D to +4.00 D or even lower.
Remember that as frame size increases, the amount of
plus power needed before recommending an aspheric
lens decreases. The larger the lens, the lower the power
will be when aspheric lenses are recommended.
Lens Design
425
For Minus Lens Wearers

For a minus lens wearer, an aspheric may be recommended for powers above 3.00 D. The minimum lens
power that is recommended continues to drop. Again
differences as to what the lowest power is for recommending a minus aspheric will differ, depending upon
frame size and wearer concerns. (Note: If a high-index
aspheric is being used primarily to thin the lens, it is
counterproductive to place such a lens in a frame with a
small eye size and narrow vertical dimension if that
frame is a nylon-cord frame. Nylon-cord frames need a
minimum edge thickness to allow for grooving the edge.
Such high-index lenses may have to be made thicker
because of the frame.)
Aspherics Are Recommended for Anisometropia
When a person has a difference in power between the
left and right eyes that is greater than 2.00 D, there will
also be differences in magnication. Aspherics are normally atter, thinner, and closer to the eyes and reduce
magnication differences.
Other Possibilities for Using Aspherics
Aspherics can also be recommended for
Children who are sensitive about how their glasses
look;
Contact lens wearers so they will not overwear their
contacts to avoid wearing thick, ugly spectacle
lenses; and
Older wearers to decrease lens weight.
Adapting to Aspherics and Atorics
Changing base curve and lessening the amount of
distortion a person experiences when switching from a
spherically based lens to an aspheric or atoric would seem
like a good thing. And it is. However, the person who
has been wearing lenses that cause straight lines to
appear curved has already made some adaptations. They
have mentally been able to correct the distortions caused
by the lens. Their mind straightens the optically distorted (curved) line and sees it as straight. Now when a
new correcting lens no longer curves straight lines, the
mind tries to compensate as before, and the world takes
on an unfamiliar appearance. Until readaptation takes
place, nothing looks right. Those being changed from
conventional spherically based lenses into aspheric or
atoric lenses should be warned about the adaptation time
that will be necessary. Once a person is used to wearing
aspherics and atorics, they nd them much to their
liking. (This is assuming that the lens has been carefully
measured and t.)
HIGH PLUS LENS DESIGNS

Before the advent of intraocular lens implants following
cataract surgery, high plus lenses were common, and
a number of high plus spectacle lens options were
426
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
APERTURE
(Prescribed
optics here)
Figure 18-23. This lens has the same radius of curvature over
the entire front surface of the lens. A full-eld lens is one
that is optically useable over the entire viewing area. Therefore technically, even this regular spherically based lens could
be called a full-eld lens.
CARRIER
Figure 18-24. When a lenticular lens is viewed from the

front, the optically useable central aperture is seen in the
center of the outer carrier portion.
developed. Many of these options are still available.

Because high plus options are often thought of simply as
cataract lenses, they may not be used to full advantage.
People who need a high plus correction and have never
had cataract surgery are still candidates for these special
lens designs.
Regular Spheric Lenses

It is possible to use a regular, spherically based lens
for a high plus wearer, even though the optics are not
as good. Sometimes these lenses are called full-eld
lenses to make them sound better. Actually, any lens
that has the prescribed lens power over the whole viewing
surface could be described as a full-eld lens (Figure
18-23).
Sphere portion
Radius of
spheric portion
Figure 18-25. The cross section of a spheric lenticular lens

shows that the optically useable central portion has the same
radius of curvature across its entire surface. The outer carrier
portion is considerably atter.
High-Index Aspheric
Whenever possible, it is best to use a high-index aspheric
lens for high plus lens wearers. High index aspherics may
not be available in some of the very highest plus powers.
Unfortunately, many of the specialty high plus lenses
described in the next sections are only available in regular
1.498-index CR-39 lens material because these lenses were
designed when CR-39 was the preponderant material.
Lenticulars
A lenticular lens is one that has a central area with
the prescribed lens power surrounded by an outside
area of little or no power. The central area is called
the aperture, and the outer area is called the carrier
(Figure 18-24). The lenticular style was developed for
the purpose of thinning the lens. It is like a small, plus
lens that is attached to a thin plano lens (Figure
18-25).
Lenticular lenses are available as either spheric or
aspheric lenticulars. Spheric lenticulars look just like the
lens shown in Figure 18-25. Aspheric lenticulars have an
aspheric aperture. An aspheric lenticular can be thought
of as a small, aspherically designed plus lens that has
been placed on a near-plano carrier (Figure 18-26). Of
the two lenticular designs, the aspheric lenticular is the
better choice.
Advantages of a Lenticular Design

The main advantages of the lenticular design are weight
reduction, thickness reduction, and, for aspheric lenticulars, good optics.
Disadvantages of a Lenticular Design
The main drawback to the lenticular design is looks.
Even for small eye sizes, the edge of the aperture is
usually visible. If the frame eye size is too large, the lens
looks like the yolk of a fried egg.
The Development of High Plus Multidrop Lenses

The Welsh 4-Drop lens was developed in an effort to
overcome the cosmetic negatives of the lenticular design
while maintaining a thin lens. The Welsh 4-Drop had a
back surface curve that was almost at. The front surface
of the lens had a 24-mm spherically based central area.
Outside of that central area, the lens surface became
aspheric and dropped in power, 1 diopter at a time, for a
total of 4 diopters (Figure 18-27). For example, if the lens
had a central base curve of +14.00, there were four outer
concentric areas with powers of +13.00 D, +12.00 D,
+11.00 D and +10.00 D. Each area blended into the other
so that the changes in power were not visible.
C H A P T ER 18
Lens Design
427
Sphere portion
Aspheric portion
Figure 18-26. The cross section on an

aspheric lenticular has a varying radius of
curvature across the aperture. There is still
an abrupt, visible demarcation between the
central aperture and the carrier.
Carrier portion
Radius of
spheric portion
Increasing radius
of aspheric portion
+10 D
Carrier portion
+11 D
Blended portion
+12 D
Aspheric portion
+13 D
+14 D
Spheric portion
Figure 18-27. The original Welsh 4-Drop lens had a front

surface that dropped 4 D from center to edge.
The Welsh 4-Drop was a radical change over previous

plus lens designs. The optics were less than ideal, but the
lens was thin and better looking. The concept was picked
up by competing lens companies and modied.
In the competing products, the concentric areas no
longer changed as abruptly. The amount of aspheric
drop was no longer limited to 4 D, regardless of base
curve. The general category of lenses that emerged
became known as multidrop lenses.
In the early stages of multidrop development, the
issue of using aspherics to correct for aberrations instead
of just for cosmetic and weight purposes had not yet been
substantially addressed. Eventually, multidrop lenses
were developed that more effectively took into account
both peripheral aberrations and cosmetics. The central
portion of the newer multidrop lens has an area that
resembles the optics of an aspheric lenticular. Once
outside of this more traditionally designed central area,
the front surface suddenly attens. The outer zone of the
lens functions more like a carrier. In essence the lens
resembles a large, blended aspheric lenticular (Figure
18-28).
Figure 18-28. A multidrop lens can incorporate the advantages of optically sound aspherics for near-peripheral viewing,
plus a fast-changing aspheric drop toward the edge resulting
in what could almost be considered a blended aspheric
lenticular.
HIGH MINUS LENS DESIGNS

Perhaps the greatest lens problem facing the high minus
wearer is thick edges. This can be substantially addressed
through appropriate frame selection. (For a review of
frame selection for high minus wearers, see Chapter 4.)
Many of the options for high minus lenses discussed
in the following sections may not be needed if the dispenser rst applies traditional dispensing principles,
such as small effective diameter sizes, high-index lenses,
roll and polish, and antireection coating. Yet if lens
power is high enough, these measures may still prove
insufcient. If this happens, a special high minus lens
design is in order.
Lenticular Minus Designs

A lenticular design for a high minus lens uses the same
idea as the lenticular design for high plus lenses. The
428
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Same
lens powers
Same
bowl sizes
Equal
bowl
sizes
Smaller
bowl
size
Larger
bowl
size
Lower
lens
power
Figure 18-29. For a myodisc lens (having a plano

carrier), edge thickness increases with both lens
power and bowl size.
Higher
lens
power
central area of the lens contains the prescribed refractive

power of the lens. The peripheral (carrier) area serves
only to extend the physical size of the lens without
increasing its thickness.
Lenticular minus lenses can be found in several forms;
one of which is the myodisc. It is important to remember
that minus lenticular lens designs are not limited to one
type of lens material and can be made of higher index
material.
The Myodisc
According to the traditional de nition, the myodisc
design has a front surface that is either at or almost at.
The front usually contains the cylinder component of
the prescription. A myodisc also has a plano back carrier
area. There is a high minus bowl in the middle of the
back surface. (Originally, these lenses, made from glass,
had a small 20- or 30-mm bowl size. Myodisc was a trade
name.)
In a myodisc type of lens, the carrier is near plano.
Therefore the thickness of the carrier portion is constant. The larger the bowl area is, the thicker the carrier
will be. For lenses with the same-sized bowl areas,
increases in lens power will mean an increase in carrier
thickness (Figure 18-29).
Because the myodisc carrier is plano, as bowl size
and/or lens power increases, edge thickness can become
signicant. It is conceivable to reduce edge thickness by
using a different form of a minus lenticular design.
Minus Lenticular
A high minus lens with a lenticular design can be made
so that the carrier is not plano. Several examples of
minus lenticular lenses are shown in Figure 18-30.
If the back side of the carrier is made positive, as
shown in Figure 18-31, B and D, the outer edge will thin
down considerably. Often the laboratory makes this type
Figure 18-30. Minus lenticular lenses may be made in a

variety of forms. Here are some examples. All have a high
minus power in the central bowl area. The numbers are for
illustration purposes only. A, A minus lenticular with a
2.00 D back carrier curve and a +2.00 D front curve. B, A
minus lenticular with a +6.00 D back carrier curve and a +2.00
D front curve. The plus 6 back carrier helps to thin the lens
edge. C, A minus lenticular with a 2.00 D back carrier curve
and a 2.00 D front curve. The minus front curve increases
the total minus power without having to make the back bowl
curve even more concave. D, A minus lenticular with a +6.00
D back carrier curve and a 6.00 D front curve. Again the plus
back carrier helps to thin the lens edge. It would be possible
to put a higher plus carrier curve on the back of the lens to
obtain more edge thinning.
of lens by beginning with a seminished lens that has a

plus six or greater front curve. The minus bowl is ground
into the front of the semi nished lens. This will
become the back of the minus lenticular lens. The
cylinder and remaining power is ground onto what
will become the front of the lens.
REFERENCES
1. Bruneni JL: The ne art of aspherics, Eyecare Business
56-62, 2000.
C H A P T ER 18
2. Bruneni JL: The evolution continues: a review of current
aspheric technology, LabTalk, 27, 1999.
3. Meslin D, Obrecht G: Effect of chromatic dispersion of a
lens on visual acuity, Am J Optom Physiol Opt 65:27, 1988.
4. Keating MP: Geometric, physical and visual optics, ed 2,
Boston, 1988, Butterworth-Heinemann.
5. Yoho A: Curve control, Eyecare Business 28, 2005.
6. Meister D, Sheedy JE: Introduction to ophthalmic optics,
Petaluma, Calif, 2002, Sola Optical.
Lens Design
429
7. Borover WA: Opticianry: the practice and the art in the

science of opticianry, vol 2, Chula Vista, Calif, 1982,
Gracie Enterprises.
8. Jalie M: Ophthalmic lenses & dispensing, ed 2, Boston,
2003 Butterworth-Heinemann.
9. Bruneni J: The evolution continues: a review of current
aspheric technology, LabTalk 24-27, September 1999.
10. Liang J, Williams DR, Aberrations and retinal image
quality of the normal human eye, J. Opt. Soc. Am. Vol.
14, No. 11, November 1997, p. 2879.
Prociency Test
1. One of the factors that causes chromatic aberration
to become a problem is:
a. the additional monochromatic aberrations that
are brought on by poor tting techniques.
b. the presence of oblique cylinder in the
prescription.
c. antireection coating a lens that has a low Abb
value.
2. True or false? Chromatic aberration may be
irritating, but it does not reduce the visual acuity
when the wearer looks through the periphery of
the lens, regardless of lens power.
3. Which other aberration has a resemblance to
spherical aberration, but is manifested when the
object is in an off-axis position?
4. You read about a new lens. The lens has an Abb
number of 22. What does this tell you?
a. The lens will be lighter in weight than most.
b. The lens will have more chromatic aberration
than most.
c. The lens will be heavier than most.
d. The lens will have less chromatic aberration
than most.
e. The Abb number has nothing to do with
either weight or chromatic aberration.
5. Tschernings Ellipse shows lens design possibilities
for:
a. choosing the overall best lens design when
working with spherical lenses.
b. choosing a Percival form lens.
c. choosing a Point Focal lens.
d. choosing a corrected curve lens.
6. What two parameters are plotted by Tschernings

Ellipse?
7. A Tschernings ellipse:
a. is the same size, regardless of working distance.
b. shows that oblique astigmatism can be brought
to zero for distance viewing by using specic
sphere curves between the approximate powers
of +7.00 and 22.00 D.
c. shows the one lens form per given lens power,
which corrects oblique astigmatism.
8. A corrected curve lens is:
a. one which corrects for oblique astigmatism.
b. one which corrects for curvature of eld.
c. one which attempts to reduce both oblique
astigmatism and curvature of eld.
d. All of the above are correct responses.
9. Of the following base curves, which is the best
choice create a 10.00 D sphere?
a. +6.00 D
b. plano
c. +8.00 D
d. +4.00 D
10. When lens base curves are properly selected, the
further from plano the lens power goes in the plus
direction, the ______________ the back curve of the
lens becomes.
a. steeper (more concave).
b. atter (less concave).
For each of the following lens powers (Questions
11 to 18), use Vogels formula to nd the
approximate base curve. (Do not round off your
answers.)
430
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
11. +3.00 D sph

12. +4.50 1.50 025
13. +2.00 0.50 175
14. 4.00 D sph
15. 1.00 1.00 090
16. 2.75 0.75 075
17. 2.75 2.75 160
18. 5.25 1.50 015
19. True or false? High plus aspheric lenses with attop bifocal segments have a xed seg drop and
inset that the prescriber cannot change.
20. What are the possible reasons for using an
aspheric lens design for a wearer whose distance
Rx is +3.75 D? (There may be more than one
correct response.)
a. to produce a thinner lens
b. to produce a lighter weight lens
c. to produce a atter base curve
d. to produce a lens that results in a better visual
acuity through the center of the lens than a
spherically based lens of the same power
21. For a myodisc, the thickness of the carrier portion

increases with:
a. a decrease in bowl diameter.
b. an increase in bowl diameter.
c. an increase in minus lens power when there is
no change in bowl size.
d. a decrease in minus lens power when there is no
change in bowl size.
22. The outermost area of a lenticular lens is called
the:
a. aperture.
b. closure.
c. carrier.
d. cortex.
23. Compared with a spheric design, which lens design
may result in a thinner lens?
a. a lenticular design
b. an aspheric design
c. neither a lenticular nor an aspheric design
d. both a lenticular and an aspheric design
24. True or false? All lenticular lenses have an
aspheric central portion.
25. True or false? The center thickness of a lenticular
lens will vary according to the effective diameter
and decentration of the lens.
C H A P T E R 19
ost spectacle lenses correct for just one distance. These are called single vision lenses. Yet
a persons visual needs may require different
lens powers for different distances. These needs can be
met by changing the power in one or more areas of a
lens.
nation of the distance power and the add power is termed

the near power, or near Rx.
An example of how the power of the near addition is
written in prescription form is:
O.D. +3.25 D sph
O.S. +3.25 D sph
Add +2.00 D
MULTIFOCAL LENSES
Multifocal lenses meet the wearers needs for focusing
light at more than one, or multiple distances. Originally
all multifocal lenses had visible segments. There were no
progressive addition lenses with gradually changing
powers hidden from view. To help distinguish multifocal
lenses with progressive optics from multifocal lenses
with distinctly different powers in sharply demarcated
areas of the lens, the lenses with visible segments may
be referred to as segmented multifocals.
The Concept of a Near Addition

The crystalline lens within the eye becomes nonelastic
as a result of the aging process. This condition is called
presbyopia. Because of presbyopia, a person becomes
unable to see clearly at close range, regardless of how
well vision is corrected for distance. To see clearly at
near, the wearer needs additional plus lens power.
Suppose a person has no need for correction of distance vision. If no distance correction is required, the
only factor to be considered is the necessary plus lens
power to see clearly at near. The amount of plus power
needed for near vision is +2.00 D. This can be given in
the form of a regular, single vision lens having the same
+2.00 D power over the whole lens. It can also be given
as a lens with no power in the main portion of the lens,
but with a small area of plus power in the lower portion
of the lens, as shown in Figure 19-1. This is the concept
of a bifocal lens.
However, if the wearer does have a correction for
distance, the extra required power for near must be
added on to the power found in the distance prescription already being worn; hence the term near addition.
The near addition is the same as a small plus lens placed
in the lower portion of the lens. For that reason, it is
often referred to as the near segment or, in abbreviated
form, the seg. The net power resulting from the combi-
By this it is understood that both lenses are to contain

a near segment whose power of +2.00 D adds that much
more plus power to that part of the lens.
In the above example, since an addition is made to the
distance power, the measured power through the distance portion of the right lens is +3.25 D sphere, and the
measured power through the near portion is +5.25 D
sphere (Figure 19-2). In simplied terms, if the near
object is at the focal point of the near addition lens,
the add allows incoming light to enter the distance lens
as if it were coming from a distant object. This way light
focuses at the same point as it does for distance vision
(Figure 19-3).
To go one step further, consider an example of a lens
that has both sphere and cylinder power. If a lens has a
distance power of +2.00 0.75 180 with a +2.00 D add,
then the actual measured power through the near portion
will be +4.00 0.75 180. This may be explained with
two power crosses, as shown in Figure 19-4. When both
meridians are added together, the total near power still
contains the same cylinder power. Regardless of whether
the distance portion is plus or minus in power, the near
portion is still the algebraic sum of distance power and
near add.
Example 19-1
The distance portion of a lens is a 2.50 D sphere. The near
add power is +2.50 D. What is the near power through the
segment portion?
Solution
Since the total near power is calculated as:
(distance power) + (near addition) = (near power)
431
432
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 19-1. A bifocal segment is a small plus lens positioned

on a lens that normally corrects for distance vision. Here the
bifocal is placed on a lens that has no power in the distance
portion.
+3.25 D
+3.25 D
+2.00 D
+5.25 D
Figure 19-2. A bifocal addition is just thatan addition to the distance power. Here the
distance power of +3.25 D is supplemented with a +2.00 D add for near viewing. The total
power at near is +5.25 D. The +5.25 D power is the power that would be used in a pair of
single vision lenses intended to be used only for reading.
Figure 19-3. A plus lens with a bifocal near addition.
+2.00
+1.25 D
+2.00
Distance power
+3.25
+2.00
Near power
+4.00
Total power
at near
Figure 19-4. The near portion of a lens having an add of +2.00 D does not necessarily
manifest a +2.00 D power, but rather will be the sum of the distance power and near addition
combined.
C H A P T E R 19
then
(2.50) + (+2.50) = 0.00
The total power through the bifocal will be zero. Looking at
the near power this way for people with lower minus-powered
distance prescriptions makes it easier to understand why
they are not enthusiastic about going into multifocals. They
can do very well just removing their glasses.
The Trifocal Intermediate

Some lenses have an intermediate area between distance
and near portions. This area is used for viewing objects
that are not at the normal reading distance. Yet what is
being looked at is close enough to make clear vision
through the distance portion impossible. The solution
for these situations when using segmented multifocal
lenses is a trifocal (Figure 19-5).
In trifocals the power of the intermediate portion is
normally one half that of the prescribed near add. It is
expressed as a percent. Normally the intermediate
portion will be 50% of the near add. Lenses for special
intermediate viewing distances may also be obtained
having intermediate powers of 61% of the near
addition.
To calculate the expected power through the intermediate portion of a trifocal lens, rst the prescribed
trifocal percent of the near add is found. For example,
a lens having a +2.50 D add has an intermediate power
that is +1.25 D greater than the distance power. Since
+1.25 D is half of +2.50, the lens has an intermediate
power of 50%. This +1.25 D intermediate add value is
added to the distance power to nd the expected total
intermediate power as measured in the lensmeter.
When to Use a Trifocal
Eyes that still have a limited ability to focus and only
require additions of +1.50 D or less will have clear vision
in all areas of viewing. When looking through the upper
(distance) part of the lens, the eye can focus on objects
at an intermediate distance by using its own focusing
433
ability. This eliminates the need for an intermediate

trifocal area. For this reason, most trifocals are not available in add powers below +1.50.
After the add power increases above +1.50, there will
be intermediate areas of vision that are not clear through
either the distance portion or the near portion of a
normal bifocal. To see these areas clearly, the wearer will
either have to look through the upper part of the lens
and back away from the object, or look through the lower
bifocal part of the lens and move closer. A trifocal intermediate will furnish clear vision at this previously blurred
in-between distance. (A progressive addition lens will
solve this problem as well. For more information on
progressive addition lenses, see Chapter 20.)
Terminology
Bifocals are available in a wide variety of segment shapes
and sizes from small, round segs to segs that occupy the
entire lower half of the spectacle lens. Their size and
locations are quantied by means of a few standardized
terms.
The size of a seg horizontally, or seg width, is measured
across the widest section of the segment area (Figure
19-6). If part of the segment area has been cut away in
edging the lens for the frame, the dimension is still
considered to be the widest portion that the segment had
before edging.
The longest vertical dimension of the seg is the seg
depth. Seg height is dependent on the frame for which the
Inset
or distance
decentration
Seg inset
Total
inset
MRP
Seg drop
Seg
width
Seg depth
Distance
Intermediate
Near
Figure 19-5. A trifocal lens has three viewing areas.
Seg height
Figure 19-6. The major reference point (MRP) of a lens is

positioned in the same vertical plane as the pupil and a few
millimeters below it. If no prescribed prism is present in the
prescription, the MRP and the optical center of the lens are
one and the same point. (When prescribed prism is present in
the distance portion, the optical center is no longer in the same
location as the MRP.) The amount the MRP is moved laterally
from the geometric center of the lens is the inset or outset (also
referred to as distance decentration). The additional amount the
center of the near segment is moved inward from the MRP is
the seg inset. The inset plus the seg inset is known as total inset
(or total seg inset).
434
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Ledge
No ledge
Fused
One-piece
Cement
Figure 19-7. A fused segment lens as shown on the left is made using glass that has a higher
index of refraction in the segment than in the main part of the lens. One-piece lenses have
a ledge that can be felt and may be made from almost any lens material. Cement segs are
made by gluing a single vision distance lens and a small, segment-sized lens together.
lenses have been edged and is measured vertically from

the lowest point on the lens to the level of the top of the
seg (see Chapter 5). Seg drop is the vertical distance
between the major reference point (MRP) of the lens and
the top of the seg.
The distance portion of the lens must be decentered
from the geometric center of the lens opening of the
frame to correspond to the wearers interpupillary distance (PD). This is referred to as inset or outset. The
segment must be further decentered to correspond to the
near PD. This seg decentration is referred to as seg inset.
Inset (or outset) + seg inset = total inset
(Outset would be written as a negative number.)
How Multifocals Are Constructed

Bifocals and trifocals are usually constructed in three
main ways: fused, one piece, and cemented (shown in
cross section in Figure 19-7).
1. FusedFused multifocals are available only in glass.
The segment of the lens is made from glass having a
higher refractive index than that of the distance
carrier lens.* A fused glass bifocal has no ledge or
change of curvature on the front. The segment
cannot be felt because it is fused into the distance
portion.
2. One pieceOne-piece multifocals are made from one
lens material. Any change in power in the segment
portion of the lens is due to a change in the surface
curvature of the lens. One-piece multifocals can be
*The distance lens is denoted the carrier lens because it is the
portion to which the multifocal segment is attached. The segment
is carried by the distance portion.
identied by feeling the segment border. If either a

ledge or a change in curvature is felt, the lens is not
fused and is most likely a one-piece design.
One-piece multifocals may be made from any lens
material. All plastic lenses are made as one-piece
multifocals. One-piece glass multifocals are usually
either the full-segment Franklin-style lens with the
near portion occupying the entire lower portion of
the lens, or they are large round-segment lenses.
3. Cement lensesCement lenses are custom-made
lenses that have a small segment glued onto the
distance lens. Used only for specialized custom
purposes, such lenses are usually in the form of
small, round segments.
Another occasionally used segmented lens is one that
is actually two lens sections glued together. The upper
half is a distance lens, and the lower half is a near lens.
Both are cut in half, and half of each is used. The most
common application for such lenses is for creating horizontal prism in the near portion only.
TYPES OF BIFOCALS
There are a few major groupings of bifocal segment
styles, but many variations within those styles (Figure
19-8 and Table 19-1). The basic styles include round
segments, at-top segments, curve-top and panoptik
segments, and Franklin- or Executive-style segments.
Round Segments
Round segments vary in size from a small lens of 22 mm
up to the largest, 40 mm. The most common size is
22 mm. For large, round seg sizes, 38 mm may be occasionally used. Logically the optical center (OC) of a
round segment is always at the center of the segment.
The round segment lens is a versatile lens because the
C H A P T E R 19
Round seg
Flat top
Curved top
B-seg (Ribbon)
R-seg (Ribbon)
435
Panoptik
Figure 19-8. A sampling of available bifocal segment types.
round segment can be rotated and still not look tilted. It

can also be positioned at odd locations on the lens, such
as in the upper temporal corner of a golfers right lens.
(Assuming, of course, that the golfer is right-handed.)
This keeps the segment out of the golfers way and still
allows access to a near add for score card marking and
reading.
Blended bifocals are round-segment bifocals with the
border smoothed out to keep the segment from being
seen.
The R segment has a 14 mm depth. It is seldom used

as a regular bifocal lens. The R-segment bifocal is the
same lens that is modied to create the compensated
R segment pairs that may occasionally be used for the
correction of vertical imbalance.
Both B and R segments have their segment optical
centers in the middle of the segment. Ribbon segments
are available only in glass.
Flat-Top Segments
Franklin-style lenses are more commonly known by the

trade name, Executive. It is a one-piece lens with the
segment extending the full width of the lens. The lens
has the advantage of a very wide near-viewing area.
There are some disadvantages to this lens. As the add
power increases, the segment ledge gets bigger and more
unsightly. Because the thickness of the lens is dependent
on the near power rather than the distance power, the
whole lens is thicker than a at top would be. Thickness
also increases with each increase in add power, making
the lens progressively heavier. (It is possible to thin the
lens by using yoked base-down prism. This principle is
used for progressive addition lenses and is explained in
Chapter 20.)
The Franklin-style bifocal has the segment OC on
the segment line. For this reason, some have referred to
these lenses as monocentric bifocals. However, a
monocentric bifocal is one where the distance and
segment OCs occupy exactly the same spot on the lens.
It is possible for an Executive lens to be monocentric, but
only if the lens is surfaced so that the distance OC is on
the bifocal line at the same location where the segment
optical center is found. This would not be expected to
happen using todays surfacing practices.
If Executive lenses are used, it is important to avoid
large eye sizes and large effective diameters. A better
alternative to the Franklin-style lens for someone desiring a large bifocal reading area is a large at-top lens,
Flat-top segments are basically round segments with the

top cut off. The top is generally cut off 4.5 to 5.0 mm
above the center of the segment. Stated another way, the
segment OC is about 5 mm below the seg line. This
allows the lens segment to have maximum reading width
where a person will be reading. Very wide at tops have
the segment OC on the line. Flat tops are also known as
D segs.
Flat tops are the mainstay of lined multifocal lenses.
Segment sizes range from 22 up to 45 mm. Most at tops
used now are 28 mm or greater.
Curve-Top and Panoptik Segments

Curve-top segments look similar to at tops, except that
the upper line is arched, rather than at. There is a distinct point on either corner. The top of panoptik segments are curved as well, but the corners are rounded.
Ribbon Segments
Ribbon segments are basically round segments with the
top and bottom cut off. There are two types: a B and an
R segment. The B is only 9 mm deep and is good for
someone who must be able to have distance vision below
the bifocal area. Some remember the letter and function
by identifying B with bricklayer. Bricklayers often
work in high places and can appreciate the ability to look
below the segment and have clear distance vision.
Franklin-Style (Executive) Segments
436
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 19-1
Bifocal Lenses
General
Style
Segment
Name
Segment
Width (mm)
Location of
Seg OC (mm)
Flat-top
FT, straight-top
(ST), or D
style segment
CT
5 below
5 below
5 below
4.5 below
On line
On line
4.5 below
The at top is the most commonly used

bifocal style.
Curve-top
Panoptik
P style
22
25
28
35
40
45
22
25
28
40
24
28
4.5 below
Ribbon
B-seg
22 or 25 wide
9 deep
22 or 25 wide
14 deep
4.5 below
Panoptiks are a further variation of the curvedtop segments, except that the top is atter
and the corners are rounded.
A ribbon seg is similar to a at-top segment,
except both top and bottom are at.
R-seg
Franklin
Round
Executive
E-Line
Full Seg
Round seg
Full lens
width
22
24
7 below Seg
OCs are
centered.
On line
Seg OCs are

centered.
25
A style
38
AA or AL
R-40 style
38
40
Blended
bifocals
(Invisible segs)
Rede-Rite
(Minus Add
Upcurve)
22
25
28
38
Seg OCs are

centered.
Seg OC is
centered.
Comments
This lens is basically the same design as a attop segment, except that the upper seg line is
curved.
The top of the segment is a straight line that

transverses the whole lens. The segment
occupies the whole bottom half of the lens.
A 22-mm round segment is often called a
Kryptok. In actuality, a Kryptok applies
only to an inexpensive fused glass segment.
Large round segments are one-piece designs in
either glass or plastic.
A 38-mm A-style seg is semicircular because
the blank is cut through the center of the seg.
This means the maximum height of the seg
can only be 19 mm.
The AA, AL, or R-40 segs are not semicircles,
but almost a full circle. For this reason, they
can be used if a round segment with a higher
seg height is needed.
One-piece round-segment glass or plastic
lenses are sometimes called Ultex lenses.
Ultex is a trade name for one-piece round
segment multifocals.
A blended segment is a one-piece round
segment with the line smoothed away.
A semicircular upcurve design with the near
power located in the main lens and the
distance power in the add, which is located
at the top of the lens. It is often called a
minus add lens. The entire lower area is for
near work.
C H A P T E R 19
7 mm
437
7 mm
23 mm
28 mm
Franklin style (executive)

trifocal
Flat top trifocal
Distance
Intermediate
8 mm
Near
E/D trifocal
Figure 19-9. A-C, Types of trifocal lenses.

TABLE 19-2
Trifocal Lenses
General Style
Segment Name
Flat-top
Franklin
E over D
(Executive)
E/D
Trifocal
Segment Dimensions (mm)
Comments
7 25
7 28
7 35
The rst number in the segment designation

refers to the depth of the intermediate; the
second number refers to the width of the
segment. Lenses with segments having
especially deep intermediate areas are more
like occupational lenses and are found listed as
occupational lenses.
7-mm intermediate
Full width
intermediate,
D 28 style near.
such as a at-top 35. A large at top will reduce weight

and thickness, but still allow as wide a near eld of view.
TYPES OF TRIFOCAL LENSES

Most bifocal styles are also available in a corresponding
trifocal style. Trifocals offer the convenience of intermediate vision in a moderately large eld of view (Figure
19-9 and Table 19-2).
The intermediate is 8 mm deep and extends

around the near D seg, which is 28 mm wide.
Flat-Top Trifocals
Flat-top trifocals come with intermediate sections that
vary in width from 22 mm to 35 mm and in depth from
6 mm to 14 mm (see Figure 19-9, A).
Any trifocal that has a depth of more than 8 mm
should not be considered an all timewear lens. Such
lenses are better for occupational situations requiring
a large intermediate working area. Trifocals are also
438
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
available with intermediate powers other than the standard 50% intermediate.
Double-Segment Lenses
Some people require intermediate or near viewing while
looking upward, including plumbers, pharmacists, librarians, electricians, auto mechanics, and many others in
specialized working situations. Double-segment lenses
were developed with these types of individuals in mind.
Double-segment lenses have a segment in the normal
position and a second segment at the top of the lens (see
Figure 19-10, A). The two segments are normally separated by a 13-mm or 14-mm vertical distance (see Table
19-3 for more detailed information).
Double-segment lenses are underused. There are a
great many people who would benet from being able to
see at close range just by looking up through an upper
segment area. Instead they are required to tilt their head
back in a very uncomfortable position for long periods
of time because no one has told them that there is a lens
that could solve their neck problems.
The upper segment comes in a variety of power possibilities. These include:
1. An upper segment that is identical in power to the
lower segment.
2. An upper segment with a power that is D less
than the lower segment power.
3. An upper segment that is a given percentage of the
lower segment, such as 50% or 60%, much like a
trifocal.
The right way to decide which segment is most appropriate is to recreate the wearers working situation,
measure the working distances, and determine what the
upper power should be. Once that has been done, choose
the lens that fullls the prescribed power needs. (For
information on how to measure segment heights for
double-segment lenses, see Chapter 5.)
Double-segment lenses are most commonly seen as
at tops, such as the double D.
The quadrafocal lens is a double-segment lens with a
at-top trifocal on the bottom and an upside-down at-
Franklin (Executive) Trifocals

The Executive, or Franklin-style, lens is a full-width
segment lens with a 7-mm full-width intermediate (see
Figure 19-9, B). It suffers from the same problems as the
Franklin-style bifocal lens and because of the very visible
twin ledges, loudly announces the wearers need for an
age-related lens correction.
The E/D Trifocal

The E/D trifocal combines the characteristics of the
Executive-type lens with a 25-mm D (at-top) segment
(see Figure 19-9, C). It is constructed with a full, wide
line across the lens dividing the distance portion from
the intermediate portion and looks just like an Executive
lens trifocal line. A at-top segment is also placed in this
lower, intermediate-powered portion. This is the segment
needed for the near-working distance.
The lens is an excellent segmented lens for working
at a desk. Intermediate viewing is available not only in
the area 8 mm above the near seg, but also on either side
of the near segment. This gives clear vision for wide,
arms-length working areas in every direction.
OCCUPATIONAL MULTIFOCALS
Any lens that is chosen by careful forethought and positioned for a specialized viewing situation may be classied as an occupational lens. However, there are certain
lens styles that are specically designed with certain
work circumstances in mind. These lenses are called
occupational multifocals (Figure 19-10 and Table 19-3).
The following three sections discuss those available at
the time of this writing.
A
C
38 mm
Distance
portion
13-14 mm
Near
portion
Double D
(Occupational flat top)
Quadrafocal
Figure 19-10. Three types of occupational multifocals.
Rede-rite
(Minus add upcurve)
33 mm
C H A P T E R 19
439
TABLE 19-3
Occupational Lenses
Segment
Dimensions (mm)
General Style
Segment Name
Double
Segment
Occupational
at top or
double D
22/22
25/25
28/28
28/25
35/35
Double round
22/22
25/25
Double executive
Quadrafocal
Full segment
7 22 (22 upper)
7 25 (25 upper)
7 28 (28 upper)
Flat top
8 35
9 35
10 35
8 34
10 35
12 35
7-25
Occupational
Trifocals
Round bifocal segs
Custom segment
sizes
Progressive Add Lenses
top segment on the top (see Figure 19-10, B). It is appropriate for those who have need of both a trifocal and a
double-segment lens. Since quad means four, the lens
takes its name from the four distinct viewing areas. This
lens is only available in glass.
The Minus Add Rede-Rite Bifocal

The Rede-Rite bifocal is a lens with a long history. It is a
so-called upcurve bifocal because it has a large round
segment at the top (see Figure 19-10, C), most of which
is cut off after edging. This leaves the upper edge of the
lower portion in the form of a circle that curves upward;
hence, the term upcurve. It is a minus add, which means
that the segment at the top has more minus power than
the rest of the lens. In reality the lens is a bifocal with a
huge add area at the bottom and a small distance-viewing
area at the top. It is a lens for people who want a segmented lens and need a full, near-working area. But they
still want to see clearly in the distance without taking
their glasses off.
More versatile alternatives are progressive add lenses
that have wide near portions but also give clear, wide
vision in the intermediate. Two such lenses are the AO
Technica and the Hoya Tact. The Technica has a small
distance portion located in the same place as that of the
Comments
Lower segment same as at top.
Upper segment same as upside-down at top.
Segments are normally 13-14 mm apart but may range
from 12-15 mm for special orders in glass.
The upper segment add power may be
a. The full value of the add, like the lower seg.
b. One-half diopter less than the lower seg add power.
c. A percentage of the full add power such as 60% or 50%.
Segments are normally 13 or 14 mm apart. For glass,
factory orders can be made for seg separations of from
11 to 20 mm apart.
Has a at-top trifocal below and an upside-down at-top
bifocal above. Available only in glass.
Segment separation: 10 mm and 13 mm. With special
orders with segment separation varying from 9 mm to
20 mm are available.
These wide-intermediate trifocals have 50% intermediate
powers.
These trifocal lenses have deep intermediate segment areas
combined with 61% intermediate powers.
It is possible to get custom sizes in glass. Round segments,
from 7 mm up to 25 mm are available on special order
For occupational progressive lenses, see Chapter 20.
Rede-Rite. (For more information on these occupational

progressives, see Chapter 20.)
ORDERING THE CORRECT LENS POWER

FOR READING GLASSES
When a spectacle lens prescription is written with an add
power, it is often written before a decision is made on
what type of lenses are to be used. This means that the
prescription may have to be written in a different form
when ordered so that the same optical effect is maintained. For example, if an individual wants reading
glasses only, the order form will not be written with an
add, but will be written for single vision lenses.
Example 19-2
A prescription is written as follows:
+0.25 0.50 180
+0.25 0.50 180
Add: +1.50
The wearer decides they do not want anything but single
vision reading glasses. What power would be ordered?
440
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Solution
The power ordered for reading must be the same as would
be found through the bifocal segment. Earlier in this chapter,
we stated that:
Solution
To nd the new distance power, we need to know what the
power of the lenses through the intermediate area of a
regular trifocal in this prescription would be. To do this, we
must rst know the intermediate add.
A normal intermediate power is 50% of the near addition.
Fifty percent, or half of the +2.50 near addition, is:
Since reading glasses must be made for the near power, in

this example, the near power is gured by adding the add
power to the sphere power of the distance prescription.
+2.50
= +1.25
2
+0.25 0.50 180

+1.50
+1.75 0.50 180
Therefore the top of the new half-eye bifocal must be the

wearers distance Rx plus the addition in the intermediate,
or +1.25 D. For the right eye this is:
A common mistake is to simply order +1.50 D sphere for

reading. The needed near power is really +1.50 D sphere in
addition to the distance prescription. The add power is added
to the distance sphere power and the cylinder contained in
the distance prescription to create the correct power for
reading glasses. Astigmatism is still present in the eye
regardless of whether distant or near objects are viewed.
This requires that the cylinder power be included.
+0.25 0.25 170

+1.25
+1.50 0.25 170
and for the left eye:
+0.25 0.25 010
+1.25
+1.50 0.25 010
Ordering the Correct Lens Power for

Intermediate and Near Only
Certain individuals work in circumstances in which they
need to see at intermediate and near-viewing distances
only. A distance correction is not needed. It is as if they
need only the intermediate and near-viewing powers of
a trifocal (Figure 19-11).
These are the powers of the new distance portions of the

lenses.
The near portion of the half-eye bifocal must read the same
in the lensmeter as a regular bifocal lens would have read
if it had been made in the original prescription. In the original
prescription, the near power for the right eye is:
(distance power )
+ (near addition)
(near power )
Example 19-3
R: +0.25 0.25 170
L: +0.25 0.25 010
Add: +2.50
The wearer has half-eye frames, is satised with them, and
is not interested in a distance prescription. The wearer
needs to see at intermediate distances. The decision is
made to place a bifocal lens in the half-eye frame. What
power lens should be ordered?
or
+0.25 0.25 170
+2.50
+2.75 0.25 170
So through the lensmeter, the near power must read: +2.75
0.25 170.
Distance
Intermediate
Intermediate
Near
Near
Figure 19-11. If a segmented

multifocal lens is to be used for
intermediate and near viewing
only, the intermediate power goes
where the distance power would
normally have been found. This
will affect how the lens must be
ordered, with even the add power
changing to remain correct.
C H A P T E R 19
If
441
diate for the right eye is the wearers distance Rx plus the
intermediate addition.
2.50 1.25 160

+1.12
1.37 1.25 160
then we know by transformation

(near addition) = (near power) (distance power)
and for the left eye:
This can be written as:
2.50 1.25 015

+1.12
1.37 1.25 015
(near power )
(distance power )
(near addition)
So the add power is:
(+2.75 0.25 170)

( +1.50 0.25 170)
+1.25 add
Therefore the half-eye bifocal must be ordered as:
To stay with the nearest quarter diopter, we must change

the 1.37 sphere power to either 1.50 or 1.25. We choose
to round up so that the new distance prescription for the
right eye will be 1.50 1.25 160.
Next we need to know the near power of the prescription
so that we can determine the add power for the new glasses.
In the original prescription, the near power for the right eye
is:
(distance power )
+ (near addition)
(near addition)
+1.50 0.25 170

+1.50 0.25 010
Add: +1.25
When ordered like this, the lens powers come out the same
as they would have in the original prescription.
or
2.50 1.25 160
+2.25
0.25 1.25 160
Example 19-4
After wearing a new pair of trifocals for awhile, the individual
returns, saying the trifocals are acceptable, but do not have
enough reading area through the intermediate area. Instead
they want a pair of bifocals just to wear at work. The strength
through the top of a new bifocal lens should be the same
as the existing trifocal intermediate. They do like the size
and strength of the near portion and want it left as is. Their
current prescription reads:
2.50 1.25 160
2.50 1.25 015
Add: +2.25
Another pair of frames is chosen, and bifocal heights are
measured. What powers should be ordered for the new
lenses?
So through the lensmeter, the near power must read:

0.25 1.25 160.
Since
(near power )
(distance power )
(near addition)
the new add power is
(0.25 1.25 60)

( 1.50 1.25 60)
+1.25 add
Therefore the half-eye bifocal must be ordered as:
Solution
First, determine the power through the present trifocal intermediate area. This could be done with a lensmeter, but is
better accomplished by looking at the written prescription.
Assuming that the intermediate is 50%, or half of the add
power, the intermediate add will be:
+2.25
= +1.12
2
The power of the new distance portion will be the power
through the old intermediate. Power through the old interme-
R: 1.50 1.25 160

L: 1.50 1.25 015
Add: +1.25
(NOTE: If we had chosen 1.25 125 160 for the
distance power when we rounded, the add power would
have been +1.00 D.)
As demonstrated in the above examples, to maintain

the intent of the prescription, it is sometimes necessary
to change the powers of the lenses. Using these examples
442
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 19-12. A-C, The distance from the top

of the seg to the seg optical center varies with seg
style. Three different seg styles, all set at the same
height, can have very different locations for their
segment optical centers.
as a beginning, it is possible to see how specialized eyeglasses can be designed to suit specic needs while maintaining the intent of the original prescription.
IMAGE JUMP
The segment portion of a bifocal lens is like a minilens.
It has the same characteristics as a normal single vision
lens, except it is smaller. The bifocal section is really a
smaller lens on a larger lens. When the segment is round,
the segments OC will be exactly in the middle of the
seg (Figure 19-12, A). For example, if the segment is
22 mm round, the seg OC will be 11 mm from the top
of the seg.
However, not all segs are round. Some are shaped
with the upper section cut off so that the upper dividing
line is closer to the OC of the seg (Figure 19-12, B). It
is also possible to have a segment constructed such that
the OC is exactly on the upper line (Figure 19-12, C).
The style of segment chosen depends on the wearers
occupational visual requirement.
One noticeable side effect of segment shape happens
as a result of the position of the segment OC compared
with the location of the upper edge of the segment. The
farther from the OC the eye looks, the greater will be
the prismatic effect.
When wearers drop their eyes while wearing single
vision lenses, prismatic effect increases as the eyes travel
downward. If the lens is a bifocal, the segment also contains a prismatic effect. The value of the prismatic effect
in the segment is dependent on the location of the
segment optical center. When crossing the border of the
seg, the prism induced by the distance portion is suddenly changed by the amount of prism that is being
induced by the segment portion. This abrupt change
in prismatic effect causes objects to be suddenly
displaced.
This sudden displacement of the image as the bifocal
line is crossed is known as image jump. The amount of
image jump for a given style of bifocal is independent of
the power in the distance portion. It can be calculated
using Prentices rule.
Example 19-5
How much image jump does a bifocal with a 22-mm round
segment have if the add is +2.00 D?
Solution
Since the segment is round with the seg OC in the middle,
the upper bifocal border is 11 mm above that center.
When looking through a point 11 mm away from the OC of
a +2.00 D lens, a prismatic effect is created equal to:
= cF = (1.1)(2.00) = 2.20
Therefore a 22-mm round seg of +2.00 D add power has an
image jump of 2.20.
Example 19-6
How much jump does a at-top segment, such as the one
shown in Figure 19-12, B, have? The segment dimensions
are as follows:
seg width = 25 mm
seg depth = 17.5 mm
Add power = +1.50 D
Solution
A at-top style seg is essentially a small round lens with the
top cut off. Therefore to nd the distance from the seg line
to the seg optical center, subtract one half of the seg width
from the seg depth.
17.5 mm 12.5 mm = 5 mm
Image jump is determined by nding the prismatic effect of
the segment at the point on the upper seg line. In this case
since the distance from the seg OC is 5 mm we use:
= cF = (0.5) (1.50) = 0.75
giving an image jump of 0.75.
ACCOMMODATION AND EFFECTIVITY

There are several mysteries when it comes to comparing
plus and minus lens wearers. Here are a few of them:
Why do hyperopic spectacle lens wearers seem to
need bifocals or progressives before myopic lens
wearers?
Why do middle-aged myopes sometimes have
trouble with reading when switching into contact
lenses, but middle-aged hyperopes do not? In fact
the hyperopes going into contact lenses seem to
postpone the need for a reading correction.
C H A P T E R 19
Why do some previous spectacle lenswearing

myopes have trouble with reading after undergoing
refractive surgery?
All of these questions stem back to the effect that
spectacle lenses have on what is called accommodative
demand. In this section, we will be showing how accommodative demand is affected by spectacle lenses, compared with contact lenses and no lenses at all.
Who Needs Bifocals or Progressives First,

the Hyperope or the Myope?
The amount of accommodation required for an individual to see clearly at near is determined by three things:
1. The near-viewing distance
2. The power of the distance spectacle lens
prescription being worn
3. The distance from the lens to the principal planes
of the eye
The primary and secondary principal planes of the
eye are those planes perpendicular to the optic axis at
which refraction of incident and emergent light is considered to take place. The distance from the spectacle
lenses to the principal planes of the eye can be considered as being the vertex distance plus 1.5 mm.* Therefore this distance is the vertex distance plus 1.5 mm.
To tell who will need a bifocal rst, consider the situation of an emmetrope who wears no lenses at all.
Suppose an emmetrope is wearing an empty frame at a
12.5-mm vertex distance. No accommodation is required
for viewing objects in the distance. This is because light
entering the eye from in nity is parallel, having a zero
vergence. At the normal reading or near working distance, the emmetrope looks at an object that is 40 cm
from the spectacle plane. This means that light rst
travels 40 cm from the near object to the frame, then
12.5 mm from the spectacle plane to the cornea, and
nally 1.5 mm from the cornea to the principal planes
of the eye. In other words, the near object is 40.14 cm
or 0.4014 m away from the principal planes. The
amount of accommodation required to focus the near
object through the glasses is the difference between
the vergence of light coming from a distant object and
the vergence of light coming from a near object. That is
to say,
Ocular Accommodation = Ld Ln
where Ld is the vergence of light reaching the principal
planes of the eye from a distant object (innity), and L n
*According to Gullstrand's schematic eye, the principle planes of

the eye are 1.47 mm and 1.75 mm behind the cornea.
An emmetrope is neither nearsighted (myopic) nor farsighted

(hyperopic).
In this case, the vergence of light is found by taking the reciprocal

of the distance in meters from the eye to the source.
443
is the vergence of light reaching the principle planes of

the eye from a near object.
For the emmetrope, ocular accommodation is:
Ocular Accommodation = Ld La
1
1
=
0.414
= 0 ( 2.42)
= +2.42D
The question is, does this required ocular accommodation of 2.42 D remain the same for a hyperopic spectacle lens wearer? To nd out, solve Example 19-7.
Example 19-7
How much must a wearer of +7.00 D single vision spectacle
lenses have to accommodate to clearly see an object that
is 40 cm away from the spectacle plane? (Assume a 12.5mm vertex distance.)
Solution
Remember, ocular accommodation is the difference between
distance and near vergence at the principal planes of the
eye. Finding the vergence of light at the principal planes of
the eye after being refracted through a lens is basically the
same as working an effective power problem (see Chapter
14). Written as a formula, effective power is:
Ld =
1
1
d
Fv
where
Ld is the vergence of light at the corneal plane from
innity,
Fv is the power of the lens, and
d is the distance in meters from the reference position of
the lens to the new reference position.
This time, however, instead of using vertex distance as
was used in working effective power problems in Chapter
14, use principal plane distance (i.e., vertex distance plus
1.5 mm) (Figure 19-13). This will make Ld equal to the vergence of light at the principle planes of the eye. Therefore
for the +7.00 D hyperope,
1
1
0.014
+7
= +7.76 D
Ld =
For a near object at 40 cm, the vergence of light striking the

lens is 1/0.40, which is the same as 2.50 D (Figure 1914). This vergence must be added to the power of the lens
to nd the vergence of light leaving the lens. The vergence
of light leaving the lens is:
1 +F
v
0.40
444
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Zero
entering vergence
+7.00 D
exiting vergence
vergence at P.P. = +7.76 D
P.P.
40 cm
(400 mm)
14.3 cm
(143 mm)
12.9 cm
(129 mm)
14 mm
Figure 19-13. When light travels through a spectacle lens, the vergence of light reaching
the eye is different from the vergence of light that left the back surface of the lens.
-2.50 D
entering vergence
+4.50 D
exiting vergence
P.P.
40 cm
(400 mm)
vergence at P.P. = +4.80 D
22.2 cm
(222 mm)
14 mm
20.8 cm
(208 mm)
Figure 19-14. The amount of ocular accommodation required is the difference between
distance and near vergence at the eye. In this case the amount of ocular accommodation
required is +7.76 4.80 = +2.96. This is more than the approximately +2.50 D of accommodation expected for an object viewed at 40 cm.
This means that the vergence of light for the near object at
the principal planes of the eye would be:
1
1
dv
+ Fv

0.40
1
=
1
2.50 + F dv
v
1
=
1
0.014
2.50 + 7.00
1
=
1 0.014
4.5
1
=
0.208
= +4.80 D
Ln =
If, then for a +7.00 D hyperope, the amount of accommodation required to clearly see an object at 40 cm would be
+7.76 4.80 = 2.96 D. This amounts to approximately D
more accommodation required than for an emmetrope.
If the same calculations were done for a 7.00 D myope,
the ocular accommodation would be found to be only
+2.00 D. This is less than would normally be expected. In
other words, a +7.00 D hyperope wearing single vision lenses
must accommodate almost a full diopter more to clearly see
an object at 40 cm than a 7.00 D myope. This means that
a spectacle-wearing hyperope will require a near addition to
their glasses before a myope will.
How Contact Lenses Affect Required Accommodation

In spite of differences in required accommodation for
spectacle lenswearing myopes and hyperopes, a contact
lenswearing hyperope will not need bifocals any sooner
than a contact lenswearing myope. This is because the
spectacle lenses are the factor causing the difference in
accommodation required. Contact lenses rest directly on
C H A P T E R 19
the eye. This will return high plus and high minus lens
wearers to a situation that closely resembles the emmetrope, equalizing accommodative differences.
What Happens as Add Power Increases
Interestingly, once a spectacle-lens wearer goes into bifocals, as the add power increases, differences in the amount
of accommodation required for hyperopes and myopes
decrease. When full presbyopia is reached, the +7.00 D
hyperope does not need the nearly +3.00 D add that might
be expected. This is because light from 40 cm diverges to
2.50 D at the spectacle plane, but the +2.50 add in the
spectacle plane changes the diverging light back to parallel. Thus light rays leaving the add enter the distance lens
parallel and are able to be focused on the retina just as if
they were coming from a distant object.
Determining Occupational Add Powers for New
Working Distances
When someone needs a second pair of glasses for a specic occupational need, the working distance may not be
the same as it is for normal wear. Usually the near prescription has been determined for a 40-cm working distance. At the new working distance, the wearer needs to
be accommodating the same amount as they did for their
regular working distance. This ensures that the near
prescription will be neither too strong nor too weak.
Therefore there must be a change in the add power. The
prescriber can test at this new working distance and nd
the correct add power, or if the prescription is already
written, it is possible to calculate the new add power
using the optical principles previously described.*
445
When the prescription contains a high cylinder power,

there may be an optical answer that is not immediately
obvious.
As shown previously, the power of a spectacle lens will
affect the amount of accommodation required for near
viewing. A spectacle lens containing a large cylinder component has a considerable difference in refractive power
between its two major meridians. This means that a single
vision lens wearer may require a different amount of accommodation for one meridian of the lens than for the other
when comparing the effectiveness of that lens at distance
and near. If the distance sphere power is also large, this
effect can be even more signicant. The net effect of these
differences results in a new astigmatism at near that is different from the value found for distance vision. This new
amount of astigmatism is not fully corrected at the near
reading distance and may be the root of the problem.
The initial response may be to calculate a new cylinder correction for near. Yet rather than try and calculate
a new cylinder correction to remedy the near problem,
the best solution is to test for cylinder power and axis
for near vision. Retesting with a near target during
refraction is better than recalculating because there can
sometimes be a slight amount of cyclorotation of the
eyes on convergence. A slight cyclorotation will change
the cylinder axis. Therefore in cases like this it is best to
test for both cylinder power and axis at near.
If there is a difference between distance cylinder
values and near cylinder values, a second, single vision
pair of glasses is needed for near work. Fortunately, this
problem also resolves as presbyopia advances.
Why Some Nonpresbyopes Need a Different

Cylinder Correction for Near
CREATING HORIZONTAL PRISM

AT NEAR ONLY
Occasionally a nonpresbyope with an occupation requiring intense near work complains of eye fatigue with near
viewing. In spite of all efforts on the part of the examiner
to uncover the source of the problem by checking and
rechecking the refraction, the solution remains illusive.
Occasionally a prescription will call for horizontal prism,

but only for near viewing. Why might someone need
prism only at near? Although the situation does not
happen often, there are times when it can be an advantage to create base-in or base-out horizontal prism for
*It is possible to nd an occupational add power that is equivalent to the regular add power using a formula. That formula is based on the
difference in the vergence of light at the principal planes of the eye coming from an object at the distance for which the add was prescribed
(usually 40 cm), compared to the vergence of light at the eye coming from the new occupational distance. The difference represents a
change in the amount of accommodation required at the new working distance. This change in accommodation is then added to the original
add power to nd the occupational add. The formula is as follows:
New add power = (current add power) + (change in ocular accommodation at the principal planes of the eye.)
vergence of light at the principal planes for
vergence of light at the principal planes for
New add power = (current add power) +
normal 40-cm working distance

new occupational working distance.)
1
1

New add power = (current add power) +
1
1
(dpp )
(dpp )
1
F
F
+
+
F
F
+
+
v
a
v
a
d(2)
d(1)
) (
where Fv is the power of the distance lens, Fa is the power of the current add, d (1) is the distance for which the add is prescribed, d (2) is the
occupational working distance, and dpp is the distance from the lens to the principal planes (i.e., vertex distance plus 1.5 mm).
Cyclorotation is a clockwise or counterclockwise turning of the eye around an imaginary axis corresponding to the line of sight.
446
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
near only. It could also happen that there is already

horizontal prism in the distance portion of the lens, but
a different amount is needed in the near viewing area.
Here are some examples of situations where this might
occur:
1. The AC/A ratio is either high or low. Some individuals
have an abnormally high or low AC/A ratio. The
AC/A ratio is the ratio of accommodative
convergence (AC) to accommodation (A), usually
expressed as the quotient of accommodative
convergence in prism diopters divided by the
accommodative response in diopters.1 People with
this problem do not lose binocular vision. Both eyes
still accurately point at the object being viewed.
However, the fusion required to keep from seeing
double makes concentrated viewing at near a strain.
2. There is a periodic strabismus (tropia) at near only.
Strabismus is an eye condition where one eye looks
at the object being viewed, but the other eye does
not. (Such an individual is often referred to as being
cross-eyed or walleyed.) Sometimes a tropia
exists during near viewing only. When this is the
case, prescribed base-in or base-out prism for near
viewing may enable the individual to see with both
eyes simultaneously.
3. Nonconcomitant strabismus is present. With
nonconcomitant strabismus, the angle of deviation
varies. The eye turns at a different angle when the
person looks at distant objects compared with when
he or she looks at near objects. Using one amount of
prism for both distance and near may solve the
problem for distance, but not for near. For such
cases, creating a different amount of prism at near
could provide the answer.
If horizontal prism is ordered for near only (or a different amount at near than at distance), then there are
several ways to address the issue:
1. Use two pairs of glassesWith two pair of glasses, the
distance prescription is given without prism. A
second pair for near viewing is given and includes
both horizontal prism and the near add power.
2. Use Fresnel press-on prism for near onlyAlthough
Fresnel prism fullls the intent of the prescription,
it does not offer a permanent solution.
3. Use larger-segment at-top lenses and decenter the
segmentsBase-in or base-out prism is created by
having the laboratory move the segments in or out,
relative to their traditional near PD location.
4. Use a split lensEach lens in the pair is formed from
two separate lenses as described for a Franklin
bifocal. The upper half of a distance-powered lens is
cemented to the lower half of a near-point powered
lens containing the desired prism. This is described
in greater detail on pages 448 and 449.
5. Use a cement seg construction Some laboratories are
able to use a single vision lens for the distance
prescription and glue a specially constructed segment
lens onto the single vision lens. The segment must
have a back curve equal to the front curve of the
distance lens. The segment can be made with prism
only or with prism and an add power.
Horizontal Prism at Near by Segment Decentration

The least expensive method for correcting horizontal
prism at near with a multifocal lens is to use larger attop segments. These segments are decentered more or
less than they normally would be for the near PD (Figure
19-15). The amount of segment decentration required
Seg optical center
Near segment
Distance lens
Figure 19-15. Bifocal segments are really

small plus lenses. This means that if the
segment OCs are moved nasalward, they
will cause a base-in prismatic effect. This
prismatic effect occurs only in the near
position.
C H A P T E R 19
depends on the power of the near addition. There are

some restrictions:
If too much decentration is required, it will not be
possible to move the segment far enough. The lens
size will not allow it.
If the segment is too small, the edge of the segment
will be too close to the line of sight, and there will
not be enough reading area.
Thus the practitioner must know how far the segments must be decentered and what the minimum size
of those segments must be so that there is still enough
segment reading area remaining (Figure 19-16).
447
1. Find the customary seg inset.

Seg inset =
distance PD near PD
2
2. Find the additional seg inset needed to produce the

prism prescribed for near using a transposed form
of Prentices rule.
Now for some examples on how this is done.

Steps in Finding Seg Decentration and
Size for Prism at Near
The following steps outline how the amount of segment
decentration is determined and reveal how large the
segment must be so that sufcient segment area remains for reading. (These steps are summarized in
Box 19-1.)
Example 19-8
A prescription reads:
+2.00 1.00 180
+2.00 1.00 180
Add +2.25
PD = 64/60
1.25 base in at near only

BOX 19-1
Finding Seg Decentration and Size for Prescribed
Prism at Near Only
1. Find the customary seg inset.
Seg O.C.s
Near P.D.
Seg inset =
distance PD near PD
2
2. Find the additional seg inset needed to produce the

prism prescribed.
ca =
Seg O.C.s
near prism
Fa
where ca = additional set inset, and Fa = the add

power.
3. Determine if the additional seg inset is inward or
outward. Because the segment is really a small plus
lens, if the prescribed near prism is base in, the
additional seg inset will be inward. If the prescribed
near prism is base out, the additional seg inset is
outward.
4. Find the net seg inset.
Near P.D.
Figure 19-16. The eyes do not remain at the near interpupillary points when close work is done, but scan back and forth.
The production of lateral prism at near through segment
decentration requires that attention be given to seg width.
A, There will be insufcient outer seg area to permit normal
eye movement. B, If a larger seg is chosen, the problem is
alleviated.
Net seg inset = seg inset + additional seg inset

5. Find the minimum segment size needed to give the
wearer enough area to read with.
Seg size = 2(10 + additional seg inset)
448
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Could this amount of prism correction be achieved using

decentered at-top segments? If so, how large should the
segs be so that they give at least a 10-mm distance from
the reading center to the edge of the segment? The reading
center is at the location of the near PD.
Solution
To nd the answers to these questions, proceed through the
steps outlined in the preceding section.
1. For this prescription, the customary seg inset is:
distance PD near PD
2
64 60
=
2
= 2 mm
Seg inset =
2. Find the additional amount of decentration needed

beyond what would normally be required for the near
PD. To do this, use the formula:
ca =
near prism
Fa
In this case
1.25
2.25D
= 0.55 cms
= 5.5 mm
ca =
3. Because the horizontal prism at near is base in, the

additional seg inset is also inward.
4. Therefore the net seg inset is:
net seg inset = seg inset + additional seg inset
= 2 + 5.5
= 7.5 mm
5. The minimum segment size needed will be:
Seg size = 2(10 + additional seg inset)
Additional seg inset was the ca value found in step 2. So
in this case
Seg size = 2(10 + 5.5)
= 2(15.5)
= 31 mm
horizontal segment center separation and does not at all

correspond to the wearers PD at near.)
Solution
If net seg inset is 7.5 mm per lens, then the distance
between the near segs will be closer together than the distance PD by an amount equal to twice the net seg inset.
This means that the distance between the near segs is (2)
(7.5) or 15 mm less than the distance PD. The distance
between seg centers for this prescription is:
near PD = 64 (2)(7.5)
= 64 15
= 49 mm
The amount of prism at near will be achieved when the far
PD equals 64 mm, and the distance between the near PD
seg centers is 49 mm. Written on the order form, this would
read 64/49. (When writing something like this on the order
form, there should be some explanation, or it will be taken
as an error.)
Additional Comments on Prism at Near

If a frame with a large eye size is chosen, the decentered
lens blank may not be large enough. When it appears
that blank size may become an issue, it is advisable to
check for minimum blank size (see Chapter 5).
If the segment requires a signicant amount of
outward decentration to achieve base-out prism at near,
a blank size problem can often be solved by having the
laboratory swap lens blanks: left for right and right for
left. In other words, use a left lens blank to grind the
right lens and a right lens blank to grind the left lens.
Ordering Horizontal Prism at Near
As stated previously, the least expensive option for producing prism at near only is that of decentered near
segments. By guring the decentration needed, making
certain the lenses will cut out, and specifying the prism
as distance PD/near PD as in Example 19-9, costs are
kept lower.
Aside from cost issues, however, the practitioner
should be able to determine ahead of time if decentering
segments to create near prism will work before placing
an impossible order. The method just outlined makes
this feasible.
A Split Lens for Prism at Near

Since at-top segs do not come in 31-mm sizes, the next
largest segment is chosen. That size is a 35-mm segment.
To summarize, use at-top 35-mm segments and decenter
these segments 7.5 mm inward for each eye.
Example 19-9
Suppose we want to specify the position of the seg in the
previous example in terms of near PD on the order form
instead of net seg inset. What would the near PD be for
this prescription? (In this case the near PD is really the
When the amount of prism prescribed for near is different from the distance prism correction, it is possible to
use a split lens. Each of the lenses in the pair begins as
two lensesone nonprism distance lens and another lens
for near that includes the prescribed prism, along with
the add power. In fact the prism can be in any base direction since there are really two lenses. The lenses are both
cut in half. The upper half of the distance-powered lens
and the lower half of the near-powered lens are glued
together.
C H A P T E R 19
The laboratory does this by making both lenses with

the same base curve. The laboratory will try to match
the center thicknesses of the two lenses. Once the two
lenses are made, the lens to be used as the upper half is
spotted, and a seg line is marked on this distance lens
so that the distance optical center will be 3 or 4 above
the seg line. The lens will be cut along the seg line.
Another seg line is marked on the near lens. For this
lens, the part below the seg line will be used. The
lenses are cut, and the cut edges are smoothed. Then the
two halves are glued together and allowed to dry. Now
the newly created lens is spotted, blocked, and edged for
the frame.
449
The person receiving a split lens should be told that

this lens is not as impact resistant as other lenses and
should be asked to sign a disclaimer for impact resistance. Although it may be possible to make a cement seg
lens from a single vision lens that could be more impact
resistant, such a lens may not be as suitable.
REFERENCES
1. Hofstetter HW, Grif n JR, Berman MS et al: The
dictionary of visual science, ed 5, Boston, 2000,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Prociency Test

1. Which of the following is correct?
a. (distance power) + (near power) = (near Rx)
b. (near power) - (distance power) = (near addition)
c. (near addition) = (distance power) - (near power)
d. (near power) - (distance power) = (near Rx)
e. None of the above is correct.
2. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. Seg height is always equal to seg depth.
b. Seg depth is always greater than or equal to seg
height.
c. Seg height is always greater than or equal to seg
depth.
d. Seg height is always greater than seg depth.
3. If a right lens has an outset of 1 mm and a seg
inset of 2.5 mm, what is the total inset?
a. 1.0 mm
b. l.5 mm
c. 2.5 mm
d. 3.5 mm
4. The lensmeter reads:
1.00 1.00 180 in the distance portion
+0.50 1.00 180 in the intermediate portion
+1.50 1.00 180 in the near portion
What is the near add?
a. +l.50 D
b. +l.75 D
c. +2.00 D
d. +2.25 D
e. +2.50 D
5. In Question 4, what percent is the intermediate

seg power?
a. 40%
b. 50%
c. 60%
d. 70%
6. If you could not see a lens and were only able to
feel the surfaces, which of the following
multifocals could not be distinguished from a
single vision lens?
a. a fused glass multifocal lens
b. a one-piece construction multifocal lens
c. a cement segment multifocal lens
d. All could be distinguished from a single vision
lens.
e. None could be distinguished from a single
vision lens.
7. An Executive lens is an example of which type of
construction?
a. fused
b. one piece
c. cement segment
8. Which of the following multifocal construction
methods are used only with glass?
a. fused
b. one piece
c. cement segment
9. True or false? One-piece multifocal construction is
used only with plastic lenses, not with glass.
450
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
10. Match the bifocal lens segment with how far the
segment OC is below the top of the segment. (It
may be possible to use an answer more than one
time.)
1. 4.5 or 5 mm below
a. 22-mm round segment
2. 19 mm below
b. at-top 28 segment
3. 11 mm below
c. Franklin-style segment
4. 0 mm below
d. 38-mm round segment
5. 3 mm below
e. curved-top segment
6. 7 mm below
11. Which of the following bifocal lenses are always
monocentric?
a. 22-mm round segment
b. at-top 45 segment
c. Franklin-style segment
d. curved-top 25
e. None of the above is always monocentric.
12. A lens that could be substituted for a Rede-Rite
bifocal and probably do the job better would be
a. an ED trifocal
b. a regular progressive addition lens
c. an upside-down Executive lens
d. an occupational progressive such as the Hoya
Tact or AO Technica
e. There is no lens that would serve as a suitable
replacement.
13. A trifocal lens that looks similar to a combination
of a Franklin-style lens and a at-top bifocal is
called:
a. a quadrafocal.
b. an ED.
c. a DBL.
d. a Rede-Rite.
14. A lens that looks similar to a at-top trifocal with
an upside-down at-top bifocal in the upper half is
called:
a. a quadrafocal.
b. an ED.
c. a DBL.
d. a Rede-Rite.
15. This lens has what appears to be a large round
segment at the top of the lens and no segment at
the bottom. The round segment area at the top is
the distance prescription, and the rest of the lens
contains the near add. It is called:
a. a quadrafocal.
b. an ED.
c. a DBL.
d. a Rede-Rite.
16. True or false? Double-segment occupational lenses
are available with Franklin-style segments.
17. A lens has the following dimensions:

Shape: rectangular
Depth of lens (the B dimension) = 36 mm
Width of the lens (the A dimension) = 50 mm
Rx: O.D. +2.50 1.50 090
O.S. +2.50 1.50 090
Add: +1.75 O.U.
Seg dimensions: seg width = 28 mm
seg depth = 19 mm
seg height = 15 mm
seg inset = 2 mm
What is the seg drop?
a. 6 mm
b. 5 mm
c. 4 mm
d. 3 mm
Image Jump
18. For the lens in Question 17, what is the image
jump?
a. 0.525
b. 0.70
c. 0.875
d. 1.05
19. What is the jump in a 20-mm round bifocal with
a distance Rx of +2.00 D sphere, seg 3 mm below
distance center, and power of add + 2.00 D?
a. 0.60
b. 2.00
c. 1.40
d. There is no jump with this lens.
20. Calculate the jump for the following bifocal lens:
+3.00 1.00 080; add of +2.50 D
Seg top is 3 mm below distance OC. Seg style is a
straight-top 25 with the segment OC 5 mm
below the dividing line.
a. 1.25
b. 1.75
c. 2.25
d. 2.75
21. For the lens described above, what would the jump
be if the seg top were 5 mm below the distance
OC?
a. 1.25
b. 1.75
c. 2.25
d. 2.75
C H A P T E R 19
451
22. Give the image jump for the following Rx:

O.D. +3.00 1.00 180
O.S. +3.50 1.25 180
Add: 2.25 D
Seg height = 15 mm
Seg style is an Ultex A.
Lens is in a 48-mm round frame with no distance
decentration and a seg inset of 2.5 mm.
a. 6.75
b. 2.025
c. 8.55
d. 3.375
25. An Rx is:
+2.00 1.00 090
+2.00 1.00 090
Add +2.50 D
Trifocal with 70% intermediate portion
What power will be read through the intermediate
portion using a lensmeter?
a. +3.15 1.00 090
b. +3.75 l.00 090
c. +2.45 D
d. +3.25 -l.00 090
Ordering for Reading and

Intermediate Distances
26. A 41-year-old individual is just beginning to have

some problems working at near distances for
prolonged periods of time. Interest is expressed in
the possibility of changing from spectacles to
contact lenses. The distance prescription is:
R: +6.75 0.75 180
L: +6.75 0.75 180
Which of the following is true?
a. This individual will have even more difculty
with fatigue at near in contact lenses than in
spectacle lenses.
b. This individual will have less difculty with
fatigue at near in contact lenses than in
spectacle lenses.
c. This individual will not experience much
difference in contact lenses versus spectacle
lenses regarding fatigue at near.

0.50 0.25 180
0.50 0.25 180
Add: +2.00
The wearer wants a pair for distance and a pair for
reading. What powers would be ordered for the
reading glasses?
a. +2.00 D sph
+2.00 D sph
b. +2.00 0.25 180
+2.00 0.25 180
c. +2.50 0.25 180
+2.50 0.25 180
d. +1.50 D sph
+1.50 D sph
e. +1.50 0.25 180
+1.50 0.25 180
24. A trifocal wearer has the following Rx:
O.D. 1.25 0.50 005
O.S. 1.75 0.25 175
Add: +2.50 D
Trifocal with 50% intermediate portion
The wearer nds the intermediate power exactly
correct for the computer console at which she
must work, and the near is just right for
paperwork. She never uses the distance portion.
What Rx would serve the purpose?
a. pl -0.50 005
0.50 0.25 175
Bifocal add: +2.50
b. -0.62 0.50 005
1.12 0.25 175
Bifocal add: +1.75
c. -2.25 0.50 005
2.75 0.25 175
Bifocal add: +1.25
d. pl 0.50 005
0.50 0.25 175
Bifocal add: +1.25
Accommodation and Effectivity
27. Of the following spectacle lens prescriptions,

which wearer may have more difculty with eye
fatigue at near?
a. +2.00 1.00 180
+2.00 1.00 180
b. +3.00 2.50 180
+3.00 2.50 180
c. 5.50 3.50 180
5.50 3.50 180
d. 6.00 3.75 180
6.00 3.75 180
add: +2.25
452
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
28. A 50-year-old 6.00 D myope with a +1.00 add

power decides to have refractive surgery. What
would you expect after refractive surgery,
assuming that after surgery both eyes have a zero
distance refractive error?
a. This person will probably still need a +1.00 D
add, even after refractive surgery.
b. This person will need a slightly lower add
power than he or she had before surgery.
c. It is doubtful that this person will even need an
add following refractive surgery, regardless of
the type of intraocular lens implant used by the
surgeon.
d. This person will need an add power greater
than +1.00 D following refractive surgery.
29. An individual is wearing a +6.00 D spectacle lens
prescription at a 13-mm vertex distance. How
much ocular accommodation is required to clearly
view an object at 25 cm from the spectacle plane?
Horizontal Prism at Near Only

30. A prescription calls for 0.75 of base-in prism per
lens in the segment only. To produce this amount
by seg decentration, how much additional seg inset
is required beyond the amount that has been
determined by near PD measurement or
calculation? (The power of the add in question is
+2.00 D.)
a. 1.5 mm additional seg inset per lens
b. 2.7 mm additional seg inset per lens
c. 3.8 mm additional seg inset per lens
d. 1.5 mm counterbalancing seg outset per lens
+0.50 0.75 005
+0.50 0.75 175
add: +2.00
PD = 66/62
a. How much net seg inset is required to achieve
the correct amount of prism at near only using
at-top segments?
b. How large should the segs be so that they give
at least a 10-mm distance from the reading
center at the near PD to the edge of the
segment? Give your answer rst as theoretical
segment size. Next indicate the size you would
use from those at-top segment sizes that are
currently available.
32. A prescription has distance powers of pl 1.00
180 with a +2.00 add power. The prescription also
calls for 1.5 of prism base in per eye at near only.
If you were to use decentered at-top 35s to create
prism at near, which direction would you decenter
the segments?
a. inward
b. outward
33. For Question 32, how far would you decenter the
segments from their normal location at the near
PD to create the needed prismatic effect at near
only?
a. 1.3 mm
b. 3.0 mm
c. 7.5 mm
d. 13.0 mm
e. There is not enough information given to
answer the question.
The following applies to Questions 34 and 35.
A prescription reads:
+1.00 0.50 180
2.00 base in near only
+1.00 0.50 180
2.00 base in near only
Add: +2.25
The wearers PD is 65/62.
The prism at near is to be created by decentering
the segs horizontally.
34. To the nearest millimeter, what should the
distance between segment optical centers be for
the wearers glasses if measured with a PD ruler in
the usual manner?
a. 40 mm
b. 44 mm
c. 47 mm
d. 80 mm
35. To the nearest millimeter, what would the
minimum theoretical lens segment size be to
permit near work? (The answer does not have to
correspond to an available lens multifocal
segment.)
a. 28 mm
b. 31 mm
c. 35 mm
d. 38 mm
e. 45 mm
2.00 0.50 090
2.50 base out near only
2.00 0.50 090
2.50 base out near only
Add: +2.00
The wearers PD is 64/61.
The prism at near is to be created by decentering
the segs horizontally. To the nearest millimeter,
what would the TOTAL seg inset or outset
need to be for each segment?
a. 6.5 mm outset
b. 8 mm outset
c. 11 mm outset
d. 12.5 mm outset
e. 14 mm
C H A P T E R 19
37. For the prescription in Question 36, what is the

minimum segment size that would be required so
the reading area will be sufciently large?
a. 28 mm
b. 35 mm
c. 40 mm
d. 45 mm
e. None of these segments are large enough.
453
38. This is a difcult question. Think it through

carefully. A spectacle-lens wearer has a distance
prescription of 2.50 D sphere and an add power
of +2.50. If the segment is decentered either
nasally or temporally, will there be any change in
horizontal prismatic effects in the segment viewing
area?
a. yes
b. no
C H A P T E R 20
rogressive addition lenses are sometimes referred

to as invisible bifocals. However, invisible bifocals
have round segments where the demarcation line
between the distance portion and the bifocal segment
has been polished out, causing the two areas to appear
as if blended together. Invisible bifocals are really blended
bifocals, not progressive addition lenses. (For more
information on blended bifocals, see Chapter 5.)
SECTION 1
Measurement and Dispensing of
Progressive Lenses
Progressive addition lenses are made with the help of
specially designed front surface curves. These changing
surface curves cause the lens to gradually increase in plus
power, beginning in the distance portion and ending in
the near portion. These variable-powered progressive
addition lenses should, according to design, permit clear
vision at any given viewing distance merely by positioning the head and eyes.
PROGRESSIVE LENS CONSTRUCTION

Like a segmented multifocal, a progressive addition lens,
or PAL, has certain distinct areas to the lens. But those
areas in a progressive lens are not visible. If we were able
to see them, they would look like the lens in Figure
20-1.
The upper portion of the lens is basically the distance
portion. The near portion of the lens, where the full near
addition power is found, is down and inward. In between
the distance and near portions is a progressive corridor
where the power of the lens is gradually changing.
SELECTING THE FRAME

When choosing a frame for someone wearing a progressive addition lens, there must be enough room for the
progressive zone and near portion. Because these areas
are not visible like a bifocal segment is, they may be
unintentionally cut off. This was a problem when progressive lenses were rst introduced in the United States.
At that particular time, many frames had narrow vertical
dimensions. When progressive lenses were dispensed in
454
these frames, much of the near portion was cut off. Since
people could not see very well up close, dispensers falsely
concluded that the lenses were no good. So frame selection is an important part of tting progressives. Here are
some important points to keep in mind:
1. The frame must have sufcient vertical depth. Each
lens type has a manufacturer-recommended
minimum tting height. The recommendations of
the lens manufacturer should be followed. Standard
minimum progressive addition lens tting heights
will vary, going down to a low of about 18 mm. If
there is not enough vertical depth to allow the
minimum tting height, then either a different
frame must be chosen, or a special short corridor
lens that is designed for frames with a narrow
vertical dimension should be used. Otherwise there
will not be enough reading area left.
2. The frame must have sufcient lens area in the
lower nasal portion where the near progressive
optics are found. Sometime the frame has a large
enough B dimension, but the shape is cut away
nasally. Aviator shapes are an example of this type
of frame.
3. The frame should have a short vertex distance. The
closer the frame is to the eyes, the wider the eld of
view will be for both reading and distance vision.
4. The frame must be able to be adjusted for
pantoscopic angle when facial structure will allow.
A 10- to 12-degree angle is recommended. The
intermediate and near elds of view are effectively
wider when the progressive and near zones are
closer to the eyes.
5. The frame must have sufcient face form. This also
allows a wider viewing area through the progressive
corridor.
Frame selection criteria for progressive lenses are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 4. The reader is
encouraged to review this section, noting especially
Figure 4-14.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT TYPE OF

PROGRESSIVE
Most progressive lenses are made for general purpose
wear since the majority of wearers only have one pair of
CHAPTER 20
455
lens. This type of lens is made for closer viewing

distances through the top of the lens and has both a
wider intermediate progressive corridor and a wider
near-viewing area. An occupational progressive lens
should not be used as a persons only pair of glasses,
unless this person does not need a distance
prescription and would otherwise only be wearing
reading glasses. These lenses should be considered
for a second pair of glasses. For more on this topic,
see Section 3, Specialty Progressives.
Basic areas of a
progressive addition lens
Distance portion
Progressive
zone
Unwanted
cylinder
Unwanted
cylinder
Near
portion
Figure 20-1. The basic construction of a progressive addition

lens consists of a distance portion in the upper lens area, a near
portion in the lower central area (slightly displaced nasally),
and a progressive corridor between the distance and near areas
where power gradually increases. On both sides of the progressive and near zones are areas containing a certain amount of
unwanted cylinder. New designs are able to control the optics
in these peripheral areas better, making them considerably
more useful than might be anticipated.
glasses. Although general purpose progressives work for

most people, here are some additional considerations:
1. What type of general purpose progressive is
appropriate? It is possible to choose a certain type
of general purpose progressive to t the needs of
the wearer. This is discussed in more detail in
Section 2 of this chapter under General Purpose
Progressives.
2. Does the wearer have a signicant amount of
cylinder power in the prescription? If so consider
using a lens design that is atoric. (See the sections
found on pages 474 and 475, beginning with
Designs Using Aspheric and/or Atoric Surfacing
Methods.) Using such a design will reduce the
amount of unwanted distortion that will otherwise
be present in the periphery of the lens.
3. If the vertical B dimension of the frame is small,
choose a short corridor progressive lens. A short
corridor lens is still used for general purposes, but is
meant for this type of frame. For more on this
topic, see Section 3, Specialty Progressives.
4. Does this person use a computer a lot? Do they
work in a small ofce environment where
intermediate vision is important? If so they may
need a near variable focus occupational progressive
MEASURING FOR AND ORDERING

THE PROGRESSIVE
A progressive addition lens has a rather narrow progressive corridor linking the distance and near portions of
the lens. It is through this corridor that intermediate
vision takes place. Unless the eye tracks down the exact
center of this corridor, the lenses do not work very well.
Therefore PD measurements must be taken for each eye
individually and an exact vertical height specied for
each eye.
To help make sure the progressive corridor is where
it should be, the manufacture uses a tting cross. The
tting cross is usually 4 mm above the start of the progressive corridor and is intended to be placed exactly in
front of the wearers pupil center.
Standard Method for Taking Progressive

Lens Fitting Measurements
The following measurement techniques are applicable to
all manufacturers or designs of progressive lenses, provided the centration chart of the specic manufacturer
is used for the lenses being measured. An example of
such a chart is shown in Figure 20-2.
1. Measure monocular distance PDs. The
recommended method is to use a pupillometer. (The
use of a pupillometer is explained in Chapter 3.)
2. Fit and fully adjust the actual frame to be worn.
This includes pantoscopic tilt, frame height, vertex
distance, face form, and nosepad alignment. Make
certain the frame is straight on the face. If the
temples are not adjusted, hold the frame in place
while measuring so that it will not slip down the
nose.
3. If the frame does not contain clear plastic lenses or
the wearers old lenses, place clear (nonfrosted),
transparent tape across the eyewire of the empty
frame.
4. The dispenser is positioned with his or her eyes
at the wearers eye level. With the wearer looking at
the bridge of the tters nose, the dispenser draws a
horizontal line on the lens or tape. The line should
go through the center of the pupil. This is done for
both right and left eyes.
5. Place the frame on the manufacturers centration
chart and move it left or right until the bridge is
Ophthalmic Lenses
Figure 20-2. The manufacturers centration chart allows for easy reading of the tting cross height. When monocular interpupillary distances have not been previously measured
with a pupillometer but were marked on the lenses, their distances may be easily determined with the help of the horizontal scale on the chart. (The circles are for determining
minimum blank size.) (Courtesy of Essilor of America, Dallas, TX)
456
PA R T T WO
CHAPTER 20
457
Figure 20-3. For this pair of glasses, the tting cross heights are marked. The frame bridge
is centered on the arrowhead lines. The tting cross lines are positioned on the horizontal
line, and their heights read as the lowest level of the lens on the lower, horizontal line
scale.
centered on the diagonally converging central

alignment pattern. Then move the frame up or
down until the marked horizontal pupil center lines
are on the charts horizontal axis (Figure 20-3).
Mark the previously measured PD for each eye as a
vertical line that crosses the horizontal one (Figure
20-4).
6. For rst one lens, then the other, read the tting
cross heights from the chart. (Fitting cross height is
the vertical distance from the tting cross to the
level of the inside bevel of the lower eyewire of the
frame.) Record these tting cross heights and the
monocular PDs on the order form and in the
wearers record. (Note: Fitting cross heights are
usually erroneously referred to as major reference
point (MRP) heights, which they really are not.)
7. Check the size and shape of the frame on the lens
picture portion of the centration chart. Do this by
placing the frame on the lens blank circles of the
centration chart so that the cross on the glazed lens
overlaps the tting cross on the picture (Figure 205). The circle should completely enclose the frames
lens shape.
8. Send the frame to the laboratory with the marks
still on the lenses or tape.
Fitting Cross Heights for Children
Progressive addition lenses are sometimes used for children. If they are, it is recommended that the lenses be
tted 4 mm higher than normal.1 An example of when
progressives might be used for children is in the case of

accommodative esotropia.
The only time a child would not be tted 4 mm higher
than pupil center would be if the child has no accommodation, as after cataract surgery. In this case the
tting cross is positioned normally.
A tting cross height 4 mm higher than the pupil
center helps to ensure that the child is actually looking
through the near zone for reading. This is consistent
with the recommendation for childrens bifocal tting
height. For children bifocals are normally t with the
segment line at the center of the pupil.
Children adapt well to a 4-mm tting cross raise and
use the near portion for their near work. Kowalski et al2
compared the adaptability of 235 myopic children
wearing progressive addition lenses with 234 myopic
children wearing single vision lenses. The progressive
addition lens wearers were t with the tting cross 4 mm
above the pupil center. The study concluded that most
children with mild to moderate myopia are able to successfully adapt to PALs with a modied tting protocol
4 mm higher than the adult standard protocol. This
higher tting protocol will help ensure that children are
getting the full benet of the near addition. Just like with
adults, it is important to demonstrate and reinforce
the proper use of PALs to children, including possible
changes in head posture, head movements, and eye
movements, as well as providing information about possible initial adaptation symptoms. These results indicate
that PALs do not interfere with childrens visual demands
458
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 20-4. In preparation for

checking whether a lens blank will
be large enough for the frame
chosen, the wearers previously
measured monocular interpupillary distances are marked on the
lens.
Figure 20-5. To see if the lens

blank will be large enough for the
frame, the tting cross that has
been drawn on the glazed lenses is
placed over the tting cross in the
picture of the lens blank. The
smallest lens size that completely
encircles the edged lens or lens
opening is the minimum blank
size needed. If the largest pictured
lens blank size fails to encircle the
edged lens or lens opening, the
frame is too large, and another
frame must be selected.
in the classroom, using the computer, or for physical

activities such as playing sports.2
Even though the study only used mild-to-moderately
myopic children, it would be logical to assume that
similar results would be found with children having
other refractive errors.
Alternative Methods for Taking Progressive

Lens Fitting Measurements
Marking a Cross on Glazed Lenses or Tape
Sometimes a pupillometer is not available for measuring
monocular PDs. If this is the case, here is a method
that uses only an overhead transparency pen and the

frame:
1. Fully adjust the frame to t the wearer correctly.
2. Position yourself at the same level as the wearer and
approximately 40 cm away.
3. Close your right eye and instruct the wearer to look
at your open left eye.
4. Use an overhead transparency marking pen to mark a
cross on the right lens. If there is no lens in the frame,
place clear tape across the lens opening and mark the
tape instead. Draw the cross directly over the center
of the wearers right pupil (see Chapter 3, Figure 3-5).
CHAPTER 20
5. Next close your left eye, open your right eye, and
instruct the subject to look at your open eye. Then
mark a cross on the lens or tape directly over the
left pupil center.
6. Because of the movement involved in marking pupil
centers and the ease with which unintentional head
movement can occur, it is important that these
markings be carefully rechecked. If the wearer turns
the head slightly to one side, an error in monocular
PDs will occur. It may be hard to catch this error
since both monocular PDs may be slightly off, but
still add up to what would otherwise be a correct
binocular PD.
7. When you are condent that pupil centers are
accurately marked, remove the frames. Measure and
record the distances from the center of the bridge to
the center of each cross using the progressive lens
manufacturers centration chart.
For those who prefer to use corneal reections instead
of the geometric center of the pupil, a penlight positioned directly below the dispensers open eye will
provide the source for the needed reection (see Chapter
3).
Using the Red Dot Procedure to Subjectively
Verify Fitting Cross Positions
To subjectively verify the position of the tting cross,
use the preceding method, but either substitute a red dot
for the cross, or draw a red dot in the center of the cross.
When measurements are complete, ask the wearer to
look straight ahead and view a distant object. The object
should appear pink if the wearer is correctly viewing
through the red dots. First one eye and then the other
is covered. If the wearer must move the head to see pink
with either or both eyes, the lenses need to be
remarked.3
VERIFYING A PROGRESSIVE LENS

Major Points or Areas
When the Rx is returned from the laboratory, it contains
removable markings, such as a distance power arc, the
tting cross, horizontal dashes, and a prism reference
point (PRP) dot. It may also contain a near-point power
circle (Figure 20-6). The distance power arc indicates
the recommended position of the lens through which the
distance power should be read on the lensmeter.
The distance reference point (DRP) is at the center
of the arc.
The tting cross will normally be centered in the
pupil.
The two horizontal dashes to the left and right
sides of the lens help to tell if the lens is level or
tilted.
The centrally located PRP dot is used to verify
prism power. This is the same as the MRP.
459
Figure 20-6. A progressive addition lens usually arrives with

visible markings or a decal. These markings are used for verication and tting purposes and are shown in the photograph.
The upper semicircle or parentheses area is where the lens is
veried for distance power. The tting cross should fall
directly in front of the pupil. The dot directly below the tting
cross is the location of the prism reference point (major reference point) and is where prismatic effect is veried. The lower
circle is where near power is veried. The left and right sets
of dashes denote the location of hidden marks used for remarking the lens once the visible markings shown here have been
removed. The left and right sets of carets <> bracket the locations of the hidden identifying trademark and the marking for
the add power. A hidden trademark, whether denoted by an
oval or not, is on all progressive lenses and is important in
identifying the brand of an unknown progressive lens.
The circle in the lower part of the lens locates the

near reference point (NRP) and is used to verify
near power (Figure 20-7).
It is preferable that these markings on the surface of
the progressive lens be left on the lens until the nished
prescription is both veried and tted on the patient.
This enables the dispenser to verify the powers at far and
near and to more easily judge the accuracy of the positioning of the lenses on the wearers face when the frame
is nally adjusted. When the temporary markings are
gone, they can be reconstructed using hidden surface
engravings.
Verifying Distance Power, Prism Amount,

and Add Power
The distance power of a progressive lens should be measured with that portion of the lens that is marked by the
distant power arc or circle positioned in front of the
lensmeter aperture (Figure 20-8). The place where distance power should be measured is set by the manufacturer and is known as the DRP.
Prism, however, is measured at the specied location
of the PRP (Figure 20-9), even though the target may
460
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Progressive lens
fitting and verification points
Distance reference point

(DRP)
Prism reference point
(PRP)
17
Fitting cross
logo
Near reference point

(NRP)
Figure 20-7. In verifying a progressive addition lens, the distance power is veried
higher on the lens than it would be on any other type of lens. The manufacturer determines where it should be veried, calls it the distance reference point (DRP), and marks
its location with a semicircle.
Prism is veried at the prism reference point (PRP), which is the same thing as the
major reference point (MRP). (Note that the tting cross where the pupil center is
located is not the same as the MRP. Nevertheless, many dispensers erroneously use the
terms tting cross height and MRP height interchangeably.) The add power is veried at the location set by the manufacturer, marked with a circle, and called the near
reference point (NRP). No verication is done at the tting cross.
Figure 20-8. To verify distance power on a progressive addition lens, the lens must be positioned with the arc around the lensmeter aperture as shown. This ensures that the power
reading will not be affected by the changing power in the progressive zone.
CHAPTER 20
461
Figure 20-9. To verify prismatic

effect, the lens is veried at the
prism reference point (PRP)
located by the central dot directly
below the tting cross.
Figure 20-10. When both distance and near powers are low, the
near power may be veried using
the back vertex power as shown in
the gure. In any case the near
power must be read through the
near circle. The correct method,
however, is to nd the near add
using front vertex powers. This is
shown in Figure 20-11.
be slightly blurred. The target may be blurred in the

lower half of the viewing eld because the progressive
corridor begins at the PRP.
As can be expected in all types of multifocals, the near
portion of progressive lenses will demonstrate power
in an amount dependent on the power of the distance
portion and add. It should be read through the circular
marking that identies the center of the near power area
(Figure 20-10). This point is set by the manufacturer and
is referred to as the NRP.
Although Figure 20-10 shows the near addition being

measured as back vertex power, as with standard multifocals, to determine the add most accurately, distance
and near powers should be read with the lenses in a
reversed position and the add power calculated (Figure
20-11). In practice back vertex power measurements will
work for low-powered lenses with low-powered adds, but
front vertex powers will give more accurate readings
with either or both increasing distance and add powers.
(For more information, see Chapter 6.)
462
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
B
Figure 20-11. If the power of the distance and/or add powers are high, the add power (not
the distance power) is measured using front vertex powers. This is no different from any other
multifocal lens. A, The front vertex power is measured through the distance portion as the
rst step in obtaining an accurate add power. B, The second step in accurately measuring the
add power is to measure front vertex power through the near portion. This difference between
distance and near front vertex powers is the power of the near addition.
CHAPTER 20
463
In practice the power of the near addition is seldom

measured for progressive lenses. This is because the near
addition power amount appears as a hidden number on
the front surface of the lens. Instead of using the lensmeter for near power, verifying this hidden number is
common practice.
above that symbol on some. On many brands, but not

all, a mark identifying the design or the manufacturer is
engraved 4 mm below the nasal symbol.
The hidden engravings can sometimes be hard to see.
The following three sections discuss methods that may
help dispensers locate them.
Verifying Fitting Cross Height and Monocular

Interpupillary Distances
Use a Black Background

Using a black background, hold the lens so that there is
plenty of light on it. It is often helpful to locate the light
source on the other side of the lens, off to the side or
above it. Tilt the lens to inspect the front surface from
different angles until the markings become visible.
Fitting cross height and monocular PDs can be checked

by centering the bridge of the glasses on the diagonally
converging central alignment pattern of the manufacturers centration chart. The horizontal lines on the lens
must be on (or parallel to) the horizontal axis of the
centration chart with the tting cross height at the
zero level. From this position, the monocular PDs and
tting cross heights can be veried.
It is important to verify the location of the hidden
engravings on the lens as well (Figure 20-12). This will
ensure that the lens is indeed properly marked. It is not
unusual for the laboratory to have to reapply the visible
markings if they were removed during processing. If the
visible markings appear correct but the hidden engravings do not coincide with them, the lens is not correct.
Locating the Hidden Engravings on a

Progressive Lens
All progressive lenses have fairly similar markings or
engravings on their surfaces. These markings are directly
used to identify design, manufacturer, and add power.
They are used indirectly to reconstruct the temporary
markings that allow distance power, PRP, and near
power to be found. The engravings that allow reconstruction of temporary markings are found in the forms
of circles, squares, triangles, or trademarks at lateral
positions on either side of the lens.
On most brands, the power of the add is engraved
4 mm below the temporal symbol, although it may be
Use a Fluorescent Bulb

It may be possible to nd the hidden markings on a lens
by using a uorescent light source behind the lens. To
use this method, hold the lens up with a uorescent
ceiling light in the background and view the lens
surface.
Use a Hidden Circle Finding Instrument
The Essilor instrument for nding hidden circles consists of a magnier and an area for the lens that is
illuminated with a bulb. This facilitates lens identication in a controlled manner (Figure 20-13). Markings are
considerably easier to see because they are clearer and
also appear larger. Figure 20-14 shows a view of what the
hidden markings look like through this instrument.
Identifying an Unknown Progressive Lens

When someone is wearing a progressive lens and the lens
manufacturer, lens design, or lens material of the
progressive are unknown, the hidden markings will
reveal the needed information. Remember that normally
a hidden marking identifying the design is engraved
4 mm below the nasal hidden circle or symbol. To
decode these markings, look in the Optical Laboratory
Progressive lens
hidden reference points
Figure 20-12. Manufacturers place

hidden marks on the front surface of a
progressive lens for four reasons: (1) to
identify their product so that the dispenser is certain the product is the
brand ordered, (2) to identify unknown
lenses already being worn, (3) to indicate power, and (4) to provide reference
points to allow the reapplication of
visible markings for verication purposes. In this illustration, the number
17 indicates a +1.75 D add power.
Hidden reference points
Hidden add
power engraving
17
logo
Manufacturers
hidden identifying
logo
464
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Associations (OLA) Progressive Identier (Figure 22-15).

This publication shows pictures of each type of progressive lens with all their hidden markings. In the front is
an index by symbol. Find the symbol in the index and
look up the lens on the appropriate page. The Progressive
Identier gives information on lens type, material, tting
cross location, and minimum recommended tting
height. It is available through wholesale optical laboratories or direct from the OLA.
Remarking a Lens Using Hidden Engravings
Figure 20-13. This Essilor instrument allows the hidden

markings on a progressive addition lens to be seen much more
easily than with the naked eye. The open placement of the lens
on the instrument means that the markings can be dotted with
a marking pen while looking through the instrument.
Figure 20-14. This photo shows the permanent, hidden

marking on a progressive addition lens using the Essilor
instrument. The permanent lens identication logo is found
between the nonpermanent, caret marks. (The photographic
view through the instrument as seen in this gure has been
retouched for clarity.)
To remark a lens, the two hidden engraved circles (or

marks) can be emphasized by dotting their centers on
the front side with a thin felt-tip or ber-point pen.
These dots are then placed on the respective manufacturers centration or verication chart. The other markings for the power control circles, tting cross, and
optical center (OC) can be traced from the chart. Alter-
Figure 20-15. This is a page from

the Optical Laboratory Associations (OLA) Progressive Identi er
used to nd information about
progressive addition lenses.
CHAPTER 20
natively a set of plastic dispensing decals may be used, if

available. The decals form a set of two, one for each eye,
with the near circle decentered nasally on each.
DISPENSING PROGRESSIVES
Validation on the Patient
Once the prescription has proved to be correct, it is
adjusted to t the wearer. Normal frame tting rules
apply. In addition, to provide the maximum possible eld
of view, adjust the frame for:
1. A small vertex distance
2. Adequate face form
3. A maximum pantoscopic tilt that still looks
appropriate for the wearer
With the visible markings still on the lenses, also
check the following:
1. The tting crosses should be in front of each pupil
center. (Ensurance of the placement of the tting
crosses is especially important when the two eyes
are not at an equal vertical height.)
2. The horizontal dashes on the lenses should be
exactly horizontal and not tilted.
Removing the Visible Markings

The visible marks that are on a progressive addition lens
when it comes back from the laboratory are nonwater
soluble. To remove them, use alcohol or an alcohol swab.
Sometimes these marks can be stubborn. Some say that
stubborn markings will come off easier if the lens is rst
heated in the hot air frame warmer. The alcohol may
work better on the heated mark.
Instructing the Wearer at Dispensing

Adapting to progressive lenses can be made easier for a
new wearer if the characteristics of the lenses are demonstrated at the time they are dispensed.
To demonstrate the full range of progressive lens versatility, hold a near-point chart at eye level at an intermediate distance. Instruct the wearer to look directly at
the near-point card through the distance portion. Next
ask the patient to tilt his or her head back until the letters
on the card are clear. Gradually, bring the card closer to
the eyes as the head is tilted still farther back, demonstrating the full range of viewing available.
More head movement is required with progressive
lenses. Therefore some tters recommend instructing
the wearer to rst point his or her nose at the object to
be seen, then to move the head somewhat up or down
until things clear.
Attention should also be called to any distortion
present during peripheral gaze so the wearer understands
that this is to be expected. While the wearer holds the
head still, demonstrate areas where vision is not as clear
by moving the near-point card to the left and right in
the reading area while the wearer follows the card with
465
the eyes. As observed in some studies, adjustment to

distortion and increased head movement are adaptations
that depend on steady wear of the lenses. In other words,
wearing the lenses at all times will speed the adaptation
process. Emphasize this point to the new wearer.
Once again remember that it is better to point out any
areas of distortion, rather than having the wearer discover them and report back with a problem. If this lens
characteristic is pointed out ahead of time, the dispenser
is considered to be knowledgeable when it occurs. If the
wearer discovers the problem and points it out, the dispenser is in the awkward position of having to explain
after the fact.
TROUBLESHOOTING PROGRESSIVE
PROBLEMS
Most problems encountered by progressive lens wearers
are a direct result of basic tting principles being ignored.
Here are a few typical errors that should never occur,
but do.
One monocular PD is correct; the other is wrong.
This happens when the monocular PDs are done
with a ruler or by marking the PD measurements on
the lenses, and the tter uses only one eye to
measure both lenses.
The PD is given as a binocular PD, rather than as
two monocular PDs.
Fitting cross height is measured for one eye, and the
same measurement is written down for both eyes.
Fitting cross heights must be individually measured
for both eyes.
When a wearer does come back with a complaint, the
most straightforward way to check for possible problems
is to rst put the progressive markings back on the lenses
and see if they are correct in relation to where they
should be when the prescription is worn. Often the
problem will be obvious.
If the solution is not immediately apparent, Table 201 gives some common complaints with reasons they may
occur and possible solutions.
Using the Near PD Method When

Near PD Proves Incorrect
Sometimes it becomes necessary to troubleshoot a
problem of insufcient near-viewing area. There are
numerous possible reasons for this happening. These are
listed in Table 20-1. When none of the other solutions
are applicable, it may be that monocular distance PDs
are correct, but the monocular near PDs are either too
large or too small. Here is one way to solve the
problem.
For many progressive add lenses, the near-viewing
area is inset from 2.0 mm to 2.5 mm per lens. Most
manufacturers use 2.5 mm per lens. (Newer progressives
466
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 20-1
Troubleshooting Progressive Addition Lens Problems

Complaint
Possible Cause
Possible Solution
The wearer has to lower the

head to drive or see well in
the distance.
1. The tting cross is too high. The wearer

is looking through the beginning of the
progressive zone.
A. Adjust the frame to lower the tting

cross.
B. Re-measure tting height and reorder
the lenses.
Central distance vision is

blurry.
1. The tting cross is too high. The wearer

is looking through the beginning of the
progressive zone.
A. Adjust the frame to lower the tting

cross.
B. Re-measure tting height and reorder
the lenses.
A. Recheck the refractive prescription.
2. The distance refraction is off.

Distance vision is clear in
the center but blurry on
either side (in the periphery).
Near viewing area is too

small and/or near vision is
poor.
1. The lens is a soft design and the vertex

distance is too great.
2. The wearer has little or no distance
prescription and the lens has a soft
design with some distortion in the
distance periphery.
3. The lens has been made on the wrong
base curve.
A. Adjust the frame to decrease the vertex

distance.
A. Change to a harder design with less
peripheral distortion in the distance.
1. The lens-to-eye (vertex)

distance is too great.
A. Adjust the frame to decrease the vertex

distance so the frame ts closer to
the face.
B. Increase the pantoscopic angle to bring
the lower (near viewing area) of the
frame closer to the face.
A. Instruct the wearer on how to use the
lenses and see if he or she recognizes
the appropriate area of the lens to use
for near viewing.
A. Re-measure for monocular PDs and
remake lenses.
2. The wearer has not been instructed on

how the lens is to be used.
3. One or both of the monocular PDs are

incorrect. The eyes are not in the center
of the reading portion, narrowing the
useable reading area.
4. The lens or frame is t too low.
5. The vertical dimension of the frame is

too small for the progressive lens and
too much near viewing area is being cut
off.
6. The add power is incorrect.
7. The lens design has insufcient width

for the near viewing needs of the wearer.
8. The monocular distance PDs are correct,

but the monocular near PDs are either
too large or too small.
A. Check to see if the base curve is what is

recommended for the distance power
of the lens.
A. Adjust the frame to move it higher on

the face.
B. Re-measure and re-make the lens.
A. Use a frame with deeper vertical
dimension.
B. Use a short-corridor lens design
appropriate for frames with narrower
vertical depths.
C. DO NOT increase the add power in
an attempt to avoid or correct this
problem!
A. If the add power is too high, the
correct power will not be found in the
normal near viewing area. Re-check
the refraction and reorder the lenses
if necessary.
A. Choose a lens design with a wider near
area.
B. Suggest a second pair of occupational
lenses for a small ofce environment.
A. Re-measure the monocular PDs as
monocular near PDs. Add the
manufacturers segment inset to the
monocular near PDs and order these
values for monocular distance PDs.
CHAPTER 20
467
TABLE 20-1
Troubleshooting Progressive Addition Lens Problems contd

Complaint
Possible Cause
Possible Solution
The wearer has to hold the

reading material to one side
in order to read.
1. The monocular PDs are

probably off.
A. Re-measure and remake the lenses to

the correct monocular PDs.
The wearer has to tilt the

head back in order to read
1. The lenses are t too low.
A. Adjust the frame so that is sits higher

on the face.
B. Re-measure and remake the lenses.
A. Go with a shorter corridor progressive
lens.
2. The progressive corridor is too long for

the wearer.
There is not enough width
for intermediate viewing
distances
1. The lenses are t too far away from the

eyes (vertex distance is too long).
2. The monocular distance PDs are
incorrect.
3. The tting cross heights are incorrect.
4. The lens design is too hard.

5. The wearers needs for intermediate
viewing are too great for a general-purpose
progressive lens
A. Adjust the frame so that the lenses are

closer to the face.
A. Re-measure for monocular PDs and
remake the lenses.
A. Adjust the frame for the correct tting
height.
B. Re-measure the tting cross heights and
remake the lenses.
A. Use a lens with a softer design.
A. Suggest a second pair using an
occupational progressive lens.
Objects in the periphery

seem to move or swim
when the wearer is moving
around.
1. The lenses are not t close enough to

the wearers eyes.
A. Adjust the frame for a closer vertex

distance.
B. Increase the face form of the frame.
To see objects clearly for

intermediate and near
distances, the wearer needs
to move the head more than
would be expected.
1. The lenses are not t close enough to

the wearers eyes.
A. Adjust the frame for a closer vertex

distance.
B. Increase the face form of the frame.
A. Recheck the near add power and remake
the lenses for a lower add power.
2. The add power is too high.
Data from Enhancing patient satisfaction with Varilux Comfort, video #306-922043, 0399-CP, Essilor of America, St. Petersburg, Fla; Brown
WL: Progress in progressive addition lenses, 2001 Ellerbrock memorial continuing education program, Philadelphia, PA, 12/6/2001, pp
303-306; Reference Guide 2002, LPAN200009 05/02CP, Essilor of America.
will vary the near inset based on distance power.*) For

some wearers, this seg inset per lens may not agree
with their pupillometer-measured near-point PD. Too
much inset may displace the channel position too far
nasally and limit the near-point eld, resulting in some
nonadaptable situations.4
For individuals with small distance PDs, less inset is
required than is present for a standard progressive addition lens. This can happen with children who are being
tted for progressive lenses.
Here is how to base a progressive lens order on near
PD measurements:
1. Measure the monocular near PDs using a
pupillometer.
*Those with high minus distance prescriptions may also require
less seg inset because of the base-in prism induced by viewing
nasally through the lenses during convergence. (See Chapter 3 on
how to predict the near PD based on distance PD and distance lens
powers.)
2. Add the manufacturers seg inset value to the

measured right and left monocular near PDs.
3. Order the lenses according to the new, calculated
distance PDs.
There is a way to know if an incorrect near PD might
be a problem ahead of time. This procedure is explained
in Box 20-1. This same method may also be used to
check near PD placement and to evaluate the problem of
a new progressive lens wearer complaining about the
width of the near-viewing eld.
Example 20-1
A new progressive lens wearer returns complaining that the
lenses do not allow sufcient reading area. You remark the
lenses and nd that the tting crosses are located correctly.
Tilting the wearers head back and having the wearer look at
the bridge of your nose, you discover that the wearers eyes
are not looking through the near circles. The circles are inset
too far nasally. Currently the monocular distance PDs are
R: 28.5, L: 29.0. How would you reorder for a successful t?
468
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
BOX 20-1
Checking for the Near Viewing Area
If a person has an especially small PD, or if you are concerned that the near viewing area may not come out
right, it is possible to check ahead of time using the following steps:
1. Measure for monocular distance PDs and tting
cross height.
2. Mark the sample lenses that are in the frame with
these measurements.
3. Use the lens manufacturers centration chart to
locate the proposed location of the near lens power.
This area is identied with a circle on the chart.
4. Use a marking pen to trace the circle on the lenses.
5. Close one eye, position a penlight directly under the
open eye, and point the penlight at the wearers
eyes. (You should be at the wearers normal near
working distance, which is usually 40 cm, or 16 in.)
6. Instruct the wearer to look at your open eye. Place
your ngers under the wearers chin and tilt the chin
back until the eyes can be seen through the drawn
circles.
7. If the circles are not centered, you will need to adjust
the PD so that the circles will be centered.
To evaluate the problem of a new progressive lens wearer
complaining about a small near viewing area, nd the
hidden circles on the lens. Trace the tting crosses and
near circles back on the lenses. (This is explained in more
detail in this chapter in the section Remarking a Lens
Using Hidden Engravings.) Follow steps 5 though 7
above.
When the distance lens powers are low, this method of

near PD method of measurement works well. With highpowered distance PDs, however, incorrect distance PDs may
induce too much prismatic effect.
SECTION 2
General Purpose Progressives
OPTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
GENERAL PURPOSE PROGRESSIVES
The rst successful progressive addition lenses were
designed to maintain some of the characteristics of a
bifocal. One criterion considered to be important was
maintaining traditional lens optics in the upper half of
the lens. If this is done, the power from the midline
upward corresponds exactly to the prescribed distance
power. At the midpoint of the lens and downward following the expected path of the eyes, plus power begins
to increase. Once the full add power is reached, lens
power does not vary. The progressive zone connects
distance and near lens areas. These types of lenses are
said to have spherical upper halves because the front surface
of the upper half of the lens is spherical, rather than
aspheric.
The rst really successful progressive lens was the
original 1959 Varilux lens.5 The 1959 Varilux lens used
this design philosophy.
Unwanted Cylinder
Solution
Set the pupillometer for a near-working distance of 40 cm.
Measure the monocular near PDs. They are:
R: 27.5 mm
L: 28.0 mm
Lens manufacturers information indicates that the progressive lens you are using has a seg inset value of 2.5 mm
per lens.* To have the near PD come out correctly, the distance PD needs to be set 2.5 mm wider than the measured
near PD for both right and left lenses. Therefore the monocular distance PDs will be
R: 27.5 + 2.5 = 30.0
L: 28.0 + 2.5 = 30.5
The distance PDs should be ordered as
R: 30.0 mm
L: 30.5 mm
*If not indicated elsewhere, this inset distance may be found by

measuring the horizontal distance from the tting cross to the
center of the near reference circle on the manufacturers lens centration chart.
Unwanted cylinder is the greatest problem inherent in

progressive addition lenses. Although the progressive
zone gives clear vision when properly tted and dispensed, the area to either side of this zone will have some
unwanted cylinder power. This cylinder varies in amount
and orientation, depending on design and add power. It
will be noticeable if the eye moves far enough laterally
from within the progressive zone.
A Sandbox Analogy
There are certain design characteristics that change the
amount of unwanted cylinder in the periphery of the
lens. To help understand how this works, we will use
an oversimplied example of a sandbox. Think about a
round sandbox with the surface of the sand smoothed
to a spherical shape to resemble the front surface of a
regular, single vision lens. Suppose we want to change
the surface curvature of one area of the sand. The object
is to give the surface a new power so that it will resemble the near portion of a progressive addition lens.
We can do this by starting at the center and gradually
increasing the curvature of the surface in a certain area
corresponding to the progressive portion of a lens. In
other words, we start shaving the surface of the sand,
removing sand from that area. But one of the rst sandbox
rules is, You are not allowed to throw sand out of the
CHAPTER 20
sandbox.* So where do we put the sand? If we wanted

to keep the upper half of the lens at exactly the distance
power, it could not go there. So sand would have to be
piled on either side of the progressive zone and then
smoothed out. This changes the curve of the surface and
causes unwanted cylinder.
Interrelating Progressive Design Factors
Here are some general design factors that may inuence
unwanted cylinder power and other lens parameters.
1. Add poweras add power increases, so will the
amount of unwanted peripheral cylinder.
2. Rate of progressive power changeprogressive power
can change from distance to near zones in either a
rapid or slow fashion, making the progressive
corridor either short or long. A rapid change means
that the progressive zone surface curvature changes
over a very short distance resulting in a short
corridor lens.
When the power changes rapidly
The intermediate zone width will generally be
smaller.
The near zone is generally wider and larger.6
If the progressive zone is longer, the plus power
changes more slowly. A longer progressive zone
means less unwanted cylinder; a shorter
progressive zone means more unwanted cylinder.
3. Intermediate zone widtha larger minimum zone
width is associated with lower amounts of unwanted
cylinder.6 The smaller the intermediate zone width
and area, the greater the unwanted cylinder will be.
However, there is not as direct a relationship
between the amount of unwanted astigmatism and
near-viewing zone size.
4. Zone widthsdistance and intermediate and near
zone widths inuence each other. When one zone is
made larger or wider, the other two zones will
become narrower and smaller.6
The Use of Contour Plots to Evaluate

Progressive Lenses
In 1982 a standard format was initiated for representing
the surface characteristics of progressive addition lenses.
This took the form of connecting points having equal
powers. The concept is similar to that of topographic
maps that show mountainous heights. These line diagrams are known as contour plots.
One form of contour plot maps the amounts of
unwanted cylinder power, showing how fast cylinder
power increases over the lens surface. Areas of equal
*Keep in mind that this is an analogy only and is not what really
happens with progressive lenses. It is only meant to characterize
the problems faced by lens designers.
Much of the information found in this section is taken from Sheedy

JE: Correlation analysis of the optics of progressive addition lenses,
Optometry and Vision Science 81(5):350361, May 2004.
469
cylinder power are plotted with a connecting line. These

lines are called isocylinder lines (Figure 20-16, B). Another
type of contour plot maps areas having equal spherical
equivalent powers (Figure 20-16, A). With these it is
possible to see:
1. How fast the power increases in the progressive
corridor
2. What kind of power changes take place in the upper
and lower lens peripheries
Being able to read contour plots allows for a greater
understanding of the features common to all progressive
lenses and the individual characteristics that may differentiate one lens design from another. It should be
understood, however, that contour plots in themselves
may not precisely convey a given lens actual performance when being worn. Clinical choices made by progressive addition lens wearers may not agree with
predictions anticipated from contour plots.
Contour plots do demonstrate relative progressive
zone width, the presence of a hard or soft optical design,
and the anticipated amount of unwanted cylinder in the
upper half of the lens. They may also be helpful in
matching a certain style of progressive addition lens to
the optical needs of the wearer.
HOW PROGRESSIVE LENS DESIGNS

HAVE CHANGED
We would not expect todays progressive addition lenses
to be the same as they were when rst successfully used.
Progressive lens designs come forth as a result of professional judgments as to what lens characteristics are
most important when worn. These judgments do not
always agree. In addition, one philosophy may be correct
for one wearing situation, but not for another. Here are
some of the contrasting ways lenses have been
designed.
Spherical and Aspherical Distance Portions

Originally, progressive lenses were designed to maintain
an upper half just like a regular single vision lens. The
upper half had a spherical front surface (Figure 20-17).
In 1974 Varilux introduced a design that attempted to
reduce the intensity of unwanted cylinder by spreading
it out over a larger area.* It soon became evident that
small amounts of induced astigmatism could be tolerated
in the periphery of the distance portion. Lenses designed
in this manner are aspherical in the upper and lower
portions of the lens surface instead of just in the lower
section containing the progressive corridor (Figures 2018 and 20-19). Returning to the oversimplied sandbox
*This lens was called the Varilux 2 or Varilux Plus.
An aspherical surface is one that does not maintain a constant

spherical curve, but changes in curvature over a given area. Aspherical means nonspherical.
470
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Sphere equiv.
Sola VIP
plastic
50
50
1
0.50
5
.2
Cylinder
1.00
0.50
.0
0.50
50
.
1
0.25
0.25
.25
Plano
+0.25
+0.50
1.50
.0
.00
1
1.50
2.00
.00
0.25
+2.0
Pl
an
.50
+1
5
.2
0 .50
0
.50
3.00
3.50 4.00
00
3.00
3.50
PL
+2.00 Add
+6.00 B.C.
0
.0
4
.50
0
4.00
Plano
0.25
0.50
+0
.2
5
+1
+0.50
+0.25
.5
2.00
+0.50
.00
0
5
.2
0
0.25
B
Figure 20-16. The contour plot in A shows changes in lens power plotted as the spherical
equivalent.
Spherical equivalent = sphere +
cylinder power
2
The contour plot shown in B is plotted as unwanted cylinder alone. Both plots are of the
same lens having a plano distance power and a +2.00 add power. (From Sheedy JE, Buri M,
Bailey IL et al: Optics of progressive addition lenses, Am J Optom Physiol Optics 64:90-99
1988, Figure 1.)
Circles
Link
Circles
Figure
20-17. The
original
Varilux lens was designed to maintain a spherical surface in the
upper half of the lens. It had two
large and spherical distance and
near vision zones linked together.
(From Progressive addition
lenses, Ophthalmic Optics File,
p. 28, Figure 25, Esselor International, Paris France, undated
publication.)
CHAPTER 20
471
the near zone. Outside of this near zone, the power

begins to change, and unwanted cylinder power
increases.
Figure 20-18. This simplied contour plot shows a lens with

a spherical upper front surface. The concentric lines represent
the areas of increasing astigmatism. (This contour plot is theoretical only and is not a representation of any existing lens.)
Figure 20-19. This progressive lens representation shows a

lens with an aspheric upper front surface. Asphericity is allowed
to continue into the upper half of the lens, with small amounts
of astigmatism being evident in the periphery of the top half
of the lens. (This contour plot is theoretical only and is not a
representation of any existing lens.)
analogy, we can see that in allowing the displaced sand

to be spread over a larger area the amount of unwanted
cylinder in any given area will be reduced. Usually a lens
with a spherical upper half resembles a hard design and
one with an aspherical upper half, a soft design. These
terms will be explained shortly.
Hard Versus Soft Designs

When an individual wearing a progressive addition lens
is using the near-viewing area of the lens and slowly
looks to one side, the eyes begin to leave the region of
Hard Designs
With a bifocal lens, there is a distinct, lined border
between the near-viewing area and the rest of the lens.
There is no question as to where the near portion ends.
With some types of progressive addition lenses, the
change in power and increase in astigmatism is more
demarcated than in others. For example, the unwanted
cylinder may rapidly increase from nothing up to 0.50
D, then move quickly to 1.00 D, and on up to 1.50 D in
the space of only a few millimeters. Because of the rapid
change along the border between viewing areas, this
type of design is known as a hard design (Figure
20-20).
Hard designs generally offer larger and more delineated areas of unvarying optical power for distance and
near viewing. Often in hard designs, the power in the
progressive channel increases rapidly. When a person
looks down, the eyes reach the level of full add power
sooner.
The disadvantages of hard designs are linked with the
rapid increase in cylinder power and the areas in which
that unwanted cylinder is concentrated. Distortions
caused by more rapid power change may mean a slightly
longer period of adaptation. Straight lines may appear
more curved when viewed through the lower half of the
lens than they do with other designs. (It should be noted
that all progressive add lens designs cause this effect to
some extent, at least during initial adaptation. Even the
near portion of a bifocal lens can cause a straight line to
appear curved.) The intermediate viewing area of the
lens may be more limited both vertically and horizontally, requiring the wearer to zero in more consciously
to view intermediate objects with clarity.
Soft Designs
A soft design is one in which the change from the near
zone to the peripheral area is gradual when compared
with a hard design (Figure 20-21). As the wearers eye
begins to leave the near zone laterally, the amount of
unwanted cylinder increases, but more gradually. From
the wearers point of view, it is not easy to determine
where the near zone ends. A soft design has a slower
vertical change in power as the wearer looks from distance to near. In other words, the progressive channel is
longer and usually wider. This means that the wearer has
to drop the eyes farther down into the lower areas of the
lens before reaching the full near power.
The advantages of a soft design are easier, more rapid
adaptation times; less distortion of peripherally viewed
objects; and less swim of objects with head movement.
Soft designs typically start with a smaller near zone and
allow aberrations to spread over a larger area, including
parts of the upper half of the lens. This means that the
472
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
25
25
3.
0
25
25
3.
0
B
Figure 20-20. This is an example of a lens that has a somewhat hard progressive addition design. A, The contours of
increasing astigmatism start at the border of the corridor and
near zone. Each contoured area farther from the zone shows
darker in on the diagram and represents a change in measured
cylinder power. The near portion is fairly wide, and the
contour lines are closely spaced at the border of the progressive
and near zones. This indicates a more rapidly changing cylinder power. B, This 3-dimensional rendition of the same lens
shows increasing cylinder as seen by increasing elevation. The
lens is a 50 mm round lens.
(Illustrations courtesy of Darryl Meister, Carl Zeiss
Vision.)
5
2
B
Figure 20-21. A, Here is an example of a very wearable soft
progressive lens design. The near zone appears narrow, but the
intervals of astigmatic increase are farther apart, indicating
a more gradual increase in cylinder power. B, This 3dimensional perspective of the same lens shows how a softer
design usually results in a smaller dioptric maximum amount
of cylinder power spread over a wider area of the lens.
(Illustrations courtesy of Darryl Meister, Carl Zeiss
Vision.)
CHAPTER 20
BOX 20-2
Differences Between Hard and Soft Progressive
Add Lens Designs
Hard Designs
Soft Designs
Wider areas of stable

optics in both distance
and near
Narrower intermediate
Longer adaptation
Some apparent curving
of straight lines
Highest dioptric value of
peripheral distortion
larger than soft
designs
Longer distance down to

the near viewing area
Wider intermediate
Shorter adaptation
Less apparent curving of
straight lines
A soft designs highest
dioptric value of
peripheral distortion
is generally less than
for hard designs
Shorter distance down to

near viewing
dioptric power of the unwanted cylinder will not be as

large.
The disadvantages of soft designs include the possibility of a slight reduction in visual clarity in the upper
peripheral areas of the distance lens, the necessity of
dropping the eyes farther to reach the full add power*
and a smaller near zone. It should be noted, however,
that wearers do not always nd the near zone to be
functionally as small as it may appear on an astigmatic
contour plot. Because the amount of unwanted cylinder
increases so gradually as the eyes leave the near zone
laterally, the wearer may be able to use the outer limits
of the near area anyway, even though these areas contain
a certain amount of unwanted cylinder power. For a
summary comparing hard and soft designs, see Box
20-2.
Monodesigns Lead to Multidesigns

As can be imagined, there are a multitude of ways to
design a progressive addition lens. It is the job of the
designer to try and anticipate the needs of the wearer.
Initially, all progressives had a single design for all
powers. This was later called a monodesign. A monodesign is limited in its effectiveness.
When a person rst enters the age of presbyopia, the
power of the needed near addition is low. This means
that a new presbyope still has a considerable amount of
accommodation left. For example, an individual with a
+1.00 D add power really does not need a special correction for intermediate distances. If presbyopes with a
*To counter this problem, the designer may increase power progression so that most of the add power is reached earlier. For example,
a Varilux Comfort lens reaches 85% of add power 12 mm below the
tting cross.
473
+1.00 D add needed a special correction for intermediate

viewing, there would be people wearing trifocals with a
+1.00 D add. Yet trifocals are not made for add powers
below +1.50 D.
With this in mind, designers began to ask whether or
not consideration should be given to using more than
one design for the same progressive lens, depending on
the power of the near addition for that lens.
If changing add power is a major factor that alters the
design needs for a progressive add lens, it would be
logical to design a different lens for each add power. This
is the basis for the multidesign lens, which varies to allow
for changing needs with changing add powers.
Progressives Should Be Uniquely Right

and Left Specic
From a historical perspective, when progressives were
rst emerging, it was not unusual for both left and right
lens blanks to be identical. There was no difference
between a right and left lens blank. Since the eyes turn
inward for reading, the progressive corridor must tilt
inward. Each lens was rotated so that the channels tilted
nasalward.
This was not the best design, because when the lenses
are rotated, prismatic effects are different for left and
right eyes in certain directions of gaze. If both eyes
looked into the lower right areas of their respective
lenses, those two locations were not the same in power
and prismatic effect.
Right- and left-specic lenses should be designed to
work as a pair so that peripheral power, cylinder, and
vertical prism are matched for binocular viewing.
NEW MANUFACTURING METHODS

ALLOW NEW LENS DESIGNS
Recently there have been some major changes in the way
lenses can be manufactured. These changes employ a
method of generating the lens surface that differs from
what is normally done. It is now possible to individually
shape a lens surface to a unique form with a varying
surface curvature and then polish that surface to optical
quality. This type of manufacturing has commonly been
referred to as free-form generating, although Shamir has
trademarked that term, and a general term to replace it
has not yet emerged.
Here are some examples of what these changes in
manufacturing mean in terms of possibilities for progressive lenses. Some possibilities may be used by one
design, some by another. Not all will be used for the
same lens.
The back surface of the progressive can be made as
an aspheric or an atoric surface. Atoric curves can
reduce the peripheral aberration called oblique
astigmatism. (See Chapter 18.) This is especially
important for progressive addition lens wearers with
cylinder. When uncorrected oblique astigmatism is
474
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
present, it combines with the peripheral distortion

inherent in progressive addition lenses and can
further degrade peripheral vision. An atoric design
can improve peripheral vision.
Progressive lenses are normally made as semi nished
lenses with certain xed base curves. These
semi nished lenses are then surfaced in the
laboratory. With free-form generating, the front
surface can be custom surfaced to any base curve
and the progressive optics included during surfacing.
Then the back surface is generated at the completion
of the front surface. This way the base curve can be
more closely matched to the power of the lens.
If a frame is t with a specic vertex distance, the
prescribed power of the lens can be altered for the
vertex distance of the frame. These power changes
are not limited to quarter diopter increments. The
smoothing ( ning) and polishing process no longer
uses power-specic tools to bring the surface to
optical quality.
When a lens is tilted, there is a change in the sphere
power, and a cylinder is induced whose axis is in the
meridian of rotation. (See Chapter 18.) This power
change can be compensated for on an individual
basis, whether the tilt is pantoscopic tilt or face
form. Again the compensation may be done more
exactly because it is not limited to quarter diopter
increments.
With this type of generating, it is possible to make a
progressive lens to order with the progressive power
on the front of the lens, the back of the lens, or on
both the front and the back of the lens. (The
Denity lens is made this way with the progressive
add split between the front and back surfaces.)
This type of generating allows for the progressive
portion of the lens to be made at different widths,
depending upon the needs of the wearer.
The progressive zone of a lens can be shortened or
lengthened to custom t the vertical depth of the
frame and the vertical height of the wearers eyes.
DESIGNS USING ASPHERIC/ATORIC

SURFACING METHODS
Lens quality is limited by how well lens aberrations can
be corrected. In Chapter 18, the basics of spectacle lens
design were explained. One of the limiting factors has
been the ability to correct oblique astigmatism for lenses
with cylinder power. Oblique astigmatism could be corrected for spherical lenses by using a specic base curve
or by using an aspheric surface. But if the lens had two
different powers, as it does when prescribed cylinder
power is present, then oblique astigmatism could only
be corrected for both meridians at once if an atoric lens
design was used. Atorics are easier to make for single
vision lenses because they can be molded at the factory.
But atorics could not be made for a segmented multifocal
or progressive lens because these lenses were surfaced

for the correct power in the optical laboratory. The laboratory could only surface a spherical or a toric surface,
not an atoric surface.
It is now possible to custom grind and polish an
aspheric or atoric surface (although the equipment
required is quite expensive). This makes it possible to
correct more of the oblique astigmatism present in any
spectacle lens, not just progressive lenses.
Progressive lenses have unwanted cylinder in the
periphery of the lens simply because they are progressives. Oblique astigmatism caused by lens aberrations
will combine with this cylinder and degrade peripheral
vision even more. If this oblique astigmatism can be
reduced, peripheral vision will improve.
One of the rst types of progressives to include
aspheric/atoric surfacing methods was the so-called
position-of-wear or as-worn progressive lens design.
POSITION-OF-WEAR OR AS-WORN LENS

DESIGNS
A major change in progressive lenses that took place
because of free-form generating resulted in lenses sometimes referred to as position-of-wear or as-worn designs.
A primary example of this is the Rodenstock Multigressiv
2 lens. This lens includes all the following factors in the
design of the lens on an individual basis:
Pantoscopic tilt
Vertex distance
An aspheric or atoric surface to optimize correction
of lens aberrations
The practitioner species the sphere, cylinder and
axis measures, along with vertex distance and pantoscopic tilt. When the prescription is received, an
optimum base curve is chosen for the front surface of
the lenses, and the prescription is modied to allow for
tilt and vertex distance (Figures 20-22 and 20-23.) Then
the amount of asphericity needed in each major meridian
back surface is calculated. When the lenses are returned,
the accompanying order information will include the
sphere, cylinder, axis, and add power as originally
ordered. It will also include new sphere, cylinder, axis,
and add powers based on the calculated changes. For
example, a lens may be ordered with powers of
4.00 0.25 45
+2.00 add
The order may be returned with powers listed as
3.96 0.27 36
+1.82 add
The second set of powers is what the lens actually will
be. This second set of numbers is used for verication
purposes.
CHAPTER 20
Figure 20-22. When a lens is made from semi nished blanks

that come in certain nite intervals, the optical quality varies,
depending upon how close that base curve comes to the ideal.
However, even the ideal base curve does not deliver ideal
optics when the lens has a high amount of cylinder. This gure
shows conceptually how an ideal base curve, made with spherically curved surfaces, cannot be ideal for two different powers
at the same time. It is not meant to show actual measures of
vision or visual acuity.
(From Baumbach P: Rodenstock Multigressiva technical
prospective, Rodenstock, RM98052, p. 3, Figure 4.)
475
Figure 20-23. This gure shows conceptually what can

happen to optical quality when optics can be corrected for base
curve in both meridians of a lens surface at once when a prescription has cylinder power. This is done using an atoric
surface custom cut for the prescription. The illustration is not
meant to show any actual measures of vision or visual acuity.
(From Baumbach P: Rodenstock Multigressiva technical
prospective, Rodenstock, RM98052, p. 7, Figure 15.)
same basic design as the Varilux Physio, but also uses

generating procedures necessary to make the lens atoric,
optimizing optics for all meridians of the lens.
Even if vertex distance and pantoscopic tilt were not
specied for these types of lenses, the lenses still have
great advantages because base curves can be optimized
by varying the amount of asphericity on the surface of
the lens.
ATORIC PROGRESSIVES
A progressive lens does not have to be a position-of-wear
lens to incorporate atoric optics into the lens. Lenses
dispensed in the United States are less likely to be measured for vertex distance and pantoscopic tilt. However,
using atoric optics can be a large advantage, particularly
for lenses with prescribed cylinder. Each lens may still
be more exactly corrected for aberrations and individualized for prescription powers. However, the lenses
must be custom surfaced using free-form generating
techniques. At the time of this writing, such lenses are,
with limited exceptions, only available through major
manufacturers.
Examples of these lenses are Shamir Autograph, Zeiss
Gradal Individual and Zeiss Short i,* and the Varilux
Physio 360.
The Varilux Physio is a lens that is designed using
wave front technology, but is surfaced in the traditional
manner. It is not atoric. The Varilux Physio 360 uses the
PERSONALIZED PROGRESSIVES
Because of the ability to generate any surface on demand,
the next logical step in progressives is to produce a lens
with the progressive optics tailored to the distinct, individual needs and habits of the wearer. The Varilux Ipseo
lens takes a major step into this area. The Ipseo lens is
designed to match the unique head and eye movement
habits of the wearer. Some individuals turn their eyes
much more than they turn their head to see an object.
Others are head turners, moving their head more than
others do. The Varilux Ipseo uses an instrument called
the VisionPrint System to measure head and eye movement (Figure 20-24). The lens is designed so that the
near-viewing area will better match the personal viewing
habits of the wearer.
In addition, the Ipseo lens design program takes the
prescription and frame characteristics into consideration. When the lens returns from the laboratory the
ordered prescription powers will have been altered
because of surface asphericity and should be veried
using the modied parameters. For example, a lens of
power
+2.25 1.25 27, add +2.25
may need to be veried as
*The Zeiss Short i is designed for frames with a small vertical

dimension.
+2.21 1.22 25, add +2.07
476
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 20-24. The VisionPrint System is used to measure

head and eye movements. Results determine how the Varilux
Ipseo personalized progressive lens will be custom designed
for the head and eye movement requirements of the wearer.
It would be expected that other lens manufacturers

may develop lenses that have alternate designs based on
other personal characteristics, visual habits, and occupational needs of the wearer.
SECTION 3
Specialty Progressives
For years bifocal and trifocal lenses were worn by the
majority of presbyopic spectacle lens wearers. Yet they
were not able to satisfy all the visual needs for every
wearing situation. As a result, a number of segmented
specialty lenses developed.
Even though progressive lenses are clearly overtaking
segmented multifocals, it is also unrealistic to think that
general purpose progressives are able to ful ll everyones
specialized needs any more than segmented lenses could.
If a progressive lens is truly for specialized tasks and will
not be used for full-time wear, the lens may be called an
occupational progressive lens and may be abbreviated OPL.
Progressive addition lenses as a general category are
often abbreviated as PALs.
SHORT CORRIDOR PROGRESSIVE LENSES

The short corridor category of specialty progressives is
really a subcategory of general purpose progressives.
The thing that makes this lens unique is that it is designed
to allow a progressive addition lens to be worn in a frame
with a small vertical dimension. Regular progressive lens

corridors are too long. Too much of the near portion of
a regular progressive lens is cut off when the lens is
edged for frames with narrow B dimensions.
The short corridor progressive has a faster transition
between the distance and near portions of the lens. This
means that the wearer is quickly into the near portion
when looking downward. Because the transition is short,
near vision is suitable. Yet it is only logical that there will
be some sacrice of the otherwise larger intermediate
portion.
When choosing a short corridor progressive, be
certain that the minimum tting height is suitable for
the frame. Even short corridor progressives can come
up short on near viewing if the frame is exceedingly
narrow.
Some examples of short corridor progressives are
shown in Box 20-3.
Short corridor progressives are tted in the same
manner as regular progressive lenses. Monocular PDs
are needed, and the tting cross is placed in the center
of the pupil.
NEAR VARIABLE FOCUS LENSES

Near variable focus lenses started out as a replacement for
single vision reading glasses. This lens also goes by other
names, including, small room environment progressives,
reader replacements, or simply OPLs. Over time the lens
has become the lens of choice for someone working in a
small ofce where intermediate and near vision are the
primary viewing needs.
To get an idea of how the lenses are constructed, take
the example of a prescription that has no power in the
distance and a +2.00 D add. The normal progressive
addition lens would have powers as shown in Figure 2025 with no power in the upper (distance) portion. Power
gradually increases until it reaches the prescribed +2.00
D add power in the lower near portion.
BOX 20-3
Examples of Short Corridor Progressive Lenses*
Minimum Fitting Height
Hoya Summit CD
(Compressed Design)
Varilux Ellipse
Shamir Piccolo
Rodenstock Progressiv Life XS
Zeisss Gradal Brevity
Kodak Concise
14 mm
14 mm minimum to
18 mm maximum
16 mm
16 mm
16 mm
17 mm
*These are only a small number of the short corridor progressive

addition lenses available. It is not meant to be an inclusive list. Nor
will it necessarily be a current list. Short corridor lens designs, like
other progressives, will continue to change.
CHAPTER 20
477
+0.00 D
Figure 20-25. This is a simplied drawing of the

structure of a progressive addition lens with a
plano distance prescription and a +2.00 D add.
The power range of this lens is a full two
diopters.
Progressive corridor
(2.00 D change)
+2.00 D
Standard progressive
+1.00
Figure 20-26. When a prescription with plano

distance power and a +2.00 D add is placed in
near a variable focus lens having a 1.00 D power
range, the power difference between upper and
lower portions is less. The progressive zone is
also lengthened. This makes the progressive
zone wider and reduces the intensity of peripheral distortion. This simplied drawing of the
lens structure, based on the same prescription,
can be compared with the standard progressive
in Figure 20-25.
Progressive corridor
(1.00 D change)
+2.00
Intermediate/Near specialty progressive
This is usually not the case with most near variable

focus lenses. The farthest distance that people who work
in small ofce environments need to see clearly might
be the distance of someone sitting across the desk from
them. They also need a clear view of a computer monitor
placed at an intermediate viewing distance and at the
normal 40-cm near-working distance for reading. With
this in mind, our example lens could be designed with a
moderate amount of plus power in the distance.
If we use +1.00 D of power in the upper portion of
the lens, we can gradually increase plus power until a
total of +2.00 D is achieved for near. This would appear

as shown in Figure 20-26. Note that the progressive zone
for this type of lens is longer and wider than the normal
progressive corridor found in a general wear progressive
lens. This works well, and for this type of working environment, these OPLs give excellent intermediate and
near vision with less peripheral distortion. Here is why:
A longer progressive zone will result in less
peripheral distortion.
In a near variable focus lens, the difference between
the powers in the upper and lower halves of the lens
478
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
are usually smaller. In the example, instead of having

a difference of +2.00 D, this lens has a difference of
only +1.00 D. In reality this is a +1.00 D add instead
of a +2.00 D add. The smaller the add power, the
smaller will the unwanted cylinder be.
When wearing a near variable focus lens, more
visual work will be done with midlevel and
downward viewing than with a standard progressive
where clear distance vision is important. The
designer has the option of moving a larger
proportion of the peripheral distortion inherent in
progressive lenses into the upper periphery of the
lens.7 Increasing the area of distortion decreases its
intensity.
or
0.00
+2.25
= +2.25
Since the lens has a power range, or degression of 1.00 D,
the upper area of the lens will have 1.00 D less plus power
than the lower area of the lens. So the upper area of the
lens has a power of
( total near power )

(degression)
= (upper power of the lens)
or
Power Ranges
With regular progressives we think of beginning with
the distance power in the upper portion and increasing
plus power as we go downward. With near variable focus
lenses, we begin with the near power. The reference
power is the near power instead of the distance power.
We start with the near power in the lower portion and
decrease plus power moving up to the distance portion.
This is no longer an addition, but a decrease in power.
This decrease in power is called a degression.7 Manufacturers often call this the power range of the lens.
This means that near variable focus lenses do not
come in regular add powers like general purpose progressives. They instead come with one or more power
ranges. Again the power range is the difference in power
between the lower and upper areas of the near variable
focus lens.
+2.25
1.00
= +1.25
In a lensmeter, the upper portion of the lens reads +1.25
D, and the near portion reads +2.25 D.
For the left lens, the total near power is
(distance power )
+ (add power )
= ( total near power )
or
+0.25 0.50 180
+2.25
= +2.50 0.50 180
So the upper area of the lens has a power of
Example 20-2
Suppose a variable focus lens made by a certain manufacturer comes in only one power range and that power range
is 1.00 D. This means that there will always be 1.00 D difference (degression) between the lower and upper portions
of the lens. If a person has a prescription of
R: plano
L: +0.25 0.50 180
Add: +2.25
what powers would be found in the lower and upper areas
of the lenses when using this manufacturers near variable
focus lenses?
+2.50 0.50 180

1.00
= +1.50 0.50 180
Near Variable Focus Lenses Differ

Near variable focus lenses are made by a number of different manufacturers. They are not all the same. Each
has its own characteristic power ranges and should not
be expected to perform in the same way. Table 20-2
shows some examples for several variable focus lenses.
Example 20-3
Solution
When trying to anticipate the powers in a variable focus lens,
begin with the total near power. Total near power is the sum
of the distance power and the near add.
For the right lens this power is
(distance power )
+ (add power )
= ( total near power )
A wearer has a normally written prescription for distance and

near of
+0.75 0.75 175
+0.75 0.75 005
Add +2.50
However, the wearer works in a small ofce environment and
uses a computer a fair amount of the time. If a near variable
CHAPTER 20
479
TABLE 20-2
Examples of Near Variable Focus Lenses*

Near Variable
Focus Lens Type
Power Ranges (Degressions)
Manufacturers Range Recommendations
Essilor Interview
Sola Continuum
Sola Access
0.80 D
1.00 D
0.75 D and 1.25 D
Zeiss Business
1.00 D and 1.50 D
Rodenstock
Cosmolit Ofce
Zeiss Gradal RD
(Room Distance)
1.00 D and 1.75 D
All add powers

All add powers
0.75 D range for adds of +1.50 and below.
1.25 D range for adds of +1.75 and above.
1.00 D range for adds of +1.75 D and above. (This lens is
said to be suitable for use in half-eye frames as well.)
1.50 D range for adds of +2.00 and above.
1.00 D range for adds from +1.00 up to and including +1.75
1.75 D range for add powers of +2.00 and above.
Each add has a lens with a power range of 0.50 D less than
the add. For example, a +2.00 D add uses a lens with a
+1.50 D power range.
Power ranges are always 0.50 D

less than the wearers regular
add power
*These are examples of some lenses available at the time of this writing. They are intended as examples only. New lens designs will continue
to appear and availability will change rapidly.
focus lens with a power range (degression) of 1.50 D is

chosen, what powers will be found in the lower portion and
upper portion of the right lens?
Solution
With a near variable focus lens, it is easiest to begin with
the near power rst, then nd the power in the top part of
the lens. The near power will be found by adding the near
addition to the prescribed distance power.
+0.75 0.75 175
+2.50
= +3.25 0.75 175
A lens with a degression of 1.50 D shows a plus power
decrease from the near power by the amount of the degression. The power in the upper portion of the lens is found by
subtracting 1.50 D of power from the near power.
( total near power )

(degression)
= (upper power of the lens)
Power Changes in the Vertical Meridian

As may be seen from Table 20-2, power degressions
among lenses will vary considerably. The greater the
power degression, the more the contour plot of the lens
will resemble that of a general purpose progressive.
Figure 20-27 shows a simplied representation of a lens
with a small degression compared with a lens with a
larger degression. Higher degressions result in narrower
progressive zones and greater amounts of unwanted
peripheral astigmatism. (Yet even with higher degressions, the OPL zone will be considerably wider than that
of the standard progressive lens because of its increased
length.)
Customizing the Near Variable Focus Lens

to the Needs of the Wearer
When someone has two specic distances at which they
do most of their work, the examiner may decide to prescribe for those distances. In this case the type of lens
should be chosen with a power range appropriate for the
prescription. Here is how it is done.
Example 20-4
Suppose a person has a regular prescription of
or
+3.25 0.75 175
1.50
= +1.75 0.75 175
The power in the upper portion of the lens will be +1.75
0.75 175.
R: +1.25 0.50 090

L: +1.25 0.50 090
+2.25 add
This person does most of her near work at the conventional
40-cm working distance, but uses a computer screen situated at an intermediate distance. The examiner tests for the
best refractive correction for this computer screen distance.
480
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
OPL with a smaller

power range
OPL with a larger

power range
Figure 20-27. When a near variable focus lens has a small degression (power range), the zone
of optimal vision will be larger. Here are two simplied drawings comparing how a lens with
a small degression might compare with another with a larger degression. Which of the two
would be the most appropriate lens will depend upon the intermediate and/or near tasks for
which the lenses are intended.
This distance is found to have an intermediate add power of

+1.25. If a near variable focus lens is to be used:
A. What would the prescription read in the lensmeter
through the upper and lower portions of the appropriate
near variable focus lens? (Assume that the power of
the upper portion and mid portion of the lens will be
the same.)
B. What would the correct power range be?
C. When choosing from the lens types found in
Table 20-2, which lenses would have this power in the
upper portion of the lens?
Solution
A. Through a lensmeter the lower portion of this lens would
have the regular near power of the prescription. This would
be
+1.25 0.50 090
+2.25 add
= +3.50 0.50 090
In the top part of the lens, we want to have the prescribed
intermediate power. This will be the sum of the distance
power plus the intermediate add, which is
+1.25 0.50 090
+1.25 add
= +2.50 0.50 090
B. The power range, or degression, is the power decrease
between lower and upper parts of the lensin other words,
the power difference between intermediate and near powers.
This can be found by taking the difference between +2.50

0.50 090 and +3.50 0.50 090, which is
(+3.50 0.50 090)

( +2.50 0.50 090)
= 1.00
Power range or degression may also be found by taking the
difference between the intermediate and near add powers,
which would be
(+2.25)
( +1.25)
= 1.00
Both methods result in a power range of 1.00 D.
C. In looking through the possibilities in Table 20-2, there
are several possible choices with a 1.00 D power range.
These include the Sola Continuum, Zeiss Business, and
Rodenstock Cosmolit Ofce. It is likely that there are also
other near variable focus lenses with this same power range
that are not specically listed in this example table.
The example just given assumes that the occupational

progressive lens is to be used with maximum viewing
distance being the distance from the eyes to the computer screen. If the viewing distance is to go beyond the
computer viewing distance, then a larger power degression might be chosen.
CHAPTER 20
Fitting the Near Variable Focus Lens

Near variable focus lens tting recommendations vary
widely, depending upon the lens style. For example, the
Access lens only requires a binocular near PD and does
not require any measured tting height. It is t just like
a single vision prescription for reading glasses. The
reason it is possible to use a binocular PD instead of
monocular PDs is because the progressive zone of the
lens is much wider than in a standard progressive lens.
So if the eyes do not track down the exact center of the
zones, there are not the same problems encountered.
In contrast the Rodenstock Ofce lens is t like a
standard progressive lens using monocular distance PDs
and tting cross heights measured to the center of the
pupil. The distance prescription and standard near addition would be specied. If no power range is specically
requested, the laboratory will use the recommended
range for the add power of the prescription.
OCCUPATIONAL PROGRESSIVES THAT

INCLUDE DISTANCE POWERS
There are occupational progressive lenses that are used
for small ofce environments and computer viewing, but
still include a small distance portion located at the very
top of the lens. This requires that the wearer drop the
chin and look through the upper portion to see in the
distance. Yet since the lens is entirely an occupational
lens, this is not necessarily a disadvantage and may
be considered an expected trade-off for intermediate
viewing enhancement.
The intermediate area of the lens is positioned in
front of the eye, as if looking through a trifocal segment
straight ahead (Figure 20-28). Because the progressive
zone is longer, going almost from the top to the bottom
of the edged spectacle lens, the intermediate and near
zones will still be considerably wider than standard progressives, though not as wide as near variable focus lenses
with smaller degressions.
Distance
Intermediate
Near
Figure 20-28. The Technica lens shows a large functional

intermediate zone area with a small distance area in the upper
portion of the lens.
481
These lenses are t like regular progressives, but

require enough vertical depth to the frame to keep from
cutting off the needed top and bottom areas of the lens.
They are certainly not feasible for frames with narrow
B dimensions.
Two examples of these lenses are the AO Technica
and the Hoya Tact. Neither of these lenses should be
used as a replacement for regular, full-time-wear progressive addition lenses.
SECTION 4
Prism and Progressive Lenses
PRISM THINNING
One slight drawback to progressive addition lenses in
certain power ranges is thickness. Increased thickness is
especially evident when the distance powers are either
plus or low minus. Progressive lenses in plus or low
minus power ranges will be thicker than a at-top multifocal lens of equal power. This increased thickness is a
result of the steepening front curve in the lower half of
the lens. (This same problem also occurs in Executive
multifocals and can be solved in the same way.) As the
lower progressive portion of the lens increases in plus
power, the surface curvature steepens. This thins the
bottom edge. To keep the lower lens edge from becoming too thin, the whole lens must be thickened.
To overcome the problem, the lower edge must
somehow be thickened without thickening the upper
edge. This can be done by adding base-down prism to
the whole lens. When this is done properly, overall lens
thickness will actually decrease. The technique, known
as yoked base-down prism, is illustrated in Figure 20-29.
Naturally, both right and left lenses must receive the
same amount of base-down prism, otherwise the wearer
will experience double vision as a result of unwanted
vertical prism differences.
The exact amount of prism needed to thin the lens
effectively varies according to the strength of the addition, the size and shape of the lens after edging, and the
design of the lens. As a rule of thumb, Varilux suggests
adding prism power amounting to approximately two
thirds of the power of the add. (The use of yoked basedown prism for Varilux lenses has been referred to by
the name Equithin.)
Most wholesale optical laboratories now use prism
thinning routinely without consulting the account.
Prism thinning has a very positive effect on reducing
lens thickness and weight for lenses in the appropriate power range and should be used.* According to a
study by Sheedy and Parsons,9 small amounts of yoked
*Darryl Meister points out that in some cases high minus lenses
may be prism thinned using base-up prism. This would occur if the
tting cross of a minus lens were located high enough in the lens
to result in a thicker bottom edge.8
482
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 20-29. This gure shows the use of base-down prism to thin a progressive addition
lens. A, The progressive addition lens as ground without prism thinning. The dotted lines
indicate how the lens would be curved if it were a single vision lens instead of a progressive
lens. B, Adding base-down prism thickens the bottom of the lens only. C, The line between
prism and original lens has been removed. It is now possible to see how this lens with newly
added base-down prism could be further thinned because both top and bottom are thick.
D, The hatched area shows how much lens thickness may be removed now that both edges
are equally thick. E, Excess lens thickness has been removed and progressive lens prism thinning achieved.
base-down prism are not disturbing to the wearer.

Those tested could not differentiate between the absence
of prism and 2 base down in both eyes. However,
when prism was increased to 4 base down, there were
signicant postural changes by the wearer.
Prism Thinning Causes Prism at the PRP

It should be mentioned that base-down prism used to
thin the lens will show up at the PRP of the lens. This
is particularly important to note when only one lens is
to be replaced since both right and left lenses must have
the same amount of vertical prism. Thus vertical prism
found at the PRP of the lens is acceptable when both left
and right lenses have the same amount of vertical
prism.
THE EFFECT OF PRESCRIBED PRISM

ON PROGRESSIVE LENS FITTING
Success in tting progressive addition lenses depends on
accurate horizontal placement of the monocular PDs. If
monocular PDs are incorrect, the eyes do not track down
the progressive corridor. This reduces intermediate
vision. Incorrect PDs also displace the reading zone,
reducing its usable size.
Success in tting progressive addition lenses is also
inuenced by the accuracy of tting cross heights. An
inaccurate tting cross height will cause one eye to track
down the corridor ahead of the other. This means that
the add power is not increasing equally for the two eyes.
The eye farther down one corridor is looking through
more plus power than the partner eye following a few
steps behind. An inaccurate tting cross height also
causes the eye to track down the progressive corridor
off-center, narrowing the effective width of the intermediate viewing.10
When prism is placed before the eye, it causes the
image of an object to be displaced in the direction of the
prism apex. The eye must turn toward the apex to view
the displaced image. For example, if base-down prism is
placed before one eye, that eye turns upward toward the
apex to xate the displaced image. (This concept was
explained in Chapter 5 and is shown in Figure 5-29.)
Vertical Rx Prism Changes Fitting Cross

(and Bifocal) Heights*
When vertical prism is present in a prescription, it causes
one of the wearers eyes to turn slightly up or down. But
when tting cross height measurements are taken, the
prism is not present. When the wearer is able to keep
the eyes working together without the prism the eyes
are looking straight ahead. One eye will not likely be
turned upward or downward in relationship to the other.
*Much of the information presented in this section is taken from
Brooks CW, Riley HD: Effect of prescribed prism on monocular
interpupillary distances and tting heights for progressive add
lenses, Optom Vis Sci 71:401407, 1994.
CHAPTER 20
However, once the prescription lenses are in the frame,

the eye must turn in the direction of the apex of its prescribed prism. The amount of displacement in the spectacle plane will be 0.3 mm for every 1 of prescribed
prism.
When vertical prism is present, the tting cross
should be raised 0.3 mm for every diopter of base-down
prism or lowered 0.3 mm for every diopter of base-up
prism.
If the entire amount of vertical prism is prescribed
before one eye, the vertical displacement of the tting
cross should be carried out on one lens. But if the vertical
prism is split, the displacement of the tting crosses
should also be split in the same proportion.
To be certain of vertical tting cross positioning with
perscription prism, cover the wearers left eye when measuring the tting cross for the right eye. Then when
measuring tting cross height for the left eye, cover the
wearers right eye.
483
Horizontal Rx Prism Changes PD

Measurements
When horizontal prism is prescribed, failure to horizontally compensate the MRP placement will cause the eyes
to track along the inside or outside edge of the progressive
corridor. This greatly reduces the usefulness of the intermediate zone and narrows the eld of view for near work.
Example 20-6
Suppose a prescription reads as follows:
R: 2.25 0.50 180
L: 2.25 0.50 180
5 base in
5 base in
Using a pupillometer, the monocular PDs are measured as

follows:
R: 29.5 mm
L: 30.0 mm
What monocular PDs should be ordered to compensate for
the prescribed horizontal prism?
Example 20-5
R: +2.75 1.00 180
L: +2.75 1.00 180
3 base up
3 base down
The frame of choice is adjusted to t as it should when being

worn. Next tting cross heights are marked on the glazed
lenses to correspond to pupil center location. Heights are
measured to be as follows:
R: 27 mm
L: 27 mm
Solution
Noting horizontal prism, the amount of pupil displacement
is calculated as follows:
5 0.3 = 1.5 mm.
Base-in prism will cause the eye to move outward by an
amount equal to 0.3 mm for every diopter of horizontal
prism. In this case 5 of base-in prism will cause each pupil
to be displaced outward by 1.5 mm. The resulting monocular
PDs are modied to
R: 31.0 mm
L: 31.5 mm
What tting cross heights should be ordered?

Solution
Vertical prism for the right lens is noted. The amount of vertical compensation is calculated as follows:
Vertical prism amount x 0.3 =
change in tting cross height in millimeters.
Or in this case
3 0.3 = 0.9 mm.
This is rounded off to 1 mm. Because prescribed prism
causes the pupil of the right eye to be displaced 1 mm
downward, the tting cross must be moved 1 mm downward
as well.
The left lens has an equal but opposite amount of vertical
prism. Therefore the prism in the left lens necessitates
moving the left tting cross 1 mm upward. The end result is
that the two tting cross heights are modied and should
be ordered as
R: 26 mm
L: 28 mm
When Might the Amount of

Horizontal Prism Be Modied?
When prism is prescribed in conventional, nonprogressive, multifocal lenses, the PD is not modied to allow
for a change in pupil location. This is quite acceptable
because the widths of nonprogressive multifocals are
so wide in comparison with the corridors of progressive addition lenses that there is little need for
modication.
When a prescriber tests for prism, the measuring
prism on the phoropter is in front of the spherocylinder
lens combination. As the measuring prism is increased
in power, the eye responds by turning, leaving its location behind the OC of the refractive lenses. When the
eye moves away from the OC of the lens combination, a
second prismatic effect, caused by lens decentration, is
induced (Figure 20-30). Practically speaking this second
prismatic effect is of no consequence since the measuring prism is taking it into account. But what happens if
the refractive MRP location is altered during tting?
When the tting cross is changed to correspond to the
prismatically altered eye position, the decentration prism
484
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Object
Image Object
Figure 20-30. A measuring prism

in front of the refractive lens will
cause the eye to turn outward. As
it turns, it leaves its previous location directly behind the optical
center of the lens.
(From Brooks CW, Riley HD:
Effect of prescribed prism on monocular interpupillary distances and
tting heights for progressive add
lenses, Optom Vis Sci 71:403, 1994.
Figure 4.)
6 BI
3.50 D
0.7BO
that was present during refraction disappears. Without

decentration prism, the net prismatic effect that was
present during refraction has changed. When prescription sphere and cylinder powers are small, this is of
minimal consequence. As the refractive power increases,
however, the prismatic amount becomes more evident.
Using Prentices rule, we see that prism caused by the eye

being decentered in relation to the lens is
= cF
= 0.2 3.5
= 0.7
Since the lens is minus, prism caused by the eye moving in
relationship to the refractive lens is base out. Therefore the
net prismatic effect for the eye is
Example 20-7
Suppose a person is wearing or needs a prescription as
follows:
R: 3.50 sphere
L: 3.50 sphere with 6 base-in prism
+2.25 add
(Although it may not be advisable to place all prism in front
of one eye, we will use this example for simplicity.)
Before refraction the monocular PDs are measured using
a pupillometer. There are no refractive lenses in place. The
PD measures as follows (Figure 20-31):
R monocular PD = 31 mm
L monocular PD = 31 mm
How should the monocular PDs and prescribed prism
amounts be modied to allow the eyes to accurately track
down the progressive corridor and still maintain the same
net prismatic corrective effect?
Solution
Placing 6 of base-in prism before the left eye will cause
the eye to deviate outward by
6 0.3 mm = 1.8 mm,
which will be rounded off to 2 mm.
During phoria testing, the eye was looking 2 mm temporally through the 3.50 D refracting lens (see Figure 20-30).
(Prescribed ) + (Decentration ) = (Total ).

Or in this case
6 base in + 0.7 base out = 5.3 base in.
To position the progressive zone in front of the eye, the MRP
must be moved 2 mm outward. (When the position of the
MRP moves, so does the tting cross location. The tting
cross is directly above the MRP.) When the MRP moves
outward, the nished spectacle lens prescription will no
longer duplicate the refractive situation. This is because the
0.7 of decentration prism caused by the 3.50 D lens no
longer exists (Figure 20-32). To maintain the same total
prismatic effect, the prescribed prism must be reduced from
6 base in to 5.3 base in.
The PDs are ordered as follows:
R monocular PD = 31 mm
L monocular PD = 33 mm
It is helpful to note that when the MRP is moved in

the direction of eye deviation, there will always be a
reduction of prescribed prism for minus lenses and an
increase in the amount of prescribed prism for plus
lenses. In other words:
For minus lens: reduce the Rx prism by an amount
equal to the calculated decentration prism.
CHAPTER 20
485
Pupillometer
Figure 20-31. A pupillometer normally measures the

interpupillary distance with no lens correction in place
and with the eyes in a straight-ahead position.
(From Brooks CW, Riley HD: Effect of prescribed
prism on monocular interpupillary distances and
tting heights for progressive add lenses, Optom Vis
Sci 71:403, 1994. Figure 5.)
Image Object
31 mm
31 mm
Spectacle
plane
Object
5.3 BI
0.0
Figure 20-32. If the monocular interpupillary distance were to be altered to compensate for
prismatically induced eye movement and correct progressive corridor placement, the net
effect would be to change the amount of prism in the prescription. The decentration prism
resulting from eye movement caused by the measuring prism will no longer be present.
(From Brooks CW, Riley HD: Effect of prescribed prism on monocular interpupillary distances and tting heights for progressive add lenses, Optom Vis Sci 71:403, 1994. Figure 6.)
For plus lenses: increase the Rx prism by an amount

equal to the calculated decentration prism.
When lling an existing prescription, it should be
noted that a modication to the Rx prism amount
that is done to maintain the prescribed optical effect is
no different than changing sphere and cylinder power

in response to a change in lens vertex distance (see
Chapter 14). Changing the amount of Rx prism to
compensate for decentration prism does not change the
prescription.
486
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
BOX 20-4
Compensating Fitting Cross Height or Monocular
PDs for Prescribed Prism
A. How to Compensate Fitting Cross Height for Prescribed Vertical Prism
1. Measure the tting cross heights.
2. Multiply the amount(s) of prescribed vertical
prism by 0.3.
3. If the prism is base down, raise the tting cross
height by the calculated amount. If the prism is
base up, lower the tting cross height by the
calculated amount.
B. How to Compensate Monocular PDs for Prescribed
Horizontal Prism
1. Measure monocular PDs using a pupillometer.
2. Multiply the amount(s) of prescribed horizontal
prism by 0.3.
3. Modify the monocular PD(s) by the calculated
amount, increasing the PD for base in prism and
decreasing the PD for base out prism.
BOX 20-5
Compensation Used if Modifying the Monocular
Interpupillary Distances Produces Clinically
Signicant Changes in Rx Prism
It is suggested that compensation be considered clinically signicant if moving the MRP will cause a change
in prismatic effect of 0.50 or more. A change of at least
0.50 will occur if the prescribed prism totals 6.00 and
refractive power in the meridian of movement is 2.50 D
or greater.
1. When horizontal prism is present, nd the power of
the lens in the horizontal meridian. When vertical
prism is present, nd the power of the lens in the
vertical meridian.
2. Multiply the power in the meridian of eye movement
by the change in monocular PD or change in tting
cross height. That is,
= cF
where = change in prescribed prism power, c =
change in PRP (prism reference point) location in cm,
and F = power in the meridian of PRP movement.
3. For minus lenses, subtract this amount from the
prescribed prism. For plus lenses, add this amount
to the prescribed prism.
SUMMARY
Prescribed vertical prism in progressive add lenses
requires that the tting cross be moved up or down by
an amount equal to 0.3 times the prism amount. The
direction of movement is opposite from the base direction of the prism.
Prescribed horizontal prism in progressive add lenses
requires that the monocular PDs be increased or
decreased by an amount equal to 0.3 times the prism
amount. The direction of eye and MRP movement is
opposite to the base direction of the prescribed prism.
Steps to take when modifying tting cross height are
found in Box 20-4, A. Steps to take when modifying
monocular PD amounts are summarized in Box 20-4,
B.
Changing the prism amounts should only be done if
there would be clinically signicant changes to the prescribed prism. This does not happen unless the prescribed prism is greater than or equal to 6.00 and the
refractive power in the prism meridian is greater than
plus or minus 2.50 D. If this is the case, then prescribed
prism may be altered according to the summary found
in Box 20-5.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Smith JB: Progressive addition lenses in the treatment of

accommodative esotropia, Am J Ophthal 99:1, 1985.
Kowalski PM, Wang Y, Owens RE et al: Adaptability of
myopic children to progressive addition lenses with a modied tting protocol in the correction of myopia evaluation
trial (COMET), Optom Vis Sci 82(4):328337, 2005.
Red dot procedure for marking progressive lenses, Southbridge, Mass, undated, American Optical Corp.
Musick J: A better way to t progressive lenses, Rev Optom
128:66, 1991.
Maitenez B: Four steps that led to Varilux, Am J Optom
Arch Am Acad Optom 43:441, 1966.
Sheedy JE: Correlation analysis of the optics of progressive addition lenses, Optom Vis Sci 81(5):356,358, 2004.
Sheedy JE: The optics of occupational progressive lenses,
Optom 76(8):432, 2005.
Meister D: Understanding prism-thinning, lens talk, vol
26, no. 35, October, 1998.
Sheedy JE, Parsons SD: Vertical yoked prismpatient
acceptance and postural adjustment, Ophthal Physiol
Optics 7:255, 1987.
Young J: Progressive problems, 20/20, March 2000.
CHAPTER 20
487
Prociency Test
1. Which factor is normally not considered essential
in tting the progressive add lens?
a. a good pantoscopic angle
b. short vertex distance
c. a sufcient vertical frame dimension
d. good monocular lens centration
e. specifying the nasal rotation of the progressive
channel
2. The tting cross for a general purpose progressive
addition lens would be tted higher than specied
by the lens manufacturer in which of the following
cases?
a. for short individuals
b. for tall individuals
c. if the progressive lens is used to inhibit
accommodative esotropia in children
d. where prism imbalance may exist away from the
OC
e. where one eye is higher than the other
3. When children are t with progressive addition
lenses, yet still have the ability to accommodate
just as other children do, the tting cross is usually
t:
a. at the lower lid.
b. in the center of the pupil.
c. 2 mm below pupil center.
d. 2 mm above pupil center.
e. 4 mm above pupil center.
4. True or false? Children tted with progressive
addition lenses should not wear those lenses for
sports or play.
5. True or false? Progressive lens tting crosses
should be set lower for the rst-time wearer to aid
in adapting to the lenses.
6. True or false? Prism is veried at a different
location on the progressive add lens from where
the distance Rx is veried.
7. True or false? The tting cross is at the major
reference point.
8. A synonym for major reference point is:
a. tting cross.
b. distance reference point.
c. prism reference point.
d. near reference point.
e. None of these is a synonym for the major
reference point.
9. True or false? If a progressive lens design changes

as add power changes, the lens is called a
multidesign lens.
10. True or false? Adaptation to progressive addition
lenses involves changes in the respective eye and
head movements used in xation.
11. Although all of the factors listed below are
important in the tting of progressive addition
lenses, which factor has the most inuence on
wearer satisfaction?
a. tting accuracy
b. brand and style of progressive lens chosen
c. accuracy of verication
d. type of lens material selected
12. True or false? In practice the power of the near
addition is seldom measured when verifying
progressive lenses.
13. Which of the following is not a suggested method
for viewing the hidden markings on a progressive
addition lens?
a. Hold the lens so that its surface may be viewed
in a mirror by reected light.
b. Backlight the lens and hold it in front of a black
background.
c. Hold the lens up so that it may be viewed with
a uorescent light source behind it.
d. Use an instrument especially designed for the
purpose that both illuminates and magnies the
lens surface.
e. All of the above are recommended methods for
viewing the hidden surface markings on a
progressive addition lens.
14. A frame has been selected for a progressive
addition lens wearer. Some of the parameters of
the frame and frame tting are listed below.
Which are problematic?
a. The laboratory order form species a binocular
distance PD = 65 mm.
b. The frame is an aviator shape.
c. After being adjusted, the pantoscopic tilt of the
frame is 12 degrees.
d. None of the above are problematic.
15. True or false? When a wearer does come back
with a complaint, the most straightforward way to
check for possible problems is to rst put the
progressive markings back on the lenses and see if
they are correct in relation to where they should
be when the prescription is worn.
488
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
16. Unwanted peripheral cylinder power in a

progressive add lens:
a. decreases with increase in add power.
b. increases as the add power increases.
c. is equal to the cyl in the distance Rx.
d. is independent of add power.
17. True or false? Compared with a soft design, a hard
design usually provides a wider area of high visual
acuity in the distance portion of the lens.
18. Progressive power can change from distance to
near zones in either a rapid or slow fashion. If it
changes in a rapid fashion, then which of the
following does NOT occur?
a. The lens has a short progressive corridor.
b. The intermediate zone width will generally be
smaller.
c. The near zone is generally smaller.
d. There is more unwanted peripheral cylinder.
e. Two of the above will not occur.
19. True or false? Distance and intermediate and near
zone widths inuence each other. When one zone
is made larger or wider, the other two zones will
become narrower and smaller.
20. True or false? Contour plots record the surface
elevation for the front surface of a progressive
addition lens.
21. Which of the following are not demonstrated by
contour plots?
a. relative progressive zone width
b. the presence of a hard or soft optical design
c. the anticipated amount of unwanted
astigmatism in the upper half of the lens
d. the expected increase or decrease in chromatic
aberration throughout the lens
e. where certain blur zones may fall
22. Would a progressive add lens with spherical upper
front surfaces more likely be hard or soft in
design?
a. hard
b. soft
23. Which lens design is more likely to have higher
amounts of peripheral astigmatism?
a. a lens with a hard design
b. a lens with a soft design
24. Is a progressive addition lens specically designed
for frames with a narrow B dimension more likely
to resemble a hard or a soft design?
a. a hard design
b. a soft design
c. There is no way to tell.
25. Is a presbyopic emmetrope who is used to crystal

clear distance vision more likely to complain about
a progressive addition lens with a hard design or
one with a soft design?
a. one with a hard design
b. one with a soft design
c. There is absolutely no way to make this kind of
prediction.
26. Which lens type listed below does NOT require a
free-form type of lens generating to make the
lens?
a. position-of-wear progressives
b. lenses with the add power split between front
and back lens surfaces
c. lenses that are personalized with the width of
the progressive zone based on wearer eye
movement preferences
d. progressives made with atoric curves
e. progressives made as seminished lenses and
completed in the laboratory
f. All of the above require a free-form type of lens
generating to make the lens.
27. Position-of-wear lenses are able to correct or
compensate for all but which of the following?
a. a difference in the vertex distance between the
refraction and the wearers glasses
b. a pantoscopic tilt of the lenses that was not
present during refraction
c. a changing base curve requirement based on
lens power
d. varying amounts of induced oblique
astigmatism in the two power meridians of a
spherocylinder lens using an atoric surface
e. Position-of-wear lenses can correct for all of the
above.
28. True or false? Near variable focus lenses are used
for small ofce environments, and all have 50% of
the add power in the upper portion of the lens.
29. Near variable focus lenses have a power degression.
Degression is:
a. the difference between prescribed distance and
near power, but going from near to far.
b. the range in power of a variable focus lens from
the total near power of the lens to the power
found at the top of the lens.
c. the range in power from the near portion to the
midlevel of the lens.
d. the range in power from the near portion to the
tting cross.
CHAPTER 20
30. A near variable focus lens design will be used for

presbyopes with all different amounts of add
power. How many power ranges do near variable
focus lenses have for each particular brand?
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. as many as there are add powers
e. All of the above responses may be correct.
31. Suppose a variable focus lens made by a certain
manufacturer comes with a recommended power
range of 1.25 D for wearers who have a +2.25 add.
This particular wearer has a distance correction of
0.50 +0.75 090 for both right and left lenses
and a +2.25 add. What power would be veried in
the upper portion of the lens?
32. A near variable focus lens has a +1.25 0.50 010
power in the upper portion of the lens. It has a
power of +2.75 0.50 010 in the lower portion of
the lens. What is the degression (power range) of
the lens?
a. +0.75 D
b. +1.25 D
c. +1.50 D
d. +1.75 D
e. +2.75 D
33. True or false? Near variable focus lenses are all t
exactly like standard progressive addition lenses,
measuring monocular PDs, and placing the tting
cross in the center of the pupil.
34. True or false? No occupational progressive lenses
meant for small ofces and computers come with
distance powers in the top of the lens-only
intermediate powers.
35. Using the rule of thumb* for prism thinning of
progressive addition lenses, how much prism
thinning would be expected for the following two
prescriptions?
a. R and L distance powers: +3.00 -0.75 090
add power: +2.25
b. R and L distance powers: -3.00 sphere
add power: +1.00
*Remember, the rule of thumb is not what one would necessarily

expect to receive from an optical laboratory with a computer
program that custom calculated the amount based not only on distance and near power, but also on the size and shape of the
frame
489
36. For the progressive addition lens pair listed below,

how much yoked base-down prism would be
appropriate for thinning the lenses using the rule
of thumb?
+3.00 0.75 130
+3.00 0.75 040
add +1.50
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
none
37. For the progressive addition lens pair listed below,

how much yoked base-down prism would be
appropriate for thinning the lenses using the rule
of thumb?
3.50 0.50 180
3.50 0.50 180
add +2.00
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
1.00
1.50
1.75
2.00
none

+2.00 D sph 3 BD
5.00 D sph 3 BU
add = +2.25
Fitting cross heights measure:
R: 20 mm
L: 20 mm
What tting cross heights would need to be
ordered to compensate for the prescribed
vertical prism?
490
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO

1.25 0.50 180 sph 5 BI
1.25 0.50 180 sph 3 BI
add = +2.25
Monocular PDs:

5.00 D sph 3 BI
5.00 D sph 3 BI
add = +2.00
Monocular PDs:
R: 30 mm
L: 30.5 mm
What monocular PDs would need to be ordered to
compensate for the horizontal prescribed prism?
Would the prism amount need to be changed? If
so, how much?
R: 31 mm
L: 31 mm
The PDs and tting cross heights were measured
without lenses in place, and there was no
manifested tropia (i.e., the eyes did not appear
to be turned outward).
A. Based on the Rx prism, would you modify any
of the PDs when ordering the progressive
addition lenses? If so, how?
B. If you modify any of these dimensions, should
you also modify the prism amount? If so, how?
C H A P T E R 21
Anisometropia
hen left and right lenses in a prescription are

signicantly different from one another,
problems can occur that are primarily a
result of the spectacle lenses causing the two images of
the same object to differ from one another. This chapter
examines those problems and then presents possibilities
for their solution.
INTRODUCTION
Anisometropia is when there is a difference in refractive
power between the left and right eyes. Anisometropia
can work to an individuals favor in presbyopia. When
one eye is emmetropic and needs no correction and the
other is somewhat myopic, such a person can avoid the
need for reading glasses. One eye is used to see for distance vision, the other for near. In fact such a situation
is often created in contact lens wear and is called monovision. One contact lens contains a weak near correction
instead of a distance correction so that a presbyopic
individual can avoid having to wear glasses for reading.
On the whole, however, a signicant amount of anisometropia ends up creating problems. With young children, an unnoticed difference in refractive error between
the two eyes can result in the blurred eye failing to
develop good visual acuitya condition termed amblyopia. An amblyopic eye will be unable to obtain 20/20
vision, even when the refractive error is fully corrected.
So it is important to correct for anisometropia as soon
as it is detected.
When anisometropia is corrected with spectacle
lenses, problems are not always over. The spectacle lenses
themselves can create difculties. Spectacle lenses worn
at a distance from the eye will magnify or minify everything viewed through the lens. Different lens powers
magnify different amounts. When one lens has different
power than the other lens, the image of an object seen
through the right lens is not the same size as the image
of that same object seen through the left eye. The brain
tries to fuse these two images into one single object.
Spectacle lenses have prismatic effects that increase
with increasing lens power. Viewing an object below the
optical center of a low-powered lens creates only a little
image displacement. But viewing that same object at that
same distance below the optical center of the other more
highly powered lens may cause a more signicant displacement of the image. Since the two images appear to
be at different locations, the two eyes have to turn downward by differing amounts to keep from seeing double.
This chapter talks primarily about those problems
that arise as a result of anisometropia and what can be
done to overcome them with spectacle lenses.
ANISEIKONIA
Aniseikonia is a relative difference in the size and/or the
shape of the images seen by the right and the left eyes
(Figure 21-1). This image size difference can be a result
of the eyes themselves or can be produced by the optics
of the correcting lenses.
Types of Aniseikonia
Physiologic Aniseikonia
Aniseikonia occurs in a limited but useful amount even
for individuals with eyes that are identical to one another.
Suppose a person turns their eyes to the left to look at
an object. The right eye will be slightly farther away
from the object than the left eye. The image of the object
in the right eye will be slightly smaller than the image
see by the left eye. These size differences give clues that
help in localizing the object in space. This type of aniseikonia is expected and is referred to as physiologic (or
natural) aniseikonia. Any other aniseikonia present to a
clinically signicant degree is an anomaly and is called
anomalous aniseikonia or just plain aniseikonia. Anomalous
aniseikonia can be caused by either the anatomic structure of the eye, or by the optics of either the eye or the
correcting spectacle lens.
Symmetrical Aniseikonia
One eye may see an image that is symmetrically larger
than the other eye (i.e., it is equally larger in every
meridian). This is called symmetrical aniseikonia (Figure
21-2). Another type of aniseikonia is still symmetrical,
but has a meridional size difference in a meridian of one
eye compared with that of the other eye. This is called
meridional aniseikonia. Meridional aniseikonia can be in
either horizontal or vertical meridians or may be found
in an oblique meridian (Figure 21-3).
491
492
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 21-1. This gure will

only be realistic if viewed through
red-green anaglyph glasses. With
red-green glasses on, the eyes will
try to fuse both images as one,
simulating what happens to a
person with aniseikonia.
(From de Wit GC, Remole A:
Clinical management of aniseikonia, Optom Today 43(24):39-40,
2003.)
Right eye
image
Right eye image
Left eye image

Left eye
image
Figure 21-2. Symmetrical aniseikonia occurs when the image

of one eye is equally larger in every meridian than the image
seen by the other eye.
Asymmetrical aniseikonia is when there is a progressive increase or decrease across the visual eld. The
image for one eye will get progressively larger across the
visual eld (Figure 21-4). This does not occur naturally,
but occurs when a at prism is placed before the eye.
Distortion is caused by plus and minus spectacle lenses.
This is due to the variable base-towards-the-center effect
of plus lenses and base-towards-the-edge prismatic effect
of minus lenses. Such variable magnication creates
a form asymmetrical aniseikonia. This was shown
in Chapter 18, Figure 18-11 as pincushion and barrel
distortion.
Anatomic Versus Optical Aniseikonia
When aniseikonia is caused by the anatomic structure,
it is referred to as anatomic aniseikonia. Anatomic aniseikonia can be caused by an unequal distribution of the
retinal elements (rods and cones) of one eye compared
with the other.
Vertical meridional
magnification
Left eye
image
Original
object
Right eye
image
Oblique meridional
magnification
Figure 21-3. Meridional aniseikonia is still symmetrical, but

has a meridional size difference in a meridian of one eye compared with that of the other eye. Meridional aniseikonia can
be in either horizontal or vertical meridians. In the top illustration, the aniseikonia is vertical. Meridional aniseikonia may
also be found in an oblique meridian, as shown in the bottom
illustration.
C H A P T E R 21
Anisometropia
493
Assymmetrical
image
Original
object
+
Figure 21-4. Asymmetrical aniseikonia is when there is a
progressive increase or decrease across the visual eld. The
image for one eye will get progressively larger across the visual
eld, as shown in this gure.
Aniseikonia may also be caused by the optics of the

eye or the optics of a correcting lens. When aniseikonia
is a result of the optics of the eye, it is called inherent
optical aniseikonia. When it results from an outside source,
as from correcting ophthalmic lenses, it is called induced
aniseikonia.
Spectacle Magnication: How a Spectacle

Lens Changes the Image Size
In this section, we will look only at how a spectacle lens
changes the magnication of an image for a single eye.
We are not yet comparing differences in magnication
between two eyes. The magnication change brought
about by a single spectacle lens is called spectacle
magni cation.
Spectacle magnication compares the size of the
image seen by a person when wearing glasses with the
size of the image seen when that same individual is not
wearing glasses. In other words,
Shape
factor
Power
factor
Figure 21-5. Spectacle magnication depends upon both the

shape of a lens and the lens power. This gure attempts to
conceptually separate these two factors to help visualize those
two aspects of spectacle magnication.
components of wearing distance and back vertex lens

power make up the power factor (Figure 21-5). Their
contribution to magnication can be given in the form
of an equation for spectacle magnication, which is:
Spectacle Magnication = (Shape factor)(Power factor)
Or
SM =
retinal image size in corrected eye

retinal image in same eye uncorrected
This is expressed as a ratio, such as 1.04 or 0.96. As

percents these would be 4% magnication for a ratio of
1.04 and 4% minication for a ratio of 0.96.
There are two factors within a spectacle lens that
contribute to magnication (or minication) of an image.
One has to do with the power of the lens, and the other
concerns how the lens is shaped. The shape factor has
no net power to it, yet can cause a change in magnication. This is like a telescope. A telescope changes the
magnication of an object, but since the rays leaving the
telescope are parallel, it could be said to have no net
power. So think of a spectacle lens as two components:
1. An afocal (telescope-like) component
2. A power component
These components contribute to magnication independently. The afocal components of thickness, index
and front curve account for the shape factor; the power
1 1
SM =
t 1 hFv
1 F1
n
Where:
t = the thickness of the lens in meters, n the index of
refraction,
F1 = the front surface refractive power of the lens,
F V = is the back vertex power of the lens, and
h = the distance in meters from the back vertex of the
lens to the entrance pupil of the eye. (The entrance
pupil is normally assumed to be 3 mm from the
front surface of the cornea.)
Here is an example of how spectacle magnication is
calculated.*
*If the lenses are toric, having a cylinder component, each meridian
must be computed separately.
494
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Example 21-1
What is the spectacle magnication for a +5.00 D CR-39
lens ground on a +10.00 D base curve to a center thickness
of 4.6 mm and t for a 14-mm vertex distance? (Assume
that the +10.00 D base curve is the refractive power of the
lens surface and neither the nominal nor true base curve.)
Solution
Since the spectacle magnication formula is:
1 1
SM =
t 1 hFv
1 F1
n
Remember that for h, the distance from the back vertex of
the lens to the entrance pupil of the eye, we need to add
the vertex distance (14 mm) to the distance from the front
of the cornea to the entrance pupil of the eye (3 mm) to get
the number needed. This is 17 mm, but must be expressed
in meters and equals 0.017 m. So we would substitute the
following:
1
1
SM =
1 (0.017 5.00)
0.0046
10.00
1
1.498
= 1.12752
A spectacle magnication of 1.1275 is the same as a
12.75% magnication.
Theoretically, What Was the Best Correction

Thought to Be for Preventing Aniseikonia?
To answer this question, we need to know about two
types of ametropia.
Axial and Refractive Ametropia
Ametropia is the refractive condition in which, with
accommodation relaxed, parallel rays do not focus on
the retina.1 Ametropia includes myopia, hyperopia, and
astigmatism. Ametropia may occur because the axial
length of the eye is either too short or too long. This
type of ametropia is called axial ametropia. On the other
extreme, the eyeball may be of normal length, but still
ametropic. Then the error is caused by the curves of the
refractive components in the eye. In this case the
ametropia is called refractive ametropia. According to
classical theory of aniseikonia, the type of ametropia
determines how the aniseikonia is corrected.
Producing a Normal Image Size (Relative
Spectacle Magnication)
Normal image size is customarily taken as the image size
for a standard emmetropic eye with a +60.00 refractive
power. Suppose another eye, which is ametropic, but
corrected with spectacles, produces an image that is
larger than the standard. The amount of magnication
produced by this eye, relative to the standard eye, is
called relative spectacle magnication. Expressed as an

equation, relative spectacle magnication is:
RSM =
image size for a corrected ametropic eye

image size for a standard emmetropic eye
The difference between spectacle magnication (SM)

and relative spectacle magnication (RSM) is this:
Spectacle magnication (SM) compares the image
size of one eye in both uncorrected and corrected
states.
RSM compares an ametropic but corrected eye with
a standard emmetropic eye (that does not need a
correction).
It would be desirable to choose the type of refractive
correction for myopes, hyperopes, and astigmatics that
would produce a normal image size.
Knapps Law and Axial Ametropia
If the ametropia is axial, optical theory predicted that
the image size would be different from that of the normal
because the axial length of the eyeball is different from
the normal. According to Knapps law, When a correcting lens is so placed before the eye that its second principal plane coincides with the anterior focal point of an
axially ametropic eye, the size of the retinal image will
be the same as though the eye were emmetropic.1 (It
should be noted that for Knapps law to be ful lled, the
ametropia must be purely axial, and there must be no
anatomic aniseikonia present.)
Stated another way, if a persons eye is too long or too
short, the image size will be larger or smaller than it
would be normally. And Knapps law says that using
spectacle lenses* on such an eye will bring the retinal
image size back to normal.
Having explained Knapps law, it is imperative
that we note the following: In spite of what optical
theory says, aniseikonia is still present when axial ametropia is corrected with ordinary spectacle lenses that
are placed at the theoretically correct position.2 This
appeared to be a result of differential retinal growth or
stretching.3 The incongruity between Knapps law and
clinical practice should be kept in mind when reading
the rest of the material on aniseikonia. It has important
clinical implications when deciding upon appropriate
methods of aniseikonia correction.
Image Size for the Axially Ametropic Myope. The
uncorrected image size for someone whose myopia is
caused by a long eyeball will be larger than the image
size for a normal eye. Previously it would have been said
*The spectacle lenses referenced in Knapps law are assumed to

be thin, at lenses. In practice, spectacle lenses are curved, may
be thick, and do not necessarily conform to this assumption.
C H A P T E R 21
that, according to Knapps law, spectacle lenses reduce

image size and bring it back to normal, eliminating the
aniseikonia. Contact lenses, however, are much closer to
the principal planes of the eye and do not minify like a
minus-powered spectacle lens placed some distance in
front of the eye.
When myopic anisometropia is present, optical theory
says that we want to return both image sizes back to that
of the emmetrope so there will be no magnication differences. Knapps law would say that in the presence of
myopic axial ametropia, spectacle lenses return both
images back to normal size. In theory this would make
spectacle lenses the correction of choice. However, from
a clinical perspective, axial anisometropias were reduced
when corrected with contact lenses.4 Winn, et al also
state that contrary to Knapps law, spectacles produce
signicantly greater degrees of aniseikonia than contact
lenses.5 This suggests that even though the retinal
image sizes may be made equal by using spectacle lenses
for axially ametropic myopes, making retinal image
sizes equal does not mean cortical image sizes will also
equate.
Image Size for the Axially Ametropic Hyperope. The
same discrepancies between theory and practice exist for
the axially ametropic hyperope. The uncorrected image
size for someone whose hyperopia is caused by a short
eyeball will be smaller than the image size for a normal
eye. Theory says that spectacle lenses magnify the image
and bring that image size back to normal, whereas
contact lenses leave the image size small. According to
Knapps law, the method of choice would be spectacle
lenses over contact lenses. But in practice this does not
prove to be the case. Contact lenses still prove to be more
advantageous. (It should be noted that refractive surgery
places the refractive correction at the same location as a
contact lensthe corneal plane. Therefore refractive
surgery would also be able to reduced aniseikonia in the
same manner as would contact lenses.)
Refractive Ametropia and Image Size
If the ametropia is refractive, the uncorrected image
sizes will be the same size as the image size for a normal
emmetrope. Therefore in correcting an anisometrope
with refractive ametropia, we want the image sizes to
remain the same. We do not want the refractive correction to magnify or minify the image. Contact lenses are
able to correct the error, yet leave the image sizes almost
unchanged. Therefore for myopes or hyperopes with
refractive ametropia, the method of choice for preventing aniseikonia, both in theory and practice, is contact
lenses.
A common indicator for the presence of refractive
ametropia is keratometer readings that are signicantly
different between the two eyes, revealing different frontsurface corneal powers for the two eyes. Another indicator of refractive ametropia would be anisometropia in
the presence of a developing cataract in one eye.
Anisometropia
495
Anisometropes With Astigmatism. Astigmatism is

a form of refractive anisometropia. If spectacle lenses
are used for high astigmatism, each meridian will cause
a different amount of magnication. Even for high
astigmatics who are isometropic,* contact lenses have the
advantage of reducing meridional magnication differences. Therefore the method of choice for anisometropes
with astigmatism would be contact lenses.
Detecting Clinically Signicant Aniseikonia

Although there are both obvious and not so obvious
signs and symptoms that may indicate clinically signicant aniseikonia, it is sometimes difcult to recognize.
Aniseikonia symptoms are often the same symptoms as
experienced with uncorrected refractive errors or oculomotor imbalances. The difference is that with aniseikonia, symptoms either are not helped by the correction,
or appear after the other problems are corrected.
In addition to those just mentioned, here are some
indications of clinically signicant aniseikonia:
1. High anisometropia or high astigmatism
2. The presence of certain factors that physically alter
the eye, such as pseudophakia, scleral buckling,
corneal transplantation, refractive surgery, and optic
atrophy6
3. Complaints about spatial distortion, such as slanting
oors, tilted walls, or ground too close or too far
away
4. Better optical comfort when only one eye is used
It is helpful to notice if the symptoms occurred after
a prescription change or after the dispensing of new
glasses. Assuming the refraction is correct and the lenses
verify as they should, when anisometropia is present,
aniseikonia is likely. There are several ways to approach
the problem.
CORRECTING ANISEIKONIA WITH

SPECTACLE LENSES
If an exact amount of aniseikonia is found, modications
to the spectacle lenses that change relative spectacle
magnication will be of benet whether the anisometropia is axial or refractive.6 This is because there are specic modications that can be made to spectacle lenses
that will change their magnication. Even though
contact lenses are usually indicated in the presence of
aniseikonia, the patient may not want contact lenses.
Changing base curves, lens thicknesses, and vertex distance can still be used with spectacles to correct the
aniseikonia.
There are several ways to approach the problem of
aniseikonia:
*Isometropia is the state of having equal refractive errors of both

kind and amount in the two eyes.
496
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
1. If you are concerned that aniseikonia might be a

problem, but have no clear evidence, use a First
Pass Method.
2. If you are fairly certain aniseikonia is present, want
to address it yourself, but have no way of measuring
it; then make directionally correct magnication
changes to each lens individually.
3. Estimate percent magnication differences based on
the refractive prescription and change lens
parameters accordingly.
4. Measure the percent magnication differences
between the two eyes and change the lens
parameters accordingly.
Using a First Pass Method to Prevent

Possible Problems
When there is a concern that aniseikonia might be a
problem, there are some things that can be done with
frame and lens choices that will reduce magnication
differences between lenses that would otherwise occur.
This can be done before anything else and will not hurt
anything, even if aniseikonia is not a problem at all.
1. Use a frame with a short vertex distance and, if
nosepads are present, further reduce the vertex
distance.
2. Use a frame with a small eye size. This secondarily
reduces vertex distance.
3. Use an aspheric lens design. This usually attens
the base curves.
4. Use a high-index lens material. This will thin plus
lens center thickness.
Making Directionally Correct

Magnication Changes
It is possible to really go after an aniseikonia problem
you are fairly certain is present, but have no way of
exactly measuring. This is done by making changes to
each lens individually in the appropriate direction so as
to either reduce or increase magnication. Sometimes
it is possible to reduce magnication differences just
enough to alleviate the problem, without having an
exact x. When using this approach, here are two
important notes:
1. Remember that the greater the difference in right
and left lens power, the greater will the changes
need to be to meet the problem. Changes will be to
vertex distances, base curves, and lens thicknesses.
2. In your concern about the aniseikonia, do not forget
that with presbyopes it may be necessary to correct
for vertical imbalance at the same time.
What is done with each lens will depend upon the
power of the right and left lenses compared with one
another.
If both lenses are plus, but one more plus than the
other, follow the instructions found in Box 21-1.
If both lenses are minus, but one more minus than
the other, follow the instructions in Box 21-2.
BOX 21-1
If Both Lenses Are Plus (Anisohyperopia)
Choose a frame with a minimum vertex distance.
Keep the eye size small.
For the Higher Plus Lens
For the Lower Plus Lens
Flatten the base curve.

Thin the lens.
Decrease the vertex
distance.
Steepen the base

curve.
Increase center
thickness. If possible try
not to go thicker than a
match of the thickness of
the higher plus lens.
If the edge is thick
enough, move the bevel
away from the front and
toward the back of the
lens. (Do not exceed the
limits of cosmetic
acceptability.) This moves
the lens forward in the
frame, increasing
magnication.
If one lens is plus and the other minus, follow the

instructions in Box 21-3.
Estimating Percent Magnication Differences

It is possible to estimate what the percent differences in
magnication are from the prescription itself.* Estimates
of how much magnication changes per diopter of power
vary. Linksz and Bannon7 say we can expect 1.5% per
diopter of anisometropia when anisometropia is refractive in origin. However, since the ametropia probably
has at least some axial component, 1% per diopter is
more realistic. One percent per diopter is now considered the rule of thumb.
To correct for estimated aniseikonia, we can gure
that if there is a problem, it will probably be between 1%
and 2%. How to make exact magnication changes by
specically changing lens parameters will be discussed
later in the chapter.
Measuring Percent Magnication Differences

The ideal way to correct for aniseikonia is to measure it
directly. Historically the classical method was to use a
space eikonometer. A space eikonometer is used to
quantitatively measure image size differences. Space
eikonometers are no longer made.
*NOTE: Screening devices that are used for estimating percent
magnication are not likely to be accurate enough to be effective.
Large image size differences result in loss of binocularity and
produce no symptoms. Small differences are not accurately measured with screening devices and are the ones that cause the most
problems.
C H A P T E R 21
BOX 21-2
If Both Lenses Are Minus (Anisomyopia)
It is not advisable to change base curves for minus
lenses unless there is certainty of what the end
result will produce. (If the lens is more minus than
2.00 in power, steepening the base curve alone may
not do the expected. Steepening the base curve
increases magnication, but also increases the lens
bend. This results in increased vertex distance.*
Greater vertex distance for minus lenses means
increased minication and may produce the opposite
of intended results.)
For the Higher Minus Lens
For the Lower Minus Lens
Decrease the vertex

Increase the vertex
distance for this lens by
distance by moving the
moving the bevel as far
bevel away from the
forward as possible.
front of the lens.
If a large change in
(Moving it totally to
magnication is required,
the back is going to
it may be necessary to
look bad.)
steepen the base curve
Do not thin the lens.
considerably. If this is
done, then the lens must
also be thickened and the
bevel moved to the front
surface to decrease the
vertex distance. Unless
this is done, steepening
the base curve may not
yield the desired results.
*Each 1 D change in base curve changes vertex distance by approximately 0.6 mm.
Brown WL. The Importance of Base Curve in the Design of Minus

Iseikonic Lenses.
BOX 21-3
If One Lens Is Plus and the Other Is Minus
(Antimetropia)
For the Plus Lens
For the Minus Lens
Flatten the base curve.

Thin the lens.
Decrease the vertex
distance.
Decrease the vertex

distance by moving the
bevel to the front of the
lens.
Do not thin the lens.
When one lens is plus in power, some suggest the use of a highindex lens for the higher plus lens. A regular index lens is used for
the lower plus. This will reduce thickness, base curve, and secondarily, vertex distance for the higher plus lens.
Anisometropia
497
An alternative method has been to use appropriate

Keystone View stereoscopic cards, preferably in conjunction with the Keystone orthoscope (a stereoscope
with minimum-distortion lenses). Another more accurate means of testing is the Awaya New Aniseikonia Test
(Handaya Co Ltd, Tokyo, Japan).
Once aniseikonia testing is complete it is still necessary to determine which parameters of each lens should
be changed by what specic amount. There are tables
and nomographs in existence that give expected changes
in magnication produced by changes in base curve, lens
thickness, vertex distance, and index of refraction.7
It is also possible to construct a program using an
Excel spreadsheet or the equivalent. Then the formula
for spectacle magnication with its shape and power
factors can be used directly. Whenever looking at the
magnications for any given pair of lenses, there will
typically be a large difference between left and right
spectacle lens magnications. This difference does not
have to be reduced to zero. Instead the difference between
the two spectacle lens magnications should be reduced
by an amount equal to the aniseikonia found between
left and right eyes. (Even then, symptoms may disappear
with smaller reductions in aniseikonia.)
Fortunately, there is another method that incorporates both testing and lens design into a computer-based
software program.
The Aniseikonia Inspector
The Aniseikonia Inspector is a software program that
presents a screen as shown in Figure 21-6. The subject
wears red-green glasses, and the screen image is adjusted
until both halves of the image are of equal size. The
Inspector measures for magnication differences in the
horizontal, vertical, and diagonal directions.
Once a percentage magnication difference or differences are found and prescription information entered,
the program contains a form listing relevant lens parameters, including base curve, thickness, vertex distance,
and index of refraction. By changing the parameters that
are a part of the spectacle magnication formula, resulting lens magnication percents are seen. Right and left
lenses are shown in cross section and also change as lens
parameters are altered. The form and/or refractive index
of the lens may be modied until suitable left and right
lens magnications result.
Even if it is possible to measure the full percentage
differences between left and right eye, it may not be
necessary to fully correct those differences. This is especially heartening when attainment of a full magnication difference correction would result in extremely
When constructing a spreadsheet, one must remember that the

front curve is the refractive power of the lens and not the 1.53indexed base curve. A 1.53-index-referenced number may be used
if a conversion formula is built into the spreadsheet.
498
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
done. In a study done at Emory Eye Center, Achiron

et al6 compared corrections for 34 anisometropes. They
found that modifying lens design to equalize relative
spectacle magnication both reduced aniseikonia and
improved subjective comfort and performance. At the
conclusion of the study, 93% of the study subjects preferred the spectacles that had been modied to correct
for aniseikonia over traditional spectacles.
Their results also found that, contrary to Knapps law,
axial anisometropes beneted just as much from modications to relative spectacle magnication as refractive
anisometropes did.
WHAT IS A BITORIC LENS?

Figure 21-6. This screen simulation from the Aniseikonia
Inspector program shows how the right eye would see an
image that was smaller than the left.
(From the Optical Diagnostics website: http://www.
opticaldiagnostics.com/products/ai/screenshots.html.)
unusual lenses with very thick centers or an inappropriately steep base curve on one of the lenses.
When using this program or when simply making
changes in lens shapes to affect magnication in other
aniseikonia situations, here are some points to consider.
(Refer also to Boxes 21-1 to 21-3.)
1. Just reducing the vertex distance for both lenses will
help.
2. Changing the base curve of even one lens may also
help. (Reducing the highest base curve to equal the
lower base curve can make a big change in
magnication difference.)
3. Use an aspheric design. For plus lenses, both base
curves will be atter. This allows a decrease in
thickness of the thicker lens. The thinner lens may
then be made equal to the thicker lens.
4. Increasing the index of the lens will thin the lens.
5. If the least plus lens is thick enough, it may be
possible to move the lens forward in the frame by
moving the bevel back on the lens. This increases
vertex distance.
6. It is possible to get a bit more of a change in
magnication difference in plus lenses by leaving
the weaker lens as a nonaspheric lens with a steeper
base and using an aspheric design for the stronger
lens.
7. Use an antireection coating on both lenses to
reduce lens visibility and any otherwise noticeable
differences between the two lenses.
How Helpful Is Correcting for Aniseikonia?

It would be logical to consider just how helpful it is to
go to the trouble of making lens changes to correct for
aniseikonia when in practice these changes are not always
It is possible to have a difference in magnication

between two major meridians in right and left eyes.
Magnication can be changed in each meridian
independently.
Normally a cylinder lens has a front surface that is
spherical and a back surface that is toric. The toric
surface has a different radius of curvature in each of the
two major meridians, thereby correcting for the astigmatism. However, it is possible to put a toric surface on
the front of the lens and on the back of the lens, even if
that lens is a sphere. This would happen if one chooses
differing front lens curves for the purpose of creating
more magnication in one meridian than the other. If
this is done, then back surface curves are selected so as
to counteract the cylinder power created by the toric
front surface. This lens with toric surfaces on both the
front and the back is called a bitoric lens (Figure 21-7).
PRISMATIC EFFECT OF LENS PAIRS

When depicting the optics of a pair of spectacles, the
wearer is normally shown looking directly through the
optical center (OC) of both lenses. This situation, of
course, occurs only part of the time because the wearers
direction of gaze changes behind the lenses.
When looking to the right or left, upward or downward, because the object viewed is seen through a noncentral lens area, there is a prismatic effect induced by
each lens. This prismatic effect is predictable and may
be calculated.
If both right and left lenses are equal in all respects,
then the prism powers induced by the two lenses for any
position of gaze are also equal.
Example 21-2
A man wearing 3.00 D lenses for both eyes (O.U.) turns his
eyes to look at a distant object on his right. In so doing, he
looks through a point on his lenses 1 cm to the right of the
OCs (Figure 21-8). What is the resultant prismatic effect for
each eye?
C H A P T E R 21
499
Anisometropia
Normal Lens
Figure 21-7. Normally a lens has

a sphere curve on both surfaces.
This is represented by the rst set
of power crosses below. The rst
surface has a power of +9.00 D
and the second surface 5.00 D.
Ignoring lens thickness, the resulting lens power will be +4.00 D
sphere.
Here is a fairly simple example
of a bitoric lens. Suppose a lens is
supposed to have the same power
of +4.00 D. The lens can be made
with a cylinder on the front, as
shown below. As long as the second
surface counteracts the power of
the cylinder in the front surface,
the lens still has a power of
+4.00 D. This lens would produce
differing magnications in each
meridian.
+9.00
5.00
+9.00
+4.00
5.00
+4.00
Bitoric Lens
+10.00
6.00
+8.00
+4.00
4.00
+4.00
Therefore there is 3.00 of prism induced by the right lens

and 3.00 of prism induced by the left. Base direction is
base out for the right eye and base in for the left. As seen
from Figure 21-8, these effects are both base to the right.
As a result, the eyes remain parallel and are forced neither
to turn inward (converge) nor outward (diverge) in their orientation to one another.
Top view
Anisophoria
Figure 21-8. Light from an object at in nity when viewed

through the periphery of prescription spectacle lenses is deviated by the prismatic effect of the lenses. When both lenses
are of the same power, that deviation is symmetrical. Both rays
emerging from the lenses, though deviated, are still parallel.
Therefore the eyes neither converge nor diverge relative to one
another.
Solution
Using Prentices rule, it may be seen that:
Remember that the condition of the eyes whereby a

person requires lenses that differ in powerone lens
being stronger or weaker than the otheris known as
anisometropia. When such a person looks at an object
through corresponding points on the lenses other than
the OCs, the prismatic effects that are induced will be
unequal for each eye. This situation is referred to as
anisophoria.
Example 21-3
Suppose a prescription of the following power is worn:
O.D. 7.00 D sphere
O.S. 3.00 D sphere
= cF
What prismatic effects are induced by the lenses for the

points 1 cm to the right of the OCs when viewing a distant
object located to the right (Figure 21-9)?
= (1)(3.00) = 3.00
Solution
For the right eye, the prismatic effect is found (using
Prentices rule) as:
and in this case
500
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Side view O.D.
Top view
Side view O.S.
Figure 21-9. When parallel light from a peripherally viewed

object at in nity strikes a pair of spectacle lenses whose powers
are unequal, the prismatic effects created at these noncentral
lens positions are unequal, causing more deviation for light
entering through one lens than through the other. This in
turn causes either a convergence or divergence of the eyes,
depending on lens powers.
= cF
= (1)(7.00) = 7.00
For the left eye, the effect results in 3.00 of prism.
In Example 21-2, where both lenses were of identical

power, there was no imbalance between the eyes. Both
eyes continued to point in the same direction. In Example
21-3, however, the right eye is forced to turn 4.00 more
than the left. Because the base-out effect overpowers the
base-in effect, the net effect for the two eyes is 4.00
base out. The eye turns towards the apex of the prism,
and the two eyes are forced to converge relative to one
another.
Fortunately the eyes are not required to hold this
position over long periods of time and quickly adapt to
the variations of xation.
VERTICAL IMBALANCE
When differential prismatic effects are present at varying
positions of gaze, resulting from a difference in power
between right and left lenses, it is apparent that vertical
prismatic effects may also be manifested. The most troublesome situation may occur when reading or close work
is attempted over an extended period of time. When the
wearer drops the eyes below the OCs of the lens and
vertical prismatic effect of unequal values results for the
two eyes, the differential prismatic effect induced is
referred to as vertical imbalance.
To understand vertical imbalance, consider the same
person whose prescription was:
Figure 21-10. Unequal lens powers also cause the same type
of prismatic effect for objects viewed through tops and bottoms
of spectacle lenses as is caused when looking through the sides.
Unfortunately, the problem created is harder for the eyes to
overcome, since turning one eye farther up or down than the
other is not a natural paired eye movement.
O.D. 7.00 D sphere

O.S. 3.00 D sphere
If that person now looks 1 cm below the OCs, the
prismatic effects induced will be O.D. 7.00 base down,
and O.S. 3.00 base down (Figure 21-10). The net result
is 4.00 of base-down prism before the right eye.
Who Is Responsible for Correcting

Vertical Imbalance?
Vertical imbalance often goes unnoticed throughout
the eye examination and dispensing processes. This
may happen for a variety of reasons. One major reason,
however, is that unless segment and major reference
point (MRP) heights are known, the amount of imbalance cannot be determined. These measurements are
not known until after frame selection has occurred.
Ideally the prescriber should notice the need and call for
a correction on the prescription. This does not always
happen, however. Therefore unless dispenser and examiner are working in close proximity, the responsibility
C H A P T E R 21
will rest with the dispenser. The dispenser must rst

recognize when a vertical imbalance correction is
needed.
When Is a Correction for Vertical

Imbalance Needed?
The need for a vertical imbalance correction should be
questioned when an anisometropic wearer progresses
from single vision lenses into multifocals.
For the single vision lens wearer, if the unequal vertical prism proves troublesome with the eyes dropped for
reading, simply dropping the head will solve the problem.
In this manner, both lines of sight pass through the OCs,
where there is a net prismatic effect of zero, alleviating
the problem. For the new multifocal wearer, this option
is eliminated by the positioning of the segment. To read
through the bifocal portion, the wearer must lower the
eyes and use a noncentral portion of the lens.
Tolerance to vertical imbalance in the reading area
varies from person to person. Generally, any time there
is a vertical meridian difference greater than 1.50 D in
power between right and left lenses, vertical imbalance
problems are a possibility; and when power differences
are greater than 2-3 D vertical imbalance correction
merits consideration. Some individuals with anisometropia are sensitive to the imbalance, whereas others with a
higher amount are not bothered. Observing the individual while he or she is reading through the old anisometropic single vision prescription may give a clue as to
possible difculties.
To determine if a vertical imbalance correction may
be needed, hand the person a reading card and ask him
or her to read something. Notice what the person does
when handed the card. If the individual drops the eyes
to read, he or she is accustomed to reading with vertical
imbalance, and no special compensation may be necessary. If the person drops the head to read, however,
reading is being done through the distance OCs to
prevent prism imbalance in the lower part of the glasses.
These individuals may experience difculty with a multifocal lens if the imbalance is left uncompensated. In
some instances, only partial compensation for the imbalance may be required.
Vertical imbalance corrections are especially critical when
the imbalance is of recent onset. This occurs when a person
has had either cataract surgery or refractive surgery on
one eye only. Both situations create anisometropia,
causing a vertical imbalance at near for which a multifocal wearer is unable to compensate. In these cases because
adaptation has not occurred over time, the full amount
of imbalance correction is indicated.
CORRECTING FOR VERTICAL IMBALANCE

There are several methods of correcting for vertical
imbalance, some of which are capable of compensating
for more prismatic imbalance than others. The rst
Anisometropia
501
four on the list attempt to avoid the problem of vertical

imbalance. The last four attempt to correct for the
problem.
1. Contact lenses
2. Two pairs of glasses
3. Dropping the MRP height
4. Raising the seg height
5. Fresnel press-on prism
6. Slab off (bicentric grind)
7. Dissimilar segs
8. Compensated R segs
It should be noted that those who benet from the
correction of vertical imbalance will also benet from a
good choice of lens parameters for offsetting aniseikonia
(image size differences). Lens choices for aniseikonia are
explained earlier in this chapter.
Contact Lenses
From a purely optical standpoint, one of the best options
available for correcting vertical imbalance is the contact
lens. The OC of the contact lens moves with the eye.
When an individual wears contact lenses, the spectacle
lens-induced prismatic difference disappears and the
vertical imbalance problem with it.
Two Pairs of Glasses

When anisometropes wear single vision lenses, vertical
imbalance seldom surfaces as a problem. This is because
single vision lens wearers have the option of dropping
the head and looking through the lens OCs instead of
just dropping the eyes and looking below the OCs. This
means that if an anisometrope decides against multifocal
lenses, he or she is not forced to look into the lower
portion of the lens where the near segment is located.
Thus one option for overcoming vertical imbalance is to
have two pairs of single vision glasses, one for distance and
one for near. When using two pairs of glasses, the reading
glasses should be ordered with the OCs lower than
normal. This way the wearer looks through the lens
OCs. A separate pair of single vision glasses for near does
not correct for vertical imbalance; it avoids vertical imbalance. When ordering two pairs of glasses for this purpose,
it is advisable to position the OCs for the near prescription 5 mm below the vertical center of the frames.
Instead of using a regular frame for the near Rx and
lowering the OCs, a pair of half-eye frames may be used.
In this way, the OCs are lower, even at their normal
locations. They do not have to be lowered farther.
Dropping the Major Reference Point Height

Reducing the amount of vertical imbalance at near by
dropping the OC or MRP of a multifocal lens pair is
used in practice, but is not as optically sound as other
options. By dropping the OC, the distance from the OC
to the reading level is reduced and so is the prismatic
effect at near. Lowering the OC, however, will transfer
imbalance from the near portion to the distance portion
502
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
because gain at near is offset by an increase in imbalance

in the upper portion of the lens. Dropping the MRP in
multifocals might be successful in borderline cases of
imbalance, but is not the best option available.
Raising the Seg Height

By raising the seg height without simultaneously raising
the height of the distance OC (i.e., the MRP), the wearer
will not have to look as far down into the lens at near. If
the eyes are not as far from the distance OCs for reading,
the vertical imbalance will not be as great.
If the surfacing laboratory moves the distance OC up
as the seg goes up, however, then no benet is derived.
If the technique of raising the seg is to be used, it is best
to specify not just the seg height but also the MRP
height.
less plus) power in its 90-degree meridian. The process

by which this is accomplished is shown and described in
Figure 21-11.
One of the greatest advantages of the slab-off method
is that a large amount of prism compensation may be
made in comparison with other available methods. The
completed lens grind produces a relatively inconspicuous
line. This line overlaps the at-top seg line already
present on the lens and is partially obscured by it (Figure
21-12). Although any shaped seg, or even no seg at all,
may be used in conjunction with bicentric grinding, the
at-top seg gives the best results cosmetically.
For the fused glass lens, the bicentric grind results in
base-up prism. Therefore slab off will, by necessity,
always be performed on the most minus or least plus powered
lens.
Fresnel Press-on Prism

A Fresnel press-on lens is made from thin, transparent,
exible, plastic material which adheres to the surface of
an ophthalmic lens when pressed in place.1 Thus it is
possible to cut a Fresnel press-on prism to t the lower
half of one lens to counteract a vertical imbalance. Placed
on the back surface of the ophthalmic lens, the Fresnel
prism simulates a slab-off lens. Fresnel lenses for such an
application are usually not considered to be a permanent
solution, but rather are used on a trial basis to see if the
wearers visual difculties can be alleviated. (For more
on Fresnel lenses, see Chapter 17.)
Slab Off (Bicentric Grinding)

The most common option for correcting vertical imbalance produces a vertical prismatic effect in the lower half
of one lens only, beginning at the level of the bifocal
segment line. This type of correction is called a slab off
or bicentric grind. It is identied by the presence of a
horizontal line across one lens at the level of the segment
top.
Slab off is almost always used unless the amount of
correction required is less than 1.50. At less than 1.50,
it is difcult to control the appearance and placement of
the slab line. Fortunately, problems with vertical imbalance do not occur as frequently once vertical imbalance
drops below 1.50. Slab off can be made in fairly large
amounts. Before using greater than 6 of slab off on a
given lens, however, it may be advisable to consider using
regular (base up) slab off on one eye and reverse slab off
(base down) on the other. (Reverse slab off begins at
1.50 and progresses in increments of up to 6.)
Slab off can be custom ground on any lens, whether
it is made from glass or plastic.
Slab Off for Fused Glass Multifocals
When bicentric grinding (slabbing off) is done on a
fused glass multifocal lens, base-up prism is created in
the reading area. Slab-off grinding is done on one lens
only. The lens chosen is that which has more minus (or
Slab Off in Plastic Lenses

It is possible to use slab off on any plastic lens, including
a progressive addition lens. With plastic the process
somewhat resembles that of the glass lens, but is carried
out as shown in Figure 21-13.
Slab Off for Progressive Addition Lenses. When
slab-off prism is used on a progressive addition lens, the
slab line will be on the back surface of the lens. The level
of the slab-off line is normally positioned slightly above
the near verication circle. The full amount of slab-off
correction is usually calculated based on the distance
from the prism reference point (not the tting cross) to
the center of the near verication circle.
Sheedy reports that slab-off prism on a progressive
lens meets with just as much success as slab off on segmented multifocals. As with any slab-off correction, the
critical aspect is selection of the candidate and as expected
presbyopia in the presence of anisometropia of greater
than 2-3 D in the vertical meridian should trigger slab
off consideration. However, we dont consider slab off if
the patient is already a successful multifocal wearer with
no near-vision complaints. We also tend to avoid slab off
in the rst-time multifocal wearer, because many anisometropic patients are able to successfully manage the
vertical prism. We prefer to use slab off only when it
becomes necessary. These patients also often benet
from aniseikonic lens designsat least equal center
thickness and base curves.9
Precast Slab-Off Lenses (the Reverse Slab Lens)10
A high degree of skill is required to grind plastic slab-off
lenses. The increased need for plastic slab-off lenses and
the level of skill required offered an incentive for the
development of a suitable precast slab off that could be
surfaced in the normal manner. The rst precast CR-39
slab-off lens, developed by Aire-o-Lite in 1973,11 was for
a 25-mm round seg. This was followed in 1983 by the
Younger Optics Slab-Off lens series.
C H A P T E R 21
Anisometropia
503
A
D
Cover lens
Semi-finished
blank
C
E
Figure 21-11. Slab-off prism manufacture. A, A cover lens is manufactured to have the same
inside curve as the base curve of the required semi nished lens blank. B, This cover lens is
cemented to the semi nished blank. (In actual practice, only one half of a cover lens is
required, covering from the center of the lens on down. For instructional purposes, however,
the complete cover lens is shown.) C, Base-down prism is ground on the front surface of the
lens. Glass is surfaced off until only the lower half of the cover lens from the seg line down
remains. The dioptric value of the prism is equal to the prescribed amount needed for compensation. D, The distance power is surfaced on and the prismatic effect removed during
generating (surface grinding). Now the entire lens is once again without prism. E, Last, the
remaining portion of the cover lens is removed. This wedge-shaped portion is a base-down
prism whose value equals that surfaced, as was shown in C. The net effect is the addition of
base-up prism to the lens from the seg downward.
Figure 21-12. Slab-off prism produces a thin line easily concealed by a at-top seg. The wider the seg is, the more inconspicuous the line will be. A, A bifocal lens is shown. B, Shows
the correct position for slab-off prism on a at-top trifocal.
The procedure for a trifocal bicentric grind is done from the
back in a manner similar to that shown in Figure 21-13 for the
plastic lens.
The precast slab-off lens is made using a at-top 28

lens. The lens blank is large and has the segment in the
center so that it may be used for either a right or a left
lens (Figure 21-14).
Slab-off prism starts at 1.50 and goes up to 6.00 in
increments of . In contrast to conventionally ground
slab-off lenses, the precast lenses are a reverse slab. This
means that instead of having base-up prism in the area
below the slab line, the precast lenses have base-down
prism. The slab-off prism is cast molded on the front of
the lens so that the semi nished blank can be surfaced
on the rear surface in the normal manner (Figure 21-15).
In a number of cases, the end result will be a thinner
lens.*
*For equal plus powers, regular slab-off lenses will be thicker than
reverse-slab lenses. Since regular slab off will be placed on the
least plus lens, however, added thickness could help equalize left
and right lens thicknesses and resulting magnication. For minus
powers, the center thickness of both regular and reverse-slab
lenses will be equal, but the lower edge of the reverse-slab lens
will be thicker than the lower edge of the regular slab-off lens.
504
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 21-13. The process of bicentric grinding on a plastic lens must be carried out
entirely on the rear surface because the front surface contains the one-piece construction
bifocal segment area. The process begins with a semi nished lens (A). The semi nished
lens is surfaced to the required prescription and is left thick enough for a second prism
grind later (B). A liquid resin material is poured into the concave rear surface and allowed
to dry. This resin (C) serves the same purpose as the cover lens served for the glass lens
technique. The lens is then resurfaced at an angle (D). Surfacing a lens at an angle serves
to grind on prism. The surfacing tools used are the same as were used in (B) so that correct
power is maintained. The near portion now contains the proper amount of prism base up
and the correct power. Last, the lens is chilled to cause the remaining resin to break away.
The upper portion has not been changed since originally surfaced. E, The completed lens.
It will be noted that with bicentrically ground plastic lenses, the slab line is on the rear
surface instead of the front.
Slab line
Centered segment
Figure 21-14. The Younger molded slab-off lens has the slaboff prism on the front. Prism is base down instead of the customary base up. The segment is centered so that the blank will
work for either a right or a left lens.
With back-surface slab grinds, some segmented multifocal lens wearers experience the sensation of seeing
two lines. They see the seg line on the front and the slab
line on the back. With precast lenses, the slab line is on
the front with the seg line. This eliminates the possibility
of the wearer seeing two lines. Because reverse-slab
lenses use base-down instead of base-up prism, the prism
direction and the eye it is worn on is reversed. The reverse
slab is placed on the most plus or least minus, instead of the
most minus or least plus.
There appears to be no difculty switching wearers
from conventional slab off to precast slab off.12 If a person
has more than one pair of glasses, including sunglasses,
however, then a possibility exists that all the pairs of
C H A P T E R 21
Plastic
lens
Glass
lens
Plastic
lens
No slab-off
Base up
slab-off
front surface
Base up
slab-off
Back surface
Anisometropia
505
Plastic
lens
Figure 21-15. Slab-off lenses of

plano distance power are compared with one another and with
a nonslab-off plastic lens. These
cross-sectional drawings show
the location of the slab-off grind
and how that grind affects lens
thickness for a plano lens.
Figure 21-16. A, To verify the amount of slab-off

prism present, the three contact points of a lens
measure may rst be oriented either at the position
of the Xs or at the dots. B, The second position
is shown. For regular index lenses the difference
between these two readings indicates the amount of
slab-off prism present.
DOC
Base down
Younger slab-off
front surface
DOC
Slab line
glasses may have to be switched; otherwise, the wearer

could have trouble because of the difference in object
displacement between the prescriptions.
Slab line
When both right and left bifocal segs are set at the
same heights, having the same power addition, the vertical prismatic effect produced will be the same for both
right and left eyes.
Slab-Off Verication
The amount of slab-off prism present may be veried
by comparing the seg areas of the slab-off lens with its
partner lens through a lensmeter. A simpler method,
however, makes use of the lens clock. The lens clock is
rst used to nd the base curve of the bicentrically
ground lens by orienting the contact point horizontally
across the lens center in the distance portion paralleling
the slab-off line. After noting the base curve, the lens
clock is then oriented with contact points perpendicular
to the slab-off line. The central contact point of the lens
clock is placed directly on the line. For regular index
lenses the difference between these two readings
indicates the amount of slab-off prism present (Figure
21-16).
Dissimilar Segs
One possible method of compensating for vertical imbalance in the reading area makes use of prismatic effect
induced by the segment of a bifocal lens.
If the bifocal wearer looks through his or her bifocal
segment, unless he or she is looking through the segments OC, the segment (being itself a miniature lens)
will produce a prismatic effect. This prismatic effect is
separate from that produced by the distance lens.
Example 21-4
A wearer looks through points 4 mm below the upper edge
of his 22-mm round, symmetrically placed bifocals. If the
bifocals have an add power of +2.00 D, how much vertical
prism will be induced by the bifocal segment of the lens for
each eye?
Solution
Because the two segments are equal in add power and symmetrically placed, both lens segments will produce the same
prismatic effect. That prismatic effect may be found by rst
determining the distance from the segment OC to the point
through which the eye looks.
If the lens segment is 22 mm round, the seg OC is 11
mm from the top of the seg. A point 4 mm below the seg
top is then 11 4 or 7 mm above the segment center.
Having found the location in the seg through which the
eye is looking, Prentices rule may be applied to nd the
prism produced by the seg at this point. Since
c = 7 mm or 0.7 cm
and
F = the power of the add, or +2.00 D
506
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
then
= cF
= (0.7)(2.00)
= 1.40
Because the seg power is plus and the point in question is
above the center, the base direction will be downward.
The answer is then 1.40 base down for each eye.
Example 21-5
Now assume that the bifocal segments in question are constructed with the segment optical center on the seg line, as
was shown in Figure 19-12, C. If the add remains +2.00 D
and the wearer again looks through a point 4 mm below the
top of the seg line, what prismatic effect is induced by the
segment?
Solution
Because the seg center is exactly on the upper line, the point
in question is 4 mm below the OC. Prentices rule may again
be applied.
c = 4 mm
= 0.4 cm
and
F = +2.00 D
Now
= cF
= (0.4)(2.00)
= 0.80
The center of the plus segment is above the area being
looked through so the base direction is up. The answer for
this style segment is 0.80 base up.
Using Seg-Induced Prism to Advantage

Prism induced by the optics of a segment may be used
to advantage to counteract vertical imbalance created by
distance lenses whose powers are unequal.
eye (or base up before the left). How may this vertical imbalance be corrected by the use of a different segment style
for each lens?
Solution
As noted earlier, bifocal segments are small lenses ground
onto or fused into the distance portion of a spectacle lens.
This smaller lens also induces a prismatic effect. The
amount of prism induced depends on the power of the seg
(the add power) and the distance the reading level is from
the seg center.
In this example, the wearer is looking through a point
10 mm below the distance OC. Because the seg line is
5 mm below the distance OC, the wearer will be looking
through the seg at 10 5, or 5 mm, below the seg line.
Because the style seg to be used has not yet been specied,
it is impossible to know where the seg OC will be. Hence
determination of the amount of prism induced from the seg
is not possible. If both segs are of the same style, however,
the amount of prism induced by them for the two eyes would
be equal, leaving the net imbalance for the lens pair at 2.50
base down for the right eye. If two different style segs are
chosen, however, the net imbalance could be changed or
even eliminated.
To counterbalance base-down prism before the right eye,
a pair of segs should be chosen in which the right seg center
will be higher than the left seg center. Such a combination
will cause more base-down prismatic effect for the left eye
than the right.
For simplicity a at-top seg style whose OC falls 5 mm
below the seg top will be chosen for the right eye. When the
wearer looks through this position, no prism will be induced
by the bifocal segment. To eliminate vertical imbalance, a
left seg style must be chosen such that 2.50 of prism base
down will be induced by the segment at a point 5 mm below
the seg top.
Since the power of the segment is known and the desired
prism is known ( = 2.50), Prentices rule may be used in
transformed fashion to nd c (the distance from the seg OC
to the point in question).
Since
= cFs
then
c=
Example 21-6
A distance prescription of:
O.D. 7.00 D sphere
O.S. 4.50 D sphere
Add +2.00 D
is worn with the seg lines 5 mm below the distance OCs
(seg drop = 5 mm). If the wearer reads through the lenses
at a position 10 mm below the distance OCs, then 7.00 of
base-down prism is induced by the distance portion of the
right lens and 4.50 base down by the left. The net result
is a vertical imbalance of 2.50 base down before the right
2.50
=
= 1.25 cms
Fs 2.00
The seg center must be 1.25 cm (or 12.5 mm) below the
point through which the wearer is looking. This in turn means
that the seg center should be 17.5 mm below the seg top.
A bifocal lens that most closely fullls these requirements
is the A (traditionally referred to as an Ultex A). The A is a
semicircular bifocal having a diameter of 38 mm with the
seg center 19 mm below the top line (Figure 21-17).
In actuality the vertical segment optical center separation
is directly calculated from the vertical imbalance and the
power of the near addition. Here the amount of vertical
imbalance is 2.50 and the add power is +2.00 D. Using
Prentices rule we have
C H A P T E R 21
Anisometropia
Seg OC
DOC
DOC
507
Seg OC
5 mm
5 mm
14 mm
19 mm
Reading
level
Seg O.C.s
Figure 21-17. Correcting vertical imbalance with dissimilar

segments uses prism induced by the segment itself. Prism
produced by the segment for a given reading level (depth)
varies with the position of the seg OC. Seg OC location is
dependent upon bifocal shape so that using segs of two different carefully chosen shapes may serve to correct a vertical
imbalance at near.
= cF
We know is 2.50 and F is +2.00, so
2.50
c = =
= 1.25 cms or 12.5 mm
F
2
So the segments must have a vertical difference in their
segment optical centers of 12.5 mm. The segment with the
highest segment optical center always is placed on the most
minus or least plus lens.
Although it is optically possible to use an unusual

combination of dissimilar segs to correct high amounts
of vertical imbalance, the cosmetic results will not be
good. In addition, there are also areas in the eld of view
of the lens where the wearer is looking through the distance portion of one lens and the seg portion of the
other. Using dissimilar segs for other than small amounts
of vertical imbalance would normally be considered only
when there are nancial limitations since dissimilar segs
are less expensive than slab off.
Dissimilar Segs for Correcting Low
Vertical Imbalances
An excellent combination of segments for correction of
small amounts of vertical imbalance is obtained using
two differently styled, wide at tops. Some large at tops
are made with the seg OC 4.5 mm below the line. Others
are made with the seg OC right on the line. If a large
at-top 35 made with its seg OC 4.5 mm below the seg
line is used for one eye and a at-top 45 made with its
seg OC on the seg line is used for the other, the segs
look very much alike, but create a differential vertical
prismatic effect (Figure 21-18). This difference of 4.5
mm multiplied by the power of the add gives the amount
of vertical imbalance this combination will correct.
For example, if the add is +2.50, the amount of imbalance this combination will correct is
Figure 21-18. Two different styles of large at-top lenses

work well together for correcting small amounts of vertical
imbalance. The lower the seg height, the less obvious the differences will be.
Pr ism imbalance corrected = (0.45)(2.50 )

= 1.125 of imbalance
It is especially helpful to remember that the subjective
symptom of discomfort caused by vertical imbalance
may be relieved, even if the full amount of imbalance is
not corrected. A pair of large-seg at tops may be the
answer. Remember that if the imbalance is below 1.50,
slab off is not a viable option, making this price-worthy
dissimilar seg combination a cosmetically acceptable
valid alternative. (An important summary explaining
the steps in nding correct dissimilar segs is shown in
Box 21-4.)
Compensated R Segs
A method used for correcting vertical imbalance at near
in amounts below 1.5 is compensated R segs. The compensated R seg is 22 mm wide and 14 mm deep, being
at at both top and bottom. When resurfaced to create
prism in the seg, the lenses are able to compensate for
vertical imbalance. This resurfacing process moves the
seg OC up in one lens and down in the other (Figure
21-19). The upper limit for the amount of prism produced depends upon the power of the add.
BOX 21-4
Steps in Finding Correct Dissimilar Segs
1. Calculate vertical imbalance at the reading level.
2. Calculate the required distance between seg centers
needed to counteract reading level imbalance.
Fs
c = distance between seg centers in centimeters
s
Fs = add power (not near Rx )
= necessary prism
= cFs or c =
3. Note which lens requires the higher seg OC. (The

lens with the most minus or least plus power in its
vertical meridian should contain the segment with
the higher segment OC.)
4. Choose two seg styles so that, with seg tops at
equal heights, the seg OCs will be separated by the
required amount. (The required amount is the value c
found in Step 2.)
508
Ophthalmic Lenses
Seg OC
PA R T T WO
Seg OC
Seg OC
Figure 21-19. Compensated R segments are made from

ribbon-style segment lenses. The OCs can be lowered or
raised (A) and (C). Optically compensated R segments behave
just like dissimilar segments.
Compensated R lenses are seldom used and are

available only in glass.
DETERMINING THE CORRECT AMOUNT

OF COMPENSATION FOR
VERTICAL IMBALANCE
The steps needed for determining the needed amount of
vertical imbalance are as follows:
1. Select an appropriate frame and measure for bifocal
height.
2. Determine the vertical location within the segment
where reading will take place. That level is called
the reading level. (The terms reading level and reading
depth are used synonymously.)
3. Determine the prism amount that is to be used to
correct the imbalance.
Bifocal height is determined as was explained in
Chapter 5. Reading level may be determined subjectively, objectively, or by calculation.
Determining the Reading Level

Determining the Reading Level Objectively
Reading level may be objectively measured using the
correctly sized sample frame. Place tape at the level of
the proposed bifocal, occluding the distance portion so
that the wearer looks under the tape. Then place reading
material so as to simulate normal working or reading
conditions. Position yourself below the wearers eye
level, almost in line with the reading material. Measure
from the bottom edge of the tape to the estimated line
of sight (which extends from the center of the pupil to
the reading material). Add this value to the seg drop
(MRP height minus seg height) to arrive at the reading
level.
Determining the Reading Level Subjectively
To determine reading level subjectively, tape the sample
frame as described above. This time have the wearer
xate a point at the near working distance. Lower a card
from above past the level of the tape until it just barely
occludes the xation point. Note the distance the edge
of the card overlaps the tape into the near portion and
add this value to the seg drop.
Determining the Reading Level by Calculation

To determine the reading level by calculation, make a
judgment as to how far below the seg line most near work
will occur. That is to say, estimate how far below the seg
line the reading level will be. This estimation allows a
certain amount of exibility. The closer to the line that
the reading level is estimated to be, the more likely the
imbalance will be undercorrected. Thus the person
doing the calculation can choose to undercorrect the
imbalance a certain amount by choosing a higher reading
level. In most instances, reading level will be 3 to 5 mm
below the seg line. Reading depth will be the seg drop
plus the estimated distance that the reading level is below
the seg line.
Example 21-7
The MRPs for a pair of at-top bifocal lenses are both
23 mm high. The lenses are measured for placement at a
seg height of 18 mm. What will the reading depth be?
Solution
An estimate of the reading level position is made for 3 mm
below the seg line. This allows the distance between MRP
and reading level to be calculated. First, the position of the
seg line is determined.
23 mm (position of MRP )
18 mm (seg height )
= 5 mm (seg drop below MRP )
To nd the reading depth, 3 mm is added to this value so
that the eyes are far enough into the seg area to allow for
reading.
5 mm (set drop below MRP )
+3 mm
= 8 mm (reading depth)
METHODS FOR DETERMINING THE PRISM

CORRECTION NEEDED
How the Prescriber Determines the Needed
Amount of Imbalance Correction
Correcting for a vertical imbalance at near may not
necessitate using the full amount of calculated compensation. (How the amount of vertical imbalance is calculated is covered later in this chapter in the section
titled Correcting the Full Imbalance by Calculations.)
Some individuals with a longstanding vertical imbalance
become acclimated to it and through continuous use are
able to overcome some of the prismatic effect by vertically diverging the eyes somewhat when reading or performing near tasks. Thus many spectacle lens wearers
are able to compensate partially for an imbalance themselves. For example, a person may show a need for 2.00
of slab-off prism when actual calculations indicate a need
C H A P T E R 21
for 3.00. It is possible to test and see how much imbalance is required. This is most easily done if the person
is wearing glasses that contain a current, valid distance
prescription.
With the individual wearing the correct distance prescription, place tape over the upper portions of the lenses
at the actual or theoretical segment line location. This
forces the wearer to look below the tape and through the
lower area of the lenses at the level where he or she will
be reading. A xation disparity testing unit is held in the
reading position and Polaroid lters placed over the
glasses. Hold a hand-held vertical prism bar with prisms
of increasing power over one of the wearers eyes. (If a
prism bar is not available, loose trial prism lenses may
be used.) Incrementally increase the prism amount by
moving the prism bar until the xation disparity target
shows proper alignment. This is the correct amount of
slab-off prism needed.
If a xation disparity testing unit is not available, it is
possible to position a pen light at the reading level and
place a red Maddox rod over one eye. Incrementally
increase the prism over one eye with the prism bar until
the red line intersects with the white light. This method
may yield a larger amount of vertical prism than the
xation disparity method. When imbalance is determined using methods such as these, the prism amount
becomes a part of the prescription.
Sometimes a prescription simply indicates the need
for slab off, but does not state the amount, leaving it
to the dispenser or laboratory to calculate. In many
instances, even when the need for slab off exists, it is not
part of the prescription. This does not preclude the dispenser from incorporating slab off in the wearers spectacles, however, since vertical imbalance is a spectacle
lens-induced problem.
How to Use a Lensmeter to Determine the

Amount of Imbalance
If the wearers distance prescription has not changed, the
amount of imbalance may be determined as follows:
1. Spot the MRPs of the lenses.
2. Having predetermined the reading position, locate
the reading centers. This is done by measuring
down from the MRPs to the reading level and in by
the amount seg inset.
3. Spot the newly located reading centers. (These will
correspond to the wearers near interpupillary
distance [near PD] at the reading level).
4. Center one reading center before the lensmeter
aperture and read the amount of vertical prism
present. Without moving the lensmeter table up or
down, slide the glasses over so the second reading
center is in front of the lensmeter aperture and
measure the vertical prismatic amount at this point.
5. The vertical prism difference between these two
vertical prism readings is the full amount of vertical
prism imbalance experienced by the wearer.
Anisometropia
509
If the distance prescription has changed, the old glasses

cannot be used to measure vertical imbalance.
How an Optical Laboratory Determines the

Amount of Imbalance
The optical laboratory determines the amount of slaboff prism by calculation. The chief advantage a laboratory may have is the possible availability of computer
software containing the appropriate formula. The laboratory will compute the full amount of imbalance. If the
dispenser does not specify a reading level, the laboratory
will choose one.
CORRECTING THE FULL IMBALANCE

BY CALCULATIONS
If the full correction for vertical imbalance is indicated,
this may be calculated. There are several methods of
calculation that may be used as will be described in the
following sections. The methods do not always result
in exactly the same answers. As with any decentration
problem, difculty in calculation increases with the
complexity of the prescriptionthe easiest being spheres
and the most difcult, spherocylinder combinations.
Here are the steps normally used to nd the amount of
vertical imbalance.
1. Find the reading depth. The reading depth (or
reading level) is the seg drop plus the distance from
the segment top to the level at which the wearer is
expected to read (usually 3 to 5 mm).
2. Find the power of each lens in the 90-degree
meridian.
3. Find the prismatic effect at the reading depth of
each lens.
4. Find the prismatic difference (vertical imbalance)
between the right and left lenses.
5. When using slab-off, determine which lens will
receive the imbalance correction.
Using Prentices Rule to Calculate Vertical

Imbalance for Spheres
The traditional methods for calculating vertical imbalance use Prentices rule. Here this traditional method
will be explained, starting with an example of a prescription for spherical lenses.
Example 21-8
Suppose vertical imbalance at near is to be corrected for
the following prescription:
O.D. +3.00 D Sphere
O.S. +0.50 D Sphere
Add +2.00 D
Frame B dimension = 46 mm
Seg Height = 19 mm
Reading level is 4 mm below the seg line.
What is the vertical imbalance at the reading level?
510
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Solution
Begin by nding the reading level. In calculating imbalance,
it is helpful to visualize the situation described. Because the
B dimension is 46 mm,
seg drop = B / 2 seg height
= 46 / 2 19
= 23 19
=4
Because the reading level is 4 mm below the seg line, it will
be 8 mm below the distance OCs. (This is shown in Figure
21-20.)
Use Prentices rule to determine the vertical prismatic
effect at the reading level. In the example problem, the
reading level is 8 mm below the OC so the vertical prismatic
effect for the right eye is:
V = cF
= 0.8 (3.00)
= 2.40
The base direction is up since the lens is plus. (Since we
are only concerned with vertical prismatic imbalance, the
horizontal prismatic effect is not needed and does not need
to be calculated.)
The vertical prismatic effect at the left reading center is
calculated in the same manner as for the right:
V = cF
= 0.8 (0.50)
= 0.40 Base Up
Therefore the vertical imbalance is the difference between
the left and right vertical components at the reading level.
2.40 base up O.D.
0.40 base up O.S.
= 2.00 base up O.D.
FOD = + 3.00 DS
The full correction for vertical imbalance must counteract

2.00 base up before the right eye at near. This may be
done by:
1. Either placing 2.00 of base-up prism before the left
eye at near, or
2. Placing 2.00 base-down prism before the right eye at
near.
The choice depends on the method of compensation
used. If the imbalance were corrected using conventional
slab-off prism, the slab-off correction would be placed before
the most minus or least plus lens. In this case the least plus
is the left lens.
Using Prentices Rule to Calculate Vertical

Imbalance for Spherocylinders
Spherocylinders at 90 Degrees or 180 Degrees
Calculation of vertical imbalance at near for spherocylinders is fairly straightforward when the cylinder axes
are at 90 or 180 degrees.
Example 21-9
Calculate the imbalance for the following prescription:
O.D. +4.00 0.50 180
O.S. +2.00 1.25 180
Add +2.00 D
Seg drop = 4 mm
Reading level is 5 mm below the segment line.
Solution
1. First we nd the distance from the optical center of the
lens to the reading level. This is the seg drop plus the
distance from the segment line to the reading level. In
this case it would be
Reading depth = 4 mm + 5 mm
= 9 mm
FOS = + 0.50
O.C.
O.C.
Seg height
Reading center
Reading level
Seg inset
Figure 21-20. Reading center

location is specied from two
dimensions. The lateral position is
dictated by the near interpupillary
distance, which determines seg
inset, and the vertical position is
ascertained by reading level.
C H A P T E R 21
2. Next nd the power of each lens in the 90-degree
meridian. This can be done by placing the prescription
on power crosses as shown in Figure 21-21. For the
right lens the power in the 90-degree meridian is
+3.50 D. For the left lens the power in the 90-degree
meridian is +0.75 D.
3. Now we use Prentices rule to nd the vertical
prismatic effect at the reading level. For the right lens
this is
= cF
= 0.9 3.50
= 3.15
Since the lens is a plus lens and we are looking below
the optical center, the base direction is base up. The
prismatic effect is 3.15 base up.
For the left lens
Example 21-10
Calculate the imbalance for the following prescription:
O.D. 4.00 1.00 180
O.S. +1.00 0.50 180
Add +1.50 D
Seg height = 14 mm
Reading level is determined to be 4 mm below the top of
the bifocal line.
Solution
First nd the reading level. This is done by nding the seg
drop and adding it to the distance from the segment line
down to the reading level. Segment drop is
Drop =
=
=
=
= cF
= 0.9 0.75
= 0.675
The prismatic effect is 0.675 base up.
4. Since both lenses have a base up prismatic effect, the
prismatic difference is found by subtracting the two
numbers.
3.15 base up 0.675 base up = 2.475 base up
The imbalance is rounded to 2.50 base up and is written
as 2.50 base up O.D. (It could also be expressed as 2.50
base down O.S.) Do not confuse the imbalance with the
correction!
The slab-off correction used will be base up, so it will be
placed on the eye with the most minus or least plus power
in the 90-degree meridian. For this prescription the slab-off
goes on the left lens.
B/2 segment height

34/2 14
17 14
3 mm
The segment drop of 3 mm is added to the 4 mm distance

to the reading level, which totals 7 mm.
Next we nd the power of each lens in the 90 degree
meridian. For the right lens the power in the 90 degree
meridian is -5.00 D. For the left lens this will be +0.50 D.
For the right lens the vertical prismatic effect for a distance 7 mm (0.7 cm) below the distance optical center is
found by using Prentices rule.
= cF
= 0.7 5
= 3.5 base down
The direction is base down because the lens is minus and
we are looking below the optical center.
For the left lens the prismatic effect will be
+3.50 D
Figure 21-21. To calculate vertical prismatic effect for spherocylinder lenses with axes at 90 or 180
it helps to place the lens powers on
a power cross. The power in the
90 degree meridian then becomes
easy to see.
511
Anisometropia
+0.75 D
+4.00 D
+2.00 D
512
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
= cF
= 0.7 0.5
= 0.35 base up
The prism direction is base up because we are looking
through the lower half of the lens and the lens is plus in
power. To nd the amount of imbalance we will need to add
the two prism amounts. This is because one base direction
is base down and the other base up. The total amount of
imbalance can be expressed as either
5.5 base down, right eye, or
5.5 base up, left eye
The amount of correction must be an equal and opposite
amount. Either 5.5 of base up is placed on the right eye,
or 5.5 base down on the left eye. Regular slab off prism
is base up. So the slab off correction would be placed on
the right eye. (Traditional slab off prism is always placed on
the most minus or least plus eye. The right eye is the most
minus eye.)
Planocylinders and Spherocylinders, Axes Oblique

(Exact Calculations for the Traditional Method)
Calculating imbalance for planocylinders whose axes
are oblique requires considerably more calculations to
achieve the best result. One way of doing this is to use
the same calculations as outlined in Chapter 16 in the
section on Decentration of Cylinders Oriented Obliquely
and Horizontal and Vertical Decentration of Oblique
Cylinders.
Calculating the prismatic effect of the distance lens
at the reading center for spherocylinders is done by rst
calculating the prismatic effects caused by the sphere
component, then calculating the prismatic effects caused
by the cylinder component. The prismatic effects found
in the two separate operations are then added together.
The calculations required to use this method are
feasible, but difcult, and are seldom used in clinical
practice.
where
F90cyl = power of the cylinder in the 90 degree meridian
Fcyl = power of the cylinder
q = axis of the cylinder
2. Add the power of the cylinder in the 90-degree

meridian for the right lens to the power of the
sphere for the right lens (F90cyl + Fsph).
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the left lens.
4. Either (A) multiply each power by the reading depth
distance and then nd the prismatic difference
between the two (a longer method), or (B) nd the
power difference between the right and left lenses
and then multiply this difference by the reading
depth distance (a shorter method).
Example 21-11
Calculate the vertical imbalance for the following prescription using the cosine-squared method:
O.D. +3.00 +2.50 030
O.S. +0.50 +1.00 135
Add +2.00
The at top bifocal segment has a seg drop of 3 mm.
The reading level is 5 mm below the segment top.
Solution
1. To nd the power of the cylinder in the 90-degree
meridian, use:
F90 cyl = Fcyl cos2
= ( +2.50) cos2 30
= ( +2.50)(0.75)
= +1.875 D
2. Adding the power of the cylinder in the 90-degree
meridian (+1.875 D) to the sphere power (+3.00) gives:
+3.00 + 1.875 = +4.875 D
3. Repeating for the left lens results in:
Using the Cosine-Squared Method and

Prentices Rule to Find Vertical Imbalance
The cosine-squared method is a shortcut method for
nding vertical imbalance when a prescription has
oblique cylinder. Results obtained using this method are
not as exact, but the method is much faster and considerably easier. This method allows one to nd a total lens
power for the 90-degree meridian quickly. To use this
method, follow these steps:
1. Find the power* of the oblique cylinder in the 90degree meridian of the right lens using the formula:
F90cyl = Fcyl cos2 q
*Actually, there is only power in the meridian 90 degrees away from
the cylinder axis (i.e., in the power meridian of the cylinder). This
formula will accurately give curvature for a nonaxis meridian. As
stated before, this traditionally used method gives close, but not
exact, approximations.
F90 cyl = Fcyl cos2

= +1.00 cos2 135
= ( +1.00)(0.50)
= +0.50 D
for the cylinder power in the 90-degree meridian.
Total lens power in the 90 degree meridian = (F90 cyl + Fsph )
= ( +0.50) + ( +0.50)
= +1.00 D
4. For this step, proceed in one of two ways. The rst way,
though somewhat longer, is that used in earlier
examples.
A. Multiply each 90-degree lens power by the reading
depth distance in centimeters. We know the lens power in
the 90-degree meridian, but not the reading depth. The
reading depth is 5 mm below the segment line and the
segment line has a drop of 3 mm. This places the reading
C H A P T E R 21
level 8 mm (0.8 cm) below the distance optical center. Now

we can nd vertical prismatic effect.
For the right lens this is:
(4.875) (0.8) = 3.9 base up
For the left lens this is:
(1.00) (0.8) = 0.8 base up
The total vertical imbalance at the near point is the difference between these two vertical prismatic effects.
3.90 base up O.D.
0.80 base up O.S.
=3.10 base up O.D.
To shorten the process, we use the second option:
B. Find the difference between right and left lens powers.
In the 90-degree meridians these differences are:
(+4.875) (+1.00) = +3.875 D
Next multiply the power difference by the reading depth in
centimeters:
(3.875) (0.8) = 3.10 base up O.D.
Anisometropia
513
BOX 21-5
Calculating Vertical Imbalance Using the CosineSquared Method
1. Find the reading depth.
Reading depth = seg drop + 5 mm (usually)
2. Find the power of the oblique cylinder in the 90degree meridian of the right lens using the formula:
F90 cyl
where
F90 cyl
Fcyl
= Fcyl cos2
= power of the cyl in the 90-degrree meridian
= power of the cylinder
= axis of the cylinder
3. Add the power of the cylinder in the 90-degree

meridian for the right lens to the power of the sphere
for the right lens.
(F90cyl + Fsph)
4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 for the left lens.
5. Find the power differences between right and left
lenses and then multiply this difference by the
reading-depth distance.
Both of these ways of nding the imbalance result in the

same amount of vertical imbalance.
(For a summary of how to calculate vertical imbalance

using the cosine-squared method, see Box 21-5.)
Remoles Method
In a series of articles13,14,15,16,17, Arnulf Remole exposes
some deciencies in the traditional methods for calculating vertical imbalance. Remole points out a basic problem
with using Prentices rule. This problem stems back to
Prentices original supposition. Prentice presented his
rule in the context of a single, hypothetically thin
lens.18 His rule works correctly when used in context.
However, prismatic effect at a given point on a lens is
also inuenced by lens thickness and base curve.
The second problem has to do with the amount each
eye turns downward. To nd vertical imbalance in the
traditional manner we must determine a reading level.
To calculate imbalance, we assume that both eyes turn
downward equally, looking through a reading level that
is the same distance below the optic axis for both right
and left eyes. Yet we know that unequal vertical prism is
induced by unequal left and right lens powers. This
causes the two eyes to turn downward by different
amounts. This will place them at slightly different distances from their starting points and not at the same
reading level.
Remole presents an alternate method for nding prismatic effect that takes lens thickness, base curve, and
unequal vertical turning of left and right eyes into consideration. It shows how aniseikonia and vertical imbalance are related and how correcting for aniseikonia has
a direct inuence on the amount of vertical imbalance
correction that may be required.
Prismatic Effect and Magnication Are Related
Magnication is the result of a changing prismatic effect
across a lens. The equation for spectacle magnication
is employed when calculating magnication with aniseikonia. This equation takes both base curve and lens
thickness into account. Changing either base curve or
lens thickness causes a change in magnication. Remole
uses spectacle magnication to more accurately nd
prismatic effect at a given point on a lens.
Normally the entrance pupil of the eye is used when
calculating spectacle magnication for aniseikonia purposes. Here is the conventional formula as previously
described when discussing aniseikonia.
1 1
SM =
t 1 dFv
1 F1
n
= ( S ) (Pstat )
514
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Where
Right lens:
=
=
=
=
=
static spectacle magnication

center thickness
front surface lens power
refractive index
distance from the back surface of the lens to
the entrance pupil of the eye (usually vertex
distance plus 3 mm)
Fv = back vertex lens power
S = shape factor
Pstat = static power factor
SM
t
F1
n
d
Remole uses Pstat to point out that this is the power

factor for an eye that is not moving. However, when
calculating spectacle magnication when the eye is
moving, Remole maintains that the more logical point
of reference is the center of rotation of the eye. Because
the entrance pupils of the eye move as the eye rotates,
they cant be used as reference points. Instead the center
of rotation must be used.13 This changes the formula
for the eye when it is no longer in the straight-ahead
position. The formula then becomes a dynamic spectacle magnication formula so that it reads:
1 1
G=
t 1 sFv
1 F1
n
= ( S ) (Pdyn )
Where
=
=
=
=
=
dynamic spectacle magnication

center thickness
front surface lens power
refractive index
distance from the back surface of the lens to
the center of rotation of the eye
Fv = back vertex lens power
S = shape factor
Pdyn = dynamic power factor
G
t
F1
n
s
So in dynamic spectacle magnication, primary

image sizes are determined with reference to the centers
of rotation rather than the entrance pupils.13
Example 21-12
For a pair of lenses made from Trivex lens material, use
Remoles method to nd the prismatic effects for right and
left lenses for a reading level 10 mm below the distance
optical centers. Then determine the vertical imbalance
between the two eyes. The distance from the back of the
lens to the center of rotation of the eye is 27 mm. Here are
the lens parameters.
Power = +2.00 D sphere

True base curve = +6.30*
Left lens:
Power = +4.00 D sphere
True base curve = +8.34
Solution
In solving a problem like this, remember that the reading
level of 10 mm is the level at the back vertex plane of the
lens where the object ray strikes the lens. This 10-mm measurement is represented by m, the object eccentricity (Figure
21-22). Unless the lens has a power of zero, this point is
not the point through which the image ray appears to be
coming. The prismatic effect of the lens causes the eye to
turn from this point. The distance from the center of the lens
to the image point is called the image eccentricity, represented by m.
To nd the prismatic effect using object and image
eccentricities, we rst need to nd the dynamic spectacle
magnication.
Dynamic spectacle magnication is:
1 1
G=
t 1 sFv
1 F1
n
For the right lens, dynamic spectacle magnication is:
1
1
GOD =
1 (0.027) ( +2.00)
0.0032
(+6.30)
1
1.53
= (0.98682)(1.05708)
= 1.04315
The object angle (a) is the angle between the optical axis
and a line from the object point to the center of rotation of
the eye (see Figure 21-22). This angle may be calculated
since m is known and so is s. Remember,
m is the object projection on the back vertex plane of the
lens. (In this case m equals the reading level.)
s is the distance from the back vertex plane of the lens
to the center of rotation of the eye.
Therefore from the geometry of the gure we know that:
tan a =
m
s
*Since Trivex has an index of 1.53, the true base curve is also the
refractive power of the front lens surface. If the index of refraction
was any other index than 1.53, it would be necessary to convert
the true base curve to refractive power before entering it in the
equation as F1.
C H A P T E R 21
Optical axis
Anisometropia
c
a
m m
515
q
w
Dg
Back
vertex
plane
ding
Rea e
plan
Figure 21-22. In this drawing, the eye is looking through an off-axis point and experiencing prismatic effect. The object in the reading plane is denoted by g and the image
of that object by g. The difference in object and image size resulting from dynamic
spectacle magnication is denoted by g.
The angle made by the object projection as it goes through the center of rotation
of the eye (denoted by c) is abbreviated as a. The projection of the image of that object
has the abbreviation a. The letter q is the difference between the object and image
angles, a and a.
The letters m and m are the object and image projections of a and a on the back
vertex plane of the lens. m is called the object eccentricity; m is called the image
eccentricity. The working distance is w; s is the stop distance.
The letter p is the angle formed by the chief ray from the object point and the projection of the chief ray entering the eye. The diagram is not to scale.
(From Remole A: New equations for determining ocular deviations produced by
spectacle corrections, Opt Vis Sci 77(10):56, 2000.)
For the right lens this is:

m
And we can nd a by taking the inverse tan of
.
s
In other words,
a = tan1
m
s
In our example this angle is:

m
s
1 10
= tan
27
= tan1 0.37037
= 20.32314
a = tan1
This means that if the lens had a power of zero, the eye
would turn 20.3 degrees to view the object.
To nd the prismatic effect caused by the lens we need
to nd out how much the lens displaces the image of that
object. Therefore we need to nd the image angle a. To nd
this angle, we need to know m. And to nd m, we need to
know how much the image of the object was magnied. This
is found by multiplying the magnication factor, G, by the
object eccentricity, m. So
m = Gm
m = (1.04315)(10)
= 10.4315 mm
Knowing m, we can nd a, the image angle. Using the
same method as we did for the object angle, we have:
m
s
1 10.4315
= tan
27
= tan1 0.38635
= 21.12413
a = tan1
The difference between these two angles is the prismatic

effect caused by the lens. In degrees this is:
q = a a
where q is the angle the eye deviates (angle of ocular deviation) from where it would be looking without a lens in place.
This is prismatic effect in degrees. For the right lens this
is:
q = 21.12413 20.32314
= 0.80099
516
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
To convert this to prism diopters, we use the denition of a

prism diopter. So
qPD = 100 tan q
= 100 tan 0.80099
= 100 (0.01398)
= 1.40
So the prismatic effect for the right eye at the 10-mm
reading level is 1.40 prism diopters, base up.
For the left eye the procedure is repeated.
Dynamic spectacle magnication is:
1 1
G=
t 1 sFv
1 F1
n
GOS
1
1
=
1 (0.027) ( +4.00)
0.0044
(+8.34)
1
1.53
= (1.02457)(1.12108)
= 1.14862
The object angle (a) for the left eye is the same as for the
right. But the image eccentricity (m) will change as will the
image angle (a).
m = Gm
For the left lens, image eccentricity is:
m = (1.14862)(10)
= 11.4862 mm
And the image angle for the left lens is:
m
s
1 11.4862
= tan
27
= tan1 0.38635
= 23.04562
a = tan1
For the left eye, the prismatic effect in degrees is:

q = 23.04562 20.32314
= 2.72248
In prism diopters this is equal to:
qPD = 100 tan q
= 100 tan 2.72248
= 100 (0.04755)
= 4.76
So the prismatic effect for the left eye at the 10-mm
reading level is 4.76 prism diopters, base up.
The vertical imbalance between left and right eyes is:
4.76 base up 1.40 base up = 3.36 base up left eye
Shortening the Procedure. It is possible to shorten

the procedure some by nding the image angles (a ) for
both right and left eyes. But instead of converting these
angles to prism diopters, subtract the two angles rst.
Then convert to prism diopters. Here is how it would
work for the above example. We nd this relative prismatic effect (relative q) as the difference between right and
left image angles in degrees.
relative q = (eye with greater a ) (eye with lesser a )
= ( 23.04562 ) ( 21.12413 )
= 1.92149
This relative difference in degrees is then converted
into prism diopters.
qPD = 100 tan (relative q)
= 100 tan 1.92149
= 100 (0.03355)
= 3.36
Since the greater plus power is on the left eye, the
imbalance is 3.36 base up left eye. This agrees exactly
with what was found earlier.
Note that this amount of vertical imbalance is considerably greater than would be found using Prentices
rule. Prentices rule would have given 2 base up left eye
as the imbalance.
For a summary of how to nd vertical imbalance
using Remoles method, see Box 21-6.
Remole has also presented a method for determining
prismatic effect for any point on a lens in the presence
of oblique cylinder using magnication ellipses. He
states that For determining differential prismatic effects
in cylindrical lenses, the methods based on the dynamic
spectacle magnication and magnication ellipses are
far easier than the multiple vector methods. . . . They
can be applied to all types of spectacle lenses as well as
to iseikonic corrections.14 (For more on this topic see
Remole A: A new method for determining prismatic
effects in cylindrical spectacle corrections, Optom Vis
Sci 77:4, 2000.)
Comparing Results: Remoles Method Versus
Prentices Rule
Results obtained using Remoles method will not yield
the same results as found using Prentices rule. Because
Remoles method takes both lens thickness and base
curve into consideration, it would be expected to give
more accurate results. So how do the two compare?
Fortunately, The conventional application of Prentices rule can be applied to most low and moderate
anisometropic minus lens corrections without producing
clinically signicant errors.13 However, The differential prismatic effects found with minus lenses by using
the exact formula are smaller than the estimate made by
Prentices rule, whereas with plus lenses, the prismatic
C H A P T E R 21
BOX 21-6
Finding Vertical Imbalance Using Remoles
Method
1. Find the dynamic spectacle magnication (G) for both
right and left lenses.
2. Determine the proposed reading level for the wearer,
if not already known.
3. Find the object angle (a) for the reading level in
degrees.
a. Object angle can be found knowing that:
tan a =
m
s
m is the object projection on the back vertex plane

of the lens. (In this case, m equals the reading
level.)
s is the distance from the back vertex plane of the
lens to the center of rotation of the eye.
b. Therefore to nd a, we use:
a = tan1
m
s
4. Use the dynamic spectacle magnication (G) and the

object eccentricity (a) to nd the image eccentricity
(a) in degrees for each eye.
a. For each eye, image eccentricity (a) along the back
vertex sphere is equal to object eccentricity (a)
times the dynamic spectacle magnication (G), or
a = aG.
5. Find the difference between the image angles for
right and left lenses.
relative q = (eye with greater a) (eye with lesser a)
6. Convert this degree measure into prism diopters.
qPD = 100tan (relative q)
This is the amount of vertical imbalance for the two
eyes.
Anisometropia
517
This means that, hypothetically, if we are able to make

right and left lenses have the same magnication,* we
will also eliminate vertical imbalance. Furthermore,
the absence of prismatic effect will apply to the entire
binocular eld, which presents an enormous advantage
over a slab-off lens.13
However, as Remole himself points out, this will not
usually be the case because the clinically measured
amount of aniseikonia is usually less than the calculated
amount. Thus the calculated amount of aniseikonia will
not be fully corrected. But it does mean that any amount
of correction for aniseikonia will lessen the need for as
much vertical imbalance correction.
In summary:
1. Reducing aniseikonia will reduce the amount of
vertical imbalance correction needed.
2. Reducing aniseikonia may reduce the vertical
imbalance a sufcient amount so that the remaining
imbalance is not clinically signicant enough to
require correction.
DESIGNING A LENS TO CHANGE

THE APPEARANCE OF A BLIND EYE
Normally, lens power is used only to correct refractive
error and prism power to alleviate problems with binocular vision. Yet there is another use for power, prism,
and even tint that has nothing to do with refractive error.
It can also be used to improve the cosmetic appearance
of a blind or prosthetic (articial) eye.
A skilled ocularist will be able to match the color and
appearance of the articial eyes iris and sclera to that of
the seeing eye. But because of a condition of the eye
socket, an articial eye may look abnormal, even when
eye colors are well matched. If further cosmetic surgery
will not help, cosmetics may be improved with spectacle
lenses. Lenses used for cosmetic purposes are not part
of the prescription. They may be determined by the
dispenser at the time of frame selection.
Changing the Apparent Size of the Eye

effects are larger.13 In fact, The conventional application of Prentices rule to anisometropic plus lens corrections will often result in large errors.13
Simply put, . . . the textbook application of Prentices
rule will underestimate the differential prismatic effect
for plus lens corrections and overestimate the effect for
minus lens corrections.13
Reducing Aniseikonia Will Also Reduce
Vertical Imbalance
When aniseikonia is present, one lens has a different
power than the other. This means that in the periphery
of the higher-powered lens, there is more prismatic
effect. By changing parameters, such as base curve and
lens thickness, magnication changes and, as we have
seen in the previous section, so does prismatic effect.
Lenses have the optical effect of magnifying if they are

plus or minifying if they are minus. When a plus lens
magnies, it not only causes the world to look larger to
the wearer, but the wearers eyes will also look bigger to
everybody else. Normally, dispensers try to reduce this
effect by using aspherics to atten and thin the lens. Yet
sometimes it may be advantageous to make a nonseeing
eye look bigger intentionally.
*This magnication needs to be the dynamic spectacle magnication as calculated with reference to the eyes centers of rotation,
not the static spectacle magnication; the dynamic spectacle magnication is a greater magnication than the normally calculated
(static) spectacle magnication.
518
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Using Spheres
If a person has lost an eye and had it replaced with a
prosthetic eye, the articial eye may match the color of
the seeing eye perfectly. The articial eye may have a
sunken appearance, however, making it look smaller. To
correct this effect, hold up plus trial lenses in front of
the prosthetic eye until it looks closer in size to the
seeing eye. When a good match is achieved, use the
experimentally found power. Likewise, if the nonseeing
eye looks too big, minus power can be used to make it
appear smaller.
Using Cylinders
Planocylinders may be used to change only the horizontal or only the vertical size of the eye. For instance,
sometimes even when the horizontal dimension of the
eye looks normal, the vertical depth of the palpebral
ssure* of the nonseeing eye may be smaller than that
of the seeing eye. To make the ssure look larger vertically, a plus cylinder, axis 180 may be used. To nd the
correct power, hold plus cylinders up in front of the eye
until the desired cosmetic effect is achieved.
Tilting the Cylinder to Change Lid Slant
In some instances, the eyelids of the prosthetic eye may
appear slanted. When a cylinder lens is rotated around
its axis, it will cause a horizontal line to tilt. A plus cylinder will cause a straight line to tilt against the direction of rotation, whereas a minus cylinder will cause a
line to tilt with the direction of rotation. When deciding
whether to use plus or minus cylinder, the deciding
factor is magnication.
To determine the optimal axis placement, hold the
cylinder lens in front of the eye (preferably using a trial
frame) and turn the axis until the slanted lids match the
straight lids.20
Summary
1. The apparent overall size of the eye may be changed
using plus or minus sphere lenses.
2. By using planocylinder lenses, the size of the eye
may be increased or decreased in one meridian (the
power meridian of the cylinder). The magnication
in the meridian 90 degrees away (the axis meridian)
will remain unaffected.
3. Rotating a planocylinder lens away from the
horizontal or vertical meridian causes tilt. If eyelids
look unnaturally tilted, place a cylinder lens in front
of the nonseeing eye and rotate the cylinder axis
until the eyelids look more like the normal eye.
*The palpebral ssure is the area between the upper and lower
eyelids.
B
Figure 21-23. A, The articial eye is this persons right eye.
It appears low in comparison with the left eye. B, An attempt
has been made to cosmetically alter the appearance of the eye.
This has been done by placing 10 of base-down prism in the
right lens. To help prevent a thick lower edge on the right lens,
a frame should be chosen with a narrow vertical dimension.
To help camouage lens thickness, the lenses have been given
an antireection coating.
(Courtesy of Laurie Pierce, Tampa, Fla.)
Using a Lens to Camouage Scars

or Deformities
Sometimes a nonseeing eye is scarred or disgured, but
not to the point where a patch would be worn. In this
case a lens should be selected that will decrease the visibility of the eye. Tinting may be applied to the lens
as either a solid or a gradient tint. An antireection
coating should not be used. Keep in mind that tinting
both lenses will decrease the wearers vision at night.
Cosmetic considerations should not rule over safety
considerations.
Changing the Apparent Location of an Eye

Trauma causing the loss of an eye can also cause the
displacement of the socket. This makes the prosthetic
eye appear higher or lower than the seeing eye. If the
blind or prosthetic eye is lower or higher or appears to
turn inward or outward compared with the seeing eye,
its apparent location may be altered by using prism.
The base direction of the prism used will always be
placed in the direction that the eye is physically displaced. In other words, if the eye appears too high, use
base-up prism. If the eye turns in, use base in. If this is
done, then to an observer, the wearers eye will appear
to be displaced toward the apex of the prism. Such prism
C H A P T E R 21
is called inverse prism because it is opposite to what would

normally be prescribed for a seeing eye.
Example 21-13
Suppose a right prosthetic eye is physically displaced downward as in Figure 21-23, A. How could the eye be made to
look more normal?
Solution
Increasingly larger amounts of base-down prism are held in
front of the prosthetic eye until, with 10 of base-down
prism, the eye appears more evenly placed relative to the
seeing eye. To prevent having the right lens appear thick at
519
Anisometropia
the bottom, use a frame with a small vertical size (small

B dimension. To make the prism less obvious, an antireection coating should be used.
It is possible to split the prism unevenly between the left
and right eyes. If the prism is split, the maximum amount of
vertical prism should not exceed 4 in front of the seeing
eye. Exceeding 4 may cause postural changes and errors
in the perceived location of objects. In this case one might
use 7 base down before the right eye and 3 base up
before the left eye.
Table 21-1 summarizes the use of lenses for cosmetic

effects.
TABLE 21-1
Using Lenses to Achieve a Desired Cosmetic Effect

Problem
Desired Cosmetic Effect
Lens Solution
Eye looks small.
Make the eye look bigger.
Use a plus sphere lens.
Eye looks large.
Make the eye look smaller.
Use a minus sphere lens.
Eye not open as wide as the seeing eye.

(Fissure looks too small vertically.)
Widen the ssure vertically.
Use a plus cylinder, axis 180.
Eye open wider than the seeing eye.

(Fissure looks too large vertically.)
Close the eye somewhat.
Use a minus cylinder, axis 180.
Eye looks too small horizontally.
Widen the horizontal appearance

of the eye.
Use a plus cylinder, axis 90.
Continued
520
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 21-1
Using Lenses to Achieve a Desired Cosmetic Effectcontd

Problem
Desired Cosmetic Effect
Lens Solution
Eye looks too wide horizontally.
Narrow the horizontal appearance

of the eye.
Use a minus cylinder, axis 90.
Eye looks too low.
Raise the apparent height of the eye.
Use base-down prism.
Eye looks too high.
Lower the apparent height of the eye.
Use base-up prism.
Eyelid is slanted.
Cause the rotated appearance of the lid

to change in tilt and match the
horizontal look of the seeing eye.
Rotate plus cylinder axis against

the direction of desired tilt or
rotate minus cylinder axis with
the direction of desired tilt.
Eye has unsightly appearance or

scarring of the lids or orbital area.
Reduce visibility of the eye.
Use tinted lensessolid tint for

overall masking, gradient tint
to mask the upper areas. If tints
are not used, avoid antireection
coatings.
REFERENCES
1. Hofstetter HW, Grif n JR, Berman MS et al: The
dictionary of visual science, ed 5, Boston, 2000,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. Rabin J, Bradley A, Freeman RD: On the relation between
aniseikonia and axial anisometropia, Am J Optom &
Physiol Optics 60:553-558, 1983.
3. Bradley A, Rabin J, Freeman RD: Nonoptical determinants of aniseikonia, Investig Ophthalmol Vis Sci
24(4):507, 1983.
4. Winn B, Ackerly RG, Brown CA et al: Reduced aniseikonia in axial anisometropia with contact lens correction, J
Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 8:341-344, 1988.
5. Winn B, Ackerly RG, Brown CA et al: The superiority of

contact lenses in the correction of all anisometropia,
Transactions BCLA conference:95, 1986.
6. Achron LR, Witkin NS, Ervin AM et al: The effect of
relative spectacle magnication on aniseikonia, JAOA
69(9):591-599, 1998.
7. Linksz A, Bannon RE: Aniseikonia and refractive problems, Int Ophthalmol Clin, 5(2):515-534, 1965.
8. Stephens GL, Polasky M: New options for aniseikonia
correction: the use of high index materials, Optom Vis Sci
68(11):899-906, 1991.
9. Sheedy JE: Answer to reader query: slab-off in progressive
addition lenses? Opt Dispensing News 223, 2005.
C H A P T E R 21
10. Brooks CW: Understanding Lens Surfacing, Boston,
1992, Butterworth-Heinemann, p 290.
11. Drew R: CR-39 slab-off lenses: now ready cast, Optic
Manage 13:23, 1984.
12. Rosen K: Premolded slab-offs bring results, Optic Manage
13:32, 1984.
13. Remole A: Determining exact prismatic deviations
in spectacle corrections, Opt Vis Sci 76(11):783-795,
1999.
14. Remole A: A new method for determining prismatic
effects in cylindrical spectacle corrections, Opt Vis Sci
77(4):211-220, 2000.
15. Remole A: New equations for determining ocular deviations produced by spectacle corrections, Opt Vis Sci
77(10):555-563, 2000.
Anisometropia
521
16. Remole A: Compensating for vertical anisometropic

imbalance by the positioning of segment centers, Opt Vis
Sci 78(7):539-555, 2001.
17. Remole A: The theory of object and image eccentricities:
a new dimension in ophthalmic optics, Opt Vis Sci
80(10):708-719, 2003.
18. Remole A: Correspondence: new equations for spectacle
induced ocular deviations: responses to some typical questions, Opt Vis Sci 78(7):481, 2001.
19. Remole A: A new method for determining prismatic
effects in cylindrical spectacle corrections, Opt Vis Sci
77(4):220, 2000.
20. Flynn MF, Hosek DK: Cosmetic ophthalmic lenses: prescribing them for patients with ocular prostheses, Opt
Today 3:49, 1995.
Prociency Test
1. A form of aniseikonia occurs in a limited but
useful amount in those whose eyes are identical to
one anotherboth eyes may not have refractive
error, or both may have identical refractive error.
This form of aniseikonia is used to help in
determining the location of an object in space and
is called:
a. symmetrical aniseikonia
b. anatomic aniseikonia
c. optical aniseikonia
d. axial aniseikonia
e. physiologic aniseikonia
2. A person is wearing the following prescription:
R: +3.00
L: +0.50
a. The right lens is made from CR-39 plastic of
index 1.498, is 4.3 mm thick, and has a front
surface refractive power of +8.50 D. Both lenses
are worn at a vertex distance of 13 mm. What is
the spectacle magnication for the right lens?
b. The left lens is 2.0 mm thick, is also made from
CR-39 plastic, has a front surface refractive
power of +6.00 D, and is also worn at a 13-mm
vertex distance. What is the spectacle
magnication for the lens?
c. What is the difference in spectacle
magnication resulting from the right and left
spectacle lenses?
3. True or false? The amount of magnication

produced by an ametropic eye compared with the
image size produced by a standard emmetropic
eye is called relative spectacle magnication.
4. If an eye has axial ametropia and is too long or too
short, the image size will be larger or smaller than
it would normally be. According to Knapps law,
using spectacle lenses on such an eye will bring
the retinal image size back to normal. Which of
these statements about Knapps law is correct?
a. Knapps law is not just theory. It can be
depended upon clinically.
b. Knapps law does not always hold true in
clinical practice.
5. True or false? Aniseikonia symptoms are often the
same as those experienced with either uncorrected
refractive error, or oculomotor imbalances. The
difference is that with aniseikonia, symptoms
either are not helped by the correction, or appear
after refractive and oculomotor problems are
corrected.
6. Which of the following lens and frame options
will NOT help to reduce the possibility of
aniseikonia becoming a problem?
a. Use a frame with a short vertex distance.
b. Use a frame with a small eye size.
c. Use lenses with steepened base curves.
d. Use an aspheric lens design.
e. Use a high-index lens material.
522
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
7. A wearer has anisometropia, and both right and

left lenses are plus in power. One lens is higher
plus than the other. To reduce aniseikonia, all of
the following responses are appropriate EXCEPT
ONE. Which possibility is not appropriate?
a. Thin the higher plus lens.
b. Steepen the base curve of the higher plus lens.
c. Choose a frame with a minimum vertex distance.
d. Increase the center thickness for the lower plus
lens.
11. What is a bitoric spectacle lens?

a. A bitoric spectacle lens is one that has two lens
curves on one surface of the lens.
b. A bitoric spectacle lens is one with aspheric
surfaces on both the front and back of the lens.
c. A bitoric spectacle lens is one with two curves
on the front and two curves on the back of the
lens.
d. A bitoric spectacle lens is one with an aspheric
front surface and an atoric back surface.
8. One lens is plus and the other minus. We want to

minimize aniseikonia. All of the following are
wrong things to do EXCEPT ONE. Which one
is the correct thing to do?
a. Steepen the base curve of the plus lens.
b. Increase the vertex distance for the minus lens by
moving the bevel to the back part of the lens edge.
c. Thin both lenses.
d. Choose a frame with a smaller vertex distance.
e. Use a frame with a larger eye size.
12. Vertical imbalance situations are most troublesome

to the wearer when they are:
a. long standing.
b. of recent origin.
9. One possibility for determining the percent

magnication difference between right and left
lenses is to estimate what this difference might be
based on the spectacle lens prescription. This is
done using a rule of thumb that multiplies a
certain percent by the difference between the
spectacle lens prescription for left and right eyes.
At the time of this writing, the preferred closest
rule of thumb is:
a. 0.5% magnication difference for each diopter
of anisometropia.
b. 1.0% magnication difference for each diopter
of anisometropia.
c. 2.5% magnication difference for each diopter
of anisometropia.
d. 3.5% magnication difference for each diopter
of anisometropia.
10. Here are some statements about the value of
modifying spectacle lenses to lessen aniseikonia.
Which of these statements is most accurate?
a. Compensating for aniseikonia by modifying the
spectacle lenses is of no value.
b. Compensating for aniseikonia by modifying the
spectacle lenses is only of minimal value since it
is seldom done in practice.
c. Compensating for aniseikonia by modifying the
spectacle lenses has about a 50-50 chance of
making a subjectively noticeable difference from
the wearers perspective when compared with
no compensation for aniseikonia.
d. Compensating for aniseikonia by modifying the
spectacle lenses makes a subjectively noticeable
difference for a signicant majority of wearers
when compared with no compensation for
aniseikonia.
13. Contact lenses are used to overcome vertical

imbalance because:
a. Spectacle lenses create vertical imbalance at
near, but contact lenses do not.
b. Contact lenses have vertical imbalance, but that
imbalance is smaller and therefore not
troublesome.
c. Contact lenses can be made with prism
ballasting on one lens to correct for vertical
imbalance.
d. Contact lenses are not used to overcome
vertical imbalance problems.
14. Tolerance to vertical imbalance in the reading area
varies from person to person. Generally, any time
there is a difference of between _____ and _____ of
refractive power between right and left lenses,
possible vertical imbalance problems merit
consideration.
a. 0.50 D and 1.00 D
b. 1.00 D and 2.00 D
c. 2.00 D and 3.00 D
d. 3.00 D and 4.00 D
15. Listed below are several options for vertical
imbalance. Choose the correct response for how
the option overcomes (or does not overcome) the
problem of vertical imbalance.
a. ____contact lenses
b. ____two pairs of glasses
c. ____dropping the MRP height
d. ____raising the seg height
e. ____Fresnel press-on prism
f. ____slab off (bicentric grind)
g. ____dissimilar segs
h. ____compensated R segs
1. This option provides an equal but opposite
amount of prism to counteract the imbalance.
2. The imbalance is still present, but this option
allows the wearer to look through areas of the
lens where imbalance is either not problematic,
or not as problematic.
C H A P T E R 21
3. Imbalance is no longer present with this option.

4. This option presents a compromise situation
where vertical imbalance is reduced at near, but
increased in the distance.
5. This option is of no help in correcting or
avoiding imbalance and should not be used.
16. True or false? The best correction for vertical
imbalance at near caused by the spectacle lens
correction of anisometropia is always the full
calculated amount of prismatic effect induced at
the reading center.
17. When a slab-off correction is used on a bifocal
lens, the slab-off line:
a. is always on the same lens surface as the bifocal
line.
b. is always on the opposite side of the lens surface
as the bifocal line.
c. may be on either the same, or the opposite side
as the bifocal line, depending on segment style.
18. True or false? A slab-off correction can be used
with a progressive addition lens.
19. Slab off for a fused glass multifocal lens pair is
always ground on the:
a. most plus or least minus lens.
b. stronger of the two lenses.
c. most minus or least plus lens.
d. thicker lens.
e. dominant eye.
20. A reverse slab lens:
a. has the slab-off prism correction on the same
lens as it would be for a fused glass bifocal lens,
but the prism is base down in effect.
b. has base up created in the distance portion only.
c. is the only possible choice for a 25-mm round
seg plastic lens.
d. has prism on the most plus or least minus lens.
e. none of the above is a correct response
O.D. 3.50 1.00 090
O.S. 5.50 1.50 090
add +2.00 D
Using the traditional method for calculating
vertical imbalance, how much vertical imbalance is
present for a reading level 10 mm below the
distance OCs?
a. 1.10 base down O.D.
b. 2.00 base down O.S.
c. 2.00 base down O.D.
d. 2.50 base down O.S. and 0.50 base up O.D.
Anisometropia
523

O.D. +5.00 2.00 180
O.S. +3.00 2.00 090
Would there be vertical imbalance manifested at a
reading level 10 mm below the OCs?
a. yes
b. no
23. Using traditional methods for calculating vertical
imbalance, how much slab-off prism would have
to be ground on which lens to correct vertical
imbalance completely at a point 10 mm below the
distance OC for the following prescription?
O.D. +2.75 D sphere
O.S. 2.75 D sphere
a. 2.75 base down O.D.
b. 0.00
c. 5.50 base up O.D.
d. 5.50 base up O.S.
24. What amount of vertical imbalance at the reading
level is created by the following lens correction
(the reading level is 10 mm below the distance
OC)? (Use traditional methods of calculation to
nd your answer.)
O.D. +3.00 +l.00 180
O.S. +1.00 +0.75 180
a. 2.00
b. 5.75
c. 2.25
d. Not enough information is given.
e. Enough information is given, but none of the
above is correct.
25. Here is a prescription for an individual who will be
wearing a slab-off correction:
R: +4.50 sphere
L: +1.00 sphere
Add = +2.00
On which eye would the slab-off prism be placed
for each of the following lenses?
a. fused-glass at-top 28 bifocal
1. right
2. left
3. cannot be made
b. CR-39 plastic Executive bifocal
1. right
2. left
3. cannot be made
c. Younger precast slab-off at-top 28 bifocal
1. right
2. left
3. cannot be made
524
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
26. a. What is the vertical imbalance to the nearest

quarter diopter for the following prescription,
assuming that the reading level will be 4 mm
down into the bifocal? (Again, use traditional
methods for calculating imbalance.)
R: 6.00 1.00 180
L: 0.50 0.50 180
Add = +2.25
Seg height = 18 mm
A = 50 mm
B = 40 mm
Distance between lenses = 18 mm
PD = 64 mm
b. The slab off is to be used with an Executive

bifocal. The slab off should be placed on which
lens?
1. right
2. left
29. A wearer has a prescription for a pair of glasses

with powers of:
R: 1.00 0.25 175
L: 7.50 2.50 025
The slab-off line is to be placed on a pair of

progressive add lenses at a level of 7 mm below the
PRP. The reading level is assumed to be 4 mm
below the slab line. Using the cosine-squared
method, how much vertical imbalance would be
present at the reading level?
30. Vertical imbalance must be corrected for a reading
level 10 mm below the distance OC for the
following prescription:
R: O.D. +4.50 D sphere
L: O.S. +2.75 + 0.50 180
Add: +2.50 D
seg drop = 5 mm

R: 5.50 2.50 030
L: 2.50 1.50 160
Add: +2.00
Seg height = 20 mm
If the assumption is that the reading level is 5 mm

below the seg line, what amount of vertical
imbalance is present in the lens pair? (Use the
cosine-squared method for calculating the
imbalance and give the answer to the nearest
quarter diopter.)
a. 3.25
b. 3.50
c. 4.00
d. 4.50
R: +4.25 0.50 105
L: +0.50 1.25 065
Add: +2.25
Seg height = 19 mm
If the assumption is that the reading level is 5 mm

below the seg line, what amount of vertical
imbalance is present in the lens pair? (Use the
cosine-squared method for calculating the
imbalance and give the answer to the nearest
quarter diopter.)
a. 3.25
b. 3.50
c. 4.00
d. 4.50
What combination of dissimilar segs could be

used?
1. 22-mm round
a. 1 and 2
2. 38-mm round
b. 2 and 3
3. at-top 22 or 25 or 28 or 35 (all
c. 3 and 4
with seg centers 5 mm below the
d. 1 and 3
seg line)
e. 2 and 4
4. at-top 45 or Executive (seg center
on the line)
31. In the previous question, which seg style is used
on the left eye?
a. 22 round
b. 38 round
c. at-top 22 or 25 or 28 or 35
d. at-top 45 or Executive
32. Find the theoretical dissimilar segment pair which
will correct 2.80 of vertical imbalance for a
prescription with a +2.00 D add power.
1. 22-mm round seg
a. 1 and 2
2. 38-mm round seg
b. 2 and 3
3. at-top 22 or 25 or 28 or 35 (all
c. 3 and 4
with seg centers 5 mm below the
d. 1 and 3
seg line)
e. 2 and 4
4. at-top 45 or Executive
C H A P T E R 21
33. A person wears a prescription of:

O.D. +1.00 0.75 180
O.S. 3.00 0.50 180
add +2.00 D
and reads at a level 8 mm below the distance OC.

a. How far apart would the segment optical
centers of two dissimilar segs have to be
separated from each other to correct fully for
vertical imbalance calculated using traditional
methods?
1. 13 mm
2. 15 mm
3. 19 mm
4. 20 mm
5. none of the above
b. Even though this would work optically, would it
normally be considered an acceptable cosmetic
solution to the problem?
34. True or false? Reducing the amount of aniseikonia
can also reduce the amount of vertical imbalance
correction needed for a prescription with
anisometropia.
35. True or false? Two spectacle lenses have the same
power, but their base curves and center thicknesses
are different. For a point 10 mm below their
distance centers these two lenses may not have the
same prismatic effect.
Anisometropia
525
36. For a high plus, anisometropic correction, how

will vertical imbalance calculated using Remoles
method compare with the amount of vertical
imbalance calculated using Prentices rule?
a. The calculation using Prentices rule will yield
the higher amount of imbalance.
b. The calculation using Remoles method will
yield the higher amount of imbalance.
c. Both methods will yield the same amount of
imbalance.
37. A blind, prosthetic left eye is physically lower than
the right, seeing eye. Otherwise, the two eyes
match perfectly. What could be done to give a
better overall appearance?
a. Use a plus lens in front of the left eye.
b. Use a minus lens in front of the left eye.
c. Use base-up prism in front of the left eye.
d. Use base-down prism in front of the left eye.
38. A right, prosthetic eye has a palpebral aperture
that is larger than the left, seeing eye. The
horizontal dimension of the aperture is denitely
not larger than the seeing eye. What would be
your rst trial lens option for the prosthetic eye?
a. a plano, plus cylinder lens, axis 180
b. a plano, plus cylinder lens, axis 90
c. a plano, minus cylinder lens, axis 180
d. a plano, minus cylinder lens, axis 90
e. a plus sphere lens
C H A P T E R 22
Absorptive Lenses
ne of the most misunderstood areas in ophthalmic dispensing is absorptive or tinted lenses.

Myths and folk tales about the harmful or therapeutic effects of certain hues persist. This may create
confusion, even for the dispenser, who may develop a
personal philosophy about absorptive lenses through a
combination of learned facts and educated guesses or who
may simply yield to the changing tides of fashion and let
the wearer have whatever most pleases him or her.
Yet it is the responsibility of the person engaged in
eye care to know as much as possible about the subject
of absorptive lenses. This chapter provides a thorough
introduction.
CLASSIFICATION
Absorptive lenses are classied by two variables. The rst
is the tint of the lens itself, and the second is the lens transmission. Tints of the same basic color are labeled by a
variety of names, depending on the manufacturer or in
the case of plastic lenses, the name of the dye used to
tint the lens. Differences of shade are sometimes discernible when two manufacturers products are held side
by side. For this reason, a record of the lens source
should be entered on the wearers record so that a replacement lens will match the original.
The relative absorption of a lens is most often denoted
as either percent transmission or percent absorption.
(Twenty percent transmission is the same as 80%
absorption.)
Absorption used to be denoted by a letter, such as A,
B, C, or D, or by a number, such as 1, 2, or 3. The higher
the number or the further down the alphabet, the darker
the tint will be.
Because this system was developed for tinted glass
lenses that change transmission with increasing thickness, specic transmission will vary for different powered
lenses having the same number or letter designation.
Because this system still has limited usage, the dispenser
must be aware of these potential differences.
Problems of Uniform Transmission Inherent in

Pretinted Glass Lenses
It should be noted that the specied transmission for a
pretinted glass lens applies to a 2-mm thick plano lens.
526
Any departure from this thickness will give rise to

changes in transmission. The individual who was previously wearing a C tint in a +2.00 D glass lens may therefore nd the same tint irritatingly dark when the
prescription is changed to +3.50 D.
Glass lenses that vary in thickness from one area to
another will also show proportional changes in transmission. The high minus lens will have a lighter central
portion, darkening rapidly towards the periphery (Figure
22-1, A); the plus lens shows a darkened central zone
with the tint lightening to the normally expected shade
at the periphery (Figure 22-1, B). Perhaps the most
unusual is a high, near plano minus cylinder lens. In
this case a lighter band runs across the lens corresponding to the location of the minus cylinder axis (Figure
22-1, C). Fortunately, few absorptive lenses require
glass lens material, making the problem an infrequent
occurrence.
THE EFFECT OF VISIBLE AND NONVISIBLE

LIGHT ON THE EYE
Light is electromagnetic radiation found in the wavelength range that includes infrared (IR), visible, and
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Not all of these wavelengths
cause an activation of photoreceptors that produce vision
(Figure 22-2). Light is interpreted as color according to
the length of the light wave that strikes the retina.
The visible spectrum is considered to be between 380
and 760 nm.1 (However, light with a wavelength as short
as 309 nm may be seen if it is of sufcient intensity. Light
having sufcient intensity and a wavelength as short as
298 nm could be seen if it were not absorbed by the
crystalline lens before reaching the retina.)2
Much of the light in the UV and IR regions of the
spectrum that strikes the eye never reaches the retina.
Instead it is absorbed by the cornea, aqueous humor,
crystalline lens, or vitreous humor of the eye. If too
much of this light is absorbed by the individual eye
structure in sufcient quantity or over an excessively
lengthy period, it can be potentially harmful.
The Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation

Light, or more properly, electromagnetic radiation
with a wavelength shorter than 400 nm, is known as UV
CH A PTER 22
radiation. UV radiation can be further subdivided into

four regions.3
1. UVA 315 to 380 nm
2. UVB 290 to 315 nm
3. UVC200 to 290 nm
4. UV Vacuum 100 to 200 nm
UVA radiation has the longest wavelength band and,
relatively speaking, is the least harmful of the three
radiation bands. It causes the skin to tan. UVB has
shorter wavelengths and a higher energy than UVA. If
present in sufcient quantity, long enough duration, or
both, UVB causes sunburn, photokeratitis, cataracts,
and retinal lesions. UVC is still higher in energy, but is
effectively ltered out by the earths ozone layer. UV
Vacuum is present outside the earths atmosphere, but is
ltered by the atmosphere. The shorter the wavelength,
the more biologically harmful the radiation will be.
Figure 22-1. Glass lenses with the tint right in the material
will vary in transmission as the thickness of the lens varies. A,
A high minus prescription will be lightest in the middle and
darken toward the edges. B, A high plus prescription will be
darkest in the middle and lighten toward the edges. C, A plano,
high minus cylinder will be lightest along the cylinder axis.
Here the minus cylinder axis for the wearers right eye is about
140; for the left eye it is about 40. This only occurs with high
cylinders when the tint is within the glass itself.
Absorptive Lenses
There are a number of negative effects attributed to

excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation. The question
becomes what constitutes excessive exposure? The
answer is not simple. Single, high level amounts of UV
can be damagingbut so can long-term, low-level
amounts of UV exposure.
UV radiation is a normal component of sunlight, but
the amount reaching the earth has been increasing with
the thinning of the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone
layer normally lters out a large portion of shorter wavelength UV radiation.
UV radiation from sunlight is more intense between
the hours of 10 am and 2 PM with 60% of total UV
radiation taking place during these hours.1 The total
annual amount of UV radiation is greater in geographic
regions closer to the equator, and the amount of UV
radiation increases in intensity at high altitudes.
Sand and snow increase the amount of UV radiation
an individual receives because sand reects 20% to 30%
of UV light. Fresh snow reects 85% to 95% of the light
that strikes it as compared with only 3% for grass.4 This
makes UV protection for skiers absolutely essential.
Other sources of UV radiation include UV-type
lamps and welding.
Ocular Damage Caused by Ultraviolet Radiation
An example of ocular damage caused by a single dose of
high-level UV radiation is a welders burn. In a welders
burn, the cornea and conjunctiva absorb UV light
between 210 and 320 nm.1 The excessive exposure to
these UV wavelengths results in inammation of the
cornea and conjunctiva known as photokeratitis. The same
photokeratitis may result from exposure during snowrelated activities and is referred to as snow blindness. It
takes approximately 6 hours after a burn has occurred
before the onset of pain. Fortunately, although the
symptoms of grittiness, intense light sensitivity, excessive tearing, redness, and difculty in opening the eyes
are severe, in most cases the cornea heals, and symptoms
are gone in 6 to 24 hours.
An example of ocular damage caused by long-term,
cumulative, low doses of UV radiation is the formation of
cataracts. People who live where UV radiation is high (at
high altitudes or in desert or tropical areas) develop cataracts earlier in life. As an example, those who live in an
Infrared
Visible
UV
100
200
UVA
315-380 nm
UVB
290-315 nm
UVC
200-290 nm
UVVacuum 100-200 nm
300
400
500
527
600
700
Visible from 380-760 nm

Visible down to 309 nm with sufficient intensity
Visible down to 298 nm without crytalline lens
Figure 22-2. The light spectrum: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared.
800
900
IR from 760-106 nm
528
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
area where the average amount of sunlight exposure is

12 hours have four times the amount of cataract formation compared with those who live in areas with a daily
average of 7 hours.5
Welders burn and cataracts are not the only eyerelated problems induced by UV radiation. Another
serious problem is retinal damage, particularly for the
aphake (person without a crystalline lens) since the lens
no longer absorbs light between 300 and 390 nm, but
allows it to fall on the retina. This light is not only
refracted somewhat differently, failing to produce as
good an image, but now is absorbed by the retina, causing
it to uoresce.6 This causes somewhat of a veiling glare
effect. The glare effect is not the main problem since the
sensitive, unprotected macular area of the retina can
develop swelling from the UV and short blue spectrum
(400 to 500 nm)7 rays. In time this is followed by degeneration of the sensitive macular area. This degeneration
is known as age-related maculopathy (ARM) or macular
degeneration.
Though UV and short-wavelength retinal damage is
normally associated with age, it should be noted that
because children have more transparent crystalline
lenses, their lenses allow some UV light to be transmitted to the retina.8
Protecting the retina from UV light is imperative.
For aphakes it is an absolute necessity. Today cataract
surgery is followed by the implantation of an intraocular
lens to replace the cataract-clouded crystalline lens.
Individuals who have an intraocular lens implant are
called pseudophakes. Although presently used intraocular
lens implants are UV absorbing, UV protection is still
advisable.
A pterygium is a growth of tissue that begins on the
white of the eye and extends onto the cornea. With
continued growth it can travel to the center of the cornea,
blocking clear vision. There is a correlation between the
incidence of pterygia and UV exposure. A similar condition known as a pinguecula may also be UV related. A
pinguecula manifests itself as a yellowish thickening of
the conjunctiva, usually on the nasal side of the cornea.
BOX 22-1
Individuals With a Greater Need for Ultraviolet
(UV) Protection
THOSE WITH THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS:
Beginning cataracts
Macular degeneration
Pterygia
Pinguecula
Aphakia
Pseudophakia
THOSE WHO ARE TAKING MEDICATIONS, INCLUDING:
Sulfonamides
Tetracyclines
Diuretics
Tranquilizers
Drugs for hypoglycemia
Oral contraceptives
(This list is only a sampling of drugs that may increase UV
damage. It is by no means all inclusive.)
THOSE IN THE SUN UNDER THE FOLLOWING CONDITIONS:
Outdoors between 10 AM-2 PM in summer
Outdoors long hours (especially children at play)
Snow skiing
Sun bathing
In high-altitude conditions
Near the equator
PERSONS WHO ARE AROUND UV SOURCES, INCLUDING:
Welders
Those working near UV lamps, such as dentists and
dental technicians
Those in industries that use UV radiation
Drugs That Heighten Ultraviolet Damage

Certain drugs increase the amount of damage that can
be done by UV radiation. These include, but are not
limited to, sulfonamides, tetracyclines, certain diuretics,
tranquilizers, and oral contraceptives. This means that
in addition to those effects of UV radiation that have
already been discussed, individuals taking these drugs
are more prone to sunburn and skin cancer. Individuals
known to be taking these medications should be advised
to use UV protective eyewear and use sunscreen for skin
protection when appropriate.
exposure to UV radiation is higher than in years past.

Because UV radiation affects everyone over time, the
best way to reduce UV-related eye disease is to wear
UV-absorbing spectacles and sunglasses early in life.
Environmental and job-related factors place certain
individuals at an even greater risk. For example, skiers
in high mountainous areas are at particularly high risk
because there is less atmospheric ltering of UV radiation at higher altitudes, and snow reects about 85% of
the UV light that strikes it. The eyebrows and even hats
do not provide the protection that they normally would
because of reected light.
Factors regarding protection from UV light are summarized in Box 22-1. Regardless of special factors that
heighten the danger of UV light, studies conclude that
All sex and racial groups would benet from simple
methods to avoid ocular sun exposure.9
Who Should Have Ultraviolet Protection?

UV damage to the eye is known to be cumulative
over time. Reduction in ozone layer levels means that
Eyewear That Blocks Ultraviolet Radiation

There are a number of lens options available to protect
against UV radiation. Some require special ordering, but
CH A PTER 22
many lenses come with UV ltering as a basic part of

the lens.
1. Lenses with the UV lter directly in the lens material
The rst lenses that were developed specically to
block UV light had a yellowish cast. As
manufacturing methods and chemistry improved,
the yellow disappeared.
2. Lenses with the UV lter in the coatingNow many
lenses come with a protective coating that have a
secondary UV-blocking effect. These include all
polycarbonates and many high-index plastic lenses.
3. Lenses with a dyed-in UV lterPlastic lenses can be
made UV inhibiting by immersion in a hot UV dye
in the same manner as is used to tint a lens.
4. Polarizing lensesGood quality polarizing lenses
block UV radiation, though the polarization process
has nothing to do with blocking UV light.
5. Photochromic lenses also have UV-blocking properties. In
their darkened state, photochromic lenses are
considered sufciently protective against UV light.
6. Lenses that go beyond UV protectionThere are lenses
designed to go beyond simple UV protection. They
also block out short wavelength (primarily blue)
visible light. These are generally referred to as
glare control lenses and are described later in this
chapter.
Checking for Ultraviolet Absorption
Lens transmissions are often checked using a photometer. Though photometers are helpful (Figure 22-3, A), at
the time of this writing, they should not be totally relied
upon for absolute UV measurements. As Torgersen3
points out, photometers typically:
Are not able to accurately determine absolute UV
transmittance.
Disproportionately weight the waveband of 360 to
400 nm.
Do not cut off at the UVA limit of 380 nm, but
measure on up through 400 nm.
Are affected by the power of the lens.
It is therefore advisable for the practitioner to be very
familiar with the absorptive properties of individual lens
materials.
It should be remembered that the dyes used to make
a regular plastic lens into a UV-blocking lens are only
good for a nite number of applications before they must
be replaced. Even when ordered, it is feasible that UV
protection may be inadvertently overlooked in the laboratory. Photometers are still helpful to determine if dyes
have been applied. Transmission may also be measured
using a Humphrey automated lensmeter (Figure 22-3, B).
If no UV meter is available, there is a crude test that can
be performed to see if the lens is blocking UV light:
Place the lens in question on top of an unedged photochromic lens, such as a Transitions lens. (A plastic
photochromic lens is more UV dependent than a glass
photochromic lens.) Expose the two lenses to sunlight.
Absorptive Lenses
529
B
Figure 22-3. A, Lenses ordered with ultraviolet (UV) absorption should be checked using a UV meter. This light transmission meter measures UV, visible (VL), and infrared (IR) light.
The lenses being measured are blocking all UV light and are
transmitting most of the visible and infrared radiation. B, It
is possible to check the transmission of a lens using a Humphrey Model LA360 Lens Analyzer. This autolensmeter allows
both an on-screen display and a printout.
If the photochromic lens darkens under the lens that is

supposed to be ltering UV light, the lens being tested
is not ltering UV light adequately.
Selecting a Frame
Here is what to look for when selecting a frame for
sunglasses or for serious protection against UV radiation. The frame should have a large lens area. It
should be t close to the face with minimum vertex distance. Wraparound frame styles are better still. Note:
When wraparound styles are used for prescription
eyewear, the prescription may need to be compensated
for lens tilt (see Chapter 18). To get maximal protection,
a cap or hat with a large visor or brim will help considerably. (For a summary of UV protection options, see
Box 22-2.)
530
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
BOX 22-2
Options for Protecting the Eyes From Solar
Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation
HEADGEAR WEAR
Sun visor
Cap
Wide-brimmed hat
PRESCRIPTION LENSES
Lenses specically made to be UV blocking
Polycarbonate lenses
High-index lenses with a UV-absorbing coating
UV-dyed plastic lenses
Photochromic lenses
Glare control-type lenses
All quality polarizing lenses
EYEGLASS FRAMES THAT HAVE THE FOLLOWING:
A short vertex distance
Face form
SUNGLASSES WEAR
UV-absorbing sunglasses
Lenses that cover a large area
Wraparound sunglasses
Ultraviolet Index
The UV Index is a measure of UV radiation. The U.S.
Weather Service and the Environmental Protection
Agency, along with the World Health Organization, use
a UV index on a scale of 1 to 11+ with intensities from
low to very high. The index is categorized as follows:
UVI
012
345
67
8 9 10
11 and greater
Exposure Level
low
moderate
high
very high
extreme
Any UV index will vary from day to day and place to

place. The intent of a UV index is to make the general
public aware of UV radiation levels and encourage eye
and skin protection.
The Effects of Infrared Radiation

At the present time, there is little conclusive evidence in
the literature that would indicate any undesirable effects
resulting from the IR component in sunlight in ordinary
viewing.
Previously, it was thought that the solar retinitis
caused by the intense exposure of looking directly at the
sun for a long period of time was a result of the heatproducing IR component alone. Scientists at the Medical
College of Virginia, however, found the eye to be 800
times more susceptible to damage from the blue end of
the spectrum than from the near IR. It appears that solar
retinitis is due to a combination of photochemical damage

from short wavelength (UV and blue) radiation and
thermal damage from long wavelength IR.1
IR radiation, when combined with UV radiation and
blue light, can adversely affect the crystalline lens. Over
a prolonged period of time, this will cause opacication.
This lens opacication is commonly referred to as glass
blowers or furnace mens cataract.
Common sources of IR are direct sunlight; molten
substances, such as glass and metal; arc lamps; and IR
lamps.
In looking at the transmission curve of a given lens,
remember that simply because there is a drop in the
transmission of IR in the region nearest the visible spectrum, there may not be this same absorption in the
longer wavelength IR region. Many lenses that absorb
strongly in the near IR transmit a great deal in the longer
wavelengths. Therefore if a lens is to be chosen for IR
absorption characteristics, a transmission curve showing
the full range of the IR spectrum is needed.
The heat produced by IR radiation will cause the eye
to be more easily damaged when exposed to UV radiation.1 Therefore though not scientically veried, it
would seem that a sun lens that practically eliminates
UV radiation while also blocking IR to the same degree
that it blocks visible light would be desirable. Examples
of commercially available lenses that block IR are NoIR
and IREX lenses.
REQUIRED AMOUNTS OF ABSORPTION

Practitioners are continually asked how dark a tinted
lens should be for best protection or how light a fashion
tint must be to not adversely affect the wearers vision.
The answer is considerably more complex than might be
expected since much depends on the activities for which
the lens is to be used.
If the only object is the comfort of the wearer, then
the decision is often subjective and is fairly accurately
determined through the wearers past experience. Other
factors, however, must be considered as well. As far as
actual improvement of vision, Miller6 found that for high
levels of illumination, sufciently dark sunglasses will
improve visual discrimination for certain types of targets,
but not for others. In other words, for high illumination,
a persons ability to see clearly may be helped by dark
lenses, and his or her visual comfort most certainly will
improve.
How Much Tint Is Enough?

Normal transmission for sun lenses is generally between
15% and 30%. A sun lens that transmits more than 30%
may not help the average wearer enough in full sunlight.10 Sun lenses that transmit less than 15% may
present problems because of reected glare from the
back surface. These problems can be eliminated by using
a back-surface antireection (AR) coating.
CH A PTER 22
According to ANSI Z80.3-2001 sunglass standards,

general purpose sun lenses used for driving should not
be darker than 8%, although for special purposes, such
as skiing, mountain climbing, or use on the beach, transmission may go as low as 3%.11
At the lower end of the transmission spectrum, it was
found that acuity increased with a 10% neutral density
lter.* But for persons more than 40 years of age, vision
worsened if the lter was any darker than 10%.12
It should be noted that people who are exposed to
sunlight for long periods of time on a continual basis will
require sun lenses that transmit 15% or less. Hecht, et
al10 found that a single exposure to ordinary bright sunlight for 2 or 3 hours caused dark adaptation to start 10
or more minutes later than usual and then slowed the
process itself so that normal night vision was not reached
until several hours later than usual.
For example, if a person (such as a lifeguard) is exposed
to bright sunlight every day for long periods of time, his
or her dark adaptation does not return to what it used to
be even after a full nights darkness. If this continues for
10 days of unprotected high exposure to sunlight, it will
impair dark adaptation to such an extent that 3 or more
days of nonexposure are required for dark adaptation to
return to its previous level. This loss of dark adaptation
can be prevented by wearing sunglasses that allow only
a transmission of between 10% and 15%. For the person
exposed to bright sunlight, wearing commercially available cosmetically tinted lenses that transmit 35% to 50%
of the light will not prevent impairment of dark adaptation.12 In fact it is strongly recommended that sunglasses transmitting 10% or less of visible light be used
by all persons who, while working in bright sunlight
during the day, will be expected to perform critical night
duties soon afterward.10 In short anyone who has a job
that requires seeing well at night must wear sunglasses
if they are exposed to bright sunlight for 2 or more hours
a day.
The Hazards of Too Much Tint

As just discussed, there are certain situations where a
large amount of absorption is quite desirable. By the same
token, there are also circumstances in which a maximum
of light transmission is desirable. When considering
darker fashion tints, wearers should be warned of the
reduction in visual acuity in dimly lit conditions.
Tinted Lenses and Night Driving
A commonly occurring situation that demonstrates the
hazards of too much tint for existing conditions is night
driving. At night with eyes adapted to a light intensity
of 0.1 mL through a clear glass windshield, the visual
acuity of an individual who normally sees 20/20 will be
reduced to 20/32. This is not because of looking through
*A neutral density lter is gray and absorbs light evenly across the
visible spectrum.
Absorptive Lenses
531
BOX 22-3
Effect of Lens and Windshield Tint on Visual
Acuity
Day vision = 20/20
Night vision = 20/32
Night + 82% transmitting pink tint = 20/40
Night + tinted windshield = 20/46
Night + tinted windshield + 82% transmitting pink tint =
20/60
Data from Miles PW: Visual effects of pink glasses, green windshields, and glare under night driving conditions, Arch Ophthalmol
52:15-23, 1954.
the windshield, but rather is simply a result of reduced

illumination. Any tinted material between the observers
eye and the object being viewed will further reduce
acuity. Even an 82% transmitting pink tinted lens worn
at night reduces acuity to 20/40. A green-tinted windshield by itself reduces acuity to 20/46. The combination
of tinted windshield and tinted lens, however, reduces
acuity to 20/60 (Box 22-3).13 The level of tint desirable
is therefore a function of the circumstances under which
it is to be worn.
It should be obvious that a lens tinted only slightly
more than the lightest available shade quickly becomes
a potential hazard under circumstances, such as night
driving, that may otherwise be considered normal. This
was reinforced by a German study14 that found windshield tinting to reduce night driving hazard detection
distances by 10%. Allen15 also found that a person
wearing lenses having a 70% transmission at night ended
up being much closer to an object on a highway before
being able to see that object than when they were not
wearing tinted lenses.
Another factor in the determination of the amount of
tint permissible is age. As age increases, performance
differences observed while wearing certain optical lters
decreases. In other words, a persons ability to work
effectively under a situation of reduced illumination
decreases as he or she ages.
In spite of evidence to the contrary, some wearers
insist that a light tint at night is helpful in reducing the
glare of oncoming headlights. This is likely due to the
ability of a tint to reduce some internal lens reections.
An antireection coating is better at reducing internal
lens reections. Rather than using tinted lenses, an AR
coating will reduce oncoming headlight annoyance and
will increase the wearers contrast sensitivity by increasing available light.
COLOR CHARACTERISTICS
During the past several years, there has been a phenomenal increase in available frame styles. Previously, certain
types of frame styles went in and out of fashion. Now,
532
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
100
90
100
Clear crown
glass
90
80
80
UV dyed
CR-39
Percent transmission
70
60
70
Polycarbonate
Standard
CR-39
plastic
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
20
20
PhotoGray extra
darkened 1 hr at 25
10
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
10
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-4. Transmission of ultraviolet radiation for standard ophthalmic lens materials.
The polycarbonate lens material listed has an antiscratch coating standard for polycarbonate
prescription lenses. Polycarbonate lens UV blocking properties are a result of the coating on
the material and not the material itself. (Transmission curves from: Spectral transmission of
common ophthalmic lens materials, St Cloud, Minn, 1984, Vision-Ease, pp 1, 16; from Photochromic ophthalmic lenses, technical information, Publication #OPO-232, Corning, NY,
1990, Corning Inc, p 5; and from Pitts DG and Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision, Boston,
1993 Butterworth-Heinemann.)
however, a full range of designs is being used. More

recently this effect has also been seen regarding lens tints
since there are many different shades and hues of lenses
available. Because of this multiplicity of available colors,
analysis of each ones merit becomes increasingly difcult. This section presents characteristics of the major
lens colors in an attempt to address this problem.
Vacuum ranges, though the most damaging to the eye,

will have already been absorbed by the atmosphere.
Crown glass transmits IR in the same proportion as
it does visible rays.
CR-39 plastic used in normal spectacle lens wear contains a UV inhibitor that does not block all UV light,
but does block UV light below 350 nm.
Clear Crown Glass and CR-39 Plastic
Pink
Crown glass and CR-39 plastic both transmit approximately 92% of visible light. The 8% not transmitted is
lost through reection. All UV light below 290 nm is
absorbed by crown glass (Figures 22-4 and 22-5). Unfortunately, from a practical standpoint, it is the UV from
290 on up to the visible light that can be more disturbing.6 Most UV light below 290 in the UVC and UV
Pink is a tint that has been widely used in the past and
continues to be used, but in a limited amount. The lightest shades are referred to synonymously as pink, rose, or
sometimes, esh.* Pink tints have a uniform transmis*Brand names used when glass lens tints were popular include
Soft-lite (B & L) and Cruxite (AO).
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
100
90
533
100
Clear crown
glass
90
80
80
70
70
Pink #1 glass
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
CR-39
plastic
20
20
10
10
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-5. Transmission curves for clear crown glass, clear CR-39 plastic, and a #1 crown
glass pink tint. Note how closely the transmission curve for the pink matches the curves for
the clear. Because the pink has a relatively at, horizontal curve across the visible spectrum,
there should be no disturbance to relative color perception. (From: Spectral transmission of
common ophthalmic lens materials, St Cloud, Minn, 1984, Vision-Ease.)
sion across the visible spectrum (see Figure 22-5) and

therefore do not cause any color distortion for the
wearer.
Pink tints are occasionally used for unfavorable indoor
lighting situations, such as bright uorescent lighting or
glare in the work area. The best solution to those problems is a change in lighting, rather than an indoor tint.
Glare problems may be due to internal reections within
the lenses. This occurs most often in low minus corrections (see the section in this chapter on antireection
coatings). Light tints do reduce some of the reections
encountered, but not nearly as effectively as an antireection coating. Many wearing light tints would be
better helped with a simple antireection coating.
It is not advisable to use an indoor tint much darker
than 80% because of interference with perception and
reaction time when worn at night or under very dim
illumination.
Yellow
Yellow-tinted lenses (Figure 22-6) are especially subject
to myth and speculation. Can people see better with
yellow lenses? After reviewing the literature, Bradley
states, . . . probably not. Dozens of studies all report the
same basic result: visual performance through yellow
lters is approximately the same as vision through a
spectrally neutral lter with the same absorption and
this is generally slightly worse than with no lter at all.
A select few studies have shown that vision through
yellow lters is slightly better than vision through transmission-matched spectrally neutral lters, but these
studies fail to show that vision through a yellow lter is
superior to vision without any lter.16
Yet in certain circumstances, if the background color
surrounding a specic object, such as the blue sky, can
be altered by a lter, then it is possible to increase
contrast and make the object being viewed easier to
534
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
100
100
90
90
80
80
Brown #3
CR-39 plastic
70
70
60
60
Yellow crown
glass
50
50
Brown #3
polycarbonate
40
40
30
30
20
20
Tan #3 (brown)
glass
10
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
10
700
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-6. Transmission curves for yellow and brown tints. Yellow has a characteristic
sudden drop in transmission between 500 and 450 nm. Brown also shows a drop, but that
drop is spread over a larger part of the visible spectrum. Note how dyed plastic and polycarbonate lenses transmit the long end of the spectrum, including the infrared. It is possible to
use lens dyes that absorb in the infrared region of the spectrum, if desired. (Yellow crown
glass and tan #3 [brown] glass transmission curves are redrawn from: Spectral transmission
of common ophthalmic lens materials, St Cloud, Minn, 1984, Vision-Ease, pp 9, 10. Brown
#3 CR-39 and polycarbonate transmission curves from Pitts DG and Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision, Boston, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
perceive.17 It has been argued that yellow lenses have

the advantage that they selectively darken the bright blue
sky without reducing the luminance of green, yellow,
and red targets on the ground.16 For example, yellow
lenses are traditionally used in competitive shooting.
Many sportsmen believe their shooting ability is
improved by a yellow tint. Even so, one of the earliest
studies of 136 marksmen done in overcast daylight conditions found that only one individual showed a marked
improvement. The author concluded that the benet of
yellow lenses depends entirely upon the individual; some
may be helped while others may be hindered.18 More
sophisticated variations of shooting lenses, such as
Cornings Serengeti Vector lenses, continue to be used
for competition shooting.
Yellow lenses have been advocated for driving in haze

or fog. Even though any lens, including a yellow lens,
that absorbs light in the blue end of the spectrum can be
helpful in reducing glare from light scattered by the
atmosphere, this does not extend to fog situations. In
contrast to atmospheric gases, fog is not as selective in
the wavelength of light it scatters.18
Yellow lenses have on occasion been suggested for use
in night driving. This is not advisable and should not be
encouraged. Any tint that cuts down on already dim
illumination further reduces visual acuity, offsetting any
reduction in headlight glare. The best solution for headlight glare at night is an AR-coated prescription that is
up to date. Uncorrected refractive error will cause glare
at night. This up-to-date lens prescription should be AR
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
100
100
90
535
90
Green #3
polycarbonate
80
80
70
70
Green #3
crown glass
60
60
50
50
40
40
30
30
Green #3
CR-39
20
10
20
10
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-7. Green absorptive lenses have a transmission curve with a characteristic hill
in the middle of the visible spectrum. Green glass lenses are good ultraviolet and infrared
absorbers. Plastic and polycarbonate lenses, however, transmit light in the long visible end
and infrared region of the spectrum. This is characteristic for dyed plastic materials in any
color unless a specic infrared absorber has been added to the dye. (Transmission curves from
Spectral transmission of common ophthalmic lens materials, St Cloud, Minn, 1984, VisionEase, and from Pitts DG and Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision, Boston, 1993,
coated to further reduce glare caused by reections

within the spectacle lens itself.
Two brand names that have been traditionally associated with yellow lenses are Hazemaster (AO) and Kalichrome H (B & L).
Brown
Brown or gray-brown lenses are most often used for sun
lenses in Germany and other middle-European countries.19 Brown lenses have some of the same characteristics as yellow lenses in that there is a higher absorption
of shorter visible wavelengths (see Figure 22-6). By
reducing the transmission of the blue end of the spectrum, brown lenses, like their yellow counterparts, are
also commonly thought to improve contrast on bright,
hazy, or smoggy days. If this is the intent, a specialized

lens may be more appropriate.
Green
Green sun lenses have a transmission curve that closely
approximates the color sensitivity curve for the human
eye. They were rst made popular through use in the
military, but have now been fairly well replaced by the
neutral gray lens. The green-tinted glass lens obtains its
color and characteristic transmission curve from ferrous
(iron) oxide. There is good absorption for the green glass
lens in both the IR and UV regions (Figure 22-7). When
a lens is vacuum coated to a green tint, the IR absorption
is acceptable, but not quite as good as the tinted glass
lens.
536
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
100
100
90
90
80
80
Gray #3
polycarbonate
70
70
60
60
50
50
Gray #3
glass
Gray #3
CR-39
40
40
30
30
20
20
10
10
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-8. In the visible region from approximately 400 to 700 nm, the gray lens gives a
fairly even transmission curve, making color perception closer to what would be perceived
without absorptive lenses. (Transmission curves from: Spectral transmission of common
ophthalmic lens materials, St Cloud, Minn, 1984, Vision-Ease, and from Pitts DG and Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision, Boston, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
A plastic lens dyed green to approximately the same

shade as its glass counterpart exhibits poor absorption in
the IR region. This characteristic is not atypical for dyed
plastic lenses of other shades as well. Most dyed plastic
lenses do not absorb well in the long wavelength, visible,
and infrared regions of the spectrum.
Gray
Gray is a tint most popular for sun protectionand with
good reason. Perhaps the best aspect of gray is its evenness of transmission through the whole visible spectrum
(Figure 22-8). This characteristic allows colors to be
seen in their natural state relative to one another. For
this reason, neutral gray is quite satisfactory for use by
those with color vision deciencies. Gray lenses will not
help a color-defective individual in his or her perception
of colors, but neither will it cause further misjudgment
of colors as often happens to a color-defective individual
when wearing lenses having a transmission that varies
across the visible spectrum. Persons with normal color

vision are able to adapt to most color changes caused by
colored lenses, but color defectives do not have this adaptive ability. To the color defective, this may increase
color-judgment errors or cause some objects to appear
with unusual or unnatural colors when other than neutral
gray lenses are worn.
Colored Filter Lenses for Color Defectives*

A color-defective individual lacks one of the three different types of retinal cones. So a person lacking in the
cones that are sensitive to longer wavelength (red) light
cannot differentiate red from green. Likewise a person
lacking cones sensitive to the green area of the visible
*Much of the information in this section is taken from Bradley A:

Special review: colored lters and vision care, Part I, Indian J Optom
6(1):13-17, 2003.
CH A PTER 22
spectrum will have a similar red-green color discrimination problem.

Using a lter that selectively absorbs certain colors
but not others will change the intensity of those colors,
making it possible for a color defective to use light intensity cues to tell one color from another that may not have
been previously distinguishable. These intensity differences are helpful when intensities can be compared with
and without the specialized lter.
Factors Favoring the Use of Colored Filter Lenses for

Color Defectives
As just stated, colored lters will allow a color-defective
individual to use intensity cues to discriminate between
two otherwise indistinguishable colors. A red lter will
make a green object look dimmer than a red object.
Selective lters for this purpose have been attempted
with colored contact lenses, such as the red X-chrome
lens worn on one eye or the ChromaGen contact lens
available in different colors, depending upon defect
type.* Filter contact lenses are placed on one eye only so
that when closing rst one eye, then the other, intensity
variations are comparable. Some spectacle lens color
lters are placed in only one sector of a spectacle lens so
that a comparison of how the object appears can be made
by moving the head. The object can be viewed rst
without, then with the lter.
Certain lters cause other colors to appear more vivid
to a color defective because of the manner in which
perceived colors shift in appearance when viewed through
the lter.
Negative Effects of Using Colored Filter Lenses for

Color Defectives
Colored lters worn over both eyes for the purpose of
helping certain colors to be better distinguished by color
defectives can cause problems. This is because colors
that were distinguishable before may now be confused
when viewed through the lter.
Even a colored lter, such as the X-Chrom contact
lens, worn over one eye is not without a down side. One
problem is that objects may appear to glisten. A second
problem is that when there is a difference in intensity
between the two eyes, moving objects may appear to be
wrongly located as to how far away they appear. Sheedy
points out that The red contact lens may drastically
improve performance on pseudoisochromic plates (used
to test color vision), but the improvement is spurious and
does not properly represent the small improvement in
real world performance.20
*ChromaGen lters also come in the form of spectacle lenses.
This is called binocular luster.
This is called the Pulfrich phenomenon.
Absorptive Lenses
537
SUNGLASSES
According to Pitts and Kleinstein,1 the ideal pair of sunglasses should do the following:
1. Reduce the intensity of sunlight for optimum visual
comfort and visual performance.
2. Eliminate parts of the optical spectrum that are not
required for vision and are hazardous to the eyes.
3. Provide enough protection while being worn during
the day so that the wearers dark adaptation and
night vision are preserved at night.
4. Maintain normal color vision and allow the wearer
to distinguish trafc signals quickly and correctly.
5. Resist impact and scratching and only require a
minimum of care.
Sunglasses must meet the same impact-resistance
requirements as any other spectacle lenses, whether they
are for prescription or nonprescription use. The test for
impact resistance is the ability to withstand the impact
of a 5/8-inch steel ball dropped from 50 inches.
There are four categories of sunglass lenses listed in
the ANSI Z80.3-2001 sunglass and fashion eyewear
standard. These are listed in Table 22-1.
The standard does not give specic examples of applications for the categories, but following are some basic
descriptions:
A cosmetic lensGenerally speaking this lens is more
for fashion than function.
A general purpose lensThis is the category used for
sunglasses normally used by most individuals.
A very dark special purpose lensThis lens is
appropriate for situations of very intense light, such
as for mountain climbing.
A strongly colored special purpose lensThis type of
lens might lter certain spectral colors more heavily
than others.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA) guidelines for
nonprescription sunglass lenses include requirements
concerning color. These are based upon the American
National Standards requirements for sunglass and
fashion eyewear.* Color requirements are put in place
because of trafc signal recognition needs. Since sunglasses are sold over-the-counter to anyone, they must
be made safe for anyone. (European and Australian standards allow some of these tints to be sold that would not
be permitted in the United States, but require warning
labels, such as Not suitable for driving and Not suitable for persons with defective color vision.21) Color
defective individuals can have their perception of
color signicantly altered by certain tints in a lens. Color
*FDA optical transmission requirements are based on ANSI Z80.3
Ophthalmic-Nonprescription Sunglasses and Fashion Eyewear
Requirements.
A red-green color-defective individual (a protanomalous or deuteranomalous person) may have some varying ability to discriminate
red from green. A red-green color blind individual (a protanope or
deuteranope) cannot tell red from green.
538
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 22-1
Nonprescription Sunglass and Fashion Eyewear

Mean UV Transmittance
UVB
(290-315 nm)
Primary Function
and Shade
A cosmetic lens or
shield (light)
A general purpose
lens or shield
(medium to dark)
A special purpose
lens or shield
(very dark)
A special purpose
lens or shield
(strongly colored)
UVA
(315-380 nm)
Normal
Use
High and Prolonged

Exposure Use
Normal
Use
High and Prolonged

Exposure Use
0.125 Tv max
1% max
Tv max
0.5 Tv max
0.125 Tv max
1% max
Tv max
0.5 Tv max
Transmission between
3% and 8%
1% max
1% max
0.5 Tv max
0.5 Tv max
3% minimum
transmission
1% max
1% max
0.5 Tv max
0.5 Tv max
Light Transmittance
Transmission of greater
than 40%
Transmission of between
8% and 40%
Mean UV Transmittance refers to the average transmittance for all wavelengths in the stated range (either UVA or UVB).
Tv refers to visible transmittance. So the allowable UVB transmittance for a general purpose lens intended for normal use would be 0.125
of the maximum visible transmittance of the lens. So if a lens transmits 40% of the light, the maximum UVB transmittance would be 0.125
40 or 5%. However, if the lens has a visible transmittance of 10%, the maximum allowable UVB transmittance would be 0.125 10 or
1.25%.
Data from: ANSI Z80.3-2001: American national standard for ophthalmicsnonprescription sunglasses and fashion eyewearrequirements,
Merrield, Va., 2002, Optical Laboratories Association p 18.
normal individuals would not have their ability to discriminate trafc signal colors affected by the same tints
that would confuse a color-defective individual. The
FDAs document, Guidance Document for Nonprescription
Sunglasses states22:
to a color-defective individual that would not conform

to FDA standards for nonprescription sunglass and
fashion eyewear.
DYEING PLASTIC LENSES

Trafc Signal Recognition provisions contained in
ANSI Z80.3 were developed with the color defective
person in mind. Approximately 8% of the male population and less than 3% of the female population have
some type of color deciency. Therefore, some of the
requirements of this section of the standard may be
overly stringent for color normal individuals.
This may be one reason why over-the-counter sunglass standards do not apply to prescription sunglass
lenses. However, this places a larger burden of responsibility upon the prescriber and dispenser for dispensing
prescription sunglass lenses.
For example, Bradley23 shows that both yellow and
brown lenses fail to meet the ANSI Z80.3 (and FDA)
standards for nonprescription sunglass lenses. Yet these
tints are readily available in prescription eyewear, and
brown is a commonly used prescription sunglass lens
tint. So whereas such a tint may not make trafc signal
colors unrecognizable for a color-normal individual, a
color defective would not be able to discriminate a red
from green trafc light signal adequately.
What does this mean? This means that the dispenser
should not knowingly dispense sunglass or fashion lenses
Plastic lenses offer great versatility in tinting since they

may be dyed to almost any color and may also be made
as light or dark as desired. The clear plastic lens is simply
dipped in a dye solution of the desired color. The longer
the lens is left in the dye, the darker the tint. As the dye
is absorbed over the surface area of the lens, goodquality, well-cured plastic lenses result in a tint of a
uniform density independent of lens power and variation
in lens thickness. The tint is not lighter in the thinner
portions nor darker in the thicker, as when tinted glass
is used. However, a plastic lens that has not been properly cured when cast molded during manufacture may
produce a certain amount of splotchy unevenness of
color when they are dyed.
Gradient Lenses
Gradient lenses have a dark upper portion that gradually
lightens toward the lower lens sections. Gradients are
nicely produced in plastic (Figure 22-9). A gradient tint
is accomplished by immersing the whole lens upside
down in the dye. The lens is repeatedly immersed and
removed from the solution, each time to a slightly different level on the lens. The bottom of the lens is in the
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
539
LENS COATINGS
Figure 22-9. A gradient lens varies in transmission over the

surface of the lens.
tinting solution only occasionally, whereas the upper

section remains longer, absorbing more of the color. A
poor-quality gradient lens results when the lens is not
dipped evenly and continuously. Poor-quality gradients
show a fairly sharp demarcation line between upper and
lower sections, whereas the better-quality lenses demonstrate no specic cutoff. Both lenses of a given pair must
also lighten evenly from top to bottom to prevent differences in transmission between the two eyes at any one
level on the lenses.
Changing and Matching Colors

Plastic lenses that have been tinted may be bleached out
again and retinted if a tint has proven unsatisfactory as
long as they have not been subsequently antireection
coated. Clear lenses may be tinted at any time. For
example, when a person decides to change to a new
frame, even though the prescription remains unchanged,
the old pair may be tinted for fashion or sun wear.
When only one tinted lens is to be replaced, it is not
always easy to match the previous tint of the other lens.
One method used to create a match between two lenses
is to bleach out the old lens and redye it with the new
one. Even then an exact match can be difcult because
the lens materials from the two lenses may not take dyes
in the same manner.
Dyeing Polycarbonate and High-Index Lenses

Polycarbonate lenses must be antiscratch coated to be
usable for ophthalmic purposes. With polycarbonate
lenses, dyeing of the lens occurs within the antiscratch
coating. Antiscratch coatings are not uniformly permeable to dyes. Dyeing some of the harder coatings dark
enough to reach a sunglass tint may not be possible. A
few polycarbonate suppliers have a selection of pretinted
polycarbonate lenses. These lenses have the tint within
the polycarbonate material itself. The lens can then be
further darkened by additional tinting.
High-index plastic lenses dye more slowly than CR-39
lenses and may require special processing. Especially
dark tints may not be easy to achieve, depending on the
type of material used. It should also be noted that the
resulting color of the tint may not be the same for highindex plastics as for a CR-39 sample lens. (Some highindex plastics cannot be dyed at all.)
The practice of coating ophthalmic lenses varies widely

from country to country. It is not at all uncommon for
dispensers who edge their own lenses to maintain a stock
of coated-lens blanks. In the United States, keeping a
stock of plastic, AR-coated lenses is becoming more
commonplace. In countries where hardening of glass
lenses is not required, dispensers commonly stock ARcoated glass lenses.
Coatings represent an area that can greatly increase
wearer satisfaction. Those who educate themselves
in the area and can apply that information will nd
the benets rewarding. Here are a few interesting
possibilities.
Scratch-Resistant Coatings (SRCs)

Because of the tendency of plastic lenses to scratch more
easily than glass lenses, manufacturers have developed
processes of coating the plastic lens to develop more
surface hardness and thus more resistance to scratching.
SRC lenses are not specically designed to reduce lens
reections. SRC plastic lenses, however, do exhibit some
reduction of lens reections. This means that they will
have a higher light transmission compared with a nonSRC lens. An uncoated CR-39 plastic lens transmits about
92% of the incident light. By antiscratch coating the lens,
transmission may increase to just short of 96%.
Scratch-resistant coatings are also called antiscratch
coatings or hard coatings.
How Scratch-Resistant Coatings Are Applied
Antiscratch coatings may be applied during manufacture
or in the optical laboratory. The quality of available
coatings varies. If the lens is to be antireection coated,
the quality of the hard coating is essential to the success
of the antireection coating.24 Here are the two main
ways that hard coatings are applied:
1. Thermally Cured Hard Coatings.* With this hard
coating process, lenses are dipped in a varnish and
removed from the varnish at a consistent rate to control
thickness of the coating. The lenses are then thermally
cured or baked over an extended period of time.25 This
method is commonly used by lens manufacturers.
2. UV-Cured Hard Coatings. Scratch-resistant coatings can be applied using a system that spins the coating
on the lens. It then uses UV light to cure the coating.
*There is a similar, but certainly not equal, method that has been
used at the retail level. It is not very satisfactory. In this process,
the lens is mounted on a tool that spins the lens. A liquid material
is dripped onto the lens, and the lens is either allowed to dry by
itself, or is transferred to a small oven for curing. In some cases
the nished product introduces problems with the stability of the
coating that can outweigh the slight increase in scratch resistance
that the process affords. Because most plastic lenses now come
with a manufacturer-applied hard coating, this process is falling into
disuse.
540
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
The coating unit is normally enclosed in a positive pressure area to ensure a dust-free environment. The type
of liquid coating material used will vary, depending upon
lens material and whether or not the lens is to be tinted
later. (There is a trade-off between coating hardness and
tintability.) UV curing is done in seconds. This makes it
considerably faster than the hours-long thermal curing
process. At the time of this writing, UV curing is the
method of choice for surfacing laboratories. A coating
unit is essential for surfacing laboratories that process
polycarbonate lenses.
Front Side Only or Both Sides?
Antiscratch coatings may be applied to only the front
side of a lens or to both sides. SRC lenses that come
factory nished (i.e., stock lenses) will usually be coated
on both front and back surfaces. If a lens is semi nished
and must be surfaced on the back side to obtain the
needed power, however, it will be antiscratch-coated
only on the front unless the laboratory applies a backsurface coating.
Since the front surface is most susceptible to scratching, one-side-only antiscratch coatings may be justiable. If the wearer (and dispenser) is expecting front and
back antiscratch protection on regular plastic lenses,
however, it may be necessary to ask for it.
Care of Scratch-Resistant-Coated Lenses
Lenses with antiscratch coatings should not be exposed
to excessive heat; approximately 200 F is a safe upper
temperature limit. (Obviously the better quality coatings
will do better under stressed conditions.) Therefore a
certain amount of care should be taken when heating the
frame for the insertion of lenses. It is not advisable to
immerse coated plastic lenses in a hot salt bath. An air
blower is the safer alternative to help prevent possible
surface crazing. (In fact there are so many situations
where a hot salt or hot beads frame warmer can damage
lenses that dispensers should use hot air for frame
warming exclusively.)
Damage to the coating of a lens may not appear
immediately. At the time, the effect of mistreatment by
exposure to intense heat in the dispensary may not make
the lens appear any different. With use and exposure to
sunlight, heat, and agents in the environment, however,
the weakening initiated in the dispensary may cause the
coating to fail at a later date. Most coating failure is
reported by the wearer as an inability to clean the lens
sufciently. The wearer will report a lm on the lens
that no amount of cleaning will remove. On examination
the surface of the lens is lightly crazed and may have an
oily or lightly frosted appearance. As would be expected,
cheaply applied coatings are most subject to failure.
Cleaning Lenses With Scratch-Resistant Coatings
Cleaning instructions for SRC lenses are basically the
same as for regular CR-39 lenses. Namely, rinse the front
and back surfaces with water to remove small particles.

Dry the lenses with a soft, clean cloth or a tissue, such
as Kleenex. Do not wipe the lenses when they are dry.
If lenses are to be cleaned dry, the best solution is to use
the same type of cleaning cloth as is used for antireection-coated lenses.
Note: There is disagreement over whether or not to
use tissues on plastic lenses. If the lens surface is dirty
and dry, using a dry tissue may cause circular microscratches on a lens surface. If the lens surface has been
washed or rinsed clean, drying the lens with a tissue will
cause no harm.
Antifogging and antistatic agents are compatible with
scratch-resistant coatings. As always it is best to keep the
spectacles in a soft, lined case when not being worn.
Identifying Scratch-Resistant-Coated Lenses
It may be possible to identify an SRC lens by seeing if
water beads on the surface as it does on a waxed car.
Another test is to mark the surface with a water-soluble
marking pen. An antiscratch coating can cause the mark
to look streaky or blotchy.26 These tests may detect most,
but not all, antiscratch coatings successfully. It is almost
unnecessary to check for the presence of a scratch-resistant coating since it may generally be presumed that
most plastic lenses now come with such a coating.
Color Coatings
An absorptive coating may be added to a lens through
the use of a metallic oxide applied to the lens in a vacuum.
There are several advantages to these coatings.
Color coatings may be removed and the lens recoated
to a new color or different transmission. This helps if
the coating wears or if the existing color or darkness no
longer meets the wearers changing needs.
A characteristic of the color-coated lens that should
not be overlooked is the smoothness of its transmission
curve. Transmission curves for color-coated lenses are
generally more even across the visible spectrum than
either internally tinted glass or dyed plastic. In addition,
coatings continue to absorb the longer wavelengths in
the near-IR region of the spectrum in roughly the same
proportion as they do in the visible spectrum.
In the past, it has been said that color-coated lenses
should not be wiped when dry, but rather washed or
cleaned with a damp cloth and dried with a soft cloth.
Fortunately, color coatings are becoming more durable
because the same advancing technology used for antireection coatings are now beginning to be used for color
coatings.
Color Coating of Glass Lenses
Color coatings are de nitely advantageous for glass
lenses since the coating is uniform in density, regardless
of the lens prescription. Color-coated lenses have a predictable transmission, whereas lenses where the color is
added to the molten glass exhibit a darker tint as the glass
CH A PTER 22
thickens. As a result, a C tint could be considerably

darker in a higher plus lens than in a plano sample.
Color-coated glass lenses do not have this problem.
Because coated lenses are made from clear lenses,
coated lenses are available in a wide range of colors and
transmissions. This is especially advantageous for glass
multifocals since multifocals that have the color directly
within the glass are only available in limited tints and
transmissions.
Color Coating of Plastic Lenses
Because plastic lenses are normally dyed to achieve their
tint, color coatings are not usually associated with plastic
lenses. However, CR-39 plastic, high-index plastic, and
polycarbonate lenses can also be color coated. Since dying
high-index and polycarbonate lenses may have occasional
limitations, color coatings offer a versatile alternative.
Antireection Coatings
An AR coating is a thin, clear layer or layers applied to
the surface of a lens. Its purpose is to: (1) reduce unwanted
reections from the lens surface and (2) increase the
amount of light that actually passes through the lens to
the eye.
Lens Reections Vary According to Index
of Refraction
When light strikes the front or back surface of a lens, a
certain percentage of the light is reected back from the
Figure 22-10. AR coating removes the window effect by

extinguishing reections from the lenses, as seen here in
photos comparing how rimless lenses look with (A) and without
(B) an AR coating. (From Zeiss ET: Coatings-product facts,
publication MI 9054-1198, Carl Zeiss.)
541
Absorptive Lenses
surface. This light is seen by an observer and could be

described as a window effect, such as light seen reecting from the surface of a window (Figure 22-10). The
amount of light that is reected is predictable and
depends upon the index of refraction of the lens. (See the
Absorptive Lens Calculations section at the end of this
chapter for more on this subject.) The higher the index
of refraction, the more light is reected. For this reason,
those who wear high-index lenses will like their lenses
much better with an antireection coating that removes
these annoying reections. As can be seen in Table 22-2,
a low-index CR-39 plastic lens reects 7.8% of incoming
light, but a high-index plastic lens can reect 14.1% or
almost twice as much. This can have an effect not only
on how the lenses look, but how they perform at night
with only 85.9% of incoming light being transmitted.
Five Troublesome Lens Reections
There are basically ve reections that present potentially disturbing reected images to the wearers eye
(Figure 22-11). These reections are caused by light
coming from an image that does not go directly into the
eye, but is rst reected from one or more surfaces of
the spectacle lens.
Under certain circumstances, a light or object from
behind can be seen by the spectacle lens wearer. This
situation is shown in Figure 22-11, A and B. In Figure
22-11, A, light is reected from the back surface of the
lens and enters the eye, whereas in Figure 22-11, B, light
is reected from the front surface of the lens. For normal
spectacle-lens wearers, this is most noticeable at night
when illumination is low, and there is a bright source of
light from behind. For those wearing sunglasses, reections from behind may even be visible during the day.
This is because the image illustrated in Figure 22-11, A
will not be attenuated by the dark sunglass lens as are
objects viewed through the front of the lens.
The reected images illustrated in Figure 22-11, C
through E will appear as ghosts of objects viewed
through the front of the lens. They are much less intense
than the object itself, but under certain conditions, are
readily noticeable. Ghost images can be most easily seen
at night by looking at a source of light, such as a street
TABLE 22-2
How Surface Reections Vary According to Lens Refractive Index

Lens Material
CR-39 plastic
Crown glass
Polycarbonate
A high-index
plastic lens
A higher-index
plastic lens
Refractive
Index
% Reection from
Front Surface
1.498
1.523
1.586
1.66
3.98%
4.30%
5.13%
6.16%
1.74
7.29%
% Reection from
Back Surface
Total % Reected from

Both Surfaces
Total % of Light
Transmitted
3.82%
4.11%
4.87%
5.78%
7.8%
8.4%
10.0%
12.0%
92.2%
91.6%
90.0%
88.0%
6.76%
14.1%
85.9%
542
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
E
Figure 22-11. Five reections of spectacle lenses that may prove troublesome to the wearer.
It is possible to lessen the effect of reections (B), (C), and (E) with a tinted lens. However,
all reections are virtually eliminated using an antireection lens coating. A coated lens is
the method of choice for reducing lens reections rather than the use of a light lens tint.
(From Rayton WB: The reected images in spectacle lenses, J Optical Soc Amer 1:148,
1917.)
light. By turning the head while still looking at the street

light, it is often possible to see one or more ghosts of
the light trailing off to one side. These ghost images are
caused by the reections illustrated in Figure 22-11, C
through E.
In addition to reections seen by the wearer, there are
reections of light sources and other objects seen on the
lens surface by an observer. Regardless of source, all
reections are reduced considerably by AR coatings.
Often a person will request a tint for indoor glare
conditions when he or she would be best helped by an
AR coating. Although a tint may help somewhat, an AR
coating is superior. It will be noted that in Figure 22-11
all but one of the troublesome reections travel through
the lens at least once. The reected images are therefore
reduced by a light tint within the lens. But they are not
reduced as much as they would be if an AR coating was
used.
Uncoated crown glass transmits 92% of the incident

light. If even a single-layer AR coating is used, transmission jumps to approximately 98%.27 If a multilayer antireection coating is used, transmission is increased to
more than 99%.28 (It should be noted that these gures
are for light entering the lens from the straight-ahead
position. Light striking the lens at an angle will be
reected slightly more.)
The Theory of Antireection Coatings
According to optical theory, for a single-layer AR coating
to reduce reections, an AR coating must meet two
conditions: the path condition and the amplitude
condition.
The Path Condition. Very simply stated, the path
condition determines what the optical thickness of a
single-layer coating lm must be. To achieve the desired
effect, the lm must be either one fourth of a wavelength
CH A PTER 22
thick or odd multiples of one fourth of a wavelength (i.e.,

one fourth, three fourths, ve fourths, and so forth). As
light strikes the single layercoated lens surface, some of
the light will reect from the coating surface and some
from the lens surface (Figure 22-12). This causes the two
reected waves of light to be out of phase with each
other, causing destructive interference and preventing
reection (Figure 22-13).
Absorptive Lenses
543
The Amplitude Condition. The amplitude condition

requires that the amplitude of the light waves in the lens
material and in the lm be equal. This is required so that
the destructive interference of the two reected waves
will be complete, as shown in Figure 22-13, where the
two sine waves combine to form the zeroed-out straight
line. The distance from the top to the bottom of the
wave must be the same. This can be achieved by controlling the index of refraction of the lm. The relationship
between the index of refraction of the lens material and
the lm coating must be:
nfilm = nlens
The index of the lm must be equal to the square root
of the index of the material being coated. This relationship is derived from reection factors (r) between air and
lm
n 1
1 = F
nF + 1
and between lm and lens.

n n
2 = L F
nL + nF
Figure 22-12. When light strikes a surface with a single-layer

AR coating having the correct thickness, the reected light
from the two surfaces will be one half wavelength out of phase.
(From: Coatings, ophthalmic lens les, Paris, 1997, Essilor
International.)
The reection factors must be equal for the amplitude

condition to be fullled. In other words,
Constructive Interference
Destructive Interference
Figure 22-13. Two waves of light that are exactly in phase with each other, as seen at the
top left, will constructively interfere with each other. The resulting amplitude of the combined light is enhanced as seen at the top right. Two waves of light which are out of phase,
as seen on the lower left, will destructively interfere with each other and when added together
are extinguished, as shown by the line on the right.
544
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
nF 1 nL nF
n + 1 = n + n
F
L
F
which reduces to
nF = nL
Example 22-1
What would the ideal refractive index be for a single-layer
antireection coating applied to a high-index lens if the lens
has an index of refraction of 1.6?
Solution
Since the lens has an index of refraction of 1.6, the ideal
index of the single-layer AR coating would be the square root
of 1.6.
nF = nL
= 1.6
= 1.265
Therefore the ideal single-layer antireection coating would
have an index of refraction of 1.265.
Why Single-Layer Antireection Coatings Are Not

100% Effective. If both the amplitude and path conditions are exactly fullled for every wavelength, there
would be minimal reections from the lens with close to
100% of light passing through to the eye. This is not the
case, however, because of limitations in available coating
materials that are both hard enough and of the proper
refractive index.
Another reason why single-layer AR coatings are not
100% effective is because the correct coating thickness
for yellow light, which falls in the center of the visible
spectrum, is not the correct thickness for blue and red
light, which fall at either ends of the visible spectrum.
This is the reason why, for certain angles of viewing,
single-layer AR-coated lenses have a purplish cast. Since
yellow light is found at the approximate midpoint of the
visible spectrum and is also the color to which the eye is
most sensitive, it has been chosen as the optimum wavelength for which the conditions should be fullled. For
that reason red and blue, which have longer and shorter
wavelengths than yellow, do not fulll these conditions
as well.* They are reected more than the yellow. Red
and blue reections combine to give a bluish-purple cast
to a single-layer AR-coated lens.
Initially, AR coatings were only available as singlelayer coatings. This posed certain limitations on the
effectiveness of the coating. Now that multilayer coatings are the norm, AR-coated lenses are more attractive,
*In addition to wavelength differences for incoming light, lens material will have different indices of refraction for each wavelength.
(See the Chromatic Aberration section of the chapter titled Special
Lens Designs.)
more efcient, more scratch resistant, and considerably

easier to clean.
Multilayer-Coated Lenses
From an optical point of view, using more than one layer
helps to solve the problem of a single-layer coating that
is ideal only for yellow light. Stated in oversimplied
terms, if another layer of a different specically determined refractive index is added, more of the remaining
light that would otherwise be reected is allowed to pass
through; if a third layer is added, even more light would
pass through. If a lens is coated properly, a large percentage of the reected light is now allowed to pass through
the lens. But the optical aspects of a multilayer coating
are only a part of the purpose for multiple layers.
A typical multilayer-coated lens is not placed directly
on the lens. The lens is rst coated with a primer, then
hard coated. This hard coating is basically an antiscratch
coating. The next layer is chosen to provide maximal
adhesion between the hard coating and the AR coating.
The AR coating is applied as more than one layer; sometimes alternating layers of high and low refractive index.29
Efciency is not directly related to the number of layers
used. The AR coating is then sealed in with a hydrophobic (water-repelling) top coat (Figure 22-14). Many newer
coatings are so efcient in repelling smudges that the
surface is slippery enough to require the depositing of a
temporary overlayer* so that the lens will not slip
during the edging process.30
The Relationship Between Antireection and
Scratch-Resistant Coatings. AR coatings will adhere
to a lens better if the lens has a high-quality antiscratch
coating. Antiscratch coatings are now considered essential for good adherence of the coating and reduction in
damage to the coating.
Here is an analogy that describes how an antiscratch
coating supports the AR coating: AR coatings are hard
and brittle. By comparison, plastic lenses are soft and
spongy. Think of a single paper tissue (representing the
AR coating) lying on a soft feather pillow (representing
the lens). If you poke your nger at the tissue it easily
rips. If you place a single tissue on a hard desk and try
poking it with your nger, the tissue remains intact and
undamaged. The analogy holds with AR coated lenses.
The organic hard coat (over the lens and under the AR
coating) supports the thin brittle AR coating much as
the hard desk supports the paper tissue.31 This explains
why AR coatings were successful on glass lenses before
they were on plastic lenses. Glass is a very hard substrate
and an excellent support for the thin, brittle AR coating
layers.
Matching the Antireection Coating to the
Substrate. The best way to be sure that an AR Coating
will perform well is to engineer it for the material upon
*This overlayer, called the Pad Control System, is used with the
Crizal Aliz AR coating.
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
545
Figure 22-14. The lens on the left does not have a water-repelling top coat, and the water
droplet spreads out on the lens. The lens on the right does. The hydrophobic coating causes
water to bead up and slide off more easily, keeping the lens cleaner. (From Bruneni J: AR and
other thin lm coatings, Eyecare Business p 50, 2000.)
which it will be placed. A number of manufacturers are

doing just that. The basic lens material is chosen, such
as ordinary CR-39. Then a primer and hard coating
selected that will work well with both the lens and the
AR coating. The lens is sold with the coating already on
it.
However, for other than single vision lenses, this may
not be able to be controlled as well. There are a large
number of variables. This is especially true in the U.S.
market where there are a diversity of wholesale optical
laboratories supplying different brands of lenses made
from a variety of lens materials. A semi nished lens may
come with one type of antiscratch coating already on the
front surface. The optical laboratory applies another
type of antiscratch coating to the back of the lens after
surfacing. Now the coating laboratory must apply an AR
coating to both surfaces, have it stick to both surfaces
and perform well. Best results are possible if these variables are known. The AR Council recommends that if
the lenses are being edged in house and sent out for
coating, that the coating laboratory be informed of the
type of lens material, the lens brand, and the type of hard
coating being used.32
To overcome the diversity of lens materials and hard
coatings, manufacturers have addressed the problem by
developing a special scratch coating that can be applied
to any nonglass lens, whether the lens is already scratch
coated or not.33 This provides a known, uniform base
upon which an AR coating can be applied so that inequities from chemical and physical differences in factoryapplied and lab-applied coatings can be eliminated.
Another approach is to totally strip the existing lens of
the existing scratch coating and begin again on the base
lens material. Others do not apply their coating to any
lens that they have not manufactured themselves.
Impact Resistance and Antireection Coating.
When a plastic lens is coated, the impact resistance normally decreases. (For more on this topic, see Chapter 23.)
However, by engineering the coating specially for the
material, some high-index plastic lenses are able to be
made with 1.0-mm center thicknesses and still pass the

FDA drop ball test because the lenses have a special
cushioned scratch coating that absorbs shock.33
Reex Colors
Multilayer AR coatings do not have the old purplish cast
so characteristic of single-layer lens coatings. Instead
most have a blue, green, or blue-green appearance. The
reex color itself is not an indication of the quality of the
coating. However, if the lens has a reex color that
changes from one section of the lens to another, that is
an indication of an unevenly applied coating. Reected
color can be tuned by adjusting the layer thickness in
the multilayer AR stack.34
It is possible to cause a coating to have any one of a
range of different reex colors and still be an efcient
coating. It is also possible to produce a coating with
practically no color, resulting in a faint gray reex,35
which is not very pleasing visually and does not
announce that the lens is an AR lens. In short the
manufacturers goal is to produce a lens with a faint
reex having an aesthetically pleasing color.
Antireection Coating of Pretinted Lenses
Pretinted lenses, be they glass or plastic, may also be AR
coated. This is quite advantageous in several situations.
It should be remembered that once a dyed lens has been
AR coated, it cannot be either bleached to a lighter color,
or redyed to a darker color unless the AR coating is
stripped from the lens.
Antireection Coatings Make Lightly Tinted Lenses
More Acceptable at Night. If a person desires a light
tint in his or her lenses yet it is believed that night vision
might be hindered, AR coating the lens can return the
lens to its previous nontinted transmission. For example,
a light tint may reduce lens transmission for a CR-39 lens
from the normal uncoated 92% transmission to 88%.
By eliminating front and back surface reections, AR
coating the lens will bring the transmission up to about
95% transmissionbetter than the transmission in the
546
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
uncoated state. For night driving, any reduction in illumination will result in a loss of acuity.
If a Specic Tint Transmission Is Required. If a
dyed plastic lens is to be AR coated, it must rst be dyed
10% to 15% darker than the transmission desired, then
bleached back to the intended tint. This ensures that lens
color is buried deeper in the lens. Because of the intense
cleaning process used in AR coating, some of the tint
near the surface of the lens will be removed. Tinting the
lens darker and then removing some of the tint near the
surface with neutralizer ahead of time prevents the 5%
to 7% lightening that will otherwise occur during the
cleaning process.
Unfortunately, at present writing, the application of
an AR coating may occasionally change the existing
color of tints. The color may lighten, shift in hue, or
become unmatched in the application process. These
effects are unpredictable as to exactly how and when they
will occur.36
Antireection Coating of Sunglasses. AR coating
of sun lenses reduces mirrorlike reections from the
back surface. Sun lenses may be AR coated to advantage.
For example, the wearer may nd reections from the
back surface of the sun lens disturbing. This is a genuine
complaint because of the brightness of purely reected
light coming from behind, contrasted to the darkened
image of the object being viewed through the sun lens.
(See Figure 22-11, A, showing this reection.) An AR
coating allows the majority of light coming from behind
the wearer to pass on through the lens without being
reected back into the eye.
Opinion on whether to AR coat the front of the lens
is mixed. Some say that an AR coating on the front
surface of the lens is not recommended because, when
combined with the color of the sun lens, the AR coating
leaves an objectionable residual color.37 However, when
residual color can be controlled, then the recommendation is to coat both surfaces because light is also reected
at a lower intensity at the back side of the front surface . . . [and] . . . will give sunglass customers peak performance and the greatest comfort.38
Antireection Coating of Photochromics. A photochromic lens may be AR coated. AR coating of photochromics will increase both the maximum and the
minimum transmission by a certain amount. The lens
will transmit more light in both the lightened and the
darkened state. Color coatings, however, should be applied
only to the rear surface of a photochromic lens since the
added tint cuts out many of the rays that activate the
lens-darkening mechanism. The lens will not darken
properly when color coated on the front.
A Side Comment on Tinted Contact Lenses
It has long been observed by contact lens tters that
the tint in a contact lens does not seem to have the
same effect on light reduction for the wearer as does a
tinted spectacle lens. The reason for this lies with the
reduction of surface reections when the contact lens is

worn.39
If a clear contact lens is measured for light transmission in air, it will transmit about 91.2% of the incident
light. This is because about 7.8% of the light is reected
from the front and back surfaces, and 1% is absorbed by
the contact itself. But if the same contact lens is placed
on the eye, the back surface only reects 0.2% because
of the tears, and the front surface only reects 1.5%
more than the front of the eye would without the contact
lens. This combined with the 1% absorption of the lens
material means that a clear contact lens transmits 97.3%
of the incident light. In essence it is as if the contact lens
had been AR coated. Therefore a lightly tinted contact
lens will transmit more light than a nonAR-coated,
clear spectacle lens.
Pros and Cons of Antireection Coatings
The pros of an AR-coated lens are both subjective ones
noticed by the wearer and objective ones seen by an
observer.
Pros. Subjective advantages noticed by the wearer
include better light transmission, decreased glare, and
improved night vision. There is also a loss of the starlike
are from self-illuminated objects such as headlights, tail
lights, and street lamps (Figure 22-15), resulting in better
visual performance at night.40 For progressive addition
lens wearers, the distracting tails that appear on illuminated digital dashboard accessories are also reduced.
Objective advantages include the loss of surface lens
reections (the window effect). Without lens reections,
the wearers eyes become more visible (see Figure 22-10).
Because edge reections are reduced and the lens appears
less visible, AR coatings make thick lenses appear thinner.
What used to be the biggest con for AR-coated
lenses can now be a pro. That has to do with cleaning
of the lenses. Because the single or multilayer AR coating
only works if it is the rst thing that light strikes when
entering the lens, any dirt, water, or skin oils will reduce
the effectiveness of the coating. What this means is that
a very small smudge on an AR-coated lens will be much
more visible to the wearer. This is because the smudge
will not only be visible in and of itself, but because the
AR coating will not work there, reducing light transmission through the smudge by approximately 4%. Recognizing this AR developers have worked hard to make
their lenses much more cleanable. They have accomplished this with the addition of a hydrophobic top coat
that repels water and oils (see Figure 22-14). In fact these
top coatings are so good at repelling liquids that they are
not able to be marked with a normal marking pen.
Instead they must be marked with either a china marker
or a Staedtler permanent overhead transparency marker.
Permanent marks are later removed using alcohol.
Because of these hydrophobic properties, the newer
types of AR coatings make the lenses much easier to
clean than uncoated lenses.
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
547
Figure 22-15. Night driving is where many experience

a notable difference between uncoated (A) and ARcoated (B) lenses. (From Zeiss ET: Coatings-product
facts, publication MI 9054-1198, Carl Zeiss.)
A
A large pro for AR coatings are that, given the
choice of a good coating or no coating, studies are
showing that people are choosing the AR-coated lenses
by a wide margin.40,41
Cons. Smudges are more visible than with uncoated
lenses. AR coatings exaggerate the contrast between
clean and dirty areas.
Caring for an Antireection-Coated Lens
AR coatings are much tougher than they used to be.
They are not, however, as tough as the surface of a
normal spectacle lens. Certain precautions need to be
taken to keep them in good condition. They include the
following:
1. Avoid using ultrasonic cleaners.
2. Avoid salt or bead frame warmers.
3. Avoid excessive heat. (This includes the interior of
hot automobiles.)
4. Avoid caustic chemicals and sprays, such as acetone,
ammonia, chlorine, hair spray, and other aerosols.
5. Avoid marking lenses with heavy inks.
Cleaning the Antireection-Coated Lens
There are ways to correctly clean lenses and there are
cleaning procedures that should be avoided. Lenses
should be cleaned at least once a day.
Correct Ways to Clean Antireection-Coated
Lenses. Here is a simple sequence for cleaning ARcoated lenses without using a cleaner specically made
for AR-coated lenses42:
1. Rinse the lenses with lukewarm water.
2. Clean using a mild dishwashing liquid or hand soap.
Soap should not contain a hand cream. That will
cause the lenses to smear. Rub soap on both sides of
the lens for about 5 seconds. (It is helpful to wash
both lenses and frames at the same time.)
3. Rinse the soap off with tap water.
4. Dry with a soft, clean cloth, such as a cotton towel.
Naturally a cleaner designed specically for cleaning
AR-coated lenses will give excellent results. From time
to time it is still worthwhile to use a soap or detergent
on both frames and lenses, with lots of running water,
to keep the frames clean, too.
There are soft cloths specically made for use with
AR-coated lenses that allow the lens to be cleaned dry.
These work very well for throughout the day and are
especially handy when there is no soap and water available.

These cleaning cloths should be washed periodically with
laundry soap and water, but do not use fabric softener.43
Things to Avoid When Cleaning AntireectionCoated Lenses. There are certain treatments and
cleaners that should not be used on the AR-coated lens.
Antistatic and antifog agents put a layer of coating on
the lens. Some regular lens cleaners also leave a coating
on the surface. Any layer on top of the coating reduces
its effectiveness. The safest policy is to use a cleaner
specically designed for AR-coated lenses.
The newer the type of AR coating, the more it may
be treated like an ordinary lens.
As with any lens, AR-coated lenses should not be
exposed to household spray cleaners, chemicals, ammonia,
chlorine, and hair spray.43
Antifog Coating
Antifog coatings are used for individuals who are
constantly going into and out of changing temperature
environments or who are exposed to other environmental conditions that would fog lenses. Wearers who may
appreciate antifog coatings include cooks, ice skaters,
and skiers. Antifog coatings can be made as permanent
coatings applied directly to the lens during manufacture.
To produce the antifogging properties, the lens is coated
with a resin lm that absorbs moisture. When the
absorption reaches the saturation point, the interfacial
activator [within the resin] changes water droplets into
a thin outer layer of water.44 It is much more common
to nd permanently applied antifog coatings in sport
eyewear, such as swimming goggles. Prescription lenses
with an antifog coating are not always available. When
available they are limited to single vision lenses.
Fortunately, there are sprays and drops that can be
applied to ordinary spectacle lenses to reduce fogging,
such as Zero-Fog lens treatment by OMS Opto Chemicals. Although Zero-Fog claims to be compatible with
AR coatings, not all antifog sprays or drops are.
Mirror Coating
A mirror coating can be applied by a vacuum process to
the front surface of the lens, causing the lens to have the
same properties as a two-way mirror. When applied as a
full-mirror coating, the observer is unable to see the
wearers eyes and sees his or her own image reected
548
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
from the lens. The wearer is able to look through the

lens normally. There is, of course, a reduction in the
transmission of the lens simply because of the high percentage of light reected.
Mirror coatings alone do not reduce the amount of
light coming through the lens to the level of regular
sunglasses. Mirror coatings may be used in combination
with a tinted lens to provide more protection from intense
sunlight than the mirror coating alone can provide.
Metallized and Dielectric Mirror Coatings45
Mirror coating can be applied as a metallized or a dielectric coating.
Metallized coatings apply a thin layer of metal on the
front of the lens. They both absorb and reect light.
Each metal used has its own coloration that is transferred to the lens. Some metals allow more color variation by controlling the thickness of the coating.
Metallized coating can be applied as:
1. Full-mirror coatings that hide the wearers eyes.
2. Gradient mirrors that are highly reective at the
top and decrease in reectance toward the bottom.
3. Double gradient mirrors that have maximum
reectance at top and bottom, with less along the
midline. These are often used for snow and water
sports.
4. Flash coatings that may have only a hint of
reectance.
Dielectric coatings reect certain wavelengths selectively. They transmit more light through to the wearer
than metallized coatings. Dielectric coating can reect
just one color or be applied in a way that causes the lens
to change color when seen from different angles.
Edge Coating
Lenses may be edge coated to reduce the concentric
rings visible to the observer. The idea of edge coating is
to apply a color to the bevel area of a lens that matches
the frame, camouaging the edge. Many times edge
coatings look funny. This is because they are usually
applied with a small brush, then hardened in an oven. If
the job is not done well, if an inappropriate frame is
chosen, or if the color match is poor, the net effect can
be worse than no coating at all.
There are many suitable alternatives to edge coatings.
These include the following:
Polishing the edge of the lens
Rolling the edge of the lens
AR coating the lens
Using a lens of higher refractive index to reduce
edge thickness
Using any combination of the above
THE PHOTOCHROMICS
A major breakthrough in the area of absorptive lenses
took place in 1964 46 with the invention of Cornings
PhotoGray photochromic lens. A photochromic lens
changes in its transmission when exposed to light.
Glass Photochromic Lenses

For glass lenses, the darkening process occurs as a result
of silver halide crystals within the glass that are activated
by UV and short visible radiation of wavelengths between
300 and 400 nm.
The photochromic process is similar to that which
takes place when light strikes photographic lm emulsions, also containing silver halide crystals. With the
crystals trapped in the glass, however, the darkening
process is reversible. The glass photochromic lens will
not wear out with repeated darkening and lightening
cycles, although over time the lenses do not lighten
indoors like they do when new. Within a year indoor
light transmission percentage is in the low 70s.47
In the United States the most generally used glass
photochromic lens is the PhotoGray Extra lens. This
lens has a range from 85% to 22% transmission, allowing
it to double as a sunglass lens for most purposes. (It
should be kept in mind, however, that under uorescent
lighting, a photochromic lens will not always lighten to
its lightest transmission. Neither do lenses darken as well
when driving.) See Figure 22-16 for examples of glass
photochromic faded and darkened transmission curves.
Plastic Photochromic Lenses

Photochromic lenses are now preponderantly plastic.
Plastic photochromics are available in a variety of brands
and colors. Instead of using an inorganic material, such
as the silver halide crystals used for glass lenses, plastic
photochromics use organic dyes.
How Plastic Photochromics Are Made
Plastic photochromics can be made in a variety of ways.
These include, (but are not limited to)48:
Imbibition
In Mass
Multimatrix
Dip Coating
Front Surface Coating
Transbonding
At the time of this writing, the rst two methods are
the most commonly used.
Imbibition Surface Technology. The primary
example of the lens type made using imbibition surface
technology is the Transitions photochromic lens. Transitions lenses are made by starting with a clear plastic
lens. It can be plastic material very much like CR-39 or
other organic lenses. Each lens manufacturer is responsible for making their own lens using compatible lens
materials. These lenses are then sent to a facility where
their surfaces are infused (imbibed) with photochromic
material using a proprietary manufacturing process.
The evenly distributed photochromic material results
in an even color density over the entire lens as it darkens.
In-Mass Technology. In-mass technology mixes the
photochromic dyes into the liquid lens material before
the lens has been formed. This has been the standard
technology for the manufacture of glass lenses. The
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
100
549
100
PhotoGray extra
faded overnight
90
90
80
80
PGX-16
Faded overnight
70
70
60
60
50
50
PGX-16
Darkened 1 hr at 25
40
40
30
30
20
20
PhotoGray extra
darkened 1 hr at 25
10
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
10
700
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-16. PhotoGray Extra, like crown glass, has an index of refraction of 1.523. The
PGX-16 is the equivalent of PhotoGray Extra in a 1.6 index glass material. As can be seen,
their transmission curves are very similar, with the PGX-16 having a somewhat smaller faded
or darkened range compared with the standard PhotoGray Extra material. (From: 1.6 index
photochromic lenses, preliminary technical information, Publication #OPO-245, Corning,
NY, 1991, Corning Inc. and Photochromic ophthalmic lenses, technical information, Publication #OPO-232, Corning, NY, 1990, Corning Inc.)
disadvantage in glass is that the photochromic material

reacts throughout the lens. This causes the thicker edges
of a minus lens to darken more than the thinner center
does. But with plastic material, primarily only the
photochromic material positioned near the surface of
the lens reacts. A high-minus glass photochromic lens
may give a very slight bulls-eye effect. A high-minus
plastic photochromic lens does not produce the same
effect. In fact proponents of in-mass technology point out
that as the organic dyes wear out near the surface and do
not darken as fully, the dye slightly deeper in the lens is
then activated by the now entering UV rays. The deeper
dyes take over the darkening function, thus extending the
photochromic life of the lens. Corning SunSensors and
Rodenstock ColorMatic lenses are examples of a lens
made with this type of manufacturing technology.
Dip Coating, Front-Surface Coating, and
Transbonding. Although imbibition and in-mass tech-
nologies are preponderant, photochromic plastic lenses

can be made in other manners. A lens may be dip coated
and then cured with a heat process. Another method is
to coat the front surface of the lens. A third process called
transbonding is used with polycarbonate and high-index
lenses. This process uses surface treatments in combination with a series of ophthalmic grade layers.48
Multimatrix.49 Kodak Insta-Shades photochromic
lenses use a process they refer to as Multimatrix. This
process begins with a clear lens that has a 1-mm layer
bonded to it. The bonded layer contains the photochromic dye.
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Photochromic Lenses
Over time plastic photochromics wear out and glass photochromics fail to fully lighten in their faded state. The
amount of time that it takes to wear the lens out depends
550
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
on the cumulative number of hours that the lens is

exposed to UV radiation. In other words, the more the
lens is worn outdoors, especially during high sunlight
conditions, the faster it will wear out. This causes problems when only one lens needs to be replaced. It is
not advisable to replace one lens even if the other lens is
less than 1 year old because the two lenses will age
differently.
Although photochromics are becoming more able to
perform like a sun lens in their darkened state, they still
are not able to replace sunglass lenses. The primary
example of why they do not function as efciently as a
sun lens is the way they are unable to darken well behind
the windshield of a car. Although a full-range photochromic lens responds to both UV and visible light,
because a person driving a car is shaded from direct
sunlight and shielded from much UV radiation by the
windshield, the lens will not fully darken in normal
driving conditions. Glass windshields have a plastic laminate between front and back glass layers that helps retain
fragments of glass during an accident. The plastic layer
has UV absorbers to keep the plastic from being degraded
by UV light. Those wanting photochromic lenses of any
type should be informed that the lens will not darken as
deeply when driving. The upside to all of this is that
since photochromic lenses use UV light in their activation process they are good UV absorbers and furnish
UV protection to the eyes.
Factors Inuencing Photochromic Performance

There are several variables that inuence photochromic
transmission and darkening speed. Some affect only
glass photochromics and others both glass and plastic:
1. Light intensity (both glass and plastic)
2. Temperature (both glass and plastic)
3. Previous exposures (exposure memory) (glass)
4. Lens thickness (glass)
It may be noted that the glass lens hardening process
can also affect glass photochromic lens performance.
The method of choice for hardening of photochromic
glass lenses is chemical tempering.*
Light Intensity
Although exposure to UV and visible light is the condition that inuences photochromic lens transmission
*Because of federal requirements, glass photochromic lenses must

be hardened by some method. There are two primary methods for
hardening a glass lens. Fortunately, heat hardening of lenses has
practically fallen into disuse. Heat hardening a photochromic lens
causes it to lighten slower and reduces its transmission in the
indoor lightened state. It also reduces transmission of the lens in
the darkened state at higher outside temperatures. The amount of
this reduction depends on the color and type of lens, but can be
signicant enough to be visibly noticeable. This causes the heattempered lens to be darker for night activities than the chemicaltempered lens. Chemical tempering is the method of choice for
photochromics.
most, several other factors contribute to lightening and

darkening. A photochromic lens is made to return to its
lighter state by exposure to red light or IR radiation.
This is referred to as optical bleaching.
Temperature
Heat will also bleach the lens. This is referred to as
thermal bleaching. As a consequence, photochromic lenses
do not darken as much on hot days as they do on cold
days.
Taking advantage of this characteristic makes it possible to make photochromic lenses fade faster indoors by
running warm tap water over them for 30 seconds. This
is likely only necessary in certain rare circumstances
(e.g., when the wearer is having photographs taken).
Exposure Memory
Glass photochromics achieve their full changing range
and speed only after a breaking-in period. This is a
consequence of the cumulative effect that takes place;
the lenses have exposure memory, meaning they respond
to light in proportion to accumulated total recent exposures. Put away unused for long periods of time, a glass
photochromic lens will lose its exposure memory and
have to be broken in again to obtain rapid, complete
cycling. For this reason, a well-used glass photochromic
lens will darken at a faster rate than an identical, new
lens. When only one lens is being replaced in a pair of
glasses, this can present a rather curious effect.
Glass photochromic lenses rarely return to their
maximum transmission during ordinary wear.50 Therefore another problem with replacing only one lens is that
the older lens will be darker in its lightened state than
the new lens.
Lens Thickness
Transmission of glass photochromics is also inuenced
by lens thickness. A PhotoGray Extra lens will darken
down to 22% transmission if 2 mm thick, but can get as
dark as 11% if 4 mm thick.51 Even though the transmission varies with thickness, the noticeable variation from
edge to center found in high-plus or high-minus tinted
glass sun lenses is not present.
To cause both old and new glass photochromic lenses to have the
same shade and behave in a more nearly identical manner, an old
glass photochromic lens may be returned closer to its original state
in one of two ways.
1. When the new lens is hardened, the old lens may be
rehardened as well. The temperature change cycle helps
equalize their differences. This proves to be the most effective
method and is the one recommended by the manufacturer.
2. If retempering the old lens with the new is not feasible, the
old lens may be boiled in water for 2 hours. This boiling
process thermally bleaches the lens, returning it closer to the
condition of the newer one. The same bleaching effect may
also be produced by placing the lens in an oven set for 212 F
(again the boiling point of water) for an equal time. A heat
lamp may also be used.
CH A PTER 22
Absorptive Lenses
551
Most plastic photochromics are not inuenced by

thickness.
Photochromic lenses now come in a wide variety of
materials including polycarbonate, trivex, and high
index. They are also available with polarization.
Photochromic Ultraviolet Absorbing Properties
Photochromic lenses are good absorbers of UV radiation. In their darkened state, glass photochromic lenses
generally absorb 100% of UVB radiation and 98% of
UVA radiation. The darkened state is the normal situation where UV protection would be needed.
Plastic photochromics have effective UV absorption
properties as well.
Figure 22-17. Light waves are not restricted to one direction

of vibration. Light from a single source can vibrate in the
vertical plane, in the horizontal plane, and in any plane in
between simultaneously.
Coating a Photochromic Lens

In the past, AR coatings used to interfere with the performance of plastic photochromic lenses. With changes
in both coatings and lenses, this is not the problem it
used to be. AR coatings will not reduce the range of the
photochromic cycles. As with any lens, it will increase
the transmission in both the lightened and darkened
states. In the lightened state, this may be signicant. In
the darkened state, because of the light absorbed going
through the lens, the difference will only amount to a
little more than a 1% decrease in darkeninghardly
noticeable to the wearer.
Colors for Photochromic Lenses

Photochromic lenses can be made in a variety of colors.
Most photochromic lenses begin with one color and
change to a darker shade of that same color. It is also
possible to make a photochromic lens that starts with
one color in the lightened state and darkens to a different
color. These lenses have been available in the past and
may reappear in the future.
POLARIZING LENSES
Glare from reecting surfaces is one problem that is only
partially alleviated by regular absorptive lenses. Glare is
commonly caused by reections from water, snow, highways, and metallic surfaces. A normal absorptive lens
reduces the intensity of light evenly, which also reduces
reected glare. Yet a normal absorptive lens leaves the
glare at the same level relative to the surroundings as it
was before. Light reected from a smooth, nondiffusing
surface is peculiar in that for the most part it has been
polarized through the reection process.
How Polarizing Lenses Work

Ocean waves vibrate up and down as they travel, as is
evidenced by the up-and-down motion of a oating cork.
A light wave is not so restricted and is free to vibrate up
and down, sideways, or obliquely. In other words, in
their nonpolarized state, light waves vibrate perpendicular to the direction in which the light is traveling, but
Figure 22-18. Polarized light vibrates in only one plane. The

light at the top is vibrating vertically; the light at the bottom,
horizontally. Polarized reected light from water, sand, or
snow is horizontally vibrating light.
with no particular degree orientation (Figure 22-17).

The process of polarization, however, causes the vibration direction to be restricted. Instead of vibrating in
just any direction, polarized light will be vibrating only
in one plane (Figure 22-18).
When light strikes a horizontal reecting surface, it
becomes partially polarized with the major direction of
vibration being in the horizontal plane (Figure 22-19).
If light strikes the surface of a refracting material, such
as water or glass, most of the light will be refracted as it
strikes the surface of the water and go on into the water.
The rest of the light will be reected. There is an angle
of incidence of the light striking a surface where not just
some, but all of the reected light will be polarized. This
angle is called Brewsters angle (Figures 22-19 and 2220). See Box 22-4 for more on Brewsters angle.
To reduce the intensity of reective glare more than
that of surrounding objects, a lter that absorbs the
horizontally vibrating components of light would be
useful. Such a lter is available for ophthalmic use and
552
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 22-19. When light strikes a horizontal reecting surface, such as water or sand, it
becomes partially polarized with the major direction of vibration being in the horizontal plane.
Brewsters angle
i = 53
r = 53
Right angle
Air
Water
i = 37
Figure 22-20. Brewsters angle is the angle where complete

polarization of reected light occurs. At Brewsters angle, the
reected and refracted rays are 90 degrees away from one
another.
is made from a sheet of polyvinyl acetate (PVA). The

PVA is rst stretched to ve times its normal length in
one direction. Then it is dipped in iodine. The iodine is
absorbed into the chains of molecules in the PVA. These
darkened lines create the polarizing lter. This lter may
be sandwiched between two layers of cellulose acetate
butyrate (CAB) (Figure 22-21).52 This is how thin, plano
polarizing lenses are made. For prescription lenses, the
polarizing sheet is mounted between hard resin or polycarbonate material. Alternately, it can be mounted on
one layer of CAB material and molded directly into a
plastic lens during the lens casting process.
Polarized ophthalmic lenses are oriented so as to
extinguish the horizontally vibrating component of light,
hence reducing the intensity of light reected from horizontal surfaces. Although reected glare is not eliminated, it is much reduced in comparison with other
objects in the visual eld.
Because the polarizing element in the lens must be
oriented to extinguish horizontally vibrating light, the
lens blank may not be rotated (Figure 22-22). This necessitates custom grinding the rear surface of the lens so
that both the direction of polarization and the cylinder
axis are correct. In other words, all nonplano lenses must
be individually surfaced, including single vision lenses.
BOX 22-4
Brewsters Angle
When light strikes a refracting surface, most light is
refracted into the media, and some is reected. The
reected light is partially polarized until it reaches a
certain angle when it is completely (linearly) polarized.
This angle is where the reected light and the refracted
light are at right angles to one another. This angle is
called the angle of polarization or Brewsters angle.
The angle of polarization happens when the reected
light is at right angles to the refracted light (see Figure
22-20). The angle of polarization is measured as the
angle of incidence (i) of light striking the surface when the
right angles condition for reection and refraction is met.
Figuring out what this angle of incidence will be is done
using Snells law. Snells law says that the index of the
rst media (n) times the sine of the angle of incidence (i)
is equal to the index of the second media (n) times the
sine of the angle of refraction (i). This is written as:
Using mathematical principles, we know that if:
r + i + 90 = 180
where r is the angle of reection and i is the angle of
refraction.
This equation reduces down to:
i = 90 r
We also know that for reected light the angle of
incidence and the angle of reection are always the same.
In other words:
i=r
This means that we can substitute i for r so that:
i = 90 r
opposite
hypotenuse
cos =
adjacent
hypotenuse
and
then
opposite
sin hypotenuse
=
adjacent
cos
hypotenuse
opposite
=
adjacent
= tan
n sin i = n sin i
We know that for Brewsters angle the reected light
and the refracted light are at right angles to one another,
which means that:
sin =
So now:
tan i =
n
n
If the rst media is air, then n = 1 and the equation

becomes:
tan i =
n
1
tan i = n
In this equation i is Brewsters angle.
Usually we already know the refractive index of the
media and want to know Brewsters angle (i). We can nd
i by using the inverse tan.
i = tan1 n
becomes
i = 90 i
Going back to Snells law and substituting 90 i for i,
results in:
n sin i = n sin (90 i)
From trigonometry, we know that:
sin (90 i) = cos i
so that Snells law can now be written as:
n sin i = n cos i
then changed algebraically to:
sin i n
=
cosi n
EXAMPLE
What is the angle at which any reected light will be
completely polarized when light strikes water?
SOLUTION
Using the formula for Brewsters angle allows us to nd
the angle of complete polarization. Knowing that water
has a refractive index of 1.33, we can nd the angle of
incidence that corresponds to Brewsters angle and
produces complete polarization of all reected light.
i = tan1 n
= tan1 1.33
= 53 degrees
For water Brewsters angle is 53 degrees. This is
shown in the gure. Note that the angle of reection and
angle of refraction are at 90 degrees to one another. This
always occurs for Brewsters angle.
554
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Roll of PVA
Rolls of CAB
Heat and stretch

Iodine bath
Finished
polarized
sandwich
Figure 22-21. A polarized lter is made beginning with a sheet of PVA. This sheet is
stretched to ve times its normal length in one direction. Then it is dipped in iodine, and
the iodine is absorbed into the chains of molecules in the PVA. These darkened lines create
the polarizing lter. This lter is then sandwiched between two layers of CAB. (From
Young J: Polar process, 20/20 p 88, 2002.)
Figure 22-22. This nished, uncut polarizing lens has two

notches cut out on the side so that it is clear how the lens
should be oriented to maintain the intended polarizing
properties.
If an ideal polarizing lter is oriented properly and all

incoming light is horizontally polarized, then all of the
light would be extinguished. However, if the lter is
tilted, then some light will get through. When the lter
is 90 degrees away from where it should be, all of the
horizontally polarized light will come through the lter.
The amount of light that comes through depends upon
the orientation of the polarizing lter. This amount is
predictable and may be found using Malus law. (For
more on Malus law, see Box 22-5.) If the polarizing lens
is not oriented along the 180-degree meridian, not all
horizontally polarized light will be absorbed. And if a
person is wearing a polarizing lter and tilts his head to
one side, the lter will not absorb as much of the horizontally polarized light. The more the head is tilted, the
less horizontally polarized light is absorbed.
When Should Polarizing Lenses Be Used?

Polarizing lenses offer advantages in a number of different situations and can be recommended for the following
reasons:
1. To decrease driving fatigue and increase driving safety

Because much of the light reected from large
pavement areas is polarized, those who do a lot of
daytime driving will benet from polarizing lenses.
There is also polarized light that reects off the
inside of the windshield from the dashboard or from
objects on the dashboard. This is an intensely
distracting glare that will be almost totally
eliminated with polarizing sunglasses.
2. For shing and for boating on the waterReected
light from the surface of water makes it hard to see
below the surface. Wearing polarizing lenses not
only removes the discomfort of reected glare, but
makes it easier to see below the surface.
3. For more visual comfort at the beachSand and water
are both sources of polarized glare. Polarizing lenses
are especially helpful here.
4. So that colors are not bleached outReected polarized
light produces a veiling glare. This veiling glare
causes colors to appear less vivid. When glare
disappears, colors return.
5. So that bright, snowy days are not as blindingSnow is
highly reective. It is also polarizing. Those who
are out working or driving in the snow will benet
from using polarizing lenses. (Note: Polarizing
lenses may not be as advantageous for skiers as one
might think. Skiers heads tilt far to the left and
right when skiers turn and lean. This makes the
polarizing lter less effective when the frame front
is no longer oriented parallel to the ground and
causes changes in brightness.)
6. To block UV radiationVirtually all prescription
polarizing lenses, both glass and plastic, are made to
block UV radiation. This is not a function of the
polarizing lter, but rather foresight on the part of
the manufacturers. UV ltering is a big advantage,
since the same surfaces that normally reect light in
a polarized manner also reect a high percentage of
UV light.
7. Polarizing lenses are good sunglassesPolarizing lenses
should be considered for ordinary sun lens wear.
CH A PTER 22
BOX 22-5
Malus Law
A polarizing lter has an absorption axis and a
transmission axis. If an ideal polarizing lter is oriented
with its absorption axis along the 180, it will extinguish
all horizontally polarized light. This means that the
transmission axis of this same lter will be at 90 and
will allow all vertically polarized light to pass through.
When the lter is tilted somewhere between these two
positions, only a certain percentage of horizontally
polarized light comes through the lter.
Malus law is a predictor of how much polarized light
will be transmitted by an obliquely oriented polarizing
lter. It is expressed by the equation:
IX = IO cos2 q
IX is the intensity of the light transmitted through the
lter, IO is the original intensity of the entering light, and
q is the angle of tilt with reference to the transmission
axis. The equation for the traditional form of Malus law
is based on the transmission axis, not the absorption
axis. For polarizing ophthalmic lenses the absorption
axis is oriented at 180. The transmission axis is at 90.
EXAMPLE
A polarizing lter used in a lens has its absorption axis
oriented along the 180-degree meridian. We will assume
that it is an ideal lter and will absorb all horizontally
polarized light. The polarizing lens is being worn by a
person who tilts his head 30 degrees. What percent of
horizontally polarized light will now be allowed to pass
through the tilted lter?
SOLUTION
Assuming that we have 100% of incoming horizontally
polarized light striking the lter, then the intensity of the
irradiating (incoming) horizontally polarized light (IO) is 1.
Remember that Malus law is based on the transmission
axis. When the wearer tilts his head 30 degrees the
transmission axis of the lens is 60 degrees away from
the horizontally polarized light. Therefore using Malus law:
IX = IO cos2 q
= 1 cos2 60
= 0.25
Therefore the intensity of the horizontally polarized
light passing through the lter is 25%. So tilting the
head while wearing polarizing lenses will allow 25% of
polarized reected light to pass through, making the
tilted lens a less effective glare lter.
There are many cases of polarizing glare that occur

routinely during outdoor activities. A surprising
number of individuals would benet.
Polarizing lenses are made in most lens stylesnot
just single vision lenses, but bifocals, trifocals, and progressive addition lenses as well. They are available in
Absorptive Lenses
555
glass, photochromic glass, plastic, photochromic plastic,

polycarbonate, and high-index plastic. Colors and tints
are available, including mirrored and iridescent. Polarizing lenses may also be AR coated.
Precautions With Polarizing Lenses
There are some instances where polarizing lenses create
unique situations. Here are a few:
1. Since windshields are tempered, the tempering
process induces intentional stress into the material.
This stress may be visible through polarizing lenses
in much the same way the stress is visible through
the crossed polarizing lters of a polariscope
(colmascope) used to check for impact resistance of
glass lenses (see Chapter 23).
2. Some skiers believe polarizing lenses make snow
conditions harder to judge. In addition, as the skier
tilts from side to side, the polarizing lens tilts. The
percentage of horizontally polarized light reected
from the surface of the snow and absorbed by the
polarized lenses will vary, depending upon the angle
of tilt. This will cause an ongoing change in the
intensity of the reected light.
3. Golfers also sometimes nd polarizing lenses
make judging the condition of the course
more difcult since the smooth grass surface
causes a certain amount of polarization of
reected light.
4. The instrument panels in some cars use LCDs
(liquid crystal displays) to display information.
An LCD display is polarized. If the LCD is
horizontally polarized, polarizing sunglasses will
extinguish the display. To see how this works when
wearing polarizing lenses, turn the display of an
LCD display watch 90 degrees. The time display
will disappear. Or when pumping gas while viewing
the display on the gas pump, tilt your head sideways
and see the numbers fade out.
5. Pilots experience a number of adverse situations
when wearing polarizing lenses, some of which can
be dangerous.
a. Polycarbonate windshields in many aircraft have
stress patterns. These patterns become visible
and may be distracting when wearing polarizing
lenses.
b. Some airplane cockpits, like some car instrument
panels, may have polarized numbers or images
that can disappear when viewed through
polarizing lenses.
c. Much of the light from an oncoming aircraft
that makes it visible is reected light from the
metallic surfaces of the plane. Much of this
reected light is horizontally polarized. When
this reected light is eliminated by horizontally
polarizing sunglasses, the oncoming aircraft may
not been seen as soon as it would otherwise have
been.
556
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Two Methods for Demonstrating

Polarizing Lenses
It is helpful to explain how polarizing lenses work to a
prospective buyer. But it is much better to show them
with a rst-hand demonstration. Here are two methods
that show how polarizing lenses affect light. (There are
also commercially available demonstration units.)
It is possible to take two plano polarizing lenses and,
by holding one before the other with their polarizing
axes crossed at 90 degrees, eliminate all incoming visible
light rays. What one polarizing lens does not extinguish
the other will. To demonstrate how polarizing lenses
work with this method, hold one lens still, then rotate
the other lens back and forth 90 degrees. Watch objects
viewed through the lenses dim out completely, then
brighten up as the lens is rotated back.
(Caution: When crossed sheets of polarizing material
or lenses are not quite 90 degrees apart, only a small
portion of the light is admitted. Herein lies a potentially
dangerous problem. Some wearers may be inclined to
use your demonstration system with one polarizing lens
and one sheet polarizer, or two pairs of polarizing glasses,
for viewing an eclipse of the sun. Unfortunately, Clark53
reports that plastic sheet polarizers are inefcient polarizers of IR radiationas are most spectacle lenses.
Therefore an inordinate amount of heat-producing IR
reaches the retina and, especially when combined with
UV or short wavelength blue light could be damaging.
Direct viewing of an eclipse, even with highly absorptive
lenses, is never advisable.)
A second method for demonstrating how polarizing
lenses work uses a pair of glasses with polarizing lenses
and a glossy magazine.54 Place the magazine on a at
surface with a light source in the background. With the
glossy magazine between you and the light source, the
magazine will show a reecting glare. Move around until
the glare is maximal. Now turn the glasses 90 degrees
so that the lenses are vertically aligned, instead of horizontally as when worn. View the magazine through one
of the lenses. Now slowly rotate the glasses until they
are horizontal again. As the glasses are rotated, the glare
on the magazine will decrease.
GLARE CONTROL LENSES

Polarizing lenses correct reective glare. There are other
types of glare that polarizing lenses alone cannot eliminate, however. Glare problems are corrected by addressing the type of glare experienced. For our purposes, we
will divide glare into two types: (1) discomfort glare and
(2) disability glare. These two types of glare are similar
in cause, but different in their effect upon vision. Discomfort glare is a glare which produces discomfort,
but does not necessarily interfere with visual performance or ability.55 Disability glare reduces visual per-
formances and visibility [and] may be accompanied by

discomfort.55
Discomfort Glare
Discomfort glare may occur when the eyes try to cope
with high and low light intensities in a relatively small
viewing area. The eyes have difculty adjusting to both
lighting situations simultaneously. Discomfort glare is
best corrected by a change in environmental factors.
Individuals working at a computer screen placed in front
of a bright window experience discomfort glare from the
surrounding area. The problem is corrected by repositioning the computer or shading the window. Discomfort glare is also experienced when viewing a television
in a dark room. When an individual must look back and
forth between vastly different illuminations, discomfort
is experienced. Put another way, stray light that reduces
visual comfort but does not interfere with resolution is
called discomfort glare.56
Disability Glare
Disability glare occurs when stray light interferes with
contrast, making it difcult to resolve an image. Stray
light washes out the image on the retina in the same
manner that strong overhead lighting degrades the image
of a slide on a projector screen.
If the stray light causing glare were made up of just
polarized light, it could be eliminated using a polarizing
lter. If the stray light causing problems were to originate from a light source of only one color, a selectively
absorptive lens capable of ltering out only that one
color would be able to screen out the offending light,
restoring the quality of the image.
Factors That Cause Disability Glare
There are many situations that cause disability glare. For
example, dazzlingly bright oncoming headlights can
obscure a dark road, making it nearly impossible to see
someone in dark clothing walking along the side of the
road. In addition, there are factors that can cause or
increase disability glare. One such factor is the presence
of a cataract. If the crystalline lens begins to cloud and
fog up like a dirty windshield, disability glare can
increase. Oncoming headlights at night are bad enough
when viewing the scene through normal eyes. When
those same intense headlights are passing through a
cloudy, light-scattering cataract, the effect is considerably magnied.
Another cause of increased glare may be related to the
absorption of UV light by the crystalline lens. As the
crystalline lens of the eye absorbs UV and short wavelength visible light between the range of 310 and 410 nm,
it uoresces, giving off light with a wavelength near
530 nm.57 Contact lens practitioners will see the pupil
giving off a greenish-yellow cast when viewing the eye
with a UV lamp. This is really uorescence of the crystalline lens as seen through the pupil.
CH A PTER 22
Additional Protection from Glare Using Side Shields

The person who is especially sensitive to glare, such as
someone with corneal scarring, may benet from the use
of side shields. These shields may be tinted and attached
to prescription spectacles.
A wraparound frame is like a frame with built-in side
shields. Wraparound frames are available in regular sunglasses or in specialty lters, such as NoIRs or Solar
Shields. Many of these specialty lters are made to be
worn by themselves or over conventional eyeglasses.
Using Absorptive Filters That Block
Short Wavelengths
The effects of UV radiation on the retina are known and
have been discussed in an earlier section of the chapter.
In addition to UV light, there are some damaging effects
of blue light reported.58,59 However, the amount of light
needed to cause such retinal damage is not found in the
natural environment.60 There is enough short wavelength light generated by ophthalmic instruments to
cause ocular damage with sufcient exposure.61 However,
there are normally lters used in these instruments to
prevent such damage.
In an attempt to slow the development of certain
degenerative diseases, such as macular degeneration and
retinitis pigmentosa, practitioners sometimes use lenses
that block both UV and blue light.
Another rationale for using a lens that blocks short
wavelength light is to try to increase contrast. When a
blue object is viewed through a lens that lters blue, the
object does not disappear but looks darker. A darker
object against the same background will have a higher
border contrast. For this reason, lenses that lter out
short wavelength light are said to increase contrast.
Lenses Made to Block Short Wavelengths and

Control Glare
Several lenses made their appearance in the 1980s that
have been used in an attempt to control glare. Some of
these lenses have been used heavily by low-vision practitioners and by those who see a large proportion of older
wearers.
Glare Control CPF Lenses
Corning developed a series of photochromic lenses
referred to as Glare Control CPF lenses. This line of
lenses has since been acquired by and is sold through
Winchester Optical.* They are specialty photochromic
lenses made using a unique manufacturing process.
CPF lenses begin with photochromic material that is
surfaced for the prescription and edged for the frame.
Afterwards the lens is red by heating the lens in a
hydrogen atmosphere. This reduces the silver halide
crystals near the surface of the photochromic lens to
elemental silver. Left in this condition, wavelengths
*Winchester Optical, Winchester, MA 01890.
Absorptive Lenses
557
critical for causing the photochromic change would be

blocked, and the lens will not darken. Therefore the
front surface of the lens must be reground to remove the
altered layer. The altered back layer that gives the lens
its unique spectral-absorbing properties remains in
place.
There are several series of these lenses, each with a
coded name, such as the CPF 527. The letters CPF
stand for Corning protective lter. The number indicates the wavelength below which light is absorbed. (For
the CPF 527 lens, all UV and visible light up to 527 nm
is absorbed by the lens.)
CPF lenses are described and compared in Table 22-3.
Some of their transmission curves in lightened and darkened states are shown in Figure 22-23.
None of these Glare Control lenses are to be worn
for night driving.
Glare Control Dyes
There are some glare control colors available in lens
dyes. This is a less expensive option, whereby clear
plastic lenses may be tinted to the desired absorptive
characteristics. To work as anticipated, the tint should
not just match an expected lens color. The absorptive
properties of the dyed lens should also ful ll the desired
transmission requirements.
Nonprescription Options for Controlling Glare
Well-known nonprescription lters available for controlling glare are available from NoIR Medical Technologies. These are wraparound glasses that come in
sizes allowing them to be used alone or on top of prescription eyewear. There are many options available.
NoIRs vary in the amount of light absorbed, the selectivity of that absorption across the spectrum, and the
resulting physical color of the lens. However, according
to one study62 that reviewed 318 patients from three lowvision centers, when NoIRs were used, 89% of lowvision patients chose either the #101 or #102 NoIR
lters.
Disadvantages of Glare Control-Type Lenses

There are certain disadvantages associated with lenses
that block the short-wavelength visible spectrum. One
of the greatest disadvantages of these lenses is their
effect on color vision. The amount and type of color
confusion will vary, depending upon the lens. The more
of the visible spectrum that is absorbed by the lens, the
greater will be the effect on color vision.
For the color-normal individual, there may be no
color confusion induced for lenses that absorb moderately in the blue end of the spectrum. There may be mild
confusion for lenses, such as the BluBlocker,63 that absorb
more of the visible spectrum.
NoIR Medical Technologies, P.O. Box 159, South Lyon, MI

48178.
558
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 22-3
Comparison of Lenses in the CPF Glare Control Series

Activities and Eye Disorders for
Which the Lens Is Often Chosen
Lens Name
Color, Light Transmission, Description
CPF 450X
Transmission range: 68%-20%
CPF 511X
CPF 527X
GlareCutter
CPF 450
Lighter color
Moderate blue ltering
Turns from a lemon yellow inside (67%) to a
brown outside (19%)
Reading
Television
Helping with glare from uorescent
lighting
CPF 511
Turns from a yellow-amber inside (44%), to a

brown outside (14%)
CPF 527
Turns from an orange-amber inside (32%), to a

brown outside (11%)
Developing cataracts
Aphakes and pseudophakes
Macular degeneration
Corneal dystrophy
Optic atrophy
Sometimes glaucoma or diabetic retinopathy
Same as for CPF 511
CPF 550
Turns from an orange-red inside (21%), to a

brown outside (5%)
Overall light transmission low both indoors and out
Intense sensitivity to light

Poor dark adaptation
Retinitis pigmentosa
CPF 550-XD
Mahogany brown color: extremely dark

9% inside
4% outside
(XD stands for extra dark.)
Note: Lenses are too dark to meet FDA
standards for daytime driving.
Extraordinary photophobia
Aniridia
Achromatopsia
The X series of lenses are made for general

use and minimal color distortion while still
blocking UV and minimizing short
wavelength exposure.
CH A PTER 22
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
Absorptive Lenses
70
511
Lightened
60
60
50
50
511
Darkened
550
Lightened
40
40
30
30
20
20
550
Darkened
10
300
350
400
559
450
500
550
600
650
700
10
750
Wavelength
Figure 22-23. Transmission curves for two of the standard series CPF Glare Control lenses.
Note that CPF lenses block all wavelengths below the identifying number for the lens (i.e.,
for the 550 lens, no light with a wavelength shorter than 550 nm is transmitted through the
lens). Spectral transmission curves for the CPF 527 lens (not shown in the gure) fall between
the transmission curves for the 511 and 550 lenses. (From: Corning Glare Control lens
manual, OPM 190, Corning, NY, 1991, Corning Inc.)
Color discrimination will be more noticeably affected

for individuals who already have a color deciency.
Scores on standardized color testing decreased notably
for color defectives. In some cases, this can affect the
color defectives ability to identify trafc signals
quickly.
The expectation with glare control lenses is that visual
performance will improve. However, improvements in
visual performance by individuals who would be considered candidates for these type of lenses is not a given. In
fact there may be no statistically signicant difference in
visual acuity or contrast sensitivity with the glare controltype lens compared with a neutral density lter of the
same transmission.64,65 Reported improvement in vision
is more of a subjective assessment on the part of the
wearer. Therefore decisions on which lenses to use are
usually made by the individual subjectively comparing
two or more appropriate lens types.
Clinically, glare control lenses continue to enjoy popularity, especially in practices specializing in low vision.
Although not everyone with glare problems or degenerative eye disorders may nd the lenses benecial, those
who do wear them report a subjective improvement in
vision and satisfaction.
SPECIALTY ABSORPTIVE LENSES

Glass Blowers Lenses
Glass blowers prefer an absorptive lens that lters out
the yellow band of the spectrum so that they may more
clearly see what is happening to the color of the heated
glass without it being marked by the yellow ame. This
function is fullled with a glass didymium lter lens.
Didymium lenses are dichroic, meaning the lens will
appear rose colored in natural and incandescent lighting,
but aqua under uorescent lighting. Didymium lenses
560
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
used in glass blowing are not welding glasses, even though

there are some welding glasses that contain didymium.
Therefore reected light from the front surface of the lens

will be:
RF = 100(0.0398) = 3.98%
X-Ray Lenses
Lenses used for x-ray protection are made from a 1.80
index, heavy glass material. This particular glass is softer
than regular glass and is prone to scratching. (Note: Just
because a lens may have an index of refraction of 1.8 does
not mean that it protects against x-rays.) X-ray protective
lenses are not capable of being chemically hardened.
They cannot be heat tempered using normal ophthalmic
air hardening equipment. X-ray protective lenses can be
heat tempered at a lower temperature. But since most air
hardening equipment does not have adjustable temperature capabilities,66 the wearer must sign a waiver acknowledging that these lenses are not impact resistant.
To determine how much light is reected from the second

surface, we run through the equation again. This time the
value of the incident light is not 100% or 1. Instead it is:
I = 1 0.0398 = 0.9602
Therefore
2
n n
IR(Back ) =
0.9602
n + n
1 1.498
=
0.9602
1 + 1.498
0.498 2
0.9602
=
2.498
= [ 0.1994]2 0.9602
= 0.0398 0.9602
= 0.0382
2
ABSORPTIVE LENS CALCULATIONS

How Index of Refraction Affects the
Transmission of a Spectacle Lens
(the Fresnel Equation)
The amount of light that is reected when light goes
from one media to another is determined using the
Fresnel equation. The Fresnel equation is:
n n
IR =
I
n + n
where n is the index of refraction of the second media,
n is the index of refraction of the rst media, I is the
amount of incident light, and IR is the amount of incident
light that is reected.
Example 22-2
What percentage of light can we expect an absolutely clear
CR-39 plastic lens to transmit if it has an index of refraction
of 1.498?
Solution
Using the Fresnel equation, we substitute the index of air,
which is 1, for n, and the index of CR-39 plastic for n. The
amount of incident light is 100% or 1. Therefore the amount
of incident light that is reected equals:
2
n n
IR(Front ) =
I
n + n
1.498 1
=
1
1.498 + 1
0.498 2
1
=
2.498
= [0.1994]2 1
= 0.0398
2
Reected light expressed as a percentage is

RF = 100(IR).
Expressed as a percent, the light reected from the back

surface is:
RB = 100(0.0382) = 3.82%
Because of reection from the front surface, only 96.02% of
the light ever reaches the second surface of the lens. At the
second surface, 3.82% of the light is reected. This means
that total light transmitted through the lens will be 96.02%
3.82% = 92.2%.
Why High-Index Lenses Work Best With an

Antireection Coating
High-index lenses work much more to the wearers satisfaction if they are AR coated. The reason can be seen
when guring the percentage of light transmitted by a
high-index lens.
Example 22-3
How much light is transmitted by an absolutely clear,
uncoated plastic lens having an index of refraction of
1.66?
Solution
Using the Fresnel equation, the index of air remains as 1,
and 1.66 is used for n. Therefore
2
n n
IR(Front ) =
I
n + n
1.66 1 2
=
1
1.66 + 1
0.66 2
1
=
2.66
= [0.248]2 1
= 0.0616
CH A PTER 22
and
RF = 100(0.0616) = 6.16%
This means we have already lost more than 6% of the light
to reection from the rst surface. Next we nd the amount
of light that is incident on the second surface.
I = 1 0.0616 = 0.9384
Therefore
2
n n
IR(Back ) =
0.9384
n + n
1 1.66 2
=
0.9384
1 + 1.66
0.66 2
0.9384
=
2.66
= [0.248]2 0.9384
= 0.0616 0.9384
= 0.0
0578
This means that the percent of light reected from the back
surface is:
RB = 100(0.0578) = 5.78%
If 93.84% of the light strikes the second surface and 5.78%
is reected from that surface, then the total light transmitted
through the lens will be 93.84% 5.78% = 88.06%.
The uncoated higher-index plastic lens in the example

transmits only 88% of the incident light in its clear state.
This is the same transmission as a lightly tinted crown
glass or CR-39 plastic lens. Fortunately an AR coating
will bring the lens back up to nearly 100% transmission.
When these greater-than-normal lens reections are
eliminated with AR coating, the high-index lens becomes
much more cosmetically appealing. AR-coated highindex lenses also perform better at night than uncoated
high-index lenses. This is because more light is transmitted, and less glare from oncoming lights is encountered.
Why Coating Fused Glass Multifocals Help to Reduce
Segment Visibility
Fused glass multifocal segments are made from a glass
material having a higher refractive index than the distance
portion of the lens. This means that the segment will
reect more light than the distance portion, increasing its
visibility. By applying an AR coating, both parts of the
lens transmit close to 100%. The difference in percent
transmission between the distance lens and the segment
is less, making the lens segment less noticeable.
Why a Tinted Glass Lens Becomes Darker

When Its Plus Power Increases (Lamberts Law
of Absorption)
When a lens material contains its tint in the melt or
resin, the amount of light transmitted will change with
Absorptive Lenses
561
a change in thickness. The amount of change is predictable using Lamberts law of absorption. Lamberts law of
absorption states67 that:
1. As light passes through a homogeneous substance of
a given thickness, the same percentage of light is
absorbed regardless of the intensity of the incident
light.
2. The intensity of transmitted light varies as an
exponential function of the length of the light path
in the absorbing medium.
The rst part of the law means that if a given thickness of absorptive material absorbs 50% of dim light, it
will absorb 50% of bright light as well. The same percentage of light will be absorbed, regardless of how dim
or bright the light is.
The second part of the law says that as the thickness
of the absorbing medium doubles, the effect is equal to
squaring the transmission factor for the original thickness.
If the thickness triples, the effect is cubed, and so on.
Example 22-4
Suppose a 1-mm thick lens has a transmission factor (q) of
0.9. This means that, ignoring reections, if light strikes the
lens, 90% of the light comes out the other side. If reections
are ignored, what would the transmission of a lens made of
the same material be if it had a 2 mm thickness?
Solution
If the intensity of light entering the rst millimeter of lens
material is 100% or 1, the intensity of light leaving the rst
millimeter is:
I1 = I0 (q)
= 1(0.9)
= 0.9
Next light enters the second millimeter with an intensity of
0.9. After passing through the second millimeter, the intensity of light leaving the second surface is:
I2 = I1(q)
= 0.9(0.9)
= 0.81
In other words, the second millimeter absorbs 90% of the
light leaving the rst millimeter, which was also 90%. Ninety
percent of 90% is 81%. (This is the same as 0.9 squared.)
Therefore 81% of the original oncoming light will make it
through this 2-mm thick lens.
Expressing Lamberts Law As an Equation

To make Lamberts law into an equation, we see that if:
I1 = I0 (q)
and
I2 = I1(q)
then
I2 = I0 (q)(q) = I0 (q) 2
562
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
I0 is the original amount of incident light, I1 is the amount

of incident light remaining after leaving the rst layer,
I2 is the amount remaining after leaving the second layer,
and q is the transmission factor for the thickness of the
layer. Continuing the logic, we see that if we have x
layers, then the amount of incident light remaining after
the xth layer will be:
Ix = I0 (q) x
or
I3 = (0.957)(0.9) 3
= 0.698
The percent transmission leaving the last layer before reection is:
Ix = I0 (q) x
Tx = 100(Ix )
= 100(0.698)
= 69.8%
and the percentage of light transmitted will be:

Tx = 100[I0 (q) x]
The intensity of light reected at the last layer is:

1 1.523
IR(Back ) = (0.698)
1 + 1.523
= (0.698) ( 0.207)2
= (0.698) 0.043)
= 0.03
How to Take Reections into Consideration When

Using Lamberts Law
If reections are considered, then the amount of incident
light that enters the rst surface after reection is:
I0 = I IR
I in the original intensity of entering light, IR is the
intensity of the reected light, and I0 is the intensity of
light entering the rst layer (after reection).
Total lens transmission will be:
T = Tx RB
Where Tx is the total percent transmission leaving the
last layer (or back of the lens), R B is the light reected
from the back surface, and T is the total percentage of
light transmitted from the lens with both reection and
absorption considered.
Therefore the total percent transmission for light leaving the

lens is:
T = Tx RB
= 69.8% 3.0%
= 66.8%
Ultimate Transmission
The ultimate transmission (Tu) is found by multiplying
the transmissions of each element through which
light passes to determine ultimately what transmission
results.
Tu = (T1) (T2) (T3) . . . etc
(such as 3 lenses lined up one behind another.)
Example 22-5
A tinted crown glass lens has a transmission factor of q =
0.9 for each millimeter of lens thickness. If the lens has an
index of refraction of 1.523 and is 3.0 mm thick, what is the
transmission of the lens?
Solution
The intensity of the light reected from the front surface of
the lens is:
2
n n
IR(Front ) =
I
n + n
Example 22-6
An individual is driving a car with a lightly tinted windshield
having a transmission of 85%. He is wearing sunglass clipons with a 20% transmission over a pair of lightly tinted
spectacle lenses with an 87% transmission. What percentage of incoming light gets through to the eye?
Solution
To nd ultimate transmission, multiply all of the transmissions together. In this case
1.523 1 2
=
1
1.523 + 1
= 0.043
The intensity of light entering the lens (rst layer) is:
I0 = 1 0.043
= 0.957
The intensity of light at the back surface of the lens (leaving
the last layer) before back surface reection occurs is:
Tu = 0.85 0.20 0.87

= 0.15
Therefore the ultimate transmission of light through this
system is 0.15 or 15%.
Opacity
Opacity is the reciprocal of transmission. (When
calculating opacity, transmission is not expressed as a
percentage.)
CH A PTER 22
O=
Absorptive Lenses
563
Since
1
T
log
The opacity of the lens is 1.49.
1
= log 1 log T
T
= 0.0 log T
Therefore
Example 22-7
What is the opacity of a lens having 67% transmission?
Solution
Since transmission is not expressed as a percentage,
then:
1
O=
= 1.49
0.67
D = log T
Example 22-9
If a lens has a transmission of 0.90 for each millimeter of
thickness, what is its optical density per 1/10 mm and what
is the transmission for 1/10 mm?
Solution
First, we nd the optical density for 1 mm.
Example 22-8
Suppose an individual is wearing absorptive spectacle
lenses having a transmission of 80%. She gets into a car
with a tinted windshield. The windshield has a transmission
of 80%. In this situation, what percentage of the light is
transmitted to the eye? What would our answer be if
expressed as opacity?
Solution
We are seeking the ultimate transmission of the combination
of elements. In this case it is:
Tu = (T1) (T2)
= (.8) (.8)
= 0.64 or 64%
The opacity of this combination would be:
O=
D = log T
= log 0.90
= 0.0457575
Now we can nd the optical density for 1/10 mm. Density
(D) for 1/10 mm is:
0.0457575
= 0.00457575
10
The optical density for 1/10 mm is 0.00458.
Now to nd the transmission for 1/10 th mm we convert
from optical density back to transmission. We know that
D = log T
and that the density of 1/10th mm is 0.00458.
Therefore
1
T
log T = 0.00458
1
=
0.64
O = 1.56
So
log T = 0.00458
Taking the antilog of 0.00458 we nd
Optical Density
Using transmissions makes guring odd thicknesses difcult. Densities, however, are additive. Densities are the
log of the opacity and are expressed as:
T = 0.99
So 1/10 mm has a transmission of 99%.
optical density = log10 (opacity)

which is the same thing as:
D = log O
and can also be expressed as:
D = log
1
T
Laser Protective Eyewear Specied in Optical Density

When transmission of a lens is a very small number,
optical density of the lens will be large. As an example,
when the transmission of a lens is 1% (or .01), the density
of that lens is 2.0. For this reason, many times occupational safety tints or laser safety tints are specied in
terms of optical density instead of percent transmission.
As an example, in Figure 22-24 laser protective
eyewear used around Argon lasers is shown to have
564
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
ARG-KTP
50%VLT
8
7
6
OD
5
4
3
2
1
0
200
300
400
500
700
600
wavelength (nm)
800
900
1000
1100
Figure 22-24. Laser protective eyewear uses optical density instead of transmission to specify
the absorbency of the lter. The higher the density, the more the radiation is absorbed. (From
http://www.noirlaser.com/ lters/arg.html, NoIR Laser Co, LLC, 6155 Pontiac Trail, South
Lyon, MI, 48178, 8/16/2005.)
a high optical density for wavelengths from 200 to

532 nm. This high optical density protects the wearer in
the wavelength zone for Argon lasers. However, the
optical density drops back to almost zero above 600 nm.
Light above 600 nm can be seen easily. In a graph that
uses optical density such as the one shown in Figure
22-24, the high areas of the graph indicate the wavelength areas of most protection.
REFERENCES
1. Pitts DG, Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision, Boston,
1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.
2. Goodeve DF: Vision on the ultraviolet, Nature 134:416417, 1934. (As cited by Pitts DG, Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision, Boston, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
3. Torgersen D: UV radiation and the eye, lab talk, 1998.
(Also Pitts DG, Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision,
Boston, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
4. Pitts DG: Ultraviolet protectionwhen and why? Prob
Optom 2:97, 1990.
5. Brilliant LB, Grasset NC, Pokhrel RP et al: Associations
among cataract prevalence, sunlight hours, and altitude in
the Himalayas, Am J Epidemiol 118:239, 1983.
6. Miller D: Effect of sunglasses on the visual mechanism,
Surv Ophthal 19:38, 1974.
7. Young RW: The family of sun-related eye diseases, Optom
Vis Sci 71(2):125-144, 1994.
8. Reme CJ, Reinboth J, Clausen M et al: Light damage

revisited: converging evidence, diverging views? Graefes
Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 234(1):2-11, 1996 as cited by
Bradley A: Special review: colored lters and vision care,
part II, Indiana J Optom 7(1):2, 2004.
9. West Sheila K et al: Sunlight exposure and risk of lens
opacities in a population-based study: the Salisbury eye
evaluation project, JAMA 280:714-718, 1998.
10. Hecht S, Hendley C, Ross S et al: The effect of exposure
to sunlight on night vision, Am J Ophthal 31:1573, 1948.
11. ANSI Z80.3-2001: American national standard for ophthalmics-nonprescription sunglasses and fashion eyewearrequirements, Merrield, Va, 2002, Opt Lab Assoc.
12. Peckham RH, Harley RD: Reduction in visual acuity due
to excessive sunlight, Arch Ophthalmol 44:625, 1950.
13. Miles PW: Visual effects of pink glasses, green windshields, and glare under night driving conditions, Arch
Ophthal 52:15, 1954.
14. Waetjen R, Schiefer U, Gaigl A et al: Inuence of windshield tint and tilt on recognition distance under mesopic
conditions, German J Ophthalmol 1:424-428, 1992.
15. Allen MJ: Highway tests of photochromic lenses, J Am
Optom Assoc 50:1023-1027, 1979.
16. Bradley A: Special review: colored lters and vision care,
part II, Indiana J Optom 7(1):2-4, 2004.
17. Wolffsohn JS, Cochrane AL, Khoo H et al: Contrast is
enhanced by yellow lenses because of selective reduction
of short-wavelength light, Optom Vis Sci 77(2):73-81,
2000.
CH A PTER 22
18. Luckiesh M, Moss E: The science of seeing, New York,
1937, D Van Nostrand Co.
19. Reiner J: Farbige brillenglaser unter besonderer berucksichtigung der modefarben, Augenoptiker 30:41, 1975.
20. Sheedy J: Dispensing tip: tinted lenses for color blindness,
Opt Dispensing News, 248:2005.
21. Dain S: Sunglasses and sunglass standards, Clin Exp
Optom 86(2):87, 2003.
22. Guidance document for prescription sunglasses, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Food and
Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Division of Ophthalmic Devices, Ofce of
Device Evaluation, Rockville, Md, October 9, 1998.
23. Bradley A: Special review: colored lters and vision care,
part I, Indiana J Optom 6(1):13-17, 2003.
24. LaLuzerne J (with Quinn D): Hard coating chemistry can
make or break your AR coating, LabTalk pp 16-20, 2003.
25. Coatings, ophthalmic lens les, Paris, 1997, Essilor
International.
26. Lee BK: Tints and coatingsphysical considerations,
Problems Optom 2(1):176, 1990.
27. Dowaliby M: Practical aspects of ophthalmic optics,
Chicago, 1972, The Professional Press Inc.
28. Hoya multicoat lenses, Torrance, Calif, Hoya Lens of
America Inc.
29. McQuaid RD: Reections of antireection lms, JAOA
68(3):196, 1997.
30. Pnaud B: Crizal Aliz, a unique combination of performances for anti-reective lenses that are less sensitive to
smudge and easier to clean, Points de Vue (50):55-57, 2004.
31. Ellefsen E: Advances in anti-reection coating technology, LabTalk p 8, 2001.
32. http://www.arcouncil.org, 2004, AR Council, 2417 West
105th Street, Bloomington, MN 55431.
33. Bruneni JL: AR and other thin lm coatings, Eyecare
Business p 52, 2002.
34. Transitions, publication U2S123, St Petersburg, Fla, Transitions Opt.
35. Drew R: Ophthalmic dispensing, the present-day realities,
Newton, Mass, 1990, Butterworth-Heinemann.
36. Bell-o-gram, Bell Optical Laboratory, Oct/Nov 1992, p 1.
37. Bruneni JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business 10(3):47, 1995.
38. Culbreth G: To AR, or not to AR sunwear . . . that is the
question, LabTalk p 26, 2002.
39. Barron C, Waiss B: An evaluation of visual acuity with
Corning CPF 527 lens, J Am Optom Assoc 58:50, 1987, as
cited by Pitts DG, Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision.
Boston, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.
40. Ross J, Bradley A: Visual performance and patient preference: a comparison of anti-reection coated and uncoated
spectacle lenses, JAOA 68(6):361-366, 1997.
41. Bachman WG, Weaver JL: Comparison between antireection-coated and uncoated spectacle lenses for presbyopic highway patrol troopers, JAOA 70(2):103-109,
1999.
42. Sheedy JE: How to present AR coating to your patients,
Staff CE Workbook, Optom Today pp 7-13, 1998.
43. An eyecare professionals guide to AR, 2002, AR Council.
44. Bruneni JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business 10(4):41,
1995.
45. Karp A: Mirror image lenses and technology, 20/20 Magazine p 54, 2005.
Absorptive Lenses
565
46. Young JM: Photochromics: past & present, Optical World

p 16, 1993.
47. Bruneni JL: The new photochromics, Eyecare Business p
52, 2003.
48. Evaluating plastic photochromics, lenses and technology,
2002, Jobson Publications.
49. Morgenstern S: Keeping up with photochromic technology, Vis Care Prod News p 62, 2005.
50. Garner LF: A guide to the selection of ophthalmic tinted
lenses, Aust J Optom 57:346-350, 1974.
51. Photochromic ophthalmic lenses, Corning, NY, Corning
Glass Works, Publication OPO-232 3/90.
52. Young J: Polar process, 20/20 p 88, 2002.
53. Clark BA: Polarizing sunglasses and possible eye hazards
of transmitted radiation, Amer J Optom Arch Amer Acad
Optom 46:499-509, 1969.
54. Bittan C: The story of polarizing lenses, Opt Manage
5(12):19-23, 1976.
55. Hofstetter HW, Grif n JR, Berman M, Everson R, Dictionary of visual science and related clinical terms, ed 5,
56. Rosenberg R: Light, glare, and contrast in low vision care,
In Faye E, editor: Clinical low vision, Boston, 1984, Little,
Brown and Co.
57. Klang G: Measurements and studies of the uorescence of
the human lens in vivo, Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 31:1-152,
1948. (As cited by Miller: Surv Ophthal 19:38-44, 1974.)
58. Harwerth RS, Sperling H: Prolonged color blindness
induced by spectral lights in rhesus monkeys, Sci 174:180184, 1975. (As cited by Dain S: Sunglasses and sunglass
standards, Clin Exp Optom 86(2):77-90, 2003.)
59. Ham WT, Mueller HA, Sliney DH: Retinal sensitivity to
damage from short wavelength light, Nature 260:153-155,
1976. (As cited by Dain S: Sunglasses and sunglass standards, Clin Exp Optom 86(2):77-90, 2003.)
60. Sliney DH, Wolbarsht M: Safety with lasers and other
optical sources, New York, 1980, Plenum. (As cited by
Dain S: Sunglasses and sunglass standards, Clin Exp
Optom 86(2):77-90, 2003.)
61. Schoolmeesters B, Rosselle I, Leys A et al: Light-induced
maculopathy, Bull Soc Belge Ophtalmol 259:115-122,
1995. (As cited by Dain S: Sunglasses and sunglass standards, Clin Exp Optom 86(2):77-90, 2003.)
62. Maino JH, McMahon TT: NoIRs and low vision, J Am
Optom Assoc 57(7):7, 1986.
63. Thomas RS, Kuyk TK: D-15 performance with short
wavelength absorbing lter in normals, Am J Optom
Physiol Opt 65:679-702, 1988.
64. Barron C, Waiss B: An evaluation of visual acuity with
Corning CPF 527 lens, J Am Optom Assoc 58:50-54, 1987.
(As cited by Pitts DG, Kleinstein RN: Environmental
vision, Newton, Mass, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
65. Lynch DM, Brilliant R: An evaluation of the Corning
CPF 550 lens, Optom Monogr 75:36-42, 1984. (As cited
by Pitts DG, Kleinstein RN: Environmental vision,
Newton, Mass, 1993, Butterworth-Heinemann.)
66. X-Cel Optical Co: Filter glass available from X-Cel
Optical. http://www.x-celoptical.com/Occupational%20E
yewear%20Protection.htm, accessed 2/3/2006.
67. Hofstetter HW, Grif n JR, Berman M, Everson R: Dictionary of visual science and related clinical terms, ed 5,
566
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Prociency Test
(Answers may be found in the back of the book.)
1. True or false? The longer the wavelength of the
UV rays, the greater the likelihood of biologic
damage.
15. True or false? An AR-coated lens is best cleaned in

ofce by using an ultrasonic cleaner.
16. True or false? An AR-coated lens is helped by use
of an antifog or antistatic agent.
2. True or false? Single, high-level amounts of UV

radiation can be damaging, but the eye is able to
recover from long-term, low-level amounts of UV
exposure without being affected.
17. True or false? Mirror coating provides good

protection from sunlight if combined with a tint,
but allows more UV and IR than a nonmirrorcoated lens of equal transmission.
3. True or false? A persons ability to work effectively

under a situation of reduced illumination increases
with age.
18. For which type of entering light is an AR coating

most effective?
a. for light that is entering the lens from straight
ahead
b. for light that is entering the lens from an angle
c. AR coating is equally effective for incoming
light, regardless of whether it is entering from
straight ahead or obliquely.
4. True or false? Coatings for plastic lenses are purely

for scratch resistance and have no AR properties.
5. True or false? When a tint and an AR coating are
both desired, plastic lenses should be dyed before
they are AR coated.
6. True or false? Although in certain instances acuity
may increase when a 10% neutral-density lter is
worn in bright sunlight, persons older than age 40
years experience poorer vision if the lter is darker
than 10%.
7. True or false? Normal transmission for average
sunglasses runs between 15% and 30%.
8. True or false? Exposure to sunlight over an
extended period of time will reduce the time
needed for the eye to dark adapt.
9. True or false? Yellow tints help nighttime driving
because they eliminate blue haze.
10. True or false? With AR coatings, it is possible to
have any one of a range of reex colors or no color
at all and still produce an efcient coating.
11. True or false? The quality of the AR coating is not
indicated by the evenness of the reex color of the
coating.
12. True or false? An AR coating will make a lightly
tinted lens perform better at night than it
otherwise would perform with the tint but no AR
coating.
13. True or false? The process of adding an AR
coating to a tinted plastic lens sometimes changes
the color of the tint.
14. True or false? AR coating the back surface of a
pair of sunglasses is not advisable because it lets
more light through the lens.
19. True or false? An antiscratch coating is usually

affected by exposure to antifog and antistatic
agents.
20. True or false? UV or color dyeing a plastic
photochromic lens makes the photochromic
aspects of the lens work better.
21. True or false? Lenses that absorb the short end of
the visible spectrum may help reduce some types
of glare.
22. True or false? In denoting the amount of light
absorbed by the lens, if numbers, such as 1, 2, 3,
are used, the higher the number, the more light is
allowed to pass through the lens.
23. True or false? There is no such thing as a glare
control dye.
24. True or false? Glare control-type lenses will not
cause a decrease in scores on standardized color
testing for color defectives.
25. All of these lenses are vacuum coated to the
equivalent of a gray #3 tint. Which lens will be
the darkest?
a. +7.00 D
b. plano
c. -7.00 D
d. It depends on whether edge or center is being
considered.
e. All will be equally dark.
CH A PTER 22
26. For a neutral gray glass sun lens of plus power

with the tint in the glass, as plus power increases,
a. the transmission increases.
b. the absorption decreases.
c. the transmission decreases.
d. the transmission stays the same.
e. Both a and b are correct.
27. Which UV radiation has the longest wavelength?
a. UVA
b. UVB
c. UVC
28. Which of the following may not be caused by or
increased in severity by excessive exposure to UV
radiation?
a. photokeratitis
b. cataracts
c. diabetic retinopathy
d. age-related maculopathy
e. All of the above may be caused by or increased
in severity by excessive exposure to UV
radiation.
29. Rank the following lenses in order, beginning with
the lens that absorbs the most short wavelength
visible and UV radiation and concluding with the
lens that absorbs the least short wavelength visible
and UV radiation.
a. 2,4,1,3
1. coated polycarbonate lenses
b. 3,1,2,4
2. crown glass lenses
c. 1,4,2,3
3. CPF 550 lenses
d. 3,1,4,2
4. uncoated CR-39 plastic lenses
e. 3,4,1,2
30. Glass blowers cataract is believed to be caused by:
a. UV radiation.
b. short-wavelength visible light.
c. IR radiation.
d. both UV radiation and short-wavelength visible
light combined.
Match the color to the most appropriate
characteristic for that color.
31. Light Pink _______
32. Yellow _______
a.
b.
c.
d.
blue absorbing
advisable for night driving
selective absorption of red
good UV and IR
absorption
e. even absorption across
the visible spectrum
Absorptive Lenses
567
Match the color to the most appropriate

characteristic for that color.
a. recommended for bright, hazy
days
34. Green _______
b. good for color defectives
c. highly absorbing of yellow
light
d. highest transmissions of visible
light found in the middle of
the visible spectrum
e. selectively cuts out blue light,
leaving the rest of the visible
spectrum
33. Gray _______
From the list below pick the most applicable lens

to match the following characteristics:
35. poor IR absorption __________ a.
b.
36. tint varies with
c.
thickness _________
d.
dyed plastic lens

heat-treated lens
tinted glass lens
vacuum-coated
lens
e. No lens listed
matches.
37. A color-decient individual will readapt to the
induced color changes for which of the following
lenses?
a. brown
b. CPF-550
c. yellow
d. a and c above
38. As a secondary effect, antiscratch coatings will:
a. reduce lens reections somewhat.
b. increase lens reections somewhat.
c. neither increase nor decrease lens reections.
39. What is the most effective method to use when
attempting to match a new glass photochromic
replacement lens with an older glass photochromic
lens?
a. Reharden the old lens with the new.
b. Boil the old lens 2 hours.
c. Expose both lenses to a UV lamp for 1 hour.
40. A person has new lenses and has been wearing
them for a month. She now decides she would like
to have them AR coated. The lenses are lightly
scratched. If the lenses are then AR coated:
a. the scratches will be more evident.
b. the scratches will not show up as much.
c. the AR coating will not affect the appearance of
the scratches.
568
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
41. A pair of glasses with SRC lenses is best adjusted

using:
a. a forced-air frame warmer.
b. a salt bath.
c. Either unit will work equally well and not be a
problem for the lenses.
42. Disregarding impact resistance and taking only
transmission characteristics into consideration,
which method is best for hardening a
photochromic lens?
a. heat tempering
b. chemical tempering
c. There is no difference in the nished product.
43. What color lens is Kalichrome H?
a. gray
b. green
c. pink
d. blue
e. yellow
44. A glass absorptive lens with the tint in the glass
has a lighter horizontal area running the full width
of the lens. What might the prescription be?
a. -4.00 sphere
b. +4.00 sphere
c. Plano -4.00 180
d. Plano +4.00 180
e. +4.00 -4.00 135
45. The tint may be removed and reapplied for which
types of lenses?
a. vacuum-coated lenses
b. internal-tinted lenses
c. plastic lenses
d. a and c above
46. Which of the following lenses should not be AR
coated?
a. lightly tinted glass lenses
b. sun lenses
c. glass photochromic lenses
d. All of the above may be AR coated.
e. None of the above should be AR coated.
47. First-generation, single-layer AR-coated lenses had
a bluish-purple cast when they were held at certain
angles. This occurs because to most nearly fulll
path and amplitude conditions and still achieve a
maximal antireective effect over a large area of
the visible spectrum a specic wavelength had to
be chosen. That wavelength corresponded to
which color?
a. yellow
b. blue
c. red
d. bluish purple
e. All wavelengths equally fulll path and
amplitude conditions.
48. The problem of annoying internal lens reections

occurs most often in:
a. high plus-powered clear lenses.
b. low minus-powered clear lenses.
c. SRC clear lenses.
d. AR-coated clear lenses.
e. sun lenses.
49. Pick out the correct combination of causes
contributing to the rapid darkening of a
photochromic lens.
a. 1, 3, 4
1. IR
b. 2, 3, 5
2. UV
c. 1, 4
3. previous exposures
d. 2, 5
4. cold
e. 2, 3, 4
5. heat
50. A polarizing ophthalmic lens should be oriented so
as to eliminate:
a. vertically vibrating waves.
b. horizontally vibrating waves.
c. obliquely vibrating waves.
d. all vibrating waves.
e. Orientation is unimportant.
51. A prescription-ground polarizing lens is
characterized by:
a. silver iodide crystals.
b. a coating process.
c. a mixing into the molten glass.
d. a frosting process.
e. a stretched sheet of polyvinyl alcohol.
52. What glare source(s) will not be helped by glare
control lenses?
a. glare from smooth surfaces
b. glare caused by uorescence of the crystalline
lens
c. glare caused by a developing cataract
d. glare from both high and low intensities
occurring in a small area
53. If a lens has an index of refraction of 1.66, what is
the ideal index of refraction for a single-layer AR
coating?
54. Two lenses are placed back-to-back. One has a
transmission of 50%; the other has a transmission
of 40%. What percent transmission do they have
together?
55. If a perfectly clear, uncoated lens has an index of
refraction of 1.73, what percent of the incoming
light would be transmitted out the back of the
lens?
C H A P T E R 23
Lens Materials, Safety, and

Sports Eyewear
ens material and eye safety in the workplace and

for sports or recreational activities are all interrelated. In this chapter the characteristics of lens
materials are considered. This leads logically to a discussion of appropriate frames and lens materials in eye
protection.
LENS MATERIALS
The variety of materials that can be used for lenses has
increased substantially during the past few years and
promises to continue to expand. With choices abounding, the practitioner needs to know the unique characteristics of each lens material so that a proper match
between the needs of the wearer and the best possible
material occurs. Ophthalmic lenses are made from glass
and plastic. Glass lenses are often referred to as mineral
lenses, whereas if a lens is made from plastic, it is said to
be from organic material.
Crown Glass
The material traditionally used for spectacle lens wear
for several hundred years has been glass. Glass works
well for ophthalmic materials because it resists scratching and is not easily affected by environmental factors.
The main disadvantages of glass are weight and impact
resistance. To pass United States requirements for impact
resistance, glass must be hardened.
The most commonly used clear glass lens material is
made from a type of crown glass having an index of
refraction of 1.523. This material is low in chromatic
aberration.
High-Index Glass
There are higher index glass lens materials available that
will reduce lens thickness for higher powered prescriptions. Index 1.60 lenses are readily available in spherical
and aspheric designs and in segmented and progressive
multifocals. Corning Clear 16 is able to be surfaced to a
1.5-mm center thickness and, after hardening, is impact
resistant enough to pass Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) standards.
There are fused at-top bifocals available in indexes
up to 1.70, and single vision lenses in still higher indexes.
Even though there is a 1.90 index glass available, it is
generally not used in the United States because it cannot

be hardened and thus will not meet impact resistance
standards.
Unfortunately, high-index glass lenses are composed
of materials with a higher specic gravity, making them
heavier. In countries where there are not impact resistance requirements, this is not a problem since they can
be ground very thin anyway. But with the thicknesses
needed to achieve a sufcient impact resistance, a prescription must be fairly strong in order for high-index
glass lenses to be both thinner and lighter than crown
glass. What the dioptric value should be for a high-index
glass lens to exhibit the expected advantages of both
thickness and weight will depend upon the specic
gravity of the material used. When glass was the main
material used, the rule of thumb was that high index
became lighter than crown glass for lenses more than
7.00 D.
High-index glass lens materials generally have Abb
values close to that of polycarbonate. Chromatic aberration is measured in terms of an Abb value. The lower
the Abb value, the higher the chromatic aberration.
Chromatic aberration can result in color fringes being
visible at high-contrast borders. An example of a highcontrast border would be the black and white keys of a
piano. Fortunately, when lenses are t properly, most
problems with chromatic aberration can be minimized
so that they do not pose a problem.
Plastic Lenses
CR-39
For years the most commonly used plastic lens material
was CR-39. CR-39 was developed by PPG Industries.
CR stands for Columbia Resin, and the number 39
denotes the type of Columbia Resin used. CR-39 lens
material processes well in the laboratory. For years CR39 was used without antiscratch coating. Now, however,
most CR-39 lenses come with an antiscratch coating,
making the material much more scratch resistant. CR-39
lenses that must be surfaced are less likely to have an
antiscratch coating on the back side unless one is ordered.
(Segmented multifocals and progressive addition lenses
are examples of lenses that must be surfaced.)
Plastic lenses are roughly half the weight of crown
glass lenses. For low velocity, large mass objects, such as
569
570
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
a softball, chemically tempered lenses perform somewhat

better than CR-39 lenses in their impact resistance
ratings. For smaller, high velocity, sharply pointed objects,
CR-39 lenses perform better than chemically tempered
glass. (It should be noted that glass is weakened more by
scratching than is CR-39 plastic.) Keep in mind, however,
that for impact resistance there are a number of other
plastic lens materials that outperform both chemically
tempered glass and CR-39 plastic. Impact resistance will
vary according to the type of plastic used.
CR-39 plastic lenses do not fog up as easily as glass
lenses. Whereas welding or grinding spatter will pit or
Figure 23-1. Welding or grinding spatter will pit or permanently stick to glass lenses, as shown here. It does not adhere
to plastic lens material.
permanently stick to glass lenses, it does not adhere to

plastic lens material (Figure 23-1).
High-Index Plastics
CR-39 plastic lenses have an index of refraction of
approximately 1.498. This is the lowest refractive index
material used for spectacle lenses. For minus lenses of
equal powers and center thicknesses, the higher the
index of refraction of a lens material, the thinner the lens
edge can be made. Therefore high-index plastic lens
materials will have both a weight and a thickness advantage over CR-39. They are an attractive alternative.
High-index plastic comes in a variety of materials.
When considering the virtues of a high-index lens, the
materials should not only be compared on the basis of
index of refraction alone, but also on the basis of weight,
impact resistance, nished lens thickness, Abb value
(chromatic aberration), and ease of production. Table
23-1 gives a comparison of some of these characteristics
for a few representative materials.
Table 23-2 gives a summary of the impact-resistance
characteristics for many of the currently available lens
materials.
Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate lens material is soft and requires an antiscratch coating. However, the very softness of the material contributes to its high-impact resistance. Instead of
breaking on impact, the softer polycarbonate material is
more likely to absorb a blow and just dent. When safety
is the primary concern, polycarbonate has traditionally
been the number one choice. (Safety is the primary
concern for children, monocular individuals, people
TABLE 23-1
A Representative Comparison of Lens Materials

Lens Material
Refractive Index (n)*
Density
CR-39 plastic
Crown glass
Trivex
Spectralite
Polycarbonate
Polyurethane
Corning Clears 16 (glass)
High-Index plastic
1.498
1.523
1.532
1.537
1.586
1.595
1.60
1.66
1.71
1.74
1.7
1.80
1.90
1.32
2.54
1.11
1.21
1.22
1.34
2.63
1.35
1.4
1.46
2.97
3.37
4.02
Thin & Lite 1.74 High-Index plastic

High-Index glass30
Thickness (Minus Lens

Center Thickness)
2.0
2.0-2.2
1.0-1.3
1.5
1.0-1.5
1.5
1.5
1.0-1.7||
1.1
2.0-2.2
Abb Value
58
59
43-35
47
29
36
42
32
36
33
31
25
30.4
The higher the refractive index, the thinner the edge of a minus lens.
The lower the density, the lighter the lens.
Lens thickness is based on the thinnest lens that will both maintain U.S. impact resistance requirements and stability (will not warp). Thicknesses are approximate and may vary with lens coatings.
The higher the Abb value, the less the chromatic aberration.
||
Depends upon if lenses are single vision stock or surfaced and whether AR coated.
Cannot be chemically tempered for impact resistance and will not pass FDA requirements.
CH A P TER 23
Lens Materials, Safety, and Sports Eyewear
571
TABLE 23-2
Relative Impact Resistance of Various Ophthalmic Materials

Lens Material
Comments
Untreated crown glass
Because of Food and Drug Administration regulations, untreated crown glass is not used for
ophthalmic eyewear in the United States.
Heat-treated glass loses much impact resistance when it is scratched. In fact against the impact of
small, high-velocity objects, a badly scratched untreated glass lens is more impact resistant than a
badly scratched, heat-treated lens.
Against the impact of large, slow moving objects, such as a softball, chemically tempered lenses
are more impact resistant than CR-39 plastic. Against the impact of small, high velocity objects,
however, the CR-39 plastic lens is the more impact resistant.
An uncoated CR-39 lens ranks as shown here. If this lens is coated, however, the impact resistance
tends to be reduced. Just how much depends on the type of coating that is used.
High-index plastics are made from a variety of materials and, although they vary in their impact
resistance, have been classed as only being as strong as CR-39.23 Keep in mind that there are
subgroups in this category. Many of the newer high-index plastics perform well enough to be
thinned to 1.0 or 1.5 mm thickness. As with CR-39, impact resistance of high-index lenses is
decreased with the addition of antireection coatings.
Polyurethane lenses appear to perform fairly well in impact resistance.
Impact resistance for polycarbonate, Trivex, and NXT lens materials exceeds other commonly
used prescription lens materials. Antireection coating does reduce impact resistance of these
lenses by varying degrees, depending upon the type of missile impacting it. Eye care
practitioners should be attentive to new information on these lenses before assuming that they
are equal in all situations.
Heat-Treated crown glass
Chemically tempered
crown glass
CR-39 plastic
High-Index plastic
Polycarbonate, Trivex,
and NXT materials
with good acuity in one eye only, and those who are
purchasing safety or sports eyewear.)
Because polycarbonate lenses are so much safer than
conventional lenses, the eyewear purchaser should be
informed of the availability of safer lens materials and
given the opportunity to choose a lens that affords better
protection.
Trivex Lenses
Trivex lens material is a very impact-resistant lens material. It was developed by PPG Industries, the developers
of CR-39 material. Trivex processes fairly easily and
takes a lens tint easily. The lens material was originally
for military use as a plastic material to provide excellent
safety characteristics for windows in combat vehicles and
good optics.1 PPG Industries promotional materials
attribute the tri in Trivex to a triperformance lens
material; meaning it offers a triple combination of superior optics, impact resistance, and ultra light weight.
Trivex rivals polycarbonate in impact resistance. It is
the lens of choice for drill-mounted lenses because it
does not crack or split at the drilled hole. Some laboratories will warrant no other material than Trivex for
drill-mounted lenses.
The lens is very light weight, having a density of 1.11.
Even though the index of 1.53 is just a bit higher than
crown glass, it may be thinned to 1 mm so that thickness
and weight are seldom an issue. The Abb value of 43 to
45 is less than CR-39, but higher than its rival, polycarbonate. It maintains a good resistance to damage from
chemicals.
NXT Material2
There are other lens materials that continue to be developed that will add much to the ophthalmic lens market
in the coming years. An example of one such material
with some potential for more ophthalmic use is called
NXT. NXT was developed in the early 1990s under a
U.S. government contract to develop a new bullet-proof
material. The resulting lens is a light-weight material
that is extremely strong and also compatible with photochromic pigments and with polarization. It has already
been used in sun and sport eyewear, helmet visors for
motorcycles, airline cockpit door view ports, ballistic
police shields, and vehicle door armor.
NXT has an index of refraction of 1.53, a density of
1.11, an Abb value of 45, and is highly exible. It is
reported to be compatible with low-powered sphere and
cylinder prescription lens powers.
Laminated Lenses
Lenses that are made from two or more layers of material
are called laminated lenses. Lamination can be used for
several purposes. Before dyed plastic lenses, clear glass
lenses were sometimes laminated with a thin layer of
tinted glass to give an even tint across the lens. Polarizing
lenses have a stretched polarizing lm sandwiched
between two layers of regular lens material to cut out
reected glare. Lamination can also be used to increase
impact resistance.
Effect of Lens Coatings on Impact Resistance

When a plastic lens is either scratch resistance coated or
antireection (AR) coated, the impact resistance of the
572
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
lens decreases. This seems opposite to what would be

expected.
Both scratch resistance and antireection coatings are
harder than the plastic lens material to which they
adhere. When a lens breaks, the break starts at the
weakest point. If a plastic lens is hit by an object, the lens
may ex, but may not break. If the coating is harder than
the lens, however, as the lens exes, the harder (more
brittle) coating cracks before the uncoated lens. When
the coating is strongly bonded to the lens, the energy
that is concentrated in the rst crack is released. The
released energy travels through the lens and may cause
it to break.
Corzine et al3 used a static load form of testing* and
compared uncoated CR-39 lenses with (1) scratch resistance-coated lenses, (2) ve-layer AR-coated lenses, and
(3) lenses that had been prepared for antireection
coating but not coated. The mean fracture loads required
to break the lenses in each category were as follows:
Lens Type
Uncoated CR-39
Scratch resistance coated CR-39
AR coated CR-39
AR prepped but not coated CR-39
Fracture Load
587
505
465
609
As can be seen from the results, the weakening of the

lens is due to the coating itself, not by the process the
lens is subjected to in preparation for coating.
In another study, Chou and Hovis4 tested coated CR39 industrial lenses for impact resistance using the Canadian Standards Association ballistic test protocol. They
concluded that AR coating produced such poor impact
resistance that they were unsuitable for use in spectacles
that are intended to provide even minimal impact protection in industrial, sports, or other environments.4
They also concluded that CR-39 lenses with just scratch
resistance coatings do produce adequate protection for
these environments.
The weakening of a plastic lens by an AR-coated lens
is not limited to CR-39 material. Weakening would be
expected to occur in some degree with other lens materials that are softer than the more brittle AR coating.
Contrary to intuition, scratches on the back surface

of a lens will reduce lens impact resistance more than
front surface scratches. Glass or CR-39 lenses with front
surface scratches were reduced in impact resistance by
20%, whereas CR-39 lenses with back surface scratches
were reduced in impact resistance by 80%.5
GENERAL EYEWEAR CATEGORIES

We can divide eyewear into three broad categories:
Dress Eyewear
Dress eyewear is eyewear that is designed for
everyday use.
Safety Eyewear
Safety eyewear is designed to meet higher standards
of impact resistance since it will be worn in
situations that could be potentially hazardous to the
eyes.
Sports Eyewear
Sports eyewear is designed to protect the eyes and/
or enhance vision in specic sports situations. What
is appropriate will vary dramatically, depending
upon the sport.
REQUIREMENTS FOR DRESS EYEWEAR*

There are a number of industry and government agencies that have a direct impact on the business of eyewear.
All are important to the dispenser in ensuring that the
wearer is receiving a product that is within the expectations of the ophthalmic industry and government
regulatory agencies. The following sections list the
agencies involved and how they affect the dispensing of
eyewear.
Food and Drug Administration
A scratched lens surface reduces impact resistance. The

scratch introduces a weak spot on the lens and creates a
sort of fault line. The scratch provides an easy area for
stress to build during impact, making breakage more
likely. To better imagine how this works, think about
how panes of glass are scored with a diamond so that
they may be broken along the scored line.
There did not used to be any impact resistance requirements for dress ophthalmic lenses. In most places in the
world, there still are not. It is possible to surface glass
lenses as thin as 0.3 mm and still have the lenses be
wearable. The lenses look wonderfully thin and are still
optically excellent. But they afford little protection for
the eyes and in many situations end up becoming a
hazard to the wearer.
For that very reason, the United States Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) began mandating impact
resistance for dress ophthalmic lenses in 1971. Since then
all eyeglass and sunglass lenses must be impact resistant,
except when the optometrist or physician nds that they
will not otherwise fulll the patients visual requirements. If the lens cannot be rendered impact resistant,
this must be recorded in the patients record, and the
patient must also be notied in writing.
*Static load testing is where an increasing amount of pressure is

applied to the lens until the lens nally breaks.
*Much of the material from this section and the following section
on Safety Eyewear is from Brooks CW: Essentials for ophthalmic
lens nishing, St.Louis, 2003, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Effect of Surface Scratches on

Impact Resistance
CH A P TER 23
When May Nonimpact-Resistant Lenses

Be Dispensed?
Some dispensers may assume that a written agreement
having the patient assume responsibility makes it possible to dispense nonimpact resistant lenses. This does not
ensure freedom from liability. Here is the way the FDA
responds to three frequently asked questions on dispensing nonimpact-resistant lenses.6
Q. Under what circumstances may retailers dispense
lenses that are not impact resistant?
A. Lenses that are not impact resistant may be
dispensed when a physician or optometrist
determines that impact-resistant lenses will not
fulll the visual requirements of a particular patient.
The physician or optometrist directs this in writing
and gives written notication to the patient.
Q. Can a retailer supply a nonimpact-resistant lens if a
patient requests it or if the patient/customer agrees
to assume all responsibility?
A. No. Nonimpact-resistant lenses may be provided
only when the physician or optometrist determines
that impact-resistant lenses will not fulll the
visual requirements of the patient. . . . In such cases
the physician or optometrist must give notice in
writing to the patient, explaining that the patient is
receiving a lens that is not impact resistant.
Q. May a physician or optometrist prescribe
nonimpact-resistant lenses for a patient for purely
cosmetic reasons?
A. No. If medical problems are related to cosmetic
considerations, however, the physician or
optometrist may invoke special exemption provision
of the regulation based on professional judgment.
For example, if the patients prescription cannot be
lled by impact-resistant lenses because the
physician or optometrist knows from previous
experience that the weight of the heavy lenses may
cause headaches, undue pressure on the bridge of
the nose or ears, pressure sores, etc., the physician
or optometrist may nd that the visual
requirements of the patient cannot be met by use
of impact-resistant lenses.
For lenses to qualify for impact resistance, they must
meet certain qualications.
Must Dress Ophthalmic Lenses Have

Minimum Thickness?
Formerly, dress ophthalmic lenses had a minimum thickness requirement of 2.0 mm. Now there is no thickness
requirement, regardless of lens material. Impact resistance requirements are performance based, and the lens
must be capable of withstanding a predetermined amount
of impact. If that requirement can be met with lenses
that are thinner than 2.0 mm, the lens is acceptable.
Today there are many lenses that can meet current
impact resistance requirements and still be below
2.0 mm, including some types of glass lenses.
573
Figure 23-2. A drop-ball tester drops a steel ball on the front

surface of a lens from 50 inches.
Impact Resistance Test Requirements

The standard referee test for determining impact
resistance suitability for dress ophthalmic lenses is the
drop ball test. This test is very specic in how it should
be administered. However, the FDA states that this does
not inhibit the lens manufacturer from using equal or
superior test methods to test for impact resistance.
The Drop Ball Test

To be judged acceptable, a lens is rst placed front side
up on a neoprene gasket. It must be capable of withstanding the impact of a ve-eighth-inch steel ball weighing
0.56 oz, dropped from a height of 50 inches (Figure
23-2).
When Should the Drop Ball Test be Performed?
Glass lenses must be tested after the lens has been edged
and hardened and before it is placed in the frame. Plastic
lenses may be tested in the uncut- nished stage before
they have been edged.
Drop-Ball Testing of Glass Lenses
With few exceptions, all glass lenses must be hardened
and individually subjected to the drop ball test. Only
lenses that could be damaged by the test are exempt.
These lenses must still be hardened, but do not need to
be tested. Glass lenses that are exempt from testing are:
574
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
1. Raised multifocal lenses (These are lenses that have

a ledge area on the lens, such as an Executive lens.)
2. Prism segment multifocals
3. Slab-off lenses
4. Lenticular cataract lenses
5. Iseikonic (size) lenses
6. Depressed-segment one-piece multifocals
7. Biconcave, myodisc, and minus lenticular lenses
8. Custom laminate lenses (such as polarizing lenses)
9. Cement assembly lenses
Individual Versus Batch Testing

Batch testing is the practice of selectively testing a statistically signicant number of lenses in a manufactured
group. This avoids having to individually test lenses that
could sustain damage by the test itself. The practice of
batch testing is permitted for:
1. Plastic lenses.
2. Nonprescription lenses, such as mass-produced
sunglass lenses.
Glass, plano-powered sunglass lenses that are individually produced in a nishing laboratory must still be individually drop-ball tested.
Who Does Batch Testing?
The lens manufacturer normally does batch testing.
When this is done, plastic lenses that are edged in a
nishing laboratory do not have to be individually tested
or batch tested in the nishing laboratory. Batch testing
for semi nished lenses is done for a certain minimum
thickness. If these lenses are surfaced to less than what
was considered minimum thickness, they are no longer
within the batch. They would need to be individually
tested.
If the lens is altered after having been received from
the manufacturer, as when it is sent out for AR coating,
then the lens is no longer warranted by the original lens
manufacturer. There are a great many types of coatings
that could be applied to the lens. Each of these coatings
will affect the impact resistance of the lens differently.
Typically the AR coating laboratory will batch test
lenses being coated in their laboratory. To do this, they
will use lenses of the same material and minimum thickness as those being sent to them for coating. It is the
responsibility of the nishing laboratory to be in communication with the company that applies the coating
to determine that testing requirements have been
fullled.
Dening Manufacturer
There are a large number of participants involved in the
process of making a pair of glasses. One company makes
the lenses, another may surface the lenses, a third may
edge the lenses, and someone else could coat the lenses.
Who then is the manufacturer of the nished eyeglasses?
Although in a lawsuit, each participating party is likely
to be named, nal responsibility lies heavily with the
unit that performed the nal process on that lens. Here

is how the FDA responds to the question.
Q. In terms of the regulation, who is the manufacturer?
A. The manufacturer is the person who puts the lens
in the form ready for its intended use or who alters
the physical or chemical characteristics of the lens
by such acts as grinding, heat treating, beveling, or
cutting. For the purpose of this regulation the
term manufacturer includes a company that
imports eyeglasses for resale.6
In this chain of manufacturing events, the question
of record keeping may arise. Here is how the FDA poses
and answers this question.
Q. What are the record keeping requirements on
partially nished lenses furnished by one
manufacturer for completion by another?
A. Records must be kept to show how lenses were
rendered impact resistant, when and how they were
tested for impact resistance, and by whom in the
processing chain these actions were accomplished.6
This means that if the retailer is the manufacturer,
then the record keeping requirements of the manufacturer apply. Retailers also have a 3-year requirement of
keeping the names and addresses of persons buying prescription eyewear.
The Dispensers Role in Record Keeping
To ensure that all regulations have been met and that
ophthalmic lenses are safe, the FDA requires that records
be kept for 3 years after the purchase of eyeglasses.
Records that must be kept consist of records of the sale
or distribution of prescription eyewear, including the
names and addresses of people buying prescription
eyewear. (Records do not have to be kept for individuals
buying nonprescription eyewear.)
If the dispenser has an in-house laboratory, record
keeping requirements for a manufacturer apply. These
requirements include:
1. Copies of invoice(s), shipping document(s), and
records of sale or distribution.
2. Results of impact-resistance testing (drop-ball test
results).
3. A description of the test method and of the test
apparatus used.
Federal Trade Commission

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was established
to prevent unfair business practices, such as deceptive
advertising and monopolies. In the 1980s the FTC began
to look at the ophthalmic industry. After two series of
investigative studies known as Eyeglasses I and Eyeglasses II, prescription release rules were formulated for
spectacle and contact lenses. The spectacle lens aspects
of these rules will be considered here.
Eyeglasses I
In 1978 the FTC concluded their Eyeglasses I investigative study with a spectacle lens prescription release rule.
CH A P TER 23
575
This rule requires that patients be given a copy of their

spectacle lens prescription so that they may ll that prescription wherever they desire. The prescription is to be
given immediately after the eye examination is completed, whether or not the patient asks for the prescription. A new written prescription is also to be given even
if the change is too small to require a change in eyeglasses or if there is no change at all since the previous
eye examination. The Eyeglasses I prescription release
rule listed minimal information to be included in the
prescription: sphere power, cylinder power and axis (if
any), prism (if any), and the signature of the prescribing
optometrist or physician.7
The ways in which many of these standards are veried

are found in Chapter 6.
It must be kept in mind that in the case of prescription
lenses, these parameters are recommendations onlynot
requirements. Practitioners may choose to allow more
latitude than the standard requires in some instances, or
they may request more accuracy in a given area in other
instances. The document itself summarizes it best:
The standard remains a recommendation. Therefore
it is the specic intent of the Z80 Committee that this
standard not be used as a regulatory instrument.9
Eyeglasses II
In 1989 the FTC did a more complex investigative study
that was primarily concerned with restrictions on
practice ownership by people who were not optometrists,
ophthalmologists, or opticians.
Eyeglasses II rules no longer list minimal information
needed for a spectacle lens prescription. Therefore prescribers are at liberty to include whatever they consider
important for the patients visual welfare on the prescription. This could include lens material, specic lens
styles, and instructions for wear. For example, suppose a
patient has one eye with normal vision and one with very
little usable vision. In this instance in which eye protection is important, including polycarbonate lens material
on the prescription may reduce the possibility of prescriber liability in the event of eye injury.
An expiration date is usually a part of the prescription. (Although duplication of an existing pair of glasses
may be done without restrictions, the dispenser has an
ethical obligation to inform such a person of the importance of regular eye examinations. Eye disorders and
diseases are not always accompanied by pain and so may
not be readily apparent. Contrary to what is often
believed, state laws do not set a time limit, such as 2
years, on the length of time an eyeglass prescription may
still be lled. Most states do not have a requirement for
an expiration date on spectacle Rxs, although they do
not prohibit a doctor from indicating one. Where states
do have laws, the concern has been primarily to regulate
how short the time limit should be, not how long. In
states where this subject is not regulated, it is left to the
discretion of the doctor.8)
Like Eyeglasses I, Eyeglasses II continues to prohibit
disclaimers written on the prescription, such as Not
responsible for accuracy of ophthalmic prescription
materials obtained from third-party dispensers.
Safety eyewear has been an extremely important factor

in reducing eye injuries. Now that safety eyewear is a
must in industry, eye injuries most often occur because
of a failure to wear eye protection at the time of the
accident or because the wrong kind of eye protection was
worn. Today the most likely eye injury situation occurs
when workers are wearing safety eyewear without side
shields.10
American National Standards Institute

Recommendations for Prescription
Ophthalmic Lenses
The main points of the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) Z80.1 recommendations for prescription ophthalmic lenses are summarized in Appendix A.
SAFETY EYEWEAR
ANSI Establishes Safety Eyewear Standards

The standards used for safety lenses and frames are
agreed to and put forth by the ANSI. The ANSI Z80.1
standards for prescription eyewear are not a regulatory
instrument. However, the ANSI Z87.1 standard for
safety eyewear has become just that. Here is how it
happened.
OSHA Regulates Safety Eyewear Standards

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) is the federal agency charged with regulating
safety practices in the workplace and in educational settings. OSHA rulings have the same power as law. Visits
to a workplace are often unannounced, and violations of
OSHA regulations discovered at the time of the inspection can result in both mandates to correct the violation
and substantial nes.
Rather than beginning anew with a set of eye and face
protection requirements OSHA has chosen to adopt the
Z87.1 standards already set forth by ANSI as their standards. Therefore the ANSI Z87.1 standards are a federal
requirement.
Because it would be difcult to list every situation in
which eye protection must be worn, OSHA has instead
chosen to place the burden on education and industry by
simply stating that protective eye and face equipment
shall be required where there is a reasonable probability
of injury that can be prevented by such equipment.11
Impact Requirements for Safety Eyewear

At the time of the writing, the most recent ANSI Z87.1
requirements for safety eyewear were published in August
2003. The previous 1998 standard had a single set of
requirements for all safety eyewear. The 2003 standard
576
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
has two levels of safety standards. One level is called basic

impact; the other, high impact. The Z87.1 1998 standard
is identical to the basic impact level for the 2003
standard.
Basic Impact Requirements for Safety Eyewear

Because there are two levels of safety eyewear, why would
anyone want to wear a basic-impact lens when highimpact lenses are available?
In a number of work situations, workers are cleaning
their glasses constantly (e.g., places with a lot of dust and
places in which liquids or mists are present). In these
situations, plastic and polycarbonate lenses may scratch.
Glass lenses withstand scratching better and will not
have to be replaced constantly. Badly scratched lenses are
irritating to wear and, if vision is impaired, may create
a safety hazard. So even though glass lenses are not able
to pass the high impact requirement, in the absence of a
material that has the same scratch resistance, basicimpact glass lenses may be the more appropriate lens.
Basic Impact Thickness Requirements
For a number of years, thickness requirements for prescription safety lenses have been a minimum of 3.0 mm.
The exception has been for plus lenses that have a power
of +3.00 D or higher in the most plus meridian of the
distance portion of the lens. The reason for the exception is because high plus lenses are much thicker in the
center. Therefore these lenses may be thinned to a 2.5mm minimum edge thickness and still remain strong
because of their overall thickness. These standards
remain as thickness requirements for the 2003 basicimpact category of Z87 safety eyewear.
Basic Impact Testing Requirements
The testing requirements for basic-impact safety lenses
are similar to those for dress ophthalmic lenses. Dress
lenses are required to withstand the impact of a veeighth-inch steel ball dropped from 50 inches. Basicimpact safety lenses must withstand the impact of a
1-inch steel ball dropped from 50 inches.
Basic Impact Marking Requirements
Basic-impact safety lenses must be marked with the
manufacturers logo or identifying mark. The markings
are applied after edging. In-house laboratories that do
their own edging of safety lenses must mark the lenses.
Marks on the surface of the lens should be out of the line
of sight. They usually appear at the center of the top of
the lens or in the upper, outer corner. If the lens is other
than a clear lens, it may require an additional marking
(Figure 23-3). A summary of these marking requirements are found in Table 23-3. Remember, a lens that is
thick enough to be classed as a safety lens and strong
enough to pass safety lens impact testing is not acceptable as a safety lens until it is marked with the required
manufacturers identication.
Figure 23-3. The marking identifying a lens as a safety

lens.
Warning Labels for Basic-Impact Lenses

Basic-impact safety glasses are not as impact resistant as
high-impact safety glasses. The person wearing the
lenses needs to know this. Therefore a warning must
accompany basic-impact eyewear. That warning is in the
form of a notice included with the basic-impact eyewear
and is intended for the wearer. The notice must say that
the lenses meet the basic impact requirements, but should
not be relied upon for protection from high-impact
exposure.
High Impact Requirements for Safety Eyewear

Though it may seem opposite to the expected, high
impact requirements allow the lenses to be made thinner
than basic-impact lenses. However, the tests that highimpact lenses must withstand are more stringent than
those for basic-impact lenses.
High Impact Thickness Requirements
The thickness requirement for high-impact safety lenses
is a minimum of 2.0 mm. This includes both prescription and nonprescription (plano) safety lenses.
High Impact Testing Requirements
High-impact safety lenses must pass a high velocity
impact test. In this test, the lens is mounted on a special
holder and must be capable of withstanding the force of
a one-fourth-inch steel ball traveling at 150 feet/sec.
High Impact Marking Requirements
High-impact safety lenses are marked in the same
manner as basic-impact lenses, except that they are to be
additionally marked with a plus (+) symbol, not just the
manufacturers logo (Table 23-4).
Comments on Multilayer Antireection Coating and
Safety Lenses
As previously mentioned, AR coatings generally reduce
impact resistance of a lens compared with the impact
CH A P TER 23
577
TABLE 23-3
ANSI Z87.1 Lens Marking Requirements

Lens Type
Requirement*
Clear lenses
Manufacturers monogram and

sometimes +
Manufacturers monogram,
shade number, and sometimes +
Manufacturers monogram, V
for variable shade, and sometimes +
Manufacturers monogram, S
for special purpose, and
sometimes +
Tinted (absorptive) lenses except for

special purpose lenses
Photochromic lenses
Special purpose lenses
(Special purpose lenses provide eye protection
while performing visual tasks that require
unusual ltering of light. Examples include
didymium-containing lenses, cobaltcontaining lenses, uniformly tinted lenses,
and lenses prescribed by an eye specialist
for particular vision problems.)
Basic Impact
Example
High Impact
Example
JO
JO+
JO 2.5
JO+2.5
JO V
JO+V
JO S
JO+S
*All markings must be legible and permanent and placed so that interference with the vision of the wearer is minimal.
TABLE 23-4
Safety Lens Requirements

Thickness
Marking (See also Table 23-3)
Impact testing
Basic Impact
High Impact
3.0 mm
2.5 mm if power is +3.00 D or greater
Manufacturers logo
1-inch steel ball dropped from 50 inches
2.0 mm
resistance of that same lens in an uncoated state. The

amount of reduction will depend upon the lens material
and the type of AR coating used. This is an important
factor with safety lenses.
Chou and Hovis12 tested 2- and 3-mm thick polycarbonate lenses for penetration with an industrial sewing
machine needle mounted in a cylindric aluminum carrier.
The lenses were tested with and without a multilayer AR
coating. (All lenses had scratch-resistant coatings.) They
conrmed that polycarbonate lenses are more susceptible to penetration by sharp, high-speed missiles than
blunt missiles. They also found that reducing lens center
thickness and applying a multilayer AR coating further
reduces penetration resistance. Their conclusion was
that 2-mm thick polycarbonate lenses and the use of
multilayer AR coating on polycarbonate lenses should be
discouraged for industrial eye protectors where sharp
missile hazards are possible.
In a second article, Chou and Hovis13 tested the Hoya
Phoenix brand of Trivex lenses using a pneumatic gun
to propel a 6.35-mm steel ball at the center of 2- and 3mm thick lenses, with and without multilayer AR coatings. They found that multilayer AR coatings signicantly
reduce the impact resistance at both dress and industrial
Manufacturers logo +
1-inch steel ball dropped from 50 inches and
-inch steel ball traveling at 150 feet/sec
thicknesses. They concluded that when multilayer AR

coated, these lenses should not be used in industrial or
sports eye protectors, particularly at 2-mm center thickness where there is a high risk of exposure to highenergy impacts.
Safety Frames
In 1989 the ANSI standards for safety frames dropped
specic design requirements, including groove design.
Instead requirements are performance based. Safety
frames must withstand certain specic impact tests that
are not required of normal dress frames. Frames are
placed on a head model. When impact occurs, the frame
cannot break. Nor can the frame or lens come into
contact with the eye.
The rst test used to test safety frames is the high
velocity impact test. This test simulates a high velocity, low
mass object. In the high velocity impact test, a series of
one-fourth-inch steel balls traveling at 150 feet/sec are
directed at 20 different parts of the glazed frame* (Figure
23-4). A new frame is used for each impact. Neither the
*A glazed frame is a frame with lenses. In this case the lenses are
plano in power.
578
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 23-4. The high velocity impact test res a one-fourthinch steel ball at 150 feet/sec at a frame or lens.
frame nor the lens can break, nor can the lens come out
of the frame.
The second test simulates the impact of a large,
pointed, slow moving object. In this high mass impact test,
a pointed, conical-tipped projectile, 1 inch in diameter,
weighing 17.6 oz is dropped 51.2 inches through a tube
and onto the eyeglasses (Figure 23-5). When the projectile strikes the frame, the lens must not break, nor come
out of the frame.
Figure 23-5. The high mass impact test drops a pointed, 1inch diameter projectile onto safety eyeglass frames from 51.2
inches to test their suitability for use as Z87 safety frames.
BOX 23-1
Safety Frame Marking Requirements
Marking Safety Frames

With safety requirements, a clear distinction between
dress frames and safety frames must be kept in mind.
Dress frames are those worn for everyday purposes. No
matter how sturdy the construction of a dress frame, it
is still not a safety frame unless it passes the required
tests and is specically marked as being a safety frame.
Without these markings, the frames are not safety
frames. These markings are size, the manufacturers
trademark, and the all-important Z87 or Z87-2 marking
on both temples and front, indicating compliance with
ANSI Z87 standards.
Safety frames intended for use with 2.0-mm thick
high-impact lenses must be tested for 2.0-mm thick
lenses. When successfully designed and tested, these
frames are marked Z87-2, instead of just Z87. The
2 signies that the frame is suitable for 2-mm lenses
(Box 23-1). All frames that are marked Z87-2 must be
capable of retaining both basic-impact 3.0 lenses and
high-impact 2.0 lenses. Thus all new safety frames can
be expected to bear the Z87-2 markings.
FRONTS
1. A-dimension (eye size)
2. DBL (Distance between lenses)
3. Z87 to indicate frame compliance with basicimpact standards or Z87-2 to indicate frame
compliance with high-impact standards (Z87-2 frames
may be used for both basic- and high-impact lenses.)
4. Manufacturers identifying trademark
TEMPLES
1. Overall length
2. Z87 to indicate frame compliance with basicimpact standards or Z87-2 to indicate frame
compliance with high-impact standards
3. Manufacturers identifying trademark
Dening Safety Glasses

Safety frames should only be used with safety lenses.
Some safety frames are less expensive than regular dress
frames. However, regular lenses must not be put into a safety
frame, even to save the wearer money. A pair of regular
CH A P TER 23
Figure 23-6. Side shields provide protection from ying fragments coming from a different work area and from the immediate area when the wearer turns his or her head.
dress lenses placed in a safety frame may give the

wearer the impression that they are wearing safety
glasses. A safety frame with dress-thickness lenses is no
more safety eyewear than a dress frame with safety
lenses. Eyeglasses are not safety glasses until both the
frame and lenses are in compliance.
Lenses that are made thicker for added safety should
not be placed in a pair of regular frames. If safety is
important enough to warrant thick lenses, it is important
enough to warrant safety or sports-type frames. Safety
lenses in regular frames can give the wearer a false sense
of security and the mistaken impression that this is a
safe prescription. Under no circumstances should a pair of
lenses be marked as safety and placed in a nonsafety frame.
Side Shields
Now that eye protection is required and used in many
settings, eye injuries that happen to people wearing
safety glasses often occur from the side. There is special
attention called to this in the preface to the ANSI Z87.1
2003 safety eyewear standards with the statement, This
standard recognizes the Bureau of Labor Statistics study
that revealed the need for angular protection, in addition
to frontal protection, in eye and face protectors worn in
the occupational setting.14
Side shields may be removable or permanent (Figure
23-6). Most people would rather not wear side shields if
given the choice. If side shields are constantly required,
then permanent side shields are logical. Removable side
shields have the advantage of being able to be taken off
when working in a nonhazardous situation. The drawback
is that removable side shields often end up not being worn.
Side shields are not universally interchangeable. A
removable side shield designed for one particular type of
frame cannot be expected to provide the ANSIstandard-approved protection required if used on a different type of frame.
Hardening of Glass Lenses

Glass lenses are not impact resistant enough to pass the
FDA-mandated impact test unless they are hardened.
There are currently two methods of hardening glass
579
Figure 23-7. When air strikes front and back surfaces of a lens
that has been heated just below the softening point, it freezes
the outside, setting up a controlled internal stress that makes
the lens more impact resistant.
lenses. One uses a heat-treating process and the second

a chemical-tempering process. Not all types of glass are
capable of being tempered. Glass lenses that are not
capable of being hardened may only be used in the
United States if no other type of lens material is acceptable for the visual needs of the wearer.
Scratched lenses are more likely to break than
unscratched lenses, regardless of the method used to
harden a lens. Scratches introduce weak points on the
lens. A scratched heat-tempered lens looses more of its
impact resistance than a scratched chemically tempered
(or chemtempered) lens. For maximal safety, scratched
lenses should be replaced.
Heat-Treating Process
Heat treating is done by placing the edged glass lens into
a small kiln where the temperature is high enough to
almost bring the glass to the softening point. The lens
is left in the kiln for about 2 or 3 minutes. The exact
amount of time depends upon:
1. Lens thickness.
2. Type of glass.
3. Lens tint.
To help determine a still more accurate length of time
a lens is left in the kiln, lens weight may also be
considered.
The lens is removed from the heat and cooled rapidly
by blowing forced air against both front and back surfaces (Figure 23-7).
To understand how this process could cause an
increase in impact resistance, remember that as glass
heats, it expands and becomes more like a liquid. When
the hot lens is struck by cool air against its outer surfaces, the outer surfaces freeze. The inner part of the
lens cools more slowly. As it is cooling, it is trying to
contract. But the outer part of the lens is already frozen
and refuses to shrink further. This creates an inner pull
on the lens, inducing stress. Part of the stress is surface
compaction or squeezing called maximum compressive
stress. Another part of the stress is called maximum tensile
stress. This stress creates strength in the same way that
580
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Before ion exchange
K+
After ion exchange
K+
K+
Na+
K+
Na+
K+
Na+
K+
Molten salt
O
Na+
K+
Na+
Na+
Na
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Si
Glass
K+
O
O
K+
K+
K+
Na+
O
O
Si
Na+
K+
Si
Na+
Na+
K+
K+
Si
Na+
Na+
Na+
Molten salt
Si
Na+
K+
K+
Si
Si
O
K+
O
O
Si
Si
Glass
Figure 23-8. In chemtempering, smaller sodium (Na) or lithium (Li) ions from the glass
are replaced by larger potassium (K) ions from the molten salt.
the tightened spokes on a bicycle wheel add strength to

the rim. These forces result in a compression of the lens
surface. The depth from the outside surface of the lens
where compressive stress and tensile stress meet is called
the depth of compression.
The advantage to heat treating is that it is fast. The
disadvantage is that the heat-tempered lens is not as
impact resistant as a lens that is chemically tempered.
Chemical Tempering
Glass lenses are chemically hardened by immersing them
in molten salt. The salt used for clear crown glass and
tinted crown glass lenses is potassium nitrate (KNO3).
During the process of chemical tempering, smaller
sodium (Na) or lithium (Li) ions from the glass are
drawn out of the lens surface and replaced by larger
potassium (K) ions from the salt (Figure 23-8). This
crowds the surface, setting up a surface tension that
squeezes the lens. This surface tension increases impact
resistance by creating compressive stresses. The actual
amount of compressive stress is 28 to 50 kg/mm2, compared with 6 to 14 kg/mm2 for heat-tempered glass.15
The salt used to temper a photochromic lens is different from the salt used for crown glass lenses. Salt used
for photochromic lenses is a mixture of 40% sodium
nitrate (NaNO3) and 60% potassium nitrate (KNO3).
Both of these salts are hazardous in dry or molten states.
Salts are available in both commercial and reagent grades.
Reagent grade is more expensive, but being purer, does
not require conditioning and prevents salt-related
problems.
If the proportion between salts is incorrect or if the

salt is contaminated or has been used too long, the lenses
will have problems. Lenses may break in the bath, come
out hazy, or show hairline cracks. Processing a crown
glass lens in a salt bath intended for photochromic lenses
will cause the lens to craze, showing a meshwork of
hairline surface cracks (Figure 23-9).
Salt needs to be replaced on a regular basis. As salt
pH rises above neutral, some salt should be removed and
replaced with new salt to lower the pH. When sediment
builds up in the bottom of the tank, all of the salt should
be replaced.
To chemically temper crown and tinted glass
lenses together, the temperature of the salt is 450 C
5 C (842 F 9 F). To temper photochromic glass
lenses, the salt is heated to 400 C 5 C (752 F
9 F).16
If the temperature of the bath is not exact, there will
be problems with photochromic lenses being off-color,
splotching, or not lightening or darkening properly.
The Chemical Tempering Process. Lenses are
cleaned and placed in a lens holder. That holder is held
above the bath to allow the lenses to preheat, preventing
breakage caused by extreme temperature changes. The
lenses are then immersed in the molten salt bath for 16
hours.* (By using a special process it is possible to
*It is possible to leave the lenses over the weekend for 64 hours.
Impact resistance drops slightly, but the amount of drop is normally
insignicant.
CH A P TER 23
Figure 23-9. A crown glass lens mistakenly placed in a photochromic salt bath will craze.
chemically harden standard photochromic lenses in 2

hours.*) At the end of the cycle, the lenses are again held
above the bath. The postbath cool times are the same as
the preheat times. Lenses are then removed from the
unit, allowed to cool at room temperature, then rinsed
in hot water to remove the salt.
Chemically hardened crown glass lenses are more
impact resistant than thermally hardened crown glass
lenses and maintain their strength better, even when
scratched. They will not warp during the chemical tempering process, as do some lenses during the heat-tempering process. Because their internal tensile stress is
less than that of a heat-tempered lens, chemtempered
lenses may be re-edged or resurfaced without breaking.
If a pair of chemically tempered glass lenses has been
removed from a broken frame and reshaped for a new
frame, the lenses should be rehardened. (Heat-tempered
lenses should never be re-edged on an edger or hand
edger unless they have been dehardened rst.)
Compared with heat tempering, chemical tempering
of crown glass lenses is clearly the method of choice.
Determining Whether a Glass Lens Has
Been Hardened
Determining if a lens has been heat treated is possible
by viewing it between two crossed polarizing lters. An
*The 2-hour photochromic process is used for PhotoGray Extra,

PhotoBrown Extra, PhotoGray II, and PhotoSun II.
It may not be used for PhotoGray, PhotoBrown, PhotoSun, PhotoGray Extra 16, or PhotoBrown Extra 16.
A heat-tempered lens is dehardened by heating it as if it were to

be heat tempered again. When the lens comes out of the furnace,
the cold air is turned off and the lens allowed to cool slowly.
581
instrument with a light source and two crossed polarizing lters made for this purpose is called a colmascope or
polariscope. Viewed through a colmascope, a heat-treated
lens will show a Maltese-cross pattern (Figure 23-10). A
perfectly shaped Maltese-cross pattern does not mean
that the lens is any more impact resistant than a lens
showing a misshapen Maltese cross. Rotating the lens
while viewing it though the colmascope will cause the
Maltese cross to change in appearance anyway. This
pattern shows up because surface compression in a heattreated lens is nonuniform.17
Chemically tempered lenses have an even surface
compression and therefore show no stress patterns when
viewed through crossed polarizing lters. A chemically
tempered lens can only be identied by taking the lens
out of the frame and immersing it in a glycerin solution
while viewing it between crossed polarizing lters. A
chemically hardened lens will show a halolike, bright
band around the edge of the lens. Because of the timeconsuming inconvenience of this process, everyone
depends upon the notication enclosed with the nished
spectacle lenses as ensurance that the lens has been
chemically hardened.
Effect of Re-edging of Glass Lenses on
Impact Resistance
Edging a plastic lens does not signicantly affect impact
resistance. However, edging or re-edging a glass lens
that has already been hardened will affect impact resistance. May a hardened glass lens be re-edged and then
worn? Here is the FDAs response to the question.
Q. May a glass lens, after it has been chemically or
thermally treated for impact resistance, be
processed further in any way?
A. Lenses that are treated for impact resistance by
induced surface compression may be re-edged or
modied for power. However, the benecial effects
of surface compression may be substantially
reduced. Such lenses must be retreated and tested
before they are dispensed to the patient.6
Effect of Drilling and Grooving on Glass Lens
Impact Resistance
Drilled glass lenses that are heat treated are not safe to
wear. They may pass the drop ball test in their unmounted
state, but the compounded stress brought about by the
mounting causes the mounted lenses to fail too easily.
Drilled lenses that are chemically tempered will pass
the drop ball test and are not as affected by drill mounting as are heat-treated lenses. Nevertheless, glass lenses
are seldom used in a drill mounting, even when chemically tempered.
In fact glass lenses are seldom used with grooved
lenses either. In 1993 Optical Laboratories Association
Technical Director George Chase addressed the glass
lens grooving and drilling issue in an OLA Tech Topics
paper. He indicated that even though drilled and grooved
582
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 23-10. A and B, A heat-treated lens may be identied by the characteristic Maltesecross pattern seen when the lens is viewed through the crossed polarizing lter of a colmascope. The symmetry of the Maltese-cross pattern is not the important factor. As a lens is
rotated, the pattern seen will vary, as seen in the above two photos of the same lens seen in
two different angles of rotation between the polarizing lms.
TABLE 23-5
ASTM Standards Applicable to Ophthalmic Dispensing

Standard Identication
Number
Year of Revision
Sports Covered by the Standard
ASTM F513
ASTM F659
ASTM F803
2000
1998
2003
ASTM F910
ASTM F1587
2004
1999, reapproved
2005
2001
Standard specication for eye and face protective equipment for hockey players
Standard specication for skier goggles and face shields
Standard specication for eye protectors for selected sports
These sports are listed as racquet sports (such as racquetball, badminton, and
tennis), womens lacrosse, eld hockey, basketball, baseball, and soccer
Standard specication for face guards for youth baseball
Standard specication for head and face protective equipment for ice hockey
goaltenders
Standard specication for eye protective devices for paintball sports
ASTM F1776
glass lenses would normally pass the drop ball test, the
unprotected, exposed lens edges were likely to chip or
microcrack with normal use, reducing impact strength.
If drilled or grooved glass lenses are to be made, the
OLA encourages optical laboratories to rst obtain a
waiver from the person ordering the lenses.18 If the laboratory wants a waiver from the dispenser, it is a clear
indication that the dispenser should not be using glass
lenses for a drill mount or groove mounted frame.
EYE PROTECTION FOR SPORTS

The appropriate selection of eyewear for sports is increasingly important. Correct eyewear selection may
improve performance in the sport and at the same time
protect the wearer. At the present time, there are only
certain standards specically designed for sports eye
protection.
An increase in litigation following eye injuries has
served to raise the consciousness of eye care practitioners who are now more aware of the need for providing
appropriate information on eye protection customized
to patient needs.
American Society for Testing and Materials

As the name implies, the American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM) develops standards for testing
and for materials. There are several ASTM standards
that apply to ophthalmic dispensing. These are shown in
Table 23-5.
These standards describe tests that must be used to
evaluate the ability of the eyewear to withstand and
protect from the impact of common equipment used in
the chosen sport. Examples would be balls and rackets.
The standard most often encountered in an eye care
practice is the F803 standard. This is called F803 standard
specication for eye protectors for selected sports. It is especially
applicable since it applies to many of the most popular
sports, such as baseball, basketball, soccer, and tennis.
ASTM Product Marking
ASTM sports eyewear product marking includes (1)
marking on the eyewear, (2) a label or tag, and (3) specic
warnings about product use.
Marking on the Eyewear. ASTM standards include
required product marking. For example,19 all ASTM
F803-approved eyewear must be marked with:
CH A P TER 23
1. The manufacturers identity marking.

2. The eye protector model identity.
Label or Tag. In addition, it should include a label or
tag with the following information:
1. Week and year of manufacture
2. The protector size and also guidance concerning
the age and gender of the wearer that the protector
has been designed for
3. A clear statement on the package as to the sport or
sports for which the protector was designed
Specic Warnings to Accompany ASTM-Approved
Eyewear. There should be specic warnings listed.
(These warnings are important for dispensers to know
because they are generally applicable for safety and sport
eyewear). Warnings include, but are not limited to, the
following:
1. Lenses should be replaced when scratches become
troublesome or if cracks appear at the edges.
2. If the eye protector is severely impacted, short of
failure, then the degree of protection provided will
be reduced, and the eye protector must be replaced.
Failure to do so may result in permanent injuries to
the eye.
3. If a lens pops out because of impact during play, the
wearer should stop playing and have the protector
replaced.
4. If the eye protector is stored at cold temperatures, it
should be allowed to return to room temperature
before use.
5. Instruction as to the cleaning and antifog agents
that may be used should also be included.
There is not just one type of protector that is intended
for F803 protection. F803 protection can be in 4 different types. These are listed in Box 23-2.
Other Cautions With Sports Eyewear. Frames that
are designed to be worn with lenses should not be worn
without lenses even if designed for safety or sport. Small,
fast moving balls may elongate and penetrate the empty
lens opening, even if the opening is smaller than the
ball.
When even a large ball, such as a soccer ball, strikes
the eye, the blunt trauma can produce a shock wave
impact that causes the eyeball to distort then rebound
with a large amount of force resulting in severe damage.
So even though a large ball would not seem like it would
BOX 23-2
Four Types of F803 Sport Protectors
Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV
The front piece is molded as one unitlens or

lenses and front together
A unit with lens(es) separate from the frame
front and then assembled; the lenses are
either plano or prescription lenses
A protector without a lens
A full or partial face shield
583
be able to damage an eye surrounded by the bony structure of the skull, it still can. Sports eyewear protection
is still important.
If spectacle lenses are worn under protective eyewear,
then polycarbonate lenses should be worn in the
spectacles.
Custom Eyewear Needs for Individual Sports

Each sport has certain unique visual demands. Some
demands may be met by simply providing appropriate
sunglasses. Others may require a specialized prescription
that includes a uniquely positioned multifocal segment.
A number of sports and their hazards and problems are
listed in Table 23-6, along with recommended solutions.
Yet as with occupational needs, there is not always a
single cookbook answer for every individuals sports
vision needs. Each situation should be discussed and any
corrective or protective eyewear designed to meet the
needs of that particular individual. However, there are
certain common themes that recur in sports eyewear.
Themes in Sports Eyewear
Sports eyewear can be confusing because of the large
number of sports and sports situations possible. Here are
some general statements about sports eyewear that help
in getting an overall picture:
Virtually all sports demand highly impact-resistant
lenses made from such materials as polycarbonate.
Helmets are required when there is danger of head
injury.
Outdoor sports call for UV protection, and when
intense sunlight is a factor, sun lenses are
appropriate.
Most sports using round balls call for ASTM F803approved protectors. These include baseball,
basketball, soccer, and any racquet sports, such as
tennis or badminton.
Underwater sports for those dependent upon their
prescription need special in-mask or in-goggle
prescription adaptations.
Billiards and pistol shooting may require
prescription changes.
Golf, ying, and shooting may require relocation of
multifocal segments and/or optical centers.
Bicycling and billiards may require changes in the
positioning of the frame front.
PROVIDING BEST CHOICES AND

PREVENTING LIABILITY
The Dispensers Obligation in Helping Choose
the Most Appropriate Product
The process of dispensing eyewear is one that involves
helping the wearer choose the best product for a particular need. This may include absorptive lenses, high-index
and aspheric lenses, specialized multifocal lenses, eyewear
for certain sports or hobbies, or protective eyewear. Thus
584
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 23-6
Problems, Hazards, and Recommended Solutions for Sports Eyewear

Problems and Hazards
Recommended Solutions
BADMINTON
1. Danger from birdie and racquet.
2. Brightness of outdoor environment.
1. Wear ASTM F803-approved sports protectors with polycarbonate lenses.

2. Use sun lenses when appropriate.
BASEBALL
1. Hazard of ocular injury from the ball.
1. Batters should wear a batting helmet with attached face shield. Others
should wear ASTM F803-approved sports protectors with polycarbonate
lenses when playing other positions.
Little League players can use a reduced injury factor ball.24 Youth
baseball use ASTM F910 standard specication for face guards when
appropriate.
2. Wear sun lenses when appropriate.
BASKETBALL
1. Eye hazard from other players ngers,
elbows, etc.
1. Wear ASTM F803-approved basketball protectors with polycarbonate

lenses.
BICYCLING25
1. Head or eye injury from a fall.
2. Dust, sand, or small object blown into the
eyes.
3. UV radiation.
4. Inability to see vehicles from behind without
looking backward.
6. Bent-over position forces eyeglass wearers to
look over the top of their frames.
BILLIARDS
1. Viewing the ball on the table must be done
through the very tops of the lenses.
2. Presbyopia can keep the eld of view unclear.
BOATING
1. Glare from the water.
2. There is intensied UV radiation from both
overhead and reected UV light.
3. Glasses that drop from the face or are
knocked off will sink and be lost.
FLYING
1. Overhead dials and gauges are difcult to
read with a normal presbyopic correction.
1. Wear a bicycle helmet.

Use strong frames with polycarbonate lenses.
2. For nonprescription eyewear, wraparound frames and lenses are helpful.
Drop-in frame fronts may be added, if desired.
3. Add UV protection to glasses (will be included with polycarbonate
lenses).
4. Use special small mirror mounted on the spectacle frame.
5. Wear sunglasses when appropriate.
6. Select frames that can be set high on the face. Use adjustable pads and
adjust the glasses high.
1. For conventional frames, choose a frame that is high on the face, has a
thin upper rim, and may be adjusted upward.
Use a frame specially designed for billiards. Such a frame is thin
rimmed, sits high on the face, and has retroscopic tilt.
2. Prescribe a small amount of additional plus power. Since most viewing is
done 1-2 meters away, the additional plus required may be as small as
+0.25 D, but usually not greater than +0.75 D.26 This can be given in the
form of a distance prescription increased in plus by this amount. If
bifocals are used in this same lens, the bifocal segment should be low set,
and the add power decreased in plus by an equal amount to compensate
for the increased plus found in the distance.
1. Use a polarizing lens, which also blocks UV light.

2. Use a sunglass lens that cuts out all UV light below 400 nm. Wear a hat
with a brim or a visor.
3. Use a well-tting frame, possibly one that has cable temples. Consider
using an athletic strap when boating. Some have used oats that attach
to the temples.
1. Inform the pilot of the existence of occupational double-segment lenses.

However, many presbyopic pilots prefer progressive addition lenses.
Progressive addition lenses are a good choice because of the various
distances at which near gauges and dials must be viewed.
CH A P TER 23
585
TABLE 23-6
Problems, Hazards, and Recommended Solutions for Sports Eyewearcontd

2. Bright daylight ying reduces dark adaptation

at night.
2. Use sunglasses with frames that are large and have short vertex distances
or that wrap around. Select lenses that transmit 10%-15% of the light.
Do not use polarizing lenses.
FOOTBALL 24
1. Eye injury from the ball or other players.
GOLF
1. Bifocals and other normal presbyopic
corrections may interfere with viewing the
ball during swing.
2. Frame interferes with vision.

3. UV exposure.
HANDBALL
1. Danger from ball.
HOCKEY: ICE24
1. Danger from pucks and sticks.
HOCKEY: STREET, FLOOR, OR FIELD24

1. Danger from pucks and sticks.
LACROSSE: WOMENS
1. Danger from ball and players sticks.
MOTORCYCLING25
1. Head and/or eye injury from a fall.
2. Dust, sand, or small object blown into the

eyes.
3. UV radiation.
1. Wear an approved helmet with face guard or cage.

Additional protection is possible using eye protection, such as Libertys
Helmet Specs worn under the helmet and behind the guard or cage.
1. Use single vision lenses.

Use one, small round bifocal segment only: for right-handed players, on
right; for left-handed players, on left. Position segment either in extreme
upper temporal corner or extreme lower temporal corner. (It is best to
mark the glazed lenses with a colored marking pen where the segment
will be positioned. Have the wearer use a golf club and simulate the
playing situation ahead of time.)
2. Use thin-rimmed, rimless, or nylon cord frames. Avoid frames with
thick, wide temples.
3. Wear a hat with a brim or visor.
Add UV protection to glasses.
4. Wear sun lenses when appropriate, but know that some golfers avoid
sunglasses because of interference with viewing the contour of the
course.
Know that polarizing lenses will decrease the golfers ability to read the
contour of the course. Polarizing lenses for golf may not be appropriate
or appreciated.
1. Use ASTM F803-approved sports eye protectors with polycarbonate

lenses.
1. Use helmet with full-face wire or polycarbonate face protector approved

by the ASTM F513 standard for Eye and Face Protective Equipment for
Hockey Players or by the Canadian Standards Association.
Avoid half shields and form-tting goalie masks.
1. Use helmet with full-face wire or polycarbonate face protector approved

by the ASTM F513 standard for Eye and Face Protective Equipment for
Hockey Players or by the Canadian Standards Association.
Use ASTM F803-approved eye protectors with polycarbonate lenses.
1. Use ASTM F803-approved eye protectors intended for womens lacrosse

with polycarbonate lenses.
2. Wear polycarbonate sun lenses in conjunction with protective eyewear
when appropriate.
1. Wear a motorcycle helmet with face shield.

If helmets are not used, vented goggles should be. Venting is to prevent
fogging.
2. Use strong frames and polycarbonate lenses.
Wraparound frames and lenses are helpful.
3. Add UV protection to glasses (will be included with polycarbonate lenses).
Continued
586
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 23-6

MOUNTAIN CLIMBING
1. Increased exposure to UV radiation because
of less atmospheric absorption.
PAINTBALL
1. Danger of paintball injury to eyes.
RACQUETBALL
1. Danger from ball and opponents racquet.
RIDING24
1. When riding in other than open areas: brush
or twigs.
2. UV exposure.
RUNNING
1. Sweating and slipping eyeglasses.
2. Fogging.
3. UV exposure.
SHOOTING: PISTOL 27
1. Danger of reverse discharge of powder.
2. Need for large eld of view.
3. Need for improved contrast and/or reduced
glare.
4. Pistol shooting has a unique need for focusing

on the pistol sights rather than on the target.
This can be troublesome for presbyopes.
1. Use UV-absorbing goggles that eliminate all wavelengths below 400 nm.
2. For high altitudes where brightness is especially excessive, use sun lenses
with approximately 5% transmission and a wraparound design or use
sunglasses with side shields (often leather).26
1. Wear ASTM F1776 eye protective devices for paintball sports.
1. Use ASTM F803-approved eye protectors intended for racquetball with

1. Use polycarbonate lenses. (Riding helmets should conform to ASTM

standards, but do not include eye protection.)
2. If dress eyewear is worn for riding, polycarbonate lenses should be
chosen.
1. Use a sweatband.
Use comfort cable temples or an eyeglass headband.
For low prescription powers try simply not wearing eyeglasses.
2. Be certain that the frames do not ride on the cheeks.
If eyeglasses are not antireection coated, use an antifogging agent.
3. Wear a hat with a brim or visor.
Add UV protection to glasses or wear sunglasses with UV protection.
1. Use polycarbonate lenses.

2. Use large (even 62-mm A dimension and above) metal aviator frames.
3. Traditional shooter preference for overcast days is an amber tint. This is
not a recommendation, since there is no proven correlation between
shooting performance and an amber tint.
For those who so desire, Corning makes a Serengeti lens designed
specically for the competition shooter called Vector. It is available in
sport orange for all-weather use and sport vermilion for heavily
overcast and misty days. Both are photochromic, antireection coated,
and are available in plano or prescription.
Each shooting situation should be evaluated and judgment made on
individual need using the principles outlined in Chapter 22.
4. Early presbyopes should use a specically designed device that is
mounted to spectacle frames. It consists of a diaphragm mounted before
the dominant eye and an occluder mounted before the nondominant eye.
As an alternative, punch a 1- to 2-mm hole through a piece of electrical
tape using a 1/32-inch nail. Mount the tape with pinhole directly in the
line of sight.
Late presbyopes should use an add power prescribed for the distance
from the spectacle plane to the pistol sights. For accuracy it is more
important for the sight to be in focus than the target. That add may be
t as:
a. A single vision near Rx.
b. A bifocal mounted very high on the sighting, eye (in a shooting stance
the sight is seen through the bifocal and the upper part of the target
is viewed through the distance lens).
c. An add lens mounted in the ip-up portion of a double-front frame.
The nondominant eye usually has an occluder in the ip-up portion.
CH A P TER 23
587
TABLE 23-6

SHOOTING: RIFLE27
2. Blurring of the front sight of the rie. (Some
presbyopes are bothered by this problem.)
3. Need for improved contrast or reduced glare.
4. The dominant eye does not correspond to
the dominant hand, making sighting with the
dominant eye impossible.
2. Convert to a telescopic sight where no accommodation is required.
3. See Shooting: pistol.
4. Specially designed gun stocks are available.
SHOOTING: SHOTGUN27
2. Stock jolts against frame.
2. Do not t frame too low. Choose a frame with a at lower edge.
3. Need for improved contrast or reduced glare.
3. See Shooting: pistol.
4. During aiming the line of sight passes through 4. Use contact lenses, or if spectacles are used, mark the location of the line
the upper nasal part of the lens and, for lenses
of sight on the spectacle lens and have the laboratory place the optical
with high distance powers, causes a prismatic
center of the lens at this location. (To prevent binocular problems, the
effect that may create problems. Some
optical center of the other lens must be moved to the same vertical
progressive addition lenses may be
position and outward temporally to achieve the binocular interpupillary
problematic when viewing through this
distance.)
upper nasal section of the lens.
If progressive addition lenses are to be worn, avoid using the softer
design progressive addition lenses that allow asphericity to ow into the
upper peripheral areas of the lens.
SKIING
1. Exposure to UV radiation resulting in
snow blindness (burning and photophobia
from photokeratitis).
2. Wind and ying snow.
3. Blurring from bifocal or trifocal segments
for presbyopes.
SNORKELING AND SCUBA DIVING28

1. Eyeglass prescription needed to see clearly.
2. The inside of the mask fogs.
3. Presbyopes encounter difculty seeing near

objects clearly.
1. Use lenses that eliminate all wavelengths below 400 nm.
2. Wear ASTM F659 approved ski goggles. Some are designed to hold
prescription lenses. Some have double lenses to reduce fogging.
3. Use a single vision lens. To reduce fogging, use lens materials other than
glass. Glass is also not appropriate since lenses with higher impact
resistance should be used.
4. Protective sun lenses are appropriate. It may be helpful to avoid
polarizing lenses. Some skiers believe that it hinders judgment of snow
conditions. Also as the body tilts, the polarizing lenses will vary in their
absorption of horizontally polarized light.
1a. Use a removable mask insert. The insert is like a frame front that
attaches to the front surface of the mask.
1b. Cement lenses to inside of mask as follows: With the mask in place,
mark the front of the mask as if taking monocular interpupillary
distances as described in Chapter 3.
Calculate the correct lens power for the vertex distance from the eye to
the face mask surface (see Chapter 14).
Order lenses for the corrected distance prescription with plano front
base curves. (Minus lenses work well, but plus lenses have problems
because, with plano front curves, they would essentially be worn
backward.)
Cement the lenses to the inside of the mask with clear epoxy or UV
curing cement.
2. Use an antifogging lens cleaner. (Note: Some antifogging agents may
evaporate into the mask chamber and cause eye irritation or even corneal
erosion.29 If agents are used, they should be allowed to dry thoroughly
before wearing the mask or goggles.)
3. Use a specially designed multilens or bifocal mask. The multilens mask
has distance and near prescription in the mask, whereas the bifocal mask
has only near lenses in the lower half.
Bond a near add lens to the lower left-hand side of the mask.
Continued
588
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
TABLE 23-6

SOCCER
1. Danger from ball or collisions with other
players.
1. Use ASTM F803-approved protective eyewear for soccer with

SQUASH
1. Danger from ball and opponents racquet.
1. Use the appropriate ASTM F803-approved eye protectors.
SWIMMING
1. Water gets in the eyes and water changes the
refractive power of normal spectacles, making
underwater wear of normal spectacles
unproductive.
2. Swim goggles fog up.
TENNIS
1. Danger from ball and racquet.
VOLLEYBALL
1. Being hit with the ball.
2. When played outdoors, bright sunlight and
reections from sand or water can be a
hindrance and a hazard from UV exposure.
WATER SKIING
1. Water spray gets in eyes.
WRESTLING
1. Eye protection currently not conducive to
the sport.
1. Use swimming goggles. Goggles may be t with powered lenses. Base

curves of lenses in contact with water must be plano to retain the
intended power characteristics both above and below the water.
Order goggles with interchangeable, premanufactured refractive power
(usually minus-powered spherical equivalents).
Contact lenses may be worn underneath plano goggles.
2. Use a goggle with back-surface antifogging properties.
(See also under Snorkeling and Scuba Diving above.)
1. Use the appropriate ASTM F803-approved eye protectors with

2. Wear polycarbonate sun lenses when appropriate.
1. Use ASTM F803-approved protective eyewear with polycarbonate

lenses.
2. Use polycarbonate sun lenses with UV protection in an appropriate
F803 protector.
1. Use a goggle similar to a swim goggle but with holes in the sides to
prevent fogging.
Use swimming goggles and drill 3/16- to -inch holes temporally in the
sides.
1. Monocular individuals or individuals with good correctable acuity in one

eye only should avoid wrestling.24
(Note: When polycarbonate material is listed, it should be noted that there may be other highly impact resistant material that may also be
suitable.)
it becomes the responsibility of the dispenser to provide

each individual with sufcient information so that an
informed decision may be made. The dispenser has a
duty to inform about the availability of eyewear alternatives that provide optimal eye safety in the particular
wearing conditions applicable for that individual.
When lawsuits involving eyewear occur, the case is
usually made on the basis of either product liability or
negligence.20
Product Liability
Product liability means that the product was not up to
accepted standards. What those standards are depends
on the type of eyewear.
For dress eyewear, determine if the drop ball test

was administered when appropriate.
For safety eyewear, the critical factor is determining
if Z87 standards were metparticularly thickness
standards.
For sports eyewear, the critical factor is faulty
design or failure to meet impact resistance
expectations. If ASTM standards are appropriate,
was this type of eyewear chosen so that those
standards were met?
Negligence
To prove negligence, it must be shown that, the defendant practitioner did not conform to the standard of care
CH A P TER 23
expected of like practitioners acting under the same or

similar circumstances. Practitioners are expected to
exercise reasonable prudence and demonstrate the
minimum degree of learning and skill possessed by
members of the profession in good standing.20
In the case of a dispenser this would include:
Failure to recommend the most appropriate material.
Failure to inform the wearer about decreased impact
resistance of other materials compared with the most
suitable material.
Failure to verify that materials received were in
accordance with standards required for materials
ordered.
Responsibility for Recommending the Most
Appropriate Lens Material
One of the most important decisions an eyeglass wearer
will make relates to the safety of the product. According
to Class,20,21 there are ve general classes of persons for
whom safety is of great importance. These are the
following:
1. Monocular individuals (For sports an individual
should be considered as monocular if the weaker
eye has a corrected visual acuity of less than 20/40.)
2. Athletes
3. Children
4. People with occupations that put them at risk for
ocular injury
5. Individuals whose eyes have a reduced capacity to
withstand ocular trauma, including aphakes and
pseudophakes, high myopes, those who have
undergone refractive surgery, and those who have
had previous eye injuries
It is the dispensers responsibility to identify these
individuals, make them aware of their need for eye protection, and recommend the most impact-resistant lens
material available. In some cases this will involve recommending a certain type of frame as well.
Whether or not the practitioner deems the prospective lens wearer in need of high-impact-resistant lenses,
each person should be informed of the availability of the
safest lens product. The person can then make a personal
decision on the matter.
Suppose a person is not informed of the availability
of the safest lens product and subsequently has a severe
eye injury. In such a case it is easy for the wearer to say,
If I had been told about this lens, I would have chosen
it, and this would never have happened to me.
In instances where a person has an eye examination
but requires no refractive correction, the examiner who
takes a thorough case history will note the need for
protective eyewear. If protective eyewear is needed, that
need is not limited to full-time eyeglass wearers. The
need for safety or sports eyewear includes the need for
plano safety or sports eyewear.
If a prescriber strongly believes that a certain lens
material should be used for a given eyewear function,
589
then that material should be written on the prescription,

making it required.
To prevent liability, everyone purchasing eyewear
should be informed of the safest lens products.
Responsibility for Recommending Safety or
Sports Frames
If eyeglasses are to be worn for contact sports or for
activities hazardous to eyes, wearers need to know about
options available. If these options are not brought to the
wearers attention, the wearer may assume that his or her
dress wear frames and lenses will provide all the protection needed.
The following are some situations that may require
safety or sports eyewear22:
Working with lawn or garden equipment, such as
string trimmers, shredders, or chain saws
Working with shop equipment, such as power saws,
drills, or grinders
Working with hazardous liquids, such as acids or
alkalis or with sprayers
Engaging in contact sports or sports using balls or
racquets
It should be obvious that anytime a safety frame is
needed, impact resistance in a lens is also of highest
priority.
Any lens or frame safety information explained to the
wearer should be noted in the record and dated, as should
the wearers nal selection of lens material and frame.
Responsibility to Inspect the Finished Product
When newly fabricated spectacles are returned from the
laboratory, it is the dispensers responsibility to inspect
the nished product. If the lens is classied as a safety
or sports product, it must comply with all the requirements outlined by ANSI or ASTM standards.
It is to be expected that if an eye injury occurs, all
these factors will be checked for the injured by their
legal council. If any ANSI or ASTM standards are
unmet, it is obvious that either (a) an inspection was
never done, or (b) that inspection was done incompetently or inadequately.
REFERENCES
1. Chaf n R: Trivex: a new category of lens material, Opti
World 30(243):34, 2001.
2. www.nxt-vision.com, 2005, Intercast.
3. Corzine JC, Greer RB, Bruess RD et al: The effects of
coatings on the fracture resistance of ophthalmic lenses,
Optom Vis Sci 73:8, 1996.
4. Chou R, Hovis JK: Durability of coated CR-39 industrial
lenses, Optom Vis Sci 80(10):703-707, 2003.
5. Torgersen D: Impact resistance questions and answers,
OLA Tech Topic p 4, 1998.
6. Snesko WN, Stigi JF: Impact resistant lenses questions
and answers, HHS Publication FDA 87-4002, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health
590
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Service, Food and Drug Administration, Center for

Devices and Radiological Health, Rockville, Md, 1987.
Class JG, Harris MG: Doctor, I want a copy of my . . .
how to handle requests for Rxs and records in the light of
eyeglasses II, Optom Manage 24:19, 1989.
Bruneni, JL: Ask the labs, Eyecare Business p 28, 1998.
ANSI Z80.1-2005 American national standard for ophthalmicprescription ophthalmic lensesrecommendations, Optical Laboratories Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006,
Fairfax, Va, 2006, Optical Laboratories Association.
Eye protection in the workplace, U.S. Department of
Labor Program Highlight, Fact Sheet No. OSHA 93-03,
GPO: 1993 0-353-374
General Industry, OSHA Safety and Health Standard (29
CFR 1910), Washington, DC, 1981, U.S. Department of
Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
Chou BR, Hovis JK: The effect of multiple antireective
coatings and center thickness on resistance of polycarbonate spectacle lenses to penetration by pointed missiles,
Optom Vis Sci 82(11):964-969, 2005.
Chou BR, Hovis JK: Effect of multiple antireection coatings on impact resistance of Hoya Phoenix spectacle
lenses, Clin Exp Optom 89(2): 2006.
American national standard practice for occupational and
educational personal eye and face protection devices,
Z87.1-2003, Des Plaines, Ill, 2003, American National
Standards Institute Inc, American Society of Safety
Engineers.
Krauser RP: Chemtempering today, Corning, NY, 1974,
Corning Glass Works.
Chemtempering photochromics, publication OPO-53/79MA, Corning, NY, Corning Glass Works.
17. Wilson-Powers B: Chemtempering photochromic lenses,

Opt Manage 8(5):39, 1979.
18. Chase G: OLA Tech Topic 1993. (As quoted by Torgersen
D: Impact resistance questions and answers, OLA Tech
Topic p 4, 1998.)
19. F803-03, Standard specication for eye protectors for
selected sports, West Conshohocken, Pa, ASTM
International.
20. Class JG: Legal aspects of sports vision, Optom Clin
3:27, 1993.
21. Class JG: Legal aspects of sports-related ocular injuries,
Int Ophthalmol Clin 28:213, 1988.
22. Woods TA: The role of opticianry in preventing ocular
injuries, Intl Ophthalmol Clin 28:251, 1988.
23. Lee G: Sorting out those confusing ophthalmic lens
options, Optom Manage 26:45, 1991.
24. Vinger PF: Prescribing for contact sports, Optom Clin,
Sports Vis 3:129, 1993.
25. Class JG: Prescribing for noncontact sports, Intl Ophthalmol Clin 3:111, 1993.
26. Gregg JR: Vision and sports: an introduction, Boston,
1987, Butterworth.
27. Breedlove HW: Prescribing for marksmen and hunters,
Optom Clin, Sports Vis 3:77, 1993.
28. Legerton JA: Prescribing for water sports, Optom Clin,
Sports Vis 3:91, 1993.
29. Doyle SJ: Acute corneal erosion from the use of antimisting agent in swimming goggles, Br J Ophthalmol
8:419, 1994.
30. Bruneni J: Whats driving high index to stand out? Eyecare
Business p 31, 1998.
Prociency Test
1. True or false? A 2.50 D high-index glass lens is
heavier than a crown glass lens of equal thickness
and power.
2. True or false? A high-index plastic lens is heavier
than a lower index crown glass lens.
3. The purpose of blowing air against both sides of a
glass lens after heating the lens in a thermalhardening unit is:
a. to create stress within the lens and increase
impact resistance.
b. to cool the lens quickly so that it can be put
into the frame.
c. to keep dust off the hot surfaces that otherwise
might stick.
d. to ensure that the lens cools evenly.
4. Arrange these new, unscratched lenses in order

from the most to the least impact resistant.
Assume that the test used for determining impact
resistance uses a small, high velocity projectile.
a. CR-39
b. untreated crown glass
c. chemically hardened crown glass
d. heat-tempered crown glass
e. polycarbonate
5. Arrange these materials in order from the material
with lowest index of refraction to the material with
the highest index of refraction.
a. crown glass
b. polycarbonate
c. CR-39
d. Corning Clears 16
e. Trivex
CH A P TER 23
591
6. Arrange these materials in order from the material

with lowest density (weight per cubic centimeter)
to the material with the highest density.
a. crown glass
b. polycarbonate
c. CR-39
d. Index 1.80 glass
e. Trivex
15. The correct ophthalmic terminology for eyewear

that is used for everyday and not for sports or
safety is:
a. casual eyewear.
b. everyday eyewear.
c. formal eyewear.
d. dress eyewear.
e. standard eyewear.
7. True or false? Eyeglasses II no longer lists

minimal information needed for a spectacle lens
prescription as was found in Eyeglasses I.
16. What are the minimum thickness requirements

mandated by the FDA for dress eyewear?
a. 1.0 mm
b. 1.5 mm
c. 2.0 mm
d. 2.2 mm
e. There are no minimum thickness requirements.
8. What is the name of the instrument used to check

to see if a glass lens has been heat treated?
a. alphascope
b. betascope
c. colmascope
d. deltascope
9. For lenses of equal powers and thicknesses, which
lens material shows greater impact resistance when
tested using a small, high velocity projectile?
a. an untreated crown glass lens
b. a chemically tempered crown glass lens
c. a chemically tempered photochromic lens
d. a CR-39 lens
10. For lenses of equal power and thickness, which
lens material shows greater impact resistance when
tested using a large, slow moving object?
a. an untreated crown glass lens
b. a chemically tempered crown glass lens
c. a CR-39 lens
11. Given the following plano-powered lenses, which
will be the most impact resistant?
a. a 3-mm thick photochromic, chemically
hardened glass lens
b. a 2-mm thick polycarbonate lens
c. a 3-mm thick heat-treated crown glass lens
d. a 3-mm thick CR-39 lens
12. Which lenses do not have to be individually dropball tested? (There may be more than one correct
response.)
a. a 5.00 D single vision crown glass lens
b. a +2.50 D single vision polycarbonate lens
c. a 1.00 D single vision photochromic slab-off
lens
d. a +1.75 D Franklin-style (Executive) crown
glass bifocal
13. True or false? Listing a lens material as part of an
eyeglass prescription is inappropriate.
14. True or false? Because the laboratory takes full
responsibility for the accuracy of safety and sports
prescription eyewear, verication of lens thickness
by the dispenser is unnecessary.
17. When may retailers dispense prescription lenses

that are not impact resistant?
a. when the wearer signs a waiver accepting
responsibility
b. when no other types of impact-resistant lenses
will fulll the visual requirements of the wearer
c. when the lenses are high-index glass and are
unable to be either heat treated or
chemtempered
d. in any of the above circumstances
e. in none of the above circumstances
18. What is the standard referee test for
determining impact resistance suitable for dress
ophthalmic lenses?
a. a 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface
of the lens from a height of 50 inches
b. a 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface
c. a ve-eighth-inch steel ball dropped on the
front surface of the lens from a height of 50
inches
d. a ve-eighth-inch steel ball dropped on the
inches
e. a one-fourth-inch steel ball shot at the front of
lens at a speed of 150 feet/sec
19. Which of the following lenses must be individually
drop-ball tested and not just batch tested or
exempted from testing?
a. a stock high-index plastic antireection coated
lens
b. a crown glass executive bifocal lens
c. a fused at-top 25 photochromic glass bifocal
lens
d. a glass slab-off lens
e. All of the above must be individually drop-ball
tested.
f. None of the above must be individually dropball tested.
592
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
20. True or false? Plano sunglasses manufactured in

quantity do not have to be impact resistant.
21. A wearer breaks his frames. You nd a new frame,
but the old chemically tempered glass lenses are
too large.
a. New lenses must be used in the new frame.
Chemtempered lenses cannot be re-edged.
b. The lenses can be re-edged and put back in the
frame as is. The chemtempering is unaffected
since the chemical change occurs on the
surfaces of the lens.
c. The lenses can be re-edged, but must be
chemtempered all over again before being put
into the new frame.
d. The lenses can be re-edged, but must be
chemtempered again and drop-ball tested again
before being put into the new frame.
22. Which lens is most likely to break?
a. an unscratched lens
b. a lens that has been scratched on the front
surface
c. a lens that has been scratched on the back
surface
d. All lenses are equally likely to break.
23. The duty to inform someone of the safest
options for their eyewear needs is:
a. a legal responsibility.
b. a professional responsibility.
c. both a professional and a legal responsibility.
24. What are basic-impact safety eyewear minimum
thicknesses?
a. 2.0 mm
b. 2.2 mm
c. 3.0 mm (except +3.00 D and above, which have
a minimum thickness of 2.5 mm)
d. 3.2 mm (except +3.00 D and above, which have
e. 3.2 mm (except +3.00 D and above, which have
25. What are the high-impact safety eyewear minimum
thicknesses?
a. 2.0 mm
b. 2.2 mm
c. 3.0 mm (except +3.00 D and above, which have
d. 3.2 mm (except +3.00 D and above, which have
e. 3.2 mm (except +3.00 D and above, which have
26. What is the standard referee test for

determining impact resistance suitable for basicimpact prescription safety lenses?
a. a 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface
b. a 1-inch steel ball dropped on the front surface
c. a ve-eighth-inch steel ball dropped on the
inches
d. a ve-eighth-inch steel ball dropped on the
inches
e. a one-fourth-inch steel ball shot at the front of
lens at a speed of 150 feet/sec
27. How must a safety frame suitable for high-impact
safety lenses be marked on the front and temples?
a. size and manufacturer
b. size, manufacturer and Z87
c. size, manufacturer and Z87+
d. size, manufacturer and Z87-2
28. True or false? Putting 2.0-mm thick CR-39 lenses
in a safety frame, but not marking the lenses for
safety, is acceptable if the person just wants the
glasses for regular wear.
29. True or false? Putting 2.0-mm thick polycarbonate
lenses in a safety frame, but not marking the lenses
for safety, is acceptable if the person just wants the
glasses for regular wear.
30. Which lens is the most impact resistant?
a. a 2.2-mm thick crown glass lens that has been
neither heat treated nor chemtempered
b. a 2.2-mm thick crown glass lens that has been
heat treated
c. a 2.2-mm thick crown glass lens that has been
chemtempered
31. True or false? A lens may be identied as having
been chemically tempered by placing it in a
colmascope. (A colmascope consists of two crossed
polarizing lters that are back lighted.)
C H A P T E R 24
How Lenses Are Edged
n optical laboratory may consist of two separate

areas. One area creates the needed lens power.
This is usually done by a process called lens surfacing, and the facility that does it is referred to as a surfacing laboratory.
The second area takes the correctly powered lens and
nishes it. This is done by optically positioning the lens
and grinding the edges so that the lens ts the shape of
the chosen frame. The area where this occurs is known
as the nishing laboratory. A nishing laboratory is also
referred to as an edging laboratory because it is here that
lenses are edged to the proper shape to t the spectacle
frame.
The processes that follow are an overview explanation
of how edging is done. For a complete how to explanation on all aspects of an edging or nishing laboratory,
see Brooks, Essentials of Ophthalmic Lens Finishing, published by Elsevier Inc.
lines of the lensmeter target are sharp and unbroken.

When these lines are clear, the cylinder axis is correct.
With the lens correctly rotated for axis position, turn
the lensmeter power wheel in the appropriate direction
for checking the cylinder power.
Next carefully move the lens left, right, upward, or
downward until the target is accurately centered.
(Remember to pull the lens holding device away from
the lens surface so that the lens will not get scratched.)
When the target is accurately centered, the lens may be
spotted (Figure 24-2).
The power verication in a spotting procedure for
spherocylinder lenses is summarized in Box 24-1.
SPOTTING OF SINGLE VISION LENSES

WITHOUT PRISM
Marking the Lens for Right or Left

As soon as the lens is spotted, it should be removed
from the lensmeter and marked for the right or left eye.
Lenses are marked on the front surface with a wax pencil.
The letter R or L in uppercase letters is written in the
upper half of the lens above the three spots (see Figure
24-2).
First, a lens is made ready for edging so that the refractive power and optical centration will be correct. For
edging we should always be starting with a lens of a
known power.
SPOTTING OF SINGLE VISION LENSES

WITH PRISM
Power Verication and Spotting of Spheres
The Optical Center of a Lens
When the power of the lens to be veried is of known

power, set the lensmeter for the expected sphere value.
If the lens is a sphere, the target should be immediately
clear, indicating a lens of the correct power.
Optically center the lens in the lensmeter by moving
the lens until the center of the illuminated target crosses
the center of the crosshairs in the lensmeter eyepiece or
screen (Figure 24-1.) The marking device is then swung
into position, and the front surface of the lens spotted.
When there is no prescribed prism in the prescription,

the needed point of reference is the optical center (OC).
The OC becomes the reference point. It is of major
importance in aligning the lens. Therefore it is known
as the major reference point or MRP. So when there is no
prism in the prescription, the OC is the MRP.
Power Verication and Spotting of

Spherocylinders
When verifying spherocylinder lenses, the lensmeter
power wheel is turned to the expected sphere power.
The cylinder axis wheel is also turned to the axis of the
prescription. The lens holding device is not allowed to
touch the lens, and the lens is rotated until the sphere
When the Optical Center Is Not in the

Line of Sight
Sometimes a prescription includes prescribed prism.
The lens must be positioned so that the amount of prism
called for will be in front of the wearers pupil in the
eyes line of sight. When prism is called for in the prescription, the point on the lens with the correct amount
of prism becomes the point of reference. When the prescription contains prescribed prism, the OC and MRP are two
separate points.
593
594
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
BOX 24-1
5
4
3
2
1
1
2
3
How to Spot Single Vision Sphere or

Spherocylinder Lenses Using a Standard CrossedLine-Target Lensmeter
1. Dial in the lens sphere power and lens cylinder axis
into the lensmeter.
2. Place the lens in the lensmeter.
3. Locate the MRP.
4. If the lens is spherical, spot the lens.
5. If the lens has a cylinder, rotate the lens until the
sphere lines are clear.
6. If the lens has Rx prism, move the illuminated target
until it is located at the position where the prism
equals that called for in the prescription.
7. Spot the lens.
4
5
Figure 24-1. When both sphere and cylinder lines focus at

the same time, the lens has a uniform power in all meridians
and is spoken of as being spherical.
If the sphere and cylinder lines do not intersect at the center
of the mires, the lens OC is not centered in front of the lensmeter aperture, and prism is being manifested.
target at the center of the crosshairs, the center of the

illuminated sphere and cylinder target lines must be
positioned to correspond to the location of the desired
prismatic effect.
Example 24-1
A right lens calls for 2.0 base-out prism. How would it be
positioned for spotting?
Solution
To correctly position this lens:
The center of the sphere and cylinder target
intersection must be on the circular mire marked 2.0.
Because the prism is horizontal, the illuminated target
must be on the 180-degree line.
Base out for the right eye is to the left. Therefore the
center of the illuminated target must be on the 2 prism
circle where it crosses the 180-degree line to the left.
When the lens is correctly positioned, the lensmeter target
appears as shown in Figure 24-3.
Once this position is achieved and the cylinder axis is
correct, the lens may be spotted. Figure 24-4 shows the lens
spotted with the three lensmeter dots. The center lensmeter
ink spot is no longer at the center of the uncut lens, but the
center dot still indicates the location of the MRP.
Figure 24-2. The lens designation (R or L) is always marked

on the upper half of the lens so that the lens will not be blocked
upside down. Though not as critical for nonprismatic nished
single vision lenses, an inverted prism or an upside down multifocal would be worse than useless. (The lens is being viewed
from the back side.)
There is a synonym for the MRP that is perhaps even

more descriptive. That synonym is prism reference point
or PRP. MRP and PRP are the same.
The procedure of spotting single vision lenses with
prism is nearly identical to that of nonprism lenses. The
only difference is in how the illuminated target is centered. Instead of placing the center of the illuminated
When Prescribed Prism Includes Both

Horizontal and Vertical Components
In a case in which both horizontal and vertical prisms
are called for simultaneously in the same lens, the target
must be moved both laterally and vertically until it
reaches the desired position. That position is one where
the target center is directly above (or below) the required
horizontal prism reading. It is also exactly left or right
of the required vertical prism reading.
Example 24-2
A right eye requires 4.0 base out and 2.0 base up. How
would the lens be positioned for spotting?
CH A P TER 24
595
5
4
3
2
Figure 24-3. Prismatic effect can be created by

decentering the lens in the lensmeter until the
sphere and/or cylinder line intersection is positioned for the indicated amount. (Achievement of
desired prism by decentration is limited by lens
size and refractive power.)
Location of
Nose or
Frame bridge
1
2
3
4
5
OC
MRP
Figure 24-4. The MRP of a lens will ultimately be positioned

before the wearers pupil center. If prism is indicated in the
prescription, the OC is displaced purposely. Therefore the
point that will be important in centration and is consequently
spotted is the MRPnot the OC.
Solution
To correctly position the lens, the target must be four full
prism diopter units to the left of center and two full prism
diopter units above center. This is shown in Figure 24-5.
SPOTTING OF FLAT TOP MULTIFOCALS

For multifocals the bifocal should be placed in the lensmeter like it will be when mounted in the frame. This
means that for at-top bifocals, the segment top should
be horizontal. The sphere power is dialed into the lensmeter. If the lens has a cylinder component, the axis of
the cylinder should be dialed in as well.
Next the MRP of the lens is located. When the lens
is spherical, the lens may be spotted.
For multifocals with spherocylinder powers, the

axis of the cylinder has been custom ground for that
particular lens. The lensmeter is set for the axis ordered,
and the lens rotated to the correct axis. With MRP and
cylinder axis correct, the lens is spotted, just like a single
vision lens. After the lens has been spotted, the three
dots on the 180-degree line should be parallel to the
upper edge of a at-top segment (Figure 24-6, A). If
they are not parallel to the top of the bifocal segment,
the cylinder axis is off, and the lens was surfaced
improperly.
To precheck the lenses as a pair, hold the lenses front
to front with the segments overlapping (Figure 24-6, C).
If there are not two different MRP heights or two different seg insets, the center spots of both lenses should
be at the same place. If they are not, there is likely to be
a problem with unwanted horizontal or vertical prism
after the lenses are edged.
For a summary of spotting at-top multifocals, see
Box 24-2.
SPOTTING PROGRESSIVE
ADDITION LENSES
Progressive addition lenses have certain hidden markings used in establishing lens orientation. Lenses coming
from the surfacing laboratory are also marked with nonwater-soluble ink. If the visible inked marks are correctly
applied, there is no need to spot the lenses. However,
they should be veried before edging.
Verifying Premarked Progressives

To check distance lens power, position the lens in
the lensmeter to view through the circled area above
the PRP. (The PRP usually comes marked with a
5
4
3
2
Location of
Nose or
Frame bridge
1
2
3
4
5
5
4
3
2
Location of
Nose or
Frame bridge
1
2
3
4
5
B
Figure 24-5. In positioning a prismatic lens, the only important reference is the center of
the illuminated target. This is the place where the center sphere and cylinder lines cross each
other. Where other parts of those lines may cross the circular mires is of no importance.
In the example shown, the sphere and cylinder line crossing point must be directly above
or below the place where the 4.0 circle crosses the horizontal line farthest from the nose.
The sphere and cylinder line crossing point must simultaneously also be exactly at the same
level as the top of the 2.0 circle. A, This is easy to see because the sphere and cylinder lines
are aligned horizontally and vertically. However, if there is cylinder present at any axis other
than 90 or 180, the lines will not look like this. Instead they may appear as shown in (B).
The prismatic effect shown in (B) is exactly the same as in (A). Both are 4 base out and 2
base up.
It may be difcult to tell the exact position of the center of the illuminated target for a
spherocylinder lens with an oblique axis. If you have difculty, try this procedure. Temporarily turn the cylinder axis to 90 or 180 degrees. This will cause the illuminated target lines to
be exactly horizontal and vertical. Now although the lines will be a bit blurred, they will
duplicate the situation shown in A and make it easier to tell how much vertical and horizontal
prism is present.
CH A P TER 24
597
C
Figure 24-6. A, For spherocylinder lenses, the three dots should be parallel to the top of the
segment. If they are not, the cylinder axis will be wrong. B, For spherical lenses, an angle
between the three dots and the segment top is not a problem, even through it looks off.
However, if the lens has a cylinder component, the axis of the cylinder will be wrong. C,
Once at-top bifocals have been spotted, they may be prechecked before edging. Hold the
edged lenses front to front. They are held front to front because the segments and spots are
closer to one another and will reduce the amount of parallax seen. Do not press the lenses
into contact with one another to prevent scratching. Make sure the segments exactly overlap
each other. With both lenses having equal seg insets and drops, the spots should also overlap
as shown. If they do not overlap, there may be a problem with PDs being off or unwanted
vertical prism.
dot.) This circled area used to locate the point for

verifying distance power is called the distance
reference point or DRP (Figure 24-7). Incidentally, remember that there will almost always be some prism at
the DRP since the DRP of the lens is not the OC of the
lens.
To check distance power, set the power wheel to the
sphere power and the cylinder axis wheel to the ordered
cylinder axis. Rotate the lens until the target lines are
clear and unbroken. The nonwater-soluble horizontal
reference marks on the lens should be horizontally oriented and not tilted. If they are tilted, the axis of the
cylinder is incorrect.
To check for prism, the lens is centered in the lensmeter at the PRP. (Remember, the PRP is the same as
the MRP.)
Progressive lenses often come with equal amounts of
vertical prism in both right and left lenses. This allows
the lenses to be made thinner. Equal amounts of yoked
vertical prism for prism thinning purposes are both
allowable and usually expected. Both right and left lenses
may read 1.5 base down at the PRP and are considered
free of unwanted vertical prism.
As stated earlier, if the lenses are correct and have
nonwater-soluble progressive lens markings, there is no
need to spot the lens. The existing markings will be used
598
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
in the blocking process. If the lenses do not come with

markings, or if it appears that the markings were inaccurately applied, then the markings must be reapplied.
When Progressive Lenses Are Not Premarked

In the event that a progressive addition lens has no visible
markings, reconstruct the manufacturers recommended
system of identifying marks. This procedure was
explained in Chapter 20.
PATTERNS
Pattern Measurements and Terminology
To allow the edger to shape the lens to t the frame, a
pattern is needed. That pattern can be a physical pattern
made of plastic or an electronic pattern in the memory

of a computer. Here are some specics on pattern measurement and terminology.
The mechanical center of a pattern is the point on the
pattern around which the pattern rotates. The mechanical center is easy to nd since it is found in the middle
of the large hole in the pattern (Figure 24-8).
Centration and Decentration
The process of moving a lens so that it will be in front
of the eye is called centration. To center the lens in front
of the eye, the lens must be moved away from a given
reference point. When a lens is moved away from a given
point, it is said to be decentered from that point. In this
case the lens is moved away from or decentered from the
location of the mechanical and boxing centers.
Pattern Making
BOX 24-2
Spotting Flat-Top Multifocals
1. Dial the lens sphere power and lens cylinder axis
into the lensmeter.
2. Place the lens in the lensmeter.
3. Locate the MRP.
4. If the lens is spherical, spot the lens.
5. If the lens has a cylinder, rotate the lens until the
sphere lines are clear.
6. If the lens has Rx prism, move the illuminated target
until it is located at the position where the prism
equals that called for in the prescription.
7. Spot the lens.
8. For spherocylinder lenses and lenses with Rx prism,
verify that the segment top and three lensmeter dots
are parallel to one another.
9. When both lenses have been spotted, line up the
lenses front to front to check for R-L spotting
accuracy. The central spots should overlap.
Because of the vast number of available frame styles, it

is impossible to have a complete library of patterns so
that the correct pattern is available for every frame presented for lens fabrication. Ordering a pattern for every
single frame that passes through the laboratory is totally
impractical. The delays caused would not be acceptable
to the wearer, not to mention the volume of paperwork
that would be generated. For this reason, when running
an edger that uses patterns, a system for making patterns
is a necessity.
How the Pattern Is Placed on the Edger

By convention most people begin the edging process
with the right eye. When the pattern is snapped into
place on the edger, it will t on the edger with either the
front or the back of the pattern going on rst. Going on
one way will edge a right lens shape, whereas the other
way will produce a left lens shape.
Progressive lens
fitting and verification points
Distance reference point

(DRP)
(DRP)
Figure 24-7. Points of reference on a

17
Fitting cross
logo
Near reference point

(NRP)
CH A P TER 24
(A)
Pattern size
Set 15
599
Frame difference
5.5
B
180-degree cutting line
Mechanical center
Indication of nasal side
Figure 24-8. The same system of measurement that is used for frames and lenses is also used
for patterns. Patterns do not come with A and B dimensions marked. But they do have a
pattern set number to help in nding the correct edger setting. The frame difference helps
in positioning MRP and multifocal heights when the laboratory does not have the frame.
Figure 24-9. Here a tracer is next to the edger.

It is electronically linked to the edger and has
a screen to allow the traced shape to be viewed
before edging.
USING A FRAME TRACER FOR

PATTERNLESS SYSTEMS OF EDGING
(Figure 24-9). The advantage to this setup is ease in

visualizing what bevel placement will look best.
Patternless edgers that do not use a physical pattern still

need a shape to go by. This shape is given to the edger
in digital form. Still to get a digital version of the shape,
that shape must sooner or later be physically traced and
transferred to the edger digitally.
A pattern shape is generated by using a frame tracer.
A frame tracer is an apparatus that traces the shape of the
frames lens area and converts it into digital form.
A Tracer Can Be a Part of the Edger

A tracer that is part of the edger has the advantage of
requiring less working space (Figure 24-10).
A Frame Tracer Can Be Used in a

Variety of Locations
A Tracer Can Be Situated Right Next to the Edger
When a tracer is situated right next to the edger, the
person doing the edging has the frame in front of them
A Tracer May Be Placed in the Order Entry

Area of a Laboratory
When the tracer is placed in the order entry area of the
laboratory, information is only entered once. The laboratory that has a tracer at order entry will be wired
with a central laboratory computer.
A Tracer May Be Placed in a Remote-Site Dispensary
One of the biggest headaches for dispensers is the situation where a wearer wants to keep his or her old frame,
600
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Figure 24-10. A frame tracer can be integrated into the edger and save space in the
laboratory.
but cannot or will not give it up long enough to send it

to the laboratory. If there is a frame tracer on site, the
dispenser can remove one or both lenses, trace the shape,
reinsert the lens or lenses, and give the spectacles back
to the wearer (Figure 24-11).
The information is then sent to the laboratory
electronically. It enters the computer system just as
if it had been entered in the laboratory order entry
area.
When the dispensary uses a frame tracer to send
information, the laboratory can get a head start on any
Rx before the new frame arrives. In the interest of time,
the dispensary may choose to not send the new frame at
all and insert the lenses themselves.
CENTRATION OF LENSES
Centration of Single Vision Lenses
During the edging process, the lens rotates around a
central point while being ground to a specic shape to
t the frame. This central point of rotation corresponds
to a hole in the pattern. This hole should always be in
the middle of the pattern used on the edger to generate
the shape. This middle point, the geometric or boxing
center of the lens, is de ned as being the center of the
smallest rectangle that encloses the lens shape using
horizontal and vertical lines.
For the MRP of the lens to be centered before the
wearers pupil, the lens must be moved, or decentered,
away from the boxing center of the lens.
Distance Between Centers

Tracers Can Transfer Data to a Surfacing
Laboratory
For the surfacing laboratory to grind a lens to the
optimum thickness, the laboratory needs accurate data.
This is especially true for plus lenses. The size and shape
the lens will have when edged is essential for calculating
plus lens thickness. The more exact the data, the more
precisely the thickness may be controlled. If the lens is
traced, those tracing values may be sent to more places
than just the edger. Values can be sent to a surfacing
program that calculates lens curves and thickness, then
controls the lens generator.
For frames that conform to the boxing system of measurement, the distance between centers (DBC) is equal
to the eye size (abbreviated A) plus the distance between
lenses (DBL).
DBC = A + DBL
Decentration per Lens

Most commonly the wearers PD will be less than the
DBC. This will require that the lenses be decentered
inward (nasally) toward the center of the frame. The
amount of decentration per lens can be determined by
CH A P TER 24
601
Figure 24-11. A frame tracer may be used at a remote, off-site location. This ensures that
the frame dimensions as read at the dispensary are exactly what will be input into the
edger.
subtracting the wearers PD from the DBC (frame PD)

and dividing by two.
So for the example, the decentration needed per lens is

3 mm inward.
DBC wearer PD
= decentration per lens.
2
Determining Decentration From Monocular PDs
Example 24-3
A wearers PD is 62 mm. The frame size has an A dimension
of 48 mm and a DBL of 20 mm. What is the decentration
per lens required?
Solution
To nd decentration per lens, we use the formula
DBC PD
2
and since
When a prescription species the wearers PD in reference to each eye individually, PDs are taken one eye at
a time. This measurement is referred to as the monocular
PD. For a monocular PD, the reference is basically from
the center of the bridge of the nose to the center of the
pupil. For example, if we have a more conventionally
measured binocular PD of 64, we may have a right monocular PD of 31 and a left monocular PD of 33. This
difference between left and right PDs is not unusual
considering the asymmetry of facial features of many
normal individuals.
For a monocular PD, decentration is determined by
rst dividing the distance between centers (DBC) of the
frame by 2, then subtracting the monocular PD; thus
DBC = A + DBL,
A + DBL PD
2
decentration =
DBC
monocular PD
2
or
Then
48 + 20 62
2
68 62
=
2
6
=
2
= 3mm
dec. per lens =
decentration =
A + DBL
monocular PD
2
How to Calculate Vertical Centration

MRP height is the distance from the lower line of the
box enclosing the shape of the lens up to the MRP loca-
602
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
46 mm
23 mm
25 mm
Figure 24-12. If the position of the MRP is

given in terms of height from the lowermost
portion of the shape, drop or raise can be calculated by subtracting one half of the B dimension
from MRP height.
tion. The laboratory must convert from MRP height to

MRP raise (or drop).
Example 24-4
An order species an MRP height of 25 mm. The frame has
a vertical dimension (B) of 46 mm. What will the MRP raise
be?
Solution
Vertical decentration is calculated as
vertical decentration = MRP height
B
.
2
In the example, since MRP height is 25 mm and the frame

B is 46 mm, then
46
2
= 25 23
= 2mm
vertical decentration = 25
the lens will be face up. If the lens is a right lens

and is facing up, decentration in is to the right. A
left lens facing up would be decentered to the left.
Step 5: Adjust the position of the movable vertical
reference line* in the instrument to the right or left
by the amount of decentration calculated.
Step 6: Next place the right lens face up (front surface
up) on the screen. Align the three spots on the lens
with the horizontal line on the instrument screen.
Step 7: Place the center lens dot on the movable
vertical reference line. (Remember, the position of
this line corresponds to horizontal decentration.)
Step 8: When the MRP height is specied, decenter
the lens up (or in rare instances down). The amount
of decentration is according to the correct number
of millimeters of MRP raise (or drop).
Step 9: Grasp the handle and swing it into place or
press the button or foot switch. This will block the
lens (Figure 24-13).
Example 24-5
It can be seen that since the MRP height is greater than half
of the B dimension, the vertical decentration is positive, and
the lens is moved up by 2 mm. The height above (or below)
the horizontal midline of the lens may be visualized from
Figure 24-12.
A frame has an eye size (A) of 54 mm and a DBL of 20 mm.

The wearers PD is 66 mm. The lenses are already spotted.
How must the instrument be set and the lens placed to
properly block the lens? Assume that the lens is a left
lens.
Steps in Centration of Single Vision Lenses
Solution
Lens decentration is calculated as
Here are the steps in using a centration instrument for

single vision lenses:
Step 1: Spot the lens (as described earlier).
Step 2: If the instrument has blocking capabilities,
stick a double-sided adhesive blocking pad on a lens
block and mount the block on the instrument. Then
peel the paper off the pad to expose the adhesive.
Step 3: Calculate the amount of horizontal
decentration per lens required using the formula
A + DBL PD
2
Step 4: Determine if the lens must be decentered to

the right or to the left. In most centering devices,
A + DBL PD
2
54 + 20 66
=
2
8
=
2
= 4 mm.
*For single vision lenses, the movable vertical line is basically used
as a place marker. When laying out single vision lenses, some
people prefer not to use the movable vertical line at all. Instead
they move the dot on the lens directly to the desired amount of
decentration.
CH A P TER 24
603
Movable line
Vertical reference
line
10
10
10
10
35
28
25
22
Figure 24-13. The lens is being blocked for edging.

To preset the movable vertical line in the instrument for the
left lens, rst recall in which direction the MRP should be
moved. Because the wearers PD is smaller than the frames
geometric center distance or frame PD*the lenses will
decenter nasally or inward. The lens is placed convex side
up. Therefore the left lens is moved to the left so the
movable vertical line is positioned 4 mm to the left of the
central reference line.
Now place the lens face up in the instrument. Align it such
that the central dot is at the intersection of the horizontal
line and the movable vertical line, as shown in Figure 24-14.
The other two dots must fall directly on the horizontal reference line.
Block the lens. The location of the center of the lens block
will become the boxing center of the edged lens (Figure
24-15).
Left
lens
Figure 24-14. The movable line is preset to the correct

decentration. The movable line helps to prevent the dot on the
lens from getting lost on the grid. With the movable line
pointing out the desired MRP location, the lens is positioned
as shown.
Movable line
MRP
Centration of Progressive Lenses

The tting cross is to be positioned exactly in front of
the wearers pupil and comes visibly marked on the lens.
It is the only reference point for both horizontal and
vertical lens positioning for the dispenser. It is also the
primary reference point for both horizontal and vertical
lens positioning for the edging laboratory.
In simplest terms, centration of a progressive addition
lens is done as if the lens were a single vision lens. For
single vision lenses, the MRP is placed at the correct
monocular or binocular PD, depending upon how it is
ordered. For a progressive lens, the tting cross is placed
at the correct monocular PD.
For a single vision lens, the MRP is placed on the
horizontal midline of the lens, or at the specied MRP
height, if one is ordered. For a progressive lens, the
tting cross is placed at the specied tting cross
height.
*Frame PD is equal to A + DBL.
Future lens
boxing center
10
10
10
10
35
28
25
22
Left
lens
Figure 24-15. On the centration device, the block is always

placed at the origin. The block center corresponds to the
future geometric or boxing center of the edged lens.
Example 24-6
A progressive addition lens is ordered as follows:
R: +3.00 1.00 070
L: +3.00 1.00 110
add +1.50
604
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
Monocular PDs are:
BOX 24-3
Steps in the Centration of Progressive Addition
Lenses
R: 33
L: 31
Vertical tting cross heights are:
R: 25
L: 23
Frame dimensions are A = 50, B = 40, DBL = 20
Answer these questions.
1. How much horizontal decentration is required per lens?
2. How much tting cross raise or drop is needed per
lens?
3. How will the right lens appear on a centration device
when correctly centered for blocking?
Solution
1. For a progressive lens, the horizontal decentration for a
monocular PD is calculated in the same way as it is for
a single vision lens. So in this example problem
decentration =
( A + DBL )
monocular PD
2
(50 + 20)
33
=
2
= 2 mm.
Therefore horizontal decentration for the right lens is

2 mm.
Horizontal decentration for the left lens is
decentration =
( A + DBL )
monocular PD
2
(50 + 20)
31
=
2
= 4 mm.
2. For the right lens the tting cross raise or drop above
or below the horizontal midline is calculated as follows:
raise or drop = fitting cross height
B
2
40
2
= 25 20
= +5 mm.
= 25
Therefore the tting cross raise for the right lens is 5 mm.
For the left lens, the tting cross height is
raise or drop = fitting cross height
B
2
40
2
= 23 20
= +3 mm.
= 23
Therefore the tting cross raise for the left lens is 3 mm.
3. The lens is positioned in the centration device using
the tting cross for reference.
1. Find the location of the hidden circles on the front

surface of the lens and dot the centers of the two
hidden circles.
2. Place the lens on the manufacturers lens blank
chart. The dots must be on the indicated hidden
circle locations. Verify the accuracy of the lens
markingsespecially the location of the tting
cross. If they are wrong, remove the old markings
and redraw the marks on the lens.
3. Verify the lens by checking distance power at the
DRP, prism power at the PRP, and near power at the
NRP.
4. Calculate distance decentration per lens using
monocular PDs.
5. Calculate tting cross raise or drop.
6. Preset the movable line in the centration device for
the distance decentration.
7. Place the lens face up in the centration device and
position the tting cross on the movable line.
8. Move the lens up until the tting cross is at the
tting cross height.
9. Verify that the 180 markings on the lens are
parallel to the horizontal lines in the centration
device.
10. Block the lens for edging.
For a summary of how progressive addition lenses are positioned for edging, see Box 24-3.
Centration of Segmented Multifocal Lenses

The near-viewing segment area in conventional multifocal lenses has a clearly demarcated line that borders it.
This can be used as a stable, convenient reference when
positioning the lens for blocking.
The vertical location of the segment is measured for
each wearer. The dispenser gives this vertical location in
terms of segment height. This segment height must be
converted to segment raise or drop.
The dispenser gives the horizontal location of the
segment in terms of the wearers distance and near PDs.
This must be converted to segment inset relative to the
boxing center of the edged lens.
The centration of standard at-top bifocals is done as
follows:
1. Verify the lens for power and MRP location. Spot
the location of the MRP with the lensmeter.
2. Place the lens block in the instrument.
3. Determine the total seg inset required.
total inset =
( A + DBL ) near PD
2
CH A P TER 24
4. Determine if the lens must be decentered to the

right or to the left. If the lens is convex side up, for
a right lens decenter to the right; for a left lens, to
the left.
5. Position the movable vertical line in the instrument
to the right or left by the amount of decentration
calculated.
6. Calculate the amount of seg drop or raise required.
seg drop = seg height
B
2
7. Place the lens face up in the instrument and align

the segment between the segment border lines.
8. Move the lens up or down so that the segment top
is at the seg drop or raise called for.
9. Grasp the handle of the instrument and swing it
into place or press the button or foot switch. This
will block the lens.
EDGING THE LENS

Edgers that require a physical pattern to guide the edger
are often referred to as patterned edgers.
However, the template to produce a lens shape does
not have to be something tangible, such as a plastic
pattern. It can be a shape that is stored digitally. That
electronic version can also guide the lens edger. Because
this type of an edger works without a physical pattern,
it is referred to as a patternless edger.
Edging With Patterns

Setting the Edger Size
If all lens patterns were exactly the same size as the
required nished lens, then no size setting would be
required. However, this would mean that instead of
having one pattern for each frame shape, a separate
pattern would be required for every available size.
This raises the question of pattern size. The standard size was set at 36.5 mm.
To Prevent Pattern Distortion, the Pattern
is Made Larger
When a lens is edged to a shape that is 2 mm larger than
the size of the pattern, the edger makes the lens a millimeter larger in every directionnasally, temporally,
upward, and downward. But in adding an equal amount
of lens size to the original shape in every direction, the
integrity of the original shape starts to be lost. To keep
the shape from being distorted, the only feasible solution
was to produce a pattern for larger style frames that was
closer in size to the actual lens size being edged.
If the pattern is made larger than the standard 36.5mm size, the lens will be too large. Without compensation, the lens will be edged larger than the frame eye
size.
605
Example 24-7
A pattern is supplied for a certain frame. This pattern measures 46.5 in its A dimension. Suppose the lens is to be
edged for a 50-mm eye size. If the edger is calibrated for a
pattern size standard of 36.5 mm, what size lens will be
edged if the edger sizing dial is set for 50 mm?
Solution
For this edger, a 36.5-mm pattern will produce the lens size
at which the dial is set. If a 50-mm lens is desired, the dial
is set at 50 mm. However, since the pattern is 10 mm too
large, the lens produced will also be 10 mm too large.
Setting the edger at 50 mm in conjunction with this pattern
will produce a lens having a 60-mm eye size.
Example 24-8
In Example 24-7, what would the edger setting have to be to
produce a 50-mm lens?
Solution
That pattern is 46.5 mm. This is 10 mm larger than the
standard and will produce lenses 10 mm too large. Therefore
10 mm must be subtracted from the required eye size.
50 mm 10 mm = 40 mm.
To arrive at a 50-mm lens, the edger must be set for
40 mm.
Set Numbers
To make it easier to know how to compensate for a
pattern that is larger than the 36.5-mm standard pattern
size, frame manufacturers put a compensation number
on the pattern. This compensating number is called the
set number. Because patterns are almost always larger
than the standard, this difference must be subtracted
from the eye size. For this reason, set numbers are seen
as negative numbers.
Patterns that accompany a manufacturers frame in
most cases have a set number stamped directly on the
pattern. Knowing the eye size and pattern set number
means the edger setting can be done without having to
measure the pattern.
Example 24-9
A lens is to be edged for a frame having an A dimension of
53 mm. The pattern is stamped set-15.
1. What is the proper edger setting?
2. If measured, what would the expected A dimension of
the pattern be?
Solution
1. Set-15 means that we need to set the edger 15 mm
less than the desired lens size. Therefore to nd the
edger setting, we use
edger setting = eye size + (set number)
606
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
In this case that will be

edger setting = 53 + (15)
= 38 mm
So the edger is set for 38 mm.
3. Now what would the size of the pattern be? Set number
is the difference between the standard sized pattern and
the actual sized pattern. In other words,
Set number = standard pattern size actual pattern size
= 36.5 actual pattern size
In this case we know what the set number is, but not the
pattern size. So changing the formula around algebraically
results in
Actual pattern size = 36.5 (set number)
In this example, the numbers become
actual pattern size = 36.5 (15)
= 36.5 + 15
= 51.5 mm
This pattern can be expected to have an A dimension of
51.5 mm.
What if the Pattern is the Same Size as the Frames

Eye Size? When an edger is calibrated for a standard
size pattern whose A dimension is 36.5 mm, setting the
edger at 36.5 mm will always produce a lens that is
exactly the same size as the pattern. So if a pattern is
made directly from a frame and duplicates the frames
eye size, then a 36.5-mm setting will give the correct
lens size.
Some Patternless Edgers Do Decentration

Calculations
Patternless edgers reduce the need for calculating edger
setting numbers. This is because the digital pattern
and the needed lens sizes are the same.* Some patternless
edgers go further. Calculating lens decentration is not
difcult. But like any simple arithmetic computation, it
is easy to make a simple mistake.
It is not difcult for a patternless edger to do the
decentration. When tracing both right and left lenses,
the tracer also knows the DBL. The only thing that is
not known is the wearers PD. By asking for the PD,
decentration can be easily given.
Some Edgers Do Both Calculations and
Decentration. Even if the edger gures decentration,
the person blocking the lens still has to rst decenter,
then block the lens.
Some patternless edgers are made to work with the
blocker. If there is a direct interface between blocker and
edger, the lens does not have to be decentered nasally by
the operator. The operator just positions the spotted lens
so that the OC (or MRP) is in the middle of the blocker
grid as if there were no decentration at all. Then one of
two things happens.
1. The blocker moves the lens block over to where it
would normally be positioned.
2. The lens is blocked right in the middle, and the
edger takes that factor into consideration when it is
edging the lens.
*Sometimes it is necessary to trace a frame or pattern that is the

same shape, but not the same size as the frame to be used. In
this case size compensation in edger settings will be necessary.
Prociency Test
1. True or false? Lenses are surfaced in a nishing
laboratory.
2. Which type of lens has the same power over the
entire lens?
a. a single vision lens
b. a segmented multifocal lens
c. a progressive addition lens
3. What term is a synonym for a nished lens?
a. single vision lens
b. semi nished lens
c. uncut lens
d. progressive addition lens
e. multifocal lens
4. A frame tracer is often used in conjunction with:

a. a lensmeter.
b. a lens blocker.
c. a lens edger.
5. Of the steps in lens fabrication listed below, which
process occurs last?
a. blocking
b. edging
c. spotting
CH A P TER 24
6. Arrange the steps in the edging

correct order.
1. blocking
2. centration
3. edging
4. nding lens axis and MRP
location
process in their
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
2, 3, 1, 4
2, 4, 1, 3
1, 2, 3, 4
4, 2, 1, 3
4, 3, 2, 1
7. When spotting a single vision lens for edging, in

reference to edged lens orientation, the lensmeter ink
dots will be on:
a. the sphere meridian.
b. the cylinder meridian.
c. the 180-degree meridian.
d. the cylinder axis.
8. Which point should always appear either exactly in
front of (or somewhat below) the wearers pupil?
a. OC
b. DBC
c. geometric center
d. MRP
e. DBL
9. If there is no prescribed prism in the prescription,
all of these points except one are the same. Which
one is not the same?
a. OC
b. MRP
c. PRP
d. NRP
10. For which of the following prescriptions is there a
difference in the physical location of the OC and
the MRP? (There may be more than one correct
response.)
a. 4.00 D sphere
b. 4.00 2.00 180
c. 4.00 D sphere with 0.5 base-in prism
d. 4.00 2.00 180 with 0.5 base-up prism
e. The OC and MRP are synonymous terms and
hence are always at the same point on a lens.
11. A at-top bifocal is spotted for the MRP, and it is
immediately evident that the three dots are not
parallel to the segment line. In which Rx is this of
no consequence?
a. It is always of consequence.
b. 1.00 1.00 180
c. pl 1.00 070
d. 2.25 D sph
12. Horizontal and vertical prismatic effect for a
progressive addition lens is veried at the:
a. NRP.
b. PRP.
c. DRP.
607
13. True or false? Horizontal pattern size is measured

horizontally through the central hole in the
pattern.
14. A lens is to be edged for a frame with an A
dimension equal to 48 mm and a DBL of 18 mm.
If the wearer has a PD of 60 mm, what is the
decentration per lens?
a. 6 mm
b. 5 mm
c. 4 mm
d. 3 mm
e. 2 mm
15. Which is not a valid function for a frame tracer?
a. to gather shape data to transfer to a patternless
edger directly wired to that edger
b. to gather shape data to transfer to a patternless
edger to a remote location using phone lines
c. to determine the DBL of the frame
d. All of the above are possible functions of a
frame tracer.
16. What is the DBC for a frame with the following
dimensions?
A = 47
B = 39
DBL = 20
ED = 48
17. How much decentration per lens is required to
correctly position these lenses for edging?
R: +1.00 1.00 070
L: 1.00 1.00 100
A = 52
B = 49
DBL = 16
PD = 70
a. 1 mm in
b. 1 mm out
c. 1.5 mm in
d. 2.0 mm in
18. How much decentration per lens is required for an
Rx having the following specications?
A = 52
B = 43
ED = 54
DBL = 18
R monocular PD = 32
L monocular PD = 33.5
608
Ophthalmic Lenses
PA R T T WO
19. How much decentration per lens is required for an

Rx with these specications?
A = 48
B = 38
ED = 48
DBL = 18
R monocular PD = 31.5
L monocular PD = 31.0
20. For this order, the wearers PD is the same size as
the (A) + (DBL) of the spectacle frame. The order
species an MRP height of 23 mm for both lenses.
If the frame has a vertical (B) dimension of
40 mm, how much vertical decentration is needed?
23. There are de nite relationships between pattern

size and edger setting. Assuming a standard
pattern size of 36.5 mm, ll in the missing
information for each of the lens size and pattern
size combinations listed below.
Eyesize
Pattern Size
Set Number
Edger Setting
50
48
45
g
50
k
50
52
36.5
c
e
44.5
36.5
l
51.5
50
a
10
f
h
i
5
m
o
b
d
37
44
j
57
n
p
21. What vertical and horizontal decentration per lens

is required for the following single vision Rx?
1.25 0.75 015
1.00 1.00 162
height of MRPs: 26 mm
PD = 66
A = 53
B = 48
ED = 57
DBL = 17
24. If a pattern is marked, set-5, what is the patterns

A dimension?
a. 37.5
b. 41
c. 45
d. 41.5
e. cannot be determined from information given
22. How much vertical and horizontal decentration of

the MRPs of the lenses is required for the lenses
that are to be placed in this frame?
+3.00 D sphere with 2 base in
+3.00 D sphere with 2 base in
MRP height = 21 mm
Wearers PD = 61 mm
A = 47
B = 33
DBL = 17
25. A pattern measures 56 mm. If the frame to be used

has an A dimension of 58 mm and a DBL of
20 mm, what edger setting will result in a
correctly edged lens, assuming a correctly
calibrated edger?
a. set at 36.5 mm
b. set at 38.5 mm
c. set at 54 mm
d. set at 56 mm
e. set at 58 mm
APPENDIX A
ANSI Z80.1 Prescription

Ophthalmic Lenses
Recommendations
efore using the standards outlined in this section,

one thing should be made clear. Unlike ANSI
Standards for safety eyewear, standards for dress
prescription eyewear are not requirements, but recommendations. They are completely voluntary. The standard remains a recommendation. Therefore, it is the
specic intent of the Z80 Committee that this standard
not be used as a regulatory instrument.*
Each of the standards listed here are reliably achievable one at a time. The challenge of meeting all standards at the same time becomes more difcult, however.
In fact, according to industry data, 25% of all spectacles
made will fail in at least one of the areas listed.
Therefore, these standards should serve as goals for
excellence and a frame of reference. Ultimately, each
person involved in the prescribing, dispensing, and manufacturing processes should have the visual well-being
of the person who will be wearing the spectacles as their
highest concern.
The information summarized here in tabular form is
not meant to be all-inclusive. For complete information
consult the original document. This is Z80.1-2005
American National Standard for OphthalmicPrescription
Ophthalmic LensesRecommendations. This standard may
be obtained from
Optical Laboratories Association
11096 Lee Highway
A101
Fairfax, VA 22030-5039
*ANSI Z80.1-2005 American National Standard for Ophthalmic-Prescription Ophthalmic Lenses-Recommendations, Optical Laboratories
Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006, p ii.
ANSI Z80.1-2005, American National Standard for Ophthalmics-Prescription Ophthalmic Lenses-Recommendations. Fairfax, VA: Optical
Laboratories Association, 2006; p. 1.
TABLE A-1
Distance Refractive Power Tolerances for Single Vision Lenses and Segmented Multifocals
Tolerance on Cylinder Powers of:
For single vision and

segmented multifocals
Power in Meridian of
Highest Power
Tolerance on Meridian
of Highest Power
0.00 D,
2.00 D
>2.00 D,
4.50 D
>4.50 D
From 0.00 up to 6.50 D

Above 6.50 D
0.13 D
2%
0.13 D
0.13 D
0.15 D
0.15 D
4%
4%
TABLE A-2
Distance Refractive Power Tolerances for Progressive Addition Lenses

Tolerance on Cylinder Powers of:
For Progressive Addition

Lenses
Power in Meridian of
Highest Power
Tolerance on Meridian
of Highest Power
0.00 D,
2.00 D
>2.00 D,
3.50 D
>3.50 D
From 0.00 up to 8.00 D

Above 8.00 D
0.16 D
2%
0.16 D
0.16 D
0.18 D
0.18 D
5%
5%
609
610
A PPENDIX A
ANSI Z80.1 Prescription Ophthalmic LensesRecommendations
TABLE A-3
TABLE A-4
Tolerances for Cylinder Axis
Addition Power Tolerances for Segmented

Multifocals and Progressive Addition Lenses
Cylinder Power
Stated Exactly
Up to and including
0.25
>0.25 up to and
including 0.50
>0.50 up to and
including 0.75
>0.75 up to and
including 1.50
>1.50
Cylinder Power
Stated in Quarter
Diopter Steps
Axis Tolerance
in Degrees for
the Stated
Cylinder Power
0.25
14
0.50
0.75
1.00, 1.25 and 1.50
1.75 and above
Add Power
Tolerance
Up to and including 4.00

>4.00
0.12
0.18
When measuring for cylinder axis, the lens should be checked at

the distance reference point. The distance reference point is that
point on a lens where, according to the manufacturer, the distance
power is to be measured. The distance reference point may not
correspond to the prism reference point, as in the case of progressive addition lenses.
TABLE A-5
Determining Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism Tolerances Using the More Traditional Method:
Single Vision and Segmented Multifocal Lenses Mounted in the Frame
Tolerance
Vertical prism or
PRP* placement
Horizontal prism or PRP

placement
Within 1/3 prism diopter

or
within 1.0-mm difference between left and right PRP (prism reference point) heights in highpowered Rx with no prism ordered
Within 2/3 prism diopter (total from both lenses combined)
or
within 2.5-mm variation from the specied distance PD for high-powered Rxs
*The prism reference point (PRP) is that point on a lens where prism power is to be veried. It has also been referred to as the major reference point (MRP).
TABLE A-6
Determining Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism Tolerances Using the Power-Based Method:
Single Vision and Segmented Multifocal Lenses Mounted in the Frame*
VERTICAL PRISM
For lenses of 3.375 D or below in the vertical
meridian . . .
For lenses stronger than 3.375 D in the vertical
meridian . . .
HORIZONTAL PRISM
For lenses of 2.75 D or below in the
horizontal meridian . . .
For lenses stronger than 2.75 D in the
unwanted vertical imbalance shall not exceed 0.33

the vertical differences between prism reference points may not be greater
than 1.0 mm
unwanted horizontal prism for both eyes combined shall not exceed 0.67
the horizontal difference from the ordered PD and the actual measured
distance between the prism reference points shall not be greater than
2.5 mm
*Both the more traditional method and the power-based method yield exactly the same tolerance results.
A PPENDIX A
611
TABLE A-7
Tolerances for Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism:

Edged but Unmounted Single Vision and Segmented Multifocals and Uncut Multifocals
the tolerance must be within 1/3 of the ordered prism power,
or
the PRP placement must be within 1.0 mm of the ordered position
For both horizontal

and vertical prism . . .
TABLE A-8
Tolerances for Progressive Addition Lens Fitting Cross (Fitting Point) Location
VERTICAL FITTING CROSS HEIGHTS
A single un-mounted lens
A pair of un-mounted lenses
A pair of mounted lenses
Actual tting cross height must be within 1.0 mm of the ordered tting cross height
Also, both tting cross heights should be within 1 mm of each other relative to their ordered
heights
HORIZONTAL FITTING CROSS LOCATION

A single un-mounted lens
Actual monocular interpupillary distance must be within 1.0 mm from the monocular
A pair of un-mounted lenses
interpupillary distance specied.
A pair of mounted lenses
HORIZONTAL TILT (AS MEASURED USING THE HIDDEN ALIGNMENT REFERENCE MARKINGS)
Mounted lens
2 degrees
TABLE A-9
Unwanted Vertical and Horizontal Prism Tolerances for Progressive Addition Lenses
VERTICAL PRISM*
vertical meridian . . .
For lenses stronger than 3.375 in the
vertical meridian . . .
the combined vertical variation from each prism reference point must not exceed
1 mm.
HORIZONTAL PRISM
For lenses stronger than 3.375 D in the
the combined unwanted horizontal prismatic effects at the prism reference points
must not exceed 0.67.
the horizontal variation from the ordered prism reference point location must not
be greater than 1.0 mm for either lens.
vertical prismatic imbalance shall not exceed 0.33
*When prism thinning is used to reduce lens thickness, the vertical thinning prism is considered as if it were prescribed prism.
For lens pairs with different cross heights, nding unwanted vertical prism is not as simple as dotting the stronger lens and sliding the
spectacles across to read the other lens vertical prismatic effect. The second prism reference point will be at a different ordered height.
The horizontal prism reference point location is the same as the monocular PD.
612
A PPENDIX A
TABLE A-10
Tolerances for Multifocal Segment Location and Tilt

Vertical segment heights
Tolerance
One unmounted lens
Actual height should be within

1.0 mm from the ordered
segment height
Actual height should be within
1.0 mm from the ordered
segment height
and
both lens segments in the pair
should be within 1 mm of
each other
A lens pair (mounted or

unmounted)
Horizontal segment
location* (Near PD)
Mounted lens pair
Tolerance
Near PD should be within
2.5 mm of the ordered near
PD.
Inset should appear symmetrical
and balanced unless specied
monocularly
Segment Tilt (The

amount the at top of
a segment line deviates
from the horizontal)
Tolerance
Mounted lens
2 degrees
*For an E-line (Franklin style) bifocal, the center of the segment is

located at the thinnest point on the segment ledge.
TABLE A-11
ANSI Z80.1-2005 Miscellaneous Tolerances

Tolerance
Thickness
(measured at
the prism
reference point)
Warpage
Base curve
Impact resistance
0.3 mm (when thickness is specied on

the order)
1.00 D (does not apply for points within

6 mm of the eyewire)
0.75 D (when specied on the order)
Capable of withstanding the impact of a
5/8 inch steel ball dropped from 50
inches
WHAT IS THE MERIDIAN OF HIGHEST

ABSOLUTE POWER?
To be able to understand the meridian of highest absolute power as referenced in Table A-1, consider the
following:
The power of one major meridian is the sphere
power.
The power of the other major meridian equals the
sphere power plus the cylinder power.
Of these two meridians, the meridian having the
highest numerical value (plus or minus) is the
meridian of highest absolute power.
HOW TO DETERMINE IF REFRACTIVE

POWER IS WITHIN TOLERANCE
Here is a cookbook method that may be used to see if
the refractive power of a prescription is within ANSI
standards.
Example A-1
Here is an example of a prescription where the meridian
of highest absolute power is also the sphere power.
Determine whether or not the prescription passes ANSI
refractive power tolerances.
A PPENDIX A
Methodology
Example
1. Note the refractive power of the ordered

prescription.
2. Measure the refractive power of the ordered
prescription.
3. Find the power in the meridian of highest
absolute power for
a. the ordered prescription and
b. the measured prescription
4. Using Table A-1, determine:
a. What is the tolerance for the meridian of
highest absolute power?
b. Is the meridian of highest absolute power within
tolerance?
5. Using Table A-1 determine:
a. What is the tolerance for the cylinder power?
1. +4.25 1.75 180
b. Is the cylinder power within tolerance?

6. Using Table A-3 determine:
a. What is the tolerance for the cylinder axis?
b. Is the cylinder axis within tolerance?
613
2. +4.37 1.62 178
3.
a. +4.25
b. +4.37
4.
a. Tolerance for a 4.25 D power is 0.13 D, giving a possible range
of from +4.12 D to +4.38 D.
b. The +4.37 D measured power is within the tolerance range.
5.
a. Tolerance for a 1.75 D cylinder is 0.13 D, giving a possible range
of from 1.62 to 1.88 D.
b. The 1.62 measured cylinder power is within the tolerance range.
6.
a. Axis tolerance for a 1.75 D cylinder is 2 degrees. This gives a
possible range of between 178 and 2 degrees.
b. The measured axis is 178 degrees and thus within the tolerance
range.
Conclusion: The prescription passes.
Example A-2
Here is an example of a prescription where the meridian
of highest absolute power is not the sphere power. Determine whether or not the prescription passes ANSI
refractive power tolerances.
Methodology
Example
1. Ordered power
2. Measured power
3. Power of meridian of highest absolute power for
a. The ordered prescription
b. The measured prescription
4.
a. Tolerance for the meridian of highest absolute
power.
b. Is the meridian within tolerance?
1. 5.00 2.00 174

2. 5.12 2.12 174
3.
a. | 5.00 2.00 | = 7.00
b. |5.12 2.12 | = 7.24
4.
a. 2% of 7.00 is 0.02 7 = 0.14 D. This gives a possible range of from
6.86 D to 7.14 D.
b. The measured power in this meridian is 7.24. This is well outside
of ANSI standards.
Conclusion: The prescription does not pass.
APPENDIX B
Special Purpose Frames

Clip-ons
Hinged Front Spectacles
Clip-ons are supplementary lenses in a mounting that

fastens to the frame front of a conventional pair of spectacles. They t on the outside of the front and may
contain sun lenses, plus lenses for reading, prisms, or any
other prescription desired for testing or visual training
purposes.
Hinged front spectacles are manufactured with two

fronts. The frame front closest to the face is xed,
and the other is hinged and may be ipped down or up.
The hinged front usually contains a near addition,
although any type of lens could be mounted in the
frame.
Drop-ins
Lorgnettes
Drop-ins are supplementary lenses in a mounting that

drops in behind the lenses of a conventional pair of
spectacles. They are not always as practical as clip-ons
because of their close proximity to the eyelashes. Here
are two examples. Occasionally sun lenses in drop-in
form are placed behind prescription eyewear. Also dropin prescription lenses can be placed behind wraparound
sunglass frames.
Lorgnettes are a specially designed frame front.

Instead of temples there is a clip or stick with which the
glasses may be held in front of the eyes. Lorgnettes are
designed to be used for situations where vision at either
distance or near must be corrected for short periods of
time.
Entropion Spectacles
Entropion spectacles are equipped with an additional
extension behind and roughly parallel to the lower
eyewire, which is known as a crutch or gallery. The
crutch supports the skin of the lower lid and prevents
the lower lashes from turning in on the eye itself. Fortunately eyelid surgery is now able to reduce the need
for entropion spectacles. (See also Ptosis Spectacles.)
Folding Frames
Folding frames are those with hinges placed at the bridge
and halfway down each temple. This enables the glasses
to be folded to a size equal to one half the width of the
frame front. Such frames are popular for reading glasses
and are often seen with over-the-counter readers.
Hemianopic Spectacles
Hemianopic spectacles are used by those with a homonymous hemianopia, which is a loss of vision on one side
of the midline of the visual eld. Such spectacles contain
prism on one side of the lens with its base oriented
toward the blind side. By glancing into the prism on the
spectacles, the wearer is able to enlarge his or her visual
eld into the otherwise unseen area intermittently. The
power of the prism used may vary, but is often on the
order of 8. For more on this type of correction, see
Chapter 17.
614
Makeup Spectacles
Makeup spectacles have independent rims that are hinged
on the lower edge and may be tipped forward. Each lens
may be used alone. When the right lens is tipped down,
makeup may be applied to the right eye while viewing
with the left and vice versa.
Monocle
A monocle is a single lens mounting held in place by
being wedged between the cheek and upper eyebrow
area.
Ptosis Spectacles
Ptosis spectacles are equipped with a crutch that is positioned behind and roughly parallel to the upper eyewire.
The crutch supports the skin of the upper lid and prevents the lid from drooping closed. Metal frames can be
tted as ptosis spectacles using exible wire as a mock-up
to show the basic shape, then constructed from the
model. Plastic frames can be mocked up using a thin
card, then constructed in plastic or from a metal wire
that has one end imbedded into the plastic of the upper
rim of the frame.
Recumbent Spectacles
Recumbent spectacles are equipped with reecting
prisms that enable a person lying at on his or her back
to see straight ahead while looking straight up. These
can be useful for those wishing to read while being
A PPENDIX B
required to remain on their backs for long periods of

time. The prisms must be perfectly aligned or diplopia
occurs, making wear impossible.
Reversible Spectacles
Reversible spectacles are only appropriate for an individual only able to use one eye, yet who needs different
Special Purpose Frames
615
corrective lenses for distance and near. They can be used

when multifocals are inappropriate or undesirable.
Reversible spectacles are designed so that they may
be worn upside down. Temples usually swivel at the
endpiece so that the earpieces can be turned up or
down. Alternate means of obtaining a reversal are also
available.
Glossary
()
@ Symbol for at, or in the same

meridian as.
D Symbol for prism power. When
following a number, it denotes
the units known as prism
diopters. (See Diopter, prism)
Symbol for prism power. When
following a number, it denotes
the units known as prism
centrads. (See Centrad)
Symbol for in combination with.
180-degree line A synonym for
horizontal midline.
A
A The horizontal dimension of the
boxing system rectangle that
encloses a lens or lens opening.
Abb value See value, Abb.
aberration The resulting
degradation of an image that
occurs when a point source of
light does not result in a singlepoint image after going through
the lens or lens system.
aberration, chromatic The type of
aberration that causes light of
different wavelengths (colors) to
be refracted differently through
the same optical system.
aberration, lateral chromatic An
aberration that produces images
of slightly different sizes at the
focal length of the lens,
depending upon the color of the
light. (Synonym: chromatic power.)
aberration, longitudinal
chromatic Occurs when a point
light source that is composed of
several wavelengths (such as white
light) forms a series of point
images along the optical axis.
Each of these images is a
different color, and each has a
slightly different focal length.
aberration, monochromatic An
aberration that is present even
when light is made up of only one
wavelength (one color).
616
aberration, spherical An
aberration that occurs when
parallel light from an object
enters a large area of a spherical
lens surface, and peripheral rays
focus at different points on the
optic axis than do paraxial rays.
absolute refractive index See
index, absolute refractive.
accurate sag formula See formula,
accurate sag.
achromatic lens See lens,
achromatic
actual power See power, actual.
add See addition, near.
add, nasal The modication of an
existing spectacle lens shape for
the purpose of creating a better
frame t by allowing more lens to
remain in the inferior, nasal
position after edging the lens
than would be otherwise
indicated by the original shape.
addition, near The plus power a
multifocal lens segment has that
is added to the power already
present in the main portion of
the lens.
age-related maculopathy See
maculopathy, age-related.
alignment, horizontal The
alignment of the right and left
horizontal midlines in a pair of
spectacles with a single horizontal
plane (neither lens is higher than
the other when viewed from the
front).
alignment, standard An
impersonal standard, independent
of facial shape, for the alignment
of spectacle frames.
alignment, vertical Lack of
deviation of the two spectacle
lenses from the vertical plane
(one being neither farther
forward nor backward than the
other).
allowance, grinding Synonym for
wheel differential.
allowance, vertex power The

amount by which the front
surface curvature of a lens must
be attened to compensate for a
thickness-related gain in power.
American endpiece See endpiece,
American.
American National Standards
Institute An industry-based,
nongovernmental standardssetting association. The
Institute is an agency that
addresses standards throughout
all of industry within the United
States, of which the ophthalmic
industry is only a small part.
ANSI sets standards for aspects
of the ophthalmic industry that
includes lenses, frames, and
contact lenses.
Amethyst Contrast Enhancer
(ACE) A selectively absorbing
glass developed by Schott that is
said to enhance contrast and be
advantageous for target and trap
shooting, hunting, computer
terminal viewing, skiing, and bird
watching. The lens allows highest
transmission around the blue,
green, and red regions of the
spectrum.
ametropia The refractive condition
that occurs when parallel rays
entering the eye do not focus on
the retina when the eye is not
accommodating.
ametropia, axial Ametropia that
occurs because the eye is too long
or too short.
ametropia, refractive Ametropia
that occurs because the refractive
elements (surfaces) of the eye are
too strong or too weak.
analyzer, lens A trade name for an
automated lensmeter.
angle of deviation The difference
between the angle of incidence
and the angle of refraction.
Glossary
angle, apical The angle formed by

the junction of two nonparallel
prism surfaces.
angle, Brewsters The angle of
incidence at which reected light
from a refracting surface is
completely polarized.
angle, crest The angle from the tip
to the top of the nose (between
the eyes) compared with a vertical
plane roughly parallel to the
brows and cheeks.
angle, effective diameter The
angle from the 0-degree side of
the 180-degree line to the axis of
the effective diameter. The angle
is referred to by the letter X and
is measured using the right lens.
angle, frontal 1. The angle with
which each side of the nose
deviates from the vertical. 2. The
angular amount the nosepad face
deviates from the vertical when
the frame is viewed from the
front.
angle, pantoscopic 1. In standard
alignment: that angle by which
the frame front deviates from the
vertical (lower rims farther
inward than upper rims) when the
spectacles are held with the
temples horizontal. 2. In tting:
that angle that the frame front
makes with the frontal plane of
the wearers face when the lower
rims are closer to the face than
the upper rims (oppositeretroscopic angle). (Synonym:
pantoscopic tilt.)
angle, retroscopic That angle that
the frame front makes with the
frontal plane of the wearers face
when the lower rims are farther
from the face than the upper rims
(opposite-pantoscopic angle).
(Synonym: retroscopic tilt.)
angle, splay 1. That angle formed
by the side of the nose with a
straight anterior-posterior surface
that would bisect it vertically (also
called transverse angle). 2. The
angle the face of a nosepad makes
with a plane perpendicular to that
of the frame front when viewed
from above.
angle, temple fold The angle
formed when a temple is folded to
a closed position when viewed

from the back.
angle, vertical When viewed from
the side, that angle formed
between the plane of the lenses
and the long axis of the adjustable
nosepads.
aniseikonia A relative difference in
the size and/or the shape of the
images seen by the right and the
left eyes.
aniseikonia, anatomical When
aniseikonia is caused by the
anatomical structure, such as an
unequal distribution of the retinal
elements (rods and cones) of one
eye compared with the other.
aniseikonia, asymmetrical A form
of aniseikonia in which there is a
progressive increase or decrease
in image size across the visual
eld of one eye compared to the
other.
aniseikonia, induced Aniseikonia
that occurs when a size difference
in right and left eye images is
caused by an outside source, as
from correcting ophthalmic
lenses.
aniseikonia, inherent
optical Aniseikonia that occurs
when a size difference in right
and left images is caused by the
optics of the eye.
aniseikonia, meridional When one
eye sees an image that is greater
in size in one meridian than the
corresponding image size for that
same meridian in the other eye.
aniseikonia,
symmetrical Aniseikonia in
which one eye sees an image that
is symmetrically larger than that
of the other eye. One image is
equally larger in every meridian
compared with the image of the
other eye.
anisometropia A condition in
which one eye differs signicantly
in refractive power from the
other.
ANSI Abbreviation for American
National Standards Institute.
antireection coating See coating,
antireection.
antiscratch coating See coating,
antiscratch.
617
aperture 1. An opening or hole that

admits only a portion of light
from a given source or sources.
2. The central, optically correct
portion of a lenticular lens.
aperture, lens The portion of the
spectacle frame that accepts the
lens. (Synonym: lens opening.)
apex The junction point at which
the two nonparallel surfaces of a
prism meet.
aphake A person whose crystalline
lens has been removed and not
replaced with an intraocular lens
implant.
apical angle See angle, apical.
AR An abbreviation for
antireection coating.
arm Also called bar, browbar; in
a semirimless mounting, the
metal reinforcement that
follows the upper posterior
surface of a spectacle lens and
joins the centerpiece to the
endpiece.
arms, guard A synonym for pad
arms.
arms, pad Metal pieces that
connect adjustable nosepads to
the front of a frame. (Synonym:
guard arms.)
aspheric A nonspherical surface.
aspheric lens See lens, aspheric.
aspheric lenticular See lenticular,
aspheric.
aspheric, full-eld See lens, fulleld asphoric.
astigmatic difference See
difference, astigmatic.
astigmatism The presence of two
different curves on a single
refracting surface on or within
the eye. This causes light to focus
as two line images instead of as a
single point.
astigmatism, marginal See
astigmatism, oblique.
astigmatism, oblique 1. An
astigmatic eye condition whereby
the major meridians of the
correcting lens are at an oblique
angle, between 30 and 60 degrees
or 120 and 150 degrees. 2. The
lens aberration that occurs when
rays from an off-axis point pass
through a spherical lens and light
focuses as two line images instead
618
Glossary
of a single point. (Synonyms:

radial astigmatism, marginal
astigmatism.)
astigmatism, radial See
ASTM American Society for
Testing and Materials.
atoric lens See lens, atoric.
autolensmeter A lensmeter that
measures the power and prismatic
effect of the lens in an automated
fashion.
axial ametropia See ametropia, axial.
axis meridian See meridian, axis.
axis of a cylinder An imaginary
reference line used to specify
cylinder or spherocylinder lens
orientation and corresponding to
the meridian perpendicular to
that of maximum cylinder
power.
axis, optical That line which passes
through the center of a lens on
which the radii of curvature of
the front and back surfaces fall.
axis, prism The base direction of
an ophthalmic prism, expressed
in degrees.
B
B The vertical dimension of the
boxing system rectangle that
encloses a lens or lens opening.
back base curve See curve, back
base.
back vertex power See power, back
vertex.
bakelite One of the rst plastics
used to make frames. Bakelite is a
synthetic resin invented around
1909 and was used for such items
as pool balls, jewelry, buttons,
radio cases, and lamps.
Balgrip mounting See mounting,
Balgrip.
bar See arm.
barrel The housing for a screw on a
pair of glasses.
barrel distortion See distortion,
barrel.
base In a prism, the edge of
maximum surface separation
opposite the apex.
base curve See curve, base.
base down Vertical placement of
prism such that the base is at 270
degrees on a degree scale.
base in Horizontal placement of

prism such that the base is toward
the nose.
base out Horizontal placement of
prism such that the base is toward
the side of the head.
base up Vertical placement of prism
such that the base is at 90 degrees
on a degree scale.
basic impact See impact, basic.
batch testing The practice of
selectively testing a statistically
signicant number of lenses in a
manufactured group.
BCD Boxing center distance. See
distance, boxing center.
bent-down portion See earpiece.
best form lens See lens, corrected
curve.
bevel The angled edge of the
spectacle lens.
bevel, hidden An edged lens
conguration that attempts to
reduce the appearance of
thickness by creating a small
bevel with the rest of the lens
edge remaining at.
bevel, mini A lens edge
conguration that has a bevel and
an angled ledge.
bevel, pin Synonym for safety
bevel.
bevel, safety 1. To remove the
sharp interface between lens
surface and bevel surface and the
sharp point at the bevel apex. 2.
The smoothed interface between
lens surface and bevel surface and
the smoothed lens bevel apex.
bevel, V A lens edge conguration
having the form of a V across the
whole breadth of the lens edge.
bicentric grinding See grinding,
bicentric.
biconcave A term used to describe
a lens that is inwardly curved on
both surfaces.
biconvex A term used to describe a
lens that is outwardly curved on
both surfaces.
bifocal A lens having two areas for
viewing, each with its own focal
power. Usually the upper portion
of the lens is for distance vision,
the lower for near vision.
bifocal, blended A bifocal lens
constructed from one piece of
lens material and having the

demarcation line smoothed out
so as not to be visible to an
observer.
bifocal, curved-top A bifocal lens
having a segment that is round in
the lower portion and gently
curved on the top of the segment.
bifocal, Executive American
Opticals trade name for the
Franklin-style bifocal.
bifocal, at-top A bifocal with a
segment that is round in the
lower half, but at on the top.
bifocal, Franklin A bifocal having
a segment that extends the entire
width of the lens blank.
bifocal, minus add A bifocal with a
large, round segment at the top of
the lens. The segment is powered
for distance viewing and the rest
of the lens for near viewing.
(Synonym: minus add bifocal.)
bifocal, Panoptik A bifocal lens
resembling a at-top bifocal, but
having a segment that has a
slightly curved upper edge with
rounded corners.
bifocal, Rede-Rite See bifocal,
minus add.
bifocal, ribbon A bifocal with a
segment that resembles a circle
with the top and bottom
removed.
bifocal, round seg A bifocal with a
segment that is perfectly round.
The width of the segment is
normally 22 mm, 25 mm, or
38 mm.
bifocal, upcurve See bifocal, minus
add.
binocular PD See PD, binocular.
bitoric lens See lens, bitoric.
blank geometrical center See
center, blank geometrical.
blank seg drop See drop, blank seg.
blank seg inset See inset, blank
seg.
blank, nished lens A lens that has
front and back surfaces ground to
the desired powers, but not yet
edged to the shape of the frame.
blank, pattern A predrilled, at
piece of plastic from which a
pattern may be cut.
blank, rough A thick, round lens
with neither side having the
Glossary
nished curvature. Both sides

must yet be surfaced to bring the
lens to its desired power and
thickness.
blank, seminished lens A lens
with only one side having the
desired curvature. The second
side must yet be surfaced to bring
the lens to its desired power and
thickness.
bleaching, optical The lightening
of a photochromic lens from
exposure to red light or IR
radiation.
bleaching, thermal The lightening
of a photochromic lens from
exposure to heat.
blended bifocals See lens, blended
bifocal.
blended myodisc See lens, blended
myodisc.
block That which is attached to the
surface of a lens to hold it in
place during the surfacing or
edging process.
blocker The device used to place a
block on the lens to hold the lens
in place during the surfacing or
edging process.
blocker, layout A centering device
with the capability of also
blocking the lens. The layout
blocker does not mark the lens
rst, but blocks it immediately
after centration.
blocking, nish The application of
a holding block to an ophthalmic
lens so that it may be edged to t
a frame.
blocking, surface The application
of a holding block to an
ophthalmic lens so that one side
may be ground to the correct
curvature and polished.
Boley gauge See gauge, Boley.
box, light A box with a white,
translucent piece of plastic on top
and a full spectrum bulb inside.
When used in the optical
laboratory, the white, illuminated
background serves as a backdrop
for comparison of two lens
colors.
boxing center See center, boxing.
boxing center distance See
distance, boxing center.
boxing system See system, boxing.
Box-o-Graph A at device
containing grids and slides, used
in the measurement of pattern
and edged lens size.
Brewsters angle See angle,
Brewsters.
bridge The area of the frame front
between the lenses.
bridge, comfort A clear plastic
saddle-type bridge that is used on
a metal frame.
bridge, keyhole The top, inside
area of a keyhole bridge is shaped
like an old-fashioned keyhole.
From the top, it ares out
slightly, resting on the sides of
the nose, but not on the crest of
the nose.
bridge, metal saddle A metal
bridge for a spectacle frame that
arches across in a thin band,
sitting directly on the crest of the
nose. (Synonym: W bridge.)
bridge, pad The bridge commonly
used in metal frames having
adjustable nosepads.
bridge, saddle A frame bridge that
is shaped like a saddle in a
smooth curve and follows the
bridge of the nose smoothly.
bridge, semisaddle A bridge that
looks much the same as a saddle
from the front, but has
permanent, nonadjustable
nosepads attached to the back of
the bridge. (Synonym: modied
saddle bridge.)
bridge, skewed That misalignment
that occurs when one lens in a
pair of spectacles is higher than
the other yet neither lens is
rotated.
bridge-narrowing pliers See pliers,
bridge-narrowing.
bridge-widening pliers See pliers,
bridge-widening.
browbar See arm.
buildup pads See pads, buildup.
bushing A small, hollow cylindrical
sleeve that ts into the hole in the
lens through which a screw
passes. Its purpose is to prevent
stress and abrasion.
C
C The horizontal width of a lens or
lens opening as measured at the
619
level of its geometrical center.

(Synonym: datum length.)
C size The circumference of an
edged lens.
cable temple See temple, cable.
caliper, vernier A hand-held width
measuring device with a short
graduated scale that slides along a
longer graduated scale allowing a
measure of fractional parts or
decimals.
carbon ber A material made from
strands of carbon bers combined
with nylon. When used for
spectacle frames, it is thin,
strong, but not adjustable.
carrier The outer, nonoptical
portion of a lenticular lens.
cataract A loss in clarity of the
crystalline lens of the eye, which
results in reduced vision or loss of
vision.
cellulose acetate A material
extracted from cotton or wood
pulp and used extensively for
making spectacle frames.
cellulose acetopropionate See
Propionate.
cellulose nitrate See zylonite.
cement lens See lens, cement.
center, blank geometrical The
physical center of a seminished
lens blank or an uncut nished
lens blank. The blank geometrical
center is the center of the
smallest square or rectangle that
completely encloses the lens
blank.
center, boxing The midpoint of the
rectangle that encloses a lens in
the boxing system.
center, cutting Synonym for
mechanical center.
center, datum The midpoint of the
datum length (C dimension) of a
lens as measured along the datum
or horizontal midline.
center, edging Synonym for
mechanical center.
center, geometrical 1. The boxing
center. 2. The middle point on an
uncut lens blank.
center, mechanical The rotational
center of a pattern found at the
midpoint of the central pattern
hole. (Synonyms: cutting center,
edging center)
620
Glossary
center, optical That point on an

ophthalmic prescription lens
through which no prismatic effect
is manifested.
center, reading That point on a
lens at the reading level that
corresponds to the near PD.
center, rotational The point on a
pattern around which it rotates
during edging.
center, seg optical That location
on the segment of a bifocal lens
that shows zero prismatic effect
when no refractive power is in
the distance portion of the lens.
centerpiece The portion of a
rimless mounting consisting of
bridge, pad arms, pads, and strap
area.
Centrad A unit of measurement
of the displacement of light by a
prism. One centrad is the prism
power required to displace a ray
of light 1 cm from the position it
would otherwise strike on the arc
of a circle having a 1-m radius.
centration The act of positioning a
lens for edging such that the lens
will conform optically to
prescription specications.
chamfering The word chamfer
means to bevel. In lens nishing,
chamfering is taken to mean the
act of smoothing off or safety
beveling the sharp edges of a
hole, slot, or notch drilled in a
spectacle lens to prevent the
chipping of the hole, slot, or
notch, when the spectacles are
worn. Note: Chamfering and safety
beveling are synonymous.
chassis The portion of the frame
that includes the eyewire and
center or bridge section.
Commonly refers to the metal
eyewire and bridge of a
combination frame.
chemical tempering See tempering,
chemical.
chemtempering See tempering,
chemical.
chord A straight line that intersects
two points of an arc.
chord diameter See diameter,
chord.
chromatic aberration See
aberration, chromatic.
chromatic power See aberration,

lateral chromatic.
circumference gauge See gauge,
circumference.
clock, lens See measure, lens.
clock, seg Designed like a
conventional lens clock (lens
measure) except that the three
points of contact are closely
spaced. Now most lens clocks also
have narrowly spaced contact
points so that there is little if any
difference between a newer lens
clock and a seg clock.
coating, antireection A thin layer
or series of layers of material
applied to the surface of a lens for
the purpose of reducing
unwanted reections from the
lens surface and thus increasing
the amount of light that passes
through to the eye.
coating, antiscratch A thin, hard
coating applied to plastic lens
surfaces to make them more
resistant to scratching.
coating, color A coating applied to
the surface of a lens for the
purpose of reducing light
transmission.
coating, dielectric A mirrorlike
coating that reects certain
wavelengths selectively.
coating, edge Application of color
to the edge of a lens for the
purpose of decreasing edge
visibility.
coating, ash A metalized lens
coating that absorbs light and has
only a hint of reectance.
coating, metalized A thin layer of
metal on the front of the lens to
both absorb and reect light.
coating, mirror A coating applied
to a lens causing it to have the
same properties as a two-way
mirror.
coating, scratch resistant A
synonym for antiscratch coating.
collar See shoe.
colmascope An instrument that
uses polarized light to show strain
patterns in glass or plastic lenses.
(Synonym: polariscope.)
color coating See coating, color.
color, reex The residual color of
an antireection-coated lens.
coma The lens aberration that

occurs when the object point is
off the axis of the lens. Instead of
forming a single, point image off
the optic axis, the image appears
shaped like a comet or ice cream
cone.
combination frame See frame,
combination.
comfort bridge See bridge,
comfort.
comfort cable temple See temple,
cable.
compensated power See power,
compensated.
compensated segs See segs,
R-compensated.
compounding (of prism) The
process of combining two or
more prisms to obtain the
equivalent prismatic effect
expressed as a single prism.
concave An inward-curved surface.
conditioner, lens A specially
formulated solution into which a
plastic lens is immersed before
being tinted. The purpose of lens
conditioner is to prepare the lens
for a fast and even uptake of dye.
conjugate foci See foci, conjugate.
contour plot See plot, contour.
convergence 1. An inward turning
of the eyes, as when looking at a
near object. 2. The action of light
rays traveling toward a specic
image point.
convertible temple See temple,
convertible.
convex An outward-curved surface.
coolant A liquid used to cool and
lubricate the lens-grinding wheel
interface during the grinding
process.
coquille The thin nonpowered
demonstration lens that comes in
a spectacle frame to hold the
shape of the frame as intended
and to more realistically simulate
the appearance of the frame for
the prospective wearer.
(Synonyms: dummy lens, demo
lens.)
Corlon lens See lens, Corlon.
corrected curve lens See lens,
corrected curve.
corridor, progressive The area of a
progressive-addition lens between
Glossary
the distance and near portions

where the power of the lens is
gradually changing.
cosine For a right triangle, the ratio
of the side adjacent to the angle
considered, to the hypotenuse.
Adjacent
Cosine =
Hypotenuse
cosine-squared formula See
formula, cosine-squared.
countersink curve See curve,
countersink.
cover lens See lens, cover.
CR-39 A registered trademark of
Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co. for an
optical plastic known as
Columbia Resin 39. It has been
the standard material from which
conventional plastic lenses are
made.
crazed The cracked appearance of a
lens with a damaged or defective
coating.
crest The highest and centermost
part of the bridge of a spectacle
frame.
crest angle See angle, crest.
cribbing The process of reducing a
semi nished lens blank to a
smaller size to speed the
surfacing process or reduce the
probability of difculty.
cross curve See curve, cross.
cross, tting A reference point 2 to
4 mm above the prism reference
point on progressive-addition
lenses. The tting cross is
positioned in front of the pupil.
cross, power A schematic
representation on which the two
major meridians of a lens or lens
surface are depicted.
crown glass See glass, crown.
curl See earpiece.
curvature The reciprocal of the
radius of curvature of a curved
surface, quantied in reciprocal
meters (m1), and abbreviated by
R.
curvature of eld The lens
aberration that causes the
spherical power of the lens to be
off in the periphery when
compared with the center of the
lens. For a at object, this results
in a curved image. (Synonym:
power error.)
curve, back base The weaker backsurface curve of a minus cylinderform lens. When the lens is a
minus cylinder-form lens, the
back base curve and the toric base
curve are the same.
curve, base The surface curve of a
lens that becomes the basis from
which the other remaining curves
are calculated. In the United
States and most other parts of the
world, this is usually the front
surface spherical curve of the lens.
curve, countersink For the
manufacture of fused-glass
semi nished bifocal and trifocal
lenses, the countersink curve is
that curve that is ground into the
main lens in the area where the
segment is to be placed. The
countersink curve matches the
back curve of the bifocal or
trifocal segment. When the
segment is placed on the
countersink curve of the main
lens, the two may then be fused
together.
curve, cross The stronger curve of
a toric lens surface.
curve, nominal base A 1.53-indexreferenced number assigned to
the base curve of a semi nished
lens. For moderately powered
crown-glass lenses, the needed
back surface tool curve may be
found by subtracting the nominal
base curve from the prescribed
back vertex power.
curve, tool The 1.53-indexreferenced surface power of a lap
tool used in the ning and
polishing of ophthalmic lenses.
curve, true base Synonym for true
power.
cut, nasal The removal of an
inferior, nasal portion of the
lens shape to create a better
frame t.
cutting line See line, cutting.
cylinder A lens having a refractive
power in one meridian only and
used in the correction of
astigmatism.
D
D An abbreviation for diopter of
refractive power. See diopter, lens.
621
datum center See center, datum.

datum center distance See
distance, datum center.
datum line See line, datum.
datum system See system, datum.
DBC Distance between centers.
DBL Distance between lenses.
DCD Datum center distance.
decentration 1. The displacement
of the lens optical center or major
reference point away from the
boxing center of the frames lens
aperture. 2. The displacement of
a lens optical center away from
the wearers line of sight for the
purpose of creating a prismatic
effect.
decentration, effective The
distance from the axis of a
decentered cylinder to the point
from which decentration began.
degression The decrease in plus
power measured from the lower
viewing area to the upper viewing
area of an occupational
demand, dioptric The inverse of
the reading distance in meters,
independent of actual bifocal
addition power.
demo lens See coquille.
depth, middatum The depth of an
edged lens measured through the
datum center.
depth, reading The vertical
position in the lens through
which the wearers line of sight
passes when reading.
depth, sagittal (sag) The height or
depth of a given segment of a
circle.
depth, seg The longest vertical
dimension of the lens segment
before the lens has been edged.
deviation, angle of See angle of
deviation.
diameter, chord The length of the
chord of an arc or circle. When
processing spectacle lenses, this
diameter is equal to the minimum
blank size required for cutting a
lens, but does not include the 2mm safety factor for lens
chipping that is included in the
MBS formula.
diameter, effective Twice the
longest radius of a frames lens
622
Glossary
aperture as measured from

the boxing center. Abbreviated
ED.
dielectric coating See coating,
dielectric.
difference, astigmatic The linear
distance between the two line
foci that occurs in the lens
aberration called oblique
astigmatism. When expressed in
diopters, this difference is called
the oblique astigmatic error.
difference, frame In the boxing
system, the difference between
frame A and frame B dimensions,
expressed in millimeters.
Synonym: lens difference.
difference, pattern In the boxing
system, the difference between
pattern A and B dimensions,
expressed in millimeters.
differential, wheel The difference
in millimeters between the size of
the lens produced in roughing
and nishing operations during
edging.
diopter, lens (D) Unit of lens
refractive power, equal to the
reciprocal of the lens focal length
in meters.
diopter, prism (D) The unit of
measurement that quanties
prism deviating power; one prism
diopter (1) is the power required
to deviate a ray of light 1 cm
from the position it would
otherwise strike at a point 1 m
away from the prism.
dioptric demand See demand,
dioptric.
disability glare See glare, disability.
discomfort glare See glare,
discomfort.
dispersion, mean The quantity
(nF nC )-the index of blue light
minus the index of red light-that
helps to de ne the chromatic
nature of a lens material.
dispersive power See power,
dispersive.
dissimilar segs See segs, dissimilar.
distance between centers
(DBC) In a frame or nished
pair of glasses, the distance
between the boxing (geometrical)
centers. (Synonym: geometrical
center distance.)
distance between lenses (DBL) In

the boxing system, the distance
between the two boxed lenses as
positioned in the frame. It is the
shortest distance between a lens
pair measured from the inside
nasal eyewire grooves across the
bridge area at the narrowest point
(usually synonymous with bridge
size).
distance reference point See point,
distance reference.
distance, boxing center Synonym
for distance between centers.
distance, datum center The
distance between the datum
centers in a frame or pair of
glasses as used in the older datum
system of measuring frames and
lenses.
distance, frame center Synonym
for distance between centers.
distance, geometrical center
The distance between the
boxing (geometrical) centers of a
frame.
distance, interpupillary (PD) The
distance from the center of one
pupil to the center of the other
when either an in nitely distant
object is being viewed (distance
PD) or a near object is being
viewed (near PD).
distance, near centration The
distance between the geometrical
centers of the near segments.
distance, vertex The distance from
the back surface of the lens to the
front of the eye.
distometer The instrument used to
measure vertex distance.
distortion The lens aberration that
results when image magnication
changes from the center to the
edge of the image resulting in
either a barrellike minication or
pincushion-like magnication
when compared with the object.
distortion, barrel The type of
distortion normally caused by a
minus lens that results in the
image of a square object taking
on a smaller barrel-shaped
appearance.
distortion, pattern The loss of
correct edged lens shape resulting
from use of a pattern that is too
large or small in comparison with

the lens size being edged.
distortion, pincushion The type of
distortion normally caused by a
plus lens that results in the image
of a square object taking on a
larger pincushion-shaped
appearance.
divergence The action of light rays
going out from a point source.
double gradient tint See tint,
double gradient.
double-D lens See lens, double-D.
double-segment lens See lens,
double-segment.
doublet See lens, achromatic.
dress eyewear See eyewear, dress.
dress To reshape the cutting
surface of a grinding wheel.
drop-ball test See test, drop-ball.
drop, blank seg The vertical
distance from the blank
geometrical center to the top of
the multifocal segment.
drop, seg 1. The vertical distance
from the major reference point
(MRP) to the top of the segment
when the segment top is lower
than the MRP. 2. The vertical
distance from the horizontal
midline to the top of the segment
when the segment top is lower
than the horizontal midline
(laboratory usage). (Antonym: seg
raise.)
DRP An abbreviation for distance
reference point. See point,
distance reference.
dummy lens See coquille.
E
ear That portion of the strap area
on a classic or antique type
rimless mounting that extends
from the shoe, contacting the
surface of the lens. (Synonym:
tongue.)
earpiece That part of the temple
that lies past the temple bend.
(Synonym: curl.)
ED Effective diameter.
edge coating See coating, edge.
edge, rolled A lens edge
conguration that reduces minus
lens edge thickness by rounding
out the back surface edge of the
lens.
Glossary
edger The piece of machinery used

to physically grind the uncut lens
blank to t the shape of the
frame.
edger, hand A grinding wheel
made especially for changing a
lens shape or smoothing a lens
edge by hand.
edger, patterned A lens edger that
uses patterns to produce the
correct lens shape.
edger, patternless An edger that
uses an electronic tracing of a
lens shape, rather than a physical
pattern to produce the correct
lens shape.
effective decentration See
decentration, effective.
effective diameter See diameter,
effective.
effective diameter angle See angle,
effective diameter.
effective power See power,
effective.
eikonometer, space An instrument
used to quantitatively measure
image size differences between
right and left eyes.
electrometallic wheel See wheel,
electrometallic.
electroplated wheel See wheel,
electroplated.
ellipse, Tschernings The
elliptical-shaped graph that shows
the best lens form(s) a lens can
have for eliminating oblique
astigmatism.
emmetrope A person without
refractive error.
emmetropia The absence of
refractive error.
endpiece angling pliers See pliers,
endpiece angling.
endpiece One of the two outer
areas of the frame front to the
extreme left and right where the
temples attach.
endpiece, American An older
classication of a spectacle
frames metal endpiece that has a
stop protruding from the single
barrel on the temple, preventing
the temple from opening out too
far.
endpiece, butt-type A spectacle
frame endpiece construction in
which the front is straight and
the temple butt is at, and both

meet at a 90-degree angle.
endpiece, English An older
classication of a spectacle
frames metal endpiece that has a
stop or knuckle that comes
out around the hinge barrels and
prevents the temples from
opening out too widely.
endpiece, French An older
classication of metal endpiece in
which the temple is slotted
between the two barrels, and the
stop is on the frame front as an
extension of the single barrel.
endpiece, mitre-type A spectacle
frame endpiece construction in
which the frame front contact
area and temple butt meet at a
45-degree angle.
endpiece, turn-back A spectacle
frame endpiece design in which
the frame front bends around and
meets the temple end to end.
English endpiece See endpiece,
English.
equation, Fresnel The formula for
determining the amount of light
that will be reected from an
uncoated lens surface, based on
the index of refraction of the lens
material.
Equithin A term used by the
Varilux Corporation when
referring to the use of yoked
prism for thickness reduction on
a pair of progressive-addition
lenses. See also prism, yoked.
equivalent, spherical The sum of
the spherical component and one
half of the cylinder component of
an ophthalmic lens prescription.
equiconcave lens See lens,
equiconcave.
equiconvex lens See lens,
equiconvex.
error, image shell A quantitative
measure of the lens aberration
called curvature of eld or power
error. The image shell error is
the dioptric difference between
the place where the peripheral
image actually focuses and where
it should focus.
error, oblique astigmatic The
astigmatic difference that
occurs in the aberration of
623
oblique astigmatism as expressed

in diopters.
error, power See curvature of eld.
Executive bifocal See bifocal,
Executive.
extractor, screw A device that
resembles a screwdriver, but has a
barbed tip instead of a blade. The
barbed tip digs into a damaged
screw head or the remaining tip
of a broken-off screw and is
turned to remove the damaged or
broken screw.
eyesize In the boxing system, the A
dimension. (The horizontal
dimension of the lens opening of
a frame, which is bounded by two
vertical lines tangent to the left
and right sides of that lens
opening.)
eyewear, dress Eyewear designed
for everyday use.
eyewear, safety Eyewear designed
to be worn in situations that
could be potentially hazardous to
the eyes and thus must meet
higher standards of impact
resistance than conventional
eyewear.
eyewear, sports Eyewear designed
to protect the eyes and/or
enhance vision in specic sports
situations. What is appropriate
will vary dramatically, depending
upon the sport.
eyewire The rim of the frame that
goes around the lenses.
eyewire forming plier See plier,
eyewire forming.
eyewire shaping plier Eyewire
forming plier.
F
F Often used in equations to denote
lens refractive power in diopters.
Alternative symbol for F is D.
face form See form, face.
facet An edge conguration
resembling the appearance of
beveled glass that is sometimes
used with high-minus lenses
to reduce edge thickness and
weight.
factor, power That part of
spectacle magnication that is
determined by the power and
position of the lens.
624
Glossary
factor, shape That part of

spectacle magnication that is
determined by the shape of the
lens, including front curve,
refractive index, and lens
thickness.
farsightedness See hyperopia.
FDA Food and Drug
Administration.
gure-8 liner See liner, gure 8.
le, pillar A general purpose le
used in dispensing.
le, rat-tail A le that is used in
dispensing on drilled lenses, to (1)
reduce lens thickness in an area
to allow for proper lens strap
grasp or (2) to smooth the edges
of the drilled lens hole.
le, ribbon See le, slotting.
le, rifer Spoon-shaped le
used in dispensing, good for
getting at small, hard-to-reach
areas.
le, slotting Used for reslotting
screws or making a slot where
none previously existed.
le, zyl Used in dispensing to le
plastic parts of a frame.
nger-piece pliers See pliers,
nger-piece.
ning In surfacing the process of
bringing a generated lens surface
to the smoothness needed so that
it will be capable of being
polished.
nished lens See lens, nished.
nishing The process in the
production of spectacles that
begins with a pair of uncut lenses
of the correct refractive power
and ends with a completed pair of
spectacles.
rst focal length See length, rst
focal.
rst principal focus See focus, rst
principal.
tting cross See cross, tting.
ash Synonym for swarf.
at surface touch test See test, at
surface touch.
at-top bifocal See bifocal, at-top.
focal point See point, focal.
focal power See power, focal.
foci, conjugate Object and image
points for a lens or lens system
that correspond. In simplied
terms, light rays originating at
one point will be focused at the

other.
focimeter Synonym for lensmeter.
focus, rst principal The point at
which parallel light rays entering
the back surface of a lens are
brought to a focus. For positive
lenses this is a real focal point,
for negative, virtual. (Synonym;
primary focal point.)
focus, second principal That point
at which parallel light rays
entering the front surface of a
lens are brought to focus. For
positive lenses the focal point is
real, for negative, virtual.
(Synonym; secondary focal point)
fork, centering A forklike device
that was used to hold a lens in
position for blocking or for
placing a lens in an older style
edger at a specic orientation.
form, face An expression of the
extent to which the curve in the
frame front varies from the
classical four-point touch
position, taking on the curved
form of the face.
form, minus cylinder The form a
spectacle lens prescription takes
when the value of the cylinder is
expressed as a negative number.
form, plus cylinder The form a
spectacle lens prescription takes
when the value of the cylinder is
expressed as a positive number.
former British equivalent of pattern.
formula, accurate sag The formula
used to nd sagittal depth, which
states that where r is the radius
of curvature of the surface and
y is the semidiameter of the
chord.
formula, cosine-squared A
formula used to obtain the
power of an oblique cylinder,
usually in the 90-degree
meridian.
formula, lensmakers A formula
used to nd the dioptric power of
a surface or radius of curvature.
The formula states that where F
is the lens refractive power in
diopters, n is the refractive index
of the lens, and n is the refractive
index of the media surrounding
the lens.
formula, sine-squared A formula

used to obtain the power of an
oblique cylinder, usually in the
180-degree meridian.
four-point touch See touch,
four-point.
frame center distance See distance,
frame center.
frame center distance See distance,
geometrical center.
frame difference See difference,
frame.
frame PD Synonym for distance
between centers or geometrical
center distance.
frame tracer See tracer, frame.
frame, combination 1. A frame
having a metal chassis with plastic
top rims and temples. 2. A frame
having some major parts of plastic
construction and some of metal.
frame, nylon cord A frame that
holds the lenses in place by means
of a nylon cord that ts into a
groove around the edge of the
lens.
frame, shell An older expression
referring to a plastic frame.
Derived from when tortoise shell
was used as a frame material.
frame, string mounted See frame,
nylon cord.
Franklin bifocal See bifocal,
Franklin.
French endpiece See endpiece,
French.
Fresnel equation See equation,
Fresnel.
Fresnel lens See lens, Fresnel.
Fresnel prism See prism, Fresnel.
front That portion of the spectacles
that contains the lenses.
front vertex power See power,
front vertex.
front, wave The outer border
formed by light rays diverging
from their point of origin.
frontal angle See angle, frontal.
front-to-bend (FTB) Temple
length expressed as the distance
from the plane of the frame front
to the bend of the temple.
FTB See front-to-bend.
full-eld aspheric See aspheric,
full-eld.
fused multifocals See multifocals,
fused.
Glossary
G
galalith One of the rst plastics
used to make spectacle frames.
Galalith was developed in 1897
from casein (a milk protein) and
formaldehyde and used initially
for buttons and jewelry. It fell
from use after World War II.
gauge, Boley A measuring gauge
that may be used to measure the
width of lenses or frame lens
apertures.
gauge, circumference A device
used to measure the distance
around the outside of a previously
edged lens or a coquille for the
purpose of more accurately
duplicating the size of an existing
lens when edging a new lens.
GCD Geometrical center distance.
generating The process of rapidly
cutting the desired surface
curvature onto a seminished
lens blank.
geometrical center See center,
geometrical.
geometrical center distance See
distance, geometrical center.
geometrically centered
pattern See pattern,
geometrically centered.
German silver See nickel silver.
glare control lenses See lenses,
glare control.
glare, disability Glare that reduces
visual performances and visibility
and may be accompanied by
discomfort.
glare, discomfort Glare that
produces discomfort, but does not
necessarily reduce visual
resolution.
glass, crown A commonly used
glass lens material having an
index of refraction of 1.523.
glazed lens See lens, glazed.
glazing 1. The insertion of lenses
into a spectacle frame. 2. The
clogging of empty spaces between
the exposed abrasive particles of
an abrasive wheel, resulting in
reduced grinding ability.
GOMAC system See system,
GOMAC.
GOMAC Groupement des
Opticiens du Marche Commun.
(A committee of Common
Market opticians formed for the

purpose of establishing European
optical standards.)
gradient lens See lens, gradient.
gradient tint See tint, gradient.
grayness A lens surface defect
caused by incomplete polishing.
grind, bicentric Synonym for
slabbing-off.
grinding allowance Synonym for
wheel differential.
grinding, bicentric Grinding a
portion of a lens so as to add a
second optical center. It is often
used to create vertical prism in
the lower portion of one lens for
the purpose of alleviating vertical
imbalance at near. (Synonym:
slabbing-off.)
groover, lens The piece of
equipment used to place a groove
around the outer edge of a
spectacle lens for the purpose of
holding the lens in the frame
with a nylon cord or thin metal
rim.
guard arms See arms, pad.
H
half-eyes Frames made especially
for those who need a reading
correction, but no correction for
distance. They are constructed to
sit lower on the nose than normal
and have a vertical dimension that
is only half the size of normal
glasses.
hand edger See edger, hand.
hand stone See stone, hand.
HAZCOM Hazard
Communication Standard (HCS).
The Occupational Safety and
Health Administrations Hazard
Communication Standard requires
all employers to provide their
employees with information and
training about any possible
exposure to hazardous chemicals
in the workplace. Information is
to be in written form and should
explain workplace policy on
protection from hazards.
heat treating See treating, heat.
height, seg The vertically measured
distance from the lowest point on
the lens or lens opening to the
level of the top of the segment.
625
Hide-a-Bevel Originally a trade

name for an edge-grinding
system that produces a shelf effect
behind the bevel on thick-edged
lenses. Now Hide-a-Bevel refers
to this type of lens edge
conguration in general.
high impact See impact, high.
high-index lens See lens,
high-index.
high mass impact test See test,
high mass impact.
high velocity impact test See test,
high velocity impact.
hinge The part of the frame that
both holds the temple to the front
and allows the temple to fold
closed.
hollow snipe-nosed pliers See
pliers, hollow snipe-nosed.
horizontal alignment See
alignment, horizontal.
horizontal midline See midline,
horizontal.
hyperope A person with hyperopia.
hyperopia The refractive condition
of the eye whereby light focuses
behind the retina. Plus lenses are
required to correct for hyperopia.
(Synonyms: hypermetropia and
farsightedness.)
I
Ilford mounting See mounting,
Balgrip.
image jump See jump, image.
image, real An image formed by
converging light.
image shell error See error, image
shell.
image, virtual An image formed by
tracing diverging rays that are
leaving an optical system back to
a point from which they appear
to originate.
imbalance, vertical A differential
vertical prismatic effect between
the two eyes. At near this can be
induced by right and left lenses of
unequal powers when the wearer
drops his or her eyes below the
optical centers of the lenses.
impact, basic The ANSI
requirements for impact resistant
safety eyewear that include a
minimum thickness requirement
of 3.0 mm unless lenses are +3.00
626
Glossary
D of power or higher in the

highest plus meridian. In this case
a 2.5-mm minimum edge
thickness is permissible. Glass
lenses are permissible. Lenses
must be capable of withstanding
the impact of a 1-inch steel ball
dropped from 50 inches.
impact, high The ANSI
requirements for impact resistant
safety eyewear that allows a
minimum thickness of 2.0 mm
when the lens material is capable
of withstanding both the impact
of a 1-inch steel ball dropped
from 50 inches and the impact of
a 1/4 -inch steel ball traveling at
150 feet/sec.
implant, intraocular lens A plastic
lens placed inside the eye as a
replacement for the eyes natural
crystalline lens. An intraocular
lens implant is commonly used to
replace a crystalline lens that has
lost its clarity because of a
developing cataract.
impregnated wheel See wheel,
impregnated.
index, absolute refractive The
ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in
another medium.
index, refractive The ratio of the
speed of light in a medium (such
as air) to the speed of light in
another medium (such as glass).
index, relative refractive The ratio
obtained by dividing the speed of
light in a certain medium (usually
air) by its speed in another
medium.
index, UV A measure of the
amount of ultraviolet radiation
present on a given day.
infrared Invisible rays having
wavelengths longer than those at
the red end of the visible
spectrum yet shorter than radio
waves.
inset The amount of lens
decentration nasally from the
aperture. (Antonym: outset.)
inset, blank seg The horizontal
distance from the blank
geometrical center to the center
of the multifocal segment.
inset, geometrical The lateral

distance from the distance
centration point to the
geometrical center of the
segment. (Synonym: seg inset.)
inset, net seg The amount of
additional seg inset (or outset)
required to produce a desired
amount of horizontal prismatic
effect at near, added to the
normal seg inset required by the
near PD.
inset, seg The lateral distance from
the major reference point to the
geometrical center of the
segment.
inset, total The amount the near
segment must move from the
boxing center to place it at the
near PD (near centration
distance).
intermediate The area of a trifocal
lens between the distance viewing
portion and the near portion.
interpupillary distance See
distance, interpupillary.
intraocular lens implant See
implant, intraocular lens.
invisible bifocals See lens, blended
bifocal.
iseikonic lenses See lenses,
iseikonic.
isocylinder line See line,
isocylinder.
J
jig Also called third hand. A jig
consists of adjustable clips
mounted on a base. It is used to
hold a frame in place while
soldering.
jump, image The sudden
displacement of image as the
bifocal line is crossed by the
eye.
K
keyhole bridge See bridge, keyhole.
kevlar A nylon based frame
material.
Knapps law See law, Knapps.
knife-edge A plus lens ground to
an absolute minimum thickness,
such that the edge of the lens is
so thin that it has a knifelike
sharpness to it; that is, an edge
thickness of zero.
L
Lamberts law of absorption See
law, Lamberts.
laminated lens See lens, laminated.
lap A tool having a curvature
matching that of the curvature
desired for a lens surface. The
lens surface is rubbed across the
face of the tool and, with the aid
of pads, abrasives, and polishes,
the lens surface is brought to
optical quality.
lateral chromatic aberration See
aberration, lateral chromatic.
law, Knapps When an eye is
axially ametropic, Knapps law
states that a correctly positioned,
refractively correct spectacle lens
will return the size of the retinal
image to the same size as that
produced by an emmetropic eye.
law, Lamberts Lamberts law of
absorption predicts how the amount
of light transmitted will change
based on a change of thickness of
the absorbing material.
law, Malus A law of physics that
predicts how much polarized light
will be transmitted by an obliquely
oriented polarizing lter.
law, Snells An equation that
predicts the refraction of light as
it passes from one medium to
another by stating that n sin i =
n sin i where n and n are the
refractive indices of the two
materials, i is the angle of
incidence, and i is the angle of
refraction.
layout blocker See blocker, layout;
marker/blocker.
layout The process of preparing a
lens for blocking and edging.
LEAP A 3M Company adhesive pad
blocking system.
length, datum The horizontal
width of a lens or lens opening as
measured along the datum line.
length, rst focal For a thin lens,
the distance from the lens to the
rst principal focus.
length, overall temple The length
of a spectacle lens temple as
measured from the center of the
hinge barrel, around the temple
bend, to the posterior end of the
temple.
Glossary
length, second focal For a thin

lens, the distance from the lens to
the second principal focus.
length-to-bend (LTB) Temple
length measured from the center
of the hinge barrel to the middle
of the bend.
lens analyzer See analyzer, lens.
lens conditioner See conditioner,
lens.
lens groover See groover, lens.
lens measure See measure, lens.
lens opening See opening, lens.
lens protractor See protractor,
lens.
lens size See size, lens.
lens washer See washer, lens.
lens, achromatic A lens considered
to be without chromatic
aberration because selected
wavelengths toward either end of
the visible spectrum focus at one
point. Synonym: achromatic
doublet.
lens, aspheric A lens whose surface
gradually changes in power from
the center to the edge for the
purpose of optimizing the optical
quality of the image or reducing
the thickness of the lens.
lens, aspheric lenticular A
lenticular lens whose optically
usable central portion has a front
surface with a gradually changing
radius of curvature. The farther
from the center of the lens, the
longer the front surface radius of
curvature becomes.
lens, atoric A lens with a cylinder
component whose surface
gradually changes in power from
the center to the edge. Each of
the two major meridians changes
in power by different amounts
based on the cylinder power of
the lens and for the purpose of
optimizing the optical quality of
the image in both meridians.
lens, best form See lens, corrected
curve.
lens, bitoric A lens with toric
surfaces on both the front and
the back.
lens, blended bifocal Bifocal lenses
with a segment area that is not
visible to the observer. Blended
bifocals are usually round-
segment lenses that have the

demarcation line between the
distance portion and the bifocal
portion smoothed away.
lens, blended myodisc A minus
lens, lenticular in design, with the
edges of the bowl blended so as to
improve the cosmetic aspects of
the lens.
lens, cement Custom-made lenses
that have a small segment glued
onto the distance lens.
lens, corrected curve A lens whose
surface curvatures have been
carefully chosen with the intent
of reducing those peripheral lens
aberrations that are troublesome
to the spectacle lens wearer.
(Synonym: best form lens.)
lens, cover A thin lens that is
temporarily glued to the surface
of a semi nished blank to protect
the surface of the lens and
facilitate accurate grinding, as in
the case of a slab-off grind on a
glass lens.
lens, demo See coquille.
lens, double-D A multifocal lens
with a at-top bifocal-style
segment in the lower portion of
the lens and an inverted at-top
bifocal-style segment in the upper
lens, double-segment A multifocal
lens that has two segments, one
in the lower and one in the upper
lens, dummy See coquille.
lens, equiconcave A lens that is
inwardly curved on both front
and back surfaces with both
inward curves having the same
minus power.
lens, equiconvex A lens that is
outwardly curved on both front
and back surfaces with both
outward curves having the same
power.
lens, nished A spectacle lens that
has been surfaced on both front
and back to the needed power and
thickness. A nished lens has not
been edged for a spectacle frame,
but is still in uncut form.
lens, Fresnel A lens made from a
thin exible plastic material,
having concentric rings of ever-
627
increasing prismatic effect that

duplicate the refractive effect of a
powered spectacle lens.
lens, full-eld aspheric An
aspheric lens that continues in its
asphericity in an optically usable
manner all the way to the edge of
the lens blank.
lens, glare control Present usage of
the term denotes a lens that
absorbs wavelengths toward the
blue end of the spectrum in an
attempt to reduce glare and
increase contrast.
lens, glazed 1. A prescription or
nonprescription lens mounted in
a frame. 2. The thin plastic
demonstration lens that comes in
a pair of spectacle frames.
(Synonyms: dummy lens, coquille.)
lens, gradient A lens having a
tinted upper portion that
gradually lightens toward the
lower portion of the lens.
lens, hand-attened lenticular
A negative lenticular lens
with the lenticular produced
on a hand edger and hand
polished.
lens, high-index A lens with an
index of refraction that is at the
upper end of the range of
available indices of refraction for
lenses, yielding a lens that is
thinner than other lenses of the
same size and power.
lens, laminated An ophthalmic lens
that is made up of more than one
layer. One example is a polarized
lens.
lens, lenticular A high-powered
lens with the desired prescription
power found only in the central
portion. The outer carrier
portion is shaped to reduce
edge thickness and weight in
minus prescriptions and center
thickness and weight in plus
prescriptions.
lens, meniscus A lens having a
convex front surface and a
concave back surface.
lens, mineral Synonym for glass
lens.
lens, minus cylinder form A lens
ground such that it obtains its
cylinder power from a difference
628
Glossary
in surface curvature between two

back surface meridians.
lens, minus lenticular A highminus lens that is lenticular in
design, having a central area
containing the prescribed
refractive power and a peripheral
carrier with a different power
chosen to reduce edge thickness.
lens, multidrop A high-plus, fulleld aspheric lens in which the
surface power drops rapidly as the
edge of the lens is approached.
lens, multifocal A lens having a
sector or sectors where the
refractive power is different from
the rest of the lens, such as
bifocals or trifocals.
lens, myodisc 1. Traditional
denition: a high-minus lens that
is lenticular in design, having a
central area containing the
prescribed refractive power and a
peripheral carrier that is plano in
power. The front curve is either
plano in power or very close to
plano. 2. General usage: any
high-minus lens that is lenticular
in design.
lens, negative lenticular A highminus lens that has had the
peripheral portion attened for
the purpose of reducing weight
and edge thickness. (General
usage synonym: myodisc.)
lens, occupational progressive A
progressive addition lens that is
prescribed and/or designed for
specialized tasks and will not be
used for full-time generalized
wear.
lens, Percival form A lens design
that concentrates on the
elimination of power error
instead of oblique astigmatism.
lens, photochromic A lens that
changes its transmission
characteristics when exposed to
light.
lens, planoconcave A lens that is
plano (at) on one surface and
inwardly curved on the other
surface.
lens, planoconvex A lens that is
plano (at) on one surface and
outwardly curved on the other
surface.
lens, plus cylinder form A lens

ground so that it obtains its
cylinder power from a difference
in surface curvature between two
front surface meridians.
lens, point focal A lens design that
concentrates on the elimination
of oblique astigmatism instead of
power error.
lens, polarizing A lens that blocks
light polarized in one plane, such
as light reected from a smooth,
nondiffusing surface.
lens, prism segment A 10-mm deep
ribbon-style segment containing a
prismatic effect for near. The
ribbon segment extends to the
nasal edge of the lens blank.
lens, progressive-addition A lens
having optics that vary in power,
gradually increasing in plus (or
decreasing in minus) power from
the distance to near zones.
lens, quadrafocal A multifocal lens
that has a at-top trifocal
segment in the lower portion of
the lens and an inverted at-top
bifocal-type segment in the upper
lens, reverse-slab A slab-off lens
that has base-down prism below
the slab line, instead of base up.
lens, single-vision A lens with the
same sphere and/or cylinder
power throughout the whole lens,
as distinguished from a multifocal
lens.
lens, size See lens, iseikonic.
lens, spheric lenticular A lenticular
lens whose optically usable central
portion has a front surface that
does not vary in curvature, but is
entirely spherical.
lens, stock A lens that is premade,
does not have to be custom
surfaced, and is ready to edge.
lens, uncut A lens that has been
surfaced on both sides, but not
yet edged for a frame.
lens, X-Chrom A red contact lens
worn on only one eye in an
attempt to improve color vision
for certain red-green color
defectives.
lens, Younger seamless Trade
name for a blended bifocal made
by Younger Optics.
lenses, iseikonic A lens pair with

their curvatures and thicknesses
specially chosen to produce a
difference in image magnication
between the left and right eyes
for the purpose of correcting
image size differences between
right and left eyes. Also known as
size lenses.
lensmakers formula See formula,
lensmakers.
lensmeter The instrument used for
nding power and prism in
spectacle lenses.
lensometer A trade name for a type
of lensmeter.
lenticular A high-powered lens
with the desired prescription
power found only in the central
portion. The outer carrier
portion is ground so as to reduce
edge thickness and weight in
minus prescriptions and center
thickness and weight in plus
prescriptions.
lenticular lens See lens, lenticular
or lenticular.
lenticular, aspheric A lenticular
lens whose optically usable
central portion has a front surface
with a changing radius of
curvature.
lenticular, hand-attened A
negative lenticular lens with the
lenticular portion produced on a
hand edger and hand polished.
lenticular, negative A high-minus
lens that has had the peripheral
portion attened for the purpose
of reducing weight and edge
thickness. (Synonym: myodisc.)
lenticular, spheric A lenticular lens
whose optically usable central
portion has a front surface that
does not vary in curvature, but is
entirely spherical.
let-back See spread, open-temple.
level, reading A synonym for
reading depth. See depth,
reading.
library temple See temple, library.
light box See box, light.
line, cutting A term that was used
for the 180-degree line that used
to be hand marked or stamped
on a lens after it had been
properly positioned for
Glossary
cylinder axis orientation and

decentration. It was used as a
reference line in blocking and
edging a lens.
line, datum A line drawn parallel
to and halfway between
horizontal lines tangent to the
lowest and highest edges of the
lens. (Synonyms: horizontal
midline, 180-degree line.)
line, isocylinder One of the lines
on the contour plot of a
progressive-addition lens
denoting the location of
unwanted cylinder of a given
dioptric power.
line, mounting 1. The horizontal
reference line that intersects the
mechanical center of a lens
pattern. 2. Historical usage: On
metal or rimless spectacles, the
line that passes through the
points at which the pad arms are
attached and that serves as a line
of reference for horizontal
alignment.
line, 180-degree A synonym for
horizontal midline.
liner, gure-8 A liner that ts into
the top eyewire channel of some
nylon cord frames.
longitudinal chromatic
aberration See aberration,
longitudinal chromatic.
LTB The length-to-bend measure
of a frame temple.
M
maculopathy, age-related A
degeneration of the sensitive
macular area of the retina. Also
called macular degeneration.
magnication difference See
difference, magnication.
magnication, relative spectacle
(RSM) The amount of
magnication produced by a
given eye, relative to that of a
standard eye.
magnication, spectacle
(SM) The difference in the size
of an image seen by a spectacle
lens corrected eye compared with
the size of the image seen by the
same eye without a spectacle lens
correction.
Malus law See law, Malus.
major reference point See point,

major reference.
marginal astigmatism See
marker An older style centering
device used to accurately position
a lens and stamp it with the
horizontal and vertical reference
lines used for reference in lens
blocking.
marker/blocker A device used to
accurately position a lens and
then either (1) stamp it with
horizontal and vertical reference
lines for use in later lens
blocking, or (2) block it directly
while still in the device.
material safety and data sheet A
single sheet of paper containing
information about a potentially
hazardous chemical found in the
workplace. MSDS sheets should
include physical and chemical
characteristics, known acute and
chronic health effects, exposure
limits, precautionary measures,
and emergency and rst-aid
procedures.
MBL Minimum between lenses.
MBS Minimum blank size. See size,
minimum blank.
mean dispersion See dispersion,
mean.
measure, lens A small, pocketwatch-sized instrument for
measuring the surface curve of a
lens. Also called a lens clock or lens
gauge.
memory plastic A plastic material
that can be bent or twisted and
still return to its original shape.
meniscus lens See lens, meniscus.
meridian, axis The meridian of
least power of a cylinder or
spherocylinder lens; for a minus
cylinder the least minus meridian,
for a plus cylinder the least plus
meridian.
meridian, major One of two
meridians in a cylinder or
spherocylinder lens. These
meridians are 90 degrees apart
and correspond to the maximum
and minimum powers in the lens.
meridian, power The meridian of
maximum power of a cylinder or
spherocylinder lens; for a minus
629
cylinder the most minus

meridian, for a plus cylinder the
most plus meridian.
metal bonded wheel See wheel,
metal bonded.
metal saddle bridge See bridge,
metal saddle.
metalized coating See coating,
metalized.
middatum depth See depth,
middatum.
midline, horizontal In the boxing
system of lens measurement, the
horizontal line halfway between
the upper and lower horizontal
lines bordering the lens shape.
(Synonym: 180-degree reference
line.)
minibevel A lens edge
conguration that has a bevel and
an angled ledge.
minimum between lenses The
datum system equivalent of the
boxing systems distance between
lenses (DBL).
minus add bifocal Bifocal, minus
add.
minus cylinder form See form,
minus cylinder.
minus cylinder form lens See lens,
minus cylinder form.
minus lenticular lens See lens,
minus lenticular.
mirror coating See coating, mirror.
Monel A whitish, pliable, nicely
polishing metal frame material
that is made from nickel, copper,
and iron; it also contains traces of
other elements.
monochromatic aberration See
aberration, monochromatic.
monocular PD See PD, monocular.
monovision A refractive correction
in which one eye is used for
distance and the other eye for
near viewing.
mounting 1. The name for a
spectacle lens frame when the
lenses are held in place without
the aid of an eyewire as with
rimless or semirimless
mountings. 2. The attaching of
lenses to a rimless or semirimless
spectacle frame.
mounting line See line, mounting.
mounting, Balgrip A mounting
(frame) that secures the lens in
630
Glossary
place with clips attached to a bar

of tensile steel that ts into a
nasal and a temporal slot on each
side of the lens.
mounting, Ilford Synonym for
Balgrip mounting.
mounting, Numont A lens
mounting that holds the lenses in
place only at their nasal edge.
The lenses are attached at the
bridge area and the temples are
attached to a metal arm that
extends along the posterior
surface temporally. Thus each
lens has only one point of
attachment.
mounting, rimless A mounting
that holds the lenses in place by
some method other than eyewires
or nylon cords. Usually the
method of mounting is by screws
or posts through the lenses.
(Synonym: three-piece mounting.)
mounting, semirimless Mountings
similar to rimless, but with the
addition of a metal reinforcing
arm, which follows the upper
posterior surface of the lens and
joins the centerpiece of the frame
to the endpiece.
mounting, 3-piece See mounting,
rimless.
mounting, Wils-Edge A lens
mounting (frame) that secures the
lens in place by means of a
grooved arm that grips the top of
the lens.
MRP An abbreviation for major
reference point. See point, major
reference.
MSDS Abbreviation for material
safety and data sheet.
multidrop lens See lens, multidrop.
multifocal A lens having a sector or
sectors where the refractive power
is different from the rest of the
lens, such as bifocals or trifocals.
multifocals, fused Glass multifocal
lenses in which the segment
cannot be felt because it is fused
into the distance portion.
multifocals, occupational Any
segmented or progressiveaddition lens that is designed or
chosen by careful forethought
and positioned for a specialized
viewing situation.
multifocals, one-piece Multifocal

lenses that are made of one
material with any change in
power in the segment portion of
the lens the result of a change in
the surface curvature of the lens.
multifocals, segmented Multifocal
lenses having a visible, clearly
demarcated bifocal or trifocal
area. Nonsegmented multifocals
would be progressive-addition
lenses.
myodisc See lens, myodisc.
myope A person with myopia.
myopia The refractive condition of
the eye whereby light focuses in
front of the retina. Minus lenses
are required to correct for
myopia. (Synonym:
nearsightedness.)
the point of incidence of an

incoming ray of light.
nosepads Plastic pieces that rest
on the nose to support the
frame.
NRP An abbreviation for near
reference point. See point, near
reference.
number, set The compensating
number used with a pattern to
arrive at a compensated eyesize
setting for the edger.
Numont mounting See mounting,
Numont.
Numont pliers See pliers, Numont.
nystagmus A condition
characterized by a constant,
involuntary back-and-forth
movement of the eye.
oblique astigmatic error See error,

oblique astigmatic.
oblique astigmatism See
OC Optical center.
occupational multifocals See
multifocals, occupational.
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration The U.S.
government agency responsible
for setting workplace safety
policy and ensuring worker
safety.
OD Latin, oculus dexter (right eye).
OLA Abbreviation for the Optical
Laboratories Association.
one-piece multifocals See
multifocals, one-piece.
open temple spread See spread,
open temple.
opening, lens The portion of the
spectacle frame that accepts the
spectacle lens. (Synonym: lens
aperture.)
OPL An abbreviation for
occupational progressive lens. See
lens, occupation progressive.
optical axis See axis, optical.
optical bleaching See bleaching,
optical.
optical center See center, optical.
Optical Laboratories
Association A professional
association of optical laboratories.
optically centered pattern See
pattern, optically centered.
n An abbreviation for refractive

index.
nasal The side of a lens or frame
that is toward the nose (inner
edge).
nasal add See add, nasal.
nasal cut See cut, nasal.
NBC The abbreviation for nominal
base curve.
near power See power, near.
near reference point See point,
near reference.
near Rx The net lens power
resulting from the combination of
the add power and the distance
power.
nearsightedness See myopia.
net seg inset See inset, net seg.
neutralize To determine the
refractive power of a lens. Most
often this is done with the aid of
a lensmeter.
neutralizer A solution used to
reduce the color in or remove the
color from a previously tinted
lens.
nickel silver A whitish-appearing
metal frame material containing
more than 50% copper, 25%
nickel, and the rest zinc.
(Synonym: German silver.)
nominal base curve See curve,
nominal base.
normal A line perpendicular to a
reecting or refracting surface at
Glossary
Optyl The trade name for an epoxy

resin material used to make
spectacle frames.
OS Latin, oculus sinister (left eye).
OSHA Occupational Safety and
Health Administration.
outset The amount of lens
decentration temporally from the
aperture. (Antonym: inset.)
overall temple length See length,
overall temple.
P
pad arms See arms, pad.
pad-adjusting pliers See pliers,
pad-adjusting.
pad bridge See bridge, pad.
pads, buildup Small nosepadshaped pieces of plastic applied to
the frame bridge and used to alter
the t of the bridge.
PAL An abbreviation for
progressive addition lens. See lens,
progressive addition.
Panoptik See bifocal, Panoptik.
pantoscopic angle or tilt See angle,
pantoscopic.
pantoscopic angling pliers See
pliers, pantoscopic angling.
parallax The apparent change in
position of an object as the result
of a change in viewing angle.
paraxial rays See rays, paraxial.
pattern difference See difference,
pattern.
pattern A plastic or metal piece
having the same shape as the lens
aperture for a given frame. Used
in lens edging as a guide for
shaping the lens to t the frame.
pattern, geometrically centered A
pattern with mechanical and
geometrical centers on the same
horizontal plane.
pattern, optically centered A
pattern with its mechanical center
above boxing center.
patterned edger See edger,
patterned.
patternless edger See edger,
patternless.
PD An abbreviation for
interpupillary distance (See
distance, interpupillary.).
PD, binocular The measured
distance from the center of one
pupil to the center of the other

pupil without regard to how each
eye may vary in its distance from
the center of the bridge of the
frame.
PD, distance The wearers
interpupillary distance specied
for a situation equivalent to when
the wearer is viewing a distant
object.
PD, frame Synonym for
geometrical center distance or
distance between centers.
PD, monocular The distance from
the center of the frame bridge to
the center of the wearers pupil
measured for each eye separately.
PD, near The interpupillary
distance as specied for a near
viewing situation.
peening The act of putting a
rivetlike head on the end of the
posts (rivets) on so-called riveted
hinges or on the tip of a frame
screw.
peening pliers See pliers, peening.
Percival form lens See lens,
Percival form.
peripheral rays See rays, peripheral.
phoria The direction of the line of
sight of one eye with reference to
that of the partner eye when
fusion is interrupted, as when one
eye is covered.
photochromic lens See lens,
photochromic.
photometer An instrument for
measuring brightness. When used
with lenses, the percent
transmission of the lens is
measured in a given spectral area
or areas.
pillar le See le, pillar.
pincushion distortion See
distortion, pincushion.
planes, variant A form of vertical
misalignment of a spectacle
frame in which the lens planes
are out of coplanar alignment
(one lens is farther forward than
the other).
plano (pl) A lens or lens surface
having zero refracting power.
planoconcave lens See lens,
planoconcave.
planoconvex lens See lens,
planoconvex.
631
pliers, bridge-narrowing Used to

narrow the bridge of a plastic
frame.
pliers, bridge-widening Used to
widen the bridge of a plastic
frame.
pliers, chipping Pliers that were
primarily used to chip or break
away the outer portions of an
uncut or semi nished glass lens
to either reduce its size or bring it
into the rough shape needed to
approximate the nished shape.
pliers, endpiece angling Pliers
used in the adjustment of older
style rimless mountings.
pliers, eyewire-forming Pliers
with horizontally curved jaws
used to shape or form the upper
and lower eyewires of a metal
frame to match the meniscus
curve of the edged lens.
pliers, ngerpiece Pliers used for
adjustment of the temple-fold
angle of plastic frames.
Fingerpiece pliers have parallel
jaws and were originally designed
for adjusting ngerpiece
mountings. Also called Fits-U
pliers.
pliers, hollow snipe-nosed Thinnosed pliers with a hollowed-out
central jaw area.
pliers, Numont Holding pliers
specially designed for use with
Numont mountings. Numont
pliers serve the same purpose for
Numont mountings as endpiece
angling pliers do for older style
rimless mountings.
pliers, pad-adjusting These pliers
have one cupped jaw to conform
to the face portion of an
adjustable nosepad; the other jaw
is shaped to allow the back of the
pad to be held securely while
being angled.
pliers, peening Pliers with a round
cupped edge for placing a
rivetlike head on the end of a
screw.
pliers, punch Pliers with a ne,
rounded, rodlike projection that
is placed against the led end of
the rivet to punch it out of a
plastic frame. Also used to punch
out damaged frame screws.
632
Glossary
pliers, rimless adjusting Pliers

used to grasp a rimless mounting
at the point of attachment
between lens and mounting.
pliers, snipe-nosed Pliers that
taper to a small tip on both jaws,
allowing use in tight places.
Often used in the adjustment of
pad arms.
pliers, square-round Used to
adjust pad arms, these pliers have
a small round section on one jaw
and a squared off section on the
other.
pliers, strapping Pliers having two
at jaws. One jaw extends beyond
the other and then overlaps it.
Used to adjust straps of an
antique rimless or semirimless
mounting.
plot, contour A line diagram used
to plot the areas of unwanted
cylinder or spherical equivalent
power over the viewing areas of a
progressive-addition lens.
plus cylinder form See form, plus
cylinder.
plus-cylinderform lens See lens,
plus cylinder-form.
point One tenth of a millimeter of
lens thickness.
point, distance centration The
British equivalent of the major
reference point.
point, distance reference
(DRP) That point on a lens
where, according to the
manufacturer, the distance power
is to be measured. Distance
power consists of sphere, cylinder,
and axis. The DRP may not
correspond to the prism reference
point (PRP), as with progressiveaddition lenses.
point, focal A point to or from
which light rays converge or
diverge.
point focal lens See lens, point focal.
point, major reference
(MRP) The point on a lens
where the prism equals that called
for by the prescription.
point, near reference (NRP) That
point on the lens where,
according to the manufacturer,
the power of the near addition is
to be measured.
point, prism reference (PRP) The

point on a lens where prism
power is to be veried. Also
referred to as the major reference
point.
polariscope See colmascope.
polarizing lens See lens, polarizing.
polyamide A strong, nylon-based
frame material that allows a
frame to be made thinner and
lighter.
polycarbonate A 1.586-index lens
material known for its strength.
power cross See cross, power.
power factor See factor, power.
power meridian See meridian,
power.
power, actual Synonym for true
power.
power, back vertex The reciprocal
of the distance in air from the
rear surface of the lens to the
second principal focus. Is used
when measuring spectacle lenses.
power, chromatic See aberration,
lateral chromatic.
power, compensated In surfacing,
back vertex power that has been
converted to a 1.53-index frame
of reference. Used for the
purpose of nding a 1.53-indexreferenced tool curve for a lens
with a different index of
refraction.
power, dispersive The following
n nC
quantity F
used for
nD 1
quantifying chromatic aberration
of a given material. Dispersive
power is abbreviated as the Greek
letter omega, or .
power, effective 1. The vergence
power of a lens at a designated
position other than that occupied
by the lens itself. 2. That power
lens required for a new position
that will replace the original
reference lens and yet maintain
the same focal point.
power, focal A measure of the
ability of a lens or lens surface to
change the vergence of entering
light rays.
power, front vertex The reciprocal
of the distance in air from the
front surface of a lens to the rst
principal focus.
power, near The sum of the

distance power and the near add.
(Synonym: near Rx.)
power, nominal An estimate of
total lens power, calculated as the
sum of front and back surface
powers. (Not to be confused with
nominal base curve.) Synonym:
approximate power.
power, prism The amount light is
displaced in centimeters at a
distance 1 m away from the lens
or prism.
power, refractive The dioptric
value that accurately describes the
ability of a lens or lens surface to
converge or diverge light. For a
lens surface in air, the refractive
n 1
power is expressed as F =
r
where n is the refractive index of
the lens material and r is the
radius of the surface expressed in
meters.
power, true The 1.53-indexreferenced curvature of the base
curve of a lens. True power is
found by using a lens clock or
sagometer (sag gauge) that is 1.53index referenced.
precoat A spray or brush-on liquid
that when applied to a lens,
protects the surface during
processing, and/or makes the
adhesion of a block to the lens
possible.
Prentices Rule See Rule,
Prentices.
Prep, Lens A trade name for lens
conditioner.
presbyopia The refractive state in
which the crystalline lens within
the eye becomes nonelastic as a
result of the aging process.
pressure, lateral The pressure of
the temples against the sides of
the head just above the ears.
prism Two nonparallel, transparent
surfaces that cause entering light
to change direction as it exits.
prism axis See axis, prism.
prism diopter See diopter, prism.
prism power See power, prism.
prism reference point See point,
prism reference.
prism, Fresnel A prism made from
thin exible material and
Glossary
consisting of small rows of equalpowered prisms resulting in the

same optical effect as that of a
conventional ophthalmic prism.
prism, Risleys An application of
obliquely crossed prisms in which
two equally powered prisms are
placed one on top of another and
can be rotated from bases in the
same direction to bases in
completely opposite directions
resulting in variable prism power.
Also called rotary prism.
prism, Rx Prism in an ophthalmic
lens prescription that has been
called for by the prescribing
physician.
prism, yoked Vertical prism of
equal value ground on both right
and left lenses of a progressive or
Franklin-style lens for the
purpose of reducing lens
thickness.
progressive-addition lens See lens,
progressive-addition.
progressive corridor See corridor,
progressive.
propionate The common name for
the frame material cellulose
acetopropionate. Propionate has
many of the same characteristics
as cellulose acetate and is better
suited for injection molding.
protractor, lens A millimeter grid
on a 360-degree protractor used
in the lens centration process for
both surfacing and nishing.
PRP An abbreviation for prism
reference point. See point, prism
reference.
pseudophake A person who has
had their crystalline lens removed
and replaced with an intraocular
lens implant.
pterygium A growth of tissue that
begins on the white of the eye
and extends onto the cornea.
punch pliers See pliers, punch.
Q
quadrafocal See lens, quadrafocal.
R
radial astigmatism See
raise, seg 1. The vertical distance
from the major reference point to
the top of the seg when the seg

top is higher than the MRP. 2.
The vertical distance from the
horizontal midline of the edged
lens to the top of the seg when
the seg top is higher than the
horizontal midline (laboratory
usage). (Antonym: seg drop.)
rat-tail le See le, rat-tail.
rays, paraxial Those rays of light
that pass through the central area
of the lens.
rays, peripheral Those rays of light
that enter the lens nearer the
edge than the center.
R-compensated segs See segs,
R-compensated.
reading center See center, reading.
reading depth See depth, reading.
reading level See level, reading.
real image See image, real.
Rede-Rite bifocal See bifocal,
minus add.
reduced thickness See thickness,
reduced.
reference point, distance See
point, distance reference.
reference point, near See point,
near reference.
reference point, prism See point,
prism reference.
reex color See color, reex.
refraction 1. The bending of light
by a lens or optical system. 2.
The process of determining the
needed power of a prescription
lens for an individual.
refractive ametropia See
ametropia, refractive.
refractive index See index,
refractive.
refractive power See power,
refractive.
relative refractive index See index,
relative refractive.
relative spectacle magnication
See magnication, relative
spectacle.
resolving (of prism) The process
of expressing a single prism as
two prisms whose horizontal and
vertical base directions are
perpendicular to each other, but
whose combined effect equals
that of the original prism.
retroscopic angle or tilt See angle,
retroscopic.
633
reverse-slab lens See lens,

reverse-slab.
ribbon bifocal See bifocal, ribbon.
ribbon le See le, slotting.
riding-bow temple See temple,
riding-bow.
rifer le See le, rifer.
rim See eyewire.
rimless Having to do with frames
(mountings) that hold lenses in
place by some method other than
eyewires. Most rimless mountings
have two points of attachment per
lens.
rimless mounting See mounting,
rimless.
Rimway mounting See mounting,
semirimless.
Risleys prism See prism, Risleys.
rolled edge See edge, rolled.
rolling A pulling of the eyewire
such that it covers less of the
front of the lens bevel than back
or vice versa.
round-seg bifocal See bifocal,
round-seg.
Rule, Prentices A rule that states
that the decentration of a lens in
centimeters times the power of
the lens is equal to the prismatic
effect: = cF
rule, three-quarter The threequarter rule states that for every
diopter of dioptric demand, the
optical center of each reading lens
or the geometrical center of each
bifocal addition should be inset
0.75 (three-quarters) mm.
Rx prism See prism, Rx.
S
saddle bridge See bridge, saddle.
safety bevel See bevel, safety.
safety eyewear See eyewear,
safety.
sag A synonym or abbreviation for
sagittal depth. See also depth,
sagittal.
sagittal depth See depth, sagittal.
scratch A furrowed-out line that
has jagged edges.
screw extractor See extractor,
screw.
second focal length See length,
second focal.
second principal focus See focus,
second principal.
634
Glossary
seg See segment.

seg clock See clock, seg.
seg depth See depth, seg.
seg drop See drop, seg.
seg height See height, seg.
seg inset See inset, seg.
seg optical center See center, seg
optical.
seg width See width, seg.
segment (seg) An area of a spectacle
lens with power differing from
that of the main portion.
segment, prism See lens, prism
segment.
segmented multifocals See
multifocals, segmented.
segs, dissimilar A method of
correcting vertical imbalance at
near that uses different bifocal
segment styles for the right and
left eyes.
segs, R-compensated A method
for correcting vertical imbalance
at near that uses ribbon-style
bifocal segments that have been
modied so that the segment
optical center for one lens is high
in one segment and low in the
other.
semidiameter Diameter divided by
2. In ophthalmic optics,
semidiameter refers to half of
the chord for the arc of a given
surface and is used in calculating
the sagittal depth of the surface.
seminished blank See blank,
semi nished.
seminished lap tool See tool,
semi nished lap.
semirimless mountings See
mountings, semirimless.
semisaddle bridge See bridge,
semisaddle.
set number See number, set.
shaft The portion of the temple
between the butt end and the bend.
shank See shaft.
shape memory alloy (SMA) The
name applied to a titanium alloy
made with 40% to 50% titanium
and the rest nickel. It is very
exible and returns to its original
shape. Synonym: memory metal.
shell frame See frame, shell.
shield On a plastic frame, the metal
piece to which rivets are attached
to hold the hinge in place.
shields, side Protective shields

attached to the spectacle frame at
the outer, temporal areas to
protect the eyes from hazards
approaching from the side.
shoe That part of the strap area of
a mounting that contacts the edge
of the lens, bracing it. Also called
shoulder or collar.
shop, back Synonym for surfacing
laboratory.
shop, front Synonym for nishing
laboratory.
shoulder See shoe.
side shields See shields, side.
sine For a right triangle, the ratio
of the side opposite the angle
considered, to the hypotenuse:
Opposite
Sine =
Hypotenuse
sine-squared formula See formula,
sine-squared.
single-vision lens See lens,
single-vision.
size lenses See lenses, iseikonic.
size, lens In the boxing system, the
A dimension of a lens or lens
opening.
size, minimum blank The smallest
lens blank that can be used for a
given prescription lens and frame
combination.
sizer A frame chassis or frame front
used exclusively for checking
edged lens size accuracy.
skewed bridge See bridge, skewed.
skull temple See temple, skull.
slab-off Grinding a portion of a
lens so as to add a second optical
center. Often used to create
vertical prism in the lower
portion of one lens for the
purpose of alleviating vertical
imbalance at near.
sleek A furrowed-out line on a lens,
which resembles a scratch, but
whose edges are smooth instead
of jagged.
slotting le See le, slotting.
smoothing, edge The process of
bringing the bevel surfaces of an
edged lens to a ner, smoother
nish.
Snells law See law, Snells.
snipe-nosed pliers See pliers,
snipe-nosed.
solid tint See tint, solid.
space eikonometer See

eikonometer, space.
spectacle magnication See
magnication, spectacle.
spectrophotometer A device used
to measure the transmission of
each wavelength of light across
the spectrum.
sphere (sph) A lens having a single
refractive power in all meridians.
spheric lenticular See lenticular,
spheric.
spherical aberration See
aberration, spherical.
spherical equivalent See equivalent,
spherical.
spherocylinder The combination
of sphere and cylinder powers
into a single lens.
splay angle See angle, splay.
sports eyewear See eyewear,
sports.
spotting The placing of spots on a
lens with a lensmeter in such a
manner that the lens will be
oriented correctly for axis and
positioned for major reference
point and horizontal meridian
locations.
spread, open temple That angle an
open temple forms in relationship
to the front of the frame (also
called let-back).
square-round pliers See pliers,
square-round.
SRC An abbreviation for scratch
resistant coating.
staking tool A multipurpose tool
used to apply concentrated force
to parts of a frame, such as when
punching out damaged hinge
rivets.
standard alignment See alignment,
standard.
stars Microchips at the lens
surface-lens bevel interface.
stock lens See lens, stock.
stock, lens 1. An inventory of
lenses. 2. The material from
which a semi nished blank is
made. When the surface of a lens
is ground, lens stock is removed
from the semi nished blank to
bring the lens to its needed
thickness.
stone 1. An abrasive grinding
wheel. 2. To sharpen the cutting
Glossary
ability of a grinding wheel by

honing it with an abrasive stick.
stone, hand Synonym for hand
edger.
strabismus The condition whereby
one eye is pointed in a different
direction than the other eye.
straight-back temple See temple,
straight-back.
strap An old-style mechanism for
holding drilled lenses in an
antique rimless or semirimless
mounting.
strapping pliers See pliers, strapping.
stria A streak seen in a lens caused
by a difference in the refractive
index in the material. The streak
causes a distortion in the object
viewed and is not a physical
streak, such as a mark on or in
the lens. (The plural of stria is
striae.)
surfacing The process of creating
the prescribed refractive power,
prism, and major reference
point location on a lens by
generating the required curves
and bringing the surface to a
polished state.
swarf Fibrouslike lens material
resulting from the grinding
process for certain types of lens
material, such as polycarbonate.
system, boxing A system of lens
measurement based on the
enclosure of a lens by horizontal
and vertical tangents to form a
box or rectangle.
system, datum A system of lens
measurement that denes the lens
or eyesize as being the width of
the lens along the datum line and
the bridge size as the width of the
bridge at the level of the datum
line.
system, GOMAC A European
Economic Community standard
for measuring lens and frame
dimensions incorporating
portions of both the boxing and
datum systems.
T
tables, sag A set of tables used for
nding sagittal depth when
surface power and lens diameter
are known.
tables, surfacing Tables supplied

by a lens manufacturer for the
purpose of helping the surfacing
laboratory accurately determine
the tool curves and lens
thicknesses needed to grind
lenses to the specied back vertex
power. Surfacing tables are now
largely replaced by computer
software programs.
tangent For a right triangle, the
ratio of the side opposite the
angle considered to the side
Opposite
adjacent: Tangent =
Adjacent
tap Consists of a chuck on a handle
in which threaders of varying size
may be placed. It is used to
restore threading that has been
damaged.
tempering, chemical The process
of increasing the impact
resistance of glass lenses by
immersing them in a bath of
molten salt. (Synonyms:
chemtempering, chem hardening.)
temple The part of a pair of
spectacles that attaches to the
frame front and hooks over
the ears to hold spectacles in
place.
temple, cable Cable temples are of
metal construction with the curl,
or postear portion, constructed
from a exible coiled cable. The
postear portion follows the crotch
of the ear where the ear and the
head meet and extends to the
level of the earlobe. (Old
synonym: Relaxo temple.)
temple, comfort cable See temple,
cable.
temple, convertible Temples that
are straight through their entire
length, but are designed to be
bent down to take on the form of
a skull temple.
temple, library The type of
spectacle frame temple that
begins with average width at the
temple butt and increases in
width toward the posterior end of
the temple. Library temples are
practically straight and hold the
glasses on primarily by pressure
against the side of the head.
(Synonym: straight-back temple.)
635
temple, riding-bow Plastic temples

with thin, round postear portions
that curve around the ear,
following the crotch of the ear
where the ear and the head meet
and extend to the level of the
earlobe. They often are used in
childrens and safety frames and
are the plastic version of the
metal comfort cable temple.
temple, skull The type of spect
frame temple that bends down
behind the ear and follows the
contour of the skull, resting
evenly against it.
temple-fold angle See angle,
temple-fold.
temporal The area of a lens or
frame that is toward the temples
(outer edge).
test, drop-ball A test to determine
impact resistance of ophthalmic
lenses whereby either a 5/8- or 1inch steel ball is dropped onto the
front surface of the lens from a
height of 50 inches.
test, at surface touch A test for
temple parallelism in which the
spectacles are positioned upside
down on a at surface with
temples open.
test, high mass impact A pointed,
conical-tipped projectile weighing
17.6 oz is dropped from 51.2
inches through a tube and onto
the eyeglasses. The lens must not
break, nor come out of the frame.
(Note: A proposed change to this
test modies the distance from
51.2 to 50 inches.)
test, high velocity impact This
test simulates a high-velocity,
low-mass object. In the high
velocity impact test for frames, a
series of 1/4 -inch steel balls
traveling at 150 feet per second
are directed at 20 different parts
of the frame with lenses in place.
A new frame is used for each
impact. Neither the frame nor the
lens can break. Nor can the lens
come out of the frame. The same
test is used for high impact safety
lenses. The lens must withstand a
single high velocity impact.
thermal bleaching See bleaching,
thermal.
636
Glossary
thermoelastic A term used to

describe a material that will bend
when heated and will return to its
original shape when reheated.
thermoplastic A term used to
describe a material that will bend
when heated, but does not return
to its original shape when
reheated because it does not have
a plastic memory.
thickness, reduced The thickness
of an optical medium divided by
its refractive index.
three-quarter rule See rule,
three-quarter.
tint, double gradient A lens tint
that has two colors, one at the top
and a second at the bottom. The
color at the top is darkest at the
top and fades out toward the
middle of the lens. The color at
the bottom is most intense at the
bottom and lightens toward the
middle.
tint, gradient The variation in
light transmission of a lens from a
low transmission (dark) to high
transmission (light) from one area
of the lens to another. Usually
the lens is dark at the top and
lightens at the bottom.
tint, solid A tint that has the same
color and light transmission over
the entire lens.
tint, triple gradient A lens with
three colors. The color at the top
is darkest at the top and fades out
toward the middle of the lens.
The color at the bottom is
most intense at the bottom and
lightens toward the middle. The
third color is in the middle of the
lens.
tongue See ear.
tool, lap A tool used for ning and
polishing lens surfaces. The tool
used must have a surface identical
in curvature to that of the lens
for which it is to be used (i.e., if
the lens surface is convex, the
tool must be concave and both
must have the same curvature).
toric A surface having separate
curves at right angles to one
another.
toric base curve See curve, toric
base.
toric transposition See

transposition, toric.
total inset See inset, total.
touch, four-point A check for
vertical alignment carried out by
placing a straight edge so that its
edge goes across the inside of the
entire front of the spectacles
below the nosepad area.
tracer, frame An instrument used
to physically trace the inside
groove of a frames lens opening
or the outside edge of a lens for
the purpose of creating a
digitized shape. That shape is
then transmitted to a patternless
edger so that the shape can be
duplicated when the lens is
edged.
Transitions A trade name for a
brand of plastic photochromic
lenses.
transmission The percent of light
passing on through a lens and out
the back surface, compared with
the amount of light incident upon
the rst surface.
transposition, toric The process of
transposing a prescription from
the form in which it is written to
another form, such as from a plus
to a minus cylinder form.
treating, heat The process of
hardening a glass lens by rst
heating it in a kiln, then quickly
cooling by blowing forced air
against both front and back
surfaces. (Synonyms: air
hardening, heat hardening, heat
tempering.)
trifocals Lenses having three areas
of viewing, each with its own
focal power. Usually the upper
portion is for distance viewing,
the lower for near, and the middle
or intermediate portion for
distance in between.
triple gradient tint See tint, triple
gradient.
Trivex The brand name for a PPG
Industries plastic lens material
known for its high impact
resistance and ability to be
processed in a manner similar to
that of other plastic lenses.
true 1. To bring a pair of glasses
into a position of correct
alignment. 2. To reshape the

cutting surface of a worn
grinding wheel so that it cuts at
the angles and in the manner
originally intended. 3. In
surfacing when using a hand pan,
a step following roughing and
smoothing, using a somewhat
ner grade of abrasive to bring
the lens to an exact curve.
true base curve See curve, true base.
true power See power, true.
trueing See true.
Tschernings ellipse See ellipse,
Tschernings.
turn-back endpiece See endpiece,
turn-back.
U
ultraviolet Rays having a
wavelength somewhat shorter
than those at the violet end of the
visible spectrum.
uncut A lens that has been surfaced
on both sides, but not yet edged
for a frame.
upcurve bifocal See bifocal, minus
add.
UV index See index, UV.
V
value, Abb The most commonly
used number for identifying the
amount of chromatic aberration
for a given lens material. The
higher the Abb value, the less
chromatic aberration present in
the lens. Abb value is the
reciprocal of (dispersive power)
and is symbolized by the Greek
letter nu, or . In other words:
1
=
(Synonyms: nu value, constringence.)

variant planes See planes, variant.
V-bevel See bevel, V.
vertex distance See distance, vertex.
vertex power allowance See
allowance, vertex power.
vertical alignment See alignment,
vertical.
vertical angle See angle, vertical.
vertical imbalance See imbalance,
vertical.
Vertometer Trade name for a type
of lensmeter.
virtual image See image, virtual.
Glossary
W
W bridge See bridge, metal saddle.
washer, lens Also called lens liner, a
plastic material that is inserted
between a loose lens and the
eyewire.
wave A defect in lens surface
curvature causing a localized
irregular variation in lens power.
wave front See front, wave.
wheel differential See differential,
wheel.
wheel, electrometallic Synonym
for electroplated wheel.
wheel, electroplated An abrasive
wheel made by electrolytically
depositing metal on the wheel in
such a manner as to encompass
diamond particles. This type of
wheel is often used to grind
plastic lenses
wheel, nishing The wheel used in
edging to bring the lens edge to
its nal conguration.
wheel, hogging Synonym for
roughing wheel.
wheel, impregnated Synonym for a
metal-bonded wheel.
wheel, metal-bonded Abrasive
wheels made by mixing diamond
material with powdered metal

that is heated in a mold until
fusion of the metal occurs.
wheel, roughing An edger wheel
that rapidly cuts a lens to near its
nished size.
width, seg The size of a bifocal or
trifocal segment measured
horizontally across its widest
section.
Wils-Edge mounting See
mounting, Wils-Edge.
X
X-Chrom lens See lens, X-Chrom.
X-ing A vertical misalignment
evidenced by a twisting of the
frame front such that the planes
of the lenses are out of
coincidence with each other.
Y
yoked prism See prism, yoked.
Younger seamless See lens,
Younger seamless.
Z
Z80.1 The identication number
for the American National
Standard for Ophthalmics-
637
Prescription Ophthalmic
Lenses-Recommendations.
Z87 The identication number for
the American National Standard
Practice for Occupational and
Educational Eye and Face
Protection, denoting safety lenses
and frames.
zero inset method See method,
zero inset.
zone, blended The blurred area
between distance and near areas
on an invisible bifocal. (Not to
be confused with the progressive
zone of a progressive-addition
lens.)
zone, progressive That portion of
a progressive-addition lens
between the distance and near
portions where lens power is
gradually increasing.
zyl le See le, zyl.
zyl An abbreviation for the frame
material zylonite. Often used
to refer to plastic frames in
general.
zylonite An early frame material
that accepts a good polish,
but is ammable at high
temperatures.
Prociency Test Answer Key
1. c
1. False
12. 58.03 mm (or 58 mm,

to the nearest 0.5 mm)
2. d
2. True
13. c
3. e
3. a. Yes
b. No
c. Yes
14. The dioptric demand

is 1/0.20 or 5 D. Using
the 3/4 rule, the inset
per eye is 3/4 5, or
3.75 mm, and the near
PD would be 64 (2)
(3.75) = 56.5 mm.
Using Table 3-1, the
inset per eye is 4 mm,
so the near PD would
be 64 (2 4) =
56 mm.
Chapter 1
4. b
5. a
6. d
7. h
8. a
9. f
10. c
11. b
12. g
13. i
14. e
15. d
16. c
17. b
18. e
19. a
20. b
21. f
22. g
23. c
24. h
25. e
26. d
27. b
28. f
29. a
30. c
31. b
32. c
33. a
638
Chapter 2
4. No
5. a
6. c
7. e
8. d
9. c
10. d, e
11. c
12. b, e
13. a
14. c
15. d
16. b
17. a
15. 55 mm. This was

found using Table 3-2.
16. 58 mm. This was
found using the 3/4
rule.
17. R: 30.5 mm
L: 32.0 mm
These were found
using Table 3-2.
Chapter 4
18. c
1. d, e
19. e
2. b, f
Chapter 3
3. c
1. False
4. a
2. a, b, c, d, e
5. a
3. b
6. c
4. True
7. a, b
5. False
8. d
6. e
9. a
7. No
10. b
8. 2.5 mm per lens
11. False
9. c
12. True
10. 3.75 mm per lens

11. a
13. False (The color will

draw attention to the
salt component, but
should not necessarily

be avoided. It depends
upon the preference of
the wearer.)
14. False
15. a
16. b
17. a
18. c
19. b
20. b
21. c
22. Nasal cut
23. d
24. b
25. c
26. Less because of the
magnication effect of
the lenses
27. b
28. False
29. Use antireection
coating
30. Solid construction,
adjustable nosepads,
comfort cable temples,
light frame, small lens
size, small ED
31. b
32. False
33. False
34. d
Chapter 5
1. False
2. c
3. a
4. b
639
5. True
31. True
20. a
12. b
6. d
32. False
21. d
13. d
7. a
Chapter 6
22. a
14. e
1. The Rx was written in

reverse and should
appear as:
23. b
15. c
24. b
16. False
O.D. 4.50 Sphere
25. b
17. b
O.S. 4.25 0.75

010
26. b
18. a
27. e
19. d
2. Carry components to
2 decimal places: +4.50
1.00 017
28. b
20. a
29. a
21. False
30. a
22. A rolled eyewire
31. a
23. A spherical lens
4. Use a prefactory zero

before the cylinder
value: +2.00 0.75
033
32. b
24. A lens edged off axis
33. a
25. Heat the frame and

plunge it into cold
water
5. False, the original

examination form or
prescription should be
used
35. a
6. b, c
38. a
14. e
7. b
39. d
15. e
8. a. plus
b. minus
c. sphere
d. sphere and axis,
+2.00 and 015
e. minus, cylinder,
2.00
f. minus
40. c
8. c (Remember, it is not
advisable to move an
MRP height below the
horizontal midline of
the glasses unless the
lenses are intended
exclusively for near
work.)
9. d
10. b
11. c
12. a
13. b (One diopter change
in base curve changes
vertex distance by
approximately 0.6 mm.
Of course if the eye
size is small, the vertex
distance will be
smaller than 0.6 and
vice versa.)
16. c
17. b
18. d
19. b
20. e
or f [44 (21 + 14)] = 9
or [44 (21 + 13)] = 10
3. Leave degree sign off

axis reading
9. b
21. e
10. a. a
b. 2.50 0.50 110
22. d
11. True
23. b
12. d
24. True
13. +1.75
25. d
14. b
26. a
15. False
27. c
16. True
28. c
17. d
29. e
18. False
30. b
19. False
34. a
36. a
37. a
41. e
42. c
43. a. +3.00 2.00 180
b. 5.00 +2.00 090
c. +5.00 2.00 090
d. 3.00 +2.00 180
Chapter 7
1. False
2. True
3. c
4. a, b
5. d
6. b
7. b, e
8. a
9. a, c, d
10. c, d
11. True
26. Use a straight edge

and hold it along the
top of both multifocal
segments. Both seg
tops should be parallel
to the straight edge.
Chapter 8
1. True
2. False
3. b
4. a
5. c
6. e
7. d
8. b
9. a. True
b. False
c. False
d. true
10. b
11. a
12. a. True
b. True
c. True
d. True
13. b
640
14. a
17. c
25. False
15. c
18. d
26. False
16. e
19. True
27. b
17. True
20. True
28. False
18. e
21. a
29. c
19. a
22. a
30. e
20. False
23. b
31. a
21. False
24. c
32. True
22. b
25. c
33. c
23. b
26. c
34. b
24. c
27. b
35. False
25. c
28. False
Chapter 11
26. a
29. c
1. c
27. b
Chapter 10
2. d
29. a
2. True
4. e
30. c
3. True
31. e
4. True
32. a
5. True
33. c
6. False
34. c
7. True
Chapter 9
8. b
5. a. a = 7
b. a = 20
19
c. a =
4
d. a = 11
23
e. a =
7
4b + 3
f. a =
4
12 + 8b
g. a =
b
h. a = 4b 2bc
or
a = 2b(2 c)
10. a
3. b
11. b
4. b
12. c
5. c
13. b
6. d
14. False
7. d
15. c
8. c
16. d
9. c
17. True
10. False
18. d
11. False
19. e
12. b
20. c
13. d
21. True
14. True
22. True
15. True
23. True
16. c
24. a
12. 2.96 m from the

ground
14. a. 8.544 units

b. 20.556 degrees
3. c
2. b
10. a. 343
b. 3
c. 10
d. 1
e. 100
f. a
g. 16
13. a. 2 m
b. 3.46 m
1. False
9. True
11
8
22
b
2
5a
11. 16.18 m
28. b
1. e
9. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
15. (6, +10.39)

16. 128.024 km
17. a. 77.16 m long
b. 90 degrees
7.1 degrees
18.9 degrees
18. c
19. a. 207 lbs
b. 58 degrees
20. a. approximately 281
lbs
b. 12 degrees
Chapter 12
6. b
1. d
7. a. .05
b. 1
c. 0.25
d. 0.01
e. 2
f. 4
g. 8
h. 4/3 or 1.33
2. d
8. a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
8. b
100
4
a a (or simply a2)
49
144
225
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. b
7. c
9. e
10. d
11. c
12. a
13. a
11. d
14. b
12. a. F1
F1
F2
b. F1
F2
F2
15. d
16. a
17. c
18. a
19. b
20. d
21. e
22. c
at 90 = +8.00D
at 180 = +6.00D
= 6.75D
= +6.00D
at 90 = 4.75D
at 180 = 6.75D
13. b
14. +0.75 1.12 100
15. +2.00 1.00 020
16. 0.06424 meters or
64.24 millimmeters
23. a
24. a. +2.25 + 1.25 102
b. +0.50 1.00 165
c. 0.50 165/+0.50
075
17. 0.08970 meters or

89.70 millimeters
25. d
26. c
27. +1.25 4.25 075
3.00 + 4.25 165
28. 0.50 + 125 103
+ 0.75 103/0.50
013
7. e (depending on
whether the lenses
were made up in plus
or minus cylinder
form)
8. True
9. b
10. a. F1 at 90 = +8.00 D
b. F1 at 180 = +10.00 D
c. F2 = 8.75 D
39. c
40. a
41. a
42. b
43. c
44. b
45. a
48. d
b. Value of the
cylinder = 1.00 D
Chapter 13
6. True
38. d
20. a. Actual front surface

power in 90-degree
meridian = +6.00 D
Actual front surface
power in 180-degree
meridian = +5.00 D
23. Nominal power is

+8.25 D
5. False
37. a
47. a
22. d
4. a
5. c
19. 2.64 D
30. a
3. c
36. a. Complete answer is

3.75 1.75 034.
46. a
29. b
2. a
4. b
18. +11.52 D
21. a. +4.00 3.00 090

b. +3.70 2.78 090
1. c
35. c
True power is +8.17 D

Refractive power is
+10.79 D
24. b
25. e
26. d
27. False
28. True
29. e
30. e
31. e
32. b
33. e
34. c
49. e
Chapter 14
1. +11.37 D
2. O.D. 25.40 D sphere
O.S. 22.39 D sphere
3. b
4. +8.75 D
5. b
6. d
7. b
8. d
9. b
10. e, or using accurate
formula, +14.23 D
11. +7.00 D
12. a. +10.00 D
b. +10.26 D
13. 10.21 D
14. b
15. c
Chapter 15
1. a
2. b
3. d
641
6. a
7. d
8. b
9. b
10. a
11. c
12. e
13. c
14. b
15. a. (3)
b. (4)
16. a
17. 4.5 Base 207
4.5 Base 27 DN
18. 3.25 Base 107 DN
19. 1.50 Base 181
20. 5.38 Base 158
21. 3.35 Base 153
22. a. 4 Base at 150 down
2 Base down and 3.5
Base in
b. 2 Base at 150 down
2 Base down and 3.5
Base out
23. 3.90 Base 140 UP
3.90 Base 140
3.90 Base 40 UP
3.90 Base 40
24. 2.50 Base 53 DN
2.50 Base 233
2.50 Base 127 DN
2.50 Base 127
25. 7.81
7.81
7.81
7.81
Base
Base
Base
Base
140 UP
140
140 DN
320
26. 5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
Base
Base
Base
Base
127 UP
127
127 DN
307
642
c. Base (40+90), or
Base 130
27. 5.4 Base 146 DN

5.4 Base 326
4.1 Base 101 DN
4.1 Base 281
39. a. True
28. 5.6 Base 10 DN

5.6 Base 190
4.6 Base 60 DN
4.6 Base 240
40. b
42. b
16. a
29. 4.24 Base 45 DN

4.24 Base 225
4.24 Base 45 UP
4.24 Base 45
43. a. 6 Base Up
6 Base 90
17. There is a total of

0.074 Base in prism
(0.037 base in per
eye). There is a net
vertical prismatic
effect of 0.00. (This
is because 0.14 of
Base-down prism is
present in front of
both left and right
eyes, giving a net
difference of zero.)
30. 2.61 Base 107 DN

2.61 Base 287
2.61 Base 107 UP
2.61 Base 107
31. 4.93 Base 60 DN
4.93 Base 240
4.70 Base 115 UP
4.70 Base 115
32. 1.82 Base 74 UP
1.82 Base 74
1.82 Base 74 DN
1.82 Base 254
33. 4.07 Base 11 UP
4.07 Base 11
4.32 Base 10 DN
4.32 Base 190
34. 4.70 Base 25 UP
4.70 Base 25
4.25 Base 28 DN
4.25 Base 208
35. 5.25 Base 31 UP
5.25 Base 31
5.25 Base 49 DN
5.25 Base 229
36. 1.25 Base 53 DN
1.25 Base 233
1.25 Base 101 DN
1.25 Base 281
37. 1.50 Base 149 DN
1.50 Base 329
1.50 Base 135 UP
1.50 Base 135
38. 3.25 Base 171 UP
3.25 Base 171
3.37 Base 153 DN
3.37 Base 333
b. False
c. False
41. 5.00 Base at 143
b. 0.5 Base up and

0.5 Base In
0.71 Base 135
c. 2.00 Base down
and 5.00 Base In
5.39 Base 348.7
44. a. 3.76 BD OD
3.76 BU OS
b. 3.42 BD OD
3.42 BU OS
45. c
Chapter 16
d. (1) Base in, (4) Base

down
e. (1) Base in, (3) Base
up
26.
100 g ( n 1)
d
100 (7.8 5.4 ) (1.66 1)
=
40
100 (2.4 )(0.66)
=
40
= 3.96 Base 180
(or 4 Base Out )
P=
Chapter 17
1. b
2. False
3. False
4. c
5. d
6. a
Chapter 18
18. 0.44 Base up and

1.63 Base out
1. a
19. 1.60 Base in and

0.28 Base down
3. Coma
2. False

0.36 Base up
4. b
4. d

0.64 Base down O.D.
or Base up O.S.
6. Lens power and lens

front curve
5. c
22. a. no power
1. 1.20 Base in
2. 7.00 D
3. a
5. c
or
Lens power and lens
back curve
6. e
b. 2.00 D
7. 4.375 Base out (or

2.188 Base out O.D.
and 2.188 Base out
O.S.)
c. 0.24 D
7. b
d. 1.77 D
8. d
e. 3.00 D
9. b
8. 2.60 Base out (total)

(or 1.00 Base out
O.D. and 1.60 Base
out O.S.)
f. 1.50 D
10. b
9. 2.75 Base in
10. 3.00 Base in
11. 2.30 Base in
12. b
13. c
14. b
15. a. (1) Base in
b. (2) Base out, (3) Base
up
23. a. 4.875 D
b. 1.95 Base out (or
Base 180)
24. a. +3.82 D
b. 0.76 Base in (or
Base 0)
100 g ( n 1)
d
100 (1)(0.8)
=
= 1.48
54
25. P =
11. + 9.00 D
12. + 9.75 D
13. + 7.75 D
14. + 4.00 D
15. + 5.25 D
16. + 4.43 D
17. + 3.94 D
18. + 3.00 D
19. True
20. a, b, c
29. 4.51 D
26. e
13. a
21. b, c
30. c
27. e
14. c
22. c
31. a. 9.5 mm
28. False
15. a. 3
23. d
b. 35 mm is both the
theoretical and
available segment
size.
29. b
b. 2
30. e
c. 4
31. +0.50 +0.75 090
d. 2
32. a
32. c
e. 1
1. b
33. c
33. False
f. 1
2. e
34. b
34. False
g. 1
3. b
35. d
35. a. 1.50 Base down
h. 1
4. e
36. c
5. c
37. d
24. False
25. False
Chapter 19
6. a
7. b
38. a
Chapter 20
8. a
1. e
9. False
2. c
10. a. 3
3. e
b. 1
4. False
c. 4
5. False
d. 2
6. True
e. 1
7. False
11. e
8. c
12. c, d
9. True
13. b
10. True
14. a
11. a
15. d
16. True
12. True
13. a
17. d
14. a, b
18. c
15. True
19. b
16. b
20. a
21. a
22. e
23. e
24. d
25. b
26. b
27. c
28. d
17. True
18. c
19. True
20. False
21. d
22. a
23. a
24. a
25. b
b. No prism thinning
required
36. b
37. e
38. R: 21 mm
L: 19 mm
39. R: 31.5 mm
L: 31.5 mm
The prism amount
would not need to be
changed.
40. a. Yes. Both monocular
PDs should be
changed to 32 mm.
b. Yes. Reduce the
prism to 2.5 base
in per eye.
Chapter 21
1. e
2. a. SM = 6.7%
b. SM = 1.5%
c. 5.2%
3. True
4. b
5. True
6. c
7. b
8. d
9. b
10. d
11. c
12. b
643
16. False
17. c
18. True
19. c
20. d
21. b
22. b
23. d
24. c
25. a. 2
b. 2
c. 1
26. a. 6.00 0.6 = 3.60
b. 1
27. a
28. a
29. R Power in 90 is 1.25.
L Power in 90 is 9.56.
Imbalance is (8.3 1.1)
= 9.13
30. c
31. d
32. b
33. a. 2
b. no
34. True
35. True
36. b
37. d
38. c
644
Chapter 22
20. False
Chapter 23
6. d
1. False
21. True
1. True
7. c
2. False
22. False
2. False
8. d
3. False
23. False
3. a
9. d
4. False
24. False
4. e, a, c, d, b
10. c, d
5. True
25. e
5. c, a, e, b, d
11. d
6. True
26. c
6. e, b, c, a, d
12. b
7. True
27. a
7. True
13. False
8. False
28. c
8. c
14. d
9. False
29. d
9. d
15. d
10. True
30. c
10. b
16. 67 mm
11. False
31. e
11. b
17. b
12. True
32. a
12. b, c, d
13. True
33. b
13. False
18. R: 3 mm in
L: 1.5 mm in
14. False; because so much

incoming light is
absorbed by the lens
itself, the amount of
light internally
reected from the back
surface of the lens is
small compared with
the amount reected
from the front surface.
This means the
percentage increase in
overall transmission
will not be much.
However, the
bothersome reections
seen from behind the
wearer that are
reected off the back
surface of the lens and
appear relatively bright
compared with the
attenuated image
coming through the
tinted lenses will be
eliminated.
34. d
14. False
35. a
15. d
36. c
16. e
37. e
17. b
38. a
18. c
22. 1.5 mm in and 4.5 mm

up
39. a
19. c
23. a. 0
40. a
20. False
b. 50
41. a
21. d
c. 46.5
42. b
22. c
d. 38
43. e
23. b
e. 44.5
44. c
24. e
f. 8
45. d
25. a
g. 52
46. d
26. a
h. 8
47. a
27. d
i. 0
48. b
28. False
j. 50
49. e
29. False
k. 62
50. b
30. c
l. 41.5
51. e
31. False
m. 15
52. a, d
Chapter 24
n. 35
15. False
16. False
17. False
18. a
19. False
19. R: 1.5 mm in
L: 2 mm in
20. +3 mm
21. 2 mm in and 2 mm up
53. 1.288
1. False
o. 13.5
54. 20%
2. a
p. 38.5
55. 86.21%
3. c
24. d
4. c
25. b
5. b
Index
A
Abb value, 404, 406, 407b, 569
Aberrations
chromatic
de nition of, 68, 402
tting techniques designed to
reduce, 68-69
importance of, 415
lateral, 403-406
longitudinal, 402-405
types of, 402-403
visual acuity affected by, 27,
406-407
coma, 409, 410f
curvature of eld, 414
de nition of, 402
description of, 408
distortion, 414
higher order, 409
oblique astigmatism, 409-410,
410f-411f
Seidel, 408, 415
spherical, 409, 409f
tilting of lens. See Tilting lens
Zernike polynomials used to classify,
408-409
Absolute refractive index, 276
Absorptive lens
calculations
Fresnel equation, 560
opacity, 562-563
optical density, 563-564, 564f
ultimate transmission, 562
classication of, 526
coatings. See Lens coatings
glare control. See Glare control lens
glass blowers lenses, 559-560
plastic lenses, 538-539, 539f
sunglasses. See Sunglasses
tinted. See Tinted lens
ultraviolet light effects. See
Ultraviolet light
x-ray lenses, 560
Page numbers followed by f indicate gures;

t, tables; b, boxes
AC/A ratio, 446

Accommodation
amount of, 444f
contact lenses effect on,
444-445
de nition of, 443
Accommodative convergence to
accommodation ratio,
446
Accommodative demand, 443
Acetate lens interline, 249-250
Acetate nosepads, 231
Acetone, 242
Achromatic lens, 407, 407f
Add power
description of, 97-99, 98f
increases in, 445
occupational, 445
spectacle positioning for measuring,
98-99
unwanted cylinder and, correlation
between, 469
verication of, in progressive
addition lens, 461, 462f
Adjustable nosepads. See also
Nosepads
for bridge tting, 48
tting of
for adjustable bridges, 187-190
overview of, 187
for rimless or semirimless
mountings, 190, 190f-191f
for high minus lens wearers, 54
on plastic frames, 245, 247
resting position for, 188f
strap bridges vs., 231-232
Age-related maculopathy, 528
Algebra
description of, 263
equation transformation, 263-264
negative numbers, 265, 265f
parentheses, 264-265
positive numbers, 265, 265f
powers, 265-266
reciprocal, 265
roots, 265-266
symbols used in, 264t
Alignment, standard
of bridge
in metal frame, 152-154
in plastic frames, 139-142
X-ing, 141-142, 142f, 154,
154f
of metal frames
bridge, 152-154
overview of, 152
temples, 155-161
X-ing, 154, 154f
of nosepads
frontal angle, 161f-162f,
161-162
rimless mountings, 170
splay angle, 162-163, 163f
vertical angle, 163f, 163-164
of plastic frames
bridge, 139-142
heating the frame, 138-139,
139f
horizontal alignment, 140,
140f
overview of, 138
summary of, 153b
temples, 142-152
vertical alignment, 141f-142f,
141-142
X-ing, 141-142, 142f
of rimless mountings
bridge, 164-167
overview of, 164
temple, 167-168, 168f-171f
of temples
in metal frames, 155-161
parallelism of, 146-149, 157-158,
158f-159f
Allergic reactions
to cellulose acetate, 10
to frame materials, 14
to metal cable temples, 14
to nosepads, 14
to temples
coverings to prevent, 233
description of, 14
Aluminum, 13
645
646
Index
American National Standards Institute

description of, 105
prescription lens standards, 105, 575,
609-613
safety eyewear
marking requirements, 577t
standards, 575
American Society for Testing and
Materials sports eyewear
standards, 582t, 582-583
Ametropia
axial, 494, 498
refractive, 494-495, 498
Amplitude condition, of antireection
coatings, 543-544
Anatomic aniseikonia, 492
Angle(s)
Brewsters, 551, 552f, 553b
crestal, 37f, 47-48
of deviation, 277f-278f, 277-278
frontal
de nition of, 161
nosepad alignment using, 161-162
of incidence, 274, 275f, 350
pantoscopic. See Pantoscopic angle
of polarization. See Brewsters angle
reection, 274
of refraction, 350
splay
for bridge tting, 45, 46f-47f, 47
for nosepad alignment, 162-163,
163f, 189f
temple-fold
in metal frames, 160f-161f, 160-161
in plastic frames, 151f-152f,
151-152
in rimless mountings, 168, 171f
vertical
adjustment in, 198, 200f
nosepad alignment using, 163f,
163-164
Angling of hinges, 148, 150f
Angling pliers, 148, 149f, 168
Aniseikonia
anatomic, 492
anomalous, 491
with astigmatism, 495
asymmetrical, 492, 493f
axial ametropia and, 494
clinically signicant, 495
meridional, 492f
myopic, 495
optical, 493
physiologic, 491
spectacle lenses for
directionally correct magnication
changes, 496, 496b-497
rst pass method, 496
magnication differences, 496-498
overview of, 495-496
symmetrical, 491-492, 492f
vertical imbalance reduction

secondary to correction of,
517
Aniseikonia Inspector, 497-498, 498f
Anisohyperopia, 496b
Anisometropia
bifocals in, 80
in children, 491
trifocals in, 80
Anisomyopia, 497b
Anisophoria, 499-500
Anomalous aniseikonia, 491
Antifog coatings, 547
Antimetropia, 497b
Antireection coatings
advantages of, 546-547
amplitude condition of, 543-544
caring for lens with, 547
description of, 51, 541
disadvantages of, 547
of fused glass multifocals, 561
glare reduced with, 534, 542
high-index lens used with, 560-561
hydrophobic sealant on, 544, 545f,
546
impact resistance affected by, 545,
571-572
indications for, 531
multilayer, 544-545
night driving uses for, 546, 547f
path condition of, 542-543, 543f
of photochromic lens, 546, 551
of pretinted lens, 545-546
reex colors, 545
on safety eyewear, 576-577
scratch-resistant coatings and, 544
single-layer, 544
substrate matching of, 544-545
of sunglasses, 546
theoretical principles of, 542-544
Anvil and punch, 237, 238f
A.O. twist system, 257, 257f
Aperture, 426, 426f
Aphakes
de nition of, 53
ultraviolet radiation-induced retinal
damage in, 53, 528
Apical angle of prism, 349-351
Arm, of rimless mounting, 9, 10f
Articial eye, 517-518, 518f, 519t-520t
Aspheric lens
adapting to, 425
characteristics of, 421
conic sections and, 417, 418f
de nition of, 417
dispensing rules for, 423-424
tting guidelines for, 423-424
attening purposes, 419-420
full, 425
high-index, 426
history of, 402
identication of, 423

indications for, 419-421
lenticular, 426, 427f
major reference point for, 69, 424
for minus lens wearers, 425
monocular interpupillary distances,
424
nonfull, 425
optical uses of, 419
pantoscopic angle compensation, 424
for plus lens wearers, 425
prism use with, 423
progressive power changes using,
420-421
P-values for, 417, 418b
radius of curvature for, 417
thinning purposes of, 420
Aspheric lens blank, 423
Asphericity, 420
Astigmatic difference, 409
Astigmatism
anisometropes with, 495
cylinder lens for, 290-291
de nition of, 288
marginal, 410
oblique, 409-410, 410f-411f, 415, 473
radial, 410
Asymmetrical aniseikonia, 492, 493f
Atoric lens
adapting to, 425
description of, 421
history of, 402
identication of, 423
progressive addition lens, 473-475
Autolensmeter, 113-114, 114f
Auxiliary prisms, 112, 112f
Axial ametropia, 494-495, 498
Axis meridian
of plano cylinder, 381
Axis tolerance cross, 106f
Axis wheel, 93
B
B & L clamp nosepad style, 257, 257f
B segments, 435, 435f, 436t
Back base curve, 305
Back vertex power
description of, 97, 344-346
near addition measured as, 461
Back-surface slab grinds, 504
Badminton, eyewear for, 584t
Balgrip mounting, 6, 6f
Barrel distortion, 414
Base curve
appropriate, 415-417
back, 305
de nition of, 305
description of, 100-101
at, 420
formulas for, 416, 416b
Index
lens clock for measuring, 311. See also
Lens measure
manufacturers recommendations,
416
for metal frames, 417
of multifocal lens, 100-101, 308
nominal, 311
for plastic frames, 417
for right and left lenses as a pair, 417
of single vision lens, 305-308
for surfaced lens, 415
toric, 305
true, 311
Vogels formula for, 416, 416b
when not to specify, 314-315
when to specify, 314
Baseball, eyewear for, 584t
Base-down prismatic effect, 377f
Base-down triangular face, 42
Base-in prism, 356, 357f
Base-out prism, 356, 357f, 362, 391
Base-up prism, 391-392
Base-up prismatic effect, 377f
Base-up triangular face, 42
Basketball, eyewear for, 584t
Batch testing, 574
Bend, 3, 4f
Bicentric grinding. See Slab off
Biconcave, 292, 294f
Bicycling, eyewear for, 584t
Bifocal(s)
in anisometrope, 80
blended, 79, 79f, 435
in children, 79
curve-top segment, 435, 435f, 436t
de nition of, 432
Executive, 435, 437
at-top
centration of, 604
description of, 78, 435, 435f, 436t
spotting of, 595, 598b
Franklin-style segments, 435, 437
height measurements for
Fresnel press-on segments, 72, 72f
glazed lens markings, 71, 71f
lower lid margin method, 71
lower limbus method, 70-71, 71b,
71f
overview of, 70
plastic segment-measuring devices,
74
subjective determinations, 71-72
transparent tape used in, 72, 72f
image jump, 442, 442f
indications for, 72
invisible, 79, 454
lens insertion in, 125-126
new wearers of, 82
occupational, 439
old lenses compared with, 73-74
one-piece, 310
panoptik segment, 435, 435f, 436t
prismatic effects with, 442

progressive addition lens vs., 443
Rede-Rite, 438f, 439
ribbon segments, 435, 435f, 436t
round-segment, 78, 126, 434-435,
435f, 436t
segment height
assessment of, 72f
factors that affect, 74
straight-top, 125
terminology associated with, 433-434
Bifocal inset
distance lens power effect on, 33-34
formula for, 33-34
near interpupillary distance for,
31-36
Billiards, eyewear for, 584t
Binocular interpupillary distance
difculties associated with, 25-27
technique for, 25, 26f
Bitoric lens, 498, 499f
Blended bifocals, 79, 79f, 435
Blind eye, lens design to change the
appearance of, 517-518, 518f
Boating, eyewear for, 584t
Boxing center, 600
Boxing system
description of, 17
distance between lenses, 18, 19f
geometric center, 17
geometric center distance, 18-20
horizontal midline, 17, 18f
lens measurement, 17-18
principles of, 17, 18f
Box-o-Graph, 105f
Brewsters angle, 551, 552f, 553b
Bridge
adjustable, nosepad angles for,
187-190
alignment of
in plastic frames, 139-142, 140f
for children, 48, 48f
construction of, 6-7
de nition of, 3, 4f
design of, 44-45
face form alterations, 141f
tting of
adjustable pads for, 48
crestal angle, 37f, 47-48
frontal angle, 45-47, 46f
nasal angles for, 45-48
overview of, 45
splay angles, 45, 46f-47f, 47
xed
description of, 209
height changes, 209-210
four-point touch of, 141f-142f,
141-142
heating of, 139, 140f
horizontal alignment of
647

in rimless mountings, 164-165, 165f
keyhole, 7, 7f
lowering of, 45f
metal, 7, 7f
modied saddle, 7, 7f
narrowing of, 191b
plastic. See Plastic bridge
saddle, 6, 7f, 45
sculptured, 209
segment height affected by, 74
skewed
in metal frames, 153
in plastic frames, 140, 140f
strap
adjustable nosepads replaced with,
231-232, 232f
de nition of, 190, 231-232
vertical alignment of
in plastic frames, 141f-142f,
141-142
in rimless mountings, 165, 167
widening of, 191b, 210, 210f
Bridge size
assessment of, 46
changing of, in plastic frames
dowel rods for, 210, 211f
frame customization for, 212
manual, 211-212
pliers for, 210, 210f-211f
staking tool for, 210, 211f
description of, 18
Bridge-narrowing pliers, 211f
Bridge-widening pliers, 210f
Bronze, 14
Brown-tinted lens, 534f, 535
Bulls-Eye Screw Drilling Guide, 226,
228f
Bulls-Eye Screw Extractor, 225-226,
227f
Bushings, 229
Butt endpiece, 8, 8f
C
C1, 64f
C2, 64f
Cable temple
comfort. See Comfort cable temples;
Temple, comfort cable
earpieces, covers added to, 232-233,
233f
tting of, 185-186
handling of frames with, 186-187,
187f
length of, 186, 186f, 234-235
plastic temple converted to, 235, 236f
shortening of, 235
Carbon ber frame
description of, 11
heating of, 127
lens insertion into, 127
648
Index
Cartesian coordinate system, 266, 363f

Cataract lens, 52-53
Cataracts, 527-528
Cellulose acetate butyrate, 552
Cellulose acetate frames
description of, 10, 11f
lens insertion in
checking of lens, 124-125, 125f
heating of frame, 120, 121f-122f
methods for, 120, 122f-123f,
122-124
overview of, 121t
shrinking of frame, 124
Cellulose aceto-propionate, 10
Cellulose nitrate, 9-10
Cellulose propionate frames, 121t,
126-127
Cement lens, 434
Cement segment, 446
Centered lens, 376
Center-pupil height, 66f
Centimeters, 263
Centrad, 354-355
Centration, of lens
de nition of, 598
distance between centers, 600
progressive addition lens, 603-604,
604b
segmented multifocal lenses,
604-605
single vision lenses, 600, 602-603
vertical, 601-602
Cheek lines, 42
Chemical tempering, for glass lens
hardening, 580-581
Children
anisometropia in, 491
bifocals in, 79
bridge for, 48, 48f
frame selection for, 54-55
progressive addition lens for, 457-458
sports glasses for, 55
Chord diameter, 330
Chromatic aberration
tting techniques designed to
reduce, 68-69
importance of, 415
lateral, 403-406
longitudinal, 402-405
types of, 402-403
visual acuity affected by, 27, 406-407
Chromatic power, 405
Circle, 417, 418f
Circumference gauge, 103f
Cleaning
of antireection-coated lens, 547
of frame, 134, 135t, 253
of Fresnel lens or prism, 400
of lens with scratch-resistant coating,
540
Clear crown glass, 532
Clip-on frames, 614

Clip-on nosepads, 257, 257f
Clothing, frame color affected by, 43
Coatings. See Antireection coatings;
Lens coatings
Cold snapping
into carbon ber frame, 127
into cellulose propionate frame, 126
de nition of, 120
Colmascope, 581
Color coatings, 540-541
Color-defective individuals
colored lter lens for, 536-537
sunglasses for, 537-538
Colored light, 273-274
Coma, 409, 410f
Combination frames, 4
Comfort cable temples
for high minus lens wearers, 54
indications for, 49t
measurement of, 20, 21f
Compensated factors, 313, 314f
Compensating prism power, 113
Compounding prism, 362-363, 363f
Computerized image-capturing
systems, for frame selection,
56f-57f, 56-57
Concentric circles, 92
Conic sections, 417, 418f
Conjugate foci, 285f
Constringence, 404
Contact lens
accommodation affected by, 444-445
tinted, 546
vertical imbalance corrected with,
501
Contour plots, 469, 470f-471f
Converging light, 279, 284-287, 285f
Convertible temples, 9, 9f
Convex surface, 282, 282f
Corneal reections, 30
Corneal reexes, 29-30
Corona-target lensmeter, 96
Corrected curve lens, 402
Corroded screws, 224
Cosine-squared method. See Sinesquared method
Cosmetic uses, of lens design, 518,
519t-520t
CPF lens, 557, 558t, 559f
CR-39 lens
Abb values for, 404t
crown glass lens vs., 569
description of, 50-51, 569-570, 570t
impact resistance of, 571t
light transmission by, 532, 532f
shrinkage of, 127
Crestal angle, 37f, 47-48
Crossed-cylinder form, 299-300
Crossed-line-target lensmeter, 92-96
Crosshairs, 92
Crown glass
CR-39 lens vs., 569
description of, 532, 569, 570t
hardening of
chemical tempering for, 580-581
hardened assessments, 581
heat-treating process for, 579-580
heat-treated, 571t, 579-580
impact resistance
drilling and grooving effects,
581-582
re-edging effects on, 581
reection from, 542
Crystal nosepads, 231
Crystalline lens, 556
C-size
lenses only ordering by, 102-103
Curvature. See Lens curvature
Curvature of eld, 414
Curve-top segment bifocals, 435, 435f,
436t
Curve-top trifocals, 437f, 437t, 437-438
Cutting pliers, for rivet removal, 237,
238f
Cylinder
adding of, 315-323
articial eye appearance changed
using, 518
with axes 90 degrees apart, 315-316
decentration of
along major meridians, 381-382
obliquely oriented, 382
with equal axes, 315-316
Jackson crossed, 316-317
lens forms of, 293, 295
obliquely crossed
clinical occurrence of, 317
conceptual understanding of,
322-323
decentration of, 382
formula method for calculating,
320-322
graphical method for calculating,
317-320
plano, 381-382
prismatic effects created by, 380-381
unwanted, 468-469, 474
Cylinder axis error tolerances, 106, 610
Cylinder lens
de nition of, 288
meridian of, 290, 291f
minus, 291, 294f
optics of, 290
orientation of, 288, 289f
Cylinder power
oblique astigmatism with, 474
in oblique meridian, 332
sum of, 315f
Index
toric contact lens with, 317
verication of, 106
writing, 290
D
D segs, 435
Datum line, 17, 18f
Datum system, 17, 18f
Decentration
of cylinders
along major meridians, 381-382
obliquely oriented, 382
effective, 382
face form compensation for, 414
horizontal
of oblique cylinders, 385
of spheres, 379-380
monocular interpupillary distance
used to determine, 601
oblique, 380
patternless edgers for, 606
per lens, 600-601
of plus lens, 391-392
prism created by, 388-389
prismatic effects induced by, 483,
484f
of spheres
description of, 376
horizontal, 379-380
light rays affected by, 378f
oblique decentration, 380
Prentices rule, 376-377
prism base direction with, 377
prismatic effect caused by, 376-377
of spherocylinders
approximation used for, 387-388
calculation of, 385-387
vertical
of spheres, 379-380
Decimeters, 263
Degrees of deviation
apical angle obtained from, 351-352
conversion to prism diopters, 352f,
354
Degression, 478-479, 480f
. See Prism diopter
Depth of compression, 580
Diamond facial shape, 40, 41t
Didymium lens, 559-560
Dielectric coatings, 548
Diffuse reection, 274, 276f
Dioptric demand, 33
Dioptric power, 338
Dip coating, 549
Diplopia, 76
Disability glare, 556-557
Discoloration
of plastic frames, 253
after soldering, 256
Discomfort glare, 556
Dispersive power, 404

Dissimilar segments, for vertical
imbalance correction, 505,
507b, 507f
Distance between lenses, 18-20, 19f,
46, 600
Distance lens, 98
Distance power
verication of, 459, 460f
Distance reference point, 102, 459,
460f, 597
Distometer, 70, 70f
Diverging light, 284-287, 285f
Double-padded pliers, 157, 157f, 168
Double-segment lens
description of, 438f, 438-439, 439t
measuring for, 75
Doublet, 407, 407f
Dowel rods, for bridge size changes,
210, 211f
Dress eyewear
batch testing of, 574
drop ball test for, 573-574
Federal Trade Commission studies,
574-575
requirements
impact resistance, 572-573
record keeping, 574
minimum thickness of, 573
nonimpact-resistant, 573
Drop ball test, 573-574
Drop-ins, 614
Dyeing, of lens, 538-539, 539f
Dynamic spectacle magnication
formula, 514-515
E
Ear
anatomic, crotch of, 185f
of rimless mounting, 9, 10f
Earpiece
cable temple, covers added to, 232233, 233f
description of, 3, 4f, 179, 181
plastic, replacement of, 232
ED trifocals, 437f, 437t, 438
Edge, 51
Edge coating, 548
Edge thickness
estimating of, 330-331
of meniscus lens, 328-330
of minus lens, 326
of planoconcave lens, 326-328
of prism, 389f
Edger size, 605
Edging
pattern used in, 598, 605-606
patternless
de nition of, 605
frame tracer for, 599-600
649
of plastic lens, impact resistance

affected by, 581
spotting for. See Spotting
Edging laboratory, 593
Effective decentration, 382
Effective diameter, 18, 82
Effective power
of lens
formula for, 341
of spherocylinder lens, 341
vertex distance changes and,
339-341
of prism, 367, 369, 371
in sagittal meridian, 411
Electric soldering, 255-256
Electromagnetic spectrum, 273
Ellipse, 417, 418f
Emmetrope, 443
Endpiece
de nition of, 3, 4f
metal, 8, 8f
plastic, 7-8, 8f
temple parallelism affected by, 147
temple spread reduced by pressing of,
144f
Entropion spectacles, 614
Epoxy glue, 242
Epoxy resin, 10
Equiconcave, 292, 294f
Equiconvex, 292, 294f
Error tolerances
cylinder axis, 106
cylinder power verication and, 106
horizontal prism, 109-110
meridian of highest absolute power,
106-107
in sphere power, 106
vertical prism, 107-108
Essilor instrument, 463
Executive bifocals, 435, 437
Executive trifocals, 437f, 437t, 438
Exposure memory, 550
Eye(s)
narrow, 43
ultraviolet radiation effects on,
526-530
welders burn injury to, 527
wide-set, 43
Eye size
de nition of, 17
frame markings, 20
incorrect, 81
Eyebrow line, 42
Eyeglasses I, 574-575
Eyeglasses II, 575
Eyelid slant, 518
Eyewear
dress
batch testing of, 574
drop ball test for, 573-574
650
Index
Federal Trade Commission

studies, 574-575
requirements
record keeping, 574
minimum thickness of, 573
safety
Institute standards for, 575,
577t
antireection coatings on, 576-577
glass lens hardening
chemical tempering, 580-581
heat-treating process for,
579-580
impact requirements for
basic, 576, 577t
high, 576-577, 577t
manufacturer markings on, 576,
577t
Administration standards for,
575
side shields, 579, 579f
thickness requirements, 576
warning labels on, 576
sports
Materials standards, 582t,
582-583
best choices in, 583, 588
for children, 55
custom, 583
dispensers responsibilities, 583,
588-589
F803 sport protectors, 583b
inspection of, 589
negligence, 588-589
product liability, 588
product markings on, 582-583
safety of, 589
sport-specic, 584t-588t
Eyewire
broken, 247
lens insertion in, 122, 124
reshaping of, 47
Eyewire closure pliers, 129, 129f
Eyewire forming pliers, 128, 129f
Eyewire screw, 128-129
F
Face
asymmetry of, 178
balance of, 42
frame straightness on, 177-179
length of, 41-42
types of, 40
Face form
amount of, 141f
decentration compensated by, 414
metal frames, 153-154, 154f
plastic frames, 141f
rimless mountings, 165, 167
uses of, 64f
Facial features
childlike, 44
frame weight based on, 44t
narrow-set eyes, 43
wide-set eyes, 43
Farsightedness
plus lens for, 288
spherical lens for, 288
Federal Trade Commission, 574-575
Field hockey, eyewear for, 585t
Figure 8 liners, 134
Filing of temples, 145, 146f
Fine gold, 22
Finger-piece pliers, 151, 152f
Finished lens, 304
Finished lens blank, 82
First focal length, 280
First principal focus, 280, 283, 344
Fitting
frame front adjustments, 177-179
nosepads. See Nosepads
process involved in, 175-177
rechecking of, 212-213
steps involved in, 212b
temple
bend position, 180-184
criteria for, 183-184
description of, 179
Optyl, 184
skull, 179-180
spring hinge, 184-185
straight-back, 179-180
triangles of force, 175, 176f
vertex distance equality assessments,
176-177
Flame soldering, 254f-255f, 254-255
Flaring of temples, 143, 143f
Flat lens, 402
Flat surface touch test, 146-147,
148f
Flat-top bifocals
description of, 78, 435, 435f, 436t
spotting of, 595, 598b
Flat-top trifocals, 437f, 437t, 437-438
Flying, eyewear for, 584t-585t
Focal length, 98-99, 282
Focal point, 279-280, 280f
Focal power, 282
Folding frames, 614
Food and Drug Administration, dress
eyewear requirements by
record keeping, 574
Football, eyewear for, 585t
Forced hot air, for heating of frame,

138-139
Four-point touch, 141f-142f, 141-142
Frame
alignment of. See Alignment
cleaning of, 134, 135t, 253
clear coat nish added to, 14
color of, 43-44
combination, 4
construction of, 3-6, 4f-6f
de nition of, 3
half-eye, 4, 5f
handling of, 186-187, 187f
heating of, for lens insertion, 120,
121f-122f, 128
incorrectly sized, 81-82
lens insertion in. See Lens insertion
lower area of, 43
lowering of
with inverted U-shaped pad arms,
197f-198f
methods of, 213b
with question mark-style pad arms,
205, 206f
management of, 58
metal. See Metal frame
with metal cords with rims, 134
measurements using, 28, 29b
nylon cord, 3, 5f, 11
old, 39
parts of, 3
plastic. See Plastic frames
position of, 62
for progressive addition lens, 49, 50f,
454
raising of, without changing distance
between pads, 195-196, 198
seasonal selection of, 43-44
selection of. See Frame selection
shrinking of, 124
special purpose, 614-615
straightness of, 177-179
temples of, 3, 4f
upper area of, 42-43
verication of, 115-116
weight of, 44t
width of, 41
Frame difference, 18, 19f, 52, 52f
Frame front
adjustment of, 177-179
crooked, 178-179
de nition of, 3
face form, 63
facial length and, 41
illustration of, 4f
rimless, 9, 10f
tilt of, 178
Frame height
changing of
for inverted U-style pad arms,
195-198
Index
for question mark-style pad arms,
204-205
vertex distance and, 190-191, 191f
Frame interpupillary distance, 63, 65f
Frame lines, 42-43
Frame manufacturers, 22
Frame markings
eye size, 20
gold classications, 22-23
location of, 20, 22
on metal frames, 22
on plastic frames, 20, 22
safety, 22
Frame materials
allergic reactions to, 14
for metal frames. See Metal frame
for plastic frames, 9-12
Frame measurements
boxing system. See Boxing system
datum system, 17, 18f
Frame movement
to left
with inverted U-style pad arms,
192
204, 205f
to right
with inverted U-style pad arms,
192
204, 205f
summary of, 213b
Frame repairs
bridge, 242-247
broken eyewires, 247
hinges, 237-241
nosepads, 229-232
optical screwdriver for, 217, 218f-219f
screws. See Screw(s)
temple, 232-237
Frame selection
assistance during, 40
for children, 54-55
computerized image-capturing
systems for, 56f-57f, 56-57
cosmetic considerations, 39-45
description of, 39
devices to assist in, 55-57
for high minus lens, 49-51, 50b
for high plus lens, 51-54
nose length affected by, 44
for older wearers, 55
for progressive addition lens, 49, 50f
for safety eyewear, 55
tips for, 57-58
wearers old frames, 39
Frame shape
facial balance affected by, 42
facial length affected by, 41-42
facial types and, 40
remote frame shape tracer, 102,
103f
unknown, lenses only ordering for,

103-105
Frame size
for high minus lens, 49
Frame thickness
description of, 44
Frame tracer, 599-600
Franklin-style segment
bifocals, 435, 437
trifocals, 437f, 437t, 438
Free-form generating, 473-474
Fresnel lens, 398-400
Fresnel press-on segments
bifocal height measurements using,
72, 72f
double segment applicability using,
75
for near viewing, 446
Fresnel prism
advantages and disadvantages of,
396
applications of, 396-398, 399t
cleaning of, 400
de nition of, 396
homonymous hemianopia corrected
with, 397, 398f
lines on, 397f
nystagmus treated with, 398, 399t
schematic diagram of, 397f
spectacle lens application of,
399-400
vertical imbalance corrected using,
396-397, 502
visual eld detects corrected using,
397
Front to bend, 20, 20f
Front vertex power, 97, 344-346
Frontal angle
de nition of, 161
nosepad alignment using, 161-162
Front-surface coating, of plastic
photochromic lens, 549
Full aspheric lens, 425
Fundamental paraxial equation, 285,
342, 408
Fused multifocals, 434, 434f
FX9, 14
G
Genium, 14
Geometric asphericity, 420
Geometric center, 17, 600
Geometric center distance, 18-20
Geometry
Cartesian coordinate system, 266,
363f
sum of two vectors, 358
triangular forms, 266-267
Ghost images, 541-542
651
Glare
antireection coatings for, 542
causes of, 551
description of, 528
disability, 556-557
discomfort, 556
dyes for controlling, 557
nonprescription options for,
557
reective, 551-552, 554. See also
Polarizing lens
side shields for, 557
Glare control lens
CPF, 557, 558t, 559f
disadvantages of, 557, 559
Glass beads, for heating of frame,
138-139
Glass blowers lens, 559-560
Glass lens
CR-39 lens vs., 569
description of, 532, 569, 570t
hardening of
chemical tempering for, 580-581
heat-treating process for,
579-580
heat-treated, 571t, 579-580
impact resistance of
description of, 571t
581-582
photochromic, 548
reection from, 542
Glass screws, 228
Glazed lens
description of, 28
markings on, for bifocal height
measurements, 71, 71f
Glue
epoxy, 242
instant cements as, 242-243
Gold, 22-23
Gold ashing, 23
Gold plating, 23
Gold-plated metal nosepads, 231
Golf, eyewear for, 585t
Gradient lens, 538-539, 539f
Gram, 263
Gray-tinted lens, 536, 536f
Green-tinted lens, 535f, 535-536
Grilamid, 11
Ground-in prism, 388-389
H
Hair, frame color affected by, 43
Hairstyle, 40
Half-eye frames, 4, 5f
Handball, eyewear for, 585t
Headlight glare, 534
Hearing aids, 186
652
Index
Heat treating
crown glass after, 571t
glass lens hardening by, 579-580
Heating
of bridge, 139, 140f
of frame
for alignment, 138-139, 139f
forced hot air for, 138-139
hot salt beads for, 138-139
for lens insertion, 120, 121f-122f,
128
overheating, 139f
Heat-shrink tubing, 14
Hemianopic spectacles, 614
Hex nut, 251, 252f
Hex wrenches, 252
Hidden hinges
broken-off, 240, 241f
damaged, 240, 241f
loosened, 239, 240b
Optyl, 240-241, 242f
torn-out, 239-240, 240b
High minus lens
bevel of, 51, 51f
cataract lens, 52-53
design of, 427-428
edge of, 51
frame selection for, 49-51, 50b
high index plastic lens, 49-50
material of, 49-51
polycarbonate, 50-51
reections, 51
High plus lens
designs for, 425-427
multidrop, 426-427, 427f
refractive power of, 69f
segment height for, 79
Higher order aberrations, 409
High-index glass, 569
High-index lens
antireection coatings used with,
560-561
description of, 27
plastic, 49-50, 539, 570, 571t
High-mass impact test, of safety
frames, 578, 578f
High-velocity impact test, of safety
frames, 577-578, 578f
Hinge(s)
angling of, 148, 150f
hidden
broken-off, 240, 241f
damaged, 240, 241f
loosened, 239, 240b
Optyl, 240-241, 242f
torn-out, 239-240, 240b
repairing involved, 237-241
riveted
hammering of, 239f

loosening of, 148
removing of, 237f, 237-238
straightening of, 148, 149f
Hinge barrels, 222, 222f
Hinged front spectacles, 614
Hockey, eyewear for, 585t
Homonymous hemianopia
de nition of, 397
Fresnel prism for, 397, 398f
Horizontal decentration
of spheres, 379-380
Horizontal midline, 17, 18f
Horizontal prism
for near viewing
methods of providing, 446
ordering of, 448
segmentation decentration,
446-448
split lens for, 448-449
splitting of, 362
unwanted, 109-110, 610-611
vertical prism and, 594
Hot Fingers unit
illustration of, 240f
loose screws repaired using, 224-225,
225f
staples imbedding using, for plastic
bridge repair, 244, 244f
Hot salt beads, for heating of frame,
138-139
Hydrophobic sealant, 544, 545f,
546
Hyperbola, 417, 418f
Hyperopia, 288, 442
Hypoallergenic nosepads, 231
Hypotenuse, 266
I
Ice hockey, eyewear for, 585t
Image
prism-related displacement of,
355-356
real, 282
spectacle magnication effects on,
493-494
virtual, 283
Image jump, 442, 442f
Image shell error, 414
Image size
axial ametropia and, 494-495
refractive ametropia and, 495
Imbibition surface technology,
548
Impact resistance
Food and Drug Administrationmandated, for dress eyewear,
572-573
of glass lens

581-582
lens coatings effect on, 571-572
surface scratches effect on, 572
testing of, 571t
Infrared radiation
description of, 526
effects of, 530
In-mass technology, 548-549
Instant cements, 242-243
Interliner
acetate, 249-250
latex liquid, 250, 250f
Intermediate power, 440, 441f
Interpupillary distance
binocular
difculties associated with,
25-27
technique for, 25, 26f
de nition of, 25
frame, 63, 65f
measurements of
corneal reections used for, 30
errors in, 27
photographic instruments for, 30
in strabismus patients, 26
in uncooperative child, 26-27
in visually impaired dispenser,
25-26
measuring instruments for, 29-30
monocular
with aspheric lens, 424
decentration determined from, 601
de nition of, 601
description of, 27
frame used to measure, 28-29, 29b
for polycarbonate materials, 68
compensating of, 486b
horizontal placement of, 482
prism changes caused by
modication of, 484-485, 486f
verication of, 463
pupillometer for measuring, 27-28,
29f-30f
near. See Near interpupillary distance
wearers, 63
Interpupillary distance rule
description of, 25
near interpupillary distance
measured with, 30-31
In-the-ear hearing aids, 186
Inverse prism, 518
Inverted triangular facial shape, 40, 41t
Inverted U-shaped pad arms, adjusting
nosepads with
changing height of pads, 195,
197f-198f
distance between pads, 191-192, 193f
frame lowering, 197f-198f
Index
frame movement, 192, 194
vertex distance changes, 198-201
Invisible bifocals, 79, 454
Isocylinder lines, 469, 470f
J
Jackson crossed cylinders, 316-317
K
Kevlar frame
description of, 12
Keyhole bridge, 7, 7f
Keystone View stereoscopic cards, 497
Kilometer, 263
Knapps law, 494
L
Lacrosse, eyewear for, 585t
Lamberts law of absorption, 561-562
Laminated lens, 571
Laser protective eyewear, 563-564, 564f
Lateral chromatic aberration, 403-406
Latex liquid interliner, 250, 250f
LCM Optyl temple, 184
Length to bend, 20, 20f
Lens(es)
achromatic, 407, 407f
aspheric. See Aspheric lens
atoric. See Atoric lens
bitoric, 498, 499f
centration of, 376, 598
for children, 55
circumference measurements of,
103f-104f
cleaning of, 134, 135t
contact. See Contact lens
CR-39. See CR-39 lens
cutting out of, 84
cylinder. See Cylinder lens
decentration of. See Decentration
design of. See Lens design
development of, 402
effective diameter of, 18, 82
at, 402
Fresnel, 398-400
gradient, 538-539, 539f
insertion of. See Lens insertion
laminated, 571
left designation of, 593
lenticular, 426, 426f-427f
loose
in plastic frame, 249
slightly, 251, 251f
lower edge appears out of the frame,
247-248
materials used in. See Lens materials
measurement of, 17-18
meniscus. See Meniscus lens
minus. See Minus lens
myodisc, 428, 428f
negative, 283, 283f

optical center of, 95-96, 593. See also
Optical center
periscopic, 402
photochromic. See Photochromic
lens
plus. See Plus lens
polarizing. See Polarizing lens
polycarbonate. See Polycarbonate
lens
positive, 282
power range of, 478
progressive addition. See Progressive
addition lens
quantifying of
concave curvature, 282, 282f
convex curvature, 282, 282f
sign conventions, 280-281, 281f
surface curvature, 281-282
surface power, 283-284
removal of, 126, 127f
reversing of, 345f
right designation of, 593
rotated, 140, 152
second principal focus of, 280
semi nished, 304, 545
spherical. See Spherical lens
spherocylinder. See Spherocylinder
lens
split, 446, 448-449
surface of. See Lens surface
surfaced, 415
thickness of. See Lens thickness
thin-edged, with nylon cord frames,
133-134
tinted. See Tinted lens
tinting of, 39
toric, 421
tracing of, 103, 105f
uncut, 304
upper edge appears out of the frame,
248
with UV ltering, 529
vergence of light through, 341-342
vergence power of, 339
Lens blank
aspheric, 423
nished, 82
for polarizing lens, 552, 554f
semi nished, 82
Lens chipping, 157f, 164, 330
Lens clock, 101, 115, 308, 309f. See also
Lens measure
Lens coatings
antifog, 547
antireection. See Antireection
coatings
color, 540-541
description of, 539
dielectric, 548
653
edge, 548
impact resistance affected by,
571-572
metallized, 548
mirror, 547-548
scratch-resistant, 539-540, 544
Lens curvature
aspheric surface effects, 421
back vertex power affected by, 345f
base curves, 305-308
concave, 282, 282f
convex, 282, 282f
measurement of, 308-315
in oblique meridian, 331-333
radius of, 331, 332f, 418
single vision, 305-308
spherical, 331
surface, 281-282
technique for nding, 306b
Lens design
aspheric lens. See Aspheric lens
atoric lens. See Atoric lens
blind eye appearance changed by,
517-518, 518f
cosmetic uses of, 518, 519t-520t
high plus lens, 425-427
Lens diameter
effective, 18, 82
for noncentered lens, 330
Lens forms
of cylinder, 293, 295
of sphere, 292-293
of spherocylinder, 296-298
Lens insertion
in bifocals, 125-126
in carbon ber frames, 121t, 127
in cellulose acetate frames
checking of lens, 124-125, 125f
heating of frame, 120, 121f-122f
methods for, 120, 122f-123f,
122-124
overview of, 121t
shrinking of frame, 124
in cellulose propionate frames, 121t,
126-127
in eyewire, 124
in Kevlar frame, 128
in metal frame, 128-129, 129f
in nylon frames, 121t, 127
in Optyl frames, 121t, 128
in polyamide frames, 121t, 127
in polycarbonate frames, 121t,
127
rolling during, 247, 248f
Lens interline
acetate, 249-250
latex liquid, 250, 250f
Lens magnication
differences in, 404
prismatic effects on, 417, 513-516
654
Index
Lens materials
crown glass. See Crown glass
high-index glass, 569
multifocal lens, 101-102
NTX, 571, 571t
plastic. See Plastic lens
Trivex, 570t-571t, 571
Lens measure
conversion factors for, 312
legs of, 308
on multifocals, 310-311
nominal power obtained using,
310
on plastic surfaces, 313-314
refractive power of lens surface
determined using, 312
sagittal depth, 308-309
Lens pairs, 498-500
Lens planes, 142, 142f, 154
Lens power
compensated factors
for wrap-around prescription lens,
411
desired focal plane and, 339f
dioptric, 338
effective
formula for, 341
of spherocylinder lens, 341
vertex distance changes and,
339-341
error in, 414-415
lensmeter for verication of, 105
low, near addition power
measurements for, 99
nominal, 284
positional problems involving, 338
for reading glasses, 439-441
units of, 282
Lens reections
Lamberts law and, 562
types of, 541-542, 542f
variations in, 541, 541f
window effect, 541, 541f
Lens screw, 170, 171f. See also Screw
Lens size
C-size, 17, 18f
description of, 17
segment height affected by, 74
Lens surface
concave, 282, 282f
convex, 282, 282f
curvature of, 281-282
refractive power of, 311-312
scratched, impact resistance affected
by, 572
toric, 295, 295f
Lens surfacing, 593
Lens thickness
back vertex power affected by, 345f
center
of planoconvex lens, 325
concepts associated with, 325
dress eyewear requirements, 573
edge
estimating of, 330-331
of minus lens, 326
of planoconcave lens, 326-328
lens power affected by, 341-343
meniscus lens, 324-325
photochromic plastic lens
performance affected by,
550-551
plano-convex lens, 325-326
prism effects on, 390-391
reduced, 342
safety eyewear, 576
sagittal depth formula used to
determine, 323-324
transmission variations based on,
526, 527f
Lens tilt
correction of, 474
intentional, 414
oblique astigmatism caused by, 410
prismatic effect caused by, 413, 413f
spherocylinder lens, 413
in wrap-around prescription lens,
411-412
Lens transmission
photometer assessment of, 529, 529f
thickness-related variations, 526, 527f
tint amounts for, 531
ultimate, 562
of ultraviolet radiation, 532f
Lens washer, 249-250
Lensmakers formula, 283-284, 403
Lensmeter
autolensmeter, 113-114, 114f
corona-target, 96
crossed-line-target, 92-96
cylinder power, 94, 95f
horizontal distance between dots on,
109f
lens power verications using, 105
minus cylinder axis, 92-94
optical center prepared using, 101f
parts of, 92f
plus cylinder form, 94-95
prism compensating device, 112-113
resolving prism, 364f
single-vision lens power obtained
using, 92-96
vertical imbalance amount
determined using, 509
Lens-twisting pliers, 124, 125f
Lenticular lens
for high minus lens, 427-428
for high plus lens, 426, 426f-427f
Library temples
tting of, 179-180, 183-184
Light
colored, 273-274
converging, 279, 284-287, 285f
in decentered lens, 378f
description of, 526
diverging, 284-287, 285f
focusing, 279-280, 280f
ocular effects of, 526-530
in prism
deviation of, 349-350
reection of, 274, 275f-276f
refraction of, 279
spectrum of, 526, 527f
speed of, 276
theory of, 273-274
ultraviolet. See Ultraviolet light
vergence of
de nition of, 443
for thick lens, 341-342
for thin lens, 341
through a lens, 341-342
Light waves, 273-274
Line of sight, 29-30
Liner
double-sided adhesive, 250
latex liquid interliner, 250, 250f
nylon cord frames with, 134
Liquid lens liner, 14
Logic nosepads, 231, 231f
Longitudinal chromatic aberration,
402-405
Loose lens
in plastic frame, 249
slightly, 251, 251f
Lorgnettes, 614
Lower edge of pupil method, for
trifocal height measurements,
73, 73f
Lower lid margin method, for bifocal
height measurements, 71
Lower limbus method, for bifocal
height measurements, 70-71,
71b, 71f
M
Magnesium, 14
Magnication, lens
differences in, 404
prismatic effects on, 417, 513-516
Magnication differences
for aniseikonia, 496-498
bitoric lens as causing, 498, 499f
de nition of, 404
Index
Major reference point
for aspherics, 69
polycarbonate lens, 68-69
vertical placement of, 63
Major reference point height
dropping of, for vertical imbalance
correction, 501-502
measurement of
for aspheric lens, 424-425
of existing lens, 102
methods for, 424-425
pantoscopic angle compensation
during, 68f, 68-69
summary of, 68, 68f
positioning of, 69, 69f
Makeup spectacles, 614
Malus law, 554, 555b
Marginal astigmatism, 410
Maximum compressive stress, 579
Maximum tensile stress, 579
Mean dispersion, 403
Memory plastics, 12
Meniscus lens
center thickness of, 328-330
de nition of, 324
edge thickness of, 328-330
illustration of, 295f
six-base, 402
thickness of, 324-325
Meridian of highest absolute power
de nition of, 612
error tolerance, 106-107
methods of obtaining, 106-107
Meridional aniseikonia, 492f
Metal bridges, 7, 7f
Metal endpieces, 8, 8f
Metal frame
air space in, 250-251, 251f
base curve considerations for, 417
description of, 3, 4f, 12
gap in, 250-251
gold classications for, 22-23
hair color and, 43
lens insertion into, 128-129, 129f
loose lens in, 249-251
markings on, 22
materials used in
aluminum, 13
bronze, 14
nickel-based, 12-13
stainless steel, 13
titanium, 13-14
pantoscopic angle in, 157-158,
158f-159f
position of, 62
temple-fold angle in, 160f-161f,
160-161
with variant lens, 154, 154f-155f
X-ing of, 154, 154f
Metal plaques, 252-253
Metal temple
description of, 14
ling and lengthening of, 233, 234f
replacing of plastic earpiece covers,
232
shortening of, 233, 234f
tips for, 234
Metallized coatings, 548
Meter, 263
Metric system, 263
Minimal vertex distance, 49
Minimum blank size
checking for, 448
de nition of, 330
for multifocal lens, 83-84, 84f
for single vision lens, 82-84
Minimum tangential error form, 415
Minus cylinder axis, 92-94
Minus cylinder form lens
base curve for, 305, 306f-307f
Minus lens
aspheric lens for wearers of, 425
cylinder, 291, 294f
description of, 377
edge thickness of, 390b, 392
high. See High minus lens
nearsightedness corrected using, 288
prism effects on thickness of, 390b,
392
Mirror coating, 547-548
Modied saddle bridge, 7, 7f
Monel, 13
Monochromatic aberrations
coma, 409, 410f
curvature of eld, 414
description of, 408
distortion, 414
oblique astigmatism, 409-410,
410f-411f
Seidel aberrations, 408
spherical aberration, 409, 409f
tilting of lens. See Tilting lens
Zernike polynomials used to classify,
408-409
Monocle, 614
Monocular interpupillary distance
decentration determined from, 601
de nition of, 601
description of, 27
frame used to measure, 28-29, 29b
for polycarbonate materials, 68
verication of, 463
pupillometer for measuring, 27-28,
29f-30f
655
Monovision, 491
Motorcycling, eyewear for, 585t
Mountain climbing, eyewear for, 586t
Mounting line, 164
Mountings
balgrip, 6, 6f
de nition of, 3
Numont, 4, 6, 6f
rimless. See Rimless mountings
semirimless, 4, 6f, 9
verication of, 115
Multidrop lens, 426-427, 427f
Multifocals
base curve of, 100-101, 308
cement lens, 434
chord diameter formula used with,
330
construction of, 434
double-segment lens, 438f, 438-439,
439t
fused
antireection coating on, 561
slab off for, 502, 503f
lens measure used with, 310-311
material used in, 101-102
minimum blank size for, 83-84, 84f
near interpupillary distance for, 30
occupational, 438f, 438-439
one-piece, 310, 434
reordering of, prescription
information for
add power measurements, 97, 98f
base curve, 100-101
distance powers, 97, 97f
lens material, 101-102
major reference point, 102
tint, 102
segment for
fused, 310
height of, 100
size of, 100, 100f
segmented
bifocals. See Bifocal(s)
centration of, 604-605
creation of, 304
lens measure used with, 310-311
near addition, 431-433
refractive power tolerances for, 609
tolerances for, 612
trifocals. See Trifocals
with spherocylinder powers, 595
terminology associated with, 433-434
Myodisc lens, 428, 428f
Myopia, 288
Myopic aniseikonia, 495
N
Nail polish, for sealing loose screws,
217, 219, 219f
656
Index
Narrow eyes, 43
Nasal angles
crestal angle, 37f, 47-48
frontal angle, 45-47, 46f
splay angle, 45, 46f-47f, 47
Nasal cut technique, 47, 47f
Near addition
as back vertex power, 461f
de nition of, 431
measurement of, 461f
to plus lens, 432f
principles of, 431-433
Near interpupillary distance
calculation of, 31-32, 32f
measurements of
for bifocal inset, 31-36
interpupillary distance rule for,
30-31
progressive addition lens based on,
465, 467
pupillometer for, 31
recommendations for, 34
Near power
correct ordering of, 440-441
measurements of, when lens powers
are low, 99
Near reference point, 460f, 461
Near segment. See Near addition
Near variable focus lens
customizing of, 479-480
degressions, 478-479, 480f
differences among, 478-479, 479t
tting of, 481
power changes, 479, 480f
power ranges, 478
types of, 479t
Near viewing
cylinder correction for, 445
Fresnel press-on segments for,
446
horizontal prism for
methods of providing, 446
ordering of, 448
segmentation decentration,
446-448
split lens for, 448-449
Near viewing area
checking for, 468b
insufcient, 465, 467
Nearsightedness
minus lens for, 288
spherical lens for, 288
Negative lens, 283, 283f
Negative numbers, 265, 265f
Nickel silver, 13
Nickel-based materials, 12-13
Night driving
antireection-coated lens for, 546,
547f
headlight glare during, 534
tinted lens used during
cautions against, 531
yellow, 534
Nominal base curve, 311
Nominal power
de nition of, 292
description of, 284
lens measure used to determine, 310
Nonconcomitant strabismus, 446
Nonfull aspheric lens, 425
Nonimpact-resistant lens, 573
Nose
asymmetrical, 192, 194
lengthening of, bridge design for, 44,
44f
Nosepads
acetate, 231
adjustable. See Adjustable nosepads
alignment of, angles used for
frontal angle, 161f-162f, 161-162
splay angle, 162-163, 163f, 189f
vertical angle, 163f, 163-164
allergic reaction to, 14
A.O. twist system, 257, 257f
asymmetrical, 192, 195f
B & L clamp style of, 257, 257f
clip-on, 257, 257f
crystal, 231
de nition of, 3, 4f
gold-plated metal, 231
height changes, 195, 197f-198f
height of, 162, 162f
hypoallergenic, 231
with inverted U-shaped pad arms
197f-198f
distance between pads, 191-192,
193f
Logic, 231, 231f
materials used in, 231
on plastic frames, replacement of,
244-247
pliers used to adjust, 162f, 187
press-on, 245, 246f
push-on, 230, 230f, 256
with question mark-style pad arms
frame height changes, 204-205
frame movement to left or right,
204, 205f
lowering of frame, 205, 206f
narrowing the distance between
pads, 203-204, 204f
vertex distance
decreases in, 206, 208f
increases in, 205, 207f
widening the distance between

pads, 201-203, 202f
replacement of
on plastic frames, 244-247
for rimless mountings
description of, 170
pad adjustments, 190, 190f-191f
rivet type of, 258
screw-on, 230-231, 231f, 256
for semirimless mountings, 190,
190f-191f
silicone, 231, 245
sizes of, 231
spacing of, 162, 162f
split-clamp style of, 258, 258f
stick-on, 245
stirrup type of, 258, 258f
titanium, 231
twist-on, 257, 257f
vinyl, 231
Zeiss bayonet style of, 257, 257f
NTX materials, 571, 571t
Nu value, 404
Numont mountings, 4, 6, 6f
Nut, 229
Nylon cord frames
alternate names for, 130
broken nylon cord, 133
lens insertion into, 130-134
with liners, 134
loose, 134
replacing of nylon cord, 130-134
thin-edged lens used with, 133-134
Nylon frames
description of, 11
Nystagmus
Fresnel prism for, 398, 399t
O
Oblique astigmatism, 409-410, 410f411f, 415, 473
Oblique decentration, 380
Oblique meridian
curvature in, 331-333, 387
thickness in, 332
Obliquely crossed cylinders
clinical occurrence of, 317
conceptual understanding of,
322-323
decentration of, 382, 386f
formula method for calculating,
320-322
graphical method for calculating,
317-320
prismatic effect produced by,
386f
Obliquely crossed prisms, 365, 366f
Oblong facial shape, 40, 41t
Index
Occupational glasses
multifocals, 438f, 438-439
progressives, 481, 481f
Administration safety eyewear
standards, 575
Oculus dexter, 89
Oculus sinister, 89
Old frames, 39
Older wearers, 55
One-piece multifocals, 434
Opacity, 562-563
Open temple spread, 142-145, 143f-145f
Optical aniseikonia, 493
Optical axis, 376
Optical bleaching, 550
Optical center
center-pupil height, 66f
distance between, 91-92
lensmeter used to prepare, 101f
locating of, 95-96
optically correct placement of, 63,
66f-67f
pantoscopic tilt and, 67f
prismatic effect, 62
of round-segment bifocals, 434, 442
Optical density, 563-564, 564f
Optical laboratory, 509
Optical Laboratory Association
Progressive Identi er, 463-464,
464f
Optical screwdriver, 217, 218f-219f
Optyl frame
nish restoration on, 253
heating of, 128
hidden hinge in, 240-241, 242f
history of, 128
temple, 184
Ordering
from existing spectacles. See
Reordering
of lenses only
C-size used for, 102-103
for frame of unknown shape,
103-105
remote frame tracer for, 102,
103f
of prescription, 89, 90f-91f
Oval facial shape, 40, 41t
P
Pad arms. See also Nosepads
inverted U-shaped
197f-198f
distance between pads, 191-192,
193f

question mark-style
frame movement to left or right,
204, 205f
pads, 203-204, 204f
vertex distance
widening the distance between
pads, 201-203, 202f
Pad popper, 230, 230f
Pad-adjusting pliers, 162f, 187, 198
Paintball, eyewear for, 586t
Panoptik segment bifocals, 435, 435f,
436t
Pantoscopic angle
changing of
in metal frames, 157-158, 158f-159f
in rimless mountings, 170f-171f
compensation for, during major
reference point height
determinations, 68f, 68-69,
424
setting of, 178
uneven, 150b
Pantoscopic tilt
amount of, 63t
de nition of, 63
optical center and, 67f
uses of, 64f
Parabola, 417, 418f
Parallelogram, 270, 271f
Paraxial equation, 285
Parentheses, 264-265
Path condition, of antireection
coatings, 542-543, 543f
Pattern
measurements, 598
mechanical center of, 598, 599f
placement on edger, 598
terminology, 598
Pattern making, 598
Patterned edgers, 605
Patternless edging
decentration using, 606
de nition of, 605
frame tracer for, 599-600
PD. See Interpupillary distance
Peening tool, 238
Percival form lens, 415
Periscopic lens, 402
Phoropter, 367
Photochromic lens
antireection coating of, 546, 551
description of, 529
glass, 548
657
history of, 548

plastic
advantages and disadvantages of,
549-550
coating of, 551
colors for, 551
dip coating of, 549
exposure memory of, 550
factors that affect performance of,
550-551
front-surface coating of, 549
imbibition surface technology for,
548
in-mass technology for, 548-549
lens thickness effects, 550
manufacturing process for, 548
temperature effects on, 550
transbonding of, 549
tempering of, 580
ultraviolet light absorption by, 551
Photokeratitis, 527
Photometer, 529, 529f
Physiologic aniseikonia, 491
Pincushion distortion, 414
Pink-tinted lens, 532-533
Pistol shooting, eyewear for, 586t-587t
Plano surface, 281
Planoconcave lens
edge thickness of, 326-328
Planoconvex lens
center thickness of, 325-326
cross-section of, 327f
knife-edged, 326f
Planocylinders
description of, 381
minus, 382
plus, 382
vertical imbalance for, 512
Plastic bridge
description of, 6-7
xed pads, 209, 209f
repair of
glues for, 242-243
imbedding staples using Hot
Fingers unit, 244, 244f
overview of, 242
wire braces for, 243f, 243-244
sculptured, 209
Plastic endpieces, 7-8, 8f
Plastic frames
base curve considerations for, 417
bridge size changes
dowel rods for, 210, 211f
frame customization for, 212
manual, 211-212
pliers for, 210, 210f-211f
staking tool for, 210, 211f
carbon ber, 11
cellulose acetate, 10, 11f
coloration of, 9
658
Index
discoloration of, 253
lens insertion into
lower edge appearing out of frame,
247-248
upper edge appearing out of frame,
248
loose lens in, 249
markings on, 20, 22
materials used in, 9-12
nosepads
adjustable, 245, 247
replacement of, 244-247
nylon, 11
Optyl, 10-11
polycarbonate, 11-12, 12f
position of, 62
trim on, 251-252
X-ing of, 141-142, 142f
Plastic lens
CR-39. See CR-39 lens
dyeing of
with antireection coating, 546
gradient lens, 538-539, 539f
high-index, 49-50, 539, 570, 571t
lens measure used on, 313-314
NTX, 571, 571t
photochromic. See Photochromic
lens
polycarbonate. See Polycarbonate
lens
slab off in, 502
Trivex, 570t-571t, 571
Plastic temple
conversion to cable-style temple, 235,
236f
shortening of, 235, 237
Pliers
angling, 148, 149f, 168
bridge-narrowing, 211f
bridge-widening, 210f
cutting, 237, 238f
double-padded, 157, 157f, 168
eyewire closure, 129, 129f
eyewire forming, 128, 129f
nger-piece, 151, 152f
lens-twisting, 124, 125f
pad-adjusting, 162f, 187, 198
plastic frame surface marked by, 253
punch, 237
rimless adjusting, 190f
square-round, 202f-203f, 203
temple bend, 182, 183f
Plus cylinder form lens
base curve for, 305, 307f
description of, 94-95, 296, 298
Plus lens
aspheric lens for wearers of, 425
bifocal near addition added to, 432f

decentration of, 391-392
farsightedness corrected using, 288
high
designs for, 425-427
multidrop, 426-427, 427f
refractive power of, 69f
segment height for, 79
prism effects on thickness of, 390b
thinning of, 420f
Point focal lens, 415
Polariscope, 581
Polarizing lens
advantages of, 554-555
Brewsters angle, 551, 552f, 553b
demonstrating of, 555
description of, 529
lens blank for, 552, 554f
precautions with, 555
reective glare reduced using, 551552, 554
snow uses of, 554-555
as sunglasses, 554-555
tempering of, 555
Polyamide frame
description of, 11
Polycarbonate frame, 11-12, 12f
Polycarbonate lens
characteristics of, 50-51, 101, 570t,
570-571
for children, 55
dyeing of, 539
major reference point placement for,
68-69
safety of, 570-571
Polyvinyl acetate, 552
Positive lens, 282
Positive numbers, 265, 265f
Power
add. See Add power
back vertex
description of, 97, 344-346
near addition measured as, 461
chromatic, 405
compensating prism, 113
cylinder
oblique astigmatism with, 474
sum of, 315f
toric contact lens with, 317
verication of, 106
writing, 290
dioptric, 338
dispersive, 404
distance
effective. See Effective power

focal, 282
front vertex, 97
intermediate, 440, 441f
lens. See Lens power
near
correct ordering of, 440-441
measurements of, when lens
powers are low, 99
nominal
de nition of, 292
description of, 284
lens measure used to determine,
310
refractive. See Refractive power
spherocylindrical, 291
surface, 283-284
Power cross, 293
Power error, 414-415
Power meridian, 290-291, 291f,
294f
Powers (mathematics), 265-266
Precast slab-off lens, 502-505
Prentices rule
description of, 62-63, 376-377, 405,
442
vertical imbalance calculations using,
509-510
Presbyopia
anisometropia effects in, 491
de nition of, 431
near addition requirements, 473
Prescription
base curve specied in, 314
for multifocal lens
add power measurements, 97,
98f
base curve information, 100-101
tint, 102
ordering of, 89, 90f-91f
for single-vision lens, 92-96
verication of
error tolerances, 106-107
frame, 115
lens powers, 105-106
meridian of highest absolute
power, 107
multifocal segment, 114-115
prisms, 110, 112-114
Press-on nosepads, 245, 246f
Pretinted lens
antireection coating of, 545-546
transmission problems in, 526
Prism
apex of
Index
base and, thickness differences
between, 389-390
apical angle of
description of, 349
light deviation created by, 349-351
auxiliary, 112, 112f, 369f
base-down, 481
base-in, 356, 357f
base-out, 356, 357f, 362, 391
base-up, 391-392
compensating devices for reading,
112-113
compounding, 362-363, 363f
decentration used to create, 388-389
displacement, 352-354
effective power of, 367, 369, 371, 376
Fresnel. See Fresnel prism
ground-in, 388-389
high amounts of, 111-112
horizontal. See Horizontal prism
image displacement, 355-356
indications for, 76
inverse, 518
lens magnication affected by, 417
light in
deviation of, 349-350
modications effect on, 484485, 486f
multiple, 358
obliquely crossed, 365, 366f
prescribed, verication of, 110,
112-114
resolving, 362-365
Risleys, 112, 365, 367, 368f-369f
rotary, 365, 367
segment height and, 75-76
segment-induced, 506-507
slab-off, 397, 503, 503f
splitting of, 362
thin, 350-352
vertical
tting cross heights of progressive
addition lens affected by,
482-483
horizontal prism and, 594
splitting of, 362
tolerances, 107-108
unwanted, checking for, 107-108
Prism base
apex and, thickness differences
between, 389-390
description of, 349
Prism base direction
with decentration, 377
modied 180-degree reference
system for, 361-362
for paired lens, 362
prescribers method for

conversion to 360-degree
laboratory reference system,
357-358
two prism elements are involved,
358-361
360-degree laboratory reference
system
description of, 357
prescribers method converted to,
357-358
413
Prism centrad, 354-355
Prism chart, 359, 360f-361f
Prism diopters
degrees of deviation converted to,
352f, 354
image displacement expressed in, 355
Prism power, 112, 376
de nition of, 109, 112-113, 459, 460f,
594
prism thinning effects on, 482
Prism thickness
apex and, difference between,
389-390
lens thickness affected by, 390-392
Prism thinning, 481-482, 482f, 597
Prismatic effect
base-down, 377f
base-up, 377f
with bifocals, 442
cylinder decentration as cause of,
380-381
differences in, 404-405
lateral chromatic aberration and,
404-405
lens decentration as cause of, 376,
483, 595f
of lens pairs, 498-500
lens tilt as cause of, 413, 413f
magnication and, relationship
between, 513-516
oblique cylinder decentration as
cause of, 386f
spherocylinder lens-induced, 385,
511f
addition lens, 459, 461, 461f
vertical, 500, 511f
413-414
Progressive addition lens
aspheric lens and, 420-421
aspherical portions, 469, 471
atoric, 473-475
blended bifocal vs., 79
centration of, 603-604, 604b
659
in children, 457-458
construction of, 454, 455f
contour plots used to evaluate, 469,
470f-471f
design of
aspheric surface methods, 474
as-worn, 474-475
atoric surface methods, 474
changes in, 469-473
hard, 471, 472f, 473b
manufacturing advances effect on,
473-474
multidesign, 473
position-of-wear, 474-475
soft, 471-473, 472f, 473b
unwanted cylinder affected by, 469
dispensing of, 465
tting cross heights
accuracy of, 482
in children, 457-458
manufacturers centration chart
for, 456f-458f
red dot procedure for verication
of, 459
tolerances for, 611
verication of, 463
vertical prism effects on, 482-483
at base curve, 421
frame selection for, 49, 50f, 454
free-form generating of, 473-474
general purpose
characteristics of, 468-469
hard design, 471, 472f, 473b
hidden engravings on, 463f-464f,
463-465
horizontal prism modications,
483-485
left-specic, 473
lens tilt in, 474
manufacturing of, 473-474
measurements for
marking of cross on glazed lenses
or tape, 458-459
red dot procedure, 459
standard method, 455-457,
456f-458f
monocular interpupillary distances
verication of, 463
measurements used for, 465,
467
near variable focus lens
customizing of, 479-480
degressions, 478-479, 480f
differences among, 478-479, 479t
660
Index
tting of, 481

power changes, 479, 480f
power ranges, 478
types of, 479t
near-point power circle on, 459, 459f
occupational, 481
personalized, 475-476, 476f
with plano distance power, 477f
power ranges
near variable focus lenses, 478
prism thinning for, 481-482, 482f
premarked, 595, 597
prism thinning, 481-482
reference points on, 598f
right-specic, 473
selection of, 454-455
short corridor, 476, 476b
slab off for, 502
soft design, 471-473, 472f, 473b
specialty, 476-481
spherical portions, 469, 471
spotting of, 595-598
thinning of, 481-482, 482f
troubleshooting of, 465-468,
466t-467t
unknown, 463-464
unwanted cylinder, 468-469, 474
validation of, on patient, 465
verication of
add power, 461, 462f
distance power arc, 459, 460f
major points or areas, 459, 459f
near power, 461, 461f
prismatic effect, 459, 461, 461f
vertex distance for, 454, 474
Progressive Identier, 464, 464f
Prosthetic eye, 517-518, 518f
Pterygium, 528
Ptosis spectacles, 614
Pudgy face, 42
Punch pliers, 237
Pupil center
description of, 25
measuring of, 68f
Pupillometer
Essilors, 29f-30f
measurements using, 31
Push-on nosepads, 230, 230f, 256
P-values, 417, 418b
Pythagorean theorem, 266, 267f, 323f
Q
Quadrafocal lens, 438f, 438-439, 439t
Question mark-style pad arms,
adjusting nosepads with
frame movement to left or right, 204,
205f

pads, 203-204, 204f
vertex distance
widening the distance between pads,
201-203, 202f
R
R segments
compensated, for vertical imbalance
correction, 507-508, 508f
description of, 435, 435f, 436t
Racquetball, eyewear for, 586t
Radial astigmatism, 410
Radiation
infrared, 526, 530
ultraviolet. See Ultraviolet light
Radius of curvature, 331, 332f, 418
Reading addition lens, 99
Reading center, 510f
Reading glasses, lens power for,
439-441
Reading level, 508
Real images, 282
Reciprocal, 265
Recumbent spectacles, 614-615
Rede-Rite bifocal, 438f, 439
Reduced thickness, 342-343
Reference power, 478
Reection, 274, 275f-276f
Refraction
description of, 276
of multiple light rays, 279
Snells law, 276-278, 349
Refractive ametropia, 494-495, 498
Refractive index
description of, 276
lens measure used to nd lens power,
313
lens reections based on, 541t
lens transmission affected by,
560-561
reduced thickness and, 342-343
Refractive power, of lens surface
front surface, 313
lens measure for determining of,
312
tolerances, 609, 612
Relative refractive index, 276
Relative spectacle magnication, 494
Remote frame shape tracer, 102, 103f
Reordering, from existing spectacles
facial measurements, 91
lens information, 89, 91-92
multifocal lens
add power measurements, 97, 98f
base curve, 100-101

tint, 102
Replacement screws
self-locking, 219-220, 220f
for spring hinges, 220-222
Replating, touch-up, 256, 256f
Resolving prism, 362-365
Resultant prism chart, 359, 360f-361f
Retinal protection against ultraviolet
radiation, 53, 528
Retroscopic tilt, 146
Reversible spectacles, 615
Ribbon segments, 435, 435f, 436t
Riding, eyewear for, 586t
Riding bow temples
tting of, 185-186
Rifer le, 251, 252f
Rie shooting, eyewear for, 587t
Right angle, 266
Right triangle, 266, 267f
Rimless adjusting pliers, 190f
Rimless mountings
assembly designs for, 229f
bridge
horizontal alignment of, 164-165,
165f
vertical alignment of, 165, 167
description of, 4, 5f, 9, 10f, 164
lens material used in, 164
loose lens in, 170, 171f
nosepad alignment, 170
pantoscopic angle of, 170f-171f
screws used in, 229
temple in
bent-down portion of, 168
parallelism of, 168, 170f
spread of, 167-168, 168f-169f
temple-fold angle in, 168, 171f
Risleys prism, 112, 365, 367,
368f-369f
Rivet nosepads, 258
Riveted hinges
hammering of, 239f
loosening of, 148
removing of, 237f, 237-238
Roots, 265-266
Rotary prisms, 365, 367
Rotated lens, 140, 152
Round facial shape, 40, 41t
Round segment, 100f
Round-segment bifocals, 78, 126,
434-435, 435f, 436t
Rubber, 12
Running, eyewear for, 586t
S
Saddle bridge
design of, 45
metal, 7, 7f
plastic, 6, 7f
Index
Safety
of polycarbonate lens, 570-571
of sports eyewear, 589
Safety eyewear
Institute standards for, 575,
577t
de ning of, 578-579
glass lens hardening
chemical tempering, 580-581
heat-treating process for, 579-580
impact requirements for
basic, 576, 577t
high, 576-577, 577t
manufacturer markings on, 576, 577t
Administration standards for,
575
side shields, 579, 579f
thickness requirements, 576
warning labels on, 576
Safety frames
Institute standards for, 577
high-mass impact test of, 578, 578f
high-velocity impact test of, 577-578,
578f
marking of, 22, 578, 578b
selection of, 55
for sports eyewear, 589
Sagittal depth
accurate formula, 323
approximate formula, 323
de nition of, 308
formula for, 308-309, 323
lens diameter, 330
lens measure and, 308-309
lens thickness determined using,
323-324
Sagittal meridian, 411
Salt pan
bridge heated using, 139
description of, 120
temple heated using, 150, 151f
Scratch-resistant coatings
antireection coatings and, 544
impact resistance affected by,
571-572
Screw(s)
broken
drilling out of, 226, 227f
removal of, 224b, 225-228
screw extractor for, 225, 226f
thread restoration, 226-227, 228f
corrosion of, 224
diameter of, 222, 223f
excess, 251, 252f
glass, 228
length of, 222, 223f

loose
repair methods for, 220b
screw-locking adhesive sealant for,
217, 219, 219f
self-locking replacement screws
for, 219-220, 220f
ultrasonic cleaner for, 224, 224f
measuring of, 222, 223f
missing, 222, 223t
replacement
description of, 222
diameter sizes for, 223t
inventory system for, 223, 224f
self-locking, 219-220, 220f
rivetlike head added to, 219, 219f
self-tapping, 228f, 228-229
stainless steel, 243-244
stuck
penetrating oil for, 224, 225f
punch-out of, 225
removal of, 223-225, 224b
soldering iron for, 224-225
ultrasonic cleaner, 224, 224f
temple, 228
threads, restoration of, 226-227, 228f
titanium, 223
Screw extractor, 225, 226f
Screwdriver, optical, 217, 218f-219f
Screw-on nosepads, 230-231, 231f, 256
Scuba diving, eyewear for, 587t
Sculptured bridge, 209
Second principal focus, 280, 283, 344
Seg depth, 433
Seg drop, 434
Seg height. See Segment height
Seg inset, 434
Seg outset, 434
Seg width, 433
Segment
B, 435, 435f, 436t
curve-top, 435, 435f, 436t
D, 435
decentration of, for horizontal prism
at near, 446-448
defects in, 115
dissimilar, for vertical imbalance
correction, 505, 507b, 507f
at-top, 79, 435, 435f, 436t
Franklin-style, 435, 437
high-powered prism, 398
panoptik, 435, 435f, 436t
prism-compensated, 80-81, 398
R, 435, 435f, 436t
ribbon, 435, 435f, 436t
round, width of, 100f
size of, for multifocals, 100, 100f
Segment height
adjustments in, 80b
bifocals
661
assessment of, 72f

factors that affect, 74
blended bifocals, 79
description of, 20
determinants of, 433-434
height effects on, 78
high plus lens, 79
for multifocals, 100, 433
occupational considerations, 78
posture effects on, 78
round bifocals, 78
segment-measuring devices used to
measure, 74f
unequal, 75-77
variations of, 78-80
vertex distances inuence on, 80, 80f
vertical imbalance corrected by
increasing of, 502
vertical prism effects on, 75-76, 77f
Segment lens, 75
Seidel aberrations, 408, 415
Self-locking replacement screws, 219220, 220f
Self-tapping screws, 228f, 228-229
Semi nished lens
antireection coatings on, 545
description of, 304
Semi nished lens blank, 82
Semirimless mountings
nosepad angle adjustments for, 190,
190f-191f
Set number, 605
Shank, 3, 4f
Shield glasses, 12, 12f
Shoe, of rimless mounting, 9, 10f
Shooting, eyewear for, 586t-587t
Short corridor progressive lens, 476,
476b
Shotgun shooting, eyewear for, 587t
Shoulder, of rimless mounting, 9, 10f
Side shields
for glare control, 557
for safety eyewear, 579, 579f
Sign conventions, 280-281, 281f, 384
Silicone nosepads, 231, 245
Similar triangles, 267, 268f
Sine-squared method
description of, 332
pitfalls of, 388
Prentices rule and, for vertical
imbalance calculations, 512513, 513b
prism for decentration approximated
using, 388
Single vision lens. See also speci c lens
atorics for, 474
centration of, 600, 602-603
chord diameter formula used with,
330
curvature of, 305-308
de nition of, 431
662
Index
description of, 304

nished, minimum blank size for,
82-83
frame height for, 190, 191f
insertion of, in frame, 126
minimum blank size for, 82-84
movable vertical line used with, 602
optical centering for
major reference point. See Major
reference point
prismatic effect, 62
vertex distance, 69-70
power of
corona-target lensmeter used to
nd, 96
crossed-line-target lensmeter used
to nd, 92-96
prescription information for, 93-96
semi nished, 304
stock, 304
501
Single vision reading glasses, 30
Skewed bridge
in metal frames, 153
Skiing, eyewear for, 587t
Skull temples, 8, 9f, 48, 160
Slab off
de nition of, 502
for fused glass multifocals, 502, 503f
in plastic lens, 502
precast, 502-505
for progressive addition lens, 502
502-505
Snells law, 276-278, 349, 408
Snorkeling, eyewear for, 587t
Snow blindness, 527
Soccer, eyewear for, 588t
Solar retinitis, 530
Soldering
buffering of frame after, 256f
discoloration after, 256
electric, 255-256
ame, 254f-255f, 254-255
solder for, 254
stuck screws removed using, 224-225
touch-up replating after, 256, 256f
Soldering ux, 254f
Solid gold, 22
Space eikonometer, 496
Special purpose frames, 614-615
Spectacle lens, 445
Spectacle magnication
principles of, 493-494
relative, 494
Spectacle temples, 41
Specular reection, 274, 275f

Speed of light, 276
Spheric lenticular lens, 426, 426f
Spherical aberration, 409, 409f
Spherical equivalent, 300, 416
Spherical lens
articial eye appearance changed
using, 518
base curve for, 305, 417
curvature of, 417
decentration of
description of, 376
horizontal, 379-380
light rays affected by, 378f
oblique decentration, 380
prism base direction with, 377
prismatic effect caused by, 376-377
de nition of, 287
for farsightedness, 288
for high plus wearer, 426
for nearsightedness, 288
oblique astigmatism correction, 474
spotting of, 593
surface curvature of, 287
verication of, 593
Spherocylinder lens
effective power of, 341
formation of, 315, 315f
graphical method for calculating
power of, 318-320
minus cylinder form, 305
plus cylinder form, 305
prismatic effects induced by, 385,
511f
spotting of, 593, 597f
tilting of, 413
verication of, 593
vertical imbalance, Prentices law for
calculating, 510-512
Spherocylindrical combination, 290291, 292f
Spherocylindrical power, 291
Splay angle
for bridge tting, 45, 46f-47f, 47
for nosepad alignment, 162-163, 163f,
189f
Split lens, 446, 448-449
Split-clamp pad design, 258, 258f
Sports eyewear
Materials standards, 582t,
582-583
best choices in, 583, 588
for children, 55
custom, 583
dispensers responsibilities, 583,
588-589
inspection of, 589
negligence, 588-589
product liability, 588
product markings on, 582-583
safety of, 589
sport-specic, 584t-588t
Sports frames, 589
Spotting
of at-top bifocals, 595, 598b
of progressive addition lens, 595-598
of single vision lens
with prism, 593-595
without prism, 593
of spherical lens, 593
of spherocylinder lens, 593, 597f
Spring hinge temple
advantages of, 185
alignment tools for, 220-222, 222f
replacement screws for, 220-222
Square facial shape, 40, 41t
Square root, 265-266
Square-round pliers, 202f-203f, 203
Squash, eyewear for, 588t
Stainless steel, 13
Stainless steel screws, 243-244
Staking tool
bridge size changes using, 210, 211f
rivets removed using, 237, 238f
Stirrup nosepads, 258, 258f
Strabismus
binocular interpupillary distance
measurements in, 26
de nition of, 446
nonconcomitant, 446
periodic, 446
Strap, of rimless mounting, 9, 10f
Strap bridge
adjustable nosepads replaced with,
231-232, 232f
de nition of, 190, 231-232
Streak, 115
Street hockey, eyewear for, 585t
Stria, 115
Sum of two vectors, 358
Sunglasses
antireection coating of, 546
photochromic lenses vs., 550
polarizing lenses as, 554-555
Surface curvature
of spherical lens, 287
Surface power, 283-284
Surfaced lens, 415
Swimming, eyewear for, 588t
Symmetrical aniseikonia, 491-492, 492f
T
Temple
allergic reactions to
coverings to prevent, 233
description of, 14
Index
bend of
modications in, 181-182, 182f
proper location for, 184f
bent-down portion, alignment of
in rimless mountings, 168
bowing of, 179, 179f-180f
broken, 232
butt end of, 144-145
cable
comfort. See Temple, comfort
cable
earpieces, covers added to,
232-233, 233f
tting of, 185-186
handling of frames with, 186-187,
187f
length of, 186, 186f, 234-235
plastic temple converted to, 235,
236f
shortening of, 235
for children, 54
comfort cable
for high minus lens wearers,
54
indications for, 49t
measurement of, 20, 21f
convertible, 9, 9f
de nition of, 3, 4f
earpiece portion of, 181
ends of
in plastic frames, 149-150,
150f-151f
ling of, 145, 146f
tting of
bend position, 180-184
criteria for, 183-184
description of, 179
Optyl temple, 184
skull temple, 179-180
spring hinge temple, 184-185
straight-back temple, 179-180
aring of, 143, 143f
heating of, 150, 151f
heat-shrink tubing over, 14
length of, 20, 20f
lengthening of, 182, 183f
library
tting of, 179-180, 183-184
manual bending of, 168, 171f
metal
description of, 14
ling down of, 233, 234f
lengthening of, 233, 233f
replacing of plastic earpiece
covers, 232

tips for, 234
missing, 232
open spread of
in plastic frames, 142-145,
143f-145f
in rimless mountings, 167-168,
168f-169f
Optyl
LCM, 184
original, 184
pantoscopic angle of, 148, 149f
parallelism of
at surface touch test for, 146-147,
148f
in metal frames, 157-158, 158f-159f
plastic
conversion to cable-style temple,
235, 236f
shortening of, 235, 237
repair of, 232-237
riding bow
tting of, 185-186
selection of, 48-49
shaft of
length of, 182f
skull
tting of, 179-180
spectacle, 41
spread of
not enough, 144-145, 145f-146f,
156, 175-176
in plastic frames, 142-145, 143f145f, 148t
in rimless mountings, 167-168,
168f-169f
too much, 143f-145f, 143-144, 155f156f, 155-156, 176
spring hinge
advantages of, 185
straight-back, 179-180
styles of, 49t
thumbprint added to, 180, 180f
Temple bend pliers, 182, 183f
Temple-fold angle
in plastic frames, 151f-152f, 151-152
Tennis, eyewear for, 588t
Thermal bleaching, 550
Thermoplastic, 10
Three-quarter rule, 33
Tilting lens
663

intentional tilting, 414
oblique astigmatism caused by, 410
prismatic effect caused by, 413, 413f
spherocylinder lens, 413
in wrap-around prescription lenses,
411-412
Tinted lens
absorption by, 530-531
classication of, 526
colored lter lens for color-defective
individuals, 536-537
colors of
brown, 534f, 535
clear crown glass, 532
CR-39 plastic, 532, 532f
gray, 536, 536f
green, 535f, 535-536
pink, 532-533
yellow, 533-535, 534f
contact lens, 546
hazards caused by, 531
night driving while wearing, 531
plastic, 538-539
plus power effects on, 561-562
tint amounts, 530-531
ultraviolet light effects. See
Ultraviolet light
visual acuity affected by, 531b
Titanium
advantages and disadvantages of, 13
frames constructed of, 13-14
repair of, 254
soldering contraindications, 254
Vision Council of America marking
guidelines for, 13f, 13-14
Titanium nosepads, 231
Titanium screws, 223
Tongue, of rimless mounting, 9, 10f
Toric base curve, 305
Toric contact lens with cylinder power,
317
Toric lens, 421
Toric surface, 295, 295f
Toric transposition, 299
Touch-up replating, 256, 256f
Transbonding, of plastic photochromic
lens, 549
Transparent tape
bifocal height measurements using,
72, 72f
unequal segment heights determined
using, 75, 76b
Triangles, 266-267, 267f-268f
Triangular facial shape, 40, 41t, 42
Trifocals
in anisometrope, 80
curve-top, 437f, 437t, 437-438
de nition of, 433
ED, 437f, 437t, 438
664
Index
Executive, 437f, 437t, 438

at-top, 437f, 437t, 437-438
Franklin-style, 437f, 437t, 438
height measurements for, 72-73
indications for, 73
power calculations, 433
types of, 437f, 437t, 437-438
viewing areas, 433f
Trigonometric functions, 268-269, 354
Trigonometry, 268-269
Trim, on plastic frames, 251-252
Trivex lens, 570t-571t, 571
True base curve, 311
Truing the frame. See Alignment,
standard
Tschernings ellipse, 410, 411f, 415
Turn-back endpiece, 8, 8f
Twist-on nosepads, 257, 257f
U
Ultimate transmission, 562
Ultrasonic cleaner
for frame cleaning, 253
for loosening frame screws, 224, 224f
Ultraviolet Index, 530
Ultraviolet light
A, 527
aphakes affected by, 53, 528
B, 527
C, 527
cataract formation and, 527-528
crystalline lens absorption of, 556
damage caused by, 527-528
drugs that enhance the effects of,
528
eyewear that blocks, 528-529
ocular effects of, 526-530
photochromic lens absorption of, 551
polarizing lens blockade of, 554
protection against
frame selection for, 529
individuals with need for, 528b
methods of, 530b
scratch-resistant coatings cured with,
539-540
short wavelengths, absorptive lters
that block, 557
subdivisions of, 527
Uncut lens, 304
Unwanted cylinder, 468-469, 474
V
Varilux Ipseo, 475, 476f
Varilux lens, 468, 470f
Varilux Physio, 475
Vector analysis, 269-270, 271f
Vector sum, 269
Vergence of light
de nition of, 443
for thick lens, 341-342
for thin lens, 341

through a lens, 341-342
Vergence power, 339
Verication
of prescription
error tolerances, 106-107
frame, 115
lens powers, 105-106
meridian of highest absolute
power, 107
multifocal segment, 114-115
prisms, 110, 112-114
of progressive addition lens
add power, 461, 462f
distance power arc, 459, 460f
major points or areas, 459, 459f
near power, 461, 461f
prismatic effect, 459, 461, 461f
of slab off, 505, 505f
Vertex distance
changing of
without frame height changes,
198-201
decreasing of
in frames with inverted U-shaped
pad arms, 191, 192f
in frames with question mark-style
pad arms, 206, 208f
effective power as related to, 339-341
equality of, in frame tting, 176-177
increasing of
in frames with inverted U-shaped
pad arms, 198-201
in frames with question mark-style
pad arms, 205, 207f
for progressive addition lens, 454,
474
reduction in, 202f
segment height affected by, 80,
80f
Vertex power
back, 344-346, 461f
front, 344-346
Vertical angle
adjustment in, 198, 200f
nosepad alignment using, 163f,
163-164
Vertical centration, 601-602
Vertical decentration
of spheres, 379-380
Vertical imbalance
amount of
lensmeter for determining, 509
Prentices rule for determining. See
Vertical imbalance, Prentices
rule
Remoles method for determining.

See Vertical imbalance,
Remoles method
aniseikonia reduction effects on, 517
correction of
amount of, 508-509
compensated R segs for, 507-508,
508f
contact lens, 501
dispensers responsibility for,
500-501
dissimilar segments, 505, 507f
Fresnel prism, 396-397, 502
full imbalance, 509-517
major reference point height drops,
501-502
partial imbalance, 508-509
segment height increases, 502
segment-induced prism, 506-507
slab off. See Slab off
two pairs of single vision glasses,
501
de nition of, 500
lensmeter evaluations, 509
low, dissimilar segments for, 507,
507f
for planocylinders, 512
Prentices rule for calculating
cosine-squared method and, 512513, 513b
Remoles method vs., 516-517
spherocylinders, 510-512
reading level determinations, 508
of recent onset, 501
Remoles method for calculating
Prentices rule vs., 516-517
prismatic effects, 513-516
shortening of, 516
for spherocylinder lens, 510-512
tolerance to, 501
unnoticed, 500-501
Vertical prism
tting cross heights of progressive
addition lens affected by,
482-483
horizontal prism and, 594
tolerances, 107-108
unwanted, checking for, 107-108,
610-611
Vigor Super Glue, 242-243
Vinyl nosepads, 231
Virtual images, 283
Visiochoix, 56
Vision Council of America, 13f, 13-14
Visual acuity
chromatic aberration effects on,
406-407
tinted lenses effect on, 531b
Index
Visual eld detects, 397
Vogels formula, 416, 416b
Volleyball, eyewear for, 588t
Von Graefe prism test, 369f
W
Warpage, 115
Washers, 229
Water skiing, eyewear for, 588t
Wave, 115
Wave front, 279
Welders burn, 527
Welsh 4-Drop lens, 426-427, 427f
Wide face, 42
Wide-set eyes, 43
Window effect lens reection, 541,
541f
Wire braces, for plastic bridge repair,
243f, 243-244
Wrap-around prescription lens
compensating factors for, 411
prismatic effect induced in, 413-414
tilting of lenses, 411-412
Wrestling, eyewear for, 588t
X
X-ing
of metal frames, 154, 154f
of plastic frames, 141-142,

142f
of rimless mountings, 165
X-ray lens, 560
Y
Yellow-tinted lens, 533-535, 534f
Z
Z87, 55, 578, 578b
Z87-2, 55, 578, 578b
Zeiss bayonet pad style, 257, 257f
Zernike polynomials, 408-409
Zylonite, 3, 9
665

System For Ophthalmic Dispensing 3rd Edition - Brooks, Borish - 2006

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

System For Ophthalmic Dispensing 3rd Edition - Brooks, Borish - 2006

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

11830 Westline Industrial Drive

St. Louis, Missouri 63146

SYSTEM FOR OPHTHALMIC DISPENSING, THIRD EDITION

Publishing Director: Linda Duncan

Working together to grow

www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org

This book is dedicated to our students, whose interest and desire

design. The second edition contained large numbers of

or help in preparing the rst edition, the authors

specic word of appreciation goes to Robert Woyton of

Frame Types and Parts

The frame is that portion of the spectacles that holds the

Frames without an eyewire going completely around the

Figure 1-1. The frame front.

Figure 1-2. Parts of a temple.

frame with plastic eye-wires and metal bridge and

Figure 1-3. An example of a plastic frame.

Figure 1-4. One version of a metal frame.

Frame Types and Parts

Figure 1-6. Examples of combination frames.

Figure 1-9. A semirimless mounting has a bar behind the top

Figure 1-10. A Numont mounting has only one nasal point

surface temporally. Thus there is only one point of

there is also quite an assortment of bridge constructions

Frame Types and Parts

Figure 1-12. The saddle bridge closely follows the contour of

Figure 1-14. Besides having an identifying shape, the keyhole

In the modied saddle, the bridge area looks much the

Figure 1-15. Metal saddle bridges were originally designed to

Metal and rimless frames were, and sometimes still

Figure 1-17. This traditional metal endpiece has a turn-back

endpiece construction is the butt type, in which the front

Figure 1-18. Some metal endpieces are not really endpieces

Figure 1-19. Categories of temples are: A, Skull; B, Library;

Frame Types and Parts

frames. Rimless construction varies considerably. The

Classic Rimless Fronts

Plastic frames may be partially classied by coloration.

zyl frames. In spite of zylonite disappearing from the

*A UV inhibitor blocks out the suns ultraviolet rays.

Cellulose acetate can be formed into sheets of plastic

heated but does not return to its original shape when

Frame Types and Parts

Nylon and Nylon-Based Materials

memory plastics. Memory plastics are tough and exible.

Metal Frame Materials

Figure 1-23. Safety frames with plano lenses can be molded

the type of sports glasses that are held in place with

Nickel Silvers. Nickel silvers contain more than 50%

Frame Types and Parts

allergies related to frame wear. This makes titanium

Frame Types and Parts

OLA Perspective on Lenses, Optical Laboratory Association, 1997.

6. ____ Secures the lenses in place

13. ____ nylon cord

Match the name of the frame with its description:

5. ____ Secures the lenses in place

12. ____ convertible

3. ____ Holds the lenses in place

4. ____ Made especially for those

Match the following terms:

14. ____ Numont

Match the description with the correct frame material: