Deininger,Nair,Tarazi,&Vardhan1

FranziskaDeininger,MonicaNair,EliasTarazi,andHardikVardhan
ProfessorWalzer
ENGW3315
March3,2016
Flint,Michigan:EmployingTransparencyandEffectiveDisasterMitigationTechniques
ProposalAudience
:
TheFederalEmergencyManagementAgency(FEMA)istheaudienceforthisproposal.FEMAhas
askedtheAmericanRedCross,ourteam,toproposethebestresponsemanagementstrategyforthe
situation.
Introduction
InmidJanuaryof2016,PresidentObamadeclaredastateofemergencyinresponsetothe
watercrisisinFlint,Michigan,wherethousandsofresidentshavebeenexposedtotoxicamountsof
leadafteracostcuttingmovebythelocalgovernmenttoswitchthewatersupplyfromLakeHuronto
theFlintRiverin2014(Southall1).Thiscreatedmultiplehealthrisks,includingelevatedlevelsoflead
andleadrelatedillnesses(Atkinsonpar.110).Inresponsetothesethreatstopublichealth,several
privateandfederalinvestigationsareunderway,includingthisreportbythe
RedCross
.Our
investigationdeterminedthatalackofincentiveandaccountabilitybylocalofficials,including
MichiganGovernorRickSnyder,isatthebaseofthecrisis(Atkinsonpar.2).Ourteamproposesan
interdisciplinarydisastermanagementprocesstobeimplementedwhichincorporatesengineering,
business,economics,andcommunicationsstrategiestomanagethecurrentsituation(Ozdamar&
Estern55).
ResearchHistory
Considerableresearchwasundertakentodevelopeffectivedisastermanagementstrategies
(Azizullah,Khattak,Richter,&Hader479).Acommonthemeamongscholarsdiscussingthistopicis

theideathateffectivedisasterresponseneedstobeinterdisciplinaryinnature,andincludea
responseplanthatisresponsivetotheassociatedsocial,political,physical,andeconomicfactors
(Cavallo6;Lambertetal.645).Forexample,intheFlintdisaster,ahighpovertyrateswillimpactthe
abilityofthecommunitytorecoverfromthisdisaster(Atkinsonpar.25).Otherscholarlyarticles,
converselyapproachthepoliciesandpracticesofdisastermanagement(Etkin96).Inthesearticlethe
keycomponentsofdisastermanagementareidentifiedas:1)Preparedness,policiesandprocedures
tofacilitateaneffectiveresponse,2)Response,actionstakenbefore,during,andafteranaturalshock
thatmaximizestheprotectionofpeopleandproperty,3)Recovery,postdisasteractionsthataimsto
restorecriticalsystemsandreturnacommunitytopredisasterconditions,4)Mitigation,the
activitybeforeorafteracatastrophetoreducetheimpactofpeopleandproperty(96).Inadditionto
thesemainfactors,severalscholarsalsonotetheneedforthepoliticalaccountabilityofelected
publicofficialsasbeingcornerstonetoeffectivedisasterresponses(Cohen&Werker795).Thisis
becausetheemergencydisastersystemrequireslocalgovernmentstobefirstrespondersandto
exhausttheirresourcesbeforeseekingassistancefromtheirstategovernments(FEMA,2016).
Discussion
Theimportanceandcontentofasuccessfuldisastermanagementtechniqueinlightofacrisis,
isidentifiedbyscholarsacrosstheboard,butseemstohavefallenondeafearsinFlint,Michigan.To
beginwith,itseemshighlyimplausiblethattheFlintRiverwatersource,whichhasmadethebathing,
cooking,anddrinkingwaterforresidents19timesmorecorrosive,wastestedextensivelyforthe
presenceoflead,whichhasbeenidentifiedasextremelyharmfulsince1973(Bellinger2).Studies
fromMichiganStateUniversityCollegeofHumanMedicineDivisionofPublicHealthshowhigh
increasesinchildrenselevatedbloodleadlevel(EBLL)evenfrombeforethecrisis.Accordingtothe
results,FlintchildrenwithanEBLLmorethandoubled,goingfrom2.4%beforetheincidentto4.9%of
thechildpopulation(HannaAttisha284).Despitegovernmentreadinessbeingamajorcomponentfor

scholarsdiscussingthecrisis,notingthatitcangreatlydeterminetheextentofsufferingincurredby
theaffectedpopulation,Flintofficialstookabackseatapproachtohandlingthecrisis(Cohen795).
ThelackofpoliticalresponsivenessontheFlintcrisisisconsideredadramaticfailureofprimary
prevention,oneofthemajorcomponentsrecognizedbyscholardiscussingdisastermanagement
(HannaAttisha288).Themistakesmadebylocalofficialswillnotonlyleadtoserioushealthand
financialaftermath,buttheyhavealsoleftmanytoquestionthemotivesandcapabilitiesofpolitical
leadership.
Tyinginscholarlyresearchinthespaceofemergencyrelief,wesuggestthatthereareparticular
solutionsformaximizingtheresponse.Foremost,thereneedstobewidertransparencyfromthe
onsettothemitigationofthecrisis,amajorconcernthatplacedFlintinthemedialimelight.There
wasacompletelackofcommunication,ifnotdenial,bylocalofficialsabouttheextentofthelead
poisoningandwhatwasbeingdonetoavertthecrisis(Atkinsonpar.25).Notonlywasthisamajor
politicalbreachoftrust,butitalsopreventedthedispatchoflocalresourcestohalttheuseofwater
throughouthouseholdsinFlint.Awideningofscopemustbeenacted,notonlytoinformresidents,
butalsotoformalizeasolutionthataddressesthelocation,construction,andoperationofthewater
supplyinordertodeterminewhatwentwrongandhowtofixit(Bolton1243).
Inaddition,bothshortandlongtermmitigationstrategiesneedtobeconsideredandput
intoplaceforemergenciessuchasthese.Waterboilingtechniquesneedtobedisseminatedtothe
peopleofFlintasquicklyaspossibletohaltthedetrimentaleffectsofleadwhilethelongerterm
infrastructuraldamages,inthiscasethewatersourcebeingreroutedortreated,isunderway.Such
alleviationstrategiesdependonthepresenceofemergencyreliefprogramsthataremosteffective
whenlocallysourced.WhileFederalinterventionmaybenecessarydependingonthefinancial
positioningofthelocalgovernment,stateemergencyreliefbudgetsmustbesufficientenoughto
dispatchlocalresourcesasquicklyaspossible.WhileFlintsMayorWeaverdeclaredthewaterissuea

citywidepublichealthstateofemergencyinmidDecemberinordertopromptadditionalfundingfor
stateandfederalofficials,itwasntuntilmidJanuarythatthecityreceivedwatertestingsamplesand
bottledwaterfromlocalNGOs.InFebruary,theFederalgovernmentbecameinvolvedandthe
EnvironmentalProtectionAgencytookoverthecollectionandtestingofwatersample.This
demonstratedtheineffectivenessofFlintslocalresponse.Aspreviouslymentioned,Flintis
economicallyimpoverished,butevenifitdoesnothavetheresourcestodirectlymitigatethewater
crisis,itneedstohaveatransparentplanforaccessingstateandfederalfundsduringacrisisina
timelyandefficientmanner.
Conclusion
Beinganalreadyweakfinanciallypriortothecrisis,Flintseconomicburdenshaveamplified
duetotheshortcutsexhibitedfromgovernmentofficials.Inadditiontothelawsuitsanddeaths
associatedwiththecrisis,thecommunitymustalsoaccepttheunknowingstateoftheirchildrens
wellbeingintheyearstocome(Bellingerpar.1).Whilethecrisisisfinallybeingdealtwitheffectively
inFlint,Michigan,thecityservesasanexamplefortheimportanceofstructuredemergency
managementplans,theneedforimmediateshortandlongtermmitigationstrategies,the
accountabilityandtransparencyofgovernmentofficials,andtheneedtohaveaninterdisciplinary
approachtohandlingthecrisis.Aboveall,thereneedstobeachangeinthementalityoflocalofficials
andanincentivetoprovidefirsthandcareanddrawonlocalresourcesforaneffectiveimmediate
response.

AnnotatedBibliography:
Azizullah,Azizullah,MuhammadNasirKhanKhattak,PeterRichter,andDonatPeterHder."Water
PollutioninPakistanandItsImpactonPublicHealthAReview."
EnvironmentInternational
37.2(2011):47997.
ScienceDirect
.Web.15Feb.2016.
Inadetailedreport,FriedichAlexanderUniversitysDr.Azizullah,Dr.NasirKhanKhattak,Dr.
Ritcher,andDr.DonatPeterHderhighlightthemajorpollutantsaffectingwaterqualityinPakistan
andofferrecommendationstoassistandcontrolcontaminatedwater.Theauthorssignifythehealth
risksassociatedwithwatercontamination,whereAbout2.3billionpeoplearesufferingfrom
waterrelateddiseasesworldwideandwaterrelatedinfectiousandparasiticdiseases[are]
account[ing]for~60%ofinfantmortalityintheworld(493).Theseauthorseffectivelypresentthe
severityofwaterpollutionandattemptsmadetopreventhealthrelatedriskswithextensiveresearch
conductedthroughoutPakistanaswellasdetailedstudiesonthedifferentfactorsattributingtowater
contamination,onemostlybeingduetohumanactivities.Thedatacontributedfromthisreport
informreadersofageneralaudienceontheseverityofbothwatercontaminationasaglobal
phenomenonandmajorhealthfactor.Thedoctorsfromthisaccrediteduniversityvisuallyexplainthe
significanceoftheirstudiesthroughnumerouschartsandgraphs,detailedresearchofwaterpollution
inspecificregionsofPakistan,andassociatedhealthdevelopmentswithinthoseareas.Theauthors
thoroughsummaryoffersrelevantinformationonPakistanswatercontaminationthatcanbemade
applicabletoothercasesseenindifferentpartsoftheworld.

Bellinger,DavidC."LeadContaminationinFlintAnAbjectFailuretoProtectPublicHealth."
New
EnglandJournalofMedicine
(2016).
TheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine
.Web.15Feb.2016.
Dr.BellingerofHarvardMedicalSchoolandHarvardSchoolofPublicHealthexaminesthe
socioeconomictrendsseeninFlint,Michiganthatcontributedtothelackofimmediacytothewater
crisisandincludeshistoricalaccountsthatrecognizethehazardousconcernsofleadandprevention
methods.Bellingerhighlightshowleadpreventionhasbeensignificantsince1723,andhow,despitea
reductioninbloodleadlevelsinU.S.overthepastfourdecades,waterhasnotreceivedasmuch
attentionasarouteofleadexposure.Bellingersexplainshowonthelackofimmediateattentionfor
thecrisiscorrelatestoFlintslowincomepopulation,explainingthatTheburdenofchildhoodlead
poisoninghasalwaysweighedmostheavilyonpopulationsthatarepoliticallyandeconomically
disenfranchised(2).Theauthorsuccessfullycallsattentionforachangeinpublichealthprotection,
especiallyforchildren,throughaconcisecomparisonbetweeninfantstypicalleadintakeversusthose
ofFlint.Theresearchgatheredfromthisreporthelpreadersofageneralaudienceunderstandthe
measuresthatneedtobetakeninordertoassistFlint,Michiganandensureamatterlikethisdoes
notoccurinthefuture.Byrecognizingthelack[of]politicalwilltodowhatshouldhavebeen
done,Bellingersreportshedslightonthecurrentcrisisandactsasacalltoactionandhumanitarian
reliefforFlintresidents.

Bolton,Paul.PreventionofWaterSourceContamination.
Journal(AmericanWaterWorks
Association)
53.10(1961):12431250.Web.

PaulBoltonspositionandexperienceasasanitationengineerforHenningson,Durham&

Richardson,Inc.ultimatelyallowedhimtobringtheproblemofincreasingwatersource
contaminationtotheforefrontduringtheannualAmericanWaterWorksAssociationconference.His

argumentisthatduetomorecomplexlivingconditionsandhouseholdproductshavemadewater
sourcecontaminationanevenmoreprevalentproblems,requiringmorepreventativemeasurestobe
enacted.Thispaperrepresentsimportantresearchandinsightintotheissuebecauseithighlightsthe
basicconsiderationsthatallengineersdealingwiththeseproblemshavetotakeintoaccount.The
mostimportantpointthatheraisesisthenecessityofawideningofscope(Bolton1243),which
allowsforevenmorefactorstobetakenintoconsideration,andthusminimizingthechancesofany
contamination.ThisisdirectlyapplicabletothesituationinFlintbecauseitisthisexactfailingthat
ultimatelycausedthecrisistooccur,thusgivingusthebaselinescenariofromwhichtobasethe
effectivenessofdifferentsolutionson.

Cavallo,Eduardo,andIlanNoy."TheEconomicsofNaturalDisasters."
IDBWorkingPaperSeries
(2010).Web.16Feb.2016.
ThisreportbyEduardoCavalloandIlanNoyoftheInterAmericanDevelopmentBank,
examinestheeconomicliteraturesurroundingtheaggregateimpactofnaturaldisastersbylookingat
themaindisasterdatasources,discussingthedeterminantsoftheextentofthedisasterimpact,and
distinguishingbetweenshortandlongtermimpacts.Theauthorsbeginbyemphasizingthatthe
costsassociatedwithnaturaldisastersarelargelydeterminedbyeconomicforcesratherthan
predeterminedbynaturalprocesses(6).Theirargumentinfact,thatnaturaldisastersareeconomic
eventsinandofthemselves.Theygoontodefinebothdirectandindirectdisasterdamages,the
formerbeingdamagetofixedassetsandcapital,rawmaterialsandnaturalresources,andmortality
andmorbidity,andthelatterbeingdamagetoeconomicactivitythatwillbehaltedasaresultofthe
disaster.NaturaldisastersasdefinedbytheEMDATdatabasearefairlycommonevents,whilelarge,
catastrophicdisastersaremorerare.Thedirectcostsassociatedwiththeselargeeventsarehugeand

weighmoreheavilyondevelopingcountrieswhereresponsetime,geography,andinfrastructureall
playarole.

Mostmodelsthatestimatethecostsofanaturaldisasterincludevariableslikedisaster

magnitudeandvulnerabilityoftheaffectedarea,however,thereisalargerangeofvariablesthatcan
leadtoimprovedpreventionmethodsandmitigationonceadisasteroccursthathaveaneffectonnet
damage.Forexample,anarticlebyHealyandMalhotra(2009)identifiesalackofpolitical
accountabilityforelectedpublicofficialsintheU.S.asanexplanationforinefficientallocation
decisions.Insummary,whiledisastersarenaturaleventsthatcannotnecessarilybeprevented,the
aftereffectsthatincludedirect,indirect,shortterm,andlongtermdamagesaredeterminedby
societal,economic,andpoliticalfactors.Thisreportisvaluableinthatitsummarizestheexisting
literaturesurroundingthecostofnaturaldisasters,providingathoroughstartingpointforassessing
naturaleventsfromaneconomicperspectiveespecially.

Cohen,Charles,andEricWerker."ThePoliticalEconomyof'Natural'Disasters."
TheJournalofConflict
Resolution
52.6(2008):795819.Web.15Feb.2016.
ThemainpurposebehindthisjournalarticlewrittenbyCharlesCohenandEricWerkerofthe
HarvardBusinessSchool,istoevaluatenaturaldisastersinthepoliticalspace.Althoughnatural
disastersoccurbeyondhumancontrol,accordingtotheauthor,thelevelofgovernment
preparednessandresponsegreatlydeterminestheextentofsufferingincurredbytheaffected
population(795).Incentivesfacedbypoliticalactorsduringanaturaldisastercanaffectthe
prevention,mitigation,anddamageofthesaiddisaster.Forexample,intheUnitedStates,political
deliberationsmayexplainthepresenceoffederaldisasterreliefandthedeclarationofstateof
emergencies.Theauthorsuggestsamodelofdisastermitigationthatincludesthispolitical
componentwhilealsoempiricallypredictingtheseverityofthedisaster.Theutilityofthe

10

governmentessentiallytheprofitabilityofhandlingacrisisaseffectivelyaspossiblegreatly
influencesthedisasterresponse.Thearticlereferstoadisasterasthenetimpactoftheshock(the
naturaleventitself)ontheaffectedpopulation,indicatingthatthetotalityoftheshockseffectis
capturedinthepostshockperiod.Furthermore,developedcountriesaremorelikelytoinvestinpre
andpostshocktargeteddisasterpreventionthandevelopingcountries,andextrastatehumanitarian
aidcanleadtolocalgovernmentnegligenceindealingwithdisasteraffectedpopulations.

Partofthisarticlefocusesonextrastatehumanitarianaidanditseffectsonlocalgovernment

responsesindevelopingcountriesespecially.Whilethisisntentirelyapplicabletothediscussion
surroundingtheeconomicimpactofnaturaldisasters,itdoesrelayimportantsuggestionsaboutwhy
governmentsrespondtocrisesinaparticularway.Iflocalgovernmentscansomehowbenefitfrom
outsidehelp,theirutilitymaybemaximized.Thesamemaybetrueinthepoliticalsensethelackof
responseinFlint,Michiganmayhaverepresenteda(miscalculated)maximizationofutilitytothose
thatwereprimarilyresponsibleforrelievingthedamagedonebytheleadpoisoning.Althoughthis
articleisfrom2008,itistheonlypeerreviewedpiecesthatIcouldfindthatattempttoproducean
empiricalmodelfordisasterimpactthatincludesthepoliticalutilitycomponent.

Etkin,David,andChowdhuryEmdadul.Haque.
DisasterRiskandVulnerability:Mitigationthrough
MobilizingCommunitiesandPartnerships
.Montreal:McGillQueen'sUP,2012.Print.
Inthechaptertitled
TheIntersectionofPoliciesonDisasterManagement,ClimateChange,
andInternationalDevelopment
inthebook
DisasterRiskandVulnerability:Mitigationthrough
MobilizingCommunitiesandPartnerships,
authorsEmdadHaqueandDavidEtkinofUniversityof
ManitobaandYorkUniversityrespectively,discusshowpoliticalfactorsandclimatechangehave
cometoplayaroleinthedamagesincurredbynaturaldisasters.Disastermanagementrefersto
policiesandpracticesdevelopedandimplementedtomanagetheimpactofdisasters(96).The

11

authorsidentifyfourcomponentstoeffectivedisastermanagementincludingpreparedness,
response,recovery,andmitigation.Preparednessreferstothepoliciesandprocedurestofacilitatean
effectiveresponse.Responseistheactionstakenbefore,during,andafteranaturalshockthat
maximizestheprotectionofpeopleandproperty.Recoveryreferstopostdisasteractionsthataims
torestorecriticalsystemsandreturnacommunitytopredisasterconditions(96).Finally,
mitigationistheactivitybeforeorafteracatastrophetoreducetheimpactofpeopleandproperty.

AccordingtoHaqueandEtkin,localgovernmentscanplayaninstrumentalroleinhazard

mitigationbecausetheyareincloserangeofthedisasterandcontrolmanyofthemosteffectivetools
forrelief(98).Unfortunately,mostofthedisasterrecoveryburdenfallsonstateandfederal
governmentsbecausedisastersinanygivencommunityarestatisticallyrareandlocaldemandfor
mitigationisalowpriority.Asaresult,localgovernmentshavefewincentivestoinvestinsuch
programs.Withtheoccurrenceofnaturaldisastersontherise,itisincreasinglyimportantforall
levelsofgovernmenttoimplementpoliciesandprogramsthatacknowledgetheexistenceof
catastrophesandattempttoreducetheirdevastatingeffects.Thischaptercontainsalotofuseful
information,butthelastpointaboutthelackoflocalgovernmentincentivemayhelpexplainthelack
ofresponsetotheleadpoisoningdisastercurrentlytakingplaceinFlint,Michigan.

HannaAttisha,Mona,JennyLachance,RichardCaseySadler,andAllisonChampneySchnepp.
"Elevated
BloodLeadLevelsinChildrenAssociatedWiththeFlintDrinkingWaterCrisis:ASpatial
Analysis
ofRiskandPublicHealthResponse."
AmericanJournalofPublicHealth
106.2(2016):28390.
AmericanPublicHealthAssociation
.Web.15Feb.2016.

12

HurleyChildrensHospitalsMonaHannaAttishaandAllisonChampneySchepp,aswellas
JennyLaChangeoftheHurleyMedicalCenterResearch,andRichardCaseySadlerofMichiganState
UniversityCollegeofHumanMedicineDivisionofPublicHealth,signifytheserioushealthconcerns
associatedwiththeFlint,Michiganwatercrisis.Byanalyzingdifferencesforchildrenselevatedblood
leadlevel(EBLL)inchildrenbeforeandaftertheincident,theresearchteamexposeshowthewater
inFlinthascreatedhighhealthrisks.TheauthorsresearchexemplifiesasignificantincreaseinEBLL,
explainingthatInthepreperiod,2.4%ofchildreninFlinthadanEBLL;inthepostperiod,4.9%of
childrenhadanEBLLwhereastheEBLLchangeforchildrenoutsideofFlintwaterwasnot
statisticallysignificant(284).Thedatacollectedfromthereportexposesalackofpoliticalproficiency
andactsasacautionaryneedforassistancefortheresidentsofFlint.Theauthorsthoroughreport,
includingacollectionofstatisticsandchartsoffersgeneralreadersabetterunderstandingofthe
longtermeffectsthecrisishascreatedandactsasasuitablesourceforfurtherinquiry.

Lambert,J.H.,Parlak,A.I.,Zhou,Q.,Miller,J.S.,Fontaine,M.D.,Guterbock,T.M.,...&Thekdi,S.A.
Understandingandmanagingdisasterevacuationonatransportationnetwork.
Accident
Analysis&Prevention
,50(2013),pp.
50
,645658.Print.

TheauthorsofthisarticlecomefromtheCenterforRiskManagementofEngineering

Systems,DepartmentofSystemsandInformationEngineering,UniversityofVirginia.Asaresult,their
approachtothetopicisfromanengineeringperspective.Thethesisofthearticleisthat
transportationsystemsimpacttheabilityoffirstrespondersandotheragentsofhelptoeffectively
respondtoadisaster.Thesourceofthisdocumentwasapeerreviewedjournalarticlesuggestinga
highlevelofcredibility.Theinformationthatwillbeusedfromthisdocumentwillberisksassociated
withtransportationsysteminfrastructureanddisruptionsduringadisasterresponse.

13

McClendon,S.,&Robinson,A.C.Leveraginggeospatiallyorientedsocialmediacommunicationsin
disasterresponse.
InternationalJournalofInformationSystemsforCrisisResponseand
Management(IJISCRAM)
,5.1(2013),pp.2240.Print.

Theauthorsofthisarticlehavethefollowingcredentials,SusanMcClendon(Divisionof

InformationTechnology,WyomingGeographicInformationScienceCenter,UniversityofWyoming,
Laramie,WY,USA)andAnthonyC.Robinson(GeoVISTACenter,DepartmentofGeography,The
PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,UniversityPark,PA,USA)(p.22).Thethesisofthispaperis
geospatiallyorientedsocialmediaisavaluabletoolinmanagingdisasterresponses(p.22).This
articlewastakenfromapeerreviewedjournal,makingitahighlycrediblesource.Thetarget
audienceofthisjournalareprofessionalswhotakepartinemergencyanddisasterresponses,
includingengineers.Theinformationthatwillbeusedfromthisstudywillbehow
geospatiallyorientedsocialmediaimpactssecurityofresourcesandhowitcanbeusedtoidentify
possiblegapsinresourceavailability.

zdamar,L.,&Ertem,M.A.Models,solutionsandenablingtechnologiesinhumanitarianlogistics.
EuropeanJournalofOperationalResearch
,244.1(2015),pp.5565.Print.

TheauthorsofthisarticleareaffiliatedwithIndustrialandSystemsEngineeringDepartment,

YeditepeUniversityandDepartmentofIndustrialEngineering,ankayaUniversity.Theperspectives
ofthesewritersisthereforeanengineeringperspective.ThethesisofthepaperisWepresenta
surveythatfocusesontheresponseandrecoveryplanningphasesofthedisasterlifecycle(p.55).
Thepublicationassociatedwiththisarticleisahighlyrespectedpeerreviewjournalwhichhasa
vigorousreviewprocess.Theinformationthatwillbeusedfromthisarticlewillrelatetowhich
logisticalmodelsandenablingtechnologiesareusedinhumanitarianlogistics,sothatrisksassociated
withthesethingscanbeassessed.

14

Rau,Toms,SergioUrzaandLoretoReyes.EarlyExposuretoHazardousWasteandAcademic
Achievement:EvidencefromaCaseofEnvironmentalNegligence.
JournaloftheAssociation
of
EnvironmentalandResourceEconomists.
2.4(2015):527563.Web.

TomasRauisanassociateprofessorinthePontificiaUniversidadCatolicadeChile,while

maintainingarelationshipwiththeChileanEconomicAssociation,afterobtaininghisPh.Din
EconomicsfromUCBerkeley.Hisanalysisofthesituationemphasizesthesocialandqualitative
impactsthathazardouswastemighthaveonanindividualoverthecourseoftheirlifetime.Thisis
extremelyimportantbecausewhenconductingacostbenefitanalysis,factorsasidefromthefinancial
costsneedtobeconsidered.ThesocialimpactsthatthewatercontaminationinFlintmighthaveis
somethingthatwillbeconsideredwhenevaluatingdifferentsolutions.

Smith,K.
Environmentalhazards:assessingriskandreducingdisaster
.NewYork,NY:Routledge,2013.
Print.
Smithisanexpertinemergencyanddisastermanagement;however,specificcredentialswere
notprovided.Routledgeisthepublisherofthisbook,whichconductsitsownverificationofauthor
credentialsforacademicandreferencepublications.Thethesisofthebookisthatthemanagementof
environmentalhazardsrequiresassessingandreducingrisksassociatedwithdisastersituations.The
bookwasareferencetextforindividualsinthefieldofemergencyanddisastermanagement.Itwas
publishedasbothahardcopyandadigitalcopybook.Routledge,thepublisher,hasastrong
reputationasputtingoutqualityreferencematerials.Inregardstothecurrentproject,thisreference
willbeusedasaresourceforhowtoidentifyrisksassociatedwithmanagingresourcesduringa
disasterresponse.

15

Stern,P.C.,Ebi,K.L.,Leichenko,R.,Olson,R.S.,Steinbruner,J.D.,&Lempert,R.Managingriskwith
climatevulnerabilityscience.
NatureClimateChange
,3.7(2013),pp.607609.Print.
Theauthorsofthisarticleareaffiliatedwithvariousprofessionalorganizations,includingthe
NationalResearchCouncil,ClimAdapt,DepartmentofGeographyatRutgersUniversity,andthe
ExtremeEventsInstitute.Theperspectiveofthesewriterswillbeonclimate,geography,andsystems.
ThethesisstatementofthisarticleisClimateinformationalonecannotbesufficientforanticipating
andreducingclimateimpacts.Enhancedvulnerabilityscienceisneeded,includinglocaltoglobal
monitoring,tosupporteffectiveanticipatoryeffortstoincreasesocietalresiliencetopotentially
disruptiveevents.(p.607).Thepublicationisapeerreviewedjournal,sothisarticlehasaperceived
highlevelofcredibility.Theinformationthatwillbeusedfromthissourcewillbetheimportanceof
monitoringforemergingnaturalandmanmadethreatsduringadisasterresponse,asthedisruption
causedbythefirstdisastercanbecomplicatedbyincominginclementweatherorotheremerging
problems.

Sung,I.,&Lee,T.Optimalallocationofemergencymedicalresourcesinamasscasualtyincident:
patientprioritizationbycolumngeneration.
EuropeanJournalofOperationalResearch
(2016).
Print.

TheauthorsofthispaperareaffiliatedwiththeDepartmentofIndustrialandSystems

Engineering,KoreaAdvancedInstituteofScienceandTechnology.Theperspectiveoftheseauthors
willbeengineeringandsystemwise.ThethesisofthisstudywasMasscasualtyincidentscreatea
surgeindemandforemergencymedicalservices,andthiscanoftenoverwhelmtheemergency
responsecapacity.Thus,itiscriticallyimportanttorationtheemergencymedicalresourcesbasedon
prioritizationtomaximizethelifesavingcapacity(p.1).Thesourceofthisarticleishighlyreputable,

16

asthepublicationhasarigorouspeerreviewandmanuscriptacceptancepolicy.Theinformationthat
willbeusedfromthisarticlewillrelatedtohowresourceshortagesandrationingpracticesimpactthe
qualityoftheoutcomesproducedbyadisasterresponse.

VanDerslice,JamesandJohnBriscoe.AllColiformsarenotCreatedEqual:AComparisonofthe
Effects
ofWaterSourceandInHouseWaterContaminationonInfantileDiarrhealDisease.
Water
ResourcesResearch.
29.7(1993).Web.

JamesVanDersliceisarenownedprofessorintheDivisionofPublicHealth,UniversityofUtah

SchoolofMedicine,withseveralyearsofcontributiontovariousjournalsdirectlydealingwiththe
issuesofpublichealthandwatercontamination.HisassessmentofthesituationinPhilippines
emphasizedtheimportanceofdealingwithwatersourcecontaminationinsteadofattemptingto
solvetheproblemataninhousewaterlevel.Thisanalysispossessesahighlevelofcredibilitybecause
ofitswidespreaduseinseveralresearcharticles,aswellasfollowupexperimentsinvariousareas
aroundtheworldinordertoconfirmtheresultsoftheinitialexperiment.Thishasdirectapplications
tothesituationinFlintbecauseitnotonlyprovidesinsightastowhetherthesolutioncanbeattained
ataninhouselevel,butalsoassessestheshorttermsolutionofwaterboilingthatthelocalresidents
implementedtodealwiththewatercontamination.

17

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Atkinson,Scott,AmyHaimerl,andRichardPrezpea."AngerandScrutinyGrowOverPoisoned
WaterinMichiganCity."
TheNewYorkTimes
.TheNewYorkTimes,15Jan.2016.Web.24
Feb.2016.
Azizullah,Azizullah,MuhammadNasirKhanKhattak,PeterRichter,andDonatPeterHder."Water
PollutioninPakistanandItsImpactonPublicHealthAReview."
EnvironmentInternational
37.2(2011):47997.
ScienceDirect
.Web.15Feb.2016.
Bellinger,DavidC."LeadContaminationinFlintAnAbjectFailuretoProtectPublicHealth."
New
EnglandJournalofMedicine
(2016).
TheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine
.Web.15Feb.2016.
Bolton,Paul.PreventionofWaterSourceContamination.
Journal(AmericanWaterWorks
Association)
53.10(1961):12431250.Web.
Cavallo,Eduardo,andIlanNoy."TheEconomicsofNaturalDisasters."
IDBWorkingPaperSeries
(2010).Web.16Feb.2016.
Cohen,Charles,andEricWerker."ThePoliticalEconomyof'Natural'Disasters."
TheJournalofConflict
Resolution
52.6(2008):795819.Web.15Feb.2016.
Etkin,David,andChowdhuryEmdadul.Haque.DisasterRiskandVulnerability:Mitigationthrough
MobilizingCommunitiesandPartnerships.Montreal:McGillQueen'sUP,2012.Print.
FEMA.FederalEmergencyManagementAgency.2016.Web.3March2016.
HannaAttisha,Mona,JennyLachance,RichardCaseySadler,andAllisonChampneySchnepp.
"ElevatedBloodLeadLevelsinChildrenAssociatedWiththeFlintDrinkingWaterCrisis:A
SpatialAnalysisofRiskandPublicHealthResponse."
AmericanJournalofPublicHealth
106.2
(2016):28390.
AmericanPublicHealthAssociation
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