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1.
M. F. M ABDULLAH
INTRODUCTION
Wood is a very versatile raw material and still widely used in construction. Timber can be used in a
range of structural applications including marine works, piers, cofferdams, bridges, roofs, floors, etc.
There is an enormous variety of timber species. They are divided into softwoods and hardwoods.
1.1
Renewable sources
It is attractive, decorative
Creates a feeling warmth in cold condition and feeling coolness in hot condition
Anisotropic
Very tough
Durable
Good connectivity
Duration of loading
Moisture content
Amount of moisture
Note:
If the cell walls are still saturated is known as FSP. At levels of moisture above the FSP, the most
physical and mechanical properties remain constant. Variations in moisture content below FSP cause
considerable changes to properties such as weight, strength, elasticity, shrinkage, and durability. The
controlled drying of timber is known as seasoning.
Wane Parts of a weak timber, Reduces effective cross sectional area and effect on bearing
`
strength
Duration of loadings
The length of time that a load is present on a timber member affects the ultimate
strength of the member. This is accounted in terms of derivation of grade stresses of
timber and then by the application of appropriate modification factor.
Moisture content
The different in strength when loads are applied parallel and perpendicular to
the grain direction
Stress Grading
Permissible stress
Stress grading
1) The strength of timber is a function of several parameters including moisture content, density,
size of specimen and the presence of various strength reducing characteristics such as knots,
slope of grain, wane, etc.
2) The strength of the timber was obtained by carrying out short-term loading test on smaller
timber specimens free from all defects
3) The characteristic stress obtained is divided by factor of safety to obtain the basic stress.
4) Basic stress Stress which could safety be permanently sustained by timber free from any
strength reducing characteristics.
5) Basic stress however not directly applicable to structural size timber since structural size
timber invariably contains defects, which further reduces its strength.
6) The grade stress is obtained by multiplying the basic stress by strength ratio which depends
on grade of the timber and the property under consideration.
Grade Stress = Basic stress x Strength ratio
Permissible stresses
1. When using a permissible stress design, the margin of safety is introduced by considering the
structural behavior under working/service load conditions and comparing the stresses ther by
induced with permissible values.
2. The permissible values are obtained by dividing the failure stresses by an appropriate factor of
safety. The applied stresses are determined using elastic analysis techniques
The grade stresses given in Table above were derived assuming particular conditions of service and
loading. In order to take account of the actual conditions that individual members will be subjected to
during their design life time. The grade stresses are multiplied by modification factors known as k
factors known as K-factors.
Factors
K1
Application
Clause
location
Text book
Cl: 2.6.2
Table 16
K3
Cl: 2.7
Table 14
K4
Bearing stress
Cl: 2.10.2
Table 15
K5
Cl: 2.10.4
Equations given
K6
Cl: 2.10.5
K7
Cl: 2.1.6
Equations given
K8
Cl: 2.9
Values given
K9
Cl 2.10.11
Table 17
lintols
Factors
Application
Clause
location
K2
Cl: 2.6.2
Table 16
K3
Cl: 2.7
Table 14
K8
Cl: 2.9
Values given
K9
Cl 2.10.11
Table 17
lintols
K12
Slenderness of columns
Cl: 2.11.1
Table 19
K13
Cl: 2.11.10
Table 20
K14
Cl: 2.12.2
Values given
3.1)
The value of K2 is govern by the average moisture content likely to be attained in service conditions.
The strength and stiffness of timber decrease with increasing moisture content. This effect is taken
into account by assigning timber used for structural work to a service class. They are
Service class 01: Moisture content in the materials corresponding to a temperature of 200C and
relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeds 65% for a few weeks per year.
Average moisture content not exceeding 12%
Service class 02: Moisture content by a moisture content in the materials corresponding to a
temperature of 200C and relative humidity of the surrounding air only exceeds 85%
for a few weeks per year. Average moisture content not exceeding 20%.
Service class 03: Due to climatic condition, by moisture conditions most timber will attain an average
3.2)
Notches at the ends of flexural members will result in high shear concentrations which may cause
structural failure. In notched members the grade shear stress parallel to the grain are multiplied by a
modification factor
3.3)
The grade stresses are given in the BS table. Isolated and beams and columns. When four or more
members. When designing structures in which four or more members, which are no greater than 610
mm apart, are connected by structural elements which provide lateral load distribution of load(load
sharing) the grade stress can be enhanced by multiplying by K8.
6
4.0)
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Beams are most commonly used structural elements. The cross sections of the timber beam
may be one of a number frequently used sections. The principal considerations in the design
of all beams are.
Shear
Bending
Deflection
Bearing
The elastic section modulus(Z), to limit the bending stresses and ensure that neither
lateral torsion buckling of the compression flange nor fracture of the tension flange
induces failure.
The cross section, to ensure that the vertical and or horizontal shear stresses do not
induce failure.
The second moment of area, to limit the deflection induced by bending and or shear
action to acceptable limits
4.1)
Bending
01 Evaluate Z and I
M = = E and = Ma
I
y R
(I/y)
02 Design bending
moment
03 Applied bending
Ma = WL2 ,
beam
m,app,par = Ma
stress
Z
For wet condition ,
m,app,par =
Ma
ZxK1
04 Permissible bending
stress
05 Check for capacity
Should be
And limitation
Flexural members are not fail in bending, the design moment, M, must not exceed the moment
of resistance, MR, or Applied bending stress must not exceed admissible bending stress.
Deflection
The adopt an arbitrary limiting value adopted in BS 5268: part 2 is (0.003 x span) when fully loaded.
In the case of domestic floor there is an additional recommendation of limiting deflection less than or
equals to 14 mm.
The total deflection is the summation of the bending deflection (m )and shear deflection (
01
Actual ( m)
(m,act) = 5WL4
( m)
(Dry condition)
Actual ( m)
384EI
(m,act ) =
(Wet exposure)
5WL4
384 x (E xK2) x (I x K1)
If load sharing
E = Emean
If no load
E = Emin
sharing
02
Actual ( v)
(v,act) =
(Dry condition)
Actual ( v)
Total deflection
04
Limit deflection
05
, (But = Emin / 16
20xxA
(v,act) =
(Wet exposure)
03
3WL2
3WL2
,(But = Emin/16)
20 x (xK2) x (AxK1)
limitation
4.2)
Shear
max = WL ,
beam
For dry condition ,
2
m,app,par = max
A
m,app,par =
max
AxK1
4.3)
For a beam with a rectangular cross section, the maximum applied shear occurs at the neutral
axis and is given by.
01
Applied concentrated
P = WL/2
c, app,per = P/Ab
load (P)
02
Applied compression
Perpendicular to grain
03
Permissible
Should be
compression
Perpendicular to grain
04
4.4)
If flexural members are not effectively laterally restrained, it is possible for the member to twist
sideway before developing its full flexural strength, thereby causing it to fall in bending, shear or
deflection. This phenomenon is called as lateral torsion buckling can be avoided by ensuring that the
depth to breath ration given in the BS 5268 Table 16
The critical value of bending moment which induces this type of failure is depended on several
parameters.
Shape
Span
Type of loading
5.0)
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Struts and columns are examples of compression members. For design purpose code divides
compression members into two categories. They are
5.1)
Slenderness ratio
The load carrying capacity of compression members is a function of the slenderness
ratio .
= Le / i
Where,
Le = Effective length
i = Radius of gyration
According to the code says in clause 2.11.4 of BS 5268, the slenderness ration should not
exceed 180 for compression members carrying dead and imposed loads other than loads
resulting from wind in which case a slenderness ratio of 250 may be acceptable.
Radius of gyration , i = (I/A)
Where,
I = Moment of inertia
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The effective length le, of a column is obtained by multiplying the actual length, L, by
coefficient taken from Table 18 of BS 5268 which is function of fixity of column ends
Le = L x Coefficient
5.2)
5.3)
According to the clause 2.11.5, BS 5268, permissible stress is depends on slenderness ratio
If < 5, c,adm,par = c,g,par x K2xK3xK8
If > 5, c,adm,par = c,g,par x K2xK3xK8 xK12
5.4)
MEMBER DESIGN
combination
02 Calculate applied stress
Dry condition
c,app,,par = F/A
Wet exposure
c,app,,par = F/A x K1
04 Calculate c, ,par
c, ,par = c,grade,par x K2 x K3
Emin / c, ,par
Only if > 5
Depends on slenderness
Should be
12
This category includes compression members subjected to eccentric loading which can be equated to
an axial compression force and bending moment. The slenderness members subjected to axial
compressive loads there is tendency for lateral instability to occur. This type of failure is called as
buckling and is reflected in the modification factor K12 which is used to reduce the permissible
compressive stress in member. A members which are restrained at both ends in position but not
direction, which covers most real situations, should be proportioned that
c,app,par
c,adm,par
m,app,par
m,adm,par
c,app,par
c,adm,par
m,app,par
m,app,par [ 1 1.5 x c,app,par x K12]
e
<1
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