PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

PROCESS INSULATION
Prof. A. S. Moharir
Insulation for Cylinder Shapes
Cylinder is perhaps the most important shape in the process industry. Most
process vessels and storage tanks have cylindrical bodies. All process piping is of course
cylindrical.
Like in all other shapes, heat transfer from the cylinder wall to the exposed
insulation surface is by conduction through the insulation layer. Heat transfer from the
exposed insulation surface to the atmosphere is by convection as well as radiation. Both
phenomena are lumped together by specifying a lumped heat transfer coefficient based on
the exposed insulation surface.

Mathematical Model
A schematic of one side of a cylinder from its axis along with insulation is shown
in the figure with necessary illustration of the nomenclature.

Cylinder

Insulation

r0
rIns

t
Ambient

Tvessel

r
Tskin

Process Insulation

Tambient

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At steady state, the rate of conductive heat transfer at the junction of cylinder and
insulation, at any arbitrary radial position within the insulation, at the insulation boundary
must be the same. Stated mathematically considering a unit length of the cylinder
dT
= constant
k 2 r
dr
for r0 r rIns

Therefore,
r

dT
= constant = c1 say
dr

Rearranging and integrating,

rIns

skin
dr
1
r r = T c1 dT
vessel
0

ln

rIns
1
= (Tvessel Tskin )
r0
c1

c1 =
Similarly,
r

Tvessel Tskin
r
ln 0
rIns
T (r )

dr
1
r r = T c1 dT
0
vessel
ln

r
1
= [Tvessel T (r )]
r0
c1

T (r ) = Tvessel + c1 ln

r
r0

Substituting for c1 , we get an expression for the radial temperature profile within
the insulation
T (r ) = Tvessel

Process Insulation

Tvessel Tskin
r
ln 0
r
r
ln 0
rIns

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Note that the temperature profile is linear if a logarithmic scale is used for r.

Some other simple definitions are listed here for easy reference later.

d 0 = 2r0 r0 =

d0
2

d Ins = 2rIns rIns =

d Ins
2

t = rIns r0 rIns = r0 + t

t=

d Ins d 0
d Ins = d 0 + 2t
2

For a given vessel OD, insulation thickness, vessel (and vessel wall) temperature
and the insulation skin temperature, one can thus generate a temperature profile within
the insulation.
What is important from the point of view of design and rating of an insulation is
an estimate of heat loss from the insulation skin. At steady state performance, rate of
transfer of heat by conduction through the insulation at insulation skin must equal rate of
heat transfer by convection and radiation from the insulation skin to the ambient. If h is
a lumped heat transfer coefficient based on exposed insulation surface, then for a unit
length of the cylinder;

k 2rIns

dT
dr

= h 2rIns (Tskin Tambient )

rIns

The L.H.S expression was earlier seen as equal to 2kc1 and an expression for c1
was also developed. Substituting that,

q = 2k

Process Insulation

Tvessel Tskin
= 2rIns h(Tskin Tambient )
ln r0 rIns
r
= 2 Ins h r0 (Tskin Tambient )
r0

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The above heat transfer rate per unit length of cylinder (q) is also the bare surface
of the cylinder per unit run multiplied by the heat loss per unit surface of the cylinder (Q).
Or
q = 2r0 Q
Substituting this in the above,
Q=h

rIns
(Tskin Tambient ) = Tvessel Tskin
r0
r
r0
ln 0
k rIns

Tvessel Tskin = Q

r0
r
ln 0
k rIns

Tskin Tambient = Q

r0 1
rIns h

Adding the last two equations,

r
r
r 1
Tvessel Tambient = Q 0 ln 0 + 0
k rIns rIns h
or,
Q=

Tvessel Tambient
r0
r
r 1
ln 0 + 0
k rIns rIns h

In terms of diameters, the above becomes

Q=

Tvessel Tambient
d0
d
d 1
ln 0 + 0
2k d Ins d Ins h

Above is an important relationship as it allows estimating heat loss from known

cylinder OD ( d 0 ) insulation thickness (t) which defines insulated diameter
( d Ins = d 0 + 2t ), insulating material (known thermal conductivity (k)), heat transfer
coefficient (a function of insulation surface emissivity, wind speed etc.), vessel
temperature and ambient temperature. This can be directly used for rating the
performance of an insulation.

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We now have all the ingradients, not only for rating but also for design of an
insulation for a cylindrical shape.

Design of Insulation
As seen earlier, insulation is provided for safety, process and economic
considerations. Depending upon their relevance in a particular situation one can design an
insulation to ensure that
a) the insulation skin temperature is not more than a specified temperature, or
b) the heat ingress/egress from insulation is not more than a specified level, or
c) the capital investment in insulation and the cost of energy loss during
operation are economized.
Design procedures for these three criteria are discussed below.

Skin Temperature as Design Criteria

For hot insulation (vessel hotter than the ambient) one would prefer to ensure that
the insulation thickness be adequate enough to ensure that the skin temperature is not
more than a certain safe value (lest the operator accidentally coming in contact with
insulation should be singed). For cold insulation (vessel at sub-ambient temperature) also,
one would like the insulation skin temperature to be above a certain threshold (dew point
of ambient air) so that there is no condensation of ambient humidity on insulation
surface. For a vessel/pipe carrying process/utility fluid at a given temperature, insulation
design in this case involves recommending insulation thickness for appropriate insulating
material that meets this skin temperature criteria. Procedure for hot insulation is
described below. That for cold insulation proceeds on similar lines.
max
Let the user specified maximum skin temperature be Tskin
. The heat transfer
coefficient based on insulation surface is also provided by the user. Heat transfer rate per
unit exposed skin area is thus

max
Q 1 = h Tskin
Tambient

For a cylindrical geometry, heat transfer rate per unit area of the cylinder is

r max
Q = h Ins Tskin
Tambient
r0

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It may be noted that ( h

rIns
) is the value of heat transfer coefficient based on
r0

cylinder surface. Based on Q1 , the calculation of insulation thickness is iterative.

However, if Q is known (i.e. if heat transfer coefficient based on cylinder surface is
specified), calculation is a one-pass procedure. For process vessels, the ratio of insulated
d
r
diameter to vessel diameter Ins or Ins is approximated as unity to begin with. An
r0
d0
estimate of Q is thus available (= Q1 ) for given value of h.
Q should be equal to the heat conducted per unit area into the insulation at the
cylinder-insulation interface. Or
k 2r0

dT
dr

r0

2r0
But

r0

dT
dr

=Q

= c1
r0

Substituting earlier obtained expression for c1 ,

Q=

k Tvessel Tskin

r
r0
ln 0
rIns

Considering the relation between rIns and ro (rIns = r0 + t ) and a bit of

manipulation, one gets regulation thickness of insulation as


max
T
Tskin
t R = r0 exp vessel
1
r0 Q


k
Now that an estimate of t R and hence rIns ( = r0 + t R ) is available, one may like to
correct the estimate of Q ( = Q 1

rIns
) and repeat above calculations. Few iterations
r0

converge on a value of t R .

Process Insulation

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The value of insulation thickness has been designated as regulation thickness as

max
this is the minimum that is required to keep the skin temperature at Tskin
. This may come
out to be a odd value. Recommended thickness should be and would be more than this.
The reason could be the need to round off, the need to provide engineering tolerances or
the need to keep the insulation thickness a multiple of some least count. The last reason
is supported by the following calculations.
The insulation thickness is seen as an integer number of layers of a specified
least count or unitary insulation thickness. Let it be t u . The number of layers (N) is then
the regulation thickness rounded off to the next multiple of t u .

t reg
N = int eger + 1
tu
Here, integer {} denotes the integer part of the rational number within {}. The
recommended insulation thickness is thus
t = N tu
d Ins = d 0 + 2t

rIns =

d Ins
2

The rate of heat transfer per unit area of the cylinder can then be recalculated for
the actual recommended thickness using the formula derived earlier.
Qreal =

Tvessel Tambient
d 0 ln (d Ins d 0 ) 1 d 0
+ h d
k
2

Ins

The skin temperature with the recommended thickness is reevaluated as

Q
Tskin = real + Tamb
d
h Ins
d0
This would obviously be less than the stipulated maximum skin temperature.

Maximum Allowable Heat Loss Option

Often process requirement could put a restriction on the maximum allowable heat
egress/ingress from the vessel or pipe run. Using the dimensions of the vessel/pipe, this

Process Insulation

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can be converted to allowable heat loss per unit surface of the vessel/pipe [ Q max ].
Allowable heat loss per unit surface of insulation ( Q 1

Q1 max =

max

) is then related to this as

r0
(
Q max )
rIns

Note that this cannot be calculated as insulation thickness and hence rIns is not
known. However for process vessels, r0 rIns can be approximated as unity to get a
starting guess of Q 1 max (= Q max ). The regulation thickness of the insulation is then
estimated as follows.
max

max
skin

Q1
=
h

+ Tamb

max
T

T
skin
t R = r0 exp vessel
1
r0 Q 1 max

k
max

Estimate of Q 1
can now be refined using this insulation thickness iteratively to
arrive at a convergent value of t R . This can be converted to recommended insulation
thickness as earlier.

Economic Thickness of Insulation

Insulation accounts for about 2% of a project cost. With safety and process
considerations satisfied, one would like to strike a balance between capital cost of
providing insulation and the cost of energy loss due to in adequate insulation. A possible
approach is suggested.
Let the thickness of insulation be t.

Weight of insulation per unit length of cylinder is

WIns = rIns r0 Ins

Process Insulation

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Cylinder surface per unit length of cylinder is

AIns = 2r0
Weight of Insulation per unit insulation surface is
W
r r0
d
d0
Ins
= Ins = Ins
= Ins
AIns
2r0
4d 0
2

W Ins

Rate of Heat loss per unit cylinder surface is

Q=

Tvessel Tambient
d 0 ln (d Ins d 0 ) 1 d 0
+ h d
k
2

Ins

If C Ins is the cost of insulation per unit weight, Insulation cost per unit cylinder surface is
C 1 = W Ins C Ins

If amortization factor for the insulation is Am , annualized capital cost of

insulation is Am C 1 . Similarly, the heat loss can be calculated per unit cylinder surface
per year from Q using appropriate multiplication factor considering the unit of time used
in k, h and hence Q. This multiplied by energy cost per unit heat give the annual energy
loss cost. Let this be C 2 .
C 2 = Q [multiplying factor to get annual cost] C energy
Total annual cost is

= C1 + C 2
The cost function is the objective function to be minimized using proper t. A single
variable optimization can be used get optimum t which minimizes .

Rating of an Insulation
How would an insulation with specific thickness function in terms of heat loss,
skin temperature, cost of insulation, cost of energy loss, temperature profile within the
insulation, average insulation temperature, insulation heat content, etc. need to be

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calculated for a freshly designed or existing insulation. These aspects of rating are
discussed below.
It is presumed that the following vessel and insulation parameters, temperatures
and economic parameters are available:
d 0 , t , Tvessel , Tambient , k , h, C Ins , C energy

The insulated diameter is then calculated as

d Ins = d 0 + 2t ;

rIns = d Ins 2

Heat loss per unit surface of cylinder:

Q=

Tvessel Tambient
d 0 ln (d Ins d 0 ) 1 d 0
+ h d
t
k

Ins

Insulation skin temperature

Tskin =

Q
+ Tambient
H

Heat loss per unit of vessel/pipe

Q d0
Cost of heat loss per unit of time used in k, h
Q d 0 C Energy

Cost of heat loss per year

Q d 0 C Energy Multiplier .

For example, if k, h use second as time unit multiplier is

3600 24 360

Process Insulation

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Weight of insulation per unit length of vessel/pipe

(d
4

2
Ins

d 0 Ins .
2

Cost of Insulation per unit length of vessel/pipe

(d
4

2
Ins

d 0 Ins C Ins
2

Temperature profile in insulation:

T (r ) = Tvessel +

Tvessel Tskin
r
ln
ln r0 rIns
r0

r0 r rIns

Average insulation temperature

Tavg = Tref +

rIns

r0

(r

2 r T (r ) Tref dr
2

Ins

r0

Insulation Heat Content per unit length of vessel

C p (Tavg Tref ) rIns r0

2

Design of Insulation for other Geometries

Several other geometric are important from process vessel design point of view.
These get employed as closures or for change over from one size to another or even as
vessel bodies. Important shapes are considered below.
Sphere and hemi-sphere
Spherical vessels have two important properties. From mechanical strength point
of view, sphere has the highest pressure bearing capacity among all shapes for a given
capacity and wall thickness. Also, sphere has the least surface for a given volume and
hence least heat egress/ingress for given insulation thickness. Sphere also becomes
important as a closure shape for similar reasons as compared to other types of closures.
Design and rating calculations for insulation of spherical/hemi-spherical shape is
considered below.

Process Insulation

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Mathematical Model
r0

rIns

Consider a spherical shell of outer diameter d 0 (radius r0 = d 0 2 ) with an

insulation thickness of t. Let the vessel temperature be Tvessel , temperature of exposed
insulation surface be Tskin and the ambient temperature be Tambient .
At steady state, rate of conductive heat transfer at any radius within the insulation
must be constant and equal to the rate of heat transfer from the exposed insulation
surface.

dT
2
k 4 r 2
= constant = Q I 4rIns

dr r
= Q 4r0

Q I is the rate of heat transfer per unit insulation surface and Q is the rate of heat transfer
per unit spherical shell surface.
r2

dT
= constant = C (say)
dr

Therefore,

T (r )

C
r r 2 dr = T dT
0
vessel
r

1
C
= T (r ) Tvessel
r r0

1 1
C = T (r ) Tvessel
r0 r

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Considering that
T = Tskin

at r = rIns ,

one gets

C=

Tskin Tvessel
(rIns r0 ) (r0 rIns )

Therefore,

T (r ) = Tvessel

Tvessel Tskin 1 1

(rIns r0 ) (r0 rIns ) r0 r

The heat transfer rate from the insulation skin can also be expressed in terms of
convective heat transfer rate. If h is the heat transfer coefficient based on insulation skin
surface,

4rIns Q I = 4rIns h(Tskin Tambient ) = k 4C

2

= k 4

Tskin Tvessel
(rIns r0 ) (rIns r0 )

Therefore,
Tskin Tambient = Q I h

Tvessel Tskin

r r Q I rIns
= Ins 0
rIns r0
k

Adding and rearranging,

QI =

Tvessel Tambient
1 1 1
2 1
rIns
+
r0 rIns k h
Tvessel Tambient
1 r0 rIns 1
rIns
+
k (r0 rIns ) h

Thus the heat transfer rate can be calculated for given insulation thickness. The
above equation is thus an important rating expression.

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The design equation is obtained as follows.

Tvessel Tskin
2
= Q I rIns
(rIns r0 ) (rIns r0 )

Tvessel Tskin =

r
QI
2 r
rIns Ins 0
k
rIns r0

Q I rIns

[rIns r0 ]
=
k r0
=

r r
QI
r0 Ins Ins 1
k
r0 r0

2
Q I rIns rIns

r0
=
k r0 r0

Or,
rIns

r0

rIns

ro

Tvessel Tskin

=0
r0 Q I k

This is a quadratic in (rIns r0 ) and the solution gives

rIns

Tvessel Tskin
1 + 1 + 4
r0 I

k
= r0
2

Design with maximum skin temperature criteria

Unlike the case of cylinder, the design here is not iterative. The steps involved are
as follows.

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max
From the user specified maximum allowable skin temperature ( Tskin
) and heat
transfer coefficient (h) based on unit skin surface area, heat loss per unit insulation skin
surface is calculated as follows.

max
Q I = h Tskin
Tambient

This is used in the above formula for rIns to get insulated radius. The minimum
insulation thickness is then calculated as
t = rIns r0

Design with maximum allowable heat loss

User specifies the maximum allowable heat loss per unit surface area of sphere
( Q ). The heat transfer coefficient is specified per unit area of insulation surface. The
two important specification at two different surfaces necessitates iterative calculations,
unlike in the previous case. The following approach is suggested.
max

Guess a value of insulation thickness ( t G ). Calculate rIns as

rIns = r0 + t G
Estimate heat transfer rate per unit surface of insulation as

QI

max

= Q max

r0

rIns

Estimate skin temperature.

max

t skin =

QI
h

+ Tambient

Estimate insulated radius ( rIns ) as

Process Insulation

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

rIns

Tvessel Tskin
1 + 1 + 4
r0
max

QI

k
= r0
2

Obtain the insulation thickness, t, from difference of rIns and ro . If this is not the
same as guessed thickness within tolerance, repeat above calculation with improved
guess. Arithmatic average of the guessed and calculated thickness is a good new guess.
Also, initial guess could be zero. This iterative scheme converges to the final estimate
within reasonable number of iterations.

Economic Thickness of Insulation

The design in this case attempts to find an insulation thickness which minimizes
total annual cost comprising annualized capital cost of insulation and cost of energy lost
through insulation. The approach is similar and formulae leading to the expression of
total annual cost as a function of insulation thickness are given below
d Ins = d 0 + 2t
r0 =

d0

rIns = d Ins 2
Weight if insulation

4
3
3
W Ins = rIns r0 Ins
3

Area of insulation skin

AIns = 4rIns

Weight of insulation per unit insulation surface:

rIns r0
3

WIns = WIns AIns =

Process Insulation

3rIns

Ins

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PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Rate of heat loss per unit insulation surface is

QI =

Tvessel Tambient
1 r0 rIns 1
+
rIns
k (r0 rIns ) h

Insulation cost per unit insulation surface:

C 1 = W Ins C Ins

Annualized capital cost of insulation is AnC 1 .

Heat loss per unit insulation surface per year:
C 2 = Q1 [multiplying factor to get annual cost] C Energy
Total annualized cost:

= C1 + C 2
Single variable optimization can be used to final optimal insulation thickness which
minimizes .
Design of insulation for a hemisphere is identical to that of a sphere.

Rating of Insulation for Sphere

For a given insulation thickness around a sphere, performance rating follows on

the lines of that for a cylinder. The procedure is briefly summarized here.
d Ins = d 0 + 2t ,

rIns = d Ins 2

Heat loss per unit insulation surface:

QI =

Process Insulation

Tvessel Tambient
d Ins (1 d 0 d Ins ) 1

+
2 k (d 0 d Ins ) h

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Insulation skin temperature

Tskin =

QI
+ Tambient
h

Rate of heat loss:

Q I 4rIns

Cost of heat loss per unit time (unit of time as used in the definition of k, h):
Q 4rIns C Energy
2

Cost of heat loss per year

Q 4rIns C Ins Multiplier .

2

Multiplier to be evaluated as in the case of cylinder.

Weight of insulation:

4
rIns 3 r0 3 Ins
3

Cost of Insulation:
4
rIns 3 r0 3 Ins C Ins
3

Temperature profile in insulation:

1 1

r r
(Tvessel Tskin )
T (r ) = Tvessel 0
1
1

r
r
Ins
0

r0 r rIns

Average insulation temperature

Tavg = Tref +

rIns

r0

(r

Ins

Process Insulation

3 r 2 T (r ) Tref dr
3

r0

)
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Insulation heat content

C p (Tavg Tref

) 4 (r
3

Ins

r0 Ins
3

Rating for hemisphere is similar except that the rate of heat loss, cost of energy
loss, weight insulation, cost of insulation, insulation heat content would be halved.

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