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Un ciclu termodinamic este totalitatea strilor prin care trece un sistem termodinamic n
cursul unor transformri, ncepnd de la o anumit stare i pn cnd revine la aceeai
stare.[1]
n timpul transformrilor parametrii de stare (presiunea, temperatura i alii) pot varia,
ns variaia lor total va fi nul (revin la valorile din punctul de pornire, care este arbitrar).
Transformrile pot avea loc cu schimb de cldur i lucru mecanic, ale cror valori depind
de tipul transformrilor, iar suma cldurii schimbate, respectiv suma lucrului mecanic pot
s fie diferite de zero. Primul principiu al termodinamicii specific c suma cldurilor (cu
semnul lor) intrate n ciclu este egal cu suma lucrului mecanic efectuat de ciclu (lucrul
mecanic ciclic). Repetarea continu a proceselor este un concept important
al termodinamicii.
Pentru modelarea funcionrii mainilor termice reale, transformrile din ciclu sunt
considerate cvasistatice (nu depind de timp).
presiune pentru un proces real (ireversibil). Heliul care circul printr-o seciune obturat,
de tip diafragm D, sau printr-un ventil de reglaj VR sufer o scdere a presiunii i o
variaie de temperatur (pozitiv sau negativ) denumit efect Joule-Thomson. n
majoritatea proceselor de rcire i n toate care reprezint o lichefiere, sunt utilizate
ambele procese: prercirea gazului prin detent i lichefierea propriu zis prin laminare.
Analiza termodinamic a ciclurilor criogenice urmrete o analiz energetic (care
conduce la determinarea parametrilor agentului termodinamic i a mrimilor caracteristice
ciclului - putere frigorific, putere mecanic, debit de agent termodinamic lichefiat, etc.) i
o analiz exergetic (care pune n eviden ireversibilitile din sistem).
Principalele ireversibiliti interne sunt:
1
frecarea (frecarea cauzat de existena viscozitii agenilor de lucru; fenomenul
de laminare; frecarea mecanic dintre diferite organe de maini);
2
i placa de achiziie utilizat de calculator. Sistemul de achizitie a datelor este compus din
urmatoarele module :
- FieldPoint FP-1601 modulul de comunicatie cu calculatorul;
- FieldPoint FP-AI-111 cu 16 canale de intrare avnd semnal curent / tensiune;
- Bloc terminal FP-TB1 realizeaza conectica ntre senzorii din instalaie i field point;
- FieldPoint FP-TC-120, specializat sa primeasc semnal de la senzorii de tip termocuplu;
- Bloc terminal FP-TB3, modul ce conecteaz senzorii de tip termocuplu la modulul FPTC-120;
- Sursa de alimentare modul FP, PS/240V.
Modulele FieldPoint preiau ca semnal analogic de intrare tensiunea de pe termocuplele
de tip J, K i curentul de 420 mA iar prin soft acest semnal este prelucrat i afisat ca
temperatur, presiune, nivel, debit.
Softul folosit ofer posibilitatea prelucrrii datelor citite, stocarea lor n fisiere i
transmiterea informaiilor culese pe reea (local sau Internet), toate acestea putnd fi
vizualizate pe ecranul calculatorului att grafic ct i numeric.
De asemenea datele citite pot fi convertite n siruri i stocate n fisiere tabelate cu
nscrierea orei, respectiv a datei de achiziie. Se pot realiza restricii de timp ntre citiri.
Datele achiziionate din fiiere sunt prelucrate pentru obinerea unor analize sau
diagrame de rezultate n urma carora se poate optimiza procesul. Sistemul de achiziii
date permite funcionarea simultan a mai multor procese.
Datele monitorizate n instalaia Linde L5:
TI 202 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura heliului la intrarea n turbina X
201;
TE 203 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura heliului la ieirea din turbina X
201;
TI 205 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura heliului la intrarea n turbina X
202;
TE 206 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura heliului la ieirea din turbina X
202;
TIS 208 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura heliului nainte de ventilul de
laminare;
TI 210 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura vaporilor de heliu care se ntorc
din Dewar n aspiraia compresorului pe traseul de joas presiune;
TIS 901 Termocuplu cu platin care indic temperatura n Dewar;
TE 101 Temperatura de intrare a gazului n cold-box;
TE 102 Temperatura de ieire a gazului din cold-box.
7-8: destinderea izentalp n ventilul de laminare VL;
8 sarcina termic rece se desparte n dou pri:
- o fraciune (X) se lichefiaz i este stocat n recipientul Dewar pentru He;
- cealalt fraciune (M-P-X) intr n curentul secundar al schimbtoarelor de cldur;
9-13: nclzirea izobar a heliului n circuitul secundar al schimbtoarelor de cldur;
13-13: pierdere de sarcin pe traseul de conduct pn la intrarea n schimbtorul de
cldur E203B;
calculele din modelul matematic i rezultatele experimentale este, totui, relativ pentru
vitezele fluxului agentului de lucru n scopul extinderii domeniului de valabilitate al
modelului.
Toate datele obinute prin msurtori efectuate n punctele stabilite ca importante din
instalaia criogenic de lichefiere Heliu constituie elementele de baz pentru analiza
termodinamic privind studierea reducerii pierderilor datorate ireversibilitii interne a
proceselor de lucru i comparrii valorilor acestora cu cele rezultate din ecua iile
modelului matematic n vederea stabilirii unei constante a instala iei criogenice de
lichefiere a Heliului.
n capitolul 7 Analiza termodinamic a datelor experimentale ob inute utiliznd instala ia
criogenic cu Heliu tip Linde L5 se compar datele de calcul ale documenta iei tehnice
cu cele obinute experimental pe baza ecua iilor de bilan material i energetic pe
volumele de control identificabile n instala ie. Analiza termodinamic a proceselor de
lucru din cadrul echipamentelor ce compun instala ia criogenic de lichefiere se
realizeaz n vederea stabilirii caracteristicilor i parametrilor de func ionare care
influeneaz randamentul de lucru, dar i pentru determinarea unui model func ional ce
urmeaz a fi obinut pe baza testelor i experimentrilor efectuate inclusiv a datelor
obinute. Se prezint schemele analizelor de contur i se stabile te frac ia de Heliu lichid,
n condiii reale de funcionare, iar cu ajutorul parametrilor termodinamici msura i se
determin lucrul tehnic real produs de turbodetentor i randamentul su izentropic. Se
remarc creterea eficienei ciclului criogenic prin dispunerea n cascad a procesului de
destindere prin turbodetentoare. Instalaia de lichefiere prezint o combinaie ntre
procesele de destindere adiabatic (n turbodetentoare) i procesele de laminare
(caracterizate de entalpii egale nainte i dup efectuarea procesului). In baza schemelor
din figurile urmtoare, s-ar putea imagina un profil al temperaturilor, respectiv al
entalpiilor, n lungul procesului de lichefiere, dar acesta nu poate fi confirmat din lipsa
cunoaterii n detaliu a comportamentului fiecrui echipament n parte.
Optimizarea funcionrii instalaiilor criogenice de lichefiere a Heliului, presupune
perfecionarea metodelor de investigaie a proceselor termodinamice de lucru care se
desfoar n aceste instalaii, ce trebuie s conduc la crearea unei baze de date
specifice acestor tipuri de instalaii.
Analiza parametrilor instalaiei impune adoptarea unor decizii referitoare la posibilele
disfuncii ale procesului tehnologic n sensul ob inerii parametrilor optimi de func ionare.
In acest sens parametrii de funcionare pot fi ncadra i n func ie de depsirea valorilor
indicate de parametrii normali ai instalaiei criogenice. Astfel avem parametrii de mare
importan:
1
temperatura de intrare si ieire la schimbtoarele recuperatoare;
2
presiunea de intrare si ieire la turbodetentoare;
3
turaia componentelor din turbodetentoare;
the machines
The helium liquefier is a TCF-20, and the nitrogen liquefier is a LINIT-25, both purchased
from SULZER. The TCF-20 produces about 8 liter liquid helium per hour, and the LINIT25 produces about 20 liter liquid nitrogen per hour. It is also possible to pre-cool the TCF20 with liquid nitrogen and thereby increase the production rate to about 20 liter liquid
helium per hour.
To liquefie helium a Hampson-Linde cycle [blue] is used, boosted by a two stage Siemens
cycle [red] doing most of the refrigerating work. As an expansion-machines in the
Siemens cycle, turbines are used.
The nitrogen liquefier works much like the helium liquefier, but instead of helium the
circulating gas is air. After the compression, moist and carbon-dioxide is absorbed in
aluminium-oxide beds. Then the air is refrigerated and liquefied by a Siemens and a
Hampson-Linde cycle, just as in the helium liquefier. And the last step is to distillate the
liquid air to separate the nitrogen from the oxygen.
Abstract
In contrast to the ideal case of unlimited size recuperator, any real LindeHampson
machine of finite size recuperator can be optimized to reach the extreme rates of
performance. The group of cryocoolers sharing the same size recuperator is optimized in
a closed form by determining the corresponding flow rate which maximizes its rate of cold
production. For a similar group of liquefiers an optimal flow rate is derived to maximize the
rate of production of liquid cryogen. The group of cryocoolers sharing a constant and
given flow rate is optimized by shortening the recuperator for reaching a maximum
compactness measured by the cooling power per unit size of the recuperator. The
optimum conditions are developed for nitrogen and argon. The relevance of this analysis
is discussed in the context of practice of fast cooldown JouleThomson cryocooling.
.
11 Cooling Techniques
The basic idea behind this effect is that under suitable conditions a gas in
expanding performs work against its internal forces. To satisfy this condition,
the gas is expanded through a small nozzle or through a porous plug that is
thermally isolated from its surroundings. For the expansion process no moving
parts are necessary. The expansion under theses conditions takes place at
constant enthalpy, since the expansion nozzle performs no work. Under the
condition W = 0, it follows from (11.2) that for the JouleThomson effect,
the relation H1 = H2 is valid. For an ideal gas there is no temperature change,
since in this case the enthalpy is given by H = U(T) + pV = U(T) + RT
and therefore does not depend on pressure or volume. In contrast, the Van
der Waals equation indicates that, for real gases, a temperature change must
occur. Whether the JouleThomson expansion leads to the wanted cooling or
instead to a warming, however, depends on the pressure and the temperature
at which the expansion is performed. Above the inversion temperature Tinv
and the inversion pressure pinv, which can be easily calculated with the Van
der Waals equation, warming occurs. If the starting point of the expansion
lies in the pV diagram within the region that is bounded by the so-called
inversion curve, cooling of the gas takes place during the expansion. This occurs
at low temperatures that are not far from the condensation temperature.
Slightly above this temperature the interaction between the gas atoms is sufficiently
strong so that expansion leads to a significant cooling. In Fig. 11.7,
the pT diagram of nitrogen is shown as an example. For temperatures and
pressures that are within the grey shaded region, bounded by the inversion
curve, cooling takes place during a JouleThomson expansion.
A look at Table 11.1 shows that for oxygen and nitrogen the Joule
Thomson expansion at room temperature leads to a cooling and thus gas
liquefaction systems can be built on this basis. This is not true for hydrogen
and helium, since for these gases the JouleThomson expansion at room
temperature leads to a warming. In fact, the JouleThomson expansion is
0 100 200 300
Pressure p / bar
0
200
400
600
Temperature T / K
N2
Inversion curve
Fig. 11.7. pT diagram of nitrogen
[559]
11.1 Liquefaction of Gases 459
usually only the last step in the liquefaction of helium, after the gas has been
precooled using an expansion engine.
The first successful direct air liquefaction using the JouleThomson effect,
which means without a moving piston or turbine, was obtained simultaneously
but independently by von Linde [560] and Hampson [561] in 1895. Both
developed compact and efficient air liquefiers, which were able to produce a
few liters per hour of liquid air, large quantities in comparison to the typical
air liquefiers at that time. They used the counterflow principle and the Joule
Thomson effect, as the schematic illustration of their liquefiers in Fig. 11.8
shows.
heat exchanger
Precool stage
JouleThomson valve
Counterflow
Fig. 11.8. Schematic illustration of the
setup of a gas liquefier with JouleThomson
expansion and counterflow heat exchanger
The arrangement with the heat exchanger and expansion valve connected
in series leads to a process that takes place at constant enthalpy. It is often referred
to as a Linde liquefier. If we denote the enthalpies of the gas streaming
in, the liquid and the gas streaming back as Hin, H_ and Hback, respectively,
we can write the relation Hin = H_ + (1 )Hback, where represents the
fraction of gas that has been liquefied. Since the three enthalpies that enter
here are well known from various experiments, one can easily calculate
using the equation
= Hback Hin
Hback H_
. (11.3)
The magnitude of depends on the pressure difference as well as on the starting
temperature of the expansion. Since, for a decent liquefaction > 0.1 is
desirable, one usually needs to start with temperatures below Tinv/3. Because
of this, it is sensible to use an expansion engine for precooling in the process
of liquefaction of many gases. The combination of a Linde liquefier and an
expansion engine is known as a Claude cycle [562].
460 11 Cooling Techniques
To end this section, we would like to point out that modern large-scale air
liquifiers for the industrial supply of cryogenic liquids are capable of producing
100 tons of oxygen and 1000 tons of nitrogen per day in one facility.
1.9 LindeHampson refrigerators and liquefiers
Figure 1.18 shows an ideal LindeHampson liquefier, originally invented by Carl
von Linde and William Hampson independently in 1895 to liquefy air. In an ideal
liquefaction system, the gas to be liquefied is compressed isothermally at ambient
1.9 LindeHampson refrigerators and liquefiers 19
product
Liquid
separator
Feed 4
Compressor
12
5
Phase
Heat exchanger J-T valve
3
g
.
n-nf
..
f
.
f
. -Wc
.
n
n
n
-Q o
.
Cold box
Fig. 1.18. Ideal LindeHampson liquefaction process.
Evaporator
4
Compressor
12
5
Heat exchanger J-T valve
3
g
Q
.
-W c
.n
.
-Qo
.
Cold box
Fig. 1.19. Ideal LindeHampson refrigerator.
temperature.5 The high-pressure gas is cooled in a heat exchanger by the return
(low-pressure) stream and expanded to the desired pressure in a throttling
(constantenthalpy)
device, more often called the J-T valve. The liquid and gaseous phases are
separated in the phase separator, and the unliquefied gas is used to cool the
highpressure
stream in the heat exchanger. With a minor change, the LindeHampson
liquefier can be used to provide refrigeration at constant temperature, as shown in
Fig. 1.19.
The LindeHampson refrigeration/liquefaction process can be represented on Ts
and Th planes as shown in Figs. 1.20 and 1.21.
Adetailed study of theLindeHampson systems operatingwith pure fluids is a prerequisite
to understanding the operation of the LindeHampson and other processes
operating with gas mixtures.
An energy balance over a control volume that includes the heat exchanger, the
expansion valve, and the phase separator (cold box) of a LindeHampson liquefier
(Fig. 1.18) gives
Pnh2 D Pnf hf C . Pn _ Pnf /h5: (1.35)
5 In practical systems, the heat of compression is normally rejected to a coolant in an
aftercooler.
20 1 Fundamental principles and processes
Temperature, T
Entropy, s
21
3
4
5
fg
200 bar
1 bar
Nitrogen
1 bar
Fig. 1.20. Typical LindeHampson liquefaction/refrigeration system operating with
nitrogen
as the working fluid.
21
3
4
5
g
f
Temperature, T
Enthalpy, h
200 bar
1 bar
Nitrogen
1 bar
Fig. 1.21. Typical LindeHampson liquefaction/refrigeration system operating with
nitrogen
as the working fluid.
The fraction of the gas that gets liquefied on expansion is known as the liquid
yield (Y ) and can be expressed in terms of the enthalpy of the working fluid in the
case of a LindeHampson liquefier using the above equation as follows:
liquid yield, Y D Pnf
Pn D
h5 _ h2
h5 _ hf
: (1.36)
1.9 LindeHampson refrigerators and liquefiers 21
The temperature of the low-pressure return gas at the exit of the heat exchanger
(stream 5) depends on the effectiveness of the heat exchanger used. In the case of an
ideal heat exchanger operating with pure fluids and a heat exchanger effectiveness
" D 100%, T5 D T2 D T1. It can be observed from Fig. 1.21 that the numerator in
Eq. (1.36), the enthalpy difference between the low- and high-pressure fluids at the
warm end of the heat exchanger .h5 _ h2/, is much smaller than the denominator
.h5 _ hf /, which results in a very small fraction of liquid yield, typically less than
10%.
It can also be observed from Fig. 1.21 that the difference between the enthalpy of
low- and high-pressure streams at any temperature (h1_h2) increases with a decrease
in ambient temperature (T1). The liquid yield therefore increases with a decrease in
the ambient temperature.
The liquid yield will also increase when the temperature of the working gas
entering the compressor (T2) is decreased in a precooler before entry into the heat
exchanger.
Figure 1.22 shows the variation of liquid yield for nitrogen, argon, and oxygen
as a function of the temperature at the warm end of the heat exchanger. It can be
seen that the maximum liquid yield, when the temperature at the warm end of the
heat exchanger is 300 K, is less than 10% for a LindeHampson liquefier operating
with nitrogen. On the other hand, the liquid yield for similar conditions will be much
higher for oxygen and argon. In general, the higher the non-ideality of the gas at room
temperature and operating pressures, the higher will be the liquid yield.
Argon is the most non-ideal among nitrogen, oxygen, and argon, at room temperature.
6 Hence the liquid yield is higher when argon is used as the working fluid in a
LindeHampson liquefaction system, compared to that with other fluids, as shown in
Fig. 1.22. The liquid yield will increasewith a decrease in the temperature of the highand
low-pressure fluids at the warm end of the heat exchanger (T2; T5). The liquid
yield is also a strong function of the operating pressure (p2), as seen in Fig. 1.22.
The liquid yield of a LindeHampson system can be increased by decreasing the
temperature of the working fluid before it enters the heat exchanger .T2/ or by increasing
the compressor exit pressure .p2/. The pressure at which the liquid yield is
maximized at any given heat exchanger warm end temperatures (T2 D T5) is given
by the expression
_ @Y
@p2
_
T2 D 0 or _@h2
@p2
_
T2 D 0 or _J_T.p2/ TDT2D 0: (1.37)
6 The JouleThomson coefficient (_J_T) is 0.212, 0.265, and 0.361 K/bar respectively, for
nitrogen, oxygen and argon at 300 K, 1 bar. The higher the value of _J_T, the higher is
the non-ideality. _J_T is zero for an ideal gas. In general, the larger the difference
between
ambient temperature and the critical point of a fluid, the smaller is the non-ideality at room
temperature.
22 1 Fundamental principles and processes
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Liquid yield, Y
Operating pressure, p (bar)
300 K
275 K
250 K
Argon
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Liquid yield, Y
Operating pressure, p (bar)
300 K
T = 200 K
250 K
275 K
225 K
Nitrogen
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Liquid yield, Y
Operating pressure, p (bar)
300 K
275 K
250 K
225 K
Oxygen
2
2
2
2
T 2 = 200 K
T 2 = 225 K
Fig. 1.22. Variation of liquid yield with temperature of the streams at the warm end of an
ideal
heat exchanger of a LindeHampson liquefier operating with different fluids (p1 = 1 bar).
The
compression process has been assumed to be isothermal and the heat exchanger
effectiveness
" D 1.