Embryology

Embryology
The study of embryos, encompasses
the study of the development of
animals
Deals with ontogenetic development
(individual organism development),
rather than phylogenetic
development (evolutionary history of
an organism)

Stages in Ontogenetic Development

Gametogenesis
Formation and maturation of sperm and egg
1N = haploid

Fertilization
Fusion of sperm and egg to produce a zygote
2N = diploid

Cleavage
Mitotic cell divisions of early embryo, eventually forming
a blastula or blastodisc

Stages in Ontogenetic Development

Gastrulation
Migration and displacement of a single layer of surface cells, still
mitotically active, so that three distinct layers are formed

Organogenesis
Continuous masses of cells in the 3 germ layers become split into
smaller groups of cells, each of which will develop into a specific
organ or body part of the animal

Growth and Differentiation

Growth of organ rudiments and acquisition of structure and
physiochemical properties allowing them to function as adult
structures

The Egg

Animal pole upper hemisphere

(dark)
Vegetal pole lower hemisphere
(light)
Arrested at metaphase II when
deposited in the water and ready for
fertilization

Classification of Eggs
Based on Amount of Yolk
Megalecit
hal
Mesolecith Microlecit
al
hal
Huge
amount of
Moderate
Very little
yolk
amount of
yolk
yolk
Birds,
Amphioxus,
reptiles,
Amphibians Mammals
bony fish

Classification of Eggs
Based on Distribution of Yolk
Isolecithal
Yolk evenly
distributed
Sea urchins,
humans

Telolecithal
Yolk distributed
in a gradient
Amphioxus,Rept
iles, fish, birds,
amphibans

Centrolecithal
Yolk
concentrated in
the center of
the egg
Most arthropods

Fertilization
Metaphase II is completed
30 rotation of the cortex (gray
crescent)
Formation of GC opposite the point
where the sperm entered
Determination of the future pattern of
the animal
Formation of diploid zygote nucleus

Establishing the Axes

1. The polarity of the egg
determines the antero-posterior
axis before fertilization.
2. At fertilization, the
pigmented cortex slides over
the underlying cytoplasm
toward the point of sperm entry.
3. The first cleavage division
bisects the gray crescent.

Cleavage Types
Cleavage Initial series of mitotic divisions
by the zygote
Holoblastic = total cleavage. The entire egg
divides, as do successive blastomeres.
Equal = microlecithal eggs; dividing cells are equal
in size
Unequal = mesolecithal eggs; dividing cells
ventrally are larger than those dorsally

Meroblastic (Discoidal) = division only

occurs in a small area at the animal pole
blastodisc

Cleavage Patterns

Regular progression of cleavage

divisions
Vertical plane produces 2 cells
Vertical plane, but rotated 90 4
cells
Horizontal plane 8 cells

Cleavage Patterns
Position of upper cells relative to lower cells
during cleavage is important to classification
Radial cleavage = cleavages are symmetrical to
the first (echinoderms and chordates cleavage
pattern shows link between these groups, both
deuterostomes)
Spiral cleavage = cleavages are rotated from the
first (annelids, molluscs, some other invertebrates
separate evolutionary lineage: protostomes)

End product of cleavage is the blastula

(micro-, meso-) or blastodisc (macro-)

Cleavage Patterns

Cleavage
Cleavage is reductive
The average diameter of a cell
decreases as cleavage continues.
There is a large increase in surface area
relative to cellular volume.

Cleavage

Blastula
Microlecit
hal
(Amphioxus
)
Mesolecith
al
(Amphibian
s)
Macrolecit
hal
(Birds)

Hollow sphere
Wall is single-layered
Hollow sphere
Wall is several layers thick
Blastula forms as a plate,
several layers thick, on top
of the yolk mass

Blastula

Blastulae from various organisms

Blastula

Gastrulation
It is not birth, marriage, or death, but
gastrulation, which is truly the most
important time in your life.
Lewis Wolpert (1986)
Migration and division of cells to set up the
3 primary germ layers

Fate Map

Gastrulation
1. Establishment of the three primary
germ layers
2. Establishment of the basic body
plan (including the physical
construction of the rudimentary
primary body axes)
3. Cells are brought into new positions,
allowing inductive interactions

General Mechanisms that Drive

Gastrulation
Changes in cell motility
Changes in cell shape
Changes in cellular adhesion to other
cells and to molecules of the
extracellular matrix

Morphogenetic Movements
Invagination an epithelial
sheet bends inward to form an
inpocketing
Ingression cells leave an
epithelial sheet by
transforming from wellbehaved epithelial cells into
freely migrating mesenchyme
cells.
Involution a tissue sheet
rolls inward to form an
underlying layer via bulk
movement of tissue

Morphogenetic Movements
Epiboly a sheet of cells
spreads by thinning
Intercalation two or more
rows of cells move between
one another, creating an array
of cells that is longer but
thinner.
Convergent Extension two
or more rows of cells
intercalate, but the
intercalation is highly
directional

Steps in Gastrulation

Formation of the blastopore on the dorsal side of

the late blastula through invagination
Sheets of outer cells roll inward over the dorsal lip
(involution) and move into the interior (dashed
arrow)
Cells at the animal pole change shape and begin
spreading over the outer surface (epiboly)

Steps in Gastrulation

The blastopore extends around both sides of the

embryo (red arrows) as more cells invaginate.
The ends finally meet on the other side and the
blastopore forms a circle that becomes smaller as
ectoderm spreads over the surface
Continued involution expands the endoderm and
mesoderm, and the archenteron begins to form; the
blastocoel becomes smaller

Steps in Gastrulation

The archenteron has completely replaced the

blastocoel and the three germ layers are in place.
The circular blastopore surrounds a plug of yolkfilled cells

Gastrulation
DORSAL
blastopor
e
blastocoe
l

VENTRAL

Gastrulation

Gastrulation

Ventral
lip

blastocoe
l

Yolk plug
Dorsal lip

archenter
on

Neurulation
1. Creates the neural tube, which gives
rise to the central nervous system.
2. Creates the neural crest, which
migrates away from the dorsal
surface of the neural tube, and gives
rise to a diverse set of cell types.
3. Creates the bona fide epidermis,
which covers the neural tube once it
is created.

Neural Plate Formation

Thickening of the dorsal

ectoderm neural
plate

Neural Tube Formation

The neural tube is
produced by the
infolding and pinching
off of the neural plate.
Delamination of neural
crest cells from the
roof of the neural tube

Neural Crest
4th germ layer
Derivatives:
Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS)
Endocrine and
paraendocrine derivatives
Epidermal pigment cells
Facial cartilage and bone
Connective tissue

Neural Plate Stage

Neural
plate
Notochord
Ectoderm
Archentero
n

Endoderm

Mesoderm

Neural Groove Stage

Neural
groove
Neural fold

Neural Tube Stage

Neural tube
Somatic
mesoderm
Splanchnic
mesoderm

Mesoderm Development
Majority of body structures are
mesodermal in origin
Notochordal mesoderm rapidly rounds
up and separates from lateral mesoderm,
forming a discrete cylinder = notochord
Lateral mesoderm Branchiostoma
Mesoderm forms paired series of segmentally
arranged blocks = somites
From their initiation, somites possess a cavity
= coelomic cavity

Mesoderm Development
Lateral Mesoderm Vertebrates
No initial segmentation of mesoderm;
instead forms as a continuous sheet
without a central cavity
Differentiation occurs from head to tail
Epimere (somite)
Mesomere (nephrotome)
Hypomere (lateral plate)

Mesoderm Development

Mesoderm Development
Epimere (somites)
next to the neural tube
and notochord
Sclerotome = gives
rise to the vertebral
column
Dermatome = gives
rise to the dermis of
the skin
Myotome = gives rise
to the voluntary
muscles of the body
(with certain
exceptions)

Mesoderm Development

Mesomere lateral and

ventral to the somites
Gives rise to the
kidneys, the
reproductive organs,
and their ducts

Mesoderm Development

Hypomere extends
ventrolaterally from the
mesomere region
Coelom = cavity of the
hypomere
Gives rise to the smooth
muscle and connective
tissue coats of the
digestive tract
Gives rise to the linings of
all the coelomic cavities,
the serosa of the viscera,
and all of the mesenteries
The splanchnic mesoderm
gives rise to the heart

Adult Derivatives of the Three

Embryonic Germ Layers
Epithelial lining
of digestive tract
& respiratory
system
Lining of urethra,
urinary bladder,
& reproductive
system
Liver
Pancreas
Thymus
Thyroid &
Parathyroid
glands
Lining of Blood
Vessels

Endoderm

Notochord
Skeletal, muscular,
excretory,
circulatory,
lymphatic, &
reproductive
systems
Muscular layer of
stomach &
intestine
Dermis
Lining of body
cavity
Adrenal cortex
Heart
Smooth Muscle and
Connective Tissue
of Circulatory and
Digestive System

Mesoderm

Ectoderm

Epidermis of
the skin & its
derivatives
Epithelial lining
of mouth &
anus
Cornea, lens, &
retina of eye
Nervous
system
Sensory
receptors in
epidermis
Neural crest
derivatives

Organogenesis
Once the mesoderm divisions are set
up, ontogenetic development
proceeds to embryonic differentiation
of the adult body.
This differentiation is caused by
induction

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the olfactory placode

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the olfactory placode

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the olfactory placode

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the olfactory placode

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Between the olfactory placode and
optic cup

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the optic cup

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the optic cup

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the optic cup

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the optic cup

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Close-up of the optic cup

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the heart

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the heart

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the heart
Somite

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the heart

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the glottis
Somite

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the lung buds

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the lung buds

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the lung buds

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the hindgut

Coelo
m

Hindgu
t

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the cloaca

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Close-up of caudal artery and vein

10 mm tadpole serial
sections
Level of the ventral fin