NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN ri ns 8 2 i a NG METHODOLOGY FOR GLOBAL BUCKLING (As per DNV RP F110 guidelines)cn ‘e NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - ‘t PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS 4 ERENERFING INDEX 4. INTRODUCTION . 1.1. Definitions. 1.2 Codes & Standards/ References . 1.3 Scope of this Document. 1.4 Analysis Methodology.. 1.5 Symbols! Abbreviations .. 2 OVERVIEW OF DNV RP F110.. 2.1 Summary of DNV RP F110: 2.2 Factors Promoting Global Buckling... 3. OVER VIEW OF OTC PAPER 6335... 3.1 Required Downward Force (w).. 3.2 Effective Uplift Resistance 3.3 Stability Chec 3.4 Major Limitation of OTC paper 4. FLOW CHART - GLOBAL BUCKLING ASSESSMENT. 5. UPHEAVAL BUCKLING ANALYSIS USING MATHCAD. §.1 Driving Force... a 5.2 Stabilization Against Upheaval ... 5.3 Available force to Resist Upward Movement 5.4 Uncertainty Measurement . 5.5 Comparison... 6. LATERAL BUCKLING IN RESTRAINED SECTIONS 6.1 Pipe-Soil Interaction Model.. 6.2 Screening Criteria for Bucklin, 6.3 Calculation of Buckle Formation Probability 7. OVERVIEW OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSI: 7.1 Flow Chart.. 7.2 FE program specification: 73 Pipel Configuration .. 74 Effective Axial Force. 7.5 — Modelling... 7.6 Pipe-soil interactior 7.7 Analyse the relevant load sequence(s).. 8. LATERAL BUCKLING IN UNRESTRAINED SECTIONS. 8.1 Numerical Analysis - MATH CAD .... 8.2 — Finite Element Analysis...... 8.3 Selection of Methodology 9. MITIGATION MEASURES. ly TEBODIN AAA Ow NANL P NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - als PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS. TEBODIN eNENEFnc coe 4. INTRODUCTION 44 Definitions Global Buckling Global buckling is a response to compressive effective axial force and global buckling reduces the axial carrying capacity. The global buckling may appear either downwards (in a free span), horizontally (lateral buckling on unrestrained section) or vertically (as upheavel buckling of buried pipelines. Upheaval Buckling Upheaval buckling is a common design issue for buried pipelines when the out of - straightness Of the pipeline, and the high axial compressive forces induced due to the extreme operating conditions, causes the pipeline to buckle upwards (Figure 1). heaval ure} Backfill soll Figure 1: Upheaval Buckling of Buried Pipeline The pipeline has to be buried deep enough such that the soll cover Is sufficient in providing adequate uplift resistance. Lateral Buckling ‘The occurrence of global buckling in horizontal plane is referred as lateral buckling. In Unrestrained section of the pipeline, this phenomenon is critical and due to high operating conditions, pipelines may be subjected to lateral change in direction which is termed as snaking (figure 2). rte Figure 2: Lateral Buckling of Exposed PipelineNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 1.2 Codes & Standards/ References In this document, the methodology to reduce/ prevent buckling phenomenon is explained as per the guidelines provided in OTC 6335 - Upheaval Buckling of Pipelines. DNV RP F110 = Global Buckling of Submarine Pipelines Structural design due to high temperatures/ high pressure, October 2007. Shell DEP 31.40.10.16 = Upheaval Buckling of Pipelines. orc 17944 = Pipe-Soil Interaction Behavior During Lateral Buckling, Including Large Amplitude Cyclic Displacement Tests by the Safebuck JIP OTC 6846 Soil response for upheaval buckling analysis (Axial buckling) ASCE Journal of Transportation Engineering - In-Service buckling of Heated Pipelines, Hobbs R. E. (1984). 1.3. Scope of this Document ‘This document explains the methodology of performing upheaval! lateral buckling calculation. 1.4 Analysis Methodology Global buckling Assessment involves determination of the susceptibility of the pipeline to experience lateral buckling, upheaval or upheaval combined with lateral buckling due to temperature and pressure. Methodology for buckling analysis is as follows: ‘+ Primary evaluation as per OTC paper 6336 (upheaval buckling only) * Detailed analysis as per DNV RP F110 guidelines using Math CAD ‘+ Finite Element Analysis using ANSYS (If required) 1.5 Symbols/ Abbreviations AorAc Cross sectional area of pipeline (mR) A ‘Area based on inside pipe diameter As Circumferential area of pipeline (2nRt) b Breadth of the geotextile (measured transverse to the pipeline) D Pipe outside diameter o Outside diameter of the pipe + mattress thickness E Young's modulus (elastic modulus) eI Bending stiffnessf Fe Fo FL qorw Gre Ra Rina Sore Se & NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - i PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN Uplift resistance coefficient determined empirically (0.5 for dense materials, 0.1 for lose materials) frictional force between the soil and pipeline per unit length Buoyancy Force Drag force per unit length on the pipeline Lift force per unit length on the pipeline Cover from the top of the pipe to the soil surface above the pipe centreline Pipeline moment of inertia Lower bound lateral soil resistance Pipe Wall Force Operating pressure Driving Axial Force Internal pressure Etemal pressure Probability of Buckling Required download force per unit length Maximum required downward force Uplift resistance per unit length of pipeline ‘Additional uplift resistance per unit length Resistance per unit length of pipe Axial force of pipeline due to spool resistance or residual axial force in previous buckle. Lateral resistance against pipeline buckling Maximum soil resistance Shear Force Effective Force for Restrained Straight Pipe Soil sensitivityNPCE ENGINEERING Su Ta a be Nes aT pi Ye NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - j PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS. TEBODIN Undrained shear strength at bottom of the pipe Undrained shear strength of soil at one pipe diameter below ground ‘Wall thickness Residual tension (not applicable for above ground pipeline) Vertical load on the pipeline Pipeline weight per unit length Weight of pipe in the installed condition Submerged weight during operation. Weight of pipe Weight of product carried in pipe (0 for conservative evaluation) submerged in-service weight of the pipeline Sleeper distance to the end of line or previous sleeper Initial penetration of pipe Linear thermal expansion coefficient (prop) imperfection height Vertical uplift Displacement Incremental strain Incremental change in effective axial force Difference between operating temperature end installation temperature (positive if operating temperature is higher than installation temperature). Difference in internal pressure compared to as laid Lateral friction coefficient ‘Axial friction factor of soil Coefficient of friction between soil and lower surface of the geotextile Poisson's ratio ‘Submerged unit weight of cover material Partial Safety FactorNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - aly PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 2. OVERVIEW OF DNV RP F110 Design practice DNV-RP-F110 on uplift resistance prediction is based on a trilinear design curve, The guideline suggests that the maximum uplift resistance in sandy backiil is mobilised when the upward movement of the pipe reaches 0.5%H to 0.8%H, where H is the cover height defined as the vertical distance from top of pipe. 24 Summary of DNV RP F110: © Temperature and pressure effects create expansion effective forces which may cause a pipeline to buckle globally. * DNV RP F110 recommends the use for tris resistance of cohesion less soil. ear resistance model to represent the uplift * Buried pipeline is analyzed for upheaval buckling for the condition to stay in place being restricted by surrounding soil reactions. ‘+ Appendix B of the DNV RP F110 provides guidance on the soil uplift resistance modelling, = DNVstates (Pg 44 of DNV RP F110), “The uplift resistance Rmax is assumed to be fully mobilized at a vertical uplift displacement &f, where af is 0.005-0.01 times the height H. Note that 5f seems to be independent of the ratio of H/D". * Downward stiffness of the soil also plays a role in upheaval behaviour buried pipes. * The recommended trilinear soil resistance curve (range) is shown in Figure 3(a). The recommended curve is based on the normalized displacement where the &f is the peak ‘mobilization distance and a and B values determine the middle point in the tritinear curve. Uplift parameters provided in DNV RP F110 are summarized in Table 1. For loose sand, a value of 0.75-0.85 and f of 0.2 is provided a ‘Sls comswisetpntFeebinteenes Oe is | i eles ig rey A ae oe ett (a) (b) lormalized Uplift Resistance Recommended in DNV RP F110 2.2 Factors Promoting Global Buckling For a certain expansion force, the pipeline will buckle globally. For a partially displacement controlled condition, this implies that it will find a new equilibrium by moving perpendicular toas X ) NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - Tr Ww = PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN a Sonate tenes the pipe axis at the same time as the pipe will move axially, feed-in, from both sides towards the buckle, The level of axial force to initiate this global buckling depends on: + pipe cross section properties. + Temperature and pressure variations * lateral soil resistance (for pipelines in contact with soil) © out-of-straightness in the pipeline A straight column will buckle according to the classical Euler buckling formulation. As the out- of-straightness in the column increases, the level of axial force required to buckle it will be reduced. This effect (away from the buckle) is ilustrated in Figure 4 below. a z Pg Imperfection Laer displacement Figure 4: Load response of a globally buckling pipeline So ed ed ee cee (N/m?) a lfactor f 8.5 _[0.5%-0.85H]0.75-0.85]0.2| 0.1-0.3 [25 = HID < 7.5 9-10 p.svi-a.owir|0.65-0.75/02) 04-06 | 2 z, Nes given by equation 5.1 as before. Figure 5: Effect of Longitudinal Force on the pipeline “The effect on the longitudinal force in the pipeline is illustrated in Figure 6. As far as the force in the rest of the pipeline is concemed, the buckle behaves like an expansion loop, and reduces the longitudinal force on either side. For this reason, buckles rarely occur close together. Soil mechanics indicates that pis to be expected to be about 0.6 on frictional soils such as ‘sand, but lower on stiff clay. Selection of u depends on effect of partial restraint which may reduce the longitudinal force below the fully-constrained value over a longer distance. Hence selection of pis critical. 5.2 Stabilization Against Upheaval ‘A longitucinally-compressed pipeline tends to lit upwards on overbends in the profile, and to move downwards on sagbends. There is elmost always a high degree of resistance to downward movement compared to upward movement, which may lead to upheaval. Once the pipeline begins to move upward, the external force required to hold it in position increases, whereas the external resistance to movement decreases. Generally, the pipeline becomesNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - Wf PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN unstable soon after it starts to move, and then jumps’ into a new position with larger deflections. This is the kind of upheaval need to be avoided. The analysis strategy is to find the external force required to hold the pipeline against upheaval, and to check whether that force can be supplied by weight or by forces exerted by the surroundings. Two cases will be considered when assessing the profile of a pipeline. In the first case the Pipeline profile is fixed, because the pipe is almost continuously in contact with ground, to hold the pipeline in that position (section 5.2.1). In the second case the pipeline is not continuously supported everywhere and its profile may change. Also, stabilisation measures ‘such as rock dumping may themselves change the pipeline profile (section 5.2.2). 5.2.1 Stabilization in Fixed Profile Figure 6: Pipeline under axial load Ne and vertical load intensity Q The external force required to keep a pipeline in equilibrium depends on the pipe profile Figure 6 shows a pipeline and ground profile. Horizontal distance is denoted by x, measured from an arbitrary datum. The height of the pipeline is denoted y, measured upwards from an arbitrary datum. The height of the trench bottom is denoted z, measured upwerds from the same datum. From applied mechanics theories, the external force per unit length required to hold the pipe in position is: 2 a= -Noty_ eM at at Equation 6.4 If the curvature d’yidx’ is less than the yield curvature, the bending moment M is proportional to the curvature d’y/dx”, The constant of proportionality is the flexural rigidity F, so that: Equation 5.5 For elastic steel pipelines, F is El, where | is the second moment of area of the cross section and can be taken as TrR*t, which neglects ovalisation. Substituting into equation 5.4, a= ney 2 2Y ate Equation 6.6NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - 1 PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN Equation 5.4 is always applicable. Equation 5.6 is applicable if the pipe is known not to have bent so far that it has yielded. ‘These equations can be used to find the force required to keep the pipeline in position. The ground profile can be assumed to be regular and hence can be assumed to follow sinusoidal curvature, y = H (1 ~ cosmx/ L), hence 2 (2) cosmxn. Equation 5.7 Equation 5.8 ‘Substituting the derivatives to equation 5.6, a 4 es a)" eu (2) eso mG Equation 6.9 The largest required downward force dax occurs when x= L. 2 4 ® x F =new (2) rH (2) esac le ‘Srea= Net (3) (3) : P However in real, ground profile is less regular than the sinusoid nature, but the results developed in equation 6.5 can be generalised to idealisations of itregular profiles. In real, a general profile can be characterised by irregular peaks and troughs as shown in Figure 7 below, represented by a pipeline height y which is a function of a horizontal distance x. The profile has infiection points where the derivative dyfdx has a maximum or a minimum and the second derivative is zero, The inflection points are marked and numbered on the profile: inflection point iis in horizontal position x, and at height yi Equation 6.10 Figure 7: Arbitrary Profile Ideally, each peak between consecutive inflection points would be represented by the complete profile, but that information may not be available. The most important information about the sharpness of the peak is covered by two parameters, His maximum upward offset between profile and a line between inflection points i and i+1 LL is Xe1-, the horizontal distance between inflection points i and i+ ‘So that H, describes the height of the peak and L, describes its horizontal extent.NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - i PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN The profile between the inflection points can then be idealised as never zen) Yow Yer Wa re eet : Equation 5.11 which has the following properties: ‘* _Itgoes through the inflection points at the correct heights yi and yi+1 + Ithas zero curvature at the inflection points + Ithas the correct upward offset from the line connecting the inflection points. ‘An overbend section of a profile between inflection points at x/and xj is von (2 Equation 5.12 sory soe (224) Equation 6.13 where w is the pipeline weight per unit length, but does not include any backfill. A profile can of course include both long and short overbends. If an overbend is long, the pipeline will be ‘supported by a foundation, and the required downward force to hold the line in position on the hill between inflection points i and i+ is on (az) =r Short overbends are considered in section 5.2.2 below. * Neth Equation 5.14 5.2.2 Stabilisation in a changing profile ‘A complication is when the pipeline has lost contact with the sides of the hill, and in the extreme case it can be supported only at single point. The horizontal extent of the hill then becomes irrelevant, and only the height matters. Pipe profiles of this kind are likely to occur when lumps of soil fall into a trench. The flexural rigidity F determines the sharpness of the curve the pipeline takes. Equation 5.12 defines the condition for an overbend profile to be treated as short. The amount of backfil required depends on whether there is infil material under the pipe. If there is no inf, the spans can shorten during backfill or during subsequent operation, and the overbend will then become sharper, which in turn increases the amount of backfil required. The most ‘conservative assumption Is that there is no infil under the pipe. This is the recommended ‘assumption, unless it can be positively demonstrated that there is infil under the pipe and that itis geo technically competent to provide resistance to downward movement. In that case, the required downward force is; et qx Neth cd Equation 5.154 NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN which is independent of the overbend length L.. The bending moment at the crest of the ‘overbend can be estimated from M=0.88 Ne Hi Equation 5.16 If itis certain that the pipe is supported, then the required downward force can be calculated from equation 5.14, and the bending moment at the overbend crest can be determined from: M= 13.4 FIL? Equation 6.17 Hf the height of such a prop imperfection is 8, measured from a horizontal level representing the trench bottom, the corresponding value of H is given by: H=(11127)5 Equation 5.18 and L is calculated from ey Equation 5.19 Assessment of the profile of pipeline is very important in upheaval buckling analysis. 5.2.3 Additional forces due to flow ‘An additional upward force on a pipeline in an overbend may be induced by the flow itself. If the mass flow rate (mass/unit time) in the pipeline is rm, the mean velocity is U, and the curvature is d’y/dx” (negative in an overbend), the flow exerts a force mU(-d"yidx") per unit length. This force may be significant in ol pipelines with high flow velocities, 5.2.4 Pipe out-of-straightness Itis normally assumed that the pipe is straight if it has no externally applied bending moment. However, some construction techniques such as reeling may leave the pipe out-of-straight, and this can be an additional factor which makes the pipeline more vulnerable to upheaval buckling, if out-of-straightness creates an overbend in the pipe profile. Out-of straightness may contribute to the driving force explained in section 5.1. The second F term is derived from the change of curvature from the initial state in which the pipe is free of bending moment. If out-of-straightness is present, and the initial form of the pipe Is known, in equation 6.6, Should be replaced by a! Faw where y, describes the probable profile of pipe if it were moment-free. In circumstances that arise in practice, the F term is usually small in comparison with the Ne term,NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 52.5 Safety factors The calculation methods described above do not include any implicit factors of safety. The recommended safety factor to be applied to the total external downward force required for ‘equilibrium is 1.5. If the profile is known to a high degree of accuracy, or can be accurately controlled, the factor may be reduced. If the profile is uncertain and cannot be measured ‘accurately, the factor may need to be increased. 5.3 Available force to Resist Upward Movement A pipeline buried under soil or rock has a resistance to upward movement provided by both the weight and shear resistance of the cover and this is termed as uplift resistance. The most ‘commonly occurs in practice, is cover by 2 cohesion less material such as sand, gravel, or rock fragments. The uplift resistance is given by vols Equation 6.20 The uplift resistance coefficient f is a simple representation of a complex geotechnical situation, and must depend on the voids ratio, dilataney, compaction and initial state of stress. of the cover. Extensive measurements show that for rock, gravel and dense sand f is 0.5 or more. In loose sand, however, the uplift coefficient is sometimes much lower, and values as low as 0.16 have been observed. If the soil surface above the pipe is not level, cover is defined in the way shown in Figure 8. Figure 8: Cover surface higher than AB Lines inclined outwards at 30° to the vertical are drawn from the 3 and 9 o'clock positions at either end of the horizontal diameter of the pipeline. The lines intersect the surface at points A and B. The cover H is the smaller of: 1. The vertical distance from the top of the pipe to line AB 2. The vertical distance from the top of the pipe to the soil surface immediately above the top of the pipe. Another common case is for a pipeline to be covered by a mixture of clay and cohesion less sand or sit, This occurs when the ground consists of a thin layer of sand overtying clay. If theNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN @ is trenched and subsequently backfled with the excavated material by a backfiler, the backfil in place consists of irregular lumps of cohesive clay in 2 matrix of loose sand. Mixtures of sand and clay lumps should be treated as sand and not as clay. The practical implication is that the backfill does not gain additional strength - at least not in the short term - from the strength of the clay, which is usually higher than the strength of the sand. Cover by continuous clay is uncommon, because clay does not usually naturally backfil into pipeline trenches, and because backfiling with clay produces a lumpy discontinuous cover. If this case occurs, specialist geotechnical advice should be obtained. Uncertainty in uplift resistance has to be addressed. 5.4 Uncertainty Measurement ‘The soll survey uncertainty of the configuration is significant, |.¢. the vertical position of the pipeline is associated with a measurement error typically in the order of 0.1 - 0.3 m (#2 0 configuration) with a certain spatial correlation. An estimation of survey accuracy should therefore be made for calculating the standard deviation for the measurement. Ceanéguatan = 0.05 — 0.15 m for Top Of Pipe cover = 0.10 ~ 0.15 m for cover height H 5.5 Comparison ‘The external vertical force per unit length required to hold the pipe in position is g, taking account of the safely factor described in section 5.2.5. ‘The vertical force per unit length available to hold the pipe in position is w +r, where wis the ‘submerged weight and r the uplift resistance. Iwereg Equation 6.24 Pipeline is stable, and no further action is necessary. If the pipeline appears to be marginally unstable, it may be appropriate to carry out finite ‘element analysis as explained in chapter 7 of this document. Ifthe pipeline is not stable i.e., if upheaval does occur should be assessed, and the pipeline'’s fitness for purpose should be reviewed. Several countermeasure (mitigation measures) options are available (refer chapter 9 of this document). They can be used alone or in combination, and range from radical ‘changes in design to minor corrective measures taken after the pipe is in place. Few counter measures include: 41) To reduce the driving force 2) To make a radical change in design 3) To leave the pipeline untrenched and accept that it will buckle laterally 4) To stabilise the overbends by placing rock or mattresses over themNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 6. LATERAL BUCKLING IN RESTRAINED SECTIONS Soil Interaction Model The soll resistance against pipeline movement can be divided into two main sections, breakout, and residual sections. The lateral resistance model of soil is developed based on the model and recommendations presented in OTC 17944. The initial embedment of pipeline is calculated using below equatic S, Equation 6.1 (cs D DS, The lateral breakout and residual resistances of soil then may be calculated using below equations respectively Fir ) Equation 6.2 Equation 6.3 ‘The mobilization of breakout resistance is assumed within a pipe movement of less than half of a diameter, while residual resistance occurs within 3 to § diameters, For axial resistance of the pipeline the soil model presented in OTC 6846 can be used. According to this model maximum and residual axial resistance of soil may be calculated using below equations gcse =VOSAS, Equation 6.4 Arana = 0344S, Equation 6.6 The mobilization of axial breakout resistance is within a pipe movement of less than 0.05 of a pipe diameter, while residual resistance occurs at 1.2 times the diameter of pipe. The "uncertainty of the soil model can be treated based on recommendations of DNV RP F110. 6.2 Screening Criteria for Buckling Lower bound axial capacity of the pipeline to withstand lateral buckling is calculated as $= min (Size, Soos) Equation 6.6 Where EL (ez) Uetz, ul -F)= Fy The pipeline buckles if maximum axial effective force in the pipeline is higher than axial capacity of the pipeline IeNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - uf PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 63 Calculation of Buckle Formation Probability In lateral buckling analysis of pipelines the key uncertainty is buckle formation at the expected sites. To calculate the buckle formation probability a simplified version of the reliability model is used. According to this model, the probability of buckling can be defined as: 2, = Probability[Z < 0] Equation 6.7 Where, Z is the limit state function describes the buckle formation, which is obtained by recasting the buckling formation criteria. Z=Ry-H,W X= Ra Equation 6.8 Following linear relationship exists for a prop shape model: ec dm, -~, Equation 6.9 kt =2.and k2 = 11 are constants for prop shape scenarios. ifthe buckle tums lateral, a series of analyses have to be performed in order to determine the partial safety factor y. reflecting the uncertainty in load effects due to the inherent variability of basis parameters.NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 7. OVERVIEW OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS: 7A Flow Chart ‘Start Pipeline Modelling Pipe — Soil Interaction {88 applicable) No Buckling Susceptibity ane ‘Assessment Pipeline Integrity check { ‘Straight Pipeline ‘Straight Pipeline Buckled Pipeline Buckled Pipeline ¥ Mitigation Measure ‘Check Global buckling phenomenon (upheaval and lateral buckling) can be analyzed with finite element analysis method using softwares like ANSYS, ABAQUS etc. However, this document provides an overview of FE method using ANSYS software. 7.2 FE program specifications 7.2.1 Non-linear material (steel) behaviour Non-linear and bi-dimensional (in the longitudinal and hoop-direction) stale of stress has to be accounted by an appropriate yield surface and hardening rule. The stress-strain curve based on yield stress and ultimate strength shall be based on the specified minimum values, fy and fu, considered being engineering stress values, except whenNPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN EE ENENEFne the mean value is explicitly required by the procedure. The choice of stress strain curve shall be consistent with the FE-program applied. 7.22 Element size and type The pipe element type shall enable uniform hoop stress and effect of pressure. The length should typically be in the order of one diameter where the buckle is expected to occur and may be longer in straight portions. 7.3. Pipeline Configuration ‘The development of the buckling mode (lateral buckling, upheaval or a combination of the two) is affected by the pipeline as-laid configuration. The pipeline should be stress free in a straight configuration. Hence, actuel (measured) or assumed imperfection for triggering relevant buckling modes should be introduced from the initial straight and stress free pipe configuration. 7.4 Effective Axial Force ‘See section 5.1 of this document. 7.5 Modelling {Soll modelling applies to retrained section only — for upheaval buckling analysis). Y z Imperfection Height, 5 Figure 9: Upheaval Buckling Response Finite Element Model Description Beam element mode! includes elasto-plastic pipe elements (ANSYS - element pipe 20), and 365 soil spring elements (ANSYS - element type 99). The material properties of the pipe elements depend on pipe grade with the geometry of interest. For the steel pipe-in-pipe configurations, the upheaval buckling model pipe element geometries can be based on the outer pipe. Soil spring elements orients along the Y-axis (transverse or soil compression spring) and along the X-axis (axial or friction springs), as shown in Figure 9. The pipe elements are restrained against movement in the Y direction and X-ax's soll friction springs were applied to each node. Different load-displacement relationships can be used for the springs depending on element sizes variation,7.6 ww NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - T PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN Vertical soil weight springs are applied to restrict the vertical movement of the pipe. The soil springs apply @ downward force equal to a cover weight consistent with the distance between the top of the pipe and the soil surface. In other words, as the pipe deflects upwards the soil restraining force decreases Pipe-soil interaction Pipe-soil interaction is generally modelled using @ series of independent non-linear spring like elements attached to the pipeline, or to be modelled as a contact problem. These "springs" / contact surfaces are characterised by @ noninear force-displacement relationship and represent an integration of the normal and tangential forces acting on the pipe surface when it interfaces with the surrounding soil, Different pipe-soil properties in axial and lateral direction will be accounted for. ‘The effect of peak resistance in the pipe-soil resistance has to be carefully evaluated. Omitting this peak resistance in the axial direction may trigger too few buckles and give a too long anchor length. For FE modelling of the soil resistance, the guideline states that the uplift resistance be reduced with @ safety factor URy. Thus the normalised trilinear uplift resistance model would be as shown in Figure 6(b). The value of UR, depends on the sol type as given below. [UR configuration y = 0.85 + 3.6 Non-cohesive soll (Sand and Rock) UR configuration y = 1.4 + 3.0 Cohesive soil (Clay) Whee Ocortguason IS the standard deviation for the survey accuracy of the pipeline configuration. DNV code states that the minimum value to be used for cconfiguration as 0.025 m. However, this minimum value would lead to UR, = 0.926 for cohesion less backfil. For simplicity, the value of UR, is considered as unity Analyse the relevant load sequence(s) (Including cyclic loading, if relevant) The effects of pipeline loading history (water filling, system pressure test, de-watering, shutdown-restart cycle etc.) will be accounted for in the analysis. The effect of cyclic load will be evaluated in the analysis to account for possible strain accumulation effects or reducing moment Table 3-4 of DNV RP F110 gives guidance what will be the governing conditions in practice These types of bifurcation problems are amenable to solution by numerical methods, such as the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) as they enable the systematic modelling of variations in temperature profile, non-linear material properties, large displacement theory and noninear pipe/soil interaction.NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - j PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 8. LATERAL BUCKLING IN UNRESTRAINED SECTIONS 8.1 Numerical Analysis - MATH CAD The term lateral buckling refers to the snaking or sideways movement of a pipeline as thermal and pressure effects are mobilised. The effective axial compressive driving force, Par of a Pipeline under full axial constraint, given by: nag BA, aT "DML -p dy Equation 8.1 The potential feed-in at any location along the pipeline will be computed as proportional to the drop in effective axial force from the fully constrained to the post-buckled value. At the apex of a buckle, the post-buckled effective axial force is conservatively assumed to drop to zero. The feed-in to a buckle is given by: be fore fore The method of Hobbs, which traces the equilibrium path in terms of buckle length and fully restrained axial force, will be considered for analysis. The theory is based on force equilibrium and displacement compatibility after an isolated lateral buckle has formed in a intially straight pipe. The pipeline is treated as a beam-column under axial load and the linear differential equation of the buckled portion is solved for the deflected shape. Other assumptions and restrictions are that the pipe material remains elastic and that initial imperfections are not considered. The method Is also restricted to small rotations. The analytical solutions incorporate simplifying assumptions, and consequently there are certain limitations that need tobe considered, mainly: Equation 8.2 + The analytical solution is based on a pipeline having sufficient length to develop full axial ‘constraint either side of the buckle location, such that axial feedtin can take place over the full slip length. The method does not adequately consider the behaviour of pipelines operating within the end expansion zones, + The formulation assumes an idealised straight pipe, and takes no account of any initial imperfections that may be present in the pipeline. * Theory assumes a single buckle forming in an otherwise straight pipe. In practice, multiple buckles can develop such that feed-in will not be concentrated at one location. + The method is based on linear pipeline material properties, and so cannot represent the softening behaviour due to material yielding, The analysis is performed on the assumption that the post-buckle effective axial driving force at the buckle location reduces to zero, which is conservative. Resort to FEA can overcome the above limitations. Non-linear material modelling, together with ‘geometric non-linearity, intial imperfections, realistic ground friction and temperature profiles along the pipeline can all be readily incorporated into an FEA.NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - Tf PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 8.2 _ Finite Element Analysis The lateral stability of a pipeline resting on the ground depends on the soil friction, presence of initial imperfections and any additional stability provided by rock dump/ gravel or other protection. The two commonly used approaches to lateral buckling analysis are static analysis and dynamic analysis. In non-linear static analysis @ predictor-corrector method is used to determine the equilibrium configuration of the pipeline. The effective axial driving force due to thermal and pressure loading is applied to @ pipeline with an initial out-of-straightness, The advantage of this method is that the effect of pipeline breakout due to realistic initial imperfections may be modelled. The disadvantage lies in the numerical difficulties associated with guiding the solution past a bifurcation or limit point. In dynamic analysis functional loads due to temperature and pressure are applied over a short time interval, An initial outof-straightness may be included to initiate buckling. The advantages of the this approach are that itis numerically far easier to obtain a solution from a dynamic analysis than in the case of a static analysis as inertia and damping effects help to ‘control the solution. The effects of initial imperfections due to pipelay on the type of analysis adopted for lateral buckling are also to be considered, A typical solution algorithm would use an incremental/ iterative Newton-Raphson solution scheme. The load is applied in increments, as the response is history dependent. However, lateral buckling represents @ problem with an unstable response. Typically, there is a tendency for a pipeline to snap from the pre-buckled configuration to a stable post-buckled configuration. In a nor-linear solution using the Newton-Raphson method, this represents the passing ofa limit point under load control. In this case advancing the solution by inerementing the load would result in failure to obtain a solution. Suitable way of the passing limit points that occur under lateral buckling is to introduce some artificial damping or by switching from load to displacement control. 8.3 Selection of Methodology Conventional analytical solutions may not be suitable for predicting lateral buckling in high Pressure! high temperature pipelines where yielding of the material is possible. For these cases, it would be advisable to resort to FEA where non-linear material behaviour may be modelled. Conventional Analytical methods may prove to be useful for initial calculations and screening purposes. ‘The choice of static approach must be decided based on engineering judgement, Neglecting the effects of the velocity and acceleration terms within the integration scheme must be justified. Non-linear static analysis may be used to predict the effects of lateral buckling but solution stability may be a problem under load control. ‘The traditional approach to lateral buckling of determining a safe temperature for all buckle lengths from the equilibrium diagram can result in overly conservative designs, leading to unnecessary mitigation measures, The use of FE analysis in conjunction with a limit-state method can be better approach,NPCC TENDER REF. PRJ-SEC-2010/580/A/MJ - 1 PIPELINE STRESS & BUCKLING ANALSYSIS TEBODIN 9. MITIGATION MEASURES Mitigation measures are to prevent buckling include ‘+ Changes in operating parameters Reduction in wall thickness by increase in steel grade, selection of high design factor, adopting allowable strain design, increase residual tension (may be useful for ‘small diameter pipelines). ‘© Increase flexibility by allowing expansion movements to occur. This can be accomplished by expansion doglegs, or by expansion loops or by laying the pipeline in a snaked or zig-zag configuration or by laying the pipeline in a curve and allowing it to move outward or by allowing the pipeline to buckle laterally. The movements must be calculated to make certain that excessive bending or torsion does not occur in the pipeline, particularly if a nearby section of the pipeline is anchored or constrained against lateral or longitudinal movements. * Upheaval can be countered by detailed design and by trenching the line under pressure. The line is laid and then pressurised, so that it buckles laterally, and next ‘tenched while under pressure. Depressurisation leaves a residual tension in the line, Repressurisation to the trenching pressure does not cause any tendency to buckle further. ‘+ Incorporate the line into a bundle ‘+ Leaving the pipeline untrenched and allowing lateral bucking. + Selective rock dump or mattress stabilization on identified critical overbends. The additional uplift resistance r secured by a total breadth b of geotextie is approximately raa(un) +0) (o-(1+2)) Equation 9.1 When mattress is used along with geotextile material T= (12n+1) Dw Equation 9.2 * Continuous rock dump * Zig Zag Pipe Laying — Deliberately constructing pipeline out-of-straight in order to ‘encourage it to flex sideways. This is recommended for untrenched lines because a trenched line cannot be moved significantly without moving out of trench. * Profile smoothing * Pre-heating, lateral buckling ‘+ Increase the weight of pipeline.