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ALGEBRA
VOCABULARY
First, some important words, know what they mean (get someone to test you):
Expression a fragment of algebra with no '=' sign.
3 x+5 is an expression, and so is r 2
Formula tells
you the connection between two or more quantities.
2
r
is a formula giving the area of a circle in terms of its radius.
A =
Equation a mathematical statement with an '=' sign; it is only true for
certain values.
3 x+5=14 is an equation which is only true when x = 3.
Inequality a mathematical
statement with a '<', '>', '' or '' sign.
3 x+5< 14 is an inequality which is only true when x < 3.
Expand get rid of brackets by multiplying out in full (opposite of
Factorise).
a) Expand 3(2 x5 y)
Answer 6 x15 y
(x5)(x+ 2)
x 23 x10
Answer of
b) Expand
Factorise put into
brackets
(opposite
Expand).
2
x (3 y2 x)
6
xy4
x
Answer 2
a) Factorise
2
x
+5
x
+4
b) Factorise
Answer ( x+1)( x +4 )
Simplify gather together any matching bits.
y
y
a) Simplify 3 x+3 4 2y5 x +6
Answer 2 x4+10
4
6
b) Simplify 4 x y 3 x y
Answer 12 x y
Solve work out what number(s) make an equation true.
a) Solve 3 x7=26
Answer 3 x=33 so x=11
b) Solve ( x+ 2 )( x9 )=0
Answer x=2 or x=9
Term a 'bit' of an equation or an expression separated by + or signs.
The second term of 3 x4 y+5 z is 4 y .
Coefficient the number part of 2a term.
The coefficient of x in 2 x 7 x +9 is 7.
Linear something with x in it (but no higher powers or roots).
3 x5 is a linear expression.
Quadratic
something with x in it (but no higher powers or roots).
3 x2 +7 x8 is a quadratic expression.
Function a mathematical rule for changing an input number into an
output number.
f (x) =2 x +1
input number,
doubles
it and
adds 1 to (domaIN).
give an output
Domain the set takes
of allan
numbers
that can
go into
a function
g
=
x4
(x)
The domain of
is x4 because we can't square root a
Range the set of all number that can come out of a function.
g(x) 0
g(x)= x4
The range of
is
because the numbers coming out are 0
Inverse function a mathematical rule that 'undoes' a given function
(reverse flowchart).
x1
1
f =2 x +1
f (x)=
is the inverse function of (x)
2
ALGEBRA BASICS
Algebra is a branch of mathematics where letters are used instead of numbers.
Why?
(i) We want a formula that works for any value of radius (let's say), so we call it r.
(ii) We don't yet know the number we want (we're solving an equation to
find x).
(iii) Were plotting a graph where x & y are always changing, not fixed
numbers.
You may not have thought about this much, but certain letters are used for certain
things.
Don't bother learning this list of by heart, but it might be useful as a reference.
a, b , c , etc. are numbers which are fixed for a particular question
(constants).
2
Write down the values of a, b and c where a x + bx+ c=0 .
a, b , c are also the unknown sides of a triangle, whether right-angled or
not.
2
2
2
Find the hypotenuse c using Pythagoras' Theorem a +b =c
A, B, C are the angles opposite sides a, b, c in a non right-angled triangle.
c is also the y-intercept of a straight line.
Find c if y=2 x+ c
passes through the point (1, 8).
f , g , h are functions.
f =4 x5
Find the inverse function of (x)
.
h can also be height.
1 2
r h
Evaluate 3
to find the volume of the cone.
l is usually length.
Curved surface area = rl .
m can be the gradient of a straight line, or it can be mass.
Express in the form y=mx +c
n is a variable, unknown whole number.
t n=n2 +1
Find the 100th term of the sequence
r is usually radius.
2
Work out the value of r
s can be distance.
1
S= ( u+ v ) t
If
, rearrange this formula to make u the subject.
2
t is usually time.
Sketch the graph for 0t 10
u, v can be speed or velocity.
Make m the subject in I =mvmu
w is usually width.
Express the perimeter in terms of l and w .
x , y , z are used for co-ordinates as well as for unknown numbers in
y=3 x +5
x 2+ 4 x +3=0
CAPITAL LETTERS are often used for unknown length-based quantities such
as:
A = area, C = circumference, L = length, P = perimeter, V = volume.
, , , are Greek letters (theta, phi, alpha, beta) used for unknown
angles.
Find the value of angle, showing all your working.
xx
xx
We write
instead of
or
zyx 2 3
We hardly ever use the division symbol ''; instead we use a division bar:
An '=' sign in algebra is not an instruction to work out the answer (like on a
calculator).
'=' means 'is the same as' or 'balances', not 'makes' or 'write the answer
here'.
2+2=4+3=7 is
Never write '=' between two things that aren't the same!
wrong!
Use brackets to 'over-ride' BIDMAS.
If you want to add a and b and then double them, you can
write 2(a+ b) . (If you simply wrote 2 a+b , this would not be
right according to BIDMAS.)
WORDY QUESTIONS
We may have to take a situation described in English and 'translate' it into
algebra.
TIP: If in doubt, pretend that the letters are numbers and think about
what you'd do
with the numbers. Then swap the numbers for letters.
SKILL: convert a wordy question into algebra.
Q: If apples cost 20p each and bananas cost 15p each, how much do a apples
and b bananas cost?
A: (Suppose we had 2 apples and 3 bananas. We'd work out
20 2+15 3 .) So a apples and b bananas would cost 20 a+15 b
pence.
Q: Farmer Chris has
geese and
they have?
A: [If we had 5 geese (each with 2 feet) and 6 horses (each with 4
feet),
they would have 2 5+4 3 feet.]
So g geese and h horses have 2 g+ 4 h
Q: If a square of side
feet.
value of x.
A: [If a square has side 3, its area is 3 and its perimeter is 3+3+3+3.]
2
If a square has side x, its area x
and its perimeter x+ x + x + x=4 x
, so we need to solve
x 2=4 x
4
V = 5.733=788.05
3
We need to be good at taking things out of brackets and putting them back into
brackets.
SKILL: Multiply out (expand) a single term by a bracket.
Multiply each term inside the bracket by whatever is in front of
Careful: last term is
the bracket.
+ 15, not 15
Q: Expand 3 (4 x5)
A:
3 ( 4 x5 )= (3 ) 4 x + (3 ) (5 ) =12 x+ 15
Q: Multiply out
A:
Q: Factorise
9(2 a3)
Q: Factorise
A: The HCF is
8 x y +20 x
4x
Correct!]
4 x (2 y 2 +5 x)
so we get
TIP: With more complicated questions, you can set out your working as
for HCF and LCM (see NUMBER guide). You get the HCF by multiplying
what's in the left-hand column, and the brackets contain the terms in the
bottom row. See below:
Q: Factorise
70 a b c 28 a b c +42 a b c
A:
is the
2
7
a
b
70 a3 b5 c 228 a b3 c 3 +42 a2 b4 c 4
35 a3 b5 c 214 a b 3 c 3 +21 a2 b4 c 4
5 a3 b5 c 22 a b3 c 3+ 3 a2 b 4 c 4
4 4
2
55 aa22 bb522
c 22
b3 ab
c3 +3
c +3
c ab c
3
2
biggest factor of a , a , a
3
b is the biggest
HCF =
2 7 a b c
3 2
2 2
2
column) Answer: (14 a b c )(5 a b 2 c +3 ab c )
row)
[Check: the terms in brackets have no common factors.]
10
Very
simply, 2
Q: Simplify
2
2
A: x +3 x +4 x+12=x +7 x +12
[Only the x terms match; x is diferent from x2 , so don't group them together.]
6 y because
3 (2 y )=6 y )
(The x terms cancel out.)
+6 y
not
SIMPLIFYING INDICES
Another way of tidying up algebra in questions is by simplifying indices.
We use the three laws of indices:
Multiply by adding the indices:
Divide by subtracting the indices:
7 7 =73
5
11
7 7 =7
A:
12
3 x3 y2 4 x y 4
2 5
6x y
3 x3 y2 4 x y 4 3 4
3+12 2+4 5
2
=
x
y
=2 x y
2 5
6
6x y
3 x=12
Then undo
3 x+7=19
with
( 3)( 3)
Q: Solve
A:
3 x+7=x9
3 x+7=x9
(x)(x)
things
2 x +7=9
7
(7) )
terms together.
Subtract the smaller of 3 x and x , to keep
positive.
From here on it's like the previous example.
3 x=12
A:
2 x +1 3 x4
=
3
5
2 x +1 3 x4
=
3
5
Q: Solve
10 x +5 9 x12
=
15
15
10 x+5=9 x12
13
(9 x)(9 x)
x+ 5=12
14
5 x4 <11
A:
Do the same as for an equation.
5 x4 <11
(+4 )(+ 4)
5 x<15
( 5)( 5)
Q: Solve 4 x +7 23
4 x +7 23
(7)(7)
4 x 16
(4)(4)
A:
Flip
because
4
Q: Show
x< 3
on a number line.
A:
Q: Show
line.
15
x1
on a number
the inequality
we're dividing by
Q: Show
A:
16
( x+ 2 )( x +3 ) x 2
( x+ 2 )( x +3 ) 3 x
( x+ 2 )( x +3 ) 2 x
( x+ 2 )( x +3 ) 6
means:
x 2+5 x +6
( x+ 2 )( x +3 )
F:
x x =x2
O:
x (5 ) =5 x
I:
3 x=3 x
L:
3 (5 )=15
Answer:
17
( x+ 3 )( x5 )
x 25 x+3 x15=x 22 x 15
( 4 x +5 ) ( 3 x2 )
Q: Expand
A:
F:
4 x 3 x=12 x2
O:
4 x (2 )=8 x
I:
5 3 x=15 x
L:
5 (2 )=10
A:
x x =x
O:
x (4 ) =4 x
I:
(4 ) x =4 x
L:
(4) (4 )=16
Answer:
18
F:
x 4 x 4 x +16=x 8 x+16
x 2+7 x +12
[Start with the 'multiply' part to cut down your options. Could be
12 ,
&
or
&
12 .
&
4 .]
and
4 .
( x+ 3)( x + 4)
x 2+2 x8
and multiply to
they add to
4 , not
Answer:
8 . Since
&
&
4 .]
(x2)(x+ 4)
Q: Factorise
x 9 x
19
and multiply to
x 29
Squares]
A: Find two numbers that add to
multiply to 9 .
These numbers are
Answer: ( x3 ) ( x+3 )
If the coefficient of
and
) and
3 .
(Fairbrother).
SKILL: Factorise a harder quadratic into brackets (more than one lot of
Q: Factorise
12 x x6
[Could be 1 & 72, 2 & 36, 3 & 24, 4 & 18, 6 & 12 or 8 & 9.]
The required numbers are 9 and 8.
Start by writing ( 12 x9 ) (12 x+ 8 ) and then divide by common factors
3 and 4 to give
Answer: ( 4 x 3 )( 3 x +2 )
20
x 2 ).
There are two totally different methods for solving quadratic equations
2
(which are equations with an x
in them, and no higher powers).
Fortunately, there is a cunning way to decide which method to use...
IGCSE INSIDER INFO:
If you are asked to round your answer (to 3 sig figs, 2 dp), use the
Quadratic Formula. If you don't have to round your answer,
factorise the quadratic into two brackets.
Whichever you use, you must rearrange your equation to get '= 0' on the
SKILL: Solve a quadratic equation using the formula.
The quadratic formula is one of those formulae you need to remember:
If
ax 2+ bx+ c=0
b b 4 ac
2a
2
Then
x=
TIP: Beware Faulty Squares: your calculator may claim that 3 = 9, which
is wrong. A negative number squared is always positive.
I also recommend using the key on the calculator for working this out (Big Divide).
Be exceptionally careful about which numbers are positive and which are negative...
Q: Solve
x 1=
A: Here,
So
4 x 23 x5=0
3+ 89
=1.55 or
8
x 2=
x=
3 89
=0.804
8
x 3 x28=0
A: Find two numbers that add to 3 and multiply to 28 and hence rewrite this as
( x7 ) ( x+ 4 )=0 .
The solutions are found by considering what number would make each
21
22
x 2 25
x5
( x2 ) ( x 5 ) >0
23
24
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Algebraic fractions are simply fractions which contain letters instead of/as well as
numbers.
We use the same standard rules as before for adding, multiplying, etc.
SKILL: Simplify algebraic fractions.
TIP: Factorise everything in sight! Then cancel down any matching bits.
3 x +12
Q: Simplify 2 x+ 8
Q: Simplify
3 x +12 3 ( x+ 4) 3
=
=
2 x+ 8 2( x+ 4) 2
x 2x 12
2
x 2 x8
2
x x 12 ( x+3)( x4) x+3
A: Factorise and then cancel down: x 22 x8 = ( x+2)( x4) = x+2
x3 x +1
2
5
Q: Work out
A:
x3 x +1 5 x15 2 x+ 2 3 x17
=
2
5
10
10
10
1
1
+
x x +1
1
1
x +1
x
2 x +1
+
=
+
=
x x +1 x( x +1) x ( x+1) x (x +1)
25
1
1
x
+
=
3 x+1 3
A:
x (x +1)
x+ 1
3
+
=
3 (x+1) 3( x +1) 3(x+ 1)
x+ 1+3=x (x+ 1)
4=x 2 + xx
4=x 2
x= 2
26
Linear simultaneous equations are two (or more) linear equations that must be true at
the same time.
TIP: To solve linear simultaneous equations:
y first (multiply through by a number if
Match up the number of x or
required).
SSS? This means Same Sign? Subtract! If the matching terms are both +ve
(or both ve) then subtract one 2equation from the other. Otherwise add the
'Linear' means there are no pesky x
terms (or roots, etc.).
Q: Solve
2 x +3 y=13 4 x+ 11 y=41
Q: Solve
; substitute for
3 x4 y=12 5 x+ 6 y=1
27
19 x =38 x=2
So
and
; substitute for
y=
3
2
Quadratic simultaneous equations are two (or more) equations that must be true at
2
2
the same time. 'Quadratic' means there are x or y terms in there.
TIP: To solve quadratic simultaneous equations:
Q: Solve
A: The
So subtract the top equation from the bottom one (to keep the
positive):
y y =x2 (2 x+ 3)
2
0=x 2 x +3
28
x=3
or
x=1
term
y ; substitute for x
y=x 2
If
x=3 , then
If
y=32 =9.
y=(1)2=1
, then
Q: Solve
or
2 x + y =1
x 2+ y 2 =2
and
1 , so we get:
( 5 x5 ) (5 x +1 )=0
29
If
x=1 , then
If
1
5
, then
or
( 5 x5 ) (5 x +1 )=0
y=12 1=1
1 7
2
y=12 = =1
5 5
5
(cancelling down)
REARRANGING FORMULAE
You may be asked to rearrange a formula to get a diferent letter on the left-hand
side. This is usually referred to as making the desired letter the subject of the
formula.
SKILL: Rearrange a formula where the letter appears once.
You can do this using the traditional method used to solve equations, or you can try
using the flowchart method:
TIP: Draw up a flowchart showing what happens to this letter, then
reverse it. This is an alternative method that might suit you better. You can
A= r 2
Q: Rearrange
A:
to make
r the subject.
Draw up a flowchart:
2
r A
Start with
r , square it, ,
A .
answer
Start with
b (m + a)
m the subject.
BIDMAS
Q: Rearrange t =Makee sure that
to make
matches your flowchart so
A:
Flowchart: things get done in the right
order. 2
m + a b e t
Reverse it:
m a b e 2 t
Read of:
m=
t2 e
a
b
y + x=CyCx
x+ Cx=Cy y
x ( 1+C )= y ( C1 )
x (1+C)
=y
C1
31
FUNCTIONS
A function is a mathematical 'black box' that does something to whatever you put
into it.
There are two ways of writing a function, but they are both the same:
f (x) = (Expression)
or
f : x
(Expression)
f (x) =2 x 2 +3 , find
f (4 ) ,
f (4 )=2 4 2 +3=35
f (1) , f (a)
in turn.
x
with
(Remember BIDMAS!)
f (a) =2a 2+ 3
Replace the
with
4 .
a ; nothing else to
do.
SKILL: Find the domain and range of a function.
TIP: Some terminology:
Domain = the allowed numbers that go in to a function.
Range = the numbers that come out of a function.
Numbers not allowed in the domain almost always involve:
Square roots of negative numbers
Division by zero
The range is the 'height' of the graph; the y-values it can take.
the domain of
Q: Find
f (x) = x +5 .
Q: Which values of
x 5
g(x)=
x=5 ,
x=5
1
x 25 ?
2
x 25=0
h(x)=( x2 )27
and down
7 .
32
h(x) 7
values from
0 x 10 ?
to
10 .
33
1 f 41
The inverse of a function 'undoes' the original function; it's a flowchart put into
reverse.
1
f (x )
The inverse of
is written as f ( x ) .
SKILL: Find the inverse of a function.
If x occurs only once, do a flow chart and reverse it.
Q: If
f (x )=2(x 317)
, work out
f 1( x )
A: Flowchart:
x 3 17 2 f ( x )
Reverse it:
f
( x)
+ 17 2 x
Answer:
x
If
Change all
f 1( x )=
into
y=
x
x2
and
into
x
+17
2
g(x)=
x
x2
1
If f (x )=f (x) , then the function is self inverse; it 'undoes' itself.
y
becomes x= y2
x ( y2)= y
x y 2 x= y
x y y=2 x
y ( x1 )=2 x
y=
2x
x1
so
g1( x)=
2x
x 1
A composite function is what you get when you put one function 'inside' another
function.
34
A:
( x)
fg (x) and
g f (x) .
f (x+2 )
g(x)
+2
with
( x+2 ) =x + 4 x+ 4
Then put
g f (x)=g(f
f (x)
( x)
g (x )
x 2+2
Then put
35
f 1 f (x) =x
x 2 through the
f (g
( x)
x2
with
+2 function,
because
f (x)
g(x)
. Then work
PROPORTION
Two quantities are proportional if they change so that one of them is always a
fixed multiple of the other. This means that if you double one quantity, the
other one is doubled, too.
There are several words and symbols meaning exactly the same thing:
A varies as B;
A is (directly) proportional to B;
A=
1/B
is proportional
(or varies as) the square root of B
A B
SKILL: A
Solve
proportiontoproblems.
Good news: proportion questions are remarkably predictable...
Write down the proportion relation and swap the '' for '= k '
Use the given data to get the value of k and write down the
master formula.
Use this formula forwards.
p
Q: If
p
(a)
A: (a) Here,
Then substitute
is:
p=5 q
q=10 ,
(c) When
p=605
q=2
to get
2 0=k 22
.
, so
k =5
. Master formula
p=5 10 =5 100=500
605=5 q
so
121=q
. Therefore
q=11
or
q=11
is inversely proportional to
, and y=4 when x=3 , find:
in terms of x (b) y when x=2 (c) x when y=3
A: (a) We rewrite
Then substitute
1 12
y=12 =
x x
36
p=k q2
is rewritten as
Q: If
is:
p=20 ,
(b) When
(a)
q2
x=3 ,
1
x
y=4
as
y=k
to get
1
x
4=k
1
3
, so
k =12
. Master formula
37
(b) When
x=2 ,
1
y=12 =6
2
(c) When
y=3 ,
3=12
1
x
so
3 1 1
= =
12 4 x
. Therefore
x=4
SEQUENCES
10
100
What is in box 100? We could just draw all the boxes and count all the way up to
100 Or we could find a formula for what is in box n , where n stands for n ything.
In this case,
an =3 n+1
3 n+1
an
means whats in the nth box or the nth term (the nth
number in the list). Sometimes you will see u n or another letter used,
n
but its exactly the same idea.
Now to
whats
N
we
put
Only worksfind
if
the gap is in box
the gap between next-door numbers (ve if they go down,fixed!
+ve if
100,
they go up)
th
simply
the 0 term; the number that would come before the first
number in the list.
TIP: Find two things from your sequence:
n=100
So
38
] So
an =2 n+ 9
1,3, 6, 10,15,
Square numbers [ an =n
1
Triangle numbers [ an = 2 n(n+1) ]
1, 8,27, 64,125 ,
3
Cube numbers [ an =n ]
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
Fibonacci numbers [add the previous two to get the next one]
39