PRESSURE GRADIENTS

WELL PLANNING
PURPOSE OF THE WELL PLANNING

The primary purpose of the well plan is to provide guidelines for the safe and efficient
drilling and completion of the well.
A secondary, but important purpose, is to provide a reasonably accurate time and cost
estimate.
estimate
The third purpose of the well plan is to drill a hole that is usable once drilling is finished.
This will be the automatic result after a well-thought-out plan is created and followed.

Important topics:

Casing Point Selection

Casing Design
Mud Density
Fracturing Gradient
Drilling Rig Selection

Where does the well plan come from?

The well p
plan is a p
product of many
y different p
people
p in the oil company.
p y

Team Members
Geoscience Department

Engineering Department

Geophysicist

Drilling

Geologist

Production

Reservoir

Operations Department

Support Department

Drilling manager

Loss prevention safety

Drilling superintendent

Environmental

D illi supervisor
Drilling
i

P h i
Purchasing

Drilling coordinator

Contents of a well Plan

Well summary
1.Drilling
g and g
geological
g
p
prognosis
g
2.Drawings
a.Well schematic
b.BOPs and manifold
c Wellhead
c.Wellhead
d.Location
e.Structural map
3.Pore pressure analysis
4.Type log
5.Drilling time curve
6.Drilling cost curve and estimate
or AFE
7.Support
a.Vendors list
b.Transport
c.Communications
8.Directional plan

Drilling procedure
1 Location / pre-spud
1.Location
pre spud
2.Conductor hole
3.Surface hole
4.Intermediate hole
5.Production hole
6.Completion
7.Standard p
procedures
8.Abandonment

Contents of a well Plan

Drilling parameters
1 Mud program
1.Mud
2.Drilling mechanics
3.Bits
a.Weight and RPM
b.BHA / drillstring
c.Hydraulic program
4.Casing
gp
program
g
5.Cement program
6.Well control program
7.Wellhead equipment
8.Rig specs
9.Logging, coring, and testing
10.Emergency procedures
a.Hurricane procedures
b.Fire drills and rig evacuation
c.Blowout control procedures

DRILLING TIME CURVES

0

Phase 16"

csg 13 3/8
3/8"
500

Depth vs. Time

Phase 12 1/4"

csg 9 5/8"
1.000

Phase 8 1/2"

1.500

2.000

csg 7"

2.500
0

10

giorni

15

Well Testing

20

25

Types
yp of casings
g

Conductor pipe
Surfaces
Intermediate
Production
Liner

Most common diameters

The normal dimensions of the casing or liner and in which open-hole they are
run-in are shown below; the dimensions are g
given in inches:

casing/ liner dimension

(inches)

open-hole dimension
(inches)

20
20
18 5/8
13 3/8
9 5/8
5/8
7
5

26
26
24
17.5
12.25
5
8.5
6.5

CONDUCTOR PIPE
Setting depth is usually shallow, from 24 to 50 m. (80 to 150 ft) and
selected so that drilling fluid may be circulated to the mud pits
while drilling the surface hole.
The casing seat must be in an impermeable formation with
sufficient
ffi i t fracturing
f t i resistance
i t
to
t allow
ll
fluid
fl id tto circulate
i l t tto th
the
surface.
Large sizes (usually 16 to 30 in.) are required as necessary to
accommodate subsequent required strings.

SURFACE CASING
Setting depth should be in an impermeable section below fresh-water
formations.
In some instances, near-surface gravel or shallow gas may need to be
cased off.
The depth should be great enough to provide a fracture gradient
sufficient to allow drilling to the next casing setting point and to provide
reasonable assurance that broaching to the surface does not occur in
event of closure on a kick
kick.
In hard-rock areas the string may be relatively shallow, from 90 to 240
m. (300 to 800 ft), but in soft-rock areas deeper strings are necessary.
Surface casing setting depths are often specified by government
regulatory bodies to protect fresh-water sands.

INTERMEDIATE CASING
A protective string may be necessary to case off lost circulation, salt
beds, or sloughing shales.
In cases of pressure reversals with depth,
depth protective casing may be set
to allow reduction of mud density.
The most predominant use is to protect normally pressured formations
from the effects of increased mud density needed in deeper drilling.
drilling
It is sometimes necessary to alter the setting depth of the intermediate
casing during drilling if:
hole problems prohibit continued drilling
pore pressure changes occur substantially shallower or deeper than
originally calculated or estimated

PRODUCTION CASING
Production casing is used to isolate production zones and contain
f
formation
ti pressures in
i th
the eventt off a tubing
t bi leak.
l k
It is set into the reservoir and may also be a liner.
A good primary cement job is very critical for this column.
Liner
Liner is a casing
g string
g that does not extend back to the wellhead, but is
hung from another casing string.
Liners are used instead of full casing strings to:
Reduce cost
Improve hydraulic performance when drilling deeper
Allow the use of larger tubing above the liner top
Not represent a tension limitation for a rig
Liners can be either an intermediate or a production string. Liners are
typically cemented over their entire length.

PRESSURES AND PRESSURE GRADIENTS

Importance of knowing formation pressure gradients
While Drilling:

To use adequate mud density:

> to avoid kicks o blow-outs
> To avoid mud absorption and/or mud loss circulation
> to avoid sticking of drilling string for differential pressure
> to avoid sticking of drilling string due to caving hole
> to reduce drilling times
To change
change, in case of need
need, the casing point depth while drilling
drilling.
To reduce the drilling problems and reach the planned well depth.
To cut drilling costs.

PRESSURES AND PRESSURE GRADIENTS

Pressure and HYDROSTATIC

HYDROSTATIC Gradient
Gradient .
Pressure and OVERBURDEN Gradient.
Pressure of COMPACTION.
Pressure and FORMATION
FORMATION Gradient
Gradient .

HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
Hydrostatic pressure at a certain depth is defined as the pressure exerted
by the weight of the fluid column with a given density.

f H
P
10

where

P = hydrostatic pressure expressed in kg/cm2

H = examined depth expressed in meters
f = fluid density expressed in kg/dm3, usually for water assumed to be equal to 1
1.03
03
kg/dm3

Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient

Pressure Gradient is defined as a ratio of pressure value and depth:

hyd

P
H

10

where:
Ghyd = hydrostatic gradient expressed in kg/cm2/10m
P = pressure expressed in kg/cm2
H = examined depth in m

OVERBURDEN PRESSURE
SEDIMENT PRESSURE or GEOSTATIC PRESSURE or OVERBURDEN
PRESSURE is the pressure exerted on bottom of a vertical column by the weight of
sediments of a certain density, that extends from the surface to the considered depth.
2 by
Its expressed
p
in Kg/cm
g
y use of the following
g formula:

POV

Sed H
10

where:
POV = overburden pressure expressed in kg/cm2
H = examined depth expressed in m
sed = average sediment density expressed in kg/dm3

SEDIMENTARY ROCK DENSITY

The sedimentary rock density (bulk density) is given by of the density of the matrix
( lid part)
(solid
t) multiplied
lti li d b
by plus
l th
the d
density
it off th
the flfluid
id contained
t i d iin itits pores b
by th
the rock
k
porosity:

sed = f + (1 - ) m
where:
sed = sediment density (bulk density) in kg/dm3
= rock porosity expressed as a ratio
3
m = matrix densityy expressed
p
in kg/dm
g
f = fluid density contained inside pores expressed in kg/dm3

OVERBURDEN GRADIENT - GOV

The OVERBURDEN GRADIENT is the value of the pressure variation as a

function of depth.
p
Its generally expressed in kg/cm2 /10 m and is obtained by dividing pressure by
depth.
The Overburden Gradient will therefore be equal to:

POVERBURDEN
GOV =

x 10

where:
POVERBURDEN = Overburden pressure in kg/cm2 at H meters
H
= E
Examined
i dd
depth
h iin m

COMPACTION PRESSURE
COMPACTION Pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the rock matrix
that, in normal compaction
p
condition, is totally
y supported
pp
byy the rock matrix by
y
means of intergrain contacts. Its expressed by the formula:

CP = (1 x m) x H
CP

where
h

= compaction pressure in kg/cm2

= rock porosity expressed as a ratio
= rock matrix density expressed in kg/dm3

SEDIMENT PRESSURE (or Overburden Pressure) in kg/cm2 , can be expressed

by the formula:

PSED = CP + FP

where: CP = Compaction Pressure in kg/cm2

FP = Fluid Pressure in kg/cm2

6(',0(17RU%8/. '(16,7<

sed = f + (1 ) m

FORMATION PRESSURE (PPORE)

ABNORMAL Pore Pressure

The Formation Pressure can be :

OVERPRESSURE.

Its value is > than the hydrostatic Pressure

UNDERPRESSURE. Its value is < than the hydrostatic Pressure

Formation Gradient
FORMATION GRADIENT
NORMAL

ABNORMAL

Pore Gradient is considered normal when its value is

between 1.03 and 1.07 kg/cm2/10m.

Pore Gradient is considered

abnormal when its value is
different from the ones mentioned above.
Hence there might be:

OVERPRESSURED:

Gradient > 1.03-1.07 kg/cm2/10m

UNDERPRESSURED: Gradient < 1.03-1.07 kg/cm2/10m

ABNORMAL PRESSURES
ABNORMAL
PRESSURES
OVERPRESSURES

UNDERPRESSURES

Sedimentation Speed
Tectonics

Depleted Reservoirs

Reservoir Geometry
Artesian Pressure

D
Drop
off Water
W t Table
T bl

Diapirism
Reservoir Repressurized
Osmosis
Clay Diagenesis
Sulfate Diagenesis
Volcanic Ash Diagenesis

Dilatation due to
Tectonic Phenomena

Gp >

kg/cm2/10 m
Overpressure Index

ORIGIN OF OVERPRESSURES

Sedimentation Velocity
Tectonics
T t i
Reservoir Geometry
Artesian Pressures
Diapirism
Diagenesis
Osmosis

TECTONICS - FAULT CREATION

Normal
Side

Compressed
Side

Fault Plane

1) Overturned Fold

2)) Compressed
p
Fold
3) Fault

TECTONIC UPLIFT

A - C = Normal Pressure
B
= Overpressure

029(0(17$/21*$)$8/73/$1(

$
&

'
C-D
A-B

=
=

Normal pressure
Overpressure

POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF A FAULT

D
F

A - B - C - D = Normal Pressure
F - G - H - I = Overpressure

OVERPRESSURES DUE TO COMPRESSIVE

TECTONIC PHENOMENA

A
B

A
B
C

RESERVOIR GEOMETRY

1800

Hydrocarbons

Overpressure

0.1

2100

Water
2500

RESERVOIR GEOMETRY
Overpressure
1000

Oil
d = 0.7
Water d = 1.03

1500

2000

2000 m PPORE = (2000 * 1.03)/10

k / 2/10 m
kg/cm

= 206 kg/cm2 ; GPORE = (206/2000) * 10 = 1.03

1500 m PPORE = 206 - (1.03 * 500/10) = 154.5 kg/cm2; GPORE = (154.5/1500) * 10 =1.03
kg/cm2/10m

1.195 > 1.03

1000m PPORE=154.5 kg/cm2 -(0.7 * 500/10) = 119.5 kg/cm2 - GPORE = (119.5/1000) * 10 =

= 1.195 kg/cm2/10 m

RESERVOIR GEOMETRY
Overpressure

1000

Gas
d. = 0.1
1500

Water d = 1.03
2000

2000 m PPORE = (2000 * 1.03)/10

k / 2/10 m
kg/cm

= 206 kg/cm2 ; GPORE = (206/2000) * 10 = 1.03

1500 m PPORE = 206 - (1.03 * 500/10) = 154.5 kg/cm2; GPORE = (154.5/1500) * 10 =1.03
kg/cm2/10m

1.495 > 1.03

1000m PPORE=154.5 kg/cm2 -(0.1 * 500/10) = 149.5 kg/cm2 - GPORE = (149.5/1000) * 10 =

= 1.495 kg/cm2/10 m

Depth (m) from sea level

D

PRESSURE GRADIENT Vs DEPTH IN THE CARBONATE

ROCKS OF THE PO VALLEY (ITALY)
(
)

Pressure
essu e G
Gradient
ad e t - Kg/cm
g/c 2//10
0m

PIEZOMETRIC LEVEL

+ 300 m

RKB 0 m

- 250 m

DIAPIRITIC STRUCTURES
CREATION OF A SALINE DOME

DIAPIRISM

Overpressure

Salt

CLAY DIAGENESIS

Montmorillonite
ontmorillonite is a very plastic clay whose original water content is reduced to
about 30% during the depositional phase. This clay, which is found at low depths,
reaches the hydrostatic value rather rapidly, and its pore pressure has a normal
gradient.

When, by effect of subsidence, this clay is found at a lower depth and under the
action of pressure and temperature it undergoes a metamorphosis, losing some
features while acquiring a MONTMORILLONITIC - ILLITIC composition and has a
overpressure gradient.

CLAY DIAGENESIS
1000 - 2000 m
MONTMORILLONITE

before diagenesis

2000 - 3000 m

Free Water
inside Pores

After the ILLITE

diagenesis

After diagenesis
and compaction

3000 - 4000 m
Volume Loss

UNDERPRESSURES

OSMOSIS

If two saline solutions with different concentrations and (initially) equal pressure
are separated by a membrane, an OSMOTIC flow takes place as ions pass from
a solution to the other until saline concentrations are balanced, but final pressures
are different.
The solution that initially had lower concentration loses pressure in favor of the
solution that initially had higher concentration.
(In nature this phenomenon can take place when two porous formations, with
different salinity, are separated by a clayey septum.)

Gp <

kg/cm2/ 10
m

Underpressure index
(i d
(in
depleted
l t d wells,
ll ffor iinstance
t
)

UNDERPRESSURE DUE TO EXTENDED PRODUCTION

Underpressure

Water

Underpressure

UNDERPRESSURE DUE TO WATER TABLE LOWERING

OVERPRESSURE
ANALYSIS METHODS

+
,-&

( -+ ,

ALL THE ANALYSIS METHODS FOR OVERPRESSURE

DETERMINATION ARE BASED ON THE FOLLOWING ASSUMPTIONS:
Sediment compaction increases in function of depth (at higher depths
a higher sediment compaction is expected).
Overpressure analysis is carried out, where possible, taking into
consideration pure clay levels.
Shales are overpressured when they did not have the possibility to
throw out interstitial water, thus resulting more porous and undercompacted.

)','&*/

, '%-

NORMAL compaction
!

)','&*/

, '%-

Clay undercompaction = OVERPRESSURE

!7

!7

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'-

All the overpressure analysis methods are based on normal-compaction

concept

The available methods are different in fuction of their utilization time:

before, during or after drilling

Their effectiveness increases if they are used successively: before

drilling to build the model, during and after drilling to update and refine
the model

The use of different methods within one phase increases prediction

capability

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# +
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)

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# +
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&+
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PRE-DRILL METHODS
FOR OVERPRESSURE
ANALYSIS FROM
SEISMIC DATA

'+ + &':/' -+ ,

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."

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."

&

'=* %/' : '+ +

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*/ (/*-+ , -'%

INTERVAL VELOCITY (2 4

TRANSIT TIME (-4 of sonic waves between two reflections (sec/ft)

DEPTH (attention to reference datum from seismic!)

SEDIMENT DENSITY

SEDIMENT PRESSURE

R RATIO

+
3/'+
,%(-

*-*

1. Seismic section with interpretation (it shows the curve on which two
way time and average velocities can be read).
2. Table with the following couple of values for each reflection:
- two way time
- average velocities of sound waves through formations
3. The following couple of values:
- depth
- interval velocity between two reflections

*/ (/*-+ , 'C(', '

STARTING FROM TWT AND VELOCITY FUNCTION
1) Interval velocity calculation

2) Transit time calculation

3) Calculation of the distance
between two reflectors

4) Calculation of average
density between two
reflectors

vm2 2t2 vm2 1t1

vi =
t2 t1

Vm average velocity
t TWT

304800
t =
vi

vi interval velocities

t2 t1
vi
h =
2

t in s/ft

sed = max 2.11

1
1+

vi
vi

vmax
vmin

max = 2.75 g/cm3

vmax = 7000 m/s
vmin = 1500 m/s

*/ (/*-+ , (-%(!4 5
"F
!

!!!

69

Sediment density
calculated from
seismic data

"!!!

;!!!

D!!!

E!!!

"G

2'&3(& ', )&* +

',-

*/ (/*-+ ,

Overburden gradient is calculated by integrating sediment density after

having added to the latter curve the missing portion of data from ground
surface to the first seismic datum (extrapolation the first available data to
the surface)
.7
%)

%)*

%1

%1*

% *

!
*

SEISMIC DATUM

200 m
*
0
0*
3
3*
*
**

%!

"E

"!!!

BULK DENSITY

!!!

;!!!
&
; +
94 5" 5

D!!!

INTEGRATED
SEDIMENT DENSITY
E!!!

F!!!

74
94 5

;+<
0:

% &')&* +
',-

*/ (/*-+ ,

In absence of offset wells, interstitial pressure gradient trend forecast is

done by elaborating seismic data coming from one or more shot points in
the nearby of well location.
Pore gradient estimation is drawn by applying two different methodologies:
Transit time method (sec/ft)
R ratio method

*/ (/*-+ , / )+

3* '*

( %-+ ,

The calculation is based on the assumption that transit time of sonic

waves is a linear function that decreases in semi-logaritmic scale
with depth (sediment burial by meands of other sediments increases
their density and, consequently, sonic waves propagation velocity
increases)
+

(h0,v0 )

(h1,v1 )

(h2,v2 )

(hn, vn )

Transit time of
sonic waves
through formations

1 4

TRANSIT TIME
( t in sec/ft):

% &')&* +
',-

*/ (/*-+ , :&

-&*, +
- -+ '

Being transit time input data available, to calculate pore gradient transit
time method can be applied. Its application is done mainly through the
use of two different methodologies:
EQUIVALENT DEPTH method
EATONS method

'C(+
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'-

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.
: 9

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69

*
1.

( %-+ ,

Overburden pressure acting at depth z is the sum of effective and pore pressure

ovbd

eff

2.

If, at depth z1, the rock has had time to dissipate the pore pressure that generates
during burying process, pore pressure will be hydrostatic

3.

If, instead, at depth z2 the rock has had no time to dissipate the pore pressure that
generates during burying process, pore pressure will be higher than hydrostatic

4.

If at the two depth transit time is equal (obviously, in case of equal lithology) the two
points have the same effective pressure

5.

Finally, having calculated the two overburden pressures and the two gradients, the
difference between overburden and effective pressures will be:

hydrostatic pressure p1at depth z1

overpressure p2at depth z2

*/ (/*-+ , 'C(', '

1.

Define normal compaction trend

2.

Choose the depth at which pore gradient (assumed overpressured) will be

calculated

3.

Draw a vertical line from the chosen depth (point 2) until Normal
Compaction Trend is reached (point 1). This depth and point 2 one have the
same effective pressure

4.

From overburden gradient curve, calculate overburden pressure of the two

chosen points

5.

Calculate effective pressure of point 1, given overburden and pore

(hydrostatic) pressures

6.

Calculate pore pressure at point 2 from the difference between overburden

and effective pressure calculated at step 5

7.

Calculate pore gradient

*/ (/*-+ , '=* %/'

10
0

100

+
Dt (ms/ft)

69

1000

1000

p =p
1
eff

2
eff

(
G
=

ovbd

2000

Depth (m)

=
2
ovbd

&

:5

9> 5"

HE

" !;

;E!!

;;E

000

(2.2751.03)23008
10

Govbd z2 2.335 3500

=
=
10
10

2
2
p 2p = povbd
peff
= 817.25 286.35

5000

6000

G p2 =

z2

530.9 10
3500

GF;E

G"H;E

4000

p 2p 10

:5

;!!

Gp ) z1
10

&

,#

9> 5"

"

3000

%*

E;! I!

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9

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: 9

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69

*/ (/*-+ , 'Eatons correlation is based on the relation, at analyzed depth,

between normal t, on Normal Compaction Trend, and the value
measured through seismic prospection.

G p = G sed

(G sed

t NCT
1 . 03 )
t meas

The exponent n depends on available input data. A value equal to 3 is

used in case of Sonic Log, while 1.5 is used for Resistivity Log.

% &')&* +
',-

*/ (/*-+ , #+
-

5&6 &*-+

'-

Its an empirical graphic method developed by eni (formerly Agip) based

on calculating and plotting R ratio

vi
R=
va
vi and va, expressed in s/ft, are, respectively interval velocity and
reference velocity in clean clay, considered at normal pressure.
In function of the value of R ratio, the interpretation will be:
R = 1 Formations with Normal Pressure Gradient
R > 1 Overconsolidated or carbonatic Formations
R < 1 Porous or overpressured Formations

*/ (/*-+ , 'C(', '

With Two Way Times and average velocities (vm) of the nearest shot
point to well location, interval velocity (vi), depth, pore pressure (pp),
overburden pressure (povb) and effective pressure (peff) can be
calculated.
Velocity in shales assumed at normal pressure (va) is calculated
according to the correlation:
va =

vmax peff
A peff + B

+ vmin

R ratio is calculated in function of depth according to the correlation:

R=

vi
va

Coefficients A and B vary in function of the analyzed area. For

example, in Pianura Padana their value is, respectively, 0.85 e 650

!
E!!
" !!!
" E!!

Example of R ratio
trend in function of
depth in Pianura
Padana

!!!
E!!

; !!!
; E!!
D!!!
DE!!

Very porous or
overpressured
formations

E!!!
EE!!
F!!!
FE!!
H!!!
! E! F

!G

A
? @

"

"D "F

"G

A
!
E!!
" !!!
" E!!

Overcompacted
Formations

!!!
E!!

; !!!
; E!!
D!!!
DE!!

Very porous or
overpressured
formations

E!!!
EE!!
F!!!
FE!!
H!!!
!E
!F

!G

"

? @

"D

"F

"G

Example of R ratio
trend where in the
upper part R>1 values
can be seen
(undercompacted
Formations or
carbonates)

OVERPRESSURES
?WHILE DRILING@
ANALYSIS

'-

3* '

, &+
//+
,) %*&* '-'&

The two methods used in this case are: Dc Exponent

and

-log

They are semi-empirical methods based on the following assumptions:

1. The index obtained by combining drilling parameters is an indication
of rock DRILLABILITY, intended as rock capability to be drilled by the
bit
2. This drillability index, assumed everything else fixed, is inversely
proportional to depth, therefore it decreases while depth increases
3. Being this index linked to rock density (higher rock matrix content,
lower pore volume in a bulk volume), where an overpressure can be
located (less rock matrix, more voids) the rock becomes more
drillable
.
.

.
( ! #

+; 7;B

A'=% ,',-

'-

*/ (/*-+ ,

Conceived by Jorden & Shirley in 1966, it represents rock drillability as

normalization of ROP (Rate Of Penetration) according to the following
correlation:
ROP
log
60 * RPM
dExp =
12 *WOB
log
10 2 * D
where ROP, RPM, WOB and D are expressed, respectively, in ft/h, rpm, lb
and in
Using m/h, rpm, t and in, the correlation becomes:

3.281* ROP
60 * RPM
dExp =
WOB
log 0.0264 *
D
log

A'=% ,',-

'-

A+
,-'&%&'-*-+ ,

In the example here beside,

the well is characterized by
formations with hydrostatic
pore pressure (normal
gradient). d-Exponent
increases with depth and
follows a NCT

Depth

d-Exponent

d-EXPONENT METHOD - LIMIT

The main d-exponent limit consist s in the fact that mud
density effect is not considered.
considered

Since ROP is influenced by this parameter, d-exponent

values must be corrected according to itit.

A'=% ,',-

'-

Due to Mud Weight density (MW), d-Exponent is corrected according

dExp
to the following correlation:
dcExp =
MW

' C

"' C

A'=% ,',-

'-

+
:-

dc-Exponent

lithology,
transgressions/regressions,
different hole diameter,
bit type,
bit wear,
etc.
In this case the curve appears
shifted, but its slope remains
constant.

Depth

NCT line continuity, when it is

drawn on d-exponent, can be
interrupted due to effects not
depending from overpressures:

A'=% ,',-

'-

+
:-

+
,-'&%&'-*-+ ,

Shifts can be composed in a

continuous curve by
translating the shifted
portions until they overlay to
Normal Compaction Trend

Depth

dc-Exponent

A'=% ,',-

'-

*/ (/*-+ , '-

As well as overpressures calculation procedures from seismic data, it is

possible to perform a similar estimation while drilling, by using the
following methods:
Equivalent depth
Eatons

A further estimation method, formerly used, consists in using abacuses

opportunely built.

A'=% ,',-

z2
10

(
G
=

z1

G
z1
ovbd
p
z1

p =p

z1
eff

p =p
z2
p

G =
z2
p

z2
ovbd

z2
p

z2

'%-

dc-Exponent

z2
ovbd

z2
eff

'C(+
2*/',-

10
z1
eff

Vertical depth

z2
ovbd

'-

10
=

A'=% ,',-

'-

'*- ,

dcmeas
Gp = Govbd (Govbd 1.03)
dcnorm

1.2

Vertical depth

dc-Exponent

"

"

A'=% ,',-

dcnorm
GA = 1.03
dcA

'-

*3* (

"3 "0

" "

"

A'=% ,',-

'-

*3* ( +
,-'&%&'-*-+ ,

'-

This system was developed in eni (ex AGIP) in the 70s in occasion of Pianura
Padana wells drilling. The need of a new interpretation criterion came out due to dcExponent inability to see overpressures in carbonatic layers.
The method takes directly into consideration Mud Weight influence and is based on
drillability concept. Drillability is drawn from ROP normalization. The used drilling
parameters for this calculation are (m/h), RPM (rpm), WOB (t) and Bit Size (in).
The method foresees the calculation of

corrected by
factor, which accounts
pressure and formation pressure and
This depends on

t and

'

p as pressure difference between mud

'

value

The final value on which the analysis is performed is obtained by the following
correlation:

0 = F t'

'-

*/ (/*-+ , %&

0.5
RPM0.25
WOB
*/ (/*-' t =
dbit ROP0.25

- ',

t' = t + 0 .028 7

1
'
t

' (&'"7

0.75
1
n=
4
640
t'

z
10 3

1
'
t

2
2
1
1
n
p

*
*, :+
,*//$ F = 1 +
np

0 = F
*

'
t

n=

3.25
640 t'

z
p = (Gmud Gp )
10

A
Function

'-

*/ (/*-+ , %&

' (&' 7

is plotted, and for it a NCT is defined

NCT is a line defined by the equation

z
r = a
+ b which crosses the
1000

abscissa axis at point = 0.088

PORE GRADIENT IS CALCULATED BY THE CORRELATION:

p 10
Gp = mud
z
And by calculating again differential pressure between mud and
formation with the following correlation

F =

r
t'

2 (1 F )
1
p =
n

1 (1 F ) 2

@ B

'
t

Vertical depth m

Normal
Normal compaction
compaction trend
trend

NCT INTERPRETED
ON FUNCTION

Lithology
Transgressions/regressions
Different hole diameter
Bit type
Bit wear
Etc
In this case NCT will appear
shifted, but angular coefficient
will remain constant.

Vertical depth m

As well as dc-Exp, also -log

can show some translations
(shifts) caused by:

+
,-'&%&'-*-+ , "7
D

In presence of shifts in
overpressured Formations, the
curve is characterized by a
visible variation of angular
coefficient

OVERPRESSURES TOP

Vertical depth m

+
,-'&%&'-*-+ , 7
D

Calculation of coefficient b
in Formations with normal
gradient

Vertical depth m

+
,-'&%&'-*-+ , ;7
D
0

r2 =

r1 02

1
0

Vertical depth m

Shifts can be calculated

by means of an analytical
method (method I)

01

2
0

1
r

r2

+
,-'&%&'-*-+ , D7
D
A

0
A
D

A
3

b2 = b1

2
0

1
0

Vertical depth m

Shifts can be calculated

by means of an analytical
method (method II)

01

02

'=* %/' :+
,-'&%&'-' A

E 8 7

'-

Vertical depth m

Vertical depth m

- '& 5# +
/' &+
//+
,)6

2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5

Density Kg/dm3

/*$ ', +
-$

OVERPRESSURES
TOP

2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5

Density Kg/dm3

If overpressured shales are UNDERCOMPACTED (porosity is higher

than what expected at the depth where they are located), their density is
lower then theoretic one. Its measurement can be performed on cuttings.

- '& 5# +
/' &+
//+
,)6

Overpressured shales are

more porous and, for this
reason, they represent a sort
of thermal barrier which
prevents heat coming from
below to pass uniformly
towards the upper layers.
Where overpressures can be
spotted, the Geothermical
Gradient (usually 3/100m)
shows a sharp increase.

'-

-' %'&*-(&'

Depth m

- '& 5# +
/' &+
//+
,)6

'-

&' + -+
2+
-$

OVERPRESSURES
TOP

Resistivity

MUD RESISTIVITY Mud contamination by means of formation water

due to overpressure not sufficiently balanced causes a decrease of
resistivity value, since formation fluid is assumed with higher salinity than
drilling mud.

Depth m

- '& 5# +
/' &+
//+
,)6

'-

/ &+ '

OVERPRESSURES
TOP

Chlorides

MUD CHLORIDES CONTENT The chemical analysis of chlorides in

drilling mud as it comes out of the well can highlight an overpressure
since the contamination could have been caused by formation fluid
influx. Formation fluid is assumed with higher salinity than drilling mud.

- '& 5# +
/' &+
//+
,)6
GAS INFLUXES
Pipe connection gas
Trip gas
Background gas
HOLE TIGHTENING
High torque
Overpull/drag
Reaming/backreaming
Presence of cavings
Breakouts
MUD PUMPING PRESSURE

'-

+
),*/7
'2',-

- '& 5# +
/' &+
//+
,)6

'-

# 7
/#

MWD systems (Measurement While Drilling) can perform real time downhole
measurement of some drilling parameters that can be used as indicators for
overpressures interpretation:
Well inclination and orientation
Resistivity log
Neutron log
Temperature
Torque
Weight on bit
LWD tools (Log While Drilling) can measure and transmit in real time some
useful data for petrophysical characterization. The same data, with a better
resolution, are memorized in the tool and unloaded when it is pulled out of hole:
Gamma ray log
Sonic log
Caliper log (ultrasonic !!)

POST-DRILLING
METHODS
OVERPRESSURE
ANALYSIS FROM LOGS

*,*/$ +

'-

The analysis methods are based on the measurement of clay electrical

behavior. In particular the methods are:

t Shale method, based on transit time measurement, by sonic

logs, of an elastic perturbation which propagates along wellbore
walls

Resistivity method, based on the measurement of resistivity met

by electric field transmitted through borehole walls and generated
by electric logs

*/' 't (s/ft)

D

Vertical depth (m)

The assumption is, again, that

propagation velocity of elastic
waves increases with depth
(for higher rock density).
Consequently, transit time (t)
decreases regularly and it is
therefore possible to draw a
NCT.

*/' '-

3* + %&+
, +
%/'
t (s/ft)
D

Vertical depth m

Assuming that density, porosity

and relative pressures (effective
and pore ones) are
intercorrelated, if by increasing
depth and assuming other
conditions unvaried the transit
time decreases (deviating from
clean shales NCT), the
interested layers are
overpressured

OVERPRESSURES
TOP
*

*/' '-

%&' ', ' :

t (s/ft)
D

Vertical depth m

In t-shale method shifts can be

identified, even if they are not so
frequent. These must be
distinguished from NCT slope
variation. The main cause of
shifts can be related to
geological issues.

+
:-

*/' '-

, -

'-'& +
,*-+ ,

Availability of an electrical log (resistivity, SP)/geological (GRay)

Availability of acoustic log (ex. BHC Sonic Log)
Availability of Caliper/Image log
Identification of CLEAN shales (and isolate the corresponding t
values)
Plotting t vs depth (in a semilog plot)
Drawing NCT
INTERPRETING t Shale trend.
IN DEVIATED WELLS, DEPTH SHALL BE VERTICALIZED

GR

Res

SP

/*$+ ',-+
:+ *-+ ,

*/' '-

/+ +
-

It cannot be applied in carbonatic layers

Shales must be clean
Fluids contained in shales (gas or oil) can modify t value
The wellbore wall shall be in gauge
Geological age
interpretation

changes

increase

the

risk

of

wrong

 1 7 4
!

"!

"!!

"!!!

E!!

1 4

"!!!

"E!!

, !!!

E!!

;!!!

;E!!

D!!!

*/' '-

*/ (/*-+ , 'C(', '

Estimation of bulk density from acoustic log (if density log not
available or incomplete);
Calculation of overburden gradient, by integrating density curve;
Acoustic (sonic) log analysis and NCT determination;
Pore pressure gradient calculation by means of equivalent depth
or Eatons method

*/' '-

', +
-$' -+ *-+ , "7
;

sed = f + (1 ) m
ROCK
MATRIX

Densit!
g/cc

t
sec/ft

Dolomite

2.87

43.5

Limestone

2.71

43.5 - 47.5

Anhydrite

2.96

50

Clay

2.70

47

*/' '-

', +
-$' -+ *-+ , 7
;

t VS. POROSITY CORRELATIONS

t tm
=
153

Consolidated soils and rocks

t tm
= 1.228
t + 200
t tm
= 1.568
153

Slightly or not consolidated terrigenous

Consolidated soils and rocks (alternative)
t VS. BULK DENSITY CORRELATIONS
Consolidated soils and rocks
Slightly or not consolidated soils

sed

t
= 3.28 +
89

t tm
sed = 2.75 2.11
t + 200

*/' '-

', +
-$' -+ *-+ , ;7
;

The following correlation, developed by Agip, was built by comparing its

results to density values coming from Formation Density Correlated
Logs. The results of this comparison revealed the wide validity of this
correlation, which can be used with good reliability for every
formation type.

sed

t 47
= 2 . 75 2 . 11
t + 200

&' + -+
2+
-$ 'Resistivity depends on rock porosity (fluid in rock pores). Rocks
characterized by low porosity have high resistivity (ex. compact
limestone, volcanic rocks..).
Having other conditions fixed, rock resistivity depends on:

salt concentration
rock composition
temperature

Shales density increases with increasing depth, thus increasing

compaction and decreasing porosity. For this reason, resistivity
increases.

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

*/ (/*-+ , '-

The methods based on shales resistivity for pore pressure estimation

are basically two:
I method from an electric log, shales resistivity is obtained and
then it is plotted vs depth in a semi-logarithmic scale. Log
interpretation is performed directly on this curve, without further
calculation.
IImethod F-shale factor (clay formation factor) is identified from
resistivity curve and is used for the interpretation by plotting it vs
depth in a semi-logarithmic scale.

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

'-

+"7

Resistivity of clean shales is

plotted in semi-logarithmic scale
in function of vertical depth. The
correlation between resistivity
and porosity (fluid content, since
saturation = 1 is assumed) is
inversely proportional and
generates an increasing Normal
Compaction Trend.
In case of Formations with
normal pore gradient, resistivity
values allign around a line with
increasing trend in function of
depth.

Depth

Clay resistivity

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

'-

In case of overpressured
levels, the trend of measured
resistivity values depart from
Normal Compaction Trend.
The deviation is high or low
in function of absolute
pressure value.

Depth

Clay resistivity

+ 7

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

'-

+
+"7
;

In this cases the analyzed trend is not resistivity one, but shales formation factor
F-Shale. It is calculated from the ratio between measured shales resistivity and
formation fluid one:
% D

% )

Fshale

R shale
1
=
=
Rw
C shale R w

Vertical depth m

F shale
Normal gradient
Formations
*

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

'% D

+
+ 7
;
% )

F shale
OVERPRESSURED
Formations

Vertical depth m

Also with clay formation

factor, in presence of
overpressured layers
curve trend departs
from Normal
Compaction Trend line.

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

'-

+
+;7
;

The operational sequence to be followed for F-Shale analysis is

illustrated here below:
1. Calculate, or measure, formation water resistivity Rw throughout
the well.
2. Plot Rw values on a semi-logarithmic scale.
3. Read resistivity value from log data for clean shales throughout
the wellbore profile.
4. Calculate F-Shale value for the analyzed clay points.
5. Plot F-Shale values on a semi-logaritmic scale.
6. Draw F-Shale Normal Compaction Trend.
7. Evaluate the presence of overpressures and interpret their trend.

&' + -+
2+
-$ '-

/+ +
-

The main limits of resistivity log analysis can be resumed as follows:

It can not be applied in carbonatic layers

It can be applied only in wells with frequent shale-sand

interbedding

Spontaneous Potential (SP) value shall be easily distinguished

between sands and shales

Shales shall be clean

Hydrocarbons in shales (oil or gas) can modify conductivity values

Wellbore must be in gauge

FRACTURE GRADIENT
ESTIMATION AND
VERIFICATION

+
,-&

( -+ ,

Once having calculated Overburden and Pore curves, in order to

complete the pressure model Fracture Gradient shall be estimated.
This value is an indication of borehole wall propension to break
(fracture opening) due to excessive Mud Weight.
Knowing fracture ggradient curve throughout the whole well length,
together with pore gradient one, is of the utmost importance for the
main planning and drilling phases of a well:

During planning phase, it allows establishing the optimal casing

shoe depth in function of choke margin and differential pressure

During drilling phase, it allows safe operations in case of

kick/blowout

:&*

*/ (/*-+ , "7

The correlations used for fracture gradient calculation are based on the
assumption that, in case of homogeneous, elastic and isotropic mean,
in situ stress state is modified by the presence of the well and stresses
redistribute around its lateral surface.

pw

:&*

*/ (/*-+ , 7

The value of tangential stress is maximum in case of empty hole and

decreases in function of mud weight increase, since mud weight
pressure applied at wellbore replaces the action of the previously
removed rock.
An excessive mud density increase could cause wellbore wall fracturing.

r
pw =

&&'/*-+ , : & :&*

*/ (/*-+ , "7

From the solution of elastic equations and in function of formation type, in

particular concerning Poissons Ratio coefficient, fracture pressure is
obtained from the following correlations:
ELASTIC FORMATIONS with low permeability and minimum filtrate
invasion:

p frac

2
( povbd p p )
= pp +
1

INCONSOLIDATE OR SLIGHTLY CEMENTED FORMATIONS with high

permeability and sensible filtrate invasion:

p frac = p p + 2 ( povbd p p )

PLASTIC FORMATIONS:

p frac = povbd

&&'/*-+ , : & :&*

+

*/ (/*-+ , 7

B
9

%
B

G frac = G p +

&

8!

(G

ovbd

Gp )

G frac

The 2/3 coefficient shall be modified as follows:

in slightly consolidated sands = 1/2;

in shales or silty marl = 3/4.

2
= (Gsed G p ) + G p
3

94 5"
A

A
*

"-

:
A
*

, #&

&

&
0

Adding fracture
gradient calculation
to the previously
mentioned curves
generates a plot
similar to the one in
figure.

:&* -(&')&* +
',- 2'&+
:+ *-+ ,
Seen the importance of fracture gradient for operative practice, it is
necessary to verify the estimation done in planning phase by means of
direct measurements.
The direct measurements can be performed during drilling phase and
provide a good estimation of fracture gradient limits, even though they
can not measure its real value. This introduces automatically a safety
margin.
The two main sources of calibration values in drilling phase are:
Leak Off Test (LOT)
Formation Integrity Test (FIT)

/'*. ::-' -

The LOT is performed in a well during drilling phases. It is carried out in

open hole and consists in pressurizing the well until pressure causes a
reaction to the well.
The LOT can be performed for two main reasons:

Verification, after casing setting, of the real value of fracture

gradient below the last casing shoe;

Verify, after crossing a level characterized by high porosity and

permeability, a more realistic value of fracture pressure and
gradient.

/-

%'&*-+
2'%&

' (&'

1.

Drill cement and casing shoe and then drill 10m of virgin formation.

2.

Circulate for mud density conditioning in the whole well.

3.

Close BOP.

4.

Pump at low flow rate ( - bbl/h) and plot flow rate and pressure values
on a diagram.

5.

Carry on pumping until no more than two values depart from linear pumping
trend.

6.

Wait for pressure stabilization and read final value.

7.

Add to the read value the hydrostatic pressure applied at bottom depth by
mud column. This will be the value of fracture pressure.

8.

Calculate fracture gradient.

/-

%/ -

Pressure (psi)

Pumped volume (bbl)

/-

:&* -(&+
,) "7

ATTENTION: the fracture gradient value calculated with the previously

described procedure is NOT the real fracture gradient, though for
operative purposes it can be considered a good approximation.
The LOP (Leak Off Point), at best, is coincident to the beginning of mud
leak phase but the real fracture limit is not reached.
The real fracture gradient can be obtained only by applying to the
formation a pressure equal or higher than minimum horizontal stress
plus traction resistance of the analyzed rock.
According to our internal procedures, LOT is a good but VERY
CONSERVATIVE control test.

/-

:&* -(&+
,) 7
7

Pressure

;;

7 >
>
";
. -

6- ;

"!

;;

+
+

+
+

Time

'=-', ' /'*. ::-' -

=/ - 1'?

/ @

/M

@
B
B 9
B

: & *-+ , +
,-')&+
-$-' +
-

:+
B

/-

"!

M
M

A
B

3 %
%

1N A O

997 4

1
B

(
INPUT: seismic

*&$

' ' %&'A &+

//
vm e TWT
vi vs Depth
t vs Depth

bulk

NCT
Equiv.depth, Eaton, R ratio

PPG

OBG
FG

*&$

INPUT: mudlog

' ' # +
/' &+
//+
,)
ROP, RPM,
WOB, D, MW

Dc-Exp, ALog

NCT
Equiv.depth, Eaton, abacus

PPG

*&$

' ' %

-A &+
//

INPUT: logs
Caliper

GR, Res, SP

Sonic, Res

Density

Shale Sonic
Filtered Sonic

OBG

NCT
PPG

FG