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Locating Agent used in chromatography to make the spots show when the substance is not visible
Rf Values used to identify which spot is which item
Solvent Extraction when substances are extracted from a mixture by using a solvent which
dissolves only those substances required
How the purity of a substance can be shown:
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Chromatography
Pure
Sharp Melting Point; usually high
Sharp Boiling Point; usually low
One well-defined Spot on chromatogram
Impure
Range of temperatures
Range of temperatures
Several spots on chromatogram
Element - the simplest building blocks of the physical world. There are 92 naturally occurring
elements. The periodic table is a list of elements in order of atomic number.
Atom the defining structure of an atom which typically includes a nucleus of protons and neutrons
with electrons orbiting the nucleus
Molecule - Two or more atoms joined together discreetly. (Usually non-metals; can be elements or
compounds)
Compound - two or more elements (different types) chemically bonded. With compounds you can
always give formula.
Mixture - two or more substances not chemically bonded
Charge
+
NO CHARGE
Proton
Electron
Neutron
Mass
1
0
1
Ion - Charged particles that are formed when an atom loses or gains an electron
Cat-ion - A positive ion
An-ion - A Negative ion
Valence Electrons - Electrons on the outer shell of an element
Element:
Fluorine
9P
Electron
Configuration:
10 N
2,7
Magnesium
12
Mg
24
Atomic
Number
Mass
Number
The Atomic Number is the number of Protons and Electrons unless it is an ion. (Protons = Electrons)
The Mass Number is the number of Protons + Number of Neutrons. To work out the number of
neutrons you must calculate: Mass Number - Atomic Number = Number of Neutrons
Isotope - An element that occupies the same place in periodic table but has a different number of
neutrons. The number of protons and electrons are the same.
Alloy a mixture of a metal and another element (usually a metal)
Bonding
Metal
Metal
Non-Metal
+
+
+
Electrons
Non-Metal
Non-Metal
=
=
=
Metallic Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Metallic Bonding:
Metallic Bond is the attraction between the metal ions and the delocalised electrons
Too many atoms to count, unlike small molecules like H2O
Number of delocalised electrons = number of electrons in out shell of element
Metals conduct electricity because the electrons can move
Metals are easily shaped (malleable) because cat-ions are in compact layers and can move
+
+
+
+
+
+
Free (delocalised)
electrons, they can
move anywhere
+
A
+
+
+
A
+
A
Metallic Lattice the regular arrangement in metal ions in solid metals
+
Cat-Ions
Ionic Bonding:
Ionic Bond is the electrostatic attraction between positive and negative ions
Only show valence electrons in diagrams.
Show transfer of electrons with arrow
Write the correct formula
Both atoms should end up with full valence shells
Na
Cl
Na
Cl
Polyatomic ions ions containing more than one atom. Brackets must be used to write formulae
involving more than one of these ions. E.g. Al2(SO4)3; SO4 is a polyatomic ion
Covalent Bonding:
Covalent bond is the sharing between atoms
to gain full valence shells
Only show valence electrons on diagrams
No arrows
Atoms will be connected
Polar Bonds
Non-Polar Bonds covalent bonds that involve exactly equal sharing of the bonded pair(s) of
electrons (e.g. Cl with Cl, O with O) or close enough to equal sharing (e.g. C with H) that the shared
pair of electrons is equidistant between the two atoms and thus the electronic charge is evenly
balanced around all atoms
Polar Bonds covalent bonds involve uneven sharing of the electron pair or pairs, with one of the
atoms (e.g. F, O or Cl) having a slightly stronger attraction for the shared pair of electrons in the
bond than the other atom (e.g. C or H). As a result the covalent bonds are closer to that atom with
stronger attraction. This gives that atom a slightly negative charge (-) and the other atom a slightly
positive charge (+)
Polar Molecules molecules with at least one polar bond and an asymmetrical shape so the dipoles
do not cancel
H
-
Non-Polar Molecules molecules where all bonds are non-polar or with a symmetrical shape causing
the dipoles to cancel out
C
H
Shapes of Molecules
Molecule Example
CO2
H2O
BF3
NH3
CH4
Shape
Linear
Bent/V-Shaped
Triangular Planar
Pyramidal
Tetrahedral
Bond Angle
O-C-O = 180
H-O-H = 105
F-B-F = 120
H-N-H = 107
H-C-H = 109.5
Radioactivity when the nucleus in a radioactive atom is unstable and so it emits particles/waves to
form a more stable atom
Radioisotopes a radioactive isotope; one having an unstable nucleus and emitting radiation during
its decay to a stable form
Radiation the particles/waves emitted by radioactive substances
Radioisotopes and their Uses
Radioisotopes
Carbon 14
Cobalt - 60
Krypton 81
Cesium - 137
Uses
Carbon Dating; When an organism dies it stops taking in new carbon atoms so the
amount of carbon-14 slowly drops as the atoms decay. By measuring the radiation
from the carbon-14 atoms the age of the remains can be determined.
Cancer Treatment; weak beams of radiation will kill cancer cells more easily than
healthy cells. Cobalt-60 is also used to kill germs and bacteria.
Tracers; a small amount of krypton is breathed in, it decays in the lungs and the
radiation can be detected and viewed on a screen where it shows up as bright spots.
Dark patches show where the lungs are not working properly.
Kill Germs and Bacteria; a low dose of gamma radiation is used to kill bacteria in food
that causes it to decay. They also kill germs and bacteria on surgical equipment.
States of Matter
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Deposition
Solidification
Condensation
Melting
Evaporation
Sublimation
Matter all the substances and materials from which the physical universe is composed
Kinetic Particle Theory a theory which accounts for the bulk properties of matter in terms of the
constituent particles. It states that:
All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles, invisible to the naked eye. Different
substances have different types of particles (atoms, molecules or ions).
The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature, the faster they move and the
forces of attraction weaken
Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter particles at a given temperature
Diffusion the process by which different substances mix as a result of the random motions of their
particles. Particles with smaller Mr diffuses faster.
Intimate mixing when diffusion takes place between a liquid and a gas
Brownian Motion random motion of particles caused by smaller and faster moving water particles
constantly colliding with them and moving them around
Gas
Vaporising
Liquid
Melting
Solid
Absolute Zero the theoretical temperature (which can never be reached) at which all particle
motion stops. Absolute zero is -273C or 0 Kelvin. To calculate Kelvin = C + 273. A 1K change equals
a 1C change.
Pressure of a Gas
The free moving particles of a gas will spread evenly within a container and collide with the
walls. This will exert a force on the wall when it bounces off.
When this happens on a large scale (billions of particles) there is an average force exerted on
the wall. This creates a pressure due to Pressure =
Vapour Pressure particles that gain enough energy to become gaseous at the top of a liquid
Ionic Compounds
Solid ionic compounds have no moving charged particles, they do not conduct electricity.
Liquid and aqueous ionic compounds have free moving charged particles (ions) in solution
which can carry charge under the influence of an electric filed.
Bonding
Properties
Ionic Bond
- Results from the attraction
between positive and negative
ions
- Occurs when a metal reacts
with a non-metal
- Does form ions so it will
conduct electricity as liquid or
aqueous
- Forms a crystal lattice
structure
- Has a high melting point
Covalent Bond
- Formed by the sharing of
electrons between atoms
- Occurs when two non-metals
react
- Does not form ions so does
not conduct electricity
- Forms a shared electron
structure
- Has a low melting and boiling
point
Intermolecular these are attractions between molecules when they are close together and are
broken when substances melt or boil.
Intramolecular this refers to the covalent bonding. These bonds are only broken during a chemical
reactions and never when melting or boiling. There are three varying degrees of strength of these
bonds that depend on the type of molecules:
1. Temporary dipole attractions the weakest attraction between non-polar molecules
2. Permanent dipole attractions the next strongest attraction between polar molecules
3. Hydrogen bonding strongest attraction between polar molecules and extremely reactive nonmetals (like F, O, or N)
Physical Changes when the appearance/form of the substance changes but the actual identity and
characteristics of the substance remain the same
Chemical Change/Reaction when substances chemically combine and alter one another forming
new substances with different properties and characteristics.
Conductors
To conduct, charged particles must be present and these charged particles must be free to
move.
There are two types of conductors:
o Elements which conduct in both solid and liquid because their outer shell electrons
are mobile e.g. metals
o Electrolytes conduct because they contain positive and negative ions. In electrolytes,
the mobile ions carry the current under the influence of an electric field, and the
electrolyte is decomposed/discharged as the ions gain or lose electrons at the
electrodes e.g. Sodium Chloride solution
Graphite
Arrangement
Prop.
A hard, colourless,
transparent crystal which
sparkles in light
A hard, colourless,
transparent crystal which
sparkles in light (Quartz)
Use
Bonding
Structure
Diamond
Look
Giant covalent structures structures with a network of covalent bonds throughout it. They take a
lot of energy to break and have high boiling and melting points.
Cement
The Ar of an element is defined as the average mass of its isotopes compared with onetwelth of the mass of one atom of Carbon 12
Carbon 12 has a mass of 12 therefore, one-twelth of the mass of one atom of Carbon 12 is 1.
To calculate Ar you use the equation: Ar =
M
n
V
V
24
Empirical Formula
Step
1 - % By Mass (or Mass)
2 Mole Ratio
3 Ratio by atoms
4- Empirical Formula
Calcium
20%
20/40 = 0.5
0.5/0.5 = 1
Ca = 1
Bromine
80%
80/80 = 1
1/0.5 = 2
Br = 2
Percentage Yield the percentage of the reactants that are converted to products. In some reactions
this will be 100% but others it is much less than 100%.
Theoretical Yield the amount of a substance that should be produced through a chemical reaction
Actual Yield the amount of a substance that is actually produced through a chemical reaction
Percentage Yield =
e.g.
= 0.307 moles
44 x 0.307 = 13.508
= 86.6%
Types of Reactions
Single Displacement - one element displaced
Most Metals + Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas
Most Metals + Acid Metal Salt + Hydrogen Gas e.g.
Cu + HCl CuCl2 + 2H
A + BC A + B
Double Displacement - two elements displaced
Acid + Base Salt + Water e.g.
2KI + Pb(NO3)2 PbI2 + 2KNO3
AB + CD
CB + AD
Synthesis - two elements combine to form one compound
Most Metals + Oxygen Gas Metal Oxides e.g.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
A + B AB
Decomposition - one compound becomes two (breaks apart/decompose)
Most Metal Hydroxides Metal Oxide + Water Liquid
Most Metal Nitrates Metal Oxide + Nitrogen Dioxide Gas + Oxygen Gas
Group One Metal Nitrates Group 1 Metal Nitrate + Oxygen Gas
Most Metal Carbonates Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide Gas e.g.
CuCO3 CuO + CO2
AB
A + B
Combustion oxygen combines with another compound to form water and CO2
Organic Molecule + excess Oxygen Gas Carbon Dioxide + Water e.g.
C10H8 + 12 O2 10 CO2 + 4 H2O
AB + C
AC + BC
Redox Reactions
Oxidation the gain of oxygen; the loss of hydrogen; the loss of electrons; increase in the oxidation
number
Reduction the loss oxygen; the gain of hydrogen; the gain of electrons; decrease in the oxidation
number
Oxidising Agents (Oxidants) the molecule that is reduced (lost oxygen, gained hydrogen etc.)
Reducing Agents (Reduced) the molecule that is oxidised (gained oxygen, lost hydrogen etc.)
Oxidation Number numerical bookkeeping system to help keep track of electron movements
between substances. The oxidation number of ions is there electric charge. Elements have an
oxidation number of 0.
Photochemical Reactions
Photosynthesis the conversion of water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen for energy.
The glucose produced is used to make sugars and starch as carbohydrates.
Carbon Dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen Gas
6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Respiration reverse of photosynthesis; combustion reaction
Glucose + Oxygen Gas Carbon Dioxide + Water
C6H12O6 +
6 O2
6 CO2
+ 6 H2O
Photography this photochemical reaction is used as the basis of black and white photography. The
photographic film is made of flexible plastic, coated with a layer of gelatine with millions of particles
of silver bromide spread through it which is changed to silver when light falls on the exposed parts of
the film.
Silver Bromide Silver + Bromide
2AgBr
2Ag + Br2
Hydrogen as a fuel:
Hydrogen is considered to be the fuel of the future and is being trialled by motor
manufacturers as an alternative to fossil fuels such as petrol.
Hydrogen is non toxic, produces more energy per gram than any other fuel and burns cleanly
to form water so there is no exhaust pollution. It has a lower flammability than fossil fuels.
Hydrogen is obtained from the electrolysis of water which is plentiful. So far this is not a cost
efficient alternative to using fossil fuels and non-renewable if produced using fossil fuels or
nuclear energy.
Hydrogen is difficult to transport and store. Because it is too light to liquefy easily, a large
fuel tank would be needed.
It is explosive in correct proportions with air.
Energy
Exothermic Reactions when energy is lost to the surroundings during a reaction.
Energy Profile for an Exothermic Reaction the graph shows the variation in energy during the
course of a chemical reaction where heat is released.
Energy Level
Ea
Reactants
Energy Lost
(H)
Products
Reaction Progress
Endothermic Reactions when energy is absorbed by the products from the surroundings during a
reaction.
Energy Level
Ea
Reactants
Products
Energy Absorbed
(H)
Reaction Progress
Activation Energy (Ea) the initial energy that is required for a reaction to begin
Calorimeter determines the amount of heat generated in a chemical reaction by the rise in
temperature of the reaction chamber and the water jacket around the reaction vessel.
Bond Energy the amount of energy needed or released to break or form a bond. Bond breaking is
endothermic. Bond forming is exothermic.
H = Total bond energy of all bonds broken Total bond energy of all bonds formed
Equilibrium Reactions
Irreversible Reactions reactions that has products that cannot turn back into their reactants.
Reversible Reactions reactions that has products that can react back into the original reactants.
Dynamic Equilibrium when there is no overall change in the amount of products and reactants
even though the reaction is ongoing. Dynamic Equilibrium can only take place in a closed system.
The position of dynamic equilibrium is not always at a half-way point, as in it may be at a position
where there are more products than reactants.
Le Chateliers principle if a closed system at equilibrium is subject to a change then the system will
adjust in such a way as to minimise the effect of the change.
Concentration
Pressure
Catalyst
Increase of Factor
Equilibrium shifts to decrease
the temperature so it shifts to
the endothermic direction
Equilibrium shifts to decrease
the concentration
Decrease of Factor
Equilibrium shifts to increase
the temperature so it shifts to
the exothermic direction
Equilibrium shifts to increase
the concentration
H = -92 kJ/mol
Increasing the temperature will produce less ammonia because this will use up the added
heat. Lowering the temperature will produce a greater yield of ammonia but will decrease
the rate of the overall reaction.
Increasing pressure should move the equilibrium to the right to produce more ammonia.
However this will increase the cost because of the thickness of the walls of the plant needed
to contain the reaction and it means the temperature will increase and its disadvantages.
Rates of Reaction
Rates of reactions can be measured by the:
Collision Theory - in order for a chemical reaction to occur the particles must collide with each other
and have sufficient energy to react. The rate of reaction depends on the number of successful
collisions there are in a given time. When particles move faster, they have more kinetic energy.
Rates of reaction are affected by:
1. Concentration - adds more
particles so they can collide
with each other. At the
beginning of the reaction, the
concentration is at its
highest, so the initial rate is
the fastest as there are a
large number of reactant
particles per unit volume and
more collisions will occur. As
the reactants decrease in
concentration, there will be less
collisions and the rate slows
2. Particle Size/Surface Area larger area means there is more
room for the particles to roam
and will collide easier. The
amount of product remains the
same but the surface area is
different
3. Gas Pressure an increase in pressure forces the particles to come closer together and
increases the chance of successful collisions.
4. Temperature a higher temperature gives particles more energy for collisions and makes
the particles move faster so they are more likely to collide.
5. Catalysts provides particles an alternate way of reacting if the activation energy of the
particle is too low, without itself being consumed. E.g. Iron in Haber process, Enzymes in
human body
Base
Bitter Taste
pH greater than 7
In solution, contains hydroxide ions (OH-)
Turns red litmus blue
Turns colourless phenolphthalein pink
Soapy feel
Cannot react with metals
Examples of Bases
Sodium Hydroxide
NaOH
Potassium Hydroxide
KOH
Calcium Hydroxide
Ca(OH)2
Ammonia Solution
NH3 (aq)
Hydronium Ion same as a single proton because when a hydrogen atom loses an electron, only a
proton remains. H+ is irresistibly attractive to water molecules and therefore it would form H3O+.
Dissociation breaking apart
Strong Acids in aqueous solutions, strong acids donate all their protons to water molecules.
Weak Acids there is only a slight tendency to donate protons to water molecules, therefore an
aqueous solution of a weak acid contains mainly undissociated molecules and a low concentration of
H3O+.
Strong Acids
Completely dissociate
None (forward only)
Good
Good
Higher
Lower
HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
Weak Acids
Partially dissociate
Equilibrium reaction
Poor
Poor
Lower
Higher
CH3COOH, NH4+
Amphiprotic substances can act as both an acid and a base e.g. H2O, HCO3-, HSO4Amphoteric substances will undergo chemical reactions with both acids and bases
Neutralisation an alkali or base can neutralise an acid by removing the H+ ions and converting them
to water. Neutralisation always produces a salt.
Concentration a measure of the amount of acid per dm3, refers to the proportion or ratio of acid to
water in the solution
Concentrated Acids high proportion of acid to water
Dilute Acids low proportion of acid to water
Monoprotic having one transferrable proton
Diprotic having two transferrable protons
Titration an indicator shows when the acid properties are just destroyed by the alkali. The salt can
then be recovered by evaporating the water away allowing the salt to crystallise. This method is
used when the base, acid and salt are all soluble.
Oxides
Oxides of metals are bases (they will react with acids to form salts)
Oxides of non-metals are acids (they will react with acids and bases)
Some metal oxides are amphoteric (they will react with acids and bases)
Some non-metal oxides are neutral
Oxide ions immediately react with water and then dissolve to form hydroxide ions. Although
potassium hydroxide solution exists, potassium oxide solution does not exist
Metal Oxides compounds of metal cations and the oxide anion O2-. Few metal oxides react or
dissolve in water. The main metal oxides which are considered soluble are potassium and sodium
oxides, as well as barium, calcium, and magnesium oxides in decreasing amounts. Metal oxides are
either basic or amphoteric. The basic oxides will only react with acids, while the amphoteric oxides
will react with both acids and bases.
Non-metal Oxides covalently bonded compounds of a non-metal with oxygen. They are either
acidic or neutral oxides. The acidic oxides react with water immediately and dissociate to form acid
solutions while the neutral oxides do nothing when placed in water. The acidic oxides will react only
with bases, while the neutral oxides are unreactive with both acids and bases.
Usually Soluble
All SO42- EXCEPT Ba, Pb, Ag, Ca
All Cl- EXCEPT Ag, Pb
All I- EXCEPT Ag, Pb
All Br- EXCEPT Ag, Pb
Usually Insoluble
All CO32- EXCEPT Group 1
All O2- EXCEPT Group 1 and 2
All OH- EXCEPT Group 1;
Ca and Ba are slightly soluble
NH4+
Na+
K+
Al2+
Zn2+
Ca2+
Cu2+
Ag+
Fe2+
Fe3+
NO3-
Cl-
Br-
SO42-
CO32-
OH-
O2-
I-
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
Blue
Soluble
White
Soluble
Green
Soluble
Violet
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
Blue
Soluble
White
Insoluble
Yellow
Soluble
Brown
Hyd
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
Black
Soluble
White
Insoluble
Green
Soluble
Red
Hyd
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Insoluble
Blue
Soluble
White
Insoluble
Green
Soluble
Yellow
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
-
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Insoluble
White
Insoluble
White
SpSol
Blue
Insoluble
-
White
Hyd
White
Hyd
White
Insoluble
White
Insoluble
White
Hyd
Black
Insoluble
Brown
Insoluble
Black
Insoluble
Red
Insoluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
White
Hyd
White
Soluble
White
Soluble
-
White
Insoluble
White
Insoluble
Green
Insoluble
White
Insoluble
Grey
Insoluble
-
Green
Insoluble
Brown
Insoluble
Yellow
Insoluble
Grey
Soluble
-
Identification of Cations
NH4+
2+
Cu
Fe2+
Fe3+
Al3+
Ca2+
Zn2+
Identification of Anions
Test with red litmus
CO3SO42ClINO3-
Identification of Gases
Ammonia
Carbon Dioxide
Chlorine
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Turns damp litmus blue; forms white smoke when in contact with HCl fumes
Turns limewater milky
Bleaches damp litmus paper
Pops with lighted splint
Relights a glowing splint
Non-Metals
No lustre
Poor conductor of heat
Poor conductor of electricity
Not Malleable
Not Ductile
Low Density
Low Melting Point
Metalloids
Can be shiny or dull
Fair conductor of heat
Fair conductor of electricity
Malleable
Ductile
Solids
Non-Metals
Tends to gain electrons
Oxides generally neutral
Alkali Metals
Alloy
Solder
Brass
Bronze
Mild Steel
Hard Steel
Stainless Steel
Alnico
Mixture
70% Tin, 30% Lead
60-95% Copper, 5-40% Zinc
90% Copper, 10% Tin
99.5% Iron, 0.5% Carbon
99% Iron, 1% Carbon
74% Iron, 18% Chromium, 8% Nickel
Iron/Aluminium/Nickel/Cobalt
Use
Joining wires and pipes
Taps, hose/pipe fittings, zips, screws
Ornaments, bells, bearings
General structural purposes, cars
Blades
Corrosion resistance
Permanent Magnets
Metals Uses
Metal
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Copper
Property
Does not corrode
Low density, unreactive
Low density, strong, conducts
Low density, strong, cheap
Low density, conducts heat
Reactive
More reactive than iron
Similar expansivity
Strong, cheap
Strong and abundant
Good conductor of electricity
Unreactive, workable
Unreactive
Unreactive
Uses
Food containers
Containers and packaging buildings
Long distance wiring
Transport vehicles
Car Engines
Dry cells (batteries)
Galvanising Iron
Reinforcing concrete
Nails
Ship building
Electrical wiring
Alloys brass and bronze
Coinage (with Nickel)
Hot water piping
Reactivity Series
Most Reactive
Least Reactive
K
Na
Ca
Mg
Al
C
Zn
Fe
Sn
Pb
H
Cu
Ag
Au
Pt
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Corrosion when metals react with water and oxygen. The metal ions lose electrons to form ions.
Rusting the corrosion of iron metal to form a red-brown compound (hydrated iron (III) oxide)
Covering with Protective Coat
Painting
Greasing of metal parts
Oiling of bike chains
Tin Plating In cans
Plastic covering on electric wires
Galvanising zinc coating for galvanised steel
Chromium plating of car parts
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Carbon
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Hydrogen
Copper
Hydroxide
Stable
No Reaction
Nitrate
Decomposes
2NaNO3 2NaNO2 + O2
Carbonate
Stable
No Reaction
Decomposes
Cu(OH)2 CuO + H2O
Decomposes
2Ca(NO3)2 2CaO +
4NO2 + O2
Decomposes
MgCO3 MgO + CO2
Halogens
Sulfur
Sulfur mined from solid underground deposits of elemental sulphur, extracted from fossil fuels,
received from metal sulphide ores when the metal is extracted. It is used in the manufacture of
sulfuric acid.
Sulfur Dioxide is prepared from when sulphur burns in air or oxygen (burns with a blue flame):
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to form sulfurous acid (a weak acid) which can lead to the
problem of acid rain
H2O(l) + SO2(g) H2SO3(aq)
Sulfuric Acid a typical acid used in fertilisers, paints, pigments, dyestuffs, chemical manufacture,
soaps and detergents and fibres.
Contact Process the industrial preparation of sulfuric acid. All reactions in it are exothermic.
1. Sulfur is burned in air:
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
2. The SO2 is reacted with further oxygen over a catalyst bed (vanadium (V) oxide). The
vanadium (V) oxide is a catalyst which speeds up the reaction without being used up. It
melts at 400 C, spreading to give a larger area. The yield of SO2 is sufficiently high for this
stage to be carried out at atmospheric pressure.
V2O5
2 SO2(g) + O2(g) 2 SO3(g)
3. The sulfur trioxide is reacted with 98% H2SO4 to form oleum, which then reacts with water to
form more sulfuric acid. The SO3 must be reacted with sulfuric acid first and not immediately
with water as it is too exothermic/violent to carry out directly.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2 H2SO4(l)
Cells
Electrolyte molten or dissolved metal compounds that conduct electricity. When electrolytes
conduct electricity, ions move.
Electrode most electrodes are metals or graphite. When metals conduct electricity, valence
electrons move from ion to ion, from the negative to positive electrode. When graphite conducts,
the delocalised electrons between the layers can flow. The two electrodes are called the cathode
(which is negatively charged and attracts cations) and the anode (which is positively charged and
attracts anions). Reduction occurs at the cathode and oxidation occurs at the anode. The mobile ions
of the electrolyte carry the current between the electrodes. Graphite electrodes must be replaced
periodically because graphite will react with oxygen to form CO2.
Electrochemical Cells produce electricity spontaneously via a chemical reaction (redox) between
two metals.
When two metals of different reactivity are connected electrically in a complete circuit with
a conducting wire and an electrolyte, electrons flow from the more reactive metal to the
least reactive metal.
The electron flow is called current, and the energy
transfer from the higher to lower reactivity metals is
called the voltage.
The greater the difference in reactivity between the two
metals making up the electrodes, the greater the energy
transfer and therefore greater voltage of the cell.
A dry cell uses a damp paste of ionic material (salt
bridge) between the electrodes instead of a liquid
electrolyte.
More than one cell connected together is called a
battery.
The more reactive metal is always the negative electrode.
Disadvantages
Risk of explosions/gases takes up a lot of volume
Electrolysis
Electrolysis - the passing of a direct current through a conducting solution or liquid and the
resultant decomposition of the electrolyte. It uses electricity from a power source in order to
cause a chemical reaction (redox). It will force the oxidation or reduction of substances that are
high in reactivity that do not naturally oxidise or reduce using normal chemical processes.
Cations are attracted to the cathode and are discharged (converted to a new substance)
Anions are attracted to the anode and are discharged
The electrolyte is decomposed
The electrodes are usually made of graphite or a completely unreactive metal (e.g. platinum)
Selective Discharge Rules
The ease of discharge of an ion depends on several factors, including the nature of the electrode,
and the nature of the electrolyte (molten/aqueous, concentrated/dilute).
1. Cations always discharge at the cathode
2. Anions always discharge at the anode
3. The ions of the more reactive metals are more difficult to discharge than those of less
reactive metals
4. The sulphate and nitrate ions are never discharged (but not when altered)
5. Halide ions will be difficult to discharge
6. The more concentrated the solution, the more chance the ions will be discharged
Note: if chloride ion is present it is most likely always going to be the anode product. The following
equation represents the discharging of Hydroxide ions:
4 OH- O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e-
hyd rogen
m em brane
brine
d ep leted
brine
w ater
anod e
+ ve
(Ti or grap hite)
35 % N aOH
N a+
cathod e
- ve
(steel or graphite)
1. Mine the bauxite ore (a mixture of Al2O3 and SiO2 as well as other impurities such as Fe2O3)
2. Purify the ore by dissolving it in sodium hydroxide solution. This dissolves the alumina
(aluminium oxide) which is amphoteric but not the basic impurities e.g. Fe2O3
3. At the aluminium smelter, the alumina is dissolved in cryolite (Na3AlF6) because this gives
the mixture a much lower melting temperature (900 C) and it conducts electricity better.
The mixture is 95% alumina and 5% cryolite.
4. Large amounts of electrical energy are passed through the mixture. The anodes are carbon
rods. The cathode lining is graphite in steel casing. The passing of electric current causes
electrolysis to occur.
Anode: Al3+ + 3 e- Al
Cathode: 2 O2- O2 + 4eOverall: 4 Al3+ + 6 O2- 3 O2 + 4 Al
5. The molten aluminium is poured into ingots and used for many purposes.
Purification of Copper
Copper metal is readily extracted by roasting copper ores malachite (impure CuCO3) and
copper pyrites (CuFeS2) to obtain copper.
Impure copper was at the anode and pure copper was at the cathode
Aqueous copper(II) sulphate was the electrolyte
At the anode, metals more active than copper are oxidised to their cations and remain as
cations and must be removed as they accumulate.
Copper is oxidised to Copper(II), while metals less reactive than copper are not oxidised but
instead fall to the bottom of the cell and are removed through filtration of the electrolyte.
The impurities are mainly Ag and Au and are called the anode sludge.
At the cathode, copper ions are reduced to copper metal (almost 100% pure).
Cu2+ (aq) + Cu (s) Cu (s) + Cu2+ (aq)
Electroplating Metals
Electroplating the process involving electrolysis to coat one metal with another. Often the purpose
of electroplating is to give a protective coating to the metal beneath or as a decorate coat.
To plate an object with a metal, the object to be electroplated is made the cathode in an
electrolysis cell.
The anode is made from the metal that is to be the coating
The electrolyte will be a salt solution of the metal to be electroplated
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons - a substance made of Hydrogen and Carbon
Homologous Series a series of carbon compounds differing from each other only by the addition of
more CH2 groups to increase the length of the carbon chains.
Isomers different forms of the same molecular formula with different structural formulae
Alkanes
Non-polar molecules
Weak intermolecular attractions
Low melting point and boiling point (but
increases as size increases)
Lower density than water
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Single bonds only
Formula = CnH2n +2
Gas state between 1-4 Cs
Liquid state between 5-17 Cs
e.g. Ethane (C2H6)
Alcohols
Polar molecules (decreases as more carbons
added)
Strong intermolecular attractions
Formula = CnH2n +1OH
Colourless volatile liquids
Burn cleanly and efficiently, but with less
energy from presence of oxygen
e.g. Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Alkenes
Non-polar molecules
Weak intermolecular attractions
Low melting point and boiling point (but
increases as size increases)
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Contain a double bond
Formula = CnH2n
Extremely reactive due to double bonds
breaking
Turns bromine water from red to colourless
e.g. Ethene (C2H4)
Carboxylic Acids
Polar molecules
Formula = CnH2n+1COOH
Strong intermolecular attractions
Weak acids
Formed through the oxidation of Alcohols
Reacts with Alcohols to form Esters
Alkane Reactions
1. Combustion alkanes burn in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water as long as sufficient
oxygen is present; if insufficient, carbon monoxide or carbon will be produced instead of
carbon dioxide
2. Substitution alkanes will react with halogen molecules in a substitution reaction e.g.
C2H6 + Br2 C2H5Br + HBr
Alkene Reactions
1. Hydrogenation - Addition by hydrogen. Alkanes are formed when the H2 adds to the alkene
molecule. A catalyst of nickel or platinum is used at a temperature of about 150 C e.g.
CH2 = CH2 + H2 CH3CH3
2. Halogenation Addition of bromine or other halogens. Halogen alkenes are formed when
halogens attach to the carbons in the double bond by covalent bonds e.g.
CH2 = CH2 + Br2 CH2BrCH2Br
3. Hydration Addition of water. Alcohols form when water is added to alkene molecules. A
catalyst of dilute H2SO4 or H3PO4 is used.
CH2 = CH2 + H2O CH3CH2OH
Number of
Carbons
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Alkane
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
Heptane
Octane
Nonane
Decane
Alkene
--Ethene
Propene
Butene
Pentene
Hexene
Heptene
Octene
Nonene
Decene
Alcohol
Methanol
Ethanol
Propanol
Butanol
Pentanol
Hexanol
Heptanol
Octanol
Nonanol
Decanol
Carboxylic Acids
Methanoic Acid
Ethanoic Acid
Propanoic Acid
Butanoic Acid
Pentanoic Acid
Hexanoic Acid
Heptanoic Acid
Octanoic Acid
Nonanoic Acid
Decanoic Acid
Crude Oil
Fossil Fuel - organic matter (once living) e.g. coal (dead plant matter), oil (dead sea creature
remains).
Crude oil - made of hydrocarbons. It is the result of heat and pressure on plant and (sea) animal
remains over millions of years in the absence of air. This oil (and gas) rises up through permeable
rocks and becomes trapped under impermeable rocks, so they have to be extracted by drilling. The
oil is called crude oil because it is unrefined which makes it of little use as it is hard to transport.
Fractional Distillation - process used to separate a mixture of liquids that have different boiling
points. When the mixture is heated, liquids with low boiling points evaporate and turn to vapour and
can then be separated as liquids. Those with high boiling points remain liquids.
Cracking allows large hydrocarbon molecules to be broken down into smaller, more useful
hydrocarbon molecules. Fractions containing large hydrocarbon molecules are vaporised and passed
over a hot catalyst. This breaks chemical bonds in the molecules, and forms smaller hydrocarbon
molecules. Cracking is an example of a decomposition reaction. e.g.
Polymers
Polymers - very large molecules made when hundreds of monomers join together to form long
chains. They have no double bonds.
Synthetic Polymers (Plastics) man-made polymers
Monomers - a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer.
Polymerisation - the combining of monomers to form polymers
Addition Polymers the monomer is thousands of the same alkene molecules, whose double bond is
broken to join the molecules together in one long chain e.g.
If you had n (number) of this monomer:
Then n of the monomers would join together, by breaking the double bond and connecting to the
other monomers to form a long chain:
Condensation Polymers a polymer formed by a condensation reaction (one in which water is given
out).
Artificial Polymers where a product is formed from two different types of monomers arranged
alternately and linked together. In this case the monomers usually contain a minimum of two of the
same/different functional groups at the end of their molecules. When the polymer forms, a small
molecule such as H2O or HCl is lost at each junction. Artificial polymers include:
Ester Linkage a polymer found between di-carboxylic acids and a diols. (-COO-) e.g. Terylene
n
HO
OH
H
HO
O
H
OH
n H2O
Ester Link
Amide Linkage - a polymer formed between di-carboxylic acids and diamines (-CONH-) e.g. Nylon
+ HO
OH
n H2O
Amide Link
Natural Polymers those polymers found in nature and are usually condensation polymers
Peptide (Amide) Linkage a protein (polypeptide) formed between amino acid molecules
OH
+ H
OH
OH
+ n H2O
Amide Link
Polysaccharides complex carbohydrate molecules made my polymerizing simple sugar
molecules such as glucose
HO
OH
+ n H2O
Fatty Acids
Formation of Triglyceride
Air
Gas
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
Others
Water
Percentage in Air
79
20
0.9
0.03
0.07
-
Fractional Distillation of Air the main industrial method of preparation of pure oxygen and nitrogen
Air is liquefied by compression and cooling to below the boiling point of both oxygen and
nitrogen, so that most of the air becomes a liquid.
The liquid air is allowed to warm slowly and the nitrogen (b.p. -195C) boils off first and thus
can be extracted.
The oxygen (b.p. -183C) boils off after the nitrogen and can then also be extracted.
Pollutants
Sulphur Dioxide
Nitrogen Oxides
Carbon Monoxide
Lead
Cause
Combustion of Sulphur
(found in fossil fuels)
Effect
Solution
Forms acid rain when
Scrubbing converts
reacted with water in
SO2 to H2SO4
clouds
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Reaction between
Contributes to Acid Rain
Catalytic Converters
nitrogen and oxygen at
and are a major
high temp and pressure
component of
in motor vehicle engines
photochemical smog
2N2(g) + 3O2(g) 2NO(g) + 2NO2(g)
Incomplete combustion
Strong bonds with
Catalytic Converters
in motor vehicle engines
haemoglobin,
decreasing the amount
of oxygen distributed
around the body
Combustion of petrol
Brain damage, nervous
Catalytic Converters,
containing lead
system problems
using unleaded fuel
Catalytic Converter catalysts that convert poisonous exhaust fumes into harmless gasses in cars.
The reduction catalyst uses platinum and rhodium to help reduce the NOx emissions by ripping
the nitrogen atom out of the molecule, freeing the oxygen.
2NO N2 + O2 / 2NO2 N2 + 2O2
The oxidation catalyst removes the unburned hydrocarbons
and carbon monoxide by burning them over a platinum and
palladium catalyst.
2CO + O2 2CO2
2NO2 + 4CO 4CO2 + N2
Oxygen
Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen
1. Heating Potassium Manganate (VII)
2 KMnO4 (s) K2MnO4 (s) + MnO2 (s) + O2 (g)
purple
green + black + colourless
Steel making
In oxy-acetylene welding
In hospitals and ambulances for treatment of trauma patients
In rockets to combine with the fuel
In deep sea diving helium-oxygen mixtures
Compressed air is avoided in deep sea diving because the nitrogen causes nitrogen narcosis
when the diver surfaces too rapidly and the nitrogen bubbles out of the blood due to the
rapid decrease in pressure.
Nitrogen
Properties
Ammonia
Preparation
1. Ammonia gas (NH3) can be conveniently prepared in the laboratory by heating together an
ammonium salt with a strong alkali e.g.
Ca(OH)2 (s) + 2 NH4Cl (s) CaCl2 (s) + 2 H2O (l) + 2 NH3 (g)
2. Ammonia can be collected by the downward displacement of air since it is lighter than air
3. Ammonia cannot be collected by the displacement of water because it is very soluble in
water
4. Ammonia can be collected through the Haber Process
Properties of Ammonia
Colourless
Strong choking smell
Less dense than air
Liquefies at -33C. This makes it easy to transport and store as a liquid
Extremely soluble in water, as it is a polar molecule and can hydrogen bong with itself and
water molecules, to produce an alkaline solution
The only common alkaline gas
Uses of Ammonia
Limestone
Limestone CaCO3; various forms of lime are used to put on pastures to raise the pH because many
soils are naturally acidic. Intensive cropping also lowers the pH. The lime is basic so it neutralises the
soil and brings the pH closer to 7.
Quicklime CaO; formed from limestone in a lime kiln (oven with extremely high temperatures).
CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Slaked Lime Ca(OH)2; the solid product, in a form of white powder, of the exothermic reaction that
occurs when a minimal amount of water is added to quicklime.
CaO (s) + H2O (l) Ca(OH)2 (s)
Limewater a solution of slaked lime in excess water. The slaked lime is only sparingly soluble but
produces an alkaline solution containing calcium and hydroxide ions.
Ca(OH)2 (s) Ca2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)
Mortar a mixture of slaked lime, sand and water and is a thick paste. It sets when it dries, then
over a long period of time becomes hard due to the formation of calcium carbonate as it absorbs
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Ca(OH)2 (s) + CO2 (g) CaCO3 + H2O (l)
Cement made from heating limestone with sand and silicates such as clay. It is a mixture of calcium
silicates and aluminates. When water is added, a complex series of reactions occur which make it
set.
Carbon Cycle
Methane can be sourced from natural gas trapped in oil-bearing rocks, partial decomposition of
plant materials under anaerobic conditions, waste product of digestion in animals.
Water
Properties
Water of Crystallisation
Ionic solids often have molecules of water bonded into their ionic crystal lattice. This water is
called water of crystallisation and often has a consistent, simple ratio in the formula. Formulae
are often quoted with the water of crystallisation included. E.g.Copper sulphate pentahydrate,
Sodium carbonate decahydrate.
Agents
Drying Agents various drying agents are used to absorb water out of air or gas mixtures. Common
drying agents are:
Concentrated sulphuric acid is used as a drying agent in the preparation of some neutral or
acidic gases
Calcium oxide which is used to dry alkaline ammonia gas
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used to prepare dry hydrogen
Silica gel is used as a drying agent in equipment which is sensitive e.g. cameras
Dehydrating Agents drying agents that are so powerful that they will remove all atoms required to
make up water from certain substances in the solution of solid form. The most common example of
a dehydrating agent is concentrated sulphuric acid which will dehydrate sucrose and hydrated
copper sulphate. It will also extract the elements of water from cloth or skin.
Purification of Water
Water is stored in dams and reservoirs. It is never completely pure and may contain
bacteria, dissolved substances and solid material which need to be removed.
Concerns over levels of pesticides in river water have led to improvements in water
purification.
Water treatment essentially involves the stages, filtration, sedimentation, (ozone
treatment) and chlorination.
Laboratory Equipment
Pestle and
Mortar
Grinding or
breaking