ire .§ . mil FUN UNDAMENTAL | [UNIVERSITY PHYSICS vouume 11 QUANTUM AND STATISTICAL PHYSICS LMAnEHLO ALONSO _Deptnent of Seni Afra, Oration of American Stee Departmen of Phos, Gury UnicryTHIS BOOK IS AN AD. DISON-WESLE. WORLD STUDENT SERIES EDITION A complete and unabridi World Student | unabridged reprint of the orginal American textbook, this ae Series edition may be sold only in those countries to whi consigned by Addison-Wesley or its authorized sae satin he eee not be re-exported from the country to which it has been tors. Tt may. igned, and it may not be sold in the United States of America or its possession: ‘The cover desi ime is adapted from the August 1966 issue of the ign of this volur gust fy : 7 and Portuguese; use! by special permision en Unio” Spanish, English, Copyright © 1968 by Addit ry Addison-We reserved. No part of this abun system, or transmitted, in any form photocopying, recording, Publishing C: i ompany, Inc. All ones be reproduced, stored in a a \ or by any means, electronic, mechani Of the publisher Orfgivial’ cantiee seit he Prior written cman America. Published simulanceae a ned in the United ‘States of i simultaneously in Can ilzpines'COnPHERE ada. Philippines Copyright QRSTUV-DA-89876 FOREWORD ‘This book is the third and last volume of a series published under the general title of Fundamental University Physics. ‘The purpose of this series is to offer to students of science ‘and engineering a logical and unified presentation of physics at the introductory under- graduate level, with emphasis on the basic ideas which form the core of physies: the eruservation laws, the interrelation between particles and fields, and the atomic view of sontten, “We have tried to present physical concepts in such a way that the student will vttain a clear understanding of their theoretical meaning and recognize their experimental foundations, noting the close interrelation between theory and experiment, We also have tried to develop in the student the ability to manipulate the mathematics required for the expression of such concepts. The three volumes cover the equivalent of a two-semester course in general physics plus a one (or two) semester course in modern physies, Volume T treats mechanics and the gravitational interaction, Volume IT deals with electromagnetic Intoraotions and waves. Volume III covers quantum and statistical physics (including thermodynamics). Although the three volumes are closely related and follow logical sequence, each one is self-contained and can be used independently of the others. This is particularly true of Volume III, which covers most of the subject matter usually in- cluded in an introductory modern physies course, ‘The curricula for all sciences are under great pressure to incorporate new subjects that are becoming more relevant. We expect that this series will relieve this pressure by raising the level of the student's understanding of physical concepts and his ability to apply them to concrete situations. ‘This will permit many intermediate courses presently offered in the undergraduate curriculum to be upgraded. The traditional undergraduate courses in mechanies, electromagnetism, and modern physics will benefit most from this upgrading. ‘Thus the student will finish his undergraduate career at a higher level of knowledge than formerly: an important benefit for those who terminate their formal education at this point. Also there will now be room for newer and more exciting courses at the graduate Devel, ‘This same trend is found in the more recent basic textbooks in other sciences for freshman and sophomore courses. The first part of this volume is called Quantum Physics. Quantum ideas are the essence of today’s physics. Unfortunately, except for a brief introduction to Bohr’s ideas and to vrave-particle duolity in the introductory general physics course, there has often been a delay in exposing students to quantum-mechanical concepts and their applications. Traditionally only the physics and chemistry majors learned quantum mechanics, and then rarely before the senior year. However, physies and chemistry majors should acquire fa working knowledge of quantum ideas as early in their curricula as possible so that »ART AL in aint ils tps tH dy lalPART 1 QUANTUM PHYSICS1 THE FOUNDATIONS OF ‘QUANTUM PHYSICS16 The foundations of quantum physics direction in which the scattered waves are i observed (Fig, 1-10), the wavelength of oy the seattered radiation \’ is determined in terms of the scattering angle 6 by the experimental relation Incident radiation v= = do(1 — cos 8), (1.19) Blectron where \g is a constant, whose value is 1-10. Geometry in Compton seat- tering. It is called the Compton wavelength for electrons. Remembering that \ = c/v, where » is the frequency of the wave, we may w Eq. (1.19) in the form (1.20) Now the scattering of an electromagnetic wave by an electron may be visualized as @ “collision” between the wave and the electron, of energy and momentum. And since the wave its energy-momentum relationship E = cp is rest mass, this scattering must resemble a colli zero rest, mass and is moving with velocity e, ‘This collision can be analyzed very simply. Let us call E and BE’ the energy and momentum of the partiele of zero rest mass before and after the collision; let p = E/c and p' = E'/c be the corresponding values of the momentum. Given that pe is the momentum of the electron after the collision, the principles of con- servation of energy and momentum yield since it, comprises an exchange propagates with the velocity c and imilar to that for a particle of zero n in which one of the particles has P=p'+ pe (1.21) + oW mac? + pe. (1.22) Pp — p’. Squaring, we obtain E+ mec From Eq. (1.21) we get pe 3 c pe = p? +p? — 2Qp-p' (E? + B? — 2ER" cos 0), where # is the angle through which the particle of zero rest mass has been deviated or seattered. Solving Eq. (1.22) for p2 gives us p= tne — Baas ‘ (E? + 8? +2(B — Bm, — 2EP', ‘Scattering of radiation by free electrons 17 mating the two results for pe and caneeling some common terms, we obtain EE jJ— B= — (1 — @). ad Twa cos 8), Dividing both sides by EE’ yields Ae EL se 8), (1.28) ef he similarity between Eqs. (1.20) and (1.23) is striking; it goes beyond a mere “algebraic similarity. Both equations apply to a collision process in its most genera "sense, Also, as we mentioned before, the energy-momentum relationship E = ep "for an clectromagnetic wave is similar to that for a particle of zero rest mass, to “which Eq. (1.23) applies. ‘The obvious conclusion is to link the frequency y and Wihe encfzy £ by writing E=h, (1.24) with a similar expression for E’; that is, E’ = hv’, Here h is a universal constant which describes the proportionality between the frequency of an electromagnetic wave and the energy associated with it in the “collision” process. Then Eq. (1.23) becomes L 1 1 By aah — 5) or 1-1-4 — cos6), oe 2 me Which is, in form, identical to Eq. (1.20). To obtain the equivalent of Eq. (1.19), we multiply Eq. (1.25) by cand use \ = c/v, The result is N= (h/mec)(1 — €08 8). ce Then the Compton wavelength for an electron, Xo, is related to the mass of the scattering electron by Ae = h/mec. 20, From the known values of \c, me, and ¢ we may compute the value of the constant h, obtaining the same value that we found before for Planck’s constant in connec- tion with blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect. Thus Eq. (1.24) is i . (1.6). ; tt aay raetneas -radiation by a free electron if we identify the process with the collision of a i electron and a particle of zero rest mass which has an energy Z = hy before the collision and an energy E’ = hy’ after the collision.fi ie ug u s QUANTUM MECHANIC:l a ae ie TOMS WITH ONE ELECTRON4116 Aloms with one electron 3.3 Energy, eV n oo Continuum 5 e === aoe 0 5 + 7 + Fay 0-54 . af ¢ fh Phund series — 9 30 ! 1 {4 Brackett series 3 1 4 =1.51 1 Jas] [1 Pasehen 1 I 1 series mite 2 I 1 = | | Balmer pia Lyman | series series || ext i gi Bl a BI! Tt war] t S/|E alle eq |B S al|lé Sy] )e A] Ié 1 1 1 —13.60 Fig. 3-4. Radiative transitions in hydrogen. ‘The hydrogen spectrum (Z = 1) (and similarly for the spectra of other atoms) is classified in terms of series, each series formed by transitions that have the lowest energy level in common. Figure 3~4 represents the following hydrogen series: (1) Lyman series: = 1, nz = 2,3,4,... (2) Balmer series: m1 = 2, ro = 3, 4,. (8) Paschen series: ny = 3, nz = 4, 5, (4) Brackett series: ny = 4, np = 5, 6,... (5) Pfund series: mn = 5, np = 6,7,... ‘The Balmer series, which is mostly in the visible region, is easily observed with a common spectroscope. The Lyman series falls in the ultraviolet region and the others in the infrared. The transitions indicated in Fig. 3-4 correspond to the emission spectrum; the reverse transitions take place in the absorption spectrum. 3.4) Quantization of angular momentum — 117 Historically, the problem of explaining the line spectra of hydrogen and other elements was what caused the first application of the quantum theory to the atom. ‘The Swiss mathematician J. Balmer (1825-1808), long before the advent of the quantum theory, empirically obtained formula (3.14) in 1885, without any theoreti- cal explanation related to atomic structure. In 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, then at Cambridge University, derived Eq. (3.14) by introducing, for the first time, the concept of stationary states. Since quantum mechanics had not yet been formulated, Bohr’s method consisted of a series of ad hoc assumptions closely resembling the calculations made in Example 3.1. EXAMPLE 3.3. Determine the first excitation potential and the ionization energy of hydrogen. Solution: As we explained when we discussed the Franck-Herts experiment in Section 1.8, the first excitation potential is the energy required to take an atom from its ground state to its first (or lowest-lying) excited state. ‘These states in hydrogenlike atoms correspond, respectively, ton = 1 and n = 2, Setting n = 1 and n = 2 in Eq. (3.6) with Z = 1, we have £, = —13.6 eV and B2 4 eV. Thus the energy required to excite the atom from the ground state to the first excited state is Hy — F1 = 10.2 eV. If a hydrogen atom is carried to its first excited state by an inelastic electron collision, as happens in a gas discharge tube, it returns to the ground state by emitting radiation of frequeney » = (Ep — Ey)/h = 2.47 X 1015 Ha or wavelength » 1.216 X 10-7 m, which in this case falls in the ultraviolet region, ‘The ionization energy is the energy required to take the electron from the ground state (n = 1) to the state of zero energy (m = ~), and thus is equal to —F = 13.6 eV. Ionization may result from either an inelastic collision of the hydrogen atom with an eleetron or another charged particle, with another atom, or from the atom’s absorbing a photon having a frequency equal to or larger than 3.29 X 1019 Hz or a wavelength equal to or shorter than 9.12 X 10-8 m. 4 Quantization of Angular Momentam So far we have seen that the energy of an atomic system is quantized. We must explore the possibility that some other physical quantities are also quantized; i.e., restricted to only certain values for the system. We noted at the end of Section 2.5 that the momentum of a particle in a potential box is also quantized. In most: examples in Chapter 2 the momentum and/or the energy were constants of the motion; i.c., quantities whose value does not change during the motion of the particle. It is reasonable then to inquire whether or not other constants of the motion are quantized. We know that for motion under central forces, the angular momentum L = r X p relative to the center of force is a constant of the motion. In quantum mechanics this is also true. A careful theoretical and experimental analysis shows that theryan sialyl fa a a i nell4 ATOMS WITH MANY ELECTRONSHehmace ye} Te ilt oy Hy i oH pt eae : HL et a Wie ist isle if cai tht5 MOLECULESi hi its sitaaTela se Gece el Sense7 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE316 Nuclear structure 79 behave in a way rather similar to a liquid drop, which is capable of sustaining oscillations in shape around an equilibrium spherical shape. The collective oscil- lations occur with constant volume, and each nucleus may haye several normal modes of oscillation. Nucleons occupying the outermost unfilled shells exert a sort of polarizing action and tend to give the nucleus an equilibrium nonspherical shape closely resembling a prolate or oblate ellipsoid. This deformation is particu- larly large in the regions 90 < N < 114 and Z > 88; this accounts for the rela~ tively large electric quadrupole moment of such nuclei, which cannot be explained by the shell model. ‘A theory has been developed which combines the shell model and the collective effects. It is called the unified model of the nucleus, but its analysis is beyond the level of this text. Note: Experimental evidence of the spin-orbit interaction in nuclei We have presented the nuclear spin-orbit interaction as a convenient assumption to ex- plain certain features of nuclear energy levels. However, is there direct experimental evidence of such spin-orbit interaction? ‘The answer is yes, and it comes from the analy- sis of scattering experiments. In the same sense that the interaction between a magnetic field and a dipole magnetic moment (which is of the form —@- M) implies a torque which tends to align M parallel to ®, a spin-orbit interaction of the form —J(r)L+S implies a torque that tends to align $ parallel to L (with the opposite result if we have a positive sign). = Spin up © Spin down Unpolarized proton beam *" Partially polarized L down oe Fig. 7-17. Double scattering experiment. Suppose that an unpolarized beam of protons (i.e., with their spins oriented at random) is thrown against helium nuclei, as shown in Fig. 7-17. Consider those protons which are scattered in the plane of the figure, and use the helium nucleus which is the scatterer as reference to measure the orbital angular momentum. The protons scattered along, path (1) have their orbital angular momentum L “up” and those along path (2) have L “down.” ‘The spin-orbit interaction of the protons with the helium nucleus favors protons with their spins parallel to L along each path, and therefore protons along paths (1) and (2) preferentially have their spins up and down, respectively, and the two beams are each partially polarized. Next, beam (1) suffers a second scattering by another helium nucleus which splits it into beams (3) and (4) with L up and down, respeetively. Protons The shell model — 317 along path (3) have their spins preferentially up and those along path (4) have their ‘spins preferentially down. Since more protons in beam (1) have their spins up than down, the spin-orbit interaction favors scattering into beam (3) over beam (4). ‘Therefore detec. tor D1 should register a larger proton current than D2. This is what is observed in the experiment, In the absence of a spin-orbit interaction, beams (3) and (4) should have the "same strength. Therefore experimental evidence clearly supports the existence of a nuclear _ spin-orbit interaction, as manifested by the polarization produced by scattering _ EXAMPLE 7.6. Caleulation of the magnetic dipole moment of an odd-A nucleus using "the shell model. _ Solution: In an odd-aA nucleus having Z odd and N even (or the reverse), the magnetic moment, according to the extreme independent-particle shell model, is attributed to the odd nucleon. All the other nucleons have their resultant angular momenta paired in “opposite directions and therefore do not contribute to the resultant nuclear magnet dipole moment. Let us consider a nucleon having an orbital angular momentum L and “spin S. According to Eq. (7.3) and (7.5), we may write the angular momentum of a nucleon in a form valid both for neutrons and protons as M = (¢/2m,)(QL + 9.8), (7.29) where g = +1 for protons and zero for neutrons and the values of gs were given in See- tion 7.4 for both kinds of nucleons. Since both L and S are precessing around their re- “sultant J, the average or expectation value of M has the direction of J and is given by MS Maye = Ms usus = J, where uy is a unit vector in the direction of J. The component of Mave along the Z- Maavo = (M+ J/J?)J, = (M+ J/J®)mhi = (Ch/2my) GL + 9.8) + J/J?|m. (7.30) As explained in Section 7.4, the tabulated value of the magnetic moment u is by definition the value of M,ave when m has its maximum value (in our ease, when m = j) divided by BN = ¢hi/2my. Thus, recalling that J? = j(j+ 1)A?, we have — Maw gil T+ 9.85. AN G+ DR (7.31) But LJ =P +L? — 8%) = HjG+ ++) — Be, SJ = 30? — B+ 8%) = Hj(G+ 1) — +1) + Be. , Introducing these results in Eq. (7.31), we have that for the two cases of j = 1 + } the _ Magnetic moment is (i Dart to g=lth FE Doha “ (7.32)felNUCLEAR PROCESSES, uane dn A aiay 1 AUAeU THs eT ant He My ayill HL a 9 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES.aany i416 Fundamental particles (9.7 Fig. 9-28, Production of the 9° resonance in a proton-antiproton annihilation. (Photo- graph courtesy the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, California) of an intermediate particle C, there must be a certain correlation among their energies. Therefore, by analyzing the energy of the particles resulting from a collision, we are able to determine whether the process occurs in one step or in two steps. ‘The first resonance that was discovered (about 1960) was the 7° (originally called w°). Its discovery came about as a result of the analysis of proton-antiproton annihilation observed in the Berkeley bubble chamber. One of these annihilations is shown in Fig. 9-28. It corresponds to the production of five pions, pt+ po 2at + 29 + 1°, Of course, the 7° is not visible, but we can infer its existence from momentum and energy conservation. The process can be represented as in the drawing in Fig. 9-28. By analyzing the energies of the mesons by means of this and many other similar processes, we can conclude that three of the mesons [in our case those marked (1), (3), and (5)] proceed from the decay of a short-lived particle having a rest mass of about 548 MeV, and thus is one of the y-mesons, designated »°. Thus, instead of the above scheme, we must write Poa tt pa atta This is the way the process is represented in Fig. 9-29. Note that even if the n?-meson is moving at the velocity of light (3 X 10° ms7*), in its lifetime (~10~°s) it cannot move more than 3 X 10~!?m, a quantity impossible to measure in a bubble-chamber photograph. 9.7) Resonances 417 Fig. 9-29. Interaction region of process illustrated in Fig. 9-28, magnified about rys- 1015 times. \ Resonances decay by means of strong interactions, which accounts for their ex- tremely short lives. Some observed decays are ‘Mesons Baryons Niopt+a® Nf a+ at AY B04 9 Aga att ee sfoaotat attapt+at e at oat +9? oat pr tA Ki > Kt+7° ‘The student should apply the conservation laws to these decays to find which, if any, laws are violated, and should give reasons why it is possible for these decays to occur by means of strong interactions. EXAMPLE 9.7. Calculation of the energy spread, in the laboratory, of the two photons that result from the decay of a 7°-meson with a total energy E, relative to the L-frame. Solution: Let us consider a r°-meson with energy 2, and momentum 7p, relative to the laboratory or L-frame. Then E, = cV mic? p%. The velocity of the meson (see Appendix I, Eq. A.10) is 2p ,/ Ex. (9.12) This is also the velocity, relative to the L-frame, of the C-frame, in which the +° is at rest. In the C-frame the two photons resulting in the decay n° + 7+ 7 are emitted in opposite directions with an energy Ei = 4m,c? and a momentum py = By/c = fine. Due to the symmetry in the C-frame, the photons are emitted isotropically. But this is not the case in the L-frame, in which the forward dircetion is preferred because of the motion of the C-frame. Due to the Doppler effect, the energy of the photons in the C- and L-frames is not the me. In general, the two photons do not have the same energy in the L-frame. ‘The maximum energy spread occurs when one photon is emitted in the direction of py (or forward) and the other in the opposite direction (or backward). ‘Then it is simple to com- pute the energy of the two photons in the L-frame. If By, is the energy of the forward photon and Ba that of the backward photon, their respective momenta, in the direction of pz, are py = Eys/e and pyz = —B2/c. Conservation of energy and. momentum give E,=En+By, pe = En/e— Ey/e, (9.18) so that B(Ex+ cpr) and Ey2 = 3(Ex — cps) (9.14) al Thus the energies of the photons in the L-frame have a spread AE = Ey, — E,2 = cpy-if a ath ifee fal ep Haat al tillniitslilue sane tn fs i 4] aa ie Hib jet A ayPane 2 STATISTICAL PHYSICS €‘MECHANICS CLASSICAL STATISTICAL, RR gee a i fie it iia Hak g Hy Hl u : ee cli Hl He a Te EE Hhyee ihHt2 3 $ a EBii i fj eami: WSR ie eliasif Ife val 1 enn eran Tt ihe ute is : Hiatl12 ‘THERMAL PROPERTIES ‘OF GASES,THUR ae ip iWET frown ns mn ome, eee Ser at eralias fomsinom pronncs er)stl516 Thermal properties of gases gas following the van der Waals equation given in Problem 12.2. 12.5 The bulk modulus of a substance at. constant temperature is defined as gual (On), Be V \Op/2 Find xr for (a) an ideal gas, and (b) a real gas following the van der Waals equation given in Problem 12.2. 12.6 An empirical equation of state for real gases, proposed by Dieterici, is pV — nbjeswver = xRT. Write the equation in virial form and compare it with Eq. (12.20). 12.7. Express the equation for an isen- tropie process of an ideal gas in terms of: (a) pressure and temperature, (b) volume and temperature. 12.8 Show that the work done by an ideal gas during an isentropic (or reversible adiabatic) transformation is nR(T1 — T2)/(¥ — 1). 12.9 Compare the slopes of an isentropic and an isothermal transformation of an ideal gas at the same point in a p-V dia- gram. Conclude from the comparison that in an isentropic expansion of an ideal gas the temperature decreases. Explain why this is so. 12.10 Plot a Carnot cycle in a p-V dia gram when the working substance is an ideal gas. Show that, if V1, V2, Va, and V4 are the volumes of the gas at the end of each transformation, then V2/Vi = Vs/V4. 12.11 Compute the work done by the gas during each of the transformations com- posing a Carnot cycle, and show that the net work done is W = NR(T2 — Ti) In V2/V1. Verify then that Eq. (11.47) is satisfied. [Hint: Use the result of Problem 12.10.] 12.12 The adiabatic compressibility of a substance is defined as 1 (av “~~ Tap). Find «, for an ideal gas. The propagation of elastic waves in a gas is an adiabatic process and the velocity of propagation is given by » = Vx,/p, where p is the density. Explain how, by measuring 2, one can compute 7. Show that v depends only on the absolute temperature. 12.13 An ideal gas at 300°K occupies a volume of 0.5m? at a pressure of 2 atm. The gas expands adiabatically until its volume is 1.2m?, Next the gas is com- pressed isobarically up to its original volume, Finally the pressure is increased isochorically until the gas returns to its initial state. (a) Plot the process in a p-V diagram. (b) Determine the temperature at the end of each transformation. (¢) Find the work done during the cycle. As- sume that ¥ = 1.4. 12.14 An ideal gas at 300°K occupies a volume of 0.5 m® at a pressure of 2 atm, ‘The gas expands adiabatically until its volume is 1.2m%. Next the gas is com- pressed isothermally until the volume is the same as the original volume. Finally the pressure is increased isochorically until the gas returns to its initial state. (a) Plot the process in a p-V diagram. (b) Determine the temperature at the end of the adiabatic expansion. (¢) Find the work done during the eyele. Assume that yels 12.15 An ideal gas is initially at T1 = 300°K, pi = 3.atm, and Vi = 4m. The gas expands isothermally to a volume of 16m. This is followed by an isochoric process to such a pressure that an adiabatic compression returns the gas to the original state. Assume that all the processes are reversible, and do the following: (a) Draw the cycle on a p-V diagram and a T-S diagram, numerically labeling all end- points carefully. (b) Caleulate the work done and the entropy change during each process and during the cycle. Assume that 7 = 14. 12.16 Estimate the error made in evalu- ating Zro: when 21-+ 1 is replaced by 21 and I(!+- 1) is replaced by /? in Bq. (12.32). 12.17 Calculate the percentage of mol- coules of a diatomic gas in the ground (I = 0) and first excited (J = 1) rotational states at temperatures 7’ = @, and T = 20,. 12.18 Compare the number of hydrogen molecules per mole in the second excited rotational state (| = 2) with the number of chlorine molecules per mole for the same excited state when the temperature is 300°K. 12.19 Compare the number of hydrogen molecules per mole in the second excited vibrational state (v = 2) with the number of chlorine molecules per mole for the same excited state when the temperature is 300°K. 12.20 Consider a mole of CO gas. Caleu- late the number of molecules in the first three vibrational energy states at room temperature (300°K) and at 1000°K. Problems = 517 12.21 Show that the vibrational heat. capacity of a gas at constant volume is given by ae (2) heat i ED) (gel 3 Find the limiting values for T << ©, and T > ®,. 12.22 Using the result of Problem 11.13, show that the entropy of a diatomic gas due to molecular rotations is Srot = AN[L + In (1/0,)]. ote: When the molecule is homonuclear, it can be shown that we must use 1/20,; this is due to a halving of the distinguish- able states as a result of the symmetry of the molecule.) 12.23 Using the result of Problem 11.13, show that the entropy of a diatomic gas due to molecular vibrations is Svin = KN[(@x/T) (ew? — 1) — In (1 — eT), Verify that for small temperatures Sy tends to zero, while for large temperatures Sviy approaches the value EN{1 + In (T/@,)].’ na ae ME STATISTICS 277 esit Hi it aaf iit | all nile nun ld598 Index Time translation, 404 ‘Transformation, adiabatic, 474, 484 cyclical, 468 irreversible, 470 isentropic, 475 isobarie, 473 isochorie, 473 isothermal, 474, 484 reversible, 470 ‘Transition, electric dipole, 94 electronic, in molecules, 222 isomeric, 323 multipole, 321 vibration-rotation, 217 ‘Transition probability, 44, 94 induced emission, 533 radiative, 321 spontaneous, 533 Transport phenomena, 476 ‘Trap, 277 ‘Tritium, 365 ‘Turning point, classical, 75 Uneertainty principle, Heisenberg, 40 Undetermined multipliers, Lagrange, 441, 564 Ungerade, 192 Unified model of the nucleus, 316 Uranium series, 329 Valence band, 246 Valence electron, 171 van der Waals constants, 503 van der Waals force, 235 Vector, axial and polar, 405 Velocity, average, 455 center of mas 9 Fermi, 273 group, 38, 254, 560 most probable, 455 phase, 38 root-mean-square, 455 Velocity of sound, 536 Velocity selector, 454 Vibration, characteristic temperature for: 509 lattice, 240 molecular, 215 normal modes of, 219 solid collective, 536 Vibrational energy, zero-point, 200, 216 Vibrational excited state, nuclear, 320 Vibrational-rotational transitions, 217 Virial coefficients, 497 Virtual partiele, 421 Water (H20) molecule, 202 vibrational levels in, 220 Wave function, 54 angular, 123 antibonding and bonding, 187 determinantal, 160 molecular, 192 normalization and orthogonality of, 67 parity of, 125 Wave number, 58, 115 Wave packet, 38, 58 Weak boson, 422 Weak interaction, 345 Weisziicker formula for nuclear binding energy, 296 Wein, W. (1864-1928), 10 Wein displacement law, 10 Work, 463 Work funetion, 13, 249, 526 W-particle, 377 Wu, ©. (1913- ), 407 X-ray, characteristic, 176 X-ray diffraction, 36 X-ray emission in solids, 274 Yang, C. (1922-_), 406 Yukawa, H. (1907- ), 300, 388 Yukawa potential, 299 Zeeman, P. (1865-1943), 132 Zeeman effect, 132 Zener effect, 257 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 449 Zero-point energy, 67, 72 Zero-point pressure, 541