Chapter 13: Meiosis and Sexual Life Cycles

Reproduction exhibits heredity (inheritance of certain traits) and variation (offspring are not
identical to each other or parents). Genetics is the study of heredity and hereditary variation.
Chromosomes pass from parents to offspring in sexually reproducing animals in
the processes of meiosis (a type of cell division) and fertilization (the fusion of sperm and
egg).
Genes program our specific traits; are hereditary units inherited from parents.
Written in the language of DNA in the form of certain nucleotide sequences.
Gametes trasmit genes between generations- sperm and egg.
genes are found in the nucleus in the form of chromosomes. A genes locus is the
spot on the chromosome where the gene is found.
asexual reproduction gives rise to a clone (usually). Genetically identical.
sexual reproduction gives rise to offspring that have unique combinations of
genes inherited from the two parents.
Sexual life cycle is the sequence of stages in the reproductive history of an organism.
a karyotype is a display of the 46 (23 homologous pairs) chromosomes in the
human genome.
homologous pairs have the same length, centromere position, and
staining pattern; and, they both carry genes controlling the same inherited
characteristics.
X and Y are the sex chromosomes: female = XX, male = XY.
diploid cell (2n) : any cell with two sets of chromosomes (from two
parents) haploid cell (n): contain one set of chromosomes (in humans, gametes)
the sexual life cycle begins when gametes unite and their nuclei fuse, becoming
a zygote (fertilization).
gametes develop from specialized germ cells in the gonads (ovaries and testes)
by meiosis (keeps them haploid instead of diploid by reducing the number of sets of
chromosomes from two to one).
the alternation of meiosis and fertilization is common to ALL organisms that use
sexual reproduction! (See drawing)
animal sexual reproduction: gametes are produced in a certain
area (n), fertilization, zygote grows, gametes are produced from the zygote, etc.
plants and some algae sexual reproduction: alternation of
generations sporophyte (2n) produces gametophyte (n) as offspring, which
produces the next sporophyte by fertilization.
fungus and protist sexual reproduction: fertilization produces a
zygote, which then divides by meiosis into haploid cells that undergo mitosis and
then become gametes, which join to become the zygote.
either haploid or diploid cells can undergo mitosis, but only diploid can undergo
meiosis.
Meiosis: introduces genetic variability among the gametes!!
It has 2 divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II), resulting in 4 daughter cells.
meiosis I (reductional division): homologous chromosomes (in the
form of sister chromatids, so duplicated) separate, producing haploid cells with
duplicated chromosomes

 meiosis II (equational division): sister chromatids separate,

producing haploid cells with unduplicated chromosomes
SEE DRAWN NOTES FOR MEIOSIS DETAILS!
meiosis I events:
synapsis and crossing over
homologous pairs at the metaphase plate
separation of homologs
Genetic variation, which is the result of shuffling of alleles, allows a population to have a unique
combination of traits, and therefore contributes to evolution.
Independent Assortment of Chromosomes: contributes to genetic variation.
during metaphase I, each homologous pair situates itself at the
metaphase plate with either its maternal or paternal homolog closer to a given
pole randomly and independently of other pairs. This results in a variety of
possible combinations- really 2n combinations.
in humans, 2n = 8.4 million, meaning that each
gamete in a human has 8.4 million possible combinations of
chromosomes!
Crossing Over: contributes to genetic variation. *see drawing
crossing over involves two homologous chromosomes exchanging
pieces of DNA
recombinant chromosomes are produced, which carry DNA
derived from two different parents!
at metaphase II, sister chromatids can orient themselves in one of
two ways, which further increases the number of genetic types of daughter cells
that can result from meiosis.
Random Fertilization: contributes to genetic variation
the fusion of a random sperm with a random egg produces an
zygote with 2n x 2n possible combinations 70 trillion in humans!
genetic variation is evolutionarily advantageous!