Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Aim: How are one dimensional waves produced in a slinky string? What are the properties of one dimensional waves?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Tangled slinky
Low
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Pair up with another person, each holding one end of the slinky.
Move back until the slinky is stretched around 4m or as much as necessary.
Both people kneel down.
One person will send the wave at a time.
For the first wave, one partner pushes the slinky towards the other partner, pulls it back and then pushes again,
the person on the other end observes the strength of the wave as it passes back and forth.
6. For the second wave, one partner moves their hand, the one holding the slinky, left and right continuously, the
other person observes the strength of the wave as it reaches the other side.
Analysis/Results Questions
1. Which wave has the most energy?
The second wave has more energy as is displayed when your hand moves as the wave reaches you.
3. In which direction do the medium particles distort (move) in the first and second wave?
In the first wave the particles move in the same direction as the energy, from the person that pushes the wave, to
the person on the other end, back to the person who pushed it.
In the second wave the particles move sideways, from the person on each end.
Energy ---->
4. What happens to the wave when It reaches the other persons hand?
The wave is reflected back to the person who pushed it and causes the hand of the receiver to rebound in the
same direction as the wave itself.
5. What is the effect on the wave when a smaller coil spring is attached to the larger coil?
The smaller coil is less stretchy than the larger one and so it is tougher for the energy to pass through, hence it
would absorb the energy, reducing the amount of force that reached the person on the receiving end of the wave.
6. Describe what happens when a piece of rope is attached to one end of the slinky.
There will be less distortion as the energy reaches the rope as it is hard for the energy to go through due to the
medium particles being closer together.
Conclusion
During this experiment, two types of waves were observed, longitudinal and transverse.
Longitudinal waves consist of compressions and rarefactions, where the medium particles come close together as the
wave passes through and are further apart once it has gone or is not there yet, respectively.
Transverse waves have cycles which involved the slinky moving in a curved shape as shown:
The Transverse Waves were stronger as they caused the hand of the receiver to recoil along with the movement of the
wave. This is supported by the seismic waves of an earthquake as P-waves (longitudinal waves) are less destructive
than S-waves (transverse waves).
Extension: Longitudinal and Transverse Waves
Longitudinal waves include sound waves when they travel through gases, liquids or solids, as the waves vibrate
through the air, allowing people to speak and others to listen, or any other sounds to be heard, hence all everyday
objects that have a functionality involving sound, use longitudinal waves. When we speak into the microphone of a
mobile phone, these sound waves are converted into electrical signals which are sent to the receiving handheld in the
form of radio waves, which are then converted back into an electrical signal when the radio waves reach the receiving
antenna. The electrical energy then goes through the speaker changing it back to sound energy. The radio waves and
electrical signals however are not longitudinal, but are transverse.
The World Communicates Page 3
In everyday life, longitudinal waves are used in conjunction with transverse waves, such as the transfer of sound from
one mobile to another; sound and radio waves, or from a channel studio to your television screen at home; sound and
light signals.
Energy is able to be transformed since waves carry energy. When we communicate, for example; mobile phone, radio,
voice, we use waves.
Mobile Phone - When you speak into a mobile phone, sound waves reach the microphone which converts the waves
into electrical energy. The electrical signal is sent from the handheld piece in the form of microwaves, which turns back
into electrical energy as it hits the receivers antenna. The electrical energy goes through the speaker which changes it
back to sound energy.
MP S.E > E.E > M.W > E.E > SE
Sound Energy > Electrical Energy > Microwaves > Electrical Energy > Sound Energy
Fax Modem Light Energy (scanner) --> Electrical Energy --> Light Energy
Transmitted down Print out on paper
telephone line
Radio and Television Sound Energy --> Electrical Energy --> Join carrier wave from transmitter --> Radio Waves --> Electrical Energy --> Sound
Energy
(microphone)
(trav els through air)
Medium - Particles that the wave travels through or particles that make up the wave, particles that vibrate/move.
Displacement - The distance that the particles move from the origin
Amplitude - The maximum displacement
Period (T) - The time it takes to complete one whole wave (wavelength) T = 1/f
Compression - Medium particles are pushed together, for e.g., slinky.
Rarefaction -Medium particles are spread away from each other, go e.g., slinky
Crest - The highest point of the wave, the peak.
Trough - The lowest point of the wave
Transverse waves - The medium particles move 90 degrees to the direction of the energy
Longitudinal waves - The medium particles move in the same direction as the energy transfer
Frequency (f) - The number of wavelengths that pass a point in one second, measured in Hertz (Hz)
Wavelength - Distance between two corresponding points in the wave (m)
Velocity (v) - Speed in a given direction ( v = wavelength x f) ms-1
Find the:
i) Displacement at 4 sec: 15m
ii) of wave: 2cm
iii) Velocity of wave: v = f x
V = 0.25 x 2cm
= 0.25 x 0.02m
= 0.005 m/s
Section 2
Tuesday, 14 February 2012
12:52 PM
Aim: What do sound waves look like on a CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope)?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Getting electrocuted
Medium Ensure that the electrical cords of the equipment are not damaged.
Eye strain
Low
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
As wavelength increases, frequency decreases as the number of wavelengths has decreased. If frequency
increases, wavelength decreases as more waves need to pass through per second.
The World Communicates Page 13
increases, wavelength decreases as more waves need to pass through per second.
The CRO measures electric current, which travels along the wires connecting to the CRO.
Conclusion - description of how air particles move as they transmit sound waves
This experiment has demonstrated how different sounds transmit different sound waves. As the frequency of
sound increases, the wavelength decreases as more wavelengths are required to pass through per second. As
frequency decreases, wavelength decreases. A higher amplitude of sound is caused by an increase in volume,
leaving frequency and wavelength unaffected.
When sound is transmitted through air particles, it causes them to vibrate against each other, in the direction of
energy transfer. As the pitch of the sound is increased, the particles vibrate faster. The particles vibrate
backwards and forwards, causing rarefactions, which are areas of vibration with low air pressure, and
compression, areas of high air pressure. When visualising this sound energy on the CRO screen, it is converted
into electrical energy and displayed as a voltage input and traced amplitude, in the form of a transverse wave.
Extension - What advantage does the CRO have in studying sound waves? How/where do we use the CRO,
real world, half a page
Aim: What is the superposition of sound waves? How does superposition work? What does superposition look like?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Loud Sounds
hurting ears
Low
Ensure that the PC (running audacity) and radio have their volumes set to low before the
audio is played. Once it has been played, the sound can be increased slowly as required.
Dropping the
radio
Low
Ensure that the radio is placed on the desk and not held in your hands, depending on the type
of radio, it may
Procedure
1. Go to all programs and open 'audacity' (a sound recording/editing program that is used to view sound waves.
2. A sound source is required for the experiment, for example, radio, musical instrument.
3. Plug a microphone into the microphone port on the computer (So there is some way of inputting sound into our
program).
4. Set the radio to an AM radio station.
5. Record the sound that comes from the radio station for 10 seconds by clicking the record button on Audacity.
6. Click the stop button to finish recording.
7. Save the wave as a .wav file on the desktop.
8. Record another wave with different audio (FM station) by clicking the Record button.
9. Click the stop button to finish recording.
10. Import the previously saved .wav file into this new file.
11. Audacity will automatically create a 3rd wave, the superposition of the sound waves.
12. Use the timeline on the left to change the scale of the waves.
13. Zoom in to both waves by scrolling on the mouse.
14. Screenshot the three waves and paste into paint.
15. Save the image file as a jpeg and print off to observe the wave.
Analysis
16. What is a decibel?
The decibel is a unit used to measure the intensity of sound and can be shortened to dB. The smallest audible sound (near
total silence) is 0 dB, a sound 10 times more powerful is 10 dB, a sound 100 times more powerful than 0 is 20 db and a
sound 1000 times more powerful is 30dB, and so on. The average normal conversation has a decibel rating of 60 dB and a
gunshot or firecracker has a rating of 140 dB, therefore the gunshot is 100000000 times more powerful than an average
normal conversation. Sound is affected by the distance you are from the source and a sound above 85 decibels can be
harmful to your ears.
1. Explain what physically goes into the microphone?
When we speak into a microphone, sound waves physically enter the microphone until they reach the diaphragm which
The World Communicates Page 15
When we speak into a microphone, sound waves physically enter the microphone until they reach the diaphragm which
vibrates when struck by the waves. As the diaphragm vibrates, other components of the microphone are also vibrated and
these vibrations are converted into electrical current, which is the audio signal received by the program.
If the alignments are out of phase, and both waves have the same amplitude, they will cancel each other out and the
resultant will be zero or a straight line. This type of superposition is called Destructive superposition. Another form of this
type is when the waves are out of phase (crest meets trough) and their amplitudes are unequal, the resultant will be
smaller/ a reduction.
The microphones sensitivity determines how loud a sound needs to be for it to be detected by the microphone and
converted into a sound signal. Quieter sounds require a higher sensitivity to capture the sound. Distortion of sound can
occur if an extremely loud sound is detected by the microphone. This is due to the magnetic field losing contact with the
coil and could lead to a permanently damaged diaphragm.
When this electrical current, transferred from the microphone, is inputted into the computer, it can be recorded using
various programs and visualised as transverse waves, and edited or stored on the computer for playback, using speakers.
Loudspeakers work oppositely to microphones, at the front, they consist of a fabric, plastic or paper cone, which works
similarly to the diaphragm. The outer part of this cone is fastened to the speakers metal rim and the inner part is fastened
to an iron coil, behind which is the permanent magnet. When electrical signals travel through the speaker cables, into the
coil, the coil turn into an electromagnet. As electricity flows back and forth, the coil either attracts or repels the
permanent magnet, moving itself back and forth, vibrating the loudspeaker cone which pumps sound into the air.
Sound is produced by vibrating objects, these vibrations are carried to our ears and then by the auditory nerve to the
brain. As the object vibrates, a series of compressions and rarefactions move through a medium (air) and are detected
by our ears.
Longitudinal Wave
Rarefaction
Compression
Transverse Wave
Longitudinal : Transverse
Rarefaction : Trough
Compression : Crest
The higher the pitch, the higher the frequency. As the pitch of a sound increases, so does the frequency (Low
pitch, the lower the frequency). Humans can hear frequency's of 20 - 20000 Hz. Sounds above 20000 Hz are
called ultrasound.
Amplitude and Volume the higher the amplitude the higher the volume, so you might say to someone "turn
down the volume, Rob what part of the wave are you asking to change? The amplitude. Frequency, you draw
more waves, wavelength increases and frequency becomes larger. Now, I do have 2.4 in my drawer so I miught
just quickly get that and ill show you 2.4. We''l prpobably work onto 2.5. 2.6 was the prac, 2.87 you're doingfor
your diagrams for wavelengths and stuff. M<ada whats sound again> Josh, what do all waves do? They carry
particles. Look at 2.4! What do longitudinal waves do? If you can see something reflecting, what it waving like
Luke? True. But whats it behaving like? An echo. What whats I behaving like, like madhur said. If it reflects what
is it? Its acting lieka wave now. It starts now and ends up in year 12, this thing about is it a wave is it a particl.
Sound waves are like any typical wave, for example, water, water will hit the side of a wave and reflect. If you
can see reflection, your material or your object is behaving like a wave. Here's the thingo, wave is the object a
particle. Now souns do hit objects and bounce off, we call them echos. Now ben are they a good thing? Give me
an wexample where it would be a good thing. A good example where you want sound to reflect so if youre in a
ship, send the sound down the sonar, and you can see how deep the water is. Ryan, is reflection of sound waves
always good? Give mean example. Hen you want quiet, could be an exam Sean, what elsed could it be? Eesh.
Where does that happen? It happens where you pay a hundred dollars to go hear something. And I pay a 170
doollars. Yeah if you do to a concerty, dou dont want to hear The biull for opera house is about a 110
moiillion, in 1920, when the oper house was finished
The government sacked the architect and redu ced the things he wanted to do.
If you're doing a perdormance, your sound hits a surface, and comes back , the next sound is generated.
What can we do Justi to get rid of it? You could have an opening, what else could you do arthyur. Could make it
larger, but the 110 million gonna endo being 220 milion.
Yeah. If you want to stop the echo happening in a concert, you could line the inside of your concert with
curtains. They've hired who would be in his 50s by now and hes started to look at his dads plan. So you could
put curtains. Yeah, the curtains absorb the soud so the sound has no chance of reflecting. Thank god you saw me
holding this I wonder why I went all the way down to get this? So what should we do? How do we do that? Its
sort of like bumps. Sso you have this pattern, soft material, comes in different colours. Where have you seen this
Luke? Where else have you seen it> Where else would you put it? This is really the stuff you would put in a
sound studio, recording studio, the only time you wanna have this echo is when youre reducing it. This is why
they use curtains and things. And this is called an acoustic tiles and it reduces echos. The surface area has
increased there really no angle where the sound can come in where its gonna meet a solid surface. Echos is the
word we give to sound waves reflecting. So if you said to somebody, did you hear the echo, you're saying to
someone, did you hear the soundwaves reflecting. We need to know an advantage, or ause for echo, know
where its harmful.
2.4 - Echo
Thursday, 16 February 2012
2:22 PM
Echoes occur when sound reflects off an object, for example, Sound wave hits a solid material, for example,
timber, cement, cliff face, bounces off and the observer hears the reflection some time later.
Disadvantage: Concert, Recording/Sound studio - Minimised by Acoustic tiles
2.5 - Superposition
Monday, 20 February 2012
10:02 AM
-10
b) +
c)
2. Alignments are out of phase and the original waves have the same amplitude -> They cancel a each other out ->
Resultant = Zero seen as a straight line, perfectly out of phase -> Destructive Interference
3. The waves are out of phase but their amplitudes are not equal-> Resultant is smaller -> Destructive interference
4.
b) Frequency: 1/4 Hz
c) Amplitude: 2cm
6. 1 wave = 15cm. If the 4 waves pass a point in 30 seconds find the waves velocity.
Distance in 30 seconds = 15 x 4
= 60cm
Distance in one second = 60/30
= 2cm/s
= 0.02m/s
Section 3
Tuesday, 21 February 2012
1:01 PM
Rating
Electrocution
Mediu
m
Bright light
Low
damaging eyes
Minimisation
Do not use leads which are not completely covered in the insulating material.
Ensure that the power point being used is in a workable condition.
Do not turn on the Transformer with a high voltage, increase gradually. Do not get
too close to the light source, if the light is too strong, decrease the voltage of the
transformer.
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Table of Results
Distance
Intensity (Lux) 1/d2
cm
m
0
8000
10
0.1 280
100
20
0.2 114
25
30
0.3 56
11
50
0.5 35
80
0.8 15
1.6
100
12
Analysis
1) Draw a graph of intensity vs 1/d2
Extension half page + diagram: 1- lightmeters where we use how they work, 2 - 1/d2 is a relationship in
physics, used for gravity - how is gravity affected by the inverse square law relationship
Waves in springs, water and sand are all called mechanical waves and require a physical medium.
Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium and have two components (parts), electric field and magnetic fields
at 90 degrees to each other.
The amount of electromagnetic waves that pass through the atmosphere will depend on the season (Summer,
Autumn, Winter and Spring) and the weather conditions. Due to this variation all frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) penetrate the atmosphere to some degree.
The intensity of light (electromagnetic radiation) is a measure of the energy per unit area. The intensity decreases
greatly with a small change in the distance.
1) A candle emits 5 watts of light power at 1m. What is the intensity at 4m away?
1/16 x 5 = 0.3125 watts
2) A torch has a bulb produce 12 lumens of light at 1m. How many lumens is there 6 m away?
1/36 x 12 = 0.3333 lumens
3) A small globe emits light of intensity 1.2 watts at 8.7m. What will the intensity be at 5.3m from the globe?
Given - I1 = 1.2 watts
D1 = 8.7m
D2 - 5.3m
I1 x d12 = I2 x d22
1.2 x 8.7 x 8.7 = I2 x 5.3 x 5.3
I2 = 1.2 x 8.7 x 8.7 / (5.3 x 5.3) = 3.2335
3.5 - Modulation
Friday, 24 February 2012
3:02 PM
Audio Signal
Electro magnetic radiation is the fastest means of communications, but there are certain
problems:
1. Congestion of frequencies as more and more people use the bandwidths, the more room
is taken up.
300 GHz
EHF - Extremely high f
SHF - Super High
UHF - Ultra High
VHF - Very high
HF - High frequency
MF - Medium Frequency
LF - Low frequency
30 Khz
Section 4
Tuesday, 21 February 2012
1:01 PM
Aim: What happens when light is reflected from plane, concave, convex mirror surfaces
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Low
Do not touch the light box straight after operating and ensure that it is switched off
when not in use.
Electrocution
Medium Ensure that the wires of the transformer and light box do not have open cuts any
where. Turn off the power switch before removing plug from the power point.
Bright light
hurting eyes
Low
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8) Reflect 5 points by moving the light box light around the normal.
9) Record the angles of the 5 points.
10) Turn the card around to a triple slit and reflect against a concave and convex mirror.
10) Turn the card around to a triple slit and reflect against a concave and convex mirror.
Concave
Convex
1) Plane mirror
Incidence Reflected
RAY Angle RAY Angle
1
Analysis
1) Draw a graph showing angle of incidence vs angle of reflection. Describe the shape of this graph.
Aim - What happens when light rays move from air into a Perspex prism.
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Low
Do not touch the light box straight after operating and ensure that it is switched
off when not in use.
Low
Low
Start off with a lower voltage and increase gradually as required, do not turn on
if not in use.
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Results
Incidence Ray
Refracted Ray
Ray
10
0.17
0.12
20
0.34
14
0.24
45
0.71
30
0.5
60
0.87
38
0.62
Ray (i2)
Ray(r2)
0.12
10
0.17
14
0.24
20
0.34
30
0.5
45
0.71
38
0.62
60
0.87
Analysis
Draw a graph of angle of incidence vs angle of refraction.
3) Comment on the values of two incident (i1 and i2) AND the two refractive (r1 and r2) angles.
The angles i1 and r2 are equal and the angles i2 and r1 are equal, this is because
i1 and r2 are both rays which are travelling through air. i 1 is the angle that the
ray of light hits the Perspex at and when this angle leaves the Perspex, it is
refracted at the same angle as it came in at. i 2 and r1 are both equal as they are
the angles inside the Perspex. These two angles are always less than i 1 and r2
because when light travels from a less dense medium into a more dense
medium, it bends towards the normal, which is what this experiment
demonstrates.
4) Diagram showing dispersion of white light with a triangular prism.
Conclusion
Refraction occurs when a wave travels from one medium to another and the change in density of the medium
leads to the change in the waves' velocity which also causes it to change direction. Refractive index (n) is the
measure of the bending of light rays as it passes from one medium to another. The refractive index of a vacuum
is 1 , so if a medium has a refractive index less than 1, it indicates that the ray will travel away from the normal.
It can be calculated by dividing the sine of the angle of incidence by the sine of the angle of refraction (n = sin i /
sin r). By using the values collected from the experiment, and averaging the refractive index of each set of
values, the refractive index of the Perspex prism comes to approximately 1.41.
When the ray of light entered the Perspex prism from air, it bent towards the normal and when it left the
Perspex prism, it bent towards the normal. Hence, this experiment has proved that light travelling from a less
dense medium into a more dense medium slows down, leading it to bend towards the normal. When light
travels from a more dense medium into a less dense medium it speeds up, leading it to bend away from the
normal. The frequency of the wave however, does not increase.
Extension
Aim: How does the critical angle cause total internal reflection?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Low
Do not touch the light box straight after operating and ensure that it is switched off
when not in use.
Low
Low
Start off with a lower voltage and increase gradually as required, do not turn on if
not in use.
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Hook up the transformer and set to DC 10-12 Volts (raise gradually if required)
Put the leads of the light box into the transformer.
Draw a normal line on the paper.
Put the Semi circular prism on top of the normal.
Put the single beam slit into the light box
Aim the single beam from the light box at the prism, aiming for the normal at the flat end of the prism.
7)
Analysis
a) Explain how the angle of refraction varies as the angle of incidence increases.
b) State the value of the angle of incidence which gives angle of refraction of 90 degrees.
c) Explain what the incident ray does after the critical angle.
d) Using the formula below, calculate the critical angle for the semi circular prism.
Sin Ic = 1/n
Where:
The World Communicates Page 43
Where:
Ic = Critical angle
N = refractive index of perspex prism
Compare this to the calculated value.
Conclusion
1st para -definition of critical angle, state critical angle for semi circular prism.
2nd para - how is the principle of total internal reflection affected by the critical angle
use 4.7 as part of the concusion
Extension - half page - diagram - how total internal reflection is used in optical fibres,
When a wave, for example light, sound, radio or water, hits an object it bounces off. Sound reflects off solid
surfaces, water reflects off a pool wall, light reflects off a plane mirror (Law of reflection)
All waves obey the law of reflection - the angle of incidence (I) = the angle of reflection, the incidence ray, reflective
ray and normal all lie in the same plane.
Light - Optic fibres for eg. Internet, Phone calls, Pay TV.
- A digital signal is sent through optic fibres and it bounces (reflects) along the cable.
Radio Waves - Radar for eg. Police, Airport.
- A radio wave is sent out and reflects back from a car/aeroplane.
- The reflected radio wave is detected and a measurement of speed and position is detected.
Microwave - Satellites for eg. Phones, TV.
- Signal is sent from ground TV station to satellite, where it is transmitted (reflected) to a second TV station on
the ground.
- This process continues until global coverage results.
Plane surface - Reversing mirror on a car, Dress mirror, Fashion mirror, Shaving mirrors, Make up mirrors
Concave - Head light, Spotlight, Torch beam
Convex - Side mirrors on car (objects may be closer than they appear), Car park mirrors, Mirrors at the back of
stores
4.4/4.5 - Refraction
Tuesday, 13 March 2012
12:03 PM
When a wave travels from one medium into another, its direction changes (velocity), for example, from air > Perspex.
Due to the velocity change, the wave also changes direction. For example - light travelling from a less dense medium
into a more dense medium bends towards the normal (slows down). Light travelling from a more dense medium to a
less dense medium bends away from the normal (speeds up). Frequency does not change from one medium to
another however the velocity does.
The critical angle occurs when the angle of incidence goes from a more dense to a less dense medium,
results in an angle of refraction of 90 degrees.
Sin Ic = 1/n
Where:
Ic = Critical angle
N = refractive index of perspex prism
1) What is the critical angle for light travelling from water to air.
n = 1.45
Sin Ic = 1/1.45 = 0.6897
= 44 degrees
If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle from a more dense > to less dense medium, no light
leaves and is totally internally reflected. This is used in fibre optics.
Section 5
Monday, 19 March 2012
9:17 AM
Communication data that is stored or transmitted in digital form, include; sound, videos, pictures, text. The
data is sampled and the waveform is converted into a number. Digital systems use 'bits' 1 and 0 to write
numbers in the binary code (base 2). The binary numbers are stored for example; flash drive, hard drive, iPod.
1byte = 8 1s or 0s. 1kilobyte = 1000 1s or 0s. 1megabyte = 1000000 1s or 0s. 1gigabyte = 1000000000 1s or 0s.
A laser light reflects from the binary pattern on, for e.g. A compact disk.
Light reflects from the binary pattern, it's read by a detector and the presence or absence of light (interference
pattern, crest/trough) is used to represent the original byte, 0 or 1, of the binary code. DVDs hold greater
amounts of information i.e. sound and pictures. Some DVDs store data on both sides of a disk and use a smaller
laser i.e. blue lasers (smaller wavelength.
Lasers are useful because they are a coherent light source that can be focused onto a tiny area. (Coherent - one
wavelength) This makes the light energy, very powerful. Used in CD technology to burn a disk and read digital
information or transmit information large distances through optic fibres.
This point here has its unique code. Might be a number of these. And the next one will be a different set of
numbers. And this is done many times a second. So each letter, each letter on the kjeyboard here has a
different code. The computer doesnt know youre pressing a but when you press a it gets a code. Each leetter
has its own code. So basically what happens, is it okay to start?now we'll just do an example, compact disk. CD
comes up in year 12. What you can see is the rainbow. If you hit that with a laser, what you find is on the
surface of the compact disk you've got these pits and channels so if a laser hits here you get this time of
reflection. If the laser now hits here it has to travel a little bit of further distance. Once the laaser hits your cd
the whle surface has got thses pits and channels. They set up an interference patter, this is collected by a cd
player. In the original message when you go the supermarket and you scan the barcode and on that bardcode if
you look where they scan it, you put the food across, when that hits, this is whats set up. On a laster disk, the
laser hits the surface and every so often there's a pit. Two waes are not in phase anym,ore so you've got an
interference patter. And this is how we get that information transmitted as light. In the text it foes over these
couple of pages. So by all means what we're discussing you might need to read it again. Starts here, so this is
your laster, tour pit, by all means read this bit here, whats stored, the digital revolution. You do need to write
something down. This is total internal reflections. Hows total internl reflection works, it works with an optical
fibre. And then these things here, so you do need to look at this, dont just think the text book is of no use. Um
its not given any sort of particular name but the detector is, can be mirrors, in your cd this laser , you put the cd
down, this laser comes down this way. You can actually see it next time you do your shopping. Its a red light
thats reflecting off the barcode and that barcode when the laser reflects offf it sets up a series of patters. So
every item has its own barcode. Now put a full stop. Now I think we got uptooooo Ryan you were the last
personto do an answer so ben what oes coherent mean, you here coherent used in everyday language, in.
babbling on. Lasers can cut meterial, if you have enough energy, you can ;lose laser to cut therough glass and
so forth.
The World Communicates Page 53
so forth.
A system of geostationary communication satellites are used to receive and transmit radio/TV signals around the world.
There are a set of non-stationary satellites to service the GPS for consumers. Simultaneous contact with four of these
satellites allows longitude and latitude to be fixed. GPS operate in the microwave band. The system operates on
knowing the exact time (atomic clock) and comparing this with the time at the satellite and receiver on Earth.
Section 1
Friday, 23 March 2012
2:46 PM
Electricity has enabled people to obtain/use a vast range of labour saving devices which have produced a
consumer society (Throw away society) i.e. washing machines, ovens, refrigerators, TVs, Computers, Mobile
phones.
All goods have a limited life span and must be replaced eventually.
Positive impact - Labour saving devices > less physical work > more automation
Negative impact - Production of Greenhouse gases e.g. CO2:
Climate change > changing weather patterns
Type
Cost
Benefits
Drawbacks
Generator Cheap
Portable
Noisy
Widely available
Limited capacity
Doesn't rely on weather Pollution
Solar
Expensive
Free, Unlimited
Wind
Climate controlled
Space needed to set it up
Need unlimited wind flow
Hydro
Climate controlled
Efficiency
Galvani's ideas:
- Animal electricity -> the life force in an animal i.e. the energy, vitality in muscles was due to electricity
- Muscles twitch/move due to electrical impulses but not because they have electricity
Volta's ideas:
- Constructed a battery with two different metals (zinc/brass).
- This produced electricity without using animals.
- Volta explained that animal tissue was a source of detecting current and not associated with producing
current.
Section 2
Monday, 2 April 2012
10:02 AM
Aim: How are voltmeters and ammeters placed in a circuit? How do they work? What does each one measure?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Electrocution
Rating
Medium
Minimisation
Do not use leads which are not completely covered in the insulating material. Do not
touch the ends of the cables. Use a transformer which uses a low voltage.
Do not touch the light globe straight after operating and ensure that it is switched
off when not in use.
Dropping the
Transformer
Low
Ensure that the transformer is at the middle of the table, away from the edges.
Dropping the
Light globe
Low
Ensure that the light globe is at the middle of the table, away from the edges, as
dropping it and breaking glass could be dangerous. If it is dropped, tell the teacher
and warn other students.
Procedure
1) Set up the equipment below:
2)
3)
4)
5)
Connect the lead from the positive terminal of the transformer to the positive terminal in the voltmeter.
Connect the lead from the negative terminal of the transformer to the negative terminal in the voltmeter.
Ensure that the recorded numbers are the ones from the 0-20 range on the voltmeter.
Change the transformer setting from 2 to 4 to 6 and so on, and record the numbers on the voltmeter for
each setting.
6) Set up the equipment below:
7)
8)
9)
10)
2.5
4.5
10
10
12
12
170
Very dim
3.5
220
5.5
250
Low brightness
7.5
310
Fairly bright
10
9.5
360
Bright
12
11
400
Very bright
Analysis Questions
1) In which direction do:
a. The electrons move around the circuit
Electrical Energy Page 63
Aim: How does voltage and current change in a circuit with a resistor?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Electrocution
Rating
Medium
Minimisation
Do not use leads which are not completely covered in the insulating material. Do not
touch the ends of the cables. Use a transformer which uses a low voltage. Turn off the
transformer before touching the components.
Do not touch the light globes straight after operating and ensure that it is switched off
when not in use.
Dropping the
Transformer
Ensure that the transformer is at the middle of the table, away from the edges.
Low
Procedure: 12 - 15 points
1. Connect the negative terminal of the transformer to the ammeter.
2. Connect a terminal from the ammeter to a resistor terminal.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Table of Results
Analysis
1. Find the resistance of each fixed resistor.
Electrical Energy Page 65
An electric field/ region is where a charged object experiences electrical force (E). Direction is given by a
forced line.
E = F/q
Where:
E = Electric field strength in Newtons per Coulomb (N.C -1)
q = Charge on object in coulombs (C)
F = Electric force in newtons (N)
1) What is a force?
A push, pull or twist
2) What is a charge?
An electric charge is the physical property of an object causing it to experience a force when placed in the
vicinity of other objects which also have electric charges. Electric charge is either positive or negative. Like
charges repel and opposite charges attract. It unit is the coulomb.
3) What is an electric field?
A region in space where if a charge were placed within it, the field would exert a force on the charge.
F=qxE
E=F/q
F = force on the electric field in Newtons (N)
Q = Charge in coulombs
E = Magnitude of the electric field - Amount of electrostatic force observer per unit charge.
Electric field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges
Electric field lines never cross
Electrical Energy Page 69
Electric field lines point away from positive charges and toward negative charges
Electric field lines never cross
Electric field lines always intersect conductors at right angles to the surface
Stronger fields have closer lines
Field strength and line density decreases as you move away from the charges
F = 3.6 x 10(-15)
Q = -1.6 x 10(-19)
E = 3.6 x 10(-15) / 1.6 x 10(-19) = 2.25 x 104 N/C
F = 2. x 1015
Q = 1.6 x 10-19
1.25 x 104
With DC, the flow of charge carriers occurs in one direction only.
Charge carriers in wire are actually negatively charged electrons
When the properties of electricity were still being discovered, it was defined that these charge
carriers move from positive to negative, this is called conventional current.
However electrons actually move from negative to positive.
The most common source of Dc power comes from dry cell batteries.
-----------------------------------------> Electric field
<---(-) <---(-) <---(-)
<---(-) <---(-)
Conventional current----------------------------------->
<-------------------------------------Electron current
In AC, charge carriers move backwards and forwards periodically.
In Australia charge carriers move back and forth 50 times per second
The mains power used in most homes is 240V however it cycles between +339V and -339V.
240V AC is the equivalent AC voltage that will heat up a resistor is 240DC were placed across it.
Many appliances need DC to operate and they convert Ac to DC using diodes.
Diodes allow current to flow in one direction, but not the other.
Voltage is the change in Electrical Potential Energy between 2 points i.e. the difference between positive
and negative electrical potential.
Units are the Volts (V).
Change in electrical potential energy per unit of charge joules per coulomb or volts.
Voltage changes in series if resistance increases
Potential difference is the same around a DC circuit and depends on the resistance
The current that flows through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
V proportional to I
V/I = Constant = Resistance
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amps)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
1) A conductor 25m long has a resistance of 6 ohms and a cross sectional area of 10mm squared. Find the
resistance of the wire if:
a) The length is 50m
12 ohms
b) Cross sectional area is 30mm
2 ohms
Practice Qs
Data for two conductors are given below:
Wire A (Amps) 0
0.18
0.39
0.57
0.78
0.95
1.1
Voltage (V)
10
12
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.32
0.35
Wire B (Amps) 0
2.10 - Resistance
Tuesday, 1 May 2012
12:27 PM
Section 3
Friday, 4 May 2012
2:56 PM
Aim: What are the differences between a Series and Parallel circuit?
Risk Assessment
Procedure
1) Set up the circuit below:
Results Table
Parallel
Observation
Total
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
10
0.2
12
0.25
4.7 4
0.45
0.52
0.6
0.8
10
0.9
12
1.1
3.3 2
9.3
2.4 11.1
as you go down
Analysis
1) Comment on the brightness in a- Series, b - Parallel
Resistance is greater in series therefore lights are not as bright and the voltage is shared and the
current is low due to higher resistance.
Electrical Energy Page 79
4) Explain what happens and why if a globe is removed from series and parallel.
In a series circuit the circuit is broken down and all the globes go out. In a parallel you take one out the
other 2 are still on.
Conclusion 3.1 - how are the circuits different discuss the setup, current, voltage, para 2 - which at
home and why - each light can have its own switch, one goes out other doesnt
3rd para - what happens when you add more resistors to a series and parallel circuit-current
decreases, resistance increases in parallel total current increases because the resistance decreases
Extension - explain what happens to a powerpoint when it has several electrical appliances (double
adaptors) are added to it. Diagram to explain look at current overloads, electric fires
Electrics circuits allow electrical energy to be transported from one place to another.
An electrical circuit is an unbroken loop of conducting material, around which charged
particles (electrons) move.
Electric circuits have; Connecting wires i.e. conducting pathway, Potential difference
source (EMF) for example, 240V or battery and a Load, a device that consumes the
electrical energy for example, a light.
Type of circuit
Current
Voltage
Series
Vps = V1 + V2.
Parallel
Series:
One conducting pathway
Current is the same through each component
ITOTAL = I1 = I2 = I3
Voltage across each component is equal to the total voltage of the EMF
VTOTAL (ps) = V1 + V2 + V3
Resistance total = R1 + R2 + R3
Placing resistors in series increases total resistance which in turn reduces current
Parallel:
Current can travel in multiple pathways
Current flowing out of the transformer equal the current flowing back to into the transformer, but
splits/divides between the branches
Current Total = I1 + I2 + I3
Series:
Rise in voltage equals the gain in electric potential energy that each coulomb of charge experiences
as it passes through a power supply.
A drop in voltage equals the loss of electrical potential energy that each coulomb of charge
experiences as it passes through a power supply.
For example, Vps = v1 + v2 + v3, where Vps is the voltage rise across power supply and V1 V2 and V3
are voltage drops across corresponding resistors.
If R1 = R2 = R3 then the voltage drop across each will be the same.
If the resistors have different values, then the resistor with the greatest value will have the greatest
voltage drop
Ammeters:
Measure current passing through them (circuit).
Ammeters measure (count) charge carriers (electrons) passing through every second -> Coulombs per
second (Amps/Amperes/A).
Ammeters are connected in series -> makes charge carriers (electrons) pass through one single
pathway -> ensures electrons are all counted.
Voltmeters:
Voltmeters measure potential difference (voltage) across a component i.e. the negative to positive
difference in potential energy between two points.
Voltmeters are connected in parallel, since they have a fuckin massive resistance -> forces the current
the component and not through the voltmeter
Lighting circuits require less power to operate, are usually on a 10 Amp circuit breaker and are made with
thinner wires.
This makes lighting circuits more cost effective.
Heating circuits are still in parallel but are on a separate circuit because they require more power for
example, stove, oven, hot water, 20-30 Amps.
This higher current allows the circuits the power to reach the higher temperature.
Thicker wires are used in the circuits to carry this higher current.
Other appliances (powerpoints) use around 15 Amps and have a thicker wire than light
Different circuits allow for appropriate circuit breakers, cost effective, thickness of wires used for the
purpose intended.
1. Draw the circuits below using 3 resistors, 1 switch, 1 cell:
Parallel
Series
2. Find the current through each resistor and the potential different across each.
Electrical Energy Page 84
2. Find the current through each resistor and the potential different across each.
Current across each resistor is 8 Amps. I = V/R, R = 5+6+4
Potential difference across 6 ohm resistor -> V = IR = 6 x 8 = 48 volts
4 ohm -> 4 x 8 = 32
5 ohm -> 5 x 8 = 40
3. What is the voltage of two 1.5V dry cells connected in series and parallel.
In series: Total voltage = 1.5 + 1.5 = 3V
In parallel: Total voltage = 1.5V
Section 4
Tuesday, 22 May 2012
12:10 PM
Aim: How much heat energy can be obtained from an electrical current?
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Hot coil
Electrocution Low
Minimisation
Procedure
1) Set up the circuit below:
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Table of Results
Time
Voltage (V) Current (A) Temp (Celsius) Power (Watts)(VI) Energy (J)(VIt)
3.5
4.4
19
15.4 x 0 = 0
4.6
22
4 x 4.6 = 18.4
4.6
22
4 x 4.6 = 18.4
4.5
27
4 x 4.5 = 18
18 x 240 = 4,320
4.6
30
4 x 4.6 = 18.4
3.8
4.4
33
10
3.5
4.4
36
12
3.5
4.4
40
Analysis
3) Why did we use in this practical; a: The Rheostat, b: Keep the current around 4-5 amps, c: stir the water
a: Rheostat to adjust current, which can increase or decrease resistance, Highest possible current wanted to
make sure that you get a greater heat. And because the limit for the transformer, anything higher will
overload.
c: To ensure that the heat was spread around the whole cup
4) Why does the voltmeter read around 3.5 Volts when the transformer was on 8V?
4.1/4.2 - Power
Thursday, 24 May 2012
1:58 PM
4.3 - Energy
Monday, 28 May 2012
9:16 AM
E = Vit
V = E/q
E = Pt
1. The potential difference or voltage, V, across two points is defined as the energy, E,
dissipated or transferred by a coulomb of charge, Q, that moves through two points.
2. V = E/q
V is potential difference in Volts, V (or J.C-1)
E is electrical energy dissipated in joules
Q is charge in coulombs
3. Current is the rate of charge flow.
Therefore, the total charge flows through the two points is given as:
Q=Ixt
T = time in seconds
4. The energy dissipated or transferred is given:
E = qV
E = VQ
V = E/q
5. Therefore the relationship between E, V, I and t is:
E = Vit
6. P = VI
Where P = power in watts
FORMULAS
E = VIt
P = VI
V = E/q
Write units in calculation
I = 6, t = 12, E = 320
E = VIt
V = E/It
= 320/72 = 4.4444V
--V = 230
P = 60
T = 120 x 60 = 7,200
a) I = P/V
= 60/230 = 0.2609 A
b) E = 230 x 0.2609 x 7200 = 4.32 x 105 J
5.26 x 2 x 20.4 = 214.608
Consumers are charged by the electrical energy they use, the amount of electrical energy used
can be given by the Joule -> which is too small a unit for practical use
So a much larger unit is used for calculating the cost of electrical energy, the kilowatt hour.
Energy in kWh = Power in kW x time in hours
1 - What amount of energy does a 170 Watt hairdryer use if its on for 10 mins.
1) P = 170
T = 10 mins = 10 x 60 = 600 seconds
E = Vit
VI = P
E = Pt
E = 170 x 600 = 102,000
2) V = 125W
I = 11.6A
Find the: a- Resistance, b: Power
R = V/I
R = 125/11.6 = 10.7759 Ohms
P = VI
P = 125 x 11.6 = 1,450 Watts
3) A resistor uses 8.7A and has a resistance of 2.5 ohms, what would be its a- Potential difference,
b- Power, c- Energy dissipated for 2 hours
I = 8.7A
R = 2.5
a: Potential difference = Voltage
V = IR
= 8.7 x 2.5 = 21.75V
b: P = VI
= 21.75 x 8.7 = 189.225W
c: E = Vit
= 189.225 x 2 x 60 x 60 = 1,362,420J = 1.4 x 106J
4) The school heater uses 75V and 3.6 kW.
a: How much current does it use?
b: What is the energy released if it takes 5 mins to warm a room? Energy in Joules and kWh
V = 75V
kW = 3.6 = 3600kW
a: P = VI
I = P/V
= 3600 / 75 = 48 Amps
b: E = Pt
= 3600 x 5 x 60 = 1,080,000 Joules
kWh = 3.6 x (5/60) = 0.3kWh
5) If one kilowatt hour costs 12 cents, how much will the charge be to operate a 110W for 1.5
hours? b: If the clock operates on 36V find its: current, resistance and how many hours will 18
Electrical Energy Page 91
hours? b: If the clock operates on 36V find its: current, resistance and how many hours will 18
kW be consumed?
1kWh = $0.12
a. 0.12 x 0.11 x 1.5 = 0.0198
b. P = VI
I = P/V
= 110/36 = 3.0556
c. V = IR
R = V/I
= 36/03.0556 = 11.7816
d. 18/0.11 = 163.6364
Section 5
Tuesday, 29 May 2012
12:06 PM
Covering 5.6,5.7,5.1,5.2,5.3,5.4,5.5
Aim:
1: What's an electromagnet? How is an electromagnet made?
2: What is the direction of an electric field around a conductor?
Risk Assessment
Identify
Rating
Minimisation
Electrocution Low
Overheating
Mediu
m
Procedure
Part 1: The Electromagnet
Nothing
Results
Analysis
Extension
Draw the magnetic field lines around a straight DC current carrying conductor.
Why didn't we include this in the prac?
Too weak
What was the limiting factor?
Not enough current flowing through
Electrical Energy Page 95
5.1 - Magnetism
Monday, 4 June 2012
8:55 AM
Magnetism is a property possessed by certain materials for example; Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, that allows
them to attract small pieces of Iron.
Magnets are found in:
1- Electric motors and generators
2- Radios and TV
3- Telephones and Loudspeakers
4- Audio and Video tapes
5- Computer hard disks
6- MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging
5.5 - Solenoids
Monday, 4 June 2012
9:21 AM
A solenoid is a coil of wire, when electricity flows through it magnetic field is produced
Solenoid increases magnetic field as current increases
Solenoids magnetism can be turned on and off
Bar magnet is a permanent magnet
Bar magnet is weaker
Both produce a magnetic field
Electric motors are used to operate air conditioners, refrigerators, fans, washing machines, clothes
dryers etc.
Electric motors convert electrical energy into another form of energy, for example; mechanical energy.
All electric motors use a magnetic field in them.
Section 6
Monday, 4 June 2012
9:31 AM
6.1 - Electrocution
Monday, 4 June 2012
9:31 AM
3- Circuit breakers/fuses
Circuit breakers are resettable switches that turn off if too much current passes through it.
Fuses are pieces of metal wire that melt/break when too much current passes through it.
Safety switches (Earth leakage device)
If there is a leakage they protect against the flow of current to earth.
They are essential when using devices for example power tools.
ELD monitor current inflows and outflows from an appliance
Power points have 3 pins
4- Earthing
1: Brown (red): active/ live wire (LEFT)
2: (RIGHT) Blue (black): Neutral wire, returns electrons back to the power grid/power stations
3: (BOTTOM) Green and Yellow (green): Earth wire and not part of a normal circuit. This earth wire is
connected to a metal stake in the ground. Carries current leaked onto appliance to earth.
Section 1
Tuesday, 5 June 2012
1:05 PM
a) 25/8 = 3.125m/s/s
b) F = ma
= 9001 x 3.125
= 28128.125N
c) Impulse = Ft
= 28128.125 x 8
= 225025N/s
------------------People are advised to not to carry heavy items on the parcel rack above the rear seat of cars. Explain, with
reference to Newton's laws of motion, why this practice is dangerous.
Aim: How does a ticket tape timer record the motion of an object?
Risk Assessment
Identify
Rating
Electric Shock
Medium Turn off the transformer before adjust the ticker tape.
Minimisation
Hold it from the handle
12
1. Set up
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Results
Motion
Total time
Number of spaces x time
Velocit
y
d
cm
d
m
between dots
Spaces betw dots
1. Slow
y
V=d/t
X 0.02
2. Mediu
m
3. Fast
f) Pulling consistently
Conclusion - para explaining linear motion, description explanation
Para 2 - what information does the ticker tape timer tell us? Acceleration, velocity, time
Extension - half a page + diagram, another instrument or device that records motion
Radar gun, Speedometer, touch pads
Covering 2.11
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
Results
Surface
Table top
0.55
Easy
Sand paper
Difficult
Cloth
1.1
Difficult
Bubble wrap
0.7
Medium
Cork
0.8
Medium
Lino
0.7
Medium
Carpet
0.8
Medium
Metal
0.45
Easy
Perspex
0.9
Difficult
Ramp Flat
0.6
Easy
Ramp Elevated
(45 degrees)
1.25
Difficult
Curtain Nylon
0.55
Easy
Analysis
1) Graph -->
Friction N I
Draw a graph of Friction versus Surface.
I
I__________
Surface
2) Draw a diagram to show the microscopic view of a smooth and rough surface.
How do the projections cause resistance to motion?
Rougher surface has more projections into the second surface
3) Explain how friction could be reduced?
Powder, Pencils/Rollers
Typical journey from one place to another involves changes due to stop signs, speed lights, turn,
wait.
Speed limits
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
Town X
Town Y
50km East
50km
125km
200km
50km
50km
50km
50km east
50km east
50km east
Scalar
Quantities that have a magnitude (size)
No direction -> Distance, Length, Mass, Time, Volume, Speed, Temperature, Energy,
Power, Volume, Density
Vector
Quantities that have both size and a direction.
Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration,
Vectors are represented by arrows
The size of the vector is indicated by the length of the arrow
The direction of the vector is indicated by the direction of the arrowhead
Vector Addition
Join vectors head to tail and the resultant vector is the distance form where you started to
where you finished.
Vector Subtraction
The difference between 2 vectors is obtained by reversing the direction of the vector to be
subtracted, then adding it to vector 1.
1) Add 3km North to 4km North.
A: 7km North
2) 7km E + 5km W + 4km E
A: 6km East
Friction
Friday, 15 June 2012
2:41 PM
Adding Vectors
Friday, 15 June 2012
2:47 PM
15
Cos55 = x/12
X = 12cos55
X = 6.88
Sin55 = y/12
y = 12sin55
y = 9.83
Total
21.88
9.83
15
20cos45
20sin45
14.14
14.14
Total
R
29.14
14.14
32.39N North 64 degrees East
2) Add the following forces acting on an object, 10N N, 15.2N E, 11.5N N20W
Vector X
10
15.2
-11.5cos70
-3.93
11.5sin70
10.81
Total
11.27
20.81
Vector X
-9
-7
Total
-7
-9
Moving About Page 116
49+81 = 130
11.4km S38E
4) Subtract 18km N from 6km E
Vector X
-18
Total
-18
36 + 324=360
19km S18E
Between
A->B = 100m from origin at a constant velocity -> 20m/s
B->C = At rest
C->D = Constant velocity of 10m/s
D->E = At rest
E->F = Constant velocity of 30m/s back to the origin
What information can you obtain from a displacement versus time graph.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Velocity = Rise/Run
Section 2
Tuesday, 19 June 2012
12:40 PM
Aim: What are the forces involved in a single fixed pulley and how do these influence the motion of a mass.
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Results
Distance: 0.8m
Mass B F = mg Mass A F = mg Net
(g)
(g) (kg) N
Time
1 2 3
50
000
0.49
50
A-B
100
150
200
Average
Analysis
1) Calculate the acceleration of Mass B (changing mass) by A = F(Net force on A)/M
2) Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the pulley. Weight force down from the mass, Normal force other side
mass going up, Air resistance, Friction around string pulley
Conclusion
Definition of force F = MA
Describe it
All motion and hence all velocities are relative (Galileo) i.e. they are compared to a frame of reference.
Roadway, Lab walls
The objects motion is compared to what's in the background
Car A ----> 20ms-1 East
Car B ----> 10ms-1 East
To the stationary observer, the velocity of the 2 cars are 20m/s and 10m/s
How fast does a person in Car A appear to Car B?
Subtract velocity of Car B from Car A -> 10m/s East
Person sitting in Car B, what would there velocity be relative to Car A?
20m/s West - 10 East = 10m/s West
2.4 - Change
Tuesday, 19 June 2012
1:01 PM
2.5 - Friction
Monday, 25 June 2012
8:58 AM
2.6 Accelerations
Monday, 25 June 2012
9:03 AM
Pg202 in textbook
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Driving force
Air resistance
Road friction
Normal Force
Weight force
1) Coasting/Cruising
1. Wheels turn by the motor, tyre pushes onto the road -> Road pushes forward on the car = Car moves forward.
The forward push of the road the tire is traction (grip), if tires do not have enough tread or road is icy -> not
enough friction to push the car forward -> car slides/skids
2. Air resistance, drag, increases as car moves faster.
3. Rolling friction acts on the non-driving wheels in a direction opposite to the motion. When brakes are applied,
wheels turn less/slower -> speed reduced
4. A normal reaction force pushes up on all four wheels
5. Weight acts through the centre of mass(car) towards centre of the earth
2) Pressing accelerator
1. When the accelerator is pressed, the Driving force increases -> Cars velocity increases until the sum of air
resistance and road friction grows large enough to balance cars velocity. Now the car moves at a constant but
higher velocity.
3) Pressing brakes
When the brakes are applied the wheels turn too slowly for the current velocity at which the car is moving.
Wheels no longer rolling freely (cruising) -> This increases road friction and car eventually stops. If brakes are
pressed hard enough, the wheels can lock/skid
4) Icy patch
Car wheels can lose friction when passing over ice/water on the road i.e. car tread no longer touches the road
surface, car slides.
5) Climbing/Descending hills
Driving uphill
The driving force is greater than air resistance + road friction + component of the weight parallel to the slope
= car accelerates up slope.
Descending
Normal reaction force is balanced by weight force (90 degrees to the surface).
The net force is parallel to the slope and the car will accelerate down the hill
6) Following a curve in the road
Turn steering wheel to follow curve, the direction of the driving force changes therefore velocity changes
(new direction) --> No change in magnitude i.e. still 60km/h but car is accelerating since a change in direction
changes velocity.
Average Acceleration
Thursday, 28 June 2012
2:04 PM
Centripetal forces are directed towards the centre of a circle and act on an object travelling in a circle
travelling at constant velocity.
Because the object is continually changing direction it is accelerating and this acceleration is also
directed towards the centre of the circle.
Fc = mv2/r
Where:
F = Centripetal Force in Newtons (N)
m = Mass of moving object in kilograms (kg)
v = Velocity of the object in metres per second (m/s)
r = radius of circle metres (m)
ac = Fc/m
ac = v2/r
1) A car mass 1.5 tonnes is driven at a constant velocity of 20m/s around a corner of radius 15m, find
a) The net force acting on the car
b) The acceleration of the car
m = 1500000
r = 15
v = 20
F = mv2/r
= 1500 x 400 / 15
= 40000
= 40kN
A = F/m
= 40000/1500
= 26.6667m/s-2
1) A 925kg motorbike has a velocity of 90km/h as it turns around a bend radius of 20.5m. Calculate the
a) Centripetal force
b) Acceleration from the friction between tires and the road.
M = 925
R = 20.5
V = 25m/s
F = mv2/r
= 925 x 625 / 20.5
= 28,201.2195N
a = F/m
= 28201/925 =
= 30.49m/s-2
Sections 3
Thursday, 19 July 2012
2:04 PM
Introduction: Two Physics trolleys are used to simulate collisions between vehicles with different masses.
Theory: The Law of Conservation of Momentum says that the momentum of a system will not change if the net
force acting upon it is zero. If no external force acts upon two vehicles involved in a collision, then the total
momentum of the system will remain constant. This means that the change in momentum of the first vehicle is
equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the second vehicle.
1. Momentum: P = mv
2. Newtons 2nd Law: Sum F = ma
3. Impulse: Sum F x Difference in t = m x Difference in Velocity
Aim: To show that momentum is conserved in collisions which have no unbalanced forces acting on the system.
Equipment:
Physics Trolleys
Stopwatch
Masses
Ruler
Procedure
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
The change in momentum of the heavier trolley is equal and opposite to the change in momentum of the
lighter trolley, thus proving that the net force on this system is zero, however external forces due to friction and
other forces.
When a collision occurs between two objects, some or all of the kinetic energy
possessed by the first object may be transferred into other forms of energy.
This may include heat, light, sound and thermal energy.
Potential energy of deformation of objects.
Work
Thursday, 19 July 2012
2:14 PM
W = Fs
W = work, Joules (J)
F = Force, Newtons (N)
S = Displacement, metres (m)
Examples
1) A force of 70N is applied to a cart for 3 metres. What is the work done over the
displacement?
70 x 3 = 210J
2) A force of 100 N results in work of 200 J being done. Over what displacement did this
occur?
W = Fs
S = W/F
Displacement = 200/100
= 2m
3) Over a distance of 10m, a 3kg cat accelerates at 2ms-2. What is the work done?
F = Ma
= 3x2
= 6N
W = Fs
= 6 x 10
= 60J
In a collision a cars' (object) energy is transformed into another type of energy for example, sound,
heat, light, deforming of the car.
Elastic: Kinetic energy is conserved i.e. stays the same before and after the collision, for example,
collision between atoms, molecules. Best approximation is billiard balls.
Generally collision between large objects are not elastic.
Inelastic: Kinetic energy is not conserved (in the object) i.e. kinetic energy is not the same before and
after the collision.
The energy is used to deform the car, sound, light, heat.
Kinetic energy after collision is less than kinetic energy before the accident.
The loss in kinetic energy is converted into other forms, heat, light, sound, therefore the total kinetic
energy of the system is conserved in both elastic and inelastic collisions i.e. individual kinetic energy
of objects in inelastic collision change before/after accident but total kinetic energy of system before
equals after.
The Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed it can only be changed into different forms of energy.
For example, Petrol: Chemical Energy -> Kinetic Energy
1) A ball 1.5kg moving at 7m.s east collides with a stationary 2kg toy car. After the collision, the ball is
stationary, while the toy car moves east. Find
a) The velocity of the toy car
Momentum before = Momentum after
1.5 x 7 = 2 x X
X = 1.5 x 7 / 2
= 5.25m.s east
1.5 x 7 + 2 x 0 = 1.5 x 0 + 2 x X
X = 1.5 x 7 / 2 = 5.25m.s east
b) If the collision is elastic or inelastic
KE before = KE after
1/2 m1u12 + 1/2m2u22 = 1/2 m1v12 + 1/2m2v22 =
1/2 x 1.5 x 7 x 7 + 1/2 x 2 x 0 x 0 = 36.75
1/2 x 1.5 x 0 x 0 + 1/2 x 2 x 5.3 x 5.3 = 28.09
They are not equal therefore the collision is inelastic.
GPE = mgh
Section 4
Tuesday, 24 July 2012
12:25 PM
4.1 - Momentum
Tuesday, 24 July 2012
12:26 PM
The property an object has and is calculated by the mass of an object times its velocity.
P = mv
Units of momentum are kilograms metres per second, kg/m/s -> Vector
Units can also be Newtons per second, N/s
4.2 - Impulse
Tuesday, 24 July 2012
12:32 PM
ii) If the taxi has a mass of 900kg and it accelerates from rest, what is its velocity at the end of 10
seconds.
Impulse = Ft
= 375 x 10
= 3750N.s
Mv - mu = 3750
900 x v = 3750
V = 3750 / 900
= 4.167m.s
7) A ball of mass 0.27kg travels east at a velocity of 6m/s, it bounces back from a goal post due west
with a velocity of 6m/s. The ball touches the goal post for 0.19 seconds. Find:
i) Change in momentum of the ball
ii) Average force acting on the ball while in contact with the goal post
P = mv - mu
= 0.27 x 6 + 0.27 x 6
= 3.24 N.s
Impulse = Ft
F = Impulse / t
= 3.24 / 0.19
= 17.05N
Section 5
Monday, 30 July 2012
8:52 AM
5.1 - Inertia
Monday, 30 July 2012
8:54 AM
Any object persists in constant motion along a straight path, or remains at rest, unless
it is acted upon by an external force.
Inertia is defined as a an objects tendency to remain either in constant motion or at
rest, unless it is acted upon by an external force.
Seatbelts are perhaps the most effective safety feature in a vehicle, along with airbags
and ABS.
Objects and occupants inside a vehicle travel at the same velocity as the vehicle.
In a collision, a loose object in a vehicle continues to travel at the same velocity.
It experiences a force for an amount of time when it meets an obstruction.
The result is a change in momentum.
The objects mass speeds up, slows down or changes direction.
The impulse of the object is equal to the change in momentum.
NOTES
Monday, 3 September 2012
9:17 AM
1600 - Kepler - 3 Laws of planetary motion: Law of ellipses -> Each planet moves in an oval shape (ellipse) with
the sun at one focus. Law of areas -> Speed of planet changes during its orbit, slower away from sun and faster
around/closer to sun-> Radius line sweeps out equal areas in equal time. Law of periods -> The square of the
period of the planet is proportional to the cube of the distance form the sun. Closer planets to the sun, travel
faster and planets further away, travel slower around sun.
1600 - Galileo - Heliocentric model - Observes the moon, craters. Sees the moons of Jupiter and realised that not
everything goes around the earth.
Newton - Law of Gravitation - Gravity is the force that holds planets in orbit around the sun.
2.2 - 3- Nucleo-synthesis formation of elements.
Section 1
Thursday, 16 February 2012
1:05 PM
Covering:
Aim: What did Kepler's work tell us about the orbits of planets in the solar system.
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating
Minimisation
Equipment
Thumb tacks
Paper
String
Cardboard
Method
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
2c
2a
6) Use a pencil inside the loop to draw an ellipse.
Results
A:
String length, S = 18cm
Cosmic Engine Page 151
Mercury 0.21
18x0.21/(1+0.21) = 3.124
Earth
0.02
18x0.02/(1+0.02) = 0.3529
Mars
0.09
18x0.09/(1+0.09) = 1.4862
Pluto
0.25
18x0.25/(1+0.25) = 3.6
2c = es/(1+e)
Conclusion
Kepler found that each planet moves in an ellipse with the sun at one focus, as represented by
one of the thumb tacks in this experiment.
Introduction
Friday, 3 August 2012
2:50 PM
Astronomy is the oldest science, the motion of the sun, moon and planets affects the daily lives of humans
Humans since the beginning of time, have looked at the beauty and majesty of space.
The seasons on earth are linked with movement of our planet in space.
Studying the universe allows us to understand how the sun, earth and all matter began.
Section 2
Monday, 6 August 2012
9:45 AM
1 to 10
Tuesday, 7 August 2012
12:09 PM
1) Which of the following lists contains only supporters of the Heliocentric Model of the
Universe?
a) Aristarchus, Copernicus, Kepler
2) In Ptolemy's model of the Universe the planets moved in epicuycles. What was at the
centre of each epicycle?
d) An empty point in space
3) Who was the first person to predict the expansion of the Universe?
a) Friedmann
4) How does a white dwarf star produce its energy?
d) Gravitational collapse
5) What quantities are plotted on the axes of a Hertzsprung Russell diagram?
b) Luminosity against surface temperature
http://www.caresa.com.au/cosmicengdp.htm
Mhhe astonomy applets physsci hr frame
Red Shifting
Thursday, 9 August 2012
2:08 PM
2) What can you say about the wavelengths of red and blue light?
Aleksander Friedmann
Aleksander Friedmann read how Einstein had solved the problem of an expanding universe by adding a "fudge
factor", and Friedmann thought this was an error.
1888-1925
Basing his reasoning on Einstein's general theory of relativity which suggests that the universe is expanding,
Friedmann made two assumptions:
No matter which way you look, the universe appears identical,
Point one is true no matter where you are in the universe.
Friedmann said that the curvature of space increases with time.
Einstein later accepted that this was correct.
There are three different types of expanding universe theories.
Closed universe:
Discovered by Friedmann
Equal forces of gravity stop expansion and cause the universe to contract
Flat universe:
The force of gravity just bounces the expansion of the universe, which slows but doesn't fully stop.
Open universe:
Universe is expanding so fast, that gravity cannot stop it.
Edwin Hubble
While studying nebula, which were thought to be clouds of glowing gas, Hubble noticed that they were in fact
made up of individual stars.
Hubble found that the Andromeda nebula was about 800000 light years away.
And this showed that our galaxy, the milky way, was not the only galaxy in existence.
Hubble discovered many galaxies, and as part of his discoveries, he measured the Red Shift of their light.
Red Shifting refers to the movement of stars away from earth.
The degree of red shifting determines how fast an object is moving away from the earth.
This relates to the doppler affect with sound.
In 1929, Hubble published the results of a study which showed that every one of the many galaxies he had
observed was moving away from the earth.
He found that the further away a galaxy is from the earth, the faster it is receding from us.
Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, led to the Big Bang Theory.
He says that like an exploding bomb or exploding orange with a singularity.
The furthest parts of the universe travel the fastest.
Using Hubble's constant Ho , the universe has been found to be 12-14 billion years old.
Hubble's Law
V = H oD
V = km/s-1
D = Mpc
Ho = approx 70km/s MPc
A parsec is 3.26 light years
A Megaparsec is 3.26 Million light years
You are given an elastic band and a pen to explain Hubble's law, how do you do it? Write a paragraph whilst
watching this video.
Mark 4 points equal distances apart on the rubber band. Then with the band on the ground, put your find on
the inside of the rubber band on the left edge and stretch it to the right. Notice the distance that each mark
has moved from where they originally were. The mark on the right, which was furthest from the mark on the
left (which was not moved) moved the most and hence had to have had a higher speed to move a greater
distance in the same amount of time. The marks represent galaxies and the one furthest on the left represents
Cosmic Engine Page 159
distance in the same amount of time. The marks represent galaxies and the one furthest on the left represents
our galaxy. As the universe is expanding, galaxies further away have to move further in the same amount of
time and hence move faster.
Albert Einstein formulated a special theory of relativity, which says that if objects travel fast enough, they
shrink, and time slows down in their "reference frame".
Einstein showed that no object can travel faster than light.
Einstein's theory predicted that if an object is accelerated towards the speed of light, some of the energy
used to do this is transformed into the objects mass.
Its size increases, and the object becomes harder to accelerate.
Einstein thought that energy can be converted to mass and vice versa and he came up with an important
formula to explain this; E = mc2
Energy used to accelerate an object = Mass x (Speed of light)2
Einstein thought that the universe was static and unchanging.
His theory predicted an expanding universe, to make it fit with his thinking, he introduced a "fudge factor"
in his calculation.
Accretion refers to the accumulation of matter in one place, usually by gravitational attraction.
By the time the universe was about 380000 years old, it was spread throughout with matter in its current
form - atoms with protons and neutrons in the nucleus with electrons orbiting the nucleus
The most prevalent atoms were hydrogen.
For some unknown reason, matter was not distributed evenly.
Regions with higher densities began to become attracted and clumped together, under the influence of
gravity.
With tiny variations in density, gravity caused the denser regions to "fall into" themselves or coalesce into
large lumps.
This in turn resulted in the formation of the first stars, in which the heavier elements were formed.
Regions where stars were more densely spaced collected themselves into huge groups that we now observe
as galaxies.
At about 300000 years old, the universe had cooled to around 3000 kelvin, from an initial temperature of
1032 Kelvin, a split second after the big bang.
As the universe continued to expand, it continued to cool.
Heat energy formed as a result of the kinetic energy of particles, decreased, and over time, this lead to a
reduction in the kinetic energy of particles.
Section 3
Monday, 13 August 2012
9:17 AM
Aim: What distance can different types of radiation penetrate through certain materials.
Risk Assessment
Risk
Rating Minimisation
Contaminating hands
Low
Spreading radioactivity
Low
Equipment
Plug the Geiger Muller Tube into the counter and connect to a power supply.
Record a background radiation reading.
Place the Alpha source directly in front of the tube, and record the number of counts per second.
Move the source away from the tube until you obtain the background reading. Record this distance. Record
readings at 0, 10, 50 and a 100cm.
5) Place the alpha source directly in front of the tube and insert a sheet of paper between the source and the
tube and repeat step 4.
6) Repeat step 5 with lead foil and aluminium foil.
7) Repeat the experiment with Beta and Gamma sources.
Type of
Radiation
Penetration
distance in air
(cm)
Penetration
Penetration
distance in paper distance in lead
(cm)
foil (cm)
Alpha
7164(0)+42(10)+ 294(0)+20(10)+
38(50)+36(100) 44(50)+40(100)
54(0)+32(10)+
40(50)+30(100)
216(0)+26(10)+
38(50)+32(100)
Beta
192(0)36(10)32( 142(0)+22(10)+
50)+50(100)
30(50)+38(100)
38(0)+24(10)+
38(50)+38(100)
40(0)+28(10)+
40(50)+38(100)
Gamma
808(0)+34(10)+
36(50)+32(100)
342(0)+34(10)+
20(50)+14(100)
814(0)+418(10)+
220(50)+28(100)
554(0)+54(10)+
30(50)+22(100)
Alpha
2) Why is it necessary to record the background count?
If you don t know the bg count, your result can be contaminated, measure radiation without a source.
Subtract/Compare that frm the counts we got we can see whats coming from the environment or nature and whats
coming from the source.
4) Which source (Alpha, Beta or Gamma) showed the greatest penetration through the materials?
Gamma
5) Which source showed the greatest penetration through air?
Alpha
6) If you were going to make containers for each of the sources, what would you make each container out of?
Alpha Beta Gamma 7) Why should we record 3 readings and then calculate the average, for this experiment?
If you repeat and take an average, you increase a reliability by seeing if we can get the same counts.
Conclusion
4.2 ->
1st part - Discuss each source
Describe nature in terms of ionising power -> air
Penetrating power -> Materials
Effect of magnetic field
Effect of electric field
AlphaBetaGamma2nd part -> Is there a relationship between particle size and penetration power -> Explain what it is
Extension
Half page+diagram -> Choice:
Benefit of nuclear radiation and disadvantages, medical industrial, japan fookushima radiation leak OR
Geiger counter -> How does the radiation when it goes through the tube, turn into an electrical signal which
the counter picks up, changes it to electrical signal
According Wien's law, the dominant wavelength of a stars radiation is related to its temperature.
This means that the colour of the star is related to its surface temperature.
As a result stars may range from very cool red, to orange, yellow and white, to very hot blue stars.
Hertzprung Russel diagrams, plot a stars luminosity (on the vertical axis) against its surface temperature
or its colours (on the horizontal axis).
Luminosity refers to the total amount of light energy admitted by an object.
Luminosity has units of Joules per second(J/s) or Watts.
The sun's luminosity is estimated to be 3.83 x 1026 Watts.re
The brightness of an object is the intensity of light as seen some distance away from it.
It is the energy received per square metre per second.
HR DIAGRAM QUESTIONS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Stars that are less than 8 solar masses, their nuclear reactions stop the helium production.
At the end of a red giant, the star collapses forming a white dwarf.
A white dwarf are low mass high density stars in the last stage of star evolution
For example, a white dwarf has the size/radius of approximately the earth (5000km).
The core that remains is hot and dense, no longer performing nuclear fusion and it slowly cools down.
Stars with masses greater than the solar masses explode as super novae, leaving behind neutron stars and
black holes.
Stars that are greater than 8 solar masses have nuclear fusion reaction beyond Helium.
The helium core itself begins to react to form carbon and oxygen.
When helium runs out carbon and oxygen fuse to form Iron.
The luminosity of a star is the total amount of Power (Energy/sec) emitted by the star
Unit: Watt
The Brightness of a star is the amount of that Energy that lands on a square meter of Earth every
second
Unit: Watt/m2
Energy/sec = power = Luminosity of the star, L
Total area of the sphere = 4pir2
So the energy flowing through each square meter of the sphere every second is L/4pir2
Brightness = L/4pi(distance of earth from star)2
B = L/4pid2
B = Brightness of star in w/m2
L = Luminosity of star in watts
d = distance to the star in meters
This is called the Inverse Square Law.
Inverse: B gets smaller as d gets larger
Square: The relationship goes by 1/d2 no just 1/d.
Jupiter: L = 109 watts, d = 4.2 au, B = 109/4pi x (4.2 x 1.5 x 1011)2 =
1000000000/(4 x 3.14 x (4.2 x 1.5 x 150000000000) x (4.2 x 1.5 x 150000000000)) = 0
1)
i) A fixed luminous point visible to us in the Sky at night.
ii) The total amount of energy emitted by a star or astronomical object in joules per second/watts.
iii) A black body is a perfect radiator that completely absorbs all the radiation that strikes it, and heats up until it
reaches a temperature at which it emits radiation at exactly the same rate as it receives radiation.
iv) A
v)
Section 4
Monday, 27 August 2012
9:16 AM
Solar winds are made up of particles, a stream of ionised particles (protons and electrons) that flow from
the sun at speeds of 400km/s.
Solar winds come from the suns outer layer (corona).
The corona is only visible during a total solar eclipse.
Solar wind consist mostly of protons and electrons, as well as positive ions of several elements (Hydrogen 95%, Helium - 4%, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Neon, Magnesium, Silicon and Iron - 1%).
These ions are positive because they have lost electrons due to the high temperatures they experience
Solar win is produced when radiation pressure causes parts of the suns corona to be ejected into space.
Solar wind is most prominent during times of increased sun spot activity.
Sun spots are relatively cool areas (approximately 4500 Kelvin) with magnetic field strength's thousands
of times stronger than the earth's magnetic field.
Sun spots appear dark and result from magnetic field lines within the sun.
Sun spots last for several days to several weeks.
When the sun has high sun spot activity -> High magnetic field strength, this strong magnetic activity ->
Effects earth electricity grid / Satellites ie. Magnetic fields interfere with electrical signals / electrical
transmission as greater solar wind activity results.
Sun spot activity on the sun tends to be cyclic with a period of 11 years.
Some cycles show more sun spot activity then others.
Increased sun spot activity results in more solar flares.
More solar flares leads to increased solar wind.
During a period of solar wind, the earth's magnetic field traps most of charged particles, making up solar
wind and deflects them towards the poles.
There, the particles react with the atmosphere to cause an Aurora Borealis or Australis.
Satellites are very susceptible to the affects of solar wind.
The increase in charged particles can damage the controls and communication equipment on board.
Astronauts in space shuttles and space stations must take care to avoid ionizing radiation during high
solar activity.
The increase in magnetic activity on earth can cause circuit breakers on power grids to trip and cause
wide spread black outs.
1) Very large and bright stars (around 25 solar masses) become black holes.
2) Smaller stars become black dwarfs - <3 solar masses.
3) As Mass is less, generally lifetime is too. Highest mass stars have the highest brightness and temperatures.
The Hottest stars are blue, then white for cooler ones, then yellow and then orange or red for the coolest
stars.
4)
a)
Prycon A
7200
degrees
Yellow/whit Black
e
dwarf
Proxima
Centauri
50000 million
years
2000
degrees
Black
dwarf
0.2
b) As there is a direct relationship between the properties and the mass of the stars.
c) Black dwarfs