GL501 Concepts and Methods of Subsurface Facies Analysis SPIGRGL501 Petroleum Geology Concepts and Methods of Subsurface Facies AnalysisNo part of this manual may be reproduced without the written permission of IHRDC. Additional copies may be purchased at a reasonable price by contacting: IHRDC Video Product Sales 137 Newbury Street Boston, MA 02116 U.S.A. (617) 536-0202 Telex: 6817117 IHRDC B Copyright 1988 by International Human Resources Development Corporation. All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission Of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address: |HRDC, Publishers, 137 Newbury Street, Boston, MA 02116; Tel: (617) 536-0202, Telex: 6817117 IHRDC B.GL501 Petroleum Geology Concepts and Methods of Subsurface Facies Analysis David C. Morrill IHRDC Video Library for Exploration and Production Specialists2.0 22 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.2.1 3.3 aoe 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.6.21 3.6.2 CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix Preface xi Instructions to the User xiii Introduction 1 Sedimentary Environments and Facies 4 Sedimentary Environments 4 Depositional Systems 7 Lithofacies 7 Depositional Sequences 9 Environmental Indicators 15 General Considerations 15 Lithology 15 Lithologic Parameters of Terrigenous Facies 17 Sedimentary Structures 28 Depositional Processes 29 Bed Configurations 31 Flow-Produced Stratification 35 Geometry 43 Associated Facies 45 Paleontology 46 Microfossils 46 Trace Fossils 58 Sources of Information 62 General Considerations 624.2 aes 4.3.2 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.4 44a 4.4.2 Cores and Cuttings 62 Wireline Logs 68 Interpretation of Grain-Size Profiles from Well Logs 69 Use of the Dipmeter in Facies Analysis 74 Use of Porosity Logs as Indicators of Lithology 80 Gamma Ray Spectral Log 84 Seismic 85 Seismic Sequence Analysis 89 Seismic Facies Analysis 89 Major Sandstone Reservoir Facies 100 Alluvial Fans 100 Summary of Facies Characteristics 100 Diagnostic Evidence 101 Braided Streams 104 Summary of Facies Characteristics 104 Diagnostic Evidence 107 Meandering Stream Channels 110 Summary of Facies Characteristics 110 Diagnostic Evidence 112 Eolian Dunes 115 Summary of Facies Characteristics 119 Diagnostic Evidence 119 Lacustrine Deposits 123 Deltas 124 Facies Characteristics of Distributary Channel Sands 126 Diagnostic Evidence for Distributary Channel Sands 127 Facies Characteristics of Distributary Mouth Bar Sands 130 vi6.0 6.2 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.4.1 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.5 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 6.5.4 Diagnostic Evidence for Distributary Mouth Bar Sands 131 Seismic 131 Fan Deltas 135 Summary of Facies Characteristics 138 Diagnostic Evidence 139 Coastal Barrier Islands 143 Summary of Facies Characteristics 143 Diagnostic Evidence 147 Continental Shelf Sands 151 Summary of Facies Characteristics 151 Diagnostic Evidence 154 Deep Sea Sands 161 Summary of Facies Characteristics 161 Diagnostic Evidence 163 CASE STUDY: Marchand "Cc" Sandstone, Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma 170 Carbonate Facies 174 Lithologic Parameters of Carbonate Facies 175 Classification of Carbonate Rocks 181 Dolomite 185 Analytical Methods and Procedures 186 Use of Well Logs 186 Importance of a Stratigraphic Framework 189 Use of Seismic stratigraphy 191 Important Carbonate Depositional Models 191 Coastal Setting 192 Shelf Setting 200 Shelf Margin Setting 209 Foreslope Setting 212 vii6.5.5 6.6 6.6.1 6.6.2 6.6. Basinal Setting 217 CARBONATE CASE STUD Field, West Texas 219 Method of Study 219 General Geology 220 Depositional Environment 223 References 228 Further Reading General 238 Terrigenous Facies 238 carbonate Facies 239 Exercises 240 San Andres Formation, ReevesACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This manual and the accompanying video program constitute one module of the IHRDC Video Library for Exploration and Produc- tion Specialists. This module was produced during the Third Production Cycle of the Video Library, which was sponsored in part by the following companies: AGIP S.p.A. ARANCO Chevron Corporation Mobil 0i1 Corporation Oxy/Cities Service Oil and Gas Corporation Petro-Canada Inc. Phillips Petroleum Company Schlumberger Lta. ‘The Shell Companies Texaco Inc. Their sponsorship does not constitute approval or recommenda- tion of the methods or procedures contained herein. Anyone using this program does so with the understanding that these companies and IHRDC are to be held harmless from any use or misuse that may result therefrom.THRDG Video Library Modules in Petroleum Geology Fundamentals Wellsite Geology Reservoirs us aso cum eae ct pane a2 na won | concapt She Matode ot PamGmgeng, — Saneaathp waves | covets od anoint ausea use cisee Pryce Enomcal Producten otny and Exetel Rermaice ropes a Epasuine Weseemereaemy tes PEERS eedsa GL103 the Geologist L503 the Bae ace cams spe St vag panes poten WOE mon Sor on carl cont ans a1 pir ant wipe Seer ne Mul tag ete lis dere meth Soe ae aves : sombre, ‘The Trap Wireline aur ‘The Habitat of Well Logging recat, um mentary Ineo to raen EE son ‘Well Logging: ‘Carbonate Rocks: veer cuss a Wot ogSbt tacts and eee Basic Skills ‘Veoh Theie I to sea Bt yg, eee = omaton Eton ung Geologic Cross Sections Well Logging Measurements: ' swxuitZhaoong _satesNiiare —_siructural Geology Pe i208 vaton THe tor and Global dinar eee Tectonics ous sci bt otay Pate Tectonics ang Develoament of Seaimentary Basins x0 Hattat of Petroleum in ‘Divergent Marg ane Bin easins igo Habitat of Petroleum in ccanvargest Maran Bsns Topics suitable for cross-sciplinary training purposes are indicated by heavier type Geochemistry 170 Introduction to Exploration Geochemistry etro2 ‘Agplgation of Geochemistry * Petrowum Expioraon General ue: Computer Aoplcations in Petroleum Expiration, ‘ste0e Protegeoegy and Remate Serine isos Resource Assessment tens Basin Analysis us05 Pray Anayels|PREFACE The E&P Video Library is a comprehensive video-based instruc tional system designed to provide practical technical training for exploration and production specialists in the areas of Pe~ troleum Geology, Exploration Geophysics, and Petroleum Engineering. The organization of the Petroleum Geology Specialty is shown in the topic outline illustrated on the preceding page For Petroleum Geology, the topics have been organized into eight major series that address the foremost concerns of work- ing geologists in the petroleum industry. The Fundamentals of Petroleum Geology Series covers the basic geological principles that have been established as prerequisite. The Basic Skills Series makes use of these principles to demonstrate how the analysis and interpretation of subsurface conditions work in exploration. Modules in the Reservoir Series, meanwhile, are designed to progressively examine the physical nature and iden- tification of specific depositional environments, which have produced sandstone and carbonate reservoir rocks. This series also focuses on the evolution of porosity systems in these rocks. Sandstone reservoirs, in particular, are discussed in a succession that moves from subaerial to the deep marine en- vironment. This is to encourage a broader sense of facies association. xiThe primary target audience for GL501 Concepts and Methods of Subsurface Facies Analysis is the graduate geologist beginning work in exploration. The detail of analysis and terminology in this module assumes a strong working familiarity with the geologic principles and basic types of information contained in GL101-107 Fundamentals Series GL201-203 Basic Skills Series GL501 is intended as an introductory module to the GL500 Reser- voir Series. It reviews the basic parameters that define a facies--lithology, sedimentary structures, paleontology, geome- try, and associated environments. It discusses sources of in- formation used to define these parameters including cores and cuttings, logs, and seismic--and summarizes the most important diagnostic features of major reservoir facies. Finally, case studies are presented on the environmental diagnosis of-a pro- ductive sandstone reservoir and a carbonate reservoir. Upon completion of the Reservoir Series, the exploration geolo- gist will have a well-rounded familiarity with the genesis, internal character, and diagnosis of the major sandstone and carbonate reservoirs. He or she will know how to conduct detailed facies analyses, and will have working knowledge of which data types are most significant for both identification and delineation of each individual reservoir environment.INSTRUCTIONS TO THE USER Each module in the Petroleum Geology Specialty consists of one or more videotapes and a manual. ‘The recommended method of study is as follows: © View the videotape in segments that correspond to the sec~ tions of the manual. You may want to view this material more than once, until you have understood the basic principles. o ‘Turn to the manual and read the corresponding material. Do not attempt to read and follow the videotape simultaneously. © Work the exercises when you have finished © You may want to review certain portions of the videotape or reread portions of the manual as you proceed. The structure of this video-based training program enables you to work at your own pace. © To assist us in obtaining your opinion of this video- assisted training program, we ask you to complete the en- closed’ evaluation form and submit it to your training ad- ninistrator or mail it to: IHRDC E&P Video Library 137 Newbury Street Boston, MA 02116 U.S.A. xiii2.0 INTRODUCTION As the easier-to-find structural traps are drilled up, the search for new oil and gas reserves focuses increasingly on traps of a stratigraphic nature. Other than their resulting from diagenetic changes or their association with unconforni- ties, stratigraphic traps are chiefly formed by variations in lithology due to facies changes. Even where structural trap- ping conditions are provided, rock formations with adequate reservoir characteristics are fundamental to commercial oil and gas production. Porosity and permeability are the properties that give a rock reservoir capability. These properties are generally con- trolled by depositional processes and thus their prediction is based on analysis and identification of facies. Facies analy- sis is accomplished chiefly through the construction of a work- ing model that describes an ancient sedimentary environment The "working aspect" of this model is realized through the con- tinual integration into the model of new information as it is obtained. In this manner the model evolves toward greater detail and accuracy (Figure 1.1). Two fundamental types of information are relied upon for the analysis of a sedimentary environment. The first is direct ‘evidence derived from observation of the rocks themselves, such as analysis of outcrops, well cuttings and cores. The second line of evidence is indirect, from data recorded by instru- ie ments, including those obtained from wireline logs and sei: sections. Since the petroleum geologist is concerned essen- tially with the subsurface, indirect forms of data usually dominate his work.Direct evidence Indirect evidence Outerops Logs Cuttings Dipmeter Core samples Seismic Laboratory data Multiple working geologic models {Identification of idealized facies environment) Continued data integration (production data, Tog corrections, detailed mapping, ote) Actual facies model Fig. 1.1 Idealized flow chart showing the incorporation of various types of data to generate models for facies analysis. (From Montgomery and Selley, 1984),Geological data, particularly subsurface data, are always sub- ject to misinterpretation. Such misinterpretation is more likely to occur in the early stages of exploration in a given area. However, as an area matures through continued drilling and subsurface data accumulate, the chances of interpretational error diminish. Even in areas with a wealth of data, inquiring explorationists should always be on the lookout for the pos- sibility of new interpretations, even if flying in the face of traditional thought. New thinking, if based on accepted prin- ciples and consistent with the data at hand, may lead to the discovery of new reserves in areas thought to have no remaining oil or gas. Such discoveries continue to be made from time to time in mature "drilled up" provinces worldwide. The main reason that sedimentary facies are often misin- terpreted is that no single feature of a facies, by itself, can be considered diagnostic of a particular sedimentary environ- ment. Most features, in fact, can be produced in several sedimentary environments. ‘Thus explorationists must keep in mind more than one depositional model, at least during the ini- tial stages of analysis. This procedure follows what may be terméd the concept of multiple working hypotheses: Where doubt exists when assembling and examining data, consider two or more facies models.2.0 SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS AND FACIES 2.1 Sedimentary Environments The essence of facies analysis is the construction of a geologic model that describes an ancient sedimentary environ- ment. Consistent with Lyell's doctrine of uniformitarianism-- "the present is a key to the past"--modern equivalents are used as analogs of ancient environments. But explorationists must be cautious in using modern analogs to reconstruct ancient en- vironments. Basic geological processes involved in erosion transportation, and deposition have probably not changed throughout geologic time. In ancient times, though, factors that controlled these processes (such as climate, tidal cur- rents, and vegetation) were very likely quite different from today's. Certainly vegetation, which exerts a strong control on erosional processes, was absent or sparse prior to mid- Paleozoic times. According to Selley (1985) a sedimentary environment "is a part of the earth's surface which is physically, chemically, and biolégically distinct from adjacent terraines." A sedimentary environment may be characterized by erosion, equilibrium, or deposition. In this manual we concern ourselves with deposi sites where sediment is tional sedimentary environments- deposited and preserved as sedimentary rock. Classifications of the main terrigenous and carbonate depositional environments are set forth in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 respectively. In the GL500 Series of the Video Library, only those environments that develop reservoir rocks or important associated facies are given significant coverageMarginal marine glacial alluvial fan braided stream meandering stream eolian lacustrine deltaic sstuarine barrier istand tidal flat Marine shelt slope submarine fan pelagic Table 21 Terrigenous depositional environments.Nonmarine lacustrine dune caliche cave deposits 9 i 5 . beaches tidal flats (sabkhas in arid regions) supratidal intertidal subtidal, including channel deposits and mud banks organic swamps, Shelf mud banks tidal deltas muddy shelf sands patch reefs, ‘marine sand bodies shelf basins ecologic reets oolitic sand bodies skeletal sand bodies patch reefs beaches island deposits Shelf Margin Forestope = turbidites 1 pinnacle reefs = skeletal debris fans and reef talus Basin = euxinic basinal muds = pelagic muds and chalks = turbidite sands and debris flows Table 2.2 Carbonate sedimentary environments and thelr depositional settings.We first examine important environmental indicators and the techniques and tools used in the determination of depositional environments. We then examine the diagnostic features of facies that form important petroleun reservoirs. For informa~ tion on the characteristics of associated subfacies within each environment, the reader is referred to the specific modules in the GL500 Series. 2.2 Depositional systems ‘The term depositional system is commonly used to refer to the stratigraphic analog of a major depositional sedimentary en- vironment (fluvial, deltaic, shelf, etc.). Depositional sys- tems have been defined as "three-dimensional assemblages of lithofacies genetically linked by active (modern) or inferred (ancient) processes and environments" (Fisher and McGowen 1967). A number of contemporaneous or partly contemporaneous depositional systems can be joined together to form a systems tract (Brown and Fisher, 1977). A typical systems tract could consist, for example, of fluvial, deltaic, shelf and slope sys- tems,, gach system genetically related and gradational to its adjacent system. 2.3 Lithofacies Depositional systems are composed of units of rock termed lithofacies. A lithofacies, often called "sedimentary facies" or simply "facies," is a three-dimensional mass of sedimentary rock distinguishable from adjacent units on the basis of its lithology, texture, geometry, sedimentary structures, andA] betta pian sits & sands [B] peta tront sanas C} Prodeita shales Fig. 2.1 Generalized cross section across a deltaic depositional system showing three main subtacies nconronmury CONFORMITY Lunconromiary a Fig. 2.2 Generalized stratigraphic section of a sequence. Boundaries detined by surtaces A and B, which pass la trom unconformitits fo correlative contormites (trom Mitchum, Vail, and Thomason, 1977; reprinted by permission AAP}.paleontology. A lithofacies is formed in response to the depositional processes inherent to a specific environment or subenvironment. An active depositional system comprises a num- ber of depositional subenvironments, each producing a charac- teristic lithofacies. For example, a deltaic system may be composed of delta-plain silt and sand, delta-front sand and prodelta shale facies (Figure 2.1). Lateral and vertical relationships between individual facies units may be sharp or gradational. 2.4 Depositional sequences In a modification of work by Sloss (1963), Mitchum et al (1977) developed the concept of the depositional sequence They define a depositional sequence as "a stratigraphic unit of rock composed of a relatively conformable succession of geneti- cally related strata and bounded at its top and base by uncon- formities or their correlative conformities" (Figure 2.2). A sequence's boundaries are usually determined by the physical relationship of the strata themselves (rather than by deposi- tional processes, rock types, etc.). All of the rocks within a depositional sequence were deposited within a given period of geologic time. Sequences are composed of a number of bedding surfaces which represent time lines (chronostratigraphic sur- faces). Formations or lithofacies may be parallel to these chronostratigraphic bedding surfaces or they may cross the bed- ding surfaces. In the latter case, lithofacies are termed "time transgressive" (Figure 2.3). Bedding units display several physical relationships to sequence boundaries. They may be discordant, due to an» » ” » A] betta piain sits & sands B] betta front sands [2] Protea shaos Fig. 2.9 Generalized cross section across 8 deltale depositional system showing lithotacies transgressing chronostrat ‘graphic time ines. Erosional (Overiying truncation contri) ‘A. 7 encore a incontSraty) Marine onlap Coastal onlap Baselap Fig. 24 Various unconformity Boundaries of @ depositional sequence. (From Vail etal. 1976) 10erosional or nondepositional unconformity, or they may be con- cordant, as in the case of a nondepositional hiatus (Figure 2.4). By definition, sequences are bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities. Thus at least a portion of the upper and lower boundaries of every sequence should display some discordance. The discordant upper boundaries (Figure 2.4 may result either from erosional truncation or toplap. Lower boundary discordances result from baselap, which is either on- lap or downlap. Toplap occurs mainly where nondeposition takes place at the top of inclined strata--for example, where base level equilibrium conditions exist on a delta plain directly overlying delta-front foreset beds. Onlap occurs where strata terminate updip against an inclined surface--for example, on the flank of a basin gradually infilling with sediment. Down- lap occurs where inclined strata terminate against a relatively horizontal surface--for example, where sediment "starvation" takes place at the distal end of a prograding delta or subma~ rine fan. Coastal and shallow marine sedimentation takes place through a combination of lateral progradation (usually from a preferred direction) and vertical aggradation (Figure 2.5). The degree of progradation is controlled by the amount of sediment influx and the relative position of sea level. Deep marine sedimenta- tion, with the notable exception of submarine fans, takes place mostly by vertical aggradation of fine-grained sediment and is not affected by position of sea level. Figure 2.6 shows the relative facies and bedding plane relationships for various amounts of sediment influx during a relative rise of sea level. arProgradation Fig. 25 Aggradation and progradation sedimentary processes. From Brown and Fisher, 1980) Low terrigenous influx— transgression Coastal toa aggradation |. 2a! [2] Nonmarine coastal deposits T Littoral deposits £3 Marine deposits. Fig. 26 Transgression, regression, and coastal onlap during relative rise of sea level. Rate of terigenous influx deter mines whether transgression, regression, or stationary shoreline is produced during relative rise of sea level. (Frar” Vail erat 1977) a)Note that, in all three cases of relative sea level rise, stra- tal surfaces display coastal onlap. with relatively low in flux, transgression takes place and facies climb shoreward through time. In this case, deeper water facies overlie shal- lower water facies. When sediment influx is high, regression takes place and facies climb seaward through time. in this case, shallower water deposits overlie deeper water facies. When sediment influx and sea level are in balance, facies may climb vertically. Figure 2.7 shows the unconformity and downward (seaward) shift in coastal onlap produced by a rapid fall of relative sea level which takes place between periods of rising sea level. A relative stillstand of sea level results in coastal deposits not being able to aggrade vertically. only horizontal pro- gradation takes place, in this case producing a toplap of stra- tal surfaces (Figure 2.8). 13Downward shift in coastal onlap indicat Terrigenous influx —— /F- Underlying unconformity © Nonmarine coastal deposits os 4, TD uttora deposits ra surtace T Marine deposits Fig. 2.7 Downward shitt of coastal onlap indicating relative fal of see level. (From Vail etal. 1977) Terrigenous influx —>- Relative Nonmarine Top lag elative coastal deposits PIP Littoral deposits silistang Marine Gepasits Surface Fig. 28 Coastal onlap indicating relative stlistand of see level (From Val etal. 1977) 143.0 ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS 3.1 General Considerations Figure 3.1 presents the five basic parameters and overall meth- odology of facies analysis. Also shown, in general vertical order of importance, are the main sources of data used in de- fining these facies parameters In the early stages of exploration, prior to the clear iden- tification of a particular facies, explorationists must deter- mine the nature of laterally and vertically associated lithostratigraphic units. It is thus possible to uncover the genetic relationships between adjacent units that can provide the interpreter with important clues to depositional settings. and more and more data are obtained, As exploration continues: other parameters, such as lithology. say, from boreholes sedimentary structures, and paleontology, can be more reliably defined. Traditionally, geometry has been the last aspect of a subsur- face facies delineated: data from a number of boreholes used to be required to adequately define the lateral and vertical ex- tent of a body of sedimentary rock. The advent of modern seis- mic techniques, however, such as 3-D and color-coded seismic displays, allows the geometry of a subsurface facies, in some cases, to be reliably determined relatively early. 3.2 Lithology Lithology, one of the easiest facies parameters to observe, is an important indicator of depositional environment. This is 15Observe ‘Sedimentary Paleo Geometry ‘Associated ‘structures: poe; ‘suanis environments Cores cuttings. fogs Cores, Dip log Logs Seismic Dip tog Selemie Interpret Possible depositional Wwironments. Pateogeography {rom working geologic models) Predict 7 Location, trend, "value" , ‘of petroleum accumulation Fig. 2.1 Detailed chart showing the five basic parameters and the overall methodology of facies analysis. Also shown are the types of data normally used to articulate each parameter; these ar listed in vertical order of importance (after ‘Seley, 1978; reprinted by permission of Cornell University Press). 16particularly true of carbonates. Most carbonates are biogenic in origin and are produced either in situ, or, at most, within a few kilometers of deposition. Thus the shape, size, and sorting of carbonate sedimentary grains bear a strong relation to the physical processes that characterize a particular depositional environment. Carbonate sediments are prone to early diagenesis, including solution, cementation and/or chemi cal alteration. Certain of these diagenetic processes are known to develop carbonate porosity. Depositional fabric often guides and limits this porosity development. Thus, an under- standing of depositional environment can assist the understand- ing of the diagenetic process leading to reservoir development. The lithology of terrigenous (clastic) sediment, on the other hand, in addition to being dependent on depositional environ- ment, is controlled by both its parent rock type and its transportation history. The depositional fabric of sandstones, however, is easier to detect because they are generally much less susceptible to diagenesis than carbonates. Because of the inherent differences in the depositional and diagenetic history of terrigenous and carbonate sediments, we examine only the lithologic parameters of sandstones in this section. Carbonate lithology is discussed in Chapter 6. 3.2.1 Lithologic Parameters of Terrigenous Facies Grain Size The grain size of a terrigenous sediment depends primarily on the energy of the depositing current. Generally, higher-energy currents produce coarser-grained sediments and lower-energy environments produce finer-grained sediments. Grain size tends to decrease in the direction of transportation, with the gravel size fraction displaying this feature more so than sand. Sort- Ww— (Grain size © Channel sands Bars, regressive barrier islands © @ ‘Submarine channel Deltaic “couplet”: braided stream, Gistributary channel incised tidal sand ridge into delta front bar Fig. 22 Vertical grain-size profiles of some common sandstone facies.ing increases along with current energy and the length of time the current is active. Sedimentary facies commonly display characteristic vertical profiles in which grain size fines upward, coarsens upward, or remains constant. The determination of such vertical varia~ tions in grain size can be extremely valuable in the diagnosis of depositional environment. Figure 3.2 illustrates charac- teristic vertical grain-size profiles of some important clastic sedimentary facies. Channel sequences usually form by lateral accretion and many channel sands display, to some degree, pro- files that fine upward, generally from a scoured base (Figure 3.2a). On the other hand, “bar"-type sands almost always dis- play coarsening-upward profiles, often capped by an abrupt facies change to fine-grained material (Figure 3.2b). Examples include regressive barrier-island sands, shallow marine bars delta-front bars, and even eolian dunes. Some facies--for ex- ample, braided-stream sands, tidal sand ridges, and submarine channels--often display "blocky" profiles whereby grain size remains relatively constant (Figure 3.2c). It is important to remember, however, that vertical variations in grain size can be due to more than one process or depositional setting; i.e., not all fining-upward sequences are channels, or coarsening- upward sequences, marine bars. For example, deposition from turbidity currents produces fining-upward sequences in subma- rine fans. Also, crevasse subdeltas form coarsening-upward grain-size profiles similar in appearance to marine bars Sands originating in different subenvironments commonly coalesce to form a single vertical grain-size profile. An ex- ample is a deltaic point-bar channel sand that, as it builds outward, incises down into an underlying delta-front bar sand 19forming a deltaic couplet (Figure 3.24). The surface that di- vides the two facies is sometimes difficult to determine from well logs, requiring detailed study of well cuttings and cores It should be remembered that no single environment has a unique grain-size profile, and similar profiles may be produced by different environments. Therefore, profiles should be inter- preted with as much supplementary data as possible. Many attempts have been made to relate the statistical parameters of grain-size distribution to depositional environ- nents. Brief reviews of the method appear in Reineck and Singh (1980) and Selley (1985). ‘Three common types of sediment grain-size distribution curves are shown in Figure 3.3. Grain size is plotted against percent and log-probability. The more eaked" the frequency curve (1), and the steeper the cumula- tive curve (2) and log-probability curve (3), the better sorted the sample. Since we can compare statistical analyses of grain size and sorting of ancient sediment with similar analyses of recent sediments of known depositional setting, it should be possible, by analogy, to determine the ancient environment of deposition. Yet such attempts have, unfortunately, seldom been sugcessful. There are several reasons for the failure of this method. A major reason is that grain-size distribution is a product of hydrodynamic factors. Similar hydrodynamics may be active in more than one environment, producing similar grain-size dis- tributions in different environments. For example, fluvial currents in continental meandering stream environments produce sand deposits with grain-size distributions similar to those in meandering tidal channels. 20s9s9 100 * so 0 4” a ® a 2G go ° T ? 3 Tas pw scale 1 os 02% ams ne? SCALE Fig. 3.3 Diagram showing three common types of sedliment distribution curves: (1) frequency curve; (2) cumulative curve; a logprobebility curve, Curves (1) and (2) re plotted on an arithmetic scale; curve (3) plotted on a log-probebilty Scale. Three commonly calculated parameters Q, %, Q, (Ma), and Q, are marked. (Modified after Fisher, 1969) anThe history of the sediment may also lead to confusion by not allowing sorting processes to operate. For example, a sand that has been cleaned and well sorted in a previous deposition- al setting may be the only sediment carried into a new environ- ment. Thus only clean, well-sorted sand can be deposited in the new environment. Postdepositional mixing of sediment may also obscure results of grain-size analysis. For example: The clay content of sediment has been shown to be a sensitive indicator of depositional pro- cesses. A clean, well-sorted beach sand may become mixed with clay-sized materials washed in at a later date from rare flood- ing in an adjacent river estuary. Yet an ancient sediment may show no evidence of this subsequent mixing, thus possibly caus- ing a false environmental diagnosis. Finally, there is the problem of disaggregating rock samples for use in a sieve analysis. Postdepositional quartz over- growths and cementation may have completely altered grain sizes and significantly modified the original texture of a rock chemistry and Mineralogy The significant chemical parameters of terrigenous sediments that may yield environmental clues are provided mainly by minerals originally precipitated at the tine of deposition. These minerals, however, are extremely suscep- tible to diagenetic changes and can possibly be more of an in- dicator of postdepositional conditions ‘The oxidation-reduction potential (Eh) of a depositional en- vironment may be revealed by the type of iron minerals present; for example, red-colored, ferric oxide cement is formed in an aerated, oxidizing environment. Drab-colored ferrous oxide 22and iron sulfides like pyrite, are formed in a reducing, oxy- gen-deficient environment. In general, red-colored sediments indicate continental deposition in settings above the water table, where acidic, oxygen-rich ground water percolates through the sediment, precipitating red ferric iron oxides and destroying organic matter. Drab-colored sediments, green or gray in color from ferrous oxide and preserved organic matter are usually indicative of deposition below the ground water table--for example, in meandering flood plains, coastal en- vironments, and marine settings (Figure 3.4). The presence of abundant pyrite and preserved organic matter generally indi- cates extreme anaerobic conditions in marine or lacustrine ba- sins where circulation of oxygen-rich water is restricted There are some important exceptions to the general statements made above, and using color as a rule of thumb must therefore be done with caution. As Selley (1985) points out, some deep marine oozes are red, secondary reddening often takes place under unconformities, and red beds may become gray-green if they become flushed by strongly reducing connate fluids (com- monly adjacent to petroleum accumulations) . Information on depositional environment may be provided by the occurrence of certain common minerals. For example glauconite, a greenish-colored complex hydrous alumino- silicate, is an authigenic (formed in-place) mineral that seems to occur only in marine continental shelf sediment. It is quite unstable and generally is unable to withstand significant reworking. Its presence, therefore, has been used with some success as a reliable indicator of deposition in a marine en- vironment. Its absence, however, does not necessarily indicate @ nonmarine environment. 23Vadose zone: oxidizing environment, ‘organic matter destroyed ed ferric iron oxides develop Phreatic zone: reducing environment, organic matter preserved, iron preserved as drat-colored ferrous oxides or pytites Fig. 24 Sketch showing relationship between local water table and oxidation. rom-bearing sediments within the Dhreatic zone have @ much higher chance of taking on rad coloration. (From Montgomery and Selle, 1964) 2aAnother mineral that can be helpful in the diagnosis of deposi- tional environments is detrital mica. Flakes of mica tend to be winnowed out of high energy environments by turbulence and strong currents and carried away to be deposited in lower ener- gy environments. Micaceous sands therefore tend to be absent from well-winnowed environments like barrier islands, shallow shelf bars, and eolian dunes. Settings in which micaceous sands characteristically occur include outer delta slopes, out- er shelf, and submarine channels and fans. Particles of carbonaceous material (lignite and coal) are a common minor component of many sands. Because this material is derived mostly from land plants, it is commonly found in fluvial, lacustrine, and deltaic sands. Its presence, again does not necessarily indicate a nonmarine environment. Car- bonaceous material can be found in marine deposits as well. coal ij systems like submarine fans. Particles of coal are also fre- quite stable and can survive transport into deep marine quently encountered in marine limestones, where they probably result from marine algae. Like micas, carbonaceous debris is easily winnowed away and thus provides, along with mica, a valuable index of winnowing. Shell fragments are another common constituent of many sands. Some shelly material can derive from fresh water organisms The preservation potential of calcareous particles in many con- tinental sediments is, however, probably limited, due to leach- ing by acidic meteoric waters. The presence of shell material therefore, most likely indicates a marine depositional setting. Selley (1985) has shown how the presence or absence of the last four mentioned constituents--glauconite, mica, carbonaceous 25— 8 i | eatsier HG ee 3 3 i/ 3 faa 3 2) ston g ; Bi) s a] a oo e| i ae a ["h3 Fig. 25 The presence or absence of glauconite and carbonaceous detritus divides sands into four main environmental ‘groups: marine winnowed sands; nonmarine winnowed sands (eolan) mixed sands with both glauconite and carbon ceous matter, commonly found as turbdites; and poorly winnowed nonmarine sands. (rom Selly, 1965) 26material, and shell debris--can be used to define four major groups of sandstones (Figure 3.5). High-energy marine environ- ments like barrier islands, bars, and shoals may contain shelly sands but be without carbonaceous detritus and mica. Deltaic fluvial, and lacustrine sands may contain carbonaceous and/or micaceous material but would not be expected to contain glauconite or shell debris. All four constituents might be expected to occur in shelf and deep sea marine sands, and be absent from eolian sands. However, many exceptions exist and as Selley admits, this technique is "real cowboy geology," which must never be used in isolation Many attempts to use clay minerals as indicators of deposition- al environments have met with little success, primarily because the chemistry of clays reflects parent rock mineralogy weathering, climate, and diagenetic history, as well as deposi- tional conditions. Weaver (1958) analyzed hundreds of clay samples from ancient rocks and concluded that no single clay mineral typifies a particular environment. However, his work does show a broad relationship of illite and montmorillonite to ancient marine rocks and kaolinite to continental rocks. Krejci-Graf (1972) provides information on the trace element content of sediments in various depositional environments. Continental sediments that have undergone long periods of sub- aerial weathering typically contain the trace elements titanium and thorium. Marine sediments, on the other hand, are more enriched than continental sediments in the trace elements boron, chromium, copper, gallium, nickel, and vanadium. Chro- mium seems to be more abundant in slightly anaerobic rocks, while vanadium is concentrated in highly anaerobic facies 27Other Lithologic Parameters Many workers have attempted to use features such as the shape and texture of sandstone as en- vironmental indicators. Application of these parameters in environmental diagenesis has met with little success, primarily because the shape and texture of a grain are a function not only of the most recent depositional process, but of previous history as well. For example, sandstone grains deposited in a marine or fluvial setting may display a rounded frosted ap- pearance, probably due to previous transportation in an eolian environment. 3.3 Sedimentary Structures Primary sedimentary structures are formed at the time of deposition, or shortly thereafter, and prior to consolidation These primary structures include a great variety of surface markings, bedforms, bedding plane stratification and penecon- temporaneous deformation structures. A review of the entire spectrum of these primary structures is beyond the scope of this manual. We shall concentrate on current-generatea stratification features. These are the most common structures, and generally the most useful in interpreting depositional settings. Because terrigenous sediments have undergone transportation by currents they are more likely to possess stratification struc- tures than carbonates, most of which are formed in situ. However, most carbonate sands (grainstones) have been subjected to significant current activity. Thus, like their terrigenous counterparts, they may display current-generated stratification features. 28Bioturbation structures produced by organic activity also fall under the heading of sedimentary structures. These features are covered in a following section under paleontological parameters. A complete review of primary sedimentary structures can be found in Pettijohn and Potter (1964); Conybeare and Crook (1968); Pettijohn, Potter, and Seiver (1973); Reineck and Singh (1980); and Collinson and Thompson (1982). For a reference restricted to current-generated stratification structures in clastic terrigenous sediments, the reader is referred to Harms Southard, and Walker (1982). Much of the following discussion is drawn from this source. 3.3.1 Depositional Processes Before looking closely at flow- produced stratification, let us consider some basic ideas on the modes of sediment deposition. Sediment builds up either by vertical accretion, where sediment settles out from suspension, or lateral accretion, where trac- tion currents supply sediment to a horizontally shifting, slop- ing depositional surface. Traction currents, by the way, move sediment by a combination of rolling, sliding, and saltation (bouncing). In some environments, deposition takes place by a combination of vertical and lateral accretion. Harms et al (1982) term this process oblique accretion. Three basic methods have been recognized by which individual sediment grains come to rest on a depositional surface: fallout from suspension, traction (with or without fallout), and mass emplacement. 29In fallout from suspension, particles build up beds by vertical accretion. This method characterizes the lowest current velocities, and generally produces parallel-laminated, fine- grained deposits in quiet-water lakes and marine basins. It may produce, however, a type of large-scale cross-strat- ification in fine sand, termed hummocky cross-stratification (see Section 3.3.3). In tractional deposition, an excess of traction transported grains comes to rest on a depositional surface that is either planar or rippled (large or small scale). Sediment is supplied from an upcurrent source by traction accompanied by fallout from suspension. Compared to deposition from suspension, this type of deposition is usually associated with higher velocity currents and coarser-grained sediment, although sediment as fine as silt can be deposited in this manner. This process typically deposits fluvial, coastal, and marine sand bodies that build up by both lateral and oblique accretion. In mass emplacement, a high-concentration sediment/fluid mix- ture propelled by gravity flow comes to rest to form the sedimentary deposit. Examples include deposition from debris flow and moving slurries. Grain size varies from clay- to peb- ble-size and sorting is usually poor. Mass-emplacement flows include dense sediment-water mixtures called turbidity cur- rents, which move down steep submarine slopes by gravity. A decrease in gradient causes the flow to lose velocity and deposit its load in a graded bed, with the coarsest particles settling out first. Mass-emplacement deposits include debris- flow sands and turbidites in deep water channels and fans 303.3.2 Bed Configurations stratification features are the (partly) preserved remains of flow-produced bed form: . A clas- sification of these bed forms and a summary of their charac- teristics as presented by Harms et al. are listed in Table 3.1. The several basic bed-form configurations are ° small ripples--downstream-migrating bed forms, produced at relatively low flow velocities, less than several cen- timeters in height, and possessing gentle stoss (upcurrent and steeper lee (downcurrent) slopes (Figure 3.6). two-dimensional large ripples--low (height/spacing ratio), straight crested features formed at moderate current veloci- ties. hey vary significantly in height from a centimeter to a few meters. Large 2-D ripples are often called megaripples and the very large forms are called sand waves. They pass gradationally into three-dimensional forms with increasing current velocity. three-dimensional large ripples--similar in profile to small-scale ripples, with sinuous to highly irregular crest patterns. These forms typically have strong three~ dihensional geometry with uneven crests and troughs. Three- dimensional ripples are formed in moderate to high current velocities. They range in height from a few decimeters to a few meters, with a high height-to-spacing ratio compared to 2-D ripples. In other terminologies they are referred to as megaripples, dunes, or small sand waves plane beds--flat beds developed at still higher flow veloci- ties in all sizes of sediment, and also in a narrow range of 32Too seks | Gor nore’) . entoa a to 0 Fou 10.3 of 9.1. coy more) Height iolatively. | ralativety.| relativety relatively Mien ay gaaeric | stmmurcanrs ieee, : sal sconces albsttcrertea [iougsorented [ahortSeetéed ibore-etvsed Stic sedi- [| 0.05 = 0.6 a} > 0.3 ma? > 0.2 mm a > 0.6mm an Table 2.1 Characteristics of undirectiona/tiow bed configurations. (From Harms et a. 1982)Fig. 2.6 Newly formed current ripples developing toward equilibrium in fine to medium sand. Flow Is from left to right. The top surtace ofthe block 150 cm x 50 om. (From Harms etal. 1082) T T T TT T T 2oo0f- qu Antidunes nAK 150 ‘A. Upper plane bed A Large ripples 8 ‘Mean flow velocity (em/sec) & s No movernent 20} Cy) 02 0304 06 (08 10 1S 20 Mean sediment size (mm) Fig. 3.7 Sizevelocity diagram for How depths of 18-22 cm. Open circles, small ripples; plusses, two-dimensional large Tipples; slid circles, three dimensional large ripples; open triangles, upper plane bed, Solid triangles, antidunes; open Inverted triangles, lower plane bed: x marks, no movement. (From Harms et a. 1982) 33low velocities for sediment coarser than about half a millimeter. © antidunes--waves developed in phase with larger amplitude surface waves at high current velocities and shallow depths They are rarely preserved as sedimentary structures and are not considered here. The size-velocity diagram in Figure 3.7, based on data from numerous flume experiments, illustrates the fact that bed con- figuration is strongly dependent on current velocity and, to a somewhat lesser extent, particle grain size. Most cross- stratification and cross-lamination features preserved in an- cient sedimentary rocks were produced by the migration of bed forms-current ripples, both large and small. As new sediment is added and the bed builds upward, ripples migrate across the bedding surface in a downcurrent direction with a small ‘compo- nent of upward climb as well. Figure 3.8 is a schematic sec~ tion through cross-lamination that was produced by such ripple climb. The heavy line shows the profile of a climbing ripple train. Troughs climb along with the ripples and erosion surf- aces-are created as the advancing troughs scour away a portion of the sediment deposited in advance of them. ‘The dashed seg- ments in the illustration represent parts that are so eroded The lowest parts of the foresets are thus preserved as sequen- ces of downcurrent-dipping laminae between parallel erosion surfaces to form crossbed "sets." Should no new sediment be added, ripples do not climb. They simply migrate across an area parallel to the plane of deposi- tion. In this case, the foresets deposited on the lee flank of 34each ripple are entirely or mostly eroded away by scour as the following trough goes by. As shown in Figure 3.9, the shapes of foreset laminae deposited by an advancing ripple may be in the shape of planar laminae, thereby forming a large angle with the underlying trough sur- face (Figure 3.9a) or they may be sigmoidal laminae, meeting the trough surface tangentially, at a small angle (Figure 3.9b). In cases where the upper portions of the sigmoidal foresets are scoured away by following troughs, the preserved portion of laminae assumes a scoop-shaped, concave-upward pro- file (Figure 3.9c). 3.3.3 Flow-Produced Stratification stratification produced by steady unidirectional flow includes the following broad categories: small-scale ripple cross-lamination large-scale trough cross-stratification large-scale tabular cross-stratification e000 planar lamination stratification produced by oscillatory flow includes © small-scale oscillation-ripple cross-lamination © hummocky cross-stratification Small-scale ripple cross-lamination (Figure 3.10) occurs as thin sets of mostly concave-upward foreset laminae, dipping in the direction of local current flow. Each set, in three dimen- sions, tends to be flat, elongated, and tongue-shaped. Thick- ness of sets depends on angle of ripple climb, with high-angle climb producing sets with the entire ripple profile preserved. a5WY HY) i . 1gh erosional-sto nd 2 shown by heavy ln )) ‘)Fig. 2.10 Block diagram showing small-scale ripple crosslamination, (Modified from Harms etal. 1962) Fig. 3.11 Block diagram showing large-scale trough cross stratification formed by migration of three-dimensional large ‘pbies. Flow is from left fo right, The length ofthe vides of the block could range from a few meters {0 afew tens of ‘meters. (From Harms et a. 1982) 37In such cases, sets may reach thicknesses of a few centimeters. Most cross-lamination is formed by ripples climbing at small angles; sets are thus relatively thin, being only as thick as the preserved, lower portion of the foreset laminae. As the name implies, this type of stratification is formed by migrating small-scale, mostly climbing ripples in sediment ranging from silt to medium-grained sand. Current velocities sufficient for traction deposition are implied, but velocities are low relative to those generating other types of current- induced stratification Large-scale trough cross-stratification is illustrated by the block diagram in Figure 3.11. Set boundaries are approximately parallel, with occasional wedging out when viewed in a section parallel to flow. From this perspective, these sets could be mistaken for tabular cross-stratification (described below). When viewed transverse to flow, however, a trough pattern (originally called "festoon") is clearly discernible, with sets arranged in a nested pattern, and each set bounded at its base by a concave-upward erosional surface. Sets are composed of conoave-upward foreset laminae pointing in local downstream direction. Maximum true dips of the foreset laminae vary from 25° to 30°. Trough cross-strata are formed by the migration of three- dimensional large ripples (dunes and megaripples) with a small angle of climb in sediment ranging from fine to very coarse sand. Unidirectional current flow of moderate to high velocity (50 to 100 cm/sec) is implied 38Large-scale tabular cross-stratification (Figure 3.12) displays sets with bounding surfaces that are somewhat planar and paral- lel. The thickness of these sets may range from a few decimeters to more than 10 meters. Unlike small-scale cross- lamination and large-scale trough cross-stratification, the foreset laminae are generally planar as well. Average dip of the laminae is commonly 30° or more, about the maximum angle of repose. The amount of preserved ripple height may vary con- siderably, depending on the angle of climb. Where similar sets are stacked, one above the other, indicating a train of rip- ples, climb angles are probably low and only a small portion of ripple height is preserved. Isolated or solitary sets devel- oped by large individual sand bodies may have their original ripple height entirely preserved. Tabular cross-strata are typically produced by migration of two-dimensional large rip- ples in unidirectional flows. Current velocities are slightly lower than those producing three-dimensional large ripples, and they develop in sediment ranging from medium to very coarse sand. As shown in Figure 3.12, smaller ripples, two-dimensional or threey mensional, are commonly superimposed on the surface of the large ripples. The strata produced by these small ripples are not usually preserved, except those reverse-flow ripples formed in the lee of a larger-scale ripple. Planar lamination (Figure 3.13) is produced in a wide spectrum of sediment grain sizes by either unidirectional or oscillatory flow. Currents generating planar lamination occur within two distinct velocity ranges. An upper-stage regime of strong cur~ rent velocities (higher than ripple-forming velocities) pro- duces planar lamination in sediment ranging from silt to medium 39Fig. 2.12 Block diagram showing large-scale tabular cross-statification formed by migration of two-dimensional fargo ‘ipples. Flow is from lel 10 right. The length of the sides of the black could range from ten meters fo as much as # few hhundred meter. (From Harms etal. 1962) | i go Fig. 3.13 Planar lamination produced by aggradetion during ypperstage plane-bed transport. (From Harms et a. 1982)sand. A lower-stage current regime within a narrow velocity range of about 40 cm/sec generates planar lamination, but only in coarse-grained sand. Environments where upper-stage planar beds may be preserved include stream channels, beaches, and settings where deposition is by high-speed turbidity currents. Lower-stage planar stratification is found principally in braided streams. Cross-lamination from small-scale oscillation ripples Accord- ing to Harms et al., the most common types of oscillating flow stratification in the sedimentary record is produced by migra- tion of climbing ripples where flow is asymmetrical. In this case, laminae usually dip in one direction only, and stratification geometry is similar to cross-lamination produced by unidirectional flow small ripples. The closest that stratification comes to having a geometry reflecting pure -os- cillatory flow (Pigure 3.14) is taken from a shallow marine sand subjected to wave action. Hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) is a type of large-scale cross-stratification produced mainly in coarse silt and fine sand by deposition from suspension on a bedding surface of shifting hummocks and swales (Figure 3.15). Hummocks are typi- cally about 10 to 50 cm high and spaced one to a few meters apart. Although its origin is still somewhat speculative, Hcs is generally interpreted to have been formed on marine shelves, in lakes, and on the lower shoreface by oscillatory flow from large storm waves at depths below "fair weather" wave base. aPrograde Palaeoslope ‘Sheet or blanket Fig. 2.16 Cartoons of various facies shapes. (From Selley, 1985)channels, barrier-island shoestring deposits, or eolean dune sand bodies. Geometry, as we have said, has been traditionally the last de- lineated aspect of a subsurface facies, since much borehole data were required to define the extent of a body of sedimen- tary rock. However, with the advent of modern seismic tech- nigues--such as 3-D seismic and color-coded seismic displays-- the geometry of a subsurface facies can, in some cases, be reliably determined in the early stages of exploration 3.5 Associated Facies The identification of certain ancient environments or suben- vironments is often difficult. The environment may not in- herently possess enough diagnostic characteristics, or we may not be able to obtain sufficient data for positive identifica- tion. In such cases, the analysis and identification of as- sociated environments become important tools in the interpreta- tion of the facies at hand With the rise and fall of sea level, shorelines transgress landward or regress in a seaward direction. Environments mi- grate laterally over one another, depositing a conformable suc- cession of genetically related sediments with both systematic and predictable gradational facies transitions. These grada- tions take place in both vertical and lateral directions (Fig- ure 3.17). Similar gradations develop between the subfacies of a depositional system, as subenvironments shift spacially with time. Lateral migration of subenvironments, though, may also take place in response to purely local factors, such as delta progradation or stream migration. This critical relationship 45between environments and facies provided the basis of Walther's (1894) law of succession that states ". . . only those facies and facies areas can be superimposed that can be observed be- side each other at the present time." This principle forms the foundation of an important method in facies identification-~ analysis of the environments of the associated facies above and below, as well as laterally, allows us to reconstruct the most logical sequence of depositional events. 3.6 Paleontology Paleontology has always played an important role in the iden- tification of subsurface environments. Although it is a spe- cialized science usually beyond the ordinary petroleum geolo- gist, some basic concepts are worth mentioning 3.6.1 Microfossils Microfossils are by far the most abundant of all fossils in the paleontological record. Microfossils moreover, generally survive the action of the drill bit, and quantities of them are retrieved from well cuttings, whereas nacrofossils become fragmented and are rendered generally unigéntifiable by drilling operations. Microfossils are most often found in the cuttings of fine-grained sediments like shales and limestones, but are relatively rare in sandstone Because various types of microorganisms flourished in different depositional settings, their fossil remains provide extremely valuable indicators of sedimentary environments. The other major application of microfossils is in biostratig- raphy, as chronometers of geologic time. Faunal evolution throughout the Phanerozoic (Cambrian to present) has allowed a6Tertigenous influx —> Middle neville ea No differential subsidence Coastal encroachment Fig. 2.17 Facies relationships resulting from marine transgression and regression. (From Vall otal. 1977) 100, ‘Chamber construction in Discorbis. (From le Calver, 1896) a7the ages of rock samples to be determined and strata to be correlated by the recognition of the distinct species and as- semblages of microfossils they contain. The two most important varieties of microfossils employed in environmental analysis are foraminifera and ostracods. The main reason for this importance is that some suborders and gen- era of foraminifera and ostracods are benthic (bottom dwellers: and live only in specific environments according to depth and salinity. Thus, when found as an assemblage of fossils in the same place they lived, termed a biocoenose, they can provide a direct indicator of depositional setting Foraminifera ("forams") are the most widely used microfossils These single-celled organisms have existed since the Ordovi- cian, with 1400 genera and 30,000 species (4,500 still in exis- tence) having been classified The skeleton, or test, of foraminifera averages 0.5 mm in size and is distinguished by chambers interconnected by an opening or foramina (Figure 3.18). Although they have a simple struc- ture, foraminifera tests come in a wide variety of shapes (Fig- ure’ 3.19). Foraminifera, both planktonic (floating) and ben- thic (bottom-dwelling) forms, inhabit a wide variety of aquatic environments, from very shallow water to depths of 5000 m, and in waters ranging from brackish to hypersaline. They are not found, however, in fresh-water lakes It has been determined that the habitat of recent foraminifera depends largely on the composition of their tests. Three basic groups of test composition are recognize 48© agglutinated--tests formed from material borrowed from the habitat: grains of quartz (arenaceous tests), flakes of mica, clay material, and various skeletal debris. The material is bonded together by a secreted cement, either chitinoid (celluloselike) or calcitic. The relative propor- tions of cement and agglutinate vary with species. © porcelaneous--opaque, calcareous tests that appear white and brilliant in reflected light © hyaline--calcareous tests characterized by their glasslike transparency. Salinity Most benthic foraminifera are marine. However, cer- tain groups having porcelaneous tests live equally well in hypersaline lagoonal environments. Other types, such as cer- tain agglutinates and hyalines prefer brackish lagoons and es- tuaries. Some foraminifera may be found in all environments. Water Depth Figure 3.20 shows the depth distribution of re- cent benthic foraminifera. Generally, benthic foraminifera with porcelaneous tests live in shallow waters, whereas hyaline tests occur everywhere but in deepest waters. agglutinated types similarly occur everywhere, with noncalcareous benthic types surviving at great depths (up to 5000 m). A fourth group of foraminifera, characterized by microgranular tests, flourished in the upper Paleozoic but are now extinct. Figure 3.21 illustrates the stratigraphic range of the families within the four main groups. The standard reference on foraminifera is Loeblich and Tappan (1946). More recent works include Haynes (1981) and Buzas and Sen Gupta (1982). 50EES Maximum numberotspecies <= pranmonicspocies Continental margin — Maximum number of naivaals \e— cateoreous species dominant imum eumber of agglutinated species Slope) SS Beginning of fbyssai plan Fig. 3.20 Depth distribution of recent benthic foraminifera. (After Bolstovsky and Wright, 1976) Depth (ken) Progressive disappearance ofealeareous species STENT aT PESTE C ateieie fofs 3 erey ei dea lammoasoase] B lorstoumase Fessomyrane Fig. 8.21 Strtigraphic range of some foraminiteran groups. (From Bignot, 1985)Fig. 3.22 Lateral view of @ podocopid astracod, without the left valve: At 7 = appendages; a = anus; c = carapace; 6g = digestive system;e = eye: 1 = Turea; go = genital organs; m = mouth (x 100) (From Bignat (1985) ater Kesling 1951), 52Ostracods are the most advanced forms of microfossils used. They are crustaceans and can be regarded as shrimps within a bean-shaped calcitic shell (Figure 3.22). When the ostracod dies, the body disappears, leaving the shell (carapace) to be fossilized (Figure 3.23). Ostracods have existed since the Cambrian; their fossils abound in sediments of all kinds but are particularly abundant in clays and marls. Shell size ran- ges from 0.15 to 20 mm for living species and up to 80 mm for specimens found in Paleozoic rocks. Ostracods inhabit every aquatic environment, both marine and fresh water. Many variet- ies are benthic and prefer quiet, still waters where fine- grained sediments are rich in organic material. Basically three broad assemblages are recognized based on sensitivity to salinity: © fresh water--generally with thin, smooth shells marine--robust shells, often ornamented © brackish water--various shell markings, depending on salinity Assemblages of marine benthic varieties can also be used to give-marine water depth; shelf (less than 200 m), bathyl (200- 500 m), and abyssal (greater than 500 m) For additional information on ostracods, the reader is referred to Van Morkhoven (1962-3) and Bate, Robinson, and Sheppard (1982). As summarized by Bignot (1985), other common microfossils, some of which have value as environmental indicators, include cal- careous nanofossils, radiolarians, diatoms, conodonts, spores and pollens, and dinoflagellates. 34Calcareous nanofossils--minute (1 to 35 micron) rosette- star-, or button-shaped plates called coccoliths--are the most common variety (Figure 3.24). Because of their small size they are best studied with the electron microscope. Fossil coccoliths, common since the Jurassic, are found mostly in ma~ rine sediments deposited far from coasts. No coccoliths have been found in lacustrine sediments Radiolarians--marine planktonic microorganisms, whose preserved siliceous skeletons consist of needlelike spicules--are found in rocks ranging from the Ordovician to Recent; the presence of radiolarian microfossils indicates marine deposition in waters of normal salinity (Figure 3.25). Diatoms are single-celled algae whose siliceous microfossils date from the Late Cretaceous (Figure 3.26). They are found in all types of aquatic environment regardless of salinity; many varieties are benthic, and most species are subject to strict ecological controls. Fossil diatoms should thus be expected to provide information on depositional environments. Conodonts are small structures, averaging 1 mm in length and consisting of calcium phosphate, that appear to be the teeth or hooks of larger organisms (Figure 3.27). They occur only in Paleozoic and Triassic marine sedimentary rocks, both in near- shore and glauconitic sands and in deeper, fine-grained facies Spores and pollens originate from higher land plants, and generally indicate continental paleoenvironments. However, because they are subject to wide dispersal by both wind and water currents, they may also be found in a wide variety of 35BEE Fig. 2.25 Ditferent types of siliceous radiotarians. (From Bigot, 1985) semarine deposits. Common since the Devonian, spores and pollens provide excellent biostratigraphic markers. Dinoflagellates are single-celled algae whose fibrous cellular walls are preserved as fossils, termed cysts (Figure 3.28). Dinoflagellate cysts range in size from 60 to 150 microns, and in age from Permian to Recent. Dinoflagellates occur as plank- ton in the surface waters of all environments ranging from ma- rine to lagoonal to lacustrine. Because of their wide dispers- al, they are not reliable indicators of depositional environment. By way of summary, Figure 3.29 illustrates the salinity ranges for some common groups of living organisms that provide fossils in the geologic record. 3.6.2 Trace Fossils ‘Trace fossils constitute another. valu- able type of biological information that can be used in en- vironmental analysis. Subsurface information on trace fossils, however, may not always be available. Unlike microfossil data easily obtainable from well cuttings, subsurface information on trace fossils can only be derived from expensive conventional cofes. Trace fossils, produced by bioturbation, are simply fossilized tracks, trails, burrows, etc. made by animals within sediment or on the sediment surface. They provide a reliable record of benthonic organic communities because, unlike other fossils, they always occur in situ and cannot be reconcentrated by reworking. These structures also include plant trace fos- sils, like root molds and castsFig. 2.28 Different types of dinoflagellates. (From Bignot, 1985) Systematic . a E Type ot water | Sainty . 3 = ig g Examples 3 ef fresher [S05 | tate Geneva i aide Tee 105-5) Bal Sea 10-11) Hypobatine | 05-32 | Caspian Seats) Bait Ses (2-18) Black Sea (17-22), ‘rctie (33) and Normal ‘Antatetic Oceans (34) ei 32-39 | North Sea (32-34) seawater Wropleal Oveans [36-27] 2 Mediterranean (37-38) ed Sea at) Hyperhatine | >4o | Persian Gulf 40-72) Dead Sea (288-326) Fig. 3.29 Simplified classification of aquatic environments and salinity ranges for some groups of living micro- organisms. (From Bignot, 1985) 39nT TT ry fy | scones |, ‘ x (sor | mm Pe | ee & |- J Paw SD] pay STS PORN A SECTION Neveites EET Fig. 2.30 Characteristic ichnofacies for various environments. (From Selley, 1976, courtesy of Academic Press Inc) 60Seilacher (1967) devised a series of ichnofacies based on the observation that certain types of animal trace fossils charac- terize particular environments (Figure 3.30). Each ichnofacies consists of a suite of trace fossils which can be used as an indicator of bathymetry. Skolithos ichnofacies consist of vertical burrows made in sandy or firm mud bottoms of the littoral (intertidal) zone by sus- pension feeders, i.e., by organisms that feed on food particles suspended in the agitated zone of shallow water Cruziana and zoophycos ichnofacies consist of more horizontal and increasingly patterned burrows made in soft muds of the neritic zone by sediment feeders. Nereites ichnofacies consist of crawling traces made in the soft muds of the bathyl zone by sediment-feeding organisms. Although the animals responsible for the trace fossils have undergone evolution, these ichnofacies have remained remarkably constant through Phanerozoic time 614.0 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 4.1 General Considerations The analysis of any sedimentary environment, as we said in Sec- tion 1.0, depends on two basic types of information. one is derived from direct observation of the rocks themselves--from outcrops, cores, and well cuttings. The second type is indi- rect, being generated by instrumentation: wireline logs (in- cluding dipmeter) and seismic surveys. The most valuable direct type of information is, of course derived from outcrops, particularly direct data on large-scale sedimentary structures that are, otherwise, generally unob- tainable. The petroleum geologist is, however, primarily con- cerned with the subsurface and therefore key stratigraphic horizons may not be exposed at the surface. Even if exposed, multiple facies changes may result in the outcrop information being of little value for the problem at hand. 4.2 Cores and cuttings Most rotary drilling bits provide cuttings large enough and fresh enough in appearance to allow lithological evaluation. It is possible, therefore, while drilling is taking place, to prepare an accurate lithological section of a well called a sample log. There are several methods for preparing a geologi- cal sample log. The most important of these for facies analy- sis is a log that provides a complete written description of each sample (Figure 4.1). Important formation boundaries are 62Tae 62 BLK DEAD OIL STN ALONG REXLN BOUNDARIE| 1 IN SUCR & SHLY DOL SH: BLK,DK BRN BLK,GRAINY TEX,FRi % ERTHY 70 Occ BRITTLE SILIC,DOL,$M BLK C/.1B FH ss: WHT,CLR DIRTY OY,GY WHT,# GR,SBRNL TO ANG}PRLY SRTD,FREA,DOL GMNT,SHLY IP My, t DOL’& ARG MATAIX,GADG SILTY’ IP,TR DEA! sos OTL STN,L5% DUL YEL GAN FLUOR,FAIR BR’ — BLU YEL'weT CUT,COSD STRMIG BLU WHT = DRY CUT H |SH: GY BLK,BLX,CRSLY GRAINY TEX,BRITTLE 1 F +} CRMBLY,!"ICA,SPKLD W/WHT LIME & DOL, Si SL MARLY BRN SWOKSY, THUSL CHT THROUGH INTERVAL smn, Gy Mort cY,cLEAN TO DIRTY,F GR, | “""satno 4o SBANG MoD | S¥7D,CONSL FATA 7 { DOL & s4 STLIc’cunr,cRDé SILTY & wica : 54 DULL YEL GRN FLUOR,TR PALE BLU YEL WET CUT,TA BRT YEL wef CUT & FAIR BLU YEL DRY'CUT IN DOL INTERVAL DOL: GY BRGY TN,BAN,TN,F XIK BRITTLE SH = Futy sck,o147r & ako IP,$: Des &'L: 1 a SH: BLK, BRNSH BLE. V DK ARN DD: Fig. 4.1 Example of a well sample log. 63noted, and a symbolic lithological column useful for quick reference is often included. At the wellsite the log is compiled by a geologist or mudlog- ger, and, naturally, the resulting log is only as reliable as the experience and qualifications of the person preparing it. Wellsite sample logs are often part of a mudlog, which contains abundant information on the condition of the drilling mud hydrocarbon shows, drilling rate, etc. Often sample logs pre- pared at the wellsite contain insufficient data for purposes of environmental analysis, geologic dating, stratigraphic correla- tion, paleontology and palynology, and so on. In such cases, experienced geologists should reexamine samples and compile detailed logs, complete with facies interpretations, where possible. Cores provide the other source of direct data from boreholes. There are two methods of obtaining core samples: (1) from a drilled interval by bottomhole conventional coring, done during drilling and (2) from sidewall coring, accomplished after dril- ling. The conventional bottomhole cores are taken by a special device called a core barrel, which replaces the normal drill bit at the bottom of the drillpipe assembly (Figure 4.2). Cores up to 5 in. (12.3 cm) in diameter and up to 90 ft (28 m) long are obtained. They provide excellent lithological and paleontological samples, often continuous and undisturbed. Sedimentary structures are frequently displayed and valuable information on the nature and direction of paleocurrents can thus be obtained, particularly if the position of the core with respect to magnetic north is recorded. Coring equipment is expensive, and coring proceeds at slow rates, thus adding to rig-time costs. A geologist, therefore, must provide strong 64Face aiscnarge Fig. 4.2 Core barrel operation. (a) Running into the hole. (b) Circulating on bottom. (e) Coring. (From Whittaker, 1985) 65justification when recommending a conventional coring operation to management. Sidewall coring, carried out after drilling, is completed by means of a core gun on a wireline logging cable. At the appropriate sample depth, a 1-in (2.5-cm) hollow bullet is fired horizontally into the borehole wall and a core up to 2 in (5 cm) long recovered (Figure 4.3). Sidewall cores are small but relatively cheap, and can be obtained selectively over an extensive depth range. Although often damaged by in- pact, they can provide useful data on lithology and paleontol- ogy for environmental analysis The description of cores and cuttings should follow some kind of standardized order. A scheme published by the American As- sociation of Petroleum Geologists in the "Sample Examination Manual" (Swanson 1981) is recommende: © rock type--should be underlined and followed by proper com- positional or textural classification terms, e.g., "Lime~ stone: fossiliferous grainstone" color texture- and sorting © ‘cement and/or matrix materials--cement is deposited chemi cally around the grains, and includes silica and calcite; matrix consists of small individual grains that fill inter- ncluding grain size, shape, sphericity, roundness, stices between larger grains, and includes clay and silt includes nicrofossils, small macrofossils, and © fossils~ fragments of fossils © accessory constituent--minerals, rock fragments, and plant debris that constitutes only a minor percentage of the bulk of the rock, e.g mains, and sand-size rock fragments glauconite, mica, carbonized plant re-© sedimentary structures--most not discernible in cuttings or sidewall cores but can be found in conventional cores porosity and permeability © hydrocarbon shows Conventional abbreviations are used in sample descriptions These abbreviations, along with a description of sampling tech- niques, charts, and conventional legends and classifications can be found in the AAPG manual by Swanson (1981) mentioned earlier. GL303 Sample and Core Handling and Analysis contains an excel- lent treatment of sampling procedures and coring equipment 4.3 Wireline Logs Wireline logs provide two basic functions for the geologist. They provide both the data for evaluating the hydrocarbon- bearing properties of a zone (formation evaluation) and the control for subsurface mapping. In formation evaluation, logs are used to define physical rock characteristics, such as lithology, porosity and permeability; to distinguish between oil, gas, and water in the reservoir; and to estimate reserves. In subsurface mapping, logs are used to correlate zones, to construct cross sections, and to provide control for structure and isopach maps. Full treatment of formation evaluation can be found in the GL400 Series, and subsurface mapping is the subject of GL202. There are, in addition to the above functions, two very impor- tant uses of well logs in facies analysis: as direct indicators of vertical grain-size profiles by spontaneous potential (SP)and gamma ray curves, and in interpretation of sedimentary structures by the dipmeter log. Used together, they can be a powerful tool in environmental diagnosis. 4.3.1 Interpretation of Grain-Size Profiles from Well Logs As discussed in Section 3.2.1, certain types of sedimentary facies display characteristic grain-size distribution profiles. These profiles may be revealed on spontaneous potential (SP; and gamma ray logs. The SP log records the voltage differences between an electrode move along the wellbore and the potential of a fixed electrode at the surface. This potential response to electrochemical factors within the borehole is brought about by differences in salinity between the mud filtrate and forma- tion water within permeable beds. These factors are essential- ly related to the permeability of the bed A major factor in the reduction of permeability in a formation is the presence of shale. The SP log response is thus a mea~ sure of shale content. Because the amount of shale matrix in most sandstones tends to increase with decreasing grain size, the SP log can be used as an indicator of vertical grain-size variations. The SP curve, measured in millivolts and recorded on the left-hand side of the log display, varies between two extremes--a shale baseline and a line corresponding essentially to clean sand (Figure 4.4). As grain size increases, the curve tends to deflect to the left, toward the clean sand line; as it decreases, the curve deflects to the right, toward the shale baseline. SP deflection may be reduced in permeable beds i any are thin or contain hydrocarbonsowe une Fig. 44 Example of SP log in a sandishale series. (From Schlumberger, 1972) 70The above relationships hold true only for thick beds with for- mation water resistivities less than the drilling mud. Forma- tion waters more resistive than the drilling mud--for example, fresh water in the formation--will cause a reversal of SP de- flection to the right side of the shale baseline (Figure 4.5). Because a conductive fluid is required in the borehole, the SP will not operate when nonconductive drilling muds, such as oil- base muds, are used. Use of the SP log as a vertical grain-size profile is valid only for sediments with primary intergranular porosity. ‘Thus, it is generally not a reliable indicator of vertical grain-size distribution in cemented sandstones or most carbonates The second wireline log used to obtain vertical grain-size pro- files is the gamma ray. Gamma ray logs measure the natural radioactivity of formations. Shale-free sandstones and carbon- ates usually have low concentrations of radioactive materials, whereas shale has relatively high concentrations of the radio- active elements uranium, potassium, and thorium. The gamma ray log is, thus used to estimate the amount of shale in a forma- tion’ The gamma ray curve, like the SP curve, is recorded on the left-hand track of the log display and records high con- centrations of radioactivity by deflection of the curve to the right (Figure 4.6). As mentioned earlier, the amount of shale in a formation tends to increase with decreasing grain size. Therefore, as in the case of the SP curve, deflections of the gamma curve to the right normally indicate decreasing grain size. 7Fresh Water Shale Salty Water Shale Salty Wate Shale Salty Water Shale Fig. 45 SP curve in sand for various thicknesses and formation water salinities. (From Dresser Atlas, 1975; reprinted courtesy of Western Atlas Intemational) 72Role GaMma RAY | o2__p_e i care Fig. 4.6 Example of a gamma ray log (let track) (Courtesy of Schlumberger) 73The gamma ray log, like the SP log, has its limitations. Clean, shale-free sandstone may produce a high gamma-ray read- ing if it contains potassium feldspars, micas, glauconite, or uranium salts. The high readings produced in such cases can make a clean sand appear fine and shaly. Conversely, kaolin- and chlorite-rich shales, because of their low potassium con- tent, may produce lower than normal gamma readings As pointed out, no single environment displays a completely unique grain-size profile. Thus environmental interpretation of SP/gamma ray curves should take into account as much sup- plemental data as possible. Selley (1985) presented environ- mental interpretations for four basic SP/gamma log profiles that depend on the presence or absence of glauconite, shell debris, carbonaceous detritus and mica (Figure 4.7). 4.3.2 Use of the Dipmeter in Facies Analysis The standard dipmeter tool is a wireline logging device consisting of micro- resistivity electrodes mounted on four pads equally spaced at 90° from one another. The tool is gradually raised through the borehole and the readings from each of the four pad electrodes are recorded as resistivity curves. A recording is also made of the tool's position relative to magnetic north. A resistivity anomaly 1s usually produced by a bedding plane intersecting the borehole, the character of the anomaly being roughly similar on each of the four resistivity curves. A com- puter correlates the four curves and calculates the vertical displacement of one curve to another (Figure 4.8). ‘The dip angle and azimuth of the bed are then computed and presented on one of several displays. 74a } Hl ar 41 Passes a GH | I I 1 I i a z wg i | Fig. 4.7 Four characteristic gamma log motits. From left to right: thinly interbedded. Gr povonteo eshte peer 1nd and shale: an upward: ‘coarsening profile with an abrupt upper sand-shale contact; a uniform sand with abrupt upper and lower contacts; snd, Turthest right, an upwaratining sand-shele sequence with an abrupt base. None of these motifs fs environmentally diag ‘nostic on its own. Coupled with data on their glauconite and carbonaceous detritus content, however, they define the ‘origin of many sand bodies. (From Selley, 1988) 75iL. ' | aL, i LEN Fig. 4.8 Mode of operation of the dlpmeter log showing how dlp directions are calculated from the four mutually op posed resistivity curves. From Seley, 1965)The most common of these displays is the arrow "tadpole" plot (Figure 4.9). On a typical plot, dip is read by the position of the tadpole base on the dip scale and the azimuth is read by the direction in which the tadpole tail points. A more detailed treatment of the dipmeter can be found in GL405 The Dipmeter. In addition to its obvious importance in diagnosing structural characteristics, such as folds, faults and unconformities, the dipmeter can be extremely valuable in facies analysis, particu- larly as an indicator of sedimentary structures. It has been found on tadpole plots that dips arrange themselves into characteristic patterns. When reflecting sedimentary structure these patterns, termed depositional patterns, consist of three basic types: slope patterns, current patterns, and low-energy structural patterns. Combined with SP/gamma ray profiles these patterns becone extremely valuable indicators of depositional environments. Slope patterns are characterized by upward-decreasing dips (red dip pattern) generally having a common direction. When gener- ated within a sandstone they usually represent lateral accre- tion ‘surfaces of a channel sandstone (Figure 4.10). Such dips point in the direction of the stream channel and perpendicular to stream flow. Slope patterns may also be developed in fine-grained sediments where they represent drape or differential compaction over more rigid underlying features, such as sand bars or reefs (Figure 4.11). These dips point in a direction away from the crestal high of the underlying feature and are really more structural than depositional in origin a7oO met 20_ 90 so30 9g SEES) ; } || eae | ! EH EH EHH Fig. 49 A typical arrow (“tadpole”) pot. (From Schlumberger, 1981) Fig. 4.10 idealized aip log pattern showing progressively lower slope amount (red moti) characteristic of filedin chan. nels. Tadpoles shown correspond to dips of major accretion surfaces—in this case, those ofthe point bar. (Note ver ical exaggeration of cross section) 78Fig. 4.11 Red pattern on dipmeter resulting from differential compaction of shale over underlying rigid feature (From ‘Schlumberger, 1981) ‘: IDEALIZED CURRENT BEDS \ Max SINGLE SEDIMENTARY unt: THICKNESS: UP TO SEVERAL FEET ‘CURRENT FLOW B: THEORETICAL O1P PATTERN : 4-FT BED. 2-FT CORRELATION INTERVAL, Ee lo FIZE, I. (C: BFT BED, 2-FT CORRELATION INTERVAL [SLA FE nr int LEAN Fig. 4.12 Dip patterns related to current bedding produced by westward current flow. Examples C, O and E ilustate the ‘results of using a 24 correlation interval in beds of varying thickness. (Fram Schlumberger, 1987)Current patterns are upward-increasing dips of common direction (blue patterns) generated by the concave-upward foresets of current-induced cross-stratification. They naturally point in a downcurrent direction. Because of the limited thickness of many individual cross-strata sets, recognition by the dipmeter often requires use of computer programs that calculate dip in very small vertical intervals (Figure 4.12). Upward-increasing blue patterns are also produced by prograding deltas, barrier-island sequences, and submarine fans. In these cases, dip generally increases upward along with increasing grain size, and a single pattern may extend over a large verti- cal interval. Low-energy structural patterns are generally low-angle, paral- lel dip (green patterns), typically occurring in shale. In addition to their presence in vertically extensive shale sequences, they occur in shale units interbedded within sand bodies (Figure 4.13). Most shale is assumed to have been deposited on essentially flat, horizontal depositional surf- aces. Therefore, any green pattern dips over two degrees or so are likely to represent postdepositional structural tilting 4.3.3 Use of Porosity Logs as Indicators of Lithology Much useful information on lithology can be gathered by using com- binations of conventional porosity tool measurements. The most useful combinations are © crossplots such as bulk density versus neutron porosity bulk density versus sonic travel time, and sonic travel time versus neutron porosity 80CORRELATION TRUE DIP ANGLE CURVE & DIRECTION RIFT) Structural dip] Jer te t ater Sale | oT ects f potters] ue unconformities.. Pattern +] TF Fig. 4.19 Common dip patterns and coloring code. (From Bateman, 1985) erFig. 4.14 Example of generalized lithology logging with combination gamma ray neutron (CNLdensity (FOO) log. (Courtesy of Schlumberger)ALPAR RESOURCES INCORPORATED Fe, 1-10 SW/SE SEC. 10 26N—S5E Richlond County, Montane STONEY MOUNTAIN SHALE GR nox RED RIVER FORMATION Sain, Meg ln Gomme Rey los 2 10 lene Gomme Roy API Units ‘Apporent Limestone Porosity Fig. 4.15 Example of a combination gamma ray (GR) neutron (N}density (0) log showing corresponding lithologies trom the Ordovician Red River formation, Richland County, Montana (after Asquith, 1979), 33© M-N and MID plots, whereby three log readings (neutron den- sity and sonic) are reduced to two-dimensional crossplots. Descriptions of the various porosity tools, explanations of cressplotting techniques, and use of the photoelectric absorp- tion index (Pe) in lithology determinations can be found in the GL400 Series on wireline well logging in IHRDC's Video Library It is possible to scale porosity logs so that two curves, when overlain and compared with a gamma ray curve, immediately give a visual indication of rock type. Figure 4.14 shows how a com bination gamma-ray, neutron-density log can be used as a tool for determining lithology. Figure 4.15 is a combination gamma- ray, neutron-density loa showing corresponding lithologies within a carbonate sequence in the Williston Basin of Montana. 4.3.4 Gamma Ray Spectral Log Figure 4.16a illustrates a gam- ma ray spectral log. Unlike the gamma ray log, which measures total radioactivity (left tracks), the spectral log reads the relative concentrations of radioactive potassium, thorium, and uranium (right tracks). The thorium-uranium ratio measured by this log has been found to be a valuable indicator of deposi- tiénal environment (Fertl 1979). A thorium-uranium ratio greater than 7 is thought to indicate a continental, oxidizing environment and a ratio of less than 7 to imply marine deposits, most likely gray and green shales. For thorium-uranium ratios less than 2, the presence of black probably organic, shales deposited in anoxic marine environ- on the log in ments is suggested. For example, at point Figure 4.16a, the thorium curve reads about 14 ppm and the aauranium curve about 8 ppm, yielding a thorium-uranium ratio of 1.75. Thus, a black marine shale is indicated. The gamma ray spectral log may also be used for lithological identification, particularly for clay-typing. The crossplot. chart in Figure 4.16b maps a number of radioactive minerals according to their thorium and potassium concentrations. Again, looking at point "A" on the log in Figure 4.16a, we see that the thorium curve reads about 14 ppm and the potassium curve reads 2.5%. Applying these readings to the crossplot in Figure 4.16b, a clay of mixed-layer composition is indicated 4.4 Seismic A very valuable source of information in environmental analysis is provided by seismic data. The importance of this type of data has increased with the development over the past 20 years of a new branch of seismic interpretation known as seismic stratigraphy. Papers describing the principles of this method were assembled in the landmark volume AAPG Memoir 26, edited by Payton (1977). A concise and readable treatment of the con- cepts rand procedures presented in this volume can be found in Sheriff (1980). Two fundamental procedures in seismic stratigraphy that bear on the analysis of sedimentary facies are o seismic sequence analysis--the delineation of depositional sequences by analysis of seismic data. © seismic facies analysis--the examination of reflection character to aid in defining depositional environment. asrare Cveanceen 2 Figs. 4.168 Gamma ray spectral log. (Courtesy Schlumberger Well Services)."Tn, Thorium Concentration (ppm) . Potassium Concentration (9) Fg. 4.160 Thorlum/potassium crossplot for minerals identilication (courtesy Schlumberger Well Services) 87EROSIONAL TRUNCATION 2 TOPLAP 3. CONCORDANCE x ONLAP 2 DOWNLAP a. CONCORDANCE (____pasetap——_1 rs) (overtvinc “TRUNCATION 4 m) coasts isolated, shoestring bodies when formed by rapid transgress- ing seas ©. overlapping series of bars when formed by regressing seas Associated Facies © marine shelf shales © lagoonal silts and shales © tidal channel, tidal delta/inlet and washover fan sands 145Grain size Sedimentary Environment structures o-Simel Sand Sih Seoward ee —— on SS SSS] swash 2 Swash- trough ttf ae $ Longshore trough : : 3 \ fp chow Bs 1 Es \ transition e J 3 \ Offshore Fig. 5.30 Theoretical vertical sequence of a barrier island system based on studies of modern deposits on Oregon coast (From Hunter, Cfton, and Philips, 1979; reprinted by permission of J. Sed. Petr) 1465.8.2 Diagnostic Evidence cores As illustrated by Figure 5.30, cores and cuttings should reflect the following basic characteristics of a regressive barrier island sand sequence © a progressive and fairly regular upward increase in grain size from silt/clay to coarse sand and possibly congloner- ate, with maximum grain size usually occurring in the upper shoreface © a simultaneous upward improvement in sorting, from fair to good in the lower shoreface, to excellent within the upper shoreface and beach © a general upward increase in both the abundance and scale of cross stratification, indicative of higher energy levels © a general upward decrease in the disturbance of primary stratification due to bioturbation Logs SP and gamma ray logs through barrier island sands’ com- monly display the smooth funnel shape that reflects a regular upward increase in grain size, sorting, and permeability. Greater amounts of fine-grained material depress and round off this curve, while barrier island sands that are almost entirely free of clay and silt generate a blockier profile. Figure 5.31 shows how log curves ideally vary according to changes in the amount of fine and coarse material and to location within the barrier system. As shown in Figure 5.32, dipmeter patterns for barrier bar sands usually display an upward-increasing blue motif reflect- ing the concave profile of the seaward depositional slope. Dips within the barrier sand body may, when plotted on a rose diagram, reveal a bimodal pattern. The lower angle dips, which define the main blue motif, represent seaward-inclined beds 147Bosch-barror Island Moderate ‘amount of Sand Sand poor Sand rien “Geeraad Electric Loy Pte Fig. $.31 Generalized electric log patterns across a barrie island system, showing changes in log shape depending on location and relative rohness of sand versus shale. (From Swanson, 1980; reprinted by permission of Swanson Pe: tWoleum Enterprises)Move a nan | Mode ot ow GAMMA AND 01° MOTIES FOR GARRIER /BAR SANDS. Fig. 5.32 Gamma ray log and dpmeter motits tor barrier Island sand bodies. (After Selle, 1978)fa) 100 ms ) Nonmaring | Barrier Isiand sand body sands and muds a Open marine mus Fig. 5.33 (a) Seismic protile showing three pulses of barrier bar regression, (0) block dlagram showing how transgressive ssive sand bodies are composed of a stalrstep multitude of indivaual bars, (From Anstey, 1980; IKDC, and Selley, 1976, respectively: (b) reprinted by permission of Academic Press.) 150formed by wave swash, while higher dips with opposite azimuths reflect landward-dipping foresets, presumably from ridge and runnel deposition. Seismic A typically seismic response should generate a high amplitude reflection from the sharp upper contact between the coarser beach/dune or upper shoreface sands and the overlying marine or lagoonal shales. A sharp but diminishing reflection is generated from the sides of the sand body, caused by the downward-fining in grain size and a weaker response marking the transition to the fine-grained base of the sand body In a profile showing three pulses of barrier island regression (Figure 5.33a), note the high amplitude reflection caused by the contrast between the upper barrier sands and overlying lagoon/marsh material. The general depositional slope and the direction of progradation are to the right, as modeled in’ the accompanying cross section (lower part of Figure 5.33b). 5.9 Continental shelf sands Shelf Sands form as linear ridges usually oriented oblique to the shoreline, or as sheetlike deposits. ‘They occur between the lower shoreface and shelf edge of continental shelves (Fig- ure 5.34) and in broad, relatively shallow epicontinental seas, such as the North Sea. Tidal- and storm-generated currents have been shown to be the two most significant agents respon- sible for shelf sand deposition 5.9.1 Summary of Facies Characteristics Lithology © fine- to coarse-grained sand, moderately sorted, possible 1srInner Middle Outer tached Fig. .34 Occurrence of sand deposits on the continental shelf rom Tillman, 1985). 152pebble conglomerate at top of unit generally coarsening-upward grain size profile minor to abundant glauconite © occasional shale laminations and shale clasts Sedimentary structures © predominately moderate angle trough and planar crossbedding © some planar laminated bedding o ripple stratification in lower units, often hummocky © bioturbated in lower units © possible scour at base of some high-energy deposits Paleontology © marine shelf foraminiferal assemblages in associated fine- grained rocks © macrofossil shell "hash" at scour base of some high-energy ridges © Cruziana and zoophycus ichnofacies (see Section 3.6.2) Geometry © commonly series of parallel ridges, asymmetrical in cross section, up to 50 km long, 3 km wide, and 40 m thick © less commonly sheetlike, up to 20,000 sq km in area and up to 12 m thick Associated Facies © surrounded by marine shelf shales © possible lower-shoreface fine sands and silts laterally shoreward of some shelf ridges 5.9.2 Diagnostic Evidence Cores The upward-coarsening lithofacies sequence, illustrated in Figure 5.35, from the pro- ductive Cretaceous Viking formation of Alberta, Canada, is 153characteristic of many shelf sand ridge deposits. The basal facies consists of a burrowed, silty gray shale. This facies is overlain transitionally by ripple-bedded sandstone interca- lated with silty shale and containing abundant burrowing, Interchangeable with this ripple-bedded sandstone facies is a bioturbated, shaly, fine-grained sandstone. Next in vertical sequence is a trough crossbedded, fine- to very coarse-grained, well- to moderately sorted sandstone. Shale clasts are common and the sandstone contains abundant glauconite. Generally this facies has a sharp lower contact and a gradational upper contact. A pebble conglomerate oc- casionally forms the top of the sequence. overlying the sequence may be another interval of bioturbated or rippled sandstone and shale, which, in turn, is overlain by crossbedded sandstone. Logs SP/gamma ray log profiles may show a variety of shapes: funnel (coarsening-upward), blocky, serrated, and more rarely, bell-shaped (fining-upward). The type of profile depends on the amount and occurrence of dispersed clay and clay intervals which, in turn, are dependent on the nature of shelf near- bottom currents. Therefore, log shapes of shelf sands tend to reflect flow re- gimes. In general, a funnel-shaped, coarsening-upward profile (the most common of shelf sand log profiles) suggests a storm/ 154Idealtzed Viking lithologic sequence Bloturbated oF rippled sandstone and silty shale Pebble conglomerate, ‘Crossbedded sandstone Bloturbated sandstone and shale rippled sandstone and sity sha Sty shale Fig. 5.35 Idealized lthologic sequence of the Viking formation, Jotireoarcam area, Alberta, Canada (lrom Beaumont, 1984), 155wave-dominated shelf. A blunt-base, blunt-top signature is more characteristic of tidal-current sand bodies (Selley 1976). Figure 5.36 from the Shannon sandstone of Wyoming illustrates the coarsening-upward, funnel-shaped profile common for storm- emplaced shelf sands. Figure 5.37 shows a log from the Creta- ceous sub-Clarksville sandstone of Texas. Here, however, the log and grain-size plot show a fining-upward sequence charac- teristic of rapid deposition by waning current flows, probably from geostrophic storm currents Figure 5.38 is a gamma-ray log from an undisclosed North Sea location where the sand body was postulated to originate on a tide-dominated shelf. The log profile has the characteristic blocky shape with blunt base and top associated with many tidal sands. Seismic Shelf sands usually coarsen upward from a shale base to a coarse sand or conglomeratic top that is abruptly overlain by marine shale. Laterally these bodies are fringed with tight silt that grades into marine shale. The seismic model in Fig- ure 5.39 reflects these overall lithologic changes by showing a stYong event at the upper sharp contact and a lower-amplitude event at the gradational base. As the reservoir becomes tran- sitional into silt, updip to the right, there is a gradual de- crease in amplitude and the exact boundary between porous reservoir rock and tight silt is difficult to determine seismically. 156CAUPER CORRECTION Fig. 5.36 Gammavay neutron-density iog of the Cretaceous Shannon formation, oll reservoir of Hartzog Draw fel, Wyoming, showing coarsening upward grain-size profile and corresponding upward inorease in porosity typical of @ shelf sand (irom Tilman and Martinson, 1985) 18720 cre BRUNNER 1 piers | aetna 9 quartz size 10" 05 025 O12 "008 ~~ COMPOSITION % CEMENT 50 100 0 “0 Fig. 5.87 Log of the Cretaceous sub-Clerksvile, a shelf sandstone in lola feld, Texas, with plots of texture and compost tion, showing a fining-upward sequence probably resulting from rapid deposition by waning storm currents (trom Bar- ton, 1982. 158Goma ry Prone arbonacaous ‘louconte lotan sive wey erties st aon, don gre, sy, aces Fig. 8:28 Gamma-ray log of shel tidal curent sand body trom the North Sea, showing characteristic blocky shape with Dlunt base and top associated with many tidal sands from Selle, 19760). 1596000 FEET 3 \ ° | 5109———_—_—- ow! of oa a a § 3 08 ve PPPPPIPPTEPPTPEPEP EPPO EEIT TEEPE PLO ee é = Trace spacing = 150 ft Ricker 25 Hz Fig. 5.99 Seismic mode! of @ thin shelf sandstone, Cardium formation, Alberta, Canada (irom Meckel and Nath, 1977. 1605.10 Deep Sea Sands Deep sea research of present-day ocean bottoms, along with pe~ troleum exploration in ancient basins, has shown that a par- ticular type of deep water sedimentary facies is characterized by thick sequences of laterally extensive interbedded sands and shales. These deposits have been variously called deep sea sands, deep water fans, turbidites, submarine fans, and tur- bidite fans. Although fan-type deposits make up the bulk of the sediment, feeder channel sands and slump deposits can be important subfacies (Figure 5.40). And, though turbidite cur- rents are believed to be the primary depositional process, pro- cesses like debris flow and grain flow can be significant in the proximal fan area. 5.10.1 Summary of Facies Characteristics Lithology © pebbly conglomerate and massive sand in channels © upward-fining, vertically graded turbidites that constitute overall coarsening-upward sequences of sand, silt, and shale in mid- to lower-fan and inter-channel areas Sedimentary structures © scoured erosion surfaces © dish structures and pillars in channel sands © laminated sands, cross-laminated sands, and laminated, often convoluted, silts and fine sands in turbidites Paleontology © macrofossils (in situ) rare © microfossils common in finer-grained sediments 161Feeder channel Slump scar Levees channel ‘Slump accumulations Fig. 540 Model of @ submarine fan from Ricel Luechi, 1975) 162Geometry © fans are mound shaped, concave downward in strike profile © fans are lenslike, concave upward in dip profile © individual channels long and narrow or coalesced into sheets Associated Facies © marine pelagic shales © slope shales 5.10.2 Diagnostic Evidence Cores A diverse range of sedi- ment from boulder beds to fine silt and clay is characteristic of deep sea fans. Figure 5.41 shows the overall stratigraphic sequence typically developed by a prograding fan. The lower portion of the sequence consists of often incomplete turbidite sequences (CT). The upper portion of the sequence is dominated by cut-and-fill channel sediments composed of massive sand (Ms), pebbly sand (PS), and conglomerate (CGL). The main feeder channel in the upper fan may be filled with debris flow (DF) sediment characterized by massive, poorly sorted sand with clasts of coarse gravel. Figure 5.42 shows the ideal litholo- gies and sedimentary structures anticipated in cores of the turbidite units. With increased distance away from the source the coarser, lower units of the sequence become missing from nondeposition. Thus, in the lower fan, only the upper, fine- grained portions of the sequence are deposited. Glauconite and carbonaceous detritus are often found mixed together if sedi- ment is derived from both marine and deltaic sources. Logs Figure 5.43 shows the typical blocky or fining-upward SP/gamma ray profiles of feeder channels of the upper fan with random, scattered dips displayed by the dipmeter. Figure 5.44 shows the thinner fining-upward SP/gamma ray profiles developed 163Facies Sequence Interpretation SL. Upper fan or. channel fill cok cot. Channelied Portion Ms. po suprafan lobes PS. (cou) [dg _ Channelied 3 PS. E cr, 2 Smooth 3 Ms. 2 THICK. 3 ‘Smooth cx, vp portion 2 of guprafan THick.- | [Pes cr 2| jp THICK. cr, 1} GREK | Lower fan Fig. 5.41 Hypothetical stratigraphic sequence of @ prograding submarine fan: C.., classical turbidite; M.S, massive ‘sandstone; PS. pebbly sandstone; O.F, debris flow; SL. slumps; CGL, conglomerate. Arrows show thickening-upward 4nd thinning-upward sequences. (From Walker, 1978) 164Modified from Grain| Bouma (1962) oa Divisions Pelagic rain fe us —= : z tibiae Tet [Ta | oper paraite! iaminae a) Ripples, wavy or BL [y, | conotiiod mina as |Te ' Plane par fr, | mansse a Massive, grade ‘Sand Granule at ‘ Fi. 542 gealized trite sequence showing Boums subdhvisionsT, throught T, with emipelegicsubdlisions forthe Fount tom Howell and Normars, 182: s modified trom Van er Linge, 1963). 165BASE OF SLOPE Fig. 8.43 Blocky fo tining-upwerd gamma-ray profile and dpmeter mott of submerine feeder channels rom Selley, 1978), lpROKIMAL, Fi. 8:44 Gamma ray profiles of proximal fan sands showing fining upward channel sends, and alpmeter showing red “slope” motifs dipping into the enter of the channels (trom Selly, 1978). 166[ane es] RTE] OETER oa | ACES A losTaL FAN Fig. 45 Gamma log profiles of distal fan sands showing coarsening-upward progradtional sequences, and dlpmeter ‘showing blue lp patterns polnting Inthe dlrection of fen progradation (trom Seliey, 1978). 167in channels of the proximal (mid) fan area. Dipmeters may dis- play red "slope" motifs dipping into the center of the channels in a direction perpendicular to channel axes. Thin blue cur- rent patterns are often absent because crossbedding is usually not well developed in deep sea sands. Figure 5.45 shows the upward-coarsening SP/gamma ray profiles of the distal (lower fan progradational sequences. These larger sequences in turn are made up of individual upward-fining turbidite units. com- bined with the presence of marine pelagic shale intervals, the resulting SP/gamma ray profile of a distal fan displays a "ner- vous" back-and-forth character. Blue dip patterns that may be evident point in the direction of fan progradation Seismic Perhaps the most direct seismic indicator of subma- rine fans is a mound-shaped seismic sequence with an internal hummocky or chaotic reflection pattern Figure 5.46 is a seismic section across the Frigg field, a giant gas accumulation in the North Sea, which produces from a submarine fan. Note the pronounced mound with hummocky reflec- tions from 1.8 to 2.0 seconds, centered under shotpoint 150. ‘The high amplitude reflection at 2.0 seconds is a "flat spot" representing a seismic reflection off the gas-liquid contact. The presence of canyons or troughs on a seismic section may indicate the presence of a submarine fan located basinward of these features. Submarine fans also may be present beneath or basinward of features displaying clinoform (sigmoid or oblique: patterns. 168SECTION 73/F10 Fig. 6.46 Seismic section across the Frigg field, @ giant gas feld in the North See. The pronounced mound with hum. Imooky reflections from 1.8 fo 2.0 sec is.@ submarine fan, and the "Yl spot" around 20 sec is @ gas-liquid contact (from Hentir et at. 1980). anon wave Location map Fig. 547 Location map of East Binger field, Anadarko Basin, Caddo Co., Oklahoma trom Baker, 1975). 1695.11 Case Study: Marchand "c" Sandstone, Anadarko Basin, oklahoma A typical environmental study of a productive sandstone was described by Baker (1979). The Pennsylvanian (Upper Carboniferous) Marchand "c" sandstone of the Anadarko Basin, Oklahoma produces oil from over 90 wells in the East Binger field (Figure 5.47). Regional structure consists of a monoclinal surface with local structural noses and saddles; hydrocarbon entrapment is purely stratigraphic with porous, permeable sands grading laterally into siltstones and shales. The first step in the study was to determine the external geometry of the sand body by constructing an isopach map of the gross clean sandstone (Figure 5.48). The sand body was’ shown to be an elongate, northwest-southeast trending sand ribbon extending over 8 mi in length and 1 to 1.5 mi in width. Sand thickness ranged up to 80 ft, and the sand body was asymmetri- cal in shape with a steep southwest flank A northeast-southwest stratigraphic cross section was then con- structed in a direction normal to the long axis of the field. With streaks of "hot-shale" and local marker beds providing correlations, the section showed the sandstone to thicken at the expense of the underlying shale, a classic indication of a channel deposit (Figure 5.49). However, based on regional iso- pach mapping (Figure 5.50), the long axis of the sand body ap- parently parallels depositional strike. Channel deposits usually extend approximately normal to depositional strike. Thus a channel interpretation seemed unlikely. 170ADDO CO, OKLA . 5 TOON RIO-IW : > 1, BINGE . Bpden SINS . | wancian °C . eoie 2] i ) I | ‘STRATIORAPHE cRoss-seCTIONC-C) TEAST. NER Fig. 8.49 Stratigraphic cross section, C-C', across East Binger field, showing sandstone thickening at expense of under- lying shale (rom Baker, 1979). — iaISOPACH: HOGSHOOTER "HOT SHALE” CULP MELTON LIMESTONE chez" RANDALL K. BAKER pare-679 Fig. £.50 Regional isopach of Marchand interval base of Hogshooter "Hot Shale” to Culp-Melton limestone) showing long axis of East Binger sand body parallel to depositional strike rom Baker, 1979) TakThin sections and hand samples of the sand revealed no woody or carbonaceous detritus, thus indicating a turbulent environment (beach or shoal). In contrast, glauconite, fecal pellets, and crinoid fossils were present in the sand, indicating a marine origin. Combining this information with the blocky gamma ray profiles and applying it to Selley's model (Figure 4.7), a sub- tidal sand ridge was suggested. However, the stratigraphic cross section showed the sand body to be emplaced into the underlying shale; thus it was unlikely to have been formed as a "riage." A core study revealed underlying burrowed, fossiliferous marine shale scoured into by a basal lag deposit, ripple and megarip- ple crossbeds, herringbone cross-stratification, shale lamina and slumping of sediments--all very similar to sequences seen in present-day subtidal sand ribbons that are formed by tide- generated bottom currents in the North Sea. It was finally concluded that the Marchand Sandstone was indeed probably formed as a subtidal sand ribbon but infilled a scoured depression similar to the depressions present on many ide-dominated shelves. modern 1736.0 CARBONATE FACIES (Modified from Rose, IHRDC-GL506 The essence of successful exploration in carbonate rocks is the discovery of porosity. This is so because porosity development in carbonate rocks is generally much more variable and erratic than in terrigenous sandstones. Diagenesis is more important as an agent that preserves, creates, and rearranges porosity There are, moreover, many more types of porosity in carbonates than in sandstones, even though carbonates are, on the whole. less porous than sandstones Primary porosity refers to pore space that has been preserved since the sedimentary rock was deposited. Most commonly, it includes void spaces between sedimentary particles, as well as original cavities within certain skeletal grains. Secondary porosity refers to pore space that has been created after deposition by diagenesis or fracturing. One important aspect of diagenesis involves solution and removal of sedimen- tary grain material or carbonate cement. Usually, such poros: ty can be seen to "cut across" grains and/or cement, although ever secondary porosity development often shows a strong preference to be guided by original depositional fabric and primary porosity occurrence. Though carbonate diagenetic processes are variable, complex, and difficult to predict, there is often a close, early connec- tion between the original depositional environment and subse~ quent diagenetic changes. Carbonate explorers have thus learned to focus their attention on depositional models and facies trends (within the context of a stratigraphic framework as the best guide to prediction of reservoir rocks.6.1 Lithologic Parameters of Carbonate Facies The fabric of modern carbonate sediments consists of three end- members (Folk 1962): © lime mud or micrite--mostly clay-size particles of aragonite and fine, silt-size particles of skeletal debris gravel, sand, and silt-size carbonate © grains (allochems particles that originate within the basin of deposition © pore space--openings that commonly become filled by clear sparry calcite cement Most carbonate grains are biogenic in origin and produced 1o- cally. Thus, grain types are strong indicators of depositional environment. The shape, size, and sorting of carbonate sedimentary grains relate both to environment of deposition (particularly skeletal debris) and to transporting currents. Carbonate Grain Types There are five main types of carbonate skeletal grains, ooids and pisoliths, pelletoids, sand grains aggregates and lumps, and lithoclasts. Skeletal grains range from unabraded whole shells or colonial masses to well-rounded, clastic shell fragments. skeletal grains may be divided into several types, depending on the type of organisms producing the grain (Table 6.1). Figure 6.1 (Ginsburg 1956) demonstrates consistent patterns of variation in sediment grain size and constituent composition of skeletal grains in studies of south Florida sediments. These distribu- tions have been shown to be related to submarine topography areal geography and hydrography. Analogous lateral successions are noted in ancient carbonate successions as well, providing powerful evidence of depositional environments 1751. Sheathed and spiculed skeletons are those in which the mineral matter is small (silt-fine ‘sand size) and loosely held by organic tissue. On death of the organism the organic tissue decays and the particles are released as fine sediment. Examples: Penicillus, alcyonarians, corals, sponges, tunicates, holothurians. 2. Segmented skeletons consist of mineral particles linked together by organic tissue. Death and decay of the organisms most commonly yield sand-size particles to the sediment. Ex- amples: Halimeda, articulated red algae, and echinoderms. 3. Branched skeletons are composed of well-calcified cylindrical or bladelike projections. The size of fragments found in sediments depends on the original size of the organism, the size and strength of the branches, and the nature and intensity of organic and mechanical break- down to which they are subjected. Examples: some corals (Acropora), red algae, and bryozoans. 4. Chambered skeletons include all those that are hollow or partly hollow. Chambers persist after death of the organism, but there are wide variations in the resistance of different types of chambers to breakdown, depending on their absolute size, wall thickness, shape, and microstructure. In general, the arcuate shape successfully resists breakage. Examples: gas- tropods, serpulid worm tubes, foraminifera, some crustaceans, pelecypods, some echino- derms, and brachiopods. 5. Encrusted skeletons include all plants and animals that encrust surfaces. The breakdown of the skeletons in most cases depends mainly on the organic breakdown of the encrusted sur- face or substrate. These are mechanically resistant structures. Examples: some algae, for- aminitera, corals, bryozoans, worms, hydrocorallines. & Massive skeletons are generally large and hemispherical in shape. They are most resistant to breakdown because of their size and, in some cases, their microstructure. Examples: corals and some coralline algae. Table 6.1 Skeleton types, based on resistance to breakdown. (Ginsburg, cited in Wilson, 1975) mn Reef tract Florida bay ww one e808 | / cutee a ane a [PINE BARNES CARBONATE] = KEY CARGO LIMESTONE Fig. 6.1 Generalized variations in sediment gran size and constituent composition of South Florida sediments trom Ginsburg, 1986; reprinted by permission of AAPG). 176Ooids and Pisoliths Ooids (Figure 6.2) are spherical, smooth carbonate sand grains, normally 0.3-1.0 mm in size, consisting of many concentric coatings of aragonite around a detrital nucleus. They generally form in agitated shallow marine waters and, in time, convert to calcite. Some ooids may display a fabric of radially arranged fibers, indicating formation in hypersaline lakes. Carbonate rocks in which the dominant grains are ooids are termed oolites Pisoliths (or oncoliths) are coated or laminated sedimentary grains 2-10 mm in diameter (Figure 6.3). Compared to ooids pisoliths are larger, more irregular in shape, and are produced in lower-energy depositional settings. Their laminations are ascribed either to successive algal coatings in marine and sa- line lake settings, or to sequential layers of caliche coatings of carbonate particles in shallow soil profiles. Pelletoids are round, oblong, or cylindrical carbonate grains with a cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline texture (Figure 6.4). Most pelletoids are thought to originate as fecal pel- lets from various marine invertebrates. Some may also be se- verely altered skeletal grains, ooids, or lithoclasts. Modern pelletoids range in size from 0.1 to 2 mm. Though pelletoids are produced in all environments, they tend to be destroyed or winnowed out in high-energy settings, and thus are most often preserved in quietez water environnents. Aggregates and lumps are a class of carbonate grains that in- clude fragments joined together by a cryptocrystalline matrix. Illing (1954) called such aggregated particles "lumps" and recognized several types: grapestone (Figure 6.5), botryoidal lumps, and encrusted lumps. Lithification may be accomplishedFig. 6.2 Oold grains under uncrossed polarizers trom Holocene sediment, Great Salt Lake, Utah. Grain on right shows radiating crystals of aragonite commonly found in hypersaline lakes, Scale: 1.26 em ~ 0.10 mm (rom Scholle, 1978). Fig. 6.3 Portion of coastal caliche deposit with large pisolites set in laminated crust from Quaternary sediment, Abu ‘Dhabi. Photograph taken under crossed nicols. Scale 1.25 em = 0.25 mm, (From Scholle, 1978) 178Fig. 6.4 Pelletolds. (a) Soft, unlithitiedpelletoids. Reflected light; scale Is 1 mm. o) Hard pelletolds. Reflected ight; scale e mm. o) Hard cylindrical palletoids. Reflected light; scale 's 1 mm. (d-(9) Refractedlight photomicrographs of ‘pelletoide, showing the opaque nature of these grains. (@)'8 under polarized light. Scales are all 260 microns. (h) Micro fabric of an unithitied pelletois. Note the very small aragonite needles comprising the matrix, and the relatively large ‘amount of pore space. SEM; scale is 8 microns. () Pore space within alithtied pelletoid. The intragranular cement Is ‘composed of large aragonite crystals. SEM; scale is 25 microns. (trom Milliman, 1974; reprited by permission of Springer Verlag)Fig. 6.5 An ancient example of a grapestone deposit from the Lower Cretaceous Cupido Formation, Mexico, taken under Lnerossed polarizers. Scale: .25¢m = 0.28 mm. (From Scholle, 1078) za0by organic binding or submarine cementation. Aggregates and lumps form in sandy shelf areas of moderate to low wave energy (Milliman 1974). Lithoclasts are rock fragments resulting from the uplift and erosion of older carbonate rocks or from the subaqueous or sub- aerial erosion of contemporaneous carbonate rocks. Lithoclas- tic rocks called calclithites consist of detrital grains from older limestones often eroded off rising mountain fronts. The low abrasion resistance and solubility of carbonate grains mean that such deposits are usually found in association with major fault scarps and/or very arid climates. 6.2 Classification of Carbonate Rock There are two carbonate classification systems in wide use to- day. Both systems base classification on rock texture which in turn, is controlled essentially by depositional environment Folk's classification (1962) of carbonates is based on their three essential ingredients: allochems (sedimentary grains) micriteé (lime mud), and sparry calcite cement. Figures 6.6 and 6.7 are graphic representations of Folk's basic system. Al- though Folk's classification and terminology are widely used they have several shortcomings; principal among these is that the application of Folk's terms requires a fairly rigid quan- tification of proportionate constituents. Dunham's classification (1962) of carbonate rocks has gained wide acceptance in the petroleum industry and is now the recom- mended system. Dunham's system recognizes three basic textural features that relate to original depositional fabric: ieLAllochemical Orthochemical rocks rocks I r Spary calcite Microctstaline coment aise mat intraciasts &. “a = § = InTRAMERTE cnet) 3 w 2 oolites @s Bs pe BS o*4| [20 2 we § ‘owen Tet) SMITE BEX 2 Fossils P24 : 7 w o Autochthonous ey reef rocks sowcnrea) Pallets ree oe & 7) ‘pour raTEG PELSPARITEy) Fig. 66 Graphic classification table for limestones. (From Folk, 1962; reprinted by permission of AAPG) PELMICRITEa) [eevee OVER 2/3 LIME MUD MATRIX|suBcoUAl|OVER 2/3 SPAR CEMENT x SPAR & i ont oim | 1-10 %| 10-30% over 5 SORTING] SORTING [ROUNDED 4| albeners | 01% “% | 10-50% JOVER SOM we mun] "poor | sooo | aaraceo| fepretenie|McRITE | FOSSILI- | sparse | packed | POORLY |unsoRTED) sorrED | RouNDED feck Feros washeo : loswicrire | wicrire |SIOWICRITE|BIOMCRITE | vyepum ne|BOSPARTE|DIOSPARITE [aCSRARITE Mcrite 8. |Fesuiteou Diamrte | Micute crayetone| S008) | Clevey or | Sutmoture wcture [puncte Z [ciayatene | immature Sonastone | Sangstone |Sordetere| Sandstone | WB Lime uo waraix WZ SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT Fig. 6.7 4 textural spectrum for carbonate sediments, showing eight proposed sequential stages. In genera, “Tow: energy’ sediments occur to the left, with successively "higherenergy” sediments fo the right. These stages are quite ‘analogous to the foxtural maturity sequence in terigenous rocks. Because of lack of space, only the biomicrite- DBiospsrite terms are used as representative examples; Tor these terms, one can substitute the other allochemical lime ‘stone types (or exemple, the cel labeled “packed blomicrite” can equally wall stand for packed intramicrite, packed ‘omicrite, and packed pelmicrite. Comparison with the fourfold GWision used in Folk, 1989 is also shown. (From Folk, 41982; reprinted by permission of AAPG) 182© carbonate mud © sedimentary grains © binding by in-situ growth According to Dunham, a fundamental understanding of deposition- al environment can be obtained by distinguishing between sedi- ment deposited in agitated water and sediment deposited in calm water. The presence or absence of mud, generally a reliable indicator of current strength, should thus be incorporated into any carbonate classification system. Dunham proceeds to iden- tify the basic carbonate rock fabrics based on three textural features: abundance of mud, abundance of grains, and signs of binding (Figure 6.8). © mudstone--composed of micrite with less than 10% grains © wackestone--more than 10% grains, but grains are mud supported © packstone--contains some mud; grains are grain supported © grainstone--no mud content; grains are grain supported usually well sorted © boundstone--bound together during deposition; e.g., an egologic reef In using Dunham's system, further modifiers as to grain type, grain size, sorting, and carbonate chemistry should always be used (i.e., medium-grained, well-sorted pellet lime grainstone) . Dunham also recognized a sixth type of carbonate rock that he termed crystalline carbonate--a rock that contains no recog- nizable depositional texture. 183‘Dunham's (1962) classeation of carbonate rocks DEPOSITIONAL TOxTIRE NOY RECOGNIZABLE | Sie econo Fig. 68 Dunham's classification of carbonate rocks according fo depositional texture. (From Dunham, 1962; reprinted by permission of AAPG) 1846.3 Dolomite Dolomite is important because it is generally a more permeable rock than limestone and forms many of the best carbonate oil and gas reservoirs. Dolomite forms by the process of dolomitization, by which CaCO; polymorphs, such as aragonite or calcite, are replaced by CaMg (CO3),, or dolomite. According to Land (1983), most dolomite forms by replacement of a precur- sor carbonate, whereby fluid imports mg*+, dissolves the pre- cursor phase precipitates dolomite, and exports catt. Although some evidence for "primary" dolomite exists, many workers believe that modern dolomite is penecontemporaneous, growing by replacement of aragonite or calcite in unindurated muddy sediments in the supratidal zone of restricted, evaporitic tidal flat environments. Seawater provides the magnesium to the supratidal area by two mechanisms: storm recharge and evaporative drawdown (Hsu and Siegenthaler 1964). Such dolomite is universally composed of small crystals ranging in size from 2 to 4 microns (microcrystalline). Because of its small grain size and susceptibility to cementation by aragonite and 4 good oil and gas reservoirs. However, dolomites formed in the intertidal and subtidal zones of the tidal flat setting may alcite, supratidal dolomite does not generally form make excellent petroleum reservoirs (see Section 6.5.1). Dolomitization may also take place in thick sequences of normal subtidal marine limestone of the middle shelf and shelf margin as well as in ancient lithified carbonates during deep burial. Good secondary porosity may be produced in both cases. However, the dolomite formed in these situations is the result of diagenetic processes. Thus, unlike dolomite produced in the 185tidal-flat/shelf-interior setting, it is not, by itself, a reliable indicator of depositional environment. Figure 6.9 shows the general depositional settings of the various carbonate lithologies and grain types across a carbon- ate depositional model. 6.4 Analytical Methods and Procedures 6.4.2 Use of Well Logs Many traditional well logs may not be as discriminating in carbonates as in sandstones. There are several reasons for this: © Carbonate successions tend to be monomineralic (or bimineralic, considering dolomite facies); argillaceous beds and pore-fillings tend to be less frequent in carbonates than in clastics. © Tightly cemented skeletal lime grainstones may look just like tight lime mudstones on many logs; both are composed of impervious CaCo3. © Most logs do not detect high variability in pore distribu- tion and size, or unconnected pores. © Acoustic logs may be much less diagnostic of porosity in carbonates than in sandstones because grain-to-grain con- tacts are more cohesive, providing misleadingly lower tran- sit times. As a general result, successful petrophysical synthesis of car- bonate stratigraphy requires much closer sampling intervals and discriminatory lithologic analysis. It is necessary to utilize 186ims Lagoon Borner outer sneit Slope Basin mightde = Caine — Linstofohani one | UutHoLosy | : - Evoportes t “f oo mee - i Woctesone : [——— Pocastone { | —— brainstone Boundstone | GRAIN TYPES, 4 4 Mente Pellets Blocasts —= vise i ov) ee] eres lee] 08 faves Fig. 6.9 General depositional settings ofthe various carbonate ithologies and grain types across a carbonate shelf ‘model trom Selly, 1985). 187cuttings, cores, thin sections, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, more detailed log study, and more thorough seismic investigations, including vertical seismic profiling. 6.4.2 Importance of a Stratigraphic Framework Satisfactory understanding of carbonate facies distribution often requires the construction of a documented stratigraphic framework, an example of which is shown in Figure 6.10. The recommended pro- cedure is described by Rose in THRDC Video Library manual GL506, as is summarized as follows © Construct stratigraphic cross sections, using combined sam- ple/core logs and wireline logs. Such sections should be oriented normal to perceived depositional strike. © Construct analogous cross sections parallel to depositional strike. © Plot available fossil data, as well as possible time~ stratigraphic faunal markers. © Array generalized rock types against the preliminary cor- relation framework. © Adjust the correlation framework in light of information from any wells or outcrops lying between the lines of cross section. © Examine the distribution of primary depositional textures and diagenetic features: Do they make sense? Continue to adjust, reiterate, and refine the working model. Commonly, many of the thickness patterns, facies distribu- tions and diagenetic fabrics that initially puzzle the geologist will literally "solve themselves" and become self- evident. 189Bathymetry and major depositional settings of carbonate shelf model 19op ewos ‘siuewpes 1p ‘pepped AIUere “AppnU ASO “UIsEG snyei pue ‘suey 8 's}00 oj0euLig :odorso104 EE _spues s6pe1j0us puE SjBS! a]ueBIO -u/bveU ous a aoa ae joys vedo, ‘pues jjous Appnw pue ‘spurs euueUs‘s}901 Yo Shot. port ‘spues jjous Appnw pur ‘sxvegpnny yous, sang ‘9ULEULON Fig. 6.11 Profile and map showing distribution of major depositional settings of carbonate shelf model om Rose, 1987, 1906.4.3 Use of Seismic Stratigraphy Because of their more pro- nounced cementation, erratic pore and vug distribution, and monomineralic composition, carbonate rocks are generally less susceptible to stratigraphic seismic modeling than their ter- rigenous clastic counterparts. However, the prominent deposi tional topography inherent in carbonate shelf margins and pin- nacle reefs, large-scale accretion bedding, and dramatic lithologic contrasts between carbonates and salt or shale ba- sin-fill can, in some cases, express themselves diagnostically and dramatically on seismic sections. As in so much of carbon- ate exploration, it depends on the specific geologic setting, and much empirical, repetitive effort is required to evaluate the effectiveness of seismic exploration in any given carbonate play. 6.5 Important Carbonate Depositional Models ‘The most common carbonate depositional model is the carbonate shelf. This model consists of a wide, flat, very shallow depositional plain with evaporites and muddy dolomitic sedi- ments formed in the shelf interior and light-colored, coarser- grainéd, skeletal, calcium carbonate sediments deposited on the shelf margin. This plain terminates seaward at an abrupt break in slope where the depositional surface declines into deeper water of a starved basin in which sediment accumulation has been much slower and subsidence has been greater. Basin sedi- ments tend to be dark and finer grained. Figure 6.11 is a pro- file and map showing the distribution of major depositional settings of the carbonate shelf model.A second depositional model, the carbonate ramp, was proposed by Ahr (1973). As displayed in Figure 6.12, no prominent break in slope is present in this model. Facies belts tend to broaden and “higher energy" zones tend to be relatively close to shore. Modern and ancient examples of carbonate ramps are much less common than the carbonate shelf model and, in fact, probably represent the earliest depositional stage in develop- ment of a typical carbonate shelf. Depositional environments presented in the following text are, therefore, described in the context of their setting on the carbonate shelf. 6.5.1 Coastal Setting Beach Figure 6.13 shows the suben- vironments of the generalized regressive beach model, together with characteristic electric-log patterns, grain size, sorting, lithology, sedimentary structures, and depositional processes. Aside from the tendency for development of cemented dune sands, there are no intrinsic differences in process or geometry between carbonate beach sands and terrigenous beach sands. Sand grains can be of many types, depending on the nature of the beach and on available materials--that is, the kind of car- bonate-secreting organisms that live in adjacent shallow marine waters. © Foreshore (beach) sands merge shoreward into dune sands and seaward into shoreface sands. Foreshore sands are charac- teristically coarse grained, well sorted lime grainstones with parallel laminations dipping gently seaward at 5° to 15°. © Shoreface sands represent the subaqueous, seaward-sloping part of the beach front. Shoreface sands are finer grained and less well-sorted than foreshore sands, and tend to range 192Carbonate ramp profile Fig. 6:12 Carbonate ramp profile rom Bay, 1977). 193OFFSHORE SHOREFACE FORESHORE BACKSHORE = a \ i li [ee {od Fig.’8.19 Generalized beach model illustrating the most simple and common beach setting (From Inden and Moore, 1989; reprinted by permission of AAPG)from lime grainstones to packstones. Most common sedimen- tary structures are trough crossbeds generated by longshore and tidal currents moving parallel to the beach front. © Offshore sediments represent the seaward "toe" of the beach toward which the beach is accreting. Offshore sediments fine-grained and less well-sorted than shoreface sands, oc- cur as packstones and wackestones. Such muddy sands common- ly contain horizontal-branching burrows and more abundant marine fossils. carbonate sands deposited on beach foreshores had very high initial porosity and permeability. Unfortunately, such attrac- tive porosity is often preferentially occluded by subsequent. diagenetic effects. Tidal Flats and Sabkhas ‘Tidal flats form in shallow, pro- tected areas in the lee of physical barriers, or along the mar~ gins of low-lying coastal areas. Sabkhas are the arid counter- parts of carbonate tidal flats that form in more temperate cli- mates. Block diagrams from Shinn (1983) illustrate the scale and geography. of two modern tidal-flat complexes (Figures 6.14a and b). Subtidal: that part which is always immersed. The sediments on the seaward edge consist of shelf interior, burrowed lime muds and pellet wackestones. In the interior of the tidal flat, subtidal sediments consist mostly of channel deposits, commonly pellet muds and mollusk-shell packstones, that formed as placer or "lag" deposits. Intertidal: that part of the tidal flat exposed at low tide but immersed at high tide. It consists mostly of laminated mud in 195ee km Fig. 6.148 Block diagram schematically showing major facies on the Andros Island onlap (transgressive) tidal Hat ‘madei. (From Shinn, 1983; courtesy of AAPG) od anhydrite Eby Fig. 6.146 Block dlagram schematically showing major facies on Persian Gulf Tucial Coast offlap (regressive) tia lat ‘model. (From Shinn, 1983; reprinted by permission of AAPG) 196"ponds" occupying broad areas between channels and pelleted mud deposited on the gently sloping sides of channels. Supratidal: The largest part of the tidal flat is exposed ex- cept during storm tides. In temperate areas, most supratidal area consists of marshland, whose arid counterpart is a sabkha. Diagnostic features include © mud cracks--mostly supratidal; not preserved in intertidal zone © laminations--from storm layers; produce crusts; mostly supratidal algal structures--stromatolitic features © fenestral texture--irregular pores produced by dessication © flat-pebble conglomerates--thin layers made of flat clasts or crusts © dolomitization--especially fine-crystalline dolomite mudstone © nodular or irregularly layered gypsum or anhydrite. associated with dolomitized mudstone © vertical sequences (Figure 6.15)--may differ depending on tkansgressive or regressive nature of sedimentary cycle; look for associations of above features Excellent petroleum reservoirs can be formed in dolomitized intertidal, subtidal, and tidal-flat successions which provide widespread zones of fine-intercrystalline porosity. Evaporite layers serve as top seals, seat seals, or lateral seals. An example is the San Andres formation in West Texas where inter- tidal and subtidal dolomitic mudstone reservoir facies are sealed by tight anhydritic supratidal dolomites (Figure 6.16). 197Channel lag Collapse brecela ‘Stromatolitic hard crusts and disrupted gypsum: Supratidal Bearing zones. Intertia “LIES | Wispy and potieted has S| mente ic ts| BST Intra to snaliow 5 555 . Burrowed and ps oyster mirite Channel lag ‘Supratidal Collapse breccia Fig. 6.18 Typical Edwards tidal flat cycle (trom Rose, 1972).MINESAND FIELD sore Senin EI Om nae Fig. 6.16 North south cross section showing three reservoirs sealed by impermeable anhydrtic supratidel facies to the ‘north (From Shinn, 1983; reprinted by permission of AAPG) 1996.5.2 Shelf Setting ‘The shelf setting constitutes a broad area of shallow-marine sedimentation characterized by a diver- sity of depositional environments, and most sediments show no individually definitive characteristics indicating their origin (Figure 6.17). Accordingly, the satisfactory determination of depositional environment ordinarily depends upon an association of faunal, mineralogical, sedimentological, and sequential criteria, termed a "facies mosaic" by Laporte (1967). of all depositional settings, shelf settings cover the largest area of modern carbonate deposition and contain the greatest volume of ancient carbonate sediments composing the geologic record. Muddy shelf sands are the most common depositional fabric of the shelf, typically widespread and monotonous deposits of packstones and wackestones, possibly dolomitized. Figure 6.17 a map of modern sediment distribution on the Great Bahama Bank, shows pellet and skeletal mud accumulations in a broad area to the west, in lee of Andros Island Tidal deltas typically are deposited as lime muds on the "calm" side of narrow passageways between barrier islands. Figure 6.18a shows the location of modern tidal deltas in southern Florida, and Figure 6.18b shows the profile across one of them. Mud banks develop as wave-resistant features standing above the sea floor fringed by belts of coral and algal communities on the windward side. In the rock record they might be called bioherms or reefs, and may contain porous reservoir bodies. Figures 6.19a and b show a classic example of a modern carbon- ate mud bank in South Florida. 20030 79° 30) ze" Cz EEEEEES] SKELETAL MUD FACIES: zor EZIZEial— GRAPESTONE Facies —26" CORALGAL FACIES so} — su o x ar & 25° 6 30" FLORIDA 30 Fig. 6:17 Facies map of the Andros lobe of Great Bahama Bank based on optimum classification procedure. Heavy dots ‘stow location of 200 sample stations. (From Imbrie ana Purdy, 1962; reprinted by permission of AAPG)PS SOUTH FLORIDA SHELF Fig. 6.180 Tidal deltas of upper Florida Keys. renrion, oun | wey INTENOR SHELF LAGOON stimien Bett sirens | ourormenco ven Jermyn armas | sama ons inn | = its = 2 a 5 a Am. 5 pees Ficwtcene lines Sess . = = a Sethe ie fi to cunt ee Fig. .18b Geological profile and environmental subdivisions of lower Florida Keys. (From Jindrich, 1969; courtesy of SEPM) 202Fig. 6.188 Aerial photograph of Rodriguez Bank, (From James, 1989; reprinted by permission of AAPG)Fig. 6.20 Distribution of patch reets and linear reefs on Great Bahama Bank. (From Rose, 1987)Patch reefs, in modern carbonate environments, are localized concentrations of biotic communities, dominated by coralline algae and coral and characterized by abundant and rapid con- struction of skeletal/colonial carbonate debris. Typically they may range in diameter up to perhaps 1000 m. In the geologic record, they may be short lived, leaving only lenses or patches of skeletal sediment, or they may continue for sub- stantial periods, creating sea-floor prominences and/or facies- mounds that can form small but prolific petroleum reservoirs. Figure 6.20 is a map showing distribution of patch reefs on Great Bahama Bank, and Figure 6.21 is an ancient example of a patch reef in the Silurian of Indiana. Shelf sand bodies are carbonate sand bodies, frequently extend- ing shelfward for 10 to 15 km from the shelf margin, thus reaching into the general shelf setting. In most cases, such sand bodies can be related to their shelf-margin origin, and will be described more fully in the following section Shelf basins are tectonic depressions, or "sags," that develop within a large shelf area. The shelf basin itself may be fillgd, at least partly, with marine rocks, reflecting a deeper-water origin, or even with euxinic shales or carbonates that can be petroleum source rocks. Reservoir quality in shelf-basin successions is characteristically poor. They are more important as source-rock locales and because porous shelf facies rocks may occur at their margins. The Lower Cretaceous Maverick basin of southern Texas, a characteristically large carbonate shelf basin (15,000 sq mi) is illustrated in Figures 6.22 and 6.23. 205Fig. 6.21 Simple Middle Silurian mound near Georgetown, India ‘composed merely of micrite with bryozoans and crinolds: Lower diagram not to scale. Mound is about 2 km a ‘Zim thick: Core holes outline mound through glacial drift and partly under thin cover of Oevonlan Jeffersonville ‘Kennet Kokomo formations. (From Wilson, 1975; reprinted by permission of Springer Verlag) 206arn TERA FYLER BASIN Son Marcos Texas MEXICO Fig. 6.22 Raleogeography of Middle Cretaceous (Albian) Edwards formation of Texas. Major structural and regional de- ‘positional features and distribution of lithological types are Indicated (Cook, 1979) Broad middle shelf environments are ounded on the southeast by the shelledge Stuart Cty re! trend. Line of section ABC raters to Figure 6.23 (Rose, 1972, 207® © © - 00 miles ~ Southeast South Southwest Nonneast Ancestral stuart Maverick Cental Guinot ay Basin Texas Mexico Shot Prattorm Margin Ever i Glen Rose Pelagic ime mudstone [ETE] (Semon Peak ana Ses Tamaulpas formations) = Glen Rose Eurinic shales, carbonates, poe (E55) evaportes, and sa (Meknight formation) Fig. 6.23 Generalized stratigraphic cross section showing geometric and lthologic relationships along line of section ‘ABC in Figure 622. (Rose, 1972) Carbonate shelf-margin profile er Fig. 6.24 Carbonat shelf profile irom Bay, 1977. 2086.5.3 Shelf Margin Setting Figure 6.24, a schematic profile across the carbonate shelf model, highlights the facies devel- oped at the shelf margin setting. ‘These include reefs and sand bodies, both of which can form important petroleum reservoirs. Ecologic Reefs This type of "reef," the result of rigid wave-resistant organic buildups, flourishes on the shelf mar- gin. Modern reefs in this setting show a characteristic lateral zonation relating to depth and wave energy levels (Fig- ure 6.25). Figure 6.26 shows characteristic shapes and mor- phologies of their ancient counterparts and their respective environnental attributes. Such paleontologic data can become extremely important to the carbonate explorer Shelf-Margin Sand Bodies Ecologic reefs do not develop along all sectors of a shelf margin. Similarly, there may be times during the existence of shelf margins, not particularly con- ducive to diversified organic production, when carbonate sand shoals typically develop along shelf margins. Figures 6.274 and b illustrate these two end-points; commonly, however, shelf margins are marked by both ecologic reefs, as well as shelf- margin-sand bodies. In general, shelf-margin carbonate sand bodies have two dif- ferent modes of origin: © skeletal debris--mostly washed shelfward by prevailing cur- rents and storm surges, but also filling passes in the shelf margin and fringing reefs © oolitic sands--either as elongate sand bars or belts of sand bars, just shelfward of the shelf margin in the high-energy/ high carbonate-precipitation zone 209Rudstone Floatstone Framestone Reet crest Back root ee Reet fate Reet front Fore rot J Waves and swe ae Encrusting a — Massive Branching Platelike «< Fig. 6.25 Cross section through a zoned marginal ret ilustating the different reef zones and environment of different ‘reet-building organisms. (From James, 1988; reprinted by permission of AAPG) Globular ronment of matazoe ENVIRONMENT GROWTH FORM Eneroy | _ Sedimentation | SAWy | Delicate, branching tow we . |= Fee be tow ‘vei bubove Aaf ——eakinna moderate on SF mee pestnich ede > | nemispnerica, soma ease 00, Ssese | = ae ens bas = a | tana se tow Fig. 6.26 A sketch illustrating the growth form of reet-bulding metezoans and the types of environments in which they ‘most commonly occur. (From James, 1983; reprinted by permission of AAPG) 210Open seit Reet mound Carbonat sand shoals ‘Shoal-rimmed platform Fig. 6.274 An idealized isometric diagram ilustrating facies on a carbonate shell or platform at times In geologic history ‘when the only skeletal invertebrates with reef building potential were delicate ramose or encrusting forms, and hence reef mounds ere the only types of bulldups. The platform margin Is a series of carbonate sand shoals and the ree? ‘mounds are restricted tothe tranquil inner parts ofthe platform and downslope in deeper water infront of the platform. (From James, 1983; reprinted by permission of AAPG) Patch ret Reet mound — —— pee Barrier reef LT KH oe Reet mound ty eet—rimmed platform Fig. 627 An idealized isometric diagram ilustrating the faces on a carbonate shell or platform at times in geologic history when @ full spectrum of reet-bullding skeletal metazoans Is present. The platform margin is a zoned barrier reet ‘and isl 3d patch reefs dot the shallow platform Behind. Reef mounds are found on the inner part ofthe platform and ‘on the forereet slope. (From James, 1989; reprinted by permission of AAPG) BilStratigraphic Detection of Shelf Margins The characteristic subsurface pattern of a carbonate shelf margin is the presence of a significant thickness of shallow-water carbonate rocks, which appear to change laterally over a relatively short dis- tance in the basinward direction to darker, often partly ter- rigenous carbonate rocks having a probable deeper-water origin (Figure 6.28). The apparent (or geometric) lateral equivalence is, in most cases, misleading; the basinal-rock unit B, al- though appearing to be stratigraphically equivalent to the shelf rock A, usually turns out to be a slightly younger basin- infill unit, reflecting basin starvation and reciprocal basin sedimentation. In other words, almost all of rock unit A is older than almost all of rock unit B. Seismic Detection of Shelf Margins Carbonate shelf margins are often quite apparent on seismic sections. Figures 6.29a and b show seismic data and geologic interpretation, respec- tively, of an Upper Cretaceous carbonate shelf margin in the Aquitaine basin, offshore France. Note particularly the geometric relationship between basinward-thinning, shelf accre- tion beds and the basinal beds that abut the shelf margin. Figure 6.29c shows a variety of patterns used for distinguish- ing carbonate buildups on seismic sections (Bubb and Hatlelid 1977). 6.5.4 Foreslope Setting Two general types of foreslope mod- els are recognized (McIlreath and James 1978). The deposition- al type (Figure 6.30a) is characterized by slopes of sedimenta- tion that, in turn, build gentler, accretionary slopes that merge gradually with basin floors. The bypass type (Figure “212welts Shallow water CO, shell sequence pos eene oy ‘Apparent time= stratigraphic corelation Welt2 % ark, sity or clayey 60, rock sequence 8," possible oop water origin Basinwars ——————> Fig. 6.28 Characteristic lateral relationships of shel margins in subsurtace (trom Rose, 1987) 213 } Starved basin equivalent of Shel sequence °A’(a) x 1750 1500 1250 Tassie Fig. 6.28a,b Seismic reflections (top) and geological interpretation (bottom) Upper Cretaceous carbonate shelf margin, ‘Aquitaine basin, offshore France. {From Curnelle and Marco, 1963; reprinted by permission of AAPG) 2141 Direct — SS J (7———~sSs Windirect SSS | eee SAS 2S SO a [2a Fig. 6.28¢ Selsmie ortera fr recognizing carbonate buildups. Criteria for directly outing bulldups include reflections ‘rom top and sides of bulldups and onlap of overiying reflections onto buldups (A); and patterns of seismic facies change between buildup and enclosing strata (1-8). Criteria that indirectly outline or infer presence of buildup include ‘rape, velocity anomalies, and spurious events A), and determination of optimum basin positions for buldups (IB). (From Bubb and Hatlelis, 1977; reprinted by permission of AAPG)Depesitional margin Ree Derived Block shallow water reet Shallow Wate. Decived Line Breccia Slope: Devved Lime rece Hempelagc tine Mudsone ‘wih inretermatonal Truncation Suroce ied Slope ond Margin Dern rece Graded Cole Pelagic/Hemipelagic Invraformotional Truncation Surfaces Moy Occur Anywhere Along Slope Profile Platform Platform Stoppg, sl Basin Margin ae : ‘Fig. 6.908 Schematic model for @reet-dominated depositional carbonate margin/ioresiope with sequence of deposits ‘rom slope accretion. (From Melireath and James, 1978; reprinted by permission of Geol. Assn. of Canada) beecco ttrlormotons Traneahion Surloce ‘Monie Colorants Hemipelagics ond (Graded Caloreies wh dial Ci Devied Blocks Talus 35> \ i Scbmarine Fon Nie Sands \ Pelogic/Hemipelagic Limestones and Allochthonous Colearenites Introformational Tuncetion Surfaces Moy? Gccur Anywhere Along Slope Profile = (gg Slope Margin Debris Apron a Fig. 6.30 Schematic mode! for a reet-dominated bypass type of carbonate margin, with sequence of deposits fram ‘slope accretion. (From Mcilreath and James, 1978; reprinted by permission of Gool. Assn. of Canada) 2166.30b) is generally shallow to deep water without much deposi- tion on portions of the slope. Depositional models in the foreslope setting include © Talus and Breccia Fans Coarse-grained carbonate sedimen- tary debris extends in submarine fans downslope from the steeper upper parts of the carbonate foreslope. Typically the clasts may range upward from sand-size skeletal frag- ments to "house-size" blocks of submarine-cemented reef rock contained in a mud matrix. They may extend basinward several kilometers from the shelf-margin front. Bedding is commonly disorganized. © Pinnacle Reefs Pinnacle reefs are patch reefs, generally seaward of the main shelf-edge barrier reef, whose column- like shape results from their location where higher sub- sidence rate allows reef growth to continue. Figure 6.31 illustrates the location of pinnacle reefs basinward of the shelf margin on the north side of the Michigan basin © Turbidites Water-supported, downslope gravity sedimenta- tion can extend for kilometers basinward from the shelf mar- gin. Like their terrigenous counterparts, carbonate tur- bidites comprise fining-upward detrital sequences associated with debris floor sediments and dark muds with pelagic fo- rams. Carbonate turbidites generally do not make good reservoir rocks because of high mud content and absence of dolomitization. 6.5.5 Basinal Setting The basinal setting extends from the "toe" of the carbonate foreslope seaward across a gently de- clining plain to the depth below which calcium carbonate begins 217Fig. 621 Generalized cross section of Niagara and lower Saline carbonates and evaporite, northern Michigan basin, snowing three basic vertical lthologic successions. (From Mesofe reprinted by permission of AAPG) Fig. 6.32 Regiona! location map showing Permian Basin province boundaries, San Andres production, and Reeves tel (From Chuber and Pusey, 1988; reprinted by permission of Springer-Verlag) 218