U.S.

DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Servi;e

AD-A033 216

ENGINEERING DESIGN HANDBOOK

HELICOPTER ENGINEERING.

PART TWO

DETAIL DESIGN

ARMY MATERIEL COMMAND,

ALEXANDRIA,

JANUARY, 1976

Reproduced From
Best Available Copy

VIRGINIA

351058
AMCPAMPIT

AMCP 706-202'-

ENGINEERING DESIGN

HANDBOOK
HELICOPTER ENGINEERIN\

PART TWO
DETAI L DESIGN

IIEADEQMRE-USP 1 AINYV MATERIEL COMMAND

NATIONAL TECHNICAL
INFORMATION SERVICE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMIE,"
iMNWacw, VA. 2231W

JANUAR IC76

AMCP 706-202

AN1( Parrnpbkei

No.
714S-01

ENGINEERING I)ESIGN HANI)BOOK

20Jnay17
HELCOPERENGINEERING, PART TWO
DETAIL. DESIGN

TABLE (N-' CONTENTS

Paragraph

EE
LISTOF ILL.USTRATIONS................ .........................
I 1ST OF TABLES ... .... .... ...................................
FOREW ORD .. .. .. . . .. . . .. . . ....... . . .. . .
. . . .Xxxviii
PREFACE ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Xxviii

Xxxi,
XXX%

CHAPTEKR I
INTROI)1UCTION
(HAPTERI

2-I

2/

INTRODULCTION ....... M.Al.'E. A.I..........S.

. . .-

2-2
~METALS ..................
............. ..... .... ....... ......
2-1
2-2.1
FERROUS METALS..............................................
2-1
2-2. 1.1
General ..................................
......... .............
2-1
2-2.1.2
Ca!'bOn Steels ..............
-............. ...... ................
2-1
2-2.1.3
Allov Steels.........................-2
2-2.1.4
StainessSteels....................... ............................
2-2
2-2.1.5
Precipitation Hardening Sicels ......................................
2-2
2-2.1.6
Maraging Steels ..................................................
2-3
NONFERROUS METALS ............................. .......... 2-4
2-2.2
2-2.2. 1
General.............................. ...........................
2-4
2-4
2-2.2.2
Aluminum Alloys........... I................I..................
2-5
Magnesium Alloys....I............................................
2-2.2.3
2-2.2.4
Titanium Alloys......................................... .........
2-6
2-2.2.5
Copp.,r anid Copper Alloys .........................................
2-6
2-7
2-2.3
ELECTROLYTIC ACTION OF DISSIMILAR MFTAI.S................
2-3
NOMETALLIC MATERIALS........................................2-4-7
2-7
............................
GENERAL ..........................
2-3.1
22-3.2
THERMOPI ASTIC MATERIALS ................................
2-3.3
THERMOSETTING MATERIALS......... ................ ........ 2-9
......
2-10
2-3.4
ELASTOMERIC MATERIALS .............................
.. ...........
2-10
2-3.5
WINDOW MATERIALS ............................
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES.........................................21-Il
2-4
.. ...........
2-Il
FIBERGLAS LAMINATES ..........................
2-4.1
2-4.1.1
Design Considerations ................
............................
2-1l
2-4.1.2
Resin Systems ...................................................
2-12
2-12
2-.;Polyesters ......................................................
2-4.1.2.2
Epoxies ........................................................
2-12
2-4.1.2.3
Phrnolics ..........................
............................
2-12

AMCP 706-202
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Paragraph

Pagc

2-4.1 3
2-4.1.3.1
2-4.1.3.2
2-4.1.3.3
2-4.1.4
2-4.1.4.1
2-4.1.4.2
2-4.1.4.3
'2-4.1.5
2-4.2
2-4.2.1
2-4.2.2
2-4.2.3
2-4.2.4
2-4.3
2-4.3.I
2-4.3.1.1
2-4 .3.1.2
2-4.3.1.3
2-4 .3.1.4
,,

Types of Reinforccment .............. ........... ....................

Nonwoven Continuous Filaments ....................................
Woven Fabric ....................................................
Chopped Fiber .....................................................
Fabrication M ethods ................... ..............................
O pen Mold H and Layup ..............................................
Sprayup
................ ...........................
......
Matched D ie M olding ................................................
Surface F inishes .......................................................
FABRIC LAM IN ATES ..................................................
Reinforcem ent Selection ...............................................
R esin Selection ........................................................
Special T ypes .........................................................
Specifications .........................................................
FILAMENT COM POSITION ..........................................
Types of Reinforcem ent ............... ...............................
E-glass ...................................................
S -g lass ...................................................... ........
Boron Filam ents ................ ....................... ...........
..............
11lG ..rap hite .............................................

, C

"" ,..

......

......................

2-4.3.3

Manufacturing Processes ..................... ....

2-4.3.4

A pplications ...................

2.44
2-4.5
2-4.5.1

...................

........................

2-5
2-5.1
2-5.1.1
2-5.1.2
2-5.1.3
2-5.2
2-6
2-6.1
2-6.2
2-6 .3
2-6 .4
2-7
2-7.1
2-7.2
2-7.3
2-7.4
2-7 5

1t

2-19

2-19o
.

2-20

HONEYCOMB AND SANDWICH CONSTRUCTION

.
A R MO R MATERIALS ................................................
Available Materials
..........................................
Design
ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS ...........
........................
BO N D ING AG EN TS ................... ..............................
Structural Adhesives ...............
...............................
Nonstructural Adhesives
.......................................
Processing O perations .................................................
-Dcsgi, ofonded Structurc.........................................
SEAL.ING CO MPO UN DS .............................................
PA IN IS A N D FIN ISH ES ................ .... ..........................
PAINTS AND COATINGS (ORGANIC) ...............................
SPECIAL. FINISHES ...............................................
P LAT IN G ......................................................... ...
T A P ES ........................... ................ ...................
LUBRICANTS, GRI-ASES. AND HYDRAUI.IC FLUIDS ...............
G E N ER AL ......... ............................ .....................
DESIGN OF LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ............................
G RE-A SE S ...................................... ......................
DRY FILM AND PERMANENT LUBRICANTS .....................
H YD R AU LIC FI.U IDS ....... ............... .......................
R EF ER E NC ES ...................................................... ...

""4

2-12
2-13
2-13
2-13
2-13
2-14
2-15
2,15
2-15
2-16
2-17
2-17
2-17
2-17
2-17
2-18
2-18
2-18
2-18
2-18

2-20
2-272-29
2-30
2-30
2-30
2-30
2-32
2-33

2-33

2-33
2-34
2-34
2-35
2-36
2-3 7
2-38
2-3K
2-38
2-38
2-38
2-40
2-40

(0i1A'ITR 3
PROPII. ION SIBSYSTEM I)IESIN'N

L IST Of: SY M BO LS .....................................................

3-0

3-1

ii

.. . .. .

..

r-

..

"AMCP 706-202
TABLE OF (ON1I EN'IS(( ontinud)
Page

Paragraph
3-1
3-2
3-2.1
3-2.1.1
3-2.1.2
3-2.1.3
3-2. 1.4
3-2.2
3-2.3
3-2.4
3-2.4.1
3-2.4.2
3-2.5
3-2.5.1
3-2.5.2
3-2.5.3
3-2.5.3.1
3-2.5.3.2
3-2.5.3.3
3-2.6
3-2.6. 1
3-2.6.2
3-2.6.2.1
3-2.6.2.2
3-3
3-4
3-4.1
3-4.2
3-4.2.1
3-4.2.2
3-4 .2.3
3-4.2.4
.3-4 2.5
3-4
3-4 .22.6
.7

"3-4.2.
3-4 .3
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-8
3-8.1
3-8.2
3-8.2.1
3-8.2.2
3-8.2.3
3-8.2.4
3-8.2.5
3-8.3 .
.3.
I

3-

INTRO D UCTIO N .....................................................

3-1

ENGINE INSTALLATION ..............................................

G EN E R A L ............................................................
Subm erged Installation ................................................
Sem icxposed !nstallation ..............................................
Exposed Installation ...................................................
D esign C hecklist .......................................... ..........
ENGINE M OUNTING ................................... ............
ENGINE VIBRATION ISOLATION ...................................
FIF EW A LLS ..........................................................
Fire Detectors .........................................................
Fire Extinguishing .....................................................
ENGINE AIR INDUCTION SUBSYSTEM ............................
Air Induction Subsystem Design .......................................
Inlet Protection ....................................................6..
A nti-icing .............................................................
Electrical A nti-icing ..................................................
Bleed Air Anti-icing ...............................................
Anti-icing D em onstration ............................................
EXHAUST SUBSYSTEM ..............................................
....... ...............
Exhaust Ejectors . ..........................
Inftaid (IR) Radidtiui Suppr, .sior ...................................
1R Suppression Requirements . ......................................
Exhaust Suppressor .................................................
PROPULSION CONTROLS .............................................
.................. ... .......
FU EL SU BSYSTEM ...................
...................................
...
GENERAl . .............
FLUEL SUBSYSTEM COMPONENTS ................................
Fuel Tanks ................................................. ........ .
Fuel Tank Venis ....................... .............................. .
F uel G aging ...........................................................
Refueling and D efueling ...............................................
F uel D um ping ........................................................
...................
Engine Feed System ..............................
Fue l l)r iti ....................... ..... .... .........................

3-i
3-1
3-1
3-I
3-3
3-4
3-4
3-5
3-5
3-5
3-6
3-6
3-6
3-6
3-7
3-7
3-7
3-7
3-7
3-8

.......................
Controls and Instrumenlation ................
T EST IN G .............................................................
LUBRICATION SUBSYSTEM .........................................
COMPARTMENT COOLING ..............
ACCESSORIES AND ACCESSORY DRIVES ............................
................................
AUXILIARY POWER UNITS (AIU',
G EN ERA L .........................................................
APU INSTALLATION DETAILS .....................................
Method of Mounting ..................................................
Inlet D ucting ........................ ............................. ...
Exhaust Ducting ..................................................
................................
APU Bleed Air Ducting ........
Cooling ..................... . .. ....................... . .............
APU SU BSYSTEM S ....... .........................................
..............................
C ontrols . ...................

3.13
3-13
3-14
3-14
3-15
3-15
3-15
3-15
3-15
3-16
3-17
3-18
3-18
3-18
3-18

..............

Electrical

3-8

3-1
3-9
3-9
3-9
3-9
3-10
3-10
3-11
3-11
3-11
3-13
3-13
3-13

Iiii

AMC? 7W0620

___

T'ABI.ELF

(ONr''
"I %I

i( onalinucd)

Paragraph

3-8.31.
3-8v .1.2
3-8.3.1 3
3-8.3.1.4
3-8.3. 1.5
3-8.3.2
3-8.3 2.1
3-8.3.2.2
3-8.3..
3-8.3.4

3-8.3.5
3-8.4
3-8.5

____

Pdgv

Sequencing Controls .................................................

Protective Controls ....... ............................
..............
O utput C ontrols .....................................................
Electrical Control Location ....................................... ...
Electrical Power Requirements ......................................
Fuel System Controls ..................................................
Rated Speed G overning ..............................................
Filtering Requirements ............ ................................
APU Lubrication Subsystem ..........................................
A PU Reduction Drive ..... ............................... ...........

3.18
3-18
3-18
3-19
3-19
3-19
3-19
3-19
3-20
3-20

AP Starting.................

3-20

.................................

R ELIA BILIT Y ........................................................

SAFETY PROVISIO NS ..................................... ..........
R EFER EN C ES ..........................................................

3-20
3-21
3-22

CHAPTER 4

TRANSMISSION AND DRIVE SUBSYSTEM DESIGN

4-0
4-I
4-1.1
4-1.2

4-1.2.1
4-1.2.1.1
4-1.2.1.1.1
4-1.2.1.1.2
4.1.2.1.1.3
4-1.2A. 1.4
4-1.2.1.2
4-0.21.3

"4-1.2.1.4
4-1.2.1,4.1
4-1.2.1.4.2
4-1.2.I 4.3
4-1.2.1.4.4
4-1.2.1.4.5
4-1.2.2
4-1.2.2.1
4-1.2.2.2
:
4-1.2.2.3
4-1.3
4-1.3.1
4-1.3.2
4-1.3.3
4-1.4
4-1.4.1
4-1.4.2

"4-1.4.2.1
4-1.4.2.2
4-1.4.2.3
iv

liSTOF SYMBOLS ..............................................

INTRO D U CTIO N .......................................................
G EN ER Al. ........................................................ ...
REQUIREM ENTS ................................................... .
G eneral Requirements .... .........................................
Pe-fortrance .........................................................
Subsystcni Weight ........................
.....................
Transm ission Efficiencr y ................................. ...........
Si Ce Levels. ..................... ........ ..........................
N oiseLevels ....... . ..............................................
R eliability
.....
.................................................
Maintainabifity..................................................
Survivability
...............................................
R edundancy ........................................................
Dcsigu Configuration ...............................................
Self-sealing Sum ps ..................................................
Emergency Lubrication ......................... ............ .......
A rm or ..............................................................
Drive System Configurations .........................................
Single M ain Rotor Drive System .....................................
M ultilifting-rotor Drive System s ......................................
Compound Helicopter Drive Systems .................................
TRANSMISSION DESIGN AND RATING CHARACTERISTICS .....
Power/Life Interaction ................................................
Transmission Overhaul Life Rating .....................................
Transmission Standards and Ratings ...................................
QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS ................................
Component and Environment............... ........................
Dcvelopment Testing ...................... ..........................
Static C asting Tests ...................................................
Deflection Tests ......................................................
C ontact 1 :sts ........................................................

4-1
4 3
4-3
4.3
4-3
4-4
4-4
4-4
4-I1
4-11
4-12
4-16
4-7
4-I1
4-18
4-22
4-22
4-23
4-23
4-23
4-23
4-25
4-25
4-25
4-27
4-28
4.29
4-2'9
4-29
4-29
4-29
4-30

(
.

4
:.

AMCP 706-202
lARIl.01- (()%'I IKNIS (Oininuvdli

Paraigraph
4-1.4.2.4

4-1.4.2.5
4-1.4.2.6
4-1.4.2.7
4-1.4.3

.L4-1.4.4

4-2
4.2.1.
4-2.1.1
4-2.1 .2
-4-2.1.2.1
4-2.1.2.2
.2.3
4-2.2
4-2.2..1
4-2.2.1.1

It4-2.1

4-2.2. 1.2. 1
A

-Bending Fatigue Strength ............................

...........

ailuir .................................................................

4-30
4-30
4-30
4-31
4-31
4-32
4-32
4-32
4-32
4.34
4-34
4-34
4-34
43
4-34
4-35
4-36

Cattie Failure.................................................

4-44

4-2.2.1.2.3.2

Classic or Pitch Line Fatigue ....................................

445

4-2.2.1.2.3.3

Wear Initiated Failure

446

4-2.2.2.2.3
4-2.2.2.3
A-2.2.3
4-2.2.3.1
4-223.2
4-2.2.3.3
4-2.2.3.4
4-2.2.3.5
-4A-2.2.4

4-2.2.4.1
4-2.2.4.2.
4-2,2.4.3
4-2.2.5
4-2.2.5.1
4-2.2,5.2

e:4-2.3
4-2.3. 1

.........

I...........I.............

r~

44.

4-2.2.1.2.3.

''4-2.2.2.2.2

Assembly and Disassembly .......................................

Lubrication System Debugging....................................
Incremental Loading and Efficiency Tests ...........................
Thermal Mapping Tests..........................................
Overpower Testing...............................................
Other Life and Reliabil~ty Substantiation Testing .................. ....
TRANSMISSIONS ................................................
FAILURE MODES ..............................................
Primary Failure Moocs ...........................................
Secondary Failure Modes .........................................
Overload Failures ...............................................
Debi is-caused Failure ...........................................
Environmentally Induced Failures .................................
DYNAMIC 1C.CNPONENTS ....................................
Gears Limi.....ations............................................
Gear Lnialyios ................................................
aiukgl;I

4-2.2.1.3
4-2.21.2
4-2.2.2. 1.
4-2.2.2..1
4-2.2.2.1.2
4222.3
4-2.2.2.1.4
'4-2.2.2.2
4-2.2.2.2.1

Pp

Gear Drawing and Specification...................................

4-4
Bearings .......................................................
4-48
Lubrication Deighnq.......s.....................................4-4O
AMpluctiong Driesign
.........................................
.. 4-48
Mounrctiong Practices
..........................................
4-48
Internal Characteristics .........................................
45
Skidding Control ..............................................
4-54
Life Anm lysis .................................................
45
Assumptions and Limitations ....................................
4-55
'Modification Faiflot Approach to Lifc Prediction..............I...... 4-55
Complete Elastic and Dynamic Solutions...........................
4-56
Drawing Controls........................................ ...... 4-56
Splines.........................................................44-7
Face Splines .........................................
......... 4-386L
Concentric or Iongitudinal Splineq .................................
.5
:Propcrtics ofSplineb ............................
................ 4-58
Spline Strength A nalysis..................... ....................
4-59
Drawing Design and Control .....................................
4-60)
4-60
-Overrunning Clutches ............................................
Sprag Clutches ..................................................
4-61
Ramp and Roller Clutches........................................
4-62
Self-encvgizing Spring Clutches....................................
4-62
Rotor Brakes........................ ...........................
4-62
R,quirernents and Limitations.................. ..................
4-62
Design arid Analysis ...........................................
4-63
STATIC COMPONENTS.................................... ..... 4-64
Casez end Housings..............................................
4-64
v

r.

..

..

. .

. .

0
AK 70_2o2
TABLE 0 CONTENTS Iedlnutd)
P lParagraph

Pug-

4-2.3.1.1

4-4.2
4-4.2. I
4-4.2.2
4-4.3
4-5
4-5.1
4-5.2
4-5.3

4-64
4-66
4-67
4-W
4-0.
4- 3
4-72
4-72
4-72
4-73
4-73
4-74
4-76
4-76
4-76
4-80
4-81
4-81
4-82
4-82
4-83

J
3.rt..C. a.^CO*

44 13.3

--

.................................... .............

M ate:ials and Pro

..............................................
Quills ...................................... ..........................
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................
Vibr'ation Control .....................................................
D iagnostics ...........................................................
DRIVE SHAFTING AND INTERCO iNECTION SYSTEMS ............
GENERAL. REQUIREMENTS ........................................
Engine-to-Transmission ...............................................
Interconnect Shafting ..................................................
Tail Rotor or Propdlcr Shafting .......................................
Subcritical Shafting ........................................ ..........
Supercritical Shafting ................... ..............................
COMPDONEi-NT DESIGN .............................................
C ouplings .............................................................
Bearings
...................................................
Shafting ..............................................................
LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
.......................................
OIL MANAGEMENT
............................................
Function ..............................................................
Comporent and Arrangement .........................................

Desi.5n ai'd Analys-u

4-2.3.1.2
4-2.3.2
4-2.4
4-2.4.1
4-2.4.2
4-3
4-3.1
A-3. I. I
4-3.1.2
4-3.1.3
4-3.1.4
4.3.1.5
4-3.2
4-3.2.1
4-3.2.2
4-3.2.3
4-4
4-41
4-4.1.1.
4-4.1.2
.

..1#
0

............

......

COOLING REQUIREMENTS .........................................

Heat Exchanger Sizing ................ ................................
Cooling Fan Sizing
...........................................
EMERGENCY LUBRICATION..................................
ACCESSORIES......................... ............................
PAD LOCATION AND DESIGN CRITERIA................ .........
ACCESSORY DRIVE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ....................
REQUIREMENTS
SPECIAL
F.........................................

4s

4-86
4-36
4-87
4-87
4-88
4-88
4-89
4-89

QC

,2,-.

CHAPTER 5

ROTOR AND PROPELLER SUBSYSTEM DESIGN

vi

5-0
5-1

LIST OF SYM BOLS ....................................................

IN TRO D UCTIO N .............................................. ........

5-1
5-2

5-2
5-2.1
5-2.1.1
5-2.1.2
5-7-!.3
5-2.1.4
5-2.1.5
5-2.1.6
5-2.1.2
5-2.1.8
5-2.2
5-2.3
5-2.4
5-3
5-3.1

DESIG N PARAM ETERS ................................................

HOVER
Disk Loading and Induced Power ......................................
Blade Loading .......................................................
Blade Tip M ach N um ber ....................... .....................
N um ber of Blades ......................... ...........................
Tw ist .............................................. ..................
A irfoil Sections ......................................... ..............
Hovering Th vust
Capability ............................................
...........................................
Guideines .......p
HIGHu SPEED LEVEL F. IGHT ......................................
HIGH-SPEED MANEUVERING FLIG:T ...........................
IN E R T IA .................................. ........ ..................
ROTOR SYSTEM KINEMATICS .......................................
G EN ER A L ..................................................... ... ...

5-3
5-3
5-3
5-4
5-5
5-5
5-5
5-5
5-5
5-5
5-6
5-6
5-7
5-7
5-7

-W

W4

706-j22

_________AlMiP

SA OLL OF (CONTENTh I(vatinuLedI

PararaphPatic

5-3.

11 LICOPTER CONTROLa.......................

5.9

5-3.j

ARTICUL,%TID R0104.........................

59

5-3.4

GtNMBALED(TEI-TERING)HO1TOR

5-10

5-3.5

HIINGELESS ROY OR .........................

5-3.5.1
5-3.5.2
5-3.6
5-3.6.1
*

-5-3.6.2

5-3.6.3
5-4
5-4.1
5-4.1.1
54.1.2
5-4,1.2.1
5-41.2.2)
5-4.1.2.3

-.

Fr~tigue Tests ....................................................

5-4.3

GROUND RES.NONANCE

>

AS

rrQ

wlS.................................

To-blded otorWithHinged Blades ...............................

Two-bladrd Riatocs WVitbout Hinges ..................................
M ultibiaded Rotors ........ .... .. ... .........
FLUTT FR ASSESSMENT ..........................................
Current Criteria...................................................
Design Considerations .............
..................... ..........
Helicopter.............. ........ ...................... .........
5-4.4.2.1.1
FaAed SystEm ...................................................
5-4.4.2.1.2
Ro'ating System ...
............................................
5-4.4.2.2
Compound ......................................................
5 -4.4.2.2. i
Fixed System ...................................................
5-4.4.2..72
Rotating System ................................................
5-4.5
ACOUSTIC LOADING ............................................
5-4.6
GUST LOADINGS................................................
5 4.6.1
Discussion of the Gust Prohi -m......................................
5-4.6.2;
Guist Design Considerations......... ...............................
15-4.7
TORSIONAL STABILITY .............................
............
5-4.7. 1
Discussion of Problem . ...... .. . . . .. ... ........
5-4.7.2
De!sign Considerations ....... .. . . . ... .. ........
5-5
BLADE RETENTION ..........................
5-51I
RETENTION SYSTLM DESIGN CONSIDElRATIONS.................
55 .1Articulated Rotors ... . . .. . .. . . . . . . .. .. . .. . . .
Articluated Rotor Considerations ...............
-51.1Typical
5-5.1.1.2
Reversed Hinge Articulation ......................
5-5.1.2
Gimbaled and Teetering Rotors ... .................
5-5.1.2.1
Gimbal-mounted Hubs ..........
..............
5-5.1.2.2
Teetering Hubs . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
5-5.1.3
Rigid Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
5-5.2
COMPONENT DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS .............
5-5.2.1
Rolling Element Bearings .....
..................
5-4..1

5.4.3.2
5-4.3.3
5-44
5-4.4.1
5-4.!.2
5-4.4.2.1

5-11

XH-51 Rotor System ..........................

5-12
OH-6A Rotor .. .... ... .. . . .. . .
... .... ...
5-12
ROTOR SYSTEM K;NEMA IC COU?U]N!G .........................
5-13
Pitch-lag Instability ................................................
5-1;
Pitch -flap Instability ..............................................
5-14
Flap-1iit Instability
.............................
..................
5-14
ROTOR SYSTEM DYNAMICS .......................................
5-!6
OSCILLATORY LOADING 01- ROTOR BLADES ....................
53-16
Hyotheicator LoadDsigcdinCofsid oratibns..............................5-16
Osilltoypohtiad DsesaigConsidrations
V ratoy.Load....................51
..
Rotor Oscitlatory Load Calculation....................... ..........
5-17
Drawing Pomid Phase .......................
.. ..................
5-17
Flight rests .....................................................
5-18

5-4.1.2.4

_ ................

5-18
5-19

5-2 1
5-22
5-22
5-23
5-23
5-23
5-23

1
'

5-23
5-23
5-23
5-23
5-24
5-24
5-24
5-24
5-25
5-2
5-26
5-1)
5-27
5-27
5-27
5-27
5-29
5-29
5-29
5-30
5-30
5-30
5-30

"

AMCP 706-22
"1AII:
kI F OFl

()N"t I-NS t( outinu'd i

Piaragraph

5-5.2.1.
5-5.2.1.2
5-5.2.1 3
5-5.2.2
5-5.2.3
5-5.2.3.1
5-5.2.3.2
5-5.2.4
5-5.2.5
5-5.2.6
5-5.3
5-5.4
5-5A.1
5-5.4.1.1
5-5.4.1.2
5-5.4.2
5-5,,4,3
5-6

5-6 IF

5[ -t,.t
5-i. 1 2
5-6.1.3

5-6.2
5-11!
2. 1
5-6.2. I .I
5-6.2.1.2
5-6.2.1.3
5-6.2.!.4
5-6.2.1.5

5-6.2.1.6

Ig

C_')hndrical Roller Brarinis ...........................................

Tapered Roller Bearings ..............................................
Angular Contact Ball Bearings ........................................
Tcflon F-abric Bcaring. ................................................
Flexing Elk nent.' ......................................................
Tension-torsion Strap Assemblies ....................................
W ire Tic-bar Assem blies .............................................
Flastom cri" Bcarings ..................... ............................
Lag D)ampcrs, Lead-lag Stops .........................................
Droop and Flap Stops and Rcsti ainers .................................
CONTROL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS ............................
BLA D E FO LD ING ....................................................
D esign Requirem ents ..................................................
M anual Blade rolding ........................................... ....
Pow er Blade Foiding .................................................
O perational Requirem ents ..............................................
System Safet) Considerations .............. ............................

R OTO R BLA D ES ........................................................

N q, I

5-6.2.4

5-6.2.5
5-6.2.6
5-6.2.7
5-6.2.8
5-6.3
5-6.3.1
5-6.3.2
5-6.3.3
5-6.4
5-7
5-7.1
5-7.2
5-7.2.1
5-7.2.2
vWi

.................

... . .............................

BLADE CONSTRUCTION ........................................

S p a r ................................... ..............................
H ollow Extrusion ....................................................
Solid Extrusion ..................... ................................
Formed Sheet Metal ..................................................
R ound S,ecl T ube ...... ............ ................................
M olded Reinforced Plastic ............................................
le I UvI I .........................

.......................

5-37

5-38
5-38
5-39"

1
: ':'

, ':

5-41
5-4 1
5-41
5-41i-_
5-42
5-42

,
S,

5-42

I .......
.

C ontinuous Skins ....................................................

Segm ented Skins ............................... ................ ....
W raparound Skins ...................................................
...............................
Root End Retentions ................
Tip Closures and Hardware .....

5-37

5-42

Form ed M etal Tube ..................................................

.2...rt

5-6.2.2.1
5-6.2.2.2
5-6.2.2.3
5-6.2.3

. ......

"Tw ist .................................................................

Planfurni " apt~r ... ..... ..............................................
A irfoil C ross Section ...................
...............................

5-31
5-31
5-31
5-31
5-32
5-32
5-32
5-32
5-34
5-34
5-35
5-35
5-35
5-35
5-3t
5-36
5-36

......................................

T rim T abs ....................

.......................................
T uning W eights .............. ........................................
D esign Requirem ents ..................................................
Tooling and Quality Control P equirements .............................
BLADE BALANCE AND TRACK .....................................
Effect of D esign ............... .......................................
Com ponent Lim it W eights .............................................
1 rack .................................................................
ROTOR BLADE MATERIALS ........................................
ROTOR SYSTEM FATiGUE LIVES ....................................
G EN E R A L ........... ................................................
ENDURANCE LIMIT TESTING ......................................
G encral ............ ..................................................
N onm etals ........ ....................
..........................

5-43
5-4 3
544

5-44
5-44

5-44
5-4 5
5-4 5
5-45
5-46
5-4 6
5.47
5-4 9
5-50
5-53
5-53
5-54
5-54
5-55

'

.-

F~
AMCP
""1
ABI IV!

706-20

%'11 iN SI( onfilud

PIr.iagraph

...............................................

5-57

5-8

PROP

II. RS .......

.... ..

. ...............

5-H. I
5-8.2
5-3.2.
5-8.2 2
5-8.2.3
5-8.2.4
5-8.2.5
5-8.3
5-8.3.1
5-,.3.
5-8.3.1.2
5-8.3.1.3
5-S.3.2
5-8.3.2.1
5-8.3.2. 1.1
-

GI NL.RAI ...............
....................................
PROPELLER SYSI ENI )YNAMICS ..................................
Vibrator) L.oads ...................................................... .
Critical Speeds and Resiporisc .................. .......................
.......
...............................
G usis and M aneuvers ......
Stall F luttcr ....................................... ..................
Prop Iller Roughness ...... .......
............................ ....
PROPI-I.iI-IR HUBS, ACTUATORS, AND CONI ROLS ...............
Propeller Barrel and hladc Rctention . ................................
B arrel L.oading .......................................................
Louding D efinition .......................... .......................
Barrel Structural Tests ...........................................
Propclcr Actuators and Controls ......................................
C ontrol Configurations ................... ...........................
Constant-speed G overnors ..........................................
.. ........................................
BnaContr,..

5-57
5-s5
5-57
5-60
5-62
5-63
564
5-65
5 65
5-65
5-66
5-66
5-66
5-66
5-66
5-67

5-8.3.2.3
5-8.3.2.4
-5-8.3.2.5
5-8.4
5-8.4.1
5-8.4.2
5-8.4.2.1
5-8.4.2.2
5-8.4.2.3
5-8.4.3
5-8.4.4
5-9. 4.4.1
5-8.4.4.2

5-67
5-68
5-68
5-18
5-68
5-70
5-70
5-7.2
5-73
5-73
5-7.
5-74
5-75

5-8.4.4.4
5-8.5
5-8.5.1
5- .. .S

Au xiliary Functio s ..................................................

.........................................
Control Performance
C ontrol R eliability ................................ ..................
PROPELLER BLADES .........
................................
Blade Geom etry ......................................................
Blade C onstruction ....................................................
ade Constructior ..........................................
Types of BM
M anufacturing Processes and Tooling .................................
Q uality C ontrol ........................................... ..........
Blade and Propeller Balance ....... ....... ...........................
Bvide M aterials ................................. .....................
tl low B lades .......................................................
C om posite M aterials .................................................
.................
F iller M aterial .....................................
Structural Adhesives ....................... .........................
PROPELLER BLADE FATIGUE LIVI:S .............................
Enduranct Limit and O0her Structural T',:sting ..........................
... ..........................
...........
.
T i A TIst C... I.

5-75
5-75
5-76
5.7

5-8.5.1.2
5-8.5.2

F ull-scale Tests .................................... ..................

tigu Life Dctcrminat on ................
Flight Loads Test D-aon

5-76
5-76

IO
p erpretation of ResutsI ..............................................

5-77

5-9.4.1
5-9.4.2

Tractor C onfiguration .................................................

...................
Pusher C onfiguration ...............................

5-79
5-79

5-9.4.3

O perational Considerations ............................................

D irection of R otation ..................................................

5-79
5-79

5-,.4.4.3

5-H.5.2. I

5-8.5.2.2

5-56
5-56

Structurai M em bcr I. ..............

5-7.2.4
Dctermination of Fatigue .ifc

5-8.3.2.2
--

...................

5-7.2.3

5-9
5-9.1
5-9.2
5-9.3
,5-9.4

S5-9.4.4

Itydraulic System

..........................................

A ircraft T ests ........................

............ . ........

. ........

. .......

............................
AN -IITORQ U E ROTORS ...................
. ...........
........... ....................
G E N E R A L ...............
..........
TYPICAL. ANTiIORQU)E ROTORS ........................
TAIL ROTOR DESIGN REQUIR!M ENrS ...........................
.... .......
INSTAILLATION CONS!IDERATIONS ....................

5-67

5-75

5-76

5-7"7
5-77
5-78
5-78
5-79

.,

AM^P 706-202

f
1 AlI.t OE ( Oi11 -N'i S Iollhunitvd
(

Paragraph

Pap"
Engint E.xhaust

5-9 4 5

5-9.5
5-9.5.1
5.9.5.2
5-9.5.3

"5-9.5.4
5-9.5.5
5-9.6

5-9.7
5-9.7.1
5-9.7.2
5i-9.7.3
5-".7.4
5-9.7.5

* I

-.
-_.

6-0
6-i
6-1.1
6-1.I.I
6-1.1.2
6- .1.3
6-1.2
6-1.3
6-2
6-2.1
6-2. 1.1
6-2.1.2
6-2.1.2.!
6-2.1.2.2
6-2.1.2.3
6-2.1.2.4
6.2.1.3
6-2.1.4
6-2.1.5
6.2.2
6-2.3
6-3
6-3.1
6-3.1 .1
6-3.1.2
6-3.1.3
6-3.1.4
6-3.1.5
6-3.1.6
6-3.1.7
6-3.2
6-3.2.1

.A

......................................................

. 80

TAIL ROTOR DESIGN PARAMETERS ..............................

Tail Rotor D isk I oading ...............................................
T ail Rotor Tip Speed ..................................................
....................... ..........
Bladc Nuinocr and Solidity .....
T wist ............. ...................................................
0lade Airfoil
t...........................................
......
TAIL ROTOR PI RIORMANC
.......
.........
STRUCTURAL CONSID'ERATIONS .............
.............
Struclural D ynam ics ............................ ..................... .
Structural Loading ....................... .......................
.. ..
Blade Structural Analysis ............. .. .. .........................
A .- uelasticit% ............ ............................................
Flutter and Divergence ..........................................
R EFER EN C ES .. ............................... ..... .................

5-89
5-80
5-80
55-8I
5-RI
5.2
5-82
5.82
5-82
5-83
5-83
5-83
5-83

(IAlv IKR 6
FI.V;HT CONTROL S. 1SVS,,iLIST O t SYM BO LS ....................................................
GENRA, .L...................................................
......... ...........
D ESIG N M ETIIO ). ...............
I
Point of Dcpartuie ...............
..............................
Mission Requirements and Fligh" Envelope ..........................
Basic ttclicoptc" D ata ............................. ........... ......
ANALYTICALTOOLS ..........................................
SIMULATION AND TESTING ....................................
STABILITY SPECIFICATIONS ........................................
C RITERIA AND METHOD OI'.\V'AI YSIS ...........................
Control Power and Damping .......... .............. ...............
C haracteristic R oots ...................................................
R om Plot, .............................................. ..........
Modes and Required Damping .....................................
Inherent Airfram e Stability . ....................... .................
Variation of Para;m eters ... ................... ......................
T ype of C ontrol ............................. . . .....................
Transient Response .. .........
.............
.................
Other Factors ................................................
AIUTOROTATION INTRY . .....................................
SYSTEM FAI URLS ............................ ............ ......
STA BILI FY AUGMENTATION S%Si'i-MS ..........................
..
GENERAI .....................
..........
............
.....
B ell Stabiliter Bar ............... .....................................
H
Servo GRotor
.............
.........
. ............ ...................
.........
M iller
echanical
-,ro ..............
...................

6.6
1
6-i
6-I
6-1
6-2
6 -6-2
6.2
6-2
6-2
6-i
6-3
6-4
6-4
6-6
6-6
6-6
6-6
6-7
6-8
6-8
6-9
6-9
6-9
6-9
6-9

Lockheed C ontrol Gyro ............................ ..................

Elcctrohydraulic SA S ...................... ......................... .
Fluidic and Hydrofluidie SAS ....... .................................
Flapping M oment Feedback ....... ......... ..................... .
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION ....................................
A ugrm entation Requirem ents ................................. .........

6-10
6.13
6-10
6.10
6-10
6-10

AMCP 706.202
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Pagt

Paragraph

6-3.2.2

H elicopter Size ........................................................

6-10

6-3.2.3
6-3.2.4
6-3.2.5

Type of Rotor System .................................................

Helicopter Configuration .............................. ...............
Suppression of Structural and Rotor Mode Responses, Vibrations.
o; G usts .............................................................
SAS RELIABILITY ....................................................
... .....................................................
S afety .....
SA S Fa:lures ..........................................................
Fail-safe Principles ....................................................
Battle Damage, Vuhnerability ...........................................
..........................................
C OST .......................
Developm ent Cost ... .................................................
Production C ost .......................................................
M aintenance Cost .....................................................
TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN ................................
PILO T EFFO RT ............................ ............................
CRITERIA FOR POWER CONTROLS ................................
Control Forces
..............................................
Vibration lFeelback ............................................
..........................................
K in .inatic Effects ........
Control Stiffness ........... ..........................................
HANDLING QUALItY SPECIFICATION ............................
HUM AN FACTORS .............. ...................................
Control Force C ues ............. ......... .................... .......
Developm ental Test ................................. .................

6- 1
6-11

6-3.3

S6--?.r`.l
6-3.3.2
6-3.3.3
6-3.3.4
6-3.4
6-3.4.1
6-3.4.2
6-3.4.3
6-3.5
6-4
6-4.1
6-4.1.1
6_6-4.1.2

S ,.
A

)
,

6-4.1.3
6-4.1.4

6-4.2
6-4.3
6-4.3. 1
6-4.3.2

AUTOMATIC CONTROL INTERFACES .............................

6-4.4

VU LN ERA BILITY ....................................................

R ELIA BILIT Y ........................................................
M EC H A N ISM S .........................................................
YSTEMS ..............................................
ROTATING
a
Design Factors ........................................................
T est R esults ...........................................................
Bench Tests ..........................................................
.................. .
Test Loads ..............................
Instrur"-,ntation .....................................................
Quantity and Selection of Specimens .............................
lnterpretation of D ata ...............................................
Flight T ests ........................................................
Required Instrum entation ...........................................
Flight Cond1 .ions
...........................................
NONROTATING SYSTEM ...........................................
Pilot's Controls to Power Actuator ......................... ..........
Power Actuator to the Swashplate ......................................
T R IM SYST EM S ..................................... ................
D isconnectT ri ......................................................
C ontinuous rrim ................................ .....................
Parallel and Series T rim ................................................
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT ..............................................
.......................................
G E N E R A l . ....................
MATHEMATICAL MODEL IMPROVEMENT ......................

6-4.5
6-4.6
6-5
6-5.!i
6-5.1.2
6-5.1.2.11
o-5.l.2.1.1
6-5.1.2.1.2
6-5.1.2. 1..1
6-5.1.2.1.4
6-5.1.2.2
6-5.1.2.2.1
6.5.1.2.2.2
6-5.2
6-5.2. 1
6-5.2.2
6-5.3
6-5.3.1
6-5.3.2
"
6.5.3.3
6-6
6-6.1

6-11
6-12
6-12
6-12
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-13
6-14
6-14
6-14

6-1A
6-14
6-15
6-15
6-17
6-17
6-17

6-17
6-18
6-18
6-18
6-18
6-ig
6-21
6.21
6-.21
6-21
622
6-22
6-22
6-2",
622
6-22
6-23
6-24
6-25
6-25
6-25
6-26
6-26
6-26
6-26
xi

-- m.'ll
.-.

Il

- ...- t&

'.1

0.

I~Ai

ae&ih

"

,,l.a.&

Mkh~msl,.

.-.-...-.-..

~ --

-. i

AMCP 7QW5V2
TABIIV OF ('ONI 1.N*1S t CoEn~inut i)
Paragraph
6-6.2.1
6-6.2.2
6-6.3
6-6,4
6-6.5

Pagc
.....................
Wind Tunnel Test............................
.. I.........................
Hardware Bench Tests .................
GROUND-BASED PILOTED FLIGHT SIMULAT ION ................
FLIGHT TESTS...................................................
DESIGN REVIEW ................................................
REFERENCES .. ..................................................

CHAPTEFR 7
ELEC'TRICAL SUBSYSTEM DESIGN
7-0
LIST OF SYMBOLS.................................................
7-I
INTRODUc-riON.................... ....... .......................
7-1.1
GENERAL.......................................................
7-1.2
SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS.....................................
7-1.3
LOAD ANALYSIS ................................................
7-1.4
LOAD ANALYSIS PREPARATION .................................
7-1.5
MANUAL FCRMAT ..............................................
7-1.6
AUTOMATED rORMAT .............................
...........
7.1.7
SUMMARY......................................................
7-2
GENERATORS AND MOTORS ......................................
7-2.1IC
GEEAI...........................
.:-. ................
7-2.2
AC GENERATORS (ALTERNATORS)..............................
7221Eiectrical Design.................................................
7-2.2.2
Mechanical Dcsign ................................................
7-2.2.3
Cooling........................................................
7-2.2.4
Application Checklist ..............................................
7-2.2.5
V aria ble-freqqtency AC Generators...................................
7-2.3
srA RTER/G EN ERATO RS, DC G IN ER ATORS, AND STA RTERS
7-2.3.1
Starter/Generator
......................................
.........
1-2.3.2
DC Geuerators....................... ............................
7-2.3.3
DC Starters ......................................................
Boost Starting System ..............................................
7-2,3.4
1-2.4

7-2.5
7-2.5.1
7.2.5.2
7-3
7-3.1
7-3.2
7-3.3
7-3.4
7-3.5
7-4
7-4A
7-4.1.1
7-4.1 2
7-4.1.3
7-4.2
7-5
7-5.1
7-5.2

ELECTICAL MOTORS............................

....................

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM CONVERSION.............................

AC to DC Converters .............................................
DC toAC Converters ..............................................
......................................
BATI'LRIES .................
Bm rERY CHARACTERISTICS ...................................
~
GENERATOR CONTROL BATTERY CHARGING...................
..........
UTILIZATION LOAD ANALYSIS........................
HEAVY CURENT STARTING REQUIREMENTS ....................
MAINTENANCE
.........
.....................................
VOLTAGE REGULATION AND REVERSE CURRENT RELAY ...
DC VOLTAGE REGULATION .....................................
Voltage Regulator .......................
............
............
Reverse Current Relays...........................................
Overvoltage Relays .....................................
..........
AC VOLTAGE REGULATION .....................................
OVERLOAD PROTECTION .........................................
GENERAL.......................................................
OVERLOAD PROTECTION DF-VICES ............................
.

.26
6-27

6-27
6-2,
6-28
6-28

7-1
7-1
7-1
7-1
7-2
7-2
7-3
7-3
7.4
7-4
7-4
7-6
7-6
7-6
7-7
7.8
7-8
7-9
7-9
7-10
7-11
7-1l
7-13

7-14
7-14
7-15
7-15t
715
7-15
716
7-17
7-18
7-11...
7-18
7-18
7K
7-19
7-19
7-19
7-19
7-20

F
.AMCP

706-202
1IABI 1. 01 (()N'II:NI I,(

nttinued)

Paragraph
7-5.2. 1
7-5.2.1.1
7-5.2.1.2
7-5 2.2
7-5.2.3

"7-5.2.4
7-5.3
7-6
7-6.1
7-6.2
7-6.3
7-6.4
7-6.5

"7-6.5.1
7-6.5.2
7-6.5.3
7-6.5.3.1
7-6.5.3.2
-6.5.3.3
7-7
7-7. i
?7-7.2
7-7.3
'
7-7.4
7-7.5
7-7.6
7-7.7
7-7.8

"7-8

7-8.1I
7-8.1.
7-8.1.1.1

7-8.1. 1.2

7-8.1.1.3
7-F8..1.4
7-8.1.1.5
7-8.1.1.6
7-8.1.1 .7
7- . Q.2
7-8.2
7-8.2.1
7-8.2.2
7-9
7-9.1

"1-9.2
7-9.3
7-9.4

Circuit Breakers ...................................................

7-20
Therm al C ircuit Breakers .............................................
7-20
7-20
...............
M ars.czic Circuit Breakers ..........................
Remote Control Circuit Breakers .......................................
7-20
C urrent Sensors ......................................................
. 7.20
F uses .............................................................. . . 7-20
OVERLOAD PROTECTION APPLICATION .........................
7-21
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI/EMC) .................
7-21
G E N E R AL .............................................
...............
1-21
ACCEPTABILITY REQUIREMENTS .................................
7-21
INTERFERENCE SPECIFICATIONS ................................
7-21
!NTERFERENCE SOURCES ........................................
7-21
INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION ...................................
7-22
Interference-free Components .........................................
7-22
Equipment Isolation and Cable F outing ................................
7.22
Source Suppression and Susceptibility Reduction .....................
7-23
G rounding and Bonding ..............................................
7-23
Shielding ............................................................
7 -23
F ilters ...............................................................
7-24
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM INSTALLATION .............................
7-24
-'%
N E R A i .. ............................................................
h IE
EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION .......................................
7-24
ELECTRICAL WIRE BUNDLES .......................................
7-25
TERMINAL STRIP INSTALLATION ..............................
7.25
ENGINE COMPARTMENT WIRING .................................
7-26
DOOR HINGE WIRE BUNDLE ROUTING ...........................
7-26
WIRING TO MOVING COMPONENTS ..............................
7-26
BATTERY INSTALLATION ..........................................
727
CO M PO N EN TS ..............................
.........................
7-27
7-27
W IR E .................................................................
W ire Insulating M aterials ...... .......................................
7-27
Polyethylene .........................................................
7-27
Polyvinylchiorid

. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .

Fluorinated Ethylene Propylen

.................................
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene ...............
.....................
Polybexamethylene-adipamide ............. ..........................
Tetrafluorocthylene ..................................................
Dimethyl-siloxanc Polymer
M ilitary W ire Specifications ...........................................
F I-f IN G . ............................................................
Term it,al Strips ........................................................
Connectors ........................................................ . .
LIGHTNING AND STATIC ELECTRICITY ............................
G EN ER A L ............................................................
LIGHTNING PROTECTION FOR ELECTRONIC SUBSYSTEMS ....
STATIC ELECTRICITY ...............................................
LIGHTNING AND STATIC ELECTRICITY SPECIFICATIONS ......
R EFER EN C E ...........................................................

7-27

7-28
7-28
7-28
7-28
7-28
7-28
7-29
7-29
7-29
7-29
7-29
7-30
7-31
7-32
7-32

xiii

-:

r =.-''"

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Conlinued)

Paragraph

8-11
I.;..
8- L2
8-1.3
8-1.4
8-2
8-2.1
8-2.2
8-2.3
8-3
8-3.1
8-3.2
8-3.3
8-3.3.1
8-3.3.2
8-3.3.3
8-3.3.4
8-3.3.5
8-3.3.6
8-3.3.7
8-3.4
9-3.5
I.8-3.6

8-4
8-4.1
8-4.2
8-4.3
8-4.4

Pagc
CHAPTER 8
AVIONIC SUBSYSTEMS D~ESIGN
INTRODUCTION .................................................
8GENERAL....................................................
8i
ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY PaOGRAM .. .............
&I
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS.....................................
8-2
ENVIRO1NMENTAM. ASPECTS....................................
8-2
COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT ........................
.........
8-3
GENERAL .....................................................
8-3
MICRt)PIONE-HEADSET .......................................
8-4
INTERCOMMUNICATION SELECTOR BOX......................-.,
NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT;...................................
.8-4
GENERAL .....................................................
b-4
TERMINAL MANEUVERING EQUIPMENT .......................
8-5
EN ROUTE NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT........................
h5
Automatic Direction Finder (A.DF) ...................
...... ....... 8-5
Distance-measuring Equipment (DMW) ................
I.............
8-5
Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)..................................
845
Lona-ranize Navistation (LORAN)..................................
t-6
Compasses .....................................................
8-6L
Doppler Navigation Systems .......................................
8-6
Inertial Navigation Systems .................................
...... -E;
6
INTERDICTION EQUIPMENT ...................................
8_/
8-7
1.0W-LIGHT-LEVEL NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT ...............
STATION-KEEPING EQUIPMENT ..............
...............
9-7
FIRE CO1'TROL EQUIPMENT .........................
..........
8GENEt. AL.................................
....................
8-7
INSTALLATION ..................................
.. ...........
8-8
SIGHTING STATION
............................................
8-8
SENSORS ......................................................
8-8
..

.-

T~rvDW

O At C'~k

8-4.6
8-4.6. 1
8-4.6.2
8-4.6.3
8-4.7
8-5
8-5.1
8-5.2
8-5.3
8-5.3.1
8-5.3.2
8-5.3.3
8-5.3.4
8-5.3.5
8-5.3.6

IX

..

..

. .

. .

. .

II. .

. .

. .

. .

. . .

FIRE CONTROL ACCURACY................

I....................
Inertial Stabilization..............................................
Fire Control Datum Planc ..... ...................................
Harmonization ..................................................
COMPONENT LOCATION.........................
..............
ANTENNAS ......................................................
GENERAL .............................
..... .............. ..
ANTENNA DEVELOPMENT..................... ................
LOCATION AND INSTALLATION OF ANI ENNAS .........
Communication Antenna Considierations ............. ....
Low Frequency (-1)
........................
.............. ......
H igh Frequency (H F) ......
....................................
Very High Fre~quency (VHF).......... ....................
... ....
Ultra High Ficqucncy (UHF)........... ..... ............ ........
SpeCi3l Purpose .................................................
REFERENCES...........................................
.........

)Lk

8-9
8-9
8-9
8-10
8-10
8-10
U-11
912
f 3
l-l3
:
8-14
8-14
8-;4
g9.14

tA

[_,0

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

ParRAUapC
*LISTOF

.-

9-2.1
9-2.1.1
-9-2.1.2
9-2.2
9-2.2.1
9-2.2.2
9-2.2.3
9-2.2.4
9-2.2.5
9-2.3
92..
9-2..2
9-2.3.3nu
9-2.4
9-2.5
9-2.6
9-2.6.1
9.2.6.1.1
9-2.6.1.2

I9-2.6.1.3
9-2-6.1.4
92.6.2
'92..
92.6.4.
V-ZAA.1

4\

AND:NEUATI

SUBSYSTEMS DESIGN

SYMBOLS ...............................................

9-1

FLIGHT CONTROL POWER SYSTEMS..........................

Central Hydraui2c Sysiemn.........................................
Flight Control Subsystems........................................
UTILITY HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS ................................
Engine-starting Subsystems........................................
Cargo Door and Ramp System .....................................
Cargo and Pnrsoniicl Hoist ........................................
Rotor Brake .....................................
..............
Wheel Brakes...................................................
H-YDRAULIC SYSTEM RELIABILITY .........................
...
Flig ht Control Redundancy........................................9Utility System Redundancy........................................
R elinhilitv Asnacte
.......................
41 YDRAULIC SYSTEM STfRENGTH- CONSIDERATIONS............
H-YDRAULIC SYSTEM TEMPERATURE CONSIDERATIONS ....
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM DESIGN .........................
........
Sun'vability. Reliability, and Safety Trade-offt........................
Reservoir Leve! Sensing ................
.........................

91
9-1
.9-2
9-2
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-4
9-59-S

Systemt Switching Concepis

..........

..

-- 8

......

Return Pressure Sensing .......................................

..
Switching and Return Pressure Sensing.....................
......
Operating Pressure Considerations..................................
Selection of Fluid Medium ...............
.........................
Filtration (Contamination)........................................
Fluiud

Fiiirutiun. ..............................................

9-5
9-5
9-6
9-6
9-7
9-7
9-8

1..
K
1

9-9
9-9
9-10
9-10
9-104

9-!0

9-Il
9-2.6.4.2Ground Operation Filtration .....................................
9-2 6.4.3
Filtration Lcvel ................................................
9-11
9.2.6.4.4
iex~rnal Contamination................... ......................
9-11
9-2.6.5
Fittings .......................................................
9-1 i
9-2.6.6
Dynamic Fluid Connections..................................
.....
9-12
9-2.6.7
Peak Power Leve~ls.............................................
9
9-2.6.8
A1PU ant' Engine Starting ...................................
... .
9-2.6.9
Syskem I-eat Rejection Characteristics ................. ........ ...
9-13
9-2.6. 10
System Analysis...........................
......................
9-13
9-2.7
HYDRAULIC COMPONENT DESIGN AND SEL ECTIO ... .........
~
9_1I
.............
Actuators ... L......................................
9-2.7.1
9-2.7.1.1
Rip-stop Protection .............................................
9-0
9-?.7.
i.2Endurance
Testing Requirements..................................
9.4g
9-2.7.1.3
Seal Alternatives ....................... ........
.............
9
92.7.1.4
Materials and Stres!; Corusidci tions ................
............. ..
9-16
9-2.7.1.5
General Requirements......................................
.....
9- 1f
9-2.7.2
Hydraulic Pumps;..............................
.. ... ............ ~* ~
k9-2.7.3
Accumulators.................................................
92..
Reservoirs ............
L................... ....... ........ .....
4-20
....... .. ........ ...
e-2c
9.2L-7.5
Pressure Relicf............................
Nx

'

AMCP 706-202

,T".I Tmo0 (ONvl I-"N'IS ,

qmtinued
u

Paragraph
9-2.7.6
9-2.7.7

"9-2.7.8
9-2.7.9

9-2.7.11
:9-2.7.13

9-2.7.12
9. .7. ,z

9-2.7.14
9-2.8
9-2.8.1
9-2.8.2

"9-2.8.3
9-2.8.4

9-2.8.5
9-2.9
9-2.9.1
9-2.9.2
9-2.9.3

"9-2.9.4

,9-2*.

9-20
921
9-21
922
9 .22

Control Sclttor Valves .........................

.................
R estrictors ............ ............................................
S~parauc
Secvos
a a c e v , .............................
............
.............

9-22
9-24
9-25;

...
..

9 -25.

AIlovable External Leakage ...........................................

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM INSTAILLATON ...........................
U se of Hoses and Sw ivels ..............................................
Ma-ntrtcance Access
............................................
Hard Vetsus Soft !h.s,stllativns .........................................
Component M ou zingnConctnts .......................................

9-25
9-25
9-25
9-25
9-26
9-26

Miscellaneous Instahiation Conside-ati 1 ... .........................

MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN CRI IERIA .............................
Actuators and Assoziated Equipment Design ......
...................
Brake Design ..........................................................
Control System Design ................................................
Electrical Design ................................. ....... ............
,
..........................................................

9-27
9.27
9.27
9-28
9-29
9-29

9-2.9.6

Fittings Design . ......................................................

9-;2c).D
9-30

9-2.9.7
9-2.9.8
9-2.9.
9-2.9.10
9.2.9.11

G age and Indicator Design ............. ...............................

H osP D esign ..........................................................
s
..........................................................
R eservoir Design ......................................................
Valve D esign ..........................................................

9-30
9-30
9 -30
9-31
9-31

9-2.9.12

Lubrication ...........................................................
PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS.....G
.....................................
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM DESIGN......................................
System A nalysis. ... .... ...................... .....................

9-32
9-32
9-32
9-32

"9-3
9-3.1
9-3.1.1

9-3.1.2

System Redundancy

.. ....................... .....................

9-33

"9-3.2.1

COMPONENT DESIGN
.........................................
A ir C om pressors ............
........................................
Positive D isplacem ent ................................................
Dynamic Displacement ..........................................

9-33
9-33
9-333
9-34

9-3.2.2
9-3.2.3
9-3.2.4

Compressed Air Supply System Selection and Operation ................

Moisture Separators ...................................................
Dehydrators ..........................................................

9-34
9-34
9-35

9-3.2.5
9-3.2.6
9-3.2.6.1

F ilters ................................................................
Valves
......................................................
Check Valves
................................................

9-35
9-36
9-36

9-3.2
9-3.2.1.1
9-3.2.1.2P

9-3.2.6.2
9.3.2.6.3
-9-3.2.6.4
9-3.2.6.5
v -3.2.7

,.'..,
~

Pressure Regulation .................................................

Filters ....................
..................................
C heck Valves ....................... .......................... .......
Pressure Switches
..............................................
PressureTr~nsm
!92.7.10
itters ............................
................ ...

R elief Valves .........................................................

Pressure-reducing Valves
....................................
Pressure R egulators ..................................................
Directional Control Valves
...................................
u
........................................................

9-3.2.8

A ir Storage Bottles ....................................................

9-3.2.9
9-3.2.9.I

Subsystem Com ponerts ...............................................

Actuators ............................................................

9-37
9-38
9-38
9-38
9-41
9-42

9-43
9-43

"
.

Li

AM0CP706-202
"IAB1.4 01 ()%'

IN' I

SI ( ontinucd)i

Paragraph
9-3.2 9.2

9-3.2.9.3
9,3.2.9.4
9-3.3
9-3.4
9-3.4 .1
9-3.4.2
9-3.4.3
9-3.4.4
9-3.4.5
9-3.4.6

10-1
10-2
10-2.1
10-2.2
10-2.3
!0-2.4

10-2.4.1
10-2.4.2
10-2.4.3

10-3
10-3.1
10-3.2
10-3.3
10-3.4
10-3.5
10-3.6
10-4
i-4.i

10-4.2
10-4.3
IO.5
10-5.1
10-5.2
10-6
10-6.1
10-6.2
10-6.2.1
10-6.2.2
10-6.2.3
10-6.3
10-7
10-7.1
)10-7.2

10-7.3

Page
Brake V alves ..............

..........................................

9-44

Pneum atic Fu ,cs .....................................................

Q uick-disconnect. ............... .............................
......
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM INSTALLATION AND QUALIFICATION ...
PITOT-STATIC SUBSYSTEM DESIGN ...............................
A ltimr et rs ................................... ........................
Rate-of-clim b Indicator ...............................................
A irspccd Indicators ....................................................
Total-pressure Sources .................................................
Static Pressure Sources ................................................
Pitot-static T ubes ......................................................
R EFE R EN C ES ..........................................................

9-44
9-44
9-44
945
9-4 5
9-46
9-46
9-47
9-47
9-4 8
9-48

CIIAPTER 10
INSTR I EMiNTATION SIUBSYSTEM I)ESIGN
IN T RO D U C TIO N .............................
........................
INSTRUMENTATION LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS .................
G EN E R A L ............................................................
LIGHTING INTENSITY CONTROL ..................................
LOW INTENSITY READABILITY ....................................

10-1
10-1
10-1
10-1
10-2

WARNINGC. CAUTION, AND ADVISOR Y S!ONALS

................

W arning Signals .......................................................

C aution Signals ... .................................
..................
A dvisory Lights .......................................................

10-2
10-2
10-3

FLIG HT INSTRUM ENTS . .............................................

( EN ER A L ............... ............................................
AIRSPEED INDICATORS ......................... ..................
A LT IM ET ER S ........................................................
TURN-AND-BANK INDICATORS ...................................
ATTITUDE INDICATOR .............................................
RATE-OF-CLIMB INDICATORS .....................................
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTATION ..............................
ENEAL...........................................................

1.7

10-3
10-3
10-3
10-3
10-3
10-3
10-5
10-5

....

TYPESOF INSTRUMENTS ...........................................

M A P DISPLA YS ......................................................
HELICOPTER SUBSYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION ....................
G EN E R A L ................... ............................ ...........
INSTRUMENTATION REQUIRED ..................................
WEAPON SYSTEM INSTRUMENTATION .............................
G EN ER A L ............................................................
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ...........................................
Arming, Fuzing, and Suspension and Release Control Design ............
Human Fa -tors Considerations .........................................
Indicator Dcsign ......................................................
WEAPON SELECTION CONTROLLLR/PROGRAMMER ...........
TYPES Of INSTRUMENT ..............................................
IN STA LLATIO N ......................................................
V IBR A T IO N ..........................................................
ACCESSIBILITY AND MAINTENANCE .............................
R EFER EN C ES ............................................ .............

10-5
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-8
10-"
10-8
10-8
10-9
10-9
10-10
10-10
10-10
10- 10
xvii

TABLE OF CONTENTS (-]onitnuvdi

Paragiaph

I -f0
I-oI
11-2
11-2.1
11-2.2
1a-2.3
11-2.4
11-2.5
11-2.6
11-2.7
11-3
11-3.1
11-3.2
11-3.3
11-3.4
11-3.5
11-3.6
i i-3.7
11-4
11-4.1
11-4.2
I1-5
11-6
11-7
I-8
11-8.1
I1-8.2

12-0
12-1
12-1.1
12-1.1.1
12-1.1.2
12-1.1.2 .1
12-1.1.2 .2
12-1.1.2.3
12-1.1.2.4
12-12
12-1.2 ,1
12-1.2.2
12-1.2.3
12-1.3
12-1.3..
12-1.3.2
12-1 3.3

"xViii

Page
CHAPTER i i
AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN
LIST O F SYM BO LS .....................................................
INTRO DUCTIO N .......................................................
I)ESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...........................................
W EIG H T ..............................................................
SURFACE SMOOTHNESS ............................................
STIFFNESS AND RUGGEDNESS ....................................
FATIGUE SENSITIVITY .............................................
C O ST ..................................................................
M A T ER IA LS ..........................................................
SU RVIVA BILITY ....................................................
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION .......................................
FITTINGS
..................................................
SU PPO RT S ............................................................
FRA M ES .............................................................
BU LK H EA DS .........................................................
SKIN SUBSYSTEM S ..................................................
CORROSION PROTECTION ........................................
FiEC.TRWiAL BLONDiNG ................................................
CARGO COMPARTMENT ..............................................
STA T IC LO A D S .......................................................
C RA SH LO A D S ...................... ................................
TRANSPARENT AREAS ................................................
D EV ELO PM EN T ............ ........ ..................................
M A N U FACTU R E ................. .......................... ..........
SU BSTA N TIATIO N .....................................................
A N A L Y SIS ..............................................................
T EST IN G ................................................................
R EF E R EN C ES ..........................................................
CHAPTER 12
LANDING GEAR SUJBSYSTEM
LISTO SYM BO LS .....................................................
G EA R T Y PE S ..........................................................
W H EELG EA R........................................................
G enera .......... ...... ................ .............................
Comrponent Design and Selection ....................................
Tires .................. .............. ..............................
W hec ls ..............................................................
Shock Struts ...................
.................................
B rakes ...............................................................
SK ID G EA R ..........................................................
G enera l ...............................................................
G round-handling W he
............................
.................
Scuff P late% ....... .................................................
RETRACTABLEG EAR .................... ..........................
G eneral ...............................................................
A ctuatio n .............................................................
Em ergency Extension ..................................................

II-I
I1-1
Il-1
11-1
I1-!
l111-2
I1-2
11-2
11-2
11-4
I1-5
i-5
1l-5
11-6
11-6
11-6
.11-7

11-7
11-7
11-9
li-Il
11-12
11-12
11-12
1 1-13
1 1-13
11-13

12-I
12-1
12-1
12-1
12-3
12-3
12-4
12-5
12-8
12-8
12-8
12-8
12-9
12-9
12-9
12-9
12-9

AMI;P 706-202
TABLE OF ('ONTFNTS (('ouilnued)

Paragraph

Page

I2- 1.4
12-1.4.1
12-1.4.2
12-2
12-3
12-4
12-4.1
124 .2
12-4.3
12-4.4
124.5

R EFER EN C ES .'. ..................................

12-14

.....................

13-0
13-1

13-2
13-2.1.1

PERSONNEL ACCOMMODATIONS ...... .........................

General Vision Requirennents
....................................
.1

13-2.1.2.2
13-2.1.3
13-2.1.3.1
13-2.1.3.2
13-2.1.4
13-2.2
13-2.2.1
13-2.2.2
13-2.2.3
13-2.2.4
13-2.2.5
13-2.2.6
13-2.3
13-2.3.1
13-2.3.2
13-2.3.3
13-2.3 4
13-2.3.5
13-2,3.6
13-2.3.7
13-2.4
13-2.4. I
13-2.4.2
13-2.4.3

',

12-9
12-9
12-10
12-11
12-11
12.12
12-12
12-12
12-12
12-13
12-14

CHAPTER 13
CREW STATIONS AND CARGO PROVISIONS
LIST OF SYM BOLS ..............
t
................................
INTRODUCTION ......................
.............................

13-2.1.2
13-2.1.2.1

SKIS AND BEAR PAW S .............................................

G eneral ..................................................... . ... . .
Installatior
..................................................
LANDING LOAD ANALYSIS
AVOIDANCE O!"GROUND RESONANCE .............................
WATER-LANDING CAPABILITY ......................................
G EN ER A L ............. ..............................................
PRIM E CAPABILITY .................................................
ADDITIONAL CAPABILITY ........................................
EMERGENCY FLOTATION CAPABILITY ...........................
M O D ELTESTS .......................................................

13-2.5
13-2.5.1
13-2...2

i
Ik,.,%
F

II
.

..

..

..

..

-a

...

. ..

. ..

. ..

. . . ..

..

. . ..

Controls ..
Pitch C ontrols .....................................

. . ..

. . .

. ..

..

. .

13-I
13-1
..

13-1
132
3-2

.................

Directional Control Pedals ...........................................

Seats. Belts. and H arnesses .............................................
C rew Seats ...........................................................
Belts and H arnesses ................... ............ .................
M ap and D ata C ases ..................................................
PASSENGER COMPARTMENT .....................................
Troop and Passcngcr Seats ............................................
C o lo r ............................................... .................
U pholstering and Carpeting ...........................................
Sm oking Provisions ....................................... ...........
Signal Lights and A larm Bells ..........................................
Acrom edical Evacuation ..............................................
SURVIVAL FQUIPMENT ......................................
..
Inflight Escape and Survival Equipment ...............................
Ground Escape and Ditching Provisions .............................
Em ergency L.ighting Provisions ........................................
L ife R afts ............ ................................................
Survival K its .........................................................
First Aid .................
..................................
Fire Extinguishing Svstern s and Axe ....................................
ENVIRONM ENTAi CONTROL .....................................
Ventilation. Heating. and Cooling .... .................................
Windshield Defogging and Deicing Equipncnti....................... ..
A coustical Environm ent ............................... ...............
SIGHITS AND SIGHTING STATIONS ...............................
D irect-view ing Sights ................... ..............................
H elm et M ounted Sight ................................................

13-2
13-2
I -3
13-3
13-3
13-4
13-5
13-5
13-5
13-5
13-5
13-5
13-5
13-5
13-6
13-6
13-7
13-7
13-7
13-7
13-7
13-7
13-7
13-7
13-8
13-8
13-8
13-8
13-9

.TABI .01O

(11"VI'Tl'

S I (.'i1niinu.d)

Page

Parjoraph
13-2.5.3
13-2.5.4
13-3
13-3.1
13-3.1.1
13-3.1.2
13-3.1.3
13-3.1.4
13-3.1.5
13-3.1.6
13-3.2
13-3.2.1
13-3.2.2
13-3.2.2.1
13-3.2.2.2
13-3.2.3
13-3.2.4
13-3.2.5
13-3.2.6
13-3.2.7
.3-37.8

Cabin and Compartment Lighting ......................................

................................
C ockpit Lighting .....................
Utility Lights ...............................................
.....................................
Secondary Lighting ............
Panel Lightii ........................................................
Interior Emergcncy ! ;oht . ....... ....................................
Portable Inspection Lights .............................................
Troop Jum p Signal Light ..............................................
Warning, Caution, and Advisory Lights ................................
|Inmtrm ent lanel lighting ........................................

13-3.2.9

Cargo Comnartment Lighting .......................................

13-4
13-4.1
13-4.1.1
13-4 .i.2
134 .1.3
13-4.2
13-4.2.1
13-4.2.2

S13-4.2.3
13-4.2.4

13-9
13-9
13-9
13-9
13-9
13-9
13-10
13-10

Indirect Sights ..... ...................................................

M is~ile Sighting Stations ...............................................
LIG HTING SYSTEM S ..................................................
...................................
EXTERIOR LIGHTING SYSTEM
A nticollision Light System .............................................
Form ation Lights .....................................................
Landing/Taxi Light ......................................... ........
Searchlight ........................................... ................
............................................
Floodlight System
Position Lights ........................................................
INTERIOR LIGHTING SYSTEM .....................................

3-10
13-10
13-10

....

CARGO PROVISIONS ..................................................

....................
INTERNALCARGO .............................
Cargo Compartment Layout ...........................................
Detail Design .........................................................
Loading A ids .........................................................
EXTERNAL CARGO .................................................
Static Loads ...........................................................
.......................................
D ynam ic Loads ...............
W inches and H ooks ...................................................
.......... .........................
..
System Safety ............

13-10
13-10
13.10
13-10
13.10
13-10
13-10
13-I1
13-I1
13-11

13--il
13-11
13-11
13-11
13-11
13-13
13-14
13-18
13-18
13-19
13-20

t.

.--..........................
.....

CHAPTER 14
14-0
14-1
14-2
14-2.1
14 -2.1.1
14-2.1.2
14-2. 1.2.1
14-2.1.2.2

"14-2.1.2.3
14-2.1.2.4
14-2.1.2.5
14-2.1.2.6
xx

ARMOR. ARMAMENT. AND PROTE('TIVE SUIBSYSTEMS l)E);l(;N

..............................
LIST O F SY M BO LS .....................
IN TRO D U CTIO N .......................................................
.....................
ARM IAM ENT SYSTEM S ..........................
G U N S .................................................................
T ypes .................................................................
Location ...... .......................................................
Projectile Flight Path .................................................
Blast Effecis ........................................................
Debiis Ejection Path .................................................
External G un Jettisoning .............................................
A ccessibility .........................................................
Dynam ic Forces ......................................................

14-1
14-1
14-1
14-1
14-1
14-2
14.3
14-3
14-3
14-3
14-3
14-4

1iil.f f

(OF'O:NT

'ontinucd i
NT(
l
Page

Paragraph
14-:.1.3
14 2.1.3.1
14-2.1.3 2
14-2.1.3.3
14-2.1.4
W14
2.1.5
14-2.1.6
14-2.2
14-2.2.1
14-2.2.2
14.2.2.3
14-2.2.4
14-2.2.5
14-2.2.6
14-2.2.7

Typcs of Installation; ..................................................

Pod Installations .....................................................
Turret Installations ...................................................
Pintle G uns ..........................................................
A m m unition Storage ..................................................
A m m unition Feed .....................................................
Boresighting and Harmonization .......................................
G UIDED M ISSILES ...................................................
Location of Launcher Installations .....................................
Structural Clearance ...................................................
Blast Protection .......................................................
A ccessibility ................
.........................................
Firing C ircuit Testing ............................... ..................
Jettisoning
.................................................
Effects of Aircraft M aneuvers ..........................................

14-4
14-4
14-4
14-5
14-5
14-6
14-6
14-6
14-6
14-7
14-7
14-7
14-7
14-7
14-7

14-2.2.8

Types of Installations ..................................................

14-7

14-2.2.9
14-2.2. iO
14-2.2.11

L oading ..............................................................
Aerodynamic Effccts ..................................................
Suspension and Retention .............................................

14-7
14-7
14-7

14-2.2.13
14-2.2.14
14-2.3
14-2.3.1
14-2.3.2
14-2.3.3

Restraining Latch .....................................................

Forced Ejection .......................................................
R O C K ETS ............................................................
Rocket Launcher Installations .........................................
Launch Tube M aterials ................................................
Launcher M ounting ...................................................

14-8
14-8
14-8
14-8
14-9
14-9

14-Z.2.i2

Launch initia.ion

"14-2.3.4
14-2.3.5
14-2. 3.6

.....

14-9

Load Requirem ents ...................................................

G round Safety ........................................................

14-9
14-9

Firing Contacts .......................................................

Intervalonicter ........................................................
Launcher Fairing ............................................... ......

14-2.4.1
14-2.4.2
14-2.4.3
14-2.4.4
14-2.4.5
14-2.4.6
14-2.4.7
14-2.4.8
14-3
14-3.1
14-3.2
14-3.2.1
14-3.2.2
14-3.2.3
14-3.2.4

"14-3.2.5

14-9
1i4-i0
14-10

........................................

14-10

Safety C riteria .........................................................

Fire Interrupters ................... ..................................
Contour Followers
...............................................
Burst Lim iters .........................................................
C ockpit N oise ................................. .......................
Debris D isposal ................... ...................................
Toxic Explosive Gas Prot,:ction ........................................
Turret M as,r Power Switch ...........................................
PROTECTIVE SUBSYSTEMS ...........................................
G EN ER A L ............................................................
DEVELOPMENT OF VULNERABILITY REDUCTION SYSTEMS..
Vulnerability Analysis ................................................
Vulnerability Reduction Checklist ...................................
Vulnerability Data Presentation .......................................
Aircrew Armor Configuration Development ...........................
Armor M aterial Selection ............. ................................

14-10
14-10
14-1
14-I I
14-I 1
14-I I
14-12
14-12
1412
14-1 2
14-13
14-13
14-16
14-16
14-16
14-16

SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

'

4-4

...........................................

Restraining Latches

14-2.3.8
14-2.3.9
14-2.3.10

"

4-8

N umber of Rockets ....................................................

14-2.3.7

14-2.4

.........................................................

xxi

K
t.

'-'.

.. . . ...

ANCP 706-PM
"TABLE

OF CONTENTS (('onlinucd)
Page

Paragraph
14-3.3
14-3.3.1
14-3.3.2
14-3.3.3
14-3.3.4
14-3.3.5
14-3.3.6
14-3.36.1
14-3.3.6.2
14-3.3.6.3

15-1
15-2
05.2.1
15-2.2
15-2.3
15-,.4
15 2.5
15-3

ARMOR INSTALLATION DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ............

A irc, ew Torso A rm or .................................................
Interchangcability .....................................................
..................................
R em ovability ......................
F ,ying Qualities .......................................................
Im m obilization ........................................................
Armor Material Attachmcnt/Installation ...............................
M ounting of Arm or Plate .............................................
Installation Design .............................
.....................
Bullet Splash and Spall ........... ...................................
R EFER EN C ES ..........................................................

14-18
14-18
14-18
14-18
14-19
14-19
14-19
14-19
14-19
14-20
14-20

('HAPTER 15
MAINTENANCE AND GROUND SUPPORT EQIIPMENT ((;SF) INrFRFA('F
IN T RO D U C T IO N .......................................................
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS .................
SA F ET Y ..............................................................
A CC FSSIBILIT Y ......................................................
STANDARD IZATION ................................................
HUM AN ENG INEERING ............................................
INSPECTION, TEST, AND DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM ..................
PROPULSION SUBSYSTEM INTERFACES ............................

15-1
15-1
15-1
15-2
15-2
15-3
5-3
15-3

15-3.1

G E N E R A L ............................................................

15-3

15-3.2
15-3.3
15-3.4

INTERCHANG EA BILITY/QUICK-CHANGE ........................

CONNECTORS AND DISCONNECT POINTS ......................
INSPECTION AND TEST POINTS ....................................

15-4
15-4
15-4

OIL, FUEL, AND LUBRICATICN ...................................

G RO U N D IN G ........................................................
STARTING
.................................
S A R IN
..........................
15 3 .
.............................
GROUND HEATERS ..................
53.8
EN G IN E W A SH .......................................................
15-3.9
15-4
TRANSMISSIONS AND DRIVES .......................................
15-5
ROTORS AND PROPELLERS ........................................
15-6
FLIG HT CONTRO LS ...................................................
.........................
15-6.1
ROTATING SYSTEM S ......................
15-6.2
NONROTATING SYSTEMS ..........................................
T R IM SY ST EM S ...... . ..............................................
15-6.3
ELECTRICAL SUBSYSTEMS .........................................
15-7
A VIO N IC SU BSYSTEM S ................................................
15-8
15-8.1
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ....................................
15-8.2
NAVIG ATION SYSTEM S .. ... ......................................
15-9
HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SUBSYSTLMS .....................
15-9.1
HYDRAULICSUBSYSTEM ......................................
PNEUMATIC SUBSYSTEM ...................................
15-9.2
15-10
INSTRUMENTATION SUBSYSI EMS ..................................
...............
15-10.1
FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS ......................
NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS ......................................
15-10.2
AERIAL VEHICLE SUBSYSTI M INS1 RUMt-N]ATION ............
15-10.3
........... .................
A IRFRA M E STR UCTU RE ................
15-11
LANDING GEAR SUBSYSTIM .....................................
15-12
15-3.5
15-3.6
15-3,7

xxii

15-4
15-4
15-4
15-4
154
15-5
15-5
15-5
15-5
15-5
15-5
15-5
15-6
15-6
15-6
15-6
15-6
15-7
15-7
15-7
15-7
15-7
15-7
15-7
15X

L)

"

AMCP 7CO-202
TABLEl- ('ONTENINS C(ontinued)
Paragraph

S"

Page

15-13

C R EW STATIO N S ...................

"15-14

ARMAMEN

AND PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS ................

15-8

16-0
16-1
16-2
16-2.1
16-2.2
16-2.2.1
16-2.2.2
16-2.2.3
16-2.2.4

STANDARD PARTI
LIST O F SY M BO LS .....................................................
IN TRO D U CTIO N ........................................ r ..............
FA ST FN E IRS .................... .......................................
GENERAL ..................................................
THREADED FASTENERS
......................................
Screw s ...............................................................
B o lts ............................. ............................. ......
N uts .. ......................
.........................................
W ashers ........................ ... .............. ..................

16-1
16-1
16-1
16-I
16-1
16-1
16-2
16-2
16-2

16-2.3
16-2 .3.1
16-2.3.2
16-2.3.3
16-2.3.4
16-2.3.6
16-2.3.7
-.
16-3
16-3.1
16-3.2
16-3.2.1
16-3.2.2
16-3.2.3
16-3.3
16-3.3.1
16-3.3.2
16-3.3.3
16-3 3.4
16-3.4
16-3.5
16-3.6
16-3.7
16 -3.7 .1
16-3.7.2
16-4

16-4.1
16-4.2.

r, ARMOR,

................................

('lAPTFR 1I)

16-4.2.2
16-4.2.2.1

16-4.2.2.2
16-4.2.2.3

NONTltREADED FASTLNERS ...................................

R ivets ......................... ......................................
Pins.
......................................................
Quick-release Fasteners .............
...............................
..............
..
Turnbuckiics and Tcfinitaiil. ....
Retaining Rings ........ .................................
Clam ps and G rom mets ................................................
Self-retaining Fasteners ................................................
HEARINGS............. ........................ ......I............
G E N ERA l . ................
...........................................
BA LL BEA RIN G S .....................................................
R adial Ball Bearings ...................................................
A ngular Contact Bearings .............................................
Thrust Bali Bearings
... ................... ........................
ROLLER BEARINGS ................................................
C ylindrical Roller Bearings ............................................
N eedle Bearing% ...............
................ ........... ........
Spherical Roller Bearings .............................................
Tapered R oller Bearings ................ ..............................
A IRFRAM E BEARIN G S ..............................................
SLIDING BEARINGS .........................................
LAMINATED EL.ASTOMiRIC BI-ARINYS ..........................
BEARING SEALS AND RETAINERS .............................

16-3
16 -3
K.3
16-3
16.3
b16-4
164
16-4
16-4
16-b
16-8
16-9
16-10
16-10
16-10

S eals .......
..
.
. ..............................
...............
Bearing R tcnrtion .....................................................
ELECTRICAL FITTINGS ...................

16 -15
16-15
16-16

16-11
16-11
16-12
16-12
16-14
16-15

G E N E R A L ....................... ... ..... ..........................

CONNECTORS AND CABLE ADAPTERS
............................
Connector Selection .N...
A
.............................
C ircular C opnectors ................. .......... .....................

16-4.2.1

16-16
16-16
16-16

16-18

Termination Seals ...............................

C able A dapters ......................................................

16-19
16-19

Connector Couplings ...............................................

16-19

16-4.2.3
16-4.2.4

Rack and Panel Connector . ......................................

Flat Conductor Cable Connector ....................................

16-4.2.5

Printed W iring Board Connector .r ................. ....................

---:

15-8

16-19
16-19

16-19

"x

xiii

Si.......

'

AM CP 706-202

\EI

(%I

"l.,AHI.I. OI1 ( ()\I i '\1 SI(

I ,,niiguud

!
Paragraphl
16-4 .3
16-4.4
16-5
16-5.1
16-5.1.1
16-5.1.2
16-5.1.3
16-6
16.6.1
16-6.2
16-6.2.1
16-6.2.2
16-6.2.3
16-6.2.4
16-6.2.5
16-6 2.6
16-6.2.7
16-7
16-7.1
I 16.L
16-7.2.1
16-7.2 2
16-7.2.3
16-7.2.4
16-7.2.5
16-7.3
16-7.4
16-8
16-8.1
16-8.2
16-8.2.1
16-8.2.2
16-8.2.3
16-8 .2 .4
16-8.2.5
16-8.3
16-8.3.1
16-8.3.2
16-8.3.3
16"9
16-9.1
16-9.2
16-9.3
16-9.4
16-9.4.1
16-9.4.2
16-9.4.3
16-9.4.4
16-9.4.5
16-9.5

xxiv

T E R M IN Al S ... ........... .................................

........
TERMINAl BOARDS ...........................................
ELECTRICAL SW ITCHtES ..............................................
...........
........ ...................
G EN I'R AI .................
......
..............................................
T oggle S% itclics
Pu.,h-button SAitches ......................................
... . .....
......... .......
R otaw S's itchc% ..... ...............................
PIPE ANI) TUBE !ITTINc;S .........................................
GENERAl .....
.............................................
TYPES 1F: lTT NGS . .
.......................................
.
T apered Pipe I hreads ............ ....................................
Stritght T hread Fittings ...............................................
Flared T ube Fitlings ..................................................
Flareless T ube Fitting% ............ ....................................
Thin Wall Tube Connectors ........................................
Q uick-disconnect C oupin , ...........................................
.....................
Perm anent F ittings ..............................
C O N T ROL. PU LL EY S ........................
..........................
G E N E R A L ............................................................
ILLEY
, -............................................................
SE.LECTIO
P ulle%D iam eter ........................
.............................
Pulle) G roove ... ...... ....... .......................................
P ulle) S treng th ..........................................
.............
Pulley Perform ance ....................................................
.....
N onm etallic Pule) s .... ........................................
PU IL EY IN STAI LATIO N ......... ..................................
PU LLEY G U A R D S ...................................................
PUSH-PULL CONTROl S ANI) [ItiXiBII. SIAI"TS ...................
G E N E R A L ............................................................
.........................
PUSH-PULL CONTROLS ...................
.................
C ontrol T ravel ......................................
................................
C ontrol L oads .......................
...........................
Core Configurations ...................
C o n d ui. ...............................................................
End F:itting, ................................................
FLEXIBLE SHAFTS ...........................................
Torque C apacity .....................................................
....................
Flexible Power Shafts . ..........................
Flexible Control Shafts .. .........................................
CABLES AND WIRES(STRUCTURAI ) ................................
G E N E R A L ............................................................
PREFORMED WRE STRAND AND CABL I . .......................
TYPES 01: CABLE CONSTRUCTION ...............................
C A BLE SELECT IO N ..................................................
C able Strength ........... ............................................
.............................................
Cable Deflection
Operating Characteristics
.......................................
.
W ire M aterial ......................................................
C ablc(.onstruction .............
.......................
...... .......
SAFETY WIRE AND COTTIER PINS ..................................
R EFER EN C ES .........................................................

6 19
,16-19
6-20
.I%-20
16 -20
l 20
16 -22
1622
122
16-22

16 22
16-23

16-23
16-24
16-25
16-25

..

16 25
l ,-25
1 6-25
,I 2
16-211
16-26
16-2(1
16-26
.1 -26,
1(,-2(,
16-27
16-27
16-27
16,-27
I t,-2,,s
16 -29
16-28
16-28
16-21)
16-29
16-30
16-30
16-30
(1 31
16-3 1
16-31
16-3 1
16-31
1(-3?.
1(0-3I
16 32
1 -320
16 -32
16-32
16-3.

706-202

_____AAMCP

TABI.E 01 (ON'I EN S i(',.,.ue

_Paragraph

Pape
(HAIA

llR 17

VROCl*:sSFS
17-I
17-2
17-2.1
17-2.2
17-2.2.1
17-2.2.2

IN T R O I)U C T IO N .....................
. .......... ... .................
M ET A LW O R K IN G ..............
.............................
........
G E N E R A I . . ..........................................................
C A ST IN G ...... ..............................
.......................
Sand C astings .............
............ .............................
Investment Castings .........................................
......
Permanent Mold Castin.
........................................
C entrifugal C astings ...................................................
FO R G IN G ............................................................
E XT R U SIO N ....................................
.....................
SHEET-METAL FORMING ..........................................
M achine Form ing ..................
.................................
Shop Fabrication ........ .............................................
M
M............
E N IN G ........
.. ...................
................

"17-2.2.3
17-2 2 4
17-2.3
17-2.4
17-2.5
17-2.5.I
17-2.5.2
17-3

17-3.1

GENERAL................. ..................................

17-3.2
17-3.3

MACHINING OPERATIONS ......................................

ELEMENTS OF MACHINING DESIGN ..............................
JOINING ..........................
GEN ER A L ..........................................................

17-4

17-4.1

9.17-4.2

...

..

WELDING, BRAZING, AND SOLDERING ..........................

W elding ..............................................................
B razing ...................
...........................................
So ldering .. ...........................
... . ........................
MECHANICAL FASTENING .........................................
R ivets ................................................................
Bolts, N uts, and W ashers ..............................................
Screw s ................................................................
ADHESIVE BONDING - STRUCTURAL ..........................
SWAGING AND CABLE SPI ICING ..................................
IIEAT TREATM ENT ...................
.............................
G EN ERAL .............................
..........
................
HEATTFREATMtENT METALLURGY .......
..........
..
..
A nnealing .............................................
N orm alizing .. ...........................................
............
Stress Relief
........
Tem pering ............................................................
A ging ........................................
........................
FERRO U S ALLOYS ......... ............................
...........
NONFERROUS ALLOYS .............................................
A lum inum A lloys .....................................................
C opper A lloys .........................
...............................
T itanium A iloys ................ 0 .. ...................................
DESIGN ASPECTS OF HEAT TREATING ............................
WORK HARDENING ..................................................
G E N ER A L ............................................................
FO R M IN G ......................
.....................................
ROLLER BURNISHING ..............................................
SHOT-PEEN ING .....................................................

17-4 .2.1
17-4 .2.2
17-4 .2.3
17-4.3
17-4 .3.1
17-4-3.2
17-4 .3.3
17-4.4
17.4.5
17-5
17-5.1
17-5.2
17-5.2.1
17-5.2.2
17-5.2.3
17.5.2.4
17-5.2.5
17-5.3
17-5.4
17-5.1.1
17-5.4.2
17-5.4.3
17-5.5
17-6
17-6.1
17-6.2
17-6.3

ST7.6.4
i'

17-I
17-I
17-I
17-1
17.2
17-2
17.
17-2
17-2
17-2
17-3
17-3
17-3
17-4

17-4

17-5
17-5
7-6

!7-6

17-7
17-7
17-8
17-10
17-10
17-10
17-1I
.7-11
17-12
17-15
17-16
17-16
17-17
17-17
17-17
17-17
17-17
17-17
17-17
17-18
17-18
17-18
17-18
17-19
17-19
17-19
17-19
17-19
17-20
xxv

TABLE OF C17N1 EN"IS (Continued)

Page

Piragraph
17.7
.17-7.1
17-7.2
17-7.3
17-7.4

.................................
TOOLING ........................
GENERAL .......................................................
SHOP TOOLING..................................................
.........
AIRFRAME TOOLING ..................................
T EST TOOLING ..................................................
REFERENCES................... ..................................

1720
17-20
17-22
17-22
17-23
17-23

APPENDIX A
]EXAMPLE OF A PRELIMINARY HEATING, COOLING, AND V'ENfILATION ANALY'1S
A-1
......
HEATING AND V~ENTILATION ANALYSIS...................
A-1
A-1
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ........................................
A-1.1
A-1
DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS ..........................................
A-1.2
A-I
.......
H EAT LOSSES................ ............................
A-1.3
A-1
Cockpit..........................................................
A-1.3.i
A-1
.........................
Convection............................
A-1.3.1.1
A-2
Infiltration ...................................................
A-l.'.I.2
A-2
Total Cockpit Heat Loss..................................... I......
A-1.3.1.3
A-2
Cabin....................... ....................................
A-1.3.2
A-Z
A-1.3.2.l
Convection .....................................................
AA-1. 3.2.2
Infiltration ...........................................................
A-',
Tota! Cabini Heat Loss..................................................
A-1.3.2.3
A-2
........
VENT ILATING AIR REQUIRED ...........................
A-I1.4
A-2
A-1.4.1
Based on Number of Occupants and Minimum Ventilating Rate............
A-3
Requirement Based on Maximum Allowable Temperature Difference ...
A- 1.4.2
A-3
I.............................
Cockpit Requirement.................
A- 1.4.2.1
A-3
Cabin Requiremcnt................................................
A-1.4.2.2
A-3
A- 1.4.2.3
Total Air Requirein~eit . ..........................................
A-3
I..................................
Total Heat Requirement ..........
A- 1.4.3
A-3
HEATER REQUIREMENTS................. ........................
A-1.5
A-3
........
Heat Gained..............................................
A-1.5.1
A

I C~ '%

A-2.3. i

A-2.3.2

Effective A~'s..................................................

A-2.4
I

A-2 4. 1-1
A-2.4.1.2
A-2.4.1.3
A-2.4.1.4
A-2.4.1
xxvi

Iia

...................
Heater Size ....................................
BLOWER SIZE ...................................................
Volume of Air to be Delivered .......................................
Pressure Drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
COOLING AND VENTILATING ANALYSIS ..............
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ......................
DESIGN ASSUMNiPTIONS .......................
DETERNIINOATION OF EFFECTIVE TFMiPLR,.TURIDIFFERENCLS ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS SURFACES OF
THlE HELICOPTER ..............................................
Effective Solar Tempe~ratures ........................................

A-i.5.3
A-1.6
A. 1.6.1
A-1.6.2
A-?
A-2.1
A-2.2
A,-2.1

COCKPIT HEAT GAINS...........................................

ionvectiori. lnfiltrat'on, and Solar Radiation........................
Convection Gains................................... ............
Infiltration Gain ......................
.............
...........
Solar Radiation Gajii
...................
........................
Total Hleat Gain Ducto Convection. Infiltrationi and Solar Radiation ..
Occupants .......................................................

A~AUI~
IAI

A-4
A-4
A-4
A-4
A-4
A-4
A-4
A-4
A-4

A-5
A-5
A. 5
A-5
A-6
A-6
A-6
A-6

TABLE OF CONTENTS I(onfinaed)

Paragraph

A-2.4.3
A-2.4.4
A-2.5
A-2.5.1

fAtC

'Electrical System ..............

...........
Total Cockpit liea&. Gain
....................................
AIR CONDITIONER SIZE ...........................................
Conditioning of Ventilation Air ........................................

A-6
x6
A-6
A-6

A -2.5.2

Fan Size and H rit .....................................................

A -7

A-2.5.3

Tons of Refrigeration Required .......................................

-REFEREN CES ..........................................................
INDEX ..................................
..............

A-7
A -7
. J-i

.9

'22

S",,,.XXV8I

LIST OF ILLUSThAA 9NS

it.,$u
No,

Titie-ct~y

fig. 2-I
Sdwc Srcue.
.........
.....................
-2
Fig. 2-2
'Weight Compai ison of Matcri,0%or Equial 1ttii.
....... .. ......... 2-22
-Fige. 2-3
Comparative Sonic Fatigue Rnsistanc: fltZpnvcjiti~oawA bud S-4ndwichi4
'.Structures
. . . . . . ... . . . . . ...
. . ...
..
2-22
4Fig. 2-4
-Common Honeycomb Conf; urations .............................
....
123
fig. 25
trperdecs of Balss Wood - Comprcssive Strengtl i,\ rbnsity.............. -24
t%4ig. 2-6
Properties of Balsa Wood - "L" Shear Strength vs Denwy ................
.$24
3Z tig.44
27
Typical Stabilized Comprcsaivc Strength ......... I.........
2-24
2-24
.............
.............................
Strength
Typical "1" Shear
~'r. 2-8
vig.
2-9
.Typicrsl "L" Sheur Modulus........................................
(24
IFtg. 2-lb
Modes fr(ailu.- of Sandwich Componimc Under Edgcwisc Loads ........... -,-.2-7
' Fig. 3-;
Submer-ged Engine Installation (Exantplc) ..............................
.3-2
'wFig.
3-2
Scmicxposcd Engine lnstclladon (Example).............. ...............
3-2
Fir. 3-3
Exposed En-im: Installation (Exiampc).................
.33
KFig.
3-4
Typical Fuel Subsytcmn.................. ... .......... ..............
3-10
fig. 3-5
Typical Fuel Subsystem Wit Pressure Rcfuel~ng.......... ...............
3-12
rig. 3-6
PFerformance Cci rrczions for Duct Lovsses.................
.......
.3-17
*fig.3-7
Allowable Combined lvde; asnd Exhaust Duct Pressure LOSSeS................
3-17
fig. 4.1
4Helicopter Main GeiL box Weignt vs Takeoff Power .......................
4-4
f ig. 4-2
tower Loss to Hcfat vs lnpui Povwrc -- Typical Twin -engine-driven Gearbox 4-5
""A"............
I ..........
........
4-7
t.ig. 4-4
Elastic Body Contact Pressurt IlIbstribution and interface Contour ........... 4$Fig.4.5
.Fri,.Iion Coeffhieint vs EI-1I) Parameters - Regions I and 11 .............
4-8
f'ig.- 4-6
:"Angle Of Enga.;emcnt ...............................................
4-9
_l-ig. 4-7
Coefficient of Friction vs S9iting Velocity ...............................
4-10
S4-8
of &urface 'texturt and Lay on Friction and Scuffing Behavior .....
4-10
~ ~
~ N~unibci of Failures vs howurs Srice Overhaul - MTBF- 500 hr............4 4-4
't'
Number of Failurc:s vs HWoes &nuriv Operation- MTBF 5000 hr...........
4-14
m.-I
4rotm~aily of Survival vs L/rF,)Ratio...................... ............
4-15
r'Cig j i'
~ pli~ivs
Hertz Stress...........................................41
F.i
4 -Ii
14cibull Plot - Spalling Life vsGear Population Rank
.................... ......
4-"I
ig44
'T pica 1 aiVPRotnr Gearbox - Vulnerable ......................
4A-19
~f%4 '~~iUoto~earo-%X
n zxo ....-.
......
1........................4-%
jW
IC
Zv
0 ote,; Gcarbois - 12.7 Mmn Proof..............................
11-21
.0,1%
Typicwil Spects 1Powe.rFuncticn .........................................
4-25
4S
!2
Li~~ee~
feCultvc,;
.............................
....... 42
I 4j4ig419
Shaft Horspowei ~cr His-Lograms...................
.........
4c$I~4-20
Orioph cRlationship - Fwilnte- Modes - Load v., 'eoi hy .............
4-35
-A-f
iraphic- Rel~ationship -- Failure Modes - Load vs Tjooth Siie........
4-35
'Fiag. 4-22
. S5ingki VYoat!) Pusorf Gear Fatigue Test Results ........... I......I........
4-41
f4. *-23
z vs SWini: Velocity - Synchroniizd ani Ui~ytchreiiae Dics
442
-Tig4--_, C4i L -,,tiAtV>'wabke *i Suibsurfacx Shear........ ...........
....... 4-45
4-46
-*
Unsynchror.z.
................................
s V50tr.:b'cnt
4?i

34

.............

:C.Tect~

,~

-4-26;~

-01

2
4-

Cr~~
ear--Inrc~Ring Fit vw peratinTime ................ ........
c s ater Ring -ILinc~r Fit ReC$,4tion...... ...............
-.:nGtigy
4 With ittcer Ring Expansion ..................
-.-

7zrn al lieoad-

OF vs. Dl?.....................

Sp~t!nul
on lh'Ttuhant Bearing fotccs...................
Clearmnat LLv - lasic.anti
-syj
4

..

4-49
4

45

-56

~-A

LIST 01- 1 I.V34TA~ll

.o 0 0- Caef~iwwd)
Fig. No,

Fig. 4-33
F-ig. 4-34
Fiwg 4135
Fig. 4-36~
Fig. 4-37
Fig- 4-38
Fig. 4-39
Fig. 4-40
Fig. 4-41
Fig. 4-42
Fig. 4-43
Fig, 4-44
Fig. 5-1
Fig. 5-?
Fig. 5-3
Fig. 5-4
Fig. 5.5
5-6
Fig. 5-7

IFig.

RP

i 5-8

Involute Spline Data 1, vs;N ... .......

............
4-60
Radial Mode Resonance 17_owiic vN Cear t'ooth Meshing Sipted ......
41
Typical Spiral Damper Ring App~k~aions ............. .......... ........ 4-70A
Relative Shaft Speed vs Pantive Vib~ration Amplitude......................4-74
Typical Bcaring Flangc~r As-_cmbl.V - Subci itical Shaf! Assembly .............. 4-75
Flc'-ible Diphragm Coupirr,...
.................... ...........I...
4-77
Bosskcr Coupling .......................................
............
4-18
Elastom,:ric Coupling
.................
............................
4-78
Hooke's Joint (Universal) .........................
.................
4-9
Gear Coupling ................................................
...... 4 Breakraway Sliding Foice vs Misalignment for Various Spline Devices .....
4-79
Oil System Seheniawc.............I........... ............ .........
49
Vectot Diagram of Swirl in 1-over ......................................
5-1
Control Momyent for Basic tRotor Types. ..................... ..........
54
Articulated Rotor Schematic......................................
5-9
Coincident Flap and Lag Hinge Rotor...................................
5-10
Girnb3led Rotor Schematic................ ..........................
5-if)
Tcctering Rotot Schematic .............. ... ..........................
5-Il
Teetet ing Rotor.....................................
................
5-1;
i-ingcicss Rotor Schcunaiti:..........................................
XH-51 Rotor System .................................................

5-13

Fig.5-11
Fig.5-12
Fif$. 5-13
Fig. 5-14
Fig. 5-15
Fig. 5-16
Fig. 5-17

Mechnismof Pitch-lag Instability.......... .........................

Pitch-nlap Coupling of Rotors ......................................
Mechanism of Flap-lag Instability ......................................
Typical Plots of Rotor Natural Frequency vs"OperatinF Speed ...............
Single-degree-of-freedom Cole-man Plot............... ................
Two-degree-of-freedom Coleman Plot ...............................
...
Two-degree-of-fteedvim Coleman Plot Showing Se~tisfaction of Minimum
Frequency Criteria fur Two-blade IlingEcless Rotor......................
Gus* Load FactorComputec! for the UII-IB Helicopter Using I.ineai-Theory
Gust-alleviation Factor (M IL-S-8698).................................
Rotor Limits as a Function of Advance Ratio...........................
Results of a Load Gust Study Compared With Military
Speciricauion Requiruments..........................................
Arliculatcd Rotor (Boeing Model 107) ............ ........ .............
CH--46 and CH-47 Tension-Torsion Strap Assemblies ......................
Torsionally Stiff and Flexible Wire-'vound Tic-bar Assemblies...............
Elastomeric Bearings .................................................
Hydraulic Lag Damper.............................................
CH-46 Power Blade Folding Mechanism.................................
Typical Helicopter Rotor Blade Airfoils..................................
Track WiVth Varying rpm (Zero Collective Pitch) ...........................
Tr-ack With Varying Collective Pitc!h (Constant Rotor rpm) .................
Alternating Stress Superimposed on Steady Stress .........................
Alternating Stress vs Cycles at Various Steady Stress Levels (Crv!ss Plotted
from Fig. 3-12, MIL-HDBK- 17 for Notched Specimens of 181 Glass Fabric
With MIL-R-7575 Polyester Resin) .................................
Propeller Flow Field for- Compound Helicopters...........................
Comparison of P-order Excitations ......................................

51 i
5-16
5-16

Fig. 5-22
F;g. 5-23
Fig. 5-24
Fig. 5-25
Fig. 5-26
Fig. 5-27
Fig. 5-28
Fig. 5-29
Fig. 5-30
Fig. 5-31
Fig. 5-32
Fig. 5-33
Fig. 5-34
xxx

Title

Fig. 5-9

Fig. 5-18
Fig. 5-19
Fig. 5-20
Fig. 5-21

5-20

5-21
5-21
5-22
5-24
52
5-25

5-25
5-28
5-32
5-33
5-33
53
5-37
5-40
5-49
5-49
5-54
5-55
5-58
5-58

4.-

P 706- 20

4.,

LIST OF ILLUSTR ATIONS (Confinued)

Propeller IP Loads from Nonaxial Inflow..............................

1IP Excitation Diagram for Typical STOL Aircraft.........................
1IP Excitation Diagram for Helicopter With Pusher Propeller................
Propeller Critical Speed Diagram ......................................
Propeller Vibration Modes ...........................................
Stall Flutter Design Chart ............................................
Airfoil Characteristics and Stall Flutter .................................
Propeller Control System Schemnatic....................................
............................
Simplified Propulsion System Block Diagramn
Linearized Propellev Control Block Diagrai'n.............................
Typical Blade Cross Sections..........................................
Typical Spar-shell Blade..............................................
Blade Materials and Weight Reduction ...............................
Fatigue Strength Diffcrence Between Specimen and Full-scale Tests...... .....
Typical Stress Summary Curves .......................................
Geometric Da3ta....................................................
Fin Separation Distance/Rotor Radius .................................
Sideward Flight Velocity .............................................
Tail Rotor Performance, Four Blades...................................
Typical Variation in Tail Rotor Noise Level..............................
Cutimpriisati-on" Ilgtie PD,-h n- Moment With Conine Angle and
Blade CG....................................................

5-58
5-59
5-59
5-60
5-61
5-64
5-64
5-67
5-69
5-70
5-71
5-72
57
5-76
5-77
5-78
5-79
5-80
5-80
5-81

Fig. 6-I
Fig. 6-2

Typical Control Function Scheduling for a Tilt-rotor Aircraft.................

.......................
Characteristic Root Plot............ ............

6-3
6-5

Fig. 6-3
Fig. 6-4
6-5
Fig. 6-6
Fig. 6-7
Fig. 6-8
Fig. 6-9
Fig. 6-10
Fig. 6-11I
F ig. 6- 12
Fig. 6-13
Fig. 6-14
Fig. 7-1
Fig. 7-2
Fig. 7-3
Fig. 7-4
Fig. 7-5
Fig. 7-6
Fig. 7-7

Allowable Pitch Czintrol System Residual Oscillations .....................

Control Mixing Schematic ............................................
Mechanical Mixing Assembly.........................................
Powered Actuators (Tandem Helicopter)............ ....................
.......
Artificial Feel and Trim Schematic..............................
Rotating Controls ..................................................
Typical Pitch '-ink Rod End ..........................................
Centrifugal Force Deflections.........................................
Pitch Link Adjustment Provisions .....................................
Relative Pitch Link Rod End Position...................................
Instrumented Pitch Link .............................................
.....................................
1Instrumentcd Drive Scissors ....
Typical DC Power Distribution System .................................
Typical AC Power Distribution System .................................
Example Load Analysis AC Left 1-and Main.............................
Examiple AC Load Analysis Format ...................................
...........
Typical Automation Flow Chart ...........................
Typical AC Generator With Oil-lubricated Bearings.......................
_............
DC Starter/Generator .................................

6-8
6-IS
6-15
6-16
6-17
6-19
6-20
6-20
6-20
6-21
6-22
6-22
7-3
7-4
7-5
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-10

Fig. 5-35

~Fig. 5-36
;

*Fig.
*Fig.

Fig. 5-37
Fig. 5-38
Fig. 5-39
Fig. 5-40
Fig. 5-41
Fig. 5-42
Fg5-43
Fig. 5-44
Fig. 5-45
5-46
5-47
Fig. 5-48
Fig. 5-49
Fig. 5-50
Fig. 5-51
Fig. 5-52
Fig. 5-53
Fig. 5-54
Fill. 5-55

)Aft

*Fig.

-AFig.
)

5-002

Clast-cooled DC Generator ...........................................

7-12

Fig. 7-9
Fig. 7-10
Fig. 7-1l
Fig. 7-12

DC Starter Motor With Solenoid-operatcd Switch .........................

Prolotype Cartridge-boosted Electrical Starter Systemn.....................
Sample Set of! tilization Loads .......................................
Gases Emitted from Nickel-Cadmium Sintered Plate Cell During Overcharge

7-12.
7-13
7-18

Fig. 7-13

PermiisihleClamp Deformation

7-8

Page

Title

Fig. No.

at

.7-19

70'-75*F.........................................................................

............

.........................

7-2 5

a.

AMCP 706-201
LIST OF ILI-LJSTRATlONS8Conlinued)

Fig. No.

Title

Page

Fig. 7-14
Fig. 7.15
Fig. 7-16
Fig. 8-1
Fig. 8-2
fig. 8-3
Fig. 9-I
Fig. 9-2
Fig. 9-3
Fig. 9-4
Fig. 9-5
Fig. 9-6
Fig. 9-7
Fig. 9-8
Fig. 9-9
Fig. 9- 10
Fig. 9-l11
Fig. 9-12
Fig. 9-13

Terminal Strip Installation.............................................

Typical Connection to Grounding Pad...................................
Typical Lightning Electrical Circuit Entry Points ..........................
Block Diagram of Classical Communication System .................
......
Typical Intercommunication Selector Box ................................
Typical Cnimunication Antenna Layout.................... -.... I......
Central Hydraulic System ...........
....................
.............
Dual System Hydraulic-powcred Flight Control Actuators ..................
Dual-powcrcd Stability Augmentation Systcm.............................
Dual-po%-:rcd Stick Boost I ydraulic System..............................
Hydraulic Starting; Energy-limited System ................................
Hydrauix Starting. Power-iirnited System............. ...................
APU Starting System.................................................
Cargo Door and Ram~p System .........................................
Cargo and Personnel Hoist (Constant Prcssurt) System .....................
Rotor Brake System ..................................................
Wheel Brake System ..................................................
Combined Spool Switching Vakve .......................................
Pressuie Check Valves Plus Power Return Switching........................

7-26
7-27
7-31
8-4
8-4
8-13
9-I
9-2
9-2
9-2
9-2
9-3
9-3
9-3
9-4
9-4
9-5
9-8
9-8

Fig. 9-14

Pressure Check Valves Plus Inline Return Relief Valve......................

9-9

Fia
9! 5

Fig. 9-16
Fig. 9-17
Fig. 9- 18
Fig. 9-19
Fig. 9-20
Fig. 9-21
Fig. 9-22
Fig. 9-23
Fin. 9-24
Fig. 9-25
Fig. 9-26
Fig. 9-27
Fig. 9-28
Fig. 9-29
Fig. 9-30
Fig. 9-31
Fig- 9-32
Fig. 9-33
Fig. 9-34
Fig. 9-35
Fig. 9-36
Fig. 9-37
Fig. 9-38
Fig. 9-39
Fig. 9-40
Fig. 9-41
Fig. 9-42
Fig. 9-43
Fig. 9-44
xxxil

Irinein Mehnicafy LockeC-out

-cifVie................

Cam-operated Poppet Switching Valvec....... ...................

.......
Switching Valve......................................................
Hydraulic System Ground Fill Provisions ................................
Rosar, Boss Fitting ...................................................
Use of an Articulating Link ...................
................
........
Use of Protective Cover on H-oses .......................................
Typical Mission Requirement Profile
..................................
Examples of Parallel and Series Control Modes............................
Schematic of Jet Pipe Electro-hydraulic Control Valve ..... ................
Schematic of Flapper Electro-hydraulic Control Valve......................
Typical Master Control Valve..........................................
Anticavitation Approaches ............................................
Feedback Techniques .......................
.........................
Hydraulic Pump Flow vs Pressure Characteristics ..........................
Hydraulic Pump Soft Cutoff Characteristics ..............................
Hyaraulic Pump Case Drain Flo%%Characteristics .........................
Suction Line Length - Reservoir Pressure Characteristics............ ......
Hydraulic Pulsation Suppressor ........................................
Filler Element Dirt-holding Characteristics ...............................
Filter Element Performrince ...........................................
Hydraulic Valve "Trail" Configurations .................................
Hydraulic Valve Configurations........................
................
Direct-operated Valve .........................................
.......
Pilot *operated Valve ................
.................................
Valve Operating Time.................................................
Solenoid-operated Valve Incorporating Rcl urn Pressure Sensing ..............
Power and Spring Main Section Valve Return to Neutral....................
Typical Separate Servo Actuator ........................................
Dual Seals With Return Vent ............................
..............

9-9
9-10
9-1l
9-1l
9-12
9-12
9-12
9-14
9-IS
9-IS
9-15
9-17
9-17
9-18
9-18
9-18
9.19
9-19
9-21
9-21
9-22
9-22
9.23
9-23
9-23
9-24
9125
9-26
9-27

cP

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

Fig. No.

Title

Page

Fig. 13-8
Fig. 13-9

Methods of Raising the Suspension Point

..
Helicopter Load Dynamics Schematic
..................
Study Input Variables .................................................
Equivalent Steady Load for Combination of Steady and Vibrator), Loeds
(Nonreversing) ....................................................
Equivalent Steady Load for Combination of Steady and Vibratory Loads
(Reversing) ..................................
Mounting of Duplexed Bell Bearings.....................................
Spherical AicatB aig .........................

13-16
13-18

16-6

Common.....f onetos........................

16-18

*Fig.

14I
Fig. 16-1
Fig. 16-2

Fig. 16-3
Fg
164

Fig. 16-5
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fia.

16-6
16-7
16-8
16-9
16-10
16-11
16-12
17-1
17-2
17-3

Fig. 17-4
Fig. 17-5

~i.176
*
*
*

Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
F.g.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

17-7
17-8
17-9
17-10
li-Il
17-12
17-13

Fig. 117-14
15
Ig

xxxiv

014-17
C

16-7
16-9
16-13

Tapered Pipe Thread Fittings...........................................

16-22
Straight Thread Fittings ...............................................
16-23
Flared lube Fittings..................................................
16-24
Flareless Tubc Fittings ................................................
16-24
Cable Alignment and Pulley Guai d Location..............................
16-27
Pus~i.pull Cablus and End Fittings.....................................
16-29
Right-handed Thread Application of Safety Wire.........................
16-33
Standard Bend Radii PrActice -Minimum Bend Radii.......I...... I........
17-5
Weld Contour and Stress Concentration .......................
17-7
Welding Symbols..........................................
17-8
Reprcsentative Buit Juivinb................................................
17-8
Representative Corner Joints...........................................
17-9
Representative Tee Joints..............................................19
Rivet Spacirg ........................................................
17-10
Types of Loading for Bonded Joints.....................................
17-12
Lap Shear Joint Deflection Under Load ..................................
17-13
Typical Rotor Blade Design - Alternate I................................
17-13
Typical Rotor Blade Design - Atlernate 2................................
17-13
Hioneycomb Sandwich Structure ........................................
17-14
Addition of Doubler-' to Honeycomb Structure............................
17-14
Balance Bar Design .............................
.....................
17-15

as........eWngRr

Fig. 17-16

I...................

*2

.r

--

D....................

...........

Cable Splicing..................................

...
..

..

..
..

.....................

176

17-16

". 't

LIST OF TABLES
Table No.

Title

Page

TABLE
T"ABLE
YABLE
TABLE
TABLE

2-I
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5

Mechanical Propcrtii.s of 18 Ni Maraging Steels ............................

Comparative Mechanical Properties for Selected Nonferrous Alloys .........
Grouping of Metals and Alloys (MIL-Si D-889) ............................
Position of Metals in the Galvanic Series ...................................
Process Comparison Guide for GRI' Laminates ............................

2-4
2-4
2-7
28
2-14

TABL E 2-6

General Properties Obtainable in Some Glass Reinforced Plastics ............

2-15

TABLE 2-7
TABLE 2-8

TA BLE 4-2
TABLE 4-3
TABLE 4-4
TA BLE 4-5
TABLE 4-6
TAB! F 5-!
TAB[E 5-2
TABLE 5-3

Common Resin Rcinforcemen't Combinations of Thermoset Laminates ......

2-16
Typical Values of Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of
"Reinforcement Fibers ...................................................
2-18
Nominal Composition of Glass Reinforcements ............................
2-19
Typical Unidirectional Composite Properties Based on Commercial Prepregs
2-20
Properties of Rigid Foams .................................................
2-25
Common Adhesives in Current Use .......................................
2-26
Shear Bond Strengths of Adhesives .....................................
..
2-26
Useful Temperature Range and Strength Properties of Structural Adhesives ..
2.2k
Armor Material Design Data and Physical Charactetistics ..................
2-28
Fabrication Data for Lightweight Armor Materials ........................
2-2')
Typical Properties of Commonly Used Structural Adhesives ................
2-32
Helicopter Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids ................................
2-3)
APU Types for Main Engine Starting Environmental Control, and
E lectrical Supply .................. ....................................
3-16
APU Reliallity .....................................................
3-20
U S Army Heliconters - Transnmission ,ind nrive-Sytem. On.y
4-17
Maintenance Workload ..........................................
External N oise Level ......................... .......... ..... ...........
4-18
He!icopter Drive Subsystems - Single Main Rotor. .......................
4-24
..
4-33
Life Modification Factors - Surface Durability .........................
Shear Stress vs Depth ............... ...................... .............
4-45
Helicopter Transmission Case Materials and Application Data ..............
4-68
The Relative Effects of Various Parameters on Gust Response ...............
5-26
Example of Nominal Weight and CG Locations ...........................
. 5-48
Rotor Blade Balance (Sample) ..........................................
..
5-48

TABLE 5-4
TABLE 5-5

Comparison of Material Properties ...................................

Aerodynamic Characteristics of Several Airfoil Sections Suitable for

TABL -5-6
TABILE 6-1
"TABLE7-1
TABLE 7-2
TABLE 7-3
TABLE Il-I
TABLE 11-2
TABLE 12-1
T A BLE 13-1
TABLE 13-2
TA BL E 14-1
TABLE 14-2
T A B LE 14-3
TABLE 16-1
TABLE 16-2
TABLE 16-3

Summary of Tail Rotor Excitation Sources ................................

Maximum Amplitudes of Limit-Cycle Oscillations ..........................
Outputs of Converters Relative to Continuous-Current G-ncrator ...........
Typical Characteristics of 24V. 34 All Battery Systems .................
...
Alternative Charging Methods
.......................................
Cost Impact. Airframe Detail Design .....................................
M aterial Selection - Airframe Design ....................................
Load Factors for Helicopter Tire.s .........................................
C oefficients of Friction .......................................... .........
Standard Cargo T iedessn Devices .......... ....... .......................
Typical H elicopter G uns ..................................................
Vulnerability Damage Criteria Data Sumnmar% ............................
Vulnerability T able .......................................................
Life I actors for Antifriction Bcaring M aterizis .............................
Cost vs Tolerance Class for Antifriction Bcari.igs ..........................
Standards for Airfrname Control Annular Ball bearing. .....................

"TABLE 2-9
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
'ABLE

,'

2-10
2-11
2-12
2-13
2-14
2.15
2-16
2-17
2-18
3-1

TABLE 3-2
TABLE 4-1

T ll

__\

II

RiB.tU d esic.........

...................................

5-51

. .........

5-82
6-8
7-15
7-16
7.17
. -. ,
11-3

12-4
13-14
13-15
4-2
14-14
14-14
16-6
lo-7
16-12
\

mm

-9.

'

,.,,

.,.:.:..

..

S.11

AMOP MG-202
I.T01:"1AI
ABIS ("outinutcd

Table No.
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE
TABLE

16-4
16-5
16-6
16-7
16-8
16-9
16-10
16-I
16-12
17-1
17-2
17-3
17-4

TABLE 17-5
TABLE 17-6

(.p

Titlc

Pagc

Standards for Airframe Control Rod End Bcaring.i .........................

Standards for Sphe'ical Roller Airframe Bearings ..........................
Properties of Sliding Bearing Materials for Airframe Use ....................
Specifications and Standards for Self-Lubricating Slide Bearings ............
Militery Specifications and Standards for Connectors for Aircraft ...........
Other Military Spccificationi and Standards for Connectors ................
Military Specifications and Standards for Crimp-Style Terminals ............
Military Specifications and Standards for Switches .........................
Military Specifications for Cables ....................................
Bentd Characteristics of Selected M etals ....................................
Unit Horsepower Values for Represerntative Metals .......................
Representative Surface Finishes Obtained in Machining Operations .........
Values To Be Added to or Subtracted from Base Dimension for
"Holesand Shafts To Calculate Tolerance ................................
Representative Heat Treat Temperatures ..................................
The Effect of Shot-peening on the Fatigue Properties of Selected Samples

16-12
16-12
16-13
16-14
16-17
!(-18
16-20(
16-21
16-31
17-4
17-6
1'7-6

,
-1

17-7
17-i
17-21

-,-.

\\~

!.
-

1
~-~-

AMCP 706,201

The IIhli,p:er Lngineering llandbook form. ai part-of the 'ingincering Design

Handbook Series shich presents engineering data for the design and construction of
A -y equipment.
This volume. AMCP 70M-202. Delail De.%ign. is Part Two of a three-part
Enginering Design Handbook titled Helicopter Engineering Along with AMCP
706-201. Preliminary Design. and AMCP 706-203, Qualification A.tsurance, this part
is intended to set forth explicit design standards for Army helicopters, to establish
qualification requirements. and tu provide technical guidance to helicopter
designers, both in the industry and within the Army.

This volume, AMCP 706-202, deals with the evolution of th', vehicle from an approved preliminary design configuration. As a result of this phase of the developmcnt. the design is describcd in sufficient detail to permit construction and qualifica"tion of the helicopter as being in compliance with all applicable requirements, inchiding hce approved system specification. Design requirements for all vehicle subsystems are included. The volume concists of 17 chapters and the organization is discussed in Chapter 1. the iutroduction to the volume.
AMCP 706-201 deals with the preliminary design of a helicopter. The characteristics of the vehicle and of the subsystems that must be considered arc described.

ir

and possit '- solutions at ' suggested. The documentation necessary to describe the

"preliminarydesign

in sufficient detail to p,-rniit evaluation and approval by the procuring activity also is described.

The (hird volume of the handbook, AMCP 706-203, defines the rcquirements Ifor
airworthiness qualification of the helicopter and for demonstration of contract cornpliance. The test procedures used by the Army in the performance of those additional tests required by the Airworthiness Qualification Program to bt performed
by the Army also arc described.

xxxvii

F.

AMCP 706-202

PREFA(I:
This volume, AMCP 706-202, Detail Design. is the %econd section of a three-part
-ngitieering handbook, Heficopier Engineering. in the Engineering D'%sign Hand"book series. It was prepared by Forge Aerospace. Inc.. WAshington. D.C., under
subcontract to the Engineering Handbook Office, Duke University, Durham. NC.
The Engineering Design Handbooks fall into two basic c-'tegorics. those approved
fot release and sale, and those classified for security reasons. The US Army Materiel
Commano policy is to release these Engineering Design Handbooks in accordance
with current DOD Directive 7230.7. dated 18 September 1973. All unclassified
Handbooks can be obtained from the National Technical Information Service
(NTIS). Prozedures for acquiring these Handbooks follow:
a. All Department of Army activities having need for the Handbooks must submit their request on an official requisition form (DA Form 17, dated Jan 70) directly
to:
Commander
Lettcrkenny Army Depot
ATTN: DRXLE-ATD
Chambcrzburg. PA 17201
(Requests for classified documents must b,. submitted. mith appropriate "Need to
Know" justification, to Letterkenny Army Depot.) DA activities will not requisition
Handbooks for further free distribution.
b. All other requestors. DOD, Navy. Air Force. Marine Corps. nonmilitary
Government agencies, contractors, private industry. individuals, universities, and
others must purchase these Handbooks from:

National Technical Information Service

Department of Commerce
Springfield, VA 22151
Classified documents mey be released on a "'Need to Know" basis verified by an official Department of Army representative and processed from Defense Documentation Center (DDC), ATTN: DDC-TSR, Cameron Station, Alexandria, VA 22314.
Users of the handbook are encouraged to contact USAAVSCOM, St. Louis, MO,
System Development and Qualification Division, with their recommendations and
comments concerning the handbook. Comments should be specific and include
recommended text hangcs and supporting rationale. DA Form 2028,
Recommended Changes to Publications (available through normal publications
supply channels) may be used for this purpose. A copy of the comments should be
sent to:
Commander
US Arny Mateviel Development
and Readines Command
Alexandria, VA 22333
Revisions to the handbook will be made on an as-required basis and will be distrbutcd on a normal basis through the Letterkenny Army Depot.

AMCP 706-202
(CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
AMCP 706-202, Engineering Design Handbook,
Helicopter Enginre.-ing. Parr 7wo. Detail Design, is
the second part of a th:-volume hlicopter
engineering design h~ndbook. The preliminary
design (covered in AMCP 706-201) is *vclopcd
during the proposal phase. at which time all subsystems must be defined in sufficient detail to determine aircraft configuration, weight, and pcrformance. The detail design involves a reexamination of
all subsystems iri order to define cach clement
thoroughly with the aims of optimizing the aircraft
with regard to mission capability as well as cost considerations.
Detailed subsystem specification requirements are
the basis for in-depth analysis and evaluation of subsystem charactcerstics and interfaces. Based upon
complete system descriptions and layouts, performance, weight, end cost trade-offs arc finalized.
Periodic reviews of the design are conducted to
evaluate mairtainability, reliability, safety, producibilhty. and .oriforniancc with spc.i.fication
requiremeents.
Development testing may be required to permit
evaluation of alternate 5olutions to design problems
or to obtain adequate information for trade-off investigations. Appropriate consideration of human
engineering factors often requires evaluation of informal mock-ups.
SWeight control is an important element of the
detail design phase. Subsystem weight budgets, prepared on the basis of the preliminary design group
wCight hreakdown, arC aasizsed at the initiation of

the detail design phase. The continui-ig evaluation of

compliance with the budget as an essential part of the
manzgement of the project and the awsurancc of cornpliance with weight guarantees of the helicopter detail specification are described in conjunction with
the discussion of the Weight Engineek'ing function in
ANICP 706-201.
The requirements and procedures for airworthiness qualification and proof of contract compliance
for a new model helicopter for the US Army are
defined and discussed in AMCP 706-203. which ikthe
third volume in this handbook serits Qualification is
not time-phwed. but is a continuing part of the acquisition program. A number of qualification
requirements are integral parts of the detail design effort.
Desipr. reviews by the procuring activity are re(quired during the definition of subsystem configuraons as well as during the final design of assemblies
--.

and tinstallations. Evrluation of a full-scale mock-up

of the complete helicopter is a major part of the design review process. The requirements for this review
are described in dctail in AMCP 706-203; but the
construction and inspection of the mock-up must be
completed at the earliest piactical point of the detail
design phase to permit the contractor to complete the
desibn and manufacture of helicopters for test and for
operational deployment, with reasonable, assurance
tOat the configuraion is responsive to the mission ecquircments.
Also completed during the detail design ohase are a
variety of analyses necessary to substantiate the comp!ianci of the physical, mechanical, and dynamic
characteristics of subsystems and their key cornponents with applicable design and performance requirements, including structural integrity. The analysis required during the design, development, and
qualification of a given model helicopter are those
specified by the applicable Contract Data Requireicis List ('Dr
,
L-).
This volume reviews the functions pcrformre by
the major helicopter subsystems and outlines the requirements app!icaolr to the design and installation
of eaich one. Principal documentation of the detail
design phase is the final drawings of the helicopter in
sufficient detail for procurement, fabrication. assembly, and installation. This volume, therefore, aiso
iincludes discussion of materials and processes pertinent to the ),-nnufacture of bclicopter components.
This volume is intended to pruvide designers.
engmnrr,

relaltvelv

rew to the

helicorptev tech-

nology, and program managers a general design

guide covering all of the helicopter detail design
specialties. however, it is not intended as a source of
detailed design procedures for use by the experlcnced design engineer in his specially.
Throughout this volume the mandatory design
reouiremcnts have been identified with the contractual language which makes use of the word
".shall". To assist in the use of the handbook in the
planning or conduct of a helicopter development program, the word "shall" has been italicized in the
state.ment of each such requirement.
Since: the mission requirements for individual helicopters result in variations between subsystem configurations and performance requirements. the procuring activity will specify in its Request for Proposal
(RFP) the extent to which the design requirements of
this handbook are applicable to the acquisition of a
given helicopter.
I-I

.. ,

AMCP 7_06-202

CHAPTER 2

MATERIALS

2-1 INTRODUCTION

factors, standard mill products, and cost data. tl,.IL-

This chapter addresses the properties of the various

materials used in the construction of helicopters,
These materials include ferrous and nonferrous
metal. nonmetallic materials, composite structures,
adhesives and seplants, paints and finishes, lubri.,
cants, greases, and hydraulic fluids. Among the
ferrous me:als are carbon steel, stainless steel, and al:oy steels. The nonferrous mttals include aluminum,
magnesium and titanium alloys, beryllium, copper,
brass, and bronze. Thermoplastic and thermosetting
plastics, elastomers, woods, fabric, and fluoroplastics are reviewed. Composite structures, including
filament laminates, fabric laminates, and filament
wound, and honeycomb and sandwich construction
ake discussed a are the adhesives used for bonding of
primary structure, honeycomb and compo3ites,
fahris, rbhhr, e'astomers, g1.s; and rlastics.
Sealhng compounds, such as putty and pastc;, also are
de.ai!ed. A discussion of paints and coatings, special
finishes, plating, and tapes is included, as well as a review of th,. most commonly used lubricants and their
applications.
The designer will find that a good working relationship with vendors wii! help him to keep abreast
of new rtiatvrials and processes with possib!t applications to helicopters. New materials are being iiitroduced continually, and new processes alter the
cost and performance relationships among older

and provides additional detail design data. For

technical data and information pertaining to wrought
iron, carbon steels, and low-alloy steels, an exccllent
source is N4IL-IIDBK-723, which covers some of the
more practical aspects of -ecta! forming and joining.
Finally, for design data and metallurgical details, the
designer should consult the various American Society
of Metals (ASM) Handbooks.
Because of weight considerations, it is desirable to
restrict the heavier ferrous metals to those applications where very high strength, a high modulus of
rigidity, high resistance to fatigue, and high modulus
of elasticity are reqaired.
The more expensive high-performance steels often
are more economical in terms of weight, cost, and
fatrication processes than are the lower-cost ferrous
products. Anplications for these materials include
high-sirt-ss parts such as rotor drive shafts, masts,
hubs. vertical hinges, flapping hinges, tie cables,
ti'bular frames, an6 control cams, keys, gears, and
hydraulic cylinde-.s.

, -.

HDBK-5 is a source of mechanical properties data

..

conform to one or more Government specifications,

and many manufacturers take step, to keep their
products on the qualified-products lists, where such
are requiret. Propei regazd for and awareness of
these concerns in design callouts will simplify procurernent, fabrication, and qualification of hardarc.

2-2 METALS
FERROUS METALS

2-2.1

R"

2-2.1.1 General
Thik dis:ussion provides a brief review of ferrous
metalk and their application to the construction of
helicopters, as well as of some of the parametcrs
go)vernling the choice of a particular ferrous metal for
specifi
as
a
AP'',',
moreconpreheisivc discussion, as well as detail
\,dcsign data, will be found in Chapter 9, AMCP 70%hich describes such items as mater'al selection
r

2-2.1.2 Carbon Steels

The carbon steels are a broad group of iron-base
alloys having small amounts of carbon as their principal alloying element. Commonly, the carbon content falls between 0.03 and 1.2%. The American Iron
and Steel Institute (AISI) codt usually is used for
designating sate ,. Tins ...ystm i.i..i Uup.. a
Or
five-digit number to designate each alloy, with the
first digits referring to the alloy and the last two digits
giving the carbon content in points of carbon. where
one point is equal to 0.01%. Thus, 1045 steel is one of
a series of nonsulphurized carbon steels and has
0.45% carbon. Other carbon steel s.ies are the II XX
series, which are resulpherized; the BIIlXX series,
which are acid Bessemer resulphurized, and the
12XX series, which are rephosphorizcd. Low-carbon
stee's range from 0.05 to 0.30% carbon, mediumcarbon steels range from 0.30 to 0.60% carbon, and
high-carbon steels range from 0.60 to 0.95% carbon.
The machinability of low-carbon steels is poor.
They tend to drag and smear and to build up on the
cutting edges of tzols, generating considerable heat
and decreasing cutting cffiricncy. Medium-carbon
steels machine .better, although the cutting pressures
are higher. High-.arbon steels are too hard for good
machining, but they are used where fine finish and dimensional accuracy are required. Hot- and coldfuui--

accrac

27I

-:

-'

AMCP 706-202
rolied stels machinc better than do annealed steels,
and the macbining properties of the low-carbon steels
arc improved by 1he addition of sulphur. phosphorus. or lead.
The low-carbon steels have excellent forming
properties, and can be worked readily by any of the
normal shapin3 processes. Their ready formability is
due to the fht that there is less carbon to interfere
lans th sam tokn, heidr-.
withthe
ofslip
witulty plao
increafsesp.
witheinmereasing carbon
df
ok
i
a
wtough
ctn
content.
Plain carbon steel is the most readily welded of all
materials. Low-carbon (0.15%) steel presents tke least

rosion resis,.anc is about the same. hih

I lie AISI designation system is used for alloy steels
also. This is illustrated by 4130 steel, -hich Is an alloy
steel coltainin.g chromium. molybdenum, and 0.30%
carbcn.
2-2.1.4 Stainless Steels
All stainless stees contain at least 10.5% chrochro1s
at least
eellent
nless
Ai
from which excellent corrosion resistance is
obtained. Apparently, a very thin, transparrnt, and
film of oxide forms upon the chromium surface. This film is inert, or passive, and does not react
upon exposure to corrosive Materials. There are three
broad types of stainless steels. as defined by thee

cf.
content
as the carbon
difficulty.
a result toof 0.30%,
rpidmartensitic.
some martcnsite
may form
as increases
coling. ftheyare
coyfole too
arapidlt
aftr
ldi,
Austenitic stainless steels, which have an austenicooling. If they Arc cooled too rapidly after welding.
tic structure at rom temperature, arc known as the
3W series (AISI). These materials have excellent ducmedium- arid hil[.-carbon steels may harden, but pretilit, at
heating to tM00 0F or post-heating to I 100'F will
very low temperatures, the highest corrosion
t
remove britde nicrostructures.
resistance of all steels, and the highest scale reThe yield strength of low-carbon steels is on the
temperatures.
strength at elevated
itancc and
steels is
of high-cat bon
psi, -while that
be
order of 46.0000,000
m achine, but
steels are difficul,
ustcnitic hncr
A
eelstioof fselastio canok
modulua
s ie toot4rt
fom.
psi.while
psi.thtThe modulus
4of of 150,000
theorder
order
or.
or the
formd when carc is given to the r-te of workv
miiiion for aii m
in tension remains at 3S0
city
ban steels. Core (Brinell) hardness ranges from 4
haideniiig. They art not harderiable by heatt rcatfrobon
steels.Cove 40Brfnlhihardnessranges
c
rbom,
ment. Welding is 'one best in an inert atmosphere,
becae f the low thermal conductivity, care must be
for low-carbon to 400 fo higher carbon.
2-2.1.3 Alloy Steels
Alloy steels are those that contain significant
amounts of such alloying metals as manganese,
molybdenum, chromium, or nickel, which are added
in order to obtain higher mechanical properties with
heat treatmoent, especially in thick sections. A family
of extra-high-strength, quenched, and tempered alboy steels has come into wide use because these
c...a. rial.s havc y..ld s;reingths. of more than IArlflW
psi.

The alloy steels have relatively good resistance to

fracture, or tough-ess. Weldability is good, and
machinability and castabihty are fair. The alloy steels
generally can be hardeneC to a greater depth than can
unalloyed steels with the same carbon content. Many
of the alloy steels are available with added sulphur or
lead for improved machinability. However, resulphurized and leaded steels are not recommended
for highly stressed aircraft pa. ts because of drastic reductions in transverse properties. The alloy steels arce
somewhat more difficult to forge than are the corresponding plain carbon steels, and the maximum
recommended forging temperatures are about 50%

taken to avoid cracking. Carbide precipitation is

minimized during welding by selecting one of the
stabilized grades, e.g., 321 or 347.
Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic and have good
ductility. Because of the low carbon-to-chromiumn
,atio, the effects of thermal transformation are
eliminated and the steels are not hardenable by heat
treatment. They also do not work-harden to any
grcuit e-tent. are machined easily,. and arc formed
type
readily. A general-purpose ferritic stainless is
istp
430.
Martensitic steels have a higher carbon-to-chroimiurn ratio and are hardenable by heat treatment.
They are characteriLed by good ductility, hardness,
and ability to hold an edge. These steels are. magnritic
in all conditions, are tough and resistant to impact,
and attain tensile strengths of up to 200,000 psi when
hardened. Martensitic steels machine very well. Type
410 is the most widely used steel in this group.
.,A

2-2.1.5 Precipitation Hardening Steels

Precipitation hardening (PH) steels arc those that
harden at relatively low temperatures due to the pre-

lower

Lipitalion of copper, aluminum, or titanium inter-

Cold-forming. it performed, is done in the annealed con6ition because of the high strength and
limited duaility of heat-treated materials. Notch
toughness of alloys in the heat-treated condition is
much better than that of the carbon steels. Cor-

metallic compounds. They may be nonstainless or

stainless. The best known is 17-4 P11, which is stainlcss by composition and is used fcr parts requiring
high strength and good resistance to corrosion and
oxidation at temperatures of up to 6 00F. 17-4 PH is

2-2

"

:%
"".

4,4

4-

.enerl-p

AM,,i /06 12
inartensitic in nature, but other precipitation hardening steels may be austenitic. Forming properties are
.nuch the same as for stainless steels: forming must he
accomnplished before heat treatment, and allowance
must be made for the dimensional changes that occur during the hardening process. Strcrngth properties
ate lowered by exposure to temperaturrs abosc
9750: for longer than 0.5 hr. The heat-treating
procedures are specified in MIL-H-6875.

--

2-2.1.6 Maraglng Steels

The maraging steels are not treated in the refcrences given in par. 2-2.1.1; henc they arc discussed
in somewhat greater detail here.
The term "maraging' is derived from the capability o! the material for age hardening in the martensitic condition. The distinguishing features of the
18% nickel maraging steels are that they arc designed
to be martensitic upon cooling te room temperature
after hot-working or annealing, and t- be agehardenailc to ultra high strengths in that condition.
The 18% nickel maragirg steels essentially are
wrought alloys. The nominal yield strengths of four
"well-eitablished grades are 2Q., 2M), 3M).). and 35( ksi,
The ability of these steels to transform into martensite upon cooling from elevated temperatures is im'paried by their nickel content. The transformation,
which begins at about 310'F and ends at about
210F, is of the diffusionless or shearing type. The
formation of martensite in these steels is noi disturbed by varying the cooling rate within practicalec
limits. Hence, section size is not a factor in the
process of martensite formation, and the concepts of
hardenability that dominate the technology of the
quenched and tempered steels are not applicable with
the maraging steels.
The l8Ni maraging steels may be cut with a saw in
the annealed or hot-worked condition. Alternatively, oxyacetylene and plasma arc torches may be
used. Hot-rolled or annealed maraging steels can be
sheared in much the same manner as can the quenched and tempered structural steels that have yield
strengths in the vicinity of 110 ksi. In grinding, these
steels behave in a manner similar to that of stainless
steels, using a heavy-duty, water-soluble grinding
fluid.
The maraging steels can be hot-worked to finished
"or semi-finished products by all of the standard
methods of forming that are used for other steels. To
avoid carburizing or sulfidizing, the metal should be
free of oil, grease, and shop soil before heating. Fuel
"withlow sulphur content is preferred. The meta! can
be press- or hammer-forged at temperatures ranging
'from 23000 down to I500F. Forging is completed at
,"latively low temperatures. The objective is to refine

S~2-3

the grain struchtre, thereby enhancing ihe strenpth

and toughness of the sleel. A minimum redution of
25'v. in thickness during the finil forging cycle is
recommended to produce optimum mectianical
propcrtices in the finished product. Ho, bending, hot
drawing, and hot spinning are accomplished at
1500O- 180O F:.
Cold-forrnirg operations are performed on the annealed material. Even in the annealed condition, the
18Ni maraging steels have yield strengths of up to 120
ksi, approximately four times those of deep-drawbody stock The tensile elongations of these steels in
the form of annealed sheet may be as little as 3-4%.
These factors impose limitations upon forming the
sheet metal by tensile stresses. On the other hand,
these steels work-harden very slowly, making them
well suited to formirL methods dominated by shear.
They can be cold-reduced by 80% or more, and
shape. are formed readily by rolling or spinning.
Flat-bottom cups can be deep-drawn to considerable
depths. Roundtd shapes are formed mi re readily by
means of the flexible die process. Cold-rolled,
solution-annealed material is preferred. Rolling and
welding of shwc, strip, and plate are cmm1on mithods of making cylindrical shapes.
In the annealed condition, the l8Ni maraging
steels are machined quite easily. In the age-hardened
condition, machining is difficult because of the hardness imparted by the aging process.
Although these steels have been welded by all of
the common welding processes, the toughest welds
are produced by the gas tungsten arc process or the
electron beam kEB) process. For maximum toughness, the carbon, sulphur, silicon, phosphorus, and
oxygen content must be kept at very low leveis. It is
good practice to avoid prolongca times at elevated
temperatures, not to preheat, to keep interpass ternperatures below about 250 *F, to use minimum weld
energy input, and to avoid conditions causing slow
cooling rates.
Annealing is accomplished at 1500'F with air
cooling. For improved combinations of stren~gth and
toughness, the steel may be double-anne.aled. Thprocedure is to heat the material to !600-l800'F, air
cool to room temperature, reheat to 14000 -150O"F,
and again air cool. Special furnarie atmosphe:-es art;
required in order to prevent carburization, sullidation, or excessive oxidation.
Age-hardening is accomplished at 9000)F, the time
varying from 3 to 6 hr. Air is used commonly as the
heat-treating atmosphere. It is advisable to maintain
thc temperature at all part: of the load to within
- 100 of the desired temperature.
The nominal mechanical properties of the agehardened 18Ni tiaraging st~cts are listed in Table 2-I.

ca:~toas-4s thc: des~'icer in formulainig the re-

I~s~i

Adtona
r~r~ daa h~h-t~cdgt

rnaraging btecis will be round a iv .I

2-.2.2 NON~FRUOUS MFITALS

E~nparativc

mcchfinical properties for mreprsenta-

lees3
ive 1aonluCW1_us alloys arc giken in Tabas- 2-2
Im;nIAly
tlicii
ols&.d
Abrief review of nonferieus i-'
af
l
Aus-a
1
wco
hk:,mprlrs kiusiv
applicatkio to the cosru~m
cur-wniirJ a
as of some of [thc paramr.ters j,o,-vcrning *lc Jioic; i.ofD~*{~
cus.. r of v'.-inum a~lcys, along with design at
one metal amnoneg many for a a t~la appficatiot,.
smay1stdrdization ocz.uolacrIpe
alonga with di-tail ticsigni Jita, is foune io AN11 Y
nicnis, ir'cludiiig militury. fcdea ad, anid iindustry specilt00 arid in MIl.-1-DBI-5.
ficatiowis. ThCSe Npe'.-ification, cover most of the uses
Metais siuh as alkmnriim, in-gflesium, or iiof alulnihiaum in detail and shoutld IN consulted hefore
rclativclv
their
tanium may be sailectcd beciuse of
ein
poadrgwt
lilht weIghts. Other factors in material seteciion inailaminum allos are deexcept~or.s,
fw
Withi
clectrica'i
and
thernial
esstance.
crrsin
*eud
nwogtpo
o atn o o
indete
coraductivftty. lubricity, softness, cost and ease of,
d-icts, but not for both. Althouth some genera!fabrcation. hardness. stiffness, and faoigpae resispurpose :-illoys are available. compositions rnoimally
tance. UsAually, ii is the sum of a number of factors
formulated so as to satisfy tspecific rqirements.
arc
of
that in',1uences a designer to select the sequence
mnoic %&idely used And readily avaiwable copiThe
a
constitute
that
processes
materials and fabrication
positions. are covered by G(.?vcinment specifications.
design item. This discussion is inteiided to provide
Most are adaptable to a variety of applications.
The Aluminum Association has devised afor
TABLE2-1
digit system -for wrought alloys in which the first
110*v fABL12N,
ig% no
" . A
number designazes tnhe major anulloyi
ungemiciii. Ti u.N.
MARAGING ST EELS
I is pure alu-minum, 'A is copper, 3 is manganese, 4 is

2-2.2.

Ertc

silicon, 5 is magnesium, 6 is magnesium and silicon,

and V is zinc. The last two digits are supposed to
ULTIMATE TE14SILf
00
designate the aluminum purity, but the exceptions
365. 00 294,000 260,000 210,000
NGTH,psi
ST RE
destroy. the rule. hlowever, the more frequently used
4 ~
55,001290,000 255,000 000
SRENTH, si
0.2-YIED
become familiar to the designer. The
0.~YILD
* TREGTHPSI355000alloys
aluminum casting alloys usually are identified by ar125
13.1
11.8
100
ELONATIN,-.
ELN A IN,,IU0
T
10
1 .
bitrarilv selected com mercial dicsignations of twoand three-digit numbers
2.0
570
6.0
0.0I
OF~RE~o
* IOREIJC
NOT UCHTENSIL
STREA'
N50
0
6!.
2.
Most alumninum alloys used for wrought products
contain less than 7% of alloying elements. By regula33
qu00
420nn 1 190m00 I25.000
~ STEGH
~ TE0IL
NOTCH
19.0'0'
-t
tion of the amounts and types of elements added, the
operties of the alumninum can be enhanced and its
pr.0
17.019.
1.
CHARFY V-NOTCHII-Is
working characteristics improved. Special comLITIGU
(0DUCYCLES
1000
2,00 115,000 115"U000 positions have been developed for particular fabrication processes, such as forging and extrusion.
Wrought alloys are produced in both heat-treatable
1
75
60 55
HRDNCKESLS'~
HARDNESS0
nn nonheat-Lreatable types. The mechanical properties of the nonhecat-treatable materials may be varied
220026,0
8,0
siE1
STRENI~H,
YIELDOPE

FSLRIES

-250

-30130

-2,

-------

-~

--

--. ------------

'

strain-hardening or by a combination of strain-

TABLE 24by

COMPARr

TABLECIA 2-2ERIE
A

h.irdering and annealing&...

I he aluminum alloys specified for casting purposes

contain one or more alloying! elements; the maximum
. .n~u of any one element must not exceed 12%.
designed
Sonealoy are deindfor usc in the as-cast con-

COMPR~n
E MCHAICALPROERTES
FOR SELECTED NONFERROUS, ALLOYS
PTY
FROPE
_

--

_-A

A29.C 14

1%
STRENGTH.
LL

IENSILL STRENGTH,.~

-.-

34

ELONGATION,

MOOIQ"US.
10Il

'Wo

Llui

6.5

2017

VANSM
'cr[oun:.

I C-i

I4A,~~IVCR

ition; others are designed to he heat-treated in order

to improve their mechanical properties ;nd dimensional stability. High strength with good ductility
can be o~btained by selecting the appropriate comnpo-

32
-

17

___

12

66

10.4

5.5

230
-HANUNESSIB
..

2-4

ndha

retet

~sitionanhetramn.

AMCP 706-202

*
.
S"

_. TN

S,)

The hcat-trcatment and temper desinations for

aluminum arc long and complex. The desinations
most frequently stamped on products are: F-as
fabricated; 0-annealed; H-strain-hardened (many
subdivisions); T2- (cast products only). T4-solution
lihat-treated and naturally aged. and T6-solution
heat-treated and artificially aged. The heat trcstmcnt
of aluminum alloys is detailed in MIL-H-6083. The
processes commonly used are solution heat treatment. precipitation hardening, and annealing. A
.small amount of cold-working aftcr solution heat
"treatment produces a substantial increase in yield
strength, some increase in tensile strength, and some
loss in ductility. Rapid quenching will provide
maximum corrosion resistance, while a slower
quench-used for heavy sections and large forgings-tcnds to minimize cracking and distortion.
Momt forming of aluminum is done cold. The ternperature chosen permits the completion of the fabrication without the necessity for any intermediate annealing. Hot-forming of aiuminum usually is perS
formed at temperatures of 300-400F, and heating
periods are limited to 15-30 min. When nonhcatitreatable alloys are to be formed, the tempef bhuuld
be just soft enough so as to permit the required bend
radius or draw depth. When heat-ireatable alloys are
used, the shape should govern the alloy selected arnd
its temper.
To a great extent, the choice of an alloy for casting
is governed by the type of mold to be employed. In
turn, the type of mold is determined by factors such
as intricacy of design, size, cross section, tolerance,
surface finish, and the number of castings to be produced. In all casting processes, alloys with high silicon ,-onte~nt ee m~fmi in thwprndctinmi of narts with
thin walls and intricate design.

mizt distortion due to expansion and contraction.

Molten aluminum bsorbs hydrogen easily, and this
may cause porosity during cooling. Because they
provide a protective inert-gas shield. TIG and MIG
welding are common choices. TIG is an incrt-gas
shield-arc process with a tungsten electrode, and
MIG is an inert-gas, shielded-metal-arc process using
covered electrodes. A suitable flux, and mechanical
(stainlcss steel brush) removal of the oxide film just
prior to welding. are mandatory. Certain aluminum
alloys - 2014, 7075, etc. - arc extremely difficult to
fusion weld (excluding spot welding) and normally
would not be used in structural applications when
welded. Brazing is somewhat more difficult, and
soldering of aluminum ir extremely difficult. The
other joining processes include riveting and adhesive
bending, both of which are used extensively in aircraft structures.
Applications for aluminum in helicopters include
the 4heet-metal exterior surface of the fuselage.
framing, stringers, beams, tubing, and other usages
where the density, corrosion resistance, and ease of
fabrication of alum,'ium give it an advantage ovcr
steel and where its high,,
star-eg,,sth, and
oadulus
properties give it an advantage over magnesium.
2-?.2.3 MNgneslum Alloys
MlL-HDBK-693 provides a comprehensive discussion of magnesium alloys and their properties,
and also describes design, fabrication, and performance data. Numerous Military and Federal
Spccifications covering specific shapes, forms, and
p ,,:esses also are summarized.
I ,e outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its
igl.i weight. This is important in helicopter design,.
,,-. payvload ratio is a direct function of vehicle
,.,h
Magnesium is two-thirds as hevy as atumi..

The most easily machined aluminum alloy is 2011T3, referred to as the frce-cutting alloy. In general.
alloys containing copper, zinc, and magnesium as the
principal added constituents are machined the most
readily. Wrought alloys that have been heat-trcated
have fair to good machining qualities.
The welding of many aluminum alloys is common,
practice because it is fast, easy, and relatively inexpensive. Welding is usclul especially for making ',akproof joints in thick or thin metal, and the r,. - ess
cn be employed w;th either cast or wrought. :,num or with a combination of both. The re' -:;.i.
low melting point, the high thermal conductiviy ,
the high thermal expansion pose problems. .,
heating is necessary when welding heavy secti,:.
otherwise, the mass of the parent metal will cond,.
the heat away too rapidly for effective welding. ,
rapid welding process is preferred in order to mini-

rm,;w

.1one-fourth as heavy as steel. The low densi tI effective in relatively thick castings, where
,s :;r -sed rigidity of magnesium is an additional
hcnefit
or this reason magnesium is used freqiv.,
. main rotor gearboxes, motor trans,,:..sings, and many other load-bearing
:ilphpii
.' .mn helicopters. Most of the helicopter
pm C .: . have several hundred pounds of maincsiw, .
construction.
The
,--.:
(American Society for Testing
Mcr 1 .-: 'it
nclature system is used exclusively in
u',: ,
. ,..,sium alloys. In this sytem, the first
,t I.
.
.1' the principal alloy elements, while
th, n
-.
,ate the rcspectivi, percentages.
I'. .,
....
aluminum, F i -. earth, H
,,
. .:.,, ;m. 1. lithium, M manganese, Q
.iye I . -,o ,.'inc. By this designation, AZ91C
- Co..i
..
i.ioy of magnesium containing 9%
i\

-.

..

"'*

'A''

j'.
"'

AMCP 706-2012
r

.luriiinum. V; zinc, and having a "C" variation.

The heat-treat and temper designations for magnesium virtually are identical to those for aluminum.
-:1 he temp~er designations used urc those in ASTM
8296.
There are four groups of mugnesium casting alloys. The Mg-A and Mg-Z binary systems are tiesigned Iir use at temperatures belo%% 300'1[ and are
~~iof Ios~er cost. The Mg-F and the Mg-Fl binary s~stents are designed for good strength in the 500'0
8004:~ range. The choice of casting composition is
dictated largely by certain features of the design, and
by cost and irecthod of production. For magnesium
alloys, the important casting proce~ses are sand, per.
mnciaret miold, and die. The choice of a casting
proc-ess depends upon the size, shape, and minimum
seclion thickness of the part, and upon the tolerances,
types of surface finish, number of pieces to be produced. and relative cost of finishing the part.
Magnesium alloys, both cast and wrought. haie
outstanding macmiinability. Greater depths of cut and
higher cutting rates can be used with these metals
than with other structurai metals. Magnesium does
slt

?a

%%,U
.

94

ns

siderahh higther tenmperatures than aluminum often

gise it advantages bor partic:ular applications, as in
the hot structures and exhaust ducting for helicopter
power s)-steins. Indeed. increased paj loads resulting
front %%
eight saving~i catmr ~a fseth initial
costs, and in the long run titanium may prove less
costls for seii
plctosta
okrpie
mtaterials.spih aplcto
hnlserrid
1Itnmisaihlt
mlc
ilsivrou
srought shapes and in at side range of' alloyed ane
unalloyed grades including billet. bar, extrusions,
plate. iheet, and tuh.*ng. The mill products can be
grouped into three categories according to the predomninant phase in their inicrostruclure: Alpha,
Alpha-Beta. and Beta titanium. There is no single acceptt'd system for the designation or classification of
titanium and its alloys as there ure for other metals.
Titanium iactual", is easier to machine than the
stainless steels becauhe the effects of work -harden ing
are far less pronounced. Titaniumi requires low
shearing forces, and is not noi-.h-sensitise. Because of
these properties, it can he machined to extremely low
micro-inch finishes. On the other band, the sharp

,*M4

the shearing point to heat rapidly. At elevated

temperatures tItnmtedtoislvayhig
within contact, and the cutting tool is dulled revdily.
F~urther. the cirhides and oxides oin the forged pie.es
are extremecly abrasive to tou's and miust be removed
by tiltric-hydrolfluoric acid treatment prior to
machining. Osciall, considerable kno%%hoA is
required for the economical machining of titanium.
Titanium assemblies are joined by spot, scant,
flash, and pressure welding technique-.. In fusion
welding, the TIG process is used-. heavy welding also
requires Incrt g.. k.

other metals, and welding of magnesiam to magnesium can be accomplishmed reliably only by a skilled operator. The metal also cannot be soldered.
properly. Thus, electron beam (EB) welding is the
mostsatsfator
wedin prces, athogh luxdip
mostsatsfator
wedin prces, athogh iuxdip
brazing also may be used; care must be employed in
removing all of the flux because of the danger of corrosion. The best method ofjoir .ig magnesium in thin
sectonsis
ahesve ondng.mal
y

welding is quite saiLffactory.

2-2.2.5 Copper and Copper Alloys

2-2.2.4 'Titansium Alloys

MIL-HDIIK-697 contains a comprehensive description of titanium alloys arnd their properties, and
discusses design, fabrication, and performance. In
addition, seven Military Specifications for specific
forms of titanium will be found in Refs. 2 and 3.
Although titanium is relatively costly, its high
strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion. resistance, and capability of performing at con-

tageous in inserts, studs, bushings. etc., where owk

load
is desired. Beryllium copper is useful
for sprink's and oiler applications where its good
modulus, hardness, fatigue resistance, and ease of
formiing are advantageous. tlo%%e~er, copper alloys
are the hcaviest of the common structural metals,
and, therefore, have at %%eight disadvantage in aiiborne applications.
The various types of copper and its alloys are

2-6

I!
1*
A

Ionn. C;11;%-*

polish the material in order to obtain an. extremnely

fine finish. The chips from machining readily clear
ihe work and the tools.
Because of its position in the electromiotive series,
magnesium is subject to more corrosion than are the
other structural metals. The many corrosion problerns associated with the use of magnesium severely
limit its use in rotary aircraft. Magnesium alloys shall
not be used for parts that are not readily accessible
for inspection, application of protective finish, and
replacement.
magnc.iuin cannot be wcided satisiucturily to

A 1;oniprehensivc discussion of coppeF and copper

alloys and their prtop-rties. design and fabrication
characteristics, and design and performance data is
contained in MIL-l-ll)BK-698.
h
aiu om fcpe
n
otraly
have found only limlited use in helicopters Their therand electrical conductivity properties are ad.-an-urct

tl -A

*I

AMCP 705-202

hetter known hy namec than by code number 1 lie'

lerin copper is used when the material cxceds 99.4'4
purnty. The principal alloying agent of bra... is zinc,
v.hile tin isthe principal alloying agnin in bronie. Thc
beryllium coppers have sinall percentajges of herylhum,. producing

u remarkably hard. hiph-modulus.

high-strength, inonsparking mat erial.

The copper and copp~r alloys arc ca.st readily in all
of the various castling processes. The allo.s are coldformed catsly, and are capahleof being rolled, drawn.
spun, and flanged. In hot-%orking they arc rolled, cxtruded. pierced, and forged. The machinability ofcopper alloys is excellent. For sand castings, low
speeds and coarse feed-- are used for remosing the
scale in order ito increast tool life. It is better ito remove the scale by sand blasting and pickling,
The copper alloys are %elded readily by all the
sselding processes, although their high thermal conductivit) i%a problemi. The,, arc adaptable ito brating
and are the eiasiest of ;ill metals to solder.
2-2. FL:cTOI.Y~c
(1IN OFfl~;SIII2-2.3
MEITALST
AmeO O
1SM1Dissimilar metals, as defined in MIL-STD.889.
should not be used together in helicopter applicathc m ating surfaces are insu lated adetinis unless
When tape is used between two dissimilar
. qt\
quately.
S metals, such as in the mounting of a magnesium gearbox toa~n adurnintm airframe, the contractor miust insure that there will be no loss oi- mounting torque as a
result of normal usage and vibrations.
Metali can be grouped in four categories, as shown
in Table 2-3
Metals grouped in any one of the calegorits in
Table 2-3 can rye considered similar to one another,
while those metals placed in different groups should
be considered dissimilar to one -unoher. The categorization does not apply to fasteners - such as rivets, bolts, nuts, and washers -- that are comrponent
parts of assemblies and usually are painted prior ito
being used. Instead, the metels referred to arc surface
mnetals. F-or example, zinc covers all zinc parts, ineluding castings and zinc-coated paits.
TABLE 2-3
GROUPING OF METALS AND ALLOYS
(M IL-STD-889)

~~McGraw-tfill,

GFUU'
5I'M AD I
Al UM'I.1UKIAt OYS !.",2 Ei`,t, 5351,
(;ROUI' 11

IlI
0i~lDUI'
GRUPI

6061 AND 1410

IllR At 101
t'ADMIiIM PNI . ANO All A'.~lI AND
(INCIIDIND THElAIDIMItRIIK All CIYSIrl GllILIr' 1,

IRN I EAC!).ANU TINANDLHIR~l All (,i

lEXlCu'il AIlNI
1SS SIFELS)
C01111. I'll MILIM NICKEL Sit VIER(,OLD. P1MINUM
TITANIUM. COBA, AND 1`4ODIlUM AND 1110111
AllIOYS
SIAINI.LSS STEEl S AtOL itlAP111fI

______

Par. 2-2.2.2 details the use of alumninum alloys in

11clicopter construction. Aluminum alloys used in
helicoptcrs may contain copper ot zinc as an cssent ial const ituent. In sheet form, thesecalloys rcsusceptihlc ito corrosive action resulting in a loss of
strength of the material, which becomes brittle withoiut evidence of surface change. Aluminum alloys
containing magnecsium, magnesium and silicon. and
chomniumn as the essential alloying constituents arc
mnuch more stable under prolonged weathering condition% than are the aluminum alloy% containing
copper or zun::.4
Cadmium behaves similarly to zinc as a coating
mectal hi.-affording electrochemical piotection of ferroins%metals against corrosion. Cadmium plating thus
can he: used to put ferrous metals into the same group
a%5
aluminum al~oys. giving them a similarity. A dctailed ditscutsion of coating processes can he found in
p~ar- 2-tv. In general, when two dissimilar metal surfaces come in contact with one anothcr, a corrosive
action called galvanic action can take place. Coating
iitals are used as thin layers between dissimilar
mietals to prevent this type of corrosion.
Table 2-4 illustrates the position of metals with
~.I r fth V lack of su ce ti.lt
i.h__r
red t
to galvanic action.

2-3

NONMETALLIC MATERIALS

2-3.1 GENERAL
This paragraph discusses the applications of the
thermoplasstic and thermosetting plastics, elastomners, fabrics, and transparent maiteials. Other
materials - such as glass in light bulbs or optical
piping, ceramics and mica in electrical insulation, and
cairbon and graphite in lubrication or electrical contacts - also play significant roles in helicopter construction.
The nonmetallic materials used in composite structures, reinforced plastics. and other composite
mnaterial% are treated in par. 2-4; plastic materials
used as sealants and adhesive-; arc covered in par. 2-5.
Comprehensive discussions and detu~led design data
will be found iii existing documents. Among these
are: MIL-H-DBK-700, MIL-HDBK-l7, the Modern
Plastics Encyclopedia, published annually by
and the Malerials -Selector Isjxuv,
published annually by Reinhold Publishing Co.
The major disadvantage of plastic's is their low
moduitis. which is in the order of a few hundred thousand psi compared to 10 or mome million psi for
metals. Thiey also arc more- sensitive to heat, soften-

ing markedly at 400~0 F and below. On the other hand.

plastics can he as strong as steel, be lighter than magnesiurn, aind have better abrasion resistance than

~2-7

4X
metals. Normal corrosion is not a problem. Although
they are nonconductors for electricity and poor conductors for heat. they can be exceedingly tough and
wear-resistant, and can be fabricated in a variety of
waya. When judiciously selected and pioperly used,
they often can p.rform better at lower cost than any
other material.
TABLE24
POSITION OF METALS IN THE GALVAN'C
SERIFS

MAGNESIUM
MAGNESIUM ALLOY

shapes. plate. sheet, and film and in a wide range of

shapes. sizes, and thicknesses. The materials are
machined, or shaped readily by thermoforming proccsscs. Many items may be purchased in thc finished
form as produced by extrusion or injrction molding:
included arc screws, nuts. bolts, inserts, grommets,
straps. pins, knobs, handles. instrument facings.
housings, boxes, conduits. electrical receptacles,
covers, rails, runners, guides, snaps, and slides. Many
of these items are supplied as off-the-shelf inventories in a variety of sizes.
Nylons and polycarbonates are known as the enginecring plastics. Nylon, a polyimide. has high
strength and high elongation, giving it a toughness
that many applications depend upon. It has high

ZINC
ALUMINUM 1100

modulus in flexure, good impact strength, a low coefficient of friction, and high abrasion resistadcC, as

CADMIUM
ALUMINUM 2017
STEEL OR IRON
CAST IRON
LEAD-TIN SOLDERS

well as good fatigue resistance under vibration conditions. Its primary disadvantages, though not significant, are dimensional change with moisture absorption, and the need for incorporating carbon
black in order to )rotect against ultraviolet degradation in outdoor use. Nylon is used in gears,
arms and other contact applications, and in pressure

CORRODED END ANODIC.1

SLE)

LEAD

:I

TIN
--;T

tubing, belting, and we.ar pads.

The polycarbonates are aromatic esters of car-

BRONZE

COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS
TITANIUM
MONEL
SILVER SOLDER
NICKEL
INCONEL
CHROMIUM-IRON
18-8 STAINLESS
18-8-3 STAINLESS
*.SILVER

,
L

GRAPHITE
GOLD
PLATINUM
PLATINUM

______

PROTECTED END (CATHODIC]

OR MOST NOBLE)

SOURCE:
REFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS

FEDERAL TELEFHONE & RADIO Co. 3RD

2-3.2 THERMOPLASTIC MATERIALS

Thermoplastic materials are those that soften when
heated and harden when cooled. Typical of the thermoplazic family are the polyvinyls, acrylics, nylons,
polycarbon tes, aitd fluorocarbons- Often, these have
linear micromolecular structures. Products of these
materials usually are formed by extrusion or by inJection molding, and they are available for manufacturing in the form of rods, tubes, contoured
2-8

boric acid. They have excellent rigidity and toughness. high impact strength, and low water absorption. They are stable dimensionally under a wide
range of conditions, are cieep-resistant, and are
transparent and stable in sunlight. Probably their
major deficiency is that their fatigue resistance is
lower than is desirable. Polycarbonates are used in
shields, lenses, ammunition chutes, knobs, handles,
etc.
The acrylic of interest here is polymethylmethacrylate, better known as Plexiglas. This plastic has
crystal clarity, outstanding weatherability in optical
p, operties and appearance, dimensional stability,
good impact resistance, and a low water absorption

.4.

rate. Its major deficiency is its low resistance to

'-

scratching. Its major use is as window glazing and for

such applications

as transparent aircraft covers;

covers for signal lights, where its ease of coloring is

advantageous; and in other optical and instrumentation applications. Its use as a window material is discussed in par. 2-3.5.
For helicopters, the polyvinyls are used largely in
the form of sheeting simulating leather or upholstery
fabric. These are very tough and wear-resistant. In
the transparent form, they are used to make pockets
and holders for documents and maps.
The fluorocarbon poymers have excellent thermal
stability at continuous temperatures of 400-550*F.

.-

AMCP 706-202

They virtually are inert to chemical attack, have exccllent damping properties, and have outstanding
electrical characteristics. such as high dielectric
strength, low dissipation factor and radio frequency
(RF) transparency They arc used widely in microwave components and high-frequency connectors, as
well as in wire coatings, gaskets, and electrical tcrminals.
2-3.3 THERMOSETTING MATERIALS
H M
TT
MT
ASfusible.
A lthou!h there is a great diversity in the chemical
mak:up of thermosetting resins, they have one
chaIacteristic in common: once they are cross-linked,
tl-ey do not soften undoi heat and cannot be formed
by thermofotming processes. With the application of
heat, thermosetting resins undergo a series of changes
that are irreversible. The polymeritation reaction
that occurs results in such a high degree of crosslinking that the cured product essentially is one molecule. In many cases, this results in a highly rigid molecule of good thermal stability. The thermosetting
rcsirts usually are used with fillers and rcinforcement.
Three of the most widel. used of these materials
are the epoxy. phenolic. anid polyc~tei iesius. Thcsc
are employed extensively with Fiberglas fabric. %%ith
chopped fiber in laminates, in sprayed forms, in
filamnent-wound structures, in honeycomb sandwich
structures, and in combinations with halsa wood or
formed shapes.
The epoxy resins arc based upon the reactivity of
the epoxide ktroup and generally are produced from
bisphenol-A and cpichloiohydrin. Epoxies have a
broad capability for blending properties through
resin systems, fillers, and additives. Formulations can
ne so.i armnex1t.'01c or F-11,U
T'are.. ...
able as prepolyrners for final polymeritation in the
form of powNders and liquids with a %ide range of viscosities, Some cure at room temperature, while others
require curing at elevated temperatures. The powders
may be transfcr-qilded byi
machine, and the liqiids
may he cast. Mure-oftcn, the liquid is used to inipregnate materials for bonding.
The outstanding characteristic of epoxies is their
capability to form a strong bond with almost an) surface. Fur this reason. they are used widely in adhesive formulations. The molded produtcts have high
dimensional stability over a %ide range of temperatures and hunridities, excellent inmchanical and shock
resistance, good retention of properties at 50091-, and
excellen! electrical properties,
The phenolics are the oldest and the least cxpensive of the
plastics. 1-thermosetting
he basic resin
is ianufactured by weans of a rc,actiorr bet
ncii

phenol and formaldehyde. Thi. resin is blended with

dye, filler, and curing agents to make the molding
powder, which is called the "A" stage powder.
Pokkders such as these are molded for 2 min at '25'F
at 15(X) psi pressure. As the granules are warmed by
the hot mold, the resin melts; the material flows and
fills the cavity, further reacting and going through a
rubbery "B' stage. With further cross-linking it
reaches the -'C" stage, at which it is hard and inFillers used in typical phenolic molding powders
are fibrous in nature; their interlocking fibers act to
reduce the brittleness of the cured resin. Wood flour
is used most commonly, while asbestos and graphite
fibers form the i.onventional heat-resistant plastics.
Paper and fabric fillers are used for high impact or
shock-resistant phenolics. When the powders are
used for lamination or in making composite structurc-:. a solution of the resin in alcohol is used to impregnate the fabric and then "B" st.ged. The layers
ot" impregnated fabric are laid together and then
cured b) heat and pressure.
The advantages of phenolics are their low material
processing costs, dimensional stability. excellent
hrc
ktia
fpris
1
lodb1rn
teristics, and good weathering properties. They are
used in electrical components, receptacles, conduits.
housings, etc.
IThe polyesters are plastics formed of chains produccd by repeating units of a polyacid and a polyglycol. They may be aliphatic or aromatic. Familiar
forms - fibers such as Dacron synthetic fiber or Mylar film - are the so-called linear polye.;ters. More
important to applications in helicopters are the thermosetting resins. These arc the three-dimensional or
cro.-linked polyesters that are formed by bridging
,i
unsaturated polyesters. In this form, the polyester is
supplied as a syrupy liquid that - %hen mixed with a
small amount of curing agent, ,pplied to a fabric,
chopped Fiberglas, or filament tow, and laid over a
form - rapidly reacts so as to establish a rigid structure. Such structures are of particular use for ra.
domes because of their RF transmission and excellent weaaherability. They have high modulus and impact strength as well as excellent flexural and tensile
properties. The polyesters may be cast in order to
produce glazing materials.
Another highly cross-linked family of polymers
consists of the urethanes. 1 hese arc formed by the reaction ot isocyanates with esters and unsaturatcs. In
the process, carbon dioxide is evolved and forms a
highly porous structure. "[he stiffness ranges from
soft, flexible foams to highly rigid foams. The flcxible foams are employed for cushioning and padding
2-9

1xvln

SECP 706202
.and to reduce noise and shock, as well as for thermal
insulation. The rigid foams are used as light-weight
stiffeners in structures.

MIL-HDBK-149 presents a comprehensive discussion of the technology of the elastomeric materials

and their applications. From the standpoint of
durability and performance, natural rubber remains
in demand, and substantial quantities arc used in
blends with SBR, butyl, and other synthetic rubbers.
Natural rubber is a stcrospecific polymer of isoprene.
Its applications in pneumatic tires, bumpers, shock
absorbers, etc., as well as in belting, gaskets, and
seals, arc well known, Substantial quantities con"tinue tc. be employed in hdicopters. Carbon black
constitutes about 50% of the w,:ight of il-csc corpositions.
A more advanced synthetic rubber is nt-nnr%,,e, a
general-purpose synthetic made by emulsion polymerization of chloroprene. A notable characteristic
":t
rabteri e ris
i,.,o gasoline. foles, monrieating oils, and othur solvents, a d its excellent resistance to weather-oxidations, ozone, and ultraviolet light. It has goon tensile strength, tear resislance, abrasion resistance, and rebound character;stics, and excellent adherence to metal and fabrics. It
provides average insulation and has excellent dicirctric strength. In helicopters, it is used to coat
radomes and the leading edges of the rotors for protection against abrasion by rain and dust. It also is
used in boots on other leading edges and areas where
wear is a factor; and in transmission belts, hoses,
liEcs sas,

&-1 ecica

apl-U----------

Another important family of clastonteric materials

is the silicones, which are used in many diverse and
seemingly unrelated applications. The silicones are
organo-poly-siloxanes, having alternating silicon and
oxygen atoms in the backbone of the chain. The silicone resins may be cast, extruded, or injectionmolded so as to form shaped products. They are
available in sheet or bulk form; as a range of pastes
and liquids for use as adhesives, sealants, and coatings; and as powders for foaming. They are stable
continuously at temperatures from - 140' to
+600 0 F, and initermittently to 70001. They are
weather-resistant, hove high dielectric strength and a
low dissipation factor, and are bonded easily to
metals, ceramics, and plastics substrates. Aromatic
solvents and chlorocoinpounds swell silicones, and
they have higher gas permeability than do other
rubbert. They are used as foaming agents, encapsulatin mesins, sealants, and in electrical applications,
2-10

2-3.5 WINDOW MATERIALS

Gazing materials and methods of attachment are ,
discussed in detail in MIL-HDBK-17. That document also lists additional Military Spccification"
coveting specific glazing materials, resins, cement.,
and proc-.sscs for the design and fabrication of widow systems.
The optical properties of greatest significancefor
aircraft glazing are surface reflection, index 9 'f refraction, absorption of light, and transmission of an
undistorted image. The thermal properties of primary concern are the coefficient of expansion, the
thermal conductivity, and the distortion temperatare. The major physical properties are density and
hardness, or scratch-resistance; the major mechanical properties are tensile and compressive strength
and the modulus of elasticity. The ideal glazing will
be strong enough to withstand structural and
operational (wind and water) loads, hard enough to
remain unscratched, optically clear after a life of
operatiun, unchanged by thermal loads, and unaffccted by the weather.
Although no material- passess all of these desirable characteristics, there are several that perform
ver) well. The three glazing materials that are
employed most often arc glass, cast polyester, and
cast aciylic (methylmethacrylate). Polycarbonate, an
otherwise strong contender, has not yet been
produced economically in large sheets with the required optical properties.
Monolithic glas- is used in helicopters only when
use temperatures ex,.ecd the performance t(mperatures of the laminated glasses and the poiymeric
materials. The lamination of glass with plastit imt
provcE. the -cs~s!_i. to- therma and rne-har.ca!
stresses, and minimize; the possibility of complete
failure of a panel, Splintering of the g'asi is prevented, although the load-carrying capacity of the
laminated glass is less than that of plate glass. The
plastic interlayer is sel,.cted so as to provide the greatest ability to absorb impact energy. Polyvinyl butyral is the most common interlayer material for both
glass and plastic laminates.
A new thermosetting, polyester-base, transparent
sheet material has becn developed under the trade
niame "Sierracin 880". It can be used for aircraft endosuren. that operate at suifitce temperatures of up to
300F. and is characterized by its two-stage cure.
After formiig and post-ctri~ag, the ultimate physical
properties of this materia! are obtained. Sierracin 880
generally is used as a laminate with acrylic, and is
described in MIL-P-8257.
The glazing materiaS u;sed nast widely for helicopters is cast polymethylmethacrylate. In many air-

S"
craft, it constitutes a major portion of the fuselage
walls. For window applications, the stretched, modifled acrylic sheet is preferred, per MIL-P-25690. The
nmodified material has slightly higher heat resistance
than does heat-resistant polymethylmethacrylatc,
along with better resistance to crazing and solvents.
When stretched to W-I100% biaxially or multiaxially.
acrylic sheets develop increased resistance to crazing,
higher impact strength, and improved rcsistance to
crack propagation - without detrimental effects
upon their other properties except for reduced abrasion rFsistance and laminar tensile and shear
strengths. The sheets may be formed thermally to diffcrent contours. Laminated plastic glazing materials
are made by bonding two or more layers of acrylic or
polyester plagtic sheet to a soft plastic interlayer by
means of an adhesive. This process greatly improves
the impact and structural strengths of the material,
Laminated plastic glazing materials arc defined in
MIL-1N5374.
Differing thermal expansion rates of glazing
materials, edge attachment mmieriais, and metal air-

frames present one of the major probicms

iM I

design of window-glazing. For all types of glazing, an

edge wrap is used in order to minimize the propagation of stresses originating in cracks and chips at the
edges. The preferred wrap is two or more layers of
polyester (Dacron) fabric, ,,oven from twisted yarns
and impitgnated and bonded in ?lace with epoxy
resin. Th wrap overlaps sufficiently on the glaze
material and extends sufficiently beyond the edges to
absorb the stresses of aitachment closure and at the
same time "o distribute the load uniformly across the
window. There are many closure designs, but the prefcrred enclosure will be designed so as to hold the
glaze securely in a sliding grip ir. such a manner as to
allow for reciprocal longitudinal motion - as the
glaze expands and contracts - while always applying
a comprehensive load endwise. This may be achieved
by placing a compressible, neoprene-imprcgnated
tube at the bottom of the closure channel. The
closure will be attached rigidly to the airframe. The
contacting areas between the closure and the edge
wrap will be sealed with a flexible sealant, prefe-rably
one made of silicone,

24 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
2-4,1 FIBERGLAS LAMINA'TES
*

".

Of all the fibers available for the rcinforcement of

plastics, glass is used by far the most widely. Of the
various glass compositions, only two are important in
"aircraftconstruction: "E" and "S" glass. "'E' glass is
used extensivily; "S" glass provides greater tensile

A CF 706.a01

strength and modulus, but is considerably more cxpensive.

The major advantages of glass-reinforced plastic
(GRP) over isotropic structural mateials (primary
metals include:
I. Formability and versatility. Large complex
parts and very short production runs are practical.
Because there are few limitations on size, shape, and
number of parts, design freedom is maximized. In addition, the reinforcement can be oriented as desired in
order to increase properties ir. specific directions.
2. Chemical stability. GRP is resistant to most
chemicals, and does not rust or corrode.
3. Toughness. Good impact resistance is a feature
of GRF.
4. Strength-to-weight ratio. Specific strength of
GRP is very high. For example. unidirectional GRP
has a specific strength about five times that of the
commonly used steel and aluminum alloys.
5. Insulation. GRP is a good thermal and electrical insulator, and therefore, wiil transmit radar and
radio waves.
Wk
.
......... , .....
r
.. .atched
n he
readily and effectively.
On the other hand, GRP has certain disadantages compared to other construction materials,
namely:
I. Nonuniformity. Variations in material properties within a part and from part to part are inherent in
most of the fabrication techniques.
2. Low modulus. Stiffness of GRP is relatively
low.
3. Slow fabrication. Production rates are low in
comparison with most metal-formirg operations.
Thus, GRP coiitiUctmon is mnostudan'tgeous ar,
parts with complex shapes that would be difficult to
form from metal, foe parts with anisotropic strength
requirements, or in applications where the conductivity or poor dent or corrosion resistance of
metals present a probl'm.
Sonic typical GRP applications in helicopter construction arc in canopies, covers, 'tad shrouds (for
formability, specific strength, dent resistance); rotor
blades (for formability, anisotropic strength, and
stiffness)- control surfaces (for anisotropic properties, dent resistance, repairability); and antenna

housings (for radio frequency transparency, formability). It is conceivable that an entire helicopter airframc can be constructed from GRP, as has been

done o, several smal, fixed-wing aircraft.

2-4.1.1 Design Colsiderations
Design rules and procedui ,. for reinforced plastics
do not differ markedly from those for metals. Stress
st:ain curves, however, are similar to those for wood
2-11

.
,

AreP 7062D2
(which also is a riber-reinforced composite) in that
there is no yicld point.
As Part I of MiL.IIDBK-17 contains conlsidcrable prapcrty data on specific materials, only
generalities arc considered herce,
~ar hertw cscntal igreiens i glss.
7~reinforced plastics: glass fibers and resin. A finish, or
coupling agent. that enhances adhesion between ile
glass and resin usu'lly is used as a cobting on the
glass, and may be considered as a third component or
as part of the reinforcement. The resin system
ha roe ~ detrmiingthe
geneall
th limtin
chemicalyhathermlmiand e
oletica
pdopertiesiofgltm
catemwicl, thertyealon,
elcrclpoprtientto
and
of themi
reinforcement predominate in determiining the basic
--

mechanical poets.esters,
propeties.laytips
2-4.1.2 Resin Systems

rtint

Essentially all GRP laminates arc madc with thcrmosetting re-sins that, when mixed with suitable catalysts or curing agents, arc pormanently converted to
the solid state. Reinforced thermoplastics (RTP).
whicn contain snort glaass ircrb. arc a rapiduy
growing element of the injctlion-molaing industry:
such parts. however, are not consider.-d laminates,
Probably 95% of all GRP laminates are made from
polyester, epoxy, or phenolic resins. For very-high.
temperature service (above 50OOT), silicone (MIL-R25506 and MIL-P.25S18) and polyimide resins are
available. These, however, have no known applications in current helicopter technology.
2-4.1.2.1 Polyesters
These are by far the most widely used resins when
thob eniirp rGP intisictry ic -nn-ijere-d. They are !ow,
in cost, easily processed, and extremely versatile.
Available types range from rigid to flChible: there are
also grades thait are fire-retardant. ulhrav'ioletresistant, and highly chemical-resistant. The upper
temperature limit for long-term operation of generalpurpose grades is 200*F, although temperature-resisresins are available that are useful up ito 5000F.
These can be formulated for rapid curing at room
temperature or with long pot-life for curing at elevated temperature. rhus, they commonly arc used for
wet layups but prcpregs also are used frequently. Prepregs that cure by ultraviolet light also are available.
Disadv:tntages of polyesters include high shrinkage
* during cui-c, inhcrently tacky surfact. ii cured in the

presence of air, odor, and fire hazard in wet layup

fabrication from styrene monomecr and peroxide
catalysts.
Requirements for general-purpose polyester larninating resins and lamuinates are contained in M IL-R7575 and L-P-383, respectively; fire-resistant resins
2-12

und lainin.,tes are detailed in MIL-R-215042 and

Ml L-IP-25395.
2-4.1.2.2 Epoxies
Epoxies probably arc thec resins most frequently
used ior atircraft GRP laininates. Although about
twice as costly as polyesters or phenolics, epoxy
plctos
rsn tl jeiepniefrms
stapiatint.
hcia-rsivefrm
rechansticl, 4elietrcaend
Mcaiacetiaadccia-eitn
prptisreeclc.Adconomstubrae
odadcuehinaeadmitraisvr
sorption are low. Temperature resisiance of generalpurpose types is intermediate betweca that of polyesters and phenolics. Formulation anid fabrication
oy
swt
psiltesaexrmly vraie

epoxies can be formulated for uses tuch an wet

or prcpregs for room-temnperature or elevatedtempei ature curing, and for fire-rctardancy. The
choice of curing agent plays a maijor part in determining curing characteristics, temperature resistancc. chemical resistance, flexibility. etc. In addition,
a variety of modifierF and fillers is available to provioc specific qualities.
There are relatively few disadsantags-s with epoxy
rcsins. However, becaube an~ine curing agents that
are commonly used in room tempeature curing forlmulations mady ctiuse severe dci matitis, skin contact
must be avoided. MIL-R-9300 contains requirt.ments for epox) lamninating resins, wvhile
requirements for epoxy laminates are covered in
MI[-P-25421.
2-4.1.2.3 Phenolics
Phenolic resins are used primarily in (3RP appli-

an inrinrpnsive material

%xhprc

th heat. re-

sistance uri to 50001: and/or rionflanimability is required. Excellent elctirical propcrtics also arc obtaircti. Because water is produced and released in the
curitig reaction, relatively high molding pressure is
req4uired in order to prc~eni porosity in phenolic
laminates. Preprcgs ticarls alk-ays are used.
Mil.-R-9299 and NIIL-P-25515 cover the requiremncrts for Phenolic laminating resins and phenolic
laminates, respectively.
2-4.1.3 Types of Reinforcement
Gilass reinforceniem is av;,1lable in several basic
form,,. anid in a %ide variety of specific construo'tions
ssithirr these basic cztegories. Those formis coidnion1) j.scd in 6RP lamirates include skoven fabric,
chropped fiber mat, and! i~onwoven continuous iapes
or ro,*ing. Nearl) all of these art: dcris,,d fromn continuou% filamrents of 0.00023. 0.00028, or 0.0003h in
nominal diamecter. Numecrous standard yarn C(:ii
structio11s are available, with %ar)yrtg numbers (if

parallel Miaments per strand, strands per yard, and

twists pc.- inch of the strands. Likewise. there is a
multiplicity of fabrics woven from thc.ic yaifls that
vary not only in type and amount of ) arns but also in
thc type of weave. MIL-Y-l 140 is an excellent
reference for definitions and rcquit emcnts for ti,a
various yarns and woven fabrics,
The type of reinforcement selctcird will depend
upon the mechanical property requirements, part
shape, and applicable fabrication technique as discussed in the paragraphs that follow,
2-4.1.3.1 Nonwoven. Continuous Filaments
axium
Thi renfoceentoffrs
fom o
mechniclpopeties
bu ha miimumfabicaion
possibilities due to the difficulty of placing and aligning the reinforcemuent in complex shapes. A big adv'antage where this type of construction is practicable is that the fibers can be oriented in proportion
to the stress in anly given direction. Filament winding
is the most widely used fabrication technique with
nonwoven continuous filaments. This construction is
covredmoecmpetey
n pr.2-43.As
2-4.1.3.2 Woven Fabric
This constru-ctwn proidus good mechaniv-ul
properties and formability and is. theref'ore, the niost
commonly used reinforcement in aircraft fabrica-

2.4.1.3.3
hopilped F"be
The third commo3n form or rcinfoiroment is
chopped Fiber mat, as defined by MIL-M-15617.
Because thc Fibers arc short inno their orientatIon is
completely random. this material is veycm
formable. For the same reasons. atid also because or
its high bulk - which limits the percentage of glas
obtainable in a laminate - mechanical properties are
lower than with roving or fabric. Continuous (swirl)
strand mat is another veriation and is particularly
useful for deep contours. in both types of mai. th-glass is held in place with a small amount of resin
binder. Both types are available in weights ranging
fromn 0.75 oz to 3 oz per ft1. corresponding to laminl. atd
thicnfiesseno absou0.3in. trodue
0.00in.per
naldMith rei~nfo 6icemincallso ishproduc ldin
promrn-

1
A_4

adsetmoigcontewihrsitiss
pound (SMC).
Chopped fiber parts can be fabricated by the sprayup or Preform t-echniques described subsequiently.

4..

FaratoMeod

previously discussed, each of the common

forms of glass reinforcement (roving, fabric, mat) can
be niorchip el either dry or preimpreitnated withth
)
laminatirip resin, which is cured or dried partially to a
'
solid or tacky condition. The latter, called preprep,
tion. When wetted with resin, the cloth has conarc advantageous in that they contain a controlled,
siderable ability to stretch and conforfm to rather
uniform, and readily measurable amount of resin.
complcr. contours. Although intended specifically for
They arc, therefore, easier to lay up, because wet laypolyester laminates, MIll-C-9084 fabric usually is
up operations often arm messy and odorous. Prespecified for larniiat"s made with all resins. IKaquirepregs can be obtained with varying degree of tack so
ments for eleven basic fabrics and six subtypes arc deas to suit the spwcific operation. And, because cornfined in the specification. Approximate thickness per~ pleie quality con irol tests can be mitde before the part
is fabricated, the. problems of incorrect weigtding and
ply ranyes from 0.003 in. for 112 fabric to 0.027 in.
mixing of the resin system arc eliminated completely.
for 184 fabric. (Still heavies fabrics, woven from
:he( fife-, pre-pre" er
In o~z
rovings rather than yarns, arc avia~hbl Ii- i'll-----ses
formulated with curing agents or catalysts thatI
of up to 0.045 in. pcr ply-. these are covered in MILrequire heat to cure (generally 250*-3S0*F for at least
C-i19663.) Most of these fabrics are balanced %%eavcs.
I fir). Under heat, the resin melts initially, and then
with nonoinally equal construction in the warp and
fill directions: 181 fabric at 0.009 Mi.per ply is the
coiiverts chemiically to a thermoset solid. Some
pressure almost always is required in prepreg lamistandard balanced fabric upon which most test laminating in order to maintain good contact betwtien
nate- and published properties data are based. Repireplies of reinforcement. This pressure results in reater
cm, ing the extr,:me of unbalance is 143 fabric. %hich
resin flow and, consequently, in higher glass ratios
has a warp strungth about 10 times as great as its fill
strength. This approaches the nonwo%,en conarid better mechanical properties than are obtained
with unpressurizcd wet-layup laminates.
struction described previously, sacrificing sonic
mechanical properties for improved drapability.
Generally, epoxy resins and preprcgs of roving.
Most high-strength, glIAss- fabric- based laminates Lre
tape, or fabric are associated with components of
made from 181 and/or 143 abrics.
higher quahlt, cost, and strength, while polyester
As with MIL-C-9094, MIL-Y-l 140 originally swas
resins and wet-lay up (or SMC) processing of fabric or
) interldeo lor polyester laniinates. However. its renina arc used where maximum required properties do
S quliremeflts also usually are specified for fabrics conri)t justif*y the increased costs. Those fabrication
taining epoxy compatible finishes.
mecthods applicable to construction of laminated
*.o

n'

.es-m-l

2-13
u

W, v

AMCP W16-202

TABILF 2-5
PROCESS COMPARISON ;Ii)1 F('R (;R! lANIINAl -:S*

, O

POLYESTER
EPOXY

CONTACT
IOLOING
__

VACUUM

BAG

"OPEN MOLD

._

__,-

SPRAYUP

_'_

POLYESIER

VA1
FABRIC

30
45

MAT

40

I" L VI?
R
S, E

RL.

70 I011

70101I10

60
10O 220
55
455ONLY
60
70 TO 2,0

POLYESER
EPOXY

CONIlOU
ROV'NG

EPOXY

CHOPPED

30

50 1000
1

70 TO 110

p,,1

CLOSED MOLD
MATCHED-DIE
MOLDING
S~EPOXY

MAT

FABRIC

PHENOLIC,

MAT

"POLYESTER,

FAPI:,CS,
PRI'REG

EPOXY

LIMI ILI? DY SiZL

AU
I)CLM
L
Oi AUIOCLAVL
00IOL

100 10300

BYI
_

3'i

, 4 1
.

jo

Of

FRVSAEY.QN,1
FR'..V5AEEYHELIEISI
TO 1CIt BOATIHULS_
t S-

1,.?..

MELAMINE,
SI,1N1
EPOXY[

PHLNOLIC,
,ELAVINE,
SILICONE,

__IOW

L'11

22510300

CE POA! HUHl .

50

ER
PREFORM I, EPOXY
i-

10 ()AIL

55SKBM
_

ROIIUUIS
Si"L 01 I'0

5
ROLYESTER

FABRIC
AOE N ROV
OVE
,MA
1
MA
FABRiK
EPOVXY
R00
POY WOVEN ROV

Epoxy

POLYISI

TRr

40

OVEN ROY

EPOXYFARI__
POY V.OVEN RO\'

PRESSURE

HAND LAVUP
BAG
.,...AICAEPOLYESTER
-':
AUTOCLAVE

:-

f -IBI RGLAS I'E RR[

F 1.r, WERGA
R61 I

RESIN

PROCESS

R,

SP.

L1

'25 10 350

100 10 3000 1 ' 6 .ANE

f't, NLI S

2Vr'TO 350

IN

1O

{
"1

ANE LS'U 1C5

AND
NONV"OVEN

_j _._

FROM OWENS CORNING FIBERGLAS CORPORATION TECHNICAL

BULLETIN I-PL-1998-B

GRP helicopter components arc jiscu::scd subsequently. General guides to moldinj; processies. and
resultin, laminate properties, are shown in Tablei 2-5
and 2-6. respectively.
241.4.1

Opcm Mold Hand Layup

simoothed onto the exposed surfac of the layup in

order to provide a better finish.
2. Vacuum bag. A film (usually poly,,inyl alcohoIlI
er nylon, is phlced over the surface of the part and

scahLd at the edges, or the entire mold is pk.ccd in a

bag. A vacuum k then drawn. resuittlg in the applica.ion of atmospheric pressure to thr"lamfinate. I:ven
This method consists simply of placing the rethis re~ativ,:'; low piessurc (15 psi) consideFabl) intquird number of plies of reinforcement and resin
proves th- laminat,: quaiity bh reducing entrapped
over a single mold surface, and rubbing or rolling out
air and resil|-ricin areas.
the air. Curing then is accomplished by one oi the
3. Pressure b:i. In this case a rubber film (o!'Ten
"following processes:
C t
l
T
n
i
wconioured
to 117c part shape) is placed ovz-i dit- l, tip
1I.Contact molding. The laminale is allowed to
-and th mold is scaied snth a pressure plate. Air or
cure without the application of pressure. usually at
stvam pressure ol up to about 100 psu then is applied
room temperature. Heat can be applied to accelerate
to thl. cavitN.
the cure, but the contact process usually is employed
4. Autoclase. In this variation: of the pressuwc t'tg
for large parts and/or short pruduction runs. and
process, the ent~re assembly (mold, layup, rubber
"~'.,both heat and pressure 11ay be impracticabic. A stripfilm) is placed in a steam autocime 'nd cLured, norpabla film, such ab cellophane, sometimes is
malhY at about 50-100 i'.
2-14

1
'

706-202

___________________________________AMCP

TABLF 2-6
(,FNI-IT.A1. PROPER} IFS OBTAINABLIA IN (&ASS RHFN1FOR( I) I'l.AS'I(*S*
POLYESTER

EPOXY

PHENOLIC

j(-LASS fMM. FPL FCR11l

GLASS MATT

rROPF RiY

OH SHEET MOL iINi3

CLASS CLOl H

GLASS MAT

GLASS CLOTH

SP~lCI l'CfRAVI] Y

1.315 -10 2.30

1*012.0

1.810O ?.C

1.910O 2.0

1.70 TO 1.95

CLASS CON EN1,'.

BY W H
TENSUL STRUNCJ H,

251TO15

460T057

65 TO 70

41 TI 1

15000G 10 25,000

30,000T0 ?0,0C0 14,OOOTO 30,0%0 ?0,000TO 60,000 4,.000 To 60.000

COMPRESSIVE STR LNLI 11,

1

15.o000vO 50.000

?5,OOOTO 50,000 130,000!0 38,00T130,00010 70,030 17,000 TO 40,000

FLEXURAL SI R[ N67. H,

25,000 10140,000

146.0 00 7TO
90,000 20.0 0T1 26.000 70,30010 100,0 00 10,0 00T . 95,0001

i475

6.5X0,5 il. NO1ICHED

HAR? ot -!1 in .O[ NOTCH)l
VWA[ER ARSORP N ,i
Z411i
Lhil.
HICKNESS, '

81

TO030

05

BURNING RAIL
VOL
AITIiTT
50.
RH AND 73" F,owm. 'cnOi

U1.1i10i.6
uU
-

.Q

-.

3(10 T-3 15

10-

04

11

120 TO 180

60 10 120

fU

33010O 500
____S--*--

.8x 1
0
3B

125 10 140

iIlU.
_

____I___-__

O--1EXTHIGUIS11ING

'IS-

.;~U. U.UjI,

.:

3-N TO 3

lol

8 TO035

1 TO 26

8 TO 15
rrnnrt

o-n-

COI
IE~ WNUOUS

ARC RESISTANCE,

330 TO 500

I-~..'-4
.XC
_

___l"

100 TO 110

350 TO 500

-F-NONE
XI
71

20 TO 150

'CC1MP!LFD 1Y RF INFORCED PLASTICS, COM~POSITES DIV.SOCIE3Y OF THE PLASiIV. IN('USTRY INC

2-4.1.4.2 Spi'nyup
Ili this nethod. continuous roving is chopped into
I1-to 2-In.lengths and blown, into a spraying Ntrearrn of
resin and catalyst (hat is directed ugainst the mold (A
fast roorn-tcrnilirature-setting polyestef generally Is
used.) 1fhe mix~ture is land rolled to reduce air and
icvec the surface. The resulting part is similar i11 con%.tructioii !o a chopped fib~er mnat hand lay up.

peratures to 350*0 F commnonly arc used. Prepreg.

fixbvics and tapes usually are spr-ciied for aircraft
applications requiring maxinium strength-to-weight
ratios. I owcver, fo'r cornpkA) shapes and volume production. choppeci glass preforms (held together, like
mat. b) a sinalI arniunt o resin binder) frequently
-ire used.
2-4.1.5 Surface Finishes

Althugh(hi
C-1s i vey
. uficentforlare cm-

-or man) applications, a smooth surface, free

from aii pockiets and exposed glass fibers, is required.
Such a surface may be specified in order to improve
weathering characteristics, material-handling capabilities, human contact applications, or.
6riiplv, appearance. There are three different
methods used to obtan a smooth, resin-rich laminate
surface:
1. Veil mats. Thes.- consist of loose, nonwovf-n
mats ot glass or synthetic fibers. THickness may range

poricots. it has limited applicastion in aircraft constructiooi due to pour Uniformity o! thickness and
h-o-wightratos.outdoor
lw
relaivey
s~
2-4.1.41.3 %latched Die Molding

Whenever -'4)sely controlled thicknecsses are re-

quircd. two miold halves ar. necessary Matched dit

mrolding also is practical for high- volunic production
even where high-quality surfaces and close tolerances
are not required. Pressures of up to 300 psi and tern-

1W

70fi

inav be customn rnoldicd b) procedures sintilar to

those dcsc:rihcd in par. 2-4.1 for low pressure, closeddie lamina.te,
Industrial lamnizates are used for components of
simple geomectry rcqUI.ing internmediate strength,
lightweigh~t, and nonmetallic characteristics. In hell.
copter construction, they frequently arc used for wear
surfaces, such as oil conduits and lpuleIys for control
cables anad iii electrical circuit boards.
industrial laminates can be made with a number of'
chemical, thermial, and electrical properties by varying the ty'pe and ratio of resins and reinforcemerits. Those combinations that presently are
avsail~tblc coniinercially art; sho~ i in Table 2-7. In
cach case, the laminates are manuifictured by stacking Lip. sheets of the irnpregnawed reinforcement (or by
vrapping, in the cas;: of' itbes or rods) and curing
tHicn undcr hecat arnd pressure. Vcry high pressure rainging from about 200) to 2500 psi
used, resUlting wnhigh-quality, void-free parts.
Fromi the biisic: moinbinations shown in Table 2-7
niore than 70 standard grajdes of laminates are derived. of these, 32 grade,, are classified by the

fToni 0.001 to 0.030 in. They are so loosely consiructed that resin content in the veil are.; is thbout
85 by weight.
2. Gel coati. This technique conlsists of spr'i,coating the mold surface with 0.0i0- to 0.020-in. layer
of thixotropic (nonsaggiiig) resin, which is allowed to
sct
ayig
rio uto theglas rinfocemnt.
Resiiicint resins usually are used so as to provi~ie a
compromise between scratch resistance ::nd impaL-t
strength. Most gel coats are polyesters. bu! th,.methd
an e usd
aso wth poxes.mechanical.
3. Thermoplastic fiims. This method consistIs of
laminating a film or sheet of weazhcr-rcsist::iit and/or
decorative plastic, such as polyin)! fluoride or
acrylic. to the GRP surface. This technique should be
applicable to a vai jety of GRP processing methods
with both polv-estci and epioxy rc:,ins. but it has not
been used widely in the past. Re-cently. however, .i
process involving vacuum-forniing of thermoplastic
sheccis -which then are reinforced by %praying the
bacck side with chopped glass and polyester resill
has found wide acceptance. especially in the nianufacture of large parts (up to 300 ft-).
FABRIC

-are

-A.MiNA
US..

-....

A.cs

!at

Industrial laminates, also called high-pressure

laminates, are reinforced p~astics that are maimifactuied in standard. simple shape% such as sliccts.
rods, and tubes. F-abrication of prits For
materials generally is accomplf~ished h) standaird

(NI NI.\). Descriptioois of ihe 1NWMA grades and

thenr applicatiois are contained in Vol. 46. Moderni

mtetalorking operations, sicias cutting. drilling.

po,- design.
(icuicral characteristics lesiltinc' Iront the selection of the various reiniforcemeints and resins art:
descrihed sibsequciltl).

punch~ing, and machining. In conrarst1

tO

'th

Lcdpi.asloaetepretesf

thcse laiminaites. The designer should consider grades.

app~lication. aiid producihility prior to final corn-

Molding it)

the desired shape as discussed in par. 2-4 1- Where

prooneicon quantities \5arrant inold costs., pairts aulso

I ABLF 2-7
F

RE SIN I YFF

REINFORCLE?'N1

PH tjOIL

FCR%*At D[[

Sh1.LI

I h

luf

HAI~YPE

C
it-

I L0-I

CC)MTN FAWiC
AS[BES 10 PAIq R

K:

~
~

'1

0,1

S E.
HE
KO

iii. I

tc

S:,K01,11
4-

C[

%tIL

I I TL112

I:OLlI

1~

ASBESTOS FAhkICI

NYLON FABFiC
..

1III

AND MAT

'FROM1 MiODRE N PL AST H Eii'C

L i zz

MATE RIALIS i-.S,'iPr., UJ.iLJ

F L~[ ';I'.
i.....

2-16

iIF

.II.'NS

NHI

AMCP 7W202

-.. ) .2-4.2.1

Reinforc4.ment Sdelltion

ParaLI'.el) low fur glass laminates, and c.ost is high.

laminates art paper, cotton. nylon, glass, and iisbcstos. Attribute%of these materials are:
1. Paper. I hie leas~t expensive, and adequate I-or
many purposes. Kraft paper has rclatively long fibers
and is thc strongest type. Alpha ciellulosc offers improvtd e~ectrical properties. machinability. arid uniforminiy, while rag paper laminates have the lowest
water absorptiort and intermediate strength.
2. Cotton. Better impact arnd compressive
.strengths than paper, and most grades are only slighily more costly than paper. Electrical characteristics.
howevcr, generally are not as good. 1 he heavier
fabrics have the be:st mechanicial properties, while the
fine weaves have good miachinability.
3. Nylon. Low moisture absorption anid excellent
impact strength and electrical properties, as well a,.
good resistance to chemicals and abrasion. l-owevei.
nylon laminates have relatively poor creep resistance
at elevated temperatures and are coniparatively expenisive.
4. Glass. Highest mechanical .stre~igths by lar.

5. NKllainiiirc Excellent arc resistance at moderate

cost. NMclhanicul priopertits, and heat, nlame, and
-cheminia;l resibtancc qualities, also arc good.

Thcse materials also have superior electrical propertics~ and he-,m reskistnce. Cost is relatively hiigh.
5. Asbestosi. Used in the form of paper, gnaL, and

2-4.2.41 Speeifirstions
lit addition to the NEMA Standards (Pub. No. I-I
1-19,65). thei foliossing M~ilitary and Fedcral Spccifi

~/ fabri-c. These laminates have excellent heat, flamne,

chemical, and abrasion resistance.
Costs range front low%foi those sith a paper base
to high for a fabric base. The designer should select
the type of miaterial best suited for the application.
considering interface recIuirinlents mind felmt~bihty,.
maintainmbility, pro'Jucibilitq, and surv.ivability.

2-4.2.2

Rvsir Setewicin

The rcsins ase6 in the manufacture of industrial

ipihrdi.,. 1 Jui:
c.
.1-o!lyestcf. S!!(voome, and

-.

kRoomn temipcature nwcchaniCAl properties are con;-

The common reinfsoricenents weda in lrigh-pFC~Surc

meLAniinv. The characteristics of each arc:

I. ieot
he;~li idl~use
Te
b lr.ihe

resins are iriexptensise and have adequate reloperties

(inccharotcal, electrical, therniul, and chenical) for
inanN dcsian apiiin.irmlnrced
2.hpox tUsed csp"ejial v%
here tcgh rcsistam~c to
chemnicals and moisture is rcquired. Mechanical
properties andi dinicn.,.ional stability also arc
superior,.
3. 'olye~tei . Less coimion. but use~d 1icrnechainjCIIAJr1ld electrical a m.tn.espeeialls %%, e flame
rcsist1tiiee is a1rcqu!(cnicirt.
4- SilcOiUC. Used p~rima1ri ld,wt glass fahm ic \Ahere
iicelt resi!m-!icc ito S001~ i-- rc'jimrcd. Arc: esmmalirCc is1
v\Menlemt and 11(1i1roiv arbsiorpt ion is loss. 1 lie \c r
lIs mA ivssipamt lol laciot ol the-se rc~smitv at higrh ItieqUefl~cs i, utiliWc rm radMi and r-dio ins~ulator%.

:~

~~

2-4.2.3 Speckif Types

In .ddition to the materials listed previously, there
arc two special typq-s of industrial laminates that deserve mention:
1. Postforming grades. Made from resins that.
altltough thermoset, will soften eteough at elevated
temperatures to allow the material to be molded into
intricate s!tpes. Sptcial paper or fabric reinforcenieit also is used, permitting considerable stretchilig

2. Clad laminates. Clad, on one or both surfaces.

with a %ariety of materials, including aluminum, coppu r. stainless steel, silver, magnesium. and various
rubbeis. "lhe corticr-clad laminates (gerierally
glass/epoxy) are used widely as printed circuit
boards.

cajions arc applicablc to fabric larninates.:

I. ILP-S09, for sheets, rods, andi tubes of various
resins arid reinforcements
2. MIL-P-79, for rods anu tubc- of paper/phenolie, cotton/phCF.olrC, and glass/melamiinc
3. L-P.5 13. for paper/phenoltc sheet
4. MIlt-P-I 5035. for cotton/'phenolic sheet
S. MIL.-P-W824.

for cotton/phenolic sheet for

Aatcr- or greasc-lubricated beairings

b. MIL.P-I5031. for glass/mclamnine sheetc
7. M: i -P-l15047, for nylon /phenolic sheet.
2-4.3

FILAMENT COMPOSITION

Thi., paragraph is concerned primarily with high-

pciforinance composites. consistinig of plastics rewith nonw-ovn filarnints of glass. boron.

11nd high-modulus graphite. Because the fibers areV
itonisso-efl and, usually, kintwisted. they can be
packed to high lither loatdings. The fibers (-an be
Oriented .mloiig the axes of stress in p-rcrorticod to deSAgri requirements. allowing efficient ut iti~ation of the
outistaniing properties of this type of rcinforcement.
Whic~i the spccilic strength tiensile strengthv-to-densit) ratio) anid

specific modulus (Younig' modulus-

to-dcnsity ratio) of tire metal alloys (alumninum, steel.

ialil

corumoril) used in aircraft construction are

cornilpared, it isshow ii that they are necarly equal to 7~

to 9 X 10'!n. arid 100 to 110 X 10, in., respwcively.

I
c

-,.

.1

W-Ak

Although S-glass offers a substantial improvement

in botO quantities, niore important is the comparalively recent introduction of the exotic fibers. with
boron and &;rapbitebeing of primary commercial interest. Unidirectional composites made from these
fibers have specific moduli in the 600 to $00X 10'N in.
range. Thc specific strength of boron composites is
comparable to that of glass. while graphite cornposites are somewhat lower in this property.

2-4.3.1 Types of Relmorcemevit

A summary of the properties of the previously
mentioned filaments that are used in reinforced cornposites ~s contained in Table 2-8. The derivations and
characteristics of these fibers arc discussed subsequantly.
TABLE 2-9
TYPICAL VALUES OF PHYSICAL AND
MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS O3F
REINFORCEMENT FIBERS
Lsw

MATERIA

Ius
I
-GLASS

0O92

S-CLASS

0.0o

MEIA DEST

97--

t-LS
OD9

'NTPGTN)0.093
GRAMlPTI0.6

GRPIE400
(PA~,

*into

EC11

Tj0J

5ID
50

-11

7.4
92

85

14
13

5-2,

50)

5.4

60.0

650

300

4.9

50.0

820

Ui.

40.0..

--

fYE

.~.
635

MIHTS-904

24.3.1.1 F-glass
This glass was developed originally for its superioc
electrical properties.
Glass roving is manufactured by drawing the molten glass thiough resist ancc-h.-ated platinum bashings at about 2400*F. From 51 to 408 (usually 204)
filaments are gathered into a single strand, coat2d
with a binder, and wound onto a drum at approximatcly 10,000 fprn. The coating bonds the filarents
a strand, protects them from abrading each
othcr, and also serves as a coupling agent to improve
the resin-glass bond. For use with epoxy resins, an
801 sizing usually is specified. Requirements for Fglass roving are. contained in M IL-R-60346 under the
Typc I classification.
Standard continuous roving uses ECG 135 strands
- where E designates the glass composition, C indicates continuouis filamenzrts, and G dcsignatcs a filamerit diameter of 0.00037 in. - resulting in 13,500 yd
of strand per lb. ECG 67.5 (408 G filaments per
strsnd) and ECK 37 (408 K filardunts of 0.00)052 in.
2-18

243.1.2 S-glass
This composition, sometimes called S(994), was
developed under Air Forct; contract for its highstrength properties. S-glass is available in the some
forms (roving, tape, and prepeg) as is E-glass. The
standard roin~g decsig'iation in this case is SCG 150,

niaigta there are 5.000 yd f strand per l

10
0'~vs

5.A

5s

diameter per strand) ravings also arc avuilabic. A

roving package is made by winding a number of
strands (or ends) under each tension onto a cylinder.
The number of ends ranges from 8 to 120. with 60
being the most common quantity. Staniard packages
range from 7 to 35 lb nominal wveight.
E-glass rovings are available widely, both dry and
preimpregnatec! with a variety of resin systems. Prepreg tapes of unidirectional filaments up to 48 in.
wide, having a nominal cured thickness or -ither
0.0075 in. or 0.0 10 in., also arc available. These can
also be purchased in tuo-ply bidirectionai (0 deg. 90
deg) or three-ply isotropic (-60 deg, 0 deg, +60 deg)
forms.

due to the lower specific gravity of S-Slass- The major

d0est46krrent to its wid,, use has been its cost. which is
about i 5 oimtes that of E-siess. A cuumiiwiciu giadc.

containing most of the S-glass properties at

s.ew,
lower cost, has been introduced.
Another development is 970 S-glass. which has

20% greater moduius and ultimate strength than SThe chemical compositions of various glass reinforcements are presented in Table 2-9. IITS-901 and
are the epoxy-compatible sizings for Sglass, while 470 sizing is used with S-12 rovings. Sglass rciving requircinecits also are contained in M ILR-60346 under the Type IlI classification.

2-4.3.1.3 boron Filaments

These products currently arc made by vapor
deposition of boron on very fine tungsten wire. Work
is under way to develop boron filaments on glas-1 or
graphite substrates in order to reduce cost and total
density substantially. In order to make handling
practicable, the material usually is supplied in tollimated prepreg tapes that are one filament tihick and
up to 3 in. vvidc. A Military Specification on boron
filamen~t preprcg is MIL-B-83.169.
2-4-3. 4.4 Craphlte
A wide v'ailety of filamentary carbon p~roducts is
produced by pyrolysis of organic fiber!. These
prod4ucts may be divided into two broad categories:
low-niodulus and high-modulus materials. Lo%%
modulus carbon and graphite are iused freqjuently in

AMCP 706-202

NOMINAL COMPOSITIONOYCLIASS

TYPE

SiO., A12 03 MgO0

E-~GLASS

54.3

15.2

4.1

S AND S-2-GLASS

64.3

24.8

10.3

970-S-GLASS

-modulus

graphite crystals. Material developed in the U S usecs

ra!vyQn fibers and hasq an irre~ular trpopcorn shape)
3~=. cros sctin. Matti ial developed in Engiand i, pyrolyzed from a polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursor
having a circular cross section. In either case, the
average filament diameter is 0.0003 in.
The Brilish PAN material is made in untwisted
tows of 10,J00 filaments, and is available in continuctis lengths. The rayon-derived, high-modulus
graphite used in the U S is made in continuous
leng~ths from 2-ply yarns having 720 filaments per ply
and 1.5 or 4 twists per in., depending upon th~e manufacturcr. The greatest development activity in highpromanc. flie s lfI'-,su~e uponi graphite. Dupimtn
the small filaments, it can be formed around radii cts
*sinall
as 0.05 in., a major advantage over boron fiber.
It also is expected that the greatest potential for cost
reduction and product improvement lies with
graphite. Evidence of both was displayed recently in
the comi.:etrcial announcement of a 75 X 1IV psi
modulus fiber at $400 per 1b and a 30 X 10, psi
fiber at SCO per lb. Laboratory quantities of
100 x 106 psi modulus fiber have betri produced.
Because new products and new manufacturers fre(luently enter the field, the data ini Table 2-8 include
only those products with which a significant amount
of experience exists.
G(raphite fiber can be pr,-duced in the same variety
of forms as can glass Fiber. Thus, in addition to yarn
and to%, fabric, mat, and chapped fiber can be supplied. As with boron, however, the most practicable
form for most applications is unidirectional prepreg

CiD

BD 3

7.

8.0

62.0 19.0 9.69.4 1--

woven forin, which is produced directly from rayon

fabric at a fraction of the cost of high-modsulus.
graphite. Hlowever, these products. used primarily for
-high-tempercr-mure insulation and ablation. have no
known applications in helicopter construction.
*High-modulus
graphite fibers are produc:ed in a
three- or Foor-step heating process. During tme final
step. graphitization, the fibers are held in tension,
thereby imparting a high degree of orilentation to the

GeD

tape. A Mlilitar Specification on high-modulus

graphite fiber preprcg is MIL-G-83410.
Among the most serious disadvantages of graphite
coinposites are poor abrasion and impact resistance.
1 hiss. surface protection frequently is necessary. Allso
impeding the exploitation of this material until -cr%
recently has been its low interlaminar shear strozngth
due to poor resin-fiber bonding. However, surface
treatment% have been developed that result in %hear
strengths above 10.000 psi.

2-4.3.2

R hiu,
While all of the resins discussed in par. 2-4.1 have
been used ir filament winding, epoxies are used almost exclusively for aircraft applications at normal
operating temperatures. Where nonwovcn, high-performance reinforcement is ustd, the bcst available
resin system also should be chosen since the difference in resin cost represents a very small pcrcentage of the total part cost. Phenolic and polyimide
resins are used only where very-high-temiperature
operation is specified.

24.3.3

Manufacturing Processes

Structures of nonwoven reinforced plastics ma) bc

formed by filament winding, tape wrapping. automatic tape layup, or hand layup. Filament winding
can he performed with glass rovings. gr;aphite yarns.
and boron singlk filaments. This process is practicab-le for %cylindersand tanks with high hoop stresses.
however, it is limited to hollow structures with convex surfaces. Normally, filament winding is accomplished by rotating the part on its axis as on a
lathe. Parts also have been wou-id by revolving the
spool of reinforcemeni around the fixed pail.
(ieneral~y, prepreg is used, but wet winding also. is
practiced. In the latter case, the reinforcement travels
through a bath of high-viscosity (at ambient temnperature) resin system that is healed in order to lower
the viscosity for efficient wetting of the reinforcement. When the impregnated reinforcement is coolet'

2-19

K-

AMCP 706-j22an

'...

- . .

to ambient temperature, the high viscosity is icattained. Latent curing agents must be used in order to
obtain a rcasonablc pot-life for the heated resin sys-

various rcinforccnitnts in such p-roportionsan

orienltations as arc required in order so obtain #Imost any intermediatte properties. The possible

tcm.
T41K winding is similar to filament winding, cx-

effects of differenit thernini expansion coefficients

must be considered, howvver.

inforcement (generally 1/8 in. wide) are wound. A recent advancice in fabrication technologyi
unr
ically controlled tape-laying machitie capable of
applying prcpreg tape (hicated, if desired) at a controlled rate and pressure, and shearing it at the desired ls-ngth and angle. Still another machine applies
reinforcement in three dimensions by weaving fibers
perpendicular to the normal laminate. This, of'
course, greatly increases interlaminar properties,
which usually arc limited to the capabilities of the

construction of the spar envelope, skins. trailing

edge, etc.. of rotor blades. Design studies have suggestcd the use of boron andhgmous
g
rpien
these same areas, as well as in rotor hubs, swash-plates, drive scissors, transmission housings. drive
shafts, airframe stiffeners, and entire fuselage sections. Boron hardware development presently is more
advanced than .hat of graphite because the material
was introduiced earlier. However, graphite coinposites are expected to be useful iii many of the same

resin,

applications.

Hand layup is still the miost widely used method

where winding is not practicable. This process is no
different from conventional layup of glass mat and
fabric, except that the fibers are nonwoven and
oriented, and generally are preionpregnated with
resin.
Filament-wound parts usually are cured under
wrapping tension pressure only. allthough thicy mnay
be autoclavedi or vacuum-bagged. Parts that are laid
up (rather than wound) may be cured by an appropriate method as described in par. 2-4.1, such as
pressure 'bag, vacuum bag, autoclave, or matched die
molding.

Considerable design and physical property infortonicnaneinMLH)K?.PrI ndn

Re.4

r4

2-4.4

HONEYCOMB AND SANDWICH

CONSTRUCTION
Sandwich constructio~n, ass
shown in Fiog. I- is a
composite structure comprising a combination of allternating. dissimilar, simple or composite materials,
assembled and fixed in relation to each other so as to
obtain a specific structural advantage. They are made
of three or more laminations of widely dissimilar
materials that can be considered homogeneous when
bonded together. The layers include the facings, the
bonding agent, and the core. The primary functions
of'the core arc (1) to separate the outer layers so as to
obtain a high bending stiffness, (2) to oupport these
outer layers (the facings) in order to prevent elastic
instability when they are highly stresised, and (3) to
carry shear loads.

24.3.4 Applications
Nonwoven, oriented filament composites are in
order wherever maximum strength and/or stiffnessto-weight ratios in specific directions are desired,
Thyar
otuo~! ratc~~ wl-e nroyisrquired. Typical properties of thes components are
shown in Table 2-10. 1 is entirely possible to mix the

TABL 2-1K
TYPICAL UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPOSITE PFROPERTlE6 IJASFl) ON
COMMERCIAL PREPRE~S

CFoLEXURAL

PLY.-c

FIBER
IENSIL E 060511
IF1Xl
:A[I0ltSSIVI
COI4EN. I PLNG-l, MODULE,STRENCOI1,
MOVLIU. STRLIIGIH
to Ps
ki
%______
VOL
k,si 1 i' V. ps i
k,s
10ps
O
61j
109
71.
200.0
7,0
99

L -GLAS.i

0.0015

S--GLA5S

0.0015

63.5

BORON

0.0052

50.0

220

0.1

186-232 21.6-3M.9

230.0

1.9

120

245.0

20)

443 460

82)0

SAV-I L SPICIF
IC
S0
1RENGTH.
N ooiUS,
OCIH
IGI in106.q
6.01Z9
Z.54
I0

9.00

0.0122

bIn.r

117.020D 16

3.04
2.45-3.05

12o
390-420

HMG.90

0.0m0

51.01

120

25.5

116.0

25.n

00

7.95

0.054F

2.22

47i

t:

THORNEL
-50

0.3011

53.0

104

292)

116.0

24.1-,

1.40

0.0536

1.93

465-

:,

NORGANITE-I

0.0130

43.0

-',

821

0.0104

0.0130

52.5~

0.0552

S2-'

--

MORCANiff-Il

12
-

___-___

163.5

"'FROM3UCOMPANY'S
SCOTCHPLY TECH4NICAL0DATA
SHEETS
FOR EPOXY
PREPREG$;I1009-26
2-20

010
SHEAR

1.2.96

RESIN
ONGLASS
ARDRESIN
OORONQ
1AND0 GRAPHITE.

5.

AMP706-d20

BONDING MATERIAL
HONEYCOMB CORE

2A

IA
Fiue21

adwc

tutr

Proerl deignd
sndwch onsruFigurhas.mandwinch Stue atreat1tiehavr Rf5.

advantages; high strength-to-weight dnd stiffness-toweight iatios are the most predominant. Secondary
advantages include fatigue resi iancc, impact resistance, and aerodynamic tfacizricy.
A comparison of minimu-I-wvight design for

~
IA.

Honeycomb sandwich is the lighitcst possible

material that carn be used to achieve an optimum
stiffness-to-weight ratio. A com~parison of various
materials (Fig. 2-2), based upon an equivalent deflection. suggests a 30% weight advantage when comn2-21

'

AMCP 706-202

3600

~limited,

oneycom b core const i uct ion represents by far the

______________________I
_________

MATERAL
j
HONEYCOMB SAND~IICH
0.058
NESTD
1
EAMS0.05
NESTD
" ' EANS0.08
STEEL ANGLES
0.058
MAGNESIUM PLATE
0.058
ALUMIUM
PATE0058
STEEL PLATE
0.058
GLASS REINFORCED
0.058
PLASTIC
LAIAE

mnost cases, no more than 3/16 in.

Among the materials available for sandm~ich zipplication are conventional honeycomb. foamis, and
balsa wood. Advantages of balsa wood and f~m are
and their use usuaily is due essentially it) a
limited physical characteristic requirement rather
than to an overall property consideration. Balsa
wood is used predominantly in flooring applications,
where the need for continuous support is provided by
the fibers. Employment of foam cores in a sandwicht
construction is.essentially, a cost consideration. Both
b -alsa
wood and foami may produce adverse effects.
and also may limit the environmental capahilities of'
the construction.

WEGT1b
7.79
10.6
1.86
25.90
26.00
420
68.60
83.40

Figure 2-2. Weight Comparison of Materials for

Equal~~Doinsuch
advantage when compared with a flat aluminum
plate.Fiberglas
Optimum fatigue resistance is a byproduct of sandwich application. The increase in flexural and shear
rigidities of the construction, at no increase in mass.
provides for an increase in the fundamental modes of
ecttotohigher octaves. In addition, the attach-

most efficient utilization of parent material. Conentional honeycomb cores, as illustrated in Fig. 2-4.
are cs-witially hexagonal in shape and are manufctured from almost any material that can be made
into a foil thickness. Properties of' hun~ycomb cores
can he predicted accuratldy, based upon the con.
figuration and the parent material properties. The
erits of one type over another are related to the
properties of the foil material; the relative increase in
efficiency is related directly to the increase in the
prpryo1
h oe
i one~ycombh core material can be made from
metals
such
stainless steel,ihrsn
and titnu
rfoas aluminum,
iega mrgae
--

as nylon-phenolic and polyimfide. Other types of

core material include those made from Kraft paper
and Dupont's Nomex* nylon-fiber-treated materials.
core material provides radar transprncadatssadilti.Ithsowiecrc
cntnsadalwls agn.Katpprcr
cosatanitlwostngt.KftPrroe
mtra saalbei
ayvreis n sue
200

uAl21

ment of the core at the facing provides visco-elastic

3mi

damping that prevents amplification of resonance. it

ca180
is quite possible to design a sandwich structure for an
3
.1 . AT
ifintRe life under cycling loads, provided that the
163 (HALAC
maximum loading is no more than 35% of the ultiU~ 160\zmate capability of the construction. A comparison of ~
20 hr AT
conventional sandwich structures (Fig. 2-3) in a sonic
environment indicates that the sandwich can operate

in excess of 500 hr at approximately 160 dB, (decibel)

while skin-stiffened structure of the same weight will
fail at less than 200 hr under 130 dB.
Aerodynamic efficiency of a sandwich structure is
a consequence of the continuous, uniform support of
the core materials. This characteristic is accepted
widely in both aerospace and aircraft applications.
Vertical support of the material in the sandwich construction is limited in span to the cell size, which is,in
2-22

-65

,3(*VADTI

T20
-

F I'VD

It
-

TP%-5

TUCUl
-

162 (1

~%%4

____

C) 140.

460 hr AT 167 OB
___

SRCTR
SKIN-STFFENED_______R

120
0

100

200
300
400
-500
TIMIE, lir
Fiue23CoprtvSncFage
Fgr2-.CmatieSncaigeResistance of
Conventional and Sandwich Structures
*Registered Trademark

..

AMCP 706-202
when cost is u factor and/or thermal conductivity is
of concern. Dupont Nornex nylon-fihbertreatcd core
.matcri;.l, though recently developed, has thermal resistance and the properties required for aircraft
flooring applications,
Employment of a honeycomb core material in a
construction is an exact technique. Physical characteristics of the construction must be investigated
thoroughly, and rclatcd to available core properties,
piior to the firming oi the design. In addition to the
structural requiremen;s, the environmental operaring conditions must be explored,
Common honeycomb types (Fig. 2-4) include the
conventional hexagonal shape, a rectangular flexible
core, and the reinforced and square cell shapes. The
rectangular core is, essentially, an over-expanded
hexagonal core. The flexible core is a configuration
departure in that it inctL"Jcs a free sine wave that allows the core material to assume compound curvature at no sacrifice in the mechanical propcrties of the

an additional flat sheet in the center uf the hexagonal

cell so a%to favor a mechanical advantage in a specitic orthotropic direction. The square ce:ll core is a
consequence of manufacturing case, and is employed
primarily where resistance wclding techniques. are rcquired in order zo develop the core material.
Although a predominant use of honeycomb core
material is for constant thicknesses (flat, single and
compound curvature applications), it also is used for
such components as airfoil sections.
The mechanical properties of the core material in a
sandwich construction also must be considered. The
core, whether isotropic or orthotropic, may be considered as a continuum spacer for the membranes
(the facings). Typical properties of balsa wood cores
arc presented in Figs. 2-5 and 2-6. Figs. 2-7, 2-8, and
2-9 illustrate typical properties of hexagonal
aluminum core material. Several different alloys are
presented, Table 2-11 is a presentation of the propcrties of typical rigid foams.

foil material. Flexible core, unlike anticlastic hexagonal core. does exhibit characteristics of a syn-

The term sandwich construction describes the close

attachment between face and core material in this

elastic material. Reinforced hmxagonal core employs

type of structure. Should this attachment be weak, or

RECTANGULAR

HEXAGON

FLEX-CORE

SQUARE

REINFORCED HEXAGON
Fi,

2.4. Commoa Honeycomb Configurations

"VP

2-23

AMCP 706-202
absent, the construction is no longer a saldwich. Attachmcnt of the core to the facings is necessary, and
must bc of sufficient strength to develop the full
mechanical properties of the sandwich construction.
For example, if the construction is loaded to its limit,
then failure is expected to appear either in the facings,

or in the core, or simultaneously in both. However, it

cannot appear in the attachment between core and
facings. It is most importdnt for the designer to investigate the properties of the bonding agent so as to
assure compliance with these requirements.
Adhesives of various types and propelties currently are available to satisfy every sandwich requirement. Table 2-12 contains a partial listing of

.2500

common adhesives currently in use. Laboratory shear

BALSA WOOD

II

- 2000

t 1-

,presented

, 0
Imaterial

:000
,,

S500

bond strengths at room temperature of aluminum-toaluminum bonds with varicus types of adhesives arc
in Table 2-13. Useful temperature range
and strength properties of structural adhesives after
exposure are listed in Table 2-14.
process of applying adhesive to facing or core
must not be ignored. For the adhesive to be

-The

10

efficient, it must be applied to joining surfaces that

are free from oxides and contaminants, and its appli-

14 1G

12

DENSITY, lb ft3

cation must take place under controiied en-

Figure 2-5. Properties of Balsa Wood - Compresic

800
8

Strength ,s Density

I-

600600
.ALSA

WOOD

400400

-1-

=o 00

_ _

(,

5056 AND 2024

20

0 .-

8 10

12

14

16

52

/200

-"

DENSITY, lb It'

0
Figure 2-6. Properties of Balsa Wood -- "1
Strength vs DensitFl

HONEYCOMB DENSITY,lb.It 3

Shear

10

Figure 2-8. Typical "L" Shear Strength

=-2000
1IGO

-0

S150o

''-

10.,

Co 80

U 500
C

,I.ib52,
40

505b. 2024

40

0
I,.-HONEYCOMB

10

DENS!IY, 1b It'

Figure 2-7. Typical Stabilized (omprev%.ie Strength

2-24

HONEYCOMB DENSITY, 1b f3

Figure 2-9. Typical "U,"Shear Modulu%

10

1cM

OFRIGID
OAMS
TABLE 2-11. PROPERTIES OF RIGID FOAMS'.

DENSITY

DENSITY,

COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH.

SHEAR
STRENGTH

Ib/ft3

psi

psi

MIN

MAX

MIN

MAX

CO
2 BLOWN
URETHANE

1.0-I.1 65.0

FREON BLOWN
FR(,, t1.5

M1N

MAX

POLYSTYRENE MOLDED

2,100

0.21

1.00

600

450

152
4.0

1525
15D0

1,500
100

10.20
11.00

200
65

0.11
0.11

0.37
0.16

350
350

250
250

1.3

4.5

10.0

140

15.0

95

024

0.33

115,

0.5

10.0

8.0

200

13.0

90

0.77

175

46.
4510.0

120

0.24

38.0

6,000

0.65

15.0

25.0

600

3,000

__
_-___
S

'L

IC

ON

_--__
E

.. .0.'11 2.0

8.0

13

110

I10

251

LHEAT
E ACTIVATED POWDER

12.0

.
ROOM
EMP LIQUID

3.0

PHENOLIC.

LOW DENSITY
MEDIUM DENSITY

.. 1

.....

2
.0_

HIGH DENSfTY

"vironmental conditions. The elapsed time betwcen

"preparatory cleaning for bonding and the appli-

'"

cation of adhesive must be held to a minimum.

Procss control during application and throughout
the bonding of the construction is vital for the devciopmcnt o" the spcciificd properiy for the sandwich Adhesive manufacturer recommendations must
be adhered to methodically.
Design considerations for sandwich structural
compon nts are somewhat similar to those for homogencous material. The main difference is the inclusion of the effects of the core material. The basic
design concept requires the spacing of strong. thin
facings far apart in order to achieve a high stiffnessto-wcight ratio. The lightweight core material having
this propekty also will provide the required resistance to shear and the strength to stabilize the
facings to their required configuration. Sandwich is
analogous to an I-beam, the flanges carry direct compression and tension loads in a similar manner as do
the facings of the sandwich, and the web carries the
shear loads as does the core material. The departure
fiom typical procedures for sandwich structural elcments is the inclusion of effects for shear propertie:
"-on deflection. buckling, and stress. Because the

S.

-5"
40
o

024 j

.80

.60

0..ii
540
.850

35..
...
360

650

-; ,
2

14.0

I)

0.20

250

10

30.0

020

250

1,100

90.0

030

200

..

115

'.v0

500

0.30

325
-

.LUm3 ur.ru
U II.,,,j

0
-~o... 360
38.0

..

10.15

PRE-FORMED
PACK-IN -PLACE

MAX-

18,000

SELF E".PANDED

EPOXY

10.20

1.5

EXTRUDED

hr-ft (Ff/In.), SHORT I FULL

MIN
MAX TERM TIME

"

MAX TEMP,OF
THtRMAL
CONOUCTIVITY

022

..

I.30
'

-.

facings arc used to carry loads in a sandwich, prevention of local failure under edgewise, direct, or fiatwisc bending loads is as nccessaiy as is prevention of
local crippling of stringers in the design of sheetstringer construction
Struiurai instabiiitiy of a sandwich construction
can manifest itself in a number of different modes.
Various possibiliti
,Iustrated in Fig. 2-10.
Intcrccllular buckling (face dimpling) is a localized mode of instability that occurs when the facings
are very thin and the cell size is relatively large. This
effect can cause failure by propagating across adjacent cells, thus inducing face wrinkling. Face
wrinkling is a localized mode of instability that exhibits itself in the form of short wave length in the
facing, it is not confined to individual cells of Lcllular
t)pc cores, and is associated with a transverse straining of the core material. A final failure from wrinkling usually will result either from crushing of thc
core, tensile rupture of the core, or tensile rupture of
the core-to-facing bond. If proper care is cxcicised in
selction of the adhesive %ystem. the tensile bond
strength will exceed both tfl tensile and compressive
strengths of the core failure.
Shear crimping often is referred to as a local mode

2-25

"' '

"

TABLE X 12.
COMMON ADHESIVES IN CURRENT USE
AOIISIVETYPETYPICAL
AHSVYL
TRADE DESIG144TION
Ar 30

NITRILL PHENOLIC

EPOXY PHE NOLtC

ADHSIE
TPE
AHSVTYE

3MCOMPANY

INARMCO

METLBON0D402

ViNYL PIIENILIC

TABLE 2-14.
USEFUL TEMPERIATURE RANGE AND
STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF
SYSTEMS
MANUFACItIRERO___
STRUCTUJRAL ADHESIVES'%

FM47

AMERICAN CYANAMID

At 31
MELOLONO 105

3MCOMPANY
NARUCO

AEROBOND 422

ADHCSIVE
ENGINEERING

HT 424
I HYLOC 422

IAGE*

VIY

ME
MELBONfl
I
5471

NARMCO

IAF iG
3M COMPANY
FM123
AMERICAN CYANAMID
HYSOL
HYSO
L 9601
PLASTILOCK 717
BF GOODRICH
IRELIAL1OND 711&393 1 RELIABLE mrc
IHP 103
HEXCLL

MODIFIED EPOXY
250CUR

METLBOND 328
MODI~iEA
EPx
F 120.ALL
31.0SCA.,.

GOOO
TOEXCELLENTr

30-1 7W0
6

00IO

FAIR TO GOME

PHIENOLIC

225

PHENOLIC

400

2004~9W

-67

130-W00

0
UNUOOIFIEO

HECL

HYSOL

PLEL STRENGTH

________

AMERICAN CYANAkIID
HYSOL

HYLO3C
901 B-3

TYPICAL
VALUES
LAP__________

PHENOICRLE

HP36IXE
UNMOO'FIED kPOXY

USEFUL
TEMP

PHENOLIC

$00

1___0__1____

13-00

POOR
TOMEDIUM
POOR
TOMtDIUW

m0m

_____

PEOI

,-

____

MODIF
IEDEPOXY 250

1540-M

20C'E
MOIIEOPOYD
3W0
CURE
-

InIl
0W30
5020

IEPOXY POLYAMIEJE

IO
306

GOO

________

GOO33
O_________
20-_____31_

-OIMD

NARMCO

POO

______

12UREPSE

3MCOMPANY

CURL

t;*otfl~:~.-.~.-.

Lu

.......

instability for which the buckic wave length is ver

short duc to a low transverse shear modulus or the
EC?216
3MCOMPANY
core.. The phenomenon of shear crimping o1curs
EPOXY I'CLYAMIOF.
HP 31(
HEXCEI.
quite suddenly, and usually causes the core to fail in
I CO~ 81y5O ~shear.
General instabihiy for configurations having
POLYAMICEFno34
AMERICAN CYANMtDfnoeninCELxcept
at the boundaries
~951
involves overall bending of the composite wall
HPI~.1
301P3132AHECE
coupled with transverse shear deformations. Whereas
MOOFIIUREMAESFM3
AMERICAt; CYANAMID
phenomena. general instability is of a widespread
COR SPIRNG
AT 41320
31.CEOLPANYutrellrbcln
n
rnln
r oai
RELIABOND 398-420
RELIABLE MFG
41 04IEXCEL

CORESPIICIG
A 320
*.Ki

~AnHFSIVFS

TABL
90
SHER BND TABEN
.18OSHEAR

3MCOMANYnature.

REtLARONO
310B

BOD M

RELIABLE MFC

-13.
C
H OF DH1I3E

NT

FlDEIE

ADHESIVE TYPED
STHEART
ADHEIVETYPE
STRNGTH
NITRIE PHEpLIC*

sufficient core zhcar riidity.

The basic design p-rinciples of sandwich construe-

ion can be summart'Aed as follows:

I. Sandwich facingi s/mal be at least thick enough

towithstand design streins under design loads.

VINYL PIIENOLIC

4200

EPOXY PHENOLIC

34030

will not occur under dsign loads.

UNMOIFID
EPXY
MODIFIED0 EPOXY-250 CURE

4500

MODIIEDEPOY
-30 CRE
300of
EPOXY~~~
50o
____________of

POLYIMIDE

3300

*AVERAGE VALUES AT ROOM TEMPERATURE.

* ITEST

SPECIMENS ALUMINUM TO ALUMINUM, LAP

JOINTS.

2-26

mknsofyi-

2. The core shell be thick enough and have sufflcient shear rigidity and strength so that overall sandwich buckling, exo~ive deflecion, and shear failure

______350

Premature general buckling normally is

,ucjbanuTiraiuwn

3. The core shal have a high enough modulus of

elasticity, and the sandwich great enough flAtwine
tensile and compressive strengtths, so that wrinkling
either facing will not occur under design loads.
4.LAIE
For cellular honeycomb corms where dimpling
the facings isnot permissible, the cell size spacing
shWl be small enough so that dimpling of either wall
irto the core spaces will not occur under design loads.

In~ addition, selection of materials, methods of

sandwich assembly, and material property used for

I4

AMCP 706-202
design shall bc compatible with the expected environment where the sandwi.h is to be used. For
example. facing-to-corc attachment ihall have sufficient flatwisc tensile and shear strength to develop
the required sandwich strength in the expected environment. Included as cnvironnlert arc cllct%of
temperature, %ater and moisture, corrosive a!-mosphere and fluids, fatilue. creep. and any condition that may affect material properties. Additional
characteristics - such as themmal conductivity, dimensional stability, and dcctrical continuity of sandwich material -- should be considered in arriving at
an effective design for the intended task.

2-4.5

ARMOR MATF:RIAIS

I herc arc available a variet) of armor matcrial,

and matncrial combinations that can be used for pas,ive protection of helicopter%. Armor types, vsith appropriate Military Specification references and a relative comparison of cost, availability, machinability.
weldability. formability, and multiple-hit capabilit).
are summarized in Table 2-15. Table 2-15 also lists
the areal densities, and provides a comparison of
strength. hardness, shock and vibration, and resistance to corrosion for the various typce of armor

"

FACING
FACING

HONEYCOMB
CORE

CORE

t t tt

ttt
(B)SHEAR CRIMPING

(A)GENERAL BUCKLING

4444

444

(E)
CORE
CRUSHING

(C) FACE DIMPLING

i

D
(D)

,--

SEPARATION
,-

ttt t

FROM

CORE

t t

Figu'e 2-10. Modes of Failure of Sandwich Composite Under Edgewie Loads

2-27

na

- .

___.

X I

II

..

I2QQ

II~g

~~~~~~~2xI2

..
. .. ..-

Q0C

Q,

X I

0"

-12

00

IT

'R

___

____m__7m

001'1
0 0

Ii

z2 z

42z

I Z- Z

00

rI

z~
Z~

8..~
_____

.8

0 8

Iz
02

=1

&0 FF4

3~~~24
5.IE

F-

C.

4. .2~ .~

-w.)

jS-

0D

0,

Sh:

2-28.

NOLV--Jd

SI~

VN

13X

AMCP 706-202
TABLE 2-16.
FABRICATION DATA FOR LIGHTWEiGHT ARMOR MATERIALS

0250THICKPLATESIZE

4MAY

335

K-T SILICC.T4
CARBIDE
PLAST
IC COMPOSITE

PLASTIC
COMaPOSIht

PLASTIC
CMPUS'TE
1AONOITEIiC
TILE
28,,. DIAG5X10l

UONOLITHIC
TIEL
MONWLTMIC
TILE
l.T~. 4XWIPANELS EA6,,,.. 7 1AiR..

HAVE
BEENMADE

PANEL

I HICK

VERYSIVALLRADIUS
IN 130THDIREC'IONS
INANNEALED CONO

Im. DEEPDISHES
HAVLBU~N ExlvPLOSIVELYPOIRMI
P

NC(
NODEXPERIF

O AVAILABLE

AI

SHAPES
MAY
CURVED

SLIGHTIMPROVE-

EON-,

TC~LREENRE

FLATPANELS

TOGI5CEUTIRED

7TRCHCU17TING

PRONELDING,
CEDRE
REUIED

STAINAUSTENITIC
LES'STEEL IMIC
OR SU6%ERG(C
ARC) OR LOA
PERRIIIC
HVTTROGIE

GAS ORHPLATIA ARC_________

FRCTIGTECHNIQUES

ANNEALFO CONDITIONt
HARD[EX
HEAT TREATABL IELECTRCTE
IMC
GIVESBALLISTIC
JCINTHEAT -TREATED

.- DIAMDO I DOLS~

BE NELDEB M

HHOSCAN'T

COCNEITION
-STAINLESS
NITH 700EPREHEAT

FJCTRODDES
V

WEQIR
1', ECxCARBID10E i9ITHSPECIALCARTIISHTORCHME
AREINC TAIED1
OQ IHIAI
AID O2HHA
FR
HEAI
TIP.,OPOT
LEUSENJ
MAY

FDRILLING

.RI L:AGf'OSSILE

USINGMASCINARY
Iy
8s
yjOT

WITHSPECIAL
CERAMICDRILLS

YES

f-

RE'WINAIN

IISERTS
THREADED

VARIOUS
YPES or

FOI 7A~WN
3TRiCTLIAE

,
IN FIBERZAO
TYPE PER-i~-IPHEKALSUPPORTIINSERTS

BRAKETETRY
A4iDTHREAODE
IN8tIIINS

ITO

FOR ATACHIENTTHROUHBDLINGFIANGE
-

IN
BOLT71
COPESIok
COWICI.-EEATIGIIIS

NOTIMPORTAILT
I

-~n

TLS

0ELVINS,DP
I""HIIIECYANICAL
JOINTS

PAWE. JOINWK
NITmOES

.M

ALEtIT
C1ONii

mawlAu~s. Tabk 2-16 su mrzsfbiaindt

tht a

be, cosdm

ror instalia'iion on heli.

Aotes

2-4.5.1 AvILk14 Meakuil

Maw&t that cana N. cunsadereG for Ue dn armor
design. aimi t~.cif iropertics. includc
1. Aluminum alloy. ProdlicrA ku splash from
bulk.t impacts thar., other armor materials in comnn~ vv, is excx:%*vnaiy effectivc ngiainw~ yawed ard
higto-obliquity impwcU. and is nonmagnelic.
2. Titanium. Nonnaagsscic arid ralaistant to sea
w'a~er corrost*n.
3. Homogvcou' steel. Rotoid fromn a starl alloy
with the toughnes and pucct of elongation
naxsswy xo achwor a good rzintence to bodth punc-

Must BE
7F
PRAMIC1
RELIEVEDor CON
PR[55IQFN5UNDER
BOILT
ME
EAD WITH THROUGH CRMCI
130.TING

CONTINUOUS Pj ASTIC B'.1KING.PANELS

WAY RE APPLIED T'1omo
A PFRAMEUSING
METALDOUBLER

CAZ
WE OfACHIEVEDC
Pv RELOIN'.WITH
CAh' OE A-HIE. L,
B~t EfLOIN,. U141ES3 IAR[Lh EtECTA3CE IN IIRV EtDING UNLESS

I'

PANELS
UPTO02.-..

2TGi.n.SMALL
OUVATURE
XT;AES8T
ALED
INGON
:.C
THICKNESS
END
IN TN ANNE
APO
CON,I ,ION

IATIKES

EFE
ROL
OPCLSATLL

2fx6x%,...UPTO
0001I6

9,00"H..

P01,5

EXTrNTO~r.OMuu4 6AUE

TAL6,HAR, NrSS
UORTS1CL

fIMAX

I1I's01HICK

,!) RDUS Fra'P

CAL 30 APIIIIEA1T

ETTREA"E,
TE

qIGii-I-ARDINIES
SSTEEL

ueadsaln.I

ONE

TO BACKRIG
MATERIAL
SIZEAND
Of REOUIRED
SHAPE

WIHVARYING DiGREES
VKA
CE

sdtsignatedmantc

ale" austeilk aftoi am not mwAgnt. If thes

steels are coldworked, bowevu, tbcy become mnagfatic.
5. Hard faced steel armor pl,;te. Comnposed of a
h'ird surface overlaying a softer IMck~ing matcrial of
tougher steel. It is somewhat moire effective. on a
weight basis. against solid shot than isface-harwkwA
armor plate, and can be fabricated, by spoial
tithniques, to a curve. It is magnei.
6. BalI6tic nylon. Providaes czoluen protectiot.
from fragnaesols and tum~bled projuctika. Balistic
nylon pads or quilts can be owasJre for replaemont of insulation and soundi-attenuatirg b~les
W
e~ad/rtaIcn
The ballisti level of nylo
2-29

AMCP 706-202
with fastcnc~s and/or attachments should be
etablished and/or verified by gunfire tests for each
confguraion.at
7. Ceramic. Built up of various materials, each intended to perform a particular furiclion in defeating
the projectile. for example, a glass-fiber-rcinforced
plastic to absorb the energy of impact, faced with a
layer of ceramic tie (aluminum oxiide, A 1,0,; silicon
carbide, SiC; boron carbide. B4C. titanium dliboride.
TiB., etc.) to shatter the projectile. On a weight basis,
some of these composite, compare favorably with
standard steel armor plate for stopping solid shot.
However. they have poor capabilities for stopping
mnultiple hits, and produce many secondary fragments when struck. Ceramic is the bulkiest of the matcrials listed here. and usually is the most expensive.
S. Ceramic-faced. The ceramic facing may be
applied before or after the armor metal has been
shaped or formed.
9. Transparenit. Composed of glass or clear organic polymers. either alone or in combinal ion (M IL6-5485. MIL-A-7168. MIL-A-46108).
In general, ceramic armor exhibits the lowest
weigpht per unit area for protection against armorpiercin~g ammunition 'cal .30 and .59)). Metallic armior exhibits substantially better multihit capability,
although the probability of a small panel of aircraft
armoi taking a multiple bullet hit from a high-firingrate Sun is remote. Metaflic armor for aircrew seats
may become~ competitive on a weight basis when the
arirror is used simultaneously as support or structure.
figUred

2-4.5.2 Deslga
For desgiv strcnith and rigidity requirements, refer
to NIIL-A-88&0 and AMCP 706-170.

2-5

ADHESIVES AND SEA LANTS

2-5.1 BONDING AGENTS

There are literally hundieds of proprietary adhesivc formulations suitable for various aircraft bonding applicationps. Some of these may be used in bonding a wide variety of materials, while ot~crs are
usable only for highly specialized purposes. Adhesives generally are categorized under the two broad
classificaions of structural and nonstructural types.
2-5.1.1 Structural A&Wnves
Thi, category of materials is used for bonding primary structures that arc subject to iarge loads.'rypical ultimate band shear streirgths are several thousand psi. Structural adhesives usually arc formulatc~d
fromt thermosetting resins that, when mixed with a
suitable curing agent, react to form an infusible and
2-30

insoluble solid. Depending upon the type of curing

agent, the conversion may occur within a few minutes
roomi temperature, or. at the othcr extreme, it may
reqluire heating up to about 3500 F to effect a cure
within a reasonable time. The latter type of material,
due to its low reactivity at low temperatures, can be
premnixed and stored (often, under refrigeration) as a
one-comnponent system until used.
Nearly all applications of structural adhesives requirc lixturing in order to hold the components being
bonded in contact during cure. this is because at some
point during the cure cycle the adhesive goes through
ai fluid flow stage.
Most structural bonds arc made with tape or film
adhesives. These are usually from 0.005 to 0.015 in.
thick, and may be unsupported or supported on thin,
open-weave fabrics (carricirs) of glass. !,yon. or other
fibers.
Filmn adhesives have two important advantages:
1. Uniformity. Variations .n thickness and cornposition are minimal. Because both shea, and peel
strengths are sensitive to bondline thickness, control
of this variable is desirable. Although bondline thick-1,
ness olso is affected by curing pressure variations,
film adhesives. - particulzrly those having flow restricted by carriers and/or high-melt viscosities
can reduce thickness variations appreciably. In addition, film adhesives eliminate the weighing errors
and inadequate mixing that are possible with twopart liquid adhesives. Quality control checks can be
mnade on each roll of film before production parts are
bonded; this is not practicable to perform on each
batch of most liquid adhosives due to limited potlives.
2. Ease of assembly. Film adhesives are available
in a wide -ange of tacks. varying from dry to very
sticky. Complicated parts can be assembled simply by
cutting the film to the shape of the desired bondline
and laying it on the first suwface. The second surface
theni is placed in position, and is herld by the adhesive
tack until bonding pressure can be applied. Films
that are not tacky at room temperature are tacked
readily by momentary contact with a hot iron at sirategic locations. Parts of many layers may be laid up in
this manner and bonded at one time. Adhesive waste
also is mi~nimnized when films are used because there is
no exmrss material left to set up in the mixing container.
Most film adhesives require curing temperature. of
250*-3509F. and. thercircr. have long shelf lives.
Cold storage usually is advised, however, although
some types are stable for many weeks at room
tempetature. A few types are available that curm at
lower itemperatuics, including room temperature;
these must be stored at temperatures well below 0*F.

I~

CtMCP 706-202
The other common phy stal form for structural adhesives is the two-part liquid niixturn. These
mnatrials consist of two componcats that icact. when
mixed, to form a them mosetting solid. Us~ually. tlhey
are 10017 nonvolatile. Many cure at roomn ticmpe.'ature in a few hoars or days: other-, requir' hcat to
curc Frequently, they atre in the form of high-viscosity pastes containing inert fillers und/o; thixotrofir. agents. In contrast te most film adhesivi.s.
however. 'iesc: uncurcd pastes usually becomie fluid
whet, heated. Pot-lives, like cure ti.edepend upon
the rate of chemical reactivity, which is influenced
greatly by temperature. Thus, adhesives that cure
rapidly at room temperature may isave only a few
minutes of pot-lf.fe while those requiring hightemperature cures have pot-lives varying from hours
to months.
Less common structural adhesive forms i-iclude
onc-component pasle:; and powders, and all icquire
elevated-temperature cures.
Essentially all structural adhesives of interest for
hczlicopir~r applications are based upon either epoxy
or phenolic thermosetting resins. Because these
rn~utpritik ire bruitt,. ~inhernith thri' iav;i~ly aire-,i~dt
with elastortiers or thermoplastic resins in
order to improve peel strengths. Polyuretharie adhesives also show promise, as they can be forinulated
with both stre-ngth and flexibility. To date, however,
they have not been used widely ini structural aircraft
applications,
Epoxies atz- the most versatile and widely used
structural adheaiives. They have excellent adhe.:ion.
low creep, low shrinkage during cure, and 100%~ nonvolatility. The liquid or paste typres have either low
peel properties or
'.empc.-t-urc resistance, and

'~fiexibic

arc

gvb

iadi*PAoto.

ritM,ificmuasautnio

(t`01 ainnprovcmvs-z

of these particclar characteriso'Ths) than are the film

types. The latter can be modified with tough thermoplastics such as rylo-, or polyvinyl aczetal resins,
Primers (low-viscosity solutions of adhesive dissolved in solvents) arc availabki for use in conjunction with modified cpoxy-filrti adhe~ives. Their
primary functiorn is to prote.. prepared metal eurface-s rrom contaminatiop and oxidetion since epoxy
films have adequate wctti~ig and adhesive characteristics without primers,
Phensolic adhesive, 'iscd in the aircraft industry
always are modificd &~ an clastainer or another
resin Although they can be pruduced in liuid form,
they now are used predominantly as films. Vinyl (polyvinyl formal or butyrill) phenolic adbesives wcre thc
armt materials usei '9- aircraft metal boiiding.
Rubber-phcnol.c evtisAi'ves include those modified
With neoprene or nitrile rubber, the latter presently

heing the most widely used typt: of ela.tomcrphenolic structural adhesive. Lpoxy-phcrnolics arc
used primarily because )f their outstanding temperature re!.istance. Being very i gid. they have good shear
strength and creep resistance but poor peel and impact properties. 11ccaus,; of the poor %wruingarid flow
characterisvcs of the clastomer-phenolic film%, a
cojiing of liquid primter on the substrates usually is,
advised. A% with all phenolic condensation rcactions, gases arecevolvcd during cure, necessitating
relativel) high bonding pressures The actual pressure
required to contain these volatiles is a function of thc
temperiture: rise rate, 100 psi is a typical recommendation when the bondline is heated rapidly.
All of the adhesive types discussed previously may
he used for mectal-to-metal bonding. The selection
will depend upon the relative importance of such factors as shear strength, peel strength, temperature
resistance, chemical resistance, fatigue and creep
properties, fabrication method, and cost. Generally,
a modified epoxy or niitrile-phenolic film adhesive is
chosen for primary structural applicatior.s, while at
paste-type epoxy and simple contact tooling may suffice for secondarv structures with 1c, ;-critical requirenient%. The aequirenients fut sevefal cLa.,scs of structural adhesives are covered completely in 'IMM-A132 and M MM-A- 134. Although there is some overlapping. M MM-A- 132 is conceetned mainly with film
adhesives while M MM-A- 134 generally has less stringent icquircments which are met by the liquid- and
paste-type epoxies.
Cured, reirnforced-plastic composites can be bonded to themselves or to metals with the same adhesive's and icchniqucs used foi bonding mnetals. In
addition, adhesive prepregs can be used either for an
!6

u.*p or ;.- L
-odn"*-wer

ii,

.-

,-

--

e*-.-

a conventional r: i rforred-plastic layup and th'e substrate. These imstc~ials consist of a structural grade of
reinforcement impregnated at B highi resin content
with a resin formuiatior. having good ;dhcsion qualities. Reinforced plastics can be bonded to metals and
other substrates by employing betweeti the substrate
and layup a layer of conventional film adhesive that
is cured simultaneously with the laminate. 1hi-; pirocredure is adv:'ntageous in that it precludes any mismatch of mz-tiqsg surfaces, a problem that always
exists to somei extent with preformcd parts. While this
technique has been found effective with a number of
adhiesi',c and laminating resin combinations, such
materials must be selected carefully for compatibility
with both chtmical reactions and curing temperatures and pressures.
Most of the epoxy adhesives also are suitabiz. for
bonding facings to honeycomb core in applications
2-311

Ir

whern good flow and wetting ability, and low curing

pressure ate reluired. Some of the phenolic-bmued
adhesives also may be wsed for sandwich construction, although most ar not reownmmnded for

through solvent evaporation rather than by chumicai

cure, and therefore do not require temperatur or
presure for curing. Because initial taCt often is adequitz to hold in position the parts being bonded,

this purpose due to poor lilleting action and the evo-

even clamping fixtures frequently are unnecemary. On

lution of votatiles during cure. When phenolic adbesivs arn used in sandwich bo-rdini, the core either
is perforated or pesu is reased just prior to
reaching the fral cure tempemture. MIL-A-25463
coains requirnents for adhlesive for bonding
ssndwic. It defines two casee Cila I for facingto-core bonding only; and Chus 2, for bonding facing
to core and iQWerts, edge attachments, etc. Beause
mos adhlesive suitable for sandwich comntnu2on
also can be used for rmtal-to-metul bondin narly
all samdwich adhesives are qualified to both MIL-A25463, Class 2. and to MMM-A-132. The adhesive
puepdescribed previously also mnbe used in

the other hand. because these adhesives rmain thermoplastic, they lack the temperature and chemical
resistance of tlh thermosetting tactural adhcsive.
Where arnewhat stronger or more temperatureand chemical-reaitmnt bonds are required, semistructural adhesives, such as the two-part epoxia and
urethanes, may be uwd with room-temperature
curing.
Cements based up-au a solution of the polymer
being bonded are L -ad frequently for bonding noncrystalline thermoplastics such as acylis, celluloWs, polycarbonates, polystyreves (including ABS),.
and vinyls to thonselvea. The dissolved polymer gives

fabricating sandwich panel with reinforced-plaitic

body to the cement, while the solvent softens the ad-

facing. Out disadvantage of this procedure, how..

ever, is thkt a relatively porous laminate is obtaiad
due to the lack of labminating pressure between cUl
dub* Of SCVUwith
Typical bond urergths obtainabie from several of
the common types of adhesives ar given in Tab 217.

hecrnds. effcting a weld or bond when the solvent

evapo-ates and the plastic rhardens.
Transparnt acrylic patics also may be bonded

-5.1.2 Nemssmlra Adlhbes

Thxse adhesives are used primarily to bond interior acasaor~s made cf a variety of materials, ineluding plastics, rubbers, metals, and fabrks. Because
a joint failure would nor bc cawarorhic in thes ap-

plications, consideration of the highft- possble adhesve strengths is not paramount; and other fooon-,
sich as cost and csanvetiemt. cMA be givcn tquaa matention.

"The adhesivte-. prefrred in thew applications

g'lrnelly are

baud "n

solutions or dispersions of

various elassomers and thcnnoplsuics. They set up

TYPICAL PWPRtTiES

twnrftmwt

evllhoacnn.

t'nnt

clasioae-tesed adhestives are preferred; they offer

oot adheson to mmmy matrals ad boetpr I
-8

diffcnsat thermal cz iuon cosrAcieps. Elastoeneric

adhmves may be dn.ohlv in a suitab organic solvent or dispersed in water; tackifying reams, aetioxi-

darns, pca

~stiia
and naforcia filles am uNWa

TABLE 2-17.
o COMMONLY
USED STRUCTURAL ADWESIY
T I-PEE
LP

CHEMICAL
TYPE

PIHYSICAL
FORM

CURE
TEMP."F

MODIFIE EPOXY
14YLOX-EPOXY

FILM
FILM

250
350

5100
6100

EPPOXY-FHENOLIC

SUPPORTED FILM

NITRILE-PHENOLIC

SHEAR STRENGTH. psi

-67'
75"
1u"
250"

5700
6500

290o
3400

1000
2200

350

3200

3500

3300

2900

NEOPRENE-PHENOLIC

F iL

SUPPORTED FILM

350

410

4200

2400

1800

EPOXY 'GEN PURPOSE)

2-PARr PASTE

15-200

EPOXY(HIGHTEMPMAODi
EPOXY'HIGH PEELMOD,

I-PART PASTE
2-PART PASTE

25C
75-200

3500 I900

1500
3000
2000 2000
20D0 2500

1100

800
25W0 3000
400

OALUMINUM ADHERENDS TESTEC PER MUM-A-i3Z AT THE INDICATEDTEMPERATURES,

0

20
60
10

2
2
2

30
100

25
90

40

20

3
2
25

ALUUINUM CORE AND VACINGS TESTED PER MIL-A-25463 AT THE INDICATED TEMPERATURES.

S~2-32

SANDWICH

STRENGTH, III in.

-67"
175"
!80"

PFEL

iui.-Ib "31.WIDTH

-67' 75I

isO,

9,
35

60
170
33

35
45
31

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

NA

2
2

NA
NA

NA
NA

NA
NA

5S,

Il17

nOmi'~VI-.

mcthacrjlatc monomer ano acatalyst. whsctu have excellent strength and transparency. MIL-A4576 definft three typls of two-part ncrylic adhesives, type P
contains solvent and is covered in MIL-P45425.
Types 11 and lI arc withou solvent andmaybe u A
for bonding plasics as covered in both MIL-P-5425
and MIL-P-184.
For bonding of diimilar maerials, flxibk libmU
Or fabrics, rubbers, or other such materials,

69mstrag,sjt; Skae~.
4-m W

ftj

36 ]z

"
components of the formulation.
MMM-A-1617 covers requirements for adhesives
based upon natural rubber., neoprene, and nitrile
rubber. Adhesives based upon natural or reclaimed
rubber are suitable for bonding such items as rubber
and fabrics to metals in applications where oil and
fuel resistance is not a problem. Neoprene- and
nitrile-based adhesives generally have greater peel
strengths in the same applications, as well as good
resistance to oils and fuels. The neoprene type usually
is best for bonding neoprene and most other rubbers
and rigid plastics, and has the best heat resistance.
Nitrile rubber adhesives are preferred for bonding nitrite rubber, vinyls, and other flexible plastics.

Silicone rubbers should be bonded to themselves or

to other substrates with silicone adhesives, such as
those described in MIL-A-46106 or MIL-A-25457.
No heat or pressure is required.
Contact adhesives are a special type of elastomerbased adhesive having high immediate strength upon
contact of the two coated adherends, but they do not
permit any repositioning. They are covered by
MMM-A-130.
Other speciai-purpose adhesive specifications inude MMM-A-121. MMM-A-122. MMM-A-19,
MIL-A-24179, and MIL-A-21366.
2-5.1.3 Pr'silmg Operalihs
Process and inspection requirements for structural
adhesive bonding are contained in MIL-A-9067. Factors to be considered include type of surface preparation, control limits and methods of surface treatment. solutions. clean-room layup area requirements, prefitteng of parts, adhesive storage controls.
handlin- of cleaned parts. application of primer and
adhesive, tooling concepts. temperature and pressure controls, secondary bonding of subassemblies,
rework, and destructive and nondestructive verification testing.
Equal in importance to the selection of an optimum adhesive system is the selection of the best surface preparation for the adhesives and adhe,.ends
being used. Some suggestions are given in MIL-A9067. Other recommended sources are ASTM No. D
2561 for metals. ASTM No. D 2093 for plastic surfaces, and Ref. 6. With some metals, such as aluminum. the surface treatment is practically universal:
while with other metals, such as stain3css steel, it is
advisable to evaluate different treatments with each
combination of alloy, condition, and adhesive.
Significant batch-to-batch variations in a given type
of alloy may be noted. For most reinforced plastics, a
wet-sanding treatment is recommended to obtain a
water-break-free surface. When nonstructural ad-

AMCP 706-202

hesives are used in bonding, .i careful solvent wiping

and/or sanding treatment wi:! suffice for many
materials.
2-5.1.4 Desgn of Beoded Stnrctures
Adhesive joints should be designed so that t~ey are
stressed in the direction of maximum strength. Thus,
the adhesive should be placed in shear while minimizing peel and cleavage stresses. Maximum bond
area and uniform thickness should be provided for,
and stress concentrations should be avoided where
possible. Scarfing and bevelling are two methods that
sometimes can be used to reduce the cleavage-stress
concentrations at the edges of lap joints.
Test methods for sandwich constructions are described in MIL-STD-401. while numerous other test
methods for adhesives are contained in FTMS No.
175.

2-5

SEALING COMPOUNDS
There is a degree ipoverlapping between sealants
and adhesives: most sealants must adhere in order to
be effective, while'an adhesive generally seals the
joint that it bonds. In addition, many sealants are formulated from the same basic polymers that are used
in adhesive compositions. Sealants are related particularly to the elastomeric adhesives, and many of
the qualitative comparisons made in the previous
paragraph apply to sealants as well as adhesives. In
order to form trowelable pastes, sealants are formulated with hirher viscosity and lower tack than are
the elastomeric adhesives. Lower-viscosity sealants
also are available and are suitable for dipping, brushing, and even spraying. These materials. n,wever, are
classified more properly as coatings.
Commercial sealants are manufactured from a
variety of polymers, including polysulfide, urethane.
silicone, neoprene, acrylic, butyl rubber, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, and polymercaptan. In addition to the base elastomer, a typical sealant formulation may include curing agents, accelerators. plasticizens, antioxidant-, solvent thinners, and inorganic
fillers or reinforcing agents.
Sealants may be one- or two-ccmponent types. All
of the ,tter cure into tough. thermoset elastomers.
The one-component sealants are subdivided into
three categories: nonhardening putties that remain
permanently s.ft: solvent-release types that become
s.inihard through evaporation of a volatile ingredient. and types that cure by reaction with atmospheric moisture. Pruperties of the latter, after
curing. are similar to those of the cured two-part sealants. (One further form of "sealant" is the cured
elastoineric tape or extrusion. Because these nm.st be
2-33

AMIP 706-202

held in place mechanicall~y, they moreF properly might

he called gaskets.)
All effective sealants inust have a high ultimate
elongation and a low modulus in order to acexpansion and contraction of the joint
rcommodate
being scaled. Most commercial sealants have these
qualities. They vary widely, however, in their degree
*of
recovery, ranging from near 0% recovery (or 100%
plastic flow) for a permanenitly soft putty to nearly
100% recovery for a cross-linked (cured) elartoamer.
Thisproprtyis important because a lowy-recovery
sealant. once compressed, must accoRmmodate subsequeni joint expansion entirely by its elongation, or it
will fail. A compressed, high-recovery sealant will return, as the joint expands. to its original dimension
before it begins to elongate in tension.
Of the various chemical types of sealants. only
polysullides. urethancs, and silicones are currently of
I inmportaince in the aircrikft industry. Thcsc arc all
high-recovery elastorners when cured.
Polysulidecs are most commonly used in helicopters. where they act as both scalants and aerodivniasnc fairnng comvoundi. They have excellent adcharacteristics and resisianic to suicnis anad
fucls, weathering and Aging, and icmrpcraiures up to
250*3. MIL-S-7124 and MIL-S-8802 describe the
two-part elastomeric scaling compounds with increasiregly severe requirements for adhesion and
resistance to temperature and fuels. MIL-S-87t4
compounds are formulated purposely with very low
adhesion for such nses as fuel tanks access doors. A
*grade
for scaling electrical components is desciibed in
NIlL-S85 16. Osme-part. noncuring. polysullfide puttics also are available. A mater-i.dl of this type is de*
fiined by M!-Q-1!3
UR
.1W
,it isitntfisr w ling ofitcal instrumenits, but is aseful for various purposes.
Silicone sealants have autstanding environmental
*
resistance because they are unaffected, relatively, by
* temmeatures ranging fromn cryogenic. to more than
SW5*)F.~ and by moisture, ozone. and -iltraviolet radtat ion. However, because they arc the most expensive
%ealant%. they are used4 only where these ex-cellent
propcrties are requirod. Some: types also have very
-htsion

gotod electrical characteristics, andi arm used to seal

electrical systerfs. MIL-S-23586 covers siliconc
scalants for electrical applications. and MIL-A-46106

describes a general-purpose, room-temperatugecuring adhesive-sealanit for both mechanical and electrical requirements. As ordinary silicones have relalively poor fuel and oil resistance fluora-silicone
sealants should be ausd where these properties arc required. Both one- and two-component maierials mein common use. The former cure by absorption of atniosphem mc
humidity, and. therefore, cure very slowly
2-34

in confined aircas or in thick sections. Primers usuaillv

are recommennded to permit maximum adhesion to)
m1cwKis
Although of totally different chemical compost-Llion, polyurcthane sealants have many similtrities to
the silicones. Both two-component and onecomponent moisture-curing types are common
Primers (often silicone- based) are recommended, but.
in this case, primarily fur retention of adhesion in
humid or water-immersion situations. Thes escahnt
exhibit complete recovery after extended outdoor exposure. They also are useful in cryogenic applicationr, where they are surpassed only by the silicones, and in electrical appl"cations. Polyurethancs
also have excellent oil resistAnce, and grcater abrasion resistance than any other sealants- Osie problem
is loss of adhesion upon exposure to ultraviolet light.
An area where scaling compounds frequently are
used is in edge-*ealing of honeycomb sandwich pancis. because joint expansion and contraction are not
major considerations in this instance, relatively rigid
sealants usually are employed. These are essentially
thc same materials as the epoxy (and occasionally
urcthane) pasic avhiicivci discuassed prev~iously-. cxcept that microballoon (hollow microsphcres of glass
(
or plastic) fillers frequently are used to produce a
4
lightweight. closed-cell structure. Sandwich panels
*
also may be sealed with an edge w~apping of Fibergias prCsprCg.
Viscous sealants mxy be applied with a variety of
equipment, ranging from a putty knife to a cornpletely automatic mixer-dispenser system. Fluid sealV
ants (coatings) may be brushed or sprayed. One.compawenst sealants suapplied in czartidges can bc
apniod from miolan

ornl
Ofir-oterated

*ums.. or these

seslants can be diwspesd directy from pails or

drumis by air-powered Or hydraulic pumping equiptrient. Twvo-psar wsearlas can be. weighed and mixed
by hand or by mcteing-mixing equipmient that dis.-el
penses the compongnts according to prelet ratios.
Frozen cartridges of pranixed sealant akso arc
available4 commercially; thewe must bc stored at
-40*F until just prior W~ use.

24 PAINTS AND FINISHES

"IP

NTAD O IW
RG 10
AITAN CO ItSOG
II
MIL-F-7179 prescribes in cletail the manner in
which the external and internal surfaces of at khecopter arc to be finished. Uther helpful documcni~s
arc TB 746-931-2. MIL-STD-171 (MCR), and AMCP
706-100.
Helicopters require a Type I protection. ime., protection Against severe deteriorative conditions, F-or

241

most .;.jrfaces. this involve.; one coal of wash primer

(MIL-C-85l4). one coat of primer (MIL-P-23377).
and tv 3 top costs of attopcoat rot examiple, TT-E516 or M IL-C-8 1773. Preparation of the surface for
painting will differ with the type of m, tal and with
the surface (external or internal).
For this handbook, exterior surface arc defined as
all visible surfaces of an end-item that is housed
within the helicopter and all visible surfaces of the
helicopter. including all portions of the system that
arc exposed to thc airstream. Interior surfaces are the
nonvisible surfaces of an end-item that is housed
within the fuselage of the craft.
Prior to painting, aluminum surfaces usually are
finished with Anodize MIL-A-8625 or Alodinc 1200
(N4IL-C-5541). and malnesium with Dow 17 or HAE
(MIlL-M-45202).
Nonstainless steels are phosphate-treated (MIL-P16232), stainless steels arc passivated (QJQ-P-35), and
Fibe.'glas surfaces are sanded and cleaned with naphtha (TT-N-95).
The first coat of paint applied is the wash pri mer.
The term designates a specific mate-ial the( comd-

~hinr- the

nmrmrwflc nr shn inhihitiwi twacreth

.-sr.

craft arc the nitrocellulosec and acryiL-nitroluvllulosc

lacqucrs. which contain a wide range of pigmcntatior. They art preferred becamusc of the case in iemoving thew. with solvents when it is necessary to
change camouflage or color schemes or when repainting is required. They also are applied with a
spray in volatile solvents (MIL-L-19537). TT-L-S 16
desceibes another suitable top coat. and one that as
meets air-pollution regulations. This coating is a
styrenated phthalic alkvd resin combined withi the
necessary amounts of driers and volatile solvents.
Thc mixture contad'ns 50* resin solids. inc~luding
small peircenitagom of antioxidants, wetting agents.
and stabilizers. A wide range of coloring pigments isV
available, and these arc present in amounts of 24-45%.
of the total solid conicrnt.
There arc special paint formulations for camouflage. battery compartments, hilgh-temperature areas,
walkways, and antiglare applications. Rain-crrosionresistant coatings (MIL-C.7439) are used on the
Icading edges of the rotor and on radomes. There arc
sixciail formulations for high visibility, and paints forC.f
lettering and marking. Rubber, both natural and syn*hei,

...,,

surfwms suh as. ;!L-.

metal conditioaer. w~th those of the convcntio;:J-anticorrosive primer. The essential coDmponent)s D:
wash primrrs are phosphoric acid. chromate
merit, and polyvinyl butyral resin. Wash primers can
be formulated that are effective equally over iron.
steel, aluminum. treated! magnesium, copper, zinc,
and a wide variety of other metals. The advantages of
wash primers include ease of application and rapid
drying, useful iange of tzmperature and humidity,
application to a variety of metal, effectiveness in prc-

plastic windows, arc not painted.

Particular attention must be directed to assemblies
in which dissimilar metals arc joined. It generally is
required that each of the mating surfaces shall be
finished with the minimum number of coats required
for interior surfaces. Where magnesium is one of the
metals to be jcined to a dissimilar metal, tei metals
shali be separated by MIL-T-23 142 tape or MIL-S8802 sealant. The tape shall extend not less than 0.25
in. beyond the joint edge in order to prevent mois-

venting underfilm corrosion, and good adhesion as a

%peasmc suuuu
SU"rI
W&kla.
11 11U1
1eU4iUGLY

tur-s from bridging between the dissimilar metals. All

naotes and couniersinas that attachin; pans pass
through should be prinied, and all joining bolts,
screw%, and inserts should be wet-primed when inserted. Preftrably. all stecl nuts, bolts, screws,
washers, and pins should be cadmium-plaited.
46
PCA
IW E

used wnsh primer is that defaned in NIIL-C-8514. a

smooth-finish, spray-type, pretreatment coating furr'ished in two part,~: resin component and acid comnP;wint. The materials must be mixcaJ prior to use.
The piameir, which must cumform to MIL.P-23377.
is used oam the wash pritm. It iscompatible with t
usual =cYlic-aitrocelaloW Laqutu top camt. as well
ass
with the alkyd top coats (TT-E-516) sand urethane
(MIL-C-81'.73). The two-cnsnpoximt, epoxy-polyaamide systern has high dhanaicu and solvent resintanc OWd Unusal wmhrbi.It is Wsjy-ajWIpled
This specri~atic. also provides for an addkiicua
dlams or materials wshitalc for usew~and ir-pollartion
regulatiom. The aivailabiliy of daumas or costauiua
Ai
wpo~itgkg
Smir
rqpktimup is beomia# increasimigly iunponsat.. a=d this flactor shoul be kept
in mind by the dein*=.
Tb, top coatsw
mofst osm pscifind for Azmy air-

42SPCA

FNSE

In addition to the finishing of surfaces with organic

coatings as described in the previous paragraph, Ithere
are a number of special finishes for metal which serve
to provide the desired protection without further applicaiion of organic coastiags, or that arc used to provide a suitable base for the application of organic
finishes, Many of these processes involve the devefopment of a durable crrosion-resistant. oxide
layer on the surface of the metal. Although the development of this surface o.%de film may or may not
involve the use of an clecuical curient. the chemical
effect is similar and the proess is called anodizngs.
2-1)

-.

'

4
p

~ *'.'l
.

there art many different finishes.

For alan
some or whic ame used to provide a bws for paint
amd some of which provide protiection withont
furthe painting. The processes all involve chromates
noan eaidiAia iesgedimat, and rnll have proprietary
compositioes. The performamot of these methods of
tutanamn is governed by MIL..C-5541. The reagents
say ba applie by sprying. dipping. or swabbing.
generally. the metal is dippe in a sequence of baths
ad inuus that cwrme dean, rine-rained oxide uniformy ditrbiated ovea the surface - with no
coarse grains and so untrwated areas. Class I A treat.
me"muim wihsawd exposure to sult spray for 166
hr and ane unpainte or follwad by wash prime and
pimin tmtmeats. Class 3 coatings are simiLar to
Chmu IA coatings, except that the deectrica reseisumie is low,
Formagesim. hemarctwo primary anodizin~g
manesium there ar te Do7tramn
Foreamns
(MIL.M-4S202) and the ote meho is the HAE
treatment (MIL-lW43202). both of which involve
elecroltican
iziag f te mtalsuracein rde to
buildolyui an
fairlytikae
of ahcmptlesrs=i ourder to
a~

buid

~d

hic u

a lyerof
aily

a..

''~

coplx

to provide hydro3gcn embnittlcment relief.

Still another class of finishes frequently employed
is the flame-sp.rayed type. In this technique, metals.
silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, alumina, or other
,m-A=rand
-mnnr

aumium

is

'~

Ferrous metals that arc to be painted aregiea

phosphate coating in accordance with MIL-P-16232.
The~se coatings are of two types: Type M. which has a
phos.phate base. and Type Z. which has a zinc phosphatc base. Type M coatings arc more resistant to
alkalinc environments than arc Type Z coatings.
When they arc applied properly, the reaction form?, a
mixed-metal phosphate coating on the surface of the
firrous metal that is dose-grained, Fine, and Wre of
powder and course grains and that Wsthe surface
well. Thc treated surface is more res"5stat to corr-')3ion and provides a firm basc upon which to apply
wash prime and prime coaings.
In all of the foregoing treatments, the metals employed, especially the ferrous mectals, aro subject to
the absorption of hydrogen from the solutions, and
the hydrogen serves to embrittle: the metal. It is
desirable to promote the diffusion of hydrogen from
the metal by heating tt 210a_225*IF for 8 hr in order

fa,

-.. -..-.

...
-

oxyacetylenec flame

~~ria
or
.Ai imln a
- - --- -,;o.

nittnam
nr
-*. r

either as strands or powder

outdoor exposure without further coutin~s. The prIewhere they are vaporized and deposited on any subfetred method involves pretreating. primting, and art
strate that wili condense and hold them. By this
epoxy-polyamide finish.
means, similar or dissimilar metals cam be applicd to
metallic or nonmetallic surfaces. Ceramic materials
Part made of co. rosion-raistrat sfteel arc passivated in oider to deveiop their corrosion-resistant
can be applied in order to provide abrasive surfa=es
qualities. This preceess serves to remove the "activewear-resistant surfaces, or flamec-resistant coatings.
centers on the surface and to leave a thin, durable,
M11L *674 covers the flame-spraying orf metals.
transparent layer of oxide that prevents further corWo., a metal surfaces can be built up and subseauc oroxipaivhebyac
ioesng the mea.parssinatn
aqeos
puii~s
mtc.hOned
uslapicain
hade
enai
be thefam-stns
rcomlshved
or oimmierstaking the mertal ainatin
iqeosquetc.:l mahned
usflapicain
orde toeepai
thftpisons
?$AUSUu

nW

urnu

01Aumn

M.#inous20MUM

charomate. The temperaure of immersion varies from.

70' to I 55F, depeniding upon the alloy involved and
the intended operatiag tempeature. Prior to treat
ment, it isessential to wash parts carefully inan alkaline solution in order to remove all of the particles Owr
iron that may have acewiwlataid ea the surface, as
these woulod develop rua staie. durting the tieatnh.&it.
The paswvation orocus maistatied in QQ-F.35.
Ferrous surface that ame not to be painted usually
are treated w~ith black oxide. The insulting depos*it is
a hard. durable. oidin surfac. dma isattracive and is
so. cwhat res"ISta to coroiomn aOW to wear. The
process is applicable to both womstaolese ami simailes steels, it invoives imnaersiM the previously
cleaned part in an alkaline. or alkafine-chromtate, oxidazing solution, followed by warmi and then cold
rinses. a fInal chromaic aciod dip, and drying in

spraying oi toaimur

Iwater

worm air. The pro is defined in MIL-C-63924.

2-36

cauxvic contingi upunthe1 mflt5i

exhaust skirts or*je enginies for oxidation pl-3tection.

2-403 PLATINGi
Another method of applyi-ig attractive, durable
and abrasion- and corrosion-resistant coatings tiG
metals and plasticsias meta plating. The platings of
most interest in lieheopter dwmii are copper, nickel,
chromium, and cadmium. Extupt for electrical cornpoms whecre electrical conductivity is impcrtant.
copper plating is used only to provide a bae for thc
wear-resistant nickel and chramijim plating.. Chromium and itickel plating. am used to provide hard
and wear-resistani suirfaws for suiad object as SWa
fasteners, strap holders, handles, knobs. seat arms,
instrument parts. and other itemi where painting
would no be satisfactory or economical. Cadmaium
and zinc plating are employed almost exclusively to

provide galvanic protection Mgainse cxonvon. Cadmiuna is fthpreferred ecoming for ferous meal iAem

"

k2

such as nuts, bolt, screws, inserts, Lod pins used in

assembly. particularly where dissimilar metals arc

izing plastics, and. becausc the danger of hydrogen

employed.
A treatment of m( tal plating can be found in Rcf.

embrittlcmcnt is nqI1gi.', it also i- used for the

plating of high-strength stmi: parts for high-stress ap-

7. In this pr

s. & ur methods
used extensively:
chemical reduction or elt-ctroless,
vacuum vapor deposiluin. and molten metal dip.
In electrolytic platin&, the item to be plated is
cleaned so as to provide an oil- and dirt-free surfic,
and then is connected as the cathode hn an ecoctrolytic coll. The anode is mtde of the plating material,
and when an electrical current is passed through the

plications. It is the preferred method of cadmiumplating high-strcngth bolts and nuts and other
fasteners, Fnd MIL-C-8837 detail. the requirements
for this application.
Galvanized steel products arc made by dipping the
cleaned, preheated steel in molten zinc. Cadmiumplated parts also are made in this manner, and earlier
tin coatings were applied by the dip process. How-

electrolyte the netal isdeposited upon the surface of

ever, the dip coating of steel with cadmium and tin

the itn being plated. In somi c4ses, the item first is

coated with a thin layer of coppep, which adhers

has been superseded by the more economical and

more prccisely controlled electrolytic procesm.

Selectrolytic.

readily to the base meta and forms a finn surace to

which the platirg metal (either nickel or chromium)

and tenacious coating. It is used frequently for metal-

MIL.T-l0727 covens elecroplatingt and hot dipping

of tin.

can attach firmly. Ther are a great many proprieIn both the electrolytic and electroles processe,
gtuy Oeaolyuc sciutior, formulations and processes.
hydrogen embrittlement is a ,agnificant hazard. DifConsiderabl, skill is required to ob.in a uniform,
fusion of the hyIdrogen into the metI under the elecfine grain and brih coat, and much care must be
trolytic forces is gSr-'ter than in the case of elctaoawcied to asure cleanlisms avoidac of poisom
less deposition. The danger increases with the
pn enUY of 41rms. biisenug ad cracking. an
strengah and moduius of0t1 iatd materiai. 1-01u it
avoidanc of ccarWraieed platings. Appliable
is necessary to program a hjdrogen embrittlemt t'CFedera Specificatis am (JQ-N-2l%,
-Q.C32O, lief heating cycle in order to piomote the difftinn of
Ja QQ.-P-416.
hydroge: from tie basic metal. The optimum t,:mc
LkElctr
s or chemical-redutin plating depends
and tempcrature will depend upon the nature of the
upon the gena'mtioi of activated atomws of th1; metal
coating material ant of the base metal, as well as
to be deposited aiacemt to the wafAvaaa eal kurupon the scheduling requirememts for the part.

fSX upo whicbh tht olatiMg is V.be m4xiAwJ. Thre

are proprietary disa*

mCpo74a,
lsie5 u

lion presses for maya sia~n

rodtc-

used in pktling, and

prqimated or nonimpimqsate, and made from mnasy

the nicel re.1coig sev to make the surface more

wear-resiwua
mand kwa impact-misitive. MIL-C-

of the advanced plastic materials. The tapes asy or

maly not have adsive on out or both side

2674 covem the p4Asat of eleciroless nickel.

(peswAre-sentsitive tapes).
One application fo tapes is in the maiking of heli-

cop(t.

at so"

M IL-P-36477 may be usd isinlis of point for al rea.

Deca. confonming to the mquirments of

Plun4 wa*l, and are related st as to o,4tni a uii.

form cmiosa- Tim son of the plating "4 may be

teusbal and internal mnArkings within the sim limaits

spcimd. They may be prasaare4-asve. adhsive-

a hot war or a mohtea pool of t1w mN.a. Th metal is

healed ekricaly W a taeperamtun a& which it veporimir, foui thLblsrfac. U ,tr dzh & ,,t of an eketrosatak held aqp"ied betweenw iwtl
swurce ard

backed, and scord and are aplied over pre,AMly

finished surfac.
Antislip tale a&re umid on walknays, seps, mmd
similar artea wULhiglrvn
L"
ate m
rapioyed iiiWn)C
waica Wnia. Cautio. siwWbcid hausd

the iftsu biti plaed, the atoms. of the m"ga beCots se~amedsad
sawatracted! to thme sekrfta. T'his

Pro-m jwodsii

wi ewapuicety bright, coheret.

I ..

.,
244 TArt-I
Tapes of varying ompoeitL'on. texture. thwknkos
and width arc used in a varidey of ways in helicoptr.
design. Fairic tapes may he woven or mmnwoven. ia-

vacuum dckibmr. 'hM i,m to be plae arc racked

of the

vamuum plating process and from the molten ametl

Such as nsickel-pltns of magnesium sdaafams whene

from th sorm

1)

drogen embrittlemnt elif. Embrittleasnct from the

dip process is minimal.

cputam dAat

14-V

Generally. the platinqpecificenion wil require hy-

also for Sot

metl *&s plastc busc uateral,.
Them
is less dwaola of hy#d-,o
evibnittlicnent with this
prOOM. The' etolmas m9thod is unitablC for
healird y;na or for us ift the field or shop wher
Lhratoay or proce line facilities arm twn abailable.
ft aho is ef~ctive for ==ne of the more diffcult jobs,

Va-uum de*,iton plating is conducsed in a

to ilatuiv tisef antisip tNpe edga arn rnot epusmii to

ai"ow thatcant eta" the a to gaol. Thm - of
3-37

d<A

Myk:i

and p,1)yw~dic

tape.. in. lctruically driven

moxois b-?, aiwak possibt: the consxrv.ction of light,

powerful motoii that cool rcadily. Tapes also are
used for bindanM wiring harats*, sealia&accss pout3,
and scaling cttities far foana-ir-pitaci filling. Teflon
urfaces for
tapes are used to pri&tw4t~
sins ebj. to skilin contact.
low-loadl-bearing
Finally, masking tkpcs arc. rvd in the finishing,
repair, or repsaitina of surfaces.

2-7 LUBRICANTS, GREASES AND

HVDRAUUIC FLUIDS
2-7,1

ENERALpropriate

-a
4

VJ

' ~~

Ncl;l~

Although this chartes is &'vo~ed to materials, the

subject of lubricants and hydiaulica cannot be divorcoi frem; the total system. The designer ca'rnot
Limpi) choose any oil or hydraulic fluid fm; a particular use. A lubrication systw. is designed for dclivcr-ing oil to the moclawnseas to be lnbr~ictct. Sclocrion of the oii to be. use is. as niucli mfunction or
the filtcrnng. coofiag, and pumtping propenins of the.

Yima~eand brail;nlS

Ofw
1ar-tcwiMu
a a sj'itav.

raihcs thaethik.ivuh ricatiag cudai ctnhti"- friction

iZ4, as *,I

'hi

lubricated.
2-7.3 GREASYES
A detailed disco'ssinn of the many appro-,'co
grrna is includrd in MIL-HDBK-275. For pur.poses of illustration, the applications for four types of.
greases arm discussed.
1. ikclicopicr oscillating bearings. A sutitable

greae (1)1 us in bearings having oscillating motions

of small amplitude - such as helicopter rotor head
bearings - isdescribed in MIL-G-25337, and is apfor equipment that must operate at amWent temperatures of -6?*to l60F1. It also should
be used for ball or roll"r bearings operating at higii
Specn or hig~h teu'ycrstuns.
2. Ball and rolle-r bearings. These bcssingv. may be
llubri~cntcd With Lga-as dcacibr.4 in MIL-G-2101 3.
This grease is intcndcd toi use in the tczaperalure
ravgr or -Iwo
to 4509F. and is designcd pmtticulerly for those high-temperatUre bali and roller
bewwri;4g applications wherc. soap thictenen mamy not

ay vwzatncvd 1<30,0W. Thii gttw; is not to bt: tist

a4X 4p~calv t Lic 5-.
care. Sm~vconucr~cmn
tcia~on oSf hrdrmulic flivi&. Lben tWith gsa.ti
ti
&i1Jwtt-nmt
lus. SUlk 114 p'nrMAI
rnirOf a~c rdwaa~sa8( thtM r~Io.VtL41GI
lxaiagc, epu g-rs and gcar tfivwi;
3. Ccuw an d acvators. A gencrzl-pirpcLLz gx;evsv
Of *16qutk~c filtih&s's buihzsiP. sId scals; m~us be coci~ , eato
~
otelbc~innc
~
~
~
iSic
' 41aee fo. v,&i;p.cer requiring a lubrian il.%hjijk lo;4-h
grmses
tiCW
cjxccity ;isdescribed in MIL.C-9l322. Tiis gan~sc is
i1ese ar: dyrcamic raI.u than static uici kci uMs.4 in thn temaperature range of -65" ;o 3WIF,
materials. The soimW range of lubricting rnateriais
aud iii coinpstible with rubber.
anid their QXAfltiO.S amt indicated itc labk 2-18&
4. Pzs.aiuna& systetr~s. Anothes froqicxntlv it-A
Even wtvcrr th.. sy,.,imi is no dyr..mncx tand Manqumndi greavc is described by MIL-G 4343. Tb'*
"shltapo4Ah- si lt &. w.o ne
g1rcas is minted- for usc in pharumatic systwma a a
t1K frctiad
iw.0hVC4 mwtI hx s

-~

pcrforrn as rcquired far the specified interval when.so

iialatad cun.

of a C~ktcora &-zd a (Afr*,vrar$sdlba

cation inizrtal for 2, girVui aPizsF&ainia ctbaritbtta as-

aurpAsc by lar ota~acwr thatr ncAi equ.pu'an will

j
(

fnceo<. in secswts;. at, j::evfgretY.,tn

psi. I nzk
a&W for FIst wihb W'4L-P-55l6 rut'bia, but 142Cod noio
be g&4. 'With alie( typ-M o08-bb7
withomt'. f-rtAli
frc0snnpztflii-t

2ti
D~&~% 0bL1J~C~iGN SYTEMS
2-7.4 Wtif FILM AND PERMAiN1?T
Th.; rcqueswwauu [cat dm~gn of lubrication Sys.-LBUAY
tWwru for 1rttinx" ckwnagA
in heheogner% arm
ot
wcaua
e h4ThF
Ie~cl of rAnd and duwi con.
dsscg&~da in lap;
: e.twg
for tAanstAnmimlaia'c frequicatly eac4:'Ovntered ini liclic'-~eJ
opv~ratyuu;. ii u, advwnAnhasc'a to use nonw~cttimg WWbI..
~ranw ~ rr~i~~b~a lbeiatio m~disuss4 i n
ChajkA., 4. Af rjzasaittd*in Cla^t 4. tjjme wfttlcittM
carill that do nujt auttvr thc duo ntotdizac. lIM{Adtd
Md:ptn~ca
~piil lu~itsu~ wafo! apprQvi!a affr..1
m-a ul irel
phsapic swatciialk (A lnj
tcdi . al eiyt&j, hti~cl~xtK4, cpf u;lia mohv&&n.
pruu-" to Ma..-,w ofi "rich l'kucA C%-vinn
claca

i~fkint

haP-~ -- c nsakris. nod porous-eir

urcr.si

nT~nadnln

(uruxl~j-

~lbInudi

%L1.1
ot
:ias-,6cnc. 1~ms aaea.shy arc enmptuyi4 Vinpv
ILo:4 tappf"Wkl~. icfx at it 10C1
nd
Auiraa~
i en
~na&-w4
a"Uptitoij.

lubricant which arm intended

isapplied as a

isufide fcqu
Molbdeum

phnolc o epxybonding
luricnt
n
dryfil
agent to provide a secre boadins to the mnetal baic.
MIL-L-460t0 describes such a beat-cured. solid-rdall

vent piling and seizure of metals. Dry-trnl Iubrncants may be used on steeL, titanium. aluminum.
aluminum alloys. and other metals. They are useful

lubricant, and MIL-L-46147 an air-cusred solid r~t,

NEU

where conventional lubricats ame difficult to apply

TABUL 2431.
IOTrx LUSRECANTS AND HYDRAULIC FLUIDS
CONTACT SURFACE

SPTEUS

GREASE

MIL-G-43113

PNIUMATCSYSTEMS

RUBBER -TO- ME TAL, DYNAMIC

MIL-G-?7617

PLUjGVALVES aor

FUEL OIL SYSTEMS

MIL-G-603

PLUG VALVES

GASKE TS, VALVES -GASOLINE AND OIL RESISTANT

MlL-.G-?1Ifl

tM" LOAD STEEL SURrACES

STEEL-TO- STEEL. SLIDING

MIL-r,4.12?

SALL ROLR MEDLE KARINGS.GEARS,

ACIJATOR SCREWS
BALL ATM ROLLER BEARINGS. -100' TO.850*r

MTLT-EA.WD

IIIL-G-25013

-7
)
LUSE OIL

to reduce wear and pre-

MEA-T-.L

EPRNE 9G

IETEPRNE

IHLA

TANGENTIAL ME VAL, ROLLING CONTACT

UIL-G-Z5537

I4ELCOPIER ROTOR HEAD BEARINGS. OSCILLATING METAL-TO- METAL. SLIDING- SMALL AMPLITUDE
BEAR INGS

MIIL-G-8I3ZZ,

WHEEL BEARINGS. GEARS. ACTUATOR SCREWNS

METAL-TO-METAL, ROLLING AND SLIDING

MIL-L-357?

11IND1SHIELO WIPERS

METAL-TO-METAL. LOW LOAD. SLIDING

.IL-L-3918

INSTRWIE11T. JEWEL BEARINGS

STEEL AND JEWEL PIVOTS, TO-408F

MIL-L-6081

TURBINE ENGINES

METAL-TO-METAL, DYNAMIC

MIL-L-7806

TURBINE ENGINES

METAL- TO -METAL. DYNAMIC

AIRCRAFT INSTRUME.NTS AND ELECTRONIC

EOUIPTMENT

MTLf-EA.FROSADNNERU

UMIL-L-6086

GEARBOXES. EXIREME PRESSURE

METAL-TO-METAL. HARDENED

MIL-L-2?36"

HELICOPTER TRANS?.NSIONS, GEARB0XES

METAL-TO-METAL. HARDENED. TO -40OF

MIL-L-22051

AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINES

LIETAL-TO-METAL

IL

O5

MIL-L-?76941 TACHOMETER GENERATORS. GYROMOTORS, GIM~BALS

CORROSION MIL-C-65?9 IAIRCRAFT ENGINES
I'REVE NTIVE
TIRE - TUBE. VOUNT IUG. DELO)UhTONG
LUBRICANT MIL-L-836?

MAETAL-T O-METAL. LOW LOAD. HIGH SPEED

MINERAL BASE OILS. 50 lit MAX OPRTO
PRTO
METAI.-RUBBER

SOLIP FILM

V3L-L-8937

CAIS.TRAflK(S.ROILLERS. SPHER~ICAL BEARINGS

LOW-LOAD SLIDING CONTACT, SAND AND DUST

ENVIRONMENT

COMPOUND

MITA

THRE ADS.SS 9GL TS.PIPNG . MOUNT INGS

ANTISEIZE. GRAPHITE . TO 400"F

IZAG14ETIC COTUPASS
SERVO SYSTEL-S. CRANK CASES. GEARBOXES, FLUID
TRANSUISSIGNF. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS AND

ME TAL-TO-METAL. METAL -TO-JEWVEL

LANDING; GEAR SMOCK SIRuTS

FOR SYNTHETIC SEALING MATERIAL

LIQUID __ MIL-L-5020
DAMPING
MIL-S-81087
FLUID
MIL-H-5606

1
PRESERVA V~l 011. TFTING AN[I STORAGE
~IL-H - Iil) I11H'IG T! IPFRA IURE SYS TET1. 40' 1O &55',
~.TL-H-8IIRULTRA LOV TELTPERATURESYSTEL:. AUTOPILOrS.

IMIL-H-6083

HYLRUIC

WIL-H9328?AUTOPILOTS. SHOCK ABSORBERS.SRAKS.SYSIELIS

MAETAL-TO-METAL. SILICONE. -10r" TO +5Wr

tdONOPERATING r: UIO

'.*INERAL O:L. PETROLEUM1 BASE

PC TROLEU'.* BASE FOR SYNTHETIC SEALING

rIRE RESISTA14T SYNTHE7IC HYDROCARBON BASE

2-39

or retain, or where other lubricants may be contawi-

REFERENCES

natcd edsily with dirt and dust. They gcncrally arc

suitabk for sliding motion applications, such as in
flap tracks, hinges, and cant surfaces, but may not be

i. Defense Metals Information Center (DMIC).

High-Strength Steel - 18NI Mantrgahg. Battelle

used with oils and greases.

Memorial Institute, Columbus. OH.

2. Defense

Metals information Center (DMIC),

2-7.5 HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

Properties of New High-Temiperature Titaniunm

and data requirements for

installation,
The design,
are covered by MIL-i-[-%W4 and
system~s
hydraulic

Memo No. 230,

Alloys.
Institute, Columbus, OH.

afe discussed in detail in Chapter 9. Two types of

systems are defimnd Type i, which is designed fo, the
-65? to 160"F rang; and Type II, which is used in
to 2751F range. Two dasse of systans are
the -653
defined: 1300 psi, which has a cutout pressure of 1500
psi at the main preusure con olfing device, and 3000
psi, which has a cutout pressure of 3000 psi. As in the
cas of the lubricating oilds, alectioat of the hydraulic
fluid is integral with design of the system. Pumps,
motols, flight control actuators, heat exchangers.
flexible connectors. packings, fittings, filters, accumulators, and electrical interconnects must be deshown to be
fined carefully and their characteiti
compatible %ith the fluid selected.

Battelle Memorial

3. Defense Metals Information Center (DMIC),

Joining of Titanium. Report 240, Battelle
Memorial Institute, Columbus, OH.
4. Structural Design Guide for Adwanced Composite
Applications. Advanced Composites Div., AF
Materials Laboratory.
5. L. H. Abraham and L. J. Lows, Shell Instability
Problems as Related to Design, NASA Technical
Note D-1510.
6. Charles V. Cagie. Adhesiw Bonding Techniques
and Applications. McGraw-Hill Book Co.. NY,
196".
7. Heat Treating, Cleaning and Finikg. Vol. 2.
American Society of Metals (ASM) Handbook.

zt.

"" F-

2-40

AMCP 706-202
CHAPTER 3

PROPULSION SUBSYSTEM DEvIGN

34 UIST OF SYMNOLS
A, A.. -

area of inlet, inside diameter. in.'

maximum inlet frontal area. ifl.2
ambient pressure pesi
maximum VlOity sA01111
leading Wdg Sur-

face. 11)5

V, - inlet velocity. fps

V free stream Velocity. fps
M fuel flow. lb/hr
AP -inlat pressureloCw. psi
3 -?P1l4.7. dinmensio~nlas

Ff

I.

-"

NM D CI
3.1
The propulsion system es defined during time pit
liminary design of thme kviicopte after the enginc OT
engines hWe been selecled, and their location in thme
chsen Tb.chateris oncnal
airfamehasbee
~
.- tie-.1the
wishxew-1
syshthe
40con
dmiratiof
am sysem ofgrtos
Th propulsio systm consists of the engine or
engines. air ninduction sub.ystan. cahaust susstm
fuel and lubrication smAbyztems Starting subs2yztc31.
controls, tranaisassnn suabsystem. auxiliary power
unit (if applicable) and infirared radiation supprassian subsystem. It also Ael inctud cooling an fir
protecton subsystems. The air induction subelg
also .u~frame.
ie~
Ino "h parsahs
ine peowa "
coeideaaiss.proulson ontol equresemfs. uel
and lubrication subyssem reqwrsawmts. compari
mecat cooling. accessores. and AWU(auxiliar power
unit) design reqiremeins ame discussd. The transmission subsystemo is discussed is Chaper 4.
3-2 ENGINE INSTALLATION
3-L GENEAL.
iMany diffausiat engine installation arrangavients
are pouible; frost drive. nor ve. side by side for
mokit~iengie licoptesr. etc. Engine locations may be
ssseiad so as to cotrild the overall CG of the beltcopter to okeai the momt effecivu powe train eon&Wunctmion well inmary. AU the mhysassesa
dinually and topher a am inwingrl propulsio
system.
Emin hismnlasions usually faog within one of three
thu complasy sunhaeqrdt inistalaion, the
W.msmsm
semi-exposed ing11alulsom and the exposed imialla-

umgdluah
31.
The submerged engine installation places the
engine completely within the airframe. This arrangement, an example or which is shown in Fig. 34I.
requires careful considration to insure adequate
accessibility for miaintenance,
Removable firewall Sections often arc used, but
this requires attention to the detail design of seals and
securing dcvicca to insure that the fire protection of
adjacent components and crew stations will not
diminish with repeated removal of the firewalls.
Although it may be difficult to service submerged

engines because of limited accessibility, their location

often makes it possible ror maintevanc personnel to

work from &round level or from the cabin floor,

eliminating the need for built-in service platforms.
because the engine wsay be located deep within the
airframe. engine air induction and exhaust ducts
are greater in length and more complex than
usually
cyo tcrcon.titrtion. However, this inherent
o auiio
inefficiency may be offset by the extt real cleanliness
of the aicat
iib
312S~~ie
Tesmepsdisalto
sal mk h
Thn be xpose
t minsteallatox usallytn topo the
tve buetwege.
Theeniesmountgearo ad thetop
of thear
Teegieismutestrclaonhear
This method. an example of which isshown in
Fig. 3-Z. tequires only superficial structure to comnplete the engine enclosure.
Teheh of the ern~vile ini this type of installation
usually requires built-in service platforms. These
pkatforms often are built into the cowling, so that the
work platform automatically is available: when the
cowl is opened. WIhen this isimpossible and separate
platforms are proided, the engine cowling can be
much lighter bmcuse it neod not be Structural
The closeness of the rotor to the engine instalation
requires that careful consideratioa be given to the
cowllocking mechanisenit should be casily operabl
by one man and capable of being inspecte from
ground level for adequate security.
The semivixposed instalation lends itself well to the
use of ather front- or rear-dirive engines becAuse the
engine can be located cither forward or aft of the
main grorbox. The rer-drive en~ine stay result in
very sbon cogine air inkdcton subsystens that can
be anti-iced officientdy by wart hearing SystemsFront-drive engume may resul in snore complex induntioo subsystems. sad. because of ther comn-

'
4

VA

Figure 3-1. Subme~'d Eaglet Iuatallatioe tExample)

3-2-

pltcated shapc,.. may require more coniplexj anti-icing

subsysiceim.
Twin-enigine hclat.oplcrs often' employ the warnexpicdcofi~iraio. Tisenabknk a single housing
unit to enclosec all engines, &Md p-rovades good - ccsai-;iihry to all cmagines provided ahey arc spaced su~ficieritly far apart. Additk~nal accc4.sibilitv can be ohtamned by making irierengirre 5rcwalls removable. If

side the airframec and 512 exposed on all sides. This

arrangement, an example of whkt is shown in Fig. 33. commonly is used with a strc~aanlundc niacel that
provides environmental protection and teduoes ftirodynamic drag. The externally mounted nvjsc atrangement provides the hest acwuaibihity. proviided
adequate serv~cc platforms or other convenient work
areas are available.

this is done, the designer must pay particular allen-

The nacelles sometimes are attached directly to

I-on to the seals on tin' reinosablc sections. Labyuinth seals are superior to otlier wealing melhtxs

vided by removable paucls. The engine mounts may

Intechagcailiy
cjgin intal~iin
btwee

may eteral urf-w my cnsit o higedpanels.

conskdcrable savings in initial and maintcniancic cog.s.

along ivith increased aircraft availability.

loadsharing structural members of the nacelle. The

pancis also may be designedJ w serve assa work platform. Thi~. arrangemitnt requires a minimum amount

jn11

aiiuse
btallation. engines are located out-

fuselag frames. Acces. to the engines wenally ispro-

'ihity o! the eng;ine.

-3-

ANCIP 706-202
3-2.XIA

Checlist

3-2.

The following items are applicable to each or the

preceding types of engine installations and, as such,
are basic design objectives:
I. A properly designed engine enclosure shall be:
a. Aerodymanically clean
b. Sized and proportioned to the engine and its
related subsystems
c. Fastened to the airframe, not the engine,
This eliminates problems with metal fatigue
associated with engine vibrations.
d. Arranged in such a fashion that the major
portion may be opened quickly for inspection and
minor repairs, or removed entirely for major
maintenance tasks and cowling repairs
e. Adequately ventilated to prevent accumulations of gases. and designed so that accumulations
of dirt, waste, or fuel may be observed without
removal of cowl sections
f. Properly drained so that no fuel is trapped in
any ground or flight attitudes. Any fuel likely to leak
into the engine compartment must be drained clear of
the helicopter through an appropriate drain system.
2. Appropriate firewalls must be provided to contain fires within the engine cowling or nacelle,
3. Daily maintenance aids should be incorporated
if the configuration will permit them. These include
work
platforms,
inspection
accesspanels
doors.in and supPorts to
hold cowling
or nacelle
an open
position to
hase maintenance operations and protect
equipment against accidental dama
ne
d
equMaxipme
a insterchacc enabliy
d
pag. s2.

ENGINE MOUNTING
The engine mounts shall be designed to withstand
the loads resulting from the engine torque, thrust.
and gyroscopic couple in combination with all
applicable ground, flight, and inertia loads. In addition, engine mounts shall withstand transient torque
and crash load conditions. The engine mounts and
supporting structure shall withstand the inertia
torque resulting from sudden stoppage of the turbine
rotors combined with the flight loads for 3.0 g flight.
Torque decay time histories shall be determined by
analysis of the engine characteristics, but in no ca.e
shall stoppage be considered as occurring ?n more
than 3.0 sec.
Engine mounting requirements are specified in
MIL-E-8593 and shall be followed.
Turboshaft-engine-powered helicopters may
require critical alignment of high-speed shafts. Ii is
good practice to design a high degree of accuracy into
the mount. and supporting structure, and thus
eliminate the need for adjustment on installation.
rhis require,- more intricate tooling during manufacturing, but insures positive shaft alignment.
For multiengine configurations, interchangeability is desirable and can be achieved by designing
the engine mounts so that common detail parts can
be assembled to result in opposite assemblies.
The various
of engine mountings may be
described brieflytypes
as follows:
I. A three-point-suspension type that incorporates
a gimbal or ball joint
A mounting that cantilevers the engine from the

4. Maximum interchangeability of parts shall be

incorporated into the design.
5. It should be easy for an observer at ground level
to determine that the cowling is secured properly.
6. The enclosure should have easily-accessible provisions for fire extinguishing, by ground personnel,
during engine starts.
S7.All portions of the cowling that might be sub-

gearbox. Few engines can be cantilever-mounted;

consequently, this method will not be discussed.
The front mount of the three-point suspension may
be either a single- or two-point configuration. The
gimbal arrangement likewise may be a single- or twopoint support. The ball joint arrangement, on the
other hand, must use the two-point support to obtain
torsional restraint for the engine. When the three.

jected to exhaust gas impingement and to exhaust

flames in the event of an exhaust subsystem failure,
shall be corrosion-resistant steel, titanium, or other
equivalent temperature-resistant alloy material. The

point support is used with either the gimbal or ball

joint, it must provide engine freedom for thermal
expansion in all directions. This is accomplished by
providing lateral, axial, and vertical restraint at the
wo laterally disposed points, vertical restraint at the
single point, and torsional restraint through the two
laterally disposed points.
Other configurations using the three-point arrangement
may place the gimbal or ball joint support
alongside the drive shaft instead of concentrically as
is commonly the case, Because the engine support
and drive shaft no longer are concentric, a simple
"trailer hitch" arrangement may be used advantageously for cost savings and to provide for easier drive

material selected shall also be determined by the heat

transfer analysis considering the engine heat r
tion.
8. Cowlings shall not interfere with any parts of the
engine, its operation, its accessories, or its installalion.
9. Cowlings .hall be designed to provide udequate
cooling of the engines and engine accessories during
flight and ground operations.
3-4

shaft and coupling inspection and overall maintenance. With this configuration, it is imperative that at
least one of the drive shaft couplings be capable of
providing adequate axial displacement.
The positive gimbal or ball joint may be replaced
by an elastomeric element that supplies vibration isolation in addition to the flexibility of mechanical
joints. Isolation mounting systems are discussed in
the paragraph that follows,
ENGINE VIBRATION ISOLATION
Chapter 8. AMCP 706-203. specifies that an engine
vibration survey shall be conducted to determine the

3-2.3

dilona
lanstell
nd
prepared, and ground and
shalltstbee pepaedandgrond
dition. a test plan
flight tests conducted to verify that the engine vibralion environment is satisfactory.
design will require a flow of
Successful
the engine manufacturer. the airframe
among helicopter
data
danufacta
a
r. ng the
engine ma ingacture
The
. afre
s

manufacturer, and the procuring activity. This flow

S

data are defined in Chapter 8.

the required
and
andthe
required dtype

As pointed out in AFSC DH 2-3. a mounting subsystem shall be designed so that the natural frequencies of the engine(s), when installed in the helicopter, do not exceed a certain limiting frequency in
those modes of motion that may be energized by the
vibratory-forcing functions generated during the
operation of the helicopter. The natural frequencies
shall not exceed 70% of the lowest frequency of the
forcing function,
3-24 IFIREWALLS
To provide for isolation of fires, zones that contain
both combustible material and a source of ignition
must be defined and shall be separated from the rest
of the aircraft by firewalls. The firewall must withstand a 2000F flame for 15 min. Sources of ignition
may be hot engine surfaces or electrical connections.
High pressure ratios and increased cycle temperatures have made virtually the entire engine surface an
ignition source. Consequently, the practice of
defining the entire engine compartment as a fire zone
has evolved.
Stainless steel, at least 0.015 in. thick, is the most
commonly used firewall material. However, in applications employing a structural firewall, improvements in weight and cost-effectiveness may be
realized by the use of titanium or other suitable
material. In such applications the structural
requirements usually are predominant, and the
material thickness required is easily capable of providing the necessary fire protection.
Firewalls provide the most effective protection
when they are kept free of sharp protuberances such

as angles. clip%. and brackets. This allows the fire-estinguishing system to operate more efficiently.
Engine installations incorporating nacelles sualy
require that only the interface to the airframe be ffreproof. This area, therefore. should be kqx to a minimum to achieve minimum firewall weights.
Side-by-side ertinc installations require a common
center firewall, which can be made removable to
enhance engine accessibility. When this is done. care
must be taken to insure a tight-fitting. rugged seal.
All-metal seals appear most attractive for this
application. Pliable seals, either butted or lapped.
eventually deteriorate, thereby reducing the firewall
the removable
provides
Thb. seal
integrity.
with
a certain
amount
of inherent
support,section
facilirtating removal or installation. Side-by-side engine installations are not desirable due to vulnerability and
sirations.
sualion
survivability considerations.
On each face of firewalls. and immediately adjacn hrtuesol
emd fmtraso
cent thereto. use should be made of materials or a
that will not ignite as a result of heat transfer
from flame on the opposite side of the firewall. Combustible fluid-carrying lines that traverse a firewall
shail be equipped with shutoff valves.
3-2.4.1 Fire Detectors
Three basic types of detection systems are used: infrared, continuous wire, and spot (thermal sensors).
The infrared or surveillance fire-detection system
provides extensive fire zone coverage.
AContinuous wire fire-detection systems are of two
types: those in which the resistance across a eutectic
salt filling an annular space between two conductors
is monitored continuously, and those in which increasing pressure of a gas trapped within a sealed line
pneumatically actuates a switch. Each of these types
is routed throughout the fire zone in the areas where
temperature changes caused by fire are likely to occur. The continuous-wire elemert is subject to vibration and maintenance damage, which can result in
false fire alarms. However, continuous-wire systems
are not vulnerable to false alarms from sunlight.
The spot type of fire detector, or thermal sensor,
actuates a switch to trigger the master fire-warning
circuit. This type inherently is more rugged than
continuous-wire detectors, but has very limited
coverage. As a result, spot detectors in reasonable
numbers can be used only in fire zones o limited
volume, such as combustion heater compartments.
MIL-D-27729 covers volume surveillance types of
flame and smoke detection systems. MIL-F-7872
covers continuous-type fire and overheat warning
systems. MIL-F-23447 covers radiation-sensing (surveillance type) fire warninp systems.
3-5

3-2.4.2 Fire Extinl g ii

Almost all recent hbicopter designs use high-rate.
discharge fire-extinguishing systems. Most systems
use vaporous extinguishing agents propelled by a dry
charge of high-presstzre nitrogen. More recently.
some extinguishers have used pyrotechnics as the
propellant agent. Inert agents. such as bromotrifluoromethane or dibromodifluoromethane. often
are used because of their good extinguishing properties and low toxicity. Furthermore, the low boiling
point of the agents facilitates vaporization and distribution within the fire zones.
An effective fire-extinguishing system is one that
will. by test, demonstrate 15% by volume agent concentration within the fire zone for a duration of at
least 0.5 sec. i'he system must meet the requirements
specified in MIL-HDBK-221.
3-2.5 ENGINE AIR INDUCTION SUBSYSTEM

requirements are met. the duct pressure gradient i

w
made favorable for the flow by decreasing the crosssectional area of the duct along its length and by contouring the walls of the duct to polynomial equations.

Two basic tools are usefui in the aerodynamic

design of engine air induction subsystems. These are:
I. Analog field plotter, which uses an electrically
conductive paper and is based on the fact that
LaPlace's partial differential equation is identical for
an electrical field and an inviscid fluid. This technique yields local streamlines, velocity potential lines,
and surface velocities, and is well suited to two-dimensional problems.
2. Potential flow digital computer program, which
uses the technique of superposition of sources and
sinks to yield the same results as the analog field
plotter, but with greater accuracy.
"Basiccriteria for the aerodynamic design of the air

where
V, = inlet velocity. fps
V. = free stream velocity. fps
Beyond this range, the possibility of lcading-edge velocity peaks, and hence flow breakdown at the nose.
increases greatly.
Ref. 3 shows that a certain minimum frontal area is
needed to keep the external maximum velocity within
limits. This criterion is satisfied when

induction subsystem duct, which must satisfy the

requirement of the engine model specification, are:

3-2.5.1 Air .dmetliou SWuiswu Deuign

The external lip profile is established by fitting an
external cowl contour (usually a NACA Series I or
an elliptical shape) from the lip tangent point to the
inlet envelope boundaries. The inner lip shape usually
has an elliptical contour, and the design parameters
are given in Ref. I. Class A Kuchemann-Weber circular intakes described in Ref. 2 yield design parameters similar to those given in Ref. I. Ref. 2 also
suggests a desired design range of inlet velocity to free
stream velocity ratio. i.e..
(3-1)

0.4 !_cV, / V,,_< 0.65

+4( I -

=- I +
A,
(V,

V/ V.)

(3-2)
1

/ Vo)

where
Am = maximum inlet frontal area, in3

A, = area of inlet, inside diameter, in.'

V,,r

= maximum velocity along leading edge sur-

i. The air induction subsystem shall prevent any

erratic or adverse airflow distribution at all operating
conditions and attitudes.
2. The air induction subsystem shall have minimal
aerodynamic losses. A 0.5-1.0% pressure loss should
be attainable in most air induction system designs.

face, fps
In addition, pressure measurements should indicate that variations in inlet total pressure, evaluated
in terms of a distortion index, as defined in the engine
model specification, are within the required specified
values.

When a particle separator is installed (see par. 32.5.2), the pressure loss will be higher but should not

3-2.5.2 Inlet Protection

exceed 2.0-2.5%. Each 1%of pressure loss results in

The engine air induction subsystem should be

1.5-2.0% power loss.

designed, to the maximum practicable degree, so that

3. The air iqduction system shall meet the minimum acceptable engine inlet distortion limits as pre-

foreign objects from external sources will not enter

induction subsystems. The level of protection re-

scribed by the engine specification. The local total

pressure should not differ from the average by more
than 5.0%.
Items 1,2, and 3 are interrelated and pertain mainly to pressure gradients determined by the duct area
distribution, duct wall radii of curvature, and
changes of duct wall curvature. To insure that these

quired for the engine air induction subsystem is defined during preliminary design. Various engine air
particle separators (EAPS) are dccribed in Chapter
8, AMCP 706-201.
An engine air inlet sand and dust protection device,
if installed, shall meet the criteria specified in Chapter
8, AMCP 706.201.

3-6

An intation anti-iciag suabsystem dM11 be din-

if an ice dekector is installed in th induction

confornm to M I LD-S 18 1,
Any failure of the anti-icing countrol "hIl result in
the anti-icing wbaylsyttu remaining in or reverting to
the anti-icing ON mode.
Eugiae air induction system~ can be anti-iced either
elnctrically or 6y time use of engine bleed air. The
former telncricaily) can use a nonmetallic duct in
which thermoelectric beating elements airc embedded.
The latter type (bleed air) has used a metallic duct
that is formead in%* a double-skin heat eatchanger
adjacent to thec area requiting therm~al protection,
These bleed air heat exchangers have been made with
and without fins.
The decision between electrical and hot air systems
is made for echb helicopter on the basis of the
renalired heiconter misi~on and results of trade-off
studies in which the airframe/transnuission/cnginc
match is considered to determine the system which
results in the lowest aircraft pealy

system. the detector slu

3-2.53.1 Elect"~a AM~e-idg

Typically, electrically anti-iced helicopter engine
air induction subsystems require a variation in local
power density from 4.0 to 16.0 W/in.2 to account for
local vakiations in surface velocity and moisture ianpingement rate. Relatively large amounts of clcctrical power are nececssary, which results in a substanI.-3

Lg

ntSp~

.-

weight.
Electrical systems arc relatively easy to design and
test. The surface temperature of the air induction
duct normally is held to 40 0 17(4.40C) for the atmospheric dcsign condition the anti-icing system is
required to meet. Calculation procedures arc contained in Ref. 4.

)
4

31-2.5-32 Bleed Air AtiI-Icift

Hot-air-type anti-icimig subsystems use compressor
bleed air, which must bk adequate in quantity and
temperature to metl all rcquircmcntr. throughout the
power and environmnental spectra. An advantage of
t;ese systems is that the related powci penalty is
ap~plicable only on a cold day. when anti-icing i%
required. In most cases. the helicopter will not be
ewer-limited on a coW day and. thmerefore. will surfer only a fuiel consumption penalty from the use of
compressor bleed sit,

problems. howcvcr. Fins, if used. mums be braand

turing and aisainbly capabilitins also becomne important design considerations.

In a bleed air anti-icing subsystem. engine bleed air
is ducted from the comprissor bleed port to a solenoid shutoff valve and then into the intake manifol
ait the leading e*g of the inductionl iibsyitrni inlet.
The flow then impinges ovu the inlet leading edge. providinS the greatest heat transfer at the emtemal flow
stanation point where the thermal Wod is highest.
The now then passes through heat exchangeri alont
tihe inner and outer lips of the air intake. The gap
height (minimum gap - 0.000 in.) along the induction systemu flow passages is tapered so that the exsternal skin temperature is maiimained cloac to 40*F.
The air then is dischar~ged overboard through discharge slots located at the rear of the outer lip. A
thermal switch should be cusd to monitor duct skin
tgm~p=c:*rc. This swtitch astu*tecs a warnin light if
the skit. temperature drops, below 401F while the
system i. in operation. Actuation of tbe light indicates ci~her a subsystemi failure or icing conditions
more severe than the subsystem capacity.
.. 3
idIlgDiusrte
eesrl
W-ce
3"3
The capability of the anti-icing subsystern must be
demonstrated by test. The test requirements are
described in Chapter 9. AMCP 706-203.
3-2.6 EXIIAUSY SUBSYSTEM
In

A_g
s..c

.,f h

ene n

ex-a

..

sy-.-.msalme
J

the following objectives:

1. Minimize pressure loss to reduce engine power
loss. Losses usually caii be held to a pressure loss of
IlkY
or less. A I%pressure loss grrnerally results in an
approximate i% power loss.
2. Prevent loss of tail rotor efiacicncy due to hot
exhaust gas flowing through the tail rotor
3. Prevent loss of power duc to heating of the inlet
air and/or reingestion
4. Prevent overheating of the adjacent strv-_.turc
due to impingemenit by exhaust gases
5. Provide maximum possible thrust recovery.
Exhaust system assemblies usually are welded or
furnace brazed. The brazed assemnbly offers high resistanccetic tal fatigue becausc the strcngth of the
material is not uffected appreciably by the brazing
operation. BRazing has both advantages and disadvantages. It requires hightir initial tooling espenditure%. hia%a potentially iower unit price, and usually is

haust cjecto %as air pumping devices. Although

many ejector configurations are possible, two cornmonly arc used for this pupoe
The frsnt confguration p'rovides ant abinulus for
momentum exchangr at the downstream end of the
exhaust duct. The nacelle that forms the outer surface
of Owe annulus extends beyond the exhaust duct to
provide an adequate mixing length for this ejector.

pouuibility of capoure tolIL seekiaig4 usivpuxs an IftY

radiation suppression subsystm awys~ be ~e
The extent and type of suppeuason rmwvd will havc
bee &flined by the procurngl acfivwt. and inJoaded
in tile prelimnwary design. As cdssi ad in Chi~r 8.
AMCP M&.201. thUe IL suppeesioa subssystgo vatay
be a part of the helicopiter or be a meprate ka. In
*jw cm, thse suppresson of 1K ruia*Aak
requira
reducing the tm"Perature of thx tank sou te.
The paragraphs that tIllow diacxts cal) passive
countermeasures to ER weapons. Active cow~tcrmeasures also mny be rwquired but. as disuctexd in
Chapter 8. ANICF 706-203, Ii.c quAlification of smch
systems by US Army Akr~ation Systems; Command
(USAAVSCONI) is Winiedi to tbS iaaa~cc bItwenn
the leicopwe and the sabsyst~sn.
The principal heat scurms are the vbg~ine hot part.
exhaust duct, and exhatost plume. However. other
heat sources also may produo" sinirscant =aunts of
energy in the ER frequency band. 'fl. raiaition from
other sources (ecg., heat exchaffW. r outlets and solar
ref'lection from windshickti. also may have to be
reduced to bring tht total IR signature of the tieli-

PICCtvcn dnasm
4#Cti
4are MUse Oe WILM LFu

...
Ct-1 .........

11M esiffw*u t0 rePAir. BY cMUtas, W"ld require

Iba goohng and Mge rqmpAie mome easily. buit are
sumw ProIw to M~etal fatiue becaus of fthaetallurgccAnge in ft WeOd area.
To reduce pmressurloss and thus obtain maximusm efficency. the zexuse systems skoul &oA make
abnWp cross-sectitalchanges. Duct beaids should be
gradua anid an adequate diffusion aesgle must be
"ma rinted. In mQicrgine helioptes, savings iRniitWa eoat and greater availability or spare parts makeh
imaserckaable exhaust duct- "esrablc.
3-2*61 Ihme Ejecters
Engine compartment/engine component zooling is
discusse in par. 3-6. However, engift installations
requiring

positive compartmetnt Cooling Often use CX-

114X1

through exhaust gas impingement. Flighitemperulure liners often arc used in this area. The exhaust
duct isof conventional design, mounted directly onto
the engine,
The second configuration locates the momnentumnexchan~le annulus at the upstreamn end of the exhaust
duct. ihe engine serving as the inner ring of the annulus and the duct as the outer ring. This method allows

I.rates

the annulus rings, resulting in higher operating efficicacies. Two basic dzsigns are possible. One sepathe exhaust duct from the engine, thereby
reducing metal fatigue of the exhaust duct, which is
supported by the nacelle or airframe structure. The
other uses standoffs to mount the exhaust duct on the
engine. The latter must be used when the engine installation requires a exhaust-duct-im posed load -o
change engine natural vibration frequencies.
Generally, the selection of a method for pyoviding:
the necessary cooling airflow will have been mad
during preliminary design. As discussed in AMCP

706-201, par. 8-7,41, this selection requires cxaminL.

lion of th%; wtight penalty iand pi,.er lessa ssociatted
with the alternative means. Design cons'derations
pcrtin.:nt to the integration ofm exhcaust Cje..tCT iI'!6
the cool~ng system are reviewed in paf. ' 6. lnclude6
are refrncrrcs to design proct.4urrs and rcquircmcr.ti
for desijn. documentation. and demonstration.
3-2.6.2 Inidrarod 11tiR) I&AdIaOm
It the missions assigned to a hzlicoptcr tnclu':-. he

3-9

uuErit

3-2.6.2.1 IR Sappresela Reqsktaflutti

Thc I R supprmsion requirements for a nec* Army
helicopter will be provided by the Syseiem Specificrtion. Typically, the requ'rernent will be *tAited it) the
example that follows.

~IR SUF'FrkSImON REQUIREMENT

The maximum total ;R railiazion siulature of
the helicoptei shall be suppressed to lewels nct
to exceed (2 desired~) W/Isr in the 3-5 mici-oun
bandwidth. The total I R radiztiob! signature is
comprised of d*rcct (i.e, ,4iihle hot metal
parts). indirect or re.1cted, and cxha!Ws Vpuma
rae~ation. Radiption frumn thr engine and tailpipe and from all secon~dary soutees, such as
hcat exchanitei ottelts anrd fuselage areas
washed by exhasist, aic in_;uded. Thc suppressed IR radiatknr s'gnature itqi~rement.;
shall he based upon the Army Ho~t Day Atmosphcre (i.e., l25*F at tiea lriei) and shOl/apply
will the engine o~eaiing at intecrn edizre pow~er
and with the heiicortcf at the grsi wvegh: thmt
rcsolts in the hightest %exhaustgas temptyature.
The si:(natz.- sholl be rwiluated at lower hcrr:_r~'er. upper hemispht~rc, and coplansa' viewing
argies, und the required level -.f supp:ession
shall apply to the viewing angic thak results in
th inximurnsigiiature.,

Rtequirasc for
&iisfit ipociki sfnats
sepleasuc so shec
umainms accqpuabhe

I& uuppremaon "Wuufss so

will be prov"ide ma ceoimiemi
systam specification. The
sipstae will be described in

pAsc
ired(or tharW risedwo sath
ea 1osevera
Wevwhaoba wiis she lIt uP@um

A ceutpresive WUstakai of military IR snckedgy itg&a by AMOI T06-t27 and AMCPWMb

922 (Icfrsud M~AwV Span fiPan, Ow and Tva.
Rboo.Adhusme&l4WWO pelinet
oue
fm
so Ill. wpphwowi~ls uaqprmmaue.m art gave by this two-pant handamdauiam will be p,,ovi~sd by USAAVSCOM tapest
ftqms. Ilowever Compliance With apuo
lequirwinmnt. will be dmnoustraeat by a IR ugjnalsare
mLszvy (am per. S-t. AMCP 706-2W).

flU.Z Luum &%-qemn

As nose prvissly. fth principal sos'm of It,
ra4iatizu from a helicopter arc she visibl hot parts of
tlit regime and Uslaggiac exhaus. Therefore she
mons LmpOWPrtm pesOf shell suPPiMkO Mubsysnnoraliv as the eahamssmumujwr. Dwemndias
ova It4 Mereica sumi so tWs hsam . It6 &upprcssor may be an isuwra pern of she helicopter or is
Sue
bed4ri4 as askit to bec installed only when she
belicor. 4zu
insacombat role in which epipagemet by
iR setkir., weapon(s) is probable. Further. the exhutg IR suppressor nary bc dtvcluqa by the enginc
conrtctor ard provided as an engine accessory, or
the hcicoptew manufacturer may be responsible fur
shg devvlopmn~rt of the suppressor and of the instatla-

MiTson

tn.rotor

Desir of an cxhau'st IA supprevior is a complex

nrocrrn.The
.tg

onntiuptrnajslihnhra re disrnwdM in

Chapter 8, A MCP' 706-20 1, mnd the trade-dft amiong

shc possible vvrwer lasme and weight increases aluo
are discussed. The methods of cooling a suppressor
arc descrbegd and she possible use of low emishii ty
miatktgs a~o isdiscussed. Further explanation of tht
kelt transfer prooesses imacluding pertinent eq~uations
and values for the applicable material props-sties and
ohrconstantls, is givutz in PSI. 4.
Typkally. she first requirement of an exhaust supprcscu-or isto shield she hot engine parts from external

viewy. The shield in turn isit*@lf heated by impinging

4Wtwl
-

exhaust gab. The effictiveness of the shield as an IKR

radiatos then must be reduced by cooling or by con,
of she cmissivily of the surface of she shield, or
both. H-owcver, she temperature of she exhaust plume
can be h-duced only by coolirng and this really can be
accomplished only by dilution; by miting cookst air

ami mqsimnmua she amassm of cedin air etAp ha

quie larip and she po i rrequined to prowideoh
viomary uirfic' "le
SOnu -w
a.
hi. S
ductibs.satud f atwv
mijm/nune
strigmas It mnppawuaem reqtiresmm with maiwmam
impact "Mue proulion ystem
65lo-n pow
wequred for ecitle mimem pwftormnm.
Wbherat
eah"msslo aqausoresusama&auian-A
jpat part of she engine iaasalhstioa or a removablk kit.
enine oufshe huglbeopser Futhe.em s isslly
VAI m
mot alew ademiely sUn vibmaom eniommiw4a#of se
of an *%hase It sappressor onabelicoipsor "~t arv
remilt im a reduction of e-a'n or engine osapari
-Ln
cooli% kuhn mama. sequined L"&l sands
any nomtIna operating mmnditii.. Ahso. thininstalhsbion dd! no rodues appuecaify she tweet availabW
from she menie, or wceuem apre.&mbl eithe Ws
pwowe requird frogs dhe ngin or the W< baedl or.
power required. Typically, a pow" loss not inesamb
of 3%of she power fequird so howe as, the upogfis
hot-day Coo~dision (C49.g.. kC
t 9?F) is a0001116ble,
athkous the lam aowable in a given case wil deuporn tin. mwwais" knL
M ap5$
V"b. W
flj 3cas, die iaatallation of any device to suppree the IR
sin-r ala
rvn h coinpt~iaace of she balicopter with she performance requimwaents of the
system specification.

-=

3-3 P ?ULSON CONTROLS

ContrcJ of abhelucopter p-ropulsion system rcqwrea

considerution of sht. churactristics of she hidkoptcr
as wvcl! as thle Ut.Th
oaxatrl system is
defined during prlinainary design, and the
....

Z...a.f.

iE aAeaiI

.-

in Chopwr R

A
7621Thdealeinegnernalin-:V
serface the control, systam design with the engine
manufacusflr to asbure th~t she operation and performancc defined in prolimantary dcsi~n are attutinable. Accordingly, the continuing relationship
btetweea engine and airframe manufacturers is Pratmount during the detail design phase. Detailed diecussion regarding this interface relationship is pro043
vddi hpe ,AC

34

FE

USSE

45
EEA
4.GE RA
The fuel subsystem con~sists of tanks, refuctiug/
ds-fuehing features fuel feed and vent line-s, fuel
purmps vahles fuel gaging comiponents, and Masovialed items such as fuel tank compartment struc3-9

.T

subjua.

A typicali fia

is dluatfaed digamp

%)stsms. speal~e1Iy the okns)

pmbimwy
i dk
*mum$ad
fatl sCsA
AMCP 70
.DObS
o i (W liyu
ALT be a Isalka
xis .
MIL-EA-3636. seqwg as
=a~d" by d
miss
itn waiviy. Tb. (va amberai
hW
e
Its
mnbeny
ds..~ with Ref. 6
and WOL4TD-230.Dmpa i0s"uoa fasawres
reuiw
for aauwortistA aV dwarsbed in
Chs .3 AMCP W61-A ssmprate and
utwrai
wsim(o.g.a. vows maW wrt"t dry,
be# areas iew
chi&b air~ftd =muams may be opomnd
to pmeni igaimios, sousws, sWt be adequatly wfoned haum Are or esplemiom. MIdL-F-J33W also co.th reqaaafwww for the mswrunafsb OanldtsdS
sass, whic bs (tad
W ausyslff AsU opemuic wA4&We*y. Uwa.. Whosy'm spsdffatwe 3M-ovKdS Iq-

mis ptocuuiagI activity prewcilme otherwise. mtc

raw'of ambles ass tmpeawi and fuel temperat~~~amt
at the miimum wawe amntent of the fuel ABU
be a* spciidW inaMIL-F-M383.
For asatimumn rcAiibilaty. it is desirable that the
coeuation of fue&4dw sabsystems b,, faanuionaliy independent qa the opca~ciun ot o~Ls icWivotiw sub-

'N

AP
L

IIA

50

SA
A

7A

C01
14

APU SNL'IOFF, VALVE iMANUAL),

150j~

54

ISA

8BA -

12A

15

341.1 FeB Tasks

Natan tuel tanks normally consist of one or mort
bladder-tyiw, tWl intercoauaceed to foami a twn -3
itp"i 1 .t~iy
~~gg e
~
i acz;; -

Ab
10Ab
11AB

1~A
IU[IIt

13

df iatm-oth
albilxt
both
um04s.
aon
She
nctwary fuel no% at the pmmramn qedal
ey dic
cogane model Wimfiara n. Wben posmea.
KMw
fuel-feed subsystems uh..id bg mocd an Wow as prm
monad systems for tacnaad *ta" oft. utabswy
In the pararapbsi that follow the pnacqWa &meng
twurequcmenas usp-,1acabkc to kq)conmpufant, ast? smmtaons of the fuel stabnystam am daubs wA4 *k,cussed. Reftrain should be ma&ti O
hiL-F-fli
for additional reqiarmmcnts appisaa
a icte Wue
maacrials, hardwar. and componcas taed inas
a
subs,stemn as well as to the samtaflatacte of ths uoa
system in the helicoptert The sptcinacaawc. awai
dcicribes the dana that must bc pruvadav, to pious
the procuring activity to evaluate tbs lue ssabsysaaan
design for a new, helcopteu
3U FE
USSE
O I-N
-2FELSSV~M
O40ET

BOOST PUMP PRESSURE SWITCH

ENGINE-DRIVEN BOOS' PUMP
SYSTEM PRiME VALVE kMANUJAL
FIREW.ALL QUICK DISCONNE.Ci
12AB -SELECTOR
VALVE (MN1NUALI
SUPPLY L'NE
13
-HEAlER
14
-. WOBBLE PUMP
bABC -CHF CK VAL VE WITH SCREE[N
DRAIN VAL\'E (MANUAL)
16AB -SUMP
-ENG!NE DRA!NS
17AB

786s

it

F," E
EN U

C-L

66r-

SUIPPLY

-FUEL

ELECTRICAL

------

NUlPJE SUPPLIED COMPONENT EI4VELUPL

-----IGINE

NAI

an

1AB -ENGINE DRIVEN FUEL rUtAP

2A;3d
FUEL FIL.1 E~
FiL-TER IMF ENDING RN-PASS WARNJN'$jui,-I
~(AIRFRAME MOUJNTED DUAL FILTERS'
AiIRFRAME MOUNLED DUAL 'rJEL FILTEK)
4AB
0
DUAL FIrTER BY- ASS VALVE (ELEC*RICAL.
5Ab-

I-AL

IIAr
9

hJbdnMoi-

DRAINS

dance with MIL-T-27422. The type. protection level,

and class as defined by the specification shall be appropriate to the application (e.g.. Type I for selfsealing. Type II for nonself-sealing). The tank configuration and installation shall comply with M IL-F38363 and MIL-T-27422. These specifications contain the requirements for liquid-tight structure surrounding self-sealing tanks and the installation of
backing boards to protect flexible self-sealing tanks.
To prevent overflow each tank shall contain expansion space equal to no less than 3% of the total fuel
volume of the tank when the helicopter is in a normal
ground attitude. Gravity filler openings shall be so
located that all tanks can be filled without overfilling
into the expansion space. For pressure refueling
systems the level shutoff valve shall prevent filling of
the expansion space. Each filler opening cap shall be
in accordance with MIL-C-38373. All tanks shall be
provided with a low-point drain for fuel sampling
and defueling purposes.
External fuel can be contained in tanks complying
with MIL-T-7378 or MIL-T-18847. The installed
location should permit service personnel standing on
the ground to inspect visually and service the tanks.
Inflight jettisoning should not affect the helicopter
adversely. To minimize combat turnaround time, all
external tanks should be readily removable and
replaceable without helicopter disassembly.
3-4.2.2 Fuel Tank Vents
Each fuel tank shall be vented to'the atmosphere
:hrough lines whose capabilities are compatible with
the performance of the helicopter, without producing tank pressures detrimental to the helicopter
structure or to the tank.
If a pressure refueling system is required, the venting capacity of each tank also shall be sufficieni .o
discharge the maximum rate of fuel flow, without ,xcessive tank pressure in the event that the refueling
system shutoff valves fail in an open position. Traps
must be avoided, and the subsystem should be
operable with the helicopter afloat if amphibious
operations are required. If vent valves are used to
prevent spillage, they .hall, as required by MIL-STD1290. close when the helicopter is in a position of
extreme attitude. The vent lines may be designed to
prevent spillage without valves by traversing three
directions, etc. See Ref. 6 for vent line design details.
3-4.23 Fuel Gaging
In accordance with MIL-F-38363. a fuel-gaging
system that meets the requirements of MIL-G-26988
shall be provided. It shall be installed in accordance
with MIL-G-7940. System indication of total fuel

quantity and of the quantity in each main tank sli

be continuous. Design of the gaging system and fuel
cell interface must preclude gaging system puncture
of the fuel cell during crash conditions.
Each main tank shall contain a device independent
of the fuel gaging system to provide a low-fuel warning. The quantity of fuel remaining at the moment of
actuation of the low-fuel warning must be suiTicint
to allow the engine to operate for 0.5 hr at maximum-range power unless otherwise specified.
342.4 Refuellg ai
u
The refuel/defuel features for any given fuel subsystem shall be specified by the procuring activity.
However. the design criteria for such features shallbe
in accordance with MIL-F-38363.
All helicopters shall be capable of being refteled on
the ground, using a gravity refueling system. without
external power being applied. Unless the tar.Ks are
too small for the rate to be practical. or the procuring activity has specified another .-ate. the fuel
system shall be capable of being refeled, at a continuous rate of 200 gpm without any operations other
than removing the filler cap and connecting the
fueling nozzle bonding plug being required. During
the tank topping portion of the refueling, the flow
rate may be less than 200 gpm.
If the internal fuel capacity is 600 gal or more. a
pressure refueling system shall be required (MIL-F38363). In this case, it shall be possible to refuel all
tanks from a single connection, the fuel lines being
such as to allow the fuel level in all tanks theoretically to reach the full position simultaneously. On the
other hand, the subsystem design must be such that it
is possible to fill selectively any individual tank or to
avoid filling any given tank. Operation of shutoff
valves, plus the precheck system, must not depend
upon the use of external power. To prevent excessive
surge pressure within the refueling system, shutoff
valve closure time may It r.wtrolled, or appropriate
pressure relief valves incorporated. Additional systern requirements are given in MIL-F-38363.
Defueling of tanks shall be possible using the
pressure refueling system when installed. When the
defueling adapter (MIL-A-25896) is not usted also for
refueling, positive means, such as a check valve, shall
be installed to prevent refueling through the adapter.
A typical pressure refueling system is illustrated in
Fig. 3-5.
A sump shall be provided in that portion of each
fuel tank which is lowest when the helicopter is in the
normal ground attitude. A drain valve for fuel
sampling and for removal of sediment and watersh.ll
he provided in each tank sump (MIL-F-38363).
3.11

WARM

czz
CA4

10
1-1

cm

-J

I
Ijr'

343S te~-&Addatiouial
If in t mWu,6muPing is reqited for rapid reductka of haliepm p grams
m.
ONe djsIeaa~lpd fuel
Ag ot impiWp apwm Mimr*Vst-he hglicopw4. of
be diechaqSed into eather a*ares of saaa; ekeritma
discharg or Mhe efinwe shaissi plume. Uuln the
dumpang. puwps &Wbelh eaved to achive the desired
dumping rae Tfhe too %pgM jj capeim snug b
tuieu
o prevntm find cell collaps whil dumping.
34.2g~
~
The food system. whavrby fuad is delivered to ahe
O.40ims)a sAOl be desiged in acnt
wit MILF-39363. to gtamirl. fW moim be available on se anuWaerrupsed barns with"u coatinuous itimatio of the
caew. The Weesytms must allow normal terrormanef of dth enginm~z) menet atl attituds normnal for
the helicopter on the around, said in both steady and
manuve
aallaliwds
figh
p S ad Il~thd~g
the servi ce ling.
Typically. the fad food system consists of a main
h
Cm
Mihtwf!tns=&
relluiareenuts Of' the helicopter within the
-points

9ca&incty

t.t: zuw t.4UV111611taEU

The fed uiihlpi

'EEC
%liut

14W

IZII UllUCt

all required engine and helicopter operating con

ditions (altitude and attitude. including maneuvers).
Fuel shall be provided to the engine at conditions
spacified in the engine specification. The tuction fzed
capability shall be dew.rmined for fuel temperatures
specified in MIL-F-38363 or as specified by the procuring activity.
When the system includes tranbfer taknk(s) aE wtll
as main tank(s), the noFMrma squencing of intertank
feed must maintain the CG of the fuel system w~thin
acceptable limits throughout the range of fuc- loads
from full to empty at all required flight conditions.
To insure that tht particle 3izes of contaminants in
theexeedthe
uel o nt imis gien n MI-EW. it maj be necesary for the engine feed
syetem(s) to include filters oi strainers. If so, the
strainersslwil be in accordance with N4IL-S-8710and
the installation shall be in -accordance with M IL.-F38363.

indude adquah
adaese with NIL-FqId
0ta l i
of the syat can bet draeile. AM! madim,
bladd taok cavutiu dry bays and pocketa and traps
W wsrcuewhm Nt
yaA
n
b
rin i tohe
stru xirewhreofedw my colect
Dain hel
orrst a
WbeU i.ds
w *'
Cwp &be
tor
gd
1AV(a3dUn selwfsealing 2asiks &dbe 0.50 in. d"mowe meisimium
Fuel dramn Aab mot be jbsecommvecte with dramn
lit carrying otkse liquA The
m.
Jlation *f We
droais Anill be such ttat weda no operating con&tio will drainage re-~te th helicopter or cam in
dofgi A

drainag piovintm ina

316.Snfcitdn

-:o

wbWe brakes. kn those Waisoed waes wben the

pamoi00a Iwntho gIC
aihf~r OepuwfPXsiw ea
the bioWcannot be avoide. sany joists in Ohw

,mwithin

mialtiengine~~lin hlotesasare.
main tiank and feed systunsem
be p,-oided for meac
engine. These independent systems also must bie so
designed that fuel from any tank can be fetto any or
all eagines.ThcotosfrtefeSytmAi
Twondepnden
andisolted ethos ~the
provided to move fuel out of each tank. except only
one method need be provided for jtttisonable external tanks. Each method ot moving the fuel shall meet

neqguemeats and guidelines applicable

to the design and installatiwe of feed sysiamnt that will
be exposed to awen, $roved rem and for whcK* self
sealing tanks ame nquirod also awe given by NIL-IM8)63.

te

occup~ied am
esall

shrdoudedan

3.2. ciintres MWd Imafmentom

Thcotlsfrheflsyemsllbgopdii
egupdn
cockpit in a functional manner. A siraplried diagrant
of the
ruel system
sh~llswitch
be inscribed
oi. the
pancl so the
functioni
each
indicated
clearly.
As a minimum, of
presentation
ofisthe
following
performance data for the fuel system shall be provided in

; 1

the cockpit:

1. Fuel quantity. c~ch main tank and total

2. Low fuel-level warning roe each main tank
3. Bypass warning for each fuel filter
4. Low fuel-inlet pressure wirning for each engine
5. Indicator lights for electrically operated fuel
sltf
ae.
As additional auxiliary fuel systems are added, appropriate controls and instrumentation shaft! bc provided.
34. TESIING
Substanst-itng the capability of the fuel system to
tuilisfncon rqir''sdigalphesf
aircraft operation is requirWi by MIL.F-38363. Suchl
vtrification sAm? occur in three phases:
1. Compn~Ient tcs~inj
2. Fuel sysicem s~mulstor testing
3. Ground and flight testing.
3-13

Airflow through the engine compartment is required to prevent the engine: engine-mounted accessories; other components, equipment, or fluids within
the compartment; and/or surrounding structure from
exceeding max'imum allowable temperature limits,
The maximum allowable temperatures normally will
be given in the applicable engine or equipment speci-

parilncn! ina. he provided in the applicahle equip;in,-.pecfaicoitior% In the cas of tranmi%,,on, and
ecarho.c,. developed bh the helicopter manufat.turer. the heat rejection rate must he calculated.
h.icd tn design values for gcar-mesh and bearing
efficiencic-. and later confirmed by test (%ec Chapter
4). When the heat rejection rates are known. surface
temperature% of individual heat-producing components can he calculated on the basis of free air convection at the ,urface. Rcf. 4 contains a section which
treat% each of the fundamental heat transfer mechanisms - i.e.. conduction, convection, and radiation
- in considerable detail. The equations and calculation procedures for both steady-state and trinsient
heat transfer problems arc given, together with tables
and charts of values of the physical properties of material-, needed in the calculations. Should the information be inadequate for a given problem. an cxtcnsivc list of references also is provided.
rhe quantity of cooling airflo% required for
adequate cooling of the engine compartment also
must he determined anal.ticallv by heat-transfer calculatioms. This flow ,,;.ally must be obtained by
forccd convection during operation of the engine.
with the residual heat remaining at shutdown being
dissipated by free convection. The calculation of heat
hdance within the compartment is complex. with
consideration of all three heat-transfer mechanisms
being required. In the design of the cooling subsystem, it is necessary to assure that the airflow over
large surfaces such as the engine is such that the
temperatures are approximately uniform. Large
temperature differentials can result in differential expansion and hence warping of the engine case. Such a
condition, which can cause excessive loads on engine
bearings and hence premature engine failure. must be
avoided.
As mentioned in par. 3-2.6.1, an engine exhaust

fication but additional limits may be prescribed by

the system specification. Temperatures must be kept
below the allowable limits under all operating condi-

ejector ika convenient means for pumping compartment cooling air during operation. The design of an
ejector cooling system shall be coordinated with the

tions, both ground 'vnd flight, prescribed for the helicopter for all ambienit air conditions between the hot
and cold atmospheres (temperature as functions of
attitude) given as limits by the system specification.
Further. the maximum compartment or component
temperature limits shall not be exceeded following
engine shutdown from any operating condition with
ambient air conditions anywhere within the prescribed limits.
Heat rejection requirements for the engine and its
components will be provided by the engine specification. The amounts of heat rejected by other accessories or eouipment installed within the engine com-

design of the engine exhaust system, with care being

taken that the installation does not cause excessive
power loss or adversely affect engine operation by
producing an unacceptably high pressure at the
engine exhaust. In any case, the engine exhaust
system shall meet the requirements given in par. 3-2.6
(this handbook) and Chapter 8, AMCP 706-201. Procedures for the design of an ejector, or jet pump, are
given in Ref. 4. For additional ejector design information see "'Performance of Low Pressure Ratio
Ejectors for Engine Nacelle Cooling", AIR 1191,
Society of Automotive Engineers. November 1971.
Procedures for design, including determination of the

In addition to testing the complete fuel subvstem. all

components must be qualified in accordance with
MIL-F-8615. and must he so qualified or have pas,.,cd
%fetv of flight tests approved by the procuring activity before ground and flight tests are conducted. Fuel
subsystem demonstration requirements arm described
in Chapter 9. AMCP 706-203.

3-5

LUBRICATION SUBSYSTEM

Engine lubrication subsystems may he an integral

part of the engine, thereby eliminating various connections to the airframe and conditions that may lead
to oil contamination when changing engines. Lubrication oil may be contained in an engine-mounted oil
tank and cooled by a heat exchanger.
Engines lacking an integral lubrication subsystem
require the addition of an oil reservoir, lines, instrumentation, and a cooler - if an engine heat cxchanger is not available - to cool the oil. Airframemounted oil reservoirs shall not be located in the
engine compartment.
A lubrication subsystem integral to the engine %will
have been tested completely during engine qualification. Component testing of nonintegral subsystems
will be necessary in accordance with MIL-O-19838 to
substantiate proper rates of oil flow. pressure, temperature. and deaeration. Engine lubrication subsystem demonstration requirements are specified in
Chapter 9, AMCP 706-203.

3-6

3-14

COMPARTMENT COOLING

poweir reqavwnamet for aImala. we givnws

Re 4 .

cog. and reobabi1y. SsW wi. of Cgeragration hased

f t =611111 OMW MMawlif

Cm~w=
suibsyatem must he desumstraW~ by tast. is addiitm
to the 011M 1011peratuftld kmsas all VMiiM= CI-

npoi= shape will dqumd up.. helictopr *ac available. weight aNd vokiiimei afe compaable; but coo,.
relability. wmlauaaitabihty. and Id cyace coos fey,

0"411uW4 F ANN be WrGWWe from 110u1 Wpi&W.

Thais can be awolshe by use of dip he or by
cookog the sariams to a asmwalmr balow dUOF.
a sysuinm soveriaThe req~rw~ tsefix a ;prip hiom
ture survey anc gveii in Chapter1, AMCP 7W]0O3. A
systeM temperatture demoowStralies.
1Ipropasio
descrnbed in ChaPte 9 of AMCP 1M6-203. may
irsquire fmnihu ton"in oddition to the uimperature

The singlesbaft combination bleed APU type.

mompream can
Moderi siamgie-agW ceaijialS
produace 4-0tl and hbghw pressure ratios with a wide
range or flow bet wee dhokc arW $,al.
Akbotqh the drive compruso may produce
higher preames.ra variable inlig guide: vane or diff~ei vanes may be necessary to obtain the required
flow range.

3-7

ACCEMSOIES AND ACCESSORY3.2At

rebull in miamiumu
Helicopter design rcquiranas
~
~.~
engie dvc
accuoy
equwmiets. uxpforthe
engine starter and tachometers. mfost acmusories are
driven directly from the mawi gearbox. This is to take
advantage of the ability of the helicopter to autoroltae in the event of origns failure. If engine failure oc~ ~The
dos no fai
curs
powraccssor
**
in
istiota of Zeicopter
MICA"O"
isdiscsse in
Chapter 4.

OWER
AUXILARY
3-4 AXLAY O E
(APUs6)

JNIT
NT

34&1 GENERAL
The requirement for an APU will be established
during pircliminary design. The paragraph describrs
design and installation requirements for AMU's and
refers to pertinent qualification requirements.
Fmrnliasis is nlaced unon the sinale-shaft APU configuration beaue o t ieue u otetedi
heicopter design toaard such items as pneumatic
main-enigine starting. air conditioning. avionic
JR radiation suppression, purging of main
engine inlet-protection sys-tems. air supply for antiicing. and the availability of air-driven accessory

I.cooling,
Imotors

STU1ODTIL

fit considering the detail design for installation of

DRIVE

(boost pumps. ctc.) additional emphasis is

placed upon the bleed air type of APU. Ncw helicopter designs have favored this type brcause of lower
overall system weight, despite the lower energy-transmission efficiency of the pneumrativ main enginestarting system. The bleed air type of APU usually incorporates an intedra! gearbox capable of driving
small electrical generators and pumps and, therefore.
provides emergency system power of all types.
Several APU configurations can be selected to
supply pneumratic powei (combined with small
amotunlts of shaft power). Four configurations arc
compared in Table 3-1 as to geometric shape, weight.

the AMVV all inwefams with the Wir,4pter shell be

treated. These include AMt mounting; inlet, exhiusa
and bleed air ducting; compartment cooling. arw.4iispor~eAt ussas
opitAPsbym.

3823Mtu

1M

APt) mounting subsystem xbWl be capabie of

withstanding all nlight maneuver forces, providing for
eurd).
we 9Vc"
se.a
and
beingrwiarrangedsOugvbat.
for eas of maintenance (espetcial-

for rapid installation and removal).

Driven equipment usually is APU-mounted. thus
removing the prublcm of alignment. In some cases.
howe.ver. a straight-through ex~ternal drive shaft isA
used to transmit shaftf power into an auxiliary or
combining gearbox. In such cases, a flexible coupling
must be provided.
The APU often can b- supported rigidly. This is
done conveniently by means of a three-point support
arrangement. Two pin-type mounts on each side of
the APU limit vertical. axial. and horizontal motion.
!3ut provide lateral freedom for thermal expansion. A
singlc gimbal then is used to suppoirt vertical loads.

while giving thermal freedom radially and axially.

In most helicopter applications, vibration isolation

has not been required because the APU is able to

withstand flight loads and vibrations without shock

mounts. Exprience has shown that frequencies up to
500 Hz are significant. but that APU susceptibility is
highest from 5 to 100 Hz. The APU must be capable
of withstanding the complete aircraft vibration spec,truni in both operating and nonoperating modes.
When the APU is not operating, normal loads are not
available to stabilize parts in piosition. Hcnce, it is
possible for external vibral'on to cause unusual motion vf iniernal parts, thus resulting in excessive wear
and premature failures. APU comnponents of parlicular inierest In this regard are the combostor liner
assemblies, the acrodynamically located internal
3-I5

Al
14

TABLE 3-1
ArIU TYPES FOR MAIN ENGINE STARTING ENVIRONMENTAl. CONTROL.
AND ELECTRICAL SUPPLY

I
INL-HF
DRIVEN

SI NGLE-SHAFT

SINOE*SAFT
SINGE-SAFT

SN.SHF

COMJlNATION
BLEED

JCOMPRESSOR

T1

COST

100%
100%
100%
1000%

REI -IARIILITY

100%

LENGTH
DIAMETER
WEIGHT

COMBINATION

BLEED-ITORQUE
CONVERTER

1h

--- iC--T

(710%
850%
970
125%0
91",

TWO-SHJAFT

PT DRIVEN
COMPRESSOR

1G10%0
000%
10061
125%o
70nG

TP

84%
00%1

16000

73%1

ATS-AIR TURBINE STARTER

C-COIMPR ESSOR
PT- POWER TURBINE
T-TURBINE
'Vj-ALTERNATOR
ECS- ENVIRONMENTAL.
CONTROL SYSTEM
S-STARTER
of high-temperature exhau:;t ducting, even with some
seals, the gear train, and the nonpreloaded bearing
sacrifice in inlet or bleed duct lengths.
asemblies. Bccause some installations do not require
.rborne APU operation. considerable time ma) be
ai
3-.2IneDutg
accumnulated in this nonoperating mode.
An82.
inletaiDullctori
ufgfe i eige n
A ne i olco rmf fe sdsge n
~~~~in
addition to the requirements of MlL-P-8,586. the
operauing and nonoperating modes. These ,.h//I be established based upon the vibration spectrum at the
APU mounting points and not merely upon the freqeiisof the main rotors.
The :rend in maintenance philcsopN)y is tossard
minimum scheduled maintenance of the APU., but
with the desigim adapted for rapid APU removal in
case of malfunction. Hence. quick-removal connections shwi! be used. with airframei componenits and
support structures arranged so that the unit can be
removed without removal of other equipment.
Minimum system weight usually will dictate that
the APUJ should be located near the main cr-gincs. A
multienigine aircraft, with air ducting required to %tart
each engine, suggests a submerged APU position for
minimum weight. Pod or surface locations can be
used when fuselage space is c-itically limited. Also to
be considered is the advantage cf a minimum length
3-16

ducting then runs between the fuselage surface and

th,, collector connection. Ducting pressure losses will
iiffect API) available power dircct!y. A typical relationship is illustrated in Fig. 3-6. For any output
shaft power level. a correction factor is given showing
the power loss for each unit of pressure loss in the airframe ducting. Values are given for both inlet and ex-

haust losses. The APU manufacturer may prescribe

limit%, on these losses in a form suz.h as is shown in
Fig. 3-7. If the sum of inlet and txhaust losses falls
btvlou~ the curve, the ;equirements have been met.
The APLJ air collcctor design may be critical. especidlly %hen transsonic compressors are used. Entry
conditions to the inducer will have inmportant effects
tin comnpressor efficiency. Collector design can be
compromised b) the location of accessories, Viut an
attoimpt should be made to mnaintain at uniform total
pressure distribution around the csompressor inlet.

AMCP 706-202

FUEL FLOW PARAMETER CORRECTION:

Wfi

WbCORR.
WHERE
Wf/b CORR.

lb/hr

FUEL FLOW PARAMETER CORRECTED FOR INLET LOSS, lb/hr

Wffl5

FUEL. FLO'.,V PARAMETER WITH ZERO LOSSES, lb/1hr

AMBIENT PRESSURE, psia
PRESSURE LOSS, in. H2 0

Pa

AP INLET
S

(S
P8 ZPINLET)

=INLET

~~

Pa14.7

0.8

-J

W 0.6

bEXHAUIS1 LOSS-

0.4__

__

0.2
0

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
OUTPUT POWER PARAMETER WITH ZERO INLET & EXHAUST LOSSES, hp/6, lhp

110

Figure 3-6. Fi'ufmnuace Corrczioas for Dvel Lowsa

inlet. The airframe ducting should include a straight

I
0.6

tstratification and cavitation in the ductinR..

If a device is incorpo~atcd to protect the inlet
against dust or foreign object damage (FOD), this
~may affectthe velocity profile and the resultant rs
sure losses must he coordinated with the APU manusothat mdlspecification performance is
maintained. One technique is to use directions.1

Ill

0.,facturer

a--.
.
rAFIAUST

changes of the total duct system for separation of

intake screen shall be used for FOE) pro-

t
IAid

0.2_
.

0.G
0.8
uc r PRESSURE Lu5S, P5.

1.0

~larger particles (>200 micn-oits).

1.2

Figure 3-7. Allowable Combined Inlet and Exhaust

Duct Piressre Losse
stabilizcd and directed by splitters or baffles.
Thc APU will have channels to provide contit oiled accelecation of air from thc collector int3 the inducer

<'possibly

tectioi,. Tisi -nay be located at fuselage entry. AIPU

collector entry, or compressor entity. The discussion
of the cflgitte air induction subsystem in par. 3-2.5 is
eial plcb- oteAUilt
3-.2.2 Exhaust Ducting
Exhaust duiting design will be related t,, APUJ
compartment cooling arrangements. The gaii-exii ye3-17

AMCP 706-202
locity can be used as the primary jet for an ejector.
Stcondary air is taken from the APU compartment.
Also, the ducting is a substantial heat source and
should
be located to minimize effects on compart-

Some components arc APU-rnounted and othcrs are

airframe-mounted. Electrical power to activate the
system may be provided by the aircraft system or by
an APU-driven generator. APU controls shall be

ment temperature.
If compartment ventilation must be limited due to
fire: hazards, high-temperature bellows can be used to
seal
ducting.
radiation
suppressionand
mayduct
be
needed
for theAlso
APUIRexhaust.
Compartment
cooling methods used on the main engines will apply
equally hete and aro discussed in pars. 3-2.6 and 3-6.

qualified concurrently with qualification of the APU

in accordance with MIL-P-8686.
most
S advanced
d anedAg APU sequencing
s
"ihe most
is done with

3-8.2.4 APU Bleed Air Dwting

In the case of a bleed air type of APU, a collc(tor
arrangement will be integral with the unit. The APU
control valve can be mounted directly on the APU
bleed collector flangc. If installation ,pace limitations cxist, or valve weight will overload the APU
flange. the valve may be line-mounted.
A flexible bellows can be used to minimize flange
loads, thus accommodating vibration, thermal
'owth. and installation tolerances. A quickdisconnec' type of connection is desirable for maintainability. Attention must be paid to duct pressure

solid-state electrical equipment. A speed signal is obtained from the gearbox or power section by mcanm
of a frequency signal from
a magnetic pickup, tachometer generator, output alternator, or mechanical spced switch. A frequency-sensitive sequencer
then actuates relays for slarting and APU accclcration.
The start is initiated by a switch that actuates the
APU starting system, This may be electrical or hydraulic (par. 3-8.3.5). The APU will begin rotation
without fuel or ignition to provide a momentary air
purge of the air and gas passages. Fuel and ignition
subsystems must be actuated at the lowest possible
speed, perhaps 5% or below, to insure good starts at
both cold and hot extremes of ambient temperature.

loads. APU model specification perfovmance is based

on pressure, flow. and temperature a' the APU bleed
collector flange.
3-8.2.5 Cooling
Surface temperature limits will be specified in the
model specification. During APU .)pcration, the
compartment cooling system shall cool the compartmcnt adequately. Temperature transients should not
exceed the limits specified in the model specification.

Actuation can be accomplirhed by a fuel pressure

switth, a timc dclay relay, or I speed signal. Some
combustion systems require separate start and main
(or run) fuel systems. At 10-20% speed, the main fuel
valve will be opened. A third speed point can be used
to turn off the starter. At approximately 90% speed.
start fuel and ignition will be turntA off. This signal,
with a time delay relay, also can arm the aircraft load
circuits. A fifth sequencing point at 110% speed pro-

APU firewalls are identical to the main engine

requirements discussed in par. 3-2.4.
The reduction drive, accessories, and lubrication
y.en. reprent
.
onsiderable heat. sore
at Pon
be dissipated into compressor inlet air or into the
APU compaitment. An oil (to air) cooler may be
needed to maintain system oil temperatures within
acceptaole limits.
A typical small bleed air APU may reject about 150
Btu/m:n to the lubrication system at sea level prossurc and 130'F. An exhaust ejector could provide a
cooling airflow rate of about 5 lb/ min. Compartment
cooling is discussed further in par. 3-6.
3-4.3 APU SUBSYSTEMS

vides for protective shutdown.

mrnasniach as APU) .ubsystems ai similar to those

previously discuad in this chapter for the main
nigine(s), the paragraphs that follow discuss only
those characteristics peculiar to the APU.
3-8.3,1 Electrical Controla
APU elecricisi coatiols are categorized as se.
quencing. protectivc, and toad, or output, controls.
3.-18

38.3.:.2 Protective Controls

Protective controls arc required to confine malfunctions to the APU and, thereby, to protr.t the
helicopter.
Protective devices may include overspeed, exhaust
overtcmpcrature, and compartment ovcrtcmperature subsystems. A simple thermocouple sensor in the
APU tailpipe, feeding to the solid-state circuit control (sequencer), provides APU overtemperature protection. Similarly. thermocouples within the compartment can signal the sequencer as fire protection.
Built-in test equipment should be used only to the
extent necessary to indicate an APU failure. Indicating lights shall be used for pilot advisory purposes. Audio annunciators can be adapted for the
if desired.
APsu
3--.3.1-3 Output Controls
The elect-' -1 load-control circuit usually is armed
by the 90%
ed sequencing point and a time delay

I...

AMCP 706-202

relay. Acceleration israpid from 90 to IOD% speed for

governing throughout the operating envelope dcrined

APU, hoeemyhv
mcucteaclrto

Techniques for scheduling fuel may bc mechanic i, ithe oniode

Th lcrncsystemis at-

yasfe
;-cbten9

av
n

o
0%

contol
beed vlveto
ir a argulae
uncton o ex
haust gas temperature. A thermocouple in the APU
tailpipec can signal a solid~statc circuit componert,
which, in turn, gives a modulating signal to the load.control valve. I he valve will open so that maximum
continuous exhaust gas temperature is maintained.
Thus, maximum bleed air available from the engine is
obtained. Large shaft power requirements require
careful examination of transient opt.-ation, because a
rupid response may be needed to avoid overtemperature shutdown. If the compressor is marginal on
stability. the load control valve may be s'heduled to
bleed small amounts of air during transients to prevent compressor stall.
Output load controls for electrical, hydraulic, or
direct shaft power arc regulated by aircraft system

Icomponents.

3-8.3.1.4 Ilectirk-al Control Location

APU-mouznted control components include all
driven enuinment: sensors for temperature. Dressure,
ads!%ccd. valves and ignition components.-anti other
control components capable of withstanding ccmpartment temperatures. Solid-state sequencing controls. p~ower suppily, load-contsol valve controls,
miniaturized relays, and malfunction in~dicators shall
be airframe-mi tinted so as to lai-it temperature; to
2001I or below. If required, some of these components can be mounted on 'he air inict collector oi
other ducting %vheretemperatures cani be limited by
heat transfer to incoming air.
M3-.31.5 Elecirk-all Prower Reqsareme ts
If the aircraft can provide small amiounts ofeclectrical power, the APU system is simplified. About 4 A,
24 V'is adequate to operate most APU relay s3-stemb,.
Battery' systetms suffer from ambient temperature
limitations in that the battery must be kept warm
(00 F or above) to permit the -65OF APU starts
required by MIL-P-8686.
If no batteries art available, an APU-drivcn ignition and control generator can supply start and run
sequencing power. Such a system requires a storedenergy APU start, such as hydraulic or pneumatic.
Voltage buildup must be very rapid so that system sequencing can begin early (5%) to achieve low self-sus~\ taining speed and good cold starting.
")3.3.2 Fue,! Sysiein Controls
The APU fuel system ;ontrol% must provide for
automatic starting. acceleration, and rated speed

orpecidicatr

sped cotro. prtectve ircuts

retcrequirequrdd
In most cases, however, the APU system requirements are simple an~d are handled best by a niechanical governor with aceic.ledtion fulnwshdldby
compressor discharge vre' aure.
The APU fuel system cnitofhefuel supply
(common with the main engine(s) ), airframemrounted boost pump, and fuel lines (with shutoff
and check valves) connected to the APU. An inlet
filter of large capacity, but small micron rating, provides clern fuel at the APU fuel pump.
3-8.3.2.1 R~ted Speed Govevning
The APU speed-regulation requirements genemitly
are satisfied by droop governing, as explained for the
main enginc in Chapter 8, AMCP 706-201. A speed
band (droop) of' 2-4% through the load range is
adequate for frequency coitrol at 400 Hz AC power.
Peovided bleed airflow and pressure requirements
are ment, the speed band is not critical for a bleed air
.ArU. Sopccd recovery and stability %villbeespecified in
the APU model specification. It reqi'ired, isochronous gover ning to hold speed within a narrow bond
(0.25%) can be acccinplished by a null system. Topping speed adjustments should be provided to account for installation differences and deterioration of
the efficiency of the APU or driven equipment
between overhauls.
3,3.2FlrngRjrmes
3-...

Fitrn

eqieet

Filtering has been a problem on some military helicomter installations, Combat situations have resulted
in .fuel contamination beyond original expectations.
Servicing oi components in the field also can introduce contami nation, which must be considered.
To keep required maintenance at a minimum.
AI'U Filters should be of extr..-large capacity, or of
self-purging configurationi. A high percentage of fuel
control, valve, ance nouzie failures results from contaillination damage. Sources of con~tamination in-

vlude line or component contamination duriing servicing and wear products generated interiially in
pumps and m.)ving parts.
Screens or inicronic filters shall he placed a~t va ,c
aod nozzle enti ances to prevent passage ot pa! ticles
left during assembly, installation, or field maintenance. A PU fuel rump midi and ou- let fiPers.'Jiall he
stand;ard equipnicnt and of the throwauay type. The
rated micron size of filters should he as large as pussi3-:9Q

AMCP 706-202

ble, considering orifices and jet and internal tolerances, so that capacity requirements can be reduced.
3-8.3.3 APU Lubrication Subsystem
The lubrication subsystem generally is selfcontained within the APU, unless an external oil
cooler is required. The trend is toward a completely
sealed oil system requiring no scheduled mairnenance. Filters are included internally and, with
current uiits, are serviced at specified intervals. With
adequate seals and filtering of buffer air (if used),
external contamination virtually can be eliminated,
Slightly larger filters, with bypass valves, should
eliminate the need for change between over.hauls. Oil
consumption rates generally are low enough so that
oil level.checks may be eliminated for long periods.
As with fuel subsystems, field maintenance of APU
lubrication systems introduces more problems than it
solves. Reliability factors for lubrication pumps,
filters, relief valves, and jet or mist supply systems are
high.
Altitude operating requirements are def--ied in the
APU model specification. Maximum temperature
limits also are specified in the APU model specification.
Qualification testing of the lubrication system is
concurrent with APU qualification in accordance
with MIL-P-8686.
3-83.4 APU Reduction Drive
The APU-reduction-drive design is established
primarily by the driven equipment and accessories
recuired. The bleed air APU usually is designed to
deliver a small percentage of its total output shaft
horsepower. Drive pads will be provided for fuel controls, control generators (if needed), and all driven
accessories such as electrical generators and hydraul"ic pumps.
ic pumps.
"The turbine nozzle and diffuser matching within
the APU can be changed to trade off shaft power
capability for bleed performance within the limits of
stall. For: the shaft horsepower APU, output may be
concerntrated at one or two larger pads. If APU
power is applied directly into an aircraft combining
gearbox, fewer APU pads will be needed. In this case,
required helicopter accessory outputs can be obtained from the auxiliary gearbox.
APU Sts 'tilg
The APU starting subsystem shall be fully automatic, using the sequencing systems previously
described. The starter energy level must exceed the
APU drag (resistive) torque by sufficient margin to
provide the required acceleration. The starting torque
requirements will be described in the APU model
specification.

3-8.3.5

3-20

(.
Electrical starting is satisfactory if starter and
battery energy levels are chosen properly. The
minimum-weight subsystem requires the smallest
battery consistent with adequate breakaway torque,
including consideration of initial voltage drop. This
will result in a longir starting time to rated speed (15
to 20 sec), but battery is adequate to provide some
torque to very high speeds (80-90%). The basic limitation is that cold-day starting (-65F) is not practicable without warm and oversized batteries. It will be
found that when APU size increases above 300 hp,
battery size becomes excessive. Also, the slower start
makes the APU more sensitive to the fuel acceleration schedule. Achieving successful atarts at both
-65*F and +130F without adjustments may
require a compensation mechanism.
The hydraulic method of APU starting is satisfactory, especa~iy when -650F starting is required. Hydraulic starter motors should be sized for high initial
torque to give rapid acceleration. This will tend to
result in a lower accumulator volume requirement,
and to reduce sensitivity to fuel schedule variations.
A typical subsystem will have an initial cranting
torque of 50% more than the highest APU resistive
torque. Ideally, the motor should incorporate an
'verrunning clutch so that no drag is induced onto \:
the APU when accumulator fluid is expended.
During -65F starting, the APU may self-sustein at
40-50% speed. A few foot-pounds of drag from a
motor can necessitate additional accumulator volume
so that starting torque continues to 55 or 60% speed.
As previously discussed, hydraulic starting can be
arranged by using a battery for control power or by
incorporation of an APU-driven ignition and control
(permanent magnet) generator.
3-8A4

RELIABILITY
Rlait
R
haraciLiTe

"

Reliability characteristics are specified in the A'PU

model specification. For helicopters using thc
U
for inflight emergency power, starting reliability is o
major importance. Typical requirements for APU
starting failure rates are shown in Table 3-2.
TABLE 3-2
APU RELIABILITY
_

NUMBER OF STARTS ALLOWABLE FAI LURES

0-500
501-775
776-1050
1051-1390

0
124
3-

-,

.9AMCP

APU operatini life may be dcmronstratcd to :kwy

given rmodcl spech ication rcquiremnent. A test plan
may be chosen from~ MIL-SI 101-7811. Typically, if a
mean time bctwecn Failures (NITBF) of 1500 hr ii,
specified. a test with~ sevcn APU'r. each operated to
300 hr without failurc, would bc recoimndvcrced
Othei combindtions of run time and number ol
e ngintes may be 4:hosen. e.g.. three APU's with each
iunning 750 hr without a relevant failee.
High installed reliability can be obtalnt-d by spci
fying a time between overhauls (TBO) close to the
specified MTBF. However, this rvutts in a considcrably higher life-cycle operating cosi. Lc west Cost
is obtained by u-.ing :hc rmiove for ailiure (RFF)
phikctophy, whck. APU~s are repaired or rirmoved
only in event of a malfuntction.
A fail urr mode and el'i'ct analysis (FM EA) for the
APU shall be specified to show tftc consequences ol
each ;,tobat6.c Ivilurr. This will assist in reliability
prediction, choice of scheduled inaintenanct inter-

..

B
fRFvru
vlospis.adtedtriito
losopies.rotor
iecral problem areas have been expericirz.:d by
oprnio of the APU in the heclicopter. These &amaa
incaude vibration, irlcircualton 0f exlu~ta gsrz
> FOD, eo. They point up iVhe importance of careful
delineation, in the quality assuranc provai~is1 of the
A PU model 4ppv-ification, o d.-Aign and tesi ronclitions that simulate the helicopier eflvironmiria.
The vibration environment is primiary. The profile

of amplitude and froquencies at the APU installation

must be defined. The amnplitude and ficquencies of
the AlFU-gencratcd vibraiion also should be spc~ifled to anticipate airframec structural probleinis,
APU air inlet iemptrature limits arc specified, and
the APU installatioan ust be desigtned to prevent recirculttion of main tngiiac or A?t3 *txhau-t gas.
Carteful aocntion must be 7.iven to thi.t prokilena
because ai is impractical ii' attemrpt to limit heiicop
ter operfatiori in undesirable wind directions. Ir.1ut
duct locatioav. either must be rtmote fianm exhaust
outlets, or sdfety shutdowii sen~oms must be pro-

vided.
Similar arguments apply co~cerning FOD. stird,
or dust inglestioin. Genetally, higi inlet doct locat iors
are pi cferable bec-ause concen!vtion i. dust in huvem
is straxified vertically.
IVany APU strtic-. problems ca!. be traced to fuel
aysteen components. St.mc of these re- 61t ffrom helicopter fied system contamination. Addit~onal
trrphasis should be giv.-n to filir~tion, and to Pk'C.
oenur
of main Rnk contamination by proper fuelhandlicip methods.
A major sou ce :)f reliability problems arise& fromi

-'

706-202
maintenan;ce reqluireenirts cith.cr scheduled or unschcduled. For example, more contamination is in.
troduccd into oil systcms (causing exccisive wcar and
early bearing failure) through frequent oil level
checks, oil addilions, and oil changes than through
seals arid vents during normal running. APU design
should stress minimum scheduled riainitcinacie,
throwaway filters and components, scaled systems.
and automatic controls requiring no adjustment. This
approach not only will increase reliability, but also
will decrease not life-cycle AF~U costs.
M,5 SAFIETY PROVISIONS
Good APU safety design must inciude provisions
to prevent a failure frorn causing helicopter diemage,
and. if possible, to permit mission completion in
event of a failure. Thus. the APU installiption shall be
designed so that fire, APU rotor failure, and crash
damage arc contatined within the APU compartment.
APUJ-rotor constainment is an important safely
cnieain n a ehnldi
eea as
Strulturc can be designed to withstand and hole a
tni-hub burst at overspeed trip condlition4
(a.ssurniing a fuel control failure). but this causes an
une~e'irablc weight penalty. Alternatively, rotor integrity car, bc. d-mcnstrated by in.....J.p.c-.-.-lizc
tests to micarure stress !evels under operating coitditions. Furtkarr. systems cani be arranged to
gv'Arantee that blade failures oct.-ir first (e.g., stress
groovc.9, but that smaller mass bladr fisiltirc cart be
contained within the casing structure.

Fuel and ignition sour-ces s1ha' bc: separated by

m~eans of the compartment deiign. On' philosophy is
to put the entire A PU into a fireproof ci~nip-irtmcnl.
A seooaid philosophy sodi-s to prevent f1ie by confiniing 1w.) sourucs and by s.-gii.gating the hot scction
%v'itha bulkhead. The APU coritrv~As arnd oil sumn
should b,: housvo in fireproof contair'crs. Electrical
itibsy-terr ignition sourcce., should be roijted or
housed away hornm bel lines. APU inlet air sh~ovld be
dlucied from outs'd. thc helicopter to prevetit rocirctrlation in case ol cornuartinent fire. [ire detectors
and fire wxinguishing cquipwmemt shall be. u~vd to pr'olcc: against firc within the compartioien (see par. 32.4
, ll APU fuel system romponents shall te crashworthy. Fuel line-s shall be made o: flexible hose with
steel-'hraited outer fheath, with the mtn.'rum
ni-niber of .ouplinps. At bulkheads, the hosce should
bc run through unc'it, using fr*mngibic hose stabilizer
fittings. Whcn lines So through w firewall, selfscaling, breakaway couplings shall be used. All line
supports should be frangible. Lines shalt' be 2CLI30%
lo~igce. than necessary to aicomroadate structural dispiacements.. Routing shall be aong the heavy basic
3-21

AMCP 706-202

-tPreferred

structure. but away front electrical comp,.mnents

(unless electrical systems art shrouded).
D~rain 'incs for -.onbustor. fuel pump. gearbox,
vents. etc.. shall be connected with frangible
fasicrners. and made of low-strength matcrials.
design calls for enigine-mounted fuel
bogst pumps with suction fuel supply. In the event
that tank-mounted boost pumps are required duc to
fuel subsystem configuration, they are acceptable if
meunted with frangible attachments. Electrical lead
wires must be 20-30% longer than necessary. and
shrouded to mirimize crash danmage.
Self-scalintE, bicakaway couplings shall be used at
all c )nnections. Filters and valves shall withstand 30g aoads applied iii any direction. Electrically actuated
valves can-hec bulkhead-mounted, with wiring on one
side and the valve and fuel lines on the opposite side.
APU oil tanks and coolers also shall withstand 30g loads. and 'must be mounted away fte-icn impact
areas. They shall be located within ttue compartment.
but away from hot sections and inlet air ducting, to
prevent ingestion of spilled oil. Oil filters shall be
integial with the APU.
Ratteries and clecoical accessories shall be located
high enough in the fusciage to remcve thanm frt'ii
possib:, fluid spill~gc area. They vA~yll ttt comnrtrt-

3-22

mntcnaliscd with lnexible fire resistarnt pancls. Extra

%."rc length is needed and s~hall be supported; wilh
frangible connections. The basic structure .thall %ith.
stand 30)-g loads applied in isny direction.
REFERENCES
I . C. R. Bryan and F. F. Fleming. Some InternalFlow Characteristics ci Several Axisvnimetricol
NA CA I-Series Nose Air buttis at Zero Flight
Speed. NACA RML54E 19A. July 1954.
2. K~uchemtaiin and Weber. Aer-odynamnics of Propulsiion. McGraw-Hill Book Co.. NY. 1960.
3. J. Seddon,. Air Intakes Ja~r Aircraft Gas Turbines.
Journal Report. Royal Acronaoticall Society. October 1952.
4. SA E Aerospace Appnlied Thzrrnodynamics
Afan*a'l. Society of Automnotiv. Enginccrs. NY.
October 1969.
5. T. Himka and R. D. Sekmple. Enginc/Tranx.mission/.4irframne Advanced Jn~rg ration Technique~s.
TR 75-16, USAANIRDL, Fort Eustis. VA. May
1975.
6. N. 0. Johnson. Crash worthy Fuel System Design
Cr-iteria and Analyvsis, TR 71-8. USAA I'Al DL.
Fort Eustis, VA, March 1971.

AMCPX70202

CHAPTER 4

TRANSMISSION AND DIIVE SUBSYSTEM

LI4T OF SYMBOLS
A

C -capacity of bearing far lire of ii! cycles

with 90% probability of survival..'
- case convection cooling cotfricient, AP0
- load rinclnation factor (helical get),
dimensionlest

- liner (steel)O01, in.

speCuic reat of oil, iiitul ln-t F1
b geSar diameter, in.
d
D actor
- macrial
buring), dimnsionlss
D~c- bolt circle diameter, in.Dp)- stud pitch dianieiter, in.
0,,
- anvolute base circle diameter, in.
DI
- inside diameter, in.
D~in - spline minor diameter, in.
D,
- ouarsroo diameter, in.
DP - oitsch diamecter. in.
D,
- pitchoodiameter, in.
D -=Major diametfer of spline, in.
D2
- outside diameter of spline tooth mnember,
in.
d
- pinion pitch diametcr, in.
d
- track of breked wheels, ft
d
-' light alloy &Wcion OD, in.
E
- modulus of elasticity (Young's modilus),
c

e
C_

- frequency of backward tiavelling wave, Hz

race curvature, %of ball diameterr

baxing
fo ccolu-iner

B1)- life at which 10% of a bearing population

fail, cy,.Ies or hr
b Hertzian contact band semiwidth, in.
b
-bea~ing 013, in.
Cc.
CA

fa

psi

processing factor (bearings), dimensionless

ED
energy dissipation rate, Btu/in.-min
El combined modulus of elasticity, psi
r -pitch plane misalignment, in./in.
F
- flow. rate, gpm
F
- face width of gear tooth. in.
F
- lubricztion factor (hearing%). dimensionless
FA,
-bicakaway blip for"e. lb
F,
= effective face width, in.
F.,
- average effectivC face width, in.
f
- coefficient of friction, dimcniionicss
-

DESIGN

EHD matcrial paramecter, dimensionless

- speed effects factor (bearings), dimensionIns
- lengthwist tooth stiffness constant, pjs

h
hE

misalignment, factor (bearings), dimensionloss

ftoil film thickness, psin.
- EHD oil film thickness. #sin.

G
G
(is
H
Ii

specific weight of oil, lb/gal

of inertia, slug-ft'
Imoment
i
geometric shamc factor, dimensioniexsst-l

K
K
K,
Km,
K,
K,

K
KI

K,
k
k
k
L
L

-Hertz stress index, ftpsiniols

-strcss concentrationfatrdiesols
nrifatdmesols
- life factor, dimicnsionl~ss
- misalignmricrt factor, dimensionless
- overload factor, dimensionless
- reliability factor, dimensionless
- dysicze factor,
a
dimensionless
Mtemertue factor, dimensionless
-tenmperlatur
factor, dinensionless
- conversion constant
- con~tact line in~lination factor, dimnensionless
- geom~etry factor, dimensionless
- gear face width, in.
- design life or scheduled removal time
(TBO), hr

LA

Lrj
L2

L10

M
Mf
Inl
Mir,

on,
Opt"

-,-

Adjusted life, hr

gear center distance, in.

- life for 2% failure of a bearing popuiatlon.

hr
life for 10% failure of a bcaring population, hr
-mechanical
advantage, dimensionless
- moment, in.-b
- prortle contact ratio, dimensonless

V
Y

= gear rutio. dimensionless

=Con~itc! ratio factor. dimensionless

modified contact ratio (spir~l beve; g5or),
dimensionless

/*

4-1

number of teeth (gear or spline)

or bolts or sttds

TA

- ambient air temperature (cold condition)

-t number orteeth on gear

T,

- critical temperaturm, F

- number or teeth on piniot

7".

T
s

- circular tooth thickness, in.

- initial temperature, F

- number

NI
NP

n
n
RN
nap

PL
PLC
Pc
P
?d
P4

number of discrete values

number or radial nodes
- rotational speed, rpm
- critical speed, rpm
normal operating rotational speed, rpm
- pinion rotational speed, rpm
- load, lb
power loss, hp
- power lors to oil cooler, hp
-power loss to oil cooler (cold conditiwi),
hp

Pf
P,
P,
P,

base pitch, in.

- diamet'al pitch, ir.'
- transverse diametral pitch (measured at
large end of bevel gear), in.-'
- friction power loss, hp
- pt ver inuut to transmission, hp
- power loss, % of transmitted
- mean transverse diametral pitch (bevel

P,
P,
P
p

T.
U
VI
V2
VT
VT
V,
W
W

w
Y
Y

Y4

W
Wd
W,

Sgear), in.-

oil pump los,, hp

fastuner tension !oading. lb
gear windage power loss, hp
pump discherge pressure, psig

- average external surface temperature, "F

- average external surface temperature (cold
condition), OF
-- EH I speed parameter, dimensionless
- rolling velocity of faster of two bodies in
contact, it./sec or fps
- rolling velocity of slower of two bodies in
contact, in./sec or fUe.
- total rolling velocity (V, + V2) of two
bodies in contact, ln./wec or fps
(Vi + V2)/2. in./sec or fps
- slig "4 vldoc;ty, in,/sec or fps
- load, lb
- helicopter weight carried on braked
wheele, lb
- EHD load parameter, dimensionless
- dynamic load, lb
- failure load, lb
gvat touih luad, lb
-- effective gear tooth load (K. W, + W).),
lb
- running load, lb/in.
- modified Lewis form factor (spur gear), di-

SPM

OF

circular pitch, in.

-

- modified Lewis form factor (helical gear),

dimensionless

Qs
Q

torque, lb-ft or lb-in.

brake torque. lb-ft
skid torque, lb-ft
- flange torque capacity. lb-in.

- modified Lewis form factor (bevel gear).

dimensionless
- total transverse length of line of action, in.

0.

stud torque. lb-in.

R
R

mean transverse pitch radius, in.

reliability (for I-hr mission), dimensionless

Z,'

R,

distance from pitch circle to point of load

- pressure viscosity coefficient, in3/lb

r
r

application, in.
- radius of curvature of g-,ar tooth, in.
-radius of curvature of pinion tooth, in.

- linear coefficient of thermal expansion.

in./in.-*F
- contact anghe, deg

.nrcbability of survival, dimensionless

S
S.,

rms surface finish. pin.

allowable endurance limit stresi., psi

SA,

S,
S,.f
S
S4
S,
S,
S,,
T

- compressive (Hertz) stress, psi

- compressive (Hertz) stress at failure, psi
- hoop stress, psi
- bursting stress, psi
shear stress, psi
- tensile stress, psi
- torsional shear stress, psi
- tempcrature, F

TI

4-2

bearing stress, psi

ambient air temiperature, F

mensionless

normal circular pitch (helical gear), in.

_11

.- ,,,,, a

rn fam~
,.,,

,e,,onsn,.,

modified scoring geometry factor kspur

gear), dimensionless

- fraction of theoreticai contact (splines), di-

mensionless
- incraent, as A I, deg F or A(D,,/ 2 ), in.
6

&
a
4

mean CLA surface roughness, pin.

incremental lrowth, in./(in.-*F)

- deflection, compressioo, or protrusion, in.
- efficiency, dimensionless or %.subscripts c
ana f, p. and i denote coarse %'idfine
pitch, pump, and transmission, respectively
- ratio of oil film thickness to surface roughness, dimensionless
-

failure rate, hr-'

a)dynsric viscosity,Ib.-sc/in.1

FS

made lighter, more efficicnt, art d ss costly if it werc

Poino)-is ratio, dimensionless

v ..heict] tooth kcad line inclination, deg
EHO parpmeter, dintcnsionleus
3
-denshy. sltrg/ ftl or lb/in.
a -standard deviation, dimensionless
gear tooth pressure aingle, deg
- ormal pressure angle (helical gear), deg
0, - ransverse operating pressure angle, deg
0 - gear tooth helix or spiral angle, deg
- angular acceleration or devele.-ation cf rotor, rad/icc'
W rotational speed, Hz

41INTRODUCTFION
4-.1 GENERAL
Thc proper use of this chopter as an aid in the

achievement of satisfactoiy transmission and drive

syscmdetildesgnreqirs aclarunderstanding of
asi Te cntcitsrefectthe past in
coceps.
stvcal
generae
anhe
suggdested analfor
tio u-nrdw..rhac sinr te~chnanurs

not necesary to conrider interfaut effects. Hiowevecr.

the design optimization technique-,. addresscd in this
chapter are limited to the components of the powvcr
transmission subsystrms without consideration of i be
possible ovcrridirig effects peculirar to a given aircraft
configuration.
The designer must be aware of the significanice of
thc to*.al Army environment. Major subsystem comnponeiits such as gearboxes, driveshafts. or hanger
bearing assemblies probably will be subjected L,)
rough treatment daring shipping, handling, arid
removal from or installation on the helicopter. The
consistent use of sophisticated or special tools and
torque wrenches simply will not occur, even though
specified by the designer. Extremes in temperature.
humidity, sunli-ght, precipitation, and sand and dirt
cotmainwllcurdinbohfgtopac :onamnaion wqill ocur urig bth nigh:topera.
tion and lengthy periods of outdoor parking. Pres.
tawtr
sr laigcupct-crilyn

mal shock. Exposure to such hostile envionments will

cu eetdyfrln
eid ftmbtms
not compromise the mission availability of the
hhelecpter. Improper maintenance, tool drops, and
rvreo mrprisalto
hr osbeas
willrs o r. Compro nernstaldesion wustre toslern ando

desiner ustpracicehis
kil fro a ovin or
The use of geared transmission systems predates
irecorded history. A relatively sophisticaled differential gear-drive system was employed in the Chinese

forgiving of such treatment wherever practicable.r

*C.Ln...&I

~ ~D.C
10

%An

and geared drives still represent the most efficient

mthod of power transmission. This chapter is intended to encourage rather than to subvert new and
unconventional approaches to old problems. The sole
limitation upon incorporation of the unconventional
in helikopter drive systems is that the ba:sic rules of
nature (la~ws of mechanical physics) are relatively inviolable and should be treated w'ith respect,
There is no perfect or unique design solution to a
given power transm~ission requiremenrt, and all
known designs have been compromised by the individual requirements of the aircraft into which they
must be integratid. Optimization of a design cannot
e
viewed within the context of the power tiansmisints alone; thorough trade-off studies must
such factors as suspension, layotit. airframe
,]support structure, rctor control systems, aircraft
weight[ and balanc, space limitations, and locations
of eniginecs. Almost any known drive system could be

\consideir

K'.-.

helicopter and its drive subsystem; thcs:: cleaning

solutions may be more than 100'F hotter or colder

tebasic selections of gear, bearing, and shafting

repiresent the present state-of-the-art,
leve, te tehnoogyas
dscused oesnot
exclude the future in that areas of uncertainty and
limitations of knowledge are emphasized wherever
they appear applicable. The mechanical drive system
'tauratiens

0.
4-1.2

REUIEMNT
RQIEET

General requirements arc applicable to all drive-1

systcm configurations. There also are specific
requirements that vary according to th~e aircrafl configuration and intended mission (par. 7-1.1, AMCP
70)6-201) and general rc. 1uiremcnts peculiar to particular configurations or arrangements of engines and
rotOrs (par. 4-1.3).
4-1.2.1 General Re~quiremnents
Ccrtain requirements are common to all Army
helicopters regardless of configuration or intended
usage. The desired level of attainment of th~ese
requirements and their relative importance generally
arc specified in the appropriate prime itern development specir-cation (PIDS). Because ne transmission
and drive system represents a significant portion of
the total complexity and cost of the helicopter. these
common requirements must be considered during
4-3

-detail

design. Such require ments -- without conof their relative importance - include perreliability, maintainability, and surviva-

output, with smaller amiounts of torque being carried.

as the distance from the output incmueses. The wecight
of any gear reduction stage is proportienal to the second or third power of the torque. Therefore. itorth-

--
4-1.2.1.1 Perfoima|e'
The contribution of the drive system to heclicoptecr

while weight savings can be made by using drives in

the order ranked -- concentric drives near thc output, parallel-axis types at intermecdiate or conmbining

performance can be defined in various ways. lHowever. the folluwing factors predominate:
1. Weight
2. Efficiency
Size
4. Noise le' el.

stages, and intcrsecting-axis types nearest the engine

if drive direction changes arc required.
There are occasional instances where these rules
may not apply: e.g., high reduction ratio may be undesirable at secondary-lcvcl power outputs, such as
tail rotor or auxiliary propellers. because of the long
distance from the helic:optcr CG. Althou~gh thc total
drive subsystemn weight may be less with a low'cr tur-

Ssideration
Sfoimancc, bility.

S3.

-0t&-

-.

4-1.2.1.1.1

Subsysitem Weight

Weight of the transmission and drive system is

minimized by attention to compact size toge~her and

with the use of high-strenlgth materials for dynamic

qie being carried by shafting, it may becoine difficufqt to obtain a satisfactory CG location due to the
larger nmoment of the extra weight of the higher ratio
final reduction stage.
The specter- weight,%of current helicopter main
gearboxes in range from 0.30 to 0.50 Ih/hp for red uctio n r a tio o f 15 :1 to 7 4 :1 ( F ig. 4 -1) . T h e n ext
uc :auc U ||uuubtic uly w il . ... this lrndlcx dr "oin.. ....
the 0Z2 level.
4-IZl.
TnmsonEfcey(

components that make maximum use of the material

properties available within the limits of pr-rmissibic
failurc; rates and reliability requirements Superior
. = . . oLc.~ . .
.. . - -A..
a it . . . o .l ,M:.
~ ~ ~~q .....
low -d ensity m aterial for forged or cast housings also
necessary. The latter is import-.nt because gear:'%are
l_-
~ ~~box
housings comr.prise from 20 to 60% of total transmission weights in current designs.4-.112TrnmsinEfcey
The requirement for efficient power transmission is
large gear ratios per stage generally
SExcessively
of such importance that gear types other than those
weight. The pinion size is determined primarily
'.add
Slisted
in pai. 4-1.2.1.1.1 seldom are considered
-- ?
by the torque. transmitted and is relatively ind-
for application to the re-Ain po%%cr drive
sc~iou.;y
gear
of
the
the
weight
but
star
ratio;
o1'
the
Spendent
member increases roughlyus the square of the ratio.
Large ratios per stage usually also are inefficient.
mConsidering the sib of support structure and bearoor
ings, as well as of the gears thmselves, the gear types
themselvgs by increasing weight and power loss
worder
1.(for
approximately equal gtaonratios) in the follow-cri.t
ingThmanner:
Concentric drives: epicyclic or planetary devices
falr4a4
n ciblt eurmnsSpro
Star - ~uiiycotrlinpr~~sngad
reversing
2. b.Parallcl-axis
drives: rotation.
spur, helicalo *Ii'!and horring-f

h-

ris

pt prlxd
gabxsi ag rm03
=ducionrtoom51t
sg
n itrct-a
4:t

o05

bh

r
H.4I.Ten

bone

3.
flterslwing-axis drives: spiral bevel and hypoid.reurd
This
ordering
reflects the
addition to tor-thcs
the
intended speed change
per effects,
stageW
ofin additional

/,/

"

c-rules*D

.que
vector translations and rotations. The con-

S|centric

axis;
vhe
does nota translation
alter tht torque
dri-'
.paralll
drive requires
of output
vector
dre
with respect to itruto and the intprsrcting-axis driveo-ellers,
introduces a new coordinate tfrough tht rotation of
the output vtttor with ocspect to input.
The selection of drive types should follow the given
ranking, beginning at the ouput drive. Also, the
plargst reductions should bwith
kn cloto to the final

Q,

on ""--AH'IG

of t

TActEOFF PO*FCR
lopt
10"
F jure 4-1. Helicopter Main Gearbox
Weightos Takeoff Power

"
-

.:

i..

..

wc~-I
7*2
"
example, with a 1% in-.
"train for many reasons. For
crease in power loss the life cycle cost for an assuned
fleet of 1000 medium helicopters would be increased
by $100,000 per helicopter by the extra fuel necessary
to perform a constant mission. This is based upon a

6000-hr life, a specific fuel consumption (SFC) of

4 0.65 'b/hp-hr, and a fuel cost of $0.016/lb. Firthcr,
the average helicopter lift capability ranges from 5 to
10 lb/hp depending upon rotor disk load.ng and
3I3
C.
operational variables. Therefore, a medium helicopter of 2000 hp suffers a useful load reduction of
fiom 100 to 200 lb with a 1%additional power loss.
Thus, when comparing an alternative gear system of
1%lower efficiency. the basic gearbox weight would
need to be reduced by more than 100 lb to compensate for the power loss.
The reverse drive efficiency of a gearbox also must
I
303
2o00
1000
be watched carefully, as excessive use of recess action
gearing can create a problem in autorotation. For inENGINE
INPUI POWLR.hP
stance, Ref. 2 dcscribes high-ratio recess action
Figure 4-2. Power Loss to Heat vs Input
systems that operate at high efficiency as speed rePowIm - Typlcl Twin-eMgime-driven Gearbox
ducers but become virtually self-locking when
operated as speed increasers as in autorotation.
A helicopterautootatonaldesent
of 15,OUU tlb200
grossftminis
weight making
an
singits
as those shown in Fig. 4-2, as possessing a given efautorotational descent at 2000 ft/mmi is using its
ficien4CY apart from a specific power rating. Tise transavailable potential energy at the rate of about 900 hp.
mission loacs shown result in efficiencies as. follows:
Drive system windage. flat pitch tail rotor drag, and a
In l
ownr.
Efficiency,
few minimum accessory loads require appro.6imately
Input ower,
Efficiency.%
100 hp. A 95% reverse drive efficiency leaves about
hp
7
795 hp, a reasonable level to sustain the prescribed
500
74
descent. However, sudden yaw control requirements
500
93.4
conceivably could boost the revirsc drive require1500
96.9
iment momentarily to 200 hp. In such a crse, either
2000
97.4
the rate of
S,1.:__:.
. .descent
. ... would
.
..increase
. ... 4sharply
r .
.hor ..some
;
2500
97.8
Iw111i.t,1c crll.gy outllw 'I 'borrowed-frli.the maii.98.0
3000
rotor, with aby
slight
reduction
of rotorvelocity.
speed Howbcng
Th0windage losses are influenced
98.0 strongly by oil
S~~compensated
an increase
in descent
copesaedbyaninreseindecet
elrcty
HThe
ever, if the reverse drive efficiency were 50%, the tail
rotor and accessory load would extract 400 hp from
the
main rotor,
requiring
almost 50% increase in
rthe mfadesent
r torrqusing an
an almost50
rtr
in
seeds,
rate of descent to sustain safe mnain rotor specls.
The power losses of a typical high-speed twinengine-drive main gearb x operating at constant
speed might vary as shown in Fig. 4-2. At full speed
there is 25-hp windage loss with zero power transmission, and then the power loss due to friction is
added as the power transmitted is increased until a
total loss of 60 hp is reached for the full twin-engine
power input. The slightly downward inflected curve
shape is rather typical for most modern, heavily
loaded, high hardness gears and antifriction bearing
systems, although in som- instances a virtually
straight line may be observed. Clearly, it is improper
to speak of a ScarboA having loss characteristics, such

viscosity, the amount of oil supplied to the various

gear meshes and bearings, and the oil scavenging
characteristics of the transmission. Small gear-tohousing clearances, poor drainage paths, and excessive oiling should be avoided. Good estimations of
gear windage losses F. may be obtined from Eq. 4-1
(Ref. 3)

P. -

10,,
100)( 10

hp

(4-1)
)

where
D - gear diamater, in.
L - gear face width, in.
n
rotational speed, rpm
This equation represents an application of basic propcller theory (Ref. 4) and is based upon air density at
4-5

"

'i

AMCP 706-202
standard sea level conditions which i, 0.00238
slug/ftV. However, for W.IL-L-7809 cii at normal
operating temperaturci p -1.748 slug/fil. Consequently. if thi. hel~coptce designer can estimatr. or
experienirtally determine the oiliness of the -. nsmission atmosphere, an average p may be employed.
Ref. 4 saggests 1, )4.25:1 nir-oil ratio in which case
Eq.. 4-1 can bte exprs"cd as
/
P,. - 2.18(

DI

hp

(4-2)

10"-F

Methods of gcai mcsh oiling also affect windagc

lossesi 1)iffcrnces of virtually 200% hmve been reported to exist between in-mesh and out-of-mesh
oiling for a large. iinglc-reductiorm gear set (Ref. 5).
The torquc or load-sensitive centribution of the
transmisision to power loss is duc almost entirely, to
the rolling/sliding lo!nd-carrying bearing and gear cdcmcnts.
Good first-order approximation, for antitriction
bearing tosses it mioderate speeds arc given in Refy. 6
and with a little greater precision in Re .f. 7. However.
where very accurate decterminiations arc required or
where high-speed applications exist, the prediction of
these losses requires an understanding of the rrr
complex factors involved (Ref. 8). For optimizat ion
studie~s and examination of the effects of external dcflections and asymmetricAl loading, there is no substituic for a good digital computer program of the
baIc equations such as is presented in Ref. 9.
In general, the significant power losses in bearings
uc~tut in regions of appriciable .ontact zone slip.
uSIC
re the most efficient for most applications.
Radidiy loatded ball bearings are lower in efficiency.
whl
b, aular %cntact (thrust loaded) ball bearings
C.'N64~ sivi~iti.,i..rty greater friction losses. When the
1; latar aft: used in verry high-speed operations. their
r'-iwem 11-)3characteristics dcttrioicite sharply as ex*
cc~silve :ctifug.11 and g.-yroscopic forces affect ball
UICeM-tiCl. SItandurd tapcrc.1 :iollr bearings (conical tolling ticincints) ire the 1kiht zfficicent of thesc
fout. typres. ia~becaosc cf the hea.'ily loaded cone
rib that'. in id~contact whiit ;he largt cod CS the
i,ccnical roPliti. A. ti,- type os' anpuhat coniact cylirt.
drical rci.er (Ref. ;01 rmi), offir hdvami.ites when fuloy dcvetoped. In Nhs ty~ve, ?)c co*ne , b lo~'d is theorcti,_-Oy reducA;J. bjh iincreascq s-lidiril' rttsuIs V~ nCm
or Wt~h of t'ic -jic-rellcr co-aaci~s- Expcticivre Is '.nsuff!.icnt f,r L-valuel,,i'ol &Itz.
relative iicat utnrnAtioil. bitt irdicatio, -A are O~a! it wit! pyrov' it,, b::

.'

A-.re

effincrt, than iht. staaCurd tupcretJ zolicr znd

that itA !osses will approach those of the arigular co.)tact bitll bearing. The plain journal hearintg is unsuitable for heavily loaded so
liansmission uipplications (see par. 4-2.4.2), although it may have
satisfactory application in lightly loaded accxs~ory
uses; the power lou with this type of bearing is at
least twice as great as for any of the previously mentioned types (Ref. 11). The hybrid1 boost bearirg
(hydrostatic plain thru-st bearing in series combi~nation with the stationary or rotatifib ring of an angular contact ball thrust bearing) has been evaluated
experimlentally (Rcf. 12), but no helicopter expecicnovv
is known. The experimental work indticated a friction
torque for the hybrid ocaring of roughly twice that
for the simple ball thtust beaiing.
The accuracy of the calculated losses for bearings is
dcpendcnt upon proper installation and application
dcsign, Excessive preload, due to insti-llation and/or
the~rmally induced. c.:n camily result in doubling thc
friction torque arid also will have detrimental effects
upon fatigue We and reliability.
The power los~s in gcaiing is ti~iiie an involved and
cnrvr~ICiit
neirte~efcwih
ranking, listed earlier in tihs paragraph hold true fmn
basic efficiency also. There are reawinable ranges of
gear ratio for which specific types if grer drives arc
bcst suited; when thi:~ upper limits are exceectce. the
resultant power loss is apt to iincrease to a level where
superior overall efficicm~y may be obtained by reventing to two stages of lowcr ratio. Tie suggested
optimrnu ratio ranges are:
1. Conecrntric - epicyclic, 3:1 to 5:1
2. Parallel axes - straight spuir, A1to 2.5:1
-single

hclicals, 1:1 to 3;:1

I:A to 10:1
3. lnterecting axes - spiral bevel. 1:1 to 3.5.1.
A nuintibr of assumptionas are included in these
suggested ranges. The lower limit for the epicyclic
assumes a simple u(oWirevcrsing) design. The planet
gears bmcco-ne excessively small so that the sun driver
ten&~ to uct like a specd-incrrasing drive *ith a long.
inclficicrnt a.-c of a oproach. At these low ratios the
epicyclic system becomes planet-bearing-capacity
limited in iltht it is difficalt to fit sufficient~y large
bearings to carry the nececssary load if the gear teeth
are stressed to satisfactory levels.
The upper limit for the cpicyclic represents a
reasonably designed, four-planet idler systemt whose
weak point is tht; tcndenzy for pitting of the sun gear.
Be-caust the dasigni is sun-pinion-diameiter limited (to
acc--ptabic Hertziart stre~ss levels) and die planet gears
art; i'~ur tiiw.5 the diameter of the sun, the. system is
rapitdy becoi-aing inefficient from a weight stand-

do

06M'

_AMCP

point. Th: carrier structure, ring gear, and ring Sear

housing (ir used) are excessivci,, heavy. If used in a
final drivc stage, the low speed of the plane bearings
x rotor speed) is not conducive to the formation
of adequate oil film thicknesses for good performiance even though th~eve is virt.:ally unlimited
space for high-capacity planet bearing designs.
'The upper limit of th siryl helicals is based upon
grcatr than 15 deg in order to minimi7e the thrust

the subrtgimne or microclastohydrodynamics (Refs..

13 and 14). Fig. 4-3 ieprescrits the salient cnarficteristics and interdependent variables influencing f
tbroughout the rainge of specific film thicknesse. The
ratioN)isintroduced to give physical meaning to thesw
regimes in terms of the roughness, or surface finish of
the activo tooth profiles according to

comonet o h tothloading. The extended upper

limit given for herrirngbonce designs is based upon the
use of high helix angles (4'AM
35 deg); thus. mayxim'im

where

I(9/4

Iadvantaf

olfl hcnspn
-. mean ceiflerline average (CLA) surface

r istaken of the thrust component cancella-

tion that permits atlainnient of very high face contact ratios which in turn permit some reduction in the
profile contact ratio with an attendant reduction in
sliding velocities. The upper limit for the spiral be-vcl
gear ratio reflects the use of approximately a 90-deg
intersection of axes and is based upon increased
losses due to excessive sliding velocities in both the
art of approach and the recess. Tbc lower limit f'or
spiral bevels would be applicable for overhun-gmounata

7UF.X

mEltrIaIIUII

Ar

4A.

aLA3IIa%,ULIaxcs

full-straddle-mounted.,9O-deg-axis systems cannot be

,) accomplished below an approximate ratio of 1 4:1 for
9'0-cleg axes.
In all cases the lubrication is limited to low-vis-

*
*loss

cosity synthetic turbine oils with ro unusual additives.

The specific. efficiencies obtained in gear meshes
are basically consiecred tu be represented by analogy to classic physical roncepts. The friction power
of P, of sliding bodies in contact is given by Eq.
4-3.
(4-3)
P1 WV~f/550. hp

roughness, pin.
Region III of Fig. 4-3 chn be ntglected fMr helicopter transmission components. The entire rcgion is
defined by classical hydredynamics; and the properties of lubricant viscosity, xliding velocity. and load
interact to build a supporting lubricant film) that
complcte!y separates the load-cart-ying mechanisms.
The observed friction is primarily dieptrident upon
the viscosity of the supporting film.
Region 11 actually extends (on a submi~croscopic
scale) into Region 1,but the true importance of th
region is that it represents a transtional phase that
"nly has become defined with enigineering s-* niCi
"P.n.e within the past decade. The pressure distributions within the loaded gear surfaces are considered basically Hertzian, but the Irilm thickness is
deptrndent uposi the additional fatcrs of elasticity of
metals and the property of greatly increased lubricant viscosity under the H-ertzian conjunction pressures, The observed film thickness is known to increase with increasing entrainment or sum of rolling

where
W

V,

load. lb

CO3

f - coefficient of friction, dimensionless

Minimization of power loss would simply seem to re-

FIAL SIALE

manner with thi intensity of load [expressed as a

~~~and factors descriptive of the lubrication regimc~ and

the lubricant itself.
Lubricant regimes sit classified loosely (from thin

~i-lm separation to thick) as boundary,.

elastol'ydrodynamic (ENID), and hydrodynamic.

FIRST

TA5(

-PLIN

*-8ISPFESNPU1--

LAN

quite attention to minimization of i andf. However,

the apparent quantity f varies in a very complex

comprcssive (Hertz) stress Se], the slidinr velocity,

HTYDODYNAMIC

LENDCR

BOUNOAR

sliding vclocity, ft/see

OilRO1GEARS__
BARINS..
IQ~L

MAIN______
ROO

5-A
'--

RAICSIIGV

I
CRAC

AI'PA1111T~IFANCEPA
IfCREASING
VISCOSITY.

Q
AYSAOBEATR!INC

lubricant

but the following approximation is uselul. In this

of definition, the boundary regime includeE

-~syst.-m

-4-7

BEARING$

FIM5.5

IIS

C-HNS

AI

Figure 441. Lubricatlon Re~gimes

H'

i.

AMCP 706-2D2
velocities VT(VI. V, + V2, where V,, and V. are the
velocities of the bodies in contact) of the loaded
bodies, the lubricant viscosity at thc conjunction inlet, and the pressure viscosity coefficient of the lubricant, and to decrease slighily with increasin~g toad
and V,. f he largest values of this region represent full
separation of the loaded bodies, while the lower
values permit some mieial-to-metal contact of the
asperities of roughness peaks. The most widely accepted cxpres~ion in use today for EDH film
thickness hE (Rcf. 15) is

HE tZIANORV)

LIISRICANb;
L
CONTACT

PRILSSURi
DISTRIBUTIONI

..

LURh1

.*--

.-

.-

~~
V, - VELOCITY
Of BODYTI

hE -

2.65

31,pn

/..0X

(4-5)

or HCOY 2
ELO0CITY

Figure 4-4. Elastic Body Contact Pressure

Distribution and Interface Contour
where tl'c three El-D dimensionless parameters are
G =x'(materials)

u - 10F

(speed)

(load)

W~~

O
t

and
in.
E'-combined modu'us of clasticity,
R
= mean transverse pitch radius, in.
PT= mean rolling velocity (VI - V2j)/2I, in./%"c
W = running load, lb/in.
a
=pressure viscosity coefficient, in.'/lb
A, =dynamic viscosity, lb-sec/in.3
A physical senise for hE is shown in Fig. 4-4. Eq. 4-5I,~
is isothermal, in that it does not treat the effects of
material heating in the con~anction, but is believed to
hb rosacnngkv agpeutgt. I,*% f^ V /

-I

%,o1-,eS
, f ,,t1t,ast

--

The observed friction in the EJ-W regime is prim'rivduc to viscous shear 4J the lubricant in the
high-pressure field of the conjunction,
Much experimental data exists to relate friction
values to certain dimensionless parameters. Most
take the form shown in Fig. 4-5 (Ref. 15). Such relationst iips hold for constant values of surface roughness and lay, and for specific lubricant types. The
motimportant conclusion from these data is simply
that friction is relative~ly low - on the order of O.u2
to 9).04 - for components operating in Region II. A
mre detailed analysis that considers the thermal aspects of 131-I1) solutions as applied to simple involute
gears may be found in Ref. 16.
Region I, defined as boundary layer lubrication,
represents conditions that predominate in the lowerspeed com,'oncnts of helicopter gearboxes. In this
4-8

O
*

.v.k

(d. v
V, V.

Figare 4-5. Friction

Parameters-

Coefficieni vs EHD
Region 1andi k

region, f may be influenced significantly by interaction of asperities in the rubbing load-carrying elemeonts, be they gears or bearings. The thinnest of
films represemited in this region may be monolayers of
lubricant products that either adsorb or adhere to the
extcrior molecular s~irface of the metal. The variables
influencing friction include the chemical composition and the interaction of the metal and lubricant
combination and the roughness, lay, and texture of
the surfaces with respect to their rubbing directions.
It is at the lower speeds that very noticeable differences exist in observed friction between the arc of approach and the arc of recess of involute gearing. Fig.
4-6 depicts a very low speed mcasuirement of this
pl'.rnomenon involving a spur gear set of minimum
atiAinable profile contact ratio (CR) (Ref. 17). The

Although the cxpenimcnts cized were. conducted in

bcwundary lubrication ccnditicns that yielded much
higher f-values for teeth of coarse pitch. it is int
twresting to note thiat the f-valuc obtained for gears of
finter pitch was in the range of values expoctod for
El-D lubrication. Thi3 iliustiatcs th-t iinportvaice of
using gewring of relatively tine Vi'tch to obtain maximum efficiency. In addition, it should be not'nd that
the apparent differences in friction betwoens the awvs

very low CR is employed to study the extremes of

these approach ard recess portion effects without introducing the data confusion that normally would ocin the zones of double tooth pair contact. Fig. 4-6
*cur
also illustrates the driematic improvement in f that
results when the contract ratio is increased. The
torque Q and pitch diameter D., being held constanit,
the higher contact Yatia was achieved by changing the
diametral pitch Pd aind the number of teeth N.

-0CR

-~

CR

10

Q 130 lb-in.

Torque

:~i9.11i

16

_N

-0.14

1.74

0.1d1
2.

1.03

2I,

p._
_

5.85f

5.55

rpm

~~1-

40

.-)
CD,

~0.06
0.04_____

0.02

-12

4
0
-4
-8
ANGLE OF ENGAGEMENT , deg

NOTE: AVERAGE f 7 0.081,

12

10.034

Figure 4-.Angle of Engagement

4-9

*...i II

of approach and recess art masked completely by the

avraing effect found in the zones of double tooth
pair cont&ct.
The basic tiends of friction change in approach
and rcs action arc still valid i:i lubrication Region
II. Fig. 4-7 (Ref. 18) represents experimental data
taken at corasiderably highti values of ourface sliding
velocity, load, and lubricant viscosity.
Alth..ugh the use of a dig'tal compute: program to
examine the many instantaneous contact conditions
that occur b. a pair of gear toeth rolls through mesh is
the more precise meitod of catulating efficiec:cy and
studyiog detail design variations, c
fexrek-i
-t
- -may be obtained by using average values for f. The
percent power loss P, of a gear mesh is expressed
(Rcf. 19) as:
p,

L X 100 96,
Mfeatures
f

(4-6)

where
M = mechanical advantage, dimensionless
Values of M for various combinations of pinion and
gear tooth members are listed in Ref. 19. For the
,4) o Fi . q-6, ahe i ia:
lar ( 4
u, ia~h
' ,
.
4.6

X 100

1.76%

(4-7)

II~

and for the fine pitch gear set (P4

10) the P, is:

2-.034_ Y0100 - 0.40%

/'
P,

(4-8)

8.5
Their corresponding efficiencies V are then simply ij
100;- P, and we find.
9 = 98.24%
(4-9)
- 99.60%
where the subscripts c and f indicate coarse and fine
pitch, rexpectively.
The frictional differencer noted for approach and
raxwzone of involute action are characterized, with
respeci to the driving member, by the rolling and
sliding contact motions being in opposite directions
to one another in approach but ia the same direction
during ro.ms motion.
The scensitivity of friction to the lay and textural
of the mating members in lubrication Region
I is s.jown clearly in Fig. 4-8 (Ref. 20). These data
represent the results of experiments conducted on a
gearedisk test machine with 3.0 in. diameter, 14.0
in. crown radiua,, case carburized and ground, con0
93a
c .
s'-smab!e eiec ode vac . n
steel disks. The circular ground data were taken with
disks ha%ag a circumferential finish of 8 pin. and an
axial finish of 16 gin., while the cina-ground ditks

[0..

4O~

-ROSS

"

GKOUN9

300D --

0.%

3.'

''%--

500

lDO
1500
SLIDING
VELOCITY
V..

2000

ZSO

Emm

--

--

SLIOINCVELrClI Y V,, -M.k,.

Figure 44. Effed of Surface Texture and

Figui
4-10

4-7. Coefficent of Frkilton vs Sliding Velocity

Lay on Friction nd ScffSag Beh vr

"

V.

*limit

-~

bad a drciinforweti ftaub of 16 pin. and va axial

finis of Spin. Conm'queud.ty both types had identicaO reduced finWis number &-values and benice vii
tualuly identical A-valies, but the cross-ground data
news was RcEO463 irn both type., and the cross-pound
disks weas prepared using grinding techniiques nor-naqly used for spur gear Waoth manufacture. A constant ratio of IV/VT - 0.556 wias represented, sai the
lubrication was jet auppNWe MIL-L-7806 at 190*F.
Theretome a particular point on agear mesh wher V,
3S.6% of Tr is represntmd on this ftzgmat
u a
linearly increaed gea apecd (rpm) by moving from
left to rig1bt -ith inremasing Y1,. Unfortunately, then.
data do no reflact a oonstant load, but rathar the
baa6 as delrined by scuffims.
The designer shuld be aware that udrfxd
lubricant condition there is little he can do to control
Sat low speeds asid from refining the surface finish,
Additiona-i powe: lowa sources of a transmission
systemn include the accessories anid the oit punip. Accesory power requirements are fixd by the individual helicopter requirements. the exact typc of accmoasy 5nvolv')d. and the demand or duty cycle memiPaAMtmnfib

mmrv
u

,nwewr

vAmnnrap.

ments igdiscussed in Chapters 1 and 9. Oil pump loss

P,, is estimtted adoquately by the aimple equation:
Fpk
'7
(41)
PPhp
qP
where
oil flow rate, gpm
discharge pressure at p;Anip outlet, psig
converion constant for units, 5.83 X 10-4
efficiency of pnmp (generally from 0.5
to 0.9), dimensionless
For a 20.gpm system with -jregulated discharge of 60
psi, the pump outlet pressure would be 120 paig under
typical cofiditions. For an assumed pump efficiency
of 0.5, the loss would be:
(20)(120
X 0-')result
(5.3
(2)(10.)
(59
1-)
2.78 hip
(4-11)
(0.5)through
F

p kr q. -

4.1.2.1.1.3 Size
Compact gearbox size is important in the achievement of low subsyst;= weight bemause Ibc housing or
casinj that enclome the dynamic components contributes a significant proporticni of the total systam
However, compaction should not be emphasized to the point of causing excessive oil churn and
windage loome to the detriment of efficiency. Ref. 21

)weight.

suggests that cide clearances of 0.5 in. or pester

between Seats and cauing wall* reult in negligible
loom due to oil churn. The required clearance[
between casing wail and Sear outside diametpr inarc of conformity, speed of &ear rotation, oil viacosity, amount of oil etted on the gear mesh. &nW the
amount of run-off or drainage ouil in the locattion at
question. There are no formulas for calculating satis-A
far~ory diametral clearances, but some successful
design applications have amployed valu&t of 4-.
proximately 0.5 in. for 2000-fpm pitch line velocities
and 3.0 in. for 25,0I00fpm vcocitics for 1801
dog of
conformity and kinematic viscosities below 10 centistokes. Evtn at these clearances. it firequcntly
becomes necessary to provide scrapers or some
mean to retard vortex acneration and lo Waized recirculation of the oil. When wet sump systemns are
employed, suffic.ient vei-tical sprce must b provided
to keep the operating oil level (iaucluding th4& Avr~iawd
or foam lazyei) Weow the gears and beerins

4.1.2.1.1.4 Noase LereleV

The fourth jxcrforrnince criteria of low nao" iceW
&--&a2--

--

~---

noise is 5Isuailj of imporAncc cidy ii, relation to crew,

and passenger comfort levelt, whale rotor ttid enoine
noise arm the principal contribute,-& to thc auiral dotectability of the helicopter. The funda.mental gearmeshing frequencies. which range from 40 to 22,000
Hz in present-day gearboxes, are the p'impty sources
of noise. Refs. 22 and 23 identify thc magnitude of
the problem for two helicopters. Tht overall helicopter configuration and the rfaulting number and
location of gearboxes dictate the areas nlTfeed by
noise; e.g.. a tandem-rowo: helicopter may have its
forward transmission located above the crew compartment. resulting in less a'avorable noise conditions
in the passenger area, while the reverse may be truer
gabxa
for a single-rotor configiuration.
Gear noise may emanate from the gabxa
of forced or resonant vibration of the housing
or cases. It then reachca the.-iz-r passengers either
direct airborne paths (window&, access panelk, or door seul) or through airframe structural
pathways connected to the gearbox mounting system.
It is far more efficient and desirable to combat suo&
noise at it&source rather than to rely sdely upon the
use of insulating and soundproofing coatings or blankets in the crew or passenger compartrients. The
latter measures generu~ly add more weifjht than
would be needed to make comparable improvement
in the problem at its source. Sound insulation also in-I
cref sw4 maintenancet man-hours duc to the need fot
44.1

temoval Of the material during airrrame liaspections.

Also, soundprooflng efforts often are deleatod when

torn or ciI-soked mateirits art removed and never
ri~eplcod,
The uae of elastomeric isolation mounting devices
at the gearbox and hanger bearing supports is highly
effective in rnduc'ang structural noise. Airborne noise
should be minimized by clintisating any housinp or
case resonance through use of proper wall thickness,
shape, or internal gear or bearing quill attachmcint
methods. While it is virtually impossibl* to calculate
these conditions with suffkienrt accuracy in the design
stage, they are itlatively easly measured during initial component testing, and corrective redesign then
can be undertaken. Modifications in the shape or involute pr ofiles so zs to change drastically the fundamental and harmonic noise content have been investigated analytizally (Ref. 23). However, the slight
variation in profile requite to achieve theoretical improvements was judged boyond tLn. p~resent rltinufacturing state of the art Soni't methods for approximate analytical prediction of resonant per* formance for relatively simple structural housing
* :ha~ L~ dvaniMd an RC.24
It is not certain that the elimination of all interactin& vibratory and resor..rit behavior in the various
gear meshes Is entirely beneficia; i.c., some sacrifice
in the efficiency of the lower speed (boundaty lubrication regime) meshes may result. The effects of axial
lubrication upon the reduction of tooth-meshing friction is reported int Ref. 25.
Although the engineering field of gearbox noise
generation is imprecise as yet, there exists considerable general knowledge that can be of practical
benefit to the designer. For example, it is known that
hnigh contact ratio gearing and finer pitch sizes pro.
duce. ess noise than their opposite counterparts.
Similarly, helical gears ame quieter then ttraight
spurs; spiral bevel gear are quieter than ctraight
bevel or Zerol gpars because of their greater inherent
contact raitios reduced dynamic increments or waste
loads, and increased smoothness of operation.
In addition, increased gear tooth backlash and
clearance can help to maintain subsonic air ejection
velocities fromt blgh-sprtd meshing teeth (Ref. 26).
Viscous films between tAtionary bearing rings and
housingsi can provide suffikient damping to roduce vibratlon and noise propagation. Coulomb or dry fric* tion devices have been successilul in damping resonat modes in Sea rims and webs, as have high hystaresis materialis clad or bonded to shafts and webs.
onthe
4-12.1.2 UdhIEfy
A complete general discussion of reliability con4-42

cepts is contained in Chapter 12, AMCP 706-201.

Thin paragraph, therefore, deals with specifics as related to mechanical power trantsmission ccmponents
of the transmission system.
Concept definitions and numerical values for
quantitative reliability indices generally are speciriod
in procurement documents and, with increasing frm
quency, in PIDS. For transmission and drive system
design there are two types of indices:
I. Values for such characteristics as mission reliability, flight safety reliability, and system reliability
rot the entire helicopter (us.ually for a gi-een mission
and operational enviroanmcnt). Typical values and
methods of expression might be, respectively, 0.90 to
0.99 for ont. hour of misL,.ion time. one failure per 20.0(N) flight hours, and 0.70 to 0,80 probability per mision hour of no system failures requiring unscheduled
nainteniance. Because the reliability of the helicopter
is a composite of the reliabilities of the individual
subsystems, individual reliability levels must be assigned %stargets for the design effort. As an example,
assumei the Request for Picoposal (RFO) specified
values of 6.98 and 0.9999 (one failure per 10,000 hr)
ur minkimiu and safivt

criteria, respectively, The Ai-

lowable apportionment for the drive system would be

dependent upon the complexity and type of helicopter, but typical values for this apportionment
could well be 0.999 and 0.9999. respectively.
Techniques for desigri to these requirements will be
addressed in par. 4-2.
2. values for suhsy,6tems and component~s for such
characteristics as reliability after storage and mean
time between removals (MTBR). Typical values are a
maximum of 10% degradation in mean time betweenA
failures (MTBF) after storage for six months in approved environment or containers and 1IS0 hr
MTBR, including both scheduled and nonscheduled
removals. This type .-f index is directly applicable to
individual subsystems, including the transmission
and drive system. The MTBF values subject to the
10% maximum degradation limit lite those specified
implicitly or explicitly in Item 1, i.e.. the 0.90 to 0.99
mission reliability carries the recirrocal meaning of a
10 to' 100 hr MTBF, the one failure in 20,000 hr for
flight safety is a statement of 20,000 hr MTORE, and
the 0. 70 to 0.80 probability of zero system fail urs per
hr implies # 3.3 to 5.0 hr MTBF. The MTBF levels
corresponding to the drive subsytcm apportionment
in Item I are 1000 hr (0.999) and 10,000 hir (0.9999).
respectively.
It is important that the designer understand that
MTBR arid MTBF criteria discussed previously ~
interrelate in a unique fashion with the subsystem
design reliability when a finite timne between over-

'

F)

A&IcP 705-=2

hauls (TBO) is selected. On the astiumption that. n~l

transmission and drive system failures are of sufficicnt magnitude (and detectability) tn. force a mis-

cancellation effecta, leaving a not MTSIF value dofined with sufficient precision to express design reliability rc-quiremenrts.

to be aborted, and further that no TOO

(scheduled removal) reqjuirement is imposed, then it
follows that the MTBF owMTBR. The imposed
requirement of a 1500hr MTBR would necessitate a
failure rate A! 0.0O004 or a one-hr mission reliability
of 0.9933 for the tra 1smission and drive system. The
relationships satisfied in the preceding statemenits
are:

Yh "ft of a given set of gearbox failure data to

teepnniiasmto
eel eti hrc
tcrestxcsofth asysumtemion reveals. cfteoertaingcar
loprtng,
a If
sufihenl
syroum in*q
teimeci ofah
cetwerotrndwlb
bevdasaodfnt erottedwl eosre sann
cnsatorireigfiuert.Omoroetisensilive (wearing) compontnts eventually will begin
to dominate the failure picture as the end of their tueful life is approached. Generally, those componenits
operating in deep boundary layer lubrication regimes
W19I be the first to influence the picture. lit such instances the wear will progress to a state wherein conditions become fa'vorable for the occurrence of a
failtire mode indigenous to that new set of operating
conditions established by the partict'li wear state.
Fig. 4-9 gives an example of a well-developed or debugged gearbox with relatively low TRO that satisfies
the rancom failure characteristics a:curately dcflned
by the exponential distributi.on (Rd. 27).
Fig. 4-9 represents a gearbox with a 350-hr

Ision

I
h
and using Maclaurin's form of Taylor's
formula
R xp~(k
MT

.B

(4-12)

where
R =reliability (for a I-hr mission), dirnensionless
However, if a 2500-hr TBO level were to be assigned,
the I 500-hr MTOR could be satisfied only by a higher
reliability number (lower failure ratte). The rclation.
.
- - --

~bnp

Imuy uti

-A

flf IL-.
L.. U..f

rpirbbvd ivi bi.0-ha, ivjjaffuw.

3MB

_A<
AAIBR

XTaO

0.00067

___00

--

o.00040
X .o

! 0.00067

-0.00040

)
-

sn..

ii

. C

a50

1,0l

-1

scheduled removal frequency, the resulting MTDR is

(4-13)

2500

Therefore, A.
!5 E
B~
:5 0.0027

scheduled tria

reliability of 0.9930. However, due to the 350-hr

TO+Xr1
B

ABO+IM

AMBR-
=

_..--

as.

lic~cthcnc-v
TBFmus be~ 304hr riditecor
IT# I "A
responding ireliabilty R ; 0.99973.
It is paradoxical that such factois as flight safety
reliability and the increased cost of overhaul of a badly degraded gearbox (extensive secondary failures)
may fix the TBO interval at a level that in turn rm
quires a significant increase in the required MTBF to
achieve a specified MTBPR.
Relationships defined in this maniier are tacitly assumed to fit a simple exponential failure distribution. This not only simplifies the arithmetic involved, but enables the designer to think directly in
terms of the inverse relationships between the
number cf detail components comprising the sub-.
system and their intrinsic failure rate requirements.
Although many individual gefirbox componients are
better represented by other distributions - e.g.,
Weibull, gamma, and lognormal - the averaging
effect on the subsystem as a whole is such as to invite

204 hr.

Fig. 4.10 from~ Ref. 28 represents the distribution

evidenced by a %i~el dc-bugged gearbox with relatively high TBO. In thin caa- the upward inflectiorn or
concavity of the data points reveas the strong influence of component wear-out as the TBO level is
approached.
ISimilarly, Fig, 4-10 represents a gearbox with an
I100-hr scheduled TBO, an MTBF of SUP' hr, and a
one-hr reliability of 0.9998. Ir~ this cast the scheduled
removal frequency results in an MTBR of 904 hr.
Obviously, design MTBR and MTBF values sart
dependent upon the desiner's knowledge of repro
5entative failure modes and his ability to assign
reasonably accurate failure rates. Extensive test and
service experience with analogous componewts and
subsystem elements is essential in arriving at realistic
predictions. There is little published literature to aid
the designer, but the selection of components with
known lower generic failure rates always should be
the objective. It should be recognized that generic
failure rates (indicativz of the intrinsic reliability
characteristic of any component) cannot truly exist
apart from the envirvnment in which the component
functions. Some insight into these environmental inlucrnces is given in par. 4-2.1.1.
4-13

&mill

--

GEAR BOXES SURVEYED -.173

32

32

26TB
-

OF FAILURES . 34

26 TOTAL TIME

-A

-HNUMBER

172,431 hr

,f71ti--

10

0-0---1

00

01
0
00

-ii

0
12________

12E 17.67

4T TOA

OPERATIONAL EXPOSURE TIME;, hr x 10-1

Number of Failues a Hewns Simv

Overh. - MATSF ow5001 r

FjS449.

2r

0W8

-'7-

04
121010
2

44

OPERATIONAL EXPOSURE TIME, hr x 10f

Flgurs 4-10. Number of Failures vs Hours Slae
Operatin. WINF - 9W br

based upon th. profile of !he design mission; i.e., for

Satisactory failure tate estimates for rolling elea mission profil, of n discrete values of bearing load
nment boarings may be derived by seeral wethods.
P, each occurring for a perorntue a, of the total
one simple but sulficient value is:
(41) operational time:
IN-

S
L

5 /~h-I(414

1/3

probability of siurvivl, dimensionless

AMC
i(4.15)
- duuign life or scbeuled renowvatime
100)l
(TDo) br
where
The value for Sis rsd fromthe curve in Fig. 4-11~U
corrseponding to doe rtio of dbo design life L to thw0
Although in ma-iy instances the life-load exponent
life olo at wbicb i0% of the beauing population will
more correctly can betaken as 4. thecube value is
rad Tkin#10 value for a gienbern gis determined
recommended for determinations of failure
generally
root
for
the
from the bearing msnufacturW&' data
rate A.
mean cube AMC load. The applicable AMC load is
4-14

(.

XA&P70&202

0.6

will have failed by emrplo,41'a dispersion exponent,

tatii'c of typical h fcopicr geat performance whome

4 Ii
*1

excellent quality control generally results in lower

6ispersion. Very steep slopes frequently
Lubrication Regime 1. The life value L2 for
98% reliabilty may be read from Fig. 4-13. a Weibull
~plot. The resultanit failure rate A is then:

*population

0.4

1typify
I

(4-16)

X - 0.02/L 2

The mean value may be taken as the 50% or median

rank foi such steep slopes without losb of significaid
accuracy in using Fig. 4-13.

0.1
9S.9)

99.9

go
98 14 9 9..4 99
PROBABILITY OFSURVIVAL
S.

9)

94

90

FSpot 4-11. Pro-babillly of Survital vs L/810 Ratio

2D

copter appfications will exhibit pitting as the lifelimiting failure mode (pat. 4-2.2.1). The life-stresa-to-4.
lationship for gear teeth is far more complex than for
arc
ar ighe, more types of ni~ctals and heat treatmctfare prgevaen, and the elastohydrodynamic and
cemical effects of the lubricant are known with less
precision
Available simss-hfif curves more often than not are
aacd upon the mean pitting, or spalling, endurance
of an unknown statistical sample (Ref. 29). Intensive
is underway by many organi7.ations (ASME
R esearch Program on the Relationship of Lubric8-

____

IS

01I0
PLIGiecls

Figre 4-12. Spalling Life vs Hertz Stress

WEIBULL SLOP", 5.5
-1

Kresearch

-O

ton and Fatigue in Concentrated Contact, for

70

preparation of
exml)that should result in thetrdifi"ehr

60

N'~~~
pit-1i

that consider lubrication regimes, materials and

metallurgy, and sliding speeds. The AGMA data of
Ref. 29 reflect usc of a stress-lifec exponent of between
9and 10, whereas values of 5 have been reported
(Ref. 30) for operation in Lubrication Regime I (Fig.
4-3). However, in the A!scnce of well-documented,
statistically-significant, test date, the AGMA data
should be teken as represcntativc o~f most gear applications. Use, of the RMC value of the Hertzian or
compressive stress in the contac! area to obtain the

1tos-1

4o. ---

*j

4-

'i

23
I

10--f.-I

mean spalling life from Fig. 4-12 is satisfactory, al-r

though the quartic mean level has be'n shown to offer excellent correlationi in Lubrication Regime 1.

7)

There are many suitable techniques for reducing

this life to a value of failure rate A.One rather simple

method uses standard Weibull paoper to reduce the
mean life to the level L 2 at which 2% of population

Th0------ T

200

Geat failure rates can be determined similarly from

design stress levels. Properly designed gears in heli-

gK

2GEAR!
GRADE
411.02
AGMA

300-

2-

10'

0
$PALLING LIFE. cyoles

Flpre 4-13. WelIulI Me - Spalifq

Life vs Gear Popula"o Rank

AWP 7Q2

41-1,1.1.3 Maaimalahlty
A gcnoral discussion of maintainability may be
found in Chapter i, ,k MCP 706-201. This discussion, therefore, treats considerations relating specifically to the transmission and drive system.
The basic concept of maintainability often is
expressed as a requirement for a specific or maximum
number of maintenance man-hours per flight hour
(MMH/FH). Army helicopters of a few decades ago
exhib~ted values as high as 35 MMH/FH while helicopters in the present Army inventory have values
ranging from 0.5 for the OH-58 (Ref. 31) to 6.5
MMH/FH for the CH-54 (Ref. 32). Small helicopters as a rule show better maintainability values
than the larger, more complex machines. However,
the values for any given size of helicopter may vary
by 300% depending upon design variables. Current
RFP requirements arc in the range of 5 MMH/FH
for medium-sized, twin-engine helicopter for organizational, direct support (DS), and general support
(GS) maintenance levels combined. A value so stated
must be apportioned in turn (par. 4-1.2.1.2) to the
various subsystems to establish individual design
goals.
Achicvcmunt of sadisfactoui-y -aitai-ability levels
is dependent upon two factors:
I. High component reliability (par. 4-1.2.1.2)
2. Ease of maintenance,
Mainteinance is generally thought of as comprising
two categories: nonscheduled (due to random failure
or accident), and scheduled (due to time change of

or clamps. !t also should be emphasized that true

leveling of lte helicopter is seldom achieved for comnponent change at the direct support level. Therefore,
when heavy components neceLitate the use of
hoisting devices, extra care must be taken in the
design of algnment devices and structural cicarancs,
so as to reduce maintenance effort.
External shaft seals always should be essembled in
easily vemovable housings or holders to permit bench
changing of the seal element. Squareness, alignment,
and cleanliness practices all are critical to the proper
performance of a seal and are difficult to achieve
when the seal element must be changed in place. The
shaft upon which the seal operates also must be easily
removabie because good practice requires that the
shaft be slipped into the previously installed seal,
allowing the use of adequate shaft lead chamfers to
minimize the danger of seal damage. It also is desirable to have the shaft engaged with the driving
spline or some other guiding device prior to making
contact with the seal to prevent excessiv sidc loading
of the seal.
The attachment of all external components should
be such that one man can remove all fasteners and
similar items. Two examples of poor design that
require unnecessary manpower are:
I. Bolt-and-nut fasteners through structure where
one man cannot reach wrenches on both elements.
Tapped holes on nut plates are proper solutions even
though a larger number of cap screws may be required because their rigidity or strength may be lower

wear-out components, interim servicing, and in-

than that of a bolt-out joint.

spections). However, all maintenance. concerned with

componer.t change is discussed herein as a group.
The generic failure rates of many external com-

2. Components that one man must hold while

another installs fasteners. Possible solutions include
the use of guide pins, longer pilot flanges, slotted

at,,ch
Donents in the drive sytem rre

,-.aran-.,, hnl,.

that !h, cnm-

r-t,,nn

n.
,rt

-r.n..

.. h

".
-

r.;

portents may be ranked in order of required fre-

tion devices to secure the component temporarily.1

qucncy of removal or adjustment. Components such

as hydraulic and electrical accessories, rotor brakes,
shaft seals, external hanger bearings, and drive shaft
couplings require relatively frequent inspection or
maintenance and must be designed for ease of
removal and installation. Accessibility is the key criterion Such components must not be located too
close to one another, and adequate wrench clear"ances must be provided for standard tools,
Subsystem components such as g-arboxes are
generally not maintained at the field or direct suppori
level and, therefore, they must have simple and accessible attachments with structural clearances adequate to permit easy removal and replacement. The
usc of integral guide pins or tapered dowels is rccoinmended in any case where heavy components must be
aligned for the installation of mounting screws, bolts,

Components that require a specific orientation to

function correctly should be designed so that they can
be installed only in that position, if possible. When
this is not practicable, as in dhe case of some
Government-furnished electrical accessories, decals
may be ustd at the pad location to provide insiallation instructions. Examples of one-way components are seal housings with drain fittings, hydiaulic pumps that require line connection fitting
orientation, and bearing hangers.
Components that require tight-fitting pilot bores
or similar devices should be provided with jacking
pads for removal. One man can operate two or three
jack screws (tightening each one a little at a time),
whereas their omission might necessitate the use of
two men to pry simultaneously on both sides of a
component (and possibly a third man to catch the

4-16

_-A

*AMC,
- -component
*.

706-2012

when it breaks f(we).

Proper performance of scheduled maintenance
tasks such as inspection and servicing is dependent to
some extent upon acsuibility and convenience,
Inspections that are convenient and of a go-no-go
nature are likely to be performed cin time aid with
accuracy; those thut require considerable quantitative judgment may bc missed or interpreted incor-

reedly,
For example, the presence of vital fluids in all gtarboxes, transmissions, and other reservoirs should be
discernible from ground level without opening of
complex cowlings. Min-max oil levels should be used
to eliminate the nccd for topping off, and the
minimum level should be exactly one or two quarts
below the maximum whenever possible to discourage the practice of saving half a quart of oil in an
open can. The minimum level should be such as to
allow completion of several additional hours of
operation at the maximum likely oil consumption
rate so as to eliminate the need for adding oil when
the level is near minimum,
While accurate values of maintenance times for
transmission and drive system components are not
*

,v, ,au
S.,,t'.t
,

U.flI,,=FE,.

n,,ll) ,l.,,Wpf..,,

p-ua.aavu

data are helpful in identifying present troubleome

areas. Table 4-1 presents maintenance workload factots relative to drive subsystems (Ref. 33). The
TABLE 4-1. US ARMY HELICOPTERS TRANSMISSION AND DRIVE SYSTEM ONLY
MAINTENANCE WORKLOAD (Ref. 23)
-

*OR K LOAD RATING

PRO6LEMTITLE
U A

VERY I
II

HG

TAIL ROTOR DRIVE SHAFT

INPUT DORIVESHAFT
OHTAIL
S ROTOR DRIVE ,SHAFT
TAIL GEAROTO

ocoincident
IU

I
4

,V

LO*4

LOW[

SY NCHRONIZ ING OR IVE

SHAF I

nial

with ADS-I l. This plan will include many elements

peculiar to the transmissici and drive system. A good
program plan requires the active participation of the

responsible transmission and drive system design ac-

x
X

ROTOR BRAKE SLJPPORT

ASSEMBL V
ROTOR DRAKE DISK

ROTOR BRAKE PUCKS

tivity to assure practicable approaches with miniriun

penalties in &!ive system performance, weight, and
cost.

OIL COOL ER ASSEMBLYV

with the reduction of vulnerability. Nor-

practice is to design a complete helicopter sur-

vivability-vulnerability program plan in accordance

X

TRANSDUCERS
CH 54

"INPUT

techniques applicable to this goal are discussed in

pars. 4-2.1, 4-2.4. and 44.3.

Survivability in cases of combat hits is considered

OIL PRESSURE

LC
MAIN GEARBOX
CARBON SEALS
ROTOR DRAKE SEAL AL;Y

4-1.1.4 Survlivabllly
Survivability in transmission and drive syste.
operation may be defined as the capability to susstain damage without forced landing or mission abort
and to continue safe operation for a specified period
of time, usually sufficient to rctunn to home base or,
as a minimum, to friendly territory. The damage may
occur from either internal component failure due to
wear, fatigue, or use of a deficient or inferior component; or a hit by hostile forces. The current Army
requirements generally define the period of time for
safe operation after damage as a minimum of 30 min
i
at conditions within the maximum power and load
envelope, except in the case of total loss of the lubrication subsystem; the acceptable maximum power
level for safe operation upon loss of lubrication is
generally reduced to that required for sustained flight
at the maximum range speed at sea level standard
condition.
Survivability tollowig internal com.pOont failure
can be enhanced through such detail design practices
as identification of primary failure modes, and using
configurations and arrangements to asure kindly
failure modes and to limit f-ilure progression rates.
Attention also must be given to the elimination or metardation of secondary failures causad by primary
failure debris, and to providing for j.3sitive failure
detsection long before a critical condition is reached.
Safe operation with this type of damage normally can
be achieved for durations of 30 to 100 hr. Design

INPUT DRIVE SHAFT

Ail IG
I,'LUT OUILL OIL SEAL
("1 4?I

rankings given reWate primarily to other maintenance

factors on the specific helicopter listed, and are not to
be interpreted as relating the workload on one bali-.
copter model to that of another.

Reduction of helicopter detectability and the

defeat of specified ballistic threats are important elements in vulnerability redt tion. With regard to de-

X
X

X
x

tectability, the primary area of concern in the cas of

the drive system is noise Wpar. 4-1.2.1.1.4). While the

mower irquency noise levelsare basically associatd1

',
,'.
-- t

A
-

'with the rotor and/or tail rotor and propeller. the

highiev frequencies are generally attributable to the
transmission and drive, and propulsion systems and
their accessories,
Typical Army requirtments specify a maximum
scund pressure level for helicopter hover and fly-by
at &specific distance from the flight path. Desge
Soals for appropriate frequtrncies and sound prossuore@ are given in Table 4-2. Noise level survey
iriquirements are described in Chapter 8, A MCP 706203. Design techniques to secure external as well as
internal gearbox noise reduction are discussed in par.
4-1.2.1.1.4.
defeat of ballistic threats must be accompliahed for smaller caliber ordnance and damage
minimized as much as possible for the larger calibers. Depending u~pon requirements peculiar to the
mission, the drive system components must he cap&6k of withstanding a single ball or armor-piercing
.,762-mm ballot at 2550 fps, aligned or fully tumbled,
striking at any obliquity at any point in the system.
*,TM 75-dog solid angk of the upper hemisphere (with
-Complete

larger ordnanca for %.hich damage minimization

the collector par in the main gearboc or combin~ing

gearbox t-sually arc excluded from the survivability
requirement by nature of their functional duplication, provided that:
I.- No single projectile can kill all duplicated power
paths
2. A single power-path kill cannot cause secon-t
dary failure of the duplicated power paths due to
firagmentation of the first.
These two criteria can be tatisfied by:
1. Physical separation of the drive paths sufficient
to reduce the impingement angle within which a
single proj~iccr can produce a multiple kill
2. Sufficic. !size and strength of the killed-path
component to attenuaste the projeenile velocity below
the kill thre~hold for the second path component
3. Use of structure between the paths to confine a
fragmented or loose component to its immcdiate
locale
4. Use of armor to confine fragments or prevent
projectile impact.
eguaeu

should be considered is 23-mm high explobive: inisbMaCh

otimotn
Ilt n f
cen~iry(HI)
sighet iechnique for reducing vulnerabilty. Manly
slihtconfiguratior, changes can increese surviva.
he esgne to
tchnqueo he
avilbleto
Thaspeifi
Thespeifi
avilale
tehnque
esinerto
bility greatly with jut serious compromise of efw~ee the stated requirements include:
fcecwiho
ot
I. RdundncyFor
example, case hardened gears with tough,
2. Desigi configuration
fracture-resistant core structure have surjplisingly
3. Self-sealing oil sump materials
4. ubrcatin
Eergncy cnsidratonsgood toleranct to ballistic damage. Spiral bevtl gears
4. Armor.ec lurctocnieain
and planetary gears, used effectively throughout the
drive train of rimall and medium helicopters Ure in-

Y
.

vulnerable to the 7.62-mm threat. Planetary ring

Aa 0

Redundancy is typified by multiple engine configurations. In thesm configurations all individual

drive subsystemn components between the engines and
TABLE 4-2. EXTERNAL NOISE LEVEL
#X rERNAL NOISE LEVEL

IFREOJENCY. Hz
BANDi
CUJTEW

44.7-89.2

0.-78
M&f
709 1.410

OVEALLsosive
63
12

oc

1.4110-2.9m

(1000
.. 2000

2AZI5.833

4000)

L~~i
5,2111,222

oo

'NWA

SOUNDOPRESSURE LEVEL, CB
PER CEI VE0

85
5
88
86portioned
851

76
72

CETE FREQENCY (DETERMINED EMPIRICALLY)

'ONvIFSSEM
psWP

SNCILS

gears may be penetrated so that the planet idler gearsX.

cannot mesh at a particular segment, but the remaining Sears pick up the overload necessary to continuc normal power transmission. The melatively high
contact re jos and coarser pitch of spiral bevel gears
t a facto~s that make them particularly resistant to
failure from loss of a single tooth segment. Narrowface spu.- gears (less than 0.5 in.) c;an be a problem,
and, therefore, it is desiroblc to use greater face
widths in all primary po-wer paths.
Experience. with 12 7-ns. 'n ammunition is less exten-

than with the 7.62-mini projetiles, but the same

general observations hold true with a slightly larger

scale ol' reference. Glear rimns, webs, and integral

outer-race sections of planetary idlers should be pro-

such that a ricochet entering the mesh will

deform, fracture, or crack the gcar teeth rather than
A
the tooth supporting structure. Extensive observation of main rotor gooarboxes damaged by 7.62-mm /

ball -and arurnr-pimrinS (AP) anmulinition

tv

AMMP 7W~202
shown the digsctive capabilities of conventional hel;copter gec~ring to be quite adequate to discharge the
"spm bullet insto the oil sump without functional
failure or the power transmission systrmn.
Integral gear shafts quill shafts, and external intercon~nect or tail rotor drive shafts must be of au1Tficient diameter to withstand edge hits from fully
tumbled bullets without failure. In thin-wall alumiinum shafts operating with a minimum of 20% margin on first whirling critical speed, an extc.-nal diameter of 3.0 in. is sufficient to defeat the 7.62-mm
threat whil- a 4.0 in. diarantecr is necessary to defeat
the 12.7-mm threat. Steel shafti-i may be considerably smaller depending upon the wall thicknms
employed. Of course, in event of damage the remainin& portion of th~e shaft must have sufficient strength
to transmit the required maximum torquc.If the
column buckling torque is 300% or more above this
torque, &simple shear-stress calculation of the remaining post-impuct area is sufficient. However,
when the buck inS margin islevas, it isgenerally necessary to conduct real or simulated ballistic tests to
demonstrate the adequacy of the design. Note that it

is undesirable to increase diameters excessively sincc

vulnerability is then increased for fuzed round
threats.
Most ball and roller bearings are fabricated from
through-hardened steels and. consoqoently, usually
will fracture through the outer ring when struck by a
bullet at nt.ar-ero obliquity. The outnouncling case
and liner s~tucture serve to expend sorie of tha kirsetic energy of the bulict; however. cony ontional thickntsse of these structures gsterally are insufficient to
prevent fracture of the bearing ring. Orientation of
the rolling elements of the bearing at the instant of
impact has much to do with the ring fracture mode. A
zero obliquity hit between rolling elements fraquently will discharge a double-fractured "pit-slice"
ring segment into the bearing, while an nligned hit
often produms a single outer rikig fracturc and frequently fractures the roll~ni element so well. When
the des.Sn allows, a space between the outer gearbox
wall and portion of the housing supportiag the
bearing liner ind ring is effective in reducing bearinb
damage. P~as space provides a place for the spa?'ling
debris from the initial impact to txpand and eject,

DUPLEX BALL BEARINGS

ROLLER BEARINGS

Figur 4-14. Typical Tall Rotor Gearbox

Vulnerable
4-19

*uRAP 706-202__

_____

thereby reducing the impact shock on the bearing

Ving,
Some insight into useful design techniques may be
gained front examining three configurations of a sitnpie, spiral bevel gear. 90-deg tail rotor gearbox as
used on most helicopters with single main rotors. Fig.
4.14 is a schematic representation of a typical
minimum-weight design featuring overhung pinion
and pear mountings, designated as Configuration I The pinion and gear are both in overhung mountings
supported by duplex bail and cylindrical rollcr
bearings. A single 7.62-mm hit on any ont of the four
bearings probably would not result in instant functional failure; the boaring would continue to orcrate
for some time because the considerable driving torque would bre~k up and eject the relatively frangible
rjis.~ng elements and cage of the damaged bearing,
Howtver, direct hits on either the pinion cylindrical
roller bearing or the duplex ball bearing supporting
the geau would soon result in excessive loss Of geAr

mesh position. As the ci fectivc: radial clearance of

either of these bcatings increased with the resulting
rapid bearing deterioration, the operating backlash
of' the gear tecth similarly would increasc while the
depth of tooth engagemcitt would decrease correspondingly. The probability of the gear teeth skipping mesht or breaking off upon application of sip
nificant yaw control would be gkcat. Hits on thc outboard bearings would yield far lower probability of
gear miesh failatrc.
Configuration 2 is shown schematically in Fig. 415. The beval gear set it; identical to that of Conifiguration 1. Pairs cof the same types of bearings used in
Configuration I are now used to straddle mount both
pinion and geAr membtrs. In this configuration the
increasing radial clearanctc in any bearing sustaining
a hit wifl result in less dectrioration of the gear mesh.
with a corresponding decerase in tlte probability of
gear fetilurc upon sudden yaw control input. A gear-

box of this configuration designed for tail rotor

CONFIGURATION 2

~ROLLLO BEARINC-

7'

DUPLEX BAL.L BEARINGS

Flgvrt 4-15. Tail lRotor Gearbox

4-20

At

7.62 mm Proof

r7

AMCu706202
steady hover power of morm than 150 hp wo-ald bc
jiudged capable of the required 30 min operation subsequent to a 7.62-mm bullet impact. However, the
probability or functional failure after receiving a
12.7-mm hU would be quite high unless the beating
and Sear components were inordirsati'iy large.
Configurption 3 is shown schematically in Fig. 416. This configuration has bee arranged to defeat
12.7-mm threats with far less weight penalty than
would be incuticd by oversixing the elements of Configuration 2. The overhung mouanting of Configuration I and the straddle mounting of Configuration 2 have been couinbined in this redundant or
composite system. Both pinion and gear members are
supported by two conventional cylindrical roller
bearings and one duplex ball bearing pair. Emergency thrust shoulders art. incorporated on the shafts
adjacent to the integfal roller bearing inner raceways. Sufficient axial cekarance should be provided
betweeni thec roller elements and the inner racv thrust
shoulders or flanges to preclude contact under normal operation conditions (including extreme cold

when the light alloy housings have contracted roeitivt to the steel shafL4. H*A#ever, upon functional
failure or either duplex ball bearjug. emergency axial
locaition is provided by theae thrust flanges. Wse of a
thiec-bearinS systcam p, .-wits total functional losit of
any one bearing without seriously compromising the
operating parameters of the gear meah, however,
bearing alignment becomes more critical. As a result,
one bearing of thc three-boaring system must be designed with greater ikiterna! -clearance than normal.
The spiral bevel gear set shown in Fig. 4-16 has been
enlarged slightly relativen *o the geai set shown in thea
prior two configurations to derreace vulnerability to
12.7-mrn hits directly ini the gear elements.
While numerous other configurations and types of
bearings can be used to accomplish the same objectives, the logic used to providte inherent survivability itrnains unchanged. Simailar principitct should
goivern the design of the entire dr-'ve subsystem. Their
npplication, of coursc, beco~mes more involved as tae
complexity of the gtearbox design increases.
All shaft couplings, joints, hanger bearings or

ow'CONFIGURATION

D'DU:LEX BALL BEARINGS

W
IT)

-12.7

Figure A-1,6. Tall Rotor Gear'sox

mrm Proof
4-21

13illow block hoirsiwigs, Warotor and intermcdiatc

4-112.1.44 FAmwgsuy Lubricadorn

lyjain gearbxec, and input/output quaill asiemblies

tmust be j ined, retained, or mounted wit~h a sufificiamt numaber of redundant fasteners to preclude

1, ic preferred method of reducingl vulnerability is

to assure fail-afe or emergency lmbrication in the
event of total lows of thz normal luboicant sup*l
This rANNhty must all'iw continued. Wae operatior
for 30 min at minimum cruise power at mnission 9TSS

loss of function fiomt a single proje1cil. For well

.4prldattachment points, four fusicners ofttit suf-

`-'ic.oveve. otatins shaft joints ard ocaplings

often require six or morm fasteners. Frequent UKC Of
-flanges, ribs and abrupt scetion changei; in castings,
housings. it 1 simiiar structures providc effcti-vc
'stoppage of %.nckprapagatioia, while enhancing heat
rejection to the. atmosphere. Internal ribs in Oil SUMP
areas are desirable because or the ponsibility of
cracking by hydraulic ram effect in the oil as well as
by projectile impac.
4-1.2.11A.3 Sgif-" alig Su*4w
Another design tecltirtiqw involves the use of selfsealing materiash in the gearbox oil sumlp area. The
Inost efficitrnt material now available is defined as
Type It ina MIL-T-5579, Thi* rubberized self-scaling
compound originally was developed for fuel cells and
can be fabricated to defeat either the: 7.t~2-rnm or the
12.7-mm threat. Another excellent defense material
for 7.62-mmn threat is a cast urethane coating approximately 3/8 in. thick. With the latter material,
the decin of the sump should be relutively silmple, as
in a casting cope where the drag may 1-t witharawn
without usc of breakaway core prints The cast
coating contracts after pouring aad high residual
comprersive stresis rcsults. This prestressed resilient
coat then shrinks to close completely the hole lei's by
the piercing bullet. The coating is relatively dense (2.0
lb/ft2 for the 7.62-mm throat), and also serves as an
excellent beat insulator and noisc and vibration
damper. Its density is such that the rurface. area to be
coated should be kept to a minium to reduce the sittendant penalty on -sizing of the oil cooling system.
Flat shallow oil pans and st-mps often provide the
most efricieni configurations.
The verious shaft seals must be designed so that a
direct bit cannot cause all the oil to leak from a gearbox. This may be accomplished by using acnribbing
labyrinth or slinger seals in #eries with the conventioaial contacting face- or lip-type of seat and by
limiting the o-; flow rate at the inboard seal fecc to a
minimum,.i
Where external olcoolers and lines are used,
current specifications often require the use of
emergency o, :%ut-off valves to divert the oil dircctAly
back to the transmission lubrication distributien
system in thecevent of a cooler or line hit, thus preventing total loss of oil. One s3uch devicc is defined it.
Ref. 34.
4-22

weight. Oil dams. wicks, and other itemns o e

tain'n a minansum oil supply in the critical bearing
areas are simple techniques to employ. Bell sind roller
bearing cages may be fabricated ftom sacrificially
wearing. self-lubricating composite ma~terial~s (Ref.
35) such as polyimides, Tefloni-filled Fiberglas
matrices, and silver-plated, high-temnperature steel.
The US Army Ballistic Research Laboratories (BRL)
has clemonstrateo composit etilc gears that wear off
on meshing drive gears, thus providing aform or geak.
tooth lubrication (Ref. 36).
Ref. 37 reports a successful applicaetion of a grease
developed specilically for helicopter gear and bearing
lubrication. However, the nnomal lubricants (M I .L7808 or MIL-L-23699) serve the cquc!!y important
fuinctions of reducing fricticn and cooling. Ref. 38
desribes the reauiremeni that ihcrtnai cmuiiibriurn
for the nrw "dtry" running condition be established to
achieve 30-mmn safe operation aftet loss of the cooling
oil. The equ.ilibrium can be established. only by main-K
tami-ij adequate ruaning clearances and backlash in
the bearings aa4d gears in the presence oC the therm. l
gradients that exist in 2he "dry" condit.,on, with its
alteredl frictional hWit sourcei and modified conduction, radiation, and convective hetat rejection
vaths. The emergency "friction reducing" lut-ricants
can be of value in austa..uing safe operation only in
such a case. If a gear or bearing loses running
clearance., a rapidly degenerative sequence of events
results, in catastrophic failure. Loss of' operating
clearance results in abnormally high he-at generation
because the gear tceth and bearings operate under interferenc conditions with attendant overloads. Ti
heat generation in turn produces an increase in the
therinal gradients, resulting in a f'irther increase in
overload and interferencc until the bearings sei;Le Or
the gear teeth #, so hot the*.1 they undergo plastic
failure. Specific metl..od& of preventing such occurrence arc discussed in par. 4-4.4-3. The general
recomrmended design proceduic (Ref. 38? is as
follows:
1. D'ouign for minimal frictional lesses commensuratc wita available manufactuiing ability.
2. Ca' culatc (frictional !osses for the "dry running"
regime. An average friction coefficient 1 0,16 is
suggested for the first approximation. Use ihis value
with the mean values for sliding velocity, and load in
the Psta meshes and bearing contact areas.

.
''

AL"~ 706=2O

3. Construct a thermal map with probable steadystate "dry running" tunparature gradients.
4. Redesign &I:gear Otbo bimfing elements to
provide some clearance under the mopped gradients,
Acdded clearance should be provided at high-rate frictional heating sources to accommodate transient conditions. For example, relieving clearance will not be
provided by expansion of the gear cane until the increased heat generated by dry operation has beated
ONe can.
5. Use materials with adequate hot hardness and
frictiou properties for thermally vulnerable cornponents.
6. Provide self-lubrication cf bearings where possibin. Methods include the use of suitable cage
materials or the use of appropriately located wick devimes
7. Re-caiculste bearing lives and Sear strc~aes for
the increased clearance conditions occurring during
operation in the normal lubrication regimc. AdJust
design parameters accordingly; i.e., increase face
widfts o:-pitch of glear memibei s, along with bearing
capacities, as required.
44.2.143is

single main rotor configuration and are powered by

either one or two 1~n..A shaft-driven, single-

In soecasesitmyb approl~riate. to employ armolt oprotect the vunml opnn.Ti

design technique is the least.preferted bemause it adlds
weight. increases maintenance Ptsk times, and
penalizes the full-time payload.
In such applications, integratl armor is prcferred
over parasitic or bolt-on armor. Not only is the
weight penalty slightly less with integral armor, but
the pitfalls of increasing payload at the expetise of armor rrpnvai will he eliffinated. For most anplications dual-hasrdhess steel armor will be the moat
efficient type to integrato because it can be rolled,
welded, bolt-fastened, or integrally cast. Design of armnor installations is discussed iki detail in Chapter 14.

rotor driveshaft. Table 4-3 identifieb certain coniuaincharacteriktics for the single main rotor
helicop~ters io cumr-nt Army use.
iiiIt should bte viimc that accessary
creasc with the sir. of thto helicopler. Lighti oli*4Lvation helicopters (LOH's) havo few accessory requ~reinents and 1,asibly no drive ,-dundancy. Ingr. ;nra,
these helicopters may be flown safely without hydraulic booet of the flight controls, and the battery
suffices for emeigency clectrical supply in the evmit of
failure of th.- engine-driven gencrat.)r.
Utility helicopters (UH) frequently require redundant hydraulic ptimp and electrical generator drives
due to the magnitude of the rotor control loads and
the increased clectrical loads attendant upon the
larger amounts of inatrumeititation, electronics, and
mission-essntial equil'ment.
Cargo helicopters (f'H) often must havt auxiliary
power unit (APU) for ground operation and checkout of electric-al and hydraulic subsystems. It is cornmon practicc to employ an indepnder~t aomssofy
gearbox driven througN over-running clutches fromt
both APU arnd main rotor gearbox to permit acprto rm te oe ore
csr

4-1.2.2 Dii'. System Ccwsulgurstllm

The specific requirementa for the drive system are
dictated by the dctailasd configuration layout and
vehicle requirements. AMCP 1,06-201 sets forth the
evolution of an zpproved preliminaty design con.
11Suration, which will include detailed requirements
for transmission subsystem power input and output
drives; i.e., the speeds, powers, location, and relative
orientation of these driives. Typical configuration
requkirements for existing Army helico'flers are discusavd further in the paragraphs that follow.
4-.L MiS~ri
Ma6l Rotor Drive tGyseaii
The ma~jority of helicopiprs in current use are of the
__

__

lifting-roto'r heicopter always employs antitorque

reaction and thrust device to counteract main rotor
driving torque and to provide yaw control for helicopter maneuverabilityr. A shaft-driven tail rotor tocatod at the aft end of the talboomn and arranged as
eithtr a pusher or a tractor propeller is used most
com.inonly.
The tail rotor shaft is driven throu3h a 90-deg bevel
gear set that ir. turn is driven from the main rotor
gearbox by a long drivtsliaft or series of coninected
driveshaftc. Thea power takeoff froir thc main rotor
gearbox for the tail rotor is gear'ed to the main rotor
drive downstream of the output sido of the freewheeling or overrunning. clutch iocated between the
engine(s) and the main rotor gearbox; this arrangement permits full yaw maneuver capability
during auto-.rotation or engine-out operation.
Accessory drive requirements vary extensively and
are dependant upon the primary vehicle mistion and
helicopter size. These drives muy be miounted on the
main gearbox or isolated in an accessory gearbox that
driven by r shaft ftom the maiL, gaorbox. Secon-

.'qvircrrmnts

4-12.2.2 M1ihftlHU-raost Dulee Systems

Multilifting-rotor helicopters have beer designeJ
and test" in many configurationas - suchv,4 fere and
-4-23

TABLE 4-3. HIELICOPTER DRIVE SUBSYSTEMS

SINGLE MAIN ROTOR

TAIL ROTOR AND ACC'Y

DRIVE DATA

MAIN ROTOR GEARBOX

REDUCTION STAGES
S SPEE11
rpm

____M.H.
ENIN OTPT
PU
POWER.,
SPR
hp

SPIRAL
BEVEL.

T.R.
SP6EO

SPEED,

PLANElARY

6,000
6,180
6,600

312
312
1,400

ACC'Y

2
1
1

NONE
1
2

AH-1 G

2,4
6.0130'
4,301

456
354
324

'R.G .6.
RATIO

11

NONE
NONE
NONE

IN1 MED.
G..

rm'DRIVES

SINGLE ENGINE
01+OHOH-58
UH-1I-

NONE
NONE
1:1

0.67:14
2.35:1
2.6:1

1:1
1:1

2.59:1
2.44:1

_____

TW!N ENGINE
UH-1N
CH-3

6,600
18,966

CH+63

13,600

CHZ4
L

1,800

j2,500
j7.560

9,000j 7,S00

A
NON4E
NONE

1
1

2
1

324
203

185

185

4,302
%,030

j3

010
3,020

,j1.31:1
1.22:1

2.91:1
2.91:1

NOT ES:
NE'~JRATOR.
GE~ovs
SONE ACE 550H Y PAL) LIN MAIN l..iARJibA, 4,20u rpm. FOR
AND HYDRAULIC
GENERATOR
TACHOMETER
rpm,
4,200
GEARBOX.
ONE ACCESSORY PAD ON MAIN
PUMP jN SERIES.
40OR 5 PADS ON MAIN a3EARBOX; 2 OR 3..,200 rpm FOR TACHOMETER GENERATOR AND 1 OR 2
HYDRAULIC PUMPS; 2.6.300 rpm OR 1 EACH 6,600 AND Z,000 rpm, DC GENERATOR, ALTERNATOR,
COOLING FAN' DEPENDING ON CONF IGURATION.
2 AC GENERATOR. 8,000 ipm; 3 HYDRAULIC PUMPS; 3,700 rpm, 2 LUBE PUWPS. 2,50O AND 3.7G0 rpm;4.
AND TACHOMIETER GENERATOR, 3,900 rpm.
ACCESSORY G.B. POWER TAKEOFF, 6,020 rpm; SERVO Pump. 4,600 rpm. TACHUMETER GENERATOR.
4,200 rpyn.
Ah2 ACCESSORY GENERATORS, 8,000rpm; 4 4YDRAULIC PUMPS, 2 4,300. 1 EACH 3,700 AND) 3,200 rpm;
AUXI L IAR Y SE R 10 PULMP., 3,70U rpm.
COMBINING GEARBOX APPROXIMATELY 5:1; 1 SPUR AND 2 HELICAL S'AGES
1 S'nUR AND 1 HELICAL STA.GE.

ENGINE

aft dispowAu, laterally disposed, coaxial, and quadrilateral main rotor arrangements. All of these layouts

feature counter-rotation of even numbers of main

rotors to cancel the torque reactions and hence eliminate the requirement for nonlifting antitoi que
device. All multirotor helicopters require rotor syr.chronization, which usually is accomplished by interconnect shafting between the individual main rotor
&eaboxes, or by dual-oitput reversing reduction
I;LtrinS in the cms of the coaxial confiaguration. In instance whert separate ewgines are located et each
miain rotor 6tarbox, the crossshafting supplies
power to each rotor for engine-out operation. In an~y
instance, the intecmonnect drive is essntial to safety
4-24

of flight, requiring reliability comparable to that of

the nizin rotor mast and thrust bearing. The interconnect drivz is located downstream from thc engne
free-wheling clutches.
The only multiliffin,' -rotor helicopter in current
use by the US Army is the tandem-rotor CH-47. This
helicopter fcatures twin engines of 2650 hp at 15.160
rpm. The engines are located in outboard nacelles
high on either side of the aft third of the fuselage.
They drive directly into 94)-deg reduction r,0_'TboXes
that drive into a combining gearbox alko with 90-dg
shaft angle spiral bevel geaA. T\,%oombining box is
an integral part of the interconnect syr..hronizing
drivc to the forward and aft rotor gearboxes.11ese

..

*,,

xt

-, ,7 -0

AMCP
rotor gearboxes each feature a sih0lc spiral bevel and
two planetary reduction stages with final output At
230 rpm. Thaccessori arc all located at the aft
main rotor gearbox and consist of oil cooler bir.wcr,
two ckctrical gciucrators, and two hydraulki pumps.
4-11.23 Compomi HICellOpl Drive Systems
Compound helicopters arc those that use cuxiliary
propulsion devices other than the main liftng rotors
in the forward flight mode. The majority of such
designs have featured a single main lifting rotor, an
antitorque rotor, and tither turbojet engines or shaftdriven propellers for auxiliary propulsaon.
The only compound helicopter to undergo
development test or Army use has been the AH-56.
It was powered by a single 3450-hp engine driving
directly into the main rotor gearbox. A spiral bevel
gear stage, a compound planetary, and a simple
planetary provide the reduction gearing for the main
rotor. A spur takeoff located at the engine input to
the main rotor gearbox drove a shaft running along
the top of the tailboon,. This shaft drove the pusher
propeller at the ead of the tailboom directly; and
through a 90-deg shaft angle spiral bevel gear set also
drove the antitorque rotor. Accessories were mounted at the main rotor gearbox and consise.d of two hydraulic pumps and a high-speed generator.

"4-1.3 TRANSMISSION DESIGN AND RATING

20

simply to achieve longer life of drive system corponents. Sufficient cycles will be accumulated at the
5-mirn rating during the service life of the drive subsystem to require the same bendiutp fatigue gear
design, i.e., infinite life, as would be required for a
continuous ratig at the same red-line limit.
Although a 5-min drive system rating does not usually impair the operatianal capability of a helicopter
with a typical speed-power relationship (Fig. 4-17),
current Army specifications include a continuous
drive sytem rating. A typical requirement would be a
continuous rating of the main transmnission equal
either to 120% of the power required to hover out-ofground-effect (HOGE), zero wind, at the density altitude defined by 4000-ft pressure altitude and 950F, or
to 100% of the intermediate power rating of the
engine(s) at sea level and 95F. The effects of power
ratings upon life, overhaul, and selection of standards
are discussed in the paragraphs that follow.

i'

4-13.1 Power/Wfe tuteatleo,

The mechanical failares of interest to the drive subsystem designer usually exhibit a definite relationship
between life and power. The life-limiting failure mode
of primary concern for a developed and serviceable
gearbox is pitting or spa,:,iig of the gears and
bearinbs (par. 4-2.1). However, the life/power relationship for this mode of failure is not reckoned
with easily due to the many tacters that govern the

CHARACTERISTICS
All elements, components, and subassemblies of

the transmission and drive system are subject to

varying degrees of wear, abuse, fatigue, and other environmental hazards. In many instances, ,tandard
components will provide acceptable performance for
a given drive system design at a savings in cost, ease
specially designed components. However, the
designer must have a thorough understanding of the
likely failure modes o; standard components (pars. 42.1 and 4-2.2) and the pertinent life-load ow lifeenviromrment reldtionships.
It is customary to specify an input torque limit for

['I

1_

35')-

_00
C0- T-

I..__

.
."
I5D-

,
)

engine(s).

5 0'-"

a helicopter main rotor gearbox. Indicated to the

pilot by a torquemctcr red-line, this limit may be
lower than the sea-level-standard
engie~s.._
rating of the
Depending upon such factors as helicopter type
and design mission, the red-line torque usually is
specified as a continuous rating, or, in rare instances,
a 5-min rating. A 5-min limit may be specified for
energency operation only. A time limit is imposed
because sufficient cooling capacity is not available for
extended operation, lubricants may be degraded, or

.41!

DESIGNj
GROSS
T

-MAX.ALT.GR

..

0o

90
120
AIRSPft.. ki

ISO

ISo

210

Figure 4-17. Typical Speed-Power Function

4-25

rdationship. The metal chemistries, heat treatnments,

lubricants, loads, specific iliding ratios, velocities,

The Hertz-stress/life relationship varies significantly (Fig. 4-18). Each function shown results from

temperatures, geometric shape,, surface textures and

roughnesses gearbox deflections, and lubricant
chemistry (including water content, and other contaminants) all influence the life of the surfaces in contact, or more properly, in conjunction. It is not unusual to observe dramatic life differences between
two supposedly identical gearboxes when but one of
the given variables is changed by manufacturing
scattr, operating variability, system wear, or en,ironmental factors.
In a complex system of gears and mixed bearing
types, it is generally acceptable to use Miner's rule of
cumulative damage in a simplified form for life prediction. A representative root-mean-cube power ievl
is calcu!ated from the assigned mission profiles using
Eq. 4-15. The value of compressive, or Hertz, stress
S,. corresponding to the RMC power or load is then
calculated, and the life determined from an applicable S-N curve,

data representing a particular set of design and

operating variables. The wide variance among these
functions emphasizes the danger in the use of a
Hertz-stress/life function without consideration of
the assumptions and test conditions.
Because calculated Hertz stress is an exponential
function of load, little generality is lost by Rssuming
exactness for the RMC life-load relationship and
selecting an appropriate classic or modified stress-life
function to predict the life of any particular con junction whose variablc3 are most nearly represented by
the chosen function.
As an example of the selection and application of
an RMC power, consider the three-mission profile
spectra shown in Fig. 4-19. The UH- IH and AH-IG
power histograms were constructed from flight
recorder data (Ref. 43). The third histogram was constructed using the fatigue spectrum supplied with a
recent Army RFP for a helicopter with a mission role

350

I -AGMA 41i.02 GRADE 2 SPUR AND HEL;CAL GEARS

II - GROUND AND CARBURIZED AMS 6265 SPUR GEARS (REF. 39)
III - SAME AS II BUT HONED FINISH (REF. 39)
IV -ASME DISCS 30% SLIP, CYM 52100, POLISHED (REF. 40)
V - GROUND AND PEENED CARBURIZED AMS 6265 SPIRAL BEVEL GEARS (REF. 41)
VI - BACHA ROLLERS, LINE CONTACT (REF. 42)
1 --

.__

--.

IV

III

250
21N
1V1

""16.

I.

I%

U.J
CLi

C-2

50L

10~

103

10'

108

lip

100

LIFE, CYCLES(
Figure 4-18. Gear Stres vs Life Curves
4-26

0'"1'

AMCP 706-202
ratio. Thus the stresses under the power fow the UHIH and AH-IG, respectively, will be:

30[

(S')iV

"RED
LIft,

S~and

"4 ..
2

E]i...

.
6

1o2

(ScI4H.IG

I
SRF

12

j.

SPECTRUM
RED
LINE

]operating

S~~diction

X Itr and 6.5 X 10' cycles for the

Eqs. 4-17 and 4-18, respectively.
11 indicates values of 1.5 X tO' and
respectively. Thus, the life predicted
the AH-IG (Eq. 4-18) by Curve I is 7.22 times the
for
Also,4-17)
withisCurve
I thethat
life
life predicted
3.0 times
predicted
for by
the Curve
UH-IHI1.(Eq.

.T

for the AH-IG, while from Curve 11 the ratio is only

1.67. Clearly, it is essential that a stress-life (S-N)
curve used represent accurately the design and
conditions if a reasonably accurate life preis to be achieved....

,The apparent large increase in life at equal values

omparison with
cn
t
r th. snprat k_rl eapr

S17
-,
SHAFT

proximately 2.0
stress levels of
However, Curve
9.0 X 10' cycles,

REDLINE

16

161.200 psi (4-17)

(0.75) (200,000) - 173,200 psi (4-18)

Curve I of Fig. 4-18 indicates predicted lives of ap-

14

AH-IG

4a

10

0-

(0.65)1(200.000)

-"

SHP, hp

10-

Fi;1par 4.19. S6ft Horsepower Spectra Histograms

similar to the AH-lG but powered with twin advanced technology ergines. The red-line and flight
profile powers corresponding to this fatigue spectrum are taken from Fig. 4-17. The RMC powers for
the three spectra are: UH-IH, 714 hp; AH-IG, 827
thp; and RFP, 1939 hp; representing 65%, 75%, and
69%, respectively, of the red-line powers for the three
helicopters. However, because the sea level standard
inermedip.te power ratings of the engines for the
three hel.,,opters are 1400 hp, 1400 hp, and 3000 hp,
respectively, the RMC powers represent 51%, 59%,
and 65%, respectively, of installed engine power.
On the assumption of no changes in lubrication
state with advanci..g wear, the stress-life functions of
Fig. 4-18 predict differences in the expected service
lives of the same transmission system used in UH- I H
and AHIG helicopters based upon their respective
AMC powers. For purposes of comparison, assume
that the red-line power corresponds to a maximum
stress S, - 200,000 psi in a particular gear mesh.
Because the Hertz strest in a spur gear is proportional tc the square root of the load, which in constant speed operation is proportional to the transmitted power, the stress under RMC and red-line
power w' be related by the square root of the power

the straight spur gear (Curve V vs Curve lii) can be

explained best by the difference in the assumptions

used in the calculation of the contact stresses. The
spur gear analysis is based upon a cylindrical contact
assumption wherein the ratio of peak to mean compressive stress is 4/i"or 1.27324. The sprial bevel gear
analysis is based upon an ellipticu, contact assumption wherein the ratio of peak to mean cornpressive stress is 1.5. Although neither assumption is
really valid, the ratio of the peak stress for the bevel
gear to that for the spur is 1.178 for equal bearing or
conitui arias. Ti11S izin
accounts ro
..
h..l...
the stress difference between the two curves at a selected life of 1.3 X l(Pcycles. Additional gain can be
attributed to the shot peening process that was applied to the spiral bevel sets (Curve V) but not to the
otherwise comparable spur gears (Curve III).
Life Rating
4-1.3.2 Tfausmluo Ovetrk
The various gearboxes, driveshaft assemblies, and
bearing hangers that comprise the typical drive subsystem of Army helicopters in the past may have had
widely differing times between overhaul (TBO). Main
rotor gearbox TBO's ranged from 500 to 1200 hr, tail
rotor gearbox and bearing hanger TBO's were as high
as 1600 hr. and driveshaft assembly and accessory
gearbox TBO's ranged from several hundred hours to
unlimited intervals based upon conditional overhaul.
Specifications for next-generation US Army helicopters call for much higher (3000-4500 hr) MTBR
4-27

'

without dictating TBO valuts. However, using the

relationships of par. 4-1.2.1.2, application of a 2000hr TOO requires attainment of a 6002-hc MTBF to
achieve the. I 00-hr MTBR (par. 4-1.2.1.2). Although this MTBF concerns only failures of sufficient importance to cause gearbox removal, it canvot be attained easily.
The ultimate design goal is conditional removal
without scheduled TBO levels. Achievement of this
goal requires the use of reliable and thorough diagnostic techniques (par. 4-2.4.2) and failure anodes
with low rates of progression so aperatioai can continue at least short-term without compromise of safety of flight.
The question of a cost-eflective overhaul thne, one
that balances the increased cost of overhaul due to
possible extensive secondary dwtage and cornosion
against the loss of residual usefuk le, is beyond the
scope of this document. A coMt analysis of TOO based
upon direct and indirect operating cost -A the drive
subsystems of light, medium, and heavy twin-engine
helicopter is reported in Ref. 44.

tion) design standards and specifications for gear

tooth bending, scoring risk, case hardening practices,
and gear precision clasifications amx
excellent design
starting points. However, experience accumulated
through development and field tests will suggest
further sophistications and modifications.
Many useful standards and specifications are
published by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE). The smaller size bWaring locknuts and washers
are useful, but for larger bearings the SAE parts
generally are too heavy. The thread specification
series also is ideal for use with special beating or
spline locknuti because the series includes sizes cornpEtible with standard bearing bores. The 30-deg
pressure angle involute spline and scrraticn standards
will suffice for most spline applications and lend
themselves well to inspection wvith simple gages. In
special instances, where greater precision is icquired
to improve load sharing among the teeth or to im..
prove positioning or location accuracy for the mating
members, a standard spline can be modified by reducing the involute profile, lead, and spacin"
tolerances.

4-1.3.3 Trasssdo Stanxrds and Ratings

The use of available standards in detail design is
encouraged for many reasons, not the least of ,vhich
is cost reduction. Available stindard3 can contribute
to lower costs if it becomies umn.',c ry to prepare
special specifications; conduct qualification tests;
procure special tooling; and othlZrwise compound
procurement, storage, and supply activities. The standards available include military (AN, MS. NAS,
AND, Federal Specifications, MIL Standards. and
AMS) and commercial (AGMA, AFBMA. SAE.
AISI, and ANSI). However, the limitations and
ratings of standards must be thoroughly understood
to prevent their misapplication,
These following are some instances in which it -Is
better to select a nonstandard part:
i. Excess cost or nonavailability (many published
military and commercial standards never have been
manufactured)
2. Insufficient strength or inadequate properties
(published standards for parts such as studs may not
provide the required static and fatigue strength or
corrosion rewistanoe)
3. Inadequate quality control for the criticality of
the application (many published standards include an
inspection sampling frequency that is inadequatt for
critical applications),
Sonic recommended uses of commercial standards
are dissuaed in the paragraphs that follow,
AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Associa-

cordance with the standard AFBMA (Anti-Friction

Bearing Manufacturers Association) metric envelope dimensions, using the Aircraft Bearing Engineers Committtc (ABEC) and Roller bcearing"
Engineers Committee (RBEC) precision grades. De-.
partures from standard envelopes may be necessary
for very light series, large bore bearings; but the cornmon bore size, width, and outside diamct-r increments and tolerancs should be retained to
facilitate use of standard inspection equipment by the
bearing manufacturer. Cylindrical roller diameters
and lengths will vary among suppliers and may not
follow recommended values. However, individual
rollers with one of two crown kadius or drop values
are usually available from all aerospace geade suppliers. All ball bearing suppliers furnish balis In 1/32in.-diameter increments and occasional'y in I/64-in.
increments. Standard grade tolerances in microinches
govern sphericity; e.g.. grade 5 implies 5 pin. sphericity.
Many special steels, frequently called "tool-steels",
using consumable electrode vacuum remelt
technology, are finding increasing use in helicopter
gcarbox applications. The chemistries of these steels
are identified only by AISI (American Iron and Steel
Institute) specifications. It is frequently necessary to
add special limits on trace elements and inclusions to
thas specifications to make them comparable to
some of the commonly used AMS (Aerospace
Material Specifications) grades.

VV
Y S.11GVGF

4-28

poeibc.e

bearings sflmowi

cIin

Qj

ac-

'

-..
<'

4-1.4

QUALIF'ICATION REQUIREMENTS
Qualfictionequrerleut ar deflbc ~ MCP
7W6203. lPowever. there nsre a number ef qulfia
tion~~~~~~~~~~~~
~ reurmnatirins
sdr~ nerlt
the drive subeystemn design proems. The confldance
level 1cr passing qualification tests with a mininium
of redesign and retest is increased sigraificantly by
rigorous attention to thes requirements during all
phases of component detail design. This paragfaph
treas te or:cost
rquiemet.
1. Component and eaviror mental performance
3. Developmenttesting
3. Life streswntetiig tetngeude
as4.e Lired
su etarion testing
as
deaildesgn.tions
tey i~et
4-1.4.1 Comaponent and Eavirorimci
Many components of thc typical drive system must
be qualified initially through individual twsing. Such
lubrication system componei~ts as scaevnge and prs
surc pumps, filters, pressure switches and transmitters, ternperaturc switches and transmitters. chip
detectors, level transmitters, jcts, presiure regulators. and monitors are best defined by unecification
control or source control drawings. Qualification
tests are classifieL. as functional, structural, or environmental; and care mitst be exerciscd by the
designer in designating applicable qualification and
quality assurance requirements. Structural and endurance tests are destructive by nature and therefore
arc lirnitec either to prototype qualification or to random sampling in production. Functional 'and environinental test areas may be specified as P quality
assurance requirement, with the sampling ratc up to
lO0%. In addition to obtaining certification of per-

be established by reducing iniet pressure to uimulate

limit altitude opeation, allowing chcvks for cavitaticn as well as volumetric flow efficiency. Similarly,
hermetically sealed pressure switch might be subjectcd to a wide range of vibratory frequecu.ies and
amplitudes during functional or endurance testing in
thc presnce of an environment involving elevated
temperature and 100% relative humidity.
Attention to detail of this nature can save time and
duririg subsequecnt testing or field evaluation.
412D~~psu ed
In the broad sense, development testing may inboth design support testing and the evaluation
of' prototype hardware on bench test rigs. These funcarc an wxensieri of d-etail design whereby early
confirmnation of design assumptions or errors is
achieved, and noacessary modifications of the initial
dtiigrs are identified. A thorough initial developmcnt test program may include:
I. Static tests of' castings
2. Dceflection tests
3. Gear contact tests
4. Assembly and disasemnbly tests
5. Lube eyiAczi dcvbugjnS
6. lmnfemcntal load and efficiency tests
7. Thermal mapping tests.

appropriate to perform functional tests as a part of

receiving inspection. The applicable qualification and
acceptance reqL~iiemei.ts must be set forth by the
designer and incorporated into the subject drawing or
specification. The need for completeness and accuracy in creation of' the specification control
drawing cannot be overewriptiasiz-d.
If'the designer cannot identifyt or anticipate the
characteristic failure mode of a component, it will be
necessary to establish thorough environmental test
procedures for conducting the functional or endurance qualification. Once the characteristic failure
mode has been established, it is often possible to increase the effectiveness of the quality assurance
t#*sting by concentrating on a particular index of perforinanc while Jirninating those test factors that reveal no useful information. For example, the critical
condition for the functional test ol an oil pump may

relative locations of the maximum fiber stresses.

Strain gages With suitable temperature-correectd
bridges or crack wire then should be appiied at the
locations of these maxima, and the casting should be
loaded in increments to failure. Recorded data will
demonst~ra~e compliance with stated requirements
and must be correlatW. with analytical predictions so
that cccurate safety-of-flight dci&.iions can be made
based upon subsequent flight loan -5urvey data or
when mnaterial disch'epancy iand review report action
is required with respect to production hardware.

4-1.4.2.1 S-ittl Castlag Tests

The designer and/or structure analyst will predict
critiva' sections of tlhe castings based upon the assumed load data. A tcst fixture capable of applying
and reacting these loads in a manner analogous to the
intended helicopter use will be designed and employed. Stress coating and examination techniques

41A.4.2 Detflecitli Twas

Deflwection tests often ar~t; used to obtain data
relating to hot and cold static torque and external
load deflection. These data are often required in connection with gtar tooth contacts and for verification
of' spiral bevel gear development. Useful information
4-29

ao may be aquirnereaibang pla ary pear cormlitnmt. Deflection test

plianot and contact rms

External fine, how, and electrical connections should

be examined for proper fit and location.

K
_T

data permit accurate dstrmination of planet load

sharing and analysis of cumulative tooth spacing

error; adequacy of beaz.,; aleent and mounting
rigidity and clamp out torque levels also may be inoutput
shaft
of inpat ma
and be
vestigated. Compatibility
deflctios

equiemens
wih
valuted
deflectiens with sal requiremetnts may be evaluated
ini additiou.
Multiple dial indicator gages customarily are used
with incremental load opplications to obtain the re

quired deflection data. It is generally neosary to

perform extensive housing modifications, usually in
the form of strategically located drilled holes, to permit suitable measureicrirts. Application of red-lead
paste to gear tooth members, followed by slow rotation of the drive system under the designated torquc or braking load. is used to obtain witness contact patterns.
4-1.4.2.3 Commact Tests
The red-lead paste technique described *n par. 41.4.2.2 supplies information only on gear contacts. A
umoie
aophisucatcd coniac tmi thait al, innit* dctailed bearing study and yet does not need extensive
housing rework uses copper plating and gas oxidation. For this test, contacting elements (gear
pinions and inkier and outer bearing races) are flash.
copper-plated (-0.0001 in. maximum thickness) and
the gearbox then is assembled without oil. The assembled gearbox is mounted in a manner that simulates the helicopter installation and each shaft seal
location is vented to permit air escape. The input
shaft is rotated slowly to permit rolling elements to
acsu.me their proonr 1vw-_tionnu and then statir tnfhume

equivalent to design rating power is applied. A

reducing gas, such as HS2, is slowly bled into the
gearbox, preferably through an orifice near the upper
gearbox surface. All exposed copper surfaces are oxidized to a black tarnish while the Herizian contacts
remain untarnished. After the gearbox is purged
completely with fresh air, the unit may be disassembled for detailed examination and evaluation. All
contacts should be carefully compared with debign
assumptions.
4-1.4.2A Assembly and Disasembly
It is essential that the designer evaluate ease of assembly and disassembly of the gearbox, suitability of
standard and special tools, absence of physical interference, and opportunities for incorrect assembly.
Special attention should be given to suitability of
torque values specified for nuts, safetying provisions, and absence of thread galling or neizing.
4-30

4.1.4.2.5 Lubriatioa System D

r
b h
gp
t
a ih
Early in the gearbox bench testing procte , attntriu
tin should
sh e be yc
n
ms. Prop-or
Pe oil
oiletjet distribution
verisystems.

.U.
I

fled. Usc of transparent (acrylic or Plexiglas) windows and covers wharever possible is helpful. Adeinternal be
baffles.,
oil wrapers,
changes
incorporate should
Design
verified.
quate oilto scavenging
and intrcompartmenta venting are not uncommon.r
4-1.4.2.6 Icreumetsi Loading and Fflkldcy TeWs
Immediately following lubrication system testing it
is generally desirable to proceed with incremental
power step testing, with disassembly and inspection
taking place between each step. Intervals of 25%,
50%, 75%, 100%, and 125% of design power rating are
recommended. Operation for 2 to 5 hr at each siep is
desirable to achieve definitive wear-track markings at
thermally stabilized conditions. Visual inspectic-i of
the wear pattern: of al! gcar meehes shou!Id be mna,&
after each rtep paying special note to the rate of
tooth pattern fillout in order to verify use of proper
initial tooth shapes. The use of black oxide on gears
and bearing rings between each load step will assist in
accurate visual inspection.
It may be convenient to schedule efficiency
measuraments simultaneoisly with load incremert
testing. One rather involved but satisfactory method
of accurate efficiency determination requires the external application of insulating material to the entire
gearbox housing and subsccuent measurement of the
oil temperature drop and flow rate across the oil
cooler (Ref. 45). Power loss to the cooler PLC is

PC-FGSC,,AT

PLC

42.4

h
hp

49
(4-19)

where
F Gs -

oil flow rate, gpm

specific weight of oil. lb/ial (a function of
temperature and aeration)
C, M specific heat of oil, Btu/lb-*F (a function
of temperature and aeration)
temperature
ofT
differential between oil out
of transmission and oil out of cooler,
deg F

With the assumption that the insulation is effectivc in

preventing cooling convei n, PLC is the only power

loss from the transminsuion. In this cas the transalis&ionelbicienty q~,

is
it

1P

10,%

(-D

/7

where
power input to transmission, hp
P,
Another satis'actory method for determniinng
power loss is bcsed upon convection cooling and icquires the assumption that gearbox efficicney does
not change with slight changes in viscosity within the
range of lubricant tcmpcrature used. The exterior
surface of the gearbox is gridded into approximately
equal areas with centrally located temptrature sensing points. The individual areas should not exceed
5t6 in!. An oil cooler or heat exzchanger with a controllable cooling rate is employed and rair flow conditions about the gearbox are maintained as constant as possible. The test procedure requires stabilized operation at two discrette oil cooler heat extraction levels, preferably with ternperaturt. levels of
the oji oui of the tramsnnission, at '.cast 50 dcg F aptart.
During each of these runs the power loss to the cooler
(Eq. 4-19N is measured and the temperatures of the
designated' case monitoring points art recorded,
along with the ambient air temperature. The increase
in oil cooler heat rejection at the lower stabilized
temperature coaidition is assumed equal to the decrease in convzction heat rejection from the housings
into the ambient air, allowing the solution of the
following simple set of equations (the primed symbols indicate cold condition):
Hot:EPL - PLc + Ccs-(Y7s
2L
Cod:Y

+Cc(7-

T,)

(4-21)

~)

(4-22)

C'L-total power loss, hp

P~c. - power los&to oil cooler (Eq. 4-19), hp

S- cane convection cooling coefficient, hp/*F

average of external surface temperature
readings, OF
TA
-ambient air temperature, OF
Because P;C> PcO 7"S>T7,' and XZPL and C. arc
constant by definition, we havc the immediate solution:
01
(4-23)
.hp/*F
- PLC)
(i
CC
Ts - r; - 5T + T)2.
' A S'S

T~)veloped

Substit~ating Cc into either of the initial hot or cold

lots cquations (Eq. 4-21 o;- Eq. 4.22) will y~eld the

total power loss PI lIfthe necessary temperawrws ama

measured for each tist condition. the individually
calculated values of Cc may '3c averaged and a probable error computed by stan- ard statistical methods.
4-1.4.2.7 Theraid Mapping Tests
Time and instrumentation capability permitting,
final design modirIC46ions or the proportioning of
lubrication distribution, alonj, with necessary adustzient of bearing parameter such as clearance and In-7
ternal. preload. may be accomplishe by thermal
mapping. Thermocouples embedded in contact with
becaring inner and outer rings and with gca blank
nms or tooth fillets, for example, whoulid be used to
construct a thermol mapi of the tanumimaaon. Messurement of rotating cousponrif temperatures Me
quires the use oif slip rings or similar devia. Thw use
of infrared photographs of opersting gearbose. also
has been very effective in thermal mapping. Hot spots
or excessive thermal gradients as' cause for *orrective design measures.

5V

~dg-

Overpower testing, sometimes referred to as weak

point testing or modified stress probe. testing, is intended to yield rapid results to enable the designer to
make timely charnges. Th~e purpose of this testing is to
producc failures and definec failure modes and failsafe features, not to demonstrate rmliable extenided
operation. However, a 100-hr failure-free overpower
test at from 100 to 125% of maximum continuous
power on two samples certainly would indicate that
the gearbox was ready for life substantiation or qualification testing.
The maximum recommended overpowei test icvei
is1201-130% of normal red-line power, although in
some instances 110% is used. For valid test results,
the following conditions described in the paragraphs
that follow should be satisfied:
1. Lubrication states should remain unchi igcd for
the main power path ecu-ponents (Fig. 4-3). EHD
film thickness as predicted by thc Dowson equation
(Eq. 4-5) is relatively insensitive to load (125% power
should reduce h values by about 4% from their 10D%
power levels for an isothermal condition); however,
because the temperature of the conjunction may incrrase as the 3/4 power of load, which in turn will reduce the viscosity of the typical MIL.L-7808 oil by
28%, and of the h value by 22%, a cautious evaluation is demanded.
Excessive deflection must not occur. If debevel gear patterns degenerate excessively,
their reduced area, cou.pled with the inci eased it%oth
load, could result in doubling unit stresses ht the
4-31

r
[

AMCP 706-202
overpower levels. The "'small-cutter" and oiher types
of spiral bevel gears tend to resist pattern shift with
increasing power and are good candidates for successful overpower testing. Iir well designed planetary
gear reductions, it is not uncommon to find a 50% increase in uait stress for a 125% overpower test at constant spvcd.
3. The mechanical limitation of ball bearing load
path constraints must not be exceeded. There should
be sufficient race shoulder height and bearing mounting rigidity to retain the ball path fully at the overpower test condition.
4. Cylindrical roller bearings should have suf-ficient
racetocrown)
to preclude
ent roller
lercong crown (orra
o
prcreade
s severe
ever
end lo an du eton
Ssimple Hertzitan deflection.
-vrpwe.
The increased thermal gradients preent during
Sovinrpower testing must not result in excessive bearing
preloading or gear misalignment due to housing distortions.
Design criteria for successful overpower testing
must preclude gear toatli bending fatigue failure, case
crushings, or scuffing (scoring) failure modes. Acfencatidtewear without
ceromi
eon
of
s t desin
function of the gearbox for the specified test intervan
is te criterion of success.

4-1.4.4 Other Life and RelabUilty Sibsbmatlatlon

Testing
A 200-hr qualification test is required by AMCP
706-203, and follows the tests in the preceding paragraphs. Also required are a 50-hr preflight assurance
test (PFAT) and a 150-hr "must pass" qualification
test in a ground test vehicle (GTV). Beyond these
tests, it is frequently desirable to conduct extended
bench or GTV tests to assist in the determination of
initial TBO levels and to uncover failure modes not
detected in previous tests. All testing in these categories is based upon spectrum loading conditions.
The selected spectrum should have an RMC power
level in excess of the anticipatcd flight spectrum.
Because most lubrication system elements (including
shaft seals) exhibit failure modes that are insensitive
to power levcl, no meaningful accelerated test
programs exist for the lubrication system, and its
evaluation requires the accumulation of many test
hours. Although the majority of lubricat;on system
components will have undergone some degree of
evaluation in early tests (par. 4-1.4.1), evaluation of
their performance in the total system environment
must await these extended time or endurance tests.
4-32

4-2 TRANSMISSIONS
4.2.1 FAILURE MODES
Many competing failure modes exist simultancously in any mechanical transmission device. The
modes rewognizod as dominant are often representative of the life-c' cIe phase in which the observation
is made. Recognition, classification, and definition of
safe operating limits are fundameptal to successful
design. Failure modes may be identified as primary
and secondary for ease of analysis. In one study
based on component replacement at overhaul for the
UH-i and CH-47 gearbox, secondary failures were
shown
to exceed(Ref.
primary failures by at least an order
of magnitude
46). Although the majority of
design effort is directed toward preventing primary
fai! area, the cost of drive subsystem maintenance and
overhaul reflects the total of both categories. Therefore, reduction in secondary failure modes is an important objective for future design.

4-2.1.1

Prfry Faili

Modes

ae fmp odnan
iderv
iaiecausethosoet
render a comomnnt unservicenaif because of some
.self-genrated conditional occurrence other than normal wear. Cracked, broken, pitted, or spalled eluments that fail while operating at normal loads,
speeds, and ,nvironmental conditions are representative of this failure category.
There is a reasonable statistical level of occurrence
for primary failures, perhaps on the order of
0.5%/ 1000 hr, that typifies the normal dispersion associateed with acceptable and cost-effective design
practices. Failure rates in excess of this level aor considered a result of design or manufacturing deficiency. Identification and elimination of components
with excessive failure rates arc the objectives of the
qualification assurance testing outlined in AMCP
706-203.
Properly designed and manufactured drive zystems
must not exhibit catastrophic primary failure modes.
It is not unreasonable to expect primary modes to be
exclusively noncatastrophic. This criterion may be
satisfied by inherent redundancy in load paths or
load sharing, or by failure prcgression rates that arm
commensurate with available built-in failure detection and die.goostic d,. vices.
,.onscientious application of classical structural
analysis methods as modified by relevant test and service experience, coupled with adequate quality assurance methods, effectively will eliminate static and
bending fatigue failures. However, the surface durability of loaded members such as gear teeth and

9"

,,A

706-202

roili-.4 element bearings is by no means thoroughly

understood or easily preuicied. The interaction of the
effocts of friction, lubrication, and wear (the modern
discipline of Tribology) is the subjoct of intensive
rcewmh (Ref. 47).
Drive dvsign is influenced by variables suct, as
metals (hardness, microstructure, chemistry. cleanliness. residual stress), finish (routhness, lay, texture),
surface treatments or coating, lubricants (base oil,
viscosity, additive package), moi3turc and other contaminants, speed, slip, Hertzian stres., contact
geometry, friction, and temperature. These variables,
separately or in combination, may vary observed life
at constant stress by a factor of 500 in conventional
helicopter applications. Their combined effects also
exhibit slope variations from -5 to - 12 of log.log SN curves. Because it is impossible to consider the

quantitative effects of all permutationa of the pertincnr paramnters deoribed in current literature, the
significance of relevant test experience cannot be
overemphasized. The classical stress-life equations or
published S-N data must be viewed only as starting
points. Table 4-4 presents useful qualitative influences of qome of the variables affecting S-N
chata4,teristi.. There are many combination effects
among these variables, but virtually none that result
in contradiction of the indicated trends.
The presence of relatively high slidc/roll ratioz and
thin lubricant films is necessry for the surface pitting
life to be sensitive to the additional factors shown in
Tablc 4-4. Pitting or spalling generally is considered
to be the result of metal fatigue due to cyclic contact
stress. Under idealized conditions, the initiation of
pitting occurs at a considerable distance below the

TABLE ". LIFE MODIFICATION FACTORS

VARIAUt E

INCREASED LIFE

-_.',
:

SURFACE DURABILITY

REDUCLED LIFE

OUALIFICATIONS

MLIALS

HARDNESS

RA60 -- 63
W-0

RETAINED AUSTLNITE

<10%
< 5%

<Pic 60
<F.j

60

CAR3URIZED AMS 6260

MIQI

E2ich)

M-DUj

.15%

CARBURIZCD AMS 6260

>

AISI 52100

5%

WHITE.TL
lAYER

REMOVED

PRESENT

AMS 6475

CLEANLINESS

CEVM

AIR MELT

INCt UISIONS % TRACEL

ELEMENTS...

RESIDUAL STRESS

COMI'RLSSI VI.

TENSILE

SURFACE TO MAXIMUIM

" ',

SHEAR DEPTH
SURFAC E IINI SI
TYPE

HONED. POLISHEL

GROUND

VERY IMPORTANT AT LOW

VISCOSITY..

LA1.
YO

3_;GrI;

TO GoLiDiNG

Vi 'i i......NI

G..

SumRACC
SURFACE TREATMENT

BLACK OXIDL

BARE

LIGHT ETCH

AS MACHINED

HIGH VISCOSITY

LOW VISCOSITY

V,4 V2< 2X00 It /min

MINERAL BASE

SYNTHETIC BASE

TRLJE
AT NORMAL STRLSSES

ADDITIVE IN SYNTH

ADDITIVE & MINERAL

VERY TRUE AT I OW SPEED

HIGH COEFFICIENT

LOW COEFFICIENT

PRESSURE VISCOSITYv

LOW ACIDITY

HIGHI ACIuITY

VERY IM'ORTANT THIN

LU8. FILM
LUBRICANT

RAPID SURI ACE BRTEAKIN

COEFFICIENT, a
DEGRADATION -TIME

AND

USE
WATER CONILNT

LOW

HIGH

WATCH DEGRADED SYNTHI.

SPEED

HIGH

[OW

EXCEPT ROUGH SURFACES

SLIP

LOW

HIGH

POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

LOWER REL. SPEED - NEG.

FRICTION
TEMPERATURE

LOW
LOW

HIGH
HIGH

SURFACE CONJUNCTION

GEOMETRY OF ,

HIGH

LOW

a-

b, a FOR ELI lPSE

h
AXIS
11 TO ROt
V
AxlS.iTO ROLL ING V

4ING

AMCP 70&,202

surface at the level of mayimum oithogonal shear

stress, and classical theory has been dtvclopcd about
these conditions. However, rtcent studizs establish
that the shear stresses tend to bc located nearer to the
surface. even in the presenc of very
s small magniuadces of slip ( cf.48). The traction stresses imposed
by sliding can raise the surfac shear stresses to
within 40% of the maximum Hertzian stress (Ref. 49).
These conditions lead to surface initiation of pitting
or cracking that ultimately msull in the gross pitting
or spalling failures ohserved in most failed mechanical comp5iients. For example, it has been established
that the vast majoriqy of pitting (spalling) failures in
UH-! and CH-47 helicopter gearboxes are surfaceinitiated (ReF. 46).
4-2.1.2 Secondary Failure Modes
Secondary failure modes are all those modes that
arc not classified as primary. By definition secondary
failure modes do not contribute directly to cornFonent MTBR; however, they contribute greatly to
the cost of overhaul, and in some instances they limit
.......

L...-

.. rk.. .....

.:.i *; ....

o..----,

of
f

primary failure.
Secondary failure modes are grouped into three
categories, each with a different design avoidance
technique.
4-2.1.2.1 Overload Failures
Components that are overloaded due to the failure
of a parallel or series connected load carrying membet frequently result in secondary failure in a short
time. Tandem thrust bearings or multiple planet or
epicyclic gear trains are typical parallel lond-path
configurations. Such components limit the progression rate of a primary failure by an automatic
load reduction resulting from increased deflection or
%ear material removal of !he failing primary cornponent. In such designs, the secondary load-carrying
members should be analyzed under full power to insure adequate life for safe continued operation. Such
analy,,es should show a minimum life of 100 hr.
Series-connected secondary failures are typified by
transfer of damage from one gear member to another
in a train arrangement or by the upstream overload
of a component duc to an bdvanced downstream
failure such as a "jammed" rolling element bearing
with advanced retainer or ball fractures. The static
yield strength of the primary power path cornponents (gears, shafts, bearings, couplings, etc.) must
be sufficient to withstand the maximum red.line
power plus the incremental transient load required to
fracture and break clear the rclati,.ely frangible primary failed component.

S~4-34

4-2.1.2.2 Debris-caused Failure

Debris from a spalled tooth or bearing often enters
another gcar mesh or bearing and results in suffi,:ient denting, embossing, or brinelling to initiate a
secondary failure after relatively few cyclic stressings.
White the da mage incurred in fears and cylindrical
roller bearings is less severe than in ball bearings (due
to the preferential debris entrapment of conformal
contact bodies), the rate of replacement of sccondarily damaged parts at overhaul has considerable cost
impact (Ref. 46). Much potential damage can be
avoided by compartmentalized designs or by use of
shields or baffles to protect dynamic components by
deflecting and re-routing debris to catch-trap or
sump areas. The objective is localization of the
damage to the primary failure component.
4-2.1.2.3 Er.vironmnntally lndjccd Failures
Oxidation, stress corrosion, galvanic corrosion,
and aging or embrittlement fractures are examples of
failures that could hecome significant to future
MTBR data for helicopters with increased TBO in.tcrv,,.l

Thtsp fuihire" r,&iitt from inaderitnte atten-

tion during design or production quality control to

materials, protective plating, or finish coatings. Concentric Enodes always should be used during plating
of tubular shaft mcmbcr.; to secure adequate protection of internal surfaces. Special attention must be
given to providing drains to eliminate trappea water
at gearbox stlid, boss, and mast seal locations. Additional protective practices are recommended in par.
4-2.3.1.
4-2,2 DYNAMIC COMPONENTS
The dynamic components common to all drive
subsystems are:
I. "oothcd poN cr transmission wheels (gears)
that operate over a wide range of rolling or total velocities with moderate to relatively high sliding or slip
velocities, under Hertzian stresses rarely exceeding
250.000 psi
2. Rolling element support members (bearimigs)
that operate at similar total velocities, lowe; slip velocities, but generally higher Hei tzian stresses
3. Interconnecting members (shafts and couplingi)
that are splined, bolted, or welded together and to
gears, with external forces and moments impose:d
while rotating
4. Other miscellaneous elements such as shaft
seals, nuts, and locking devices.
4-2.2.1. Gears
Helicopter gear design will be viewed from three
aspects: limitations, analysis, and the drawing or

specirictitioii. The pirinary crairtlassis ia upon power

tra.-smission g anrm ratkae than tarqu4. Sesing (kI.
kind/low spood, as ipi actua=o or hoist applico'tiora)
-or aommory gcarivii. The latter is diicnKWd btiefly in
per. 4-5.

.f
*

4&2.2.1.1 Gmea l~Ankeow

Sucomsful helicopter Seat 4eaigns usually hovc
employed counter-forma! involute spur, heiical, andi
spiul bevel configurations.
Somewipl~atiosnotaly te Ws~l~d WG13.
haeuerofrmal circular arc hiclical tooth forms.
Although somewhat superior in pcrfermanct. with
respzect to skirface durability, coaformul gearv inave.
inamerous configuration~al limnitat.ions, e.g., operating
cantet distance is very cri~lical, and frequ;.nt!y exhibb'

precision helicepter State orauing in syntthemic tutbine lubricaiiu. The rn1~tive posittons o^ each zonal
dcmaacutbn wili vary a_ a function oi the diwimers1
pitch P,4 , priusure angk 0. contact ratio, root fillet
form, surfact! finish, naid tnatc~rial-procmsing cliacstoristics of each individual desi~gn. Fig. 4-20 repr
seas Irtasonaibly accura': estinvmam for a standard
propo'rtions, Pd - 8.5, 35 X 61 tooth se of fula fillet
foriii, ground flank, carburized AMS 6260 involute
*prar gears.
The variation in the three frailu'e moda rc~ationshipp when all factors ane constant except tor dra-.
nsetra. pitc may tot smen in. Fig, 4-21 (Ref. 53).

r~.Auccd tooth bending fatigue strengthi. An~Aytical

101

aenot well-suited for circular arc teeth, Walous'a an

APRASE

'1

fliG

Ref. 51. ThiiR sear (frm i~i naa1tcianiriv sen&vev tatI

centor distance variation unless considerail mis-

/S0(N

match of tooth curvature is usod betwee n pit.'un and

rtear. The immediate result of this practice is a con-/

Hortzart Ftress

with an att'ndant, reduction in the thooreti"I~ surface durability of the pinion. The deflection inhecmat
in the elastic reaction of the loaded tooth introducc* a
ismall dcgree of slip that further reduces tie thto-Mds
Fpr
retical pitting endurance (par. 4.2.1.1). Conforninai
I-Ars are of contiderable' ai tcrectt frota a rcserch and
developmeint. vijcpoimf, but at present, dcsian
mit a w'.-anin~ful d%,%ign cnscus&Aon of this configLv&-

CiNLIT
II

UMFLOFTN

WPZATI(WIT
P11OEILUJBRICATION)1
NOSIGCCESSFU

PT~LrVLCI

a~hcRttosp-Fim
sVld:

-O

-L~

CORLTION4

tion.

SED1,

Thoe r~ataivc efliciencics of the vari'~us spur, hdli-

HIU.1O R

I02:

cal. and spiral bevel tu~oth forms wcec dincusscrl iO.)RAG

par. 4-1.2. 1.1. The liig's sliding nmid ruassitant power
loss and limihed load -carry iMI cap-~city of crossed
cants ehminaate their usefulnesas exompa in accessory
drive applications.

II

rD1GA)

eacel~ont analytical finite elanent approach to blmodicdfor three-dimensional analysis it; described in

sidcrable increase in the ina~munt

RA(G

tf

~.PITTING

LiMIT

4-2.2.1.2 Goar Usaly#6

'Succcssful detail involute Sear design analyxis rethree failure modes (par. 4-2.1.1) under the particL'l~r suptrating covod*tioass for each specific gear

SCRNGL-

17 10

appi~cation. Initial insight mnay be obtai-wd by

rcviewing the regions of domni.iant distress an shown
in Fig. 4-20, based also, Ref. 42. Thir, graphic rels.
tionzhip rcilecto the characteristics of caw-hartlnecd

A 71
T

0IANKTR11L PI

CH F

n.

Figure 4-31. Graphle Relat~mloap - Fefte Mod."

vs Tocda SinI
-Load

4-35

:I

4-2.lh.i &Oftg Waden S&reat1ial'

- nThc
detenuination of bendintg fatigue risk invoives
th~ree stzrs: load determination, stress cvalurilion
techniqut, avid definition of the properties of
qitrials usedJ.
The basic bendinS strmi equations, gernrally in accon.; with AGMAA practice, may bce found in Refa. 54
(spur geams), 55 (helical gcvars), and 56 (bevtl Sears),
together with computer solutions written in FORTRAN symbology. Because of the increased precision w~th whith the basic Lewia equation geomeitry
factouj are tretod, the use of these rcferen= is
highly recommendeo. However, for a tetter underst~anding of thle relative significance of the factors of.
fectirig tooth bending fatiuc, the general AGMA
igidani diacussed terin by
,-. equation will be ea
tern.
The basic equatien for tensile stress is S1 due to
tooth bending has been defined (Ref. 57) as

71

,,

111"\ /~AIK.K\
421)ltJ
"J
A~

'I'

psi
/portanec
~~

(4-24)

*-

(K0 W, - WdK

where
-

IP1K
ki,'psi

blank type gea!,. Inasmuch as helicopter Seer have

lighte~r back-up rim and web configurationis than

those used in the reference test, the dynam~ic load
analyses basnd upon these methods will be coraservative. Greater precision can he, obtained by conidrg factors other than tooth d~fl&~ions by the
methods. advanced in Refs. 61 and 62.
Although dynamic load factors aut4 increments
have been studied by numerous investigators for tlvc
pzst century. the results have lCA to only slight agree:ment. Therefore, well c'orrelated test experience ie of
Creat importance. The interactioai of profile modifications, tooth errors, defluction modes, spring c*TJAants, and inertias are of such conmplcxity ta
generalizecd solutions are unlike~y to be satisfactory.
However, certain qualitative observntions that find
geneval acceptance are:

1, The dynamic load W. increases r~entially

linparl'J w/ith

%M Anmcl enai-4
(oi-irorr,
n

Il.n-nf. th,. im..

of increasiog precision with speed is unden*

where
face width of gtar tooch, in.
F
J -geoometric shape fector, dimecnsiopless
misalignment factor. dimensicnlea
Km,
overload factor, dimensionless
K0
K,-=size factor, dimenrionless
A; = dyramic load factor, dimensionless
4 W diametia! pitch, in.-'
W
eatohlal
Both tast and analysis havc confirmed that the
dynmicloa
*~is nor corecly xprsse asan
iyamiclod vais
W, mrathorrecthln
exprbeing
cconte
s
forhe, aplyng
actr K tothegea I~th oad
fo.treo, Eq. 4-24in
shhfcor
l btote. repace bytla
W,.
Pq.4-2
horeorc
shold b relace bysolid

S,

also ii.given by Ref. 58. This evaluation is -based

upon the tooth spring rate calculation taken from
Ref. 59, which in t'ani presents an analysis of the extperimefltal data of ReL 6C. taken during tests of solid

(4-25)

dyamicload
lb4.

Rd'. 58 shows that the dynamic load lVd eists as

an incremental load duc to tooth errors and gear
drii~c dynamics at operating spted, and, thereforc, is
relatively unaffected by transmitted power. An ac(4piable engineering app~roach to tl~c evaltmation of

2. There is r limiting vrlue for W,, that probabl)

occurs when the duration of the velocity pulse is less
than one quarter the period of natural vibration of
the pinion-sear sprinS-mass system.
3. The value of W,, is proportional to both spring
rate and gear effective mass, Hence, it is important to
consider total deflection and mass of tooth aid rim
for helicopter gear designs. Fxpressions for approximate values of thc dellection rst point of n-.,sh
811AtPVL

%' *WI
3U1%JIIf

hIJU I.UL

46ASJ&rnUIL1LPhI UG

61U13IVE

by Refs. 61 and 62. For tHin-rim helicopter gears

(back-up rim thickness of approximately one tooth
whole depth) with approximatcly 40 or more tneth,
the defection can be as much as twice the value for a
rim. The limiting deflection of a spur tooth at
the momen't of mesh impact is approximately 10%
that of a helical toothi, reflecting a spring rate an
order of magnitude higher. As a result, the limiting

dynamnic load on the spuir gear will be about three

timcs grtater than that on the hclical gear. This

alaiagy also holds for comparing w.taight and spiral
bce~el gears.
In mist cases the torque capacity of a hardened
precision helicopter Sear set will be limited by surfNoe duraaility rathar than by tooth breakagc resuiting from dynamic loads. Many failures formerly
attributed to dynamic loads have been recognized recently &&resulting from rcsonant or vibratory conditions that may occur at h;gh speeds (par. 4-2.4.1).

7)AMP

7, 4

Determination of the goam tooth load W, is

relatively strvg~htforward. For a first approximation
itius
NWt

,b

IC

3. Elatic deflecaioas of sAMUa, gear wabs and rims,

and support bearings.
The generally accepted rel-ationa~shi
for the misaligned facto&K. for spur and hdlita gears ~rc

(4-26)
DPN

K.

we:torque, ltu-in.
N
W M number of driven gecars in mesh with the
driver, dimensionless
For precibe calculations the pitch radius P,,/2 should
be replaced by the radius to the highest point of single
tooth loading (HFSTL) an determined by the profile
contact rotio' for spur gears or by other con*Aiderations
for helical and bevel gcars. These considerations are discussed further in a subsequent
paragraph in conjunction with discussion of the geometric shape factoi J.
The overload factor K. is included in Eqs. 4-24 and
4-25 to account for the torque pulsationi waveform or

K. US~ F' di-esa

(/)'

VMSW-=tc; toD asac..

I&HAis;OuK53535@

horizontally opposed aircraft en-

sine
K,- 1.25 - gear set adjacent to high angle
Hooke's joint installation
K.
1.15S - gear set adjacent to typical tailin
rotor drive-shaft
K,, - 1.2 - third-stage gearing ixi six-cyli 'nder
reciprocating engine applicat.-On
K,, - 1.0 - turbine engine speed teduction
Sear drive.
The mibalignmcnt factor K., in the tooth bending
stress equations take: into account the lengthwise or
axial load distribution on the face of the loadod g",
mesh. Three primmy~ sources, which generally are aaditivc, contribume to misalignment:
1. Initial misalignment due to manufacturing inaccuracy or dcflectdc axes of rotation due to gearset
load, external load, or thermal gradient
2. Toeth lead slope deviations due to inaccuracy in
gear manufacture

, for F

.,S
>F (4-27)
'

'

W,' -K,,W, +W, lb

(4-.29)

Empirical expressions for Fm are

"a

result from the power source, the driven mecmber, or

the response of the elastic drive subsystemn itself.
Because the bending stress S, must be wvithin the
fatigue endurance limit of the material, K. should not
be used to account for occasional overloads of low
cumulative cyclic duration unless the design life itself
is relativey low; i.e., less than 10' cycles. SomeJ
examples of measured K. values are
K,, - 2.0 - first gear drive from gix-cylinder,
rociprocaiti a&,four-stroke cycle,

(4-27)

whore
F
-~ face width of gear tooth. in.
F., - average value of effective face width F.,
for given loading condition, in.
The ave.rage face width F. in those equations is that
width which con be considered 1.o remain in contact
under &nef fezinive tooth load W, where, from Eq. 4-25

for roughness of the transmitted power, and hence is

Q .S.Im..u

frFor9
d'less,

- 2F -

[-

-1w~
1/2
' J

(4-30)

in

-eL'J

for spur gears, and for helical gears

F. = 2

Fe K4

1' /2'~
-

(4-31)

where
e
- pitch plane misalignment (net), in./in.
G -lengthwise tooth stiffness constant, p:
k

= enntar-t line- incdi-istinn fskrtnr (Re~f

P6

dimensionless
= bas pitch, in.
- total transverse length of lint of action.

All~

The value of the tooth stiffness constant G in thewe

equations usually is 106:! G :5 2.5 X !10'.
The correct value for Km for "poikit-contacts" such
as those in spiral bevel gears may be considerably less
than the values for spur or helical gears due to the
conformal axial curvature and curvature mismatch
used to localize the contact pattern within the tooth
boundaries. It is common practice to use. a value of
K., - 1.1 for aircraft spiral bevel gears. This low
value is particularly jusuticid for straddle mountings
used in conjunction with so-called -small-cutter
tooth developments". Use of cutter (and grind-wheel)
diameters equal to the mean coite distance at low
helix angles and equal to less than L%
ice the cone distance at high helix aigles is an example that would
4-37

meet this criterion. In Seneral, the contact pattare

shifts toward the heel of the tooth as the lead increases when too large a cutter is used, while a shift
toward the toe results from use of an excessively
small cutter diamvter. Thc correct diameter will result
in approximately equal pattein spreading toward
bothtoe nd hel.The
bthe stoeres hevel.ainprino
42
of the expression (Pd/F) (AJJ).
ptchdiide byfac with P8 F)
Thediaetrl
defines the physical size and hence the basic strength
of the gear tooth. K,is a size factor to account for the
phenomenon that larger components may not exhibit
fatigue endurance stress levels equal to those for
smaller cornpjonents. It is grouped with other term.,; in
the equation foi gear tooth stress S, so that resdy
compAri.aon may be made with the basic meatenial
rllowable stress.
For spiral bevcl gear applications Ref. 56 recoinmends for Pd !16 the use of
K, - 2Pj"' 5 ,dirnanisionli
and or 16whee
foor
Pdor I>

an

K. 1.0, dimensionren*

(4-32)

A;~claot viitrndcd AMS 6473 it is appropriate to usc

K, - I
K, -0.5 + 4.S/D,
K. 2

-irosols

dinniols
V
Y
A>

(4Yi
(434

or aco, ieninls
iesols
atr
-fr
= stress concentration factor (Ref. 01).
dimens~onleas
P= contact ratio factor, dimensionless

for helical gear;

d'css

(4-37)

16ones
(4-33)

form infiatnfator, dimensionless

C,
-

for D _12
for I > >
D 3
Or DPS 3P

(4-35)

geometric shape factor J is uscW to atxount for

thet,hape, of the cantileverv-d gczr-tooth beam; and it
iflCa'.-si.A e iifluienucc of atvss concentration, load
sharing, and the modified Lewis fowon factor. The
reom dd uainfr.1r:
for spur gear,

Kh~

However, for spur and helical gcars for which

6
:5IPd: 11t, Ref. 54 suggests K, - I because wc'i data
have produced only a slight strength difference attributable to size.
It should be emphasizcd thut the values for K_
given by Eqs. 4-32 and 4-33 are based upon the
assumptions that the ratio o1 case depth to tooth
thickness remains essentially consiarn, for casehardened gear teet~h, and that the characteristics of
casr. and core material and residua: stress fields arc
unaffected by size. Although the letter condition can
be achieved in the practical sense ri-ver a fairly wide
range fc~r case-carburized materials, it cannot be
satisficd for nitrided materials. For materials such as
AISI 4340, AMS 6470, and AMS 6475 *latare to be
case-hardened by nitridirig, a correction liecomes
necessary as 'the diametral pitch increases. Whi~c
there are few published data in this area, reascnable
corectonsforniude4AIS 430 o AliS 470for
various values of pitch diameter D,, are
K, - I
K,- 12/I),,
K, - 4
f
4-38-

for D t 9
for 9 > D > 3
for D,:5

(4-34)

WeIX gngle.dcg

and for bevel gear,

j

Y~ip

where
Yt

R,

les
'ls

(-8
(-8

=foini facicr, dinicasionlecss

-di--tuance fron; pitch circle to point of

locad applic.ation, n.
F, - efrouivt face widtn, in.
inertia factor, dimensionless
K,
R -mean transverse pitch radius, in.
Pd
transvermu diametral pitch (measured
at large end of bevel gear), in. -'
P, - meun transverse diamietral pitch, in.-'
Eq. 4-39 is taken from a Gleason standard (Ref. 64)
and is pres& ted primarily for discussion of the pertinent parameters. As mentioned previously, a more
thorough and accurate evaluation can be obtained
with the computer program oif Ref. 56.
The modified Lewis form factor appears as Y, Y,,
and Y5 in Eqs. 4-36, 4-37, and 4-38, respctiveiy. This
factor is based upon bending stress calculation for a
parabolic cantilever beam inscribed within the involute tooth form with the point or tangency between

AMCP 70r2021
the parabola .. 'i the involute. and the: point of load
from cantilever plate bendiag theory as presented in
application being the significant factors governing
Ref. 65.
the strese. This form factor redue the extreme fiber
tensile stress with a compression component of the
CA
d'leus(4-41)
tooth normal load. The load application point for the
1
spur Sewr factor Y always should be taken at the
calculated HPSTL and At the tip of the involute gear
profile forth helical Seer factor Y,. Th~i
where
determination of the load point for the bevel Star fac
v
-hlcltohla
ln nlnto nl
br ~Crtan
~ ase
Uumpi~n
Upn
fl~flfl~Tan-'
sino~tanV,), deg
the load contact pattern geomfti of the bevewl tooth.-nomlpesrage
hic
or)d#
-Thegrcat difference between the assumptions of Ref
normal
totpires lrangle (ei'ga)
deg.
64 and the updatod version of Ref. 56 accounts for a
-g
ot prlage ~
The inertia factor Ki in Eq. 4-38 accounts for a
considerable change in the calculated stress. Use of
reduced contact ratio. For in0 > 2.0. Ki 1.0 and for
the modified Lewis form factore in conjunction with
a stress concentration factor K1 has proven to be as
m~, < 2.0, K, -s2.0/mn..
Eqs. 4-36 through 4-38 are of assistance in
accurate as any method known for involute Sear
the stress at the location assumed to be the
evaluating
pn~iwrc
the
range
of
within
calculation
tooth stress
weak point of Star teeth. Test results often indicatt.
angles 14.5 deg < O< 25 dt~g. Howevcr, a significant
however. that failures originate not in the fillet near
degrcc of inaccracy may occL~r cutside this range as
the involute flank, but rather deeper toward the root
*,ell as for internal Sear tooth forms and for
or higher on the tooth flank.
maximum fillet re4ius configurations.
In the former case, the crack propagation is freThe influence of the stress configuration due to the
quently downward througi' the rim rather than in an
relati'.c fillet radius and load point location is ac.
.%.a-'insul
..
2; .1
tau
J~ ~
4'..i
c..
s n t~
.
of the
ceptable failure mode because a large section
photostress work of Doln and Broghamner. It should
gear rather than a single tooth tends to break off.
be notedA that an C c.,tv'c Kf is inctuded in the vabies
for A inE~. ~
Diakage high on the flank may result from the use
The effective ifid apportionment due to loadOt"
1i
ot nargdbs
'hls-hn
slarn~
t~~shiag
mon eet isacconte fo in optiniun blcAd between the fillet and the flank. A
lo t'-kuently arises when the back-up rim is
thc conza,:i ratio :7acti.i.. c,, F'o gar Sears fro wh~ich
theproilec~itac
raio~. ao,~ I~c..iisc ll
too
N J,~~'
i,, case the rim bending stress (due to
about the rim neutral axis) cai i be
niv
v-nunt
A
To&.'
tooth
mn
5
2.0
For
HKETL.
the
upo~i
!vised
7i~r
calculations
cantilever tooth [*ending
-,a~
assumed
~ta
double
of
poipit
~iir.ct
h
t
P
wh-i
5 3.0.
stress. Decauts rim curvature and web resistance
toot
asui~c~.
coti~cor d~miatio ofti~
enter ilflu ti'~s nnalysis, it is incorrect to considcr only
geosnelric
~ ~1~ 'rh~lnast~~ai~~rm
~ ~ ~ ~ ~~th
n~o.fco
ihicknes&. However, for spur and iow-eiciixorfaceeonact
~io ~ a.~.~ accuntd fo by
angle helical. gcs'rs of about 40 teeth, a rim thickness
&ii~i4
equal te the tooth~ depth is generally accepted as aide49) quate. Slighilj lesser v.-uos may be usrd for gears
~
*9
~
us~
4,
''mnainlos
2(-3
with fe~verwe~thile greater values may he needed
for gc.5r% wim~ mr4or than 40 teeth. The existence of
Whbere
high thb us k-wls m~ helical or bevel gears will cornp- oit!iru~tiu pitch (helivalgc.ar). in,
For
~
plicate tht: avo~.dyris. Considerable web and rim rcin.
for~imnt zi. n=&itary to dcvelop full tooth strength
clb.the modified cvuasav r.tio in.,
Frspi&l
which is a rmo-:ei
anmsqiiare (ruzs) mitmmation of the
po~intol .
ihr~'t-mpnt
prabel
v..tivv profik. i&d fax.contact ratio, h; used. When
beas th rcdniaaye r wo-dimen2.,m - 1.but for mi.> 2.0
sional, th.iv' att not suitable for definition of maxima
for h tr-ei ial stress field. Computerized methods of
fir.ite element analysis are expected eventually to af,
d'lmq (4..40)
..
rn~ ~
f-3. d accurate solutions for these conditions
- 4Y'
MI + 2 %rn'
.4
Additie'iul prevition of high-speed gearing 4nI~lyThe CA, factor used fis Eq. 4-37 liccounLw for the
ses m~ay t--tbtaincd by inclusion of the hoop stress Sh
in V~ic geali rim due to the centrifugal acceleration. A
inclination of the load contac line and is 4.r.~ed
-a

conservative value fow this steady stress (at a con-

limit data and an applicable value for u, may be oh-

stant speed) may be taken as

tained from an R. R. Moore rotating beam specimen

test. Extreme care must be taken to dnplicate every
metallurgical and manufacturing characteristic of a

-. 910-p(nD)

'.

"7

'

psi

(4-42)

where
7.095 X 10-6 - dimensional constant
p
= material density, lb/in.3
"n
Sgear speed, rpm
D3,
- gear root diameter, in.
The oscillatory stress due to bending S, may be combined with the hoop stress S, by use of a modified
Goodman diagram constructed on the basis of the
material properties of the specific gear. The modified
Goodman diagram can be used to account for the reduced allowable bending limit for an idler gear application in which the calculated stress is fully reversing. Use of the diagram is discussed in detail in
Reft 54.
A maximum safe working value of tooth stress
S,.. due to bending can be determined as
, ~,+K,
(4-43)
S
allowable endurance limit stress, psi
K,
lf acodmesols
K, - temperature factor, dimensionless
Kr - reliability factor, dimcnsionless
The life factor K, is assumed as unity for all
Sapplications designed for infinite life, i.c., greater
than 101 cycles. All Army helicopter power gearing
designs must meet this criterion. The temperature
factor K, is taken as unity provided the gear blank
operating temperature is blow the hardress draw
caett
- . .
....'
...-.
, hi..s
6-r;.,io..
must be satisfied by all Army helicopter power
gearing designs. The ieliability factor K, effectively is
a factor of safety that is used when the statistical confidence and reliability (test data scatter) are unknown
for a given mean value of the eriduranco limit stress,
In such casts, a value of 3.0 is recommended for K,
When the allowabl endurance limit S,, is known for
the specified reliability level, K, - 1.0
S., always should be chosen to rmect the desired
reliability for the design application. A genS'rlly
recognized safe design practice for helicopter geaing
is to select S. as the value 3 standard daviatior4 (3o)
below the mean endurance limit demonstrated by
teat. The value of the standard deviation a, as well as
the mean endurance limit, varies greatly with
material, heat treatment practices,! manufacturing
variability, and the quality control level exercised in
final component acceptance inspection and nondestructive test and evaluation methods. Endurance
-

2 ,

"4-40

gear itself or the data are useless. However, the value

of e from these tests invariably will be smaller than
that for the more complex production gear.
Refs. 66, 67, and 68 present the results of indepenjdent test programs conducted to determine an accurate mean endurance limit for carburized AMS
6265 gears. The resultant S., values vary from
160,000 to 210,000 psi. Relative strength data for
many materials and process as treated in single
tooth (pulsor) machiqes over a 15-yr period may be
found in Ref. 69. The variability of a and S,, with
material and process is shown in Fig. 4-22, extracted
from Ref. 41. None of the test gears were shot peened
since this proess could ;..ve masked the inherent
differences in the materials and processes.
The endurance limit is, of course, merely one of
several factors that must be assessed by the designer
in making his gear material selection. Aside from the
obvious criteria of fainiliarity, confidence level in
hmanulacturing and process coatrol, cost, temperature environment, and size, the crack propagation
characteristics must be satisfactory. Although the
safe design stress for one candidate material may be
far higher than that of another, it also must be
assumed that ballistic damage or secondary damage
will occur in any critical gear mesh of an Army hellcopter. Such damage could result in an impact-type
overload that could cause a through.-hardened, hightensile-strength material to shatter and fail instan_!y
The degree of ductility provided by a core structure
of lower hardness (commonly core hardness 20 points
Rockwell C lowe- than the case) is often sufficient to
provide a safe failure mode with a relatively low rate
of crack propagation. When this technique cannot be
employed, the use of lower hardness gradients
together with geometric crack stoppers may suffice.
Ref. 70 is a useful primer on the fracture mechanics
for the gear designer.
The use of properly controlled shot peening in the
gear fillkt area often can reduce scatter (smaller a)
and in some instances can increase the design
allowable S., by 13 to 25% in carburized AMS 6265
gears. Practices vary widely with regard to peening of
gear tooth faces. Some specifications require masking
the faces during peening, others require removal of
the effects of peening by flank grinding or honing.
and still others allow peening of the running surfaces. Peening requirements are tailored to the gear
application, but certain generalities may be stated:
I. Peen in accordance with MIL-S-13165.

C - CARBURIZED
N - NITRIDED
H - THROUGH HARDENED
G - GROUND FILLETS
P- PROTUBERANCE HOBBED
R - HIGH RETAINED AUSTENITE
Z - ZIRCONIUM GRIT BLAST

0J MEAN ENDURANCE LIMIT

C:' -3,y ENDURANCE LIMIT (SAFE DESIGN LEVEL)
2O O
, -0

=-U--

- .-.

.ct

-)

C-,^
C3-

'..

LU

__I

C)
-J

MATERIAL TYPE AND PROCESS

Figure 4-22. Single Tooth Pulsor (car Fatigue Test Results

2. Use cast iron, -tci, or cut steel wire shot of

diameters no larger than one-half the smallest fillet
-radius.
3. Use several hundred percent coverage,
'r'a,,
,a
4. Dc.. [iii
..ri.if.
i.,.
*L i"..-r
Lt,'
b',-L|IauaWs
.i
im
iw
v e
Wll

',

Ao,-

positioned to simulate the exact surface location to be

peened.
5. Never exceed 0.016A intensities,
6. Do not peen very hard (> R, 64) or brittle
surfacs such as nitrided AMS 6470, AMS 6475, or
Ssimilar materials. However, cleaning and abrasive
grit or glass shot at intensities up to 0.01IN is permissible.
4-2.1.2.2 Scoriag Failure
When two gear teeth slide togethci under load,
there is considerable heat generation in the loca:ized
conjunction even in the preusnce of a lubricant- When
the rate of heat buildup exceeds the rate of heat transfer away from the conjunction, the resultant temperature rise acts to reduce the lubricant viscosity, thus
reducing the thickness of the separating oil film. In
the full EHD lubrication zone, the temperature rise
to
the friction; however, as th: film

\_*4s

rve -orl

_44

thins and conditions change te the traniitional or

boundary hubrication regime, the friction generally
increascs. Conscqbeitly, the unstable condition may
be created that eventually will result in harsh metal*.
*_-oW
ii.
*
',t.% ilvu

m,

o4*

a, s,.,rLr
... en-re
- ...-*,.
.

demnit
y suf--....

ficient to "melt" and smear a twin lyer of the 2ear

tooth surface. This smearing condition is referred to
as scoring or scuffing. Although the physics of the
phenomenon rcmains the source of much debate and
intenive rmscarch, ceitain ficwors are Lnderstood sufficiently well to permit engineering design that will
minimize scoring risk for a given set of operating oonditions. There are five fundamenta& approaches the
designer must consider:
1. Selection of the proper diametral pitch, taking
carc to balance bending strength against scoring (Fig.
4-21). Higher speeds call for the use of finer pitches.
It always should be possible to select a pitch range in
which putting enduranc is the life-limiting failur.
mode.
2. Use of a contact ratio sufficient to insure load
sharing by at least two pairs of muting te-th in the
higher sliding velocity ranges of the tooth contact.
The profile contact ratio for straight spur gears

operating in the velocity ranges of scoring sensitivity

never should be less than 1.65. a value that pcrmits
two-tooth load sharing in the first and last thirds Of
meshing contact. The profile contact ratio may be
reduced for hliefcal a-id spiral bevel getass i,,ea thrc
d face contact ratio is suffcient to assure a total
developed contact ratio of 2.0 or greater. Reliable
achievement of these contact ratios requires accurecy of tooth spacing, profile slope, and lead slope.
3. Seleiction of tooth numbers to insure hunting
tooth action. In general, this requires that the number
of teetl. in any two mrshing gears be relatively prime;
i.e., that theme be no comimon factors. An indication
of the significanrc LA this requirement isgiven by Fig.
4-23, which illustrate* the difference in scoring load
limit between Star-synchronized and separate motor
driven 4.0 in. diameter test disc operating in MIL-L780 oil (Ref. 71).
4. Modification of the involute profile to compensate for deflection of the teeth under load-deflected
load so that the loading ors the entering and leaving
tooth pair contacts varies susoothly rafthr than in a
* step-functon. This not only minimizes the transinitted I;;-- carried att the elidin velocity cU

The most satisfactory technique cur rently available

for calculating gear scoring risk Is based upon the
critical temperature hypothesis (Ref. 72). This hypethesia suggests that for every oil-meta combination,
there exists a cr~tical constant conjunction temperature at or above which surface scoring occurs. Application of the co~icepi requires determiratior, of appropriate values of the critical temperature T, and the
temperature of the conjunction T7+ A T with 7, the
initial temperature of the oil-mesh interlace as it
enters mesh and A T being the temperature rise
during the meshing cyckc. The critical temperature
hypothesis implies that the limiting or failu~re load Wf
is related to certain design variables. The specific
rzlationship has be=s reduced to standard geur terestinology and published by AGMA (Ref. 73). Aver4.
values for thermal conductivity, specific heat, dentity, and an assumed constant coefficient of friction of
f - 0.06 have been incorpoxatuid into the empirical
questions for the temperature rise A T and the
scoring geometry factor 2,
,\

ij

but reduces the dynamic ioad increment as wel!.

5. Provision of adequate, uniformly distributed oil

flow to the entire tooth face width. The dual function
of cooling and lubrication Ii best served by use of
bo'.h in-mesh and out-of-mesh oil jets. When both
jets cannot be employed (either to minimize windage
losses or because of marginal pumnp supply), it usually is best to retain the in-mesh jet for high-speed
gearing and the out-of-mesh jet for low-speed
geapryns.

(4-44)
5OSJ\) /J(-4

where
W'-ttlcfcieprtohtal
F, - a effective gaer tooth,
i
oad lb
S - effectiveface width,pin.
S
- rinis surfac frispin
- scrn speed,- rpm
r dmniols
-soiggoer
atr iesols

(4-45)

ANN
626eDISKS
14O d,a,0.0175

~~hINLE

~ j i;

T OILTCWP-Iq I

V411'

CI---.
UIISVIHqOMIZiO
90~ SYIICHRONIZEU
O

where

--

P1

--

r
T

Z7

- number of teeth in pinion

-

number of teeth in gear

diameitral pitch, in.
radiu~s of curvature of gear tooth, in.
radius of curvature of pinion tooth, in.
transverse operating pressure angle,

deg

I using Eqs. 4-44 and 4-45, T, is assumed as equal to

V,-V'. 11
mm
the oil inlet temperature. However, considerable
error can be introduced through the actual values off
Figur 4-23. Scuffivig Load is Sliditig Velodly and T, because the friction coefficient is often lower
Sym~eakd
ad UsyncroasedDimthan 0.06 and the pinion-gear surface temperatures
51200300C

J=

L-4-42

Usnhole

ie

1)P70-0
often are higher than those at th. oil inlet. However,
because these two errors are opposite ip offcct, sufficient cancellation occurs to rendcic the equatio~is
acoeptable for estimation purposes.
Ref. 73 defines the critical temperature T, with
respect to scoring risk, rating T, - 5W)OF as a high
risk. 300*F as a medium risk, and lesser temperatures as low risks. Theiefore, the value of the conjunction temperature T, + AT under design load
conditions should be less than the, value of T,
assc vaed with an acceptable level of risk,
There is no accepted or inherently accurate method
for calculating T's, although measurements of typical
0
helicopter pinions have shown values lO0F
greater
than oil inlet temperatures. Although it is well known
(Refs. 74 and 75) that above a certain critical speed
the scoring load of a given gear set will increase, the
AGMA equation does not reflect this consideration
since no speed term other than sliding velocity was
used in the deve~opment of Eqs. 4-44 and 4-45.
An improved calculation ma~hod uses speeddependent friction coefficients (Ref. 76) combined
with the effects of tooth load sharing. The method for
dlga,
::..,.

uic

foa,,...,sou

ZjC

5w~~'

kq"-')

high risk, but 7, = 400*F as a medium risk thus

would be a suitable classificakion for carburized AMS
6265 gears operating in lAIL-L-7808 or MIL-L-23699
lubricantls.
The preceding analyses do not adequately accourst
for certain factors that are. known to influence the
calculated temperature rise AT awtd the truc 7:. for
synthetic lubricants. Among thesc factors are:
1. The diffcreaccs in friction and wedr additive ef-

-~~~-

*i

p.,*~

Feflfit

ficiency between MIL-L.-7808 and MII..-L-23699 oiia

...

a, les

6. Calculate a value of W,' adjusted to account for

load sharing at multiple tooth contact points, including effects of profile modifications.
7. Calculate AT and conjunction temperature T,
+ AT at each point,
Proper load sharing distribution in the two-tooth
contact zone must be provided for by involute profile
modifications. There are many techniquts in use for
calculation of these modifications, most of them
based upon the practices recommended by Ref. 77.
Even though the calculated values are slightly low for
thin-rim helicopter gearing, the tooth defiections obtained by the methods of Ref. 78 should be used for
profile modification technique. The first point of
contact (pinion dedcrndumn with gear tip) is the most
critical with respect to the overload effects of tooth
\spacinS errors, and produces the higher absolute

.'the

*\

V\.0/

a* value*of TI *

L'M

1. Subdivide the active tooth profile into at least

20 equally spaced points,
2. Calculater andr at each point.
3. Calculate 4at cthpoint,
4. Calculate f at each point by method shown in
Ref. 76 or using suitablt; empirical data.
5. Replace 2., in Eq. 4-44 with Z,-, a modified
sv'ring geometry factor.

-'

values of the friction coefficient (Fig~s. 4-6 and 4-7)

Therefore, to achievc the best proffic modification for
scoring risk roduction, the prccedinig caltulations
should be slightly biased to increase the Miaterial
removal at first ploint of contact while decreasing the
removal a,. the last point of contact. A 20-30% bias
shift is generally satisfactory. If practic~able reduclions in scorinig risk are to be obtained throught involute modification, profile slope tolerances must be
held bttween :k 0.0001 and 1 0.0002 in. for the
modified zones and tooth-to-tooth spacing accuracies of 0.0002-0.0003 in. must bu achieved. Adequacy of the ctlculated design values must be confirm-A dtiritig initial gearbox bench testing. Prop~r
profilk, modifications for helicopter applicotions must
reveal full visuni profile contact throughout the rfaige
50-75% of the red-line power; if less than full contact
is achicved, the rtsultant loss of contact ratio at nor-mal cruise power may cause excewskvely rough and
noisy cptration with an attendant reduction in p~itting life When the level of sophistication desccibed is
used in the calculation. of T).+ AT, together with
precision in manufa~cture. the risk evaluations
of T.
0

texture
3. The influence o! EHI) behavior as a function os'
te erteanvloiy
When tests are conducted under closely controlled
conditions wherein the friction coefficient f, the initial temperature T,, and the EHD parameters are
known with accuracy, it has been reported that the
assumption that T,. is constant actually is invalid.
Ref. 20 shows a semi-log correlation between T,. and
a dimensionless El-D parameter tp which depends
upon the initial viscosity p, the sliding and total
velocities V, and V7, respectively; pitch radius R; and
compressive (hertz) stress at failure Sc,. In this correlation the value of T, for well heat treated, low
retained austenite, case carburized AMS 6265
operating in MIL-L-7808 drops from &.bout 600'F to
about 430*F when the value of t increases by a factor
of 101 (from i - 10- to - &~.Values of T, are
approximately 100 deg F less for lower quality (with

0!

high retained ausmteit) mas carburizd A MS 6265

op~uieing in the saicie lubricant (Rqf. 71).
Tbo reuctioi n.V T, with anl kincrea In ifis due to
One 9omplex interaction of V, and Vy, For conlstanlt
V7 T, faho 6harply and then levels off as V, is
incr=4.d while T, increases eapnential
ihV
wimm V, is held constant. Because the ratio /VI1 . is
constant for a given gear design, these opposite ef
fecta tend to canWeleah other over common ranges
of gSar operating speeds and loads, producing a relatively constant value of T,.
When actual friction data for t given lubricantmetal combination are not availsble, the trends
shown in Fig. 4-24 (Ref. 71) ane helpful in design
mvKiew and evaluation,
From a practical viewpoint, when overpower tests
* show that scoring risk is marginal, the problem may
be eliminated by such relatively minor remedial actionsacB
1. Improving the run-in cycle by i. glonger runs
;A~t
increased load and reduced speed to rewict tht
operating surface finishes
2. Reducing the manufactured surface roughness
through better grinding piracice or the use of Scar
tooth honing where possible
3, Reducing the value of T, through increase
lubrkicat flow or cooler lubricant s;Apply.
When such measures prove inadequate, the lubricant
and the metallurgical microstructure should be
evaluated. If neither can be improved, it may be
* possible to improve the involute modification or profile and the tooth epacing error,
-

4-2.2.1.2.3 Pftrimg Fallure

There are several pitting failure modes that in their
advancad states produce the same and result: extensivc spalling and tooth fracture. Only three of these
modes are relevantto the type of gearin used In
modern helicopter drive subsystems. They nay be
classified as case failure, classic or pitch-line fatigue,
and wear-initiated failure.
4-2.2.1.2-3.1 Case Failre
This mode results simply from inadequatic depth of
case to support the opeating load. It way be avoiodd
by adjustment of either unit load or oas depth to obtain a ratio of subsurface shea stress to shAm yield
strength in excess of a particular critical value. Ref.
79 recommends that a value of 0.55 for this ratio not
be exceeded; however, for high-quality helicopter
taring transient operationc at values between 0.55
and 1.0 should not result in failure. Extended operation above the critical ratio will cause subsurface
cracks to occur near or in the case-core transition
area as a result of the repetitive subsurface shear.
qtre-citins. Them~ suhxurfxne cracks scion spread to the
tooth profile surface and generally result in numerous
brittle longitudinal fracture in the general area of the
single-tooth contact zone. Total mutilation of the
toth profile then results from only a few additional
cycles of load application.
The variation of subsurface shear stress with depth
may be calculated in 4astrakightforward manner. The
magnitude of thie subsurface shear for a given depth is
a function of S, and the Hcrtzian contact band
semiwidth b.The calculation should be made for the
lowest point of single tooth co'ntact (LPSTC) on the

_____________

_;.in

AM4020DU 1considerably
0U'-IK)L( OIL
QAMIL- SRAOIGTMKL

-V' - V, $250iH

a
-'

-~manner:

sur.Eace

then..

-la-,

.nmember

6.

weaker) becauscr this produces the

maximum~value of S,. S, may be calculated in

accordance with the methods shown in par. 42.2.1.2.3.2. The effective toota load W,' and the radii
of curvature shouald be adjusted for the LPSTC. The
~Hertzian semiwidth b is relatod to S, in the following

-(2.30

-b

-~~
____

VI -V2.f Itabl

Figre 4-24. Scufling Loand vs lubricant -plotted

Ussmycbtosihed Discs
'4-44

invlu.,a

x 10-1) (7t L)S, . in.- (4-47)

wh!5re r~ and r are as defined pre'iowjly, the radius

of curvature of the'pinion and tar- tooth, respective4-5 nlxt should bc use to cak &late values of
shear stress S ait 12 depthis. Thate alues then may be
along with the allowable st.resz as shown in
Fig. 4-25. The allowable values show n are 55% of the

-J

II

TABLE 4.5. SHEAR STRESS VS DEPTH

DPTn.SHEAR STFESS -

shecar yield strength, as a function of hardness at the

given depth. An approximate relationship betweon
to shear yield stnis is shown in Fig. 4-26.
allowable values of shear stress near the sur,ace

DEPTH.
ohardness

C, x b
F

VALUE

C, xThe

OF C1

........

_..

0.05
0.10
0.25
0.33

are omitted because of the large residual comprossive stress field normally in existence therem. iB.ause
this residual field will reduce the effects of tl'e imposed subsurface shear stresse, this region is not
critical to the analysis; the occurrence of failure in
this region as limited to the high hardness gradient

VALUE OF C,
0.090
0.160
0.216
0.314

transitional depths.

0.293
0.278
0.252
0.211
0.179
0.154
C.107
0.082

0.50
0.60
0.75
1,00
1.25
1.50
2.25
3.00

'I

4-4.2.1.2.3.2 Classic or Pitch Line Fatigue

Classic or pitch-line pitting has been treated extensively in the literature and is related closely to
classic bearing fatigue. Pitting life may be calculated
as a function of Hertzian stress S,; it is a phenomenon
associated with rolling contact, and the theory is not
applicable if surface traction or shear stressws are of
considerable magnitude. Consequent'y, valid
aly
arc limited to full EHD lubricant film

AMAXIMUM VALUE OF ORTHOGONAL SHEAR

STRESS OCCURS AT DEPTH - 0.33 b FOR

CYLINDRICAL HERTZIAN CONTACT

41

83

r~l
/Rc
'--

---

2o

62D655
- R, 60 TO 0.020 in.,
50 TO vUAin
U3 in., CORE
- R, 38
AAJS NITRIDED A&%
64.5 - Rc GDTO 0.007 l.
L*s w tS

-....

10

1th-41

640

50

OO

002

0.20

,5

0.20

0.040

000

0.Ot0

0.070

0.050

0.090

DEPTH BELOW SURFACE, in.

Figure 4-25. Case Depth Allowable vs Subsurface Shear

4-45

IL

The stress factor X is delined as

-I-''

15
LK
I2~

,,..-

-4

mi

WF (-!

j').ps

(4-50)

where

total effective tooth load (Eq. 4-29), lb

Wf*;
-

-d

pinion pitch diameter. in.

-face width, in.

gear ratio N /N,. anumber m .-1.0L
In mEq. 4-50 the term (M1,+ 1) isused with counter-

j~----*formal teeth and (min 1) is used with conformal

11
Ll1~-1teeth.
--

Thec ffcctivc tooth load W,' varies from that

2S

39

15

40

455

used in Eq. 4-29 in that W, is taken at the pitch line.

and for miost applications Wj - 0 because thc pitch
load is governing while an incremental dynamic
usuAlly is limited to the initial mesh contact.
The stress index modified I in Eq. 4-48 is defined as

EQUIO'1NU tHAftQMC$$R,

SUL'L

4-6. vsHardessline
hearYlel
Figue
F~gue
hearV~el
4-6. vsHarm...load
ftpaation as depicted in Regime 11 of Fig. 4-3.
Opsrating in this region is not observed often in hedicopter drive subsystems where low-viscosity synthetic lubricants are used, except in the very high
imei vA'~rino stna~es Tntm' veladitie&'V.. - V. + V. nf

the ordt.r of 15,0UU ft/nun or greater are rcquirod to

achieve Regime 11 coaditions.
The fundamental AGMA approach to the calculation of pitting life is given in Ref. 80. For helicoptcr
use the following adaptation is suggested for
calculation of the Hertz stress, S,:
CP TLcalculated
(4-48)
psi

whom
C. - elastic coefficient, (psi)i
i - streas factor, psi
I
- stress index modifier, dimensionless
In Eq. 4-48 the elastic coefficient C, is given by

4W
--L

where
k
L

gometr
.-Ylindrical
contact k combined
givent as
E'

wherep, are the Poisson's ratios.

"6~

9)

jl~p

(4-)

where

cat.si

O'ess
(4-52)
2
tases
pftn
rsueagc
drasersgpaig psueage
and the valegfrtecnatrti atrm loi
us in par. 4-2.2.1.2.1.
The value of S, calculrAted using Eq. 4-48 shuuld bc
used with the S-N curve shown in Fig. 4-12 to predict pitting life.
C1-

4-212.1.2.3.3 Wear Initiated Failure

This is the most frequently encountered failure
mode, predominating throughout the transitional
lubrication states between pure: boundary layer and

factor, dimensionles (for

contact k - 2.0; for elliptical
3.0)
modulus of elasticity, psi

2
/+ '"+
E- +

'
C~
t

full El-D conditions (Fig. 4-3). Causes and cor-Y

rective action are discussed in detail in pars. 4-1.2.11.2,

4-1.3.1, and 4-2.1.1.
In the absence of relevant test data or cxtensivce xperience, the best procedure for analyzing this failure
mode is to calculate S,.by Eq. 4-48 and to apply this
value to the applicable S-N curve of Fig. 4-18. More
suitable life equations that take into account many of
the gignifierant variables other th'an ,~myso
become available from the many research programs
now under way. One such program, entitled
"Relationship of Lubrication and Fatigue inCo~icentrated Contact", is being conducted by the Rescarch
on Lubrication of the ASME.

.Committee

~AMCP 7W0-2W

4-2.2.13 Geer Drawing ail Specification

Without a drawing or specification adequate to insure control of the critical variables, little confidence
can be placed in the value of gear analyses relative to
expected service performance; reliability goals cannot
be guaranteed and the results of any specific
Airworthiness Qualification Specification (AQS) test
becomi relatively meaningless. To achieve a
workable logistical, maintenance, safety of flight, and
otherwise cost-effective helicopter program, consistency of product must become a paramount consideration. Consistency or reduction of variability is
of far greater importance at the operational level than
is the achievement of any other criterion of performance such as power-weight ratio, strength, or efficiency.
The gear drawing must be amplified by numerous
supporting specifications. However, the decision as
to what class of data falls into each category is a
matte" of individual preference provided the result is
a workable system for procurement, quality control,
and necessary engineering review and change. The
3 ,.hrZ;no ;a th. Aru-ntmi-nt

anvernino definition of the

component, and it must clarify any ambiguities in or

between supporting documents.
"Thefollowing review list is intended as a minimum
guide for assuring completeness of data, but no stipulation is made whether it be provided by drawing or
by specification:
I. Raw material:
a. Chemistry
b. Certification condition
c. Grain orientation
d. Processing requirement
.. si.c
Shape and:

S'

rn..
. duction, fro"

in-os

f. Finish
g. Decarb limits.
2. Heat treatment requirements:
a. Process controls
b. Certi!,ation
c. Properties, including microstructure
d. Case. hardness, surface and gradient, case
depth r.nd tolerance, and core hardness,
r. Quenching and tempering limitations including time, temperature, and interval regulations
f. Limits on reprocessing,
3. Serialization:
a. Proper identification and traceability
b. Location of cod" and numbers
c. System for transfer during processing
d. Control of marking methods, size, and
point(s) during processing for application.
4. Drawing technique:
a. Specifications and Standards (MIL-D-I000),

MIL-STD-10 with dimensioning practices to ANSI

Y 14.5
b. Gear reference axis definition with location
tolerance for inspection set-up
c. Specified taper, waviness, roundness, concentricity, and finish requirements, assuring compatibility for journals
d. Boundaries to csed areas.
5. Finishing requiremeints:
a. Specified methods and limitations on use
b. Specified peening techniques including setup, shot, gaging, coverage, and certification frequoncy
c. Means to avoid emlrittlcment and stress corrosion in all electrolytic, acid, or caustic proccsscs.
6. Stock removal:
a. Limits on stock removal (minimum and
maximum if required) during grinding on all cased
areas within tolerances compatible with Item 2 and
with design stress analysis
b. Specified methods of control.
7. Nondestructive testing:
a. Specified requirements and methods for

magnetic particle, pcnatrant, and cichant tcsia

b. Specified frequency and sequence
c. Specified frequency of certification of
processes
d. Specified equipment and precise location of
identification for necessary hardness measurements
on critical areas.
8. Balance require,.ents:
a. Planes of measurement, limits, and speeds established and located, and permissible techniques
specified when dynamic V'iiancing is required
h.

Spr-ifdA

lw ation

limitc

and

material

removal methods for meeting ba'anct requirements.

9. Tooth form:
a. Provide clear cnlargcd detail of tooth form,
graphically specifying tooth thickness, flank and root
finish, over pin (or ball) dimensions, OD root diameter, and minimurn fillet radius or equivalent
b. Applicable data listed; i.e., N, Pd' "0' Dp.
circular pitch ,P, involute base circle diameter DI,
and %/.
10. Involute data:
a. Slope and modification zones specified, e.g.,
by use of degrees rolled off base circle
b. Critical diameters such as start of true involute, ard edge break limits defined.
It. Lead data:
a. If applicable, slope and crown defined
b. End break limits and blend specified,
12. Allowable errors:
a. Specified limits of manufacturing deviation
4-47

"

....

-.

from the desired

b. As neceasary, equipment or certifiable
equipment capabilities required to measure such

the primary failure rate of cylindrical roller bearings.

In order to achieve the failure rate reductions
required by modern MTBF goals, it is advisable that,

errors specified
c. Repeatability and standardization of proof

as a minimum, the desig:,er:

I. Come to agreement with the bearing supplier

check methods and frequency for inspection

with respect to specific application neetds.

equipment check specified

d. Gear mounting within location limits given

2. Clearly specity appli-.ation requirements by pertinent drawing or specification,

in Item 4 or equivalent specified for inspection

3. Evaluate the effectiveness of potential gains

c. Tolerances on adjacent and accumulated

tooth spacing, profile slope, lead slope, hollow or
fuliness of profile and lead, waviness of profile and
lead, and undercut o; cusp specified where appli-

available with amended specifications in order to undcrstand what changes in price are justifiable.
4. Inspect bearings for compliance with specification.

cable.
13. Chart format:

AMCP 706-201 describes the elements of bearing

type selection and gives many examples of typical

a. Inspection chart for involute profile and lead

required to conform to a predetermined standard for
proper interpretation and consistency
b. A sample chart with explanation of interpretive technique specifying magnification and paper
travel speed provided,
14. Pattern limitations:
a. For spiral bevel gears beating pattern checks
required in lieu of profile and lekd checks
Sb.Methods and ma'hine.s by which bearng or
contact checks are performed on production corn-

helicopter configurations. The primary function of

helicopter bearings is to provide accurate positioning
of gear and shaft components under wide ranges of
speed while also exhibiting satisfactory life. Means of
achieving this goal are described in the paragraphs
that follow.

ponents run against "working masters", checked in

turn against "grand masters" specified).
c. Data defining gaging dimensions, pattern
size, shape, and location; and boundary tangencics

through specified V and H and profile settings

specified (See Ref. 81 for further definitions).
4-2.2.2 Bearings
The discussion of bearing application design, life
arnaluysis, and drawi1 ,otrois that fllows is limited
to radial ba,, angular contact ball, and radial cylin d rical roller configurations. However, the basic
principles introduced are sufficiently general to serve
well in application design of any rolling element type
bearins. Efficiency, reliability, survivability characteristics. and standards recommendations were
treated prcviously in pars. 4-1.2.1 and 4-1.3.3.
Army helicopter transmission bearings have
exhibited a primary failure rate two times greater
than that for gears and four tinme higher than that for
all remaining transmission components (Ref. 46).
Also, their replacement rate wt overhaul was three
"times that of gears and 15 t~nies that of the remaining components. The majority of these replacements were due to secondary failure such as
debris ingestion and corrosion. Also of importance to
hhe designer is the finding that ball bearings (predominantly thrust applications) exhibited ten times
4-48

".- ZVI

4-2.1.2.1 Application Design

Four aeneral areas apocar to create :he major difficuitics in bearing applicaiion tiasign. They arc.:
I. Mounting practices
2. Lubrication techniques
3. Internal characteristics
4. Skidding control.

4-2 2.2.1.1 Mounting Practices

In most helicopter applications of the rolling
clement bearing, the loads are relatively large in relation to the physical dimensions and weight of the
bearing. Good design requires consideration of the
elastC buhaVioF of SUe, a sys"CM; adeQUate SUPPOr
for both the rotating end nonrotating rings is
necessary, and the supporting !-hafts and housings
must have greater rigidity than the bearing rings. This
criterion may be satisfied by use of shaft wall sections
that are at least as large as the bearing inner ring
thickness, and or total hotising-lincr-quill cross
sections equal to the total bearing cross section. Use
of thinner se..ions should be avoided unless careful
stress and deflection analyses prove that they are
feasible.
Fretting wear, creep, and spinning are undcsirabie
phenomena generally associated with the bearing inncr ring-shaft interface (inner ring rotating with
respect to load vector). Proper inner ring interference
fit is the most important parameter for control of
these conditionFretting wear is the result of localized r.'bbing of
very, small amplitude at the interface, and is difficult

*the

4There
Zaused
MR.described

to control unless the ring cross-sectional thickness is

ring sections such as ure found in 200 or 300 series
iargt enough for thc loading conditions involved.
bmaings. TherF.ore. when dealing with appliction Of
IkitAg croep is the x!aw rele~dve (lagging) motion of
this formula to ligater section bearings combined
ring with rtspect to the shaft and occurs in some
with hollow shafts, it is nocuesacy to cnpfensate for
irntances as a result of sufficieqi fretting wear to rethe reducmd radial pressure per unit interfceent* by
duce the interference fit. A relative rotational speed
the method of elastic i*ug theory as defined in Rcf.
of as little as 10-6 X shaft speed may result in suf83. Use of interfercncc fits that produce surface tenficierl wear over several hundred hours to rediuce the
silo stresstz in thc circumferenitial dirucion above 10,design interference. Often, creep o~cur-. initially
0CNQ
psi should ibe ap-,%wched with -caution because
bem~use of insufficient design interference,
the fatigue life of the race may Ne reduced.
Spinning is a term used to dencte an advanced
2. Eximssive thermal grsdicnts should be avoidc~d.
statc of creen that occurs in cases w~h loose fir up or
Becuse the circulated itib: ication oil acts to nodu1no interference between the shaf~t and dhe inrer ring
late thesc gradicnits through forced convective
of the bearing. With hardcne4, and groun~d precision
cooling, an increase of oil flow to the shaft and
interface surfaces, poliulhing and advanced wear rates
beari-ng often can be used to alleviate thermul proboften result when the relative rotational spm 64aplems.
proach 10 to 20% of siiaft speed under operating con3. Very thin ring sections es used in AFJPMA sizcs
eitions not unlike thos'. in a simp'c slec'-e bearing,
below series "0" for ball-type bearinas and series '"I
Fig. 4-27 (from Ref. 82) shows a wear vs time funcfor cylindrical roller-type bearings should be avoidtion for a cylindrical roller bcaring application.
ed for nigh-load applications. Elimminsion of the inare a number of design practices that may be
ner ring by use or integral shaft raceways for cyto counteract these phenomena. They are
lindrical roller applications is aii effective means of
here in a descending orilew of preference,
avoiding the problem) altogct~mcr.
_rond. or hone' orn'
tow)
.-i umiardened
1. Thi exterit radhciattl~ i
provide sufce rda
t
e
pr[vent cree ma
(roughness
!5AA 10) with dimensional tolerance
sufinLcforcetoI
to
creepimayterng
orrun
fIh baigwl
be calculatedI and employed in the design. Two faceurtor
le
hnthrngofhebrigil
tors that must be considered areassure attainmntca of dcsired c~alculated pressurets and
a. Crcuferntil
sreth ofthebeaing~'ig
tili withstand frequent assembly and disassembly
under applied rolling element loads which 'c~ctivcly
adlogsrieitmnmllssfitreen.
increases the inside diameter (ID) of the rind.
5. It is desirable to use 2/3-lip-depth shouldcrs,
b. The influence of the temperature gradient
spacers, and clamp nuts that are square with the jot-.rfrom shaft to the bearing ring upon relative iherwal
nal surface end provide iigid axial clamping. Positive
expansion. This gradient is a funct;-n of the cooling
nut lock devices always should be used becAuse ring
paths and of heat generation or friction loss.
creep under high axial loading may rotete the nut.
Ref. 6 Presents a calculation technioue suitableI for
Deeiisse bearing ring creep results from a lag of the
interforence fit determination. However, the
ring behind tihe shaft ro, aioal speeoc, il is simple to
calculations cited assume a soliJ shaft and generous
dr~'erminc whether such cor~dition! will servc to
tighten or loosen the nut.
6. Copper or silver plating on the shaft interfa~ce
4 ~
T
as bAc used with wine beneficial results kp reC'~
4'1I[A
R~[~
ducing or virtually eliminatisig fretting corrosion and
_____

thus prlnigcomponentsevcli,

CO ihI

SI-4-

~
-

.~

-~

I
---

---- -

-~

:0
~

70

MI

yI

cvr between the shaft-key-bearing wing surfaces to

precipi-tateebe~nding fatigue failure inone or tacre of

~'~~-j
C

7. Positive rwug-shaft interlocking with notched

rings and keys have beer. employed to prevent creep.
Howev;.r, satisfactory installations are difficult to
achieve because statficient fretting corrosion may oc-

01'kATNCTIM.
Nand

Figure 4-27. Creep Wear - Inner Ring

Fit is Opersiliq Time

Outer ring (nonrotating loud) diametral clearances

clamping require somewhat I=m diligent at-

tention than dc the inner riiags of bearings. Howevei. heavil,' loaded angular contact thrust "~rings
must be well clamped and their outside diameters

mutt be well supported to prevent excessive coning

wumdr the action of tire aaglod rolling element toad
victor, Whvri only radial loads or light thrust loads
act involi~e6, retaining rings or similar devices arc
vAtisfactory for axiail retention. The diamectral fit
#eaerally should be nominally line-to-line to approximstely 0.OO~i in. tight at opetating temperature to reduce ring rottation. Outer ling inter ferencc
!sm oftcn are limited by rtquirements for eawt of asserubly and disatisembiy. Higher speeds call for
tfshtor fits.
opostci~tdircottio
Outr rng
isnomaly
tion to shaft rotation duc to thr rcinfrcs
exerted by the loadecd rolling elements H owvrcein
the~ case of lightly loadtd, outer-land-guided, cagetype bearings, the viscous drag may be sufracimnt to
reverse the norm.
t t oi ue
citomry
tscr.4ly ftte an Vined
stee l'ilficx in aluminum or magnesium housings to
reduce wear and the rate of iruireasc in outer ring
snou~nun dear ance due to rising tempeiratwec The
!ncreascd clearance atoeaiStmeauesol
opertingtempratue shuld
be coknpoclstod for wher~ the fit is specified at roomi
ardMte
ri Iraa
t~~npe~~~aiorgll.
he hec
fit n amasivestel
lnerhavrg he amecccficent
of thermial expapaioin as the bearing will remain unchansed at operating temperature, but the Pt in a
liaht alloy housing without liner will loosen in
-proportion, with the product of bWaring outside
diAmeter (0i)) temperature rise, and the difference in
the thermal expansion cofrficlents of the alloy and
Mcel, The change in the outer ring fit in the presence
or a steel liner installed in a housing with considerabic diarriczae inlwrferen~e will lie between these
tidn hnsindiarv

n,,ndiatin,,m snd

k cmealaidseO ea'silv On

Ulz assumption that liner is fitttd to a minimum of

250 dcg F intt~rfercnce (linc-to-livie contact when hc
temperature diftfcrenial i% 2.50 deg F) at room
temperature (par. 4-2.3.2), there is an appreciable,
unifo~m prcssure at the iiner-housirig interface. This
pressure resulti. in an e.lastic rvductioni in the diawrster of the. installed liner bore. As the temperature
is inercased, Lac pressure is red-'aced and the bore cxpands. Ttic initial pressure, and, hence, the expansion
rate, is dcpendent upon relative section thicknesses
aund material properties that may be evalukated by application of the elastic cylinder whooey (Ref. 83). Fig.
4-28 preseasts a graphic sol ution to the room temperature fit correctian factor. To illustrate two practicabil extrcinet, coodi'ions are represenated both for a
140-mm-OD bWaring installed in a 0.045-in.-wall liner
that is in turn fitted (250 dog F shrink- fit) into a 0.05in.-wall thickness alumiinurm housing; and for a 60min-OD bearing, with 0.090-in, wall liner (250 del; F
440

shrink fit) and 0.040-in.-v, H aluminum houiing. If

the operating temperature is 220*F, the correctionr
arc 000D13 in. for the 60-mm bearing and 0.0038 in.
for the 140-mm bearing in this illustration. However,
whe-n, as is often the case, the bearing is the principal
heat soiurce and the housing provides appreciable
he~et conduction, these values should be reduced to
compensate for the temperature gradient. A
rcascriaLle correction for most desigqn applications is
60%. Consequontly, the room temperature bearing
outer .ring r'lt-rips should be tightened by approximately 0.0008 in. for the 60-mm OD bearing

baig
dapoiaey002 n o h 4-wO
Occasionally, due to space limitations or a desire to
eliminate unnecessary detai! components, integral ex' ernal flanges are used on bearing outer rings for
axial retention and prevention of rotation. In this
case. care must be exercised to avoid radial restraint
at the flange holes so as to preclude race distortioas
due to thermal oi load-induced deflectiors. Under
the influence of high radial loads, a bearing of this
design always will exhibit greater stiffness at the
,,---.
.1-~-as~~
nla
--U~1

Ul

0.I
R..UUMMS

M&Jr !a'

toward the flange. This characteristic can be used to

homiensyatppfopriabedn delcation. of theig shift or
thoseaing.b prpit
oain fteiag ieo
tebaig
4-2.2.2.1.2 LAbricaitoti Techniques
While thioretically it is true that only a slight
amount of oil is neceded to lubricate retainee rubbing
surfaces and to supply fluid to rolling element-raceway conitinctions. helicoreter aninlicatiow, olen
0"-3; 1,l
quire the use of substantially greater -11iAti
For example, circulating oii may be usted WOe zv
retainer wear particles, water conden~aion uiid
sludge, and to transport spalling failure debris to chip
detectors or similar diagnostic aids. Increased oil
flows also act to modulate temperature gradients by
forced convective cooling and help to reduce ditlerenitial thermal expansion distortions that otherwist
coald reduce component life. As speed.9 and loads increase, thermal stability can be attained only through
the rapid rates of cooling provided by high oil flows.
In addition, centrifugal accclerationG and windage
barriers at heigh speeds make it very difficult to get oil
to inncr raceway and cage lands, leading to a requirement for forced pressure lubrication, Finally, critical
bearings often must be lubricated by redundant
systems so as to increase operational reliability and
permit safe operation should the primary system fail.
rJenerally, lubricant applications may be grouped

0.607

S0.0D6

-1

140 mm00 BRG INBARE ALUMINUM HOUSING1

2 140 mm0D ORG. 0.045 in. LINER, 0.50 in. AL. WALL

3 60 mm 0Of. RG. BARE ALUMINUM HOUSING

4 60 MM OD BRG, 0.090 in. LINER, 0.40 in. AL. WALL
-5
ANY 00 ORG. MASSIVE STEEL LINER1

-Ile'
LU 0.004

--

TEMPERATURE

0.003

-0

TE0PEATUR

150

200

Figure 4-28. Tcn~wra'ure vs Outer Ring

by approxim~att Dnz-values (diameter D, mim; mul.:I:-

__

e~ithei natural ot forced flow of

a.Oil mist
oil-laden atmosphere
bWick feed to citber ring or retaniner
c.Splash or dipping b) dammed oil level (ut
lestt ceneer of lower folfirts Claumci)
d.Gravity food &~tou~h dr310 or cust paisage
from trap locatc4 to ca'sh ,iani, Saturn oil
c. Su-facc tevuion aii/or conetirugal feed from
rotating hollow shall with oi.l acquisition frot.
pressure jtt or other me tti~c4R meann in consbination with premcdina atcNtw
f. Pressure jet stream inbpirgiur&on rcia'tir-.
M~IS gap.
2.
Moderate spezds (0.3 x 101 < Dr < 1.0 X l0fs):
a. Lightly Ioadvr4 brai inj may rcspond well to
6z~ methocls of Item I

K)Q

"250

-Liner

Fit Redbction

b. Heavily loaded bearings require pressure jet

-*ww.l

f ^

km sseh
rinDho

a. Lightly loadtd bearings with relatively open

faces can be lubricated by high-velocity jet implogcment
b. Heavily loaded or restricted configurations
rrquire internal pressure feed as described in Item 2.
0I1 ogre"s must be considered. Outer ring counterborod bali-type bearings and lipless outer rinb cylindricala frecluently are employed.
4-2.2.2.1.3 hitteuzIt Cbeaictevhstlc
Of all of the internal geometric properties of
hcariing the mrest impoi tank with rospedt to operating
characteristics -I&
dismetral clearance. Such factors as
wnrarol of initial shaft displaceml-nt to reduce gear
trisalignment, load sha.-ing of the rolling elosments in
4-31

*radial
*duood
*

load applicatians, elimipation of thermally inradial preload, reduction of externally induoed deformation load& (such as the pinch effect ofr
~pltnet idior Sears), and d'etermsination of ball bearing
contact angle are basically depedent upon diametral clearance./
A specific operating diametriu clearance must be/
maintained under all conditions. While radial load/
~deflection contributes to needed clearances, it is
generally insufficitnt to compcrisate for bearing installatioci, or fit-up, practices or thermal expansion
Chhdges in race diameter due to filt-up an:1 to

~~temperature differential between inner and outer

rings can be calculated directly from elastic cylinder

theo'v as presented in Ref. 83. Whether or not an in..
crews in inner ring temperature will tend to reduce
the raceway enlargement du. to initizl fit-up will idepend upon shaft temperature and heat flow con-/
ditions. It is nut uncommon to find highly loaded
angular contact bearings operating at moderate to
high speeds with the inner ring tcmi:erature 50-1004
deq F above the outer ring temnperature. Tolerances
seieced for sh'tts hounig,qma
ani -e-armigas w!il have a
direct influ!:nce upon the success of cleat-ance compensation. Tht: range of variations of bearing de-flect'ons and lives in a given application and, therefore, the life scatter within a lot of ostensibly identical gearboxes, can be reduced greatly by use of
bearings of the higher precision ABEC and RBEC
classification. When high interference fit-up and
clearance compensation arc required, there is a
limiting practicable value for the ratio of ball
diameter to radial cross-sectional thickness of the
bearing. Ratios greater than 0.63 should be ap~proached with caution unless thcre isconsiderable experience from which to draw.
The successful design of angular contact ball
bearings for use in stacked seti of two or more requires a knowledge of their elastic behavior. DB
(back-to-back; i.e., inner ring thrust faces opposed)
and DF (face-to-face; i.e., inner ring thrust faces adjacent) configurations often are used to provide a
combination of thrust and ratdial load capability,
while DT (tandem) bearings generally are reserved
for conditions where the thrust load is less than 4040%, of the radial load.
Fig. 4-29 reprtsnts a single-row, angular contact
bearing. Whtn operating speeds are such that the
centrifugal force on the balls is noi sig;aificant and the
ball-outer race loads are essentially equal to ballInner race loads, the line of contact is established by
the centers of the race curvatuies. In Fig. 4-29 the
radii of the races are denoted f, and I,(innmr and

4-52

.........

Li

//
,
-

I .

V21

'~
--

/
-

--

--------

--

Figure 4-29. Besaing Geomietry Change With

lane( Ring Expansion
outer, respectively). When a radial displacement of
the iriner race A(D,/2) occur; due to fit-up or
therm-Al growth , the radial clearanct: and contact
angle .Are reduced. If the inner ring is allowed to displace -mially until ball contact exists with no load. a
ring thrust face protrusion 6,. results. If a clariapedring DR ar OF mounting with a tight housing fit is
employed, the resulting compression produces an internal preload and a comipansatin# inctease in contact angle. This may be eliminated by manufacturing
each bearing with a thrust face intrusion equal to 6,..
The initial contact angle P. also should be reduced by
approxiinazely (#,, - 0)
If therr is a possibility for sizable thermal gradients
and cesultant pieload, the DB mounting is preferred
to the DF mounting because the load per unit of thermal expansion is considerably less with the DB
mounting. Firt. 4-30 presents a graphic explanation of
this condition. The thermal growth of x compensates
frtaofYinBapicioswletervses
true for OF miountings. The rcswaltant preloiad is an
exporeaniai function of the relative Hertzian comnpression, 6N*
Load-sharing equalization of DT installation may

DF MOUNTING

108 MOUNTING

Figure 4-30. Rtlative Thermal Preload

be enhanced significantly by requiring that the faces

be flush (or equally offset) under a relatively henvy
oxial gaging load. This load should be at least 25% of'
the operating thrust load for maximum benefit.
Raceway groove shoulder heights must be adequate to support the elliptical contact area of the 4,allrace. Shaft misalignment and combination ralialthrust loads can affect a skewed ball path that crntributes to this requirement. Most heavily loaded
helicopter angi..r contact bearings require a
shouk :r height-to-ball diameiter ratio of 0.25.
Excessively skewed patiss may require higher
shoulders and increased radii of curvature for at IeaSi
the nonrotating race groove. Such conditions also increase the requirem ent for retainer pocket-bali
clearance to prevent excessive retainer wear or Irac.lure. The balls in the loaded zone of operation will
pooition themselves as the race-ball traction conditions dictate, including highi meainer loads if
clearances arc insufficient,
Single-row angular contact bearings may be
fabricated with two-piece inner rings (J-type bearing),

DF vs DS

and, in special instances, with two-piecie outer rings.

This eliminates thg. need for counter-boring and permits the bearing to resist thrust in either direction.
*Ihe inner groove generaly is ground with shims
bet-aceon the split halves so that, upon removal of the
shim and ausembly of the bearing, a Gothic arch
shape results in the raceway groove. This configuration reduces the axial play of the bearing for a
given contact angle. This fabrication technique
generally enables one additional hall to be assembled
into the complement, thus incremaing load-carrying
capacity for the same exttunal envelope. Thrust-torudial lead ratios must be approximately 2.0 to
p)revent degenerative three-point m!ritact. Misalignment and the resultant ball path skew also must
be considered in avoid' ng three-point contact. The
shim thickness that may be used in grinding the ring
halves is limited by the need to maiintain race
clearance in the absence of a thrust load. DWause the
loaded inner ring is oaly half the width of that used in
a conventional counte.bored ring bearing, total
radial pressure between the loaded ring and the shalt
4-53

TA

2~
Is conadarably less for the Wa. intefrfeence fit-up.
Conusquently, fretting and ring crewp also arc; inore
difficlt to Control.
44.21.4CeruIcontact
~dd~
"I.M.4SWWO4
Ce"This
Lightly loame hh-peed bearngs" may Operate
withgros
bewee
sidi th rolin elinct 06Th
pkcnsea and the rotating inner race. Such operation
can produce snearing or race surface failures not unlike those camWe by gear tooth scuffing. The contrifusai aoaleration present at high spe crae a con
sidmbe rllftelement/outer race load, with
braking tr.iction forme exceeding driving traction
forces at the rolling elemnent/inner rame contact. Retainer drag forcm and lubricant viscosity also play an
important part in determining load-speed..lip con
ditiolts. Historically. this distress mode has been a
greater problemn with cylindrical roller bearings than
with ball bearings. Calculation of slip-critical conditions is relatively uncertain, but some useful insight
may be gained from Ref. S.
One method for ;reventing gross slip is to maintam t te inerracerolingeleent ontct he oad
re ,rn nlitsin surufieni ditrvine traction- 'Ms
may be accompimstwaJ on DO5 or vi- angular contact
blssnags with internal p.-elosid. A preload spring may
wth bal anularconact
ingl-ro
be rquied
tc
ihsigerwbalagla
bereqire

may require balancing to obtain satisfactory operalion. As in demernt skidding, a critical spoed exists;
the centrifusal acceleration at this speed will displace
an out-of balance retainer off center until all land
occurs in a single local torse of the retainer.
may, in turn, cause rapid retainer wear at the
pockets is well as the guiding tails. Once started, the
wwa rapidly accelerates until fallur occurs - often
in 20 hr or tess.
Hoeeadcotm fe xss ihrsett
Hoceadhtmyftnxsswthrpcto
clearance requirements. While controlled reduction
of internal clearance to minimal values tends to redusce the skidding tendency of lightly loaded bearings,
it comprises their ability to operate without lubrication, i.e., fail-safe operation (see par. "..3.Emergency Lubrication). Normal heat distribution within a
bearing %rith inner ring iotation raiults in a negative
temiperature gradient from inner ring through rolling
ceincfltita and outer rnag to the housing with the inner
ratzway Operating broadly from 50 -dkg to 100 deg F
hotter than the outer raceway. Thc shaft and inner
ring beat flow paths offer less rejection capability
than the outer ring &adhousing paths. This, coupled
with the customarily higher heat generation rate
conefra
w onit'
neracts
s~lidin th hi~v~her inne
coteomacoatsrsusinheihrinr
race operating tomperatures. Under normal operating conditions, the lubricant removes the bulk or the

Thene are several methods for contfolling gross slip

wihclnrlAolrbaig
wit Octlifdrical router acwaysma b eplye
to produce a pinch effect upon installation. Installa4*io orientaiioa is required such that the external
-War loads are orthqgonal to the pinch load plane
(Rai. 84).
ridiallv tiahtI. A small nurnkW af Mveiia*
holwrollRm may be dispersed at even intervaLs
througomt the coan~ipemet. This method requires
areul uaimsiof the hoflow rollers to preclude bend*a faguen faiur ("e. 63).
3. Whim the eoafiguretion permits, the roller
*
* bearing may be mounted vory slightly off-center with
respect to the shaft a16s. If the shaft is Positioned by
an addiitional pai Of INearings, sufficient radial Pre*oad may be effected to provide the aceesary traction
i1oad.
4. Out-of-round lerg have been employed to prodamc the same resul as in Item 1. The primary dia* advantaga to "hi tochnique is time inavased difficulty
-in aseunbly and dlsaassombly.
ITo miaminia skidding tendencies in high-speed
tohkthe snallest acu4Aable diaimeters; should be
-tWboth for the rolliftg element and for the pitch cir"do
f hecompkmmeu of rollinS elements. Retainers

heat and maintains -thermal stabilization witbin this

gradient. However, when the cooling effect and the
friction reducing characteristics of the lubricant are
absent. temperature stabilization can only occur at
the higher gradients dictated by the increased friction
and reduced heat rejection. If 'ntcrnal clearances are
sufficient to accommodate the expansion attendant
with the new gradient and increased cverall temperalure. then stable faii-safe operation is theoretically attainable. However, if inadtquate internal clearance
exists, a radially tight condition results. This in turi!
leads to a divergent increaise in temperature until
bearing seizure or shaft failure occurs.
As described previously, the mechanical means of
providing positive rotation for the rolling ekLAnents in
order to reduce skidding tendency can be applied in
conjunction with greater iinertial clearance to affect a
design without skidding and with fail-safe operating
capability. Sinoe !he skidding tendency is highest in
lightly loaded high speed bearings,. it is possible to install nonload-carrying hollow rollers in cylindrical
roller bearings without loss of neoded capacity. This
offers the dri-ing feature required to defeat siuioding
"'nile providing adequate radial clearance to aacomnmodate thermal growth during fail-saft operation.
Bearings with lower speed and higher loads cAlmibit

AMCP 706-202

progressively lea skidding tendency and are designed with adequate radial clearance for fail-safe
operation without need for auxiliary positive driving
features. Thermal growth due to fail-safe operation in
angular contact duplex ball bearins can be accommoduted by providing adequate internal clearance
initially (minimv'm contact anglt of say 30 deg) or, if
initially preloaded, by mounting the bearings basikto-back (DB). back---back mounting allows the innet rings to gvow ra:ially and axially without
generating additional prelad, i.e., radial growth
tends to increase pveload while axial growth relaxes
preload.

hence ignores any possible effects of gross elastic

changes of shape in thew bodies.
3. Empirical coefficents used in the AFBMA formulas reflect the characteristics of air-melt AISI
52100 steel of Rc6O nominal hardness operating in
medium-viscosity mineral oils at relatively low
temperatures and moderate speeds and loads.
4. Any effects upon life caused by speed of rotation are omitted.
S. The calculated lives are based upen the number
of cyclic stressings to produce failure in 10% of the
population of a statistically significant sample size.
6. Bearings manufactured by different sources arc
assumed to belong to the same statistical population.

4.2-2.2 Life Anulysis

Modern techniques for calculation of fatiguc life of
bearings are based upon the pioneeri.i theoretical
engineering and statistical analyses of Refs. P6 and
87. Certain empirical constants in these analyzes were
determined by evaluation of experimental aata;
hence, it may be argued that the effects of certain
physical phenomena not specifically addressed in the

this is a valid argument, it follows that the bearing life

in an application that dilers substantialiy from the
laboratory conditions could vary significantly from
the calculated value. Fortunately, the statistical
model used (a modification of the function originally
presented in Ref. 88) is sufficiently general to permit
meaningful interpretation of faiiurc modes as diverse
as human mortality. 1ght bulb filament burnout, or
wear-initiated gear tooth spalling. Conscquently,
valid test and field service experience can be used
satirfactorilv to add life modification factors with
corrected dispersions to the Weibull distribution for
bearing lIfe prognosis.
".42.2,.7.1

S"g

Asutptioos and Limitations

4-2.2.2.2.2

Modification Factor Approach to Life

Prediction
A useful method h&s been advanced (Ref. 89) to account for many variables common in modern design
applic.tions. An adjusted life LA is calculated as the
product of adjustment, environmental and/or design
factors, and the AFBMA calculated life Lio.
LA - DEFGHLo, hr

(4-53)

where
D - material factor (reflecting actual steel
chemistry and purity), dimensio~nless
E
- processing factor (accounting for CEVM
and other melting practices, thcrrnomechanical metal working, forging grain
flow orientation, and absolute and clcment differential hardness), dimensionless
AF
lubrication
factor (considerineg lubricant
EHD film formation and relative surface

The basic AFBMA life calculations commonly

used in the U.S. are based upon Refs. 86 and 87 and
hence contain certain key assumptions and
limitations:
I. The failure mode is subsurface-initiated pitting
or spalling. Cracks beqin at microscopic weak points,
most probably at the depth of maximum subsurface
orthogonal shear beneath the Hertzian contact. The
developed solution, therefore, is based upon stressed
volume theory. However, it has bw.n indicated (par.
4-2.1.1) that a preponderance of the failures in the
analysis of helicopter bearings at oveih,- were stirface initiated,

roughnesses), dimensionless
- speed effects (considering centrifugal acceleration and slip conditions), dimensionless
H - misalignment factor (applicable to crowned and cylindrical roller bearings), di.
mensionless
It is not uncommon in helicopter bearing design for
the value of the multiplicative group of factors to
vary between 0.3 and 18 due to the range of conditions and requirements encountered. Digital cornputer programs often are used to define factors F. G.
and
H; while factors D and F are assigned values
whether the life calculation is by simple AFBMA

coprcssive deformation of contacting bodies and

equation solution or by computer analysis.

2. Hertzialn stres theory is based upon :.he local

co~n",4-55

4-22..3 Compklee Elhadc sod Dynaimic: Solutione

Dynamic forme associated with high-speed operation not only change bearing opra~ting characteristics greatly from those assumed for the static
design, but also impose limiting speeds based upon
failures due to sliding or con~tact slip heat generation. Fig. 4-31 shows that centrifugal acceleration at
high speds not only increases the outer ring/ball
*load
for an angular contact bearing, but results in different contact angles at each race. The definitive axis
*
for ball rotation is dependent upon fthcontact thatt
has the greater "grip" on the ball. At high speeds this
may be the outer race, which then forces the inner
race contact into gross sliding. Also, because the ball
rotation is not coincident with the bearing axis of
revolution, a gyroscopic procession moment is induced. For balls of large size and high contact angle,
this moment may induce complete precession slip,
often with immediate overheating failure. Analyses of
the governing forces are treated in Ref. 90. General
computer solutions employing the equations of this
reference also may consider the elastic deformation
'of shaft and housings in combination with the Hertzian deflections between the race and the rolling element as they influence the load dstribution amnong a

number of individual bearings on a common shaft.

A special case of elrztic deflection influence upon
calculated life occurs in planetary idler bearings
whose outer races are integral with the idler gears. As
a result of the squeeze effect of the sun and ring gear
radial load components, and of the moment upon the
gear centroid d-ie to tangential tooth loads, considerable deformation occurs and may create additional bearing loads of sufficient magnitude to redine bearing life significantly. Rim section properties and internal clearances also have strong effects
upon resultant life. Typical functions are shown in0
Fig. 4-32 (Ref. 91).
4-2.1.2.3 Drawing Contiols
Confidence cannot be placed in the reliability or
performance of a drive transmission bearing without
a thorough evaluation of the important characteristics of the bearitig as defined for the specific
application. Bearing characteristics may be controlled by drawing, secondary specification, or manufacturers' source documents - depending upon individual prefcrcnce. The following are minimal
guidelines for such control:
1. !.1Mw

mincrial:V

a. Chemistry

b. Method of melt
c. Certification limits
d. Size reduction from ingot

OUTERRACE
ELLIPSE

PGERTRTCONTACT
LOAD
ZOE

LOAD
0..~(N

f. Thermomnechanical processing limits if ap-

TOFO

P,. OUTER
RACE
*THRUTA

CINE
GSRPIN)C

ia.
OLN

roesscnrl
bfPR
. DCeabrtifation.

c. Properties rncluding microstructure, hardness d.CsP.

crPrprt.
hr apial
c. L.imits on reprocessing

OWT

~--f.

-~

Retained austenitc, where applicable, or

--

G.

--

Dm

Ncq3.

Pa
P1.

PURESLIDING

Serialization and identification:

. Traceability
b. Location of codes and numbers
c. Process step for application
d. Match marks for high pcints of eccentricity

on precision sets

IILLIPSIL
CONTACT
OWIRNRACE

e. CID code marking for verification of proper

staczking of matched sets.
__________4.

Figure 4-31. H~gh Speed Ampler Contact Dal

TIMMuI SekariNg Forme
4-36

c. Grain orientation

SPINCOMPONENT

P"
INNE ROACE

Dimensioning technique:

a. Applicable ABEC and RBEC grades

b. Pitch diameter; rolling eleme-.it dimensions.
race curvature ';contact angle (unmounted); radial
clearance; shoulder heights; flushness and gsjing

z.

LUJ
L6-

7j.
C

RIGIDOUT1 R RACE

Cs

25I

0 .02

0,001

0.003

UM1

INTERNAL DIAMETRAL CLEARANCE, in...

Fipft 4-32. Cleatace vs L,0 -- lIastic mA RilSk So~utdow

cluding pocket clearances, surface finishes; and apFlicable special dimenisions which differ from
ABEC/RBEC standards.
5. FinishinS requittments"
&.Methods and limitations on plating, peening.
honing, polishing. and stock removal, when applaciable
b. Protection aigainst erabrittlemrent and stress
corroion.,
6. Nondestructive testing:
a. Requirements for maglnetic particle, pent:stint. and edchint tew~niques
b. Control fivluency and sequence of test or inspection
c. Fr-equency of cartirLiztion processes
) Tin as of fife modilrKation factors (Eq. 4-53) canunless specifically
warranted or tubstentinted
doumnt
Inot be

Basic introductory and clm~assfcton information

concerning splin, his containedi in AMCP 706-201.
Therefore, this discussion is limited to spocific desiln
applications or power-transmittinll splints.
The primary failure mods for a properly dnsinod
sphn is wear. When trctvc motion is slight, Wmting
corrosion often accelerates wear. Goo.d dkmn practice will insure at wear life in excess of the usdul comportent Mie. Galling and picku~p (weldin) occur only
under excessive comprewive stress in the mecc or
slight motion. Tooth breakna and betilum seldom ocin
cur unieu shaft beandng momentsam aq-
the dtiign analysis. Nqql~ea of proper' fillet radius
control or advanced frettinl corso oftenm contributes to iiuch failures, Blursting of the internally
to_-:had member is rare, but molts from an exis insufba~kttp stiucture that
tooth
thin
cessively
tooth separating and centrifugal forces.
4-57

10,

Two basic splint types are employed in drive

system design: face splines and concentric splines.
4-.2,3.1 Face Splins
Face splines are typically used to couple two shafts
or a shaft and a Sear. Flat-faced, tapered, V, or
square form teeth may be milled, shaper cut, or
ground - dependin, upon material hardness and accuracy requirements. The fabrication of high-quality,
interchangeable, concentric ;ou'ts with uniform tooth
contact is relatively difficult
& exl.p":vc; consequently, they ate seldom used in drive systems.
The most common face spline is the CurvicO
system (Ref. 92). Curvic* splines are easily fabricated with pressure angles between 10 deg and 30 deg,
although the higher value is predominant. Most design deficiencies result from inadequate localization
of tooth contact relative to the tooth ctnter or from
inadequate clamping means to rcsist the tooth separating forces and the bending moments on th: joint,
ORegistered Trademark - Gleason Works
4-2.2.3.2 Coaceutdlc or Longitudinal Splints

*-

Splines are clamped to prevent relative motion.

Light interference fit dimensioning of major-diameter
or side fit splines may be employed to assist in attaining secure clamping. When radial loads dominate the joint design, adjacent mating cylindrical
bores and shoulders with light press fits frequently
are used to complement the spline; successful application requires close control of concentricity
between joint elements.
Floating spline joints primarily are used to accommodate axial motion. Diametral looseness and
backlash must be sufficient to provide clearance under operating conditions. The choiw between majordiameter and side fit control normally is predicated
upon concentricity and balance requirements. Majordiameter control is preferable for precision applications where rotational speeds or alignment are
critical. While side fit splints of 20 deg or greater
pressure angles provide self-centering under torque
loads, their looseness may permit excessive component imbalance and eccentric operation under noload, high-speed operation.
Conventional involute splines may offer ap-

This type ofjoint has its a d-beating- surtfub essentially parallel to the rotational axes of the coupled
components that comprise the external and internal

A safe design value axial force A1 for oil-lubricatcd

spline may be taken as:

mating elements. This discussion is limited to the

commonly used involute tooth form. although other

A/ - OA O/Dr lb

types are occasionally used.

The involute spline may be manufactured by any
involute gear production method, in addition to
methods not well buited to full-depth, h'Sh-strength
gear tooth forms. Depepding upon the limitations
imposed by production volume and precision, involute splines may be produced by millins. shaDing.
shear cutting, broaching, cylindrical thread rolling.
rack cutting, shaving; by rolling, bobbing, and form
or profile-generating grinding. Relatively trouble-free
applications are limited to misalignments of 0.001 in./in. and are either clamped or floating. Operating
misalignment of the axes of the mating parts of 0.25
deg or greater under load requires the use of flexible
couplings (par. 4-3.2.1). It is very difficult to obtain
satisfactory wear life with floating splines operating
with misalignm.nt.
4-2.3.3 Properties of Splins
Involute splines are designated as major-diameter
or sidefit, depending upon the controlling dimensional features. Minor-diain.Ater-fit splines
should be avoided in all but special applications (such
as with a weaker internal member) due to the excessive stress concentration caused by the sharp
tooth-root fillet radius on the cxttraid member.
4-53

where
Q

(4-54)

- torque, lb-in.
- pitch diameter, in.
Reduction in slip for= may be achieved by use of
special lubricants, friction-reducing tooth coatings,
platings (silver, etc.) and treatments; with ball splines;
Or by ,.h itroducti
r ..
..
(par. 4-3.2.1). Nylon (Ref. 93) and epoxy-bonded
molybdenum disulfide coatings are often effective.
Floating spline joints also are used to provide a
slight accommodation for radial, axial, and angular
misalignment. Under these operating conditiots.
fretting and galling wear modes may prove troublesonic. Their occurrence is difficult to predict, and determination of secondary effects and solutions frequently must await design development testing.
Depending upon the severity of the problem and the
design restrictions, the following solutions have
found widespread use individually or in combination:
I. Increased hardness and accuracy (generally a
matter of gear tooth grinding precision)
2. Shot peenring of onc or both members (relatively
high intensities sind surfacc texture modification are
desired)
3. Use of dissimilar materials, types of heat treatment, and hurdnesses
Dp

r;

AMCP 70W-202
4. Crowning of the external member tooth flanks
and major diameter
5. Increased oil flow or othek lubrication improvemeats.
4-2..34 Splme Streqi Analysh
AMCP 706-201 gives allowable bearing pressurts
St, for various classifications of involute splines.
These values reflect app aximate current practice in
the helicopter industry and are defined by
SA,=

-"

2Q/ (DF). psi

(4.55)

where
D - pitch diameter, in.
- face width. in,
Q - torque. lb-in.
for standard SAE or ANSI B5. i tooth proporti
where tooth addenda are one-half those of AGMA
standard 201.02 gears. However, these values do not
repreaent true bxanring prssures because the accuracies, stiffneuses, and gecmetric proportions ofrtypicai spiines combine in rupe the truc cointact rea
to less than the 100% tacitly assumed in Eq. 4-55.
The accuracy of splines is determined by the
tole'ances as specified and the method of inspc..ion
employed rather than by the method of manufacture.
Splines may be gaged (go-no-go systems), gaged and
partially inspected analytically, or completely inpecaed analytically in the manner of gears. The
following values of the fraction of theoretical contact
sachieved with splines of the various classifications
are realistic.

SC,,Usifi"WAt
Gaged USASI CI15
(commercial grade)
measured
Gag Iand
C 1.5
B.19
measu0.45
ANSI
ANSI B5.15-1950C.5
Analytically measured
SAE C1 .3 (about 50%
tolerance of B5.15 CI.5)

ficulty and coats. Reasonable proportions for spline

fae width F and pitch diameter D, arc:
1.0 for torque-transmitting
0.4 < FID,,
applications
0.8 < FID, < 2.0 for lowation and alignment applications.
Lengthwise tooth load uniformity can be enhanced further by adjusting the shaft diameters and
wall thicknesses to secure matching torsional deflections and by avoiding excessive radial stiffness at
either end of the spline joint. Stress concentration
must be avoided by specifying minimum fillet radius
values, chamfeting or otherw*ise blending tooth ends
into the shaft section, and achieving uniform loading.
For most helicopter applications, spline fatigue endurance is not the limiting criterion because oscillatory loading due to shaft bending or torque fluctuation is avoided by proper design. If bending fatigue is
a design consideration, recourse to use of the modifled Goodman diagram (par. 4-2.2.1.2) with appropriate stress concentration factors is required.
Static stress analyses must demonstrate a positive
margin of safety boh for limit torque compared toamaterial yield strength and for ultimate torque coarpated to material ultimate strength. Limit spline
maximum drime system
torque is defineda as 1.5
m torque as 1.5 limit
continuous torque and ultimate
l
a 1
torque
torque.
The following spline static stresses should be calculated in addition to the bearing stress values SW.;:
1. Spline shear stress S;

'.-4M"

-' 3D

Contact Fraction

1<.4

0.2
where
-y < 0.7
0.75 < 'y 0.95

The variation of -y within each classification is dependent upon stiffness, proportions, and, in some instances, the ductility when the design load approaches limit shear strength.
An external involute splint with face width F ,-

D.13 on a solid shaft will exhibit greater shear

strength than the shaft if D. (outside diameter of the
shaft) is only slightly smaller than the spline minor
diameter D,,,. Therefore. excessive spline lengths can
offer littlo 6cnefit while incrcasing manufacturing dif-

spline torque, lb-in.

number of spline teeth
circular tooth thickness, in.
T,
fraction of theoretical contact, dimensionless
2. Torsional shear stress (external toothed mernbers) S,
-

16QD.,
u(,/ - _ D,-)

(4-57)

where
D, - inside diameter of shaft. in.
Dw - minor diameter of spline, in.

"4-59

I. Burnting stre (Intenal toW.d member) Sj:

0

MIN.h4IDE* NICQSMM)IV
[ASE Of SWMACWRIt

AB

~m4L79Xtan#.Dais

7.093 X 10-o1mC~ljrPat
tF~~f1(~*7~J

A ADSOUFI[

(4-58.)

auk* diaineter of splmne. in

04- eotslde diameter of splkw tooth~ member
D(i + 2 X(boc-u rim
thickness)1 i.uI
X
roumlomalsped, rma
p
ria
&-atitely. lb/in.1
01-

INOLUTE

O
VN

K *VOLUTE~

IK

_____

imiwt and uhimale moargiis of safety must be calculatedl using appropriate torque values in these-

equations and comparing the stresses calculated with

Eqs. 4-56 and 4-57 with the allowabke yield and ultimate shear stram= of the respective parts. The
sitreses cailculated by EF4.4-58 are compa"e with the
allowable yield and ultimate tensile reususeof the intunaz sothed Memoer.
*

4-1.2J.5 Drawling Desigum a C.arol

Splines should be specified on the engineering
*drawing
or other document in a manner similar to
gear teoth. An enlarged, dimetsioned sectional view
and a data block should be included. An even
number of teeth is preferred for over/under wire inspection purposes and manufacturing ease. To prevent .involute undercutting and permit use of the
maximum number of manufacturing technique op.
tions, tooth numbers must be no lower than those in
Fig. 4-33.
*The
enlarged spline drawing (D,,/2 is aconvenient
scale) should present major diameter, pitch diameter,
form diameter, minor diameter, minimum M1llt
radius, circular tooth thickness (external), circular
space width (internal), tooth tip chamifer, dimension
over (external) or under (internal) gaec wires, and
surfacte finish,
The data block should present number r-f teeth,
diamectral pitch fraction a/bl(whcrt a repiesents P,
D,/N and b is the value of P, when it isexpressed as
the reciprocal of the addendum length), pzressure
angle, base diameter, total or composite index error,
maximum deviation of parallelism tooth-to-tooth for
given length orfte3agemtnt. and parallelism limits
with respect to part reference axis or surfaces.
Involute proft3c !qlefianc2 should be Dreigsen!e4
data, for gage inspcvtion. or as a chart, for analytical
Inipection. For sag*e inspection techniques, major
diamieter and pitch diameter eccentricities must be

4.6

_-____

o____
X

?h%

PRESSR

NL,,4

is

VALUES
NUMBERED)
(REC~OWENDE

ilgure

4-33. luvomuse Swie

Bl.
aai 0wVi

absorbed within the limitations of the mejor diameter and effective tooth (or space) thickness
tolerances. For externally gagr4 splines the maximum effective and minimum actual circular tooth
thicknesses must be specified; while for internally
gaged splines, the minimum effective and maximum
actual circular space width must be determined.
When Inspection with gages is specified. the
diameters of over-and-under wires called for are
referenced oata. With analytical inspection
techniques, tooth thickness and space width are given
as actual minimum and maximum limits. and toothto-tooth spa.ing tolerances also must be specified. In
addition, allowable tooth lead error should be sub,stituted for parallelism error.
The manufacturing method must be considered
when detailing the spline. Shaper cut splines should
have aminimum chip and cutter overrun gap equal to
their total depth. The minimum relief diameter for an
internal spline should be equal to the major diameter
plus one quarter of the whole depth, and for an' txtornal spline. the minor diameter minus one quarter
or the whole depth. These diamectral clearancc values
also may be used for broached splines. Hobbed or
ground splines, of course, must provide overrun
c12,siace for the wheel or hob radius.
4-L.24 Overrniniing Chicte.
Certain overrunning (free-wheeling) clutch requirenients were described in par. 4-1.2.2. The lowest drive

il

"T.V"I.

AW-P 706-202

system weight will result from placing the clutch in

the location of highest speed; i.e., between the engine
and the first stage of reduction gearing. HoNever.
other considerations in multiengine configurakions
such as vulnerability, safety, and reliability - may
require locating the clutch between the first and
second stage of reduction gearing,
Operational requircments for clutches vary with
helicopter configuration, mission, and life cycle.
However, current Army clutch requirements for
twin-engine helicopters typically art..
I. The minimum ultimate torque capacity of the
"dutchshaIl be 2.0 x limit torque (limit torque - 1.5
X maximum continuous drive torque).
2. 2-hr, full-speed continuous overrunning shall be
posbible without operational capability impairment.
3. 30-min, full-spocd continuous safe operation
shall be possible after total loss of hlbricant system.
7hse requirements apply to the entire. clutch system,
including support bearings and, often, seals.
In addition to these requirements, there exist other
significant design considerations as evidenced by observed failure modes in existing helicopter clutch ap-

Splihiiui,;

T.

I. Brineiling due to the presence of oscillatory torque pulsations. Depending upon operating stresses
and configuration, overrunning clutches wilt safely
tolerate only 10 to 30% continuous oscillatory torque. External shaft bending and radial or moment
loads must be eliminated from the clutches by use of
relatively rigid support bearings that maintain concentricity at all times between the driving and overrunning members. When modeling a drive system for
torsional analysis, it is important to consider the
clutch as a rclatively soft torsional spring. Stiffness
values typically range frog 35,000 to 350,000 in.lb/rad (Ref. 94).
2. Excessive wear at intermediate overrunning
speeds. Maximum wear conditions usually are encountered when the output member is operating at
full speed and the engine is at idle speed. Most spragand roller-type clutches evidence their greatest wear
rates wlhen (input speed) / (output speed) - 0.5 due
to the product of centrifugally induced compressive
stresses and sliding velocities.
3. Failure to engage at high speeds. In many instances reported, the second engine has failed to engage after the first has accelerated the system to
ground idle speed. Both sprag and roller clutches rtquire a critical friction coefficient of about 0.05-0.07
to engage. Hydrodynamic or elastohydrodynamic oil
film formation and/or externally induced vibratory
modes may lower friction coefficients below this level
at the moment of speed synchronization, resulting in

momentary or complete overspeods. Subsquwnt adjustments of input or output speeds may lead to
abrupt engagement with attendant shock loads sufficient to fail adjacent drive system components.
4. False brinelling of clutch elements or support
bearings. Clutch support bearings operate in a static
mode whenever the dlutch is engaged because both
inner and outer bearing rings rotate in unison. Extcrnal vibration thus may cause fretting or false
brinelling at the roiling element/racc contacts. The
entrapment of wear particles and sludge in the outer
race often accelerates such wear. Therefore, it is important to maximize the static capacity of the support
bearings for the available envelope and to provide
good oil circulation without stagnation areas.
Design considerations peculiar to particular types
of clutches am given in the paragraphs that follow.
4.2.L4.1 Spaig Cts s
Sprag clutches am the most widely used type for
helicopter drive systems. Two variations have been
used with success. Both employ a complement of
equally spaced, full-phasing sprag cams operating
between concentric circular races. A detailed study of
their geometric and operating characteristics is presented in Ref. 95. Race cross sections must be sufficiently large to prevent elastic deflection under load
from increasing the sprag space by more than about
0.002 in. Race hardness and case depth must be adequate to support operating Heriuian stresses of 450,000 to 500,0W psi at the sprag/inner race contact.
Successful applications of these designs are based
upon between 3 X 10' and 10' cycles of full torque
application without failure.
For ,noderate to high-speed operation it is preferable to use outer race power input with inner race
overrunning to reduc the centrifugally induced
sprag/racA contact stress. In such usage the sprag
complement should remain stationary with respect to
the outer race and should slip at the inner race during
overrunning. This arrangement also permits centritugal-feed lubrication through the inner race and reduces the race/sprag sliding velocity for a given overrunning speed.
Both clutch types usually employ a degree of centrifugal self-energimation by virtue of sprag center of
gravity (CG) offset with respect to their ,.ontact
engagement axes. This can cause some problems with
high-speed applications because the drag torque
(power loss) and wear may be excessive.
The two dutch types differ in some characteristics.
For example, one user two concentric cage elements
to separate the sprags, while the other uses a single
outer cage. The double-cage type uses an inner race
4-61

EP-705-2D2
drag spring to react the centrifugal self-energization

4-2.2.4.3 Self-energlzing Spring Clutches

during slip conditions, and may producv con-

Although there have been kio applications of spring

siderably lower overall drag forces at intermediate

slip conditions. The single-cage design frequently employs an integral rib on the sprag which contacts the
adjacent sprag ard thus limits sprag overload rock
angle.
The overload failure modes of the two types also
differ. The double-cage design fails by sprag turnover (with resultant pernmanent loss of drive) while
the design with ribbed sprag and a single cage fails by
slipping. However, both failure modes gen-rally exceed the 2 X limit torque requirement by cornfortable margins. The single-cage clutch usually has a
higher torsional spring rate than the double (for
equal envelopes) along with a greater tolerance for
oscillatory loading conditions.

clutches in production helicopter systems, considerable interest has developed in them because they
have the potential advantage of reduced weight and
size for a Liven torque capacity. The principal detorrent to the use of spring clutches in helicopters has
been their poor release characteristics in overrunning. Recent design improvements feature a
tapered-width helical spring of rectangular cross section and cylindrical outside diameter (Ref. 97). The
torque transmission is between a cylindrical outer
race and the outside diemeter of the spring. The device may be servo-actuated with an energizing pawl
that contacts the small end of the spring or selfenergized by friction forces between the spring end
and the outer race. Recent development and test cx-

Proper lubrication of either type requircs coinplete oil immersion. This often is accomplished by
use of full-depth cirrular dams on both sides of the
s;rag unit.

perience is reported irn Ref. 98.

E.L2.4,Z Ra-p and Roller Cl

Ramp and roller clutches also have found cxtensive successful application in existing helicopters.
Such designs employ a cylindrical outer race as in
sprag clutches, but use cylindrical (hollow or solid)
rollers in lieu of spras, plus a multiple-cam-surface
injier race to provide a wedging action on the rollrrs
upon engagement. O,,errunning usually produces
roller complement roli.; contact with the outer race
and sliding with the inmu... Consequently, most
moderate- to high-speed applications feature inner
r*e.re input with outer r~acc overrunning. This desion
may require forced feed (pressure) lubrication
through the inner race to obtain satisfactory fullsneed overrunning,
Spring-loaded cages or individual roller springs are
used to force the rollers into the wedge to secure reliable and rapid engagement upon race speed synchronization. A thorough analysis of the dtsign
geometry and speed characteristics of these clutches
is givea in Ref. 96.
Due to the rcduced radius of curvature in the roller
as compared to the spra8 cam, roller clutches have
lower torque capacities than sprag clutches of comparable size. Ovcrrunning drag torque also is gteater
at high speed& for the roller clutch. Failure mode of
this clutch type at oveytorque is slip, if the cam/iuce
components arc sufficiently strong to preclude their
fracture, drive capability is not lost. In most installations, the roller clutch has shown a superior
tolerance to oscillatory torquc-induced w-ar.
4-62

4-2.2.5 Rotor Brakes

AMCP 706-201 describes the basic requirements
for rotor brakes, while AMCP 706-203 presents the
minimum qualification test requirements. Thi discussion, therefore, is confined to typical detail requirements and limitations and to basic design and
analysis procedures.
While this paragraph treats only hydraulically actuated disk- and puck-type brakes, the basic analytical techniques presented are sufficiently general to
aid in the development of design criteria for other
types of rotor brakes. The disk brake has become virtually the standard for helicopters due to its relahve
simplicity, ease of inspcction and maintenance, and
reliability.

A rotor brake differs significantly from a wheel

brake both in failure modes and in functional
requirements. The catastrophic failure mode for a
wheel brake is failure to engage, or failure to stop the
aircraft. Puck clearances are nil, contact speeds are
moderate, significant cooling may occur during and
after use with disk ventilation assisted by rotation,
and repetitive use with short operating cycles and interva!a is common. The catastrophic failure mode for
a rotor brake, on the other hand, is unintentional
operation. Puck clca-ances must be very large, contact spreds may be very high, the primary cooling is
provided by the disk heat sink, and iepetitive use in
less than a 5-mmn time interval is virtually impossible.
4-2.2.311 Requirements and Limitations
Recent performance specifications for Army heli-

'

alaA

706-202-.

reureets.

1.~~~~

wiehlcopter
ro

Shl

rks
i
hnvt
in
uclue

n3
tprtrfom10
v

romiessu-t

cc-rtr(nua)

olwn

~cain

~~x

4. SMllsthopd rotor ftopped whil

secked n3 are at

4-t. win
3. Must hndotb oratedoppn agmain rvst

W'I

tI(Jglr

eclrtordsc
t
lb-lcptrweg

rae
(4-6(1on)ah

wheei, lb
ei'foctivc coefficient of friction, gear to
ground, dimension' As
6. Activation and control shall be fail-safe.
- track of braked wheels, ft
d
Safeguards are required to prevent inadvertent RcliFor a stop time of 15 sec, rotor inertia I - 7500 sthigvation. Engine control interlock required with
ft' and 0 -250 rpm rotor speed, Q5 13,090 lb fit
positive raefeidon in lock and o:nlock modes.
(ignoring aerodynamic rotor decay). If each of the
of
Deveopmnt
ad prforanc hisofi
braked wheels is loaded to 4000 lb, the wheel-track is
and~ pherformawnge guidelines:o
h eeloptentls
helcopersals
suges th folowng uidlins.
0 in., and f 0.4 (rubber sliding cm asphalt), the
1. The best (in simplicity, reliability. and safety)
skid torque Q5 - 10,667 lb-ft. and therefore. a
hydraulic system is a manual hydrostatic type. If
dangerous ground loop potcrntial would exist. The
operated from or boosted by pump/accumulator
minimum stopping time tandet such conditions would
systems, these -systems should be divorced comnbe 18.4 sec. A safe limit for tlhe pilot-activated rotor
plptely Affoin 0fligh coigtroli or sur o actuator systtr~s.
brake, rnudle would apply aboui 9800 lbb-ft%of torquc
2. Autorn!2ti ielf-vidjustment is undesirable beto the main rotor mast (equivalent to a 20-sec stop).
cause it comprontis%~ reliability. Suficient fluid
2. Although the static brakaway ffiction for the
should be provided to accommodate the uxsful wear
dibk/puck brake may be somewhat higher than that
life of the lin.ngs; martial hydrostatic, dual-level,
for dynamic conditions, the severe coniequences of
mechanical advantage systems have 4e.n developed
inadvartcnit rotor rotation during engine idle operato accomplish this requittunent (Ref. 99).
tion suggest the need for an additional safety mar3. The dick should be stiMy coupled. A short, oto- gin. This ean be provided by use of the lower value o'
s'ionally stiff takeoff dave on the main rutor transfriction cocfficient in design calculations. Thus, a
mission is often desira b~t. Soft mounted disks (such
typical pair cf engines might develop the equivalent
as on intermediate or tail rotor gearbox drive-shaft
main rotor tvrque of 12,000 lb-ft at W0% gas
hmngwers) invariably bneorne a vibration and antinode
Itnerator sneeda. If thc safe vilot-activated rotor
at borne speed duramg engagement with resultant osstopping move is limited to a w~ain rotor torque of
61llatory lands on disk and/or puck attachments.
9800 lb-ft in accordance with Item 1, a secnd brake
Thewc loads may causf. intermittent brake chattc~r. y
modc with increased pressure (intcrlock-protected for
nanmic system ovvrloads, or crew annoyance,
engine start soquence only) would be indicated.
The pack or caliper asstmbly should have a
high spaing
rate lflouotiiig that it, stiff in all loading
-ipitrtdretos
vector comoetdietos
4-21.S
Deelg s Analysis
From. ii practical viewpoint, t~herrc may be iimiTwo basic determninations arc required for the caltation3 that place two or more of these requirements
culation of safe brake performence; (1) limit energy
into conflict. Often, specification compromise or
rate per unit ares to yidd satisftictory wear Wie and
multimode brake activation systems arc thi result.
piu~udc disk scuffling, and (2) disk heat 6rnk capaFor example:
city.
Surface enery rate varies with such lining and disk
1. Short stop time, high rotor inertia, and landing
properties as thermal conductvity, diffusivity, congear skid friction limits may combine to cause ground
vect-vc cooling, and critical tempeirature. Solid stel
S loop.
disks in helicopter applications have been operated
Braking torque Qp is
successrully at an energy disaipation rate ED of 25
N
Dtu/in.1-min. The referenced area isthe swept area
M.
Ilb-ft
(4-19)
under the I'uck. The wiergy to be dissipatedc is the
where lining debris oould cause FOD to etgines; or

*APU.

.,

hk-.-4.

4-63

AMCP 706k202
kinetic encrgy of the rotor at time of brake application less any applicable rotor aerodynamic decay increment. Wcar life for common brake puck materials
is dcpendent upon surface temperature, pressure, and
velocity. Existing rubber-asbestos lining materials
have dcaienstrated wear rates or approximately
0.0004 in.'/sEop at pressures of' 240) lb/in?1 for mean
rubbing velocities of 6000 fpm over 20-sec stop
pheriosecn- eemnto nvl
h etsn
Theecoddeermnaton
ivoles he hat ink
capacity of the disk. For stops on the order of 20 to
30 sec, steel disk thicknesses in excess of 0.5 in. offer
little hc'p in reducin~g peak surface temperatures at
the end of a stop auc to thc limited thermal conductui~y of steel. Current systems operate wel with
vaiues of energy/pound- or-disk near .100,000 ft-ho/lb
with peak disk rim temperatures of about 500*-(OO
F.
Other mnaterials such as beryllium and carbon
graphite recently have been emiployed with relative
success for hralze ap~plications. The greatest improv
nient seems to be available with a configuration
-.

which uses a piwprictary low modulus structural

graphitc composition for both the disc and puck
'istu
I
niiai
A beylu
ciS Ici s uteu
between 4ie graphite lining and the hydraulic siave
cylinders. The saddle or caliper assembly ;. fabribctikesensu
aa tSucbaed
wihav
d
ro
lm ndm
ctedsfuly onstructed Such brakedihdsc thavben suto 1/5 in., puck diameters of 5 in., and disc diameters of 18 in. Considerable increase in energy
storage, allowable operating temperature, and wear
life has beern demnonstrated. Safe disc temperatures of
3000F (incandeicent white light) and a thermal
capacity of 300,000 ft-lb/lb of graphite Eiv.
the total stopping energy is dissipated in abhnivc
wear. The puck material also serves as a ht at sir~k and
maye in
cnsiere
he heral csig~ cpacty.
The ildvantages, due to these characteristics seem to
indicate that weight savings on the order of 50% and
wear life increa-es of S00% relafive: to conventional
steel/ rubber-asbestos sysiems arc obtainable. These
factors are probably sufficicat to offset the initiak
tuigh cost to the extent that a lift cycle cost reduction
can be achieved.
Disadvantages lie in initial costs and structural
limitations of the graphite material. Although
ballistic: impact characieristics, are satisfactory and
handling damagz susceptibility is relatively low,
graphite cavnot compare with steel. Through bolt or
spline alttchments cannot be used for the graphitr
disc - a high pressure squeez plate or friction drive
attachment i,3 required. Similaly, thc disc cannot be.
4-64

drilled locally to achieve dynamic~ balance requiremerits. However, a steel reinforcing ring may be used
for this purpose. The structural graphite material
costs about 5400/lb as of this writing (1975) - future
costs may be significantly less with adequate production volume.
42-23 STATIC COMPONENTS
Static or nonrotating components of the transmission and drive system include the gearbox
hosnliequlmutstdadows
touenlos,andoupport sthes adymi owelservers
thatins
pnns.hipagrhadessolytemt
signilicanThcomporents;hiae.,ecaes and y thousins, t
adhuig, d
sinfctcopet;ie.ca
quills.
4-2.3.1 Cases sand Housings
lillicoel~r gearbox cases mid housing& are fabriczied alit~est exclusive.ly from lightweight aluminmi
alloys and castings and forgings or from magnesiun
aoc~ns heemtrasehbi xeln hr
Ths
ty andteimalsehbte stexgeh-eo-tihtr
~ting
v
salond
ratios, are readily machinable, and in many in-.
stance may be salvaged by weldingi and stress
reilieving with little ttmuli~ant iouss u *sircrigib propel te.Atog h eea pra~ ocsigad
forging designk is well covered in avaiiable literature,
pic-n r sm~ie nte aar sta
certain aspects peculiar to Army helicopter apfolw
4-23.1.1
wi-i A~st6
Hcult~
c
eai~
mayi be claissified as primary
sl f tct uxa] lund paths (rotor masi supiort or control
sysu;nt reaction member) or s~mpiy as Swir housings
cant. This distinction is fundamenital in the selection
oftediganaalssmto epyd.Cicality classifications of castings arnd fortings are. defic in MIL-C-6021 and are interpreted in AMICP
706-203.
In most instances specified crash load fawors and
limit maneuver loads will require ultimate and yield
strength levels in primary structural cases and
housings of suach magnitude as to permit design deft
nition by static analysis as opposed to fatigue analysis. Fatigut analysis will be used to define only the
rotor control reaction portions of the cases anid, occasiory.4y the gearbox support or mounting lugs
when rotor vibrartory loads or dynamic reaction loads
frem ground resonance or lardinig conditions are sufficicat to cause concern for low-cycle fatigue.
SLa~ic and fatigue test requiremnents are outlined in
AMCP 706-203, which descibes basic design load

AMcP 7n5-202
requirements or MIL-S-869g. Tine, critical design criteiton genecrally is the astisfactic-ai of the static test
requirements. Because thc intckgrity of a casting or
fni-ging is 8ovcrned by the type of quality control cstablished by applicable d.-awings and snecifications,
it ib imperative that required static tests be performed on the [eut acceptable specimens. The radiographic acceptance stancard ASTM E-155. as well is
other inspection criteria, ther may be based upon
thecso static test results.
Recent Army helicopttr RF1P requiremcuts have
emphasized inc, ~asrd crew safety through more
crashwortby de.,.,gn in accord with t1k recoinmendeiions of Ref. 100. Limit load conditions art
based upon +3.5 aud -0.5 maneuver load factors at
the helicopter CG and ultimate losad conditions upon
normal load fartors of +20/- 10. and lateral or
longitudinal load factors of *2(.. Combination
loading also must be considered as the simultaneous
occurrence of loadings in accordance with any of the
three conditions that follow:
Condition
I

between all mectals except those immediately adjacent in the activity series (MIL-STD4S9). Excesuive steady tensile stremies due to assembly clamp
ing (such as use of bolted devis lugs without spacers)
shou!d be avoided to reduce the susceptibility to
stress corrosion.
2. Lack or attention to differential thermal expansion. Steel bearing clamp nuts and similar devices installed in magnesium or aluminum threaded
bores often lose thcir entire axial clamping force at
operating temperatures. Such applications eithermust have an initial deflection that isgrcater than the
amount of thermal relaxation or else threaded steel
liners must be inserted in the case bores. Static
bearing and hoop stresses should be checked
throughout the possiblt ambient temperature range
(no-rmally --650 to +3i00F) when steel and light
alloy cases are joined with piloted flanges. Them ~ally
fit steel liners in alloy %ascsshould have a nominal
300' F interference and the bore of the light alloy ring
section surrounding the liner also should show a
positive margin on limit stress at -65*F. Where steel
bhearingst are installed in the liner, their line-to-line fit-

* 10
+ 10
+20
_k 0
10
_k 10
Lateral
Where a structural support casn isof relatively simple configuration, forgint.i arc pscferred to castings

up temperature and outer ring cross section must be

sion in the housing bore fiber at -6ff F ass, ining the
bearing fit is line-to-line at a temperature of 72*F
may be taken as:

.~Longitudinal

because of the superior strength-to-weight ratio and

the inherently lower variability in strength of the

s_

a,)_W_+___)_36

)(2
(d' -e)

rormer.

'

The four dcsign deficiencies found most frequently in current %rmy helicopter housing com-

faces by thaiough cleaninig prior to ru~in impmg-

nation.
\ Galvanic corrosion protet infel omk rsn
\ arlic, or zinc chromate .i.--u.*,o should bL- used

(D
Of

I
+--61

tihle pcdn
member beig larg rosion ousiing
upper
H
+ Le
dstdigns waster Suhvoidtra (ormay
swleaterfo
an, ashy
wh
re
with reastude cas byl nounnabrcrdeig wal enc-iormia
baigctrrn

compounds. Sharp edges and 6%w~h sbr (aces must be

eliminated by chamfering, polming. or tumble
(slurry) dc-burring to avoid ipadequatc resin or ps.nt
coverage due to surface tesi ieects.
Cathodic particdes must be removeJ cosnplci%.y from casting Sur-

IE

ponents are:
1. Insufficient attention to corrosion protection.
life kL
Success in attainment of senu;--_ compFnentw

b
e
d
E
a

oe n

bearing 01), ir.

liner 01) (ateel). in.
-light alley i.eetion 0M) in.
- Young's modulus, psi
- linear coefficient of thermal expansion,
-

in./in.-*F
it
Poisson's ratio, diumesionlessi
Subscript I - steel properties
Subscript 2 - light alloy properties

"4-5

>.

3. Improper attention to joint and fastener toq"ireinuceis. Sufficmet flange thickness must be proevidto dtribute loads uniformly among the proloaded tension fastenr (bolts or studs) susJ on case
flange joints. Fastas pmload must fi sullicient to
"maintain tension at -651F. preclude strs mvmsls
during normal ocaillatory loading, and maintain
Vflane contact under tension loading. For ,opeuly
designed fangs with compatible fat.cr spacing, a
conservative value for fstener tension loading P, for
monact-loadod cylindrical joints is given by
P

(4-,)

where
N - moment. in.-lb
Doc - bolt cirl diamneter, in.
N - number of bolts or studs (equal ipacing
assumed)
The yied and ultimate streagths given in MILIGIDIl-5 for tandard AN studs repesnt th
, r
abm
,htead wih rn-r= iAIh.___.
-.
on have a
ofte
Sowemcharactenst,
more daletios efect upon the instaled arengtsof
eaidl. AN aeude than upon lgW sm. Eves with
caxius practicable pu Vpendnlaaiy for tapped

boles the combined effects of aper snd squarenew of

joints may indwa benteg koad such that 3/&-im.
srom studs demoasrate ueauflc filure at 90% of
hd"ook minwimum values. The significance of th
is probbly bete demonstrated by the fact t"at
typil 7/164is. dimeu stdsusumlly demonstrat
double the iintu tenile strength of comparable
"t

rlrm.
1

":

-&.-A-

a6 WIM

-:4.

WE&" mitaf.

-.

,si.'

-4

weight pnatie, of 10, and 25%. rspectively.

S
fltid tapsled holes for s istalatioes m'um be
vented.
Whe toerqu must be transferred throuh a flang
joins a ouqu capacity Q(4in the abeewe of externlr
Unas loads is given by

*whew
N
bloc
,o
iJn
d
Daking
4-"

a toqpueL bia.
- ma4k of smu
-boftckk disisrnwii.
- stud "diameer, in.
this valet doeis, key or othir mcheacal
devses, dsMuld be se to prevm beain

Although it is comand shr di of the studs.

mon to consider stud sh stren4th in determininug
ulimate joint streagth, i Sctor should not be
Pie upon for normal design torque asnalysus
The jo*L oaiguulon dtortically neessary to
mt the strength requirements having been detmined, it becomes imperative to asure cornpatible dfta desig of the machined surane for the
ftenrs. Fractur resiutace as well as fatigue condlatkion requise careful attemtion to semirgly les
sigicant deA. Onerus- filet radii must be providMed in spotfaces. ountnborns. and keyways. All
rath
edge
-arp curre mud be ciamfered, a"l b
must be removed to minim= mes ctcnnratsoa.
Smootb blending of inateusctions on critical
machined surfaues is also w iesay to mimimize stress
coacesaratio. Addit"ony the ow rbone or sotfae eim must be adequate to provide wre.b clearsa. for normal mauatmacace opavion.
4. Failure to covmmt dsllectim vd loading in
coftgous structure. Many re d istancu s of gerbox mounting lug failure am attributiale to x.ternally induace So*& that wer Miored in the design
anhiv. The cmst &wbox structura whi ", often ii
a
suTir than she a-raum summon to wic itandis
mounted may provide a load path for bending
fow torsin ractions p -sent in the airframe strsaure
due to boding gar, roto thrust, or vibratory resposess. Examples are the aauchmnt of a four lug
amrmy earbox to a dec strocture that has vatscal beading odes, or the smilar mount* of sa iniuo0du
r
genbos on tail boom sructure that usr tail rotor
dallos torsional ddeiodas with
to obtain the safpith inputs. Beam it is doesk
ty inhert with mountiag raedndancy, it is usually a
m
A
*%r am mfa,!is sneak.e
wte mom
rr
- r'
rP -C---,-frme strucue locally or t' Wirotta aduistaol
compliamnc at out or mor,. earbox attachment
by oanof elaomeric members. Siemg up the
awboa ose merely modmn the failure mode.

Oi

-uxs

4.U.13 Moalub ad

MageMum b fal inAt disfavor compared to

aumaaim for cam and houuap becamus shorWting
of srvtice life due to corrosion has hewn. a
sowfia ant miteneam and spam replcmet aepes to the Army. Bemuse asaaeiim is a. tc
with susect to all other mmals. failuet to aploy
Oade
design. prmws, and pmventive mainUance mmsume has cued an ovrunplhsis of the
deicin of the mata. bare magsum acsc4 is afecmted ka by exposure to msrine axmaphe &hfu il umaprONLmd mild steel (Rtf. 101).
However. corrmui of smeeiua allos can be

::;
-.

ii:,-..

-r --- ''.1

avoided succesefully only if the designer and fabricater follow the complete sequence of
I. Design
2. Cleaning
3. Chromating or anodic film application
4. Surface saling or impregnation
S. Painting
6. Asembly
7. Routine preventive maintenance.
The nmot frequently occurring inadequacies in recent
Army experience involve design and maintenance,
Aluminum alloys should be used in areas of high
susceptibility to corrosion. Ref. 46 reports the
replacement rate for AZ91 magnesium main
trmsma ion ca at UH-i ovrhaul as:
Top case
16.0%
Main cane
1.7%
Support cas
-2.3%
Sumpcase
.%
Quills
1.0%
In the cane of replacements of the top case, 1/3 were
attributed to improper protection of bare surfaces
during stipment after removal of the main rotor
mat, and 2/3 to in-seice corrosion. The relative re#piafemfen rates smeat that the environment in
nal the top cae operates spartzrularly conducive to corrosion. Aluminum alloys with high
silicon conttet (6 to 12%) have been found to be supo to other alumiawn alloys and mngnesium
alloys with respect to wear reastance. Properly
dosigned spines of these materials will exhibit negliwear when operating with floating steel mating
spliuwes. Magawsea and aluminum alloys commonly
us-d in hldicopt bousin and ca- are listed in
Tabe 4-6.
,.i..-re.ina ad .,tneai
kat
he.. i ,c.nat,..,t4
aeT-", can
asure the higest allowable
stregth
.preaties. Tw tuseof MIL-A-21l10 control -flcatio rmaher than t
of QQ A-I generally
ill insur 25% hither adiowable fatigue stenth, alwlumahl ciee 251)6
w tUow fatiguersT~h,patenthough the cogtmay be20 to 5M greater.
it
tin weight uavings may be n high as 40% if s".
etrength delons tk design msl provided that mini.
tri.ion ae nt imposed. The
,mum wall Mt..it
Semide propartue of many aluminum foging alloys
may be iinproved by cold working or mechanical
artr m (Ruf. 102).
Procurement and proces specifications for
asngand
are defined in MIL.C40l21.T
caslins
da~nd forgiu
frg aSm
dn
in MI
r
eL- 1.iThe
detail doesgn drawing
t require
t h f(lTowin
Sprocesnmd a mi(NnD)u- ts
Ic

)wbkb

-ibg

i. lmproqnsion. Tlermo ttuig polyester mins

\pg MIL-STD-276 wre omomended fo casting im-

prqgnation. Vacuum processing isesntial to remove

gas bubbles from casting pores and to permit good
resin permeation. Leak checks may be acrostatic or
hydrostatic, although the former is preferred for sensitivity and cleanliness.
2. Radiographic inspection. Radiographic inspection is required in accordance with MIL-STD452. The detail drawing must call out x-ray views and
should include a stress diagram to assist in determination of techniques and interpretation. to be
employed. T(he x-ray technique should be able to
resolve 2% of the thickness being examined. Film interpretation is based upon discontinuity gradations
as defined in ASTM E-155.
3. Surface crack inspection. This must be ,
comaplished by fluorescent penetrant techniques as
defined in MIL-l-6866 and MIL-i-25135. Inspection
must be performed after forging, final heat treating
or ajing. cold working, stress relieving, grinding,
wdding, and maci~ning, but before polishing.
tumbling, shot peening, plating. resin impregnation.
or painting.
4. Hardness inspection. All castings and forging
should he

chateSl for hardens by the standard SIn]

kg Brineil (or equivalent) method to ascertain that

full heat treating and/or solution aging has been a%comnpled. This inspection must be performed prior
to shot peening, plating, or painting.
4

Quls

External and internal quills frequently arc used to

bouse a gear/bearing subassembly to facilitate moduhunmaintenance techniques and reduc the compkxiof the primary gearbox housing. Problems typ-cally encountered in helicopter applications are
ociated with excessive wear or high tempeaature
pcre
of the housig bore that accepts the quill. The
primary ctaie of wear is the ase of material combinatkms that permit differential thermal expansion
with lomotsem becoming excesive at operating
wtp ursCobnin*ha itmativte
toupetures. Combinations that
at elevated
this problem while retaining
mperatures allkeuv
em of ambly at room temperatures. Hower, the
tlmDml stress effects at -6erF also ma be conidmed (par. 4-2.3.1.1) to assur, that the material
yield strKenth is not exceeded. Decause steel liners frequenly are used iP liht alhoy quills, the solution
mom
us be eatended to consider the efcts of four conceinric rit p with respect to their individual tolerans material Mrengts, fit-up, and thermal expensmo coefficients. Sealnt compnounds always
hiould he is at extenal quifl-housing joints to prevent water entrapmen.

"4-67

TANLE 4=4 rICOPT

ThAN&MISSON
11
CASE MATERIAlS AND APPLICA11ON DATA

MATERIAL DESIGNATION

PFOPERTIES.APPLICATION. AND RESTRICTIONS

MOST FREQUENTLY USED AL CASTING. EXCELLENT
CASTABILIlY. BESTCORROSION RESISTANCE, HIGHEST
DUCTILITY. LOSES STRENGTH ABOVE 250" F. GOOD

A356 CAST

WEAR PROPERTIES, BEST CASTING FATIGUE STRENGIH

A357 CAST

SAME AS 356 BUT + 11% Stu, + 17% Sty

249 CAST

BE-T Stu AND Sty ABOVE 3E;3 0 F. POOR WEAR. Stu 20%
ABOVE 357. CORROSIONAND FATIGUE PROPERTIES
POORER THAN 357

SXA201.0

CAST

BEST Stu AND Sty BELOW 3500 F. CASTABILITY, WEAR,

(AMS 4229, KO-1)

AND FATIGUE ALL POORER THAN A357

2014 FORGED

MOST FREQUENTLY USED. FATIGUE1 Stu& St AND

FORGEABILITY ALL GOOD.CORROSION GOOD, WEAR

GOOD BALLISTIC PROPERTIES. RELATIVE TO A 357

Stu UP 10%, SN DOWN 7%. FATIGUE STRENGTH LOWER,
WEAR AND CORROSION SAME AS 249

224 CAST
(AMS 4226)
5083 FORGED

POCR

4UJ3 FORGED

BEST WEAR PROPERTIES, FATIGUE LESS THAN 2014

AZ91 CAST

MOST FREQUENTLY USED. GOOD CASTABILI TY.

AZ92 CAST

Sty HIGHER THAN AZ91. OTHERWISE SIMILAR

CASTABILITY. AVERAGE Stu AND Sty
HIGHER THAN AZ92. EXCELLENT STRENGTH
AT HIGH TEMPERATURES. RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION

LOSES STRENGTH ABOVE 250'6 F

-JEXCELLENT

ZE41A CAST
_

QE22A CAST

DIFFICULT

BEST HIGH TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES RELATIVE TO

AZ91. St, UP 9 %npStv UP 6i,. EXCELLENT CASTABILITY.
RADIOGWAPHIC INSPECTION DIFFICULT

51t - ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS, psi

Sty - YiE.D TENSILE STRESS, psi
4-2.4 SMCIAL CONSNDUkATIONS

Akboqh many special displines affect dai e-

Ss

m ru

t aniemce indicates that two of

pFm-MgMmqporia

an vibration conrol aW dia-

nioka.
4-4.1

di"s amum
-enkumul

dymmis awe treatW in par.

5-5. AMNCP 70&-31.

while addia conskderations
of oin
Soveraiq. owlap. smd dampig are dotaile in per. 8-7. This panqraah addresses probIsmi awmedap with componnt rucmaat vibration,

particularly as it affects urav

membefs. Remnc

Army

helicopter RFP specifacatiom have gated that ea

remnant fresunis

"m be a minimum of 30%

away from the design contiuou operaing speed.

Wbihi this may be impossible to adcieve with sonte

Wars whem all vibration modes arc onsiere, the intout may be satilaid for the polatially davgerous
modes. As an aernatimv suffacient dampin may be

oumpka

t
tod
-eader
-uch

waomat froquencies harm-

loee i.e., the vibratory stressia will be sof" blow the

amdiraam limaiw for the sructure.
As
aisag deuia saeds for drives have rcsuid is pich bee vs4otie above 10.0W) fpm. many

*[

AMCP 706-202

frequencies readily may be identified. In many infatigu, failures occurred that initially were attribinstances, designs will exhibit very low vibration due to
However,
loading.
tooth
to
dynan.ic
uted
the favorable mass and stiffness configurations of the
aestigation revealed that the fatigue nucleations
flange, web, and hub, and therefore will not produce
usually were loes ad in the bottoms of the tooth roots
a detectable strain gage output. Considerable input
or (n the insides of the back-up rim. The crack
energy may be required for a realistic determination.
propagation gemnally was radial rather than acrtss
Although actual operation in the transmission is the
the tooth ban, resulting in the loss of a large sgtinal arbiter the acoustical siren generally will promeat of the ger rather than a single tooth. Such
duct sufficient input to get the job done.
failures are typical of resonant conditions in which
Audible detection ah3o is sufficiently precise, althe tooth meshing frequency or one of its harmonics
though a microphone feedback coupled with orthocoincides with a particular natural vibration mode of
gonal axis input from the exciter into at, oscilloscope
the gear.
is required to produce Lissajou patterns in order to
often
use
Lightweight gear designs for helicopter
distinguish between fundamental and overtone
will exhibit various types of vibratory modes, such as
responses. The observed standing waves are the
with radial nodes or circular nodes, singly and in
product of a forward and backward traveling (with
combinations. Typical vibration modes for a thin
respect to rotational velocity) wavmset. If the gear is
Ref.
in
given
are
web spur gear with integral shaft
rotating at a given speed w,two resonant frequencies
involving
that
is
ofconcern
mode
103. Generally, the
are obnerved for each static fundamental radial vibrawaveaxial
into
rim
gear
the
put
that
nodes
radial
tion mode:
form vibration. The lower orders (say, up to the fifth
Forward wave natural frequency
diametral mode) are more likely to involve higher
4 - f. + w/2. Hz
(4-M)
amplitudes and, hence, higher oscillatory bending
stresses. However, relative resonant response amplig* .ard wave natural lrenuencv
tudes for constant forcing input intensity at various
diresonant Lrq!.%eicr vary enormously with
fsei
Sear blank corfurations. One gear blank m-ty
s2. W
(4-5)
-respond most to a third diametral mode frequency
where
while another o the fifth. The flange, web, and hub
design, all influence this relationship as well as the
static resonant frequency, Hz
number of radial nodes
ratio of higher order resonant frequenciea to the funfotitional speed, Hz
darnensal. The resonant frequencies ma best deA graphic presentation of the phenomenon is contermined by experimental bench test techniques using
tained in Fig. 4-34. The fundamental radial node
only the gear in question. Excitatki can be by
mitihanical shaker, acoustical siren, or electrostatic resonant frequcies are drsjgnatkd on the
ordinate by the number of their radial nodes. The abnignealy by an induction coil mounted very n;ear
WM i's r.tinnal aerea anre-Inliv tfn nnr..al prra"
the rim surface. Excellent visual de-trmination of
tin speed a The inclined lie represents the gear
mesonant responm may be accomplisbhe with a"ed
con-orI_:
if the gear web is ofasuitable
teichniques
pattern
freqecy for a 41-tooth pinion
melhi
bdlanino"da
otheinsitanc~ebsfmodal
fPsraaaon.~tt
fiuratio:. ,I' otw in
, nodal and antinodaf
driving at a normal speed of 20,000 rpm. Note that
maw r-.y tic clearly dettckJ by manual probi g of
the forcing f'untior represented by the pinion tooth
int
the forward traveling 3 node vithe rim aA- %-vbsurfae with a lightly hand held soft
brion nesr ground idl spee, the backward wagv
S1fl ly,. AAible detmctl 3n is also sufficiently precise meh
-

3% speed, the forwardw0

fromts I0 node at about
i
fkw mmsamt fquemcy identification, although a
nord wave at ner normal opeating speed, and to1
microphone fedbacks coupled with a radially op. The 3, andtOW
at ovespera
poed imint fromn the exciter into an oscilkoscopewsrd 1isnode wave
12 node vibrations a- all penmtially hazardous.
pod,
between
pftetalu nandary to
required
Even if it wer de.or.rated that the cyclic stresses
disuimaiah between fumdayvental and overtone
wer below the material enduran.cr limit, obMasngne segnawios mqay beased.e
reeponac
jeetsaable acoustical enrgy radiativa would occur
feedback phaug sial with equal -e.
Whaen
wo
vibato amphiudes arm sf- a thee iatercb. teSig of the shape and mats of
"ficiumt to prodm wsiificant stress levels, te most the ger is not very practicable in this example
bocamu a 25% clhang in ear rim and web thickpractsi qumaiative etvaltutim can be made by ataass affus maxiamur chag of 3%in resonant
ta, bamstrain gag to appropriate antinode regigns
frqiency for a specific deior- (Rdf. 10).
f tshe rio anid web. The hige emeI lvl rsunance

SPIRAL BEVEL GEAR

o to

to

a0

11 a

aX

go

IN

11)

DRIVE
SY$TLUS.
'U -L 1hU LOflMAT.OSftEoE___

Gear Teoth Mebing Sped

duction of sufficient damping to vudmn the vbrmimo

sigificantly. The spiral damper ring or snap ring a
shown in Fig. 4-35 has promc to be efeti1ve in many
inisaes,a
producing damsping ratios of 0.04 tog 10t
With a resultat reductiont of Cyclic resonant arcs to
30-40% of the undauped mugnitods.
A*16m.r

-A-

--

SW

-__IUI

dA-P.O

otte ty, an of damping (viscolstc ard torsional

absorbers hat: baen evaluated with pautial mance in
bulampte tflnitia s. Certain vnecdmiet damping tremcaat have boen shown to reduce some Var
vibrefion mode amphwudss by 50% (Re. 105).
-hruhadcapeesv

"AJ Dipm~estotchnique
Many cockpit indicators warning lqlns. and gpips
lit ths postal deflimic.o of daagaswi aids. Recet
Army REP specifiations icmii indications for oil
presein and Impsrathne low pesusaa warning, high
Itw~mqaeri. warming. aid quantimty, and chip dea1e90m. Atddmitoa grouned iampulae wfchanquu
rutial "hinc Rd
mpending Oil-rakertypass warnin
Rw oil beaings chas viswa! and am;l faduke deaL~a and lacti, and oilsm.. hag for spectrgraphic analysIts. However. the n~ thats by theisles haeve prowcn inndsuguaee to allow the wiae*rod OV saf and cast-daffve conditiontal

4-70

________

p~ 43

rypsal Sis oeinp. King A"Undimsim.

mnumaafah
on existing Army helicopter drive subsyitwus Tou aitpaextent. the mussing ingredient ms
consideration of these
in the initial design and development test
phase.
Safe and cost-effective inapismantation of condational maintenance methods requires thorough
definition mwand
n
ate ume of early failurt detection.
digagnosisad pro~wmoa as defined in Ref. 106.
Majo effort underway in Army-sponsoed programs sam aimed as reducang the time required for deei*om and as immproving sceduling. This philosophy
rewts in sebmlsedaisg of unscedul~ed maintenance
provided that eqAp~mnus-bae judgmients are availtli aommarig the secrity and mi of progasic
of t4e deated fatilur.

--

Detection methods may be classirted as related to

the internal oil system or external to thc oil system.
and include:
I . Oil system dependent:
a. Spectrographic oil analysis
b. Electronic or ekLetro-optical oil monitoring
c. Oil filter differential pressure
d. In-line electrical resistance filter grids
e. Electric chip detectors
C.Magnetic chip collector plugs.
2. Independent of oil system.
a. Naise analysis
b. Vibration moititoring
c. Temperature mma.urement.
SpectRogrphic oil anslysis has pro~en expensive
and relatively unreliable because poor correlation
exists between faiiure severity and detection. Little is
vacually known concerning failure, therefore. diagnosis and prognosis ame impossible.
Oil monitoring rouains hr, the cvailaatiora stage-.
some techniques havig proven totally useless while
others show sowe promise.
Oil filter differential pressure can be correlated
quite wen wid, iaiiure progression rat;ei
of bAriqp
when the rate of chanae of differential pressur is
examined,. Usefulness of this system iscomprcmis~d.
however, by the accumulation of normal wear, dirt,
mad contamination parlicbs. Visual inspection of !he
filter elemnwt debris by t. perienced tochniciantn can
detet mine ahe generic failu": mode buta not the location.
F~ilter grids arc best cmnpoyeJ cc a Wahion similar
to use of oil monitodriat. The hasic diffacrice is ttal
tnefriter grid paitjaz sw~Albr con..an~inant particles.
hopgfully rstainiivi, Only the laigcr metal fudturc
flakes. The
of.s~
@1ri cioggaig is detected
and may be coVCtvete Cteri(Mlly to Itrae-of-chiingC
display.
Chip detectionis have bftc used extensively in
Army helirvpiors for two dftades. The debris parlidles ame atpturod a~agaetktly to bri~c electrical
cnotmc points, which, in turn, ensrtize a caution
fipt. The wsduincns of this metho is dependent
upon the locaition of tkm dated". 'siA
W ~ resulting
crew action. failure indication often rest~ts from thr
sdow accumulatioa of miormaa wear debris. and
oftencn
in awiteraw
t
oftn
roosi
te cew
reult ina itisio, aortto
110vssttpaW the wCas.
Use of chip colhctor phigsu eUhaiats~ an aIItl4A
at eatr
i t~
ie~~es
~iway lawi.nsmbmof
plstwith greater deris starlac capacity and W.
teual caution panel light aft used to aid in locaiMinof a fiailjr to a specific area or module. liton is aocoapqlished at daly oi Meiodi&c inte-

~A"C 705-202

vals and sufficient debris callcction isusually prc,.nt

to permit an expericnced technician to identify the
failure mode. Good sucmes has been claimed for such
a system on commercial air carrier fleets, but uc~cesa
in helicpter adaptation is comipletely dependent
uponl wcll-designed installations that entrap and
localize failure debris, convenient and accessible delector loca'Jons, and experienced technicisrns to correlate findings with other available diagnostics and to
schedule maintenance accurately.
Vibratioat monitoring and noisc analysi~differ only
ini the sensing techniques. Acceleromnetu or other
forms of contacting vibration sensor% measure vibration, while microphone sensors measure noise.
Substantial research and developmnent effort.s are
being mad.; on these systems. Ruiiimentary go-no-go
Syak ins with a wamring threshold signal reqtiiring
aigine shutdown have long been used in turbine
engine installations. The real challeng lies in the
electronic signal processing and its conversion into an
identification 'and quantitative assessment of the
failure mode. Signal analysis is being investigated by
such techniques as auto-correlations, Fourier transkfutal Ma51711, jUWFA fiPFtiss

dmbleftj caiaaatL.~.

aross powcr spectral density. amplitude probability

distribution. anJ real time dlassificatirm of wav&form by convolution of other techniques (Ref. 107).
Tht operational succes of any such rystam is dependent upon its ability to isolate the faulty comprpncnt signature from the background created by
otW~~ internal and external forced and resonant vibratians, siske bar~Ak and best frequencies, at an
earlicr time tihan the chip detectof, and to retnain onlint to monitor the rate of progression of failure of
fth particular component. Onily in this manntr can
the remaining useul safe life 'DC pradmad. and maintenianc scheduld wisely. The ultimatae goal of these
programs is automatic identificatiott and prognosis
as well an detection. This goal requires coanpmehensive test data on all failure modes, both individually and in combination, along with impravad
sensor reliability and an analysis system havisv;,
minimum reliability an order of
timag *d grnLter
than that of the drive system being monitored.
Tepraacwsrnctsvm,
intAa
Temtue
prctorelativel
se wa madsytwrlmpteatur
ul
toercrtiel integrated bulk
messurmncit, seldom cam detioa other than viny advex"
(virtualy emominico conditic") faikies.
Capbility imnprovxnent roqapinz &multitude of individual conipowats *one=r caxn~iwsd with triw.ofdu
nlssnawdfrbs
ln ai6ai
cukhavife umiays creted (ora selnevriwoni
Rapid improvemients iu &

wtset"~ for bvlaaogw

4-71

0A

3:

At

dfiiv' subsylensntam NWAutkf larEZ4s UPon:

1. Improved kiixia dcsi,;n
ra.uilure-forgivitkg d4sigjn lchriqbt" as
in ptr. -1.21.2I.
b. Integration of nonssay Gdicstk ais&
mW
gsospr provisions into the oa~nx!~v *tiaWr.
2. Redireca edevelopment ttstirw effort
a.
iog out of failuremi~ as~d
MdWscImd in
par.4-14.43.
b. Compalat
of pwogrssicon rate data and
correatio

lvel.gearbox,
wi

3. Implemen tasiono
orfie
ao~an

efectuive

un operating

of saI

a.Deemntio
t0t

umn for

cvrow

Wa y

ar
b. Dlriaion of. ipctosc
failure modt4s from exciessivc continued operation.

43DIEvs,
INTWRCONNECiT SYMFMS
In a halicopte trnuasmncui and dc~lr
utri

PRh,

kW i,

is erWnx1csa.'d

t% X~l

fth.

.&flaygtrI,
CflCI'i

thfa wu.4&t ac- a ge.rb*N mad f10o a itiria

to a

shafting must a-ecohmotlatt. These mounting

systems may be giou;-W conveniently into three

0v

If -.

categories

Engine(s) mounted dirccly to main gearbox

2. Enin mone to irfa with tubulr strut&,,
usin rod-nd bearings to relieve thermal and load
deflsctious, wish the pzwrbox bolted directly to the
airfrmie

Engine moumbx as in Item 2; gearbox mounted

flexibly. The rotor pylon usually is integral with the
that is. airframe mounted with elastomcric3
springs and hiSWe liks or struts.
Syrteni I generally usa an internal splined quill
be
~~sha;'L lubricated with leaf box oil. Thezspliuics mnn.
hardened and ground, slightly cio~ned of straiZln: or
indium hard and bobtstd, shaped, or roll-foamedt.
yso
Wa n rtn orenoyL tu*
pouting and/oir sof, plating or coatings such as xiinickel, nylon, Teflon, or racolybdesun d"isf~c
vhce
Inva~a~sarcqpiazsacuta for Systemn 2 can bc moc&

-".?
k

W.psrdi

s3 m u~nd wu[!ciiAirgi- with rralaivcly$k

arith citteve& Aaft1
Ul., retc.vrI
tac

t~

rur'dMg*e

rtc"-n I 40r'r

ThOC 606010a
*AraesI.
W to pCci&ubCdyntamic axial defecion b
vatiatiozas isctakic kugibh due to installauo-r.
coj~~~.bearinsr, and benisl wukmt (hangus
44,3CE~i~tA
tL~J~a~Cmi&i;iwbeflL06)O tx4 x;tho&Si'T growth of the engine must tc
&lcdticuor V-1mSs~uatW

Thia ncuvia4 darv w2ita tgks,

Id 01prupsLa.
t

SjLa&Ii driveL
uhaft rsqtirwaco
M an
41 &.umin4
rv-*iwa~j
kurn~od.by
Sp.Aizdrveof m
,b.tparticular heicopter- dc4A.. iincu&ni thet
&WA.t wzse.'
cuup.a. hagemiw
vtgiu
slce.
w
dftz,. and otAt' VoJzlh)iiftio 6cweit #i. GO~I
"P,

thaft dzsign. Car must be taken to

stiructure provides support at
wmtua te t
Ota ew~~ii and gcarbx attach points adequate to
ddfecion. It often is possible to comply
ith ujhkzut-#ad cra'al loci I2IwtDZ Ittjuircnents.

pvamasily by the poi-va scqjamnsmee.L of Otnt,~i

llo~ion to b: cactaxI vu ttt.Zity. mwvtIa~~imnbiPjA~y. %4 ik. 4
amuaAuoL "Iat r~&1%
w.4da.
ivw*fmnaeuta for relinbihiy. maiuwe discumrJ in par. 4t
tnio.64Ni y~.m swuvability

)%AEVtM4Wr rctL'iVdy hilh dcfleciM mjoA4nOrU# aitfrauW nw&I.

hi. jgivcst loi tr4~-w;. v=OV sad
Ag4udc&~tirww of I dtj sa k~is nky arc org-

4Gc:%Sai

1.bM

Wdz t Lbagt all-iacuuimc ncWjuiraerw

am,
tswtrA pe641C"kb
vahal.duab"'W iue

In

to

ftlrewijuurtmt

O
U4NAIMC
w
ang

q,"dksc thi~t kuaksm aw-4dwcast in I~c pwar-

cow&aLUt4 byZ~il did: (Thotuam type), r"i-A

49g
l
mxicn tentoson ck
dizra--st (ILandira t 4ixaq,menz Jbalaher tyipto,wcrtnwm4 t.'kA gear ccupiw'L."
The first 6.-&typ" SPw.a&Ny asf. preferredl tnx45iwc

t* &ru

Sysan YconVW~t

X1C.W;

d ni k~~ix*4. liaidt i~
aflU
4~fa.n~~aatat~tpaa~ysaa~n

Idnh ia.

M0ealt"o

r.ti

Vd~A,0
W..'4r
.fltt*

catar

oa

(Sol

ottstk%1=44 dndbcntkWC in
014f

Stt"ic

balk~ou

ianjWkvt
tl*& 0-&

Iubrication.

)144&4 as

70

&xW
tw2v'az
ui~u ~,sk

'

The an junt of axial motion that must be acas functional failure of the shafting becoomes a catascommiodated usually will determine the type of tdrivc
trophic Walure almost immediately, with acollison of
shaft couplings used. Alt known drive shaft sysni;s
the intermeshing rotoi: blades. Achievement of the
offer a resistance or damping force opposite to the dinecessary level of reliability requires detailed conrcetion of axial motion while triasmitting torque.
sideration of operating xtresses and margins of safeThe maximum acceptable value for such forces usualty, critical speed margins, number and type of dyly is established by either the rotor vibratcion isonamic components (such as bearings hangers.
lation system or the engine PTO desin specification
dampers. couplings. and splines). rodundari'.y in
limits. Damping force characteristics for various
mountaiag and support itni~ctuMe and easw of incouplings and spline combinatio~ns are discussed in
spection. Criticality of the interconnect system allows-f
par. 4-3.2. 1.
little latitude for rchal'ility trade-offs and2 comproOther input driveshaft design criteria are governed
wise with weight, cost, and m~Aintainability goash.
by maintainability, v~ulnerability. and reliability
Optimization of design. then, must be in the direquirements and by additional engine pTO design
rection of minimum number CL parts, low stress (high
and specification limits,
margin of safety), and Whb tolerance to ballistx
Maintainability considerations require that the
damage. Therefore the drive shaft tubas will be rc-laengine-so-gearbox shaft contain "quick-disconncct"
tively large diameter, thin wall, and long (within a
featur s. Ease of accessibility also is required to facilisafe buckling) length/diameter (LID) ratio and crititate drive shaft inspection and servicing, and enigiric
cal speed limit. Intermediate bearing hangter design
or gearbox repi xcement. Since these tasks must be
must permit relubrication, with ready access to the
performed at the direct support level. the absolute
whok, hanger fot- visual inspection. The selection of
minimum of special tools, fixtures, and skills should
drive shaft tube material can noxuitate further conbe required.
siderations of a"Ia motion due to differential expansion between the aifnframe (generally aluminum)
Although vulnerability and reliability have been
dtbmUsseJ nreviousiv.i is irritortant to co~nzio n thec
1104wtfvesbait (Step], aminu
tivaniuamo
comsequenee- of drive shaft failure. The large kinetic
composite). Airframe deflections due to flipht
energy of the input driv shaft categorizes it as a
maneuvers; or load distribution also can contribute to
potenitialfly hazardous o. lethal okiect should it
the axial de~ections of the drive shaft. These deseparate at eithe.-or both oF the engines and gearbox
Ahctins will necessitate couplings capable of abadapter. The ueof auitiflail devices, i.e., secondary
sorbing the anticipated motion. if axial dameciotsi
components -or structurt capable of capturing a failed
ame small, then flexible disk couplings frequently are
drive shaft. is highly desirable,
the choice; for larger axial deflections, the geared
In addition to limits on &xial force specification at
coupling or ball-apline disk combinations are Watter
the engine PTO pad. allowable moment and steady
uWted. Under any specific set of requirements, the
and osiLlatory radial Icads are usually slocrrned.
primary 4esig empLasis must be reliability and
Sinmc egine-to-geautox shaft rotation speeds are in
ready-access fra sevice and inspection.
Ow. rang 6W-20.GOO rpmr, compliance with the osciilawory lod limits generally require kincoatic and
4-W
u u Satn
dynaniic balancing of the individual elemets of the
~
satsse ~do
igemi oo
ThdrvsafsytmLadoasigeanrtr
"trve shaft assmbly. When positioningt or locating
helicopter to power the Ladl or antitorque rowo. "mai
tolerano. between mating surfaces or elemcnts suc,
couplings. adapters, and ahIts cannot be conbeft-een the main gearbox and the tWi rotor gparboa. This system smSt provide power to the taul rokir
ay ecot.- ~ccsar to
tro~d aequt~y.it
masn
y toelominatessarym th mi rotor in the event of loss of drive from
cgitd
trolle adeqaey
balnceth
mialy
covleeo inuateexessve
thme
engine4s) In ormal operatio, the en~gine*s)
vibration.driv
thrnoug &fraewheeling dhs-* to tie main yewibox. During autorokatiom. when the fre-whselir4
"411 EUdim and Shellin
unit is overrususing tW1 rotor power is extracted from
An interconnec shaft syw .n for mul, Ole main (or
the siam rGto adlorotAticnal, or kinetic flyweeL.iq.%
liftin) rotot Wkdhpters transmits power between the
artia.
engine Vearbox (or the collector gearbox in multiTail rowo drive shafing win be subjacted to severe
eq~sa
eLi6copters) and the main rotor goarbox(es)
trnasient loads and cyclic tersional ouciasioos as
while also maintainin phase reiationshp between
wagl as noual Moeady torqe inputs. Torque require
rolors. The pitaary comuiduatioas for sisca an intermuass for moat flight conditions awe maderia is
000toc sha4 s"ste ane reliability amd survivability,
nawne wit maxismum steody torqu requird during

4
I

-..

'A%

Ias

'

4-73

'r~

Sa
- V.~

bover at high grow weight. The total power roquired

to he ver ismain rotor power plus tail rotor power requkied to offset the main rotor torque, plus losses,
r.A taW rotor also must counteract the main rotor cy,l4ic thrust vactor and an aerodynamic drag couple
from the taillboomn. Conventic-sal rotor or propeller
theory. including an effacieca factor applicable to
A*. specific tail rotor can be used to, calculate the
Mmady tai rotor torque. However, experience has
shown that the transient torque requirements can be
from 200-400% of the steady-state design torque.
High levels of transient torque result from sideward
flight in an advems quartering wind, from yaw acaelerations, and from unusual inik , conditions ivsulting from combinations of main rotor downwash,
tail rotor blanking from aircraft structure, and
adverse winds at hover or low flight speed.
Transient torque inputs also cen be introduced to
the tail rotor drive system by engine compressor stall,
violent flight maneuvers rapid throttle movements
(chops). or abrupt engine power loss. Under such
conditions the abrupt relief of the windup of the tail
r .4or drive-shaft combines with the flywheel inertia
of the tail rotor and with secondarv effects of main
ru~ui iwlin-at to cause aeveral cycles of extremely high
amplitude torque oscillations in the drive shafting.
Although occurring infrequently, this low cycle-high
stress phenomenon can cause fatigue damage to thc
tai rotor drive system unless the components of this
system are dlesigned for torsional loads well in excess
of the noirmal steady powter re~uircments. Transient
design ctitcria for the tail rotor drive itipulated in
MIL-T-595S and AMCP 706-203 are 300% of the
power required to hover at design gross weight and
denisity altitude or 150% of the maximum power rcq11irnd

in th~meet sver,. mzne-otuer .;.th;n

fi

infinite life critria. The throttle chop transient response is often the greatest oscillatory torque felt in
the T.R. drive syrteni. The system can be modeled for
the computer iiiring the cnginc-main rotor decay
curves, the appropriate lumped mass and spring rate
analogues, and the coupling discontinuities. with
reasonable accurascy. A prcproduction flight strain
survey will provide sufficient infornmation on the torsional charsctcris-ics of the tail rotor drivesystcm to
enable substantiation of the integrity or revelation of
the unanticipated weak points.
4-3.1.4 Suherltlesil Shaffing
Analytical methods for determining critical specds
of a drive shaft are covered in Chapter 7, AMCP 706201. As defined there, the critical speed is that rotational speed at which the elastic forces arc overcome by the unbalanced centrifugal forces and the
"bow" of the shaft increases divergently. Theoretically, the critical speed of aperfect shaft, i.e., a shaft that
is perfectly balanced, homogeneous, atid equally displaced about the rotating axis, will occur as predicted by* analysis. The behavior of such a shaft is
. dashied line in Fig 4-16. WN vihrstirnn
shown
occurs
the rotational speed 17approaches the
critical speed n,, where divergence occurs almost
without warning.
Practically any rc I shaft has some initial unbalance that provides a centrifugal driving force
which increases with increasing rotational speed np.
Suich a shaft exhibits vibration /rotation characteristics such as arc shown by the solid line in Fig. 436. While vibration levels at normal operating speeds

flight

envelope, whichever is higher.

Such requirements are rather straightforward withFISCITC[F'5)

respect to fatigue design of the gear teeth and the can.,

tilever rotor shaft in that the need for infinite life criteris due to the high rate of cyclic accumulation
(rotation speed) is evident. However, with respect to
the remainder of the drive system, where start-stop{
cycles, throttle chops (T.R. inertia overruns), airburm engine restarts. and yaw control pedal excurvious accowad for the bulk of the high stress cycles,.____
a far lower frequenicy of accumiulation exists. In such
instimice, past experience iv ith the fitting of theoretical spectrum analysis to subsequent flight strain
survcy results is rather essential in efficient design
work. When fatigue spectra are unknown, a
,

rewaable appiroach has been to design static yield

strengt lev&l to a minimnum of 3 times thc transient

fatigue stress used for the gear teeth and rotor shaft
4-74

R*F
[C
5 fVSHAI
TyrCAL SHAF1

-I

II

~..~.I_____
tATSAF'PE

*,,,

Figue 4-36. Relative Shaft Speed vs Relatlhe

Vibration AmplItude

V P"
may be acceptable. the unbalanced forces can increase rapidly as i increases above 9, with the possibility of resultant damage. This situation can effectively reduce the critical spead margin to an unacceptably low level. The inference is that simply by
balancing the diive shaft an acceptable critical speed
margin easily can be realized. However, the ,ast of
dynamically balancing the bhat and/or shaft assembly must be included in the trade-off, together
with a careful assessment of the contributions of the
end conditions and/or mounting compliance to the
vibration/rotation characteristic,
The majority of existing drive system applications
use subcritical shafting, for which the lowest value of
It,, > V,. Requirements for balancing can be met with
ordinary balancing techniques and equipment; relatively short shafts minimize production and logistic
problems; and ballistic tolerance design paramcters
arc known. On the other hand the cost of a subcritical shaft installation with seeral separate spans

BEARING (1 SEAL)

may be higher than that of a comparable supercritical installation. The i:,anufacturing cost fot the
short shafts may not be much different than the cost
of a single long shaft, while the number, an-' hence
cost, of machined parts probably will be higher for
the subcritical installation.
A single span of the subcritical system consists of a
drive shaft tube with end fittings, drive adap'cr,
hanger assembly with bearing. splined adapter, and
coupling. A typical example is shown in Fig. 4-37.
Design of the drive shaft requires a determination of
the shaft cross section necessary to accept safely the
steady and transient loads stipulated in tic pertinent
design specifivation, and of a shaft length that will
operate safely within the critical speed limitations.
An efficient design generally consists of the least
number of spans with acceptable critical speed
margins and torsional buckling strength. Large diameter thin-walled tubes, generally of nonferrous
metals; a greaw lubricated bearing sealed on one side

BOLTED JOINT
ADAPTER

FLEXIBLE COUPLING

TUBULAR SHAFT

GES

HANGER SHAFT

NUT

ADAPTER 3llf

706-202

//

_aHANGER

ASSEMBLY

S......MOUNTING BOLTS
TUBULAR SHAFT

TAIL BOOM STRUCTURE

Filme 4-37. Typical batrilgl Haiser AMedy -- Sedicfical Shaft Ase-mmy

\

4-75

with a fitting for a periodic relubrication: and a flexi-

shafting will be partially or totally offset by the addi-

ble disk coupling arc typical of current design practice. The end fittings and their attachment represent a
considerable portion of the cost of the manufacturing of such d'ii-a shafts. The fittings may be attached by adhesive bonding, riveting, boiling, clectron beam welding, or brazing. Tolerance of mating
pairts must be closely maintained to ensure good
parallelism of end fittings and low vibration characteristics.
The type of ccuplings selected, their mass. Io"cation, and friction characteristics, influcnce critical
whirling modes as well as torsional response modes
ofthe shafting. A recent investigation of coupling nduccd whirl phenomena on turboshaft powered helicopters is given in Ref. 10S.

tion of a daniper or dampers. The elimination of

hangers and the attendant maintenance requirements
also may be offset by the addition of maintenance
requirements for the dampers.
Acceptable tolerance to ballistic strikes requirs
hardware testing under simulated service conditions.
Parameters for ballistic-tolerant designs for supercritical shafting have not been defined and dependence on individual tests is almost complete.
A method for calculation of critical speeds and
bending modes for high-speed shafting is well
presented and explained in Ref. 110.

4-3.1.5 Supercritical Shafting

Supercritical shafting usually opc. "-s at a mced
between the first and second critical specu of rotation, although even high orders are possible. "The
main rotor and tail rotor shafts, or masis, often pass
t hkm

lo

fi e t

PrituCjti'
.

snrp

h cfn r

p r

opr h in n

operating speed. However, the critical speed is ,elatively low, the dwell tin-. is momentary, and aerodynamic damping forces are quite I.. ge. On the other
hand. interc.onnect drive shafting and tail rotor drive
shafting generally operate at relatively high speed
with very little inherent damping.
The advantafes of a super.;'itical shaft design aic
the smaller number of detail parts and bearing hanger
assemblies. The disadvantages are the need for
dampers, which for reliability should be redundant,
and the......
physical ~length
of the"'
!hafts,
im"-I:*-"
~ other
..
. which
,,t "-may
"- r"-"
IRO"*

VBl

IRtOKOl1t%,3.

/'%13V.

.Q1
201

13#0

%-41J11 10.%,

tars i'ay dermine shaft diameter and wall thickhe~s. Shaft sizes larger than thosc required by the
power requirements m4N be necessary to maintain a
LID rptio sufficient to avoid critical torsional
buckling, or to counter a ;pecific ballistic threat.
Once si.e has been determined, the design requirements for shafts in the supercritical speed range
center primarily on damping und dynamic balancing.As shown in Re.f. 109, the ncessity for balancing to a
very clo tolerance over the entire span er the supercritical shaft is paramount for successful operatio,,

4-3.2 COMPONENT DESIGN

The basic drive shaft system components, coupa.gs, bearings, and shafts are discussed separately in
the paragraphs that follow.

4-3.2.1 Couplings
The primary purpose of the shalt coupling is to
p r

v d.

..

4 'f

g ut|

- m

i s aah gnm

en t

an

di

x'; al

motion between various shafting elements and the

engines and gearboxes. This relieves stresses in the
shafting, bearing, gearbox, and engine components
induced by bending moments and axial forces. The
rcla!ive motions between these components may be
due to airframe structural deflections. thermal expansion. or pylon excursions required by rotor vibration isolation schemes. There are six major types
of couplings that have been used in helicoptcrs, and
the selection of one among them for a given application depends
p
.. .greatly
. ....upon the required dis.olrt
ni
paccimicrts &no thle ioaos that can be tirid

their supporting elements. The six are:

I. Laminated flexible disk couplings (Thomas
type). This type of coupling, shown in Fig. 4-37, is
probably the simplest design for angulai misalignments I deg. It has been used oi the CH-47 synchronizing 5haft and on the OH-58 tail rotor drive
system. Eachi driving sp;der may have two or three at-

It is incorrect to assume that a supercritical shaft-

taching points (four or six equally spaced holes in the

oisk complement). rhe larger number is preferred
from the v:ewpcints of vulnerability and survivability. The laminated disks are generally circular
rings, although square and hexagonal shapes have

ing system will automatically weigh less than a subcritical system. Dircwtly comparable designs for a
given helicopter application have to be made and the
total instalted weights dctc'mi.ed accurately and
compared. The weight saving apparently achieved by
elinminating the hangers necessary for the subcritical

bcen ustd. One problem that has been encountered is

disk fretting at the bolt attachment.
This coupling features high torque capacity, light%eight, simplicity, and constant angular velocity. The
torque capacity can be varied easily by the addition
or deletion of laminates. However. increasing the

4-76

number of Isminatas reduces the angular misalign.

WELD JOINTS

ment capability or the particular dcaign. An ad-

ditional rclationship exicfls between the numbenr of &t-

tachmieat puiats and thc- torque capacity, and misalignment capability. A four-pax'nt attachnent (two-bolt shaft adapte;) provid.es the maximutm misalagameilt capability and Odso is the least expersive to
mnufaclare. Thc flcxi~'le disk is capable of small
axial drilicctions, and where predictted axiWa motions

LXEDIPRG
___

P-e low, this cotupling servu well. No lubrication is

sliding involue spline to i-Zoomicouatr

V&rlM1jO1Fl; ;,____

initial shaft aw~mb!y length due 'o accumulation of

mrnif~triig~lcrancec. b-lowcicr, &.'x.n amial de-

-E'ALIGNING
MONOBALL

i%4fion occurs tindcr operitting torluc, the dlip rt;-

sistanct of Itbe spline~ is so great thsit apprecia~ble axial

.'orcc will be rploliceJ to the disk laminates. For splines
of 0.is type the brealhaway slip force Fju rarely is less
k;, -

.4 Q/D,..lb

(4-66)

Q ~-tcrque, lb-in.
=pitch

diamttei, in.

In some special cases whc~re certain dry Nali lubri(.atiteris are applied to the splines (Ref. 93) break-

away forces of half this value masy be realized.

2.leibrdiap'
,ai (Scndix tyre) couplings.
Thibcoulin
(..e fg. -3~))~s boa ~e onthe
OH-6 hel~copter. Thi, type
couplir~g is gencrally
capale f arnaimim
~aula mialinmci ~
ahout idey per diaphragm pair, burt very little, axial
def~tao.
ad~apai~iy
thtefre ~a~st e ~axial
a sl~1i~
Recrcultin
i'
i breaawa splipe
i~
o
it
ih
wiTC
ser.CIes
v
snip
uisbrekawy
-agdmt stac
pity
ar
ge'~ll
force. F6,
A~sj,
the di~aphiag
tc
5v~ snitv
stoe
faigue w~lueakt tocme
oslltheytax ial eloftensol
caai ar.d provide r.waly all of the axial deflection.
ay e ncesaryto roUndkrm;;hconitin.%it
or saybeneesarytype pro-i
onuai
coifaligin
vi
ae
atideia imcnf- ige ex r centcbll(roftesimilar typ)baring
at he n~cri1e~f~urcceterof hestak ~ tanscr
%xialloids into the s-ipporting adapter and tofoc
the ball spline to move. Although theoretically it i5
possible t&obtatin v~~'y low breakaway slip forces
wiih the ball s!apractical considerations with, itspev-t to aainirr.ium length of the ball track groo',ea,
vh'ntbevt of balls. and stAl p,!cvisions usually limit.
1hese rorce toa a r;aininium of
.,

..

J's.- 0. 15 Q/D. lb

(4-67)

DRIVE FLANGE

Figure 4-3b. iiictl~ Dispbragai Coauplham

All too often, the vibratory forces due to imbalance
and r.;or vibrations lead to false brinelling of the ball
track grooves, which results in turn in much higher
forces w'Ah increasing service time.
Althourph the flexible dianhraffm elemouts need no
lubrication, the splines and the monoball occasionzily require lubrication
3 Axial~y loaded straight element flexi'hle
coupling (Bossier coupling). This coupling (Fig. 4-39)
requirts no lubr~cation and has the abiiity to accommoda,.e combirned axial motion, m-isalignment, and
torque. A series stack of warped rectangular plates
with a vertraliy located reczangular cutout leaving
slender sides chatacteeiz*5 the coupling. Opposed
corners of these plates are b~olted to adjacent elements
and to end fittings or adapters. Design characteristics
o'hscoup'ing arc defined in Ref. Ill1.
Apiain odt hv enkgl
xai
m-.,nta; with some flight time accumulated on the
H; -2 h~cpc (Ref. 112) and UH-I- helicopter. Thec
atngular misalgnament cipability appears to be about
0.5 deg per ,-late elemen:. However, an increrse in the
nu~nber of esments usW~ resttll in a teductinku in first
4-77

--

whirling aitic ]s apad. A satisfactory lightweight

design for an engiae-to-gsasbox shaft for modaac
angle (of the order 2.5 des)
0.25 in. scillatory
axial motion probably would be requird to operate
in t super-critical rune if tte erine ohtput speed
were above 600 rpm.
4. Elastomeric couplings. Cbouideeabl developme- t work culuinatiag with eaperimatl dight
tasting on helicopuers
ai s the YH-51 have been
accomplished with this Vypc of coUplling (FiS. 4-40).
FHowevr, all sucessful applications lhav had low
angular misalignment and axA deflection requiremsnts. Efforts to develop higher capabilities (up to
2.5 dqg steady misalignment and 0.25 in. oacillatory axial displacmcmet) have met with failure. The
low angle configurations LAw usd simple rubber ekmenut in shear or compreasiou. while for h*i
_angles very thin, multiple layer, ruber-ametal-rubber
combinations, such as are now cotion in certain
rotor system bearings Itait ben ustd. ibe principal
development problens bzve boee customer fatilue
d, -o rersed louding (alternating tension/oonpr.,Ao ) at high sagle/low torque conditcr,.
The basic advantages of cbetomeric couplings amr
his'" o.upiihria- (low shock an.d oie -.............

!ARD

IARIOeECA&ULk
PLkTL

Rfor

DRIvEsr'Fr

_-yokes.
DRIVEsHrI hEM
'CUuAREAusWed

COUPLwG
,ADAPTE

Figure 4-39. Bosser Coupling

.-u

no lubricaio required. no susacfuihuty to fretting

corrosion, and polential savings of cost and
mnintenance. lanei disadvatages am dereAioralion in an oiy environmint and aging and reduced
ctritcl spaed dvi to high compliance.
5. Hooke's joint. The Hooke's or Cardan type of
universa joint coupling (Fig. 4"4) is capable of mlativcly Aigh angular mimaigiret, of the order of 30
deg at wadete spoes and I1 do a, h*ig speeds.
Howeve, unlike all other couplings discussed in this
paragraph. the output is not a cons.ant angular velocity, and significant bending moments arc induced in
the attaching adapters and supporting structum..
Consequently, this type of coupling generally is cmployed as phase-matched pairs to cancel the cvsillatory angular velocity or singularly with systems that
am very soft torsionally and hence can absorb the
angular velocity oscillation. The H- 13 tail rotor drive
system is an elxample of the latter type of application.
These couplings have no axial motion capability
and normally arc used in series with either a sliding
(involute or square taoth) or a rec'-culating ball
spinc. The input and output yokes of the coupling

at..h.. to th cros with cupped nidl-c

bearings. When that co..,oncnts arc sized properly
oscillation.
angular
and force
givcl torque
thel absivkaway
sliding
of velocity
tlhe adj-Afrnt spline
Usually is wel within the axial load capacity of the
coupling. Common failurr
modze, re spalling of the
"cup end needle bering. and fatigue fracture of the
The needlt barings require lubrication.
ti. Gear Wtouplingl. Gtar couplings (Fig. 4-42) with
higu~ly crowned enternal involute gear teeth :...ting
with st'aight twoiaed intcrnal gca2 te,:? have been
on helicoot, r.; far more extensive!v than all
oiliAoter csmpling typts combined. 1 '.Xsc coo j~iugs arc
capable of providirzi moder3tely high anguLr misaligninernt and axial motion during operation at high
speed and tot'qur

-tr

v,-ry low weight. Common

opfratin 'onditirci &:e i deg continuous and 6 deg

ADAPTERRETAINER CUP

. ...B[A

SRI,4

N,,

""
I

SVAr T

,,Ai 1 R1 TAAINRCQu

SDrfIVE

Figure 4-40. listomwek Copling

4-78
I *

DIV

CROSS

ligle 4-41. $o.4e's J-la (Umimal'il

-7

"ADAPTER hOUNTING
BOLT CIRCLL
'

INTERNAL STRAIGHT TOOTH COUPLING

BOOT SEAL

GREASE
CROWNED
COUPLING

Figure 4-42. Gear Couplng

transient 2nd 10.75 in. oscillator; axial motion at

frequencies in the range of 10 Hz. Unlike straight
o.

spliies o~r recirculating ball splines. the breakaway

blidinst

force F,. cait be very low; actwtlly F, reduces

-..- _-

as the mi'aa~ignment angle increases. A comparison of

th;, force ~o, a typical gear couplin., n.shown in Fig._____I_
ccn ~act becween loaded teeth is at r.*high sliding velocity r~. t; the angular miselignments. Conse,
quenly, a stmerimposed axial motion is resisted only
by tht rela, w'vely low dynamic friction coefficient
rathaer than d static value.
G.,-r coupling operating limits are thermal rate
than 6i1.3up,- w~hich is the limiting contideration for
the ri .- ,oupling typej previously discussed. Specially
developMr gresse lubricants have provided the best
load carrying (least friction) capability for gear2
couplings. However, the operating environment (high

etrifulal field, high mechanical stroking fire-

qucncy, *--d tlevatiA tempcrature) combine to make

the -erst ma~jorit) of grrase unsuitable for this app'iitMiss.

___

n
-.
a iuiy
M
I SAIL SPL!III
BALL
SPLINE
A-. *-%-fCftULMEDN

___

W
-1

-j

IR_____

____

IAIUNTAGL e

Figre4.3 Bma'kapay SliWG Foresei

NalgmC foe '/arlkm Spiae Dekvkn
4-79

A.side from the need for periodic relubricagion

(60D-hr intervals ate common) the greatest difficulty
with gear couplings is providing adequate sealing for
the grease. Guillotine slider seals and elastomeric
boots are most often found in high angle applications while modified lip-type shafts seals can be
used for low angle (<I deg) operation. Shaft speeds
of 20,000 rpm, which are now common, offer a distinct challenge to the designer since few seal designs
can tolerate the high centrifugal field. Overheating
dut, :w !s of lubricant, followed by plastic shear of
the hot teeth, is the predominant failure mode for this
type of coupling.
Fully hardened, ground, and properly modified
gear coupling teeth operate well with tooth loads in
the range of 50,000-70,000 psi at sliding velocities
well over 100 in./sec. Operation out-side of these
boundaries, use of improper tooth materials, and use
of inferior lubricants can result in contact melting,
smearing, and welding of the teeth.
A method of determining the tooth load distributions for varying combinations of tooth crown
curvature, profile modification, misalignment angle,
and torque is given in Ref. 113. These loads may then
be used to calculate root fillet bending stress, Hertzian contact stress, and flash temperature indices as
shown in par. 4-2.2.1.2.

After loss of the lubricating oil in the grease by

evaporation or migration, the common failure mode
exhibited by grease lubricated hanger bearings is
overheating, failure and expulsion of the cage. and
finally, expulsion of balls. Severe shaft vibration, due
to loss of centering provided by the bearing, or shaft
failure may follow loss of balls.
Degradation of the lubricant also is caused by entry of water or debris into the bearing. The means of
sealing bearings provided by bearing manufacturers
are generally inadequate to preclude a significant
failure rate in the Army environment unless additional protection is provided. One such means is to
enclose the drive shaft with a cover to exclude the
bearing areas from the contaminating environment.
Another simpler, but less effective, means is to install rotating slingers on each side of the bearings
with closely controlled clearances at the slinger OD.
This providL shie.d against the entry of water,
debris, or cleaning fluids during helicopter washdown. Although an effective seal may be designed
that will reliably assure reasonable bearing life (10002000 hr), a hanger that is designed to permit relubrication can greatly reduce hanger bearing replacement. Frequent introduction of a fresh charge of
lubricant can revitalize and/or purge the old charge
of contaminated and thickened grease. However. re-

4-3.2.2 Bearings
The criteria for design of hanger bearings for drive
shafting differ considerably from the normal power
loaded bearings used in gearboxes. The loads P to
which the hanger bearings are subjected are very light
(C/P < < 10 where C is the capacity of the bearing for
a lire of 10' cycles with 90% probability survival) and
sizes are determined by the torque requirement of the
shaft through the bearing. With high tensile strength
heavy wall shafts used to reduce shaft outside
diameter, a relatively small bore (light) series bearing
can be used in the hanger.
Bcaring mounting on the shaft should be closely
controlled to assure true running and that internal
clearances are adequate to prevent radial preloading
under operating temperature differcntials. Grease
lubrication normally is used, and sealed nonrelubricatable as well as relubricatable bearings may be
used. The lack of adequate internal clearance is a
common design error found in many existing hanger
bearing designs.
Considerable effort has been expended, as described in Ref. 114, to evaluate greases for hanger
bearings. The grease most commonly used is M IL-G81322.

lubrication adds to the maintenance burden and the

risk of servicing with an incorrect and unsuitable
lubricant is everpresent, but most lubricants will provide satisfactory operation of the bearing for at least
a short period. The selection of nonserviceable
replaceable bearings or relubricatable designs is a
trade-off involving many factors such as bearing cost,
maintenance man-hours, re!iability, and survivability.
The design of the hanger assembly must be such as
to prevent inadvertent bearing overloads. Nominal
bearing loads are limited to shaft weight and rotating unbalanced loads, neither of which should be
detrimental. However, misinstallation of the hanger
can introduce static angular misalignment between
inner and outer rings (shaft to housing) causing a
moment load to be imposed on the bearing. Although system compliance (hanger, shaft, and airframe) may preclude loads of sufficient magnitude to
cause spalling fatigue, the bearing balls will skid as a
result of contact angle reversal due to these moment
loads. Such operation will cause cage distress and
overheating with abbreviated service life. Adequate
relief from angular misalignment, in the form of
proper internal clearances and/or self-aligning outer
ring mounting, must be provided in the hanger
design.

4-80

AMCP 706-202
4-32.3

Sbmfthfg

Design of the drive shaft itself is concerned primarily with material, size, and end fitting selections.
For high torque applications, where tube wall thickness permits, a spline or similar drive mechanism may
be used to adapt the shaft to couplings or other drive
components. With thin wall tubes, an adapter with a
thicke
ione.mboron
thicker section must be attached to the tube to per
couplingt

in loxv-spi:d applications where balance requirements are not stringet. Tube stock and bar stock,
bored and completely machned, are used for higher
speed application where straightness and true running are necessary to, meet close tolerance balancing
requirements. Composite materials usually are fabricated by laminating epoxy preimpregnated carbon or
filament at zero, 45 deg and 90 deg lay to the
shaft axis and curing in an autoclave. The composite
shaft has a very high strength to weight ratio but the

the section modulus is constant over the length of the

bonded joint, the distribution of shear stress in the
bond material will be even. If the joint
not so designed and an abrupt change in sectionwere
were
encountered at the end of the fitting, modulus
a differential

cost is considerably higher than for other materials.

Balancing requirements are less stringent for the
composite shaft due to the lower specific weight
material, but machinable material should be added at
approximately one third span positions to facilitate
dynamic balancing when required. Large diameter
(3.0
s
OD) thin-watlled ahlminucetubes have demonstrat exce
d
len
ballsti to leranc e toandi
velocity, frod tumbled 7.62-mm bullets. Torque transmitting capability is somewhat reduced following a
hit by this, type of projectile, but he vibration charac-

angle of twist would occur causing a severe shear

teristics are not affected adversely for subcritical

stress concentration in the bond material. The

strength of such a joint would be considerably lower
than intended.
The fittings can be riveted effectively to the larger
diameter drive shaft tubes with adequate margins of
safety. The stress concentration effects normally associated with riveted joints must be taken into account in the design of this type of assembly. Bolted
joint designs are similar to the riveted joints.'
Welded joints can be made effectively when ferrous
materials are used both for tube and adapter. Normal
efficiency factors for welds must be used when sizing
the joint for steady torsional load and the effects of a
metallurgical "notch" or stress concentration must
be included in the fatigue analysis. Brazed joints also
are effective fo. some designs. Induction brazing is
developed easily and is a cost-effective method. The
heat affected zone in the brazed joint normally is
tempered, and the torsional strength of the joint must
be based on the minimum allowable strength of the
tube or adapter in the tempered zones.
Machining may be necessary subsequent to the attachment of the end fitting to provide parallel and
concentric mounting surfaces so that the drive shafting runs true.
Materials used for drive shafting include steel,
aluminum, titanium, and nonmetallic composite
structures. Steel shafting is used for engine-totransmission applications and other areas defined as
fire-zones. Aluminum, titanium, and composite shafting are suitable for interconnect shafting and tail
rotor drive shafting. Mill run tube stock can be used

shafting. Composite shafting exhibits ballistic

tolerance to 7.62-mm bullets similar to that of aluminum shafting although the tolerance to lower velocity
projectiles, impact of a dropped tool, or handling
damage is considerably reduced.

Adapters may be .Idhesively bonded to thin wall

tubes. The adapter joint must be proportioned
properly to avoid excessive stress concentration at the
bond
interface.
can be done by machining the
end fitting
bore This
and shaft
OD in a tapered or parabolic shape so that the angle of twist is constant. if

44

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

A helicopter gearbox can be designed to meet load

and speed requirements but the useful life of the gearbox is a direct function of the lubrication and cooling
system. The amount of power loss as heat is governed
by the design of the heat generating elements in the
gearbox. The lubrication system assures attainment
and maintenance of a minimum value of heat loss as
well as minimum wear. The concurrent function of
the lubrication system is to carry away heat.
Heat transfer occurs between bearing outer rings
and housings by conduction and from housings to atmosphere by convection. This mode of heat transfer
is minimal compared to the heat transferred directly
to the inside walls of the housings by the cascading
oil, with convection again taking place. The t6ird
means of heat rejection is by direct transfer to fo:ced
air in an air/oil or, in rare cases, fuel/oil heat
exchangers (oil coolers).
During stabilized operation a balance is maintained between heat transfer by conduction/convection/radiation from the gearbox cases and the heat
exchanger, if one is provided. Some gearboxes are designed for continuous operation without an external
heat exchanger. In this case the surface area (external
4-81

706-20
wMC
wetted area) provides adequate cooling margin, especially if forced air is directed across the gearbox.
A somewhat different mode of heat transfer occurs in gearboxes that are grease lubricated. Gearboxes that are rease lubricated depend almost entirely upon the transfer of neat from the gears along
the &haftto the bearings, through the bearings, and to
the housings. A secondary flow of heat is provided by
slowly migrating grease as agitation occurs but this is
minimal compared to the direct conduction of heat to
external gearbox walls through the shafts and
bearings. Tests conducted on grease lubricated gearboxes using USAF MCG 68-83 grease (Refs. 37 and
115) indicate that grease migration is not significant,
The lack of migration can be an advantage in meeting
fail-rtafe operational requirements since little or no
grease loss would be anticipated in the event of a
ballistic strike in the housing.
4-4.1 OIL MANAGEMENT
The delivery of oil from pump to filter to manifold
and then to load points must be systemr-tic and deliberate to assure proper lubrication and cooling,
Placement of the oil must be specific to prevent surging, foaming, and cavitation. As the used oil leaves
the gear mesh and/or bearings, a natural gravitational flow path must be provided. Traps around
rotating components can cause excessive churning
and heat buildup, thus adding to the cooling burden.
High speed gears can create vortices that will suspend large amounts of oil against thehousing around
the gear. Excessive oil flow to gears and bearings can
cause heat generation and buildup greater than the
amount of heat coming from the loaded conjunctions. Therefore, controlled movement of the oil
after egress from the rotating elements and heat
generating points must be provided to allow the oil to
find its way uninterrupted back to the sump. Close
fitting shrouds around gears, and return lines from
cavities between bearings and shaft seals provide effective means of preventing oil entrapment and excessive churning. Judicious placement of ribs and
webs in the gearbox housings an4 ample provision
for oil flow beneath or around the structure will help
assure proper oil return.
The pump inlet placement and arrangement must
be considered carefully in the design of the pump,
housing, and sump. Maintenance of a sufficient oil
supply at altitude is directly affected by the volume
and depth of oil at the oil pump inlet and the effect of
flow constrictions into the inlet. If the return oil is
hampered in getting to or through the oil inlet, cavitation and loss of oil pressure can ensue.
4-82

In splash lubricated gearboxes oil flow is more difficult to attain. However, because the primary function of the lubricant in this type of gearbox isto lubricate the gears and bearings sufficiently to riinimize

the heat generation, the amount of oil required at the

friction points is minimal. Nevertheless, management
of the oil is still critical to the adequacy of lubricating and cooling; provision must be made for oil to
be delivered to each bearing, gear, and seal. Natural
laws are employed tc acccmpiish this; centrifugal
head, gravity feed, and dynamic pressure differentials can impart sufficient impetus to the oil to
attain directed flows. Oil splashed to the inside of a
rotating shaft can be caused to flow rontinuously
through the shaft by tapering the bore from the oil
"inlet" end to the outlet. The outlet can be at the end
of the shaft whete return is accomplished by gravity
flow through bearings or it can be through radial
holes in the shaft, with centrifugal head forcing the
oil into the bearings. Cooling (though minimal) also
is provided by this Piow by ultimaze impingement of
the warm oil onto gearbox interior walls. Agitation of
this oil is primarily by gear members dipping into the
oil sump and splashing the oil to the housing walls,
bearings and gears, or to the inside of shafts.
Auxiliary splashing can be accomplished by providing rotating dippers or slingers. Maximum cooling
of the oil can be accomplished by the agitation and
slinging action, but care m~ust be exercised to determine the maximum oil level that cao be tolerated
before churning losses override the cooling effect of
the agitated oil.
Grease lubricated gearboxes have a different set of
operating characteristics. Although the high viscosity of grease provides good lubricating qualities,
this high viscosity also prevents free migration inside
the gearbox. As a result, thf. grease must be forced to
remain in the bearing anM gear cavities, usua!ly by
grease is thereby
The
inffges.
means of shrouds and br
'aptured" around ee'h bearing, and the grease
quantity must be such. as to assure an adequate supply around gears. The percent "fill" in the gearbox is
critical, as it is with the oil lubricated gearbox, especially the minimum level inasmuch as successful
lubrication of the gears is predicated on grease quantity as well as location.
4-4.1.1 Function
The satisfactory fulfillment of the dual functions of
cooling and lubricating requires that the design be
approached systematically. Oil flow requirements
should be determined and followed from pump outlet through the system and back to the pump outlet.

--

Ok

mWi 108 Psotida for IfrMn ea of 80 WU

aNMAN NOW mpgdlsd hi suc* a way as to bured
bum
h~ ans4*o~l~ti, ed/r in..
pc.awd gu. The amount of
M#t pmMM &P
bei
4 oil dqmw to hk~d
a ce~aueiom. i~e.. to pusV"
to mat
"
aGu,
isVM.,..a. 14mwge, if

r & pas.
owm
mnratream sow
yti b &w r~ei.
piam
9m
IMI $MAm.md
uofuSi
Jai A sbmee of so*h sar
q
ios
bA
d ami Fig. 4.
ads
1pm cam be provide by ao ao44.7m
P me
QWur &.'" PrWih p"M taheoff Ifro he male
*1 ust. Wd i m dfmls
miap tmhragWhd
v the

INhiu
m powibe
al
m ala. los

Ow
interalci is
&Th.
S& dry~e."W6
o j nr
abob.sa
m" poy ofa o flodto
m
k~ shep6
fric-djbwdfs4tobaopadV
toapetwb tpeboarand wMat &mty site pw ww
= oils.Th
sapytmf. wieh
epetis.The eosda buiip
eq'cman cma load
ino
ThslightymaeWr or gebothsesj awl
are submctt
WMa.
6"k
hsak
Wof
c
sh hadd.asst
f Jthe
dilin
fuAcicatim
eafl drah
fight as
epud. A lightly lade
w
ge.mit of euusiida, wit
wihacpo nd elotrorcveipae
WleMirop thbticasin wca
m ert vcn
W, rEse fne
Anothe sac. for the dry spsytem is ith asysta
sholam soat
andw mll evuel vin htol cooingstabl
ofgaba.Tedysm
suiiigasnl
yi urcation systan. eThe
er
n
rmal eoegsro
equtel by aacasne-avne
/i
oilde
Sl".hames co4tc olubiae adkv
mistor
Ccnnsla
y sl~h
hghl lodedgoa
mq~aneuvest or is p pwo
sump ar ujc. t

d~id

.tS-jt,.a

mesh

n-r.

ahkto
will generate
osierbl hemidtrquief-a

ma? br.

-Id
dqutl.

kirc

USG
W.. RUS
ova

flfR*.

yiji

A IW

man=c t

true For b;th;ik~ loadd and beavily loaded

bearaws.flow
441.2.ndCwwsa;
Aragemrmaw
An1. oil 3 ")51cm
aa idA num will co a s oI
spoply of oil in a gei~rboA an~d it mewas of gagging oil
quantity. e.g., sight glass, dip stick. The stamp must
be &,a 4ocatecd that oil circulation vwill be accnipishd b a gar r rtatng lonc~t ippng nto
the samnp and q.pashinu the oi! to~ the gear and
&sarina ckaients. This sari angt~men: for iplish lubrication can bz uLWc effectively, irgcr. botes with single
mrshes not ins II operatir'g at light load where thc
w~tted *1tr'bo arra providecs edcjuate couvrcctivc
coo:IdLL. TMi sutor drive and acceswory d~ve gearboxtmL fel in this category. Although the power trainsmitted cyTb titjr
cro cwioul slih
th,, condition a, trwspstit and bulk hu*t buildup is
jgtcui Lly negtig~bl. Gekrhox heat loss at hover
powet can b.- Itasdircd cffvt1ively from the gear.
box hoW-ni5wst the airflowi caused by the retor
dowvnwash. Less power is requhcci during cruise car.ditiiwa, and rnoitt airflow is avail&ble. Large wetted
areas at, 4;
eunmjon for acccwry drivye gearboxes, and
powcer requi!ei';'11s are ptedictabic a=4 exonsvhit.
Thc sslari sysienr, i3 4n~ inhereotly we: sump 4ystenai.
On 0vt othoer end of the spcwwni arc oil systtemsl
K Consistieis of vil pump. oi0 lines and PWAwSC;. M40r
av.filter. rlna.;Cold, rgUetof. oil os&Lei termal

ii

not
i

mutbesavne

BUSM

nfrttdysm
gfro ll
P~6iYpmp in gni

ye

shasse

eoeg

win be OP tee

cofl-

stant disptacement type, simed for the. pressure and

rafte determined by cooling requirements anid
system pressure loon. Pumps can be desigd to
widey varying flow requirements with single
tanant pumps possible with flows in the rangi of 70
Wmv and speeds up to 12,000 rpm. The pump drivc
nyb eurdt a4aserscint aif h
requirement that no catastrophic damage be done to
the Matia drive train in UK. event of acomsory failure.
rte ffitar systwn; should conornst or a pump inlet
icrwn to prevent .ngretiny n larar nnrtirLpcs anej,
downstream of the pump, liner filtrartk. A primary
disy-miablc fjilter element of required fineness in a
housing with full flow bypass capacity. and posibly
with bypass indica'zor, shouldf be w'ajvided. Replacema-nt C this filter element wvill be part oi the
periodic; maintenance requirements. Additional
filters may be required in the system to meet filtration requirements of fuall bypass flow, if stipulatcd
by tht RFP or PIDS. In this case a secondary filkte
sytcni will be installed in the bypass sytmn to assure
continued clean oil delivery to the gears and bearings
subsequent to complete clogging of the primary filter.
The seondary filrtrtion requirements generally are
less stringent than primary filtration. Filter elements
of the order of 40 microns suitable for secndary filtratiou can be of porous bronze, steel mesh. (x papar
elca-smt types. The, bconze and stel flmws are cleanable ATIn
reusabl while the paw element xznsally is
4-43

0.

t~~

IR
REIE VI

'I

I WA

TEMPERALTUREG

JE~THEMA BYPASS~E

FLr

E
A

THERLBALABYPASS

FIdr ". 01 ytm ceai

dispaiibl.
The papr ekintrt, a-eued morei c

twod

ovjoaanc
The p3-

rascnb
eo-oaedan

ois
mahita~xed with Ins. than 15 1%. p-cssutc drop wac
ths; fi.r (Ref. 116). However, arnsolute filLuatiur of
*~I5-Ir~ikian
p&Aftnl with *9A, elfc.tuncy oi Fltering 5na~.con si~ze paililes or largoer h&. b%.~n shown to tw.
coai~t4Cvte vtahaduquate (L.1 117). whaic finfr
ftituoiv prommied filtci clomiat pwtulen,. that afkekd wevice intervahs *ud mlability.

444

boicoerstmnral)wicnitofn

an eter
T1

startin,

oalirg
aidroeftw i l coolist
o
cooerstm

dtuig~i requirements and pixocdurts arc prtsentcd in

C..apter 8. AMCP 706-201, and are amplified in pur.
4--t.2. Forctd atr ztin be fron. shaft driven blowers or
bkeec air turbiggc". 0-1 cuoole fen design~ procedui,;
a~bo i. 4secribd ini Chap. -r 8. AMCP 7W2021Il.
Cooke. k, :a1ion shoulf be cuiauabcnt with ap.
p&mbie ballsauc thnca 1 survi 4bitiiy requirements.

C 7W202

C,
Coolers integral with the gearbox or, if separate, surrounded by protective components or structure are
possibilities. The use of either auxiliary systems or armor plating should be considered only as a last
resort. The integral oil cooler has been shown to be
effective (Ref. 116). It virtually eliminates the need
for external plumbing and minimizes the ballistic
threat !o the gearbox oil system, and the inherent
protection of the surrounding airframe structure is
enhanced by proximity of cooler to gearbox. A
pressure bypass has been used to divert full oil flow to
the gearbox oil system to circumvent oil flow to the
cooler in case of ballistic strike on the cooler.
The manifold is an oil distribution mechanism that
normally houses the oil pressure regulator, temperature sensor, pressure sensor, and distribution
passages. 3il is carried from the manifold through
gearcase internal passages to oil jets for pressure
lubrication of gears and bearings with direct impinging streams of high velocity oil. Internal passages
also can be provided to direct oil to bearings encapsulated in housings and liners,
Externally mounted oil system components such as
pumps and filter housings often present sealing problems and service problems associated with the seals.
Gaskets and O-rings normally are used for sealing between the mating parts. Components requiring frequent removal can more effectively be sealed with 0rings then gaskets. The compressed gasket material
adheres to both the sealed surfaces, and mechanical
removal of the gasket residue often is required. This
becomes more difficult around studs: Each gasket application generally is unique and hence maintenance
support requires stocking of unique parts, while 0rings are stocked for multiple applications and are
supplied from a common stock. Gaskets possibly
have a cost advantage by virtue of the elimination of
the O-ring groove. Provisions for 0-rings also can
result in slightly higher weight than for gaskets.
Some system protection is provided by gaskets by
their inherent ability to "blow out" in case of oversurges. Where close tolerances must be held
between locations within the mating parts, the use of
a gasket becomes impractical. The gasket material
can compress and generally is not consistent from
one gasket to another. In this case an O-ring should
be used.
c
4-4.1.3 Special Considerations
S
High flow oil systems may require multiple clemen^ pumps. Constriction free inlet design, high rotational speed, and high flow rate may not be attainable with a single element pump. Multiple element pumps (or more than one pump) also may be

Spressure

necessary in a dry sump design, when a scavenge

pump is required. The scavenge pump extracts oil
from the sump area and feeds it directly to the pressure pump or to an oil inlet sump for the pressure
pump. Oil return requirements. sump capacity, and
turn-around time must be compatible. A 20-gpm flow
requirement with an 8-qt sump capacity results in
complete turn-around of the oil ten times a minute. If
the height of the gearbox is appreciable. with extensive baffling, there is a danger of pump cavitation
and interrupted lubrication. Even without the danger
of interrupted lubrication the oil has insufficient
dwell time for deacration. Therefore, excessive
foaming and inadequate lubrication or cooling are
possible. Turnaround frequencies greater than 3.5-4
times per minute become questionable with respect !o
proper deacration and attendant cooling characteristics. Adequate film thickness is difficult to
achieve relative to surface finish in loaded contacts
when low viscosity synthetic oils are used for gear
and bearing lubrication. Boundary lubrication states,
often characteristic with low viscosity oil, can still
provide adequate wear life in gear teeth and bearings
but the surface roughness must be low enough to prevent progressive metal-to-metal contact (see par. 41.2.1).
Synthetic oil, especially MIL-L-23699, has a
moisture absorption capability and its lubricating
ability is diminished by moisture content. Hence, extreme care should be exercised in the design and location of gearbox vents to prevnt water ingestion.
Areas where atmospheric air can impinge directly on
shaft seals also should be avoided. Positioning rotating shields in front of shaft seats is a very effective
,means of preventing dust, dirt, and moisture-laden
air from being ingested into the gearbox.
Secondary effects of moisture absorption are internal corrosion. Synthetic lubricant that is contaminated with moisture becomes highly corrosive to
the bare steel parts inside the transmission, with the
lower roughness surface finishes being particularly
suisceptible. It should be noted that once contaminated with water, MIL-L-23699 does not release that
water when heated to normal operating temperature
(>212F). Therefore, both the poor lubricating
quality and adverse corrosive tendency are present,
and every effort should be made to prevent moisture
absorption.
The most consistent problem facing the designer of
oil lubricated gearboxes is proper sealing. Leaking
seals represent the single largest replacement item or
cause for removal of gearboxes in the military helicopter (Ref. 33). Although it is infrequent that a seal
leak rate is sufficient ior depletion of the gearbox
4-85

lubricating oil to occur in a single mission, that appearanc is presented nevertheless. The oil residue
from a leaking shaft meal accumulated on the sur!uding components is so extensive that a minor
eak manifests itself - a major problem. Certainly effective mad designs are laboriously, if ever, achieved.
Carbon face and circumferential seals required for
high-speed an,d high-temperature applications
generally require an extensive test and development
prolpam. Elastomaric shaft seals for lower spe
applications are deskned more easily but successful
sealing often is equally0difficult to attain,
Investigations are being c-ductmd continuously by
and tm.-s to devlop a useal manufacturers
versally
acceptble and
usersectov
des. Based
ae on
versally acceptable and
effective seall design.
on
the premise that no seal is completely effective, one
design approach that can be taken to minimize the
leakage problem is multiple seals. A shaft seal of conventional design, eithi elastomeric lip seal or carbon
face smal, can be used in conjunction with other type
of seals to affect seal staging. One suitable method is
to use an inner lip seal with an outer labyrinth seal.
The oil lubricates the lip seal, which assures adequate seal life, while the labyrinth provides secondary
sealing from both directions. The shielding effect of
the
labyrinth precludes atmospheric debris that
wouldbnomall
arcceluere eastmomerc s haft
we
would normally accelerate dlastomer ades
and shaft wear
from collecting on the lip seal. A rotating slinger in
close proximity to the housing on the outside will
prodce
affingand
urter

ncrasetheseaing

effectiveness and seal life. Oil that weeps past the lip
seal
in normal
operation can be removed through an
overboard
drain.
veroardh d
arains lp
Research with various lip contact configurations
for rotating shaft lip seals has shown promise during
testing but no striking improvement has been observed in service. A ribbed lip was observed to produce a pumping action that prevented oil flow from
the oil side of the test gearbox. Another lip design, a
waved contact lip, produces a 3imilar wiping action
and retains some lubricant on the seal-shaft contact
that provides good sealing and coincident lubrication. A radially segmented carbon seal has been extensively tested and evaluated at NASA for high.
This seal consists of several semispeed shaft sealing.
rited ogeherand prig-ladc to
circlarsegent
circular segments fitted together and spring-loaded to

contact the shaft. In operation the seal lifts off slightly and virtually frictionless contact results.
COOLING REQUIREMENTS
Determination of the power loss in bearings and
gears as described in pars. 4-2.2.1 and 4-2.2,2 provides the basis for determination of minimum heat rejection requirements. The gearbox frictional losses
4.4.2

"4-86

and windage loaes, having been determined, an estimate of the oil flow requirements can be made.
44.2.

Heat ExeP
gh

Sizag

The maximum size renuired for a heat exchanger.

or oil cooler, would be that size necessary to reject all
the heat losf from the tranmnission. On the other
end of the spectrum, considering forced air convection around the gearbox, no oil cooler may be
required. This would occur if the surface area were
sufficiently large, heat generation low, and internal
oil flow distribution such that transfer of heat to the
housing
insiderate3
wallsfrom
werealuminum
adequate.and
Characteristic
heat transfer
magnesium
heat trans
s fro in
an d magnesu
gearbox housings are in the range of 0.001 Btu/in.'man-F (Ref. 4). Hence, when the
friction and windae loss has been determined and the surface area
has been established, it easily can be decided whether
an oil cooler will be necessary. Tail rotor drive gearboxes and accessory gearboxes generally fall into this
category. However, in the interest of compact design
it is rare that no cnoler is required for a main rotor
gearbox. A general design requirement for the cooler
is to reject 67% of the heat generated from the gearbox
during critical
Critical
op rto.gn
rly...sdoperating riconditions.
g h vr td
sg
operation generally occurs during hover at design
gross weight in hot-day conditions (35C. 4000 ft),
when
main isrotor
power As
is required
and
forced maximum
air convection
minimal.
the gearbox
forer-onvectio inimalAs th
gearo x
in design and material technology, larger size coolers
will be required to reject the increased amount of heat
that will result from higher specific gear and bearing
loads and decreased wetted areas of housings.
The physical size and configuration of the oil
cooler, together with oil cnd air flow rates and
pressure drops, can be determined with the help of
the cooler manufacturer. The cooler core size and
density are determined by the heat rejection requirements and the available airflowq. The procedural approach
to cooler size determination consists of the
following:
following:
4-2..2)
arbte
ge ls (par.
bye
t. Determing
4-2.2.2).
(par. area of
losswetted
by windage
bearings, and
teeth.
2. Determine
effective
external

exclsetoe areages
ffective
2. e
of appendaiges.
exclusive
is
gearbox. Effective area
3. Apply heat transfer factor, 0.001 Btu/in.'-min4F for hot-day performance and power condition,
and take algebraic difference between heat generated
and heat transferred.
4. If heat generated exceeds heat transferred, then
a cooler will be required to reject the excess generated
heat.

S. Determine location for cooling fati an" based

upon the bystcm interfaces, i.e., available fan drive

povwr; location of fan and ducting required, fan size

without bemult of prunesm lubricatio and =oolig

systems. Much wock has been accoomp~lued in a,
toblijagm an evalmUang design pwwsomu associated with anwuaocy operatka. i~e., failwink
dasign (Ref. 35. 37. and 38). The baskc criterion tha
has. hm atablished as sift coatinuatice of flight for
a minimum of 30 min subsequent to total kw. of
lubricant. As a minimum. the continuing flight ,Auft
at the power level required to maintain dhe sped
for maximum range at sea level standard conditions.
Lou. of lubricant initially is synonymous with toss
of cooling and is followed iminediattly by an incrase iv the coefficient of friction with attendant inacaise in heat gencratsio. due to the chanre to dry
operation. As the primary heat trmnstcr medium of
oil is lost. an immediate heat buildup occurs at the
heat-generating points; and the secondary beAt
transfar paths becormt paramount. If unstabilized
heafiing is to be averted, the heat generating element

te
airiflow coo!=
resulting
y5arudn
limi atioas onifaeo
hardware; and
moe
location, and sine limitations. The -nccessaiy calculations for a cooler and fan design are presented

hat
fha
medium
rtdt atliiain
throgighaac
the secondary
transferred
utmiti
maximum temperature: that is safe. Heat sources
(V=a and bearings) must be designed to minimize

an required heat rqecton rate of the cooler, choos a

fan "htwill im the airflw reqnwamats of tine
ooe.C~oler specaicatkoa tw be met ame:
* Rate oil fkow
gpm
Ib/mmi
RAWU air Plow
0 Rated heat r4inction
Swu/mmn
* Oil iialsi teahareature
OF
* Oil Out- a temperature
OFbe
Psig
* Oil inletpressure
"*Oil Pressure drops
Psi
in. HC
Air static premair. drop
(Thmlew values will be establishe by the systan
design and the heat rejectioni requirements.)
Army number of actual ecombinations of airflow and
cooler size can mies the establishe heat rejection
requirements. Hlowvecr. the final chicke will be based

I441.2
wl

Casting F

*The

iitak

Sizing of the cooling fan can be accomplished by

the method described in Chapter 8,AMCP 706-201.
airflow requirements (volume, preusurc. and
velocity) will be determined by the heat rejection
required of the cooler, the oil flow rate, and cooler
core parameters. Based on the required airflow, a ran
that will interface with the available drive and space
can be designed to nmeet the requiren.ents. Both axial
and centrifugal flow fans arc uscd in cooler blowers.
Choice of the type. of fan is dependent upon airflow
volume and pressure requirements. The axial fan
generally is used where: higher shaft speeds are avail,
able, and pressure head at the cooler ishigh. The ce.-ntrifugal flow fan generally is used where high volumt
flow at lower pressures is required. An adverse sideeffect possible with the axial flow fait is a high pitch
nloise.

transferred away by the most efficient means availGears dasig~icd for fail-safe operation must have:
sufficient clearance to prevent interference at the
highei stabilized temperature. The clearancer necessary is de-termined by calculating the diffecrential expansiori bctween steel gear centers and the same distance in the housing, which is usually no-sierrous
material. For instance, a gear set consisting of
straight spurs operating at a center distance LCD of
6.0 in. and a normal operating temperature of 200 *F
may attain a temperature of 900OF while the aluminum housing containing the gears (and bearings) only
rises to 4001F. The rate of expansion of the steel St is
6.5 X 10-' in./in.-*F and the aluminum expansion
rate Sf, is 12 X 10-6 in./in.-*F. The differential
amounat of expansion would then be
4.CD

(A TF~,8, - ATAI
-L(Ti

4-4~.3 EMERGENCY LUBRICATION

Design of a power transmission system to meet
specific emergency operation rcquircinents entails a
coruprehensivt evaluation of each and every dynamic component that ca-i influence the loss of drive
continuity as a result of ii~terruption or loss of lubri-

cation. Redundancy of power paths, dormant ataxiliary lubricants, secondary cooiing systems, and
specific design tolerances are considerations directly
pertinent to emergency lubrication or operation

&fMIEJfi~

1%dmjt.

Ina MI.inIble.

.. -,6,

AA,) 1K 4(7'2 - TI)A, 6 AI 1

X( LCD

-1(9W0 - 200)(6.S)l0-1 -(400 - 200)

(12)10-6) X6.0
- [ (700) (6.5 X 10-1) -(200) (12) (10-'))
X 6.0
(4-6t')
-1(45.5)10-' - (24)10-'] X 6.0

=0.013 in.

The: significance of the preceding calculation is that

~te gears expand in a radial directiorn toward each

4-8?

-~-7

et16r 10 Wediia u
jgwace More than the
hammeg mmpeade to sepwafe the Ipars. In the eamesk to Am m1r opwabatn at fth mumed coosu itio
w~bow isetwamfe
the teeth would have to be cut
(osmoler rocit diameters) aad/or the outside
it
- dKMWAd equivalimt to spraeading the gar
-oiie by a toal of OA1l3 im.
The amm typ ofcalcamlatios. ca... ot made for ball
and roilsr bmains ca a radial clerance book and for
deplex bail baimfsa. cons~hisig cootat a"Q.. on a
radial aasd Wms. Raia grwt diromu
in bearins eand gemr and the effects of dry rumuia~g
an presustod in Ref. 38. Opeimam deuign far rani-as Ihictiom loss in Vars and bearings is covered in
per. 4-21.
To operat. a gma or beatin at temperatures or
9W F id above, a i aacsr that tb copnn
be fabricated from material(s) that exhibit a
"seMoMbl tolorance to high Wimperature. Materials
N)and ANS 649 (MykAa
AMS 647 (Nitrali;..
9O) arn weil suited to the purpose. AMS 6M9 exMAUexalestbo
brdm carctritic ad as
Proves to be one of the most fatigue resistant beawaug
mawariols available. AMS 6475 is a precipitation

-Ws

*rolling

.~i.L~h. a.

~4.

which also exhibits high hot hardness charom-e Ad%,a

The more common geu mand beana& materials, AMS
426 and AMS 6444. respectively, do no have high
hot hardness tLarlicte istes. but they cani withstand
smoderate lod ror a short period. Fail-safe operatim for V wincabe obtained using AMS 265and
ANS 6W4 parn and bearings, but the applications
amalimited to moderate power levels wnd speeds.
design of failBearing cages are also critical to tA~k
safe brings ilrounz and plastic materials i-re not acceptable for fail-safe operation. The characteristic
aildure mode for a bearnog with a bronze cage is mechanical plating of the broaze onto the rolling dclments with immediate loss of running clearanr- and
tenperatu instability, followed by seizurc. Plastics
such as nylon, Teflon (teirafluorotthylene) and
fiberglass offer littlc resistance to failure at elevated
tmutperaturcs. Carbon graphite is an excellent cage
material for dry operation, but its tens~ile strength is
too low for normal use. Mitnufacturing problems and
scrap rates are significant; carbon cages can be armoend with steel reinforcing rings and side plate%but
the cost is quite high. The Allost adaptable cage
material at the present time appears to be mnild steel
with silver-plated pockets. Dry friction between the
elements and the silver-plated cagc is
moderate, and the stoel retains adequate: strength for
"ti application. Clarancez ar,-necessarily a very important part of the cage desiign. Outer-land-riding
4-38

COWm offa tOw risk of entrapping slag-type debriss

betwasa ilhc cage and the outer land. with fracture cc
soma po~ible, while inner- lmnd-riaing cages risk
loss of dleautmm dues to thernal iflerviatiaks between
the cage and tlw saner inag of the bearin. The most
difficul cope deep issen Wn
high speed bearnogs. It
is desirable especially in roller bearings. to provide
imaer4and-riding cages with inne ring thrughhabrication to make maximuam advantage of the traction force vectors. Also, it is desirable to minimize
guui
P
ng-d-to- cage dlearamc from a dynamic
balance stiandpoint. Therefore. if normal high wooed
deigin pareameters are followed, risk of seizure; or
*bun-ut*O
of the beariSg Weream5 for di y opera

&M.

Seveal means of augmenting lubricatioti or supplying lubricant after loss of the primary oil system,
that may be developed are:
I. Inclusion inside rotating shafts of high melting
point lubricant tha melts mand flows into bearings and
on6o gears aftes dry running commen~ces
2. Providing oil traps with metering holes
3. Wicking oil into bearings from oil absorbing
maiterials
Encansulatina lubricant in containers with heat
acuvaelo drain pangs
5. Prokt" awuxliary (idler) gears of oil absorbing or dry lubricant material to nmes with power

4-

ACCLSSORIIES

4-4.1 PAD LOCATION AND DESIGN

CRIrMIA
On small helicopters the atccessories may consist
only of an oil pump. hydraulic pump. tach generator,
and Cooler fan. A simple cc-axiai ar-rangement of oil
pump, tach generator, and hydraulic pump a"on the
OH-58A may be tlhe most effective means of arranging an accssory drive. The accessories arm driven
by a concentrated contact spiral bevel pinion
powered by the input bevel gear.
On medium weight helicopters, where System TCdundaitcy may be required, multiple: accessory pads
usually can be provided on the main gearbox. Hydraulic pumps for primary control actuation must ac
located at widely displaced locations to thwart loss of
both systtms to a single small arms bullet . The size of
the main gearbox normally will be adequate to allow
such displacement while etill providing pads for
generators, tach drive, etc. Accessibility for maintenance must still be a prime critericn for location.
On. large helicopters the most effect~ve means of
providing accessory drives normally is frown a gear-

AMCP 706-202
box remote from the main rotor gearbox. Multiple
with redundancy become imperative, and the
complexiay and power required fok- ground checkout
estabiAhes theu sed for an auxiliary power unit
(APU). With multiple drive pads and high continuous power requirtment tho remote accessory
drive gearbox must have a recirculating oil system,.
coplete with oil pump and filter. For emergency
lbrication considerations, tle gearbox must be selfcontained to prevent oil depletion from the main
tramnsibsa
in the event of the occessory gearbox
being hit by small arms. The location for the meomozy gearbox must not introduce unacceptable
noie kvcls in crew compartments.

rsyhtems

Spower

482 ACCESSORY DRIVE DESIGN

REQUIREMENTS ancofgrtofc-lo.Je
Accussory gearbox desin adcniuainfc
tors must be compatible with the main gearbox
takeoff. airframe and cowling, work platform
provisions& CGI. and minimization of gear-induced
ni Particul~ar drive pad power requirements arc
determined by the accessory (hydraulic pump,
mneratort alternator; eittA and dhw nrn.er Wq4
AND, or QAD pad must be provided to ameet the
continuous power rating and seizure torque level.
The ocavuory driiee shaft normally isprovided with a
sersection that must fail in the evv:nt of seizure of
Ohe accessory rahrthan pemtdamage tothe c192
onssory gearbox. Coincidentally the accessory drive
gearbox must be provided with a connecting drive
buha&t system that will isolate elfectu of accessory gecarbox seizure from the main rotor gearbox. Multiple
dutc
arrnge a~ mreqie to poieisolation
of the APU during normal helicopter operation and
_.u....

=--

e~rl. &m1.001N

rotor gearbox duiing APIJ drive (ground checkout,

c.). APU shaft mounted centrifugal clutches am
welsuited to the former application and one-way
qpfaf ltce are wdl suited to the latter. Functionally, the APRJ must power the acccusoy gearbox
by driving through the APU input clutch while the
main gearbox drive is disengaged by neans of the
APU is sbut down and disengaged while the main
rotor gearbox drives into the accessory gearbox
through the one-way clutch. Additional clutches may
berequired to limit the number of accessory drives
tht operate during ground operation.

gearbox tocation. The hydraulic pumps arc especially

severe noise geenerators and close proximity to a crew
compartment can cause intolerable high-pitch sound
levels. Elastomeric mounts can be an cffcctivc noise
isolation means. APU exhaust ducting must be adequate to pievent noxious gas and heat from invading
the ptrsonncl compartments. As with other gearboxes accessibility must be provided ti., oil lcvcl indicators for preflight maintenane. One man should
be able to change accessories without assistance.
REFERENCES
1. Darle W. Dudley. 77#e Evouioa ofthe Gear AAn.

circa 1966, AGMA 990.14. 50th Annual MEeeting

9.
c,f the American Gear Manstfactwrers .lssociaa.Jn 96
2. D. W. Dudley, Ed.. Gear HamdbAoo. McGrawHill Book Co., NY, 1962, Chapter 5, p. 20.
3. Mbd. Chapter 14, p. 20.
4. Insallation of Hlgrh-Adoction-Ratio Transsmu-

sio.. in the UH-l Helicopter. USAAVLADS TR

-. &

fe

S. F. A. Thoma, Written commentary on paper,

Thkenwwl Bdhawlo, of High-Speed Gears by Luigi
Martinaglia. ASidE Symnpomium an Trensmitsions A Gearn, San Francisco, CA., October
6. Arvid Palmgrca. B.li and Roller Bearing
Enginee'ring, S. V. Burbank A Co., Inc.,
Philadelphia. PA.. 1954. pp. 36-41.
7. Donald F. Wilcox. and E. R. Booser. Bearing
Design aid Application. McGraw-Hill Book
Co.. Inc., NY, 1957. p. t3.
-. Tedri..k A. Harris Rolling Bearing Analysis.
John Wiley A Sons. Inc.. New York. 1966.
Chapter 14 and 15.
9. A. B. Jones. "Rai Motion and Sliding in Bill
Bearing&"~. ASP4E Journal of Basic Engineering.
1-12 (March 1959).
10. P. D. Waehler. The Ralway Conical Bearing.
RE-0012-01. Rollway Sc~aring Co., Inc..
12. Predlctod Characte'ristics of an Optimized SeriesHyl'rid Conical Hiydrostatic Ba11 Bearing.

NASA TN D-6607. Decmber 1971.

13. "Lubrication and Wcar". Lubrication. Texaco,
Inc.. NY 31. No. 6 (1965).

"_ASPEIALREQUREMNTS14. R. S.Fein and K. L. Kreuz. Disnasion on BowmSPECILREUIREENTSdary

Lubrication, NASA Symposium
team

hemutbcosdrdin thcoieof

TX, November 1967. pp. 6.2.1-6.2.25.

15. D). Dowscn, EJamswyd'odynamlc Lubrication.

NASA SP-237, Symposium on Inmerdis.-plinary
Approach to thge Lubrictotion of Concentrated
Contoas. Troy, NY, July 1969.
16. A. Ott, Elast ndrodytwam'ic Lubrication of Involute Gears. ASME Paper 72-PTG-34,
Mechanisms Contference A International Sympaslum on Geafin aod Transmissions, San Francisco. CA. October 1972.
17. E. 1. Radrimovsky. A. Mvirarcti. and W. E.
Broom. Instantaneous Efficiency and Citfficient
of Friction of an Involute Gear Drive. ASM F
Paper 72-PTCF-13, Mechanisms Conference A
Interniational Symposium on Gearing and
Transmissions. San Francisco, CA, October
1972.

28. C. W. Bowen, Analysis of Transmission Failure

Mc~es. SAE Paper 710454. Atlanta, GA, May
10-13. 1971.
29. Designt Contact Stress Limit Rleconmmendations
for Aerospace Gearing. AGMA Specification
411.02, Septenmber 1966.
30. Bowen, op. cit., p, 5.
31. 3. A. '3e~n and J. H. Tinggold, Results of the
Reliability and Maintainability Dem~onstration~ of
the OHl-58A Light Observation Helicopter. A HS
28th National Forum. Washington, D-C, May
1972.
32. CH-54 Reliability and Maintainability, U.A.C.
Report 64276, USAAVSCOM Contract No.
FDAAJOl.68C05l2(3I)P008. Novcrn~bcr 1972.
33. Identification and Analysis of Armyv Helicopter

18. L. U. Tso and R. W. Prowcll, A Study Gf Fri c-

Reliability and Maintainability Pro bi ems and

lion Loss for Spur Gear Teeth, ASM E No. 61 WA-85, October 1962.
Dudley. op. cit., Chapter 14, p. 5.
H. E. Staph, P. M. Ku. and H. J. Caper, Effect
of Surface Roughness and Surface Texture on
Scq~fflng. ASMF-AGMA-IFTMM Symposium
on Gearing and Transmissions, San Fraricisco,
CA.. OactoblCr 1972.
Heat Generated in High Power Reduction
Gearing. Report No. PWA-3718 prcpar-d under
Contrart No. N00019-68-C.0422, Naval Air
Systems Command, June 1969.
Analysis of Noise Generated by' UH-l Helicopter
Transmission. USAAVLABS TR 6841, June
1968.
fnisms,
Program for Helicopter Gearbox Noise Prediction and Reduction. IJSAAVLABS TR 70-12.
March 1970.
Thomas Chiane and R. H. Hadglev. Reduction
of Vibration and Noise Generated by Planetary
Ring Gears in Helicopter Aircraft Transmissions.
ASME Paper 72-PTG-l I, Mechanisms
Conference A International S~ymposium on
Gearing and Transmission~s. San Francisco. CA,
October 1972.
E. 1. Radzimovsky and W. E. Broom, Efficiency
of Gear Transmissions with Flexibility Connected
Grars Subjected to Axial Vibrations. ASME
Paper 72-PTG-I0, Mechanisms Conference &
International Symposium on Gearing and
Transmissionts. San Ffancisco. CA. October
1972.
R. G. Schlegel, R. J. King, and H. R. Mull,
GCear Noise", Machine Design. February 1964,
Study of Helicopter Transmission System
Developmetnt Testing. USAAVSCOM TR 69-3.
June 1968.

Deficiencies, USAAMRDL TR 72-1 IA. Vol. 1.

April 1972.
34. "Automatic Control for Hydraulic Systems",
U. S. Patent No. 3,474,819, October 1969.
35. Solid Lubricants for Helicopter Tail Rotor Gearboxes. Final Report, Contract DAA.J02. b'GW058, US Army Aviation Material Litbora-

19.
20.

21.

22.
23.
24.

25.

26.
27.

~4-90

toricSi.

36. Vulnerability Study of_ the UH-) Helieopter

Power Train System to Small Annms Fire. (U)
BLR Memorandum Report No. 1821 (C)
February 1967.
37. Gre~ase Development and Evaiuati..n for
Helicopter Transmissions and Servo MechaUSAF Tcchnical Report AFML-TR-68338, Parts 1 and ii, November 1970.
38. Fail-Safe Bearing and Gear Lubrication System.
Final Report, Contract Now-65-0592-ci.
Bureau of Naval Weapons. Washington. DC.
March 1969.
Edac fCruie
39. C. W. Bowen, Pilting duacofCrrie
Spur Gears in Synthetic Lubricants, AGMA
Technical Meeting. Chicago, I1- November
1967.
40. M. A. H. Howes, Rielationship of Lubrication
and Fatigue in Concentrated Contacts. ASME
Report No. IITRI-B8l 35-S. NY. D~ccembcr
1971.
41, C. W. Buweit, Strength of Gears - New~
Materials Investigation. AGMA Aerospace
Gearing Committee Meeting. Mil~aakcc. W1.
September 197042. F. G. Rounds. "Some Effects of Additivecs on
Rolling Contact Fatigue". ASUL Trans~actions
10, 243-255 (1%?7).
43. G. 1. Giaham, Combat Optriaftnal Hlight
Profties an the UN-IC. AN-IG. wod (li1-Ill

F'
____

____ ____

__7

____

___

AMCP 70&-202
Helicopters. AHS. 26th National Forunt. Wash-

ington, DC. June 1970.

the Effect onI Their Load Carrying Capacity. N.

Report No. 102 (Part No. 3), Department of
Scientific and Industrial Rcscurch, Sponsored
Research (Germany), 1947.

44. Trade-off Study for Exteinded-Life Helicopter

Transmijslons. USAAVLABS TR-72-40,
November 1972.
63. Strength of Spur, Helical, Herringbone and Bevel
Gear Teeth, AGMA Information Shoet 225.01,
45. Dudley. op. cit., Chapter 14, p. 56.
D~ecember 1967.
46. Mode of Failure Investigations of Helicopter
64. "Bending Stresses in Bevel Gear Teeth".
Transmissions, USAAVLABS TR 70-66,
November 1972.
Gleason Works Gear Engineering Standard;
"iribos", Tribology Abstracts. The British
Rochester, NY, 1965.
h-ydromechanics Research Association, Cran65. E. J.Wellauer and A. Seirig, "Bending Strength
field, Bedford England, published monthly.
of Gear Teeth by Cantilever-Plate Theory"
48. J. 0. Smith and C. K. Liv, "Stresses Due to
Journal of Engineering for Industry, 82, No.3
(August 1960).
Tangenwial and Normal Loads on Elastic Solids
With Application to Some Contact Stress
66. W.L. Mclntire. et. al., Bending Strength of Spur
Problems", Journal of Applied Mechanics, 0, 2adHelical
Gear Teeth, AGMA Paper 229.21
(June 1953).
October 1967.
Srnt
49. B. W. Kelley, "The Importance of Surface.
67. W. Coleman, A New Perspective on the Srnt
Temiparature to Surface Damage", Handbook of
of Bevel Geer Teeth. AGMA Paper 229.13, OcMtechanical Wear. University of Michigan
tober 1969.
Press, I1961.
68. Evaluation of Advanced Gear Materials for Gear-.
50. B. A. Shotter, A Newi Approach to Gear Tooth
boxes and Transmissions. Firial Report. ConRoot Stresses. ASME Paper 72-PTG-42, Octract N00156-69-C-1965, Department of the
tober 1972.
Navy, NAPTC (AED), Philadelphia, PA,
51S.A. Y. Attia, Bending Moment Distribution on
Septemiber 1961.
IF Gear Tteeth 01 Llrcidnkr-arc Frojiles. ASML
0Y. J. Bi. Seabrook and Di. W. Liuficy, JAesuirs OJ a
Paper 72-PTG-46, October 1972.
Flftezn Year Program of Flexural Fatigue
52. Dudley, op. cit., Chapter 14, p. 43.
Testing of Gear Teeth, ASME Paper 63-WAJ. R. Miller, Fillet and Root Design Con199. November 1963.
siderations. AGMA Paper 109.26, February
70. E. J. Ripling and J. E. O'Donnell, How Fracture
1971.
Mechanics Can Help the Designer, SAE Paper
.54. Advancemeni of Spur Gear Design Technology.
710153, January 1971.
USAAVLABS TR 66-85, December 1966.
71, H. J. Carper, P. M. Ku, and E. L. Anderson,
55. Advancement of Helical Gear Design TechEffect ofSome Material and Operating Variables
nolagy. IUSAAVLABS TR 68-47, July 1968.
on ScuffIng, ASME-AGMA-!FTMM Sym56. Advancen:ent of Straight and Spiral Bevel Gear
poslum on Gearing and Transmissions, San FranTechnology, UISAAVLAES TR 69-75, October
cisco, CA, October 1972.
1969.
72. H4. Block, Les tempemnuires des surface dans des
57. A. J, ~.,nianski, Gear Design. SAE 68038 1, Fifth
condition de graissage so=s presslon extreme.
Southern New En~glitid Seminar. April 1968.
Cougr. Modial Petrole, 2mc Congr., Vol. 3.
58. A. 1. Tucker, Dynamic Loads on Gear Teeth,
Paris, 1937.

I47.
I
F53.

Design Applications. ASME, Design Engineering

Conference and Show. NY, April 1971.
59. A. Seirig and D. R. Houscr, Evaluation of
Dynamic Factors for Sp,'r and Helical Gears.

ASME Paper 69-WA/DE-4. November 1969.

60. D. R. Houser and A. Seirif, An Experimental
Investiration of Dynamic Factors in Spur and

Helical Gears, ASME Paper 69-WA/DE-5,

November 1969.
\ 6,'. A. Y. Attia, Defection of Spur Gear Teeth Cut
]
in Thin Rims, ASME Paper 63-WA-14,
6.November 1963.
C. Wcber, The Deformation of J.oaded sgearqr and

73. Gear Scoring Design Guide for A erospace Spur

awed Helical Power Gears, AGMA Information

Sheet 217.01, October 1965.

74. V. N. Borsofi', "On the Mechanism of Gear
Lubrication", ASME -journal of Basic
iinginecring, BID (1959).
75. P. N. Ku and B. B. Baber, "The Effect of
Lubricants on Gear Tooth Scuffing", ASLE
Transactions, 2 (1959).
76. B. W. Kelley and A. J. Lcmanaki, Lubrication of
1n;,oiurr'Gearing, Coqference on Lubrication and
Wear, Institute of Afechanicat Engineering, Lorn-

don, September 1967.

4-91

AMCP 70W202
77. D. W. Dudley, "Modification of Gear Tooth",
Product Engineering. September 1949.
78. H. Walker, "Gear Tooth Deflection and Profilc
Modifications", The .nglneer, London, 3 Parts,
October 14, 1938/'October 21, 1938/August 16,
1940.
79. R. Pedersen and S. Rice, "Case Crushing of
Carburized and Hardened Gears", SAE Transactions. 370-380 (1961).
80. Surface Durability (Pitting) of Spur, Helicai,
Herringbone. ard Sew/ Gear Teeth, AGMA Information Sheet 215.01, September 1966.
81. How To Test Bevel Gears, Gleason Works,
Rochester, NY, 1955.
82. C. W. Bowen, Helicopter Transmission Design,
presented to Texas SAE Region, 1961.
83. A. B. Jones, "Analysis of Stresses and Diflections", Ncw Departure Engineering Data, 1, 161
(1946).
84. T. Harris, An Analytical Method to Predict
Skidding in High Sperd Roller Bearings, ASLE
Paper 65-1-C-14, Park Ridge. IL, October 1965.
85. "Anti-Skid Bearing", U. S. Patent No. 3,410,618, November 1968.
86. G. Lu~ndbe'rg and A. Palmaren. Dynamic
Capacity of Rolling Bearings, Acta Polytechnica, Stockholm, Sweden, 1947.
87. G. Lundberg and A. Palmgreri, Dynamic
Capacity of Rolling Bearings. Acta Polytechnica, Stockholm, Sweden, 0952.
88. W. Weibull, "A Statistical Theory of the
Strength of Materials", Proceedings of the
Royal Swedish Institute for Engineering
Research, 151 (1939).
89. Bamberger, c', al., "Life Adjustment Factors for
Hall and Roller Bearings", Engineering Design
J-

AC'&AV
%usuaur MOML,
S'

NY,

N~

r,,~

Snt,.mber
-

197!.DfetoDanss1adPonssi

90. A. B. Jones, "A Ger'eral Theory for Elastically

Constrained Ball and Radial Roller Bearings
under Arbitrary Load and Speed Conditions".
A SME Journal of Basic Engineering, 309-320
(June 1960).
91. A. B. Jo'ies and T. A. Harris, "Analysis of a
Roll'ng Element Idler Gear Bearing Having a
Dtiormnable Outer Race Structure", ASME
Journal of Basic Engineering. 273-277 (June
1963).
92. Charles Wilson, Curvic Couplii g Design.
Gleason Works Design Guide, Rochester, NY.
February 1964,
93. John Kayser and Wilson Groves, A New
Concept in Dpive-.'ine Slip Splln-'s. SAE paper
680118, January 19t8.
94. E. A Ferris, A utomotive Sprag Clutches
-

4-92

Design and Application, SAE paper 208A,

January 1901.
95. Sprag Overriding A ircrafi Clutch. U SAA MR DL
TR 72-49, July 1972.
96. Aircraft Clutch Assemblies, Ramp Roller.
USAAMRDL TR 72-31, July 1972.
97. Spring Clutch Applications. Enginecrisig Report
No. PD-462A, Curtis5-Wright Corp., Caldwell,
NJ, February 1964.
98. Spring Overriding Aircraft Clutch.
USAAMRDL TR 72-17, May 1973.
99. "Hydraulic Brake", US Patent No. 3,228, 195,
January 1964.
100. Crash Survival Design Guide, Revised,
USAAVLABS TR 71-22, October 1971101. "Surface Scaling"', This is Magnesium, 16,
Heathcote and Coleman, Birmingham,
England, August 1968.
102. J. H. Hull and S. J. Erwin, The Effect of
Mechanical Deformation on the Tensile Properties and Residual Stresses in Aluminum Forgings.
ASME Paper W72-53.1, Western Metal and
Tool Exposition and Conference, Los Angeles.
CA, March 1972.
103. Danle W. Dudley, Successes and Failures i.n
Spac. Gearing. S:AL-AbME Paper No. 671lB.
presented at the Air Transport and Space
Meeting. NY, April 1964.
104. Wayne L. Mclntire, How to Reduice Gear Vibra.
tion Failures, AGMA Paper, presented ai the
AGMA Aerospace Gearing Technical Cornmit tee Meeting, Orlando, FL. February 1964.
101. An Investigation of Helicopter Noise Reduction
by Vibration Absorbers and Dampirg.
USAAMRDL TR 72-34, August 1972.
106. Rudolph H-ohenberg, Characterization of
alr
elcin igoiadPonssi
alr
Prediction, Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting of
the Mechanical Failures Prevention Croup, Ofrice of Naval Research, January 1970.
107. Donald Davis, Time Series Analysis Techniques.
Proceedings of the Tenth Meeting of the
Mechanical Failure Prevention Group, Office of
Naval Resea.ch, January 1970.
lO8, J. M. Vanct, Influence of Coupling Properties on
the Dynamics of High Speed Powei- Transmission
Shafts, ASME no 72-PTG-36, Mechanisms
Conference and International Symposium on,
Gearing and Transmissions, San Francisco. CA,
October 1972.
109, Flighs Test Evaluation of a Supercritical-Speed
Shaft, USAAMRDL TR 70-50, September
1970.
110. Design Criteria for High-Speed Power Transmis-

-..-

.)

1..
I11.
112.

113.
114.

1..

. ...

sion Shafts. ASD-TDR-62-128, AFAPL,

Wright-Patterson A: Force Base, OH,
December 1964.
The Bossier Coupling, NASA CR 1241,
National Asronautic, and Spary Adninistr1tion, Washington, DC, January 1969.
The Bossier Coupling Experimental flight Test.
Finai Report, Contract No. 0156-69-C-1316,
Department of the Navy, Naval Air Propulsion
Test Center, Washington, DC, March 1972.
C. W. Bowen, Gear Couplings, AGMA Paper,
Aerospace Gear Committee Meeting. Seattle,
WA, September 1962.
Comparative Lubrication Studies ojf 0.1-58A
Tail Rotor Draveshaft Bearings, NASA TMX68118, NASA Technical Memorandum,
Cleveland, OH, July 1972.

-.

* -

--

,, ,

7-. .

AMCP 706-202
115. An Extreme Pressure, Anti-wear Grease for
Transmission Lubrication. AFML-TR-72-282,
USAF Technical Report, December 1972.
116. R. Cooper, Development of a Three Micron Absolute Main Oil Filter For the T-53 Gas Turbine,
ASME Joint Fluidi Engineering, Heat Transfer.
and Lubrication Coqference, NY, September
a970.
117. OH-6A Product Improvement Program Upgrade Transmission to a Longer Life Configuration, Final Report, Contract DAAJOI-68C-I 123, p. 20, US Army, AVSCOM, St. Louis,
MO, May 1973.
118. Investigationof an ExperimentalAnnular-Shaped
Integrated Trarsmission Oil Cooler Design.
USAAVLABS TR 70"4, September 1970.

4-93

CCHAPTEP 5

ROTOR AND PROPELLER SUBSYSTEM DESIGN

5-0
A
a
a,

LIST OF SYMBOLS

b
b,

- propcller inflow angle, de3

- spred of sound, fps
- cofficient which is derendent upon mass
and stiffness distribution and has a differect value for each mode of vibration, dimensionless
= tip !oss factoi, dimensionless
- blade loading, lb/ft'
- number of blades
- blade semichord, ft

- empirical constant, dimentionless

CD

- mean rotor blade profile drag coefflcient,

dimensionless

CL

f
8L

4
KE
NCR
L,
I
M

M
Md,
,

less

M,
MR

- mass per unit length of the beam, slug/in.

- mass of spanwise increment at outboard

m,

- mass of spanwise increment at inboard end

end of blade (N), slug

sionless
%P

mil

cd

c
c,,
i

of blade (c). slug

- coefficient of pitching moment, dimensionless

o
.. r.Ip

, diiac

n`1
n

distance fro:n beam neutral axis to outer

fiber, in.
- airfoil section drag coefficient, dimensionless
= airfoil section lift coefficient, dimensionless
=
= maximum section lift coefficient, dimensionless

load factor, dimtnisionless

the number of vibratory stress cycles aca2nariruiard vI.rcc
e nvr f

,-siocm,,oed

particular operating condition

thrust coefficirnt, dimensionless

CT
I,

coefficient of lift, dimensionless

- nrean
meL rotor blade lift coefficient, dimenCM

coefficient dependent upon mass distribution and the mode of vibration, dimensionless
- kinetic energy, ft-lb
= rotational kinetic energy, ft-lb
wing lift, lb
= length, in.
- bending moment, in.-lb or ft-lb
Mach iumber, dimcnsionl=es
= advancing tip Mach number, dimension-

P
P
Q,
Qp
Q,,r

tail rotor rotational speed, rev/sec

gust load factor, dimensioniess

= actual powet required, hp
pressure, psi
= engine torque, units as required
-, propeller torque, lb-ft
= main rotor torque, lb-ft
2
- dynamic pressure, lb/ft

- propeller diameter, ft

= propeller tip radius, ft

- modulus of elasticity; psi

4,%,

.F

El
e
F
g
HP0

1,
Ie

i,,,5K

excitation factor, dimensionless

- stiffness, lb-in)
- location of flappiig hinge from the center
of rotation, in.
- force, lb
- acceleration due to gravity, ftisec2
- profile power requiid, hp
- mass moment of inertia, slug-ft2
= momcnt of inertia, in.'
- polar moment of inertia (per blade for a
tail rotor), slug-fV
- propeller mass moment of inertia, slug-ft2
- mass moment
slug-ft
o
helicopter yaw mass moment of inertia,
slug-ft'
- ratio of total tail rotor thrust to net tail
rotor thrust, dimensionless
-T
- notch factor, dimensionless
- gust alleviation factor, dimensionless

1R,

RN

r
r
S
SFP.
.S/A
T
AT
T/A
T

T,,
T,,
r
V

rotor radius, units as required

main
. L.d adi.,. f,
= tail rotor radius, ft
- outside blade radius, in.
= radius, ft
radius of curvature, in.
Laplace operator, see-'
= stall flutter parameter, dimensionless
= ratic of blocked disk area to total disk area,
dimensionless
- thrust, lb
- change in thrus', lb
= tail rotor disk or thrust loading, psf
- tail rotor th, ust required to compensate
for main rotor torque, lb
total tail rotor thrust required. lb
total tail rotor thrust minus the fin force,
lb
propeller axis downtilt from wiog zero-liftline, deg
- true airspeed, kt
robo

5-1

AMCP 706202
V

V.
W
W
W

w
X
X"

x
Y

6,
6

S-

average velocity of contacting surfaces,

fpm
airspeed, kt
indicated
f
= induced velocity, fps
vertioal airspeed, fps
S art
uste
weight,
lb
- aft adjustable weight, lb
W/ forward adjustable weight. lb
proprller weight, lb
maximum allowable weight for abrasion
strip.
lb
sr
minimum allowable weight for abrasiob
strip.
lb
-

=disk loading, b/ft2

= distance bet~wen center of main rotor and
tail rotor-antitorque moment arm, ft
= dynamic axis, in.
A clearance between main rotor and tail
=
rotor bladc tips, ft
= chordwise distance from blade leading
edge to centroid of mass increment. in.
=spanwisc distance from flapping hinge to
centrois of mass increment, in.
= rntroi
S
onlfmass incrment,
,
in.that
rotor blade o g n , dvice
= propnler blade iangle, deg
= Taprp (Cblade
=Tt''( ICL)
= pitch-flap coupling angle, positive if pitch
is decreased when the blade flaps up, deg
= rotor blade angle, de8
advance ratio, dimensionless
coefficient of friction, dimensionless
rotor mass ratio
= air density, slug/ft1
= standard deviation, defined P.s the rootof the dviations b.S.......
points and the mean
data
tween individual
= rotor solidity, dimensionless
=

p
Ir

$T

4'
4'
4,

9
S;,
R11

blade bending stress, psi

= rotor blade solidity, dimensionless

propeller inflow angle, deg
= yaw rate, rad/sec
2
- yaw acceleration, rad/sec

= rotor angular velocity, rad/sec

= tail rotor angular velocity, rad/sec
= rotor tip speed, fps
-

precession velocity, rad/sec

- propeller speed, rad/sec

= natural torsional frequency, rad/sec
= natural frequency of a rotating beam,
rad/scc

5-1

INTRODUCTION

In general, all rotors and propellers arc mcchanical devices used to produce thrust by accelerating 3
fluid mass. They range in sophistication from simple
two-bladed, fixed-pitch configurations to coaxial
counterrotation systzms with individual rotor colicctive and cyclic pitch control The analytical techniques for all types arc very similar. However, there
are minor variations in the definition of rotor-propoller nondimensional parameters whi,:h prove to be
unimportant once it is realized that data can be
transposed readily from one format to another.
The overall performance of a rotor or propeller
may be described by its tip speed, airfoil characterisWics, solidity ratio, and disk loading. Rotational inertia also is important to rotor design because it
affects helicopter autorotational performance. Based
upon selected vialues for these parameters, the detail
design of the rotor is largely a task of optimizing the
configuration in terms of the number of blades, flapping and inplane freedoms, dynamic response to
externally applied cyclic forces, and the assurance
the hardware can be built with a fatigue or serlife compatible with the design requirements.

The paragraph addressing "esign parameters reviews those preliminary design factors which will be
converted to useful hardware in the design of the
convertemn
rotor
The system.
paragraph on rotor system kinematics dis.
cubses the blade motions to be accommodated in the
detail design; in particular, the flapping, leading, and
blade-feathering motions. Typical rotor systemi cccommodat, these mctions by means of teetering, fully articulated, or hingeless hubs. The paragraph also
describes a number of methods that provide for both
cyclic and collective feathering of individual blades.
The paragraph on rotor system dynamics addresses

the internal stiffness and mass distributions of the

rotor blades, and the relative effects of these factors
on aeroclastic stability, vibration response, flutter,
ground resonance, and other phenomena related to
system damping and periodic forcing functions. Also

covered in this paragraph are rotor responses to such

transient excitations as gasts and acoustic loadings.
The discussion of blade retentions include. the
various means of attaching the blades to the rotor

hub. Among these are elastomeric bearings, tensiontorsion straps, and antifriction bearings. Also described are auxiFaiy devices used at the hub to alleviate blade forces associated with blade pitch, and the
lag hinge dampers used to dissipate the excess energy
of the inplane motion of the blades. Blade-folding
provisions, both manual and powered, arc discussed
as well.

5-2

The paragraph on rotor blades discusses trade-offs

in blade geometry, such as airfoi! section and root-totip taper and twist, and their relationphip to the corresponding parametric analyses discussed in AMCP
706-201. Design considerations that provide for
manufacturing simplicity, inservice adjustments of
blade balance and track, and the blade materials and
joining
needed to position masses and
Sstiffnessestechniques
properly, are addressed. Also discussed are
rotor
fatigue
Th system
paragraph
on lives.
propellers

3. Radar cross section

4. Damage tolerance against
a. Striking a solid object such as tree limb
b. Being struck by weapon fire, either solid or
HE
5. Repairability
6. Fatigue life
7.
Weight
8. cost

deals generally with

Specific
the performance
parameters
probably willvalues
haveorbeen
selected during
preliminary

the design requirements for propellers and develops

design considerations in the same manner as do prior
paragraphs for roturs.
The paragraph on antitorque rotors reviews the
knowledge gained in recent years concerning the
desirable direction of rotation, the flapping freedom
required, the merits of pusher versus tractor configurations, etc. The advent of "flat-rated" enginetransmission systems with high-altitude capability
has placed additional demands on tail rotor control
power. Additionally, the airspeeds encountered in
normal operation have increased markedly, creating
adverse environmental conditions for tail rotors.
Th.. , rn niher
et problems, are discussed in light of
the lastest knowledge.

design. CornpliaricL with the operational criteria is

dependent largely upon the materials and method of
manufactume, which will be selected during detail
design.
The design problem initially is broken down into
the requirements for hover, high-speed level flight,
and high-speed maneuvering and each is discussed independently. The total problem then is considered
and some approaches are offered.

5-2

DESIGN PARAMETERS

..

5-2.1 HOVER
Selection of the optimum hovering rotor involves
all the performance related parameters listed previously. with the exception of advance ratio. Hover
power is divided into "induced power" (thi chs.-geable to providing lift) and "profile power" ithat
chargeable to blade profile drag).

The selection of rotor parameters is quite complex,

as each major variable interrelate-s with all other vari-

5-2..l

rotor performance arc outlined in Chapter 3, AMCP

706-201. Included is a discussion of the tyne of parametric analysis required to optimize a rotor fj' *
given group of perfoimance requirements. The discussion herein supplements that description of preliminary design procedures, with emphasis upon the
considerations pertinent to the detail design phase.
The parati etots that are considered in connection
with rot,.r performance include:
1. Uisk loading
2. Blade loading
3. Blade tip Mach number and advance ratio
4. Number of blades
5. Blade twist
6. Airfoil section(s).
For an Army helicopter that will be requirel to
operate in the nap-of-the-earth and in combat, complianc only with specified performance requirements
will not produce an acceptable design. Additional
design criteria that may or may not be defined quan.
titatively for a particular helicopter rotor include:
I. Maneuverability
2. Noise

loading is described in Chapter 3, AMCP 706-201. And:disk

more extensiv, discussion can be found in Ref. I.
Disk loading frequently is determined by factors
other than performance. Fo" example, a requirement
,
for air transportability may dictate a fuselage length
ih'witation t ' .
inur
limit the rotor diameter.
Rotor downvasi and wake effects also are involved
because induced velocity is pioprotional to the
.*e':
square root ef the disk loading. Thus, the higher the
disk loading, the higher the induced - or hovering
downwash - velocity, which will result in increased
ground erosion and greater difficulty for personnel
and cargo operations in rotor wal'e areas.
Another flcect of disk loading on performance
concerns vertical drag, or download. Vertical drag
results from the impingemen, of the wake upon the
-.
fuselage, horizontal tail, and wings (if any). The effect
of vertical drag appears as an increment of rotor
thrust required over and above the vehicle weight.
However, evaluation of vertical drag is not precise.
One of the methods described in par. 3-2.1.1.9,
AMCP 706-201, employs wske velocity distributions, such as those given in Ref. 2, to obtain dy.

ablcs. The basic analytical procedure for determining

Disk Loading and Induced Power

The relationship between induced power and disk

"5-3

AMCP 706-202
namic pressure distribt.tions. Drag coefficients are estahlished consistent with the body shapes in the
wake, and th-i vertical drag is calculated by a strip
analysis. One weakness of this method is the relative
inaccuracy of the wake geometry described in Rcf. 2.
Improved accuracy of vertical drag calculations is
desirable although this mnay require wxtesrsive development of more refined wakc analyses. Model tets
can be perfornied with scaled rotor and airframe
models. However, Reynolds number effects covninl
on data
from these tests can be significant, For conventional
helicopter shapes (without wings) and values of disk
loading, dowrnload is normally about 4-6% (f the
vehicle gross weight.
Hovering induced power also is affected by blade
twist. Tdiij effect is due primarily
to altcrptions in
spanwise load distribution as a result
of twist.
I
details twist effects for the "ideal" rotor. Twist Ref.
seletion for the actual rotor is covered in pat. "-2.1.5.
The "swirl", or inplane component of induced velocity is another factor that affects induced power.
This inplane component frequently is omitted in the
determination of the induced power of the rotor in
hover or axial flight. Fig. 5-1. based on work reported
in Ref. 3. shows that the swirl velocity effectively
rmdu, the magnitudc of the rotational velocity s.cn
by the blade element. For lightly loaded rotors, this
swirl component can be considered insignificant, but
it can be substantial in the more heavily loaded rotors
used today. In general, swirl effects should be included in hovering-power-required computations unless disk loading w < 3.5.
5-2.1.2 Blade Loading
The thrust produced by a rotor per unit of blade

area is the blade loading BL. This parameter can be

defined most sirnnlv in terms of the disk loading w

and the rotor solidity c.

INPLANE COMTO 'lENT

OF INDUCEV VELOCITY

VELOCITY
(SWIRL)
A-VELOCITY
SEEN BY
OLADE ELEMENT

AXIAL
COMPONENT
OFVELOC
INDUCED
ITY
(DOWNWASH)

..

Flprt 5-1.

wh-re
Rrns
R
-

V L I
EFFECTIVEALL'"ROTAIIONA
VELOCITY

--.

..

"

Vector Diagram of Swirl In Hover

mean rotor profile drag coefficient, dii us,

rotor radius, ft

air density, slug/ft!

- rotor angular velocity, rad/sec
The mean rotor profile drag cocfficient (" is a
function of the mean blade lift coIficient CL. in the
"ideal" case (Ref. 1) CL = 6Ct
C1
T
(
u
o.rR~p(flR)
(5-3)
and
C-r
a

ap(1tR)"

-4)

where

C
T

=-

thrust coefficicnt, dimension;ss

thrust, lb

fiR = rotor tip speed, fps

For the more realistic case, where tip losses and
other effects are considered, ZrL can be described

where
w - disk loading, lb/flt'
Srotor solidity, blade area/disk arma, dimensionless
More meaningful than this parameter is the niirr,
blade lift coefficient eL' This coefficient can be ut-ed

more accurately as 7Cr/c (see par. 3-2, AMCP 706201). Also, a single curve of airfoil seocion lift and
drag coefficients cl and cd characteristic of the section
is not representative of the actual rotor case, where
Reynolds number and compressibility effects are
significant. When there are spanwisc variations in
blade planform and/or airfoil -'.... *."! actual
values of these characteristic coefficients deviate even
furthe; from the ideal.

to define the aerodynamic operating point for the

rotor blade airfoil sections and, therefore, to det(Tmine the drag coefficient. The profile power required
HPo is proportional to the mean drag coefficier,if,
and can be expressed as

The rclationship between t and o can be

developed from flight tests of rotor configurations
similar to the one being designed (i.e., similar in
Mach number, twist, and airfoil secticas); or it may
be developed from detailed power-required calcu-

BL

HP0

w
o

(5-1)

hp

-,

4400
5-4

lb/ft

(5-2.)

lations that include the spanwise variation of all parameters.

The optimum value of mean blade lift cotfficient

I
9_.CP

06-202

cqLnerally is that value corresponding to

(r/UD),.,j,(Ref.4). Further, it is preferable to obtain
a blade configuration (planform, twist, and airfoil
section(s) ) such that the ratio of section lift 3nd drag
coefficients cl/cd is maximum simultaneously all
along the blade span.
5-2.1.t Blade Tip Mach NvaSWb
Performance and weight considerations generally
arm in conflict when efforts are made to optimize
rotor tip speed. High tip Mach numbers (greater than
0.65) can be attractive from the points of view of both
transmission and blade weight, but they have dctrimental effects upon both power required and noise
propagation. If higher tip Mach numbers are
employed, tip airfoil selection becomes more critical
hover performance; thin airfoils (thickness less
than 10% of chord length) are desirable, and the twist
must be selected so as to maintain relatively low tip
lift coefficients,
5-2.1.4 Number of Iades
I

--

nf

....

unit.s,,C'gr g:ti Inklina

mean

blade lift cocfficient, and blade tip Mach number,

rotor solidity has been defined uniquely. With any
significant variation from a rectangular planform for
the rotor blades, the effective rotor solidity a, should
be evaluated using the method of Ref. I.
Blade area is defined by the product of rotor solldity and disk area and can be divided among an-,
number of blades. Propeller design expeijenc indicates that efficiency increases with increasing
numbers of blades. However, recent analytical advances, confirmed by flight and whirl test data, show
that tg

-is

'r

r..

..

5-2.1.6 Airfoil Sectiom

Rotor blade airfoil sections preferred for %lhcir
aerodynamic characteristics frequently are incompatible with structural design requirements. and a
compromie nmmt be made. In general, for the
hovering rotor the inboard airfoil should be of a lowdrag type (at least with extensive lower.surface laminar flow). Outboard of 70% radius, compressibility
effects i..ust t a considered, and the lift-to-drag ratio
L/D for the airfoil section slould occur at the local
Mach number and angle of attack. These conditions
suggest a spenwise variation in airfoil contour. If a
constant airfoil is employed, its scleclion should be
weighted toward complying with the angle of attack
and Mach nun.,er conditions at or near the blad- tip
(outboard of 80% radius).
5-2.1.7 Hovering Thrust Capability
The capability of a hovering rotor to produce
thrust can be expressed by a simple relationship.
However, the agreement between the calculated and
measured values of thrust produced for a given
amount of power applied to rotors of practical cons are
,provene,
figuration is not good. Several "
available and arc reviewed in par. 3-2.1.1, AMCP
706-201. The method most appropriate for calculatinS the capability of a new rotor possibly is dependent upon the similarity to rotors for which analytical and experimental results are available. The limitations of tOie available methods for prediction of the
performance of hovering rotors also is discussed in
Ref. 5.
5-2.1.8 GuIdeflin
o 'rthv.

.u-*v.rn

Apparently, intcrblad interference can reduce the

hovering efficiency of muitibladed rotors (Ref. 5).
The selection of the number of b!ades, therefore, is
dependent morm upon considerations of overall rotor
system weight than upon aerodynamic efficiency (see

eters requires systematic parAmethc varip.tion involving all of the major variables given previously.
This analysis is discussed in detail in par. 3-4 1,
AMCP 706-201. Generalized results arce given in the
paragraphs that follow.

par. 3-4.1, AMCP 706-201).

S-2.1.5 Twig
Selection of blade twist for the "'ideal" rotor is
covered in Ref. I in current helicopters, twist

In current helicopter designs, disk loading generally does not exceed 10 lb/ft' . Light helicopters (less
than 5000 lb gross weight), tend to have disk ioadings
of 3-5 lb/ft2 . The medi in,-size helicopter, 500015,000 lb tends to be in the 6-5 lb/fl' class, and for

generally is linear in order to simplify manufacturing. If stretch-formed spar3 are used, nonlinear
twist isobtained quite easily. In any event, twist selection is a function of disk loading and blade tip Mach
number. The higher the disk loading, the greater the
optimum twist; and the higher the tip Mach number,
the greater the required twist. Twist optimization is
achieved by systematic variati.ns using detailed
analytical methods.

larger helicopters disk loading is of the order of 10

lb/ft' . Si'e and weight effects bias the disk Ioadings
higher as gross weight increases.
The curremt cinphasis on high-altitude, high-temperature design conditions results in values of mean
b!ude lift coefficient ?'L values of the order of 0.44 to
0.54 for sea level standard day conditions at primary
mission gross weight.
Current helicopters have hove:ing blade tip Mach
5-5

numbers rangting ftom 0.50 to 0.75. Weight and struc-

tural conciderationh suggcst higher minimum valuts,

and noise considerations suggtst lower maximum
values - resuliOi in a conpr'nise design fange
Iyetwecn Mach 0.6 and 0.7.
5-2.2 HIGH-SPEED LEVEL FLIGHT
To maximize bigh-tpeed level flight performance,
the same patr metta are considered as in optimizing
hover performance. in addition, the ratio of flight
hspeed to rotational tip speed, or advance ratio o, is intraduced.
In high-seed
.
design, the basic compoatase
between advancing blade tip Mach numberoad advbnce ratio. The advancing tip Mach number Man ,
can be defined
ts

cannot be divorced frori the hover and maneuver

requirements. However, it is discussed as x separate
probklm here, where for a given amount of power
available, airpeed is to be maximized, Initially. a
source such an Ref. 6 crn be used to determine an initial set of values for twist, solidity, and tip speed.
This source requireiy that values for gross weight and
vehicle parasite d;,ag area first be assumed. Ref. 6
also assumes a particular airfoil section and a linear
twist distribution. From this starting point, modificationt of blade tip airfoil section, planform shape,
and twist can be made in order to achieve speed increases up to the limits of the power available.
To increase the advancing blade tip Mach number
at which drag divergence becomes critical, airfoil
thickness can be reduced. For symmetrical airfoil&,

reduction of thickness to vaiues of les than 12% norV + RR

ad

I#,,

(5-5)

where
W speed of sound, fps
a
- true airspeed, fps
V
At a given forward speed, decreasing tip apeed
d __ecrass the amount of bUia, that i providing use uI
lift and propulsi've force, because more and more of
th, 411 is in reversed flow. This effect is accompanie&,, nocessarily, by increased lift coefficients over
which eventually can
of the disk,
part amounts
the
of stall.
lead"working"
to significant

The alternative approach is to increase rotor tip

speed. This leads to increasingly higher advancing
blade Mach numbers. Eventually, drag divergence is
attained over a significan. portion of the advancing
blade, with increased power requirements a& a rsult.
Increasing blade area with a given value of rotor

tip speed will lower the mean blade lift coefficient

and, therefore, allow operation at higher advance

ratios.
Increasing twist tends to alleviate the retreating
blade stall problem up to a point, but also can result
in negative lift on the advancing blade tip. The latter
is disadvantegeous because higher lift coefficients
must be achieved over the positive-lift portions of the
disk in order to compensate for the negative lift on
the advancing blade tip. Also, with large amounts of
blade twist, drag divergence - with an accompanying increast in power required - may occur due
to high negative angles of attack on the advancing
blade
It is necessary to determine the cormbination of tip
speed. solidity. and twist that results in the minimum
power required for a given speed, or the maximum
sp-ed for a given amount of power available,
Normally, the high-speed performance problem

5-6

mally results in a reduction of maximum lift coefficient. This is detrimental for thet lifting capability of
the retreating blade. This effect can be altered by introducing camber into the airfoil scction of reduced
thickness in order to maintain an acceptable value for
C,,,. while also attaining an increased drag diverof
_nt,
i-_,Ip_.m,
,_,n
1_r... -.
gpnp P _=h .--,-m
camber will result in undesirable blade pitching
moments at high level-flight Mach numbers.
Sweep of the blauc tip can be employed to decrease
number, thus allowing higher
the effective Mach
values of rctual advancing tip Mach number (V +I

OR)/a before the drag rise due to compiassibility

becomes unacceptably high. However, care must be
exercised to avoid the loss of effect-ve area and,
therefore, of retreating-blade lift capability.
Nonlinear twist distributions may assist in optirizing speed for a given amount of power available.
i6i detiled Ioto
a iTA CzIVts IIIUhM Ve invitIed
analysis by consideration of radial and azimuthal
variations of angle-of-attack and Mach number. No
r, Its can be offered; trkl-and-error is the only approach currently available.
5-2.3 HIGH-SPEED MANEUVERING FLIGHT
Achievement of the desired maneuver capability at
a given airspeed also may affect tat selection of final
values for the basic rotor design parameters. Because
of increasing amounts of retreating blade stall, tht
higher the forward speed (for a given tip speed) the
more difficult it is to achieve high maneuvering load
factors.
To begin with, a static analysis is not satisfactory
for determination of maneuvering flight capability.
As discussed in Ref. 7, rotor pitch and roll rates are
involved in both symmetrical and turning maneuvcrs, and can affmt load factor capability signifi-

AMCP 70t-2022

J-.

cantly. These maneuvei rates aler the cnglo-of-attack

distribution obtained during steady-state flight at a
givtn speed and rotor thrust level.
In general, to a,;hieve high maneuver capability,
blade loading in trimmed steady-state flight, i e., normal load factor nZ - 1.0, must be low. Load factor,
or maneuver, capability can be related to (CT/ra), ,/(CT/u)Iwz - 1.0. Thus, for a given rotor design with
known (CT/c),,, the lower the trin thrust cotfficient (or blade loading), the greater the load factor
capability. The other -,:rn under decgn control is
(C'/),. The major variables for maneuver capsbility are advance ratio, airfoil section, and twist "or a
given solidity ratio.
decreases
As advance ratio increases, (CT/O)W(Rcf. 8). Therefore, for a given flight speed, an increase in rotoi tip speed increases (Cr/c),,. However, as for level flight, a maximum value of Pdvancing blade tip Mach number must not be exceeded,
Advancing blade shock stall can be encountered if the
Mach number is too high.
The magnitude of (CT/i)6
for a given advance

tational kinetic energy KER is defined as

A (S

KER

)
,

(0-o)

fi-lb

where
mass momcent of inertia of the rotor.
slug-ft2
The symbols fl,,,i ad fl,,d represent the rotor
angular velocities at the beginning and end of the
flare maneuver, respectively. However, the determination of an acceptable value for (fi,1 for a new
rotor is largely judgmental, with little more than the
designer's experience available to assure that the
rotor remains controllable throughout the flare.
Computation of helicopter autorotativc performance is discussed in further detail in par. 3-5.1.
AMCP 706-201. In par. 3-5.3, AMCP 706-201 an
autorotativc index AI is developed. Acceptable values
of this index, and henctc of the rotor inertia, also are
discussed.
'R

ratio is a strong function of the maximum stetion lift

coefficient near the blade tip. This is not ne.essarily a
dircta funct-so of the sction, or two-dir,,-enioal,
maximum section lift coefficient cl., because of
complicating factors such as spanwise flow and oscillating airfoil effects. However, it is a good general

5.3.1 GENERAL
Rotor systems can be described as articulated, gimbaled (or teetering), hingeless (sometimes referred to
as "rigid"), and flex-hinge.
The blades of an articulated rotor system are at-

of the tip section will

tached to the hub with mechanical hinges, allowing

improve the rotor maneuvering theust capability,

Because retreating blade stall generally occurs first,
the magnitudis of cl.1 . at the retreating blade tip

the blade froedon, to flap up and down, and swing

back and forth (lead and lag) in the disk plane. The
blades of the hingeless rotor are attached to the hub

rule that an increase iii c,..

Mach number also is quito important. New airfoil

design developments (Ref. 4) allow a tailoring of the
at a
sction profile to obtain the peak value of
dosirod Mach numbr.
Blade twist also affects maximum thrust capability

without mechanical hinges for flapping or lead-lanotion. The flex-hinge, or strap-hinge, rotor enploys
a flexible structural attachment of the blade to the

by controlling the lift distribution at the retreating

ness of the articulated or gimbaled system.

-,,h!uh,,,,,,u

Generally, the type of rotor system will have been

selected during preliminary design. In par. 3-3.3.
AMCP 706-201, each of the types of rotor system is

mization of twist for the maneuver case usually is

mdetrimental to level-flight performance, of a omprot-

dcribed, together with the methods by which each is

controlled and in turn is used to provide control of

miae o.een ig required. Computation of helicopter

the helicopter. The discussion includes a simplified

detail in par. -. , AMCP 706-201.

articulated) rotor, while the dynamics of rotor

5-L4 INERTIA
Rotoratertics

summary of the flapping motions of a flapping (fully

systems are described in detail in Chapter 5, AMCP

",
erain autorotative

106-201. The descriptions of the several types of

rotors in par, 3-3.3, AMCP 7dti 201, include dis-

landing characteristics. Rotor angula velocity and

cussions of the advantages and disadvantages of

inertia uniquely define the rotational kinetic energy

of the rotor that "an be used in the development of a
decelerating force to arreqt descent velocity in a zero-

each, together with a review of the heiicopter siLes for

which each may be most appropriate.
The discussion of rotor systems kinematics and

power or partial-power landinli. The amount of ro-

controi which follows supplements the introductory

Ro

IS,

.,. IL,,,

high stiffness of the hingeless rotor and the low stiff-

blade tip. Optimum twist is determined only by

detailed analyses of the maneuvers including major
effects such as pitch and roll rates. However, opti-

is discussedin more
erformanM
C
3
ancuvering flight

hub

0.

5-7

'

AAMG 71*202-

TYPE
VECTOR
TILT

MOMENT SOURCE

LIFT
VECTOR

FLAP

1. THRUST VECTOR TILT

2. HUB MOMENTS DUE TO SHEAR
FORCE AT HINGE

(A) ARTICULATED ROTOR

LIFT
VECTOR
TILT"

L.-

TU

\ROTOR

V1

SRTILT

\ANGLE

(B) GIMBALED OR TEETERING ROTOR

LIFT
VECTOR_ VECTOR
TILT
/

1. SMALL THRUST VECrOR TILT

IHINGE

2. HUB MOMENT DUE TO SHEAR FORCE

AT EQUIVALENT HINGE
3. HUB MOMENT DUE TO BLADE

STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS

(C) HINGELESS OR FLEX-HINGE ROTOFR.

Figur 5-2.

Contlrol Mommil for Bai

Rotor Ty.pes

AMCP 706 202

,decription
in par. 3-3.3.
AMCP 706-201,
and the
5,
presntation
of Chapter
theoretically oriatted

LAG
HINGL

AMCP 706-201.
PITCH

$-3.2 HELICOPMTR CONTROL

Inflight control of the helicopter, using the rotor
types cited. is provided by:
1. Momenta acting upon tho rotor hub
2. Tilting the resultant rotor lift vector
3. A combination of these.
I he control moment source for each type is illustrated in Fig. S2. Fom the gimbaled rotor, a given
rotor tilt produces a corresponding tilt of the lift vcctr, which, in turn, produces a control moment about
the helicoptcr CG. An additional control mon~elit
exists in an articulated rotor as a result of the hub
shear force acting at the flap hinge to produce a moment at the hub. In the case of the hingelcss and flexhinge rotors, the structural spring at the equivalent
hinge provides an additional component of control
moment et the hub.
The conventional metbod of achieving rotor control is through collective and cyclic pitch changes at
the blade roots. These changes arc accomplished

freedom of the blade is necessary in this particular

design so that the steady chordwise bending moment
at the blade root is reduced. In the cquilibrium lag

throiugh cntril Ignkagc between the rotating blades

pe.t~inn of the blade, the chordwise moment due to

and a swashplate (a structural lecmcnt thai constilutts a fixed plane that defines the blade pitch as a
function of azimuth). Individual blades arc mounted
on spindles that provide feathering freedom for control. Collective pitch of the blades is introduced by a
scissor niechanism or by raising or lowering the
swashplate; cyclic pitch, required to produce a tilt of
the rotor disk plane, is accomplished by tilting the
swashplate.
Blade pitch changes also arc made in some rotor
systems by connecting the swashplatc to a servo tab
or. ... or kc.
...
. ..........
.. . .....
oa
servo rotor or gyro bar that in turn acts as a swashplate (or the main rotor,

the drag loads on the blade is balitcd at the lag

hinge by an opposite moment due to the centrifugla
force and the lag displacement of the blade. in-

5-3.3 ARTICULATED ROTOR

The kinematics of an articulated rotor with an outboard lag hinge are illustrated in Fig. 5-3. Veitical
motion of the pitch link in response to swashplate tilt
as the blade travels awound the azimuth produce,
pitching rotation at the pitch bearings corresponding
to the cyclic pitch of th-. rotor. The position of the
pitch bearings with respect to the blade lag freedom
varies with the rotor system design. In the example
(Fig. 5-3), the pitch bearing of the rotor system is inboard of the lag axis, whereas that of the CH-46 rotor
is outboard of the lag hinge.
As shown in Fig. 5-3, the lag hinge allows the blade
to move, leading and lagging, in the disk plane. Lag

LAG DAMPER
N

HINGE

,1l, HUB ROTATION

|;igrc 5-3.

Artlculaled Rotor Schematic

dividual blade lag dampers are required to provide

energy dissipation adequate to conrol the mechanical instability associated with the coupled rotor/airframe system as dcacribcu in par. 5-4,3 (also see
Chupter 5, AMCP 706-201). The rigid-body lag
natural frequency of articulated rotors usually is
betwoen 0.20 and 0.40 times the rotor speed.
Blade flapping freedom in the articulated rotor is
ro-d-d
ky. a h r rnia i
me, which is located close
to the rotor cntcrline in order to minimize the flap
bending of the rotor hub (Fig. 5-3). The steady ioo"mentabout the flap hinge from thr centrifugal fore
acting through the moment arni of the blade - vcrtically displaced by the blade coning above the dirk
plane - is balanced by a moment of the same magnitude. b':t in the opposite direction, due to the steady
lift on 4he blade. The natural flapping frequency of an
articulated design isnear resonance with the rotor
shaft speed. However, aerodynamic damping in the
rigid flap mode approaches 50% of critical damping.
with the ruult that the near-resonat conditioa provides an acceptable design.
Coupl;ng between flap and pitch motions is &n important dcsigrn consideration for a rotor control
systkm. Generally, the rotor should be designed so
that, as the blade flaps upward, the mechanical pitch
5-9

J
1

,'

"AMCP 706-202
angle of the blade remains the same or decreases. The
kinematic coupling that varies the feathering, or
pitch. angle of the blade with flapping is defined as 63,
and the standard notation is that an increase of pitch
with an increase of flapping angle is positive. Flappitch coupling can be introduced mn!chanically by a
skewed flap hinge, or by radial location of the attachment of the pitch link to the pitch arm inboard or
outboard of the flap hinge. Negative 63 generally is
required to improve stability of the rotor (see
Chapter

N
AM

5, AMCP 706-201).

Pitch bearings outboard of the lag hinge produce .

kinematic oupling that changes the blade mechanical pitch aihgle with blade lag motion. This conflijaration has the potential for unstable pitch-lag blade
motion.
Fig. 5-4 illustrates the general arrangement for a
rotor with coincident flap and lag hinges. This rotor
has a compact arrangement of &ap and lag hingcs
exactly like P universal joint. Flap hinges located
further outboaad provide greater control power, but
also increase the flap bekiding moment at the hub.
The location of the lag hinge closer inboard results in
a lower lag natural frequency, with increased damp-

PITCH

FLAP
HINGE
HUB ROTATION
Figure 5-4.

Coincident Flap and Lag Hinge Rotor

PITCH ARM

aing heing required to prevent ground resonance.

5-3.4

GIMBAi ED (TEETERING) ROTOR

Fig. 5-5 provides a schematic of a.gimbaled rotor

system, only two blades of a four-bladed rotor are

shown, although any number cLf blades may be used.
Each blade is mounted on a spindle attached to a
yoke that interconnects the blades. The yoke, which
"definesthe rotor disk plune, is ginbal-mountcd to the
helicopter mast (the top of the rotating shaft). In a
gimbaled rotor, no cyclic pitch motion of the blades
occurs relative to the spindles for any steae; hovering
condition, regardiss of CC, location or flapping
rclative to the mast.
The phase relationship of the orie-per-rev excitation of the primary inplane bending mode is such that
the blade root moments are reacted internally in the
yoke, leaving the rotor hub undisturbed. The yoke
structure must be stiff enough that the natural frequency of the blade cantilever mode is sufficiently
greater than the rotor speed to avoid excessive amplification of one-per-rev loads.
For two-bladeci, or teetering, rotors (Fig. 5-6), the
gimbal mounting of the blades may be replaced by a
single tectcring hinge that allows only seesaw or flapping motion of the blades. Cyclic and collective blade
pitch oc :,rs about the yoke spind!es. For rotor tilt
relative to the' shaft, the blades are forced by the trunnion out of their ideal position in the cone of the
rotor twice each revolution. This results in a bending
5-10

"

YOKE
YOK)

Flgure &-5. Gimbaled Rotor Schematic

moment on the mast in the direction of rotor tilt that
varies at a frequency of two-per-rev.
A sketch of a teetering rotor system is shown in
Fig. 5-7. This rotor is connected to the shaft by a
hinge, the axis of which passes approximately
through the CG of the rotor in order to minimize vibratory hub and control loads. The stabilizer bar prorides stability by increasing the lag time between
shaft tilt and rotor tip path plane tilt. T he stabilizer
bar is connected to the blades through mixing levers
bctwecn the sides of the bar. The inner ends of the
mixing levers are pinned to the bar, the outer ends are

I-AMCP

W0

VF YOKE SPINflI E
TEETERING HINGE

FLAPPiNG
bF5gure 54G.

Teetrlng Rotor SEd'.cma2tic

MIXING LEVER

following rate and imnproves the maneuverability, but

also degrades the stability.

HINGELE~SS ROTOR
blade of a bingclcss ~otor is illustrated scheniaticalty in P~ig. 5-8. In this type of system, no sme!~
~
STABLIZE BAR
chanical mcawis are provided to allow chordwisc or1
flapwise displacement of the blades. The blades are
UAMPLN
rf dhfror the rotorfhub. which is attached
rigdlyto
he otaingshat.Collective and cyclic
SHAF1pitch inputs for variation of thrust and control moPITCH ARM
ment are made through the pitch links in response to
pilot input to the swashplate. The pitch angle is
7 f -6)changed
by rotation of the blade about the feathering
axis just as is an articulated rotor. Following a cyclic
pitch input, the hingoless rotor responds as shown in
Fig. 5-2(C), providing a control moment about the
helicopter CG as a result of both tilting of the recultant lift vector and a moment acting at the hub.
natural frequency of the first flapwise bending
5-. RtorThe
Figue
Teterng
Ilgue
Teterng
5-. Rtormode
fixes the offset of the equivalent flap hiinge. The
dynamic characteristics, control power, and pitch
and roll damping for a hingcless rotor are identical to
Sconnected lo the swashplate, and the middle is cont'osc of ani articulated rotor whose mechanical flap
mcted to the pitch arms. The damper regulates the
nlgc is located at t~he equivalent hinge point. A
rate at wHich the stabilizer ha.- follows the tilt of the
t.Lnrgeless rotor with a fundamental flap frequency of
rotor shaft. An increase in damping quickens the
between 1.10 and 1 15 times rotor speed would have
UNIVESAL OINTOne

5-3.5

AMCP 70F-202

S~&

'

CYCLIC
PITCH

./-

S~PRECONE/

ROTOR HUBA

Figure 5-8. Hingeless Rotor Schematic

characteristics similar to those of an articulated rotor
with a flap hinge located at 20% of the blade radius.
Precone of the blades, typical of the gimbaled and
hingeless designs, permits cancellation of the steady
lift moment by the moment due to the centrifugal
force of the rotating blade acting through the vertical disolacemcnt of the blade above the disk niane.
Kinematic coupling in a hingeless rotor is influenced
by the location of the feathering axis with respect to
the precone angle and to the equivalent flapping
hinge location.

S5-'

5.3.5.1 XH-51 Rotor System

A schematic of the Xh-51 hingelcss rotor, which
has cantileverd blades with only a feathering degree
of freedom, is shown in Fig. 5-9. A mechanical stabilizing gyro is connected by one set of links to the
blade pitch arma and to the rotating swashplate by
another set.. Blade cyclik pitch is controlled by the
control gyro, which, in turn,, is controlled by the
swr.shplate input. The blades of this rotor have high
chordwise stiffness, but arn provided with flap flexibility by a flat spring section inboard of the feathering axis. The blades are swept ferward about I deg
ahead of the featherin, axis to locate tme CG of the
2

blade ahead of the feathering axis. Thus, the inertia

forces acting theough the CG produce moments
about the feathering axis, producing, in turn, feedback forces at the gyro. Analysis has shown that this
displacement of the CG forward of the feathering
axis permits the gyro effectively and simply to provide stabilizina pitch innuts to the rotor.
In this system, upward flapping of the blade puts
an up force on the pitch link, causing the control gyro
te precess. ThL. tilting of the gyro then puts cyclic
pitch back into the blade at the proper phase to minimize blade flapping motion. The control gyro also
provides the blade pitch angle changes necessary for
stability of the helicopter. The AH-56A rotor also is
of this type, but us= a door-hinge arrangement of thu
pitch change (feathering) bearings in order to obtain
the desired high chordwise stiffness of the hub
without excessive drag.
5-3.5.2 OH4A Rotor
The OH-6A rotor syst:m, shown in Fig. 5-10, is
another type of hingelcas rotor. Multiple straps
transmit the centrifugal force from one blade across
the hub to the opposite blade, and are flexible enough
to allow both flapping and feathering of the blade.

*AMCP

70t=

CONTROL GYRO

NOATON-\ OTTNG. WSHLT

RESULTIOGATLIGhT DIRECTIO

Vlgre 5-9. XH-31 Rotor System

Curved thous installed at the point., at which the
h.4.
Vu
Wt"No "ov
S&Arape ar W i.
inS of the straps at any one point. In this otherwisic
hingekas rotor, lag hinges are located at the outer
ends of the tenaion-flati-torsion straps. Excessive
static droop of the blades is pre~vented by stiff cuffs
that are attached to the bilades and cover the straps.
Co.itact between the inboard ends or the cuffs and
the hub lim~ts the downward and upvarJ flapping excursions of the blades.
ROTOR SYSTEM KINEMATIC
COUPLING
Adverse kinematic coupling can result in various
types of instability in a particular rotor system. This
paragraph reviews tlac subject independently of the
rotor type, but considcnt the blAdv and its retcnt.on
system. The niechanism of rotor instability resultivg
\ from blade kinematic: is examnined we~akratcly undet
5-3A6

thec cate~gorie* of pitch-lag, pitch-flap, and flAp-lag.

n

Iut~ in " ivtientn

fi-

nf th

ionatahilitiem is

outlined in Charter 5, AMCP 706-201.

$ .3.6.1 Pitci-Iag Iftability
Rotor blades with substan~tial chordwisc displace
metiv have &potential "pitch-lag" instability. The
critical degrees of fr'-cdom involved are fiap and lag.
Howtver, the critical design parameter is a kinematic courpling that causes a blade pitch angle change
in rzponse to lag motion, or -hordwise displacement.
The mechanism of this instability is depicted in
Fig. 5-11. As the b'ado lags (A). and if the pitch-lag
coupling causes the blau1c pitch to decrease (b). there
is a loss of lift. Downward flap of the blade occurs
due to lift loss (C), and produces a Coriolis force in
the lag direction (D), causing additional blade lag.
Further discussion of this phenomecnon may be found
in Wtf. 9 and 10.
5-13

-. ;< U. .. i. . . .. .;'

~k"
-

...-.-_-

____.-.

"LAGGING

"-.

~~~~LIMITS

(FLAPPING

STRAP RADIUS
S.VOE BFNDING
BEND

FEATHERING

".
,(

Figure 5-10. OH-6A Hingelem Rotor System

"5-3.6.2 Pitch-flap lstabllity

Rotor blades are subject to the anme sort of
dynamic instabilities as are fixed wings. For example,
they are susceptible to the classical bending-orsional flutter discussed in Ref. 11. For hover or vertical flight, the major difference between the rotating
and the fixed wing is the velocity variation spanwise
along the bWede due to rotation. The principal paramtPre

inflpnpring thie mnjie

in hnth euetpms arm. th@

chordwise distapce between the CG of the airfoil sec.

tion and the aerodynamic center, and the torsional
stiffnes,
In addition to to.sional deflections, either flapwisc
or chordwise displacements of the blade deflections
also may interact in such a way that a pitch-flap instability can occur. The case of a blade with flapping
deflections above the feathering axis (flapping hinge
outboard of the pitch bearing) is illustrEted in Fig. 512 (A). As the blade flaps with respect to its steadystate position, the resulting Coriolis force produce4 a
pitching moment about the feathering axis. If there is
flexibility in the pitch control system, this pitching
moment caue the pitch of the blade to ;hang;.
Therefore, stiffness of the control system also is a
significant factor in pitch-flap stability.
As shown in Fig. 5.12 (B), the same blade section
5-14

initially is at distance r sinpo from the feathering axis.

As the blade rotates noseup about the feathering axis,
the blade section and the lift force acting upon it are
displaced backward Or sini 0 , producing a noscdown
pitchin$ moment. This moment, together with those
caused by variations in the inplane aerodynamic
force and the centuifugal force acting through the moment arm r sin~,results in coupling between the
nitch and flan dearees of freedom and; conseuently;
affects the stability characteristics. The net pitching
moment about the feathering axis changes the blade
pitch angle, hence the angle of attack, by an amount
that is inversely proportional to the control system
stiffness. Completing the c :4: for pitch-flap motion,
which may be unstable, thv blade section lift varies as
a result of the tngle-of-attack change. The lift variation causes blade flapping, which, in turn, produces
additional Coriolis forces. Steady inplane bending
deflection or bladt sweep also can introduce pitch
moments as a result of lift variations.
5-3.6.3 Flaplag Instability
Ref. 12 describes flap-lag instabilitizs as a result of
finite blade deflections. The conclusion from this
werk is that lifting rotors that have no laS hinges
iniy, under certain conditions, be subject to limit-

,,

. ,

J-

7'

(A) BL ADE LAGS

(B) PITCH ANGLE DECREASES

(C) BLADE FLAPS DOWN DUE TO LIFT LOSS

(D) CORIOLIS FORCE CREATED INLAG DIRECTION

PRODUCES MORE LAG
Figure 5-l1.

*tional

Mheanism of Pitch-lag InslabIllty

cycle instability in both vertical and forward flight.

The basic mechanism of this type of instability in.
volves the steady-s' ite blade con'ing angle. For a
blade with positive t 4kl of attack, the local wind yelocity is increased by the blade lead velocity, rebulting
in an additional lift, as shown in Fig. 5-13 (A). The
resulting incremental flap-up aerodynamic moment is
counteracted by an equal flap-down centrifugal forme
moment. The incremental centrifugal force also
Jresults from the lead velocity or incremental rotavelocity (Fig. 3-13 (3)). If the steady coning
angle is obtained by the balance of thrust and centri-

fugal moment, thewe two opposing incremental

effects arc equal, and no coupling exists between flap
and lag. However, if the coning angle is reduced
because of elastic slapping restraint, the vertical comnponent of the centrifugal force vector is reduced and
the incremental aerodynamic flapping moment
exceeds the centrifugal restoring moment. In this
cane, the flap-up moment produced by a lead velocity of the blade can result in unstable blade motion.
In forward flight, an additional destabilizing turn
occurs. This is an aerodynamic flap moment proportional to the product of mean lift, lead velocity, ad-

HIORIZONTAL

A0OITIONAL

FFORCE
MOETMU4

LIFT
SECTION LIFT

0SUTJJ
LOCAL. WI40

rC"'LEAD,

VELOCIT
INFLOW

NANG
CENTRIFU

(A) ~ ~

~nP

OF ATL

T,

I)

ENTREFUGALOFORC DU
B
~ COILNCRENMRO
~LAEFLPDENTOLAL
~~
LEAD VELOCITY

neve
Sibainntespa
fsiunie) d/til
s#OFs and31a
stffes oFORCExsas-

(B) ~~FOROM
~ ~ LI FT~OFSTBL.Hwvr
~ ~ ~

F~ure5-1.

minif

~ PICEMCHA
~ B MOMENTUGA
tercnieainegsAtcDE-

Pld~-lapCou~l~ug o Roors

vanoess
the sinele
ratio
ofpe
th azimuth
andfneane.A u
OEN
blade moFTi
OF
anEoccurt

haroni
PITabiiH
moderaeadva2. pitihfo~. p Cop

EETLDE

ortype
ofinling0.4.
Thi

flection aotd grossg

viraoryidresponse ar becmias
faily wpellr
debaned ond
calulaion profedues arema
aevilablequnisdtiso.baigsrspa

3-*

Hoetr
y otherCU considerations eOf. s~tatc i

andbrat

Ladsmambeomn
ibaor y

stability can be suppressed by an adequate amount of

inplane damping. Ref. 13 suggests that, if the blades
are sufficiently flexible in torsion, pitch-lag coupling
can be used as an additional means of suppressinS lag
motion instability.

The procedure for development of preliminary

rotor design into a detail design requires continuous
iterations by aerodynamnics, dynamics, stres, and
fatigue specialists. The integration of computed vibratory rotor loads into the detail design is dcscribed
best by a generalized mothod toward which the in-

5-4 ROTOR SYSTEM DYNAMICS

dustry is moving.

5-4.1

OSCILLATORY LOADING OF ROTOR

BLADFS
The o lsciltory loading of rotor blades is important
for both vibration and fatigue.
Rotors usually are deSgned by extraapolation from
previously successful designs. This can be. expensive
because many rotors have been designed, bui~t, and
flight Stetd without significantly exteiding the useful
envelope of existing rotors in relation to loads and vi5-16

Ideally, the following program, which hinges on

the existence of a complete seroelastic flight-vechicle
analysis, could be used to link the preliminary and
detail designs:
1. A nmaneuver spectrum should be defined, based
upon previous helicopter experience and the mission
requirements of tie now helicopter.
2. The maneuter spectrum should be "flown"' analytically with the prelimninary design helicopter, and
loads and vibrations should be computed at the

)
-

locations where flight test inhtrumcntation will be

placed. Thesc calculations should cover the complete
ground-air-ground cycle, including landing, taxiing,
and towing. In such a sequecnce, all of the static, transient, and oscillatory stresses and vibrations should
be compasted.
3. The stresa and vibration calculations should be
reviewed to determine where design optimization
should start. If the performance, stresses, vibrations,
handling quaaities, and other rotor characteristics
meet but do not exceed the specification requiremeats, then the preliminary design may represent an
optimum configuration. if the helicopter greatly
exceeds requirements in one or more of these arcas, a
weight penalty generally results. Design changes
should be made and at least a portion of the analysis
based upon the maneuver spectrm should be recomputed. If tht design fails to meet the specifications in
certain arew ,, the design must be improve I 'nd a portion of the maneuver spectrum analysis should be
rccomputed to demonstrate compliance,
At the end of the iteration, thi detail design should
start with a sat of loads for static and dynamic stress
calculation, and a reasonable assessment of vibra,
tion
The detail design of the rotor system should be initiated by making dimensional drawings of all parts.
The designer should follow the preliminary design as
closely as possible. However, compromises often may
be required, some of which can aiter the dynamic
chepracteristics significantly. As the design progreases, section properties, weights, inertias, and
stresses should be computed for the detai! parts. As
soon as the first design iteration is completed, the
rotor
natural frequencies,
loads,
and stresses
be recomnuted.
These stresses
should
be used should
as the
.basis for a fatigue analysis, which should be guided
"additionally by experien= from the test histories of
it'milar parts ana idealized material samples. Depending upon the outcome of this first design iteration,
the design should be accepted or another iteration
started.
Significant advances have been made with helicopter flight simulations. For example, Ref. 14
describes a recently developed analytical tool for
computer "flight testing" of VTOL designs. Steadystawe flight, maneuvers, and gust response effects are
included so that required cornfiguration changes can
be made readily during the preliminary and detail
design stages. This objective is achieved by detailed
reprewentation of the aircraft, including rotors, wings,
auxiliary propulsion, and control systems. Complete
blade element analysis of the main rotor(s), tail rotor,
and propeller(s), as applicable, are performed

AMCP 7W6202

through a maneuver, and are based upon the Instantaneous aerodynamic and dynamic environments. Time histories of rotor blade loads and bendins moments are calculated. The basic equations and
programming procedures are presented and discussed
in Ref. 14. The representation of airframe rnd rotor
parameters, the types of maneuver inputs, and the
available output formats also are discussed in detail.
Typical case studies are given. This analysis is
capable of evolving into a generalized procedure with
the additiou of details such as elastic pylon and fuselsge, and a fully aeroelastic rotor. Complete documentation of this particular method can be found in
Ref. 15. Comparable met':ods have been developed
by other contractors.
5-4.1.2 Oscillatory Load Design Comiderations
Oscillatory loads are a major factor in rotor design;
but the calculation of oscillatory loads is not yet sufficiently accurate for life prediction and design
assurance. Therefore, rotor design is guided by calculatcd natural frequencies, static loads, and factored
oscillatory loads. The final demonstration of design
adequacy comes from flight and fatigue testing.
5-4.1.2.1 Rotor Oscillatory Load Calculation
Most current procedures for computing rotor
natural frequencies and loads are based on Myklestad's development of the dynamics of a rotawing
beam (Ref. 16) and on simplified, two-dimensionl
aerodynamics (Ref. I). Typically, such analyses can
15 used
to compute natural frequencies and airloads
separately; ther the two analyses are combined to
compute the forced steady-state response. Many versions of this
procedure
have been developed. A
rit!c
ecito
foeaattowi.hhos
been used for designing two-bladed rotors for nearly
a decade, is given in Ref. 17.
5-4,1,2.2 Drawing Board Phase
As noted previously, the drawing board phase of
the rotor detail design is an iterative procedure and
typically involves several groups of engineering specialists. The procedure is best explained by briefly
describing the functions of several elements:
I. T'he areodynamics group sizes the rotor,
de',clops the blade contours, and helps determine the
static load spectrum during the preliminary design
phase. Often this work carries over. with little
change, into the first step of detail design.
2. The rotor design group starts the design iteration by laying out the preliminary rotor design and
developing dimensional drawings for the detail parts.
The designers must be cognizant or the stresses and
5-17

,.

.1.

vibrations resulting from rotor oscillatory loading,

Other considerations requiring attention indude dynamic stability, wught control, bearing applications,
mechanical function, value analysis, materials, bonding, and manufacturing processes, and the designer
must rely upon specialists in many of these fields.
3. The rotor stress group begins preliminary
design with the development of section properties,
These properties, in turn, are used for determination
of the nominal stresses that result from the highest
combinations of cenuifugal force (CF) and maneuver thrust )onditions. The bending .Ioments for these
conditions are computed in the steady-load portion
of the rotor-load analysis (par. 5-4.1.2.1).
Fatigue may be considered by an empirical method
that provides a simple and reliable account or load
spectrum shape and severity in relation to componerat fatigto strength in the initial stages of rotor
component design (Ref. 18). This method uses the
flight :oads calculated for maximum level flight
speed, the condition that usually produces the highest
continuous (nontrans~eut) alternating loading. A factor is applied to the calculated loads to obtain design
loads that will oroduce a satisfactJev fatiaue-life
structure. This factor is a function of the material SN curve, the maneuver spectrum severity, the loading
frequency, and the fatigue life required by the helicopter system specification. The design curves for this
factor are based on an analysis of several flight load
surveys.
Natural frequencim also are calculated for the
rotor as defined at this stage of the design. Changes in
section properties and/or concentrated weights are
used to produce a frequency distribution that avoids
principal
resonances.
I~~ltn-;.
eh.
*
A-.t;I
A -.
__L-.SIR. U%,A

Z.--66,,

P,,OR%,

r rotV
o

natural frequency placement insures the lowest possibk oscillatory rotor loads; and rotor and fuselage frequen.y placement, isolation, and superposition in"sur the lowest possible fuselage vibration. The rotor
characteristics must be such that low-frequency vibrations of the fuselage are avoided. High-frequency
vibrations generally are not so critical and may be
corrected during the flight test phase.
The aim of this continuous iteration is a design
optimized, or balanced, with regrd to performance,
function, strength, life, weight, and vibration. When
an acceptable balance has been achieved, the design is
considered to be adequate, the drawings are compked, and rotor components are manufactured.
However, further changes usually result from the

flight and fatigue tests.

54.1.2.3 FM TeMt
,

The design calculations made during the drawing

. -1S

board phase incure that a rotor mects the static

strength criteria and has an infinite life for the low.
cycl, high-stress variations associated with the
ground-air-ground cycle. However, because of the
superimposed high-cycle, low-stress os.ilations,
mcny rotor and control system parts will have finite
fatigue lives. Design changes often are required to insure that the adp~luate component fatigue lives of all
components are adequate. Flight and fatigue testing
is required to determine these lives.
Prior to the flight test phase, the strain gage instrumentation, the flight load survey tests, and the
data reduction format shall be specified. The
measured loads are used, along with the approved
maneuver and frequency-of-ocurrence spectra, to
determine the fatigue lives of all fatiguc-critical components. The required flight load survey tests are outlined in Chapter 8, AMCP 706-203.
The calculations made during the drawing board
phase are effective in guiding the design so as to avoid
excessive loads and vibrations at the lower frequencies; however, additional tailoring of the rotor
and fuselage usually is required during flight test to
minimize high-freouencv loads and vibrations.
Measures taken include optimizing the amount ard
location of the concentrated blade weights; changing
blade stiffness, such as through use of trailing edge
stiffeners; optimizing the pylon suspension pa- i.
meters, and detuning the fuselage by varying stiffness
and the location of certain concentrated weights, e.g.,
the battery.
5-4.1.2.4 Faidgue Tests
The determination of fatigue lives of components is
discussed in Chapter 4, AMCP 706-201. The
requirements for fatigue testing of critical components are given in Chapter 7, AMCP 706-203. The
parts to be tested, the number of saniples, and the
method of loading shall be specified. The samples arc
cycled to failure, or for a prescribed number of cycles
at several stress levels. The results usually are plotted
as an S-N diagram. Basic information on the need,
methods, and interpretation of fatigue testing in the
helicopter industry is presented in Refs. 18, 19, and
20. By use of the fatigue test data and the frequencyof-ocurrence spectrum, the fatigue lives of the critical parts shall be determined by a method acceptable
to the procuring activity (Chapter 4, AMCP 706201). If one or more parts have lives shorter than
required, the flight envelope may be restricted or the
parts may have to be redesigned and requalified.

Failure to comply with the fatigue-life requirement of

the helicopter system specification usually will result
in a penalty being applied to the contractor.

}
\

5-4.1AMPLIFICATION AND NATURAL

tion prolAwm. Such p'oints are uwd for test verifica-

FREQUENCIES
A summary of thi field of rotor vibrations is conrained in Ref. 21, Although highly mathematical, this
is a valuable reference for those seeking both general
and specific information on rotor loads and vibration. The paragraphs that follow discuss specific anplification and natural ftequmicy Information.
Fig. 5-14 presents natura frequency Information
for a t wo-bladed, teetaing rotor, but the method of
presentation and the design information are general
enough to warrant a detailed discussion. Two graphs
are made - one labeled collective mode and the
other cyclic mode. These names stem from the types
of forces and motions caused by the collective and
cyclic controls. For the two-baded rotor, collective
modes arm excited by even harmonic airloads while
cyclic modes are excited by odd harmonics.
The ordinates are natural frequencies; the abscissas
are rotor speeds; the vertical lines mark the normal
harmonic
rotor speed range, and the radial lines Mre
excitation lines. Coupled and uncoupled natural&4quencies are indicated by cutves with and witiout
symbhols. The appnhc-be moi1e sha8r1 arem
"-o~Wishown schematically. Fiapwise is nomnal to tile plane
of rotation; inplane is in !he plane of rotation. Uncoupled means without blade torsion and feathering;
coupled modes include these degrees ef freedom. The
collective plot contains even harmonic excitatron
lines, while the cyclic plot contains odd harmonic
lines,

tion of 0e!'i calculated natural flreqncies. Without

such verification to confirm or adjust tlhe fan plats
during the first ground runs of a new rotor, several
variations of tuning weights might be required to aw
tablish correct trends at operating rpm, resulting in
ccnsiderable cost and loss of time.
V,e main objective of calculating rotor natural froquencies is to prevent coincidences (nronncem) such
as Point A from occurring in or near the normal
operating rotor speed band. Such steady-state rtoonances are not catastrophic, but often produce
strell high enough to reduce fatigue life significantly, as well as fuselage vibrations that may require
restriction of the flight envelope for comfortable
operation.
Generally, resonant amplification factors cannot
be computed with sufficient accuracy for design purposx&. Once amplification factors have been determined for an existing rotor. fairly accurate predictions of loads can be made for vAriations of perameters; however, extrapolating these values to a new
rotor involves considerable risk. The damping factors
rOiur-iuR1 VIompuiing prturamanAr
IN
n hypi'M
uaH IIfLC
empirical and the value of the predicted loads
necessarily is low.
Progress in evaluating damping mechanisms has
had to wait for improvements in both dynamic and
aerodynamic computing methods because an
observed level of response at resonance may be due
either to a low level of force or to a high level of damping. Some'damping concepts associated with the fan
plots of Fig. 5-14 are:
I. All modes contain structural damping on the
order of
0.50-1.00% of
critl,
which is relatively inof. 0.5-100
ofa cri,,ti.i-iI. wh~tc
n_*k.tk;
significant.
2. Flapwise modes such " the ones shown in the
collective mode plot ame strongly damped aerodynamically, while inplane modes are not.
3. Modes with strong intermodal coupling, such as
those shown in th, cyclic mode plot, have fmequcncies that vary significantly with blade pitch;
thus, they benefit from an effective damping mehhanism referred to as cyclic detuning. The cyclic

The circ!zd numbers identify three collective and

four cyclic modes. All natural frequencies increase
with rpm, but the
flapwise frequencies increase much
Ire~~~~tarde
.... h._ . ...... .
.....
...
...
. -h -. .
.
cyclic mode) because the centrifugal stiffness is a
larger percentuge of the total stiffness in the flapwise
direction. The collective modes show very little intermodal coupling with twist and pitch, while the cyclic
modes show strong coupling,
These fan plots ar' the primary deign guide for
rotor dynamics. Myklestad's development (Ref. 16)
made it possible to compute the variation of the unoupled frequences with rpm. Finally, the method of
variation in pitch limits the resonance to a few
Ref. 17 made it possible to compute the intermodal
degrees of azimuth, preventing steady-state resonant
oupling due to twist and ollective pitch. Accurate~ amplification. This damping source is at least as
significant as the flapwise aerodynamic damping.
computation is necessary because of the fine tuning
required to avoid resonance throigh the eighth harmonic of excitation, especially for compound and
54.3 GROUND RESONANCE
composite aircraft rotors having wide ranges of
operating rpm.
The helicopter shaft be free of mechanical instaTransient resonances such as Points A, B, and C in
bility at all rotor speeds and opernting conditions
the collecive mode plot (Fig. 5-14) cannot be
(takeoff, flight, landing, ann taxi) regardless of the
alvoided, but they cause no significant load or vibratype of landing gear; under the entire range of gross

A.i,'

.
-K

T
,

"'.

-'

*1

0 COUPLED FLAPWISE NATURAL FREQUENCY

< COUPLED INPLANE NATURAL FREQUENCY
"-UNCOUPLED NATURAL FREQUENCY
3RD FLAPWISE
SYMMETRIC MODE
1_600

2ND FLAPWISE
SYMMETRIC MODE
-

-1200

"-

S800

IST FLAPWISE

SYMMETRIC MODE

,-

400"
r1UtYIAL urtKIA ~IUM1nGE

C.,

o~00

200

400

300

ROTQOR SPEED, rpm

,cy,
L"

100

2N6FLAPWISE
ASYMMETRIC MODE
)
1600,

1ST FLAPWISE
ASYMMETRIC MODE
/J

jy

uj1200-,.

1ST INPLANE

~1200

k/o

SYMMETRIC MODE

,800
...

:-

.- ,

"- NORMAL OPERATING RANGE

300
200
ROTOR SPEED, rpm

100
"0

400

V. m 5-14. Typ"l Pb of Rotw Nafbdl Frqeouy

Ovs ratiq Sped

-u

AMCP 71*302
0

A. STEADY-FOMa FMONANCIE6
i:l C SHAFT CffITILAL RWECXNCY (COULED.)
* D WHAFT
CRVITICAL IFFJW4C

MC NIL
INSTABILITY

A.B.C - STEAY-FORCE FIESENAN(,ES

D. H - SHAFT CRITICAL FREOLIENCIES (COLIP.fUM

E. I - %HAFT CRITICAL FREOUENCIES (UNCOUMD1E)
CC. HI - SHAFT CRITCAL INSTABILITY REGIONS

(UNCLED)

NE-P~FIVV EXCITATION
OATING S"srw
DIN
REGIONIN

JIK MECHANICAL. INSTABILITY

LM

REGIONS

ONE-PEAlI4v EXCITATION
ROTATING SYSTEM

ED
TR

PYLON

SPLER

do

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Teihe aonalyitos,ofd thermuchanica ithbilityeof two2. Poits C-6andere-om

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beaieds hingedt roos dpiffers fro thapte
of rotor W0th
sytem.byc
gro~t-aphsc fCole)a
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oremosbladsIn therlxd originalinalteis (rof.
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ytsato
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dicmutation othatfllw suffeti ent
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sthady thre)f~thi
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urcr thefr eahmdofviewgvr
nCaption of the0-21 ItsTeaaysiem
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ouplednatinaludrequetwo degre of)
acht cudirection.Th
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tha
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edetlyl
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The analysis osfe o the
opt
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ftoupe
anly.Pins Cie ind Fi.D:
shaft-cr
.I
aditicaonals(eci
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asumedd rthatineupor
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t
eus,
the
srysrtnem H-I, and two adtoa ntbiiyrne

uniscnb folottedaf
and
aclateda prnsn

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andnL-M.Pon G)
Th anaysi of

e 1;1 nclues wo dgres2o

ii-NORMAL OPERATING SPEEDK

-NATURAL
FRLCKJJCY

NORMAL
OPERATING rb
RANGE
0
200.9

FREQUENCY OF FIRST
INPLANE SYMMETRIC
3ENDING MODE

20
0

SMINIMUM
1.b

ROTOR

IN
J

MINIMUM
FREQ >: 1.ROT04_
151l.0 1

/ ",

STEADY FORCE RESONANCE

BLADE
MAST7

1ST MECHANICAL INSTABILITY

8 1T SAFTLOWER
CRTCi
''

0.5

DE

0.5

1.0

1.
11500"

I&oI
A

BOUNDARY

II

MAST-

1.5

MA

2.0

HI

25

NORMALIZED ROTOR SPEED _aL

flo
Figure 5-17.

5-43i.
II

Two-degree-of-freedom Coleman Plot Sho*ing Satifaction of Minimum

Frequency Criteria for Two-blade Hingeless Rotor

Two-bladed Rotors Without Hing-s

ran h. ahn.,=

thai t*wn...4aI

Aa
i..ia..mnenr-

r-rnntu.A

the coalescence of tle two support system fren,.-n.ac

nni*

,.tmni,.ultI

nin

tha

can be approximated by rotors with effectivc hinges;

thus, the analyses discussed in par. 54.3.1 also can be
applied to this case. Because of the location of the
rotor natural frequencies, the ground resonance
requirements can be me! by satisfying the following
criteria (see Fig. 5-17):
I. Sufficient damping must be provided by the
landing gear and undercarriage structure of the airframe to remove the instabilities (such as D-E)
associated with the rigid-body cegrees of freedom of
the airframe on its landing izar, The exact amount of
damping rquired to stabilize the region D-E is not
knowi,, but it is probably Ins tharr 3% critical. For
configurations with skid gear and pylon isolation, the
inherent damping of the system always is sufficient to
prevent instability,

operating range.
3. The first inplane natural frequency of the rotor
at high collect~ve pitch shall noi be less than 1.15
times the rotor speed. This assures that the mechanical instability associated with the coalescence of the
rotor natural frequcncy and the lowest support
system mode (Point C) will be above the overspeod
operating range (110% rotor spceW), and prevents excassiva response to steady-state one-per-rev excitation (fl - 11 line).

2. The mast frequency in the rotating system

(Point B) shall be no less than 1.2 per rev. This guarantees that the mechanical instability associated with

tion of motion associated with out of-bvlancc forces;

the stability ranges given in Fig. 5-16 by D.E and H-I
are reduced to s'mple resonances of the support

5-22

54.3.3 Multibladed Rotors

The analyses discussed in pars. 5-4.3.1 and 5-4.3.2
are special cases of the classical analysis given by
Coleman (Ref. 25) for mul'ibladed rotora. For rotors
with three or more blades, there is no preferred direc-

AP 706-202
modes with the operating speed of the rotor. Thus,

hcli.-opter and compound; and under each to discuu

the number of degrees of freedom is reduced,

simplifying the equations of motion However, the
analyses of the mechanical instability ranges J-K and
L-M in Fig. 5-16 are identical to the two-bladed case
and must be treated with the same considerations.

fixed and rotating system divergence and flutter, or

static and oscillatory aeromochanical instabilities.

5-4.4 FLUTTER ASSESSMENT

Historically, relatively 1i'tle attention has been

given to fixed-system divergence and flutter for helicoptcrs, as other design end operational requirements
such as static strength, fatigue life, and operating
speed havc precluded divergence and flutter.

The other types of potential rotor instability arc divergencc and flutter. The discussion that follows
supplements the analytical review given in Chapter 5,
AMCP 706-201.
When the developing acrodynamic force simply
overpower the elastic constraints and the motion
exceeds some presdlected bounds, i.e., goes unstable,
divergence has been reached. Flutter usually involves
2 change in and coalhacence of two or more system
natural frequencies because of dynamic or aerodynemic effects, and the coupling of oscillatory motion
of the lifting surface with the airstream in such a way
as to derive energy irom the airtream to increase the
motion.
The first formulation of the flutter problem was
published in 1934 and subsequently republished as
Rcf.a.
26.
Each potential fluster problem is related to modal
couplings that are configuration-oricnted. and the

5-4.4.2.1
5-4..2.11

Helicopter
Ixcd System

5-4.4.2.1.2 Rotating System

A number of rotor acromechanical instability
problems were encountered in the period before 1960.
Solutions usually were worked out by trial and error
long before they were understood mathematically.
Included were problems such as weaving, pitch-flap.
pitch-lag, and pitch-conc instabilities, and stall and
binary flutter. Of thesc only o11c of recent occurrClece
is stall flutter, which has been actively restarched
(Refts. 30 &iid 31). This work has provided an understanding of the problem and the ability to predict the
stall iuwitr houndary with reasonable accuracy.
The basic dexign changes that sol~ed most of these
problems were overbalanced blades, torsionally stiff

number of such couplings is very large. Furtier, in

H-lades, and, with the advent of hydraulic boost, in-

each specific configuration, the stability equations involve a large numbcr of parameters whose meaning
and measure are only made clear by a rather precise
analytical diagram or model. Thus, a specific, rather
than gen-ral, method has evolved. No method has yet
bearn devised for writing mcaningful specifications
and simple instructions for designers for the preventior' or avoidance of these instabilities. Notable
attempts toward simpiification are given in Ref. 27
for fixed-wing aircraft and Ref. 28 for helicopters,
and a recent attempt at ordering and classifying is
given in Ref. 29.

creased control-system stiffness.

During the design of conveuit.onal rotors, the current practice is to forego elaborate calculations. The
only mandatory check for main rotors is that the
chordwise location of the effective CG of the blade be
forward of 25% chord, and preferably forward of 24%
chore- For unconventional designs, Serious considertion should be given to detailed quantitative
analysis. The list of known problems should be
checked to see if an analytical solution is available,
preferably a method that has been checked against
experimental results.

5:-4.4.1

5-4,4f2.2 Compound

Carrels Crlittr
static and oscilla-

"7he most comprehensive list of

tory acroclastic instabilities compiled to date for hell-

coptem is presented in Ref. 29. Several specific con3-figuration-oriented problems are named, and' formulas are given for determining static and oscillatory stability boundaries. This list could be extended to
form the basis for a usable specification dealing with
the aeroelastic phenomena basic to helicopters.

54.41

Dedpa Cosu.derations

To discuss design considerations, it is convenient

"toclassify the applicable aircraft configurations as

54-4..2.2.1

Fixtcd System

In the development of compound helicopters, considcrable a:tention has been given to divergenmc and
flutter due to the extension of the speed range beyonw
that of conventional helicopters. Conventional prvctices, such as those outlined in Chapter 5. AMC-706-201, are adequate. In one known case, signim.!cant buffeting of the vertical fin was encountered due

to the impingement of disturbed air from the hub and

pylon. The problem was solved by cleaning up the
flow.

5-23

5.44.2.3. beaft Sydown

A grmit deal of rowesh has 6w. accomwplihdW
during the ertasion of the helicopter speed range by
compounding. Ref. 32 is a Sood auniniary of the early
work in this are. This work showed that increasing
advance ratios and blade tip Mach numburs require
prob ruive unloading of the rotor and reduction of
rotational speed - e-v= down W zero. The associated dynamic phenomena arvi continuous and
trackable until umro rotor speed is approached.
At high advance ratios, thrust and flapping acirrol
are difficult because of high sensitivity to gusts. The
Principal dynamic probkv is limit-cycle flapping instability. Ths instability produces both harmonic
and nonharmonic flappiri, the latter being visible as
a weaving c! the tip path plane. The history of this
probiemn is sketched and the picture clarifiled in Ref.
33, which shows two azimuthal regions of inaitability,
one on the advawacing side due to negative spring rate,
-and one on the retreating side due to negtative dahipins. Measures for stab~Iinga both are dimsausd.

GIUST LOADINGS
The need for mea~ninful Sust loading speedrictions has increasd with the development of high-performance helicopter and compounds. The first dofinitive work was Ref. 33, in which the nature of the
problem wus elucidated and some solutions were
offered. A morm precs tmctment required more sophisticatid analytical methods. One such method (an
extecnion of the rotorcraft flight simulation niethod
discussed in par. 5.4.1.1) was developed and ueed for
an extensive study of the problem (Rd. 34). This
refernceK also reviews the state of the art. 7be problam of helicopter response to gusts and acmre of the
design consideraticns air discusd in pars. 5-4.6.1
44d 3-4.6.2 that follow.
5-4

S4.6.1

Dh UUofS@ t'iot G"~ Problem

Rotary-win& aifrcrft expcrrince milde reactions to

gusts than do most fixed-wing aircraft. One of the
carliost reports of this difference presents qualitativo
itutctions of two pilots on a dual flight, ont"n a helicopter with side, by-sick rotors and the ( cr hia a
S-dg ArnIJT'rnr 7.nAnvmac
rixed-wing rimlane A similar test wsir mincmwf
Ioate by NACA with instrumenwaion to measure norConventionial rotcrs, bucause of t"er relatively low
mlfraibohtypes of nircrsft flyitag through turdisk loadings, experience negigible acoustic loading.
Airflow over the blad!e aurfacca; cani reach somic veun ar
The relerively mild reaction of the rotary-wing airlocity loalWly and momientarily produce a shock
~ Aeodynmicloadng vriaions~ ~
craft is not substantiated by the simplo theoretical exmanly Atherodyam ic, whaich geariationthe
t phriprzaaions currently in use, p cartclarly those that
istic acoustical sigrature referred to as blade slap
cvovcfrmixdwneprca.Fg.-8sos
an example of gus. lo-d factors resulting from .AurpRotors have operated in such an environmeint for
edged gusts, computed ey the pzocedure in Ref. 35.
yaswith no evider. x of structural fatigue caus-d b
eithr
r cutclain.BaesabyoyaiThis procedure it conservative in that it neIects stall
eihasen showni tor bedrag-eloatdng henad, slap
and compressibility elfects and assumas imsantaneCsacustic

ioadiing occurs iapiane along the axas of

.-.

I. - .. .4_--.~

.. ,,

an..

... A."..

I.L~.

,ping.
ty, atid black
which thooretica. gust load factor may be reduced.
w I--)
"vdsags leito atrb

maxmum evveng'h of the blade skin.

Proprotors itnd propellers located in closn proximity to either a fustlag or a wing can experience hkome
degree of acoustic loading. However, the rotor sir
presuurc impingement on W,~ ftuaselgor wing etruc*
turu in an order of magnitude more si~gificmnt thant4.
acoustic leading of the rotating system.
2.
Tail rotors located clo, to a taIl boom e~parionot
aeroclynamnic kw~ming catuWe by the pirtial blockage
or airflow an" the intuf~rx.n% by the fin with Wk a)

blade suarfac prooswc field. As with amnvetional

___ii

NO COM.iSSIBIIL ITY OR STALL

50 lps SUDDEN GUIST

II-__

main rotors. there is no evidenc of measurable

rcouak~ loadling. Ductnd fans used as antitorque
devicest, because of their relatively high disk loais-rgs,
01
0.2
0.3
0.4
may pitodi*c rrneter acoustc lo~adi than con-ADAC
AIp
AI
DAC
ventional tlil rotors. However, the duct am rounding
the fan experiences highar loadings than do the fan
Flk,'Me 5-18. Gum L*W Factor Cosapaed for- the
bladck
UH-t8 Heliopter Uslg Umar 7%moy

7"620

_____________AMCP

This Suit alleviation factor AKin given as a func~tion

of rotor disk loading, and is equal to itnity for disk
loadvils gieater than 6 lb/ft, as shown in Fig, 5-19.
At high speeds and for disk loadings greattr than 5,
load factors computed in accordance with MIL8-9698, inr'ludi In'S the gust villeviation factor, aec very
high. When manicuver loads are surmrimposed on
these gust loads, an uiirealistic situation results. On
the other ho'nd, studies indicate that the thrust
o, - rotor actually decieases with increasing advance ratio. The aerodynamic limit shown
in Fig. 5-20 is calculated by a digital method based on
Ref. 36 which includes the effects of stall aaid ompressibility. Also shown in Fig. 5-20 is a practical
limit for thc same rotor based on flight test data. The
practical limit is a result of oscilinoury rotor loads and
stall flutter effects, and i the controlling limit on
rotor thrust capability at high advance ratios. This
conclusion is supported by Ref. 30.
Unloading the rotc'r by adding a wing would give
the rotor a gr eater margin to accept gusts. The ad vantage, however, is not as great as might be expectei,
because the rotor usually will assume the larger share
of the lift increase resulting from gusts, as shown by

*gust

-'capability

The gust alleviation factor given by MIL-S8698 was found to be unrealistically low for a rotoi
unloaded in this manner.
An early attempt at treatncnt of gust effects on
rotary-wing aircraft is reported in Ref. 33. Sinesquared &,ust shapes were considered instead c-f
sharp-edged gusts, and a mass ratio comparable to
that used in fixed-wing anaiysis replaced disk loading
in the determination of the gust alleviation factor.
Fig. 5-21 shc ws the results of that study. It suggests a
gust alleviation factor considerably smaller than that
* given in MiL-S-8698. AThe scope of the study, however, was insufficient to define requirements for all
types of rotary-wing aircraft. Furthermore, gradual
penetration~ into the gusts, nonsteady aerodynamics,

orne aeroelastic feedback wert not considered. Subsequent studies (Refs. 34 and 37) attem~pted to
remedy these deficiencies and to include onstcady
aerodynamics as well as 2dditional variables'such as
gust shape daid intensity, forward zpeed, dis.'Aloading,
thrust coefficient-solidity ratio, and advancing tip
Mach number. The design considerations derived
from these studies arc reviewed in par. 5.4.6.2.
5.4.6.2 Gust Design Considerations
Fo h tde r es 4ad3 eea rn
cipromnthestuiens ian
befs 34and 3he
gstleveraltpionfctponclusgioens can be drawn. hregust allservation.
fahtorseKfgiroerin M s rat-io tre too contervaine.Kb
Th usrfartrms ai ,t
eemn
analogy with the fix~ed-wing approach, as suggested
in Ref. 33, also does Aot give satisfactory results.
Never theless. gust loads cannot be ignored in rotor
design. Pending preparation of criteria to replace the
gust load requirements of MIL-S-8608. alecinative
methods for dettrimnation of gust load factors may
be used, subject to thc prior approval of the procuring activity.
,b

ICAI ALV~fl(NAVI1C
114[O111

-/copter.

!AXMIV.v

HUOCBFjA.

______

Ify

UiAAAE
i 0.10 -1
,-

MP.UVERING

I~T
_0

iIACIICA[ LIN'I1

02

04

It

08

ADVANCERALID

RurLmissaFnconl

adsc
fim52.Bi

~~~0.6I-4,

iotono
RLitsas

docRai

-~I

~SIVj,,

0.

--

VISK

4 5
LOADING, pst

321

'

1123

HEWtLTS.KF.[

V~
'4

NIL-S-89

=10.2

-)

-7=

I"

7--- 1 n I -------

008

r0

:'

15

~~Flgure 5-19. Gust-sillevlation Factor (MIL-S 48698,

CUMSSAI,

Filgure 5-7 1. Results ot a Lead Gust Stu.&;, Conapaied

With Military Specification Requirements
5-25

For. all the helicoptersgrid compounds investigated ina Re('. 34, the rotor gust-load ratio AT/T~w7
can be expresse by the empirical expression
AT 0.57 085L ~bility
+
C
(5-7)
-

T~,

(r~

~later

wheac\
'ae
C
- empirical constant, dimensionless
11
- wing lift. lb
LE/T,..M - wing lift ratio prior to gust enccunoter, dimensionless
This relationship givet reasonable accuracy with appropriate conhervacism with C - 0.2 for semirigid
(teetering) rotors and C ft 0.1 for rigid and articulated rotors. For a compo.und helicopter, the wing gust
load should be determined by conventional fixedwing methods. However, an additional a~lleviation of
the wing gust load, owing to the interaction with the
-rotor, was found to be related to the rotor thrust coefricient.-solidity ratio CT/ar.'With further refinement,
this approach may provide tin acceptable basis for
gust design requirements.
The relative affocts of various parameters on gusst
response amc summarized in Table 5-1.

m~m

5-6.7 TORSIONAL STABILITY

ircaftiror arcrft
agies
irs-deeloed
Gasurbne
Gasturinee~gne
fist
eveope fr
I~
eluded fixed-turbine engines for both turbojet and
turboshaft configurations, and free-tutbine engines
for driving rigid loads oir loads with natural frmquenc"e far above the maximum response range of
the engine governor, Sophisticated hydromechanical
TABLE &I1. THE RELATIVE EFFECTS OF

VARIOUS PARAMETERS ON GUST RESPONSE

governors were optimized for thwc sy ns;uhowever, thesw governors proved unsatisfkacory for bellcopter applications. A serious drive systet instawas predicted for the XH .40, the first helicopter using the firee-turbine e~ngi (this analysis was
publishvid in Ref. 38). The prddficWe instability
occurred as predicted, but the consequences were not
serious. Means to stabilize the syttemn had 'ace. provided and thMe test program was able to proceed,
alihough with a rather sluggish governor.
ExtIensivo analog oomputer studies have shown
that serious penalties would be i,-curred if the helicopter drive system were., mo'.ified to solve the prob1cm, but that modificatioa of the governor reaulted in
only a slight pona'ty. A. a result, Ref. 39 was formulatoz. This piubfication ansigns responsibilidics to
both the engine and helicopl-r manufacturers in
order to insure early rmog~nition and solution of the
drive system stability problem in future applications.
The discussion that follows suppitleents the reviews
rif drive system torsional Ftmbfifty in Chapter 5, and
ol the enigine/airframe integrated control system in
Chapter 8, both in AMCP 706-131.
Discussoo of Problem
5-..
Thc dynamic characteristics of three systems are
involved: the gas producer and its govcrnor. the
pwrtrieadisgvroadtehlcpe
drive syslim with one or more low natural freqece.Tesse
qain fmto oiei
qucisThsytmeaiosfmtinovnently can be put in transfer function form and
atrayed as a block diagram (Refs. 38 and 40). During
throttle movements, tht. gas producer governor controls the engin. At steady-stlate throttle conditions,

the

______________speed

PAAEWEFFECT
DIKLOADING
ROTO 19-D-i
SIIDIT't RATIO. C,'/

MAJOR EFFECT(SEEEQUATION 5-7

urops bc'ow the selected value, additional fuel flow is

called for to nullify the error. Accordingly, when tht
power turbine overspeeds, fuel flow is decreased. This
cycle of events can be stable or unstable depending

DERAkE EFFECTAl HIGH VALIJES

OF C /. DUE TO LIFT SHARING %ITH A
r,;N'The

upon system parameters.

ADOTYarPE

SOMEEFCT. DEPENDoS
ON OYNAMILS

NMBIER OFBLADES

LITTLE EFFECT

NUIMMER
OF RO~TORS

INCREASED EFFECT
FORTANDEM

usually can be simplified to a system consisting of the

main-rotor and power-turbine inertias connected by
tihe effective shaft stiffness between them. This is a

CONFIGURATION-

single-degree~-of-fieedom system in which the main

*CONSI
COmPVuNOiNG

LIfll.E INFLUENCE

powar-turbine governor controls Dower-turbine

by modulating fuel flow. When this speed

FRADVELOCITY AND

ADVANCING-TIP MACH

KM.3IS
LOCK NUMBER
______

tia is much larger than that of the power turbine. This

~~~~S.IGml
~LOAD WITH INCREASED OC

_____NLUs&B

?It!C4 FLAI COULIUNG

PITCm CONL COERLING
1OWISGH11 IN
COLL.ECTIVE S%~
9ETB

5-26

rotor can be considered as nodalized because its iner-

LITTLE INFLUENCE.
_______

LOCK

____

LITTLE

~FC

AFPRECIASLE EFFECT
APPRECIABLE EFFECT
__________

drive system for rotors without drag hinges

____

modeTO
usull hGUSaurlfeTec eow5Hi
eow5Hi
maeuull0C1atrlfeqec
lightly damped, and is continuously excited at a low
level by rotor control m'otions and external transiResulting oscillations in the power turbine
are sensed by the flyball governor, which
modulates the fuel flow accordingly. With a governor

Jspeed
.~ents.

i :.ig:ss. .. .:

:L.L,
"7-,
2

,g....zL*.,

optimized for a systcm with a high natural frequency, the oscillation of the torque at the turbine
wheel that follows will be so phased that it reinforces
the original, lkw-frequency, drive system oscillation,
Unstable torsional motion results.
It is not feaible to stabilize the system either by inc:uding mechanical dampers in the drive shaft or by
stiffening the shafting sufficierntly to move the natural
frequency out of the response range of the governor.
Furthermore, the gains and time constants of the
engine and governor can be varied only within
narrow limits One effective solution is to use a small
amount of valve oyerlap, which allows the iiyball
governor to oscillate the fuel valve a small amount
without modulating fuel flow.

the respective hinges. The lag dampers (shock absorbers) prevent unstable blade oscillations about the
lag hinges. Dampers usually are not required for flap
hinges because of the amount of aerodynamic damping provided by flapwis Jade motion.
The design considerations for a typical articulated
rotor, the motions and loads for each hinge, find thtir
effect on the helicopter are discussed in par. 5-5.1. 1.1.
This rotor has the flap hinge inboard, then the lag
hinge, and then the pitch axis hinge outboard. The
effects of reversing the hinge arrangement are considered in par. 5-5.1.1.2.

54.7.1 Design Coelderations

Ref. 39 establistes an effective, three-phase procedure that adequately deals with the problem. Briefly,
the steps include:
1. The engine .doaigncr provides as much flxi-

Fig. 5-22. The hinge arrangement of this rotor also is

dorscy S-si,the Brintoi Model 171,
typical of thte
the Alouette H, ano the Russian Mil 6, 8. and 10 aircraft, among others.
The hap, lag, and pitch hinges on the Model 107
TrQtor have oillub icqtcd, cylindrical
roller bearings.
The three flap hinge have a common, centrally
lIcated reservoir, while eazh of the other hinges has

bility as possible in-the engine governor parameters.

2. Early in the preliminary design, the engine and
heliconter denioners evechangp syuem rnie.rnodrm

nnl

each designer conu4cts an analysis of the system.

3. The helicopter designer selects the Optimum
Seveoal efhicient
e minputer methods of anyysis now
exist, including antlog, digital, and hybrid. The analysis can be complete, including the nonlitioar parameters for the full range of enginq ptperation, or a perturbation analysis can be informed in which an
operating point is selected about which oscillatory
stability is detetmined. The complete analysis is much
S~small
more complex, but it determincs transient rcsponse
n.Ad droop

ass ... a.I as

.............
......

sa.l.end#.~j.

-ip..

L.

tB
"" BatVB

Ca"

5-5.111 Typical Articulated Rotor Coesideratloas

rhe Boeing-Vertol Model 107 rotor is shown in

t own reservoir. Each reervoir

one or more
sight glasses to indite oil level. has
Radial, positivecontact seals retain the lubricant in the bearings.
The flap hinge is .Offset both radially and in the
direction of rotation. The radial offset of the flap
hingv axis is small, approximately 1.7% of the blade
radius, and is as close to the rotor cnter as shaft and
hinge sizes permit. Boqatts of the small radiatl offset
of the flap hinge, the gwntrol forces generated by this
rotor come primarily from thrust vecror tilt, with a
small contribution
from the
the vertical
veca component
cl
nt ofa
contribution from
the flap hinge forcn isee Fig. 5-2 (B)).
The offs t of the flap hinge in the direction of rota-

lysis u1sually i- aequate for dletemining stability

alone.

tion (also known as the torque offset, and shown as

dimension "a" in the plan view, Fig. 5-22) is chosen

5-5 BLADE RETENTION

to satisfy two requirements:

5. To equalize loads on the flap-hinge bearings
when the blade is in the lag position, corresponding
to normal flight torque
2. To avoid reversing axis, motion of the flap
hinge bearings due to blade lead-lag motion in normrtal flight.
The flap hinge cylindrical roller bearings withstand blade centrifuga. force, alternating loads due to
blade lag oscillation, and blade vertical shear forces,
and experience one-per-rev flapping oscillations of
:1:4-6 deg. Thrust loads are carried by a b;onze thrust
bearing.
Permanent stops prevent excessive blade droop or
flap motion due to winds while the helicopter is
parked or during rotor shutdown. These stops are set

5-5.1 "CONSIDERATIONS
RETENTION SYSTEM DESIGN
The fully articulated, gimbaled (teetering), and
rigid (hingeless) rotors are Jescribed in par. 5-3. The
blade retention requirements for each are different,
and are discussed in the paragraphs that fclow.

-_

5-5.1.1 Articulated Rotors

The fully-articulated rotor system provides freedoa of Mlade movement about ilap and lag hinges in
")response to aerodynamic forces resulting from pitch
change and/or flight conditions. This flap and lag
freedom reduces the flap and IA; moments to zero at

5-27

AMCP !L&.202

.I

*thus

so that no contact occurs in normal flight. The flap

stops pre-vent prissible ove-tumning of the blade;
droop stops prevent blade/fuseleg contact.
Slade angular displacement about the lag hinge stop to stop -varies inversely with the radial position of the hinge. However, larg angular lag displacement adversly affects:
1. Blad%-,to-blade clerance in a tandem heclicaptar
2. Pitch arm kinematic error
3. Lag damper stroke.
The Model 107 lag hinge is located as far iaibomird
as possible, consistent withi the lag displacement considerations listed, in order to keep the mans of the
pit -hi hinge and the blade retention joint inboard and
reduce the centrifugal loads.
The lag damper, in addition to meeting requiremeats for stability of the lag motion, functions as the
lead and lag stops of the blade. Design loads for the
stops are the rotor starting condition and the rotor
braking loads at shutdown. The damper is positioned
so that the centrifugai load on the damper will be
along the piston-rod axis and will not result in pistonrod bendialz or internal-bearing wear. Lag damper
end Lem ririgi art lin bd with Teflvin fabric for ar~airite-

The rolling element beazings of the lag hinge are

subject to :cntrifugal loads plus reactions from blade
alternatint and steady bending moments. Vertical
shear loads are carried by bronze thrust bearings.
Blade lag oscillatio: is in the order of * I dtg.
The cylindrical roller bearings of the pitch (feather)
hinge react blade steady and alternating bending
moments and shears at the root of the blade. Typical
osciliation angles in forward flight are *4" deg. Tension-torsion straps, consisting of many slotted
stainless steel elements, react the blade centrifugal
loads. These straps twist easily, providing freedom
for blade pitch change with negligible effect on the
pitch control linkage force. The pitch arm connects
to the upper end of the pitch link nearly in line with
the flap hinge axis; the locations of this attachment
and the lower attachment of the pitch link to the
swashplate were chusen to obtain favorable coupling
of blade pitch with flap and lag displacements.
Two taper pins in a multiple cievis joint attach the
blade to the outboard end of the pitch housing. The
dclvis provides freedom for manual folding of the
blades about or~e or the other taper pin, depending
upon the required direction of fold.

nance-froe operation.PICAR

PITCH HIOUSINdG

A0ORHU

FLAP H4INGE
RESERVOIR

SIGHT GAGEPICSHF

ROTOR

FLAP

SHAFT

HINOF

LAG

Figure 5-22.
5-28

Articulated Rotor (Boeing MoMe 107)

ROTOR SLADE

_AMCP M06202

)4
Ieirersed Hine Articulatiom
5S=.I.I
coincident lag and flap hinge arrangement
The
shown shematically in Fig. -4 is ued on all production Sikorsky helicopters from the S-55 through
the S-65. hc radial location of these coincident
hinges is ro~hly 5%of the blade radius. Good controi power results, permitting liberal CO travel in
these single-rotor helicopters. The loads and motions
resulting from this hinge arrangement and the retention methods u~ in a typical coincident-hinge rotor
(Sikorsky S-61) aliscussed in the paragraphs that
follow,
As the S-61 lag hinge bearings are mounted in the
star-shaped hub, normal blade coning and cyclic flapping result in sizable vertical thrust loads along the
lag hinge axis.
A pair of conical roller bcarings transfers both
radial and vertical thrust loads of the lag hinge to the
tApper plate of the hub, while a cylindrical roller
bearing transfers radial loads to the lower plate.
With this coincident-hinge arrangement, the flap
hinge leads and lags with the blade. Loads on the lead
and lag bearings of the flap hinge are equalized by a
:...... ica!

betho Ion Inao. oLic Avinl

Io,,n*;,A

thrust along the flap hinge axis is due to blade chordwise shear forces. These forces are low and are
carried by thrust faces.
The pitch (feather) hinge isjust outboard of the coincident hinge, and blade moments and shears are of
low magnitude, with the primary reaction for this
hinge being the centrifugal force on the blade. A
stack of angular contact ball bearings arranged in
tandem carries the centrifugal forces in a very cornpact arrangement. A radial bearing pre-loads the
angular contact sct and assists in carrying moments
and shears.
At least one helicopter (CH-47) has the pitch hinge
inboard of the lag hinge. in this configuration the lag
axis rotates with blade pitch changes and is perpendicular to the flap hinge axis at only one blade pitch.
The weight of the rotor head is thus reduced, as the
blade can be removed or folded at the lag hinge and
an additional attachment joint is not required. Hinge
loads and motions for this configuration are similar
xo those of the typical rotor arrangement first discussed, with differences resulting mainly from the
moments and shears at the different radial locations
of the pitch and lag hinges. Control system loads do
not differ significantly.
This rotor configuration, with the pitch axis hinge
inboard of the lag hinge, results in two major characteristics:
1. There is no kinematic coupling of pitch with lag.
2. The "parked" helicopter has reduced blade/fu-

claiga clearances in that the weight of the blade in a

lead or lag position results in moment about the pitch
hinge, causing the controls to "drift" and the blade to
droop below the normal position.
5".1.2 Glmibakd a Teeterig Rotors
The gimbal-mounted rotor and the two-bladed
teetering, or see-maw, rotor have blade pitch-change
hinges rigidly mounted to the central hub. This hub
assembly in turn is free to pivot with respect to the
mounting structure in response to one-per-rev blade
forces, thus minimizing loads in the blade root and
the hub due to first harmonic flapping. Coriolis
forces in the lag direction similarly are reduced. Alleviation of these two types of load has a significant
effect on rotor-hbud strength requirements ard
therefore on the weight of the components. Elimination of the lag hinge and lag damper reduces maintenance requirements but at the expense of providing
strength for lead-lag moments that do nut go to zero.
Also, controllability is somewhat lower with these
hubs because it results from thrust voctor tilt alone.
Gimbal-mounted Hubo
Two-bladed hdbs, fully gimbal-mounted on the
rotor shaft, see-saw about one axis for cyclic flapping
and arc tilted about an orthogonal axis for cyclic
pitch control. Collective pitch is input by individual
links to each blade. The OH-13 and the OH.23 are
examples of lielicopters that use this hub.
The gimbal pivot bearings react the rotor lift forces
and also transmit the drive system torque. When the
rotor plane is tilted, the Cardan joint characteristics
of the gimbal cause oscillating speed. torque characteristics in the drive system that must be considered in

5-.1.2.1

-- -- ,: .....
thc.'Ctc,-.
or..:..1
gf.4.

.....

bility in the gimbal hinges is required to react the inplane rotor forces.
The pivot bearings on the gimbal axis parallel to
the blade span escillate with cyclic feathering of the
blades while the bearings on the axic normal to the
blade span oscillate with flapping of the rotor. Thus,
the bearings on the pitch axis are required to accornmodate only the collective pitch motions of the
blades.
The pitch axes are preconed to reduce the steady
blade flap bending moments on these hinges and on
the hub structure. The hub structure containing the
hinges is underslung below the gimbal pivot so that
the vertical location of the CO of the blade assembly
in the normal flight position is close to that of the
gimbal pivot point. This reduces the chordwise oscillotion of the blade. CO when pitch changes are n.ade
without flapping, ar discussed in Ref, 41.
5-29

Moments and &hear fort for the pitch berings

amrhighe than thoe of an equivalent fully articu1taed rotor. Motions are of the same order of magnitude but, as noted previously, do not Include tie ocillations due to cyclic pitch. Retention methods are
the same as those previously described for the pitch
axis of the fully articulated hub.

for and significas of then coupling effects upon the

stability of the rotor system are discussed in detail in
Chapter 5, AMCP 706-201.
The advantage of the hingeless rotor "am indude the high level of control provided by the trafor of moments. The system may be physcally iniple,.
but the strength required to transmit the forces and
moments across the blade retention system can cause
the retention to be heavier than is true for other types
of rotors.

S-t1", Teetearla Huls

Anothir common two-bladed rotor hub configuration, used on the OH-58A and the Fairchild-Hiller
FH-l 100, is . hub free to teeter about an axis normal
to both the blade span and thu rotor shaft for cyclic
Capping. Control linkages to each blade change collective and cyclic pitch. This type of hub has
preconed pitch axes underslung below the teetering
hinge, and, in general, the loads and motions arc
similar to those of the two-bladed, gimbal-mounted
hub. However, larger chordwise moments are caused
by the lack of full gimbal provisions, and the pitch
axis bearings must accommodate the oscillatory
motions of cyclic pitch as well as collecti,\ motions.
&5.1.3 Ri5d Rotor

(~NSIDflATIONS
The design considerations applicable to the use of
rolling element bearings in rotor blade retention
systems are reviewed in this paragraph. Additional
discussion of bearings, for blade retentions and for
other applications, is found in par. 16-3.
Other components associated with the blade retention system that also are discussed in this paragraph
are: lag dampers, lead and lag stops, droop and flap
stops, and drvop and flap retainers.
M5.2.1 Rolling Element Bearila

The "'rigid," or hingeless, rotor blade retention

confiSuration attache the rotor blades firmly to the
hub, which, in turn, is attached rigidly to the rotor
mast. The blade retention system must be capable of
transferring forces and moments in both flapwise and
lead-lag directions. The blade centrifugal force may
be reacted by any of the conventional methods (a tension-torsion strap, an clastomeric bearing, or a stack
of antifriction bearings). The retention must provide
"apitch change capability (both cyclic and collective),
and the centrifugal force must be. reacted across the

pna

Rolling element bearings are widely used in rotor

hinges. Experience with them has been good and the
technology, which is based upon both analytical
methods and empirical data, hat been verified by
extensive service experience. Gene ally, these bearings are compact. Bearing friction as low and has a
negligible effect on hub loads However, the effect of
pitch axis bearing friction on control system loads
should be evaluated; on large helicopters this friction
usually is low compared with the aerodynamic and
dynamic loads, but on smaller helicopters the effect

SNo

hinges are provided for flapwise or lead-lag

motion and the only flap or lag movement of the
blades relative to the fixed support structure is due to
structural deflection. The specific layout of the hub
and the retention determines the manner and extent
to which these daflections couple with and affect the
pitch motion of the blades.
As with other systems that do not incorporate a
flapping hinge, a precone angle usually is built into
the blade retention for a hingeless rotor. This built-in
angle helps to alleviate the flapping moment that the
retention must react, The geometry of the retention
also may include sweep and/or droop of the spanwise axis of the blade relative to the feathering hinge
"axis. The direction and amount of these alignments,
together with the specific geometry of the blade pitch
control input, define the feedback coupling between
blade u tion and pitch control input. The necessity

S.: 1

5-30

Sz_%'.
. .-

...urn...m
,, ,-,,e-

.... ass

...aaaa-.

iliy tic

as n a~ifst.

The failure mode of osczllattng rolling element

bearings most generally encountered is gradually progressive spalling that results in looseni-ss, heat
generation, and aircraft vibration. These factors have
some incipient failure warning characteristics.
Both grease- and oil-lubricated bearings have been
used in rotor hinges. The um of oil is favored for the
majority of cunent helicopters. Some characteristics
of the two systems are:
1. Oil Lubrication:
a. Oil is satisfactory over a broad temperature
range and is changed easily in ra*.onse to environmental changes.
b. Oil sight gages provide positive indication of
lubricant presence.
c. Oil permits "on condition" maintenance.
d. Reservoirs should be located so that centrifugal force drives oil into the bearings.

K
A

{-

JV
S-AMCP

706-202

c. Reservoirs and lubrication cavities should be

refillable without the necessity for venting to avoid
air pockets.
f. Oil rcquires elaborate seals and the maintenance of seal integrity. Radian-positive-pressurm seals
are commonly used for dynamic sealing. These seals
should be installed so that contaminants do not enter
them through centrifugal i'nrce.
2. Grease:
a. Shields or simple seals are adeqiate when
grease bearings are rclubricated at regular intervals.
Grease retention is fairly gocd with a failed seal.
b. Purged grease tends to exclude external contaminants from the bearing,
c. Grease in oscillating bearings tends to
channel, and the soap base may harden. Regreasing
mL'y be ineffective bccansz the hard soap may prevent
proper distribution of new grease. Premature failure
may result. Yet, if channeling occu-s, debris detection
will not oc an effective means of faijure detection.
d. Changing greases (as for extreme low-ternperature use) can be accomplished effectively only by
disassembly.
".--..1.1
CVlihidcal Rolleir itearlogs
"

Cyiindricai roiicr .

&-.c

high

,i;ol

capacity withi small space requirement. Design considesations mainly are ,mpirical, and many of the
factors are discussed in detail i,1 Ref. 42. One method
of computing the basic load capacity with oscillatory
motion is given in Ref. 43. Other factors must be
determined by endurance testing and service experitnic.
Some of the factors that influerce the life of cylindrical roller bearings in rotor blade retentions arc:
I. Angular deflection of the hinge pin, which can
cause concentrated load on one end of the rolles
2. Crowning of the roilern, which can pfovidt a
better stress distribution and tend to ,ninimime the effect of hinge pin deflections
3. Roller guidance (e.g., use of a cage), wh;ch can
reduce ro;ler misalignment
4. Large angles of oscillation, which can increase
the number of stress cycles on the bearing rollers and
races
5. Mounting fits, which must be as specified for
particular application in order to obtain rated capacity
6. Type of lubricant,

Sof

5-5.2.1.2 Tapered Roller Bearings

Tapered roller bearings have very high radial and
thrust capacities. Design factors are similar to those
cylindrical roller bearings and are discussed in Ref.
42. These bearings can be mounted in pairs to pro-

vide a capability to react moments as well as forces.

The roller taper direction of paired bearings can be
reversed to increase the tolerance to misalignment.
5-5,2.1,3 Angular Coatact Ball hearInp
An angular contact ball bearing carries a high, onedirectional thrust load in combination with radial
loads. The end faces of these bearings can be ground
so that two or more beatings in tandem will share a
thrust load. A common method of pitch (leather)
hinge construction is to use stacked angular contact
bearings to react the blade centrifugal force, with a
reversed bearing to preload the set and to react thrust
reversal. This configuration has the capability of
reacting rn-omenms and radial loads as well as thrust.
Design factors for these bearings are aiscussed in
Ref. 44.
5-5.2.2 Teflon Fabric Beatings
Teflon fabric bearings are used in the main hingcs
of several operational helicopters. e.g., in the 0-6
lag hinge and AH-IG pitch bearing. These bearings
are even more widely used in rotor control systems
where they have demonstrated their ability to withst-nd hi;h I'cds in an adw
vs environment.
The Teflon fabric liner varies in thickness from approximately 0.01 to 0.02 in. deperdirrg upon the
manufacturer. Strands of a material such as cotton,
Dacron, or Fiberglas are interwoven in the back surface of the fabric. The fabric then is bonded to the
outer hou.-ing, with the non-Teflon strands providing good bond adherence. Various bonckng
agents, bonding procedures, and fabric weaves cre
used; these can result in different characteristics of'
the finished bearing.
Design considerations for these bearings are:
1. Loads a&fdl
inotion.s. The cfftl of loads and
motions on Teflon bearing lives is based upon empirically determined factors. It is general design practice
to compare bearing fives as a function of PV, where P
- pressure, psi, based on the projected area of the
bearing surface in the direction of load, and V
average velocity of contacting surfaces, fpm.
The acceptable value of PV for a given life varies
with the pressure. Also, load reversals may reduce the
acceptable value by half. Large-diameter bearings
appear to withstand a higher PV.level than do small
bearings. It is clear that PV is only a convenient index
for comparison of bearings in similar appli.ations,
and real design values will depend upon endurance

test data for full scale bearings.

2. Friction. Measured values of the coefficient of
friction of Teflon-fabric bearings under loads comparable to those of rotor hinges gcnerally are in 'he
5-31

A\

reage of ju
0. 1 to 0.2. Contamination of the
A bearings in service has reultod in higher values. Hig
uniutwn may add significasidy to rotor system lWads
and should be considered in the design. Radial
bearing fo.-ces due to differential expansion also
should be considered as a possible source of
damaginS frictional loads,
3. Wear characteristics. Teflon fabric bearings
operating at a given load level will wear at sn eswntially constant rate, up to approximately half the liner
thickness. Bearings should be rep.laced at this time.

Al

The we"r rate may increase slightly when the backing

material is exposed.
When loads apt not reversing, bearing wear may
not always be reflected in increased clearance. Wear
debris collects on th.- unloaded side of the bearing so
%
that the fit appears to be tight. Unless it isknown that
clearance will increase with wear. means of wear
other than checking clearance, or
*deterniination
lightness, should be planned.
5-,U.3 Flexlng Elaemens
I.-.The
centrifugal force on the blaide acts as a thrust
Anr

nth np hinge Flexing tension elements are

used in a number of helicopters to react thia fomx

while also accommodating movement In pitch. The
two mtst commen types of flexing elunents are metal
strap tension-torsion assemblies, shown in Fig. 5-23,
and wire-wound tie bars, shown in Fig. 5-24.

thickness, and uas*="ie with and without spacerss

sparating the straps..
suetnson-toruaon assemblies shown have straps
of 0.032 in. nominal thickness stainless Nteel, with
slots as shown to reduce the stresses due to torsion.
Thin shims separate the straps at the ends to reduce
fretting.
The assemblies provide the capability Cot *43-deg
blade motion wider design loads, and in nonrol4
operation arm cyclod approximately :L6 dog duaring
each -otor revolution.
Torsional stiffness of the stamp aaaembaes does not
affect the pitch control forces sirnificantly. For
example, the larger assembly of Fig. 5-23 has a torsional spring rate of 120 in.-b per deg under the
85,000-lb centrifug-l load of the blade. For the highspeed flight condition the increm ent of pitching moment contributed by the tension-torsion assembly is
less than 3%of the total predicted blade pitching moment.
The strap assemblies of Fig. 5-23 have shown
excellent fail-safe characteristics. Fatigue failure is
charnctc.-ized by breaking of a single element of a

strap, senerilly on an outside corner, followed by

ividluas p itabsaon to otr outer eeet fe
much continued cycling. (3round-air-ground cycle
testing also has resulted in slow failure progression
from element to element in the lug..
The tension-torsion assembly of the OH-6A heliis shown in Fig. 5-11. This assembly provides

5-5..31Tealeaterlo. tra Asembiescopter

".23. Tes~ataison
tra Asemibitsflexibility for flarping as well as for pitch, or
Many configurations of tension-torsion strap
feathering. The IS stainless steel straps carey the conassemibliw~ have beeni u"A~ in addition to those shown
trifugal loads from one blade lag hinge across to the
in Fig. 5-23. These include different slot
oppositt hinge and provide a fail-safe. retention
arrangements, unslotted straps, straps of uifferent
system.

"5-.2.3.2 Wire Th-Ar Asa mles

Q
*

-.

CHAI

Very-high-strength. am'all-diamecter wire is wound

around end fittings to form a lightweight retention
system that is flexible torsionally under blade centrifugal loads. The inherent torsional flexibility can be
varied over a range of approximately 10 to I if
desired, by --hanging the configuration (Fig. 5-24).
Normal torsional stiffnesesM like those of the flexing
strap assemblies, are such as to have insignificant
effects on control loads.

"5-.2A4 Elastometic Bearings

CNA

0
Flwe 5-23. CH-46 and CH-47 Temlon-Torsion
SthP Assemblies
5-32

Elastomeric blade-retention bearings are based on

the principle that a thin layer of clastokner will withstand high normal (compteasive) forces and still permit high shear deformation (strain). By using alternate layers of elastomer and metal, the blade hinge(
forces can be carried as compression of the elmstowmer and the hinpt oscillation carried as shear.

AMCP 706o202
Among the advartge, offered by clowtomeric
bearings are:
i. Elimination of lubrication requirements
2. Improved maintainability and reliability
3. Sand, rein, and dust resistance
4. Compressive loading, giving the ability to carry
loads after severe dqradation (faii-safe)
5. Surface deterioration as the normal form of
wear, giving visible failure warninS.
Some of the morm common configurations of
elutomeric bearings are shown in Fig. 5-25. The
cylindrical bearings for radial load and the thrust
bearings have bemn used to replace conventional
rol!ing elcment bcarings as blade retention components. The spherical elastomer permits complete
blade articulation - pitch, flap, and lag - in a single
bearing, while reacting the blade centrifugal force.

(A) RADIAL BEARING

ALTERNATE

ELASTOME R IC
AND
METAL LAYERS

-~

~N1~(B)

THRUST BEARING

(A)FLEXIBLE TIE BAR ASSEMBLY

ALTERNATE
SPHERICAL
ELASTOMERIC
ETAL LAYERS

(C)SPHERICAL BEARING
(B)STIFF TIE BAR ASSEMBLY

)y

Flgure 5-24. Torsionally 'Stiff'sad 'Fiexible

Wirt-wound
Tie-ar Assemblies

Figure 5-25. Elastonewic Ikarings

!L

I/r

AMCP 70O-2O2
Stops
5-5.25 La Dampeirs, Laend-a
The lag damper of an articulated rotor must meet
blade stability requirement& in ground resonance
(par. 5-4.3) and in flight (par. 5-3.6). Two common
means of energy absorption in lag dampers are hydraulic shock absorbers (used on the majority of
large hcli&. pters (Fig. 5-26)) and friction dampers
(spring-load oscillating disks, used in several small
helicopters). Although timpler, lighter, and less expensive, friction dampers gSnerally arc less reliable.
Therefore, the use of friction dampers in new rotorai is
discouraged.

TUflon fabric bearings frequently arc used for

mounting lag dampers. For satisfactory life with
reversing loads, PV values (par. 5-5.2.2) should be
approximately 1/3 those found satisfactory under
nonreversing loads.
The CH-53 has auxiliar, pistons in its hydraulic lag
dampers. The pistons ar,. pressarized to force all
blades to the lead stops so that vibration during rotor
startup as minimized.
Hydraulic lag dampers frequently are used as lead
and lag stops. Integral hydraulic cushions can be used
to reduce the impact of the blade agtinst the stop.
Principal design conditions of the lead and lag
stops (whether integral with the damper or not) are:
I. Predictable flight conditions or maneuvers will
not cause contact of the lead or lag stops.
2. Lead stops will not yield due to rotor brake
application.
3. Lag stops will not yield due to engine starting

torque.
4. Lead and lag stops should fail before any dynamic component critical to safe flight yields.

S..restoring
......
....

I I

5-5.2.6 Droop and Flap Stops and Restrainers

Articulated rotors require stops to limit the
extremes of flapping motion of individual biaaca. t
Teetering and gimbal-mounted hubs have a similar
rcquirement, but the motion is that of the complete
rotor assembly.
The droop stop must be positioned to allow normal cyclic blade motion in all predictable flight cond~tions or maneuvers without making contact with
the stop. This stop position also must be 1-"gh enough
to prevent blade/fuslage contact in high winds
during rotor shutdown and when parked, i.e., when
blade centrifugal force does not provide a radial
force.

Centrifugally operated droop restrainers often are

used to increase blade/fuselage clearances. These

restraincrs engage at a rotor speed approximately 4060% of normal during rotor shutdown and restrict
blade droop to provide clearances not possiblc with
permanent droop stops.
Flap stops prcvent accidental overturning of the

blade~s in vcry high winds, and are positioned to allow

Figure 5-26.
5-34

Hydraulic Lag Damper

clearance for flight cyclic flapping motions in all

flisht conditions.
Centrifugal flap restrainers also can be engaged at
low rotor speeds during rotor shutdcwn and, in conjunction with droop rstrainets greatly reduce flap
hinge motion. Flap restrainers are essential for blade
folding to prevent the blades from "elbowing".
Elbowing occurs when a blade is folded so that its
CG is inboard of the flap hinge axis; if the hinge is

'

"

:I

t,

..... .rIi

7-0

AMCP 106-aV02
free to flap, the blade tip will droop unoer the blade
weight. Flap restrainers can be ground support
equipment if blade folding is accomplished only occasionally.
Two common types of centrifugal droop and flap
reattainer mechanisms are ovcenter linka3es and interposer blocks. Both of thes use weights to release
the mechanism as the rotor speed increases, and
springs to re-engage during shutdown,
Another droop restrainer mechanism is a floating
(gimbaled) ring below the hub, with projections on
the flapping portion of each blade. Cyclic motion of
individual blades displaces the ring to permit flapping

(feathering) acceleration. if balance weights arc used

to reduce or nullify the centrifugal centering moment,
the increased polar moment of inertia will result in
higher loads in the control system to obtain a given
change of blade .)itch.
For those rotors in which cyclic pitch is obtained
t y oscillation of the blade about the pitch axis, e.g.,
fully articulated and hingeless systems, the dynamic
characteristics of the system may be important. The
selection of a blade retention system should include
the investigation of the response of the blade to the
oscillating control force. Systems such as tension-torsion straps or wire tic-bar assemblies that have

without restraint, while the ring supports all the

known torsional spring characteristics may be

blades against collective droo,.

required to obtain an acceptable relationship between

the natural frequency of the feathering motion and
the rotational apeed.
Control system design considerations are discussed
in detail in Chapter 6. Further discussions of both
nullification of the centrifugal centering moment and
optimization of the natural frequency of the
feathering motion are provided by Ref. 45.
Arfi A Who A %

"5.3 CONTROL SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

9
\

In the selection and design of the blade retention

system, consideration must be given to tk.e characteristics of those elements which affct the loads on
the rotor control system. Displacement of the blade
about the pitch axis is opposed by a friction torque of
essentially constant value if angular contact ball

nearinns are usewi to react tkut centrriuaai Aorc of the

blade. On the other hand, both elastomeric bearings
anJ flexing elements (tensit n-torsion straps and wire
tie-bar assemblies) have the characteristics of torsional springs. When the elements of this type arc
used to react the blade centrifugal forc, the torque
opposing angular motion of the blade is proportional to the displacement.

For shipboard operation, or for compact stowage,

it is desirable to bring the rotor blades within the fusolage envelope. When the blades are stowecd in this
manner, there is much less possibility of blade
damage when moving the helicopter, or when other
helicopters or vehicles are moved in the vicinity.
Blade folding is preferable to removing blades; there

In addition to torque resisting motion about the

is less chance of handling damage, and rctracking can

"pitchaxis that originate in the blade retention system,

r',3.35

there also are torques that dspend upon the inertia

characteristics of the blades. The first of these, known
variously as the propeller moment and the centrifugal feathering moment, is a torque that opposes
displacement of the chordwise principal axis of the
cross section of the blade out of the plane of rotation.
This torque is directly proportional to the difference
between the moments of inertia with respect to the
principal axes of the cross section and also varies
directly with ill. The presence of the torque also has
been referred to as "the tennis racket tffoct". For tail
rotors and for main rotors of small helicopters for
which the rotational speed is high, it may be desirable
to nullify this torque by equalizing the moments of
inertia. This may be accomplished by the addition of
appropriate balance weights at the root of the blade.
The second torque that depends on the characteristics of the blade is the conventional inertia reaction,
proportional to the polar moment of inertia with
respect to the pitch axis. This inertial torque varies
"with, but is opposite in direction to, the pitching

LD

l r@Laf9lfN
FY.4

be avoided. Either manual or powered blade folding

systems can be used, depending upon operational
requirements.
Consideration should be given to blade folding in
the initial design of a rotor system, even if the basic
heilcopter criteria do not include this as a requiremeat. Appropriate decisions as to the method of
blade attachment, radial location, and clevis
clearances of the blade attachment joint will simplily
incorporation of folding at a later date.
5-5.4.1 Design Rtquireaseiut
5-5.4.1.1 Manual Blade Foldlag
The following prvisions are required:
I. Rotor brakes, rotor locks, or means of securing
trc blades to the fuselage to retain hub azimuth position
2. Pitch locks, locking pins, or fixtures to restrict
blade motion about the pitch axis, preventing load
feedback into the pitch control system forn a folded
blade
3. Flap rcstrainers (articulated, gimbal-mounted,

i06~

and tKt~ring hubs). Centrifugally-operated droop

ad flap restrainers are
deired; if not self-contained,
special ground support equipment is needed to
restrain blade droop.
4. lade fold hinge, with quick, simpli means of
locking and unlocking blade motion ab,)ut thic hinge
5 Clamps to restict lag hinge motion (articulated
rotors)
6. Quick-disconnect fittings for attaching handling
lines to blade tips (optional)
7. Acocw to the rotor heLd (steps, handholds.
toeholds, or rungs) and w work platform for performing rotor-head folding operations.
Major stops in a typical manual blade-folding
operation of a single-rotor helicopter are:
1. The rotor should be rotated to the proper azimuth position for folding,
2. Rotor brake or rotor lock should be applied, or
one blade should be secured to the fuselage to retain
rotor hub azimuth position.
3. With an articulated hub it may be necessary or
desirable to move some or all blades to a predetermined position about the lag hinge and to lock out
any further motion about this hinge.
, d
.
.4
4. C^^iu; .
positioned to the proper setting for folding.
5. Pitch locks should be installed on all blades to
be folded.
6. Flap restrainers:
a. For articulated hubs without automatic flap
restrainers, a flap restrainer should be installed on all
blades folded 90 deg or more.
b. For teetering or gimbal-mounted hubs, flap
hinge motion should be locked out.
7. Racks should be installed to secure the folded

structure, if required.
blades to fust.lage or other
.

a. A blaud-suppuning polc and steadying

f
inus as

The following componGnt requirements are

necessary for a power blade-folding system:
I. Power rotor orientation mnchanism
2. Rotor lock to maintain azimuth position
3. Automatic droop and flap restrainers (articulatcd, teetering, or gimbal-mounted hub)
4. Contro! position indicating devices for pilot
5. Power pitch locking device
6. BI. le lag hinge positioning device (articulated
hubs)
7. Blade fold hinge unlocking devicc
8. Blade fold actu~ators.

The power blade-folding mechanism for a typical

blade of the CH-46 is shown in Fig. 5-27. An electromechanical actuator housed within each rotor blade
folding hinge pin operates a linkage that sequentially
inserts pitch lock pins, positions the blade about the
lag hinge, releases the blade fold hinge lock, and
rotates the blade to the proper fold position.
5-5.4.2 Operational Requireantats
Blnde folding frequently must be accomplished in
an adverse environment with poor lighting, winds,
rain, and possible helicopter motion.
hladP fnldina under these conditinns can
mnial
M
result readily in crew injury and human error. In view
of this, demign of folding components should consider:
I. Minimizing loose components
2. Minimizing large or special tools
3. Attaching flags to all fixtures (pitch lock pins,
etc.) so that it is apparent the helicopter is ursafe for
flight

4. Providing adequate access and working areas

on the helicopter for performing the folding operations.
*l~orut. b~twu n
r,
A-I
Notice andi betwwn

required by blade size and accessibility, should be atand

tached. The blade-fold joint should be unlocked,
each blade fo!ded and secured. Blades may be secured
in racks, by lines to helicopter structure, or about the
fold hinge,
9. If the tail assembly is to be folded, it may be
necessary
fold itinbefore
the cycle.5-.
main blades or at an intermfediate topoint
the fold

blades and helicopter structure should be adequate to

allow for blade, hub, and drive system deflections under wind loads or due to motions of the helicopter. If
the blade-to-fubelage or blade-to-blade clearances are
inadequate provisions for biade i,..-ks or bladt securing lines should be matc.

"-o4.1.2 PoWi

Blde Foldif
For flight safety it is mandato'ry that a power blade
folding system be properly interlocked to prevent any
malfunction from occurring in flight. Interlocks also
are necessary to prevent damage to helicopter comnportents due to improper sequencing of the power
blade-folding systen. it also must be apparcnt to the
flight crew that the blade unfolding sequence is corn-

cussed in relation to design and operational

requirements, the entire blade-folding operation
should be reviewed from the system safety viewpoint.
The identification of potentially hazardous conditions should be made from the viewpoint ofa
material failure/malfunction, environmental conditions, personnel error, supervisory influence, or any
combination of these factors. Maximum effort

plete and the aircraft is safe for flight,

should be made during the design phase to reduce the

5-36

S e SftCe
erte
In addition to the specific safety consideration dis-

AMCP 705-202
hazard of these failure modes. Guides for this safety

must incorporate strength and stiffness character-

analysis include MIL-STD-882 and Ref. 46.

istics that will meet the applicablc structural design

.- 6 ROTOR BLADES
5-6.1 GENERAL

characteristics, and will do so efficiently and econumically.

As described in par. 5-2. design of a helicopter

rotor involves the dctermination of optimum values
for each of a number of parameters, i:cluding those
that define the blade gcometry. The blade designer

The blade geometry is defined by the parametcr of

twist, planform, aud airfoil section. Selection of
values for these parameters generally is accomplished during preliminary design. The type of parametric analysis required to optimize the rotor design

criteria and also will provide acceotable acroelastic

FOLD HINGE

PITCH HORN

b)!tW

aI.PITCH

-7-1j

HORN
LAG
P11CH

FLAP HINGE

LAG H'NGE'-

HUB

POSITIONER

,:

.,PIN
Figire 5-27.

"BLADE CLAMP

FOLD HINGE

BLADE FOLD
MOTOR
INFOLD HINGE

CH-46 Power Blade Folding Mechanism

5-37

AMCP 706-202
is described in pEr. 3-4.1, AMCP 706-201. The considerations pertinent to the three principal flight conditions - hover, high-speed lift, and maneuvering are reviewed in par. 5-2. Ir the paragraphs that
follow, the sign-ficance of the two types of design
parameters - aerodynamic and structural - is
reviewed, with emphasis on the detail design and
:manufactuie of rotor blades that will satisfy these
requirements.
5-6..1

Twist

SGenera'y, rotor blades have a linear twist on the

Sg.ad
.-

order of 4 to 8 deg, and the blade tip angle of attack is

less than that at the root (washout). The primary considerations leading to se:ction of the deaign value of
twist occur in the trade-offs between hover efficiency
and the delay of high-speed, retreating blade staql.
Thfor
SThus,
f raa particularraircraft
aic at mission
m si n profile
p oietthata
combines both hover and cruise, an optimum twist
must be determined that will allow both high hover
i efficiency.
cThe
~~~~gross weight and goodd cruise
The effect of twist in the hover Dode. is to .reate a
more uniform intlow distribution trom the biae tip
to the root. The so-called "ideal twist" (which results
in unretical w
lus of twist n-ar the blad, rnfo ) theorctically would result in a uniform inflow distribution across the rotor. Large an! ounts of twist, up to
12 deg, approximate this distribution over at least the
outboard half of the blade. Twist has the effect of
reducing both the induced gad profile drag losses of
,.he rotor so that the hover efficiency, generally
refer:-ed to as Figure of Merit, is increased (-cc par. 32, AMCP 706-201).
The theoretical maximum value for Figure of
"Meritvadue is unity. This value can occur only if the
rotor has no tip losses and also posse2.ses no profile
drag. These conditions cannot occur, so an actual
rotor Figure of Merit value always will be less than
unity.
The effect of twist in the forward flight mode of
rotor blades is to lower the pitch at the tip while
maintaining a larger angle near the root. This reduction of tip angle of attack gives a corresponding
decrease in the rotor profile drag power, which, in
turn, allovs a higher forward speed to be obtained,
parametric studies used to optimize
design twist for a particular aircraft also must include
torsional deflection in obtaining the section angle-ofattack and the corresponding aerodynamic loading,
Effects of drag loads and centiifugal twisting also
should be included ;n the elastic twist angle deterruination. Th: forward flight angle-of-attA;k determinartion also should include the effect of blade pitch
rrte (tennis racket effect) on the instantaneous twist

S.Aerodynamic

angle as it varits around the azimuth. Commonly the

inertia contribution -- i.,., ccr.trifugal twisting due to
blade pitch and pitch rate - will be greatar than thc
aerodyninmic twist.ing monrents, and the net tarsional deflectiou is in the nosedown direction.
A further requirement is that at high forward-flight
speeds, the advancing 'blade tip has zero, or near zero,
lift load in order that the corrcsponding high Mach
numbc- drag be minimized. For a given amount of
twist and a given forward speed, this minimum drag
can he met orly at one specific gross weight. For
operations at gross weights above this value the increase in required collective pitch resu'ts in increased
blade-tip lift and drag loadings Also, at gross
weights below this minimum, a highly twisted blade
tIp operates at high forward speed with negative lift
on part of the advancing side of the disk. This causes
aen
nosedown
eo e mcontrol-load
yb i i - pulse,
b c ueandhther aircraft
ul ntvflight
r envclope may be limit-d brcause the resultant vibration exceeds prescribed limits.
optimum
amount of twist that isloi
etitdbfor forward
h
lgtpwrrqieet
flight power requirements also is restricted by the
relatively linear increase in oscillatory flanwise hending moment with increased twist. In general, the
powe," consumption and blade torsional moments
duc to compressibility effects can be minimized if, at
the design condition, the blade is twisted to produce
zero lift on the advancing tip.
5-6 1.2 Planform Taper
As with twist, the effect of planform taper is to give
a more uniform inflow distribution across the'redisk
during hover and thus to increase the Fs& of
Merit. The local induced velocity is proportional to
the square root of the blaied ie-_e.inn lift, which in
turn, is directly proportional to the local blade chord.
Thus, by increasing the root chord over that at the
tip, the induced velocity over the inboard portion of
the disk can be increased, simultaneously increasing
the thrust over the inboard portion of the disk. Experiniental results have shown, however, that the oscillatuy bending nroments are increased as the planform taper is .ncreased (i.e., tip chord is much less
than root chord).
The higher cost of producing planform-tapered
blades has ruled out their general use. In addition, a
blade with planform taper requires a thickness taper
in order to retain a uniform airfoil section with
known characteristics. Also, significant planform
taper results in a srmaller blade tip cross-sectional
area available for tip balance weight placement. Also,
excessive amounts of root chord - as dictated from
Figure of Mer;t optimization studies - can cause a
premature power limit on forward speed due to an increase in profile power.

S~AMCP

5-6.1.3 Airfoil

msSe..lon

In addition to the usual need for high lift-to-drag

ratios, stall angles, and critical Mach numbers, rotor

blade airfoils require low pitching moments. Airfoil

cfficicnts. However, this bcneficial effect disappears

pitching moment coefficients that vary appreciably

with angle of attack give periodic pitch link inpats
that are undesirable and that, in turn, can lead to
periodic forces and vibrations. Thus, although in
forward flight the angle of attack varies with azi-

as Mach number is increased.

A further benefit of the delay of compressibility
effects due to the use of thin, cambered airfoils is that
noise levels due to these effects are, in general,
decreased for a given flight condition. The noise

muth, it is desirable that the blade pitching moment

coefficient not vary. Usually, it is preferred that the
pitching moment coefficient be zero so the corresponding loads do not vary with the variati3ns of
local airspeed.

generated by a blade intersecting a tip vortex is

affected only to the extent that the vsrength of the
vortex is affected. This particular form of noise is
caused by a .railed tip vortex being intersected by the
following blade, with a rcsukhnt rapid change of

The usual starting point in airfoil selection is the

706-202

may have undesirable effects on blade profile power.

At the same time, cambered airfoils extend the low
Mach number, retreating blade drag divergence
boundary to regions correspording to greater lift co-

minimization of rotor power requirements for th

design cruise and hover conditions. Two-dienensional airfoil drag data at the design lift coefficient
arc used in this determination. The static variation of
drag coefficient with Mach number, along with the
change in the drag divergence boundary, also i- used.
The drag reduction potential of thin airfoils is well
known, and has the greatest effect near the blade tip

-.

.,,,,,

angle of attack. The corresponding pressure change

causes the slapping noise that is characteristic of heli.

copters. At a given flight speed, a lower lift-to-drag
(L/D) ratio will reduce the vortex strength and hence
lower the noise.
Several airfoil sections that ,:re used or could be
used in helicopter blades are shown in Fig. 5-28. The
main geometric properties of these air foils - such as
thickness ratio, leading edge radius, and camber -

due to thc higher Mach numbcr environment therc.

are identified in this ligure.

For ease and economay of manufacturing, a thin air"foilat he blade tip usually is auhieved with a uniform

It, addition to the characteristics shown, some

blades possess a thin, teailing edge extension strip

root-to-tip thickness taper.

that extends beyond tWe "true," airfoil trailing edge.

On the other hand, the ret. -ating blade stall and

drag divergence characteristics of thick sections are
superior to those of thin sections in several series of
airfoils. In the low Mach number region of the disk,
the thick sections allow a higher lift coefficient to be
cbtained before the onset of drag divergence. However, the advantage of these 4"! ck sections is reversed
in the high Mach nuinbec environment. Tnus, the airfoil section characteristics for the advancing and

In the usual blade, this strip 'sosed as a base to whi..h

th. upper and lowrr skins are bonded. The strip can
be tailored in length and thickness, or number uf
laminates, to obtain the dcsir'd edgewise stiffness
and fatigue properties. Airfoil characteristics shown
in Fig. 5-28 also can be used joirtly so that the
d-si, ,nle properties of seve.el characteristics can be
incorporated into one airioil. For example, a blade
design could be based on a thin airfoil with e dtoop

retreating blades are in conflict,

nose. This would combine the benefits of reduced

The addition of airfoil camber ana increased

leading edge raduis tends to improve the low-specdstall characteristics of the symmetrical airfoil sections
commonly '-sWd .or rotor blades. At high MAch

drag an the hi3 rhMach number advancing blade tip

ii:h increased maximum lift coeflicient on the
retreating biade. This hypothetical blade could be
modified further with a iarpe leading edge radius, and

numbers, the eftect of camtrcr is ;o decrease the

could have its aft section produced with straight

maA'muni obtawable lPit coefficient. However, this

effect is riot too significant because low lift coerficir --ts are desired in the advancing blade, high Mach
number region. Camber generally is applied to the
forward portion of the rotor blade airfoil cross section in order to retain low pitching moment coeffi cients. This leads to the "droop snoot" terminology
used by at least one contractor. In some instances, the
trailing edge is reflexed slightly to counteract an
otherwise unavoidable amount of pitching momenz
and the corresponding cyclic control loads. This
method of eliminating undesirable pitching moments

"slzb" sides. These changes would improve, respectivcly, the abruptness of the blade stall chatacteristics and the ease of manufacturing khe blade aft section honeycomb er web structur-e. Further, the
machining of the main bonding molds for a slabi ded blade will be easier, hence, less expensive. The
decreasz in blade flapwise, edgewise, and torsional
stiffnesses ca.sed by this particular geometric shape
could be restored with the proper slection and
layups of advanced materials such as boron or graphite composite., but the slab-sid,:d airfoil may r.t provide as high a value of LID. By ,use of this type of
5-39

&.............

trade-off procedure it should be possible to obtain a

blade airfoil that represents an optimum configuretion for the specific hWticopter mission.
Blade !ip geometry has been found to ha~vc impor-.
tant effects upon overall rotor performance. Early
studies genr-ally used constant chord sip covers wiht
flat, stmiround, or other types of curvature. These
studies indicated thiat limited perfomiance benefit
was obtainod with tip covers ftht had xomplicated
curvature and were thus difficult to manufacture.
The major performance gain of these tip covers. as indicated by the rotor lift to drag LID uhually could be
ti accd to an increase in rotor radius. More recent
studies have cicplered owept leading and trailing
edgecs in aim,
effort to reduce the tip vortex velocity and
strcnjihI. These results have shown that a planforni

THICKNES PATIO. /

M&XiL*A~ IHICKNES$ I

LOCAAN OF

C.
HCNSS

ILEAOIIG
FADIUS

ufAN CAMER'.JNE

_-I--

.---

I~

____
r~Y

c~c;;7 ~Z
.

______on

_______IO

U"UIN

MA~IL4IAMUc4

CAUSERfoil
--

STANARDAIRFIL-ACA
012a
-

THIN AIRFOIL-MACA 0006

Sis

S-~
SHARP NOSE
AIRFOIL-NACA 63AI,,

.chango,

Q_~z~
SL-AB SIDE AIRFOIL
-*---..on
Sin

CAMBEIED AIRFOIL
__________________________edge
S~coupled

DROOP NOSE
AIWOIL

Flpure 3-28.
5.40

aneuivers, the local conditions

~in the following

bade tip are changing rapidly due to &hevortex effect

the angle of atiack. Therefore, this radial segment
of blade dies not behave as two-dimensional wind
tunnel data wouald suggest, and time-dependent airsection characteristics should be used itn the anaof acerodynamic loads and roto'r perforniance.

*---------lysis
-~

taperwd bld,,tip does tad., Am

hitp vor%%Iand henoe
both tlim corm~ponding naise and tho UWAI~laory
loads origiatisng rsear the tip of the blade. Inadilon.
the aft sweep of the leading ed*r delays the effoits of
comnpressibility, as With v fixed wing. This allcowa an
increase in forw'ard spood fo.- fixed values of rotor
spc*- and available power. Other attempts at bLkde
tip gvometry mnvdification to deecrase the tip vortex,
such av~ installing slots ur holes, have not proved
successful.
The tipplicability el stundord,. two-dimensional airfoil data in rotor ana~ysis is q~tcitionablc whenever
the shed tip vorte-x al* progiahes the following blade.
EBecaus-. the bled%: tip gcomctry has such1 a stong influence on the tip vortex, the allawfible spatial relationmhip betwoeen the vortex find blade for future
high-speed heqlicopters should Ix analyzed for various
tip configurations. Recent flight tests have indicat~d
that thc oscillatory airloads tend to be concentrated
at the bladc tips. Most harmonics are characterized by higher lobding at the tip due to the ,ipulsivc ntature of tip vortex interference. In tiousteady

TypkMa Helkcoper BoIrM ade Airfoils

Two-dimensional static tests show that r4te low

Mach number stall of thick airfoils of cvrtain series is
leading-edgec phenomenon. This stall is characv'rized by a sudden sepafation of flow over tht entire
upper airfoil surface, and resufts in ani abrupt change
in the lift curve slope. Also associate-S with this effeci
an instantaneous nosed&.wn pi-iching mom!.rnrt. No
warning occurs that would ini-'aite stall a i.-riminent.
This instantaneiu!, OTfet docs. not occur ii- two-dimecnsional tests of thin
airtoils. Rather, a gradual
in lift curve slopt; mkat r~oce, alcog w~th a
more gradual increase int nosedown pitching .noment
due to stall. Many investigaiievs have been cunducted as to the c~ffects of noststeady acrodynt.PU*CS
various airfoil sections. These tests indicate that,
the dynamic enivironirint of irtcret.'ni angler of tvLtack with time, stall as indicated by a iom K- Ui~t Ui
not occur in the manner pnedictcd fiem- static tests.
When a sharp loss of !ift does ozcum due to Iai4
separation, the resulting impcac

is highly

to the dynamic response of fl~t blade in toision. For instance, a fixed itupuls: due to L 3uchlw
loss of lift on the :etreating blade niuy hrtv.- r.Sitter
effect on a rotor sy! 'em haviing both at b4w cowmrol
stiffness and a torsionally soft blade. Tot torn it!

1.

)AMCP7W
*
*

stiffness of an airfoil cross ection is approedmately

proportional to the square of its area for a Sivrn type
"ofcell constru-taon. Thus, a thick airfoil can be
manufactured with higher torsional stiffness. Therefore, for the airfoil series with which the thick section
receives a sharp impulse due to sudden stall, the torsional response of the blade may be leks for a given
amount of cointrol jystan stiffn%4 than when a thin
section is used.
Dynamic pitch te.its of various airfoils have shown
clearly that the increase in the maximum lift coefficient is large for low Mach numbers and decreases as
Mach number is increased. Thus, as the retreating
blade increases pitch, it can ivacn a greater angle of
attack before stall occurs than that predicted by twodimensional airfoil tests. The amount of this increase
is dependent upon the airfo'l geometry, particularly
the amount and location of camber and the leading
edge radius. The lift coefficient that corresponds to
the drag divergence angle of attack obtained from
two-dimeasional tests, however, remains an adequate
indicator for oscillating drag divergence. The more
gradual increase in pitching moment due to the

bladc tip vortex strength and trajectory in conjunction with the objectives of obtaining a high hover
Figure of Merit and a low value of cruise power
reiuired. Blade twist, chord, and thickness, and the
corresponding physical properties of the blade,
should be chosen to minimize the responses due to
vortex action and aerodynamic hysteresis effects, in
addition to resonant conditions. These types of anslyses should include the effects on the blade of the entire control system, as well as possible shrft, or pylon
bending. Dynamic blade stall effects at the first torsional natural frequency and at the once-per-rev
rotational frequency of the blade should be included
in the blade response analysis.
54.2 BLADE CONSTRUCTrION
Rotor blade structures may be broken down into
three major elements: the spar, the aft section
(sometimes referred to as the fairing), and the root
end retention. Secondary elements are tip closures
and hardware. trim tabs. and tuning weights. While
wooden rotor blades still are in use and probably will
be used to a limited extent for many yeaus, they are

couid result in Itrgc losses of lift if these torsionally

softer blades untwist sufficiently to precipitate a loss
o! lift. Sharp increases in torsional loads then occur
and can result in the same net effect as leading-edge
separation of thick airfoils. It has been foomd from
several experimental sources that cambered airfoils
with a slightly increased leading-edge radius possess
superior pitching moment delaying characteristics. A
large leading .edge radius also helps keep the blade
section CG iorward, which delays the onset of both
pitching moment stall and classicdl bending-torsion
and stall flutter. i-or airfoils with sharp leading edges
and with their maximum thickness further aft, the

tcr development and, therefore, are not addressed in

this handbook.

overall blade CG can bt moved forward with a large

This extrusion may be a "D" spar, usually con-

tip-over balance weight. This is not as desirable as

obtaining a more uniform forward CG position from
root to tip, since individual 31adc radial segments
may still be acted upon by undesirable moments.

sisting of a single cell, or it may be of an essentially

trapezoidal shape. The "D" shape conforms to the
forward portion of the airfoil shape, with the vertical
part of the "D" serving as & shear member. The

A form of negative damnping can occur when the

blade twist rate and the loading due to the acrodynAnic pitching moment are in the same direction.
This may !kiadto excessive torsional response and to
subsequent loss of lift on the retreating Htade, chnracterized by excesive flapwise bending amplitudes.
As with torsional stiffnew, a thicker blade obviously
possepss more flopwise stiffness, for a given type of

hollow trapezoida spar, sometimes referred to as a

box beam, may be made to conform to the upper and
lower sides of the airfoil surface but requires the addition ot a shaped component on the forward side to
provide the nose rdius of the airfoil. This shaped
componeiit usually tervol also to provide chordwise
balancing of ttc blade and therefore is made of.brass
or some other relatively dense material,

onitruction and hance will respond less to a fixed

amount of flapwise lift input.
Determination of blae geometry shouid consider
the effocts of nonoteady aerodynamics along with

54.2.1.2 Solid Extruilog

This extrusion iR solid in the sens4 that its crosssectional outline may be tiared without lifting the

56.2.1 Spar
The major load-carrying member of any rotor
blade is the main qpr, whether it be designed for
structure only or also as a part of the aerodynamic
shape of the blade. It may he of monolithic construction or may be assembled from two or more components. The predominant types of spars are described
in subsequent paragraphs.
54.2.1.1

Hollow Extaloa

.:

".'2.

.~

-- :+

"%::"-

. ::

AMCP 76-202

"tracingstylus. It may be referred to as a "C" section,

__ters,

opening tcward the trailing edge. As with the 'D"

section, it conforms to the forward portion of the
airfoil shape. Commonly the wall is thickened a considerable amount at the nose to provide chordwiue
balance and resistance to impact damage. The "C"
section may or ma) not be closed at its ai. end with a
separately extruded or formed shear web.
The principal advantage of extruded aluminum
spars is relatively low cost in production. The "ID"
and box beam configurations lend themseh'es to internal pressurization as an in-service inspection
system for cracks. The advantage of the "C" section
is that its internal, surface may be inspected during
manufacture. A major disadvantage is that the use of
extruded spars is confined to constant-section blades.
An added disadvantage is the poor resistance of
aluminum to erosion. In low-performance heiicopwhere changes in aik'foil nose radius are not critical, this problem car, be ignored; however, it usually

Reliability is enhanced in that the quality of the

raw material can be closely controlled and inspected
prior to spar fabrication. The raw material does not
undergo any fundamental change during the fabrication process.
5-S.2.1.4 Round Steel Tube
One of the earliest types o" spars for rotor blades
was a round steel tube, and certain advantages still
exist. Obviously, a touid tube cannot be used to constitute a part of the airfoil shape, but must be buried
withia an enclosing structure or envelope. Inherent in
the various process= for producing such spars is the
ability to taper both diameter and wall thickness continuously or in smooth steps - providing considerable latitude in stiffness, mass, and -aerodynamic taper of the rotor blade. The heaviest portion
of the tube protrudes from the root end of the blade
enivelope, and may have integral attachment lugs or
may simply be a cylinder that accepts a socket type of

is necessary to cover the aluminum with an erosionresistant shield at the leading edge of the blade. From
the standpoint of efficient design, the fatigue

retention fitting.
Generally, excellent material properties are obtained in tubular spars due to the nature of the cold-

tive.
5-6.2.1.3 Formed Sheet Metal
This type of spar is fabricated from mu.iple components, the minimum being a "C" section and a
shear web. The shear web may be the web of a
channel section, with the flanges providing surface
area with which to bond or braze the channel into the
"C" section to form a "'D" shape. /.dditional webs
may be added to made a multicell structure. In most
instances, a continuous or segmented balance weight

this proce.ss is accompiished with sufficicni pi io,-,

to avoid stress raisers, high fatigue strength can be .
obtained. Further, with proper blade design, the
material surrounding the spar tube can have sufficient independent strength to make the structure
highly redundant. A disadvantage of the completely
enclused spar is the difficuity of access for inspection,
5-6.2.1.5 Formed Metal Tube
An alternative to the round tube is the formed
metal tube. Generally, this starts with a round tube

i*i

w'hich

strenge!h-to-weiaht ratio for aluminum is not attrac-

;In or

a the nose radliiuc ,f the. 'C'` and

may contribute to the overall structure, particularly

for chordwisc stillnesm. There is a wise choice of
materials for fo-med sheet-metl spars, ranging from
low niloy steels to any of several types of stainlesrs
steels tyr noaferrous al!oys such as beryllium coppr.
Among the advantages of this type of coistrucilon
is the ability to taper the spar in almo:t any manner
desired. Another is the ability to tailor the gages of
the different components to achieve a given set of
stiffness and strength requirements with greater precision, Perhaps the greatest advantage is the redundancy of the structure. The bondlines between the
components are effective crackstopper6 so that, even
if the "C" spar should fail, the remaining structure
can be designed to carry the loads and prevent a catasti ophic failire of tht blade. Finally, depending upon
the alloy and tlh-configuration, thc spar can provide
adequte erosion protection without n extra shield,
5-42

working process employed iii their fabrication. When

-- b,tu-ntlv

fnrm to

either a "D" or an

oval shape within the blade envelope. In the former

case, the "D" is the forward portion of the airfoil
contour. In the latter case, the oval tube is encased
within the envelope of the airfoil, much as with the
round tube. The oval shape permits a thin airfoil
compared to the original tube diameter. In either
case, taper of the airfoil is quite difficult to achieve,
athough the wall thickness can taper so as to give the
desired mass aad stiffness distribution. The root
retent:on alternati.c4 Ft, identical to those for the
round tube. Most of the advantages and disadvantaaes are the same as for iound tubes.
54-2.1.6 Molded Reinforced Plastic
Molded reinforced plastic lenrls itself to alii,st any
gcometric. spar configuration. High-strength fibers which may be of various types of glass, graphite, or
boron - are imbedded in a matrix, usually of epuxy.

M
Orientation of the fibers along the length of the spar
gives a composite construction that is very strong in
axial tension and is light in w'eight. One successful
configuration is much like the solid aluminum extrusion. Others may be "I" beams or variants thereof.
The large number oi configurations possible include
a multicell section with complete shear weba molded
integrally inside an airfoil-shaped shell,
One of the greatest attractions of molded plastic is
the ability to achieve any desired degree of taper and
virtually any desired shape. Another is the ability to
wrap each fiber, or filament, around t'.e principal attachment member at the root end so that there are no
discontinuities in the load-carrying material. Still
another is the relatively wide selection of stiffness/
strength/weight ratios that arc available through the
choice of fibi-r-reinforcing material and the orientation of the fibers.
A disadvantage of molded reinforced plastic is tht
difficulty of repeajing with precision the properties
(density, strength, stiffness) from one unit to another.
This problem is being overcome, through improveimnts in the molding process.
5.4U.2 Aft Sscfie
The aft section, or fairing. of a rotor blade is the aft
70-80% of the airfoil. It consists of upper and lower
skins, some type of contour-stabilizing internal
member (usually a structural trailing edge strip), and
a means of attachment to the spar. This section may
make a significant contribution to the beam stiffnesG
and strengah of the blade, or, in some cases, it may
serve only as a fairing and to transmit the airloads to
the spar. There are many different typ's and variations. The rtist common are described in succeeding

SP~agtisphs,

5-6.2.1 Coatimous Skim

Continuous skins of sheet metal or fiber-reinforces plastic may extend from the root of the blade
to the tip. Regardless of the internal members, continuous skins normally carry a significant amount of
the centrifugal loading and a lar, -share of thc chordwise bending anc, torsional stiffness. These contributions can be controlled closely in the case of plastic
skins by the sclection of the fiber orientation. In this
way, a blade can be designed to be torsionally soft
and yet veiy stiff in the flapwise or cbordwise direction, or vice versa.
SThe
internal members that tie the upper and lower
skins together and maintain the blade contour may
""'_/ be metallic or nonmetallic "'I"beams or channels,
honeycomb core, foam core, or a series of individual
ribs. Blades with a chord of less than 8.0 in. or blades

706-202

with unusually heavy skins may not require any internal members in the aft section. Very large blades may
be constructed with individual sandwich skins both
top and bottom, in which case no further reinforcement or stabilization may be necessary.
Spanwise "I" beams or channels in the aft section
generally contribute significantly to blade chordwise
and torsional stiffness and thus are found more often
in the blaces of semirigid rotor systems. Channels are
adaptable as spanwise members in tapered blades
since thay can be stretch-formed to the required
shape. If they are bruke- or roll-formed in a constant
shape, they can be placed in a skewed position within
the aft section so that they follow a spanwise line of
constant blade thickness. However, the use of such
internal members often has the disadvantage of Complicated internal too'ing required for proper
positioning, and to supply adequate pressure during
adhesive bonding of the assembly.
Honeycomb core as a filler between the top and
bottom skins of the aft section is extremely effective
in maintaining a stable airfoil contour. Although
aluminum alloy honeycomb core is the most common. there is a growing tendency toward the use of
nonmetallic honc)cuwb. Tht latter has the advantages of being less susceptible to corrosion, relatively
resistant to impact, and - where nonmetallic skins
also are employed - less suuxptible to lightning
strikes. Whenever honeycomb is used, careful attention must be given to sealing a blade completely
against tiie entry of moisture, because any water that
enters the blade has a tendency to migrate and
become entrapped, leading to corrosion and blade
unbalance.
Fosm core also has been used successfully in blade
oft

=ttctni

Thp

liahtweight fnramg

reguired in this

application are somewhat more susceptible to lelamination between skin and core than arc the honeycombs, and to failures occurring within the foam
itself. Generally, foam cores are pre-cured before
-blade assembly. Foaming in place is !a be discouraged since it is difficult to obtain uniform quality
and density.
Individual ribs commonly were used with wooden
rotor blades, but seldom are employed with metal or
reinforced plastic blades with continuous aft sections.
In the latter case, the tooling for installation of the
ribs becomes quite :omplex, and contour stability is
difficuilt to maintain within the weight and balance
limitations.
54.2.2.2

Segnumted Skims

Blades used in fully articulated rotor systems often

are constructed with segmented aft sections,
5-43

K4'-r,
.' 4

.. . . ....

Straeliog

S*

o
ti rf d to as boxes, pockts, or fairinug
Obviously, this type of construction provides for no
centriflial load-carying ability, and makes little
contribution to chordwise stiffemu unless each ofmeat is connected by a continuous, structural,
edge strip. The skins of the aft section
segments may be of metal or reinforced plastic and
are stabilized much the same as are the skins in blades
with continuous aft sections.
Among the advantages of segmented skins is the
ability to replace individual segments in the eveat of
local damage. Because the skins are. in a sense, nonstructural, considerable damage can be sustained
without destroying the basic structural integrity of
the rotor blade. Also, with'this configuration it is
easier to achieve blade bending stiffnesse of the
values required for the natural frequencies desired in
an articulated system. One of the greatest disadvantages in segmented aft sections is the increased difficulty in preventing water from entering the rotor
blade. The number of segments may vary from 8 to
20 or more, and each joint between segments must be
sealed.

is necessary to increasethe blade thickness to achieve

sufficiently high section modulus and bearing arm.
Commonly, this is accomplis;'ed by bonding metal
laminates external to the upper and lower surfaces of
the blade, and then adding a relatively heavy remntion or grip plate external to the stack of laminates.
The retention plate contains the main holo(s), which
may pus through the blade envelope or through top
and bottom lugs that are extensions of the retention
plates. Where the bolts pass through the blade envelope, it is reinforocd with Internal, metal filler blocks
that effectively create a solid airfoil section in that
region. When a tubular steel spar is wed, it may be
extended inboard of the blade envelope and be fitted
with a socket, or cuff, which is either damped or
threaded onto the heavy root end of the spar. 1he
socket may contain a single retention hole or two
holes, d.pending upon the location and configuration of the lead-lag hinge of the hub. Here, again, the
holes are through lugs that are an integral part of the
socket and mate with similar lugs on the hub.
5-6.2.4

Tip Closures and Hardware

JiUIaUst

5.6.2.3 Wraparoad Skins

A special form of continuous aft section is that in
which the skin of the rotor blade wraps completely
around the nose radius, providing both the upper and
lower aitrfoil surfac.s in one piece. This method of
contrtL crion may be used with any of the previously
described internal stabilizing or strengthening
members, although generally it i used with a solid
extruded spar or a formed-section tubular spar. Such
a skin usually is made of iluminum, although the use
of other light alloys or fiber-reinforced plastic is not
preclded. I he method of manufacture normaidy is to
form only the nose radius in the center of the skin
material, and to depend upon the spar and/or other
internal members to control the remainder of the airfoil contour. A disadvantage of wraparound skins is
the difficulty of maintaining cose contour :olerances, particularly in nonsymmetrical airfoils. Also,
in order to maintain :he required weight and balacce,
the skin normally is too thin to afford protection
against erosion of the nose and, therefore, an additional erosion shield is required,
54.23 nreo End Retmade
Root end retentions vary considerably from one
blade design to another, depending upon the type of
rotor system and the type of blade construction. The
main retention bolts or pin(s) provide the interface
between the rotor blade and the hub. Because of the
high bending and centrifugal loads at this interface, it
3-44

rai1

Ai.flji

buI%4WA- hiIUvc

sUaa

tyfjMof

IASflA

and adjustable weights within the envelope at the tip

end. Fixed weights are employed to provide adt quate
rotor inertia, to control flapwite bending fmequencies, and to place the static chordwise CG and
the nominal dynamic axis in the proper location.
Generally, adjustable weights are installed in pairs,
displaced equally forward and aft of the deon dynamic axis of the blade. These are used to equalize
the spanwis' mass moment of one blade against
another or against a master, correcting for manufacturing tolerances in weight, and also to provide a
forward or aft adjustment of ti - dynamic axis to
achieve equal pitching moments from one blade to
another. With adequate precision in the tooling and
methods of manufacture, the uced for either or both
of the.:e adjustments may be eliminated.
Tip closures may be simple flat plates or relatively
complicated hollow, airfoil-shaped, monocoque
shells, usually screwed or riveted to the blade envolope. Various sOapes are in use: some simply rounded
at the end, some made in the shape of a wedge, and
some with very unconventional planforms. Most tip
plates or caps have a small protuberance at the
extreme tip to facilitate flag tracking of the rotor.
54.2.5 Trim TrOs
Rotor blades generally are fitted with ground-adjustable trim tabs. The tab may be an extension of the
skin or of the trailing edal fioler strip beyond the
nominal trailing edge of the airfoil, and may extend

for Aw4c panof

dop of O bbmk A

cow

ialty of 75% span For hums trad a& trim tabs am

a&*u d by beafd tm upwald or downw..d a
nmmusy to oqualisa the pifteba acemt chanac
t9lst of th* adibuAl Nbae.
"54.A Teif

egd

c mmme
Wok SMl

of motfmt

aOW
a . To

e be to .bm dt thmu usihsm hdl ,,ain

m .ul
Si=h , it is duirbli that ah
s # theospiwise nume Adbam1Mes be pemihi wkho~aihebie
the chonhwiss CO. For eaa Ks.a pmawi, allnode weWigt f kaproperly locate Inthe bade owy
correct a flapp*n natural frequecaq, but may chasg
ouple I

Many forms of tuning weights am ued internally

at
locations
alog
the span ofthe blade. lly
arevarious
referred
to a oantinodes
l
weights because they

a torsional fsqIency sao as to cause it to

ar placed at the point of maximun deflection amplitude of The

the blade
a itisvibrates
in various
harmonic
mode*.
purpose
to chang
the natur-al
froquency of the ilade to avoid resonance with any

fications that can senousy liit the lifo of the rotor

blade;
vibrations are not transmitted to the
irath but if the
oiinnyntbeppttttl
o'cupant..

posbible forcing frequencies, particularly rotational

speed. The weigts may be bonded. riveted, or boltad
to internal structur J members of the bladr, or may
be suspended at the end of a cable, strap, or rod that
is retained st the root end. The latter method of
retention precludes high local stresses in the basic
blade structure due either t. holM, or to contrifugal
force because of the concentrated mass. It also pr"": M a "MW%,%".....
Aij
:.
SJ
4_Ac1
.,1i""hy
bending, and permits the weight to be made of highdensity, nonstructural metal.

This control of natural frequencies is equally i.portait in avoiding excessive vibration of the aircraft
and high loads in the control system. Whether or not
the rotor blade vibrations will be transmitted to the
fixed system is dependent upon the mode of vibration relative to the nua Ser of blades .inthe rotor.
Thus, it is necessary to ,onsider the entire systen,
when designing a rotor blade for optimum natural

5-..7 Dedge ReWqiamb

Regardless of the method of construction of a
rotor bhlde, the detail design and the selection and
distribution of matial muat satisfy a number of independent and interrelated requirements. The blade
geometry Naving boen established, as discussed in
par. 54.1, additional major considerations are
strength, vibration, weight, mass moment of inertia,
serviceabwiity, and cost.
As a rule, a rotor blade that is des.ned to have a
reasonable life under the applicable fatigue loading
conditions will be structurally adequate for any static
conditions. Therefore, major emphasis must be
placed on design features that reduce the alternating
strewn and make the structure as insnitive as posi
ble to those rtesses. Alternating stresses are induced
by response of the bledes to the periodic airloads,
which, in turn, are affecte by the blade motion. The
blade response it dependent almost entirely upon the
mas and stiffnes distributions. It is exemnely important that thes distributions be such as to avoid
any bending or t risional natural frequencits that are
near resonance v Ahtany forcing functions (ace par. S4.2).
Thi blade vibration frequencies may be broken
,own into flapwise, chordwiw, -and torsional frequencies, thse may couple together unfavorably to

------

strongly with a chordwlse bending frequency. Su'-

coupling often reults in high-frequency streW ampli-

In spite of all efforts to avoid amplifications of

bending moments by control of natural frequencies,
alternating stresses always will exist. It is of prime irportance, therefore, that the detail design mimiz,,
the tolerance of a rotor blade :o these stresses.
Materials selected, whether metallic or nonmetallic.
must be capable of providing high fatigue strength.
To this end, any form of stress raiser - e.g., notch,
hole, or sudden change of section - must be avoided
in areas of even relatively low alternating streUs.
Techniques have been developed that now make
wcldi-ag a vm~bi mfu(hd fUo fabliitfion of rotor
blades. However, care must be exercised in the placemeat of the weld, and adequate quality control over
the process must be assured. Holes in areas of high
stress also can be avoidc; 1hrough the use of adhesive
bonding. When the joints are designed with care,
stress concentrations virtually can bc eliminated.
Bondcd joints albo act as a barrier to the propagation of a crack from one structural member to
anothe'. In all of the blade confriuretions discussed
in the earlier parts of this paragraph, adhesive bonding generally is the principal method of joining.
54.8 Toe11" NW QAltY Cer" RqdremetTwo principal catgories of tooling for the constraction of rotor blades are the tools for fabricating
the main emponewtp and thow for assembling the
blade. In the case of molded flber-reinforced-plastlc
blades, these may be combined, and the spar, skins,

"'-:-

.9-

"'.N

'

\_c.also may be ma.'.

....
.. mbb eool.
Dies for the manufacture of extruded aluminum
spars are relatively inexpnasive; however, the machining and other operations involved are likely to
offist this cost advantage if the spar is tapered in any
way. Frequently, it is difficult to maintain the
required tolerances in aluminum extrusions.
Formed sheet-metal s~ars and shear webs, or
longitudinal stiffeners, usually are made in a multistage roll forming mill if the blade is of constant seetion. T -oling is more expensive than extrusion dies,
but is more durable and produces parts to very cloe
tolerances. For tapered blades, it is necessary to
stretch-fonr the parts. Tools and capital equipment
for this operation can be quite costly, but very close
tolerances can be held.
Tubular metal spars may be made by any of several
nmethods, all of which are some form of swaging
Tooling costs generally are quite high. Quality
hazards associated with these proceed, include mandrel pickup and the enlargement of otherwisc nqgugible or easily removable metal defects.
Adhesive bonding requires large, specialized tools
capable of applying accuratcly cunitrolicd heat and
pressure while maintaining close dimensional tolerances. There tools may bz "unitized"; i.e., they may
contain built-in sources of heat ang pressure. Htat
may come from the electrical resistance "calrod" type
of inserts or heating blankets, or may be provided by
steam or hot oil passages. Pressure sometimes is
applied through pneunatic cells contained in the
fixture. Unitized tools have the advantages of being
semiportabic and of bcinj capable of providing
differentf values of temperature and pressure in
df.ee_t 7,nn~
Mn,na- reviioi.-A~
._i._ for
f ths_r me i nf
of-,tn...
_. mutriouil
.---different

Rcqardims of the typo of tooting, prcci oilnti 3ls

are required to assure that proper heat and pressure
have been applied. Printed chart records are
desirable, end provisions should be mado for the proceasing of samples representative of each individual
blade assembly that can be tested to destruction.
Even after having maintained such control, it is
desirable that some form of nondestructive testing
(NDT) be applied to the final assembly. The most
prevalent NDT method is the ultrasonic scan, which
reveals unbonded or poorly bonded joints.
5-6.3 BLADE BALANCE AND TRACK
Individual production rotor blades must have both
dynamically and aerodynamically similar characteristics. Dynamic similarity is achieved through
maintenance of a specific mass balance by the addi. )n or removal of weights on the blade. Aerodynamic similarity is achieved by maintaining close airfoil and geometric control, or by adjustments, such as
with a trim tab. Determination and confirmation of
dynamic and aerodynamic similarity are accomplishd by phyt'.Allwy bh.nAng anid tra-.ring ,,ah
blade against a master blade or set of master blades.
5-6.3.1 Effect of Dedgn
Considerations in obtaining dynamically and seaodynamically similar blades must begin with the
design. The selection of materials and the construction of the blade should be made with interchangesbility as an ultimate objective. In making material
selections, trade-off such as sheet stock versus
extruded or forged muterial must be made. Generally, a weight advantage can be realized by tie use of
sheet stocik. llhwcvcr.
the shect siock
~ec.te the flori~oig of'fteacLM
'--

"'

and the type of joint in each particular zone. A disadvanlage is that each rotor blade type or subasnernbly requires a completely new tool with heat,
pressure, and cooling provisions and relatively comiplex controls.
The other principal assembly method is the autoclave. Both heat and pressure are provide6 by this
piece of capital eqisipment, and the tools that hold
the blade components and maintain dimensions
during bonding are relatively less expensive than
comparable unitized tools. However, unless special
provisions are made, all areas of the blade receive the
same heat and pressure. This can be a distinrt disad-

may not produce a close-tolerancc airfoil shape. This

type of trade-off procedure should be followed for all
major components of the blade to insure acceptable
balance and track and ultimately, the interchangeability of each blade with other blades of that specific
configuration.
Bec:ause the control of the weight of individual
parts within a close tolerance could result in extremely high costs, some adjustment of the weight of the
blade must be provided. This adjustment should permit the addition or removal of weight at the blade tip
and, possibly, at the blade root as well. In many blade
designs, the adjustable tip weights are installed on at

vantage since more heat input is desirable in a region

such as at the root end, where there is considerably
mom mass, than in a light sction of the blade.
A hybrid method of assembly employs a tool that
contains its own pressure source, such as pneumatic
cells, but that is placed in an oven for heating.
5.46

least two separate chordwise attachment points (par.

5-6.2.4). The location of thc adjustable weights at the
tip takes advantage of the large balance nrm about
the reference datum, which usually is the center of
rotation. Spanwise balance is achieved by adjusting
the total weight at both attachments, whereas the

AMCP 706-202
chordwise CO is corrected by transferring weights
between the chordwise positions. The limits of adjustment are reached when either attachment is completely empty or is completely flled with weights.
To establiah individual dynamic balance, !%oth the
spanwise and product moments must be controlled to
maintain a common dynamic axis for all blades of a
particular model. The dynamic axis X!is expressed as
follows:
it
J
xydm
X
,in.
(5-8)
NOR!
where
dm - increment of blade mass, slug
-= location of flapping hinge from the center
of rotation, in.
m, " mass of spanwise increment at inboard
end of blade (e). slug
nmk - mass of spanwise increment at outboard
end of blade (R), slug
R - blade radius, in.
x

= chordwise distance from blade leading

edge to centroid of mass increment, in.

y
- spaunwise distanct f(oun flapping hinsc to
centroid of mass increment, in.
Eq. 5-8 implies that the weight of each element or
component must be rigidly controlled. However, in
practice this is not necessary because a system can be
established to match rclativ'tly heavy parts with those
that are on the light side of the tolerance scale.
Because it would be quite cumbersome to match or
select each and every part of the blade assembly, only
those components that make up the bulk of the
weight need be considered. This method of selective
assembly divides the rotor blade intt, four main camponents or groups: the spar or spar assembly; the
leading edge material, including ballast; the aft acction skins and stabilizing material; ared the trailing
edge reinforcement. These four major components
are selected bemuse they comprise the basic structure
of a blade and extend the full length of the blade
span. Variations in the weights of t'e remaining parts
have little si3nificanoe in the total weight and balance
of the complete blade.
54-.3.2 Comneeet Lunit Weigtts
By selecting the major components on the basis of
their respective weights and moments relative to the
Uaveilcble
weight adjustments, virtually all blades can
be balanced to a master balance blade. The weight
-variation in each part shal! be determined by the
available capacity of the attachments for adjustable
weight. Weight limts for each part may be calculat"ed by assuming that all other parts are of nominal

weight and that one of the weight attachments is

completely empty or full. When two tip weight attachnients are used. the acceptable weight tolerance
on forward components (e.g., spar and abrasion
strip) is lim.ited by the forward tip weight capacity,
whereas the weight tolerance on aft components (e.g.,
trailing edge and skins) is limited by the aft tip weight
capacity.
When this method of weight adjustment is used,
the limit weight for each component may be obtained
by the solution of simple pairs cf simultaneous
equations. The equations are iet up in terms of spanwise and chordwisc (or product) moments where the
sims of the moments of empty or full attachments
and the two unknown weights arc equated to the
sumns of the nominal ,nomente on the same compon.nts, aF shown in Table 5-2.
The steps that follow (using data from Table 5-2)
show the solution for the minimum and maximum
weight for one part (an abrasion strip):
1. Minimum al'owablc weight (forward attachment assumed full):

a. Spanwise moment is:

0.19(155.50) + 82.6. WJ.., + 155.50W,
459.30 +
15.55 + 15.55
b. Product moment is:
0.19(155.50) (0.75) + (82.61)(0.558)Wjm,, +
(155.50) (2.35) W. - 256.30 + 11.66 + 36.54
c. Sol-.ing these two equations will give W,,.
the minimum allowable weight for the abrasion strip.
lb, if all other componcnts remain at nominal weight
2. Maximum allwwable weight (forward attachment assumed empty):
a. Spanwise momeqt is:
n
c '+ 82.41 w
+
_L15.50 ul
459.0.+
15.55 + 13.55
b. Product moment As:
0.0(155.50) (0.75) + (82.61) (0.558)WIR + (155.5)
(2.35W1 ) - 256.30 + 1.1.66 + 36.54
c. Solving these two equations will give W-1 ...
the maximum allowabhl weight for the abrasion strip,
if all other components remain at nominal weight. In
both the solutions the valwts W, and WJ, the aft and
forward adjustable weight, respectively, must be
:50.19 lb. the maximum capacity of the adjustable
weight attachment. A sind;ar set of simultaneous
equations is solved for each of the other three critical
components.
Nomograms can be prepsred for convenience in
the selection of the four oi more critical weight components. These nomograms combine into a single
graphical format all the mininim and maxitpum
c&'imponent weights deterwii~ed by the procedure
stated previously. Similarly, th.se results can be com-

TABLE 5-2. EXAMPLE OF NOMINAL WEIGHT AND CG LOCATIONS

WEIGHT,
lb

PART

____________

ABRIASION STRIP

5.56

MOMENTCG LOAT ONS

PRODUCT,
SPAN WISE. in. CHOfIDWiSE i. -VSA-NWISE,
Ib-in.'A x B :D Ib-In. 2C x D-*
c
B
266.30
459.30
0558
82.61

1 AJUSTABLE

FORWARD'

0.10

155.50

0.750

15.655

TIP
WIHS

AFT'

0.10

155.50

2.350

156.5

36.54

'MAXIMUM CAPACITY 0.19 lb

PART

SPANWISE

SPANWISE

PRODUCT

PRODUCT

WEIGHT,

MOMENT
COEFFICIENT,

MOMENT,
lb-in.

MOMENT
COEFFICIENI,

MOMENT,
lb-in.

SUB-TOTAL COMPLETED
BLADE UNBALANCED216939.
ADUTBE

TIP WEIGHTS
ADDED

00984

FORWARD

.-

IAI z

jI

155.50

I r l13654

'

SUB-TOTAL COLUMN E
SUJB-TOTAL COLUMN C

DYNAMIC

FORWARD
AFT

2.

35406.

-Mb.0051
-

0.005

155.50
155.50

TOTAL FOR TEETER

3671.2
2196.3

lo

-0.8
-0.8

().7in
-

-0.6
-1.8

116.60
365.40

21473668.8

BALANCED BLADE

FINAL DYNAMIC AXIS

(CHECK)

9.8

21963_371.

AXIS (CHECK)
ADJUSTABLE
TIP WEIGHTS

116.60

216.\~*~

S1JB-TOTAL PRELIMINARY
BLADE
*BALANCE
*PRELIMINARY

13.1

___

TOTAL OF COLUMN E
TOTAL OF COLUMN C

3668.8
2194.7

167in

NOTES: (D THIS WE.-GHT ADJUSTMENT IS MADE WHEN THE BLADE IS TEETER BALANCED.
THF NEGATIVE SIGN INDICATES WEIGHT WAS REMOVED.
Q~ DYNAMIC AXIS AS MEASURED FROM THE LEADING EDGE.

AMCP 706-202
bined into a system employing a digital computer to

closely controlled weight and balance system during

provide rapid component selection from a number of

random-wcight parts,

manufactufe. The prerelcac tracking of all other

blades will be made against mastcr tracking blades.

For final balance the spanwise and product

The master blade(s) are blade(s) that have been fabri-

moments of all of the blade components, including

th,. paint and adhesive, are obtained for the unbalanced blade. Again, two simultaneous equations
can be written. The unbalanced spanwise moment
and the forward and aft tip weight moments should
be equated to the rt juired spanwise moment of the
master blade. The unbalanced product moment along
with the forward and aft tip weight moments should
be equated to the desired product moment. Solving
thesc equations simriltancously will yield the additional weight required at each location for dynamic balance. A summary of the balance procedure
is shown in Table 5-3.
By establishing a weight tolerance for each of the
major selective components and using a consistent
method of part selection, the blade assembly will, in
nearly all cases, balance within the capacity of adjustable weight attachments. Upon final assembly of
the blade, it shall be balanct,-checked againzt a master
blade. The tolerance on the actual balance depends

cated as closely as possible to design specifications

and to as precise tolerances. These master tracking
blades are produced so that, when they are installed,
the controls arc adjusted to the nominal position. It
then can be ascertained how much deviation ot toler.
ance may be allowed on production blades. Consideration of allowable tolerances shall includc the crew
comfort levels defined in MIL-H-8501.
Interchangeability with mauter blades must be
determined either on a tiedown aircraft or on a
suitable towcr prior to relesou for random installation. At least one master blade must be tracked with
each group of production blades. The blades should
be tracked at several rotor speed settings typical of
those that will be encountered during operation and
at several values of collective pitch, with rotor speed
held constant. Track readings shall be taken for each
blade at each speed and pitch setting. Typical data
are shown in Figs. 5-29 and 5-30.

-oil Woil iu iy; of' uzolt.C.g., fully itiuiulait

UK

hingeless, and the size of the blade. Tolerances of the

order of 10 in.-oz are not uncommon. This physical
balance of the blade must be performed on a balance
stand capable of registering the blade spanwisc moment to within the specified tolerance. Weight should
be added or removed as required to balance the new
blade. The balance master shall be established as that
blade to which all other blades of a particular part
number or series shall be balanced. This demonstra-

tion shall be accomplished by balancing each blade

either directly against the master balance blade or

against a calibrated mass balance for which the
master blade was the calibration, stanrakd.
The spanwise teeter balance discussed previously
demonstrates only that the blade will be in flywheel
balance; however, the dynamic chordwise balance
still may be out of tolerance. Dynamic chordwis.
balance, therefore, must be checkcd by tracking the
blades at various rpm and collective pitch settings. If
the selection of parts was controlled during the fabri-

cation of the blades, a minor adjustment, such as

3i.0_
S

BaADE

--

c
1

0.5

1.0
1.5

....

200

-T...
210

.
22W
HUIQ4 WEED. rpm

230

240

Figure 5-29. Track With Varying rpm

(Zero Collective Pitch)
1.5

.o0.15
"

B-AA

--

5 0

moving adjustable tip weights forward or aft, will

correct any dynamic chordwise deviation.

0o..

"J3.33
Track
"To confirm interchangeability, each blade should

1.5

be tracked prior to its release for installation. However, tracking of hir4eless blades is difficult because
"the deflections at the tip arc small. Interchange"ability of these blades can be confirmed by using a

1.b

--

COLLECTIVE PITCH

Fipure 5-3,

0 0.

Track With Varying Collectbe Pitch

(Comntat Rotor rpm)
5.49

A typical plot (Fig. 5-29) cf the tracking data

r- orded by any one of several tracking methods
during an rpm sweep of an articulated rotor indicates

ment has much influence in the establishment of the

minimum mass distribution for the rotor blade. No
weight savings can be realized beyond the limit ir-

that blade (A) is aerodynamically similar to the

master; however, an incidence or pitch adjustment is
required to correct the blade track to zero. Blades (B)
and (C) can be corrected by downward trim tab adjustment. The appropriate adjustments should be
made to bring all blade tracks within the tolerance
level compatible with crew comfort levels previously
established. This tolerance will depend on rotor size
but commonly will be equivalent to dIfferential blade
coning angles of the order of 5 min.
A typical plot (Fig. 5-30) of track data during a
collective pitch swoep with the same articulated rotor
depicts blades (A) and (C) out of track d.ic to dynamic unbalance. This condition is corrrected by
moving a portion of the adjustable weight of blade
(A) forward while that of blade (C) is moved aft.
Blade (B) i: seen to be dynamically similar to the
master blade without adjustment. Weight adjustments and/or trim tab or trailing edge adjustments
rmvide hlnd
-"will
that are dynamicaly and aerodynamically alike, permitting interchangeability with all
other blades of that configuration. In both Figs. 5-29
and 5-30, the reference master blade is shown as a
horizontal straight line through zero without slope,
Several methods of tracking blades may be
employed; the accuracy, safety, and reliability of the
electronic trackers provide excellent results.
In addition to tata flat and collective tracking data,
the blade pitching moments should be determined
with a suitable calibrated load cell. Pitch link forces
should match the master blade pitching moment

pGed by this requirement; thus, a point exigts beyond

which an increase in the strength-to-weight ratio of
the material cmnnot reduce blade weight. Although a
high strength-to-weight ratio is desirable, more important factors are the ratios of both the fatigue
strength and density to the modulus of elasticity of
the nmaterial.
The tetal loads on a rotor blade cannot be predicted by a straight forward examination of rotor
thrust and centrifugal force.rTe loads depend upon
the response of the blades to the periodic airloads
which themselves are affected by the blade motion.
The blade response also depends heavily upon the
mass distribution. A change in stiffness affects the
bending moments, deflection, and radii of curvature
of the blade to the extent that the response is
changed. It is impos.ible to predict - without a reevaluation of the blade response -. whether a change
in stiffness will increase, decrease, or have no effect
on the radius of curvature of the blade. In other
words, the radius of curvature of a rator bWade do,
%A
not have the simple proportional relationship to
stiffness that exists in a static structure because the
bending moment is a dependent variable. Nevertheless, the following equation from simple beam theoty
for the radius of curvature r is applicabtle

demonstrated that vibratory levels do not exceed the

limits of MIL-H-8501 and that life-limiting oscillatory stresses are not induced.
$&4

ROTOR BLADE MATERIALS

As discu a-d in par. 5-6.2, a relatively broad variety of materials may be used in rotor blade construction. This piiragraph considers the major factors that
lead lo the selection of specific materials, based upon
the inherent properties of the materials and irrespective of the details of construction.
Helicopter rotor blades arm unique in that many
conditions that must be met depend upon various
combinations of material properties. A rotor blade
must be designed as an integrated part of the complete rotor system. One specific requiremenW is that
the mass moment of inertia of the rotor system must
be of at least a minimum value to provide sntisfactory autorotational characteristics. This require-

5-s0

Zt--I

(5-9)

..>

..

and bending stress crt in a particular material with

modulus E is
or's

psi

(5-10)
AE-

Substituting Eq. 5-9 in Eq. 5-10,

_.-,p
r
where
c - distance from beam neutral axis to outer
fiber, il.
E - modulus ofclasticity. ps
4
I - moment of inertia, in.
M - bending moment, in.-lb
If a stiffness change is made in such a way that the
distribution of mass and stiffness is unchanged, the
blade response, and thus the radius of curvature, also
wid be sub ntantially unchanged. Then, as in Eq. 5-11,
the blad. bending stress will increase in direct proportion to the material modulus of elasticity E. It
follows that the most desirable rotor blade material is

---

)
-

__

--

"

_ '_

the one that has the highest ratio of strength to

modulus of elasticity. Any material with a high
modulus of elasticity that does not have a proportionately high strength is undesirable.
Table 5-4 is a comparison of the ratios of material
fatigue allowable (FA) to modulus of elasticity E for a
sample of available rotor blade materisIs. The comparison uses fatigue strength because this factor is of
primary importanoc in rotor blades. The values given
are based on experience with actual structu.res and
arc less than the values obtained from laboratory
specimen data; however, they are presented here for
illustrative purposes only. Syccific values of fatigue
strength for metals, plastics, and sandwich structures
are contained in MIL-HDBK-5, -17, and -23, respcetively. Care must be exercised in using aniy given
values for fatigue strength since the configuration of
the specific component as wull as the necessary manufacturing processes may adversely affect the material
properties.
Considering only ratio FA/E as the criterion,
Column 3 of Table 5-4 indicates steel is suptrior to
aluminum, and Fiber.glas or graphite is superior to

material is used in a rotor biadc, other considerations

are necessary since a rotor blade operates in a rotating field. In this condition, strrin compatibility
determined by the ratio of modulus of elasticity E to
mass density p becomes an important factor.
Ire a rotating field, the centrifugal force (CF)
generated by each blade element is proportional to
the mass density of the, specific material and the position of the element along the blade radius, or span.
When two continuous spanwise members, each of a
different material, are side-by-side in a common centrifugal field, each will tend to strain an amount that
is proportional to its respective mass density p and inversely proportional to its modulus of elasticity E. In
most cases, the two members are bonded together
with an adhesive that can transfer load from one to
the other by shear, causing them to strain equally.
This bcing the case, the material with the higher value
of -he ratio E/p will pick up load from the other
material and bL strmsed higher than if it were rotatring bv itsclf. Theis, it is drgirable tt6at two or more
materials, used in coniinetion. have fairly similar
valuws of E/p. Column 5 of Table 5-4 indicates that

either mptal

aL!umniwnm and at"_. a

Rnrnn ir not nkrtifir!i"rI

nttrtivr.

Wood (spruck) i, highly fati~uc-resistar:t, but also has

disadvantages that preclude serious cohsidcration for

prescri-gencration helicopters.
Up to this point, the discussion of materials has
dealt with bludc b(.ndirg only. When more tian one

I4

TABLE 5-4.

MATERIAL
ALLOY STEEL
ALUMINUM
-'E" GLASS/EPOXY
tUNDIRECYIONAI.
BIDIRECTIONAL
"S"GL.ASS!EPOXY
LINDIRECT!ONAL
BIDIRECTIONAL
BORON/EPOXY
UNDIRECTIONAL
BIDIRECTIONAL
GRAPHITE/CEPOXY

cluminum is a~ceptable. Boror and graphite ve compatible with caci other, but cithbs

should be tsed

with caution ir combinition with steel, aluminum, or

Fib;rglas.

COMPARISON OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES

-"1

"".-

101

ih tchi
respc.t, and Fibe'g!as in combinaioun with st". or
-rr.nn_.tibe

E,
29
10
6
3.5

FATIGUE

FA

FATLGUE
ALLOWABLE

FA

-_

K0.00
6,000

0.0010

__N0
0

E
r. P.
DENSI
Ibin
0.28
0.

Pn

103

8,700
4,200

0.0014
0.0012

0.065
0.065

92
54

8
5

t 9,700
t 4,900

0.0012
0.0010

0.074
0.074

108
67

36
21'

t 26,000
413,000

0.0007
0.0006

0.074
0.074

486
284

-:;

".

UNODIRECTIONAL
30
40,000'
BIL!R- .TI NAL
1820,000'
SPRUCE
1.4
2,000
DATA EXTRAPOLATED AND.'OR ESTIMATED FROM

0.0013
0.053
0.0011
0.053
0.0014 "NUMIERJUS SOURCES.

S65
340)
88

S-

In vimw of Sr;wina prmsures to use advanced cornposit=. in aarcraft structures, it is appropriate to

examine the beciefits, if any, to be dcrivei from t~teir
application to rotor bladm. The outseanding attractions of such materisis arc very high stiffness, high
strength, end low weight. It has been thown that ft
iratios of these properties - rather that, t&;,absolute
values - art of primet importance. From the standpoint of fatig-.ie resistance (Columnn 2. Table, 5-4),
these matcri-is appear to be very compatible with
mrore conv.-ntional materials for use in rotor blades.
The que~stion, then, becomes whet",,r there arz overriding advantages to be gained from other' chai actcristics, such a3 ballazflic tolcraro=, or the high value of
the ratio Elp.
Tht rotor blade dynamic repcinsce is highly clcpcndent upon the rotating natural firoquencies of the
blade, and it is necesary that the blade be designed to
avoitht
frquecie
ae inresnane wth ny ortot natural frequenc
expression
The
functions.
cing
cy
of a rotating beam wR. is
K-O

which is
wi,
o
W

73.6
27.1
272

Now, assuning that the stiffiles El is increased to 40

10' lb-in.',
1
' R, =%-1390~ 47T20 -%46F1_0
78.2 rad/sec
Thus. for the iirst flap-wise bending mode on a typical

hiaiged rotor blade, a 100% stiffness change iesults in

a chznge in rotating frequency P_. wRi 4.6 rad/sec,
or 6%. This mode of vibration is crit~ical in an articuelated rotor, and *he only effective way to centrol it is
by varying the mnaws distribution, because little can be
done by changing the stiffness.
Further examination would show that the first
F77~TYchoidwise mode of vibration, as well as the hiiher
+1 A!L
rdse
Qt)
zL
in hnth planes; is affiected significantly by
lei
0,+mt'jdse
s-2
blade st~ihress. I-cr hingeless or semirigid rutors, all
modes are aflTecled significantly by blade stiffness. In(
whrethese,
typcs of rotors, the higher mniodes of vibration
a.,
co.afficient which is dependent upon m$ss
are m~anifest primarily in blade: stress levels, as opanJ stiffness distribution and has a daiTcrposed to vehicle vibrations. F~or multibladed rotors,
c-it value for each mode of vibration, dithe higher vibration modes also can contribute signiEl= stioTn'ss.lbi.ficantly
to vibratioirs.
E co=flicientss deenet po as dsiu
Material selection also can be very important in
t ofiien
a dtepmoden
t
ofvbrtonmssdimestionrotor blade fabrication. it now is possible to produce
ti~ hldf vbraion
te mde diensonnounif'orm bladc cross sections in any of the
les3
available materialb, although it genci allly is easier
MI!5~~~~~.
em suz/n
".rd~i
Ap!1rgtha
in
lActh
h- mnA
inn.n
I
- lengthoa pe, rads.
stanices whert noncompatible values oAfLp can cause
Q -taioalsee,
adse:high
stresses in flight, it also is important to avoid
For
vaucs
inge,,beas.
ad K,
tc forthe irs
triteril cobinaionswidifferin
dfferng cJithrc mod ar:
cints f terma expnsin. Sch
emblics ,zan
a, a., -~50.0. a3 - 10-5.0
develop high rtsidual stresses as a result of adhesive
K, - 6.38fsKz = 17.65. K3 - .0bonding
operations.
To examine the effect of stiffness El on natural freIdeally, a rotor blade should be made of materials
uiuency, an example is presented: a constant-crossthat are highly resistant to both corrosion and crosection blade of 25-ft radius with a weight of 4.0 lb/ft
sion. Corrosion resistance of the nonmetallic cornand aflapwiseElof20 x " lb-in.' A tip speed of
pstsi ihyatatv n :r eifunili
680 fps is assumed, giving a rotational speed 01 of 27.2
psieishglatrcvendarbeifetaln
selection. In a monolithic composite blade,
encematerial
rad/ec;
rad/ec; ence
it is necessary to protect the forward portion against
erosion. The most effective materiali for thiz purpose
20 X
(1,Y
4'R (25T l2)
+ 6.38(27.2)
are stainless steel, niickel, cr cobalt abrasion mseum~d.
4 12Of
X(2
the elastomeric materials, tht urethtane arm
12 )(l2 ) 32.'~superior
and are very durable when sub~tetd to
sand, but generally have been found to have short
--%69_5_7__ ,~- j-4_
liv~es when rain is a significant part of the environ73.6 rad/sec
ment.
_______

______

It has been determined that rotor blades are

vulncrable especially to lightning. To avoid damage
to blades oubject to lightning strikes, provision must
be made for low-resistance paths for the high currents
that are characteristic of lightning. The basic lightning pro:cction requirements for all acrospac4
systems are given by MIL-B-508'. For blades constructed cf composite materials - inherently poor
conductors - or even those of all-metal bon ded con-

Critical helicopter components are sub;e.t to a

load spectrum characterized by a relatively high-frequency oscillating load content. Characteristically,
the rotor system - particularly the main rotor produces and endures the hi3hest cyclic loading. A
fundamcntal design requiremont is long life of rotor
system components. Resor.ant conditions thai proV1agho
dn
ua11wnig
Bywu..levCes within a
stcss
contponrnt must be avoided. However, compliance
with these requirements can be verified only through
the correlation of flight test and component fatigue
test data. The discussion that follows supplements the

ditions, can define a preliminary load spectrum, consisting of load magnitude and frequency, as well as
frequency of occurrence. Thes data, when combined
with section property and theroctical stress concentration factors foi a component design, cast be con"Yerted to steady and oscillatory S-N (stress versus
number of cycles) data. Therefore, preliminary component life can be determined based upoa cumu!ative Oaniage and notched and unnotched material or
similar fatigue test data. Coupon fatigue test data
must be used with cure aince these data usually will
not reflect accurately the effects of manufacturing
processes that aic peculiar to a specific component
design. S-A' test data for components of similar
design and manufacturing process are more useful in
the preliminary detcrmination of component life (see
pa;. 4-!, AMCP 706-201).
Although the previously described method can be
employed in the prelimihary design phase to predict
component life, a mote rigt'ous analysis of :ompor.ent fatigue and flight test data must be performed to

description of fatiguL life deterinnnation given in par.

4-11, AMCP 706-201.
Corrosion has a rapidly degrading effect or the
fatigue strength, and related life, of a particular component and this effect is difficult to predict in an ac-

determ;ne the final life of the component. In the laboratory fatigue test it is necessary to simulate the actual combined loading conditions, particularly in
areas of local attachment or where actual load paths
may be in question. For example, tkt r ,,/r blade

curate quantitative manner. Corrosion-resistant ma-

root-to-hub attachment, a meanie.1f:

terials ani/or proven corrosion prot,ction methods

tion of the fliaht condition iahnokc

thus should be used to cbviate the necessity of con-

flap and chordwise momaents and shears pa vaixtio

sidering corrosion in the daternn.iation of rotor

system component fatigue life,
Fretting is the erosive failure rf the metal surface
ias the result of small displacernents of heavily loaded

superimposed or the centrifugal force. Because, 'I is

not feasible in many caste to include all associated -Nr
influencing components in the fatigue test, it often is
important to simulate loca: flexibilities offered by

mating parts. All preventive methods practicable

should :e employed in the dasign and development

flexures, bearings, etc., or to simulate local force inputs to the test article such as those offered by pivot

phase to preclude the occurrence of fretting betwe.n

components, particularly crifical, highly stressed
blado/hub retention areas. Fretting occurs commonly in areas such as tenwon-torsion strip packs,
bearings, (particularly low-angle oscillating applica-

point friction or lead-lag dampers.

The failure data acquired for an assembly quite
often will involve the failhre of only one component
of that assembly IThis component then becomc the
limiting factor in the life of the a&scrmbly. If such a

tions), i.vtntion hole bushings, and blade/hub attachment fittings. The degree of sucrxss in pre"venting the occurrence of fretting is determined

component is a replaceable item, it can be replac"d

periodically during testing, as failures occur, in order
to acquire failure date for the longer-life conipo-

through careful inspection of various components

nents. Although the individual components o! the

that have been subjected to fatigue tests thnt simulate

actual installations and loads,

assemhly can be tested separately under simulated

loading conditions. 'esting of t~e complete assembly

structio., adequate protection against ightning

damage shall be demonstrate4 by test (see par. 8-9.4,
AMCP 706-203.) Valuable preventive design guidelines are given in Chapter 7, AFSC DH 1-4.

5-7
5-7.1

Elumi.

Rotor system components with long lives can be

attained by implementing a combination of techniques in the initial design. Preliminary calculations
of rotor system natural frequencies and loads can be
made with a reasonable degree of accuracy for a prescribed number of representative vehicle flight conditions. The mission profile specified for the vehicle,
coupled with load calculations for spicific flight con-

ROTOR SYSTEM FATIGUE LIVES

GENERAL

\~

ctn-

.j]

.c

' I - '

radii in jowpgle or over similar fitting area, should be

included in the specimens tested.
Fatigue or endurance tests sAaI be conducted on a
sufficient number of coupons for each cond~ition. The
number of coupons nevcr shall ike ks than five.
Howover, if the standard dcviation oftimt data points
for any test condition exceeds 15% of-the mean stress,
additional couponu shTI be tested.
Coupon tests may be conducted on any suitable
test fixture or stand capable or applying an alternating IDad. Thec alternadin,4 load may be superimposed on a steady, or mean, load to produce a load
condition as showa in Fig. 3-31. In the normnal rotor
5-7.2 ENDURANCE LIMIT TESTING
blade load sprztrufir, each load condition is a combi5-7.2.1 Getk
nation of steady and alternatting, loads. Therefore, the
Endurance limit testing generalily is required to obuse of this loading cirsdition for coupon testfng is
for
life.
sc~vicc
the
to
guarantee
tas:- data adequate
kocooimended.
rotor blades (sec, par. 74.2.2.2, AMCP 706-203). This
Coulson designi depcads upon the type of material
is testing in which the material and/or part is subbeing tested. When the material is sheet metal stock
jected to repeated cycle& of load, with or without a
some forim of the "dog-bone" co~pon should be
steady, or-constant, load maintained. 1'hcr zndurance;
used. The transition from the gage sqciion to the grip
limit for most haomogeneous, near. isotropic materials
areii s/rai be stsch as to eliminate a stx.ma concentrahas been established, and is defincd in MIL-HDB'Ction due to section change. An acceptable radius for
5.. Fatigue data for plastics and sandwich construcsuch a tranisition is given in Ref. 47. Additionally,
uon~~~ II-likNIIan
~ ~ ~ ~ arfrn5IlOa
~ ~~~Cl
c
scsc'
be tak~en Wuit the S4-cdgcandiation. of sheet
tively. In most instances, these data are prescnted for
stock coupuns. The machin'ng of the edge should be
both smooth end notchod spoci'fcits. However, with
cotolds 'topenthraldaaonf
siudbegpeparedo o
nes ton pedgen.Edgesa
coth oled so:i
the introduction of many and v'arivd reirforced
onoitionoye udessingtcnld bgriteaipared
oihedmt~ra
to
plastics and advanced composites, applicable fatigue
gri line drtor by burlishidcng.aditin. maingfne;base
test rcsults aire not yet available, in the lillercturc.
bat
ipermidtitc
e
w
th
beeth~ishmner
g
n
ca
lurimhit
bnc
O
advanrd
such
for
required
bk
will
Basic ters thur
oc
a eea-ihdta ilpri
Ac ii
materials.
and safety faz.toi reductions from a reliable reference.
It is always nemcessy to excrcisec care in u.-.ing data
that are rclatcd to dic shape of matcrial under consideration. For' example, the. ume of tihetct stock in
rotor bladr? design dicatetc the usc of teiision-tensioniATfN IC
fatigue data, whci' avadahsb, to prodia! skin fatigue
SRS
life or thr life of an~y part made from sheell stock,
P-owcvtr. it nmy be more app:opriaae tw use R. R../
M',ore rotating huam fatiguF, data when solid bar or
plate stock is integieted into the blade. denign. Additionally, an appR.;Ople notc~i factor, either intirreat
in the .*sig'i or reu!VoS frorn the manufacluring
prtness is of prinary iw\portaftcc.MAIU
To confirm a mateti sixetieA. it miay be nc(..MXKU
sary to coriduct cokipan tzsis to sub itanaate a perticular mnaterial condition trot covcred in the curreni
STEACDY
literature. In conducting thte ci.Nupoi fatigue tests, it is
&iHESS
extremely impiortant that the tvit material hA& becr
MIMN!MU1
subjected to the processe asico*iated with fabrice.STRESS
usualy isi f~al n re oidd the eSlCects of
load tr'adfer beween components. For bonded,
wmlded. or odierwise permanently fastened assembhie; kndivikWua component test data must be acquired; or S-N dam~ of stich components in like
material, piwocees, and configuration may be
empiovad, if available. These data should be modIfied by use of the Goodman diagram or other acceptable means to reflect the presece of steady loads as
appropriate. Methods of obtaining acceptable cornponent S-N datuiare discussed In par. 5-7.2.

ticn of the ctitiWu compor~ent. It.addiion, tests srhaillI

I
I_
be corducted vq thr peltinent rnatvi all slsapc, using
stock, bar, or plate as the dtzisi' dactttes. OtherT!?E
akneeta of the propv~nd compoecnt configurati.'-n
Flgw-e 5-31.. Alleeoath6g Stre Superimposed on
such as edge condition, fillet radii, oi th~Mr7 bend
Steady Stress
5-54

K.

~AMPk 706-202

Wtien ntocs* thickness pef mits

in the case of
plate, bar, castings, and forgings - it is preferable
that the specimeris be machined with a round cross
section. The circumnferentia surface should be
pohshcd in order to remove any Ctress conoentralions or notch effccts.
In order to predict allowable fatigue stre'igth tor a
part or component, notched specimuins should be
tested to determine the resulting fatigue strength
reduction. Experience has shown that a typical value
of this notch fa'ztor K., is about 3.0 fov almost all
metals. Tht notch factor K7, which may 6e calcu.
lated or be based on test data, isthe ratio of the peak
stresses in notched and unnotched specimens.
Data from tests conducted using the appropriate
configuration of coupons will establish an S-ps' curve,
In developing each S-N curve', a minimum of five
specimens should be tested at varying alternating
loads with the same steady load,
The stress level at which no failure occurs after 10'
cycles for ferrous metals establishes the endurance
limit of the material. A family of S-N curves, each for
a different steady load will provide sufficient data to
00"t a Go0dima- diagrarn I=e Par. _"-!1. ANMCP 7 201). The Goodman diagram, in turn, will permit the
-e~g.,

convorsion oA a particular load condition into an

equivalent load cori~ition of different steadly and alternating load levels. MIL-HDBK-5 presents the
data in a constant-lire diagram rather than the Goodman diagram. in any case, a diagram constructed
from coupon data should be revised as compoaznt
and assmbly test data art generated.
S-7.2.2 Noumetal
The use of plastics reinforced with glass, gralihitt,
and/or other advanced composite materials ;n thc
construction of rotor blades will r-Auire the development of both S-N curves and rational Goodman diagrams. Additionally, the processing of these matcrials
is subject to variations among manufacturers. Therefore, care must be exercised that test specimens are
representative of the rnatenal and processes to be
used in the blade construction. Particular attention
should bc given to fiber orientation with rcspect to
the principal axis of loading.
The establishment of a family of S-N c~urves similar
to Fig. 5-32 is an acceptable method of determining
allowable fatigue strength for a particular reinforced
viiutic-a

no-' adunn',j1 compoite Mat.rial (ACM).

These fatigue strengths, or endurance limits shall be

-.

CROSS PLOTTED FROM FIG 3-12, MIL-HDBK-17 FOR

..- MIL---77 POLYESTER RESIN

40

ztU
30

,.

0.20-

30LE

-h..

1ir~r5-3t.

~tng~~ssCycls a Vaiou Stedy tree Lvelst~0.300tt

4-_3

'

establishod for a particular steady load at a minirain

5 x 101 cycles without failure.
71-A obj'!Y-ivz of the coupon teW. is to establish or
verify the endurance linit of a material for sevc-ral
combinations of steady and alternating loads,
Because it would be waconservative to extrapolate an
equivalent alternating gtrcs from a combined steady
and alternating stres for reinforced plastics, a family
of curves similar to those shown in Fig. 5-32 will be
required to evaluate fatigue damage.
5-7.2.3 SbvcWW Members
Following the establishment of material endurance
limits from coupon test data, those parts that carry
primary and secondary oscillatory loads should be
tested. Components such as the blade spar, whicn
may be one continuous member or a built-up section,
should be tested thoroughly prior to their incorporation into the complete assembly. Testing of such parts
and subassemblies will provide test data valuable for
further adjustment and refinement of the streas diagrams obtained from coupon tests. Additionally,
tcting oC critical structural members such as the spar
reduces the cost of testinl full-size blades or blade
sactions. The discussion that follows supplements she
test requirements delineated in Chapter 7, AMCP
706-203.
In many blade configurations, a full-length mereber such as the spLa. lends itself to electromechanical
vibratory testing or other simple loading methods involving minimum fixtures. The extreme fiber stress
due to flap bending often is experienced directly by
the spar, while - because of a location close to the
neutral axis in the chordwise bending plane - the
effect of loading in this plane may not be significant.
To obtain usable data. the part or subassembly must
be instrumented and calibyated to known load conditions prior to conducting the fatigue test.
A minimum of three specimens of each signifimant
structural member should be tested to ascertain thet
fatigue strength ;n the manufactured condition. It is
extrermely important that the processing of them
"specimensbe identical to that of the final production
unit.
The data gcaerated from part or subassembly tests
will compare wi0i,, coupon data discussed previously,
The shape of the S-N curve for most metals is shown
in MIL-HDSK-S. A rational method of curve fitting
such as is described in Chapter 9, MIL-HDBK-5,
steaI be used when no reference curves are available,
The diata obtained by using an electromechanical test
machine would be simple alternating strem (zero
steady strut). These data can be used to refine the
Goodman diagrams in a manner similar to that
5-56

shown it Rcf. 45. Additional data from tsts of other

parts of ilih same material may be used to define
further thI allowable fatigue envelope.
In many instances thde retention holes of the root
blade fittiag receive special processing. Tert data to
substantiate the endurance limit of the root retention
fitting can be obtained by testing the individual fittinS rather than the entire blade or root section. The
effect of bearingizing, (a special rolling treating of the
bearing surface of a hole) shot peening, or other such
treatment to improve the fatigue life should be
evaluated at this time. Component tests of specimens
selected as beyond normal tolerance also can be used
to provide data to assist ir. the establishment of limits
of allowable defects and of overhaul and repair
criteria. To the maximum extent possible, tect loads
shadl simulate the condition(s) experienced in flight
test and be considered in the analysis. However,
where well-.!efined stress diagrams exist, a combination of steady and alternating loads that may be converted to an equivalent alternating stress condition
should be selected.
Testing of the extreme af section member, whether
or not it includes a trailing edge strip or other reiniorccmint at wec air icrminua oi the skin. ikucwalc wial
piovide valuable data for service life prediction.
Because this m,.mber experiences the maximum fiber
stress in the chordwise bending plane, tension-tension
fatigue loading will provide acceptable data. Due to
the relatively sharp contour presented by the trailing
edge, failure may be precipitated tt a relatively low
stress level by a small nick or scratch. Although the
principal stress is due to bending, the critical stress
may Wx simulated as'a tensile stress due to the emall
gradient. !f practicable, it is advantageous for the test
loads to duplicate the predicted stress combination in
the trailing edge.
Additional parts or subassemblies peculiar to a
specific design may warrant special endurance limit
testing Among such parts are the tip and/or inertia
weight attachment fittin3s. These parts may be subjected to high-aniplitude, low-cycle fatigue resulting
from the start/stop centrifvgal force and the attendant secondary mmnent and/or shear loads. The endurance limit for the fittings ann attachments may be
confirmed by duplicating the load coaidions cxperienced in service. Other components and/or subassemblies should be tested whenever the construction
of the blade does not permit accurate or reliable
analysis.
5-7.2.4 Determlaane" of Fatigue Life
Endurance limit testing shall provide the fatigue
data necessary ib permit the deteinirnation of a ser-

AW~ 7036-2M2
"vicelife. Service life dtermination hall consider, as a
minimum, the flight mmneuver end loading conditiors of a realistic misklon profile and the resulting
frequency of occurrence of damiagio
(ne par. 4-1i. AMCP 706-201).
M4

s cycles
streg

PROPELLERS

""6-8.1 GENERAL
The essential elements of propeller design are
described in the pariraphs that follow. Included are
a discussion of propeller dynamic behavior and haw
it is handled in design; information on the detail
dcign of hubs, actuators, controls, and blades; and a
description of how test data are used to verify that the
propeller has a satiufactory fatigue life.
In many respects, the propeller design process is
much the same as the design of a helicopter rotor.
However, bccause of differences in the technology
and therefore in various details of the process, this
discussion for the most part is independent of the
description in prior paragraphs of the rotor design
process. Also. the design requirements specific to
propeiers g-eneraiiy arc bcyond the scope of i~s
handbook. Therefore, the paragraphs that follow aie
01.ly descriptive of the process and are povided for
assistance in thl integration
of propellers into the
design of compound helicopters,
Almost all propeller techiology has dtveloped
from design work and experience with conventional
aircraft applications. However, the information preseated here is applicable to propelsers for helicopters
as well. Where appropriate, there are special comments relative to helicopter applications. Propellers
of metal or composite material, with hydraulic means
for controlling blade angle, are emphasized. Information on other kinds of propellers, such as fixed-pitch
wooden versions or those with electrical blade angle
actuation, may be found in ANC-9.
The preliminary design procedure for choosing a
propeller is described in considerable detail in par. 33, AMCP 706-201. The generalized performance and
weight methods given therein allow an examination
of all pertinent variables so tLat the best configuration can be selected. The best configuration is usually
a compromise that depends upon the relat.ve importance of cruise performance, takeoff thrust, and other
characteristics. This systematic method of propeller
selection has proven succesful for fixed-wing aircraft and can be expected to provide the basir for the
proper choice of propellers for helicopters.
"Besides the fundamental performance parameters,
noise frequently plays a major role in tht selection of
a propelier configuration. If noise is an important
design criterion, some further compromise may have

to be made in both performance and weight as quiet

propellers generialy require low disk loading and tip
speed.
During preliminary design, the propeller diameter,
number of bladm% activity factor, integrated design
"liftcoefficient, and rotational speed will be aelecaed.
The planform and twist distribution also will be
selected, and the airfoil type and camber distribution
defined, The significant performance parameters and
the aerodynamic loads under important oprA
dine
thes
rgncocnt terforman earmte and
conditiwns then are computed for use in the mow
chanical design of the propeller.
5-842 PROPELLER SYSTEM DYNAMICS
5-&2.1 Vibratory Loads
The structural design of a propeller is determined
primarily by its aerodynamic configuration requirements, and by the structural capacity required to handie the -'rodynamic loads. Although the centrifugal
and steady aecodynamic loads must be taken into account, usually it is the vibratory loads that dominate
the structural design. Basic vibratory loads originate
from several sources, primarily thr following:
I. Aefudy-atini
2. Engine (These excitations, which generally are
significance with turbine engines and are not disa
cussed her. The subject is treated briefly in Ref. 49.)
3. Gyroscopic and inertial
4. Stall flutter.
Vibratory aerodynamic blade lords are a result of
the propeller operating in a nonuniform flow field,
which cacses the aerodynamic lift on each blade section to vary as the blade rotates. For conventional
aircraft, the nonuniform flow field as primarily an
angular inflow into the propeller disk resulting from
the attitude of the aircraft, which varies some
with of
flight
the
speed and gross weight. For helicopters,
factors that can cause propeller flow aberrations in
direction, velocity, and density are listed in Fig. 5-33.
For normal flight ope-atin$ conditions, the nonuniform propeller flow field is steady, and the variation in aerodynamic blade forces as the blade rotates
is periodic. The blade forces at each azimuthal and
radial position may be calculated by standard aerodynamic techniques such as are used for propeller
performance computation. The harmonic componeqts of the loading may be evaluated by Fourier
analysis of the periodic lotding. Thee harmonics are
the P-order atrodynamic excitations - I P, 2P, 3P,
etc. - where P is the propeller rotational frequency.
Although all of these excitations cause blade stres,
the strongest and mc ;t important is that due to IIP
(see Fig. 3-.'4) provided the dynamic design of the
propeller system is handled properly.
5-57

4ing

MAIN ROTOR

PROPELLER

GINE JET EXHAUST

...

FLOW FIELD AT PROPELLER DETERMiINED BY

1. tVSS.AGE
5. JET EXHAUST
2. M~AIN WING
6. MAIN ROTOR SL.IPSTREAM
3. H01iZONTAL STABILIZER
7. ANTITORIQUE ROTORt SLIPSTREAM
4. VEIITICAL STABILIZER
8. MAIN ROTOR PYLON

Figure 5%33. Propeller Flow Field for Compound Helicopter*

1.

1.0

V,

FLIGHT VELOCITY

I)A - ROTlATIONAL
VELOCITY
BLADEANGLE OF ATTACK

VTOL AIRCRAFT
0

7
T

T,

FORCE
jOTOF.PLANE
IN.PL6J.IE FORCE I'.AiLJT />

/4

f~

RETREATVnING
BLADE

~0.6

ADVANCAING
BLADE

U
D,/ IP SDE
F

S0.2

I-

CONVENTIONAL
AIRCRAFT

1 2 3

E
WA

OORV

Flpure 5-34. Comparime of P-rt Exitations

Figure 5-35. Propeller IP Loads from Nonaaxal Inflow

portional to A V1. The dimentionlcas excitation
factot EF is derined as

The development of IP-blade loads from angular

F -A

inflow is depicted in Fig. 3-35, where blade #1 isin

the retteating position relative to the inflow with
reduced an&. of attack and relative velocity and
blade 03 is in 0 a advancing position, with inreased
angl and velocity. This figure shows that although
the resulting loads on the blads and propeller shaft
vary at a frequency of IP. the moment and aide force
loads orn the airlk~me are always in the same direction. These airframe loads are steady if there are three
or more blades. The variation ia lift experienced by a
blade section rotating around a propeller centerline
inclined to the airflow ii proportional t3 2%e product
of the inflow anagleA and the square of tke aircraft indk&aWa airspeed V1, i.e., IP-blade excit&,tion. ic pro-

EF

48~)

whr
Awhe

d'Iess,

(5-13)

oelrrelo nle c
rorindicowe
airglee,
deg
Ar lentv- xpeso
indicated
sdt
therweodkt
AfIn altrodnative excression ise
to. idcTeherelationhi
oftee
P th tweodai excitatsions is A.Terltoai
btentetoepesosi
Aq= 409 EF
(-4
Aj

where
q

-dynamic

pressure, Ib/ft'

AMCP 705-202

WING
ANGLE
OF OF
ATTACK
a

" ./V

TILT A/
t A

-- ER AXIa
INFLOW ANGLE A

PROPORTIONAL

-%LIFT

FLIGHT VELOCITY V,
EF-

cI.

~2

%.

(3)2

(a--At)

At.

7.

S32

S:

WITH
FLAPS

.Y,-.:

II

--. 4

',<6

INDICATED AIR.EED V1 , kt

Figrere 5-36.

I .j

IP' Exeltatioa Diagram for Typical STOL. Aircraft

in a fixed-wing aircraft, the effective angular inflow into the propeller is a function not only of the
aircraft attitude, but also of the wash efTects of the

-LVLwings,

o----'-I

SG-LVRthese

u.0.

"
S-1

.--

C-)

2...

RPLE
_ __ __ _ _ _

.2dtrie
'".

_ _

determined by the gross weight and the wing area,

and the slope of the EF line is a function of the tilt of
s in dicated , w ing flap s sh ift th e zero-lift lin e an d

fixed-wing STOL aircraft. Th'. ordinate intercept is

_,,,,,,.._

-2_

5W

_.__

__

100

_ _

_ _

_ _

150

_ _

__

bluadeof-h

the
,ows ary aaroimation of

arrf e~y ota h vasitonothesbuareofth

citation EF can Lie depicted as shown in Fig. 5.36 for

4_

fuselage, nacelles, stores, jets. etc. In general,

_(A

100

iNDICATED AIRSPEED V.. kt

therefore the slope of th EF line.) It is customary in

factor
aircrat deign to consider the I P excitation

ra

._.-'advantageous
IP Excltatlos Diagram for HelTcypter
Figure 5-37.
Push~er Prpeller
.. With
2

ytegos egtadtewnWith an
,hen the nacelle alignment is being chosen.
higha
speed. atFor
excitation
tilt, the
at low factor
than
no hiher
speed may be nacelle
may
EFdiagram
the
propeller on a helicopter,
itsher
p
5-59
ii
a

take a form such as is shown in Fig. 5-37. In this case,

it would be possible to reduce the IP excitation by
tilting the propeller axis so as to obtain virtually no
angular flow into the propeller over the entire
operating range for a given load factor level. The ordinate intercept is zero because the propeller is not
affected by the wing, a; d the main rotor is the lifting
"1evica at low speeds.
Although Figs. 5-36 and 5-37 - which consider
only the I P excitation caused by angular inflow in the
pitch direction - indicate speeds at which the IP cxcitations are ,ero, this, in fact, seldom occurs because
of the presence of yaw washes in addition to the pitch
washes considered previously. In addition, if the
mounting of the propeller ib flexible, varation in the
nacelle alignment must be included in the propeller
load analysis as an aeroelastic effec-t.
Once the aerodynamic envirunment at the propellcr plane has been dcfined, the aerodynamic blade
loads can be calculated for various azimuthal and
radial positions as indicated. However, because the
blade deflects somewhat in the pireence of these
loads and thereby changes its angle of attack, the actunaakand= asc snighny udii'ircni irom those for a rigid

excitation. The three basic modes for a four-bladed

propeller - whirl, symmetrical, and reactionlea are illustrated in Fig. 5-39, which also shows how the
engine can participate in the system response. For
propellers with three or more blades, respanse to the
I P aerodynamic excitation does not involve the nncelle or the aircraft, because, the resulting loads on the
aircraft are steady. Hence, a conventional forced
blade response (assuming a fixed hub) can be used
(Refs. 50 and 51). Such a program must include the
effects of the blade tortional dynamics and blade
retention stiffness, and dctermines not only the IP.
blade loads and stresses, but also the resultant steady
loads on the nacelle-aircraft structure. In order to
avoid I P-magnification, the blades should have a
hiAh first mode frequency and be torsionally stiff.
For four-bladed propellem, the 2P-, 6P-, etc., nerodynamic loads excite blade modes that are reactionless with mespect to the aircraft, as shown in Fig. 5-39.
Thus, the dynamic. characteristics and response of the
propeller blades to these excitations do not involve
the nacelle.aircraft system and can be analyzed using
the same analysis as used for the I P-cxcitetions.
ow dapig associatedO
ft
However, because of the

blade. The computation of the actual loads must take

into account the derivative of blade load with blade

with these reactionless modes, it is important to place

their critical speeds, particularly the 2P. outsidt of

angle changes.
RANGE

5-8.2.2 Critical Speeds &adReqaose

The response of the propeller blades to the vibratoyaerodynamic

paarp6sdtriePyth
excitation loads describedtutrl~~1~~/
in the

160

and dyn mic characteristics of the propeller syst,.m.

The response, in turn, determines the stresses in the
blades and the loads and stresses in the barrel. propeller shaft, and the aircraft itself. The dynamic characteristics of the propeller are described best by

/%
120
/

100

which the frequency of the aerodynamic excitation

coincides with a natural propeller blade frequency.

The relationship of P-order excitation and propeller
blade frequency commonly is shown in a critical

,,6

--

" MODE
//

U2ND

40

,',',

'

iS....

20
0

5-60

S0 -13;

stronger, critical spees do not fall within the

depend upon the number of blades and the mode of

vibration associated with the aerodynamic order of

/,/_j

>.

operating speed range of the propelle,. The operating

range in the typical diagram of Fig. 5-38 may be seen

to be free of critical speeds up to 8P.

The dynamic characteristics of the propeller system

6PI

7,P/

DE

140

defining its critical speeds for the various aerodynamic excitation orders i.e., the rotational speeds at

speed diagram st -h ds that of Fig. 5-38. A'%propellei

critical speeds, there may be high dynamic magnification of the aerodynamic loads. Therefore, the rropeller system should be designed so that the lower,

1 1 8P

I IC~rAION
ExciTATI0N ORDEq----,
ORDER-v' 8

preceding paragraph is determined by the structural

0
Ftgure S-3.

1000
500
PROPELLER SPEED, rpm

1500

Propeller Crical Spea]Diagram

AM

3@

tho operatin speed raWg with at lemast 10% m rgln.

leamt, the values of crtia speed charje with
blade anaje due to tht blade twist and centrifuagal
effects, blade ange should be conaidered In the evaltuation of reaptionleua mode critical speed relative to
the operating range. Also. the effective tetnition
stiffness differs for the tiree kinds of propeller modes
snhown ;a Fig. 5-39 because of structural coupliPS
within the hub ThIis effect must be Included In dynamic and response calculations for the blade. Iii
general. the retcntion stik"Nz. h~ lowest for the me
actionless modes and h4iest for the symmetrical
modes.
Propeller aerodynamic excitaiions with.a frtquefl
cy order of one greater or one less than integer multiplas of the number of propeller blades combine at
the propeller hub to produce bacl~ward oT forward
whirl modes of the propeller, respectively. Because Of
this whirling action and the rotation of the propeller,
these aerodynamic excitations appear on the gearbox-aircradft system as iotating shear and imomfenlt
loads at frequencies corresponiding to mutltiplesof the
number of blixies. For example, in r' threeblinded
propele, ecttooa rqece fZ n ?a
w~
elt by laic ovgearo as a or-wnnra.&cu
J This interaction of the propeller dynamic systain
with the aircraft sy stem must be taken into account in
calculating the propeller blade whirl mode critical
ONLY OUT-Of-PLAN4E
MOTIONS SHOWN IN
THE LOWEST EILADE

speeds. This con be done by a complete coupled Amalysis of a rcta&lng fleible propeller atta"he to a
stationary aircraft dynamic system. It also cm~ be calculated by first determining the variation with froquency of aircraft system whirl Lapedanoe, e~g.,
angular and radial deflection oi the propelier shaft
for unit shear and moment whbi loeds, and then Including the aircraft impedance in the propeller
critical speed analysis.
Aerodynamic excitations at frequenck. that are
multiples of the number of bladeas excite the piropelIcr In a symmetrical mode, producing vibratory fore
and-aft and torque kowd at the uame freluency on
the gSa box-icrf sytm Jutaswth thewhr
modes, dynamic characieristics Or the aircraft and
transmission systam muast be included when smymetrical mode propeller critical sPeeds arn computed.
Again, this can be done with a coupled analysis. or by
the impedance technique discussed previously.
Because the torsional impedance of a transmission
system usually is low, symmictrical blade modes that
are primarily inplane (putting vibratory torques an
tie shaft) will have conside-rably higher critical speeds
than would be calculated for a fixed hub.
of theJ,cmitriftinl sUMfbaaun cffcct iL.
twist of the blade, propeller critical speeds will vary
with blade sanle, This effect must be considered in
placing the critical spewds pioperly. in general, it is
customary to place the lower order wvhirl and symmetrical ctitical spends at least 5%out of tbc nomiral
operating range. Less margi4 is needed for thmes
critical speeds than for the reactionluss modes
because of the much greater damping supplied by
structural interaction with the aircraft systemi.

'r- T zOnca
SE~NDING MODE.

the dynamic characteristics of the propeller

system hove been determined. the maganitudap of Owe

response to the various propeller aerodynamic excican be determined. For modes that arc being
I'\tations
WHIRL
excited well below their critical speeds, a real-variable resonse analysis may be used (ANC-9). This
always is possible for IlP-acrodynawmic excitation and
/
sometimes for 2P.
System response of the higher order aerodynamic
excitations may be determined by an energy method,
SYMMETRI CAL
using the calculated normal modes of the propelkr
and assuming the structural and aerodynamic damping from experience. Another method is to use
response analysis, such as given in Refs. 50 and 51,
with complex variablew so as to include structural andi
L __-Daerodynamic damping. Thec foamer (energy) method
uses the normal moJes and natural frequencies ob.
REACTIOMLESS
from dynamic- analysis of the propeller systan,
I'tained
and letermines 6ce rsponse of the blade to n particular aerodynamic excitation order by equating the
ft"roplle Vatworne Miode
5)
Figue
-.

--

000011

AMCP 706.202
energy dissipated through damping with the energy
introduced by the excitation. Experience shows that
the effective overall damping, aerodynamic plus
structures, varies with the type of vibration mode,
being about 0.02 to 0.04 of critical for reactionless
modes, and about 0.04 to 0.06 for whirl and symmetrical modes.
From the response of the blades to the various
aerodynamic excitations, one can determine the blade
stresses, retentioq and s'iaft loads, and, finally, the
',oads applied to the gearbox and aircraft. Certain excitation orders put vibratooy torque, but not vibratory bending moment, on the gearbox; others do the
opposite. Also, 2P-excitation on a four-way (fourblade) propeller puts no load at all on the gearbox, as
this is a reaction!ess mode, i.e., all the loads are
reacted within the hub.

is added vectorially at right angles to the normally

considered pitch inflow. Hence, the total 1P-inflow
angle is affected. Likewise, the dynamic pressure is
changed by the cross-flow component, but for the
same gust velocity the wing lift is affected less by a
lateral gust than by a longitudinal or vertical gust.
Vertical gusts have direct effects upon the pitch
component of the inflow angle, the dynamic pressure,
and the wing lift. Each of these factors influences the
flow field and, consequently, the excitations and
loads. As in :he case of a lateral gust, the verticai
component is added vectorially to the forward airspeed. This changes the magnitude and direction of
the velocity inflow.
The current method for determining propeller vibratory loads during gusts uses a quasi-steady-state
analysis to evaluate the flow field and aerodynamic

A propeller must have the structural capacity to

withstand the combined loading from its response to
all of the aerodynamic excitation orders superimposed.

excitations. Although the propeller speed and blade

angle may change, depending upon the rise time of
the gust, it is expedient and conservative to assume a
step change in the inflow to the propeller. In other

S4.2.3 Gaw an Mamyer

Gusth and m.ineuvers can heve significant cffects
upon propeller vibratory loads. The more obvious

words, the propeller is assumed to be placed suddenly

in a different aerodynamic environment without any

change in blade angle or propeller rotational speed,

__ .L
.
,,- ,.. .,.
. p. .
..
,.,i,,.d
in the manner discussed in the preceding paragraphs.

effects are caused by changes in the aerodynamic flow

Propeller vibratory loads incurred during maneu.

fields and the consequent excitations to whic' the

blades are subjected. Secondary effects are the result
of gyroscopic motion and inertia forces. Because the

vers are determined by using essentially the same procedures as for gusts, with the exception that the maneures snayr genral are limited toat ose in-

basic frequency of the vibratory loads is the propel-

volving vertical load factors.

is parallel to the flight path of the aircraft, and, there-

maneuvers in~volvintg vcrtical load factors are calcu-

fore. subjects the propeller and airframe to a change

lated using the procedures given in the preceding

paragraphs and considering that the effective gross

Aircraft design speciications (MIL-A-8860 series)

fer rotational speed, many stress cycles can be acdo not include the time duration of each maneuver
cumulated on the propeller during a gust or maneuver. This is in contrast to nonrotating airframe cornnor
a breakdown
of the maneuvers
as functions
of
ponents, which are subjected to only one major load
airspeed.
The maneuver
spectrum (see
par, 4-11I,
cycl during a gust Or maneuver.
AMCP 706,201) must be available to the propeller
Sus' ca
co .,e t i
-isav
.. ...........
,-- n lg-n
....
.......
lateral
v.
Th.....-...........
designer so that he can a-.,--- "tat n
tcutuc ,,,c u,
directions: longitudinal, lateral, and vertical. The
the propeller compone,,Lb ,iis be satisfactory.
longitudinal, tore-and-aft,
or
component essentially
In the design analysis, blade vibratory loads for
in dynamic pressure. The steady torque and thrust on
*the blades change with a suddenness that depends
upon the rise time of the gust. These changes in load
can be relatively high for the large propellers used in

weight of the vehicle is its actual gross weight multiplied by the vertical load factor.
Maneuvers influence blade vibratory loads not

V/STOL aircraft because the blades of these propellers are operated at relatively low angles of attack.
The change in dynamic pressure also has a direct
effect on the IP excitation factor, and the I P-stresses
are affected accordingly. A longitudinal gust changes
the lift on the aircraft, thus imparting vertical accelerations &ndchanging the wing circulation, which, in

only by changing the aciodvnamic flow fields but

also by the resulting effects cfgyroscopic motion and
inertia forces In a pullout or pushover maneuver, the
angular velocity of precession fl, is equal to

turn, has an effect on the flow field.

where

(n,

l)g
V

rad/sec

The lateral component of a gust can be treated as a

nz

- load factor, dimensionless

change in yaw inflow to the propeller. The yaw inflow

- flight speed, fps

5-62

(S

'

AMCP 705-202
The resulting blade loads can be calculated using a
procedure like that used for calculating the response
due to I P-aerodynamic excitation. For this analysir,
the load is a function of the mass distribution of the
blade and is applied perpendicular to the plane of the
propeller (out-of-plane). Like IP aerodynamic excitation, gyroscopic motion induces a IP-moment on
the propeller shaft, which, for blades having three or
more blades, exerts a steady bending moment M on
the aircraft as expressed in
M - lp., ,fA-lb

(5-16)

where

4,

propeller mass, mass moment of inertia,

slug-ft1
W
propeller speed, rad/sec
Inertia loads result from the vertical load factor
applied to the propeller. As in the gyroscopic analysis, the load is a function of the mass distribution of
the blad,, but in this case it is applied inplane. The I P
shear force F on the shaft is simply
-

F = nzWp, Ib

(5-17)

where
Wp - weight of the propeller biades and hub, lb
There may be other special occasions where loads
due to maneuvers should be considered. For instance,
a tail propeller of a helicopter may be subjected to
large precession rates in yaw while hovering.

J
\

54.2.4 Stall Flutter

Propeller blades must be designed not only to handIe the applied aerodynamic excitation loads and to
have the appropriate dynamic characteristics, as discussed in the pieceding paragraph, but they also must
be designed to be free of flutter. Classical bendingtorsion flutter is not of concern because of the large
separation between the fundamental bending and torsional frequencies of propeller blades (Ref. 52). However, stall flutter is a major concern because of its potentially destructive torsional vibration. There are
two apparent causes of high torsionalblade vibration: aerodynamic hysteresis and Karman vortices
(Ref. 53). Aerodynamic hysteresis can cause divergent, self-excited torsional vibration and is, therefore,
true flutter. The Karman vortex excitation, however,
is not true flutter but a forced excitation. It nevertheles is similar to hysteresis stall flutter and can caue
large amplitudes of structural response and possible
failure.
Torsional dynamic divergence due to stall flutter
"Occurs because of the phase lag in the aerodynamic

circulation variation with airfoil torsional motion.

Beca.,ac the vortex formation must travel to infinity
before full circulation develops, the airfoil angular
motion tends to lead the aerodynamic change in moment about the elastic axis. When the airfoil motion
and phase lag combine appropriately, aerodynamic
energy is fed into the structural system qnd sclfexcited divergent torsional blade oscillation occurs at
the fundamental torsional frequency of the blade.
Although methods have been developed for
analytically predicting stall flutter (Ref. 54), expcriencc shows that a general understanding of stall
flutter and empirical relationships usually is sufficient to evaluate whether a given blade design will be
subject to this phenomenon. Tests and analyses have
shown that stall flutter is dependent primarily upon
three factors: the reduced frequency, the blade angle.
and the airfoil Mach number (Ref. 55). The effects of
Mach number can be combined with the reduced
frequency to give the stall flutter parameter SFP.
b
SFP
, ,b,
SF,
d'less (5-18)
aM'w/1 - W
where
, naturai torsionai frequency,. ad/sec
M - local Mach number, dimensionless
b, - blade semichord, ft
a
= speed of sound, fps
When full-scale and model blade stall flutter test
results for many propellers under static conditions
are combined in a plot of SFP versus blade angle,
points indicating the onset of flutter form a gener.l
trend, as shown in Fig. 5-40. 1 he envelope of these
flutter points may be used as a design basis. Although
Ref. 55 shows that a blade whose SFP is greater than
1.0 will riot flutter regardless of blade angle or power.
Fig. 5-40 shows that, for !ow blade angles, a blade
may have an SFP of less than I .0 without being
susceptible to stall flutter.
Because the design line in Fig. 5-40 is drawn
without regard to such secondary effects as camber,
thickn'ess, planform, sweep, and center of twist, it is,
in general, conservative; i.e., although the SFP of a
blade lies under the curve, the blade will not
necessarily flutter. In general, increasing the camber
and thickness and shifting the center of twist forwurd
will increase the blade angle at which flutter occurs.
The effects of planform and sweep are more difficult
to assess, because the stability of the blade involvts
the integrated effects over the entire blade. Thus.
although some blade sections are stalled, the blade
itself will be stable unlss the integrated energy fed
into the blade is greater than the structural damping
present.
5-63

.
,s. , J

4P.,
AMCP 706-202
1.1

j_

S
,0.9

CM, increasing the aitfoil camber is one way of increasing the forward thrust or power at which a blade

will be subject to stall flutter. However, in all cases, if

the $FP is greater than 1.0, the blade will not be
susceptible to true stall flutter regardless of blade
angle or loading.
The other possible cause of high torsional bltde

<

NO

0.8

response, and also bending response, is Karman vortex excitation. When the vortex excitation frequency,

0.7

%-which

is proportional to (aM -VI -AV' ) /h, coincides

with the torsional or bending natural frequency of the
blade, significant blade response may result. The

(L 0.6

i.
S0.5

frequency expression is the reciprocal of the SF*?

by the torsional frequency, i.e., (SFP/c,)-1.

-divided

Although the coincidence of the natural blade tor5ional or bending frequencies with the Karman

FLUTTER

I0

vortex excitation fregqucncy can result in significant

blade response, particularly at very high blade angler

0.3

1of

S10
15
20
25
30
BLADE ANGLE AT 0.8 RADIUS, deg

Figure 5-40.

35

Stall Flutter Design Chart

attack or blade stall, the response is not divergent.

This type of response can be experienced at high

blade angles even by blades whose SFP is greater

SHEAR STRESS

than 1.0.
App?:ent from this dikrucsinn is thr. d--sirsphility of
propelier blades with high torsional
frequencies so that their SFP is greater than 1.0. If

tA MEASURE 01?T

this is done, divergent stall flutter is avoided. Also,

STALL FLUTTER)

the higher the SFP, the less likelihood that Karman

vortcx excitations will be a problem at very high

__

-designing

--

C --

blade loads. In general, solid propeller blade construction, e.g., using aluminum, gives rclativcly low
torsional natural frequencies and SFP values below
so care must be exercised that these bilades are
not operated in the stall flutter zone of Fig. 5-46.
Although composite monocoque blade construction

]1.0,

1CM

struction, it frequently gives SF)' value,, below 1.0. In

general, propeller blades consisting of a structural

10

12

ZERO LIFT LINE ANGLE OF ATTACK, deg"

spar and a thin composite airfoil shell have SFP

values of inu.h greater than 1.0 and are not susceptible to stall flutter.
5-8.2.5

Propeller Roughness

Airfoil Characteiltldcs mnd Stall Flutter

A propeller can apply loads to the aircraft with

resulting vibration or roughness that is unacceptable

A blade also may be evaluated for stall flutter by

analysis of the characteristics of the moment cocfficient Cm of the airfoil. As shown in Fig. 5-41, the
onset of stall flutter usually occurs when the airfoil is
operating near the peak of the C curve with respect
to the torsional elastic axis, and not the lift coefficient CL curve. Thus, stall flutter occurs only at high
thrusting or blade load conditions - both forward
and reverie. Because, for a given blade angle. airfoil

to the aircraft structure or the occupants. These vibratory excitations stem primarily from two sources:
excessive wAss and aerodynamic unbolance of the
propeller, and an undesirable combination of nonuniform flow field ano propeller dynamic characteristics. The former shakes the aircraft at a frequency
order of I P, whereas the latter shakes the aircr'aft at
frequencies that are multiples of the number of the
blades - e.g., 4P, 8P for a four-bladed propeller.

camber increases the thrust or CL without changing

Through proper design, manufacture, and assembly

Figure 5-41.

5-64

..-.

-......

to the blade being offset from a radial line. Toe mo~ment is transmitted from the W~ade to the retention,
to thu bariel arm, to the front an~d rear rings, and into
the tailshaft. The inplaf,4e cokiip:nent is reacted by the
spianed joint, and the out-of-planc comnponent is
miacted ela'ttcally within the barrel.
3. Propeller thrust. Thrust is transmnitted from
the blade to the retention, to the bladc arm, to the
front 4nd rear rings, and to the tailshaft wheiv it is
reacted by the tajilhaft thrust bearing.
&-8.3 PROPELLER HUBS, ACTUATORS, AND
4. Propeller torque. Torquec is transmitted from
CONTROLS
the blade through the retention to the blade arms and
The design methods desriked in this paragraph
into the tailshaft, where it is ruacted through the drive
* relai.c pnimarily to the propellers of one wnanufracsplint.
turer. In these propellers, pitch change actuation is
5. IP-acrod)nainic bending momenct. The inpmanc
* hydraulic, but many of the design aspects a~pply to
almost any crinfiguration. The discussion is limited in component of W-vibratory loading is transmitted
from the blade w'.the retention. to the barrel arm, and
scope inasmuch as propeller d&sign, development,
into the front and rear rings. There, because of the
and manufactare usually are per formed under subun~ymnictrical load phasing among the blades, it is
contract, or wimder sepa.-ate prime contract, and proreacted elastically within t.he barrel. Thie out-of-plane
vided usi Governmzrit-furnished equipment (~GrE).
contributes to a combinett bending moReenditscomponent
BarelsodBlad
".3.1Proellr
wnt on the tzi!sraft, reacted by front crnd rear rvdial
ropelerBarel
ad BadeRetetlos
5-8..~
The shape of the propl".e1r ba; re ibdetermined by
bearkings.
of th%: propeller, the detrimental effects of propelicr
rou-,hness can be minimized. Tht importance of propellcr balance and higher ordcr excitation to aircraft
roughness is dependent upon the propeller mount
design andI its integration with the ovevall aircraft dynamic system, which determines the damping and
transmisaibili~y of these excitation loads to the airframe.

~ ~biO3
~

)high
-

-.

~pl,

~twppe.~ ~

power pvopt~lers with solid aluminum blimdc~s; a

one-jiiece barrel wil"I a single integral blade retention
race. is used for low j)3wci propellers with sofiJ aluminumr blades; a onP.-piece barrel witli nidltipc 'ritegral ra#;-s is used fi'7 propellvas whose bizades are
made with a steel core and a Fib~rglas shell. The~ iast
type g'-nerally kisused Ior he~licopter installation arid is
the
r dhcui~.
ipe hat
the barrel
tatseiibclyS. t--74.
&te areb
Thearrl co.!its
asemby ik'te brrel bidt:
retkiltiun balls, seals, and clampe. I he barr-zl itscif is a
one-pi=ce vacuum-nclttd steci forging %Icorpoimating the bcoiring race tor blade retention. The tziiish~aft of ihe biarrel exttends into the gearcws and is
di-iven dircctl) through a spliaed joint. 1'1e tailshaft
ir supporleOi cnm two radial roil.ci ".~rings - front
aijd rear - so that pLropciler moments arc reacted
directly into the gearcasu iiousing. Propeller thrust
loads are reacted through an angular con~a,:t bering
at the front of the tailshaft.

"4.3. 1.1 Barre Loading

The following lords arm conuid_red when dcsigning
a propeller barrel1. Centrifugal force. Blade ;entrifugal force is
transmitted to the retention, barrel arm, aud iront
and rear rings, where it is reacted clastically within
the barrel. For purposes of analysis, the barrel isconsidered to contain a front and s rear structural ring,
2. Steady bending mioment. Steady bending imoment is due to aerodynamic loading on the blade, or

Y Ih-acrodyflamic s~dc Formc. This fivuic Is tri-as-

witted like IPout-of-plane moment end is reacted by

the tailshaft radial bearings.
n
oet
ihrodrvbaoylas
~
7.c athigherorders (2brtor loadset.) ombints ind
ociahgerrds(2,3.4

t.)omnen

various patterns depcnd'zmg upon thie load phuming

amnong the bl,%&S. Accoldirig to their patterns, these
leds may L-e reacted elasticaily within the barrel or

transmitted to the tailshf~ft bearingr. =d :=t'd as a

bcndng moment or a fori.-ut,d-aft tur side force. They

as obn navbar oqe

als cyombinpin voribrntr toqe.dammetfo
gyrc
rscopic onafecs
moment.
ndei.arr
momen fParomy
ieIPar~y
cinafcstebre
grsoi
nm~ oet
9. F-ropeller effective weight. Tht F-ide force from
propeller weight, rmultiplied by the aircraft vertical
lodfcrafetthbrrlikIProdcwc
side for.:ec.
10, Bearing precssi~t loads. The t&61shaft bearings
are presshrt onto the t,..sshtft and itaposc a compressive load locally.
It. Axial preioad. Tensile load is imposed on the
ta~sbnft by &Aial prcloki.ding of the shaft bearing
agsinst a shaft shouldet.
12. Blade t-vi. ling moment. A combination 01 ccntrifugal, frictional, and aercmdynarnic :ffects, prodLczs a twisting moment around the bildc pitch
change axis. -This i6 tran~fcrred indirectly to the
barre' uL a couple beten the bWade rctentior ant: the
pitch change actuainr.
5-65

- z '- '
.j;
, -_!_I

..

lie

543.1.2 Lcadl De~hdwh

In designing the barrel for a specific configuration, the various loads described in Mte precedig
mahst be defined for the applicuble aircraft
4parag~aph
mission profile. Loadings idivolvod in demonstration
and qiialification test aiso must be .onsiderect.
Applicable specifications hall be defined by the propelle.~procurement spvirtion.
From the analysis of propeller design parameters
and dynamica, a summary of sigiiificazfl loads is
prepared for selected conditions. These loads are the
basis for tl~c structural analysis of the barl
541,3.13 Barrel Sreetaal Tests
After the barrel has been manufactured, th
stresses at critical locations arc measured under
various load conditions to assurc structural integrity.
The barrel isari-gaged, and m exermntal stes
analysis is perfornad with axial loadis applied to
simulate contrifugal loads and bending moments,
both static and vibratoc.~
An assembly with cylisidericil test bars instead of
so tkah retention rpdg rate can be
deduced. IW&is scomp"re with thec ciakculated values.
The barrel she isfatigue teutest to determine its actal muria of safety under the desWu loads.

'

~.Y

---

1V

-- 1 .t

system or from the propeller itself. and transmits a

signal to the. actuator to change blade angle ak
Iiocessay. The actuator converts this signal into a
rnichanica! action to move and mai.ntain the. blade
angle.
543.31 CeftWlo Comigufradosi
Several arrangements are used for control coniponenta. In one common conr4uration, the control
assemblj ir nonrotating and mounted near the propellcr on the gearcase or surrounding the. barrel talshaft. The outpat of the control is a hydraulic flow
that istriansfarred to the pitch change actuator in the
barrel assembly through transfer bearings. The rate
Of flow controls the rate of blade angle motion. In
another configuration, th-. staL~onary portions of the
control produce a mechanical signal directly rclated
to the desired blade angle. This signal is transferred
to the barrel assembly through a mechanical bearing
or a differential gear train, and the rotating astarnbly
contains the hydraulic valves and pumps required to
drive tha, pitch change *,uator.
C~uhtcu..qpeW Go

frqoy

5L.2.1

4.4L3.2 Fr"rAs Aedsosamned (entralmi

Propellr Fitcti chrnje actuators and control
~seenas adjust anad mai stain blade angle according to
one of several montol wamod as required by aircraft
and engine opeaouing condition. One control niode
commionly used is constaut-sp~od governing, in
wh*a adacWe propdwir rotational spaca is hed
wmn~an by a governor that raime or lower blade
antge iw resioosc. to changes in forward speed or
applied powa. Thi is the contral mode used almoet
uastiuslly int flot "peration of comisational air4caft. wk. it alowt fthpilot to scec the most efflesent cembinatiiim of propeller wnd cagne operuting
conditions. The other conanon control made is buts
control. in %ssvb he contiol aut a sclei4ed blade
angle 0l. ina rapoane to direct pilot control (TY to fte
output of a coordiuated engine or aircra'I fligt contad systemz. ket control .inis used for propeler
reversal during land ingn kaw-thrmst ground operation. ard for propellers uWd as primary aircraft ligh
controls, such as in VTOL aircraft. Many propellers
have a combination corkrol system that uses either
constant-speed goverwning or beta control as required.
1Ue pich contro.l sygatr has two basic connpowtnctLts. 9 cool aol and tki actuator. 19hw control
rsceivcs ujuaals frome the Pilot ar another control

The input to a constant-speed governor is a si~agnl(

calling for a d"sred propeller speed. This signial may
conic dirwcty feorn tha~pilot or from another control
system, such as a synchronimc or a coordinated
Power inanaemoznt control. The deie sptd 'a
compared with the actual speed by a device such as a
speed-set spring balanced against a set of rotating flyweights driven by the propelle or enginec. If aai offspeed condition occurs, thet device puts out An error
signal, commonly in the form of a pilot valve dispiacemnent. The valve dusplacement. in turn, meters
oil to the pitch change mctuxtor, raising or lowering
the blade angle to sdow down or speed1 up the proPellet to correct the off-speed.
In forward-thrust opriatiota. blade twiaing momeat alwdys is toward low pitch, and the actuator
loads always are in one direction, The governor, then,
nwa to mete: Iuigh-zprmsure oil only to onc side of
the actuator piston to raise the blade angle; kwteizg oil
drain back to the stump permits the twisting- monient
to lowtw tbz blade angle. A governor widl only this
function is called qt sinae-atng governor.
A donbie-aciing goversior can direct high-prsrsure
oil to either side of the &atuatorpisto. Ths cqwzbalty is required if the bModes are to be controlle in
revaeri thrnais operation or to be uWeathered.
In many aonstant-speed governors the pio valvt
positioned by the upeced-aonsing dlevice m~etem sctilator 041 flow diietiy. For some designas. bovrmi,~
lawg oil flova arm required and ~an of a sample pilot

.*e

AMGP 706-202

N
valve would cause large hydraulic forces. Speed
acnsing-accuracy will be affected adversely unless
correspondingly large speed-set spring and flyweight
forces are used. To avoid the weigbt and size of such
a design, a servo-type governor may be used. In this
design, the speed-sensing device positions a small
pilot valve that controls only the flow to a servo
piston, which, in turn, positions a servo valve that
meters the main oil flow. Because the pilot valve is
isolated from strong hydraulic forces, i; and the
speed-sensor can be made light and sensitive.
54.3.2.1.2 Beta Contr"
With beta control, the input to the propeller control is a signal calling for a desired blade angle. In recent configurations, the signal is transferred mechanically to the rotating components, where it
positions a distributor valve spool. The deeve of this
valve is positioned mechanically a a function of
blade sngle and, if there is a disparity between desired
and actual blade angle, the distributor valve directs
high-pressure oil to the appupnate side of the pitch
change actuator. When the blades change pitch, the

other propeller designs incorporate an independent

hydraulic system. The complete hydraulic system
contains the following basic componenti: a sump, a
pump, a filter with a bypass v&Ive, a relief valve, the
control valve, and the pitch change actuator. Schematically, the actuator is a linear hydraulic piston
with a meohanical device to convert the linear piston
motion to rotary motion of the blade. The maximum
operating pressure (relief valve setting) may be 1200
psi for a simple systcm or up to 3000 psi for a system
where weight is critical.
A schematic diagram of the complete control and
hydraulic system for a double-acting governor is
shown in Fig. 5-42.
5-8.3.2.3

Auxiliary Fuidoam

control, some propellers provide various auxiliary

functions. Two of these - feathering and pitch lock
are safety items.
Propellers
arc. feathered by turning their blades to a
90-deg blade angle - i.e., edgewise to the relative
wind

valve slekxc moves as well, until the desired b!ade

- in order to bring a disabled propeller oi-

.iijit a

angle is reached and the valve is closed.

liop nuiin
.ui

The pitch lock acts to prevent further decrease in

54.3.21 Hydraulic System

Some propeller control systems usc engine or gearcase lubricating oil, boosted in pressure by an extra
pump, or oil from the aircraft hydraulic system. To
minimize contamination and improve reliability,

pitch travel when normal blade angle control is lost

or a preset maximum rotational speed is exceeded.
Without this feature, ,a loss of hydraulic pressure
could allow the blades to drop to low pitch in flight,
causing a dangerous windmilling ovcrspeed.

DESIED RPM
SIGNAL

DECREASE

BLADE

PITCH

MOMENTSPEED

/ -

ISP

RPM

SET SRING

YOKE &
TRNINfDOUBLE-ACTINGI
ROTATING

-~

FLYWEIGHTS
TRANSFER BEARING

L___

DECREASEI

PITCH

0.

GOVERNOR

I
IDECREASi_

PITCH

FILTER AND

.BYPASS

VALVE

II

NUr

ACTUATOR

_A

PTHCHANGEWAEW
ACT UATOR

SR6
I__

____E___

Fhgue 5-42. Prpodeler Control System Sebematk

5-67

S-43.34 Coutrol Porlbasaevi

UP?anticipatory sigal Ebr 4*otrol thut helpa to minim- o'vershoots and provides good systm u.abiiity.
A propeller control, in combination with thc
ongino conirol. must set and mnaintuia the opeiirstihg
54L.3"2
CoaWrl RdkM t~y
conditions directed by the pilot. It must relipenduscotl
fntiscacus
Beas otowafntoscncuearious
quickly and accurateiy to pilot commalids and be unaffected by undesita~ze disturbances. Contrul Wtrot'ble, reliability is a vital part of propeller coutrol
design. There are two diferent philosophies iuavoived
forinsancc is summarized in three parainew~s: aicinl design for rtfiability: aafe-life and fail-safe.
curacy, stability, and transient response. In order to
T'at safe-life theory requires that thec probability of
defiae thex.e dharacteristics it is n oesary to study
the behavior o. the "ntire propulsion system over its
a catastrophic malfunctioa be uacecidingly rmiote.
The dcaign m.uv, have n mufficient margin ofsafety for
complete operating tange. using vdr our analyticni
all operating conditions, both normal and abnormal.
techniques.
PrOOf that A system enJOYS this level of reliability
The ovvrall transient performance of an aircraft
propulsion system generally is analyzed by using a requires extensive testing and thorough analysis of
*sa-vic e~rincflC.
nonlinear dynamic simulation of Vie overall system.
The second methol fai-safe, requires; that no
This involves detailed nonlinear dynamic equations
for the engine slid the engine control, as well as for- reasonably probable single mal1function be allowed to
cause unaatifactory operation. The design must irlthu propeller control. This simulat~fm rquires input.p
clude safety devices Rnd redundant womponents in
that define the ambient condition.. surrounding the
enaine and propelltr - such as pressure, tempetaOrder to tolerate single failure. Some Pr*pulcrs have
lure, and flight speed - and the pilot-initiated inputs
dual hydraulic systems, both controls and &c~uattirs,
to provide fail-safety. This is the case espoculaly for
that specify the desired operating point. This type of
propellers used for primary aircraft control as weUla
prograin provides estimatts of thrust, propeller
*,%--A

cna

_A

A**~.*I A_

..

ables as a function of time for various types of pilot

command signals or ex~emnal disturbances.
Fig. 5-43 shows a simplified block diagram of a
turboprop propulsion system and indicates some of
the typical input parameters to the engine and pro-

peller controls. Each of the blocks contains a matrix

of nonlinear diflermatial equations that ame used to

define the steady-state and transient behavior of that
component.
no
A simpler analysis, providinq a good inaigiht int
the basic control roqui
can be made by line-.
artisng tho importanm .ystem parameters at various
discrete: operating r~iditions and examining the
systemn behavior for small diaturbances around these
operating points. This pennits the application of
classical servomecha-nismn theory to the design or the
control system.
Fig. 5-44 shows a typ"c linbirized block diaram
for constant-speed con~tol of a turuincv4riven pro.
peller system. This integral coilowl system wail move
the blade angle unail thre speed wr Sons to=ro thLA
assuring that sensed speed is equal to desired speed
under steady-statc conditk'..;. The governo shown
in Fig, 5-42 is such a conu&.:.
the control designer may provide gead ,oaipuasatoa
to improve the speed of respons and tie- stability
characteristics of the symcner *f kf had charmaktrsi
compenstes for the kg tir vnamrt between blde
angle change and speed chang. la efect, it provides

for

An importaait part of design for relii~lty is the

Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA). Such an
analysis will help to revcal areas noeding better *Afety
features. lIt als wiill provide an ;inprover, understanding of possible malfunctions ao tha their (ton-

sequences on aircraft operation can be appraised

joinstly by the airfirame designer and the propieile

manufActU-r.
544 ]nPROPLLRmBAE

S-4-41 Wad* C08staby

As expiained in par 54.1. the aerodlynamnic size of
a propelle is chosen initially with the help of pammetric perforivaloce 1.widme in which the trends of
performance and weight are evatluate for various
combinations; of chacactaristics. For the paruncuric
studics. a number of important but sam.edary &erodynamtic design details arm assumed to he in a -standard" condition, to be evaluated later.
For the complete bLde design. the sazandary surodynaw. ; deails - %ce., t'*Aness planorm. twigt,
airfoil type, and CAM-ar - are Chowen f&ra rom p"s
expetWmm. Major consideratio is given to the anticipiated severity of struictural loading and the type of
the specified operatin coeditiosus - aerodynamic
performaence and loadig, and the blede structural
resporse to the lads, ar e mputed. Wiah thene
resut&. dhavong ame mak in the desig ;"kal aid the
smalyses a:,- repeaed until the desired leisk of aero-

CCL

PWRTFIE

GIEENGINE

4.

PROPELLERPELE

>n

INGNLET
IMJ
e.

IL,

IUI].
ENGINE

PROPELLER
CONTROL

___CONTFIDL

rq- S4

UhpM

-s

-~balk Dilwa

_10'

"gm"
CA,
aN

CH. NGE IN PI

ELLER TOP

WIn

ENGINE

J -'

.JE
W T N,
, H

addition, if the frequency of aerodynamic Ic.4d

approachti one of the natural frequencics

"variation

a0,

4-12 CHANGE INPR)PELLER TOCE WITH

tADL ANGLE

S - LAPLACE OPERATOR

3. Bending stiffness

5-44.

+i1
s

IS
0 rS~'

5.
Bending frequencics
4, Torsional
stiffnles
A +-

NA N

Lhedued Prapeilhr Coo"d Mark

Dagr

dynamic performance and blade stress are achieved.

For effliiency and
.esd these analyse are performed with the hep of a high-spc
digital
d
xrneputtr.
Of the secondary details, thicknes and planform
arc the most important to propelLT strength and
weight. The choice of blade thickness and its diribution alor4 the blade is affected by structur -I
capacity requirements and also by consideations of
vibration-caitwcal speed locatiom. The aerod),namic
remquirement to minnuinze ptofile drag losss puts a
conszraiat on blade thickness, and specil pr:blcs
such as tip compressibility also may affect tO design.
rh,.
nWlaA.o
^f~ir
n~nedan arn f,_hncneaffnI
hw the
choice of blade materil ad construzbion; with sparand-shell Fibrgla bladeis a tapermd planorm (wider
inboard) lnds itself to both minimum weiht and
redimced noise. The slcted activity factor usa",
limits the amount of taper - the hihe the activit)
factor, the kas the taper. For solid aluminum blades,
a planform with an elliptical or rond tip oftrn is
used for reduced nse.
S-S4.) Ebb Cemnbudl
Viewed as a stracture., a proper blade isa rotating. cantilever beam subjemtd te two major chumes
of loading: inertial forc and aerodynamic forctm.
The incrtial fore consist of steady centrifugal loads
and vibratory rectiona; the aercdynantic form are

both steady and priodically vrrjing. Steady loads

am important to th blade den,
but vibratory
loading usiadly i the domiinat ianuemnc. Even
5-70

cyclic loading in the blade can result. Much effort is

magnification by properly positioning the bending
and torsional frequencies.
In gencrul, there are six major structural asp(cts
that must be considered in designing propeller blades:
I. Axial load capacity
2. Bending capacity

00
aN, ;'N'

FIip

of the propeller, considerable magnification of the

spent in blade structural design to hmit this dynamic

JO,

without dynamic mrz4-oj -tioia, vibratory loading at

one cycle per revolution (I P) can be v wry
significant.

Toersionaloffrequency.
6, ot-jective
The
the structural designer is to cbtain,
by judicious use of various materials and configurations, the lightest and best stiructure posible within
defimed by aerodynamic
r geometricson.trait
the

4L4.,.1 Types d bWa Co isuutew

The i trnp

iiuv
6, the solid b 1 C ti
shown in Fil., 545(A). With the propec choict of
material, this coostrwsioa has provided an aorxptable balance of wenit and straure for many years
ort conveniall
ai.rft.
d
its advantages ar&simplicity and low cost. Its diaLAvanta#cs are ineflicient usc
of material in the cente of the cross section, partiulaty in bending, and the fact that the primary structure is exposed to service-inflicted forign object
dampge (FOD). Unfortunately, proprller blades
often are subjected to the impact of varkiu; objx"ts,
r ~n.;n. frnei taimi snAi d
tn sinr mad birds
Many of thke impacts arc capabl of inflicting surface damage that proppag
as fatigue cracks
because of the r~ydic sztmes caused by the untcsady
loadings. Recognizing the potential of FOD has been
shown repeatedly to be essential to acceptable service
efcmanc. With solid Construction, the designer
must select materials with low notch sensitivity and
low crack propagation rates, and must observe conservative stres limits.
The simplest form of holio.;-baide construction is
shown in Fig. 5-45(B). This is a fullyatresscd skin of
monocoque construction in which the central
material of the blade section, which contribute, little
to beam stremgth or stiffnes is absent. The simple
hollow blade construction has the potential for sub-

stantial weight reductior, but two significant problewa have interfered with mrusing this potential.
First. foelvn objc that only goue the surgfe of

"

gougo and dent tih hollow sec.

can b
tio, The dent causes an additional conouttration of
viewin the same area as the goup. Therfore, the
nniimum wall thickness is determined not by grow
structural considwations but rather by the required
restano to FOD. Becasis impact velocities are
greatet at the tip, thick walls am required there; from
the standpoints of oentrifupal load and frequency
placiment. this is an undesirable region for added
weight. The meod prohlem ef simple hollow blades
ocours at the sedn and traLing eds which form
the only shear lod path between the thrust and
cambe- fhee. Because the faces interamct at a sharp
angle, thd.bend radius is small. The resulting geomearic stres concentration often is unsatsfctoty, and
additional material must be added at the edes to increase the radius and reduce dte local Utrns. This
added material not only increases the weight, but also
reduces the blade ntural fmqueame, prticulaly in
Ssolid
blades

Lorsion.
Soine of the problems of simple hollow blade sections an alleviated by a modified monocoque conu m. 5sunwtion., such as the ribbed section shown in
45(CQ. Osmc or more ribs am Widvd to supply13 additioral shear kad paths and to reduce dmtin. T
euact proportioning of sheet and rib thicknessma
spacing along dhe klnth of the blade is a cobina

"

""'

(A)SOLID
,_:;

(B)MONOCOQUE

lion of analysis and experimetntation. Once perfected,

the resulting blae generally is much lighter than a
solid version. The primary structure, however, still is
exposed to FOD, and cracks caused by such danmag
can propagate acros the entire action.
One way to solve this remainiqg deficdicy is to
build what is in principle a modifed monocoque notion in two pieces. Fig. 5-45(D) illustrates the caoi
section of such a blade xistruction. In this approach, the central tubular mmber. or spar. L mad
as a tapered-wall, varying-diam er tulb and them is
flatmt d and twised to shape TIh oter aerodynamic contour or shell taen is bonded to the sVpr.
This contruction aows consmderable design
bility. The spar and shell wall thicknesss can be
vared indep=en9tly to achieve the required -016
and stiffness distribution, and th. spar position
can be varied as well. Additional
within the l
ftfium~t, suc as choAdwise wall thickess vaniMos important, with the separetion of the aerodynamic shel and structural sqpr, different materials
may be considered for each item. With the proper
ahev
C =hAi=4, 1tbini s-3i6
i.e., the effects of massce inflicted damag can be
limited to the shell, elowiun adequate time for detec.
ton and repair.
A typkial spar-shell blade is shown in Fig. 5-46.
Necaust the apur is foamed from a tube, the transitie from the airfol contour to the round c-etieo,

(D) SPAR-SHELL

SF-..

tinuous from rettion to up. with no Joints of any

sort and th sh

i bonded to th pm over t hen-

tre blade lekth. With the lag jouit ar and the

of load from the shell to thk mar
continuous tani
ieh bonded joint isloads ihtly. A filler ma al.
oftoa is md in the cavitin of the blade. This type of
blade comAtuction has ben very satisfactory, with
t nowm wCk dim solid Wlades.
b
T(C we of holow blades to adtcive thesemlprovmnents, however, introdues a number of special
structuralconsrations in addito to the ax major

no batwm

sbhw and airfoil. wher lo

wl-

ing of the spar and 6ill wallk can occur w=m th,
eNd. to straigten or dform the kxmos b=di
tudnlbW profile of the walk.
2. Panal vibraio of local area of the spar or
shell, especially if they anr Uisupported
3. Shear flow, frhm the inailty of the mqx sbhsm
name the
Sioad in a hollow blade to ram diey

Wande thicknessm. Instead, dimgg lead must foallo

.,, Mae& Cnsm Sedliss
' ': "Ty*pl
5-4

section is natural and convenient. The spar is wn

I. Secondary stractural action in die transition

-a*

.&

aU4tioni both shell &adqw.s also can be achived.

aep-Als mentionAd previously. These am

(C) MODIFIED MONOCOQUE

',

the caits
th~lm~m/fa
dedetbS~m,lm~t
material emed
strictural

dIe
-7t1

7 .xw
-:-

AMCPC
blades, especially, deltail blade design must represent
an intimiate combination or functional requirement
/
~and manufacturing capability.
Monocoque bladcs are made by manufacturiag
s
procedures that fall into two general categories:
flattening and twisting tubes ino shape, and jouinmin a
I
*
number of individual pieces.
,
In the tube-flattening process, a round tube is
drawn, extruded. or reduced in sonme manner from
the billet so that its wall thickness tapers as required
* *
and its perimeter is compatible with the desired airfoil sections. The shank region isswaged down to the
NICKEL EROSION
SHEATHproper size, and then the tube is pressed and twistd
SHEATHinto shape in dies. If the blade is to be tapered, the
trailing edge os' the pressed tube is trimmed and
welded.
Some hollow blades arm made from only two
pieces, one containing the shank region and one surface of the blade, the other the second surface. The
FBEGA%-OEE
FIEGA -OEE
two pikice are welded together at the leading and

-~

~'

"

-V

.
-

LOW-DENSITY CUFF
METAL SPAR

FIBER0LAt
SHLW
FIBEGLASSHEL

-~
____Hololow

LOW-DENSITY FOAM
Sw~il lo&The
Fkmv54LTyplcii
F~weS-4~Typial
SM*~Ncording
4. Filler streseing fromi carrying some of the sher
ris
loading across the blade thickness and fromnuo
to cross sectum deformation
S. Shear lag effects, in which rqom of the sufav
distant foom a rib tend to duck the buiding load
6. Chardwisc deformation and stress from
and inertia Woe"i on tOw airfoil, ab well as
pnv
from nlawIg effcts
7. Stmcutral sabl. .y- fte avoidance of budthg
I. Joint struaing especially at the Anboard end of
the shel.
These possible problems must be considered
Carefully in &una, and reouir judicious choic of
configuratin., filler, and jinit design.
Additional ifformaticim on type. of ptopeller blade
contrctininluding both wood and metal blades,
may be found in ANC-9.
I&Awelded

Mere so than wub mansy structures, the demig of

48, mtrom proPsller~
bla es
h onhem
aFfecri by the
",oufnasnngpwessusavailable
Zo olw
5-72

trailing edges, and abrazed fillet added to strengthena

thr edges. The pieces to be assembled are milled,

gru..ad, and press-fornied into the proper thickns
eort jo......
wa&.0 h~masav
bftm
"Wd rrom smaller sepmets, with both cliordwise
and longitudinal welds.
bladies with ribs ate made essentially the
sawe as the blades just described. In this casw, one o
moreof the pieesttobe weldedor brazd isfmilled t
contain the central ribs.
manufacture of spa-shalblWades varies acto the material used. These bkdade have been
produced both in all-metal conr~guations and in configurations with steel spars and Fiberglas shells.
Current development work is demonstrat*n the promisc of new comnposite materialk for the spar or the
shiell or both.
Metal spans are manufactured by processe siilar
Withose ased for flattened-ube monocour. blades.
Interal and exernal psening with metal shog or
glass beads are used for strengh improvement. The
retention bearing raceways Itme are machined on dhe
root of the spar. Thene raceways are inegral with the:
spr material, and mugt be hardene locally by
carefully controlled Rlam or induction methoci.
Finally, the: rinished spar pay be plated for corrosion protectioin.
Metal sheb arm formed froui polish-ponwd shemis,
which ame ROWd arouud the leading edp and seamtat the trailmig edge and the tip. As weth the
Fibergla shells nonnally are l6i up on metal mandrels, either by a wet inyup proces or by uwsai prejials
ab"
Sm igoblinebys"
wetam*

"

.-

IIIf

.--

'-

A"c 706-20

in .ne piece, folded around the leading edge and open

at the trailing edge which isjoined when the spar and
s
are joined. Others are made in two pieces, with
bonded joints at both the leading and trailing edges.
TUe pr and shell are joined by brazing, for allmetal blades or by adhesive bonding, for the FiberSlas shells. Sraaing is performed in dies in a brazing
funac, with pressure in the spar to hold the joint in
intimate contact. Adhuive bonding of Fiberlas
Su may
t be amcomplished with heat and pressure in
a pair of es but the more common practice is touae
a die only for the camber faces of the blkd and to
apply pressure by vacuum bag or autoclave.
The ~asembly of a spar-m ) blade also reqirmes

shot-peering, arm subjected to thorough process control. This includes fraquent inspection of the
machines and techniques involved, as well as priodic
destructive exaination of sample blades.
The surface condition of propeller blades should be
subjected to careful visual scrutiny. In addition, sparto-shell joint qual-ty is assured by process control and
by nondestruaive testing techniques such as x-ray,
ultissonic scanning, and tap testing. These nondestructive methodi also assure the quality of the
blade filler material.

ssseel a"enjoined.
ast-inns
ipr taled
asat
j
ofnd
s 'then
awe filly ais Wsed
she tba is pthredinto
blade

S-t.4.3 Bid m
and Proeller Satate
Propeller roughniri due to unbalance is caused primarily by deviations from tolerances in the three
mSen propei compone
blades, hub assembly,
and spinner. The most impoitant souror, of propeller
unbalance is the blades, because of their larr. radius

joint is made.
after the spar-shell
cavities aad cured
hels coposte axeiah in
O adanc
Spasam
Sbe
presnst
ate of be am usually an laid up by

aerdynamic characteristics.
and maw and their
Four factors aff'ect Ong amount of blade unbalance:
mass force, mass moment, aerodynamic forces, and

hand in tape form on mandr". When the composite

aenamic rment.

oliihtwtisit file material. Some f'lkir

installationof
or
or cut from
piom
am ppecast
bonyomb;
theseto shape
ae installed
as balsa
prt wood
of the
honycmb;y wlthes

maiMX is rnaU Ste

.
mrmaina G

.. I. .

as a die and autodave Prusum or with an o'tsik d

and inflatab bladders inside. When tft matrib is
the mtea is compucled and diffumon"meta
bonded in matched tal din.
With advanced ompit,

materials and

To obtain

ealiuic estimates of probable un-

balances for a partcalar propeiatr design, the tffM..

of t varion independent dimensional toldrances
must be ev-juad stalieically for each of the three
major componmts and then combined statistically
for the overall propeller. Analytical techniques and

fiber cantationa can be umed in thn various layers of

the spr and shll. Namerically controlle tapelayins mkckins an beit useci in curent deveovt manuf'acture
nmnt progsams to facilitate the cii
of thes new blades.

computer programs hzve been developed for cmtimating and assesasig unbalance for numerous propefler installations with good wss. A discussion of
the varoa. aspects of propeller balance is Oive in
Ref. 56. AAditional comments appear in ANC-9.
In pz'rral, blade balance is achieved in manufac-

The prodoction quality of a pgopele blade has a

consideabl afet on allowabe amsr lves. bcna
fatWie srssn an critical. Thef=, it ia impodtant
that blades be impgcwd carfully for maggnsl quai-

I. Mas force unbalance is controlled by horiz antally bak. cin the blades agaimst a masw blade
within 0.002 in. times the bld weight with a
Eminmum toklence of 0.10 in.4b.

blades-qu
obneor brand joints. In addition to vrqfmig thos attribts afcag amn*
insei must imuoet
that tho bla6de aus eownet
dunancoally. Arfoail disiwon am LqW to anum
that mak blad will prosm
4~t
thrust perfrman; an iwdivWhual performan= to*, maboth mpramtimie ad usaanamary. Aifl dwauioss ol
individaa blaes also a rsad to emt amedyasmac balsam
sinq
a s of blades,
Amta ualtya
rifed byOi
mfi aton of asub
lot of fsqgpl, isauivig I l- ad chmaicd tot of
tae. waM by had mse on sackPon. P@-

cally bhadangi tim blades Wia a matw blade

witmin 0.0
in. times the blade weight with a
minimum tolaracm of 0-70 ia.4b (IWIL-P-26366).
The vedical balance sould be accomplished fw two
orhKooa bade anslar peaitis. To a 'hieve
ma
balnce, small wights we added, usuay a t blde
root mimo
Aerodyo"aw belanw of propeler balance usually
a controlled by b aiwspvmWW airfoil she a by
iestdlnthe blades with tir mr ne stationa
within 02 dgS of esuh W . in mgay ifai os
however. adeqas Control Cafnot be Schoerd

ty, su~rfec cndkitm tuA -- in Wtcef of s, ar-6hali

wem affwia

treths W&
uh

eld aMWFORMOW
rllig

2. Mom momatt unalo

wiho

sulecive gomu

l.

is contolled by ve~rti-

in thes cn,

the

5-73

weighted average blade angle error must be compared to a apacirwation maximum. The weighting
factors for the an
ro along the blade are based
on the aerodynamic lOading fror a specific operari4
condition for either force or moment unbalance.
Usually, correcting aerodynamic form nnbalama
also will corre-t moment unbalanc satisfactorily.
The weiShted average blade angle error may be ohtamied by manually averaging the weighted blade
angle errcrs at various stations along the blade, or by
using an automatice blade aerodynamic balancing
machine,
Hub and spinner unbalances also can influence the
propeller balance. Even thouh the hub is
atctically balbnced about its axi to 0.0(bS in. times
its weight, and the spinner is both statically force
balanced about itz axis to 0.0005 in. timus its weight
and dynamicaly moment balanced, close dimensional control and indexin mut' be maintained to
achieve good propeller balace. Critical factors iidlude oat-of-plane ard inplanc blade retention

Iovcall

*.->!

5&4.4.1 Helew Dw
Steel suitable for one-piece hollow blades, or for
the $par of Spar-h blades, arc low-alloy Aws
eqwvalmnt to AISI 4350, vacuum mcltied, in both the
364o Rc hsrdnm and the 40-44 k hardness ranges.
Thee steals must be protected from corrosive environments. The leading edge or the entire airfoil may
be protected with eosion-resiatant coatings or
olaiwn with lea-durable paint coatinP on the internal surfac.
Impact dmage is a serious probibem for a one-piece
hollow steel blade. Wall .thcknfa that may be
adequate for carrying stiuctural loads may be thin
enough to dent locally. The mrent reduction for
local impact daner is the combined effect of h.e
gouge stress concentration the local plastically
deformed material, and the stress-raising action of
the dent. Frequent impaction and local removal of
gougf and tei plastically deforme surrounding
material can be und to proct against the effaft of
this type of damap. Anotlnmethod is to protect the

squarencas, axial positioning of the Wade, eccentriblade with a hard, damnrreistant plate Such as
city and squareness of the hub retention on tse pronickel or chrome. Howo:r. the stsenth-reducin8
effC.e_ of the hap] ,ostine n the ,eA stru-tu....re tA
peller shaft, and spinner mounting runout and tilt.
Thc balarnc r,%.Aim-era of the hub and spinn
be considered in the initial design.
usually are met by removing material or addin,,,,\.JC
balance weights.
After the parts of a rrosraler are blanced
RELATIVE
"separatcly, the assblWd propeller is bahvi a
WEIGHT
statically in either the houiz.td or vertical position
to 0.0003 in. time the proJle w
bj- &"at
&i
balance weights to the hub. T"f-bladt should Ih at.
.

SOLID ALUMINUM

fi,,Az balance to obutir,

cruise flight angle darkia thisflight.
the smoothest operetiao in

If additional balatwing is rquimd. it may be performed on the air'crraft dynarni.'ly by nameS

systematic trial w,;tt methb or speial instrj-

'Er-

mcaatin,&L&-hat bepulse syichronizer unbialanceindicating (PSUI) unit or a vibration analyer.

Because of differca in bUde augular position
loading, and poi4ly in nacelk. system respo,
m
in
ftlgt it may be mwcr.ary to supplement groud
.ymidamic bakadnc.1d
'S of ;k= prp
with infjlht dy-

b.la. nc

SE

SP

75%

STEEL SPAR AND FIBERGLAS SHELL'

minted substantial weight rvductius, a unmmaaiM

in Fig. 3-47. Advaned *apoitie blad con,udrticn

-- 74

.--n..

The continuing d&tvapat of new a -riala

and
coLstruction techiWqa, far propelle'i Wdes has perhas the potential for cvm mome isproMvin t.
"Thepat qgrapks that fow deal with variou kirn.
of Made maltiWs. Adtiomul information i,' containd in ANC.99.

AN

-d

ZZ-

T ITANIUM SPAR AND F IB.RGL&S SHELL

F.w

$.47

assalde w-4 Wc*ittae~sa

-dM

Iean is %144in satVtCtoryV thniques for fabricating

individual cowmponena from the taps. Brazing and
diffusion bonding &,c two niroccase with gret potential that peoiaw the ctipbilaty of being dewcopc
and monomies.1 manul'c-,
In~to highl rqprouci
turing -ows." Dramatic increases in stwoLth-toweight and sliffocso-vawtibt ratios over sither wat;4
or titanium arm possibie with the new advancedco
pouites.
When loa5Tht is wwaetially unidirectiontal with Amreinforcing fibers and the matrix material is o
hiighly stressed, an epoxy matrix appears preferable
because of its lighter %acigt.However, a nasal matrix
offers hgher s&reg&h and stiffness, where noaded.
MAlo. the allowable sts&eIL1 and duign roduki of
.naterial with an epoxy mutrix noraniay miut W,ZdjuWte downward to ull,3w for moisture abaorpt;io ir.
service and for time griadWa modulus dsware Wada
continuous Cyclic: stresing.

When spa-gwe1 vnixastii is iiJ"d. with the spa

mtn14r Vnd a sturrundas the majvw
Ing shell of a 441cict rnatzrsiJ& tltt 2& is pvotacted
from erosion and &iiapkcdaub t',;b-rt heOlt Intermeal surfaces of the "s rm'u be pztscccss kbwever.
(Mass cloth ot i n-splhwtv~d pkiw4ir rmatmrs5 can
be used for the ac odynznk~ sge3l awlt bc:Wv to the
spar with adhesiives. The iaatw and wxcrAial propcities of the shiell can be talored by selected orientatinu of Whe lay-up.
Hollow titanium load-carrying spari are being
developed, using SAI-4V alloy. Because of the
excalhant corrosion resistance of ahaniw alloys in
gSc*ral, no corrosion prot*Aiion woaquiitd. AM airfoil euvelops adhuuively boao4.) to the spar jrovidics
both erosion and impact dsmaje pwte~tn. Thorophilugs that can dqrzds the
lore no pfwLwr.W
fa4ut uvragdh ottitaniwn mand be considered in this
typt. of conatrwlion.

S4&45,C Fbs Maiculi

vhMatuitt
Riid wuztaha fowu materials with a daxuity Ln the
rnaia~citicr
(ild
n mmf~ta
bennodwiady;,,M of S-12 lb/R cvrmnitly tit used as tk heanI'A
wawd
,~43shav
# W ct
c k-uv
nx kVCw b=
an caidyd
forv twiil
W .uin. et& Aiwvb
bilktA. Thv. rw"3.j n&a*1I1%4

54&441 Cg"a~o
Won OUi

of the pout -jihrj:&v*L kjyx.

Cz."A nadic LaE. ssd
nSn
kvnudiC.Twhaior~
f4x lay-tpdu~e4
in
ttwW aloha,
mi;"Az, wfNn.-n Ww thermal coaductivity ALAtii
~~an wtic
to ad rercasns
~
~~vtA~algUratios with adequate WsA4aw-v
A~1.~ut~e
rrr~ ~~oc~ai~
e4M'iev adlumiou, and satisactors-tc'sabebya
poviiC
sj~alskcnh ~rcnasha=
Of Particular impcwianca in bta4
~
~ RtWtSizThShy.
ww
~
~
~
o
toC
-w IVAq, ek-, "i eUSaxt&4
1S7 LU*
winsale
is Elip. ability of she. foams to beratim
icatica
fabe"i
,..um of tM bac eke
in unite o OMulet caxitw
01r
DeeM -9 c*Atnt fitct S~q imU epasty MIPW.6r
S4A4A Stvanlta, AdVtjh."
and bwoa i4 cM. Jl6WVbitru 6UI) wUwrfl &;,&kki L~ tli
.
aa
aOUs
~~~ ~~devloamwnu; wis .. Tegnatx w44 Fibeurn,, Vttlp
,,

-4

..

Av

.sasafils flat uhwo -~

Thc4
b 4 % &q&&&
t am"s t
pWalak e 2AW
~Thuy c~o," bi- ma4uwsao

pksa of fibao"a ccaia~5( trocihl@itu .

as ikuq*~ taLitusjs for
me&AQ
au.Aw
TWc~ kv&
&at
*.auJ
advvs
P

itet6,

~N44WA "gVen

Vim Ia
aftMO
I
wfl if tug
SWIVAM?.. ftmiJQ& C%~rq lwUia6Jtd(M4w
1ite4.. Mai'A
@i~rA

@~ i"a o1wcecii-tw

t4OL~iaAahi hItfi.044 nd IL;tt

th~ba'tsA~y~wLIuOw

htloud&.a

2%~~rwv

WAOWSM4VL

gYUtJMe

1%

rLdi n4
&&IOz Ows be;iQ Wart,

jaiML.JMO
am vw-wziz W"t i
nile1* etba w tacVOf kiv - *-if Inc adt"Uvtn boqz4
p~~.vtt~
i~ ~~nhuc .i
jAs
ini
im j#itd edt
sr
proo
is tkb
km ca* ghd
da4 cv ta4Jk
isA
t~cso www4imiuknm.a
is Atkitnd, V#4a biJra k CtOVya4* CAht~fr
tMtEILA.Lk "144. FAflCA*E 1.1114-1
%
tiC-*
Mfl2.%&Otvi
&QOPa
%, Q>'Ar 4g~o
btA~chzwp
scon
ts
t zw-U
aofpw
&QM 4b~.a rajej
lwt
C4~
k~rw
gbfUtntt
C!. Mj1Q

&%b4pb S43

6us4atl~
k~k
aid a%~o
uwttaaw
m&.is
bwaAWc
ia~~t~~tat1~U

k:.

*,

Iin-place

fsiatlh,- 4lou akJ

'I

bk~~~~adtn wiib mcts k;.ss&L Akbkc

--

N'

C4

amp"s of piopelsr design, determination of blade

fatigue strength must be basd upon both compr

E MEAN
J'

fatigue tests of full-scal blades and vibra-

*hensive

-- T-rr_ -n--n1
WPLCIIIENS

12LT

tory blade stresses measured on the aircraft under

conditions rcpresentative of service operations.
The number of vibratory stress cycles accumulazed In the service life of a propeller is so great that

vib~ratory stiesmes below the endurance limits are

neoesary for most operating conditions. For instanc assuming a I P vibratory stm. and a rotational speed of 1S0 rpm, 9 x 10, cycles are accumulated in lOD hr of service.
Some moimentary or intermittent operating conditions can occur in which stres amplitudes exceed
the endurance limit. Each cycle of such stress uses up
som" of the fatigue life of the propeller, and it is
necessary to establish oonsrvatively that tht accumulaton of those cycles can be tolerated. Curreat
practice is to apply Miner's Rule for cumulative
fatigc damage.
Vibratory stress limits must be derived primarily
from controlle laboratory tests for fullcwale propelie blades, supplemumted by sopcimen teats.
Ground and flight measurement of propeller vibiatory sresseis during aircraft operafion is described
in Chapter 8, AMCP 706-203. The instrumentation
required, many of the co. ideations involved in
planning and executing a vibratory stress survvy, apd
the interpretation of results are included. Certain of

_
/

RILL SCALE

C...

"--

TO
... C,

-,

CYCLES to CACK

SCALE

DSEt-eCTON
DLOG

SCALe

Fipre -

ladgue Strenh Diffemece Dutwee

SpWms wad Ful-cale Teasm
(mpreunted by the coefficient of dispersion; i.e., the
ratio of the standard dcviation in fatigue strength to
the mea'n fatigue strength, at a particular number of
cycles) is gencrally in the ran'. of 5-10% for
specimens, but may be as high as 15-20% for full-4cale
component.

Trh6-

a.-

-t .l

.-

I..

..

nn..,.d

A-nA

upon p.evious tests on similar components, a.tiipated service loadings and environments, and related
sevice experienwe. The various regions of the blade
- tip, mid-blade. airfoil transtion, shank and retention -t midbt be aonider d as to thsir dhanks and

thes subjects are summarized in the paragraphs that

fabrication details, their steady and vibratory

follow, with emphasis on the interpretation of results.

An example of the application of Miner's Rule is in-

loadings, and their emvironmental exposIres. The

fqufreafnb for fatigue testing of propel blades
arC similar to those for rotor blade dicusied in par.
5-4 and in Chapta 7, AMCP 706-203.

eluded by refernce.
01
@ (dw

E. dlmce U

Stmmm

T"U

54&i

Compiderable information about the fatigue

u.rwuth of prooller blad materal an be obaiued
from specimen tsw. A dtiscusion of types of testing,
numbr of samples, an statistical intnpratio of
fatige tat dat can be fond in Rd. 57.
StL&t2

hilse

Tels

p-m totig can womplamt, but never

rqlw buing
,
of fu-sclet producti composesta.
b
of the S i
fsni-" tioe dileamows and
dieoa ia rss sate, fI-..ak comp-Lie.ts tend
to have boh loer mesa 1[t'.
snhos sad a
ItI

rtAe

scstter diam coetvvtioal laboratory sped-

mwn. A typical ilkmust

m oft

dWfwr
m
Is sbown
in Fq 5-4, wim the mes ftigu etrenth of flwls coaponms at logWr umbom of cycle is about
cm-half tha of the spamima. The data scatr

3-76

7-

----

T,--D

"M -I

no.

pedim" Ta
5-8.2.1 Airraft Teats
The instrumentation requir4 for masuring blade
vibratory streass in flight is described in Chaptr g,
AMCP 7M6-203.
In gcneral, survey tests are programmed to e-

compass all sigaisicat re"vice oprauing coitions,

with adequate allowance for variability and, whm

possible, for rute cbhae andlgrowth. The resut of

a propeller vibratory strem survey customarily ar
summarized in plots of vibratory streis agnin the
most peminent variable - suc as propele qse,
insped povwe or time. The curv usually are

selected to show the highe

stra

sampl of a gtr summary

-k

in th tp, the

mid-blade and th shank rWoa of the bla&. An

is shwn in Fig. 5-

49. A full sciof sudscurves will form the bei

fatigu Iklieanaym.

for the

Of
'

lS.C

at certain critical speeds in. r.,dom 8pound windlanvironment, or some instancs of stall flutter. In such

..

"
\cases,

newvers,
"duranco

-o

I"shown

_._

it may be neonehary to avoid specific operating

Sreions In order to assure structural Interity,
For vonditions, such as takeff and inflight mawhere vibratory stres levels exceed the enlimit, the cumulative fatigue damae must be
to result in an acceptable fatigue life for the
in
Apropeller. Fatigue life determination is discued
Chapter 4, AMCP 706-201.

5-9

ANTITORQUE ROTORS
.
Gin

S49.1 GENERAL
The tail rotor of a single-rotor helicopter is
designed to provide thrust for counteracting main

rotor torque at all flight conditions and to provide

QM
4.

Zo

.directional
that,

,1

So0
10

M
INtNCAT-t

2W

3W
C0

variable thrust for control in both the torque and

antitorque directions. Yaw control is effected by variation and modulation of the collective pitch setting of
the tail rotor. The collective pitch is controlled by
control pedals and normally is adjusted so
at the deign point hover condition, the pedals
arc in a neutral position. For single-rotor helicopters
with the advancing bladc on the right, (the conventioniui

AikPUD V,

IUFULUi, Urhom'

.g:

u
aee
Mmlans
To detrmine strucural integrity, the measured
starus in various regions of the blade - after due
Consideration of beckgroUnd data and allowance for

increases tail rotor (positive to the right) thrust, producing a left yaw. Likewise, the right pedal will producc a right yaw, with the tail rotor loing to lower
values of thrust ai.d finally into "reverse thrust".
The tail rotor design goal is to produce, with
minimum power and weight, the thrust necesary to
meet the control and antitorqu requirements. Tail
rotor requirements must be met without the occurrmce of any undesirable vibration, whirl, or shake

chavae

characterisics.

FW* 4.

TY~sa

Sin s

c r

must be compared with appropriate

material strength information. The strength data are

-ued
from full-scmae and ojieciamsemins. in
choosin appropriate struegth data, the kvd of mean
Wrw from davp computations is muflfieutly Accuin.
For olpeating conditions consideed to be ementially commuon the srns leves mum be below the
endurance limit. Normal cruise flight must be tr#Ated
as a cotinuous opmain condition, and, in ose inK-BaMWl
atio
rmal diab mid dsme dold be

wr~ed simark.
A lhauther omelderaa

The tail rotor is designed for the most severe ambi&it conditions iic.udifl
:l-sm-icop.c.,-"itia,-,
tilude and tamperatumr, and the critical altitude for
the engine.
The maximum thrust that the tail rotor must provk without blade stall is that required to counteract
main rotor torque., while also providing th specified
positive yaw acelation and overcoming tail rotor
yroecopic preesmsion eects, in the maximum 4inc.fled crowind. Prmvmo mum be indudo to

counteract distuebmacso so&ase gusts. Coesidraties

also m tbe givm to tbe tmlosm due to inatre-o
useam
om- mai6080M
W
u wth th 'Aertical
ue
Ba, main rowor, ad othr pMru
Nuuue
i is dmemi
howhehr myo"Wsam
i
Kmm of tAhe ilnpar.
wbm thdW ~
sunoma of dos pespulr *0K be
Eapede bas shw~s tha if th, tai rotor th~a
Poorly rMpg"ae ALa.
WoMdiMe Whaere thel VWkseQUINUMMes At the W"ila los-upen oMiiM s
aftm eablishing that

-h

toy stv -- tqgh ikbe low m owud - nmg

become t
lo vu eipesble vaiat
s in cnrewuenm. Smi moifions mftk In~smoperedo.

(e4.,bowpisMs fyaw
, 100 aiWewisda minlma
dim*, ealtitude) Ma ", d wrpirwe" fair
foiwad ligh

easly will be ustheLed kk

vc.ss,
ths
-- 77

tail rotor thrust cap~b;'

st;11
be an 'yzed
under forward flight conditions, including critical
550 HP,,,
-Rb
(519
maneuvers. Without such verification. i! may be
R),.
*[lb
(-)
necessary to restrict the helicopter operational cnvo.
lope or to redesign the tail rotor when deficiencies are
discovered during subsequent Rlight test.
+ l':4'
Prior to final definition of the maximum required
TI,
lb
(5-20)
tail rotor thrust, consideration should be given to in.
lb
(-)
creased thrust requirements resulting from the inwhere
creased crngine power available with engine growth.
-masn
moment of inertia of helicopter in
Refs. 58 through 61 give additional data on tail
sdug
Spcf-yaw,
Military
no
8 ft,
rotor design. There currently are
SpcfX - distance ',rom centerline of main rotor to
cations applicable .specificallly to the design of anticenterline of tail rotor, ft
torque rotors.
-'vaw acceleration, rad/sec'
Q.,-, main rotor torque, ft-lb
5-9,2 TYPCIAL ANTITOEQUE ROTORS
R-main rotor radius, It
Tail rotors in current use employ from two to six
(9R) ,- main rot or tip speed, fps
* blades. However, there is no basis for limiting the
number of blades. The blades arc retained iai a hub
i t, ainrotor to.utrequread to providpe reqfire
allow collective pitch change rangigis from positive to
main rotoretorqon, an oprvdbrqie
ngtvanlsTw-lddtail rotors L-aihy re
Teti oo hut
l
The
ailroto thustcalculeted in Eq. 5-20 is the
net thrust. taking into account all interference losse
bladeshv niiulhigs nete
thre.
r mre
due to tho presence of vertical tail fins, flow field, and
type, 53 commonly is uWe'to coto higes.apii
dynamic effects. The rotor witi be designed to meet
flappingth
ontro thern
magniude.
n tal rotrs
eurmn on nE.52 ttecii
preconc required for banding moment reduction also tetrs
can
comenste
e usdt fr te aeodyamicand
cal boveiing temrtrature and altitude or th. critica
centrifusal twisting moenste thates theroyai
bandet
engine. altitude. Normal forward Rlighrt condi
arc
centifual wisingmomnt
hatdries he lad to of secondary importance since the vertical ions
fin
low collective pitch angles. The blades may be usually is designed to unload the tail rotor at tail
cruite.
retained in the hub by bearngjs, tension-torsion
High-speed autorotations and rolling pullouts are
straps, or clastomeric bearings.
tociia
xetos
Thefr
lads
tilued
otor ar muh stffe in
In addition to producing the thrus: required. the
all modes than those used for main rotors. For inti oo hl edsgndfres
fcnrl
onrl
so
aeo
rotor shouldbe designed
stance, in the torsionall mode, the combination of maniloroot.Th

"

a,,,

This.
tierandr thantrhestiffness generalyis frvetors
ih
tabne

th hgerlaine masadhg
(Ref.

59).mal

5-9.3 VAIL ROTOR DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Thetai
roor hdlproucethe thrust noccsitry for
helicopter yaw cnradthe attru
our-

mnsof the main rotor. This thrust must be pro-

that a linear control will he obtained in all flight conditions iner thr tail rotor does not openatein the
structural integrity, tail rotor design sAll conside scoasi pirobt~1s.
A

onvitonmeet found with tail rotor hdlicoptcrs e.g., in

theprsene f atal fninthe wakeoftemi
rotor ats ideward velocities, near the ground, and
whim the heiotrhsapositive or negative yaw
Band
pon he pnutmcmdond~os between the
tail rotor and the rest of the helicopter (Fig. 5-50), the
tail rowo tkrust T,, required is found frm. Eqs. 3-19
an-0wbX and R, umaured infeet&e5.Gaaur

5-9.4 INSTALLATION CONSIDERATIONS

Durinj design of tho tail rotor. consideration shall
be given to the actual installation on the vehicle in
determbining the taquired thrust. The rotot may be
designed to operate with the tail fin downstream
(tractor configurcion), or with the fin upstream
(pusher configuration). The rotational axis of the tail
rotor also may be canted with repect to the fin to obtain a life component from the thrust vector. The
locatiou of the rotor will have been selected to provide adequate clearance from the ground and other
parts of the helicopter, and with provisions for the
safety of ground personnel (see Chapter 13. AMCP
706-201).

"ALI4. Tractor C..iguratim

In the tratctor configuration. the fin produces a
blocksgjs that causes a thrust loss. Tests (Ref. 58) indicae. that the net thrust available to satisfy helicopter requirements may be estimated from
T.

/I_07S

lb

7S
A~

05-21)

-thrust

a.--

for control and antitorque, lb

_dk ~ce

by the

by a lag of the tip path plane with rhspect to the control Axis, which produces an equivalent to cyclic
feathering. As a result, one side of the disk is loaded
more highly than the other; if blade stall is encountered, the additionai precessonal momuent must
be produced by the unstaled side. This effectively
reduces the thrust capability of the tail rotor. The
rotor blade :nust be sized to operatel at lift cotfli.
cients below the value for sttall throughout the
operating range. The increased loading caused by
rotor precession must be provided for in this sizing.
The effects of operation in a side wind alsc must be
considered on the basis of a uniform variation of
thr~ust with pedal position. When rotor-induced velocity approaches sideward velocity, the rotor will en.
counter the vortex ring state. This characteristic,
shown on Figl. 5-52 (fromn Ref. 58), giives undesirable
flying qualities and generally is avoidtd by pilots. It is
prcferable that the induced velocity (disk loading) be
sufficiently high that the vortex ring state is not approached until sideward v~1ocity exceeds 35 kt.
5-9.4.4 Direction of'Rotatift
When the helicopter is in rearward flight near the
ground, the characteristics of a tail rotor installation
Ufhtc10

total disk area, dimensionless

"5-.4.2 Pashe CoaliguratiO

In the pusher installation, the production of thrust
creates negative pressures on the fin and tail boom on
the side adjacent to the rotor. The integral of these
piressures over the affected are produces a for-ce that
must be subtracted from the rotor thrust. This force
can run as high as 20% of the tail rotor thrust, but can
be redu~cedby increasing the ax-adistance between
the rotor and the fin. At a distance corresponding to

VV
M.
W

tam

~Wa
a

n.

aaa
*
.6WIS

WIi'hcihc

'wp" moving

-e

25.
S/A

0.264
-201 .0
Q

4..VU

-15

used with caution.

UH1CC;
S/A =0. 143
1o0~
ZUH-1C
U7..

UH-1D

AH 1G
G-

X_

effects. Therefore, the pusher configuration should be

o6"

produ~c

AHI1G

offect of distance for both tractor and pusher configurations 6a shown in Fig. 5-51, taken from Ref. 58.
It is possble to design the pusher configuration
with lower lo-sss than occur in the tractor installation. However, because of Dlow blockage, rotor performance is influenced to a greater degree by wind

S-.. peslia

forward

undesirable flying qualities. The ai rotor can encounter a large ground vortex produced by the main
rotor, which causes nearly a 20% deciease in tail rotor

S/A =0. 136 ___b

Wheki the tail rotor is oparating at a yaw rat.., aI/

moment is required to precesa. the gyroscopic forme.
This momeset is a functin of yaw ratc *, tail rotor_
angular velocity g,,andpolar moment of inertiaI1.,
and must bea produced by acrod 'namic forces applied
90 dog dhed of the direction ol precession ins the case
of rotors with Rlapping blades. This is accomplished

__
0.8

_ _

0.4
TRACTOR

Fl~um, 5-51.

%%

IUHI

0.4
PUSHER

0.8

Fin Seperatle. Distaaee/Rotor Radius

5.79

ramr

Ahm

an ad~m"'%W
al

-mm
o

3.amr~,i

t~-

nbotei

iG

f mb
of__
-bw

AQ

-wea

4tdPwr

rwa vahsiwg
tIN rolvdl trota.
o f
k trrn0
ise
(Rd
pow,
#4
to the
3
an
intnedyi
cm
imno
himn rwkkr
prseto
ZXIWof the&;ltdM roqsirdc Hroa
CJ~rtAiI IE "t3Un
mch
rolor
rduction.
v

ca~
mddhisd
ta
her4oyate, sti

ane I C
E0d

i akeiulwsh coatovr1
ail roto

to~yat

dvs!;xxt1 :o vowst wich zbe bott4xx bkgk sovig

forwnd.
I.,~~

---

j14--

VNORVORTEX

LEFT

'64

AIGrI

2D
30
DIS& LOAD1NG T/A. psf

5-.SEml~E~tEq10
Possible diastie rdwsuiortk

tail rotor thratt 4im

40

SumM
to tlcingiR3sS oa byt'ac tai r-jnor of h~ot exknatgae

(Jhith rwvihxat r~t~d air deoaity) should 1w atos~da

.

nd by subvr'lqnot

tesing.

IMm"

I
VG PAR t duo
i u a alrtrwl
pbykO:1O5
5-3TAIL
Thecfa
pt4~rhssi1 oto "nl 6140 ~
the. losc~nl, tip wgjmtL blade twist, sAnd airfoi vxstion.
Etmaaa; tbkese csailncs
inf)ucaa the iIaJwb
wevight, 4i is =owary tW dtnnino "c~ inatoritatotpin ct&r to op~iiaiL the dcsign.

.*AS

5-a. Tal ar* Pnfnmmme,

Few Sied.

siderasrd (Egi? to the left. Tail rotor wsiciht sod

boo'm size inamaae to disk loads decrease. Thus tjhj
final selcton of tail rotor ViLk loadng wilt depend
upon ai OvCJHrade-omd ff of required jpamr vemus
tai rotor dis'uaer.

S-9.5. Tog RwnWT1# ed

T1s~ rotos Aft d4M~imd 1t0 operat at tip speeds Of
54-tA1.2 TogCRw U"M L0144g
6W14= fpc. For a g.ven thrus requircmwt, taW
ini t?4 5111* rtlir, the powerC required to
rotors opv-ratiog &llowtip speeds will nad highe
psmatt thrust depmads upon the dUk Ioadi4-, &urd t.Iiditti to obtain the requiroJ operath~g C,. The
ibis on the 4iwtsr naoktld. As noe~d in Fig 5-53,
leo tip wo'j akw) hwuc~scs the torque, of dhe drive
systra. i1,agc factor botl, increms the overe~l Wiijbh
the pCM,, F@CWEG0 WCR*C with UJiCSmad &A
Io*iur i.e., thrust bOG~iUJg lbjkg, *erw4acts- To
of den antitvrqre utyatm. Highmer ti p speeds can result
minirAt the powu; rcovirod. kv tdu kmdJOS am
in blade itnakymic comnpmssblity losse wrth cot
sn...we 1'.*Iwrn, as rmosd iip.-.3itPrwoovdiug ptwr loam, *bh oonsol forovis blad
4,36!mw
0hai
,, disk hwxL-jg be nsffackflily b11% to
kIW .4. ercon prokams sand hiowe noine

A
88

YOLMt&WISJ
Sins

than 35 kt dUiaiin

'

$-

Boris (Y-4. 5-54).

>

air

1W

doe

Ya in
raw
4Eq.

90

Y*ASIR)

/SKma/n

'.''
sowdoad aped wd/an
divId bar E". S&, aNudes
5422 ski hM
ib blab
Me.
Pql Lw tiiota pom..msmsd to
a qpdfedb
muagouuimd is yaw.
-"a

-rvd

labvsoerd to osbouud is
3btwht dwaureigs
mud t. Wbepawfrwipee.lod diuiska (sad,
11stm paph
PS
sdumy) of fthtai9 rawn a
d. Sals or kow-epeud Aqt sec Tb. twist neqire
dffwiecy bseome pumu
to nxmama PCysW.
t du kmSWea
HoWsova,
wish
WmM An .psk~ai rotor Wfd''Smai blade twist

70_

-u

ot.
bu
m -W
-O hWOu7Wei
sofwe
a
VAIL ROTOR TIP WPE.fps
Vlgu 54C T1.S VftbS 10 ooRaw
Nam

wow

_F

S4j. Nad. Husk er sof

ITMe romw eoiiKy & eam Nc q3W* WeP
C aMY WAY
Nude chord &Wd had. numbber. Usaeuiy, s is
boat t0 kip OhN vale Of asdvadurJ blade 00lidf
ob-44l betweso 0M and 0.06 fo vrnon of Srui.a.
lure said aselaioma. Tlw blad number b en he sany

I.between

,(AMC.

The in noldity rmqed, dopands qa tip spaS,

disk loading. maxiuma thiust reqund atd the airfid toadun The chai. of fte aidaod affect
th a-mmoperating CL. this directy intaad*
the solidty.
The product (ecb) of the reqwnC blade chord c4
Dm5tunes
WOlad numt &i
can be found froma Eq. 5-22.
knowing the maximum opertig tip speed buiopter yaw rple, ran blockWdap ff, and thiugns:quin.

ncut;

6K
c~ C.(B)'1wihonly
CAC~p-

UA
ui~+
($22
38A ~
tvhcc 1
3BR~
b - number of tail rotor blades
B - blade tip los fator, dimncnsionlcs
c-e.*T&;'ive '!d
ord, ft
oissrtA pe1 tWaic, AUS-fl'
- pola! rn~;of
K m rutio ofn!ty*]teAdwqgthrug to " taii
Lrito thrust. 6imensonlc
A - tail totor radius, ft
To -'tail rotor thrust to oompeoSawc fog main
tokw torqv-., Thfor
X - disteoce frewct ouerlina of msain rotor to
geatedinc of Itol rotor It

/ ,"4
xkTQ
"Are +

-+

4.

"ta

MieAh

whusu-

u80111

imlwsoveral
Wction
airfoi
The coice of theW
skeet a dotaMauium
-m mW wfostaaacs
nakdo hl the .awainvo apacWE lift .OdThimt Of
16 6"W

Ar 66 "AM&'

.Ivk

Wa~g p~cluig mow_-- charactensicL Many WJa

rates we ACA 01012 and 0013 airoi atin
whech h~av a pkchimg nmend of numtatialiy zero
cv wr
the usualhoratigw.
naaeU tp =av and wgjht .f tail rotor are diecjy tpadmi~ upon The mauimum operatiftS lift Coadfkjd=; she nuv or cambere airfoil is bein cm.66=t The amo important chuaractaic of two
camubued section cocukidee xuitable fg tasil rotors
ame skein MTable 5-S along with the ChbiAbCtUU&iIWi
ofw
gr veUC NACA cci:_ for cmsran
The ?4ACA 23o1 airfoil is typkiJc! a clam of aim.toil sections wLeW camber is puninai

over !hM for-

war ation fthe airoil. Compared vith the syanmetricol akirfriil U'Ie aanUSa in an improved CmaWx9
a.~'s nrWin pitcbing mornnt coefficient
Cm. JCs
ACA 6M,412 is typice! of the taminnam-flow urlt(MACA 63.6", 65, sairi 66 strie)
ralvsc to jJ -tWvi low values of mrinimum section
dra coefficient C,,, by inuintt-mnoe of laminar
flow over mutW. J thair MI:f8O;'; aiocs with pldgb-upcd lift and drvag charsrTeisticu flUe to th",
fact that the cr-crm it dis'Mbuts6 over thiw cv&ri
chord, the pitchino&marinAv czmfficicnit isqcfesr,
n-shown In Tabk 5-5.
T.; vigrtw at C4,, am shown for cowmarigvs Ona10i
ly. VWOW 'sa. . 4~aMig must include Wsrei
opri';jng vsiu of RtiC Lid Reyno!ds n;A.bf-Aamrilua
leadig 04t~ m~iougt . Fa7itu-x Iq qtry nom-oeq otrtcctiots tn sldail actioo 4 wih .tul iu
deficiet IU rotor capahht

;4W

-t;

a-21

by suitable deap mWd balacin of she roto

"-.7 STRLJCTU1JAL CONSIDERATIONS
Mlaul. aqatave (acsedowa) pitchin moumat can b.
54.7. S.Swul Druaiss
Niluad. For campos by usin a avseisly stiff blade
Withpt'00.
nd y baancng te ~The
plawnm:, of the ustual frqumncims .1 the taZ:
with pndymmme sems (Frg 5-5.ing
mAy
blsewemle
aft~ofrtri
eattmne&J INICOCIS in insuring5 the MtiUCutdwIsaw
srodsaw~
(ig-5-35 itmay emategrty
of Ohe syifm. The dials of main ro,ar
1 so th Ca.mposm of slwingS forclasa;s
excitation must be considered. For ia.
swodynamuic
tbtaqpve arodmimi
Onbedi dmAspu
toontiue,two, %u'. a sixz
rota ortu mayla
she tail
pitching momts. Howeve. when She CG asmve standit
%e winsixg
aio, corrpmW~- s ato ineto
th
aft Ike centrifugal ente~ring moment (tennus raicket
'Z4k
At ra.
Ae
e.Atm-W mfeunyi
efa) maybe inceasd and the 4mAuited nie. in
sydlit also my be found. Asiaryofti
smaui, moiest may 1W occu. Aother method OF
sion sources is ashown in Table 5-6 (from Rde. 59).
emo isby ug bom.In
d pichm
ham~g
Guideline for ;Aacemnent. oft51wtal rotam natssal
boo.
haadl that pisthinbostmays by ingaor
firequencies have be=n denelcped (Ref. 59) and are.reio- tookaio bWO my hOn ~ti
SicopemI
SooAtai datrin
respnse
vihaio modesn
15 Hz~.
Sold becnidrd
S-*A TAIL ROTOR PERFORMANCE
2. Thc na.&nal frmwicnce. of the tail rotor htotdG0
wku
an bw hem
rotor
Once she sIlIW
not be coincident with, nor Sn eo.w ptouiiity ?to, anyShn performusce can be eanimated for the zer velodexciting farce firriqtwiecie for steady-state optrating
ty coadition by usin ate sme promdciuus as frw a
with the excjta..
coifoa inc
hovering main rowo (tee par. 3-2, AMCP 706-201).
-

tion sources shows iri TaW.s 3-4-should be swa:idaS

for at kni th form two modes.

*
TABU:L-1
Additional daisof the placement &tthcs.' natural
AERODYNAMIC CHA.RACWIRISTIS OF
froquiencics m-iy be found in Rdf 59.
SEVERAL AlIRFOIL S*.CTIONS, SUITABLE FkORruin
ldn
TA~kROTfl
ADI2IYh
inc"Auizon of' the firsa four lowest frequency
moda (au1-of-p!kanc and inplanc) is sufficient to
etatady-stata rotor behavior. The aerody-

AA111Oil.

CI'4**reprtwait
1 58
0
1 78
-0015
1 67
-0071

_____

NACA 0012
NACA 2J)12
NAL(A 64 412

natnic blade loAds may be calculated by classical

techniques,

MuCOMPE
NOSE

with the local blade segment aerody-

narnic coefficient defined as a fraction of Mach

numbe and angle of attack fer the c;Iuserating
condition (see par. 3.2, AMCP 706-201). The efkcL.
of induced velocity, Prra1ri rotat, velocity, fin intfr-

--

and elastic flct-i~sck velocity. as appropriae. must be included to obtain tist proper overall
Ic.rence,

s.ATING
U *AWENT

loads.
TABLE 5-6 SUMMARY OF TAIL ROTOR
_XIT

T~~~_

COMPONENJT

OF CF

[IO

____C

F8EOUENCIES

TSOURCE

NEAIEAIVSOTWK#Y.

IPITCHING

AEFEJDYNAMIC

/O&TSTEADY

UNBALANCE.

flbilr

OUT-O)F-TRACK
STATE
5XEDSYL-TEM

fi"

INPLANE
lt

.4;EXCITATIN
S-3. Com rtlemi for Negfuth Pucibchn
mtammal With Cadvj Aq-e
Aft ilal (C

IFIANSIENT
FIXED SYSTEMINI

INPLANE

ibiW,

EX
C;TATION

'Xefrt

BLADE MODE

I~

.,

OUI-OF-PLAN'E
IP ~
N

OUT-OF-PLANE
MIi
H10
AE)ECTION
________

INPtAN*
1'x-o.PLN

4k

S41.73 Emb Sfiuua, Assi.el

When blade sections. stiffnes, and man dlistributiavg have been selaqed and the externally distri-suted Iceds calculated, the neat task is to establish the

integrity of the blade. The internal strain

qmacy or tbs Loom. in torsi. was omiplid to the

ch-ag in rotw thrum due to lhteral vulociy (6flet)
was eleoauuaamd. The
so that negative dqmpi
c'hi'p ta tail rowo thrust due to the amotio is pro"60441ona tohashfila1ppiNg b &andlths pMb.*-fiw
COUPhmq tan '1- Item
WOfaed is this ma tat" aMW
Live k was the best way to damp the sysuma. This type
of problem can be avoided only through c"~efWl canskeato ofhe dhelicopser. cmiao Ucm

There ar. tkvo gencasiateigories of design loadin

wonlitions c -c;sidercd in bin-kdesid-p. ultimate comditioms and !fligus coditions.'Ibe blade mus have
an ultimate sirenth "4% greater tin the highest
pea load santicpaWe durnng the lifetime -3( he
sysiem. The bklr~e also rnuat have fatigue satength
snjfflcient tc pre~vent a failurt 1= La alacmnatinj loads,
I~~~Uatpence has shown that fatigue 'salnly is the more
uaiticul design condition.
Inma
analysis a spectrum or atigue loads and
tie:, expecte6nmrc focurn.*i the lifemtim
oftkLet~c~' sdvlpd h sdrvifo
!.tr;ir
l nnucl tFL
bulair'c, climbs,
T.%*s,;,'
lostr. gadl ground-airgrotril c,,cla (sz. Chapter7 4. A MCP 706-20' and
Chapi;'
Ahife ;)-W203).
The fv, , stxcpnlh of the cuy.;paw,nt ucencraily it

54-7.75 Fh~ase d DhwssMEu

Tail rotors arm no scaled-down main rmuors Thur..
fore, fl'atter and divergence problems gasally an
not as severe as for the main woanes. Usualy. the tai
rotor Wlades arm much stiffe then those us main
rotors due to fth opeasting eaviroomeat. Also, the
relative inertia. as exprissed by Lack number, is of
the order of 2.5 times that of' temiror.Fnly,
aspect ratios of tai rotor WilJes are azuch lower.
Although these fmactrs reduce the tendency toward
flutter addivergence, problems with tail rotors have
occurred, so the proper combination of 3 mad pitch
linkASfiffnee Watut be iV,,' 11W InMeaddeam
for the main rotor (par. 3-4) and the data in Ref. 59
mnay be used to determine the design details necessary
to eliminate this problem

structural

(streWl distribution among the elements of the blade

is wemputed: the resultant stres Levtls are compared
with allowable iewels th~at test anid/or experience have
shown will preclude failure during the life of the sys-

tr9A

cr

I
~~,

4,

.-

given at, i_1 '>tt 4 a S-NI -rivn dcneuive from test

date. The rngnitudt ai~d shape of the t~rsrve art a
function of material, stirs
v ilichtaui'sW1, en Amonmental conditions, and magnitudt of conuurrent
srejadl inrcss.
The influence of steady stress on ftiti4,,;m strengt
m.a y t& considerrblc and m'jst be coansiderd in
fatigiuw analysis. In tail rotor bK~ts, the eleady &za
generally is equal to the altcrrt.narj sMtrcc, a t.
reduces the allowable alternating strews by aprroxiniately 20%, depending on tix. mat~ia.
As with main rotors, tail -otor blader dt'ign i! ""iterative process of developing a blade with adcqvcer
aerodynamic, physical, and dynamic chaxactus!ics,
and fatigue integrity. If, at any stape in the dra3ign
process, an inadequacy is de'aced. the design process begins once again uintil all required chatacterustics are achieved.
5-9.7A4 Auroeastfizlty
Problems due to acroelasticity have been en.
couaterecl in the installation of tail rotors. Thesn
problems have -esulted in undesirable flying qualities
at bipb speeds. An example of susch a problem,
termed "tail wagging", was encounterted on an expenimental helicopter. The rotor was mounted on a
fin that projected atove the tail boom. A natural fre-

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SoadO~
Disk Lioains. NACA TN 3690,
Aptii 1956.
3. K. I- Licxltcu. "Srnrt Aspect of Convertible
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.i, R. 0lson, *and %.J.Landgmebe, A
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"531

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UN
Ok
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AW
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I.
doiktotoclladsotiouaoW
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the
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T.
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n
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t5.

36.

0t.

lB.

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K.

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FbwE
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on"VW
Dynam
I.
1
W
1-t...
AW

MX'ma

%J.M%.um
nnutaa

aaq

1908.
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32. Evan A. FraderJ~urh and Riclt~rd Mi. Segal,
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~soi,fort
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35. K. 0. tAct and F. B. Gufafa.. (bAnf4 LaNot".o( LawjfAdwd Slattay De~jv iai4a
ltiakeper RA~ in Fumed #~I&. NACA TH
2309, Wasahiagou DC, bLeah 195l.
36. A. Omaaow, Eymuams and Precalns fer

50. J. C. Houboft and G. Owoo.\ tW~man Eqssfl,awe

fmuc. Chw~i:sma of Medsiaf 4
%wd Aw&V. a4d Train f Twined Naulfn
basar Dliet. NACA TN 1346, Waebiqom.
DC, Februar 195-F.
Nannaiy CalwingftO Awre~pod (lar. S1. J. C. Ho.'h* Caspled 8adtq ad Twatae
acunitaedcs #1 ft~r Rena. NACA TN 3747.
Vtfewmuns Vj flwaV Rimahq DSwks w~for
Waebhqiou DC, Otober 1956.
Arbflwy Lna
IAS Preprins Nc. 539,
S7. Runul f.. luiquis, hddctzps Gun ktap w
Janufty 1333.
lWAdsdl Umsawdy Aen*%ade SUN EOfecu.
52. J. It. De~c and M. J. Turner,
ropewPe
YR 72-M, US Amy Air Mobility Retch anid
lutuC, iou-san or the Actomaaical Scimi
Developmnent Laboraloim. Eupia Dsrntuw;A.
Ilk No. 6 (June 1949).
Forn Eutsi, VA, May 1973.
53. Ii, A 1heertimd 4ppvacr to a Seed, cf .aE
38. John C. Kelngn and David L. Kidd, A Study 'if
Flwer h.ob4ma Cotmell Ordajut Sboaoo of
Tmvbdt-Poemvd aHmpelpr 4 flve Svaim lmnAAcronwtis: Eqinueriqg. AFO6it5 599 Juuu
hdlly, Poomefixw of the I.t16N Anne &. Nat6ona
1961.
hissing of the America
sl~icopvcc So(ciety,
54. F.a. Cauta nd C. Niebach. Pat WA 4aMeIA,
Washington, DC. April 1953.
Imitabidoy at lila Fensuwr puedr. Vdh. Ifl
39. SAE ARP-704, Heicopter Esgle/Reiwr Sysemx
Smil Rlaaer. TR t4-IC. US Anujt Aviation
Ceeupuadibty. Society Of Automiotive Eaesrs,
Ha4auiiiI Laoao~ Fort Evlik, VA, I'ruauy
NY. Jane 191%2.
1969
40. Josph L. Peakowtki, Aaaaowagic Contirolof Frre
is5. J. E. IM~er, The Sifta..' of Venom Poranwees.
Turbine Engines, ASMdE Winter Annual Mccetin.
lnduatq A~ich Nueesder,. en Puope &vDod
4 1. J. Shapilro, Pdflncles 9f Heilcopser,
McGraw-Hill Book Company. luc., NY. I1W*
42. AFDMA Simaidards, Soclion No. 11. Aetehogs of

'IC#~IFN
3357, Waahi..gon, DC, 1955.
3* S. G. B~, 'Popui-er Ftialncing Probk~hi&s,
SAE Jokircal, 53, No. I I (November E945).
Ewiluawdq Load Rwiotjs futw RAtes Jkmr
57. STPA i A, A Gaakk for Fcuigue Testing aadi Ac
AniFitinM igMaaofaaatrcrs AssociaS~wisekg! Analyxis of Fat/je Dta1c. Second Si
tion In.,
Y.lion,
American Scicty for Testing Matersul,
431. EetginteMVi M~ammaa SF-9O. Rolki Bering Corn1963.
pony of Ameiica, West Trenton, NJ.
58. .t. Rt. Lyiin, ct a;.. "4Tail Rotor !)esi1 0, part I44. AFUMA Standards. Section No. '4, Maethods of
Aroyaic"
unlofhemrcnHlEwe/eec:kmiz"
Rthic
Bal 14una
eans.An
Loa
Ameica
Friction Loadrwig Maafacturc
~
A~inss
cAnt:copter Society, 13, No. 4 (October 1971),.
FricionBeaiuSMarufaturat
sso~atoo,
59. P. W. R&.ke, et ag', 'Tail Rotor Designi, Part H2
NY.
Dnmc,'ournal
ofthe
45. P. Rt. Payne, Helicopnkr Dynamics an eiyAmerifcan ~~~- Struaursid
Helicopter Society, IS, No. 4 (Octobecr
nartsacs, Sir Isaac itMan and Sons, Ltd., LonwDnmco
don, 1959, pp. 361-36-7.
46. SAE ARP-926, Aerospce Recommended Prac.
60. F. Robinson, "Cmrront rThnaS in Tail Rotowr
lice De-sign Analysis PrceaAerrfo& adw Mode,
Design', Journal of the American Helicopter
Effects and Criticality Analysts jFMECA ), SocieS~~,3.N.4(ctb~ 7)
ty of Automotive Enguneers NY.
6i. R. J. Houston andi C. Ei. K.- Mowr~s, "A Note on
a Phenomenon Afl-cting Helicopter DirnctionaI
47. R. E. Pctersen, Ssresm Ccncernradion lesigr Fac.
Control irt Rcirward Flin&t", Jo'anal of Amertors, John Wiley andi Sons, NY,
ubao Hclkitipter Society 15, No. 4 fC-c~to-a 197e')
48. CAM 6, Rotorcraft A irwoothinecrs Nornoi Cote
v2. W'. Weisusr and G. Kohler, ToM ioior Desige
gory. Appendix A. Main Rotor Life I~ktermiwnnGuidc, Tk 13-99. US Army Air Mobility
lion, Frderal Aviation Agency,41ashington. DC,
kcscarch and Decvoprnicie Laborztorica,
Revised January 13. 1%62.
Januasy 1974.
4.J. P Den Ilartog, Mcs*ewcaf Vibratbm. Tirzd
63. N. N. B:fr 4 , "Rtzults of a Ta" Rotor fJ.0rcctionEditioi, Mrflraw-1i! lBoc-k Co., MV4, pp. 331.
of4-RCUto,'tts:t". Journal of the American Hcli'
owtc,
Ite',
K ... 2 (April192

5485

AAs"
cAarr~a 6'-

FLIGHT CONTROL SUBSYSTEMt

64UTOFSVM3OLS
U
-. roIZ tsaapi

duritaivo of rolling momeo

wade rqs to rai d"a ft4b/rad-c
4
dihedra ustability; duivatve OF realiai meWenft wiih rweplI to yaw angle. ft4lb/ia
1,
- roll anwue saditivip, dmntiiutxw of
moant MWa
Vsqua to Conro .q~,
ft-lb/ia.

aa
aI li n'-'

mI"dt
d

vh

erlniir
sim,%"hstrm-n

t liw
aimpty theiis
S
,guz, sheikihas bawia
stttuibbly
, M
W21 intomarunass
cofaw
Mated
doptu
SMCPt do
-Ill into S
k
ceqon
awulIo
that mussthumam folylow quift
ht[lo ie
b
lafluamo Of hudicogita Mobiity reqsdrwenss Visas

ggwt uAI h razwrs0

Sn

VA

mit.1 h

r.Ik/u

et.

No-yawast&Kbty; dsvaevccfyaswimgwnonmn
N4 with rejajsct to yaw an&P, ft-b/rad
N& -N YAW cn1trot asaaaasvitY; dMexnve Of Yawtug ntortueatwith arepec to control tDf4
ft~b/n
a -number of pitch lPus. dc~ncnionless
suj:nrnber of nonrmdundanz c'oapcocnta
i 3 having the. failulio rate: F,
', a numrber af r5uvidsnt womponcmis having
th. fuikerv rate P,
a~ -number
of norzrtundant cost piyAudnts

4-Ij. Poleof Dhpsbre

Ty; kelly, the prelimnmary 4meign msafts insa drbanilion of the flight controls and a first e.W"Lrs of
stabditlt augmcutauo:-i subsystem dwaaralristc teat
arm bdcived to be sufficient to permit cortspbaacc of
the licopter with the stebhisiy and earnzOl .ipcciFcto.Thcptjainminr dcakg dali. indu&4-con.
trc' kinenaitics as firnacs on rotor blade or aaadynamic control sbarfiicc trawl, gciecrai anraregivnt
of controlas, and mtdcbaaicsl &a-tx~s Tkc PAV'
limia try dcsgnKvL% as a base Point fromn which

.a.atrc iolaumse jrat

2
aLnuiarc. at redundant comnponents

dcAtvn akealswul arc proposcd for thc purjposc of amtpyovi'g ayste-in capsbilizy, relkitbilizy. m~aintainability, arnd cost. Thwu design alternatives then arm sub-

P
W-q

o
&

A
-CR of
oftaa No
mcp itch
dmpng duiuir ofsi
rag-eft
6-1.1 DOEON MEtHO
ae qse~d stabliy' duivativa of pisthieS hwcTn= aidrtrn .amrfacsur - &afte a IM ayes
Hant with Muuze to crwanl vdocKaty;
intqlrstoa of arirfmaze watrols, and uambiity amgft-lb/?Ps
matatio ssbisyama - should ooudaac iterative
ae jWiAt
saabdity; doaiVa~im of paitkz% nka'
and/or competitive trade-off studies. Thaci sadfis
AV~ ampa via tpers 0o pitci ansit, $A-b/md
will evaluate the purfoimace. cost. safey. roiabwilaty,
- ladA coaziol auiatv-Ay: dcnvative of
and maintrawnc charecteriatics of owe or sevarul
pss"u* W~tib il L nIVec
t onto
contw @systems as they relae to the mission maquime- amagft-b/in.
MM Mi
sthtPRhabilty qmWatioa. refute
i, -yam 'Sampiag dcrivativic of yawring H50to within this chapter.
S

6-1 GENERAL

Z,

havirig

the failure raw~P2

fcilure rawe of uajlrqgatc of c~omponents,
hr'nea~t.
resrp
vertica dtamping; derivative of verlica,
force with rerpet to vertical velocity,

Z& vcst~ical control sensitivity; dcrivativc of

%-erti"Ia forcte wih rcspect to contra;4 input,
0 - xjiafizWrwaton aout .yaxnd

a -kocd,
rotatoracl
radise

totetd to A Uad esAiifgff trade-off Mtud) Cos maniaTypical considrratioais to' 1w. rivvi.wtd arc:
1.ywii
The level of helicopter stability rcquirc-d. wvith or
without augmcntation
2. The paramet'.r& that should be controlled, and
3. The automate4 ta~.s or tutopilot, (plot relief)
functions that should !beprovided
init

swell as toexrnldsubcs

S. Th(.use

of

snl,,da-

rmlihn.

- qZMP
Imtrwfr40ac.redisMaccd
systems; augmenetation av'nuavr locaeo~i;
in)l00
(and-I
wetheraumu'
w
Corfroo ~mlcd/amc
Wtorparalle to the pilot's6 iit puts

4eu

AMN
'LCsMW qau AgiaC WkWUe 90 eMWUWga
frelsL
A
oflason cm a oaid a
Vapi
wtoo
rom is p1- issAd
MLOC-SI.

aquas10
6m83 SW

.-

rMW t
oth
LA1M

smaN.
AND

a -

lU

-e Mk- de-w%

SS

04bi dmmigMa, hqrne"

A.1

MiL-HAI i
imasdims Isw wbiA do
sablty o do
lbs huluer a" be wa mesd. lbe
fcwqans addkitlud passders to be Ac~e
hor em* awsud lms. qaphbmiis to.waasud MiSim
t. Co baits mn lbs wi4l. keefL Mmd InWO
ONOaAieS
dka5
o aShir .MOWgh musefif in
eMpurlee with aG&e pusMa. (CO linis. we.a
(1110COi..OalPs week htr mosmmtsied bel-.

-%

2.Allowable rotor WeS variationa

3. Fmatral load wdlgpusio.

" ")&Ys ias~
se dependw Won the- fa~ovs;
aim, &he heasieshsomd Is ovahiasac throaghous

"aP
MnadON
of wdis
do
eaht y hbdnpew tees qma
mn ph-m MqI
aissali MW a wa.n~
be-.les mise
Onimmbetm am
pnaga
fts Wediq. Uses MW P
e dugrma twa f lki
no"id
ai -m bs qadmu as vont 14
e n.'I
COrW"bee, ioke IkAa sAu8=4""
p'aw
- evalma& of smu/mA*M.e inosfi prsar
and uelabef of lbs Ayine qmAm pa@ fttw
S~eOf 111s pcssyM. Kt 1118 daMS. 0@u6soMS ie
tima for NpsWaaim of "i"Mus so amy gmenus
problem liadicusd by simletias. A msioita.
cupa4i of evaiseiia many avsa of lha cors ai
etmisd i to te 1.

W-. Compliacs wit sabiky qecifmcstons

A*oud be evvualneas and all the hates weighed a to

6-2

stability ckdarcteruans of the baskc, ~aaupmcnacd

airframe should be essablishd. The helicopter sysvem
i's liky to underg swany thanges in its anionic
controls but only limted airframe d~.p duna
*blf cce

OWatzd UdJin"e th Pio'a A&iY to cO"N" dbe

vaceadhimpta
ofis hursc
repnses to external daujten Of myal.Aw~
u rapidiy with
thes
amt the magninadec or tdo s95
which a steady attitude or trim is ujaiawm, ald t1K
exis16nc Of any cecil~lationh or lightly damped to.
Engineer work to quanstify the rtirg of
quialities and dynamnic stability so that, they
er t~e t ro vidruitur.: vehicA wpih afrnsmk
stability and to makc predictions or comparions for
existing helicoptesb. The latter includez prediction
with sufficient accuracy to Supplement fliht ttsting
activities and to expand the enajncee's uiosstanding of safety-$-flgbt topics..
,
6-2.1 CRITERIA AND METHO OF; ANALV'ha.S
The following list presents the isicre signiricWii,
topics relating to helicopter handling qualities:
I. Contnal poweti, sensitivity, and intcruis couplin;
2. Inherent or augmenitod static stability and
damping
3. Characteristic- ro,,ts
4. Type of automalat control sysW~a and vsntablas
'*;oatol~d
5. Fatsz feel
6. htgnitude of respose
7. lWAswv of cmoaalc uampoaaat uou stAbilty.

TOLSactions.
4-12 AALnCA

6-LIANAYFICL
TOLShandling

There ame two basic forms of matChmatcal reprcscts~on

ssesin or
veicl trm ad sabiitr
bWialt1-pcfiurbatiofl equations and total-formcqut-'
tions.
Tie typical skazii-petnusbation equations noted in
par. 6-2. A MOCP 'I4i-20 1, expedite the atecalinent of
stability at one flight couditkiv, and can incorporate
nonlinear control loops -tcadiay. These cauations also
are adeptable to paremnctric studies wsing analog or
digits! computerm.
Total-force equations con.plctcly de~scribe tkt absolutt forces acing uponi the bdlicuptc. Howeve,
tisty require & rather l&sIc codapiefielit or either
anaog Or idita computCr 'equipm;Au for thei; aolu"sIo.i7s typte of solvtiof. is nwussary wheft invesigaiq larige variations in fli~gh. conditions ic.,
speed, attitwfr ard lazgu "h sagA.
Windj tutnne tesint, shou4 L..- conoufta. it] crier
to reine the mathematal woe.. Insatnatioccoo_
comnin aodYasMic cisaurwactrm o, Se faqW

STADIJTY SFI1F
,

di

ATUON

ve
F

MIL-4lM rfllw
d
ois
kabs gadidias 6Kr w
aabhahaqol buakk qlamaeliusal Cnyasaip. wis dos
spirmmita, bow~r. dos W Imm~
-Sauil)P pee
~doci dom dymamc Nabiliy beaoh .m~u le
in ebut
-mh
wW46
Am
-s
-tam
na
,-

<1

eauupamuy to ouzpk 7 aixoss, oreams embe ran

B9m wham.sh valmr
ot axis musiaty i ptnluo
SW tip W
IWL wb.
prrvsc - moosiis *w
yp.. of hukewpue smwamsa
*NOW device,. in auiar

hwhws
-

U U'

Cosidam

pasnn ta. bq.MvW sdhubapm

msAim eSlv~ia~ma, a6.6 web meiheds of sadl

0*, - n

inmm
ta pan$. apb kid"$n6.

6-iLl CSmb.

tawo ad tm~bg
6-4..I, Amid Ut0a*~. pi Omeats Jui Me~t
suautao axntr Paf ams Sto'q -M nau is for
z
aa~~n..ra...... &#a .l
aadvieaaalirts ahns(o.- Duncepiek kian
and1pi
WW to (Vk).'aist P1
-M

IPar.
1-

ar fISWbIaP

ftJ

wa

.wslb rclkauol Ruhamui

asa roan-COOLolw

dofOabserote prilmn yWny incang wish airpeed

wand/or wbids cosfatantaa vmarition. A Seine
iwtiraons assen with impeac to fth pick. yaw,. sod
asutods cons.auk Ft. 64I i&an illawastiamt of typia
for bs rCCl 6111s.
Can" fuAOoA" ac~dbedh
ho0 Cowin flyisg quialiy usafnrkticn exiss for
naLSicapaa rouarraft. Tharvkere abs psocurug
activity geneally specifes acme commpoW upof MILAI4SOI adMIL-F47fl sfuwboa off nimupud or load disaribuaaioa iamoul; the lift

VidLa vwalsalon tachSt

bowmAenas shown an abs
0fO9t
64.1.2 cbmacinilc b011111
chimns. Itiii oavemfl-t to Umtntf iMI faqweateod
Any mode if response ds~ccabke and/or directy
camsps. dut to saaaasiy aumnwueamatri s Mans ii
tW plout theme saunab- Wdalb ws.
catro~inblz by te plo shaft exhbit a level of 4yTh
&-ay diiu arnp
xnt
mjnati for
m~casksaility at kwnq--M to tatwupcaiudminMULNO; for V FL oiI lcumaiirma

1,
44
.4

tanaly.M4
S

as appitn

Thic
1as

tan. (u VFR. bu i
.
a wmaimuai requiremwnt for any

onkqiusitnni

sidn.

Vcnl.Al cornuiol senaSitivat) , bar- VeganWd iaolping Z, l~iCC-vit ure Fated in par. &5_3 AMCI 1%

8)

20i Thew: pana-iocicn arc fkxer. by pc.znnanc.. zon-I

sidtiaauow. unt,"c~ thc. as- samec. b) 411 Cm"atOn
vertit.;t au$'tiilai.4z is pwouably
controis. Ust
due to Lhe preset. tienu to iicotlscrL hove. -nulud

-.

lOTAL, AVAILABLE
-/
r

systems wlncn no.. Co01tr31lboops Weit rep .aa vet-II

tki caloq
YiCyAnd
post. -in. In hovem, thc thruwste
kv
0b3v*'4a
comnla"As

"PAL.

xi
Thur aba are rcquir~ianws for stabiizinga sud
responac mroilra as are not undler the diroct control of
the pl';ot, or ate controlled by himt only indirectly
stxch so by charging flight conditions or system settiags. Lxamples irickide modes influencd by stabdlity
augmerutation control loop coupling, potential scro-l
rnechtnLa! resonance, and external sling load dynarnic: Thcsc modes should mieet the MIL.H48501
cr..cri&, for applicable VEIL or lFt conditions, except
%-tw
cw MIL4I 8501 allows divergence er does
n 0 poirxy a criterion, some minimum tcnptablc;
damping shiould be designated (e.g., 0.03 damping
rtioh, which is the minimum for flutter in MIL-A-

vmisarmarnPiipaces a n..saxni upon the manaM

autinatatonloop S& t, including ant~ pies
~*masnnt
;gornpenantAoth, bincuuc high 5M in-m
dio.- ea'galu rat'., and, tkhcreiors asngic dia,
plwansuat a a gIvas. tinew These em"in ant. constrw~s~c #Acontrol sensiuvity san dampng ;urc%to.
the Dom, -all, anu yaw coratror xe in~p&. 6-3.1,
AM _P 140-2011. :ilth-,qtg flM0 sawng by thoic
criteria is not sufficient, sacnxq J *ektit ant~ysc..
this methaod does se cvi asa fir it estlante loi-ratm v~eaih*i -s
trul luu scim.tha~rr4a %
-4
for at-e4ud' alstroi loop, wL.4c..- im Kt e"Waln;d
for they sp'...dcatior. co~pfiiicg ay asnag tansies

.-.....

--

is-r,-m11
lei

cquas to thc rc~iprocal jft& wleruasi dnn 'piugTisla

lag, lot a cagL, helicopact istho6u,5!eW (4-.
[
m:').TWi IoI.S cru,.gL ro. p1.AilO0P.iO1 IAiLfI
woiklcof;c to be influenced hnl.ac.aiby~ a 50A a'
gicatcr lacdktaonM afta. cosafls.
For cmrtait lasva"ptt tyw IL0'u4.- uhi-rotot M
hides). utnt roatA iL&os.tas. effective. Asrcu of Woin.j&n51
muflunt thiugwhiai tOe fl4hs, .&vajs. Thivn~oa-. u

AILERON
NTRIBUTION
CO~

COTIAION
-

--

.-

-4

AIR$PtDV4 I

TycIlienoaterAa&FltirSiala
tc'sAo

Mal.-ptaM*. atasma
a **
psss
& cs uni
ti
tSh rm to ckaev haMma makpituc, aqma.
tofmoe-g
.dsptabW~s. o"4
4,

W-SM

nVi

wqhGood cdwA
s3e. Aposo

va
2f

b ea

StZ n toy doe hacuia

ofqWau~ow.
hie
h.ft
msloe m ak bofh
aim dazjsuy~ (and rus of cj chasauusain uma
la dpes.s of e ub%-csanoicre
in
of&
the b'
ecwi.is d ofs~d Cnwlio etw typeiu
of "i
chave
m
the
nl
fomauaus Jof rotkm
h
pn;lots
le
qmwac
f decy
modats
(msww o cW~iliuy

ti aa"had

TheN

ides
rou t
or to eis
yoi aeggw m

pmm ~

Wcaai

apmclno
3Ausaam
of
wrnqm hwn thoe dfmping
arpme msp ks
eto hom-icaltods os mfo
iaise withasurcins maq*fr theboam dicimatn.
Aa
Dasicpw rvAaamts
Ad
sky ausae mk as ih"
mudbosownd
4tb

ofv

napess, aThs. forehbul-

mpads botham
idnalotoathoin forw
B

hoV

roots ofderarely
Tileasc~i

for

mu
the
ho

ehil
oashtioe.

Rd-ight

nd

A caracteristic rook pact fo! an unaugnsented belicopev is shown in FSg 6-2. Yin venical scale i. the
dape na
sutSl 5cqu~Y or co
pan of the
root, dm left hal (uqatave samana) daesiptes te
sabl reel parL of the root with the time to kolf
amsipb.aw as scaled, and the rash. half (pou;idve

(Cocqwe Rating of 3-5) wiales the mbodal damviugis

greAter than 0.3. and wilt kopt a vauem of 0.3 only
whoa the frequency is thCae favs
worabls for a pvea
flight tea e4%C-utrhnt.
There ia no tarsea value for the shout-persod
natura f~raiucnq; t"a mvt be estabhlshd best an

Riantap mngnumao a umakawaa hi

8"uoauvnass
RAM

'10066'"Mu

wits

uunyn.T5

aaanU %ii. a UWSc

WC%"V

tiant to aouWablisp-uaatu a=mu.ud

limits, however, because mnaeanog the frequency

tfhU
boamitay lane satiety Lot apanifkmaei4 L-ttcria.
Systck damping rs-tac, sac i6thtr
tWe undau claas
r *aompv;. natural frcquauwcs of die
plottd root.,. mo ubz-airiaalct. Tilt unaaiaped naka..
squecnq &~as t&kLmzaaitud. of the rawutu vattroa
Exir onen..
aaLA or coaippacr soi.1aiuns oful't
4
equauons of moutin may bie I iouted c -. zely 4i. thai
forma- so as to inGlioat systcnr. proxtm. Y Ca aupe: 4lncaoix limit. taperinieaLsi data Art eama~wd eafler
uiaag a step res~ponse and extracting .be dampnz.g
arnd frscjuenc- illy asumarag a second-ox;car systum,.

There eAi be noob*-6somtzc Ejc~ .~aracteriuti

attributabk to poor speed sability (pttxgi3id mode).
Any long aperiodic or krag-ptriud (gwrthan 10
sac) os.hatory divergecrim, Wallowa4K k, 111C Present
MIL-H48S0l, compromise speed stability s.r.d thus
p-aoc al. aidded workload ont the pilot., Sdic-t-fixcd
qi *tistability demands that all roorti cxhi~rtstable
de :oping. Helicopter lateraj-directional fitsscit y
nit s-ww gencially exhbiti toi suheidenhne, aprvai, sahi

or by aaawloLj.nampatcr matcmung.

two or mart: frequtnci-s in helieu.ptcrs with lateraC

Tht seczzca..oroi

1by

2';TypicaiA

DL. it roll modes simls~tr

to

those of fikxed-wing aii-

CUa-. The spizai and Dutch roll modes may ccciii at

ploas are shown in F4. 6-2 1ci a range da nit

xi ubility adgincntaticn.

aW5$*spd kitnlou.nver to cruiing. ip.i. Ir. ww'c tat

alosinglor cavrn ul
uns
ampinuL
axniue nap~ud..
* henctope
se toumaie
aia smle anvrge..
t~eintidi; rue.. As di!.. auaxpeed iiaz.cascs. At sing
rcr,3t movem to the riahi and b-ew~mti. a divni s; wa
r.
wwnfl the; other oscillator> root becomes swaM! atas

R. dlsubssocaccx as ain ?qxtrio-i reapvnsc. with tilt

bot co;nsia-i1 set primarily by tlic amount of roill
m; As The hi,;hez the damping, tab showie~r the

dpaeun.i:~freqefi).

Mixt cons .ar. Tile reqJartsncnt for mininiman datmpn4 is sct by MIL-ti-50l, e.g for a typical, light
($Yl)Vehicle unicta 1FR ~oiiditions, the require-ica.ii~a C 3-se. tume conutawat. For cargo hell-

T~s.ac R-Aqaed Damnping

Ma2t.2
The mA5pagb ji ltufan
i
for citner VFR or ILk

ir. L xh of I sec. Test results Iron. a nap-of-the-earth

(11,41 t),.cai Of A wt-por. CArtconnaisseraice heli-

phatioiiaime.imataw=. Thi adnipngqrakV

Wee a"GWL
;A oliQVUA;

0ptz:r. the IUS 1peuficatiog allows time constants

-t

auu I

0 2a.

bts
rollcniEnLfrmC3t

nd uppllletal ataortro- 4*stro rexmware

1. maial3,wel-do~w
eouar les ikey o *tk inRes. ad 3 Te vlu o rlldamping

F4

fl,

12

0.8

STABILITY BOUNDARY
VFR-MIL-H-5501
SATISFACTORY THIS SIDE

4:
>-0.

0.7

1.4

0.6

-1.6

0.5

2.0

~j-0.6

3I

RADIUS EQUALS
UNDAMPED NATURAL
FREQUENCY

z
0.0.4 -2.5

0.3
*

STBE
Cos-'4
art

tA

HOVER

0.2

4.0
,5.0

0.1

__10

pi06lkt

N 12D kt

-"3

-2

=
v"co~n

".

+1

REAL PART OF ROOT

STABLE
STIM

d20

TOHAL AMLITDEsec
TIMETO
ALFAMPLTUD,
Figur 6-2.

sc

10-.0 10.0
c

UN UN~ALE
A

DOUBLE AMPLITUDE

Ota~racedestic Root Plot

can be asese more effectively by the roll subsididnce thmc constant. For missions requiring agility,
the timid constant should be minimized, ccr,sistent
with other factors such as pilot accelaertion environ-

loops needed in order to reduce this time constant.

Because of"the obvious requirement to minimize time
delays, any lags in roll control azctuation also should
he reduced as much as is praticablec.

ment and lateral pilot induced oscillation (PIO).

In the twt rfercnct-, the low roll time constant
ws obtained with a ri$jd-rotor vehicle. However, the
same response =n be obtained with a conventional,
articulated rotor with stability augmentation. Root
and trimient anialymt can indicate the augmenuttion

At speeds above 40 kt, other lateral modes of the

helicopter are comparable to those of fixed-wing aircraft. Unfortunately, MIL-H-85O1 presents no VFR
stability criteria. Poor, and even unstable, Dutch roll
characteristics can occur with MIL-H-850 com-n
pliance. Por Dutch roll stability under conditions

-a

MM
re r" Wsim
N WANdi Oag polwuts
fidr
v
hu-m .ean the pilot. The mpoiemessW

sid
1obe
M":.aiaews
M- Mam.
(WIntaq the aft pyle.) i the principal aces of in-

and DS* rol ased in pur. 3.7.4A mad 3.?7.$ of

Rdl. 4 shoeS be ueed inite. Thu an i6iwir io

pom

Saued-sing upedflcsiona, sod am. be ma with rodirsnairy nbilft arefsfao. Amy coWqn if Ow
MWW gn44 sassmad ."awednds (rdeoammwoy
a "ateral p1qcd'
rImNN to - a "qWiral-W
mode) omd as be i
" by the pdlo.

for sms-rar voces.

6-2.1.3. Veim of husman

Tb. ra of added Abit g eqm
ussia uo
Un
ni 's moft Smd be eiewe thoougallyo
m eroot pots.q"Mw jy w* sWiad to
down.ism aaynuica pis, soin eoatas air-.
so othe flbs conditis Ths iiwms~ata
"1i1i3
hh0~e Abba, Snhhy
will help ave tmin aid coo by hadieia
rieas of
Th mvAagied (imbmra)
ailky of th bhecreed suibly an roam wheo uablit too moocolpe aO be oaioodwWfly
o e
wih ziect wb
SeM t"W 'Mn
S Pwu&Stw WAS
U Px plo formats imuoinas to dee amt
awonlgendw saad fRgh uewvlape boits, evn shoog
I. MSine hebuopsar a airuqass. ateritical groa
is planned Thiis a smwey bWarv
aaqecusio.m
aitusion cam mae w which &aqansic as
e wighlts and as bash etrsm of thOCG roaoa
failuen requjir ta

-"

to fly only with she minest

-wd

2. Pause hdoeul'er WsuM aispoeked. as i

lhaw 1.

vehicle abiliy. A oo-Ocliwaem and pwrfcsM

ip trade-off exists banwe the
a -ef e

but at the upper bom deisted for tLh sinna

3. Helicopte with stability aupagaioe for the

des of flighMt eo

conditions -

sys&

ophuii

on ad
M fae

Itsms I &d 2.

dre of ishemt nauility provided ky tshe lsic hblcopes Oefignion. In efCting sad a tads-off

-systemu

6-2

Typ of CadW

.atdy. the lad of stability required under failure coo-

The types of nubiity sugumetation applicable to a

ditiomw
! be defiwd siance it may be ubjec to
variaion with he flht control symem concepcua.
For c
,, ie_
oa
eL.aa-

given design vary i the parameters they control and,

Iurdoe in how the aid the pilot.
Co
o.... .

ships between augrmtation sophistiaion and inhen stability:

I. A reliable, multiredundant augmentation
ca tolerate a significant degree of inheen~t in-

1.
2.
3.
4.

Rate
Attitude and trim
Altitude and/or airspeed hold
Heading

stability. A vehicle so equipped, however, m,'y not be

capable of flight with all augmentLion switched off.
2. A sigle-channel augm,nit.on system will
require inherent vehicle stah.'" ty suitable for cmwpliance with the VFR requi'mements of MIL-H-&SOl
under augmentation system failure conditions.
3. A dual-channel system will require an inherent
stability level somewhere between the first two cam.
A hardover failure of one channel (while operating in
the normal dual mode) can produce a vehicle
response that causes the remaining operating channel
to experience a saturation in opposition to the failure.
Such a failure, with inherent airframe instability,
results in a rapid divergent vehic!e response, whereas
the vehicle response with increased positive inherent
stability becomes slower and more easily controllable by the pilot,
A method for improving the inherent longitudinai
stability of single- or tilt-rotor vehicles is the addition of a horizontal tail; "differential delta three"
(rotor blade flap-pitch coupling on the forward rotor)

5. Hover position
6. Special augmentation.
Rate controls provide improved damping of all
augmented dqrees of freedom (potentially six, including three linear and three angular). This type of
augmentation aids the pilot in coping with the shortperiod resnonses. but does not prevent Ionhlterm roll
drift and possibly a sluggish or unstable speed hold,
even with a stable stick gradient.
The addition of attitude loops and trim functions
(such as lateral accelerometers and speed-hold loops)
aids the pilot by providing long-term trim-speed hold
and strong sideslip roll attitude and pitch control.
The pilot then must provide only the power setting,
altitude, and heading control. Finally, the use of
altitude-hold and heading-hold removes the need for
pilot input to the controls. Hover-position hold
loops, and controls designed to impart stability to cxternal sling loads in forward flight, are examples of
special augmentation controls.

can te used with tandem-rotor vehicles. Lateral-

6-2.1.4 Trashet ResponMe

directional stability improvement is afforded by the

tail rotor and a vertical tail surface on single- or tilt-

The characteristic root analysis only partially describtc the handling qualities of a helicopter. The mag-

646

mMW

usldlimmbemcs
I
also mot be desierld.

For- p

casur

impsabs. cn

kdL Tale 6

seaskivity

m uirmess age Sim by MN5L-14501 for &Nbutthe

"eic aaL

Sineaomphmiua"

wt

w09

deani of stabil"t aqimsmmaai oao- which may

ad to in abs eosaiit.
This e(ba m
bs overcame by the incprpasion of coNtr ol t
hmd-Isad awamnsIL TlS aP
uS ol
0
a-s um of ho-pi. mssaic fim
Smn

mama so steral ditanmce, but also provide

dsh de d astivisy to
t
in addition to apfltmmi. for oliwtudiaal aew
r
vol sensitvity. MEL-H-US I0pents a evamisso for
manever sabiity. It stats that, following a
qd
sep inpu, the accusatwio and p-b rate
a
Awk be cwa
downward and canvsrgmto
no
usm
than 2ec alter the mtart oflte input. A bort time is deirad for attaining a abaEnd valut of nmeleratbiwospoci lly whse inanevering capabiity is estial to the muia . Anallses
can indate methods of maximizingthis per-

aye1ser

ft.a

na"ae

feed-forward and loop closu.

'

%Nmwanminnc nfl

Such analysis should

include any significant structural dynamics. For

xmmpl elasticity of the -oo mounting cause a
major increase in the time required for the response
to become concave downward (Ref. 7).
"Italso is deirabit to analyze the tranient response
to pulse imputs. This response will indicate the helicopter behavior in turbulent air. An asseasmet of the
attitude time histories. snd the time interval required
to reamire the initial trim flight condition with
alternate stability augmentation schemes, is
ing some form of pilot control reed-forward, the
pulse should be inserted downstream cf the augmentation system so as to simulate a turbulence encounter ,c.nce pilot pulse imput into such a system is
not equivalent to an atmospheric pulse.
In addition to the transient response analyses
noted, transients associated with the following
maneuvers should be assessed with respect to SAS
authority, control margins, and vehicle capability:
1. Jump takeoff
2. Rapid acceleration from hover to maximum
level speed
3. Quick stop
4. Autorotation entry and recovery
-5.
Hovering turns
6. Pedal-fixed turn entries and recoveries
,7. Fixec ollective, constant spend turn entry and
recovery,
The characteristics of residual, limit-cycle as-

pres-s. a ast of SWcwae limis for

- by a dim

w.

Fig. 6-3 is a gmphical pImssanom of allowa

-*

iatfr
naa 7%u WMuriMM 1 ninsit S*moish the bigh-lrequacwy houto ansuola
ras sntablibs 26
ifrIsy
rane and andisplaces sKablIb the likOW-frequec
mi

611.9 O
Fman
e stability and contral requirements qcified our
ivod for thUe hliaopa eqamenIt the design ob-

jecaives for the flighot

arol ay~stis Therefore, each

potaet
flight control systm dmgn muss be inveiated to iumm that ma
doe not violau tho
operational rsqummirmsm. ODA&. a tability a&
metMAtio

syste

will exhibit sadsactory per-

tonmnae for mmall-perturbaaion maneuvers or disturtanes, but will impai vskid. stability severely
duein lag disturbances and atmosphei turbtmlem because of its rate-limiting or maturation
aka...

k
.. hnm
e
tt
tabish the a operational
limits of the flmit
control

system through analysis and exp4riment. If the

system limits vehicle stability, it must be reconfigured appropriately in order to assure; spedfrcation complianc. Flight conditions for which such
studios must be made include high-rate vehick
motions, regions where stability may be cntstive or
highly nonlinear, and turbulent air.
The influence of flight control system sensor outputs upon vehick stability also must be considrrmd
end monitored in order to assure proper design and
a pitch angle sensor in a bi-4y axis coordinate system
will in',oduce significant inter-axis coupling at large
bank angles, because the gyro operates in an earthaxis coordinate system.
The effect of atmospheric or self-induced turbulence upon helicopter stability and control requires
significant attention. A vehicle that has satisfactory
handling qualities in calm air may exhibit large attitude and rate response., including poor speed hold,
in gusty air due to poor modal damping or to control
loop nonlinearities. Response to atmospheric turbulence shall be evaluated over the entire flight onvelope. MIL-F-8785 provides critejia suitab', for
gust analyses in cruising flight. Attention also shall be
given to special operating requirements, such us an
external cargo hookup, where gusts or wind shifts
often increase the demand upon the position stability augmentation system.
Many nonhslicopter rotorralft are subject to ata6-7

ANCP 7W~202

bility degradation from self-induced disturbances

closn to the ground during hover or low-speed
operations. This phenomenon, often termed "skittishncss". is believed to be caused by the rotor wake

failure but the vehicle characteristics must allow safe

entry into this condition. During entry, the characteristics of the vehicle shall provide a reasonable pilot reaction time from the point of power failure to initial

reflecting from the ground and rcimpinging upon the

fuselage or wings, or being rcingestod as rotor inflow. With tertain combinations of vehicle con-

corcective action (I soc minimum, 2 sec desired), and

should permit a pilot of average ability to maintain
control with adequate margin. Once stabilized in

figuration and flight operating variables, this re-

autorotation, the vehicle should be capable of mild

coto ytmis fietosprssktiheste

desinermus
hatsatifacorystablit
insre

su-

mentation adcontrol margin levels arc produced.

t
TABL
MAINIJM
6-.
APLIUDESOF
LIMIT-CYCLE OSCILLATIONS
________

with

________
________vchi:les

OSCILLATIONi
414k

NITTC
-IF-8786

L,.IIEAR
ACCF'.ERAT!ONS

ThI,J"1

85 1,.1-949

M114-876

MIT T-9

AEA

00
VERTCAL-n

proverrents.

5 and 6 describe the difficulties of obtaining a

SAA2

auturotation.

Mit 4 -C7R

................

.-

Interaction of stability augmentation system

Magnitude of control trimi change resulting
coilective pitch rcoucioao riC4Cb~d~y to C1isiw

ting the average pilot's ability to efltct the autorotation maneuver, and of defining potential im-

'DiSIGAD
HLI_OF IR F%'I"ENIRefs.
FO PUE

Bufieting due to wing wake

.00

12 9

OSIAIN

II-I

3. Flapping and blade clearance with reapcect to the

4.
5.
6.
irom

USALI-54

M!L

fixecd wings

2. Restriction due to blade stress limits

AT[NS
ANGui AR
fAT

-OSCIL[

AXS

falblwaaevlu.including that needed to maintan hdralicand electrical power, during entry into
autorotation. Other factors to be reviewed in connection with thiis maneuver are:
1. Margin of control power available to overcome
disturbances, especially near zero load factor and for

~\
~

Figure 6-3. Allowable Pitch Control System

Residual Oscillations
6-2.2 AIJTOROTATION ENTRY
Most low-disk-loading helicopters have the capa.
bility for stabilized autorotation in the event of power

satisfactory time delay in the event of total power

failure at an airspeed near 200 kt. With dual engine
installations - where the probability of sudden,
simultaneous (less than 2 scc) failures is extremely
remote - it may be reasonable to consider only
singlec-ngirie failures.

6-2.3 SYSTEM FAILUJRES

When a stabilitv augmentation system (SAS) is
used - whiether it is electronic, fluidic, or mechanical
the potential hazard of a hard-over component
~failure exists. MIL-H--8501 requires that the pilot be
able to delay a corrective control input for 3 sec
without the response exceeding an ar~gtiar rate of ~0
deg/sec or a 0.5 g change in normal acceleration.
The influence of flight conditions and CG position
upon the severity of the response to an SAS failure
should bc reviewed. Frequently, an aft CG position
:oupled with flight operation near the blade or rotor
limits is the most critical situation. Stress levels upon
recovery ftrom a failure may be an additional factor in
the ability to satisfy the failure requirements.
Responses to SAS failures can be reduced in
magnitude by the following meahods.-

AMCP 706-202
I. Reduction in augmentation system authority
2. Increase in inherent airframe stability
3. Multichannel redundant systems.
Selection from among these methods during the
design process is done after due consideration of the
other flight control system requirements such as per
formance (especially the authority needed to meet
gust and maneuvering requirements), reliability,
maintainability, and cost.
Failure-effect studies, which note the consequence
of each component failure, should be conducted in an
organized manner. These must identify:
I. Any failure that cannot be tolerated, such as an
oscillation due to loss of feedback
2. Any compromise in control margin
3. Failure causing multiaxis response too difficult
for the pilot to control
4. Ability of the pilot to switch out failures
5. Consequence of subsequent failures.
As an example of Item 5, after the first failure in a
dual system, the remaining system must niect the
failure criteria or the flight envelope must be restricted so as to meet the failure requirements.
Pilot-in-the-loop simulation is a valuable tool for

pushrods, to both the swashplate and the blade pitch

arms. Cyclic pitch input to the blades is the sum of
pilot control input and stabilizer bar teetering motion. Viscous dampers, connected from the stabilizer
bar to the rotor shaft, control the rate at which the
plane of rotation of the bar and rotor follows or lags
the tilt of the roter shaft. This lag in tilting stabilizes
or damps the helicopter pitch and roll motion. Additional data may be obtained from Ref. 7, and pars.
6-2.4.3.2 and 6-4.2.1 of AMCP 706-201.
6-3.1.2 Hiller Servo Rotor
Another early mechanical SAS is the Hiller servo
rotor. The two-bladed, universally mounted, underslung rotor has a gyro bar fastened to the hub at right
angles to the blades. On each end of the gyro bar is a
short paddle blade with airfoil cross section, whose
pitch is controlled cyclically by the swashplate. Cyclic
pitch imparted to the servo rotor tilts its plane of
rotation, resulting in a cyclic pitch input to the main
rotor blades. Stabilization results from the lag in the
response of' the servo rotor to tilting of the rotor
shaft, and the consequent pitch and roll damping due
to the lagged response of the main rotor. Additional
ur u

ubtainud
in zci. a and pars. 6-2.4.3.

.......

U4*

impact upon detail system design.

and 6-4.2.1 of AMCP 706-201.

6-3

STABILITY AUGMENTATION
SYSTEMS
GESAS's.

Par. 6-2 contains numerous iz-fercnccs to stability

augmentation systems (SAS). Owing to the inherently poor stability of a helicopter rotor, satisfactory flying qualities have been achieved in many
cases by altering the inherent characteristics artificially Such techniques are celled mechanical stability augmentation.
The pilot workload associated with early helicopters was very heavy. The handling qualities
requitiments of MIL-I1-8501 have been developed
not only to reduce this workload, but also to increase the mission capability of the helicopter. The
result, however, is that it is virtually impossible to
satisfy thrse requirements without modifying the in.
herent characteristics of the helicopter with a rather
sophisticated SAS.
6-3.1.1 Bell Stablllzr Bar
Perhaps the earliest mechanical SAS is the Bell
stabilizer bar. A bar with weights on the ends is
mounted pivotally upon the rotor shaft at right
angles to the two-bladed, teetering rotor (Fig. 5-7).
Mixing levers are connected to the bar, and through

111n1y

6-3.1.3 Mechanical Gyro

Refs. 9, 10, and II discuss two applications of
intermediate-size (10-15 Ib) gyros in mechianic&l
The first, produced by Cessna, is a rete gyro
that is connected mechanically in series with the input from the pilot control stick to the control boost
actuator. This system acts primarily to damp roll
motions. The second, the "Dynagyro" by Dynasciences, is a two-axis, hydraulically driven unit with
rotating damping arranged sn as to align the gyro
wheel slowly with its mounting reference in the fuselage. Outputs of the gyro, i.e., its pitch and roll displacements relative to its mounting, are fed into hydraulic boost actuators that are connected in series
with the pilot's cyclic pitch boost actuators in the respective directions. This design is similar in principle
to the Bell stabilizing bar, except that blade pitching
moments are prevented from feeding back into the
gyro. The Dynasciences SAS also hicludes a
hydraulically driven rate gyro mechanically coupild
into the hydraulic boost actuator that controls tail
rotor collective pitch. This provides yaw damping.
No electrical power is required in either system.
Ref. 12 describes an all-mtchanical yaw rate gyro
for single-rotor hel.copters. The gyro, located at and
driven by the tail rotor, tilts about a longitudinal axis
in response to a yawing rate of the helicopter, and
6-9

AMCP 706-202
phase to reduce the d,:flection (Ref. 17). This concept
has not yet been developed fully.

mechanically changes tail rotor collective. Rudder

pedal displacement moves the reference poiat of the
gyro centering spring, biasing the system for turns.

6-3.2 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION

*S-3.2.1 Augmentation Requirements
it is virtually impossible for a helicopter to comply
with the handling quality requirements of MIL-H8501 without some type of SAS. Selection of the type
of system to be installed requires evaluation of the deficiencies of the unaugmented, or inhereny, characteristics. The evaluation criteria include both the
specification requirements and the requirements imposed by the missions assigned to the helicopter.
Refs. 18 and 19 discuss the tailoring of helicopter
handling qualities to mission requirements exceeding
those set forth ip MIL-H-8501. Par. 6-3.1, AMCP
706-201, presents recommendations for contrcl
power and damping.
High-performance attack and troop support helicopters require high control power in order to
achieve the necessary maneuverability. Good damp.
ing in rol!, pitch, and yzw also is required in order to
prevent the helicopter from being oversensitive and
diicult to hoid in a given attitude. Furthermore,
helicopters become more divergent at very high
speeds, with the result that speed compensation of the
stabilization system may be required. By means of
simulation studies with alternate helicupter/SAS
combinations, it is possible to determine a range of
gains for the SAS that will cover the extrcmes of
opetational requirements. During flight test of SAS
prototypes, adjustment capability can be provided by
means of calibrated potentiometers or resistors
(decade boxes). Final values for system gains should
be baqed upon adjustments made under actual flight
conditions duplicating those of the required mission.
The test program also will establish whether or not
the gains can be constant, or if they must vary with
flight speed, gross weight, or any other parameter.
For a smail obsevation helicopter, the requirements of MIL-H-8501 generally are adequate, and
the simplest mechanical SAS may be sufficient to
meet them.

6-3.1.4 Lockheed Coutrol Gyro

In later versions of the Lockheed control gyro, a
gyro bar, consisting of as many arms as the rotor has
blades, is mounted universally upon the rotor shaft
above the rotor hub. Pitch links connect each arm to
a pitch anm cn the following blade. Push rods also
connect each arm to a point directly below on the
swashplate. Sp,-ing capsules in the linkage between
the swashplate and the control stick enable the pilot
to exert a moment upon the swashplate. This moment
is proportional to stick displacement, and is transferred to the control gyro, which precesses in the appropriate direction 90 deg of rotor rotation later. The
tilt of the gyro results in an input of cyclic pitch to the
main rotor blades. Rotor tilt and fuselage tilt follow
because of the relatively high flapping natural frequency of the hingeless blades. Additional data about
this system may be obtained in Ref. 13 and in per. 62.4.3.2, AMCP 706-201.
6-3.1.5

Electrohydraulic SAS

In order to achieve acceptable handling qualities,

many helicopters use electrically driven and sensed
rate gyros to measure rates of pitch, roll, and yaw
(Ref. 14). These rate signals are amplified, shaped,
cross-coupled where appropriate, and fed into lcctrohydraulic servo actuators in series with the conventional control boost actuators.
6-3.1.6 Fluidic and Hydrofluldic SAS
The fluidic SAS, which is operated by air or liquid,
is analogous to tke electrohydraulic SAS and may be
substituted for it (Rcfs. 15 and 16). The fluidic SAS,
with specially developed angular rate sensors having
no moving parts and with integrated circuits having
n3 external plumbing, offers advances in reliability
and significant savings in cost and weight. However,
it represents an advanced state-of-the-art, and it still
may suffer from problems such a3 leakage, temperature sensitivity, and nuii shift of the sensors.

6-3.2.2 Helicopter Size

The gcneral category of SAS, mechanical or
power-assisted, to be used is dctermined by helicopter size, Only the smallest helicopters can use allmechanical systems, because the rotor feedback
forces that the SAS must overcome are corrcspondingly small, In helicopters with power-operated controls (par. 6-4), the SAS need not operate directly
upon the rotor but can operate at a much lower force
levcl in the control system below the power actuatorr

6-3.1.7 Fsp'lup g Moment Feedback

Rigid-rotor helicopters exhibit strong noseup
pitching moments with an increase in speed or in upward gust encounters. One method of counteracting
this tendency is to sense the pylon bending moment
rind to apply cyclic pitch in such a direction as to
reduce the moment. If the pylon is flexible, its deflection due to rotor moment can be connected
mech-mically into the cyclic pitch loop at the proper
6-10
I

".L

- W '- ,

,,-

-,,.

. ..

. .

.:

.. . . ._

: ,

:.

. .

"

:=

. :

AMCP 705-202
(between the pilot's stick and the actuaton). In practice, if both hydraulic .ad electrical power are
available, the SAS gytos arm made as small as possible and their output signals are amplified (electrically
and/or hydraulically) to the power level required to
provide inputs to the control actuators. Dual or triple
electrcal SAS'i can be provided below the final rotor
control actuator with less weight than a single
mechanical system.

6-3.2.3 Type of Rtor System

It is possibk to use the Bell stabilL-er bar or the
Hiller servo rotor with rotor systems having more
than two blades (Ref. 20). However, some of the obxcure refinements or kinematic relationships necessary for the success of the system may be overlooked. For example, the orientation of the gimbal
pivots on the Bell rotor is critical in order to prevent
driving torque from acting about the feathering axis.
In the Hiller system, the amplitude and phase of the
feedback of blade flapping into the cyclic pitch control of the servo rotor paddles are very important to
the effectiveness of the system,
The Lockheed control gyro, which is processed by
forces applied thiough springa, is applicable only to
hingelems rotors or those with an equally high flapjoing natural frequency. In order for a flapping or
teetering rotor to exert a momeot upon the fuselage,
it would have tc, tilt relative to the rIotr shaft. To sustain this tilt, the control gyro would havc to be tilted
by an equal or greater amount, depending upon the
b
linkage ratio. This control gyro tilt, 90 deg out of
phase with the swashplate tilt, would alter the phase
of the maximum spring-applied force upon the control gyro, causing it to nutate toward the saahplate
tilt, and eventually to line up parallel to the swashplate. In the case of hingeless rotors, with their high
control power, the required amplitude and/or duration of control gyro tilt are too small to permit any
noticenable gyro prew ione
Inigeneral, whenever a rotor-mounted SAS is
modified from its origin form, an extensive pro....
grim of developmental and qualification testing is
necessary. The internally mounted electronic, hydraulic, or fluidic SAS's, which are more flexible and
less dependent upon rotor dynamics, are more adaptable to any rotor system. The electronic SAS gains
are adjustable individually in pitch, ro!l, and yaw
directions; can W. made variable with airspeed; and
can be cro.-coupled if eesired to compensate for
adverse airframe crou-coupling,
H
emode.
6-3.2.4 Helicopter Coafgraion
-,
ingle'rotor helicopters can be equipped with any

type of SAS that is compatible with helicopter size

ani the type of rotor used. This is because pitch and
roll attitudes both arc controlled by cyclic pitch inputs to the main rotor. The yaw SAS, if used,
operates by controlling the collective pitch of the tail
rotor. Thus, each SAS input to the helicopter control
system i3 independent.
On the other hand, tandem-rotor helicopters obtrin longitudinal control by use of differential collective pitch of the two rotors. Obviously, any longitudinal SAS will be required to change the thrust of
one or both rotors. Rotor-located, mechanical SAS's
- such as those that are used by Bell, Hiller, and
Lockheed and that affect only cyclic pitch - are not
adaptable readily to tandem-rotor helicopters. The
necessity for mixinL all controls from the cockpit of a
tandem helicopter before they are impressed upon the
rotor makes it more straight-forward to introduce
SAS control inputs in series with the cockpit controls before mixing. However, in large helicopters
that contain many linkagas in the control system,
even normal amounts of play in these linkages may
detract from SAS performance. Therefore, the SAS
output signals for the respective axes should be mixed
eicatricaiiy in the same mannvi and ippici tiOrt a" arc
the mechanical controls. Then the SAS control inputs may be introdu~xd at the input to the upper
rotor control actuators.
6-3,2.b Suppression of Structurl and Rotor Mode
Responses, Vibrations, or Gusts
Helicopters whose blades have an inplane natural
frequency below the rotor speed consequently have
high response to horizontal pylon forms at frequenhies of rotor speed plus lag frequency (
wt).
- If
que.c.t aorotor speedpus agvifrateon either flexible
or rigid body, has a natural frequency that is near the
aforemnntioned sum or difference, there will be a
tendency for annoying, large, transient reGponses to
gusts or sudden lateral control motions. In the case of
resonan=- at the difference frequency (01 = Wr), selfcited destructive oscillations can occur in the Wir or
on the round. In some cases, the SAS roll axis ha&
coupled with the r-sonance and aggravated it. Thus,
steps rhall be taken either to eliminate SAS res[ onse
to the mode or to make use of the SA3 in st ipressing it Unless a epecial design effort is mad,, the
total lag of SA, sensors, signal shaping, and actuators at the high frequencies of the transient oscillations is liable to shift phase respons, into a region
that caurts divergence rather than attenuation of the
It may be necessary to install separate sensors,
filtered to respond only to the pertinent fhequuncy
and then phase-adjusted so that the final SAS output
6-11

A'

7,'

_____-I....

AMCP 706-202
is at the proper phase. Both the SAS and the entire
control system must retpond to this frequency.
Ref. 21 discusses the theory that n-per-rev vibrations may be reduced considerably by suitably
phased control inputs of the same frequency. This
type of vibration suppression requires large amounts
of power, and shortens the life of the control system
considerably. If such suppression is to be used, the
control system and SAS frequency responses must be
approximately 15-20 Hz.
When dual SAS actuators are inserted in vertical
linkage, the mass of the actuators may induce small
control motions in response to vertical accelerations.
In a specific case involving the collutive pitch lever
with friction lock disengaged, the weight of the pilot's
arm coupled with the vertical motion of the hellcopter produced a sustained oscillation. Mass balancing of the control linkage and/or the use cf viscous
dampers are methods of curing these oscillations.
Gust alleviation by means of control inputs responsive to gust-sensing instruments still is undeveloped. Closely allied to gust alleviation is airframe load limitation by control velocity restriction.
However, the costrol requirements of the two tend to
conrlict iocau-. gust aaieviution requirv-x rapid conStrol rcspons.. Becaue both programs have as their
objective the reduction of airframe loads, the gust
alleviation system should perfonm the duties of both.
Ultimateiy, the SAS will include the fun~ctions of gust
alleviation and load limiting in addition to flyingquality improvement.
33SSRELIABILITY
The expr-ssion for the fa.lure rate P, of the
aggregate of components in a system, as shown in
Ref. 22, is
PA = ni PI + / -'\l 1+ n2P2 +(!L2

!"2, hr-' (6-1)

where
nr I

rtLumber of nomcdundant ct ;nponents

having the failure rate P,
-number
redundant components having
the failureof rate
P,

- number of nonredundant components

having the failure rate P2
n'2 - number of redundant components having
the failure rate P2
A mechanical SAS having fewer than a dozen parts,
all of which have a very low failure rate, is u!trUreliable compared with an electro-hydraulic SAS with
hundreds of parts. Oa the other hanm, the weight
penalty of providing redundancy in critical parts of
the electrohydraulic system ii not great. As seen in
6-12
n2

r-~-

Eq. 6-1, the sggregatc failure rate is highly dopendent largely upon the at-iount of redundancy,
given that the design insures that failure of one medundant component does not affeW the operation of
the other.
6-3.3.1 Safety
The designer must be cognizant of the influences of
the inherent stability level of the helicoptcr and its
SAS performance upon flight safety. Added stability
margins can improve safety during night flying, or
during limited-visibility situations caused by the
presence of dust or snow ,louds. During such
operation-;, the provision of improved stability levels
allows the oilot to cncentrate lesb upon flying the
helicopter and more upon other pilot duties.
The flignt control sys'em should be designed to
allow the pilot to detect or diagnose a failure, disann
the failed system, and effect corrective action. This
requirement may involve soine for- i of onlinc statusmonitoriag for the variouL control system elements.
Design compliance with the current Military Specifications does not preclude th,- possibility of inadvertent flight operationt with one channel of a dualchannel augm Izstion sy:ni inopcra.v. In this
type of failurt, the differenct, in flying qialities is
small enough to be undetectable by the pilot. Thus,
the pilot may enter a flight condition in which fail ,re
of the remain;ng SAS channe! cannot be corr cLed
within a Zasonable reaction time.
For certait critical situations, a need exiets for
automatic control activation. For vxainple, electromtchaniLal SAS links should revert automatically to
a mechanical lock if hydraulic pressurr is los. .This
eliminates the possibility that a sloppy extensible link
will create control difficulties while the pilot is attempting to cut off the failed system. Another exampie involves external cargo-handling or -lowing
operations, where
it may be necesry for the load to
release automatically if the applied moments exceed
safe levels of controllability.
The rerul s of the failure effect analysis (see par. 6-2.3 of this volume and Chapter 3. AMCP 706-203),
including any supportintz piloted simulations, should
be reviewed and verified 5y flight test. These re.ults
then should be incorporated into flight handbooks in
the form of wuning notes or flight restrictions for
various failure conditions.
6-3.3.2 SAS Faihnur
A discussion of SAS failure madu, limitation of
authority, and time delay criteria may be found in
par. 6-4.4, AMCP 706 201, and in par. 6-2.3 of thib
volume. Failurts of rotor-mounted. gyroscopic SAS's

"

j)~
are not discussed. These systems sAll be designed so
as to be at leat as reliable as are the rotorcraft primary flight controls.

6.33.3 F'ah-sife Prlmdples

Fail-safe desian, redundancy, and self monitoring
priniples also are discussed in par. 6-4.3. AMCP
706-201.

6-3.3.4 Battle Damage, Vulner.41llty

Steps shal be taken to reduce SAS vulnerability in
cases where loss of all stability augmentation would
abort a mission Duplication or triplicintion of actuators and hydraulic systems is a valid approach.
SAS actuators should be designed so that it is possible to lock tthem in a centered position in the event of
loss of hydraulic pressure. Duplication or triplication of hydraulic lines does not reduce vulnere
bility unless provision is made for automaticall) cutting off the oil supply to sevcred lines. Levers, bell
cranks, and pushrods can be made large in size and of
lig'st-gage, low-stressed material in order to ir"-uce
vuIneainhlitv tn--Imall arms fire. Critical components
not readily duplicated should be grouped and protected with armor (see par. 14-3).

j)

6.3.4 COST'
6-3.4.1 Developrmat Coam
The cost of developing a new SAS generally is in
proportion to the ad vance in the state-oif-the-art repmoented by the dev~lopment program. A conventonal SAS for a conventional airframe can be obtained from off-the-she'f components, whereas a new
concept for a rotor-located SAS, or for sensors based
upor new teclinoiogy, may require a large expenditure in order to bring it to production status.
The new cont&pt must promise a suffic-nt increas: in
cost-effectiverness in future production to rcompensate for the U.gh cost of development.
6-3.4.2 Puodsacton Cost
SAS production cost can be reduced by adhering to
thc following:
1. Simplicity c-f design
2. Use of integrated and printed circ.uits
3. CommonalitY' ot circuit mod-Ales
4. Extensive use of value engineering principles,
Production cost increases may be expected with anl
increase in:
1. Number of system components
2. Quality or precision of components
3. Number of nonitandard parts
\ 4. Number of parts that can be assembled in\corrft-tly

WrC
706-202
S. Number and interdependency of adjustments to
be made in final assembly
6. Number of parts that can be damaged easily in
assembly
7. Dogrce of cicanliness required during assembly
8. Unrealistic requirements, or ovcrtzmphasis on
snua icpiesc
n
a. Wcght ri~duction
b. Compactness
c. Functional complexity
d. Reliability
e. Maintainability
f, Structural integrity.
6-3.4.3 Msllaterancc Cvt
A simple, mechanaical SAS composed of infinitelife parts (as in the Bell s".bilizer bar) requires maintenance only in the form of regular inspection and
lubrication. In the event of battle damage or other
failurc, repairs can be performed by a qualified
mechanic. An electrohydraulic SAS, on the other
hand, may require the sei vices of an instrument
snecialist- an electronic technician, and a qualified
helico.pter mochanic. Thus, the ucif-temt cireutit
should be devised so as !a indicate exactly which section is defective. Removal and replacement of plug-in
modules represent field mainteniance at lowest cost.
Added to this cost, however, is the cost of maintaillilg adequate spares.
6-3.5 TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN
For the dcvcelopmeni of P conventional (e~lcctrol'yd..aulic) SAS, the plan outlinrd in MIL-C-1g244
should be followed. In addition, the airframe and
rotor dynamic and aerodynamic propcriics cvcnwluly shoull he inclucied in the initial system analysis
(MlL-C-48244) in order to show thec possible existenc of a~rame cross-coupling and the need forr
anticross-coupling in the SAS, as well as to show the
overall behavici of the SAS/airframc coml~ina' ion.
Six degrees of freedom of the airframe, and quasincrnial modes of the roior (inplane as well as flapping motion o,' the bltdes), should be used. The
resulting equations art used later in the simulation
studies required by MIL-C-18244. The simulaticn
not only will 41low the pilot to evalute the system, but
also will permit demonstration of the scverul types of
failure of the SAS, and will indicate time delays permiscible ;)eibre starting corrective action.
In the development of unconventional SAS's, eapecisily those involving modified rotor dynamics,
s,-vwal changes from the procedure in MIL-C-18244
ar mommended Unconventional systems require
more inisial system synthesis, or concept selection,
6-13

A
M M7-2U2
than do conventional systems; and model studies
should be undertaken as an aid. The models can
range in complexity from simple mock-ups of gyro
and linkage arrangements, through dynamically
scaled wind tunnel models, to remote controlled
flying models.
Tne paragraph of MIL-C-18244 dealing with
model studies notes that experimental models may
take the form of full-scale, engine-driven rotor and
SAS assemblies, suitably mounted upon a truck bed
for measurement and observation of dynamic
behavior under forward-flight conditions. The maximlium possible experience with and knowledge of the
system should be gained before the start of testing of
a man-carrying flight article.
Full-scale wind tunnel tsts, although expensive,
.-an be used to test the flight article progressively to
conditions beyond the extremes of the projected
flight envelope.
Further substantiation of the airworthiness of an
unconventional SAS and rotor system can be obtained by operating an identical system on a tieiown
teat, where a given nurmber of hours is requirc-i for
each hour of aciuai flight icsinig.
The documentation and data rcqulrcd to establish
the satisfactory fulfillment of the technical developmant plan are described in MIL-C-18244, substituting SAS for automatic flight control system
(AFCS).

6-4

PILOT EFFORT

The helicopter designer must consider pilot effort,

or control system loads, from two points or vie,.. The
first concern is the significanice of cntrol feel with redtr
by the
normally fly nd
qualities.
phyicald
t fiying
to
ssocfin
gard
atios. Pilot.
ofappliednorcea
physical association
of applied force and the
mapeuve'ing response of the aircraft. iherefore. the
cont.ol feel in maneuvers plays an important role in
the assessment of handling qualities. Stick positioning also is a fundamental characteristic, be cause it
h3lds the helicopter in the selected trim attitude when
thu controls arc released. MIL-H-8501 provides for
stick position trim and hold by specifying breakout
forces and force gradients.
The other design consideration is rclaied to the
structural integrity of the components. The components shall achieve specified factors of safety when
subjected to loads due to pilot and copilot effort, artificial feel devices, power actuators, etc. MIL-S-8699
wefort.
covers this aspect of pilot
64.1 CRITERIA FOR POWER CONTROLS
Whenever the magnitude and line-.rity of control
6-14

:-

loads permit, direct mechanical control saill be uwed

unless there is a valid requirement for power controls.
Direct mechanical control is the simplest and most
foolpioof control system. Howcvcr, power-operated
systems may be required wbhn the control system environment contains high control forces, feedback of
vibratory forces, or mixing of control forces. The
control system designer must verify a need for poweroperated systems before adding their cost, weight,
and complexity to ,he helicopter design.
6-4.1.1 Control Forces
Not all helicopters require power actuatots. For
cxarrple, on small, single-lifting-rotor vehicles, a
system of weights may be installed in the antitorquerotor controls. Centrifugal force acting upon the
weights balances the pitch link loads, and the system
is adjusted on the ground to compensate for the control forces in cruise. The pilot tannot trim the system
in flight, and accepts the unbalanced forces in the
pedals in hover and flight modac other than cruise.
However, this is a small disadvantage in comparison
with the aimplicity of mechanical design. Also, it may
be feasibie to design a bungc spiring th.. wdil
counteract the steady download in collective pitch '
Medium- and heavy-lift helicopters generally
require power actuators due to the magnitude of their
pitch link loads. Pitch link loads are sensitive to rotor
blade design parameters, both aerodynamic and inertial.
6&41.2 Vibration Feedback
The control moment of a lifting rotor blade is a
steady pitching moment with various alternating harmonic components superimposed. in the nonopoet system,eermoc.Intenn
rotating control
these components appear as
n-per-rcv forces due to the n number of pitch litiks
passing over the attochment point where the nonrotating controls support the swashplate. The
preoence of these vibrations in sh cyclic
p
stick
generally is intolerable to the pilot. Vibration absorbers can be used to reduce the amplitude of the vibration transmitted by means of a simple mechanical
system.
6-4.1.3

Kinematic Effects

The generation of control forces and moments

along and about he various axe of the helicopter is
accomplished by combinctions of collective and
cyclic pitch on the rotor(s), as discdssed in par. 33.3.1.3, AMCP 706-201. The motions of the cyclic
stick and thrust lev,;r (and, on sonic helicopters, the
motion of the pedals) are transmitted through the
swashplate to the rotor(s). In some installations, the

.
.

AMCP 706r202
control input

are transmitted to control-mixing

assemblies, vhcrc they arc combined botforc reaching

th: swashplate. The degrees of rotor blade angle
trol travel in the cockpit, are the dominant consialcration in establishing the mechanical ratios in the

INUUT B

UTPU1
A-6.)

_1 _.

INPUT A
L _
0,1

o0)
OUT'PUT
(A+B)

(A)INTRIM POSITION

mixing
Even if control forces are low and the vibratory components insignificant.
there is a ,oss.

talk of forces from one control ax-s to another

because of the mixing. It is unlikely that the mixing
assemblies, whic" contain components sized for
stroke or travel relationships, will produce satisfactory force relationships. MIL-H-8501 sets limits
upon control force cross-talk. Fig. 6-4 is a schematic
diagram that illustrates the mechanical mixing of
mixing
coitrol
assembly.signals. Fig. 6-5 shows a mechanical

I
j.--s
OUTPUT

INPUT B
I-

INPUT A

(A-)

OUTPUT (A+B)
(B) POSITIVE VA._IE OF INPUT B FROM R.I

Figure 6-5. Mechanical Mixing Assembly

"%

INPUT B

OUTPUT
OUT(A40
)
-

INPUT A

6-4.1.4 Control Stiffness

At high airspeeds and disk loadin3s, the onset of
rotor stall flutter can limit the flight envelope. One of
the many parameters to bc considered is the compliance (stiffness) of the contrc! ,y,'-. particularly
of the swashplate and. its support. Hence. another
justification for power actuators is based upon rotor
performance. Fig. 6-6 illustrates the installation of
power actuators for tandem helicopters.
6-4.2

OUTPUT (A+B)
.0
(C) POSITIVE VALUE OF INPUT ArROM TRIM
Figrc 6-4. Control Mixing Scherntik

HANDLING QUALITY SPECIFICATiON

The handling quality requircinants of MIL-H-8501

sshal. be specified in the detail specification if the
rotorcraft under design is a pure helicopter. However, if the rotorcraft is a high. performanc viehicle
with fixed wings and alternate means of producing
6-15

horizontal thrust, the detail specificat-ons may

specify requiremesits from 5oth MIL-H-'8501 and
MI4L-F-785.
The requirements for contrul feed forces in normal
helicopter operations are found in M11-41-8501. The
maximum and minimum breakouts and force
gradients are defined, alor~g with th-, limit formes. No
gradient is specified in thrust, because a collective
sick holding system - e.g., adjustable friction om a
bpc-

gcnerally is provided. There is no require-

ment for any gradient cxmcpt that it be linear from.

trim to limit force.
MIL-H..SS0l identifies the maximum control feel
forces that arc allowable after a failure in the power
boost or powur-opcrated system. The limit force in
the failed mode is larger than, but of the same order
of magnitude as, the limit load in the normal
operating mode. Consequently, if hydraulic boost is
requ;.ed fc. normal operation, dual boost probably
will be required for the failure mode.

STATIONARY SYSTEM

12ROTATING

SYSTEM

ROTOR BLADE

I0

POWERED

ACTUATOR

STATIONARY
SWASHPLATE
AUTOMATIC (CYCLIC)
TRIM ACTUATOR Figure 6-6. Powered Actuators (Tandem Helicopter)
6-16

POWERED
ACTUATOR

4.4.5
u-. 3

IJMAN.
Apcr.quii~ofora~
ectve ystm cntrl i a
A per~qu~it
Wan ff~vcsytemcotro i
dcugn dvfiiti~on ofcoiritrcil au~mentation nee~ded as
function of tota pilot workload. A force feel system
may require no Pilot Control in order to maintain a
trimmed flight condition.
-

Ceutmi Force Co"

"Thcontrol force sytem should provide.
1. Trim position identification tha: will enable the
pilot to feel an out-of-trim condition and to fecl and
identify trim when returning
2. Hold control in trim when the pilot is flying
hands-of
3. An increased force cue to indicate increasing
sevcrity of mantuvciring wherever it occurs. An increase in gradient with inciea'ing airspeed is recoinmended. Care should be taken tu avoid force cues introduced to the longitudinal control due to collective
inputs. The optimal system would provide a constant
relationship between longitudinal stick forces and resuiting aircraft load factor during maneuvers.
The control force fc.zl system provides an im6-43.1

mediate and :lignificant cue to the pilot, indicating the

woptcr ricpoajonh to control conainand in any flight

ct.. Jition. This tightens the loop of pilot control and
vehicle response, and enables the pilot to realize optimum control. A lesser performance leaids to use of
the feel system only as a trim hold device, and the
pilot may prefer to turn it off tinder demanding control situations.

6-4.3.2 Dev'dopme,.tal T"~

Moving-bamc flight simulationa can be useful in
developing the optimum control feel to suit the
heclic pter mission. In the movingt-base simulator.
pilots can draw upon past expcrience to identifydesired force ;eel characteristics. Stick force pro-

~portional to rates of control displacement, helicopterK

angiular rates, and to normal accelerations should be
investigated so as to insure the design of an optimum
system.
As the functions of the artificial feel system are ipcreased, the complexity of the feel unit also incicases. A design requirement for a specified linear
gradient in the region of trim and a different linear
geadient at greater excursions can result in a feel
system with more than one spripg. Furthermore, ifsa
rtquirement exibts for' nonlineapr forct versus doflection characteristics, cams or linkages can be employed. Fig. 6-7 is a schematic diagram of an ar'jficial feel system.
Flight safety at high speeds can be increased by
reducing thc occurrence of high rotor loads associ-

ted with excessive control displacement. Adynamic

pressure-scnsitive (q-scnsitivc) control force fedl
system produces minimum forces in hover sand
maximum force gradients inh.gh-specd flight, wherc
the sensitivity is ~rrcatept. This concept is an alternative to Use Of Acontrol ratio changer in the pnmary control !ankagc. The q-feel system car~ be
modhanical (with q-bollows), electrical, or tlectroicat -el spoie u
hydrauslic,
In fixed-wing icat -el spoie u
slight'y different purpose. Thc pilot flies the aitplane:
by sensing, among other cues, normal acceleration
and control itick forces. Response of an aiipJAne IS
suhta4h cag nnrm!aclrtinjrui
of elevator deflection increase with q. If the artificial stick force per unit of elevator deflection also is
made to increas with q.then the relationship of stick
force to normal acceleration can be made to approxima.te a constant value of stick force per g,
regardtess of flight speed.N
Military Specifications useful in the detail design of
the artificial feel system include MIL-H-85fl1, MILS-8698. NIIL-F-8785, MIL-F-9490, anid MIL-F18372.

IC

pa.

CAM

C
tTi0L r_01

r-

PWJACATF

--

tip

ITRWM
coNT"V
CBE

Z1AO

(A)TRIM CONDITION
CNRLCNEE
7

'

-.

(B)TRIM CONDITION
CONTROL DISPLACED
Ftgure 6-7.

CONTROL DISPLACED
RMTI

CONTROL DISPLACED
FROM TRIM

ArdtWIca FWe sad Trim Schematic

64.A AUTOMATIC CONTROL INTERFACES

Inner loop stabilization signals are summed with
the pilot's commands through electro/hydromechanic&l actuators in series wi*.h the pilot's controls.
It is important that the high-ftequency, small-amplitude stabilization signals do not reach the cyclic stick
in the form of formes or deflections. Thus, there is a
6-17

~
-

AMCP 70620
need for a "no-back" (a device to prevent the foed-

data were taken and the environment in which the

back of forces) located upstream of the SAS series actuator. A stick boost also will perform this function.
In addison, if the helicopter is to be equipped with an
autopilot that introduces signals through actuators
that move the cockpit controls in parallel with the
pilot, there is a requirement for compatibility amr.ong

new system will perform must be assured, or appropriate adjustment of the projected rates must be
made.
Another rationale for duplication is based upon
failure considerations. A power actuator may provide the required reliability; but if a failure of the ac-

tVe inertia, compliance, and damping of the primary

tuator is catastrophic, a redundant actuator is re-

m.chanical controls and of the parallel actuator.

quircd. Further discussion of this subject is con-

tained in pars. 6-5.2 and 9-2.

6-4.5 VULNERABILInY
The close support of grounid operations exposes
the U S Army's observation, cargo, utility, and
armed helicopters to small arms and automatic
weapons fire, The unprotected, singlc-channel flight
control system is vulnerable over its entire length.
There are a number of weys to reduce this vulnerability.
One naethod is to make the components so rugged
that they can sustain a hit without losing their struc-

6-5

MECHANISMS

The rotating controls in the main rotor sytem nor-

mally include the rotating swashplate, the pitch links,

and the drive scissors. These components are shown
in a typical arrangement in Fig. 6-8. Functionally, the
rotating swashplate translates along the rotor shaft

and tilts in any plane as dictated by control inputs.

tural integrity. However, this is seldom feasible, especially when space and weight must be controlled
rigidly.
Cert.,m areas, such as the cockpit, will be proItectec with armor piate in order to safeguard the

The swajhplatc translation and tilt arc transferred to

the blade pitch horn through the pitch links and,
thereby, control the main ro.or thrust vector. The
of the rotating con(a)ihc
fix ruoor
tMe positionp
scissors iu
drive
'haft and rotor blades. and
cruis rchaivc

crew. The same armor can te used to shield the

mechanical controls. However, it may not be feasible
to run armor plate all the way to the swashplatc.
A redundant cintrol system not only helps Wo solve
the vulverability problem but also improves flight
safety reliability. To be effective, redundant channels
must be separated physically. Consideration must be
given to single-channel jams and disconnects, to adequacy of control if the remaining chann-.l goes to half
gait, and to the question of whether the configuration should be active-active or active-standby.

(b) provide the load path for the conversion of drive

shaft torque into the tangential force required to induce rotational motion in the rotating controls.

64.6 RELIABILITY

the rotor blades complete one revolution, the pitch

6-5.1.1 Design Factors

Structurally, the rotating system shall be designed
to withstand the alternating (fatigue) flight loads introduccd by rotor blade torsional moments and the
maximum loads introduced by severe flight mameuvcra or during ground operations. The fatigue loads
are periodic, and alternate primarily on the basis of
once-pcr-rotor-tevolution. In other words, each time

The overall reliability of a flight control system depends upon the reliability of the individual components and upon their arrangement, which may be
either in series or parallel. If the helicopter system
specification prcscribes a minimum acceptable value
for flight safety reliability, this value may be so high
as to require dual mechanical controls. The detail

link load completes one stress cycle. Therefore, a

high-cycle fatigue evaluation is rcquired. The primary loads are discussed in pars. 4-9 and 4-10,
AMCP 706-201. and the fatigue evaluation is discussed in par. 4-11, AMCP 706-201.
In addition to the primary Pisht loads, special consideration shall be given to socondary loads. Failure

designer first must establish the single success path;

to evaluate secondary loads properly may lead to set-

then, if system reliability is inadequate (a value less

than required by the helicopter system specification),
he must add redundancy, beginning with the least

vice problems. Among the secondary loads that shall

be considered are frictional moments in rods and
bearings, and bending moments created by centri-

reliable componn'nts,

The reliability of a component is a function of the

fotgal force. A typical pitch link rod end, with a selfaligning bearing, is shown in Fig. 6-9.

historical mean time between iailures (MTBF) of that

Bearing motions of -6 deg are not uncommon

component. When historical failuic rates arc used,

similarity between the tav,ronment under which the

during each rotor revolution. The normal force (pitch

link aad) times the coefficicnt of friction produces a

6-18

I)

M~CP 706-202

ROTOR BLADE-,

LISTATIONARY

SYSTEN.7',

ROTATING SYSTEM

'j<,

CNRLHR

ROTOR SHAFT
DRIVE SCISSORS

SWASFIPLATE RING

Figure 6-.

Rotating Controls

6-19

AMCP 706-202
frictional force upon the spherical surface of the

PAPLIEO AAIAL
LOA)

bearing. Rod end motion, in the presence of frictional

forces, induces pitch link bending moments. If the

rod end and the bearing arc of different material, diffcrential expansion due to temperature changes will
alter the frictional moments. The b-nding stresses
that result may be significant and should be evaluated

at the same time as the primary loads.

A pitch I:nk bending moment also will result from
the centrifugal force acting upon the weight of the
pitch link. This inertia force will produce a transverse deflection. Although this deflection may be
small, its effect upon pitch link strength shall be
evaluated from a beurn-column standpoint (see Fig.
6-10).
The ultimate and limit strengths shall be sufficient
for the maximum static leads resulting from both

..

DE

`'

IKLT

'mwc._.Mi4
c
I

Of

rowi

AXIAL
LGAES
A

"P
Figure 6-10.

Centrifugal Force Deflections

flight and ground operations, including loads during

the blade folding 'f applicable. The sources of these

loads are discussed in pars. 4-6. 4-7, and 4-8, AMCP
706-201.
Compensation for tolerance buildup in the rotating control system and the rotor blade usually is
provided y nit.ch link e..ngth adiustment. Threaded
rod ends are common. I he adjustment provision requires close design attention. Positive Iccking
features shall be provided in order to prevent any
length change after system rigging. Such changes
could be induced either by inflight vibrations or
during routine maintenance.
The pitch links shall include inspection provisions
so as to assurc that sufficient thread engagement is
present to provide structural integrity. One method is
to provide an inspection hole. Fig. 6-11 illustrates a
turnbuckle type of adjustment, showing the inspect-on holct, and installed 1,...ire. The J-m nt

JA

NuI

TURNBUCKLE
KEYED WASHERS
INSPECTION
HOLES
.

JAN NUT

ap~st.~s.LOCKWIRE

-7-

NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE BEARING MCTIONS

Figure 6-9. Typical Pitch Link Rod End

6-20

Figure 6-11.

Pitch Link Adjustment Frovislons

--

-..........

- <~-

--

AMCP 706-202
detail design of 'he rotating system.

SWASHPLATV
PITCH
HOR'4

-Although

LN

/
-

-.

-stress

S""certainties
I

SWASHPLATE

gRand

SFigere 6-12. Relatve Flich Link Rod End Position

forces a keyed washer against the turnbuckle, and is
attached to the washer with a cotter pin. The
nut/washer combination prevents turnbuckle motion
that would shorten the rod, and the lockwire prevents any rod extension. The relativa position of the
rod ends is maintained by an internal slot arrangenent. Proper relative rod end position is imVortail' in order to assure sod end clearance within
the swas'p.ste and pitch horn loss (Fig. 6-12).
In addition to the rotation rriative to the stationary
controis, relative motion occurs within the rotating
controls. The drive scissors has two horizontal pivots
and one universal joint to accommodate the vertical
and tilting motions of the swashplate. Pitch link rod
eiids have self-aligning bearings to accommodate the
small angular changes between the swashplate lugs
and the pitch horn caused by swashplate motions.
Rod-end-to-lu% clearances a/sol be provided in order
to prevent contact during these motions.
Ale Lrjjjll
W.
... dAMi..
4r :ce
,
Although wear may reouce frictional moments, the
vibratory levels tend to increase as a result of the
;ooseness caused by wear, and bearing replacement
becomes necessary. Ease of bearing replacement is a
design consideration. Bearing replacement times are
catablishcd hy TBO test programs and by Pervice cxperience.
6-5.1.2 Test Remlts
As detail design progreses, it becomes pnosible to
replace preliminary design estimates with quIntitative information gained during bench and flight
testing, Chapters 7, 8, and 9, AMCP 706-203, define
the procedures, tests, and demonstrations involved in
demonstrating proof of wompliance with the design
requirements. Chapter 4, AMCP 706.201, describes
the procedures for fatigue-life determination. The
"discussionthat follows defines methods for insuring
that bench and flight test data are sutfficiently timeily
and complete to be used to best advantage in the

6..!.,.1

Belch Tests
the fatigue analysis of the rotating controls may be thorough, the effects of the complex
concentrations introduced by locking features
and threaded connections, along with other unsuch as fietting, preclude an acceptable
analytical fatigue strength determination. Therefore,
it is essential that bench testing to determine the
fatigue strength of components be coordinated
properly with other elements of the design prucess,
that the fatigue test requirements be based upon
representative .- or. at least, conservative - service
conditions, The factors discussed in pars. 6-5.1.2.1.1
through 6-5.1.2.1.4 influence the estab!ishment of the
test requirements. Component fatigue test requirements are discussed in dezail in par. 7-4, AMCP 706203.
6-5.1.2.1.1 Test Loads
Although it is desirable technically to duplicate all
flight loads un the bWach, th's is not always an
economic or physical possibility. When flight loads
will not be the basis for bench test loading, an analytical assessment must be made in order to determine
which of the secondary loads is significant. In the
ro.ating conrol system rod end. frictional moments
are usrally significant whi!e centrifugal forces are insignificant.
Steady loads in rotating control system components generally are low in comparison to the alternating loads. Consequently, the load range is
thrwh zero.. thus increauin,, the relative motion of
components and the possibility of fectting. Test loads
should be programmed so as to insure loading
through zero.
If the moment induced by rod end friction is
significant, :1 must be included in the test. This secondary load must be phased properly with the primary
load. The effects of end moments may be induced
artifically by applying eccentric axial loads. Another
method is to use stiff bearings and to induce bearing
motion during the test. In ,ither test, it may be
neceary to evalute temperature extremes.
6-5-1.2.1.2 imstrnmentatilm
The correlation of flight loads to beach test
measurements is a primary consideration. Unless the
load distribution upon the part under test can be as.
certained readily from applied loads, bench test specimens should be instrument4d and calibrated. Where
a complex bending moment exists, a component
should be instrumented with sufficient bridges to de6-21

AMCP 706-202
ilrrnine that distribution. The location and type of instrumentation sAdl he the same as is employed in the
flight load survey.
6-5.112.1- Quantity sad Selection of Sedmens
A minimum of six specimens of each component is
required for definition of an S-N curve. Where
tolerance ;s a significant factor, specimens should be
selected from those at the adverse end of the
tolerance band. Dimensional tolerances of critical
parts generally are tightly controlled; therefore,

RADIAL
BENDING BRIDGES

'

614

special selection on the basis of dimensions usually is

not required. However, selectivity on the basis of
more highly variable quantities, such as rod end friction, is required.
6-5.1.2.1.4 Interpretathon of Data
If all significant secondary loads are accounted for
during bench testing, an S.N curve and endurance
limit can be established as a functioi, of the primary
alternating load. The endurance limit must be based
upon a statistical reduction of test data so as to account for scatter. In some cases, a further reduction
f........
L-L .
---ly-Ity.i order t
count for a secondary effect not included in the
original test program. The preparation of an S-N
curve from fatigue test data for a limited nunlbcr of
specimens is described in par. 4-1l, AMCP 706&201.
6-5.12.2 Flight Tests
The characteristics of the alternating loading on
fatigue-critical components are detemniried by a flight
load survey. A statistically significant data sample
should be obtained for each flight condition represen,
tative of helicopter usage, i.e., for each condition
,within he mission profile. "e requirements ior a
flight load survey are described in detail in par. 8-2,
AMCP 706-203.

BENDING

IDGE

A-

TENIN2.

AXIAL TENSION

6-22

Iarmemr

Pitch LUsk

--

TANGENTIAL
ENDING BRIDGES

Drive Scissors

6-.1.2.21 Required Imstrmenmatiou

Pitch link axial load and drive scissors bending mnonent in the p!ane of rotation are the primary loads in
the rotating control system, and must be meuued.
Secondary loads requiring measurement are pitch
link bending and drive scissor radial bending. At least
two bending bridges am required in order to determnine the distribution of each of the moments.

Typical instrumentation of a pitch link and a drive

scissors is shown in Figs. 6-13 and 6-14. As a rule,
each of the pitch link ts instrumented with a tension
gage in order to determine whether or not there are
any differ:nces between the loads from the individual blades.
6-5,1.2.2.2 Flight Coadid-t
Flight loads shall be obtained for all mission profile conditions at the most adverse altitude(d) and
helicopter configuration(s) within the anticipated
operating regime (see par. 8-2. AMCP 706-203).
Loads in t~ie rotating control system generally are
noncritical in unstalied flight. They do, hower,
react to the onset of moment stall and, therefore,
usually establish the structural envelope for stalled
conditions. Consequently, as a minimnm, control
loads should be measured at the conditions most conducive to stall. These are:
I. Maximum gross weight
Most extreme CG
3. Maximum altitude
4. Minimum rpm
5. High load factor.
6-5.2

F! re 6-13.

NONROTATING SYSTEM
The location of push rod&and cables must be derwmined early in the duign of a helicopter, prior to
Ithe selection and location of other large equipment,
so that it will not be necemsry to route the control
sytem #round this equipment.

I-)

AMCP 706-202

.)

The control runs must be coordinated with each

other and with the entire airframe in scaled layouts.
Direct. straight-line routing improves the control
system response, reduces friction and weight, and incrcass reliability. Other factors that muest be con-

and power control syterns.

In addition to ti. requ.'rmareis of the Military
Specification and of Chapter 4. AMCP 706-201, the
following iist of requirements and general .dmign
practkm are applicable to tic dsign of helioo1 cr

sidered during control system layout are vulnerability

control systems.

to small arms and automatic weapon fire, jamming

by foreign objects, rigidity, strcngth, accessibility for
inspection and service, and techniques to prevent inco. rect assembly. All pertinent inforriation should be
shown clearly or, the smul!-scale layouts in order to'
verify the design feasibility.
AS various design options are devuloped, the a&ternative configurations should be evaluated by
means of a trade-off study. The parameters in the
study may include - but are not limited to -- performance, reliability, cost, safety, weight, use of standard parts, logistics, maintainability, and vulnerability. In such a study, weighting factors may be assigned
to the various parameters. However, because the
weighting factors affect the outcome of the study,
t-.. must be assigned judiciously.
The results of the trade-off study upon the selected

I. Push-pull rods, bellcranks, and lovers:

a. Each bolt, screw, nut, pin, or other fastener
whose los could jeopardize the safe aperation of the
helicopter shAwl incorporate two beparate locking
device. The festener and its locking devices should
no, be affecti4l adversely by cnvironmenmal conditions.
b. Impedance bolts shall be used where loss of a
bolt can cause a catastrophic failure.
c. Rod assemblies should be desigrned with only
one adjustable end fitting. The adjustable rod end
check nut should be ,ock-wired where the rods are
subject to vibration or to hiph-frequency load re.
versals.
d. The natural frequencies of push-pull rods
should be checked against the forcirig frequencies of
the rotor(s) in order to assure that the system is free

configuration should be cvaluaitd uanicUilly uiuaii a

fromm on.n_.

design review. The purpose of the review is to insure

that the seleted configurations and the applicable
specifications, mock-up, and test requirements are in
accordance with objectives established during the
preliminary design, and that program and contract
requirements for performance, rtliability, cost, safety, maintainability, standardization, and ease of inspection arc or will be met.

e. The lagest diameter and longest tube cov,sistent with weight and strength consideratiois
should be used in order to provide reduced , ulnerabiLty.
f. Maximum clearance in the clevisjo;nts of the
push-pull tubes sa be provided so as to allew for
overtravel when the controls are disconnected.
2. Torque tubes and universals:
a. The natural frequencies of torque tubes
should be checked against the forcing frequencies of
the rotor(s) to assure that the system is free from
.
n
j t
u
s
r
b. Universal joints should be ud where misalignment exists between torque tubes.
C. A double universal joint assembly may be

6.5.2.1 Pilot's Coetrols to Pov -r Actutoi

A comprehensive discussion of design standards
and requirements for that portion of the helicopter
flight control system between the pilot'r controls and
the power actuator is found in MIL-F-9490 and
MIL-F-18372. Although there are minor conflicts
between these specifications, the helicopter system
specification generally will define the extent of their
applicability.
The loads in the nonrotating control system consist of those loads present in the system at all times,
operational loads due to pilot forces, and any flight
loads fed back from the rotor blades. Constant loadL
include system preloads or rigging loads, and loads
due to component weight.
The values of the control system loads required for
design are given in par. 4-9.8.3, AMCP 706-201.
Included arm the pilot effort loads applied at each
._.
control input, together with their reaction points,
SCriteria are provided for dual control systems, duplicate systems, distribution of loads within a system,

used to obtain constant angular velocity, provided

that:
(1) The driving yoke of one of the joints is 90
dcg oftiet from the driving yoke of the other.
(2) Each joint is operatwd at the seme angle.
(3) All shafts are in the same plane.
3. Cables, pulleys, and quadrants:
a. Cables and pulleys should be used only when
distinct advantages can be shown over a system using
push-pull rods.
b. Cables tend to twist over each pulley. If the
twist from one pulley rides onto another pulley, cable
wear will result. Pulleys thus should be spaced far
enough apart so that no ,egment of cable ruus over
more than one pulley during full travel.

"6-23

A!MP6'Q
MM
c. Unsupported spans of 150-200 In. hi~ve
operated satisfactofily. However, cable idler pulleys
in long straight russ minimize friction over fatirloads
and grommets.
Close spacin6 of cables shsall be a odcd.
Cables should not pass within 3.0 in. of
sVtrutr,
equipment, or other cables.
stutr
e. The angle be-tween the centerline of the cable
and the Plane of the pulley should riot exceed 0.5 dcg.
f. To the maximaim extent practicable. cables
shoLld
o un
beas
lon,coseas ossbletothe
neouldrul axis th
og r' airfram e astructure. o th
neura
axso
ifaesrcue
g. Friction in a cable systcm should be
minimized by:
(I) Using a minimum number of pt~ll:ys
(2) Using the largest practicable pulley size
(3) Using the smallest cable diameter consistent with strength and rigidity requ~ireme'nts
(4) Designing for the sma'lest practicable
wrap angle consistent with maintL...cc of ~--od
cable contact and pulley rotation.
It. The effect of chang~es in temperature can be a
serious problem in cuntrol ca-ble systems, due to the
diferecric betwee trie coclticicnts ol therm..al eiX
pansion of the aluminum airframe and the steel control cable. The problem is less severe in pulleyless
cable systems because higher rigging loads are permissible.
i. Tension regulators may be installed in quadrent and pulley assemblies in oi icr to allow for expansion end contraction of the cables without appreciable variation in rigging load.
j. Nylon-coveaed cables can increase cable life
by damping hig'i-frequency vibrations.
k. Cab!t guards shall be used at pointi of tanigency of the cable to the pulley,
4. Chains. The use a, chains shall be subject to the
approval of the procuripi% activity.
In spite of the inherent advantages, applications of
fly-by-wire tec~iniques to helicopter control have
been slow to materialize. The substitution of fly-bywire electrical signtiling systems fcT conventional
linkages between cockpit and swashplate bas a
number of potential benefits. However. before any
*fly-by-wire
primary flight control system is accepted
for produc-tion, a high le-jel of reliability must be asawied.
The advantages of an electrical control system will
de~pend upon the type and size of the helicopter in
which the system is installed. For example, sonit of
*Ithe
benefits to be expected in large, heavy-lift heai*copters
are- improved flight safety reliability and rtduced vulnerat ility, higher fidelity of control, and reduced weight. The characteristics and capabilities of

Id.

.h

6-24

a true fly-by-wire system arc cot. .pared

b..vari.

alternste heavy-lift helicopter control systems ili

Refs. 23 3nd 24.
-..
oaAtswttkSsae
Design?
Pow reerA
taes and gtheSan
a.-p ortate p r
toDofi thequeiropemnsadtnd
flgtwto ythabtweoror
thon pofwter halctaoptr and the nontrolansyastemb twee
thpoeacuorndheorttngwsplc
acdfndb
I40adMLF~32
In addition to these requirements, irnportant considerations include fail-safe design, structural cornpliance, and control system dynamnics.
Various fail-safe approaches are:
1. Stand-by design. Two equal-strength ioad paths
arc provided. The secoadary load path is isolatO until primary failure occurs. The primary lead pr-th is
visible durirg helicopter inspections. This approach
r- uir,:* that each loted path be designed for infinite
fc tj insure thiat the components of the se'ondary
will last between overhauls if the failure of the prim~ ahi o eetd
2., Load-sharing desirpt. Tht. component is mr~de
up of two or inore sections or laminations that arc
joinied miechanically. If one element fails, the rcmaining JAreaets have fuei ci d-crariyirig capability.
If the elemen'ts art; bonded, the bc-nding agent shall
prevent a crack front propagating across the section.
If thc component is not bonded, other antifreatting
barriers must be employc-d. A section of the w.omponent consists of the maximum practicable number
of laminaticns.
3. Crack-detection dca~gn. Dzsign techniqLuer
could includc: pressure drop, oil or fluid leak, electrical detectors, and highly penetrating dye.
lnadcquatc, struc'ural stiffness can affect the control systcm ia several ways. Deflections of the airframe can introduce input's to the eontrol system, an
effect that is minimized by routing the controls close
to the ncutral axis of the airframe. When the support
structurc is not stiff, the power sctuator also can deflect under load. If the control system output is
sensed by the compliant structure, a limit cycle instabitity can occu- and ultimately may destroy the
helicopter if it is allowed to proceed unchecked. The
desij'ner shall introduce compensating linkage or sufficient structural stiffness in ordci to assure that the
control system is inscrititive to deiflections.
The primary flight controls are part of the comnplex servo system that determines the transient and
frequency responses of the helicopter. In this system,
the mechar'ical controls play a small but significant
role. In addition to the mechanical controls, perforniance of the servo system depenads upon:
1. Rotor dynamics and aerodynamics
2. Inherent helicopter stability

AMCP 706202
3. Power actuator dynamics
4. Automatic flight controls:
(a) Stability augmentation system
(b) Outer loop etabilization
(c) Automatic trim systems.
5. Pilot iNthe feedback loop,
Frequently, tht mechanical controls and the power
actuator are analyzed together as a subsystem.
Characteristics of the mechanical controls that have.
an effect upon the responses of the servo system are:
I. Inertia and balance of control system componcns
2. Damping at control stick, actuator valve,
and/or control surface
3. Friction at control system joints
4. Looseness of control system joints,
Friction can cause control system hysteresis, which
prevents the control stick from returning to the trim
positior once it is displaced. The provision of positive centering requires a preload force larger than the
value of the friction force. However, excessive control break.uAsforce around the neutral or trim position is undesirable because it rcsults in a tendency for
the pilot to ovcr'ontrol the helicopter.
ii

Looseries, thQ result of escemive buildup of

tolerances and wear at b.Warings and joints, causes

"backlash iq tht control system. The effe4ts of backlash can range from sloppy and unsatisfactory control characteristics to pilot-induced oscillations.
Dynamic analysis conducted with high-apeed digital or analog computers not only identifies required
characteristics of the automatic systems, but also
identifies design requirements for the mechanical
identiem.suh
dsin
system, such
as: rnetic
I. Balancing of certain control components, par.
t,ildfy thic cyclic
and. Cl*'.,..... 1c....
2. Stiffening of control elements and backup structure
3. Insta!lation of antibackl2sh springs to eliminate
looseness
4. Additional damping at stick, actuator valves,
and/or control surfaces
5. Establishment of the allowable upper limit for
Scontrol system friction,
Major aocidents can result from improper or inadequate maintenance of flight control systems.
Specific aesign guidelines for maintainability of conIrol systems include:
I. Understand the skill level of the maintenanre
personil, their operating environment, and the type
of errors they are likely to make
2. Replace routine maintenance with on-condition
maintenance accompanied by adequate failure warning
.

3. Incorporate physical barriers against incorrect

assembly and installation of gcnerally similar parts.
The design shall insure that the omission of critical
fasteners either is obvious during ground runup or
cannot result in catastrophic failure in flight.
4. Realize that the same maintenance crror may be
repeated in all paths of a redundant systein
5. Human factors engineering should be applied to
design for maintainability to minimize human error.
6-5.3 TRIM SYSTEMS
The force trim system is provided in order to allow
the pilot to reduce the control force to zero when the
helicopter is trimmed along a stabilized flight path.
MIL-H-8501 requires that, for all conditions and
speeds specified, it shall be possible in steady-state
flight to trim steady longitudinal, lateral, and directional control forces to zero. At all trim cond'tions, the controls shai exhibit positive selfcentering characteristics. Stick "jump" when trim is
actuated is undesirable.
Severas types of control force trim systems are described in the paragraphs that follow.
6-5.3.1

Disconnect Trim

The handling quality requirements can be satisfied

by a preloading spring in combination with a magnetic brake. The principal advantage of this method
is simplicity. However, the magnituo,; of the spring
force and the kinematics o" the system may combine
to produce an objectionable kick when the magnetic
brake is released. A damper in parallel with the magbrakethe
willtrim
reduce
thisisundesirable
characittbrake
istic;
whenever
button
held, the magnetic
is disengaged from the control linkage, and, therefore, the trim, or force feel, springs also arc diigngaged. In a well-designed system, this can be an advantage, as it simplifies the input of small control displacements such as those required for precise
hovering control.
6-5.3.2 Continuous TrIm
An al'ernative to the on-off system is a system in
which the trim is continuous. Upon activation of the
trim switch, the control forces are trimmed slowly to
zero. In thit system, the magnetic brakes are replaced by electromechanical actuators. This type of
trim can be provided readily in helicopters that are
equipped with parallel actuators for outer loop stabilization. However, the two-axis (Chinese hat) 1ectrical trim switch on the cyclic stick grip can activate
only longitudinal and lateral trim; the directional
trim switch must be located elsewhere.
I o avoid the trim switch limitation, it is possible to
6-25

r,"

-.

:r..

AMCP 706-20',t
design the trim circuit so that when the pilot depresses the trim button, the trim force for any control
axis that is out of 'rim is trimmed to zero force. If
more than one control axis is out of trim, all axes
would be trimmed simultanrously to zero. A detent
arrangement disengages the actuator when the zero
spring force has been reached.
both the rate at which the actuator operates and
the authority, or maximum value, of the feel force
provided by the continuou3 trim syhtem are significant in determining the acceptability of the
system No specific requirements are giveii by MILH-8501.

runaway series trim causs a change in both the control position and the fVcroe necessary to maintain
trimmed flight. The magnitudes depend upon tLc authority of th, trim system.
In addition to trimming steady-state control forces
to zero, a trim system may be used for trimming bf
aerodynamic forces and moments (series trim). Trim
at the incidence of the horizontal stabilize! may be
used in single-rotor loelicopters, trim of the longitudinal cyclic pitch in taneein-rotor helicopter, and
trim of the wing incidence angle in rotorcraft
equipped with wings. This aerodynamic trim may be
programmed automatically or operated manually

Fig. 6-6 shows the installation of an automatic cyclic

6-5.3.3. Parallel and Series Trim
Artificial feel forces may be trimmed to zero with
both parallel and series trim. Parallel trim involves
the repositioning of the neutral (zero force) point of
the unit; thus, a new trim position for the entire control system is created. Both the magnetic brake and
the continuous trim systems afc parallel. Fig. 6-7
shows the parallel trim actuator in the schematic of
an artificial feel system.
Series trim involves the insertion of an exiendabie
link in the control system between the feel unit and
the power actuator, and produces control surface
motion with no stick motion.
Helicopters with fixed wings and alternate means

pitch trim actuator

6-6 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
6-6.1 GENERAL
Design and development of the helicopter flight
control system should include several forms of
testing. Objectives of this testing are to improve the
validity and accuracy of analytical mathematical
models, to insure proper consideration of the human
pilot as a controllcr, and to perr-it refined develop
ment under a full-scale environment.
IMPROVEMENT

of producing thrust may require trimming of un-

In general, the mathematical model used for analy-

boosted aerodynamic control surfaces. Elevators,

ailerons, and rudders may be trimmed by driving a
geared trim tab through electrical trim motors with
mechanical override provided. In addition, the pitch
control may be trimmed by adjusting the incidence
an&:e of the stabilizer and the elevator.
Trim is provided in order to balance, or reduce to
zero, the steady-state control forces that arise from
changes in helicopter configuration and flight conditions. The vehicle is flown normally by the primary
flight controls from one flight condition to another;
after allowing time for stabilization, it is trimmed to
fly hands-off. To use the trim control to change from
one flight condition to Another is a misuse of the trim
system. Trimming the 'chicle into mineuverc results
in loss of the capabilit) to retui n to the normal flight
attitude if the controls are released, as weli as in loss
of the feel for the particular maneuver being accomplished.
Constant use of the trim system when it is not
required will lower the system MTBF. Failures may
occur at extremes of control travel or in an uncomfortable helicopter attitude. An inoperative trim
system can create unusual stick forces. Runaway
parallel trim produces abnormal control forces, and

zing the helicopter during the preliminary design

phase considers first-order effects or characteristics
and incorporates data or approximations based upon
prior experience with similar systems, subsystems, or
devices. A margin of tolerance, again based upon
available experience, is applied to these results prior
to their assessment with respect to specification compliance. During detail design, it is necessary to improve the accuracy and validity of the inathcmatical
model in order to insure credible and cost-effective.
compliance with specifications. In this regard, wind
tunnel and hardware bench tests are proper tools for
engineering application.

6-26

6-6.2.1 Wind Tunnel Test

The aerodynamic forces and moments of the total
helicopter and its components parts, together with
their derivatives with respect to many of the variables
required for stability and control studies (e.g., attitude, control deflection, and rotor thrust), can be
obtained in the wind tunnzl. Primary interest should
focus upon the static stability derivatives M., N9, and
4; the damping derivatives M., N,, L., and Z,; the
control derivatives M6 , L6 , Nv, and Z,; the speed
3tability derivative M.. and the flow field character-

17X
AMCP 706-202
istics affecting the helicopter. These data should be
gathcrld over the full range of helicopter configurations and for the complee flight envelope.
Wind tunnel testing also can provide important information on inttraxis cross-coupling effects.
Measuring the damping derivatives directly in the
wind tunnel generally requires complex proc--dures
and techniques. K~owever, the time constants associated with the changing aerodynamic forces and
moment" often arc small compared with vehicle
rr.iponsc, allowing steady-state wind tunnel results to
be used with sufficient accuracy in dynamic analysem,
For ex.-nple, wind tunnel !n maurti,,cnts of the hornzontal tail lift characte.ristics and the downwash
existing at the fail location can be used to calculate
the pitch-damping contribution of that surface,
knowing the tail arnt.
6-6.2.2 Hardware 3ench Tests
Aa lardwhre components .rf the flight control
systdemrbe
ome ponentsble
, theyshoube s
cte
ontrol
system become available, they should be subjected to
laboratoey bench teats in order to describe accurately their performanee haracteristics. Tprse
results then may be,pdate
used to
the odata elT
*vo__! m.p~oyegl
e
irn the mathematical models.
The
bench testing can define items rich as stiffness, fmquency responi%, thresho!d level, and rate .;raits.

"

6-6.3 GROUND-BASED PILOTED FLIGHT

SIMULATION
The helicopter flight control system design not
only should result in compliance with the minimum
requirements of the handling quality specification,
but also should maximize th: handling quality potential from the pilot's viewpoint with regard to the
mission requirements. Therefore, detail design of
Cornpnex fliaht control systems renuires that the
human pilol. be inserted into the simulation by using
either fixed-basc or moving-base piloted flight simulators. Fixtd-base simulation, however, does not provide the pilot with a realistic environment for his
body sensors, and forces him to respond unrealistically cr, sometimes, falsely. Thj correct environment consists of a proper representation of the
helicopter equations of motion and a proper pilot environment, including vision, sound, touch or feel, and
motion.
Use of a high-fidelity, moving-base, piloted flight
simulator is a cost-effective approach to the enginetering development of helicopters. The flight
simulator is an engineering tool that can provide high
confidence in design decision-making regarding new
systems. Application of moving-base flight simulstion early in the helicopter definition and developmental cycle identifies pitfalls and potential prob-

S~6-27

Iems, and provides Lmeans of generating good flight

vehicle characteristics.
During the past few years, heavy emphasis has
been placed upon efforts to identify and understand
the fundamental technological and phyfiological fac.
tort involved in the man/machine interface, par.
ticularly with regard to nonhelicopter rotorcraft
systems. where ths basic vehicle configuration often
is dictated by the pilot's control ability. These efforts
already have produced a quantum increase in the
knowledge of control system theory and criteria, stability, human factors, handling and flying qualities,
end hardware design. Because nonhelicopter rotorcraft are advanced systems, their ability to comply
with specifications must be substantiated prior to any
significant financial expenditure. Piloted flight simulation provides the means for assaessins, and demonstrating 'the adequacy of the pilot/vehicle system
prior to hardware procurement.
Pilotcd flight simulation should be employed in the
development of any system whet.. the pilot is involved directly in the contro! loop. A partial list of
flight control design and development studies that
cn
used in piloted simulation includes:
~ beSsetblt
opitidcdoiiaiz
I. Susceptibility to piot-induc-. Osculation (Piwi
2. Analyses of failure mode effects
3. Definition of control harmony requirements
4. Height-velocity capability, with emphasis on
human factors
5. Handling qualities in turbulent air
6. Design trade-off studies
7. Scheduling and mixing of flight control component functions
8. Optimization of stability augmentation system
configuration ann flight control system forces
9. Weapon delivery suitability
10. Conversion mode characteristics and requirements (for non-helicopter rotorcraft)
II. Flight teat supplement (pilot familiarizetion,
test planning, test support)
12. Autorotation entry and recovery.
Piloted simulation is effective particularly in failure
mode studies. All types and combinations of failurs
can be presented for evaluation of transient response
characteristics, profile of pilot reaction, allowable
time delay prior to corrective pilot action, the need
for fully automatic protection, and the resultant limitations on mission capability. Initially, such studies
are conducted using a fully mathematical rtpresentation of the helicopter. As hardware com.
ponents become available, they can be substituted for
their corresponding mathematical models, thereby
enabling refinement of the previous estimates made
for items such as friction and hysteresia.

20706-20

"66. FLIGHT TESTS

REFERENCESK

The detail design phase oi'a flight control system

generally ex~tends into the eariy stages of helicopter
ibgh, testing. Flight testing particularly is warranted
for thc detail design of new flight control system concepts, or for novel applications of a given system.
Flight testing associated with the detail design effort requires that the flight vontrol system be
mechanized so that its characteristics may bc altered
or adjusted over a limited range. After establiishing
the helicopter hpndling qualities with the flight con-

I.B. B. Blakc, N. Albion, a~id R. C. Radford.

Flight Simulation of the CH-46 Helicopter, Proccedings, 25th Annual Ns~tional Forum,
American Helicopter Society, May 1969.
2. R. J. H-uston, An Exploratory Investigation of
Feactors Affecting the Handling Qualities oj a
Ru~dimntr Hingeless Rotor Helicopter, NASA
TN D-3418, May 1966.
3. H. L. Kelley, R. J. Pegs, and R. A. Champine,
cofgrto.th
trlsystem se.oisoia
Flying Qualities Factors Currently Limiting
enigincer can vary the system configuration irt an attempt to improve vehicle handling qualities. Hisas-~HelicopterNap of the Earth Maneuverability as
Identifie by Flight Investigation, NASA TN Dsesament of change is based upon pilot commentary
4931.
and upon recorded time histories of the important ye4. Mao P. R. Curry and J. T. Matthews, Jr..
hide and flight cL..ntrol system response parameters.
~h
SgetdR~rmnsfrVSO
Such eve'-titions should consider the total requiregesdRqimntfrVSTLFyg
ments of the system over the entire flight enivelope.
Qualities, US Army Av~iation Matericl
Specific flight test requirements arc discussed in
TR 65-45, June 1965.
an
9, MCP706-03.Laboratories,
Chapers
D. Cooper, K. Hansen, and T. Kaplita, ShigleS nd06-03.5.
, ACP
Chater
Rotor Helicopter Dywnaici Fo~lowort Power
6.6.5 DESIGN REVIEW
Failure at HighI Speeds, US Army Aviation
Whtn the configuration has been selected aind the
Materiel Laboratories, TR 66-30, June 1966.
design requirements have been identified, the detail
j. Davis, Hi. McCaijcriy. i. Kuutnun. and F.
6.
design proceehs from the one-half and lull-size layLeoine, A Study of Tandem-Rotor Helicopter
simulouts. Stress and weight analyses are conducted
Dy, -amicsFollowing Power failure at High Speed.
layouts
fuli-size
of
preparation
the
taneously with
US Army Aviation Materiel Laboraitories, TR
and detail, assembly, and installation drawings.
65-72, Nov. 1965.
Long-lead items and material are ordered in advance
7. B. Kelley, "Helicopter Stability with Young's
of the drawing release.
Lifting Rotor", Society of Automotive Engineers
knowledge
a
ecquires
components
the
of
FDetailing
Journal, December 1945.
of materials, processes, and standard parts. The
8. Joseph Stewart 1ll, Thse Helicopter Control Rotor,
reader is referred to Chapters 2. 16, and 17 for
presented at the 16th Annual Meeting of the
guidance. Detail rcquiranievits applicable to the interInstitute of Aeronautical Sciences (lAS), January
hythe
and
system
control
faces between the flight
1948.
draulic system amdescribed inChapter 9.
9..M. Vague, and C. M. Scibel, Helicopter StaA hazard analysis &Wal be performed it%order to
bilization and Handling Characteristics improvedetermine the design potential for incurring equipment by Mechanical Means, lAS Report No. 59ment failures or human errors that can cause Gc27, lAS 27th Annual Meeting. New York, NY,
dethis
details
706-203,
cidents. Chapter 3, AMCP
January 1959.
sign evaluation technique.
10. M. George. E. Kisielowski, and A. A.
The critical design review, a formal technical
Perlmutter. Dynagymo A Mechanical Stability
enthe
when
conducted
review of the detail design, is
Augmentation System for Helicopters.
fabrifor
release
for
ready
are
drawinort
gineering
710 ac
USAB967nia.eor
a purpose of thedesign, ise.
orp thoueet.Th
cation
ac
710
eor
19AL67.cnia
prcueentt.l acceptarplit of the resignw ise.
ction oetrmn
Fraundorf,
E.
and
Kisielowski,
E.
George,
M.
IL.
requiredesign
the
thttedetail design satisfies
Reliability Evaluation of a Mechanical Stability
se t forth in
nd te dsig sout
atifie
mons,
Augmentation Systemw for Helicopters.
prior reviews.
USAAVLADS Technical Report 69-17, June
Review team mebr ersnigproduct sup1969.
maintainabiliport engineering, flight test, reliability,
1. Culver, and D. Walters, Tali Rotor for
12.
aerodynamics,
stress,
factors,
ty, safety, human
Helicopter, U S Patent No. 3,004.736, Octobe*
materials, and prtxcess-en'incering shall evaluate the
1961.
design as it pertains to their specialized fields.
6-29

I.

AMCP 706-202
13. G. Sissingh, "Response Characteristics of the
Gyio-controlled Lockheed Rotor System", Journail of the American Helicopter Society 12. No. 4.
October 1967.
14. B. Blake. J. Clifford. R. Kaczynski, and P.

Qualities Requirements Based on Mission-Tusk

Perform3nce", Journal of the American Helicopter Society 15, No. 3, July 1970.
20. G. Dausman, D. Gebh,.rd, and L. Goland,
Development, Flight Test and EWvauation of a

Sheridan, Recent Advances in Flying Qualities of

Mechanical Stabilizer for Singl'e-rotor Heli-

Tandem Helicopters, Proceedings, 14th Annual

National Foium, American Helicopter Society,
April 1958.
15. E. Ebsen, D. Ogran, and H. Sotanaki, Three-

copters, 26th Annual Meeting, Institute of the

Aeronautitad Sciences, Preprint No. 821, January
1958.
21. H. Daughaday, and H. Mc'ntyre, Suppressionof

AxL FluidirStability Augmentation Sjstem Flight

Transmltted Harmonic Rotor Loadr by Blade

Test Report, USAAMRDL TR 71-34, September

1971.

Pitch Control, Proceedings, 23rd Annual

National Forum, American Helicopter Socety,

16. W. Bedhun, Fiiudic Three-Axis Stability Augmentation System for the CH-46 Helicopter.
Honeywell Dccument 20725-FR, Contract

Paper No. 129, May 1967.

22. H. Hecht, and L. Kaufman, Reliability Requiremcnisfor HelicopterFlight Controls. 251h Annual

N62269-67-C-0086, January 1969.

17. W. Cresap, "D'evelopment and Tests of Multibladed Semi-rigid Rotor Systems", Journal of
the American Helicopter Society 5, No. 2, April
1960.
18. H. Edenborough, and K. Wernecke, Control and
Maneuver Requirements for Armed Helicopters,
Piuini.ga. 2V0th Aaiown: Natiojin Toru,-m,
American Helicopter Society, May 1964.
19. H. Harper, W. Sardanosky, and R. Scharpf,
"*Development of VTOL Flying and Handling

Meeting instittte of the Acronautiral Sciences,

Preprint No. 682, January 1957.
23. D. S. Jenney, and L. S. Szvstak, Control of Large
Crane Helicopters, Proceedings, 26th Annual
National Forum, American Helicopter Society,
Par r No. 441, June 1970.
24. R. W. Sanford, P. R. Venuti, and D. Wood,
........
r
C.,.... S .
. e--.
Proceedings, 27th Annual National Forum,
American Helicopter Society, Paper No. 503,
May 1971.

6-29

.,

706-202

CHAPTER 7

ELECTRICAL SUBSYSTEM DESIGN

7-0

LIST OF SYMBOLS

charging current, A
charging time, min
SV 'RS - volt-amperes, reactive
- increase in battery capacity, A-hr
A,
-

7-I INTRODUCTION
7-1.4 GENERAL
The basic determinants of overall electrical system
design and layout are the demands of the equipment
on the helicopter for electrical power, and the
physica! and operational constraints ir posed by the
helicopter and its mission(s). The latter will include
such aspects as the availability of space in the aircraft, the sr.fety requirements imposed by the system,
and the weight penalty imposed by the ch,'sen subsystem.
-f....;r..

..-

'

...

,., .;of
e!rcaol

s,.,.

characteristics and utilization are determined by

MIL-STD-704. In general, however, helicopters
require 28 V DC for both normal and emiergncy
operation of such items as fuel pumps, flight instruments, panel lighting, most avionic equipment, und
electrically-driven weapons; constant frequency 400Hz AC power for some avionic equipment; and often
variable-frequency AC for some heating (deicing)
and frequency-insePsitive loads. Thus, with suitable
conversion compokients, the basic helicopter electrical system can be DC, variable-frequency AC (vf
AC), or constant-frequcncy AC (c' AC).
New helicopter design trends are toward increased
electrical power in general, as well as increased
'amounts of constant-frequency power. Many
helicopter system designs provide an input speed to
the g.nerator that varies by more than +5%.
In addition, a major consideration in electrical
system selection is engine starting. If the maximum
engine starting torque is less than 90 lb-ft. a 400-A,
28-V DC starter-generator powered by two CA-5, or
CA-9 nickel-cadmium batteries will provide the
simplest self-contained start system. However, this90
lb-ft limit defines a small engine, and, therefore, a
small helicopter.
The actual choice of elcctrical systems will depend
upon the relative demand for DC, cf AC, or vf AC
and a weight analysis of the neceusry components.
This system selection generally will include tike dccision on the existence (or not) of an on-board

auxiliary power unit (APU). Above a certain total

requirement for cf AC, for cxamplc, u considerable
weight saving can be reaiized by using a CSD
(constant-specd drive) input to the electrical system
instead of an inverter system; or the presence of an
APU may provide hydraulic or pneumatic starting
and thus decrease overall electrical system weight by
eliminating the need for a DI startei-goeeralor. A
transformer-rectifier would be used in this case for
other DC power needs.
The electrical power system on the helicopter may
thus be based upon such power sourc= or conversion
devices as:
I. AC or DC generators driven by:
a. The main rotor power transmission system
b. Engine accessory drives
c. Constant speed drives (speed controlled by
hydraulic or mechanical torque convertcr)
d. Constant-speed turbines (speed controlled
by air or gas turbines)

2. Ifivetciis
3. Transformer-rccufiers

4. Batteries.
The selection of the type of system as well as characteristics of the components of the electrical system
are discussed further in the paragraphs that follow.
7-1.2 SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
The type of electrical power source generally will
have been selected d'urirng preliminary design (see
Chapter 7, AMCP 706-201). During the detail design
phase, it is necessary to confirm this selection and to
define the distribution and utiliaation systems.
Detail design begins with the specifications for the
particular helicopter, which typically spell out:
I. The design gross weight (i.e., the weight of I.,e
primary mission payload plus the empty weight, including mission-essential equipment)
2. The maximum Performance capabilitim of the
rcraft at its design gross weight
3. The specific primary power source(s) and the
power conversion methods
4. The specific utilization equipment, which will
include lights, displays, communication equipment,
avionics, fire control, and additional electrically
powered equipment such as hoists.
While the set of utilization equipment components
is typically defined in the specifications, numerous
options may still be exercised. For example, it may be
left to the discretion of the designer as to whether ans
7-1

fiMCP 705-202-

auxiliary power unit is to be included. The trade-off

analyses involved in system selection are dis-ussed in
Chapter 7. AMCP 706-201. Approximate weights of
the various electrical system components or typical
weights per unit output are presented with that discussion. Only upon analysis of all secondary power
requirements and systen,m will it be possible to determine whether or not the requirements for enginestarting, and other secondary power, would be better
served by an APU or by an electrical source,
In general, duplicate primary electrical power
sources will be required. The electrical utilization
load will be split betwetn the sources, being distributed on two busses such that the total load will
nri I be more than hAlf the capacity of the total source.
Thus, in the event if failure of one source, automatic
paurP.eling will enable the remaining source to supply
all the electrical pows! required.
In addition, an "euek:tial" bus must be provided,
All components vital to the safe operation of the helicopter under night and instrument conditions must
be connected to this bus. In the event of the complete
failure of the primary source, the emergency source
(battery) must provide power to this bus typically for
20. min of operation with a IL'* reserve. suoh a specification for the oatttry powered emergency bus
typically will require the insta'lation of a battery
charger/analyzer in the system. This unit is daigned
to insure that the charge is maintained and monitoted and that the power from the primary source is
distributed properly during normal c,#cration
between the utilization load and battery charging.
To illustrate the level of input detail given to thc
designer at the outset, the system specification may
delineate the electrical system for a particu*4r
helicopter -

i.e., the primary AC power source shall

be two 400-cycle, three-phase 120- to 208-V AC

generators mounted on the accessory gearbox, that

primary DC sll be supplied by two transformerrectifiers, and that emergency power shall be
provided by a nickel-cadmium battery with st'fficient capacity to supply power for 20 min of fligu.t
with a 10% reserve. This battery load includes an inverter to provide essential AC needs. Also specified
nar the requirements for lighting, communications,
navigation equipment,
s
and other utilization
meat components.
Even with such characteristics predetermined, it
&mnains for the designer to select components that
meet the applicable, specification and to insure that
the electrical chara-teristics of the overall system conform to the requirements of MIL-STD-704. Substantiation of the system design shall include a load
MILE-716.4.
analsisinwithacor~ncewit
7analysis
2rdtncein
MIL-E-7016.
m

7-2

7-1.3 LOAD ANALYSIS

The information and general format rmquired for
electrical load analysis are given in MIL-E-7016;
however, the requirements may be modified slightly
(particularly for automated systems) to fit each. program. For instance, the specification requircs that the
form be as indicated, but this can be modified to fit
the format for automated equipment. One page can
comprise the equipment list, equipment description,
parts designation, and electrical ratings, while the
next sheets can obtain the acutal calculations, with
the pages folded such that the columns match the preceding sheet when unfolded. Th,paragraph that pertains to operating times can be revised to matc~i more
closely the modern generator overload times; i.e., 5
sec, 5 rain, and continuous instead of 5 sec, 2 min,
and 15 min. MIL.E-7016 requires that phase-toground identification be A-N, B-N, C-N, etc., and
this can be modified to A. B, C, and D, with D being
the neutral leg of a three-phase four (4) wire system.
However, an explanaeory note must be included; and,
because dclta-conniocted loads arc rare in modern
helicopters, a code also can be established for this
situation and explained. MIL-E-7016 gives the formulp for powcr factor. Usually, this ihiformiation is
obtained from the equ-pment manufacturer or by actual measurement; however, the formula in MIL-E7016 may be used. The formula for determining
single-phase and three-phase power factors PF ib;
connected watts
PF (7-1)
(connected watts), + (connected VARS)'
where
VARS volt-amperes, reactive
The time intervals for the analysis can be modi,-*.

4.-e
;, .... U

...

..

V~ .

.-

-.

rnfic n 'Ar,in

tenths of a second increments, 5 min i. hundieths of

a minute, and 15 min in hundredths of a minute may
be used.
7.1.4 LOAD ANALYSIS PREPARATION
The load analysis, as defined by MIL-E-7016, can
be written, typed, or presented as an automated
printout.
From the beginning of a new helicopter dcsign, a
complete elect.ical load file must be kept for each
piece of equipment. Ideally, a printed file card should
be made, allowing jpace for the following information:
I. Name of equipnent
2. Equipment part nui,,ber
3. Rated voltage (normal operating)
pha) Type of voltage (DC, AC, single- or three-

...

tl

AMCP 706-202
5. Ampere per wire

6. Volt-amperes (normai operating)

us

7.Power factor (normal operating)7111

"8.Watts (normal operating)
-'

9. Volt-amperes (emergency conditions, if applicable)[

10. Power factor (emcrgt.ncy conditions, if applicable)

II. Watts (emergency condition, if applicable)

12. Opcrating time

13. Source of the above information

individually and recorded on a file card. For an auto-

mated systcin, a computer can do the necessary calculations as a teparate run, or they can be submitted
Ifom the rtabulation print-out.
After the lilt is as complict as possible, it then is
necessary to assign cE-h component a power bus in
_-.-

Sportent

aIn'Ck1'.
*

sIyaS.Clil~It*~lll
IlII1

OJE
PANSFQUALj

MhiU it
U *UiI

,,151200 -I
*<1

I-

INVERTER

It

_o

NoXI

28 V DC

.US

"-

15 200V'

AC BUSN.2

INV

Most of the prctcJing data can be obtained from

the equipment menoufacturer. In addition, the manufacturer of each piece of equiiment should be required to supply a component load analysis.
After manufacturer-provi&:d data are recorded.
the remaihing information can be calculated. For a
nonautomated sysiem, the calculations can be made

V AC
5 No 1

No 2

N,,

28VDC

NBUS
2

N0

Ek-.

Lf2

POIN,
PYACtLJ

SIAARIth,6ENL"0A

referer, e item number.

FIgure 7-1.
7-1.5 MANUAL FORMAT
When preparing a manual load analysis, the figare
examples of MIL-E-7016 can be used.
A sample power distribution systtm is shown in
Figs. 7-1 and 7-2. The generator moanting and drive
data and power source output data examples are selfexplanatory.
The AC load equipment and AC power source utilization analysis charts frum MIL-E-7016 can be
combined on one chart for each helicopter AC power
bus. See Figs. 7-3 and 7-4 for sample AC load
analysis charts. The equipment components are to be
arranged alphanumerically.
The typical transient nnalysis is requ'red only for
extreme transient loads, and, with modern generator
ratings, may not be required at all
The engine starting requirements data must b.
shown even though the helicopter is started only on
ground power and data does not appear in the "Start
and Warm up" columre of the load anslysis chart. The
information will be used to determine the ground
starting power supply requirements.
If s battery is used in the helicopter, a chart must
be included that shows a theoretical charging factor
versus time of operation. This chart wil! depend upon
the type and size of the battery to be used, as well u
the design of the battery charger.

Typical DC Power Dlstribudts System

7-1.6 AUTOMATED FORMAT

For an automated format, the same information is
required. The program may be written so that calculations are done automatically as the load analysis
is b,-Ing processed. The information then can be
chaM.kL. , and be,$ t.,i, giv,-, ,-','';
. A
typical automation flow chart is shown in Fig. 7-5.
I. this example, a two-card system is used. The
first card contains the following information:
I. Bus
2 System
3. Item number
4. Equipment name
5. Part number
6. Volts
7. Power factor
8. Volt amperce.
The second card contains:
1. Bus
2. System
3. Item number
4. Number of units
5. Phase assignment
6. Notes.
7.3

AMCP 7OC2O2

1115/200
ABU

&4S No.1Vo

b!AC

TRANISFOR ER
_lf111

fR
RECTIFIE

.2VDC
BUS No. 2

BU

7F

28 V ()
BUS No.I

Figure 7-2. Typical AC Power Distribution Systeus

Ill UUUiUUII.

~ ~

Uih a9~wi3U wUiUi i~tlWudU

'

,*

K~ J1II

min. and 15-win averagcs for:

1. Start and warmup
2. Taxi
3. Takeoff and climb
4. Cruise
5. Combat cruise
6. Descent and landing
7. Emergency.
The third card shown on thc flow chart is for programming purposes only.
With an automated system, changes can be madce
readiiy, new printouts requested as needed, and individual bus totals obtained at any time during the
design of the helicopter.
Wi'L' both the automated and manual systems,
each bus must be totaled separately.

7-1.
ARYbattery
SUM
7-1.
ARY5.
SUM
Included in each load analysis shell be a summary
of rvsults, which will include a brief summary of
generating, rectifying, transforming, and battery
capabilatics, compared with maximum, average, and
emergency loads. The summary will include any
special, limiting, or marginal operating conditions
that may exist. The sumnmary will be brief and conicise, and indicate clearly the helicopter power system
true conditions.
7-4

M fl

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mois.Jin

7-2.1 GENERAL
In the detail design of the electrical syltem, certain
fundamental criteria must be followed in order to insure proper selection of power-generation equipment
and motors and their applicability to electromechanical energy conversion requirements.
Before selection of the electrical rotating cornponenta, certain decisions are necessary. These
decisions, which may be preliminary, will form the
bases for trade-offs related to the optimization of the
entire electrical systemi. These considerations should
include the following as a minimum:
1. AC or DC. system
2. AC systems - constant or variable frequency
3. Applicable power quality requirements, e.g.,
MIL-STD-704
4. DC systems - engine starting roquirements and
capacity restrictions
Electrical load analyses, includinS any additional load imposed upon the generator by feeder
losses
6. Generators -- characteristics of the prime
mover; speed or speed range, torque limits, overhand moment (weight) restrictions, and vibration and
shock environments
7. Rotating comnponents - details of the installation, including envelope restrictions (length, diameter. tool clearunces, removal clearances, etc.), te-~-

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3 TOTALS

Figure 7-4. Example AC La"s Analysis Format

--

.i-.

The exciter functions so as to supply DC to the

min&! blocks and/or connector restrictions,
main field winding. T-he poles are on the Ftator and
temperaturealtitude environment, availability, and
on a disturbed widing in dlots on the r, or, Both
characteristics of air or liquid cooling
members are laminated, as in the. main _ncrator.
S. Adequate systemo growth - designer mrust con1 n C'.9iatuf A3 4"A tvk'irUGA~tU&, UAnd Provides LO% tv
ocurcc.
a
power
aetecting
ad-r future growth when
main field through a bridge of rotating rectifiers.
the
ALERNTOS)
7-22 C GNEATRS
7-2, AC ENERTORS(ALTRNATRS)In order to achiove a self-sufficient generator ovie not depndent upon any external power source
An AC power source capable of insuring a power
for excitation power - a permanent-magnet pilot exby
specified
that
than,
quality equal to, or better
MIL-STD-704 can be achieved best by utilizing the
citer completes the lc~tsical portion of the AC
g-Derator. This generates either polyphase or singleattributes of the conventional salient-pole. synchronAC power, which is rectified either within the
our aterntorphase
The heheopter AC generator is comprised of the generator (stationary rectifiers mounted within the
niain generator, an exciter, and, in the mejority of generator case) cr in the voltag#- regulator (Jpar.7-4) to
provide DC excitation power to the exciter. Decases, a permanient-magnect pilot exciter sharing a
pending upon system requirements, the magnetic
common housing and shaft. Modern-day alternators
pilot exciter may provide control power, protective
are brushloss; 6:.I,, no brushes, slip rings, or commucircuitry, or operational power necessary for proper
tatots are employed,
functioning of the distribution system.
7-2.2.1 Electrhca Desigc
7.2.2. Mecbmalcal Desig
The main generator consistt of a stator and a rotor.
AC generators are. housed in either aluminum ur
uniare
The stator is built of steel laminations that
housings. The selaction of housing
magnecsiunt
the
co'itaan
and
periphery
inner
the
orn
formily slotted
output w~ndings. Thesw windin. are connected in a material is dictated by weight and/or vibration
requirements. Lamination eteel for the magnetic cirnormal three-phase., (our-wire mnrnnrcr, and are discuit iseither a silicon or co~balt alloy. The latter conplacrd so as to minimize distortion of the output
struction results in a relatively expenisive generato.,
lamiiof
oonsists
field
voltage wavefrmn. The iotor or
but provides a weight advar~tage o' almost M0over a
the
and
"pol,s".
form
to
as
wo
lunched
nations
system using silicon st*.tl punching..
nuniber ef poles and the rpm fix the output froPrac~ical generator speeds range from 6000 to 12,quency. The main field winding is wound on the rotor
rpm for 400-Hz output. Variblefrequency
000
the
Je
prcivi
poles @ad is excited with DC. This
in ratings to 120 IrVA art paT~ical to
machines
sufliciunt
provide
to
necessary
mafutiomotive force
spews of 20,000 rpm. Applications of 6W0 to 12,000
lUMe of force (flux) In the magnet circuit of the main
rp'q require grauz~-lubricated ball bearings with
gaweator for adequate, all-load-condition, voltag
bearing lives of MW0 hr in an aveane helicopter en2W.1iuron,
7-6

Vil

Vl

__

_-_.__

7-2.23

DESIGN DATA
EQUIPMEN
CHARACTERI_,_os
TIS-

CARD LOAD
., ,1DSORT

IPT
TAPE

were not considered. In the case of blast-coo!cd

generators, inlet airflow and pressure-altitude
characteristics of the separate forced-air supply must
be defined adequately in order tis.al'ovi proper use of
a gcnerator cooled in this manner. Cooling-air
temperature versus altitude and ambient tempcrature
data are vital aspects of an adequate cooling specif.cation as discussed in MIL-G-6099. Contaminant

EDIT LISTING

--.

ERRORS
DETECTED

Cooling

Cooling, a primary requirement in an AC generator specification, may be accomplished by air or by

liquid. Both air-coaled and oil-cooled generators are
for helicopter applications.
For air-coolcd generators, either self-cooling or
blast cooling may be employed. In the case of selfcooling, an integral fan is located on the rotor of the
machine, and diffusers or baffling are employed to direct the air over the hot internai surfaces. If the in.
stallation is such that ducting is provided to the fan
inlet, the pressurz-flow characteristics of this ducting
must be considered so that all through-generator airflow requirements are met. A self-cooled generator
that exhibits good performance in the laboratory may
burn up on the airframe because duct restrictions

EUIO
1 0ORMATIONemploked
W

EDIT INPUT

706-202

_olingAMCP

lprotectiorn of cooling air is required.

Oil-cooled generators fall into two categories,

conduction-cooled and spray-coaled. Oil-cooled
with inlet oil tempe,-atures
generators are practical
from -65' to 330 0 F.

YES
CANCEL RUN

"Inthe conduction-cooled generator, oil is circulated through closed passages in the housing and
rotor shaft. Cooling is obtained by conduction of
heat to the oil from the hot windings. The bearings
use the oil for lubrication as well as for cooling, and
rotating seals are required. The weight of the

ic n- .-. . .

h- - ,-

that of the air-cooled generator.

TAPE

LOAD ANALSSI
REPOR

Figure 7-5. Typical Autoration Flow Charl

vironm-nt. Oil lubrication of bearings generally is
necessary tor generator speeds in excess of 15,000
rpm. Bearing life in excess of 10,000 hr has br-n

~) achieved in helicopter generators using oil I

i-

cation. A typical oil-lubricated bearing AC gene Ator

is shown in Fig. 7-6.

In the spray-cooled generator, the cooling oil, in effect, is sprayed directly on the windings. This rest-its
in an improvement in heat transfer, along with a
weight reduction of approximately 15% compared to
the air-cooled or cgnduction-oil-cooled generator. To
date, all spray-oil-cooled generators have been
applied to 400-Hz sy:tems, and operate at 12,000
rpm. For comparison assume a 90-kVA rating; a
modern air-cooled generator using magnesium
housing and cobalt alloys weighs approximately 90
lb. A spray-cooled generatnr with the same rating
weighs 55 lb. A generator weight of approximately
0.5 lb per kVA is aciicvable with apray cooling. If

spray cooling is used, it is necessary to zcavenge the

generator cav:ay, i.e.. to remove excess oil fesulting
from spraying of the windings.
7-7

TTRT

AM-'P

Figure 7-6. Typical AC Generator with Oil-lubricated Berrings

7-2.2A4

I7.

App~lcation Checklist

The criteria that follow should be considcred in the

dtaian of all AC generators. This is a minimum list of
characteristics that must be defined and adapted to a
given application:
I. Rating:
a. kVA at required power factors
b. Voltage at terminal&
c. Phases
d. Frequency
2. Speed, rpm
3. Maximum weight
4. Envelope, diamiemF, and length
S. Mounting detals
6. Cooling requirements

\2.

Applicable Military Spocificatkicas regarding

I' . Waveform
12. Performance requirements under unbalanced

load conditions.
7-2.2.5 Variable-frequency AC Generators
Variable-frequency generators are practical in
ratings to 120 kVA at speeds to 20,000 rpm. The
previous discussions relaive to mechaniacl design,
cooling, and application checklist generally are applicable also to the variable- frequency g--ncrator.
There are twe significant performancne characteristics peculiar to the variablc-frcquency generator
that should be considered prior to its application:
1. Voltage transient performance at high speed
Voltage regulation problems over a wide speed

range.

generator and/or system performance, eleciromagneti; interfcience, vibration, etc.

8, Minimum africiency
9.Overloads and time at each overload

Voltage transient performanice at high speed for a

wide-speed-range generator (e.g., 1.S: 1)can result in
severe system problems. This is because the
maximeum voltage attainable from the gcnerator t

circuit

tainable at the low speed. Upon application of load,

10. Short-circ, tit cturrent capacity

7-8

and time at short-

the high speed isthe speed range times the voltage at-

AMCP 706-202
severe d~ps in system voltage could be experienced.
Wihregard tovoltage regulation, whnaspeed
range approaches or exceeds approximately 2.5:1,
high-speed instability c~n result. Because the regulator is called upon to adjust from an overload at low
sped
t noloadoWading power factor loads at high
orde

of 5:1.portnce.Theweight

7-43 SrARmF/GENERATORS, DC
CKNERATORS AND STARTERS
Stawe-of-thc art DC systanms for helicopter applications are designed for operation at a nominal 28
V. with power quality defined in accordance with the
requirsmnuas of MIL-STD-704. For the majority of
applications, advantage is taken of the volumetric efficiency and lightweight properties of the DC
starter/generator. Nevertheless, there exiit many
applications that, for various reasons, eniploy both, a
DCgenerator and DC. starter:
The construction of the DC startcr/generator i,
'

~comprised of a rotating artnature and stationary

field.d The armature is constructed of Aistack of steel

a"laminations uniformly slotted on the outer periphery; the power windingV art connected to the coinmutator and are placed into the slots. The stationary
field consists of laminated main poles, interpoles, and
a solid steel field ring to which the poles arc attached
on tlhe Imner peziphery,

LOn

the main poles are wound the main field win-

dinga, connected either in parallel (shunt) or in series

with the armature winding. The interpole coils are
conn, -led in series with the armature. A fourth winding - distributed in slots, placed in the pole faces,
and connected in series to tht armature - serves to
support the main field and to overcomec the do.
magnetizing effects of an armature reaction to the
magnitic field set up by load currents flowing in the
*armature winding. This winding is termed the coinpensatieg winding, and generally is employed with
gencertor ratings of 200 A or more.
The starter/generator nornuilly require a fifth
winding consisting of a single turn in stries with the
armature and wound on the main, poles. This winding, during starter operation, aids in increaing the
torque output per limpere of input current. Some
manufacturers leave thii, winding connected during
geerator operation an a differential compound windigthat aids in the tagulation over fte load and
snpeedi range.
The discussion of the mechianical construction of

the AC generator is applicable generally to the DC

starter/genierator as.Ioretochvethe lightest
possible weight without sacrificing mechanical integrity, both aluminum t.nd magnesium are used for
housing materials, the choice being related directly to
th:ehria
nvironinefltrequirements.
advantage of a DC starter/
gnrtremp3oying this high-permeability material,
cmaetoaunit employing silicon stiedl punchings,
isof the order of 20*.
The starter/generator normally operates from
stand-still to speeds of 6000 rpm in irelation to starter
mode operating speeds. For genefator operation, it
ordinarily '-overs a speed range of approximately 2:1.
with 3000 ryi. i the usual minimum speed. and seldom
is applied whta- maximum speeds exceed 12,000 rpm.
State-of-the-art DC istarter/generators generally
employ greasL-lubricated ball bearings. For hclicopter usage, thz bearing life generally falls between
1000 and 3000 hr.
The brushes that ride on the commutator and cn
duct the current from the pwe surc - in the case
of the starter - and to the load - in the case of the
generator - are made normally of carbon and
copper. Because of altitude requiriements, the brushes
are treated with u compound (such as molybdenum
disulfide) in order to provide the necessry filming
characteristics under c jnditions of low oxygen and
moisture. For starter/genecrators, brush life is limited
to 5M00D10 hr, depending upon the severity of thec

start. For those applications requiring Senerrtor

operation only, brush lives of up to 2000 hr arc po. sihe..

Air cooling of the DC starter/generator and
generator is standard prazf~ice. Contan~i~nn" pro.
tection of this cooling air ic required. This cooling
may be accomplished by integral fan (self-cooling),
by blatt cooling, or by a combination of the two. Pre.cautions are necessary in order to define the cooling
conditions adequately. Becmuse of the problem of
providing adequate heat transfer from the-brushes
and commutator to the oil, oil cooling seldom is em.
Pioyod.
Following is a checklist of minimum in'.ormatic
noo.esaary in order to dcfine ad1equately &stafter/
generator for a given application:
1. Engine type and manufactukcr
2. Intended installation
3. Envelope requirements (diameter and length)
4. Maximum allowable weight
5. Maximum alIawabke overhand moment
6. Engine mounting
details

7-9

AMCP 706-202
23. Percentage of maximum generator output used

7. Applicrble specifications, if any

at engine cruising speed

8, Type of cooling - blest, self, or other

a. If blast cooling, prc.surc available
b. Temperature of air
9. Ambient temperature range
10. Altitude requirementsi
II. Direction of rotation facing engine pad
12. Engine to starter/gener.dtor pad gear ratio
13. Power sapply for starting:
a. Battery, type and voltage
b. Giound power unit, type and .altage
14. Engine torque versus speed curves for standard
conditions and -65 0 F (or the lowest applicable
temperature), plus a notation of whether or not thtsc
curves include accessories and gearing
IS. Engine light-off speed if not shown on curves
16. Starter cutoff speed if not shown on curves
17. Maximum allowable time to light-off speed

24. Voltage regulator type and applicable specification.

For engine starting, either a ground power supply
or aircraft battery is used. Ground power supplies
generally are of the constant-current type, and provide the best power source available for engine starting. In the majority of helicopter applications, where
starter/generators are used, aircraft batteries are employed for starting. The batteries are rated 24 V and
are either silver-zinc cr nickel-cadmium (par. 7-3). If
multiple batteries are used, they may be connected
parallel or in series to provide the desired starting
characteristics, but consideration must be given to
the applied torque vs generator shaft shear section
and the engine gearing limitations.
A typical startcr/gcnerator used in helicopter ap-

18. Maximum allowable time to cutoff speed

19. Starter/generator pad rpm at engine idle

plications is shown in Fig. 7-7.

20. Starter/generator pad rpm at minimum cruising

7-2.3.2

DC Generators

speed
21. Starter/generator pad rpm at maximum engine

The helicopter DC generator is identical electrically and mechanically to the DC starter/generator,

speed
22. Required generator output and vo!ftge under
all speeds in range of regulation

with the -xception that, generally, no series turn is

ciployAd ou thc main ficid winding.
The preceding discussion relative to mechanical

0K

,I

3
SCALE - IN.

,.

DC Starter/Generator

1Fitre 7-7.

7-10

1'

:' r''

'

'

:,

,"

,,

K.

AMCP 706-202
design, speed rang, beatings, hrushts and cooling
also are applicable here. It is suggested that reference
be made to MIL-G-6162 as a guide for specification
preparation.
A typical blast-cooled DC generato., is shown in
Fig. 7-8.
7-.3.3 DC Starters
With the advent of the DC starter/generator, the
DC starter now has limited application. In the past,
the majority of applications were found on heli.
copiers employing reciprocating engines, and, therefore, these starters were designed for crankink sCr.
vice rathcr than for the type of starting service required by the turbine engine. For cranking. the
starter operates at a nearly fixed speed until engine
ligh,-off. Present-day starters are designed for starting the turbine engine, and the starter operates over
a speed range of 0-20,000 rpm.
The DC starter/motor is quite similar, electromechanically, to both the DC generator and the DC
starter/generator. Ordinarily, often three windings
are used, as opposed to the five windings often

empioyed in gcncriurb. Th, 5tt v ii, ai ",IioIIof't"'

')
-

~,

lease rate of storage batteries is a matter of common

practical knowledge. The engine.startilSg cApability
of a fully chariged battery in a 70F environ.ntnt is reduced to 27% after the battery has been stabilized in a
commonly experienced -25F environment.
Experience has shown that the probability of a
successful 0*F start capability decreases rapidly as
the level of the battery charge decreases.
Gas turbine starting problems are not restricted
solely to the low end of the temperature spectrum. A
less obvious, but very real, problem is encountered at
the high end of tha temperature range. The hot start,
in which the temperature within the turbine exceeds
the safe operating rantije for turbine materials, is encountered all too frequently in high ambient temperatures during the starting sequence of gas turbinepowered helicopters. The hot start can be caused by a
number of conditions. A battery that is not charged
sufficiently and improper fuel control adjustments
are two conditions that can lead to critical hot-start
problems. Another cause of hot starts is the timelapse needed to accelerate the engine from light-off to
ille speed. The net result of hot starts, whatever the
cause, is premature engine failurc. Evmi thiigh a a1',
'

main field with the armature and interpole winding

provides the highest torque per ampere of current,
and lends itself to use with battery power supplies,
As in the starter/generator and generator,
starter/motors employ grease-lubricated ball bearings. Brushes usually are .of the low-contact drop
type, and contain a high percentage of metal so as to
minimize voltage drop at the high currents required
by the starting cycle. Because of the short duty cycle
requirements, an integral fan provides required
cooling,
Thc DC starter/motor serves no function after
starting the engine; therefore, design provisions to
disconnect it from the engine accessory drive must be
made. This usually isaccomplished by a mechanica!ly
or electrically operated jaw engaging and disengaging mechanism.
A turbine engine starter is shown in Fig. 7-9.

start might not result in an imanediate and catastrophic engine failure, it will shorten the times
between engine overhauls, thereby increasing helicopter operating costs.
The characteristics of electrical starting systems
(and starter/generator systems) for turbine engines
generally are such that maximum torque is delivered
from the starter/motor to the turbine upon the initiation of the starting sequence. Starter/motor output
torque decreases approximately as a straight-line
function at increased turbine speeds, with the
starter/mr3tor torque reaching a very low value at
starter/motor cutoff. The starter/motor is designed
to have a stall torque capability exceeding the torque
limit of !he engine accessory drive system.
Adding a boaot feature to the electrical starting
system provides an additional supply of starting

7-22.4 Boost Starting System

Modern military practices dictate the use. of
turbine-powered helicopters for a variety of reasons,
one of which is their ability to use completely unprepared terrain for takeoff and landing. Therefore, deployment of helicopters away from airfield support
functions is common. Deployment in hcO or cold
temperature environments having no APU or ground
power facilities requires t.Oat batteries not lose their
gas turbine engine-start (apabilities.
The effect of cold temperature on the energy re-

c-ptually, the boost power is obtained from a combination of gas generator and gas motor, and by
coupling the gas motor with the electrical starter/
motor. This boost feature is a supplement to, and in
no way is intended as an alternative for, the electrical
starting system. Even though the added feature is
used only occasionally, the components added to the
electrical starter, or starter/generator system, nevertheless must be taken into account, and their effect
must be established upon such elements as overhand
moment, vibration characteristics, operation of the
system in a generating mode, and the overall physical

energy for extraordinary starting situations. Con-

7-Il

Figure 7-.

Biast-aemled DC Guemmfor

Figure 7-9. DC Starter Motor With Solemold-opersted Switch

7-12

CA.-

Flgure 7-10. Prototype Cartridge-boosted EPeiurkal Starter System

constraints of specific engine installation. Prototype
*hardware
is shown in Fig. 7-10.
MOORSvironmental
7-2. ELETRICL
7-2.

.-

7)
..

ELETRICL
MOORSuniversally

Electrical motors for use in helicopter el.ectrical

systems may be either AC or DC, depending upon
the primary power source sekocted. AC motors in use
are almost universally of the squirrel-cage induction
type. They may be three-phase or single-phase, wvith
the number of phase to be used being governed prin.
cipally by motor size and by the characteristic* of
typical load requiremenfts.
The squirrel-cae induction motor compfnss a
laminated statoi - identical in configuration to that
employed in the AC generator - and a'laminted
rotor. The rotor has slots on the outer peri~hery containing either copper or cas-. aluminum bars - shortcircuited on both ends - with end rings of the same
material so as to form, ultimately, what resemble3 a
cage. The input winding is contained ini the
stator slots and maty be wound threve-phaze or two-

'squirrel

\ phase.

Housing materials maylbe either aluminum or

magnesium, depending ~upon weight and enconsideratimis, and bearings are almost
of tho groaeiawbricated ball variety. For
the specification of ti~c AC motor, the best guide is
contained in MIL-NI-799,
The factors involved in construction of the DC
generator generally apply also to the DC motor, with
the ex~ception that seldom, if ever, arc pole face compensating windings employed. Depending upon tbhe
load, the DC motors may be used in series, shunt, or
compcund winding configuraiions. For very small
motors, pcrrnanent-magnet fields are employed in
place of the shunt or series field windings. MIL-M8609 is recommended as a guide for specifiution
preparation.
In general, the electrical motor may be termed a
torque device, inasmuch as a certain volume of iron
and copper is required to produce a given torque. The
sizz ot the motor is dictated by the torque requirements. For helicopter applications, where size and
operate
weight are at a premium, it is normal to
7-13

S400

motors at high spoeds in order to obtain a high power

output (power equals the product of torque and
speed) pet unit volume. This, fundamentally, is why
the majority of aircraft AC power systems operate on
rather than
W0Ha power usually
em40- Hit forahr
tndhsnrial thj 60nHzcowerial
usea. Hmplyayd for industrial and commercial uses. Highspeed operation poses certain problems in bearing
and/or brush life, which, when couplea with the fact
that the airframe itself has a relatively short life, resuit in overhaul rates measured in hundreds of hours,
rather than in the 10-20-yzar life rates considered
normal in industrial and commercial ground applications.
High-speed, high-power-per-unit-volume operalion points up the design parameter that usually determines the size of the helicopter electrical motor.
Increased losses follow increased power output, and
the size of the motor must be adequate to dissipate
these losses without exceeding motor material
.temperature limits. It follows that the availability of
effective cooling directly affects motor size. High altitudes, with low air density, will decrease the cooling
available from a fail. High ambient temperatures rethe he.. urm,':fer and add to the mofOr tot
temperature. Also, there is a significant amouat of
beat generated in tlc rotating member of the motor
during acceleration from standstill; and if repeated
starts are made, motor temperatures rise 5ignificantly. Another significant item is the effect of voltage
and/or frequency variation on motor life and size.
These items must be accounted for in the design so
that, under the worst conditions, the motor continues
to produce the required speed at the spv Tfied torque.
This means that, for all other conditions, the motor
will be operating at high-speed, high-power output

7-2.5.1 AC to DC Convetters
Devices for converting AC into MCare of two
basic types: rotary and static. Rotary systems may be
either AC-driven motor-generators or synchronous
econverters. The
latter are essentially DC generators
in which slip rings have been connected to the armature winding by equidistant taps. The synchronous
converter, in effect, combine the functions of an AC
drive motor input with those of a DC-generator output, although with less flexibility in voltage and
power-factor control than the motor-generator combination. Converters typically are cheaper, more efficient, and more compact than corresponding
motor-gcnerat-'rs. It is important, however, that they
operate as near to unity power-factor as possible
since their "rating", i.e., relative output, decreases
rapidly wiih decrease in power-factor. Table 7-1 displays this relative output relationship for various
power factors and number of phases. Converters also
must be synchronized with the input AC supply.
The relationships between the AC and DC voltages
and currents are functions both of the power-factor
and the number of phases (hence, number of Elip
rings). Converters may bc singic-phnasc, il whiuia nb

there are two slip-rings und two slip-ring taps per

pole pair; three phase, in which there are three sliprings and three taps per pole-pair; and so on.
However, because of the sensitivity of the output to
the total number of phases, converters usually arc
operated with six phases. With a sine-wave input voltage, the DC voltage is the peak of the diametrical
AC voltage, the latter being the voltage between any
two diametrically opposed taps.

At unity power factor and a typical 95% efficiency,

the DC and AC currents are equal with three slip
of input power, the larger the motor that is required.
rings; with six slip rings, the DC current is twice the
The electrical motor also is Atorque device in the
AC current.
sense that
andimposed
power by
input,
etc., This
are direct
results
of thespeed
conversion firom units
torque
AC to(TRU).
DC is accomplished
the load.
leads
byStatic
transformer-rectifier
The rectifier
to use of motor speed torque curves. These curves
concept essentially acts to block conduction during
arue,smplyothr sequilibrium opetiorquecu
.
these
cone-half
of the reversing alternating current. Thus,
are
current is unidirectional, but only during one-half of
motor. The
a peed, current, power input, etc,
the sine-wave cycle. B3 combinift, two units and a
those values that occur when the motor operates ata ii
center tap from a transformer, rectification throughgiven torque.
out the full sine-wave can be achieved. A smoothing
inductance connected in series with the load in such a
device effectively smooths out the wave peaks to a
relatively small pulsating rippt e.
7-2.5 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM CONVERSION
In practice, most rectifiers c.mploy bridge circuits
The typical helicopter requires both AC and DC
to achieve such ful-wave rectification; however, the
power. Therefore, the ability to volnvert one to the
active components of which may be diodes or
other as needed also is required. Various types of dethyristors (silicone-controlled rectifiers). The output
vices are available by which this conversion can be
rulti are a series of square current pulses, which
effected,
together produce a continuous current output. Ripwin, high"
e.

7-14

hg., -'-

9|a

AMCP 7

--

-_

-202
_

TABLE 7-1. OUTPUTS OF CONVERTERS RELATIVE TO

CONTINUOUS-CURRENT GENERATOR
CONTINUOUS-

SINGLE-PHASE

THRLE-PHASE

FOUR-PHASE

SIX-PHASE

CURRENT
GENERATOR

CONVERTER

CONVERILR

CONVERTER

CONVERTER

100

85

132

161

194

95.5

100

78

120

145

170

90

100

74

109

128

145

POWIR-FACTOR, %

100

ole voltages in the DC output can be avoided by the

use of polyphase input supplies.

7-3 BATTERIES
In general, battery selection is based upon battery

MIL-STD-704 specifies that utilization equipment

requiring ar. AC input of 500 volt-amperes (VA) or
more and a 28 V DC output of 5 A or less shall use
static conversion, unless it is designed sp-cifically for
use with DC generators.

characteristics, electrical characteristics of generators

and associated controls, utilization loads, and cartain assumptions in unrcraft operations.

DC to AC Converters
Devices for converting DC into AC also fails into

Nickel-cadmium and silver-zinc storage batteries

preserntly :r used in aircraft eiectricai sybicvis.a.-

two fundamental classes: rotary and static. The

rotary class are basically the same types of devices
used in AC-DC conversion - they may be either
motor-generator sets or synchronous converters; the
synchronous converter having the capability of operating on DC and converting into AC. In this condition they are said to be operating inverted and
therefore are known commonly as inverters. In
general, what has been said regarding motor-generators versus synchronous converters remains true here
the inverteirs are more cmlqcrat, cheaer, and more
compact than comparable motor-generator sets. In
this DC-AC mode, however, some suitable electrical
or mechanical speed control must be used since converters tend to "run away" in this condition. (The
highly inductive load weakens the field through
armature reaction and allows the speed to increase.)
For most ordinary, i.e., relatively low-load, appli.
cations the most common DC-AC conversion device
is the static inverter. This is a circuit that alternately
connects the output lines to opposite side of the DC
supply typically via the use of such solid-state components as thyristors. Such semiconductor inverters,
using both thyristors and transistors in three-phase,
full-wave bridge circuits, are in conventional aircraft
inverter in
rotaryupon
and static
use. specific
The choice
castbetween
must depend
such parameters
Sany

electrochemical system has particular service

characteristics. Nickel-cadmium exhibits excellent cycle life and output over a wide range of discharge
rates, and is preferred to other systems for starting
turbine engines. Silver-zinc gives the highest electrical
output per unit weight and volume, but is the most
expensive of batteries and has the shortest cycle life.
Lead-acid is the oldest of the systems, and is used in
helicopter design not requiring main engine starts. It
is well-adapted to most conventional electricai circults requiring mcierate discharge rates. lypical
comparative characteristics are listed in Table 7-2.

S2,5.'.

. as the available input sources, the required output

- chnasacteristics o; the system, and the relative costs
and weights.

"'

7-3.1 BATTERY CHARACTERISTICS

GENERATOR CONTROL
BATTERY CHARGING
Engine-driven generators are subject to variations
in speed in the approximate ratio of 3:1. Thus, a
voltage regulator must be provided in order to maintain constant voltage at high engine speeds. The
generator is dropped off the bus by the reverse
current relay at all lower engine speeds, and the
battery must assume all utilization loads at engine
speeds below the cutoff value. Various generator and
voltage regulctor combinations have been designed
that maintain svrctem voltage down to idling speed.
in
manner
limited,
currentwill
If thethegenerator
dependtheupon
the utiwhicih
battery isischarged
lization load current during a specific time interval.
and upon the state o :barge of the battery in that
period.
7-3.2

-7-15

TABLE 7-2.

"

TYPICAL CHARACTERICS OF 24 V, 34 AH BATERY SYSTEMS

..
E IG H T.

'T
' P EW

- hr / b
W

~~~RETENT
ION
C U RREN T

10-13

50 x CAPACITY

93%

19..;

78

10-13

20 x CAPACITY

90%

12

1.9

34

2530

6 x CAPACITY

17

16

88%

17

1.4

NICKEL-CADMIUM

75

LEAD-ACID
SILVER-ZINC

When the gtnerator output current does not reach

"thecurrent-regulator limit, the battery will charje at

constant voltage. The charging current will be determined by the state of charge of the battery during the
time .intervals considered. When the generator output current tends to exceed the current-regulation
limit, the regulator automatically reduces the
" generator voltage so as to lim;t the current to the
these current
conditions,
value.atUnder
regulated
equalthe
to battery
thc oafa constant
will be cha.rae,
ference between the regulated current and the
utilization-load current. The increase in battery stateof-charge 6, in this ".ase can be computed by the
followinm formula:
A-hrSuch
A-hr

(7-2)

where
Ic
c

- charging current, A
- charging time, min
-

.1,2.

overcharging at constant voltage can result in a condition called *'thermal runaway". This is an un:
controllable rise in battery temperature that ultimatcly will destroy the battery. As the temperature
increases, the effective internal resistance decreases,
permitting ever-higher currents to be drawn from the
constant-voltdge source. This in turn decreases the resistance still further, in an ever-increasing spiral.
the battery
the over-all
In general,
cha-o"n-- ofSOMA"
durinscondition
should
be monritor,,d
lations incorporate control systems (battery conditioner/analyzers) which monitor tewiiperature and
state-of-charge, constantly analyze the geneial battery status, and cut the charging proess on and off ar
conditioas dictate.
systems typically us,; other approaches to
battery-charging, some of which are itemized in
Table 7-3, along with tweir rincipol operational
characteristics.
7-3.3

0.8 - charging efficiency

including battery
When total system loading
charging - exceecs the continuous rating of the
generator, a current regulator limits the output
current to a safe value. This means that the battery
m ust. supply the difference between the utilization
load current and the maximum generator current.
In any case, when the system is operating, the
batte~y is always either charging or discharging at
some rate determined by the demands of the overall
utilization system and the output of the generator.
"The actual conditions of the charging state at any
time are controlled by the generator voltage and
current regulator.
Battery temperature, especially in nickel-cadmium
batteries, should be monitored to prevent overheating, which reduces capacity. A combination of
high battery temperature (i.e., in excess of 150F) and
7-16

" ,

CEtL
VOLTAGE

AT200A,
0 of

AT 2hr
IuIRATE

14DAYS
AT 80"F

CELLS

AT200A,
800F

lb

0.8I

'AE
O F C H A RG . N o . O F

CAPABILITY

TYPE

S-

h /

- h / b-

UTILIZATION LOAD ANALYSIS

I he utilization load assignments should be based

upon the most dcmand;ng conditions likely to be cncountered during operation. For example, it shoud
be assumed that the aircraft is oper, ting at night,
with landing lights used during takeoff, climb, and
landing. Approximate data conoerning the duration
of each load should be known or assumed. To obtain
conservative results from the load analysis, the intermi:tent load peaks usually are considered to occur
concurrently. Despite the short duration, heavy
loading, such as during engine starting, can reduce
the battery capacity sharply and should be considered.
The load analysis is prepared for an arbitrary set of
operating conditions. Too svere a set of conditions
would overburdcn the power system during Fpst
operations. An overly optimistic choce ot conahtions would limit the usefulness of the aircraft. The

AMCP7M
ALTERNATIVE CHARGING METHODS

TABLE 7-3.
METHOD

IF EECTONBA-TFRY PERFORMANCE
OPERATIONAL

MAINTENANCE

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

CHARGERCONSIDERATIONS

SYSTEMCONSIDERATIONS

CHARGED AT CONSTANT
BATTERY
TRUIECONSTANT
POTENTIAL

MAX ELECTROLYTE FAST RECHARGE

055 15LE
LOSSEACHCYCLE

VOLTAGE. INITIAL CHARGE

CURRENTLIMITED ONLYBy
SOURCEANO LINE IMPEDANCE

DOESNOT REGUIRE
CE ES MATCHED CLORELY

BATTIRY TEMIPERATU4RE
REQUIRES
SENSOR

BATTERY
CHARGED AT TEMPERTATURE.COMPENSATED VOLTAGE,
CURRENTLIMITED INITALLY By
CONSIDERATIONS
BATTERY

CON;TANI
POTEN'IAL/
CONSTANT
CURRENT

SIMPLEDESIGN

REQUIRES
W1IE RANGEOE:
POWERHANJILING CAPABILITIES
DOESNOT AM~IRE
FACII [TATE$
ZOOO MATCHING OF CELLS MATCHED CLOSELY
QUICK RECHARGE REOUIRES
CHARGERVOLTAGE TO B1tTTERY
CYIARACTERISTICS TO AVOID
THERMALRUNAWAYOF NICKEL
CADMIUM CELLS

ELECTROLYTE
LOSSEACHiCYCIL

REQUIRESBATTERY
LOGEPTEMPERATU1TE SENSOR
REQ~'IE
MULTI-LEVEL.
CONSTANT
CURPENI

TR CHARGE REDUCEOAS
STT-CAG
NRA;T
STTPFCAG NRAE

Ek- IARGE TINE

THNONAT
OENSTIAL T

EECRLYE
ELOSECITROCYCLE
YETA
OSE~

YIDUCED PUWERCAPABILITY
AS OPPOSEDTO C NWANT
POTENTIALMETHOD)

CELLS MATCHED
REQUIRAES
CLOSELYFORCAPACITY

DTIFFICULT
TI. DETERMINE
OliMuM CHARGE
TERMINATION CONDITION
BATTERY
EPFOIIIRYS
SENSCR
TEMPE[RAYLIRE

CHARGING CONTROLLEDOR
PROGIIAMVIEDSO'HAT EATTLYT
RETURNSTO FULLY CHARGED
ELECTROL
YTE
PEARCHNAGE
1PPC)

PULFIE
CHARGING

I AS' RECHARGI EORSINEATG

PT AC- BATTERYRfCIURNS WHEN BATTERY

FREQUENCYOETERMINED
CURACY OF STATE-OF-CHARGE TO FULLY CHARGEE NOT!YIJILY
SENSING CZVICE. WHICH MUST CONDIitON
CHAkGED;
BE RESETPERIOOICALI.Y TO
NULL OUT ERIRORS

CHARGERPROVIDES REVERISE
CURRENTPULSEAFTEREACH
CHARGING PULSETO CAUSE
DEPOLARIZATION OF BATTERY
ASPLATESTO ALuOWBETTER

ELECTROLYTE
LOSSEACHCYCLE

SOF-TION OP CHARGING
CURRENT

ORAhINUDVC
Q01LIT MONITORING

RQUESCL!MTHD
LSEYORAAIT

REQUIIRES
COMPENSATION
FOR CHARGE EFPFICIENCY
ANDI
POSSIBLYSTANDRYLUJSSES

SHOULD REDUICE
CHARGFTIME
SINCEHIGHER
POWFll
HIGYH
CHARGERATES REQUIRES
C.YPABILITY
CAN BEUSEDAS

REQUIRESCELLSMATCHED
CLOSELYFORCAPACITY

COMPAREDTO
CONSTANT EQ.-

POSSIBLYAEGUInES BATTERY
EPPEC
FOREMOST
REDESIGN,

POSSIBLE
EM, PROBLEM

YTlE__ITII

jSHOULD
REDUCE
C'HARGETIME

PULSED
CONSTANT

CHARGE CONSISTSOF CURRENT

,TJL5ES WHOSEPEAKVALUES MAY
ELECTROLYTE
BE AS HIGH At BOOA. WHILE
CONTROLLING THE DUTY CYCLE LOSSEACH CYCLE
TO OBTAINITHEDESIREDAVERI-

AGEVALUE OPCURRENT

______

choice is, necessarily, a compromise. For most aircraft, the following is sugge~sted:
1. Bittery opcrating temperature, 00 F
2. Duration of flight
3. Night operation.
See Fig. 7-11 for a sample set of utilization loads
roic.
n CUR
basd
b
Es tpialmisin
VY
EN STAiclmsso
R TIN
7-3.4 HE V U RN T R IGinsure
REQUIREMENTS
s\ome aircraft crigine, have starting characteristics

AS COMPARE
TO CON STA:NT)
EYETNTiAL

HIGH POWER
REQUIRES
CAPABILITY

IZATI)N

RQIE
EL
ACE
ACE
EL
RQIE
CLOSELYFOR1CAPACITY
PSIL
PSIL

M
M

RBE
RBE
-

that place severe loads upon batteries, particularly in

extreme low-temperature crnvironimenu, or where the
battery is not used for long periods. Under such cond i~ons, not only is it more difficult to start the
engine, but the battery itself is less active electrochemically, causing the internal resistance to increase greatly.
Additional energy must be incorporated in order to
a reliable system. This can be accomplished by
thec use of parallel-series connected batteries, to sa to
provide a marked increase in the available voltage
7-17

AMP 706-202
- -. f ioq

I~

CURRENT

TAKIING

Ln
c

'IIIPMN

62

62

SIARtLH

150

0.5

150

RELAY-GAIlIER

0.7

-.C

INDICATOR LIGHTS

0.5

0.5

INSTRUMENTS

0.5

0.5

0.2

8.4

POSITION LIGHTS

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

0.7

().7

0.7

cn -Inacj 0,

0.5

0.5

0.5

0. 5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5b.

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.b

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.5

0.1.

0.5

0.5

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0

5.0)

3.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2

0.2.

0.2

I(.4

8.4

8.4

8.4

8.4

8.4

8.4

4.51 4.5

4.3

LANDING LIGHTS

8.4

MISC. ELECTRICAL
CHECK OUTI
RADIO RECEIVER

1 Al.0
4.5

4.5

4.5

RADIO TRANSMITTERI

1 10.5b

2.0

10.b

10.5

20.0

20.0

Figure 7-1M. Sa.mENpCe

-CSIGNIFILtS CONTINUOUS

,n

0.5

I ''=:

0.5

TOTAL UTILIZATION

uCE5

0.7

1.7

c:!

0.7

0.2

(.l,

unI~C. oE

,
.71
0.

5.0

cE

10

INSTRUMENT LIGHTS

LAIN

TAKLOQEF
AND
CLIMB
In E o~
'n I InnE1,n5

ACtJL

4.5

4.5

4.5

20.0

4.5

4.5

11).5

10.5

4.5

10.5 10.5

7.of Ut

VlOzat
LoaT
AL

and current, resulting in a higher power

ongreater torque at thease
c
or
necrod initially in parallel and then switched to series
afterstart.
a predetermined time delay for completion of
the

7/4

7-3.5

7-4.1

Battery maintenance can pose a serious o~pc-

4,5

10.5 lo.b

Igme.I.~m~

MAINTENANCE

20.0

ormv

Dc
should
hos
provide for cas) acci. to remove
o a startell batteri
undwt
eriesational conditions.
Battery installation is de-scribed in par, 7-7.8.

VOLTAGE REGULATION AND

REVERSE CURRENT RELAY,:
DC VOLTAGE REGULATION

DC aencratina .sy.titmn in raG!! h .elireonle con.i.t

rational problem, Becausn of the necessity for

periodic addition of water to the cell electrolyte, the
battery generally is removed from the aircraft on a

of
torwith a serias-field starter, volragea starter/gen
regulator, reverse-current
relay, overvoltage
reluy, field relay, starter relay, and start-control relay.""

scheduled basis, and operational delays thus are cncountered,

Operating water loss results from the two natural
functions of evaporation and electrolytic dissociation. Except at extremely high temperatures, water
loss by evaporation can be considered unimportant.
Dissociation occurs at a relatively constant rate, and
is a function of voltage, current, and temperature.
Higher voltage will increase the overcharge current
and gaising rate (Fig. 7-12). Higher temperatures will
increase losses by evaporation and will lower the potential at which electrolysis occurs. Higher temperatures also will increase the overcharge current when
charging at a constant voltage,
The requirements for battery maintenance must be
considered in locating the battery compartment. The
7-18

One or more of these components may be supplied to

the contractor as Government-furnished equipment
(GFE), and thus will establish some arc.% of the
design.
Military Specifications for a generating system using carbon pile regulators and reverse current
relays- include MIL-C-5026, MIL-R-6106, MIL-G6162, MIL-R-6809, MIL-R-9221, MIL-R-25078, and
MIL-R-26126.
74.1.1 Voltage Regulaior
A voltage regulator designed to incorporate all but
the line contactor functions, and having additional
functions such as feeder fault protection and field
weakeiing for shunt starters, is available. The
Military Specification for voltage regulators of the

'
'"

AMCP 7065202
Wu

-.

,,

"',

S".

_-

'
0
O

r.'

4
G

vide, as an integral pArt of the startcr/generator. a

tachometer generator that enables the iegu!ator to
sense speed, thereby terminating the start at a preis weight
dctcrmined
speed. economy.
The primary advantage of sht-nt
I
A line contactor. designed in accordance with
I

' I "starting
I
I

So

, : .- 4
--Sf

.1 VA

0L

CUNkNI

0F
D

......

Io
i... ,

t2

14

1b

IRa

__-i-.-j'o

......
,
A

Figure 7.12. Gaem Emitted from Nickel-Cadmium

Slitered Plate Cell During Owercarge at
70 0-73F

--

static. type is MIL-R-23761, However, as thi% spcification deals only with voltage regulation and
paralleling, the system designer must consider the
ftiritionlng of voltage regulation. generator paralicling, field weakening for shunt star'ing. line contactor control, engine stirt control, and protection
against reverse current, overvoltagc, overccitation.
startup into shorted bus, and fceder fault.
It is recommended that, whenevcr possible, the
static type voltage regulator be used. Uhe regulator
procurement specification should include all of the
foregoing funi.tions. This will economize on weight
and installation time since separate componcrts will
not be required.
The switching action of som- static voltage regulWtrs has "
app!rc.ti.n probl'0:s. Sw-chinfrequencies that are kept constant, and at values
above 1000 Hz, generally will be above any engine or
generator resonant frequencies. This switching action
also can produce some radio frequency noise; but if
proper switching speeds ard filtering are used, radio
noise can be held to a minimum. Locating the reguiators close to the generator also will serve in keeping
down radiated and conducted interferences.
The use of shunt starters with field weakening is a
recent approach to turbine engine starting. The
regulators sense the voltage on the starter/generator
at the equalizer terminal, and use this variablecurrent voltage by varying the shur, field current in
the starter/generator so as to provide a predetermined armature current. Starter/generators with
interpole 'indings can develop a shunt field current
that can result in no-loaa, overspeed self-destruction,
In case of shaft failure, a means must be provided to
limit the no-load speed. Some manufacturtrs pro-

MIL-R-6l06 and with the proper rating, can be used

to connect the ge .crator to the bus. This contactor
also would be used fLr the starter armature current
during starting, and by tht; reverse current ovcrvoltage, ovtrexcitation, startup into short, and feeder
fault functions in disconnecting the generator from
the bus.

A relay in the regulator should be used to de-excite

the generator in the event of overvoltage, overexcitation. startup into short, and feeder fault conditions.
7-4.1.2 Reverse Current Pelays
The reverse current (cutout) relay is designed to
connect and disconnect a generator automatically
from the bus in a 28 V DC system. The reverse
current relay will close when the generator is producinR 18 to 28 V and is at leest 0.5 V above the bus
potential. Depending upon the unit-rating, when the
generator voltage drops below bus voltage, the relay
will open %ith a given reverse current. These units are
available in 100-, 300-. and 600-A continuous ratings.
Dependin 3 upon generator -apacity, teversc current
relays shall be sized to match the maximum continuous generator output.
7-4.1.3 Overvoltoe Relays
Overvoltage relays are used to remove the
generator from the bus by tripping the field relay if
the gornerotor voltaae exceeds a specified limit.
7-4.2 AC VOLTAGE REGULATION
MIL-G-21480 is a teprcscntative Military Specification for AC systems. Highly rclipble control units
- which provide voltage regulation, field relay control, contactor control, and ovcrvoltagc, under.
voltage, feeder fault, and underfrequency protection
are available in solid-state versions.
AC generator manufacturers design and build
static AC voltage regulators to match their generators. I[he designer must consider the electromagnetic
interference requirement, regulator operation environmental conditions, and the qualifitation data
before choosing a rtgulator.
7-5

OVERLOAD PROTECTION

7-5.1 GENERAL
The primary objectives of overload protection are
7-19

4L

to limit malfun~ction automaidcially toa1 single circuit,

and to minimize the danger of &moke and fire not
only in the components, but also in the wiring.
Overload protection of the equipment should be
considered separately 'rem circuit overload protaction. In order to obtain maximum safe use of the
equipment, any protection required shall be integral.
If the equipment is not requked in order to maintan
controlled flight, and maximum equipment use is not
necessary, the equipment and circuit protection may
be accomplished by the same dzvike, provided that
this dual function does not conflict with the basic
requirement of protecting the wiring bringing powcr
to the equipment.
The primary intent of circuit protection is to protect the interconnect wiring and the eq~uipment. All
load measuring
be
oroied
itha soft form ofe bruitoproe
tltoa. sbepropied wileti
onefrtheui
of
protetv-dvc
tecton.Proer
elecionof he rotetiv deice
should result in the lowest rating that will not openl
the circuit inadvertently.
A circuit-protection device shouldj be umed at any
point in the circuit where the wire size cI cges, un-

that responds to a 1mr~aietic effect rather thar. to the

heating effect of the current carried by the bicaker.
Magnetic circuit breaktrs normally incorporate time
delay so as to avoid nuisanca tripping from current
surges ef short durat'on. Although the magnetic circuit breakers ame less affected by adverse environmont, they are not used to the extent that thermal circuit breakers are hecause the trip characteristics of
magnetic circuit breatkcra may be affected by their
mounting position and vibration.

7-..
ktmm Coto Urcailt Brerkers
A rtmote control circuit breaker consists of a contactor whose solenoid circuit is coaitrolled by a
current-scrnsitive element, plus a manual-switching
adtrpiicin We.Teltrui oenosists of a mntia.ally operated circuit breaker arranged
so as to trip wlienev,;r the rrmote sensor trips. The remote ciicuit brcaker can be utilized best for bus
feedrs and wiring connected to a single load.
Although an approved remote control circuit breaker
isntailbMltrySefcton ILC833
I--38
pcrcto
i o viaiMltr
#
is being developed for a family of remote control cirth
,nara~m
,n,,L~l f
Ii. 'h.,y.,i~~tin
wire. Where moethan on .rcuit isfed from a sig cuib~~
circuit-protection device, the protection should be
7-51.3 Currtt Ses
sizzd to provide adequate protection for the inA current sensor is used in conjuinction with a condividual circuit. The circuit prolection should be lotactor and a manual-switching or trip-indicating decated as close to the power tsource as is practicabic in
vice in order to obtain the actuation of a remute conard .r to minimize unprot-ucted wiring,
trol circuit breaker. Tht sensor c'lrrent-sensitive cdo7-5.2 OVERL9AF! PROTECTION DEvICES
ment controls the solenoid of the contactor. The tripindicating dt.vii.e often consists of a manually
Overload protection devices fall into three. cateope'.-ated circuit breaker arranged so as to trip whengoriess circuit breakers, including remote Orcuit
ever the current limit of the sensor is exceeded. When
breakers; current scnowrs; and fuses.
abeaer
crcut t ~n~t acurrint
0nmso W
7-5.21
reilr,
~
*r'p-indicating device, the lowest possible rating
should be used in order to obtain an immediate iuidictutedeithr termlly
Circit ~eaer2n~aybe
Circit
myeakes
beactatedeiter termlly
cation of when the sensor has tripped. The current
or magnetiwlly. Both typr4 are covertJ by MIL-C
sensor can be, utilized best when there is a need to
5809.
control a high-currcrit loai, such as in; motor with a
low-current ccntrol circuit, and to keep t1,e high7-51.1A1 ThermaW Circuit Breakers
current loads to a minimum length.
The actuation of thermal ircuit breakers is depcetdent upon a temperature increase in the sensing
752. Fse
75.4Fu
cirmtnt which is produced principelly from the load
A fuse relies upon the melting of the cureent.
current heatiopg. The thermal element will be affected
carrying element in order to open the circuit when an
by externtl heating or cooling, and must be derated
overload occurs. The four basic fuise types art: noror uprated fihom calibration temperature to allow for
mal time delay, very fast-acting, and currentfluctuations in am' ient temjlrature. Tb:.majority of
limitiag.
the circuit breakers used at tiie present li-'ie are of the
tingniai type.
Each type of fuse is available in a variety of
characteristics so as to meet various circuit require7-5.21.2 MixukascCrcult Broakers
ments. For a complete listing of characteristics, mdor
Magneti circuit broakers use a trip mechanism
to MIL-F-23419 and MIL-F-5372.
7-20

______________AMCP

.7-5Z, OVERLOAD PROTECI'ION

APPLICATION

possible methods of compatibility correction or alleviation are disacussed.

Circ,.-it breakers arc preferred to fuses. A fuse must

be replaced once its current limit has betrn exceeded,
and replazcement with an improper size or type is
possible. Circuit breakers shou~d hi. grouped in order
'of function or usage, and should be labeled by function for rapid ieifctn.They should be located
in a protective panel, or covereii so as to eliminate the
possibility of hazard to personnel or contamination
by forcign objects. The placement of circuit breakers
in the crew area should be avoided. Or.:y those
necessary in order to maintain safe flight should be
accessible to the flight crew, as any malfunction must
be corrected prior to reinstating the circuit.
The installation -.~quirements foi fuses and circuit
breakers are detailed in MIL- E-7080.

7-6.2 ACCEPTABILITY REQUIREMENTS

Unacceptable equipment responses to EMI levels
are exhibited as aural, video, or equipmenit malfunctions. In sonme cases, negative aural response can
be acceptable if testing indicates that it does not affeet overall mission capability or ilight safety.
EMC tests are required to demonstrate control of
the electronic intesrference environment. The detailed
requirements for these tests shall be specified in the
contracto. s control and test plan. See par. 9-li1
AMCP 706.203, for a discussion of the helicopter
system NIMC demionstrationi requirements.
'n t~sting certoin equipment - for example, ordriaoice - f!.r u7 efss`rabic response, it is neccasary to
itwwu that 'the systemr functions within a wide safety
mo*'gin. Mib~t.fry requirements state that an interferev.-e sigrei impressed upon the most critical point
of a subsy'ptem must be at least 6 dB (20 -dB for
explosives) below !he level that would cause an undcsirif~c resnonee. Items of equipment that directly
flight safety, or thut cause or lead to a uisa:-abort or to failure tc~accomplish a mission, arc determining factcis for the safety margin tests iss indicatcd in MIL-E-6051.
7-.INEFR CES CFCAOS
7-.
INEFRNEPCFCTIN
Military Specifications require that stfficient tests
be made of equipment or weapon systems to insure
that they are compatible
Spocifications and standards applicable to the
design reqaiiremenr~s and test procedures necessary to
controll th.- electroni ;nt~rfPr~nrCC onvironmpnt of sk
helicopter are Mll.-B-5087, MILLE-6031, NhilL-I
16165, MIL-STD-454, MIL-STD-461, and hilLSTD-462. Iii gentral, the most current spocification
in force will be the controlling factor for EMC quulification.

7-6

ELECT'ROMAGNETIC
INTERFERENCE (EMI/YMC:)

GEENALaffc-;t
7-61
Electromagnetic compati')iity (EMC) describes
the abliity of aircraft electronic/electrical equipment
to perform in its intended c;-erational environracnits
without suffering or causing unacceptable d'fgr~kdation as a result of unintentional electromiagnaetic
radiation or response, i.e., electromagnetic interferenice (EMI1).
EMI is generated by a varying electrical or magnetic field. As a result, almost any device carrying
electrical current is a possible source of interference,
Likewise, within a weapon sysiemn, cach bubsysterii is
a potential victimn of a generated interference. In thec
course of EMIC qualification of a weapon system,
electrical equipment victim response; to interference
sources is defined and evaluated. The solution is to
control the EMI by reducing the magnitude of interference, isolating the source, or designing the receptor to be 'ess susceptible to the EMI.
To achieve a compatible weapon system, the entire
environment, fromn intcrcircwit and intersystem to intrasystem. must be considered by following interference specifications and state-of-the-art engineering designs. The samte results can be achieved by
several mear.s; and the best solution depends upon
the judgment of the cognizant angir'eer, and upon the
budget and time allowance of the particular ap-

706-202

"~plication.

JThis paragraph outlines the design procedures for

the determinatioai of acceptable EMI levels. In, addi.

tion, the identification of sources of interference and

746.4 INTER4FERENCE SOURCES

Electromagnetic interference originates from either
natural or rnantrade~ sources. Natural sources include
atmrospheric, precipitation, corona, and lightning dischargec noise. Natural EMI varies randomly with
time, geographical area of operations, and seasonal
conditions. Thi- type of interference generally affects
a broad frequency range in the low-frequiency band.
Manmade sources of EMI are either broadband or
narrowband generators, and they must be evaluated
and bandied separately.
Broadband interference diatributes energy over a
wide frequency spectrum, and can be either random
7-21

AMCP 706-202
or constant in time and amplitude. Typical broadband generators of EMI are motors, switches, power
distribution lines, ground currents, pulse circuits,
transistors, and capacitors,
Narrowband interference is produced by an oscillatory circuit that contains energy only at the frequency of oscillation or its multiples. The output barmonics of a communication transmitter or its internal
oscillators arc typical of narrowband EMi. Spurious
outputs of a transmitter or receiver can cover a wide
range of frequencies and exhibit the characteristics of
broadband noise; however, the energy distribution is

defined sharply.

4. Inierference time coincidence, i.e., signal presentation during timea of receptor susceptibility.
The complexity of the subsystem, and the number
and magnitude of the internal interfcrence sources,
determine the choice of protoctive design approachcs. Basic appwoaches to interference reduction
within tne helicopter or subsystem include:
i. Dftiagn of inherently interference-free cornponents
2. Equipment isolation
3. Cable routing
4. Source suppression

5. Signal point containment and suppression.

Inherent interferences unique to the helicopter can

arise from sources such as the rotating members of

the engine, drive shaft, and main and tail rotors.

In small- and medium-sized helicopters, radio/

radar operation frequently is hampered seriously by a
phenomenon called rotor modulation which creates
problems especially in VOR/ILS, ADF, and some
communication systems. Rotor modulation interferences arise due to the chopping or reflection of the
RF signal by the main rotor. The rotor speed and the
nurmber of rotor blades combine to pass a givcn point

7-.5.1 interferencC-free Compoeats

All electrical systems shall meet the limits imposed

by the applicable equipment spec-ification, such as

MIL-STD-461. These speci!i'zations primarily are
concerned with radiation, and with susceptibility to
radiation- or conduction-propagated broadband and
narrowband interference. Compliance with these
specifications represents maximum state-of-the-art
interference control. However, the specifications are
oroad and do not necemsariiV soive ihe inic.i-eren:ce

resulting in the modulation of the arriving RF signal These distortion perturbat,,ns (amplitudes,
cancellations, or harmonics) can set up interference
patterns that create navigation system noise, error,
and needle oscillation. The interference caa become
critical when integrated flight control systems are
used, resulting in helicopter oscillation.
The expanding use of helicopters in a variety of ei-

problems arising in all systems. If individual borderline component interference sources are not eliminated, compliance with specification limits does not
insure that EMC problems will not develop wben the
total system degrades from specification limits.
4-6.5.2 Equipment Isolation and Cable Routing
Many EMC problems arr. oolved by positioniing
eetrncqup ntoruigcbesshthth)
pick up or radiate minimal interfereacc. Lccation

considered previously. These interference effects can

and orientation are two importan'.t parameters in pre-

downgrade seriously, or even prievent, a particular

mission capability. Some interference probles arise

__ ._
..
i:ola.i.
attnuates with distance. antenna location and oricn-

from atmospheric field charging potentials, precipi(electation charging, corona discharge phenomenon
trons accelerated by a strong electrical field around a
sharp point), or triboelectric charging potentials (frictional charging as a result of dissimilar material contact)Of these sources, probably the most noticeable
effect for EMC qualification will be produced by the
tniboelectric charging of helicopter rotating members
(engine, transmission, drive shaft, and rotors).

tetion can prevent or reduce EMI.

Simple shielding of cables is not always effective,
due to the magnitude of interfering signals. In such
instances, isolation of equipment cables is necessary.
Scparation of high-level from low-leve, cables may be
required, depending upon design and space allowances. Signal wires and primary power cabIls may rnquirm separate routing even when terminating at a
single connector.
If interference is a result of equipmea.t location or
cable routing, the following areas should be investi-

7-6.5 INTERFERENCE SUPPRESSION

EMI within a subsystem may be divided into four

gated:
I. Power and control wiring run separately from

categories:
1. Device signal interference emi3sions
2. Device susceptibility to such signels
3. Transmission path of interfering signals (solid
or wave)

signal-carrying wires
2. Audio frequency wir-s run separately from
wirec of higher frequency
3. Provisions madt for the right-angle crossing of
sensitive circuit cables

7-22

S'qk
4 Pro.: wit types used
5. itaxim.urn -patiai separation of antennas or intet fetrencproduc'iog cables
6. Cr]tOaling of nonintcrferinig equipment away

ferrous materials will provide shielding above audio

frequencies (electrical fields).

Shielding used to contain interference is dependent primarily upon the attenuation (absorption)

from ;nowvn interference sources.

of the shield. Reflection loss becomes an

properties
important consideration for exclusion of interfering

Satirce Suppresslon and SRsceptibity Reduction

After using physical isolation aid cable routing to
the maximum extent, additional techniques for EMI
source and susceptibility reduction include:
L. Grounding and bonding
2. Cable and cquipment shielding
3. Filtering,
Source suppression is the application of appropriate bypassing, decoupling, or filtering at the
source of interference or at a point of maximum susceptibility.

signals.
Discontinuities in a shielded enclosure can: provide an entry/exit path for EMI radiation. Ventilation openings, panel meters, access c*vers, dial
shafts, or switches are possible EMI containment
problem areas.
Interference coupling of electronic subsystems can
be reduced by careful selection of interconnecting
cables. Types of interconnecting cables available to
the designer include unshielded wire, twisted pair,
shielded wire (single or double), twisted shielded pair,
aid coaxial (single or multiple shield).
The selection of interconnecting cables to reduce
interference coupling and audio crosstalk will be, dependent upon physical isolation of the operating frequency range, and the power and susceptibility level&.
In general. a shielded wire provides protection
against eietricatl fiellds, whilz the twisted pair reduc-s susceptibility to magnetic fields.
To achieve maximum EMI shielding from cnclosures and shielded cables, it is necessary to terminatc them cffectively to the helicopter unipotential
ground plane. Both multipoint and single-point
ground systems provide certain design features.
Single-point grounding (floating shield) may provide the best approach where the possibility of interference coupling with sensitive low-frequency circuits is a matter of concern. When a shielded cable, in

74.5.3

MqP 706-202

7-6.5.3.1 Groundlig and Bonding

A fundamental requirement for helicopters is the
establishment of a well-bonded, low-impedance
t all ,,r-...ll! A %n;t,
ground pOmni extend
potential ground plane prevents EMC problems resuiting from unequal ground potentials and ground
loop currents, and reduces the possibility of equipment transmitting or rmceiving undesired energy
while insuring that shield and filter applications are
effective,
Bonding refers to the method in which various subsystems or structures are conneced or integrated
electrically and mechanically. Bonding avoids the development of electrical potentials between adjacent
metallic parts, and provides hl,mogenous flow of
radio frequency currents between subsysiteis and
structures. MIL-B-5087 provides detail requirements
for all bonding aspects of airbornt systems.
7.6.5.3.2 Stdelding
A major area of practic.l EMI suppression involves the application of component or cable
shielding. Effective use of shielding requires investigation of the interference signals, and of the nature of
metallic sl.ielding. The question of whether the
source or rt ceptor is prvented from radiating or receiving undesited signals deserves equel attention.
Metallic shielding is dependent upon the ;nterfering sgnal component, e.g., the electrical or magnctic field. The lowest frequency for which a desired
"shieldingis required normally determines the type of
shielding material.
High-permeability materials can be used to improve shielding effcctiveness for low-frequency, lowimpedance magnttic fields. Aluminum, copper, or

a sensitive orircit, is ground-d at both ends for the

return circuits, power frequencies in the ground plane

can induce audio frequency interference in the signal
wires.
When electronic and electrical equipment is distributed over large areas, experience has shown that
multipoint grounding is superior for RF frequenries.
Multipoint grounding involves shield grounding at
both ends of all cables, and at all immediate points
where the cable runs through equipment.
A ,plikation of proper shielding techniques for interference alleviation should be performed in the
following areas:
I. The radiation source or sensitive component
should be installed in a properly bonded metallic
housing with limited openings.
2. The magnetic field should be directed away
from sensitive components or wiring by use of lowreluctance, high-permeability matarial.
3. Twisted, shielded, or shielded and twisted cable
7-23

should be used for AC and DC power ci,-:uits in

order to prevent coupling of super-imposed EMI
noise and transients,
4. Two conductor-twisted and -shielded cables
should be used for DC signal, control, and audio circuits. Single-point grounding is required.
5. Single- or mustiplc-shield coaxial uable shoull
be used for RF circuits. Multipoint grounding is required.
6. Continuity of shielded enclosures is necessary.
7. Shields should be routed through connectors.
8. Minimum-length grourtd returns should be
used, and shield insulation from structural members
should be insured.

stallation) in the airframe. This includes electronic

ccmponents, clectrical relays, electrical power
generators, wires, coaxial cabh:s, junction boxes, test
connectors, etc., but does not include aircrew control
panels and instrument panels. Electrical system installation should be in accordance with MIL-E25499, MIL-E-7080, and as described subsequently.

..

7-.5.3.3 Filtess
Filters are used at the outputs of EMI generating
sources in order to prevent EMI signal (broadband or
narrowband) interference coupling paths. Types of
filters utilized for EMI containment ani attenuation
include low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass filters, as
well as bypass and feedthrough capacitors.
Basic filter pao ameters include capacitance, induciMC.x,
and mb-aiax. Fcit paraainte, u,.pI.mhwas
filtering action by a differant method; i.e., capacitance by short-circuiting, -inductance by opencircuiting, and resistance by dissipation. i-ltcrs
should suppress only the :interfering signals.; However, the filter may have an effect upon desired currents necessary to the operation of the equipment.
Therefore, an understanding of insertion loss is important to filter applications.
In the application of bypass capacitors, the lead
length from the capacitor to ground becomes an important factor. Self resonance nullifies the effectiveness of the filter for signals at 1rejueneieS equaito, or
.. .
greater than, the resonant frequency.
Filter containment of EMI can be effectiv; only if
the source can he. shielded and isolated from olher internul circuitry, thus preventing the interference from
being coupled into other wiring or circuitry within a
subsystem. Such coupling may conduct spurious
energy to external wiring, or radiate directly from
other parts of the unit. Proper bonding must be used
in order to prevent interference currents in the
ground circuit from shunting the filter element.

7-7
7-7.1

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
INSTALLATION
GENERAL

Electrical system instaliatior refers to the installatior. of electrical and electronic oquipmelt (equipment installation) and wire bandle (electri~cal in7-24

7-7.2 EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION

During the design of equipment installations,
maitainability, reliability, and producibility must be
considered from design concept to the production
hardware phase. Close attention should be given to
the servicing problems tha: might arise with each particular installation, It is not likcly that all electronic
components can be made immediately accessible. The
service reliability of each must be considered during
design of the installation. Factors such as electronic
alignment after installation and acccsibility to test
points must be considered. If equipment is installed
in rows, front row con-ip'nents must be capable of
being removed quicHy to provide accessibility tc rear
mounted components.
Equipment-mounting hardware should consist of
not less 'han Number 10 screws, except where vibration isolators are used, in which case the box
mounting screws should be no smaller than Namber
10, with the isolator multiple mounting screws no
smaller than Number 8. Care must be taken to insure that mounting screws are not hidden behind
flanges and protruding portions of neighboring
boxes. For easy accessibility, the straight-in approach
should be provided for all mounting hardware.
Equipment installations involving the placement of
electrical receptacles facing bulkheads or other obstructions must allow sufficient room for installation
of the wire bundle with a bend radius in accordance
.with MAL-W-5088. as well as room tc engage and disengage electrical connectors without darmaging the
wires. If possible, electrical terminals on boxes should
permit the use of a ratchet-drive socket wrench for
wiring installation and removal.
Junction boxes must be designed so as to facilitate
maintenance and troubleshooting. Access to internal
compoaicrts must be such as to permit easy replacement. Th,. locations of internal components must be
ider.tified by permanently attached decals. Foreignobjct protective covers must be provided on all junction boxes. On all nonsealed boxes, drain h,'les must
be incorporated at the lowest point. Wiring musi be
installed neatly, and numbered or color-coded for
ease of maintenance,
Relays, resistors, small transformers, etc., must be

%A

45 dog

'(A)

(B)
Figure 7-13.

Permihsbl CIamP Ddumsmiiea

grouped functionally in panels similar to relay panels,

tubing, but shoule .ot be covered by the braid or cxtruded outer jacket of the bundle.
All components must be located and i4entified by
The primary wirv bundle clamps should be of an
means of a decal permanently attached to the panel.
environmentally compatible type. Nylon clamps are
Power contactors must be installed so that the conpermissible in low-tempsature, low-vibration, easily
tactor case or box is isolated from the airframe strucaccessible arm. Plastic clamps are not to br use for
ture.
wire bundle support in arse where a damp failure
"Alljunction boxes and panels should have power
91
,tsam
^ ,har
6 w
X;i. k, Air eho.f
ci .... .,
c,-iuOf
and c.tassis grounds emanaung from ui
or to interfere with controls. The preferred orienthe electrical connectors,
tation of all wire bundle clamps is with the bell (loop)
down. The bell should not be turned upward if the
7-73 ELECTRICAL WIRE BUNDLES
wire bundle weight threat 'ns to deform the damp.
Clamps of the MS 21919 type may be deformed in
Basically, there are two types of wire harnesses
ordwr to meet special Installation problems by flattenallowable:
ing the dlamp bell, as in Fig. 7-13, to a height no 1kw
1. Open-wire bundles, where individual wires are
than 3/4 of the original bell height. The mounting
tied in bundles and routed through the airframe
ears may be bent, but not more than 45 d4, as shown
2. High-density bundles, where an abrasionin Fig. 7-13.
resistarm szovering ic braided, extruded, etc., over the
entire bundle.

In either case the wire best suited for the particular

application must be used; and, when open-wire
bundles are used, the wires shall have markings in accordance with MIL-W-5088 and the bundles shall be
tied at 3- to 8-in. intervals. Lacing shall be comsatible with the operating environment of the helicopter,
Where high density bunweas are used, the bundles
must be taped at 8-in. intervals with a thin layer of
Teflon tape. An outer abrasion-resistant covering
must be braided or extruded over the wire bundle.
Tape is not acceptable as an abrasion-resatant
covering except on repair areas or at the ends of a
bundle. Tape must never be used as primary insulation. Repairs to high-density bundles should be
made by routing a wire external to the abrasionresistant covering. The external wire must have an
abrasion resistant covering. Splices are to be coverd
ith an ab.asion-resistant material, such as Teflon

!
.
zaI'q;
-7. ZME V NAE
Terminal strips should bN MS 27212 or MIL-T81714 with MS 18029 covers. Torminal strips shall be
installed as shown in Fig. 7-14, with the mounting
holes isolated, for example, by filling with MIL-A46146 Type I sealant to prevent short circuits to
ground. MS 25227 insulating strips may be used in
lieu of potting; however, an additional nut must be
installed between the insulating strip and the bottom
terminal to that there is no resilient material in cornpression with the terminals.
A maximum of four terminals shall be used on one
atud. MS '5266 boa bars may be uscd between studs
to interconnect terminals. When terminals are exposed to the weather - such as in wheel wells - terminals and studs shall be brushed with phenolic resin
varnish.
Thf wire bundle *Wl be tied to a terminal at each
breakout. Ther sell be at least one wire identi7-25

SELF-LOCKING NUT
LOCK WASHER
FLAT WASHER
-.

A---

_44A

MIL-A-46146 TYPE I SEALANT

Figure 7-14.

Terminal Strip Installation

fication number visible on each wire without cuttin3

ties. Lacing (or tying) shall be done with single ties.
Continuous lacing shall be permitted only in junction
boxes and panels.
The end studs used for attaching the MS 18029 terminal covers cannot be used for electrical purposes. If
two electrical terminals with mounting hardware arc
m
placed on the end studs, the self-locking feature will
not engage in the terminal cover nuts.
See par. 7-8.2.1 for a further discussion of terminal
blocki;

7-7-6 DOOR HINGE WIRE BUNDLE ROUTING

Electrical components mounted on access doors
v,ill require routing the wirr? bundles over the door
hinges. The wire bundles shall be routed so that they
twist instead of bend, i.e., the bundle shall be routed
parallel to the hinge for a distance sufficient to allow
he bundle to twist. Consideration should be given to
using Teflon-cushioned clamps at the twist points to
provide added bundle mobility. Added abrasion resistance at the hinge, in the form of vinyl
.
, T.n
tubing mnay be required.

7-7.5

Wire bundles that are exposed to weather and

when doors are opened during flight, or
abrasion
during ground servicing, shall be protected by extra
cove.ring (such as braiding or tubing). Weatherexposed braiding shall extend into the connector back
shell clamp, but, because of the wattr-wicking properties of the braid, should not extend into potting or
connector waterproofing.

ENGINE COMPARTMENT WIRING

The two major installation hazards encountered in

4ngine compartment environments are heat and viI ration. Special attention should be paid to the highvibration environments of engine enclosures. Wire
gage shall be a miinimum of 20 in order to reduce
strand fatigue breakage. Wire bundle clamps shall be
spaced in close proximity so as to prevent wire vibration between clamps and possibie resultant breakage.
Crimp-type contacts shall be used in order to
Sclumninate strand vibration breakage due to solder
capillary action,
Wire bundles in low-temperature areas (200C or
lower) of the engine compartment may be in accordance with par. 7-7.3; in higher-temperature areas
and on the engine itself, open wire bundles of wire
rated at 260*C shall be used.
Particular care shall be taken to route all wire
bundles away from sharp edges, and around equipment in the engine area to allow extra room for vibration and for structural expansion and contraction
due to ambient temperatures and engine thrust. Wire
bundles shall be routed and clamped well out of the
way for engine change, and design shall take into consideration the use of any necessary installation/removal ground-handling tools. Fire detector
elements
ghllbe
routed, and securely clamped into
position, to eliminate crush possibilities during
engine change.
7-26

7-7.7 WIRING TO MO I,
WNG
COMPONENTS
Special attention is required when it is necessary t
route wiring bundles to components such as actuotors, missile launchets, or electronic components
that move during use or storage. These bundles
usually flex a number of times and are critical in their
operation.
The installation should be designed as follows:
I. The wire bundle shel bZ clamped firmly to the
moving component so that no movement of the wire
takes place at the connector or terminal.
2. The wire bundle shall not be under tension at
any point in the movement of the equipment.
3. The wire bundle shall be clamped firmly ti the
fixed structure at a position whek e if there is any motion, the wires will twist and not bend.
4. The attach point of the fixed structure must be,
whenever possiblen
at the center of the arc formed by
the moving equipment.
5. If the fiued point car not be at th: center of the

GROUJNDING PAD

PRIMARY STRUCTURE
LOCK WASHER
NOTE: BOND ALL PARTS PER MIL-B-5087
Figure 7-15.

)
...

Typical Connection to Grondilag Pad

74

may be required on the slack wire bundle. Vinyl

fined in only one appropriate specification. Environ-

sleeving is not to be used as a substitute for good engineering. Protect:ye tubing should not ride on sharp
edges of structure,
7-7.8

BATIFERY INSTALLATION

Batteries shall be installed so that they are readily

accessible from the outside of the helicopter. The aircraft connector shall be of the quick-disconnect MNI
25182 type in accordance with MIL-C-18148, and
shall be accessible without moving any equipment or
reaching around any obstruction.
The battery compartment must be located in such
an area that battery gas and fumes will not enter the

cockpit or cabin. The battery compartment shall be

COMPONEI TS

moving arc, a loop must be made to take up the slack

in the wiring. This loop :nust be of sufficient length to
insure that the wire bundle is never under noticeable
tension. This loop must be self-supporting and selfforming. The seit-supporting feature can he assisted
by a preformed spring steel wire woven in, or attached to. the wire bundle.
6. Attention shall be paid to chafing of the wiring,
Added protection, such as vinyl or Teflon tubing,

painted with a material resistant to the electrolyte

used in the battery. There shall be no oxygen, hydraulic, or flammable lines in the battery compartment.
The batter, cables shall be clamped and protected
against chafing during installation and removal of the
battery. The battery ground cable shall be attached to
primary structure that is heavy enough to carry shortcircuit current without damage. A grounding pad, as
cshOwn in Fig. 7-15, may be used to increase electrical
current capacity.

7-8.1

WIRE

The choice of wire should take into consideration

.. cl'z--. -h
.
..
f t.
i,.

not O,,t
,

also the environment in which the wire must operate.

The electrical requirements cap be satisfied by the
wire current capability; however, the environmental
requirement may be compatitzie with the wire *.'mental compatibility will vary depending upon the
type of insulating material used. The designer s&Wll
assure that the finished diameter of the wire eected

is compatible with the wire scaling ranges of the connector used and compatible with the connector insertion/extraction tool.

7-81.1 Wire Imulatihg Materials

7-8.1.1.1 Polyethylew
Polyethylene is a commonly used dielectrical
material. It is excellent for high-froquency applications. Howev,:r, because of its physical properties, it has definite limitations s an Insulating

material. Polyethylene pgssesis

low abrasion rm-

sistance; the maximum 3afe operating temperature is

only 80*C, and it will burn freely in the preence of
an open flame.
7-8.1.1.2 Polynylclilorlide
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) has physical properties
that surpass those of the basic polyethylene. It
poswsess
greattx abras-an resistance, higher operating temperature limitations, and increased resistance to flame. However, the molecular imbalance of
PVC precludes its use at high frequencies, although it
7-27

"

AMCP 022(
is excellent in low-frequency applications where reI"

sistance to moisture, Rlame, oil, and many acids and

alkainesis ~numerous
mporan
74.1.3
~
~ ,,.,
~scription
Fluorin~ated ethylene propylene (FEP) demonstrates, excellent electrica: stability over a temperature
range of -65* to +230*C, and is suitable for ultrahigh-frequency applications,
74.1.1.4 Polychlorotrlfluonsethyliea
eolychloiotrifluoroethylcne, more commonly
known as KEL-F, combines many of the advantages
of Teflon with a superior resistance to abrasion, thus
enabingit
b use oasa tin-alle inulaion
without any outer covering or mechanical pro.
tection. This material is rated for continuous operationthrughthetemeratre ang of-65 to
+15thog0tetmprtuerngCf-.*t
+ 1500C.draulic
7-8.1.1.5 Polyliexamethylene-adipaisldc
Polyhexamethylene. adipamide is a readily exru
dabe
btte
plyiid,
kownas y is amiy nme
dabof
noylo.Bimid, betrkof
n assbc~
y poor eamlectical
of nlon 11"uscof
ts clafvel por elctrcal
characteristics, it rarely is used as a primary in'
asulation on wire. However, it makes an excellent outer coverings wt icn applied over vinyl insulation. Ex
truded nylon jackets are tough cnd resistant to &brasion and oil, and have a tendency to increase the
temperature sawbility of the piimary insulation,

The Military Specifications for aimrcrft wire a--e too

to cover in detail. However, a brief doof some of the more commonly used typos
of wire and of the specifications defining tham is
giver. to assist in selecting the specification that satsfie& the general requirements.
MIL-W-5086 covers PVC-insulated, singleconductor hookup and interconnecting electrical
wires made with tin-coated or silver-coated conductors of copper or copper alloy. PVC insulation
may be used alone or in combination with outer insulating or protective materials. It is a good general
purpose wire, and is available in voltage ratings from
600 to 3000 V and a temperature rmpg of -55* to
+ I 109C. The wire construction of this specification
contains nylon jackets for increased mechanical
toughness and resistance to fuels, solvents, and hyfluids.
MIL-C-7078 covers single-conductor and multiconductor shielded wire. The basic wire in this specification is MIL-W-508 and MIL-W-81381.
MI1L-iW 1818 covers wifVe designed for internal
wiring of meters, panels, and electrical and electronic
equipment, and requires that such wins, have mini.
mum size and weight consistent with service requiremerits. The temperature rating of wire included in
this specification ranges to 260*C, with potential
ratings of 250 ^,o 3000 V. This wire is primarily a
hookup wire, but it may be uted for wiring elcetronic
Teraflorathyeneequipment in protected areas of the aircraft.
7-8..1.
74.11.6 etrahaorcthyeeM
IL-C-22759 covers fluorocarbon-insulated.
Tetrafluoroethylene (TFE), better known as
single-conductor electric wire made with tin-coated,

Teflon, is an excellent electrical balance ar~d.

applications. TFE offers exceptional electrical,
chemcal
proertes
an thrma ot vaiablein ny
othe wiemaeria.
isultio TE isultio is
rate fo cotinousopertio
at200C. ut rmais
feilatcygnctemperatures.
74.1.1.7 Dimediyl-slloxane Polymer
Better known as silicone rubber, dimethyl-siloxane
polymer is finding widespread application as a wire
insulation because of its good high-temperature characteristics and low-temperature flexibility. It will
withstand 2000C continuously, and can withstand as
much as 300"'C for short intervals. However, iii the
presence of flame, silicone rubber will burn to a nonconductive ash, which, if held in place, could function
as an emergency insulator. Its abrasion resistance is
*improved
greatly by the addition of a saturated glass
braid. Unlike vinyls, polyethylene, and nylon, silicone rubber is a therinosetting plastic.
*

74.1.2 Military Wire Spelfkcadioa

7-28

silver-coated, or nickel-coated conductors of copper

wires may be polytetrafiuoro~ethyloen, fluorinated
thyenepropylene (FEP), or polyvinylidene fluoride.
Thefluorocarbon may be used alone, on in cornbnaton ithother insulation materials. This wire is
available in a temperature range of 2000C to 2600C,
arnd vlaeratings of 600 to 1000 V.
MIL-W-7072 covers low-tension, insulated, singleconductor, aluminum wire for aircraft electrical
power distribution systems. Aluminum wire usually
is used where an appreciable weight saving can be
re~alized.
MIL-W-81044 covers a variety of construction
suitable for airframe and electronic hook-up wire, ineluding flght, medium, and heavy wall insulation
thickness and tin- and silverpl'ted-copper conductors. These wires are rated to 5W0 V over a
temperature range Of - 53 to +I150C. The insulation consists of crosslinked polyvinylidene fluoride.
Improvvd thermal stability is realized through mole-

'r

AMCP 706-202
cular crosslinking of both materi.Js by the high,nergy electronic beam process. These consiructions
provide significant space and weight savings while retSining excellent abrasion resistance,
MIL-W-25038 covers single wire for electrical use
under short-time emergency conditions involving exposure to flame and temperatures of up to 2000*F.
This wire is intended for use in circuits where it is
,necessary to maintain the electrical irtegrity of the insulated conductor for 5 min in a 2000*F flame with
the operating potential not exceeding 125 V.

Fittings cover a broad area, and include any fixture attaching to a wire. Two basic fittings are terminal strips and connectors.
7-8.2.1 Termhna Strips
strips

requirements. Thus, the selection of a connector for a

specific application will involve a compromise.
M IL-C-5015 covers circular electrical connectors
with solder or removable crimp contacts, and accessorics such as protective covers, storage receptacles, strain relief clamps, and potting molds.
These connectors arc for use in electronic, electrical
power, and control c-ircuits. They have threaded
couplings, and may require safety wiring in order to
eliminate inadvertent decoupling in high-vibration
areas.
MIL-C-26482 covers environmental-resistance,
quick-disconnect, miniature electrical connectors
with solder or removable crimp contacts and accessories. Thes connectors ha'e bayonet couplings
and do not require safety wire.
MIL-C-83723 covers an environmental-re3isting
family of miniature, circular, electrical connectors.
These ;:onnectors may have threaded or bayonet

wires. Terminal
of two or more
ment for a junction
ued aya diconcct inapstris e aso
strips also may
be used as disconrects in ap-

gd
inr
c
MIL-C-28748 covers rectangular rack and panel
and electrical connectors with nonremovable solder

"7-8.2 FITTINGS

Termina! strips are used where there is a require-

plications where :'t is impractical to use a connector,

or to simplify assembly and maintenance pro-

couplings.

cnat
n removable
eoal
rm contacts.
otcs
crimp
contacts and

or, ts.
ly
sb
nMIL-C-39012
covers the general requirements for
connectors used with fiexibie cofrequency
radio
or
27212
MS
is
the
etrip
terminal
The standard The
temiablrpesth.S
~ ~ ~
~
~ ~712 ~ ~ xastndr
MIL-T-81714 which consists of a series of threaded
axial RF cable.
studs retained in a plastic insulating strip. Each terThe designer shall make every effort to select only
connectors that provide common termination
minal stud will accommodate a maximum of four termethods; i.e., common contacts, common back hardminals; however, a bus bar may be used between
ware, and commor, assembly methods and tools wiles
four
studs in order to allow for more than
using MIL-STD-1353 as a guide.
having a common junction.
The new NAS standard terminal strip, which con-

sists of series of modules rctainei between mounting

rails, offers maity advantages over the old style MS
terminal strip. MIL-T-81714 covers environmental
feedthrough and noni'mr.dilzrough tef ii,,l srifi
ips. Fror

7-9

new designs qualified parts shall be in accordance

with MIL-T-81714. This type of unit is similar to an
loctrical connector in concept in that it uses a crimp
pin, and in insertion-extraction tool for installing the
wires,
Each terminal strip requirement must be evaluated
individually in order to determine which of the type
can be used best.

The proper functioning of electronic systems is

taking on increased importance in mission effective.
ness and flight saf.ty with the development of electronically controlled, automatic flight and engine
controls. Thus, the common occurrence of total electrical system failure ft'om lightning strikes is no
longer acceptable and a higher degree of static electricity and lightning prottction must be provided for
the helicopter in order to ussure reliable, safe, and effective operation over its operational lifetime.
One lightning strike can ft expected to occur on a
helicopter approximately e-.cry 2500 flight hr (Ref.l),
depending upon aircraf zone of operation, mission.
normal flight altitudes, susceptibility, etc. Minor to
serious structural damage cav result in cases where
protection is not provided.
New materials, such as pbolyurethane paints. have
many advantages relative to corrosion protection;

"74.2.2 Conmetors

The ideal situation, as far as reliability is concerned, is to have continuous conductors throughout
the entire circuit. However, this usually is not pussi': interconnects must be added to facilitate
assembly and maintenance. The designer must select
the connector that best combines high-performance
factors with capabilities for meeting env'ronmental

LIGHTNINC( AND STATIC

ELECTRICI'TY
7-9.1 GENERAL

7-29

AMCP 706-202
but their exeleknt dielvctri: characteristics also can
introduce serious static electricity problems. The high
dielectric strength of the painted surface permits the
buildup of 5000 to 50,000 V from friction charging of
the surface, which may be followed by puncture of
the base metal and accompanied by an energy releast in tens of joules. This can cause precipitat'on
static or streamer radio interference, and - if the
paint is covering an elcctiical component. such as an
engine inlet heating grid - also can result in a short
circuit of the element. This often is followed by burnup, as a result of energizing of the initial spark by the
power system, with resultant major damage.
Possible internal problems with high-quality dielectrics include the charging of fluid lines from the
liquid flow and the charging of painted internal fuel
tank walls from spray electrification or sloshing.
7-9.2 LIGHTNING F OTECTION FOR
ELECTRONIC SUBSYSTEMS

The designer of lightning protection for helicopter

electronic subsystems should make maximum use of
the metallic frame and skin for shielding purposes.
Specific lightning protection, or lightning-resistant
designs, should be provided at the major lightning entry points. These include main rotor and tail rotor
blades, antennas, nrvigation lights, pitot-static tubes,
active electrical discharger probe heads, and any
other electrical -omponents exposed on the exterior
of the helicoptcr. In addition, because of the generally reduced shielding of helicopter frames and skins
(compared with fixed-wing aircraft), greater considerations must be givan to magnetic and electrical
field penetrations into the vehicle interior.
Where all other factors are roughly equal, it i' advisable to use mechanical primary flight controls as
engine and rotor controls and to use the electronic
systems prin-arily for trim or management controls.
Electronic surge suppressors of various types, such as
gas or zener diodes and simple capacitors, may be
used on critical circuits for suppressing the residual
voltage surgc (which can penetrate despite the external lightning protection design), particularly if the
electronic systems require very-low-voltage protection.
In summary, the preventive design approaches are:
I. Principal lightning protection efforts should be
directed toward blocking electromagnetic energy entrance through electroma.gnetic windows such as
navigation lights and antennas,
S. Use of electronic systems for primary flight controls should be avoided. Use should extend only to
trim or management.
3. Surge suppressors should be used where
7-30

required, eith(r because of large surge voltages that

cannot be reduced at the entry point or for lowsignal-level circuits that require low-level protective
devices.
4. Simple lightning test facilities should be used to
permit quick evaluation of component performance.
Untested lightning protection designs often have
proved to be not only ineffective, but sometimcs
more dangerous than the components they were intended to protect.
Lightning protection through geometrical configuration control of external components, such as
antennas and navigation lights, has proven to be one
of the most effective methods of preventing lightning
penetration into the aircraft. For example, tests of
navigation and cofision light designs have shown
that a 1-in.change in a cover screw position can reduce the resultant lightning damage from total destruction of the element, with major energy penetrations into the vehicle interior, to negligible physi-

cal damage resulting in voltage pulse amplitude re4;uctions to a few hundred volts. Thus, geometrical
control of all external components for lightning proivt;6iun purpubcz gcncraiiv is itc most economicai approach, in terms of weight and cost. Typical entry
points requiring protection design effort are shown in
Fig. 7-16.
Earlier HF and UHF antennas of the voltage-fed
type constituted one of "he princip~t electromagne',windows through which lightning energy could enter
the vehicle interior. To offset a possible total electrical system loss, these units often can be replaced with
shunt-fed antennas, which are inherentl) grounded
designs in which the lightning energy essentially is
channeled into the external vehicle skin, with only residual high-,oltage, low-energy pulses entering the
electronic systems. HF lightning arresters are available commercially for HF antennas. ttid their effectiveness in preventing bothi structural and radio
equipment damage has been demonstrated in their
use on commercial jet airliners during millions of
flight hours.
Other external components, such as pitot-static
heads and active discharger probe heads, require
typical electronic system protection approaches. The
pitot-static heads can be protected effectively by conventional electrical system protective devices such as
zener diodes or gas diodes; however, the high-voltage
active discharge probe heads require more extensive
protection development because of high operating
voltage levels.
For electrical surge suppressi n, mac:y types of devices are available commercially - including zener
diodes, gas tubes, simple capacitors, spark gaps, and

AMM 7W

LIGHTNING DISCHARGE

PITOT TUBE

( NCOLLISION LIGHT

....

"

I ,q-UGHr(~
COLLISION

7.

EM FIELD
-

I-

'

\ANTENNA

AFT NAVIGATIO(SI
LIH

ANTENN4A

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
PENETRATION THIOUGH
PLASTIC COVERS

)
Figure 7-16.

Typical Lightlng Electrical Circidt Entry Points

silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR). The prinCipal

problem in their application ib the selection of the
right device, or combination of devices, for the particular equipment being protected. As an example,
for antenna front ends, semiconductor devices have a
major sh,'wtcorming, th.;y introduce cross-modulation
through their inherently noniinear transfer characterutici. Simple gas tubes present only a light additional capacitive load on the front end, and thus
provide more suitable protection for this application. For other types of comnponents - such as
ciectronic contro! systems, where nonlinearity may
not be as important as is obtaining sufficient lowvoltage protection levels - zener diode protection
devices may be more suitable.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
The requirements for control precipitation
charging are much mcre severe for htelicopters than
for fixed-wing aircraft because of the cargo-handling
requirements. Potentials that would be acceptable on
fixed-wing aircraft -- 20,000 to 30,000 V, which is
well below the radio noise threshold of the vehicle can represent a serious shock hazard to ground personnel unloading cargo from helicopters, and posbly carl cause ignition of ordnance or fuels. Several

7-9.3

general approaches have been suggetd and carried

to various degrees of development, including use of
active dischargers in which the clectrical field from
the aircraft is measured and an opposite charge is ap
plied to the vehicle, the use of passive wick-type discharge devices at the blade tips, and the use of conductors hanging from the helicopter to the ground to
discharge the vehicle before the ground crew contacts the load.
The active dischargers suffer from several disadvantages, including indicating a charge in external
electrical crosaficids when using single-head field
meters when no charge actually is present on the helicopter and thereby charging the vehicle with the protection device. This can be prevented by using dual
field meters, one above and one below the vehicle.
However, space-chargc shielding of the field meter
sensing head can occur from a recirculating charge
during hover. It generally is acknowledged that the
use of active dischariers, in spite of the shortcomnings, is advisable, rarticularly when ground
handling is frequent.
The passive wick dischargers located on the blade
tips have the advantage of simplicity, but suffer from
the fact that substantial potential is required an the
vehicle before they begpn discharging, i.e., they do not
7-31

AMP706-202
bring the vehicle potential down to zero. This still
permits sufficient potential to give shocks to the
ground-handling crew. The technique of using a conducting cord from the vehicle to the ground, and permitting it to contact the ground before the ground
crew handles the load, has the disadvantage of the
cord being whipped by helicopter downwash. and
will not nocesarily hold the vehicle pottntial down
continuou.ly while the ground crew is in con tact with
the load.
The other major problem with external static clectricity on helicopters is radio interference. The complexity of the problem is caused by: the variety of
charge-generating mechanisms, of nois-generating
mechanisms, and of coupling modes into the communication systems; the difficulty in separating the
effects from internally generated equipment interfcrence; and the differences of effects upon different
types of equipment.
The basic method of controlling radio interferenceincludes:
I. Avoidance of all electrically floating external
sections on the aircraft
2. Use of some type of active or passive discharge.- in order to reduce the potentials, on the vehicle under friction electrification conditions
3. Location of antennas in areas where the DC
electrical fields are minimized under thunderstorm
crossfield conditions
4. Use of radio-interite,-,cc-resi,"ant antennas
5. Coating of all external diclectric surfac-s subject to particle impingement with resistive paint&so as
to prevent streamer interference, particularly over
plastic sections where the interference coupling is
most evere.
In addition 'o the external problem, which is complicated by the difficulty of proper identification of

the interference source. internal static electricity

7-32

problems involve the fact that helicopiers often are

engineered by designers who posse little knowledge
of the hazards posed by electrical interference of fuel
systems. As an example, plastic tubing often is considered for fuel jettison tubes. Friction electrification
of the plastic surfaces of the= tubes can ignite the
fuel vapors, particularly when the fuel tanks and jettison tubes are nearly empty. As a solution to this
problem, it has been saggested that all dielectrics with
a resistivity )f higher than 10' ohm-cm be carefully
considered for aircr-,ft use. Thus, the use of such
materials would be permitted, but freedom from
static electricity hazards would have to be assured for
each specific installation.
LIGHTNING AND STATIC ELECTRICITY
SPECIFICATIONS
There are a number of Military Specifications containing reierences to surges and protections. MILSTD-704 defines the accep:able limits of transients
on electrical power systems. MIL-A-9094 specifies
the requiremerts for aircraft l~ghtning arresters for
HIF antennas, and it probably will be extended to indlude all surge penetration into vehicles. MIL-E-6051
is the eiectroinagnetic compatibiiity specification,
and refers to permissible EM pulse limits. MiL-B5087 is the standard military bonding specification
and covers test current waveforms, bonding jumpcr
sizes, protection of canopies, and lightming-induced
surge penetration limits. There are other specifications with reference to lightning, but those listed
herein are the principal ones with specific data on
waveforms, test arrangements, and requirements.
.

REFERENCE
1. Rotary Wilng Aircraft Susceptibility, DN 74A,

AFSC DH 1-4, 10 January 1972.

AMCP 706-202

CHAPTER 8
AVIONIC SUBSYSTEMS DESIGN
&-I INTRODUCTION

8-1. 1 GENERAL
clctrni")is efiW astheapAvioics(avatio
Avonis (aiaton eectonicj i defnodas te aplication of elenronic techniques io accomplish such
functions as communication, navigation, flight )ntrol. identificatio~n, sensivig, surveillance, and terget
deaignation. The avionic subsystems will be defined
by the detail specification. This chapter will discuss
desin rquiemets
o iterliic t'eses~asysems
weith th uiemheniots toStractcs:sbytm
withthe
elioter.system.
From an operational viewpoint, the helicopter
avionic cowplrement can be subdivided into (1) the
basic helicopter configuration, and (2) the specialmiwoneqwpent.8.
The batsic helicopter configuration as discussed in
thic handbook is limited to the space, weight, ad
power requiremnents of the minimurn electronics
necessary in order to provide the basic mission capability for a specific ciazz of heiicopter. The helicopter
classes include light observatio'n, utility, tactical
and heavy transport, and external heavy lift
transpor-..
Special-misuion equipment is defincd as the additional e,'ectronics - beyond the basic communcation, navigation, and identification functions - requnired to accomplish specific missions such as IFFK
flight, night operation under reduced visibility conditions, target detection and recognition, target dcsignation, and integrated fire control, such as is lound in
gunships and tactical aircraft weapon systems.

magnetic compatibility/intcrfercnce (EMC/EM 1)

must be considered.
in general, the ioflowing dcsilbn sequencing must
occur.
1. Determine the avionic requirements.
2.Dtrieheaonchrctiscs
t
3. CDnteruineth ablonck diagramot:erinterfces
heitefcet
agam.
the eonctrictal syste
n h ar
system.h
4.eeletricalbsclyoto
ntear
ai aototesser
eeo
4
craft for mock-up purposes.
. Develop a schematic wiring diagram for the
6. Develop an interconnect diagram.
7 eeo
at it
7 eco
at it
Develop a wire list.
.Dvlpaneetia la nlss
10. Complete a preliminery EMC/EMI analysis
pa o h ytm
A-i.!

Jmedium

Avionic procurement, installation, and quaiii-

cation, Along with bench, preflight and flight test

requirements, are defined by Military Specifications
such as MIL-STD-454, MIL-STD-461, MIL-STD462, MIL-STD-704, MIL-B-5087, MIL-W-5088,
MIL-E.540, MIL-E-6051. and MIL-1-8700.
Tbc first step in avionic systcm design is to determine the proper location for each individual
system. Because avionic systems are made up of
several subsystems and coimponents, it is mandatory
that the total helicopter systcrr. and its environmental capability be known. Every avionic system
component has temperature and vibration limE*tu!:ons. Before any placement or location is determined, the inter/intra-system compatibility of the
location must bi, determined to insure that heat and
vibration will not have a detrimental effect upon the
performance of the equipment. in addition, electro-

ELECTROMAGNETIC
CNPTBLF
RGA
RGA
CMAIIIT

Interference generated by items of electrical/electronic equipment iirutalled in close proximity, as in a

typical helicopter systcem, easily can result in an intolerable interference loe, that could reduce seriously the usefulness of airborne equipment, or might
even render it ineperative. As defined in par. 9-11.2,
AMCP 706-203, the prime contractor shall establish
an overall integratcd EMI compatibility program for
the helicopter.
EMC is achieved by application of an optimum
-

mhin,,,i.nn of miannapriai

-*-*----

*-*--

anti iephnicM
-

r~norr-c-

from the earfiist design stage through the: final

product or operational feasibility demonstration
stage. Accordingly, an EMC program shall be es;ablished that will;
i. Insure the efficiprn integration of engineering.
management, and q, l1ity assurance tasks as thty
relate to EMC.
2. 1isure the efficient integration of EMC withk all
other systems an~d subsystems.
The first requirement for acnieving EMC in an
avionic system is that all major components and subsystems be designed, constructed, -,ndtested in comnpliance with MIL-STD-461l
The second requirement is compliance with MIILE-6051 as an operating helicopter system, with all
avionics and other equipme~nt installed and per.
for-ning their normal functions.
B-1

AMCP "&6202j
9-1.3 DEA2GN CONSIDERATIONS
The design considerat'ons that follbw are applicable to EMI and should be ased to assist in keeping
EMI to a minimum.
The first design consideration iinvolves the creation
of a good, basic grou-id plane. This is normally the
avioic ompnentchasisor
te arfrme srucure
for the avionic system installation. An ideal ground
zro-ipednce
plan awileropotetia,
povid
reference b~se for all circuits, and a sink or trap for
all
sigalstha
ndeire canoecrneintefernce
sources.unifornn,
desgnurcecsl.l
Asecond deinconridecration, patclryat th
lower communication frequencies, is the requirement for single-point 1grounding so as to avoid
ground loops. The h-ige. circul~ting utirrents in
ground loops are potential causes of interference.
A third design consideradion concerns shielding
practices for major components ard for the tntal aircraft installation.thdeinpaetocne
A fourth design considcration calls for isolating, as
fras possible, the power-carrying -vires and %cables
from the high-impedance, low-lcvel signal wiring.
The ba,ic p-inciple is to categorize conductors on the
-l
their Primary leaakange f
basicc _r -h..eth......poinents are mnagnectic or clctrusiatic. Ail condu~ctors
carlyin,3 power or signal eniergy have associated with
ar~ external or- leakage field that ran hiduce ut,
wanted signals or noise in nearby conductors by 'i
ductive or capacitive coupling. To minimize these undesirat~le field components, various techniques are
usedI - such as electrostatic and magnetic shielding,
spac searaiontwitin
of irepais, cossver
spaetistng
spartio, f wre air, cossver
wiring methods, use of field-absofbing materials, and
netralzaton
ethds.much
sophstiate
'~

Vthem

A fifth deinconsideration is to provide adequate

troni-. eq.uipment, and for parts of tile vehicle structure that can contribute to the generation of clectri
cal ncisi. All electrical and avionic equipment, subsystems, and systems that produce electromagnetic
energy shall be installed to provide a continuous lowimpclanv' path from the equipment enclosure to the
aircraft structure. The. designer mi.st demonstrate
that thac proposed bon,' 4 methods result in a D-C
resistance as specified Jh. ~.i various cl asses of bonding in MIL-B-5087. The design shall minimize the
long-term effects of ope:ra' oal vibrotion, the effects
of cerjrosion bz~ween adj..- nt surface and of' galvanic aztion, the diC!eCtric breakdown of insulating
finishes, and the undzsii'nblc cifect of intermittent
electrical contact. Bonding stiali be accomplished by
direct mn..tal-to-metall contact whercvcw practicable. A
bonding .imper shall be used where direct meta!-to-

~,8-2

mettal contact is impracticable. Such jumpers shall be

pcfe nMLB58,o
o h appropriate
tnadt~Sa
types, and shall be kept as short
other

r
addrctspoibeWhrpatcbltejm
hjme
addrc spsil.Weepatcbe
shlr o xcd3i.i
egh ufc rprto
for bond and grounds shall be accomplished by
removing all anodic film, grease, paint and lacquer,
or othecr high-resistance: materials from the imnmediate area of contact. Direct-to-basic structure
bonding "hlused wherever possible. For vehicles
with metallic skin, the skin &Wal be designot. so that a
low-impedance skir. is produced through inherent RF bonding during construction. RF bondint
must oc accomplished bctwoer all structural comnportents. Hatches, access doors, and similar comnwirientshnot
einhe
roxuiy tointrfpermanenl
soucn-o
wiigsalbethrbnetorprantyisulated from the vehicle skin except for the protciesticdanbd.tishgldsrbedin
thedstaign phasi, toanfer reishghlaly weithleauirngm
eirlwthifam
designers so as to resolve compatibility problems.
For i;,uidelines to analysis and design, the design er.H14
gne hudcnutMLB58,AS
Re.I. and-4cN6S1.douetsrfrecdi
I..SD41
A sixth design consideration for rninimniziiie EN.1 is
to separate :alid isolate pulse device and equipment
from other devices that are high)) isusceptible to
EMI. This is accomplished by attemptiall to separate
use
aas itroaortas
sc tesa
aas nergtrtas
sc tm spit
ponders, ani I H F transmitters from com~puters, data
processors, and sliscrptible receivers. This is not
always possible, -nasmuch as the physical locations of
somie devicus are dictated by m.ission requirements.
However, the designer should strive to achieve as
physical and electrical isolation as is practicable.
A fl-!inaldedrg conadialrabls tien cablvteuse
o ie f
doquilerinhieldescohaxil cables Ote cablesm or 9ire
alhveamimmo90
reuin shld
providg.Cnncosued withblc shilsfifselin cables shilllde.
prvddwtblcshlsfiatengalehcd.
-.
ENIOM
TA AS CS
SET
8-.
NIOMNA
Ervironmental considerations are pertinent to the
design of the b,sic avionic system, and to the
airfrume-systcm interface. Susceptibility to rotor
mnodulation must be consdte6e. The very high frequcncy omni-dircctional range (VOR), instrument
landing system (ILS) localizer and glidescope, VHFFM %omer, and other cquipn~ent have been affected
adversely by near-frequency rotor modulation. As
rotor blades pass over the air-.raft, a modulation of
the incoming wavefrorit is set up, with pronounced

<

~
ZuJ.~
-

'S~.j~i.-i
*J~k

4;

AMACP 706-202

results. In addition, the modulation is in a nonsinusoidal manner and the harmonic content is high. The
variable and reference modulation in a VOR is 30 Hz
and thc localizer and glidescope frequencies are 90
and 150 Hz; these are all convenient harmonics. This,
coupled with the fact that helicopter rotor speed
often is such as to give harmonics of 30. 90. and 150
Hz creates prublek-as for avionic system designers.
Techniques have been developed, as discussed in par.
8-3.2, for phase inversion and cancellation of the
modulation. This technique shows promise of solving
the problem. However, the characteristics of certain
existing ground "aci~ities are such that when this
techniqusv is used one error sitaply is exchanged for
another. In any case, it is essential that nmanufacturers, of equipment for helicopters incorporate
very narrow bana filters into their equipment, and

based upon heat rise can be developed for various

critical ambient tenmperature situations. It must be reanari o vial
ntegon
or when the helicopter is hovering; therefore, either
auxiliary air from outside the aircraft or engine bloed
air must be used to meet cooling requirmecnts.
if a particular helicopter is to be a multiuse aircraft, requirements applicable to the various uses
must be considered. If a single airframe is to be used
for two or more different types of missions, the
avionic configuration design must accomplish all
requirements economically.
Environmental test requirements should be foiiiiulated during the initial helicopter planning phase and
should consider all enviro.nmental conditions to be
encountered.

p'-ocurement should be based upon this criterion. In

8-2

addition, antennas must be decoupled from the main

rotor insofar as is possible.
In general, helicopter avionics do not have to be
desit~ned to withstand the altitude er~tremes that
fixed-wing avionic systems do.
Dust and sand are more of a problem to helicopter
avionic equipmcri whan to fixcd-wing Cquipmontn.
Diiit can pack up in voltage regulators, iotating
equipment, relays, switches, and othei critical devices and cause malfunctioas, If these components
cannot be hermetically scaled, they must have:
shrouds or other protective covering, and they will requirt additional mrintenance,
Helie'opter vibration must be considered bas'4
upon the installation of all equipment. The addition
of equipinent, particularly in the it~struriicnt panel,
affects the frequencies and amplitudes of vibrietion.
With the &aJvcntof solid-state components, vibration
prob~lems have beecn reduced, but most internal Comnponents sitill are, vulrerable to vibration fatigue.
While avionic manufacturers qualify their products
to a specification, the applicable specification cannot
duplicate absoluttly the situations enc ountered in the
actual in.,taliation. Therefore, it is desirable to dcsign for a minimum level of vibration.
Temperature ranges may be severe. dependine
upon ambiznt conditions. Because of the large areas
of trinsparent. windihielO or canopy, solar heat can
become a problem when the doors are closed and the
helicopter is on the groanrd. Avionic packages are
good lieo.' sinks; they will absorb a great deal of heat
and will kot dissipate it for some .imc after becoming airborne. Some ground tcniperatur! conditions 4re worse than conditions in flight.
A temperature survey it an important design considcration for avionic equipment installation. Data

COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT

8-2.1 GENERAL
Army helicopters coutairt many combinations of
communication equipment. Because of the rapid de.
velopment of new devices and the chanzges in nouierclature, no specific radios are referenced in this
chceLer.

The typts of communication eq'ripmen! currently

in use include high frequercy, HF (3-39 MHz) -very
high frequency, VHF (FM') (30-75.9 MHz); VHF
(A.M) (118-150 MHz); ultra high frequency, UHF
(AM) (225.400 MHz); and millimetei wave. A typical
communication block diagram is shown in Fig. 8-I.
Guidelines for the radio installaiwn iaicludcl:
1. Tlae transmitter should be mounted in close
proximity to the antenna in eirder to preclude line
losses.
2. The control head shoulti bv rr!i -.;r.: I te. provide ease of access for the flight clew.
3. Routing of audio wires should be such asIQpe
vent crosstalk and feedback.
4. Power leads should be of sufficient size to permit fUl generator/battery voltage to appear at the
radio under transmit conditions.
5. Componenns should be mounted in an area
wheic sufficient cooling will be avaik~ble.
6. A low-vibration area should b-- provided for
mounting. The vibration limitations for communication equipment are identified normally in the applicable equipment installation specification (SCL-IOOXX).
Each of these guidelines contributes to die reliability of the overall system, and, thicieforrr, is cssential lor helicopter mission accomplishment.
Transmission lines, usually coaxial cables, are used
to cai r) the transmitted signal to the antenna and the
8-3

Iebrdta
I

AMCP 706.202
received signal from the antenna to the receiver. Lowloss cable, such as RG-214/U, should be considered
for lengthy runs where exmessvc loss could occur.
Newer cables are being developed, and appear
promising. Commercial cables, even if not yet ap-0
proved by Army qualification tests, should be proposed by the contiavtor if their use assists in maintaining efficiency and low cost. AMCP 706-125 (Ref.
2) should be consulted for further information on
transmission lines.
Antenna considerations for communication equipment are presented in p~ar. 8.5.
8-2.2 MICROPHONE-HEADSET
A helicopter microphone must be of the noise
cancolling type; Armny and civiiian experience has
shown that a dynamic microphone is the mos~t o.f
fective. In the noisecancellinS microphonc, ambicnt
acoustic noise enters both sides of the microphone
wv~th equal intensity and at the same phase relationship. Unfortunately, the face, lips, teeth, and
protective helmet have a major effect upon the noise
cancelling characteristics. In tie case of a helicopter
with a high ambient acoustic noise level, it may bse
nccmary to conduct a power spectral density
mmaurement of thc noise love! in the microphone
area, us'ng standard microphones and then to develkp a filter that attenuates unwanted noise while
permnitting a voice to psi, through the microphoute
amp~lifier.
The heuadset nlso must be of a dynami~ic typie, ead i:
is highly dm~i' able that it have minim'um high-level
distortion. Yhe @er muffs should tic lagge enough to
exclude c~tr&ncous noise whilc providing optrator
comfort on long flikhts.
I bt microephonte'heedscet. if included as part of ihe
hel~met, also should possess the foregoing characweistics.

6 16
F6866666
4
1

MIKE

___

ICs
IESLCTKOFF9

NAy

NAV

VOL.ME

N
HOTMIKE

Flgs: 2 W..Typical Iuercomnuulcadoin

Solocter Box
8-2.3 INTERCOMMUNICATION SELECTOR
Box
The microphonc-heidset plugs into an intercommunication selector box (ICS), which will have a
number of microphone and headset selector switches.
Us5ually, the zekoctor unit has an integral volume controi and a "hot" microphone switch. A typical unit is
shown in Fig. 8-2.
The ICS control unit swvlocts - for each crew
member - the radio for which the hieAdset is seclected,
the intercom functions, and the emergency radio.
(Th.; cien~criccy radio function noa anjally is. unswitched audio which cannot be disabled.) Often,.
other fun-.ti ns are routed through the ICS control
box - such as engline failure, warning, landinig Sear
warning, rotor brake-n warning, and other audio
warning signals. ',he ICS control box is the main
bwitchboard for the flight crew. It usually is arranged in a standard configuration so that a craw
member can transfer from one type of aircraft to
another without confusion.
It is imperative that each crew member ka.-ve ready
access to his ICS control unit. Cockpit and crew station ar-rangement is described in p~ar. 123-2. L
8-3 NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT
0-3.1 GENE~RAL
The. categories of navigational tcquipment are:
1. Terminal maneuvering

Ea route navigation

Becauxe the usefulness of VFR aircraft has been

~limited

Figurt 841. Blcvls WfAgwm of Classical

Commssancatkom Sy.e
8-4

6 NAV

Interdiction

HLO~fl3.

L svl4sT...

MIKE

ANTENNA2.

in recent crimbat operations, future helicopter icquirements will include all-weather operation with stability augrficntation systems.
The location and installation of the anternais
required for the navigational equipment dircussed are
furthtr defincKA in par. 8-5.
Navigation displays arc discussed, along with other
flight instruments, in Chapter 10.

6-32 TERMINAL MANEUVERING

EQUIPMENT

__

In addition to the basic flight instruments, a

helicopter may have VOR, ILS, marker beacon, and,
preferably, a radar altimeter.
The helicopter VOR Antenna Array is mounttd
for horiontal polanzaon in an area that provides
maximum performance and minimum rotor modulation. The basic ground signal -is both frequencyand amplitude-modulated at 30 Hz, and the aircraft
VOR re~cvr measures the phase difference betwcen
theie two) signals in ardor to obtain the angular displacement to the station; accuracy of the VOR is
about *2 deg. Because the main rotor blade often ro-tates at an angular rate that is some subharmoi;.of
3Q Hz, helicopter manufacturers have experienccl a
great deal oftdifficulty with rotor modulation of the
VOR. Usually ftherotor modulation can be seen in
the oscillation of the course needle. In extreme prw
the course information will become unusable.
Ther
exerimnta
ar som
tecniqes aailble
by which thi rotor modulation can bc eliminated,

Ewenually. these oc-_n4 upo~n actecting the rotor

\amplitud4:-muodulation on the subcarncer, inverting it,

summing'it .with the modulation on the VOR

rn effect, canrcceiver variablu -phase channel

,and

.3.33 EN ROUTE NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT

Navigational equipment used in eo route flying
may include ADF, DME, TACAN. LORAN, conaDoprrdandietlnviainyas
The missojn requirements dictate the AV='m of
sophisticwUon required.
53.1Ato kDieimFae(DF
This -is a refinement of tht. old radio direetion
finder, Rnd employs both a sense antenna and a ho
antenna on-board the aircraft. The uignals from these
two antennas are added vectorially and a cardoidr..
pattern results. By means, of circuitry w.ithin the
radio, the system always seeks the null of the cardioid
and, by means of proper calibration tnd instrumentation, a pointer shows the re'lative bearing to the
station to which*the radio is tvned.
The equipment 'do~ikner must be certain that dte
receive .r antbnnas arc selective, so that extraneous
signals will not affect the operation of the unit. Attempts have been mad,; to install ~vidcband amplifiers in the loop and sense antenna circuits in order to
tyt mrv h fiinc fasotatnao
alemn t usually
fain
ha antedn

inraddiion
how a vaigs

atepsualyhvrsuediadtonldin
probletns.
Thi'kns 'antenna _sh66ld be as iar from' the main
tpevtin-fecerm
oW Fsilinrd
closerfeoenhe efrobpevn

ceiling it out. While this principle has been demon-

an ihu
ise, od
tritdeetric no

strted
hs benfoud~t
italo
inroucean din
the:
spinning
tone wheel
wheel-tooth syn~metry
typiall
t ge~rae
usd th sucarier rnVOR

trical CG of the helicopter for good reversal

&hiat
rifc.Tev locato oftesne nen

~ditional error into the system. The small variation in

termiihes ih revrsal chir'cteristics of the system.

stemicaresulsedt iencan a elthe moulcatrior ofVc
Empirically. it has bee.n gh'own that if the sense antenubsearrier.lt
Whn themliud
modulation of
sbare
the
no is located forwa~rd on 'the aircraft belly, an early
reversal (and. possibly, multiples) will occur, if it is
withthevariblephas sinltherot
hs
sgath
oo
summed wit th aibl
cmponent is cancelled but these asymmetrits imaft on the top,alte
ndi fr
revesalt will oiurs mounted
poea new AM component on the tone. Thus, the
thatoptin
sfton
mounted
ocresultdif
elyreversal will
be applied to operational eqyipmrnpet (Ref. 3). t
',

systeisl
toute
lanin (nteS)
Anuide
sthuenarcat toathengrosnd.eTheILS iscopsed to
Suid
t th
th aicrat
grond.TheILSis ompsed
of a loaiewhich operates betwecn 18ad 12
MHz and uses the same antanna a& the VOR, and a
glidescope, which operator. between 329 and 335
MHz. When a localizer frzquency is dialed, the glide-

scept is channeled automatically to the proper fryquency. Both the localizer and the glidtscopc t4e 90
and 150 Hz to provide right-left or up-down sius
Again, rotor modulation has been i. major prob'em
inboth

these devices.

An additional radio for use with the VOR and ILS

is the marker beacon receiver. The receiver operates
at 75 MHz and is used to locate points along the ILS
path.

tset
meroa intiti
symmercli the longitudinal axis fo'- symmetry in
calibration. Because the loop is affected by large
masses, consideration should he given to the location
of deployable or disposable stores when placing the
loop.
The- ADF never is to be considered as precision

equipment. It is versatile, and its angular error vanies

invctsely with distance and increases with atmospheric noise leval. It is vulnerable to countermeastres.
8-3.3.2 Distance-measring Equilpment (DME)
Distance-mcasurii~g equipmnt.r has been in %:sofor
some years and is very accurate. It consists of an airborne transponder that sends out a signal that
8-5

IqF

anotd" Signal to the aircraft on a slightly different

fnMuqum7c. Th ib. "t~tPnWmasrste
tota elapsed time, divides by two, and couve :u this
Igua* into miles. The distance thea is presented to the
pilot by moma of a dial Wunstinet or a digital display. The antenna should be isolated from other an.
tuina as much as possible due to the pulsed
Obaractrautic of theoutput.

64.3.3 TastWa Air Navlgatiuim (TACAN)

t iliary
avigtio) is emiliary
ir Naigaton)
(Tctial
TACA
TACA
Ai
(Taticl
system that combines DME and a form of VOR (Station Waring) 6o as to give the pilot acontinuous P051ion fix with respect to a single station, in terins of
distance and bearing to the station. Each ground
TAuCAN beacon consists of a transmitter and an antenra. The transmitter operates in the UHF band,
between 962 and 1213 MHz. Tite airborne rejcivrtianamitter send& out a chain of interrogation pulmc
and deodes the rply from the ground station
TACAN is & line-f-sight systeim, end there is
almost no chance uf interference from station: beo.
Yond tke radio horizon.
6-.3.3.

LAOR-rW116 14aragam11

tMLAIR~N)

Hyperbolic navi1gation is achieved when synchronizett signals having a known velocity cf propagation are tral emitted from at least three known
points, and thiL relative times of arrival cf these
signals ane measuredl and interpreted, Standard
WILRAN is a hyperbolic navigation syste that was
developed primarily fer long-range nuvigatsion over
water. It operates on one of several frequen~cies
between 1700 and 2000 Hz, and its propagation
characteristics are determined primarily by soil con
ductivity and ionospheric conditions.
The long pulse length requires the use of rareful
matching techniquts in order to achieve re*sonlible
precision The chief disadvantages of LORtN indude the impossibility of instantaneous fixing wih
out dual insts'altions. the presence at night of long
tra~ns of pulses reflected from the ic-nosphere, and the
faut that ionospheric iransmission is not homo.
genous, so that the shapes of the sky-wave pulses
often are distorted and difficult to match,
LORAN C/D is ths latest inodei of this type of airborne equipment. The accuracy is extreately good
when the set it operating within the range of highest
accuracy of the transmitting stations. The LORAN
equipment operates in the HF region, so a relatively
long, wire antenna is desirable. Except for reversal
characteristics, the same considerations should be
used in the placement of this antenna as arc used for
the ADF sense antenna.

There usually are two types of corupawesyilasm

ara helicopter. The most prod"ie s the slaved directional gyro (D%) that has two modes of operation - free directional gyro and slawA~ coampass. In
the free mode, it acts only as a dirotina gyro; in the
slaved mode. signals from a flux valve i"lve it to mogneuic north. Particular care must be. uted- in the location of the flux valve; it must besas farmsW praoticable front any ferrous material, and any DC wiring
in close proximity must be two-wire twiste.
The stand-by magnetic compass usually is located
above the instrument panel. Compensation is intogral to the unit. If light wires are installed for thit
com~pas, they rinuat he two-wire twisted.
Intermittent fields should be avoided for all cotnpassses
8--3.36 Doppler Naylgatlea Systems
Doppler systems measure velocity only, by the
welkonDpercf inhchadtonrma
worell-nmowin roplaier
efetoihewhich radispation frn
ei
oinreaiet h iw~ sdslcdi
frequency. In practice, this means comparing the frequency of the returned echo with a stable reference
frequency; thn6cierence: between the two is a gin=c
measure of the relative velocity. Accurecy thus do-(
pends upon the echo quality. Echo quality from
water, for example, often is poor.
Dop~pler systems dettermine location relative to the
point of flight origin by integration of measured veolctvcor.Dppeacrcyersesaniprovement over airspeed-clock-compass dead reckoninX because the velocity vectors measured are
relative to the ground. Generally, the vectors in the
direction of flight and normal to it (x and y) ate
Mmasured. The system accuracy is expressed as a percentage of tho distance travelled, as opposed to inertial systems wvhose accuracy is relative to the tine of
flight.
Typical performance accuracy of Doppler systems
for ground speed is 0.11 %(rinD) over 10 nmi, and 0.06
deg (ims) for average drift. Reliability of actual installations has typically been 1000 to 1200 hr MTBF.
Further iniormation on Doppler systems can be
found in Ref. 4.
8-3.3.7 Inertial Navlgadoa System.
Inertial navigation systems (INS) have beow developed primarily for use on fixed-wirg military and
commercial virciraft. Because of the requirement that
an inertial platformi be precise without ground iation
correction, this device is a valuable navigatioaal standard in forward areas. Couniermeasurts arc virtually noisexistent.

AMCP 706-2022

INS oporatiork is governed by two basic physicuii

priciple - lb. gravitational pull of the earth and
the gyroscopic principle. Essentially, the INS is viade
up of a stable platform, a computer, a musnory, and a
presentation. Many outputs t~an be derived from such
a unit - e4g., true. north, velocity and direction, -%rab
angle. and all autopilot signals necessary to pmedetermine flogt track.
The only requirement necessary for installation of
inertial navigation equipment is the provision of a
precise iongiudinol Wis for reference. Normal
EMliEMC procautions also must be taken.

scaInner,

8-3.4 JNTERDICFION EQUIPMENT

Because of security considerations, this discussion
necessarily is limited. Generally, a specific electronic
countermeasure (ECM) device will live quadrature
information (general location of the equipment under
surveillance), frequency, pulse width (if pulsed), duty
cycle, peak and everage power, and repetition rate.
The ECM also is designed to provide other types of
information i! required. ECM is desirable as -.nterdiclion equipment, not only to provide the helicopter

8-3.6 STATION-KEEPING EQUIPMEN4T

Thie c~uipmcsnt geinerally is used for maintaining a
position directli 'wer a point on the earth and for formation flying. The systems usually are employod on
larger, load-carring helicopters requiring precision
positioning for pickups and drops.
In applications requiring loading and unloading
from a hover, Doppler radar is the most rcadily
aviiable andl precise type of station-keeping equiprnent. Most conventional Doppler navigational

crew with information. but to telemeter the informabion back to secondary forward anaiysis armas.
In addition to ECM, it roay be desirable to include
optical or laser ranos..flsders, ranging gunlaying
radar, or other devices to aid the interdiction aircraft
in performing its mission and to pinpoint targets for
forward ground artillery. Communications, usually
secre, will form a part of the systent.
While not actually a part of the interdiction equipsnout, the electrical characuteistics of the helicopter
must be considered to be a part of the mission.
Acoustic noise, radar reflctivity, and infrared (IR)
sianatarp moist hp minimived In sditio;dn, th- aircraft mssonwilspecify radio frequenc~y tranamissian owa.

8-3.5 L0W-LIGHT-LEVEL NAVIGATIONAL

EQUIPMENT

This equipoent is unique. and is required only for

specific missions. There are three basic types of such
equipment. The first type is low-light-leve! television. In is simplest foirm it is nothing more than a
dlosed-circuit TV employing a c~mea that is sensitive. partic~ularly to low light levels.
The second type is an adaptation of the photonultiplier or 'mnouperacope 9' device used during
World War 11. Optical stabilization and intensi&ictiontechniques have bein refined, and the imnproved system has some unique advantages,
The third, mad most prosnisiag, system is the infhare (13.) detection type. It consists of a sensor--

a signal conditioner, a power supply, and aa

video display. The scnsor responds to a selected spectrum in the 1K region, and operates in total darkness. Rt is extremely sensitive and can discriminatea
bttween sight temperature differences. The system
cao ht designed to include very accurate definition.
and thec resultant display on a dark night can duplicato a daylight TV picture.
These low-li~ht-lcvel devices are used in activities
that caii for radio silence, acoustic silence, low radar
reflectivity, znd low iR signature. Flight techniques
also are iinportat.

nsvteniq

arre

nsMa an S*dinett tn d-n

rnivip na'ngnti. n-

the frequencies are rlatively high 4nd accurate. At

zcro velocity. the Doppler shift will be zero, and
determination of movement is difficult; however, recent developments by avionic manufacturers effectively have permitted zero error during hover. This
type of system is recommended for station-keeping
for loading situations.
Doppler syttems require specific antennii
locations. Generally, three- or four-beam patterns art
used. Some manufaciurers incorporate all functions
into one antenna. Certain types of equipment require
tha
antnn
5 ib~dlruibizunp
poses. Provisions for antenna location must be made
during the early dtsign phase in order to maximize ef.
ficient use of tht area in the fuselage belly.
For station-kaeping during formation flying, many
techniques have been used in the past and are
satisfactory under both VFR and IFR conditions.
Cost-effectivenecss decisions will determine equipment selection. Radar, together with beacons,
LORAN, or special IR, may be considered.

8-4

FIRE CONTROL EQUIPMENT

6-4.1 GENERAL
The airborne fire control system selectively performs the Weks of (1)establishing that the weapon is
aligned Properly to hit tie target, and (2) driving and
holdinS the weapon platform to a commanded Pon'Lion.
8-71

1h

.1

The major elements of any fire cositrol system consit of sight, sensors, and computei. The weapon
controls are a part of the fire control equipment, and
their functions are to nctivate the gun or missile,
regulate gun firing rate, select the weapon, regulate
the ammunition feed system, inventory the ammunition supply, etc.
The complexity and sophisticntion of an avionic
fire control system wvill vary according to the degree
of accuracy required, rnd the type and flexibility of
the armament subaysate,. The armament subsystem
may be an integral subsy3tem of the helicopter, or it
may be a modular comporeeni that can be snapped on
or off to suit the particular mission requirements.
Thus, the designer must establish fire control design
requirements commensurate with required aircraft
missions.
Because the kinds of missions to b-. derformcd arc
likely to be broad in scope (ranging,
perhaps, from

weapon is aimed and fired. An optical sight, either

direct-viewing or periscopic, Senorally is used for
daylight operations, and may provide selectable dogreos of optical magnification.
The sighting station also may provide target range
and image intensification sensors. Target range
equipment can include lasers, radar, or stadiametric
ranging devices. Image intensifiers include low-lightlevel television, electronic image amplifiers, and optical telescopes.
Direct viewing weapon sights have been a major
source of fatal and serious head trauma during
crashes in US military aircraft during World War II,
Korea, and Vietnam. It is essential that all sighting
devices be designed to eliminate their potential as injury producers. Factors to be taken into consideration
in order
to delethalize
sighting
devices
are:
1. Ability
to instantly
remove,
jettison,
or stow
during emergency

close tactical support to rescue), the fire control requirements likewise will be varied. Mission analysis
will determine the fire control functions to be performed, and a careful selection of multiuse armsmernt subsystem equipment will reduce weight and

2. Not to create additional hazard(s) to other crew

pers.nmnel in the event of emergency
3. Adequate stowed tiedown strength to prevent
sight from rebounding during impact
4. Not to represent lethal missile 1azard in the

for helicopters include flexible turreted Suns, fixed

guns, rockets, and missiles. The interface characteristics of their supporting functions are as different 3S
the armament systems themselves. Consequenfly, detailed integration design specifications for each typo
of armament subsytem shall be issued so as to insure
ffective weapon delivery.
-84.2 INSTALLATION
Adequate provisions for installation of the
elements of the respective fire control systems should
be incorporated into the helicopter to insure proper
matching or harmonization of such systems with armament. The fire control system should be installed
as specified in the helicopter specification governing
control of guns, rockets, and guided missiles. The
helicopter manuuacturer is responsible for the shock
mounting of all fire control equipment installed,
Vibration-isolating mounts should be incorporated
so that equipment will not be affected adversely by vibrations in the helicopter. Testing shall be in accordance with MIL-STD-810.

8-4.3 SIGHTING STATION

The sighting station providts the means by which
the weapon operator establishtx the xL.nuth and depression coordinates of the target relative to the aircraft position. For flexible weapons, the sihting station includes the operating controls by which the
84etigb

5. Review of Ref. 5.
8-44 SENSORS
Fire control system sensors provide the information necessary for solving the fire control probIen and directing the weapon(s) at the target. Sensor
typ include those that measure target and aircraft
motion or position, and those that assist in target detection. Externally mounted sensors should be
housed in aerodynamic fairings wherever possible,
and protection should be provided against such environmental conditions as handling and accidental
ground maintenance damage. Sensors that produce
elactro-optical or electronmagneic energy should be
located so that neither direct nor reflected energy
enters the crew compartment. Furthermore, the
mounting provisions for auch semors should permit
attachment of ground operation warning devices to
alert ground crews to potential radiation hazards.
The mechanical interfee between the sensor awd
the helicopter should be desgned for adequate
strength, ease of maintmanc, and amcurate a:gnmeat with the helicopter datum plane. Sensors projecting from helicopter mold line should be iocated
so that they will not interfme with aircw entry and
exit. Aerodynamic soeors includc those or the pitot
tube, anglof-attack indicator, and air data computer. They should be located as iar forward on the
aircraft, and asllffar from the fUseg or appendags
ralmqe

AMCP 706-202
aa is iwan"eal to misiimise aeirodyananlc ismrfeseme and loWa flow variations duo to the influence
of the maiW rotr(s). Seemo accurocy levids shiould be
aehct for compatibility with fire control accuracy

"reuiresomes

Sensors bested laternal to the helicopter .bdl be

potecled pine the vibration shock mad power load
s*gaviomsna associate with the specific bheliopter
design. is genral any amunsing equipment located
withi the crew congpaalment must be capable of
wlthsamdi~fsg crash load factors without dletachingS
trwo its mountings. Vibration isolation should be
Provided in accordanc with MIL-E-5400 and MILSTD-S 10. power requirements (including number
and sin of delectica wires), the necessty for
shielding, and/or the use of nonstandard electrical
connetor should be considered in the design of th
internal Mounting strucure. Mounting provisions for
all sensor units should provide for easy removal of
fostsiners arad connectors, and for structural dearDs=
aidequate to permit rapid removal and/or repair
durnn.
"'w~ano operatons
Scumor using elecro-optical or elecromagnetic
energy shoul be located in regions where they will
evnm~mm-p minimum electrical interference from
otbgr aircraft equipment. This principle applics to
both th internal arnd the external (transmitting) portiois, of the equipment. The electrical Power requireiamts of thes equipment types can be significant. In
order to minimize transmision losae and elecrical
inter~feroene it is necessary to: (1) locate the sensor
unit Power supply in close proxi'mity to the balicopter power source, and/or (2) minimize the sepsration between the sensor unit and the point of air
cato tavo iid
otnti hnazadsition tahe
ul bcew
during
to &voi
poeta

u)

aad

otearrwdfn

3-4.5 COWITFVJIS
The airborne fire control computet is a specialpurpose device that accepts quantitative informnafion, arranges it, performs a mathematical calculation, and provides qualitative outp~it information. This definition describes a simple Clectri Wl computing circuit as well as a digital comiputer.
The specific requirements for the computer are astablished by the degree of fire control accuracy desired. In addition to suppoiting rfie control compuitation, fth airborne computer may be employed to
aswist in flight control, navigation, and communication tasks.
The specific design requirements of the computer
syatm AsW be in accordance with the governing
desig requirements of the fire control system for

soaing heicopter nar,gaption-vionlc computation

flancion.
Power rosjiiianLni AoU be as specified by comnputer design requirements. Computer vibration mclation will be required as spedifod in the deAig mn
quirementa In meeting computer aWoes requiremcnts. consideration must be givin to removal. safoty, replvcsment, and component inspection.
3-4.6 FIRE. CONTROL ACCURACY
Guns and rockets should have adequate structural
support in order to minimize helicopter structural deflactions during firing or launching. Optical sights
should be located so as to avoid the sighting
aberrations of canopy distortions. Sights should be
installed upon rigid mounts, but without inducing
undin sight-fine vibrational distortion. Locations of
sights and armament should be such as to avoid ti:
probability of excessive parallax errors in the fire
control computation. The sight and armament subsystems should be installed with suitable adjustment
and lock devices for proper boresighting and barmonization. Electronic equipment should be prot td from the noise generr~ted by helicopter power
P2f

etk

.nu Wu0 har i'.Mw~nonta

14-1W#t,

generate dect~rnic noise). Data sensors and ballistic

computa- should be chosen so as to provide cornponent accio-wacy characteristics consistent with the
sytena amcracy requirwrients of the governing helicopter specification.
94A low"i Stoblratbou
Fosmeapito
tblztonfthsgt
oraisomedapicainsaiiain ordetheoehlcper soight
dynamics as a source of sighting error. Stabilization
is also incorporated in automatic target tracking
equipment. This equipment typically is designed as
part of the sighting station, but remote auxiliary comnponeat location may be rquirod. Auxiliary comnponents should be installed in accordance with design
practices specified by the sight supplier.
8-4.6.2 FIre Ceotrel Datue Plasie
A physical reference surface should be established
so as to relate sight and armament equipment for
basic alignment and harmonization of the fire control
system with the aircraft structure.
!n a fixed weapon system installation, the weapon
firing line generally is aligned so as to be parallel to
the aircraft datum line. The designer should consider
weapon characteristics, such as tangential projectile
throw and/or barrel cant, during the alignment
process. If the system is radat-directod, the radar line
must be aligned parallel to aircraft datum.

S,

"

AWC 70&-202
For flexible fir- control systems

either radar- or

optically-directed - provisions shall be made to align

and test the line of sight, the tracking line (turret
minus weapon), and the wetpon firing line parallel to
the aircraft datum line. Provisions must be included
for testing and harmonizing the fire control coordinate system wit, the aircraft coordinate system.
The precision of measurement is dependent upon the
overall fire control system requirements and the associated error allocation.
-4.6.3 H
In order to provide the greatest firing accuracy, the
major components must be adjusted carefully. This is
true especially of the sight and its accessories, the
projectile-launching equipment, and the aircraft itself. This harmonization involves the orientation of
three reference lines in the aiicraft: the aircraft datum
line (flight path), the sight line, and the armament
line. Lugs aligned with the aircraft longitudinal axis
should be installed to provide a surface for leveling
the equipment and for establishing reference lines.
Harmonization of fixed weapon installations
generally can be accomplished by mechanical ad,_st.m.lnt of the weannpn. For flexible installations.
mechanical and electrical adjustments are required in
order to assure coincidence and alignment of sight
line and weapon line.
Harmonization techniques can be parallel, point,
or pattern; and the technique best suited to the
specific weapon type should be selected.
In parallel harmonizotion all armaments, plus the
sight line, are aligned parallel to the Armament datum
plane. Point harmonization typically is used when the
armament is installed well outboard fronm the centerline of the aircraft or the sight location. In this case,
rall arii-,anit i-s-" ...... S
.ht,
1 c. .;.g I;. rtor_
sect at a point ahead of the aircraft, thus concntrating the fire of the weapons upon a single, small
area at a selected range. Pattern harmonization is
similar to parallel harmonization, except that the
parallel armament line is elevated above the sight line
by gravity drop or velocity hump corrections. All
use of a special
n techniques
harmonizatiz
taroet(
temonizatien require
board) the
as supporf
equip-

tent.
ment.
COMPONENT LOCATION
The major points to be considered in fire control
component installation include vibration and shock
isolation, cooling and heating, radio noise interference, accessibility, electrical shock hazards, and
crash safety. All weapon system components should
8-4.7

be mounte so that the entire travel of the shock

mounts is possible in all directions without inter-

8-10

ference between components. For small cornponents, the shock mounts should be adequate to
support the weight of both the component and its
cable connections. The components xh/l be located
wherc they will recive an ample supply of circulating air, particularly when airborne.
Heating may be necessary for some components of
the fire control system ander extremely lowtemperature conditions.
Radio noise interference should be rhduced by
grounding the case of all zomponents securely and
filtering power supplies, and by using shielded cables
for pulse-carrying applications.
Electrical shock hazards will be reduced greatly by
secure grounding of all components.
Ease of installation, alignment, and trouble-.
shooting should be considered during equipment
design so that connectors can be disconnected readily, even under adverse conditions. Components
should not block acoess to other components. S'rviceability of equipment should be enhanced by locating adjustments and test points on a single, accessible surface. Where this is impossible, the use of
slideout racks to permi: removal of equipment from
shodk mosnts should be considered. Ii the cornponeni must be removed from the aircraft for adjustment, sufficient cable length should be available
to allow the component to be removed and placed on
a service rack without disconnecting its cables.
Great care should be taken to insure that avionic
subsystem components cannot enter crew spa= as
lethal missiles in the event of a crash. Crashworthy
component tiedown strength and/or crashworthy
barriers should be provijed in order to overcome the
lethal potential of avionic components.
A-5 ANTENNAS
".11 GENERAL
The communication and navigation equipment d'scussed in pars. 8-2 and 8-3 requires a variety of an.
tennas, ranging from those in the low-to-microwave
frequency
spectrum to
horizontalradia.
and
vertical
polarization
andthose
thosehaving
with different
vetclparzioanthswthdfrntai.
tion patterns. Antennas are susceptible to rotor-

induced modulation, triboelectric cl,..ging, and noise

generated by corona discharge. The combination of
electrical requircmcnts and problems created by the
platform presents the antenna designer with difficult
design requirements, Safety problems are important,
It is essential that antennas capable of emitting po.
tentially harmful or fatal radiations be marked with
appropriate warning labels to proecude fatal or
serious injury to aircrcw or maintenance personnel

during normal operation or ioutine maintenance.

AMC

41

ANTENNA DEVELOPMENT

The development of a helicopter antenna -abased

gpon the requirements of the associated equipment
and the mission for which the helicopter is intended.
Some of the con-iderations are:
I. Frequency range
2. Radiation characteristics
3. Polarization
4. Efficiency
5. Voltage standinj,, wave ta-z.o (VSWR)
6. Noise
7. Environment
8. Structure.
The frequency range of the amtenna determines its
basic dimensions. Army helicopters use frequencies
from 150 kHz up to the visible range. Without conridcration of power output, the high-frequency
region extends to 30 MHz. Depending upon the time
of day, the time of year, the sunspot cycle, and the
vagaries of the ionoaphere and its various layer3, the
HF band is considered to be the best for longdistance communication.
With L

(SSB) equipment, high-frequency communication is

becoming more prevalent. Howeyer, mission requirements will tstablish urage criteria,
For VHF, 30-300 MHz and up is considered to be
line-of-sight communication or propagation, depending upon radiated power and receiver sensitivity. and upon the points of radiation and r%ception. For example, a reasonably clear area provides true line-of-sight communication, while multipie layers of vegetation, such as are encountered in
Southeast Asia. require much more power in order to
effect through-vegetation transmission of electro-

-/
\.

magnetic impulses.
For operation at frequencies in the LF and HF
ranges antennas are quite long--eg., one-quarter
wavelength at I MHz is 246 ft. Because the dimensions are so large, it is standard practice to have
the antenna system include an antenna tuner as a
coupler. Ing coupler automatically matches the impedance of the electrically short antenna to that of
the transmission line. This method of loading wire
antennas becomes leas efficient as the ratio of antenna length to the wavelength of operation becomes
smaller.
For frequencies at or above VHF, the sizu of the
antenna is less of a problem. As the ciectrical length
increases, the instantaneous bandwidth of the antenna also increases, and the result is operation over a
wider bandwidth withoe't tuning. Whercas the wire
antenna must be tuned each time the frequncy is

S~8-1l

706-202

changed, the VHF and UHF antennas are fixedtrned, and are capable of efficient operation, with
low VSWR, over a band of frequencies. Decause of
the wide instantaneous bandwidth, the antenna also
can be used simultaneously by different equipments
tuncd to different frequencies. Diplexers and hybrid
devices are used to provide ivolotion between
equipments using the same antenna.
Radiation patternb of the antenna indicate where
energy is being radiated, or, conversely, from which
direction it can be received. Communication and
direction-finding equipment generally requires otnnidirectional radiation in the azimuthal plane, with the
maximum amount on the horizon in the vertical
plane. Navigational equipment requires radiation in
specific directions. (Because of the physical geometry of the airframe, truly omnidirectional patterns
never are obtained.)
The airframe directly influences the radiation by its
shadowing and re-radiation effects. The airframe can
radiate energy coupled to it at frequencies where its
dimensions are an appreciab!, part of a wavelength.
At higher frequencies, the airframe blocks and shadnww raddiatinn in evtain direttinnq

The relative positions of the antenna and the rotor

also affect the radiation patterns. The effect of the
rotor is to modulate the radiation pattern at a frequency determined by the number of blade passages
per second over the antenna location. The carrier frequency, along with each sideband, will be modulated
by this frequency. As discussed in par. 8-1.4, this
modulation interferes with the performance of equipment that makes ust of information contained in
modulation components close to the same frequency.
Rotor passage near an antenna also can affect the -am.
of"the..c c" , whI.... r
"tt- in....
a
"m-"h
l t
signal.
From empirical data, it appears that an antenna
can have a peak-to-valley variation of about 6 dB and
sharp nulls of 30 dB without cxperiencing overall degradation of performance. For the sake of economy
and practicality, it is imperative that the best antenna possible be provided. Mission requirements
will determine the selection and use of radio type(s)
and associated antennas. For instance, the VOR
pattern is optimum in a forward direction, while tactical communications, IFF, and other primary radio
aids should be as omnidirectional as practicable.
The polarization of the helicopter antenna must
correspond to that of the antenna at the other end of
the communication link. This requirement does not
apply to HF aotennas because of rotation of polarization by the ionosphere. Cross-polarize' signals can
be radiated from linear antenna elements as a result

of reflections and currents in the airframe. The crows

Measurement of impedance and mutual im-K.,
polarized component represents an inefficiency or a
pedanoc is accomplished most easily on tho belipower loss, and is a consideration when selecting the
copter although a full-sc~ale mock-up, containing
antenna lcamtion.
those portions of the helicopter within several wave,'The effocts of tribotlectric (friction) charging inlengths of the antatnna, gives accurate results. AD
fluence the selection of antenna location. The helimodel measurements must be verified on full-scale
copter airframec and nearby antennas are cha- god
aircraft. This technique is analogous to aeodynamicelectrostatically by the rotor downwash, and voltagat
model testing in &wind tunnel.
high enough to produce corona can result. The corThe present range requiruanent for VHF-FM cornona will occur on ahaip points. or on points of high
munication having a 10-W power output to a nonelectrical stress concentration. If these arcas are on
matching antenna is 40 mi. This is a reasonable rang
antennas, oi are electromagnetically coupled to
when tested in the optimum condition.
antennas, the broadband noise generatod by the corWhen an antenna is to be used over a wide firequenon: will be introduced into die receiver.
cy rangt, i.e., VHF-FM 30-76 Mliz, it must he
Antenna location must insure that die antennas are
broadband if efficient operation is to result. If the
decoupled from each other; this is practicable for antransmitter/receiver mismatch is not too great,.
U
tennits operating in the same frequency range.
reasonable efficiency will result. VSWR, the Voltage
-
Mutual coupling between antennas affects-their imStanding Wave Ratio, it the criterion for acceptance
pedance and the radiation patterns of individual eleof antenna matching; it is determnined by the ratio of
ments. High voltages can be introduced in passi-ic cirforward to reflected power. The Radio Technkca
cuits if excessive mustual coupling exiists between
Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) aW chowe a
transmitting and receiving antennas.
VSWR of 5:1 as an applicable standard. However, a
Dcvelcpment of helicopter antennas depcnds upon
more stringent ratio is required in many came. Comnr~ne
oA~.
,~trn i
anta.,,na .hst.,,L4 hows-~ a VQlWA Aff I A-1
th.~
~ ~~yp.,.,.,,.a
~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~.ne
MIL-A-25730. When employed with discretion, the
o. less. TACAN and trnusponder antennas should
usc of scale models for antenna development pro.
have a VSWR of 2.3:1 or less. VSWR is okcompla. (
vides the ability to predict the suitability ot unsuitratio of incident powtv to reflected power as given by'ability of an antenna location. Usually, the model
Eq. 8-I.
technique is used on lar~ge prototype aircraft with the
I Reflcted Powur
model scald down to 1/20th to facilitate manipuForward wr
lation. The scale factor is variable, and any scale facVSWR :t 5 10c
tor maky be used provided that the resultant freiv*~os
ored o~
quencies (which mumt be "ca.idupward by the sain
scale factor) are easily obtainablu.
".3j IOA711rON AND INSTALLATION OF'
Frequencies in the Sgigahertz regpion are not easily
ANTENNAS
scale. In addition, frequencies in the HF region
In most casta, thot
mveral types of antennas
often are not scaled. On a 1/20-scale model at 15
that can be used for any gliven item of communication
MHz, for example, tht; model frequency must be 30
or navigational equipment. and the final choice Is deMHz and thesw two frequencies inherently propapendent upon the requirements of the specifkicngate differently. Theory is quite logical for scale
stallation. For additional information governing anmodels, but care must be taken to scale every detail
tenna installation and location, see MIL-STD477.
affecting; antenna performance. For example, caling
During the initial design phase, incorporation of
wire size in order to maintain identical current dissystem zero-drag or flush-mounted antennas must be
tributions must be considered. The model must be
considered. It is extremely important to submerge the
isolated from its surroundings, and consideration
antennats, not only for increased flight efficiency, but
must be given to ground reflection& and to radiation
also to minimize maintenanov problems.
from connecting cables.
In most case space limitations prevent the location
The model measurcineats ame made in the scale
of antennas far away from~ one another.
dimensions and for orthogonal polarization. The
Specifications usually require a three-eighiths waveradiation patterns arm measured over the scaled frelength separation, but this ir unrealistic; therefore
quency range of operation, for varying positions of
separation to the greatest de~.me possible should be
the rotor and for different antenna locations. The opmade. An alternative solution is the multi;1sage Of a
timumn location of the antenna with respect to radiasingle antenna, with passive devices added to aid in
tion patterns will result from these measurements.
multiplexing. An excellent example of this usage is a
8-12

.~~~

, .,
..,
.........

.,

C706-M,0

ipr-dra& wide-band antenna for both UHF and

VHF freauencis. With the assitance of a diplexer
this single, simple antmna is used to receive and
transmit simultaneously in tha UHF and VHF communication bands. The same philosophy could be
used for lower frequency VHF (30-75) and ADF
sen antennas.
W-5..1

Cemmutmscad
Astema
"
CeulkMuajem
Together with EMI/EMC, .considerations, ontennas poe the most difficult problem for the helicopter avionic engine"r. A typical helicopter with
standard communication antennas is shown in Fig. 8.
3, which depict a simple, operational combat scout
or observation helicopter (none of the navigational
&atemnaws e shown).
Antenna functions are affected by antenna licatice, and the helicopter in Fig. 8-3 illustratca typical
problmsm For exumple, due to the HF antenna 1ocadon a hard landing could affect operational
characteistics. This antenna also is beaten by the
"aim rotor downwash, and breakage could caus the
ansenn to bccrc wrapped up it. the tWil rotor. In
addidioe, an eclctical impedance problem results
from the main rotor blades passing over the antenna
and causing rotor modulation. The VHF-FM #1
antenua, used for tactical communicationk ist in the
exhaust, which could camu.physical degradation, and
the bulk of the helicopter is forward of the antenna,
resulting in partial antenna shadowing. The VHF
antenna, shown in the belly, may be relatively clear of
many problems, but the landing Sear would gave reflective properties and consequent nulls in the antenna pattern. The UHF antenna, shown forward
and above the cab top, is vulnerable to triboelactric
noise and to rotor modulation. The VHF-FM #2
antenna is in front of the aircraft and in the field of
view of the flight crew, which could be distracting. It
also may be vulnerable to rotor modulation and
triboel-ctric noise.

-,

S....
so A

.Radiation

.2

Stransmitting
Fig

8-3. Typical Commmmleatlom

An a Layoet

Sdirectional,

Effects of rotor modulation can be controlled offoctively by installing notch filter equipment in the
primary area of interest. In the case of communication receivers, band stop filters are used to eliminate unwanted modulation frequencie in the
audio band.
"-3.2 Low Fre"q
(LF)
The primary use or the low-frequency sp%-trum is
for automatic direction-finding. The ADF system
use" a loop antenna having a figum-of-light radiation
pattern, plus an omnidirectional whip (sese) antenna. The sense antenna output is combined with
that of the loop antenna to produce a cardioid
pattern, thereby eliminating the directional ambilguity of the loop. The location of the loop antenna
is restricted by two considerations:
1. The cable between the loop and the receiver input is part of the receiver input circuitry and is of
fixed length.
2. The loop must be located in a position of minimum pattern distortion.
The magnetic field lines that induce a current in the
loop are distorted by the airframe, thereby causing an
,,,,
,,v..
,,,,
compensated in the equipment, the design engineer
must determine the best location for each installation. The sense antenna should be positioned in
an aca of minimum electrical field distortion to
maintain accurate ADF performance as the heli.
copter flies over or near the ground station in what is
called the "'confusion" zone. The size of the confusion zone, in which the ADF indication can vary as
much as 180 dog, depends upon the characteristics of
the sense antenna apd upon maintain'nS a minimum
signal input level to the receiver.
3-5.3.3 High Freqnracy (HF)
HF, employe d for long-range communication, use
wire antennas. The wire can be fixed between two
points on the helicopter, or a trailing wire can be
used. The use of antenna couplers is required with
this type of antenna. A major problem with wire ante,%nas is the posabdlity that they will become tangled
in the rcAor-.
patterns, which, ideally, would be omniarc dependent upon location. They can
be shadowed by the airframe, which itself can radiate
and cause distortion. The wire antenna usually will
have nulls at its end directions. The antenna wire is
coated with polyethylene in order to prevent corona,
and the supports must be designed to withstand
level voltages.
LORAN also utilizes the wire antenna. Corona
and voltage breakdowns are not problems, but omnidirectional co'y.agt still is a requirement.
8-13

8.-.3.4 Very H1g0 Frqme~y (VHF)

The marker beacon receiver operates at 75 MlIz.
The antenna radiation pattern must be downwardlooking, and must be polarized parallel to the axis of
the helicopter. There are several antennas that will
meet the radiation requirements. One is a balanced
antenna mounted under the airframe. Other suitable
designs are loaded half loops and flush-mounted
cavity elements mounted in the same location.
The glidescope receiver operates in the frequ:ncy
range of 329-335 MHz. The glidescope antenna must
be designed for reception of horizontal polarized
signals with minimum reception of vertically
polarized signals. The antenna must be located forward on the aircraft for proper glideslope reception.
The VOR operates in the frequcncy range of 112118 MHz and requires a horizontally polarized,
omnidirectional antenna. The ILS receiver operates
in the frequency range of 108-112 MHz and uses the
same antenna as does the VOR. The location of the
VOR antenna is critical due to rotor modulation effects. The VOR determines the phase difference
between two received signals modulated with 30 Hz,
which is about the third harmonic of rotor-induced
modlation; if irttilfetreijc iu too gSrat, tht VOR is
inoperable. A loop mounted on the undcrside of the
airframe and configured with a vertical axis is
suitable for the VOR antenna. Location of any ansenna on the underside can result in airframe shadowing in some direction. The rem's horn (a modified
dipole), stacked dipoles, folded dipoles, and Pushmounted cavities also aJ! are suitable designs.
Communication equipment operates in the
frequency ranges of 30-76 MHz and 118-150 MHz.
Some form of monopole is used most often for communication. The position of these antennas is determined by the necessity of obtaining omnidirectional radiation patterns. The antennas must be
designed to prevent corona discharge, and shculd be
decoupled from triboelectric discharges that would
introduce noise into the receiver. The difficulty of ob-

8-14

taning omnidirectional coverage sometimes can be

overcome by using two anennas. If the radiation
patterns of the two antennas are complomontasy and
the antennas arc isolated from each other, they can be
driven in parallel with appropriate impedence
matching.
"-3.5 Ultra High Foo.SCy (UHF)
UHF communications operate in the frequency
:ange of 225.400 MHz. Monopokl-derived configuratiods are used as both UHF and flush-mounted
types, such as the annular slot. The gmeral requirements for VHF location and intallation pertain to
UHF as well.
8-53.6 Special Puopue
There are other types of equipment that require antennas, but these are limited in use. The considcrations for location and installation oC' these antennas depend upon individual system requirements.
Doppler radar antennas, for example, always are
mounted flat in the bottom of the aircraft. In general,
the same restrictions discussed heretofore apply to all
types of antennas.
REFERENICES
I. USAECOM Manual, Interfereuce Reduction
Guide for Dejign fgineers, Vols. I and I!. AD
619 666.
2. AMCP 706-125, Engineering Design Handbook,
Electrical Wire and Cable.
3. John G. Mast, Efimintaon of VO.R Sixgl Rotor
Modulation, Paper 924, 31st Annual National
Forum of the Ameriam Helicopter Society. May
1955.
4. Myron Kayton and Walter Fry, Avionics Navigalion Systems, John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1969.
5. Turnbow et ni., Cra'hSurvival Design Guide. TR
71-22, USAAMRDL Fort Eustis, VA. Revised
October 1971.

V4

706202

____
__-AMCP

CHAPTER 9

HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC SUBSYSTEMS DESIGN

9-0

LIST OF SYMBOLS

g
H
lf.
dH/dt

acceleration due to gravity. ftAWc

true prcssu~re altitude, ft
measured pressure altitude, ft
change in pri-sure altitude with time utt

standard sea level conditions, ft/se

AM - height difference, ft
A ,- altimeter position error correction, ft
P
-static pressUre. psi
P,
measured static pressure, psi
P, - total pressure, psi
P.
- measured pitot pressvre. psi
AP
- prusure difference, ps
P
- true atmospheric pressure, psi
0 - true im~pact pressure., psi
- mcusuire impact pressure, psi
-true

A Y,
PSI

airsneed. ninh

- -..

calibrated ai~pkt

measurcA calibrated airspeed, kt

airspied pow~tion error co:rection, kt
dcnsi!.y at standard sea level conditions,

slug/!ft'

9-I
DUCIONplacement
NTR
9-1 ITRODU
TIONnominal
Chapter 9. AMC? 706-201. describes the many
design trade-offs neoces~" in the final selection of
secondary power subsystems. This chapter deals with

~~,~tjEk.

RA

ICSIS'T

9-2.1 FLIGHT~ CONTROL POWVER SYS9l?.OvS

iclicopter ffight control syitem may vary in cornpluxity from the racativcly simple power boost system
with manual reversion to multiredundant systems
wht~re each system is designe-d to provide the full
power requiren icj operalc tat flight contrvl funictions throughout the vchi-lc performance env'elope.
The nmultirediiniant sysf-:n is discussctd in this
chapic! because it contahib~ the basic elzments of all
typcs of systems. This typr system s-haII be e-mrloyed
uniles ihe aircraf, can be ct~atrolle.-i without boost. A

*j.

tions as engine starting, auxiliary utility systems, and

emergency backups. Pnicumnatic power also m'ay be
usvd fur auxili&r puw.-r unit (APU) starting.
92 H D A LCS M TM

,..Iht--

cImm

Presented in Fi$. 9-1. The system shown contains its

own fluid power ge-neration. fluid transmission, and
fluid suppuly components.

9.2.1.1 Central Kydraulic System'

Hydraulic power is gene~ated by variable-dispumps that ate comlpensatcd for a
system design pircssurc. Fluid may be
supplied to the pumps from &u-pre~ssuri&u% c. bastrap reservoirs. The pumps vre driven by an
accesory gcirbox, which, in turn, is driv~i b the
transmission whrn t'nr roioi(sl

IArfing
kiS
and by an

systems.
Hydraulic applications primarily include flight

control and utility functiotis. Flight control functions include servo control of cyclic pitch, collective

VENT

pitch, and directional surfaces. Utility functions may

include part or all of the following:
1. Personnel/cargo hoists

CUL~.A1fT
1D

PPCEI

2. Cargo hooks

3. Loading ramps

R*

14

4. Doors
5. Landing gear
6. Gun turrets and drives

7. Rotor braking
8. Wheel braking and sleering
9. Engine starting

-WR
PLOPL

LE

CDISCTIM

10. Fluid dampers.

Pneumatic applications, while not as widely used in

helicopters an are hydraulics, may include such func-

FIgure 9.1). Central Hydraulic Sysiemn

9-1

AMCP 706-202

Ati~ns,

APU during ground checkout. Ccrntral system componenrts include:

1. System manifold, a package containing system
Ifiiters, presure transmitters (with associated snubber
and fuse), system relief valves, ground tesi connec6nd return line chtxk valves
2. System ac~cumulator, a gas. -. echarged, piston
unit with associated servicing valve ard pressure gage
3. System reseryo-r, including return and pump
suction line fittings, bleed aild fill pravisions. overboard vent, and level indicator. The reservoir also incorporates reservoir level-scrnsing, with associated
subs:'stun isolation valves,

The stick boost system provides the pilot with lowforce stick movement capability, As shown in Fig. -94, an actuator is provided in each axis to overcome
friction and inertia loads. Thr. actuators function to
react inputh from the GAS so that they cannot be felt
through the pilot controls.

9-21.2 Flight Control Sotseystes

samec components

A typical flight control subsystem consists of (1) a

boost-actuating system, (2) a stability augmenitation
system (SAS). and 10) a stick boost hydraulic system.
The pilot's control movements. transmitted through
a system of bell cranks, rods, and levers, arc mixed to
provide the correct lateral, cyclic, and pitch motions
through hydraulicaly powered actuators as shown in
Fig. 9-2, If dual actuators are used, each half ol .the
se'aacor is porwertid by a se"rate system.
A typical duJ reversed SAS i:: ii.ustrated in F.jg 9_
AS actuator inputs to thec boost actuatorsC
3~. Th Sc
affect the morement of the rotor bladC5 Without feedback forces to the pilot controlb. The SiAS actuators

sytmd anduigpklodhseiseaivy
high, additiowtl pu~mps in parallel may De neosaiary.
T iiietcwih
n ieo usse rut
that do not have high pressure and flow requiremepesuerdcs
hldbcosded
9221EesSI~Sby~u
9221Egn atn usse
There are two basic types of hydraulic enginestarting systems. One uses a limitod amount of stored
encrgy that is available in an accumulator, while the

mist be capable of being engajed or disengaged by

tho design goal is to completc the start inthe shortest

9-2.2 UTILITY HYDRAULIC SYSTEMIS

Teuiiyrse
a epwrdi
setal
a epwrdi setal
h tlt ytr
the came nmanner as is the flight control system, using
accessory gearbox-drk-n pumps when the rotor it
turning or the APU for ground operation. The central portion of the system will contain basically the

as does the rlight control system. If

puc
PUiVG
L1n'.,jiiuaibauzb
11MII41

Au
VWLUa

from an auxiliary power supply.

Becausc energy is imitcd in tlie first type ofsystcin,

feature that oper-,tes in the event of hydraulic power___________TUI

SUM

faiure.

~TFTTDUAL

j.

Figure 9-2. Dual System Hydamlic-powercil

FIgNt Controll Actuators

ACTUATOR

Fewue 9-4. Duai-p#.wervid Stick Dow

Hydrumak System
wL.L W O

-I~-' - - OVLVE

.S*

Figwrt, 9-0. [)ual-poweyed Stablity

Ampmawathiu Systew

MN

1?T

WALK

60"tIm

Flswe 9-5 Hydrainic Staritms;

Ean.gy-limbiu Systems

-pump

*ccomplished by r~claing stored energy from a

charged accumulator. This eaeirgy di ives a positivedispiacemcrit starter mounted on the engine. The
starter may consist of a simrlc fixed-displacement
Motor, and is sized so that no special coatrols art
needed. Weight can be minimized by using tht:
highest pressure and largest displacement acceptable
to the motor. These two factors are limited by the
torque capacity of the mounting pad and the fuel
control acceleration capabilities of the engine. This
tvpe of starting system is most appropriate foi- star-ting small enigines (50-150 hp), where the accumulator size and charging time are not excessive,
The power-limited type of starter usually consists
of a selfaufficient styatem that uses a small turbine
en~gine as an APU (Fig. 9-6). Hydraulic fluid isstored
in an accumulator that has been pressurized either by
hand pomnp or by a previous operation of the hydraulic system. The pressure released by energizing a
solenoid-operated starter valve drives a fixed-displacement starter pump, which acts as a motor to
start the APU. When the APU starts, the starter
converts to a pumping mode so as to drive the
matin ..ngint. starter. This starter ag'ises the proper
flow or pressure, and its displacement is vared auto-

!n~waII,, ti anatn ve~6roto-t

the. pni,

np
tdI ;Alrwm-A

The power limit of the APU is not exceeded because

ACCUMLATORActuation
AIWLATOrelease

GAS
PU"
LUfeature
CWC

of this variable-dispincenent feature. In powerlimited APU systemfs, the starter/pump is tized (or
the maximum output capability of the auxiliary
engine because the starhirf requirements are lower
than arc the pumping requirements.
The system shown in Fig. 9-7 uses an energy.
limited, dual purpose. starter-pump system on the
APU, and a power-limiled, variable-displacemert
starter on the main engine. As the APU isstarted, the
stanter/pump drives a fixed-displacement motor
mounted on the accessory gearbox. The gearbox
motor drives all accessries, including the utility
pump(s), which in turn provides the power to drive
the main engine starters. After the &tartcycle iscornpleted, the main engine drives the accessory gearbox.
An added advantage of using an APU starting system
is that it can be operated to provide power for ground
checkout.
9-2.2.2 Cargo Door and Ramp System,
Cargo and/or troop carrying helicopters normally
will incorporate some typc of cargo door and ramp
system. The system shown in Fig. 9-8 is actuated by
two direct-acting hydraulic cylinders. It is important
to note that the actuators are self-locking in the
rptrnicl'IM nn~titnn The m~animI enntrnl valus-

of the control valve directs pressure to

the actuator locks, and the ramp then ispulled

down by the force of gravity. This is an important
because the actuators may be unlocked via
hand-pump pressure when utility system pressure is

MOTOR

UNPI-P

T 0 'RAMP

TURIMAPUI

RAMPCONTROLVALVE

)cT

HydrmI&t: S~amilig,

O~p,

RA P UP

O,

STO

E R TURNeI.

~fs

Pmw-lifted System

AV

ACCWULATRT

11AND PUMPCA$
CFEL-

ILUID

V~ALV

TO

SV

ItsSTAR

AGTORF

FKIN 9-7.f APUM

IatqSse

k~p

avai~able, allowing the ramp and door to free-fall

as an emergency measure.

STARTSIMInot
VALVEVALVEopen

Flpre 9-.

hanll

located conveniently near or adjacent to the ramp.

RA

lr
STA9-3

sg

MPCO IA

oradRm

AMD

yn

A4P 706-202
In normal operation, initial movecment of the r,,,mp
actuawes a sequtrnce valve that perm-t~s flow to a
constant-displacement motor. The motor may be
moumcd insidge the ramp, and connected to the cargo
door by~ avi endless chin, so that it can be retraciod
into the ramp structure. The sequence valve blocks
downstroke flow from the ramp actuators until the
door is completely recracted. When the door is
positio~ned pro, irly, a hydromechanical stop halts
flow through the motor. Decay of .'-otor back
pressure Opes the sequence valve, allowing the xasp
actuator to bottom out fully or to travel to the point
where the. ramrp toucher, the ground. Closing of the
ramp is essent~aly the smain but in the reverse order.
9-2.2-3 Cargo aud Piersomad FIlst
A utility hoist can be provided for loading and uni
loading cargo and for rescue opierations. The hoist, as
shown in Fig. 9-9, is powered by a hydraulic motor.
The motor requirements are established so as to provide a particular hoist weight capacity and maximum
reel-in speed. The speed can he rmade infinitely variable within the rated speed range by means or a iiydraulic sei-vo val-te. The ser7vo valvtconrtroll signal if.
generated by a potentiometer incorporated into a
control knob in the cockpit or the hoist operating sta.tion. For the hoisting optration, pressure is directed
to the "in" port of ihe motor. For extending the
hoist, a pressure reducer should be used to provide
the relatively lower motor torque needed for cable
extension. A flow regulator incorporated into the
retuin line, downstream of the control valve,
regulates flow in both directions. Limit switches can

HiOIT "ARAE
AELEASE VALVEE

L-w~ovided to stop the hoist motor at the full roed-in

ant; full reel-out positions. A.hydraulically released,
spring-loaded. "on" brake can be provided for failsafe operation of the rescue hoist. Provisionts should
be incorporated to stop fthmotor as the hook pasaw
through the cargo-rescue hatch in order to preVqnt
whipping of the cable. In addiion, a device can be incorporatod to keep the cable under tension under noload conditions.
9-21A4 Rotor Brake
The rotor brake shtl be capable of stopping t?.e
rotor within a preselcrted tinme period for a specific
range: of rotor speeds following iimgine shutdowi., and
the brake 4Ad1 be cap.;ble of holding the rotor stationary when tull ground idle engne torque is
applied. As shown in Fig. 9-10. the biake may be
applied by a sokaoid-energized valve that directs
pressure to the rotor brake. A precharged accumulator provides a steady hydraulic pressure for braking
whtn the main system is depresssrized. A presiare
switch should be incorporated in order tr' provide a
cockpit warflnla lirht indacaLion when. th" b.3hc is
on. To rees h rkthe soeodvalve is deenergized to the off position. allowing the brakek.
pressure to bleed off to the return system. Springs
may be, used in the brake assmbly so as to overcome
the return bystemn back pressure in order to allow
separation of the pocks F~om the rotor disks. The
rotor brake skall be desigrned to be fail-safe. For sL.Wal
helicopters a simple rotor brake system may be satifactoly.

RTLB

E
VI -E1KRriLW

BRAKEON

C,

ROTOR

AAR

HOISTCONTROL I'
WALVFASSEMBLY

FLO

N
R LC ULA ' DO
L Nh
R TEt
TO
IT~ E.YAS
REE[ OUT-.....,..........R

1
U

VIBISCH

CKLCK VATI'

ACCLIV,1A TOR

SLIUT

0,
OECERLRGIZE

8RAAE

CHECK
(WYILKA

'KTOR'h
MOISTIIytKAUL;C

ROTORDRAKE
VALVF

F11pe
99. arpLLAPeimaiand Hi~st

Figure
9-d ~U

rnmourte symto

Figur 9-1a it""s eeke Syas"

9-214 Wheel Brakes

Hydraulically powered wheel brakes srWl be
designed in accordance with MIL-P-8585. The circuit
shown in Fig. 9-t I represents a braking system with
differential control. Each brake pedal provides a
direct input to a master brake cylindt . Hydraulic
pressure may bc reduced at necessary for brake
operation. Parkinig brake capability also should be
incorporated. A warning indicator shall be provided
to signify when the parking biakes are "ON".
9-2.3 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM RELIABILITY
Good hydraulic system reliability cani be obtained
best by recognizing the probable weik links during
the initial design. Because the system must be
designed within the constraints of weight and cot
and must meet appropriate fIilitary Specifications,
reliability aspects of the design must be optimized.

9-2.3.1 MWgh CostOe Redowlasey

The most critical hydraulic failures are those that
ultimately cause los of the capability to operate the
prmnary flight oontrols. MIL-H-5440 requires that.
whcrvt hydraulic powcr is u=-d for the primary
~flight controls, a completely s"prate system s/sol be
provided for that purpose. Further, it is required that
if direct mechanical contro' is not suffickiet to allow
controllability as defined in M IL-F-8785 in event of a
hydraulic failure, an emergency power source shalil be
provided in ordc- to supply the kwne4esry controllability.
As.a. cmu of mieeting the redundancy requiremerits, several design techniques may be considered:
1. A an gi primary Right control system with medianic-al reversion. This method is simple and
relatively lightweight, and can be used if opeiating
lout are bot above pilot and/or structural capabilities.

TO,9-23.3
U

TIO.

Flpw 9.11. Wheel Dbab Syssem

2. A single primary flight control system with integrated, electrically powered hydraulic backup. The
survivability characteristics of this design are good
but may result in a heavier and costly installation. It
also may present beat rejection problems.
3. Dual flight controls. This may be the best approach if high powtr must be: delivered to the flight
control actuators. Dual or tandem actuators can be
used to enhance reliability further. However, this
type of system involves more wcight, more components, arnd, therefore. higher cost than other -approaches.
4. A single flight control system with active utility
system backup. This is an approach which should be
considered if the utility system can supply power sufficient for the normal utility functions. as well as approximately two-thirds of the hinge mnoment requi.-od
for the flight control functions. Use of priop ity valves
in the utility system should be considered in order to
insure that priority is given to the flight controls in
the event of loss of the independent flight control hydraulic system.
9-2.3.2 Utility System Redimilaacy
In Sccr~ieas, utility functions are not crAical individuaily to the 'control of the helicopter; therefore.,
total system redundancy need not be considered.
However. specific functions within the utility systeir.
may be critical during emergency conditions. If so,
emergency or alternate modes of operation should be
considered. Usually, the least reliable component
within the system is the hydraulic pump, due to its
relative complexity, high operating loads, and con.
tinuous operation. The use of two u~tility system
pumps can provide add'tional reliability. Each pump
can be sired to provid one-half of tin. maximum
system power demand, thereby providing a good
weight and cost trade-off in comrarison with asingle.
large system pump. If one of the two pumps fails,
systan performance is reduced, but only the failure o(
both pumps can cause total system los.
Mlaesimemu Relia~lely A*spet
The key to high systemn reliability is reduction of
the effects of single-point failures or elifflniation of
their cause. Major types of recurring failures are:
1. External component leaks, causing loss of
system flstid
2. Leakage of precharVed accumulator gas into the

hydraulic fluid, causing pump cavitation or dumping

of fluid overboard.
The effects a.^ component Ickap can be alWe
viated significantly by use of a leakage isolation
device in each flight control syutar brands circuit.
The various types of sudh device wre discumied in
par. 9-4.5.4. AMCP 706-201.
9.5

-.

Loss of systems due to accumuliator prechlarge gas

4. Deflection of components must not cause mal-

leakage can be reduced to a gmret extznt by elimi-

function. Deflection, rather than strength, is often the

nating the need for a main system vccumnuistor. One

method is to design a system relief valve having the
response capability nwxessary to dump high-pressure
fluid to the low-pressure return side of the system
quickly enough to reduce the amplitude of pressure
spikes*
If a variable-delivcry, premsir-compensated pump
is used, pressure surge can be reduced by designing
the pump with a &rivativ: compensator. The compesator anticipates pressure surges by snsing the
rate of resure rise, and thus acts to reduce the
magnituoc of that rise bcform it reache a critical
value.
The design approaches discussed in this paragraph
rqeprnt the Lattst state-3f-the-a.n developments
and, therefore, may not prove to be the bat metlhod.
However, their considerd tAsage could be worthwhile in inceasing system rrliability.

major criterion for design of hydraulic system componcnts and associated structural elements, When
this is the situation, the design hall be based upon
Unmit loads rather than ultimate loads.
5. Temperature variations must not cause usalfunctioning or excessive stres. Consideratioia must
be given to expected temperature variations so that
no binding. sticking, or malfunctioning of components will result. Internal stresses, such as those
resulting from the usc of dissimilar materials in combination, should not exceed allowable stresse, uns
the me4t adverse temperature conditions. Where
componaits are expected to operate at extremely
high tcm acatuwe, allowable unit stresm may be
redred.
Hydraulic system design pressures (operating.
proof test, and burnt) stall be determined in accordance with Table I of MIL-H-5W40. The design
should be based upon the most critical condnion. In
Haddition, MIL-H-5440 acquires that all hydraulic
systems and components that arm subjected, during
operation Of the aircraft, to structural or uFdirhiF
'04
not of hydraulic orign shell withstand such load
when they arc applied simultaneously with appropriase proof puesurwc as specified in Table I, without
exceeding the yield point at the nmximum opera6mg
temperature. MIL-H-5440 also requires that actssting cylinders and oth components, and their ataching lines aad fittings, if subject to accerated

-2.4

HYDRmAULIC SYSTEM STRENGTH CON-,.....

.
Hydraulic system components and attaching
linkages; iU/ be designed so as to meet the most critial loads or combination of loads. Load f-tors or
design factors s.a/1 be established for systems in
order to insure adequate safety and lift of the components. Where applicable, load factor4 must comply
with Military Spzcifhcation nquimrnents. When no
Military Spcifiadon requirement exists, these factons must be determined a.Id assigned in acordanwe
Swith good den
practice. The following basic criteria A lib cosisred in establishing thes factors:
i , Tine structure must not suffer fatigue wit., sub"jectedto normal working Ioads. The unit sartis under
normal working loads must be limited so as not to
eaced the fatigue strength of the material, under
repeated loading. for the anticipated ife of the st ture, with str'ws concentration fators taken into consideration.

2. TIh structure mus not yield wbhn sujce to

loads. shl be deiwn

and tested on the basis of a
prnsure aual to fth maximum pressure tat will be
developed, without uceeding the yield point at the
nmaximuwms Opatn 00 4ljrj*.

92-"

HYDEiAIJUC SYSTEM TEMPERATURE

CONSiDERATIONS
Hydraulic fluid selection criteria include th
expected mrn
of operating temperatures. tiuc at
eatreu tamperaturns ompan to available means

of apnau un control, and fluid physial propenris

maximum expected loads. The unit misus at the limit

load must not exceed the yield strength of the

at expected temperature levels. Where ambiet and

structual tempratures are above the hydraulic fluid

material. It should be reowgnized that test loads may

flashi and/or fire points in a compartment. the pa-

be imposed upon the structum that may exceed the

maximum limit load encountmed afher insallation.

tetial fire hazard iast be considered. Flua sability

is affected by thenrma stress, which can result in
changes, in visAosity and fonnasion of volatile coaposents, i,-soluble mteriaL, and corroive dslosits.
Hydraulic system eff'iencies ar rodtud by sugh
fluid viscosity at lower tampraturm, which rfutam
in
inlet problems with pumps, sluggs"h repons of critical actuators, powr lk in transmission, and weight
peualtims dut to li*k sins. At high Wnapaturcs. low

No part of the structure aUNOud ulks any pwmanet

set or experience any damaW whea. subjecl to
applicable lest loadts.
3. The structure sust not fail at the ultimate load.
Wher applicable, ulLmate strentl of material
sh~ould be detumined by bendg or trusonal
modulus of rpture.
'6

AMCP 70152012

fluid viscosity can cause internal leakage and slippanc

Compressibility of a
in pmsacutr.advls
fluid increaaes with pressure and temperature, and
the resultant loss of voueoutput of pump6 is a
compression offudprovides amass-spring condilion that can limit system response. Sut-cessful operanon of the hyrui ytmthroughout the design
upon the interaction of
lemperature range depends
the hdalcfluid w~th all ohrcomponents of the
sysein.
sigt a" cnsdr h temperature distinThe d
buinwithin tehicprinorder to achieve
judcios
lacmen o hyrauicsystem plumbing
andompnens i th colerregions. However, it
may be neressary to locate portions of the hydraulic
system in high-temperature reions of the airframe.
Radiation shielding and proper ducting [or air
cooling may be nectssary for such equipment. The
design of actuators locatod in extreme-temperature
areas should be such as to provide for continuous
exchange of fluid to assist in controlling temperalure. This may be accomplishe by controlled internal leakafe. which likely will be inherent in flight
a lse. rim
jxu-iali cnde
control sacsiuors, but &
be given to utility actuators, which may he subj;ected
to extreme thermal environments for extended
periods of time when in a static or nonoperating condition.
Although intermittent-actuating systems must be
desinedto
perae wth oldhydruli flid,
desfinetino
opwerateauwithscoldsystauli
w~idc
their normal operating temperatures rapidly regardless of original ambient temperaturc. Hnat cxchanger and viscosity considerations favor vse of the
Opg*

MLifiS5

tcm.peom.wa

thav -.-

m- -

circuit. However, this rise normally is dissipated as

the fluid Passes through the system.
Hydraulic system design begins with an evnluation
of the system as it evolved in the preliminary design
phase. The production configuration requirements
and the
ore
cempared with the preliminary design.
In addition,a
ncsayhngsrcincorporated.
ftesystem sUal be made in
final exmnto
order to ascertain not only that it meets the procuremerit specification, but that it isoptimum with regard
to weight, cost, and performance. Ml L-H-5440 and
its associated specifications will be p~rt of the procremnt~ specification.
The subsequent discussion covers the major system
deinaasicudgnmbrndtpofytm.
prtn
rsur retof~idmdaslcin
filt~muon, fikiims, powcr levels and transmission
system c;Aimization, and heat rejection requiremitus. "Ahe starting system isdiscussed, as are system
analyais, including failure mode and effect analysis
(FN'iEA), and reports required for meeting the hei141LWl~iPu~i~a
U

The component sclection and design rcqui remepts

also are discussed, as arc system installation design
rciewt
eea
adteso oddsg
application to components or installation.
The hydraulic system is influenced by the size, and
complexity of the helicopter and by the procurement
specifications. Following is a discussion of the critical
elmnsohyruisytidsin
0-2.6.1 Sanivablity. Rediabiii), sa Sakfyt Trade-

.ave

without encountering fluid breakdown awid excessive

wear of movins pans. For MIL.-H-83282 fluiid. the
normal upper limit it 275F1 maximum (Class 11
system). However. high-temperature design t~rds to
impose a cost penalty duc to tW. attendant requiremint for special materials, along with a reduction in
system life becaute of the reduced lubricating properties of the tlauid. In many applications, normal heat
loui from lione arid components are adequate to
"mantain hydraulic system temperatures within
desin limits; thus, use of heai exchangers is uin0606Wy.than
For analytical purposes, the assumption of uniform temperature throughout a hydraulk4 circuit
Usually is quite accurate. When a pressure drop oc-

The problems of designing for combat survivability and for system reliability are similar. Redundancy of systems and components may be requirrd ini
either case. For suivivability, the requiremeot may be
a tolerance; of two hits anywhere in the flight control
system without loss~ of the capability of returning
safely to base. The elimination or reduction of the
possibility of hydraulic system fires associated with
incendiaries also may be a rcqt~irenent. Reliability
aspect involve k~ses due to equipment failures. The
loss requirement may be tated in terms of "no more
n- kmas per 10 ).000 noncombat mission&. The
component and/or subsystem reliability requi.emenss may be stated as mean time betwtsen failures
(MTBF), which must be demonstrated by *jysii5,

temperature rise by 70F per 10010 psi drop for each

order to establish the basic system configurations

) curs
without external work resulting - i.e., losses
through orifices and tubing - the hydraulic fluid

test, and service.

TrAde-off/optimization studies are required in
9-7

that will met the pretviously mentioned goals.The a]terat.aiva t iit may be considered arm
1. Two oi three independent. normally operative
systems
2. Normally operative system plus emergency
backup s~sians. the backup(s) normally being inoperative until loss of a primary system
3. Normally operative systems plus hydraulic circuit breakers (HCB)
4. Intersystem switching for redundancy with appropriate provisions against toss of fluid in the newly
applied system if first systan failure is dee to lows of
fluid
S. Combinations of independent system plus intersystem switching and hydraulic circuit breakers
6. Use of armor in conjunction with system redundancy
* 7. Reversiobi to manual control where applicable
and possible.
For example, computer analyses indicate that two
systems with HCD incorporated are nearly a%survivable as three independent systems, and that significant weight and cost savings may result from this
approach. A complete analysis of weight and cost imUh JV*UIUJ
41455
Y~..@W~
IUUS~S5~i5I7

replacement, filter changing, and flushing system

maintenance. The RLS concept can sense and isolate
a leak of any magnitude, thus reducing subsystism
component and/or line leakage failures that normally
cause complete system loss. RLS is detailed in par. 94.5.4, AMCP 706-201.
9A ZSse
wck
-. 1 SseSwcIgCocpps
When normally operated or passive -backup
systems are used as backups for flight control
systems, intersystem switching is an important consideration. The switching function must be very
reliable, and must provide for elimination of inter.
sysem leakage as a steady-state or transient condilion.
One method of accomplish~ng the switching func.
tion is through the use of a lapped tpool anid sileeve,
with pressure and retuirn of both systems on the samte
spool. To minimize intersystaun litakage, only the
returns arm associated directly so that diffcmrdtal
prepsure between systemi is minimized (Fig. 9-12).
A socoiid alternative is use of chock valves to
sej"-rate the pressure side oi the systems. A powerW
(p~ch~i: and spring) shuttle is used to switch the

L--ad1

d-icted as early in the program as possible. Close

coordination is required with the procuring activity
during this phase in order to insure that contract re.

quirmnents, are being met and that the design isapproved.

The combat safety aspects arc concerned primarily with fire resutsing from battle damage. Fireresistant fluids, are. developed and xhall he considered.
HCB conci~pts also should be considered as to their
lire minimization impact since they c~n limit significalitly the amount of fluid dumpedt into a fire.
Noncomnbat safety aspect are focused primarily on
trwn maintenance aspects of the system operation.
This ~ttis covered in detail in par. 9-2.8. However,
a ai-fl~ght cuntrcl' safety requirement dictates that
if there is a complete power fatil~arc, at least one
system shall be driven by the autorotating rot-or.

'ucomplished indepoendetntly. This approach may R04

be acceptabie under cetnain dynamic conditions of
system operation (Fig. 9-13).

LMMDfrVkL#M
@S.CUt.-.,
'S'cuEMEN

Figure 9-12. Comblowl Spool S.Ik*ia Valve

oz *ME

9-2A.1.1~ Reservoir IILel Semiftn

Reservoir level sensing (RLS) is a technique which

uses the reservoir to optrate subsystem presure shkotoff valves mechanically. 'the reurn portioan of the
system is isolated by a check valvc !mcated in the
reurn Jim,. Soth ihe mechanicaly operated pressure
sbutoll valve and th-, 6-turn check valve shel befu
ioacaid as close to the central power source as possble in order to pro~vide *he assximum central powzr
source protetlion. RLS allows a reduction in putrip

T
FI~Wm 9-13. Prenw Cheek Vahns Fte
feww., UaM sSwISaIg

third alternative is the use of check valves to

sepatate the pressure side of the systems, in conjuncline. The relief valve represents an energy loss in the
normal system, and acts to keep the backup system
fully serviced as a part of the normal mode of operation (Fig -9-14). Upon reversion to the emergency
(backup) mode, the relief valve setting ishigh enough
so that maximum generated return pressures will not
operate it. Where this concept is used as a part of a
dual system actuator. anticavitation valves ire
required in order to keep the relief valve setting at a
reasonable level,
A vsriation of Alternative 3 is the use of a mechanical locked-out relief valve to eliminate energy
loss during the normal mode of operiation. This isaccomplished by using the last portion of the backup
system reservoir stroke on fillinS to hold the relief
valve off its seat mechanically. The initial sttoke of
the reservoir allows the valve to reseat and preserve
the system inteigriiy upon reversion to the backup
system (Fig. 9-11'.

SYSTEM
INLINE
RELIEF

VALVE
SYSTE

-"

CHECKVALVE
-

RETUA#

~vent

R(SERVOIR
PiisSok FRO

The pressure-sensing concept can be uscd in conjunction with switching functions as a means to preswitching a good backup system into a subsystem that has lost its pressure vessel integrity. A
time delay of several seconds is integrated into the
switch; ig fun~ction, i.e.. the initial motion blocks both

SYSTEM

llp,. 9-44. Pressure Chick Valves Plus aI&&e

R'tew.

RE

942.6.11.3 Rc~uru Pressure Siessiu

Return pressu~re sensing (RPS) is most appropriate for use wich full-trail solenoid selector valves.
The cylindes- port(s) is cominected to the retuarn when
the valve is in the dc-eniergized position. A springopposed, pressure-operated shutoff valve is located in
the system return at the valve return port or downstream. Normal system return pressures, by design.
overpower the RPS piston and allow normal valve
op'-ration. Combat damage, or component or line
failure resulting in external leakage, causes reduced
subsystem pressure because the return check valve
prevents reverse flow. The spiing then operates the
RPS valve. thus inhibiting operation of the solenoids
and, in Ieffect, preventing use of the damaged subsystem and loss of the complete system.

NURM~AL

VU6SYSTEN

A variation of Alternative I involves use of poppet

volves and a mechanically operated carn in lieu of the
Pyrotechnically operated valves also may be used
to provide switching. This approach generally is irreversible, and replacement of the valves is required
after operaticn.

BACKUP BACKUP
NORMAL PRSUERTR4
PRESSURE

NUKKAL
RTR

ROWh Valve

MANUAL OPERATION

ft~dt

CAPABILITY S14OWN CAN BE MOTOR OPERATED

TO
11Cm
R TLIR1h

ftEORIML
r REMAVONSUBSYSTEM

SUBSYSTEM
PRESSURE

RETURN

lipi 9-isS lasiL,. Mecimslcuy Ioce~d-eut

POW..

Vshe.

Fip, 9-16. Cnm4*@mi$W Peppie S.whhirig Vat.,

9-9

4.

AMCP X*202K
9-2.63 Selection of FuidW Medium
the normal and the backup systems. During the time
delay, the pressaure-sensing system tests the subsystem
MIL-H-5606 fluid is the most commonly used
and mechanically inhibits the switching function if
medium and bas presenlt widespread usage throughthe subsystem does have dn external leak. Fig. 9-17
out the mailitary world.
contains e schematic of this approach.
A synthetic hydrocarbon &-fined by M IL-H-83l28
is being considered foi use in Army aircraft. Its
o~idralossnow
9-2..2 pertimsPrere
9-U. Pessue
Opratlg Cusldragoasprimary attraction is that it is significantly k fles1amOperating pressure is a function of helicopter size,
mable than MIL-H-5M0. Operatiogal charactzrcomplexity, and performance. Smaller helicopters
istics at ve.-y low tempecratures have not as yet been
with manual reversion capability may use low
fully established.
pressures, such as 1000-1500 psi, without significant
For a thorough discussion of hydraulic fluids, rafe&
weight penalties. Generally, Jynamic seal life is better
to AMCP 706-123with reduced pressures. Larger hehcoptcrs will
require 3000-psi systems in order to atvain reasonable
9-2.A.4 Rletake~ CeeiamlswtIu)
volumes and system weights.
Syste.- fluid filtration and external contamination
The impact upon development, qualification, test
factors must be considered since they have a direct
and maintenance equipment requirements may be a
efiect upon the reliability jand serviceability of the hystrong motivation for maintaining 3000 psi or lower
dratalic system.
pressures. However, it is desirable to conduct a
systmr pressure-weight-cost tradc-off study as a
I-2.6.4.
Flud FlihIIUIII
mecans of determining nptimumn helicopter hydraulic
Serafittonmhdsrevilb.Teeisymc cofigratin.
ar.9-42. ACP 06-01.
chide: central filtration, subsystem filtration, return contains a discussion of the pressure selection conitaon
case drain crncepts, and suction lirane trtin
uiderations as related to preliminary design uncCentral filtratio involves a pmwp~e filter, a return
The basic selection decision usually is made inethe
preliminary design phase, and a later re-evaluation
mybe necessary az h'.4icoptier requireirciets ma
te
te hrdwre
chage
dsin s aiv~cesino
phangc
.
th einawieinotehrwr

S,TEMeither
L
SYINRMAL
i
BACKP
BACKP~SY~t
H~tU~t S~E1~each
_

vkt

ma ,rator
toer *no a r ~smp cam drain fmm. Ybi
method reqjuires that all critical coinpooests. suich a
flight control actuators SW have inlet amcema.
These screens sAdl be in the size map of W0-150
cron absolute. particle. in.e. purtides with two
dimensions larger than the m~aximumi allowable Anil
be blocked or prohibited from passing through.
Subsystern filtration involves a pressure filter zhat
is integrated into or is immediately upstream of
component or subsysdtem. The retuea filter
generally will be of a common sminle. configuration.
~Thecwsdrain from each purnp AaUhave aseparate

~~lThe

return case drain pliflosophyr applies to both of

ILCI6

SECTION

h foregoing categories. The case drain and rautrn

system Filter functions may be combinsed withn a
sigefiltet assembly. Thc assaribly may contain
either a single- or two-stage element. It the elemnwrt is
two-stage, the full or transient flow stage shell be per

ff

NOTE

VALVE

U()Wd

95u85Y,TEM

IF N*$LJ( wE!,:t

IEGIv

tIN

EXISTS.5mcosasltTecpbltofh

SE0SAi MILL ALLOW

COLVULON Or SasITC1,-

CU(C)IM~LCY

PRLEACImiRL
SENSI PC
SEC~iN

IW IfPZ!A

C(WEOtr IF~ U4.te

S.iTCsIsNG

Flgiuv 9-17. Svwkckdnm Valke

9-10

VE5SEL

HA L0 ;h'TGI'0HE1

SU'BSYSTEM

irn

IN TIAtLF85(

TEST Ai,)E

lt)ad1elo

lwo

bo

irn

oric,1

yaig

tesd

e3o
ilk9

etement may be a compromise between the two. such

as a 5-micron absolute capability.
Suction line filtsrai~o Severally is niot utecd bo-Ause
the suction presurc capsibilitics of pumpsi dtmand
that the suct4n k'ne rressure drop be Lel~i to a
minimuni. This means &suction liue tlentat would
be qauiic large: andt. thee'ofore. buSL, and heavy. 71w
Weight Penalty usually Is We5CCpflabic.

'

706-202,

_______

Filtration islkdher diicvcsad i pi:-s. 9L4.2.2.3 and

94A4.5. AMCP 7a6-.205.
4-4.42(kud p4-n&t Fptnmioa
Grouand cart gsr'cmaly trAxwp.nrte their owns fiIwicron absotratimt vysans.k whict mA-y tst of .%4-5
lute capability. The heclicopter fiyAm s&11' moorporN.e provision for introduction of th.-ground cart
fluid tbrough the syston pecusure filter(s) as shown in
Fig. 9- IS. This provides for helicoper systaw protection if the ground cart filtration is defective.
The two available altcrraui~es in filter elaenuts an
the noockanable tLrcwiawayz cad ato rcusat-k.
cleanabl types.

-4

94.,A.3
si~b L~din
Tht required rihnttion lewd is defined in MJL-li54W0. which spacifie that tkn riatration moti at beast

rcjuiwiaentaa of MIL-F-12Z15.

4%th

The elmtefL, may bc eidwe noacleanabe :throwr-

vtays or clew2WkA, rv;2t~r "tcnertts.*Theehasiat

anUZ
tak
c
bic&ted frogi, mtAl vcn-u-t

) ae

twardislcuirgoai; I.e.. tMk-t~i4soc relatvc dcp~h in tbz

li'il
TWeAU
Ik-r lijgio4.11a thtowaaty Cknentu U*aItdly
thei~i~oeniotn ~s
reLia~ifl pniwd* Siax.

-.

fli

if'

V1buile bosh nwny

the sa~ g&us b-adW wu cr"

12n2V-.

9-2A6.5 Flitkmp
To facilitate installation, system components and
lanes must have disconncct-connoct points consistent
with specific kicoptcr itistaflation rcquiirem.ois.
Searable freAable
leuOLAirn~b 111e ret-UiW for cast
riwmovall and maintenance. 1-owevcr, iij Ddafoy
cases. permetnent fittings may bc used Iii joirijap runs
of tubiaiV whc-v accixu through fthinstallation isnot
rcqurt4. Mr. 9-4.3. AMCP 706-201, contains a dis-

cuWoo; a.' availablc fittings or both types.5

xxvewrveral reusable rfiting alttrnafives, iniuSa b MS ftlamA~is &jza AN Cawrst stazidird: that

MIL4-IbkW0 coven the reusable fMCitt~'iv

Icc-

to mom fsttings and aircraft. Howecver, the sNciiic

of Lim ekAmue.

isaaar arc%~ in t6w helicopter must be analyzed. suit

944UA4 tJ&I#4* Ccw,

EApcrieisuc LUa %lscwuttlia, %ut~a~ed, 'am
V6.
awry
T~iViR0, to poor hyklsiutk Vj~A~ oisQ
aM.t hW4. Dav to the h it Auik taai ArntcOLVW~ w
naujitrwn *uii
eawre". twl fiari*g by Was4, c~.u&itixma~

necessary in ordeir to insure that the rftting cho~w.

wilt pwr-form saiTrfscto-rily in senioc.

Lv ohtoft-4I

P--etv

~~~baw
i.5 aa obvious and dcruirae mzansi of mini-

addstional teseins must be specified as conisidcrc,

Tht Itosan. fittinjy recently has tic-tomec availabic as

aanpnlo-n~

)ti.AIlNKU'SLh15

ticajo---i
in V4s- 9-19. lIz advantages over tile
stndi AN~'J bo arA4 filt;-h comnulml&ior tnc7idt a
okn crw ln lri
supcrk' sci tksi.n vi
inaru
cr

LOKIfiG
FEATLIif

Vtn

L'

OW .F

t 4 ku*F

FLA

V.I (;M, V:

rWs 9l-M t&

WyawM Symo isn
(S.~ac -A L',-ewh~eV

1c.rt;1
include thc; Fv
..ioz.TsAlso
"Dyn~ssmwlx said avuca' others and ajxz deirybtvS ii
p 1.4.3. AMC!' I06201.

firm a erticlas that arematc tlWm the nominal r.%.0r~

CS16W fflf4y

another aletnevtive is tht use of rotary output$ in

conjunction with c~isnk arms for conversion to linear
motion in lieu of liner actuators.
In any event, qualification and environmcnmtz Rest
requiaemcns thal arm much more stringunt than
those in present Military Specifications must be use-A
in order to asawestsia that new equipment will ptgform satisfracorily.

WijA.,s

r"
4411Po.

w, a

,'.
9-Ul

The use of titanium is being initiated in Iii zs and

fittings with significant weight savings. Techniques
for eliminating galling between fittings have been perfected. A weight-cost trade-off covering the use of titanium may be performed in tht; final design configuration commitment phase.
9-2.6.6 Dymatinc Fluid Coumectlous
Swivels. hoses. and coiled or cursion tubing arc alternatives to be considered where relative motion
between an actuator and a structure must be allowed.
Because these types of fittings may impose weight
and cost penalties other means of solving the relative
motion problem must be considered seriously. The
use of an articulating link between the structurally
mounted and immobilized actuator and the~ moving
coiairol surface or other subsystem is an alternative
that has been used frequently. Fig. 9-20 isan example
of such an installation. Par. 9-4.3, AN$CP 706-201,
preaeis information coverinr,dynamic fluid connections.
If hoses are the only alternative, close attention
mus! be given to desiun of the in.tnliatin. The
LOWminmun alowbl bndradius of the hose must not
beexceeded during motion of the actuator. Thc hose
X'3
postin
rlaiv tost. ture an ra nthe actuator during motion must be analyzed in a layout
daisioretodetennine thtinterference does
notexit.In
ddtio, aprteciv coermust be installed to protect the hose from abaindamagc due
to vibration and g's. which can cause the hose to de..
fxtoutside its normal path during motion (Fig. 9rl

Swivels may be used in conjunction with hoses, or

as scissor assemiblies. to rtsolve relative motion problems. The swivel assembly rigidity minimizes vibration and acceleration problems. However, the Joints
involve the use of dynamic seals, which can result in
nuisance or catastrophic leaks.
Waing links is the preferred method.
Peak Power Leveds
The determination of ptak power levels, and,
therefore, of hydraulic pump and Iiac siz~e. isdetailed
in par. 9-4.6. AMCP 706-201. It is desirable to
develop a precise knowledge of the parallel-series
operation of 2he subsystems so that adequate performance is attained at minimum weight and cost. Undue conservatism in hydraulic system design will
penalize helicopter performance, insofar as weight
and power extraction are concerned.
The same techniques of powcr system analysis that.
are discussed in par. 9-4.6. AMCP 706-201. shall be
used in establishing system peak power require9-2.6.7

man,% In

wrldifiinn 2 mioitinn nrnfl" on"lvtI"

co Autdto determine total energy requirements

and the system heat load. Fig. 9.22 is a typical example of a mission profile requirement.

9ZU

AI s sieSatu
It is customary to use hydraulics for starting
APU's and turbine engines, since the hydraulic starting system is self-contained and provides a capability for multiple starts. No external ciiectrical or
ground hydraulic carts are required, and a hand
pump allows recharging of the accumulators for stubThe basic hydraulic starting system con-

SWLVLIKSsuccessful.

or am Argculathg Lld

anected

I(UCOPsists*ofTair-

1111

IhTA

9-12i

totothat

E
CrSEQ

FIgu re 9-20.Use oamAtcovetbi L61

W1,Jhe.

Fiur

1ose

OU2Tyil

COMAT

CFTS

R Biei
1ACKa1'o
E I

AMCP 706202
a manually operated selector valve. Self-displacing
accumulators can be used to in.ure that the asm)ociated hydraulic system reservoir is kept to a
minimum size and weight.
The cold start is a primary design point due to high
line-loss charactebistics with -65*F fluid temperatures. The motor requirements for equivalent warm
oil output torques are not increased appreciably by
-65"F fluids; however, flow rate will be greatly
reduced until fluid temperature has increased.
Instantaneous or fast opening of the manual control va;i'c can cause hydraulic motor shaft shearing or
oth-.r damage duc to the high-p asure shock wave.
The control valve design should include features to
provide for slow buildup of pressure (0.5 to 1.0 sec is
reasonable). At high temperatures, the extra fluid
enrgy available as a result of decreased line losses
may require control if the APU or turbine engine is
aoceleration-limit,_ due to a characteristic of a cornporent or the basic gear train.

9.

9-2&.
-

System Heat Rejectwo Claracteriscs

,,,-,ovci

t--:y,_..

,,-nr
MA

--.

or less, and low flow of S gpm or less) generally do

not require any special cooling equipment. Large.
high-power-loevl systems operating in relatively
warm ambient temperature regions may require heat
exchangers iii order to maintain fluid temperatures
below the Type !1 upper limits of 2750F.
The performance specification for the heat ex.
changer includes the following requirements:
I. Media maximum inlet and outlet temperatures
allowed
2. Media minimum and maximum mass-flow rates
.nriMaum
IIJIMU
1WrMAIMlaUnM
mnCLi and outict
allowable temperatures
4. Hydraulic fluid minimum and maximum massflow rates
5. Allowable pressure drops in both the media and
hydraulic sections.
The heat exchaner qualification test s"all specify
the following basic requirements in addition to a
demonstration of performance:
1. Realistic impulse testing as a pressure vessel so
as to insure adequate fatigue life
2. Environmental tests, iacluding vibration, shock,
and corrosion testing.
9-2.6.10 System Awslysis
"The system performance analysis necessitates
definition of the requirements of each of the subsystems in terms of output requirements and resuling
"input needs. Flight control subsystems and utility
subsystems are the basic divisions. Par. 9-4.6, AMCP

706-201, discusses the analysis or determination of

power requirements for both types of subsystems.
Where there are several subsystems, the maximum
simultaneous need must be detc; ntined in order to
define the peak output capability. As a part of the
performance analysis, line-sizing criteria based upon
maximum allowable transients must be used to insure
that MIL-H-5440 and practical limits are met.
In order to insure that performance goals - including combat-damage tolerance and single- and
dual-failure tolerances - are met, a failure mode and
effect analysis (FM EA) must be conducted. This sAW.
be conducted in as much detail as is practicable. This
analysis sAWll be prepared in accordance with the
system safety program plan of Chapter 3. AMCP
706-203.
MIL-H-54,0 defines the hydraulic system dat and
reports that are rcquired. including:
I. System requirement studits data
2. Design selection data
3. Developmental data
4. Production data

5.

Schematic diaRram

6. Hydraulic system design report

7. Hydraulic system nonstandard componenrt
cross-sectional assembly drawings.
The requirements of the helicopter detail specification, together with the MIL-H-54,0 requirements,
shall constitute th- basic hydraulic system report requireten,.
9-2.7 HYDRAULIC COMPONENT DESIGN
AND SELECTION
The detail
n for the various components needed to complete the hydraulic system are
discussed in the paragraphs that follow.
9-2.7.1 Actulors
Actuators may be separated into two basic classes:
flight control and utility. These two classes may be
divided into rotary and linev- output types. The flight
control actuaors may be dual- or single-system types
with manual, mechanical, pilot control input signals.
In addition, some units include an integrated control
augmentation system (CAS), a stability augmentation system (SAS), and/or an autopilot system. The
controls - manual and electronic

generally are

combined oith the electrical control mode, either in

series or in parallel with the manual mode (Fig. 9-23).
The series mode provides limited authority and
flight control surface motion without motion feedback to the pilot's control stick. The parallel mode or
operation provides unlimited authority: in effect.
9-13

ELECTRICAL CONTROL INPUT

I
I

INPUT

(A)SERIES MODE OF OPERATION

.4

rrenDAr

I LLULIflUII LIIIRVUI..

P1
INPUT

SEPARATE
PARALLEL
SERVO

ACTUATOR

(B)PARALLEL MOOE OF OPERATION

Figure -23. Eaaks

f Puralel and Seek. Couhol Med..

dragging thc stick along with the surface during motion. The augmentation and autopilot modes of
operation use clectrohydraulic valves, which receive
electrical signals generally in pvoportion to the

load requires cons.de.ation in the decision on type ol

valvc to be employed.
The master control valve that accepts the iwinual.
clectrical. or combrcd signal is a rour-way. closed.

magnitude of the desired surface position change and

then transsate the signal into ahydraulic command to

cenler valve (Fig 926). For balanced-area cylinders

in the neutral position, the cylinder port prewar.. are
generally established at one-half the system pressure

the actuator. The electrical fcedback signal cancels

out the electrical command signal when thc Loritrol
surface reaches the commanded position. Flapper

and nozzle or jet pipe electrohydraulic control valves

are used. Figs 9-24 and 9-25 present schematics of
the valves. The jet pipe is preferred because it hai an
inherently greater tolerance to contamination: however, this type valve has a higher leakage rate than the
flapper and nozzle type which increascs the hydraulic system heat load. This contribution to the heat

at the no-load positiwi. In unbalanced actuators, the

cylinder port neutral pressures are unbalanced in proportion to the area unbalance as requirid to obtain
the necessary force balance. The spool of this servo is
subject to jamming, particularly by thread-shaped
particl's which may have been scraped from wrfaces

of co.aponents by abrasives (predominately sand)

which arc introduced from she enironracnt. Sesise
scrupulous care during maintenance and servicing o

K-

AMCP 706-202
preclude entry of contaminants. the obvious pre-

ftmom

MWL O L

IIALI]

ILJTO

use of depth type filters which trap these threadparticles far better than screen type filters can

PAshaped

JET

Where the electrical and manual signals are mixed,

linkage mechanism is used to combine the signals at

7a

the master control valvi. The manual signal comes

directly to the valve through an appropriate linkage.
RECTURNI
CYLOC1LNThe
clactrohydraulic valve output flow is directed to
a small auxiliary r~m that, through an appropriate
AT'Lucelinkage,
can move tht master control valve as
~rnrMciuodirected by the electrical signal.
The utility cylinders generally are relatively simple

SWV9
C,

Fpe9-24. Sebemate of Jo Pip E~r*

and do not include the control function of the sub9-2.7.1.

Rip-stop rrotectiee
When dual actuators are employed, or two independent systems are used simultaneously in a flight

c
Kg

UTOcotl

Ill

fl

II

~
~

____

***~
------

kuyl

oto
cutr
xmineidctsta
aiutic
cutrepeeceidctstaa
failure may origin~ate in one system and propagate

into the other, resulting in loss of both. If control

cannot revert to manual mo*i in such a situation, the
helicopter can be lost. This potential problem can be
elmntdby use of the rip-stop tehiuwhich
requires the use of separate pressure vessels. The
vessls can be joined by fasteners. brazing, or other
ossiblityof a fatigue failure causing both systems to

9F1

b lost Theprescrnt state of the art allows use of this

technique without significant weight penalty. There-

75fore, it shall be used where possible.

PETUN

LAMA

FlIe 925 Sckemtkc of Flappe Elecetro-hydraulk

con"a Valve

P1E.SSURrRETURN
CONTROL SPOOL

PASSAG-ES TO CVI NDER

Flgmwe 9-2C. Typicall Master CoatrfA Valve

9-2.7.1.2 Endurance Testing Requirements

Adequate endurance tests are essential if the Fkctuator ZAr1-4" 1;fictimic is to bc satisfactory. Tw.-o important design considerations are the dynamic seals and
the integrity of the actuator as a pressure vessel. The
endurance test program shall provide foi a rigorous
test of the basic and detail design concepts. Toward
this end, the usage must be defined in depth, where
test requirements ii, addition to those s'-ecified in the
applicable Military Specification are desirable, they
shal be specified. The additional test may include environmental, operational cycle, and/or prcssure yessel impulse testing.
9-2.7.1.3 Seal Alternatives
Military Standard (MIL-G-5514. etc.) 0 rings,
backup rings, and glanJs arc used in dynamic seal
applications. The backup ring is required for
pressures above 1000-1500 psi, depending upon the
specific application. Frequently, seal life requirements are such that special, nonstandard seals are
9415

ktA'IV

aiu

vtso

ow,~r

sasacds

4..,AP~.CFWbM
cuIdi p~r 944.6.This
CUS.d

Pverfiv4
Y '1
'.This

A Lixful tcchmicrut
involc the ti.- of dual seals
with the sw~Qivfl hetw-41.lm !sc als vente-d lo the return
side: of ithe iystcm. Thc first si,;Ze ii, then the highpressur, -x) uitd thie rtcond stugec must 3cai only thc
li cwr
pc~~lrvausue Revricior., F~a he used in the
secion in order tc knbl-it large, .hort-circuit
laa flows,
UsX 'IoY
t
-ruly
oundtil sCHIS iNd OMw tehniqUe.
lnvih'e'. us of tIo scars in -crics without venting, irt betwon. The &ksi1'ncr shoujld, h, wever. insure
thLIt fithid cainr-ct be trapped betw-en seals or thAt
!srnleffects will not cause fa~nure.
ring seals may tyo citiner
fu tndn
Backups~~
stanardscafedor
nscirfe (slid. Te uscafcd
btaciupr scarfb ued
or nwvard psolid)lTe lieu
un f d
baciup hal
whavvr
beuse pssiic n leu f t,,e
standard scarfccd types.
Srirfacc fin.'sh ii important to seal life, and should
bt; kept bela.. 8 gin. A )&biiir. finish may be accepL talcl G'r shor-We ap~atos
g.eahgrerally in use are the MS standard o
Static
rivL.s with N'6 standard scarfed backups. As with t-ie
dynamic seals, unscarfcd (solid) backlips are preferred %heic the diameter is large enough so that they
can be installed without damnage. A It)- to 32-14in.
Finish is requirea f- aci O-ring gli.Ai2g
'Thetyps
c~rrra~
oseasir us ar dicused ,-i
par. 9-4 lv.6, AMCP 70i6-20
9.2.7.1.4

Natuital, 2nd Stress Conjideravio-is

Actumv:
stx._.cos.-

-. a.am.

ni;;

coi-ar.

(AV~J

stres
us ri~e
& an
pprprite :'ienils ith
provnsesscorosin
rsiitnceandpreictble
adeue finternalsand kept!inl
&!iabc
raiu is~high~
radis i hihlyderrabe.
hc inih m.~s hrkep in
the range. of 12 rms or belcw. A significantly rougher
fin~h
geeros.
~nofi~~
adi by ntrducng any
no-rdiu s .es~ra~srs.wa;
Sto-ls gcncially hive bctite, more cv:isistc-it
falijzue-litec charwetr~stics than duc.; a~urnlnur'l, ant_,
-'relorc.
sho.-i be used where- long life it mandatomy
arid fliglit sF4!05 importact. W.ZL-C-55O3 is applicab nth~s zem:, ane cointaia-s detail requ;rcinens in.
leu'~
n ie~ual
7
ht !apoed spoA-.Aeeve zonitrol valve matutiats
may Lic cither SAE. 521(V) series steel. or corrosionrcsisy.snt ste-1i such as T)pc 44'1C stainlcss. Tinesc
rn O have p-odcn swifacvury in scrvicc usage,
leat 04.. C slainless must x -.old stabilized to ir.ure
iaime'nsilor.' stabitty in cr'kr to a'c~t suosuq.uunt
,ammi~tt.failed

-..-

em

eurwa

discusuon applies primnarily to flight control

actators with integrated CAS. SAS, or autopillot
medes of operation. For satisfactory service usag, .it
is desirable that the nccassary control linkage bL imniersed in fluid inside the actuator. Jamming. corro'.
sion. high friction, and unaC4Cepabk COntrQI systeM
slop dmc to wear Art problems that arc eliminated
and/or minimized by this niethod, It also allows the
use of a rotary low-presaure dynamic "ea as the

access fromn the cxtcrnal manurl control system to the

actuator internal linkage. Such a seal is considered
superior to a linear seal Wcaust more efficient sulainL
minimizes introduction of cotaminazlt to tbtsel
a
fiamdgsrou
Mechmnicaloeri
appropriate margin or yceld/faillurc stirength in the
control linkage. Reliability of ovearid swoss
depcnds upon the iieverity 4~ the jam, which, in tutn.
varies in some mtanner with size, zhelpe. and material
of the jamming particle. Dependiiaoe on mechanical
override (as the sole back-up for r jammed servo) is
not an acceptable techriqic ecrp: for stmall (1,...
contrai fotce) helicopters. Hydiraulic rWundancy is
the presar~ed mvethod for lu~ger helicoptera.
The linkf-ge and the 'ercc: input ;;apaoiliky hall be
designed so thL: cmii)p that may 3et to the control
valvc oin be sheared, thu~s a,.oiding catastrophni jamof the a(.tuafor control. ricnerally. a I000-lb
for'~e at the valve spool centerline is used to define the
.zltimai, loa:1-carrying capability of thec control
system linkage between the pilot input point and the
valve spool, Thi; is conserviltive, butl usuaily dcfleclion and other crite~ia are such that no weight penalty
is iavolyv.

For stable COnt7ol system operation, both with

power on and with power off', actuator stiffness can
be important. The fluid spring rate capakbiity of the
actuator is a prim,- fector. because it is generally the
sfetpncno h oa can pigrt
aa
bilit). Adeqtatc stiffness may be attained in several
s. Thc. aottator artr. may be increased beyond
that required f'or aerodynarmic pi~rposes so a! to increase thc fluid spring rate. Another a~ternatk**'c is to
use hydraulic damp3-r: in conjunction with actuato,copability. Power-off damping may require the usc of
separate dampers in an; event.
Dniuretl
actuator operati'on on a single system may require- hydraLlic bypass or anticavization featirre.
This prevvits thet pimping of fbuid back to the s)stcr
reservoir. a.-d a resulting requircricnt for a lar 6 zr,
heavier rescivv ir. Aanotlaer benefit is a sig-kificant
redurtion in thi. energy rcquirAd fioin the rcmairning
operativi: syistem in 'arder to virctilate. fluid in the
syatcm. Ariticavitation can be acecrnplisho-d

eih by. a pmtHps

bypm valve or by
de
vahvs W4 &W rlturn So~w to Sbr circuit
%becmW~ valwl.
Fig. 9-27 ,oniam admmtatics for
S
to a
a
.
Ila
cw an isdisiM " valve Omltn-mor is
mar
tisW to 4fi
tsa fluid in reained within the
7U re
sdltir mus~t be hWSWc than We

'r
Sicltua~ir.

6e

flow prmu

thatt ca be developz during

0054do.
Th11e ant of auui g sW be consulovd wlozmr

Faedboc for positivi control mry be altziw~d in

lt kw thzee tvays: with a fixed inrrdi. %:ith a
m~ovable twrel, oi- ekctrkally. Th hm', berivi in.volves s movi
rod and an sciated mechanica
hnkw interconnect tdwen,the movinlg rod *ad 1k
pilot input liskaage "Thisapproach Aiiow$ thec Uft of"
direct tubing cim.mcttonz sincc i.ir can c little or

Ike I;aura-.lo

no relative motiors. The r/noving barM givs direck

;*~ba", but require ho , swivel&. ot oftr ur
of handling the motin. The third atlminativl: in-

WC~v" tM uu of tramdamn ill onjut'tior Wilh cklctbical

eiccontrolF
. 9-f2n containl chemtk.bs
attai
al-

anstf
irt Wd.

ka can exist. Snubbing reduces the

m
cause op
a
presvlre inorfica-

Lhavalves
t

taken into amount dshor

cnaciu
desgn

spptowaha.

ahd led. vaelo Fig a

ht/dealaa cffhmtivcex=s
Uoe of an inl, check vatvl iThesirable, particuade-off
is
apuipr
to
daeso
the
optimum
aparly
when
ainr dual actuaterd or ame
used,
If the aerodyShe
maiUmE
REow DodaIo
FERENIA[.bck.btreqirspesswvd
other
mears.
aa
rcash.
ivmm
load durintr single-system overation can ot.
poweriptum,
the
tn e ua of
ppoa
a
k valve will allow
RETURN
holding
cfthe
position involved when the first sysorm
fl Ir tfailure
occurs until the
moment or icad can be
OW PESSUEDIFERETIAL
PRESURE
Te
u
RELIEF VALVE
laa --.
IgeT
-.l
c
t
ghvante
tco that m--s- be tan int
i

and tet.
ro

VALVE

iTservU
, -ottor
a

un turret dcivc applications. Vanes

may be used ad combination actuaior-dampenr.

VALVE

ACT
TO UA

fLA

reduce to a controllable kv.!by reduction in heliof

saedli r th motns.
or motor type of "otary actuator may be
iopgars.
u advanaan in hcdg
A obviousaapr is

JR

PILOT

MO I
E

VLo

(A)) UEOOAFCHECK VALVES

L~.(A)F
'RSU~

) SEOFCHCKVALVE
-

IXABED
BAFRPEL
LO PRESSURE-DIFFRETAL

E OEAE

M RESURR DIFFERENTIAL
PREASSURELLOWINPUSSC=RE
0_

CONTRNtR

IIO

ILOT
INPUC
!C

TF'ANU0'EL
G

()MVABLE BREL

)*

(B)USE OF PjflS.UP:- ,PERATED BYPASS VALVE

Flume 9-27. i..srltketlppoeochus

,,.

(C)ELET!CAI. FEEDerP;
FIgure 9-28. Feeawck TchLa4ues

,-l7

"

9-2'.7
Hydtauicw Pwps
The hydraulic pump is the heart of the h'ydraulic
dyasei. and. thereiore, i., of primo importance. It is,
however, the primary soucce of ty-tern heat emsrgy
due to its inherent inefficicnacim.
The basic 0ta.-tatives for pumps are the rixed-displacement and the variable-displatement, constantpressure 47ypes. The fixed-displacement unit can he
used with "opci, center" utility systems, or with relief
vaives ot combination unloa&er valvc-awi~mulator
sysiems, for pressure control. The fixvd-displaccment system is relatively heavy. In addition, 't tends
to have higher heat generation levels than the variabit-displacemcnit type. Consequently, the fixeti-displacement pump is not in genecral use except ii lowpressure-level systems.
The cinventional variabic-displacement pump has
constant-ilo% capability through speedls up to the
pressure control cut-in point. which is approxi-.
matcly 2850 psi for a 3000-psi system. As the demand
decicascs below the full displactment capability, the
control de-strokes the pump until, at zero output
fl~,

..

~.

--

iw~,,;

,.

*~~.

;n.

9 ...**
.......

The compe ,sated pessure setting can vary from 2950

t3 3050 psi between pumps. Fig. 9-29 shows ihcse
characteristics.
Modificat.ons of the basic control art available,
One variation used for horsepower limiting is the
soft-ci'toff, relatively constant horsepower approach.
Fig. 9-30 shows the control reducing flow at 1500 psi

soresult
7.

wad continuins on a linear basis until it vtadsx5 ttv'

staitdaid sharp pump level. Thert, it. mm"n k, duwap
cutoff control. S'aperiswczad an 5F4. 9-3f is a
cons*flt-horsepovrc7 line that is tanrt tw .1v Pot'i
cutwff and that, wken compared to the peal- '.onepowee of a sharp cutoff pump, shows a sqi~i~cw
reduction in the power required to drive the 1%mip.
This is a definite advantage whome the driving StPOWCI1 is limiltd, JIM Significant wVi~t "an ke talk'
in, for example, an electric moter. 3lowe er, zome o'
the weight savings is offset by the large li-a's reiuircd
to maintain subsystem rates with 1530 psi avaitloW
for load and line loss versus the conventional 315O.
psi capability.
Another type of c')ntrol ofiers a high rupt-nx
capability because of the large control valve u,%4
with pump hanger feedback as required for~stwbilization of the pump contro; system,. Thv capabJity to,
respond to both on and off demands aliowa the 4,Iction of the accumulator, resulting iin savings in
weight, maintenance, and servicing. In addition, 'kc
pump has better overshoot-undershout chars&;-tb,jitfir than has the ConkCntional nuimi-nL~jourL
system. Tnereforr, pressure pcaks are lower ono'
system fatigue life is imjpic-d.
Pump case drain characteristics are iiafltrti' teo
satisfactory system and pump operation. The L
shall have a minimuin case drain flow as a functior. c'a
back pressure. This is required in order to climi..'.-..
pump overload and failure during operation in IN'
compensated or giear-ccmpensated mode. An uppe
limit on case pressure buildur. due to flow restriction
is necessary in order to avoid L.s cr the system as a
of failure of the pump or case drain
a~;rr
sa

.1i1111characteristics

~
0

Woo

0flw

Mw

ar sI'ow'n in Fig. 9-31.

4000

29W0
,W

"ov0.0
sFigur r 9-9

CASEIWAM L"
%F C"W.CTLM5NC5

Hydraulic Pump Flow ib Preitsurv

Ciaracteristlcs

I'
I

iigima 9-30. Hydraulkc ?suap Soft Cutoff

*0491 WA PUR0

~CtIAMCTWITIC

Figvwe 9.3). fydraiollc Pump Casm DFial FUs

Vamp
ims&mauI"ti ame impxaf
POW yM*Gieis adW pump W The r oo r'

t t
pros-

*wihu
ia per. 9.4.5. AM2CP M-.201. and a hydrink pabolsies suppramo is shoen in F5 . 9-33.

.AW ha swb do fhe ~pw mag= dme m et wms

wsk4 MiAW to lvi
W rb free cmensated (nobew) subk& Fit 9-n2 ibm.. *uacsnhmkti systm
deb. rqinisnama
for nesavoir pmwmurs for
tpsAI e'-wRiMg Itnepanms and mctisolne
km
ksV~k *&. nades
suctisn kas tamer and

(26+
pmi) and loe imudane (la opening to
ayesk) am required un order to anoin the masesary
hjb frequeny repoese cbuareuurcics
The bernic applicable pimp spairkacaioc is MEL-F'492, covtings varialadsiwry Pump requirmstws. MIL-P-7WI cover
tuad~paee
wnit

Pass Npakdwse cba,%nninics ma dthir cempusibility

%A
he sy~am dyiamic chnoracksars
are
aurfily itapthts RIA uisfa.cior systms and helP
csWr pct-Vmaace Pimp syss-compr-Ability Lests
smus be oreeducsed -4suily as possible in.the hardonwips cy&k ad
ban &Wweb
li~
use dme to dos peep wftbowt' taua cm bast
she pump p~hsies d6Zcbsrmatuic - -n exciiag It.9um*c- eaR duivihe aw
PPmadnM Mae at its remooazun
fu-rsuc. The rsudt i puhleakcs41:J4sr of maewsflfW M
V&"
tue,Vw-4j pub'twu Ileve

9.1.73 AcAmfar
Accesulatoes me used for enery ztoage and/or
for pressure Mtasmnt and pulsation attenuatbon.
They may be of she pmston. bladdr. or diaphragm-in ps-fluid-s.earaion type. A vaniaton or the piston
type is the sdlf-dicplacing variety, which avoidc any
adverse Impact upon the ,esrvoir as a result of size
or transent highvelocty motion.
Seal, bladder, and diaphragmi leakage, and its cor.troE,rj te basic acci umsacor problems. The piston

44-mas cm,~
tn: 44
fr raeda!ktJ vlbrzetivav- that
ttcst %.No fVcb46lk
~
to situl fatigue
fk N&Z' Ms k-eitminutn.
fta . =M.-nt,.ukalaoi l-rv2, is un~a.Wetablc, there
amt ivt.
i4."in&Wciuive Lrxe,. Line lereibs may be
vnodictr in thc rnostwinj arta sc As to move the
rcsonataneP speed point outr1
oZhc 6nr03 spvc range of
shT pumnp since resonance can occurf betwtecr. tr;
pulrnp and an inrne suppmnJoi. Them earcnvrAl
types of suppressors. the Helmouhzl rmnalor~ r 6

-*

-rn

"~

_4
<rsho
A

OD
AD

0 42
__

102

14

provides redundancy when the system is n~ot

operating.
Another alternative for minimizing leakage of gas
into the hydraulic syst.m is use of redundant piston
seals, with a ve~nt between them giving access to the
atnlos,-.hele ItLia may require a tail rod and an extra
srux. 'I fit tvolution of high-response pumps, and the
resmnt ekir.,ination of accumulators, is a desirable
wvay of rolving accumulator pr;oblems. The only basic
#acimbtcnr-cqtiinig accumulators will be th,, engine,osinulator sit~ing hand prtrnharge arc a funtio
of th: &rnperatwe rerage thirough which the accumu!or ttiUa be used. Th e fluqid volume available at tht;
minn.:dut~i Fre~ssurt and the minimum operating temperu~ltt
obviously mum meet the subsystem energy
requiremenwts. Accumulators for tactical helicopters
11 he designed to
reain their integrity when
texp,.'scd ~.o gunfire.
M'L-A-T498 and MiL-A-S897 cover the detail accun'ua'vor requirements, and per. 94.4.3, AMCP
706- 6.' , contains a di!,':ussicn of accumulator tech-

16

SUCTION LINE IDJGTN, ft

Figur 9-3. Sadie LA ime

Ls t
Prusre Chwaraerhaks

-SWIA

Fkgur *-33. Hydrolic

rd~a.

SpaeSM,
19

.ip-

coiwm-arn
ThMu of IE
M
chfiqlpy wh as KR " an eke
RAmcvor "
iome prmp n"i
in pwrentaw
ramuI,
re i
OsI(rsf to p
9-2.6.1
oto &
K LS "it mw be in,the
2.1-). Mnehhuicxty
l vitumus
"w
e a" frM s ymaysdi nsdM
"
j
pr-vide for thsL.
- aswm. &adwws
o
MW grated into the &msp in the opfmo asomaan-:

9I&A

pTI

fovi racceptale lul

S dunp

leakae lt dynast

aye opnratioc. Tha- am everal typa

of r
vana
th
i a di bootsa.,
tsparWS-mr
frOmnsiscd, On OWxtasi-s
e
nd-ui puWSiaud. Time
in aote dews in pair. ".41.
type are diuSCu
ts
AMCP 76-20t. The varinch dnip reqalitrcs
aW
d tfutara of the resrvors ane pcumsed in MiM1-552C
and MILy-R.W3l.
Lm
ialy is defind by
re levielmau
The reservoir
tie pump acio anrutiremuesa. Thee requirmaw

vd te Weson
bth
invove
luidam,4erakm

tes

'r

,ht

"c"lwtonumi-opavitation
as the maumurca

a.

minim

e-.rt.g.

.o

must be
harmacterisics
points.fluThe
panur
involv bol~~
jsh pump
y overranide
thepsteML.-5t
dea.d before the
resrvoir
ad
pump
suction
be anWn and destpnd. MIL-H-440 deilin

~can

ge~ruisneionProvisions

seofc
vere
them.
hove
l
rthes
meotqiw
n
pumrp
reno my
ovrrithise
Therseas w
in the ldht r m
n disaptragze zue-4'L
reM
not considyed dynamic inrthe sense of a pideon

ol

ailsMK

dyiwi
t

pe'W

bile operatin,

tc. Funcfonuly.

oItgwwlht,
Mi-

lt!.Me mug Ne

aid". d.
dinS uue the specifilt suabs. 1on tin
acdMnsticr.
to Mksn far the smirch and hittn.pieoatsid
PNO"MSM,

The sucion ontlet should lie a. the bottom of. or

- the cervucr, relative to
rttha the miWdl of,
no lhi
nma full37veli. In the cae of conspurze rowt
g-tr sacnt operation
iV#
Vals, provisMum bo n fo
it

4V

nW

L.

flM leve? itdkr_,tioui sWd be an accordance with

ltyies r
renn-v.rs thet high-pressure side
she tranuienough to nusatain
large
passages stllW e on
Yai.n
n
gnu dut to3750
rewtvoir
gni. high-volwu chng rate from
eiterading
For bocw

shol be incolded for an air bind at the

hihest point of the ruearvoir as it is iTtall in the

op.r. Manu..l-opratin capbility is required.
COrwdei

r
tiSon

v4

egivr

e to ilred

povsiility ofo

asotnati bleed on startup in addition to the manual

seal. The diaphragm and bladdcr do have relative

motion between themselves and the mecrvoir. T.he
bootstrap reservoir does incorporate piston Mats.
VWhea the weight pti.alty is acceptable, bellows are
preferred to dynamic =sit for the low-pressure bide.

0-.j7.5 Preuaore R41f

SUU c!ifvle rcrqie o rvd o
Posjible pump con!'rol fnlure. The requirements are

level shell be estimated coaservatively and is to be

(M)s"efqulfe

Where dynamic seals crc usetd, friction and life expectancy am. primary considerations. The friction
und in designing the rscrvoir to meet the accelera-

lion an.s anticavitation requii-ments.

The reservoir shall include, as an integrated or

sepsrate demtnt, a relief valve for protcction against
overall, in conjunction with acccpting the maximum
flow back to the rcscrvair as a resul, cf syt'tem differential during operation.
Fill provisions shall be in 2cc.rdince with MIL.-R5520. Filling is a function primarily of the type of
reservoir. The opcr or air-pressurized reservoir may
h filln,1by hand with fluid poured froui a can. However, this method I-as obvious disadventages in that
certaminated flud easily could be poured into the
system. Separate xar-fluid rcesrvoirs rad bootstrap
rescrvoirs cannot bc filled convenier-tly and easily b)
pmt -ing. Thcy reqvire fill carts, or equipment such as
ijand pumps that cn generic positive flow at low
pressurc This typ'e of filling normally it accOmnishvd through the system return filter. Thice is
desirable because contaminatd fluid will be filtered
pz~or to reaching llC pump inlet,

bined.

covered in MIL-V.8813, and a IWtliiary Standard

(MS) series of qualifed valve is available. However,

avs

vial.Hwvr
Is

MS valves are in separate housings; where integrated

modules and service centers are chosen, the runetinc..!

.F.ns

okI

.:l ......

ntr.A
.i

;into

the package. Consideration should be given to

routing 'the relief flow through the hydraulic system
cooi.r. This could prevent systc.m overheat under
conditions where the relief valve an the pump compensator malfunctions. The staneard system relief
valve rarely operates, and therefore can be quite simpie in design.
Where high response, frequent operation, and/or
narrow reaat-full.flow requirements dictaw a nonstandard design, consideration must be given to the
dynsamic performance characteristics. This will include damping provisions, such as a hydraulic
dashpoi.
9-2.7.6 Piewswre Regulatlon
Presbure regulators or reducers generally are used
to step the systen; pressure down for use in a specific
subsystem. The detail requirements for these units aor
covered by MIL-V-8tt. The ret;,cers may in4ckd

_--

rmitr valves for prosolicm of the sabsyum in the

Spressu'e

to limit Ow differmntal

eve tin uudMer fails. The perfaonanie or r*els.

presoure arogs the rilr elment o that system per-

tion may be absolute (based o atmospheri pmmuw)

formasc dqradatiou is conroed during tranient

or difnotWl (maaienan of a specific pressure

leve above the return preusure at the reduce in-

Icw-Impwume opauton.
The intmerctwons o; se reie

utalllaton point),

lickout, ditftential presun ladiclor.,an element

dean-drty diffaemrtial prmw charad stica are

9-V.7

importnW. The varioum requircun

eRi

must omple-

meat each othar if theis Musi. is to rfmction effoctively. Fig. 9-35 shows a typkWl composite performmc curve. Thi cuv miust be ed as a tool during
dWen in order to dsriee
the varius performa
mpkeand -enem they *IV
n
requirmu
mentary.
The reziuireca to an emiet differential
pr:surs indcAtor is coverid in MIL-F4813. and
calls for 70* i. psi difi ntial capability foc a 3000pMi syrner, element.
?Aimration of t
fluaid rake me" is not acceptabe. This face mwut be considre during election

meet.

or the mdia to be ued. If neocssary, ad.*tional

MIL.F4815 requires that an automatic shutoff be

I
nrnviSM wn that *, minimrnun amnunt nf fluid 3 |s

tfuing Ma
1nmAiain i&.

Thermal lockouts are used to keep the diferential

prsure indicators from operating below a spwificd
fluid temperature level. This allows cold 3tarts, in
which the high-viscosity fluid would cause highpresure drops across the elernent, thus causing the
diflcrential pressure indicazwr to operate.
A time delay is used to keep the differential
indicator from operating as a result of transient peak flow pressures. The contaminationholding capability then is referenecd to steady-state

9-2.7A Clhick Vales

Check valve rmqirancnts arc covered by NIL-V25675, and AN check valves are available thba nect
Type 1 (160*F max) syttem requiremenu. MiristurizcJ check valves ar availab for Type IJ syzytc
(275E- max), and provide a wcight and cowt nhvins.
Nonstandard ca-ttid$c check valves that can be used
in integrated packsgcs also are avpilablc.

~m.~

be conducted so as to coafirtm that the

zdaux ".

;...-.tcLJs...

140...... .O.7

fl....

.--

*4.L

.#.1. Uhu

.a

*n"

without penalty to the system.

if

IP
a.

or

.-

__"11

60

INDICATOR

PUE40. FNG:

OPERATING

POINTIS
D USI7GUN

40-MAXIMUM RATED FLOW,

20

-,

NOMINAL

-)

_ __.._ ....

F.Z.sc(

CS
CP4ARACTEMtIS

100

.140"

lOSEATt

v.1w. thermal

Adequate filtration is esmaial to mtisfactory

operatic. of the hydraulic aystm. MIL-F-1I5
coven the detail requirements for the hnussap and
claents. Filter eliments ar dis.cused in per. 92.6.4.3.
The Cirt-holding venrs differential-pressure char.
acteristc ar shown in Fig. 9-34. They arc quite nonlimnr. i.e.. a significant amount or contamination
wiJl be uaiuw before there is a noticable inctnase in
differential pressum. Differential prenure indicators
af required in order to signal that the clement is
loaded with contfmination and requires replact-

when the element is removed.

A bypaw rdief is ud

..

~
~4r

CLEAN ECTENITICS

zak-20l'T
t

7i) 80 9O100 110 120 132

cc 00 0 DIR-HOLDING
0 ll5060 CAPABILITY,
((11SO rbl

FuRpm 9-U4. Filier Elemmo Dnr-ho34wg

('her9a3.

THEEIPAL
LOCKOUI

'EN'NC

IL

t:..LA
L 5IIJ..Zj.
. Z

F~lure 9-35. Filt*.r Ebeemi~ Perfer~mae

TEMPEPATURE. T

lke Elsllnaimie

-ANGE

92

The rniniLturiwd check valve, with its inhcnnt

bMw-innhtia. higz-rapwu chacaicriskia. caun be
u-A] quait Liectively to kcsp trauskals oV one subsystem fromt im.'oeing unrnecessry, ptoentially
diumaigin Maasses on Owc cib sub.1ys~erns. Par. 9.
~3.2.6.1 contauts further dascusauon of chock vaivs.

'Sq.

-4

A11-2.7.9
't~c

>4:feature

Prummwe Swhdss
Tc pr-axts
switch gencraill is used to opevnehL

sysian failsare warning hight in the'cjk

TNe
switches may be cn~itfivc to either absolute or soiffer'catial pressures. The absolutr or atutiosphtcr%z
precawie-H-ased typ patrull is used. A desirable
of this t)-N is its ability to rewtai ikt ayitini
cuid if the flui4 &Cal fails, by Lunga INx. case as a
pressurc dtzb~n.

PRESSURE P*~1".

PK

C2

Y4
CCE
.
110KRAIL

F~iM

tALF

UtAI

FULL- TRAIL

vad
Wi*"r,,r omba~m

0y

, IfSsR('P

K -

Lr
PT11C.-Ue Traeasattmn
ZEO
ErEP.GIZED
OE PIKRr
Prrscee
r~t1tiiiicf&e required in rcrdcr to convvlpiessu-e in ;m tehccrict%! signal !otr transmisziohaiiIWO-OI INV:V
to ibr eCWkfrz in, o
0 pro-;i~z xhr j~int wiit r,
visual Vildi%.aiion r. tc-f se
5chU p:hsureL. YAlthoudh
NtS istandard unit;. &Prc ava ilahk., they aiv: largi
I
t
Ltc
13-1>A~
r
N t~
o
ivtavy, and ob~1kkc. ?4ir~nii tarize'4.

9-17.0e

-U'C

TIhe tir~nnsiPt~ cast (.r Such a uuit i,;

v)in~
' tolc;.re 1`1V sty-skom pru~sstl,%thus C~sfli-

4available.

WRGIZEO) PoSI10 M
KIOD OFENFROIFE' ENERGI
ED 6*OWiICA W 2
2E
THR~t-POSIT']ON VAt Vt

natiiug loss of the sys'ern when 0,:-,;cnp L.mt faiit w;s

a preasurc vessel. Th/- MS sEaidalad unit. rc'quire-, a
rrcn~ure tr-ansimi tsibhnj devict. for pi.Ocvtivi-.
plus a fuse in the tevtr the serisint, devicc fails:, *he
irnnvcve4. triniataari,-d tIIIt% do not tneed snubtc~sand' fases.El

The iAc~tor valvci for nonmodutawing tonti .1 ofA

ylor dclcsublystcms may be operated either wrmdlno
trically. MII.-H.8775 cov--rs thuir dsgr, m~rcir-

C_.

'

half-tuAiiL The "trail" indirates wh.2ther dir, cylindeLt

hi;m
th

lcc

pwosition The vjAl' it; irn the full-trril c-vndition ifth

operating pn-ois ame connrcted to retirn. Fig. 9-ydtidt
shchmatic zcprzsentalionl of thE variout tr;A Catiditions.
Thnedvalvs mayo
wihzer
o~'.tree
mapc! vl, s vay~t
hav moe~fltid~b
Fg. -3 shwscs
-p&
of dh

.4Th

two,
tree an fuprij.tion vcavcs.
afvU ;nay
wo, U&te--, ckg'r-, the-way. or
moeTh
rifrttoth
-ay
amx- or~rt o,%th,
valve. A cuRn tiretlth scvri-t.l c'uftk tK~onr for
mJ

9-22

(d-PSTO AV

Iavi;i

Flilt-3.HdaAV-eCwintw
one rckt'rn

sc~tiokl in &kmanifold

would be countc;d as

may bec either pilot- or dr ~j .~e1

Di'toeaion ujsually is associated with lowi1 faowt-

on,;w2v;
1 5 **

Staging, usinrz pio ',aivea. i6 :aquiuct in orde-r to

hwidle large 1.
Jectively ctnd erfuicnsty is.9
8and 9-Mipwn cbmi"o bothcnt4
Mode.*A

minicauam foice kib arre qwrw for 1"ibfwav3

in catc wbmv c~miaauion of n~y uignificeaw ii pocWbk, IFoi 6,u zr4'&Ji. L~ppee spA-slsew
#me. ball.jpsw type vpjvae. it t(~- mmsiaum
opersuii fore ts rcqwtrwd. For the Iarprs, bwt a
di
lWPe $p0KA&SmVAS a.i 40)46' iniwnm

The vaive opnwia 6mn ms =Wm!ous

cm
wm
uvoWi -waw hammW and rewun iiids tram.SL
due to r-es of 3100--psi leveb ku" *. rewna Wm
Qantancowey. slow opersmai iaculun
qs~n
AM
ar Oriented PMVAwily toward -pr ~ s ms
noed valveL Fig. 9-40 shows cb amimu. *Ai wre

m'r'ic

RETURN PRESSURE

*~

100

rOLENOID

so
60

OPERATE PORT

[-.

R;O

JYI-

(A)"ON FLOW" COND!TON

--

--

T-

OEFRAC

OPRT
'IKo OPRTI~lro

AE-

z
0fT 20

~~

'11

li

41

TME,

63G

80

insec

0O: FELOW" CONDITION

1~(B)

F~u~tM
Pie'4e&~f~dVa~sl

Flzuff 9-40. Vitive %)W~daraTiq Im'

10U

The normal pr~reAS4o-eukini l.LW cbaeecwism= of the vafre wiN pvift z kAl-ea imam* if he
saubsym is afkinau by EwwmIU
td aw wviadventot
crAvium. The level of thm IkI. pr .aw
w is usch
dstha ie nmwvar viLM not 6s depWdin -=a mutualduf4dm eight. Fi& "I4 Shp"s the hetum 6f this
RPS udusq.4 (vinie to par. 9-2.6.1.3). W-8 aminpsswe *mcmsd is AJAIPL TR-70 AO bd tpar
S.
9-2A.8..
pdiot vav Vmay be am-.
i &-apam
7U~
A~pred as thwu they ac awearad to m~uara either byv
-pe Low 64 tbt ammJd The swopsaewsavky

PILOT

af coe.)tIt" Mi

qwj

947.12 bsuewist
R.ovicts uwew
mnd as intbyua.rwolnp
dsm.&u owhr pumm ovaW is masequired
"
They

SECIIII

Sal

-1

RETUR.

IN t~)o30"

paumw "v "~ to adtin cmuauims6 Thew mdsu.

six-t*j4a&-~a-ci4.rc cinpehily of f*Ul1.tidm
pntwe pnwdu tham mud. ueW for kvmme
cotwamisew u.j hbim Mcii.. du to pfga
acoig. and is tdo paskmd mshod of uwnmd-dw
apwrayift Fi 942 *gin
U h ~moia
am
of bs*
preaches

RETURN~ PRESSURE
SENSING SECTION

frOLEN)fl

baA.1s SECTION

,Mi
tkWpA
fu~arpei~
w~c
op"Idoli
swift~t
I Fisiv-941.
Pt
.

_ _AMCP

rSF
aSysami~.
l.~4

PlMLZRl

7W~202

TO MAIN SECTION
CON~TROL AR~EA

(A)THE PILOT VALVE CON4FIGURATION SHOWN IS

FOR POWIR RETURN OF MAIN SLClION TO THE
DE-ENERGiZED POSII IO

Tho w~ntroI of the output ram is via an deetfohydraulic vulva:~ the converts the electrical cornmand in'to thec appropriate actions. The total
package includcs electrical signal feedback devices,
and the pivefered device is a linear variable-differentiat transformer (LVDT). The preferred clectrohy4raulic concept is the jet pipe valve, which is iolherently tolerant of contamination. Fig. 9-43 shows a
schaniatic of a typical single-ystem servo. Scpsrate
servos generally are series-typc control devices, apd
incorporate a position loci that isactivated when the
system is not actuated or when system pressure is
lost. MIL.V-27162 covers servo control valves.

[Si~lkw:151f#-.7.14 Altawmbt l~xkv*ee Leakage

should be given to leakage levels for
%____Consideiation
RETUN
M
seals in both static and operational
(- LIFdynaimic
situations&. ARP 1084 defints realistic in-service reqtiircriciitts for stati6. and dynamic seals.

40-

PRESSUIRE

TO MAIN SECTION
CONTROL AREA

(8) TH..* PILOT VA:..VE CONFIGURATION SHOWN IS

', dA!1!ONfTO THEL
L~
FViAPFCMttonE-EK~IRGIZLD POSIMiO#
FpMm SAL.2 PeWet fi fir*~ Mh~A
ft" to~48W

SAdAio Vabt

mnaj 6. mithe two-way ur one-weai. Screcc.. contdsniflatwn pcoteucon it; reqW..rd fb6oroifices with a ,J*iame~asmalm
~hw
0070in..as pea.Ji~ a MI-H.

Is~o.

Geneall.
ie4 oc~wi
t.
f~ .u r~trcto aSin
tbt. ac~uaawr cleviix. They inay bec..n
caa dgc!. o p -ciAin units sucl. as the Lev. itts. Tins arranL=.-aii
iri 1AUationts 0~n
;!=
aisritinb~ ic~ads can cause htgh press as. In &"mi
exicrna, sesit poir&aL are redcecd. Flow froma e.:
6Xhier. Qtsa&3 reqUireulient.

tor can have dte&.ructivc effects wwe-a

canaaaa.

directqy int a hydrauish host ine or eam&

a &nanisr~ed

*bena

This should be Avoid:. A prilria 'eak w.u a

ouaface restrictors is tnaa they arc felati 'ei, inacras: 4a
to temperature ciiank~e; the pi.swure d, sjF for
em'
flouA varie* w:!h the dens -y of the fLba
The nctai requrcaxeais for xestrlcto- .- a. en'ivcred
in MIL-Ik-S440 and M11-V-25517.
9.21.13 ri
Si?~1e
Wtsiiatc wevas arm mr~arre for Ma C~AS. srad
sasCt. 3pDWa*_..o
werd requiremease11 Mr &Ma
10
aa~o :;trnmsc. into the flight commiaI aa...,
Sorvoui may Pi aamsW for either singa. o; dku..

)otorhin
'~atoms.

9-21 HYD)RAULIC SYSTM INSTALLATION

The paragraphs that follow discuss the proper installation and support of hydraulic lines, how.s, and
comaponents. The requirements also are discussed in
9-2.9A Use of Hosft aauSwich;
oses and swivels miay e hcmy. costly, and can he
a maintciiance probihmar. Thcrefore, UrW,
of these items
"/al be minimized. Dorirab~c alterniatives for handlinrg relative motion include coilcd tubing and fixedbody actuators. witha articulatinrg linkx between the

actuator and the control surface 0i 'ub.'sYstem furnction where applicable.

94A

NaiA4M~iac ACCO$S

n order for the- weight benefits of permtrnt:nk fittisigto be- realized, the hydraulic installation must be
locatcd behuind othecr remoabwibc equipment and installations
Filkcr elaioicins sh~adbe lonied icu as to~
pevnit easy
&C
cts MS
fa doors. Diffwrenfial jprc~sut- ivdlc~iors shall

be eAhcr flu.-.n with the: &Lin or visibikc through transpair-ra sk~ii sccti-ris or nonstructural .ingle- or twobatitomi doors. Thi,. is neces. ary because a check ofi the
pi essurc ieve: i- required ouring preflight.
All saepa.-abi-. connections shals' be relatively

ac -4ssable vidoe Lhcy are employed to permit compomis .- rez~ova. afid/or remioval of lines for access to
othbr cqcaipmst. t
A visual a0heck efte retkmi joir fluid level condition
shoLid oc possible witht,# rtmoval of access panels.
I fi.. and/or bleeding is required, access to these
9-25

AMCP 706-012
i

PRESSURE
4
FEEDBACK
SPRING

ELECTROHYDRAULIC
JET PIPE VALVE

RETURN
PRESSURE--,,,=,--"
LVDT TRANSDUCER

PRESSURE__

PRESSURE OPERATED

"(A) DL-ENERGWZED

...

IB)ENERGIZED

Fipre 9.43. Typical Separate Servo Actuator

areas shall require no more than removal of quick-

izistallation is the soft or compliant type, with damps

access doors.

or blocks close erough to the component-attach

RLS devices shall have ground-checkout capability (refer to par. 9-2.6. 1.1). Manual operating buttons may be provided, along with operating indicators on each subsystem to indicate which subsystem is shut off. Visual access to the operating indicators skhl be providud- prefea-bly without rnoA
for door opening. Access to the manual operating
buttons may be through conventional access doors
since their checkout will be required only periodical-

points so that excessive stresses do not develop. The

installation shall be designed with the known or estimated vibration environment in mind so that sysum
resonance does not oecr.
Clamps and blocks may be used to advantage.
D. D
, it i, ,oA dcsirabc th' "hc b- -ie
,v
ILI..i..
994 discusses their use in deail.

ly,

9-2.8.4

Campo"eu

Momiti

Ceacepts

Component instaalation can be cassified as folAccess requirements are discussed in MII.-H-5440.

9-2.8.3 Hard Versus Soft Installations

The tubing installations may be hard (rigidlj held
in place) or soft (compliant). Each approach may
work satisfactorily; however, they cannot be mixed
successfully. The use of a hard point as a fitting in a
relatively noncompliant bulkhead - for instance, in
coountion with clamps some dist-nce away - can
be disastrous. 4.t worst vibration condition, the
clamps will allow enough motion of the line to that
flexure at the bulkhead fitting will result in excessive
bending stresea. and fatigue failures. The preferred

9-26

lows:
i. Separate. independent components
2. Inw.4rated packages with cartridge components
in a common housing
3. A pressur-return manifold with 'rnount-on"
components.
The installation trend is to integration or manifolding. Primary reasons are tho resultant reduction
in external kak points and the weight savings. An op.
timum approach may be an integrated pump-iescrv,.ir package, a separate sevice center that would include all othes components exctpt the control surface
actuation or suosystem operating device. In any

even, each helicopter desin must be a

.d

indi-

vidually in conducting the system installaition tradcoff.

S(:Componws
Ssumch
.
'

SNatural

S.LJ !; M isel nv w '"- lbtk e Co ukka~k oli

Components roluirL" frequent maintenance shall
be accessble. Such units as flukiddrivcn air comprcssomf pumps. and filters must have unusually good
&c
in order to allow adequate se~rvicing.
that require firquent maintenance,
as filters and pricunimfic chemical driems. AW1 be
mouted rigidly in onrde to avoid damage during acrviciall,
dirt-collec.ng area, such as brake valves

vmde eazc hocepit fldor. ss

be onsidefd in planvialsysi.m irdallation.
:rati-ue
A typical exampic of improthr instaeltion is
routing of line through a walla-wcl area, where
leaking 2ir car causu strumming of both normal and
Cmpoenc
t res.
Attachment of li
to
n e panel thal
may vibrate will have a similar Wect. Proximity to a
common fire hzard aflo must e avoided. Separaaion
of
kaltnbea accomplishlo
aater consideration
Cof
mpll
,vionemn.'t-s
hredquir freluate
n

The

gn ofactuator vnlving should include pro-

vizinna to prevent fluids being trappedl at the ends of

tk main controi-valve spool.
Actuator pistons shallnot bottom against internal
actuator stops during autopilot (stability augme~nta tion) input, coupkle with the :!xtrmes of manual input and rigging and manufacturing tolcranca.
Erratic stability augmentation inputs during taxiing
can cause "ccsive loads due to hammhering aginat
stolp.. T]his condition "dd
be taken into account
durin testing, as well as in dezign.
Internal hydraulic stops in cylinders "~ incorporate snubbing. or AdJ be sta~the~ned sufficiently to
prevcni fatiguve loading failures (Fig. 9-45). Rigging

aTone should nota conrdevral

t
in orlder to picrnt
lons
oni.
However, tra desgner should
rrmai
controls to stick-stp limits
to ovoid actuator bottomaig.
To prrvent blow-bypTeflon piston seals should be
avoion
in an actuator that also must operate pnuumatically. Piston rings shan
m be used on piston heads.
Appropriatesails should be onsidnsdu for longstroke, chanat
earge-bore
cylinder
ofactuator
roThinsand
subet applications
iucant dartiagcc too

muThe
rsigil
rfaclure avoid
instaleations
which
neab l
enaina
mount
canto1
drop
the enginein on
cr an
piig:f
lines or components and thereby increasepnNTE
the
simnibility of losing thenuT
helicopter.
--- "

9-.9

()l

D
He

DESIGN CRITERIA
The MISCELLANEOUS
designershalaodisaltosi.hc
sas
laIndustry
experience
s
ith previous hydraulicn
sysvte-hn and
has rhveallbumane
mompontnst
cancous dfirn asprts thal halube a
consideredf.
Th
ofragraphs that follow phaarnt some of thea cont

Do
T

.1

iiscnl-

For protection against dynamic shaft seal failures,

the "~grir should consider use of dual seals. with a
return vent incorporatadbetwhen the seals (Fig. 9 44).Figure
Thp design of the electrical system with regard to
cietrohydraulic: servo valves shall avoid

9-04. DualI Seals With Retur

Veat

dither

nsgnalr cause
ehar valve osillation and actuator dynamic si wear. Pronetion against electromagnetic
interference susceptibility shallbe rcequired.
Linkarg
pivots on flight control actuaturse con2in- of friction-rsld journal bushings withDoore
Ftolrparnoe,
iro crtical yhimming in ordseato of an dthe lignMero necossary for frue
ofiration.
s
whall

bearingand
pivots,oprratin
with provisions
overtorar
t prevent uid
in
d systemto return

quirn
pnTherd
ligknls.

in order to prevent binding of control-valvr

oscilat

Fae 9c4u. Hyviavlve

for lacetaal Sds

9-27

--

--

'"

".

AMCP 70&20
Internally threaded arcuator endcaps utilizing
AND 10050 boss scaling design. as shown in Fig. 94(B), should be avoided. Leakage can be caused by
squareness of threads to boss surfice and torquing
problems. In addition. end caps that are threaded internally into a cylinder barrel and locked with a jam
nut arc subject to barrel stretch under pmsure. This
can result in leakage or loosening of the jam nut. Sufficient material thickness in the cap ama is required.
Viscous dampers shl be self-servicing from
Ssystem return fluid.
for servicing of hydraufittings
grease be:
of Zerk helkl
avoided.
ccwmponets
lie Use

piston diamet sAdl be provided for piston and rod

bearing amas a the fully extended position (afe Fig,
9-47).
Safcty-wirinn of piston head raining nuts to a
piston bead that can rotate on the piston shaft is not
acceptable as a locking method. Use of -vkting
devices such as the NAS 559 keys as shown in Fig. 948 siuld be considered.

In order to minimize binding and seal wear from

actuator side loading, a minimum overlap of one

ir, .wder to incrase the presur required for a given

brake torque is a suitable corrective action.
The brake control valve input ihaf. s/U have
adoquate beanag surface area. and should not be
saijected to sde loakdn from hosms, ctc.. so as to 1asure saooth brake valve operation and full release.

%L91 Brake Design

Exac.veut

p).Ruli

brake to
e st
wheel ebrak
o effctoiv
w dbrkphoar

oe."'t

BEARING OVERLAPONE PISTON DIAMETER

I

_1

(A)CORRECT
Fiswe 9-47. bearing Oveirla

(B) INCORRECT
Figure 9-46. Avid Internally Threaded End (aqm
9-28

LOCKING KEY
Figure 9-48. Plson Head Retaining Not
Locking Key

AMCP 706-202
9-2.9.3 Coatrol System Design
Flight control system assemblies shall have
adequate clearance guards, or otherwise be protecked, to afford maximum protection against jamrming by foreign objects.
The designer shall avoid routing flight-control
linkage through areas in which its removal is required
in order to replace the engine,
Cable tension-retaining devices shall be considered
as a means of preventing control cable tension
changes.
Overtorquing of control system bolts shall noi
result in increased friction during operation.
The use of special bolts shall bc avoided,
9-2.9.4 Electrical Design
Electrical connectioni to hydraulic components
shall hav/e a mechanical strength iequiremen consistent with maintenance handling requirements Wires
should be buried in the installation if possible.
To simplify troubleshooting and component replacement, hydraulic or pneumatic components incorporating an electrical function shall have integral
electrical connectors for removal and replacement.
Puiili 5
pi.aun awt ni-o .c..ir. a hl;ghcr I..,
cure than can be withstood by electrical insulation.
The compounds also must be compatible with subscquent processes applied to the assembly d,,ring
manufacture, such as welding or baking for epoxy
cure or strain relief.
Proper manufacturing of electrical connectors
rquires that only the wire should enter the soldering
connection, The first layer of insulation of the wire
should enter the potting compound
so as to provide

moisture kakage protection (Fig. 9-49). The braided

insulation should be clamped adequately a the connector inlet, and should not enter the potting compound in such a manner as to provide a leakage path.

Higher quality electrical parts should be used in

place of MS parts in critical applications where
failure creates a high probability of catastrophic

CLAMP

effect. Detailed failure analyses of electronic and electrical circuits are required in order to determine
where use of such higher priced parts is justified.
A positive fix is required in order to prevent runaway trim actuators. One possibility is stepped motor
operation.
Two electrical actuators in parallel, with braking
when dc-energized, must have indcpendent electrical
inputs so that the fitst actuator to complete it%stroke
can be de-energized and braked.
.9.$ Filter Design
Filters shall be installed in the pump drain line
prior to its eotry into the oil coolers. (Installation
downstream of the coolers will allow trapped pump
particles in the cooler to recontaminate a replace
filter element.) Proper flushing of a cooler is important.
For T-valve inst'liations, central filtration should
be used in order to avoid differential flow as the individual filter pressure differential changes (Fig. 950).
All restrictors with hole sizes of under 0.070 in.
should incorporate filters.

PRESSURE

6LE

HLTFR
PRESSURE
FILTER

INSULATION

WIRE
BRAID
PiWr

POTTING

(B CORRECT

-" . Properly Aembl Electrical Couaectow

Fiture 9-50. T-talhe (eeiaul Filtrvaim

'U

~7W2.V2

Test filtration should not exceed that of the component in actual use.
9-2.9.6 Fittings Design
Hydraulic fittings, such as AN g33 universal hulkhead types- when installed in a valve port, can result
in internal valve interference or restricted fluid flow.
Component port design and fitting selection shall be
such that interference cannot occur.
Pump fittings - and suppressors, if incorporated
Sshall be torqued to maxinmum allowable values in
order to prevent loosening and subsequent loss of
fluid. Use of an acceptable locking device is advisable
for any large fitting in high-pressure application.
The use of pipe plugs for external sealing of drilled
passages can lead to internal stresses in component
housings, resulting in cracks. The Lee plug produces
less stress concentration and should be considered.
9-2.9.7 Cage apd Indicator Design
It ageneraly
gndit
d
Design
tlet
It generally is good design to include fuses as well
as snubbers at the upstream ends of the lines leading
to gages and indicators. An alternative is to install the
pressure sensors into fittings in the system line instead of in an annendant line. Helimcil sennine
elements are recommendod instead of 5ourdon tube
types.
Gages with Bourdon tube or rack and pinion
gearing
shalltransmitter
be avoidedshould
for use
pressure toindigcators. The
be as
conneted
the

.
.

SGage,

include suction and clemznd requirements based

upon the condition of the application.

buildup of case pressure if the sensing element leaks.

The vent hclt should be covered with tape to prevent
corrosion.

common routing can result in priming problems, with

a momentary interruption of inlet flow resulting if
reservoir pressurization is low.

9-2.9.8

cavitating a bootstrap reservoir, the auxiliaiy pump

Hose Design

Realistic design and testi'g of devices such as

brake control valves must take hose side loads into
4,.count.
Hose routing or sizing shall prevent cross-connection at actuators. However, deviations from normal hydraulic practices, such as use of return hoses
that arc smaller than pressure hoses, shall be avoided
because such deviations can have an adverse effect.

Sof

9-2.9.9 Pump Desiga

Insuring compatibility of the pump with the system
requires determination of the effects of low inlet
pressure, high case drain (or bypass) back pressure,
and the interaction of the two on the internal balance
the pump. Back pressuie also can cause reduced
9-30

I'

Pump cavitation will result if reservoir pressurization is not sufficient to accelerate the fluid in the suc- tion line to a flow rate compatible with pump displacement. This condition is likely to be a more cri- "tical design condition than is the steady-state flow requirebnent.
Qualification
testing of pumps,
larly those for
use in power-control
systems,particushould

system with flexible hose or with a tube having sufficient bend to absorb vibrations,
cases shall incorporate a vent hole to preven"

,i-

cooling flow, leading to shortened pump life. Compatibility determination includes analysis of the
nature of the contamination generation properties of
the pump; sufficient filters must be used to keep back
pressure low within a reasonable cleaning schedule
while maintaining a clean fluid supply for the pump.
Two-pump system design shall consider large, nonbypass filters in the drain line of each pump. Should
bypiss-type filters be used to insure low pump case
pressures, the flow shall be routed through a second,
larger return filter.
Pulsations resulting from pump ripple, which may
be intensified by system resonance, can be determined by oscilliscope scanning of the pressure
through the range of operation. Peak pulsations shall
be kept below +150 psi (300 psi total). Pressure
pickups must be in the line (not on appendages), and
shall be located at the pump and, at least, at the first
downstream component. The optimum design furnishes some elasticity to the system at the pump outport. Short, dead-ended lines near the pump
require particularly close scrutiny, and should be
avoided.

Connecting two or more pump systems from a

ii the normai sysiem pump is pumping air and

can be affected adversely by the low bootstrap supply

pressure, and may not prime. A check-off accumulator may be required in order to maintain bootstrap
pressure with losh of normal system pressure.
Centrifugal pump operation with an outlet flow
blockage can result in overheat, thus causing seal or
case (structural) failures. Therefore. bypass flow for
cooling shall be provided.
Pump testing shall include realistic case drain
system chara.-teristics. The internal leakage of a hydreulic pump is necessa.-y for lubrication and cooling
of the pump mechanisms. However, the subsystems
into which the flow is discharged vary among helicopter designs. The designer shall spocify the case
drain system characteristics to insure adequate

AM
housing strength, shaft meal capability, and pressure
conditions during the pump qualification testing.
Water hammer limiting is discussed ;n par. 9-4.2,

AMCP 706-201.
9-2.9.10 Resenolr 1[)Ip
Bootstrap reservoir design shall incorporate sufficient piston force, in a static, no-pressure condition,
to facilitate reservoir servicing and bleeding.
Reserv.iru shall be designed with the air bleed vent
high and the suction outlet low. The overboard relief
flow capability shadl be sufficient to prevent reservo3ir
damage during improper or emergency operations,
such as system operation with an ovcrfilled reservoir
or overfilling during reservoir servicing.
The designer should avoid the connection of two or
more drain or vent lines together, to a common overboard vent, where back pressure can cause back flow
through the second vent system.
With hydraulic power present in one system only,
high rates of motion in large, tandem actuators can
pump the fluid from the unpowered section back to
return system without recovering equal fluid from
"thepreuture side of the unpressurized system. Unless
exist to dimp the rttur-ed fluid at a low
pressure, damage to the reservoir and other lowpressure nomponents can occur. An alternative to
dumping is to equip ground test carts with multiple
connections so that both systems may be pressurized
simultaneously during checkout.
Test reservoirs shall be representative of the actua!
.system reservoir. This will allow viscosity, fluid ternpereture, fluid settling, and flud aeration test conditions to be realistic,

Sthe

)provisions
17-

Chock valves shalbeis t d squate

~~~~Check valves shall be installed ir subsystem return

02

lines so as to prevent back pressures from high return

flows from acting upon cylinder locks, diff-rential
cylinder areas, and return cavities in components that
may fail under repeated return transient pressures.
The miniature check valve should be used for this
application since it has a faster response time than the
standard AN type. In addition, balanced areas for
lock devices are recom nended.
Check valves shall be install d in the pressure lines

of subsystems where airloads can cause a flow revetsal when system pressures are reduced because of an
operational demand upon the system. A relief check
valve shall be considered if overloading can occur at

202

corrected by installing a fast-acting miniature check

valve in the return line.
Soft seals or poppets that depend upon assembly

compression to prevent secondary leak paths around

the material may leak duc to distortion or compression under operating pressures. This can be pieventcd
by incorporating static 0 rings to protect secondary
leak paths (Fig. 9-51).
The designer shall avoid use of self-locking nuts to
hold spring-loaded adjustments.
Part concentricity shall not be dependent upon
thread concentricity.
Flow paths within valves shall be considered.
Indexing radial holes in spools or placement of
springs can affect flow paths. Poppets with flutes can
rotatc with flow, and thus may be desirable in some
designs.
Inadequately designed spring guides may allow
spring lands to cock spools. Center point loading at
both spring ends is rec'immended. Reduction of load
upon springs that are heat-soaked while loaded must
be a dcsign consideration. The designer should avoid
tension and plated springs. For springs immersed in
fluid, etc., 17-4 PH spring material should be used
(refer to MIL-HDBK-5).
Low-operating force valves, such as solenoid-vaive
pilot sections, should be designed with poppets since
spool valves are subject to sticking from contamination (silting, etc.).
Vent holes between two seals of differential areas,
such as arc incorporated ,. return-line dampers and
inline balancei relief valve designs, shall be multiple
or indexed te insure that a leakage trap does not occur. Urit malfunction may result if the vent chamber
betomes filled with fluid that is not readily dischargable through a small vent hole.

eDirect-operated solenoid valves shall have adereturn spring force to overcome silting act.on
(hpsern)
(chip shearing).

POTENTIAL
LEA K PATH

II

ADD SEAL

hg)
ih speeds.
.

Reguleaed pressure can be affected by transient

baick pressuues at the valve return port This can be

Figure 9-51. Secondary Leak Path Seal

9-31

AW

70&202

_____________________

Split-coil (holding) solenoids should be avoided in

valve desijln. Upreliab,lc operation, caused by
starting-coil switch aettings and malfunctions, results
in overheated solenoids. This problem usually overrides such desirable features as the lower weight of
split-coil designs.
Servo-valve-cover deflections or shocks can cause
valve manfunctions if the cover ihmounted upon the
semro valve motor instead of the main valve body.
Adequate clearance between cover and motor should
be provided in order to minimize effects of minordents. Covers should be of ungged design.
Hydraulic presure surges du- to valve spool shift
may be prevented by the use of slow valving (adequate dead band) or electric time delay.
In thr case of eloa.trically operated valves, consideration shall be given to valve positioning, and to
the effect upon the system should electrical power be
applied inadvertently to two electrical inputs doe to
shorting, etc. Relays can insure predictable operation
in this abnormal situationpower
in
hyd abnormaulc
eme uen.y odesign
Hydraulic emergeno cy oveboard dump vaivpssal
have sufficient flow cap&city to avoid back pressure
buildup th-t, in some system. dsigns, can divert fluid
to the reservoi. through selector valves and check
valves. Directing fluid to the reservoir may result in
reservoir overpressurization and failures under certaD conditians.
SDifferential arca vent sc~l wear ad leakage can occur fron plunger fnation fiuiring normal system
pressure fluctuations. Long-li;e seals, or valve designs
incorporating little or no plunger motion during normal system pressure fluctuation, are desirable,
In the case of half.trail valves, internal leakage

"

when in the neutral half-trail position should be

evaluated for its effects upon subsystem operation.
When leakage from pressure to blocked cylinder port
is greater than leakage from block cylinder port to
return, pressure buildup in the blocked circuit can occur, resulting in unwanted motion or loads in the
blocked circuit. Excessive leakage from the blocked
cylinder
port toloads.
return can result in unwanted motion
from external

xteral
High-pressurefrom
tests with
returnlads.The
ports capped can

-p

result in overpressurization of components. The

return proof pressure rquirement should be The
patible with system operating pressure,
-r

9-2.9.12 Lubrcation
Experience indicates that graphite-loaded grease
tends to dry up in high-temperature antifriction
bearing applications, leaving a residue of hard graphitc that interferes with proper bearing function.
9-32

All critical joints .ala/l be labri-ated and protected. L

The lubricant must be compatible with oiling.
Lubrication of mechanisms that Are located in a
high-temperature area can result in jemmlWg as a
result of burned oil carbon.
Left- and right-hand component lubrication fittings shall be multiple, or shall be located so as to be
accssible.
Long lubrication paths result in frozen irease and
blocked fittings.
Unclamped monoball bearirigs must have two
grease fittings in order to insurv proper lubrication
on both ID and OD.
9-3 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
9.3.1 PNEUMATIC SVSTEM DESIGN
Te decision to us a compressed gas rather than e
pressurized liquid as a working medium in a fluid
poer
lisysemas a
during tediminafy
ontrol system is made during the preliminary
phase. The various tradc-offt to be considered
in making the choice are presented in Chapter 9,
AMCP 7 design
paragraphs that
describe
a pneumaticforfollow
the detail 7-201, Theonsiderations
system.
9-3.1.1 Systo i Analysis
The design and aialysis of a pneumatic system
become considec'ably involved when nonlinearities
are considered. The derivation of a mathematical
model describing the physical phenomena of cornprssible fluid through a system -- where the fluid
through restrictiorfcepansionu,changes in
passes
dire, tion,
etc. -- proves difficult and results in cume.
_e.uat.o.
.
For example, the flow within the system, or the
pressure drop, will vary between the extremes ofadiabatic Pfow (no heat transfer) and isothermal flow. The
basic formulas for adiabatic and isothermal flow are
given in par. 9-5.5, AMCP 706-201. The formula for
calculating the mrximum ms flow of ai: within a
system is pr-tended in the same paragraph.

calculation of lwtruhnzls
flow through novIxcs, orifices
Tecluaino
rtws
piping, valves, and fittings may be simplified by use
of charts and graphs for expansion factors, orifice
coefficients, iftical pressure ratioc for
zzles, and
relative roughness and friction factors Zoi p .hng and
tubing. Familiarity with the simplified c4uations of
Refs. 2 and 4, and use of the tables, graphs, and
charts cont'iined therein, will allow a good analysis of
an entire system or component to be made.
rhe venfication of the design through actual
operational test of the system or component performance is the designer's ultiinatc goal.
.

-o

706.202

___MCP

4
v

C
S

To aid in the selection of particular components, a

list of commonly used comnponents, and an operstional description of each. is provided in par. 9-3.2.
Refs. I through 4 arc additional sources of information regarding design and analysis of pneumatic cornponcnts aaud systems.

An APU may be used for providing emergency

rneumatic power. The APU shiould be designed to
use stored c'mpress,-d air for starting and then to
provide a limited amount of power for the essential
subsystems of the helicopter.

9-3.1.2 System Redundancy

Ali pneumatically operated services that are essential to safety in flight or landing shall be provided
with emergency devices per MIL-P-5518. The emergency systems must be completcey independent of the
main system up to, but not necessarily including, the
actuating cylinder or motor. These emergency systems should be designed to be actuated onty by cornpressed air, direct mechanical connection, cltctromechanical units, gravity, or combinations of these,
Where dual pneumatic lines are used to providc
emergency operation of a mechanism, the normal
and emergency lines shcll be separated by as great a
distance as is practicable, so that the possibility of
both lines being ruptured by a single projectile is
remote. Where shuttle valves are necessary in order
to connect .he normal and emergency systems to an

9-3.2 COMPONENT DESIGN

9-3.2.1 Air Compresirs
The air compressor maintains the pneumatic
system pressurization during flight. It can be driven
by direct drive from the helico'pter engine gearbox, by
an electric motor, or more commonly, by a hydraulic
motor powered by the utilit) hydraulic system. Compressor operation usually is controlled by a manifold
pressure sensing switch, with the compressor cutting
in when system pressure drops to a preset minimum
and cutting out at a prescet maximum.
Compressors can be classified into two basic
groups: positive displacement, and dynamic, or nonpositive, displacement.

u in w..t,
..

u,....

,w
....

'-.-

i,.:.t

...

*k.

cylinder. The emergency line from tPe shuttle valve

should be vented to the atmosphere When not in use.
When an air bmttle is used as an emergency backup energy source, a standard pressure gage shasl be
installed to allow maintenance personnel to check the
pressure. The air bottle should be located so as to
produce a minimum length of line between it and the
shuttle valve.

9-3.2.1.1 Positive Displacement

In this type, pressure is increased by confining a
o in n prnoreL*Wsivelv dirninishini svace. There are a

on
... a_
.
-

..

number of different arrangements, among them- the

axial piston and the rotary.
In the axial system a piston moving within a
cylinder (Fig. 9-52) alternately traps and compresses
the gas. This is the most widely used type, and sizes
range from less than I hp to 5000 hp. Good part-load
efficiency makes this ty;3e most acceptable where
wide variations in capaci.vy are required.

INLtT

OUTLET

,9
"Figure 9-52. Axial Piston Compressor
9-33

Wtik

......

....

. . .

.....

... .

In the rotary system, the rotating motion of single

or mating elements compreLses the gas. Major types
of rotary compressors are sliding vane (Fig. 9-53),
"lobed-rotor, liquid piston, and helical,
9-3.2.1.2 Dynamic Displacement
In this type compressor, a high-speed, rotating ecment imparts velocity to the gas. This velocity is converted into a pressure rise in the compressor volute or
other diverging paMsageways. There are two main
arrangements, centrifugal and axial flow.
Centrifugal compressors have an impeller similar
to a centrifugal pump. Impellers can be arranged
singly, or in multiple units for higher discharge
pressures. At a constant speed, a centrifugal compre3sor delivers nearly constant discharge pressure
over a considerable range of inlet capacities.
Axial-flow compreassrs move air parallel to the
rotor axi3. They are made in single- or multiple-stage
versions. In the latter, matching stator blades redirect
the flow of air to the proper entrance angle for sueceeding rotating blades. Generally, axial comarressors
are used for ultra-high capacity. However, there are
-,J

many
gri.'
.....

annhlictinnt
for qmaller unit.,
r .........
............

9-3.2.2 Compressed Air Supply System Selection and

Operation
There is overlap in the performance of different
compressor types, and sometimes several can be used
for any given service. Naitowing the choices is a proces of considering such factors as space and weight
limitations, power ranges, and capacity ranges of the

the air inlet cap on the first-stage cyiinad head passe.n

through a filter to allow mmoval of any pwrticsa that
might damage the internal components of the
assembly. The fittered air is drawn through the intake
valve into the first-stage cylinder by means of the saction created on the downward, or intake, stroke of
the first-stage piston. On the upward (compression)
stroke, the intake valve is forced shut by the increasing pressure., and the spning-loaded discharge
valve is forced open when the presaure reaches a pivdetermined value, The comprese air is directed
thrc'lgh the discharge valve and into the first intercooler connected to the first-stage head, where the
heat created durir.g compression is dissipated
through forced convection by the airflow from the
fan directed over the intercoolers. The flow of cooled,
compressed air next passes through the first-stage
relief valve - connected between the first intercooler and through the inlet port in the second-stage
cylinder head - and then into the second-stage
cylinder during the downward (intake) stroke of the
second-stage piston. The operation inside the three
subsequent stages is identical to that of the first stage.
e
.
t ,'
Moisture s-parators (Fig. 9-54) are used in 'zonjunction with a chemical drier as the dehydration
equipment of a high-pressure pneumatic system.
These units, wor king together, deliver dry air having
9,-3.2.3

,.AToD

different types.

R VALVE
,WLATING
.

In a typical helicopter compressor of the rmciproeating type, the air entering the compressor through

PES.',

.
,,a

RILIEF

ENTRAPPED

INLET

ACrUAlED BY

W OPERATING

Figure 9-53. Sliding Vane Compressor

9-34

OVIRINOWq

CO----)
%

(8) BLOW UDOW

Figulre 9-54. Meoistr Separator Imcerporathg

Systsi Fressm
re Replathig Valve

-'when

~~AWC 706=~

a free air dewpoint of -65'F by tra.pping and coilectiag droplets or moisture that literally have been
squeezed out of the air during compression. In a
symtm preasure of 2W) atmospheres, the separator
red~wes the free air dewpoint to -. 15*1. Collected
moisture is drained from the separator either by a
dump mechanism that operates automatically when
system pressure drops upttream of the separator. or
by a mczhanisi *;hatdischarges the moisture at frequent intervals while the compressor is supplying air
to the system.
Th; air compressor incorporates Pbleed valve that
#1lows the separator to blow down automrati'ally
the compressor stops running. During this
operation, the compressor and the interconnc:tins
lines to the separatoo. also arc blown down. The
moisture separato. includes a heating unit that
prevets the ac~cumulated water from frcezing. Also
included is a Aafety disk that protects the separator
from the effects of overpresaurization. A backpressure valve is used directly after thc moisture
separator in order to build up pressuit in the
moisture-separation chamber before it cat. build up
int downstream com~ponents. This vaivt ii..ura timmoisture separation whent the compressor
running. The vitlve either is integral to the
separator or is installed separately. Valves are
available with various back-presarc settings.

)mediate

-~starts

9-3.4

Deydiaarspulp,

The
oasivaor-rmovl
typs
eluipentare
mechanical and chemical.
Mec~i-nical dehydration usually
'des a refrixeration cooling process that iowcrt the' air temperatur
bCOWtbcrvdp3nt. The CjndeqtLW
water then is collected and eliminated. The limiting
factor is the temperature to which the air can be
lowered. This type usually is not found on airborne
systems due to the weight penalty of the refrigeration
cquip~nent.
Chemiical dehydration normnally is uswd in conjunction with a moisture separator in order to providc maximum efficiency. The chemical drier is
placed immedittely afer the moisture separator
(refer to par. 9-3.2.3). Trhe pneumatic system bcyornd
this dehydration equipment thus operates with~ dry
air, reducing the possibility of freezing in lines or17
Although they are called cheraical
Vcomponents.
driers, these units reduce moisture content by the
procx~s of absorption, and no chemical change takes
place. Each unit consists of two parts: (1) a metal
housing that acts as the pressure c~ontainer, and (2) a
replambcal carrtridge containir g the drying agent.
The life of a cartridge will depe. A not only upon the

rate of airflow, but also upon the ambient and inlet

air temperatures and the moisture con-ent.
If thIe chemical drier is to be serviced manually, a
filter sW~ be included at the outlet port so as to prevent downstream~ mugration of particle& of thr. me
placement compound. Some means of indicating
when the compound is no longer removing waiier
vapoi efffectively sA1./ be included. In the manually
reactivated types. eae of compound remov.41 for replacemcnt or reactivation should be considered. The
compound should be in cAttridge or c~apsule form to
prevent spilling.
10.2.5 Fllteii
For long life and trouble-fret performance of
system components, the air should be kept as clean as
possible. Fig. 9-55 shows some filter confligutrations.
There are many sources of cont&minauion: the air
itself may be contaminated by dirt from the atmosphere, or from system hose connections and other
transfer devices. Pa.tidcls from worn system components are significant sources of contamination.
All filter media act to varying degrees as both
wkp"tb afi~d Surfdc iic Howev~er, !he
rma.y-m
classified on the basis of the predominant type of Fril
tration provided.
Depth media depend upon long, tortuous flow
paths to remove ccrtaminants. Examples of these
media include Paper, Vclllos,10. Wet. glass fiber, wood
and sintered powder. In fiber filte-rs, variations
in thickness, depsity, and fiber diaimrcter are comnbined to produce nominal filtration of 0.5 to 10D
mirn.Aslt tig ar io
o5 ie h
mirn.Asltrtngvayfo2to0tmcth
.

F7i

r4

777

(A)T-TYPE

(S'POT-TYPE

l,
i~i.,L

(C NIETY

()ILN

YE()VTP

D)-YP

Figure 9-55. Filter Housiag Designs

9-35

AWC 7(W=(
nominal rat A. sintere powders of metal, ceamic.
of plaistic provid depth filtration with nominal
ratings of 2 to 65 microns and absolute ratings of 13
to lOD microns. Media migration is t~te primary disadvantage of sinteired powder, but this can be
avoided by proper manufacturing techniques.
Surface media remove contaminants by means of s
surface that contains fairly uniform orifices. Thus,
the contaminants are retained on the media surface,
In wire mesh types, small, uniform-dianreter wi~res,
woven into a Dutch-twill or square pattern, provide
nombial filtration ratings of 2 to 100 r~aicrons and absolute ratings from 12 to 200 microns. W.re mesh has
good strength and is frcc from media naigrmnion. Dirt
capecity per unit area is low, but the thinness of the
mesh permits use of multiple layers.

"9-.2.6 Valves
Valves include any device that stops, starts, or
otherwise regulates the flow of a fluid by means of a
movable element that opens or obstructs a flow
passage. The most commonly used valves in any airborne pneumatic systun are described in the para-

no damping can be incorporated irto the v'echanism?

of the ball check valve, and the chattering tendency
ca -not be eliminated. Therefore, bell check valves are
not recommcrnded for applications where chattering
is unacceptable.
In cone check valvies, the ball is replaoed by a
sliding element with a conical sedtialg surfsc at one
end, This surface seats against a circular sharp a*r
or another conical surface. Cone check valves
generally have less pressure drop fc'r a gi's'n size than
do ball check valves and have less tendency to
chatter 'L-ause of the guided movement and resultan: damping of the valving element. Cone c"ec
valves are susceptible to dirt ini the seating are* and
between the piston and body; this can cause cocking.
with a resultant leakage between the piston and the
body seating area. Cone check valves generally are
used in the same types of aipplications as are ball
check valves. Howe,.er, cone types can be uscC to
produce a reduced pressure drop in a valve of given
size, and also can be used in applications whent the
tendency to chatter cannot be toloiatod.

graphs that follow-

______

9-3.2.6.1 Check Valves

twrnp^f arissg.rmnt riO~ffamn~oo ni

NO

UNRESTRICTED

The primary function of a check valve i6 to prevent

flow reversal. Check valves pass air freely in one
direction and, if pressure reverses, close quickly to
stop flow in the other direction. Flow reversal in fluid
systems may be programmed as a normal occurrence,
or may be caused by accidents or failures. Accidental
flow reversal must be halted promptly and effectively.
If this is not done, accumulators may be overprc-ssurized, rotating equipment may overspeed, or other
-. p,,.r

FLOW

F
FLOW

(A)SALL CHECK VALVE

U4RESTRiCTLD

FLOW

NO

811

FLOW

('hc.ck

arc automatic in their opetation, with their valvinig

elements being acuiv~ated by the foices of the
following media. Four types of check valves areN
shown in Fig. 9-56.
In the ball check valve, a hardened ball serves as

_______________

J8) CONE
CHECK VALVE

URSRCE..,RSRCE
FNETE)
LOW

FLOWE

the closure element and is spring-loaded against a circular, conical, or sphefical scat. Flow forcez; lift the
balloffthesca
an aginsttheloaingsprng.(C)

Because the flow must proceed around the beill, this

type of valve shows more of a tendency toward turbulence and pressure drop than do other typc4.
During normal operation. the ball rotates slightly on
the retaining spring, thus allowing eve.i wear on the
ball and the valve seat and minimizirg the effects of
contanination. Because of inherent simplicity and
low cost, ball check valves are used frequently in
applications involving small ;ine diameters. where
pressure drop is not of particular concern. Practically
9-36

RESTRIL~iwnrCHEt.K VALVE

UNRESTRICTE.D
FLW

__

*0
(D) POPPET CHECK VALVE

Flgiere 11-36. Check Valve

NO
'FO

)
A variation of the cone check valve is the restriction check valve. In this type, full flow is allowed in
de forward direction, while a restricted flow is obtaimed in the reverse direction by meaps of a small
orilice in the conical seating element. This type of action cannot be achieved in a ball check valve.
Poppet check valves consist of a mushroom .shaped
poppm, with the stem closely guided in the valve
body and the head sealing against a flat or ta-3ered
circular scat. In this valve, flow forces in the forward
direction lift the head of the poppet off the seat, and
flow proceeds through the stem of the poppet,
around the head. and through the body of the va: .
In general, poppet-type check valves have less
pressure drop for a given fluw rate than do either
cone or ball types. Poppet chock valves can be
desllned so as to eliminate any tendency toward
chatter or hanmenring by the incorporation of damping chambers :n the valve. Because of the close
clesiances between the poppet stem and the valve
body, contamination can cause sticking aid leakage.
Popoet check valves require more parts than ball or
cone types, and. therefore, usually are more costly.
They arc used most commonly in applications where
it is desirablc to improve flow characteristics,

At

The primary usv of relief valves is to controi fluid

pressure in a tank or system by cischargiug excess
flow to an area of lower pressure. A relief valve is a
prsure-relieving device that opens automatically
when a predetermined pressure is reached. Relief
valves may have a full opening "pop" action, or may
open in proportion to overpressure. Valves that open
rapidly to full flow generally arc referred to as safety

valves or pop valves, and are considered a special

fomof reie alve.
A relief vilve consis.s of a valve body, a reference
load, and a closure that serves as a control element
and seat (Fig. 9-57). Ihe reference load is linked to
the closure, and opposes the pressure buildup in the
tank or system. The magnitude of the load determines the relief preusare setting. As the internal
system premsur. increases to neadly the relief pressure
neoessary to balance the reference load, leakapc
usually begins. When the internal pressure reaches
the relief pressure level, the valvc opens and discharges the upstream air. As internal pressure
decreases below the set pressure, the refircnce load
opposing the pressure force closes the valve.
A relief vJvc is considered to have good operating
I characteristics when the pressure for rated flow and
"eseat closely approaches the cracking precure. The
cracking pressure is the relief pressure setting of the

AMCP 706-202
valve, defined as the pressure where lAkage flow
reaches sonme specified value. The cracking pressure
always is set below the allowable working pressure of
the tank or system, and commonly is not more than
110% of normal operating pressure. The rated capac;ty usually is established for flows at pressures 10%
greater than the pressi,' setting of the relief valve.
The rseat pressure is some value below the cracking
pressur., dependir4 upon the closure configuration;
a restat pressure of 95% of cracking paivsure is common.
Relief valves may be either direct-acting or piloted.
Diret-acting valves can be either of the conventional type, where the control element moves ielative
to the itat, or of the inverted type, where the smat
moves relative to the control element.
For airborne applicatione, the aelief valve body is
desigi~ed for minimum weight, consistent with
pressure rating, and for passage of high flows with
minimum pressure loss. Lightweight construction
materials, such as aluminum, arc used extensively. To
achieve minimum prtssure drop, some manufacturers use a venturi design in the discharge side, while
other- enlarge the outlet port even to the extent of
using
larger
connections.
TFL "
t- 8
. .L.
-. ..
..
. ;
o... .
pressure buildup until relief pressure is reached. The
most common element usod to establish the load is a
compession spring. Weights could accomplish the
same purpose, but seldom are used.
Is

cr

___.I

I J

m[1

F.)
z.-1
ct.

. 4,

__z

"ii!I"

+
(A) BALL

(B)CONICAL-

POPPET

a--

(C) V-POPPET

(D) PISTON

Figure 9-57. Relief Vaives

9-37

TI

The valving unit is composed of a seat and a control cie'ne.a. The seat may be flst, sphierical, or conIce. inl shapt. wit its configuration determining the
sealing And opening characteristics of the relief valve
to a large degree. There aie four commonly used control element daiglns: ball, conical-poppet, V-poppet,
and piston.
The ball control element isused extensively in both
quack-opening and proportional relief valves because
of its simplicity, low manufacturing coat, and inhecrerit self-algning capability as it rescasts. When
used in a quick-opening relief velve (safety valve), the
ball tenda; to chatter when discharging fluid. It is
limited to small valve sizes, and has a short life cycle,
Like the ball control, the conical-poppct may be
used in both quick-opening and proportional relief
valves. Conical-poppets lend themselves to larger
port sizos, but require closer tolerances on the seAling
surfaces of the poppet and seat. The control element
stern must be guided in order to obtain alignment
between the poppet and seat. When the valve. isopen,
however, the instide surface of the guide is exposed to
the fluid. If ags is discharvcd. cooling dur~no expansiovii may Meult in an ice ulupoui h
ieta
will prevncrt the valve from closing. This type is
quieter in operation than the ball, due to frictonal
damping induced by the guide.
The V-poppet element isused only in safety valves.
As soun it. the valve starts to open,* the fluid - by
changing momentum due to the V-design - exerts a
greater force against the poppet, causing it to pop
open for full flow. The poppet uses only its inner cone
for a sealing surfacc. Like the conical plug. the poppet stemn isguided. Precision machining is required in
order tO obtain a -ar9!C poppnet-ea
and alignment,
A piston sometimes is used in relief valves for
closed air systems. The piston offers no positive
scating surface to prevent leakage, depcnaing primarily upon close tolerances. Valve opening is proportional to the overpresaure. Pistons arc used comnmonly "s the second stnep in pilot-operated relief
valves, rxther than in single-aage valves,

".U.3.2 Preuwe-edsciug Valves

The most practical comiponents for maintaining
secondary lower pressures in a pneumatic system arec
pressure-reducing valves. These are normally open,
two-way valves that &:rise downstream pressurc in
order to close. Tlhere are two types, direct-acting and
pilot-operated,
Direct-acting valves are usually of sliding spool
design. Air flows from the high-presure inlet to the
low-pressure outlet. An adjustablc spring holds the
9-38

poppet or spool open, and reduced pressure aims to

close thc valve. When the valve is closed. a small
quantity of air bleeds from the low-pressure side of
the valve through the sprnpg chamber to the ammmiphere, usually through a fixed or adjuatable orifice in
the 4pool or body. The bleedofl prevents dowastream
prmsure from increasing above the valve satting
because of spool leakage when the valv4 closes. The
spring chamber always is drained to 4.%e atmosphere
in order to prevent fl'iid pressure from bulfiding up
and holding the valve open. Dirmet-acting valves
require a large envelope to provide space for the
spring and adqmaatment. Alsoi, spring raneSw usually
are narrow. As in relief valves, a small pilot section
may be added to control the main valve.
In a pilot-operatod, pressure-rducing vslve the
spool or poppet is balanced pneumatically by downstream pressure at both ends. A light spring holds the
valve open. A small pilot rslief valve, usually built
into the main valve body, bleeds air to the atmosphere when reduced presure reaches the pilot valve
spring setting causing a pressure drnp across the
lf
a
i~v
suI
"pe.P~.r
toward its closed position against the forcle of the
light spring. The pilot valve reieves only enough fluld
to position the main valve spool or poppet so that
flow through the main valve equals the flow reqhah'ments of the reduced-pressure circuit. If no Pow is
required in the low-presore circult during a portion
of the cycle, the main valve deem. High-pressur air
leakinS into the reduced-pressure section of the valve
then returns to the atmoosphere through the pilot
relief valve. Pilot-operated, pressure-reducing valves
generally have a wider ratge of spring adjustumeet
1,1nrity
an,~ do rc-.~~
valves, and provide mnor
repetitive accuracy. However, contamInatdon cane
block flow to the pilot valve, causing the main valve
to fail to open properly.
9-3.2.6.4 PreSSwr Regulatoss
The pressure compensator bypass flow regulator
and moisture separator usually is a part of the air
compressr, and controls flow by diverting excess
compressor output overboard. In a typical example.
flow-pressure drop across ameteoring orifice isused to
shift a balanced spool against a control spring. Ths
po oeeti sdtomiti
osatpa
sure drop across the orifice, diverting or bypassing
excess supply flow. The pressure drop, which ivdetermined by spool area and spring forme, is relatively
low.
I-3.2.6.5 Dlreculseal Coutro Valves
This term describes all multiple-psassg

valves,

S- three-position.

AMCP70-0
bemcuse their primary function is to control the direct'on of flow from one fluid line to another. Common
types include three-way. four-way. divertcr, swquence, and shuttle valves. Actuation may be
manual, mechanical, pneumatic, or electrical. These
valves are identified by method of actuatio.,, number
of parts, number of positions to which the valve can
be actuated, type of valving element (spool, slide,
poppet, ball. etc.), and type of sealing,
A three-way valve (Fig. 9-58) is one with three
external port connections and is either two- or threeposition. The usual three-way valve has one common
port that can be connected to either one or two alternate ports while closing the nonconnected port. Normally. thems ports are identified as pressure, cylinder,
and return (vent). When used to control a singleation
c7 cylinder, the cylinder port ;s the common port,
and is connected alternately to the pressure port and
to the return port.
A four-way valve (Fig. 9-59) has four external port
connections, which usually are arranged so that there
are two simultaneous flow paths through the valve,
Four-way valves commonly are used to actuate
u-6ao.Lu
;yllindca.in such a'pfi'*
".!
valve is connected so that when pressure is applied to
one cylisdcr port, the other cylinder port is vented,
and vice versa. Four-wa) valves normally are two- or
In a three-position, four-way valve,
there is a center position in which all ports are vented.

CYLINDER

SI

PRESSURE
qI

6-

iJ

/j

(A) BLOCKED POSITION

valve, and in this position the leakage clearuince is

CYLINDER

-.

-,

, divertet valve basically is a threc-way valve, with

the common port being the pressure port. Flow can
be diverted from the pressure port to either of two alternate flow paths. Diverter valves also are called di,
version valves.
A selector valve functions similarly to a divcrter
valve, except that th: common pressure port can be
connected to an unlimited number of alternate low
paths.
A sequence valve is one whose primary function is
to direct flow in a predetermined scquence between
two or more ports. A shuttle valve is a type of
sequence valve that is pressure-actuated in such a
manner that whsn a preset system pressure has been
reached, the valve automatically actuates, connecting
two or more flow path!.
A spool valve controls fluid flow by covering and
uncovering annular ports with lands on a sliding
spool. The number of lands and ports on the spool
and valve body determines the porting arrangements
that can be achieved, and the geometrical relationship between the lands and norts determines the
timing of the valve function. With a sharp-edged land
and port. upcrahilun i, i spuuil "'-v- is b-r.u.p. In
applications where this arrangercnt would cau.e undesirable pressure surges, the land edges cen be
notched, tapered, or chamfered to modify the flow
characteris'ics. Spool valvat are c!assifi.d as packed
or unpacked, depending upon the sealing characteristics. Packed spool valves use O-ring3 or some other
type of seal between the spool and the valve body in
order to achieve tight shatoff. Unpacked spool valves
possess internal leakage, depending upon the
clearance between the spool lands and the valve
body. Annular giooves usually are machined on the
spool lands to improve lubrication of the valve and to
equalize pressure all around the spool in order to prevent
binding on one side of the bore. In addition to
eliminating
binding, the annular groove centers the

-~

PRESSURE

(B) OPEN POSIT:ON

rrielement

\Figmsr 9-58. Diren.tial (Cosol Vave--Three-way

minimized. A uniqiie feature of the spool-type,

multiple-passage valve is that the end of the spool car.
be used as the actuator piston to position the valve.
Poppet-type, mpultiple-passgts valves use two or
more flat, conical, or . herical seats on a translating
poppet. These valves lend themselves to three- or
four-way operation with a variety of seating and
sealing arrangements. For a solenoid-actuated,
threeway, poppet-type valve in the de-energized position,
pressure is applied to the cylinder.
"OThe
sliding plate valve consists of three main
element3, a slide and two plate enclosures. The slide

is san~lwiched between the two plates, and

ontains co-ed holes and passages that mate with
9-39

AMCP 7W6202
CYLINORJ
1

CYUNOE3
2

IRE

TUN

CvLIi
PFFs9

RE.T

Cv.YL
2

(A) POSITION I

ports in the plates. Many porting arrangements are

available, and thiee- and four-way mulitpl.-pssuge
valves can be &chived easily. One advantage of a
sliding plAte valve is that it can be reworked and
lapped to compensate for wear.
A ball valve cat, be adapted readily to operate as a
multiple-passage valvc by the aldition of outlets on
;he body and additional porting in the bell valving
element. With three outlet connections on the body,
the ball valve can be made into a variety of three-way
valves, depending upon the porting utilized in the
ball.
A rotary slide valve is usrd more commonly as a
multiple-passage valve than as a two-way shutoff
valve. Rotary slide, multipl-pasage valves consist,
aesntially, of two parts, i.e., the body and a rotating
plate (Fig. 9-60). The body contains either three or
four outlets to provide a three- or four-way valve
configuration, and the rotary plate contains various
porting arrangements so as to achieve a multiplicity

of three- or four-way valve types.

A valve actuator is a power unit that proviies a
mechanical operating force for positioning a valving
element. The actuator may be eith-.r direct-acting cr

piloted. The direct-acting valve actuators include

S

Rinvolving

largcr power source, is common with such pistoncylinder actuators as the electro-pneumatic., pnoumatic-hydraulic, or pneumatic-pneumatic w.mbinstions. Most aerotracc valves are powered by rtmotc-

LI
PF.

vo torque motors, each used indepcadently. Piloting,

the use of a small power input to control a

rCYL 2

control, or automatic, actuators

Linear actuators

used in aerospace valves include solenoids, pisto.cylinders, bellows, and diaphragms. Rotary actu-

(B) BLOCKED POSITION

ators also can be used to impart linear motion, for

example, through a rack and pinion. Linear actuators aiso can be used to impart rotary motion by
driving an internally threaded valve: stern attachment
"with a threaded rotating shaft. The actuator may be

either an integral part of the valve, or a separate

PRESSURE

Ii

/ELC
P

I
CYL

REthrough

PRESS

RE.T

device linked mechanically to the valve. Solenoids,

diaphragms, bellows, piston-cylinders, and servo
torque motors are usually in, :ral parts of the valve.
Electric motors commonly are linked to the valve
a gear train, s*rw drive, etc. Valve actuator
positioning requirements can be divided into two
gh-oupb:

CYL 2

(C) POSITION 2

Figure 9-59. Directional Control Vahe--Foar-way

9-40

I. Two-position, or nonmodulating, actuators for

"on-ofr*control valves and shutoff valves

2. Modulating actuators for positioning control

valves; pneumatic and hydraulic piston-cylinder actuators commonly are used with valve positioners,
and provide a feedback loop between the control

AMCP 7M6-_202

CYLINDER

2
IN

CYLINDER

CYLINDER

L
CYLINDER

.S PRESSURE

PReL [, IR2E

PRESSURE
I

riR

SSURE
S.--:"-PRE

SLIPOSITNION

PRPRESSURE
ImLSSrL

Z\

CYLINDER

"2
ICYLINDER
SLDE
ROTATNG

J
CYLINDER

BODY

PRESSURE

PRESSURE

'

I'-"J

/2

.nt1t
BLOCaLLI

POSITION

BLOCKED
POQi TION

PRESSURE
PRESSURE

CYLINDER

CYLINDER

~2\

CYLINDER

C
C-LIL
REssu

IPOSITION

IPOSITION 5.

PRESSURE

VALVE SHOWN IN BLOCKED

POSITION
F11m 9,40. Dirweeual C"Mle Vahte--Rotary-Four-wsy

"

Oaln and the stroke of the actcnor.

The design or selection of a valve actuator is. at
best, a trade-off among several interrelated factors
Typical mechanical factors that must be considered
indude length of stroke, locking requirements, speed.
limitation of envelope size and weight, and maln,tude of required force. If a long stroke is needed, use
of solenoid is eliminated automatica!ly. If fast
.response times are desired, actuation by electric

motor, solenoid, or explosive charge should hle considered. If high forces must be overcome. either hydraulic or pneumatic pressure must be used.
".2.7 PreNMre Gages
Pressure gages are used in fluid-power equipment
to provide:
1. An indication of operating pressure, especially
where this pressume must be selected by the optrator
Q-41

Q_

AMCP 706-202
"

-g
Stirs

S~4.

2. An indication (alarm) of abnormal pressure

within
whts the system..Air
Pressure gi.,es also are used to provide data in
,development of fluid-ower equipment.
Pressure, or pressure chunge, within a system must
be correct if pneumatically powered or controlled
equipment is to operate properly. TI.e proper gage itdicates this pressure and helps to prevent malfunctions. Gages also can be calibrated in valu.-s proportional to pressure,
~~~~~pnieumnatic
cylinder. such as total force exr-rted by a
=ourdon-tube indicating dial gages (Fig. 9-61) are
uswzd to measure pressure from 0.5 psi vacuum to
150,000 psi. Primary advantages are accuracy, ruggedness, reliability, simplicity, and low cost. Other
methods of measuring pressure include electronic
:. devces
ev-es based
ase upn
eadags or
upon srai
strain gogo
gage read'.igs.
or, inthe
in the
case of pulsating pressure, piezoelectric crystals. Such
units, relatively, are costly and comple'x. At thc low
end of the pressure-measurement spectru
are
bellows and diaphragm-type devices, which are used
to measure relatively low pressures.
Components of Ji Bourdon-tube gages are similar.
1-Howevei, many styies and materiais should he con"sidered ii. selecting a gage. The following factors,
listed in the normal order of consideration, influence
hi selection:
.!. Measured medium, including pressure range
-and fluctuation
2. Etivironmental conditions, such as temperature
and vibratio i
3. Wear conditions ,:aused by pulsation and vi.bration
Connection of gage to measured medium
4. Counting oethoe
546. Muizehng method
"6. Size and weight
7. Accuracy.

TUBE

Air Storage Bttles

storage bottles or vessels are often of conven
tional shapes, such as cylinders or spheres. On the
other hand, limited space may require a conical,
oblate spheroid, t,-roida!, or pear shape. Drawn
cylinoers up to 9 in. in diameter and up to 50 in. lone
are available. Welded containers can be made much
largcr. Capacities may range from 3.0 to 3500 in.'
Cylinder bottoms may be concave, bump-shaopd,
spherical,
or elliptical.
Ports
located wherever
peiao
litcl
ot can
a beelctdweee
they are required. Either external or internal threading can be supplied.
Pressure vessels with pressure ratings varying from
L,few hundred psi to 25,000 psi are available. Pressure
vessels can withstand high ambient temperatures in
the range of 2750-6W00F. In addition, they can m.t
vibration, shock, and other extreme requirements of

v odn shcknthen
retme
reqdirhoice of
rmodern
helicopter
environments.
A varied.hieo
constructions
is possible.
Am'n5 the
metals that have
been used successfully are alumiatum, low-alloy
steels, high-strength steels, and a number of exotic
metals. For highly predictable, multicycle performance, one of the chromium steel alloys is recoi-

Seamless cylinders are deep drawn, and wall

thickness tolerances can be held preisely. An
excellent surface is obtained. The dome and Peck are
hot spun on the open end. Heat treatment produces
thz mc.allurgical quality nr eded for best performance. Seamless drawn cylinders are relatively inexpensive io produce.
Welding often is used to fabricate the larger sizes of
cylinders. Certain smaller cylinders for aerospace
applications, where minimum weight is a more im.ortant consideration than is price, also are wclded.
Containers with a wide r!-nge of wall thicknesses,
diameters, and alloys can be welded, as can vessels of
exotic high-strength metals.
Fiberglas vessels usually are lighter than their allDIAL
/POINTER
metal counterparts. Advanced technology has made
them highly reliable. Gilrne-finished glass, bonded
with epoxy resin and protected ,gainst moisture.
BOURDONpenetration by ar. external coating, can be used to
fabricate pressure vessels. Internal rubber linings

ELINKAGE

MECHANISM
SCASE

PRESSUPIE TAP
Flgir'-. 9-61. Pressure G.ge-RBourdon-tube Type
9-42

9-3.2.8

ffectivcly retain the air in instances where some

permeability
Composite can be tolerated.

cylinders offer extremely low weight

without sacrificing reliability. In this type of construction, a cylindrical metal shell having hemispherical ends is wrapped with circumferential
weldings - usually of bonded Fiberglas. Hoop loads
are shared between metal shell and windings while
longitudinal loads are carried by the metal alone.
Wire winding may be applied in accordance with

'I)

AMGP 7W0~2O

Miltasy Spacirications in order to keep vessels from

shatterift under gunfire. Wire winding contributes
added 3traigtb, but usually is not regarded as a light-

Paua*isa

ess

hc

hre

niaterial, shape of the vessel, surface conditions, joint

design, heat treatm~ent. and environmental conditions
during urse must be contidered. The ratio of test
pressure to msvice pressure is usually 1.67:1. Howb ~r,
the ratio is governed by individual speciricatioma and, in some cames may range from 1.5:1 to
2.0: 1. The ratio of minimum burst pressure to service
pressure depends tipon the design stress levels, but is
commonly 2.22:1. Ratios of 2.0,1 to 4.0:1 often are
indicated by specific cycle,-life requiirments and other
9-3.9
empeues(C)
ssysre.
Subsystem components are discussed in p~s 9-2
3.2.9.1 through

U4JM*'

(A)SINGLE ACTIKI~

(B) SPRING RETURN

DOUBLE ACTING
,k

I...A#aO~y~
-%6aa~

9-3.2.9.1 Aecuaters
An actuator, as used in helicopter applications, is a
power unit that produces a force or torque for
positioning loads. Notrmally, pneumatic actuators are
of the linear-motion type, anti are designed to individual specifications. Among the types manufactured are specialized actuators of the piston type
(with built-in dampers). used for the retraction of
~lianding; gear; landing gear up-lock actuators; highA
temperatuare piston units for both high and low
pressures; cargo ar.d passenger door actuators; storeejection actuators; screw-jack actuators for high-ternperature appficadior. 1 and air motor and screw-jack
actuator assemble.. that form a part of such systems
asnosewheel swrving. Advjantages of pneumatic acJkNtuators
include speed of operation, simplified power
requirements, and ability to withstand ambient toniperatiares to 500"F. The inherent limitatjons of pneumatic actuators result primarily from th-e elastic
properties of the compressed air woa king fluid. Fig.
9-62 illustrastes typical lintar pneumatic actuators.
one direction only, and can be cithee the out-stroke
or in-stroke. The return stroke is accomplished by
~im~som esernal means; a double-acting cylinder zan be
usdfor this purpose by connecting the ac, iating
fluid line to only onz port through a three-way valve,
'Nleaving the other port open. Special single-acting
cylinders are desirnee with piston-scalinS devices;
_

that seal in one direction only. These cylinders have a

po.-t hole in one head and a bleeder hole in the opposite head,.
The spring-return actuator is a single-acting cylinder, with the re'uarn stroke effected by a spring. The
length of the cylinder in the retracted position is nt
least twice the actual stroke length because of the
spring length. The initial spring force, as well as the
increase in spring force due to spring rate during
compression, depends upon the amount of oc
required by the spring-actuated stroke.
In the double-acting actuator, the cylinder has a
power stroke in both directions. The actuating fuid
line is connected to both heads of the cylinder, usually through a four-way valve. Most standard catalog
cylinders are double-acting. The sealing aevices, also
operate in both directions.
Rotary actuators rotate an output shaft through &A
fixed sate to produce oscillating power, converting
fluid-energy input to mechanical output. Thy r
ducing higb instantaneous torque in either direction,
and requiririg only limited space a~nd simple mountings. Rotary actuators consist of a chamber or
cbaaabers for containing the working fluid, and a
movable surface against which the fluid acts. The
movable surface is connected to an output shaft to
produce the output motion.
9-43

~-

-N

tl

The basic types of rotairy reciprocatins actuatoms

cmaw aM Tog pistor.-rack u-tuator may have a
are vane and piston. Basically, the vane actuator concylinder witL4 two pistons, each integral with a rack,
sists of a cylindrical chamber, a stationary barritr, a or two cylinlers with four pistons. In each cade, the
cenitral shaft with a fixed vane, and end caps throug~h
racks engage a pinion in the -rntcr of the cylinder
and, as the pistons move the racks, the pinion is rowhich the s~haft projects and which support the shafttated. Equal torque thus isproduced in each direction
and-vane assembly. Fluid energy on one side of the
vane produces an unbalancW force on the shaft. The
of rotation. fitom usually ame sealed by standard 0ring seals. Units are aivailaboe with higb sorjue
shaft extension can protnado from either or both
ends, and has key-ways, splines or squared ends ior
rat~igs and for preaourew to 300C psi.
mechanical connection of the hlad. Vane actuators
usually have one or two vanes. but may have three or
,0*,
aim*
more. The amc of rotation for siraglc.vant units is
emaibrevlesrodeamns f
about 2140 dong; o obevn ntaot1og
supplying operating pressure to lacIhpter wheel
Maxium
aris wth
rc he izeandconi utio of
brakes. The pressure applied to the pedas (or hand
the unit. Besides the torque, there is a radial force Oisle rdpniguonvleesn)divr&
the vane shaft, and this side load tends to deflect the
regulatod, proportionate pressure to the valve outlet
shaft. Thus, the output shaft must be large enough to
port thus alflowing sir to flow to the brakes.
withstand mrximurn torque and side load withoi t
Releasing of the brake pedal (or handle) vents the
excessive deflection, and bearing areas must be large
pressurized air on the brakt*. Pedal or handle travel
enouh
t suportthes
lods wth inimm war
is proportional to brake valve outlet pressure. i.e., to
and friction. EMTciency of single-vane units varies
the pressure applied to the wheal brake. The design of
"Tom '1D to 95%, depending; upon such items as
brake valves should feature minimumw hysteresis charbearings and bearing length-to-diameter ratio.uitc.Frnresdeeaeepoeaiflainhia;R-4

A.dard

Mines.ai:.. ripA-

exhaust

vav

are located between

th L-.k

valVCS

posing stationary barriers. Fluid enters one compaitand the brakes.

nient from an external port and flows through internal passages to the opposite cornpihtwent. A force'i
exerted on eacb vane, and the force that tends to disA fuse Paisusdtopteca
F
pneumtcsseshl
place the shaft is balanced transversely. Because pure
Afs sue opoe~apemtcsse
hl
peitigflffcetoraonfcopntzn
torque isthe only load on the shaft, cffidency of the
the remainder of tht system. Eisaitially, thc fuse
'double-vane unit is high; torque output isdouble~ that
operates on a rate of flow that is sensed by a pressure
of a single-vane unit of comparable dimensions.
rptruhtefs
tsf necoetefs
Vanle-type actuators are available in a variety of Stansizes and mountings. with torque outputs
eesatmtclya eo;stepesr ifr
ranging from 3 lb-in, at 50 psi to more than 7,000~eta srmvdb enigteusra
on
Piston actuators are available in several types. In a
helical spline actuator, fluid is applied to one side of
thec piston which 4 kept from rotating by guide rods.
The actuator can be stopped at any point in its
stroke. The: helix angle on the shaft and piston isselflocking, preventing rotation of the actuator under
external torque loads. Sealing is by ring seals arounO
the piston, the fluid rods, and the helical screw. Standard units are available for a wvide range of torque
outputs and pressures. The arc of rotation can be
larger than 360 deg. Adjustable cushions art
available to reduce shock at each end of the stroke.
A variation of this type of a-,tuator uses two
pistons in the same cylinder. Tle shaft has a rightha id helix on half of its length and a let'. hand helix
on the other half. Fluid is introduccd into the area
between the pistons and causes :inear movement of
the pistons, thereby imparting rotary motion to the
9.44

9-3.2.9.4 Qulk-1somets
Quick-disconnects provide easy, instant coupling
and uncoupling of pneumatic systems and system
components without loss or supply pressure. Their
use greatly facilitates aircraft overhauls and servica
replacements. In order to 'meet varying requirements, two types of quick-disconnects are available: a
lever type and a rotatin~g type.
PNEUMATIC SYSTEM INSTALLAYION
AND QUALIFICATION
Pneumatic systems are classified into types and
classes as follows:
1. Types:
at.Type A. Airborne compressor-charged
system, in whicn system air pressure is maintained by
a compressor mounted in the helicopter
9-3.3

)
h. Type B. Ground-cljarged syrtem, in which
systakn air pressure is obtained from ground-servicing
equipment
2. Claism:
a. Class 1. Supply system is -;harged to a
pressure of I 500 tai
Class 2. Supply systnim is charged to a
pressure of 30W psi
c. Class 3. Supply system is charged to a
pressure o1F 50)00 psi.
The qua~Lfication testing required for Type A and
components is similar. The tests indlude those for
exanmination of product, proof and burst pressure,
leakage, flow and pressure drop, extreme temiperatrlife cycle, vibration, humidity, fungus, sand and
for. and dielectric strength. General requianets orpneumatic-system component ttsting
are given in MIL-P-8564. The conditions specified
should include the test media, temperature-s, and il1tration. System installation testinf. requircivenrts are
listed in MIL-T-5522 and AMCP 706-203.

-*b.

1'

AMCP 7OC-202

-,B

V~
\_A~dustments

exist and the altiniewc setting is 29.92 in. Hg, the altimeter will read the correct fielt4 elevation when the
helicopter is on the ground. The altimeter in its
simplest form is shown in Fig. 9-63, aid consists of
an evacuated diaphragm or capsule mounted in an
airtight case or static-pressure chamber. The diaphragm responds to changes in pressure by expai ading and contracting. and the movement of the disphrAgm is trcnsmitted to a main pinion assembly.
The dial is calibrated to mead pressure altitude. The
static pressure hneasured P. at the static source of the
altimeter may differ slightly from the true atmospheric pressure p. For any P.. the altimeiter, when
corrected for instrument error, will indicate the
measure-d pressure altitued corrected for instrument
error H.. The instrumrent error is a~l error built into
!he altimeter, consisting of such things as scale error.
The quantity (Pm,- p)l is called the static pressur-.
error or position error and is determined through
flight tests. The value that is added to R. to
determine true prtr~ure altitude H is termcd the attimeter position error correction 6 H

9-3.4 PITOT-STATIC SUBSYSTE:M DESIGN

ftreim~p aoitjitmrdu-,ng

rptp nf climh are-

basic parameters in the performance of all helicop-

Xters.

Instruments used to measure these quantities are

the airspeed indicator, altimeter, and rate-of-climb
indicator. The pressure inputs to the airspeed indicator are obtained from the pitot tube, which
niaue~total press ire, and fromn the static pre- ure
source. The latter also provides pressure foi- the altime~tCT and rate of climb indicator.
'-he pressure sources on the outside of the fuselIage
are connected directly to the instruments in the cabin
area by means of leak-tight tubing. Design and con-

absolute-presure gage, called an altimeter.

)sitive
wcaled so that a pressure decrease indicates an alti-

t ide increase in accordance with the U!: Standat d Atmosphere (Ref. 5). If mnandard atmosphere conditions

..

Li

A,

where
- true pressure altitude, ft
Hf
- measured pressure altitude, ft
H,
ZH- - altimetcr jxosition crroi correction, ft
Minimum performance standards for a pressureactuated, sensitive altimetei r ie nFAIO
Cl Ob. There aiso aire a number of Military Specifications available that cover specific altimeters currently
used by the military.

MIL-P-5518 and MIL-P-8564. No valves or severe

restrictions art permnitted. Drain fittings shallI/be pro--vided, as necessary, at low points in the sys .emn in
order to permit removal of condensed moisture.
Military Soecifications governing pitot and static
systems on all airzaft and missiles arc MIL-P-26292
and MIL-I-61 IS.Thesw specifications are written primarily for conventional aircraft, but are applicabie tocompound helicopters having alternate means of producing horizontal thrust and, therefore, increascd
forward airspeed capability.
9-3.4.1 Altiumetlers
Most altitude meaurements arc made with a scn--

,.,

--

STAT IC
0
'.-

ESt

Figure 9-63. Altimeter Scematic

9-45

AM!C

7OW2O

The design and installation of the altimeter system

shdal te such that the error in indfated pressure altitude at sea level in standard atmosphere, excluding
instrument calibration error, does not result in a
reading mere than 30 ft high nor more than 30 ft low
in the level flighi speed range from 0 mph to 0.9 times
the maximum speed obtainable in level flight with
rated rmm and power.

*.

9-3.4.2 Rate-of-edlml ladlcator

The rate-of-climb indicator uses the same static
pressure source as the altimeter. A calibr'sted flow
restriction is placed in the unit to restrict the passage
of air into the instrument case when the measured
static pressure changes. The time lag associated with
this pressure change is used to obtain a pressure differential on two sides of a diaphragm. This pressure
differential is displayed mechanically as change in
"pressure altitude with time dIIdi at standard sea
level conditions. The re:ationship is in accordance
with the hydrostatic equation for small differences.
AP - pa,(A ),

lb/ft"

t9 -2 )

where

ac.leratinr
edue to gravity. ft/sec2
- height ditferencc, ft
- pressure difference, lb/ft2
- density at standard sea level conditions,
slug/Its
The slow response time of those basic mechanisms
is now generally corrected by the incorporatior of accelerometers which provide an artificial boost of air
for an instantaneous needle movement.
AH
AP
PSI

9-3.4.3 Airspeed Iickators

True airspeed V is the velocity of the helicopter
wits' rcapc ,.t#-.,, a.r through which ist flvin. it i%
difficult to measure true airspeed directly. Instead,

used in establishing the table. Airspeed indicators are

calibrated according to tese relationships.
In operation, the airspeed indicator is similar to the
altimeter. However, instead of being evacuated, the
inside of the capsude is connected to a total-presure
source and the case to the static-pteuaure source. The
instrument then senses the differencs between
m%asured pitot (totul) pressure P,,, within The capsule
and measured static pressure P, outside as shown in
Fig. 9-64. The pressure differential q, (Eq. 9-4), as
measured by the airspeed indicator when correted
for instrument errot, will correspond to measured
calibrated airspeed Vo,..
qo. - Pt. - P,'. Ps
(9-4)
where
P,,
- measured static pressure, psi
measured pitot premure, psi
measured impact presu'ire. psi
In general, this will vary from the correct calibrated
airspeed because of pitot and static pressure errors,
and an airspeed position error correction A V, must
P,.

be added to V,. to obtain V,.

A V, - V, - V,,, kt
(9-5)
whee,
VP
- cal.brated airspced, kt
., - measured calibrated airspeed, kt
A V, - airspeed position error correction. kt
To determine its significance, this correction is evaluated by flight testing of the entire airspeed system.
Specifications have been written to establish the
acceptable instrument errors and general coastruction ot airspeed indicators. Table 9-2, AMCP 706203, specifies requirements for airspeed indicatots.
Because of the ccmplex flow patterns around the
helicopter in flight, the airspeed system must be flight
"
-

--

calibrated airspeed V, is measured. Calibrated airspeed is determined froin the difference be'ween total
pressure and static pressure using Bernoulli's cornpressible equation for frictionless adiabatic (isen-

tropic) flow. Calibrated airspeed is the adopted standard reading of an airspeed indicator, and is the same
as true airspeed under standard sea level conditions.
The difference between total pressure P, and static
pressure P is called true impact pressure q.
q,

P-

, psi

STATIC
PRESSURE

(P.)

(9-3)

where

."

- static pressure, psi

P,

- total pressure, psi

- true impact pressure, psi

cc
A tabulation of q, as r function of Vc is given ir. Ref. 6
t oth. with a complete derivation of tIar. equations
9-46

...

TOTL R SUR
TOTAL PR(ISSuE

Figre 944. Alrope

lUllater S*bsalek

..

~AMCP 7W6202

tesmed An order to evaluate performance. The flight

teat for airspeed calibrrtion is described in par. 9-5.2,
AMCP 76-203. This night testing must be acc&'mplishe over the full range of flight capabilities of the
helicopter, including climbout, cruise over the entire
speed range, aitorotation, and rideslip. Flight test
teoniquas, established primarily for conventional
airak are de-cribed in Refs. 7, 8, and 9. Some
specific flight test instrumentation for V/STOL aircraft is described in Ref. 10.
9-,4.4 Tmdal-prssmre Sowees
to determine
or pitot-static
total P~tot
or pitot
presure, tubes
whichare isused
defined
as the
prisure of the air when it is brought to rest isentropically. True total pressure is measured by a
sharp-lipped pitot opening that is faced directly into
the airflow. Pitot pressure errors can develop when
the airflow impinges the tube at an angle of attack or
incidence. A wind tunnel investigation of a number of
total-pressure tubes at high angles of attack is
descibd in Ref. II. Results indicate that a sharplipped opening with shallow or no internal and external tapers has the least sensitivity to angle of attack,

The nitnt nni_.

_nihi.

vn

in-

flotw pulsations. Locations on the forward top of the

canopy or above the rotor on a stationary rotor hub
have been found satisfactory.
Rotor downwash can cause pressure pulsation in a
pitot tube. Ref. 12 evaluates the effect of these pulsptions on total pressure. Proper design of the pitot
tube and connecting lines for pressure-lag response,
together with a favorable mounting location out of
evre dotrnwash, can eliminate the pulsation probbIn. Flight test investigation of prosure-lag problems is docum,fted in Ref. 7.
Although ov. pilot tube is sufficient for obtaining
total pressure, t is recommended that, if there are
two sets of instruments (i.e., two airspxd indicators).
separate pitot iources be used for each indicator. This
redundancy permits detection of a faulty pitot
pressure reading caused by a plugged or iced-ovc.
pitot opeaing or a pressure leak in the system.
s
oureSo
9-3.4.5 Satk Presea
A number of helicopters are designed with flush
static prewsure vents located on the fuselage. These
static vents or ports shali be located such that vehicle
speed, the opening or closing of windows, airflow
,v'-" ca.

,,,

w- tiv w viir tr-i-n ma-rii

to place a
-' ation. Therefore, it usually is desirab!e
water-collection chamber and drain hole in the pitot

altimeter,
not affect their accuracy seriously. Each
airspeed indicator, and rate-of-climb indicator shall

tube. The small amount of airflow that passeb

through the pitot tube and out the drain hole also

be connected into the system in an airtight manner,

except for the static vents.

causes a pitot pressure error, and should be investi-

Two static vents normally comprise the static

gated for each design.

Helicopters can and do operate in atmospheric
conditions that are conducive to producing ice, e.g.,

pressure system, They are located symmetrically on

the right and left sides of the fuselage, and are interconnected to the flight instruments by a single tube

from supercooled water droplets in the air or from

freezing rain. The tip of the pitot opening, because it
is in a stagnant-flow region, is susceptible to blocking
..iy -- d can c .mecompt.ly plug'
,-and and
operative even before an appreciable accumulation of
ice has developed on the rotors and other parts of the
vehicle. It. therefore, is important to use electricially
heated pitot tubes that are capable of deicing and
anti-icing under the most severe atmospheric condittons that are likely to occur in flight.
Pitot tube. normally are pisced in the forward area
of the heli opter, outside" of the airflow boundary
layer. Loca ions high on the fuselage are desirable in
order to avoid ground damage. Tht pitot tube shall
be pointed into the nominal flow direction, and
should not be placed behind any protrusion thlit
could cause flow separation ahead of the tube. It also
should not be located aft of windows or openings that
couid exhaust airflow into the pitot opening. It shall
"belocated where the dowawash from the rotors does
no: cause large-flow angles of attack and excessive

containing a T-finting located halfway between the

two vents. This right- and left-hand installation is
used in order to reduce sideslip errors in the system,
also provides a partiai redundancy if one of the
vents becomes plugged or damaged, or if a leak
develops. For helicopters with advanced speed and
altitude capabilities, a leak to a pressurized cabin
area could cause a serious static pressure error. In
this case, two completely separate static systems with
separ,te right and left vents should be used if there
are two sets of flight instruments.
Common locations for static vcnts are on the sides
of the fuselage aft of ahe cabin or on the tail boom. A
location rhall be selected that is n.ot sensitive to rotor
downwash or forward speed. and that is away from
windows, doors, or air vents that could produce a
variable airflow geometry in the: vicinity of the vents.
A flight test program is necessary in order to determine the pressure influence of all vat iables, in addition to the calibration under conditions of climbout,
cruise over the speed range, and autorotation.
9.47

..

AMP7W6202
Static ventsAlsllbe located so that no moisture can
enter t~,e openings under any service condit'ons. The
Static vent plate shauld be heated if there is a pro~.iability that ice could aeal over the static vent. Other
pertinent design information for flush static vents can
be obtained #'vrnnMIL-1-6115S and MIL-P-26292.
9-3A
PIWftdcTabu1957.
On recent helicopters, the pitot and static pr'essure
sources have boan combined into a pitot-static zube.
This tube ciui be straight for boom mounting, or Lshiaped f r mounting directly to the fuselage. Acceptible mounting locations are on a short boom ahead
of the nose of the helicopter on a stationary hub onl
the top of the rotor, and on the top of the cabin toward th: front, yet near the rotor hub. L jcations
on the forward sides of the fuselage also are acceptable. However, lo% locations on the bottom of the
fuselage usually are susceptible to ground damage. If
the tube is located at the rear of the fuselage, rightand left-mounted units should b,. used in order to
reduce the influence of sideslip on the static pressure
measurement. For redundancy, two pitot-static tubes
muizmummonded for an heiicopters having wo sets
of flight instruments. Pilot-static tubes also rnan be
designed with two sets of static ports if additional
static sources are required.
Minimum requirements for pitot-static tubes are
specified in MlL-P-31 136. It is recommended that all
pitot-static tubes bc capable of completely deicing
and anti-icing under the most severe envitonmental
conditions likely to be encountered in flight. Placement of the static ports on a pitat-static tube also
assures adequ~ate deicing of the static vents.
Pitot-static tubes offer the possibility of aerodynainic compensation for static-pressure errors. This is
accmiplished by selectively designing the shape or
the tube and the location of the static pressure ports.
A general description of aerodynamic compensation
isgiven in Ref. 13. The concept isused extensively for
conventional aircwafP, both commercial and military.
MIL-P-83207 applies tor straight-boom-mounted,
aerodynamically compensated pilct-static tubes, and
MIL.P-83206, covers L-shaped, compensated tubes,
Placement of the static ponts or the pitot-static
tube and away from the fuaclRSe skin also can reduce
errors caused by iocal skin irregularities in the vicinity of flush static vents. An extensive investigation of
surface irregularities and nonreproducibility has been
peaformned for conventional aircraft (Ref. 9).
REFERENCES
1. Blackburn, Reethoff and Shearer, Eds., Fluid
Power Control, The M. 1. T. Press.
9-48

2. B. W. Anderson. 77e Analysis twSs Deuignv of

Pnewmatic Sysiut ,tJohn Wiley and Son*, Inc.,
NY, 1967.
3. Michlne Designv. Fluid Power Reierence Isaue.
Sept. 22, 1966.
4. FRow of Fluids Throulh l'alw~s, Fittings and Pipe.
Engineer Division of Ctane Co., Chicago, IL,
5. U. S. Standard Atnsophere. Prepared Under
Sponsorship of National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, United States Air Force, United
States Weather Bureau, Washington, D-C,
December 1962.
6. Sadie P. Livingston and William Gracey. Tables
ofAirspeed, Altitude, and Mach Number Basedon
Latest International I'aluesfor At:mospheric Prop-

ere and Physical Consta.,ts. NASA Technical

Note D-822, August 1961.
7. Russel M. Herrington, et al., fl7ight Test Engineeting Handbook, AF Technical Report No.
6273, Air Force Flight Test Center, Edwards Air
Force Base, CA (AD-636 392), January 1966.
8. Richard V. 1>,Lco. Peter J. Cannon, and Floyd
W. Hagen., Evuaiaadoa of New Aes'hod~i fo Flighi
Calibration of Aircraft Instniment System,. Part
IPAnalysis of Altimeter. Airspeed, and Free-Air-

Temperature Systems. Wright Air Development

Center Technical Report 59-295 (Rosemount Engineering Company Report 6591). June 1959.
9. Richb.id V. DeLeo. Floyd W. Hagen, Robert R.
Kooiman, and Donald 1. Thompson, Evaluation
of Factors Affecting the Calibration Accuracy of

Aircraft Static Pressure Systems. USAF Technical Report SEG-rR-65-35, Air Foroe Systems
Command, VWPAFD. OH-, (Rosemount
Engineering Company Report 66227). June 1962.
10. Floyd W. Hagen and Richard V. DeLco. Flight
Calib atlon of Aircrat Static Pressure Systems,
Federal Aviation Agency, SRDS Report No.
RD-.4i-3. ("losemount Engineering Company
Repart 76431) February 1966.
1I. William Gracey. William Letko. and Walter R.
Russell, Wind-Tunnel Investlgauioai of a Number
of Total-Pressure Tubes at High A ngles of A ttack.

Subsonic Speeds. National Advisory Committee

for Aeronautics Technical Note 233 1.April 195 1.
12. R. C. Johnson, Averaging of Periodic Pressure
Pulsations by a Total-Pressure Probe, National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical
Note 3568. October 1955.
13. Richard V. DeLeo and Floyd W. Hagen, The Use
of Aerodynamically Compensated Pitot-Spatic

Tubes on Aircraft. Rcsamodnt Engineering Coinpany Report 2686C. Minneapolis. Mi.

(-

AMCP 7*-20

CHAPTER 10

INSTRUMENTATION SUBSYSTEM DESIGN

The lighting concept shall consider the total cockINTR~ODUCT'ION
pit instrumentation rcquirernieits rather than inTh'ni chapter discusses the instrumentation neeneeds. The necessity to consider all requirc.
dividual
"0*WY lIn the helicoptor cockpit to permit assigned misMents cannot be overemphasized. Also, becaus the
eeoeruuly rcrscoki
n
am
sions to be performed. Because missions must be coniductd at night. or urnde IFRK conditions, the require
strumrntatio-i from many different sources, he mtst
ments for lighting of the instrument and control pan
recognize his role as the cockpit lighting integrator
els an indkuded.
early in the detAil design process or the resulting
The instruments requieed in order to provide the
cokpit light',.g will s~affer from problems of varying
pilot with the information niecessury to conduct as-colors, imbalance, and unevenness e,cn though all
signied mission&normally should be grouped by runcvendors art designing to the same requirements. Con.
tional categories. Indluded are flight. navigation, helitrol of cockpit glare and reflections also must be adcopter subsystem, and weapon system instruments.
drsebytearinevlp.
lnstaliation roquirmennts for instrumentation ame diedresse byrthe primarym
developer.
lgtig h
Ecp o h rnayisrmn ihig h
cussed! separately. Decattse of the htgh vibration encockpit lighting for all helicopters shall be designed in
acodnewtthaplabeposinofMLvironment in which helicopter inst:uments operate,
they shall be designed and qualified to survive curve
6503. Integrally lighted instruments having a white
M (SG's) of method 514 of MIL-STD-8 lOB.
lighting system shall be dcsigned according to MILThe definition of the total helicopter instrumenL-27160. MIL-L-25467 shall be used if operutor retation package sheil include the arrangement of all
dispaysi nd
~ cntrls
~ AifC~ ~quircmenis dicmnic inc use oi red lighting. An
dislay.
ad cramh, i, me cbeI located sinfiasWiches, radio controls, auxiliary controls, and citinstrnuments and displys shall bloaeinccuit breaker panels shall be illuminated by plasticcordance with MIL-STD-250, unless unique mission
plate, edge-lighted panels, as specified in MIL-P-?788
requremets
nd sppot~nghuma fatorsenand MIL-L4 1774 for red lighting or MIL-P-& 3333
gineerirX (H FE) analysis dictate otherwise. Displays
frwielgtn.Tescnayisrmn
ae
ofa1nfl
syteTheprovidearminimrumen
frwelighting.
for other crew stations shall be arranged to provide
lihtndleysofetherhl preorvwite illmintionm on 1 fthugood control/display compatibifity, along with mininthsr
inswhtru en iluianel.
m ren
facdesof ether
for
mumi workload and minimum' oppoilunrtiy
human error. The most satisfactory method of assuring that these goals are achieved is by a systematic
10-2i LIGHTING INTENSITY CONTROL
HFE analysis which should be accomplished as early
! isdis~used n mre
Unless Gtherwisc specified by the procuring acin he esin
osabl.
oaseas
revihew adei paevauo asrosbe:
dtiscu issedinCatrl 5,
tiuul0aibl ihigitnst
otosa
tivity, the instruments shall be grouped on condetai in par. 13-3, AMCP 706-201. Formal mock-up

10-1

mock-up is not limited to the evaluation of the in-.

stnzniet subsystem.

REQUIREMENTS

1)

WIH~ GENERAL
The lighting concepts in use today vary from red to
white in the color spectrum, and from direct lighting
to diffused indirect lighting techniques. A number of
solid-state light-emitting instruments recently have
been developed, and these may be appropriate for use
in helicopter cockpits. Such applications have used
electroluminescent (EL) lighting, liquid crystals, and
light-emittingl diodes (LED).

I. Side-by-side:
mana. Pilot's basic flight and navigation displays on

plays on main instrument panel

c. Propulsion and other subsystem displays on

main instrument pancl
d. Center console
e. Overhead console
f. Secondary panel lighting
2. Tandem:
a. Pilot's basic flight and navigation displays on
main instrument panel

b. Pilot's propulsion and other subsystem dis.

plays on main instrument panel

c. Pilex's side consoles

d. Pik-t's secondary panel lighting

a. Co-pilot/gunner's main intrument ptmel

f. Co-pilot gunner's side consoles

g. Co-0ilot/1unner'a seondary panel lighting,
Lighting rheostats sW1. be canxble of continuous
adjustment from FULL "ON" to FULL "OFF" to
provide the low settings requit&l for use with light
amplification dvioss such as night vision goggles. A
single switch to control all cockpit lighting AII be
provided if night vision g0$&le will be used extensively.
1."2.3 LOW INTENSITY RlADAJILITY
Particular attention must be directed toward optimizing the primary instrument lighting and edge-lit
panels for readability at low intensity settings. All
pointer, scale marking, and nomenclature sui be
readable at 30% rated voltage when viewed from a
distano of 32 in. under fully dark adapted conditions. This can best be accomplished by mainStaingq utnifcrmity in sale design. and letter size and
significantly in the
may differ
font. Two instuments
., ..... %:., .
.. I.:....
=d th,.
,
meat with the grater total marking area wid appear
brighter. Caeful attention to balancing the ar
between instruments will reduce the difference. In
some cam a resistor may be added in the lighting circult of the instrument with greater apparent brightnms if matching the arem of the dial face markings is
not pinatical. Additional design gwuidaiue in instrumeint lighti2 design may be found in Ref. 4 and 5.
10-2.

WARMI G, CAUTIOi, AND ADVISORY

All waraing, caution, and advisory signals "!

Ml
~ diqilayed,
t.As~vi~qali
designed,
sad operated inaalnauaebly
accrdanoe with

dition. The use f avoioawarning systan (VWS)am

should be considered. VWS is advantasous perticularly during mission phaose when the crew's task

loading is high and their attention is directed ouluide

the cockpit. Under such conditios, a light mIga fIraquently may go undetected for long perlods of time.
In addition when a problem is deteed via a ir"
caution or wgarning li'ght, th speifi Maim, or
warning light then must be located and mrad, d otrective action initiated or deferred. dspending
the cuiticality of the problem. With VWS. thi cow is
made aware immiwiwtely of the exact atme of tdo
proolem and can decide whether to niltiate or defar
corrective action without diverting attetvio from
primary tanks. However, as with a vWualo
noise and auditory load may not provide an eviraoment conducive to the detection and weogaltion of
aural caution or -warning signali The funal mi of

visual and auditory caution/warning sigals AW be

based on a human factors analysis of (I) citicity,
i.e., time available to respond to eaich cauti

war-

ning signal; and (2)the %isualand audio workload of

each mission sagment for which a caution/warning
signal is critical. The lists of warning, caution, and
advisory siasals that follows are provided is a
suggested baseline. Thc final eonfisfurulo su'.4 be
determined from the subsystem failure modes and
effects analysis, and the previously mentioned MFE
analysis.
tM-AI.! Warming Sl h
Warning signals should include, but not be limited
to, the following information:
I , Engine out (identify engine if multiengine)
2. Engine fire (identify engine if multiengine)
3. Landing pear up (if retractable gar installed)
4.
appliable)
5. APU
Other fire
fire (if
Lones
(as appropriate)
6.
Low/k~gh rotor/ftline RPM.
6.Lwhhror/gieP.

MIL-STD-41 1.A warning signal is a signal wsemirbly

indicating the existence of a hazardous condition
r-quiring immediate corrective action. A caution
Signal is a signal ambly indicating the existance or

10-2.4.2 Cmiee
Caution signals should include, but not be limited

an impending dangerous condition requirina attention but not necemarily immediate action. An advitory signal is b signal astambly indicating safe or
normal configuration, condition of performancs,
operation of essential equipment, or to attract attention Qnd imlpt information for routine action
purposes. Special consideration sad/ bc given to
minimiig erroneous 6igaals, and to combining
h, rMu input parameters through logic networks in
order to provide a more credible signal for such complex and citical situations as an enine-out con.

to, the following information:

I. Low transmission oil
2. Low engine oil pressure(identify engineifmultiengine)
3. Low hydraulic fluid presur (identify system)
4. High engine oil temperature (identify engine if
multingine)
5, Low evgine fuel pressure (identify engain if
multiengine)
6. Engine fuel pump inoperative (identify wngin
if multimigine)

10-2

AMCP 70-202
7. Low fuel quanrtity (20-min warning)
8. Fuel filter bypass operatins (for each filter)
9., Oil filter bypw opeating (for each filter)
10. Chip detector (engine)
II. Chip detector (accesory section)
I1. Chip detector (transmission)
13. Chip detector (tail rotor gearbox)
14. Engine inlet icing (if applicable)
IS. Other icing detectors (where appropriate)
16. Electrical system faihart (both AC and DC)
I. Essential AC bus OFF
1. Main transmission oil pressure
19. Main transmission oil temperature
20. APU low oil pressure (if applicable)
21. APU high oil tumperature (if applicable)
22. APU rotor speed (low/high) (if applicable)
23. SAS failure
24. Oil cooter bypas operating
25. Low oil level for each independent oil subsytem
26. Drive system overtorque (if engine rating is
sfignificantly higher
than drive system),

20-24.3 Ad'Isry U S
Advisory litSht should ini.lude, but not be limited
to, the following information:
I. AFC5 diengagc
2. Pilot heat ON
3. Parking brake ON
4. Anti-ice ON (if applicable)
5. External power ON
& Starter ON
7. Rotor brAke (if applicable)
8. APU ON (it' applicable).

j3
10-3.1

T INSTRUMENTS

GENERAL

Helicopter flight instruments are basically similar

to those of fixed-wing aircraft although frequently
they are optimized or provided with additional
features to make them more suitable for helicopters,
This paragraph dia.ussca preferred arrangements
and other characterihaics for the selection of helicopter flignt instruments. The detail specifications
will define when multiple installations art required.

10-3,2 AIR SPEED) INDICATORS

In view of the ability of the helicopter to fly at very
low airspeeds, including hover, airspeed indicators
suitable for use in fixed-wing aircraft are not ac.
ceptable for installation in helicopters. Instruments
having increased accuracy in the low-airspeed range
have been qualified, and shal be specified for heli-

copter installation. Airspeed systems that are capable

of measuring and displaying both the magnitudz and
direction of the relative wind should be considered
when accurate relative wind data are required to improve weapon or navigation system accuracy, or
when relative wind limitations during hover are
critical.
1033 ALTIMETERS
Barometric altimeters installed in Army helicopters shall be of the countei-drum.puinter configuration. A maximum altitude reading of 30,000 ft
is adequate for use in helicopters. One of the altimeters in each helicopter shall provide encoded altitude information to the transponder compatible with
tkl, CONUS air traffic control system.
Sonm mission applications may require an altitude
display that providts an accurate and direct indication of relative altitude or height above the
terrain. In these cams, radio or radar altimeter will
be specified in addition to barometric altimezeis.
10-3.4 TURN-AND-BANK INDICATORS
The turn-and-bank indicator provides rate of turn,
and/or needle and bail sideslip information. in some
cases, the turn-and-bank indicator should be cornbined with the attitude indicator. However, the turn
rate gyro and the attitude gyro shall be provid3d with
independent power sources.
10-3.5 ATTITUDE INDICATOR
The attitude indicator provides the pilot with a
substitute for the real horizon as a rclerence for maintaining desired aircraft pitch and roll attitude under
all flight conditions. A typical attitude indicator is the
IND-A5-UHI. This device is an electrically driven
(400
Hz) gyro that is housed in a standard 5-in. instrument
case, a size that is preferred fcr ease and accuracy of reading and interpretation. Because of the
magnitude of instrumentation required in m-,., Army
helicopters, the basic attitude indicator #_enerally is
replaced with a mo.e highly integrated display such
as a vertical situation indicator (VSI). The VSI, if
spocified, shall provide the following as a minimum:
attitAde (pitch and roll), rate of turn, inclinometer information (slip and skid), FNI homing and station
passage, glide slope, pitch and roll trim, and weak
signal flag alarm. When a flight director system is
provided, command bars are added to the above resuiting in an instrument referred to as an attitude
director indicator (ADI). An example of an ADI
which has been optimized for helicopter application,
including a coll;ctive pit.h command, is shown in
Fig. 10-1.
10-3

2J

II'

21

"ID

17

ROLL
AT

CL.1,RT

FTR

5o PTCH TT. CALE15,

4,FI/
IECO MFA
15
I.

GYRO FLAG

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

ROLL ATT. SCAL~

ROLL ATT. INDEX POINTER
FLIGHT DIRECTOR CMD. FLAG
PITCH ATT. SCALE
DECISION HEIGHT LAMP

14

7. VERTICAL DEVIATION SCALE

S. VERTICAL DEVIATION POINTER

9. VEWACAL DEVIATION FLAG

10.

10-4

M-.

Typical Hldopteo

~P[YMBO

NLIOEE

13

12 11

11.

LATERAL DEVIATION SCALE

12.
13.
14.
15.
16..

RATE Of TURN SCALE

RATE OF TURN POINTER
INCLINOMETER
-PAU SYMBOL
ROLL TRIM KNOB

17. ROLL CMD. POINTER

18. COLLECTIVE CMD. POINTER

19. HELICOPTER SYM60L

20.

PITCI TRIM KNOB

lm

CL

PITCH C4D. POINTER

AWtlti Director Iudk-atoF

LI
-

AMCP ?06-202
10-3.6 RATE-OF-CLIMB INDICATORS

Typically. these mi;;mum requirements are met with

The mechanization
of atet-of-climb indicStors i
dTeribed
in par. 9-3.4.2.
Rate-of-climb indicators in-

three instruments: clock, standby magnrtic compau.

and radio magnetic indicator (RMI) which displays

descibe
9-.4..
inpair
Rae-o-dib inicaorsin-

sta;ed in Army helicopters shall be the rapid re"spoan accelerometer-aided type with a scale range of
6000 fpm.

104 NAVIGATIONAL
TATION

INSTRUMEN-

10.4.1 GENERAL
The types of navigational systems used in Army
hslicoptcrs are dependent upon the mission w
signed. The tynes of equipment to be installed will be
defined by the detail specification for each model of
helicopter. The detail specification als will indicate
Government-furnished mad contractor-furnished
equipment. This paragraph discusses the types of
navigation instrumentation most commonly employod in Army helicopters. The navigational systems

the last throc of the given functions on an instrumentm

similar to that shown in Fig. 10-2.

If mission requirements include extensive CONUS
IFR flight, a simplfrid course indicator similar to
that shown in Fig. 10-3 may be added to provide
VOR/ILS course deviation; or the functions of the
RMI, and course indicator. combined on a horizontal situation indicator (HSI) similar to that shown
in Fig. 10-4. The HSI provides the additional capability of displaying the distance to the selected navigation aid or way-point. The capability to display
both range 'in kilometers) and bearing to selected
-aypoints stJll be provided if mission requirements
include nap-of-thnarth (NOE) navigation.

that these dhaplays are based upon and the functions

performed by than are described in par. 8-3.

J

10-41 TWYES OF INSTRUMEN'rS

The instrume.,tation required for IFR flight is

X
&

dzifirned in AR 95-1. The mininuimn rc-quired navigation instrumentation is:

1. Magnetic compass with current calibration card
2. Clock with sweep second hand
3. Gyrt-stsbilized heading referenceFR
4. Automatic direction finder (ADF)
5. VOR receiver (if VOR facilites are to be used).

OP

A(

01.
o

Ar

02A
R

Figure 10-2. RadIo Magetlk Indicator

HORIZONTAL POINTER
RECIPROCAL POINTER
3. VERTICAL POINTER
4. COURSE POINTER
5. COURSE SELECTOR KNOB

Figure 1e-3. Course Imilkator

10-5

DIST

12~

CPS

vi

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

DISTANCE READOUT
COURSE ARROW
HEADING BUG
LUBBER LINE
HEADING FLAG

7. DIGITAL COURSE
b. BEARING POINTER NO. I
9. NAV FLAG
10. LONGITUDINAL DEVIATION BAR
)I. HELICOPTER SYMBOL

6. LATERAL DEVIATION BAR

Fomw I.
10-6

12.

Hauu

BEARING PONTER NO. 2

SI..in.m Iaiw (HSI)

AMCP 706-202
&r. This approach becomes particularly attractive in

143 Map Disptys

Bemause controlling the helicopter and mainarelibopthver dmny

onring
th
tain geographical
taining geographical orientation are both very dei ianding tasks in NOE flight, a map display may be
to reduce crew workload. The capability
considered
to display present position continuously is patticularly.y2.valuble when terrain obstacles require frequent heading changes. Map displays are generally
either of the projected film or paper rol!cr type. The
primary advantages of each of these types are:
I. Projected Map Display Advintages;
a. Simpler map preparation for a specific mission
b. Larger map storage capability

c. Display can be orientcd either track-up or

north up
scale change
Simpoe in flight
d.
Adantges.
Roller
figtsplaye
Advantages,
Roller Mp
Map Display
2. 2.
cost
a. Lower initial
b. Easier preflight and inflight annotation

10-5

HELICOPTER SUBSYSTEM
STRUMENTATIOA

10-5.1

GENERAL

IN-

the event sufficient onboard computer capacity

exists. Unless otherwise specified in the detail specification. the following subsystem parameters s/all be
displayed:
I. Gas generator rotor speed, calibrated in percent, for each engine, and for the APU (if applicable)
Turbine gas temperature, calibrated in C, for
each engine, and for the APU (if applicable)
3. Output shaft speed, calibrated in percent, for
each engine
4. Output shaft torque, calibrated in percente for
each engine
egni5. Total utegn
torque, calibrated in percent for all
engines. if multiengine
6. Rotor speed, calibrated in percent, for the
main ro)tor
7. Oil temperature, calibrated in C, for each
engine
8. Oil pressure calibrated in pounds per square
inch (gage), for each engine

9. Fuel quantity, calibrated in pounds, for each

fuel tank
10. Total fuel quantity, calibrated in pounds, for

Subsystemn instrumentation provides cockpit

rfereles that desribe the condition of enins,.eh
secondary power systems, and ancillary equipment.

all fuel tanks

II. Oil pressure, calibrated in pounds per square
re
rit_ g.rb
r
calibrated in 9C, for each
demiferasure,
12. Oil

When pilot and copilot are Geated side-by-siue, the

drive subsystem gearbox.

most common instrunment panel arrangement groups

the subsystem instruments in the center of the pantl.
When the pilots are seated in tandem, it is necessary
to duplicate some of the subsystem instruments and
to place ther. on each pilot's panel. Preferred locations are given in MIL-STD-250.
10-$51

INSTRUMENTATION REQUIRED

Electrical, hydraulic, and pneumatic subsystem instrumentation should be based on subsystem capacity, redundancy, and failure modes. When redundant
hydraulic systems or redundant generators - either
of which is capable of carrying the !ntire electrical
load - are provided, caution lights indicating
generator failure or loss of hydraulic pressuie may
prove sufficient.

Thei
number and complexity of the instrLmcnts arc
limited to the minimum required for safe and el-

ficient operation of the individual subsystems.

The amount of instrumentation requirtd dcpends
upon the size of the helicopter and the complexity of
its subsystems. A single-engine, light helicopter ot.viously requires less instrumentation than a multiengine, transport helicopter. Cost, weight, and panel
space savings frequently can be reslized by having
several similar parameters share the same display.
Since many subsystem parameters are of concern
only in event of a malfunction, the appropriate parameter can be selected manually cr automatically for
display when a caution light illuminates. Rapid advances in electronics may result in the cost-effective
replacement of many individual instruments with a
CRT display, symbol generator, and digital proces-

10-6

WEAPON SYSTEM

INSTRUMENTATION
10-6.1 GENERAL
This paragraph describes the required design standards for controls and instrun.cnts for the helicopter
armament subsystem. Contrary to flight and naagation displays, which frequently can be selected offthe-shelf with little or no modification, weapon
system instrumentation is gencrall) uniqt.! o the
nweapons mix on a specific airframe. Caa-cf,
tion to mission requirements and esti fii.:"
ciple5 of human engineering are required to ,.
an optimized man/machine weapon system. .,e
armiament controls and instruments should provide
the operator wi'h rapid armamrnt subsystem status

10-7

AW;

7W0~2O__

__

104.2 DESIGN REQUIREM1ENTS

For all weapon control systems, the following
design rqietnshalbe ape
ciosa
appedtct
Meulirlem ndpentsabll
tote st
opqertaation
traoly
pref
equ.r frmltipe, intald

2. Two actimaions art required, preferably by two

separate controls whicit should be separated so that
they cannot bc actuated by one movemtent. For
example, most turrets require that both an "Action"
ox "Meadman" switch and a trigger be dq~ressd
before the weapon will fire. Lever-lock and/or hooded conrigurations shall be used for all master arming
switches. These controls shall be designed so that iradvertent activistion is prevented. A will-to-ust control catoability should he provided. Both the design
and the crew responsibility for this contcol should be
developed based upon human factor studies of the
particular system.
3. Reversible, inflight capability of armning and returning to an unarmed, or safe tandition shall be
provided for weapons and/or suspension and release
mechanisms. The ARMED state shall be designed to
return automaticaliy to SAFE. and the SAFE state
should remain unchanged in the event. of an aircraft

mal firing or release of the ordnance. All weapon

controls and circuits shall tx fail-safe so as to preve:it
firing or release of ordnance in the event of improper
control operations or sequences. Who-TC prauticable,
the design should make it either mechanically or eleca
tric llv mn~ngsMihleinP tun~,tiilt e'intorn] cr~r-z;e
a - -r----improper sequence. The operator shall be ptov~dtd
with feedback to indicate improper sequencing. If
deemed necessary, it is permissible to have controls
serving dual fuanctions, however, in no cast should
safey b comromsed.Conrol usc~ fr prarn or

powert
faidlur
hle.
eige o mu
n n
4.acio
Thetwieen phaowerdeined toprcludemamny cintrcinbtenpwradciia
raetcr
cuits. Cont~ol power shall not be applied to the
wao nesi stre
n tninlyb h
operator of the system.
5. Jettisoning of ordnancc may be effczted individually or in multiples, provided that the warheads
are in an unarmed state. Depending upon the arniantstedsgmiilaaybjtioedihr
by free fall or by being tired from their launchers.

2. Where practicable, all armament controls and

indicators with the exception of the fitring switch shall
be grouped together. The group should be outlined
hy a 3/16-in red border (Color 3116, -ED-STD-59S).
Orange-yellow (Color 23538. FED-STD-395) and
black (Color 27038, FED-STD-595) striped borders
shall be used to outline armament groups when red
compartment lighting is used. Placaro abbreviations
shall be madc for each indicator and: control in accordance with MIL-STD-783 and A14A BUL 261.
Preered'octirsateshwnir. MIL-STD-29.
3. A complet, failure mode and effect analysis
(FMEA) during the design stage is desirable ini order
to preclude the inadvertent design of unsafe failure
modes into the system.
10-6.2.1 4rm14, FaziLng, and Smuspension and
.leue Costrol Design
Require-rents for the helicopttr arming, fuzing,
and suspeznsicn and release control systems include:
1. The helicopter commander shall he provided
with the capability to permit and/or to prohibit prearming a~nd arming of the weapons.

18A,2.2
In -ill
dividual
operated
order of

indication, and with rapid control of the particular

systems and selection of various avak'iable options.
Shape coded controls should be considered to allow
the opmrtor to select the various sight modes, and
types anti quentitier of ordnance with a minimum diversion from his search or tracving taks. The design
sAill provide the operEtor with up-to-Ihe-minutet
store inventory information in order to insure the intelligent choice of ordnance for firing. Design consideration also shall Ze given to preclude inadvertent
activation of-the weapin systems.

10-8

Hism FachmsvC.nkmiewale
:lose-pro'iimity control groups, the incontrols "~ be arranged so that those
in jeqiamee mr in line and in their normal
operation prerasakuig from left-to-right or
two or nmr switefles
110om tur-iu-butieun.
mu. c activated sim wiously or in a rapid wo
quenc- they should be laihd so that they can be
reacheo simultantstwly from a r~ position. Each
control should be plarod so that it does not %inde-the
operation of another control in the NqL.;=, With
adequate clearance for a 95th percentie gloved hand.
1"4.23 Imidhess Deelp
The following are weapon system indicator design
lujectives:
L. indicators shall have high reliability.
2. A minimum number of indicators shmu be
provided in the crew compartment to show the condition (armed or safe) of critical! weapon comnponents.
3. Indic*b~or systems shall be current-limaited so as

)
to prt-.ude indicator current from activating ar-/
weapon or suspension and Mease component. If wa.hwd coatinuity monitoring is required, the monitoinSg cumrnts s"Ill be limited to a value below that
which will activate tie most sensitive component. Indicator circuits that are integral to control circuits
canau. meet tWis reqietnemnt, and thus, should be
avoided.
4. Indicator systems suadil be designed so that indi.. -r power is not available to any part of the
weapon sytem unless it is turned on intentionally by
the operator.
5. Indicator tests shall be possibie in flight, independent of tiii indicator-related components.
6. The operatir shall be provided with visual indication of a "hot" t-lger condition. This indication
should be in tLdc operator's direct line of sight. The
most conmmon indication is the use of an amber light,
which alerts the operator to use caution when the
weapons rmr armed.
7. The operator shall be provided with a visual or
aural missile condition indication (miv~ile launched
or being launched) signal.
or misr 8. Immediater visual
. indication of hangfires

forming weapon selection sequencing at the cornmand of the controller.

The controller/programmcr unit(s) must be
mounted in a readily accessible area, but not
i-.oassarily in tie control pane I area. However in the
case of a guidance control system for nissiles, location in the panel area may be required. The controller/programmer function may be divided between
any reasonable number of subunits. The subunits
may be mounted in functionally convenient
locations, e.g., one per store location; or the entire
functien may be handled at one or two units mounted
in a central area. In alh cases, the programmer portion(s) must be easily accessible during ordnance
loading. The programmer porion(s) of the unit(s)
shaul provide some means of programming into the
unit the type of ordnance loaded into the various
stores locations. This input may be provided by
switches, keypunch, patchboard, or any other
suitable means. Based upon the information pro.
vided by the programiffer unit(s), the controller portion(s) shall provide the function or ordnance selection, firing, and guidance (when required), and the
delivery
as selected
by the operator.
rate oforder
ordnance
in utimnlifif
,in
renuirements,
nortions

9. Identical visual indiestions arc to be employed

whether live or training missiles are aboard the helicopter. This will insure that the crew acts at all times
as though live missiles wae aboard.
10. Arming and fuzing indicators shall be fully
automatic. Excpt for the-power-on furmtion, and the
pres-to-test feature of the monitor test~ng fJncdiona,
no manual operatiot, should be required. For multipie carriage, each weapon should be monitored indvidually. This may be accomplished either selectively or continuously,
1I. Weapon malfunction, if iz occurs during the
presrm cycle, shall be indicated.

oi the controller which nufct not be accessible dur;..g

normal usage of the system may be located wherever
conenient on the aircraft. The controller shall
provide an effective ground of all electrically fired
ordnanct. This ground shall be lifted only during
firing. Parts of the controller/programmer that must
be accessible on a regular basis - e.g., rocket on stub
wing of the helicopter -- may be mounted inside the
leading edge of the stub wing. This would require box
sizes limited to approximately 3 X 4 X 10 in. at each
location.

10".3 WEAPON SELECTION

CONTROLLER/PROGRAMMER

The type of insti ument to be used depends upon

the condition that the instrument is recording and the
required ease of interpretation on the part of the
crewmernbet monitoring it. The designer shall consider: the beat type of display for the information to
be provided (qualitative, quantitativc rate, trend,
etc.); proper scale design to cover the required range,
yet provide adequate discrimination in critical
ranges; proper alphanu-meric design to assure readability under low-level illumination and in a typical
helicopter vibration environment and the reliability/
maintainability features of potential designs. In addition to MIL-STD-1472 and AFSC #DH 1-3, Refs. I,
2. and i should be reviewed for additional information.

'In

zrc mumI DL pruviuc-z.

A weapon selection controller and programmer

jhall be required tor helicopters canrying a .ariety of
ordnance. This unit also is required for configurations incorporating selective or automatic illterval sequence launching of wistiiif and rockets
from alternate xides of the helicopter.
""econtroller provides the operator with a choice
of type and quantity of ordnance. If necessary, the
controller als can provide controls for .iissile
guidance operations. The programmcr port
,f this
unit stores basic information about store a' ailability
and ammunition depletion status, in addition to per-

10-7 TYPES OF !NSTRUI1ENTS

10-9

CP7O05)201
The two types of instrument actuation are direct
and remote indicating.
10.71 INTALLTIONof
cversthegenralrequremntsfor
MIL--597
the installation of aircraft instruments and Inoweer te vbraion ouning
struentpanes,
oweer te vbraion ouning
struentpanes.
spezifications are inappropriate for most helicopter
installations and generally aye waived for the rigid
mounting described in par. 10-7.2.
16-712 VIBRATION
The installation of instruments requires that
special attention be given to the vibration of the comnplete instrument panel. Because each instr.,ment has
its own set of vibration requirements as set forth in its
specification, the designer must review the applicable procurement specification for each instrument. He must determine the maximum frequency
and double amplitude permissible, and must stelec a
set of instruments that is compatible in this regard.
Ideally, the method of establishing the vibration
and test criteria for a new helicopter should be based
upont Ithorough vibration analysis that defines the
anticipated vibration conditions. Reference to WALSTD410 vwill aissist in this analysis,
in general, and specifically for new designs, the
normal procedure is to make the instrument panel as
rigid as possible in order to avoid any resonatices that
may be excited by rotor fundamental frequencies.
(This conflicts with the vibrationi requirements of
MIL-l-3997, which usually is waived.) Should the vibration charsacri~stics of an individual instrument be
incompatible with the environment provided by the
rigid panel, vibration isolatorr may be used in the
mounting of the ctitical instrumentr.

10-10

10-7.3 ACCESSI1BILITY AND MAINTENANCE

All panel-mounted initruments &WaI be mounted
with the casw lugs or mounting ring against the front
the panel so that the instrument wnay be installed
and removed from the front. Each instrument shall be
installed with enough electrical wiring or coraducting
tubing to permit the instrument to be pulled out of
the panel to expose its connections. Wh-re necessary,
suitable means should be provided to prevet fouling
or objectional interference of slack wiring or tubing
when the instrument is installed in the panel. Each
connection should be well identified so as to pmo
dlude its being hooked up to another instrument inadvertently.

REFERENCES
I1.E. J. McCormick, Humaan Factors Enghwf.ed.
McGraw-Hill, NY. 1970.
2. Morgan, Cook, Chaphis, and Lund, Humanw
Engineering Guide to Equipment Design.
McGraw-Hill, NY, 1962.
3. Semple, Hespy, Conway, and Bus ii.'W, AawdysLf
of Human Factors Data for !EJectronicFlight
Display Systems. Technical Report AFFDLTR740-174. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laborntory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Bane, OH
45433, April 1971.
4. G. W. Godfrey, Principlesof Display Illumination
Techniques for Aerospace Vehice Crew Stations.
Aerospace Lighting Institute, P. 0. Box 19122,
Columbus OH 439'19.
3. Handbook of Ae fIluminatin-P EngineeringSociety. NY. 1966.

CHAFE?. 11

AIRFRAME STRUCTURAL DESIGN

11.0l
t

UISTOFSYMBlOLS
=, limit Colo aceleration. number of gte
gfs, dau
&

i.e.. by welding.
alrkarne is to be fabricated
forging.
buildup (riveted or bonded), or

from composte materAls - is the principal decision

mesioless
- a
mcleration due to gravity. 3
ekalero

imn-

a,

aeation ratio, /
aoties
- longitudinal aeleration, number of x"s,

diensionless2
IL
VL

Ve
w
X

- Limit flight load factor, dimensionless

- thim for accleration to reamh limit cargo
acceleration. c
- time to mech peak al
tion, am
- velocity at tune tI, fN/e
- iditial Velocity, ft/e
- width of the cargo floor, ft
- controlled deltion, in.

|
.g

1-1

INTRODUCTION

to be made in detail design. The trade-off criteria to

be used during the investigation of fabrication
techniques include weight, surface finish, stiffness
and ruggedness, fatigue scWtivity, cost, and properof materials.

DESIGN CONSIDERA

ONS

11-2.1 WEIGHT
.-- the begnning of the detail design effort, the
weight group piovides the weight budget to th:
desin group. The weight budget is based on statistical analyses and estimates of the prelimit.ary design. A state-of-the-art design, therefore, normally
would meet the weight allowance, while advanced
design techniques and new material- should produce
a structure weigahing ic than the aiiotment. incou-poration of new design techniques in order to save

weight must be considered in conjunction with the

Structural considerations for helicopter major

"ouponet
design were discussed in Captcr i. This

other requirements sioo-, for instance, advanced

designs may increaw the airframe coat. In any case, a

"chapteris concerned with the detail structural design

strict accounting of weight with respect to the budget

mug be maintained throughout detail design.

or the airframe only; i.e., fuselag tail boom, stabilisers, fins, and auxliary lifting wings. Secondary
stucture, such as door, cowlings, and fairings, is inciuded. Detail design of transparent &ram also is di*caumsod.
!bebhask. bop_.'.t- configuration is chosen and
the external loads aii developed during the prolininary design of the heliopter. Fundamental airframe decisions, such as whether to use monocoque
or usmimoucoque construction, also arc made durin preliminary design. The task in detail design is to
confirm that the airframe structure designed in preliminary desgn meets the mission performance and
curvivability requirerments, and that it can be de,eloped and produced within the budget cost estabtisbed for it.
The bases for detail design are the helicopter detail
spedfications, MIL-S-8698 and MIL-A-886 through
-8871. and the design criteria defined by or developed
from than documents.
The detail design involves selection between alternative types of local structure by application of
certain trade-off criteria. Material properties, method
of fabrication, weight, and strength limitations are all
eimpotant considerations in the design confirmation.
edtemnation of how a particular portion of the

11-22 SURFACE SMOOTHNESS

Surface smoothnes is anr.ther structural quality
that affects aircraft performanc. CriteriN that limit
the use of protruding fasteners, stipulate iraged treas,
and dictate external contours are providod Oy the
aerodynamic group. The extent to which 'nese criteria are applied depends upor the impact upon
manufacturing "ost.It may be possible to trade off
the additional cots of meeting these criteria through
simplification (therefore, lower costs) of the structure
itself.
A curved surface often will be more costly, but it
will be stiffer, more rugged, lighter, and less fatiguesensitive than the simpler alternative. Limiting flush
fasteners to the forward 25% of the airframe aerodynamic ltngth may be an acceptable compromise
that will yield the required drag reduction.
!!.2. STIFFNESS AND RUGGEDNESS
Airframe comprnents must have adequate stiffnes to meet stated vibration criteria. There must be
adequate separation between the natural frequencies
of prime modes end the exciting frequencies. This
frequency separation will reduce the internal stresses

-I

Ai"

caused by amplification (a phenomenon cxperimced

design stage. Mitarials, tooling, labor, quality con-

Yheu operating near resonance). Vibration levels at

the pilot and crew positions oftzn are excessive (uncomfortable and distracting) 4",- to poor airframe
design; rotor vibmr.ion has been amplified by structurl elements whose natural frequency is too close to
the operating frequencics or to multiples thereof.
Vibration of structural components can cause
audible noise or pilot fatigue. In addition to crew oiscomfort, vibration can cause structural fatigue and
possible catastrophic failure.
Ruggedness is a quality that prevents denting or
puncturing of structure by rotor-induced debris,
ground handling, erosion, or brush. It is difficult to
prescribe physical characteristics that would prevent
these types of damage. Flight testing of a prototype
should include simulated operational conditions so
that ruggedness can be checked. These tests will show
those areas that must be strengthened, resulting in the
minimum weight increment to obtain the required
capability.

trol, and facility costs arc irvolved. Mak--or-buy do.

cisions may influence detail design of components.
For example, a fairing might be manufactured in
hou&c if molded from Fibglasu; but if pressed from
aluminum, it might have to be developed outside. In
such an instance, weight, stiffness, etc., atso must be
considered when the method ef manufacture is being
selected. Table Il-I indicates the cost impact of
various detail design alternatives.
Each manufacturer can p1pare mch a table dofing
preliminary design and update it during detail design
using specific cost data. The tabl s a particilarly
useful design tool if it is itated on a cost-per-air.
frame-pound basis.
Operating costs for airframe srictures consist of
repair, maintenance, and replaomat parts costs.
The design objectve should be a maintenance-free
life equal to the anticipated service life of the helicopter.

11-2A FATIGUE SENSITIViTY

tati-ally utiu.
iigbweighi deigns may be

11-2.6 MATERIALS
In preliminary design, material selection has been
compi-ited. A most important detail design conca-

tigue-sensitive. Attention must be paid to the detai's

sideration is material verification. A wide variety of

of the airframe structure to prevent fatigue sensitivity. For example, designers would like to eliminate the clips attaching the stringers to frames in
the fuselage, thus saving both weight and cost. However, experience has shown that skin and bulkhead
flange cracks occur when the clips ame omitted.
A highly loaded airframe fitting may have sufficient static strength because a high heat treatment is
provided, but, as a result, the maturial may be notchsensitive and prone to fatigue failure.
Orain orientatio, in highly loaded fittings is important. The most efficient structural design is obtained by orienting the longitudinal grain in the di
rection of the primary load. A fitting may be fatiguesensitive if the transverse grain is oriented in the
prinwtry load direction.
1 .
Ctribution
11.5 COST
In the design of the airframe, three cost areas

ferrous metals, nonferrous metals, and nonmetallic

materials is available. Characteristics of thise metals
and materials are described in Chapter 2. Additionally, Table 11-2 summarizes materials, characteristics, and their uses in helicopter airframe construction.

should be considered: cost to develop, cost to manufacture, and cost to operate.

The cost of development includes that of design,

radar-transparent materials and/or nonreflective

coatings. Reflectivity characteristics of the key aspects of the helicopter also may be reduced, at least

11-2.7 SURVIVAI1LITY
The survivability characteristics of an Army helicopter desi2n include:
'I. Detectability
2. Vulnerability to enemy ballistic threats
3. Crauhwor. hiness.
Detection methods to be considered are radar, infrared (IR) radiation, acoustics, and visual. In the
design of the airframe structure, the greatest conto roduciig the detectability can be made by
reducing the radar cross-section of the holicopter
fuselage. The techniques available include the use of

development :f new methods, and testing rcquired to

for selected radar frequencies, by careful attention to

prove the design. Dsvelopment testing is a very important design tool. A number of design alternatives
can be tested under identical conditions to find the
best design. The coats involved may be high, particularly where fatigue testing is involved.

the shape of the target presented to the transmitted

beam.
The specific ballistic threats to which the helicopter
will be exposed and the desired levels of protection
will be stated by the helicopter system specification.

Manufacturuig costs must be estimatc'! during the

The use of armor materials to defeat ballistic threats

11-2

~AMCP 706-202

TABLE si-I. COST IMPACT, AIRFRAME DETAIL DESIGN

COST AREA

WELDED

RIVETED

CAST

FORGED

BONDED

LOW
NONE
NONE

MEDIUM
NONE
LOW

HIGH
LOW
HIGH

HIGH
MEDIUM
MEDIUM

MEDIUM
MEDIUM
MEDIUM

MANUFACTURING
MATERIAL
TOOLING
LABOR
UALITY CONTROL
ACILITIES

LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
HIGH
LOW

LOW
MEOIUM
MEDIUM
LOW
LOW

LOW
MEDIUM
"*
HIGH
MEDIUM

LOW
HIGH
MEDIUM
HIGH

MEDIUM*
HIGH
MEDIUM
HIGH
HIGH

PROOF OF ADEQUACY
ANALYSIS
GROUND TEST

LOW
NONE

MEDIUM
HIGH

LOW
HIGH

LOW
LOW

MEDIUM
MEDIUM

DEVELOPMENT
DESIGN
METHODS
TESTING

*IF BORON FILAMENTS OR THE LIKE ARE USED, THIS COULD BE HIGH.

"*DEPENDS ON QUANTITY--HIGH PRODUCTION RATE RESULTS IN LOWER COST.

.9
TABLE 11-2. MATERIAL SELECTION - AIRFRAME DESIGN

rWEIGHT,

lb

STIFFNESS
psi

I1

TENSILE
STRENGTH
psi

COST
S In

AIRFRAME USE

FERROUS METALS:
CARBsON STEELS

ALLOY SIEELS

STAINLESS STEEL

IAPPROXIMATELY

30 x 10G

0.3

PH STEELS

180.000
300,000

LOW
MEDIUM
MEDIUM
HIGH
HIGH

MARAGING STEELS

NON-FERROUS
METALS.
ALUMINUM

0.1

MAtNEbIUM
TIIAriUM

0.06
0:15

0.03

i5,000
30.000

10 x 105
6 x 106
5 x 106_

LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH

FITTINGS
FiREWALLS
FITTINGS
SHEET ELEMENTS
SANDWICH FAC!NGS

CASTINGS

FORGINGS

NON-METALLIC: *
THERMPL ASTICS
IHEFMOSETTING
ELASTOMERIC

GLASS
LAMINATES
FIBERGLAS

5000

1LOW

LOW

5Lu

IiWORK
0.6A6

GRAPHITE

I BORON
I
*WHERE OPTICAL QUALITY ISHIGH

LOW
LOW

HIGH'

TRIM

FAIRINGS
WEATHER STRIP

I GLAZING
PLATFORMS
DOORS
60-400 FAIRINGS
I COMPLE1 E STRUCI URES
11-3

is discussed in Chapter 14. In the diesig of airfirame

structre, care must be taken to minimize the ps-billty that a single hit by the stated threat - including
explosve and/or tucendiary prjojctle when so
specified _ will cause a cauk, crash fire, in-flight
(Ire, or comparably catastrophic result. In the design
of structure surrounding Pool taks it Isessential that
redundant loads paths be provided. The principal
load1-carrying members may be damaged by bydraullic ram effect following projectil impact, Particularly if the hit it by a high explosive or armorriercing incendiary (HEJ or API) projectile. Ref. I
provides additional design guidance for the rm
duction of vulnerabilift, to ballistic threats.
Regrrdleas of the intensity of combat or the soverity of the ballistic tret(s) to which a belacopter
will be exposed, the design must be crashworthy.
Craithworthiness design criteria for Army aircraft are
given by MI-L-STD-1290. Additional guidance and
specIfc design techniques for meating the stated crnteria arm provided by Ref. 2, Some of the crashworthiness considerations applicable, particuilarly to
the aitfranie structure, include:
1. The inconiaoratioipi of crushable structure out.
side the occupied zones to assist in the absorption of
impact energy while Maintaining a Protective shl
2. The incorporat:on of turnover structure &de
quate to maintain the integity of the protective shell
following impaict with the ground in either a rolled
(90 deg) or inverted (180 deg) attitude
3. The provision of support for the main trans.
mission WWi
Rotor mast so that the transanissica is not
displaced into the the protective shell following either
specified crash conditions or the strike of a rigid
object by the main rotor
W._

propellers. flight controls, electrical system, avionics

hydraulics and pneumatic&as,
-ntuissln landlz'g
gear, crew stations (flunishinge and equipmIn) armainent, armor, and protetve devices. Weight and
balance - as wall as operational and flantiousl (aotore - ane to be considered while locating the sub..
systems. T7he mounting points of each subsytaim are
arrngepd sn that the overall load distrbution system
of tho structure can accept the local load food-in momt
efficiently. Shelves, beams. frames, mud bulkheads are
types of local structures used to take the mounting
hard-point or fitting loads and to distribute those
loads into the basic structure.
Mathods of locating and aittcIn fittings, supports, frames, bulkheads, skin and koqeron systsems,
corrueion protection, and electrical bonding are
major design requirements to be considered while accommodating the subsystems in the airfrarie and
applyiDg the trade-off criteria discussed in per. lI1-1.
Fig. 1l-1 ilustrates some of theme structural comaponents.
During airframe detail design, all areas subject to
repeated high loads should be anayzed for the inoornoraiion of fail-safe fasturm- Trhis desio nhi"in
sophy - to prevent catastrophic failure - requzips
provision of redundant lead paths so that, if one pt
fails due to facigue. the load is carwried by diroreaming structure until the noxt inspection uncoor
the failure.

,6A
W6a~sa my1

BULKHEAD
II

LNEO

1thU

propriate with restraints adeoquate to retain the crew

and other occupants within tht protective shell
following specified crash con,;itions
5. The provision of emergency exits of sufficientFRM
number and sine to permit the evacuation of all occupants in the minimal time av'ailable regardless of
the postcrash position of the helicopter. Crashworthiness considerations pertinent to the cargo
compartment are discussed in par. 1V4.2.

SRNE

11-3 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

During detai design, overall layrouts of the airframe ame prepared from the prelimiinary design data
available. 2Firi locations of the ma'ior subsystems te
be supported by the airframe are shown, together
with directly associated assemblies such as fins,
stabilizers, and ttub wings. Major subsystems ame the
power piant, transinisaions and drives, rotors and
11-4

SPOT
SL

Fkgur I I-1. Airframse Ceupseest

AMWPO.0
11-3.1 FTfil GS
Fittings provid, the structure! transition between
two dlffgt typeo of structure, and also serv as a
amvenient point for disassembly. They may be
dsisagrd as weldeid, cast, machined, or forged substructures. Appeopuiate safety factors must be used
wham calculating fitting strength. For exanple.
castings raquire a&aytical safety factors ranging from
1.33 to 2.0, depending upon the quality control &tandards to be applied. Safty factors are governed by
the casting clasaificAtions in MIL-C-6021. The decimion as to type o'l fitting depends upon weight,
production quantity (or cost), and the nature of the
loads to be transmitted. Castings generally have low
elongation c
sacgetics,
and, therefore, have poor
fatigue dircbmctklst
Metictlous camv should be given to keepin# the
local eccentricities in the fittings to a minimum. All
chatiMe in crows section should be made as gradual as
possible by using generus fillet radii. Abrupt
chaonge in crass section cause stross concentrations,
antherefore, must be avoided.
Lug analysis requi-e special consideration. Refs. 3
and 4 contain aiscussions of this subject.
4
Snof I -F
mr~o
.rnteenra.smch na bthi rivet%
bolts, for a sirgle fittling attachment should be
avoided. Rtivets fili the holes and. therefore, pick up
load befon' bolts do. It isimportant to preload bolts
so that dlamping oi the facing surfaces is acPmnplishe and bending of the components is minimizod.

will be ovideni, and, again, cracking will occur afte a

period of service. Figs. 11-2(8) and (C)show correct
and in%;orrect deaign concepts for bracket &UaGhments.
1
RA S
Frames arm used to reduce skin panel sine and
striulger column length, to maintain aircraft contou-,
to transfer various loa loade to the outer skin as
shear loads. Fig. 11-3 shows an example of a frame
reacting shear flow from a tank liner. The weight of
the tank and the fuel result in a bending load on the
liner, and the resultanit shear flow in the liner is op.
posite in direction to that shown acting on the frame.
The; frame flange, that support the skin must be
suafficiently thick to prevent tension field wrin~kles
from propagatin3 when the panelis mre not shearresistant. The moments of inertia of the cross sections
of the frames must be adequate to restrain the
stringers against column failure. Junctions buwcen
fromes, skin, and s~ringers most be clipped.
INCbRRECT

)and

CORRECT
V

V
SEA
CENTER

I'N

A(A)

113.1 SUPPORZTS
Shelves, beams, and brackets that support equipmet and subsystem parti generally are constructed
by assembly of shee-metal components. The support
must be strong cnoi~g to takc the design load -- the
weight of the item supported times the design load
factor - plus the applicable mechanical reaction
forces and the vibratory loads. The loads being distributed into the primary structure from the support
should not induce secondary strease, which can
cause the primary structure to fail. Secondary loads
arm caused by tht. dflection of the support.
Deamis having an open section shojuld be investigated for shear center location. When a beam is
loade off its shear center, twisting will occur, as in"diaed in Fig. 11-2(A). Secondary loading and lower
subsystem natural frequency generally result.

(B)

CRACKS

food-t
the supoa
to dcarod.esoitnedss ina
Brackts shupo
iorfoed-out is parallel toasheet-metal face. If the
load is perpedicular, local bending will occur and
subseq~uent cracking will result. Radii should not be

count-

tocryla.Sfnsi
upo

upr

'

'N.I

f
IC)rsc
(~ao1-.Cwct

igr

12

d&

serc

itui

1-

*.17

OUTER
SKINDEALOTRSI

CLIPS

'1FRAME

VIEW A

STRINGER.

LINER

RIVETS

STRINGER
IN

RIVETS
(TYPICAL)

010

FRAME FLANGES
DETAIL VIEW A
Figin Ila3. Frinme Used for Ttuk Suppor

11-3'

]BULKHEADS(

Bulkheads function much the same as frames, but

have udded capability and utility. Generally, major
loads - such as landing loads - ame introduced at
bulkheads and wre redistributed within their own
plane. Out of-plane restraints, such as fore or aft fuel
tank [Qtds, also may be provided.
Stiffenes in the plane of the bulkhead distribute
ritting loads into the web. The stiffcuners must have
sulliaenat inertia to stilfcn the web against catastrophic buckling. The webs of all bulkheads should
be designed to prevent oil-canning. Bulkhead .langes
must be stiii enough to resist coiumn buckiing, if so
loaded, as well as to provide skin restraint. Loads
from fittings should be sheared into the bulkhead
with as little occ~tricity as possihle,
Edge distances of fasteners should not be less than
two times the fastener diameter wherever possible,
Low-strength blind fasteners should be avoided. Cutout* should be reinforced, while attachments to an
unsupported web should not be madec because vibration may cause cracking.
The strength required for niajor bulkheads usually
is attained by employing forgings. Final dimensions
are obtained by machining.
11-3.5 SKIN SUDSYSTIEMS
Skin subsystems arz dcfied as structural covernugs
composed of longerons, stringers, and skin. If sandwich conittruction is used in a monocoque conflgu-

[MUun. someC 01 tCSC =G5weniW

weE not usea.

Longerons ar6 the primary aitial-load-carrying

members, and are situated at optimal distances from
the bending neutral aixes of the airfrmniv. They amr de.
signed to withstand column loads and the secondary
effects of skin tension field. it usually is nacessary to
locate intermediate siringers between longerons to
coatrol skin panel size.
Bending material (stringers) should be distributed
among a large number of elements. in order to limit
the reduction of static strength following damage to
ons. member. Again, oil-canning should be provente by proper panel sizing. Fig. 11-4 presents
suggtsted panel dimensions.
Stringer and longeron splices should be scarfed and
multiple attachments provided. The fasteners should
be loaded in shear. Fastene types should not be
mixed in a splice.
Doublers should be providod around exces h*oles
through the skin. Because repeated ren, oval enlarges
the fastener holes, accss hole covers should not be
designmd to be load-cprrying. Minimizir4 the number
of cover fasteners makes servicing faster and, hgonor,
more economical.
11-3.6 CORROSION PROThCrION
Protection of parts against corrosion can be accomuplished in two wayt. One method is to app~ly
coatings to prevent corrosive atemospheres from cowning in contact with airframe parts. The other isto in-

AMCP 7*2 2P

ALUM INUM /.LLOY PANEL SIZES FOR

SKIN (WITHOUT A0 PRE-/
CIABLE STRESS) EXPOSED 10 AIR

16 -UNSUPPORTED

10

R/t. 1500

~12--4R/t

87

00"00

.(FLAT)

_-7THE

Q 5DOR/
31

USE OF THIS FIGURE IS SUGGESTED

IN OBTAINING SICIN -PANEL SIZE
COMBINATIONS WHICH WILL BE FREE

-J

EXCESSIVE VIBRATION. DEFORMA-

00el
4FROM

TION OR OIL-CANNING .VALUES ABOVE

THE PERTINENT CURVE WILL BE CONSI DERED QUEST ION~ABLE.
R=RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF SKIN
SHEET.
in.
ttSKiNTHVICKNESS
=

0.04
SKIN THICKNESS I, in.

.Z0.03

UU11

000

0.05

0.0

WHEN PANEL LENGTH EXCEEDS 3.0 x WIDTH, DIVIDE LENGTH BY 3 TO OBTAIN

WIDTH FOR USE IN DETERNINING THICKNESS FRO)M CHART.

Figur 11-4. Ahamahme AN"a Ps"l Sims

auce an oxide coating that prevets further oxidation.
Many coatings can be applied, ranging from zinc

ch~rnMate!

primer (hr internal

em-rfarot

tn

nocessary to product electrical and clectrcnic system

installations having a'ccptably low levels of electromagnetic interference (EM I).

enn w

paints. Par. 2-6 provides detailed information about

11-4 CARGO COMPAR'rMENT
paints and finishe s, welk as about special processes.
Cargo compartments pose spccial design requiresuch as anodizing for inducing oxidation on alumiments in th~at cargo floor and tiodown fittings must be
num parts.
dsge oacp ttcadcahlas
dsge oacp ttcadcahlas
Treatmvents such as anodizing on aluminum, and
cadmium- and nickel-plating on tteel, have de.
141SAI
OD
1..
TTCLA)
leterious effect upon the fatigue strength of the
Static limit fl~ght loads sAud be used as tt.;. basis for
metal. Partse that have been so treated and arc subdesign of all structure and fittings within the cargo
ject to alternating loadings should be fatigue-tested.
11-37 EECTICALBONINGcompartment. The primary areas of concern are the
11-37 EECTICALDONINGcargo floor and the tiedown fittings.
For helicopters having cargo transport as a priIn order to provide a continuous ground throughout the airframe structure so that remote electrical
mary mission, the basic cargo floor should be designod fow a limit-flight-load floor pressure oC 00
componenis may be grounded adequately, nonpsf , * here %., is the maximum flight limit load falc-.
conducting structures must have aconductanc bond
tor. For light utility helicopters which are not pribuilt in.
manily cargo transports, the lintit-flght-load floor
Par. 7-6 includes detailed bonding requirements
11-7

Wpressure ca

b moa t

,tpaf over that por-

load under constant pressure. Solid rubber tire or

metal wheels do not offer this flabWty aomwdiglion of the f'oor that can be uwd for cargo. Baggage
compartment floors should be designe for a limit- ly, oioncentra ted pressure loads applied to the Ame by
load pressure of 1Oibi pef
these wheels must be assumed to In, -- i proCargo tisnapoit helicopees havisg the capacity for portion to Cie flight load factor. 111dmrvaisisii of
floring wnder solid-wheel loadin shul be 4a.
Vehicular loads must ba designe fo the o011n10111trated loads applied by the %Vbwe whees. ThU=
urmilnd experimentally, with pertmms opWOllega
wheel lWads shoiuld be assumed to be actin at my Iimutltioe Spec11fied. In Most otaPormy hell-- roadin.dsd o
copters, the use of shoring planks is
point within the treaderay area shown in K&g 11-5.
The dimensioneshiwn on the drawing describ the protect the floor from solid-wheel deaualls,
suggested minimum treadway area.
MiL-A488S specifies weer test requiremesats for
The portions of the treadway dthatre used only for newly deuignad flooring. Nontreadway arns also
ground operatins (loading and uloadng should be
should have the capability of carrying limited mondesigned using a limit-loaid faorm of 1.0 applied to centrated loads in exom of '30?ht pef. A load
the mA xiinur wheel load. The ara of the treadway
strength of 1000w,,, pet typci y~ usdin the
upon 'vbich the vehicle rests in fligh. must be do. design of cargo aircraft. The extent of the Ifflow -,
signed to carry the maximum wheel load multiplied
per area of application is limited by weogh andbel
by the maximumun flight 11mit load'factor x,.
ance considerations and running-load limits, which
Maximum wheel load should be equal to 1/3 of the
interact.
maximum anticipated vehicle weight. This assumes a
The running-load limit should be established oy
laterally symmetrical vehicle with 2/3 of the weight
the prester of the following: twice, the maximum
carried by one axle. The maximum wheel load, multi- wheel load (i.c., the axle losd). or 30kb wIbi-inei ft.
plied by the apprcprite limit-load factors will be where w is the width of the cargo floor In feet. The
applietd to th.e utradwefy aesthrough pneumstic irunnin:-load limit is the ina-zismum load thast czan be
tires inflated to a maximum pressure of 100 psi. This applied to any single foot of floor length.
locl
pessreof 100 psi can be assumed te. remain
Floor tiedown fittings should be available in suconstant with the application of helicopter flisht ficient quantity and capacity to restrain the mauilimit-load factors, because the action of the pneu- mum design cargo weight under the ultimate crash
matic tire under moderaey Increased load is simply loads.
zo enlarge the wheel contact are in proporton to the
The cargo tiedown restraint factors must be donC

---RGO COMPARTMENT FLOOR

IiW

88 in. mnun[

AFT RAMP--.I

~4 in.max
LOORAND AMPCONCNTRAED LAD lO
BASIC CARGO
LOADING RAMP
L -J TREADWAY

CARGO FLOOR
TREAD WAY

jUN IFORM STRENGTH

300n,,,

jPRESSURE

FLOOps

psi

LOAD 100 psi

CONCENTRATED LOAD (n-1m/3),,(MAX VEHICLE WEIGHT)
PRESSURE LOAD 100 psi
CONCENTRATED) LOAD (n., ...
/3)x (MAX VEHICLE WEIGHT)

Figuire 114. Mhmimeva Fleer Strength Requiremmilus

-u

So&ash nu w hewhis dopie lduqmla

Im~
pbcaIq
ib ca
spu ine tMbeap
flie
fr th. SXW, W&S, N&u. and 95Speram"
usuua
thel
smiaC. looedown011
wueb"
anile mmnhqbls helopee sadskas, and an shwn
deemed Is WL-A4SS.
in ftg 114M3. ltlama be sum that, In .,tt to
fletasaofsaewul agmqeulflcplsuofmwpto
'hims cargo rbI* bo the helhepes- fleow throughreIs
hM
nahw dom stlnfled hut hateors
a 941-pemetils helicpte amok It would be
cmt
qmodhlty of the user. The dul4f-t' rmpm"b*
okmeeu to employ wme thiem the mushe of1U
is to critw dude's fiudimm thea will carry ibels
downs reqaku hr the -wa (fth pervnemil) wash.
SWtkg
issaled
maud bad withou Mar. Thew
This beomese awoMblbinv Unis of weih and cornshoul swivel aid rotat through a hemluphen
pietRy.
bodaded by the Ulcer. The rated load shoul be corn3at efforts in the developmentn of loadl-Ulvltng
da& u-1es the S sie lead for the purpos of docarg tedowam hae shown thee devicse to be -n oSpins the Kiting diSts supporing strauctr For
'Wsti solution to the ash-load realmsn problem
that thnsandard
h reammued
nis
kqp hehepe ksa,
(Ref. 3). Load-limt~n iedom are emegy-mbeorb
fero tiedowa Suling be rated at SOW) lb ultimate
lag devic that link carg to the ealeag heliopter
str%*t. Tbs rmw of fittinans use stedl of the
floor tiedown.. They are designe to reds - fitfloor shouldl be rated at G0,0W lb each. This facilicreasing tensio, load rigidly antiL, at a proI.t with aminimum
tan the rmuetmat of vWhml ar
determilned force, they yied and deflect owt some
of deftwa
as.dMnf
while malnt~lnla co~tnsistan
distane W1=
W" MS WhAMA
onnctedin ~w viththecargo tiedown
chains, such devices &ac to ettenuste the acIt baa bou found that cupg compartienmt boW-ll
colorations tranmItted from the heLicopter floor to
twdlai awiulallom can exceed 27 during a mtiotc
the cargo, as sboi. In Fig. 11.7(A).
vivabi crash Wrdlag. FIg. I1lAFA) shows a typical

1r 11"a"UM
\

rmi

SOW
i. a i,1kw
- iw

saum

UW

vWftU3-&%

%4&aa
-%mfa

cargo and the airframe as they act separately during

H
Considerable; eperineatal work in thi arehabaaIRR
shuwn that the typica major impact accelerations
opurpoesby aslut-CAG
can be rpreseen~td lot ngnmSug
during thetat cavsh of en iauslrwnenled helicoptar

} (WM. 2).

TWICAL MEAIJMD

EATS
PC~

SUGGESTED

TMANQJLAA

DEIN U~iq

AVERC

SL~L
0

~~~~~~2t,

i*
TIME t.

JA) TWI CAL MA.AQR WACT ACCtIREATI'JN4 PULSE

S1PERCS4TILEUt.-0.Oe.

9ftOPER#iT1LEjc,-C.1O4).

10

0-

INseeM

V0

:rr

IlR

HSG

IN-W

rA

VL*

IAME
CA11RGO

FeinEi,-om

H-13

,a0240).
1TL, H-4

YO t, seIMc.

1C

DCR

sm

020

H2?

()Ac.AlNT1

oedt Acemlaralle Fee

ao I1r

71"

e
11-7. iffis of Lae

1
ir
Wed.

ELi

the crabh event. Thee curves are derived by into.

gration of dme respective so lration curves in Filg.
I l.7(A) %cause it is wnder a lame aocalcratio, the
cargo mast mow*eslightly farther than the fuselag
during the period of the aocce;%eration pulse. This additionall diett-ace is the distance through wvhich the
load-limiter must deflect. and is determined by intograting the two volocity-time curves (cargo and airframe) to find the distance each-travels during the
event, and :ban finding the differenc between the
distance.. Eq. 11-1 can he used by the designer to do.
ternune load-limiter stroke required, assuming a trianguwar acceleration input pulse.
2 K ~A?
f (11-1)
9~oeg:24 2rk-~,I
2
KIt
where
Hf
- pulse peak acceletration, number of S's, dimensionicis
g - acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
- acceleration ratio aL/ H. dimensionless
K
4L - limit cargo acceleration, number of g's, dimonsionless
to - time to meach peak duration, se

)90th-ercentile

(_

CLASS A CARGO

This equation is derived from Ref. S.

The WOa-limiting cargo restraint concept his beon
developed to the prototype stage. Coat and weight
permitting. it is recomenwded that conslderasion be
given to incorporating woci devioee into the basoc
dessign of new helicopters. Such loed-lsimiting mo
straint fittings would provide a maximtum degree of
crashworthinms. Details of load-limiter desig and
application ame available in Ref. 6.
When speciIfring loadl-limiters, the "Ail~erg must
make a trade-off between rated streengto and loadlimiter stroke. Fig. 114 shows the various ways of
achieving adequate restraint of Class A cargo in a
crash, using load-limiters having
different energy absorption chiaracteristice.
can be soon by rsforrinS to the sample curves that
an additional resariczion on the performance of the
load-limiter is that the load-delctin curve must
avoid the shaded area below the base curve. Thiq bass
curve indicates the load below which the load-imiter
must act as a rigid link in tho tiedown chain. This
load should define the rated yield strongth of the
limiter. An optimum load-limiter, from the standpoint of weight and number required, would be ane

ffI-II
~IL

1-0

LOE
10

SE
15UR)V5E3
CONTROLLE
DEFLECTIONCURVin.

CNFOLDDFETO

AMCP 706-202

with a load-deflection curve conforming as closely as

posaible to the bane curve. The long stroke of such a
limiter, however, could allow the cargo to move sin
ecessigive distanca within the compartment.
It is recommended in Ref. 5 that Class B cargo
(vehicles, etc.) be restrained to withstitnu the 80thpercentile crash pulse of 13 g, rather than th.e 90thp~rcenitile pulse that defines the restraint criteria for
Class A cargo. The rationale is that personnel rarely
are carried in the cargo compartment with Class B
cargo, and, thscre'orc, that only the relatively remoie
flight cme need be protected from shifting Class B
cafgo. Fig. 11-9 shows the load-deflection requiraments pertaining to load-limiters restraining
Clas B cargo.

11-4
I

~the

TRANSPARENT AREAS

The characteristics of available glazing materials

are reviewed in par. 2-3.5. Additional information on
the properties of the matorials are available in Part 11,
MIL-HDBK-17.
The optical quality of the windshield must be
maintained under all conditions of loading. To keep
opticai distortion to a minimum. flat panels should
be used to the maximum extent practicable. In any
case, considicration must be given to the deflection of
the windshield under load and to the effect of these
deflections upon the optical characteristics. The
loadings that result from thermal gradients acrosb the
windshield must be considered :,eparately as well as in
coin jination with pressurc loadings in order to dcttrimine the critical loading condition. The effect of

an antireflective coating used to reduce the glint from

the windshield and canopy must be jinduded in deter-

The design requirements shdl be as established by

helicopter system specification -Two categories of
transparent areas are apparent. One category is
represented by a windshield that must i.;,hstand
direct airstream loadb, possibly including impact by
birds. The other category is represented by an ob=-mo.wn-- !=.*a n.....ie, 1---f or floor
of the crew or passenger compartment. Such a win-

mining the thermal loading.

Ijistahation of s'lazing -materialsis described in par.

dow is subject te indirect pressure loading. positive or

negative.

support from the window. This is pi.rricularly important for window openings within doors. The dc-

2-3.5. ?~art 11. MIL-HDBK-17 also contains a thorough discussion of the design of thc "edge attachments", or means of fastening a Slazing material
to an airframet. With regard to the structure, it is
r cmmended thatt on.-.inac fnr trnt~p ro-rt pr-sh
self'-supporting, i.e., not dependent on any structural

CLASS B CARGO

fXCNRLE..f~C!

-LJ
LUL
C-,

CA",
-IL

~LOWE R (BASE) CURVyE

)CONTROLLED

DEFLECTION X, in.
Figur 11-9. Class B Cargo Forward L~ad-deleion Eniedop

AZCP ?06-202
tolerances chosen will bec the result of many conarderations. TMcac include.
1. Number of units. The total number of helicopters to be produced influences the type nod extent of the tooling that can be used. A large produrflion run will permit intricate tooling with co.-;ts
that can be spread over mony units.
2. Fabrication method. The way the helicopter wrill
falnicatod on the production line influences the
11-6 EVELO~Mbe
tolerancoes. If thc helicopter is fabiicul-d frim many
The iterative promca of desijin. buildk, test, and recomponents that have been subcontracted to manay
detigia is called developmenL Several different verdifferent venodrs, there is a KIeed for closer tolerances
thnitehecoersetrlyabiednoe
sions of the same airframe component mray be desigaed, built, and tested to determino. trade-off pamaproducton line.
r eters such ua weight, streng~th, and cost. With thene
3. Assem bly method. There are various mnethods;
data avaiiable, a decision can be made as to which
of assembly that have different tolerance restructure bwAL fits the requirements.
Clowe tolerances will poi mit complfte inDevelopment, includir.g testing of alternative
terchangeability of parts without additional work.
manufacturing methods, is a costly process. It should
Selectiyi: assembly will permit less strict tolerances. A
be used onily for redundant strtceturej-, where unalysis
large prodtwtior. run .. ill make parts svailabic for acletvmacigwhadcntpr.Ifasby
is eixher miore costly or is impossible to accomplish
methods and production time is available, the saw to
withn
schdul,
te aloteo fornewconsrucbon
suit, file to fit, approach mnay be the best.
xpe~ucuni
i 1~hch n~iufa~lur asmetechiqus
quired to prove feasibility and to dewirmine costs.
wfoNrmarnc. The nood for flushness and gap
For purposes of this discussion, devclopnvint does
'-:~
to M. C,-----------i6uimi
wil be
not inclu-e the testing of oarUs to detvriniijii points of
an influcnc on production tolerances.
k(,cal failure a.-d the changes necessary to obtain atis..
S. Interchanicabil-ty ance replaocability. The extent that parts e!nd components should be interstrength. This testing, rework, and rc testing is
considered a part of the denionstratinn of structural
changeable and how they Ls.%uld be replaceable have
adequacy aind is discussed in par. 1-8.
a direct influzznce on production tolerances. Replactritnt requirenients at the lower maintenance
echelons will require tolesances that will permit reMANUF~ACTURE
placement with a minimum amount ef match fitting.
The d~igner has the responsibility to provide
6. Cost. Cmst production tolerances who-e they are
as
is
cost
ufactur~ing
man
a
as
low
requiring
airframe
not required result in added expense. Loose
a~s esil maufctued
posibi. ie enceil,
po.irfma
Gencaflso
i theleastst eslyone. A rasonab
tolerances that present assembly problems Also may
~ ~ noocpne
number of subassemblies sho&*d be planned to allow
consideration must be given to production
easeof nnuacue.Careful
The final tolerances used will he the result
tolerances.
reusually
structure
of
the
areas
all
Accessibility to
of coordination between the procuring activity,
su~s
os. bcauc
a loer mre orerscanbe pperod f cnstuctoa.engineering, manufa-,turing, and purchasing.
I a&vs
pled urig
eChpr ,AMP7621foprlmny
The structure should be designed to permit use of
design treatmncrt of accesuibility/interchangeautomated machines egriveters) and numerically
abiy/elcblt.
controlicd machine tools during manufacture in
14 SBTNiTO
order ta minimize production costs.
In Chapter 4, AMCP 706-201, the consideration
lIn addition to design, development, and manufor practical prodmaction tolerances is discussed. The
facture of an airframe, it is necessary to demonstrate
prelimianary design will have coilsidcred the
that the structural subsyste m neet the design
~okerPa-cs that can be achieved during mnanufacture
requiremnent,- Two methods are used to demonstrate
and will have been the basis for design selection. The
the structural adequacy of the airframe: analy-fis and
example used in Chapter 4, AMCP 706-201,* is the
testing. Generally, it is acceptable to use one or the
pihlimirnary design of the doors and hatcnes.
other method to prove that strength and deDur; ng de!.ail design the exact prodtction
formation, utility, dynamics. and weight and CG are
tolerances required mo~st be established. The
flections of the opening should not be large enough to
case5 failust~ of the glazei-upporting systean.
Thickntsa of tht gisawx determined by analysis or
test - should be adequate to support the pressure
and impact toadings, In addition. the glaze mnaterial
must satisfy any ballistio-resistance requirements
containod in the Fvstem itpecificatior.

.quireinents.

4.qwae

I11-7
#W.

11-12

9
ducs an optimum design that will be proven *dequate by test.
When both analysis and testing are used, significarnt savings in weajht can be obtained with designs
11-8.1 ANALYSIS
for which the analysis indicates a small negative or
=eo margin. During testing, thte areas in which
data
As the deveclopment progresses, substantiating
arm prepared in acros danoe with the contract data rt- failures occur cani be strengthened. Sonme of these
areas will have sufficitot strength as it. In this way,
quirernents list (CDRL). Specific data requirements
are ooordinated with the Airworthiness Quali- the minimum weight can e achieved.
Sonmc portions of the airframe sme designed with
fication Specification (AQS) prepared and approved
load paths. In the event that one path fails,
multiple
possible
for an individual helicopter program. The
scope of these requirements is discussed in Chapter 4 thc others will continue to carry expected kvads. It
of AMCP 706.203. Chapter 9, AM.CP 706-20-4. pro- woil be necessary to tust these areas with selected load
senits a comprehensive discussior' of the final quali- paths failed, and with thti applicable fatigue spectrum
applied, to demonmtrate that the structure will confication of the airframe. The analysis and testing performed during the design phase are discrv zed in this tinue to support all loads uxrti' the next mandatory inspection. It also is necessary that inspection of these
paragrapl.
the start of the detail design effort, desifn pram- areas be possible, and particularly that portions of
necters established during the pretimiraary design crw Atriiturc thatt are designed as fail-safe not be obixarmCd. Chapters 7, 8, and 9, AMC? 706-203, desconfirmut or amended. Tht loads applicable to #,Iairframe components undcr design Wlglat and grow~d cribc component tsts, surveys, and demonstrations
loading conditions wmur be established iind the Oth Piro. arptlicabic.
Fvtiguc testiing may be generalived in that only
critical desian oondiu-_ns deterrmirad. In Chaipter 4,
4etfl~i~
(Bitch as zi-1) arc collect~ed. Statistical
&;-;
7OC-201, the dcsixra loalding CoLdizns
described and procedures for IL. dett-inimti.n oi~anilyses that consider operating load frcq~ienc) will
temnal load distributions are discacu.sd. Leo'a com.- minsre. ae~quatc structural reliability. The number of
iimducted will determine the confidence level
r.4
Cit
prehensive compul .r prograim su.ch at NASIRA.N
foi- tht dcsign. Fatigue life determination is dis(Ref. 7) is reconini ceed.
cussed iti detail in Chapter 4, AMCP 706-201, and the
Following determination of thek- a(eings thal arc
riiquirtJ tests are outlined in Chapters 7 and 8,
critical for individual parts, in nmny ciucs strcvtgarc
AMCP 706-201.
adequacy can be tubeta;'tiated by stress wnelysis
After the hoicopter prototype is manufactured,
alone. Exaimples are parts thstt involve either a!irtglc
flight aist loads will be gathered as basic data to be
load path- or simple rc4unclarcy, for wlich thereforrc
u&Wi for structural qualification analysis and testing.
the stress and analysis it boib simple and accurace
O~ti- er ar for whbich ansil asaalnn r s adeouste are It may bt necessary to redesign locally before qualisimplet fittings for which dynamic"('fatigue) loadings ficationi if~ the flight, loads are in excess oi those preare not significant, and secondary structure and comn- Clicted by analysis.
ponents that are classified as nonstructural. However, because the airframe structure gonecrally in'REFERENCES
cludes multiple load paths for which even the most
sophisticated stress analysis maethds often provide
I. W. D. !)otbeth, Survivability Design Guide fi~r US
unreliable results, substantiation is based largr~v
Army A.Ircrafi, (U), USAAMRDL TR 71upon the results of structural tests.
41A(U) and Tk 714IB(C), Eustia Directoratc,
November 1971.
TEnNGVA,
11-82
'. W. Turbow, et al, Crash Suriiwul Design Guide,
114 TS~NG2.
Portions of th~e structure will be tested after brief
USAAVLABS TR 71-72, US Army Aviation
preliminary analysis. These include fatigue-loaded
MAI614ati Laboratories, Fort Eustis, VA, October
ptimar structure, redundant structures, components
1971 (Revised).
manufactured using new processes or materials, and
3. E. F. Bruhn ejt'al, Analysis and Design of Flight
castirgs with low safety factors.
Vehicle S:ructures, Tri-State Offset Co., CincaIF.nati, 011, 1965.
Oth-.r poktions of the structure will require de4. G. E. Maddox, et al, Stress Analysis Manual,
tailed analysis and backup testing. Where expensive
AFFDL-TR-69-42, Air Forc Systems Cornprocz sscs and/oi lasge, crastly structures are involved, extensive analysis is necessary in order to promand, WPAFH, OH, February 1970.
1-3

within the requiredi limits. In special cam

structures that are redundant or subject to fatigue
it may be. neceasary to employ both methods.
-e~g.,

vAt

JAMCP

-.

5. J. A. Vichrne awd T. L. Houas 46Huicopwr

Cargo Roausin", ;ornal of the American
Helicopter Sociny, 10, No. 3,41-47, July 1967.
6. J. A. Vichnees. Integral Helicopter Caego
Reagswh Syutemw. USAAVLAr-S TR 69-M6, US
Army Aviation Materie. LAboratories, Fort

fJ

11-14

Enatis. VA. 1%69.

7. R. H. MacNeal and C. W. MtrCocmik, Tfe
NASTIL4N Ca~~puirr Pn'gWmn for Sigmvwda
Andnuysi. SAE Papor No. W6~17Z No.iWoag
Ma
Aeaw~~adic asid Spacc &Wbwfr4V &w.wkf
no*i MwW Los Aapes. CA, Qzco~a 1%0.

CHAPTER 12

LANDING GEAR SUBSYSTEM

124 LWST OF SYMBOLS

- tire

- outsdo diamcier, in.

t
W

121

GAR

of lakes, the use of some type of water-landing sear is

equired. Depending upon the mission requirements,

am,
pata
in.'

A,

one of the following options could be seece:

dh in.

1. A type with full seaplane capability (either

floats
or a boat hull) and having little or no land

TPESCapability

Convewtional helicopter landing gear configura-

2. An amphibious type, with either floats or boat

hull plus land gear

desired configuration will have been selected during

preliminary design. The detail designer's objective is

fabric (inflatable) floats that also are capable of being

used for land operations

vide the beat performance for the least weight, cost,

and waternance. The system snecification and mis-

packaged floats that can be inflated for water landings if desired. With this option, the helicopter still

specifying the following:

state, it may or may not be possible to take off from

tions inchlue wheel, skid. and float. Normally, the

Stc

verify a type, or combination or types, that pro-

'

sion requirerments will influence the selection by

1. The environmental and operational landing

cnditions, which will indicate the toughness of

4. A type with secondary water capability. using

maintains its lauid gear. 1Dcpendin% upon the wea

the water.

5. A ditching capability, which keeps the helicop-

cV.Aing tormin

sortd tLhe rquirments for snow or

water landing caability
2. Descent velocities, allowable load factors, and
ground ckrance, which together with weight and
CG location, will dictate gear location, size, and axle
vertical travel
3. Purformance, which may require low-drag or re-

ter upright (although it may be partially submerged)

long enough for pcrboroun to evacuatc. Common
practice here is to make provisions on the helicopter
to attach the flotation gear and then to piovide the
major portion as a kit; thus, if the helicopter mission
is not over water, only a small weight penalty is incuffed.

trtble landing par, thus requiring a ompac! gear

configuration

Skis are required for operation from snow- or icecovered areas. Current practict is to maintain the

4. Overload conditions and growth factors, which

normal landing gear and to adapt the ski to it. This

woid require a gear with increased capacity.

As a rule, the skid gear is lighter in weight, is less

gives the helicopter a greater versatility and also improves iki life by preventing the skis from scraping

expanuavv to maA.-

'"

3. A type with primary water capability, using

' a.d

",pIace,
a'd req"ire

ku mainweasuc than other types. One disadvantage

of the skid gear is the necessity for special groundhandling wheel or dollies for moving the inoperative
helicopter. In addition, a method of raising the hilicopter to permit imitallation of these wheels mutt be
provided. Some vAicds carry this equipment along
and theeb safler the additional weight and drag
penalties.
Thwhbee ear provides the capability taud directionil control neoemary to maneuver the hldicopte
lading and takeoft.
on the rod, a well as during
In addition, this type of pear allows a running takeoff, which provides additional lift and thus permits
an inctease in allowable payload in the event of an
overload condition. The ia am absorb part of the
impact energy during Iandig and also car act as a
aishice ovw obstade during taxi operations.
Where the primnary mission of the helicopter involves flixht oer waterways or areas with a number

when encot-sintering arcs bare of snow. Bear paws are

smaller than skis and are used in marsh or bog areas,

where normal wheels or skid gear would not be
capable of supporting the helicopter weight.
1

WHEEL GEAR

12...1 GC~hl
There are four types of wheel gear in present use:
1. The conventions! or tail wheel type
2. The tricycle or nose gear type, with and without
tail bumper
3. The quadricycle arrangement
4. The bicycle type gear with outrigger wheels.
The recommended location and rollover angles for
the tall wheel amid nose gear types are shown in Figs.
12-I and 12-2, respectively. Because of the requirement for Army helicopters to operate on or from surfaceis with as much as 15 deg slope, the turnover angle
in any direction should be at least 30 deg (par. 13-

"12-1

AMCP 7~O

41time

4Y

1.1.8, AMCP 706-291). Other than turnover angles,

are no specific requirements for or limitations
on the location of the individual gear fore and aft of
the CG. The quadricycle and bicycle arrangcment3
may fall into either now. or tail category; thus, the
same guidelines shown in Figs. 12-1 and 12-2 apply.
The tail gear arrangement automatically. wvith no increaw in weight, provides protcction to thc tail rotor
during tatil-down landings, whereas the nose gear
araimnganet uually requires a tail bumper. or, in esMone, 1Afourth gear. However, no one arrangement

inherently ic superior or preferable. Many designK

criteria and op-rational requirements - such as sa&e
ty, ground handling, and transportability - must be
considered during selection of the landing gear
arrangement for a new helicopter.
Because the pertinent trade-off studies will have
been made and the optimum type of gear selected in
the preliminary design phase, the following items
should be required at the inception of the detail
design phase:
I. Gear and location, rollover angles, and other

LINE OF WHEEL MOTION

DUE TO SHOCK STRUT TRAVEL

SEE NOTE 1

LikiNr

NOSESSTAE0

11

NOTE

i r en

ra AIIAi

IQAN
_-a

'inlO

U2OSHC-TU
SEEV

NOTEES

2~

~ THE/MI

LINE OF

LES THALNE OF WHEEL MOIO

Ii~NO

TO0

VEMSTBATN
CKTRTT
MOTIONDUTOS
WHEEL.
DUE

AG
SHOCK
TAE STRUT
A

R'

90OS WEIGHT
ABO THE CHVE
H
RORIOTLHE OPITIMUC
AL
SA UEIS 60`R
AD OEOg.LE
35

H TAIL WHEELTRAINL
D

122Fpigur 12-1,
-Io~ft,2

EAXIE MUST BE GRLIEAT

D
THRAN

5t
;,

D ATANAN
TH TALWELdoAgTf.
OF

WhceW LcAudw sod Modems for Tail Wheel

Hielicapitrs

II

1%

~AMC

--m-lab shown in Figs. 12-1 and 12-2 mum be met.

40

truts and olus in a

6. Bakig cpablity adequate for both stoping

and purking th healopter on a reqired ulope mum

Mtatec eltion mot be adequate for the Operational

mviroamaa astipated for the upn

hIcopvr

be establ~ished.
7. FIn grunid loads mum be alolated, and the

of 6 in. with all

abslom does. A minimum deawancs
oai
and tre bottomed out. or wit any om Wol
sad ti.e bottamd out and all othe in a staic po&onis recomnumdad.
3. TMras"must be adequate to satity pound fio.
tadkm requiemeunts at the most adve CO positon.
SA dhmmy analysis sbould be performed to in& danmwthat
dw Mbut combination oftrail anglead
pift is being used.
5. A pound resonnce analysis must be performed
to asse that spnog ratse wd damping mosftiits
of tke also and the fire have the popervolaum to keep
the helid0pt out of the resonant frequm00 range
(Sue per. 12-3).

meat atmail loeds on the gmar damrnined.

2. Oocuad dannms with

M1-3.113 CepeeM Dsdp wW Sdaala

.1
132-1.LLI
Ground fotation requirements. operae% terrain
nterim arm
and nvirament, Ond gioundrsosva
tire selection. Design
the main fk*os that influme
and construction featur and qualification tests as
listed in MIL-T-5041 apply to aircmft tirn. When
thee tirs arc use on helicoptemr standardaircraft
rating may be a4justed as shown in Table 12-I.
Because uf the low landing speeds and short taxiit& didtancr required in helicopter operations, verticel tinr dection gram than for standard aircraft

SEE NOTE I

j
~

ANGLE MUST
HIHIS
EXCEED 60e

rNOT

SEE

f-SEE NOTE 2

NOT LESS THAN 30

NOTES
1 CG LOCATION TO BE EITHER AT WEIGHT EMFTY OR AT BASIC STRUCTURAL DESIGN
GRO3S WEIGHT, WHICHEVER IS MORE CRITICAL, STATIC TYRE AND OLEO DEFLECTIONS
AT BASC STRUCTURAL DESIGN GROSS WEIGHT ARE TO BE USED FOR ALL CONDITION 3.
2 THE LINE OF WHEEL MOTION DUE TO SHOCK STRUT TRAVEL PAUST BE AT AN ANGLE OF
FROM 0 To 7.5deg AFT OF THE VERTICAL
3 REFER TO PAR. 12-2.2.3. FOR TRAIL DISTANCE REOUIREMBENTS.
113.. 12.2.

Whed Lea.0tam a1d Moshe for Nose WIed Hedlcoiters

12-3

AMCP

Wt-

TABLE 12-1. LOAD FACTORS FOR HELICOPTER TIRES

TIRE OUTSIDE DIAMETER

*LOAD FACTOR

*NORMAL INFLATION FACTOR

26 in.AND UNDER

1.67

1.59

OVER 26 in.

1Zo

1.50

*TO BE APPLIED TO BOTH STATIC AN~D DYNAMIC RATINGS

*
*specified

is permissible at static load. Type III tires are

classified as low-speed, low-pressure tires havins a
[Mre cross section, and are used whein. good futst..
lion capabilities are desired. Type Vil tire arm
classified as high-pressure, high-speed utirs with at
smaller cross section than Type IIl types. Typo VII
tires have a high lateral spring rate, which may be
required to control ground-resonance tecndincics. In
addition, their smaller size allows their us,: in highspeed compound aircraft where limited space within
the airframe for gear retraction requires a smaller,
more compact tire. For Tyme 11; tires a tire deflte'tion not to exceed 40% is allowed; for Type VI I tires a
deflection of 37% is permitted. Tire. efficiency for calculation of gear energy absorption is taken as 45%.
To determine tire stroke under load, a tire deflection
versus load curve should be used. This curve normally is available from the tire manufacturer for any
standard tire size.
Ground flotetion is the meaure of the ability of a
tire to remain upon the surface without causing
breakdown or failure of the soil under the tire. The
factors affecting ground flotation arc:
l.LoAdUEAUuepe-u
2.Tire pressure
3. Wheel spacing
4. Strength of surface and subsoil.
Flotation requireinent.~ fifr a helicopter usually are
dependent upon its primaxy miasion. Thic. usually is
as a California ['caring Ratio (CBR) value
coupled with the numnber of patses the hel1icopter ca
make before failure of the surface occues. The
method Df analysis or the flotation capabifities of a
helicopter on xicprepared surfaces is discussed in Ref.
1; additiona~ll'v it is imrortant to note that the deceleration rate due xo braking should be 6 ft/sec2 fox
rotary-winil aircraft.
A mcre priwise method for 6eternhing tire contact
area ti is
A, - 2.0
12-4

WD,inl.'

(12-1)

where
W
-tire
width, in.
D
X6outside diameter, in.
2.0
- anpirical constant, in.
This equation has been derived by analysis of'&
curve faired through teat data from current tire.
Sufficient clearance must be provided in the "ading gear drsign to p~event tire chafing against the airframe or gear structure under all conditions of.
loading and operation. MIL-STD-878 establishes the
procedure for determining the clearances required
dx.. tn arowtlh nf firms a d inrrepase in diamefr duaw in
centrifugal force. In addition to theiot values, a 4% increase .n section width and height shall be allowed to
compcnsatr. for the overinflation allowance for tirs
used on helicopters. Anl allowance for growth in gross
weight (25% minimum) should be made when wheel
and tire sizes are selected and 6earwaxos ar establistiod. To provide for such wtight growth. the additfon of plies to incrrase the load rating of a tire
otherwise suitable for the design and/or dynamic
lods is acceptable. A change of wheel and/or tire
sizes during the service life of the helicopter can be
orqarc C103sp-toW~r

AA3

Nowir
A---

airframe structural components and therefore should

bc avoided.
Wheel.
12-1.1..
Factors that affect whorl design include notch smasitivity. fatigue, corrosion, hecat damage due to
sestained braiking, and wheel disintegration due to
tire failure. Current practice is to xpecify dhe use of
forged aluminum alloy materials (usually 2014-T6)
for new designs. Cast magnesium is not desirable
because of its susceptib~lity to corrosion and its
tindency to fragment or shatter upon fail~ire.
R-elicoplte wheels shall be designed and xesled to
the requirements of MIL.W-5013. The tated load for
the wheel shall be equal to or greater than the maximum static load to which the wheel will be subjected
at rcxaxiinum towing or alternate grots weight, which
ever is greter. Roll tests shall be for 250 mi woin-

Pared to 1500 mi for fixed-wins aircraft Bearing sime

can be aestbighed by the mthods cullined in Ref, 2
or a comparable roller bearin havdbook. A seall or
other means of Preventing water from entering the
whee beAring must, be providw to prevet bearing
corrosion.
M1.143i~ Sube sturat
The most commonly-used devices for absorbing
eaneg during a landing. and for supporting the hellcopter during taxiing and ground operations, are me.
dusncc springs, liquid springs, and air-oil struts.
Other methoidsatc absorbing energy (usually referred
to Ik-secondary energy or onetime application usage)
41=
i. Crusbaltle structures, e.g., honeycomb
2. Fracion deVices i.e., two Materials in cotc
with escb otheiryeofihc
Sdevices e0g., meWa drawn through an
3. W
okfor
undrsad
4. Cutting c viaes, e~g., a shcrp e*dgesicing
throusih mewa as it moves
1._
.*.
&am
4-',
I&
..
cornaio,
i. wow"% %W%

*wh110

beyond the elastic limit.

I-)Thes
deviot arn mentioned as possible solu-tions
An energ absorption beyond the normal land-

mug Par cauaility

is deid
The meet commonly-used mechanical spring is th

such a a "4ecuper atrunit must be provided to

limit the PrOSSUM file d"n to high temperature. A
liquid spring is perticuiarly Well sated for short
stroke applications with levee gear affrragmets,
but any length sttabe can be achieved by jproptr comnbinatiosa of piston rod diameter snd total volume of
oil. In fact, with tail rod liquid spiungs, exceptionally
lons strokes can be achieved. For servicing a liquid
spring without jacking the helicopter a charging
pressure of 20.000 psi is required, while the maximu chatgi" pressure required probably is 2=0 pei
when the sp~ring unit is unloaded and fully extended
by jacking the helicopter.
In the air-oil strmt a chamber of compressed air is
used to restore the strut to a static position and to
provide a cushion while taxiing and ma acuvering the
helicopter on the ground (Fig. 123.Teefcec of
bore sson ydo et to
be between 80 atii 93%. A conservatively low value
tIA shock absorber efficiency should be us.4d
together witl he specified reserve energy descet ve6
locity and the design limit landing loal factor, to es-

tablish tie maximum strut stroke required to absorb

th toud roVt eftensy. Thu d r c~a'30ik-90-likdrisdii-

cussed in pri. 4-10.3, AMCP 706-201.L

The lower values of efficiency are applicable to

struts containing fie orifices.1The higher values amc

achieved by the introduction of a metering pin. This

configuration providca a variable oririce, which arm
cantleve type, with either a flat or a tubular cross
"sction. Thee can be considered to have a firouar load
METERING PIN
deflection cuarve if they are not stressed boyor.d fth
elatic: Limi. Gther types of mechanical springs -ORIFICE
AND BEARING

gaab as Belleville washers, ring sprngs, and rubber

-have

nonlinear load deflection d~aramn. D~am-

ping is small (usually due only to lees of energy at the

suport, or frictional fores between dlemenits).

Because the ipring return far more energy than they

l~II.-7~

SNUBBER

PSO

dissipate the use of spring landng gear usually.

0
limited to ligM aircrft. The lack of damping alao incraes
heliklioodofground resonaace.
Both the liquid spring and the air-oil strut absorb
eNWWg by the dnshpot principle, forcing fluid underLOEBARN
presur through an orifice. In either application thOEReARN
a&M of the orifice may be fixed or may vary with dis-

ISO

CIsINE

placement, as a metering pin of varying diameterI

moves through a fixed orifice.

lnathe; liquid Spring the compmasibilityof dAe fluid
is vted to stoM energ. Special wonsderation must be
glv- Ain the gland desigm to the high pressure at
whichi these units operate. The sensitivity to changes
in temperature also mumt be considered. For example
to accommo01date low temperatures the unit prob&Maby
will be prumemrined in the extended. or unlodecqdtion Wo 20 psi and s%"Wia feature

YRUI

I.

e_

LI

SEPARATOR PISTON
AIR

Ilv. 12-3.

Typical M.4N1 Sermi I Static

Feellie
12-5

AMCP 9-0
be large at the point at which spin-up, or aigh drag,
loadsI ame applied. The orifice area then decreases
frtherw on in fthstroke and more energy isaboorbod
at lower load levels. However, this type of strut is
more complex and the implications of increased
weight and cost relative to a strut with fixed orifice
must be weighied.
The desigiiA of air-oil struts Aai,) be in accordance
with MIL.L-8552. with two excentions:
1. A seal other thar. the standard 0-ring to avoid
spiral failure
2. A specal sraiper ring that is morce 6lToctive in
keeping out dirt than the specified MS 33675 scraper
rinip. The latter have no means of preventing dirt
from entering thertrut paut the outsiei of the scraper,
which fits loo~elY.
The first, step in the design of the oleo strut is to
determine the size of the piston. The ilatic load and
santic presure define the %r^a and comelunl8~IA~y th
diameter. of tLA piston rod. The static pressure is
determined from an isothermal air compressionstroke cuive drveloped for the ltrut. A press5ur of
3000 psi can be asdumed at the cornpreutsed position.
with provision in the strut desg* ior a maximum of
4000 pai to allow for growth tincreased groas weight)
of tha helicopter. A compi usson. ratio of 2.5-3.0;: 1.0
from the static to tlhe compressed position commonly
is applied during preliminary design, with the vallue
sclected being dependent upon the landing load factor. Thus, the static air pressure used in the deterraination of piston diamcter will be in the range of
1000 to 12WO psi.
To avoid full exlension of the gear when the halii
copter is lightly loadtd, the pressure in the extended

G;OATHLi
MAXIMUMJ ST1%J1

3000

position is aln at approximately 25% of the static

pressure. The static position is sat between 66 and
65% of the strut etroke, with 83% providing snoother
taxiing. Am an example. for a strut with a total stroke
of 12 in., the static position would be 10 in. (03% of
12 in.) from the fully extendod position. A typical
shock struct compression curve is shown in Fig. 12-4.
When the static positions of the individual struts are
being selected, the overall landing gear configuration
also must be examined to assure that all applicable
groundl clearanc requirements, including flat tire
and fla. stmt conditions, are met.
As prvously noted, the piston area is determined
by the static load and the static pressure. The wall
thickness of the piston rod is determinied by the cnitical combination of bending moment and compres,sion load. Of the ground load%bpccflod (pars. 4-5
and4-, AMCP 706-201) the braking conditions or
obstruction load condition probably will produce the
maxiimw' value of bending moment in the piston
rod, whic~h occurs at thc po~int that the piaton enters
the lower bearzia. Materials with ultimate tensile
str-ongth of 260,000 psi or greater should be considered for *h. piston rod, subject to the approval of
the procuring activity (MILL-L552). The ratio of
piston rod diameter to wall diicknecs also musi ba
examined to assure that the design is nather unnecessrily heavy nor impractically difficult (hence
expensive) to manul'acture. Should the wall thickness
as determined by the critical loading condition, prodluce an unacceptably hecavy strut, the conditions
governing the static position should be re-cvaluated.
There are two ways in which a shock normally is
mounted. cantilever anad univtersa (Fig. 12-5). Tht,

POSITION

NORSAL AIR CURVE

2000

SAI

1000
0
0

25

POSITION

50

66

83

'00

STU TRK,%CANTILEVER
GEAR

F~gur 12-4. Typical lsmissisCr Shock Stmt

Air Campcaesulsi Cur'
12-6

ARTICULATING GEAR WITH

UNIVERSAL -MOUNTED STRUT

Figrm MS-. C~ausklew MWd UNIrermlSei

esaghiee deep is used mom, ommonly because Itslih.I& loweight ame tbwonl lar beanding moments
imy be Induce under leImft condltim that inGOWOO~eait5 Odhe than al104g thm
Osideords
elud"
anis of the strut. ThWm beaft skmoments an ere
the stand4point Of the r~uoltt
3Naa Vot o0* 111om1
stoma,. but also becamse they increase tie Possibility of
likgek
through the strut bearing and increse strut
brelak. Tuhis *icon can cmus erratic strut operastie, durNg landn and taiing operations. Howe ier~ of pm~ebusering Uiakiu mrome locatioin
of Saa Intan bmearing ar low busring pressures an@
sIdas Wantt~iV&
For caatilsver-maountmid Amtrut, the bearings should
bespaedl so that bartingi Sart don not exceed 6=I~
under the du~p "idload. Ma distanc between
the outermost ends of the upper and lmwe benflfl
with the strut Mly extended should be at least 2.75
time the piston diamseter. For universal Wpi ne)
Osp
struts, which have littl5tfne~lh
Wd yt ~a
bdm
teace is only I.2 tMdes the pistoo dkmeer. With
thus paramesters known, the length of the st" can
be dawemined. The length ofa catier strtw
Am thn
do
extended p~on
sioa1 equal to (Fig. 124):

-s

1corwec

7~~
In. APPRO)XIMATELY

STROK(E

II

I
I

2.75 x (piston diameter) + 2x (sdroae)

+ (allowan= for upper cap and low aske
cmn
inhown in Fig. 1246 appinuiMia*d
This Aa c~ws,
4.0 in.. will vary with strut sin. For univernalmone stus th ent iscalculatee in the Soots
mainer as for the cantilever strut. excet that the
lowervalue of minimum bear*n Speclag Is use. The
elimination of bending loads by a levered suspenumon
thus reults in a shorteF stMut The0 meSOf this 00011ig1uratlon is reamnasndud for tail Par whats losng Mrai
arms san esirable to reduce shimmy tendenices.
A snubber or reboun ring is provided to reduce
th imac fojeuo the par during Sudden exter
lom, Such as those encountered on takeoff and landln reoud The strut in the fuly extended position
ead not oUwchb the ground must be Capble Of reac.
ting to a rebound load factor of 20) times the unrung weigit Of the landing gear, or three times the
lead Induced'by air pressure within the gear, whichawL greater.
M~r of air and oil lb the olso can camn loss of
gttafliec as the hydraulic fluid becomes
awasnaL AbmL foasmles of the fluid takes nlnes durnga
esesing the possibility of having dwn
in.
servkkinu.
amount of fluld In the ollso end thus reducing
Some of the eaergy-abeorptlon capabilit7 or'the samt.
Current prac'.ce isto Insall aseparator piston, which
Gute two separate chambers; thus, no mixing of air
and oil is pceable. The housing or outer cylinder is
usually oi~ forged alumintem construction and consists
of bosse or lugs to provide the method of attachment
to the airframe. A sat of torque arms is necessary to
reactw the tmique lowoo on the gear dimt to pivoting.
~~and to maiattaln wheel alignment by joining the
. A..f
.. n
I Ln
.w..

EXMDDain

2.75 XPISTON DIA FOR

SM4T
CNIEE
TU
LENTH1.25 XPISTON DIA FOR
UNIVERSAL. STRUJT

STOK

\ 'C)

-.

Npr.12.

STROKE

2.0 in. APPROXIMATELY

Dsesrsahdead

of Strut 9troke

r . ......

axial doom. of freedom. Main gear torque NrmS

uwally an cosrce or forged aluminum, with the
angl between the arms limited to 135 dog. Nose gear
torque arms, being Susceptible to shimmy, may be of
ste construction with a hew angle, and may use a
knuckle deApg (multiple hats) at tho apex end.
Trhe dusig of nose and tail wheels musm include
centering spriupg to insure proper alignment of the
wheo* during lending and sufficient damping of
angular motion to prevent shimmy during mn-on
landing and zac14g. Shimmy is a self-excited, rapid
oscrillation of the leding gear that occiurs at Or above
critical landing spodxs. Basically, shimmy is the result
of a lateral mimaianmen' between the helicopter CG
and the ceuter of contact of the tire with the ground.
The gea isdef kte to one Side, but a restoring forme
~due to the elasticity of the gea and its supposting.

structure causes tIte wheel to move back. It then over-

13.7

Af.

AMGP70W

shoots the oenter, with a subsequent lateral misalignmoet ca the other side,
An analysis of shimmy is quite complicated if an
attempt is made to incorporate a11 of the variables;
however. a aimplified approach that calculates the
speed at which shimmy starts to occur has proven
acceptable for landing speeids below 100 ki. This
method uses Moreland's stability critria (Rd.~ 3),
which express the eqiusions of shimmy in a nondimensional form contaning all of the major aircraft
parameters. A digital computer program has bee
developed to indicate the stable and unstable regions
for any given aircraft configuration.
To reduce the possibility of shimmy, several design
practices based upon experimental work should be
obseerved for helicopters equipped with nose geaup:
1. The trail distance (Fig. 12-2) should b,.- less thin
8%oir greater than 50% of the tire diameter.
2. Dampers mounted at the wheels or at the strut
are acceptable. For dual wheels, a damper connecting
the two wheels is preferred because the amount of
play in the syttem thereby isminimized. Dual wheels
are preferred for dynamic loads above 20,000 lb.
3. A shcort trail distance usually requires more
deeiethen a

Ie., *~I

ar &`i------

Imting oc acmiarticulsting Sear with a long trail arm is

probanly lighter than a gear with a short trail arm.

4. Hydraulic viscous damping is preferred. Friction damping is not desirable duc to the large vaniations, encountered,
5. Torqt arms should be ui stiff as possible. The
apex should be a knuckle design to avoid any offset in
the line of action of the two members. The use of steel
instead of aluminum should be considered,
Insiglerotr
te csef cofigratonsthetan
rotor provides excellent c',ntrol o( the helicopter
duiv&ini isndiiidi-, uakeorfM, and iaxiing; therefore,
steering of the aO~or tail wheel is not necessary. A

device should be providrA, controllable by the pilot,

to lock the tail wheel in a trail positucn during landmaS and takeoff to assist in directional control. No
gea helicopters are inherently stable and, therefore,
usually require no lock. Both nose and tail gears
should cortain cams or other centering devices to
maintain the gear in a trail position prior to landing.
As a viuue, antiskid devices are not required for
vehicles with landing speeds below 100 kt.
12-1,12.4 Brakes
Braking system requirements are governed by the
system specification, and by MIL-fl-8584 anid MILW-501 3. Current cargo and crane helicopters wec
Type IV systems because the energy-absorption requirtment~s dictate a power-operated system. This
12-8

type of system must operate from either sot of pedals.

and must perink parking of a lO-deg slope without
application of external power.
Main pear wheel braking usually its sufficient to
achieve the specified deceleration; howeve, each hell
copter must be analyzed indvidually to determine
brake adequacy.
A parking brake handle accessible to both pilot
and copilot must actuatc a parking biake with
pressure sufficient to hold the helicopter on the
speOcified slcpe with the power off.
Sizing of brakes is dictated by prior constraints in
additicni to the applicabkc Military Specification. The
size of the wheel and tire. previoul~y selected, defines
the volume available for the brake assembly, and
hence the area of the friction pads and the number of
actuating cylinders.
Master brake cylinder sizing and detail designt are
dependent upon the brake pressure and actuation
volume requirement, thc speed of response, the
linkage ratio to the pedals, and the available pressure
supply.
12-1.2 SKID GEAR
22A

Ger-

The major advantages of skid gear are lightweight,

low cost, and simplicity.. The initial cost of skid gear
is leew than that of a cvrnventional oleo gear. The~g
elimination of wheels, tires, brakes, and braking
system oleo results in reduced maintenaicr. The dieadvantages arc the need for support wheels or dollits
to handle the helicoptea on the ground, a limited
running-landing capability, the inability to perform
running takeoffs and to thereby inrreace payload
with the resultant increased lift, and the high rate of
wear of the bottom of the skids.
Skid gear is ustd on many lightweight helicopters
where the normal landing energy ii stored in tubuler
or rectangular spring members. For harder landings.
the landing energy is akiorbcd by perumtnent deformation of the spring members.
The- static deflections of' the skid gear usu~al!') arc
ls hntoco losa.Teercec fsi
gear is approximately 50% until the load in the i~pring
member exceeds the elastic limit. When the load is
abethyilsrnthotemmeteef.
ciency of the skid gear is comparable to that of the
conventional gear.
Ground clearances of structure, control surfaces,
or external items for skid gpar shall noi:x~ less than 6
in. witi skids flat on the ground in a static position.
Wheels
12-1.1.2 Groud..bsadiI
Location and number of whiels are dependent

AMCP 7064202

uopn helicopter weight and CO location. Units

shcu4~ have the capability of being removed emsil
and quickly.
Whoek mhould be capable of rolling over a 4-in,
elistacle. A braking device is not required.
M1243 Scuff Plane
Facors that affect skid wear are speed of landing,
beaing press, *re. rni~Aanoc of skid material to abrasion, and type of kendin surface Removable wear
plates r-hould be located at critical wear points along
the bottom of the skid to prevent permanent darmagc
to the skid and zupporting structure when a laading is
made on a hard surface at a speed of 35 kt. These
wear clates must be designed to prevent excessive
digging into the pavement marfaqc- as a result ur the
scuffing acion rerulting from gear motion. Steel wear
strips semto give thn best ruAuhs.
12-1.

RETkACrABLE GEAR
G61011gear
12-1-l
requirements for th
retraction
and
Extension
kusd.. ac-nunbnn syseeq arm viven by the helicopter

system, or detail specification.

The gear x.tuzation system must include a mechanical lock ateither extreme of travel; must provide an
indication of gear status - i.e.. up, down, or in transit - and mumt provide a method for emergency akctuaion
Reracioncanbeaccomplished by folding
tuwatin aetrlaction canly be
fowad,
ateall,
ftor orby elecopng he ear
along a fixed oleo axis. iForwa d retraction is favored
for the main gear in order to pernall the airstream to
assist in anergecy extension. The telescopic retraction method may be wmployed on the nose gear,
MUM..LAP%.&UW~1
rtu

Pnose

The design of the actuating systemls dWU be in sccordmnce with MIL-C-5503 and MIL-H4775. However, the specified seails (MS 25771) and scraper rings
(MS 28776) should be replaced where possible. 0ring shaft seals are prone to spiral failure because the
seal works on an unlubricatod shaft. Improved &arvim~ life has bcqr achieved by using a sead consisting
of a T-shaped elastomner supported by two Teflon
backup rings. MS )crapor allow entrance of sand
and dirt because the sealing surface is discontinuous.
A filled Teflon acraper. preloaded with an 0-ring,
provides longer seal life.
121-3.2 Actuadom
Indication usually is provided for three modes on
each gear. Engagement of the mechanital up and
down locks a~nuaies fth gear up and down indications, respectively, in the cockpit.
Disengagement of both up and down locks indicates an in-transit condition by illumin~ating the
control handle front within and/or by uncovering a striped "barber pole" indicator.
.,

Emergeacy extension of the Sear should be

manual. An air bottle may provide the energy
necessary ta~ assit in lowering the gear and to overComte air loads on the gear door. Provisions sM/I bea
made for emergency extension in the event of loss of
hesoiSteSa
ydraulic pressure or of failure of the landing gear
directional contiol valve.
12-1.4 SKIS AND DEAR PAWS
M21.4.1

large, open whWe well in the nose, or because the

gea strut length must be controllable in order to
tilt the fuselage for cargo loading,
A typical retraction system, wherein the VA.- pivots
up into a wheel well, contains the following:
I. An actuating cylinder on each gear, which either
acts bs a drag stmut or drives the drag strut linkage,
which in turn actuatas the gear
2. Mechanical up and down locksV
3 Mechanical lock limit switches
4. limit switches on eah gea.- scissors, or on the
oleo itself, which are deactivated when the helicopter
weight is on the gear.
The down IGca limit switch, the landing gear congtrol handle, the scissors sw-tches, and the hydraulic
control valve up coil am wired in series so that raising
can comnmence only with gear unload. Similarily. the
Sup lock limnit switch and the control valve down coil
ar
wre i sris through the control handi.

General

Skis and bear paws are similar. Bear paws are used

*'-ea.

primarily on snow or soft terrain for nearly vertical

descents. Skis are used primarily for landings with
some forward speed in snow-covered areas. Skis are
VI

7E
9

G4RSATCAD0ALO
FRSAI N ALO
NOE GEAR DYNAMIC LOAD

3I

200
1
bcI
1001

NOw
1

51AI

AL-EA

OD

160
2000
Iwo
00
120M5
GA OD
Flgarn 12-7. Lmudag Gear Static Load vs Ski
Drl. Premere
M

larger than bear paws, and have a lower bearing

pressure, a longer nose section, and a greater lengthto-width ratio. Landing gear static load versus acceptable ski-bearing prosutre data ar shown in Fig. 12.
7.
Nvt.t that the main gear has a higher allowable
bearing pressure than do the nose or tail gear. The
tendency of pilots is to feel for the ground, or land
~tail down, when operating tail wheel hlidcolpter. This
increases the effective tail ski load. As a result,
relative to the main gear static load, a lower bearing
pressure is required to stay above the snow surface.
The nose gear must react the dynamic. loads caused
by drag and friction forces at the main gear, and thus
a lower bearing prosaure is necessary to keep the nose
ski from submerging in the snow. A comparison~ of
typical missions indicates that lightc. vehicles require
a greater mobility than does a heavy cargo helicooter. This is evidenced by the lower bearing pressures
found to be acceptable for helicopters with lower gear
static loads.
Limited available experience indicates that above a
bearing pressure of approximately ?50 psf-, ski
--

...

.,.;

aj.,.he

bearing pressure for bear paws for soft-woil operation

should not exceed 1500 pet (approximataly 10 ps!).
The length-to-widtb ratio of skis is not of great importance at the low forward speeds encountered in
helicopter operations. A ratio of 2.5:1 c ,rrently is in
use for helivopters. On snow-covered terrain, a run4ERN

PRESSURE,

35

OF.

lb/:W

ning landing speed of at least 15 kt is required to

enable the pilot to maintain a clear field of vision by
keeping the helicopter in front of the blizzard createdI
by the rotor downwash.
Ski friction is due to compacting of the snow
(which can vary greatly with the moisture content or
density of the snow) and sliding 'riction. A coeffcient of friction of 0.25 hall apply for landing coaditlons and a coefficient of 0.40 &W1lapply for
ground-handling conditions (NIIL-A-M62).
The relation between snow depth and ski track
depth is presented in Fig. 12-8.
12-1.4.2 Imstalladua
Current practice is to adapt skis to the standard
wheel arrangement. The tire is allowed to protrude
through an opening in the ski in order to permit landing on hard-packed snow and it-e. This permits the
tire to absorb some of the landing enegy that otherwise would be transmitted through the ski. This
design also pernits ground maneuvering of the hellcopter to work arma that normally Are cleared of soft
snow.
.I
.L
-- allim.
.r sv.uj gmt
nr ihawWist Mnntme.tion with a honeycomb or balsa wood core. A long
planing nose (Fig. 12-9) keeps the ski from diggng
into the snow during landings involving foward
speed. The aft portion asoe is raised upward.
although~ to a lesser degive, to permit rearward movemeat over snow or other obstacles without digging in
or snagging. Replaceable chafing strips may be at.
tahdW to the. bottom of the ski to protect it Guom

being scraped arnd damaged if it contacts the ground

while landing or taxiing on snow-dleared surfaces.

pedestal rat~ings thtpstintsi

-0

//Z
u~2
0

/
W''OO
lb/ft2

553 hi-laKUU

________________RESTRAINING

CABLE

0
0

12
SKI TRACK DEPTH. ft

1~no 124. bmw D"M we nai rakDepth

12-10

wheel and permit pivoting of the ski above or below

its normal horizontal position, thus allowing it to
follow the terrain without imposing high loads on the
ski or gear structure. Fore and aft cables with
adjusters pusation the ski in flight to minimize drag at
cruising speed. Cables are attached above the sho-k
strut and become slack as the oleo coutpresses upon

BEARING CONTACT LENGTH

Figre 11-9. Ski Cenfiguratla

landing, allowing the ski freedom to suck its own

position on the mnow. A spring or bunqme cord sanetimes is used to keep the, ski clear of the ground on
sow-free runways, alhbough some designs favor a
caste wheel at the aft end.
1242 LANDING LOAD ANALYSIS
The operational envl'anwaet to which Army helicpesare exposed is sufficiently severe. that it has
naese te snki# seedrebowounnenuqto
quimremnets spicikied AinMIL-S4696. The applicable
deepg cr,euia ame given in Chapter 4, AMCP 706.
20.The requirements fot both symmetrical and
"aymmetrical lending conditions are discussed
thervin, iresmuch as a comnprehevisive design anely4s of the landing gear subsystem is required uurinS
the preliminary design of a new model of helcoter.
Landing loads tA0l be determined by a rational
analytca procedure that has bean approved by the
precuring activity. One such procedure is outlined in

MIL-A4082. The adequacy of the landing gear sub

sequently will be demonstrated by drop teat. Th

~~~qualification requirements, including the drop tut,

2W..

..

Inad tio o the landing loads, the loaui created

by wtuiing over obstructions, turning, braking,
to'~ft and backing also must be determined using
the design caiuria orChapter 4.AMQP706-2D 1.The
hendin end ground-handling loads then are distribunted as shea loads, and bending aid torsion
moment at selected points on the helicopter. The
omens
lods nd
rsulingfromfliht eds
shee
&hea
omens
lods ndrsulingfromRigt leds
are distribiuted similarly, and the critical loads at cecti
point are determined.
?Worwall-, the maprg-absorbing capability oi the
t.

..

natural frequency in the rolLltrl ado pitching

modes. Instability cart result in oecilfktionpM which
buildup dufflciently to dkar')y the helicopter in a
matter of seconds. Because the theory is uiderstood
(Refs. 5 and 6), the problem can be approaclid analyticelky during iCetaiI design.
The feiiors governing stability en a combination
or rotor and landinig tear parameters. Several of the
pa aneters amre ixed by basic consraints beyond the
contrCi of the landing Scar designer. The critical pantfieta
i.lae rsofenmo
fiai
.Baewsofe.admmn
blades
2. Number of
3. Blade damping about the lag hinge
4. Rotor rpm
5. Fuel
mess
6. Fuselage polar mess moment of imnria about
the lateral and longitudinal taxe
ergoer
7
8. Tire vertical and lateral -kpring rate
9. Oleo strut damping
10. Structural sping rate of gear.
ffrtema fciiiyi
tme,7 8 ,ad1
0lvofferon themstofexiiliy i
9
aItemsing7 9 and
The problem is furthmr complicated by the
folwn
-ators:
I.oniearaitonfthtrendlwpig
golosprwinghto
byvargsiain othetire and
rate Nonuinea
rtscaue ycagsi eicpe rs egto
2.TeprntgofVswihtupredbte
2.otheprotgrfgoswegtspotdb h
ror
3. The effect of inipri-per servicing on the spring
rates of tbe struts and tires
4. Th effect of a flat or soft tire on the spriqg rate.
Adti einapoc o sesn tblt n
Adti einapoc o sesn tblt n
dirtcriining the parameter changes rcouired to

MrUMnd-l iig loadso

toU"ticlolo
the lanimn-and.
ing paer attachment and support points. Should the.
sapeified lending or ground-handling loads exceed
the flight loads, it usually is appropriate to reil th
landing 9wa isnergy-absorbing system to reduce the
load factor at the CO. and/or the local loads. The
airframe is overweight and structurally inefficient if
the lending loaids are critiewi. As with other chairacteristics, it is necessary to examine the trade-off
et~ween energy-absorbing-systemn weight and airframe stut-d*ih.lengths.
strutura u~.ght.CBR,
OFGOUNDspring
W AVODANC

resolve the problem includes the followin~g prc'-M

1D erterieteltea.rl,:d
ort-i
.Dtrieheaerlolndonidna
rigid-body natural fircquenzies of the airframe, considering Items 5 through 10 plus the aforcni.ntiontd
nonlincarities. Operational considerations will deterietelneo'aalbeprmtesi oecs~
A range of oleo spring rates is est -.1i)ii!cd by the dccele&raion loads imposed apoez the airframe anid by
the ratio amiong static, wextened, and compressed
Tirv ,tlerction is dictated by terrain, load, and
leaving some latitude in tire vertical and lateral
rates. The ranoo of oleo-strut damping is esen--rgy-abA OINANCE O GR NDtablished by the oczessity for art efficient natuial
RES
frecurve. The possible rigid-body
RESOANCEsorpticn
quencies, and the extremes of the ratio of rotor rumn
Ground resonance oceurs due to coupling between
to rigid-body natural frequency, should be tabulated.
the main totor blades oscillating about their lag
2. A ground resonano; stability plot should be
hinges sn.J the airframne excited at its rigid-body
12-11

AA---

AM~P 70&M20
janerated (see Ref. 4 and Chapter 5, AMCP 706201). This curve describes a center of instability by
dsfininj, as.a!unction of blade properties, the ratio
of rotor rpm to undamp~ed airframe rigid-body
natural frqeqn.cy that leads to instability. A kbind of
instoihity on either skie of the center of instbility is
auperimjiosd uwing Colemnan's technique (Ref. 4).
The-analyiical tt-lihmque estabhshes instabilixy in the
absancc of also- or rotor-blade damping. A cc.-parison with the mau'th of Step I detrmiines what
conditions of rotor rpm and strutitand tire sWTiheuucs
lead to irn~taoiity.
'Y.Stabilize the*bystemn t,' reducing the width of the
inst..bility band to xzio through the introduc~tion of
both rotor hub damping and olec damping.
Dleutsch's criteria (Ref. 5) specify the pioduct of
bladt and o'eo damping riecetusary to ivduce the unstable range to zero. Required strut damping is obtained from Eq. 6, Ref. 5.Strut damping will be non.
linear with reaect to Atroke an~d soad if h tapered
ractering pin is used, xesulting in a variable orifice
Hcem, the damping xI culd be defined as the tangent to the force/velocity zurve at each discrete comn-

__area.

hiotn

.4

KA
4,

ef

ohiit

Inadn

T- h-

nn.---.Ifrut"
--

-.

2. JEEf=c of partially empty fuel tanks

3. Placmnent of passengers, crew, ant carjo
4. Rotor blade lead-lag effect.
For hclicopters with a vatcr-takeoff capability, a
minimum dlearance of 6 in. between the rot"r bWad"s
and the wiater must te provided at the required us
state with rotor shut down. This predludes possible
damage to the blbde while the helicopter is rolling
and drifting during engine kal'down.
Sea state is a condition that comprime height of
waves, wind velocity, and wave length. Current psuctice in to use significant waveheight valuies, whbh are
considered conservative, for &kSin. A graph of wave
height versus wind velocity for different se states is
shown in Fig. 12-10.
When cak-ubating the buoyancy of a float, it is
customary to consider the weight of firesh water as
62.4 lb/ft3 .
Inverted V-type hull sh-pee ame preferre over flat
or round shapes. Inverted V bulls have low water
resistance and reasonable aerodynamnic chtaracteristics, whereas floats with circular bottom wtions tend
to stick and to exhibit undesirable sproy characterisi

lkfah-

vp

CVa)..U

uoundrssonnceDust be avoided (see par. 5-335,

AMCP 706-201) includc one blade dsmper inoperative and the combination, on~ a single stirut, of
flat tires) and flat strut (shock atbsorbe pressure at
zero). These cases are distussed in Ref. 3. The
methods of ansplysis aiso are discussed in Chaptee 5.
AMCP 706-201, while substantiation requirements
are given in AMCP 706-203.

pi~ot's vision or damagng the blades during landing,

takeooff, or taxiing should be incorporated in the in-(
itial deeiga stage. Spray deflectors arc a possible solutioji, but they result in increased drug, i.e., poorer
performance. Buoyancy of float hulls i3 dictated primarily by interior cabin size, with the result that hull
helicopters generally have substantial amounts of
!-xcms buoyancy.

12-4

12-4.2 PRIECPBLT

WATER-IANDINC CAPABILITY

12-4.1 GENERAL
The design criteria applicable to water landings tire
a sink speed of 8 fpo in ~ccmoination with 2/3 rotor
lift, and nppropiiate hzad moment and diag at the
basic structural design gross weight. Specific landing
coniditions to which these criteria apply are:
1. Zero forward speed
2. Forward speed of 30 kt
3 Asymmetrical diop, with the huhi rollee~ 10 deg
and no forward speed
~~4. A forwp'1Ispeed of 30 ktand ayaw anglo of 15
dieg
5. A forward speed of 30 kt and w~se-up pitch
angles of 3, 6, hkd9 4!tg
W!.en detenb..ing the lateral stability of the helicopter, the following latecal imbalances must be con.
sidered:
1. Lateral displacement of the helicopter CG froui
the centerline as inherent in the construction of the
helicoptcr
12-12

For water~b-bu
helicoptmr, the basic fletation
dasign will consist or metal flo~ats; or bull-shaped fuse.
lage witl, some form of owitiggers for stability. The
hull and auxiliary float must h- ye enough water.
tight comrpartments so that, with any single compartment of the hail or float flooded, the buoyancy of the
heclicopter still will provide sufakient stability to prev-rnt capoizing in theseamstate in -'hich it is toopeivite.
The high CG inherent in helicoipter design.
together with the large droop of the blades, minket,
helicoptar operation in the open ocean sea state difficult without the imposition of large performance
and weight Venalties to obtajii the requited stabiltiy
and blade cea&-ance (Fig. 12-10). The use of a sanchor to maintain. a heading into the wind and
waves is one approach to improving the roll azability
for cpcr.-&n in OiB sea state.
12-4.3 ADDITONAL CAPABILIT
Many helicopters are primarily land-based, with

V.

AMCP 70&202

some phase of their operation performed on sheltered

or inland waterways. For this type of operation, hull
and auxiliary floats, if used, must be divided into
compartments in such a manner that, if any one
ccmpertment is .1ooded, the buoyancy of the heliv..ptc' still will provide sufficient stability to prevent
capsizing It floats are used, the buoyancy noceasary
to anpport the maximum weight of the helico'pter in
fresh water must be exceeded by 50% for &ingirfloats
and 60% for dual floats,
The most straightforward appr( ich to an junphibious helicopter is to incorporate a watertight hull
with more than adequate buoyancy and with little
Performance orweih: penalty. Auxiliary floats must
provide lateral stability for the sea state condifion
specfied. The landing gear can be retracted into the
swum ~
7 floats to reduce drag.
Another %&y to obtain a water capability for land.
based holicopters is to add separate fabric (bag) or
metal floats. The wheels and shack absorbers are at tached to the floats in order to keep weight to a mini-

F~ 1
Ti 12-4.4 EMERGENCY FLOTATION
ICAPABIILFTy

12

I-

I-~.*4

~The purpose of emergency floaw is to enable the

OPEN OCEAN

5.

helicopter to, rentain afloa~t long enough for the occucapable ofremaining afloat in a condition of sea-state
three if the normal helicopter mission is flown over
sheltered area or inland waterways; or in a condition
of fPvc if missionr arm parforined over open waters.
~$~\
Two classes of floats have emneigenry flotation
~~X\Q capability: inflatable floatz vrid, 4i0. hrin floats. The
inflatable floats, which cm.' be -to4-t?di ':A~ded at the
.~

~\\

"7'),,

I-~~-~-.--.

f.

3
31

,'foi-

SHELTERED AREA/
SEA STATE
I

Ir

mum. A mingle main float is not usid on a helicopter

dtue to the absence of a wing or othoi' striecture to support the auxiliary floats that are necessary for lateral
stability. The permanently inflated bag floats art attached to the airframe by tubular members that s6ipport two fore-and-aft tubes to which the floats are attacked. Thesw latter tubes Vzovide both stiffacss and
stability for the floats. The undlerside of the float may
have an addiuional tubular member to accommodate
wear. This also can serve as an attaching point for a
damping unit if such a device is requirod to damp out
any tep iency of the helicopter to shake or bounce.
Larger amphibious helicopterb have both floats
and wheels. The wheels keep the float clear of the
ground during land operations in order to eliminate
chafing and wear on the under side of the float an6t. o
allow taxiing to loading areas without thz need for
doilies or other speia: ground-handling equipment.
Floats, either primary or auxiliary, must be able to
withstand the maximiun pressure diffe-rontial that
might be developed at the maximum flight attitude
without exceeding limit pressure.

larking ga.rit

asaft%,~Ca.,

-'*-

Gf
o.-

th..

inflatior.. Inflatable fliuts ut' a fig'

t and
compac' system, with a drag increase tidal is only ak
fiaction of that of permanent floats. Inflainble floats
cnmaintain the fslaecerothwtrathat, in
the event of a forged landing in relatively calm
waters, repairs of a minor nature may be made to
allow the helicopter to take off again and complete its
i4.. ssion. Be4cause the floats are inflated onaly a few

hundred feet above the water (inflation time ranges

from 3 to 7 sac), pressure change with altitude is not a

~design farter Floats normally are pressurized at

_______from

0OLo
0
FlIM* 12-1.

1,

l
10iJ

______

30
20UCTYk 30

DelWmon of F'es State Coudlions

0.75 to ;..25 psi. For use with skid pear, these

floats are cylindrical shaped tind are stowed on top of
each skid. For wheel gear, the float is doughniashaped and stored in a metal cage awot~nd each wheel.
-VI'loats usually permit the water level to
cover tht: floor of the crew or passenger compartmciii. This his the effxts of:
12-13

1 Lwar
o.

the CO, theeby improving lateral

pitchingan be oesrved. Methods o(fIindu timSNJ

stability
rotor subela'e or ohw ule
dharactuls"2.Reikt g thebweilght of the supberged portion
tica, if they exit, also can bc evaluated.
of the helicopter by the buoyant force of the dispkoed water, thereby requiring lem buoyancs fromntRE
lgCTS
the flotation bags
3. Keeping the helioptr intacat
t
the crew
1.D. H. Gray and D. E. Wflaisamk Evhdam qrA/,
can be Frmed and a salae operation can be undercrq4 L.UdJJ"W
c G"W, mWfd Fleem
a
taken.
tice for Opemritk from Unuwfamd So0 Airf
.
Nonmally, two main ditching floats are forwrd of
SEFL Repot No. 167, Air Form System Coalthe CO and are powered by a cool-lpg generator or
mand Wright-Pattmern Air Force Dom OH.
other method to ive rapid inflation, usually in under
Mum 197.

3 sm. Inflation may be activated by the pilot or by

stibmetuible valves that automatically trigger the
generating unit when it is imumerd in w'ar. A lhird
float, permanently inflated, is mounted in the tail
cone to provide fore-and-aft stability.
12U4. MODEL TEsMs
To substantiate thu analytical data for any typ" of
float system~i, a hydrWdynamicaly complete scale
modd is tosted in a model basin capable of generating

dif~~eret~~ferir~
'-

__mith

rotors and ballat weihts to permit varying helicopter weight, CG, and moments of inertia. Stability. roll
"response, and landing hImpct load data then are
re.orded and compared with analytical data. On
models tosted to damt, Uoimit correlation bstwca
azial-yitir1 and model te &ta has baen noted. With
the nmodei in tht taik, wave oorm = W Ivci-ated
and mo" tvajoncies
.h a headiv, 0o5llin. and

"*

I12-14

2. 77we T~skAe

E&wi*f Jisai. The Timkum

Rollm Dearing Co., 1963.

3. W. J. Morha4d, Loaft Gea V~bwavL Air
Feace Technical Report No. 6590, WrightPatterson Air Force ase, Or!. October 1951.
4. K. P. Cokmau, Thety ofSe-excaed Medwatd
Osilatdou of HI agd Rawr BAmin. NACA
Report ARR No. 3029,1 &a#lyMemoial Aaronautical Laboratory, Langley Fied, VA. July
1943. Repblished as NACA Report 1331.

5UUI"*

t., wh "Cuenal"A vih"AtInne fr II*IuWh.

ters", Journal or the Aeronautical Sciences. 5,223228, (May 1946).

6. C. E. Hatmmaond, "An Application of Floquot
Theory to Prediction of Mechanics! Instability".
Paper No. 13. Rosorcraf Dymmkci, NASA SP352. Proceedinsp of AHS/NASA Aome Specilists Meetinm, Moffett Fid%CA, February 13-1.-,
1974.

CHAFFR 13

CREW STATIONS AND CARGO PROVISIONS

OLSmdst
US
OFSYM
13.

* 13 LIS OFSYMD LS
K

lb/ft
spiring rate of first qving. lb/ft
spring rate of steond spring, lb/ft
- lenthof suspessinft
- mansof helicpter, slug
- ma~ssof external kied, slug
l loaed, ftlb/e
- aweih ofeterng
9*' fW~5iI
eteral oad lbpracice
- distance between suspension attach pons
ist~c n cse o for-pint
ongtudnal
X
x -logituina
disanc in ase f fur-pint

* ~
L
Mj

rate of suaptasion, lb/ft

~ l~
~cations
to','~

-spring

ML

W
*X

su5petision0ft

13-1

U8M
i- u ftL

t3

uab
awI"&VIA msa5en

speis0f
for-pont
uspasion ftpit
f sspesio sytem Hz
- naura frquecy

INRDU TO

This chapter addres the requirements foi pe"sas aocomodatiou and cargo povisions to t
incorporated in the detail deign of he~icepters. The
disussion of the cockpit includes the pertinent requirements for cmw station geometry, pasmmner
compartment arrngemrents. swas and rutraint sY3tans, control/dispiny arrangements, map and data
cames cu. Also included is a discussion of the inter face criteria pertinent to the histaIlation and tmployment of cargo bUndfing and survival equipment.
Design requirements for environmental control syr.tans and lighting guidelines are Included.
The basic design of personnel and cargo accommodations is determined during preliminary design. The detail designer shculd adopt an integrated
systems approach to optimizing provisions for personnel and cargo in such a way as to obtain maximum mission affectfiveness. To accomplish this jpoal,
the detai designer wil consider pummceters stich as
the exact location of displays, controls, in'tsion
and emergency equipmtwit turd mutt opti.
mize on fte basis of anthropometric date and a
human factors engineering analysi. of crew Waks. lit

)equlpewit,
-

recognize existing demig boundaries w spediisd by the preliminary dr *gn and the appropriate
uiySpcfainsPetetMltA)pcfare listed within the chapter where opplicabic.
13-2

PERSONNEL
ACCOMMODATIONS

COCKPIT
There isa growing body of literature methads, and
which provide guidance in the ag'plication
of system engineering to the development of cockpits. Howevet, there are few pert isnent, sptcific, absolute roquirenients. The miss ie profile, the vchicle
function anplysis, time-line analysis, link
13-2.1

-constraints,

analysis, and tile development of new mauwras anu

components must be considered in determining cockdesign.

In additione to design handbooks and manuals e.g., Refs. I and 2 -. reference should be made to
MIL-STD-250, MIL-STD-850, MIL-STD-1333,
MIL-STD-1472, Ref. 3,AFSC DH 2-2, and pars. 133 aied 4.5 of AMCP 706-201.
The general cockpit dimensions, seating arrangements and externial vision envelope will have been deternnined durngM preliminary design. The trade-offs
available to the detail designer include standardiza.
tion of dimensions and controls versus opportunities
for improvement resulting from a particular aerodynamic shape. The goial of maximum vision in all dircsdoni; may compete with instrument panel lo;tion, airframe weight. comfoit, armor protection,
and aerodynamic, shape.
The detail designer must w.nsider the entire
anthropometric rakige of uber populattion for which
the crew station is ewigned. The reach and body
clearance envelopes must consider the heaviest
cluthing, survival, and protective equipment likely tc
b worn or used. Guidance for the application of
anei~repomeatric factors is contained in Chapter 13,
ANICP 7W6201.
C~ew sulion arrangement and geometry sAil we in
apc-rdaitcc with MIL-STD-2S0 and MIL-STD-12333
uniaz otherwise specified by the procuring activity.
Deviation from these specifications, or the location
13-1

'-7

.[V-

of controls or equipmwent, not covered by tiest sped;ficultons, Aus# be based on a huinan factors englossins analyia of crew tanks. Controls. switches,
and levers that require frequent actuation in flight
should be conveniently aceusable to the pilot's left
bund to minimise removal of his right band from the
~cyclic pitch s"M~ during normal fligt.

trols should be shaped and located oo thai an

arua
member reasonably familiar with their arraapeeent
isable to operate them without visua nrefrec - the
so-called "blind position reaction".
All controls of lik fuzacton should be grouipmd togtether, and normal operaths w andvergmncy controls should have priority of pasitlusa.
Conformity to established custom or standard
uunique mi&must be carefully reiwdin cmwere
13-2.1.1 Genera Viale Reqadramests
HIL-ST0)4S defines the requirements for air~
''
'P
'dsg
wliin
~
prieont an opportunity for a more nearly optimum
crew external vision. Figs. 13-1 and 13-2 illustrate the
arrangement through deviation from stanAitofrs equal area projection of the sphere scowigpit
sinle-ilo/tadempilt nd ideby-idehelcoper
dauds. Standards, in general. represet minimzum wn
si gl pl ot/a nd mpl t a d sd*b - eh lc p e
q uirements and the result of axp wniewe but a me
not
inteiided to obstruct pireuess nor to stific initiativo.
'Th problems associated with designing for op
How2eva the. possibility of improvement through
tirnum vision include teflections, glare, distortion,
deviation from standard should be subjected to
light transmission, and angle of vision. Asitirellective
thorough analysis before approval is requested, and
coatings shoula be applied as necessary to minimiz=
the designer should make full use of human factors
neflctions and glare from instrument fune, windenginerin tachniques in or'der to dluternine the
seeand windows. Analyses of crew stations under
value of any deviation from standa" practie.
all part of expected mission proffiki should be conHuman facors enginwintl~ principles also shaM be
ducted to determine that transparent areas are adoquite for all mission requirements. Light transanae to deterufine the laton Of any cot8 no
MDission

JUAIUW5

UawDpa~Irmla

ma

EM~d
o#

ia

mnizud. consistent with mission raquirem-trts. Tintlcd

windows or other deign featurcs whier riduo. light
transm;..on are not acceptable because of their adverse cf. .vt upon ciiteenal night vision.
Maximamn Gbstruction dot to trnpaec fr;m
menibars is specified in MIL-STD-85O. In helicopters *ere there are broad expanses of traitsparent areas that are used by more thean onie crew
trAwbaur vertical obstructions should be no more
than 2.5 'n. wide. projected on a plane normal to the
line of sight. This will permit binocular vision to, in
effect, see around the obistruction. Such obstructions
should be ;ocated to avoid critical vixa on arewand~ to
provide maximum distance betAin the crew
mnembern's eye and the nearest obrarus:'ons. Structural design and material selection guiomvne f-w
tranparnt
is iscsse
rea inChaper I. hen
mirror (see MIL-M-S755)
reAr-vision
necessary, a
should be positioned inside the windshield to Sive
maximum visibility to the rear without obstructing
forwad viion.Separate
13-2. 1. Coobvise
Requimements for size, shape, location, range and
dirertion of motion, and foriie-veruus-disphMamaet
characteristics for helicopter controls are defined in
MIL-STD-230, MIL-STDf"ollwing documents:
the
AFSC !)H 1-3.
Tb. pilot-operated lighting &nd emergency con13-2

Control pandls, control knobs, handisa, or kG

other ihan emerrency controls and integrally illumu.Q
nated cointrols should be blackt to wminimze reflections. Control panels lAall be desiped inac
cordance with MIL-C-81774. All emergency
switches, buttons, handles, knobs, and levwers whioeL
require immediaAe corrective action by tht operator
in the event of an emapacy should be identified,with
altmrate orange-yellow and bMack strip.-a in we
cordance with M.L-M-1a012.
The edges of adjacent circuar nondoeawt knoias
WMl
M&%M
Y -NLW
SL
are determined by torque and esoing requirements.
Knobs of l[as than 0.5-in. diamketer should be wed
for low torque application only. Knobs with diameter of more than 0.5 in. may s&ncvhat reduce
chances of error, but iacrease the demand for control
panel are.
13-2,1.2.1

Pfteb Control
collective and cyclic pitch controls should
be provided for pilot and copilot. The characteristics
of torce vs displacement for these conttols shel be in
accordance with par. 6-3.6, AMCP 70&201l. An a..justable friction device or irreversible mechanism
should be incorporated in the pilot's collectiv pitch
control.
stick sall be in accordance with MS 910M and MIL0-5807. Among the function to be controlled from

AMCP M0202
thslocation arm lateral aud longstudiWh trm, microphone (radio or ICS)I, weapon fhirig cargo or rescue
winh, and caro hook r lease. Subsystem function
controls instlldW on the collective control head
should be located in accordanc with Ref. 4.
[maamph. of cycli anW colle~ctive control grips incorpireting suboystem conftole arm shown in Figs. 13-3
and 13-4.

pedals should be clockwise The force displacemcent

characteristics of the pedals .,h~aI be in accordancc
with par. 6-3.6, ANICP 706-201.
13-2.13 Seats, Belts, and Haineeues
13-2.1.3.1 Crew Seats
All crew member seati;Mail1 be positioned for cane
of access to the scat, the helicopter exit, items such as
chart boards, and necessary equipment controls. The
pilot and copilot seats hAll be easily adjustable both
horizontally and vertically. The body contact areas of
the seat shall be of open mesh construction or fabricatod from pcrmeable materiak. For helicopters of the
utility class and lar~tar, the arrangement of the seats
shall be such as to facilitate inflight removal Of an itijuied crevmcnabcr. Seats for pilots, navigators, engineers, radio and radar operators, and electronic

M3.11=.2 Dfrveieag Coatio Pedals

The leco tiova and ranges of motion of directions.a
control poxain are specified in NIIL-STD-1333.
Pedal .sha be 6 in. minimum width. If mechanical
ajustmiont of the p.4* it provieed. it should be locite uift- the instrument pawel and rolong the
awtarline of the cme station. If a rotary pedal adjustmoint Iia med, the motion of c~mbol to extewd the

AI 0fFSF.QUAL
A0t A E'RQJ[C'1%Of THE[
PHERE
RADIFUS
OFPROjOC
I E SPHERE
QOALS
LIE DECIMETER

Flgure 13-1. Shs~oe Pilix/Taomens-plot Hielicopter Vision Plot

ATF
EQUAL
ARLAPROJECTION
OF Si.t SPwiRt
RADIUS
Of'PRAOJCTEtF
SPHERE
EQUALS
ONE
.afCAIETEFF

ISO

110

--

3VOIO to0-

ISO

ISO

Figare 13-2. SiE-by-s"d Helioper vision, Ptot

13-3

AM~P7GO
down strap, two shoulder strapis, and a single point of
attachment-releaa with a swngle-action-relese huckle in accordance with MIL-S-58095. Reetrint dovime must provide sufficient freedom of mnovement to
permit crewman to manipulate aircraft controls. The
releaso mechanism should piovost accidental or unintentional releast, but should also faciltate ecorgency release of is~ured crewmen, i.e., it should be
possible to relcase the harness with one finger while
tension equal to the occupiant's weight hs supported
h.- the harness. It MAl be possble for the meat occupant to make strap adjustments easily, with eithmr4
hand. Ref. 5 describes the development and test of a
restraint system to meot the design criteria given by
Ref. 3.
For those crow members whose duties require tham
to suand in open doors or windows during flight, a mo
taiming harness should be Installsid.

countermeasure crew mentheis should conform to

MIL-S-38093. The crow should be located to minimize danger from rotors. propellers, and turbine
blades.
Critical dimensions of the seat shall conform to
MIL-STD-1333 and MS 33575. aequiremants for
struc~ural strength a.nd controlled deformation are
given in MIL-S-MM05 and N4IL-STD-1290. Crashforce attv uation shal be accomplished by. plastic doformation of the seat structure by loaiJ-limituig dovioes, or by a -zombination of the two methods.
Stat armor may be required. Design considerations for seat aimor are Oiven in par. 14-3.3.
13-2.1.3.2 IW~f aw HamesmUg
Safety belts and harnesses should be installed for
akcrcw. troops, aud posw qers. The crew restraint
harness shall include a lap bNut, Wedstrap, lap belt tie-

SWITCH, TOGGLE, 4-POSITION ON, CENTER

OFF
PUNCTIO~i TRIM
EXAMftEs
CYCLIC TRIM CONTROL, PITCH &ROLL

~TCHSWITCH,

TYPEO.'TIONAL
SWICHFUSBUTONFUINCTIONs OPTIONAL
FUNCTION, DISkNGAGE. APCS*
EXAMPUS, (I) WEAPON SYSTEM
EXAMPLES, JV)STARIUZATION SYSTEM
M OTHER APPROPRLATE
FUNMCTIONS,
(2) AUTO PILOT
SEEMAIL-STO-250
401)SASO

SWITCH, hUSIISUT!ON, MOAAENTMwY

FUNCTON, CARGO I'Oc0K RELEASE
EXAMPLE, NORMAL RELEASE
OF CARGO

SWITCH. SE14SI71VIE.
MrMENTARY

FUNCTION, RADIO.ICS'
EXAMPLES: () RADIO IRANSMISSIONN
42) ICS TRANSMISSION/

SWITCH, TRIGGER, GUAROEC', 2-POSITION ON, FORWARD) OFF

SWITCH, PUSH11TTON, MOMENTARY
FUNCTION, MOMENTAPY DISENGAGE AFCS
STR5.IMAISSE
EXAMPLE&SV FORC

4()AUTO

jFUNCTION-

WEAPON FIRING

IIS POSITION - IOW RATE

EXAMPLE,
2ad POSITION - HIGHRATI

PILOT SYSTEM

STANDARD ARRANGEMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF SWITCHES

*AFCS - Au15:ic Flight CmW~olSPWG$SAS - S'oIII~y Auwm.GRI~f~f

SY0110

F~gur 13-3. Exam*pl of Cvewiic Cousrol Grip

13-4

Q.

'

-V

"

capabl of being stowed ianaminimum volum, so as

M~ to isseff-a with the traosport of cor..
Troop seats cre to be equipped with bp belts and
momddualsif simml be given also to providing
shulk hmasne for the occupants of fig forward
or sipward facng momts The lap belts should retract
OU FNMG
COW RTP0ffMONamalil to improve the sm of Ingres and
Woes Vhe helM dhoud #A4lt autornatklc* to twrwmiut
eat t midm influence. saa
The moqk
so sine without neod for additional fltklup and
hav bees
H imar~ly.to
J~n equram NuL
locking and unalockiing of the lap bel should be pa.b~~m 1 fro point to point wi thbal ow.
ble uflt only Oise hanid.
ud&atl. vive. to ehsf OCoR*"e or 1 0 IsmLa.
er.' ul
du useximum cohteht Wm
=
in the PODmWrbbbb
es WA a lower SasYI hl
adhwo color scheam " be in accordance with
h .1 .
me. a- ofaht rru
'IS 74&0.932.
hN6e Wmjw~dd muhaiqu whc dhda beeps or
qndhud uhei
apin a..dllo. to Ptufoe t*
Uphdolq and Caipeula
1342
~ quippe
mot ha a emete oal. Vine s.
Isf
The choice of upbolasrlng aOd carpeting is, to
-I-dsempumMugmd
W=oP We to be tmuEPO04
WNOMW
t"be aiepwa to
AMnin90M
momsetant. inlon-depondmnt. Consideration
shiould be givum to availability. weight, ressance to
Par
PW .d"
wear, sunliht, oils and groom, and
wni Sob001buWAoe
Dau nrawam
adw dwegding influmnoes an drese. coated and
hadhe fabric are suitable materials. Foam
gu
OW =Mmutated
aOW
e
1h0 mmd. dNA OrLl~uI #Oro
rubbe
per
mIL-R-5001 and polyuretane toam per
'
a
/qpua.
of
mas wO ubly, eomst, ued e
MIL-F-26-5!4 art t=WccL for US Ary=i-Ym&nsim mvis am~ W1St1a W maYNedtri
14IA
"
kfmpa Del Cam.
Hap sad daue co a be Wooatd in accas*.m
wi& MaL4T.5M= so that the men mebe e*
reach end Woost tbe maw writho havin to divert
Wes a omak. from his Mobs$ "ad mmb.

--

..

dwhe

l-aa

minime mo
d comEgardoan are news.-

Ia. hwant or
my so detarmle set edinatias L,
rerward bliug oul Eme of isgi.. and qp.--- nduu &Auk~eneba is o~inmds by simple, rubblge re.
stals qrsle. dad &
bskowap of the restrint
4
o ~
maaimt The design must
=acdes the reuIOW
qfor ame of hasindg and i*
W@W" he nouw"a systm.
Smuntsd oagma for troop Meatu arn Pr
Me~d by Rd. 6. Deuign requireamens for arub-

worthima.and for rearubt )-te oduig. as gweby

MIL4TD..WO. Tra"oo em sould fold and he

pficitioins.
Seat Cushions shoul

minimize OCCUap

t fttb.

ntarining and dynamic overshoot. Net-type meat

cushions may be used if they prevent contact betwain the occupant and the smat pan under design

vertca loads, and if their rebound characterkicst

limit occupant return movemient from the point of
maxmui daformation to 1.5 in. or les. Cushions
should be so contourd so as to avoid constrictions or
localizd prussutes that reduce comfovt or inhibit
body circulatory functions. Body cotacte Portions of
the moat back and seat cushion should be pcrmeabit.

D2.2A Swebq ?"lev

O"Irmoabl
1"UIWA9S

SCI

Ty
W

Cools"L ""WC"

In an area in which amoking is permaitted, me

ash trays ame necusary. The
mMm-0containedOTC
as& trays msut be ftush-mounted
flg c m au
and profuabl sac..dbl to the crewman's left band.
C~mpmtmmas
who smalif is sol prmitted Aabe!
~be dedpelsd by an appropefini placad.
Crow modoim

411. Cveai
Pe. tO0.2a

-lni
r governe by MIL-STDmed moin Womb awe disaimd in

Wha u-9 ~d,the bdlatm of the aluminum

Its.. 13-4. Tbrle s( CebDn"

Cmel Hand

Fob %"oftms shul Ne provide. A mmiuamu

13-5

vertical separstiom t'saween litters of Is in. is required. The entire nutalatlon sbould conform to the

streknghrquiri ae-ts of MILS-S496. MIL-STD-

1290 provides design guidanc for providing &deqdat crashworthiness in the litter instllation. Litters
may be installed either longitudinally or laterally.
Cane must be taken to provide adequate crashworthiness And unless the litter configuration iscap&bis of providing resttaint, the litter straps must be
capable of restraining the patient egeinst the curvivable crash loads. A lateral orienrtation or the litters
isindicated as preferable. Ease of litter loading and
in-flight accessibility by medical attendants arc umportant conjsiderations. A litter lift device isgenerally
preferable to adjusable litter support strap assemblies if combat evacuation of litter patients is me

quired. Fixed litter support strap assemrblics should

he used only wher. equired by the procuring activity.

The maximum dimensional requiremants (0:
aluminum pole Uitters are shown ;n Fig. 13-5. All
other~
po elittrs used by the servwce havo the saMe
length of pole, distance between polos, and length of

canvas.

Oxygen lines 04 storaes for Porn"l oxygen uanits

for the ure of all litte patients, medical personnel,

sand other personnel - should be provided.

Electrical otttleta should be prVided in order to
operate delecical medical equipmenat and provide

tockets for traveling lewds.

As specified by Ohe prowir* activity. foldaway

desk, meidical chest and equipment stores. space interons equipmet for two-way commuslcaion
between pilo and maedic end a loudspeaker system
for giving eamegnc

should be provided.

SURVIVAL MQUIPMENT
IN
13-M..
MWgb Esaew en Sevylval Eqnipiene
Provisons for iMight esape and survival depend
on the performancef capability 91 the heliopter, the
nature of the mission, configuration of the Maicop~ter, crew training, and equipment provided. For
most helicopters, the autorotative charocteristici of
the helicopter end the low altitude at which moat mws
siont sic flown make inflight eC&pe undesirabe if

not impossible. Therefore psawbcute provisions are

if$f

APPROXIMATE W'EIGHT, 16 lb
LITTER, FOLDING, RIGID POLE, ALUMINUM POLE,
FEDERAL SUPPLY CATALOG NO. 653U-L183--7905
Rpgre 13-5. RIgWd Pole Litter
13-6

honstrctione to eveacues abo

.....

7o062

not required
parcifd by the procuring activipnkm
ty. If feasible, the role of inflight emergency escape
systems is to deliver the crewmen and passntrs with necussary survival equipment - to the earth's
surface in such physical condition that they can perform the actions required to survive, evade capture.
sa take f.ttion ne-essary (such as the establishment
of signals) to aid in rescue operations. Although inflight oseape systems are not now operational, research and experimentation have been undertaken
toward the development of such systems. An example
of such an effon. is tht; v!EPS program of the US
Navy. In this program a pyrotechnic device permits
separation of the canopy and rotor system from the
helicopter and extraction of the crew if autorotation
is impossible.
13-2.3.2 Groed Escap and Dltddeg Plvidlem
Beaue of the variety of emergency situations that
can occur, the design of emergency egress facilities
and ditching capabilities is a difficult problem.
Among the primary design parameters arc the
nmber, sz, strength, and location of emergency
doors; the use of slide ropes, slide poles, and ground

~~~~;

.I..lhinoG~o

...

nr

vnnlniwv

mated
c
exits; and performance features that maximin chances for sueossful ditching.
The scope of appropriate round and ditching provisions will have been defined during preliminary deagn (we par. 13-3.2.1, AMCP 706-201). Mission requirements largely dictate the size and shape of the
helicopter, as well as its basic performance characteriasfs. These in turn help to establish the natuic and
likelihood of the possible emergency environments,
An analysis of the characuristics of the helicopter
and the emergency environments can be used to
cruss
awu...s. A.....
cri agt"C

,..
;.U*t

....a

-,
_r.L.

US (UUWU

U36t,1890

n5

emergency-egress provisions. Detail design requires

that these provisions be continuously reviewed and
re-optimized as adjustments or improvements in subsystems are made. Detail considerations include
design of doors or escape hatches to minimize posibilities of jamming due to crash deformation of crew
or F.senger compartments. Design guidance is provided by Ref. 3. Included are recommendations regarding operation of amergency exit closures and required markinps for emergency exits.

"{

13.33. Emrgeley Light Pmvriese

Emergency lighting pr:ovisions should be installd
independent of the craft electrical system in the passinger or cargo compartments. Prcfaan should be
given to an emergecy lighting system that is selfcontained, oxplosionproof, wasi-proof, and operable

by a combination manual/inertIa type switch. One

emergency lighting unit should be provided at or near
each emergency exit. Additional criteria and design
guidance are provided by Ref. 3.
13-J.4 Life Rafts
The type and number of life rafts, if required, will
be specified by the procuring activity. Design
guidance for life raft installation directions is given in
MIL-R-9131 and NUL-L-5567.
13-2.3.5 Stuiva Kits
Army aviators usually wear survival vests. which
are personal equipment and for which the designer
has to insure weight allowance, restraint capability,
and absence of control or reach interferences. In addition to this, space provisions for survival kits shall
be provided.
134.3.6 FIrst Aid
The type of first aid kit will be specified by the procuring activity. Selection of the location of the first
aid kit should be based upon the requirements of inflight access as well as easy access in case of emecrge~nCy Caress.
13-3.7 FIre Extimgishlg Systems ad Axe
The differentoa in size &nd configuration of helicopters preclude specifying a standard location for
portable fire extinguishers. The portable rim extinguishers should be located in such a way that they
are readily acoessibia to the crew member at their
normal duty stations. Hand fire extinguishers may be
mounted either vertically or horizontally. The extinguishers must not be mounted over or behind the
heads of crew members when they are positioned in
Ik.r n.......
l

SPt~e

ao~raan.
....

*o-aens
n.

Lah

rav
.

-0

litter compartment should be provided with a minimum of two extinguishers at each cnd of the cornpartinent and near entrance doors if it is practicable.
Fire extinguishers for use in occupied areas hAll use
nontoxic agents. Hand emergency fire axes shall be
provided as specified by the procuring agency.
13-.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
13-2.4.1 Vendlatke, Heating, sad Coeling
Ventilation, heating, and cooling requirenents are
defined in par. 13-3.2.3.2, AMCP 706-201. During
detail design the specific environmental control unit
must be scacted, air duct routing definl, and the
type and location of the air discharge ports defined.
The location aid controllability of the air outlets
shall be adequate to meet the 10-Idg maximum

temperature spread in both th: henting and cooling

13-7

I
o

modes. At least one outlet for each crewman sdhll be

located to provide variable airflow over the head and
chest. This feature significantly increases comfort in
the ventilating ard cooling modes. Detai; design
guidance on environmental control and air distribution systems can be found in Refs. 19 and 20. An
example analysis of heating and ventilation requiremerits is presented in Appendi.- A.
There should be a comprehensive investigation of
the possiblc toxic elements from all of the materials
that go imo the construction of the aircraft. Considcration must be given to the removal and the dctecuon of any toxic elements which may enter into or
be generated within the crew compartments or the
cockpit. As new materials are developed for use in the
construction of the aircraft, they must be tcted to detormine possible toxicity. Since it is impossible toprsmnt a comprehensive, up-to, date list of toxic agents
which may find their way into the cockpit, it is noees"sarythat each design program consider toxic hazards.
13-2.4.2

Winsddded Defogging and

delddg Equippm
The windshield defogging and deicing equipment

,dmuid 09; pJUV3UIGUQ

t th "quiMnt

altitude, thermal. and weather conditions required by

the mission profile of the helicopter. Detail requirements are given by MIL-T-542. Automatic and
manual override controls should be provided as rppropriate. In the case of anti-icing through chemicals
such as alcohol or other toxic substances, the design
should be such that the fumes or liquid will not enter
the cockpit or passeng compartments and thus
advrsely affect the crew or passengs.
13-2.4.3 Actnmdeul wFrem scisl
The noise within occupied compartments shall no!
be in exom of the maximum allowable leveis
prescribed in MIL-STD-1474. MIL-ST.?740, or
MIL-A-8806, as applicable. MIL-S-6144 provides the
general specifications for the soundproot'mg of aircraft.
Speciil attention must be paid to tehlmiques for
reducing noise level at its source, and to the use of
special materials and techniques for insulating
against acousticaln ise. leference should be made to
par. 13-3.2.2, AMCP 706-201, for information on
maintaining noise levels within accptable levels.
Auxiliary systems that normally operate for longer
than 5 min should not produce an increase in noise
levels in occupied compartments above that specified
in MILA-8806.
Special missions which may require noise leels
lower than those required by the genetal Military
13-8

Specifications should have the requirements so stated

in the detailed procurement specification and special
care should be taken to insume that thee levels are not
exceeded.
13-2.5 SIGHTS AND SIGHTING STATIONS
Provisions must be made for safe, efficient
positioning of sights and sighting stations required
for direction of helicopter weapon systems. Design
guidance for both direct and indirect sights follows.
13-2..1

Drset-ewi

Rgs

Direct-viewing sight may be fied or slewable.

Fixed sights generally are provided to permit pilot
operation of fixed weapons, flexible weapons in the
stow position, and rockets.
Fixed sights should not restrict pilot movement or
field of view during normal flight conditions.
Furthermore, the fixed siht must not interfere with
emergency exit crew movements. The sight may be
folded out of the operator's field of view until
required. Sufficient clearanoe must be provided to
permit the pilot (with gloves) to place the tight into
its operating position and to perform any requiired
hand-operad r"cCd1 adjum 'ents.
A direct-viewing flexible pantograph sight may
also be provided at the gunner's station. It generally
is supported from the aircraft structure and is hand
directed by the gunner. Alternately, the sight may be
fixed to, and rotate with, the gunners seat durbig
target tracking and firing operations. The helicopter
designer must insure thut adequate clearance is
provided for the gunner's head, hands, and other
extremities to permit unrestricted movement of the
.ghting station installation.
Airframe and cockpit surfaces within the
operator's f.
iew should have dull (antiglart)
finishes to prevent reflection and eye strain. The
canopy enclosure(windshiold)withintheline-of-sioht
envelope should contain as few areas of curvature
and thicaneu variations as possible to minimiiz opticad refraction and distortion. That portion of the
windshield within the sight-aiming envelope should
have adequate duefogging and deicing provisions.
Direct viewing sights have been a major source of
serious or fatal head traumas in crashes in US
military aircraft during World War 11, Korea, and
Vietnam. It is essential that all sighting devices be
designed to minimize the potential for injury. Safety
factors to be considered arr
1. Capabilit. for instant removal, jettisoning, or
storage during e eragency periods should be
provided.
2. Stowed tight positions should not create ad-

 dlk~ai besart to odll aew persod in dow smt

"~3
',

"

of "mmen

A deso

f stwe tisdon sUvrmth abould be

L%.

Mbmlk rlmba Sbmlm

sai

for miWW in
Imtaa ltoapow-

wWl eMploy tM do~t iustalkaUs usil forogum ad

pRovidd to prevent the @Wt fmmr bodidring

rockes. Provision may be nqtdrW for installation

13043M

obtained slectrically or mechanically, and enerally

requires provisions for adjustment.

L
4. Jettisoned or Nnoved slghtas should not rupremt Ithal miasle hazard in the event of a crush.
S. Thi guidanew ontaiud in Ref. 3 (Chapter 6)
should ha followed.

Hdm

Memu S

The helmet mounted eight is another type of direct-

of reratabl op6W fltar (in tiw gunoa lin of

sht) for e whe the misi exhast liot intnsity
is ufficiet to cause temporar blindness or a blurred
view of either the targpt or tde guldpow refWmNu.
Sight alignment with the aircraft datum plae may be

v i optia diht curmesy used for heiopter

appilestios. The sume cerane coiderations app-

13-3 LIGHING SYSTEMS

ly to this installation as to the aircrft-nounzted Naebi SlglOL Adequate hend vlearance must be provided
betwee hem et pn eCth &WAd
the Glctft structure
for nnora flight opeation and for wGIon control
within the mquired azimuth an evation flexibility
ramuu. Quia-dieconect provision must ba mude to
slow dislodging of the helmet from its electrical or

13-3.1 L KI Ol LIGHTING SYSTEM

The exterior lightingisystem design may include an
anticollision light system, formation fights, landing/
taxi lights. searchlights, floodlights, and position
lights. These are discussed subsequently. MIL-L-6503
provides specific design requirements fw exterior
uigbting.

Onuchealaml onectiou with the aircaft; provisions

also mum be made emblinS such disconnection to be
oanraina.
P' eight IooMt-"
SSaOne typeof
o elie
incrprtes a medhani-,
OW linkage to detect ead motions and sum the
aiming informaIn. Other ts of helmet sights use
""glat senora, sonic semor and elec"magnt
fld to perform the asam function.
Anotber type of diretsight is the periscopic sight
which views the tarlu
thrcugh a mirror arrangenemt and permits the eight bed to be located extarnally and in locmtio that allow unobstructed linr
of sight within a large envdope of azimuth and doprIeion ng limits. ThMoptical equipment may be
spported from the aircraft structuw or may constita to integral pert of rotating gunneW's station.
Peico installations of either type anr sizable and
require adequate airframe support structure. Power
requirements for a flexible gunner's sight station may
be significant and may require early consideration of
sighting station cabl or hydraulic line sizing and
toltli,

3 ludireet S
Indirct sights receive te targa IaWge from electronic sensors and project it to the observer by means
or a pael-mounted or helmet-mounted display. The
ability of the obeerver to detect and identify targets
with an indirect sight is dependent on display resolu. tion, contrast, number of shods of rey, display sIze,
and eyto-pandistance. Detail design guidance for
-'Indirvet
view sights and other CRT displays is
available in Ref. 21.

13,3.1.1 AndediUea Lijgm Sysm

Unless otherwie
spec
day/niSht
anticeollion
lightW.,
syste sArmnybe evdaopei
provided.
TUi system is idetified as Light Set. Navigation
(AADSHIL) and provides a white daytime strobe of
3500 effactve candle-power and a red nigbt time
strobe of 150 effective candle-power. This syu cm is
available in the following two types:
I. Type 1 (28 V) NSN 6620-00-361064W
2. Type 11 (115 V) NSN 6620.00-361.0614
Field of coverage Aall be as specified in MIL-L6503.
13-3.1.
Fermanleai
For helicopters, formation flying lights usually fall
into two catqtorioe fuASdg formation flyig lihta
and rotor tip lights.
Fuselage formation flying lights shahl be so
arranged that adjacent aircraft can fly in either
steppel-up trail formation or vat formation by alignment of lights. Durable elctroluminescent panels
easily can be adapted for fuslage lighting. Refer to
the specific aircraft system specification for detail rm
quirements. A test installation is required to verify
optimum system design.
Rotor tip formation flying lights should be con.
sidered on helicopters because the rotor blade usually
extends beyond the fuselage, and movement of the
rotor disc provides an indication of an impewding
maneuver. Due to the high centrifugal loads of rotor
tp%. multiple white lampe should be used minimxizng filament and vibratory angle. Some type of
13-9

slip ring normally will be required. as well as wiring

in the rotor blade itself. Five different light intensity
levels have been found satisfactory. Formation lights
must not be visible from the ground, and should be
further shielded when practical to be visible only
from behind and at the naow altitude and slightly
above the lead aircraf.
13-3.1.3 1.amihg/Taxl Ligt
A 600-W or 1000-W retractable landing light
(lMO-W preferred) shall be installed. For small
helicopters with limited power systems, lights of lesw
wattage may be acceptable. MIL-L-W53 requires
that this light be slewable from 20 deg above to 60
deg below the normal level flight position of the si:craft. For those helicopters having limited lower nose
space available, the 20-dog light above normal 1%;vcl
Rlight position may be, difficult to meet, and a deviation should be requested.
13-3.1.4 Searcl~h
A 450-W controllable searchlight, in accotoance:
with MIL-L-6503. shall be provided unless the dcta~i
specification requires a larger searchlight. i.e., 600-W
or 1000-W.
13-3.1.5 Floodlghi System
Some detail specifications for rescue helicopters
may require a floodlight system in addition to the
landing lights and searchlights. The ground area to be
illuminated and the helicopter altitude when using
the floodlight system should be determined prior to
the design or during a lighting mock-up.
13-3.1.6 Position Lights
All helicopters shall be equipped with fuselage side
position and- tail lights as dethed in MIL-L-6503.
13-.
INTERIOR LIHTN
The interior lighting system design may include
cabin and compartment lighting, cockpit lighting,
panel lighting, interior emergency lighting. portable
inspection lights, troop jump signal lights. worktable
light, warning, caution, and advisory ligh's, and instrument panel lighting. The applicable Military
Specifications for the interior lighting system are
MIL-L-6503. MIL-P-7788, MIL-L-5667, MIL-L27160, and MIL-L-2547.
1"-.2.1 Cabin &adCompartment Lightlng
Cabins and compartments shall be provided with
suitable i.Vht~ng for passengers and crew. These lights
shail be ins.'Ued so that their direct rays arc shielded
13-10

from the pilot's eyms and so no objectionable reflections are visible to thes pilots. In aircraft where
dark adaption is required, these lights All be caps
ble of providing both red and white Wlnummatiua with
separate dim controls in tWe cabin arma The required
levels of Diuminiation are tabulated in MIL-L-65.
33.
okitan
Cockpit lighting shall provide illumination sulficient to en~able crew members to aswertain readily indizators and switch positions. A cockpit dome fight,
with controls acocssible Lo both pilot and copilot, will
normally meet thi%requirement. The dome light shall
be dimmable and provide either red or white lighting.
13-4.2.2.1 Utility Lloa
MIL-L-6503 gives applicable dasign requirements
fo, cockpit utility lights. For most helicopters, one
light is installed for each pilot.
13.3.L2.2 Swmedau Lighti
Socont~ay lights shel be instalies in the instrument
glaze shied to provide disumable red and white iilumination for supplementary and thunderstorm
ligh1tins. Th=s lights, coiuec-ted to the mactis!W bus,
hllbe in accordance with 141L-L-18276. Utility
lights may suffice as a secondary lihot sourct in cottamn cockpits if they can be located to illuminate ca
sential inatrumcnta while remaining readily accessible to be used as utility lights.
13-31.3 Panel tlighti
Control panelks shall be sufficiently lighted to permit easy and accurite reding of the information contained thereon. Integrally illuminated panels shall be
provided in accordance with NIIL-P-77g8 when a red
lighted cockpit is specified, or in accodance with
MIL-P-83335 when Air Force blue-white light is
13-3.2.4 Interier Emergesicy Light
An interior emergency ligting system when
required shall be in accordance with MIL-L-650.
Design innovation radioactive luminous lightinig panels may fulfill some of the requiroments of MIL-L6503 for emergency lighting.
13-3.2.5 Portable Inapectloa UAWht
MIL-L-6503 requires that each helicopter be
equipped with a hand-held scanning light. The light
covered by MJL-L-7569 is approved for this application. Outlets ihall be provided in the cockpit and
crew compartment to pcrm.4 the required inspections during hours of darkness.

AMCP 706-202

113-3.2.. Troop Jumap Sigas Uph

Midefined! in MIL-L-6S03, when requirral by the
procuring activity, r troop jkui'p s6*01 light "I be
l?Tovided.
13-3.2.7 Waruh, Cawdee, aud Advlwoy Lights
The warning, caution, and advisory lighting system
is iiiscussad In raw. 10-2.2.
13-3-2.8 laubuuwst faiel Lightg
Instrument pwnel lightingl is discussed in por. ) 0.2.
13-3.2.9 Cargo Computsuei Lkgbtiig
Cargo compartmnett lightang should consist of, at
thn minimum, two rows of flush-mo'ntitd ceiling
floodlights located along th.-ruges of the ctiling. It
also is advisable to provide "xternia ligaitir4; in the
general area of the rarer and other doorways, to
facilitate night loading and enhance safety. A row of
lights along the base of the side walls provides the il..
l'imination required for the r&iong of tiediowns on
vehicle frames and undercarriage,
pthe

13-4 CARO
PRVISONSThe

-~~

Any atructurcs or components which project unavoidably into the, comnpartmcnt must be marked
;onspicuously. In all ceaes, the protruding comnponent must be suitably protected agailhrst impact
from cargo and vehicles.
With the ovc;rcrll dim.-nsions of the cargo floor determined by prelimin~ary design, the cargo tiedown
points can be located. These points must be arranged
in a basic 20-in, grid pattern. Such a gridl pattern has
been standardized internationally (AFSC- DH 2-1)
and is shown in Fig. 13-6.
The requirement tha cargo tiedown fittings be
located on 20-in, centers must be considered early in
the structural design process. since this is a major factor in the location of fuselage frames (sec. Chapter
I)
Helicopters which have the capability of haul:ng
vehiciet should havc rtrengthened treadway areas on
thc floor, locatad to coincide with the wheel locations
of all A-my vehicles which might c transported by
hsciivopiar. Th6 auj isUQ~
J1Disciassc4"AIin CAMPM
a`- caro dor

houl

hae enap11.r

equal to the sixe of the cargo compartmenet, with the

do IIo h aepae stefor ow.do
The provisions of this paragraph are applicable to
heliopt:~
avin anallcaro orcor bied
ft doors should opets clear of the extended wall and
argco/pass. hagewaringan ill-aion wihrh cargine
ceh~ng planes, to permit straight-in loading of the
highest load which will fi! into the com~partmnwrt. In
carried within a fuselage comnpartmnent or within a
basi heicoper
irfrme.
addjlion to the main door, at least one smaI'kcr, -vconweu;ite rdo
eloseoa Mhrd
dar doo
provisions,
cargo
oprnt.incidental
Bagg
the cargo compartment, oallow acces when the
and equipment stowage bins shou~d conf'rrm to te
coi~pa~ti~n
cricri w1~vcrcomiparm, ifilled witri cargo. If the second&ry
WrLsa5U
door P- on thca side of the fustlage., it should be
sible.
located on the right-hand side of the helicopter to
Army cargo can be grouped into two classes. Clas~s
facilitate the pilot's surveillance of loading
A ~~~cargo includes unpacked items and loose boxes
oprtns
smaller than a 3-ft cube which can be restrained by a
If required for a cargo hoist (Chapter 11). a hatL
net or similar device. Class B cargo includes larger,
atlstOinsqaehodbeocedntecner
singlo-unit loads such as vehicles, artillery, and fuel
line of the floor, at the approximate location of the
barrels, which are secured individually within the
cargo compartment. Incidental cargo, which falls
hlcpe G
into neither claws includes items such as spare parts.
1,34.11 Detail Desiga
flight bags, or mission-oriented equipment carried
onboarti by passiengers - e.g., tool kits. ammunition
The cargo floor should be. sufficiently flat and
boxes, and weapons.
smooth to insure that boxes, and fabric containers can
be slid across the floor without being snagged or
13-4.1.1 Cargo Coapmartmew Layout
damaged. Tiedown fittings, floor panel fasteners, and
The basic enavelope dimensions of the cargo cornseat/litter anchor studs must be flush with or recessedl
are established early in the preiminary
below floor level. Tiodown rings which cannot be in* design process. The detai desiger must keep the
stalled flusii with the floor must be made removable
holicopter structural wid miechanical comnwhen r,:' ii' uwe. Since they pireset a storage probklem
\pouenas froma intruding into this envelops rA the.
and r-.. i; Sciaei &Iinoonveineicae, removable tiedown
rings should be considwei~d only as a last resort.
'tgldevelor-. Compartment walls %nd ceilings
13.4.1 INERNAL CARGO

must renmain unobstiructed; even a minor protrusion

can decrease the usable ctrio volume considerabj.

)pertinent

\~vatious

AMW

M20.(ALL DIMENSIONS IN INCHES)

-. " 10 20

', I

-20 -o
--20,

--20
-0 120'

I
0

S/

.2

201.' 2D-.4--20

20

J-t

o00o0
o

o00

0
II

'

106

o
o

,/,/FORWARD

4s"

I~

AFT BULKHEAD

BULKHEAD

EXAMPLE -TYPICAL CARGO FLOOR LAYOUT

""-TP

n'-O--9 Tn 110n

-D-.70 TO 90

SEAT

15-25 r4-j

-o))

.,.,I

IS (REF)

/t0
D-s-0-oTO D-35
TO

REE
0-7WREF)I

.2315(RE

IE\.....
I,
0 ---

L C.
.
:-t

!1

IsI_020

iin)0Jmmj10

2015--2

20
20

SECrION A-A
ELMIATD.FOYATED
OFF]OO
AD R~ 90"
1. IF C<I5, -AF:IFTINGS MAY BE

c~*
6]0 FUN

FITTiNG

CFSHALLBE
A"AFITTND
OF SEAT LEG

"LO"ED20 OUTBARD

16-N25
15 E- 0-

OCA-.

BYP0CIt

LATERA.L GRID PATTERNJ DEVB..OPIEN1 BETWEEN LONG!TUD!AAL LINE O, SEAT LEG FITrINC(5
500 POUJND FIThiNG LOZATfJD BY PLACOAENT

ITNSSALe
2. IF 154C<20,
FROM INTEFSEC VON
INBOARID
LOCATF0L)1.5
FOOM AND FRM
3. IFC)

T2

CITN{{15

ELIMIATED.DETAIL

4OF

20

41-0

ALLS
OF T0PUNSEAT L
5000 POUND FITTING LOCATED BY LAI5IAL
POUND FI 7,1rING LOCATED FRM Vl2V A-A
I10.000

Flow* 1341 S6Rmkii Caw

I. -12

k"

Ti'sw. GCdi

AMCP 706-=0
Provision must be made for the lnev'1table damage
cargo compnipment. Any such components locate'
whic will occur occusionally to the Roos during
iinmecistaly adjacent to the wall of the cargo, comnloaiding operations. The Amo should be divided into
pantinent must be 9Akiled properly to guard against
panels that cmn bm replaced readily during orgenithe poaability that shifting cargo could deform the
zational mainteniance. If it is tot possible to make the
wall locally and jami the controls or damage the comnload-beariol floor ssruwre rnowable, tien it
ponents.
dhoul be protecWe from minor damage by rtplaceabecovers. The fAoo should be a&&4 w stiff and
13.4.1. L~eaft AWds
p~tc~r.reutan
- ossblec~f~l~entwit we~bt
Tb. detail design of the cargo cotnparmean mwust
limitations. Material meleccion should te based on
icuepoiinfrtebnfn
fcrodrn
consldmatlons Of wuight fifss a mt"@, to
k*;A prvswns
anlde
frThe utndlitg oflu
crof dthe
corrosion. fire, niso~stwe, and abrasion. Deamust of
lodg
dswaeTh utiy 'w
fte
tie einuea~treq~ut
m~to ror ~helicopter wrill be affected greatly by the attaition thik
aimreceies fom

cost lso s B*fbmn

dimshoewdpay Patcua ateai otkM
tal e~ecwfcoronon
-n
Caldbmof
orrsin. admlis w~j~ntsin he
vicinity ofte tiedowli AISIA should be dtW*
Carufity, wspcially what the fayiaS awl %"*samre ub~Tb ~
jogtorocowivs formw The
floof
wtipcsw
ium
o isac

deesssgny.

ne

ramp should be at least equil in width to the

cargo cibinpurtment floor, and should rirovide a contiflUwqs. sin0(Dth sirfacm over this width, ahthou~h it
may be mignem Wd inok left t'nd right halves for better

con'km~ace to rough terrain. It sho-i'd hav'- the

capability of being adjusted to and locked at any
within the widest possible limits. Measured
_
h
_t
-..
-*d& we -0""%Rm"
'6
"'1'--.fren W!NOWatk wfies depim.e odn ievel ground.,
minimum range of travel of -10 in. to +50 in. is
f
the aevct. ross an abCsolnccuulypteed , andm
"P
C~Uk$UtQJ4
he
i~tif5 CatM5
cosirecornmnmded. The slope of tie ramp when deployed
J =M
t
F4n an Un fo tforA
h
on level groianJ should not exceed 13 deg. Allowance
mateialmus
beh~hy ~sl~t t waer igration sliuul be made; for dxangc in bdicutipw floor height
furifuaM attck.
The looe shold
~
itha
~
duwini loading. Jacks supporting the helicopter
nmb loorshold
to~J *
a nsisip
w~t wll limiatcsuch se~hng. but atthe cost o
nialetia. mitas teType MI mu*thI decribeiSi
cruide~rable **St. Alternaively, a lo&O limiter (we
MIL-W.5044, to protide good footing tv puznaf~d
Chapter 11) should be incorporate into the ramp acand o0442 u&ction for vehicles. The corro mamtuating mn'chan~as, to allow the -amp to move uppetamovit wulL and ceZMdi
soud be biad with prowad~ as taquijed when the helicopter bettles under
tocivepwwing Tis materialsboulda be a light n
o. Without such a !oad liwkni intalled, the ramp
poiAble &and sobotk sve: to pro~t4 the ft fu@ap
actuatoh and it. supporting stinctaxe must be
utruc.*re from muinor damage and wear. fr n'1sM.desrgned to support the weight of Cm loaded belioutr
and awusid hwnsution, sad provms a IMOGO.l,
snm-g-ftee wall. A comnucierally avaslabl FibergaCargo helirpbesn saus have povwer-operated
reiiforcied Laminated siim~t sntenAi Mneed wO"el 111 ramps. Power for operating the ramp and associated
a cargo comipantmelnt hoer. The thin Usweal is corkdo-"s mstW he of a type availabie frum pround power
shr'tec of paralki gias fibers bonde together it. a
units. Ligit obsevation and utility helicapter may
croweply comnatrion with wmoy samin For adus manuly positionod ramps that can be reinotely
f'tional insuilation, FiberlsW battin mateial cao. be
notred within di.. carg compartment. itea entrance
inWaldW betee the MWe Mmwftmssat lIner and
rap muct be deVoyabe in fRiot. Aniy doors
the heliecopter skin,
operating in conjunction wihb these rm-ps must bW
ALI materoal used for cosstrutam saw lhnit the
caipsh of being opemsd in Rlight; alternatively, such
wmgo coinpaitment mwut be fire-resiistant. Any cargo
doors may be ranovable on the ground, with their
imnpuhtumt
if notc
r 101111'
c~
nfight mut
aboetce having no infact on structural integrity or
have~ a fire dsteatcv aWoremnotsly controlled fire exflight caatrsis
fiftinuising squipawnt. I. amy car, a mean should
The ramps should be strong enough to permit
bc1avdeto sea off the cockpit ftovm anoke and
loadinig of the besisiest anticpated vohicular load.
fue riginatiug ia the carg compartumet.
with only tint corna of Owiramp contactinj the
Mlight controhi, crkical musehanical eommponnts.
ground. The ramp miqy be ttcgh'ndkcally to
vrd critical wiring and plumabong mumt not eater the
provide wnedway areas at kaw equal ioi widthi and
.

Ithw.ual

13-13

struagth to the treadadays Withf the Cwg compgartmeait. It ks dedrabse, however, that the entire ram~p
have a ,unifona beas*n eureja#V1 equal to that of the
comipar~ncnt truudways. Ramp edges and dorr sills
motI be designed to withastad the uvze lcaizcd
impact koaiiags encouatered iii cargo os"ations. Li.
the absence of mome ipecfic design ciitcria, the ramp
aftes, door sells and vertical door frafms should W3
domigp'd to sustain without damage a single randonaly loo- ad load equal to the weight of the heaviest
single item to be loaded, the Woo~ bng applied to the
structure through a 1-in, radius sphere.
Ramp ejiteusions, if necesary, shoulcl -vnform to
the straigilh requirements of the integr-al ramp and
compartmerit tr~adway. Extensions should have a
Continuous width equal to that of the ramp. If this is
not possible, the mort narrow individual ramup actmisiona should be made reveaible, with a wmnooth smiface on one side for cargo loading and side %inonon
the opposite side for guida=c of wheeled vehicles.
A winch should be provided for th pups of
looding aad unloadin caro fivim carow helicopters,
Although the winch should be locaed at the forward
ew4 o~f thc carga o
-rtrnt, it. m-- be locatedL.
elswhere provided that a suitable combination of
bMocks and pulleys can be arranged to guide the
winch cable. As a minimum requirmnt, tht winc
should be capable of both pulling onro (,n boa'4 and
extracting cargo from the compartment to the ramp.
Reveral of direction o" pull caia be accownpished by
rrgngthe wioize cable over snatcb biocks located
Oil th ramp. Snatch blocks that can be attached to
cargo fiedouwr rftuio will gieatly improve the fleniyaut.-it V wdnessbfary M cksandpulley
tihe
part of the bauc eq, kimeat of
must be prc vWdad
the helicapter, and provisons for thtir mounting wnd
bsorege must be ifieAded.
A &Wsrable, but nonauentiAl secim!-ry mode of
opouaion for the winch is as a hoist witbin the cargo
compartownt, with the Cable rigged ovar a ceilingmourned pulle. If a floor hitch is avaiiable,. the
caro winch can be used !o a limited degiee as an
eateiaa load hoist. clowee, the designr should
consi-jer the nounwung requirummis wbich this
avplication impac,:* u'e fthcarm
.%%ch. A winch
used only for ca' .handling andetar-oave highspeed capabfitiy. Thus, a'tbw4h fomc imis an quite
iigh, the low cubc aprqd tends I. mimnmmnz powNv
requiranenta, Wim, and weight. OL, tine other hiand, a',
Imina3 load bmth. tc '-- of any vaiue. requime a isa
reslin rot uai.~ %d, as w"l n a rapid depl~yO'Vi-w
rats wnd A*h features as a,bb-capacity bra ins
pyrotechnsic cab" Cutters.
13-14

rTe minimum, ueLile able leugib m"s be that

required io rstrisim a lond wh ishI 20 ft bmyon dt
aft-most paut of the belicepwa (the tPall otr dlk. or,
in ;he case of the tandem-rowo helicopter. the aft
main rotoc tip). The winch systom should hae ourWhait capability to hvAu a flat-bottomed packag of a
weight equal to the nmaximum peyloid up to the
loading ramp wnd into the carg comnpartmenmf. on
tfr3 auseptiop that tde peackg is to m~ita skids,
and the ramps deplYed cia level ground, #he ewe of
"~tch blocks and multpl purchur cable arrazteemeata is recommended to achieve this maxiload capability. sinm a witch with a sriaigtmumw
pull capacity of such magnitude wcald be probibitiey large. The oof~ueffIcsts Of friction showil in
Table 13-1 should be nad when adetrinling winch
capacityThe seleution of a power Moturv fo the cargo winch
shoul take into comsidaradoio the fact that kondie
opratvions uasually are conducte with the helleapta
main power plant shotI down, and power is supplied
by either the onboard auxillbary power unit at it
g~round electrical power cart. Conro of the winch
.0.

ueh*~~mZa

.~.

long eIoSgj to permit the Wis.. ovewortot 10

th~hu the Cors comPartment 46-1. ramp

maybc u32l~seto ecu cariU wtieow
dermy Whic
myb sdt euecrowti
ryhl
copters. Floor tisdown fittings must be conpatibl
with all thee device 0-ovliioiis must be made for
fte storag of an appropriate number ot tbue doVIQU within the Cargo Cooup~entut.
134. UTNAL CARGO
Th onco-sove? practive of cA~yirgcarso lo"d ex-7 zYV;~
"ffu~

-A*'wvs

mu

m.v

a st~andarfd
ze~rtlg pmceduma~meecally in cowbet oparalAu. In muan owns, the usigo is g~iftTABLE 134. (-F1Ck

. OF F1A1OVN

NATERIAL1

5(
~E MIS(OFORN
eOW; ON We~t
ONM A
METAL ON METAL

rur.

O RC0

h
013 TO 01~0
07 -0.15 TO 010
-

0.08

TRALKED VEHICLES
GREASED SURF-'.CES

C.05 TO 0A

WHEE..ED VEHICLES

0.03

[AMCP7022
j

~TABLE M32. STANDARD CARGO

TIEDOWN DEVICES

DEVICSIZ, (ITYPERATING
DEVIE
SIE, t TPE
lb 'SPECIF ICAi ION

9X9

A-Z

MIL-T-9166
10,000J

15X15

MA-2

10,00

ISAO

MA-S

10.000

CHAIN. TIEDOIN

C-2

10.009

WH**-44480

I IEDOWN

1MB---

10,000

MIL-T-25959

5,00
5.000

MI(A-)
MIL-T-7l19

MET. STEELLCABLE

MET
NE

i7.wrING

NET, WIEBBING

4CHAIN,

STRA-PTIEDOWN
STAP
TiSWN
SRPTIEOCIVN

-5

--

I~-*
S~RAT*D(N
15
A-IA
1
20

GCU**iB

5.00

'A

I-

(A)OMI
SINGL-E f JINT

4I-2 7260

(B) LATERAL
TWO PCINT

A
*~off

t
tama.m
I)

5thdkcplen

loaded froma helicopter evn though it could easiY

fit insid fte cazgo comtpartmwnt of the sane belicopter. Numerous advanflgw to this method:
I~~.The helicopter neaG no land, either to pick up
to release its cuggo.
Loading timeo ix minimiuid for the hookutp and

)2.

pare to hostile fix.

3. Omimnia cargo can be carrie.
4. When wing singepint W4Cem, loading
I
and unloading have liak or no effect on kmtweadinai
CO positicut, and thereore reompatcion of CG
lwtoaor is nat stiuin
5. Cargo cmt be jettisned to lightec the bellcoperT lod prior to an mnmpvay landing.
G,_mall, wason
examMmrp
cnr~vu-(1))
ha~fm can be clasfOc by the nrntb's of points,
thrueg whicL the load is atbclAd to the ehelcopter.
fw-pin,
iurk~-point rnapww'ins
n(os~k
V FueFg.
con*W~M h las n0v4wity of

(C) TANDEV.
TWO-POINT

FOUR-POINT
Fixer 134V rxkMruS S11yuvalmmk,
Cnflprath.

Bak

Most light belicapmer and attain early cur

onm becawe of 6et
av
model sachien singltt-piat caqibilty by usn a
usardfability of cantafrline hard points on existing
shofl foeu'msmber stag the lop' of whlk*' ama
aib4 beause few hseas. with the notst~c
anduosud to am sape brw tde COD ofls9s,66s
esoapdwmdmof artilley pwain, are coat ruud foethre
The carg in suqded fois Ibis *MR. While this arpoint pkikup.
raqpmmet wnw to amed the Imi iota the aLla a&Mficm to the disunion that follws dsign
fran, allowing grnupid stuvctUral mitt, it has is
guidance for eneraal load syar is pro-v~d by
fe of xmor the amupeica
undesiabl si6&
Rd.7.
point too far below tur CG, with tin rmalt ibm in
Singlo.1cAnt amg~vloo -e by far the simplest
Flig. 13.9,A).
nmesa of canryin mgwarns cwpg can be canMe
As Ith kiadJ swimip hiaofy md loagitdinaly, the
in a net or on a Palle, with a mniahww of psups'A
vsaor pivots tkit she siUPeiOa pout at
the0eargo
ILLwe
ratio.. Theft is so mud to pack and
Cmma~uly MMg Nig remsrzit facwos a mnthe casttz: &PeK, impoeig Sadamkisl WFUnUti amournS
upsm thu hioeptw as it duierp widely (ra the
with load cauied within the wage cvauputmuat.

d
P
--

M-Pd

M-Pd

SUPPORT
STRUCTURE

jik
LEG'SLING

MWFOUR

PP

P
S(A)LOW

(B)RELOC~ATED SUSPENSION POINT

SUSPENSION POINT

d.
M-Pd

12-Pd

30IRTAI&Il

/1

~SUSPENSO

POINT

TROLLEY

--

~VIRTUAL

SUSPENSION
UVDPOINT
BEAM

LINKAGE FRAMtE
p~Pp
~

Ij.

I(C)

(D)CURVED BEAM AND TROLLEY

FOUR BAR LINKAGE

Ulpm 134.

d bW4 do Som
ofai

Poft

4-..

.- ,-p

--

iI

lI

AMCP IMM~
locstion of the CO (Re(. ). The mokhios to this unstable ituation is to raise the swpemiom point to a
locatin M dos as posble to the CO of the empty
hliooser, This can be doam by physia9 marranging th strmu a shows in Fig. 134-().
For mo" cume inchaig main ellco" , it is
mr kmM to crese a vrtual supesnnoe point by
andhoag the cupeo book or peadent upon a linkage
M&fg. 134(C)) or a alUy naunings on a curved track.
whiah allom the pedant to mOVe as though it wom
pivotn About a point nmee the CO (Fig. 13-(D)).
"Themajor difficaltm with simgle-pomt suspmnslow arie from th fed that te snso can provie o01Y simple Pdulr stability to the load, and
cannot provid any rraUiw or stability in yaw or
Pitc. An auzlry lif onunecting the load to the
+ opke would provide ptc and yaw restraint;
ho-ever, this iored lis cam"ot be used becaus it
woldcomptie the m Pe mim capability m34
moment upon the
poMMiby impoSS uNcontWolla
helicopter (Rd. 9). Thus, the oWy mm of providing stability to a single-point lod ias by using the
a.rodynamm fovmsemermed by foumd flight A
nrachuftainaflh I tohie tgaikjn amu nf

) csoW
bmca prmvie the nmeucar restoring nu)most to kWe e= otharviss unowabl ielod

-t

where
W - weIght of aderuallOto. Ib
x - dimance butwenm suspeaac attach pzrnts
ft
L - ngth of suapemnsoft
It can be sm that s"tear saspemmon 0ablos
generate a ete rutoring moment and result in a
oe ,tabmload ad highe allowe elapdL
Pitch rewtaint is provided by the tandem type of twopoint suspeanion. with the distance between the hebcopter attachment points detrumining wbether the
load pitches up, remaidn lWvJ, or pioch. down a
aerrdynamic drag swig it aft during flight. To
avoid having a low-dnsity load ily" up into the
helicopter due to a drag-ioduasd pitchp, it is dcsiabne to have the Ilod attachment points spaced
farthd- apart than the helicopter attachment points.
Lala-ally disposed two-point smtmumns do nwt
provide any pitch restraint, but do orer ome roll
rmeraint as well as yaw restraining torque
Four-point suspensions povi& simultaneous wrstraint i ;th and roA, &Wprovide a slotly mrU
cetive yaw restoring moment N. as expesedy
a1-2dlb

aligned with
N
Ik
P tlii
14
the diawio
.
of abL Ha or, the drwp mo-s its
N
!.().
+7.3 LWt,_+
eafct A very low s
,eedad
in hovering flight, wbwe7
rowa d"wokaa can ajapy comeidw"bl rotationa
kfous. on outain types a ioaI
l
- longitudinal disance betwemn cable attach
Tbowa lili amountsingcident
of
yaw restrint, IfPnt
ofier a fldwd
bwWswma
W ya reaw t. i
Y -latera dietance oe
abavc
a hook is rigidly moumntd to the airframe at the sue-t ,,
supnebyasotoisf
b
load
ponadif tAe
A four-point suspaenson is compatible ith most
bya '
o'dIuP
multiklegding wtkbaringatikeapx*tber~g inuw"
v
Q on
r
Wei MW pnmits
,.,,,...,,, ,,..,,.
Wv SWv-,,
IWI
W 1w
.
latively high-spead flight with uch led slnlg
L4d yaw4ng foments amd to wind up the sinl.
los to th fusp.." fwur-point wptiamon ly.
wi-.h fews ho AWIP witlk a WhhuS popoIOUI
out, however, has a numbor of inherent problun
So be au*.. te ck anOw di wg
area, some of which ae uiq an some of which
mams
oh wv
adi~u~a
tis li~w~nup ariue.
are shared Wo a Mow degre by the two-point fuspenSyminewd high-denoty beA =mbe allowed to
s..
rmuet Mhl retAMba
It
*Ok Minor eecta on baelEMePrgn relaw of mulipoint suspemioms wapkw MOi qualies. froielos mt ha a& for
quir
muilahneous jettison of &H
cables with a hit
ft roWaw m
a Iil mW be
J
letwm the
dme r .ofvability.
If olimu ai ioworpaumd at the
book end On pIi
to pSrowdo Ipo
rom
swspemion points, theat hoists must be syn1Mm d t
~in t
q.
gchronind. The pnmme of two or more autcimat
Tme twoefuim iwnpsein PrWiAs t6) yaw MAd
po
while prowiding stability to the caWl. proPi"c -1-111'9y wIVAh ShROOIhimt VmAW=S
h
vide a load putb through wbich potentiall mucn-.
trdable moments could be apIed to th helicpter.
7he dirtonalW (Yew) rMckesg mamma Nl of a twoou omispue
a, as
C faiiof
WW
ciisB lenth, is
Honking ap multipoint wuspnsioms to a hovering
lioptr cun i difnb ut. The operaton is dea-

-of

weow because of the pmasibity oif pickinp up a par-

7 L

R-L/do

(13-1)

tiniy unhooked load andsending the k~ioptr out

uof control. The problem of hinteruissoe uraitacr
Ii

+'

.,

performnance is unique to the four-point mupieo.

PMo v analysis of this redundant structure requires

coa~iideration of both payload and !adhopwe strctnt.! stiffame &A

wall as Mug membo ulasticity (Ref.
10 the practical application of a eer-peowt scope.skin. it has am found nesawy io incorporate a load
~trim-Iasg s)y@am to equblizs forms in the four cables

Without such a systas. flaing oftthe fehags and the

payload in Pight is likely to load soem cables while
cow*~ others to So dlack. An aiawmatic takeup donvice dasigned to allevimt th" problem is likely to be
complex and =Lpensive but may be a necessity in

fliture helicovtim Uusif four-pont supnin.ML

To determine the location and copeotty of the usaPomns points for amy new belicnowta the designer
must have some knowkledg of the type of leads to be
carried. Refs. 9. 10, ane 12 list, among item, most of
the Army equpuwnat sand vabides which can be slingloided. Weights said dimensioas arn provided. Army
aicraft axe hincuded in the listed beak because of the

*freiquent

uwe of helicoptenfrs faer i! recovey of air

fore hua. io"

crf fro otewe bWu

*

13.4.2.!
Lads SSI*
Tba reatd capaciy of the eawmrna load sinpeauwrm
system is established by preliminary desep and flight
tesb. ANl ompouvaets of the uslipesion tysteni
should be designed uniformly for this rated load. The
rated load mums be mulliplied by a limit fliht load
factor of 2.5, with a sfety factor of1.5 appliedto
givot an ultimate'diesign load fs.or of 3.75. The at-

tacbingmnactur muot be capabk of sustaining this

~tension l9Moa
pplied in any direction within 30 dog of
ventkcS. Relie
obta-ifed Lf i

*s'uima f in Pig 133-.

TbIG deaAAWle dim~as maebsaw sum
to
sormm-etw fn dluhl mwmn bmifg miuw both

the eheliopier mimi dho - -g

ame emi-Id sa r

The natual fraqamemei of this unia~

I

+ ML)-

______

is

&Q
wher
K - qiria rate of suepeasom, h/ft
UK- sam of helicopter. sft
- as *(ofitral Wend. dug

Experinace his shom that, whim thisnataral

frequency reaches does proalmy to the Ip aiim

rotor firequescy vertca boomn will o r. Th
lowar practical throshold of vvgticl bournc bm basi
defined as approximately 0.6 timeas the IP frequeny
(Raf 9).
With pruimndy used sing meters amd yia

load weighs, vtd*Wa bermnge km kasi gnaemu rd is

dqrew rsaqa fronmO ld c
dt An- 61 1or
to p.tin~tadally destuctive eiverest mitm "spoes The
midor cagu uuelly mo.th.- rosk ieco-bh
lower threshold freiveiney with the conbisat
ofm
a
stiff Flifg and a roitvel lgtk load. Mie mmr
kmia
divergmnt
cour whin the wiliral fuequmeay is
taken too dlose to the IP bWAnqwy with a siewwded
load weigh*n clams to 014 impty wegbt of the be&co095W.
-esi

IP FORCING FUNCTION

om the V0&S requiriment can he

1 eshown that, witht Lh@fiitflif

safety facto! of 1.5, applied at the extreme aftward

tutag angle, as establised by prelminay design.
Maximum towing force wil he determined by pkth
&
angle an? ucotrol powe lisits, wham the location ofK

the cohls atzachmat point is known.

SUSPENSION

LOAD ISOLATQR

DAMFNNG

13-.2. Dymui
~STIFFNESS
A plewmmoonom known as vertical boumc can occur wbm a hlikopter is carrying as extersal load vAt-

panded hresa dliegor a peodant. Ittisadivapm.;u

vertical asileflt"e of the airfram'/aarg system
comile by memsortanc of the coapled airframe/carg
UnQurl frequacy with the em-par-rev (IPF) vibnation frequency of the helicopter. ambis Ashw.

F11en 13-9. Hallesnplm/Leai Dymmseles S~kmaak

On theassumption that helicopter ompty weight

These nonlinear load isolators can be based an sir
and main rotor speed msuinvariable. and that the
springs or liquid spriaugs, although studio shave
helicopteir is capa"l of carrying its rated payload ex*
shown hydropneumatic load isolator. to be geweally
ternafly, the only way that divergent vertical ossuperior (Ref. 11). Such ao isolator usually is docillatlom cam be avoMde is by controlling the stiffnma
signed as an air-oil cylinder, with a volume of cornK to keep the siaspeumson system fiequency, below
pressed air providing the spring rate, and the oal proboth the IP frequency and the f~askg first bending
viding damping and aLo a momn of varying the sk
mode.
volume to change stiffness. When the applied loed is
If the characteristics of individual cargo loads are
increased, an increased quantity of hydraulic fluid is
known. it is possible to controN the stiffness K by
metered into the cylinder by a servo valve. ProtIl~orin the dling &sign to 2;:lo; W by manipuvisions should be incorporated to absorb the recoi
leftla Wing geometry (length). material, &Adcross
shock resulting from sat inflight load reAse The:
seadlma area This has beew done for some existing
load limiter also provides a convenient mount for the
helicoptee load combinations by pireparing cuve of
placment of a cargo-weighing loud cell.
minimuam sling length versus lotd for vanousamsupumsion gmimstrims andsing webbing thicknesses
13-." Wkarhe mi HehWi
(Ref. l3j Where suspenslan length is variable in
Whl
mabebetocdu
samopertions saytbefacbrly wth acdc
W ciit
load
thesrna
M&h by the use of a wfsickhe stfbe of~
mutisfe~ slingh an cargo
tiedna looandoperantiors
on be deigr, asd by reeling out moire cable whenever
utlgdn n ag
fm okadpnato
the omsia of vulica bounce is detected.
of hoisting its
the
capability
have
should
helicopt.ur
diof
problem
the
to
solution
isausefacory
A more
vergat uicalossllauo
isavaiable~ ~maxunau.n rate externa load while in a hover. Thi
capabuiliy maksk. it possible to retrieve km&i frcim
i toconrolthestifsigner(Ra.
sqeebissoltin
(Rd 1).
14)Thissoluion
tO ontrl ~tight
"ntwhere dose havaring would be unsafe, and
amb iefac i 2 tthe
zapnw
yur
a Iced
~i
Nol~t toswhic
lia
ofe
pdtoFendulumw
malse tekndbe
walatorhavinaga soft Mon"g rate takig advantage of
hc
sisin
edlmla
ido
h
mz
in
connected
arm
iprop
two
when
that,
fam
fhe
swss, th total spring rVat K of this cauhuat~aion 0
theae cntirobaility (Ref. 15).--.The detail design of winches has many unique zsalways less, th&A the stffens of SONhe wmig, in th
pIOP~b~npocts
which ame bayond the realma of thn helicopteir
designer. However, the designer should be familiar
the goieriti characteristics req"ie so that inKIK2with
K -,P/ft
(13.4)
talli~ent speiificatioas may be wriuma. Military, he&iI+2
K + K2
cr ersued for cmistansportmasthbave aighK2
speed win* capable of hoaisin fth maximum exWroa
loa ata rawe of at Ieat 60 fpm. With lighter
.

WWu

locuim. SPO6dS ii*- 61MA ON 'AM 2

Ki - spingrafJM bitsPringh/It
X2 - -m
risere of asoond sprW&g 6/ft
Thesw-i thevlod isoltor by itissIf hass a situffinso such
thea th eaternas load foawqc is always belw the
0.6 X I? tlofhodW hMrequsc. rFuM With IP fire*WM7 sid coupling with 1km fumehrge besidug
moealways wil be avooded, rqardlu of ths seasp -mwk a sing ssfuses,
iffa dowle spring is empoYed as a load nisaie, she
sam Mile (etltsisa) mVAs bi MRmoum*
ot
to bandi
doe ighees Lend euhhed with dhe Masti almasi.
A
spR&n4Mp Weeate deega so mWthes rpuare.
him Probaby WE
eusmu
Mn irdeio
4140011when11
loade with ase meXWOMr cap land (times twhumi
ked faer). YU mone isapsinsbcsc type od loaid
Mom
ean
we sin I ho
ane a vow*bh gmigs" that

A no-loa tepkoymes rate of 300 fpw or more would

he useful in a combat situatio. The wia speed
siould be inmmothiy variabl over its entre ramp urnder load. Adequate brakiing cawacity must lie providd, as wfal as an automati loal holder to Ilock the
wiir-l in cowe of Power failume Hydraulic power
smsrally a used fw high-capecisy aircaf weacha
becoame aircraft ekutrical mot~ors have ineufficisat
power. Loth drum anad capsita. wichsm wre ssitabl
for hsalicapter applicatiom. Stadie hav shwna s
dewr advas
for eother type, when all spsets of
thmi applicistio are coomidmd (Rs. 10. 11. ami

wINIa muiat ouuiM Asupeasl

qus~.newts

rupuc to smenemum alowabhe ik

*

wma matena fho.

are

.PWY

.:LL.bkr

16).

The same etUdiie have cancluded useenum*e

thatwith the pessiu ftet 1 su ierp
a tUN optimum teasms member. Cable minuw
Mdeave
i
die
(400 Isiess wrse srand diesimar eran everi

f.

ofd os Mk diameter). Mmoabu roiW~s rooc. 06 the other

-WW wuk*m Iceh M.COMMeerkva
MM&d med 68 4am dmuld tamblih high allow46 budI by IN it PeI We CoGmatau.peay elecbiso e,
A quire a number of electriW*~ tipw
a
#ad citolom so be bid w"th the cam of the ware
so%, to be wed for powerigi Cis book-*peatng
aak It
uadoid eSa Gmdauctin varm iondiao uIb~
bevera
Incwrorte
the
designer
thid
ke eiMd
Wum *4*0 withi the cabl so tha Chug quar wire
mbe

*
*
*

-,Moad

usm~imes

for coAnduro

passenger pod opw.ihions mumt hav amgne GdpOuitiwly kKlokn the pod in phe= afte heiat or of
piecing the emergonicy jouihon syuiec to apositivel
ukf configuratio,
Safey Of ron-adagpersocael shu~db whaiscd by providing some mesa of etammavedw
static electrioity disebigs The tAntic doctiwal char
developed by a arm"hefiaopote hovodringIdAy sed
duuty conditions baa enough aingy to Weepcitew
an anmivldu .0osilgin contac wit lb. aMopues
book.

This soa

arigt

ignite fued vapo or initials explosives (1Wf. a7) Twc

hmkma deuimg ve.
techniques wre availble for the edimation of sa"i
~~~CKV books musW be capabl of rebesing by elseChfirges actve discharg (Re(. 18). which Mo ahisktuIqel ciommaid. ad aslo sboq~ki be ask3 to be re"oktag &OdMeto tc null any Whelopler poteiaW 416Am
incal
u system. A
ftua
IGAmd bY a bw*ckup
tocord by an oobad sme.or and possive diinckbar
groma o at" reWon featuce. which oppos the book
which drains the capacitive enWg to grand thrtwgb
abo is desirabl. Oe singliewhim the lad.iskasedl
rski iAk,at a curentl Wh ichmis
a highly
pdgtsospaswkwAaweiv nmusbe pro~vsd to imuWjusiu and usdtua nwt dctuuble. 7he nuiaii'
fte the hoist cable from load rotation. If an electrilink can be incorpore in a posead handler' gaff
caW opuwad book is wsed. elewrca coetiauiq mugt
bouk, or cmn be coonnete in swam wit the sm-.
be mWAitalmed through t"i swivel joint, using welldiinaing. $so pbr. 7-9.3 fkw additional informsnmWndsip uingi.
ti.
The r~fhummts for winches warhooks genrally
aM ulmdw - wheth erlsinl-, two-, or fouar-point
v~aa~s
arO - a-N. Heck: and ez-.ckir for
mdoaempuosdo Not require & ivel noW- 1 .P a
n .W kWP*~w
hkstv. Four-poWn suoso book mus aa
I.vH.hf
P. VaFotasndi.
m
W.o
? &lua
dwce
Do,
~
E~.~gFw
omul-ims
aukm=@* aIs-i- . unwnwder ulxims. Whxncham
'&MW Of Wfqku Systems. WADCMh W6
t~wlet wil w-m'Lim nowt be syncbrniaviJ, cithci /M/
Wright Air Davslopesww! C=e, Wrigh488,
a
tbg
tkwosqb
or
ri~3IaM8*vO~
do"t amiasdcal
Air ForeDo@% OH, October 19%4 (P
Patterson
A!
WiROAci
Mlduiiphs
uvols.
esr~
alaor
WM
of an@
w
~
to ermit w.a 2 121916).
siculd be ldmdiiunl w*Uirl"
N
U
2. Wnsk Peed Ceatw#0*I*
tie*
a
*
an
~um~'4 mecuq~-Po,3 b~iua ad t0 O~Vid a
61-91(C). Aircraift Sysesm D~ivi"r Wrok.
means of-trimming~ tree towipcnt load in nlight.
Patlereon Air Force 3... OM (AD 2MM4 (C))
3. CrMA SWW Dvcs Goid* ISAAMRDL Th
"tfault fiva #Asdly; uboeM be Emad early ill the
daiga of "k wdir.svt carg syeaw to isolae p0bkWat haWW~ CANIal k"aWe must ha ProVi5a 00
#A casW9aJ suspmeom sytms. The wrmal release
0m49*1, wlbIik may bi. elucarial, ame be lcate onj
fr* plIIJM cydi s&iU. In addition. an allmhasad~ mom~ of Iced rulsan sould be pro.
uIsi go a tooik" to ans axmal Missm deviaL An
ninsj
q
sary
raslavmotol nawt bt providedl for he

~PWst This vat*h ensins hema fth unwu and

M-'

.mosietvi

mW& a

s ibafa"Sk"ou

jar.-

biaws of the apik and hook. a~be by soamgq the

=%*u~) or ky veal dv&hmh~iq die winch &=m w
doet *a bdg laud Ivrap fb c~w Weo the ddun.
Tw*-P*Ua sonassas shoul iimiepon-ar. a
&Mmumue whic deassie the psotinfa of ams c"~
"adhmu sam"""Who" tae Mmrvlvh cabl.
Im-1
OMadaas.

in ONOM to be maa-e4nte for

-w.issfil

tober 1971.
Sa*d. HEL M24-73 US Army Humus Esiginveing Labors.tory. Abordeen Ptovirg Ground MD.
3. 0. Koaroukls, J.3J. Glamy, sed S. P. Deer*dide% M~ 0=61%. D*Wd*MM. MWd TAMt~ dV

-. Swoaedlxed Cb&CIM? Cowra.

Aircwa

Rua#ulm Spat.

for Amqr

Abwo,

USAAPERDLTR M276, Emil DiENmmrms. Farx

Eusb*e VA. Jua 1972
6. hPftrei 1w A#mdo wwdA 4Cv
SaSpprni (Laud Lbj ed) T.ev Ser for
WATAS. USAUWAL Memon Rqper 72-5, U
Army A~uscy ior Aviatiom Sul"t, Fort Rusher
AL.
7. W. E. Iheauh, 31edp Gh"* Lad Amo
Simt pdwe. 310 ad Abtv"t AfJd Npab.
EdDkemovir, Fort
tSAAMRDL.TR 72-1 Evo,
Eus~tis. VA,

JMy 1972

bi4ioArmHo"
IQ
5dsLow.
OW
Kw*n. MrVAwwyK.
H
Wtt
W.

.HbeLC
etaDW
Fo~

wnadAnlbo H
u
fteAm,23

Aviation h4Rv"ka Cowmnaic, St. Leeis, MO,

HavtL~fA HMkArA

uirind Carr kzhklw%

I.. f.i~i

naacS

4_,%Uisi
aJ.
#!aC
tf.4%tbc

5.G

St&
10. L IL.OmtMO and H. B.tabin, Dm~
La dRA
xd
W
L4*)
Wiav
Jfapw
by*
SOW
WAAYLADS TI 67-46. US Army
Awklith Menoial LIwAbrawlu., Fort LAis,

VA, Novhebo 1967.

II. T. Lammatk.

.d R. Kakipa, NRmv-LOh
Desie Study.
Spes Hsadhut
Cat!.~x

TR 67-51'. US Anny Aviais

Bak, V, OObW
Musk LamuluimPou
bllaia Lauseda Fat Bal VA
U&14AAVA

45 inswy LQ# ft drew. Swta.

1Ec. I~i0~4M

Ammvpt~ag

.
Wikx
~ LJ.

Askopt

A-

fuiatyi. 1t 1,17

,%1e

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99

vainM~WLrrd~,Fr

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TmE~tkCaf

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knw.

fHlcpe*i

rFsbrbi.InAL--629,Pr1.
A~

~c~qa

ns

knk

I7t

ound
yami
ArFn
Unt
Wright-Puztwaroo Aflb OH, May 1%9.
nieFecawlc

ma&hsawado

USArmy Aviation Mataril I~ratoria, Fort

Pua"M VA.

WS

Naugflr Etwa'oi $iaw

Sp~a. Noth M&,shtAn. USAEMA ?tepnr
US A-my 'hAWApoaimt ES*Jwamuh 4
A'riw

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wkVAdI@

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2W. ASYfl'E, Hniql~.

34.r6jbj&,
14.G. K.~

4'0-14,

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EMA No, 6,

9
21. AFFDL-TR-70-174, Awlysis &Ij9htninIwwors
igh: Oizpkey Syir.eu.
Dow fior El amct Flk
PFK

H443

AMCP ?W062

CHAPTER 14

ARMOR, ARMAMENT, AND

PROTECTIVE SUDSYSTEMS DESIGN
144 LIST OF SYMBOLS

aack*helicopter the ability to survive a bostile as-

A,
Av
A

-presented arm
-vulneble am
singly vulnerable area of component I of a

A V4

- siq0y u

am of a

INTRODUCTION

As described in Chapter 2, AMCP 706-201, and

"AIS
I1. the concept of bepter survivability is

-.

',

41

,:

...

:.F,

broad aid complex. Howevr th effects of wrmamaw, and pricti

cunthr~
can be evaluateo i'
Vterms of three baimeamo
of coping with a&tue
envruonnent ( vbeber the hosl i man-made or
natural):
I. Avoiding it
2 NeutidWng it
3. Enduring it.
Avoidmc places emphasis upon vedki performWmc. To avoid a specific enronmet, a belicopter
requirce the ability to fly above it, or aound it. or to
outrun it. Armor and atmament have a negative
effuct upon this aspect of survivability, becaue thgy
add weight and aerodynamic drag.
From amilitary sandpoint, neutralizing th esovirounnot reqm destroying the sour= of hotlity
or hazard, or otherwise ren6tiag it haslesm. This
may be acoompihbed by Natie or tati that do
not involve the system being pmitecaum. However, a
capabity to correct a hostile emvirommet may be
designed into the system itself by the inchnlion of
standoff
,eapons
(aram=et) or counsermem us.
ndrias
th@ bombu advirowmt plum emngmW
Endui
eupo
such arom a redundancy and eparartion,
eeing of M dom-critici components with strucUTar
or componensw that amres "Ascitcal,concentration of citical components in a siagli plam within
ft vc

in orC t

rma
de-offs among performance, armor, an arm- rt always aff=ct virvhvety, but Aho may involve
m

dimVly s-o

PkIH - conditional kill probability

(P? IH),- Conditional kill priabty of component
or a system

14-1

vironmsnt, although ematl for mimsio completion. is not in itself a true memsme of the worth of

the Uo" am

presentsd to the hazard, and additio of deadweigt

vfole" on madb 0 amior.
Armor and armament, eampeciafl the latter. must
be evaluated in conutres ot than srvivability. For

tube pramary mission v

s pe-

forunoce (ae Catpter 2, AMCP 706-201).

Te major tatdo-off will have been pefomed
pror to the start of dtal desin. Altongh thuse
ttds-offs should be updated contoauously throuhout the design procu es more complaie and prcie
data becowm availabe a diceggoei of their natRue
m d ript is beyoud the weo. of this dapter.
However, it is weential that the deinr rinoba co.
e t t belmnowproc to
veroau mmia 0
detMail e
decidow regarding location. intamUs.
tim selection, and an of armamenL Theme rninaioships are subtle and, in many iacs,
arem
dficet
to quantify. As a resut much of the mewial oamtaod in this chapte is qualtaiv with s ific m
latiouship being included only in inefaems in wbicb
gmal physical rdationships am known.

142

RMAM

T SY

Helicoptier armament sysms typically we individual installations of guns. guiWdedsmmi, or 64eW

flight rockets. The namber and type of instllatiors,
and the mix of guns, mimlk, or rockets, we
dmcsibed by the governing belicoptder detail pe&
cation. This chaptr contains the bu*c helicopum
deeig guidelines, comideioand requimust
that apply to the installation of armament sytms.
14"1 GUNS
Guns of the number and calibar decribed by the
heicopr detait
lt
stalled in the requir poston. An
in the rquanitey poutyp ictate
A
m0Pply ofthe quanty nd type dia
dog be provided.
c
poe rp ktio

ad be eammunition
atheutio
y
by the dail

14-4.1.1 Typos
Several type of pas are available for bhicpt
usc. They include air-cooled,
-opabd 7.62 wo
14-1

weapons; air-cooled, automatic 20 mm weapons, aircooled clecuically-operated and controlled 30 mm

40 ien grenade ammnmwstion- Typical guiis are listed
in Table 14-1,
Operational and maintenance detaih mvr contained
in th. applicable 6pufifcation. US Army Armanient
Command (ARMCOM), Rock Island, Ill.. can provide information about g'wns not listed in Table 14-1
and also can provkd, operation temperatures, 'ubrication requirements. power requirements, peak and
stadly-istats recoil forces, life of gun and critical
parts and similar pertinent details con all Sums
availabl for helicopter use.
For -smmI applictijo s, the gun is installed on
t=Wi adapteer Thia installation minimizes the effect
of gws recoil force upon the helicpte structure. In
sislcting and designing recoil adapters, careful conWieretlon alsuld bo given to gun muzzle: energ; gun
weight, including attaching feeder and drive motor,
and the respons dynamics of the helicopter structure. ARMCOM can provide thw latest information
on the'ss requiremmat
Feed mechanisms for thes weapons vary, and eswh
tyepresents a special set of design problems. in
ome Instances, fte ammu4Ition Feed mustat _rt from
rat and must reach the peak rate cfrar within the
tims rcquired for the f"in of one round. This imposes hWg acceleration forces upon fte feed tran and
the storage container.
In other applications, a feed mechanism is used
that extracts e~arMwtr s from a recycling conveyor
balt. The integral feeder, is adapted for this purpose
by replacin the feeder cover with specal link guides.
71a high acceleratmo foaece imposed upon tie belt,
j anid cydkW. devastioss of the gun; from a nominal
raes of fire, require ceful design of the ammunition

food train to insure equiValeAL belt tension on both

aides of the Sun feeder.
tive accelerations upon the ammunition belt by
requiring the belt to start. miove one cartridge pitch
distance, then ruturn to rest in the proems of firing
each shot. Sharp turns in thc vicinity of the feeder,
and belt drag conditions that will cause link stretch
under these conditions, must be avoided.
In some systems an ammunition booster will need
to be added at an appropriate location in the ammunition path v' that the belt pull forces are alleviated.
The booste commonly is driven by a fractional HP
motor and must be controlled by various means to
sens ammunition demand. Starting and stopping accelerations must be controlled so that feeding will be
compatible with gun demand for ammunition. Care
must be taken to prevent obstructions from falling
between flexible chute elements.
14-2.1.2 Locatlew
Gun location is part of the overall heclicopter optimization as discussed in Chapter 2, AMCP 706-20)1.
Thlere are minimumn requirnessits imposed by the
naturv of the Wasawl. TUC location mint Provideaccessibility, unimpeded projectilic Moit paths and
debris ejection paths, and the ability to jettison
externally -nouniad gun pods. and it must be such
Juit fte vehicle can with~stand gun niuue bMast
effects.
Beyond these minimum requiremuents, the degre
of optimization must be related to the overall efrectivne criteria used in avaluatng the vehicl. The:
trade-oft. will involve structural and gasmetrical
limitations arisin from the desirc to optimie osw
and fliakt perfnrnmaq vW qh@woaniniock" a

TABLE 14-1. TYPICAL. HEUCUIPTER GUNS

GUN DESIGNATION
MODC MACHINE GUN
________

M134 AUTOMATIC GLIN

CAUSER

RATE OF FIE

METHOD OF

Ofi1

OPERATION

Wo

SELF-POWERD GAS

7.62 mm
_____

7.62 mm

EXTERNAL MOTOR

___________~~

MselAUTOMATIC GUN4

2D m

M127 AUTOMATIC GU.N

XI40 AUTOMATIC

20 wn
30

CAMP"_____

XMIX AUTOMATIC
G114ADE LAUNICHR

142

4(10-720
4D0-19D0
VS40
______

40 mm

400

R~EEECE

RI~NG

ELECTRIC

TM 9-1090-201-12

SCLEENID

________OPERATED

7510-4M

EI0()

PERCUISSION
TV 9.I0O6.AS-15
1-CONTAINED)____
SELF___

EXTEA.... MD1iVR

ELEC TRIC

To 11U01-IZ-432

EXTERN4AL MOTOR
SELF-CnvJTAIN~ED

ELECTRVIC
PCRCUSSON

NAVAIR 114MI97-1
POW 1005.~-41W5

ELECTRIC MOTOR

(SEL F-ACTUATED)

EXTMf~AL. MO1TOR

PERCUSSION
(SELF-CONTAINED)

_________

TM 1030-2013-12

All" 706=

to provide weapon system perfonnanoc and maintunability.

Paramers relating weapon system performance to
location are diacuzied individualy in the paragraphs
that follow.
14-2.1.2.1 Prsec!1 FIight Path
Gun location must be such ats to avoid intersection
of the extremas of the projectile flight path envelope
with the helicopter structure, including the main
rotor and externally-carried atore. The projectile
flash path efrlope io described by
e circular diap-er
"sionof the flT4d proj.'til with the circle center being
coincidentinwith
the gum barrel
=enterline.envelope
Factors into
*--ader
determining
the dispersio
dude gun and ammunition dispersion, saerodynamic
force acting upon the projectile, and defaelions of
the gun mount and helicopter structure. ARMCOM
can proride details of gun and ammunition disper-

,Juzu
%SU

For some application,, an ammunition feed ysem

is used that. retasas gun debris to an internal stcera
compasrtmawt. Thi! design is suited beat for syst m

fck

Vm
LI&

_t..r__ _ 1..
LM aAkAIWU ma 11" GO &A
U.

iouci.

anism.

sion, and aeodynamic test data.

14.1.2.2

rotors, or externally-carried equipments. 7U trajectories o. the ejocted debris can be determined from
gun ejection velocities and the local aerodynamic
conditions about the helicopter. In gemeal. the dAIs
ejetion velocity i3 equivalent to or higher than artmunition feed velocity.
Debris ejection veloities can be inciased by the
nuse of accelerator
mechanisms. Some accelerators
ue
rttn
rse ocpueadkclrt
h ers
rotating brushes to captureeand ctionlote the debr-g
othe use sprocke. The slection of the desg tas
nique must consider the available spect, and the at.
titude, kinamatics, and shape of the ejected debris.
The accelerator must be designed for positive cepwn
and retention or rejection of the debris, and must be
Iato as doe
oetto the
h gun
u ejection
jcinpr port as is
l pouls.
tke
Deflector plates can be placed strategically to redir"
h
i
ejetion pat properly, particulrl
where cam can strike a surface pipendicular to th

..
S..M

HM

L-1
UdA-

copemr strucaure to minimize the efects of muzzle

blast. The aircraft skin near the mtriule and adjacent
aimat aftructure must be strong enogh to prevent
gun blast dama.
Reinforcement requirements of
the airaft skin and strucr an determined by the
distance betwee gun and skin. the thick.es of the

ski and th density of frame and Sinngm. The gun

that otwwnlcv tem..vinm rna,powgnu nr anmtAkeda wathw

--

-""-3-j

--

-r

than a linked belt, to tmn ;port ammuaitioa. Tie

return conveyance path sheIW
acoWmmdate positiv
guidance of an oCASional misfired cartriOd as wal
as fired cams. The strength of the storpe comportment must be sufficient to protot persouu and the
vehicle from hazards caused by nmisftd crllrhis. A

ventilating system in the storage wntainia &W be

snmuz
never be locuted near erough to canoprovided to remove residual gamsin the fired ems.
pip, radar antnnans, or door frames to came or
cremte a hazardous condition.
14-. .4 Extmud Gum Jettluieag
For soe
guss a muzzle brake can be incorpoIn general, for installationt requiring jettisonthe
ratd to reap the blur pressure find. This evice Igun and ammunimion sould be located in extaydistorts the blast field so that peak pressure end im.
monted pods. The klcations o f the pen and pod mad
pulse aev rotet. and displaced from their normal
On an& of ejaction salu be such ea to insar
poastione relative to the gm barrel and thereby
dearance from the helicopter, landing I1pr
d ad.
ducs recail forae. ARMCOM should be consulted
jacont stores. Pod and helicopter structuir sW be
for details regarding availability of muzle re s
d
for compatibility with power jettisowaig Ie
and ft" iMPPrMM for Particular weapons, dein
MI.-A-8591.
wAdentiom for fiting a particular imn. and definition of muzzk premsur fields. AMCP 7011-23l pro*4*..
Aej
ty
ff
provide
Locon of the un mt
tO
u a
vde information on the dig and

muizzle brakes. Consideration also shoul be given to

the rdeltlowI of diffrent weapo systems to each

other, ock as machine gum vs rockets or missiles,
bot, fro
beth
tr s msstitiomm yy Ne
fiin positionet
position (of machissies
m achine
gPa) and during the trojectory (of rockets, ctc.).

"!144.1.

Deke Theein Paih

4smad mmi
ps

cam sad links &W ow mm

puporn
heicoper structure, cotrol surfac,

cleAn~alnd afctessgbilitytolwperovnid

es

offi

lence and acoibifity to &raw pefonce Of

maintenance - including swvicing. removal, mad i.
rsaml
lo in mt
a dofuthe
l agua
i g and
ofa related
u itoacasusres;
. T e w saMdm
The
ammunition.
of
loading ard unloading
also must be accesrible enough to permit suc mcW
tivitis as diagnosis of malfuftiom and the Ari-g
of stoppages or jams. parial disasembly while in

plaow pformance of all andard bdusteatts with

appropriWte tools, and viewing an, reading of ad
14-3

diask and gass.

An unobtrutmAW view from the gun barrel must be
provided for boresight .ligimnML Electrical cabler,
tubing. 54 Oquipamit that must be placed in the
v~it fthe gunJ abould be k)taud to) preven
damag during die removal and replacement of the
V=n Mintimum maintenance and turnaround times
Ire
Coindeutiis.Guns
~ti3Ik

Cables and eqipimwat should be restrained sn that

they coano be proximate to hot gun barel or other
omoing parts of a weapon or systemf. Provisions
should bns mae& for reoving hot weapons (gun
barrels and &4oiaing compofhuts) without buirning
creweata
Apropiat
bn~ls "NOSTE" mrk.

inp will be Provided on fte weapon turret, fee

ehuting aimauitin ague, and other matenel not

du~m towithtan
seapen foresshaped

7dewhpVMeut

14.2.1.3 Types of Isidaladoes

Guns n~ormally are installed in the fixed, forward
position in pods, or are mounted flexibly in remot"controlled turrets or upon manuuily-operated pintles.
also may be installed in the fixed, forward position without pods. The corifiguration that best suits
the detail helicopter mission requirements should be
determinad and employed.
14.2.1.3.1 pod sintltdoa..
Gun pod installations usually contain the gun, the
amMunition storage and feed system, and thc

operating mechanisms within an aerodynamicallyenclosure. Size And contour of the pod trnvelope are selected for minimum aerodynamic drag.
Construction and suspension features of the pod shall
144.1.26 Dytlc Forces
conform to MIL-A-8591 structurai design standards
Dynentic forcesi may best be determined from infor jettisonable stores. Pods normally are designed
a
on
turret
ww.pon
actual
of
the
taut
strusnated
for installation on either 14- or 30-in. spaced bomb
miount that simulates the flexibility profile of the helirack mounting hooks. The design of the supporting
copteer. Weapon systems contain a series of shock albstructure also should consider:
.. eb- tait d!parta
w~fl atual ~icea,
1.Location of the pod so as to permit normal serthe
during
profile
load
the
changng
thus afteruatiy
vicing and maintenance of the gun, ammunition, and
fn"i burst. Theas shO~k absorer.s am characteri-zed
operating mechanisms without removal of the pod.
as
Theme actions will include, as a minimum, amnmunihaumisi
1. Weapon intairma
2. lafie ydralicpaciep)tion
(sringor
loading and unloading, boresighting, component checkout, and normal removal/replacement of
3. Tesre stIauCI
Components.
4. Coanneclin struts between turret and helicop2. Design of the supporting structure so as to withter
5.rameork
llicotar r ~stand
forces imposed by gun recoil and aerodynamic
Simsthirewepoc
atvarius ttiudesof lepressures. The structure should provide proper rigidity in order to minimize gun firing errors as a result of
s van -The
torasandn .
.
nd
a uLbth
vau
strutrldfeto.
bw inod ntofl is satic~y indeterminate and
3. Location and design of the pod to avoid aeroShoul bit obtaimoed hra ARMCOM in the form of
dynamic interference amo g control s'urfaces. seninimmeanl firing data wit&halost cond iooi clar
and adjacent stores.
a
w~ntifed
lyto:sors.
4. Asymmetrical firings occurring due to failure of
1.Aismuanhion Lot No.

2. Wespon Wei
3. Firing scbxb*l

of the shock absorbing eleimets in the weapon

system.

4. Wespomn dirasiom/aznmwkt an&l for each test

es~uemmTurret-mounted
S. Slilffum of mount bue
etc.).
6.Othqer IPaltesconditicab(temper Weu,
Modemis ovea ui in.the weapon systms niounsang iinterface sbo'Ad be considered in new or
I is to allow for normal -growth"
or Ineem is. impuls as an evolutionary factor in a
again Mitcy~clic A.(Ke s of 50% is recommended,
AwdummAwW*. this consideration will provide an in.
--i'nad ineis
eofapabiliy toaccommodate unpredktabl advierse conditions, or necuseary stiffening
14.4

a matching gun pod.I

14-2.1.3.2 Turret Installations

guns are aimed and positioned
remotely by means of a sight or a fire control system.
Such guns normally require remote location or ammunition supplies, which are connected to the gun by
means of flexzible or rigid chutes that guide the ammunition. Turrets normally are placed just beyond
the helicopter skin line, and require an aerodynamic
fairing in order to reduce aerodynamic drag. The
fairing design must provide clearance for the turret
internal mechanismit, and must minimize aerodynamic torques against the turret drives. The fairing,

V~3
WMCaa dMMiUi Owe "BOW" cOidizio Of the
w=npoQ a.4/Q*g tube w4"Okm amliua to tinier the
Iipo

sae

wetin urre AmUperik us

71W
oftht

IrO2t

K~~

Al

M_____
Commlhs of hM fiki bond is evidw *A to
p41 me of the inu Fle
OW. e
dM bOW
do tWw
OmwofSatopO,
dMAb
jassa w pumtW &GWMtd
inm~ataLs If kq
is nt ch,

mM
~emitew a~mr
tileW fijetry wtt dou#Wu Owc
enugr tearft o
tile CG/Oecty &%K do*=es
d
ieanu
il
ueuicwe nt q
s
prro- blema.
W%
to bpca
pwdmd bwom tinoiu bapm.
a infti
inflo ms
S
pdhum9thu*~a
Vs.
uS&M
vTcd w.p ordp~er
to pmv'n tbauumatkme tuuvinM
boyordpotheko rwaiabs v4tota pwer.a aa uponx
toops ame bhepgum med ioun
Oftjo W uw asea i
tile Uv)OcorYo whgj" &do
tcot
funors. awat
QUitkUrtr
kh a omfwtnW
obdi.iots
wiartiis dleard
m" bsdfratchetgwe
prowiked am
wVil
o&
thepowc ueic toathek to PA tetu
tw oino i het
*.aeekAfj~w
fuoc* th potbila.defiaite toWreationhupton
pasr
heleteP
to
nds"OOOOS
toaWcapolt~ia- vatfoOle. ( set factrs. Quick-6)
The
p of..1
AugnMA, A V
af
W**aonntSouphapDtb-uW bea usW oasuracesmor
HAmmNito Whi
pmbe &tlu eor~mw
oef te "C2c
plane the thelopetu
hc l rw.cM.smsus~#bp~uhjulo
I hat.i qiwts
must pirconu estb
a~ n
efer-a~.sefcto.Amsle otimmMb

ivtcallozpad wie thes

fromap theflo Wigal
conduons
applied ihtsiuad Tay o~nuouniwsoan:
I. *.uPal~ ldsU imuttt
probyite tancureringioi
hehcl~aiccpMt erC'1" hCyci~sndth.inechaiml fmpose &dby m.no~x
theW n.
byth
u
a n
h rni~ k
ic. lorquswill uiet from ar oloins
erth
tondiitns,
mPWnthrdvam veoitn
or~lr unio ln:gt
g~~1 to rest froau itmrkA briy
thei
1a,vuoit~'urog
2. Eyriai :.,oils sach RhCW
t
bos
Crithe hydisthe~ fun Vt NOSEP arif
Acc-usi
appliedo
tW taoxua mustbe adeqe&an to its-

mArntu

luaaia veesaanye
isetion
oi
ori tb#e pC)ivo

gun to testn
fhomuld pemaxitw
thelcityIu!
a
to-

froviu. ~as dsn

opter$m b f
dk
saiikttioven.
2.ag"
pmmcsheoooakiiW(Th11duiPw
w aos
clorsde t*othef oim
as
as~ dmapd MI hem.
tain'te.) ae
i-46
o
k s"
accetity
3.Andna urvelzrr
nsbvw rW:re y
te.fa coLdVAUnwed
desgn Maiaaddu irietse tis-t
nsu bly of
fo:'h
atcin e edai a qs
to
conualer
2i.tn mabaseemblimte.oiia nedo
mst omjen
Fof
-p4icaonen,
ofmuitiodontnrs haun
con

3.Pri

on

wkila e

yf

ingqunickdinrdsion.ec
icludlingkriaim.ed
7Amb u ofattaohind containes,
aW hpiana
uofl
atyreuetrnrudting.

shotMne
be consideed

Feortasomer shoulcdmcontain sufcmieacoem

m
th a-

4.[ttrnpth storeai
eha&tosito.Te creiing
byuk
flntsuoj
wn
as
e meurPoer
appropiatel sou tbe j~au~Ws
.qaur thro. th-,
"N Sln
ofiwil
iugrnv.
ousting fuickr'es. When usmplikedamunti
Ahelicoptermustu
ofr~io
shohl bert
ibt accountotr
musefood prdoblem hmeben traners twhish asignfi
beOnca#).
andGinspeto
wit mainenanci
~ypcaiy
inhelcoper
istsle.
bor~y~ itleVibantioy rdcauetra auingoft'ns uprbed loninkred.mo
gunseawithout rndquiring tho wuay.- toawnn
muiton maig aer f
odifcuttopl
coniiner ocsI~
usallyarc
raaoily n,.lariloitapat. Use of sactiashel i es lw
or
alops anoud
fiomthe sthfl poibtion Theoegca.
cowigsolnt
nsidered; also notepropratel tnsor ticnklens wi
P" hrinssa
h wthe line of u!
uwhiebingo crovd
emontaic-,
inate fthis roem.When
usinge
ofitmmenitomn.
prov4~dtha
wsg~tolth he ulli~ninuntbn cn
heli cop
ytwter
efiunon
hule takdet inoad.cournt
nayps y
dWi n chope'w.rwr* pitevome.
Vibrtionca see adinC f t upg-tdlinkd a-5

AMW 706-2O2
1-2.I.5 Ammim.lon Feed
The chutes that carry the ammunition from the
container to the gun feed mechAnisms may be of
either rigid or flexible design:, but should be fr-A of inSide surface projections and independent of other
accessories. Ch,:ts must be attached to the feed
mechanism by a quickly detachable means. When
locked in place, the chutes must remain in alignment
with the ammanition boxes and the gun feed mechanism throughout all adjustments of the gun. Feed
chute design must accommodate the aliowable twist,
bend, and fan radii of the ammunition belt.
The detail design shall provide accessibility to the
amr~aunition belt within the chute to permit threading
t'ie belt through the chute and inserting it into the
gun feed mechanism. The feed chutes shall be of light
weight, low friction, and long wearing materials and
of a gage that will insure maintenance of original inside dimensions un, :r ordinary opcrativ:g conditions.
If flexible chuting is used, an approved design must
be employed.
Where the aznmunition belt contacts the feed
chute, the design shall provide relief so that the ammunition links will not drag on the chute. This can be
acompliasW with tracks add%-,d to the chute beads
rolled into the chute, or with a clearance slot cut from
the chute co that the ammunition will be supported
by the case and projectile and not by the links,
14-2.1.6 Boreslghtdng and Harmonization
The armament installation shall be designed for
compatibility with the rights and/or sighting station
equipment dejcribed by the hcelicoptct system specification. A means shall be provided to boresight the
gun to an accurate coincident relationship with the
sight. For pivoting guns, a means muit be provided
to check the gun pointing angles in refetrnce to the
sight commeand anglts.
The helicopter design must include a definite relationship between armament installrtions and the
sihth; and fire control references. This is accomplished by establishment of a Weapon System Datum
Plant;. The itzstallation and triverse of each weapon,
and the sighting and Lre control equipment shall be
referenced to this datum. Accuracy of the relationship between the re'erences shall be in accordance
with the governing system specification.
Gun mounts shall be adjustable. and shall be
.apable of being locked in the transverse and vertical
planes to provide for a minimum of -0.25-deggui'
adjnstment in addition to any adjustment required to
overcome aircraft manufacturing tolerarnces. The
deWatdcaign shall provide for the use of standard
borsigh?. telescopes for performing the boresight
14-6

operation with the guns in place.. For turrets, provisioioshai be madc for checking alignment of axes to
the aircraft datum planes (vertical and horizontal)
through the uwe of the standard boresight telescope,
with the turret aligned to three azimuth angles as a
minimum.
14-2.2 GUIDED MIWSILES
Guided missile launchers and guidance control
equipment of the number and type described by the
governing helicopter system specification s&Wll be installed. Currently being used for helicopter applications is the TOW, a tube-launched, optically aimed,
wire-guided missile. Deaiils regarding this missile are
clasifie, and, with required Justification, are available f:om the US Army Missile Command
(MICCM). This paragraph provides helicopter
design standards that can be applied to the TOW
weapon system or to any other miusile installation.
14-2.2.1 Locntcos of Laumnber Iu~llaelm
The primary function of the launcher installation is
to release the missile from the htelicopter without
damaging either the missile components or the helicopter. The launch mechanism should be designed so
that the missile flight path (during launch) will be
directed to position the missile within (1) the capture
envelope required for initiation of guidance by the
gunner, or (2) the flight path limitations required for
target acquisition and lock-on when tsing a homing
missile.
Helicopter missile launchers generally will be installed offset from the helicopter centerline on armament pylons or stub wings to protect the tail control
surfaces and rotor system from possible immersion in
ahe exhaust wake of the missile. Good design practices include location of the launcher on the helicopter to prevent:
1. Engine compressor stall or flameout as a result
of exhaust gases entering the engine inutke ducts
2. Exhaust gas impingement upon, or ignition
debris collision with, the airframe and. all rotor
systems
3. Harmful corrosion effects as a result of deposits
of missile exhaust residue within the ergine or upon
other components that arv not accessib!e readily for
prompt cleaning
4. Impairment of pilot's or gunners vision by flash
during firing
5. Excessive acoustic noise in the crew compartment during firing
6. Pitting or coating of the canopy by exhaust gas
and debris
7. Aerodynamic interference between launchers

-MCP

and control surfac-s, sensors, and adjacent -tores

The dign and location of the launcher installation
should be such as to minimize corrosive effects
resulting from the exhauit particles inherent to solid
propellant missiles. Prc,,per -insideration of nmventive or corrective methods, including cleansing of
affected parts, can reduce significantly the possibility
of structural cirrosion or surfac- damage caused by
motor exhaust. In general, missile launchers should
bc locaked as far as possible from other parts of the
aircraft.
142.2.2 Structual Cearams
Adequate structural clearance shall be provided tc
prevent interference of the missile (including fins)
with any part of the helicopter (including adjacent
stores) during launch of the missile. A clearance cone
of 3 deg half angle, measured from the missile longitudinal centcl-ine at the exit port, is an example.
Definition of clearance should include consicderation of the aerodynamic forces acting upon the nissile at laurch. These forces can cause significant variations in the missile pitch and yaw motion, and in the
iin,.r displacement, during the launch phase. Sufficient ground clearance shall be provided to prevent
"launcherground contact during normal takeoffs and
landings, and during hard landings at maximum
gross weight.
14-2.2.3 Blast Protecic
The heficopter designcr shall pr# -ide strength
and/or surface protection for helicopter structure
and exposed subsystems that is adequate to protect
them from n,;ssile exhaust ,ffects. These effects include overpressure, heat, recoil or reaction loads, erosion, and corrosion resulting from normal repetitive
firing. Details of these characteristics will be available
in t-ei weapon specification

circuit tester, or a single-point elecrial quickdisconnect. in the indi,'idual missile contact cinrdt
which is suitable .r me with an eVterna circuit
tester.
14-2.2.6 Jefttlamng
The launcher installation shn include provisions
for jettisoning the unit from the aircraft turder all
norm-, flight conditions, including undetected sdeslips. Launch structure shculd be designed for compatibility with power jettisoning per MIL-A4591.
The anle at which the ;auncher is ejected AaU be
selected to provide clearance with the airframe, anding gear, and adjacent stores.
14-2.2.7 Effects of Aircraft Mauemwus
Structural design of the missile launcher installation shall consider the effects of loads imposed by
maneuvers of both the missile and tht !urim-aft.
142.2.1 Types of Imtallatmion
The launcher installation should provide for effective missile deployment in specified tactical situationE
associated with a particular misile confvigr-rinn.
Factors affecting selection of the launcher configuration are launcher size and weight, helicopter speed
and altitude environment, and ground-handling and
loading requirements. For helicopter applications,
the launcher g.-erally vill be a fixed installation
located on a wing or armament pylon, and may iuclude either a zero or a finite launch length depending
upon the missile characteristics.
14-2.2.9 Loadlng
The missile launcher should be designed to facilitate fast loading during ground operations. The
loading process should require a minimum number of
precise locating and positioning operations by the
awmament mechanics.

14-2.2.4 Acceslbillty
Maximum accessibility shall be provided to the
launching mcchanismn, tubes, detente, firing contacts, and electrical connections to facilitate loading,
unloading, circuit checking, diagnosis of malfunctions, clearing of stoppages, partial disassembly while
in place, viewing of all dials and gage marks, accomplishmert of all adjustments with the appropriate
tools, cleaning, and replacement. Minimum maintenance and turnaround times are a primary consideration. Other guidelines pertinent to this topic are contained in Chapters I1 and 13, AMCP 706W201.

14-2.2.10 Aerodynamic Effecto

Effects of local airflow conditions upon thc initial
missile flight path can be significant, and shall be considered during the launcher derign task. Immediately
upon release from the launcher, the missile is exposed
to aero6-,namic forces that tend to displace it from its
intended flight path. Missile response is affected by
launch velocity, guidance syztem operation during
the launch phase, and control surface effectiveness at
the !aunch speed.

14-2.2.5 Firing Circuit Testing

Th-. designer should provide a self-cortained firing

14.4-.11 Ssipenslo mand Retentioa

Suspension and retention omponents include the
equipment used to attach the launcher to the air'4-7

706...2

X7o2o2

craft. MIL-A4591 contains a detailed method for

calculation of suspension system iriterface loads. This
specification is applicable to bombs and other

a dynamic and aeroo),mnic evaluation of the misuile/helicopter system. SouLv of *ection force that
have been used succesdully imude compresed gas,

externally-mounted storm on fraed-wing aircraft. and

mechanical spLgp,

may be used for a helicopter misile launcher

devices. Provision sWi be made to prevent mad-

wlboe! rer the launcher is compatible with the lug and

vertent operation of the eWction system, eithcr in

way brace criteria contained tfrvin. Missile launch

fixturm and suspension hardware generally should be
0 sAmple, lightweight, and small as possible, compatible with maximum reliability and with minimum
ffects upon missile and aircraft performance. A safety lock or retention mechanism is required in the

flight or on the ground.

W123 ROCKETS
Rocket launchers of the number and type
described by the governing hblicopter systeai specification " be installed The current rocket type

launcher to prevent inadvertent launch and to retain

qualified for use on helicopters is the 2.75-1. folding

the missile unde severe load conditions (i.e., cruh

loads). The retention device should be designed to in-

and explosiv.

or propellant

fin aircraft rocket (FFAR). This roc~et is available in

a variety of warbead/fuze combinations to suit

terupt the launch initiation system, as well as to

rftrain the missile mechanically.

specific helicopter mission requirements. It is carr;;ed

in and launched from the heAcopter by means of

14-2.12 Lome& Iim'ilao

tubular launchen. The rodcet and some of its

available launcher types are (kscribed in TB 9-1340-

The missile system should include a means of

201. ARMCOM should b:a consulted for (etails

transmitting a launch initiation signal from the nir-

regarding launch recoil foros, exhaust blast enve-

craft to the missile. The nature and complexity of this

system will depend upon the type of missile to be

lope, firing power, and other pertinent items.

launched. Some missiles require only the ignition of a

rocket mator, while others require in-flight prelaunch checkout, initial condition inputs to the
guidance unit, and multistage launch sequencing. The
*Jesign should be as simple as possible, consistent

14-23.1 Rocket Lamber Istaflatdm

The primary function of the rocket launcher is to
release the rocket safely front the helicopter without
disturbing the roket from its intended f;ght path.
The initial flight direction of unguided rockets direct-

with a reliable and safe launch.

ly influences delFv.,ry accuracy. There#fore, the

launcher design should provide ;'or accurate alignment of the launcher boreline with the helicopter
aiming
under all actical
conditions. reference
The effectiveness,
safety, deployment
and maintain.

14-2.2.13 Restramlag Latch

latch mh
i s.metimes
ArestraiingA lthmechanisnsm
etms is

launch.
prior tolach
missile just
required to retain
is_
estrinig
therocet
imilr
t the
Thisis
This is similar to the rocket restraining latch discussed in par. ! 4-'.3.7. The latch is designed to retain
the missile under normal maneuver loads, but to
release at a predetermined load created by the riotor
thrust. The mechanism may be designed as per- of the
suspension andsuspnsin
retettion
system (rpar.
14-2.2.11I). The
(ar.14-.2.1).The
ad
rteaionsystm
by armaeasily
releasable
be
restraining latch should
and unloading
grourd
during
men: mechanics
contain
should
design
latch
The
loading operations.
provisions for adjusting the release load in order to
compensate forcompnsae
wear
components.
te mechanical
mehancalcomonets.
war innfrthe
4 ed to prevent postLocking devices should be proviO

ar1and
em ents
aity
14off pars.
considerations
and csro
requirements
ability req
2.2.1 through 14-2.2.7 are relevant to both rocket and
missile installations. Additional interface design considerationstalated only to free-flinLt rockets are cono
rain wi s thin tp ragraph.
tained within this paragraph.
heiicoptersTheconsist
a fixed,
forward-firing,
launchers forrearwardFFAR
currentof2.75-in.
d lsr . Thein
tuie
vensistof
venting, omyn-breech tube cluster. The individual
tubes may ba reusable or replacehble, or thmcluster
may be expendable. The launchers normally are inline
of with
flighttheunder
specified
flight conditions.
parallel to the
axis (boreline)
launcher
stalled
ightallationsh
cher
laun
of
Othe
Other types of launcher installations have been
used successfully in fixed-wing aircraft, but have not
been applied to helicopters to date. They are listed

14-2.2.14 Forced Ejectl..

Some missile systems may require a means of ejecting the missile from the launcher in such a manner as
to provide separation of helicopter and missile prior
to ignition of the boost motor. The necessity and
mechanism for forced ejecton must be determined by

here because of possible applications to helicopters of

the future, and include:
1. Open-tube pod, retrastable into the fuselage
and extended for firing
2. Restricted-breech, rearward-venting, with constricted or deflected exhaust

loading variations in the missile-restraining force.

14-8

"

~*W
3. C3Lad~b.oukgh in wAMM
4. T~d= V
&4VM
li..
S MWu ddmomr1SA
dam or 5vis
q Sm." soibd linmm.

S 11111111PW MW1krali
Minig Wh~M411111611
a"bumd budswe ma .guhe WHIMuIsM49POnbnusNe

OWASIUM .pineM A~aMs

i~u m.mamp~~

(Palr ffidw bm W&me ofa M k

TMs ur of dosed-bow&h hinmb* ta u qusi

.m ariwid
duqms
ibm~wa. 1~
Sea of dos 2.75-i.. "AS me wie bo demes or
66"e from Eaedmw ii
tols PMMW or
fro iuesudm otdielaswd

omio to prw
psins laudo WNW.M WO ibm
biespa &MAido
hiit' Wau.

tubs

amedmusis mmd &wGUdpmmi be&ammiuid VAd

dos awimam hlsMplsU smms*ef land bows in
md'in bl. n"ud mi bssiib.
cosibum w" to
ubiW Widow"i WpPlM"
The iuammluei" m
141111111at.
wi hout n (PA.I)
C12111 loads111kM1t

TomM1111111111
LEON
144-M
copmi of witabmsng
lAmimw t~r&
fining of then 2.*'S-ia IWAR haew been conawaselof
Am fabric
o
a
binmackisig
or
cm6s'eu
Ezpumdab
mowial.
been
tbs. huwve been camistugied of almmisam, Mimo,.mad
maeurial.
p~atic~mpeigsgAWu or coated popr-W
A9* aaatwleh twha ave bee. Miiy smied anil (cud
uSswAbk fortnes posvose mazy be used for rockt
Winach tubes, ptovided dues amunt as take of

aMmd Flbe'41a.

--

--

--

L:2-

-... L

L-1-,-

lawJ.Red
3.p

TMugo"~ k"*

"23A3

JOV"a

" be

.it~

Grime Softy

The rosket im~deaatiom aWm inmhdm a Snpsmi anincba

order to pow"t rmadisal aimt
tY cutouW
Glreg~ during grouad opuaftum. The firing ckm
ca iss by
13 be PIw~awld by einding g exar
ner the huieupierptyon
la
din
AW ameesi
l960
fa mf*psa *
wea.o yiero
anhifl

h an

dcrw

A nauAthy-opertea override swwm Aski be penstallation nqimns

dadto
ermt goun dbckout of the Mian circit.
rocket *Antm aicwa
xItgrunin pbfrec
Lmd mch
1) 2..
on-M
poss
ctasct. Ors da.
actbealrocatet fbyiasin
Forward-firing launcher shoul be mounted with
cost-un
sj
Grudn
cotat
fii
acua roke
the launch tubes at the optimum aagk, for highest
il tenerg kds ahe oiring crcunilthy m IowWt
SYV=i accuracy for tactics to be employed. The cor.t- n un~t
responding aitcraft Pitch angle also should be
contain provisions for preventing hinadywrtet rocket
evaluated for One-half fuel load and maiu am
motor ignition due to radio frequency awggy.
munition load at the mean combat altitudje. PNovision for adjusimnirt of thv latuncher elevation may be
14-2.3.7 RestriningI~d
ai
t
ni 1
.
reouired so as to accoaunt for variations in the Rigaht
lanhgtbeb mnsoanpppiae ohattitude of the helicopter between level and diving
meaai
nsiofh ~an apusritnge MautThbe'
lancing.
flight. Adequate stru.-tural clearance shal b-, proloade intoth lauto.r
osriigmckhanism
r
whnThe
nimatcl
vided to prevent interference of the rocket (including
roddtno
aunced.
is
rocket
gadi
the
reminen
mandmust
adjafins) with ehny part of the helicopter (including
within the lauiicher durai'g the loading procedures.
ngi
lonh
Arer
rocketth
nglmesrdfo
7ca stoge duri
The latch will pirvent aft movement of the rocket,
longiw
o
r
ncket
the
fo s
extp
cengelt mosuef
7deg alf
will restrain the rocket from forward movement
isan xamle.and
din.
oftheexitpor
ceterir~
with a force equivalent to that imposed by Wowag.u
dinal crash load factors. If a blast.-peratcd detent ii
14-2.3.A Number of Rockets
used, the mechanisin will prevent both fore and aft
The applicable helicopter system spe~fifcation will
movement of the nonlburuing~ rocket, sod will contain
define the number of rockets to be carried and the sea means for manual rcleas of the individuri rocket
quence in which they are fiked. Lateral spacing of
latch~es in order to permit rapid loAding and removal
suvcccsivuly-l1red rocket& should be selected to preof unfired rockets.
veni the mutual interference effects of rocket bleuts,
fin opeming, and jostling of adjacent rockets fired
W42.3J8 Firing Cemuacts
from closely spacod tubes. Rockets usually can be
The e!4:trical contacts will be designed to provide a
ripple, fired with relatively shiort firing intervals if
low-resistance palb for the electrical airuat %lW
mscceme irounds an' &irWfrom tubes with adequate
3_-9

40

Of
bfeieuw ' loa* reakeL TOM
maisred ppu
@ inimA ha dspwdt*
~~ a uf mm @1w
f99 -A I wkhei 5iP& of M~
phuwai of puea. TMu eagaces *A ha d~ued to
paM.dinim hn Miml
d htW of the Wommb
14%6ahad dthui km lb re" Sbt
usMin mto
6= Me

f ~

Won =M wou i p**Wuu io ha

be qqW
Su
064 *8ot dod miA &dkw ~ - is th
einombap
WOWu4 fabrW@"s.
biameuadom, dwd*oA. apWMe~Ms a ft
Oun. @Wd mr~ef
of 6@ PWMr.

-WW

$day wkik
i*
WI&

elsafe

bo4rANOB

-~
-bw

or*oapu
sym anO be
ha w-

Ckdn~, wi& both coan"t OnvuMMMU=6 Wow-

hoal aoomakk sad MaMi kirn of '3thah is a Pedann~iardqinsati, mequsam i td

d
ind vl
MwTWhyo
for mo** ods~oda and bogi ow
qw
wN ha dd..nd by the ban, haboopow ays.
Wed&Ameio.
At a mimumno
ths op.UaU cowft
mid
AMW
aft*S~wa offt swd of xf~thI to
be fumt &4by. in rks ori rim*l ai a PREsc tk"
imwvAq Tb. finmq 1 A Woal AO ha *sige
fkw

qan
dadaimupIan
MG
a48.M WAMMi
s
an mUAMWdau in the &a ph=s by 06
opagejm. While *vwy alur mm ha m*d to
adiav Ohw smunu kved of ambty eoammum with
annagmom system duip ma opuratma wadm al amedbnas, this ('bjUJve aso SUM be oamdood With
W44 to tb attaianma of Maximinmm taatd fAM;*iwowa. whmr r*awoua mahy cwriwi 6npoas major

%,I.&.*
KsArh F&hING
If hwang"s .t bckway"MWaTItera Wh
md Wo C"va
lsWaab OpWAV cc to KMU*"a the rthAe in.
aastalhor. the 4wja A&M0I w~khta.
Wlag arn
sk km&d at airspeed up to the mauamwu akvmfA yinWa.The covens als "d prvi6& pvotcdos
towaa Wsit. duit, sad o~a awvrc wtawmatal
wnd&uF~~w to which the aiguiaft may be m'ajecad.
Mw. d.mgi of the tanag "lu owmn that the franto pferrfl t-m-a to radousi wiachbkAaf and
1OWti clOeuAM .apn 044PMOfes. airCrft S
ture oir skin, and control surfaca. The hqaammu~
met
a be p=Wto esOUX the OagM Intfike
dut
Sn fag
nlatevah that hsvc been uased
SOODIUD amsatig
1. P014yeste rusan with iner falB-Mawia sumS as
chcpe odkophama abr, ju
rate io,
hic and eb~w girn.
fitkthms
2. Plticifprognmted papws
3. =FamWp~mc
q~W p~p

tical Wricimacy, an sapobawk kvle~olsakmybmayh

to be assabliabd. This lr..rasaM ha basa irpow a
torOUgh SOqiawi amfa abal &sadWm
Mnati4 OfU
the
iaWaOWO
M.Uura wampAr yMA t
iwro
SMd
6ad Ua~ur
iauyfis
(FMHiEA) humid be conucte (Mrth Pin 9YSSsn/v~hbdg Mnrf*ai daKi. This amnoals ommdau
tbc '4cs of both wbayts Mmhw gd parsooml
tr~ou durimag bow opabatomul um and =suftoaean
Ekta from otiver nabibty. maatmiabi~iy, systeM
qp~bcab Saeq hazards mv dsriuud in MIL-$TDfl2 S ClaM 1,4ie
NClamd %US Mn;I a!, Cla"
Ill, Critical; in lmIq
aotobi.Tcfcl
anyawyi should balirify f"aiha &K%"~m their refthanu
effec uaPoz
6b.lcoter and PaOMasi. compen.
provmonas and dkc hourd ckiwflatson.
When Class I!U :-r Chuin IV hu&Ar are idenied,
immediate actia:2 must bs iiken to elitmite Claws IV
&adtoa mizuivizi, rbim Ill iteams, wmjbiteat .rilk
de.ta okbje ivw Systatu %eefty rquirwvots an d*
== fulkwin C& . ACP
-M3.

-r--4

1424A SAFIT COSKAh)4

14-4A2 FIL* IueuWnpMn
Tis paragraph speC&*k ly O'Wt the inwomec 0
Fimrinterruptio" devisan.
ate qtar ona gue
fixdndUAMovable WL-poaf aYvI.AW with oGur hqij -UIrv)
for UKe faswin$ ra&1GL
copta C1tMOO.
1. To protna* apgaint firioL at WM4i
part of the airProper system safy diWgn wAais inweporate tht
rTAt unvwte. r~tor Wanding gea, eatmial "ve.s
ap~Aacbk dam~ and tw*A k~m ritd" w i~uaQi
dec.
ran*-Machiu vAI4IdSWpG yo must iv-id
2. To proeact apainsg fixmu into Cat path of Wo-h
plaIW% rruuliaic or 0004. ia"pwitkwsaapt* bifdfinnr osau. sezb va othe guu.nsrxkets cc
'van &mgp. To tw d~divfw,m&-aachin rakw
=1*0eSnc~
psds
Fh*p mud be isisatud witld syw -*Wy wo pm.1.To iwtwaqA ls %apos frirv4 when the mar
%idsa lo*gm rAid oaais&a
11r~
lrfOwAOI
5i.
vs A run c~trmi srtm moht hase awd
te ble spa9( do
theuao symtm. Thema&.,a thol~hbga
Oe b"is *auk%~l qpMldw "~Ibt
14-10

Jpniiuffalaed
4.
To inemWe do wiemp firi wba my other
Goadiuions un GOmidwei to be beau.
dm1.t par-6w of to the mk*s
Fri inlrawpsus VMS" ny Au

tbs level dfM

gheamsn
ps
adl 410
ot
keseam U.Nr. TurfMpsy hadiua beass.
am
O as

asI sysiam kw~ to delurmias pa pOWMd~

and IN

rubdoombu to a parnsiully bazarduis sibutsam. Fin

itmwnipt aS coatiroed by wassrmxy haesed on specific

WW Greu W&gi
118011 GM 680aunqim an deohwcc tbly fuaW nt pcmsi the psobw control
head Anc
SM&
M~M
aia d vims Mno~k Wou
wL In "i sqards Wo umfo. pokulam ar phav
must be placi upo failure arneayes o(fi weasteurpt
dei.
- "I
ur
empiwsrs "a be wokaluW aloq
with po~t ulm
U o ra
Wl4ineesg dsvim for added
-.

h lsdk

bSCOMMunI

AhSut

w,

as

eWm "Whan~d eWm* hamo

~s w~he
kVAng selko, bet pmkqpd a=Ms to~
%
of 65-90 4 a aove
am cam dmms to dourmd
Mc~ow bandiaWsf
ess. Tin des. of tapows kWI
iWbmhmu

a~mhisimiv A WM of 95 O~lb
toVW*
rHnL
sapomere w~lm 10 dSa be tel-mad for a*~ 1S
w. Desipa dwitke es be Ons Wonnauie 41
noms poblims is cider to addeie ss ""
The U.Aiiq of nown to ahes kmb
m
eseaplithsd br

1. Do~w leimamim

The contou fooWr ASa poaoivr M@mitAuii

amimes f Iiakkq U" it tav"l in thoem. arIasjhe
usainf opmab Otherwism em
WOM lMU
It mMMY.a
a ama buit iALO this tait am OrderW prevau kis at
a wi% swre, for seumpls, aotsdgem burrelis
AS
u d,
M ft~cam aia "M~ twrttu, oeoeWW %a
Whd aioaa %Lz =rz. Tft~a cow=our wMu be
Hsite w146 the
pakwedso 4WAsSe UWW agwl
gem diiput~a ma~npagpmd. U at & "et dastum
foe "h pgghbited bmm. rhe dup of the wapporting str~uciamemus be such as to awiid wmsaf definoOr~a if the S" gglia Wk QWgeg mg axies rot&

sovad..a~ am omfis hr a 9w a

L41A.3 Coabso Falawus

Iskebrdhadwa u

a fuiwiee of~L
bkt

eni~mc. Wed use

of am* at *0W"PM

*rOu
thA ON Of X =80 405115
timmou
sedleMbi woftq pwo*
2- Dampi
MW
3. Assawtion at ndhmS of doe S~emby se
Of hwsis bdua, Or 641
mi0"Od
ehwOLw

Wumpontsimmud 1A xasteamm go puweam d

'~

ak

ZL -:&

?
W q eIAO
k IoMhr ~onw
7hU app4Acahlm mlss
prdtmmt aegi lW4 is MIL-A-UW. Ales. WL.
STD-1472 states 'lii *qapmiu A& am pware
Soess a01ss of tbs. asaim& ela'b15 We's
prescribed by HEL-$TD-S-1-63, AFK 1*0-3.
DUS*~ %mcflcatiam S-1-106 "Udlast 620AA.
fijW vdG&.J~iy
MKL-SW-.740, or MIL-A4S1W*, as appboAbh. 7W
naipe" of Dois eepo the USafy Aa4 ONhIv~MM of
1424. Nee Unsiasa
Gve~1ualegunbamlsOn
~or ~prownnel is& tscnbod in par. 13-2.2, ANICP 706-21'I
%Mfpoms Ca zs*W !satrdow seitaa~oe. Fi "in of
CWtan45do
'y
OeO n
5A
exSA

_W

Ca ca

AMCP 706-203.

1.D&Ain
to the wapou
2.Wualma inalfmactioua, w~iibthc
fti
stin poe
164AA D*&l 91p*
Ilibility of misflre 4r of exploding aaamugkition. whichbf~(-l~
L.
e
ovAtl mvlt in donsap V, the hullopwe or injm~y to
fired roians, and links fiva. a f44i we~on w&eCi be
Persomnnel
considsrei from a usaety design sma~int- Dthns
3. Inability to re-fie the, weapc~n unti naftr a coei
rma(e rtnt
e a
skervable "o-offpeid
1. Blown iqo a*s heicopter sitrucure with damiaBurst-limiting e~k=k gsorally am~ dassafnee a~s
gn
asit
tsrnperat~uu-Iinuting or tiu..hm'ting. A tem2. !k deaiected into asnteswas, 1igbu, cxwrnsl
parawure-Maiaa device normally as located on the
Mo,
c
guni barrel. A tao).lm tiit deviceca be~locate
3. Be diverted by air 0c3flts into the rikin Of
ord
remotely in dhir wespon control circuitry. AIMCOM
totors or wntin inlets, causin pomable catastrophic
should be, consulted fof informatiev aboutL burntfatr
limiting equifrawtav for specific pans amo for details
4. Cause sunl jaw. roaderina the weapo system
aboutcurrent twaruntinawg devices.
inoperable

)141-2AZ

Ced&ph Noin
No~w resulting froma waepos fin"t can affwc
benSru. praotIJw asoveamo and daacouufcnt red-sas

ares.smi
!
dlinje*A. OntOooci i~Lis
5 Bmse
Cerain .ropont provie suftwacmt dnbrAS ##sake
velocity to preclwde debris disposal probilm whum

Nw "MNOISis imuNSJ

00 hOuttda bkffl9#

FETUCU

, Eh

us*d "&WuW.y.kehi
114 GN A
ft 66V V& *4a
Vuiem
wuk. a&musm
iMla
NWii.
kum 14OOWO9S
behimpar. cw..
Prookift of dis tuh

I S43

LS

bOWN"M" be

ae*y

ou'rwsbi
les eashmt

-.--

morn

%4Lr~s

.hw~~fwa
j

4lcO

~~

0Vb6b

StA

%md

&aaa
of
diVW-prhka bo i

WIN&

I
us tufto
iws diuihe a n

bm~e
aw kewmM is de
ofussz
do awaraft two go*~
1K WIN*&e oodM) by awm wkf met~ inpo.W

rswMeI~
puft
uam

oWgpes8"O-

bK

~Amy

based on *aepwimass dfth awein* aid pamm

boo thUat. Thus the MiAia df4tWita 'JOL a.inn*fad saimic he a mAppk* wish timaat
awovE~~wuW4aA7 TesS, Evi . Gm Mai~ul=
biaty kwetm aWndeauwirmam, ,ib
ne mo
The OP06iab Crieria %Wr
tciic W ovtrm11
45'iM" to at~ftaS v~ftOM ft"hl
toSo.kiw'i
tbw &oalaa,* dileusma a iaipprpm~g1plop
limit
tina ane omixuakid in IMIL4TIDUOD. Tahe&A
s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ i.2
~ ~ foamrbA4u~*uan~o~~
~ 'e
of an aira~ft to WahMMif gumal
GuWan
cmNive toni; *Niam on peruoond if
"i o d
Mie
tua2w the crew copaisuawt. AdeqMW&
Vt~arai.ily r~uctuu Amdopone m pou a,
v"W id
a or"u to avoid "h haaw-d.

M um

G un ba
rey wlt
c n aqso
uk u t s

Acusmukawno

as cahti mrvbck.w
ndt*

t le veadu eqa atep~

astund or forced air tblimwsr) vaiiL~tatioa wo miran~da

Coamusi~ou
leel bdo dikaporvl
pp.

omW

amd tvn* Of
"t

O*SIxUSWU;4

"ims
8iwLaaet vlimacis. MWn

and 0)~

MW

~ i bo si

lsaapbwa

the beahaviot of the wapei coimpieti and that of the

of paw above 75% of the Iowa- eap&oivc limit. thkt
durig m the& paalls Vuarbdo
cm
rduopsed
4t whi buan cain &xte' issg~
crprto
gox8Iiei'b asm-ss
m st nore cefiwicfieai by propar tiabystew deep techuidewd M&Msdoms. Dcs~n of a put4 pa
cmxaidi
ad ~gedfinl
hoer
coditons~ ~
niqme than the use of armor. Ans optimum ~amtgn is
chatacta~ized by atnior to.ivig Limited to the crew itabe
stg
tuy
si
bMyma
ofth
pwozirntiy
UKe
in
msat. Roior downwusb t-jAzy be wida~itced as a means
uetoahv
virbitysdcux
burial. concenirtion.
*uplica..
of mat dimtmr&I The paiue systc-risiWi Dr designed ~" caeclczxad asi..,,~.pr.
.Ia
.ttr
1

iv,

t'j W,Usia OptatiOcal1 for "Rune time after cwiation cf

fum' ana
ntrsfmro
~
d sala eot ro
unhire to aVOid trappiDA &OaSs. V9111i03tion or ram
Di~pfication. as an exampic. is the opt~imal wethod
air purglu systamnt should be designcd'so that air infor protectioun of Right control~ sy;ci.Ascae
takta ar kv,.at*J away front tk--Sun muzzle in order
probleins are thfis need to separate to be effmuiv,. and
SunSki along with purgin~g air.
of1
toprestaei intakeci
how f~ar to extend the redondancy. Duplicate GOAetSs
otato exany poisible.
cakebemttaken
~~ai~~r'~ti are cf un g~m~st. ~
running side by side wou.ld not redkie overall vuiltrcm)alititng sources inv~sth om f pwos.
u
Fwinald nerability signaificantly. since a sinj)c. nit might iuplure thith acto. Moreover, if botlh acts k.miniate at A
sg.must be deterirsaned by &a.tusifiringu monitored
aCtUatcn, thart aCtUAtOr becoies the vulnerL
dc~c.4n
vqiprnt.Commoun
by pope
by pope
qsrirr~nt.sole
(~eeC.On
element.
Shielding and concentrution of
ni4;rpvnerads
joascral~y go together. TI'e numbers of he*,.) struc14-2.4.8 Twia ie(mster Power Swaveb
KILrtl mcsnuocs Rad components and subsystems Ihit
TO peeveast inadw-Sne11i V.peratien of a rut-ote C011can be regarded as not mission-critica! are very
I trol tirrel whil;. it i6 beaing are 'ced, a mastv xower
hrrii~od in a proptrly desigoed heficoptet. The praca'~svito~ that is ac.ja&abl itow doc turm si Nerics% itrca
wxc of ,nczatratinmg critical components within a
Ang b- provided.
amall vvtuine, und then sisselinZ them washlek
14-12

I
AMCP 7o6-202
critical rismn and structural menbar, reduces the
stafagbal pirobability that any single projectile will
hit them, but it also may increae the vulnerability of
the helicopter to any projectile that does penetrate
the citical cot .
A 4aign that buries w.rienutrations of sensitive
components uaide the beL*pler core. or even hides
thern behind a single layer of structural protection,
may affect maintenance and servic-bility. Analytical procedares for evaluaig these trade-offs are
well known, but !he importance that should be
anigned to the variousvalues in the analysis is not so
firmly established,
Ballistic resistance is the construction of critical
components such that they are massive enough to
defeat the stated threat; for example, a control rod
constructed out of steel armor material. As opposed
to this. ballistic tolerance is the construction of a
component such that the projectile passes through
but the iten sill functions: for example, a multipivot
point bellcrank of a nonshattering composite material.

Since vulnerability reduction by inherent design is

discussed under the appropriate subsystems, par. 143 generally concentrates on the armoring method.
14-3.2 DEVELOPMENT OF VULNERABILITY
REDUCTION SYSTEMS
Designing for vulnerability reduction, irrespective
of environment, involves an analytical procedure that
begins with a study of effects of enemy weapons. The
designer then determines how the existing or proposed helicopter system couples into, or responds
when exposcd to, these effects. The uncertainties in
the first group of data are minor since weapon effects
are usufdly well documented; but in the area of
system coupling, they are very great, especially for
systems in the early sPages of design.
A ballistic vulnerability reduction program shall be
conducted with the development program to assess
effects of design concepts, and provide analysis and
guidance for controlling and reducing vulnerability
by the most effective means. A vulnerability analysis
of the complete aircraft is conducted as outlined. The
definitions, criteria, and general methodology have
been standardized by triservice agreement.
14-3.2.1 Vulerability Analysis
The vulnerability analysis is presented in the form
of vulnerable area as a function of striking velocity
for each threat and each category of kill. The key
threats to be considered in this study area are generally 7.62 mm API, and 23 mm HEI, (low and mid-

intecrity threats). The striking velocities to be considered are muzzle velocity, velocity at expected engagement range, and velocity at maximum effective
range unless otherwise stated.
The categories of il11 which are mutually exclusive
are attrition, forcud landing, and mission abort. Each
is defined:
1. Attrition. Damage to the helicopter which
causes the helicopter to crash and become a complete
ki after the terminal balistic damqg occurs.
2. Forced Landing. Damage to the helicopter
whkh "aum the pilot to land (powered or unpowered) because he receives some indication of
damage (a red light, low fuel level warning, difficulty
in operating controls, loss o" power, etc.). The extent
of damage may be such that very little repair would
be required to fly the helicopter back to base; but, if
the pilot continued to fly, the aircraft %ould be
destroyed. The forced landing kill category includes a
forced landing at any time after damage occurs
(within specified design minion duration).
1. Mission Abort. Damage to the aircraft which

causes the aircraft to be unable to complete its

defined mission.
The following procedure and methodology are
used in :hc vulnerability analysis.
I. Target Technical Description. Detailed information on the construction and operation of all the
systems, subsystems, and components form the major
portion of the target technical description. The
description includes a tabulation of all critical comn
ponents, listing their title and function along with the
failure mode; and the cause and the effect of a failure
on the components, subsystem, and system (see Table
14-2). All potential damage mechanisms are considered as well as secondary damage effixts such as
fires, explosions, and leaking fluids. Scik drawings
with dimensions of the aircraft configuration with
locations of its major systems and their components
are used to determine the presented areas of these
components for up to eighteen (18) attack directions
(i.e., azimuth, elevation 0,0; 45,0; 90,0; 135,0; 180,0;
225,0; 270,0; 315,0; 0, -45; 45, -45; 90, -45; 35,
-45; 180, -45; 225, -45; 270, -45; 315, -45; 0
+90; and 0, -90). Normally, the number of aspects
used are restricted to the cardinal views (frorst, rear,
left side, right side, and bottom); more views anre used
where required for improved accuracy. If a computer
is used, these drawings can be used to determiie the
input data for tGe computer. The drawinp also
should provide data concerning the shielding offered
to individual target components by other portions of
the vehicle. Additional detailed drawings may be required for critical components. Examples oi" citical
14-13

AMP 70&20
TABLE 14-2. VULNERABILITY DAMAGE CRITERIA DATA SUMMARY

CRmCAL COMPONENT

"EFFECTOF FAILURE ON
COMPONENT SUBSYSTEM
AND SYSTEM

FAILURE MODE & CAUSE

TITLE & FUNCTION

TABLE 14-3.

VULNERABILITY TABLE

PRESENTED
*

SYSTEM

COMPONENT

AREA (Ap. ftz)

F3RWARD FLIGHT
Singly
Vulnerable
Attrition

Forced

Landing

14-14
S

HOVER MODE

Multiply
Vulnerable
Attrition

Forced

Landing

Singly
Vulnerable
Attrition

Forced

Landing

Multiply
Vulnerable
Attrition

Forced

Landing

components may inclku

aircaft will be

iedleud m a inlt " inm

d. Transmisuon oil-cooler
c. Hydraulic moddle and iwvwr

biliUm aPPiM for thu uomp

fomtal or amm of
vwor
m vipm. is
the dcIlsim for a ptirmh vi

redmioiao

of coaditimW kiA rA bt) isut or-

h. Control linkage and bell cranks

bIoy bt is bemd as IM ulfdel w thtd&whcity Of the threm aftar it has pKRfrW ie sbieding

i. Actuatort
j. Crew
k. Drive shafts,

riateria. A oopawas may

w"be om
s d iel ed
for s0me or all of As premA am for am a men
do -ni I
ld. If thsk coow, the
of the view coi

2, Kill Der'mition. Attrition, Forced Landing,

tim
am of d

ow.-

pon

fw ibs"

wrait be

diq*. W%= wow is

Misson Abort.

3. Kill Criteria. For convenkiec of analysis, the

helicoptr generaly is dividod into distinct system
(i.e., crVw, propulsion, fue, flioht controls, rotor.

dw #01M of &
to Prolact Sifmft comwiote
s
o aPas mwkiuq Whm tOw ermw
a= a analyzed
foraged, behied-plaft eflts will be womed for,

power train, etc.). Each system contains components

that are vital to the succesul opcration of the
sytm. Dbmape to a single component is said to be
singly vuhzrsjabk. Components of a *et are said to be
multiply vuluerable i a given kill catqeory if dam-aI
Io than (N- I) nembers of the set does niot result
a bhdicptr kilal., but d=z; to at le-ast,,nt
WS
of the et does result in a helicopter kill. Although the
primary vulnerability analysis is conducted for the
aircraft in forward fliMt, the list of vital components
AMU show the level of kill for damage when the helicoptra is in a hover mode of flight (we Table 14-3).
4. Probability of a Kill Given a Hit (Px IR) tor
Each Component. The designer assigns the Pi IH's
to all the components and submits the list for approval to Ballistic Recarch Laboratories (BRL) at
Abedoe
Proving Ground, Maryland. Px If's are
rrinental firinas on subioct item. Omlike
-,sodon ex
items,

of t

the woditional kill probabies for " Ww* W

ie or a OFu vW
fr all orM e d the vu
or vie. This udugctim
tof edkimd kilt pte-

f. Fuel cross-over valve

S. Fuel call mumps

"'-

rt

a. Engine ompromm
b. Fuel contt
c. Engine oil-cooler

. Presented Area (A,). Once th conditional kill

probabilities for each component have bmn acertained, it is necessary to reconsider the target technical description to determine component presented
arms. One of the least complex and moot frequently
Used means of obtaining presented areas of neicoptUr components employs a planimeter to measure
them from scale drawings made for each of the principal views to be considered. Several computer proorams, notably the MAGIC (used at BRL) Program
and the SHOTGUN program, have bee developed
for obtainiag presented arcea, as well as shielding for
thb components. During this pfocess of obtaining
presented are&!, it is neomeary to consider the space
orientation of the individual components and evalu- ate the maskinS or shiekhin! provided to each compont by the trot of the helicoptr. !? general, any

sheng provided to a particular compvmt by the

I.e., nmber, wi~t vdob

y. aWd dkmciem ofm

aw
&USdltawibe
(For menew typesof~arm.u
'aw~in
sielis Piropi esM
reirea) Data 00
"-Jim"
containwd in the clawin~d do&as mual
this sbof reports CommOi BtL o.omu
$t
una a. kiI
i.re x An.e
V..-nblc
,,.,
probabilitiesIba, bow Wmbmud for tm w0UPat eas of
and the psuleed
neats of the b ctat
thime components bave bun desterined, vuhlmerahis
Ara of these oaponanto am gweated.. For a Sim
thrtt strikin VeocitY, and view, the vuinvrNh ame
of a comonent is obtaine from Eq. 14-1.
A. - A, .PF,
AV
-

(14-1)

vulnerable area of component

presenmo arm of ompof'i
component coaditional kill probability

PK IH
Vulnerable areas generally are cassified
one of
two type4, singly vulnerable ate= or multiply vulnarable ares for singly and multiply vulnerable components. 'he singy vulnerable Wa A vr of the system is
the sum of the singly vulnerable aros Avi of d conponnta of the system.

4V
i- I

. A F, (Pli H), (14-2)

I
I--

Only a limited amount of subtolaling may be acnomplished in a systum of multiply vulnerable components IT,for example, vulnerable areas were cowposed for a multiply vulnerable aet of components
forming a propulsion system whkh contained two
0engn6, two engne traammoit
s avul tWm drive
14-15

dml& Mlfkuti6*lco Womi

m
t

oswe
ot

kuin l^ thd= tdo v

Mdn wan for tds
n.
W40
nM
tVWK
aw
mad & dni,
dl& tpvb be a
ade nd the vuleerale aims

w do kt wo- Vw
wud be a
tet
Ik

m ad left drie dofk

"L.The .wmot
j I1l1

sdobeta wau-d

Stractow
No d
vuWOMBB WmMiu
b. OW (ewar
JmMrMl)
9. IstrumaM POdI. Come" nMd iiWWMMM
huurmi
urad.to
tO. Cm y/WJldi~ws/Dva

fewo hWepMAt

a.

*wt ammuha
la
tpahe mbe
(LAL. nadal e
d

Pb

TrUm

'ue.

ril Ihel
do&doems

lpO-

dai uomoedd fPems iom

b. rM plese
oAMmad wiafow For wmrs

It. Rotor 3d Raedemdaea Spers

VidMWMM hdkN*Ga ab-kr
H"2
"Tle
parabi dchdNktlfuiu
may bseunfl fro
12. hmimin S
dm d
'Sat
m .".m
am inoMowhoeed.
Dies
mn
iPmame
imdbm
~ moasd
hiLe,iroomthiWOBathvettion
had-md
ft~
O
J4,U Vdamddft
Dat
f"m
Sbe.

,r

Total sarcraft vulmerab'ity for al1 tlhras

a)

gaia v

a.
b. Sea
HdWMwow
C. T-oo
4L COchk unrproba~lties

2.Fed Cdn
a. Selminbat
b.

Iatmun
m.,

a. W demh.c/exthindshf

f. P)iaw ram
8- Meet I"*
h. Mqltipl tauks
3. Fadrlim
. Seuli-seaet
v
b. Sbutofffitto
.. Dupli
n/eepmration
d. Routing behcl structure
4. Esgie and Powe Train:
.5.

.....
-s

Fa.

44uIAuu s~ um
PUMP
u

b.
c.

Self-.lediag oil resrvoirs

Engine and transmison operation without

Slubrkaton

Dump tolerant shdting

Damage tolerant gearboxes and transmis,-ons
f. Fire detection/extinguishing
X. Shielded fuel control
5. Finish:
a. Insignia or symbols that could be used
as aim points absent or subdued.
b. Matte/camouflaged paint sch me
6. Flight and Engine ControhL
a. Redundant mechanical controls
b. Redundant hydraulic systems
c. Fire resistant hydraulic fluid
d. boot actuators jam proof and redundant
7. Shatterproof high pressure containers
d.
e.

14-16

and proinction amitios.

Alre.. Avant C u
Dwvdqmw

The objectivs of th aor

4

d. FEM fmld

- d_

amer thai wit facibicooddered and pesmd ia

taw evalisato of the ma ,fc
obnsid by sub,.quent chan.g ian compornt ar, locatim, or kill

WUA.2

ftn
at-b.

itim diiotiwm6 kilk. ok. -h dhold be

tk. a

nf th

an

vmkay

desipr is to miniainia
w~sd t.e. tL.

o1wr, ades111ly
inuJn.
other evemntia cew. Mdon~ requvmennot such as vifftrnalaiw

mon and mergamn qrw. Threoe sevral alternate armor configuration conceps should be
developed in accordanm with MILSTD-238 wad
the effects of each upon nircmew eliscopter performance should be evaluated similar to umthodoloy
shown in Fig. 14-1. The configurtion that beat
s~tisfes the protection need by producing the
smallst chan ges in system weight, crew vi-ion, and
crew motion envelopes while sko providing the
a

na~a

,.f

..

nai.

nn

na

an optimum integrated armor sysum. Surveys of

experienced Army aviators should not be ovcmlooked a a possibility in achieving a balanced confir.ration.
The armor configuration that is most widely
accepted consists of an armored net bucket, individually worn cheat protector, and supplemental
airframe mouraed plates.
14-3.2.5 Armor Material Selection
Testing and evaluation of armor materials are
genera-ly unnecessary for the selection of optimum
armor with the lowest possible weight. Refer to
Chapter 2 for guidance on selection. All airmor
materials sha/l be qualified in accordance with
USAAVSCOM specification 1560-MULTi-001, ProCar~X1 Speci.caion for Li.gwigh Ai,crt Ar."Wm.

._peDs

HMAN INIPUT VARIA..ES

. PERFOFANCE
e VISION

AN [jrw014MEvC OsDBISIONS OF

PA1AGE

AIRCREMENB | 5TH & 96TH PIERCENTILES)-

BODY HINGE POINTS

AIRaFT

* LOCATION
_PERF

_______

EXCURSION
REFOIENCE POINTS

raw

ORMANCE

MATRIX

__________

___AIRcRI

"PRlOTECTION NEED'
MATRIX

AIRCRAFT INPUT VARIASLES

D
ASIC: AIRICRAFT:__________
13ASICMFdTS/L
T
TALIMi TAT IONS
IIEQU I

JAIRCRAFT CONFIGURATION

(RIEW STATION GEJME)TRY

CREW MOTION ENVELOPE

STYPE
* MISSION
* PWRFOIWANCE
COMPONENTS:
-..

AIRCRAFT SHIB.DING COMPONENTS.._

* INSTALLATION
o DIMENSIONS
s BALLISTIC (-ARACTERISTICS

ICREW
CREW STATION:

n'*

STATION VOLUME
o rINSTALLATION
DIMENSIONS

IREFERNCEEPOINT1
L0SEAT

CONI).OS

DISPLAYS
INSTALLATION
* DIMENSIONS
CONTROLS
* INSTALLATION
0 DIRECTION

0 SHAPE
0 LIMITS

F IXTURES
0 STRUCTURE
d WINDSCREEN
* EXITS
S SEATS

S
HARNESS SYSTT--WJ

"Filu. 14-1. Study Imput Variable

14-17

ARMOR INSTALLATION DEFS'GN

CONSIDERATIONS
Th. be*i approodacs to the armor type protection
of kskaptes from ground fire consist of:
1. Placement of armor in very clome proximity to
doe cosuponeat for which prtcto isrqurd
2. Incorpolivioa of armor int th veil stu
1mw or into the component structuletit
3 Conskidnrtion of benefits gained (if any) from
g) effects of hclicopter structure
the shielding (makina
sad/or oomponents.
TeebaSIC aproaches have been divided ivto dic
prhmncipal ssive prowetion concepts -integra armoparasitic armor, and indigwous armor.
Interalarmr
cnsiaa o aror ncororaed nto
Ithegarralts
rmorecemnsits of or inoprtdit
hdralic houin~, wich re
(e~g,ctutc~
fabricated fromu mor) or for existing loud-carrying
Th useof he itegal amor
strutur.
met obiou
concepa is in the floor of an aircraft having relatively
an/opazea
sttion ofvulerabe cu~m~alae
IQUS

V ots ntgral armor caii be

POO~i~tt5give,

expected to be heavy,

lmitd mallr istalatins,

andhusis
geeraly
for the' inhmjnit hish"i weight af inte-.
lb. e55
gralarmo
i genrall
is hatit mealli. Th cermic
glarmpor iestand
ot ieeralnonmetallic.
mTherialsameinc
wcm psuite for
ad
h omtcmaeil r o
wlsutdfruse as load-carrying incinbers because
of their lack of strengh or low ductility. Also,
becase
rmonteral
isby dfintio a prmaent
inta~lationa. materials having poor multiple-hit-protection capability are not suitable. Permanent or inte-1
pal armor should be made from materials that have
the capability to withstand multiple hits, and that can
be repaired in some manner without the necessity for
removing structure or components
u'ars~ti
i asrcnearorin omsarmored
helicopter rtructure. It provides only ballistic protection, and doos not function as a load-carrying
mem bar. This concept pro,. ides more flexibility in th~e
seetoAfmteil hnd teitga n indipmnus, armor concepts. There are, however, poteintial drawbacks, including the need for sufficient
structural hard-points for adequate attachment of armor, the necessity for strengthening of backup struc.
ture; interference with access doors and other items
essetial to the proper use of the helicopter; and the
establishment of realistic tolerances to allow armor
panel interchangeability in the field between helicopton of the same type. When parasitic armor is innstalled on the exterior of the helicopter, crashworthinews is not affected particularly. However, if the armor paneb arm located in the interior of the helniopter. design of the bracketry and attachments is dictated by a crash-load criterion. Convertibility to

peace-time operation is an attractive feature of a

parasitic armor installation.
Indigenous armor refers to the benefits, if any, that
may r"sult from shielding of the critical cornponcrit
by aircraft equipment or structure that normally is
located, or possibly way be relocated, between the
projectile and the component which requires protecThe auggested technique is to take maximum advantage of the sUtruture and equipment or the helicopter in providing ballistic protection for the item.
This involves accounting for the indigenous prottction that is inherent to the original helicopter configviatioti, as well as relocating equipment to improve
the protoction. Consideration is best given to ballistic protection in the preliminary configuration design
5taV. Under th-, impact of a projectile, certain items
o~f equipment and structure will create fiagnients and
splinters that, while they are not lethal individually,
will farmi a pattern covering a large area, thus greatly
increasing the probability of a peisonnel hit. Other

items will arrest the projectile energy completely and

thereby. 1010% ballistic protection. The fact that

the net effect of indig-nous materials may be either
,..~..

sitive or negative iwiicatas ih i'is UIBUlky

a method for employing indigeious armor. Consult

BRL concerning data relative to the ballistic propaeil.Rfrt
ete fvros~rcua
aeil.Rfrt
fvrosnrcua
etc
Volume 11, Ref. 5 for the behavior of fuel cells as
msig
14-3.3.1 Aireime Tony Armor
Service experience with seat mounted torso armor
(cheat protection) has been unsatisfactory and
r=iWuted in the development of the individually worn
vest. Armored seats and restraints shall be
eindt nefc ih hs et n r hma
thfrwdpoecinUSAm NaikDvlmeat Center, Natick, MA, is responsible for this
equipment and details may be obtained from there.
ecablllt
14-33. lb.
Armor of identical location s"l be interchangeable between helicopters of the same model. Ifarmor
for more than one level of protection is provided,
both should be interchangeable (seeMLlSO)

14-33.3 Re.wsbhlky
E-.'cept for tht integral armor, each componeiit of
the armor systern should be capable of being removeed
by a maximum of t-vo men, using tools normally
found in line masintenance areas.
Parasitic armor shsould be removable in order to
permit inspection, rqwir, and maintnansaw and to

__

...

0_"_0

AMCP MM620
provide access to masked components. Consideration
should be given to the removal problems associated
with combat operations. The design of armor should
take maximum advantage of the modular concept
with respect to size and contour.
The maximum weight of a single piece of armor
should not exceed 80 lb. Where the working area is
restricted by existing structure and/or equipment, the
weight should be reduced accordingly.
Transparent armor should be readily replaceable
and cleanable. Removal should be possible without
disturbing the fire-control system.
Each component of the armor system which
requires three or more hours for removal should be
considered as structural or integral. Such armor
should be evaluated as pan of the helicopter structure with respect to load-transmission characteristics
and fatigue life.
14-3.3.4 Flying Qalltis
The removal of armor, partial or total, should not
adversely affect the flying qualities of the helicopter.
The use of ballast should be avoided.
S14-3.3.5 l,-uebgllmz i
Immobilization, as related to armor, is defined as
rendering any moving part of a structure immovable
following ballistic attack. The three most common
types of immobilization are burring. keying, and
deformation.
Tho edges of pieces of armor may become cracked
or tom as a result of projectile impacts. When two armor surface. are very close together their torn edges
may come in contact with one another. The rsultant
burring often causes immobilization, because the
S. .. e,.,.vges prent ,,r
rovnm..._
Kviq
_rek
occurs when a projectile or frmgment becomes

wedged between two surf..ces, or when a projectile

__.

penetrates one surfAce and partially penetrates the

other surface so as to lock or "pin" the two movable
parts together. Deformation results when projectile
impacts swell the metal or push it out of shape, thus
jamming moving surfaces together or otherwise
preventing normal operations.
Protection cgainst, or insensitiveness to, these
types of immobilization always must be considered in
aesning moving parts. In somecases, the use cf projectile deflector strips prevmts immobilization. A
large clearance between moving parts also offers pro-

tection against immobilization.

3
Ar
cashould
14-3.3A6 Armor Materil Attadtmst/istallafa
I-.33h~l Moutnatg of Armor Plae
A-mor plate sWall be mounted on strong, rigid

ANN&9

structural members or on energy attenuating

nmmberu that are designed to reduce the peek impact
loads th:.ieby reducing the structural requirements
and hence the weight of local airframe stuct-ure. Doflection of the armor she/i be considered in determining space allowances. Wherever possible, ,wountings should be on the rear side of the armor plate
(remote from the anticipated direction of attack).
This arrangement, which is advantagous fr~m the
strength viewpoint, also prevents damage to the
mountings from gunfire.
Refer to Figs. 19 and 20, Ref. 5, for armor attachment methods.
The structure and brackets for armor support
should exhibit sufficient strength to withstand the
normal loads of flight, gust, blast, and landing, as
well as crash.noads. The strength of hinges, locks, and
fasteners on doors and/or removable inspection pancis should be maintained at the design level. The
added weight of the armor should not strech springs,
damage hinges, or warp doors or pan& to which armor is attached. The attachments should retain suffici-nt strength after the limit load imposed by balltstc impact to withstand flight loads without breaking
loose or incurring zdditional deformation that would
cause interference with any critical component. The
bracketry may be designed to yield under limit load.
When armor such as hard-faced steel must be
oriented in a particular manner, attachments should
be positioned to preclude improper installation. The
sizing of fasteners is determined most conveniently by
gunfire tests.
When practicable, the armnor attachments should
be desigred to take the impact loads in compruson
or shear, but not in tension.
Armor should be attached at three or more points
having sufficient strength to support the armor and

to withstand normal operational loads in the event

one attachment point is shot away.
The standoff space provided by the armor attach.
ments should be such that any deformation and/or
deflection of bracketry and armor will not cause interference with the functioning of the armor-critical
component.
14-3.3A
h"tintie. Design
The installation of armor shdil not preclude the
rapid egress of the crew in emergency situations.
Motalk armor should hav no discontinuities or
rough edges that muight et up strcm raisers. All edge.
be broksn or deburred !n order to prevent
delayed cracking.
Ceramik composite armor should not be used for
primary airvraft structure.

AMCP 7Ofr202
Shock-susceptble components should not be
mounted on armor panels. Afttr ballistic acceptanice
testing, no therm.al processing is permissible without
reverification of conformance with the ballistic
acceptance limiui. Deviation from this requirement
.11be subject to review and approval by the pro-.
curing activity,
Armor should not be attached by methcid- that
tzanswjit the impact shock froml the armor to the
critical component.
In general. the followi.ng detailed installation requirenients should be met:
1. Use flat plates except where a simple curved or
bent shape is advantageous in gaining angular protoction or weight savings.
2. All armor installations stkould provide space for
a possible future increase of 50% in armor thickness.
3. Avoid the use of cutouts or holes in any portion
of the plate for supporting or clearing miscellaneous
apparatus.
4. Do not alHow any cutting or burring after the
fiWa delivery from the armor manufactume's plant
since this may locally degade the ballistic capability.

MMtile

Any steel armor in such a position that it could

direlt secondary or bullet splash fragments into vital
components shall be provided with flanges, spall
shields, or splash stripe (peripheral fences) to deflect
these particles,
Spall is the fragmentation of the anrmor, either on
the impact side or on the reverse, with or without
complete penetration of the armor. The armor
matcrials listed in Chapter 1 fe~ature adequate spall
ftsstaflcc. with the exception of the ceramic comnposites. The remedial action is to overlay the exposed
ctramic facing with a bonded layer of ballistic nykc.n
cloth and, where required, to curl tht backing up
beside the tile at panel edges.
The splash or spall produced on ceramic composite armor tends to form a rather narrow cone
centered about the projectile flight path.
REFERENCES

14-3.3A.3 Pu~es SpahA and Spell

Bulle splash is defined as particles of the projecformed from the impact against armor. With steel
armor the splash tends to travel along the surface of
the armor, much like the flow of a fluid. Bullet splash
to the cyesr and
nlddcncued.ag
bodies of the crew, and,
isdangerous
sial7atce

1. I 560-M ULTI-0O1, Procurement Specifiation for

Llghtwe~ghl AircrqJk Armor, USAAVSCOM, St.
Louis, MO, 17 Oct 66.
2. MIL-STD-1288, Aircrew ProtecrionRequiremenis.
Nonnuclear Weapons Threat, 29 Sep 1972.
3. American Cmqferene of Government Industrial k
Hygienisis. Committee on Thresho& Limit Values,
Cincinnati, OH-, Revised 1966.
4. ADS-Il, Survlvability/ Vuin-rability Program
Requirements,
e 92
USAAVSCOM St. Louis, MG,we

to equipment. The effective motho& of providing

Protection against bullet splazh are to deflect it away,
to trap it, or to turn it back along its original course

5. TR 7-41, SurvIvability Design Guide for US* Army

Aircraf!, Vol I (U), Vol. II (C) USAARDL (now~
USAAMRDL), Eustis Di-ectorate, Ft. Eustis,

14-20

9
15-

CHAPTER 15
MAINTEANCE AND GROUND SUPPORT
EQUIMENT (GSE) INTERFACE
with related climatic and drnvironmental fac15-1UC
CTIONlong1
NTROD
baRO
IcON
tors. Helicopter and subsystem installations

lion, ad rquiemets;thatmus befolowe bythe

bnerfoaloed bytedeigns andgeqinemertintrestatimsfator
hell ter
twe h geicoeer
to ansur
satisatryqie interfancs be
ground support equipment (OSE). The design guidelime presented herein arm based upop Army circuIars, regulations, and policy manuals related to
operation and maintanenace support of supplies and
equipment.
GSE interface design must consider standard items
of GSE and the maintenance personnel capabilities
available within the Army's system, and must be in
consonance with the Army's maintenance support
policy. Specific maintenance and OSE interface
design provisions should use built-in-test equipment
(BITE), where feasible, and must imaprove efficienzy
in the use of OSE at each maintenance level. Wh.en
incorporated. these interface designi considerations

should
gloves
heavy
be designed to permit persoeine wearting
and clothing to peform maintenance in cold climates. Instruction markidga should be legible and
cdsota they are viewed easily. T'he desi*
1~ emtgon evcn ymitnnepr
sonc withi a maximum of safety and a minimum of
skill. The dwsin must assure that personnel with
minimum training and overage mechanical abilities
csn perform the required servicing, miaintenance. and
rcpair of the helicopter and installed equipment.
Sharp projections that may injuze personel during
operation or servicing must be eliminated. Vital comnponents must be prote:te to prevent damagep during
servicing.
15-2.1 SAFETY
Safety is ai principal consideration in the dasign of
,,.

t.

(P

tr.

aw
VUM-c~unmctls
inalum te t,-nC-requled ut
)turn-around servicing, maintenance, and repair; thus,
-/maintainability
of the helicopter w~ill be improved.
As used in this chap~ter, the tern-i GSE includes all
equipment nwevrd to service, inj*.%ct, test, adjust,
calibtrat, fault isolate, meas~are, aasemble. dint
semble, handle, transport, safeguard, store, repair
overhaul, maintain, and operate the helicopter andit
~~~installed subsystems but excludes personnel Oquipment, office furniture and equipment, and common
production tools end toolivg.

acedesgnshall conaform to system safety criteria

principles, and techni jtse as definWx in MIL-STD882 and Chapter 3. AMCP 706-203. The objectives
arc maximum safety consistent with military operational requirements; control of bazards to protect
personnel and equipment; and identification. elimination, or control of hazards associated with each
system, assembly, or subassemnbly. These coniie
o h
sdrtossol nldbtntb
following:
1. Hu~man factors

15- DEIGNCONIDEATINS ND
15-2 CNSIERATONSAND
DESGN
R~EQUIREMENTS
The requireulenti for OSE interfaces must be considered from the inception of the helicopter design.
Reliability, maintainability, serviceability and selftest features must be designed into the helicopter and
its Installed subsystetms to minimize the costs of
maintenance facilities and manpower.
Human bntaors considerations, safety, and accessibility must be included in the initial design. Similarly, standardization of equipment parts must be
emphasized. beginning with design inception,
Designs should c'enform to the human engineering
andi criteria of MIL-STD-1472.
*principles
Equipment arrangements shouid minimize the
/need for removing equipment when servicing is performed. Debign considerations should include analy\\sis of the operationO~ deployment requirements,

2.Levei or training required 61 416eiericulls mild

maintenance
3. Ch~aracteristics of fuels and hydraulic fluids,
and their hazard levels during storage, transportation, and handling
4. Contuinment. of electrical and radio frequency
energy and appropriate waroings
5. Protoction of pressure vessels and associated
piping
6. Classificationi of ha~ards resulting from essential use of explosives.
Particular attention must be given to possible -ridafunctions that could create hazards, and approp~iste
design features must be incorporated to eliminate or
control these hazards.
Genersl rules to be followed in 'sfety dcsign are:
1, Clearances must be provided to pei'mit the intcrconnection of fuel and/or oil rill lines, along with
electrical connectior.s.

15-1

2. Appropriate valves must bc providod to permit

3tallation of engine(s), transmission(s), rotor(s), and

safe servicing in cam where pimsure is maintained,

as in pneumatic and hydraulic systems.
3. Electrical connectors must be keyed to preelude incorrect interconnection, and the installation
must prevent arcing and exposure of hot pins,
4. Ground receptacles must be provi&d to insure
a common ground and to eliminate any electrical poteatial difference between the helicopter and GSE.
5. Guards and warnings must be providod in situations where explosive devices are installed or where
high electurical potentials are present or for other potmntially sudden and serious hazards.
6. Interlock switches and devices must be provided as necessary.
7. Connections should be quick d'sconnect type.
vibration proof, and not require safetywire.

propeller(s).
To the extent practicoble, the helicopter design
should permit complete preflight inspection without
the use of special stands or ladders. Integral nonskid
steps, handholds, and work platforms %houldbe incorporatod to facilitate maintenance. Similarly, utility syftems should have quick-accees provisiorsi so
that they can be serviced without special GSE. preferably from wround 3evel.
Arraniements that require special tools or removal of other equipment to accomplish an aviation
unit level interchauge (removal and replaceni-cnt)
should be avoided. If it is necessary to place o--e unit
behind another, the unit requiring !as-frvuent
access should Ze located to the rear. Except for pro,
tection, or other valid reasons, equipment requiring
periodic inspection, serice, or replaorment shoulo
not be placed behind or uider structural members or
other items that arc difficult to remove or that can be
damaged readily. Equipment should be isolated from
sources of fluids or dir*.
The designer should provide built-in check points
to simplify the connection of fault-isolating tnsi

15-2.2 ACCESSIBILITY
The designer should emphasize ease of servicing,
testing, removal, and replacement of all equipment.
Inaccessible and complex structural arrangements
must be ,voided. Moreover. the designer should consider sectioning #.he helicopter structure for ease of
n ntl

II

,IW

64^11r.

field.
Except where weight, structural integrity, or stiffnous are overriding considerations, assemblies subject to pc.riodic removal should be attached with
quaick-i nnect fasteners of an approved type
rather than with bolts or screws. Tool clearance must
be provided for installing and removing lines, nuts,
bolts, and other fasteners. Where the use of tools is
restricted because of remote locstion, temperature, or
other factors, fasteners such a self-locking plate nuts
or anchor nuts sbould be used to allow single sided

service and maintenance personnel :o accomplish

their tasks without working in awkward positicis.
Maintenance at the intermediate suppout and depot levels will involve the use of automatic test equipment (ATE) %-henthis ir feasible and cost-effective.
The helicopter system equipment and components
must contain the necessary teqt points to interface
with ATE. End items of equipment should be designed to have the test woints required to permit performance evaluation and diagnostic tests - oonsistent with the policy of returning the helicopter to

If lubrication is required, fittings must be located

where accas is possible using standard Army OSE
without the need for special a-lapters. If positional
adjustments are needed, the design should permit unobstructed adjustment over the complete range of
component movement.
Accessibility for the 5th to 95th maintenance personnel should be provided for items subject to proflight inspecions and servicing. Similarly. emphasis
should be placed upon accessibility of all coinponents subject to normal maintenance. Such items
include fill and drain plugs, filter elements, valves,
switches, and other field-replaceable assemnbies.
Large, quick-opening acces doors and ample
space should be provided for servicing of engine accemories and replacement of components. The designer also should provide for quick removal and in-

placement of modules - limited piece-part replacement, and repair of designated direct exchaage (DX)
modules by replacement of external parts or use of
authorized repair kits. In tur., modules should have
sufficient test points to permit performance evaluation and diagnostic tests in accordatice with Army
policies 3nd practices for depot rcpairs.

15-2

1&-23 STANDARDIZATION
Ground supl on equipment interface designs
should consider two levels of szondsrdization;
I. Equipment lev;. Standard GSE Items (MILHDBK-300 and DA Pamphlet 700-20).
2. Parts and Materials lavel, Military Standard
(MS, AN, AND, etc.), Military Specification
Qualified Products Lists (QPL).
Such standards should be used in preference to

-requirements

0.,,

special comnmercial parts or designs seving the same

Human engineering specialists should interpret the
or basically the same function. To the extent that perdesign to define HFE problem area" and provide
formance is not compromised. helicopter design
solutions.
should permit servicing and maintenance at all levels
Populations for desitn shoidd be specified. During
with equipment standlardized for Army use. Electrical
the iterative process of design. existing critical mainconnectors, fill plugs, fittings, and other interfacing
tentince tasks &&WHl
be defined and. when possible eliitemns should permit connection of standard GSE
minated.
withoqut the use of special adapters.
AFSC Personnel Subsystems 1-3 provide zpacific
Where items require modification in order to pr:criteria for human engineering design requirements.
form the required function, the designer should speciINPCOTTSADDA
OTC
fy tools and tooling that will comply with GovernSYSTEM
mental specifications and documcrits rclating to
materials, prooet-Ps, equivalent tolerar~ces, and size.
The need for increased tactical mobility reqvires efThe designer shodd eliminate, where possible, the
ficicut methods for inspection, test, diagr-osit, and
lor new or specdal tools for use on new
prognosis in the tactical operating environment. A
helicopter systems.
design objective, when requested by the procuring acTh:-designer should reflect decisions of Optimum
tivity, is to provide an automatic inspection, test, and
Repair LcvJ6 Analysis, basod on Army maindiagnostic system capable of diagnosing mnalfuncteriance/support policy in the mnaintenance and GSL
tions automatically, warning of impending
inlterfaae design. Equipment should be designed for
mechtanical failures, minimizing manual inspections,
testing at the indicated levels, giving consideration to
and permitting helicoptzr components to be changad
the in'tiface with standardized Army test equipon the basis of condition rather than o! time. ThiAs
ment.
objective may be modified by state-of-tbe-art, misThe design of individual black boxecs should per.
sion, and wi~ight/voluwe restrictions.
mnit their serviceability on the helicopter to be deTh automatic ianfte,-tinn. tzxt. and diaenmatic
Sterminincd by meanis of &4li'CoQritainciid. flu/nro-go test
system should serve the following Jemntgts:
1. Laies and accessoric6
circuitry. The circuit loops of multi black-box subsystems should be contained in a single box. This will
2. Fuel subeystem
eliminate the nzad for calibration adjustments at the
3. Oi subsystem
helicpter level and will permit the use of simple,
4. Rotor group, including main and tail rotor
light-weight, go/no-go circuits.
transmissions, propellers
5. Flight wuntrol subsystem
1154A HUMAN ENGINEERING
6. Electrical subsystem
Maintenance parrsonnl having a minnimum of
7. Easential avionics
training arnd relatively low skill levels. anti some8. Hydraulic subsystem
times working under adverse climatic and ceiviranmental conditions, are employed to provide 'he
needed service, maintrnance, and rcpa-- of the heliJAppropriate seat on should be installed percopter and installed systems. Therefore, designs must
manently in the helicpter and in ma&jor system cornbe based upon the proper allocation of rnaaequipment perforniance for system operation, mainpnns sapc~c esi
ei
syicue
but arm not limited to, temiperatture, pressume vitenatice and control. Thus, designs should all-ocate
funcion
ptimzeperfrmace,
t~
iniize
biation, acceleration forces, liquid flow, electrical
operationsl cIonstrintadmmize
opfrmnerating idfl
con~tinuity, Ow~onivm chatraacriatica, and vapor deopertioal onsrains,
nd ini~t oeraingand
tection. Sensor outputs should terminate in a quick.
maintenance costs. Humnan Factors Enine. rliag
disconnect outlet in the v~cinity of the ground power
(HFE) design criteria principles and practices may Wbconcr eialThsnorut
wlitrfe
found in MIL-STD-1472 and MIL-H-46855. Goals
with (3SF capable of procesing sensor data outputs
to achimv include:
atmtcly
L Achieve satisfactory performanicc by operator,
Mtmtcly
control, and maintenance personnel.
2. Redluce skill requirements and training time.
15-.3 P'ROPULSION SUBSYSTEM IN7 3. Incrtaso the relisbility of personnel-cquipment
TERFACES
*Aram(cicastoara

7)

combinations.

4. Foster design standardization within and among systems.

1-.
1..

EEA
EEA

A prc )lsion

system consists of the engine or

15-3

ummshf air ladmsetlomi submysn, exhaust uubsystam.

Nhs aad kubqkwtoi sutbowtms starlag subsystem,
caroe,mamisulon subsystem. and APU (if appiloabe) Intarias dedgn coulatlons otadi
per. IS-2 shd apply. Specific design attend.. must
ojmctie sad In in.
be Sivae to mn- tl~jt
dlude qui&-chaagse capablsities and accessibility for
visulmintnanc,
Ispetion ad srvicng.Addikdal propulsion system duaign rCiteria am evaelable InChapter 3and in Chapter 8, AMCP M~6-201.
154.

WNTFWANGEABILITY/QUICKCHANGE(

&Wbe
onle
Opl
emonetsandaccmmes
O~l3
DP~iU~tspreclude
u1813L
cmpountednth engndce.sr Desgn obetivs ihanfclud
cO~fP~f~fl
SOIWOY mi
araiinlt tht f~htaeintra

nablt.

Egie

omonnt

and ac

points as required to acooniplish diagnostic testing

compatible with the overall elicopter test and diag
ncetic system (par. 15-2.5).
1S4.5 OIFL, FUEW. AND LUBRICATION
o ytmdanvle ~d lo rvt ri-i
age clear of the helicopter. In addition, tim valves win
be self-locking to proclude accidental loss of fluid.
m eieo ulsriigae. hl emtes
and thorough cleaning. Arma shall be marked dearly "for fuel only" and desigated as to type or types
of furel as appropriAte. Filler connection designs will
the accidental connection of water hoes
with those carrying other fluids. All fuel tanks must
be capable of being drained completely and purged

lncrdaugsbllty.....-~ WUPDUII
~emovale
foms onactiee
ki
n ~aliit at
hftail
Instal om
omoise~ maitenance costh
gebt
cat.Intech1
inc
mluiuinasmareotintena
quirmmentsISM
ouliediDML-2.0
are
Helicopter operational availablty is sensitive to
engine chang req~ulrmena Therefore engne aceinry
odues
ackor
houl bedespsedfoi at
tachment, to the engine to form acomplete ongine as,
Naubly. The deig of the bdw
co
srmug flow fbi
installstlon and removal of the engine assembly as a
aitenncecoss,
nit Toreucelifo~ylo
sinle
slquni~oeduelfe-ycew~altennccaes.
me of removal and reinstallation of the engine &asambly from the propulsion systemn must be aprincipal design objective. Quick-change capability should
be achieved with a minimum of special tools.

while on the ground.

154.3 CONNWFORS AND DISCONNEC~T

POINTS

--

Permanently lubricated hardwake will be used

wherever possible. Required greaen fittings should be
des-gne in accordance with MIL-F-3541, MS 1500D,

150,ad50.
15-3.6 GROUNDING
A static electricity discharge path to ground must
~
~
*
''UUI

'

landing gear, an exiternal ground wire. An MS 33645

rectptacle for grounding the refueling nozzle should
be installed not more than 42 in. norleassthan 12 in.
fr
~
"
n
airram
m radeito gruelnd sythem
fy roviseillronmst for
thearframge
to arony
ly rovi sioids mur bter madepio
oaywiiS
ro
the ia
thog kiso
7SATN

A self-contained engine-starting system isrequired

for most Army helicopters. rronsttngwl
Externai electricai power frgon trigwd
be furnished through connectors and receptacles in
accordance with MIL-C-7974. The turbine jetstarting receptacle, if installed, will comply with MS
25018 if asplit bus system isused. The standard connection for DC is MS 3506; for AC, 400 Hz 120/208
V 3-phase MS 9062 wnill be used.
1-2 GON
ETR
38 RUD ETR
avmber of connecor and coupling typoses
lf be
The designer shall provide a 12-in, opening for a
*lmInd Selectona of electrical colmecto" Ii deW
ground heater duct (a6-in, opening may be used on
ambed in MIL-STD-1353.
engines below 350 hp) in the accessory section, forT r PONTSward of the firewall and close tc high-temperature
AD
!53AB"M
rSJ.MNINSK~flN
AD TET PONTSdemanding units such as gearboxes and oil-system
Samors fincorporated within the propmlsion syscomponents. A heater duct opening behind the firete will piovid for real-time readout of engine(s)
wall also isdesirable to facilitate cold-weather mainsod subsystam(s) condition, performnce, and eftonance and servicing.
Aiciency. Sensor AaU be provided at additional
Hot air should not be directed onto electrical barA-- ftnaad, quick-discannec mechanical
and ecual
oupinp ab beusmas required.
Automatic shutoff couplings in accordance with
MIL.C-1413 Aa~be employed with fluid lines to me
duce spL.W and contaminaticn during propulr onm~a, manlateancs. For ease of alignment and mu-ijimmn quick-diang. times. MS 28741 fleuible hose, or
the eq~ulvalent, s~oult be imed for fluid lines,betwema
the propuhio syste and the firewall. MIL-11-25579
applies to bases for b
er-ampaare locations. The

15.4

AMCP 7O2O2
n-nes or other equip-itent that could be affected adversely by high temperatures. Openings should be
marked "Ground Heater Duct".
1.3.9 ENGINE WASH
The designer shall provide ax~s for connecting a
ground cart to the engine watr wash system.
I"-4

TRANSMISSIONS AND DRIVES

General requirements for transmissions and drives

aie presented in Chapter 4 and MIL-T-5955. Installation design should provide for ease ot replacemeat, repair, and servicing, and should avoid reqsiirements for special tools and fittings. Standard
eyelet fittings thould be provided for attachment of
slings for hoisting components such as gearboxes and
transmissions.
Easy-to-read indices, keys, or othem markers
should be indclded on gears and shafts that require
radial alignment during assembly and installation,
Major components and assemblies should be interchangSabie in accordance with MIL-l-8500.
Accessories and accessory drives shall be located
for eas of removal and replao,.i-ment. The desian engineer should make maximum use of standard fittings, avoiding adapters to the maximum possible cxtent.
Sensors compatible with the helicopter inspection,
test, and diagnostic system shall be incorporated (see
par. 15-2.5).
Oil systems shall be provided with a rimple, visual
method of verifying oil level from the ground. Sumps
should be equipped with self-locking drain valves and
an adequate oil drain path clear of the helicopter
stuicture. The oil filler cap should have positive-lock
feawr.s

andl should be in a dt-an -ndn

arm.4 Co,--.

sideration should be given to installation of a chain

or cable to prevent loss of filler caps following removal. Required grease fittings sAu/ be designed in
accordance with MIL-F-3541.

15-5

ROTORS AND PROPELLERS

Quick-removal features should be provided on the

cowling, spinners, and protective housings. Rotor
and propeller controls should be designed with quickdisconnects to facilitate connection uf control-circuit
testers.
Each helicopter rotor blade shall be identified by
serial number and marked in accordance with Army
Technical Bulletin TB 746-93-2 and shall be interchangeable within the rotor system. Rotor blade tip
markings or equivalent shall be provided in order to
"provide for ground-checking of blade alignments.

The designri ushal provide for sling lift of individual

rotor blades and the rotor hub.
Blade trat .lng and balancing techniques should be
simple so as to eliminate the need for a maintenance
test fliaht after tracking and badancing.
The propeller assembly design sall provide for the
use of standard tools and tool types. Also, attachment points hdll be provided for use of the cormbination propeller wrench and lifting device for hoisting the complete assembly. Blades will be numbered
erially and wiil be individually interchangeable. The
design should pent 'blade removal, ling, hadling.
and installation to be accomplished with the individual blade it: a horizontal plane.

15-6

FLIGHT CONTROLS

The flight cortrol subsystem as defined herein inludes the primary and secondary flight control
systems (if applicable), the routing systems, the nonrotating systems, and the trim systems.
ROTATING SNSTEMS
The components of the rotating portion of the
flight control system should be ca able. of beins replacod without disturbing the rigging. A plunm or
tapped holc in a relatively rigid member, such as i
structuval beam, should be provided so that control
surface rigging gages can be attached by a bolt or
screw. The location must be accessible readily ao that
maintunance/support personnel can perform the
necesary inspections and adjustments. Care must be
taker. to provide the work space neesusry fr the adjustment of pivot shafts, push-pull tubes, and b, ll
criuks. When hydraulic or electrical boost devices
are used, sufficient access must be provided to allow
15-&1

for instiection, servicing. and maintenancc,

If autopilots and/or stability augmentation systrcms are used, self-testing provisions must be induded to the extent feasible. Where self-test is not
ftasible, test connectors for isolating faults of a failed
component should be provided so that test oquipmert can be. attached externally.
154.2 NONROTATING SYSrT_
Par. 15-6.1 applies equally to nonrotating systems.
When cables and pulleys are used in lieu of bell
cranks and push-pull tubes, a means of checking and
setting the cable tensions to specified values must be
provided. In all cases, wear points, such as beli-crank
bearings must have acess for insp"-zion and cotrectioni.
15-6.3 TRIM SYSTEMS
Interfaces for cable and pulley, or bell crank and
I-5

AA
pub puI tube, adrjusnets mut be provided so that

IS.-I COMMUNICATION SYSfI1WIS

Intallations for the Interommmi.,ilcation

GO

munication radios, :Lgna light, and flanre Iiaic"

tre

IF f

play can be maintaned within q5P-

19,7 ELECTRICAL SUSYSKMS

sK.

om-

must
permit ready removal and replacesmn or comDonents

zxer~al power reavptaces sl

be provided fer
theuletrial Wbla~stli. ThUSer eoiglm atlon,

When self.test provisions am included, teot results

must be visible to maintenance personnel. Ad-

or tovIal--s
wtadamrds forbCrthoepw uelta. pr've
u for
boni
iud t edin
he d ep
.
tlun pow unit will be induded in the design,

justm t cortrols must be readily aceible.

For equlpami that does not include self-test
muu h ei
hudpemtctra eteup

A ainimum vuriety of eieudeel connectors should

fleatuires, the deseg should permit extrnal teat equip-

be added only afte it has bee ascertained that tho

provided in order to simplify handling and removal.

beused.Cn~n ector selection wcll follow nst

o
nmeat
to be connected readily. Plug-in connectors
be uied. ConnMetor iition will follow imnstructons
should be used thioughout the installation in order to
cint
ped ent
in corc
Pronne
isions must be
avoid breaking circuits for teot and adjustment purnmml to prwvmt incorrect cIL
connections.
Sfor
lub
in
and
"
Samto4po11.
Pnd troviions
lbrhicatig
wl
and
. dssl
Iganprors
Break points should be provided doe zo the transandelectric motors will be icluded in te
. Amitter and antenna equipment. The designer shouid
oreilbility to lubriating points, as well as for the inconsider the use of directional couplers to simplify
turchsaw of gneator and motor tnrubes will be
maintenance. When the directional couplers are used.
-provide.
calibration indicators should be visible without
The battery should be accessible easily with no
removal of the units.
lpecal (0. 8 required for its remuovul and inChassis slides, runners, and tilting mechanisms
stailatlon. If nckcadmium batterie re aed. the
may be used to facilitate accessibility of avionic
dsige Ami insure that water cannot be added to
equipment When used, these mechanisms should be
the battery without first tamoving the battery from
equipped with devices for positive locking in both onQQaVG %a
a w~immu"1
aum.
if~ aUrn
1 Was= wAD
tended and retrnctUd positionr. Handles should be
battery is fully chU3Sd.)
"Thevoltag regilator sbould be aiccssibl to allow
for
in
the requi
9 st equipmt and
adjustim the rguator to ths "mcribed voltage level.
All Reaes ad dcrcut beskers W be v
and
udly as
e
The inalds aidv
ad
d lightin installati
should provideawsy acoas for Wetalationof beor
tubs
Wiing rum
a mud be dwipd to alow ow a
for
maimtens
of wiwsjg. miiar
m c
nections to Iduticol tpae of crulpwent on a given
helicopter xould be med to avoid errors in wiring
during nstallatfoa, newoea, and maintenance. If
there is a posiblhity of
ccomsing a SE cable conrtto
to
Incorr"c able, the cable onnec'tor
keying shod
prsudis snb hteconnwatl. Comrmon boading poees or connectors dks d be Iwovided for acnectiosa between th helicoptr wiring
and the USE.
Uhe
badi deesn ouldeations for the eectrical
subaystem are dsQAlbed in Chapta 7.

15-3 AVIONIC SUBSYSTEMS

Dea consWiations and requirements for
avionic subsystems an described in Chapter 8. Only
essential VFR mh commualcation/navigation
avionksae considored in this paragraph.

1*-

Withdrawal should be in the direction of available

spa. Cable lengths should be adequate to permit
slide operation. Adequate sp"c must bI available for
the inttallation and removal of mounting units and
ocrws. Screws and bolts requiring accoss for maintenance should not be buried kider cables.
Installation and test requiremanis for intercommunication systems and communication radio
sets are contained in the applicable commodity spedfications and data.
I 5m
NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
The USE inteface conaderations and requiremeats applicable to the communication system also
apply to the navigation systm. In addition, con.
sidewatons must be given to the necessity for alignlng the direct
finder antennas and indicators
during maintnance. Sim arly. the gyrosyn compess
t'stnmi alisnment requireient? must be considered in
the installation design.
Specific installation and test 'equiriments for the
navigation systams are contained In individual commodity spUflsktions and data.

15M9

HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC

SUBSYSTEMS
The hydraulk and pneumatic subeytan desi
requirm ts arme diacused in Chapter 9.

15-6
-

_ __

_ _ _ _

'

,). .. ,.,

".

all

. ...........

1".1 IHYDRAULIC SUBSYSTEM

TIle hydraulic gubsysema requires checkout connectlons f'r interfacing with ground test stands t n accordance with MIL-A-5540 and MIL.C-25427. The
system design should include a means for bleeding
and replenishing hydraulic fluid,
The hydraulic system relates more closely to GSE
than any othter helicopter systera in that the hydraulic fluid is transposed between the two in ths accomplishment of the basic functions of filling,
bleeding, ,,id filtering.

15-10.1 NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS

The pilot's compass installation must indude provisions for swinging the oompass in accordance with
MIL-STD-765. Compass correction cards for each
indicator in t'm helicopter will be provided. Radio
navigation instruments are discussed in Chapter 8.

M.-9.2 PNEUMATIC SUBSYSTEM

Pneumatic subsystem ducting and coupling must
be adequate for ground test purposes. The ground
coupling should be included and appropriately
marked. Where ram air turbines are used, an interface should be provided for driving the turbine by
means of a pneumatic power source during ground
testing. MS 28889 high-pressure valves should be
provided to interface the high-pressure pneumatic
system5 with the GSE.
The designer should consider using engine pnemmatic starters, it the heWkopter is so equipped, as the
ource of compreed air for the actuation of airborne components. By tapping into the starter duct,
the number of ground couplings can be minimized.

15-11 AIRFRAME STRUCTURE

The structural design engneer must include desip
provisions for jacking, mooring, lifting, owln&. and
transporting the helicopter by all modes of tramqort
to include helicopter external airlift.
Lift points or sling positions for lifting of the Wom
plete crash/battle-damard helicopter should bG provided. Lift points must be designed to nect the gloads specified in AR 70-9 and MIL-A-8421F.
Sectioning should be employed to separate the
body and empennage, the body and wings, or the
body itself into constituent sections. Each section
should include clearly identified points for lifting and
load bearing. Hoisting eyelks must be provided if
hojisting is the prescribed method of lifting.
Floor obstructions of any kind ,.hould be avoided.
If these are unavoidable, however, removable
flooring - of sufficient strmigth to preclude doformation in normal use - must be provided to permit inspection, repair, and replacement of underlying structure or equipment not otherwis acsible.
All transparent areas should consist of easily-

15-10

INSTRUMENTATION

SUBSYSTEMS
The mounting of instruments and subsysten components sihal permit rapid and easy inspection. adjustment, removal, installation, and diagnostic testing. Sufficient clearance should be provided for re-. v.--.
,r
, p..
... ,....,i.
modules. Items requiring more frequent adjustments
or inspections should be more accessiblc than th, -se
requiring less frequent servicing.
The design considerations and requirements foi the
helicopter instrumentation subsystem are described
in Chapter 10.

15&1.1 FLIGHnI INSTRUMENTS

Pressure-atuted flight instruents All be in-

7
'4

stalled in accordance with MIL-P-26292, and thu

specified provisionu for calibraticn Adll 1iwincluded.
An attlmeter correction card must be provided
when the comb.nel atatic pressure systen error and
altimneter instrument error exceeds k 15 3 ft.
When servo-operated ins rumt nts arc used, rnecessary interf'ces for clectica, tct equipment should be
included.

INLET
UI YT
INSTRUMENTATION
The desin requirements for the lnterf.'a of the
serial vehicle subsystem instrumentation with the
helicopter and the GSE ame described In CbjAptw 10.

replaceable panels. Removal and replacement should

be possible without the removsl of other equipment.
Bearings and universal joini. must be equipped
with the appropriate provisions for lubrication, inspection, and replacement. Cowlinp will be designed for ease of opening or removal.
Fittings as required for matinj with towbars and
towing vehicles iuust be provided. Lugs and rings
suitable for coupling with hooks used on towlirws,
and standard methods of towing, also should be provided. Jig points fer treasuring and leveling in accordance with MIL-M-6756 shall be inclueed in the
airframe design.
Jacking facilities conforming to MIL-STD-809
sAMI be included. The desig ,e. .Al assure that each
landing gear can be jacked separately w-thout inter. rence betwocn the jack and the landinS gear sys15-7

APMP 706-)20
tem. The wheels must be removable without requiring the removal of struts or any part of the landing
Near structure.
Towing provisions will be in accordance with MILSTD-40.
The airframe structure must include mooring provisions consisting of lup or rings for attachment of
m-oring ropes. cables, or fines. Whare the fittings are
reosed, they must bave suffient clearance space
for easy extension from the recessed position. The
word "moor" ,iyll appear on adjacent exterior surfaces. If detachable fittings are used, the design
should provide for dieir storage in the baggage or
"toolcompartment. If the landing gear is not used for
restraint during runup of the engine(s), fittings to
withstand twe maximun' Joad imposed during this
ground operation shi be provided. When installed,
these fittings will be marked with the statement: "Attach restraining harness here during ground runup or

A tiodon lug should be provided on rach main

landing Sgar leg. These lug. should pinuit cornpression of the shock absorber to a position beyond
the normal static deflection point when the hboicopter is moored.
The landing pear design should minimize the
requirement for special servicing tools, equipment, or
fittings. Jack pads should be marked appropriatoly.
If the landing gear is not to be used as a restraining member duiing ground runup of engine(s).
it shall be marked conspicuously, in accordance with
MIL-M-25047, with the statement: "Do not use for
restraining helicopter during ground runup of
engine(s)".
Landing gear design considerations are. discussed
in Chapter 12.

Design requirements for airframe structural design

are discussed in Chapter II.

In general, all design provisions included for aircrew actiation of controls also arc necessary for
ground scivicin5. Additionally, sufficient clearances
are required for operation and maintenance. Inshould have all proternal cargo compartments
-

15-!2

LANDING GEAR SUBSYSTEM

S

."

units of the ianding par shuuld u; mAumav,

for inspection, servicing, lubrication, and replacement. All air valves should permit easy servicing
When retractable Sear is used, easily removable
covers should be installed on all exposed equipment
within the wells. Mud guards and scrapers should be
cleanahk- easily without remcval, and readily rcmovable for tire servicing.
The attachme it points for the landing Sear must be
designed to permit easy installation and removal, Retractable systems should include locks that require no
adjustment, and are acoessible for inspoction without requiring disasembly of the actuating members
of the retracting system.
Each Sear in a retractable system should have a
manually installed, lightweight, quick-release,
ground-safety lock or pin The design of this device
should eliminate the possibility of incorrect installation. The pear should be designed so as not to
retract or be damaged if manual unlocking is not accomplisbed before flight. A red warning streamer
should be included with the lock pin to indicate when
the lock is in place.
AD

154
't"

15-13 CREW STATIONS

U113sioa1s

marPTIL

conU iCuUouy Lu avuiu puimu,

damage during loading and unloading. Cargo cornmpartment doors should open easily, have a positive
means of remaining open, and provide minimum interferenec with loading and unloading operations.
Whee external cargo-carrying provisions are included, their design should facilitate loading and unloading opera:ions. Designs for internal and external
cargo-handling capabilities should permit standard
material-handling equipment to be used.
The desigr requirements for helicopter crew
stations, furnishings, and equipment are discussed in
Chapttr 13.
15-14

ARMAMENT, ARMOR, AND

PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

interface design requirements for these missioncsentiml systems are containod in Chapter 14. GSE
".nsiderations arc included in the spocific commodity specifications and requirements, and are no!
included herein.

__

AMP706202

CHAPTER 16

STANDARD PARTS
16-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS

AIC

length, in
- basic dynamic capacity, lb
- load rating for life L, and speed N, lb
- life exponent, 3 for ball bearings and 10/3
for roller bearings
- change in interior clearance, dimensionless

16-1 INTRODUCTION
Standard parts for the purposes of this handbook,
are defined as those items normally used as purchased with no change or modifications, and
manufactured to meet industty, associa.ion, or
Governmental specifications as to size, materials.
mechanical properties, performance, etc.
The standard parts discussed in this rhapter are

B
C
C,
e
K

nonreversin, load factor, dimensionless

fasteners, bearings, ekctrical fittinjs, pipe and tube

K,

reversing load factor, dimensionless

total bearing life, hr

fittings, control pulleys, push-pull controls, flexible

shalls, cables, and wires. The applications for and 0t-,
limitations applicable to each of these are diacustad.
Further discussion of standard parts is found in

L
LV0
_

-laminate

- B-10 life, hr
- B-10 life, revolutions
-

Li

L,.

M,

M2

M3

calculated bearing life at load P, and speed

N,, hr
laminate width, in.
life. hr
ratio of shaft internal diameter to bearaig
bore, dimensionless
ratio of bearing bore to outer diameter of
inner ring, dimersionless
ratio of inner diameter of bearing outer

ring to bearing outer ring,

AMCP 706-100.

16-2

FASTENERS
F

Fasteners are available in many ty;eu and

however, futeners for use in the design suid consttuction of aerospace mechanical systems hall be selected
in accordance with MIL-STD-3I15. Generally,

fasteners can be classified as either threaded or non-

N
N,

dimensionless
- ratio of bearing outer diamctcr to the
housing outer diameter, dimensionless
- rotational specd, rpm
- peed imposed on bearing for fraction of

threaded, and furthnr as either reusable or nonreusable. Threaded fasteners indude screws, bolts,
and related hardware such as nuts and washers. Nonthreaded fasteners include rivets, pins, quick-relent
fasteners, rctaining rings, clamps, and grommets.

N1

- rotational speed at which the capacity or

iO-LZ

M4

t;mp r

P,
P,

SF
T
t
I
V
X
Y

equivalent radial load is determined, rpm

equivalent radial load. lb

- equivalent steady ioad, lb

load imposed on bearing for fraction of

RKK

ILU IA5NERS

16-2.2.1 Screws
MIL-HDBK-5 c.ontains allowable design loads for

all structural screws. InstallatiQn of structural screws

should be performed in accordance with Chapter 4,

time i, lb
prorated load fcr speed N,, lb
steady load, lb
vibratory load, lb
radial load, lb

AFSC DR 1-2. Screws should be torqued to the

maximum practicable preload, compatible with the
applicable torquing method.
Screw threads for structural fasteners should conform to MIL-S-7742 or MIL.S-S879. MIL-S-"879

shape factor, dimensionless

thrust load, lb
laminate thickness, in.
- fraction of time, dimensionlcss
- rotation factor, dimensionless
radial factor, dimensionless
- thrust factor, dimensionless

threads ;hall be u-ed on all materials wi.h a minimum

ultimatc tensile strength in excess of 150 ksi or with a
minimum hardness greater than Rockwell C32 or
equivadent. These threads also shall be used in
applications where the operational temperatures will
exceed 450F; in applications that require the consideration of fatigue strength; for all bolts and screws

P,
P,
R

rnm

16-1

of 0.164-in. diameter and larger: for high-temperature internal threads in excess of 900(F; and for
threaded holes (other than nuts). MIL-S-7742
thruads, both internal and external, may be used for
fasteners smaller than 0.164 in. diameter, and for
electrical connectors.
Screws used on helicopters should2 be restricted to
two types of screw heads: pan or countersunk. In
countersunk applications. a head angle of 100 deg
shuld be used wherever ponibk; otherwise, a head
angle of 82 del should be used. Self-tapping screws
should not be used in the primary structure. They
may be employed, primarily in nonstructural
applications, when the use of bolts or rivets is not
practical. The installation and usage of tapping
screw s
comply with the requirements ef MS
337/49.
Scrw normally are muable, and are replaced
only wben either the recess in the head or the threads
have been damaged.

Bolts normally are reusable, being replaced only

when the head or the thread has been darmrged
diring removal or replacement.

16-L..
PA"
The installation or removtl of bolts normally is a
two-han4ed operation. Therefore. it is slower and
more diffaclt than is an assembly using screws.
Ano-ther disadvantage is the many loose parts - such
as nuts, washers, and cotter pins - rcquired in conjunction with this type ol installation. Special care
must bt taken that parts are noi dropped, later to
find their way into the engine inlet or tojam a moving
ameably.
In general, bolts should be no lorger than
neceary. When tightened, the bolt should extend at
least two threads beyond the nut. Hexagoraal head
be
thrads
and left-hand
boltm are preferred,
Self-locking
boltsshould
may be
aoiedwhen
possible.

vantage over nonfixed in that assembly and repair

become one-handed operations.
Nonfixed nuts preferably should be o" the
hexagonal-head type. Wing or knurled nuts, which
require no tools, Adll be used only for low-tension,
nonstructural app!ications; wing nuts are the easicr to
install. Nonfixed nuts, unless safetied, must net be
used where fallen nuts can damage equipment. Sclfwrenching nuts may be used in areas where insufficient space is provided for maintenance and use of
tools. Self-sealing ruts are required for fastening
equipment to fluid tanks in order to prevent leakage.
Nuts are reusable urtil the threads, or, when apphiprovisions, arc damaged during
locking
cable, theand
removal
reinstallation.

used in tapped holes when one surface is inaccessible,

or when there is a requirement that one surface be
smooth, and when temperatures do not exceed
250"F. Bolts are more readily replaceable than studs.
Allowable design bolt loads should comply with
MIL-HDDK-d.
Installation and preload toqtnz
requirements are described in Chapter 4, AFSC DH

16-2.2,4 Washers
In general, washers are used under nuts to prevent
injury to surfaces upon tightening the fastener, and to
reduce the stress on the joint by increasing the
bearing am&. Spacer washers may be required in
order to prevent loatding of bolt threads in bearing.

1-2. Specifications covering approved standard bolts

ar includod in MIL-STD-1515.

The imtended use and the temperature limitation

shouii be considered when choosing a washer.

Bolts.dl
be installed .n such a way as to minimize
the possibility of ics of ihe bolt due to los of the
out. In control eystems, and other applications
(primaMily in dynamic system:a) where lows of a bolt
could cause a catastropbic 'ailurt, self-retaining bolts
&W be ured, or trio independent means of locking or
iafetying Adl be required. Bolts shall be installed
with heacds forward or uppermost, taking into consideration ease of m-intenance and replaceability.

Washers shadl be selected in accordance with MILSiD)-1515. Dissimilar metals should not be used
toSether (e.g., steel washer with aluminum bolt) when
normal methods of protection against corr.sion.
such as primer, may be damaged during ile ass.-mbly
of the joint.
Lock washers can be used to prevent rotation of
the bolt and nut in nonstructural applications, but
are not preferred. Preload-indicating washers may be

16-2-2.3 Nuts
Nuts can be subdivided' into such general
categories as locking or nonleckang, and fixed or
nonfixed. Nuts shall be selected in accordance with
MIL-STD-1515.
Self-locking nuts can be used independentiy or in
conjunction with such devices as cotter pins, safety
wiring, lock washers, locking compound, or selflocking bolts, as a mear's of keeping the nut tight on
the bolt. Self-locking nuts should meet the requiremerits of MIL-N-25027 and hall be subject to the
design and usage limitations of MS 33588.
Fixed nuts are affixed rigidly to the helicopter
chassis by riveting, welding, clinching, or staking;
and are used specifically in ca.et where the thinness
of the metal prohibits tapping, or where limited space
results in inaccessibility. Fixed nuts also have an ad-

16-2

t2~~~
JJ
I

w--

AMCP 7106-202

sed to pgag bolt preloads, but must be replaced each

time the bolt or nut is reinstalled.

0tion

can bx locked safely with castellated or uclf-ocking

nists.
Spring pins should conform to MS 16562, and they
may be used within the design limitations givcn in
MS 33547.
The use of swagod, collar-headed straight pins
should conform to MIS 23420, and that of flathead
pins to MS 20392. The standards for poeitive-locking,
quick.1VleasU pins are given in MS 17984 through
17990.

16-2.3 NONCHREADED FASTENERS

16-2.3.1 Rlvets
Allowable design loads for rivets are given in MILHDBK-5. Solid rivetsof specific type= and materials
arc covered by MS 20426. MS 20427, M-3 20470, MS
20613, and MS 20615. Additional rivet standards,
applicable to solid, tubulsir, and blind rivrts (both
struclural and nonstructural) are listtd in Chapter 4, 1-..
mc-e~s atmr
mc-~s athr
1-3
AF2DH 1-2.AF_,Quick
release fasteners arc classified as rotaryRivets are a penranent type of fastener: they must
operated, lever-activated, slide action, or pushbe destroyed in the process of their removal, and
button.
often they cannot be replaced by another of the same
Te ye ffseesaeMtvl ayadfs
size. Therefore, rivets shall wtr be used in any applima
hs ye ffatnr r 'luvl ayadfs
touse, do not always require special tooling, and are
where disassembly is expected to bc nectuary
durigifeof
th nomal
te hicopcr.recommended for securing plug-in components.
Rivets shall be used in applications where they ar
rlalon wisth-e
sallo are po~nns ari cove rsQp"k
subjected primarily to shear. To prevent ripping, the
rlaefsear loaekona olo ae
fsees
diameters of ilhe heads of countersunk rivets shall be
Specific requirementz for low-strength, quicklrethnthe thickness of the thinnest of the pieces
release panel fasteners ame given in MIL-F-5591. The
ladrthcfastn.Rqieetfo onebkga;
thcyfasen.
equremets or cuntrbiningar~
disadvantages of these fasteners are that their holding
contained 'n Chapter 4, AFSC DH 1-2.
power is limited and many typos cannot be used
In a cas where it is impossible or impracticable to
reah
f te
t. jintto
bck
ucksold rvet, bind
whe~re a inico"u star~act is rcR~urcd. T~hzir advantage
mach
~ on~ obc~ oidrvtbid
~
~ ~ i"
i bsim
that theyofa
canohe
and released easilywih
ihu
omltaunadnw1l
cbe attached
rivets may be used. Blind rivets may be structural or
ihu
~u.l
n
un
tfoncomls.
maiu
acis
generally
expansion
Mechanical
nonstructural.
shaped spindle through the hollow center of the rivet,
Standards for stj'nCturs! and nonstructural blind
rivets are given in MIL-STD-15 15.
In installation of rivets, the distance from the
center of the rivet hole ta the edge of the sheet
dotrn~ds largely upot. the atitn's analysis of the joint.
Rivets shall be lo~atad so that the edge distance isnot
less than 1.5 times the rivet shank diameter, or
than 2.5 times the rivet shank diameter on a
lap joint. The design allowable load data fof cou~ntersunk joints in MIL-HDDK-5 is based upon an edge
distance of two diameters. If lesser edge distanc'is rAre
used, the allowatble loads shall be subeantiatod by
test data. The bead angle of countersunk rivets shall
be 100 +ldisg.

Fgreater

W62.3.2 Phus
In tie rods and on secondary controls that ame tot
sub;-xted to continuous operation, clevis pins may be
tused. In these usagns, the reversal of stresses aod 'he
chances of loosening are slight. Clevis nins shall not

16-2.3A Turnbekle &Wd Tem~absi

In helicopter applicatio'w. turnbackles are used
primariy in controi cabit uz5ripsadons, afid their uSO
should be in accordance with the system speciracatior.
for the specific helicopter me "d. In most cases, the
desired end fitting (except a threaded tend fitting) is
swaged onto the cable. Swinging is discussed in par.
17-4.
Turnbuckle terminals may be of either fork, eyt, or
swaged configurati-an. Following installation and
adjustment of cable tension, turnbuckles must be
saifeid to prevent loss of tension. MIL-T.5685
describes one type of turnbuckle for aircraft application, while a positive-safetying type of turnbuckle is
described by MIL-T-8178. General-purpose turnbuckle bodies (MS 27954) sAll be safety-wired in ac-

pins should be used in all permanent connectiins where the absence of play is easentiai. They

bodies (MS 21251) shill be locked in accordance

with MS 33736.

~) be used wh~w tight joints are required.

RDTaper

codic with NIS17731i(cutrsuak)

fastners MS
177c ,po trudnghade
MS
(cuntedsnk
y be73
and MSutua
17732,fastenrsd.
ed.myb ue ssrcua
nelftnes

cardance witft MS 33591. Clip-lock turnbuckle

EW-

164M. R@11010111 Rhgs

Rutaining rings or snap ring s wected in accot4wn= with MI~L-STD-1515 -- may be used to retain
be6,ot nasu and. in limited applications, to retain pbia at boklt Tb. application of retaining rings
to beanring and sesh is discussed further in par. 1637~
Beti ektarnul and iptarnus retining rings are
"ailable as Isilmed or reduced cross section types.
tye a a lower load
Tb. radncsd cra os ka 4Wic
capability and, therefore. is used only in locations
w0hor the land is not critical and whore the retining
rim is not required to maintain a tight installation.
Wben a tapered cross section retaining ring isused to
mainatin a tight joint, both the location and the
wid~h of the snap ring groove are critical.
7hU externaW ring is installed in an approprittely
located proovu in the shaft or pin. Internal retaining
rings require that a groove be cut in the housing bore.
The primary types and confignrations of external
and internal retaining rings am' described in MIL5113-1515. Extmral retaining rings used as primary
fastcenr saha'be safety-wired in accordance with MS
33540..

k.~A~hcuopter

mh*

tM18

els, or other structure through which they must run.

Grommets are available in a variety of materials,
misking it possible to select the correct material for
vach application. Grommiets are wovered by MIl.-G3036,4-6491, -17594, ane6 -22329.

~~1

16-3 BEARINGS
16-3.1 CF.NERAL
Design and selction of bearings for helicopter appiications demand the consideration of several factors; life requirements, loads and 9poeds imposed
upon the bearing, available space envelope, and environmentl conditions.
D~etermination of the allowable space envelope
iclystef'tsepnthdsgnoabarg
ss~.Mxmmadmnmmvle hudb
obtained for the outer diameter and width, together
with the preferred values within these malges.
Toe nest, and most signlf-cart, dcaign considersLion is the required operating life of the bearing. e
.. *an

16436 Clamp and Greaswitl

Clamps should be used for holding wires, tubing.
or boome that are to be removed frequently. Hinge
clamps are preferred for mounting tubing or wiring
on the face of a pane!. thus facilitating maintenance
by suppoiting the weight of the tubing or wiring. For
hlag, plug-in assetbliea, positive-locking clamp~s
%%muId be used.
Grommets hAll be used whe-ever necessary to
prjotect cables, tubes, hose. aud wiring from chafing
mmaraq~9
-

opened tlvisb a specific attion on the Paon of the

user. is obtAined even before fte nutis attached to the
bolt. Vibration, fot examnple, k buot sufficiet force to
allow this type of fastener to fall free.
Self-reaining fasteners of the impedaa - type arm
coverod its MIL-343030, and selt-retaining. potitivelocking bolts ire described in MIL-B-23964.

1143.7 Suif-re~uling Fastener

Self-retsining fasteners are used as a safety lock in
area where a serious hazard would exist shic-uld a
bolt be lost, or sl: ,uli a joint be broken following
loss or failure of the threaded connection. Their use
in holico"tr is applicable particularly to control
systems and dynamic systems.
Self-retaning fasteners are not to be confused with
self-locking bolts. When the self-retaining fastentr is
hnwteiW into the holes of two sterfaces to be joined,
nechalical safetying preventi' it from being removed
reaily. Thus, a semnipermainent joint, which can be

*L.

Pi

component service life, the time between overhauls

(TBO), and the love', of reliability diat must be main taimed Because buraing failures, and, hence, bearing
lives, follow a derinihe statistical distribution, beoring
lives are calcullatad for a given survival rate. The
bea~ring design life usuAlly is given in tern~s of B-10
lifc, which represenits the~ operating time that will be
exceeded by 90% o( the bearings under given conditions of load and speed. In bholoptef applications,
critical bearings are designed for R 3000-hr minimum
life, with the aciual value depending upon the
c
sysem peincation requirements. In
determining the required B-10 life, the designer must
realize thut the equations ased for life calculations are
based largely on data from fatigue tests of bearings
run under controlled and nearly ideal conditions.
Thes equations do not take into account such
adverse operating conditions as severe thernial or
contaminating enirironmeirts, lubricant deterioration,
or shaft misalignment. Where the potential for such
conditions exists, the use of a higher calculpted
bearing life ix appropriate.
The loads and speed imposed upon a bearing are
major considerations in determining the type and size
of bearing to be used. Purely radial load- may bc
carnied by cylindrica roller bearings. Combined
radlial and thrust loads require the use of ball
bearings or tapered or spherical roller bearings, each
of which may be used either alone or in combination
with cylindrical roller bearings. For ipplicat ions in

uf

AMC" 70O-202
which only thrus lods are pramet. Vpecial thrust
bearing geometry (Rfts. I and 2). When comparing
hearings are available in both bill and roller types.
cataog capacities q,' oted by differ-ent manufPcturers,
For high-speed applications, ball bearings or cylinthe designe~r must make acrtain that each capacity is
drical roller bearings should be given first considerradefined similarly in terms of life and upwd. Load
tion sin= their speed capabilitiks are sigfirmva-ty
ratings based upon lives and speeda other th~an 50) hir
greater than thai. of tapered or sphericel roller
and 33-1/3 rpm can be converted to basic dynamic
bearings. Where the motion between two maubern a
capacity C by:
oscillatory rather than rotairy, consideration should
I
be given to sliding spherical or jout nal bearings or to
C .. C, kiy
,lb
(16-3)
laminated clastcrtneric bearings.\
667
Environmental conditions that must be considered
where
include oly.rmting temperature possibility of conC, - load rating for life L, and speed N1, lb
mainination, and corrosive atmosphere. Knowledge or
LI-life, hr
the operating temperatures to be encountered will aid
in the definition of the bearing materials to be used.
N,
- speed, rpm
Bearing steels usually cam be stabilized thermally for
Thr equivalent radial load P is definati as that
a particular rangi of opeirsting temnperatures. Enradial toad that yields a bearing life equal vo the life
vironments that can cause contamination or corroresulting from the combination of radial and thrust
sion may require that special sealing devices be incorloads actually imposed upon the bearing. Itis
porated into the bearing. Operation in highily corcalculated by the re~lation:
rosivs. atmosphercs may require the use of corrosion-PX
R Y
b(64
b(64
P-XR+Y
resistant bearing steels.
%.mce the design requirements are defined and the
where
possible bearing configuraitions selected, the desither
R - radial load, lb
sbould perform the necessary ba~ring life calculaT - thrust load, lb
tons. For rotating. rolling-element bearings, the
A'. Y - radial and thrust factors, repectively,I.
r.
V
- rotation factor, dimenr.ioqlas
-

1666
N

((i
\P)

hr

(1&~ 1)

orRcfs.
L'10

V=
P]

IcV
rev

(1-)

where
L,0 = 16- 10 life, hir
L,= B-10 life, revolutions
C =basic dynamic capacity, lb
P
-equivalent radial load, lb
N - rotational speed, rpm
e
- life exponent, 3for ball bearings and 10/3

The radial and thrust factors X and Y Arm based

upon internal bettring geometry and are given in
If
I and 2.The rotation factor Yis equal to I kO
teinner ring of the bearing is rotating with raspect
to ht radial load, and 1.2 if the outer ving isrotating
with respect to the radial load.
In most helicopter applications, tie loads ind
speeds vary over a predictable spectrum. In such instances, the equivalent radial load P can be expressed
as a prorated load for a given speed P,., and is
detei mined by:
[le
-

[1t'

for roller bearings

The basic dynamic capacity C is defineod as the
radial load that a btaring will endure for a B-10 lift of
one million revolutions of the inner ring, with the
outer ring stationary. This capacity cmn be defined
equivalently as the radial load that will yield a B-10
life of5W hrat a shaft %peedof 33-1/3 rpm. The basic
cynamic capacities of their standard bearings are
available from the bearing manufacturers. For new
designs, the Anti-Friction Dearing Manufacturers
Assocation (AFBMA) has established procedures
for calculating the capacity based upon internal

lb (16-5)

',

1N,]

where
-N

N,
Pi
N
1i,

prorated load for speed N, , lb

speed at which the equivalent
radial loa is determiped, rpm
load imposed on bearing for fraction of
time 1j, lb
speed imposed or.bearing for fraction of'
time t,. rpm
fraction cf time, dimensionless (the sum of
fractions must be exactly D~

-rotational

16-5

--

--

-1

.-

-.--

An 4ternate method of calculation Isto dete.'tnine

the bearing life for each condition of foad and speed
by using Eq. 16-1, and then to calculate a total
beating, life br.
-.

hr(14
r(16

~the

where
I. total bearing life, hr
calculated boaring life a. load
Pi and speed N1, hr
Bearing life at high speed mauy be reduced
s4nifltandly by the effect of centtiupi loads imponed by the rolling clenients agsi~at the outtr rAXe.
Tl.. calculation of the internall bernfiatl
irses and
bearing life is a lengthy procedure that is covertd
adequately in Ref. 3.However, for the vsat majority
of applications, the centrifugal effects can be.
nqleacted. and. thetv~ore, Eqs. 16.1 through 16-6 arm
valid. The effect of centrilfvgal force, howevcr, must
be taken hato aceouit in the came of hither rotational
speeds. such ia thosa found in some engine reduction
gearbox bearings.
Usually, the life of a particular bearing can be inamurna by a signifum-Ai factor Pimply by using
Waring materials that offpr greater uniformnity and
better fatigue life 1taaa doe~s w adard steel. Table 16-1
shows approximate life adju.amcnt factors for seveal
superior bearing steels. Conizult Ref. 13 for a camples. discussion of hwaring life. The calculated IWlO
hi~e should be multiplied by theme factors in order to
efrom
determine the actual 0-10life.to be expwW
L,

IT

In rtany helicopter bearing applications, the load

imposed upon Use bearing is vibratory or is a camnbination of steady and vL-'rato?-y loa&. Such conditions of iotdlmg may b-6 converted to an equivalent
steady load for the PU,'p06t of bearing lift

cak-ulations. For conditions in which the steady load

is xreaster than the amplitude of the vibratory load,
method Illustrated in Fig. 16-11is used. The ratio

of vibratory to mteady load is calculated, and the corrvspc,.idin1 rnonreverulng load factor K~from Fig. W6
I isntultiplieri by the *Aual steady load to yield the
equivalent steady load. A similar procedure is used
for the canc of a reversing load condition (amplitude
of the vibratory load greater than the steady load).
nTh. reversing toad factor K, from Fig. i6-2 then is
mur-Aplied by the imposed vibratory load to yield the
equivalet steady load used in the life calculation.
Antiffiction bearings are manufactired in various
tolcrance ranges or classe*4.precision. These class=s
hi~vc been standardized by the Annular Bearing

1.4

-r

___-

(I
T

Peq

JLI

.9Il

STAYLD/
STVEBADY LOAD
LOAD

-EQUIVA.LENT4

used as the basisfo the AFUMA ratings, vacuumZ

~~depomd material now iscos~idered to be the stanl~~
ard stee throughout the bearing industry.
TAbLE 16-1. UFI FACTORS FOR1.
ANTIFRICTION REAP-ING MATERIALS

en

Ks Ps

MATERIALLIFE FACTOR
TEALBEARINGS
SAE 52100 A!R MELT STE EL
SAE 52100 VACLUM-OEGASSED
STEFL
SAE 52100 CIV
M-50CVN
-

BLEARIG

I
3

1
2

3
-

.0_

0A
0.6
0.8
Pv/Ps, dimensionless
Fgr 6I
qevlu tnyLa o
IM1-.EpaaStmyLdfo
0

0.2

Cembluutlem of Soeay own Vibratory

Lead (Nou~resenlg)

1.0

TABLE 16-2. COST VS TOLERANCIE CLASS

FOR ANTIFRIMrON BEARINGS
G~RADE JCOST FACTOR

BEA41NG TYP~E
___

12-

BALL

1_

13
Ps - STEADY LOiAD
Pv- VIBRATORY' LOAD
Pq- EQUIVALENT LOAD

3
5

1.5

73.2

RLE
-(CYLINDRICAL AND SP~KRICAL)

____

5S
41

(TAPERED)

_____ROLLER

21
0

~101

00

Peq

-Kv~v

0.8iC.5tion,
0.2
0.4

"P..

0.6

0.8

1.0

the mating surfk"s. Unless the intarferece fit

betwwr- 'he maiting m besis greater thn zer undier au operating conditions, the bearing ring that
rotates with respect to the load will amep. In addilighter prcs fits often ame secfe for the nonin order to preclude amoepng due to
rotatlug
iamtarin~g irto.I

5
Is

W IDIWUI

162. St~y ~adfordepedeat upon radial loWd. support stiffness, suarface

Fl~r
~l~ake
MW oprtn temperatute. ftef. 4 give a
Figre
Eqlvaeu
6.2 StadyLe fin~ish,
nthad of calm~ladqn the required shaft fit that MWnCoinlmatea
O ~4Od7 ad V~etOY
ai
theseulq
acton. HoWVor, this analysis assumes
Loads~dd
that the shaft is solid, while amos helicopter powir
EngieengComitee
(lEC
ani tic Roler
train applications use hollow shafts. A goo4 up.
Bearing Engineering Committee (RBEC), and are
proximation of the required fit for hollow stee shafts
de~ignated ABEC-1. -3. -5. -7, and -9, for ball
as compared to solid shafts is given by:
boarings; RDEC-1 and -5 for cylindrical and spherical
refler belnijsand Claass4,2,3,O0.andO00for taptred
Hollow Shafk Fit
At
X
1
(;6.7)
Sldha Ft*d-less
roller bearings. The n'zmericul symbols are listed in
uI~~~~IpSli
piii
y
Shafti Fitai
I + K2

~diameter, width, radial and side runout, and also are

'p.

.Interference

indicative of overall bearing quaality. The use of the

higher precision bearing gradcs represents a substantial increase in cost. For most heicopter applications,
the. middle gradvo - designated ABEC-3 or -5, or
Class 2 - should receive first consideration. Only in
those case requiring high-speed operstion, extremely
precise rhaft location. low nanout. or high reliability
should ABEC-7 or -9. and Clan 3.,0.or 00grades be
chosen. The increased costs resulting from the use of
the higher-precition bearings an; presz-ted ain Table
16-2,
fits arc used between the tmaonag anc
the sWsf o~r housing in order to prevent creeping of
th a bearing r ings anid subsequent frettint arW w*Lr~r

.-

~16-7

whm
+

I -

2,I+M

d'es(68
(lu)

+ M22
Kj

d'kes (16-9)

ratio ofshIaftinternaldliameter to bearltg bome dlienesionlusa

P42 -ratio of boarlugbore toouter diamuter of
inner ring, dimensionless
Sundard bearings are manulictured to provide a
small internal ruinning cimearce when mounted with
M,

the fits recomrmended in the manufacturer's catalog.

Wises beavie,- rats (leas clearance, or greater interfmrnacs) an n-Aded to prevent creeping, a bearing
with increased inteirnal clearance must be used in
ord.' to avoid pruloadin3 the bearing radially. The
change in inmernl clearance due to interference rats
for both ball and ioller bearings can be calculated for
astel Aialls or housings by the following equations:
dk5

/~IC
Shaft Fit
UJAX 1 + K2)

tAlC
Housing Ffit

M3(Kj - 1)
K?
3 + K4

(16-10)

des(1-l

wheat Rqj, Kj:, MI. and Ml2 are as previouIsly defined,

and tAlC - change in interior clearance. dimensionluas, and:
I

3'radial
2
.

K3
-

dOess

(16-12)

I +M!

U 24

wba-eguided
ratio of inner diamewe of bearing outer
ring to beaiing outer diameter,
dimensionless
Ml
ratio
ofbecarins outer diameter to *he
4
housing outer diameter, dimensionless
The changes in internal clearance due to shaft and
housing fits are added. The lowest range of initial
clearances *.L61t will give a positive running clearance
M3~

th.-I

Additional information on the selection, design,

and installation of both rolling elemenrt and sliding
bearings can be found in Ref. 5.
Dewings subjected to high loads or speeds must be
provided with sufficient quantities of lubricant to
mainta~n a satisfactory heat balance and avoid theymal damage to the contact surface4. Grease lubrication or splash-type oil lubriuation is satisractory for
bearings operatirg it moderate speeds in areas where
the heat rejection charactoristics of the bearing
housing are favorable. For higher speeds - or in
potetially high-temperature areas - jet, splash, or
ariar oil lubfication usually is necessary, often with
the incorpoation of an oil cooler.
For heavy loads, the use of high-viscosity
lubricants. or of lubriants formulated with extreme
presusre additives, often is necessary. High-temperatunt applications, such as in engines or in high-speed
164

e~ngn redu.-tion gearboxes, may require the use of

syqtheticobase lubricantxz of the eater type. Thene synthetic lubricants also provide the advantage of good
low-temperature performance. The characteristics of
many types of applicable lubricants, as well as
descriptions of lubrication systems. are given in Ref.
6.

16-3.2 BALL BEARINGS

T1he type of bearing 'float widely used in aircraft
applicationis is the ball Learing. Ball bearings can be
classified in three categories: tadial, angular contact,A
and thrust.
16-3.2.1 Radial Ball Bearings
The most common configuratioia isthe single-row,
deep-rroove ball bearing. Ut iscapable of supporting
both radial loads and light thrust loads in either
direction while operating at high speeds. While most
ball bearings are produced to ABEC-l toleiance&, higher pr mcision beorings, such as ABEC-3, -5,
-7, or .-9, are available foi very high-speed
applications in those areas where shaft location and
rtn~nitt sire citical, The hearino- in th~e Uniher trades
usually contatin better-quality retainers, typically of
machined bronze. In addition, these retainers are
by on~e of the bearing raca, rather than beir4g
positioned by the balis., thus further improving the
high-speed performanice of the bearings. Prelubricated radial ball exrings equipped with shields
or seals are available for grease- lubricated
applications.
Because the radial ball bearing is assembled hy
radially displecing the inner and outer rings and then
packing the balls into the resulting annular space, the
num-b*t*-l*Jr o~f

b!-.

in

I--in*.

;cH--^.

number of balls in tbe bearing, and hence the load

capacity, can be increased by the use of a filling
notch, a counterbored inner or outer ring, a circumferentially split inner or outer ring, or a fractured outcr ring. These features yield bearings having
calculated capacities that are substantially greater
than those of normal, deep-groove bearings of the
same size. However, each of these tochniques has its
limitations. A filling notch limits the ability of a
bearing to support thrust loads, bectause the balls
contact the notch. Counterboring a bearing ring
results in a beating that can support thrust loads only
in one di- ".ion; therefore, such bearings generally
are used in pairs (see par. 16-3.2.2). Bearings with a
circumnferentially split ring should be used only in applications having a thrust load sufficient to prevent
the balls from riding on the split. Lastly, bearings
with afractured outer ring should aot be used to sup-

..

_AMCP

port thrust load since this type of loading tends to

spread the outer ring apart at the fracture.
Double-row bearings are available for applications
requiring higher radial-load capacity within a limited
space envelope. Two rows of balls are held between
singe-piece, double-grooved inner and outer rings,
This configuration provides approximately a 50% increase in radial load capacity over the single-row
bearing, and it available in both deep-gi oove and
maximum-capacity types.
For applictions where migalignment is a factor,
self-aligning bearings are available in two types. In
one type, the outer race is ground as a spherical surface, yielding a standard space envelope, but with
reduced capacity. The other type employs a separate
spherical outer ring While the capacity of this design
is not reduced significantly, it has a larger outside
diameter for a given basic size.
16-3.2.2 Angular Contact Bearings
Angular contact bearings provide increased radial
: and
thrust capacity, but limit the supportable thrust
load to only one direction. In this type of bearing,
one.
oi shouider of the outer ring is removed ipmost
Sompletely. The remaining small shouider serves to
2 copleely.Theremanin smll souaer srve to
hold the bearing together, but cannot support thrust
loads. The bearing is ass ntbled by heating the cuter
ring and then installing the inner ring, balls, and
retainer as a preassembled unit. This construction
permits the use of a maximum ball complement and a
one-piece, machined retainer, thus yielding both high
capacity and good high-speed capability.
Angular contact bearings can be made with a wide
range of contact angles. As the contact angle increases, thrust load capacity increases and radial load
capacity decreases. At high speeds, a bearing having a
high contact angle will experience a large amount of
ball spinning, with resultant heat generation. Therefore, for high-speed angular contact ball bearings, the

706202

u shown in Fig. 16-3(A), the beating set is known as

a duplaxed pair mounted back-to-back with a
preload equal to the gage load. Higher preloada are
used to ensure that the nonthrust-carrying bearing
does not become unloaded completely, which car.
result in Dall skidding. Back-to-back duplex mountings are capable of carrying combined radial and
thrust loads', reversing thrust loads, and moment
loading. They provide a rigid mount for the shaft
because the lines of contact intersect the bearing axis
outside the bearing envelope. They also providle
precise location of the shaft since all intern&:
looseness is removed.
If a pair of angular contact bearings is mounted
with the r.onthrust faces of their outer rings together,
as shown in Fig. 16-3(n), the bearing set is known as
a duplexed pair mounted face-to-face. This type of
mounting also can take combined radial and thrust
loads. along with reversing thrust loads. It doen not
provide the rigidity and moment-carrying ability of
mounting, but will tolerate small
back-to-back
the
amounts
of misalignment.
ali
If a pair of angular contact bearings is mounted
with the outer-rinE thrust face of one bearing against
the nonthrust face of the outer ring u" the othr-c
bearing, the bearing set is known as a tandem pair, as
bearint
i.
C
T his type o mottn
is
g
.

(A) BACK-TO-BACK

contact angle should be kept as low as possible.

For appli.'ations in which thrust loads must be

carried
in both directions, angular contact bearings
,;

(B) FACE-TO-FACE

often are mounted in duplexed pairs. When a pair of

these bfarings is mounted with like faces together,

they become preloaded. Two bearings are preloaded

"ifa0l of their internal looseness is removed when their
inner &rnd outer rings are clamped together. Preload
usually is built into a ball bearing by grinding the
outer-ring thrust face flush with the inner ring while
the bearing is loa4ed axially with a given gage load.
The thrust face ot the outer ring is marked with an
identifying symbol.
When two such angular contact bearings afe
"mounted with their outer-ring thrust fam togethei,

(C) TANDEM
Figure 16-3. Mountag of Duplexed Ball Bearinp
16-9

".. .._ , .,

. ...

....

...

. . . ...

. .. ... . ............

. --

,-

..

.. ..... . ..

.. ..

.... ..... . ..

..

A!P!
usd to carry havy thrust loads in one dirction, with
the bearings shering the load equally. However,
tuwd=m mounting doc not remove all of the imnatl
loaenesa from the beanngs, and, therefore, pemits
somse $bat float.
6.3.23 lus
Ball Deariap
Thrust bail bearings arn available for applicatioms
in which pure thrust loads are to he supported at
modewate speeds. These bearings afford a very high
thram capacity, but provide no radial support for the
shaft. Thrust ball bearings are quite linmited in speed
capability due to spinning in the ball-to-race contacts, and they also are sensitive to misalignment.
emuse even small amutunts of misalignment can
Ssidt in h4,h internal contact stresses, a high degree
of -'pendicularity must be maintained between the
b"eirces and the axis of the shaft.
Thrust ball bearings are made for applications
requiring thrust-supporting capabilities in one or two
"dlaw.tions. The various configurations available are
shown in such catalogs of manufacturers as Ref. 7.

rollers running between two flanges on either the innet or the outer ring. In some casem, one or two additional shoulders are used in order to limit axial motion and to allow the bearing to support light thrust
loads. Such configurations are known as locating
types of bearings and are designated as one- or twodirectional, depending upon whether one or two
sioulders are used. One-directional locating bearings
have separable rings, and incorporate a single
shoulder to prevent axial movement of the shaft in
one direction. Two-directional locating bearings usc
two race shoulderi. to provide shaft location and light
thrust load capability ;n both axial directions.
Locating roller bearings have design capabilities
similar to those for non-locatin3 bearings, except for
a slightly lower limiting speed due to sliding of the
roller ends on the face of the shoulder.
Cylindrical rolli r bearings afford the highest speed
capabilities of -ll roller bearing types. in utilizing
these capabilitiew, the designer must be aware of the
special problems ussociated with high-speed operation. Operation at very high speeds, usually while
carrying rather low radial loads, can result in roller
I

.A

1*

twll

&V
.

WI
...

""I

failure. In order to prvent skidding, several tech-

16-33 ROLLER BEARINGS

iques can be employed. The simplest and moat

Roller bearings are used most frequently in appliinsure that a lasispeet
radial load sufcations requiring higlh load capacity for a gliven spactemitireliable method is tooligcnac
is prlwent.
always
contact
rolling
maintain
to
fiient
include
bearings
roller
types ofand
various
envelope.
Becatuse this is not always possible, particularly when
roller contapered
spherical,
needle,
cylindrica!,The
a
havee
rolling
the only load imposed upon the shaft is torque,
figurrtios. Nneedle rolspr bearinc
9irtint length-to-diameter rao o significantly greater
specialized design features - such as reduced internal clearance, out-of-round outer races, or the incorporation of two or more preloaded hollow roller the that encountered in typical cylindrical roller
rollng o
ethelp maitai
introd
havben
or
concave
use
bearings
roller
Spherical
bearings.
have been introduced to help maintain rolling contact
co'av rolling eleumet in order to permit operation
withe rolaligngeements ieen
odersfto
herthop
iong.
and
a constant retainer speed. However, bearings inhousing.
uprigschearsuuayrqueexniv
with misalignment between the shaft pand the
tiuany require extensive
dlpmrating such features
Bath spherical and tapeied roller bearings can suptesting.
and
development
limiting
Their
loads
thrust of
and those
radial
combined
port
With high-speed roller bearings, in which the
cylindrical roller
than
are lower
speeds
sliding
of
end
rollers n
retainer is guided by a shoulder on the outer ring, the
bearines aremloweruthanste
bn
becau of sliding between the rollers and
radial growth of the retainer due to increased
temperature must be considered. In order to avoid inthe guiding ribs.
1.3.1

CytmiJ Refer B

Cyindrical roller bearings are used typically in

applications in which a purely radial load is to be
upportWd. In moat cases, the rollers are crowned in
order to prevent end loading and to compensate for
mull amounts of misalignment.
Cylindrical roller bearings are manufactured in a
tandard grade designated RBEC-I for moat commereial applications. Precision-grade RBEC-5
beatinso are used for critical helicopter applications
wher high-speed capabilities, and very precisc location and aligment of the shaft are essential.
Cylindrical roller bearinp are constructed with the

16-10

~terference between the retainer and the outer ring, the

initial retainer clearance must be large enough to insure a running clearance at the maximum operating
temperature of the beain$.
16-3.3.2 Needle Bearings
Needle bearings conprise a special class of cylindrical roller bearings in which the rolling elements are
long in relation to their diameter. Such a design has
the advantage of a very high load capacity for a given
radial section. Needle bearings are manufactured in
both full-complement and retainer types. The fullcomplement types provide high radial capacity since

,E,

the maximum number of rolling eAemn-ts is ued.

Retainer types sacrifice some load capacity, but have
the highest speed capabilities of any of the needle
bearing types due to the roller guidance and spacing
provided by the retainer. Because of the high lengthto-diameter ratio of the rollers, these bearings are
susceptible to roller skewing and roller end loading,
Therefore, they aft limited to lower speeds than are
standard cylindrical roller bearings. Limiting speeds,
as well as load capacities for the various types of needie bearings, art given in such manufacturr's
catalogs as Ref. 8.
Needle roller bearings arm produced in several configurations for different applications. The most cornmon type is the drawn-cup bearing, which consists of
a drawn, case-hardened cup surrounding hardened
and ground rollers. The cup acts as the bearing outer
race and incorporates a lip at each end to provide
roller retention. The shaft, when properly hardened
and finished. may serve as the inner race, or a
separate inner race may be provided. Drawn-cup
bearings are manufactured in both full-complement
and
retainer l types.... ,,bh,., ....
"--..i...
_. -_ nmn..le
"',

row spherical bearings can cry high radial loads

while supporting only very light thrust loads.
Double-row spherical boarings also have high radial
load capacities and can support thrust loads much
higher than thove permitted by single-rov designs. In
addition, double-row bearings can be made with
asymmetric rollem, which reduce the roller skewin
tendency. and thus permit the beaing to ofrate et
higher speeds. Speed limitations and load capaities
for typical spherical roller bearings we preeted in
Ref. 9.
In addition to the usual single- and double-row
designs, spherical roller bearings are available in a
special thrust bearing configuration. Ilis type of
bearing has a high thrust-load capacity and can be
manufactured with either symmetric or asymmetric
rolling elements.
Although spherical roller bearings do not possess
the high-speed capabilities of cylindrical roler
bearings or ball bearings, they afford a combination
of high load and misalignment capacity that cannot
be equaled by any other bearing type. Thes unique
attributes are useful in many helicopter applications.

ment of hardened, crowned needle rollers and a steel

retainer, also are available. The inner and outer races
are designed separately, using dearances and finishes
recommended by the besring manufacturer. The
crowned rollers provide fairly even stress distribution
along the roller length, and.iocrease the misalignment
capability of the bearing.
Needle thrust bearings use cylindrical rollers
arranged with their axes positioned radially with
respect to the axis of the beaing and held in a flat,
machined retainer. The rolers run on flat races that
are hardened and ground. Crc mut M- take," to
locate the race surfaces perpendicular to the axis of
rotation in order to prevent end loading of the rollers.
Because the rolling elements of needle thrust bearnp
are cylindrical rather than tapered, some sliding
always occurs between the rollers and the races.
Becauk of this condition, a generous lubrication filn
should be provided in order to prevent excessive heat
generation.

16-3.3.4 Tape,'d Retli

to-In' V
In helicopter applications in which both radial and
thrust loads are high, as on a bevel year shaf tapuad
roller bearings should receive first conaWdra6oa. Of
all antifriction bearings, tapered roller barisngs offw
the .best combination of radial and thrust apaciies.
The raceways and rollers of a tapered rolhl bearing
are conical in shape. If the lins of contact betwee
the rollers and each race are extended, tey meet at a
common point on the axis of the bearing. This
geometry results in virtually pure rolling at all points
of contact. Becausc t
uheluls
i,;pcd upon --- "
roller by the inner and outer races (referred to as the
cone and cup, respectively) are normal to the line of
contact, the roller experiences a tnt thrust load
toward its larger-diameter end. This loud is reacted
by a shoulder on the inner ring (or cone) called the
cone back tib. S'iding always is present betwon the
roller and the cone back rib, resulting in the significant disadvantage of tapered roller bearings - their
limited speed capability. At the preent state of
technology, tapered roller bearings should not be
operated with a relative velocity greater than 7000
fpm between the roller and the cone back rib.
However, this figure is arbitrary and will be increamed
as more-advanced taper bearing deigns are produced.
Tapered roller bearings often are mounted in pals
or in a double-row configuration with either a onepiece dual cua or a cone. Either the pair-mounted or

16.3.3.3 Spherical Roller Bearin

Spherical roller bearings are used to accommodate
shaft misalignment. They arc made with either concave or convex spherical rollers in both single- and
double-row configurations. One raceway is machined
and giound to conform to the roller. In the case of
convex rollers, guide flanges are provided on this
race. The other raceway. typically the outer, is
ground with a continuous apherical surface. Single-

16-ii.

dou04ble-row design can be a4justed dwifin I*s~uftlaton to preload the beurlng axalaly. This
pruload Is usd to insur positive axial location of
-thesfrtand to preven roller skiddlW~I. helicopter
power transinkselo applicittions, preload wanly Is
a4uaeed by means cl a hardened sOee spu
mounted betwee the two boaring cones. This specer
Is gSround to a thicknes that results in a pre.
-dolimrined rotational dying on the be:iu1 Waaiu~l*.
9est~s of beaning ananuracturing tolemums, the
Anal gpnd~n% of the preload spewe isa ruklend
ermo procedure and an oveteie pr sliould be
prov"Ide with the assembly in order toievere tht t
proper preoaed can be achieved.

MIL-543P and the applicable ia&.Aw* fr

type M bearing wre uhma in Tab16e
In addition, two group of rod ends rebrelow
the Balanced Design Series we produced toesa abe
rWeurmuents, of NASE6I. The applicable standerds
pertaining to this spesifinaton arn NAS699 and
NASGO.
Spherical roller bearings also we used for alrkam.
applications where eupselaly heavy loads must be
carried. They provide good self-aligning capabilities
and may be used for rotating shafts as well as in os-A
dillatory applictions. Such bouaring11s re dwaubed in
MIL-S-W4. The standards applicbl to that
specifIcation arn preasented In Table 16-5.

16&34 AIRFRAME BEARINGS

16%U5 SL")10ING BEARINGS

..y

Seerael seie of ball and roller bearings are

Various types of sliding burings are used In
manufactured specifically for airframe control
helicopter applications. The control systemu of
applications. These bearings Ipnuses- high static-load
sveal current aircraft employ spbeial buarlags of
capacity. high tolerance to misalignment. and typicalboth the grease-lubricated and the sb-~actr
ly include integral shields or seals suita"l for gr -em types. A typical spherical bearing isshown 'uFig 16lubricattion. These bearings are tailored for control
4. Spherical bearings also are my Ala"l in rod ends
applications in which they must support heavy comn;4
binations of steady and vibratory loads under conBall bearings for
appicaion amNDRD
TifrmeLEro
FoR
&;aUNC.I
airrae cntolappictios u~CONTOL ROD END BEARINGS
of the full-vomiploinant type which provide high-loa1
capacity within a limited spaew envelope. Retainers
l
are not required since high speeds arm not a factor.
'TYPE
STANDARD
Thms airframe bearings are produced in both aitnular and rod and configurations in accordance with
appicable Military Specifications. Annular bail
M 15
OI HN
bearings for use in control applications are covered
by MIL-D-7949, and the applicable standards under
MS 21151
EXTERNAL THREAD
A
the specification arm presented in Table 16-3. The
-

MS 21152

requiramnets for ball bearing rod ends we defined in

TABLE 16-3. STANDARDS FOR AIRFRAME
CONTROL ANNULAR BALL BEARINGS
STANARD
TYPE(PRVIOULY)

/KP-B

(NS 2a'00)
(MS M701)
(WS 20202)

STANDARD

TYPE

MS 28912

ANNULAR, SINGLE ROW

DSP SERIES

N~S 2U206)

MdS27(44

DPP SERIES
KSP SERIFS

(PAS
20207)
(WS
26261)

NIS 27646

MS 28913

MS 27647

B500DD SER!ES
DW, GDW SERIES

MS 28914

MS 27645
MS 27649
-

KP-BS SERIES
AW-AK SERIES

MS 28915

16-12

_NENLTRA~

ROLLER AIRFRAME BEARINGS

MS 27643
MS 27645

hP SERIES
KP-A SERIES
SERIES

15

TABLE 16-5. STANDARDS FOR SPHERICAL

TYPE(PRVIOSLY

STANDARD__

IS27640
MS 27641
MIS
276A2

jM

HOLLOW SH4ANK

ANNULAR, DOUBLE ROW

fWIDE INNeR RACE

ANNULAR DOUBLE ROW,

TORQUE TUBE

for installation In control od asseblie. Journal

bearings are used in ores, such as rotor head scissor
aemblies, whom the loads and speeds do not require
antifriction bearings. Sliding bearings a not subject
to fatigue failures of the type that occur in rollingdeleent bearings, and thus they afford an increased

Gre-wlubricated siding bearings employ eithe

stel-on-ateel members or sinted bronn mrunning on
steel. both material ombintio are highly resistant
to wear if they are lubricated property and frequently.
In many helicopter applications (oscillating motions).
however, daily lubrication of such bearingp is

materials, lubrication. loadWood. and environment.

as liners or insers on the sliding

dcgree of reliability. However, slidinlg bearinp

exhibit wea characteristics that are dependent upon

STAKING

required in order to insure satisfactory operation.

Several self-lubricating materials are used currently

ofates

bearings. The most commonly used liner mat'ias,

are Teflon fabric and carbon-graphite.

Teflon fabric is relativdy easy to manufacture and

can be bonded in both spherical and journal bearings.
Teflon-lined bearinlgs are relatively low in coat and, if
properly protected, can provide very good service
However, the liner material is subject to deterioration

GROOVE
BALL

as a result of exposure to water, dust, and oil environments. Teflon-lined bearings also are limited by
the pressures and velocities tha: can be imposed upon

__I
LINER
MATERIAL

-O1UTER
RING
Figare 16-4.

them. Table 16-6 gives limiting values of pressure and

velocity for Teflon fabric, as well as for other commonly used bearing materials. A PV factor (the
product of pressure and velocity) also is given in the
table; this factor frequently is used as a parameter for
initial deign. it should bc emphasiz-d that the valuai
given in Table 16-6 are approximate and should be
used only as a guide. The use of any self-lubricating
sliding bearing in a critical component requires that
carefully controlled qualification testing be pe.formed. Unlike life calculations for antifriction
bearings, those for Teflon-lined bearings, as given in
most manufacturers' catalogs, can serve only as a
rough approximation and must be modified by the
results of qualification testing and service experience.

Spherlcal Aircraft OBering

TABLE 16-6.

MATERIAL
SINTERED BRONZE
TEFLON FABRIC
CARBON -GRAPHITE:
PLAIN
"RESIN-IMPREGNATED

PROPERTIES OF SLIDING BEARING MATERIALS

FOR AIRFRAME USri

"LIMIT SIATIC
LIMIT SPEED
LIMIT PV
V,
(PRODUCT OF STRESS
PROJECTED AREA P,
fp
AND SPEED)
psi x fpm
psfpm

PRESSURE OVER

8500

1200

2r,000

60,000

201

5000-15,000

200-500
500-1000

200-500
500-1500

15,000
12,000
16-13

Carbon-graphite also has been used for selflubricating bnaringa. This material cornbines the
lubricity and low friction of graphite with~ the good
compressive-strength characteriontics of carbon. It is
slightly more resistant to ad-ams onivronments than
isTeflon and has demonstrated a wear life equivalent
to that of a good Teflon rabtic. Its disadventages Incdude brittleness, which may be a factor if shock loads
are present, and the relatively high cost of finished
bearings, which is related to the poor machinability
of the material.
The Military Specifications and Standards that
define the requirements for sliding belApig for sitframe use are preseted in Table 16-7.
LAMINATED ELASTOMERIC
BEARINGSmotion
BEARNGSIn
The rotor heads in most helicopters employ ball,
tapered roller, and needle bearings operating with oscillatory motion. Such bearings represent a substantial proportion of the rotor system weight, and
IW6-.

reuire lubrication and sealing. Laminated elsatomer

bearings, on the other hand, require no lubrication

and are lighter than conventional antifniction bearings for a given load capaciaiy. Thcy also permli(tic
type of oscillatory motion and loading present in
most rotor applications.
Theme bearings consist of thin, metal laminates
alternated with thin sheets of natural rubber. The
rubber is bonded to the metal by a proc..s similar to
that employed in the manufacture of lip meals.
Four basic types of laminated elastomeric bearings
ame made. Radial bearings are able to support a radial
load only, and permit oscillation about one axis,
Similarly. thrust bearings support only thrust load,

and also permit motion about one axis. Conical

elastomirric bearings are analogous to tapered roller
bearings; they are capable of supporting both radial
and thrust loads, and permit mingle-axis oscillation.
Spherical elastomeric bearings are the most suitable
for rotor systems. Thene be~.rlnis employ spherically
shaped laminates, are able to support combined
loads, and permit oscillatory motion In any plane.
The lamninated construction greatly increases the
stiffness of the elastomesic structure in the direction
normal to the laminations, while maintaining virtually the same deflection characteristics in the plane of
the laminates as would be found in a solid block of
rubber. Tl~i rermitit laminated clastomeric bearings
to support high loads while permitting the degree of
necessary in rotor system components.
the design of atlaminated bearing, the most important parameter is known as the shape factor. This
factor determines the.lod and deflection capabilities
of the laminated structure, and is defined as the
loaded area divided by the force-free area. For a

single rictangular rubber laminate, the shape factor

SF is given by:
'c~
2SF
L, +

dB)u

1-4
(6-4

where
L.laminate width, in.
B - laminate length, in.
t
- laminatz thickness, in.
The shape factor for a laminated elastomeric
bearing is calculsatd as the shape factor for a single
rubber laminate multiplied by the number of

TABLE 16-7. SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS FOR

SELF-LUBRICATING SLIDE BEARINGS

SPECIFICATION
MIL-8-8942
MIL-B-8942
MIL-B -8942
MIL-8-8942
MIL-8-8043
MIL-B3-8943
MIL-B-8948
MIL-B-8948
16-14

fSTANDARD
IMS 21230
MS 21231
MS 21232
MS 21233
MIS 21240
MS21241
MS 21242
MS 21243

SPECIFICATION

STANDARD

TYPE

MIL-8--81820
MIL-8-81820
MIL-B-81820
MIL-B-81820
MIL-8-81934
MlL-D-81934
MIL-B--81935
MIL-B-81935

MS 141 W
MS 14102
MS 14101
MS 14104
MS 21240
MS 21241
MS 21242
MS 21243

WIDE AMINULAR, GROOVED

WIDE A1NULAR, NONGROOVED
NARROW ANNULAR, GROOVED
NARROW ANNULAR, NONGROOVED
SLEEVE (JOURNAL), PLAIN
SLEEVE (JOURNAL), FLANGED
ROD END - MALE
ROD ENJD - FEMALE

AMCP ?W202
laminates used. For helicopter applications, shape
factors of 30 to 40 have been found to yield the bat
results. Additional information on the design of this
type of bearing can be found in Re(. 10.

W1%

16-3.7 BEARING SEALS AND RETAINERS

16-3.7.1 Seals
Seve al types of sealing dcvices arc employed in
systems. The most
helicopter power trains and rotor ip
seal. In this cmcommonly used type is the radiat
figuration, a V-shaped scaling lip, which contacts the
rotating or oscillating shaft, is held within or bonded
"to an outer case, which in turn is pressed into the
component housing. The sealing lip typically is
fabricated from either natural or synthetic rubber,
For oil-lubricated applications, the saling lip is
"forced against the shaft by means of .a circumfe,-ential gerter spring. In grease-lubricated components, this spring usually is omitted.
Radial lip seals are fairly inexpensive to manufacture, and provide reliable operation at surface speeds
3M, fpm. For higher speeds, a
to approximately
up
hvur,l-wlyarm
lin
toot ahnidel nl"v-Av

Grtt ensiders.

tion. In this type of seal, the interface pressure

between the shaft and the seal is low, and a hydrodynamic oil film is maintained at the interface,
Helical grooves, indentations, or ribs are molded into
the air ride of the sealing lip and are effective in
directing the oil flow back into the area to be sealed.
Hydrodynamic lip seals can be operated at surfac
speeds of up to 10.000 fpm because of the reduced
contact force and the maintenance of an oil film that
lubricates the sealing lip.
For all lip seals, the compatibility of the seal
material wit" %1%,,
'i"W
to M ,
,t beta- , -""account.Many of the current lubricants, particularly
those of the synthetic ester type, have a detrimentd
effect on certain seal materials. Materials such us
nitrilc rubber and fluoroelastomers are available for
usc with this class of lubricants. Their use results in
increased seal cost, but often is necessary in order to
prevent deterioration of the seal lip and resultant
leakage.
For applications involving high operating teniperatures or shaft speeds, carbon-face sals generally
are used. These seals consist of a carbon sealing face,
called a nosepiece, bearing against hardened steel
mating rings, which must be extremely fiat. Such
seals have been used successfully at speeds and
temperatures typical of turbine engine operation,
Because of the very precise tolerance required in the
Smanufacture of all parts of carbon-face seat, their
t is many times that of a similarly sized lip eal.

Therefore, face seals should be restticted to applications where surface speed or tempsratures prohibit
operation with a lip sea.
Clearance seals - such as labyrinth and ring =Lb
also are used for high-speed operation. They
provide satisfactory scaling when the shaft is
rotating, but permit leakage under static coonditions.
Therefore, these sals should be used only in applications ;n which a static head of oil is not preset
in the seal area when the componeat is not in operation.

For applications in which small oscillatory

motions are present, such as in rotor head hings,
diaphragm seals have been used succemfsully. Thee
seals employ an elastomeric membrane that samns the
gap between the o, illating and stationary mewbranes of the seal. The membrane undergoes torsional deflection under the oscillatory motion. As
,-lArr
long as the elastomer and the metal-toi
bonds rr,.nain intact, the diaphragm so! is able to
operate without leakage.
Additional information on various available
scaling devices can be found in Ref. II.
10.3.7.2 Bearing R
Several m.-thods are used to retain benring rings on
shafts or in housings. They include lock nuts, snap
rings, retention clips and staking. A lock nut is used
to retain the inner ring of a bearing on a shaft.
Together with the diametral interferme
fit, the lo&
nut prevents the bearing from creeping under toed4
and also provides axial location for the bearing. The
lock nut may be secured with a tab washer. Tabs inserted into slots on the nut lock the washer to the nut,
while serrations on the bore of the washer fit Into
-,.t:an: o. t.1-th..ad
-o.f-..h... thy
preventing the assembly from turning.
For lightly loaded applications, in which crWping
is not a factor, a bearing outer ring may be retaived
by a snap ring. The snap ring is installed in a groove
ini the bearing housing, and bears against the face of
the bearing outer ring. However, snap rings provide
no circumferential retention for the bearing and,
therefore, should not be used where the outer ring is
rotating with respect to the radial load. For such
applications, retention dips normally are employed.
These clips are bolted to the bearing housing, and M't
into slots that are machined into the face of the
bearing outer ring. The dips thus can provide both
axial and circumferential retention. However,
bearing clips should not be used as the primary
method for prevention of creeping. Proper selection
of the interference fit will insuve that the boaring does
not turn in the housing under load.

HOME

Spherical control bearings commonly ane retained

in a -control rod by staking their outer rings. This
method uses a circumfe-mntlal, V-shaped 5 coove
machined into the bearing outar ring, as shown~ in the
detail of Fig. 16.4. After the bewlng is pressed into
the housing, a special tool is used to roll the portion
of thes outer ring outboard of the groove over a
chamber in the base of the holAsino. Thispoie
positive axial retention of the bearing, and pemt
the beoring to he removed from the asaumbly by
te
applying a heavy axial load. Because loading of_
bernsis primarily radial in direction, the staking
procedure has been found to be satisfactory fbi most
helicopter applications of sphc.ical control bearings.

16-4 ELECTRICAL FITTNGS

GENERAL
design of electrical systems is discussed in
Chapter 7. Thin paragraph discusses the fittings used
in these electrical systems.
Eketaica fittings should be selected for reliability
and eas of maintenauce. Therefore, seveal design
pfincipae should be observed1. Mounting hardware should be connected per-mriPintly to the part bwaing
munted.
2. Features should be provided 'to prevet incorrect assembly,
3. Right- and left-hand parts either should be identical or should be incapable of being interchanged,
4. Components should be protected against inCOrrect use of attachments.
S. Universal mounting features shoiuld be incorporated where possibi!:.
6. The use of dissimilar metals in intimate contact
MUbe avoided (see MIL-STD-889 and MIL-STD454. Requirement 16? for definitions of dissimilar
metlsh). An interposing compatible material shall be
16-4.1

VThe
1

used if combinations must be axeombled.

7. The number of wire and cable junctions shouid

be minimized, and only approved dcviccr &hal be
used where junctions are required.
S. The use of identical connectors in adjacent
locations should be avoided,
9. Junctions should be accessible for inspection
and maintenance.
10. Terminals and junctions should be spaced a sufficient distance apart to prevent arcing and detrimental current leakage between circuits.
Because of the number and variety of switches, terWoonl blocks, connectors, terminals, and insulating
materials available, manufacturers' data and the
retwrened Military Specifications should be consulted for additional information not presented in
this chapter.
16-16

Marking requirements of seleaWct

lectical and
electronic parts are defined in N4IL-STD-12S3. MILE-7000 contains the fameral requirements for sirborne electrical equipment.
16-4.2 CONNECTORS kND CABLE ADAPTERS
Conniectors are used for Joining a cable to other
cables or for joining zables to equipnmet in cases
where frequent disconnect is required. The most cornonly used connectors have boen the circular and the
rack..and-panel types. MIL-W:-506 does not state a
eurmnfoaspcictcofoncobt
roqueres that selectioin and use shall be in accordance
with MIL-STD-1353. Although there are more than
30 Military Specifications dealing with connectors.
the designer should reduce the quantity of connector
varhiiions and limit the selection to those which lend
themselves to common termination methods; i.e.,
common contacts, common bacd, hardware, and
common assembly tools. This discusuioni is' imited to
those connectors moat commonly used in htcicopiers. Table 1648 provides a ready reference to
these typts. along with their general descriptions.
Table 16-9 lists additional specifications to be used
Whlcic Spa;' al trxjuzremenis exisi.(

Connectlor isa generic term used to dcnote both an

electrical plug and a receptacle. A plug is a connector that normally is attached to a free-swinging
electrical cable. A receptacle is a connector that normally i3 attached rigidly to, or is an integral part of, a

supporting surface. Each connect -r shal be selected

to make tho "live" or "hot" side of the wrtnnoctor the
socl'et member to minimize posible shorting when
the junction is disconnected. The dead side of thec circuit i%the pin member. Thierefore, depending upon
the individual cwircit aphig may mnta~~in ;he ins.
or'sockets The mating receptacle, of course, will contain the opposite.

16-4.2.1 Connector Selectium

A multitude of connector designs, with specific

capabilities, are available. Moreover, many of the

features of these designs overlap. Therefore, the requiremen's pertinent to the titsk for which the connector isintended should be -ientified and then co.aipared with the features of those available.
Information necessary for the selection of a,!
proper connector includes the following:
I. Spocific types of connect ors, if any, designatedi
in the contract
2. Applicable enviionniental conditions
3. Maximum voltage and current for each circuit
4. Number of circuits to be accommodated plus
spare contacts

9MW7120
TABLE 1"-.

MILITARY SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDAmiDS FOR CONNECTORS

FOR AIRCRAFT

SPECIFICATIONS

STANDARDS

DESCRIPTION

SEE SPEC. SUPPS.

CONNECTORS, ELECTRICAL,
TYPE.

YPE

MI-C505CIRCULAR
MiL-C-5015"AN"
MIL-C -26500

CIRCULAR

SEE SPEC. SUPPS.

CONNECTORS, GENERAL
PURPOSE, ELECTRICAL,
MINIATURE, CIRCULAR.
ENVIRONMENT RESISTING
ESTrABLISHED RELIABILflYY

MIL-C-38999

CIRCULAR

SEE SPEC. SUPPS.

CONNECTORS, ELECTRICAL
CIRCULAR, MINIATURE,
HIGH DENSITY, QUICK
DISCONNECT, ENVIRONMENTAL 1
RESISTING REMOVABLE CRIMP
TYPE COr4ACT RELIlABILITY

____________

MIL-C-83723

CiRCULAR

ASSURANCE P~dGRAM

________

SEE SPEC. SUPPS.

$PEC. SuP.

CONNECTORS, ELECTRICAL,
CIRCULAR, ENVIRONMENT
RESISTING, GENERAL
SPECIFICATION FOR

MIL-C-Z4JW5

KcAUIArNU Pr~kEL Iot

MIL-C-26518

RACK AND PANEL

SEE SPEC. SUP.CONNECTORS, ELECTRICAL,

IMINiATURE RACK ANO PANEL,
ENVIRONMVNT RESISTING,
2009C AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

MIL-C-28748

RACK AND PANEL

SEE SPEC. SUPPS.

UUNEC~ttQIM,

CONNECTORS, ELECTRICAL,
RECTANGULAR RACK AND
PANEL SOLDEA TYPE AND
CRIMP YYPE CONTACTS
rICIMDAI

MII.-C-55544

FLAT FLEX CA'iLE

FEL SPEC. SUPPS.

PRINTED CIRCUIT

jI

__________

SEE SPEO. SUPPS.

__________

5. T~ pc of attahment required
6. Wire ;ize, inatetial, construction, and other
*

-characteristics

)7.

* 'J

crrcnicr,,ATAIrsA&

I ENVIROMMENt RESISTING,

CONNECTORS ELECTRiCAL,
FOR USE WITH FLEXIBLE
FLAT CONDUCTOR CABLI!,
GENERAL SPECIFICATION FOR
SEE MIL-0-55543

I
MIL-C-55302

tLtU-LI KILRL,

RJ:CTANGULAR MINIATURE
POLARIZED SHILL RACK AND
PAEGENERAL 0PECIFISUP.CATION FOR

Type of couplifj required

8,Special mounting provis.oens req~fircd.
The requirements of M1L-W-Stt) also should be
wonidered. These cover safety-wiring of coupling

CONNECTOR, SOCKET,
STRAIGHT THROUGH,
FOR MULTILAYERED

PRINTED WIRING BOARDS

nuts, use of noninterchangeable connectors in ad*a

cent locations, drainage provisions, insulation,
adapters, aind scaling reqluirements. When coaditions permitz a choice, the crim-p style of attachment
of wirc terminations is prcferred. The use of identical
connectors in adjacent locations hall be avoided.
Differtnce in size or insert arrangement is preforred.
16-17

706-;:-'FABLE 1649. OTHER MILITARY

SPECIFRCATIONS AND STANDARDS
FORl CONNECTrORS

SPE.$#IF ICAT IONS

4

'A'-

TYPE

MIL-C-10544

CIRCUAR

NL-C412520
22 9C
MIL-C-22249
MiL-C-22599

CIRCULAR
1~ U A
CIRCULAR
CIRCULAR

MIL-C-24299
MIL-C-264821

CIRCULARI
CIRCULARI

MIL-C-26599

CIRCULARI

MIL-C-27599
MIL-C-25169

PLUG
(A)
CIRCULAR

-CIRCUA

CIRCULAR

MIL-C-55181

CIRCULAR

MIL-C--55181

CIRCULAR(0MA;ANPNE

MIL-C-85114
MIL-C-815B2
MIL-C-81503

CIRCULAR
CIRCULAR
CIRCULAR

()RC

N AE

MIL-C-21617

RACK AND
_______IPANEL

')F TCBEmnmr
VflL
W

Whiav identical connectors are used in adjacent

locations. wires and cahles shall be so routcd and supported that improper counnections canrot be made.
Adjacent connectors using the sanie insert arrangenmeni shall be selected to take advantKge of alternate
insert po~itions or alternate shell keyi% pn3itions. If
tiis requirarnent cannot be met, color coded sleseves
having the identification o!the associated receptacles
sllbe attached to the wires or cables nzar the plugs.
The recptacles shall be color coded by a colored
band on o- mounting structurc.
16.4.2.2 (liedir CoamIor
Circular connectors are the 'most popalaa st:
used for general aircraft wiring. This type of connh
tor is shown in Fig. 16-5(A), and Table 1649 contains
a listing of these connectors and their descriptions.
.

16-18

RECEPTACLE

1-S

Flgure 16-5. Comome

IW

I tillt

lr11

tIW V.,vgISrI

Types of Ceustectois

Standard MS connectors arc available with from I

to more than 100 c, ntacts. and in 15 different inscrt
diameters ranging from 0.250 to 2.550 in. Connector
si4e are based on the diameter of the receptacle shell,
stated in sixteenths of at, inch. Standard contact sizes
available range from 0) through 22. Either solder- or
crimp-style terminations may be obtained; however.
unless otherwise approved by the procurin&I activity,
crimp-style terminations ehould be used. Standard
pin arrangements for cylindriczi cornnecors conforming to MIL-C-5015 are centained in MS 336SU
through NIS 3369(. Pin arrangements of other types
of connectors can be found in pertinent MS standards.

16-4X.2.

Twuinadeal

Seal

Environment resistant cnetrhaigwe

sealing grommets A be wsedwhnvrpsbe
however, potting may be used when no connector
having a scaling grommet is suitable for the application. Sealing materials should meet the applicable environmental requirements and sbou~d be salected
from either MIL-S-8316 or MIL4-23586.
1641.L.22 Cable Adapter
A cable clamp often is used at the end of the cir.
cular connector to support the cable or wires and to
prevent twistinez and pulling of the contact torminations. Avoiding this motion also helps to reduce
the transmission of moisture along the wire. For
applicable cable clamps and other ac&orroy hardware consalt the supplaement to thn,connector sped.
ficailon.
1"112.23 c"eonctr C0*mPig
Three basic styles of circular connector ccupinr
ame used; threaded, bayonet, and push-pull. The
bayonet and push-pull styles offer quick-diioonniect
features. Other features, or a combination of fellturci. artz smonai'tmo used. For exAnIPIe, a pull ~to_
braaa)cinmyb noprtdwt h ai
coulin
cin a einop odwt tebs
Pg.
16-42.3Rac
an Panl Cmacersterminationsi.
Rack and panel conkiector3 amc used to connect a
cable toa fixed eceptadc, a cable to acable, or a
moduet aTe
acklat.
comonconiguatin ~
rectangular or some variation of a rectangular shape
(see Fig. 16-5(9) ). These connectors are aviitabl in
many sizes and shaprs conforming to Military Sped-.

owl...

Refer to Tables 16-8 and 16.9 for listings of the -miitary types, and to the manufacturer' awj di*.
tributers' catalogs for the cmmecial type.16.4T
16-4.2.A Flat Condeetor Cable Cemmetor
Where flexible, (tat conductor cable i cued, can.
nectors of the MIL-C-55544 type (Fig. 16-5(C))
should be considered. Thes# connectors ar: suitable
for connecting flat cable to flat cable, to roundwlrs
or to printed circuit boards.
164.2 5 P'lite WkIi 6 Boad CUU5scomI
Priultod wiring boawV or printe circuit connectors
(.Pig. 1&.5(D)) no~rmally arc not encountiired i.1 aireraft wir~ug. They an used fo- c:.nnecing priatod
wiig -=azdo to conventionali wirikg, prinuid wiring
\ boards to tchb ofhwer or jirinted wiring boards to a

r)

backplaw. Connectors in accordance with MUL530ampreforred frprinted wiri

lato.

butg

16-43 TERMINALS
Common typos of terminals currently in use indlude ~ug. eyele, and notched. Their Installation may
be of the dip-solder, sotdeelem wrap, taper tab, taper
socktt, or crimp style. Unieos othewise specified in
the contractual documents or approveod by the procurio# activity. wire and cable tormitials &ouldbe of
the crimp style.
Crimp tormina1i, allow diu.ict contact of wirn ed
turninal to be accomplse by deformstion. They
can tio- intalled quickly with uniform and ui~able
quality, even b newly trained personel. The crimp
can be accomplished wit hand took or with auto.
matic equ-pment anid can be inpacted ceally. The
crimp termirsas muy be used in hig-tmpwavure Wp
plications whvm other types would ov unacceptable.
li sireonnectHonwsevecric,
m lseof n andm
mediasisal-os
Wsrn.Hwvr us fcipjit
sams
Impomsble. A,common practice is to porovidle extra
wielntin whres
satlssohta
ere~~d1
e-0-etrnai'
_
cutting otf the oid one and crimpirt on a new one.
AMCP 706-125 provides a detailed die~wsin of the
requirements and charatictiao of various types of
MIL.STFD-195 defines tie mairklums of
n
fr elctirecMal03 term~bnal. rp
co ppeti
n
S23 omnl Tj
*,Frcpe i
quiring conductor temp~eratures above 1051C. 17or
suc aplctos uninsded tenninals (Typt I),
conforming to MS 20659 aund to fthroquiruenats of
MIL-T-7928, should be used. 17 ,r aluminumn cable,
Table 16-10 containt additninal standards.
MI L A S
Whene wire ot cablu junctions require infrequent
disconnection, or wherm it is necussary to join two or
more wires or cables t* a comnsion point, teminal
bowi4 shu be used.
Terminal .boards shoild co~mfxm zo MS VnIZ
an coer cofrmn to MS 18029 should be used
with thm These boards lMaw mokldd barriers and
molded-in studs. They may be purchasd in standard
lengths and cut to the lengt (outabor of swds) required for each installtioum. Terminal board Iduttificatica should be in accordance with the para&Wah tidled "Junctions" in' MIL-W-5SM.
lusme connecting the terminal studs should canform t,( NS 25126.
61

.
3

ltEA 106&

MULMMAY SPEWICAh1ONS AND STANDARDS FOR CUMMPJTIE

TERMINALS

SPECIFICATIONS

TYPE

MIL-T-728I

MIL-T-7928

11

MIL-T-7099
MIL-T--21606

FERRULE

MIL-T-38732

SPLICE

STANDARDS

MS20659 h I0,
4 516 1 8 910
11, 12:1J, f4,'ANb
15

COPPER

MS17143, MS25036

COPPER

MS25435, 6,17,8
AND 9

ALUMINUM

MIMI121MS21980,
M.S21 981
MS27429

SMELDED
CABLE
COPPER

164! ELCTICAL SAWITCIMS

146.1 GENERAL
Military switches wwat be dWngoed to &btain
mwdmtzmf~f Power capaciy withllL a limits sir and
apace. Electrically, the moaut iriplortakit consjjaratlon Inv~ofre cotad toed radinj andl arrange
amnt. Thesn factors iaLu gir~r 3ctAatz the ty" o&
switch toOt tr"b In ci gl'w *ppfl"ain. Other cms&~
tching sequence inulderatlow nslded.detw
sulrion vQWlsbt'au sl nt V~x fmftnoe, wvircnnmax asweds and any selot, Ictxarv that might be
requidy.
The koa-'aiynn rrqtumncos for each switch
mint be analyvsd thorougbly. Stud. factors as v31t tody
Ws cua'ct, sturg currunw, ftequency, contact best 6islpmlloit types of loads, and life requirewe tat eoiier&are
The moat commonly. used switches are toggle,
put.-button, slid*, @and rotary. Each one huo partimbe advantages which must be weighed for the
*WgV tvae under comilderatica. MIL-STD-1132
mwtalMe sealcton van Installtion raquirmuents for

-4switches.

VWhere

wndonmight procr~o faaitch

*=e serious wmwaqumaom, a switch guard Aid be insidled. Tins v*t$paW type of guard generally fall
in.etok09 thse Axed or tbew hinged catgoy
F1SAh guardis are ehennel-ebaped, met almebers
thgi require a finge to bv inserted law toe area

~W2

WIRE

CLASS

'r

between the cahannel-1 tag to acretuate thba swaitch. S c

MS 24417 and MS 25221 for thins configuration.
Hinged guards have a cover that swInsV down over
the switch. This cover must be raised and rowaed out
of the way bel'ore the switch can be actuated. Two
types or hinged guards specfie in MIL-O-7703 art
Type A switch guards, which h&'uc more than one
maintained position, and Type R cwitdi guards,
which are spring. loaded to thc clocer position.
Military Standards dcocribing switch puard& inclu Ic
MSZ5O'4.-25214. 25223, 25224, -25225, arid -25452.
Table W6I11 lists snecificatijos and standards anplicable to the several typer of switches.
16-5.m. Tankl Switches
Two types of toggle switch action are common:
momentary and maintained. Those switches generally
actuated by a toggle lever (ofte shaped in the
form of a bat), and have a snap type of actioi. They
usually have eitiier two or three positions: either side
of the center and the center position. Oter arrangements are available as special configurations.
The switching action may be one of many standard
I.,"m, such as rocker-conact, positive-action toggle
link, or others. Toggle switches are relatively low in
cost, and arc used widely.
PoshiattiS Switches
11.1
Pussh-button switches are dlusaified as momentaryaction, maintained-action, aid sequential-action

AMCP 706=

MILITARY SECIFICATIFONS AND STANDARDS FOR SWITCHES

TABLE 16.1.
SPECIFICATION

TYPE

DESCRIPTION

MIL-S-3786

ROTARY

SEE SPECIFICATION
SUPPLEMENTS

SWITCH ROTARY, GENERAL

SPECIFICATION
"LOW POWER AC DC FOR
ELECTRONIC AND CbWMUNICATION EQUIPMENT

MIL-S-3350

TOGGLE

SEE SPEC. SUPPS.

SWITCH TOGGLE, GENERAL

SPECIFICATION
SEALED AND UNSEALED,
AC AND DC

__

MIL-S-6743

PUSH BUTTON
AND LIMIT

REPLACED BY MIL-S-8805

MIL-S-6744

PUSH BUTTON
AND LIMIT

REPLACED BY MIL-S-8805

MIL-S-6745

TOGGLE
ROTARYAN3212, AN3213,

"MIL-S-6746

IV.iEU,.UROTAR

._..

STANDARDS

**

__SINGLE,

MIL-S-6807

ROTARY

MS21994 AND 3
MS25002, MS90547

MIL-S-8805

SENSITIVE ANt)
PUSH

SEE SPEC. SI PPS

MIL-S-8834

TOGGLE
_

--IL-S-9419

TOGGLE

S~~MINt,!________R

MIL-S-55433

SWITCHES, ROTARY SHIELDED

ELD
I SHMI
urii
IfliHLlA r~,lTWO AND FOUR ENGINE
SWITCH, ROTARY, SELECTOR
POWER
FOR USE INPOWER CIRCUITS
SWITCHES AND SWITCH ASSEM.
SENSITIVE AND PUSH (SNAP
ACTION) GENERAL SPEC!F ICAl IOA
SINGLE PHASE, AG, DC

MS21026 AND 7,
MS24612, 13, A-14 14,
55 AND 6, MS25305,
7, AND 8, 10 AND 11

SWITCHES, TOGGLE, POSITIVE

BREAK: A
,4 CR
,F, '.T-,,I~I~ ",,
4IL
SPECIFICA rION FOR
SEALED, AC, DC

MS28939, SEE PAR.

3 OF THE SPECIFICATION

SWITCH TOGGLE MOMENTARY,

FOUR-POSITION bN, CENTER
OFF
ENVEk,O.'PE, FREE

_qlt

__e\/

RT
E_ UR.N

DRY-REED

SEE SPEcC.JSU

IOPERATED,

SWTCHi CAPSULES, DRY-REED

TYPE HERMETICALLY SEALED
INGLASS
MAY BE MAGNETICALLY
FOR USE IN
COMMUNICATION, ELECTRICAL,
ELECTRONIC EQUIPtENT

l6.21

\.,

"",.

-.

types. A pushing motion in line with the buttoni normally is required; however, a modification of the
man
W-cintype requires a pull-to-operate
Military ptsh-buttor. switch requirements are do.
fined In MIL-S460. TM swtce descibe an
available in five enclosure designs, four tinnpeatmr
dwamaow"slc, two shock typos, and three vibration
grades. The specification covers both sunsitive an
pushtype switches. Sensitive switches are intended
for a nonhand-operated mode. while manual (push)
switches are intended for hand operaon. Th
Supplement to MIL-S-885 contalis a list ef sped.
ficastion sheets by switch title and a list V supersetled
docuntents (MS. AN. and JAN standrds an
specifications).

1".513 Reta" Switce

Rotary switches are uted to control a numbee of
circuits in consecustive steps. Thene awitches are
available in single or multiple wafers. ahowing alarge
variation in the configurations and making fth
switches adaptable to many tasks.
Detent: arn p-.oWid on. them switch= by th-. i=e
of stee balls carried in a detent plate. The detents
cams a requirement for a reatively h!&%torque to
turn the knob, and the switching takes place with a
snap a.-tion at maximum force and velocity. This action reduces the arcing time between contacts and
promotes longer contact life.
Most rotary selector switches are used in electronic
ciruiltry wherm currents are low. The use of the
sliding type of contacts on toese switches provides the
necessar self-cleaning required for low contact resistance. Roiary- sw~tdma should be installed with the
extreme countercockwise position as the OFF pouition. MIL-S-3786, MIL-S-6746, and MIL-G. 7090 dofine the requirment for rotary switches.

I"1"

PIPE AND TUBING FITTINGS

GENERAL
Ai byuke
stalled In accordance with MIL-H-SW4 unless otherwise directed by the procuring activity. Hydraatc
"emt~lrquirm f~tU are discussed in Chapter 9 mmd
the requirements for fuel and lubrication &yaomns ame
described in Chapter 3.This paragraph discusses the
fittings used in the installation of hydraulic systems
and in the intaltio nof fuel and lubrication systems.
Since each joint represents a possible leakage and
trouble spot, the installation of pil4ng sytemis must
be accomplished carefuly. The number of connectiona used should be reduced to a mininum in
order to assure maximum safety and system ef
flciecny with minimum installation and maintenance
MOat.
164.2 TYPES OF FfI'FIGS
Many types of pipe and tube fittings are available.
For murcraft systems, those generally used are tapered
pipe thread, straight thread using agasket seal, flared
tutie, fi-lues t-W-W, thi-wail1 trftM, cui:.ct discoanec=
and ponvuanent. Solder-type tube fittings conforming
to MIL-F.400 ame inactive for new design, except for
oxygen systems and engine primer lines.
164a2. Tapered Pipe Tresad
Taperee pipe thm~ad fittings provide reasonably
teakproof connections, but should be used only for
permanent attachments or closures. IFig. 16" illustrates this type of fitting and the related specifications
bud standard3. High-quality workmenship and
machining to dlose toleances will hnurm a good seal
with tWi type of fitting. Howevcrz Kcannot be used
for directional adjustmems because it must be
tightened properly to prevent leaks. and thert is a

TPERWFITTING

EFIMNS.
MI;BOSS.

PdIL-P-7 105

ms3p7

AND106

Figure 1646. Tapered Pipe Thead Flttlags

16-22

da& ofdamagingtheoomponent housnlgifthefltting is overtightened. This type of fitting is inactive

for now aircraft design, except for oxybei systems,
and should be avoided where psdble
164.= Stralsht Thud Fttlp
Straight thread type are preferred for installation
of fittings into the boass of a component, as lllutrated in Fig. 16-7. Standard internal thread dimansions for bosm are shown in MS 33649. The
tubing end fittings should conform to MS 33514 and
MS 33515 (flarlem tube stye); or MS 33656 and MS
33657 (flared tube style); or MS '4385 and MS 24386
(fisted tube precision style). Istallation instructions
are givm in MS 33566 and AND 10064.
Straight thread fitting instalations arm usable for
nominal operating pressures up to and including 3000
pid but are inactive for hydraulic systems in new aircraft design. For Zhe universal elbow fitting installa^mrefer to AND 10000.
MS 287 or MS 29512 gaskets should be used f-r
producing the eal btwemn straight thread fittings
and omponents. As the premure increases, the gsikt.,ges the oeaing eeac.
This style of fitting rquires less torque to insure a
goad mal than is recesary for pipe threads, and it
may be disasembied and ressembhld without do.
terkoation of the joint quality. Choice of the proper
thread style (MS 33566 and AND IWO6) allows the
fitful to be positioned without Impairing the scaling
propertles.
Installations of this type of fitting should be made
"carfullyin order to minimize service problems. Ex-

"I
MIL--772
MUS5
MS24305

16.2.3 FlnMd Tdo Fttdn

Flared tube fittings are of the expanding type. The
end of the tube is flared to an angle of 37 dog in tie
mating slev. The slev and flared tube end then am
clamped between the fitting and the out to form the
fluid seal. Fittinp of this type are shown in F!. 16-8
and should conform to MIL.F-5509. Tho styles of fittings available are listed In AND 10019.
The external male fitting end sheaild ciform to
the dimenions listed In MS 3365, or MS 33657 for
flared tube vonnections. or to MS 7A385 a MS 2436
for the precision type of flared tube connections. For
3000-psi systems, components smller than 0-5-in.
iu.w,
maid u.of
c.
.....
Aluminum alloy fittingP should be used with caution
in installations where topeated dissmembly and toasembly could damage the thrmead ftft end.
The tubing end should be flared in accordance with
MS 33584, except for aium!n.um &by tubing of 03CS
in. or les (outside diameter); this, instead, should be
double flared in aocordance with MS 33583.
Them fittings are intended for ow in aircraft hydraulic and pneumatic systems. This type of fltting is

-FITTING

FL~eDUSE
MS33057M,3646

MS24er I

trane caution should be teed when a gaket k instAlld on the fitting. The gasket should rt be
pushed over the threads or other am that might
nick the gasket surface. A plktic or imetl thtadprotector or "thimblW" should be usad during Istallation of the gasket.
Specifications for Installstion, gasket selction and
lubrication, fitting torque, and positioning should be
in accordance with MS 33566 and AND 10064.

DIMENISIONSI

FLARED 7U1E
PRECISION

UNIVERS0A0

,4

,FIg

r 16-7.

BOSS

SPACING
AND1007 4

G__KETS1

Strallgh Thread Flultp

16-23

nu:w
r.....

(.s

......p

is ma. The fRnhe flae AW be inspwmed for pok

marks, splits, Inadequate squareness or conwitricity, and other defects. AND 100M tefies avceptable value. for nut torque for swomNy of th
joint.

inadive for hyI olk.; =:,,,ran

,rfw
airm-ft desg.
Ifaflaridtwut oou
mdionU uWdeimpropely.
thMjoiut iuA, ,k. Mlvwwo, thu, pressur is not likely
to cawm the tubes blow out of the joint. For ingallaa n infonnation conowuin flared tubc fitfinags
oft AND 10064.

7h1 tubing layout and routing shhud be designed

inacoranewith MIL-115440 or MiL-P-SS It. The
tubing should be fonmad so that no ta is placed
uWon the fitting whce ft connetion is tightened.
Suficient mruliht length should be allowe betwee
the ead of a bend and the flarod portion of the tube
for inatalltion of tho nut and aleeve. Tube cutoff
must be sqmv, and ll burfs rwust bt removed before
dw nut ad slew am pAed on the tube and the flre

164.24 FRnd. Tub. Fistap

Flare4a tube fittinq art of the comp
heion
type,
as shown in Fig. 16-9. Thv tube don not require a
flinS operation. As the nut is tightened, the sleeve is
compressed by the fitting body and deflects into the
outer surface of the tubing wall to create an interfence se betwen sleeve and fittin; and sleee and
tube.

,_

'-

FTrINS ,IL--,-9
!FITTINGS

FLARED TUXE

M=

T
M,S4

SNGL

ITTN

MILA

PIECIS'ON

Mi24486_

THRAD

M
L--S-774

Figure 1648.
TING
ENDS
MS33514S3

2LJ

ITUBE

F~ared Tube Fittings

TBN

FITTING

FLAELESS

MIL-F-18280

SLSEE
TUBETUBE

INSTALLATON
MS335F6A

Figar
16-24

MI

16-8. Farem Tte Fittanp

Fittings of this type are intended for wme in tewonautical fluid systems in accordances with MIL-H544 and NIL.-P-SS 13. They shoud conform to NIL.F.18230 and the instalation instruetloin of MS
33566 should be follow-d.
The externO nmats fittig sod for flardeim tubing
shotild conform to tde dlmsendouas of MS 33514 or
MS 3351IS. For 3000-psi systems, tubing smaller than
0.5-in. used on the pressure or actuating parts at th
ofOW. lumnum r seel
circit
beawmihoul
may be used for return lines. Tubes measuring more
than 0.5-in. may be of steel or aluminum alloy.
Whomer repeatediassebl mW
damag the threaded fitting end caution must be
used if the finting Ws
of aluminum.
The tubing layout and installation should be do
signed so that no bending or springing of the tube is
required for aligunmet with the fitting.
For flardele tube flitings. a tube of less-ductile
tlfiawal tuing
sm
asbW~wgtb
matmal
--suha hlh-et~qt,
tin-wll ubig
mayen userd.s itnear m&a
Whenst
lruted s Routmay
ans
thwedo ben
imrpel
of the fitting when peuar eIsappied to the line. This
~
~
~
A
fluid.
The tubeshoul beecusquus &audWmnal and external bumn should be removed. Tha smt and sleev
must be slipped on ths tube and the tWbn the. hel
aanst the shoulder of the fleting while the Mut amd
sleev are being dgighteed. TU a should be torquod ;n accordum. with the insetrimoasf MS
33565.

Fed hose coupling mequirwmaets ona give inNIL-H-

Cumintews
Installations involving aimp volumes of flid suc
as pneumatic systems or poe phant fa sytes
should use rclati-ely WagM thin-wr.U tubing; standard
tubes and tube fittings could result in unacceptably

fkrxeless fittings and can result in substantial weight

164..

TIwo was TWOe

high weights and pressure looms. Fuel systems shail

be designed to the requirements of MIL-F-38363.
For fuel systams where operating pressures to 125

psi are present, couplings conforming to MIl"-

7061 and NIL-fl-MMG.

63
o e-lnd
V11011
'
Ql iesstC w
Fofdadoilneat tcshofqck
disconnect couplings should he used and should meet
the requiremeints of MIL-C-7413 for Type I fael line
couplings or Type 11 oil line couplingsi. Relleraw
i
shu emd oteseiiainfrdss
Frtehdalcsl-eln.qikdsonc
th yrulc ef-lnuc-isonc
Forsebl
couplings used in Type I and Type 11 hydraulic
are covered by NIL-C.
systems,
detal requireaents
247Todse
fculnsaedsgae:Ca

600 with arated pressure of 600 psi, furnished only in

ae
12-n ue ieadCas300wt
30Owharte
anCl
tbsh
.5i
praiure of 30D0 psi, furnished in 0.25- through 1.0in. sizes.
For protection against poet-crash firm, all flammable fluid systems AaM include &utoinatic~eutoff.
breakaway fittings. These fittings zAe be designed to
break away at the specified crash load factor. and to
shut off and thus Prevent spillag of flammable
Capt3
fliwds. Such culuputlems Oci dic ird in
AMCP 706-201, and in Ref. 12, and in W14A1rD

J
164.2. Paesimnme Fktid
MIL-H-544 requires the "ae of permanently
Joined tube fittings except for production breakts and
component removal. Permanent connections pro-.vide a higher degree of reliability than either fare or
savings for the system. The four methoods in current
t11'
are swaging, braxins, welding, and cryogeic
However, standards do not exist for these cam-.
porints. Urage, installation, procedures, and test
qienet amepmpriea.

16-7

CONTROL PULLEYS

2263 should be considered. Type I couplings connect two tubes with MIS 33660 Type A rolled bead
ends, Type 11 cou~plings connect two tubes with MS
33658 machinixd fitting ends, two MS 33660 Type A
rolled bead ends, or one MIS 33658 machined and one
MS 33660 Type A rolled bead; and Type III
couplings connect two straight end tubes. Standard
Jcoupling sizes are from 2.00 to 8.00 in. This type of
allows expansion and contraction, small

16-7.1 GENERAL
Selection of the proper pulley for a cable system is
important in achieving long cable life. Some of the
earliest control systems for aircraft wer of the cablec
type, using pulleys when a directional change was
required. These systems gave lon&, trouble-hae service when properly installed.
MIL-F-9490 requires that approved Military

angular and radial misalignmenwu. and smooth flow.

Standard pulleys in accordance with MIL-P-7034 be

-'coupling

used in 11ight control systems. The latter spea&

usation cover the requinimenta for single-groove.

the bond between the pulley and its besihag. MIL-P-

saftifion-beauing pulleys of two typms and thre

clasex T'ype I-Nonmetallt and Type lI-Mea&Uic;

miation on the strengths of standard pulleys.

and Clan I1Secondary control, Clan 2-Flight control, and Class 3-Heavy-duty control. For standard
cuefiural
ansMS 2D219, MNS 20220, MS 20221,
and MS 24566. Performance and strength require-.
UIUis and other data cr. given by MIL-P-7034.
W6732 PULLKY SELKCFON
The seletion or design of the proper pule fo
aehieving optimum performance should be based
upondevralguldlina.
puley f te lages f~
ble diameter should be used, and the groove radius
and the pulley strength "klbe appropriate for the
diu of cable being used.
16-7.2.? Masy Damester
The diameter of the pulley has a primary influeceio
upon cable life. An increase in cable life of 1015
them amn be achieved by doubling th~e sine of a pulley
from an initial pulley-to-cable-disotr ratio of less
than eisht. Smaller. but still significant. ianUIS..I
Provoneii aft UVeai
"
u10
the diainctOr ratio Incromse. However, increasing the pulley diantte resuits in Incaeased weight and space requirements, so
the improved cable life must be evaluated against
thene factors. Neveirtheless pulleys of les than 30
times the cable diameter should not he used under
normal circumsftances; thoue with a larger diamete
ratlo should be used wlker possible.
16-7.L23 PWIhy Gres"
The radius of the pulls groove also is important,
Uisa c~ahl in a nufllv where the Proove radius is
too small causes a wedging actloit, possibty resulting
in distortion of the cable. When the groove radius is
too largek insufficlient contact exists, resulting in deformation of the groove tread and distortion of the
cable, and. hience. the possibility of premature failure,
Tb. radius of the pulley should equal onme-hlf the
cable diameter plus approximately 0.015 to 0.030 in.
for cable diameters to 0.383 in.. and 0.0M in. for
cable diameter to 0.5 in. The contact between the
cable and the pulley groove should be equal to approimately onethird the cable circumference.
16.7.33
PA" Sresipquired
The rtength of a pulley may be limited in several
ways dqepsodlng upon the material from wbich it ho
maide. Coseideration must be given to 'be buckling or
sltftin strength of the sheave, the checking and
shearing strength of the flange, and the strength of
16-26

7034 and the MS standards provide additional infor16-7.241 Palsy Perflerssoaac

Sufficent wrap angle of the cable on ft sheave
shouald be provided to overcome the static friction
torque of the bearing. Very =mail wrap angles should
be avoided in order to prevent sliding between the
cable and the pulley instead of pulley rotation.
Standard pulleys use bell bearings that are groe-.
lubricated and seale. The seal arn capable of witht~lfPSmtun* of -55? to 1216C. The
sta~nd1
bearings are Installed In the pulley, and the assembly
then is checked for wobble and wocentrilcty withln the
liit $
ledWI MIL-P-7034. The dusog of
brackets and the placement of guards should allow
clearance for these wobble variations to avoid rubbing or other interference with the pulley mounting
bakt
16-7.2.S Neameal~c Pleys
Nonmetallic pulleys (Type I per b IL-l'-7034)
should be fabricated of a material that meets the non-

tmawf~a~n-. In addi.... ,..,

tion thsmtra-hudmoterqieet
o

ftion tils materia should mette

nocrroiequo
irmn- or
n5O5lestiSshudenocrav otn-r
zin-coated carbon steel cobles, and should moest the
other qualification tests of the specification.
16-7-3 PULLEY INSTALLATION
Pulle installations Awel he dosigned! to insure that
the cable alignment (the angks of direction of chang
with the plane of the pulley) does niot eusced 2 do&. as
shown in Fig. 16-110(A) The effect of cable sagtiog,
wherm long runs ar* used, should be concidered when
detemining the cable position. If necessary. fairlead and rubstrips should be used near the pulley to
limit this mnisalignmenst. The desig of the pulley
mountlnS zackst should be soch that the deflection
of the pulley under load dam not result in a miaalignment angle In aexces of the 2-deg maximum. The
slack-cable side of a system under load shul be
considered to Insure that sagging, binding, an excmmave misalignment do not occur.
The design of the pulley brackets, shol be such
that there as room to thread the ca"l sds without
the remo~val of the pulley. Spacers dha may be rw
be'tevelo the pully, and the mouaitln bon
should be made integral with the bracket wherever
possible. To the maximum possible entent, thes use OfN
thin shims or washers between the pulley and the
sades of the brackes shoul be avoWde. Thus itmsin
are difficult to in in and are lost or omitte usoft

AMCP
puley (Fig. 16-10(9)). For very small wrap anglse,
where the use of two guard pins is Imnprntiak, one
pin may be used (Fi. -16-10(C) ). Whe two or more
pins ar used, they r ity be offse from the point of
tangency in order to obtain the space necuury for

CABPL
2d"

"MAND PLANE OF PULLCY

UW CA
(A) MAJJSM MISMLIGNMENT

GUARD PEIAT CAILE

TAWGWiCYPO*IN I

2 GMe

SINGLWARD PIN/

Sflactions,
7

1U

GUA PINS
, AT CAB.L
TAN,,CY POINTS

1C)

GUA PINS ICM &ML

CA.Es WW ANWAES

their installation (Fig. 16-10(D)). Where the wrap

angle is more than 90 dog, intermediate guard pins
should be installed (Fig. 16-10(E)).

To avoid possible bindnig due to relative do-

the support for guard pin should come

from the same bracket that supports the pulley. The
gap botween the guard and tlh pulley shuld be as
small as possible, yet sufficient to allow for the
tolerance variations, Including wobble and acoentficities. The gap should not be so large to pemit the
cable to become wedged between the pulley flang

and the guard. The recommended maximum gap is

one-half the cable diameter.

MAINTAJIN
CAMILE
AND
PU.LE

CLEAIWMCE

LS...Ciuta

Spring guards should not be used in primary flight

control systems. If used in secondary control systems,
some method of retention in addition to their own
spring effect should be considered. If used, spun

ONE *ImaIW ATE

GUAM PIN

pins should be installed in accordance with Mb

33547.

OFF:S91 FROM*,
TANGENCYPOINT

"16- PUSH-PULL CONTROLS AND

(Di

CABLE
GQJ oS
OcFElVM
Poi ,NSCOW POIEN

Fllgre 16-10. CAWle Allgammt and

Pu~y Guard Locamm
durinrl routine msintenont
e
thrir omicion could
ca--e the pull"y to be misalignedl or induce undirable strese on the brackrt which would result
in premature failure. fle
anmdth c loading of flatmoentin
tension in wesld,
flancki should be
of mountina
avd the bend.no
avoided. Moreovre, adequate back-up structure
shoudd be used to provide a rigid support of the
bracket bae
For long cable life, pulleys in the same cable run
should not be installed ctoser together than the maximum cable travel. In this way, no portion of the cable
will pan over more than one pulley. In any cae, the
pulley should be arranpd and located so that no pertion of the cable is made to reveau direction in beadIng when passing ovea two or more pulleys.
16-7A PULLEY GUAROS
'-"'

FLEXIBLE SHAFTS

,,

Guards or guard pina should be installed at the approximate point of tanency of the cable to the

116-.1

GENERAL

Although push-pull control and xlble shdaft are

similar in appearance. they differ considerably in
construction and applcatlon. basically. both devices
consist of a flexible are that operate inside a casin.
The cr.inh
supposh and acts r a beai msedans for
the core. The pbyt
uil control is usW to
ofansmit
rote.
linear motion by tenion or omprsitnw ofe or
Tng
ibe shaft is usd to tacum it powee
o rotay
motion, esually hoe
curved psth, between two
components. Theme two dievicdl ate desind
specifically to perform their InirA dWW functions, and
they should not be intemhanged.
164L2 PUSH-PULL CONTROLS
The baiic components of the push-il control an
the inner core (usually flexible), the outer tubular
casing or conduit (rigid or flexible), and the end fitting, as required.
The requirements for this type of control wre
defined in MIL.C-7938. Pwh-pull controb am
designated by grades. Grade A controb are made of
specially selected components that are Individually
tested in order to insure that backlash and operating
forces are reduced to the minimum value. Orade 9
16-27

controbs are mads to hilg~uallty commercial standafds for applications not reqturiel' Grade A controls.
Many types of 0rad 8 controils ano available with a
variety of characteristics and style of end fittings to
meet spewa requIrmnents. Applicable date are pro.
vkide in manufacturers' catalogs,
7Ue advantags of the push-pull type of controls
Include:
I. Ease of design and installation because they are
readily routed around obstruction
2. Lower weight and space requiremenits than
pulleys, bell cranksi, and brackets
3. Corromion-resistace and permanenitly lubr5cated construction, resulting in ease of maintenance
4. A variety of end fittingsthat adapt readily to desire control configurations
S. Ready accommodation of motion between the
Input and output anchor points
6. Low cost.
However, for a satisfactory desgnr using push-pull
cONtrols, the limitations Of thi type Of syvstemn must
be evaluated and diutenunindt to be acceptable. Such
consideration should include:
1. Lost motion
2.

my-

f6w,

3. D* assembly'requiredtolinspect the siding core

4. Temperature llutltativas, particularly for asinnblles using nonmetallic seals,
S. TINS 110008111
for the Outer housing to be
anhoe rigidly act only at the end fittings but at
regnia Wintuvals sloes its length (to control friction
dad lost Motion)
C Pow" weighst disadantage for long control
~ ampsabe
eficiecy.The
~ (~d
~control
1~a emien" avraw"ba (strokC) from a pardrw lo@014 mPeol-dped upon its design anti
does#al
g mid.
as1f so sid fittings arm attached oo
domw
em, the Woke is dependent simply
Wepedo @muma ofam that extends past the fixed
*mW 1111N
Manly StYles Of end fittings amc
avin somssescI configurations that wili acemmdm ccntrol strokes of frow I to 5 in., and
mny be easto. tailored,
1442.
CO&We leA"
The allowable push load that may be imposed
upon a push-pull control is dependent upcun the
maximum stroke of the control. As the stroke incensue the eclumn length of the unsupported end
also increases. and acorresponding reduction in compression loading is required. The allowable pull load
usually is equal to the maximum ruWe capacity of the
16-28

control. and is independsnt of the stroke.

As the number and sharpness of the bends and the
length of the contro increase, so will the Internal triotdon. To awhiem the desired output loed, the input
load must Increase accordingly to compensate for
these friction .osese. This factor musm be considered
when selecting a type or control. The possible increase in load. due to an increase in friction, that may
occur during the life of the equipment also should be
considered to Insur continued satisfactory operation.
1648.23 Core Ceulguadem
The inner core sliding member may have a number
of configurations. The simplest form is a single
member or high -tensile-strength spring wire. This
type of control generally is used for light loads, and in
installations having a small number of bends of
gecrous radii (Fig. 16-11 (A)).
Cores of more sophisticated construction should
be used for controls requiring higher load capab~litiua, more flexibility, and minimum backlash.
Thse may be single or multiple strands of wire
wrapped with outer armor to provide stronig but
L~ta nmko,
n

WI.P iC

fUi~fhdw. ,OV

Mnai%

of copnents that'include an action element, such

as a thin, flexible member supported by balls that roll
or slide iii raceways inside the conduit (Fig. 1611(C)). 'Thsen units may be custom-assembled for
minimum friction losse and backlash, and high loadcarrying capabilities.
1642.4 Coesdmlt
outer tubular casing or conduit of a push-pull
may be either flexible or rigid and generally is
clamped to the basic structure at frequent intervals. It
must bt anchored firmly at the ends in order to
achieve the desired control motion. Complete assemblies may consist of sections of both rigid and
flexible conduit,
The flexible outer casing usually is a built-up
member. Typical flexible construction contains an inner liner of hard steel or plastic to provide a good
bearing surface for the core. Around this liner is &
structure of outer windings to provide longitudinal
compressive and tensilc streigth, and to maintain the
itrired flexibility of the contral. This outer member
is sealed in order to prevent moisture and other
foreign matter from entering. This seal may be in the
form of a plastic or rubber outer jacket, or of packing
between the windings.
Rigid conduit may be built up in a manner similar
to the flexible conduit, exoept that it uses rigid-metal
tubing as the structural member. This tubing is bent

"BALL
OUTEROuIER

1A)

ARIMR WRAPPED WIRE CORE

CASING"

16)

SPRING WIRE CORE

SLIDING WIRE

IC)

ARMORED CORE

IGRDOV

ACTION
'clr

ELEMENT
FLEXIBLE
RIBBON

BALL RACE
CONDuiT
SPRING WIRE SLIDING MEMIER

SUPPORT

FLEXIBLE RIBBON. ACTION ELEMENT

TERMINAL)

SLIDING WIRE

CASING

SLIDINGSLIREING

WIRE
MOUNT

SLIDING MEBBER

RIGID END

ItULKHEADL)l

STATIONARY MEMBER

POINT
(RIGID END WITH SWIVELI

FLEXIBLE

KNOB
(MANYMAN
STYLESS

STATIONARY MEMBER
(HEAD CONTROLC

OPTIONAL)
(D)

Figure 16-11.

TYPICAL STANDARD TYPE END FITTINGS

Push-pull Cables and End Fittings

carefully to the desirod shape and fitted to the installation.

16-2.5 FAd FAttlmp
End fittings for push-pull cont-ols are available in
multitude of styles and sizes. Many configurations
have a self-aligning capability, either by flexing the
outer casing or by using a slider mounted in a swivel,
A seal is incorporated into the end fitting to retain
lubricants and to exclude foreign matter. Fig. 16SI1(D) illustrates some typical types of ends.

16-4.3

CASING

FLEXIBLE SHIAT'S

There are two basic types of flexible shafts. One is

used to transmit power, and the other is used for control of equipment. The construction of these two
types is quite different, and they should not be interchanged.
Power-drive shafts are coistructed to transmit the
ma.imum feasible torque. They generally arm constucted to rotate only in one firection, and in small
sizes that can be driven at continuous speeds of up to
20.000 rpm. The casing generally does not fit closely
on the shaft, and therefore the unit can be diaassembled for lubrication and inspection.
Remote-control shafts can be rotated in either
direction. They are built to p~ovide ,maximum accuracy and gene.ally are operated at low speeds.
16-Z9

Since they normally do not require periodic lubrica-

rouive atmosphere for special material considers-

lion or inspection, the contruction does not allow

ready disassembly.
The main elements of P, flexible shaft are cuing,
and fittings, and shaft end fittinp.

tions
7. Required sa'ety factor, possibility of shuck
loading, and starting overloads.
Some of the advantages of flexible power shafts
over other types of torque-transmitting devices ineue
I. Power to equipment can be transmitted at odd
angles
relative to misalignments
the drive shaft.are accommodated
2. Installation

1".13.1

Terqee Capaty

The torque
of a flexible shaft is reduced
the minimum capacity
bond radius
of the shaft is reduced. The

flexible shaft undergoes the most severn type of flexu-

2 ntlainmslgmnsaeacmoae

pattwhileit ibentttyef- two

whenhitun
al arm
phase reviersals occur during ch revolution. As the
bend radius decreases, the cable strands also underSo mome rubbing against each other. The minimum
bend radius for a given shaft is dependent upon shaft
sie number of layers, types of matarial. desired life,
and the required torque output.

eamigy, allowing more flexibility in the location of

equipment.
3. Driven equipment need not remain in the same
relative position to the driver during operation.
4. Torsional fluctuations can be absorbed.
5. Cost is relatively low.
6. Rotating elements arc enclosed, thereby eliminati.g a safety hazard.

1441.3.2 Flexible Power Shaft

Flexible power shafts are designed to rotate in one
direction only. The torque capacity of a power-drive
core in the unwind direction may be only 50% of that
in the windup direction.
_ wi.b a-haft oe.n of the same diamete may have
saignifantly difterent charactertics. The core usually is made up of a single straight wire wrapped with
additional Isarn of wire each of which L wound on
the preceinj layer. Sucmssive layers alternate in

16-.33 Flexible Cox"o Shafts

Flexible control shafts are designd to minimize
the overall deluction and thereby provide the
required accuracy. TLey usually can be rotated in
either direction at speeds of less than 100 rpm. Intermittent oeratio,, to 3000 rpm, with a low (lea than 5
min) duty cycle followed by adequate rest period&,
may be acommodated.
Thewe control amrimbles usually t-re designed with
a casing that coscly fits the core. The end fittinp

pitch direction. Cores may vary ccording to the

number of wires per layer, the number of layers of
wire, the diameter of wires, thi. wire material, the
spacing between the wires, sad the type of construction. These varablas in turn, affect such core
characteriics as torque capacity, trayuverse stiffneo, minimum radius of curvature, efficiency, doWhen mi ming a power-drive shaft, tle following

may be attached permanently. They usually do not

require lubrication. If required, cores can be designed so that there is nearly equal deflection in either
direction of rotation.
When selecting a flexible control, the following ftctors should be considered:
I. Maximum torque to be transmitted
3. Shaft length, in.

factors must be cosdered:

I. Maximum torque that the shaft must transmit
2. Operating speed ranaes:
a. Normal, 1750 to 3600 rpm
b, Special, to 10,000 rpm
e. Special small size, to 20,000 rpm (Searing or
other means should be used to increase the shaft
speed and reduce the torque)
3. Maximum torque capacity of a possible shaft
configuration and effect of operating radius
4. Direction of rotation, preferably such that the
outer layer of wires tends to tighten
5. Normal dalgn for 100 million cycles at rated
speed and torque capacity
6. Standard rating conditions, and environmental
conditions such as elevated temperature and cor-

4. Radius of smallest bend, in.

5. End connections for both shaft and casing
6. Size of core diameter.
Requirements for remote-control flexible shafts
with a steel core and casing arc presented in MIL-S3857. Units built to conform to this specification arm
intended for use in either clockwise or counterclockwise directions. The load capacity and deflection
characteristics differ, however, depending upon
whether the operation is in the winding or unwinding direction for the outer lay"r ot'thc core. The
requirements of this specification should be reviewed
for applicibility to the reqairement at hand. For installations and configuratians requiring special
characteristics, manufacturers' data should be consuited.

16-30

AMCP 7*-20
1-9
Ma'

CABLES AND W[RES

ISTRUCTURAL)

16-9.3 7 YPES CF CABLE CONSTRUC'flON

Cable ismade by stranding many fine wires, which

16-9.1 GENEkAL
asstruturl meber in
Cabls
bcuse
Cabls
beusemy
myasstruturl meber in
special applications. They are of light weig'at, and
they may be made flexible for ease of stowing and
handling. Their usm as tension members - for
opemaing cortrols, slings. and hoists, and as part of
machinery - has resulted in a number of types of
construction. Data concerning the design and use of
electrical cables and wires can be found in AMCP
706-125.
16-9.2
*
*Th:s

..

'

PREFORMED WIRE SMlAN1)

AND CABLE

When a wire is preformed, it is hoJ~caly formed

into the shape that it will assutrne in the r~inihed cable.
relieves the internal stmnaim of thr, were and increases the useful life of cakit thail i; ,ubjezted to
repeated bendirigs. Tho total svreas whit., in the sum
of th.- internal itressts arid tht bendi4g stresse, it,
Wrt~cW by tI~e amount oi the internal stresses. Otherr
advantages af preformned wire cables ame:
1-1can be cut without m~ixing.
2. It is easier to handle, haw les tendtncy to loop
or kink, and is more trataujlt.
3. !t can be u"e wishi swaged terminals.
4. It has little, or no tondency to rotate, and will
run true over pulleys, helping to reduce wear of the
pulleys,
TABLE 16-12.

MILITARY SPLCIFICATIONS FORk CABLES

SPECIFICATION

TYPE

MIL-W-5693

TYPE 1I1X7

MIL-W-5693
MIL-W-5424

TYPE 11I X19--WITH WIRE CENTER.-----..--NONf-LEXIVI.E

307 - WiTHOUT A CORE------------ FLEXIBLE
707 - SIX OUTER STRANDS OF SEVEN
WIRES AROUND A "ORE STRAND

IOF

SU

- -

-WITH

WIRE CENTER--------- NONFLEXIBLE

SEVEN WIRES ---------- FLEX!BLE

I MIL.-W-5424

)X9

can be of vitrious materials. Howowe. foir aitcraft

applications, corrosion-resistant material, as tpezified in MIL-W-5424 or MIL-W.S693, should be. use.
These specifitiations cover wire strand and cables oi
maytpsasdcrbAiTbl162.C te
mabny tpes, asLW-3A
des
rbdin Tbc
y 16se2.Cae
blspeMLW-3Aalomybue.
Tems oua y.o icatcbei
seven-sirand construction. Each ntrand consists ofha
number of individual wi-a. It has been 6etermined
emicay
tisteofonrcinwhsi
i
hstm fcntutowt
cprciyta
vuter strands, supplies sufficient roundness to con.
tact sheave g~rooves with enough outer surface to offord all of the bearing surface required, and provides
eno~gh contact points to prreent abrasion from
being concentrated on too few exposed suriaces.
MJL-W-5424 -^eifiwes other properties of the
diftercra typexs o! cable construction.
"
CALSE CnN
1-.
AL EETO
Whien aslocting the cable fox a specific application,
all peft'nent factors must ht considiered. The requiremeikss musi be naiached urruiv &_ut~k
tiw V4UriUW#r
cabla ,,npertics. A typical comparisoi\ that mfight bt
riade wojld balance the following:
1. Cable strength anid maximum load
2. Cable stretch &&-d
alloviable deflection
3. Operatink c0arn&cistk~s and systan friction (if
applicable)
4. Wire niateriul and environment
5. Cable constract ian life. and ab-m~ion.

-OF

7x19-SIX OUTER STRANDS OF 19

WIRES AROUND A CORE STRAND
19 WIRES
A----------- FLEXIB LE f

MIL--544

WC SIX OUIER STRANDS OF

WRES ROUD A7x7INDEPENDENT

WIRE ROPE CORE ---------- FLEXIBLEJ
16-31

#~

AVwires

16.4.1 cabe S&Iragth

The breaking strenot of acable is determined by
the nat ipatalic acrs-ectional area aipd its material
pro~ws'Ie. The net metalhic cross-sectional area
equals dhe Mmiof the cross-eectionsi area of all of
the individual wires sand. therefore, varies, for a
given nominal cable.

I. -detorrmined

~ Fother

The construction of the cable can take many form

164~.41 C"bl Defllectlea

The total cable ddfiction may resul from either
cosrctional stretch or elastic stretch. The maxinuni stretch allowad by MIL.W-5424 is2%wihen the
cable is loaded to G~% of its breaking strmegth.
Constructional stretch varies from cable to rable.
and results from the small spaces prmaet between the
and the stania, anJI between the strands an J
the ccre aP=e fab-ication. Cables used -n cont-ol
systems, and where large initial deflectiot. cannot be
tolerated, are proof-Io2ded to remove this stretch.
The caible- should Se loaded to a minimum of 60% of
its breakiuF strength in accordance with MuL-C5668. This procedure also is useu for proof-testing
cable assemnblies,
Blatic stretch results froin the rlongnution of the inGiviGuxi wires as the iosa is aripiled. As the kaci is
released, the wires reurn to their original length,

to obtain the reults desiasad, a decuauad in par.

16-8-3. The type of construction wead should be
matched with the operating re~ulem tsufor the
cable. A isystem might be designed using sesmatts of
cablin with diffeirent construction. Aircraft cable
measuring 7 by 19 (7 strands of 19 wires suxt) isproeferred for aircraft controls because of its high
strength, good flexibility, and bendling fatigue meuistance - which allows it to be operated ovw rclatively small sheaves.
The 7by7 (1 sirands of 7wires) aircraft cable isnot
as flexible ssthe' by 19. Since each strandis made up
of only seven wires, each wirt is larger in diameter.
Therefore this type of construction has more ability
to withstand abras.*on tnan does 7 by 'I.9
The I by 19 aircraft strand is considered non*
flexible. It shouie be used only as a straight run section bemause its minimum stretch results in increased
rigidity in contrql systems. It also isused for bracing.
etc_, where its compact structure, hilth strength, and
minimum stretch all provide added benefits.
Othein airciaft and commercial cable types ame
ovailabie. Somne are aesigned for higp enerogy absorption - as in launching and arresting systems,

exceeded. The elastic stretch is determined from the.

product of the loadi times the cable lm~gth divided by

coate rable, partic-ilarly desirsil~e for use as a hand.

hold or guard rai!; and as comiplcx assemblies used

the product of the metallic CrOXAsCCtio~al area andl

for comniunicttions, where electrical conductors

the modulus of elasticity,

16-9.4.3oute

with insulatioc. are provided inside the loaci-carrying

members.hrstehd

pmwided the elastic limit or t *ematerial h&3nsrot been

Sthe

164.4.5 CAibe C Mu oinle.

The operating characteristics of a cable are dep"IdnnImt upon the tyre of constriction and the knstellatlon. A firction-pmeventive compound nmay be
applied during fabrication to reduce the friction of
the cable when it is bent. The number 0t bends, the
radius around which the cable i3 bent, and the pulley
comifsiratfion in which the cable operates all affec-t
open sting characteristics.

tow"Ir-,

-.

etc. Other configurations include plastic-

SAEYWR

AN

C0 a i EK riNS

?ins always should be made iafe. In main structural members, safety can be achievad by drilling a
hole and using a cotter pin or safety wire. As an additional safety measure, bolts and pins should be inserted with their large end, or head, uppermost in
16-94,4 ~deMateialorder to reduce the possibility of their falling out
should they not be properly safetied.
The comptotition of wire used in the fabrication of
In generail, safety wire should be used only where
co,7rosion-maiiuant istocI wire rope isgiven in MIII-Wself-locking fasteners or cotter pins are- not adequate
5424 and MILW-W5693. The physical properties are
to withstand the expected vibfation or stress. Safety
by the manufacturer in o~der to mect the
wire should beattached sothat icaberemoved i
"reuireiaim~ts -f thc Military Specification. Many
accordance with MS 20995. Inconel (uncoated) and
types of materials are available, but their use
Monel (uncoated) wire should be used fT'm all general
shuuld be considered only with the approval of the
lock-ivIring purposes. Copper wire that hrs bce!,
Pnocurng activity. Oil-e. types of cable inclu~de galcadmium-plated and dyed yellow should be used for
vanized carben steri (MIL-W-6940 and MIL-Wshear and seal wiring in ordcr to allow operation or
1511) and no! magiietic corrohion-rmsisting cables
actuation of emergency devices. Aluminum alloy
kMIL..C-t 8375).

16-32

ALCLAD 30S6, anedid and dyed blue in accordmmo with FP.STD-g, should be used ex.

dusively for nifst wiring of magnesium parts. Ali of

0-610MAt-TO

these matoriab can be Identified viasdly by teir

1U wire dsould measure 0.032 in. in diameter as a

minimum for gewA purpoew The doubkb-twX
method of w"ety-wirin dsould be conealaed a,
standard. The singl-wime me0tod may be ued In a
cloaey saced, dosed geometrical pattrn, on part in
electrical qyumns, &nd in other aWlications that
wake the single-wire method xmowe a:a..
Parta shel be safety. wired In such a mut" that
the lock wire is put in tmnsiun wLen the part loomes.
The lock wire always shouid be tvlatd w that the
loop around the head stays down and does not coame
up ove the bolt head, leaaing a slack loop. A pigtail
of 02.5 to 0.5 in., or about 3 to t twistbahould be lei
at tCe end of the wiring. The pirtall Oould be bst
backward or under to prevent snagging. Fig. 16-12 U"lustrates various lock win applications. The two of
safety wire and coter pins Al be In accordance with
MS 33540.

v
'MI Id,

CLOW,c

,
.'-"

k OA

1>

.i-mw

"N
,

flg.

.M

RIg.bad Thred
Tyir
Appl1642. of
Apoketw of Saf,' Wir

"REFEURNCES
I. A FBMA Samdv*d, Section No. 9 - keAichod of
Ewthoaing Load Ratins for Ball Bearlngr. Th.
Anti-Friction BDuring Manufacturers Association, New York, NY.
2. AFEMA Stmarhs. Section No. II -- Method of
Ewvmdnb Load Rdling. for kaller bearings,The
Anti-Friction Bering Man-darturm Association, New York. NY.
3. T. A. Harrm, Rolling Hearing Aralysis, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1966, pp. 221-241,
4. A. Palingren. Ball and Roller tearlng
ring-,

i'"d

%P-.

,,, .

7. Aein GQu'sit Cwclag Wad E,

reft MP i.
Aetne Bali and Roller Bearing Company,
Chicago, IL, 1960.
8. Totrington Bearixgs. Ctalog 567, The
Torrington Company. Twrington, CT, 1967.
9. SKF Spherical Roller Bear ng, SKF Indawuurs,
Inc., Philadelphia, PA, 1966.
10. P. B. Lindley, E&gneevft Pdulg with Nat"..
Rubber. Tie Natural Rubber Producers'
Remarch Atuociation, London. 1966.
11. 'Seals Reference Issue", Madabe Desrg. 43,
WN 22.; qntembex 13. 1973.

Philadelphia, PA, 1959, pp. 115-134.

5. "Bearings Reference Issue", Machine Design. 42,
No. 15, June 20, 1974.
6. Lubricativ, Guide, the Fpfnir Bearina Company,
New Britain, CT, 1964.

12. USAAVLABS Technicst PReport 714, Quehi.worthy Fuel Sydtrm DeSxgn CriteriM and AmWy
,u.
March 197 1.
13. ASTM En~lneerin Desag Gddre. Life Adjutment Factorsfor DWI amd Roller BBewis.

13

:-

,.

\16-33

.....

-7

CH4APTER V7

PROCESSES
17-1 INTRODUCTION
und in
mie tM
dcacap3
This
ufacti"ars mad Jsembly phases of heliopter
congeal. It W
tho bc
mtalwoakn
and shuetprocaeres - camq, forging. extsj
NNal f aWl. Machine shop Iectim and b
d. 7U
typsM of machine tooks also are
mathods of jolaft -_ sch as wvldag, brazg, and
oldrim - are dinutamd, as aft the processes of
and cable
, bonding swaginr
Michani cafa
spllS. Various typos of beat treatment are
deM~bed, includin sutem relieving, conventional
d suifece
quenchiag and tempetin, aging.
hardking. Work hardani techniques, such a shotL- addr.idng, with
paminig and b
the types of materials and Peus whe fatie
VP_

t-i.

O procfis

Tft

tooaling rquliremet nosed to produce a #iven typV

.
or part ate re
of bo
Vendors shotld be used as addional iWfwation
soureus bcacusN of the continuing development of
t
now ngerw and new poiess tb ht
and performance relatiomhts between alteruative
ro
e
tiufa~tui

17-2

METALWORKING

174,1 GENERAL
This peragraph discusses metal-forming processes
and their applications to tha wco ction of helicopum a wll as soei of the parameters governing
the choice of ona pmo among many for the produetion of a particular part. More comprelhnive
di suom,a well as dvJiled deip data, are found
in other documents suc as AMCP 706-100, MILHDBK-5. -693, -694, -497, -6, and -723. Abe, Ref.
I Is an Important sou
for design data and
maudlu*Wia details.
Th, primary mete! frrication proceses are
catig forging, eztnbh, and sbw-mnetul forming,
The cbole of the appropriate procs depuda upon
tlse s" and conapl
y of the pan, the nature and
manptds of the strium to which I will be subject, the material from which it will be made, and
the relative coots of fabrication. In peneral, large,
fairly coapmi perts - which require high rigidity,
e not subject to exie:l stress or impact, and for

which somewhat rester weight can be toleratod can be produced more economically by casting. A
part that will be subject to high arats and in which
toughns also is required - and where high
stregth, lighter weight, and better finish also are
necossary - icght be fotmn4 better by forging. Extruiion fonnirig may be preferable where highstren , doem4olerance parts lkaving a contiiuouis
contour - e.g., rails, tubing. and beams - - are
raiuired. Large-area, thin-wall, deei-draw configurations mote often will be formed from sheet
metal. In most cans, some machining, joining, and
Jmiahing will be involved. On'y a detailed analysis,
with a careful evaluation of the several process and
material co"ts, will provide a sound basi for selecting
the memal-for.ing process for a particular part.
-

-n-,

andi*p4.n~~

parts will constitute the major portion of any

helicopter. The parts produced by these processes
range from the smallest and most precise instrumentation to the largest castings for gearbox housings.
The materials employed in these processes include
iron. stees, high-performarnce alloys, copper, magnesium, aluminum, and titanium.

CASTING

Metal castings are fomed by pouring molten metal

into a prepared cavity and allowing it to solidify. The
casting processes most commor.iy used in the manufacture of helicopter components are sand, in.
vestment, permanent mold, and centrifugal. Casting
is selected over alternative methods primarily on the
basis of cost. The strength of castings generally is
lower than that of wrought alloys. However, the
structural properties of castings are the same in all directions, and, therefore, in case of symmetrical
loadings a casting may be the most efficient design.
Castings should not be mployed when the prev minant loadingp arm not steady, i.e., when tht loads
either are alternating or involve impact, because
catings do not have the toughness of wrought alloys.
The possibility of the inclusion of sand or cther impurities, blow holes, or other invisible flaws results in
the need for careful quality control of those castinp
used in critical applications. MIL-C-6021 provides
the standards for dassirication of castings on the
basis of the hazard following their failure, and also
17-1

specifics applicabie quality control roqu.roemsn.

cs;lmitations onthe ihape. :lz and intricacy of

quirements are given in Chapter 9, AMCP 706-.103.

17-2.2.1 Samd Castdsp
Satid casting consists o' forming a mold from san,I
coicised around a suitable pattern of the part tw
be made. removing the pattern, and pouring ~
molten metal to roplace tho pattern. The advantages
&this piroc~a are: almost any metal may h~e used,
thr-m i3 almost no limitation to the size or shape of
the part, and the process is relatively low in cost. In
adi4tion, extreme complexity is possible, tool costs
sre low, and the process provides the most direct
route from pattern to mold. There are also disadvantaps:tricate
1. Sand castings have rough surfaces,
2. Close tolerances are. quite difficult to achieve.
3. Some alloys develop defects.
~~~~4.
Long, thin projections are n~ot practicable.

-,

if

~~~~S.
Some machining usuAly is necessary.
10725331metal

Investment casting uses patterns of wax made in a

split mold. These patterns can be combined into coinpV~x assemblies. The assembly then is "invested" by
coaiting, first with a fine slurry of refractory powder
andbinermaterial and then with progressively
coarser layers of sand. When the resulting mold is
baethe wax ismelted out (lost), leaving a smooth..

17,21A. Csalft~jigat Csutigp

In sand and initestmcrit vustip.%, the mold is filled
with tncizia simp1 by thc force tof rsvity. In centrigl~~dOftj~~'~~i
ttua oc 07
imn
by
fpinnin
tfh
vi eMsuert Pth wonath
t
mci is
bysint b'rs
vAkteuoa w. s
cagdt t h to~ee
a erttdaa
two axea. Ctll'rifu&- fhc
- IP1 fitl theWA
1
pletely. Gases aamd impw' irle are ;oxatak0 near,
teCne
oain n s~
ccsaekp
a minimum.
This method is particularly *4&*r&bk :to s-aaal, 'Incastinigs that otherwise watild be difficult io
gate. A good surface finish is ebtah'te. However,
tolgcoafrceriul atn 5 hhadte
castings rmt. be symametricaal. Alloys of separable
meusnynobe'stitdeel.
p2
OGN
Thc iorging ti *amcial pain ~invulit~ hswtidra- -a
blank t~o a plastic state and hammering it into
i-hape. In this process, groat ttrength it imported because of the bene~clal grain flow that takes place as a
reult of the kneading action on the metal. Ther grain
flow is changed to follow the contour of fthpart, rosuiting in a tough, fibrous structure. U;Maly, tht
shaping takes place betweev closed dime that determine the contour of the forged part. ForginpS have

Thsprocess has the advantages of high dimninlaccuracy: excellent surface finish, and
yuflhinifiin iafiuicacy. Moreover,
any-s
metal may be used. However, the size of the part that
can be formoid is limited. the labor cost is high, and
expensive patterns and molds are required.

17-2.2.3 Pernameut Mold Custlgs

In the sand arnd investment casting prove.mes, the
mold isdestroyed duving the removal of each casting.
In permanent mold casting, the molds are madec of
metal, usually cost iron, die steels, g.aphite, copper,
or aluminum. The permanent mold is machined for
dimensional tolerance and draft angles. Vent plugs
are inserted into the cavity to allow gase to escape
when the miolter. metal is poured. The process is
readily automated, with mahy molds on a turntable
using a fixod pouving, cooling, and ejection cycle.
The ptocrs has the advantages Gf good surface
finW- &kid grain struciure. high dimensional accura~y. rapid production- rate, low scrap rate, and
low porusi~y. Dieidvatasges inulude high initial mold
11.2

sistance to fatigue, and are used for applicstivn.z isi

shafts, axles, springs, ihairs, rotor hubs, rind similar
moving parts. in the detiagn of forgings, it is AX
sary to consider the lower level of strength normal to
the grain flow. This cionsideration may nLfgvt thc
orientation of the grain flow as well as the crci~aection of the part. The coist of foigings is subotantixly
higher than that of caitinp.

1-.

XRSO

XRSO
1-.
Extruding is a process in which a billet or slug of
metal is pressed by a ram until the pressure iuiside the
work piece reaches the flow state of the materisl. The
material then i,! squeezed through a die thii cornkains
an orifice &~the desired shape. Became uf the high m.duction ratio, the; ietal has excellent transvese fluw
lines. This provides greater 5'trength in 'zbe longitudiiaal direction and lower strength in the trans,-qrse
direction. The nonferrous alloys of aluminum, magmiesium, and copper are used most oomnmoni~y for oxtrusions. bu some steel alloyn are extrudable.
Very complex shapes are possible at a cost much

LI

t*.9

: ~*
,

3m. then tha of uwcining. Extruded shape often

can replawe %f-lt
and puts previotsly madJm1d from bar sock. Te cost of extrusion die is
rdadvely low, making &Aort runs practicable. ExtrUded trmis and Wkt baa, bas and tubes, and
stringr find rady cp* atlon in helicopter structures,
17-,.

SHEET-M"ETAL FORMING

In addition to lr. sarfces -real. such a fuselage

sbells and s"us, a mutitude of smaller parts are
made by set,,mesal forwing.These include stralps,
brackets, clamps. cups, presmare housings, headers,
Insrs gromnmets strinrs, and conduits. Sheet
thicknms normally is 0.013 to 0.141 in., but thicker
blanks
may be used for vanous draw-forming oPertbies She
matbrius fror which metal p-rts for
h
i are tormed include alumlnum, titanium,
helicop
stersare
fo dnusually

17-241 Ma- m. Fenrlng

Many sheet-mn parts are made by machine#-- n
ao
,
ftian6 at sart with sheet-metal
blanks. The operations take place within dies, which
are moowfod on various machine designed to supply
,_Cti:& forces io shape thi materials in the dks. There are
dies for cutting. bending, squeezing, and drawing.
The material may be subjected to a combination of
sw al, or all. of these operatons in s single die or in
Ssuccssion of dies. Certain operations are named
for tO manner in which the force is applied,
By far the largest amount of cutting, bending,
squeming. and shallow drSwing is done with the drop
h..imater. In this machine, a failing or powered weight
.. oucc
=
.,
..
l_to nerfnnn thefrneinsary
function.
"In hydroforming. hydraulic pressure is furnished
by a fluid to one side of a rubber diaphragm. This
"diaphragmpresses against the metal blank and forms
it around a punch that moves up into the forming
mold cavity. The pressure causms the metal to flow
evenly around the punch with little thinning or s;ipping. Hydroforming usually can adhive in one or
two operations the same results that would require
four or fiv, draws in a normaal press method. It usually is employed with higher strength alloys,
In stretch-forming, the sheet metal is pufled ovti a
form block. The material is strethd beyond its cln*tic limit, causing it to take a permanent set in the desired contour. There is no spring-bo..k, but allows= must be made for dimensional cha 1gas in the
meta. Large parts with compound curvatures such s the external surfaces of fuselages, cowliugs,
and fairings - may be made in this manner.

...

.. ..

Spinning is uas. when cold forming circular, symmetrical shedt metal paWi such as pans. covers,
shields, and bullet -ee shapes. In spinning, a flat circular blank is clamped on a die or chuck iii a lathe
type machine. The blank is Kevolved or spun and the
metal is formed over tin chuck, using hand held forming tools. Parts with return flanges ray . formed
by using band held forming tools, or by using collapsible or take-apart spinning chucks. Parts "n be
naimmnd to sia on the machine, using conventional
im cut-off tools. Wooden chucks can be made
economically for prototype and short run parts
whereas aluminum and steel chucks are suitable for
produion.
In explosive, or high-energy, forming, shock waves
ac generated oy explosives such as dynamite,
exploding gSase )r an electrical discharge. The shock
waves are transmitted through a liquid medium,
water, to the work piece, fanning out in all
directions and forcing the metal into a preformed die
cavity. Materials of very high strength can be formed
in this manner. The same materials formed bX other
methods would have excessive spring-tbck, but, due

to the high energy rate and the uniformity of distributioa, very ittlc spint.-back ccforming.

aftcr c.plosive

17-2.5.2 Shdp Fadcadem.

Although the machine-forming procses previously discussed are used in the fab'ication of a large
number of parts, the majority of the sheet-metal work
involved in the manufacture of helicopters is performed in a sheet-metal shop. Here sheet metal is cut
into various flatwork pattorns; punched, drilled,
folded. seamed, crimped, beaded, grooved, turned,
rolled, and burred; aid then joined by clinching,
soldering, brazing, welding, rivetsa8, or adhesive
bonding.
Many design and fabrication techniques are available to add strength and rigidity to simple sheetmettl parts. For examplei strength can be incorporated into the structure by men of flanges, ribs, cor.
rugations, beads, etc. These and similar metalworking operations can be performed either hot or
cold. Hot-working may involve little or no strain
hardening, whereas in cold-working, considerable
dislocation and strain hardening can occur. Work
hardening can produce beneficial effects, such as increases in tonsile and yield strength, but accompanyirk# dccreascs in ductlity and toughness also may
result.
ReSardlesw of whether the sheet metal ii, machineformed or worked in the shop wit'i press brakes or by
hand, the metal will be subjected to bending in many
17-3

ways. The em with which a ntal cait be bent is de.

pemdmt on ma'y factors. The Vame important ae the
amn olf he metal itmelf, Its hardne, temper, and
pWar working, and the orientation of the bend rota0"iv to the diction in which On tbWhee was rolle. In
Table 17-1 data are peme % to lilnetra the widc
wrlety of characteristics avkiiam from working
d for repreWar
sheet natls Minimum red#
ana
estative metals In Fig. 17.1 omrnau fg
operations, and their recomwmded bewd
cur"
iflustrated.
radii
17-3 MACHINING
17-.1 GENERAL
This paragraph diacume machining practiend

TABLE 17.1.

the relationship bewee the deigner and the

machine shop in the contructimo of helicopter Pats.
" a detal
More omprebuisv dlmeen,m well
design da, will be found in Chapter 1O, AMCP
706-100. and MIL-HDBK-5),-6934, 497, -64 ,
and -723.
As distinguished from tbh forming opeatons diocused in the preceding paragraph, macining involve the removal of material from the work pice.
Thus, proper deign, dimeoiinlng. and seqummncg
of operations are important because an error, ome
media is not my orected. Prope, design of the
part is esmetial for a quality machining operation,
and the design must be complete in every detail
before any material enters the machine shop.

SEND CHARAC1ERISTICS OF SELECTED METALS

STEEL:
TEMPER AND CONDITION
t'.

t l.i-^U

..

BEND CHARACTERISTICS

!-I

.rn

%N, VU,

A@1C oAnI

r - t PERPENDICULAR TQ ROLL

No. 2-1/2 HARD-RB 70 to 85

No. a-1/4 HARD-RB

(.

90 deg PARALLEL TO ROLL

180 de._PERPENDICULAR TO ROLL

No. 4No. 5-

180 deg FLAT ON ITSELF IN

ANY DIRECTION

RB 65
Re 55

CARBON S 0.0i6 OR LESS

CARBON %0.150 TO 0.25

180 dea FLA' ANY DIRECTION

180 deg f - t

THICKNESS t, in.
_

MINMUM BEND RADIUS r FOR STEEL

MINIMUM
45,000

_OF

TO 1/16
1/16 toI/4
1/4 to 1/2
ALUMINUM
ALLOY

YIELD STRENGTH psi

50,000

t/Z
it
2t

It
2t
3t

MINIMUM BEND RADIUS Ih 1/A in. FOR THICKNESS tOir..

0.025 0.032 0.040 0.050 0.063 0.090 0.125 0.250

TEMPER

0.016

ALCLAD 3004

H32

5254 AND
5254 AT TEMP.

H34
H36

2
2

2
3

3
4

H38

1
1

1
1
2

3004.5151

17-4

0
3

2
4

8
18

6
9

24
24

is

40

....

tZt

i'7~
-.. .
muing chips to come off in sapuents. hi makes the

TUBING

`DRAN SHELLS

. .. .

a x 0J25 d

attainumt of a fnefnish diffcult.

Important fetors in the overall cmt of ma=hbinu

are dwwol
m-aW,
___________d_

Mr2a0 finish tool temperature, and tool life. A

major parameter is borsepower. Table 17-2 lisds the
relative values of horsepower required for turning.
"drilling, and milling repsentative metals. Horepower, surface finish. and too liUf may be used as a
measure of machinability by compiling the rmults
obtaine for auch with the results obtained u ider the
5 TIMES
MINOU
FOR TEN
THE M
METALALIUh
R=3TO
MINIMIUM BEND RADIUS

(B' 'LING
17-i.

Sam&"

Ma

ge
smetry,
and tle wat-

d.huabllsy of the metal being maa*iW. Methods of

meauxrng the nia ebillity of a given matrial we
bosed upon cutting ratio, shear anglei horsepour,

(A)FLANGES

IVnt

Ung iaW employed. A secondaty factoc it the war-

Pal

Ptdii

on" E.I

pm,

s ihSA 11 sel a.d10

maId ot(Ia~
n
machinabble
are turntbree major
m
,'b'n
shopother
operations
operations
arc
and drilling.
All
ing, m!lling
derived from thee three. In turning operations, the
work plew is turne against a cutting tool. In mifling
operations, the work piece remains at a fied height
and is moved back and forth under an arbor or spindie hnidpin the mubibladiad cuttfin tnl. The tnal ri-

tatm on an axis paranhe to we plane of the work

t7&J MAa NIWG OPRIATIONS
The mc
ihre'd to in this dtmiscuno ar cut-

which are
dig tool tys Qew tyWp of aumai
dpe%,
include
electrical
discharM,
msed to a liessr

table, and feod to the work piece is made by vertical

adjustment of the tool. Drilling operations arm conducted by amas of a drill t-,Anlg turned into the work

pwec.

al, ukrumaic, abrasive je

ehtoemlclmd c
ad pma ar. All can be programmed from
uamerll controi by tap ar by moputer so that
only aominal supervision is required. Thia maults in

17.33 ELEMENTS OF MACHINING DESIGN

The umoothnsse of the srface produced by machine-cutting or metalfinishing operations is expImed in RMS microinches. Measurement stand-

reduactoms for quatity and quality

ANSI
by extvtine
ards for them surfae textures re iven
v
l

Amowq tho operatdo performd with cutting tool

t
reUp1mnnuag planing. Aang,
machiss an winig
noutiand thread milling
broAhn
dilg
sni
ueWboq an die thradlig. A tool
that cu with one point o"r odg Is rehnd to as a

ojertions are given in Table 17-3.

The tolerance aid limits applied to-a dinunsion
on the drawing of a pat will determine the kind of
machining proess that should be used. Thus, for a
dimemion requiring a tolerance of 0.002 in., it is ap-

and millin cuttes

prpriate to use a grinder rather than a lathe or

Was.
hayv mo thUm oas cut
During machiing opertloai, meta removal taIes
plea tkmhrog threm distnc types of cutting action,
speedbl upon the type of material being cut.
MMimard materiahl with a low codflciet of
ktion t oww a coatitios chip that ten& to foul
whle otW ad ductaie mar& with a
do UWek,
high o0feledat of ffiction give a continuous chip

milling mcbiuine sce the time spent trying to hold

this tolerance on a lathe would prove expensive. On
the other hand, a part that crries a tolerance of 0.015
in. probsbly is more appropriately machined on a
lathe or milling machine rathr than prenmon
ground.
The established dlaa of tolerance include run-

uwc
006q

l"l.s

2a

tool.

numne

PA

1.I14M

Rar,row.ntstlwo w~lthuJ C' mr

with a built-up edWe. This action contributes to ort

ning or slking clearance (RC), location clurance

(LC). locaton ransition (I) location interfereace

Wtool
Wefe rqiring optinum tool omuetry. prop
cttin speed, ad proper cutting fluid to nmne
matriaM are
ai.
Iritt
beet aw ndum
removed by a comblnatloea of shear and freatue,

(LN), and force or shrink (FN). In RC, one part

move insde the other. LM LT, and LN am used
mainly for th eassembly of sationary pars. FN
yieds comat bore prsum. The relationship
17-S

l4

I-U

AMCP 706.202
TABLE 17-2.,' UNIT HORSEPOWER VALUES FOR REPRESENTATIVE METLS

MATERIAL

HARDNESS

TURNING

DRiLLING

MILLING

MAG1SIUM ALLOYS

40-90 Br

0&

0.2

0.2

ALUMINUM ALLOYS

30-150 B,

0.3

0.2

0.4

COPPER ALLOYS

20-80 RB
80-100 RB

0.8
1.2

0.6
1.0

0.8
1.2

TITANIUM

250-375 Br

1.0

1.0

1.2

PH STEELS

170-450 B,

1.5

1.4

1.7

CARBON STEELS

35-40 RC

1.6

1.4

1.5

ALLOY STEELS

40-50 RC

2.0

1.7

2.0

TOOL STEELS

5G-55 Rc

2.2

2.0

2.2

TUNGSTEN

321 Br

3.5

3.3

3.6

TABlE 17-3. "-RIPESENTATIVE SURFACE

F1 IISHES OBTAINED IN MACHINING
OPERATIONS

OPERATION

RMS FINISH,

BURN ISHING

2-4

LAPPING

2-8

_duced

-_

HONING

2-10

POLISHING

2-10

REAMING

8-50
5-150

GRINDING
BROACHING
DRILLING

15-60
_.
75-200

between the limits and allowances for holes and

shafts for a Class 2 lit arc illustrated in Table 174.
Among the more frequently encountered elements
of design are cams and gears, keyways, splines, and
serrations. Each gear type performs a specific role in
power transmiuion. Gears may be cut on a milling
machine or by hobbing, but more frequently are proby a shaper-cutter working on a preformed,
forged gear blank. The types of gears employed are
discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
Splines, serrations, and keys are devices for attaching itcms such as gears, cams, pulleys, and torque
bars to the power shaft in such a manner that there
will be no interfacial slip caused by the torque imposed. Splines and serrations often are cut with a
spline roller, keyways with &mill or shaper. There are
many kinds of keys, such as feathered, gibhead, plain
flat, plain square, round, saddle, tangential, and
Woodruff.

MILLING

20-300

17-4

JOINING

TURNING

20-300

17.4.1

GENERAL

SHAPING

20-300

Joining operations include welding; brazing;

soldering; mechanical fastening, induding rivets,
bolts. nuts, washers and screws; adhesive bonding;
swaging; and cable splicing.

SAWING
17-6

UNIT HORSEPOWER/IN./MIN F"OR:

250-!000

AMCP 1` 6-202
TABLE 17-4. VALUES TO BE ADDED TO OR
SUB1TRACTED FROM BASE DIMENSION FOR
HOLES AND SHAFTS TO CALCULATE
TOLERANCE
_____________________

CLASS AND FIT

(Inthmuandths of an inch)
LN
FN
RC
LC ILT
-

-0.9
-0.0

-1.4
-0.0

-2.2
-0.0

-1.4
4~.0

SHAFT

-.0.5
-1.1

0.0
-0.9

+0.5
-0.6

+2.5
-1.6
-

-0.5

-0.8
23
+2.0+.8

-0.0

+2. t2.28

change. Many parts fail in service because ol strris

concentrations, whic~t tend to cause failure b) 1istigue
even whed thc regions of stress concentra Jon are
small - and are almost always traccable to impro-1.4
Per design or fabrication. The effect of joint d_.,:ign on
-0.0
I stress concentration is illustrated in Fig. 17-2~.
Joint design must take into consideration tti prior
+3.
'istoay of the parts being joined and the p.rticular
*3.01
characteristics of the metal or metals. Thus highly
-

0.2

2.5

-. 5

-1.6

3.9

-3.

WELDING, BRAZING, AND

SOLDERiNG
17."1 Weldig
Welding 4 the proem in which pieces arc joined or
fused together, with or withouat a failler material, so
that a cohesive bond is formed. There are two priMaly types of welding: fusion welding, in which
molten metal is formed between the pieces to be
joined; and forge welding, in which presure is
applied to cause the plasticized surfaces to diffuse.
A more recently devoloped fusion welding technique is electron beam (EB) welding. In this process.
astream of electrons emitied by a hot cathode is
focused to a fine beam by an electrostatic or magne17-4.

t..~~

Ia.J

the parint metal. Any abrupt change in the surfuce

contour causes a stress concentration at the j~oint of

HOLE

ALLOWANCE

7(0o-l00. MIL-HDB9K-S, -693. -694 -697. -72 4.MILSTD-20. and ANSI Y 32.3-1969.
Wherever possible, vWlde joints should I.: madc
with smooth-flowing lines that blend graduwily with

cold-worked materials have lockoW-up strec

~es that

are relieved by the heat of welding, and t;is may

result in distortion or a decrease in strengkii. The
rapid heating and cooling of the weld can produce
thermul stresses from expansion and contraction t.'it
are quite large. Heat cracks are more apt to occur in
weld metal than in the basn metal because the weld
metal cools last and essentially is cast metal sith
columnar grains. Corrorion properties also wiay be
affected. For examnlc. although Type 304 stainless
itteel is corrosion-resistant, chromium carbid.-s form
in the grain boundaries in welded areas, lea%iii~g the
rest of the grain unprotected. Compensation for such
alloy changes may be provided by the filter ma,terial.

STRESS

CONCENTRATION~

-te
-r no*iile. and

weldsi of high depth-width ratio, with corisequent lack

of distortion, can be obtained. The operation must be
conducted in a vacuum, and consequently is expensive and time-consuming. The proess isused mainly
where high heat input, precise placing of the beam.
and cleanliness of vacuum weldirig can be exploittet.
The prcesa is useful on reactive, vacuum-melted
materials such as titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and
beryllium. It gives the same control of impurities a6 in
the original material. This technique has been successful in welding titanium forgings; for the main
rotor hub.
Ref. 2 provides a more detailed discussion of
welding practices. In addition, MIL-STD-22 dismacsse welded joint designs for manual and semiautomatic arc and gas welding processes, although it
does not apply as a standard to aeronautical equipment. Additional information is found in AMCP

SmoOnh
FO

Figure 17-2. Weld Coatove arx! Stress Conce ~ration

17-7

Joints shuldb located tothat the stire we'd

groove is vitcible to the welder and no obsUUtrcions

umpair the acgeuuibility for welding. On all joints
welde from both sides, the root of the first weld
should be ground to sound nmea before welding the
second side. Commonly used welding symbols ame
givwn in Fig. 17-3. Representative butt joints are
shown in Fig. 17-4. representative cirner joints in
Fig. 17-5. and representative tee joints in Fig. 17-6.
17he welding procedure to be followed in the tabri'
cation of a peat will be determined by the design and
will be defined by the contractor as a proem specification. Tho cont and effectiveness of a welded construction will be determineid by the prescribed procedure. Pror to welding. the welding procedure and
the welding operator must be qualified in ac-

17-42.

1auhms1

The Mainis of two pubt by brazing requires the ue

Of nonferrous fill rod. tulna, or powder. Tb. pisces to
be joined and the filler material are brought to a

temperature that is below the melting point of the

materials to be joined but above the malting point of
the brazing material. The brazing material wets the
sufcso h icst e onI n houhcpl
Wry action then draw the mlts Into Ohe sae.
between the pearts. The optimium strength occurs
when adhesion is pFset between the molecules of
the brazing materialk and the molecules of the bm
materials. Under these conditions, some alloyiarg
takes p~ace.

cordance with MIL-STD-248. Qualification as-

surance requirements for welds are discussed in

Chapter 6. AMCP 706-2013.

B-14 f\

A
0O'TO 1/8"

(A)SINGLE-V BUTT JOINT, WELDED BOTH SIDES

B-41
T

soo8-46
L;tO M

ItC

(B) SINGLE-V BUTT JOINT, YIELDED ON BACKING

A, ELfhENTS
OFAWELDING
SYMBOL

FLANGEB-31

cw*.

JA
Fl

IL

CROOVE(C)

A-W

91
ia BASIC
ARCANDGAS
WELD
SYIMOLS
FI

'IB-11
f

XK X( W 1
1ECBASIC
RESIS
IANCEWELD
SMVOtS

A0._.
0 IEL
SUPLEUTAR
SYMOLSNOTE:
(D'____________ELD_____L

17-8

Figure 17-3.

Welding Syinbula

TO 1/16"'

DOUBLE-V BUTT JOINT, WELDED BOTH SIDES

JOINT

BALI,

uA.

'-""

NUMBER
B-14

B-101

.ING

WELDING

dg
60

(m) in.
1/8

POSITIONS
ALL

60
45

1/8
1/4

ALL
ALL

X min, OP!E)N

FLAT, VERT., OVER

1/2
20
8-41
8-46 h 12
1/2
F L.AT
ALL
1/8
8f-31 j60
8-10 MAXIMUM PLATE THICKNESS - 1/8 in.
REINFORCEMENT OF GROOVE WVELDS SHALL
BE 1 /32 TO 1/0 In. AS WELDED.

Fluvre 17-4. b~presematalu

St Joleb

AkMP 7

M2O2

T-I2 (SEE NOTES 1, 2. AND 3)

.

1/8"

TTO

(SEE NOTES 1AND 2

'

(A) OPEN SQUARE CORNER JOINT,

WELDED ONE SIDE
C-2
(SEE NOTES AND 3)"

6
-

-TI?

S,T12 main

(3) OPEN SQUARE CORNER JOINT,

WELDED BOTH SIDES

C-20

(SEE NOTES I AND 2) T

0" TO 1/8"j-1/8"
rm

1/81-,
mi

"i
SF=

'

o"

(C) OUTSIDE SINGLE-FILLET-WELDED

1'nnaRn JOII

(A)SINGLE-BEVELED TEE JOINT, WELDED,

ONE SIDE, FILLET REINFORCED
T-14 (SEE NOTES 1 AND 3)

Si2 --- %~1

(B) SINGLE-BEVELED TEE JOINT WELDED

BOTH SIDES, FILLET REINFORCED
T-32 ISEE NOTES I AND 3)

0"
TO 1/16"
1/8"rmin

"mmA20min

C-21

S
(SEE NOTES 1AND 3)
0" mEin
Ey
(D) DOUBLE-FILLET-WELDED CORNER JOINT
NOTES:
1. REINFORCEMENT OF WELD SHALL BE
1/32 TO 1/8 in. AS WELDEDJ.
2. JOINT SIIALL NOT BE USED WHEN ROOT
OF WCLD ISSUBJECT TO BENDING TENSION.
3. SIZE OF FILLET "S"SHALL BE AS GOVERNED
BY DESIGN REQUIREMENTS.
Fkgv 17-5. Represetatw Corser Jois

I
-

BrrAing has the advantage that it can be used to

join dlisimilar metals. The rivting point of brazing
materials is above bOOF. Brazing materia include
silver, copper and aluminum alloys; nickel-chrome;
and silver-mangmane. Brazing techniques include
torch, reistanw, induction, furnace, and dip brazing.
Avnzity of fluxes isumd.
rits and tolerances arm of particular importance in
brazing. Lap joints are necessary whenree strcngth is
a consideration. The only allowable loading of

(C) DOUBLE-BEVELED TEE JOINT,

FILET REINFORCED
NOTES:
REINFORCEMENT OF GROOVE WELDS SHALL
BE 1/32 TO 1/8 in. AS WELDED.
2. WELD
JOINT IS
SHALL
NOT TO
BE BENDING
USED WHEN
ROOT OF
TENSION.
SUBJECT
3. SIZE OF FILLET "S"SHALL BE AS GOVERNED
B.
BY SIGN
DESIGN REQUIREM
REQUIREMENTS.ENTS.
F11ure 17-6. Rip

ousilative Tee Jolsat

braned joints is in shear. An overlap of three times the

thickness of the thinnest member gives the greatest elracioncy. Butt joints provide a smooth joint of minimum thicknew, but gre more difficult to fit. Scarf
joints maintain the smooth contour of the butt joint.
and at the same tim provide the large area of the lap
joint.
Joint clearance is the distance between the surfaces of the joint into which the brazing material
must flow. For any given combination of base ond
17.9

filler metals, there is a best joint clearance. Values

below the minimum clearance are weak because the
alloy does not flow into the joint. Clearances beyond
the maximum also result in joints with lower
stmeigth. The normal range of clearance is 0.002 to
0.010 in.
Brazing materials and processes, with approved
specifications, are listed in MIL-B-7883.

rfastening,

rivets; diagonal pitch, the sracing between the Deaums

rivet centers of adjacent rows; and margin, the
specinl between the edg ofta pant and the vaitwline
of the nearest row of rivets.
For structural and machine member joints the
pitch should be such that the tensile strength of the
plate in the distance between rivets in the outer row is
equal to the shear strength of the r~epeting siections
of rivets. The rivet diamete dis uulecte so that d 17A42.3 Sederlag
LK/1rto d - 1.4%476he~re iis the thicknessi of the.
The principles and techniques for soldering are
plate. Good dailg practice calks for plac4n tke
much the same as for brazing, except that soldering
center of the first row of rivets a minimum of oe and
alloytk are primarily tin-lead base alloys that melt
ono-hinl( rivet diametes away from the edge of the
below 8000 F. Soldering is restricted primarily to
plate. For multiple rows, the transvers pitch is 1.75 d
joining sheet-metal surfaces and wiring for electrical
(see Fig. 17.7). It is also required that:~
connections. Copper and steel surfaces, and surfaces
1. Bearing stress of rivet and plate be uniformly
coated with copper, tin, zinc, or other compatible
distributed over the projected area of the rivet
materials. may be soldered. Aluminum and stainless
2. Tensile strus be uniform in the metal between
rivets
stee are examples of metals which are difficult to
solder. Cleanliness and proper selection of tht solder
3. Shearing stress be uniform across the rivet
and the flux in relation to the surface. to be joined are
4. Accumulation of stresse on rivet be mini-.
r-ized.
of utmost importance. No porosity can be tolerated
in soldered joints. Electrical continuity and complete
Rivet holes usually tie made .iveral thousandths
sealina auainst fluids arm normal reiuirements.
of an inch larger than the nominil diameter of the
rivet. On comtptession the rivet e:parvdbi to film thic
hole while also forming th drm head Puchn
17.43 MEHANCAL
ASFEINGoperations may cause d~sgratao in the strength of
Bvcause of the convenience or mechanical
the plate surrounding. the hole. An annealing operation may be desirable to restmr strength in these
parts t1a need nt-var be disassmble often
are joined mechanically, with resultant poov j.istriarea. Structural arld machine menabe rivets usually
bution of stresses and incieased weight. Such parts
are made of wrought iron cr soft steel; but copper,
well may be joined more effectively by welding,
aluminum alloy, Manel, and 1rkndoe rivets way bb
brazing. or adhesive bonding
There asho is the quettion of which of the hundreds
of types of mechanical fasteners to usc. The result
often is overdesian. with Poor strmigth balance
between the fasteners adtepurts joined. Mort-.
over, there is little in the literature to guide the designer in making broad choices in mechonical
fastcning. However, there are more than 10 Military
Sp'oWPcations on specific fasteners., and MIL-F;9700 ar~d MS-178S5 contain general specifications
and U.andares for screw threaded fasiriers. Follow'
ing is a discussion of various methods of rtiech'qnical
fastening.

JJ

17.43.1 Rivetls
For &lIaircraft applications, p~articularly whare dissimilar metals amc involved. rivets sAnil be Wewithi
p~iiner. Ohme an adhesive is placed between the parts
heing riveted in order to dampen vimlations and to
minimiu failuire due to fatigue.
Important items of rivet joint design are pitch, the
spacing between rivet centers; back or transverse
pitch, the spicing between centerlines of rowts of
17.10

X=FITCN DISTANICE

Figuei 17-7.

kusvet Spacing

AMCP 706-202

required where weight or resistance to corrosion are

important.
Although there are no gerer~i Military Sp~cirications on rivetinig, there are miom thui 50 Military
Specifiations covering particular types of rivets. A
general tiveatment for riveted joints it. steel. alurrinum, magnesium. and titanium isgiven in Chapter 8,
MIL4IHDBK-S.
m Waserssurface
K%Mis,
17-4U
Bolts. ~andnutsote arcwd wahen hejinswl
Dolt
otenareusedwhe
an nus
th jont ill
not Ne permanx..t and disassembly can be anticipated.
Maximum strength of bolted joints can be attained
only when the grip longth of the bolt is at least equal
to the thickness of the pairts being joined. No threads
are to be in bearitig in the holes through the parts.
Washers are added as required to permit tightening
the bolt sufficiently to develop the load-carrying
capability of the joint,
All bolted joints must be locked or safetied, and
bolts in critical locations, such as in control finkages,
shill have two separate locking provisions. Setf-

locking provisions include nylon inserts; in the bolt or

not I nekmna and1

-.-

) 16.If failure of
~

mnretviner&a

dg',piin
elatioe

Chanti'r

helical-spring-lock and tooth-lock washers. Helicd-1

spring-lock washers have a du.i function. Va.'t, ' hcy
compensate for looseness that may be developed
during the use of a bolt or screw fastener, preventing
losn oF tension between component parts of the
assembly. Secondly, they act as haidened thrust
bearings to facilitate assembly and disassembly of
bolted fasteners by decreasing the frictional
rcsistancc between the bolted surface and the bearing
of the head or nut. Tooth-lock washers bite
into the bearing surfaces and increase frictional
resistance to motion. These washers are made of carbon steel, corrosion-resistart steel, aluminum-zinc
alloy, phosphor bronze, and K Monel of varicis
series.
174.3.3

Screws

Screws, particularly machine screws, may be confused with bolts, Actually, the equations for strength
and the precautions on thread bearing are the same
for both. ANSA B 18.6.3- 1962 covers both s'otted and
recessed-head machine screws. Threads on machine

screws may be either unified coarse (UNC) or fine

thri~en

(IINFI I4e.,ie hg'eht

nfe-mninto-eunkcrre i

a threaded assembly should occur, it is

preferable for the bolt to break rather than for eithtr
the external or the internal thread to strip. Thus, the
leni'h of the inatng threads should be sufficient to
caMr the. 14l1 load ncuiiqsar to break the bolt without
stripping. The critical areas of mating threads are:
1. Effective crosssectional or tensile stress area of
the external thread
2. Shear are of thiz external tlarcad (dependent
upon the minor dmiaeter of tha tapptd hole)

the distance, parallel to the axis, fromn the bearing

surface at the diameter of the screw t3 the largest
diameter of the be,,ring surface. For scrows less than
2 in. long, the threads will run to within two turns of'
the head. For longer screws, the minimum thread
length is 1-3/4 in. 'The body is the unthreaded cylinder portion of the shisnk. The designation of a screw
thread consists of nominal size (inches or number).
number of threads per inch, letters of the thread
series, and class of tolerance. On drawings. the designation may be followed by the pitch diameter toler-

upoi the major diameter of ihe external thread).

When bolts are used to jo~in distimilat mectals, or to

LK- following the class designation. The formulas for

tokcrancee and allowan~ces for the several series and

join materials dissimilar" frok'u the bolt niateriai,

differenme in the coefficients of thermal expansion
and in the temperature extremes specifiod for the hel;copter must be considered in caiculating the meximum stresses. Provisions alao mnust bernade for corrosion protection in such installatvons.
Box w~rench clearances are given in Ref. 3. For
wrench access, bolt centtio should be placed at a
minimum distancc from obstruction of two times the
wrench clearance.
Plain washers are defined by ANSI B27.2-1965.
These washers arm available in narrow, reguler, kind
wide series, with ;roportieris designed to distribute
loads over lare areaa of lcwcr-stiength mattrials.
Plain wassers ame macie of ferrous, nonferrous,
plastic, or other nu2terials. ANSI B27.1-1965 deines

classes of threads are given by ANSI W!.1-1960.

The heads of machiAne screws may be recessed. hex,
slottcd. round, countersunk, pan, cheese, or mushroom. Tapping and metallic drive screw types inc'ude
rouind head, flat head, flat and oval trim head, uiidcrcut, N'liste:, Struess, pan, and hex head.
Sh~ct-mrtal screws are defined in ANSi B 18.6.41966. Some of' these, when turned into a hole of the
proper size, form a thread by displacing the sheet
metai, while others form a thread by cutting action.
There arc 12 types, each having preferred applications with shieet metal, plywood, nonferrous castings,
plastics, etc.
Sct screw~s arc used for preventing a pulley, gear, or
other part from turning relative to a shaft. Generally
sp.caking, 1/4-in.-diaineter screws will hold againbt a
17-11I

forme of 100 Ib; 3/8-in., 250 Ib; 1/2-in.. 500 lb; and Iin., 2500 lb.
Scdf-tappitj screw threed insaui am~ hard bush~riv
with internal and externa! threads. They often are
used in rnmnicrorus castings. Hlcai%~ diamond-shared
coils of stainless awlr with phftphor browce inserts
oft~en are. used to rcziii old, thre-A.d holes.
There arc many M~iizy Specifications *cair4
with psuticular typi- of scr-rva, including MIL-STD9 and M11L-S-7742. Additional data wkill be found in
Chapter 8. MIL-HI)OK-5.
pit)s, such Fas cottar pinf ae used to I==ur nuts
upon bolts, nr urponi oftv pint and fas,=s. Cotter
pins may bec obtained for bole ci=e of 3/64 to 3/4 in.
The eotended-proxig type is sm-urcd in place most
"eaiy.CNvis pins (ANSI HJ5.20-1958) fireq.&ently arc
used -, lock bolls and may I,,- smcured with a cotter
pin, Dowel pins (ANSI B5.20 t958) arc used either to
parts in a fixed position or to prtzerve alignment. They normally arc wubjctl to shtearing stizin
oaly at the junction of the two parts being held, and
two usually ere sufficient. For purts that froque'ntly
are disiusaexnbed, tht taper dowei is pteferred. This
type klso is preferred foT joints of close tolerance.

Srctiain

17-4.4 ADHEWSIVE BONDING

-S.,..

(B) SHEAR

-J

--

STRUCTURIAL

In ei der to realize the maximum benetts of udhesive bonding, &structure most be dwtigned ini~ally
with this method of joining in~ mind. The firmt requisite is an understanding of the basic loading con-

II

n I JR tn 3 116 in are satkfi~a

tni-to dm.v.tem

pin

hil ~
f&actol- in mlost Cases.tehl
When soft parts are to be joined. h oeshudf
0.001 in. smaller than the pin. For Ilocking fit,
astoiigitudinally grooved pin irs preferred.

4Aabout

(A) TENSION

()CEVG
()CEVG

d--.

hcpae1 structural applications of adliesives were

basad on tension, shear, cleavage, and peel (as illuth
a78)heiese critmeti pcurely sti~ual
deiomnt oFig
sta,,
rath
stviamtednt ofg17a)dhesie critmeri prelystulted
applications bas&.d on design lozdtb. Today. adhesives not only must meet these requirements but else
must include resistance to environme~ntal conditions
cx~rm'rircde in current adhcsive specificat~ins for
(D) PEL!..
resistance to moistuk , tactration under load (enviratimetital cyclic cerep) and undew dynamnic load4
it14
yk fJAda oo t"Jlf
midJl4
yao oia
Jlw 1(fracture mechanics and lr-igur). These include temir
siom,, shcar, cl,avagc, a.. ' A*, as illustrated in Fig.
causc failuore in the cienvage or p.-d siwation (Fit&.
17-8.
174(C) and 174(1))) may Wz desaribed as tensileAn icecal atnictur..! joint is co.c in wh.%h the load istresses, -dwy sic cocantrated heavily in~ local regions
aisistibutcJ CS 611iformly as is possible over the entl
of the j-ziits: thus, the Load capability of Jhe joint is
bonded area. This condition most ni; Prly is Rpunrelat" to t!-c total bonded area. Thertfore peel
pioached when fin: basic stess is tension or shetar
and deavagc. situaticns 0bauld be avoidvd.
(Figs. 17-6(A'. akid 1?-B(D)). While the sirescm that
17-12

PACP 70)0
The designer must examine carefully even thft tensaion and shear joints to minimize any eccentricities or
deflections that would cause an unfavorable redistribution of stresme in the joint. For example, a simple
lap shear joint under load, if rot restrained, will inaergo a doflection that causes high concentratiop., of
stress at Points I and 2 as iliustrated in Fig. 17-9.
The designer should keep ii. mind that joints wish
uniformly distributed shear o: tension jo#,1ts are a
goal, and then should apply coa-mon sense to
achieve this goal. Such a common-sense approach to

Sdesign

a joint design problem is iliustiated in Fig. 17-10. The

spar of the rotor blade might be consideied to be a
rigid member. Aif loads acting upon the aft section
create a bending moment that tends to pry, or peel,
the lightweight skins away from the inside of 'he spar
at Point A. Therefore, a "keeper" channel that gicatly rigidizes ths portion of the structurc is iticorporated, permitting the joint between the. skin and spar
to ract the bending moment through a shear couple.
Another typical rotor blade design is shown in Fig.
17-11. Again, there is a tendency for the skin to peel
from the spar. In this case, the skin deflectinns that

(A) UNLOADED
2
j

"the

~(S)
K

I'.

LOADED
LOADEbe

-V

FIre 17-9. LUp Suhr. ,oeit Deflcaic

Umnde Led

SP

.,

"

"

would aggravatc, the peel situation are prevented by

the incorporation of a simple angik (A).
The design of adhesive-bonded joirts aemands the
proper mating of parts with regard to dimension and
toleranc. It is imperative that aohesive-joined components fit each other without relying upon the adhesive to hold them in the proper shape. Where
overall external dic.cnsions are critical, it is nocessary
to account for the thickness of the cured bond lines in
finai assembly. A reasonable thickness allowance
per bond line is U.005 in., although this value should
determined specifically in each case for the pa.,ticular adhesive and method cf manufacture.
In the came of honcyconmb-sandwich structures, no
allowance is made for adhesive between the honeycomb core and the face sheets. The cells of the honeycomb cut through the film of adhesive completely,

POIT

AFT SKI N

A.;

BALANCE BAR

KEEPER CHANNEL

Fiure 17-10. Ty~lcal nlotor Blade Design -

Alternate I

SPAR

Fi"ure 17-11.

Typical Rotor Blade Design - Allernane 2

17-13

AMWP 70&202

DETAIL A
INSERT

FACE SKIN

ADHESIVE
Figure 17-2. Houcyconk SandwlIc S&Yecturt

and actually contact the face skin. (Fig. 17-12, Detail

A). The bond of f~ace-to-core is achieved by the fillet
of adhesive between the face and the cell wall, wh~ch
is another example of a &hearjoint. In Fig. 17-12, the
insert might be an extrusion or any other form that
results in a metal-to-metal joint, as opposed to a faceto-core joint. Thius, if the desired overall diwrtnsion is
~1.00 in. and.the face skins are each 0.020 in. thick, the(A

Ijllwjis

-..

aL

9%.

E!A
t~

1166

.. L
c

ISR

IGUamwing
&ul
Fu

two 0.020-in, skins and two 0.005-in, bond lines. The

core, on the other hand, wiould have to be 0.96 in.
thick, allowing only for thc skins. An exception to
this rule is the case of the adheiive that incorporates a
carrier, or scrim, which isconipote~d of woven or randcenly oricrnted fibers. In siuch a acm.th,; thickness of
the cirnicr sheuld be allowed for bittween coic and(B
faces.(B
Fig. 17-12 actually is oversimplified in that the
abrupt change in section be~twccn the honeycomb
sandwich and tbr t~gid insert or adjoining member
should, in moat "WA.c
be mnade more gradual eCthW
by shaping the jiolid member as shown ir. Fig. 1713(A), or by the addition of couublers as in Fig. 1713(B). In either cane, the ru~cs for adhesive thickness
ahowancL: still apply. If a construction like thaz
shown in Fig. 17-13(A) .s employed, a feaming type
of adhes.ivr may be used on the portioit of the core
that fits against surface A o the closure. Such an adhesive cat. be preted intcv the core cells prior to
asaea1~ily and thereby permit fitting of th, ,arts.
Another examzple ot a des~igr technique that a 3urts
a fit of part and, thus, a uniform, uristrained bond
linec is that employed for the balance bar shown in
Fig. 17-10. The bar is bondN-4 into the nose r-idius of
the C spar. Because the ap~ar is *ary stiff in this highly
curved portion, while th. balance bar is solid, tnec
required bonding presuire it tchieved best by
applying %force apiinss the back -ifL~c bar. It will N;
noted that the nose radius of the Lr ipt 1-irger than the
17-14

SURFACE "Ate

DOUBLER

IW
Fu

obest
Howeycob Structure

71.Aal.o

inside nose radius of the C spar. This asires that the

bar will never bottom out and, therefore, pmessure
always will be applied at the side of the bar. This
technique is not restricted to rotor bit".s but can be
employed in any situation where the bonding
pressure is provided by a component of force that is
applied in a direction othat than normal to the bond
line.
While it was stated previously that parts usually
should be formed to fit viah other without the aid of
the adhesive bond, the degree to which this rule
should b,- imposed is depentlent upon the stiffness of
the members beiog joined and nature of the uammnby.
General'y, sheet-m"t' parts should not be so closely
tolerancod in thoa. free state that thus is no
allowance for elmakance w~hen assemzbling thiem.
There also must be space for 0.0 10 in. or more of uncured adhesive between the cowmponensl during

**1
*

ammisil. This can be achieved by an over-bead or

wader-bead allowance, but this allowance neve
should be so great as to prevent hand pressare fronm
bringing the pert imto the final form that isdesired in
the flnslndauubly. The rm~idual strains caused by
such a
=odto r neglgble,

When dissimilar metis are bonded, merious distortions can occur due to differential exparisions, because the bonds are being cured at taunpetature
ranging from 226* to 3500 F. Such distortions of the
structurre can be minimized if IhM member with the
lowest coefficient of expansion is stretcbd or

Donded structures usually %re assembled in

~tooting. Thbis precldes a visWg examination of the
reative locutions of components during the curing
dos. Dmiase the adhesive becomes fluid at some
point during the cure and thermal expensions are
taking place, some shifting of ono part relative to

otherwise strained by the application -)f external

force while undergoing cure. This often Lueau that
some extra length must bc proviied to permilt gripping the member or pinning it to) the bond"- fixture.
This extra material can be removed after the banding
is compkted.

another usualy must be aniticipated. Thbus, adjoining

parts must be dimenioned and toleancemd to accommodate such movement. Fig. 17.14 illustrates such a
-mme The bottom of the figure shows apap where two
members butt together: This gap must be programmed in the design and usually should be from
0.0W) to 0.00 in., depending upon the size of the
structure. In the example shown at the top of Fig. 1714, insufficient allowance was provided and the
resulting joint either will have avoid or. atbest. w.l
be suhject to -ee. Usually, the small gap ilp the proparty designed Joint will fill with adhesive squeeze-out
or masy be fiAle Lawe with a fulnnig-sealunge compound-will
Currently, all structural bonds require pressure
during their wring This pressure must be reacted it,
some way. Eithe one of the members being joined
must be stiff enough so that it will not deflect signirEcandly under the pressure required to boind the other
munbers to it, or provisions must be made for
tooling tbat will provide the reaction force. W; ;n
such tooling is required, the detail detign must provide space for the toolinig and a means of removing it
after the cure cycle is completed.

It often is impractical to complete an entire as,

menbly ina singlie bonding operation. This create& Uj
necessity for secondary bonding, in which a part of
the assembly is reheated to bonding temperature
while additional parts arc bonded to it. The most
commonly used adhesives are quite weak at the
temnperature at which they were cured and, thus, there
is a risk of destroying the or~jinal bond during a
secondary bonding operation if proper prt~autions
are not t&kcn. One such precaition is the use o a
lower-temperatur@ curing adh,,4ive for the secondary
bord. Another, more reliable technique isto respply
pressure to any oi henprimarily bondr..l joints tihki
be subjected to the heat of seccndary bonding.
Provisions kmust be made in the design to assure tha
resoplicstion of pressute is possiblet in such case.
Finally, the desigaer always shouldf consider pro,viding, for physical tesking. sorn* kind of 'ntension of
the basic straurc'~ that can be removed after bonding. Nondestructive testing techniques are being improved constantly, but there is no substitute fordrtructive teits of joint.,that ere built alont! with, and
duplicate, the actual structure.
CBI. ri,

CAW

Wire rope and cable may be used in helicopter control mechanisms, although push rods are preferred.
Aircraft cable made of high-carbon steel wire, electrolytically galvanized and drawn tco size, has the
highest strength and greatest resistance to fatigue of
any cable.
Representative wire rope fittings ume illustrated in
Fig. 17-15. For aircraft, the more commonly used
types range in size from 1/16 to 5/8 in.
SwAged fittings on wire rope: have a strcengt rating
equiv~tlcnt to the strength of tht wir.t rope. These fittings are applied to the end or the body of wire rope
by tht application of high pressure, causing the steel

~IMPROPER

DESIGN

0.020 in. min INCLUDING

TOLERANCES
ACCUMULATED
I
Fkmur 17.14. Balance &ar Dealn

to flow around the wires and strands of the wire rope

to form a union as strona us the. rope itself The
~necessry high pressure and flow are axomplished by
means of special dies. Machincs for this purpose are
described in MIL-S-6180 and MIL-S-8035.
17-15

"

SINGJLE SHANK LAL&L

EYE

NTRAP EYE

U41OLT CLIP
:%amw 015n.

:.

90

DOUBLE SHANK BALL

EYE FORK

STRAP FORK

THML

Aircraft W*. Rope Fktthg

FgUre 27-16. CaW4 Sp0ldq

Anathtw eqctivc racthod of attaching fittings is by

meais of p.tFZ3 zinc.. A special high giade of pure
z~nc U*used tc* 's! ihc socket. (Babbitt and other
adloy!, wifl not hold proporly.) When prc-pzrly prepared, thc oi .stm-noth approaches that of the wire

cable. Normally, thrcu lwr&m for ca~d 0=r0n are all

that can be ,nana~d. Splici is illusuateJin Fig. 1716. Field-spliced conilu. never should 1be cxposei to
moure than "0 of dwI w-cmal br'ahh-ig load for thte
cable.

fo.: tcitpiiary eri.rU-bolt clipi mr'y be

employed. W
f :.nn a loop with a U-bolt olip, a
ai~rope. tbimtlic 6houM he placed in the loop to prethat the saddle or base o;
vetkin~king . ;t4 ewq 6ss~.iu!
the clip boan aga~tst Ithe lon~gere i:livc, end of the rope,
whi.2i the U-b4o'% bonr5 agfiiist the thortnr or dead
eaid, Vhco end of t!hL: wix rope. should be seized
pr.3perly. The strcngth of a dip fvuatenriig is zz-_ than
80% nf the etrenzb-' of kh cable.
A seldorn-used meva '1cjoinian, cables and makii.
endloops is cable 5jZ~*The method may be ewI
in the field for repair whem equipment or fittings wr~
unavailable. To join twc, ables, each of the free eiud
strands is warkeA ovar And under a stranid In~ tie
othm cable, workinj axmanst the lay. A total of four
tuci.; for vA6~ atranA 1a adequate for mrst purpovsi.
An sys splkwcAew be made as a loop of any size, or
4iht arnand a thimble, The 6ads aft tucked under
alw ioian stiraud& ftainst tbe lay and around the

sheaves or drumi huw nn too swafl in diam=~ arm

the principal resuotu for dwcrioretion of wirr rupe. A
kinkedi, bent, or flaftencd ureA cannot bie Woeasted in
a controll cable. Thw rope or cabIk should bte kept weil
4ubricated, usingj '1~e l-Aticant 6qurplicd by the manufittfurev. Normally, lh lubqant maust be Imtetd to
2WO'F it! oro' tv peaic4uo. Nylon o,. vinyl coatinip
are dfecrivc for reoling in lubricapt and for protacting wi -ope from dirt =4 o cric~'n.

17. l

17-5

HE~AT TREATMENT

17-31 (1ENERAL
ltat tteatment is define~d as the application of
firav-temperacute-cooling cycle relationsr'ip. in order
te cause atomnic, molectd~ar, or crystalline tramsformuations in materials. These trainsfotmations ame
selected to impart desirable naroporties fujr particular
and-oses. Although such tirawformadomi occur in

plastics, commica. and other Wonmealic mateumuis

to astala. The engineerins measinchude feru
OWPU

Hea ts

i
51)s,5WWUMtt5iU. n
insosapoied toall frms of moa n

"MO,madone patsbwa.
dwft
f~p,

plates anti sheasa. The heating cycle may be con

ducted in various tYPes Of furnaces writh avauriety of
aimosploese in Sqi mei such as moe wit or
molten le0d or by some other mean. The holding
sad MiOWn Cycles may involve vacuum, controlled
limrt ztnosplowa4, oil bath quenching. air cooling, or
wone quenching.
ad
fUatulities- eqwplomtm

pr wt,

Qss.cVtols, n

eauptancs "taWards for the heat ftreaing of nedal

parts have been define in nWuniems Military Speciftcadons including MIL4I.6OS,

Cutn

oddt nw

rvosydww

rsA

374JU. SamRlr
This proc.. is conducted at considsrably lower

temp~erature than those for 0%e other host treatment

Proesss.

tresses imposed by forminag or machining

we relieved by allovwinS the diffusion of boundaries,

or the diffumion of hydrogen from a part whome

hydrogen einbrittlwenuM is &batad.

174.2U Teuipeflu
This is the Promes Of reloeating a normalized or
quench-hardened alloy to a temperature just below
the transformation rang and Ume coolisg it at asuitabbe retw TemperWSis used to obtain desired propertie of strength and toughness

.6875, -7199. and

41200.

174M2

174.2 HEAT TREATM104T

MWTALLURGY
There ane many kinds of heat treatment, with tunetemperatur cycles deupgned to develop te ciyua~ling
-90Wran itr.c...
f
_J-

Aging is a tempering promes in whicli certain

alloys swe held at a constant. relatively low temperatumI lonig enough to permit the pmncipitation of par-

I)

Alg~n

tices and grain structure transfornations that

dewlon the dwirmid urnets of starentb. tough-

~ urndnde woess, haron.., or formanuiy. In some alloys, agant

naeriaj. Thes characteristics
MI~y bg 11CcOniP11iihd at room tGIperaUre.
toughness, hardness, machinability, freedom from
The data in Table 17-5 are indicative of tIte
residual stress or any other property noevess'y for
the parn to perform its design function. Each "&Ia teflperatures at which heat treatment operations arm
Conducted for Ceacil Of the C*DMW4in MMrA)A.
and metal alloy bas its own head treatmnent character-

led. thaL are determuined by its cbesica constitudon.

Tie morn Commonly employed heat treat Opera.

U~ms am annealing. GormaliaiQ&g amus relief, tempering. And 161".
A ~

7JFROSALY
143FROSALY
-,U conditions for annealing hardening, a;W
tempering Inividual feruous alloys arc given in the
applicabole Military SpocirrAation or Aerospace

Moatheat processes ame variation of sanwali;% A

"tad anneal consists of heasting the metal to a

fiterattim. Air, vombusted Sake, protective atmoepheres, inert atmospheres. vacnum f useals
and molten metal ame acceptable bcati*S media.
Tanperatwea control must allow the entire lot of
het-treated mtatial to acidlve its desired properties Corrosion contamination, and embnittlement of
the metals being tmiaed sAd! am be permitted.
Procomme such as induction beating, flaoe hardeniog. waburiong nitfridin austemnpeing, and murtompering awe rocognized processes but anc beyond
the saope. of this diecuesson.
The equipmaint for beat treating musat provide for
adequate handWin and uniformi treatimet of the
charge, as well as for prmclee control of the timectempecature-cooling program, to a..lmiv the desired
results. The quenching proome involving oil, Water,
and sir must be controlled to function with adequeai
speed.
17-17

Imq umrtu thetallows the grains to recrystallizeins

duk~d p1101n. This PVoc. is descibe inter-

donosably as soltionm heat umatinet. to indicate

2Wthe meta it betdW to atsuoisrature at which Johe
alloyng elamelas an dissoved and placed imsolid
solugon Thai the nistat Is olD in Omder to procipiate the desired etructure.
17-S.&2 Nweaigul
T1his annealin step oftes is accomplished after
forgiog or machining in ceder to restore uniform.
grain structure. Tho meta Isheated to just above the
wacldon tempoerau - in no cose long eniough or
on
aougim to camr tbo Savaw to gpow to any aputeatmo
- OW dote. b. cooled in still air to
- temperuttre. The effect is to restor uniform

TAMES 174. RKVMrnNTAJW FE? IDTEAl TEMPERATURESC'

METAL
STEEL-041'
TITANIUMI

4 A1--3Mo-1-V

COPPER-Be
ALLOY no 175
ALUMINUM
2024
*

TEMPERATURE IN0OF FOR:

SOLUTION H T NORMA LIZE
ANNEALING
FURNACE 04Y0L
AiR COOL
1525-1575

oo

QJUE NCH

QUENCH

STRESS
RELIEF
AIR COOL

101$5

1600-1700

j900-975

1620-1700

i700

90J

900-913,

370-380

The foliowi4 limitations and coetroke anv imx'*

TEMPER

16007l,77) 1525-1600

MAGNESIUM
AZ9C7-75-79_____

jHAR DEN

the tresima nrnm_-nm

40W425

ianozrsiou iWwater of 1000F for m', qbt alloy xWi

IS60 to 212*F

1. r~nfoxatioij~enig teca
ailbc
qucichd to noitwls than 93% raatewaot
93%
lowaz bvainite, as specifwed by deign docwgciaiatin.
Mixed Cu~ctuvos an not acceptable.
2. Cooling ol &~ahee steoLs froml the mnneaW
rw~e Mmus not cxcoed W0 des F/br doiwr to Ii AI of.

900-1100A

_____

far es~nauswso
an4 (ns.

mnafl that

certain allys ma be osl-ucache or. air-quomdcaf.

17443I Ca~er AMeys
Fuenaces having vazcuus or cowtolled amo-.
apl\vxw fresquently ame used for~ ot'qw. Air atmoqberc may be used whmtien
lwekm
of material due

Tr~orn~onardn~aea~ibecolsd
to oxidation and scaing i& vas dacibmuW to th
to o belwqtx~iikbat
terpowu befre
fi-ished paut. Bright batrdcsdqg requins a oceuollsed,
1bcr maximum ptidisuibkand cnoe inwdcpdta.aajSonephe
in
4. lzrv-.mssik
mximm iwuw n dxh .
achamber furnuai. Moltqn cat bats_ APU aw be
any zone of &r~rburizn& 3&Ul ano ecated 0A003 in.
used for solutioni has treatment bwc&isw of the urns
-- ----- -'-~

44,OAC

41

-,-------'

tquuaay us uVAMmw-iiyiis

wxiwwm

unew by

nuiclii~ig
'~i~t~s-molten
or
Saw ntadvt
s
ion hea trmmsnoqt tagratuggs
* 174NNFL~cOU ALOYSTinme-teampenture-coooling cycles mut he aequately
17-A NNFUOU
AL YScontrolled
"od the pats adsquauiy chamnd befor
114A.1 AbmJ'mWm Alloys
charging. Cleaning masy involve ivpor dagsta, acdd
Air. fiavidized beds, combxusatd gnus, protective atpikling, or- briabt dippin. Novtra uwi balbs may be
cxasptraa, adni olten salt bafts arn acceptable
employed for Age hardenin bust mwAi be rmeirod
caitfully and neiztnliacd. qziemntizg is n wD
atr.
aiedi;%for tL, heat trcating of aluminum alloys, proCopper-beryliium mill prndu,4a and fou~i;%a~ x
vied %haW no damage is done o, the materia. Iranu
mally are sumpbcd in a con'i~ton suMA-t ft pt'~iiiipIoWAsd in air chamber furnaces must be shown by
tw tol be free froxn bigb-twmpurature oxidaion. Salt
tation beat trixat4 bnt, so
olution beat l1tattng ba
Wiutt~ muss be of the proper type and grade; nitrate
performed wnly wbei wa~iia or cold workLg has mn
baits will atekack aisnuinum- magnasium alloys, for
qwirod a softening trearauct.
Ti-npta
coo&%n cycle controls
lly
17&4.43 TamA
masi provide the desired puopnissf. Part-, must besAbwtiunttly (in LoK% lubnicanz arAd oth foreg
Fumraes having a slightly oxidiing or inert atnvfter which coud harm the inntcial being heat
naosphcre ane employed for boat treating of titanium
ts*4&i. Quenchi*ng ormahAy is zonoducted by totW
allys. Reducing or cedodrermic atmosphere such as
-t

*'1
hydrogen or cracked sammonia AMl wenbe used.
Hydrogus ambrttleamnt presents amajor problem
beasuse hydrogen isabsorbed readily from baths and
eSum
Queuackiag Isin water. and quench delay times
must be minimal, exempt that th, product sAll bL air
&xole aftier striess-relieving operations. The treatmean of titanium at temperatures above I l000F uander oxidizing conditions may result in severe scaling
and oxygen diffusion to form a hard, brittle surface
layer. Titanium alloys are susceptibie to stress corroeson by halides at tsiperatun above 5500 F.

hardening. And, as a consequence of their high duotility, much work hardening occurs before rupture of
the chip. Th6 restilts, ir. increased power consumption and tool wear.
On the other hand, work hardening can be beow
ricial. lacr.ase in tensile and yield strengfth can be
obtained. as can resistance to bending and buckling.
along with increased fatigue resistnc. Judiciously
employed. the phenomenon can be used to provide
lighter, stronger parts, thereby eliminating the need
for subsequent, expensive heat treating equipment
and processes. The designar musm be careful to select
1745 D=SGN ASINCTS 01t
material that will work harden to the proper degree
HKAT TREATING
during fabrication in order to produce a part havis-4
the required hardness or rigidity without excess
The beat treating processes to which a particular
wetght. Knowledge of which gape and condition of
part may be subjected in this course of its falrication
material to select can produce significant savings. For
and nassbly aue an integal pa:-9 of its doWi. The
instmance, many materiala can1 be purchased with
hbut treat requirements must be defined dlearly on the
drawings and in the process specifications for the, varying degrees of cold working; aluminum, stainpart. Ihe hrAt treatment must be performed in thme less stel, and brass may be purchased fully annealed,
1/4 hardened, 1/2 hardened, 3/4 hardened, and fully
proper soquence to achieve the required end-item
hardened by cold working.
properac. Because uj. end-isan properties serve to
qualfy the ntrire procew the design must be succh
17-6.2 FORMING
that the properties realistically can be achieved. Assihinse au "M mm %av4"45% m -. Of
'-W,
FrinUngD
uptieiuli i-w
ae-A*
i
tah.*S-j
metal parts can be found in a number of military
where savings can be obtained by judicious use of the
documents, including MIL-HDBK-5. 4693, -M94
proces of work hardening. Ali operations that in-697, -691, and -723. Additional information will be
corporate bending, stretching, or upset of metals, and
found inm
Rsf. 4 mad in Chapter 11. AMCP 7l06. 1
result in plastic deformation below the crystallization temperature, involve work hardening. The efmay be advantageous or disadvantageous, doIGfeag
WORVH"MC
17-6
174 AR~fINGpending
ORY
upon the selection of the starting material
and the rate and degree of deformation. For instance,
174L1 GV4E3AL
stainless steel has high ductility but wrinkles easily
1 qWUpona Instal, sOme Or all
WbeaaZse0miWes
with compression. A strong, light muffler header
having incrcmsed rigidity and increased resistance to
inntip
lIsvium zW~ft;1es. no"lu
iifth iowF, h adaiiCow
WUI
fasis"
mpe can be macic by nmiual
"tigeomuh
&rmfim if eeu
hn~ mmamsel,
th atms wll ~ .e~ ~of
stainless steel and then designing tht blanking and
fatic p~aooy U atom
has no reu t nhi
forming dies to pro .'ide the required degree of deformation in the proper places. In this cawe, an inner
formation. W"'w this occurs below the recrystalstretch and an outcr compressive deformation would
lizastio tempesture the metalisa said~ to bie "cold
worked"; iLe., the grains have bo distbetrequired.
pid, ad fagmeted As ~mmi~cfedthe i.Similar considerations also may be appropriate for
dished and flanged parts such as wheels, pulleys, and
in the crystals move to grain boundaries or
otheimerfetios,
werethe arestaled nd ,efairings. and in the shaping of bars and tubes, intcset icresingresstace t fithe platic(Is
gral stiffeners, and large, stretch-fovnied shapes such
formation. The metal then is work hardened.
a olns
Work hardening has some distinct disadvantages.
174.3 ROLLER BURNISHING
It can cause cracking in sheaet-ntal forming, or it can
require intermediate annanithii sups during shaping
Roller burnishing is a method of improving finish
opmi~vos. In machinng, the metal chip may besod dimensional accuracy. and results in work
com
sverlydeformed before breaking away from
hardening a surface without the removal of metal.
thme
wo'k piece. Austenitirc steeb are difficult to
The operation is employed primarily with internal
amabine because of their high rate of work
borns. Donv diameter can be increased by 0.002 to

"4

*locations
*

17-19

AMW MMG
0.005 in., although this is not normally a primary objective. The operation firequently is designated for
phosphor bronze and sintered bronze bushings. The
depth of burnishing normally is limited to three times
the diameter of the hole, but the insides of tubes 10 to
20 ft long have been roller burnished. Wall thickness
is limited to no k& than 1/16 in., unless the wall is
supported properly by a backing matcrial. Metals
that work harden rapidly must be at a lower hard-,
ness.
Roller burnishing is a machine operation in which
a set of steel rollers is caused by cam action to impact a surface at a rate of, perhaps, 2,000,000 blows
per min. This produces a smooth surface, improves
roundness or straightness, and increases surface
hardness to a depth of 0.005 to 0.015 in. The surface
may be finished to a tol-rance of *0.0301 in The
kneading action tends to reduce the stresses imparted by prior operations, such as welding and
machining, and also introduces a compression stress
to the surface. Greatly improved fatigue and impact
resistance can be given to parts in this manner.
Roller burnishing has a limited amount of application to external surfaces. A special operation using
a na.,--,

,.llor r

f.

-.

ime
..

is

employed for rolling fillets. In this case, the objective

is an increased resistance to fatigue. Relatively small
forces are employed - 100 psi or less. A plain roller
of oil-hardened tool steel at Rockwell C-62 to C-65
may be used to burnish a fillet of 1/32-in. radius in
about 10 passes. The rolling and pressing causes a
combined rolling and sliding action on the metal in
the fillet to relieve the stresses and to work h'rden the
material locally to higher hardness ard fatigue resistance.
17-6.A

SHOT-PEENING

Shot-peening is a process used on many helicopter

components to increase fatigue strength. Cornpressive strcsses are induced in the exposed surface
layers of mctallic objects by the impingement of a
stream of shot, directed at the metal surface at high
velocity an. - under controlled conditions. When the
individual 1,articlcs of shot contact the nectal surface,
thoy produce slight, rounded depressions in the surface, thus stretching it radially and causing plastic
flow of surface material at the instant of contact. The
layet of metal thus affected is 0 005 to 0.010 in. thick.
The surface metal is in compression parallel to the
surface, while the underlying metal is in tension. The
compressive siiess may be several times greater than
the tensile stress, and therefore offsets an imposed
tensile stress such as is encountered in bending. The
fatigue life of the parts in service is improved marked17.20

ly. The strest-concentration effects of notches, fillets,

forging pits, surface defects, and decarburization are
redu-ed greatly. Shot-paenin3 a change to ben*ficial compressive stresses the resiual tensile stresses
that grinding usually imposes upon a metal surface.
A higher residual stress approaching the full-yield
strength, can be obtained by strain peening. This consists of peening the surfas, while it is being strained in
tension. The surface tensile stresm that give rise to
stress corrosion also can be overcome by the cornpreuion streams induced by shot-peoeing. The brittle
failure of a ductile material due to stress corrosion
has been associated with brass, stainless steel,
aluminum, zinc, magnesium, and titanium. The cornpessivc stresses due to peening are stable in low-alloy
steels to 5509F and in high-temperature steels to
8000 F. The effectiveness of peening in improving
fatigue resistance is ilh'stratcO in Table 17-6.
Shot size has been standardized by SAE J444, and
the shot numbers range from S70 to S1320. The shot
number is approximately the same as the di, meter of
the individual pellets expressed in ten thousandths of
an inch. Cast steel shot is the most widely used
peening medium. It has a useful life many times that
o,Ct ..--

-a
....

"d

wJ

o-

components of peening machines. Cast iron shot is

used in peening operations requiring low initial cost.
Where contamination with iron is not desirable - as
in the peening of stainless steel, titanium, aluminum,
an, magnesium - glass beads are employed.

17-7

TOOLING

17-7.1

GENERAL

Tooling for helicopter manufactare is the responsi..n.-.,

an-.. -u.*aenr*,,..r
a.,
-y ....
a.
-- -C
... ., ..
fined in the contract with regard to Governmentfurnished tools, is unique to the manufacturin2 facilities of the manufacturer. In any event, configuration
control will be in accordance with MIL-STD-480.
Tooling is a significant element of helicopter
manufacturing cost, and the more stringent the
manufacturing tolerances, the more costly the
tooling. Consequently, it is imperative that the
tolerances specified by the designor be kept in perspective.
In modern production work, where mating parts
art manufactured in different departments or by different contractors, some method is necessary for producing these parts so that they will fit correctly in the
final assembly. Appropriate standards include MILSTD-100, ANSI 84.1-1967, and ANSI Y14.5-1966.
As with airframe design, tooling design mast be
performed in accordance with standard practices and

AMCP 706-202
TABLE 17-6. THE EFFECT' OF SHOT PEENING ON THE
FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF SELECTED SAMPLES

STRENGTH GAIN
BY PEENING,3

SAMPLE
PLAIN ALUMINUM Z014

T6 ROUND BAR

23

PLA'je ALUM'INUM 2024

T4 ROUND BAR

34

PLAIN ALUMINUM 7079

T6 ROUND BAR

30

SPRING STEEL 5160 FLAT LEAF

51

PLAIN STEEL 1045 POLISHED

10

SINGLE GEAR TOOTH 4118 RC60

29

S-l1 STEEL

54

GROOVED

0.54 % CSTEEL -V NOTCHED

4340 SZTEEFL POiSE
m r

UnD Bnm
AP

procedure. Tool design ztandards, prepared by the

manufacturer, should include design drafting practices, design and shop techniques, standardized tool
specifications, types of mateaian, standards of
material strength and dimensions, and tool production and qualification processes.
For most projects, tooling will fall into two stages:
nr

S)
'~

fm

73

tale~Ine anti ,wnrd-~sinn tnnfine Wlwpn the

designl of a helicopter is released for masnufactume

drawings and specifications for all of the parts and
assemblies are used for tool planning and tool design.
Tool enginees consider the number of units to be
produced. the required rate of production. the equipment and resources of the plant, and contractual lirnitationst, if any, on tool costs. When all factors have
been weighed, the, tooling plan will be defined. The
prriduction planners then can break down the manufacturing processe for eaclh part into indvidual
operations.
The helicopter will have been desgedW by qngineers who are concerned priuiarily with ttw: propet
functioning of each poirt, although they will have kept
ill mind the factors of producibility and uconomny.
The tool engineer, familiar widi the mianufacturing
facilties and the tool stc'ckpilc rvan will consider me
dsignof the part for easier Or trnore economical

150

manufacture. New material coipousitions or cot'figurationio, new manufacturing processes, and new
tooling sequences are possible. F~or instance, a cast ing
might be replaced by stamped sheet metal, requiring
a forming die. Otten, a suitable tool cani eftec~t
economy in mnanufacture by reducing the amount of
material scrapped.
When thic mrichine sanuence hps bam ettrMined.
the individital operations are fisted. An operation
consists of ail of the work that can be dcne at one setup, or Itation. Thee operations are planned in an or-der
that will reduce the number of special too.ls to a minimum. Thus, it is better to design dies for multiple
operation on a single press than to require individual
operations on a number of punch presses. The same
niultiple-use capability is desirable for jigs and fixtures.
Once an operation is listed, the tool to be designed
is determined from tht description of the given opera.
lion, the machine to be nasployed, and a set Of dttailed drawings of the part to be made. This tool complete with assenbly drawings, subasscznblics,
part details, and specifications - becomes an element of configuration contiol for the haelicopter.
For both prototype construcgion and production,
theat are three broad categories of tooling: shop
17-21

tooling, airframe tooling, and tast tooling. The latter

made and the material the ports arm iade from areAl

two categories may, in turn. require shop tooling.

17-7.2 SHOP TOOLING
Cutting operations in the shop are performed, for
the most part, with standard tools or with ex..
pandable tools that do not become part of contract
inventory. On occasion, however, special bar tools
may be required fo boring, reaming, mecessing,
grooving. undercutting, and similar operations. Most
of the specias tools for shop use are jigs and fixtures
for holding the work piece and guiding the work performance.
17-73 AIRFRAME TOOLING
Fabrication of helicopters requires the transfer of
numerous dimensions from an engineering drawing
or prototype to the item beinxg built. Where the
number of items to be built is small, and the performane requirements not too great, the. structure
can be produced economically by extracting dimensions directly from a blueprint. However, for the
. - . -. -'.

cise tools have been developed for transferring the

configurations of nondimensional. lofted, full-size
drawings to the actual structure, even thoukh portions of that structure are manufacturn by many different manufacturers. The five primary types of tools
tmployod ae:
1. Master tools, designed so that dimensions for
the entire helicopter can be referenced to several
master tools. Each tool is the three-dimensional
representation of a key portion of the system.
2. Templates, a thin plate of metal or other suitPieo material that may be used as a guide or pattern.
A template generally defines the profilr, contour, or
layout of holm; the bend lines of a part, or an assembly layout of several partL
3. Optical tooling, a system of tools constructed
with alignment telescopes at one end and targets at
the other end. Witt the use of such line-of-sight tools
Stogether with master gages, tooling bars, increment bars, optical micrometers, and a transit - the
configuration of a system can be conolled from a
single datum line in six degee of freedom.
4. Jigs and fitures, coordinated to the master
took, position and hold the detail pars in their eltionship for drilling and fastening. Smaller or subassembly componentr are fabricated in fixtures that
are coordinated to larger or main asmnbly Fixtures.
The large components then are loaded into joining or
final assmnbly fixtures to complete the assembly of
the airfranwe.
5. Plastic Tooling. The number of parts to be
17-22

...

determining factors in the type of toolin to be used.

Then are three common elements used in plastk.
tooling:
a. Mock-upls
(1) wooden
s
(2) piAsto filled
b. Molds:
(1) high temperature epoxy
(2) low temperature wood
(3) matched
(4) aluminum shell
c. Trim tooh5.
Special tools in tbAse classifications may be designed for inapectior., or for the application to tting
of fabricated parts or system3 us!ng the test tools described subsequently.
Basic decisions as to tcolinig design must be made
concurrently with design of the airframe. Tooling
drawings will be initiated as soon as a flow chart and
production breakdown are possible; the basic tool
philosophy and procedures must be established at
.!

-W L

...

..

-..-.

- - -

allow maximum latitude for airframe deign changes

while minimizing the need for redeign of tooling.
Continuity of datum points and coordinate refer"ce
lines and planes must be retained at all times.
In most cases, the tooling proemses employed will
involve all five types of tooling discuseed, but will rely more heavily upon one type for configuration control and quality assurance. The quality assurance
program will be determined almost completeiy by the
processes selcted since the smun system are eraployed for inspection as for production.
1 be introduced when
Considerabie variat -numerical control loft... - employed. In thi cas
the engineering data are transmitted in mathematical
form. Automatically programmed tools are possible,
with a computer working from, or producing
numerical-control drawings.
Provision must be made for special situations. For
exampl, becaum of the small cross section and the
extremely close tolerances required in tk: menufacture of rtor blade components, normal lofting
practice may not be followed. These components may
be fabricated in closely dimensione detail. Rib and
other blade components may be lofted actual sie and
provided with appropriately toleranced dimv sions
for inspection purpose.
When justified by the nur er of units and the
number of subcontractors, the manufacturing and assembly processes may be built around the use of
master tools. In this cam, quality assurance can be
improved and simplified because mtew tools slint-

ans individual intespretatlom of enginsering valuta

and permlt duplication of does toleranne. Further,

bration inputs in specified attitudes and types of sacpnion, fatigue of auemblies, end determination of

by having a coatrol matter as the dlinusiomal au-

rotor stability characteristim.

thomlty, duplicate master can be built for uie by subcontractors. PFonection also is provided agains the
Ion of dinvmmlonal control dold mowe tools be
damaged.

Desig and conAruction of special test tooling

must be initiated as soon u the final configuration
and the qualification specification have been deqted. Verification of the test tools and test tool procedure must precede their application to the evalusLion and qualification of the helicop and its subas-

17-74

T'10

TOOLING

Most pbysal, mechanical, thermal, and elecrica

Ntuing will be mcomplishad with standai input and
readout equipvient, and by un of expedable apps.raius stuh a &*=in gags and relstance strips.
However, some of %,equalification requienmeis for

samblka and assemblies.

.
RMFllENCES

a blkMopter. and its ammblis or subemblies, wquire testing in a configuration or in an environmental or fatigue condition that is not attainable with
stmdard tes equipment. Such tests, for example,
may bacom
wneesry to design and fabricate tst
fixture, tNet stands, load input equipment, and readout equipment peculiar to the helicopter system that
is to be manufactured. Such special testing might involve the twisting loads on the helicopter fuselage, vi-

I. Meaal Forming, ASM Handbook. Vol. 5.

Amerin Society for Metals, Cleveland, OH.
2. WWdd, Hndbook. American Welding Society.
NY.
3. SA E Drawing Stadard Manual. Society of
Automotive Engineers, NY, 1970.
4. Heat Treatment. ASM Handbook. Vol. 2,
American Society for Metals, Cleveland, OH.

172

"

~17-23

AMCP 706-202

APPLNDIX A

EXAMPLE OF A PRELIMINARY HEATING, COOLING,

AND VENTILATION ANALYSIS

HEATING AND VENTILATION

ANALYSIS
The following is an example of a heating and vcntilating system.
A-I

12. Kcat transfer aromw

A
so0.

Cockpit windshield
Cockpit akin
Cockpit floor
Cabin rear ramp (uninsulated)
Cabin windows
Cabin floor
Cabie walls (uninsulated)
Cabin walls (insulated)
Cabin ceiling (uninsulated)
Cabin otiling (insulated)

A-.1I DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

I. The heating system shall be capable of mvntaining a tempcrature of 60"F in occupied spaces
where the outside air temperature is -65'F or above.
2. The ventilating system shall be capable of delivering no less than 2.25 lb of fresh air per min to
each occupant.
temperatureAAIof somn-.
the ducts within
3. The .surface
...
......

50.0

50.0
60.0
26.7
225.0
180.0
259.0
105.0
225.0

6-.,in _y-Anc__t of

1800F.

A-i3 HEAT LOSSS

A-i.2 DESIGN ASSUMPTONS

I. The number of occupants in the aircraft is 33: 3

A-13.1 Cockpit
The heat losses result from convection and infiltration, i.e.,

in thc cockpit and 30 in the cabin. Metabolic beat

rate for a sc.wted person (writing) is 400 Btu/hr per

occupant.
2. Heat gain due to solar radiation at -65"F is
negligible.
3. Outside air infiltration
rates are: cockpit, 100
cfm.
cfm; and cabin, 300
4. Humidity effect at -65"F is negligible.
5. The heating system heat loss is equivalent to 20
deg F.
6. The blower volume flow rate is a constant.
7. Mechanical heat sources and fan work are negli-

,a.

(A-1)

A-1.3.1.1 Conectim
The heat loom are through the transparencies, uninsulated skin, and floor, i.e.,
" -ql,
.,, + qj
+ qflw

,v.

wj

(A-2)

where
-

gible.

8. The cabin ceiling and upper 3.5 ft of the side

walls arc covered with 3 in. of insulation. The thermal coefficient U of the insulation is 0.G7 Btu/hr-*Fft'.
9. Heat transfer coefficients:
Surface
U. Btu/hr-*F-ft2
Transparent areas
1.69
Floor
0.7
Uninsulated wall
1.85
0.07
Insulated wall
10. Electri:,d equztpment uses 0.225 kVA
"11. Air:o - t0lb/ftV, c, - 0.24 Btu/lb-eF

+ Qanm.

UA AT

(A-3)

(Btu/hr-*F-ft2 ) * (ft') * (*F) - Btu/hr

(l.69X50)[60 - (-65)] - 10.5W

Bnu/kih
q,t,,

-u,.,,dj
(I.85X50)[60 - (-65)] - 11,560

Btu/hr
qf, - (0.7)50)[60 - (-65)) - 4,380
Btu/hr

By Eq. A-2, the cockpit total convection heat loss

is:
Q,1,, ,0M 10,560 + 11,560 + 4.380 - 26.500
Btu/hr
A-I

A-13.11 W9radm
The
.. bhit lom soulding from infiltration is:
SQ,ucWAT

( 6 tu/ib-tFj.

By Eq. A-6, the cabin total convection heat loss is

,..y

(A-4)
b/hr) - (-F) - Bwu/hr

-13,900
-

, :3,640 + 19,690 + 41.630

+ 2,270 + 24.280 + 1,970

109,380 Btu/hr

Basd on the given infiltration ratta of 100 cft into

the cocpit. the resultinS pounds of air W arc:

lb/hr

W - (ftl/min) * (lb/ft') * (min/hr)

- (IOX0.1IX60) - 600 lb/hr

..
Theronwo by Eq. A-4:

Q~lw " pWAT

18,000
Btu/hr

A-13.13 Toad Cdipk Hess Lw

By Eq. A-1, the total heat Ions is
-

A-3.2

A-4.

Since the infiltration rate is given ez 300 cfm into

Q40-1u,im - (0.24(600)[60 - (-65)1)

"The heat loss resulting from infiltration is by Eq.

the cabin, the rcsultint pounds of air W arc:

W _ (ft 3/min) , (lb/fl1 ) 9(min/hr) lb/hr
l
-

(30XO.1X60)

1.800 lb/hr

'cretbre.by Eq. A-4

26,5W0 + 18.000 - 44,500 Btu/hr

(0.24X1,800)[60 - (-65)]
54,000 Btu/hr

C"

tion, i.e.,

A-I.3.L3 Total CaM.s Heat Low

By Eq. A-S. the total heat loss is
-

Celed
A-1.3.I
TIh heat lom ,.re tbroitgh the ramp, transparen-

cm floor, Wells, Ind coiling. i.e.,

Q

,
S+
.:
+ qkwM,,V

109,380 + 54,000

163,380 Btu/hr

A-I.4 VENTILATING AIR REQUIRED

+ qaucy
,
(4.-6)

Baned ta Number of Clkuiat %W

Mbamm Veuiladmg Rate
The ventilatinS air requirements are:

A-I..I

+ qmaigwa
eam OL"
raw~

+ qkwbw',kw

Theaeoe,, by Eq. A-3

(I.85X60)[60 - (--65)]
13,900 Btu/hr
- (1.69X26.7)[60 -- (-65)1
5,640 Btu/hr
q.,- (0.7)(225)[60 - (-65)1
- 19,690 Btu/hr
(1.85)X180)[60 - (-65)]
- 41,630 Btu/hr
- (0.07X259)[60 - (-65)]
- 2,270 Btu/hr
, (1.85)(105)[60 - (-65)]
- 24,280 Btu/hr
- (0.07X225)[60 - (-65))
1,970 Btu/hr
-

A-2

WI - W-,wkw + Wt.d,

(A-7)

The weight We of the air required is dctermined by:

W. - (lb/min-occupant) e (occupant)
- lb/min

(A-8)

Therefor, based on the given conditions of 3 cockpit

and 30 cabin occupants each requiring 2.25 lb of fresh
air per mrin
Wa,,
Wa.,,,

- (2.25X3) - 6.75 lb/min

- (2.25)30) - 67.5 lb/nin

By Eq. A-7, the total minimum ventilation requirement is:

Wa,,,,

6.75 + 67.5 - 74.25 Ib/min

--

_____
____

706-202

____AMCP
____

vreqrurewut Baed an Maximam AlloUsbie

Temtpeatume Diffeemg
Since the furface temperature of %beduta wnnot
cxcd 180'F, the maximum allowable temperature
diterence AT in occupied area; ;s:
A-IA.2

A T - 180 - 60 - 120 dog F

it ix necesaary to detrmin.-if thIs a;lcwable A T
it sufficient to satisfy the cockpit and cabin heat losses

...
4Thus
-1

based ow, 'circulation demanded by minimum ventilation requiremenls.

or the a'lowable AT

Wa,,

120 d'g F is

MC.3 ib/min

- 25.8 + 94.S-

A-1.4.3 ToW Htalt Re,qlrgmss

Since thc system heatin& loss is given as 20 dq F,
the total temperature difference between the outside
air (-65F) and the heating ducts (180F) it:
ATmw -

180

(-65) + 20

265 deg F

Accordingly, the total heat required is:

Qiow -= 0.24)[(120.3X60)J(265)
- 459,100 Btu/hr

A-I.4.L1 Cockpit Requiremaet

The required ccckpit AT is
C,.kpa,,W/(cpWa.eg) degIF

(A-9)

Use the beat loss of 44.500 Btu/hr from par. A-1.3.

,1.3.

-44, 5l(O.2X6.A7X60)' - 458

,-'

'

-de4g'
F tempatu-difface c-cg&
'.nc
th. allowable AT- 180 deg F, tim a*rflow to the
cockpit musZ a.tceo the minimum required for ventilatiem. The required amount of cockpit air bawd on
treallowabeA'Q 2
,c -,t.,/(c.7) alb/h
.--1,545
l,5451bO/[(05.SXlbmi
Ib/hr - 25g.8
Ib/min

...
A24,,
A-I.4.C

R..eq(.'*

(A-10)

AI-.5

HEATER REQUIREMENTS

The net heat requirement to be supplied by the

heater is the difference between thaOreqaired and
that gained from the occupants and electrical equip
ment, i.e.,

Q,.

A-I1S.5
Heat Ga6W
The occupants and the electrical cquipmaait aft responsible for the heat gain, i.e.,
,Q

"1

163,380/[(0.24X(67.5(60.j - 168
:deg
F
-

-,

(A-12)

The heat generated by the 33 occupnts based on

tim given mnmabolic heat Tate of 400 Bt/hr is:
(Btufhr-eccupant) * (occupant)

- Btu/fir

Similar'y, use the heat ks of 163,380 Btu/Ir from

A-1.3.2.3.

j.,pir.

(A-t
1)

Oa, - 0.,u,

- (33X400) - 13.200 Btu/hr

Since the electricd aystem power consumption is
0.225 kVA. the equivalent heat ir,
(kVA) - (Btu/hr - kVA) - Btu/hr
- (0.225X(3,413) - 761 Btu/hr
-

Sinae the 168-dq F temperature diffrence also exceeds the allowable limit. the airflow to the cabin
must exceed the maiur.um required for ventilation.
TVi required amount of cabin air based on the allowable AT- 10 deg F is
- 163,380/1(0.24X1:20)1

.. 4

'5670 Bu/h" - 94.5 Ib/miA-1.51

0 -- - 9Since

A-I.4.2.3 Total Air Require@e I

\by Eq. A-7. the tqtal ventilation requirement based

By Eq. A-12, the total heat piaed is:

Q~m, - 13.20D + 768 - 13,9EBftu/hr
Not H Rq
the total heat requirad by pat. A-l.4.3 was
459,100 Btu/hr. by Eq. A-lI the "stheat required is
-

459,100 - 13,

445,132 Btu/hr

A-3

o.i.

A_

AW 7OWO2

A-l33 Heater Size

The nearest available heater size to satify the heating requirement of 445,132 Bt'j/hr is a 600,000-Btu/
hr heat".

A-I. BLOWER SIZE

The blower mint provide air for both ventilation
combustion
:*: and .-.
:For of fuel tc heat the air, i.e..
WaW - Wdk.

-v W.,.,,

(A-13)

A-IALI Veam. of Air t be Duhre

The weight of voutilading air ftom par. A-1.4.2.3 is
121lbIb/min.
Ta det, mine fh combuion airf'ow, assume:
Heat transfe

S"1.

2. FI,
Ikuflb

A-2L. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

The desip condiion is to maintain 90"F, 40%
reuatve humidity (RH) maximum during a MILSTD-210 hot day (1036F and 95% RH) in the coctpit
only.

A-2.2

DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
solar radiation effTts it is assumed that thec

helicopter is heading due south at 1400 hours in the

afternoon of August 1. Other considerations remain

the st me as for the heating analysis. No heat effect
due to mechanical sources will be considered.
A-.3 DETERMINATION OF EFFWFIVE
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES

efficiency ; - 0.65

ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS

SURFACES OF THE HELICOPTER

with higher heating value HHV - 18.400

3, Fud-air ratio W//W, - 1/15.

Tlwm
put is:the airflow required for the 445,137 Btu/hr output iThe
"
(the
.- Qe/[(I1HHV(dW.W)i,]
(A-14)
........
(Btu/hr)/[(Btu/lb)- (W W ]the
(.lIb/hr
- 54,132)/[(h
8.400X3
l/m 50.65)
-558 Ib/hr - 9.3 Ib/mitz

A-2.3.1 .EioctiVn SeWa Temperstim

outsde surface temperature isdependent upon
outside heat transfer film coefficient fh the
onortion a of volsi radiation I which is absorbed. and
outzioe ambient temprrature To. The relationship for this efrective surface temperature is (solar
temperture) as given in Ref. A-I is:

" ' :to

By Eq. A-1 3, *be total airflow required is:
:

.Ww- 120.3 + 9.3 - 129.6 lb/min

~ ~or
in terms of dininl
oriers

mf,
Wa,, - 129.6/p - 129.6/0.1
-

1,296dm

- T"o + nllfo. OF

ahe

(A-15)

fraction of solar radiation absorbed, dimen- .heattransfer coefficient (fdm), Btu/hr-ftl-*F

solar rudiation, Btu/hr-ft'

I
For this case, f - 13, To - 103. and a - 0.9; there-

fore, from Eq. A-15:

A-1A
Ptsure Dreg
?.
Asume the followin pressure lousem:
I. Per foot of straiht duc: 0.05-in. of watei
S2.per 90-l elbow:. 1.0-in. of water
S3.
of water
4. Frsh
AFr airtheinlz:
eater:2.-in,
2.0-in. ofwater
A bkowv with a prusst Aip rise of 13-in. of water is
rmquired, applying the unit losmes.

A-2

COOLING AND VENTILATING

ANALYSIS

The following is an example of'a cooling and yen.ia

a l .
A-4

- 103 + O.81/13 - 103 + 0.061.0F

-,

(A-16)

The temperature for each surface of the hlichoptet

depends upon thesun ingle, which affects 1.ThI following values of !h are taken from Ref. A-2 for the
conditions of this example:
Surface
i, Btu/hr-ftl
I vminnj.
w1n,. V;t
INh.
ise-,, V,,WW
v.,,

IH,,,*,. rTh
I
,16

25

160

16

105
th

250

Um
?rom tbw I'.

kab
oAw~ws Sq an Ok.mS frl
*I

SqTsmpsvawL

Isis

Amma. UNMImmWe "w a"mum Of abs MOM*~q

An$. to

IIM.S

Av

lie

A mw

40

Amm. tsmaip~rmo of tbe fo~owWS disms-

-T.Wdog F

AT-u

or
I&

WW
A'

(A-17)

4an- WE.
a

-T..u

Cmakuom of tbe bW gui. bad onh

do Sim
dus UbI.

A... vm.

Tempamaur Diffuumm i
14.5
23

&T
A Ts
ATw

Amft
17.9
17.9
3.

A:,
As,

The &s to be vied foe c.Iwlaionsam dolmrmine from Eq. A-17.

tATs

14
19.5

Arm,,

28

ATN

&Tw14

4.Ic~G.
7ue boat 5du. w Wa.
uid ansmmum make UL.,
+ fou

Q~qw

A-9

+~(
fqAe.M

fo.n

AU2

lbs k (fkmfonr
dboq

j~f+N

406 + 9'V + q(i + q,1nv

HEAT GAIIS
Impnnnpal seen'su of beagh~oo
lwc~midudas
COMMPI

.A

2. Oncupewts

A-RA1

c....u..
~
s.~

.~..

'~ma

~ ~ -i

~cA,i ibsthe
dwctom.

(A-Il)

~ +jjW

qN

-(l.SIMM4) - 0

qs

-(IASX2M
93)
-j (IJSMOM25 - 414

-721 DNm/br
DBuyb

w S" +~831
+5S721
*414
2,W233W/hr

+~~ D,~,AlW/h

jgsi*s awm facingaukof tin AT,

(0.7)(Il 14) - WS DN/br

A-5

A
lam.

UwIlAP

yS.Abo)
fter.w

orw
ga

tvAr
km~mt

(IX6I.)-

,917 k ./br

4.
3W/br

(Eq. A-

bfilhahme Cub
9A4L&.L2
Wy Eq. AA-4 adoth didp aummpim
(.3W1p.IKEXUX13

owma

90)

A-U I.7

(176K35) - IAUflW/k

IAO 4-3.M

al It
By ft. A-4S do tUd bea pis.

ADS

m bond as
aTb.mle beot ame w o dro
mn raws w 3sova#ae 2.25 t/ubs.uqnmm

1maip/b

The amous of watrrmifom kaw

airsby is.
*athRN ha M5to 4% amy be deswumims
fy5r-o
m a pugiwomatr donr. LA..
in 10301 95S 3j4 g - OMS lk.,w& r/~b-mi
wrw in 9V. 40% RN mik - 0.12 b.-w /Urbmi

319
-3
O0w/k
A41oa

To sm a amme"
Nb Gai
A44C
d &Wa 11aftlas

aoftOs

waftr.

ThwvkW~~
~ osldslrmdd
~ ~

T
A-2A.L4

rinua a~tthesnu-

mad *a bast ouiavmuds

h
Leg d O
bbm
his

Wemem(2253) -75 blob/m

(lISMS - 44 3mt/br

+ 2A86+

pmorarpb coadliloelg of the air for van&1*- 0&hi

lwaths, behi and uam, mmd prne,, qala whic

opu~.i ast cmiulkwd in ordor to dateOw. fma mumu
wAma Lbs ". of the air coadi&loel *ulpom~t us

Camilkioneg mad p o -ids

tI taauetmm A/1 ma S~.

Tl. vamls fwam
elr aditim 4 imPar.
pwr. A-2A.1; the whias fwasl

6.9 am*3m/

is~I1765 ku/hr.
A4WA4 ToWe Csshk Head Cisk
s
~AI

The Qi.d.i.. frm pwr. A

ml. the dulp ,uqwirm" of 9F. 40~ RIL cow-

w A14

Qim-440

ldSa.

A4.S CSNub of Vaem" Air

isat 1030F. 95%
bha
frshb
I.
to* ammapicbs
iuwAaff
LII. Skms watwim has WWl by oft

Gal
Mw hu pis krm aciar miatm is
by Eq. A-M.
A44.L3 Odw Sm~m

-mwo
(2X

l20u/br
I=

A-13 ASK CONDMTOMU SZ5

quirwminb o pmL A-1.2 and A-22.2

gftuvwm

(3X4M0

Qmrauu-

md

Thhldar toaLd bean plid by ceowcil

aupeh

lvs asabaic bhat rmw of 40 Iku/br

bwal ndw Skm

qs - (I.0)(179X143) - 439 ku/hg

- (LI)(173X23 -~W6lii/br
-

A4A.Z Omm~a
Tb. WiS rinaw"te by the 3 wdkplt

wowe uIm Wi - OhG

Id

RMa

O *ahem of amidmom of uwa is1,07 Mu/

b-www ase tOw boa of ambamdes is

W%.

bwrAt/b-alr)

4e
h

AMl 706-2
The heat removed in cooing the water vapor or
water from 103 to 90F is very smdl and can bc ncglected.
A-LS.2 Fm Si and Hoe1
Venillation fans and any other fans moving air into
the occupied speac cool their own motors with the air
they arm moving. Many timcs, ventilation fans amrinstalled in an exhaust mode. When this oocurs, no het
p.ised by the occupied space and fan heat is not.ced. Air conJtloers may be d-.ven by compressor bleed air from eikm the cngine or an APU and
ro "tmect bht is Wed to the occupied ospce. If the
air conditioner it, driven electrically, beat will in
gemeal have to be added t, the symtm. For theM am-

jt*
Pis

pie cut. OMMUP

- A.

- It-/

- W
-Jf/MD -(i/1*

ftl/hr

57,W
Oft'/hr
- (32)[(30X60)] - ,.qi

..

(A-25)
V ,(A P)/(33,000)y]
- (ft 1/min) - (lb/ft1)/(ft-lb/hp-Lr)" hp
- (63,921/60)(13X5.2)]/
((33,000X0.S)] - 2.7 hp
-

since l-in. of water - 5.2 lb/ft1 .

The equivalent beat of the fan motor

thaeL

I. Vmtilmt~o fans are en the input side, bringibq

fresh air into the cockpit at a rate of 6.75 lb/mmn.
2. V~,.dlatkm fans me moving the rat of thc
01cooled air at a speed ,- 30 ft/min.
3. Cros4uctiko area A for the cockpit is 32 fW
ThI volume V.e air to be moved i
.
,V,

2. Per 90-df ulbow: 1-in. of water

3. Across fresh air inlet: 2-in. of wate
4. Across air oonditionwr. 2-in. of water.
Assume further that thes unit loose result in a total
lois in presure Ap - 13-in. of water; also. the fan
motor efftiency V- 0.3. Th7 fan motor hornpower
P is then

(2.7)(2,543) - 6,72 tu/hr

since I hp - 2,545 Btu/hr.

A-2..&3 Tsm d Ralimwln Rqgpmi
The total heat Ilcs to be rmoved from the cockpi
to mtio the design requirmea - ts pars. A-2A.4,
A-2.5.I.

and A-25.J

QO*

In addition. the faflowiqamount f freh air intrd,.edfo

odu fo
ed niaic(the dmiy p ofa at 1036F,

17,411 IWehr
+ 1.264 + 1360 + 6,872
- 39,W0
- 30,407112=0tio

3.3 too r-fripm-

""5% KH, is 0.64 lb/ft,)

Summ 12,M00 ku/br

"V - w
- ((lb/lmmn)

3
- K6.7U%0)( 1/0.064) - 6,325 f1 /hr

is

volum

ThU tal
Vew

of ur to be iidlad by ths fan

57 M+

"Auuemsm te fON
I. Par foot of rat

,,,,

I to of tef.eratie.

(A-24)
(min/br)]- [I/(lb/ft'))

6n - 63,02f1 '/,&
IPemeM
dit: 0.00-i,. of wafe

IonIR

ZNCI

A-I. W. H. Soe mu@ad J. IR. FOdlws. Hefth aid

AfrPsoml . Jobs Wiey asid
,1db
Some, Iln., New York, NY. 19W.
d. Ara&
A-2. ASNAAE Hand k q, FMsW
Refriptatioa. and AirncaSesisly of FlHeatin
Inc.. New York. NY,
oaudito:
fgi
12.

,\A-7

_AMCP

706-202

INDEX
A
Awasuibility
in engine maintenwa . 3-I
of gun installation, 14-3
of missle instalation. 14-7
Accesories
APU. drives. 4-89
Cegine drive requirements, 3-15
trmanmision and drve systems, 4-8, 4-89
Accumulators, hydraulic. 9-19
Acoustic loadiug Set: Loading. acoustic
Actuators
flight control, hydraulic, additional requirements
"-ind criterv 9-16, 9-17. 9-27, 9-28
hydraulic, 9-13 to 9-17
pseumatic, 9-43. 9-44
propeller, 5-6
valve, pneumatic, 9,40
Adhesive bonding, 7-12 to 7-15
--

puOCO

. Adhesives

inspection requirenets. 2-33

epoxy, 2-31

rdm, 2-30
nonstirctural, 2-32
phenolic. 2-3i
proptstifs of, 2-26
structural, 2-30 to 2-32
Advisory lights, instrument, 10-3
Acrodasticity, total flight vehicle, M-83
Aging, of mulas, 17-17
Air conditioning, cockpit, example analysis.
Appendix
A
Airfoil
uctions

"antitorque rotor blade, 5-S1

"main rotor blade, 5-39 to 5-41
propeller blade. 5-68
Airframe structure
analysis. 11-13
bulkheads, ; 1-6
cargo compak-wnt, 1I-17
corrsion protecion, 11-6
com. 11-2
cns kIoarI. il-9
design and construction, 11-4 to 11-7
desig xonsidentions. I -I to 11-4
" .eve
et. I-.12
"e"ectrical bonding, 11-7
fatibut sensitivity. 11-2
11.5
11-S

maintainability considerations, 15-7

manufacturing. 11-12
material, 11-2
skin systems. 11-6
static loads, 11-7
stiffness and rigidity, I I-I
substantiation. 11-12. iI-13
supports, i1-5
surface smoDthness. II survivability. 11-2. 11-4
testing, 11-13
transparcnt areas, 11-11
weight, I-I
Air induction subsystem
APU,'3-16, 3-17
engine, 3-6, 3-7
Airspeed indicator. 10-3
position error. 9-46
Alloys

aluminum, 2-4
heat treatment of, 2-5. 17-18
copper, 2-6
heat treatment of, 17-18
magnesium, 2.5
steel, 2-2
heat treatment of, 17-17
titanium. "2.
heat treatment of. 17-I1
Alternators, design of. 7-6
Altimeters
bsaometric. 10-3
encoding, 10-3
position error, critcriA. 9-45
Aluminum alloys See: Alloys, aluminum
Aluminum Association. alloy designation system, 2-4
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) codes. 2-1
American Society for Testing and Matcrials (ASTM)
nomenclature. 2-5

Ammunition
ej.-iion of debris, 14-3, 14-11
feed, 14-6
onboard storage, 14-5
Analysis
example: heating, cooling, and ventilation.
Appendix A

gtear designs. 4-35 to 4-46

geatbox housings and cases. 4-64
rotor brake. 4.63
Spline, strength of, 4-39
I-I

~~~~INDEX (Couti-ed)dun 37,-S

AMCP
Analysis (Cont'd)
vulnearbility. 14-13
Annuuling. description, 17-17
Anodizng, 2-35
Antennas
avionic (prwa1), 8-10
commu'dcation, 8-13
high -fraquencv. 8-13
installation of, 8-12
low-frequerk-y. 8-13
UHF, 944
VHF, 8-14
Anthropanwetn' 1&is. in. cockpit domil.
Anticillision )*Mhs, 13-9

43-1

of a*,"~ ti. indwb'f-;On Ssutrul. S'7

of pitot-static system, 94i7. 948
Antdorque rotor See: RiW system, antitiuoque
Arniarnen
boresihfins, I"contrcis (amnirkj, fuuia, uauie rdk.-aw 10-4
synb~im. dessin Suidenr%, 14-1 to 14-7
~~iy~
ArMOr
ki~tcrw torso. 14-1btO@

atutacbnit of, 144~9

itslm~
1'5
&.veoqswt or camwufor.
to
imnubitiation o 10ovift Paus by d"sa
14-1.9
it.6igenoii, 14-18
inastllati,-a, design couidermtioa, 14-18 to 14-2D
inut4gl 14418
materials. 2-27 1p 2-30
s.;-Jionof14-16
parastic.

4-;st*ivii,

protectioni or tranamission aztd drive syssm =xtponents, 4-23

removability of, 14-18
Ar-iiculsted rotors
blade rdwt-~ow for, 5-27 to 5-29
&4-e .bo: Rotor sysem a'JIMu.Roo swa,
maintypesand knessau
Assembley, rotor blades, saatve, 5-%6 to 5-30
Automatic dirsction finder (A[W) 8-S
Automnsti latoequwpmmit, foL maiaacvaommm 15-2.
15-3
Autorotation
entry. stability .equirhakawt. 6-8
simukation of, 643
Auxiliary powvzr anit (A?1U)
aem drives, 449
blesl t'it type, 3-1S
contf-1s. J-11
cootig requir'nnent. 3-1S
-Sto 3-7.2
des4n and innallwi on rqimmn.
1-2

ecatne Muwtia& by. 9-3

wtn.31,31
ehu
falur. made mod ~fe anals-sk (FIEA). 3.21
sysitun 3-19
Wuo
irld air dactiag 3-46
lubcalim suson. 3-20
1isinii" 3-21
wi~afteieace
faounilsq sysbun. 3-IS
pneumsatic po&muskiws, warupncy 9-33
protecive devices 3-18
Mitbility. 3-21
sc-lty provisolo, 3-21
"tatW 3-20, 9-3
Mimic subsytm
cUWA;Aunicatim.~ I!-S. 8-4
deulg acohws~tiaoss. -~
6-2,89-10
Offict G! MWo MO&Wkmti
ekxtrw~agnstic conWrtlbulky. 64 8-2
tam 5 -2. S-?
envnonmaitai
A.,a ootr~, 1.7 to 6- 13
M~iuresseas, 4-1
$on"
ines.
M4l 15.6
U04-4 to 6-?
"P
91pM
and track, -,owo blade,
anta"Mq~e rotor A. dri~v shbufti 4-7
propd11ar, 5-73
Ball betri4s~
o.t3
sw.ei
16-10

to54

L)P5S, 114-3
in
5-31
bt, in rot:.r-badt
SL-iitic twt~avwe, mgmerictkea' *%No&ug
DUa wotA. proc~prtie of, 2-24
110taies
chart- ri 7-576
chuing,7-.7147
i'stalation, 7-27
lead-ncid, 7-1. 7-16
tnaitenance. 7-1S
nkkt1 cadmium,. 7-15. 74b~
silver-tiuc 7-15. 7-16

4-76

utilimatica~ kLds. 7-16. 7-18

Betring lift, wlculatiots af. 4-53. 4-45, 164 to Mt-8

beari-q aska typ". 16-15

beaings
aitfraani, WA-2
angulsr cont&&& 16-9
aantifticdw. cleagiflktiou of, I1q-6. W7bultys of, I"-

bag

(Cesd7-d

(WDEXd

OWLut pulctlewlo,14.47

dwk.
iecic. 2d m 1.4to16-16

drive

elmiomawn. bwaw

wA

440oaks

16-14

in raw~ blede rounjem,

inetallation. 16-2

S.3= 5-33

wea, 16-2, f7-11

pssbwm. 4-42 to4.57

draw1@ .4-3%
falgi. Nk ".45, 4-56
internul cherSUNtdIVM 4-S1 to 4-54

Banded WLucture
am~oOy, 17415
4wip,.2-33
Bowling adhusiw

maegimma4A to 4.50

Opuraliq wikhom hbdcudo, 44

skd~
iNbval, 4-A4 4.53

11104whAu

ftls I461

boetstiiuk-lbive 6-14. 9-2

I"
3- to 134

bDom fimoeano,

smoneu rod..td. hbI' e

93
S
mINu 16-10.1I6-11
pitb W~k. 6-21
po" lows it. to &%aim~ 44
uuaistiono. W1
4IS
raogr, typs ot 16-10 to 16-12
roaft Owew, hn rowo Made. weieaiems 5-3,

9 T~cw
fabrik in rwot
paws. hm&4.
ULk

pr

blud ionhomi

5-31

~M~tt~U

oo~wd wo"6u 6-?

traeniomni
sad drve qviewa, 4-29 to-3,2
Mock oma4. for coating to -im -- M , 2-36
bal~m, sa" track. rw. 5-46 to 5-30
WAUcadsk.Moijg
u 5-45
p c~ *damogi
~~i

..-

r,5-~w.
S -70
o5.1

5-41 to 546
No& ifobdia& S-3J so 5-37
nawo,

SA&l OMdsP redlv.

ofasry S-4
I"ud MMtele
pvupdhv. 5-74. 5-75
w-. MO(to 3.53
WAdIS OphM~s
rotor 5.36
Medursemoions

pr~dl. 545 5-46~ucwr1

L\

2-1S

rowor by*audic, 4V6 to 4-41 9M

whuul, 9-&.9-2k,124
baziv&g 17-8. 17-9
bsi
-e~q~u (BITE). 15-1
bolhowids, 11-6
Bullt *0e and *kdk, 14-30
11"
liailers. pa. 14-11

20cow"e

$41% ~uaby. 134

scm uhie,2-31. 1742 to 1-15

lcriablam 11-7
boesmeycb structarva, 17-13. 17.14

sldonwi
MahWqmS Meete, 5-SI
PVGPeller 3-41
tuKr 3-36
Blade
br atau balnc med amh. 5-46 to 5-30

Wf~hSM ies"o systo-, &23

jeaeag.17-I5, 17-16
struivwl. 16-31to136-33
C~dadmi a p1m 2-?,.2-36
curp ( wrkw
extera-il 13-14 to 33-M
"urmL, 13-11
a ~ y o u ~ m~ m 3
duig c-molderatiews 11-17.123-11
foRm. 114L1$I-1I,13-13
Carg dier mad ramp
du.k I 3-IlI
hydraulc umwmyv~mm 9.3
Canto. lextrmd, vouncmm syqnsew 13-1w
to 1;4
Cargo Waeding, provimieme far, 13-13

CArgoiedowa
load-l~Inadg, 11-9
prvuiem

413I. 13-12

alumaiimun al"i~n.m2-4
ym o.f 17-1. 17-2
Ca"06ow Oimh. 10-2
cbmewim piamiog 2-36
COrak brahms
hydraulic, 4

CAXUaM mpa
to u=twml dbusajs,^ S7
to pftbt.6.7

Caps, ums of, 16.4

Ca".g
@iiukiuugg440 t.442
Wrk& 4Q

o1ro

11,3
-1.mI
to.1
6.

awimic, 2-M4
psp.,2-36
aminW*aW,

813-

fkug . 6.15

w I

apomw 84
AC I.DC 714
Dc to AC, 7Ms
mul...

~~k~y i.hi,154
UHiF/VHF e..pws 6-3

camp" am ma.

&k, ws.

AC umsu.m 7-7
AR) mownd 3.18
ookpk md c@W 13.7
13uh Appu A
amaqi

4-76ato4"
h A
827
imuh 9X9.3
bywha~
pwoo" gmoms 9-33 to $44
jpulwu.i 545 to 546
*frE

cmod

uww~m

as*)

umlss,

"Swa

cow~w~ut

taia
241 I2.t

- ~~

pkhag 2.36
conW.WNk uA*, &Aammiudsaw. 3-23

~
246

&AM li
p-mh
i.
G xoou,,

441 wo 4417

dhs%34

Ukmomi 2-M9 2-30

of

44 w 447
Wm.

~~

9mk 9-3%

Ccgapu
drift aik.

818
cmw,

hymik,9I9.^ Be25
rini rwdh
hmw.NeW
cwaom. b"%
SowNAal oudm
Cowmur *AnWwt. gi am *Una. 34-l
pkamai. UK~ fcDIL
D"
a
cgafsut
Cow"
=wag*~i. i~www", G617
&t:.not ww
bf~mo
S-al
"-*.
b4v
kaow
wltiWhh. v"mi"a 6-17
kmainwr. 6(44
oa
m.q*644r
mohm
Co" aepm~u oqMPAW &IT.
1.4

-I~.55po ,iut-32. 16-33

~

1-1

4-76 w 44

.4

lpmn~w oad aCP6 umo, l3..

clubwveiwo
u.k 11.4
0 -imm"in
ia. f"*am dmWa, 3.10
Vww6 uI-dFAw
eo.M
'm~bWAICM 154
MbCCukpl
Sft~'
CN~ *"
4
IN.
4-74
9"*hd

-,

WIpawJ. s4a 10 S412

t1451

'Mc

7W~2m

INDEX ((Lontdme")
Elauiomewww couplin& drive miaft. 4-78
Elastomneric materils, 2-10It
Electrical oinknctk * ito hydraulic coatporcuss,

Veers. 2-9
Damps'u WC "xkm. 5A4

Ow *AU49
-WOS
mWOmui SWPWn4 641

9-29

weduiotim reskmmm%, 6.3 to 64t

Dein dimposo

Wammumic a,

14-1l

IlAggMO/hu**M wW*"Pshle, ID~imseua syusm requireamutt fot, 3-11

Duip pwanawus, rotor Wiade, 5-37 to -5-41
Duulg reviews 1-1. 6-28
DesectAbilt drive sysms so.., contributiom to,
4-17
Dia4wekt Istsniqucs frawnijsso armd drive %y3to.. 4-70
DirmtioWd comerols 13-3
Dimzlaala rasetale
bob&Ig of, 2.32
brazing of. 17-9
definition of. 2-7
use o(bolm in. 17-11
Distane trmu~ringi equ4mai~en (DM13), 9-3
Dopplas radar s)sAwxm, M/

tI9,

DmwiE
gearbox bearins,. 4.56
gearbox hoawiip iwd cues. 4-67
Pars. 4-47, 4.48
sow&ne 4-W)
Drive piad., gtboyr, ammiraim, 440D
Drive slJhi 4-72 to 4-81
Driv.4 wyime. general a kruir.matu, 4.3
Vipe

S.-1

I'~5iu~n.

in Otrkia! rytmn. des*gn 7-21

1.A Cio"okyftra1 Serve VidVe fromp.
9-27

1-2.2

Ce3-13

Ormos

Electrical eupment~. invAialation. 7-24

Electrk-cal power
exiternal. 15-4
selection of sou"?A 7-1
Electrica suiusystem
batterims 7.15 to 7-18
clactromnagsietic interference, 7-21 to 7-24
fittings, 7-29
geneal requiremoiw, 7-1 to 7-4
generators and motars, 7-4 to 7-15
installation, T-24 to~ 7-27
lightning andi static cl~trcity. 7-29 to 10-2
maintsinability conskicrations, 13-6
ovccload protecion, 7-19 to0 7-21
voltage regulation and revee current rciay, 7-1S.
7-19
wirc 7.27 to 7-29
Elcmamagi~k.conpatibility (EMC), in aviceiz syrs-

Of~t.nw

Du~t tolL. 6-,6#

uyowa.~c toods

exterewa cargo, 13418

grun insaallatioos. 14-4
Dywauiics
witor~vc tolmi. 542
J~J(~~
r47to56

w.I~r
5-16 to 5-27
Etlgas, 2-19

effec 0 00M. pitc% up, 41;

geArbox, askawmsi of, 4-30, 4.31
t) rnmo sn
siemttem, 4-4
EI.
amus, C'*wOCAimgby. 3.4, 3-14
-ka~eram XrBaigea~aei

zupn*-a*,rjof, 7-22
Electroa bftm weling (EDW). 17-7
Electronjic countermieasures (ECM) devices. 8-7
Emargency drvice, pcesaunzc componeots. 9-33
EnhCrgeac liHS1ng. Passene COMpartenwrt. 13-7
Etncy labricat on
guarbx "47
taounimilon 41.14 .a&imr wy'11 4.22
f-a railv% d-toul cuhirs6,* 1&.29
Enihulc limit
icar tecth, 4-46
-

rtoritamwtic m~mah-n adudius &dtnc"cctPosWna, 5-55

laing
ptop~mr bMadcm.. S-76
rotor bwiov., 5-S4 to 5-57
Engin
-'ss~y
'liW, m~uiftmwat.n 3-15
Engitz alt inshmclic~ ssahe*atam 3-6, .107
Eai

wWN
tJyuain,

3-13

dr1p clwekj.'-1. 3-4

dsit,.
3-5

typles o.3-.1

to 3-ti

F~.I urcto
ap~~ka et

4
-

INDEX (Condami)
*Engh

ibine

n
ito f.35Ftgefv
nyustm. I-SEqangieeig pbasims 24
Eavuomenetal coanvW systsms. cockpit mnd cabin.
example aoals*s Appendi A
Epoxies
as stutural adhesives. 2-31
deacrlption, 2.12
Equations of motion. in Viability analysis, 6.4
Erowio protecion, rotor blWad. 5-44 to -542
Exhaust Oectors, 34k 3-14
Exhaust subsystem
AMU. 3-17. 3-18
engine 3-7 to 3-9
Exhaust supprmeomo 3-9
Explosivt fornuins metals 17-3
mocurriaeof, 3-14 to 13-20
Extunions m".al 17-2

*=Ensigfsswh

kVExuraW

*F

Fabrktionshop
roceses. 1-3
Fabratin.
rocon, sop
7-3bydraulhmsyv=6
Failwe mode and eAMc analyis (FMEA)
Y5
P'~'Pd.

S-~appl~catioas.

stabil~ity auum~awtion "yowem 6.12

weapon syseams 14-10
Failure mod%*
overrusning dutch. 4461
rotor brake, 442

Primay.4.32to4-34
secoodsry4--u
rats.a trauaission sysmem 4-13 to 4-1s
F#ailres par tooth
~4tt~.
4-0
~awie.
46
swxiag. 4-41 to 444Fre.
Failures, red~wason of scunas. to inrasing r&&"blty (hydrauklwvtsystem) 9-5
Fan

A *Fauihre

Appeadix A
\xA

ammesby

5ooc
43
composute mauurials. 5-55
ero erns 4-55
propelle blaW, S-75 to 3-77
rotor system coupomemla S-IS, 5-53 to 3-57
Fatgue sensiivity, in airerme dwkin, 11-2
Fatgue tesin Mtudwar members, rot oruee,
5-56
Feibadr, for actwauor pods.n csanuL, 9.17
Farou ustal
applicatos aow attrib~se 2-1 t 2-4
bea trhamarns 17-17
Fibugiss laminates, 2-11
Ci~le caps%AeL, 3-1l
k,-,ters
APU. 3-17
*Metoic, for EMI protaitos, 7-24
3-13
snow ffiI syst,
mbox krabricaon systm, 443
s9-21. 9-23, 9-29
UMes saU , -3
Filtration, byJrauk sygtm. 9-10. 9-11
antitorqus

2-36C
Fam control system. 8-7 to 3.9
Faae detorsi
At,3
y
o,3Fin dwewmis MWNS
APU, 3-21
-sme copctwt 34.13-7
Firuwal
MV -19
3-5
Iui
o3Fus i OqWpowset lw wwse kw 13.7
WR
arrmISoecrical, 7-29, 16-16 to 16-22
b
~
2 ,I.4
types of ro

quack-viWeak. 163eauinas
threaded apfmictkaw 16-,
typos of. 17-10 to 17-12

-9 to 51

5-35
16-2

Fah
y
actuator (by**Akmi),
9.13 to 9.17
dsg md6.~
lad__it62

tosht~
5-2356
14

2-34 to 2-38

moddertlsus

to 6-26

)
i

AM~P 70M20

~INDEX

(Coadmued)

Plight cusMW systM (Cone'd)

latesystam uwithin (hydmau~lc) 9-8
kiemanac ulhcsa, 6-14
p~antlaaily ca uldustiona, 6-25, 1355
andonrotaing) 6-is to
iwxbnismms (robtlvS=
6-26
nonrotatlag, requiremnats and design gtandards,
6.22 to6-25
Pilo effort rMqureMefts and consideratioms 6.14
to 6-18
redundant hydraulic power sources required, &-I,
6-18.9-1,965
relisilty couulderutie. 6-1S
stabilty and constrol raquirunee and specificstlooks 6-2 to 6-9
usabiiy aamVmnUAiWo sYOtM (SAS), 6-9 to &-14
strutura salthus. 6-24. 9-16
teing. 6-26, 6-27
vibration feedback 6.14
vusablunifty amsdralos 6-18
Fligh ingxnuaints, 10.3
is

4-74

idrie hftdn

Galvanic action umme~ebf~ty of mink to. 2-7

plopulr 5-76
Flig

"ht
eeng in

in-

-~~kOof fliht contol

1.6.npneumatic,

maw.

P-P
1sw i Me

5~limitilees
Swe SaM flmi

cojPly-by-wiwe. an
FWMla qasahs
develop=Me of. 6-2

hydranhc. 9-30
%-41

Gearbooss, lubrication amd woMMng 4"I

Glear =Wsqzngu% 4-78
Gw loui
frictIon 45, 4-71to 4.11
wind* 4,.34-

FWlVefdtha 11-10
Fltstiim
mmipacy *mpbflty, 12-10
6@4k ~124
Plotte andivAmn 543

-n~r

Fuel controls
APU. 3-19
cockpit. 3-13
Fuel drain valve requireina s. 3-11, 3-13
Fuel dumping provisions, requiremnats, 3-13
Fuel gaging systeaw 3-1l
Fuel subeystemn
components of, 3-10 to 3-13
crashworthiness caiterla, 3-10
definition, 3-9, 3-10
diagram required. 3-13
drains. 3-13
testing, 3.13
Fuel tanks
expansion space, 3-11
external, 3-11
integral, 3-10
refusling and defudlIng 3-11
vents., -Il
Fuses
electrical. 7.20

Oa sstm

4-35
typws 4A4.4

6-34
"rol,
analysi of bondigfat sigu urungtk, 4-36 to "I4
plief" fellers 4-44 to 44
"I
4s4
waION failse .4

uigai&mug raaMhUa 6.2

Foaf r*
gjpropor" of, 2-23

OwMa

Folding Amawaft roci (wAft), 144

Fodn.rater WeS. Sue Uska WW"in
Fworgn motnk, 17-2
Pornade lighW. 13-9
Formb&g am"n
Mork ds at~17719 ..
*mushodeof*dwn4 177-3

designw ansimalsia 4-34 t 446

draw apned qui&Meat
&,4.47.44
01sawaan
AC, charectuidMic of. 7-6
Dc. chuac" * -" of. 7,. 7-10
,7
74rei
vuspowm fat~ua~
mpsar"hposen.--

Praww aifz
s, = ns tonkual I I-s
Freqemx7
mien, rowo isisewk 35-19 to 5.24

lopwarais.o

in akdus. dedp, IlI-I

Friction OPMstiftse to pwbox N'P' P..4&4,47

Geunuatry roto wlaes

5mua
-37 to.541
Obbal roWo. bb6 meelI to -*5-29, 5.30
Gmrlf h re PbgiC (OM.P
fabriMeje. mihade, 2-13

2-12 to2-16
4VMsmtys
GIns
Ol~ mi'iohb -1O
1-7

AMWP 71-202
INDEX (Cotdnewed)
Honeycomb struct',.s
Governors, propeller. 5-66
composite materials, 2-2D, 2-21
Graphite, 2-18
use of adhesive bonding, 17-13. 17-14
Greases, application for, 2-38
Hook. external cargo, 13-19
Grommets, uses, 16-4
Hoses, tos in hydraulic system, 9-12, 9-25, 9-30
Ground resonance
Human factors
avoidance of, 12-11
in armament controls, 10-8
landing tear design criteria, 12-1
in cockpit design. 13-2
rotor design criteria, 5-19 to 5-23
in maintenance, 15-3
Ground support equipment (GSE)
Hydraulic circuit breakers
design considerations, 15-1
use to improve survivability, 9-8
standardization of interface. 15-2
Hydraulic components
Grounding, electrical, provisions for, 15-4
electrical connection to, 9-29
Guided missiles
See also: Hydraulic subsystem, components
design considerations for
Hydraulic fittings See: Hydraulic subsystem.
installations, 14-6 to 14-12
fittings
See a/so: Missiles
Hydraulic fluid
Gun
indication of level, 9-26
accessibility. 14-3
location af level indicator, 9-25
burst limiter 14-11
selection of, 9-6, 9-10
feed mechanisms. 14-2
uses of, 2-39, 2-40
fire interrupters required, 14-10
Hydraulic pumpM, 9-18. 9-19. 9-30
locations. design contiderations, 14-2 to 14-4
Hydraulic reservoir
pintle-mounted. 14-5
adda6*,oal criteria, 9-31
pid=moun-*. 14-4
design requirements, 9-20
turret-mounted, 14-4
subsystem
Hydraulic
types of, 14-1. 14-2
accommodation of reLative motion. 9-12
Gust loads
analysis required (beat load, mission profile.
effect on propelkr vibration, 5-62
peak power, and total eneay). 9-12
rotor systaem, 5-24 to 5-26
APU and/or engine starting, 9-12
cargo and/or personnol hoist, 9.4
H
cargo ramp and door operation, 9-3
Handling qualities
components
evaluation of, 6-2
access for removal, 9-25
methods of analysis. 6-3
_agmputm

I64-!6
6-;.

u,_",,n and &. .,An011

0 _1

Se aW Flyin" qualites
Hangers, drive shat 4-75
Harnesses, safety, dwe of, 13-4
How eicbnm

control scector valves. 9-22

daidgn and development data and reports, 9-13
design
*oside
tio 9-7 to 9-13
desrgn pressu, 9-6

S amso: Cooler
metasb
Het rummmt
descriptiou. 17-16 to 17-19
design coamideratios, 17-19
Heaers, groud 154
it anld cabi 13-7
Hetin.
exsaipls amalyis, Appendi& A
Higlsaw rotor. blade mustioa, 5-30
Hinge
autijeimld rosw, 5-9
aieslud (vseerW mrtor, 5-10

fittinis. 9-11. 9-30

flight conol pvwtr. 9-I. 9-2
fluid W. intcoato, 9-20
bat exAnu, 9-13
instalation comsraximm 9-25 to 0-27
maintaimbdity a dwatkmhk 1,-.7
sisollaeuus disipju acritu, 9-77 ,a 9-32
operating p'auune casidpaio, '.P-0
Pressumr r~ ltioa, 9-20
propelle c"Wro. 54o~
p-'stioa attumatikos 9-19

Hoig

r.iabilit. 9-S. 9i4

bydraulic e---at- mi for, 94

intearal, cao oding. 13-14
1.4

roam brake. 9-4

atret criteria, 9-6

dzg

4-86

Ilradtmi,09-10.91

INDEX (Continued)
Hydraulic subsystem (Contd)
temptture cni

tion M9

vibration, 10-10
9-.7

utility sys'.un. 9-2 to 9-5

wheA brakes, 9-3
Hydrofoimui& metals, 17-3
Hydropn embdttdment, methods for
,diuf of. 2-36, 2-37
SI
Indicators
adviaMry, tramimion and drive qsytem, 4-70
attitude, 10-3
attitude dIuctor, 10-3. 10-4
coure,

1()65

dlftru
Prum, bydrmalic filter, 9-21, 9-25
dfhotivemm., pomumatic system dehydrator, 9-35
fluid lkeve, hydraulkc reurvoir, 9-25
horizontal situatios 10-5. 10-6
P.,,Sue
emapc air bottk 9-33

bydahlic system, 9-22, 9-30

p wnmat sygam. 941
rulio magnetic (RMI), 10-5
go"fof 0MV, IUj-3
.atic paund-ank
1'09
.trn and bank. 10-3
vartical si tion. 10-3
wutq, parking brake, 9-S
;.

,,nzi,

systems,
10-.4
m Systes,
101 10-9
10-98-4
1 weepon
na,&*atin
Inerial
o
Infrared (IR) s
APU exhausit 3-18
exhaaust. 34, 3-9
quireamunt (vsle)k. 3-3
Inlet air &xatiAg, APIU, 3-16, 3-17
int wSdliw prot*cn of, 3-6
IinIPEIo
d
in fia
e ld
15-3
trammiaWn and drive system, 4-10
i~alStahI
ea ocal,
53-23
antitorqVS rtor, 543
llap.a& 1-14
semnLal See. Grou( d rmonaonce
-

',

. 5-14
p.hdA-l 5-13

tlanumatla
a-26.
S-27
:iNrMunt WMAWi
sysm (ILu), , 5
I
u
a
sAyOte
S

amibdity

pealKI

"inteh

of oospDMPMa

MpQMMt&

AMCP 706-202,

, 10-19

?.0-1

consi-ations, 10-10
SMik% Mquirsmtat. 10-1
Msmainsbhity consiidurations 15-7

warning, caution, and advisory signals. 9-2. 9-3

Instruments
flight, 10-3 to 10-7
helicopter subsystem, 10-7
light emitting, 10-1
navilation. 10-3 to 10-7
types, 10-9
weapon system, 10-7 to 10-9
Insulation
of electrical wire. 7-27
sound proofing, transmission anid drive system, 4-1!
Intake screen, APU, 3-17
Interchangeability requirements. blade balance and
track, 5-46 to 5-50
Interoammunication selector, system, 8-4
Interfaces, ground support equipment, 15-1
Investment L.uting. 17-2
Isolation. vibration
avionic equipment, 8-3
engine. 3-5
gearbox and drive system conponmAts, 4-12
instrument panel, 10-10
JUttisoning
gun and ammunition, 14 3
gun pcd, 14-4
missile launcher, 14-7

Joining. metals, methods of, 17-6 to 17-11

K
Kinematics, rotor system, 5-7 to 5-16
L
Lacquers, 2-35
Lsminates
fabric, 2-16
high pressure, 2-17
industrial, 2-16
Landing gear
avoidance of ground and resonance, 12-11
bear paw. 12-9
components, 12-3
load analysis, 12-11
maintainability considerations, 15-8
retractable, 12-9
ski, 12-9

skid-type, 12-8
water landing. 12-1, 12-12
wheel, 12-1
Landing loads, analysis of, 12-11
Landing/taxi lights. 13-10

Launchers
missile, 14-6 to 14-8
rocket, 14-8 to 14-12

AMCP 706- 202__

__

INDEX (Couthmed)
Life
bcarings, 4-55, 4-36
tronsmission and drive system, testing, 4-32
Life rafts, rcquiremcnts for. 13-7
,Lgting
exterior, B39
instvument, intensity watrol, iO-1, 10-2
ins'umentation, 10-1
interior, 13-10
p, oteation
dipxtricdl nyste,, 7-29, ')-30
rotor blades, 5.D3
Lightadviiory, caution, and warn~ing, 10-2, 10-3
anticol1ion, 13-9
cabin and passmiger compartment, 13-10
cargo compaim.nimil 13-11
cockpit, 13-10
entargency, ?3-10
,/fotV(atiC., 13-9
'!landi.!tt~ki- 13-10
panel, i-1,'i3-;O
portablr, insjection, 13-10
posltion, 13-10
troop jump signsi, 13-11
"Lirait-cycle
oscillations, 6-7
Litt",s, instalhitio "oviaions, 13-5, 13-6
[Load analysis
battery utilizatio%, 7.l'
electrical, 1-2 to 7-4
larding, 12- 1
LoaJd f..tors

1gearbox

iLightning

I!,

g.ust, 3-24 to 5-27

tires, 12-4
Load-limitis, cargo tiedo'wn. 11-9
Loarling
aco-sti3 rotor, 5-24
-anli~oque rotor, 5-82, 5-83
"pr.)pellerbut, and blade rlention. 5-65. 5-66
L'3ad~ig ramp, c(argo, 13-13
I Loads

gcarboA housin~gs and -cases, design, 4"64 to 4-66

gust Se,: Gust loads
whzel, Cu ca.go compartment floor, 11-8
"Lougerons,) 1-6
Loirg-range navij.tion (LORAN) equipmenm, 8-6
W,. transmission power, 4-5

"Low-fuer warning 3-11, 10-1

,'"irnts
..-fitnt, 2-39
filnt, thicknesm af, 4-7

"t

r onwt.tnt., 2-34
I-jO

Lubrication
boundary layer. 48
data lit required. 2-38
drive shft beoring, 440
emergency, turatasima mad drive system. 447
gearbox bearings, 4-50. 4-51
hydraulic uyatem copponmeni, 9-32
nregmes of, 4-7 to 4-11
roging element bearinp in
blade relttlons. 5-30, 5-31
Lubrication subsystem
APU, ,-.0
engine, 3-14
transmissOn and drivs, 4-41 to 4-88
M
Machining
toicrances, 17-5
types of, 17-4 to 17-6
Magnesium alloys
casting, 2.6
dcK=riPvoio, 2-5
limitations. 2-6
mracbinability, 2-6
Maintenance. desigri . siderations
15-2
accessibiiiiL,
I'-men engineering, 15-3
insmcction, test, and diapniis, 15-Z,
safaty, 15-1
tandardization, 15-2
Mainttiance and GSE interfaces
airframe structure, 15-7
gor, oroan~aIt, andf prteb A-ive itystemn 15
avionic subsystems, 15-6
crew stations, .15-8
electriCol subsystems, 15-6
flight controls, 15-5
hydraulic and pneumatic subsystems, 15-6
instrumcAtation subsystems, 15-7
landirg gear sLbsystcm, 15-8
propulsion subsystem, 15-3
rotors and propellerm, 15-5

transmissions and drives, 15-S

Maneuver stability. criterion, 6-7
Maneuvers, effect on propeller vibratory loads, 5.62
Ma,-ufadturing, considerations in
airfram: design, 11-12
Map :-ae4s, location, 13-5
Map d&%play
projectrd, 10-7
roller, 10-7
Marling eand painting, helicopw 2-37

k
s

AAicM"W

a
INDEX (Cointinme)

Master Wad"s

for propeller bul-ncet 5-73

for rotor balanc and trac, 5-46 to 5-50
Matchmed die mklding, G3?, 2-14
Materials
airframne structure. 11-2, 11-3
armor, 2-27 to 2-30
composite 2-li to 2-27
drive shafting. 441
elastomeric. 2-10
gear, effect on fatigue strength, 4-38
gearbox came and housings, 4-66. 4-67
glazing. 2A0f
hydraulic actuators 94~6
main rotor blad., 5<-50 to 5-53
metallic, 2-1 to 2-6
nonmetaLlic, 2-7
propell blades, 5.74

rotor brakes, 4.64

rotor system, fatigue life considerations in
selectiou of. 5-54

tharmop!=azc 241

42Wt

thermosattin& 2-9
Mechanical instability Swc Ground resonance
Mechanical properties sources 2-1
metals
dassaimlar, 2-7
extrusion of, 172

feru.21Io2

fabrication of. 17-3

frigof, 17-2
nt
f~q~iw
17.1trarit-ninsion
joining of. 17-6 to 17-16

'plating

.4,Missile

S'

Natural freiquencoes
antitorquew rotor, 542
propeller, S-60
rotor, 5-19
Navigational equipumet
installation considerationn. 8-4
maintainability considera-ions, I 5-t
Noedle roller bearings, use of, 16- kI
Nickel plating. 2-36
Noise
analysis for diagtiosis, 4-74
gearbox, effect of gear type and tooih p'~ch, 4-12
gun installations. 14-l1
transmiosion and drive system, 4-11
Nonferrous metals
description. 2-4 to 2-7
heat treatment of alloys, 17-18

Nonmetallic materials, 2-7I

Nonrotating flight controls, design. 6-22 to 6-25
Normalizing, in heat trea ment, 17-17

Notch factors, applied during esidurance

limit testino, !15S
Nu~ts
fixed, 16-2
nonfixed, 16-2
ussof. 16-2. 17-11

spestrographic analysis or. 4-71

svstem luboricating, 4-85
Oil tank and cooler, APU, 3-2.7

nonferrous, 2-4 to 2-7

paraatmperiaw
to9*x n o, 21, -4
of, 2-36, 2-37
work hardenir4 of. 17-19. 17-20
Metalworkhv~. description or proc~aes, 17- 1 to 17-4
Micropoon.-beadset. desig2 requirewents. 8-4P
launchers, 14-6. 14-7
Missiles, gsuidid, installation. 1446 to 144.2
MCck.Up. revicir Wand "Valuatioii. 1-I
Molyldiwo-- disult.a as lubrikcant, 2.39
Motors eacticaI. 7-13
Mounting Lystzi.i.
tcnamia and drives, 4.72

wiltr 1abSee: Vibratory loads

utp.-. 'ac4 ntrlsAPIJ, 3-18
Ovcr'.,,d prut.rction, electrical systrmns, 7-19 to 7-2:
Overpg, wer utesing. gearboxes, 4-~1w

huzzle 10ast, miinsirtaition of effocts of. 14-3

M"~

Perfocmawice awd.al'ss
tLyd-aulic systehl, 9-0
rotor brakt., "-3
mold castings, metal, 17-2

Mylar. 2-9

~M-vmanent

Pkint~s, 2.34 to 2-38

Paramewnr, rotor blade tkAisn, 5-37 to 5.41
Passenger compartment, desifin of,. 13-5
Perfor.-arag
antitorquc rotor, 3-82
h~licepicr., " system parameters
prcejAx%-r

S4-4

I-I

'Piwtt-wiv

OGAtst wa.o 16-32, 16-13

bydtamlc Mrwsinrr, as&."my f1W adobea
pump opmrtlin, 9-19
types and uu- af 163., 17-12
LI,' Lrauii tyctum oign. 9M
K4A contro6, desi~p of,13-2
wib/
rlatb has.;" design W1 tostift of. 6-IS to oi-Zl1y,21ks~mo9rtq
trad,-o. 0-10
subs*.ium. dsign ar.,
Pr
%.x,2-3
is-akiition, 9.4' to 9-41

Pitoot-9tatic f .bs I-44

Pr&oa at flight puths. 4.3

PrCisile

Yftot tubes. 94i

Plaform, Frpmpbr blink 5-611
Plasicscom,,-ats
appli4Ltions for, 2--7
diakdvantages c-%, :-7

bVAdw 549 to 5-75 See AW Dadev. pvpropur

(hubs, actuators
co-Attwsk $5.6 to 5.66
dpTAnici, 5.57 to 5-65

~a~-ei~oc~,2-11, 2-12
reinforc -O.deaigr cosideaticxi*, 2-11I to 2-mt
Plating
*kQzrc!"s, 2-37
delctroiytic, 2-3?
zwtal, '-36, 2-37
molten Mets! Jip, :-3S.
vs.-mum dvn..iaition. 2.37

fineumatic wuayste~e
analys~is of~ mhs ~iow. 9-32
caipeneni desi~,, Criteria. 9.33 to 9-44
des4n re~uiramzu~t, 9-32, 9-33
canos rddhdzor,9-354

-s.

TAV-

--..

'an"

'

.wa

Pumpsh-lcnrl
Searbox lubricating oil. 4.63
hydraulic, 9-18, 9-19, f-30
advantagia of. 16-28
compontattu of, 16-28

;rhstaIlab..'a and qud~ifica'.oi. 9-4#

guainuiina~biity '-nsiderations, 15-7
piolvidt' sydern, 9.45 to 9-"
prvuim- rcduo~i~z end Pagulatioi-, 9,38
*,,rnisfi

ykw iPrquiramens 547~

Maintteinabitily coaisideavions, 15-5
ktlafti&4473
RoptiI.(o sUbz)%UM
dceiintiva o, 3-1
interfac~e with C3SE, 15-3
quck-cbave cqmbifity in, 15-4
PNd~cy Sun,%uns of, 16.27
Pulleys, Conuol system
criteria for selectiogi, 16-26
installation of, 16-26
vvpsti and vtas, 16-25 to 16-27

P.ga,2-P

moittw~

N~Y

9-34a~

t -3ting, componci. is awl -nstall',tion, 9-45

tyN. &id claw.r~ 9-.44Q
X\yte,2-9, 2-12
I sition lights, 13-10
Pci;rer coiatrols, criteria for, 6-14
Po ver/lt.~ relationship, transmission and
drive s3 .Lcem components, 4-25
Power losse, transmisision, due to acces' ie, 4-11
Pc,aai source, electrical. selr'tion of, 7-1
Pr-pisi GRP, 2-11. 2-19
PrM. vre S8a:s.
hyd.-au~ic, 9-30
pneumatic, 9.41
Press~are reguktio~i
hydraulic sytr.~emw, 9.20
Pneumtatic wy~ww. 9-38
Ilasammr bcnsi& reurun line, hydraulic rsystm, 9-9
F~wsurv, vuausas, pneumatic system, 9-42

type

and.

6-I

161

to

16-30

6~7t163
q-feel system, definition of, 6-14

Qual ' ication

API), 3-16
transmission and drive system, Lu29 to 4-32
Quality control
propeller blades, 5-73
r-jor Wlade construction, 5.45
Quick-disconnocts
APU, 3-16
diesse.47
GSE iInterfaces, 15-4
pneumatic system, 9.a44
Quills. gearbox. 4-67
R
Rate controls, description,64
Rating% transmai~on, 4-25 to 4-28
Reduction drivois, APU, 3-2D

waS sd wad pnm

babs.a

aukis"
afrms rowkioiNs 14-10

wl,

raw.. w
inadvat
w~k nuiisia4

Mhdwof44w=Fk

*men. #47.

O~ubmil, SA.61ONa5u

APe. wiAaly

~~k
RVoWor

49
1~

wok541in f
5-78
wiu4.-

Ro-57u

t-510'-i

Bys.~U~ at~
ydradc for
Ruuirciors
ofotor
Vea~igrol, 449i
4-72r
oostoof~.4Iso0;

at.i 6- 1.6-22

13
msAsile- 14.86yt
r~til-;,
*iV4gu
WAiVkels, 14.

\\YP

fz

RcwpIgs ii

byWA WMAM.ut 9-25

typvai iod dusW

Se26
prigidrhockort

wl Iea

hu
ewkifmt:c

AIPU. 3-19

!r
Rlbwui

-4

4raw6ra

48C6d"l

Rob"

Rvels,

(Ms. 6-7

9*2

or
bldeladi
f,48 1
2
khw1oio.

-4
dASs

ii

15
F;i-ity9
hixdoa, %nU*iw
5 ta5s
1.p hing

~ito53

Soagn* wameters

Sckl
,to
5-78
4C

2-9 o,212-O&~rcl.ilt~l~l

eaacmpuitc.'

144
@ ilieg@6

wtur9

3542

nmuiv--o

52

, 1382

~ 41

fim~ ehowawimSimm
desig

asgglii
4C&VWW

Axwwl for 41d

2elaph,
4ham.5)
22

am6I7-

Sadg.'t-,'-,.~me~~el

S.*lanta
mL2-30
23
do!"an. ols 2-36

m643u
SaSk dwiopiavnm,
- -f -lh -a~o
di,
.27
4.1

23
xface, 1645%2-3
km
hydrauic, 2cuao3,4-I
sd,'rinth.2-34
umbiaine, 2 rb34 44
r~~iaib~atio
rait-ic aka ofratps n merice 9.25a
fcarcit.16-S,

Skodabmiag Wairam12
114
Sokeing. descnripio

hrtvured, Nituk-1
curkzwd. p3-3

Speei44dgoesrnpiog

-1

sysevM,
in
Ssors, f~kag rain
S~crm~13

kslmdUS%3
dm4., 32-9
iaglaImmme 6-17
Smn okig
p~imoist.-134

amatypes of16.15

984

U,3.3

wtrol systc'm, 9-24

~~f'2 coni
SAS, hydrraulic subny~teni. 9-25
S~batiogdrawings,
intersoinnect, 4-73
suibcritical, 4-74tpe,-5
&wapercriucm, z..76
taqt rotor or proptlliw, 4-73
trmsnsic:ion &nd drivye system, 4-81
Shafts, flexi~,e
ccairol, IS-30
power, 16 0maneuver,
tyL4 characteri.tics, anid
ionstrtic*.ion. K-29. 16-30
Shel, ume of, 1-1
Sheet metal 4urmint, rlscription of, 17.3
lftkiding, ekctricsl, 7-23
.Th;-,y, wheel, anijysis of, 1248
Mbock strub, ianding gear, U2-5 to 124
Shot 'maink
pSuet~ 4.40
wo k hardOWin of mnAWa surfaces 17.20D

~Sightins sutions, *.apone stim, 134

rfcs,1
1-

Skitulndprotngparead
aungm, 12
uptUii 39 3
n 12-10sc~ru
Perovsk for 13-4
SM040shaid~
,ufxs
11.
Spee stailt5

Servy"

(I

vmiim S.36,k
547w

Spinning

n or.37-19
requirements, f-1r13-

7,me4a-48mi

1-

Spiersal rol, 6-, 6-6remsfo.6

Splicing, cable. 17-13, 17-16
Splines, power transmission, 4-57 to 4-60
analysis of strength, 4-59
4-60
properties, 4-58
Sprayup, GRP, 2-1S
Stability
degradation of, 6-8
derivatives, wind tunnel testing for, 6-2, 6.26
inherent, 6-6
criteria for, 6-7
measures of. 6-4
reqaimrnmfl' for, 6-,'
rotor blade motions Sm.- Iuiamility
toinonal rotof and drive system, 5-26
Stability ausmetntation symtm (SAS)

coat considiratong 6-133

criteria for sulction of. 6-10

design coedaio,6-1 to &.9
sedhe of helicopter aiWs (P-30
OhctrobydnrUMC. 6-1t)
fiUre. OiW rpoem 64. 4.9 6-1;.

hw~sianat.64Jsupporft.

~I~S11Iuip
4-I

Sirvwaih
hydisialic show ?F'1

6.12
dMu

K4&

e"u
M"u

11-2
.97

iad4sodseuhn Lf A-19
ewnbufioa Wo4-17. 4-13
mad.s by. &I3ISutvivalAdmaNPS .qnlminw

~wnSof vhd

imant 9-

~uudeal

Sriva

ftl
&OS.
Make. Paason
tswk
a"
akin w~iu addM ovsad
sad wandisuu%4-29
5twb'. DC, 7-11

13-5rog1o,

Oav~aa

Mlmii., 14-2
17-15, 17-16
Swvagi& balok

rotary, 16.22

APnd-12

Mule, :6-20

typ (qkdvieW4 1-11

kAboas

"ima-fr.7-

3.

A) for, 9-2

hqa~mu
appklikai to sixtrical
sysaw dwign. 7-17
9-3
stnaosug
Staic ohecuicity, ProwcwMoaofaekiricalsea
sshAks, 7.29. 7-3 1
Static woads
cargo co. aJkwastL 137
cuenss uorgo, MIS3
systfam 8-7
SStatioankeapiqt
aloy. 2-2
Caro,coviouion resistant (staiakss,
maraging, 2-3
prodpittion hardenitq, 2-2
Stiffars 1-6

2-.236

stiffness

airframe structure 11.3

Moigt cootrol symw%~t 6-24, 9-6Terminal
Stiffea*4-wesight ratio.,occm artn~u.e 2-21
Stop., rotor t!*de. had-ag. zop n flat, 5-4
Storap boules ponAnltic systern, 9-12
Suina~ner mom~ feed syrnan, 3-13
Stres relif Iin beat resalmoi, 17-17
Stretchfomin~g. meal ewt 17 3
Umrapsa. urfmraja smarijg,

11-6

Str,.'. sitr-aii dealgn of. 12.3 to 12-4

SUMP
f~
aL3-11
FtOI4dfmlq 4-22

APU. 3-21, 3-22

armament iLyasaa. 14-10
blade fokding coasido-mime.a 5-36
flight control, 6-12
T
Tactical air navigatior~(TACAN) sYst~ms, &46

Toil rotor shafting, 4-73

Tail rotors &v': Rotor svstcm, antitorque
intislip, 2-37
high-visibility. 2-'77
marking, 2-37
types and w3, 2-37, 7-3L
Teeterna rotor See: G~mbaled rotor
TO'Thn in bearings. K-13J

Tivmpering, 17-11
'7nhiion-torsion stain. rotor blade' retentions,. 5-32
maneuvering equijpmen.. 8-5
Tri~aninal arips or boa:ds, 7.25. '129 16-19
Ttfinals. electrical, 16-19
Tcst rolalts. provpulsichn syrtean. 15-4
Teating
developmenit, SAS, 6-13
trarsrnvizisuit and drive system, 4.29
endura'noc liakit, 5-54 to 5-16, 6-22
fuel system., 3-13
)eummiac ryatzm, 9-45
structouull, 31-13
I-is

INDEX (Casmhwui
TONS
airspeed cahsbrabion. 9.47
cautizn tr~anuna nD drm#
& vssy~aa 4-29, 44$
delcto.,gs ~g~a,4-29
sendtarmaw bywdrm c actuator. S-.15
ftigbz load survey, 4-74. 5 Ill, 1-06. 6-22
vasrbox imembly and diww&.bly. 4-M~i
ymchax officitaq assiumiweta, A-A, 4-31
hypuanim pu~mp cou~paibility, 9-19
lhbicatima tranmissionmosd
drivi. a ybtwtu 4-30
modeL, waWa Lzw4ing, 12-14
7
over~vww, yearbox, 4.32
pmftU~ht a=Wpt4ac (PFA1). of groad NOs vwvle
(GTV-), 4-31
thmwnW roappl.g, Searkx, 4-31
J4Tberumoj&uic axticiias. 2-4
Thsnnocctiig rwiia, 2-9
Tic baus Saee Tfvwxoo-torsion strap
Tiodown devices cargo. 13-15
1;nCbw w_-owCr4.w'% %MIO).tfanaauiuuor Owd
diwv, ryzuri~s 4i-27
Time. landiiw rer 12-3
Titar~~ii~ a~u~
csafaactcistics, 2-6
machie-ing. 2-6
Telerencem. machining, 17-3
Tooling
airfrai, . 9aztwti&, 17-1?
idejSn toquimmeroet. 17-20 to 17-23
oputul. 17-22

copaft aiow, 4-23 to 4-25

"h..am
cnllgatios for muvivabitiy, 4-1 to 4-Ul
sludkfing ww~
atoeCt
GIyiLt
4-72

to 4-4:

d~ciwamcy. 4-4 to 4-11

faii-wr modes, 4-32 to 4-34
aemJrquirer.ata, 4-3 to- 4-23
lubrication, 4431 to 4-M
noise levhLs 4-11
qualificetion roquicamemdu, 4-29 to 4-32
rating., 4-25 to' 4-26
rviaiability. 4-12 to 4-17
s3., 4.1
surviva~ty.4-17 w 4-23
weiglit 4-4
Tianamitter, pnswruw hvdnudic WyMMn, 9-fl
Trausp~aiencas, cockpit 'and cabin., I -I I
Trim symans
continuousa, 6-26
wi:~ntainabilit'y cousideratiows V5-5
par",
6-26
re~uirwwn=tA and types, 6421
T%6~~i.mhydraiAi~u aili_
9-26
Turbulene,- ioffe,; on wimbility ax cnd il 6-7
Turnbvcklsk$ uses of. 16-3
U
Urcthanes, 2-9

propcAlcr WAade, 5-72

rotor blade. -45
inpuat (radhnc) lii~tz tranan'uiaon iin
drivr. sux4-2.taA-rotor shafting, traruient critraia, 4-74
Toxic gam~, pre'iczowj rron-,
wt'?.ona ihiswaiauonb, 14-i L
Teansient ra~ponme
&scii'tion and damping requiremuents, 6-6, 6-7
msnarcuvcrs, 6.-7
pulv.; inputs 6-7
Trvinrm'iniq~1

V.?.vca
bWood &nd back pmnum', air com.pressor, 9-35
control, whw.d brake. 9-28
Iiydikulac, chock-, 9-21
control scleto, 9-22
d~rv "-itcrie. (radditional), SP-1
pressure relief, 9-20
mastet control. hydraulic actuator, piacu.matic,
9-36 to 9-41
directional or~trol. SOB8 to 9-41
whock brake, 9-44
Ventilation, cockpit sacd cabin, example Rnalysio.

staoartl,, 4-21
thermal ma~pping, 4-31
See also: Oearboxft
Trap.;mihsion and drive subrsystem
inclu&sd ina, 443, 449

VentL
fuel tank, 3-1 1
swat ps.-aure, syz'ean, C-A7
Very high ri~uency omjh eqs (VOR) ) utgas.na V.5
Vibration isolation

dynxmak, 4-34 to 4-64

static. 4-64 to 4-72

A~tgi'ft ins ti~uin, 3-5

instriarient ingallatice, 10-10

Vbnigmmee~auI~.tvm hrna ad
Vb,~laasWoo=
* ouu~wuo I ar'asw dufta. 11-2
rawI. 5-19
su Mdr "
ft m cya
ostrsd of. 446 le 4-70
ndbvms raw, $-a
11-9alm 3-57 ta 349
dar to man md anceftamic W~an 544
rotor, amid"cmicoim 5-16
Vhibfty
ftoq
ts"S, cOwkp, daifta. 13.2
Vokag.. r~doan of

AC. 7-19
DC. 7-10

UftKY o Md
iu

asm, 14-10 I 16-.1

ft
Da~ F~
%A,14
Wwu Ptabws hiadhif P. 13
ow-IgJ
Cobsil.cI &WtI 6014P pbms 1-I
U.umi~mb ind drAm l- a 4-m.
44 441
wow"b rawf mbh two* Sai bum. 3.44, M.'a
W.Idh& tpsnm
OW~j
&%ps
1747
WIILhuu.Inmbg p~ar
BAmig
nwVnkvim~aus 12-4
kI-%dio, U~-2.12-3
Wbalnb, prouad hIudO'q, 124
WiGGINAM, Car

~dmA
fligt coaxrd. 6-13
MS.6-15
dds /dskiciu
13-4
trmamlm
addrive syshni 4.17 to 4-23
&W
du048a of, 11-11
mcthod of analym. 14-13 to 14-16
vi~o requirsaz.euas. 1342
Wadctioti of. 14-V to 94-20
Wind-e&nu1~ toolit4 6.2. 6-14, 6.26
ch~cki~

for.14-16nad1.s,

wWann
War~~iin
lishl. hydraulic systm failure, 9422, 10k.2
&igtals. 10-2
trasn~miuaon iwnd drivs sy~su=, 4.70

voi., W02

Watef laninsg cpabihiI

darig
ad t &vciopmmnz for. 12-12
WtapOn ilns~llai~ols
gvided miuskilco 14-6 to 14-4
sung, 14-1 it. 144-z
tickcii'. 144 to 14-10

7-25
wwificati-mw 7-22
t.YPK, chAracasTiui.a NEW sppicatozia
Wim.
ptCrviumvA 16-11
inMkty, 16-32, 16-!i
stavcthdMI 16-31 to 16-33

7-27

to moVI4m Compo~nents. 7-26

WOek hardwsin#, fflalu 17-19,1I7-A)
Wrow~ht ptodueta. alw'rtaium ally. 2-vZiow piatiml 2-36

1-17

AC

FOR THE COW'MMDER:

ROBERT

~OFFJCID

G.J AROLD
LTC. Cu
Adjutant Gmne'-a1
D7ST?IBUTIOM:

S;,eL ialI

wOvme3mmI

il

L.KIRWAN

Brloadier Geneval
Chief of Staff

MIS~TIWUOVKI

i--'nx

413

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