Core Science 4 Book

core science
Stage 4 Complete course
Paul ARENA Pascale WARNANT ahni BURROWS Graeme LOFTS Merrin J EVERGREEN
First published 2009 by

John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2009
Typeset in 10.25/13pt ITC Giovanni LT Book
Paul Arena, Kahni Burrows, Pascale Warnant,
Clynton Educational Services Pty Ltd,
Evergreen Quest Pty Ltd 2009
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
National Library of Australia
Cataloguing-in-publication data
Title:
Core science stage 4 complete course/

Paul Arena [et al.]
ISBN:
978 0 7314 0873 3 (pbk.)

978 1 7421 6135 8 (web).
Notes:
Includes index.
Target audience:
For secondary school age.
Subjects:
Science Textbooks.
Other authors/contributors:
Arena, Paul.
Dewey number:
500
Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one
chapter or 10% of the pages of this work, whichever is the greater, to
be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution
for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution
(or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to
Copyright Agency Limited (CAL).
Reproduction and communication for other purposes
Except as permitted under the Act (for example, a fair dealing for
the purposes of study, research, criticism or review), no part of this
book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated
or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written
permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher.
All activities have been written with the safety of both teacher and
student in mind. Some, however, involve physical activity or the
use of equipment or tools. All due care should be taken when
performing such activities. Neither the publisher nor the authors
can accept responsibility for any injury that may be sustained when
completing activities described in this textbook.
Cover images: Digital Vision, Photodisc,
Viewnder Australia Photo Library
Internal design images: Digital Stock/Corbis Corporation,
Digital Vision, Digital Vision/Martin Child, Photodisc, Inc.,
Stockbyte
Cartography by MAPgraphics Pty Ltd, Brisbane
Illustrated by Robert Allen, Susy Boyer, Geoff Cook, Dr Levent Efe,
Mike Gorman, Steve Hunter, Craig Jackson, Alan Laver, Paul Lennon,
Glenn Lumsden, Janice McCormack, Terry St Ledger, Bronwyn Searle
and the Wiley Art Studio
Printed in Singapore
by Craft Print International Ltd
10 9 8 7 6 5 4
contents
About eBookPLUS
vii
3.6
About this book viii

Core Science and the Science Stage 4 syllabus
Useful verbs
3.7
xiii
Fit to drink? 78
4 Classification
What do scientists do? 4

The science laboratory 7
Observing and inferring 14
Reporting on investigations 20
Designing investigations 25
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA NATURE AND PRACTICE OF SCIENCE AND
HISTORY OF SCIENCE
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
Famous scientists 29
Looking back 32
Study checklist/ICT
36
What s the matter? 38

Changing states 40
The particle model 43
Change of state and the particle model
Density 48
Expansion and contraction 50
Under pressure! 52
46
Other states of matter? 54

58
3 Separating mixtures
83
Is it alive? 85
Identification keys 89
In a class of its own 92
Which animal is that? 95
Vertebrates 97
Australian mammals 100
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Looking back 111

Study checklist/ICT

DEVELOPMENT IN SCIENCE
Looking back 56
Study checklist/ICT
82
Australian scientists at work 102

4.8 Invertebrates 104
4.9 The other kingdoms 108
4.10 PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CLASSIFICATION IN OTHER CULTURES
Is it a bird? Is it a plane? No, it s a yakt! 110
35
2 States of matter
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE
Looking back 80
Study checklist/ICT
1 Investigating
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
xii
Acknowledgements
Down the S-bend 76
59
3.1 Separating substances 61

3.2 Looking for solutions 64
3.3 Separate ways 67
3.4 PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE
Separating blood 70
3.5 Separating solutions 72
5 Cells
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
113
114
Using a microscope 116

A whole new world 119
Living things are made up of cells 122
Zooming in on life 124
Revisiting the five kingdoms 127
Cells of all shapes and sizes 130
Focus on plants 133
Tissues and organs 135
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE FOR SOCIETY
AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Stem cells
a matter of opinion
Looking back 140

Study checklist/ICT
142
137
6 Forces in action
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
What are forces? 145

Friction 149
Magnetic forces 154
Gravitational forces 160
Buoyancy and surface tension
167
Looking back 169

Study checklist/ICT
7 Planet Earth
172

DEVELOPMENT
185
188
Looking back 190

Study checklist/ICT
193
The planets: then there were eight 195

Terrestrial neighbours and gas giants 197
A very important star 203
The Earth in motion 205
The moon in motion 209
Ocean tides
ebb and flow 212
Lunar and solar eclipses 214
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Early ideas in astronomy 217

8.9 Rocks in space 222
Looking back 224
Study checklist/ICT
iv
Contents
Looking back 255

Study checklist/ICT
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
257
part 1
Energy for living 260

All systems go 263
Breathe in, breathe out
Short of breath? 271
Up in smoke 273
Blood highways 275
Have a heart 277
258
267
226
Looking back 285

Study checklist/ICT
11 Bits of matter
192
8 The solar system

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
9.1 Energy transformations 229

9.2 Heat and temperature 235
9.3 Light and sound energy 244
Sound technology 253
Transport technology 282

DEVELOPMENT
Rising salt
227
10 Body systems
171
Introducing the Earth 174

Water world 177
The air up there 180
Under pressure 183
Wild weather
7.6
165
Staying alive
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
9 Energy
143
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
287
288
Atoms 290
It s elementary! 293
Grouping elements 295
Compounds 297
Mixed up metals 300
Making molecules 301
Carbon
the stuff of life 303
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Development of the atomic model

Looking back 308
Study checklist/ICT
310
306
12 Chemical reactions
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
Time for a change? 313

Describing chemical changes 316
Faster and slower 318
Rusting is a chemical reaction 321
Burning is a chemical reaction 323
Acids and bases 325
DEVELOPMENT
Acid rain
328
Looking back 330

Study checklist/ICT
13 Plants
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
15 Ecology
311
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6
15.7
15.8
15.9
332
387
A place to call home 389

Investigating the environment
You scratch my back 396
Food chains and webs 398
Natural recyclers 402
It s getting hot in here 405
Fired up for change 409
Floods and droughts 412

DEVELOPMENT
Being part of the solution

Looking back 418
Study checklist/ICT
333
Plants have organs too! 335

Hold and carry 338
Leafy exchanges 340
Investigating photosynthesis 343
The sex life of plants 346
Plants and parenthood 348
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA NATURE AND PRACTICE OF SCIENCE
16 Electricity
421
16.1 Static electricity 423

16.2 Electric circuits 429
16.3 Electricity at work 434
The next generation of motor cars 440
Looking back 442
Study checklist/ICT
Looking back 356

Study checklist/ICT
17 Staying healthy
14 Body systems
part 2
359
14.1 Food as a fuel 361

14.2 Essential intake 364
14.3 Healthy eating 367
14.4 PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
Science careers: dietitian 369

The digestive system 370
Mechanical digestion 373
Chemical digestion 375
Bodies on the move 378
Getting rid of waste 382
Looking back 385

Study checklist/ICT
414
420
Plant research project 350

13.8 Which plant? 353
358
392
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
444
445
Catch us if you can 447

Germs everywhere 449
The good, the bad and the ugly
Viruses
living or not? 453
451
A weapon against germs 455

17.6 Skin deep 457
17.7 Skin cancer 459
17.8 PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT
Healthy careers
Looking back 464
Study checklist/ICT
462
465
386
Contents v
18 The night sky
466
18.1 A sense of perspective 468

18.2 Stars and constellations 472
Probing the universe 478
Looking back 483
Study checklist/ICT
484
19 The changing Earth

19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
19.7
Solid rock 487

Fiery rocks 489
Wearing away 492
It s sedimentary, Watson! 495
Rocky changes 497
Tracking changes in rock 500
DEVELOPMENT
Human-made erosion 503

Looking back 505
Study checklist/ICT
vi
485
Contents
507
20 Student research project and

skills 508
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
Choosing a problem 510

Thinking about your problem 513
Organising your thinking 518
Research and record keeping 521
Designing your method 524
Presenting your results 528
Using technology: spreadsheets 533
Using technology: databases 535
Writing your report 538
Looking back
Text types
Glossary
Index
542
543
559
540
Next generation teaching and learning

About eBookPLUS
This book features eBookPLUS: an electronic
version of the entire textbook and supporting
multimedia resources. It is available for you
online at the JacarandaPLUS website
(www.jacplus.com.au).
Using the JacarandaPLUS website

To access your eBookPLUS resources, simply log
on to www.jacplus.com.au. There are three easy
steps for using the JacarandaPLUS system.
Step 1. Create a user account
The rst time you use the JacarandaPLUS
system, you will need to create a user account.
Go to the JacarandaPLUS home page
(www.jacplus.com.au) and follow the instructions
on screen. An activation email will be sent to
your nominated email address. Click on the
link in this email and your activation will be
complete. You can now use your nominated
email address and password to log in to the
JacarandaPLUS system.
Step 2. Enter your registration code
Once you have activated your account and logged
in, enter your unique registration code for this
book, which is printed on the inside front cover
of your textbook. The title of your textbook will
appear in your bookshelf. Click on the link
to open your eBookPLUS.
Step 3. View or download eBookPLUS resources
Your eBook and supporting resources are
provided in a chapter-by-chapter format.
Simply select the desired chapter from the
drop-down list. The student eBook tab contains
the entire chapters content in easy-to-use HTML.
The student resources tab contains supporting
multimedia resources for each chapter.
LOGIN
Once you have created your account, you can use the same email
address and password in the future to register any eBookPLUS
titles you own.
Using eBookPLUS references

eBook plus
eBookPLUS logos are used throughout the printed

books to inform you that a multimedia resource is
available for the content you are studying.
Searchlight IDs (e.g. int-0001) give you instant access

to multimedia resources. Once you are logged in,
simply enter the searchlight ID for that resource and
it will open immediately.
Minimum requirements
s Internet Explorer 7, Mozilla Firefox 1.5 or Safari 1.3

s Adobe Flash Player 9
s Javascript must be enabled (most browsers are
enabled by default).
Troubleshooting
s Go to the JacarandaPLUS help page at

www.jacplus.com.au
s Contact John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
Email: support@jacplus.com.au
Phone: 1800 JAC PLUS (1800 522 7587)
About eBookPLUS vii
About this book

The Core Science Stage 4 textbook, eBookPLUS and student workbook are designed for students
who come to the science classroom with a range of interests, backgrounds and learning styles.
The topic units provide an in-depth coverage of essential and additional syllabus content.
Each unit provides a range of investigations, stimulus material and activities to engage and
challenge students, as outlined in this summary of Core Science features.
Thought-provoking
chapter openings,
including a
summary of the key
content covered in
each unit
States of matter
All substances on Earth

can be grouped as solids,
liquids or gases. By
comparing the properties
of solids, liquids and gases, you can
begin to answer questions like what are
substances made of? This question has
fascinated people for thousands of years,
and scientists are still looking for more
answers to that same question.
Ranking substances
Bathroom science
1. In small groups, rank the following substances in

order from most solid-like to most liquid-like to
most gas-like.
a brick
steam
jelly
plasticine
sugar
tomato sauce
Vegemite
air
orange cordial
green slime
1. Why does the mirror fog up in the bathroom after

someone has had a hot shower?
2. On really hot days, you may have a cold shower to
cool down. Does the bathroom mirror fog up when
you do this?
3. Some showers have shower curtains rather than
glass shower screens. When people have warm
showers, the curtain tends to move in towards
the person in the shower and stick to them its
almost as if the shower curtain is chasing them!
Give possible explanations for why this happens.
4. When you have a hot shower, the bathroom lls
with steam. Is this steam a gas or a liquid or both?
Explain your reasoning.
In this chapter, students will:

2.1
W investigate the nature of matter and
look at the properties of the different

states of matter
Green slime is it solid or liquid? How do you know?
2.2
W explore the processes by which
2. Compare your rankings with those of other groups.

Comment on any differences between the rankings.
3. Which substances were most difcult to classify as
solid, liquid or gas? Explain why they were difcult
to classify.
4. Draw a three-column table, like the one below,
and separate the substances into three categories
solid, liquid or gas.
substances change state
2.3
W use the particle model of matter to
understand the behaviour of the

different states of matter
2.4
W use the particle model to show the
interaction of particles and energy

when substances change state
Solid
2.5
W use an equation to calculate density
Liquid
Gas
and explain why some substances

sink in water while others oat
What is steam a gas, a liquid, or both?
2.6
W observe how heating and cooling of
5. How hot does water have to be before it can burn

you?
6. Does steam always rise?
7. Are water vapour and steam the same thing?
substances causes expansion and

contraction
2.7
W learn how the expansion of gases
affects the pressure of the gas
2.8
W discuss the continuing research into
other states of matter.
Water is the only substance found in three different states at

normal air temperatures. It exists as a liquid in oceans, lakes
and rivers, as solid icebergs in the oceans, and as water vapour
in the air. Without it, plants and animals could not exist. Each of
the forms of water has its own different properties and uses.
Activities at the end of each unit

cover a full range of lower to higher
order activities, including eBookPLUS
interactivities.
The blue bolded words in questions
highlight use of the key verbs that are
applied in HSC exam questions. These
questions give students some practice
in answering this style of question,
using the key words most
relevant to stage 4 students.
2.7
The reghter charged through the doors just in
time, pointed the extinguisher at the electrical re and
pressed the trigger. A huge burst of carbon dioxide
gas came squirting out of the nozzle, putting out the
ames.
The carbon dioxide in the story above could be
used in this way only because huge amounts of it can
be compressed, or squeezed, into a container. Gases
can be compressed because there is a lot of space
between the particles. Gases compressed into cylinders
are used for barbecues, scuba diving, natural gas in
cars, and aerosol cans.
Hot-air balloons work on the idea that gases
expand when heated. The particles in the heated
gas move about more and take up more space.
This makes each cubic centimetre of hot air in the
balloon lighter than each cubic centimetre of air
outside the balloon, so it rises, taking the balloon
with it.
Fighting fire
1. Gases, including
carbon dioxide, have
lots of space between
their particles.
52
viii
Core Science | Stage 4 Complete course
About this book
Fluids can oat on top of other

uids, with the less dense uid
on the top. Oil is less dense than
water. This is why oil spilled from
wrecked tankers oats on the top
of the ocean.
INVESTIGATION 2.6
sit undisturbed for 30 minutes.
Sinking and oating
DISCUSSION
You will need:

250 mL beaker
3 test tubes
test-tube rack
20 mL measuring cylinder
brown vinegar
water
olive oil
honey
W Pour 20 mL each of vinegar, olive
oil and honey into separate test

tubes.
W Add 20 mL of water to each test
tube.
W Pour 20 mL each of vinegar, olive
Cooking oil is less dense than water so it

oats on top.
oil and honey into the beaker.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Identify what the units of density would be if:
(a) mass is in kilograms and volume is in cubic metres
(b) mass is in grams and volume is in millimetres
(c) volume is in cubic centimetres and mass is in
kilograms. (Note: This density unit is usually used
only with extremely dense objects such as neutron
stars!)
Investigations in each chapter reinforce the

topic concepts and provide a comprehensive
practical program for stage 4 students.
Investigations are placed in context, to help
students relate their practical work ndings
to topic concepts.
W Let the test tubes and the beaker
How could you tell if a

particular liquid was less dense
or more dense than water?
Which of the liquids were

denser than water?
Which of the liquids were less

dense than water?
Draw a labelled diagram

showing the order of the layers
formed in the beaker.
Based on what you saw in the

beaker, which was the:
(a) densest liquid
(b) least dense liquid?
CHAPTER 2: States of matter
Worksheet 2.4
Accompanying
worksheets can be found
in the student workbook
and as Word les in
eGuidePLUS.
CALCULATE
8 Use the density equation on the previous page to
calculate the missing values in the following table.
Mass (g)
10
Volume (cm3)
Density (g/cm3)
5
40
600
0.5
15
9 Explain why this ship is sinking in the water when the

boats in the background of the photo are still aoat.
2 If you take a bottle of salad dressing out of the fridge,

you may notice that the oil and the vinegar have
separated into different layers. Explain why this occurs.
Under pressure!
eLesson
eles-0058
7 When divers breathe out under water, the air bubbles

head straight to the surface. Deduce why this happens.
3. The carbon dioxide particles

are now under increased
pressure. This means that the
particles in the gas collide
frequently with the walls of
the cylinder. The particles
push outwards on the walls of
the cylinder. The particles are
trying to escape, but are held
in by the container.
5. The particles of gas

quickly spread out
over the fire. The gas
smothers the fire,
stopping oxygen from
the air getting to it.
Fires cannot burn
without oxygen, so the
fire goes out.
V I]ZbVhhd[i]ZXdeeZgWVaa^h&,.#'\VcYîhkdajbZ^h'%Xb(#8VaXjaViZi]ZYZchînd[i]Z
WgVhhWVaa#
#####################################################################################################
W EgZY^Xi]dli]ZkdajbZd[i]ZXdeeZgWVaalâaX]Vc\Zdc]ZVi^c\#
#####################################################################################################
X EgZY^Xi]dli]ZYZchînd[i]ZXdeeZglâaX]Vc\ZVhi]ZWVaa^h]ZViZY#
#####################################################################################################
Y :meaV^cl]Zi]Zgdgcdii]Z]ZViZYWVaalâaeVhhWVXì]gdj\]i]Z
bZiVag^c\#
#####################################################################################################
2. Calculations
YZchîn2
mass
volume
BVhh\
KdajbZXb(
&%%
&'*
\daY
Xdg`
9Zchîn\$Xb(
*#%
&.#(
*%
%#')
3. Secret word
eBook plus
V 8dbeaZiZZVX]hZciZcXZWn^chZgi^c\i]ZXdggZXiaZiiZgh#
6# I]ZYZThZgVbTiTg^Va^h!i]ZbdgZTaThZaneVX`ZYid\Zi]ZgVgZîhViTbT#
10 Select liquids and solids in the Density interactivity in

your eBookPLUS and see what sinks and what oats.
int-0221
work
sheets
7# DW_ZXihlâadViTTa^fj^Yhi]Vi]VkZV\gZViZgTZTh^Tni]Vci]ZnYd#
W LgîZVaai]ZaZiiZgh^ci]ZWgVX`Zih^ci]ZaZ[iWdmWZadlVcYi]ZcjchXgVbWaZi]ZbiddWiV^c
i]ZhZXgZildgY#
HZXgZildgY2
2.4 Density
2.5 Density and otation
2 States of matter
4. When the nozzle is opened, the pressure

forces the carbon dioxide gas out very
quickly through the opening.
2. The carbon dioxide

is compressed
into the cylinder.
The particles are
squashed closer
together.
6 Equal amounts of vegetable oil, water and methylated

spirits are poured into a jar. Identify which liquid will
form:
(a) the top layer
(b) the lowest layer.
Date:
I]ZYgVl^c\h]dlhVXdeeZgWVaaWZ^c\]ZViZYjh^c\V7jchZcWjgcZg#>cî^Vaani]ZWVaa_jhieVhhZh
i]gdj\]i]ZbZiVag^c\#
bZi]naViZYhe^gîh
4 Explain why balloons lled with helium oat upwards.
Under pressure
Learn about the factors that affect the pressure of a gas and
how compressed gases are used to make re extinguishers and
aerosol cans.
Class:
1. Heating and density
HjWhiVcXZ
3 Explain why most people oat in water.

5 Describe the general relationship you notice between a
substances state of matter and its density. (Use the table
of densities on the previous page as a guide.)
Core Science Stage 4: page 49
Density
Student:
8dbeaZiZi]Z[daadl^c\iVWaZjh^c\i]Z[dgbjaV/
THINK
eBook plus
Chapter opening activities

and investigations can be
used to:
show connections
between science and
students own experiences
provide opportunities for
students to demonstrate
their current thinking on
topic concepts.
Units include
descriptions of
eLessons, interactivities
and weblink-based
activities available in
eBookPLUS.
49
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd 2009
Core Science Stage 4 Student Workbook
2.8
Other states of matter?

In the past, scientists believed that
everything around us was either
a solid, a liquid or a gas. But
scientists now believe that there are
other states of matter that are not
very common on Earth.
The earliest of these additional
states of matter to be identied
is called plasma. It is currently
estimated that more than 99 per
cent of all matter in the universe
is actually plasma. Plasma occurs
everywhere. The sun and all the
other stars are made of plasma, as
is lightning and the aurora australis
(also known as the southern
lights). Temperatures higher than
1 000 000 C are needed to form
these plasmas. Lightning bolts

actually form plasma from the
surrounding air.
In an ordinary gas, each atom
contains an equal number of
protons and electrons. (We will
learn more about the particles that
make up the atom in chapter 11.)
This makes each atom neutral. The
positively charged protons are
surrounded by an equal number of
negatively charged electrons. A gas
becomes plasma when energy or
heat is added. This energy or heat
causes the atoms to release all or
some of the electrons. This means
that the remaining atoms now have
fewer electrons and the atoms have
a positive charge. The removed

electrons are free to move about.
Energy knocks
electrons off
atoms.
2.3
Prescribed focus area units

in each chapter provide highinterest content that explicitly
links particular areas of the
Science syllabus.
PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA

Current issues, research and development in science
The particle model

How do you explain why ice has properties that are
different from those of water or steam? Scientists use
a model to explain the different properties of solids,
liquids and gases. This model is called the particle
model.
According to the particle model:
s all substances are made up of tiny particles
s the particles are attracted towards other surrounding
particles
s the particles are always moving
s the hotter the substance is, the faster the particles
move.
Protons
++
++
Nucleus
Liquid
Gas
Solid
A particle model for different states
Neutrons
Particles in a gas
Incoming energy removes electrons from

gas atoms, changing them into a plasma
state.
The forces between the particles in a gas are very weak.

The particles are in constant motion. This means that
gases have no fixed shape or volume. There are large
spaces between the particles. The spaces allow
the gas to be compressed. A gas can flow and
diffuse easily since its particles are always moving.
Particles in a gas have much more energy
than particles in a solid or liquid. They
move around and collide with other
particles and the walls of the
container they are in.
Concepts are explored

through visually
stimulating and detailed
diagrams that engage
visual and linguistic
learners.
Particles in a solid
Solids cannot be compressed because

the particles inside them are held closely
together. There is no space between
them. Bonds also hold the particles tightly
together in a rigid crystal-like structure.
This gives solids their fixed shape and
constant volume. The particles in solids
cannot move freely; they vibrate in a fixed
position. This means that solids are unable to flow.
Particles in a liquid
The particles in a liquid are close together, so there is

no room for compression between them. The particles
are also held tightly by bonds, but not in the same rigid
structure as solids. This gives liquids their fixed volume,
but allows the particles to roll over each other. This rolling
allows liquids to flow. The
movement of the particles
explains why liquids take the
shape of their container. The
particles roll over each other until
they fill the bottom of the container.
Lightning turns gases in the air into plasma at temperatures higher than 1 000 000 C.
54
2 States of matter
43
LOOKING BACK
Looking back
spreads provide
a range of
chapter review
activities.
1 Use the particle model to explain why steam takes up more

space than liquid water.
7 Copy and complete the diagram, labelling the missing state

and changes of state.
2 Recall in which state the forces of attraction between the

particles are likely to be greatest.
11 Graphite (used in pencils) and diamond are both made

of the same type of particle, yet graphite has a density
of 1.46 g/cm3 while diamond has a density of 3.52 g/cm3.
Give possible explanations for how they can have different
densities yet be made of identical particles.
3 Identify in which state solid, liquid or gas the

particles have:
(a) the most energy
(b) the least energy.
4 Explain why perfume and aftershave lotion evaporate more
quickly than water.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Has a denite shape that is

difcult to change
Freezing
Solid
5 Copy and complete the table below to summarise the

properties of solids, liquids and gases. Use a tick to
indicate which properties each state usually has.
Property
Melting
12 A mysterious substance is developed in a laboratory. The

sample has a mass of 10 g and has a volume of 2.3 cm3.
(a) Calculate its density.
(b) What is the mystery substances most likely state of
matter?
TEST YOURSELF
Gas
1 Compression is a term that describes

A squeezing the particles of a substance closer together.
B pulling particles further apart.
C removing the heat energy from the particles of a
substance.
D the releasing of air from a car tyre.
(1 mark)
8 Fully explain the process that is occurring in the following

diagrams.
2 Ice cubes oat in soft drink because

A the bubbles in the soft drink hold them up.
B the ice is less dense than the soft drink.
C the ice is denser than the soft drink.
D water and soft drink do not mix.
Takes up a xed amount of space

Can be poured
Takes up all of the space available
Can be compressed
Is made of particles that are
strongly attracted to each other
and cant move past each other
Is made of particles that are not
held together by attraction
6 Copy and label the three diagrams below to identify which
represent solids, liquids and gases. Make an improvement
to each of the diagrams so that they describe the particle
model more fully.
(a)
(b)
(1 mark)
3 Gaps are left between sections of railway track so that

A more track can easily be laid later.
B bugs can cross the railway lines safely.
C the steel tracks can expand in cold weather without
buckling the track.
D the steel tracks can expand in hot weather without
buckling the track.
(1 mark)
9 Identify which of these diagrams

(A, B or C) correctly shows a
solid after expanding.
4 According to the particle model, the attractive forces

between particles are strongest in
A solids.
B liquids.
C gases.
D plasma.
(1 mark)
Original solid
(c)
5 Read the information in the box above right.

(a) Use the words in bold to label the diagram of the
refrigerator below.
(2 marks)
B
10 (a) Copy the table below and rewrite it to correctly match

the substances to their properties and uses.
(b) Identify whether the substance would be a solid, liquid
or gas.
Properties and uses of various substances

Name of substance
Air
56
Property
Use
Waterproof, hard, strong
Horseshoe
Tin
Particles able to mix easily with other particles
Balloon
Neon
Particles absorb energy and turn it into light
Sign, light
Oil
Hard, strong
Driveways
Iron
Hard, strong, easily shaped when heated
Lubricant
Concrete
Particles slip past each other
Roong
Outside
fridge
Inside
fridge
Solid, liquid or gas?
How a refrigerator works

Evaporation occurs when a liquid gains enough heat
energy to change into a gas. Refrigeration is possible
because of this. The pipes in a refrigerator contain
a substance called a refrigerant. (A refrigerant is a
substance that changes from a liquid to a gas and back
again.) Near the expansion device, the refrigerant is
in the liquid state. As it passes through the expansion
device, the liquid is made to expand (the pressure
drops). As a result of the drop in pressure, the
refrigerant cools down to a very low temperature. (You
may have experienced this cooling effect if you have
ever used a fire extinguisher.) The liquid refrigerant
then passes through the part of the pipe that is inside
the fridge. This part of the pipe is called the evaporator.
Heat energy travels from the objects and air inside the
fridge to the very cold refrigerant. The inside of the
fridge cools down. The liquid refrigerant heats up and
turns to gas (evaporates). (Note: Heat energy travels
from a hotter to a colder substance.)
The refrigerant, which is now a gas, passes into
the compressor. This puts the refrigerant under
pressure again. Under pressure, the refrigerant
becomes even hotter. (You may have experienced this
when you pumped up the tyres on your bike. Under
increased pressure, the air in the tyres feels warmer.)
The compressor pushes the refrigerant into the next
part of the pipe, the condenser. The condenser is on
the outside of the fridge. Here, heat from the gas is
transferred to the air outside the fridge. The air outside
the fridge warms up. The refrigerant in the pipe cools
down and becomes a liquid again (condenses). The
liquid flows back towards the expansion device. The
cycle is repeated.
(b) Use the information in the box above to construct a
ow chart that describes the changes of state that
take place during the refrigeration process. Colour
each state a different colour. For example, when the
refrigerant is in the liquid state, you may choose to
colour the relevant section blue. The ow chart has
been started for you.
(4 marks)
Refrigerant is
under pressure
and in the
liquid state.
Refrigerant
passes through
expansion
device.
L
V
work
sheets
2.8 States of matter puzzles

2.9 States of matter summary
2 States of matter
STUDY CHECKLIST
States of matter
ICT
eBook plus
N identify the three most common states of matter 2.1

N describe the physical properties of solids, liquids and
gases 2.1
N explain what is meant by the term uid 2.1
N explain density in terms of the particle model 2.5
N describe the changes in pressure of gases in terms
of the increase or decrease of frequency of particle
collisions 2.7
Study checklist
gives students a
detailed outline
of the key content
covered in the
chapter.
Test yourself multiple choice and

extended response questions
are included at the end of each
chapter.
SUMMARY
Under pressure
ICT provides a summary of each chapters

eBookPLUS eLessons, interactivities and
weblinks.
The particle model of matter
2.3
N use the particle model to explain expansion and
contraction of materials during heating and cooling 2.6

N discuss how increasing and decreasing the energy of
particles affects their movement 2.3, 2.4
N describe what happens during the process of
diffusion 2.3
Changes of state
N describe the physical changes that occur during
observations of evaporation, condensation, boiling,

melting and freezing 2.2
N relate changes of state to the motion of particles as

energy is added or removed 2.4
N explain the changing behaviour of particles during
changes of state 2.4
Current issues, research and development in science
Puzzle and summary worksheets

can be found in the student
workbook and as Word les in
eGuidePLUS.
In this video lesson, you will see animations that reect the
behaviour of gas particles and learn about the factors that
affect the pressure of a gas. You will also learn how compressed
gases are used to make re extinguishers and aerosol cans.
A worksheet is attached to further your understanding.
N state the main assumptions of the particle model 2.3

N describe the difference in behaviour of particles in
solids, liquids and gases.
57
Searchlight ID: eles-0058
Interactivities
Changes of state
This interactivity allows you to simulate heating an ice
cube over a Bunsen burner. As you add more heat, you will
see the effect on the particles as the ice changes state to
become boiling water. A worksheet is attached to further your
understanding.
N describe the state of matter called plasma 2.8

N describe current research on the use of plasma in
energy production
2.8
Searchlight ID: int-0222

Density
This interactivity helps you to delve into the world of density.
Select a liquid to ll your virtual otation tank, and then choose
a solid to release into it. This interactivity will let you discover
the combinations that cause your solid to sink and to oat. A
worksheet is attached to further your understanding.
58
About this book ix
Core Science and the Science Stage 4

syllabus
A full grid showing Core Science Stage 4 links to all essential content points is available on the Core Science Stage 4 eGuidePLUS.
Core Science Stage 4 references for Prescribed Focus Areas outcomes

Outcomes
4.1 identies historical examples of
how scientic knowledge has
changed peoples understanding
of the world
4.2 uses examples to illustrate
how models, theories and laws
contribute to an understanding of
phenomena
4.3 identies areas of everyday
life that have been affected by
scientic developments
4.4 identies choices made by
people with regard to scientic
developments
4.5 describes areas of current
scientic research
Essential content:
Students learn about:
4/5.1 the history of science
Student text units
Student worksheets
1.6, 2.8, 4.10, 5.2, 5.9, 8.7, 8.8,

10.1, 11.1, 11.8, 13.4, 17.5,
18.2
8.5, 8.7
4/5.2 the nature and practice

of science
1.5, 1.6, 5.2, 6.4, 8.1, 8.3, 8.4,

8.5, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1, 10.4, 11.8,
15.6, 17.5
+ investigations
4/5.3 the applications and uses 2.8, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7, 5.2, 5.9, 6.6,
of science
9.4. 10.8, 11.1, 12.7, 16.4, 17.5,
17.8, 18.3, 18.6
4/5.4 the implications of
5.9, Ch 10 opening
science for society and the
environment
4/5.5 current issues, research 1.1, 1.6, 2.8, 4.7, 5.9, 7.6, 10.8,
and developments in science
14.4, 15.6, 15.9, 17.8, 18.3,
19.7
eBookPLUS
eles-0032, eles-0068
eles-0053, eles-0059, eles-0068,

eles-0070, eles-0071, int-0054,
int-0226
eles-0053, eles-0065,
eles-0068
eles-0053, eles-0057, eles-0068,
eles-0069, eles-0070, int-0217
Core Science Stage 4 references for Knowledge and Understanding outcomes

Outcomes
4.6 identies and describes energy
changes and the action of forces
in common situations
4.7 describes observed properties of

substances and theories using
scientic models
Essential content:
4.6.1 the law of conservation
of energy
4.6.2 forces
4.6.3 electrical energy
4.6.4 sound energy
4.6.5 light energy
4.6.6 heat energy
4.6.7 frictional force
4.6.8 electrostatic force
4.6.9 magnetic force
4.6.10 gravitational force
4.7.1 the particle model of
matter
4.7.2 properties of solids,
liquids and gases
4.7.3 change of state
4.7.4 elements
4.7.5 mixtures
4.7.6 compounds and reactions

4.8 describes features of living things 4.8.1 cell theory
4.8.2 classication
4.8.3 unicellular organisms
4.8.4 multicellular organisms
4.8.5 humans
4.9 describes the dynamic structure of
Earth and its relationship to other
parts of our solar system and the
universe
Syllabus grid
4.9.1 the Newtonian model of

the solar system
4.9.2 components of the
universe
4.9.3 the structure of Earth
Student text units
Student worksheets
eBookPLUS
9.1, 9.2, 9.3
9.1
6.16.5
16.2, 16.3
9.3
9.3
9.2
6.2
16.1
6.1, 6.3
6.4, 8.3, 8.6, 18.1
2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 3.1
6.1
eles-0032, eles-0063,
int-0226,
int-0226
6.3
2.3
eles-0032, int-0054
eles-0067
int-0225, int-0226
eles-0058
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5, 2.7, 3.1, 3.2, 12.1 2.4, 2.7
2.4
11.2, 11.3
3.13.7, 11.4
eles-0062
int-0229
eles-0059, eles-0060, eles-0061,
int-0223, int-0224
int-0224, int-0228, int-0230
eles-0054, eles-0056, eles-0070,
int-0206
int-0204, int-0206
eles-0055
eles-0055, eles-0056, eles-0069,
int-0211,
eles-0056, int-0214,
int-0216
int-0006, int-0207, int-0225,
int-0232
int-0207, int-0232
3.1
11.4, 11.5, 12.1

5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 10.2
4.2, 4.4, 4.8, 4.9, 13.8, 14.114.9
4.9, 5.5, 15.5, 17.1, 17.2, 17.3
5.6, 5.8, 10.1, 10.2, 13.1, 13.2,
13.3, 14.114.9
10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.6, 10.7,
14.514.9
8.18.5, 8.7, 8.9
4.1, 4.2, 4.6, 4.7

5.5, 13.1
10.3, 10.6, 10.7
8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.7
18.1, 18.2
7.1, 19.1
7.1
Outcomes
4.9 (continued)
4.10 identies factors affecting

survival of organisms in an
ecosystem
4.11 identies where resources are
found, and describes ways in
which they are used by humans
4.12 identies, using examples,
common simple devices and
explains why they are used
Essential content:
Student text units
4.9.4 atmosphere
4.9.5 the hydrosphere
4.9.6 lithosphere
4.10 ecosystems
7.3, 15.6
7.2, 8.6
19.119.5
15.4, 15.7, 15.8
eles-0062, int-0225
int-0233, int-0234
int-0211
4.11 natural resources
12.7, Ch 11 opening, 11.6, 11.7,

Ch 13 opening, 15.9, 19.3
eles-0057
4.12 technology
6.2, 6.3, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.8,

16.2, 16.3, 18.2
Student worksheets
eBookPLUS
Core Science Stage 4 references for Skills outcomes
Students coverage of Skills outcomes are supported throughout the text through Investigations and Activities in every chapter.
In this table, text references refer to units where essential content relating to skills is specically introduced or discussed.
Outcomes
4.13 claries the purpose of an
investigation and, with guidance,
produces a plan to investigate a
problem
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
Essential content:
4/5.13.1 identifying data
sources
4/5.13.2 planning rst-hand

investigations
4/5.13.3 choosing equipment or
resources
follows a sequence of instructions 4/5.14 performing rst-hand
to undertake a rst-hand
investigations
investigation
uses given criteria to gather rst- 4/5.15 gathering rst-hand
hand data
information
accesses information from
4/5.16 gathering information
identied secondary sources
from secondary sources
evaluates the relevance of data
4/5.17 processing information
and information
4.18 with guidance, presents

information to an audience to
achieve a particular purpose
4.19 draws conclusions based on
information available
4.20 uses an identied strategy to

solve problems
4.21 uses creativity and imagination
to suggest plausible solutions to
familiar problems
4.22 undertakes a variety of individual
and team tasks with guidance
Student text units
Student worksheets
1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 13.7, 20.1, 20.4,

20.5, 20.6, 20.7, 20.8
+ investigations and activities
20.1
1.5, 13.7, 20.3, 20.5

1.2, 5.1, 20.5
+ investigations
1.2, 1.3, 5.1, 13.7, 20.5, 20.6
1.6, 1.7, 4.3, 5.3, 6.4, 9.5, 9.6, 15.4,

16.7, 20.1
1.1, 1.2, 3.3, 3.4, 11.5
1.3, 20.5
+ investigations
20.4, 20.6
+ activities
1.4, 1.5, 5.9, 7.6, 9.4, 10.4,
10.5, Ch 14 opening, 15.8, 15.9,
17.7, 19.7, 20.2, 20.4, 20.5,
20.6, 20.7, 20.8
1.2, 3.5, 16.3, 20.2
eBookPLUS
eles-0060, eles-0061,
int-0200,
int-0101
int-0201
activities in all worksheets
all eBookPLUS eLessons,

interactivities, and weblinks
1.1, 1.5, 2.1, 2.2, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.2, 3.3,

3.4, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.6, 4.7, 5.1, 5.2, 5.4,
6.1, 6.7, 7.1, 7.4, 7.5, 7.7, 8.1, 8.2, 8.4,
8.6, 8.7, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 10.1, 10.4,
10.6, 10.7, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 12.1, 12.2,
12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 13.5, 13.7, 14.1, 14.2,
14.3, 14.4, 14.6, 15.1, 15.2, 15.3, 15.5,
16.1, 16.2, 16.4, 16.5, 17.1, 18.1, 17.2,
17.4, 18.5, 19.1, 19.2, 19.5
4/5.18 presenting information 1.4, 20.2, 20.3, 20.6, 20.7, 20.8, 1.4, 1.6, 2.1, 6.2, 7.1, 7.3, 9.5, 10.4,
int-0101, int-0214
20.9, Text types appendix
13.4, 15.4, 15.7, 16.6, 17.5, 18.3,
+ investigations and activities 19.4, 20.3
4/5.19 thinking critically
1.5, 2.3, 2.4, 6.16.5, 7.1, 8.7, 1.3, 1.6, 2.1, 2.4, 2.5, 3.1, 3.4, 3.5,
int-0006, int-0225
9.19.3, 11.1, 11.8, 14.1,
4.1, 6.2, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.6, 10.5, 12.2,
16.116.3, 20.5, 20.9
12.3, 12.4, 13.3, 13.4, 15.7, 16.3, 17.5,
+ investigations and activities 18.3, 20.3
4/5.20 problem-solving
1.5, 20.1, 20.2
int-0223
4/5.21 the use of creativity and 1.5, 20.2, 20.5
int-0223
imagination
4/5.22.1 working individually
4/5.22.2 working in teams
20.120.9
all investigations and activities
done in teams
Syllabus grid xi
About JacarandaPLUS
Ab
Useful
verbs
S
Verbs used in Activities and Looking back questions
In many cases, questions in Activities and Looking back use the following verbs, which come
from the New Higher School Certicate Assessment Support Document: A Glossary of
Key Words. Students will nd that becoming familiar with these verbs is useful, since they
are designed to help them understand the type of response that is expected in exam papers
and assessment tasks.
xii
Account for
State reasons for; report on
Assess
Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size
Calculate
Ascertain/determine from given facts, gures or information
Classify
Arrange or include in classes/categories
Compare
Show how things are similar or different
Construct
Make; build; put together items or arguments
Contrast
Show how things are different or opposite
Deduce
Draw conclusions
Dene
State meaning and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate
Show by example
Describe
Provide characteristics and features
Discuss
Identify issues and provide points for and/or against
Distinguish
Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to

note differences between
Evaluate
Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Explain
Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things

evident; provide why and/or how
Extrapolate
Infer from what is known
Identify
Recognise and name
Interpret
Draw meaning from
Investigate
Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
Justify
Support an argument or conclusion
Outline
Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of
Predict
Suggest what may happen based on available information
Propose
Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument,

suggestion) for consideration or action
Recall
Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Summarise
Express, concisely, the relevant details
Useful verbs
Acknowledgements
The publisher would like to thank the following copyright
holders, organisations and individuals for their assistance and for
permission to reproduce copyright material in this book.
Images:
AAP Image: /AFP 83; /AFP/Australian Antarctic Division/Hosung
Chung 181; /AFP/HO/NASA/Getty OUT 187; /AFP/Kazuhiro Nogi 312
(bottom); /AFP/Torsten Blackwood 227; /AFP/William West 424; /AP/
Jacques Boissinot 416 (right); /Dean Lewins 284; /Eugene Hoshiko
243; /Paul Miller 435; /Richard Durham 337; /Wildlight/David Moore
248 (bottom); /Wildlight/John Frederick White 110 (right); /Wildlight/
Richard Woldendorp 300 ANTPhoto.com.au: /Bill Bachman 188,
223, 412; /Colin Blobel 427; /Cyril Webster 397 (centre); /Dave Watts
110 (left), 98 (echidna); /Denis and Theresa OByrne 496 (top); /Fredy
Mercay 419; /Jurgen Otto 390 (top left); /Karen Cianelli 396 (right); /
Ken Grifths 235 (top); /Otto Rogge 353 (right), 495 (right); /Pavel
German 485; /Peter McDonald 100 (centre); /R & D Keller 353 (left)
Ardea London 326 Asics Oceania Pty Ltd 167 (right) Austral
International 328 (2 images) Australian Academy of Science 416
(left) Australian Antarctic Division photo by Mandy Holmes
Commonwealth of Australia/2183D6: Handling an ice core at Law
Dome, near Casey station 406 Australian Bureau of Meteorology 178
(8 images); /Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety
Agency, Cancer Council and SunSmart copyright Commonwealth of
Australia, reproduced by permission. www.cancer.org.au/Home.htm
and Sun Smart, www.cancer.org.au/cancersmartlifestyle/SunSmart.htm
204 Biopure Corporation 283 Brand X Pictures 266 (ant), 357
(centre left) Coo-ee Picture Library 15 (top), 66, 69, 75, 80, 100
(right), 492 (bottom) Cooperative Research Centre for Cochlear
Implant and Hearing Aid Innovation, The Bionic Ear Institute,
Australia 253 Corbis: 174; /Andy Hibbert 503 (left); /Bettmann 4
(top right), 29 (left), 30 (right), 31, 119 (bottom right), 221 (left), 470
(centre left), 480 (right); /Bob Krist 496 (bottom); /Car Culture 440; /
Chris Hellier 108 (right); /epa/Evertt Kennedy Brown 87; /Francesca
Muntada 357 (top right); /Galen Rowell 16; /Gallo Images/Nigel J
Dennis 250; /Joe McDonald 123 (right); /Michael & Patricia Fogden
390 (top right); /Museum of the City of New York 29 (right); /NASA/
STScI 471; /Noeline Kelly 318; /Ric Ergenbright 490 (top right); /
Richard T Nowitz 105 (cockroach); /Roger Ressmeyer Starlight 479
(left); /Roger Ressmeyer 4 (top left, bottom right), 225 (right), 486
(bottom right), 490 (centre); /Ron Watts 330 (bottom right); /Science
Picture Libraries/David Spears 105 (nematode); /Sergio Dorantes 246
(bottom); /Sygma/Ira Wyman 282; /Visuals Unlimited 145 Corbis
Royalty Free 232 (bottom left), 270, 303 (diamond), 431, 436 David
Malin Images 206; / Akira Fujii 470 (top right); / Anglo-Australian
Observatory 480 (left) Digital Stock: /Corbis Corporation 43, 50
(left), 52 (right), 104 (buttery), 330 (centre left), 354 (second top),
367 (peanut), 486 (bottom left), 497 (top right), 498, 505 (bottom); /
Marty Snyderman 104 (sponge) Digital Vision: 55, 70, 108 (left),
224, 324, 354 (top), 362, 414 (top), 418 (grasshopper), 447
(mosquito) Emerald City Images: /Minden Digital/Flip Nicklin 14
(top) Fairfax Photo Library: 321; /Helen Nezdropa 165 (left); /Joe
Armao 138 Colleen Foelz 93 (cat), 354 (second bottom) Future
Farm Industries CRC/www.futurefarmcrc.com.au 189 (2 images)
Getty Images: /National Geographic/Luis Marden 27; /Rischgitz 30
(left); /Taxi Japan/Masaaki Toyoura 37 (right); /Redferns/Fin Costello
41; /Stone/Davies and Starr 53; /Stone/David Burder 105 (tapeworm);
/Dr George Chapman 123 (bottom left); /Peter Ginter 144 (bottom); /
Allsport/Robert Cianone 147 (2 images); /Allsport/Jeff Gross 150; /
The Image Bank/John Kelly 167 (left); /Stringer/Otto Greule Jr 168; /
Photonica/Kim Steele 244 (rey); /Taxi/Peter David 244 (sh); /
Aurora 245; /Hulton Archive 261; /Botanica/Ann Cutting 357 (bottom
right); /Botanica 357 (centre right); /Asia Images/Yukmin 429; /Visuals
Unlimited/SIU 447 (hand); /Stone/Charles Gupton 449 (right); /J A

Hampton 455 (right); 520 (centre right); /Royalty-Free 520 (dog
sitting) Goodshoot 486 (top right); Carol Grabham 166 (bottom)
Image Addict ( imageaddict.com.au): 71 (centre left and top); 108
(centre); 158; Image Disk Photography: 402 (top right); 418
(kookaburra); 503 (bottom right) Image Source: 447 (meat)
JCSMR, ANU: /The John Curtin School of Medical Research, ANU
455 (left, 3 images) JF Heron 274 (left) John Wiley & Sons
Australia: /AbsolutVision 541; /Renee Bryon 59, 61 (bottom left), 61
(top left), 78, 234 (bottom), 246 (top), 434; /Photo by Coo-ee Picture
Library 295 (top), 297; /Werner Langer 314, 325 (6 images), 437 (4
images), 495 (left), 497 (left); /Janusz Molinksi 302 (3 images); /
Daniela Nardelli 319 (top right) 463 (left), 463 (right); /Julie Stanton
535 (left); /Kari-Ann Tapp 64, 520 (bottom right), 524 (top) John
Wiley & Sons, Inc: /Corbis Digital Stock 98 (crocodile) Lochman
Transparencies: /Lochman Transparencies/Brett Dennis 409; /
Lochman Transparencies/Mike Braham 411 Microsoft Corporation: /
Screen shot reprinted by permission from Microsoft Corporation 200,
201 (4 images), 202 (5 images), 518, 533 (left, right), 534 (bottom),
534 (centre left, right, top left), 536 (3 images), 537 (8 images)
NASA: 199 (left), 222 (left), 222 (right), 479 (centre); /NASA/JPL/
University of Colorado 193; /NASA/JPL-Caltech 466; /NASA/Thomas
M Brown, Charles W Bowers, Randy A Kimble, V Allen 469 (bottom
right), 474 (middle left), 483 (bottom left); /HEASARC/ASD/NASA/
GSFC; /NASA Yuri Beletsky 476; /Courtesy of SOHO consortium.
SOHO is a project of international cooperation between ESA and
NASA 479 (right); /NASA/A.Caulet St-ECF, ESA 481 (left); /NASA/JSC
481 (top right), 482 (top) National Sport Information: /Ausport
Image Library 33 (bottom) Natural Resources & Water: The State of
Queensland (Department of Natural Resources & Mines) 2003. Based
on or contains data provided by the State of Queensland (Department
of Natural Resources and Water) 2009. In consideration of the State
permitting use of this data you acknowledge and agree that the State
gives no warranty in relation to the data (including accuracy,
reliability, completeness, currency or suitability) and accepts no
liability (including without limitation, liability in negligence) for any
loss, damage or costs (including consequential damage) relating to
any use of the data. Data must not be used for direct marketing or be
used in breach of the privacy laws. 504 New Brunswick Government:
/Government of New Brunswick 212 (2 images) Newspix: 139; /
Newspix/Peter Bennett 2; /Newspix/Colleen Petch 5 (bottom), 6; /
Newspix/Ian Cugley 14 (bottom); /Newspix/Craig Greenhill 701; /
Newspix/Sarah Rhodes 86 (bottom right); /Newspix/Cameron Tandy
105 (squid); / Newspix/Michael Dodge 153; /Newspix/AFP 190; /
Newspix/AFP Photo/Torsten Blackwood 215 (bottom 3 images); /
Newspix/Brett Hartwig 311; / Newspix /Colin Murty 393; /Newspix/
Matthew Newton 416 (top centre); /Newspix/Ian Munro 462
(bottom) Ray Norris 217 (2 images), 218 (left) Olive Images 86
(top right) out of copyright: 221 (right 2 images); /USA Government
National Cencer Institute 274 (right); /From Alices Adventures in
Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. Illustration by John Tenniel. Macmillan
& Co Ltd, 1938 (rst edition 1865) 294 Pearson Education US: /Fig.
42.6, p. 876 from Biology, 6th ed. by Neil A Campbell and Jane B
Reece. Copyright 2002 by Pearson Education, Inc. Used by
permission 279 Photodisc 1, 4 (bottom left), 5 (centre), 5 (top), 6
(ball), 18, 33 (top), 36, 54, 61 (right), 71 (centre right), 85 (left,
right), 86 (bottom left), 89 (duck, horse, pig, rabbits, rooster, sheep),
93 (tomatoes), 95 (2 images), 98 (parrot), 104 (jellysh, snail,
starsh), 1045 (earthworms), 109 (bacteria), 131, 136, 144 (centre),
144 (top), 155, 162, 170, 172, 197 (left, right), 198 (bottom, top),
199 (bottom right, top right), 207, 209, 225 (left), 234 (top), 244
(moon, statue), 248 (top), 252, 254, 260, 266 (jellysh, worms), 279
(bottom, top), 303 (pencil), 316, 323 (left, right), 330 (bottom left,
centre right, top), 331, 347 (centre), 354 (bottom), 355 (bottom),
Acknowledgements xiii
364 (bread, pasta, potato, rice), 367 (apples, bread, cereal, cheese,
chocolate, eggs, hamburger, ice-cream, milk, strawberries, yoghurt),
369 (left), 390 (bottom right), 396 (centre), 397 (right), 402 (bottom
right, centre left), 418 (grass, heron, mouse, rabbits, snake), 447
(bacteria, boy, nurse), 452 (bottom), 475, 478, 481 (bottom right),
482 (bottom, 3 images), 486 (top left), 487 (centre right), 491
(bottom, top), 492 (centre, top), 497 (bottom), 499 (right), 500, 503
(top), 505 (top right), 508, 513, 520 (clock, lamp, top right), 525,
526, 535 (right) Photolibrary: 49 (bottom), 52 (left), 93 (liger),
360; /Photolibrary/Foodpix/Eric Futran 60; /Photolibrary/SPL/
Celltech/James Holmes 74; /Photolibrary/Lightscapes Inc 86 (top
left); /Photolibrary/SPL/Laguna Design 95; /Photolibrary/SPL/Astrid
& Hanns-Frieder Michler 109 (amoeba); /Photolibrary/SPL/Alfred
Pasieka 109 (spiral bacterium); /Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Brian Brain 114;
/Photolibrary/SPL/SNI 115 (bottom); /Photolibrary/SPL/Andrew
Syred 115 (top), 140 (right), 335, 396 (left); /Photolibrary/SPL/Steve
Gschmeissner 116 (centre), 140 (bottom left); /Photolibrary/Mary
Evans Picture Library 119 (bottom left); /Photolibrary/SPL/Adam
Hart-Davis 119 (top); /Photolibrary/SPL/John Durham 123 (top left);
/Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Gopal Murti 126; /Photolibrary/SPL/Astrid &
Hanns-Frieder Michler 127; /Photolibrary/SPL/A.B. Dowsett 128; /
Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Jeremy Burgess 140 (top left), 219, 336, 448, 451
(right); /Photolibrary/Dennis Hallinan 143; /Photolibrary/age
fotostock/Xavier Subias 148; /Photolibrary/Photo Researchers, Inc./
Hermann Eisenbeiss 166 (top); /Photolibrary/Foodpix 176; /
Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Fred Espenak 215 (top); /Photolibrary/The
Bridgeman Art Library/Portrait by Pomeranie/Musee de Torun, Poland
220 (left); /Photolibrary/SPL 220 (right), 272, 291, 306 (left), 306
(right), 307 (right), 447 (ringworm), 471 (bottom right); /
Photolibrary/Claver Carroll 228 (bottom); /Photolibrary/Frank
Chmura 228 (top); /Photolibrary/SPL/Andrew Lambert Photography
230; /Photolibrary/SPL/Lawrence Lawry 232 (bottom right); /
Photolibrary/Index Stock Imagery 232 (top); /Photolibrary/Sheila
Terry 237; /Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Arthur Tucker 241; /Photolibrary/
SPL/National Cancer Institute 260; /Photolibrary/OSF/Tobias Bernard
263 (left); /Photolibrary/Andrew J Martinez 263 (right); /
Photolibrary/SPL/Prof. M Brauner 268 (left, right); /Photolibrary/
SPL/Damien Lovegrove 271; /Photolibrary/SPL/Klaus Guldbrandsen
275; /Photolibrary/SPL/Eric Grave 276; /Photolibrary/SPL/Bo
Veisland 278; /Photolibrary/SPL/Laguna Design 288; /Photolibrary/
SPL/Astrid & Hanns-Frieder Michler 295 (bottom); /Photolibrary/
SPL/Kaj R Svensson 303 (coal); /Photolibrary/SPL/Professor Peter
Fowler 307 (left); /Photolibrary/SPL/Geroge Steinmetz 312 (top); /
Photolibrary/SPL/Cordelia Molloy 319 (bottom), 364 (fish); /
Photolibrary/Richard T Nowitz 319 (top left); /Photolibrary/SPL/Dr
Keith Wheeler 339; /Photolibrary/Ed Reschke 340; /Photolibrary/SPL/
Helmut Partsch 347 (bottom); /Photolibrary/Japack Photo Library
347 (top); /Photolibrary/Michele Lamontagne 355 (centre); /
Photolibrary/Harley Seaway 355 (top); /Photolibrary/Botanica/Mark
Turner 357 (bottom left); /Photolibrary/Bildhuset Ab/Bengt Olof
Olsson 357 (top centre); /Photolibrary/Peter Arnold Images Inc/
Reschke Ed 357 (top left); /Photolibrary/Fresh Food Images 359; /
Photolibrary/SPL/Bodenham LTH NSH Trust 369 (right); /
Photolibrary/SPL/P M Motta 372; /Photolibrary/Cromorange 378; /
Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Keith Wheeler 387, 390 (bottom left); /
Photolibrary/SPL/Peter Scoones 396 (left); /Photolibrary/SPL/
Francoise Sauze 402 (bottom centre); /Photolibrary/SPL/David Scharf
402 (bottom left); /Photolibrary/SPL/Garry Watson 402 (top left); /
Photolibrary/Luis Alonso Ocana 416 (bottom centre); /Photolibrary/
SPL/Adam Hart-Davis 421; /Photolibrary/Peter Harrison 423; /
Photolibrary/SPL/Southampton General Hospital 445; /Photolibrary/
Phillip Hayson 447 (car); /Photolibrary/SPL/Eye of Science 447
(fluke); /Photolibrary/SPL/Dr MA Ansary 447 (goitre); /Photolibrary
xiv
Acknowledgements
SPL/Eric Grave 447 (louse); /Photolibrary/SPL/Alfred Pasieka 447

(osteoporosis); /Photolibrary/SPL/A.B. Dowsett 449 (left); /
Photolibrary/SPL/John Radcliffe Hospital 451 (left); /Photolibrary/
SPL/Gusto Gusto 452 (top); /Photolibrary/SPL/Scott Cazamine 453
(left); /Photolibrary/SPL/CNRI 453 (right); /Photolibrary/SPL/Russell
Kightley 454; /Photolibrary/SPL/James Stevenson 459 (bottom); /
Photolibrary/SPL/Dr P Marazzi 459 (centre); /Photolibrary/Dr
P Marazzi 459 (top); /Photolibrary/SPL/Gusto Productions 462 (top);
/Photolibrary/SPL/Chris Butler 468; /Photolibrary/SPL/European
Southern Observatory 469 (left); /Photolibrary/SPL/European
Southern Observatory 483 (top right); /Photolibrary/SPL/Telescope
Science Institute/NASA Space 469 (top); /Photolibrary/SPL/NASA/
CFA/CXC/M Markevitch 470 (bottom left); /Photolibrary/SPL/NASA/
ESA/STSCI 470 (top left); /Photolibrary/SPL/John Sanford 472; /
Photolibrary/SPL/Fes 474; /Photolibrary/SPL/Dr Rudolph Schild 483
(bottom right); /Photolibrary/SPL/Telescope Science Institute/NASA
Space 483 (top left); /Photolibrary/John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd/
Erin Jonasson 486 (centre left); /Photolibrary/Oxford Scientific Films/
Martyn Chillmaid 490 (bottom centre); /Photolibrary/SPL/Vaughan
Fleming 501 PureStock 165 (right) Quill Graphics 456 (4 images)
QUT Marketing &Communications: /Queensland University of
Technology/Anne Musser 101 Rubberball Productions 289 South
American Pictures: /South American Pictures/National Museum of
Anthropology 218 (right) Shutterstock.com: / GeoM, 2009 Used
under license from Shutterstock.com 257; / Sandra Cunningham,
2009 Used under license from Shutterstock.com 358; Jack
Cronkhite, 2009 Used under license from Shutterstock.com 444
Julie Stanton 235 (bottom), 333, 494, 521 (bottom); /John Wiley &
Sons/Julie Stanton 49 (top) Stockbyte 367 (beef, broccoli, zucchini),
428 Sydney Water: /Courtesy of Sydney Water Corporation 76
Taronga Zoo: /Courtesy: Taronga Zoo 540 Thinkstock 98 (shark)
Brett Thomas 354 (centre), 499 (top), 505 (top), 524 (bottom)
Jackie Tracy 37 (left) Lyn Treadwell: /Lyn Trounson 487, 490
(bottom right, left, top centre), 499 (left), 505 (top left) Peter
Trusler 103 University of Florida IFAS: /Thomas Wright University
of Florida/IFAS 403 Vernier Software & Technology 24 Viewnder
Australia Photo Library 98 (frog), 100 (left) Visy Recycling 62 3
Pascale Warnant: 15 (bottom), 509, 510, 511, 522, 526, 539; /Pascale
Warnant. Photograph in banner Julie Stanton 521 (top)
Text:
Eileen Kennedy, Peter Rozanski, Daniela Nardelli, Peter Safn,
Paula Taylor, Ross Phillips, Collette Ballantyne, Marion van Gameron,
Tim Byrne, Patricia Christies Australian Institute of Health 446
Cancer Institute NSW: / Cancer Institute NSW. Source: Incidence
and mortality data, NSW Central Cancer Registry. Population
estimates HOIST, Epidemiology and Surveillance Branch, NSW
Health Department 461 Dept of Ed. & Training WA: /From Helping
students to do open investigations in science by Mark Hackling and
Robert Fairbrother, Australian Science Teachers Journal, December 1996
Vol. 42 No. 4 Department of Education & Training WA 25 NSW
Board of Studies: /Outcomes statements from Science 7 10 Syllabus
Board of Studies New South Wales for and on behalf of the Crown
in right of the State of New South Wales, 2003. The most up-to-date
version of this document can be found at www.boardofstudies.nsw.
edu.au/syllabus_sc/pdf_doc/science_710_syl.pdf x xi Sports Data
Pty Ltd 349 Taronga Zoo: /Courtesy: Taronga Zoo 540
Every effort has been made to trace the ownership of copyright
material. Information that will enable the publisher to rectify any
error or omission in subsequent editions will be welcome. In such
cases, please contact the Permissions Section of John Wiley & Sons
Australia, Ltd.
The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new

facts as to discover new ways of thinking about them.
Sir William Bragg (18621942)
Investigating
The word science

comes from the Latin
word scientia, meaning
knowledge. Scientists
have been seeking knowledge for
many thousands of years. Before the
1600s, early scientists were often called
philosophers, because they had limited
technology to investigate the world around
them; they merely applied their reasoning
to make sense of what they saw.
Today, scientists use sophisticated
equipment to carry out investigations
and build on the body of knowledge that
is science. But science is more than a
collection of important facts. It is about
exploring and, as an explorer, you will be
trained to investigate scientifically so the
conclusions you arrive at are based on
sound information.

1.1
identify the branches of science and
some careers in science

1.2
identify appropriate laboratory
equipment for experiments and use it

safely
1.3
record observations and
measurements accurately
1.4
organise and present data clearly
using tables and graphs and produce

a scientific report of investigations
1.5
design controlled experiments
and identify trends, patterns and

contradictions in data collected
1.6
describe contributions made by
scientists and outline examples

showing how scientists make
observations, identify trends and
patterns and construct hypotheses.
Forensic
scientists use
their knowledge
to help solve
crimes.
Careful observations are required before any

conclusions can be drawn. Look carefully at the
drawing below and describe what you think has
happened.
Thinking about investigating
1. Look around the laboratory. Identify five features

special to this working environment.
2. Identify five everyday devices that have been
invented with the assistance of science.
3. Do you know anyone working in science? Describe
what they do.
4. Think of a really important scientific discovery.
Discuss with a partner why you think it is so
significant. In your workbook, describe the
discovery and its significance.
5. These two pieces of
equipment are used
for measuring volumes
of liquids.
Identify an important
difference between
them, other than their
Beaker
Measuring cylinder
7. If you were asked to draw a picture of a scientist,
shape. Outline when
what would you draw? Draw your image of a
each should be used.
scientist on A4 paper. Underneath your drawing,
6. Some of the skills that scientists use are the same
as those used by detectives in solving a crime.
write a brief description of the scientist.
100ml
50ml
100ml
50ml
0ml
think about the properties of each

part of the mixture that will make
separation possible.
InveStIgatIon 1.1
Design and separate
Your task is to separate the four
components of a mixture of dead
matches, pebbles, steel paper
clips and sand.
You will need:
sand (about 250 mL)
dead matches
small pebbles
steel paper clips
plastic container (about 500 mL)
A3 paper
other equipment and water as
required
Make a list of all of the equipment
Devise and write a step-by-step
plan of a method to separate

the four parts. You will need to
Step 1
that you will need.

Gather the equipment and perform
the separation.
Discussion
1
Mix the matches, pebbles and
paper clips evenly in a plastic

container of sand.
Matches, pebbles,
paperclips, sand
Copy and complete the

following flow chart in
your workbook. Outline
each step you followed
and, in each of the
boxes, list the items
separated.
Identify the unique
property or feature of
each item that allowed
it to be separated from
the other items.
Step 2
Step 3
1.1
What do scientists do?

The branches of science
You can find scientists just about anywhere. They could be in a desert
finding out how plants survive without water. They could be digging
deep into the ice in Antarctica. You might find a scientist searching
for fossils on a rocky shore, counting rare animals in a rainforest or
monitoring electricity in a power station. Some scientists work in
laboratories, searching for a cure for a disease. Others work in the
chemical industry. You might even find a scientist in space.
There are many branches of study in science. A few are shown on
these pages.
Earth science
Earth scientists, or
geologists, study the
Earth. They investigate
and explain how rocks
and mountains form.
Some specialised
geologists, called
seismologists,
study earthquakes.
Palaeontologists study
fossils and ancient
rocks. Vulcanologists
study volcanoes.
Biology
Biologists study living things.
They investigate how living
things function and how
they live together. Some
biologists, like botanists and
horticulturists, study plants.
Zoologists and veterinarians
study animals. Microbiologists
study microscopic living
things. People like doctors and
dentists use their knowledge
of biology to help keep people
and their teeth healthy.
eBook plus
eLesson
Career spotlight: scientist

Meet marine biologist Jodie Haig and
learn about this exciting career in
marine science.
eles-0053
not all scientists were high achievers

at school. some very famous scientists
were average or below average school
students. Albert Einstein is probably
the most famous example. He did not
talk until he was three years old. He
left school at the age
Fig. 1.1.8
of 15 and went back
head of
later. He passed his
university exams by
Einstein
studying the notes of
his classmates.
Astronomy
Astronomers study the sky. They are
concerned with planets, moons, stars,
comets and other objects in space.
A mix of science
Physics
P
Physicists study different
ttypes of energy. They
investigate and explain
tthings like movement, heat,
nnuclear energy, light and
eelectricity. Some engineers
uuse their knowledge of
pphysics to make sure
bbuildings are strong and
ccars are safe. A knowledge
of physics is also used
iin electronics, computer
design and even special
effects in movies.
The boundaries between the

different sciences are often crossed.
Biophysicists and biochemists
work in more than one field. Also,
scientists from different fields often
work together to solve problems.
Physicists worked with medical staff
to design the bionic ear. Physicists
and geologists work together
to locate underground mineral
deposits using soundwaves.
Chemists work with biologists to
find cures for diseases.
specialising
Within each field of science,
scientists specialise in a specific
area. For example, in psychology,
neuropsychologists work with
physiologists to study the different
areas of the brain to better
understand brain functions like
memory and learning. Sports
psychologists advise athletes on
self-image and on maintaining the
motivation to persist and succeed
in their chosen sport.
Chemistry
Chemists study how substances
react with other substances. They
investigate and explain why some
substances behave differently
from others and how they can best
be used. Industrial chemists might
look for ways to make better paints
or special plastics. Pharmacists
are chemists too. They work with
chemicals that are used to treat
illness and disease.
science and technology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of
human behaviour. Psychologists
study the causes of behaviour,
including the emotional, social
and developmental factors
involved. In general, psychology
is concerned with how people
perceive the world around them
and how they react to it, how
they grow, how they learn and
how they relate to others and
function in groups.
Scientific discoveries have helped

improve our quality of life.
Whenever you turn on a light, fly in
a plane, play tennis or flush a toilet,
you are using a product of scientific
knowledge. The word technology
refers to devices that use scientific
ideas to make life easier.
Some scientific discoveries happen by

accident. Bacteriologist Alexander Fleming
discovered the first antibiotic, which he
called penicillin. He observed that a tiny
piece of mould that had fallen into his
experiment stopped the growth of bacteria.
1 Investigating 5
Chemical engineers have been responsible for

producing a lightweight but powerful tennis racquet
for modern tennis players. Lleyton Hewitt s racquet
frame is constructed of graphite, elastomer and
Kevlar. The strings are made of nylon. Tennis racquet
technology has changed greatly from the timber and
catgut tennis racquets of the 1950s and the 1960s.
Sports psychology helps

athletes train their minds
for greater success in the
sports arena. Lleyton has
received advice from
sports psychologists
on setting goals,
motivation and
concentration.
Industrial chemists look for ways to make better materials.

Lleyton s tennis outfit is made of a blend of polyester and
cotton. The blend of these two fibres makes the fabric more
breathable and durable.
The branch of biology that studies the function of the human
body is physiology. Lleyton suffered a hip injury leading up to the
Olympic Games in 2008. Lleyton travelled with a physiotherapist to
Beijing so that he could get through the games and continue on to
the US Open.
Physicists study how objects move and the importance of forces such
as friction. They research the performance of the different types of
balls. For example, tennis balls with coarser covers slow down more
quickly in their flight through the air.
The branch of physics that studies how people move is called
biomechanics. Scientists use modern video and computer technology
to analyse every part of Lleyton s swing to help suggest improvements.
Researchers in physics have helped modern tennis players adjust
their game to suit different playing surfaces. On a grass court,
tennis players are encouraged to serve as fast as possible to
produce a fast, low bounce. On clay courts, a player needs to
reduce the speed of the serve and put more spin on the ball.
This produces a slower, higher bounce that is difficult to return.
activities
6 How might these people use science in their daily work?

(a) Doctor
(b) Mechanic
(c) Farmer
(d) Firefighter
(e) Architect
REMEMBER
1 Describe what scientists do.
inVEsTiGATE
2 Define the term technology .
7 Read the main section of a daily newspaper. Count the

number of times that a scientist is referred to or quoted.
Select any one of these scientists and make notes for
each to identify:
the scientist s name
the branch or specific field of science they study
which organisation they work for
what the newspaper article is about and why the
scientist has been included in the article.
THinK
3 What type of scientist would investigate rocks to see
how old they are?
4 Give an example of the work that a biophysicist and a
biochemist might do.
5 Look at the photograph of Australian tennis player,
Lleyton Hewitt. Propose how each of the following
scientists might improve his performance.
(a) Nutritionist
(b) Psychologist
(c) Physicist
eBook plus
8 Use the Da Vinci s machines weblink in your eBookPLUS

to learn about some of the important machines that
Leonardo da Vinci invented.
1.2
the science laboratory

Getting to know the
science lab
Scientists conduct experiments in a
laboratory. The science laboratory
is different from other classrooms
in the school. It is filled with a
range of equipment to help you
undertake scientific investigations
safely.
Sit quietly for a minute or two
and look around the science
laboratory.
List as many differences as
you can between the science
laboratory and other general
classrooms at your school.
Draw a map of the science
laboratory, labelling each of the
following items present in your
laboratory.
Student tables and work
benches
Teacher s desk or
demonstration bench
Gas taps
Sinks
Fume cupboard
Eye wash and safety shower
Fire extinguishers
Fire blanket
Broken glass bin
Rubbish bin
Doors
Laboratory
equipment
Some of the equipment that you
are likely to use in science is listed
on the right. Use the illustrations
on the following page to find each
item in the laboratory.
Equipment
Use
Beaker
Container for mixing or heating substances
Bosshead
Holds the clamp to a retort stand
Bunsen burner
Heats substances
Clamp
Holds objects at the required height on a retort stand
Conical flask
Container for mixing substances or collecting filtered substances
Evaporating dish
Container for heating small amounts of substances over a

Bunsen burner
Filter funnel
Used with filter paper to filter substances
Gauze mat
Supports a container over a Bunsen burner while it is heated;

spreads heat evenly under the container
Heatproof mat
Protects benches from damage
Measuring cylinder
Used to measure volume accurately
Retort stand
Used with clamps and bossheads to hold substances at the

required height
Safety glasses
Protects eyes
Spatula
Used to pick up small amounts of solid substances
Stirring rod
Used to stir mixtures
Test tube
Container for holding, heating or mixing small amounts of

substances
Test-tube holder
Holds a test tube while it is being heated
Test-tube rack
Holds test tubes upright
Thermometer
Measures temperature
Tongs
Used to pick up and hold small objects while they are heated
Tripod
Supports a gauze mat over a Bunsen burner
Watchglass
Holds small quantities of solids
1 Investigating 7
Some equipment that you are likely to use in the science laboratory
Watchglass
Gauze mat
Bunsen burner
Filter funnel
Tripod
Evaporating dish
Heatproof mat
Thermometer
Clamp
Safety glasses
Bosshead
Conical flask
Retort stand
Test-tube holder
Stirring rod
Test tube
Spatula
Measuring
cylinder
Test-tube rack
Tongs
Beaker
investigating safely
Handy hints
Doing experiments in science can be exciting, but accidents can happen

if investigations are not carried out carefully. There are certain rules that
must be followed for your own safety and the safety of others.
Use a filter funnel when pouring

from a bottle or container
without a lip.
Never put wooden test-tube
holders near a flame.
Always turn the tap on before
putting a beaker, test tube or
measuring cylinder under the
stream of water.
Remember that most objects get
very hot when exposed to heat
or a naked flame.
Do not use tongs to lift or move
beakers.
ALWAYs
follow the teachers
instructions
wear safety glasses and a
laboratory coat or apron,
and tie back long hair
when mixing or heating
substances
point test tubes away from
your eyes and away from
your fellow students
push in chairs and keep
walkways clear
inform your teacher if you
break equipment, spill
chemicals or cut or burn yourself
wait until hot equipment has cooled before putting it away
clean your workspace dont leave any equipment on the
bench
dispose of waste as instructed by your teacher
wash your hands thoroughly after handling any substances in the
laboratory.
nEVER
enter the laboratory
without your teacher s
permission
run or push in the
laboratory
eat or drink in the
laboratory
smell or taste chemicals
unless your teacher says
it s ok. When you do
need to smell substances,
fan the odour to your
nose with your hand
leave an experiment unattended
conduct your own experiments without the teachers approval
put solid materials down the sink
pour hazardous chemicals down the sink (check with your
teacher)
put hot objects or broken glass in the bin.
Working with dangerous

chemicals
Your teacher will tell you how
to handle the chemicals in each
experiment. At times, you may
come across warning labels on the
substances you are using.
Always wear gloves and safety
glasses when using chemicals with
this symbol. Corrosive substances
can cause severe
damage to skin
and eyes. Acid
CORROSIVE
is an example
of a corrosive
8
substance.
These substances are easily set
on fire so keep
them away
from flames.
FLAMMABLE
Methylated spirits
GAS
is flammable.
2
Chemicals with this label can
cause death or serious injury if
swallowed or breathed in. They
are also dangerous when touched
without gloves
because they
can be absorbed
by the skin.
Mercury is a toxic
substance.
1 Investigating 9
Heating substances
Many experiments that you will conduct in the
laboratory require heating. In school laboratories,
heating is usually done with a Bunsen burner.
A Bunsen burner provides heat when a mixture of
air and gas is lit.
Bunsen burners heat objects or liquids with a naked
flame. Always tie hair back, and wear safety glasses
and a laboratory coat or apron when using a Bunsen
burner.
Use a gauze mat

over a tripod to
hold containers
over a Bunsen
burner flame.
Beaker
Gauze mat
Bunsen
burner
Tripod
Heating containers
Beakers and evaporating dishes can be placed straight
onto a gauze mat for heating. Never look directly into
a container while it is being heated. Wait until the
equipment has cooled properly before handling it.
Heatproof mat
Evaporating dish
A guide to using the Bunsen burner

1 Place the Bunsen burner on a
heatproof mat.
Barrel
6 Turn on the gas tap and a

yellow flame will appear.
2 Check that the gas tap is in the

off position.
Gas hose
Collar
3 Connect the rubber hose to the

gas tap.
4 Close the air hole of the
Bunsen burner collar.
Air hole
(gas jet inside)
8 Remember to close the collar

to return the flame to yellow
when the Bunsen burner is not
in use.
Base
5 Light a match and hold it a few

centimetres above the barrel.
Close the air hole.
InveStIgatIon 1.2
Hold the porcelain in the yellow flame for a few minutes.
Which flame is hotter?

You will need:
Bunsen burner
matches
pieces of porcelain
clock or watch
heatproof mat
tongs
safety glasses
Discussion
1
Describe the flame when the air hole is open. What

colour is it? Does it make a noise?
Describe the flame when the air hole is closed. Is it

easy to see?
Does the porcelain turn red-hot in the yellow flame

when the air hole is closed?
Do you notice anything else about the porcelain after

heating in the yellow flame?
Which is the hotter flame? What observations did you

make that support your answer?
Light the Bunsen burner according to the guide above.

Open the air hole.
Hold a piece of porcelain over the flame with the air hole
open.
Record roughly how long it takes for the porcelain to turn
red-hot.
Let the porcelain cool on the heatproof mat.
10
7 Adjust the flame by moving the

collar until the air hole is open
and a blue flame appears. (A
blue flame is hotter than a
yellow flame.)
InveStIgatIon 1.3
Where is the hottest part of the flame?
You will need:
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat
matches
safety glasses
nichrome wire
tongs
pin
Part A
Use a pin to hang an unburnt match over the barrel
of a Bunsen burner.
Light the Bunsen
burner according
to the guide on the
opposite page.
Turn the collar to
produce a blue flame.
Discussion
1
What happens to the match hanging over the barrel?

Explain why.
What colour does the wire become when held across

the flame?
Is the colour of the wire different when it is held at

the top of the flame?
Draw a diagram of the Bunsen-burner flame, labelling

the parts that are hottest.
Students often heat substances in a test tube with a

Bunsen burner. Why would it be unwise to:
Unburnt match
Pin
Turn the Bunsen
burner off and remove

the match and pin with
tongs.
Part B
Re-light the Bunsen burner and turn the collar to produce
a blue flame again.
(a) use a yellow flame rather than a blue flame
Use the tongs to hold the wire across the flame, close to
(b) position the test tube at the base of a blue flame?
the barrel of the Bunsen burner and observe the wire.

Move the wire up a little and continue observing.
Why is the yellow flame often called the safety flame?
InveStIgatIon 1.4
Heating a substance in a test tube
You will need:
100 mL beaker
Bunsen burner and heatproof mat
matches
safety glasses
test tube
test-tube rack
test-tube holder
food colouring
CAUTION Before you start heating, check the following:
If you have long hair, is it tied back?
Are you wearing safety glasses?
Is the Bunsen burner on a heatproof mat?
Carefully pour water from a beaker into a test tube to a
depth of about 2 cm as shown in the diagram at right.

Add a drop of food colouring to make it easier to see.
Pouring a liquid into a test tube
1 Investigating 11
Light the Bunsen burner correctly
and heat the test tube gently in

the blue flame as shown below.
Remember that the open end of
the test tube should be pointing
away from you and your fellow
students. The base of the test
tube should be moved gently
in and out of the flame. This
prevents the liquid from splashing
out of the test tube.
Make sure that the test tube
points away from you and
other students.
Move the base of
the test tube in and
out of the flame.
Keep the test-tube holder

away from above
the flame.
Heating a test tube
Once the water has started
boiling, stop heating and turn off

the gas to the Bunsen burner.
Place the test tube in the testtube rack. Leave it there until it
has cooled before emptying it and
cleaning up.
Discussion
12
Why is the test tube placed in

a test-tube rack rather than in
your hand?
Make a list of any changes you

observed inside the
test tube as you heated the
water.
Danger in the laboratory
activities
REMEMBER
1 outline the purpose of each
of the following pieces of
equipment.
(a) Heatproof mat
(b) Evaporating dish
(c) Test-tube rack
(d) Retort stand
2 Give three examples of
equipment used when heating
objects.
3 Explain why you should
always wear gloves when
working with corrosive
substances.
4 If the teacher says it is safe
to smell a chemical, outline
the technique you should
use.
5 identify which colour is the
hottest flame in a Bunsen
burner. How do you obtain this
coloured flame?
THinK
6 identify which item of
equipment you would use to:
(a) hold a test tube that is to
be heated
(b) measure a volume of water
exactly
(c) transfer a small sample of
a powder to a beaker
(d) mix a sample of powder
with water so it dissolves.
7 Look carefully at the picture
of students in a laboratory on
these two pages.
(a) identify at least five
dangerous situations you
can see.
(b) Explain why each situation
is dangerous.
8 The following statements are
all incorrect. Rewrite them so
that they are correct.
(a) Matches can be safely
washed down the sink.
(b) Always point a test tube
towards you when heating
so you can see what is
happening inside it.
(c) Safety glasses need to be

worn only when heating
over a blue Bunsen burner
flame.
(d) Water spills do not need
to be cleaned up because
they are not dangerous.
cREATE
9 Select one of the safety rules
and choose a strategy for
publicising your message to the
class. You might create a safety
play
poster, video clip or play.
eBook
e
eBoo
k plus
l s
Book
Boo
10 Identify the equipment you

will need to perform a number
of laboratory processes
by completing the Using
equipment interactivity in your
eBookPLUS. int-0200
11 Use the Robert Bunsen
weblink to learn about the man
after whom the Bunsen Burner
was named.
work
sheets
1.1 Safety in the laboratory

1.2 Safety rules
1 Investigating 13
1.3
observing and inferring

As scientists conduct their
experiments, it is important
to keep a record of all the
measurements and observations
made. Some observations
are qualitative, meaning that
they describe the results of an
investigation: for example, The red
kangaroo sheltered under a tree
during the hottest part of the day.
Quantitative observations are those
where a measurement is made: for
example. The male red kangaroo
had a mass of 85.3 kg.
Measuring length
Scientists measure the lengths of different objects accurately to compare
sizes and estimate growth. The biologists in the photograph below are
measuring the size and condition of a tranquillised polar bear as part of
a study aimed at conserving these animals in their Arctic home.
Measuring
Experiments conducted in
science often involve measuring
quantities such as length and mass.
Measuring gives us an accurate way
of knowing whether quantities
change and, if so, by how much.
This helps scientists to make
conclusions from their experiments
and to develop new ideas.
Scientists all around the world use
the metric system of units for their
measurements.
The standard unit for measuring length is the metre (m). But length can
also be measured in millimetres (mm), centimetres (cm) or kilometres
(km). The following table shows how to convert between some common
units of measurement.
Measurement conversions
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams (g)
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres (m)
1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm)
1 litre (L) = 1000 millilitres (mL)
1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 1 millilitre (mL)
1 minute (min) = 60 seconds (s)
1 hour (h) = 60 minutes (min)
Sri Lankan spin bowler, Muttiah Muralitharan, has

his bowling action carefully measured and analysed
by Dr Jacque Alderson, a biomechanist from the
University of Western Australia.
14
Parallax error
Measurements should always be made with your eye
level with the reading you are taking. When scales
are read from a different angle, the reading is not
accurate. This type of reading error is called parallax
error.
Measuring
correctly
Never use the thermometer as a stirring

rod.
Read the thermometer with your eye
level with the top of the alcohol
column.
Do not rest a thermometer near the
edge of a bench where it is likely to
fall off.
using data loggers
Measuring
incorrectly
results in a
parallax error.
Measuring volume
Liquids in tubes such as measuring cylinders are often
curved at the top edge. The curve is called a meniscus.
The edges of the meniscus may curve up or down.
We always measure the volume of liquids from the
middle flat section of the meniscus.
60 mL
60 mL
55
55
50
50
45
45
40
40
Reading = 57 mL
A data logger is an electronic device

that collects and records scientific
measurements, which we call data.
The measurement recorded by a
data logger depends on the sensor
that is connected to it. The sensor
does the measuring and sends the
information to the data logger.
There are a number of different
sensors available; for example, if
a temperature sensor is attached
to the data logger, temperature is
measured and recorded.
Data loggers are useful devices
because they generally measure
quantities very accurately. For
example, they may record
temperature accurate to 0.1 C.
Some data loggers can also
store thousands of individual measurements and
allow them to be downloaded to a computer to be
converted to tables and graphs.
Reading = 56 mL
Measuring temperature
A thermometer is used to measure temperature. The
unit of measurement is commonly degrees Celsius
(C). The thermometers used in schools are lled
with alcohol, dyed red so that it is easier to read.
When using thermometers, remember these points.
Never rest the bulb of the thermometer on
the bottom of a container being heated as
the bottom may be hotter than the rest of its
contents.
Ensure that the liquid you are measuring the
temperature of fully covers the thermometer bulb.
A data logger and temperature sensor
1 Investigating 15
Reading scales
In science, a scale or set of
numbered markings generally
accompanies each measuring
device. For example, your ruler
measures length, and its scale has
markings enabling you to measure
with an accuracy of 0.1 cm. A
laboratory thermometer has a scale
that measures temperature with an
accuracy of 0.5 C.
When reading a scale, it is important to determine what each of the

markings on the scale represents. Practise reading the scales below.
A
50
24
40
40
23
30
23
22
Hot and cold

G
22
50
50
40
40
30
30
80
24
23
70
25
80
25
24
23
E
24
30
The highest air temperature ever

measured on Earth is 58 c. The
measurement was taken in 1922 in
Libya. The lowest temperature ever
measured was in 1983 in Antarctica.
That temperature was 86.6 c.
50
70
The temperatures measured by the thermometers A and B are 39 C and 23.6 C,

respectively. What are the temperatures measured by thermometers C to J?
InveStIgatIon 1.5
You will need:
laboratory thermometer or data logger and temperature
sensor
250 mL beaker
paper towel
Use the thermometer or data logger to measure the
temperature of:
(a) the air inside the school laboratory
(b) the air outside the school laboratory
(c) refrigerated water in a small beaker
(d) cold tap water in a small beaker
(e) warm tap water in a small beaker
16
(f) your armpit (take care, the thermometer is a

delicate instrument).
CAUTION Do not put the thermometer in your mouth!
Copy and complete the following table so that you can
record your measurements neatly.

Substance or location
Air inside the school laboratory
Air outside the school laboratory
Refrigerated water in a small beaker
Cold tap water in a small beaker
Warm tap water in a small beaker
My armpit
Temperature ( C)
Measuring mass
Mass is usually measured in
kilograms (kg); however, in the
science laboratory, you will often
measure mass in grams (g). You
will use either a beam balance or
electronic scales to measure mass
accurately.
Electronic scales are the easiest
to use. Simply adjust the balance
reading to zero by pressing the
tare button, place the object to be
measured on the scales, and read
the mass from the digital display.
Follow these steps to measure
mass using a beam balance:
zeroing the pointer. Do this by

moving the heaviest sliding mass
towards the pointer. Slide it until it
just overbalances the pointer, and
then slide it back to the nearest
notch. Repeat this with the smaller
masses in turn, except the one
with the smallest sliding mass. The
smallest mass should balance the
pointer, so that it lines up with the
zero (balance) mark.
Step 2: Put the object to be

measured on the pan of the beam
balance.
Liquids and grains should not be
placed directly on the pan. To find
the mass of these substances, they
need to be poured into a container.
The dry, empty container should be
measured first, and its mass should
later be subtracted from the mass
of the container with the substance
in it.
Step 4: Add the masses on each of

the arms to determine the total
mass. The tomato in the diagram
below has a mass of 126.3 grams.
Step 3: When an object is put on

the pan, the pointer moves. You
can determine the object s mass by
Step 1: Make sure that the balance

is zeroed before using it by
moving all of the sliding masses
to the zero notches and checking
that the pointer on the arm of the
balance lines up with zero.
Sliding masses
Pan
InveStIgatIon 1.6
Estimating mass
You will need:
beam balance or electronic scales
pen
watch
safety glasses
100 mL beaker
jar lid
50 mL water
teaspoon
sugar
Record your estimates of the masses of each of the
Arms
0
0
100
10
Pointer
200g
20
30
40
50
60
70
90
100g
10g
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0g
Estimating and measuring mass

Estimated
mass (g)
Item
Measured
mass (g)
Difference
(g)
Pen
Watch
Safety glasses
100 mL water
2 teaspoons of
sugar
items in a table like the one at right.

Measure the masses of the pen, watch and safety glasses
Determine the degree to which your estimates were
incorrect by calculating them as a percentage error.

For each item, calculate the percentage error using:
using a beam balance or electronic scales.

The water and the sugar cannot be put directly on the
pan. Record the masses of the beaker and the jar lid on
their own.
difference (g)
100 = % error
measured mass (g)
Add 50 mL of water to the beaker. Record the combined
mass of the water and the beaker. Subtract the mass of

the beaker alone from the combined mass. Do the same
with 2 teaspoons of sugar in the jar lid. Alternatively,
put the empty container on the electronic scales before
adding the water or sugar, and press tare .
Discussion
1
Which was your most accurate estimation?
By how much did your least accurate estimation vary

from the measured mass?
Is it easier to estimate larger or smaller masses?

Explain why you think this is the case.
Record in the table whether your estimated mass was
higher or lower than the measured mass, and by how

many grams. This is called the difference.
1 Investigating 17
Measuring time
Making observations
We use clocks and watches to tell the time, but

scientists often need to record how long an event
takes. To do this accurately, they use stopwatches or
electronic counters. The standard unit for measuring
time is the second(s).
Familiarise yourself with a stopwatch. There is
generally a start/stop button and a reset button.
Push the reset button when
you wish to start timing in a
new experiment and when
you have finished timing
your experiment and need
to return your stopwatch
to zero.
Some of the most important scientific discoveries have

come about through simple scientific observations.
For example, in 1928, Alexander Fleming accidentally
discovered the first antibiotic when he was observing
mould (read more about this on page 29).
A typical stopwatch used to

record time accurately
InveStIgatIon 1.8
How observant are you?
You will need:
large beaker
short candle
lid or watchglass
matches
electronic scales
Watchglass
of the candle and lid

(or watchglass) using
electronic scales and
record your results.
Timing a fall
Light the candle.
You will need:

stopwatch
metre ruler
pen
as many observations as you can while it is alight.

(Interestingly, Michael Faraday, a nineteenth century
scientist famous for his discoveries in electricity and
chemistry, was able to make 53 observations of a
burning candle!)
surface to the ground using a metre ruler.

Time how long it takes for a pen to fall from the top of
After several minutes, place an upturned beaker over
the candle and continue to record your observations.
the bench to the ground. Repeat two more times.

Calculate the average time taken in the three trials.
Weigh the candle and lid (or watchglass) again and
record your results.
Repeat your experiment but swap roles within
your group so that each member has a turn timing,

recording and managing (such as saying go when it s
time to start the drop).
Record your results in a table like that below.
18
Place a beaker over the burning

candle after several minutes.
Observe the candle for several minutes and record
Measure the length from the top of a lab bench
Discussion
1
How many observations did you record? What was

the greatest number recorded by a member of your
class?
What change occurred in the mass of the candle

and lid?
Can you suggest why the mass of the candle may

have changed?
Time taken (s)

Length
(cm)
Candle
Weigh the initial mass
InveStIgatIon 1.7
Name
of
student
timing
Beaker
Average
Discussion
inferring and hypothesising
Was the time taken to fall the same in each trial?

Can you explain why?
Explain why it is useful to calculate an average.
Explain why you used a stopwatch in this experiment

instead of the second hand of a clock or watch.
After making some initial observations, scientists may

make an inference or suggested explanation about
what has happened. For example, you may have
inferred in Investigation 1.8 that the wax of the candle
was burnt in the experiment, causing the candle to
lose mass.
Scientists wishing to investigate further often come

up with a hypothesis or suggestion describing what
may happen. Hypotheses should be measurable
so that they can be tested. For example, in
Investigation 1.8, you might hypothesise that the
mass lost by the candle goes into producing the
mass of smoke observed. You might conduct further
experiments to produce quantitative observations (or
data) that support or reject your hypothesis. If the
observations support your hypothesis, you might be
able to make the conclusion that the mass lost by the
candle was converted to smoke. You might like to
re-design Investigation 1.8 to test this hypothesis.
A summary of the process of investigating is shown
on the right.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Describe what you must be sure to do when measuring
the volume of a liquid accurately.
2 Explain why you should not rest the bulb of a
thermometer on the bottom of the container when
measuring the temperature of a liquid while heating.
Initial observations are made.
An inference is based on these observations.
A hypothesis is made.
Data is collected in experiments.
Conclusions are made.
9 Look at the following diagrams of measurements

obtained from a beam balance.
(a) What is the mass of object A?
(b) What is the mass of object B?
(c) What is the largest mass that could be measured on
this beam balance?
Object A
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10 g
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0 g
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
10 g
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0 g
3 identify the standard unit of mass.
4 identify a device used to measure mass in a school

laboratory.
Object B
0
THinK
5 Look at the figure on page 15 showing parallax error.
(a) What is the real length of the matchstick shown?
(b) What approximate length of the matchstick would
you get due to parallax error?
6 Convert the following lengths into millimetres.
(a) 25 centimetres
(b) 2.5 metres
7 Luke measured the mass of a beaker of water as
240 grams. He tipped out the water and measured the
mass of the beaker as 105 grams.
(a) calculate the mass of the water in grams.
(b) Express the mass of water in kilograms.
(c) Explain how Luke could have improved the
procedure in his experiment to achieve a more
accurate reading.
8 Decide whether each of the following statements is an
observation, hypothesis or conclusion.
(a) Candles require oxygen from the air to burn.
(b) The candle went out when I placed a glass over it.
(c) Without oxygen from the air, a candle would
quickly go out.
200 g
100
10
100 g
200 g
100
100 g
inVEsTiGATE
10 Sit quietly in a nearby outdoor location and write down
as many observations as you can within five minutes.
Use as many senses as you can, except taste.
(a) identify the sense that you used the most.
(b) Which other senses did you use?
(c) compare your observations with those of other
classmates. What interesting observations did others
make?
eBook plus
11 Identify the temperature on a number of different

thermometers by completing the Reading scales
interactivity in your eBookPLUS. int-0201
work
sheet
1.3 Observations and inferences
1 Investigating 19
1.4
Reporting on investigations
Once scientists have completed their investigation,
they need to communicate to other scientists
what they did, their qualitative and quantitative
observations and their conclusions. This is done using
a scientific report. You may have some experience in
writing reports in other subjects. However, a scientific
report takes the format outlined below.
Aim
This is what you intended to do in the investigation.
Materials
This is a list of all the equipment and chemicals that
were used.
Method
This is the procedure followed in the investigation
and described as a series of steps. It may be useful to
include a labelled diagram of the set-up of equipment
used. Be sure to include what you are actually
recording in the experiment.
Results
This is a presentation of your data, and it may include
qualitative observations. Data is usually organised into
tables and presented as graphs.
Discussion
In this section, scientists explain their results: why
they think they obtained the results they did. They
may refer to the research of other scientists. They
may also describe any problems encountered in the
investigation and make suggestions on improvements.
Conclusion
This is a summary of the overall findings. The
conclusion must relate to the aim of the investigation.
Drawing laboratory equipment

Scientific drawings can be used in laboratory reports
to show how equipment was set up. It is important
for the drawings to be clear and easy to understand.
When drawing scientific diagrams, you should:
always draw in pencil
use a ruler to draw straight lines
label the equipment drawn
draw only a cross-section of the equipment
not put lines closing the top of open glassware.
Some examples of equipment drawn scientifically are
shown above right.
20
Tripod and gauze mat
Beaker
Test tube
Bunsen burner and heatproof mat
Conical flask
Retort stand, bosshead and clamp
Filter funnel and filter paper
Keeping a record
When making observations, it is helpful to organise
the data in a table. Information presented in this way
is often easier to read. Graphs can then be constructed
from the table to make it even easier to see patterns in
the data.
The heading for each column is a clear
label of what has been measured.
Always
include
the units
used
in the
headings.
Distance
(cm)
0
2
4
6
8
Time for ant to travel

between markers (s)
0
3
7
8
12
Enter the data

in the body of
the table. Do
not include
units in this part
of the table.
Use a ruler to
draw lines for
rows, columns
and borders.
Pie charts are useful for showing the parts that

make up a whole. For example, a pie chart can be
used to show the percentages of different substances
in the Earth s crust.
Other (10%)
Oxygen (46%)
Calcium (4%)
Iron (5%)
Aluminium (8%)
Silicon (27%)
Number of students
Bar and column graphs are used to display data

that is not continuous; this means that one piece of
data does not relate to the next. For example, a bar
graph can be used to show the number of students in
a class with a particular hair colour.
10
8
6
4
2
0
Black
Brown
Red
Blond
Colour of hair
Line graphs have a horizontal x-axis and a vertical

y-axis. They are often used to represent continuous
or connected data. A line graph is used to show how
something changes. For example, line graphs could be
used to show how quickly a plant grows over time.
A line graph can be used to predict
what might happen in the future.
Height of plant (cm)
1.5
An example of a good quality report of an experiment
1.0
Line graphs are useful for

predicting values between those
that you actually observed.
0.5
Graphing
Graphs are used to make data easier to interpret. The
type of graph used depends on the type of data to be
displayed.
0.0
0
10
20
30
Number of weeks
40
1 Investigating 21
Activity 3
InveStIgatIon 1.9
Use an eye-dropper to put one drop of methylated spirits
onto the back of your hand.

Blow air gently across the
back of your hand.
Recording observations in a table

You will need:
test tubes
50 mL beaker
eye-dropper
vinegar
sodium carbonate
methylated spirits
starch suspension
safety glasses
test-tube rack
spatula
drinking straw
sodium bicarbonate
copper sulfate
limewater
iodine solution
Activity 4
Quarter-fill a very small beaker with limewater. Gently
blow out through a drinking straw into the limewater.

Be careful not to share straws.
CAUTION Safety glasses should be worn while conducting

these experiments.
Draw a table like the one below to record your
observations in of each of the following activities.

Activity Summary of what was done
Observations
1
2
3
4
Activity 5
Put a few drops of starch suspension in a clean test
tube. Add a drop of iodine solution.
Activity 1
Pour vinegar into a clean test tube to a depth of about
1 cm. Add a spatula full of sodium bicarbonate.
CAUTION Take care not to get iodine solution on your

skin or clothes.
Activity 2
Quarter-fill two clean test tubes with water. Add a dry
spatula full of sodium carbonate to one test tube. Shake

the tube until the sodium carbonate dissolves. Add a dry
spatula full of copper sulfate to the other test tube and
shake it until the crystals dissolve. Pour the contents of
the second test tube into the first.
22
Discussion
1
What senses did you use in making your

observations?
Outline two safety precautions involved in this

investigation.
Explain why it is important to use small quantities of

chemicals when doing experiments like these.
Explain why it is useful to present the observations in

a table.
In activity 4, you had to pour limewater into the

beaker. If you took more limewater than required,
explain why it is not a good idea to return any unused
limewater to the original bottle.
InveStIgatIon 1.10
Clamp
Bosshead
Temperature graphs
Thermometer
A line graph is a useful way to present the results of an

experiment and gives an overall picture of the results.
A line graph can also be used to predict values that
occur between, or outside, those measured during an
experiment.
The aim of this experiment is to observe how the
temperature of water changes while it is heated over a
Bunsen burner.
You will need:
250 mL beaker
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat
matches
tripod
gauze mat
retort stand, bosshead and clamp
thermometer or data logger and temperature sensor
stopwatch
safety glasses
Retort stand
Beaker
Gauze mat
Tripod
Bunsen burner
Matches
Heatproof mat
Plot a line graph of the data you have collected on a
sheet of graph paper using labels like those below.

Use a measuring cylinder to measure 100 mL of water.
Pour the water into the beaker.
100
90
sure that the bulb of the thermometer is not on the

bottom of the beaker or out of the water.
80
Wait for a minute to allow the thermometer to adjust to
the water temperature.

Measure the initial temperature of the water and record
it in a table. The initial temperature is recorded when

time is 0 minutes.
Time (min)
Temp ( C)
Time (min)
Temp ( C)
Temperature ( C)
Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram. Make
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
5
Put your safety glasses on.
Light the Bunsen burner according to the guide on
page 10.
Open the air hole and heat the beaker over a blue flame.
Measure and record the temperature of the water every
minute for 10 minutes.

Turn off the Bunsen burner and allow the equipment to
cool.
10
11
12
Time (minutes)
Draw a smooth line near as many points as possible to
show the overall trend in the water temperature over time.
Discussion
1 Why didn t you record the starting temperature of
the water as soon as you poured the water into the
beaker?
2 Describe in words how the temperature increases.
3 How does your graph compare with those of other
groups?
4 Predict what would happen to the temperature of
the water if you continued heating for another two
minutes.
1 Investigating 23
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Explain why scientists write reports
about the experiments they
conduct.
2 Identify the part of a laboratory
report where a graph of
temperature vs time would be
drawn.
3 Distinguish between the results of
an experiment and the conclusions
made.
4 Identify the heading of your report
of an experiment under which the
following information should be
included.
(a) Suggestions for improvements
to your experiment
(b) Graphs and tables
(c) A description of what you did
(d) A statement saying what
you found out by doing the
experiment
5 A hypothesis is often included in
a scientic report, usually after
the aim heading. Dene the term
hypothesis.
THINK
6 A student measured the
temperature in each of the
classrooms at her school
so she could compare
them. Identify the type of
graph that the student
should select to display her
results.
7 Construct a neat, labelled,
scientic diagram of the
two sets of equipment
that would be needed
to perform the following
activity safely.
Part 1: Muddy salt water
is being poured from a
beaker into a lter funnel
(with lter paper). The
lter funnel is resting in
the opening of a conical
ask.
Part 2: The ltered
salt water, now in an
24
evaporating dish, is being

heated by a Bunsen burner. The
evaporating dish is supported by
a gauze mat on a tripod.
INVESTIGATE
8 Investigate whether adding
salt to water changes how the
temperature rises when the water
is heated. Design an experiment to
test your answer. Write a scientic
report outlining the design of your
investigation.
ANALYSE AND EVALUATE

The computer screen below shows
data collected by a data logger
for the experiment in which water
is heated to boiling in a beaker. A
temperature sensor was used to take
the measurements.
If you were at this computer,
you could scroll through every
temperature measurement in the
table. The computer has graphed all
these data. Now lets see how much
youve learned about interpreting line
graphs.
9 How often did the data logger
collect temperature readings?
10 How long did the whole experiment

go for?
11 Identify the number of individual
temperature readings the data
logger has stored.
12 Identify when the heating of the
water began.
13 Identify the temperature of the
water when heating began.
14 Identify the temperature of the
water when heating nished.
15 Identify when the water began to
boil.
16 Calculate the rate (in degrees per
second) that the water temperature
rose between 100 and 400 seconds.
17 The water continued to be heated
even when its temperature reached
boiling point, yet its temperature
did not rise beyond 100 C. What
has happened to all the energy that
was being put into the water if it
isnt causing the water temperature
to rise? (Hint: Think about what
happens to water while it is
boiling.)
work
sheets
1.4 Scientic reports

1.5 Scientic drawing skills
1.6 Data analysis
1.5
Designing investigations
When carrying out investigations, it is important to
do so scientifically. This means, for example, using the
most accurate equipment available. In many of the
experiments you will do, the procedure you need to
follow will be provided for you. In some cases though,
you will need to design your own experiments as part
of your investigation. Let s look at some important
principles to consider when designing investigations.
Fair tests
Experiments are generally designed to test hypotheses.
A hypothesis is a testable idea developed from
previous observations. For example, David loved
playing handball in the playground, and it seemed
to him that tennis balls falling from greater heights
bounced higher. He wanted to test his hypothesis.
An important part of any investigation is to
consider all the factors, or variables, that may
affect the outcome of an experiment. David
thought that the most important variable to
affect the bounce of a ball was the height it fell
from.
In most cases, many factors may affect the
outcome of an experiment. For example, the height
that a ball bounces might depend not only on the
height from which it fell but also on the type of ball;
after all, would you expect a cricket ball to bounce
as much as a tennis ball? The amount of air in a ball
might also affect its bounce; a fully inflated basketball
usually bounces higher than a partially deflated one.
When designing investigations in science, it is
important to design a fair test. In a fair test, only one
variable is changed at a time, and all other variables
are controlled, or kept the same. If this wasn t the
case, it would be impossible to tell which variable
caused the effect we are studying.
The phrase Cows Moo Softly is useful in

remembering how to plan a fair test:
Change one thing.
Measure something.
Keep everything else the same.
In David s case, he will vary the height that a tennis
ball is dropped from but will keep everything else
the same, such as the type of ball, how much air
is in the ball and the type of surface it is dropped
onto. To enable him to make conclusions from his
investigation, he collected quantitative data; that is, he
measured the height of the tennis ball s bounce and
repeated his experiment several times
for each height tested.
When designing fair tests, you
might find it helpful to use a table
like the one below to identify all
the variables.
Investigating whether the

height from which a ball is
dropped affects the height
of the bounce
Investigation: Does the height from which a ball is bounced affect the height of its bounce?
Controlled variables
(What I will keep the same)
The type of ball
How much air is in the ball
The type of surface it is dropped onto
Dropping the ball from a stationary point
Independent variable
(What I will change)
The height from which the ball is dropped
Dependent variable
(What I will measure)
The height of the balls bounce
1 Investigating 25
including a control
In some investigations, it
is important to include
a control. A control is a
repetition of the experiment
in which the independent
variable being tested is
not applied and so all the
variables are controlled.
Results from the control
are compared with those
obtained when the
independent variable has
been included. This allows
us to test whether the
independent variable we
are investigating really has
an effect, or whether other
variables that we may not
have thought of could be
playing a part.
For example, if we want to
investigate whether a ball being
wet affects how high it bounces,
we might compare the height of
a wet ball s bounce with that of a
dry ball dropped from the same
height. The results obtained using
the dry ball act as a control, or
comparison.
Reliability
The results obtained from
experiments are used to make
conclusions, but what if the
measurements made are incorrect?
Errors often arise in experiments;
sometimes they are one-off errors,
perhaps because the experiment
was not done carefully. Other times
the errors may be more difficult to
eradicate because the equipment
we used is not as accurate as it
should be, or the samples we are
testing are faulty.
To prevent one-off errors
from affecting your conclusions,
experiments should be repeated a
number of times. When repeating
experiments, they should be done
in the exact same way each time.
For example, when comparing
26
Including a control (left) to test

whether wetting a ball (below) affects
how high it bounces
the bounce of a wet ball

with that of a dry ball,
it would be sensible to
repeat the experiment,
say, five times with the
same ball and with the
same controlled variables.
If the results obtained
are similar each time,
then we say the results
are reliable. If there was
a significant difference
between your results for
each test, you may need to
review the way in which
the experiment was done.
Would you say the results
presented in the table
below are reliable?
Height of bounce (m)
Trial
Dry tennis ball (control)
Wet tennis ball
0.9
0.7
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.1
1.1
Average
1.0
1.0
What conclusion would you make based on the average results? Would
you have drawn the same conclusion based on the results of trial 1 only?
InveStIgatIon 1.11
Put the diving bell in the measuring cylinder and mark
the position of the bottom of the diving bell on the

measuring cylinder s scale. Record this value in a
suitable table.
Floating in salty water

The water in the Dead Sea, a lake near Jordan in the
Middle East, has an unusually high salinity; in fact, it is
nine times higher than that of the ocean. Tourists flock
to the lake because it is believed the water has health
benefits and to experience the water s unusually high
buoyancy.
Carefully remove the diving bell.

Add a level teaspoon of table salt to the measuring
cylinder and dissolve it in the water by shaking carefully

or stirring.
Put the diving bell back in and mark and record its
position.
Repeat this experiment using a second, a third, and
finally a fourth teaspoon of salt.

Design a suitable table to record your results
you will
need a column indicating the number of teaspoons of
salt added and a column listing the position of the diving
bell (using the scale on the measuring cylinder).
Draw a line graph of salinity (teaspoons of salt added)
on the x-axis versus the height of the diving bell (reading

on the measuring cylinder) on the y-axis, and draw a
smooth line of best fit.
Measuring
cylinder
Cotton thread
Tourists demonstrate the unusual buoyancy caused by high
salinity in the Dead Sea.
Diving bell
Investigate whether the salinity of water affects how high

an object floats in water.
Water and
dissolved salt
You will need:

small test tube
cork or rubber stopper
elastic band
permanent marker
scissors
table salt
teaspoon or spatula
Fill the measuring cylinder to the 100 mL mark with tap
water.
Make a diving bell by half-filling a test tube with tap
water; seal the top with a stopper.
The diving bell
Discussion
1
Write a conclusion to the experiment about whether

the salinity of water affects how high an object floats
in water.
Identify the control in this experiment.
Explain how these results support your conclusion.
Repeating this experiment would be very time

consuming so, to check the reliability of your findings,
compare your results with those of other groups. The
easiest way to do that is to compare others graphs
with yours.
Extrapolate (extend) your graph to predict the

position of the diving bell if six teaspoons of salt
were added.
Tie a piece of cotton thread securely around the top of
the test tube so it can be carefully moved in and out of

the measuring cylinder.
Check that the test tube floats off the bottom but not
higher than halfway up the measuring cylinder. If not,

adjust the volume of water in the test tube.
1 Investigating 27
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term variable .
2 Explain the difference between
the independent and dependent
variables in an experiment.
3 Explain why only one variable
at a time should be changed in
experiments.
THinK
4 identify some variables that might
affect:
(a) how quickly a pot plant
grows
(b) the cost of an airfare
overseas
(c) the time it takes you to travel to
school in the morning.
5 Advertisements for washing
powders and liquids often claim
that they are more effective
than others. Imagine you are
conducting an experiment to test
a range of washing powders and
liquids.
(a) Prepare an outline of a
procedure for your experiment.
(b) List the variables that you will
need to control.
(c) Which variable will you
change?
(d) How will you compare the
results of your tests?
6 Catherine and Celine are trying to
find out whether ceramic or glass
cups are better for keeping water
hot. The illustration below shows
their experiment in progress.
(a) identify at least two errors in

their experimental design.
(b) identify all the variables
that could affect the results
of Catherine and Celine s
experiment.
(c) identify any variables that
Catherine and Celine do not
need to control.
(d) Write a step-by-step outline of
the procedure that they could
use to find out which cup keeps
water hotter.
AnALYsE
7 Simon and Jessie did an
experiment to find out how
effectively two plastic cups
maintain the temperature of near
boiling water. Their data is shown
below.
Comparing plastic cups
Temperature ( C)
Time
(min)
DEsiGn
8 Design and carry out an experiment
to investigate one of the following.
What conditions affect the
germination of seeds?
Which conditions lead to the
greatest plant growth?
Which colour cloth is the
warmest?
How can a vase of flowers be
kept fresh longer?
Which brand of paper towel is the
most absorbent?
What affects how quickly objects
fall?
Which brand of batteries lasts the
longest?
Simon s
cup
Jessie s
cup
90
90
inVEsTiGATE
10
47
58
20
29
39
30
22
31
40
20
26
50
20
23
9 The aim of this experiment is to find

out whether distances are easier
to judge with two eyes than just
one. You can do this by shooting
for goal with a basketball or netball
from a particular spot under three
conditions:
left eye closed
right eye closed
both eyes open.
To produce reliable results, more
than one person should take
the shooting test and each goal
shooter should have several
attempts.
Plan and carry out your
experiment. Write a formal report
for the experiment including a table
of results and a conclusion. In your
discussion section:
identify the independent and
dependent variables
describe the strategies you used
to ensure that this was a fair
test.
(a) construct an appropriate graph

to display the data.
(b) identify which cup maintained
the temperature of the water
more effectively.
Catherine and Celine s experiment in progress
28
(c) Estimate the temperature

of the water in Simon s
cup 15 minutes after timing
commenced.
(d) Use your graph to predict how
long it would have taken the
water in Jessie s cup to drop to
a temperature of 20 C.
work
sheet
1.7 Fair testing
1.6
PREscRiBED Focus AREA

nature and practice of science
History of science
Famous scientists
Scientists use scientific investigations to help us
understand our world. They look for ways of
improving our lives by developing and testing their
ideas. Many of the important scientific discoveries
of the past began as questions, observations and
experiments from famous scientists such as Alexander
Fleming, Benjamin Franklin, Louis Pasteur, Albert
Einstein, Galileo Galilei, Marie Curie and Isaac
Newton.
Although our knowledge of science is advancing
every day, a number of fundamental scientific ideas
were developed some time ago. As well as coming up
with new theories and ideas, modern-day scientists
build on the knowledge of pioneering scientists.
Alexander Fleming
A scientific discovery can start from a simple
observation. In 1928, Alexander Fleming made an
accidental discovery that was to change medicine. He
was working on a completely different experiment
when he discovered that some mould spores in the air
had contaminated a petri dish growing bacteria. He
noticed that the bacteria had stopped developing
where the mould had landed. The mould contained a
substance called penicillin. Just over ten years later,
Australian-born scientist Howard Florey and his
colleagues successfully purified the mould so that it
could be used as a commercial antibiotic. Penicillin
was the first antibiotic to be used, and it is still used
for the treatment of serious bacterial infections.
Benjamin Franklin
Many scientific theories are initially prompted by
observations. From an observation, a scientist can
create a hypothesis an educated guess about what
is happening.
Benjamin Franklin, a famous American scientist,
observed lightning and developed a hypothesis
that lightning bolts were actually powerful electric
currents. To test his hypothesis, Franklin flew a kite
during a thunderstorm in 1752. He attached a metal
wire to the tip of the kite as a conductor, and a key
to the string. When Franklin placed his knuckle near
the key, he observed a spark jump from the key to
the knuckle. The test result helped to confirm his
hypothesis. Franklin was lucky to have survived his
experiment several other attempts at the kite
experiment electrocuted other scientists! His work led
to the invention of the lightning rod, which is a metal
spike attached to the top of a building. When hit
by lightning, the lightning rod diverts the electricity
down the spike and to the ground (through the path
of least resistance). This helped solve the problem of
buildings catching fire after being struck by lightning.
Scottish bacteriologist Alexander

Fleming discovered the first
antibiotic, which he called
penicillin. He observed that a
tiny piece of mould that had
contaminated
his experiment
stopped the
growth of
bacteria.
Artist s impression of Benjamin Franklin and his son performing

the kite experiment
1 Investigating 29
Although his research and

calculations were used in the
development of the atomic bomb,
No microbial
Boil
growth
Einstein himself was a pacifist,
strongly against the use of nuclear
weapons.
Albert Einstein was one of the
Stem broken,
Microbial
Boil
greatest thinkers in science history.
allowing air to
growth
His theories form the basis of a
enter flask
large portion of modern physics,
Pasteur s experiment
particularly in the study of the
A control is an experiment
universe.
where each part is controlled or
kept constant. Controls are used to
compare against those experiments
that have introduced a variable.
For example, in further
experiments, Pasteur selected
different variables. He exposed
meat broth to clean mountain air
and dirty city air. However, in this
experiment Pasteur also included
a control broth that was not
exposed to air. He found that a lot
of bacteria grew in the dirty city air
and only a small number of bacteria
Albert Einstein writing an equation on a
grew in the clean mountain air.
blackboard
The use of a control helped Pasteur
determine that the appearance of
bacteria must have had something
to do with air, because bacteria grew Galileo Galilei was born in Italy
only in the broth exposed to the air.
in 1564. In his younger days he
studied physics and mathematics.
In 1609, Galileo used his technical
and mathematical skills to build
Albert Einstein was born in
his own telescope. He was the first
Germany in 1879. At 26, he began
person to use a telescope to study
to publish his ideas on science,
the night sky. In 1610 he published
and he won the Nobel prize for
the book Starry Messenger. In it he
physics in 1921.
claimed to have seen mountains
One of Einstein s most
2
on the moon and four small
recognised equations is E = mc .
bodies orbiting Jupiter, and to have
This rule describes how a large
demonstrated that the Milky Way
amount of energy (E) can be
was made up of stars. In 1632,
released from a small amount of
Galileo published work supporting
matter (of mass m). For example,
the theory of Copernicus that the
this equation shows that the
sun, not the Earth, was the centre of
amount of energy released when
our galaxy. Galileo was found guilty
a mass equivalent to that of a golf
of heresy (contradicting the church)
ball is converted into energy is
and sentenced to life imprisonment,
enough to power the lights of the
but he served the sentence under
Sydney Cricket Ground, and keep
supervision in his home. He died in
them running continuously for
over 50 years.
January 1642.
Time elapsed
Louis Pasteur
To properly test an idea, a fair
test of a hypothesis needs to be
made. In a fair test, all factors
should remain the same except
one: the independent variable. In a
simple experiment you change one
independent variable at a time and
observe what happens.
One of the greatest biologists
of the nineteenth century was the
French scientist Louis Pasteur. In
1859 he designed an experiment
to test his hypothesis that bacteria
growing on old food came from
the air. At the time it was believed
that life forms could generate
spontaneously from non-living
matter. Pasteur boiled meat broth
in flasks to sterilise the flask and
broth. To create a variable, Pasteur
used one normal flask and one
flask with a very thin, S-shaped
neck that prevented dust in the
air from entering the flask. The
result was that micro-organisms
grew in the meat broth in the flask
open to the air, but not in the
one with the S-shaped neck. The
micro-organisms in the air became
trapped in the bent section of the
neck. Because micro-organisms
grew in the flask exposed to the
air but not in the other, this
experiment supported Pasteur s
hypothesis that germs arrived from
the air outside the flask.
30
Galileo Galilei
Albert Einstein
of his work was done at home

when Cambridge was closed for
two years due to the plague. He is
well known for his law explaining
gravity, his laws of motion, his
study of light, and for inventing
calculus (a branch of mathematics).
A unit of force, the newton, has
been named after him. Newton
died in London in March 1727.
Much of modern physics is based
on his work.
Marie Curie
Marie Curie was born in Warsaw
in 1867. She studied mathematics
and physics. In 1903, she shared
the Nobel prize in physics with her
husband Pierre Curie and Antoine
Henri Becquerel for their work
studying radiation. In 1911, she
won the Nobel prize in chemistry
for discovering the elements radium
(used in the treatment of cancer)
and polonium. Curie was the rst
person ever to win the Nobel prize
twice, and the rst woman ever to
win.
Curie was a great humanitarian.
She promoted the medical uses of
radiation and X-rays. During World
War I she created X-ray vans and
travelled to where soldiers needed
medical help. When Curie died
in July 1934, her body had been
severely affected by the radiation
she had been working with.
INVESTIGATION 1.12
REMEMBER
Marie Curie conducting an experiment
Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton was born in
England in 1642. He attended
Cambridge University, but much
Label the third beaker control.
Do preservatives stop the

growth of bacteria?
You will need:
chicken stock cube
beaker (1 L)
hot tap water (750 mL)
stirring rod
3 beakers (250 mL)
teaspoon
Activities
Place the three small beakers on a
warm windowsill for two days.
DISCUSSION
vinegar
salt
masking tape
pen or
marker
Place a chicken stock cube in a
1 L beaker and add 750 mL hot tap

water.
Stir the solution with a stirring rod
until it is consistent.
Pour 200 mL of the mixture into
each of three 250 mL beakers.

Add one teaspoon of vinegar to a
small beaker and use the pen and

masking tape to label the solution
vinegar.
Add one teaspoon of salt to a small
beaker and label the solution salt.
Salt is one of the most widely

used of all food preservatives.
Suggest a hypothesis relating to
salt that could be tested by this
experiment.
Observe the three solutions
after two days. Large amounts
of bacteria make the solutions
go cloudy. Describe the degree
of cloudiness of each solution
and record in a suitable table.
Which preservative was the
most effective at stopping
bacterial growth?
What role did the control play

in this experiment?
Was your hypothesis

supported by the results of this
experiment? Explain.
1 Outline the important

observation that Alexander
Fleming made that led to
the development of the rst
antibiotic.
2 Recall the hypothesis regarding
lightning that Benjamin Franklin
put forward.
3 Outline the scientic discoveries
that Sir Isaac Newton made.
4 Explain what the equation
E = mc 2 represents. What did
this scientic discovery lead
to?
5 Describe how the work of Marie
Curie is important in medical
science today.
THINK
6 Identify the senses that Franklin
used to make observations
during his kite experiment.
7 Identify the control that Louis
Pasteur used in his experiment.
Why was it important in helping
support his hypothesis?
eBook plus
8 Use the Louis Pasteur weblink

in your eBookPLUS to learn
about a process he invented to
extend the life of liquids. What
is this process called? How is it
used today?
1 Investigating 31
LooKIng BaCK
1 Match the following scientists with their work.
Scientist
4 Name these pieces of equipment and describe what they

are used for.
Work
(a)
(a) Physicist
A Investigates how rocks and

mountains form
(b) Chemist
B Studies living things
(c) Biologist
C Explains things like movement, heat

and light
(d) Astronomer
D Studies how substances react with

others
(e) Earth scientist
(b)
(c)
(f)
(d)
(e)
E Studies the sky
2 Match the scientist with the discovery in the list below.

Scientist
Discovery
(a) Isaac Newton
A Lightning bolts are electric

currents.
(b) Louis Pasteur
B Micro-organisms are
carried in the air.
(c) Marie Curie
C Four moons that orbited

Jupiter
(d) Galileo Galilei
D Penicillin
(e) Alexander Fleming and

Howard Florey
E Gravity
(f) Benjamin Franklin
F Radium
3 Copy this diagram of a Bunsen burner and complete all of

the missing labels.
5 Identify the temperature measured by each of the two

thermometers shown below.
(a)
(b)
90
18
80
17
70
16
6 List two safety rules and explain why they are

important.
(a)
(e)
(b)
(f)
(c)
(d)
32
7 Rewrite the following sentences correctly by selecting

the appropriate words in italics.
(a) When lighting a Bunsen burner, light the match
before/immediately after turning on the gas.
(b) When using a thermometer to measure the
temperature of a liquid as it is heated, place the
bulb of the thermometer on the bottom/near the
centre of the beaker.
(c) When heating a test tube, hold the test tube using
tongs/a test-tube holder at the top/middle of the test
tube and keep it steady/move it back and forth over
the flame.
8 The steps used to light a Bunsen burner can be displayed

as a flow chart, as shown below. Use the information in
the flow chart to construct a storyboard with six scenes to
show how a Bunsen burner is lit correctly and safely.
10 Four students each measured the temperature in the same

classroom using a thermometer. Their results were:
LIGHTING A BUNSEN BURNER

Place the Bunsen burner
on a heatproof mat.
Student
Temperature ( C)
23.5
24.0
25.0
22.0
(a) Construct a bar graph of these results.

(b) Propose some possible reasons for the differences
between measurements.
Ensure that the air

hole is closed.
Light the match.
Open the gas tap.
Hold the burning match just

above the top of the barrel.
9 Construct a table with three columns headed Observation ,

Hypothesis and Prediction . In the table, write each of the
statements below under the correct heading and in their
correct sequence, so that a scenario is followed across
each row.
I am afraid of heights.
A snail has eaten holes in the leaves of my African violet
plant, but hasn t touched the flowers.
I will experience similar symptoms if I stand at the top of
another building, a cliff or bridge.
My CD has been damaged.
Snails eat leaves, but not owers.
My CD skips (briey stops playing) when I play it.
When visiting the top deck of Sydney Tower, my heart
started beating more quickly and loudly, my palms
sweated and I felt a bit dizzy.
If I put a different flowering plant in place of my African
violet each night, the snail will eat only the leaves of
each plant, and ignore the flowers.
If I try playing my CD in someone else s CD player, it will
still skip.
11 The following graph shows how far from the starting point a
snail moves in an experiment.
Distance from starting point (cm)
Check that the rubber tubing

is connected properly to
the gas tap.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
4
5
Time (min)
(a) Calculate how far from the starting point the snail was
7 minutes after timing began.
(b) During what times did the snail not move at all?
(c) What does the graph tell us about the snail s movement
between 7 and 8 minutes after timing began?
(d) Propose why a smooth line was not drawn in this graph.
12 Look at the photograph below.
(a) What qualitative observations do you think the scientist

can make from this experiment?
(b) Propose two different quantitative observations the
scientist might make from this experiment.
(c) Propose what might be the aim of this experiment.
1 Investigating 33
13 The following table shows the winning times for the men s
400 m freestyle swimming event. The data is from various
Olympic games from 1896 to 2008.
Time (min:s)
Year
Name, country
1896
Paul Neumann, Austria
8:12.60
1908
Henry Taylor, Great Britain
5:36.80
1920
Norman Ross, USA
5:26.80
TEsT YouRsELF
1932
Buster Crabbe, USA
4:48.40
1948
Bill Smith, USA
4:41.00
1960
Murray Rose, Australia
4:18.30
1972
Bradford Cooper, Australia
4:00.27
1984
George DiCarlo, USA
3:51.23
1996
Danyon Loader, New Zealand
3:47.97
2000
Ian Thorpe, Australia
3:40.59
1 Identify which of the following is an important safety rule in

science.
A When smelling chemicals, place your nose carefully
over the container.
B Dispose of all materials in the rubbish bin.
C When reading the volume of a liquid, always read the
bottom of the meniscus.
D Point test tubes away from your eyes and away from
(1 mark)
your fellow students.
2004
Ian Thorpe, Australia
3:43.10
2008
Taehwan Park, Korea
3:41:86
(a) Is data available for each Olympics every 4 years?

(b) Construct a line graph of the times for the men s 400 m
freestyle over these years. Take into account your
answer to part (a).
(c) Use your graph to estimate the winning time for this
event in the 1956 Melbourne Olympic games.
(d) Discuss how the winning times have changed over the
112-year period.
(e) Suggest some reasons for the change in winning times.
(f) Discuss how you believe the times for the men s 400 m
freestyle might change over the next 40 years.
14 The affinity diagram below organises some of the ideas
used by scientists into four groups. Each category name is
a single word and represents an important part of scientific
investigations. However, the category names have been
jumbled up. What are the correct categories for groups A,
B, C and D? (See page 516 in chapter 20 to learn how to
use affinity diagrams.)
Scientific investigation
Group A Observation
Educated
guess
Not certain
Prediction
Sensible
Group C Hypothesis
34
15 Construct a storyboard that tells the story of the main

events in the life of one of these famous scientists. (See
pages 518 19 to learn how to use storyboards.)
(a) Albert Einstein
(b) Sir Isaac Newton
(c) Marie Curie
(d) Louis Pasteur
Group B Conclusion
Seeing
Tasting
Hearing
Feeling
Smelling
Noticing
Group D Measurement
Beam
balance
Ruler
Outcome
Findings
Thermometer
Stopwatch
Final
Fairly certain
2 Some important steps in using a Bunsen burner are listed

below but the sequence is incorrect.
1. Light a match and hold it over the barrel.
2. Adjust the flame by moving the collar until the air hole
is open.
3. Connect the rubber hose to the gas tap.
4. Turn on the gas tap and a yellow flame will appear.
5. Close the air hole of the Bunsen burner collar.
The correct sequence is
A 3, 5, 4, 1, 2.
B 3, 5, 1, 4, 2.
C 5, 3, 4, 1, 2.
(1 mark)
D 1, 3, 5, 4, 2.
3 Equipment used for measuring the volume of liquids includes
A conical flask, beaker, measuring cylinder.
B measuring cylinder, crucible, beaker.
C watchglass, filter funnel, conical flask.
(1 mark)
D evaporating basin, test tube, beaker.
4 A thermometer scale is shown at right.
The temperature indicated is
A 26 C
B 24.4 C
C 24.2 C
(1 mark)
D 24.5 C
5 Luke was sick and tired of being bitten
by mosquitoes. He counted several
bites each evening when he sat outside
to have dinner. He had heard that a
burning citronella candle was a good
way to keep mosquitoes away. Design an
experiment to test Luke s idea. Identify
the independent and dependent variables
and the controlled variables needed to
make this a fair test. Suggest a control for
(6 marks)
your experiment.
work
sheets
1.8 Investigations puzzle

1.9 Investigations summary
24
23
22
StUDY CHeCKLISt
ICt
The laboratory
eBook plus
outline some of the branches of science 1.1

identify the appropriate equipment to perform an
SUMMaRY
eLessons
investigation 1.2
use appropriate units for measured quantities 1.3
describe ways to reduce the risk to yourself and others
when working in the laboratory 1.2
investigating
Career spotlight: scientist

In this video lesson, you will meet marine biologist Jodie Haig
and learn what it takes to be a scientist working in the marine
environment. With insight into her work in the lab and in the
field, you will get some useful advice to help you decide if this
could be an attractive career for you.
use a range of equipment, including data loggers, for

collecting data
1.3
make and record observations and measurements

accurately over a number of trials
1.3
use diagrams to present information clearly 1.4

organise and present data clearly using tables 1.4
select and construct the appropriate type of graph
(column graph, sector or line graph) to convey information
and relationships clearly 1.4
extract information from a variety of graph types,
including column graph, pie chart and line graph 1.4
Designing investigations
make inferences and testable hypotheses in light of
observations made 1.3

describe a logical procedure for undertaking a controlled
experiment 1.4
identify the dependent and independent variables when
planning controlled experiments 1.5
identify variables that need to be held constant if reliable
first-hand data is to be collected 1.5
check the reliability of gathered data and information by
comparing them with other observations or data 1.5
identify trends, patterns and contradictions in data
collected 1.4, 1.5
identify data that supports or discounts a hypothesis 1.5
make conclusions from experimental results, and base
predictions on those conclusions 1.5
interactivities
Using equipment
In this interactivity, you are given a number of scientific
processes and you must indicate which equipment from a
selection of items commonly found within a laboratory you
would use to complete the processes. Instant feedback is
provided.
History of science
describe historical cases where developments in science
have led to the development of new technologies
1.6

use examples to show how scientists make
observations, identify trends and patterns and construct
hypotheses 1.5, 1.6
apply scientific processes to test hypotheses 1.5
current issues, research and developments in science

identify scientific skills that can be useful in a range of
careers
1.1
identify possible career paths in science 1.1

Reading scales
This interactivity challenges your knowledge of scales by
testing your skill in identifying temperatures on a number of
different thermometers. Instant feedback is provided.
1 Investigating 35
States of matter
All substances on Earth

can be grouped as solids,
liquids or gases. By
comparing the properties
of solids, liquids and gases, you can
begin to answer questions like what are
substances made of? This question has
fascinated people for thousands of years,
and scientists are still looking for more
answers to that same question.

2.1
investigate the nature of matter and
look at the properties of the different

states of matter
2.2
explore the processes by which
substances change state

2.3
use the particle model of matter to
understand the behaviour of the

different states of matter
2.4
use the particle model to show the
interaction of particles and energy

when substances change state
2.5
use an equation to calculate density
and explain why some substances

sink in water while others float
2.6
observe how heating and cooling of
substances causes expansion and

contraction
2.7
learn how the expansion of gases
affects the pressure of the gas

2.8
discuss the continuing research into
other states of matter.
Water is the only substance found in three different states at

normal air temperatures. It exists as a liquid in oceans, lakes
and rivers, as solid icebergs in the oceans, and as water vapour
in the air. Without it, plants and animals could not exist. Each of
the forms of water has its own different properties and uses.
ranking substances
bathroom science
1. In small groups, rank the following substances in

order from most solid-like to most liquid-like to
most gas-like.
a brick
steam
jelly
plasticine
sugar
tomato sauce
Vegemite
air
orange cordial
green slime
1. Why does the mirror fog up in the bathroom after

someone has had a hot shower?
2. On really hot days, you may have a cold shower to
cool down. Does the bathroom mirror fog up when
you do this?
3. Some showers have shower curtains rather than
glass shower screens. When people have warm
showers, the curtain tends to move in towards
the person in the shower and stick to them
it s
almost as if the shower curtain is chasing them!
Give possible explanations for why this happens.
4. When you have a hot shower, the bathroom fills
with steam. Is this steam a gas or a liquid or both?
Explain your reasoning.
Green slime
is it solid or liquid? How do you know?
2. Compare your rankings with those of other groups.

Comment on any differences between the rankings.
3. Which substances were most difficult to classify as
solid, liquid or gas? Explain why they were difficult
to classify.
4. Draw a three-column table, like the one below,
and separate the substances into three categories
solid, liquid or gas.
Solid
Liquid
Gas
What is steam
a gas, a liquid, or both?
5. How hot does water have to be before it can burn

you?
6. Does steam always rise?
7. Are water vapour and steam the same thing?
2.1
What s the matter?

Everything in the universe is made
up of matter that can be found in a
variety of different forms. The main
forms (or states) of matter that we
encounter are solids, liquids and
gases. These states of matter have
very different properties in the way
that they behave and the way that
they appear.
The amount of matter that there
is in an object is called the mass
of the object. Mass is generally
measured in either grams (g) or
kilograms (kg).
The states of matter

Water is the only material on Earth
that can be found naturally in all
three states at normal temperatures.
Solid water (ice), liquid water and
water in the form of gas (called
water vapour) are all made of the

same kinds of particles, but they
look very different, don t they?
solids
Solids such as ice have a very
definite shape that cannot easily be
changed.
They take up a fixed amount of
space and are generally not able to
be compressed; that is, they cannot
be squeezed so that they have less
volume.
Most solids cannot be poured,
but there are some, such as salt,
sand and sugar, that can be poured.
Liquids
Water is a liquid and its shape
changes to that of the container in
which it is kept. Like solids, liquids
take up a fixed amount of space.
at the end of the syringe and press

down on the plunger.
InveStIgatIon 2.1
comparing solids, liquids and
gases
You will need:
ice cube
spatula
beaker of water
plastic syringe
balloon
Pick up an ice cube and place it on
the bench. Using a spatula, try to

squash it or compress it to make it
smaller.
Take the beaker of water and draw
up a small amount into the syringe.

Place your finger over the opening
Partially inflate a balloon with
air and hold the opening tightly

closed. Try to squeeze the balloon.
38
State of
substance
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Gases
Gases spread out and will not
stay in a container unless it has
a lid. Gases move around, taking
up all of the available space. This
movement is called diffusion. In
the illustration below, iodine gas is
being formed and is spreading, or
diffusing, throughout the gas jar.
of the balloon.
DIscussIon
1
Copy the table below and use

your observations to complete
it.
Where did the air in the balloon

go when you released the
opening?
Can the shape be

changed easily?
If a liquid is poured into a glass,

it will take up the shape of the
glass. If you continue to pour, it
will eventually overflow onto the
bench or floor.
Release your hold on the opening
Properties of solids, liquids and gases

Substance
Ice
Water
Air
While we generally refer to only the

three states of matter that are most
usually encountered naturally on earth
solid, liquid and gas scientists
have actually defined other states that
matter in the universe may be found
in. These include plasma, superfluid,
super-solid, degenerate matter,
strange matter and bose einstein
condensate (bec).
Does it take
up space?
Can it be
compressed?
The purple iodine gas diffuses, taking

up all of the available space. What will
happen to the gas if the lid is removed?
Gases, unlike solids and liquids,

can be compressed, making them
take up less space. An inflated
balloon can be compressed by
squeezing it.
How much space?

The amount of space taken up by
a solid, liquid or gas is called its
volume.
The volume of solids and some
other substances is measured
in cubic metres (m3) or cubic
centimetres (cm3).
A volume of one cubic
centimetre (1 cm3) occupies as
much space as the cube below. The
same amount of space is occupied
by one millilitre (1 mL) of a fluid.
Any substance that flows is a fluid.
1 cm
1 cm
This cube has a

volume of
3
1 cm 1 cm and can hold
1 mL of a fluid.
All liquids and gases are fluids.

Their volume is usually measured
in units of litres (L) or millilitres
(mL). In a laboratory, volume is
usually measured with a measuring
cylinder.
InveStIgatIon 2.2
Volume
is 52 mL.
Measuring the volume of

an irregular shaped solid
You will need:
100 mL beaker
stone or pebble that will fit into the
measuring cylinder
Half-fill (approximately) a 100 mL
beaker with water.

Carefully pour the water into the
Meniscus
50
Reading the volume of a liquid
in a measuring cylinder. The
curved upper surface is called the
meniscus. Your eye should be level
with the flat part in the centre of the
meniscus.
measuring cylinder.
Read and record the volume of
water in the measuring cylinder

using the technique shown in the
diagram above.
Carefully place the pebble into
the measuring cylinder. Take care

not to spill any water out of the
measuring cylinder.
Read and record the new
volume.
activities
reMeMber
1 Identify as many as you can remember of the solids,
liquids and gases you came in contact with before
leaving for school today. Organise them into a table
under headings Solids , Liquids and Gases , or into a
cluster, mind or concept map.
2 (a) recall three properties that most solids have in
common.
(b) Would liquids have the same three properties? If
not, describe the differences that might be expected.
3 compare the properties of gases and liquids.
4 recall which unit is used for measuring small volumes
such as that of liquid medicines. explain how you could
measure such a volume.
THInK
5 Both steel and chalk are solids. Describe the properties
of steel that make it more useful than chalk for building
bridges.
6 Are plasticine and playdough solids or liquids? explain
why.
DIscussIon
1
What was the volume of the

solid in millilitres (mL)?
What was the volume of the

solid in cubic centimetres
(cm3)?
Suggest another method of

measuring the volume of the
solid object.
7 Define the term diffusion . Give two examples of this

occurring around your house.
8 Is it possible for a solid to behave like a fluid? explain
your answer.
9 At the petrol station, the safety sign asks for the car
engine to be switched off before you fill the petrol tank.
explain why this is necessary.
IMaGIne
10 You are designing a new type of armchair. It needs to be
comfortable and capable of fitting in different positions
or spaces around the room. Describe the properties you
would want in the chair. Would you need to develop a
new material to match these properties? If so, explain
whether it would be a solid or a liquid, or perhaps a
combination of states.
InVesTIGaTe
11 Different liquids pour or flow in different ways. Test this
by pouring honey, shampoo, cooking oil and water from
one container to another. Time how long they take to
pour. Make sure it is a fair test. Record the results in a
table and write a conclusion based on your observations
and results.
2 States of matter
39
2.2
Changing states
Many substances are usually found in one state of
matter rather than another. For example, we are more
likely to see table salt in its solid form rather than as a
liquid or a gas, and we encounter gaseous oxygen a lot
more often than we do solid oxygen.
However, this does not mean that the state of a
substance must remain the same all the time. Most
substances can be changed from one state of matter
to another by either heating or cooling. Each of these
changes has a particular term to describe it. Let s look

at the changes of state that water undergoes when it is
heated and cooled.
Some substances change from gas to solid or
from solid to gas without first turning into a liquid.
This unusual change of state is called sublimation.
Iodine, diamond and dry ice (solid carbon dioxide)
sublimate. Dry ice sublimates at a temperature of
78.5 C. Diamonds sublimate at 3550 C.
Melting
The change of state from solid to
liquid is called melting. A solid
melts when heat is transferred
to it. The melting point of water
is 0 C.
Freezing
The change of state from
a liquid to a solid is called
freezing. A liquid turns
into a solid when heat is
transferred away from it.
Water freezes at 0 C.
40
Evaporating
Evaporation occurs when
a liquid changes to a gas.
When water evaporates at
temperatures less than 100 C,
it forms water vapour. When
it evaporates at temperatures
greater than 100 C, it forms
steam. Water vapour and steam
cannot be seen.
Condensing
Condensation is the
opposite of evaporation.
If a gas comes into contact
with a cold surface, it can
turn into a liquid.
Boiling
During boiling, the change from liquid to gas
(evaporation) happens quickly. The change is
so fast that bubbles form in the liquid as the gas
rises through it and escapes. During boiling, the
entire substance is heated. A liquid remains at
its boiling point until it has all turned into a gas.
The boiling point of water is 100 C.
Light the Bunsen burner and begin
InveStIgatIon 2.3
heating the ice cubes. Record

the temperature each minute.
Continue heating while the ice
melts into water and while the
water heats up. Stop when the
temperature remains steady for
three minutes.
observing changes of state

You will need:
Bunsen burner, heatproof mat and
matches
tripod and gauze mat
thermometer ( 10 to 110 C)
watch (with a second hand)
spoon
100 mL beaker
ice cubes
safety glasses
Hold the spoon in the vapour
above the water and observe the

effect.
CAUTION Take care not to scald
yourself with the hot water vapour.
Copy the table below into your
workbook.
DIscussIon
Place four ice cubes (about 50 mL)
in the beaker.
Place the beaker containing the
ice cubes on a gauze mat and

tripod.
Place the thermometer into the
ice cubes and let it remain for a

minute or so until the temperature
stops changing. Take a reading
and record this in your table under
0 minutes .
At a concert, the thick smoke that is often
used for effect is produced by dry ice as it
changes state from solid directly to a gas
(sublimation). The smoke is actually tiny
droplets of water that condense from the
air as the cold dry ice sublimates.
At what temperature was all the

ice melted?
At what temperature did the

liquid begin to bubble?
At what temperature did it boil?
What happened when the cold

spoon was placed near the
vapour?
What do you think was in the

bubbles?
Heating water
Time (minutes)
Temperature ( C )
Melting point and boiling point

The state of matter of a substance depends on what
temperature it is at, and how this temperature
compares with its melting point and its boiling point.
The melting point is the temperature at which a solid
substance turns into a liquid (melts) or a liquid turns
into a solid (freezes). The melting point of water is
0 C, so water needs to be cooled to this temperature
10
to turn it into ice. If you want to turn ice into water,

you need to heat the ice until it is at 0 C.
At the other end of the scale, the boiling point of a
substance is the temperature at which it turns from a
liquid to a gas quickly (boils) or turns from a gas into
a liquid (condenses). The boiling point of water is
100 C.
The melting points and boiling points of substances
can differ quite a lot as you can see in the table below.
Melting and boiling points of some common substances at sea level

Substance
Melting and boiling points change
with the height above sea level. This
is because the air gets thinner as you
move away from the earth s surface.
If you were climbing Mount everest
and made a cup of coffee, you would
find that the water would boil at about
70 c.
Water
Melting point ( C)
Boiling point ( C)
100
804
1413
1535
2750
660
1800
Oxygen
218
183
Nitrogen
210
196
Table salt
Iron
Aluminium
2 States of matter
41
Bosshead
InveStIgatIon 2.4
changing the
boiling point of water
Thermometer
After 10 minutes, turn off the
Retort
stand
You will need:

water
Bunsen burner
safety glasses
2 250 mL beakers
heatproof mat
thermometer
salt
matches
retort stand
sugar
tripod
bosshead and clamp
vinegar
gauze mat
teaspoon
Bunsen burner and allow the

equipment to cool.
Beaker
Gauze
mat
Tripod
of water with two teaspoons of salt

stirred in, then 100 mL of water with
two teaspoons of sugar stirred in,
and lastly with 80 mL of water with
20 mL of vinegar stirred in.
DIscussIon
Heatproof mat
Draw a line graph of your

results. Use a different coloured
line for each water mixture. Plot
time on the horizontal axis and
temperature on the vertical axis.
How can you tell when the water

has reached its boiling point?
Is there any part of the graph

that shows that the liquid has
reached its boiling point?
What effect does adding

substances to the water have on
its boiling point?
What would happen to the

temperature of each water
sample if you continued to heat it
past the 10-minute mark?
Measure 100 mL of water with the
measuring cylinder and pour it into

the beaker.
Measure the starting temperature
of the water (time = 0 min).
Set up the equipment as shown
Light the Bunsen burner and place
above. Put on your safety glasses.
it under the beaker. Measure the

Time (min)
Repeat the steps above with 100 mL
Bunsen
burner
Matches
Copy the following table.
Water mixture
temperature of the water every

minute for 10 minutes. Record your
observations in the table.
Clamp
10
Tap water
Salt water
Sugar water
Vinegar water
activities
reMeMber
1 Copy and complete the diagram on the
right, identifying the changes of state.
2 recall the name given to the change
of state from liquid water to steam.
Describe how this happens.
3 explain what happens to liquid water
when it is cooled below 0 C. Has heat
moved into or out of the liquid?
anaLYse
4 Use the table at the bottom of the
previous page to answer these
questions.
(a) Identify the temperature at which
you would expect table salt to melt.
42
(b) Identify the temperature at which

it would freeze.
5 Would you expect aluminium to be
found as a solid, liquid or gas at:
(a) 200 C (b) 680 C (c) 1900 C?
6 Identify which substance

oxygen
or nitrogen
would freeze first
if the temperature were gradually
lowered.
?
?
THInK
7 explain why dry ice is useful to
produce a smoke effect. What other
uses are there for dry ice?
8 explain why solid blocks of air
freshener disappear without a trace
after a few weeks.
9 Identify what is in the bubbles that
you see when water is boiling.
LI UID
S LID
GAS
Changes
of state
work
sheet
LI UID
?
2.1 Boiling liquids
2.3
the particle model

How do you explain why ice has properties that are
different from those of water or steam? Scientists use
a model to explain the different properties of solids,
liquids and gases. This model is called the particle
model.
According to the particle model:
all substances are made up of tiny particles
the particles are attracted towards other surrounding
particles
the particles are always moving
the hotter the substance is, the faster the particles
move.
Liquid
Gas
Solid
A particle model for different states
Particles in a gas
The forces between the particles in a gas are very weak.
The particles are in constant motion. This means that
gases have no fixed shape or volume. There are large
spaces between the particles. The spaces allow
the gas to be compressed. A gas can flow and
diffuse easily since its particles are always moving.
Particles in a gas have much more energy
than particles in a solid or liquid. They
move around and collide with other
particles and the walls of the
container they are in.
Particles in a solid
Solids cannot be compressed because
the particles inside them are held closely
together. There is no space between
them. Bonds also hold the particles tightly
together in a rigid crystal-like structure.
This gives solids their fixed shape and
constant volume. The particles in solids
cannot move freely; they vibrate in a fixed
position. This means that solids are unable to flow.
Particles in a liquid
The particles in a liquid are close together, so there is
no room for compression between them. The particles
are also held tightly by bonds, but not in the same rigid
structure as solids. This gives liquids their fixed volume,
but allows the particles to roll over each other. This rolling
allows liquids to flow. The
movement of the particles
explains why liquids take the
shape of their container. The
particles roll over each other until
they fill the bottom of the container.
2 States of matter
43
Getting into shape
Diffusion
In solids, the particles are very

close together, so they cannot
be compressed. The attraction
between neighbouring particles in
a solid is usually strong. Because
there are strong attractions between
the particles, solids usually have a
fixed shape.
In liquids, the particles are
held together by attraction, but it
is not as strong as the attraction
found in solids. The weak particle
attraction allows the particles to
move past one another so they can
be rearranged and take a different
shape. As in solids, the particles in
liquids are still very close together,
so they cannot be compressed into
smaller spaces.
Diffusion is the spreading of one substance through another. The

spreading occurs because the particles of each substance
become mixed together. The movement of the
particles in liquids and gases makes diffusion
possible. As the particles in a gas move faster
than in liquids, diffusion happens faster in
Much later
a gas. Particles are not free to move in a
solid, so diffusion cannot occur at all.
A little later
At time 0
The spreading starts in
an area where there is
a concentration of one
of the substances. The
particles keep mixing
through until they are
evenly spread through
each other.
The same number of marbles poured into
two different shaped containers shows
what happens to particles in a liquid.
InveStIgatIon 2.5
Air deodoriser
Hold
straw
DIscussIon
Crystal
Investigating diffusion
You will need:
500 mL beaker
water
straw
potassium permanganate crystals
fragrant spray
protective mat
safety glasses
44
Draw a diagram of the movement

of the potassium permanganate
through the water.
How do you think the fragrant

spray moved through the air?
This experiment shows diffusion

in a liquid (water) and diffusion
in a gas (air).
Water
Beaker
(a) Which state diffuses faster

liquid or gas?
Using the straw as a guide, put a
crystal of potassium permanganate

in the bottom of a beaker of water.
Remove the straw and record your
observations.
Release some of the fragrant
spray in one corner of the

classroom. Move away and observe
by smell.
(b) Why do you think this is?
10 Describe what happens to the particles in a gas when

it becomes a liquid. recall what this change of state is
called.
activities
reMeMber
1 recall the basis of the particle model.
2 Define the term diffusion .
3 Give an everyday example of diffusion at work.
4 Copy and complete the table below.
Property
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Particle arrangement
11 Use the particle model to explain why:

(a) perfume can be smelled from a few metres away
(b) steam can be compressed while ice cannot
(c) an ice cube melts and changes shape when it is
taken out of the freezer
(d) water vapour takes up more space than the same
amount of liquid
(e) solids do not mix well, but gases and liquids mix
easily in most cases.
12 explain why wet clothes dry more quickly on a windy day
than on a still day.
Force of attraction
between particles
Movement of particles
Ability to diffuse
5 The following statements are incorrect. Rewrite them
correctly.
(a) To change a liquid to a solid you have to heat it.
(b) Heating a liquid might make the particles stick
closer together.
(c) Solids do not have a definite shape because the
particles are free to move around.
(d) You can compress a gas because its particles are
close together.
THInK
6 explain why solids have a fixed shape.
13 The concept map below represents some of our

knowledge about the states of matter. This concept map
is just one way of representing ideas about matter and
how they are linked. However, all but one of the key
terms in the ellipses are missing.
Copy the concept map and complete it by writing in
suitable keywords in the ellipses.
Select the keywords from the list below. One keyword
is used three times.
fill space
fixed shape
free
gas
liquid
particles
pour
sliding
solid
vibrating
eBook plus
7 explain why gases can be compressed.

8 explain why gases fill their containers.
9 When you pour cordial into water, the two liquids slowly
mix together even though you don t stir them. explain how
this happens.
Matter
work
sheet
2.2 States of matter
that is made up of
is m
ade
that a
re
up o
is
ma
de
u
po
that
14 Use the Phases of matter in containers weblink in your

eBookPLUS to watch how solids, liquids and gases
behave differently within a container.
th
at
so
und can
o
r
a
you
is k
is kno
melt
now
na
evaporate
wn as
freeze
is known as
up a
ake
nd t
an
are
ve
mo
that
to
that
are
condense
2 States of matter
45
2.4
Change of state and the particle model

Imagine a very cold day. On days like this, you
probably sit inside without moving around too much.
As the weather gets warmer, you start to move around
a little more. On warm, sunny days, you probably
have a lot more energy. On these days, you might feel
like moving about more. Much like you, the particles
inside matter also change the way they move when
they are heated or cooled.
Solid
When a solid is heated,
its particles start to
move more quickly. The
increased movement of
its particles makes the
solid expand.
Gas
As in solids and liquids, the
particles in gases move faster
and faster when they are heated.
The increased movement of the
particles means that they take
up more space and the gas
expands. If the gas is heated in a
closed container, the increased
movement of the particles means
that they collide more often with
the sides of the container and
with each other.
46
changing state
A change of state involves the heating or cooling of
matter. As a substance is heated, energy is transferred
to it. When a substance cools, energy moves away
from it to another substance or to the environment.
The change in energy causes the particles in the
substance to move at different speeds.
Melting
As more heat is
transferred to the solid,
its particles vibrate more
violently. Eventually
the particles move so
much that the bonds
holding them in their
fixed positions break.
The particles start to roll
over each other. Melting
continues until the entire
solid becomes a liquid.
Liquid
As a liquid
is heated, its
particles move
and roll over
each other faster
and faster. The
liquid begins to
expand.
Boiling
If the liquid continues to be
heated, the particles will
eventually have enough energy
to break the bonds holding them
together. The particles can break
away from the liquid and begin
to move around freely. This
process is called boiling. Boiling
continues until the entire liquid
becomes a gas.
foggy mirrors
Have you noticed how the mirror in the bathroom fogs up after a hot
shower? The fog is actually formed when water vapour that evaporates
from the hot water cools down.
Invisible gas
Water vapour forms
when particles in the
hot water gain enough
energy to escape and
become a gas. You can t
see water vapour. The
particles in the water
vapour move around
freely. They have more
energy than the particles
in the liquid water.
Fog in the air

Some of the energy of the particles in
the water vapour is transferred away
from the vapour to the air. The transfer
of energy leaves the water vapour with
less energy
so much less energy that
its particles slow down. The transfer of
energy away from
the water vapour
means it cools
down and turns
into tiny droplets
of water. These
tiny droplets
form clouds. This
process is called
condensation.
Fog on the mirror

The energy from
some of the water
vapour is transferred
to the cold mirror.
This causes the water
vapour to condense on
the mirror.
activities
reMeMber
1 Describe what happens to the movement of particles as a
substance changes from a solid to a liquid.
2 Describe what happens to the movement of particles as a
substance changes from a gas to a liquid.
3 recall why substances often expand when they are
heated.
THInK
6 For each of the following changes of state of a

substance, identify whether it involves adding energy
to the particles or transferring energy away from the
particles.
(a) Melting
(b) Condensation
(c) Boiling
(d) Freezing
(e) Sublimation
(f) Evaporation
eBook plus
4 In movies, you sometimes see a mirror being held up to

the mouth and nose of someone who is unconscious to
check if they are breathing. explain why this would work.
7 Simulate heating matter over a Bunsen burner by using

the Changes of state interactivity in your eBookPLUS.
int-0222
5 recall the relationship between the amount of energy the

particles in a substance have and the state (phase) of
the substance.
work
sheet
2.3 Changes of state
2 States of matter
47
2.5
Density
If you had a 1 kg bag of feathers and a 1 kg bar of
lead, which do you think would take up more room?
The bag of feathers and the bar of lead have the
same mass, which means that they are made up of the
same amount of matter. However, while a kilogram
of lead may fit on your hand, you d be ankle deep in
the same mass of feathers! So why do they have such
different volumes if they have the same amount of
matter in them?
Kg
calculating density
You can determine the density of an object by
dividing its mass by its volume:
density =
mass
volume
The units that we use for the density of an object

depend on the units used for its mass and for its
volume.
If the mass is in grams (g) and the volume is in
cubic centimetres (cm3), the density is measured
in g/cm3.
If the mass is in kilograms (kg) and the volume
is in cubic metres (m3), the density is measured in
kg/m3.
You may also see density for fluids given in g/mL,
where the fluid s mass has been measured in grams
and the fluid s volume in mL.
example
A piece of steel has a volume of 12 cm3 and a mass
of 91.2 grams. What is the density of steel?
How can objects with such

different volumes have the
same amount of matter?
The answer has to do with how closely packed

together the particles in the lead and the feathers are
compared with their size. This quantity is referred to
as density. The denser a material is, the more closely
packed together its particles are.
Different materials have different densities. The
densities of some common materials are shown in the
table below.
Material
Density (g/cm3)
Gold
19.3
Copper
8.96
Diamond
3.52
Window glass
2.8
Water
1.00
Vegetable oil
0.92
Methylated spirits
0.8
Air*
0.001 2
Helium*
0.000 18
*At standard atmospheric pressure
48
mass
volume
91.2
=
12
= 7.6
Density of steel =
As the mass was given in grams and the volume

in cm3, the density is in g/cm3. So, we say that the
density of steel is 7.6 g/cm3.
sinking and floating

In general, objects float in
fluids that have a higher
density than they do, and
they sink in fluids that have
a lower density. For example,
corks have a density of
0.24 g/cm3, while water has a
density of 1 g/cm3. Therefore,
as corks are less dense, they
float on the water. A lump
of copper with a density of
8.96 g/cm3 sinks in water.
Cork
Rock
The cork is less dense

than water so it floats.
Why does the rock sink?
Fluids can float on top of other

fluids, with the less dense fluid
on the top. Oil is less dense than
water. This is why oil spilled from
wrecked tankers floats on the top
of the ocean.
Let the test tubes and the beaker
InveStIgatIon 2.6
sit undisturbed for 30 minutes.
sinking and floating

DIscussIon
You will need:

250 mL beaker
3 test tubes
test-tube rack
brown vinegar
water
olive oil
honey
Pour 20 mL each of vinegar, olive
How could you tell if a

particular liquid was less dense
or more dense than water?
Which of the liquids were

denser than water?
Which of the liquids were less

dense than water?

showing the order of the layers
formed in the beaker.
Based on what you saw in the

beaker, which was the:
oil and honey into separate test

tubes.
Add 20 mL of water to each test
tube.
Pour 20 mL each of vinegar, olive
Cooking oil is less dense than water so it

floats on top.
oil and honey into the beaker.
activities
reMeMber
1 Identify what the units of density would be if:
(a) mass is in kilograms and volume is in cubic metres
(b) mass is in grams and volume is in millimetres
(c) volume is in cubic centimetres and mass is in
kilograms. (Note: This density unit is usually used
only with extremely dense objects such as neutron
stars!)
(a) densest liquid

(b) least dense liquid?
caLcuLaTe
8 Use the density equation on the previous page to
calculate the missing values in the following table.
Mass (g)
10
Volume (cm3)
Density (g/cm3)
5
40
600
0.5
15
9 explain why this ship is sinking in the water when the

boats in the background of the photo are still afloat.
2 If you take a bottle of salad dressing out of the fridge,

you may notice that the oil and the vinegar have
separated into different layers. explain why this occurs.
THInK
3 explain why most people float in water.
4 explain why balloons filled with helium float upwards.
5 Describe the general relationship you notice between a
substance s state of matter and its density. (Use the table
of densities on the previous page as a guide.)
6 Equal amounts of vegetable oil, water and methylated
spirits are poured into a jar. Identify which liquid will
form:
(a) the top layer
(b) the lowest layer.
7 When divers breathe out under water, the air bubbles
head straight to the surface. Deduce why this happens.
eBook plus
10 Select liquids and solids in the Density interactivity in

your eBookPLUS and see what sinks and what floats.
int-0221
work
sheets
2.4 Density
2.5 Density and otation
2 States of matter
49
2.6
expansion and contraction

The particle model can be used
to explain changes in the size
of substances as well as changes
in state. When a substance
is heated, the particles move
faster, becoming further apart
and taking up more space. The
substance expands.
The tyres on a moving car get
quite hot. This makes the air
inside expand. This may even
cause a blowout in extreme
circumstances. Gases usually
expand much more than solids
or liquids. Gases expand easily
because the particles are spread
out and not attracted to each
other strongly. Solids, liquids
and gases contract when they
are cooled again because the
particles slow down, need less
space to move in and become
more strongly attracted to each
other.
Th
These
hhot-air
t i bballoons
ll
rise
i when
h th
the air
i
inside them expands. How do they get
back down to the ground?
50
Architects and engineers allow

for expansion and contraction of
materials when designing bridges
and buildings. Bridges have gaps
at each end of large sections so
that in hot weather, when the
metal and concrete expand, they
do not buckle. Railway lines also
have gaps to allow for expansion
in hot weather. Electrical wires
are hung from poles loosely so
that, when the weather cools,
they do not become too tight
and break as they contract. The
amount by which each structure
will expand or contract depends
on the material it is made from;
so, when choosing a material for
a special purpose, it is important
to find out how much that
material will expand or contract.
The table on the next page shows
how much some commonly
used materials expand when the
temperature increases by 10 C.
On the other hand, alcohol boils

at 79 C so it cannot be used for
measuring higher temperatures.
The temperature of the human
body ranges between 34 C
and 42 C; it is normally about
37 C. A clinical thermometer is
especially designed to measure
human body temperature.
InveStIgatIon 2.7
expansion of solids
You will need:
metal ball and ring set
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat
tongs
Metal ball
Metal ring
Thermometers
A ball and ring set
Liquids expand more than solids.

This property makes them useful
to use in thermometers. Most
thermometers consist of thin tubes,
and a bulb that contains a liquid.
As the temperature rises, the liquid
expands, moving up the tube. In a
expands
thermometer, the tube is sealed at
thermometer
the top.
The two most commonly used
liquids for thermometers are
mercury and alcohol. Mercury has
a low freezing point ( 39 C) and
a high boiling point (357 C).
Alcohol, however, is much more
useful in very cold conditions
because it does not freeze until
the temperature drops to 117 C.
Try to put the ball through the
ring.
Use the Bunsen burner to
heat the ring and use tongs to

try to put the ball through it.
Take care not to touch the hot
metal.
Let the ring cool and try to
put the ball through the ring

again.
DIscsussIon
1 What has happened to
change the size of the ring?
2 Use the particle model to
explain the change that took
place in the ring.
Glass
tube
InveStIgatIon 2.8
expansion of liquids
water should rise into the glass

tube. Mark the level of the liquid in
the tube with the marking pen.
Stopper
You will need:

500 mL conical flask
narrow glass tube
rubber stopper with one hole to fit the
tube
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat and matches
tripod
gauze mat
food colouring
eye-dropper
marking pen
Use an eye-dropper to put two or
three drops of food colouring in the

conical flask and fill it with water
right to the top.
Place the flask on the tripod and
Coloured
water
gauze mat, light the Bunsen burner

and gently heat the liquid.
Gauze
mat
After about five minutes of heating,
turn off the Bunsen burner and

watch what happens to the level of
the liquid in the glass tube.
Tripod
Bunsen
burner
DIscussIon
Place the stopper in the flask with
the tube fitted. Some coloured
1 When a substance is heated, its

temperature increases. Describe
what other change might be
observed.
8 A jar with the lid jammed on tightly

can be hard to open. If hot water is
run over the lid, it becomes easier
to open. Deduce why.
anaLYse
Use the table below to answer
questions 5 to 7.
5 If a steel rod of 10 metres in length
is heated so that its temperature
Use the particle model to explain

why liquids expand.
eBook plus
9 Hot-air balloons have a gas heater

connected to them. The pilot can
turn the heater on and the balloon
will go higher.
(a) explain why.
(b) Describe how the balloon could
be brought lower.
4 Give one reason why overhead

electric power lines are not hung
tightly.
12 explain why icebergs float in Arctic

and Antarctic waters. Do you
think there is much of the iceberg
under the water, or is it mostly
above? How could you test out
your hypothesis? Design a suitable
experiment.
THInK
3 Give two examples of structures

that contain gaps to prevent them
from buckling in hot weather.
What happens to the level of the

liquid while it is cooling down?
11 The mercury thermometer was

invented by a German named
Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 1736). A
different set of markings is used
to scale Fahrenheit thermometers.
Investigate the temperatures at
which water boils and freezes on
this scale.
7 Concrete is often reinforced with

steel bars or mesh to make it
stronger. explain why steel is a
better choice than another metal,
such as aluminium or lead.
2 (a) recall what change you would

expect to see when hot metal
objects are cooling.
(b) Why does this happen? explain,
using the particle model.
InVesTIGaTe
6 explain why Pyrex, rather than soda

glass, is used in cooking glassware
such as casserole dishes and vision
saucepans.
reMeMber
What happens to the level of the

liquid while it is being heated?
Investigating the expansion of liquids
rose by 10 C, calculate how long

the rod would become.
activities
13 All materials expand when heated

and contract when cooled, right?
Use the Mystery expansion
weblink in your eBookPLUS to
learn about a substance that
breaks all the rules.
10 Under what conditions might you

use an alcohol thermometer rather
than a mercury thermometer?
work
sheet
2.6 Expansion of liquids
Expansion of 100 m length of materials when temperature increases by 10 C

Substance
Expansion (mm)
Steel
11
Iron Platinum Brass Concrete Glass soda

12
19
11
Glass Pyrex Lead

3
29
Tin
21
Aluminium Bronze
23
18
2 States of matter
51
2.7
Under pressure!
The firefighter charged through the doors just in
time, pointed the extinguisher at the electrical fire and
pressed the trigger. A huge burst of carbon dioxide
gas came squirting out of the nozzle, putting out the
flames.
The carbon dioxide in the story above could be
used in this way only because huge amounts of it can
be compressed, or squeezed, into a container. Gases
can be compressed because there is a lot of space
between the particles. Gases compressed into cylinders
are used for barbecues, scuba diving, natural gas in
cars, and aerosol cans.
Hot-air balloons work on the idea that gases
expand when heated. The particles in the heated
gas move about more and take up more space.
This makes each cubic centimetre of hot air in the
balloon lighter than each cubic centimetre of air
outside the balloon, so it rises, taking the balloon
with it.
fighting fire
1. Gases, including
carbon dioxide, have
lots of space between
their particles.
52
eBook plus
eLesson
Under pressure
Learn about the factors that affect the pressure of a gas and
how compressed gases are used to make re extinguishers and
aerosol cans.
eles-0058
4. When the nozzle is opened, the pressure

forces the carbon dioxide gas out very
quickly through the opening.
2. The carbon dioxide

is compressed
into the cylinder.
The particles are
squashed closer
together.
3. The carbon dioxide particles

are now under increased
pressure. This means that the
particles in the gas collide
frequently with the walls of
the cylinder. The particles
push outwards on the walls of
the cylinder. The particles are
trying to escape, but are held
in by the container.
5. The particles of gas

quickly spread out
over the fire. The gas
smothers the fire,
stopping oxygen from
the air getting to it.
Fires cannot burn
without oxygen, so the
fire goes out.
fizzing drinks
All carbonated soft drinks contain carbon dioxide gas. The gas is
dissolved in the liquid under high pressure. The gas stays dissolved in
the liquid as long as the pressure inside the can is higher than outside
the can. When the can is opened, it is de-pressurised and the carbon
dioxide starts rising to the surface (because it is less dense than the
liquid). In its hurry to escape, the carbon dioxide often pushes the top
layer of liquid out as well, causing it to fizz and spill.
Well-known gases
There are many gases we use for different purposes. Here are some of
the more well-known ones.
Famous gas
Use
Property
Neon
Neon lights
Absorbs electrical energy and

turns it into light
Helium
Party balloons, blimps
Lighter than air
Methane (in
natural gas)
Cooking, heating
Flammable
Argon
Fluorescent lights
Absorbs electrical energy and

turns it into light
Ozone
Cleaning water in pools and spas
Highly reactive; kills bacteria
Nitrous oxide
(laughing gas)
Anaesthetic
Affects nervous system in

humans
InveStIgatIon 2.9
exploring gases
You will need:
small balloon
string
ruler
large beaker
warm water
cold water or fridge
Blow up the balloon until it is
firm.
activities
reMeMber
1 recall why gases can be
compressed.
2 Describe what happens to a gas
that is heated.
3 explain how a carbon dioxide fire
extinguisher works.
THInK
4 Draw a diagram of a gas before
and after heating to show what
happens to the particles.
5 explain why aerosol cans have Do
not dispose of in fire printed on
the can.
6 Infer which would last longer:
a scuba diver s tank filled with
compressed air or one filled with
air at normal pressure.
7 explain what would happen to the

pressure in a car tyre after it has
been driven on a hot road and
then parked on some cool grass.
Measure the circumference
of the balloon with a piece of

string and record your results
in a table.
Put the balloon in warm water
for 10 minutes and re-measure

the circumference.
InVesTIGaTe
8 Many gases, including oxygen,
nitrogen, chlorine and hydrogen,
have important uses. Choose one
of these gases and investigate
what it is used for and why.
9 Investigate which gases are found
in the air and how much of each
gas there is.
10 Many gases in the air are
pollutants put there by humans.
Investigate the problem one of the
following gases causes to the
environment.
sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), nitrogen dioxide, ozone
work
sheet
2.7 Particles in our lives
Put the balloon into the
cold water or a fridge for

10 minutes and measure the
circumference of the balloon
again.
DIscussIon
1
Did the balloon expand or

contract in warm water?
Did the balloon expand or

contract in the cold water or
a fridge?
Explain, in terms of
particles, what happened
when the balloon was
heated and cooled.
2 States of matter
53
2.8
prescrIbeD focus area

current issues, research and development in science
other states of matter?

In the past, scientists believed that
everything around us was either
a solid, a liquid or a gas. But
scientists now believe that there are
other states of matter that are not
very common on Earth.
The earliest of these additional
states of matter to be identified
is called plasma. It is currently
estimated that more than 99 per
cent of all matter in the universe
is actually plasma. Plasma occurs
everywhere. The sun and all the
other stars are made of plasma, as
is lightning and the aurora australis
(also known as the southern
lights). Temperatures higher than
1 000 000 C are needed to form
these plasmas. Lightning bolts

actually form plasma from the
surrounding air.
In an ordinary gas, each atom
contains an equal number of
protons and electrons. (We will
learn more about the particles that
make up the atom in chapter 11.)
This makes each atom neutral. The
positively charged protons are
surrounded by an equal number of
negatively charged electrons. A gas
becomes plasma when energy or
heat is added. This energy or heat
causes the atoms to release all or
some of the electrons. This means
that the remaining atoms now have
fewer electrons and the atoms have
Lightning turns gases in the air into plasma at temperatures higher than 1 000 000 C.
54
a positive charge. The removed

electrons are free to move about.
Energy knocks
electrons off
atoms.
Protons
Nucleus
Neutrons
Incoming energy removes electrons from

gas atoms, changing them into a plasma
state.
Plasmas have different properties from gases. For

example, oxygen gas is not affected by magnetic fields
and cannot conduct electricity. However, if oxygen
gas is turned into plasma, it can be contained in a
magnetic field and can conduct electricity.
Different atoms form different types of plasma.
Each type of plasma can be used for different
purposes, such as in neon lights and fluorescent tubes.
Plasmas are also used in lasers, high-powered
microwaves, water purification and some
semiconductors in computers.
Fusion technology
comes to Earth!
Plasmas are used in lasers.
Test drive the new plasma-powered car.

With speeds of up to 5000 km/h
it is a ride to die for!
Scientists are currently studying

how plasmas could be used to
release energy from sea water
without creating pollution. A
possible solution is, firstly, to use
sea water to make hydrogen gas.
The atoms of hydrogen gas could
then be joined together (fused), a
process that releases large amounts
of energy. However, this fusion
occurs at such high temperatures
that there is currently no container
on Earth that could hold the plasma
without being destroyed. The good
news though is that, because plasma
is affected by magnetic fields, a
special magnetic container may be
able to hold the plasma.
See your local plasma dealer today!
activities
reMeMber
1 recall an example of naturally occurring plasma.
2 Atoms in solids, liquids and gases are neutral. explain
what this means.
3 What happens to the atoms in a gas to make them into
plasma? explain this in terms of protons and electrons.
THInK
6 Distinguish between the properties of a plasma and those
of a gas.
7 Draw a diagram using particles to demonstrate what
happens if a substance changes from a solid to a liquid
to a gas to a plasma.
8 explain why scientists think that plasma would be a good
energy source in the future.
4 Describe a current use of plasma.
InVesTIGaTe
5 recall some examples of how plasma may be used in the

future.
9 Investigate how a neon light works. Present your findings

as an advertisement to sell a new neon light.
2 States of matter
55
LooKIng BaCK
1 Use the particle model to explain why steam takes up more
space than liquid water.
7 Copy and complete the diagram, labelling the missing state

and changes of state.
2 Recall in which state the forces of attraction between the

particles are likely to be greatest.
3 Identify in which state
particles have:
(a) the most energy
(b) the least energy.
solid, liquid or gas
the
Melting
4 Explain why perfume and aftershave lotion evaporate more

quickly than water.
Solid
5 Copy and complete the table below to summarise the

properties of solids, liquids and gases. Use a tick to
indicate which properties each state usually has.
Property
Solid
Liquid
Gas
Has a denite shape that is

difcult to change
?
Gas
Freezing
8 Fully explain the process that is occurring in the following

diagrams.
Takes up a xed amount of space

Can be poured
Takes up all of the space available
Can be compressed
Is made of particles that are
strongly attracted to each other
and cant move past each other
9 Identify which of these diagrams

(A, B or C) correctly shows a
solid after expanding.
Is made of particles that are not

held together by attraction
6 Copy and label the three diagrams below to identify which
represent solids, liquids and gases. Make an improvement
to each of the diagrams so that they describe the particle
model more fully.
(a)
(b)
Original solid
(c)
10 (a) Copy the table below and rewrite it to correctly match

the substances to their properties and uses.
(b) Identify whether the substance would be a solid, liquid
or gas.
Properties and uses of various substances
Name of substance
56
Property
Use
Air
Waterproof, hard, strong
Horseshoe
Tin
Particles able to mix easily with other particles
Balloon
Neon
Particles absorb energy and turn it into light
Sign, light
Oil
Hard, strong
Driveways
Iron
Hard, strong, easily shaped when heated
Lubricant
Concrete
Particles slip past each other
Roong
Solid, liquid or gas?
11 Graphite (used in pencils) and diamond are both made

of the same type of particle, yet graphite has a density
of 1.46 g/cm3 while diamond has a density of 3.52 g/cm3.
Give possible explanations for how they can have different
densities yet be made of identical particles.
12 A mysterious substance is developed in a laboratory. The
sample has a mass of 10 g and has a volume of 2.3 cm3.
(a) Calculate its density.
(b) What is the mystery substance s most likely state of
matter?
TesT YourseLf
1 Compression is a term that describes
A squeezing the particles of a substance closer together.
B pulling particles further apart.
C removing the heat energy from the particles of a
substance.
D the releasing of air from a car tyre.
(1 mark)
2 Ice cubes float in soft drink because
A the bubbles in the soft drink hold them up.
B the ice is less dense than the soft drink.
C the ice is denser than the soft drink.
D water and soft drink do not mix.
(1 mark)
3 Gaps are left between sections of railway track so that

A more track can easily be laid later.
B bugs can cross the railway lines safely.
C the steel tracks can expand in cold weather without
buckling the track.
D the steel tracks can expand in hot weather without
buckling the track.
(1 mark)
4 According to the particle model, the attractive forces
between particles are strongest in
A solids.
B liquids.
C gases.
D plasma.
(1 mark)
5 Read the information in the box above right.
(a) Use the words in bold to label the diagram of the
refrigerator below.
(2 marks)
G
How a refrigerator works

Evaporation occurs when a liquid gains enough heat
energy to change into a gas. Refrigeration is possible
because of this. The pipes in a refrigerator contain
a substance called a refrigerant. (A refrigerant is a
substance that changes from a liquid to a gas and back
again.) Near the expansion device, the refrigerant is
in the liquid state. As it passes through the expansion
device, the liquid is made to expand (the pressure
drops). As a result of the drop in pressure, the
refrigerant cools down to a very low temperature. (You
may have experienced this cooling effect if you have
ever used a fire extinguisher.) The liquid refrigerant
then passes through the part of the pipe that is inside
the fridge. This part of the pipe is called the evaporator.
Heat energy travels from the objects and air inside the
fridge to the very cold refrigerant. The inside of the
fridge cools down. The liquid refrigerant heats up and
turns to gas (evaporates). (Note: Heat energy travels
from a hotter to a colder substance.)
The refrigerant, which is now a gas, passes into
the compressor. This puts the refrigerant under
pressure again. Under pressure, the refrigerant
becomes even hotter. (You may have experienced this
when you pumped up the tyres on your bike. Under
increased pressure, the air in the tyres feels warmer.)
The compressor pushes the refrigerant into the next
part of the pipe, the condenser. The condenser is on
the outside of the fridge. Here, heat from the gas is
transferred to the air outside the fridge. The air outside
the fridge warms up. The refrigerant in the pipe cools
down and becomes a liquid again (condenses). The
liquid flows back towards the expansion device. The
cycle is repeated.
(b) Use the information in the box above to construct a
flow chart that describes the changes of state that
take place during the refrigeration process. Colour
each state a different colour. For example, when the
refrigerant is in the liquid state, you may choose to
colour the relevant section blue. The flow chart has
been started for you.
(4 marks)
Outside
fridge
Inside
fridge
Refrigerant is
under pressure
and in the
liquid state.
Refrigerant
passes through
expansion
device.
work
sheets
2.8 States of matter puzzles

2.9 States of matter summary
2 States of matter
57
StUDY CHeCKLISt
ICt
states of matter
eBook plus
identify the three most common states of matter 2.1

describe the physical properties of solids, liquids and
SUMMaRY
under pressure
gases 2.1
explain what is meant by the term fluid 2.1
explain density in terms of the particle model 2.5
describe the changes in pressure of gases in terms
of the increase or decrease of frequency of particle
collisions 2.7
In this video lesson, you will see animations that reflect the
behaviour of gas particles and learn about the factors that
affect the pressure of a gas. You will also learn how compressed
gases are used to make fire extinguishers and aerosol cans.
The particle model of matter

state the main assumptions of the particle model 2.3
describe the difference in behaviour of particles in
solids, liquids and gases.
2.3
use the particle model to explain expansion and

contraction of materials during heating and cooling
2.6
discuss how increasing and decreasing the energy of

particles affects their movement
2.3, 2.4
describe what happens during the process of

diffusion
2.3
changes of state
describe the physical changes that occur during
observations of evaporation, condensation, boiling,
melting and freezing 2.2
relate changes of state to the motion of particles as
energy is added or removed 2.4
explain the changing behaviour of particles during
changes of state 2.4
Interactivities
Changes of state
This interactivity allows you to simulate heating an ice
cube over a Bunsen burner. As you add more heat, you will
see the effect on the particles as the ice changes state to
become boiling water. A worksheet is attached to further your
understanding.
current issues, research and development in science

describe the state of matter called plasma 2.8
describe current research on the use of plasma in
energy production
2.8

Density
This interactivity helps you to delve into the world of density.
Select a liquid to fill your virtual flotation tank, and then choose
a solid to release into it. This interactivity will let you discover
the combinations that cause your solid to sink and to float. A
58
Separating mixtures
This mixture of chocolate

can be separated easily into
different colours. We can
make piles of red ones, blue
ones and so on. But each pile is not pure
chocolate. Each sweet is a mixture of a
chocolate centre and a sugary coating. If we
separate the centre from the coating, we still
won t have pure substances. Chocolate is a
mixture of ingredients
cocoa, butter, sugar,
milk and flavours
blended to give a great
taste. The sugary coating is a mixture too.
Even the colouring can be a combination of
many different colours.
Chocolate isn t the only substance that can
be made by combining different ingredients.
Many substances are made this way. And, the
individual ingredients in some substances can
also be separated further into parts.

3.1
distinguish between pure substances
and mixtures and identify some common

mixtures
3.2
learn about solutions and compare
soluble and insoluble substances

3.3
compare different methods such as
filtering, decanting, centrifuging and

using separating funnels to separate
insoluble substances from suspensions
3.4
appreciate the use of separation methods
in preparing blood donations for use

3.5
use processes such as distillation,
evaporation, crystallisation and

chromatography to separate the solutes
from the solvents in solutions
3.6
apply knowledge of separation
techniques to develop an understanding

of how sewage is treated
3.7
examine how water supplies are treated
before reaching a population as drinking

water.
Each of these
sweets contains a
mixture of ingredients
including cocoa, butter,
sugar, milk, flavours
and colours.
Separating mixtures
Imagine that a few small iron nails have been
dropped into a child s sandpit and have sunk into
the sand so that they can t be seen. One way of
separating the nails from the sand is to use a magnet.
This works because the nails and sand have different
properties, or features. The nails
are made from a substance
Mixture of sand, nails
that is attracted to magnets,
and plastic beads
but the sand is not attracted to
magnets.
But what if plastic beads had
been dropped into the sandpit instead of nails?
They can t be separated from the sand with a
magnet. The key to separating them is recognising
the different properties of the plastic beads and the
sand. An obvious difference is size. The plastic beads
are much bigger than grains of sand. A child s sand
sieve would do the trick. Sand grains pass through but
the plastic beads don t.
The flow chart above shows one way of separating
the parts of a mixture of sand, nails and plastic beads.
1. Suggest another method of separating the nails
from the sand.
2. What difference in properties does your suggested
method use to separate the substances?
Chocolate is a mixture of cocoa, butter, sugar, milk and flavours.
Sand
Mixture of sand
and plastic
Plastic beads
too large to fall
through sieve
Nails attached
to magnet
Plastic beads
Nails
3. Draw a flow chart to show a different method of

separating the sand, nails and plastic beads from
the one shown in the flow chart above.
InveStIgatIon 3.1
Design and separate
Your task is to separate the parts of a mixture of matches,
pebbles, steel paperclips and sand.
You will need:
sand (about 250 mL)
dead matches
small pebbles
steel paperclips
plastic container (about 500 mL)
A3 paper
other equipment and water as required
Mix the matches, pebbles and paperclips evenly in a
plastic container of sand.

Devise and write a step-by-step plan of a method to
separate the four parts. You will need to think about the
properties of each part of the mixture that will make
separation possible.
Make a list of all of the equipment that you will need.
Check your plan with your teacher, and then gather the
equipment and perform the separation.

On A3 paper, draw a flow chart like the one above to
show how each part was separated from the mixture.
3.1
Separating substances
Consider the two glasses of orange juice that are
shown below. The one on the left is orange juice that
has been squeezed fresh from the orange, while the
other has come from a carton of orange juice that was
bought at the supermarket. They look pretty much the
same, don t they?
Mixture
Made up of
Salt water
Water, salt
White coffee
Water, coffee, milk (may have sugar)
Chocolate
Cocoa, milk, sugar, cocoa butter
Cola drink
Water, carbon dioxide, sugar, caramel, colouring

agents, avouring agents
Soil
Silica, iron oxide, organic matter, nitrogen
Bread
Flour, yeast, water, egg, sugar
In most cases, it can be difficult to tell whether a

substance is a pure substance or a mixture just by
looking at it. This is because the individual particles in
the substance are usually too small to see, so it is hard
to tell if they all look the same or if there are different
types of particles present.
Separating mixtures
Now, let s look at the ingredients of the orange juice
from the carton. As you can see, the orange juice from
the carton seems to contain ingredients other than
just orange juice. In fact, it is a mixture.
Substances in our world can generally be classified

as being either pure substances or mixtures.
A pure substance is made up of the same type of
particle throughout. White table sugar that you put on
your breakfast cereal, for example, is a pure substance
and is made up of nothing except identical particles
of sucrose. Pure water, salt, plain flour and methylated
spirits are also examples of pure substances.
A mixture, on the other hand, is made up of at
least two different pure substances, and so it contains
several different kinds of particles. Chocolate milk
is an example of a mixture, because it is made up
of particles of milk, sugar and cocoa. Some other
common mixtures are shown in the following table.
Many mixtures can be separated into the basic

substances that they are made of. There are a
number of different ways of doing this, but all of
these methods rely on the fact that the individual
substances that make up a mixture have different
properties.
For example, after you ve cooked pasta, you separate
the cooked pasta (solid and in hollow cylinders) from
the water (liquid) using a strainer. Water passes easily
through the strainer,
but the pasta is
caught.
If you are
doing woodwork
and you drop some
nails in the sawdust, there are several ways to separate
them because their properties are so different.
61
Recycling plants
Most local councils have a recycling program. Items
such as paper, all plastic bottles and containers, glass,
aluminium and steel can be recycled and made into new
products. Recycling reduces the amount of waste that
goes to landfill and saves precious resources such as trees

and bushland. Many manufacturing processes pollute
the environment. Recycling and reusing materials
reduces the need to manufacture from raw materials.
Paper sorting facility

All paper and cardboard is manually sorted to ensure that
there are no plastic bags or other non-paper items in the
mixture. Paper and cardboard is baled and sent to paper
mills for reprocessing. At the mill, paper is shredded and
mixed with water (pulped) to make new paper products
such as cardboard boxes.
Newsprint
baler
Mixed paper
baler
Paper
sorting
facility
Rubbish
Trommel
The trommel is a large rotating
cylinder with holes along its
sides, similar to the inside of
a washing machine. Heavy
recyclables, such as plastic,
glass, cartons, steel and
aluminium, fall through the
holes in the trommel, while
lightweight material, such as
paper and cardboard, continue
along the conveyor to be
sorted separately.
Air classifier
Plastic, aluminium and paper cartons are lighter
than glass. A blast of air blows these lighter
materials to a separate conveyor belt.
Trommel
Air
classifier
Plastics optical sorting facility
Plastic containers and cartons
are sorted using optical sorting
technology. A bright light
detects each item and sorts it
by type using air jets that blow
it away from the other materials.
Each type of plastic is then
baled individually and sent to
a plastics reprocessing plant.
Cartons are baled and sent to a
paper reprocessing plant.
PET
baler
Mixed
plastic
baler
Carton
baler
Green
Glass
sorting
facility
Clear
Amber
Fines
62
Eddy
current
Aluminium
baler
Glass sorting facility
Glass is sent to
processing plants
where it is sorted by
colour. The glass is
then crushed, melted
and made into new
glass bottles and
jars.
Steel
magnet
Eddy current
As you may know from playing
with fridge magnets, aluminium
is not attracted to the same
magnets that steel is attracted
to. Aluminium cans and foil
wrap are sorted from plastic
and carton material by the eddy
current separator. This machine
uses rare earth magnets, which
operate in reverse to the steel
magnet and actually repel the
cans rather than attract them.
The cans are repelled over the
conveyor belt, baled and sent to
a reprocessing plant.
Steel
baler
Magnet
Steel cans are separated
from other containers
using a magnet. The steel
is collected in a separate
container, ready to be sent
to steel manufacturers.
Material that is not attracted
to a magnet continues along
the conveyor belt.
Separating by sight
Household rubbish is usually a
mixture of food scraps, recyclable
materials and other waste. The
first step in recycling is to separate
the recyclable items from other
household rubbish. We can see
the differences between the types
of rubbish, and we know which
items can be recycled. Big recycling
plants use this knowledge to
separate the tonnes of recycled
goods they receive.
Pre-sort
When the mixture of goods arrives at the
sorting facility, it is sent along a conveyor
belt. Staff sort through the materials
by hand to remove any non-recyclable
material that they can see in the mixture,
such as plastic bags, foam, garden waste
and household rubbish.
activities
RemembeR
1 Define a mixture.
2 explain why some mixtures are easier to separate than others.
3 How can you distinguish pure substances from mixtures?
4 Recall two reasons why recycling is good for the environment.
5 explain why recyclable materials need to be separated.
Think
6 Describe all the properties you can think of for:
(a) salt
(b) sand
(c) water.
7 explain how you would separate the parts of a mixture of salt, sand and
water. Use the properties that you considered in question 6.
8 Imagine you dropped nails in the sawdust in woodwork class. Propose
two reliable ways of separating the nails from the sawdust.
9 Construct a table with two columns with the headings Pure substance
and Mixture . List the following substances under the appropriate
heading: freshly made apple juice, tap water, soft drink, cake batter,
sterling silver, distilled water, gold nugget, glass, cornflakes.
You may have to research some of these substances to find out
which column they belong to.
10 Construct a table like the one below and complete it with information
on separating recyclable rubbish.
Method
What is removed?
Properties
(a) Record the methods used to separate different types of material in

a recycling plant.
(b) For each method, record which material is removed from the flow
of rubbish.
(c) What properties of this material allowed it to be separated from
the mixture?
11 Deduce why the same magnets are not used for separating both
aluminium and steel cans.
12 explain why people, rather than machines, need to manually separate
some of the recycling mixture.
inveSTigaTe
13 How would you separate the sand from a mixture of sand and sawdust?
Construct a flow chart to show the steps you would use. Check your
method with your teacher before trying out your experiment.
CReaTe
14 Design and construct a poster or brochure that explains which items
can be recycled. Check with your local council about how they prefer
recycling materials to be separated ready for collection. Include this in
your brochure or poster.
63
3.2
Looking for solutions

When you add a teaspoon of sugar to a cup of hot
water and stir it, the sugar crystals seem to disappear.
Where have they gone? Actually, the sugar is still
there; the sugar particles have been separated away
from each other and have spread out among the water
particles. As the individual particles of sugar are so
small, they appear to be invisible to the naked eye. We
say that the sugar has dissolved in the hot water and
has formed a sugar solution.
A solution is a mixture made up of one substance
dissolved in another. The substance that is dissolved
is called the solute, and this can be a solid, a liquid or
even a gas. The substance that the solute is dissolved
in is called the solvent; this is usually a liquid. In the
case of our sugar and hot water, the sugar is the solute
and the water is the solvent. Water is considered to
be a very good solvent because many chemicals will
dissolve in it quite easily. Solutions in which water is
the solvent are said to be aqueous solutions.
pumped into bottles or cans at high pressure. The

bottles and cans are then sealed to keep the carbon
dioxide dissolved in the solution. When you open the
drink, the pressure is reduced and the carbon dioxide
bubbles out of solution.
Solute
Solvent
Solution
A solute dissolves in a solvent and creates a solution.
The solute in a solution can be any state of matter.

When we dissolve things such as sugar or salt, the
solute is a solid. When we add cordial to water, the
cordial dissolves in the water; in this case, the solute is
in a liquid form.
Gases can also be dissolved in solvents. The fizz
in fizzy drinks is the carbon dioxide gas that is
dissolved in the flavoured liquid. Carbon dioxide is
64
When the carbon dioxide is dissolved, you can t see that it s

there. When you open the container, the pressure is reduced. The
carbon dioxide is separated from the mixture and bubbles to the
surface.
Soluble or insoluble?
Substances that dissolve in a particular solvent are
said to be soluble in that solvent. Remember that, just
because a substance is soluble in one solvent, doesn t
mean that it is soluble in all solvents. For example,
waterproof ink (which you will find in permanent
markers) is soluble in alcohol but it is not soluble in
water. We use the word insoluble when a substance
does not dissolve in a particular solvent.
When an insoluble substance

is added to a solvent, particles of
the undissolved substance cause
the solvent to look cloudy. We say
that the mixture of the solvent
and the undissolved substance
form a suspension. Over time, the
insoluble substance may sink to
the bottom of the solvent to form
a layer of sediment. In other cases,
the insoluble substance may float
on the top of the solvent.
InveStIgatIon 3.2
Soluble or insoluble?
Substances that dissolve are said to be soluble. Those that do not are
insoluble. This experiment investigates the solubility of some common
substances in water.
You will need:
safety glasses and laboratory coat
heatproof mat
7 test tubes
test-tube rack
spatula
samples of salt, sugar, flour, coffee, sand, copper sulfate and copper carbonate
Adding a soluble
substance to a liquid
Solute
dissolves,
forming
a solution.
Adding an insoluble
substance to a liquid
Half-fill each of the test tubes with cold water.

Label the test tubes: salt, sugar, flour, coffee and so on.
An insoluble
substance
may form a
suspension.
Use a spatula to add a very small amount of each substance to its labelled
test tube. Do not use more than a quarter of a spatula full.

Draw up a table of your results like this incomplete one:
Substance mixed
with water
Clear or cloudy?
Solution? (yes/no)
Salt
Sugar
Flour
An insoluble
substance may
float on top of
the liquid.
Coffee
Hold each test tube up to the light. Decide whether the mixture is clear or
cloudy. Record your results in the table.

Decide whether each mixture is a solution or a suspension. Record this in
the table.
An insoluble
substance may
form a sediment.
DiSCuSSion
1
Which of the substances dissolved in water?
How can you tell if a substance has dissolved?
Read the information on filtration on pages 67 8. Which of the mixtures

could be separated by filtration?
Mixing solids with liquids
65
more mixtures
Another type of mixture is a
colloid. Particles of one substance
are spread evenly throughout
another. Substances that form
colloids can be solids, liquids
or gases. These mixtures are
not clear, like solutions, but do
not settle to form sediment like
suspensions.
An emulsion is a special type
of colloid. Emulsions are formed
when one liquid is spread evenly
through another liquid and does
not settle in a layer.
Fresh pumpkin soup
is a colloid. Small bits
of pumpkin are spread
through water and do not
settle in a layer.
activities
RemembeR
1 identify a single word that can replace each of the
following expressions:
(a) Liquid in which a substance dissolves
(b) Insoluble particles dispersed in a liquid
(c) Substance that dissolves in a liquid
(d) What is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent
(e) An insoluble substance that sinks to the bottom
2 Recall which two types of substances mix to form
emulsions.
3 identify the solvent, solute and solution in the photo
below.
Marshmallows are colloids.

They are mixtures of air
spread through sugar and
other ingredients.
Homogenised milk is
an emulsion. It is made
from butterfat (oil) spread
through water. Both parts
of this mixture are liquids.
5 Non-homogenised milk separates into two parts if it is

left to stand. But homogenised milk does not settle. It is
an emulsion.
(a) Deduce what type of mixture is untreated milk.
(b) Cream and butter are both made from milk. identify
what types of mixtures cream and butter are.
inveSTigaTe
6 Some substances dissolve better in hot water than in
cold water. Design an experiment to compare the amount
of copper sulfate that can be dissolved in cold tap water
and hot tap water.
CLaSSiFY
7 Distinguish which of the following substances are
suspensions, solutions, colloids or combinations of
these. explain each decision.
Muddy water
Cup of coffee
Mayonnaise
Whipped cream
Hot chocolate
Cup of tea with tea-leaves in it
eBook plus
8 Identify a series of liquid mixtures as suspensions,

solutions or emulsions by completing the Time Out
mixtures interactivity in your eBookPLUS. int-0224
Think
4 Is fog a solution, suspension or colloid? explain your
answer.
66
work
sheet
3.1 Solutions and suspensions
3.3
Separate ways
There are a number of ways to separate undissolved
substances from a liquid; you use many of these every
day.
The simplest method of separating a mixture of
a liquid and a sediment is called decanting. In this
process, the mixture is poured into a container and,
once the sediment settles to the bottom, the liquid
is carefully poured off the top. You use the decanting
method whenever you pour the hot water off cooked
vegies for dinner!
eBook plus
eles-0061
Stirring rod
Filtering
What do a vacuum cleaner, tea strainer and protective
face mask have in common? They are all devices for
separating mixtures by filtration. In the laboratory,
filtration is done using filter paper, but there are many
other useful methods of filtration that are used in the
home and in industry. During filtration, solutions or
gases pass through the filter but particles that cannot
fit through the filter are trapped by it. Insoluble
particles can be separated from a solution using filter
paper in a funnel as shown on the right.
(a)
eLesson
Centrifuging
Watch this video lesson to learn how to separate a solid from a
liquid: in this case, lead oxide from water.
Beaker
Mixture with
insoluble
particles
Filter funnel
containing
folded filter
paper
Filtrate
Conical flask
Equipment used to filter

a mixture that contains
insoluble particles
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a) A face mask filters dust from the air.

(b) A car air filter removes dust particles from the air.
(c) A vacuum cleaner contains a filter bag that traps the dust as
air is sucked through it.
(d) A food strainer separates the chips from the oil.
Indigenous Australians combine

sieving (a type of filtration) and
decanting to prepare native yams,
which contain a poison. The
yams are boiled and placed into
a dilly bag. The bag is squashed
and the softer parts of the yam
are strained through the bag into
a can of water. The bag acts as a
sieve, allowing some substances to
pass through but not others. The
skins and harder parts of the yam
that are left in the bag are thrown
away. The water is decanted from
the can, and repeated washing with
water removes more poison. The
yam is then placed into another
dilly bag and hung up overnight
before being ready to eat.
67
Separating funnel
InveStIgatIon 3.3
Filtration in the laboratory
You will need:
100 mL beaker
funnel
filter paper
glass stirring rod
conical flask
insoluble substance, such as soil, chalk dust, charcoal
When one liquid does not mix

with another but floats on top of
it, a separating funnel can be used
to separate the two liquids. Oil
floats on water. This mixture can be
separated using a separating funnel
as shown below.
Separating
funnel
Half-fill your 100 mL beaker with water.
Oil
Add your insoluble substance to the water and stir with the stirring rod.
Set up the equipment for filtering as shown in the top diagram on the
Retort
stand
Water
previous page.
Fold the filter paper as shown in the diagram below.
Tap
Place the filter paper in the funnel and moisten with clean water to hold the
filter paper in place.

Pour your mixture into the filter paper.
Separated
water
DiSCuSSion
1
Describe the appearance of your mixture in the beaker before filtration.

Did it form a suspension or sediment, or float on top?
The liquid passing through the filter into the conical flask is called the
filtrate. Describe your filtrate.
Examine your filter paper. The material trapped by the filter paper is
called the residue. Describe your residue.
Filter paper is like a sieve with small holes in it. Explain how the filter
paper worked like a sieve in this experiment.
First fold
Forming the
cone
Folding filter paper
68
Second fold
50 mL
beaker
Using a separating
funnel to separate oil from water
Centrifuging
A mixture can be separated by
spinning it very quickly. This
method is called centrifuging.
The spin-dry cycle of a washing
machine acts as a centrifuge and
a filter. As it spins at high speed,
the clothes are forced to the sides
of the tub and the water passes
out through the holes in the tub.
The clothes cannot fit through the
holes and so much of the water is
removed from them.
In the laboratory, centrifuging
is used to separate solid or liquid
substances from liquids. The
mixture is placed in special test
tubes that are spun in a circle at
high speeds. The heavier substances
are forced to the bottom of the
tube and the lighter substances are
left near the top.
InveStIgatIon 3.4
making billy tea
no camping trip would be complete
without billy tea. billy tea was
traditionally made in a metal can that
was heated over a campfire.
Then a handful of dry tea-leaves
was tossed into the boiling water and
left to brew for a few minutes. For
extra flavour, early settlers sometimes
added gum leaves to the water as
it boiled. To make the leaves settle
to the bottom, the billy was swung
in full circles at arm s length. Three
anticlockwise spins and the tea was
ready to drink. but they had to be
careful. a timid swing or one ending
in the wrong spot could result in a hot
and painful soaking and no billy
tea!
using a centrifuge (teacher

demonstration)
You will need:
centrifuge
mixture containing iron oxide, lead
oxide (red lead) and water
CAUTION Use red lead in a wellventilated room. Avoid contact with
skin and eyes. Do not dispose of
down the sink.
Allow the centrifuge to spin for
about a minute.
Observe the mixture after
centrifuging.
DiSCuSSion
1
Describe the mixture after

centrifuging.
Why must the test tubes be

placed on opposite sides of the
centrifuge?
Could the separated substances

form a mixture again? Explain
your answer.
What type of mixture was the

iron oxide, lead oxide and
water before centrifuging?
Stir the mixture and then pour
equal amounts into two separate

centrifuge test tubes.
Put the test tubes on opposite
sides of the centrifuge.
activities
RemembeR
1 When filtration is used to separate
a mixture of muddy water, identify:
(a) which part is the filtrate
(b) which is the residue.
2 Recall what happens to a
suspension if it is left to stand for
a long time.
3 Recall which method of separation
uses spinning to separate the
parts of the mixture.
Think
4 Describe the properties of water
and dirt that make them ideal to
separate using filtration.
5 Describe the properties of
tea-leaves and water that
make them ideal to separate by
centrifuging.
6 Early settlers would spin the billy
three times in an anticlockwise
direction before drinking their tea.
Would it make any difference if
the billy was spun in a clockwise
direction? explain your answer.
7 During filtration, explain why it
is important that the mixture is
poured carefully.
CReaTe
8 Make your own billy tea. Instead
of centrifuging the tea, use
another method to separate the
tea-leaves from the tea. Write
down your method for separating
the tea-leaves. Was it an effective
method? explain your answer.
9 Design and construct a machine
to separate a mixture of three
substances. Create a brochure
to advertise your separating
machine. Include:
the name of your separating
machine
a diagram of the machine
what mixture your machine will
separate
instructions for using the machine
an explanation of how the
machine works
the advantages that your machine
has for its particular use.
eBook plus
10 See if you can identify which

mixtures can be separated by
filtration by completing the
Filtration interactivity in your
eBookPLUS. int-0223
work
sheet
3.2 Filtration
69
3.4
PReSCRibeD FoCuS aRea

applications and uses of science
Separating blood
About one million donations of blood are made in Australia
each year. Some of the donations are given to people who
have lost blood during surgery, accidents or disasters. Blood
is also given to people during the treatment of many diseases,
including cancer. These people need to be given a regular
supply of blood.
The blood mixture

Blood is a life-giving mixture. It can be separated into four
parts: plasma, a clear, yellowish liquid; red blood cells, which
carry oxygen; white blood cells, which fight disease; and
platelets, which clot blood.
Because each part of the blood has a special job to
do in our bodies, different problems can be treated with
different parts of the blood. In Australia, blood is collected
and separated by the Australian Red Cross Blood Service.
Separation allows doctors to treat a larger number of patients
and save many lives.
Red blood
cells
White blood
cells not used
Filtration
The mixture of red and white blood cells can be
separated by a special kind of filtration. Red cells
are used to treat people who have lost blood in an
accident or surgery.
Red and white blood cells
Centrifuge
Blood cells are suspended in the plasma.
Like other suspensions, blood donations
can be separated into parts by spinning.
Red and white blood cells are heavier than
plasma and platelets, so they are forced to
the outside edge of the containers in the
centrifuge.
Separating by centrifuging
The parts that make up the blood mixture have different
properties; the red and white blood cells are heavier than
the plasma and platelets. The difference in the mass of these
parts means that they can be separated using the process of
centrifuging. Centrifuging involves spinning the mixture very
quickly. The heavier parts of the mixture are forced to the
outer edge of the centrifuge. The lighter parts can then be
decanted from the heavier parts.
Standard whole
blood donation
Once blood is separated,

each part has to be stored
differently.
In a normal week, the Australian Red Cross Blood Service needs
about 21 000 blood donations to meet the demand for blood and
blood products. Public holidays put a strain on the blood service, with
fewer working days in the week to take that number of donations. The
demand for blood is also likely to increase, due to the increase in
accidents that can occur on long weekends.
The amount of blood in your body depends on how much you weigh.
The blood volume of an adult of average weight is about 5 litres, so
the standard donation of 470 mL is less than 10% of the donor s total
blood volume. This amount is easily replenished by the body. To help
avoid fainting during or after a donation, you must be over 18 and
weigh more than 50 kg to be a blood donor.
70
Red blood cells can be

stored for 42 days at
2 6 C.
Plasma can be frozen for
12 months at 40 C.
Platelets are stored for
5 days at 20 24 C. During
this time they have to
be moved at least every
12 hours, to stop them
clumping. (Platelets seal
wounds in our bodies by
sticking together.)
Plasma
Platelets
activities
RemembeR
Centrifuge
Further centrifuging separates the plasma
solution from the platelets. Plasma is used to
treat many diseases.
Plasma and platelets
1 explain why blood is separated

into different parts.
2 Recall why blood clots do not
form in a blood donation.
3 identify which technique is used
to separate the different parts
of blood.
4 Describe which separation
technique is used to separate
red and white blood cells.
Think
5 explain why blood is separated
in a centrifuge rather than left
to settle by itself.
6 Deduce what property of plasma
and platelets allows them to be
separated with a centrifuge.
Plasma donation
Some donors give only the plasma from their
blood. As the blood is taken out of the donor, it
passes through a machine that separates the
plasma from the rest of the blood. The blood cells
are pumped back into the donor.
CReaTe
7 Create and construct an
advertisement to encourage
people to donate blood. The
advertisement could be in the
form of a poster, a song, a set
of digital photos or part of a
multimedia presentation.
ReSeaRCh
Red Cross blood donor
8 investigate the following facts

about blood donation:
(a) how old you need to be to
donate blood
(b) the minimum weight blood
donors must be
(c) why you cannot donate
blood if you have recently
had a tattoo done.
71
3.5
Separating solutions
Separating undissolved substances from a liquid
is easier than separating substances that have been
dissolved into a solution. To do this, you need to
make use of the fact that the solute and the solvent
have different chemical and physical properties. Many
methods of separating a solute from the solvent in
a solution rely on the fact that they have different
boiling points.
Distillation
Some laboratory experiments require the use of pure
water. This water is produced by a process called
distillation.
Tap water is placed in the boiling flask (see
the diagram at right) and heated to the boiling
temperature for water, 100 C. The water boils,
evaporates and becomes steam. The steam travels
along the water condenser. The steam inside the
condenser is cooled to below 100 C and condenses
to form liquid water. The condenser is kept cool by
running cold water through its outer jacket.
The pure water collected in the conical flask
is called the distillate and can be rightly labelled
distilled water. The impurities in the water are left
behind in the boiling flask.
Black tray
The black tray warms up when the sun
shines on it. The salty water in the tray
heats up as well. The water begins to
evaporate, leaving the salt behind.
Clean water trough

The liquid water trickles
down along the glass cover
and falls into a trough. This
water is free of salt and
other impurities. The salt
remains in the black tray,
where it can be collected
and used for other
purposes.
Equipment for solar distillation
72
eBook plus
eLesson
Distillation
Watch this video lesson to learn how distillation can be used to
turn salty water into pure water.
eles-0060
Distillation can be used to separate pure water

from sea water. It can also be used to separate a
mixture of two liquids, as long as they boil at different
temperatures.
Thermometer
Equipment used for

distillation in the
laboratory
Cooling water out
Cooling water
Steam
Steam condenses
Condenser
Water
Boiling flask
Cooling
water in
Conical
flask
Reflector
The reflector helps to
direct sunlight onto
the tray.
Glass cover
The glass cover stops
the evaporated water
from escaping. When the
water vapour reaches
the glass, it begins to
cool down. The vapour
turns back into liquid
water.
evaporation
Chromatography
Evaporation works in a similar way to distillation,

except that evaporation does not require the solution
to reach boiling point and tends to take longer.
In places where fresh water is scarce, the
evaporation method is used in the form of water stills
to turn salty or otherwise undrinkable water into a
purer drinkable form. Water stills heat the impure
water solution to the point where the pure water
evaporates from the mixture, leaving behind salt
and other impurities. The chief advantage of the
evaporation method of purifying water is that it can
be done with very simple equipment.
Paints, inks, dyes and food colourings are often

mixtures of substances that have different colours. You
can separate a mixture of different colours using paper
chromatography.
In paper chromatography, a liquid soaks through
the paper and carries the mixture with it. Some
substances in the mixture are carried through the
paper faster than others. In this way, the substances in
the mixture are separated along the paper.
Chromatography works because different colours
have different solubilities. Some colours dissolve
more easily than others. Water is a very good solvent
for many food colours. However, to separate the
colours, they are not all placed straight into the
water. For paper chromatography, the food colouring
is placed on paper just above the solvent. The
colours dissolve as the solvent soaks up the paper
column. The colours separate because they are
washed along the paper at different rates. The less
soluble colours move more slowly and travel less
distance up the paper. More soluble colours move
more quickly up the paper.
Crystallisation
In Investigation 3.5, you may have found very small
salt crystals on the wall of the bowl. This is the solute
left behind when the solvent (water) evaporated from
the salt water solution.
Crystallisation can be used if it is more important
to collect the solute than the solvent. The solvent is
usually lost to the atmosphere during this process and
not collected.
InveStIgatIon 3.5
Leave undisturbed for a couple of hours then examine
the contents of the bowl and the cup.
making a simple water still

Plastic sheet
You will need:

trowel
cup
bowl
salt water solution
scissors
plastic bag
some small stones
Rocks
Bowl
Cup
Dig a shallow hole in the ground outside. The hole should
be a few centimetres deeper than the height of the cup

and should be in a spot that gets a lot of sun.
Salt water
Put the bowl in the bottom of the hole and put the cup in
the middle of the bowl.

Pour the salt water into the bowl. Don t allow any to get
into the cup.

Cut the side seams of the plastic bag and open it up so
that it forms a flat sheet of plastic. Place the plastic over

the hole, using small rocks to anchor it in place. Make
sure that the hole is completely covered.
Place a small stone in the middle of the plastic sheet, just
above the mouth of the cup.
DiSCuSSion
1
How has the water level in the bowl changed?
Is there any residue on the walls of the bowl? What

do you expect this is made of?
How is the water in the cup different from the water

in the bowl? You may need to taste it to tell the
difference
check with your teacher first!
73
How chromatography
works
Separated colours
The colours that
dissolve more easily
are carried further
up the filter paper
by the solvent. The
colours become
separated along the
paper strip.
Sample of foodcolour mixture
A small amount of
food colour is placed
on the paper, above
the level of the
solvent.
Solvent
The filter paper is hung so that
it just dips into the solvent. The
solvent soaks up the strip of filter
paper, taking the food colours
with it.
A chromatograph automatically separates mixtures by chromatography.
InveStIgatIon 3.6
Fun with crystals
This activity must be done in class with
your teacher.
You will need:
2 test tubes
solid copper sulfate (or alum)
a balance
150 mL beaker
3 glass stirring rods
hot water
string
test-tube rack
forceps
microscope (optional)
piece of filter paper
filter funnel
conical flask or beaker
2 paperclips
Weigh 28 g of the copper sulfate in
the beaker.
Pour the blue copper sulfate
Quickly pour equal volumes of the
solution into two test tubes. Cool

one test tube by putting it under
cold running water.
Glass stirring rod
74
Attach the paperclip to the end of

the string and arrange it as shown
below. Do the same for the other
test tube.
Leave both test tubes to cool
overnight in the test-tube rack.

Remove some crystals using
forceps.
You may wish to view the crystals
under a microscope.
Crystals with interesting shapes
can also be made using alum

(potassium aluminium sulfate).
String
DiSCuSSion
Copper sulfate
solution
What can you see in the test

tubes?
Is there any difference in the size

of the crystals between the two
test tubes?
How could you make bigger

crystals?
Paperclip
Prepare a hot concentrated solution
of the copper sulfate by pouring

20 mL of hot water into the beaker.
Stir the solution until no more solid
will dissolve.
Tie the string to the glass rod.
solution through the filter paper

into the conical flask or beaker.
The undissolved copper sulfate will
remain on the paper.
Test tube
Stand the filter paper so that the
InveStIgatIon 3.7
end just dips into the water. Make

sure that you keep the dot of food
colouring out of the water.
Separating colours
Pencil
Fix the filter paper to a pencil to
hold it in the beaker.
Food
colouring
Each one of the food colourings that
cover these chocolates is a mixture of
different colours. How can the different
colours be separated?
You will need:

food colouring
toothpick
filter paper
scissors
250 mL beaker
pencil
ruler
activities
RemembeR
1 Recall which methods of separation
can be used to separate the parts
of a solution.
2 explain the purpose of the glass
cover on a solar water still.
3 Recall why water is used as
a solvent to
separate food
colours.
4 identify the colours
found in this ink,
from:
(a) the fastest
moving to
the slowest
moving
(b) the most
soluble to the
least soluble.
Think
5 Describe the difference in properties
that distillation relies on.
Filter
paper
Leave the filter paper to stand until
Water
Repeat the experiment with
Cut a piece of filter paper
approximately 10 cm by 3 cm.
the water has risen almost to the

end near the pencil.
different food colourings.
DiSCuSSion
1
What colours were in the first

food colouring tested?
How do you think the colours

are actually separated using this
method?
List the different food colourings

that you tested. For each one,
write down the colours that
made up the food colouring.
Rule a pencil line 2 cm from the end
of the paper.
Use the flat end of a toothpick to
place a small dot of food colouring

in the centre of the pencil line on
the filter paper.
Pour tap water into the beaker to a
depth of 1 cm.
6 explain why crystallisation would

not be suitable for purifying water.
7 Deduce why cool running water
is passed through the distillation
equipment.
8 explain why the mixture is placed
above the level of the solvent in
chromatography. (Hint: What would
happen if the mixture was put in
the solvent?)
9 Zoe performs a chromatography
experiment on waterproof markers
using water as a solvent. Will her
experiment work? explain your
answer.
DeSign anD CReaTe

10 Use chromatography to create
colourful designs that can be
displayed as scientific art. Fold
the filter paper and use different
colours to make your designs
unique.
inveSTigaTe
11 An oil spill at sea can ruin the
local environment and kill wildlife.
investigate when and where

the worst oil spill disasters have
occurred and how the oil was
separated from the water.
12 investigate how to distil perfume.
13 investigate different types of
solvents that could be used to
separate pen ink and ink from
waterproof markers. Before running
the experiment, have your choice of
solvents approved by your teacher.
As a starting point, you may wish to
use methylated spirits.
14 Does the colour of food affect
whether people choose to buy and
eat it? Design an experiment to test
your answer.
eBook plus
15 Use the Chromatography weblink

in your eBookPLUS to watch a
simple time-lapse chromatography
animation.
work
sheets
3.3 Distillation
3.4 Evaporation and
crystallisation
3.5 Chromatography
75
3.6

Down the S-bend

Every time you flush the toilet, have a shower, wash
the dishes or your clothes or even clean your teeth,
the waste water travels into an underground sewerage
drain.
eBook plus
eLesson
Treating sewage
Watch this video lesson to learn about water and sewage
treatment and the use of recycled water in Australia.
eles-0059
Flush pipe
out into the surrounding area. The sludge needs to be

removed from time to time.
S-bend
trap
To the
sewerage
drain
The S-bend trap in the toilet fills with clean water to prevent
smelly gases from the sewer travelling back into the house.
The waste water is a mixture of human body

waste flushed down the toilet, and detergent, dirt,
toothpaste, food scraps and other materials washed
down the drains. The mixture, which is mostly water,
is called sewage.
If you live in a major city, the sewage in the drain
under your house flows into a larger drain under your
street and travels through the sewerage system to a
treatment plant. The waste water needs to be treated
before it can be returned to the environment.
Sydney is presently serviced by 31 sewage treatment
plants, which are located along the coast and inland.
The three largest coastal plants at Bondi, Malabar and
North Head process three-quarters of the city s sewage.
Between them, they process nearly 1 billion litres of
waste water every day! Of this, over 35 million litres
of water is recycled. All of the collected biosolids
are treated and then turned over for agricultural use,
mostly as fertiliser, and the remaining treated waste
water is piped 3 kilometres or so offshore where it is
emptied deep in the ocean.
In country centres, treatment plants are usually
located on the edge of the town. These plants may
discharge treated water into nearby rivers. If there is
no local treatment plant, the waste water will flow
into a personal sewage treatment system
a septic
tank buried in the backyard.
A septic tank contains bacteria that break down the
sewage. A thick, smelly sludge is formed. The sludge
sinks to the bottom of the tank and clear water flows
76
Waste water treatment

Waste water contains suspended solids, such as
bacteria, grit and dirt, as well as some large items
like rags and sticks. It also contains many dissolved
substances.
The Tank Stream was Sydney s first water supply. It still flows
beneath the city s streets.
When the waste water arrives at the sewage

treatment plant, it passes through a screen (a wire
mesh filter) that removes the larger items. The sewage
then flows into settling tanks where it is kept for
about two hours. In the settling tanks, suspended
solids settle to form a sediment, and floatables such
as oil and plastic collect on top of the sewage and are
removed.
The watery part of the sewage flows from the
settling tank into secondary treatment. This waste
water still contains dissolved substances and bacteria.
Secondary treatment takes place by filtering the water

though soil and grass or by storing it in a series of
one-metre-deep lagoons for two to four months. In
the secondary treatment, the bacteria in the waste
water break down the dissolved substances to purify
the water further. In the lagoons, sedimentation also
takes place. The treated water looks clear but it is still
not safe to drink.
be poisonous or harmful to living things. Some things

that can go down the sink at home in small amounts
are:
drain cleaners
window cleaners
kitchen and bathroom cleaners
disinfectants (unless you have a septic tank).
At school, you should not tip anything down the
sink except water, unless your teacher instructs you to.
Think first!
There are many materials that should not be
tipped down kitchen, bathroom, laundry or school
laboratory sinks. The treated water is eventually
released into the sea, but there are many substances
that the sewerage system is not designed to treat.
activities
RemembeR
1 Recall what substances are found in waste water.
2 explain how a septic system works.
3 identify substances that should not be tipped down
the kitchen sink.
Think
4 Propose why disinfectants that kill bacteria cannot be
poured down a septic system.
5 A certain type of shower provides water at a rate of
11 litres per minute.
(a) If you have a five-minute shower, calculate how
much water you would use.
(b) Calculate how much water you would use
showering in a year.
(c) Calculate how much water your family would use
showering in a year.
These substances include:

chemicals such as oven cleaners and insect sprays
that are poisonous
substances like fat and oil that don t dissolve in
water.
These substances can eventually find their way to
the sea, polluting it and killing or harming animals,
plants and other living things (like algae) that live
there. Substances like these should be saved for
collection by local councils.
Small objects like cotton buds and tampons should
not be flushed down the toilet because they can block
the filters at treatment plants. These objects can be put
out with other household garbage.
Play it safe
The best policy at home is to avoid putting down the
sink anything solid or oily, or that you suspect may
6 (a) Make a list of the many ways that people use

water in their homes.
(b) Propose ways to reduce water usage.
inveSTigaTe
7 investigate where your sewage goes. If you live in the
country, ask your local shire or locate your septic
system.
8 Find out the kind of treatment (primary or secondary)
that is used for Sydney s sewerage system. Where
does the treated water go? assess how suitable this
system is for a large city like Sydney.
9 Find out more about the Tank Stream that runs below
Sydney. What might be the difference between
today s water supplies and those of Old Sydney?
10 investigate who is responsible in your area for the
collection of waste that cannot be tipped down the
kitchen, bathroom or laundry sinks, and how often it is
collected.
77
3.7

Fit to drink?
unwanted substances
Water used for drinking and washing needs to be
clean and free of harmful substances. Water supplies
can be contaminated by dissolved substances or
substances suspended in the water. Besides clay, there
are a number of other contaminants.
Human and other animal body wastes contain
disease-causing micro-organisms.
Algal blooms can release poisonous substances into
the water. They can also affect the taste and cause
odour problems.
Pesticides and detergents can be washed into rivers
and contaminate water supplies.
Poisonous chemicals may also be washed into
rivers.
Salt dissolved in water can make it unfit for
drinking.
Iron dissolved in water can contaminate it. This is
common in bore water.
High levels of calcium and magnesium salts can
cause water to be hard , making it difficult to lather.
This causes problems in laundries, bathrooms and
kitchens.
Sydney s water
The tap water that we drink in Sydney is slightly
alkaline (the opposite of an acid) because of the
chemicals that have been added to it during the
filtration process or that have leached into it from
the pipe systems being used. A litre of tap water can
contain as much as 150 milligrams of undissolved
solids and, on average, 20 mg of calcium, 5 mg of
magnesium, 1 mg of fluoride, 10 20 mg of sodium
and a lot of other inorganic chemicals, all of which
contribute to making Sydney s water much harder
than tank water.
However, many of these chemicals are there for
a good reason! The calcium in the water supply is
mainly in the form of a compound called lime. Lime
is added to balance the acidity of the water caused by
adding chlorine and fluoride.
A litre of water also contains about 0.8 mg
of chlorine and between 0.05 and 1.45 mg of
monochloramine. These are disinfectants that are used
to kill any dangerous bacteria or micro-organisms
78
that may enter the water supply. The amount

of disinfectant added to the water varies widely
depending on a number of factors. For example, in
summer, the warmer water tends to allow bacteria
and microbes to increase faster, so more disinfectant
is added to kill them. Fluoride is also added to help
prevent tooth decay.
Would you drink this water?

Would you like your water to
come out of the tap looking like
this? Would you bathe or shower
in it? Imagine your clothes after
washing them!
The cloudiness of the muddy
water is caused by tiny clay
particles. Muddy water is an
example of a colloid. A colloid
is a cloudy mixture that contains
suspended particles too small to
be removed by filtering.
Country water supplies

If you live in a country town, your water probably
comes from a nearby river or lake. It is quite likely
you would not want to drink that water unless it
had been purified. Many country towns have their
own water treatment plants. Water is pumped
from the river or lake into the treatment plant. The
cloudy water contains mud and other substances in
suspension, which can be settled out of the water by a
process called flocculation.
The suspended particles would take a long time
to settle if the water were just left standing, and so
the chemical alum (potassium aluminium sulfate) is
added to the cloudy water to make the small particles
clump together. These clumps are called floc. The floc
is heavy enough to settle to the bottom of the tank
and form a sediment. The water above the sediment is
clear and flows off to the filtering stage.
After flocculation, the clear water is filtered through
sand and gravel to remove any leftover suspended
substances in the water. Chlorine is added to kill
harmful bacteria. The purified water is then pumped
to the local water tower, which then supplies the town
with drinking water.
Add two drops of bleach (which
InveStIgatIon 3.8
Treating your own dirty water
You will need:
muddy water (muddy water
made with clay is best)
alum (aluminium sulfate)
limewater
bleach
flowerpot
tripod
sand
gravel
two 250 mL beakers
stirring rod
Muddy
water
mixture
contains chlorine) to your filtrate.
DiSCuSSion
1
Sand
Flowerpot
Gravel
Tripod
Add half a teaspoon of alum
Beaker
and 10 drops of limewater.
Filtrate
(water)
Stir the water to mix the
A flowerpot water filter
allow the water to stand and the

floc to settle to the bottom.
Add gravel and sand to the
flowerpot to make the water filter

as shown in the diagram above.
activities
RemembeR
1 identify the chemicals that are
added to Sydney s water and
explain why they are added.
2 explain why chlorine is added to
water.
3 Recall five substances that can
contaminate drinking water.
Think
4 If you live in a country town that
does not fluoridate the water,
describe how you could obtain your
fluoride.
5 Describe a natural method of
separating mixtures that takes
place in reservoirs over a long
period of time.
Treatment
stage
Description of
water
Water after
occulation
into the beaker.
Once you can see the floc forming,
Treating dirty water
Untreated water
Pour 150 mL muddy water
chemicals and allow the

floc to form.
Use a table like the one below

to describe your water at each
stage of the process. Include
the appearance and odour of the
water.
Decant the water from the beaker
into your water filter. Collect the

filtrate in a clean beaker.
6 At Taronga Zoo in Sydney, the

seal pool s water is chlorinated to
a maximum of 1 part per million,
which is less than the amount in
swimming pools. explain why such
a small amount of chlorine is added
to the water.
inveSTigaTe
7 Waste water in Taronga Zoo is
generated by:
hosing down animal exhibits
filling animal and ornamental
moats
flushing toilets
irrigating lawns.
In 1998, it became the rst zoo in
the world to recycle its own waste
water. investigate the methods it
uses to recycle the water.
Water after
ltering
Water after
chlorination
2
Which separation techniques did

you use to purify the water?
Prepare a series of picture

diagrams to explain the steps
you have taken to purify the
water.
vacuumed using a pool vacuum

cleaner. investigate how this type of
vacuum cleaner works.
9 The seal pool at Taronga Zoo is
also contaminated by the seals
own waste (the seals sewage).
investigate how the amount of seal
waste going into the main seal pool
is minimised.
10 Compare the different brands of
water filters available. Report on
their cost, efficiency and ease
of use. Also explain why people
consider the use of these filters to
be necessary.
work
sheet
3.6 Water treatment
8 The seal pool at Taronga Zoo

and many swimming pools are
79
LooKIng BaCK
1 Copy and complete the table below to summarise what you
know about separation techniques.
Method
An example of
its use
How it works
Filtration
7 Describe what properties allow the following substances to

be separated from a mixture.
(a) Peas from a mixture of peas and water
(b) Oil from a mixture of oil and water
(c) Gold particles from a mixture of sand and creek water
(d) Cream from cow s milk
Decanting
Crystallisation
Distillation
Centrifuging
Separating funnel
Chromatography
2 You have been asked to analyse some salt-contaminated
soil and to propose a method for separating the salt from
the soil.
(a) Write out the method that you would use to obtain pure
dry salt and pure dry soil.
(b) Draw a labelled diagram showing how your equipment
would be set up for each stage of your separation.
3 During an experiment, a teacher accidentally dropped
some steel drawing pins into a bowl of sugar. Propose two
methods that could be used to remove the drawing pins
from the sugar. Briefly explain each method.
4 Black instant coffee is a mixture of coffee powder and hot
water. Identify which substance is:
(a) the solute
(b) the solvent
(c) the solution.
5 The diagram below shows a mixture being filtered in a
school laboratory.
(a) Identify each of the items or substances labelled
(i) to (vii).
(i)
(v)
(vi)
(ii)
(vii)
(iv)
(b) Explain the purpose of the stirring rod.

6 Pasta is cooked by boiling it in water. It sinks to the bottom
of the saucepan when it is left to stand.
8 Recall one good reason why each of the following objects

or substances should not be tipped down the sink or
flushed in a toilet.
(a) Fat and oil
(b) Cotton buds
(c) Oven cleaner
9 Assess whether each of the following statements is true. If
the statement is false, replace the word in italics with the
correct word.
(a) Chromatography can be used to separate substances
with different solubilities.
(b) The heavier parts of a mixture are forced to the outer
edge of a centrifuge when it spins.
(c) Suspensions contain soluble particles in a liquid.
(d) A suspension can be separated in a centrifuge.
(e) Milk is a solution.
(f) Emulsions are a type of colloid.
10 Explain why blood collected from the Red Cross Blood
Service needs to be separated before it is used.
11 Describe the purpose of an S-bend in a kitchen sink pipe.
12 Identify which of the following separation techniques are
used in a water treatment plant. You may select more than
one answer.
A Filtration
B Chromatography
C Centrifuging
D Sedimentation
E Crystallisation
13 Oil floats on water. When detergent is added, the oil forms
droplets in the water that do not settle. What type of
mixture has been formed? Justify your answer.
(iii)
80
(a) Identify what type of mixture the pasta and water is.
(b) Describe two different methods that could be used to
separate the pasta.
(c) Which of the two techniques is best for separating the
pasta and water? Explain your answer.
14 Blue-green algae has grown in a lake. It forms a fine,

green suspension in the water. The local council wants to
make the water clear again so that fish and other living
organisms can safely inhabit the lake. Propose a method
that you would use to solve the local council s problem.
Remember, your method should not harm the fish already in
the lake.
TeST YouRSeLF
1 Identify which of the following substances is a mixture.
A Gold
B Distilled water
C Air
D Carbon dioxide gas
(1 mark)
2 Identify what would be the best method to use to separate
iron filings from a mixture of sand, iron filings and salt.
A Filtering
B Magnetic separation
C Sieving
D Add water to the mixture and then filter it.
(1 mark)
An ocean of salt
Salt has been used by civilisations for centuries to
preserve meats, cure hides, make cheese and other
foods and as flavouring in cooking. Salt was essential
for life. Some communities even used salt instead
of money as a form of payment. A community grew
wealthy from its ability to produce salt.
Salt was mined from the ground, in the form of
rock salt, or collected from sea water. The sea water,
sometimes called brine, was evaporated and the salt
collected. The brine was either heated over a wood
fire or collected in shallow pools and left to heat in
the sun.
There s a whole ocean out there
full of salt
we just need to get it out of the water! , Marco
remembered his grandfather saying. Marco lived
during ancient Roman times. He lived in a town off
the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Marco himself
now worked in the business his grandfather had
started. He, too, marvelled at how he used the sun
and winds to separate salt from sea water.
3 A sample of muddy river water can be described as

A an emulsion.
B a solution.
C a colloid.
D a suspension.
(1 mark)
4 Centrifuging works best to separate substances with
particles that have different
A solubilities.
B masses.
C colours.
D temperatures.
(1 mark)
5 Read the story at right and use the information to answer
the questions below.
(a) Write down what you think Marco would have said to
his son. Explain the two methods clearly.
(3 marks)
(b) Propose three questions that would Flavius have asked
in return.
(3 marks)
(c) Extension
Construct a flow chart that shows the
steps involved in each salt harvest process using
appropriate scientific terminology to describe changes
of state and separation techniques.
Spend some time researching ancient methods of
salt separation before creating your flow chart. If using
the internet, use search words such as ancient salt
production , Roman times salt or salt evaporation .
work
sheets
3.7 Separating mixtures puzzle

3.8 Separating mixtures summary
This day was special; it marked the day his son,

Flavius, would first work at the salt business. As
they reached the hill, they smelled smoke from the
wood fires and looked out over the flat natural basin
where salty water collected in
shallow pools. Flavius
saw that the smoke was
from fires burning under
large rectangular lead
pans. Marco turned to his
son and explained the two
ways they separated salt from
sea water.
81
StUDY CHeCKLISt
ICt
mixtures
eBook plus
distinguish between pure substances and mixtures and

give examples of each
3.1
recall that a mixture can be separated according to

specific properties of its components
3.1
identify some common mixtures 3.1, 3.2
SUMMaRY
eLessons
Centrifuging
Learn how to separate a solid from a liquid using a centrifuge
in a step-by-step process as a scientist demonstrates how to
separate lead oxide from water.
Solutions
identify the solute and solvent in common solutions 3.2
appreciate that water is a common solvent in
solutions
3.2, 3.3, 3.5
distinguish between solutions and suspensions 3.2

define the terms colloid and emulsion 3.2
Separating suspensions
describe the processes of filtering, sieving, decanting
and centrifuging 3.3
compare the effectiveness and limitations of these
processes 3.3
describe common household uses of these separation
techniques 3.3
recall how filtering and centrifuging are used in the
isolation of blood products 3.4
Separating solutions
describe the processes of distillation, evaporation,
crystallisation and chromatography
3.5
explain how distillation and evaporation may be used to

purify water
3.5

Distillation
Watch a scientist guide you through the process of distillation,
which can be used to turn salty water into pure water.
Treating sewage
Be swept down the plug hole and learn about the processes of
sewage treatment, as well as the many uses of recycled water in
Australia. A worksheet is attached to further your understanding.
interactivities
describe the processes used to separate materials in
recycling plants
3.1
describe the processes by which sewage is treated 3.6

evaluate the appropriateness of current sewage
treatment systems
Time Out mixtures

This exciting interactivity challenges you to identify whether
a series of liquid mixtures are suspensions, solutions or
emulsions. You must answer quickly before your time runs out.
3.6
appreciate that water often needs treating before it is

drinkable
3.7
recall common contaminants found in water 3.7

identify chemicals that are often added to water
supplies and their purpose 3.7
describe how blood is separated into its
components 3.4

Filtration
This interactivity tests your skills in recognising which commonly
used mixtures can be separated by the process of filtration.
82
Classification
The Great Barrier Reef

is home to thousands
of species of plants
and animals. But
how much do we know about them?
The first step in learning about an
organism is to classify it and give
it a name. By sorting living things
into groups, we can find out which
species are closely related and begin
to understand more about them.

4.1
learn about the characteristics of
living things
4.2
construct and use dichotomous
keys
4.3
learn about classification
hierarchy
4.4
differentiate between vertebrates
and invertebrates
4.5
vertebrate groups
4.6
learn about the three groups of
Australian mammals
4.7
investigate the work of some
Australian scientists in the field

of classification
4.8
invertebrate groups
4.9
investigate useful and harmful
microbes
4.10
learn about classification in other
cultures.
A classification system helps us sort

living things into groups and begin to
understand more about them.
4 Classification
Thinking about classification
Classifying means putting things into groups. You
classify things all the time. For example, when you
organise your school bag, you are classifying things:
Which types of items do you put in your pencil
case?
Which items go in your sports bag?
What goes in your wallet?
What do you store in your lunch box?
Do you use particular parts of your school bag to
store certain items?
1. Imagine that the contents of all the bags you take to
school were tipped onto the floor. Write down some
rules that would help your friends decide what to
put where in your school bag; for example, all the
things you can use to write go in the pencil case.
2. The pictures below show some living things found
in the ocean. Work with a partner. Organise the
living things first into two groups, and then into
three groups. Present your answer in the form of a
table.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Compare your answer with the students next to

you. Did you use the same criteria to classify the
living things?
One of the pictures below shows coral. Is coral
actually a living thing? What features make
something living rather than non-living?
Which picture(s) shows a fish? Justify (give reasons
for) your answer.
What features does an animal need to be classified
as a fish?
What features does a living thing need to be
classified into each of the following groups?
(a) Plant
(b) Insect
(c) Mammal
(d) Homo sapiens (human)
C
E
F
4.1
Is it alive?
Classification means sorting things into groups.
We can sort all things into two groups: living and
non-living.
Trees are living things but rocks are not. What
about a piece of bark that has fallen from the tree,
or some lichen growing on the rock? Are they living
things? To find out, we need to consider the following
characteristics.
move
Many living things move independently. That means
that they can move without having something
pushing or pulling them. Animals move in many
different ways. Some walk or run, some swim and
some fly. The movement of plants is less obvious.
Certain plants can open and close their flowers; others
such as sunflowers turn towards the sun. Movement is
not an essential feature of living things. Some living
things such as lichen and some bacteria cannot move
independently.
Screaming is one way to respond to something frightening.
Respire
All living things need energy to survive. Most
living things get their energy from a process called
respiration. This is a chemical reaction where glucose
reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and
water. Energy is released in the process. Animals get
the glucose they need for respiration from the food
they eat. Plants make glucose using a process called
photosynthesis.
Glucose
Oxygen
Jellyfish can propel themselves through the water.
Respond
All living things respond to changes in their
environment. Humans shiver if it is cold and run
away if they can see danger ahead. Plants grow
towards light and close the pores in their leaves when
it is hot. Kangaroos lie in the shade on hot days and
lick their forearms to keep cool.
Mitochondrion
Carbon
dioxide
Water
Energy
Respiration
4 Classification 85
Assimilate
Excrete
Living things assimilate (take in and process)

substances.
Animals assimilate food. They eat food. The food is
then broken down inside their bodies and chemicals
from the food, such as glucose, amino acids and
vitamins, are used for various processes inside the body.
Plants do not eat food. When they photosynthesise,
they can make their own food using sunlight.
However, plants do assimilate some substances,
including water and minerals from the soil and
carbon dioxide from the air.
Organisms produce and excrete (get rid of) waste.

Humans breathe out carbon dioxide, which is a waste
product of respiration, and urine, a waste product of
the breakdown of proteins. We also excrete water and
salts in the form of sweat.
Just like animals, plants respire throughout
the day and night. During the day, plants also
photosynthesise. This process uses carbon dioxide and
releases oxygen. So, during the day, plants actually
excrete oxygen.
A dog excreting waste
Reproduce
Animals assimilate food.
Grow
Organisms grow and develop as they age. Some living
things grow throughout their whole life. Humans,
elephants and other animals grow until they reach a
certain height, and then they stop growing.
As they get older, organisms may
change in ways other than just
increasing in size. Tadpoles lose
their tails and grow legs as they
turn into frogs. Caterpillars
become butterflies,
and male lions
grow a mane
as they reach
adulthood.
Humans grow rapidly in
their first year of life.
86
All living things reproduce. They can make copies of

themselves. Bacteria and other single-celled organisms
reproduce by dividing into two. In some cases, two
organisms (a male and a female) are needed for
reproduction. The
male and female
both produce sex
cells, which need
to combine to
produce a new
living thing. The sex
cells of mammals
are called eggs
and sperm. They
combine to start
a new life. Plants
can reproduce
in a number of
ways. Some plants
produce seeds
as part of their
reproductive cycle.
When animals have babies, they are
reproducing.
is it non-living
or dead?
Something that is dead was
once living. At some stage, it had
all the features of living things
but it has now stopped living. A
squashed fly, the plant you forgot
to water and the egg you had for
breakfast are all dead. Non-living
things do not have and never
have had all the characteristics of
living things. A Tamagochi, a car
and a stereo all have some of the
features of living things but they
lack important features such as
the ability to reproduce. They are
non-living.
hiroshi ishiguro has designed

robots that are so life like they
are often confused for humans.
he teaches at a university in
Japan. The university is one
hour away from his home so,
to avoid travelling to and from
work, he has made a robot that
looks just like him. he controls
the robot remotely from home
and his own voice comes out
of the robot s mouth. it usually
takes a little while for his
students to work out whether
they are being taught by hiroshi
or his robot. The robot is so like
a human that many people find
themselves apologising to the
robot if they stare at it for a
little too long.
Hiroshi Ishiguro and his robot twin
InveStIgAtIon 4.1
Construct another table the same
living, non-living or dead
as the one on the left but replace

the bilbies with
(a) paper
(b) fire
(c) a tree.
Copy and complete the table below.
Complete the table.
discussion
1
Which of the three bilbies is

non-living? Which
characteristics does it have?
Responds to changes in
its environment
Which of the three bilbies is

dead? Which characteristics
does it have?
Respires (uses oxygen

to process glucose and
release energy)
Which, of the paper, fire and tree,

is non-living?
Does the living thing have all of

the characteristics listed?
Which characteristics does

the living thing have that the
non-living thing does not?
Characteristics
Robo-bilby
(electronic toy)
Bilby
Bilby fossil
Can move
Assimilates (takes in)

substances such as food
and water
Grows and develops as it
gets older
Produces and excretes
waste
Reproduces itself
4 Classification 87
Activities
REmEmbER
Orchid
1 Match each of the words in column 1 with its correct

meaning from column 2.
Word
Kookaburra
Meaning
(a) Respire
A Make more copies of itself
(b) Grow
B React to a change in the environment
(c) Assimilate
C Get bigger
(d) Reproduce
D Take in and process substances
Roast
dinner
Sun
(e) Move
E Get rid of waste
independently
(f) Respond
F Get energy, usually by a chemical

reaction between glucose and oxygen
(g) Excrete
G Change position from one place to

another without being pushed or
pulled
Leaf
Boat
Water
Tomato
Glass
of
milk
2 Imagine that a funnel-web spider walked across your

desk right now. outline three ways in which your body
would respond.
Banana
3 Most living things need oxygen to survive. Explain why.

4 The words respiration and breathing are often
confused. Explain the difference between these two
terms.
5 outline how each of the following reproduces.
(a) Magpie
(b) Eucalyptus tree
(c) Bacteria
6 Recall three waste products that humans excrete.
7 distinguish between dead things and non-living things.
Think And discuss

8 If we put together the first letters of the characteristics
of living things (move, respond, respire, assimilate,
grow, excrete, reproduce), they spell Mr Rager . Think
of another way to remember the characteristics of
living things. For example, you might find a sentence
where each word starts with the first letter of one of the
characteristics of living things.
9 Use Venn diagrams or double bubble maps to compare
and contrast the features of living, non-living and dead
things. Compare only two things at a time.
10 (a) classify each of the items shown in the following
drawings as living, non-living or dead. Present your
answer as a table.
(b) Which of the things were difficult to classify? Why?
(c) For the items you classified as non-living or dead,
list the characteristics of living things they do not
display.
88
Boiled egg
Emu egg
Living, non-living or dead?
11 Non-living things often have some, but not all, of the

features of living things. identify the features of living
things that the following share.
(a) Hot-air balloon
(b) Television set
eBook plus
12 Robots are becoming increasingly life like. Use the

Asimo robot weblink in your eBookPLUS to find out
about the Asimo robot and the androids designed by
Hiroshi Ishiguro.
(a) In what ways are these robots like living things? In
what ways are they different?
(b) What can the Asimo robot do? How could robots
such as Asimo be used to help humans in the future?
(c) Which features make the androids designed by
Hiroshi Ishiguro so life like?
work
sheets
4.1 Is it alive?
4.2 Creatures from a parallel universe
4.3 Responding
4.2
Identification keys
Once the features of an organism
have been noted, the information
can be used to identify it using
identification keys.
branch (dichotomous = cutting

in two ). It shows how some farm
animals may be divided on the
basis of similarities and differences
in their features.
dichotomous keys
Features such as size, colour,

behaviour and habitat are not
good for classification because they
can change throughout the life of
the organism. Using the structure
of an organism is much better.
The information that is used to

classify organisms is sometimes put
into a key. The key shown below is
called a dichotomous key, because
there are only two choices at each
Has four legs

Does not have four legs
Has hooves
Does not have hooves

Has a red comb
Has a woolly coat
Does not have a red comb
Does not have a woolly coat
Has four toes on

each foot
Does not have four

toes on each foot
In a dichotomous key, you always select from

two choices. In this key, you decide whether
or not an organism has a particular feature.
4 Classification 89
InveStIgAtIon 4.2
making a class key
You will need:
tape measures or string and rulers
Measure, observe and record at
least 10 different characteristics

for each member of the class. You
may like to include some of the
following:
wrist size (cm)
distance from elbow to shoulder
(cm)
foot length (cm)
height (cm)
The dichotomous key at right

is a branching key. Such keys are
quite easy to create but, if there are
many organisms to classify, they
take up a lot of space.
Another way of presenting a
dichotomous key is in tabular
format. To change a branching key
into a tabular key, you just give
each fork of the dichotomous key
a number. This number becomes
the step number in your tabular
key. The diagrams on this page
show the same key presented as
a branching key at right and a
tabular key below.
Have someone from outside the
eye colour
hair colour
wears watch
pierced ears
class use the key to find the identity

of one of the class members.
Have each member of the class
discussion
select a secret code name.

Use some of these recorded class
characteristics to construct a key

(tree map or dichotomous key) that
will separate as many individuals
(using their code name) as possible.
(Hint: You may find it best to
describe measurements as greater
than or less than a particular
measurement).
Wings
How successful was your key?
If you were to do the activity

again, what would you do
differently to improve its
success?
Were some characteristics of

more use than others? Explain.
No wings
Pterosaurus
Bony plates on back
No bony plates on back
Stegosaurus
Horns
No horns
Triceratops
A branching key
Walks on two legs
Walks on four legs
Tyrannosaurus
Apatosaurus
B
C
A
1. Wings ....................................Pterosaurus
No wings ....................................... Go to 2
2. Bony plates on back ......... Stegosaurus
No bony plates on back ............. Go to 3
3. Horns.......................................Triceratops
No horns........................................ Go to 4
4. Walks on two legs ......... Tyrannosaurus
Walks on four legs ............Apatosaurus
A tabular key
90
Circular keys
Circular keys are also very useful.
To read a circular key, start in the
middle and work outwards. As
you go, choose one of the options
given at each layer. When you get
to the outer layer of the circle, you
will have identied the organism.
The diagram on the right shows
the same information as the key
on page 89, but it is presented as a
circular key.
Sheep
Has a
woolly coat
Pig
Has four
toes on
each foot
Does
not
Does
have
Horse not have woollya
four toes
on each coat
foot
Duck
Does
not
have
a red
Does comb
Has
hooves
Has
four
legs
not
have
four
legs
Farm
animals
Does
not
have
hooves
Has
a red
comb
Rabbit
Rooster
A circular key
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall what a dichotomous key
is used for. Why is it called
dichotomous?
2 Propose why keys are sometimes
presented in tabular rather than
branching format.
THINK AND DISCUSS

3 Use the key on the previous page to
classify the dinosaurs labelled A, B,
C, D and E.
4 Imagine that you have landed on
another planet. Weird creatures live
there. You noted the characteristics
of some that you saw and prepared
the circular key shown at right. Use
it to help you classify the creatures
A and B you have just found, shown
here.
Googly
Rosy snoz
Huge
red nose
Four eyes
No
antennae
Eight arms
Frog
conk Little
green Six
nose arms
Four
legs
One
leg
Zotter
One
eye
Plant
Four
anten- Two head
nae eyes
Alien
Forked Two Three
legs
tongue arms
Splitz
Four arms
Big floppy
tongue
Slobber
Claws
Long
Dragon
tail
No
claws
Bloop
Two
legs
Short tail
Sharp teeth
Chomper
5 Construct a tabular key using the

branching key on page 89.
6 Collect a leaf from each of eight
different plants in the school
grounds.
(a) On an A3 sheet of paper, create
a branching dichotomous key to
classify the leaves.
(b) Construct the key in your
exercise book as a tabular key.
work
sheets
4.4 Branching keys

4.5 Tabular keys
4 Classification 91
4.3
In a class of its own

Imagine how difficult it would be to identify one of
the millions of living things in the world if people
couldn t agree on one system for classifying (or
grouping) them. Fortunately, there is a worldwide
classification system that most scientists do agree
on. It groups living things according to the structural
features they have in common. Structural features
include skull shape, teeth, number of legs, as well as
the structure of the cells that they are made from.
Why classify things into groups?
ANIMALIA
92
TAE
AN
PL
MON
ER
A
Classifying things into groups makes them easier to

remember, describe and identify. For example, if you
went to a supermarket to buy cornflakes, it would take
you ages if the products in the supermarket were not
classified into groups. Because cornflakes are classified
as a breakfast cereal, you know where to look.
Scientific curiosity has resulted in the
discovery of an increasing number of
living things. This has led to the
increased need to classify living
things into groups. All living
things are called organisms. If
you were to find an unknown
organism, you could describe
it on the basis of the sorts
of features it shares with
members of a particular
group. However, it is not
always easy to decide which
group an organism fits
into. For example, a French
poodle looks very different
from a sheepdog but they
are both dogs. A wolf looks
very much like a dog, yet it is
not a dog.
Today, almost two million
living things have been classified
PR
by scientists. Back in the
OT
eighteenth century, as scientists
IS
TA
were exploring new worlds
and finding new examples to
classify, they used a simple
system
an organism
was either in the plant kingdom or the animal

kingdom. Eventually, living things were discovered
that did not fit easily into these two groups. A new
system was needed. Carl Linnaeus (1707 1778),
a Swedish biologist, came up with a system that
allows all living things to be classified on the basis
of their similarities and differences. The original
system developed by Linnaeus had three main
kingdoms. Since then, scientists have learned more,
and now use five kingdoms, plus extra groups for
viruses, viroids and prions. It is likely that this
system will continue to evolve as new discoveries
are made.
The five kingdoms
UN
I
G
The five kingdoms
classification hierarchy
The five kingdoms that most

scientists recognise
today are Animalia, Plantae,
Monera, Protista and Fungi.
Animalia contains many groups
including worms, molluscs, fish,
frogs, insects, reptiles, birds and
mammals (such as dogs, camels
and humans). They are complex
organisms made up of many, often
millions, of cells. They obtain food
by eating or absorbing other living
(alive or dead) things.
Plantae includes mosses, grasses,
flowering plants, shrubs and
trees. They are made up of many
cells that contain chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll allows plants to use
the energy of sunlight to make
their own food from carbon
dioxide and water. Oxygen is
released as a waste product. This
food-making process is called
photosynthesis.
Fungi includes mushrooms,
toadstools, moulds, mildew and
yeasts. They are usually made up
of many cells, but some have only
one cell. Unlike plants, they have
no true leaves, flowers or stems
and do not photosynthesise. They
obtain their food by growing on
other dead or living organisms.
Protista includes single-celled
organisms that have a nucleus.
Amoeba and Euglena belong to this
group. They live mostly in water.
Monera includes bacteria
and cyanobacteria. They are the
simplest organisms on Earth,
being made up of one cell.
Most get their food from other
organisms such as dead animals
and plants. Some bacteria cause
disease; other bacteria are used to
make foods such as yoghurt. In
chapter 15, you will find out more
about the differences between the
five kingdoms at the cellular level.
Kingdom is the highest level of

classification. It can be broken
down into smaller groups called
phyla, which in turn can be broken
down into groups called classes.
Classes are made up of orders
that themselves may contain a
number of families. Families can
be made up of a number of genera.
( Genera is the plural of genus.)
Each genus may include a number
of species.
Kingdoms are
very large groups
that contain many
species. A genus
is a much smaller
group. It contains
only a few species.
Species that
belong to the
same genus are
very similar.
A species is
defined as a group
of organisms that
can interbreed and
produce fertile offspring. When a
species is given a scientific name,
the name consists of two words:

the genus name followed by the
species name.
sometimes, animals from different

species interbreed, although the
offspring they produce are usually not
fertile. for example, a horse and a
donkey can mate to produce a mule.
however, the mule cannot reproduce;
it is not fertile. A lion and a tiger can
mate to produce a liger.
A liger is the result of a tiger and a

lion interbreeding.
House cat
Animalia
Chordata
Tomato
kingdom
phylum or division
Plantae
Magnoliophyta
Mammalia
class
Magnoliopsida
Carnivora
order
Solanales
Felidae
family
Solanaceae
elis
genus
ycopersicon
catus
species
lycopersicum
Phylum for Kingdom Animalia

Division for Kingdom Plantae
How living things are classified, using the Linnaean system
4 Classification 93
Activities
(c) Chimpanzees and humans are closely related.

Which of the groups listed in the table do chimps
belong to?
REmEmbER
1 define the term organism .
2 In the eighteenth century, which two kingdoms were
used to classify all organisms?
Classification
3 identify the kingdoms that:

(a) consist mostly of multicellular organisms
(multicellular = made up of more than one cell)
(b) consist only of unicellular organisms
(unicellular = made up of only one cell).
Kingdom
Animalia
Made up of more than

one cell; eat food
Phylum
Vertebrate
Have backbone
Class
Mammal
Have hair or fur; feed its

young milk
Order
Primates
Have opposable thumb;

nails instead of claws;
binocular vision
Family
Homidae
Arms shorter than legs;

nails attened; upright
stance
Genus
Homo
Walk upright on feet

only; care for young for
a long time
Species
sapiens
Large brain; can talk

and think abstractly;
have complex social
structures
4 identify the five kingdoms that are now recognised, and

give two examples of organisms that belong to each
kingdom.
Group
5 List the levels of classification in order from the highest

level to the lowest level.
6 define the term species .
7 A species name is made up of two words. What do these
words indicate?
Think
8 A mnemonic is a trick that can be used to remember a
list of words. For example, the following mnemonic can
be used to remember the levels of classification:
King
Kingdom
Phil
Phylum
Classed
Class
Ordinary
Order
Families as
Family
Generous and
Genus
Special
Species
Create another mnemonic to remember the levels of
classification. You could use just the first letter of each
level rather than the first syllable.
9 describe one way in which members of the kingdom
Fungi are different from members of the kingdom
Plantae.
10 classify each of the following organisms into its kingdom:
dog, whale, wattle tree, mould, grass, spider, ant,
jellyfish, bacteria, clover, yeast, moss.
11 The full classification for humans is shown below.
(a) identify which group contains more living things, the
kingdom Animalia or the order Primates.
(b) Dogs belong to the kingdom Animalia; they are
vertebrate and they are also mammals. Use the table
to list some characteristics that dogs and humans
have in common.
94
What all living things

in the group have
in common
icT
12 Search the internet to find more information (including
pictures) about each of the five kingdoms. Use this
information to construct, on a sheet of A3 paper, your
own kingdom wheel similar to that on page 92.
eBook plus
13 Use the Inspiration weblink in your eBookPLUS to

download a trial copy of this visual thinking and learning
software. Use the program to create a dichotomous
key that can be used to sort organisms into the five
kingdoms.
14 Test your ability to classify the world s living creatures by
completing the Time Out kingdom interactivity in your
eBookPLUS. int-0204
work
sheet
4.6 Five kingdom classification
4.4
Which animal is that?

Animals can be most easily grouped on the basis of
whether they have an internal skeleton, an external
skeleton or no skeleton at all. Animals with internal
skeletons or backbones are grouped together and
called vertebrates. Animals with external skeletons or
no skeletons are called invertebrates.
Only five per cent of animals are vertebrates
whereas 95 per cent are invertebrates. Most of the
invertebrates are insects.
Endoskeletons and exoskeletons

Did you know that 75 per cent of all animals in the
world have a skeleton on the outside of the body?
These external skeletons are called exoskeletons.
They may be thick and hard like those of crabs and
lobsters or as thin and tough as those of ants and
centipedes. As these animals grow, they sometimes
moult or discard their old exoskeleton before growing
a bigger one.
with an endoskeleton are connected onto the outside

of the skeleton. The human endoskeleton is an
internal skeleton that is made of bone or cartilage and
covered in muscle and skin.
no skeleton at all
Some animals, such as worms and jellyfish, have no
skeleton at all. The body is supported by the pressure
of fluid within it. What do you think would happen
if a lot of fluid was lost? How can animals without
skeletons move?
Earthworms expand and contract their bodies to
burrow through the soil. They use two sets of muscles
to do this. One set of muscles wraps around the
body. When these contract, the body becomes long
and thin, enabling the worm to poke into crevices
in the soil. The second set of muscles runs along the
length of the body. When these contract, the worm
becomes short and fat. This helps to anchor the worm
in place, pushing the soil apart to form a burrow. By
shortening the rest of its body, the worm pulls itself
up and moves through the soil.
The largest animal on Earth, the blue whale, feeds on some of

the smallest animals on Earth. Every day in the summer feeding
season, an average-sized blue whale eats up to 4 tonnes of tiny
animals like those shown below.
Crabs have
exoskeletons.
Frogs have
endoskeletons made of
bone or cartilage.
Although exoskeletons are good for jumping

and swimming, they do not allow flexibility for the
twisting and turning actions that are possible for
animals with an inside skeleton (endoskeleton). In an
animal with an exoskeleton, the muscles are attached
inside the skeleton, whereas the muscles in an animal
4 Classification 95
ANIMALS
Has no backbone
Has a backbone
INVERTEBRATES
VERTEBRATES
Legs with
joints
No legs
Body temperature
is constant
Body temperature
is not constant
ARTHROPODS
(e.g. ant, scorpion,
butterfly)
Has lungs
when fully
grown
Body covered
with a shell
or rough
spiny skin
Soft body usually
covered with a shell
ECHINODERMS
(e.g. sea urchin)
Body not
covered
with a shell
or rough
spiny skin
FISH
Body covered with

a rough, spiny skin
MOLLUSCS
(e.g. oyster, slug,
octopus)
Moist skin
with no
scales
Scaly
skin
AMPHIBIANS
(e.g. frog)
REPTILES
(e.g. crocodile, lizard)
Has
tentacles
Has no
tentacles
Has
feathers
Has no
feathers
CNIDARIANS
(e.g. jellyfish,
anemone)
WORMS(a)
(e.g. earthworm,
leech)
BIRDS
MAMMALS
(a) See page 105 for more information

on worms.
Activities
REmEmbER
1 describe the difference between
vertebrates and invertebrates.
2 define the terms exoskeleton and
endoskeleton .
3 identify the largest group of animals
with an exoskeleton.
Think
4 identify which group of animals is
the more common
vertebrates or
invertebrates.
5 Is a snail a vertebrate or an
invertebrate? Explain your answer.
96
Has gills
when fully
grown
PORIFERA
(sponge)
Classification of vertebrates and invertebrates

into their main groups
6 Worms have muscles around and

along their bodies. These allow
them to become long and thin one
moment and shorter and fatter the
next. propose how this might help
them move through the soil.
7 The key above starts by dividing
animals into those with and without
a backbone. propose at least one
other way to divide them into two
groups.
8 For the following group of animals
dolphin, slug, beetle, horse, dog,
jellyfish, spider, ant
select a
characteristic to divide it into:
(a) two groups
(b) three groups.
Explain your choice of characteristic
in each case.
9 interpret the dichotomous key

above to answer the following
questions.
(a) identify which group each
of the following animals
belongs to.
(i) One with a backbone and a
changing body temperature
and that has gills
(ii) One with no backbone, legs
or covering shell and that
has tentacles with stinging
cells
(b) Work through the key
backwards to identify as many
characteristics as you can
for:
(i) birds
(ii) molluscs
(iii) reptiles.
4.5
vertebrates
If you were asked to very quickly write down the
names of ten animals, you would probably come
up with the names of ten vertebrates. Even though
most of the animals that live on Earth do not have
a backbone (they are invertebrates), we tend to be
more familiar with the vertebrates, the animals that
do have a backbone. This may be because humans are
vertebrates but also because many vertebrates are big
animals and very difficult to ignore.
Vertebrates have the following characteristics:
a rod in their back called a notochord. In
developing animals (embryos), the notochord is
made of cartilage. Cartilage is softer than bone. Your
nose and ears are made of cartilage. As animals
develop, the notochord is replaced by a hollow tube
called the vertebral column. It is made up of parts
called vertebrae. Vertebrae are usually made of bone
but, in sharks and some other fish, they are made of
cartilage.
a nerve cord that runs through

the middle of the vertebral
column
muscles attached to the
vertebrae
a brain protected by plates
made of bone or cartilage
(a skull)
bones or cartilage in other parts
of their bodies and muscles that
are attached to these.
Vertebra
The backbone is not a single bone.

It is made up of many small bones called
vertebrae. The vertebrae are stacked on
top of each other to form a hollow column
called the vertebral column.
Spinal cord
Nerve
Dimetrodon was a meat-eating pelycosaur. The pelycosaurs

were the most successful reptiles of the permian period.
They looked like big lizards with huge sail-like fins on their
backs. The pelycosaurs used this sail to regulate their body
temperature. They could stand in the early morning sun with
the sail arranged towards the sun to warm them up. They
could turn it into the wind to cool off. it is thought that this
fin arrangement was an early stage in the development of
temperature regulation of mammals.
Vertebra
The spinal cord runs through the middle of the vertebral column.
The body
temperature of
poikilothermic animals varies
with their environment, but it
stays relatively constant
in homeothermic
animals.
Dimetrodon
a mammal-like reptile
vertebrate groups
Vertebrates can be divided up into five

main groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds and mammals. The fish group is
actually made up of a number of groups
including the bony fishes and the cartilaginous
fishes (fish with a skeleton made of cartilage).
Some important differences between the groups
of vertebrates are their body covering, their mode of
reproduction and whether they are endotherms or
ectotherms. Reptiles and fish have scales covering their
bodies, birds are covered in feathers, mammals have
4 Classification 97
hair or fur and amphibians have

moist skin. Most vertebrates hatch
out of eggs. Birds produce eggs
with a hard shell. Reptile eggs have
a leathery shell whereas amphibian
and fish eggs lack a shell and dry
out unless they are in water. Most
mammals, except monotremes, do
s3KINWITHHAIRORFUR
s &EMALESWITH
MAMMARYGLANDS
THATSECRETEMILK
s#ONSTANTBODY
TEMPERATURE
7ALLABY
POSSUM
ECHIDNA
DOG
HUMAN
DOLPHIN
WHALE
%XAMPLES
not hatch out of eggs. Mammals

have another important difference
they feed their babies milk.
All vertebrates except mammals
and birds are ectotherms. That
means that they do not maintain
a constant body temperature.
Lizards are ectotherms. On cold
+OOKABURRA
EMU
PENGUIN
COCKATOO
GALAH
PARROT
SEAGULL
%XAMPLES
s3KINWITH
FEATHERS
s%GGSWITHHARD
SHELL
s"EAKFORFEEDING
s#ONSTANTBODY
TEMPERATURE
s3KINWITHSCALES
s%GGSWITH
MEMBRANOUSOR
LEATHERYSHELLSLAID
ONLAND
s,UNGSFORBREATHING
s#HANGINGBODY
TEMPERATURE
3NAKE
LIZARD
TORTOISE
CROCODILE
#HARACTERISTICS
"IRDS
#HARACTERISTICS
mornings, their bodies are cold

and the chemical reactions inside
their bodies occur slowly. After
lying in the sun, their bodies warm
up. Humans are endotherms. Our
body temperature remains at a
steady 37 C unless we are sick
and have a fever.
%XAMPLES
#HARACTERISTICS
2EPTILES
Mammals
Vertebrates:
sAREANIMALSTHATHAVEABACKBONE
MADEOFBONESCALLEDVERTEBRAE
&ISH
%XAMPLES
'OLDFISH
BARRAMUNDI
SHARK
BREAM
STINGRAY
!MPHIBIANS
#HARACTERISTICS
s&OUNDONLYIN
WATER
s#HANGINGBODY
TEMPERATURE
s'ILLSFORBREATHING
s-OSTHAVEEGGS
WITHOUTASHELL
s3KINWITHSCALES
Vertebrates can be classified into five main groups:

fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
98
#HARACTERISTICS
s3OFTMOISTSKIN
WITHOUTSCALES
s%GGSWITHOUTASHELL
USUALLYLAIDINWATER
s,ARVAEUSUALLYLIVE
INWATER
s!DULTSUSUALLYLIVE
ONLANDANDHAVE
LUNGS
s#HANGINGBODY
TEMPERATURE
%XAMPLES
&ROG
TOAD
SALAMANDER
8 Explain why it is thought that the pelycosaurs were a

link between reptiles and mammals.
Activities
9 In the table below, match the English translations to the

scientific names.
REmEmbER
1 define the terms cartilage , vertebra , ectotherm and
endotherm .
2 The following features are found in many vertebrates.
The words have been scrambled. Unscramble the words
and write them in your workbook under the heading
Vertebrate features .
kllus, bainr, cdhnooort, cdeenorrv, abceellmnourrtv,
celmus, benos
3 Which group of vertebrates do humans belong to?
Explain why.
4 identify the group of vertebrates that each of the
following animals belongs to.
(a) Snake
(b) Cane toad
(c) Goldfish
(d) Whale
(e) Emu
(f) Shark
English translation
Scientific name
(a) Greek:
living a double life
A Reptilia
(b) Latin:
creeping
B Aves
(c) Latin:
birds
C Amphibia
10 Amphibians start their lives in water. For example,

many frog species start as tadpoles living in ponds and
streams. However, adult frogs breathe air using lungs
and can travel some distance away from water. Explain
why amphibians need to come back to the water to lay
eggs.
invEsTiGATE
5 outline the function of the huge sail-like fin on a

pelycosaur s back.
6 Copy and complete the table at the bottom of the page.
11 Fish can be divided into a number of groups. investigate

what the groups are, the characteristics of each group
and list two examples from each group.
Think
7 Who am I?
identify the vertebrate group that each of the following
animals belongs to.
(a) I have lungs but no legs. My offspring are found
in membranous-shelled eggs and use lungs to
breathe.
(b) I have moist skin but no scales, and two pairs
of legs. Although I have lungs and live on land,
my young usually live in water and use gills to
breathe.
(c) I have a constant body temperature and feathers
and lay eggs with a hard shell.
(d) I have scales, I breathe using gills and I live in
water.
Fish
eBook plus
12 Design a dichotomous key to separate and classify the

vertebrates into the five groups described on page 98.
Use the Inspiration weblink in your eBookPLUS to
download a trial version of this visual thinking and
learning software.
work
sheet
4.7 Classifying vertebrates
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Is body temperature constant or changing?

What is the body covered with?
Does it lay eggs? If so, what type of shell do
the eggs have?
Does it feed its young milk?
Give three examples.
4 Classification 99
4.6
Australian mammals
There are three different types of
mammals: placentals, marsupials
and monotremes. These groups
differ in how they give birth to
their young.
Most mammals are placental
mammals. Their young grow and
develop inside the body of the
mother, receiving nutrition and
oxygen via a structure called the
placenta.
The other two groups of
mammals, the marsupials and
monotremes, are found mainly
in Australia. The following

diagram explains how they give
birth to their young.
What kind of creature

is this?
When European explorers
returned from Australia with
stories of strange animals such
as kangaroos, wallabies, koalas
and wombats, people were
surprised. Australian animals
seemed so different from those
common in Europe and other

countries.
Imagine their disbelief when
the platypus was first described
to them. This strange animal
had webbed feet and a bill like
a duck, but it had no feathers. It
laid leathery eggs like lizards and
crocodiles, but it did not have
scales on its skin. It also had fur
and a large tail like that of an otter
but, like a reptile, it had only one
opening for ejecting faeces and
urine.
Mammals:
sHAVESKINWITHHAIRANDFURANDHAVEACONSTANTBODYTEMPERATURE
sHAVEFEMALESWITHMAMMARYGLANDSTHATCANSECRETEMILK
sCANBEDIVIDEDINTOTHREEGROUPSBASEDONTHEWAYTHEYGIVEBIRTHTOTHEIRYOUNG
0LACENTALMAMMALS
s9OUNGGROWINSIDETHEBODYOF
THEIRMOTHERANDAREATTACHED
BYACORDTOTHEPLACENTAWHICH
SUPPLIESTHEIRFOOD
s4HEYAREWELLDEVELOPEDWHEN
THEYAREBORN
s-OSTMAMMALSAREPLACENTAL
MAMMALS%XAMPLESINCLUDE
HORSESMICEHUMANSCATS
COWSANDPIGS
100
-ARSUPIALS
s!LTHOUGHBLINDANDNAKED
NEWBORNMARSUPIALSCRAWLFROM
THEIRMOTHERSBIRTHCANALTOHER
POUCHANDATTACHTHEMSELVESTO
THENIPPLETOFEED
s9OUNGAREBORNATAVERYEARLY
STAGEOFDEVELOPMENT
s4WO THIRDSOFTHEWORLDS
MARSUPIALSLIVEIN!USTRALIA
%XAMPLESINCLUDEKANGAROOS
WOMBATSPOSSUMSANDKOALAS
-ONOTREMES
s9OUNGARELAIDINLEATHERY
SHELLEDEGGS
s-ONOTREMESAREFOUNDONLY
IN!USTRALIAANDSOMENEARBY
ISLANDS4HEREAREONLYTWO
TYPESOFMONOTREMES
THEPLATYPUSANDTHEECHIDNA
In London in 1799, an Australian sailor presented

a platypus specimen to Dr George Shaw, a prominent
biologist of the time. It was so different that Shaw
considered it a hoax and tried to cut off the duck-bill
with scissors. The scissor-marks are still visible on
the preserved platypus skin in the British Museum
(Natural History) in London.
It is thought that the reason for the existence
of Australia s unique animals like the platypus is
Australia s isolation from the other continents after
they separated millions of years ago. The animals
evolved over time to be well suited to the unique
Australian environment.
largest kangaroos of today. They had a short face

and deep skull with huge molar teeth. Their molars
may have helped them to eat tough plant foods.
Procoptodons may have used their very long forelimbs
to pull down the branches of trees and shrubs.
diprotodons
The members of this group are all extinct. They were
the largest of all the marsupials. Diprotodon optatum,
often referred to as the diprotodon, was the largest
known marsupial to have ever lived. The skeleton of
the diprotodon suggests that the animal was about
the size of a rhinoceros, being about three metres long
and possibly weighing about two tonnes.
Giant mammals
Australia was once inhabited by megafauna: giant
mammals including wombats the size of cars and
lion-like marsupials called Thylacoleo carnifex. There
were also giant flightless birds called Genyornis and a
seven-metre long lizard by the name of Megalania.
Giant kangaroo
The extinct giant kangaroo, Procoptodon, was heavily
built and stood about 2.5 metres high. Procoptodons
may have weighed about four times as much as the
Activities
REmEmbER
1 construct a three-column table
and use it to summarise the main
characteristics of each of the three
groups of mammals.
2 outline how marsupials differ from
all other mammals.
3 How did placental mammals get
their name?
4 identify which group of mammals
the echidna belongs to. What other
animal belongs to this group?
5 describe two features of each of the
following animals.
(a) Diprotodon optatum
(b) Procoptodon
Think
6 State the differences between
Procoptodon and the largest of
today s kangaroos. Suggest reasons
for the differences.
7 identify which features of the

platypus and other monotremes
are:
(a) like those of placental
mammals
(b) unlike those of placental
mammals.
invEsTiGATE
8 Find out about dugongs and why
they are thought to be the basis of
mermaid myths.
9 Elephant calves may drink 11.4 litres
of milk a day. Find out:
(a) whether an elephant baby uses
its trunk or its mouth when
suckling
(b) how much milk some other
mammals drink per day, and
then summarise your results in
a table or graph.
10 Did you know that adult hedgehogs
have 5000 spines? So that the birth
canal is not damaged when the
mother is giving birth, the initial
spines of a newborn are covered
Diprotodons
were larger
than humans.
with a layer of skin. The spines

pop through hours after birth.
Although hedgehogs are
mammals and they look a little
like echidnas because of their
spines, they are not classified as
monotremes.
(a) Find out whether hedgehogs
are placental mammals or
marsupials.
(b) outline how hedgehogs differ
from echidnas.
(c) A porcupine also has spines.
identify the group of mammals a
porcupine belongs to.
(d) How are porcupines different
from hedgehogs and echidnas?
eBook plus
11 Use the Platypus weblink in your

eBookPLUS to look for facts about
where the platypus is found, what
it eats and what sort of home it
makes. Complete a poster that
includes diagrams, sketches, a map
and, if possible, pictures.
4 Classification 101
4.7
pREscRibEd focus AREA

current issues, research and development
Australian scientists at work

Some Australian scientists are hard
at work finding out more about the
unique mammals of Australia and
their ancestors. Among them are
Julie Sharp, Christophe Lefevre and
Kevin Nicholas at the University
of Melbourne and KE Hopper and
HA McKenzie at the Australian
National University. These teams
of scientists have been studying the
composition of the milk produced
by various mammals. Their

research has shown that the milk
of monotremes is quite different
from the milk of other mammals,
including marsupials. This suggests
that marsupials are probably
more closely related to placental
mammals than to monotremes.
John Magee and Michael Gagan
from the Australian National
University have been searching for
Epoch
Some marsupial fossil

finds and events
(millions of years ago)
Most of the large Pleistocene

marsupials became extinct about
15 000 30 000 years ago.
PLEISTOCENE
1.64 0.01
mya
Many giant browsing marsupials

became extinct; there were
grazing kangaroos
and lots of diprotodons.
Lots of marsupial fossils

of this age were found in
South and North America.
Dinosaurs became extinct about

65 million years ago.
OLIGOCENE
35.5 23.5
mya
EOCENE
56.5 35.5
mya
PALAEOCENE
65 56.5
mya
A timeline of some marsupial fossil finds and major mammal events
102
Lots of marsupial mammals were living

in Australia and South America.
MIOCENE
23.5 5.2
mya
Tertiary period
First Australian marsupials occurred

about 23 million years ago. Diprotodons
and a relative of pygmy possum
fossils were found in Tasmania.
Aborigines arrived in Australia

about 55 000 years ago.
Homo habilis, the earliest known

human, appeared in East Africa.
PLIOCENE
5.2 1.64
mya
Cenozoic era
Primitive marsupial mice and tapirs were

found at Lake Eyre, South Australia
and diprotodons at Bullock Creek,
Northern Territory.
Major mammal events
Humans investigate Earth s history.
HOLOCENE
0.01 present
uaternary period
Present
an answer to a question that has

baffled scientists for a long time:
Why did the megafauna become
extinct? A number of theories have
been put forward. Some scientists
believe that humans played a part.
Australia s megafauna disappeared
around the time that humans first
arrived in Australia. Aborigines
may have hunted the large animals
for food, or they may have brought
First marsupials appeared in Australia.

First primates appeared.
Swimming and flying

mammals appeared.
More mammals appeared after

dinosaurs became extinct.
diseases with them that caused the megafauna to

become sick and die. Perhaps the fires they lit as part
of their hunting practices played a part in the large
animals disappearance. Another theory is that the
climate changed; it became drier and the vegetation
changed so that the megafauna s habitat changed and
their food supply dwindled.
Magee and Gagan analysed the shells of ancient emu
eggs and the teeth of wombats to find out if the diet
of these animals changed over the past 140 000 years.
They found that the type of plants they fed on changed
significantly around the time that humans first arrived
in Australia. Nutritious grass was replaced by shrubs

and less nutritious vegetation. Emus and wombats
survived because they adapted to the change in diet.
The giant bird Genyornis became extinct because it could
not adapt to a different food source. Since the climate
did not change at that particular time, the researchers
suggested that the fires lit by early Aborigines caused
the vegetation to change and resulted in the eventual
extinction of many species of megafauna. The research
does not support the theory that the megafauna died
out as a result of being hunted by humans or due to the
introduction of disease by humans.
The work of Magee and

Gagan is bringing us one
step closer to finding out why
Genyornis became extinct.
Activities
REmEmbER
1 Name a female Australian scientist
described on these two pages and
describe one piece of research she
has been involved with.
2 outline three theories that have
been put forward to explain why
the megafauna became extinct.
Think
3 Magee and Gagan s work has
provided evidence that supports
the hypothesis that fires lit by
humans probably contributed to the
extinction of the megafauna. Explain
what the terms hypothesis and
evidence mean.
4 Scientists have discovered more
evidence relating to the extinction
of the megafauna. identify which

theory each of the following groups
of evidence supports.
(a) Megafauna fossils have been
found. Marks resembling
those caused by spears and
other cutting instruments
could be seen on some of the
bones.
(b) The discovery of fossilised
pollen grains shows that
many parts of Australia were
covered by rainforest when the
megafauna roamed Australia.
As rainforest species became
extinct, they were replaced by
grassland and shrubland better
suited to dry conditions.
AnAlysE And EvAluATE

5 interpret the timeline on the
opposite page to answer the
following questions.
(a) List the seven epochs in the

table in order of most recent to
least recent.
(b) In which epoch did marsupials
appear in Australia? How do
we know this?
(c) Earth s greatest ice age was
in the Pliocene epoch. When
was this? What other events
occurred then?
icT
6 Use the internet to find more
examples of Australian megafauna
and prepare two PowerPoint slides
about one of these examples (or
one of the examples discussed
on these two pages). On one
slide, include a picture of what
the animal may have looked like.
On the other slide, include any
interesting facts you find, such as
the size of the animal and its diet.
4.8
Invertebrates
The main characteristic of invertebrates is that they
don t have a backbone. Many have an exoskeleton
a skeleton on the outside of their body. Some have no
skeleton at all. Some, like sea stars, have a skeleton
(but no backbone) inside their bodies.
No-one knows how many species of animals there

are on Earth. What is known for sure is that most of
them are invertebrates. The dichotomous key below
describes some of the characteristics of the main
groups of invertebrates.
INVERTEBRATES
Paired,
aired, jointed legs
No legs
ARTHROPODS
Body covered with a shell

or rough, spiny skin
Soft outer body
Soft body, usually

covered with a shell
Body covered with a

rough, spiny skin
MOLLUSCS
ECHINODERMS
Spongy body with holes

PORIFERA
Arthropods
Body divided into
segments
Exoskeleton
Paired, jointed legs
Most have antennae
Include centipedes,
spiders, crabs, ants,
grasshoppers, moths
Molluscs
Most have a shell
Soft body, not divided into
segments
No legs, but may have
tentacles
Have a strong foot muscle to
help them move
Include oysters, octopus,
scallops, slugs, snails
104
Has tentacles
CNIDARIANS
Echinoderms
(pronounced ee-KAI-noderms)
Most have a soft body
over an internal skeleton
Rough, often spinecovered skin
Body has a five-part
pattern
Move through water
by taking water in and
pushing it out of tubes in
their bodies
Include sea stars, sea
urchins, sea cucumbers
Porifera
Spongy body with no body
organs or tissue
Exoskeleton made of
fibres or pointed needles
Water and food enter
through tiny pores (holes)
in body
Wastes pass out through
one big opening
Include barrel sponges,
glass sponges, tube
sponges
Cnidarians (pronounced nyDAIR-ee-ins

the C is silent)
Hollow, soft body
No body organs
Take in food and pass out
waste through one opening
Have tentacles containing
stinging cells, which fire
shots of toxin
Include box jellyfish, sea
anemone, Portuguese manof-war, coral
The largest invertebrate is a mollusc

called the giant squid. its scientific
name is Architeuthis dux. it lives in
the very deep parts of the ocean.
its eyes are as large as soccer
balls. its beak-like mouth can cut
through steel cables. The giant
squid can be as long as 18 metres.
Two of its ten tentacles are much
longer than the others. These are used
to catch food.
in 1966, two lighthouse keepers in
south Africa watched a giant squid
wrap its tentacles around a baby whale
to drown it. The whale s mother could
do nothing to save her calf.
The cockroach is an amazing

insect. it has been around for
about 350 million years. if you cut
off its head, it will stay alive for
about a week. it dies only because
it has no mouth to drink through.
it can run faster than any other
insect almost 4 kilometres per
hour. it can also change direction
very quickly. if a cockroach loses a
leg, a replacement will appear next
time it sheds its exoskeleton.
Body without holes
Has no tentacles
Body segmented internally
Platyhelminthes (pronounced
plat-ee-hel-MIN-theez; also known
as flatworms)
Soft, flat, usually unsegmented bodies
No exoskeleton
Mouth but no anus
Include tapeworm, fluke
Body not segmented

internally
ANNELIDS
orm-shaped body
Worm-shaped
Flat body
NEMATODES
PLATYHELMINTHES
Annelids (also known as segmented worms)

Internal segments with some repeated organs
Soft bodies with an obvious head
No exoskeleton
Mouth and anus
Include earthworms, leeches
Nematodes (also known as roundworms)

Soft, unsegmented bodies
No exoskeleton
Worm-shaped
Mouth and anus
Include threadworms, roundworms
Arthropods
About 80 per cent
of invertebrates
are arthropods.
Mosquito
The insect is
the most common arthropod.
There are about six million known
insect species. Many insects
pollinate flowers. Some
provide us with food
(for example, bees
provide honey).
Insects are a food
Spider
source for many
animals such as
fish, birds and other insects. Some
insects feed by chewing; others,
like the mosquito, suck up
their food (sometimes
human blood!) through
a long thin tube
called a proboscis.
The proboscis of
some insects rolls
Crab
up at the end
when not in use (a bit like a party
whistle). All insects have three
pairs of legs. An insect s legs
are connected to the
middle section of its
body, called a thorax.
Like the mosquito,
all other insects have:
Centipede anexoskeleton
a body made up of three
segments
head, thorax and
abdomen
onepairof
Millipede
antennae. Most
insects smell using
their antennae. (Some
insects use their feet to taste
things.)
internal tubes that end in
openings in their sides, through
which they breathe.
The other arthropods shown
in this column are not insects.
The spider, crab, centipede and
millipede all have more legs
than insects. There are also other
significant differences.
106
InveStIgAtIon 4.3
What body features can i see on an insect?
You will need:
preserved or freshly killed cockroach or grasshopper
hand lens or binocular microscope
disposable gloves
probe
Antenna
Head
Mouth
Leg
Place the insect upside down on a
viewing slide. With the unaided eye,

see if you can identify all the body parts
shown in the diagram on the right.
Wing
Try to identify the three main segments of
Thorax
the insect
the head, the thorax and the
abdomen. Remember that the insect s legs
are attached to its thorax.
Cerci
Abdomen
Some insects have cerci, which look like
antennae on the rear of the insect. The cerci of a cockroach are very large.
They detect the tiniest motion and help warn the cockroach of approaching
danger. Some insects have cerci that are more like stumps than hairs. The
cerci of some insects are too small to see or are not present at all.
Now use a hand lens or binocular microscope to look at the back legs. Look
closely at the hair-like projections.

Use the hand lens or binocular microscope
Wing
to look at the head of the insect.

Insects breathe through tiny holes called
spiracles. Look at the side of your insect

with a hand lens to see if you can find a
line of spiracles. You are more likely
to see these on a grasshopper.
Antenna
Spiracle
Eye
Abdomen
Look at one of the eyes of the insect.
There are many lenses in each eye.

(You have only one in each eye.)
Mouth
Hold the insect with two hands.
Thorax
Leg
Without snapping it in two, see if you can

gently bend the tail end of the body sideways
(not upwards) towards the head.
discussion
1
Does your insect have cerci that you can see with a hand lens? If it
does, sketch them.
Based on what you see without the hand lens, sketch the detail of one of
the insect s back legs.
What purpose do you think the hair-like projections serve on your

insect?
Does your insect have a proboscis or chewing mouthparts? Draw a

labelled diagram of the insect s feeding parts.
How do you think these extra lenses in the eyes might help the insect s
vision?
What feature of the insect makes it difficult to bend its body?
8 The key shown on pages 104 5 is just one of many

possible dichotomous keys used to classify invertebrates
into their groups. Create a different key that starts as
follows:
Activities
REmEmbER
1 Five animals are shown in the left-hand column on the
opposite page. construct a table listing the name of each
animal, whether it is an insect and, for those that do not
belong to the insect group, a feature that makes that
animal different from insects.
Invertebrates
2 classify each of the following animals into one of the

invertebrate groups shown on pages 104 5.
(a) Spider
(b) Leech
(c) Sea star
(d) Moth
Segmented body
Body not segmented
Test your key by using it to classify a snail, a starfish and

an earthworm. Does your key work?
3 outline the main characteristics of insects.
Think
4 A snail is a mollusc; so is the giant squid. In what ways
are they alike and in what ways are they different?
5 (a) Use the key below to classify the five arthropods
shown in the left column on the opposite page.
(b) Explain why the key below is not a dichotomous key.
6 Use the dichotomous key on pages 104 5 to describe
the characteristics of coral, earthworms, flukes and
centipedes.
7 If you found an animal with a soft, segmented body,
but no legs or tentacles or hard external covering, how
would you classify it, based on the data given in the
dichotomous key on pages 104 5?
invEsTiGATE
9 Your teacher will provide you with preserved specimens
or pictures of invertebrates. Use the key on pages 104 5
to classify them.
eBook plus
10 Use the Giant squid and Cockroach weblinks in your

eBookPLUS to discover more about these amazing
creatures.
ARTHROPODS
Legs on every segment

except head and last segment
Legs only on thorax
1 pair of legs
on each
segment;
flattened body
2 pairs of legs
on each
segment;
tubular body
3 pairs
of legs
4 pairs
of legs
5 or more
pairs of legs
CHILOPODS
DIPLOPODS
INSECTS
ARACHNIDS
CRUSTACEANS
4.9
the other kingdoms

Most of the living things that we
recognise are plants or animals.
But some of the most spectacular
and unusual living things belong
to the other three kingdoms of
living things
Kingdom Fungi,
Kingdom Monera and Kingdom
Protista. Within these lesser known
kingdoms are organisms that can
keep us alive, make us sick or even
kill us.
kingdom fungi
Fungi come in an amazing variety
of shapes and colours. Perhaps the
most familiar are the mushrooms
we eat. But fungi also include
toadstools, truffles, mould, mildew
and yeast.
Fungi used to be classified as
plants. However, unlike plants,
they have no true roots, leaves,
stems or flowers. Also, they do not
contain chlorophyll. This means
they cannot make their own food.
Instead, they produce chemicals
to break down food from outside
sources. The broken-down food
is then absorbed into the fungi.
Different sorts of fungi feed on
different sorts of food. Some grow
on or in dead animal or plant

matter (such as vegetable scraps,
cow dung and decaying fruit)
and slowly break it down (or
decompose it). Some grow on or
in living organisms. Such fungi are
called parasites.
Fungi grow from tiny spores
released by a parent fungus.
These are blown through the air,
or carried by animals. Some fungi
have interesting ways of releasing
their spores. The Pilobolus, which
lives in cow dung, releases its
spores by exploding. Spores can be
shot up to two metres high by the
force of the explosion, which is set
off by sunlight.
Some fungi cause plant diseases
such as stem rot, and painful
infections such as tinea and
ringworm. The antibiotic penicillin
is made from a fungus. Yeast,
which is used in making bread and
beer, is a fungus.
did you know that some toothpaste

contains the remains of lots of
crushed diatom shells? When
diatoms die, their microscopic
shells pack down in layers to form
diatomaceous earth (which is
used in toothpaste). This is why
toothpaste is a bit gritty.
under the microscope

Members of two of the kingdoms
Monera and Protista
are
generally so small that they can
be seen properly only under a
microscope. To see some monerans
you would even need to use the
more powerful electron microscope.
kingdom monera
Monerans are thought to be the
first form of life to exist on Earth.
They are very simple organisms
consisting of one cell without a
nucleus. They are everywhere
in
water, in soil, in the air and in your
body. You might know them as
bacteria.
Monerans can be both helpful
and harmful. Some cause illnesses
such as cholera and pneumonia.
Some cause tooth decay. Some,
such as Salmonella, can give you
108
food poisoning. On the positive side, other monerans

that live in your intestine help you to digest food
and make vitamins. Others are used to make
foods such as yoghurt and vinegar.
Cyanobacteria, sometimes called blue-green algae,,
are another member of Kingdom Monera. Like
some plants, this group makes its own food using
photosynthesis.
Bacteria are classified by their shape. Some are shaped
like rods, some like spirals and some like spheres (shown
(sho
at right).
kingdom protista
InveStIgAtIon 4.4
Protists are made up of only one cell. Unlike bacterial

cells, the cells of protists have a nucleus.
Some protists (such as diatoms and Euglena) have
features that are a bit like plants. Euglena, for example,
can make its own food using photosynthesis, like a
plant. Other protists, such as the blob-like Amoeba
and Plasmodium, which causes malaria, are more
animal-like. They can move and need to ingest
food.
how do i classify lichen?

You will need:
piece of lichen (You will find it
growing on rocks and tree
trunks in colder, wetter areas,
especially towards the tops of
ranges and hills.)
stereomicroscope
probe
An amoeba
animal-like,
but only one cell
Look carefully at the lichen
under a microscope.
Activities
Identify any true roots, stems,
leaves or flowers.
REmEmbER
Identify any thread-like parts.
1 Copy and complete the following table.

Fungi
Are they unicellular
or multicellular?
Monera Protista Plantae
Animalia
Some are
unicellular
and some are
multicellular.
discussion
1
Describe the appearance of

the lichen. Can you see two
different sorts of organism?
Lichen is actually made up

of a fungus and an alga,
growing together. Which
part do you think is the
fungus, and which the alga?
Why?
What benefits do you think

the algal cells in lichen
provide for the fungus part?
What benefits do you think

the fungus provides for the
algal cells?
How would you classify

lichen? Why?
What does this suggest

about the difficulties that
scientists sometimes face in
trying to classify organisms?
Do their cell(s)
contain a nucleus?
Do they
photosynthesise?
Some do Some do
Give two examples.
Think
2 Use the information in the table above to construct a dichotomous key for the
five kingdoms.
3 In the sixteenth century, only two kingdoms were recognised: animals and
plants. Organisms that could move and needed to ingest food were called
animals. Organisms that could not move and could photosynthesise were
classified as plants.
(a) Explain why it is difficult to classify mushrooms and mould into either of
these groups. Which kingdom do they belong to now?
(b) Explain why the kingdoms Protista and Monera had not been discovered
in the sixteenth century.
4.10
pREscRibEd focus AREA

classification in other cultures
Is it a bird? Is it a plane? no, it s a yakt!

When scientists come up with a
classification system, they base it
on features that are important to
them. For example, the way we
classify vertebrates into their major
groups is based mostly on their
body covering and their mode of
reproduction. In some cultures,
other features are a lot more
important, so living things are
classified using different criteria.
The Karam people of Papua
New Guinea live in a rainforest
environment. They have a different
Cassowary
Activities
REmEmbER
1 When classifying organisms, which
features do scientists mostly rely
on?
2 In which group would a Western
scientist place both the cassowary
and the magpie?
3 Do the Karam people put the
cassowary and the magpie in the
same group? Explain your answer.
Think
4 Explain why scientists classify
the masked finch, long-tailed
finch and double-barred finch as
110
classification system from ours. It

includes a group called yakt, which
is made up of flying animals such
as birds and bats. The cassowary, a
large flightless bird, is not classified
as a yakt. It is classified as a kobity
because it walks on two legs and
does not fly.
Some Australian Aborigines
may also use different criteria to
classify living things. One important
difference is that scientists try to give
a name to everything. When Western
scientists discover a new species, they
give it a unique name. In traditional
Aboriginal culture, only things that
have a special use or are in some
other way significant to humans
tend to be named.
Some organisms that scientists
classify as belonging to different
species have the same Aboriginal
name. For example, the masked
finch, long-tailed finch and doublebarred finch are all called lidjilidji by
the Yolngu people of the Milingbi.
belonging to different species.
(Hint: Look at the definition of a
species on page 93.)
5 In the English language, we classify
things using words that are not
based on scientific classification.
For example, we classify some plant
parts as vegetables. According to
scientists, the main parts of plants
are roots, stem, leaves, fruit and
flowers.
(a) Which part of a plant is each of
the following vegetables?
tomato, lettuce, carrot, capsicum,
asparagus, celery stick, potato,
beans, Brussels sprout
(b) How would you explain the
difference between a fruit and a
vegetable to the Karam people?
Some Aboriginal words refer

to different groups of organisms
depending on the age of the
person using that word. When the
word warrakan is used by children
up to 10 years old, it means large
birds. Children call small birds
djikay. Teenagers and young adults
on the other hand use the word
warrakan to refer to both large
and small birds. For older adults,
the word warrakan can refer to
large land animals, reptiles, bats,
echidnas or birds.
Bat
(c) Justify why it is difficult to define

the term vegetable .
6 Explain why Yolngu people of the
Milingbi might classify the masked
finch, long-tailed finch and doublebarred finch as belonging to the
same species.
7 The word miyapunu is used by
some adult Aboriginal men for
turtles, dugongs and dolphins and
whales.
(a) In which vertebrate group
would you classify each of these
animals?
(b) propose why all the animals may
be classified in the same group
by some cultures. (Hint: Think
about the similarities between
these animals.)
LooKIng BACK
1 Match the clues in the first column of the table below with
the correct terms in the second column.
7 When scientists discover a new organism they give it a

unique scientific name. Describe how that name is created.
Clues
8 Define the term species .
Terms
(a) These animals have no backbone.
A Field guide
(b) These mammals lay eggs.
B Exoskeleton
(c) These mammals have pouches.
C Invertebrates
(d) Insects and spiders belong to this group.
D Marsupials
(e) Flatworms belong to this group.
E Proboscis
(f) This group of invertebrates contains

internally segmented worms.
F Porifera
(g) An animal with a backbone
G Reptiles
(h) Snails belong to this group of

invertebrates.
H Monotremes
(i) Sponges belong to this group of

invertebrates.
I Key
(j) These mammals have a placenta.
J Arthropods
(k) Snakes and lizards belong to this group.
K Platyhelminthes
(l) This is used to identify wildlife.
L Vertebrate
(m) The tough, external skeleton of insects
M Placentals
(n) The internal skeleton of vertebrates
N Annelids
(o) A monotreme with a duck-like bill
O Platypus
(p) Insects may have this to suck up nectar,

sap and blood.
P Endoskeleton
(q) This unlocks the door to classication.
Q Amphibian
(r) The adults have lungs and live on land,

whereas the young have gills and live in
water.
R Molluscs
9 Explain why a tiger and a lion do not belong to the same

species.
10 Compare an endoskeleton with an exoskeleton.
11 Outline the features of vertebrates.
12 Identify one Australian scientist and outline an
investigation this scientist has been involved with.
13 Classify the following invertebrates using the key on
pages 104 5.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
15 Demonstrate, using at least one example, that the

classification system used by Western scientists is not
adopted by all cultures.
2 Outline the seven characteristics of living things.

3 Explain why the Asimo robot is not a living
organism.
4 Explain why it is useful to classify
organisms.
5 Identify the seven levels of classification in
order from the highest level to the lowest
level.
6 Use the key shown below to classify the
people to the right of the key.
1. Glasses ........................................ Go to 2
No glasses .................................. Go to 3
2. Female .............................................Anna
Male ...................................................Tom
3. Nose ring.........................................Emily
No nose ring ............................... Go to 4
4. Beard ............................................. Jason
No beard ...................................... Jossie
(a)
(b)
(d)
(c)
(e)
14 Construct a dichotomous key to classify the aliens shown

below.
TEsT youRsElf
1 Identify which of the following lists contains only living
things.
A Tree, bird, crystal, orange
B Dog, rose, book, caterpillar
C Duck, snake, wattle tree, fish
D Coin, jellyfish, diamond, human
(1 mark)
2 Identify which group of vertebrates consists of animals
that have moist skin and breathe using gills when fully
developed.
A Reptiles
B Amphibians
C Mammals
D Fish
(1 mark)
3 Identify which kingdom moss belongs to.
A Animalia
B Plantae
C Fungi
D Protista
112
4 Identify which group of mammals the koala belongs to.

A Placentals
B Monotremes
C Marsupials
D Megafauna
(1 mark)
5 Compare the following groups of organisms.
(a) Birds and reptiles
(b) Vertebrates and invertebrates
(c) Monotremes and placental mammals
(d) Amphibians and fish
(e) Animals and plants
(f) Fungi and plants
(g) Monera and protista
work
sheets
(1 mark)
4.8 Classification puzzles

4.9 Classification summary
(6 marks)
StUDY CHeCKLISt
ICt
characteristics of living things
eBook plus
describe the characteristics of living things 4.1

define the terms respiration , assimilation , response ,
growth and reproduction 4.1
interpret and construct dichotomous keys including
branching keys, tabular keys and circular keys 4.2, 4.3,
4.4, 4.8, 4.9
SUMMARY
interactivities
Time Out kingdoms
This exciting interactivity tests your ability to classify a series
of the world s living creatures into their correct kingdoms.
You must answer quickly before your time runs out.
levels of classification
explain why biologists classify living things 4.3

describe the hierarchy of classification 4.3
distinguish between the five kingdoms 4.3
distinguish between vertebrates and invertebrates 4.4
describe the features of vertebrates 4.5
classify vertebrates as birds, mammals, reptiles,
amphibians or fish based on their characteristics 4.5
distinguish between placental, monotreme and marsupial
mammals 4.6
other groups
classify invertebrates into their phyla using a dichotomous
key
4.8
outline the characteristics of arthropods 4.8

distinguish between the different classes of
arthropods
4.8
describe the characteristics of fungi, monerans and

protists
4.9
describe some useful and harmful effects of fungi and

bacteria
4.9

describe research carried by Australian scientists in the
field of taxonomy
4.7
define the term megafauna 4.6

outline some theories that have been proposed to explain
the extinction of many species of megafauna
4.7
The history of science

describe examples of classification systems used by other
cultures
4.10
Cells
Microscopes allow us
to zoom in on life. The
images on these pages
were produced using a
scanning electron microscope and then
coloured. At school, you will use a light
microscope, which enables you to see
the cells that make up living things. Some
living things are just one cell. Others are
made up of many different types of cells
of various sizes and shapes. Each type of
cell has a particular job to do to keep the
organism alive. The cells of animals are
quite different from those of plants, and
plant cells contain parts that are not found
in animal cells. You will see this and a lot
more by looking through the microscope.

5.1
use a microscope to examine
prepared specimens
5.2
learn about the history of microscopy
5.3
identify the parts that make up cells
5.4
prepare specimens for viewing under
the microscope
5.5
examine the differences between
unicellular and multicellular

organisms
5.6
investigate different types of animal
cells
5.7
investigate different types of plant
cells
5.8
investigate tissues and organs
5.9
discuss stem cell research.
Electron micrograph
of an insect s head
Who am i?
Microscopes are responsible for opening
a whole new world to us. They have
allowed us to see beyond our own
vision. The more developed these
microscopes become, the more
detail and wonder we are able to
observe
but often, rather than
answering our questions, they
provide us with many more.
The three photos at right
show parts of different animals.
They were taken with a scanning
electron microscope, which allows
us to see more detail of the surface
of specimens.
1. Look carefully at the photos
of each animal part and think
about:
(a) what they could be
(b) what they may do
(c) which animals they may
belong to.
2. Discuss your suggestions with
your partner, writing all of
the details that you have both
observed on a sheet of paper.
3. Two of these photos show parts
of one type of animal, and
the other one is of a different
animal. Does that information
change the way that you look
at the details? Which animal
do you think two of the parts
belong to? Brainstorm to decide
which animal the other part
could belong to.
4. Suggest other sorts of
information that may be helpful
in determining which animals
these parts belong to and what
they are used for.
5.1
Using a microscope
Microscopes make small objects appear bigger. With
a microscope you can zoom in and see the cells that
make up living things. You can see the features of
tiny creatures such as fleas and ticks. Even everyday
objects, such as paper and onion skin, can take on a
completely different appearance when viewed under a
microscope.
Types of microscopes
There are two main types of microscopes:
light microscopes and electron microscopes. Light
microscopes are used in schools. They pass a beam
of light through the sample. Your school may have
two types of light microscopes: monocular microscopes
and binocular microscopes. Monocular microscopes
have only one eyepiece so you use only one eye to
look down the microscope. The specimen needs

to be thin and placed on a piece of glass called a
microscope slide for viewing. A binocular microscope
has two eyepieces, so you use both eyes to look at
the object. Most school binocular microscopes are
stereomicroscopes. The specimen does not need to be
thin and it does not have to be on a microscope slide.
These microscopes are often used for dissections.
Electron microscopes are not usually found in
schools because they are very expensive. They pass
a beam of particles called electrons through the
sample. They can magnify objects a lot more than
a light microscope and provide much greater detail.
Preparing samples for viewing can be quite difficult
though; for example, the sample may need to be
coated with a thin layer of metal.
Some comparisons between light microscopes and electron microscopes

Magnification
(how many times
bigger)
Type of
microscope
Resolution
(how much detail
we can see)
Advantage(s)
Disadvantage(s)
Examples of detail
that can be seen
Light microscope
Up to 1500
Up to about 500 times Samples prepared

better than the
quickly; coloured stains
human eye
can be used; living cells
can be viewed.
Limited visible detail
Bacteria; shape of
cells; some parts
inside cells
Electron
microscope
1 000 000
Up to about 5 million
times better than the
human eye
Only dead sections

can be viewed.
All parts of cells;

viruses
Eyepiece
High magnication and

resolution
Source of electrons
Beam
deflectors
Tube
Condenser lens
Projector lens
Lens
Focus knob
Detector
Light
Specimen
Stage
Switch
Stereo light microscope
116
Core science | stage 4 Complete course
Image on
TV screen
Scanning electron microscope
Using a microscope
Microscopes make small objects easier to see. The microscopes
commonly used in schools can magnify objects up to 400 times. The
total magnification of a microscope can be calculated by multiplying the
magnification of the eyepiece lens by the magnification of the objective
lens. For example, a 10 eyepiece and a 20 objective lens would provide
10 multiplied by 20 = 200 times magnification.
Microscopes are very expensive and are easily damaged if they are not
handled carefully.
Light travels through
microscope to eye
Eyepiece lens
(ocular)
Body
tube
Coarse focus knob
Fine focus knob
Rules for handling a microscope:

Always use two hands when
carrying a microscope: one on
the arm of the microscope and
the other under the base.
Place the microscope securely
on a flat surface, away from the
edge.
Never shine sunlight directly up
the microscope tube. You could
damage your eyes.
Use only lens tissues to clean
microscope lenses: never use
your fingers.
More hints for using a
microscope:
Look down the microscope with
one eye, but keep both eyes
open
don t squint.
Begin focusing a microscope on
the lowest magnification.
Focus a microscope by
beginning with the coarse focus.
Look from the side and adjust
the objective lens so that it is
just above the microscope slide.
Turn the coarse focus knob
to move the tube up until the
object comes into view.
Turn the fine focus to make the
image of the object as clear as
possible.
Revolving
nosepiece
Objective
lenses
Stage slide
clip
Slide
Iris adjustment
Stage
Field of view 4 mm
(4000 Mm)
magnification x40
Mirror
Light
Base
Monocular light microscope
The microscopes at your school may look slightly different from this
one. Some microscopes have a built-in light. Microscopes with built-in
lights do not have a mirror and do not require a separate microscope
lamp.
Field of view 1.6 mm

(1600 Mm)
magnification x100
Field of view 0.4 mm

(400 Mm)
magnification x400
Field of view
your window to a tiny
world: as the field of view gets smaller, the
magnification gets larger.
5 Cells
117
the lowest power objective lens

(smallest magnification).
InvestIgatIon 5.1
getting into focus with an e
You will need:
1 cm square piece of newsprint
containing the letter e
monocular light microscope
microscope slide
clear sticky tape
1 cm square piece of colour picture
from a magazine or newspaper
a hair
salt
Using the guidelines on the previous
page, get the paper into focus

using the coarse focus knob and
Change to a higher level of
Record the magnification that

you are using, and estimate
how much of the viewed area is
covered by the letter e at this
magnification.
Suggest what the letters P

and R would look like under
the microscope. Sketch your
predictions, and then view
examples of these under
the microscope. Were your
predictions correct?
Summarise your results in a table

with the following headings:
Object , Magnification , Pencil
sketch , Description .
magnification by rotating to a higher

power objective lens.
Using sticky tape, stick a small
section of a colour photograph, a

hair, some salt crystals and any
other objects your teacher has
provided onto microscope slides.
View each specimen under the
microscope on low power.
DiScUSSion
1
In which direction did the paper

under the microscope move
when you moved the slide
RemembeR
1 compare the following microscopes.
(a) Light microscope and electron microscope
(b) Monocular microscope and stereomicroscope
2 Recall the following steps for using a microscope in the
correct order.
(a) Adjust the fine focus.
(b) Place the slide on the stage.
(c) Twist the revolving nosepiece to switch to the
high-power objective lens.
(d) Adjust the coarse focus.
(e) Select the lowest power objective lens.
(f) Use the fine focus knob as necessary to focus the
image.
Think
3 When you are looking down the microscope, identify
what happens when you move the microscope slide
(a) to the left, (b) to the right, (c) towards you and
(d) away from you.
4 If you are using an eyepiece with a magnification of 10
and an objective lens of 10, calculate how many times
the specimen viewed under the microscope will be
magnified.
5 If a specimen is 1 mm long, how long will it appear if it is
magnified 100 times?
6 If a specimen takes up the entire field of view at 100,
calculate how much of it will be seen at 400.
What does the letter e look like

under the microscope? Draw a
pencil sketch of what you see.
have a letter e in focus.
activities
118
Carefully move the slide until you
Carefully stick the 1 cm square of
newsprint onto a clean microscope

slide using sticky tape.
(a) towards you or (b) to the left?
7 (a) Sketch a line diagram of your school microscope

and label as many of its parts as you can, using the
diagram on page 117 to help you.
(b) identify how your school microscope differs from
the one shown on page 117.
Ocular lens
(eyepiece)
Objective lens
Magnification
25
10
10
100
40
400
inveSTigATe
9 Use a stereomicroscope to look at a range of small
objects such as a small flower, a dead insect, some
salt or sugar crystals and a blade of grass. Describe
the advantages and disadvantages of this type of
microscope over a monocular microscope.
eBook plus
10 Test your knowledge of the functions of different parts

of a microscope by completing the Microscope parts
11 Use the Electron microscope weblink in your
eBookPLUS to view some electron micrographs. Analyse
how the images produced by an electron microscope
are different from those produced by a light microscope.
5.2
a whole new world

The invention of the microscope
just over 400 years ago had a huge
impact on biology. It became
possible to see cells, the building
blocks of living things, and
whole kingdoms of living things
were discovered. As microscopes
improved, biologists could learn
a whole lot more about cells and
microbes.
eBook plus
eLesson
Inside cells
Learn about cells and organelles in this
animated video lesson.
The discovery of cells

In the seventeenth century, Robert
Hooke looked at thin slices of
cork under a microscope (= very
small + view) that he had designed
himself. He observed small boxlike shapes inside the cork. He
called the little boxes that he saw
cells. Microscopes opened up a
whole new world that had never
been seen before.
Using microscopes to carefully
observe different living things
Robert Hooke
showed that they also were made
of these tiny basic units. As the
magnification provided by microscopes increased, it
could be seen that, although the basic structure of
cells was similar, there were quite a few differences.
Different groups of organisms often contained
different types of cells. It was also discovered that
different types of cells could be found within an
individual organism.
eles-0054
van Leeuwenhoek was the first person

to observe bacteria, red blood cells,
sperm cells and muscle fibres under
the microscope. he started his working
life as a draper, selling fabric. he
used magnifying lenses to count the
threads in cloth. he became interested
in microscopy after seeing a book by
Robert hooke with illustrations and
descriptions of specimens observed
using a microscope.
van Leeuwenhoek made many
microscopes during his life, and he
observed all kinds of specimens,
including plaque he scraped off
his own and other people s teeth.
he was meticulous in recording his
observations and made detailed
descriptions of specimens. he was not
very good at drawing though, so he
employed an illustrator to complete
many of his diagrams.
Some of the personal attributes that
made him a successful microbiologist
included a natural curiosity and very
good eyesight, the patience and
persistence needed to grind the highquality lenses for his microscopes
and the attention to detail required
to painstakingly record all his
observations.
An early microscope
used by Robert Hooke
A replica of Van Leeuwenhoek s
microscope
5 Cells
119
Little, littler, littlest

10 m
Human height
Length of some
nerve and
muscle cells
Chicken egg
1m
Unaided eye
0.1 m
1 cm
Frog egg
Light microscope
1 mm
Electron microscope
Bacteria and the cells of animals

and plants are tiny. Most plant
and animal cells are less
than 0.0001 m long. It is not
convenient to express their size
in metres or even millimetres.
Microscopic things are usually
measured in micrometres (m,
also called microns). One
micrometre = 0.000 001 m (or
10 6 m).
Hair width
100 Mm
Plant and animal cells

10 Mm
Most bacteria
1 Mm
Smallest bacteria
100 nm
Viruses
10 nm
Proteins
1 nm
Small molecules
Atoms
0.1 nm
1 millimetre = 1/1000th of a metre

1 micrometre = 1/1 000 000th of a metre
1 nanometre = 1/1 000 000 000th of a metre
1665
Robert Hooke uses

the term cell to
describe the tiny
box-like units in
a thin slice of cork.
1683
1600
1675
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

(1 32 1723) discovers
unicellular microscopic
organisms in stagnant water,
which he calls animalcules .
(We now call these bacteria.)
Leeuwenhoek
discovers bacteria
in saliva.
1824
1700
1831
Timeline showing the development of microscope and cell theory
120
Ren Dutrochet
(177 1847)
states that all
plants and animals
are made up of cells.
1839
Theodor Schwann suggests

that all animals are
also made of one or more
cells and that the cell is the
basic unit of structure for
all living things.
1800
Robert Brown (1773 1858)

reports on his observation
of the nucleus in both plant
and animal cells.
1858
Rudolf Virchow
(1821 1 02)
suggests that all
cells arise from
cells that already
exist.
activities
7 Antonie Van Leuwoenhoek was very curious. explain how

this contributed to his success as a microbiologist.
RemembeR
8 Use the timeline on these two pages to answer the

following questions.
(a) In which year did Hooke use the term cells to
describe his observations of cork slices?
(b) What did Virchow suggest in 1858?
(c) In which substance did Leeuwenhoek discover
bacteria?
(d) When did Ruska build the first electron
microscope?
(e) Recall the differences between cell observations
made with a scanning electron microscope and
those with a transmission electron microscope.
1 outline why the invention of the microscope had a

significant impact on biology.
2 Describe the appearance of the cells that Hooke
observed in thin sections of cork.
3 Deduce whether all cells look the same.
4 identify what microbiologists study.
5 Define the term micron .
Think AnD ReASon

6 Use the diagram on the opposite page to answer the
following questions:
(a) compare the sizes of animal cells and bacteria.
(b) identify three things that can be seen with an
electron microscope but not a light microscope.
(c) Deduce whether you would need a microscope to
see a frog egg.
(d) Complete the table below.
Size in
microns
Object
Size in mm
(1 micron =
0.001 mm)
9 Research one of the scientists in the timeline on these

two pages and present your information in a poster.
eBook plus
Size in
metres
(1 micron =
0.000 0001 m)
Plant and
animal cells
Hair (width)
10 Visit the Robert Hooke weblink in your eBookPLUS

and investigate why he used the term cells for the
little box-shaped structures he observed in cork.
What did people think living things consisted of before
Hooke s discovery of cells? Write a story about your
findings.
work
sheet
Frog egg
20th century
inveSTigATe
Development
of the microscope
continues.
1900
PRESENT DA
Ernst Ruska builds

the first electron
microscope.
Development of:
s TRANSMISSIONELECTRON
microscopes, which
show the internal
structures of cells
2000
1933
5.1 History of the light microscope
s SCANNINGELECTRON
microscopes, which
show images of the
surface features
(often involve coating
the specimen with a
very thin layer of
metal atoms)
s SUPERFASTELECTRON
microscopy, which
enables scientists to
capture the movement of
atoms (visit the Electron
strobe weblink in your
eBookPLUS).
5 Cells
121
5.3
Living things are made up of cells

When we look at cells with a microscope, we can see
that they contain little organs or organelles. There are
many different types of organelles, and each organelle
has a particular function or job. Plant and animal
cells appear quite different and contain different
organelles.
All plant and animal cells have a cell membrane,
cytoplasm and a nucleus at some stage in their life.
That s because all plant and animal cells need food
for energy, water and a control centre. Plant cells also
have cell walls, chloroplasts and vacuoles. Plants need
those extra features in their cells to make and store

food, and to keep their shape. Some animal cells have
vacuoles, but they are very small.
Some organelles are too small to see with a light
microscope. They can be seen only with an electron
microscope. Mitochondria are organelles that cannot
be seen with a light microscope. These are the
power stations of cells and are where respiration
occurs. During respiration, glucose and oxygen react
to form carbon dioxide and water, and energy is
released.
Plant cell
Animal cell
Cell membrane
The thin layer that encloses the
cytoplasm is the cell membrane. It
keeps the cell together and gives it its
shape. Some substances, such as water
and oxygen, can pass through the cell
membrane but other substances cannot.
The cell membrane controls what enters
and leaves the cell.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the control centre of
the cell. It contains DNA in the form of
chromosomes and it controls what the
cell does and when.
Cytoplasm
The jelly-like substance inside cells is the
cytoplasm. It contains many important
substances, such as glucose, that are
needed for chemical reactions that occur
inside cells.
Cell wall
The tough covering around
plant cells is the cell wall.
It gives plant cells strength
and holds them in shape.
Cell walls are made of a
substance called cellulose.
Water and dissolved
substances can pass through
the cell wall. Animal cells do
not have a cell wall.
122
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are the
oval-shaped organelles
found only in plant cells.
Chloroplasts contain a green
substance called chlorophyll.
Chloroplasts use energy
from the sun to make food.
Not all plant cells contain
chloroplasts. They are found
only in leaf and stem cells.
Vacuole
The vacuole is an organelle used to store water and
dissolved substances. Vacuoles can look empty, like an
air bubble. Plant cells usually have one large vacuole. The
mixture inside a plant s vacuoles is called cell sap. The red,
blue and violet colours that you often see in plant leaves
and flowers are due to the substances stored in vacuoles.
Most animal cells don t have vacuoles.
Why are cells so small?

Cells have to be very small because
they must be able to take up the
substances they need and remove
wastes quickly. The bigger a cell
is, the further the centre is from
the edge and the longer it takes to
move material in and out. Larger
cells also have a smaller surface
area to volume ratio. This slows
down the movement of substances
in and out of large cells. If a cell
was too big, it would not be able
to take up or remove materials fast
enough to support itself, and the
nucleus would
ould not be able to pass
on information and control the
whole cell.
Vacuole
When cells die

most of the cells in your body don t
live for as long as you do. Usually,
when they die they are replaced. The
cells that make up your skin live for
only between 20 and 35 days. Skin
cells can replace themselves before
they die. Luckily they don t all die at
the same time! The dead cells are
rubbed off, or just fall from your body.
They land on the floor, on furniture
and in your bed. in fact, most of the
dust that you sweep up or vacuum is
actually dead skin cells. Snakes, on
the other hand, usually shed their dead
skin cells all at once. Young snakes
shed their skin every six to eight
weeks. Adult snakes shed their skin
only once every year or two.
Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
Starch
granule
Nucleus
activities
A cell viewed under a light microscope

(top) and an electron microscope (centre
and bottom). Notice that some organelles
can be seen only with an electron
microscope.
7 explain what happens inside

chloroplasts.
RemembeR
8 identify which organelles are found

in both animal and plant cells.
1 Define the term organelle . List two

examples of organelles.
9 identify which organelles are found

in plant cells but not in animal cells.
2 Recall which substance fills a cell.

3 outline why the nucleus is important
to a cell.
4 Recall the role of the cell
membrane.
5 explain why cells need to be so
small.
6 Recall what cell walls are made of.
Think AnD ReASon

10 outline why most plants are
green.
11 The cellulose cell wall that
surrounds plant cells makes these
cells rigid. explain why animals may
find it difficult to move if their cells
had cell walls.
12 Justify why it is important for

animals to be able to move
whereas plants can survive without
moving about.
cReATe
13 construct a model of a plant or
animal cell. Use materials available
at home, such as drink bottles, egg
cartons, cottonwool, wool, cotton
and dry foods. Add labels or a key
to indicate all the organelles in
your model.
work
sheet
5.2 Cells and microscopes
5 Cells
123
5.4
Zooming in on life
Now that you know the names of the organelles
found in cells, let s look at them.
InvestIgatIon 5.2
making a wet mount: onion cells
Read all the instructions before you begin. You can read
more about using a microscope on page 117.
You will need:
microscope
clean microscope slide
coverslip
dropper bottle of water
forceps (tweezers)
scalpel
toothpick
small section of a peeled onion
blotting paper
CAUTION The scalpel has a sharp blade. Handle it with care.
Use the dropper to put a drop of water on a microscope
slide.
Use a scalpel to peel a small piece of the very thin,
almost transparent onion skin from the inside surface of

the onion.
Use the forceps to put the piece of the onion skin into the
drop of water on the microscope slide.

Place a coverslip over the top of the water containing the
onion skin. Use a toothpick to lower the coverslip gently

to avoid air bubbles. Use blotting paper to soak up any
excess water outside the coverslip.
Prepare another slide of onion skin but, instead of putting
a drop of water on the slide, put a drop of methylene blue

on the onion skin before adding a coverslip.
DiScUSSion
124
Set the microscope to low magnification (see

page 117). What is the total magnification?
Draw and label a group of cells. Is your drawing large

enough to see clearly?
Set the microscope to a higher magnification. What is

the total magnification?
View the same group of cells using high magnification.

Draw them again at this higher magnification. Add any
extra detail that you can now see.
Sketching what you see

under the microscope
Some points to remember
1. Use a sharp lead pencil.
2. Draw only the lines that you see
(no shading or colouring).
3. Your diagrams should take up
about a third to half a page
each.
4. Record the magnification next to
each diagram.
5. State the name of the specimen
and the date of observation.
6. A written description is also
often of considerable value.
7. When you are viewing many
cells at one time, it is often
useful to select and draw only
two or three representative cells
for each observation.
Staining a specimen
Many objects are colourless when
viewed down the microscope, so
specimens are often stained to
make them easier to see. Methylene
blue, iodine and eosin are some
examples of commonly used stains.
Each stain reacts with different
chemicals in the specimen. For
example, iodine stains starch a
blue-black colour. Take care when
using these stains, because they can
stain you as well!
An example of a sketch of a microscope specimen
This in and this out

Useful substances need to move into cells, and waste products need to
move out of cells. The cell membrane controls what can enter and leave
a cell. Substances such as water and oxygen can pass through the cell
membrane. When a substances moves into a cell, we say that it diffuses
into the cell. Oxygen diffuses into cells. Carbon dioxide diffuses out
of cells. There is a special word for the diffusion of water; when water
diffuses in or out of a cell, it is called osmosis.
InvestIgatIon 5.3
InvestIgatIon 5.4
Pond water
You will need:
light microscope
microscope slides
coverslips
Peel or squash and stain

pond water
pipette
Prepare a wet mount of the
pond water on a microscope

slide.
Examine the pond water under
the microscope.
Draw sketches and describe
what you see.
You will need:

light microscope
microscope slides
coverslips
pipette
celery stick, banana
water, methylene blue, iodine
Peel a piece of celery skin and
carefully place it on a slide with a

drop of methylene blue.
Cover carefully with a coverslip.

Squash a small piece of banana on
a slide and add a drop of iodine.

Cover with a coverslip.
DiScUSSion
1
Record what you see of the

banana and celery cells under
the microscope.
Describe the similarities and

differences between your
observations of the banana and
the celery cells.
5 Cells
125
Put bag A in a beaker of starch
InvestIgatIon 5.5
moving in or out?
You will need
two 20 cm lengths of dialysis tubing
starch solution
iodine solution
scales
2 beakers
solution. Add enough iodine to the

starch solution to produce a dark
blue colour.
Put bag B in a beaker of water.
Leave the two bags undisturbed for
at least two hours (or overnight).
Weigh the bags again.
(a) Starch
(b) Water
DiScUSSion
Soak the dialysis tubing in water so
that it becomes soft.

Tie a knot at one end of each piece
of dialysis tubing. This will form two

small bags.
Pour water into bag A until it is one-
third full. Pour the same amount of

starch solution into bag B and add
10 drops of iodine solution.
Tie a knot at the top of each bag to
seal them.
Weigh both bags.
Dialysis tubing allows some

substances, but not others, to
pass through. Which of the
following substances could pass
through the dialysis tubing and
which could not? What evidence
supports this?
Draw up a table to record the

weights of the bags before and
after being left in the beakers.
What happens to iodine when it
is added to starch solution?
Draw bags A and B in the
beakers they were left in. On
your diagram, label where blue
and yellow colour can be seen.
In this experiment, we made
a model of a cell. Which part
represented the cell membrane?
(c) Iodine
6
Did the mass of the two bags

change? What caused it to
change?
When water moves in or out of

cells by osmosis, it moves in
the direction that balances the
concentrations of substances
inside and outside the cell.
Use this information to explain
why the masses of the bags
changed.
6 Make a sketch of these human cheek cells.
activities
RemembeR
1 Recall three things you must do when sketching what you
see under the microscope.
2 (a) Define the term stain .
(b) explain why stains are used.
(c) Give two examples of stains you have used in class.
3 Recall which part of a cell controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cell.
4 Complete the following sentences:
(a) The movement of substances in and out of cells is
called ______________.
(b) Water moves in and out of cells by ____________.
Think
5 explain what is wrong with each of the diagrams shown
below.
7 calculate the total magnification when using a 10

eyepiece and a 40 objective.
8 Human cheek cells are about 0.05 mm wide. calculate the
magnification used to create the picture above.
inveSTigATe
9 View some prepared slides
of human cheek cells and
leaf epidermis under the
microscope. Draw labelled
diagrams of each type of cell.
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane
(a)
126
x40
(b)
x10
(c)
work
sheet
5.3 Preparing a stained

wet mount
5.5
Revisiting the five kingdoms

In chapter 4, you learned that
living things can be classified into
five kingdoms: Plantae, Animalia,
Fungi, Protista and Monera.
There are important differences
between the cells of organisms
belonging to each of the five
kingdoms.
One amoeba.
Amoebas are unicelluar
organisms.
Nucleus divides
Two
wo amoebas
Cytoplasm divides
Protista and monera
Unicellular organisms reproduce simply by dividing into two cells.

This is called binary fission.
Nucleus
Vacuole containing water
The food is digested
inside the food vacuole.
Nutrients diffuse out
of the food vacuole
into the cytoplasm of
the amoeba.
Food
(a unicellular organism
called a desmid)
Ingested food
(inside a food vacuole)
An amoeba feeding
Amoeba
Paramecium
100 m
300 m
Two of the kingdoms (Monera

and Protista) consist of
unicellular organisms. When an
organism is made of only one
cell, that one cell must do all the
jobs needed to keep the organism
alive. The cell cannot specialise.
You could compare this to a
single-teacher school where one
teacher has to teach all subjects,
take phone calls, operate the
canteen and write the weekly
newsletter. The teacher would
need to be good at lots of things
but could not become an expert
at any one thing. Unicellular
organisms reproduce by dividing
into two cells using a process
called binary fission.
The main difference between
the protists and the monerans
is that protists have a nucleus
and monerans do not. Examples
of protists include Amoeba,
Paramecium and Euglena. Amoebas
look like blobs but they can move
about. They can engulf food by
wrapping themselves around the
food. Paramecia have small hairs
that beat to allow them to move.
Euglenas are interesting; depending
on the availability of food and
sunlight, they can take in food
(like animals) or photosynthesise
(like plants).
Euglena
Protists have a nucleus; they include

Amoeba, Paramecium and Euglena.
5 Cells
127
Cyanobacterium
Monera do not have a nucleus; they include
bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
InvestIgatIon 5.6
observing unicellular organisms
You will need:
microscope slides (preferably with a well)
coverslips
live paramecium culture
yeast culture
prepared slides of Amoeba, Euglena and Paramecium
If you have a fish tank at school, scrape a sample of
algae off the sides.
The plant and animal kingdoms contain only

multicellular organisms. Most fungi are also
multicellular, but there are some exceptions such as
yeast. Most multicellular organisms contain many
cells and their cells are specialised for different jobs.
For example, red blood cells are very different from
muscle cells and sperm cells. Each type of cell has
a particular structure that makes it well suited to its
particular job. This is similar to a large high school
hiring a person with good secretarial skills to run
the office, a trained chef to prepare food for the
canteen and a teacher with a science degree to teach
science.
The characteristic that sets plants apart from all
other types of organisms is that some of their cells
contain chloroplasts, where photosynthesis occurs.
Chloroplasts are present in the parts exposed to light,
such as leaves and stems.
Both fungal and plant cells have a cell wall, but
fungi cannot make their own food by photosynthesis.
Fungi take in food from their surroundings; the
nutrients diffuse into the cell through the cell wall
and cell membrane.
Animals cannot photosynthesise and most move
about to find or catch food to eat. A cell wall would
make it difficult to move about so it makes sense that
animal cells lack a cell wall.
Put one drop of Paramecium culture on a microscope
slide and cover with a coverslip.

Observe under the microscope using low power at
first, and then increase to high power.

Copy the table below into your workbook and record
50 m
Bacterium
Plantae, Animalia and Fungi
100 m
3 m
Monera includes bacteria and a type of algae called

blue-green algae or cyanobacteria. They do not have a
nucleus but they do contain DNA. Moneran cells are
smaller than all other types of cells. They are believed
to be the first type of life forms to have evolved on
Earth. Humans, other animals and plants probably all
evolved from bacteria.
Plant leaf cell
Human
cheek cell
all your observations in the table.

Repeat the steps above using the yeast culture and
the sample of algae from the fish tank. Also, view the
prepared slides and complete the information in the
table.
Mitochondrion
Organism
Sketch
Description
50 m
Observations of unicellular organisms

Nucleus
Cell membrane
Cell wall
Fungal cell
128
Some differences in the basic cell design in the five kingdoms

Kingdom
Characteristic
Animalia
(animals: e.g.
lizards, sh, spiders,
earthworms, sponges)
Number of cells
Multicellular
Usually multicellular but

some unicellular
Most multicellular
Unicellular
Unicellular or
multicellular
Nucleus
Present
Present; some fungi have

several nuclei per cell
Present
DNA is not
contained in
a membranebound nucleus.
Present
Cell wall
Absent
Present
Present
Present
Present in some
Large vacuole
Absent
Absent
Present
Absent
Present in some
Chloroplasts
Absent
Absent
Present in leaf and

stem cells
Some contain
chlorophyll but
no chloroplasts.
Present in some
Fungi
(e.g. yeasts, moulds,
mushrooms, toadstools)
activities
RemembeR
1 identify which kingdoms contain only unicellular
organisms.
2 Recall the main difference between Protista and Monera.
3 identify which kingdoms contain only multicellular
organisms.
Plantae
(plants: e.g. ferns,
mosses, conifers,
owering plants)
Monera
(bacteria and
cyanobacteria)
Protista
(e.g. algae,
protozoa)
8 Recall one example of each of the five kingdoms.

9 Copy the table below and use the diagrams of cells on
pages 127 8 to complete it.
Type of cell
Kingdom
Size (m)
Euglena
Paramecium
Bacterium
4 compare plant and fungal cells.

5 explain the difference between unicellular and
multicellular organisms.
Think AnD ReASon

6 construct a dichotomous key to classify living things into
the five kingdoms. (Hint: Use the table above.)
Use the table above to answer the following questions.
7 identify in which kingdom(s) the cells of an organism:
(a) do not have a cell wall, large vacuole or
chloroplasts
(b) have a cell wall, large vacuole and chloroplasts
(c) have a cell wall, but no large vacuole or
chloroplasts
(d) have a cell wall but lack a membrane-bound
nucleus.
Human cheek cell

Plant leaf cell
Fungal cell
10 construct a column graph of the data shown in the table
above. The type of cell should be on the horizontal axis
and cell size on the vertical axis.
11 calculate the average size of the cells listed in the table
above.
12 List the kingdoms in order from smallest to largest cell
size.
work
sheet
5.4 Cells and the ve kingdoms
5 Cells
129
5.6
Cells of all shapes

and sizes
Your body is made up of many different types of
cells. Each type of cell is best suited to its particular
function or job.
Muscle cells
Muscle cells are long and elastic. Long thin
cells can slide further over each other to
allow you to move. There are different
types of muscle cells. The walls of your
50
blood vessels and parts of your digestive
m
system have smooth muscle cells. The
muscles that are joined to your bones are
called skeletal muscles . Skeletal muscles work in pairs
one
muscle contracts (shortens) and pulls the bone in one direction
while the other muscle relaxes.
10 m
15
Red blood cells

Red blood cells carry oxygen around the
body. Their small size helps them move
easily through blood vessels. The nucleus
in a red blood cell dies soon after the cell is
made. Without a nucleus, red blood cells live for only a
few weeks. The body keeps making new blood cells to replace
those that have died. Red blood cells are made in bone marrow
at the rate of 17 million cells per minute! This is why most
people can donate some of their blood to the Red Cross without
harm. White blood cells, which are larger than red blood cells,
are also made in the bone marrow. Their job is to rid the body
of disease-causing organisms and foreign material.
130
Bone cells
Minerals such as calcium surround your bone
cells. The minerals help make bone cells hard
and strong. Bone cells need to be hard so
that they can keep you upright.
m
100
Tail
up to
1 m long
Nerve cells
Nerve cells are very long and have a star shape at
one end. The long shape of nerve cells helps them
detect and send electrical messages through the
body at the speed of a Formula 1 racing car.
There are nerve cells all over your body.
They allow you to detect touch, smell, taste,
sound, light and, unfortunately, pain.
m
40
Lung epithelial cells

The cells that line your nose, windpipe and
lungs are a type of lining cell. They have
hair-like tips called cilia. These cells
help protect you by stopping dust and
fluid from getting down your windpipe. The
cilia can also move these substances away
from your lungs. You remove some of these
unwanted substances whenever you sneeze,
cough or blow your nose.
30
Adipose tissue cells

Some cells store fat. Fat stores a lot of energy
for cells to use later. Round shapes are good for
holding a lot of material in a small space. Fat cells
are mostly found underneath your skin, especially in the chest,
waist and buttocks.
Skin cells
Special cells line the outside surfaces of
your body. These are the cells that form
your skin. These cells have a flattened
shape so they can better cover and protect
your body.
100 m
45
15 m
Did you know these facts about human

cells?
Hair and nails are made of dead
cells, and because they are not fed
by blood or nerves you can cut them
without it hurting.
A human baby grows from one cell
to 2000 million cells in just nine
months.
Red blood cells live for
one to four months
and each cell travels
around your
body up to
172 000 times.
Sperm
Sperm cells have long tails that help them swim
towards egg cells. Only males have sperm cells.
Egg cells
Egg cells are some of the largest cells in
a human body. Their large round shape
helps them store plenty of food. Only
females have egg cells. When a sperm
cell moves into an egg cell, the egg cell is
fertilised.
Some of the
nerve cells in
the human body
can be one metre
long. but that s small
compared with the
nerve cells in a
giraffe s neck. They
are two to three metres
long!
5 Cells
131
DiScUSSion
InvestIgatIon 5.7
Animal cells
what s the difference?
You will need:

light microscope
prepared animal slides:
blood cells, muscle cells,
cheek cells, nerve cells
Construct a table like the one below, making it large
Which features did the animal cells have in common?
In what ways did the animal cells differ from each

other?
Why are there some features that all cells possess?
Find out the functions of the different types of cells

examined.
Suggest how the shape or size of the cells may assist

the cell in doing its job.
Suggest reasons for some of the differences observed

between the cells.
enough for all of your results.

Use a microscope to observe the prepared slides,
recording your observations in the table as you make

them.
Prepare a summary table that describes the similarities
and differences observed between the different cells

examined.
Source of specimen
Animal
Type of specimen
Cheek cells
activities
Description of specimen
[Allow as much space as you can; [Describe in words what the

draw only two or three cells, in
specimen looked like.]
pencil, and include magnication
and estimated size.]
Type of cell
Shape
(a) Muscle cell
A Disc shaped
RemembeR
(b) Egg cell
B Star shaped with long tail
1 identify which features most cells

have in common.
(c) Red blood cell
C Flat
(d) Nerve cell
D Long and thin
2 Describe some ways in which cells

may differ.
(e) Skin cell
E Spherical
3 Recall which type of animal cell

spends most of its life without a
nucleus.
8 explain how the shape of each of

the cells in the table above helps
the cell do its job.
4 Recall which type of cell is found in

the walls of blood vessels.
9 (a) Use the illustrations on

pages 130 1 to find the sizes of
the following different types of
animal cells. Present the data
in a table.
5 Describe how the cilia in your nose,

throat and windpipe protect your
lungs.
6 Recall why egg cells are so large.
Think
7 Match each type of cell in the table
above with its shape.
132
Sketch of specimen
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Adipose tissue cell

Red blood cell
Lung epithelial cell
Muscle cell
Skin cell
Sperm cell
(vii) Bone cell

(viii) Egg cell
(b) calculate the average size of
the cells listed in part (a).
(c) construct a column graph
showing the sizes of the cells
listed in part (a).
eBook plus
10 Match each cell with its purpose

in the body by completing the
Cell jobs interactivity in your
eBookPLUS. int-0206
5.7
Focus on plants
Plants are made up of different types of cells,
each suited to a particular function.
25 Mm
Guard cell
Leaf cells (palisade cells)

The main function of leaf palisade
cells is to photosynthesise, so
they are packed with chloroplasts
and are usually green.
65 Mm
Leaf cell
Epidermal cells
150 Mm
Guard cells
Guard cells are kidney-shaped cells found
on the surface of leaves. They can change
shape to either open or close the small
hole between them. The small holes,
called stomata (or stomates), allow
substances such as carbon dioxide to
enter the leaf. They also let water out
of the leaf. Most plants open their
stomata at night; they close their
stomata during the day (when it is
hotter) to conserve water.
100 Mm
Epidermal cells
Epidermal cells are found on the
outside of the plant. They form an
outer skin for the plant and protect
the cells underneath. This explains
why they need a flat shape and why
they interlock like tiles. Epidermal
cells do not usually photosynthesise
so they lack chloroplasts. Light
needs to pass through them, and
they are usually transparent. The
cells in the diagram above are onion
epidermal cells.
Xylem cells
Xylem cells form xylem
tubes, which carry water and
dissolved minerals from the
roots to all parts of the plant.
They are made up of dead
xylem cells joined end to end.
When xylem cells die, the
cell walls at each end of the
cells dissolve, forming a long
straw-like tube. They have
thick cell walls with lots of
cellulose to make the xylem
tubes strong.
Xylem cells
100 Mm
Root hair cell

Some of the types of cells
found in plants
Phloem cells
300 Mm
Root hair cells

Root hair cells absorb water and dissolved
minerals from the soil. They have small
hairs, called root hairs, on their surface.
This increases the surface area of the
root cells so that they can soak up water
more quickly.
Phloem cells
Like xylem cells, phloem
cell
cells form tubes.Phloem
The tubes
formed by phloem cells carry
the food made in the leaves to all parts of the
plant. Phloem cells do not need to die to do
this job. The ends of phloem cells have holes
and look like sieves.
5 Cells
133
Use a microscope to observe the
InvestIgatIon 5.8
Plant cells in view
You will need:
light microscope
prepared plant slides: leaf epidermal
cells, root hair cells, stomata/guard
cells
Construct a table like the one
Find out the functions of the

different types of cells examined.
Suggest how the shape or size

of the cells may assist the cell in
doing its job.
Suggest reasons for some of the

differences observed between
the cells.
Sketch of specimen
Description of specimen
Which features did the plant

cells have in common?
In what ways did the plant cells

differ from each other?
Leaf epidermal cells
[Allow as much space as you can; [Describe in words what the

draw only two or three cells, in
specimen looked like.]
pencil, and include magnication
and estimated size.]
6 (a) Copy and complete the table below using the

information in the diagram on the previous page.
activities
RemembeR
Type of cell
1 Match each type of cell with its function.
Guard cell
Length =
Phloem cell
Length =
Length =
Type of cell
Function
(a) Root hair cell
A Changes shape to open and

close pores in the leaf
Palisade cell
(b) Xylem cell
B Increases surface area for

efcient absorption of water
and minerals
Xylem cell
(c) Guard cell
C Carries water and minerals up

the plant
2 Deduce why the epidermal cells in leaves have a

flattened shape.
3 outline how xylem cells form into long tubes.
Size (m)
Onion epidermal cell Length =

Width =
(b) calculate the average size of the cells listed in the

table in part (a).
(c) construct a column graph of the data in part (a),
showing cell type on the horizontal axis and cell size
on the vertical axis.
7 Deduce how guard cells got their name.
8 Guard cells and stomata usually occur only on the lower
part of the leaf, away from direct sunlight. explain why.
4 Recall which cells make up the tubes that transport food

in the leaves down through the stem.
9 Why are all plant cells not the same?
Think AnD ReASon
cReATe
5 explain whether you would expect to find chloroplasts in

roots.
134
Type of specimen
Plant
Why are there some features that

all cells possess?
DiScUSSion
below, making it large enough for

all of your results.
Source of specimen
prepared slides, recording your

observations in the table as you
make them.
10 construct a working model of a pair of guard cells, using

balloons.
5.8
tissues and organs

In animals and plants, cells work in teams.
Each team has a particular job to do. If all of
the teams do their jobs properly, the animal or
plant stays alive and healthy. If one or more of
the teams doesn t do its job, the animal or plant
becomes sick. It could even die.
All animals and plants are multicellular.
That means that they have many cells. Plants
and animals can have billions of cells. Cells of
the same type form teams of cells called tissue.
For example, your muscle cells form muscle
tissue. Smooth muscle cells form the smooth
muscular tissue in your blood vessels and
your digestive system. Other types of muscle
cells form the cardiac muscle that keeps your
heart beating, and your nerve cells form nerve
tissue.
Cells
Tissues
Teams working together

Organs
Your organs are made of different types of
tissue. Your brain, heart, liver and stomach
are just some of the organs in your body.
Each organ has a very important job to do.
The tissues in the organ work together so
that the job is done properly. For example,
your heart is an organ that pumps blood
around your body. It is made up of cardiac
muscle tissue and connective tissue. The
blood that the heart pumps is also a type
of connective tissue. Nerve tissue sends
messages from your brain to your heart to
Digestive system
control your heart rate.
Organs make up systems.
Your heart, blood vessels
and blood make up the
The different types of cell in the human body are grouped into four main types of tissue.
circulatory system. Your lungs,
Type of tissue
What it does
Example
windpipe and the sheet of
Forms a lining around other body Skin surface (epidermis),
Epithelial tissue
muscle under your lungs,
parts to protect them
stomach lining, lung lining
(or
lining
tissue)
called the diaphragm, are part
Muscle tissue
Tightens and loosens itself to
Biceps in your arm, cardiac
of the respiratory system.
move other body parts
muscle (heart muscle)
Your stomach, intestine, liver,
Nerve
tissue
Carries
messages
around
your
Optic
nerve (from your eye),
pancreas and oesophagus are
body
spinal
cord
organs of the digestive system.
Connective tissue
Holds other tissues together and
Bone, cartilage, blood
Systems work together to keep
provides support and structure
organisms alive.
5 Cells
135
Some systems in the human body

System
Digestive system
Main organs
Stomach, liver, intestines
Job
To break down food into particles small
enough to pass through the walls of the
intestine and into the bloodstream
Respiratory
system
Trachea (windpipe), lungs
To take oxygen from the air and return

carbon dioxide to the air
Circulatory
system
Heart, blood vessels
To move nutrients and gases around the

body
Nervous system
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
To send messages around the body
Plants have organs too!

It s not just animals that have organs. Each leaf, flower, stem and root is
an organ. Each organ is made up of different types of tissue. Each type of
tissue has its own job that helps the organ work properly.
Food-making tissue is
usually found on the
top side of the leaf. It
contains most of the
chloroplasts.
Lining tissue (a layer of epidermal cells)

forms a lining around the leaf to protect it.
The largest organ of the body

Your skin is the largest organ in your
body. it protects your body from germs
and weather, helps control your body
temperature and releases some of
your waste products. it senses warmth
(or lack of it), pressure and pain. it
even uses sunlight to make a vitamin.
Your skin contains lining tissue, nerve
tissue and connective tissue.
The skin of an adult human weighs
about 5 kg. The thinnest part of your
skin is on your eyelids (about 0.5 mm
thick). The thickest part of your skin is
on the soles of your feet (about 4 mm
thick).
The elephant and rhinoceros are
the most thick-skinned animals the
skin on their back can be 2.5 cm thick.
Support tissue gives

the leaf its shape. The
spongy cells that make
up this support tissue
are surrounded by air
spaces. The air spaces
allow gases like carbon
dioxide and oxygen to
flow into and out of
these cells.
Transport tissue includes the bundles
of xylem and phloem cells, which
carry water and minerals from the
roots to the rest of the plant, and food
from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
Cross-section of a leaf,
greatly magnified. Each
leaf of a plant is an organ.
activities
RemembeR
1 Define the term multicellular .
2 List following in order from smallest
to largest: organism, cell, system,
organ, tissue.
3 Complete the following sentences
about animals and plants.
(a)
work together to
form tissues.
(b) Tissues work together to form
.
(c)
work together to
form systems.
136
4 Describe the main job of your:

(a) respiratory system
(b) circulatory system.
5 Recall two of the organs that make
up your:
(a) digestive system
(b) nervous system.
6 Recall the job of the digestive
system in animals.
Think
7 explain why skin is an organ rather
than a tissue.
8 Deduce why the food-making tissue

in a leaf is usually found on its top
side.
imAgine
9 Imagine that you are a tree. You
need to get as much water and as
much sunlight as you can
but
you can t move to another location.
Describe the features your organs
need to help you survive.
5.9
PReScRibeD FocUS AReA

implications of science for society and the environment
stem cells a matter of opinion

You might have heard about stem cell research in the
news. Various groups in society have strong opinions
about whether stem cell research should be done.
What are stem cells?

Stem cells are cells that are not specialised. However,
under the right conditions, they can develop into
various types of specialised cells. There are different
types of stem cells including adult stem cells, cord
blood stem cells and embryonic stem cells.
Adult stem cells

Adult stem cells include a type of cell found in the
bone marrow. These cells can develop into many
kinds of blood cells (red blood cells and many types
of white blood cells). Adult stem cells have been
found in other parts of the body also, but each type of
adult stem cell that has been discovered can develop
into only a few kinds of cells, so their use is limited.
The use of adult stem cells is not controversial as they
can be obtained from consenting adult donors.
disease). Cord stem cells may, however, turn out to

be more versatile than adult stem cells. Teams of
scientists around the world are trying to find out if
cord stem cells can be made into many other types
of cells. Currently cord stem cells can be useful in the
treatment of some diseases such as leukaemia (cancer
of the blood).
Some parents make the decision to freeze their
baby s cord blood. The cord blood can be kept frozen
in case it is needed by the child or the parents later
on. This is a costly procedure. Alternatively, the cord
blood can be donated to a cord blood bank, where it
may be use to treat anyone who might benefit from
it. However, the donated cord blood will not be as
close a match as a person s own cord blood. With
continued research, cord stem cells may one day be
used to treat a range of life-threatening diseases.
Baby
Bone marrow stem cells
Red blood cells
Platelets
Placenta
White blood cells
Umbilical cord
Bone marrow stem cells can develop into different types of blood
cells.
Adult stem cells can be obtained from umbilical cord blood.
cord blood stem cells
embryonic stem cells
Another source of stem cells is umbilical cords. An

umbilical cord is the cord through which an unborn
baby gets nutrients and oxygen from its mother.
When the baby is born, the cord comes out of the
mother s body along with the baby. The blood from
the cord contains stem cells. The stem cells found in
cord blood can develop into only a few types of cells
(mainly blood cells and cells involved in fighting
Embryonic stem cells come from embryos. An embryo

is formed when a sperm cell fertilises an egg, which
then divides into many cells. If fertilisation occurs in
the body of a woman, the embryo can attach itself
to the wall of the uterus and develop into a baby. If
fertilisation occurs in a dish in a laboratory (in-vitro
fertilisation, IVF), the embryo cannot develop into
a baby unless it is then implanted into the uterus
5 Cells
137
of a woman. However, because an in-vitro embryo has the potential to

become a human, it is considered by many people to be human life.
In Australia, embryonic stem cells are obtained from in-vitro embryos.
Removing the stem cells destroys the embryo, which is why
many groups
Fertilised
Egg
Fertilisation
Sperm
object to the
egg divides
use of
embryonic
stem cells for
research and
medicine.
An embryo is the result of a sperm fertilising an egg. If this happens outside a woman s
body, it is called in-vitro fertilisation.
Embryo
Embryo implants
into the womb
and develops
into a baby.
Embryos are used as a

source of stem cells.
Why use embryonic stem cells?

If they are grown under the right conditions, embryonic stem cells
can remain unspecialised and keep dividing. If embryonic stem cells
are allowed to clump, they can spontaneously develop into groups of
specialised cells, such as muscle cells and nerve cells. Scientists can
control the type of cells they will develop into by providing the stem cells
with exactly the right growing conditions.
One day, stem cells may be used to treat diseases caused by the death
or damage of particular cells. For example, new nerve cells could be
grown to replace the damaged nerve cells in people with a spinal cord
injury, which is one
of the main causes of
paralysis. It may even
In-vitro embryo
Embryonic stem cell
be possible to make
entire replacement
organs from stem
cells. Stem cells
may be also used
Embryonic stem
to treat Alzheimer s
cell removed
disease, Parkinson s
Cultured in
disease, diabetes and
laboratory
arthritis.
Professor Alan Trounson is an

Australian scientist who has spent a
great part of his working life perfecting
the technique for creating embryos
outside the human body. he was part of
the team that produced the first testtube baby in Australia in 1980. he has
also done a lot of work on embryonic
stem cells. in 2000, his team showed
that it was possible to produce nerve
cells from embryonic stem cells.
he was recently appointed as the
president of a californian institute that
specialises in stem cell research. it is
the best-funded facility of its kind in
the world, so Trounson will have the
best facilities at his disposal to move
stem cell research forwards.
Clump of embryonic
stem cells
Specific growing conditions
Embryonic stem cells

can develop into many
different types of cells.
138
Alan Trounson, an Australian

scientist who is one of the world s
top stem cell research scientists
Nerve cells
Muscle cells
Gut cells
Whole organs
There are many good reasons for stem cell research, but there are also
valid arguments for not using embryonic stem cells. A solution would be
an alternative source of stem cells that are just as versatile as embryonic
stem cells, and many scientists are currently working towards that. In the
meantime, the use of embryonic stem cells for research and medicine
remains a controversial issue.
Christopher Reeve, the actor who played the role of Superman, became quadriplegic as
a result of a spinal injury caused by a horse riding accident. He could not move any part
of his body below his neck. Stem cell research may one day lead to a way of re-growing
nerve cells to cure spinal injury.
activities
RemembeR
1 Describe stem cells.
2 Define the term umbilical cord .
3 explain why some parents choose
to have their baby s cord blood
frozen.
4 Define the term embryo .
5 Describe the work of an Australian
scientist involved in stem cell
research.
Think
6 Justify why the use of adult stem
cells is not as controversial as the
use of embryonic stem cells.
7 compare the likely usefulness of
embryonic stem cells and adult
stem cells in treating disease.
inveSTigATe
8 Go to Weblinks on eBookPLUS at
www.jacplus.com.au and click on
the Stem Cell link to investigate the
views of the major world religions
on stem cell research.
9 Cancer cells are also cells that are
not specialised. contrast cancer
cells and stem cells.
10 Choose one of the following,
Parkinson s disease, type I
diabetes, spinal cord injury, stroke,
rheumatoid arthritis, and investigate:
(a) what causes the condition
(b) which cells stop working
properly
(c) what problems result
(d) how stem cells might be
useful in treating the problem.
11 Michael J Fox and the late

Christopher Reeve are two
celebrities who have played an
active role in supporting stem cell
research in the US. investigate why
they became involved in this work
and some of the initiatives they
have been involved with.
12 Find out more about the work of
Alan Trounson and some of the
important discoveries he has been
involved with.
DiScUSS
13 Discuss whether you would have
your baby s cord blood frozen and
kept for your own family s use if you
have a child later in life.
14 explain the difference between
adult stem cells and embryonic
stem cells.
15 List some arguments for and
against embryonic stem cell
research.
16 Form six groups. Each group then
nominates a student to act out one
of the following roles (your teacher
will assign one role per group). The
other students in the group help the
actor write their script. Each of the
actors makes a brief presentation
to the government (your class)
about whether embryonic stem
cell research should be allowed
in Australia. At the end of the
presentations, all the ministers
(your classmates) will vote on
whether to allow embryonic stem
cell research in Australia.
Catholic priest: You are against
embryonic stem cell research. In
accordance with your church s
teachings, you believe that life
starts when a sperm fertilises

an egg and, destroying embryos
to obtain embryonic stem cells
is destroying a human life.
Teenager: You are paraplegic as
a result of a car accident. You
hope that stem cell research will
lead to a treatment for spinal
cord injury so that, one day, you
can walk again.
Mother of a child with type I
diabetes: You hope that stem
cell research will lead to a
cure for diabetes so that your
daughter can have a healthy life
free of diabetes.
Scientist: You would like to do
embryonic stem cell research so
that you can help a lot of people,
perhaps finding a cure for a
disease such as Parkinson s.
Mother who has frozen embryos
in storage at an embryo bank:
You and your husband could not
have children the natural way
so you had fertility treatment.
Ten of your eggs were fertilised
with your husband s sperm.
Two of these embryos were
implanted in your uterus and
you had twins. You do not want
any more children, but eight
frozen embryos remain. With
your permission, these embryos
could be used as a source of
embryonic stem cells.
The health minister: You have
your own opinion on embryonic
stem cell research, but you also
need to listen carefully to the
views of the above people. After
listening to their views, make a
short speech to the government
(your class) about stem cell
research.
5 Cells
139
LooKIng BaCK
1 Deduce which of the following types of microscopes were
used to take the photos shown below.
Scanning electron microscope
Light microscope
Transmission electron microscope
Explain your answers.
(a)
(b)
7 Read the following story.

Charlotte has a small pond in her backyard. The weather
has been warm and sunny and the pond has turned green.
Charlotte suspects that algae may be growing in the water.
(a) Describe how Charlotte could use a microscope to find
out if there are algae growing in the water. Write your
answer as a procedure.
(b) When Charlotte looked at a sample of pond water under
the microscope, she saw various organisms. A sketch
of one of the organisms is shown below.
(c)
2 Calculate the magnification when a 10 eyepiece is used

with a 10 objective lens in a microscope.
3 Explain why a microscope is needed to see cells and the
parts inside them.
4 Draw an animal cell and a plant cell, showing and
labelling the parts that can be seen with a normal school
microscope.
5 Unscramble the letters using the clues provided.
(a) SEUNCLU: Control centre of the cell
(b) ERAMMBNE: Surrounds the cell
(c) OCVAUEL: Contains cell sap
(d) CATOPLMYS: Part of the cell between the cell
membrane and the nucleus
(i) Is the organism unicellular or multicellular? Justify

your answer.
(ii) Which kingdom does the organism belong to?
Justify your answer.
8 Complete the flow chart below to show how systems, cells,
organs and tissues are related to each other.
Work together
to form
Work together
to form
Work together
to form
Cells
9 Investigate how specimens are prepared for examination

under an electron microscope.
6 (a) Match the following cell names to the diagrams below.

Euglena
(a)
(b)
Paramecium
onion epidermal cell
nerve cell
sperm cell
guard cells
root hair cell
bacterium
(f)
(b) Recall which kingdom each

of these cells belongs to.
(c)
140
(d)
(e)
(g)
(h)
10 Groups of similar cells that carry out the same job are
called .
3 A diagram of a cell is shown below.
11 The main jobs in the table below have been placed

incorrectly. Redraw the table so that the jobs correctly
match the tissue.
Tissue
Main job
(a) Lining tissue
A To move
(b) Bone tissue
B To send messages
(c) Muscle tissue
C To support
(d) Nerve tissue
D To protect
TEST YOURSELF
1 A microscope is shown below.
1.
4 Identify which of the following statements is true.

(a) Tissues are made of different types of organs.
(b) A system is made of organs working together.
(c) The skin is made up of one type of tissue.
(d) Blood is an example of lining tissue.
(1 mark)
11.
10.
2.
3.
4.
Which of the following statements is true of this cell?

A It is an animal cell because it has a nucleus.
B It is a plant cell because it has a cell membrane.
C It is an animal cell because it has a large vacuole.
D It is a plant cell because it has chloroplasts.
(1 mark)
5.
7.
5 The diagram below shows a plant organ viewed under the

microscope.
(a) Deduce which plant organ is shown.
(2 marks)
(b) The cells labelled A contain lots of small
green dots. What are these green dots
called and why are there so many in these
cells?
(2 marks)
(c) The cells labelled B are transparent.
Why do they need to be transparent?
(2 marks)
6.
8.
9.
Which of the following magnies the image?

A Parts 1 and 8
B Parts 1 and 3
C Part 3 only
D Part 8 only
(1 mark)
2 What is the function of the cell membrane?

A It controls the cell.
B It gives the cell its shape and supports the cell.
C It regulates what can enter and leave the cell.
D It is where respiration occurs.
(1 mark)
work
sheets
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
Cells, tissues and organs

Classifying cells
Cells puzzles
Cells summary
5 Cells
141
stUDY CHeCKLIst
ICt
The microscope
eBook plus
explain the difference between a light and an electron

microscope and the advantages of each
5.1
explain the difference between a monocular microscope
and a binocular microscope 5.1

recall the parts of a school microscope and state their
function 5.1
prepare a specimen for viewing under a school
microscope 5.4
explain why stains are used when preparing microscope
slides 5.4
use a microscope to obtain a focused image of a
specimen 5.4
explain why the invention of the microscope had a
significant impact on biology 5.2
describe Van Leeuwenhoek s contribution to the field of
microbiology 5.2
interpret a timeline such as the one on pages 120 1 5.2
sUMMaRY
eLessons
Inside cells
Learn about the building blocks of life called cells and
organelles in this animated video lesson, looking closely at the
difference between the make-up of animal and plant cells. A
Looking at cells
recall that a micrometre is 1/1 000 000th of a metre,
and convert measurements from micrometres into
millimetres and metres 5.2
draw a labelled diagram of an animal and plant cell
viewed under a light microscope 5.3, 5.4
describe the function of the following cell parts: nucleus,
cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast, cytoplasm,
mitochondrion 5.3
draw labelled diagrams of a specimen viewed under the
microscope 5.4, 5.6, 5.7
interactivities
Microscope parts
This interactivity focuses on the microscope. You must select
the parts of the microscope that best fit a series of descriptions.
Instant feedback is provided.
Unicellular and multicellular organisms

explain the difference between unicellular and
multicellular organisms, and list examples of each
5.5
explain how things move in and out of cells 5.4

explain how unicellular organisms reproduce 5.5
recall examples of different types of cells found in
animals, such as humans, and their function
5.6
explain how the structure of cells is related to their

function, using examples
5.6, 5.7
recall examples of cells found in plants and their

function
5.7
explain the meaning of the terms tissue , organ and

system , and give examples of each in both plants and
animals 5.8
implications of science for society and the environment

define the terms adult stem cells , cord blood stem
cells and embryonic stem cells
5.9
discuss whether embryonic stem cell research should

be done in Australia
5.9
give an example of an Australian scientist involved with

stem cell research and list some of his achievements
142
5.9
Cell jobs
This interactivity tests your ability to match a number of different
types of cells with their roles in the body. Instant feedback is
provided.
Forces in action
Skydivers can
reach speeds of
200 kilometres per
hour as they fall
through the air. Once the parachute
is open, the descent rate reduces
to around 20 kilometres per hour.
What force causes the skydiver to
descend? How does a parachute
slow the rate of descent?

6.1
identify the forces acting around
us
identify changes that occur when
forces act
6.2
observe and understand how
friction works in common

situations
6.3
describe the way magnetic poles
behave
outline how we use magnets and
electromagnets
6.4
explain how the force of gravity
affects all objects in the universe

6.5
investigate the forces of buoyancy
and surface tension

6. 6
learn how an understanding of
forces can help to keep us safe.
Both upward and downward

forces are acting on a skydiver
falling to Earth.
6 Forces in action
Thinking about forces
1. Work in small groups of three to four students and try the following
activity.
(a) Using a large piece of butcher s paper, draw up a table with terms
listed in the left column (see below).
(b) Discuss each term and what you all think it might mean.
(c) In column two of your table, write the possible meaning that
your group proposes for each term. If your group finds a term
difficult, you can write don t know , but don t be afraid to have
an educated guess.
(d) Share your group s responses with the class.
Term
Possible meaning
Force
Friction
Magnet
Magnetic field
Mass
Gravity
Weight
Lubricant
Buoyancy
Surface tension
Aerodynamic
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10 .
Identify the forces acting as you stretch a rubber band.

Why are bicycle helmets necessary?
Explain how a seatbelt protects you in a car accident.
Is there gravity on the moon? If so, is it the same as the gravity on Earth?
Is it easier to slide a heavy box over concrete or vinyl? Explain why.
Why are modern cars designed to be sleek and streamlined?
Give some examples of magnets used in household devices.
Are all metals magnetic? Elaborate.
Explain how heavy cargo ships can float on water.
6.1
What are forces?

A force is a push, a pull or a twist.
A force can change the speed,
direction or shape of an object. For
example, when a racquet strikes a
tennis ball, it can cause the ball to
change speed and direction. It can
temporarily change the shape of
the ball too.
InveStIgatIon 6.1
What can a force do?
You will need:
rubber band
plasticine
tennis ball
coin
nylon or wool cloth
plastic ruler or rod
Copy the following table into your workbook and write down your
observations.
Take notice of any changes in the motion or shape of each object and what
caused the change in the motion or shape.

Observations
What to do
Changes in
motion or shape
What caused
the change
Stretch a rubber band.

Squash a lump of plasticine.
Push down on the floor with one foot.
Drop a tennis ball. Observe what happens:
(a) at the moment that you drop it
(b) as it falls
(c) as it hits the ground
(d) as it goes up again.
A force can change the speed, direction
or shape of an object. In this high-speed
image, the force of impact between the
racquet and ball changes their shape.
Flick a coin with one finger so that it

slides along the surface of a table.
Observe what happens after the coin is
flicked.
Types of forces
Charge a plastic ruler or rod by rubbing it

with a nylon or wool cloth. Hold it close to
a thin stream of tap water.
Forces are acting around you

all the time and they can cause
changes to occur. Sometimes the
effects are obvious and sometimes
they are not. At this moment,
forces are acting inside your body
to pump blood around. When you
write, you use a force to push the
pen or pencil. The many examples
of forces that affect our daily lives
can be classified as either a contact
force or a non-contact force.
Discussion
1
When you squash a lump of plasticine and stretch a rubber band,

a change in shape is observed. Explain what is different about the
behaviour of these two materials after you have applied a force.
Does the tennis ball change its shape at all when it hits the ground?
What would happen to a falling lump of plasticine when it hits the
ground? Would it bounce? Check your prediction.
In which two experiments were you able to change the motion of

objects without making contact with them?
6 Forces in action
145
contact forces
Often, forces can act between two
objects that are in contact with
one another. Familiar examples of
contact force include the force of
your hand pulling your shoelaces,
the force of your hand on a bottle
top as you unscrew it, and the force
of your schoolbag pulling down on
your shoulders.
Forces can act between two
objects that are in contact
with each other.
Other examples of contact forces

include friction and buoyancy.
Friction is a contact force
between two surfaces that are
sliding, or attempting to slide, over
one another. For example, there is
friction between the tyres of your
bike and the ground when you
pedal. Without friction, the tyre
would just slip and you would not
move forward.
You cannot walk on water, but
water does provide an upward
force on you when you step
in. This upward force is called
buoyancy and it is the force that
enables you, and ships, to float.
motion of an object
they can get
the object moving, slow it down or
stop it altogether.
Gravity is a non-contact force.
We can see the effects of the force
of gravity acting between an apple
and the Earth when the apple drops
from a tree. The force of gravity
acting on us is often called our
weight. Gravitational forces also
hold the moon in orbit around the
Earth, and the planets in our solar
system in orbit around the sun.
Magnetic forces can act without
contact too. These forces act
between two or more magnets, or
between magnets and some metals,
such as iron. Magnets have two
ends or poles. When two magnets
are brought together, they either
attract (pull) each other or repel
(push), depending on the positions
of the poles of the magnets.
Electrostatic forces sometimes
cause your hair to stand on end
immediately after you pull off a
sweater. If you rub the end of your
pen or ruler through your hair,
you might even be able to pick up
some small pieces of paper using
this electrostatic force.
Measuring forces
The standard unit for force is the
newton (N), which is named after
Sir Isaac Newton (1643 1727), an
English physicist famous for his
discoveries about how forces affect
motion. He was also the author
of many scientific laws about light
and astronomy.
A spring balance is a device used
to measure forces. An internal
spring stretches as a force is
applied to the spring balance, and
we can read the force (in newtons)
on the scale provided. Spring
balances that contain stronger
springs can measure larger forces.
More sensitive spring balances
have weaker springs and measure
smaller forces.
Kilograms Newtons
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
10
Kilograms Newtons
0
0
1
2
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
7
8
9
10
80
90
100
non-contact forces
Forces can occur even between two
objects that are not touching each
other. These forces are called noncontact forces. Like all other forces,
non-contact forces can affect the
146
POTATOES
You may experience an electrostatic force

when you pull off a sweater.
Spring balances are

used to measure forces.
InveStIgatIon 6.2
Commence creating the scale for
your spring balance by marking the

starting position on your window.
Mark it as 0 masses.
Build your own spring balance

You will need:
cardboard
sticky tape
short coil or spring
mass carrier and masses
Suspend the mass carrier on your
spring and then mark the new

position as 1 mass.
Why was it useful to work in

teams in this investigation?
Sticky tape
Cardboard
Spring
Add a mass to the carrier and mark
it as 2 masses.
Working in small teams, cut a
window out of your piece of

cardboard to match the dimensions
of your fully stretched spring.
Attach your spring firmly to the top
of the window.
Cut out a small arrow from the
remaining cardboard to act as a

marker for your spring and attach it
to the bottom of the spring.
Continue till the spring is fully
Force
0 masses
1 mass
2 masses
3 masses
4 masses
Window
stretched or you have run out of

masses.
Discussion
1
Explain how a spring balance

works.
Outline any problems you

encountered.
Cardboard
pointer
Masses and
mass carrier
Representing forces
Balanced and unbalanced forces
Scientists use arrows in diagrams

to represent forces. The direction
of the arrow shows which way the
force is acting. The length of the
arrow shows how big the force is.
A long arrow represents a larger,
stronger force than a short arrow.
The arrows that represent forces
acting on an object should be
drawn from the object s centre of
gravity. All objects, including your
body, have a centre of gravity.
Picture a point in your body where
your weight would be concentrated
if your body was
a single point.
That point is
called your
centre of
gravity.
Forces act on us all the time when we are moving and even when we
are stopped. More than one force is acting on us all the time. The forces
acting on us can be balanced or unbalanced.
Your centre of gravity

changes with your
position. When
standing, your centre
of gravity is at about
bellybutton height.
Balanced forces
The arrows describing
the up and down
forces acting on the
kayaker are the same
length. That shows
that the forces are
the same size. But
these forces are acting
in opposite directions. The mass of the kayaker (and the kayak) pushes
down, but the buoyancy force pushes up. The two forces are balanced
and so the kayaker does not move up or down.
unbalanced forces
The arrows describing the forward and backward forces on the kayaker
are not the same length. The forward force comes from the kayaker using
a paddle to push forwards. The backward force is the drag from the water
slowing the kayak down. These forces are unbalanced. The forward force
is larger than the
backward force, so the
kayaker and his kayak
ak
move forwards faster
and faster. Eventually
they cannot move anyy
faster because drag
increases when
speed increases.
6 Forces in action
147
The effect of balanced and

unbalanced forces
Unbalanced forces cause things to start moving like a
kayak in the water. Unbalanced forces can increase or
decrease the speed of the kayak as well. If the forward
and backward forces are balanced, there is no increase
or decrease in speed; the kayak moves at a steady
speed or stays at rest.
These forces are unbalanced. Why?
(b) While your finger is still pushing the coin, there are
four forces acting on the coin. What are they? Draw
a diagram with arrows showing the direction in
which each of the four forces pushes or pulls.
(c) How many forces are acting on the coin after your
finger stops pushing?
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term force .
2 identify the three possible results of a force acting on an
object.
3 Which of the following forces are non-contact forces?
friction, electrostatic force, magnetic force, gravity
9 Air resistance is the force that results as objects move

through the air. Is air resistance a contact or a noncontact force? Explain your answer.
10 There are four forces acting on the person in this diagram.
4 outline how the size of a force is represented in a diagram.

5 Imagine a moving object. List three things that an
unbalanced force could change about the object and its
motion.
6 identify the force that slows down movement through
water.
THinK
7 Copy the following table into your workbook. Complete
it by thinking of one or two everyday examples of forces
that produce the effect in the first column. You can
complete your table with diagrams or words.
Everyday effects of forces
Effect
Examples of forces in
everyday life
Starting motion
Stopping motion
Speeding up motion
Slowing down motion
Changing the direction of
motion
11 Redraw the force arrows in question 10 to show the

forces acting when the bike rider is slowing down.
Changing the shape of an

object
12 Choose two objects around you. Use arrows to draw the

forces you think are acting on the objects. (Hint: You can
tell if forces are balanced or unbalanced by looking at
the object s motion.)
Having no visible effect

8 When you flick a coin so that it slides across a table, it
slows down.
(a) identify the force that slows the coin down.
148
(a) identify which forces are balanced.

(b) identify which forces are unbalanced.
(c) Is the rider s speed increasing, decreasing or
constant?
work
sheets
6.1 Types of forces

6.2 Measuring forces
6.2
Friction
Have you ever tried to walk across
ice? It s difficult to start moving
because you can t easily push off
from the slippery surface. Once
you re moving, it s then hard to
stop. Walking along a concrete
path is much easier. The rough
concrete provides far more friction
than slippery ice, allowing a better
grip.
eBook plus
eles-0032
What affects friction?

The size of a friction force changes
depending on the objects that are
rubbing against each other. Friction
is usually greatest between two
rough surfaces. It also increases
when the objects are pressed
together tightly.
Friction
Friction is a force that acts against
the movement of an object. It
occurs between any surfaces
that are touching and trying to
move past each other. Objects
travelling through air or water also
experience friction.
Friction can occur between solid
objects if the surfaces that are in
contact are rough. Small bumps
on the surface of one object catch
on bumps on the surface of the
other object and slow down the
movement.
using friction
At times, friction can be a nuisance.
For example:
Try sliding a heavy object across
a rough surface. Before an object
will move, you need to push or
pull it with a force greater than
the friction force.
Swimmers have to work hard
to overcome the drag of the
water. In other sports, like motor
racing, cars need to be specially
designed to keep drag from the
air as small as possible.
When engine parts rub together,
they can cause the engine to
overheat.
eLesson
Friction as a driving force

Watch this video lesson to learn about
friction and why you couldnt drive a car
or even walk without it.
A scanning electron microscope image

of the surface of polished stainless steel.
Even surfaces that seem smooth still have
small bumps in them. The bumps on a
surface get caught on, or grip, the bumps
on another surface that is rubbing against
it. That s why friction is often called grip.
At other times, we need friction.

For example:
The friction between our feet
and the ground means that we
can push off and start walking.
It also means we can stop
without sliding.
On a flat road, the friction
between a tyre and the road is
needed to start the car moving.
Without it, the tyres would spin
on the spot and the car wouldn t
move. Tyres are designed with
tread patterns that optimise
friction on the road.
Rubbing your hands together
on a cold day helps to keep you
warm. Whenever friction occurs,
the temperature of the two
interacting surfaces increases.
This box is easy to slide across the floor.

Only a small force is needed to overcome
the friction between the box and the floor.
This box is much harder to push. A big

force is needed to overcome the friction
between the heavy box and the floor. The
friction has increased because the bumps
along the surfaces of the box and the floor
are pressed together more tightly.
6 Forces in action
149
InveStIgatIon 6.3
Repeat this procedure on several other surfaces of
your choice. Surfaces that you might test are vinyl floor,
carpet, doormat, concrete and bitumen.
Measuring friction
Friction on different surfaces
You will need:

block of wood with hook attached
several identical blocks of wood
spring balance
Force of friction (newtons)

Trial
Surface
Copy the table on the right into your workbook.
Average
Use a spring balance to pull a block of wood across your
desktop. As long as you pull steadily, the reading on the

spring balance will be equal to the force of friction on
the moving block.
Record your reading in the table.
Summarise your average results in a bar or column graph.

Design and carry out an experiment to find out the effect
of mass on the size of the friction force. Record your

results in a table and display them on a line graph.
Discussion
1
List the surfaces in order, from greatest friction force

to least.
What feature of a surface seems to determine the

amount of friction?
Why was it a good idea to repeat each measurement

three times?
Use a spring balance to pull a block of wood across a surface.

Repeat your measurement two more times on the
desktop and calculate the average force of friction.

Record all data in the table.
Friction at work
Friction might seem like the last thing you would
want if you were in a bike race. Many bikes have
a streamlined design to reduce the air resistance
acting on the bike and the rider. But, if you were in
a downhill mountain-bike race, you might want to
reconsider. Traction in this sport is very important.
What is traction?
Traction and friction are closely related. Traction
describes how an object sticks to another. Tyres with
good traction grip the road and turn without sliding
or spinning on the spot.
Downhill mountain-bike riding requires good
traction. The downhill surface is steep, bumpy and has
many loose particles that slide over the ground surface
easily. Without good traction, downhill mountain
bikes could slide out of control, all the way down a
mountain. Traction helps to keep the tyres in contact
with the surface and gives the rider control.
It also means that the bike can slow down or stop if
the rider needs to do so.
150
4 Do heavier objects experience more friction?
Traction is also important when

walking. To walk forwards, your
foot needs to push back on
the ground. If you have
good soles on your shoes
and a rough surface to
walk across, you can move
forwards.
When walking across a
slippery surface, such as ice,
it is possible for your foot
to slip backwards because
there is less traction.
Downhill mountain bikers stay

in control with the help of
bike tyres that are designed
to provide good traction on dirt
tracks.
Your joints contain a lubricant

called synovial fluid to help stop
bones from scraping against each
other.
InveStIgatIon 6.4
investigating the friction of shoes
Design an experiment to compare the friction of a variety of shoes and a
particular floor surface.
Femur
Collect a variety of shoes to test. Include different brands of school shoes
and runners.
oint
capsule
Identify the equipment you will need to measure the friction that exists
between each shoe and a particular floor surface.

Collect information about each shoe to be tested, such as length, mass, sole
material and tread.

Write up the method used in your investigation using a scientific report format.
Record your results in a suitable table.
Synovial
fluid
Discussion
1
Write a suitable conclusion to your experiment.
Identify the variables that you controlled and the variables that you would
have liked to control but could not.
Fibula
Tibia
Reducing friction
Friction is useful if you want
to get moving or if you want
to stop. However, friction
is a problem for moving
parts in machines and other
equipment. Wheels, like
those on a skateboard, need
to move freely around an axle.
To achieve this, steel balls,
called ball bearings, are inserted
into the hub of the wheel. The
bearings help the wheel roll
around the axle, rather than
slide over it. The rolling motion
of the ball bearings helps
to reduce friction
rolling
objects experience less friction
than sliding objects. Lubricants,
such as grease, can be applied
to the ball bearings to reduce
friction even further.
The grease provides a slippery
layer between the surfaces so that
they move more easily. Without
ball bearings and grease, the
wheels would be difficult to turn
and the components would wear
out very quickly.
Wheel
Synovial fluid lubricates joints, like this one

in the knee, and so reduces friction.
Friction in fluids
Axle
Wheel
hub
Axle
Ball bearings help to reduce friction
between the axle and the wheel hub of a
skateboard.
Friction between moving parts

causes them to heat up; this is not
good for a machine with moving
parts, but great if you are cold.
Campers in the cold rub their
hands together to warm them.
Any substance that is able to take

up the shape of its container and
can flow is called a fluid. Air and
water are both fluids. Objects
travelling through air and water
experience fluid friction. Fluid
friction in air is commonly called
air resistance or drag. The term
drag can also be applied to fluid
friction in water.
Like rolling friction and sliding
friction, fluid friction acts against
the motion of objects. Fluid
friction limits the speed of objects
travelling through air and water.
It increases the amount of fuel
needed by cars, planes, motorised
boats and submarines.
Cars, planes, watercraft and
bicycles are streamlined to reduce
fluid friction. The faster a vehicle
needs to travel, the more important
streamlining becomes. Some
athletes even shave their bodies to
streamline them.
6 Forces in action
151
Friction and the space

shuttle
One of the most dangerous stages
of a space shuttle mission is the
re-entry into the Earth s
atmosphere. After travelling
through space with almost no
friction at all, the shuttle fires its
engines to slow it down. It enters
the atmosphere at a speed of
about 26 000 km/h. Because it is
travelling so fast, the atmospheric
drag is large enough to slow it
down to about 2000 km/h within
minutes. The temperature on
the surface of the wings reaches
1500 C.
Over 25 000 special ceramic
tiles on the surface of the shuttle
prevent it from burning up. They
protect the astronauts inside from
the incredible heat. As it slows
down, the size of the drag force
on the shuttle decreases and it
gradually cools down. About one
hour after leaving its orbit, the
shuttle lands at a speed of about
300 km/h.
The dangers of the high friction

re-entry of spacecraft into the
atmosphere were highlighted on
1 February 2003, when the
space shuttle Columbia broke
up 16 minutes before it was due
to land. All seven crew members
were killed. nAsA scientists found
the tragedy was probably caused
by minor damage to some of the
ceramic tiles on the shuttle s
surface during launch. This left
a very small part of the surface
unprotected from the high
temperatures caused by friction.
The resulting fire quickly reached
Columbia s fuel tanks, causing a
huge explosion.
152
InveStIgatIon 6.5
Retort stand
investigating shape and

air resistance
You will need:
hair dryer
plasticine
string
protractor
thumb tack
sticky tape
electronic balance
Bosshead
Clamp
String
Protractor
Hair dryer
Thumb tack
Set up the equipment as
shown in the diagram.

Make different shapes with the plasticine to compare the air resistance.
Attach each shape in turn to the device using a thumb tack.
Turn on the hair dryer and measure the angle of deflection from the vertical
(90 ) position for each shape.

Record your results in a suitable table.
Discussion
1
Which shape produces the greatest angle of deflection?
Which shape would you recommend using for a helmet? Explain.
Identify each of the following for this investigation:

(a) the independent variable
(b) the dependent variable
(c) important controlled variables.
Damage to Columbia s ceramic

tiles was believed to have caused
it to overheat and explode on re-entry.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term friction .
2 Explain why friction is important
when you walk.
3 identify the name of the friction
force that acts on an object moving
through the air.
8 For each of the unfriendly friction

sketches below, state:
(i) how the friction force is being
a nuisance
(ii) what could be done to reduce
the effect of the force of
friction
(iii) what could be done to reduce
the force of friction.
(a)
4 Apart from the roughness of the

surfaces rubbing together, identify
one other thing that increases the
size of a friction force.
5 identify three ways in which friction
can be reduced. Give an example
of each method.
6 What is fluid friction and why is it
important to streamline?
12 Explain how lubricants protect

moving surfaces from wear and
tear.
13 Olympic swimmers wear smooth,
tight-fitting suits, streamlining their
bodies to reduce friction. Some of
them even shave their heads.
(a) Do you think that shaving
heads or legs could give
athletes an advantage? Why?
(b) identify other sports in which
athletes shave parts of their
bodies or wear clothing that
reduces fluid friction.
(b)
THinK
7 For each of the friendly friction
sketches below, state:
(i) how the friction force is being
helpful
(ii) what would happen if the
friction force was absent.
(c)
(a)
Swimmers streamline their bodies to
reduce friction.
Unfriendly friction
cREATE
(b)
(c)
Friendly friction
9 In Investigation 6.3 (page 150),

the block needed to be pulled at
constant speed.
(a) Draw a diagram of the block
and the surface it is moving
along. Add arrows to represent
the forward and backward
forces.
(b) What size must the arrows be,
compared with each other, if
the block is speeding up?
10 Motorists are advised that they will
waste fuel if their tyres are underinflated. Explain why this is so.
11 The force stopping a mountain bike
from sliding out of control down
a hill is traction. identify the force
that pulls the rider and the bike
down the mountain.
14 Imagine a world without friction.

Write a story about how your life
would be different without friction.
What things would be easier to do?
What things would become almost
impossible?
eBook plus
15 Using the Friction as a driving

force interactivity in your
eBookPLUS, match different
car tyres to the right weather
conditions. Run simulations to see
if you can achieve the perfect
amount of friction. int-0054
work
sheet
6.3 Friction
6 Forces in action
153
6.3
Magnetic forces
Make a list of all the things that you come into contact with every day
that use magnets. The pictures below will give you some clues. You might
like to share your ideas with others and compile a class list.
InveStIgatIon 6.6
What does a magnet
attract?
You will need:
magnet
selection of materials to be tested
(see the list below)
Place a magnet close to
a range of materials to
find out which ones are
attracted to it. Record your
observations in a table like
the one below.
Attracted
Not attracted
Magnets that might be found at home
Almost every time you

North pole
push or pull an object, you
have to touch it. Magnets can
pull objects without actually
touching them; the force
between a magnet and an
South pole
attracted object is an example of
a non-contact force. The closer
Even when a magnet is cut in
the magnet is to the object, the
half, each half still has a north
greater the size of the pulling
pole and a south pole. If you could
force.
keep cutting a magnet in half over
Magnets that retain their
and over again, each half would
magnetism when removed from
always have both a north pole and
other magnets are called permanent
a south pole.
magnets. Temporary magnets are
objects that lose their magnetism
when removed from another
magnet.
Test as many of the following
items as possible: pencil,

paper, plastic straw, coins,
iron nail, stainless steel spoon,
aluminium foil, paperclip,
copper wire.
Investigate whether some
materials block the magnetic

force.
Discussion
1
Which materials were

attracted to the magnet?
Are all metals attracted to

magnets?
Of the materials that were

attracted to the magnet,
which one was attracted the
most? Why do you think this
was so?
Discuss whether some

materials block the
magnetic force.
Poles
The pulling force of a magnet is
strongest at its ends, or poles. All
magnets have a north pole and a
south pole.
154
Magnets always have a north and south

pole, even if broken in half.
InveStIgatIon 6.7
Poles apart
You will need:
2 bar magnets
Take two bar magnets and identify the north and
south pole of each. Position the magnets near each

other as shown below. Record whether the magnets
attract or repel each other in each case.
(a)
N S
(b)
N N
(c)
S S
(d)
S N
Iron filings sprinkled around a magnet
Attraction or repulsion?
Complete the sentences to form your conclusion:
Like poles
Unlike poles
.
.
opposites attract
When the north poles of two magnets are brought
close together, the magnets push away or repel each
other. This same repulsion force is felt between two
south poles.
When the north pole of a magnet comes close to the
south pole of another magnet, the opposite happens.
They pull on each other, or attract.
The magnetic field

can be drawn like a
map, as shown in
S
N
this diagram. The
lines show the
direction of the
Magnetic fields can be drawn as maps.
magnetic force. The
lines are closest together where the magnetic force
is greatest and are furthest apart where the magnetic
force is weakest.
Just as iron filings align with the magnetic field, the
needle of a compass lines up with the magnetic field.
The north pole of the compass points in the direction
of a magnet s magnetic field.
InveStIgatIon 6.8
Mapping the magnetic field
Like poles
repel.
You will need:

horseshoe magnet
overhead transparency
2 bar magnets
iron filings
sheet of A4 paper
small compass
Unlike poles
attract.
Place a bar magnet in the centre of a sheet of white
Magnetic fields
The metallic objects attracted to a magnet lie within
the magnet s magnetic field. The magnetic field is the
area around a magnet where its magnetic force acts.
Although magnetic fields are invisible, we can
visualise what they look like by sprinkling iron filings
around a magnet. Each of the tiny iron filings in the
photograph above is attracted to the magnet. The
filings line up in the direction of the magnetic force
around the magnet.
paper. Cover the paper and magnet with an overhead

transparency.
Carefully sprinkle iron filings over the transparency,
gently tapping it to spread the filings out. Take care

not to let iron filings get under the transparency.
Draw a diagram of the pattern made by the iron
filings. Label the north pole and south pole of your

magnet on the diagram. The pattern in your diagram is
a map of the magnetic field around the bar magnet.
Use the iron filings to investigate the magnetic fields
around a horseshoe magnet and the pairs of magnets

shown on the next page.
6 Forces in action
155
(a)
Geographic North Pole
N
(b)
(c)
(d)
Axis of rotation
Magnetic North Pole
Use the iron filings to investigate the magnetic fields

around these magnets.
Discussion
1
Where does the magnetic field appear to be

strongest? How do you know this?
What happens to the strength of the magnetic field

as you get further from the magnet?
Place a compass at several positions around the

magnet. The direction in which the north-pointing
needle of the compass points shows the direction
of the magnetic field lines. Draw a diagram of the
magnetic fields around the magnets in the figures
above. Add arrows to your diagram to show the
direction of the magnetic field.
Do the magnetic field lines run from north pole to

south pole or from south pole to north pole around
the magnet?
The Earth s magnetic field

If you hang a magnet from its middle, it always lines
up with the North and South Poles of the Earth. The
Earth, like the sun and some planets, has its own
magnetic field. It is very much like the magnetic field
of a bar magnet. Scientists have proposed a number
of different theories to explain what causes the Earth s
magnetic field. One popular theory is that, as the
Earth spins, the movement of molten iron in the
Earth s outer core creates electric currents in the core
that generate the magnetic field.
Notice that there are two north poles and two
south poles marked on the diagram above right. The
magnetic North Pole is located nearly 1000 km from
the geographic North Pole. Similarly, the magnetic
South Pole is found just over 1000 km from the
geographic South Pole.
Which way is north?

A compass is a simple tool for letting us know where
north is. The compass needle moves freely around
156
Magnetic South Pole
Geographic South Pole
The Earth s magnetic field
the centre point until it

N
points north. It is pushed
and pulled by magnetic
forces so that it lines up with
the Earth s magnetic field,
just like a hanging magnet.
W
E
In fact, a compass needle
is a magnet. The tip of the
needle that points or seeks
north must be the north pole
of the magnet. The north
S
pole of a compass actually
gets its name from the term
north-seeking pole because it lines up or seeks the
magnetic North Pole of the Earth. For the north pole
of a magnet to point to the Earth s North Pole, it
must really be acting as the south pole of a magnet
remember that opposites attract!
Three special metals

Not all objects are attracted to magnets. Magnets
affect only materials containing iron, nickel or
cobalt. Scientists have developed a model or visual
representation to explain what causes these metals to
be magnetic. In their model, the metals are thought
to be made up of small parts that behave like minimagnets. These small parts are called domains. Each of
these domains or mini-magnets has a north pole and
a south pole.
InveStIgatIon 6.9
Making your own compass
You will need:
large iron nail (about 50 mm long)
strong magnet
paperclips or small nails
container of water
styrofoam cup
As well as being affected by magnets, iron, nickel

and cobalt can also be made into magnets. When the
domains inside the metals face the same direction, the
metal acts as a magnet.
If the domains inside magnetic materials are facing different
directions, the pushes and pulls of the mini-magnets are
cancelled out. It results in the material not being a magnet.
S
N
N
permanent magnet. After each stroke, lift the magnet

high above the nail before commencing the next one.
You need to make sure that each stroke is in the same
direction and made with the same end of the magnet.
Take a large iron nail and stroke it with a strong
S
N
N
S
S
S
N
S
S
After a total of 40 strokes, test your new magnet by
trying to attract paperclips or small nails.

Compare the strength of your magnet with that of
others in your class.
If the domains are lined up facing the same direction, the material
has an overall north pole and an overall south pole. The material
will behave like a magnet.
Use your magnet to make a compass like the one
shown below. You will need a container of water and

a float. The bottom of a styrofoam cup will make a
good float.
Make your own compass.

Try dropping your homemade magnet on the floor
several times. Test it to see if it still works.
Discussion
1 Is your magnet a permanent magnet or a temporary
magnet?
2 Which end of your magnet is the north pole? How
do you know?
We have seen that a needle or nail can be

magnetised by stroking it with a bar magnet in the
same direction many times. The domains in the
needle are lined up only temporarily and eventually
they go back to their original directions. Such objects
are called temporary magnets.
Bar and horseshoe magnets are permanent magnets.
They do not lose their magnetism easily, except
by being dropped or by being heated to very high
temperatures.
Most permanent magnets are alloys, or mixtures, of
the metals iron, nickel or cobalt with other elements.
Items made of steel are attracted to magnets because
steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and other substances.
switched on magnets
A magnet s pulling force can be very useful, but
sometimes it gets in the way. An electromagnet is a
magnet that can be turned on and off with the flick
of a switch. It is made up of a coil of wire wrapped
around a piece of iron. The piece of iron turns into a
magnet when electricity passes through the coil. The
iron stops being magnetic as soon as the electricity is
turned off.
6 Forces in action
157
Electromagnets are used in many machines and appliances. The

photograph at right shows one such use. The electromagnet is attached
to a giant crane. The electric current is turned off while the electromagnet
is lowered into a position over the load of scrap metal to be lifted. When
the current is switched on, the iron or steel in the scrap is attracted to the
electromagnet and lifted to a container. The electric current is switched
off and the metal falls into the container. However, if the metal was not
mostly iron or steel, the electromagnet would be of little or no use.
Electromagnets like the one in the photograph are also useful in
separating iron and steel from other scrap metal. The scrap metal is first
shredded into small pieces.
The electromagnet
attached to the crane
attracts iron and
steel objects when
the electric current
is switched on.
using magnets
Permanent magnets and electromagnets are commonly used in our daily
lives. The microphones and speakers in devices like telephones contain
both permanent magnets and electromagnets. Doorbells and metal
detectors also rely on electromagnets. High-speed trains in Europe and
China use electromagnets to elevate the train to reduce friction.
The voice we hear through the telephone or the music that comes
from our stereo or mp3 player is produced by a speaker. The sound is
generated when electricity passes into a coil of wire causing it to become an
electromagnet. The electric current in the electromagnet changes direction
causing it to be attracted and repelled by a ring-shaped permanent magnet
around it. This makes the diaphragm of the speaker vibrate, which produces
the sound.
InveStIgatIon 6.10
Making electromagnets
You will need:
power supply
2 insulated wires, one short,
the other 1.5 m long
Power supply
large nail
switch
paperclips
Insulated
copper wire
Switch (open)
Wind the long wire neatly around the nail 15 times.

Set the power supply to 2 volts and close the switch.
Test the nail to see if it will pick up any paperclips.
15
20
25
30
15
20
25
30
Number of
paperclips
picked up
of paperclips picked up for 25 and 30 turns of wire.

Raise the voltage to 4 volts. Repeat the previous steps.
Discussion
1
What effect does increasing the number of turns of

wire have?
Wind five more turns of wire onto the nail.
What is the effect of raising the voltage?
How many paperclips does the electromagnet pick up
Did the iron nail retain its magnetism when the

current was switched off? Explain.
Record your results in a table like the one above.
now?
158
Number of
turns of wire
Keep winding the wire onto the nail. Record the number
Nail
Set up the circuit shown above.
Voltage of power
supply (V)
7 Explain why hanging magnets line

up with the North and South Poles
of the Earth.
8 Describe what an electromagnet is
and explain how it works.
9 List some everyday devices that
use electromagnets.
THinK
Electromagnets
The maglev
train seems
to float above
the train
tracks. The
train touches
the track only
while it is
building up
speed before
moving.
10 Make a list of as many items

as you can that are, or contain,
permanent magnets.
11 The magnetic North Pole of the
Earth can be considered as one
pole of a bar magnet. Is it acting
as the south pole or the north
pole of a magnet? Explain your
answer.
12 Which way would the coloured
end of a compass point if you
were in a plane flying directly
above the Earth s magnetic North
Pole?
activities
13 State the advantage of an

electromagnet over a permanent
magnet. Use an example to
illustrate your answer.
REMEMBER
14 Explain why a maglev train is able

to travel so fast.
1 identify which of the following

statements is correct.
(a) Permanent magnets never lose
their magnetism.
(b) All metals are strongly
attracted to magnets.
(c) All permanent magnets have a
north pole and a south pole.
(d) Iron is the only substance
attracted to magnets.
2 outline the difference between
a permanent magnet and a
temporary magnet.
3 How should two bar magnets be
placed on a table so that they repel
each other?
4 Define the term magnetic field .
5 How can you tell where the
magnetic field is strongest around
a magnet?
inVEsTiGATE
15 Design and carry out an
experiment to measure the
strength of different magnets.
Record your measurements in a
table and display them using a bar
or column graph.
DEsiGn AnD cREATE

16 Design a poster to illustrate the
variety of common devices that
use permanent magnets and
electromagnets.
AnALYsE
18 Arianna made her own
electromagnet to find out how
the number of windings around
a nail affected the number of
paperclips that the nail could
pick up. She used the circuit
shown in Investigation 6.10 with
the power supply set to 2 volts.
Arianna then repeated her
measurements with the power
supply set to 4 volts and 6 volts.
She recorded her observations
in a table. Then she constructed
the graph below.
16
6 volts
14
Number of paperclips lifted
The maglev train gets its name from

MAGnetic LEVitation. it reaches
speeds of up to 500 km/h and doesn t
even need a normal engine to run!
it uses pushing forces between
electromagnets on the track and on
the train to keep them apart.
Electromagnets also propel the
train forwards. Magnets ahead of the
train pull the train forwards. Magnets
behind the train push it forwards.
6 outline how the direction of a

magnetic field is determined.
12
4 volts
10
8
2 volts
6
4
2
0
10 20 30 40 50
Number of windings
(a) How many paperclips did

Arianna lift with 20 windings
and the power supply set to
6 volts?
(b) Arianna lifted 12 paperclips
when the power supply was
set to 4 volts. How many
windings were there around
the nail?
(c) How many paperclips could
Arianna expect to lift with
50 windings around the nail
and the power supply set to
2 volts?
(d) Suggest a way that Arianna
would be able to improve the
reliability of her results.
work
sheets
6.4 Magnetic forces

6.5 Electromagnetism
17 construct a device that uses an

electromagnet to make a noise
when you close a switch or push a
button.
6 Forces in action
159
6.4
gravitational forces
Gravity is the force that ensures that what goes up
must come down. It pulls us towards the Earth,
pressing our feet onto the ground, which results in the
friction that gives us traction. Gravity also dominates
the universe, holding the moon in orbit around the
Earth, and the Earth in orbit around the sun. It is a
force that acts between any pair of objects, whether
they are in contact or not. Gravity is therefore a noncontact force.
Gravity everywhere
No matter how large or how small, all objects attract
each other. This force of attraction is called gravity.
Believe it or not, gravity is a very, very small force.
Even though all objects are attracted to each other,
the effect is felt only when at least one of the objects
is massive
as massive as a planet, moon or star.
The bigger the mass of an object, the greater the
gravitational force it pulls with.
the Earth, moon or Mars, your mass does not change.

Mass is usually measured in kilograms (kg), although
other units such as tonnes and grams are often used.
Weight is a measure of the size of the gravitational
force pulling you down. Weight is a force so, like other
forces, it is measured in newtons (N). Objects of greater
mass have a greater weight. For example, a student with
a mass of 60 kg has a weight of almost 600 N, while a
student of mass 50 kg has a weight close to 500 N.
Wherever you go in the universe, your mass is
always the same, but your weight depends on the
gravitational force acting on you. This gravitational
force depends on:
the mass of the object pulling on you. Your weight
on Earth is greater than it would be on the moon
because the Earth is so much larger than the moon.
how close you are to the object pulling on you. The
weight of an astronaut, for example, decreases with
increasing altitude.
Weight can be measured with a spring balance like
the ones shown on page 146. The weight of the object
being measured pulls down on the spring and stretches
it, moving the pointer.
200 kg
Moon
If it weren t for gravity, the moon

would fly right past us. The
gravitational attraction between
the Earth and the moon keeps the
moon in orbit around the Earth.
The force of gravity between you and your desk is

very small because both you and the desk have very
small masses. You can t see the effect of gravity in this
case. The force that attracts you to the Earth and the
Earth to you is much bigger. You can see the effect of
this force, especially if you fall! The pull of the Earth s
gravity is directed towards the centre of the Earth.
Weight and mass

You might be surprised to know that mass and weight
are two different things. Mass measures how much
of a substance there is. No matter where you go on
160
40 0 0
0 km
Communication
satellite
40 N
!
,
4
)
4
5
$
%
200 kg
km
400
Space
station
1740 N
200 kg
Aircraft
Earth
10
Earth
1950 N
200 kg
km
1960 N
Weight decreases with altitude while mass stays constant.
Measuring weight
InveStIgatIon 6.11
Measuring weight
You will need:
5.0 N spring balance
set of slotted 50 g masses
Mass (g)
Mass (kg)
50
0.05
100
0.10
150
0.15
Weight (N)
Pull down on the hook of a 5.0 N spring balance until it
reads 1.0 N. There are two forces acting on the hook. As

long as the hook is not changing its motion, the upward
force of tension is the same as the downward pull of
your hand.
Tension
Newtons
100
200
300
400
500
Why is it better to hang the spring balance from a rod

rather than hold it in your hand?
Does the spring increase its stretch by the same

amount each time a 50 g mass is added?
How would your results be different if you conducted

this activity on Mars?
Use your results to complete a copy of the graph

below.
5.0
4.0
Weight (newtons)
Force
applied
by hand
Grams
Discussion
3.0
2.0
A spring balance. There are two forces acting on the hook.

Pull the hook down until the spring balance reads 2.0 N.
1.0
The downward pull has doubled.

What is the tension in the spring?
What has happened to the amount that the spring has
0.1
stretched?
A spring is a good force measurer because, if the pulling
force on it doubles, the amount of stretch doubles. If the
pulling force triples, the amount of stretch triples.
Draw a line through the points that you have plotted

and continue your line to where you think it should
be if you measured the weight of a mass of 500 g. This
process is called extrapolation.
Is your line straight? Should it be straight?
What does your graph tell you should be the weight of

a 500 g mass? Measure it and see how accurate your
prediction is.
How could you predict the weight of an object if you

knew its mass?
Add 50 g masses, one at a time, until you have a total
mass of 400 g. Record the mass in kilograms and weight

in newtons as you go.
0.5
stand and adjust the pointer so that it reads zero.

record its weight in newtons in the table above right.
Also calculate and record the mass in kilograms by
dividing the mass in grams by 1000.
0.4
Graph of weight measured on a spring balance versus mass
Hang the spring balance from a rod fixed to a retort

Attach a 50 g mass to the hook of the spring balance and
0.2
0.3
Mass (kilograms)
6 Forces in action
161
Bungee forces
The staff at bungee jumping venues must understand the effect
of gravity and how forces work. For each jump, they select
appropriate equipment for the size of the jumper. The mass of
the person jumping determines which cord will be used. The
cords are different thicknesses to suit the weight of the jumper.
isaac newton (1643 1727) was an

English mathematician, physicist,
astronomer and philosopher. You
might know him as the guy who sat
under the apple tree and, after being
struck on the head by a falling apple,
discovered gravity. While this is a
commonly believed story, scientists
aren t convinced it happened that
way. Many scientists and historians
believe that newton was looking
out of the window when he saw the
apple fall.
At this point he was struck with a
realisation apples (and everything
else) always fall down, not up or
sideways. He wondered about the
force that caused this to happen. He
wondered what would happen if the tree
were much taller. in fact, he was able
to deduce, after much time and many
calculations, that the force that caused
the apple to fall was the same force
(gravity) that kept the moon in orbit
around the Earth. From these ideas,
newton wrote his Law of universal
Gravitation, which describes how gravity
acts in all places, not just on Earth.
newton was able to explain many

observations, including falling apples,
tides and orbiting planets with a single
law of gravity.
162
While in free fall, gravity is the main

force acting on the jumper; however,
as the rope starts to stretch, it
pulls upwards. The upward force
increases as the rope stretches,
eventually becoming greater than
gravity and slowing the jumper
to a stop. But the rope force
and gravity are not balanced,
so the jumper bounces up,
reducing the rope force.
Eventually, the jumper
stops when the rope
force is equal to gravity.
Gravity is the force that

pulls a bungee jumper
towards the ground. The
size of the gravity force
depends on the mass of
the jumper. The size of
the gravity force acting
on a person is called the
person s weight.
The faster the jumper falls,

the more air resistance he or
she feels. Air resistance is a force
that acts on an object moving against
air. The air resistance on a bungee
jumper is much smaller than the pull of
gravity and the pull of the rope.
Forces involved in skydiving

There is something about falling through the air at 190 km/h that really
gets the adrenalin pumping! Skydiving is an activity that is enjoyed by
thousands of thrill seekers around the world and is an important part of
military and rescue services.
1. Skydivers can jump from various heights, but most beginners
jump from about 4 kilometres above the ground. When the
plane is over the jump site, the skydiver leaps from the
plane. Beginners are taught to release their parachute as
soon as they are clear of the plane. More experienced
divers free-fall for some time before opening their
parachute.
2. When skydivers jump from a plane, the Earth s pull of gravity

causes them to fall towards the ground. Near the start of
the jump, a diver does not fall very quickly. At this point in
the jump, the diver does not experience much air resistance.
But, as the diver s speed increases during the fall, so does
the size of the air resistance pushing against him or her.
3. Skydivers can change the

amount of air resistance pushing
against them by moving their arms
and legs and changing the position
of their body. By lying flat, with their
arms and legs out, divers increase the
air resistance pushing against them. This position
slows the diver down. With their legs straight up and
their head down, a diver falls faster. This explains how
one skydiver can catch up with another.
4. During a jump, a skydiver falls faster and faster.

The air resistance pushing against a diver gets bigger and bigger
as the speed increases. Eventually, the upward push of the air
resistance and the downward pull of gravity balance out. There is
no overall force acting on the diver any more. When this happens,
the diver falls at a steady speed. The steady speed is called
terminal velocity. The terminal velocity of a skydiver without
a parachute is very fast. A diver could not land safely at
this speed, so a parachute is needed.
6. The skydiver lands

safely at the drop zone.
5. When the
parachute
opens, a huge
air-resistance
force pushes
against it. When
the parachute
first opens, the
air resistance
is bigger than
the gravity
force pulling the
skydiver down,
so the diver
slows down. The
skydiver reaches
a new, slower
terminal velocity
soon afer the
parachute opens.
6 Forces in action
163
Draw up a table like the one below in which to record
InveStIgatIon 6.12
your results from testing the mass of the skydiver, the

area of the canopy and the shape of the canopy.
The landing time of a parachute

You will need:
plastic from freezer bags
large paperclips
stopwatch
metre ruler
scissors
plasticine
cotton or nylon thread
Area of canopy
(square
centimetres)
Time taken to land (seconds)

Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
Average
Your task is to investigate the effect of one of the following

factors on the landing time of a parachute.
(a) Mass of the skydiver
(b) Size (area) of the canopy
(c) Shape of the canopy
Discussion
Use plastic from freezer bags to make the canopy. Cotton or

nylon thread can be used to hold a model skydiver, which
could be represented by paperclips and plasticine.
Ensure that you do each of the following:
Write a report of your investigation using the headings

Aim, Materials, Method, Results, Discussion and
Conclusion.
In your discussion, analyse your results and comment

on how your design could be improved.
As an extra challenge after the investigation has been

completed, see who can make the parachute that
takes longest to reach the floor with a standard load
of, say, five paperclips from a height of 2 metres.
Keep all things constant except the factor that you are
deliberately changing, so that your tests are fair. This is

called controlling variables.
Repeat your measurement of landing time at least three
times and calculate an average.
activities
REMEMBER
mass and weight.
2 identify the units of measurement
for:
(a) mass
(b) weight.
3 The force of gravity is not the same
on all objects. What does it depend
on?
4 In which direction does the Earth s
gravitational force act?
5 Explain whether your mass would
change if you were to visit the
moon. What about your weight?
6 identify what causes the moon to
orbit the Earth.
THinK
7 When you drop a nail and a feather
from the same height, they reach
the ground at different times.
Explain, with the aid of a diagram,
why this is the case.
164
8 A falling table tennis ball reaches

its terminal speed quite quickly. A
falling golf ball takes a long time
to reach its terminal speed. Explain
why.
9 Gravity exists between two objects
only if at least one of them is
massive. Is this statement true or
false? Explain your answer.
10 identify the largest force acting on
a bungee jumper:
(a) when the rope is slack
(b) while slowing down.
11 The weight of a 3 kg brick is
30 newtons. Predict the weight of a
6 kg brick.
inVEsTiGATE
12 Would a rubber band be as effective
as a spring in a force measurer?
Design and conduct an experiment
to find out. You will need to construct
a table and a graph.
The pull of gravity is a little more

than one-third of what it is on Earth.
Write a diary entry for your very first
working day in the laboratory. Your
diary entry should be an account
of your day from 6 am when your
alarm rings until 10 pm when you
go to bed. Emphasise the effects
of less gravity and don t forget that
you need to keep physically fit.
eBook plus
14 Use the Bungee game weblink

in your eBookPLUS to simulate a
successful bungee jump. Set your
mass, rope length and dimensions,
and try to achieve the right drop.
15 Use the Coaster game weblink in
your eBookPLUS to design your
own roller coaster. Set the sizes
of your hills and loops, the initial
speed and mass of your coaster,
and the amount of gravity and
friction at work.
iMAGinE
13 Imagine that you are working on
the first space laboratory on Mars.
work
sheet
6.6 Gravity
6.5

Buoyancy
Helium-filled party
balloons have a large
buoyancy force.
Large ferries and cruise ships can carry hundreds of

passengers and the ferry itself can have a mass of
several thousand kilograms. How are they able to
stay afloat? The weight of the ship is balanced by a
buoyancy force.
The buoyancy force helps this
heavy cruise ship, the Queen
Victoria, to stay afloat.
InveStIgatIon 6.13
Are things really lighter in water?
The buoyancy force is the

upward push on an object
that is at least partially
submerged in a fluid like a
liquid or a gas. The hull of
the ship is hollow, making
the ship and passengers
lighter than the mass of
the water that it displaces (takes
the place of). Helium-filled party
balloons float in air because the
buoyancy force is greater than
the gravitational force on the
balloons.
Discussion
1
You will need:

500 g mass
length of string
spring balance
bucket
500 gram mass
Use the following diagram to work out the size of the

buoyancy force on the 500 g mass.
Upward forces
upward pull of spring balance (a)
buoyancy force of water (a)
total upward force (a)
N
N
N
Tie some string around a 500 g mass.
Suspend the mass in a bucket of water

without letting it touch the bottom.
Does the mass feel any lighter?
Downward forces
weight of 500 g mass (a)
total downward force (a)
Use a spring balance to find
the weight in newtons of a 500 g

mass suspended in air (a) and
record it.
Without removing the mass from the spring balance,
carefully lower it into the bucket so that it sits just under

the surface of the water. Record the force measured by
the spring balance (b).
N
N
The total upward force must be equal to the total downward

force while the 500 g mass is stationary under the surface of
the water.
2
Is the 500 g mass really lighter when it is under the

surface of the water? Explain.
6 Forces in action
165
Fill the plastic bottle almost to the
InveStIgatIon 6.14
top with water.
Make a cartesian diver
Attach a small piece of Blu-Tack to
You will need:

clear plastic soft-drink bottle and
screw cap
Blu-Tack
plastic pen cap
Screw
the clip of a plastic pen cap.

Place the cap in the bottle so it
floats, and seal the bottle tightly.

Squeeze the sides of the bottle
and observe the motion of the

suspended diver . You may need
to readjust the size of the piece of
Blu-Tack attached to the pen cap.
cap
Air space
Blu-Tack
weight
Plastic
pen
cap
Water
Clear
plastic
bottle
Record your observations.
Try your hand

You will need:
eye-dropper
a large coin
Compete with others in the class
to see how many drops of water
you can fit on a coin without it
spilling off.
Draw and label the forces on

the Cartesian diver before and
after the bottle is squeezed.
Explain how the Cartesian diver

works.
Swap roles so your partner takes a
turn. Record your team s average.

Tabulate the average of each team
in the class.
Discussion
1
For this to be a fair competition,

what variables must be
controlled?
Explain why you can fit so many

drops on the coin without it
overflowing.
Select an appropriate type

of graph to present the class
results.
Work in pairs. One partner
carefully adds water to the surface

of a large coin, drop by drop. The
other partner counts the drops
until the water spills off the coin.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Name two forces acting on you
when you float on your back in a
swimming pool.
2 Name the force that keeps a water
strider on the surface of water.
buoyancy and surface tension.
166
Have you ever seen an insect

make its way along the surface
of a pool of water? Water striders
are particularly good at this. What
prevents insects like water striders
from sinking into the water? The
water particles have a force of
attraction between them called
cohesion. This force of attraction
on the surface of water is called
surface tension.
Discussion
The Cartesian diver
InveStIgatIon 6.15
surface tension
THinK
4 Which fluid produces the greater
buoyancy force
air or water?
How do you know?
5 outline what happens to an object
when you plunge it into a fluid and
let go:
(a) if the buoyancy force is the
same as its weight
(b) if the buoyancy force is less
than its weight.
Water striders use surface tension to walk

on water.
Surface tension sometimes gives

water the appearance of having
a transparent skin. While the
surface tension is not very strong,
it is strong enough to prevent light
objects from falling through the
surface of the water.
Surface tension prevents water on this

coin from overflowing.
6 Explain, in terms of gravity,

buoyancy and surface tension, why
humans can t walk on water.
inVEsTiGATE
7 Design and carry out an
experiment to compare the
buoyancy and surface tension of
water, olive oil and vinegar.
work
sheet
6.7 Buoyancy
6.6

Applications and uses of science
Staying alive
Every year in Australia, about
1800 people die as a result of road
accidents. Many of the deaths and
injuries can be avoided.
safer cycling
Bicycle riders account for well over
one-third of the road accident
injuries in people aged from 10 to
14 years. The most serious injuries
tend to be to the head and face.
The wearing of bicycle helmets has
greatly decreased the number of
head injuries
to cyclists.
speeds of up to 20 kilometres per

hour. Without a helmet, a sudden
impact with the ground can cause
serious head injuries. With a
helmet, the impact force on the
head is smaller as the plastic shell
and polystyrene foam are crushed,
and so the injuries are less severe.
Cycling isn t the only sport where
you need a helmet. Other activities
in which helmets soften the
impact of a fall or collision include
motorcycling, horse riding and a
wide range of sporting activities.
In cars, padded dashboards,

collapsible steering wheels and
airbags reduce injuries by allowing
the upper body to come to a stop
more gradually when a car crashes.
The rubber soles and air pockets of

some sports shoes are designed to
soften the impact when the wearer
lands on the ground. This decreases
the amount of jarring to the knees,
ankles and the rest of the leg. The
pockets in these shoes contain a
mixture of gases designed to slow the
foot down more gradually as it hits the
ground and help push it back up again.
A bicycle helmet is required by law.
A bicycle helmet has a layer

of polystyrene foam at least one
centimetre thick inside a shell of
hard plastic. A cyclist s head falling
to the road hits the ground at
InveStIgatIon 6.16
Egghead
You will need:
hard-boiled egg
selection of packing materials, such
as bubble wrap, foam rubber and
newspaper
sticky tape
cardboard
wire
in these shoes, air chambers in the

sole offer cushioning and stability.
Air flows back and forth between
the chambers during the heel-to-toe
walking action.
The plastic shell and polystyrene foam of

a helmet soften the impact on the head in
an accident.
Design, build and test a container
that will protect a hard-boiled egg in

a collision.
Your aim is to create an egg
container that will prevent the shell
from cracking when it is dropped
from a height of 2.5 metres onto a
hard floor.
You are actually creating a model
of a bicycle accident. The egg
represents the head of a cyclist. Your
container represents the helmet.
Discussion
1
Draw a neat, labelled diagram of

your egg container.
Explain how each feature

included protected the shell from
cracking.
If your egg head was injured ,

suggest how you could improve
the effectiveness of your
helmet .
6 Forces in action
167
Bend your knees
InveStIgatIon 6.17
In some sports, like basketball and

volleyball, you need to jump high
above the ground. But, of course,
what goes up, must come down.
When you land on the ground, you
stop because the surface provides a
large upward force on you. If you
land on your feet with your legs
straight and rigid, you stop very
quickly, but the upward force on
your legs is large enough to cause
damage to your knees and other
joints. However, if you bend your
knees as you land, you stop more
slowly and the upward force on
your body is reduced.
crash test dummy

You will need:
pencil sharpener
or eraser
toy car
rubber band
aluminium foil
Place a pencil sharpener
or eraser on the toy car to

represent a crash test dummy.
Push the toy car towards a
wall as fast as you can without
your crash test dummy falling
off. Observe the motion of the
crash test dummy after the car
collides with the wall.
Modify this experiment to
Belt up
When a car collides head-on
It s best to bend your knees when landing
with an obstacle or another car,
after a high leap.
the occupants continue to move
forwards after the car stops until they are stopped by a force. Without
seatbelts the occupants would fly forwards through the windscreen, or
their bodies would be stopped suddenly by the steering wheel, dashboard
or other parts of the inside of the car. Most deaths and injuries in car
accidents are caused by a collision between the occupants and the inside
of the car. With properly fitted seatbelts, car occupants stop as the car
stops and so are less likely to be killed or injured.
Your body is not the only thing that will keep moving once the car
stops as a result of a collision. Any loose objects in the car will continue
to move after the car stops. You should therefore never leave any large
loose objects in the car. They are much safer in the boot!
activities
REMEMBER
1 Explain how bicycle helmets protect the head in an accident.
2 Explain why you should bend your knees when landing

after leaping high to shoot in basketball.
3 Describe the likely motion of an unrestrained rear
seat passenger in a car which collides with a tree at
60 kilometres per hour.
THinK
4 Bicycle helmets are compulsory in New South Wales.
Explain why you think it was necessary to make a law to
force people to wear them and describe the benefits to
society.
168
include seatbelts (by using a

rubber band) or a crumple zone
(by using aluminium foil) at the
front of the car.
Discussion
1
Describe the motion of

both the car and the crash
test dummy after the
collision.
Explain what difference the

rubber band or foil make to
the motion of the crash test
dummy during and after the
collision.
5 When a stationary car is hit from the rear by another

vehicle, it is pushed forwards rapidly. Describe the likely
motion of a front seat passenger:
(a) with a head rest fitted to the seat
(b) without a head rest fitted to the seat.
6 List as many sports as you can in which helmets are
worn to protect participants from head injuries.
cREATE
7 Design a poster with the title Don t be an egghead.
Wear a helmet.
inVEsTiGATE
8 Find out about Newton s First Law of Motion and how it
is relevant to seatbelts in cars.
LOOKING BACK
1 Identify the forces missing in each of the diagrams below.
(c)
(b)
Ground
(a)
Gravity
Gravity
Gravity
(d)
(g)
(e)
Gravity
2 The arrows in the following diagram represent four of the

forces acting on a cyclist riding on a smooth, at surface.
(f)
Gravity
3 Name the force that acts against objects that are sliding
past each other.
4 (a) Copy and complete the concept map below to show

the links between the types of forces described in this
chapter. Add as many links as you can to the map. Dont
forget that you can sometimes make links between the
different arms of your concept map.
Friction
Buoyancy
Contact forces
Forces
D
(a) Which two forces are equal in size?
(b) Which arrow could represent air resistance?
(c) Is the cyclist speeding up, slowing down or travelling at
a steady speed? Explain your answer.
Non-contact forces
Electrostatic
Gravity
6 Forces in action
169
(b) Compare and discuss your map with others in the class.
(c) Add any further details you wish to your map following
the discussion.
(d) Comment on what you enjoyed most during your
learning in this chapter.
2 The concept of a field is useful in explaining the

A elastic force in a spring.
B attraction of opposite magnetic poles.
C push force on a shopping trolley.
D unbalanced vertical forces on a kayak.
Friction can be useful or it can be a nuisance. List three

situations in which:
(a) friction is necessary.
(b) friction is a nuisance.
3 The Earth s gravitational field would be best represented

as
Explain why the pull of gravity is less on the moon

than on Earth.
Redraw this diagram. On your sketch, include arrows

to represent the forces acting on the book while it is
at rest on the desk.
(1 mark)
C
8
Identify the units used to measure:

(a) mass
(b) weight
(c) force.
TEsT YouRsELF
1 The four forces on the cyclist and bike, labelled P, Q, R and
S, are respectively
P
(1 mark)
A force of the ground, forward push, weight and air

resistance.
B air resistance, force of the ground, forward push and
weight.
C air resistance, forward push, magnetic attraction and
road friction.
D force of the ground, road friction, weight and air
resistance.
(1 mark)
170
4 A rock was found to have a weight of 5.4 newtons.

When submerged in water, its weight was found to be
4.2 newtons. The buoyancy force on the rock is
A 1.2 N
B 4.2 N
C 5.4 N
D 9.6 N
(1 mark)
5 Discuss the role of forces in your daily life. In your
response, identify the different types of forces that you
experience and give examples of each. Outline whether
forces play a useful role or whether they hinder your
activities.
(6 marks)
work
sheets
6.8 Forces puzzle

6.9 Forces summary
StUDY CHeCKLISt
ICt
Forces
eBook plus
identify changes that take place when forces are

acting
6.1 6.5
eLessons
use the term field in describing forces acting at a
SUMMaRY
distance 6.3
classify forces as contact or non-contact forces 6.1
use a spring balance to measure forces 6.1, 6.4
represent forces acting on an object 6.1
identify balanced and unbalanced forces 6.1

In this video lesson, you will learn about friction and discover
its importance in everyday life. You will see practical examples
of friction and learn why you couldn t drive a car or even walk
without it.
Friction
describe friction as a contact force that opposes
motion
6.2
identify everyday situations where friction is useful 6.2

identify everyday situations where friction is a
hindrance 6.2
outline strategies to reduce friction
6.2
Magnetism
outline the behaviour of magnetic poles when they are
brought close to each other
6.1, 6.3
identify everyday situations in which magnets and
electromagnets are used 6.3

identify the strongest part of a magnetic field 6.3
use a scientific model to explain how a material
becomes magnetic 6.3
compare permanent magnets and electromagnets 6.3
interactivities
This interactivity helps you to apply your knowledge of friction
to driving. Match the right tyres to the weather conditions, and
see if you can achieve the perfect amount of friction.
Gravity
recall that all objects exert a force of gravity on all other
objects 6.4
explain the difference between mass and weight
identify that gravity decreases with altitude 6.4
outline the forces acting on a falling object 6.4
identify Isaac Newton s contribution to our
understanding of gravity 6.4
6.4

describe forces that allow some objects to float and
stand on water
6.5

identify recent scientific developments that have
improved safety
6.6
6 Forces in action
171
Planet Earth
The Earth is one of eight

planets that revolve
around the sun. The
solid outer crust of our
planet is covered mostly with water
and surrounded by a layer of gases that
support life. Beneath the crust are layers
of rock and molten rock at temperatures
of up to 7000 C.
Vital statistics of the Earth include:

Age about 4.5 billion years
Diameter at equator 12 800 kilometres
Mass about 6 million billion billion kilograms.

7.1
learn about the size, shape and inner
composition of the Earth

7.2
appreciate the importance of the
water cycle to life on Earth and

examine aspects of the hydrosphere
7.3
identify the gases that form the
atmosphere and describe features of

the atmosphere
7.4
learn about air pressure and examine
the factors that influence it

7.5
apply knowledge of air pressure
variation to the formation of cyclones

7.6
look at the changes to our use of
water and soil that cause salinity.
Earth from space

Imagine that you are an alien from another galaxy, approaching the Earth
in your spacecraft. As you get closer, you steer your spacecraft around
the planet so that the sun is behind you. The view in front of you is
breathtaking
just like the picture on the left.
1. (a) What three features of the Earth are easy to see from your spacecraft?
(b) Write a description of the Earth as you see it from your spacecraft.
The description should be detailed enough so that you can report
your first impressions when you get back to your own galaxy.
2. What do you already know about the planet you re living on? In a
group of two to four, brainstorm what you know about planet Earth
and then draw a mind map to summarise the ideas and information
you have collected. An example of a planet Earth mind map is shown
below.
To start your mind map, draw the Earth in the centre of a large sheet
of paper. Then use words, pictures and colour to add your own ideas.
As the example shows, one idea can lead to many others.
An example of a mind map
7.1
Introducing the Earth

Welcome to planet
Earth!
Our home planet was formed just
under 4.5 billion years ago and it is
located approximately 150 million
km from our sun. While this seems
like a very long way away (after all,
even light takes 8 minutes to get
here), we are in just the right place
for life to flourish: close enough to
provide enough light and heat but
not so close that all of our water
evaporates and our surface bakes
with heat and radiation.
The Earth is about 13 000 km
across at the equator, and it has a
surface area of about 500 million
square kilometres. Of this,
360 million square kilometres is
ocean with the rest being made of
landmasses. Its surface temperature
ranges between 90 C and 60 C,
with an average of about 15 C.
When studying the physical Earth, Astronauts repairing the Hubble Space Telescope while orbiting the Earth
scientists look at three main areas:
geosphere: the rocks and material
was the celestial chariot of the sun god Apollo. The
that make up the Earth, from the surface to the inner ancient Hindus, on the other hand, theorised that the
core
Earth disc was supported on the backs of four huge
hydrosphere: the water on the surface of the Earth,
elephants that stood on the back of a giant turtle that
including its oceans, rivers and rainfall.
swam through a cosmic sea.
atmosphere: the thin layer of gases bound to the
It may surprise you to learn that the idea that the
outer surface of the Earth.
Earth was a sphere was put forward as early as 600 BC
There is a great deal of interaction between these
by Thales of Miletus. A hundred years later, the
areas of study, as we will see in this chapter.
famous mathematician Pythagoras expanded on this,
suggesting that this spherical Earth revolved around
the sun, rather than the sun revolving around the
Earth, as many thought. Aristotle (350 BC) was also
From a spacecraft, our planet appears as a blue and
in favour of a spherical Earth but, unlike Pythagoras,
white sphere. However, this is not so obvious from the he believed that the planets, the moon, the sun and
ground and, from mankind s earliest times, there was
the stars were mounted on invisible, crystal spheres
speculation about the shape of the Earth.
arranged concentrically with the Earth at the centre.
Early civilisations favoured the idea that the Earth
There were, he believed, eight of these spheres. The
was a flat disc. Three thousand years ago, the Greek
closest sphere held the moon while the furthest
poet Homer thought that this disc floated on an ocean carried all of the stars; in between were spheres
while the sun, which moved overhead every day,
carrying Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter and
Earth in the round
174
Saturn (remember that, in that time, Uranus, Neptune

and Pluto hadn t been discovered).
By the time Eratosthenes used the sun s location
to help him calculate the radius of Earth in the third
century BC, the belief in a spherical Earth was widely
held, even if people still disagreed about whether
the Earth went around the sun or vice versa. In fact,
this argument was not really settled until Copernicus
published his great work De Revolutionibus Orbium in
1543 in which he provided a reasoned argument that
Pythagoras had been correct over two thousand years
before. Of course, unequivocal proof did not come
until the twentieth century when, with the advent
of space travel, humans for the first time could look
down on the Earth from space and see it in all its big,
blue and definitely spherical glory!
The interesting thing is that careful scientific
measurements have revealed that the Earth is not
exactly spherical. The Northern Hemisphere is slightly
smaller than the Southern Hemisphere, and its
circumference around the equator is bigger than the
circle drawn around the poles.
Inside the Earth

The Earth is composed of a number of different
substances, including mainly iron, oxygen, silicon,
magnesium, nickel and sulfur. When the Earth was
formed, this material was molten. This later separated
into distinct layers, with most of the metallic iron

and nickel sinking into the core of the planet and the
lighter silicates rising to form the mantle and the crust.
As yet, humans have travelled only a short way into
the Earth s crust. Some goldmines in South Africa reach
a depth of 3.5 km, while the deepest hole ever drilled
in the crust is 11.3 km deep. This is not far, considering
that the crust is up to 70 km thick in places.
Even though we have not penetrated very far into
the interior, we can get a pretty good idea of what
lies underneath the crust in a number of ways. When
volcanoes erupt, magma from under the crust flows onto
the surface of the Earth and then cools to form igneous
rocks. By examining these rocks and analysing the gases
that escape from volcanic vents, we can learn a great deal
about the mantle, the layer underneath the crust.
Scientists also use seismograph readings collected
during earthquakes to make predictions about the
innermost parts of the Earth. An earthquake produces
different types of seismic waves. Many travel through
the body of the Earth itself. As they go through the
various layers, they slow down or speed up or even
bounce off layer boundaries, depending on what the
layer is made of. As the paths and speeds of seismic
waves can be determined from seismograms, we can
make an educated guess about the make-up of the
inside of the Earth. Our present model of the structure
of the Earth s interior is shown in the diagram below.
Structure of the Earth

Crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth
and is made mostly of rocky material. All of our
landforms and soil lie on the top of the crust.
All of the Earth s rocks are actually formed in
the crust. The crust is at its thinnest below
the oceans (about 8 kilometres thick) and
reaches a thickness of 40 kilometres or
more below the continents.
Mantle
The mantle is the region of partially
molten rock that lies beneath the
crust. It is about 2900 kilometres thick
and has a temperature that ranges
from 500 C near the crust to over
2000 C at its deepest part. The crust
and the top section of the mantle make
up a region called the lithosphere.
Outer core
The outer core is made of molten iron and
nickel with a temperature of between 4000 C
and 6000 C. This layer is believed to be
approximately 2300 kilometres thick.
North Pole
Northern
Hemisphere
Equator
The Earth s surface

Two-thirds of the Earth s surface
is covered by water of some kind.
Ninety-seven per cent of this water
is salt water found in the oceans
and seas while the rest of the
water is fresh water found in the
icecaps, streams, rivers and lakes.
Scientists estimate that 75 per cent
of the Earth s fresh water is in the
form of polar ice and glaciers. The
Earth s surface water is called the
hydrosphere.
Southern
Hemisphere
South Pole
Inner core
The inner core is made up of iron and
nickel but, because of the extreme pressure
in this layer, it forms a solid even though
it is at a temperature of 7000 C. The inner
core has a diameter of 2400 kilometres.
Above the surface

The atmosphere is a region of
gases that are found above the
Earth s surface. These gases
(which we refer to as the air)
are a mixture of mostly nitrogen
and oxygen. It is at its densest
closest to the Earth s surface,
and gets gradually thinner
further away. In fact, 99 per
cent of our air is found within
80 kilometres of the surface.
The structure of the Earth
7 Planet Earth
175
into a volcano in Iceland. In

fact, the deepest mines go down
only 3.5 kilometres into the Earth
and the deepest drill hole is
11.3 kilometres deep. The following
table shows the temperature
measured at different depths in a
drill hole.
To get an idea of how thin

the Earth s crust is, take a
medium-sized apple and cut
it half. now imagine that the
apple is the Earth the crust
by comparison is as thin as the
apple skin!
Temperatures at different depths

of a drill hole
activities
REmEmbER
1 Identify and describe the four major
regions below the Earth s surface.
2 Recall which layer of the Earth
rocks form in. Give both names for
the layer.
3 What term is used to describe the
part of the Earth s surface covered
by water?
4 Describe the mixture you would find
in the layer of the Earth known as
the atmosphere.
5 Recall how much of the water on
the Earth s surface is salt water.
THInk
6 Members of the Flat Earth Society
believe that the Earth is flat and
shaped like a dinner plate. They
believe that photographs taken
from space that show the Earth
to be a sphere are part of a giant
hoax. What do you think? outline
some observations that support
your opinion.
7 Even though the inner core of the
Earth is hotter than the molten
outer core, it is believed to be solid.
Explain how this is possible.
8 The Earth is travelling through
space at a speed of about
110 000 kilometres per hour. This
means that it covers about
30 kilometres every second.
Calculate how far the Earth
travels in:
(a) a week
(b) a year.
176
Depth (km)
Temperature (C)
15
44
73
102
130
158
187
215
242
270
10
297
CREATE
9 Construct a scale diagram of
the Earth using the following
instructions. You will need a
compass, a pencil and a sheet of
A4 paper.
Open up the compass so that
the ends are 10 centimetres
apart. Use it to draw a circle
with a radius of 10 centimetres.
Using the same centre, draw
two more circles, one of radius
5.5 centimetres and one of
radius 1.9 centimetres.
You have now drawn three of
the regions below the Earth s
surface. Label the three
regions.
On your scale diagram, the
crust would need to be
represented by a pencil line on
the surface. Use a thick pencil
line to represent the thickest
part of the crust and a thin
pencil line to represent the
thinnest part.
On your scale diagram, the
atmosphere would be about
2 millimetres thick. Use a thick
blue line to represent the
atmosphere.
Label your diagram and then
colour it.
usE DATA
10 The centre of the Earth is about
6370 kilometres from the surface.
In 1864, the science fiction
author Jules Verne wrote the
novel Journey to the centre of
the Earth. It tells of an amazing
journey through the inside of the
Earth that begins with a descent
(a) Plot a graph to show how

the temperature increases with
depth. Label the horizontal axis
Depth (km) and the vertical
axis Temperature ( C) .
(b) Use your graph to predict the
temperature at:
(i) 2.5 kilometres
(ii) 11 kilometres.
(c) Calculate roughly how many
degrees the temperature
increases for each kilometre
below the surface.
(d) Use your graph to predict the
temperature at the centre of
the Earth.
(e) Scientists estimate the
temperature at the centre
of the Earth to be about
7000 C. Explain why use of
the data above gives such a
high prediction. (Hint: What
assumptions did you make in
part (d)?)
work
sheet
7.1 Inside the Earth
7.2
Water world
We use the word hydrosphere to
describe the water on the Earth s
surface. This water may be liquid
water in the oceans, rivers and
lakes, ice in the polar regions or
water vapour in the atmosphere.
Water everywhere
Two-thirds of the Earth s surface
is covered with water. Not all
the water is in a liquid form. A
significant amount exists as ice in
the Arctic and Antarctic regions;
91 per cent of the world s ice can
be found in Antarctica.
Water is constantly moving
and changing states. It is in the
oceans, in the icecaps and also in
the air as water vapour. Heat from
the sun makes water from the
oceans evaporate slowly and form
water vapour. The invisible water
InvEStIgatIon 7.1
Water in the air
You will need:
very cold can of soft drink
towel
Dry the outside of the can and
allow it to stand on a bench or

table.
Observe what happens to the
outside of the dry can.
vapour rises with the warm air.

When the water vapour becomes
cold enough, it condenses to form
clouds of tiny water droplets. The
clouds are visible and are kept up
by the air moving around them. If
a cloud is close to the ground it is
known as fog.
eBook plus
eles-0062
Clouds form.
Water droplets
fall as rain.
Water
evaporates.
Rainwater run-off
Sea or lake
The water cycle
the beaker with a watchglass

containing ice cubes.
InvEStIgatIon 7.2
forming clouds
You will need:
250 mL beaker
ice cubes
watchglass
heatproof mat, Bunsen burner and
matches
safety glasses
Observe the area under the
watchglass.
DIsCussIon
1
Describe what happened to the

bottom of the watchglass when
you rst boiled the water.
Describe what
happened in the
beaker just below
the watchglass
containing ice
cubes.
What changes
of state
took place?
Half-fill the beaker with water and
heat it until the water is boiling.
DIsCussIon
Stop heating and cover the beaker
carefully with a watchglass.

Observe the bottom of the
watchglass.
What change occurred on

the outside of the can?
Where did the water come

from?
Remove the watchglass and heat
What change of state has

occurred?
Stop heating and turn off the gas
eLesson
The water cycle

Did you ever wonder why it rains or
where all the water comes from? This
video lesson will show you the amazing
cycle of water as it is transferred from
the oceans to the sky.
the water again until it boils.

supply. Quickly but carefully, cover
Forming clouds
in a beaker
7 Planet Earth
177
At high altitudes the air is very cold. When thick

clouds reach this very cold area, the water droplets
in them join together to form larger droplets, which
are too heavy to be held up by moving air. The large
droplets fall to the ground as rain.
Rainwater falls into the sea or runs over the ground
into rivers and streams, eventually reaching the sea.
This constant movement of water between the various
states is called the water cycle.
Currents and gyres

Ocean currents are the movements of sea water in
the Earth s oceans, and they have a critical effect on
the Earth s climate. The larger surface currents in the
ocean work with the atmosphere to circulate heat
energy between the tropics and the polar regions.
The amount of cloud cover and type of cloud affect how much
sunlight and rain reaches the Earth s surface.
178
The movement of the water is very complicated and

is affected by many factors including:
movement of wind across the surface of the ocean
evaporation of water from the upper layers of the
water
sinking of colder, denser water near the poles
warming of water near the equator
variation in salinity (saltiness) in different parts of
the ocean
shape of the ocean bottom
tides (see pages 212 13)
rotation of the Earth around its axis (see pages 205 6).
There are two main types of current: surface
currents and deep water currents. Surface currents
affect the water to a depth of about 400 metres, about
10 per cent of the ocean s water. The other 90 per cent
moves in deep water currents. These are very complex
currents that move water in the basins of the oceans.
Cumulus
Puffy clouds that look like cottonwool.
They form at a low altitude but may get
thicker and extend into higher levels.
They may produce showers of rain.
Altocumulus
Middle-level clouds that are rippled
and mostly white. They produce light
showers.
Stratocumulus
Low-level clouds that are generally
white. They form groups or rolls of
cloud. They produce drizzle.
Cirrus
Wispy, fine clouds found at high
altitudes. They consist of ice crystals.
They do not produce rain.
Stratus
Low-level clouds that are found in
layers, often grey in colour. They
produce drizzle or fine rain. At very low
levels, they form fog.
Cumulonimbus
Low-level cumulus-type clouds but grey
in colour. They produce thunderstorms
with lightning. They may stretch from
low levels up to 13 kilometres into the
atmosphere.
Nimbostratus
Sheets of thicker, darker cloud at low
altitudes. They produce heavy rain or
snow.
Cirrocumulus
High-level clouds with many ripples.
They do not produce rain.
Some of these ocean currents are permanent and enclose huge areas
of water. They form circular patterns called gyres between continents.
Gyres move anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere. The diagram below shows the major ocean
currents and gyres.
The movie The Day After Tomorrow

depicts the disastrous consequences
of the major ocean currents, such as
the Gulf stream, ceasing to flow as a
result of global warming. The northern
Hemisphere enters an ice age.
surprisingly, unlike many movies, this
one has been praised by environmental
scientists for the accuracy of its
predictions, although the effects would
take much longer to be felt than just
the 10 days suggested in the movie.
The world s major currents and gyres

Warm current
Cool current
North
Pacific gyre
North
Atlantic gyre
South
Pacific gyre
Indian
Ocean gyre
South
Atlantic gyre
Antarctic circumpolar current

Antarctic subpolar current
Antarctic subpolar current
activities
REmEmbER
1 Recall why sea water evaporates.
2000
4000 km
9 Examine the diagram of ocean currents above. Deduce

why the water in the gyres changes temperature.
10 Explain why we can see clouds but not water vapour in
the air.
2 Explain what clouds are and how they form.
11 Rain is produced from very thick cumulus clouds, but not

from thinner cumulus clouds. Account for this.
3 Identify which groups of cloud produce rain.
12 Discuss how humans could alter the water cycle.
4 Distinguish between surface currents and deep water

currents.
5 Recall at least four factors that affect the formation of
ocean currents.
THInk
6 Explain why some clouds pass over without producing
rain.
7 Identify the changes of state that can be seen in the
water cycle.
8 Explain why the water vapour in clouds condenses.
InvEsTIGATE
13 Use the library and the internet to investigate the
importance of the Aboriginal rain dance.
eBook plus
14 Visit the Weather zone weblink in your eBookPLUS to

see today s weather and forecasts for the coming week
all over Australia.
work
sheet
7.2 Clouds
7 Planet Earth
179
7.3
the air up there

something in the air?
We use the term atmosphere to describe the layer of
gases surrounding the Earth, held there by gravity.
This mixture of gases is called air. Most of our air is
made up of nitrogen and oxygen, with other gases
including carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane and
argon. Small quantities of poisonous ozone can also
be found, with larger amounts located higher up in
the atmosphere.
Exosphere
500
1700
Thermosphere
Ionosphere
Mesosphere
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Other gases 1%
Dry air near the Earth s surface consists mostly of nitrogen

and oxygen.
Although the Earth is about 4.5 billion years old,

our atmosphere has been suitable for sustaining life
only in the last 1 billion years. The oxygen that is so
important to us was produced mainly as the result of
photosynthesis by early plants (ocean algae). While
oxygen is very important for life, it is not the most
common gas in our air. Nearly 80 per cent of our air
is made up of the inert gas nitrogen, most of which
was released from molten rock early in Earth s history.
Layers of the atmosphere

The air particles in the atmosphere are not evenly
spread but form a series of layers, each of which has
different characteristics. The boundaries between these
layers are not very distinct, with one layer merging
into another.
The layer closest to the surface of the Earth is called
the troposphere, and it contains nearly 75 per cent
of the air in the atmosphere. The troposphere is
not uniform in height around the Earth; it is about
8 km thick above the poles and about 16 km thick
at the equator. This is the layer in which all weather
happens. Close to the ground, the air is quite warm,
but as you go up through the troposphere the
180
erature C
ltitude
Te
90
80
50
Stratosphere
Ozone
layer
25
15
55
Troposphere
15
Layers in the Earth s atmosphere
temperature gets colder as the gas particles move

further apart
we say that the air gets thinner. In the
highest sections of the troposphere, the temperature
can get as low as 55 C.
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The air
in the stratosphere is much thinner than that in the
troposphere, and it gets warmer as you go up. At
the top of the stratosphere (about 50 55 km above
the Earth s surface), the temperature is around 0 C.
About 25 km above the Earth is the region known as
the ozone layer.
The stratosphere merges into the next layer, the
mesosphere (or middle layer ). In this region, the air
again starts to get colder as you go higher. At the top
of the mesosphere (about 80 km from the ground),
the temperature is down to about 90 C.
Above the mesosphere is the thermosphere, a region

of the atmosphere that extends to about 400 km
above the Earth. While there are very few particles
in this region, they receive large amounts of energy
from the sun. This means that the temperature in
this layer rises rapidly as you go higher. At the top of
the thermosphere, the temperature can be as high as
1700 C! The thermosphere gradually gives way to
what is known as the exosphere, the region where the
Earth s atmosphere meets space. There are very few
particles at the edge of the atmosphere, although there
are still particles of air as high up as 1500 km.
In the thermosphere and exosphere, the gases
are not mixed but separate into layers. There is very
little nitrogen above 200 km: between 300 and
1000 km most of the air is made up of oxygen;
Aurora australis is visible only in higher altitudes of the
Southern Hemisphere.
between 1000 and 2000 km the atmosphere is

mostly helium, with hydrogen found beyond this.
The ionosphere, which extends from the
mesosphere, through the thermosphere to the
exosphere, is a region where solar radiation gives
electric charge to the particles. When the ionosphere
is very highly charged, Earth-based communications
such as mobile phones, radio and satellite
transmissions can be disrupted. The motion of
charged particles in the ionosphere causes the aurorae,
which are visible in the night sky near the poles.
Greenhouse effect
During daylight hours, heat from the sun enters
the atmosphere and warms up the Earth s surface.
At night, heat from the surface escapes through the
atmosphere. If the Earth had no atmosphere, too
much heat would escape and it would be bitterly cold
7 Planet Earth
181
at night. The gases in the atmosphere trap some of the heat. This trapping of heat
is called the greenhouse effect.
Carbon dioxide traps more heat than most of the other gases in the
atmosphere. Many people are concerned that the increasing amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere will cause the Earth to heat up enough to change the
climate and sea levels.
ozone layer
Sun
One of the gases that exists in small amounts is ozone. Most of the ozone
in the atmosphere is in the region called the stratosphere. Even though
ozone makes up only a small part of the stratosphere, it is often referred to
as the ozone layer. Ozone is especially important to life on Earth because it
blocks out more than 95 per cent of the sun s ultraviolet (UV) rays. These
rays cause sunburn and skin cancer.
Any decrease in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere is damaging
to all living things because more UV rays reach the surface. For
humans, this means a greater risk of sunburn and skin cancer.
Some chemicals used by humans drift up into the
stratosphere, causing chemical reactions that reduce
the amount of ozone. These chemicals include
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), which were
once used in aerosol spray cans
and older airconditioners and
refrigerators.
Heat
Solar radiation
Heat
Atmosphere
The highest altitude ever reached by a

hot-air balloon is 21 km. This is higher
than the altitude that jumbo jets travel
at!
The greenhouse effect
Some heat escapes but clouds and

greenhouse gases trap the rest.
Atmosphere
activities
REmEmbER
1 Define the terms atmosphere and
air .
2 Recall the two most abundant gases
in the Earth s atmosphere.
182
THInk
5 Identify the atmospheric layers in
which the temperature increases
as you go higher.
6 Suggest why most of the air in the
atmosphere is close to the Earth s
surface.
3 Explain why the amount of carbon

dioxide in the Earth s atmosphere is
increasing.
7 Long-distance passenger planes

fly above the troposphere where
possible. Explain the benefits of
flying at this height.
4 Identify which layer most of the

atmosphere s ozone is in.
8 Explain why the oxygen in the

Earth s atmosphere is not used up
Earth
by the breathing of humans and

other animals.
InvEsTIGATE
9 The gases that trap heat in the
Earth s atmosphere are called
greenhouse gases. What gases
other than carbon dioxide are
greenhouse gases? Investigate the
greenhouse effect.
work
sheets
7.3 The atmosphere

7.4 Ozone layer
7.4
Under pressure
The air in our atmosphere presses
down towards the Earth as a result
of gravity. While we often talk about
something being as light as air , the
truth is that air is a lot heavier than
you may think. In fact, at sea level,
air exerts a force equivalent to just
over a kilogram on every square
centimetre of surface. Doesn t seem
like much? Well, this works out
to about 18 tons being spread out
over the entire surface of your skin,
which is quite a lot! Of course, keep
in mind that the same pressure is
being exerted outwards by bodies,
so we don t collapse under the
weight of all that air.
Air pressure is measured in
units called kilopascals (kPa). On
average, atmospheric pressure at
sea level is 101.325 kPa, but the
atmospheric pressure at a particular
region or location may be higher
or lower than this. Changes in air
pressure are the result of variations
in how closely packed the air
particles are. These variations can be
caused by altitude, temperature and
wind.
Altitude
We saw on page 180 that the
density of the air decreases as you
get higher in the atmosphere. This
means that the air pressure also
decreases as you get higher. On top
of Mount Everest, which is nearly
9 kilometres high, the atmospheric
pressure is only 30 kPa less than
a third of what it is on the ground.
By the time you rise into
the exosphere, there are so few
particles and they are spread so far
apart that there is virtually no air
pressure at all.
Heat from the sun

Air pressure is affected by how much heat energy is transferred from
the sun to the air. You will recall from chapter 2 that adding heat to a
substance causes its particles to spread further apart. This increases its
volume, and so its density decreases. The same thing happens to air as it
is heated.
When air is heated, its density decreases. Less dense air rises, pulling
air particles upwards. This leaves fewer air particles close to the ground in
that location, so the air pressure decreases.
When air cools, it becomes denser, so the air particles fall. This causes
more air particles to crowd together close to the ground in that location,
so the air pressure increases.
Heat from the
sun is absorbed
by the Earths
surface.
Air close to the surface
becomes hotter and
less dense.
The Earths surface

transfers heat to
air particles.
Warm air rises.
Region of low air pressure
How a region of low air pressure develops
Note that heat from the sun does not heat air particles directly. The
sun heats the area on the surface, which then transfers heat energy to
the air particles above it. The amount of heat absorbed by the surface
depends on the type of terrain (ocean, forest, grazing land, mountains),
the time of day and how close the area is to the equator.
Wind
Wind is the flow of air particles as they move from an area of higher
air pressure to an area of lower air pressure. The speed of the wind
depends on the difference in air pressure; the larger the difference in
the air pressure, the faster and stronger the wind.
You may have noticed that the wind is often stronger near the coast.
This is caused by the differences in air pressure over the water and
the land. During the day, the land and the ocean are heated by the
sun. However, land tends to heat up and cool down faster than the
ocean does. As the air particles over the land get warmer and rise, the
air pressure over the land becomes lower than that over the ocean.
The movement of the air particles from the ocean to the land causes
a sea breeze.
7 Planet Earth
183
At night, the land cools down

faster than the ocean. As the air
particles over the land fall, the air
pressure over the land becomes
higher than that over the ocean.
The warmer air over the ocean
rises, causing lower air pressure
over the water. As a result, air
particles flow from the land to the
ocean, creating a land breeze.
Air particles move from

the land to the ocean.
Air particles move from

the ocean to the land.
Higher pressure
Lower pressure
Lower pressure
Higher pressure
Coastal winds
activities
InvEStIgatIon 7.3
making a simple barometer
You will need:
jar
large piece of balloon rubber
rubber band
ruler
bamboo skewer
sticky tape
REmEmbER
Balloon rubber
Ruler
1 Define the term air pressure .
Skewer
2 Recall how areas of high

pressure and low pressure are
formed.
Rubber band
Stretch the balloon rubber
over the jar and secure it with

a rubber band.
Jar
Hold the ruler upright in front
Making a simple barometer
of the pointed end of the

skewer. Make sure that the
bottom of the ruler is level with the bottom of the jar.
Carefully note the position of the skewer point on the ruler. Write down the
height (in cm) of this position.

Over the next few days, observe the position of the skewer against the ruler
and write down the height. (Note: Make sure that you use the same ruler
each time.)
DIsCussIon
184
How do you think this instrument measures air pressure?
If the skewer pointer gets higher, does this correspond to an increase or

a decrease in air pressure? Explain.
Why was it important to use the same ruler each time?
It is also important that the jar remains sealed tightly. Why do you think
this is important?
4 Distinguish between a sea

breeze and a land breeze.
THInk
Cut a piece of skewer 10 cm
long, including a pointed end.

Tape the blunt end of the
skewer to the centre of the
balloon rubber.
3 Explain how a sea breeze forms

at a coastline.
5 Air pressure tends to be higher

over the poles and lower over
the equator. Explain why this is
the case.
6 The air above a ploughed
paddock tends to be warmer
than over a grassy plain.
(a) Explain why you think this
happens.
(b) Would you expect air
particles to rise or fall over
a ploughed paddock? Justify
your answer.
7 The cabin pressure inside a
passenger plane flying at an
altitude of 10 km is always
adjusted so that it is lower
than normal air pressure on
the ground. Account for this
adjustment.
work
sheets
7.5 Atmospheric pressure

7.6 Moving air
7.7 Air pressure systems
7.5

Current issues, research and development
Wild weather
Here comes the rain
High and low pressure regions do
not stay in the same place. They
move over the Earths surface,
changing the weather.
When an area of high air
pressure (called a high or a high
pressure system) moves across the
land, it tends to bring ne weather:
dry with very few clouds. Highs
tend to move fairly slowly and
cover a large area.
Areas of low air pressure (lows,
depressions or low pressure systems)
develop where warmer air is rising
from the Earths surface. As this
warmer air cools, it allows cloud
to form; so, a low pressure system
usually brings rain and strong
winds.
upper air even colder. This, in turn,

causes the warm air to rise faster
and the winds spiralling into the
A cyclone can be as wide as
low pressure system speed up. This
500 kilometres, have wind speeds
process is called intensication. As
over 200 km/h inside it and move
up to 30 km/h.
the air pressure continues to drop
and the winds travel faster, the low
pressure system moves over the
ocean continuing to intensify. When
the average wind speed is higher
than 60 km/h, the low is called a cyclone. The central low pressure region
of the cyclone is called the eye. There is very little wind in the eye of the
cyclone.
Cyclones usually form between the tropics where the oceans are
consistently warm and the effect of the Earths rotation is greatest.
Rising air
Cyclones
Cyclones form over water in
regions where the air pressure is
very low and the air temperature
is greater than about 27 C. The
warm, moist air in these regions
rises and air particles move in from
the sides.
Because the Earth rotates on
its axis, air does not move in a
straight line from the high pressure
area to the low pressure area.
Instead, the air curves as it moves
into the low pressure area. This
curvature is strongest near the
equator. The air entering a cyclone
moves in a clockwise direction in
the Southern Hemisphere and in
an anticlockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere.
When moist, warm rising air
meets colder air, the water vapour
condenses into rain, making this
Rising air
leaves the
cyclone
anticlockwise
in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Winds decreasing
in speed
Gale-force
winds
Winds increasing
in speed
Eye
Gale-force
winds
Direction of air flow
Formation of a cyclone
7 Planet Earth
185
InvEStIgatIon 7.4
Cyclone in a bottle
You will need:
two 2 litre PET bottles with lids
water
food colouring
superglue
drill with a 5 mm bit
Bottle joiner
Part A: Making the joiner

Take the lids off the two bottles and glue their flat tops
together with superglue. Make sure that they are lined

up exactly. Set the lids aside until the glue is completely
dry.
CAUTION Be careful that you do not stick your fingers together
with superglue.
Place the bottles on the bench. A vortex should form in
the top bottle. (If it doesn t, repeat the previous step.)

Measure how long the top bottle takes to empty this
time.
Use the drill to make a 5 mm hole through the middle of
the joined lids.

Part B
Half-fill one of the bottles with water and add some food
colouring.
Screw the joiner tightly onto the half-filled bottle.
Turn the second (empty) bottle upside down and screw it
tightly into the upper half of the joiner.

Turn the joined bottles over so that the coloured water
flows through the joiner from the top bottle into the
bottom bottle. Measure how long it takes the top bottle
to empty.
Turn the bottles upside down again. This time, as the
water flows from the top bottle into the bottom one, spin
them very quickly in an anticlockwise direction. Make
sure that you hold both bottles while you do this.
DIsCussIon
1
What effect does the formation of the vortex have on

the time it takes the top bottle to empty?
What do you think would happen to the emptying time

if you made a faster vortex?
Did water fow smoothly from the top bottle into the
bottom when they were not spun? Explain.
Hypothesise whether the direction in which the

bottles are spun would affect the emptying speed.
What effect do you think the size of the hole in

the joiner has on the vortex created? Design an
experiment to test this.
Cyclone classification
In Australia, cyclones are classified into cyclone severity categories. The table below describes the winds typical
of each category.
Average wind speed
(km/h)
Strongest gusts
(km/h)
Central pressure
(kPa)
60 90
125
98.5
90 120
125 170
97 98.5
Minor house damage; heavy damage to crops

and trees; small boats break moorings
120 160
170 225
94.5 97
Roof and structural damage; some power

failures
160 200
225 280
92 94.5
Loss of roof; airborne debris; widespread power

failure
Over 200
Over 280
Under 92
Widespread destruction
Category
186
Effects
Little damage to houses; some damage to crops
and trees
Cyclone Larry caused

widespread damage in 2006.
activities
REmEmbER
1 Recall what type of pressure system
tends to be associated with cloudy
skies and rain.
2 Describe how cyclones form.
3 Recall the conditions needed for a
cyclone to develop.
8 Describe what effects you think

global warming will have on
the severity of cyclones in the
future.
InvEsTIGATE
9 Use the library and the internet
to investigate the differences
between cyclones, hurricanes and
typhoons.
10 Investigate how the names of
cyclones are assigned.
THInk
4 Explain why you are more likely to
experience a cyclone if you live in
Cairns than if you live in Sydney.
5 Deduce why cyclones break up
when they cross the coastline onto
land. Use diagrams to help you.
6 Explain why cyclones are more
likely in January and February than
in June and July.
7 The Bureau of Meteorology warns
people to beware of the eye of
the cyclone, and advises them to
remain inside their houses when
the winds first start to drop. Deduce
why this warning is given.
usE DATA
Use the table on the previous page
to help you answer the following
questions.
11 The following measurements were
recorded for a tropical cyclone as it
crossed the Queensland coast.
Average wind speed = 120 km/h
Maximum wind speed = 160 km/h
Lowest central air pressure = 97 kPa
(a) Identify the category of this
cyclone.
(b) Predict the effect this cyclone
would have on a house in its
path.
(c) Predict the effect the

cyclone would have on sugar
cane and banana crops in the
path of the cyclone.
12 Read the following description of
Cyclone Tracy, which struck Darwin
on Christmas Day 1974.
During the cyclone, wind gusts of
more than 200 km/h were recorded.
Fifty people were killed in Darwin
itself. Some were killed when
they tried to get away from their
homes. Cars were picked up and
thrown off the roads by the wind.
Some people were killed when
they were hit by flying debris
such as roofing iron. Others were
drowned in floods caused by storm
surge. During the cyclone, about
90 per cent of the city s buildings
were damaged. Five vessels were
lifted ashore in the harbour. All
power supplies were cut and all
communications were lost soon
after the cyclone struck.
On the basis of this description,
deduce the category of Cyclone
Tracy. Use information from the
paragraph to justify your decision.
7 Planet Earth
187
7.6
PREsCRIbED foCus AREA

Rising salt
One of the most pressing problems facing Australia
is that of soil salinity or dryland salinity. The term
salinity is another way of talking about the saltiness
of something. While saltiness may be a good thing
when you are talking about salted peanuts, it is not a
good thing at all when you are looking at salt in the
soil. Interestingly enough, the salt involved in both
cases is the same sort
sodium chloride.
Soil salinity occurs when salt in the soil layers and
rocks deep below the surface is brought up to the
surface. The salt that is in the lower soil layers has
accumulated over a very long time and has come from
two possible major sources.
You may recall from your earlier studies that this
continent has at different times over millions of
years either been covered by the ocean or has
contained a vast inland sea. The sediment that
accumulated in these salty waters later became dry
land, and the rock layers retained a lot of the salt
from when they were under sea water.
Geologists and geographers believe that most of the
salt trapped in the lower depths of the rocks is the
result of hundreds of thousands of years of saltfall
a process in which salt water from the ocean
evaporates into the atmosphere and returns to the
land s interior as rain.
Water that reaches the soil from rainfall either runs
off back into the waterways or is taken up by the deep
roots of the native vegetation. The small amounts of
water that continue to move downwards soak into
the lower levels of the soil. This water-saturated soil
is called ground water. The top surface of the ground
water (called the watertable) normally lies far below
the roots of the native trees.
However, the balance was shifted when European
settlers started to use the farming techniques that they
The devastation of the rising watertable and salinity threatens

much of Australia s farmland.
188
had used in Europe. They cleared the native plants

and trees from vast areas of land to make pasture land
and crop fields, and, later, set up irrigation systems to
water the crops they had planted.
The new crops and pasture grasses have much
shallower root systems than the native plants and
do not cover anywhere near as much of the soil. So
now, when rain falls, much more water enters the
ground water, causing the watertable to rise. This
rising watertable carries with it a lot of the salt that
had been locked in the rocks and soil below. The
watertable rises even faster on irrigated land. After
many years of this type of farming, the salt has
reached the upper soil layers near the surface.
The removal of deep-rooted trees has caused the watertable to rise.
Salinity affects the land in a number of different

ways:
Where the soil is rich in salt, few plants can
survive. This has meant that many crops and many
grasses established for herds have died. The native
species that originally inhabited the cleared regions
cannot tolerate the salt either, so they can t be
replanted.
Where water runs off into waterways, they have
taken the salt with it, causing increased salinity of
waterways. This means that they cannot be used
for drinking, and the populations of animals that
depend on these fresh water sources have decreased.
The Murray River, one of the major sources of fresh
water in this country for humans and animals, has
been badly affected by salinity.
The reduced supply of drinkable water has led to
a decrease in biodiversity of plants and wildlife in
saline regions.
The soil in cleared regions has been further

degraded by heavy erosion; the deep roots of native
plants and trees not only helped maintain the level
of the watertable, but also helped keep the soil on the
surface in place. Heavy rainfall washes the topsoil into
waterways leaving behind land on which little can grow.
At present, the problem of salinity is being treated
with increased planting of salt-tolerant plants and
trees and a massive decrease in land clearing practices.
However, it will be many years before we are able to
fix this major problem that we have caused.
Salinity of water
Description of water
Salinity (g/L)
Distilled water
Murray River, Albury (NSW)
0.05
Desirable limit for drinking water
0.5
Murray River, Morgan (SA)
0.8
Upper limit for citrus trees
1.0
Upper limit for drinking water
1.5
Upper limit for dairy cows and ewes
6.0
Ground water, Loddon Plain North

(Victoria)
15
Pacific Ocean
35
The salinity of water is a measure of the amount of salt dissolved

in it. It can be expressed as the number of grams of salt per litre
(g/L) of water.
Australian research to reduce soil

salinity
in NSW. They aim to reduce soil salinity by reducing

the amount of ground water by 50%. The trial focuses
on plants that can thrive over spring, summer and
autumn, such as lucerne and chicory. Lucerne plants
have roots down to 3 metres below the soil surface.
This means that the plants dry the soil to a greater
depth so, when it rains, most of the water is used
by the plant. This keeps the watertable low and,
therefore, helps to reduce soil salinity.
saltbush
Scientists in Western Australia are studying the use of
saltbush for sheep grazing. Many species of saltbush
are found in arid regions in the world. However, none
of these are common in grazing regions in Western
Australia. Scientists, including research scientist Dr
Hayley Norman, have discovered that saltbush could
be a valuable plant in managing dryland salinity.
Unlike other plants, saltbush has an extremely high
tolerance to salt and retains salt in its leaves. As an
unexpected bonus, sheep
grazed on saltbush have
health benefits; their meat
has a lower fat content.
Dr Hayley Norman, CSIRO
research scientist, is showing
that saltbush is a nutritional
feed source.
activities
Evergraze
REmEmbER
Scientists and farmers working on the Evergraze trial

are studying a range of plants for grazing pastures at a
number of experimental sites, including Wagga Wagga
1 Define the term watertable .
Dr Ralph Behrendt and farmer David Robertson are key

researchers in Evergraze trials.
2 Explain why the watertable has risen throughout much

of Australia during the past 200 years.
3 Explain why the rising watertable is a threat to farm
crops.
THInk
4 Describe how soil degradation due to salinity could be
reduced.
InvEsTIGATE
5 Design and carry out an experiment to investigate the
effect of the salinity of water on the growth of one
type of plant.
6 Some plants are more tolerant to salty water than
others. Design and carry out an experiment to identify
some plants that might be more suited to areas
affected by salinity.
7 Planet Earth
189
LooKIng BaCK
1 The diagram below shows the layers of the Earth from its
centre to the surface.
(a) Identify the imaginary line around the Earth shown as a
dotted line and labelled A.
(b) Recall the names of the layers labelled B, C, D and E.
(c) Identify which of the layers labelled B, C, D and E has
the highest temperature.
B
(b) Recall in which layer of the atmosphere you would find

the least air.
(c) Ozone gas is important to living things because it
blocks out most of the ultraviolet (UV) rays reaching
the Earth. Recall in which layer is the ozone
layer, which contains most of the ozone in the
atmosphere.
3 The sun is always shining on some part of the Earth,
heating up the area that it falls on. Explain why the
temperature of the Earth remains fairly constant.
North Pole
4 Standing on the Earth s surface, it would be easy to

think that the Earth is flat. Describe at least three
pieces of evidence that indicate that the Earth is round.
C
D
South Pole
2 (a) Recall in which layer of the atmosphere you would find

the most air.
5 A hot-air balloon is floating across grasslands at a

constant height of 100 metres, and is heading towards
a series of freshly ploughed paddocks. Predict what
will happen to the altitude of the balloon when it passes
over the paddocks, and justify your answer.
(Hint: Ploughed land absorbs more heat than grassy
plains.)
6 A mountaineer used a digital barometer to measure
the change in air pressure that she experienced as she
climbed up a mountain. The values she measured are
shown in the table below.
Altitude (m)
Exosphere
Thermosphere
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
Troposphere
Air pressure (kPa)
101
250
98
500
95
750
92
1000
89
1250
86
1500
83
1750
80
Ionosphere
(a) Construct a line graph showing how air pressure

changes with altitude. Put altitude on the horizontal
axis.
(b) Use the line graph to predict the height at which the
mountaineer measured an air pressure of 90 kPa.
(c) Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain in Australia,
with an altitude of 2228 metres. Predict the air pressure
that would be experienced at the peak.
7 (a) Describe how clouds are formed.
(b) Explain the part clouds play in the water cycle.
(c) Describe the kind of weather you could expect if you
see cumulonimbus clouds in the sky.
8 Explain how a gyre differs from an ocean current.
190
9 The picture below shows a satellite image of a cyclone

on the Australian coast. Using your ruler and the fact that
the straight-line distance between Sydney and Melbourne
is 716 km, extrapolate the diameter of:

(a) the cyclone and
(b) the eye.
TEsT YouRsELf
1 The term hydrosphere describes
A the air that is found in a layer around the Earth.
B the rocks that make up the crust and the upper mantle.
C the water that is found in streams and rivers only.
D all of the water on the Earth s surface.
(1 mark)
2 The layer of the Earth s atmosphere that reaches the lowest
temperature is the
A troposphere.
B thermosphere.
C mesosphere.
D stratosphere.
(1 mark)
3 Which of the following clouds do not form rain?
A Cirrus
B Cumulus
C Stratus
D Cumulonimbus
4 In which of these locations would you most likely

experience the lowest air pressure?
A In the eye of a cyclone
B On top of Mount Everest
C At sea level
D On the edge of a cyclone
(1 mark)
5 Describe your planet as if to an alien from a distant galaxy.

You must write between 100 and 200 words and you cannot
use diagrams.
(6 marks)
work
sheets
7.8 Planet Earth puzzle

7.9 Planet Earth summary
(1 mark)
7 Planet Earth
191
StUDY CHECKLISt
ICt
Earth s structure
eBook plus
identify the four layers of the Earth s interior and

describe the characteristics of each layer
7.1
describe the theories developed in the last few thousand

years that predicted the shape of the Earth
7.1
The hydrosphere
dene the term hydrosphere 7.2
describe the water cycle in terms of the physical
SUMMaRY
eLessons
The water cycle
This video lesson will show you the amazing continuous cycle
of water in the Earth s hydrosphere. Through the processes of
evaporation, condensation, run-off and rain, water is moving
constantly as it transfers between the oceans and the sky.
processes involved 7.2

recall the major types of cloud formation 7.2
describe how the major types of clouds are formed 7.2
recall the factors that contribute to the formation of
ocean currents and explain how currents transfer water
and energy through the oceans 7.2
The atmosphere
identify the gases that make up most of the air 7.3
describe the difference between Earth s atmosphere and
space
7.3
describe the importance of atmospheric gases, including

ozone and greenhouse gases, to life on Earth
7.3
identify and describe the layers of the atmosphere 7.3

explain how air pressure depends on local
conditions 7.4
explain how cyclones are formed
7.5

describe how salinity affects the ecosystem 7.6
describe current Australian research aimed at reducing
soil salinity
192
7.6
the solar system
Until recently, the

solar system was
considered to contain
nine planets in orbit
around the sun. But, in 2006, Pluto
was stripped of its status as a planet
when astronomers from around the
world redefined it as a dwarf planet,
leaving just eight major planets in the
solar system. Pluto had previously
been considered the ninth planet.
This chapter will take you on a
journey through the solar system and
explain important phenomena such as
the seasons and the day night cycle.

8.1
identify the planets in our solar system
compare the sizes of the planets and
their distances from the sun

8.2
describe the terrestrial planets and gas
giants
8.3
explain the importance of the sun in our
solar system
8.4
explain how the movement of the Earth
causes day and night and the seasons

8.5
explain why the appearance of the
moon changes
8.6
explain how ocean tides are produced
8.7
explain what causes lunar and solar
eclipses
8.8
describe how our understanding of the
solar system has changed over the years

8.9
describe other features of the solar
system including meteors, meteorites

and comets
A close-up of Saturn s rings. Four NASA spacecraft have been sent to explore
Saturn. Pioneer 11 was the first to fly past Saturn in 1979. Voyager 1 flew past
a year later, followed by Voyager 2 in 1981. More recently, in 2004, the Cassini
spacecraft was sent into orbit around Saturn to explore its rings. Saturn s rings
are made up of ice and ice-coated rock particles that reflect sunlight to give a
variety of colours from reds to blues.
8 the solar system

What do you already know about the solar
system?
1. Before you start working on this chapter, draw a diagram on A3 paper
of the sun and planets of the solar system. Draw the planets in order
of their distance from the sun. Label each planet with its name.
2. Write down your answers to each of the following questions. There is

no need to use any books or the internet to help. Your answers should
be based on what you already know.
(a) Which is the largest planet?
(b) Which is the smallest planet?
(c) Which two planets are closest to Earth?
(d) Which planets have moons?
(e) Which planets have rings?
(f) Which planet has a surface that is frozen solid?
(g) What else is there in the solar system apart from planets
and moons?
3. Discuss the following questions with others in your class
and write down answers to each after your discussion.
(a) What do you think a shooting star is?
(b) Can we see any planets from Earth? If so, which ones?
(c) Why can you see more stars when you are out in the
country than when you are in the city?
(d) If our Earth is shaped like a sphere, why don t we fall
off?
(e) How is the moon different from Earth?
4. A friendly alien has landed near your house. He asks you
the two questions below to try to understand our part of
the universe. How would you answer him? Draw diagrams
that help explain your answers.
(a) Why can you Earth people see the moon but not the
sun at night?
(b) What makes your moon shine?
How do you explain to an alien why the moon shines?
8.1
the planets: then there were eight

The solar system consists of eight
planets travelling around a central
star that we know as the sun. These
planets travel around the sun in an
almost circular path called an orbit.
The orbits are actually in the shape
of an ellipse, which is an oval
shape. The orbits of some planets
are more circular than others.
Until 2006, our solar system
was considered to contain nine
planets. The four inner planets
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars
are classified as terrestrial planets
(terrestrial means like Earth ).
They are small and solid. The next
four
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune
are classified as gas
giants. These huge planets do not
have a solid surface.
Pluto was considered the ninth
and outermost planet. However, in
2003, the discovery of an
orbiting object, nicknamed Xena,
which is larger than Pluto but

further away from the sun, created
debate about what defines a planet.
In 2006, astronomers agreed that,
to be called a planet, a celestial
body must:
be in orbit around a star, while
not itself being a star
be large enough in mass for its
own gravity to cause it to be
nearly spherical in shape
travel in an orbit that does
not overlap with other objects,
including planets.
As a result, Pluto and Xena were
disqualified as planets and instead
were classified as dwarf planets. In
the case of Pluto, the main reason
for this was that its orbit overlaps
Neptune s.
The planets Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn can all be
seen without using a telescope. All
of these planets were discovered in
ancient times. They were noticed

among the many stars in the sky
because they moved in regular
patterns against the background
of stars. In fact, the word planet
comes from a Greek word meaning
wanderer.
The most distant planets,
however, cannot be seen without
telescopes and were discovered
more recently. Uranus was
discovered by accident with a
telescope in 1791. Neptune was
discovered in 1846 and the dwarf
planet Pluto in 1930.
All of the planets spin, or rotate,
as they orbit the sun. The Earth
rotates once every 24 hours. This
period is called one day. Jupiter
takes only about 10 hours to rotate.
That means that a day on Jupiter
is only 10 hours long. The planet
Venus takes 243 Earth days to
complete one full rotation.
Neptune
Uranus
Saturn
Jupiter
The eight planets
of the solar system.
This diagram is not
drawn to scale. The
planets are really
much further apart.
Mars
Earth
Venus
Mercury
8 the solar system
195
Activities
InveStIgAtIon 8.1
The scale of the solar system
REMEMbER
You will need:

cardboard
marking pens
trundle wheel
basketball
2 golf balls (or table tennis balls)
2 marbles
2 peas
2 silver cachous (the small shiny spheres used to
decorate cakes)
Make 9 large cardboard labels for your class: one for
the sun and one for each planet.

Collect a basketball to represent the sun, and each
of the items listed in the table below to represent the

planets, and move to a large outdoor area.
1 Construct a mnemonic to remember the eight planets

in order from the sun.
2 Identify the:
(a) terrestrial planets
(b) gas giants.
3 Propose why Uranus, Neptune and the dwarf planet
Pluto were discovered much later than the other
planets.
ThINk
4 The table below shows how the size and distance
from the sun of other planets compare with the
dimensions for Earth.
How the other planets compare with Earth
One student should be selected to hold the sun
and its label. Eight teams of students should also be

selected to carry the planets and their labels to the
correct distances from the sun . If you don t have
a trundle wheel, assume that each of your paces is
1 metre long.
(The model created here is not quite to scale
for both planet size and distance from the sun. The
distances from the sun to the planets listed in the
table below are one-tenth of what is consistent with
the size of the items representing the plants.)
Planet
Item representing
planet
Distance from
the sun (metres)
Mercury
Silver cachou
1.5
Venus
Pea
2.7
Earth
Pea
3.7
Mars
Silver cachou
5.7
Jupiter
Golf ball
20
Saturn
Golf ball
36
Uranus
Marble
72
Neptune
Marble
110
DISCUSSION
1
Describe your model in words. Does it surprise

you in any way?
Outline why this modelling exercise is useful in

understanding the solar system.
Average distance
from the sun
(Earth = 1 unit)
Mercury
0.38
0.39
Venus
0.95
0.72
Earth
1.00
1.00
Mars
0.53
1.52
Jupiter
A model of the solar system
196
Planet
Diameter at
equator
(Earth = 1 unit)
11.2
5.19
Saturn
9.41
9.43
Uranus
3.98
19.1
Neptune
3.81
29.9
Follow the instructions below to construct two scale

drawings of the solar system. The first drawing will
show how the sizes of the planets compare with each
other. The second drawing will show how far the
planets are from the sun.
(a) On a sheet of A3 paper, draw a circle to
represent the size of each of the planets in the
order listed above. Use the diameter in Earth units
from the table above and a scale of 1 cm = 1 Earth
unit. Colour and label each planet.
(b) Turn the sheet over and rule a 40 cm line across
the centre. At one end of the line, draw a large
dot and label it as the sun. Use the distances
in Earth units from the table to draw a dot
representing each planet on your line. Again, use
a scale of 1 cm = 1 Earth unit. Label each planet.
work
sheet
8.1 The solar system
8.2
terrestrial neighbours and gas giants

Terrestrial planets
Our knowledge of the terrestrial planets Mars, Mercury
and Venus has increased rapidly since 1962. It was
in that year that the first visit to another planet by a
space probe took place when Mariner 2 flew above the
clouds of Venus. Since then, space probes have landed
on Venus and Mars, sending back data and pictures of
their atmospheres and surfaces. Before the space probe
missions, our knowledge of these planets was based
on observations with telescopes from Earth.
MERCURY PROFILE
Named after Mercury, Roman messenger of the gods
Average distance from the sun: 58 million kilometres
Diameter at equator: 4900 kilometres
Period of rotation (length of day): 59 Earth days
Period of orbit around sun (length of year): 88 Earth days
Surface gravity: 0.38 times that of Earth
Surface temperature: believed to range from 180 C to 420 C
Satellites: none
Mercury is the closest planet to the sun and quite

small compared with Earth. The surface of Mercury
is very much like that of the moon. It is very heavily
cratered and has mountains, valleys and flat plains
just like the seas on the moon. Until 1974, when
the space probe Mariner 10 flew close to Mercury, the
planet was believed to have no atmosphere. Mariner 10
found traces of the gases helium and hydrogen and
even smaller amounts of several other gases. Because
the pull of gravity on Mercury is much smaller than
that on Earth, gases tend to escape into space.
The temperatures on Mercury are extreme, generally
ranging from 180 C to 420 C. The very thin
atmosphere allows heat to escape quickly, so the part
of Mercury not facing the sun gets very cold. There is
recent evidence to suggest that temperatures on the
side of Mercury facing the sun could get as high as
700 C at times.
vENUS PROFILE
Named after venus, Roman goddess of love and beauty
Diameter at equator: 12 100 kilometres
Period of rotation (length of day): 243 Earth days
Period of orbit around sun (length of year): 225 Earth days
Surface temperature: average about 450 C
Satellites: none
Venus is the closest planet to the Earth and the

second-closest planet to the sun. Venus is about the
same size as Earth. It is the brightest object in the
night sky apart from the moon. The thick clouds
above the planet made the surface of Venus a mystery
until space probes were able to take photographs in
1974 and 1975. Even though space probes first flew
past Venus in 1962, very little knowledge was gained.
The atmosphere of Venus was so heavy and hot that
early spacecraft and their instruments were crushed or
melted.
The atmosphere of Venus is almost entirely carbon
dioxide. This means that heat does not escape easily.
As a result, the range of temperatures is small and
the average temperature is much higher than that
of Mercury even though Venus is almost twice as far
from the sun.
The surface of Venus is mostly flat and rocky with
two large areas of mountains. It is not very hospitable
because of the high temperature, heavy atmosphere
and the presence of sulfuric acid in the atmosphere.
8 the solar system
197
MARS PROFILE
Named after Mars, Roman god of war
Average distance from the sun:
228 million kilometres
Diameter at equator: 6800 kilometres
Period of rotation (length of day): 24.5 hours
Period of orbit around sun (length of year):
687 Earth days
Surface temperature: usually ranges from about
120 C to about 30 C
Satellites: two
Mars is about half the diameter of Earth. After Earth, its orbit
is next furthest from the sun. Like Mercury, it has a small pull
of gravity and a thin atmosphere that consists almost entirely
of carbon dioxide. The thin atmosphere and lack of clouds
made it possible to observe the surface from Earth using
telescopes. In fact, in 1877, one astronomer observed what
appeared to be canals on the surface. This observation led to
the widely held belief that there was life on Mars. In 1976,
space probes Viking 1 and Viking 2 sent clear, close-up pictures
from the surface of Mars. The pictures showed a dry, barren
surface with no evidence of any form of life but what appear
to be dried-up river beds. It is believed that these river beds
were formed by water millions of years ago and that there is
still a lot of frozen water beneath the surface.
The most prominent features of the Martian surface are
icecaps at the poles, and large volcanoes. The icecaps are
believed to be made of frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice)
and frozen water. The largest volcano, Olympus Mons,
towers 25 kilometres above the surface, with a diameter of
600 kilometres. It is well over double the height of Mount
Everest. There is a lot of dust blown about by light winds,
giving the planet a red appearance.
Mars has two natural satellites, or moons, Phobos and
Deimos. They are both quite small. Phobos has a diameter
of about 20 kilometres and orbits Mars once every 7.5 hours.
Deimos, with a diameter of only 10 kilometres, travels around
the planet once every 30 hours.
Gas giants
The four largest planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune,
lie well beyond the planet Mars. These planets are called the gas
giants because they are like huge balls of gas. They do not have a
solid surface like the terrestrial planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars. The gas giants gradually change from gases in their deep
atmospheres to liquids and solids closer to the centre. They are
composed mainly of hydrogen, helium and methane. The space
probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flew past the gas giants between
1979 and 1989, discovering many new moons. These space
probes also sent back pictures showing that all of the gas giants
had ring systems around them. Until 1979, it was believed that
Saturn was the only planet with rings.
In 1995 the space probe Galileo lowered a smaller probe into
the atmosphere of Jupiter to gather new data.
Jupiter can be seen from Earth without a telescope and its largest
four moons can be seen with a small pair of binoculars. Jupiter
is heavier than all of the other planets put together. It has a giant
hurricane, called the Great Red Spot, which is over twice the size
of the Earth. This hurricane was first observed over 300 years
ago! Jupiter rotates so quickly that it bulges at its equator. A
thin ring of fine dust was detected around Jupiter by both of the
Voyager space probes in 1979.
198
JUPITER PROFILE
Named after Jupiter, king of the Roman gods
Average distance from the sun: 778 million
kilometres
Period of rotation (length of day): 10 hours
Period of orbit around sun (length of year): about
12 Earth years
Pull of gravity: 2.9 times that of Earth
Temperature: average about 140 C
Satellites: at least 62
Saturn has a system of rings around its equator that

is several kilometres thick. The rings are difficult to
see when their edge faces the Earth. There are seven
rings, which consist of thousands of smaller ringlets.
The ringlets appear to be made up of small particles of
ice-coated rock revolving around the planet like tiny
moons. Like Jupiter, it bulges at its equator because of
its rapid rotation.
Uranus appears blue from the Earth due to methane
gas in its atmosphere. The axis of rotation of Uranus
is almost in line with the sun. This means that light
from the sun falls on one pole for a very long time.
Like Jupiter and Saturn, Uranus bulges at the equator
because of its rapid rotation. This rapid rotation also
creates very strong winds in its atmosphere. Uranus
has a system of about 11 rings that are smaller and
fainter than those of Saturn.
SATURN PROFILE
Named after Saturn, Roman god of agriculture
Diameter at equator: 120 000 km
Period of rotation (length of day): 10.7 hours
Period of orbit around sun (length of year): 29.5 Earth years
URANUS PROFILE
Named after the Roman god Uranus, father of Saturn and
grandfather of Jupiter
Period of orbit around sun (length of year): 84 Earth years
Neptune, like Uranus, appears blue from the Earth due

to the methane gas in its atmosphere. It has a system of
five faint rings that appear to consist of dust particles.
It has a large dark spot similar to Jupiter s Great Red
Spot. This dark blue spot, which is larger than Earth, is
believed to be a giant storm. It was discovered in 1989
by the space probe Voyager 2, which also discovered
six of the planet s moons. One of Neptune s moons,
Triton, is the coldest known body in the solar system.
NEPTUNE PROFILE
Named after Neptune, Roman god of the sea and navigators
Period of orbit around sun (length of year): 165 Earth years
8 the solar system
199
Activities
REMEMbER
1 Construct a table to demonstrate the similarities and
differences between the terrestrial planets.
2 Identify which gas makes up most of the atmosphere on
the planet Venus.
ThINk
3 Explain why scientists have thought it possible for life to
exist on Mars.
4 The atmospheres of Mercury and Mars are very thin.
Explain how a thin atmosphere affects the temperature of
the planets.
5 Explain why our knowledge of the gas giants increased
so dramatically between 1979 and 1989.
CREATE
6 Draw a column graph to compare the time taken for an
orbit by the four gas giants. Identify whether there is a
trend in the orbital time for these planets.
7 Create a PowerPoint or Flash presentation or a tourist
brochure to entice people to visit the planet Mars. You
should include information about:
the trip to and from Mars
accommodation on Mars
weather conditions and atmosphere
the surface, including sights to see
how to get around while on the planet
leisure activities, especially those that would be
different from those on Earth
excursions to the two moons.
USE DATA
10 Now that you have studied the planets of the solar
system, you know quite a lot about each one. Much
of this information has been summarised on
pages 197 8 but it would be useful to incorporate
it into a database.
If you don t already have the program installed, use
the Microsoft Access weblink to download a free trial of
this popular database software. Follow the instructions
below to create a database of the planets in our solar
system.
Before you begin designing a database, you must plan
your fields (columns).
Set up the following fields:
order from the sun
planet
type of planet
distance to sun
diameter
period of rotation
period of orbit
surface gravity
surface temperature
satellites.
The database called Microsoft Access is used by
many companies and scientists. If it is installed, you
will probably find it on your computer s desktop by
clicking Start then Programs. The icon for Access is
shown below. Ask your teacher if you need help locating
the program. Databases are described in detail in
chapter 20, pages 535 6.
INvESTIGATE
8 Until 2006, Pluto was considered the ninth planet of the
solar system. Find out:
(a) when it was discovered and by whom
(b) how Pluto differs from the eight planets
(c) whether it has any moons and, if so, their names
(d) how long Pluto s orbit of the sun takes.
9 The decision by astronomers not to consider Pluto
a planet in our solar system was momentous and
somewhat controversial. Take the role of a journalist and
write a newspaper article announcing the decision to
strike Pluto off the list of planets. Include an outline of
the conflicting views of scientists on this issue.
Click on the icon and Access will open. If it starts
with a box asking whether you want to Open an

existing file, click on Blank Access database, then
click OK.
You will then see a box that prompts you to give
your new database file a name. Call the file Planets.
mdb and click Create. Save it somewhere that you ll
remember.
200
Now another dialogue box will give you several
Click on Datasheet View. You will be asked to save the
alternatives for creating the table that the database

will rely on for information. Double click Create table in
Design View.
Your screen should look like screen B below.
What you see is called a table. It s time to enter the
names of the fields. This is just like writing the headings
for the columns in a table in your workbook. For
convenience we will let the data type be Text even though
most of our information will be numbers. It is a good idea
to write a brief description of the field. Enter your field
information so that it looks like screen C below.
You are in what Access calls Design View.
You now need to be in Datasheet View.
Click on the arrow next to the View icon
under the File menu. It looks like this:
table. Give it a meaningful name like Planet info . You

may be asked to nominate a primary key. At this stage
just click No.
You are now ready to enter the relevant information about
the planets. The complete row of information is called a
record. In Datasheet View just type in the information and
press the right arrow to go to the next field and press
Enter to go to the next record. When you have finished
entering data, your datasheet should look like screen D
below.
Congratulations! You have successfully created your first
database. It is what we call a flat file database. Don t
forget to save it and remember where it is because you
can use it and add to it later.
Screen B
Screen C
Screen D
8 the solar system
201
Just as an example of the power of a database and the sort

of things you can do with it, let s ask the planets database to
sort some information for us.
You should have a query that looks like the screen below.
We ll run a query to find out which planets are terrestrial

and their distance from the sun.
With your table of planets on the screen, click on the
arrow next to the New object: Autoform icon. It looks like
this:
Let s get some answers to the query.

Click on the RUN icon in the tool bar. It looks like this:
You should see a little table of the terrestrial planets
that looks like the screen below.
Now click on Query. Then click on OK to open the query
in Design View, which should look like the screen below.

Notice that your planet table fields are visible in a small
box.
You can save your query if you wish to.
DISCUSS
Click in the blank box next to Field. Click on the arrow to
select Type of planet from the drop-down list of your field

names.
Now go down to the blank box next to Criteria and type
in Terrestrial . Don t tick the little box next to Show.
Now go back up to the next Field box and select Planet.
Tick the box so that it will Show.
Finally, select Distance to sun (km) in the next Field box
and tick the box so that it will Show.
202
In making the planets database, you may have seen a few

patterns or connections between things. Use your database
to help you answer the following questions.
11 How does the temperature of a planet vary with its
distance from the sun?
12 How does the time it takes a planet to orbit the sun vary
with its distance from the sun?
13 How does the gravity of the terrestrial planets vary with
their diameter?
14 Is there any connection between the size of a planet and
the number of moons that it has?
eBook plus
15 Use the Explore Mars weblink in your eBookPLUS to

discover an interactive simulation of life on Mars and
learn about plans to land the first man on Mars.
16 Use the Weight converter weblink in your eBookPLUS to
calculate your weight on other planets.
8.3
A very important star

The sun is the centre of the solar
system. It is one of billions of
stars in the universe. The planets,
asteroids, meteoroids and comets
all orbit the sun, trapped by its
huge gravitational pull. The sun is
vital to life on Earth, providing the
planet with heat and light.
CAUTION Never look directly at the sun!
Serious eye damage can be caused.
Profile of the sun

The sun makes up 99.8 per cent of
the total mass of the solar system.
The diagram below shows how it
compares in size with the planets
(the sun is the largest circle).
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
The sun is very much larger than the

planets.
The diameter of the sun is

1.4 million kilometres, 110 times
that of Earth. In fact, it would be
possible to fit 1.3 million Earths
into the space occupied by the
sun. About 75 per cent of the sun
is hydrogen. The rest is mainly
helium. There are small traces of
other materials such as carbon and
iron. Like all of the planets, the
sun rotates around its own axis.
It therefore has two poles and an

equator. Because it is not solid,
different parts of the sun rotate at
different speeds. At its equator, the
sun rotates once every 25 days. At
the poles, it takes 34 days for a full
rotation.
The huge pull of gravity within
the sun produces great amounts of
heat and pressure. There is enough
heat and pressure to allow nuclear
reactions to take place in the sun s
InveStIgAtIon 8.2
What keeps the planets
in the solar system?
core. Hydrogen in the sun s core

is changed to helium in a nuclear
reaction that releases huge amounts
of energy. It is this nuclear reaction
that keeps the sun and all other
stars shining, hot and bright.
The temperature at the surface
of the sun is about 6000 C,
whereas the temperature at its
centre, where the nuclear reactions
take place, is believed to be about
15 000 000 C.
There must be a force to keep

the ball moving in a circle.
What force keeps the
planets in orbit around
the sun?
You will need:

styrofoam ball
one metre of thread
sticky tape
small metal nut or similar
weight
hollow plastic tube or empty
biro case
scissors
Styrofoam ball
(Earth)
Hollow plastic
tube (sun)
Thread
Tape a piece of thread to
a styrofoam ball or table

tennis ball and pass it
through a hollow plastic
tube. Tie the other end to a
large metal nut or similar
weight. The ball represents
a planet and the plastic tube
represents the sun.
Metal nut
DISCUSSION
1
What force prevents the ball in

this activity from flying off into
the distance while it is in orbit?
The planets are obviously not

tied to the sun with a string.
What is the name of the force
that keeps the planets from
escaping from the sun and the
solar system?
Describe what happened to the

ball when the thread was cut.
What would happen to the

planets if the sun suddenly
disappeared from the solar
system?
Move to an area in the
playground where you are

several metres away from all
other students. Hold the plastic
tube in your hand and whirl the
ball in a circle as shown in the
diagram above.
Cut the thread just below the
plastic tube while the ball is

being whirled and observe the
motion of the ball.
8 the solar system
203
The sun provides the planets with heat, light and

other forms of energy. The energy released from the
sun is called solar energy. Solar energy reaches all of
the planets.
Life exists on Earth because the atmosphere allows
the right amounts of each type of solar energy to
reach the surface. Solar energy provides:
the light needed by plants so that they can grow
and make their own food. Animals rely on plants
as a source of food. Even animals that do not eat
plants eat other animals that do eat plants. As well,
animals need light to be able to see.
heat, which keeps the atmosphere, the Earth s
surface and bodies of water warm enough to
support life. The sun controls our climate. Heat
is released from the sun in the form of infra-red
radiation. Infra-red radiation is not visible to the
human eye. Some gases in the Earth s atmosphere
trap infra-red radiation from the sun. This makes
the atmosphere heat up. This process is called
the greenhouse effect. The atmosphere of Venus is
mostly carbon dioxide, which absorbs a lot of infrared radiation. The greenhouse effect is responsible
for the extremely high temperatures on Venus.
ultraviolet radiation, which is needed by humans
to help the body make vitamin D. The amount
required can be obtained by being outdoors in
the open for just a few minutes. However, the
ultraviolet radiation emitted from the sun is also
the cause of sunburn and can lead to skin cancer.
UV radiation is not related to temperature, so you
can still get sunburned on cool, cloudy days. The
Bureau of Meteorology provides a daily forecast of
the sun s UV radiation intensity. This is called the
UV index. It divides UV radiation levels into low
(1 2), moderate (3 5), high (6 7), very high (8 10)
and extreme (11 and above). In Australia, UV radiation
levels are most intense from the beginning of
September to the end of April, particularly between
11 am and 3 pm. When UV levels are 3 and above,
sun protection is needed because the UV radiation is
intense enough to damage the skin.
The ozone layer high in the Earth s atmosphere
absorbs much of the ultraviolet radiation reaching
the Earth from the sun. If humans were living and
working in sunlight on the moon or Mars, they
would need a lot more protection from ultraviolet
radiation than on Earth. Like infra-red radiation,
ultraviolet radiation is not visible to the human eye.
other forms of radiation including radio waves,
X-rays, microwaves and gamma rays.
204
Together, all of the different forms of energy coming

from the sun are referred to as the electromagnetic
spectrum.
20
UV Alert: 8.20 am to 5.10 pm
MA UV Index:
15
15
UV Index
Energy from the sun
Extreme
11
Very high
8
High
Mod
3
Low
20
6 am
8 am 10 am 12 pm 2 pm 4 pm 6 pm 8 pm
Sydney
Fri 5 Dec. 2008
The daily forecast of the sun s UV intensity allows us to predict

the time of day when the sun s rays will be most damaging to our
skin.
Activities
REMEMbER
1 Describe what the sun is.
2 Identify the force that keeps the planets in orbit
around the sun.
3 Outline what happens inside the sun to provide the
huge amount of energy that it releases.
ThINk
4 Explain why life on Earth would not be possible
without the sun.
5 Explain why there is no greenhouse effect on Mars.
6 Explain why you would need protection from the
sunlight on Mars, even though it is very cold.
7 All of the Earth s fossil fuels, including coal, petroleum
and natural gas could be described as stored solar
energy. Explain why. (Hint: Think about how they are
formed.)
INvESTIGATE
8 Find out more about one of the following sun topics
and present your findings.
Sunspots and how they can affect the Earth
What causes the northern lights (aurora borealis)
and southern lights (aurora australis)
How the Earth is protected from the particles and
radiation from the sun
Space probes sent to study the sun
work
sheet
8.2 The sun
8.4
the earth in motion

Day and night
Have you ever wondered why it gets dark or why the
sun rises in Sydney before it does in Perth? Why is
Australia in the middle of a hot summer in January
while Europe experiences a cold winter? These things
can all be explained by the movement of the Earth
through space.
The Earth s rotation

To us on Earth it seems that the sun rises each day in
the east and sets in the west. In fact, the sun doesn t
move across the sky at all. It is the Earth that moves
and quite fast, too! People living on the equator
are moving at close to 1670 kilometres per hour! We
don t sense we are moving as everything around us
moves at the same speed.
Like a spinning top, the Earth rotates
spinning
from west to east around its axis. The axis of the
Earth is an imaginary line drawn from the North Pole
to the South Pole, but tilted at an angle of 23.5 .
One rotation takes 24 hours. We call the time for a
complete rotation one day. As the Earth spins around,
first one side and then the other faces the sun and
experiences daytime. The side facing away from the
sun gets no sunlight, so it experiences night-time.
6 am
The Earth is spherical but it is not a perfect sphere. The

diameter of the Earth measured across the equator is
12 760 km. however, if you measure the diameter between the
two poles, the diameter is shorter by 40 km because the Earth
has a slight bulge at the equator.
The Earth rotates
from west to east.
Continents
facing the sun are
in daylight.
6.15 am
23.5
North Pole
Sun s rays
Night
Equa
tor
Sun s rays
Day
South Pole
Axis
23.5
6.30 am
On the east coast of Australia, the sun rises over the Pacific Ocean.
8 the solar system
205
The Earth rotates from west to

east. Therefore, the sun during the
day and the moon, planets and
stars during the night seem to
move in the other direction, from
east to west. Ancient astronomers
believed that the Earth was
stationary while objects in the sky
moved.
Star trails. Stars appear to move in the

night sky but it is the Earth that is rotating.
Draw an outline of Australia and Africa on your sphere.
InveStIgAtIon 8.3
Use an atlas to check the positions and approximate

shape of each continent. Also note the position of north.
Day and night across the Earth

You will need:
polystyrene (or similar) sphere (about the size of a small
rockmelon)
metal or wooden skewer
pen
spotlight or bright torch
Your sphere represents the Earth. Draw a line around the
centre to represent the equator. Label the Northern and

Southern Hemispheres and mark in the North and South
Poles.
Mark the four compass directions
and west
north, south, east

around the outlines of each continent.
Gently push a skewer through the centre of your sphere
from bottom to top through the polar regions . This

skewer represents the Earth s imaginary axis.
Do this experiment in a darkened room. This will help you
see more clearly the contrast between light and dark.

Turn on the spotlight in a dark room. Its light represents
the sun s light. Hold the skewer so it leans a little away

from the vertical. This represents the Earth s tilt.
Turn your sphere very slowly in the light, making sure
Skewer
you keep the skewer slightly tilted all the time. Turn it in
an anticlockwise direction (as seen from above). Watch
what happens from side on.
Darkened room
Sphere
DISCUSSION
N
In which direction is the Earth rotating

from
east to west or west to east? Check the compass
directions you marked on your sphere.
In which direction does the sun s light seem to

move around the Earth ? How does this explain the
apparent movement of the sun across the sky?
Where is Africa when Australia is lit up? Where is

Australia when Africa is lit up? Explain why these
continents experience daylight at different times.
How does this experiment help to explain why

night falls in Perth about two hours later than in
Sydney?
Equator
W
E
S
206
Spotlight or
bright torch
The Earth in orbit

As well as rotating on its axis,
the Earth is travelling through
space in orbit around the sun.
A gravitational force keeps the Earth
in orbit around the sun. The time
it takes to complete one revolution
of the sun is called a calendar year.
The Earth rotates 365 times in
each calendar year and so there are
365 days in a year.
To make the calendar simpler,
each year is allocated 365 days,
and every fourth year is called a
leap year, with an extra day added
(29 February), giving a leap year
366 days in total.
A day on Jupiter is less than 10 hours.

This means it takes under 10 hours to
complete one rotation. but this giant
planet, made mostly of gas, is about
13 000 times bigger than Earth. So
when it rotates, its outermost clouds
move at close to 45 000 kilometres
every hour!
The seasons
As the Earth completes its orbit
The sun s rays are spread
around the sun, the tilt of its axis
over a larger area.
does not change. It leans to the
(Northern Hemisphere
left or to the right, depending on
is tilted away from the sun.)
the direction you are observing
Simulating winter
the orbit. This means, during one
in the Northern
Hemisphere
part of the orbit, one hemisphere
Position of sun
and summer in
is tilted towards the sun while the
the Southern
other hemisphere points away.
Hemisphere using
The hemisphere that is tilted
torches
The sun s rays are
towards the sun is hit more directly
more concentrated.
(Southern Hemisphere
by the sun s rays, concentrating the
is tilted towards the sun.)
heat over a smaller area and
so heating that part of the
Earth more. This hemisphere
experiences summer. At
Both hemispheres receive equal
amounts of sunlight in March. It
the same time, the other
The Northern Hemisphere
is autumn in Australia and spring
hemisphere is tilted away
tilts towards the sun in
in the Northern Hemisphere.
from the sun. The sun s rays
June. It is winter in
Australia and summer
striking it are spread out
in the Northern
over a larger area so this
Hemisphere.
hemisphere heats up less,
so the days are colder. This
hemisphere experiences
Sun
winter. When neither
hemisphere tilts towards
The Southern
the sun, which happens in
Hemisphere tilts towards
the sun in December. It is summer
autumn and spring, each
in Australia and winter in the
receives the same amount of
the sun s rays. So there is not
Both hemispheres receive equal
amounts of sunlight in September. It is
much difference between,
spring in Australia and autumn in the
say, a Northern Hemisphere
spring and a Southern
Hemisphere autumn.
Because of the tilt of the Earth, seasons change as the Earth completes its orbit of the sun.
8 the solar system
207
InveStIgAtIon 8.4
Pin
Day length in summer and winter
Pin
You will need:

the equipment used for Investigation 8.3
2 pins with coloured heads
Pin
Do this experiment in a darkened room; this
will help you see more clearly the contrast

between light and dark.
Pin
Hold the skewer vertically. Push two pins
into your sphere

one about where Sydney
is and the other directly above it at the top of
the sphere, near the skewer.
Set the spotlight up in a central place (such as on a table
DISCUSSION
1
Which pin comes into the light first when the southern
half of the sphere leans towards the light? Ask your
partner which pin moves out of the light first.
What does this tell you about the number of daylight

hours in each hemisphere when the Southern
Hemisphere tilts towards the sun?
Which pin comes into the light first when the northern
half of the sphere leans towards the light? Ask your
partner which pin moves out of the light first.
What does this tell you about the number of daylight

hours in each hemisphere when the Northern
Hemisphere tilts towards the sun?
What is the approximate length of day and night at the

equator in each season?
Suggest why the sun never sets at certain times of

year at the North and South Poles. What season is the
Southern Hemisphere experiencing when the South
Pole has several months of darkness?
you can move around).

Stand to the left of the spotlight. Turn on the spotlight.
Hold the skewer so it leans away to the left from the

vertical. The southern half of your sphere should be
leaning more towards the light.
Slowly turn your sphere in the light, making sure you
keep the skewer slightly tilted. Turn it in an anticlockwise

direction. Watch what happens from side on. Watch the
side of the sphere you can see as you turn it. A partner
should watch the other side.
Now stand to the right of the spotlight holding your
skewer tilted to the left as before. This time the northern

half of your sphere should be leaning more towards the
light. Repeat what you did in the previous step.
Repeat the whole procedure above two more times. The
first time, look at what happens at each of the poles. The

second time, look at what happens at the equator.
Activities
REMEMbER
7 Identify the season in Australia when:

(a) it is autumn in England
(b) it is summer in Canada
(c) the sun does not set at the South Pole.
1 Explain why we have day and night.

2 Explain why the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
3 During which season in Australia does the Southern
Hemisphere tilt towards the sun?
4 Explain why it is warmer on a summer s day than it is on a
winter s day.
5 Explain why there are 365 days in each year but 366 days
in every fourth year.
ThINk
6 Explain why the climate near the equator does not vary
much from season to season.
208
CREATE
8 Present a 3 5 minute lesson to the class using models to
explain why we have seasons.
eBook plus
9 Use the Day, night and time zones interactivity in your

eBookPLUS to determine whether it is day or night in any
location of the world at a specific time. int-0006
work
sheets
8.3 Night and day

8.4 Star trails and seasons
8.5
the moon in motion

Studying the moon
The moon is, by far, the brightest
object in the night sky. Its presence
and changing appearance when
viewed from Earth have raised
many questions, inspired myths
and legends, shaped our calendar
and even determined the dates of
some religious holidays.
The moon takes the same time
to complete one full turn around
its own axis as it takes to orbit the
Earth. For this reason only one face
of the moon can be seen from the
Earth. The face seen from Earth
is much less mountainous and
rugged than the other side.
Unlike the Earth, the moon has
no atmosphere. There is no air and
there is no water on the surface.
There is no wind and no rain. This
means that there is no erosion of
its cratered surface.
Galileo Galilei is thought to
be the first person to have used
a telescope to study the moon,
planets and stars. He made one
of the first telescopes himself in
1610 after hearing rumours of the
invention of a magnifying tube in
Holland.
While observing the moon s
surface, Galileo observed:
large, dark and flat areas that he
called maria (Latin for seas)
dark shadows that appeared to
be made by mountains up to
6 kilometres high
numerous craters.
Each of these features can be
seen in the photograph above right.
Until 1959, when the first
images were transmitted from
space, our knowledge of the moon
depended on what could be seen
through telescopes from Earth. The table on the next page lists some of
the important events that have occurred in the quest for knowledge about
the moon.
The most significant event, since Galileo s use of a telescope in 1610 to
observe the moon, occurred on 20 July 1969. On that day, astronaut Neil
Armstrong stepped down from the lunar landing craft Eagle, and as his
foot touched the lunar soil he uttered the memorable words: That s one
small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.
The dark, flat areas in this photograph are called seas , though no water exists on the
surface of the moon. Numerous craters are visible, believed to be the result of meteorite
impacts.
PROFILE OF ThE MOON

Natural satellite of the Earth
Distance from Earth: 385 000 km
(three days by spacecraft)
Diameter at equator: 3475 km
(Earth s diameter is 12 750 km)
Period of orbit around Earth:
1
about 29 2 days
Period of rotation around its own
1
axis: about 29 2 days
Surface gravity: about one-sixth
that of Earth
Surface temperature: ranges from
175 C in darkness to 125 C
in sunlight
The word month comes from the Old

English word mona, meaning moon.
In early calendars, a month was the
length of time between full moons. This
period is called a lunar month. The
modern calendar was not developed
until the sixteenth century by Pope
Gregory XIII. The Islamic, hebrew and
Chinese calendars are still based on
the lunar month.
8 the solar system
209
Probing the moon: some important events

Year
InveStIgAtIon 8.5
Event
1610
Galileo Galilei used a telescope to observe the moon.
Observing the moon s surface
1850s
Astronomers took the rst photographs of features of the moon.
1959
Luna 2 (USSR) became the rst space probe to reach the moon when it crashed
into the surface.
You will need:

binoculars or small telescope
1959
Space probe Luna 3 (USSR) provided the rst pictures of the previously unseen
far side of the moon.
1964
Space probe Ranger 7 (USA) took the rst close-up pictures of the moon.
1966
Luna 9 (USSR) became the rst space probe to make a soft landing on the moon
and take pictures from the surface.
1969
Apollo 11 (USA) carried three astronauts and the lunar lander Eagle to and from
the moon. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the rst humans to
walk on the moon. They spent three hours collecting soil and rocks, performing
experiments and setting up equipment for further experiments.
1969
1972
Apollo missions 12 and 1417 (USA) successfully reached the moon, enabling
more experiments to be completed. Apollo 13 failed, stranding the three
astronauts in space. The astronauts were able to return safely to Earth by using
the fuel and oxygen stored in their lunar lander.
Observe the moon with a pair of
DISCUSSION
As the moon continues its

orbit of the Earth, less of the lit
face of the moon is visible from
the Earth, leading to a quarter
moon. Eventually, the near side is
completely dark again and there
is another new moon, and so the
sequence continues. During the
period between a new moon and a
full moon, the moon is said to be
waxing. As the phases move from
Phases of the moon

The moon is visible from Earth
only because it reflects light from
the sun. As the moon orbits the
Earth, it turns so that the same side
of the moon always faces the Earth.
At night, when you are in darkness,
this side of the moon is sometimes
completely bathed in sunlight; this
is called a full moon.
binoculars or a small telescope.

The best time to observe the
moon is during a quarter moon
(when about half of it is visible).
Craters and mountains are
difficult to see when there is a
full moon because they do not
cast shadows.
Try to identify the seas (dark,
smooth areas), mountainous
areas and craters.
Sketch and label what you see.
Which features were easiest

to locate?
How do you think the craters
were formed?
full moon to new moon, it is said

to be waning.
The diagram below shows
how the phases change during the
2912-day period between one new
moon and the next.
Sun s rays
3
4
6
7
210
New moon
Crescent
moon
uarter
moon
Gibbous
moon
Full moon
Gibbous
moon
uarter
moon
Crescent
moon
InveStIgAtIon 8.6
Activities
Modelling the phases

of the moon
REMEMbER
1 Identify the large, dark, flat areas
on the moon that are visible
from Earth.
2 Identify the phase of the moon
that we see when:
(a) the Earth is between the sun
and the moon
(b) the moon is between the
sun and the Earth.
3 How many days are there
between one new moon and the
next?
You will need:

projector or bright torch
large, light-coloured ball
Select one student
to act as the Earth

and another to hold
the ball representing
the moon.
Darken the room
and aim the

projector or torch
(the sun) at the ball
(the moon). The student holding
the moon walks around the
Earth slowly in an anticlockwise
direction, holding the same side
towards the Earth .
DISCUSSION
ThINk
Sketch a plan view to show the

positions of the sun , Earth and
moon that result in:
(a) a full moon
(b) a gibbous moon
(c) a quarter moon
(d) a crescent moon
(e) a new moon.
Describe the positions of the sun,

Earth and moon when there is:
(a) a full moon
(b) a new moon.
4 Explain why there are more

craters on the moon than the
Earth, even though the Earth is a
bigger target.
5 Explain why we never see the far
side of the moon.
6 As Neil Armstrong stepped
down from the lunar landing
craft onto the lunar soil, his now
famous words were heard by
millions of people watching the
event live on television. Propose
why this step was such a giant
leap for mankind .
Try to identify each of the eight
phases of the moon, as they are

seen by the person representing
the Earth. Stop rotating briefly
when each of the phases is
identified so that the positions of
the sun , Earth and moon can be
recorded in a diagram.
eBook plus
possible so that you know where

the sun is.
InveStIgAtIon 8.7
The changing moon
Record the date, the time, and
Copy the start of the table below
into your workbook.

Observe the moon every third or
fourth evening over a period of

at least two weeks. Observations
over one whole month would
be best. Try to make your
observations as close to sunset as
the shape of the sunlit part of the

moon.
Each time you make an
observation, make a comment

about the position of the sun
compared with the moon, and why
the moon has the shape that you
have observed.
Observing the phases of the moon

Date
Time
Shape of
moon
Comment about position of sun

and the shape of the moon
7 Use the Phases of the moon

weblink in your eBookPLUS
to watch a cartoon animation
that will help explain the
relationships between the moon,
Earth and sun.
8 Use the Man on the moon
learn more about the historic
1969 moon landing.
9 Use the The Dish weblink in
your eBookPLUS to view a
trailer of the Australian movie
The Dish and learn how the
town of Parkes in NSW played
an integral part in broadcasting
the first ever images of a man
walking on the moon.
work
sheet
8.5 The moon
8 the solar system
211
8.6
ocean tides
Day after day, the waters of
the Earth s oceans rise and fall
against the coastlines of islands
and continents. These changes
in sea level are called tides. They
are caused by the gravitational
attraction of the moon and sun on
the Earth s oceans.
When the Earth rotates around
its axis, its waters spin outwards.
It is a bit like the way clothes
fling out during the spin cycle in
a washing machine. This action
creates a bulge of water around the
Earth. Why, you might ask, does
the bulge not fly out into space? It
is held back by the Earth s gravity.
Suck in . . . bulge out

The size of the bulge is not the
same everywhere. The bulge in
the oceans gets larger and smaller
ebb and flow

High tide
As the moon orbits the Earth, its gravity most affects
the side of the Earth facing it the closest side.
The ocean bulge on that side is pulled out even further.
Low tide
The water that makes up the
high tides is sucked from
oceans in between.
Moon
Earth
High tide
The moons gravity also attracts the Earth itself. This causes the
Earth to pull away from the water surface on this side.
As a result, these oceans also bulge out more, though not quite as
much as the side facing the moon.
Looking down on the Earth from above the North Pole. As the Earth rotates, different
places experience high tide.
because of the pull of gravity due to the sun and the moon. It is the
change in position of the bulge that we call tides. High tide occurs where
there is a bulge. Low tide occurs where there is no bulge.
Gravity is a force of attraction between any two bodies in the universe
that have mass. How big this force is depends on two things: the mass
of the bodies and how close they are. The sun and the moon both pull
on the Earth. Even though the mass of the moon is 27 million times less
than the sun, its gravitational pull on the Earth is greater than that due to
the sun because it is so much closer to Earth.
In theory, every place on Earth has two high tides and two low tides
on most days. Sometimes, though, other factors cause strange events to
happen. For example, the extremes of tides in the Bay of Fundy in Nova
Scotia are caused by its geography.
High and low tide in the

Bay of Fundy. Its tidal
range
over 16 m
is
the biggest in the world.
The bay has a very wide
mouth that allows a lot
of water to rush in as
the tide rises. But the
bay gets much narrower
further inland. The huge
volume of water has
nowhere to go but up!
212
Spring and neap tides

Twice each month, the moon, sun and Earth line up.
This occurs when there is a full moon and at the time
of a new moon. At these times, the pull on the Earth
and its waters is much stronger as the gravity of the
sun and moon combine. Hence, the ocean bulges
contain even more water. This means the tidal range is
much greater. These tides are called spring tides.
About seven days after a spring tide, the moon

and sun are at right angles to each other with respect
to the Earth. In this position, their forces of gravity
work against one another, rather than together. So,
the tidal range is narrow. These tides are called neap
tides.
First quarter
Suns rays
Neap tide
New moon
Full moon
Spring tide
Spring tide
Neap tide
Third quarter
Each month there are two spring tides and two neap tides.
Activities
REMEMbER
1 Define the term gravity .
2 Explain why the moon s gravity has a stronger pull on
Earth than the sun s.
3 With the aid of a diagram, distinguish between a spring
tide and a neap tide.
7 Imagine a pier in the Bay of Fundy that is two metres

above the water level at high tide, and you tie a small
fishing boat to the pier using a two-metre rope. Draw a
labelled diagram to show the position of the boat at high
and low tides.
CREATE
8 Design a role-play involving at least four people to clarify
how the movement of the Earth around the sun, and the
moon around the Earth, cause tides. A narrator could be
used to give a commentary of the role-play.
ThINk
4 What sort of tide occurs when there is a full moon?
Explain.
5 If the height of the highest tide on a particular day was
6.5 m and the tidal range was 4.2 m, calculate the height
of the lowest tide.
eBook plus
9 Use the Tides interactivity in your eBookPLUS to watch

how changing the positions of the sun and the moon
affects the tides on Earth. int-0225
6 Deduce why one high tide on any given day is always

higher than the other one.
8 the solar system
213
8.7
Lunar and solar eclipses

Lunar eclipses
Lunar eclipses occur when the moon moves into the
Earth s shadow. In a total lunar eclipse, the moon and
Earth are lined up so that the whole of the moon is in
shadow for a while. If they are not completely aligned,
only a part of the moon will be in shadow; this is
called a partial lunar eclipse.
During a total lunar eclipse, the moon looks as
though it goes through all its different phases in one
night. However, this is not the case; in fact, it is a full
moon all night long. Lunar eclipses can occur only
when the Earth is between the sun and the moon, and
that can happen only during a full moon.
Why doesn t an eclipse occur every full moon? The
sun, Earth and moon line up exactly only a few times a
year. If a straight line was drawn between the sun and

the Earth, the moon s orbit is usually offset from it by
about 5 . So, at most times when there is a full moon,
the moon misses the Earth s shadow
it passes above
or below it.
The moon usually looks white because it reflects
white light from the sun; however, during an eclipse,
the moon takes on a red tinge. This is because, during
a total eclipse, the only light that reaches the moon
first passes around the edges of the Earth and so has
passed through the Earth s atmosphere. The Earth s
atmosphere scatters the blue light from the sun
leaving mainly red light to illuminate the dimly lit
moon.
Penumbra
Sun
Umbra
Moon
Penumbra
Earth
Total lunar eclipse
Penumbra
Moon
Sun
Umbra
Earth
Partial lunar eclipse
214
Penumbra
The Earth s shadow makes the moon appear to change phases during a total lunar eclipse. Note the red tinge of the moon at
the height of the eclipse.
Solar eclipses
Solar eclipses occur when the moon lies between the sun and the Earth.
This means that the moon s shadow falls on the Earth. People on Earth
within the umbra of the moon s shadow see a total eclipse of the sun.
Those within the penumbra see a partial solar eclipse.
Total solar eclipses are not seen often as the moon casts only a narrow
shadow on Earth. The umbra may be only about 100 km wide. It may fall
in the middle of an ocean. It may even miss the Earth altogether.
During a total eclipse, the area within the umbra on Earth becomes
quite dark for a few minutes. You might even see some stars during the
day! The sun s corona, or atmosphere, can still be seen. The corona is not
normally seen because the sun is so bright.
CAUTION
You must NEVER look directly at an eclipse of the sun
even a partial eclipse. You could
permanently damage your eyes. Sunglasses will not protect you.
Penumbra
Moon
Earth
Sun
Umbra
Penumbra
Total and partial solar eclipses
A total solar eclipse

the sun s light is
blocked as the moon passes in front of it.
8 the solar system
215
InveStIgAtIon 8.8
The ancient Chinese believed that
solar eclipses occurred when a giant
dragon ate the sun. They thought that
if they made enough noise they could
frighten the dragon. The frightened
dragon would then spit the sun
out, bringing daylight back.
Fuzzy shadows
card or bare wall. Observe the

shadow of a coin as you move
it between the light source and
screen.
Rotate the globe a little (think
carefully about which way to turn

it) and note what happens to the
shadow.
Modelling solar and lunar

eclipses
You will need:
projector
globe
tennis ball attached to string
shadows.
Create a shadow that is dark in
the centre and partially dark on

the outside. This is the type of
shadow cast on the Earth by the
moon.
You will need:

torch
white card or a bare wall to act
as a screen
coin
Use a torch to cast light on a white
InveStIgAtIon 8.9
Create sharp shadows and fuzzy
To simulate a lunar eclipse, move
the tennis ball to the opposite side

of the globe from the projector.
Suspend it so that it is partly in the
shadow of the globe.
DISCUSSION
1
Where does the coin need to be

to create a sharp shadow?
Where does the coin need to be

to create a fuzzy shadow?
Draw a diagram of this fuzzy

shadow.
Activities
REMEMbER
1 Outline the difference between
a solar eclipse and a lunar
eclipse.
2 Explain why you must never look
directly at a solar eclipse.
Darken the room and aim a beam
of light at the globe.

To simulate a solar eclipse,
suspend the tennis ball (moon)

between the projector (sun) and
the globe (Earth) as shown below.
Ensure that you keep your own
shadow off the globe.
Light from
projector
DISCUSSION
ThINk
Draw a diagram to show the

initial positions of Earth, moon
and sun in your model of a solar
eclipse.
3 Explain why total solar eclipses

are much less frequent than
partial solar eclipses.
During which phase of the

moon does a solar eclipse
occur?
When you rotate the globe,

does the shadow move from
east to west or from west to
east?
Tennis ball
Modelling a solar eclipse
216
Draw a diagram showing the

positions of the Earth, moon and
sun in your lunar eclipse model.
During which phase of the

moon does a lunar eclipse
occur?
4 Propose why a total lunar

eclipse occurs only when there
is a full moon, and why a solar
eclipse occurs only when there
is a new moon.
eBook plus
5 Test your knowledge of

solar and lunar eclipses by
completing the Eclipses
interactivity in your eBookPLUS.
int-0207
work
sheet
8.6 Eclipses
8.8
PRESCRIbED FOCUS AREA

history of science
early ideas in astronomy

Astronomy is the study of stars, planets and other objects that make up
the universe. The history of astronomy goes back several thousand years.
Almost all ancient cultures had stories about how the universe was
created, what it was like, who created it, and how the Earth and humans
got here.
Indigenous Australian astronomy

The Yolngu people of Arnhem Land explain the sunrise, sunset and
movement of the sun through the sky in terms of Walu, the Sun-woman.
Walu lights a fire each morning, which we see as the dawn. Holding
her torch, she travels across the sky from east to west. At the end of her
journey to the western horizon, she goes underground for her return
journey east, back to her starting point at her morning camp. Walu uses
red ochre to decorate her face and body; when some of the red dust falls
onto the clouds, this creates the red sunrise and red sunset.
The Yolngu people explain the phases of the moon through the story
of Ngalindi and his wives. At the time of the full moon, Ngalindi is a
fat, lazy man. His wives punish him by attacking him with an axe, and
he is seen as a waning moon as parts of him are chopped off. Unable
to escape his wives, Ngalindi dies of his wounds, and this is the time of
the new moon. He rises from the dead after three days and is seen as the
waxing moon as he again grows round and fat. Two weeks later, his wives
punish him again, and the cycle repeats.
Other dreamtime stories show that

the Yolngu people knew about the
relationship between tides and the
moon s motion. They explain that, at
high tide, water fills the moon as it
rises. When the water flows back out
of the moon, the tides fall. The moon
is empty for three days before the tide
rises again, when the moon is again
filled with water.
Among thousands of beautiful rock engravings in Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park in

Sydney s north is this one (above), believed by some scientists to represent two figures
below a crescent moon (right).
8 the solar system
217
Milky Way was mayu, meaning river. This celestial river

was said to join up with the Urubamba River in the
waters of a great cosmic sea that encircled the Earth.
The Incans believed that the celestial river, the Milky
Way, was the source of rain on Earth as it passed
through the night sky.
The Southern Cross constellation contained the most
important stars to the Incas since it could be used to
show the points of the compass, with the most distant
star pointing south when visible in the sky.
Rock engravings at Ngaut Ngaut, South Australia, which are said

to represent lunar cycles. There are many examples like this
throughout Australia that suggest that astronomy is an important
part of many Australian Aboriginal cultures.
A dreamtime story of the Warlpiri people explains

solar and lunar eclipses. When the Sun-woman and
Moon-man embrace, the Sun-woman is covered over
and this is seen as a solar eclipse. At other times they
argue and the Moon-man is hidden from view as the
Sun-woman chases and threatens him. This is seen as
a lunar eclipse. These stories show that the Warlpiri
people understood that eclipses relate to the motion
of the sun and moon across the sky, they occur when
their paths meet.
Incan astronomy
For about 300 years, from the 1200s until the
Spanish conquistadors invaded in the 1500s, much
of South America around Peru was ruled by the Incan
empire. The Incas watched celestial events with the
naked eye to develop a wide range of astronomical
ideas.
At Cusco, the astronomical centre of their empire,
the Inca constructed a series of stone towers to mark
the points of sunrise and sunset on important days.
These included the summer solstice (longest day of
the year) and the winter solstice (shortest day of the
year). The Incas created an accurate annual calendar
based on the positions at which the moon rose and
set on the horizon, as well as observations of the
phases of the moon.
The Inca had a deep knowledge of the stars and
constellations, which they observed and named. For
example, the Incan name for the bright stars of the
218
Most historians agree that the Incans had a calendar based on

the observation of the sun and the moon and their relationship to
the stars. Names of 12 lunar months are recorded.
Ancient Greek astronomy

Much of our current scientific knowledge was
developed in Europe, so it has a Western influence.
The ancient Greeks provided many of the early ideas
from which modern astronomy was developed.
Actually, the word astronomy comes from Greek
terms for law and order. The Greeks were not the
first culture to study the night sky but their ideas were
widely accepted throughout Europe for hundreds of
years.
The Greeks discovered that the Earth was
spherical; the Greek philosopher Eratosthenes
measured the circumference of the Earth to within
about 300 kilometres of the true value. In the
fourth century BC, Aristotle was one of the most
influential philosophers in Greece. He believed
that the sun and moon revolved around the Earth,
which was the centre of the universe. He used this
philosophy to develop what we call a geocentric
model. This model was easily accepted at the time
as people who studied the night sky saw celestial

bodies passing over the Earth. In the following
century, Aristarchus developed his heliocentric
model. He stated that the sun was fixed and all
the planets, including the Earth, orbited it along
circular paths. He noted that, once a day, the moon
revolved around the Earth and the Earth rotated on
its axis.
Moon
Earth
Mars
Venus
Jupiter
Sun
Mercury
Claudius Ptolemy (AD 85 165), the last of the great classical

astronomers
Sphere of
stars
Saturn
Jupiter
Aristarchus s heliocentric model
Aristarchus s model did not gain wide acceptance

until Copernicus redeveloped it 2000 years later. This
sun-centred theory would have defied common sense
at the time because we do not feel the Earth spinning
or moving through space.
Hipparchus (190 120 BC) was the greatest
astronomer of his time. He made extensive observations
of star positions and is credited by some with the
production of the first known catalogue of stars.
Like Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy (AD 85 165)
proposed a geocentric model of the universe. He
maintained that the five satellites discovered up
until then, namely Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and
Saturn, together with the moon and the sun, revolved
around the Earth.
Ptolemy s model attempted to explain why some
of the planets viewed over many nights appeared to
travel backwards when compared with other planets
or to the background stars. He suggested that the
planets travel in small circular orbits (epicycles), while
also orbiting around the Earth, and that the stars
occupied the outermost circle.
Mars
Moon
Venus
Sun
Earth Mercury
Saturn
Ptolemy s model of planetary motion
Renaissance astronomy
The Renaissance was the period of European history
after the Middle Ages from the 1400s to the middle
1600s. It was a period of great scientific advancement
in many areas including astronomy. Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473 1543) was a Polish astronomer
who, like Aristarchus, proposed that the sun is
stationary near the centre of the universe.
8 the solar system
219
In addition, his theory proposed that the Earth

rotated on its axis once daily and orbited around the
sun once a year. He argued that the planets orbit the
sun but rejected Ptolemy s idea of epicycles to explain
what appeared to be reverse motion of some
Moon
of the planets.
Instead, he
Mercury
suggested that the
greater the radius
of a planet s orbit,
the longer it took
for the planet to
Sun
orbit around the
sun. However,
most sixteenthcentury readers
could not accept
the concept of a
moving Earth, and
so the core ideas
of his model were
Copernicus s heliocentric model
Nicolaus Copernicus
rejected.
Dutch astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571 1630) supported
Copernicus s heliocentric model of the solar system and applied
mathematics to the observations of astronomers who preceded him.
Kepler abandoned the idea that planets travelled in circular orbits at a
constant speed. Instead he proposed three theories to explain the motion
of planets. The first two were published in 1609 in his work Astronomica
nova (New Astronomy).
His theories have been tested over centuries and, having stood the test
of time, have gained the status of scientific laws. In Kepler s first law he
describes the motion of planets as ellipses. (Note: In the diagram below,
the flatness of the ellipse has been exaggerated.) Kepler s second law
explains how the speed of an orbiting planet depends on its position in
the elliptical orbit. Kepler s third law describes how planets more distant
from the sun take longer to orbit the sun.
Saturn
Stars
Jupiter
Mars
Earth
Venus
Johannes Kepler
Elliptical path
Planet travels faster when
it is closer to the sun.
Sun
Planet travels slower when it
is further from the sun.
Kepler s laws of
planetary motion are
based on elliptical planetary
orbits.
220
Galileo Galilei (1564 1642) of

Italy was originally a professor of
mathematics but, by the time of
his death, he had became one of
the most influential astronomers of
the Renaissance.
planet, thus weakening the hold

of Ptolemy s model. The Earth was
clearly seen not to be at the centre
of all planetary motion.
The moons of Jupiter as drawn by Galileo

on successive nights
Galileo s published works

contradicted the geocentric view of
the universe put forward by Aristotle
and Ptolemy and conflicted with
powerful authorities in the church.
Eventually he was forced to publicly
recant his belief in the Copernican
system and lived out his life under
house arrest working on a better
understanding of the physics of
moving objects. While Galileo
did not propose his own model
of the universe, his observational,
experimental and theoretical
work provided the evidence that
eventually led to rejection of the
Aristotelian Ptolemaic geocentric
model of the universe.
Activities
REMEMbER
1 How do the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land explain the existence of sunrise
and sunset?
Galileo Galilei
2 Besides dreamtime stories that still survive today, what other evidence is
there that Aboriginal peoples studied the night sky?
When Galileo heard about a

new optical device, the telescope,
in 1609 he quickly built his
own version. He then used it
and, later, more sophisticated
telescopes to systematically study
the night sky. He observed the
moon and described the lunar
surface as uneven, with craters and
mountains, for the first time ever.
Galileo s observations of the
planet Jupiter over successive
nights revealed four star-like
objects in a line with it. The
objects moved from night to
night, sometimes disappearing
behind or in front of the planet.
Galileo correctly inferred that these
objects were moons of Jupiter and
orbited it just as our moon orbits
Earth. Today, these four moons
are known as the satellites Io,
Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
For the first time, objects had
been observed orbiting another
3 The Incan calendar, like our own, is based on astronomy. Outline the
information used to help create such a calendar.
4 What was at the centre of Ptolemy s model of the universe?
5 Explain why a geocentric model of the solar system would have made much
more sense to early astronomers than a heliocentric one.
ThINk
6 Describe the limitations that ancient cultures had on their study of the night
sky and outline the conclusions that they drew.
7 What observations suggested to Renaissance astronomers that a
heliocentric model of the solar system must be correct?
8 Explain why Galileo s ideas were so controversial at the time.
9 During the Renaissance, new theories about our solar system developed
rapidly and previous ones were rejected. In science, why are existing
theories replaced by new ones?
CREATE
10 Create your own dreamtime story to explain one of the following phenomena.
Tides
Sunrise and sunset
Eclipses
The movement of stars and planets in the night sky
work
sheet
8.7 Astronomical history
8 the solar system
221
8.9
Rocks in space
The solar system contains many
objects other than the sun and the
planets. All of the planets except
Mercury and Venus have large
bodies called satellites revolving
around them. Earth has only one
natural satellite. Natural satellites
are called moons. Many of these
moons have been discovered
during the past 25 years by space
probes such as Pioneer and Voyager.
Asteroids
Thousands of small, irregular objects called asteroids, or minor planets,
revolve around the sun just like the major planets. Most of them are
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
a region sometimes
called the asteroid belt. The largest asteroid, Ceres, is
about 970 kilometres in diameter. The smallest known
asteroids are only about one kilometre across.
The orbits of asteroids are more elliptical in
shape than the orbits of the planets. This brings
them quite close to the sun and to the orbit of
Earth. In 1991, a small asteroid passed within
170 000 kilometres of Earth. That is less than
half the distance from the Earth to the moon
and dangerously close. It passed Earth at a
speed of about 72 000 kilometres per hour.
In 1993, the space probe Galileo, on its
way to Jupiter, discovered the first known
moon of an asteroid. A body of rock about
one kilometre across was photographed
orbiting a potato-shaped asteroid called Ida.
It is likely that many asteroids have moons.
Most asteroids have irregular shapes.
Tail
Comets
Jupiter and three of its moons
The moons vary greatly in size.

Deimos, the smaller of the two
moons of Mars, is only about
10 kilometres in diameter. The
largest known moon in the solar
system is Ganymede, one of the
16 moons of Jupiter. It is larger
than the planet Mercury. Some
moons, like the Earth s moon, are
cratered while others are quite
smooth.
222
Coma
Comets are balls of rocky and

metallic particles amid ice
and frozen gases. Most of
the mass of a comet is in
nucleus. A bright glowing
its nucleus
tail of dust and gases
becomes larger as the
comet moves closer to
the sun. Up to millions
of kilometres long, the
tail is blown away
from the sun by
the solar wind.
Nucleus
Comet s orbit
Sun
The orbit of a comet is long and narrow. The tail gets longer as the comet approaches the
sun.
The orbits of comets are longer and narrower than

the orbits of the planets. It is believed that comets are
formed from dust and ice in the cold, outer regions of
the solar system.
The most famous comet is Halley s comet, named
after Sir Edmond Halley, who correctly predicted
that it would return every 76 years. Its orbit extends
beyond the orbit of Neptune. We see it as it passes
near Earth on its path to and from the sun. This last
happened in 1986.
InveStIgAtIon 8.10
Meteorite impact
You will need:
ice-cream container or bucket
sand
water
metre ruler
compass or pointers from a geometry set
large marble or steel ball
Meteoroids
Half-fill the container with sand.
Occasionally people see bright streaks of light called

shooting stars in the night sky. The streaks of light
are called meteors. They are created when a lump
of rock or metal burns up as it passes through the
Earth s atmosphere. These lumps of rock or metal
that travel around the solar system orbiting the sun
are called meteoroids. Most of those that cross the
path of the Earth s orbit are so small that they burn
up completely before they reach the ground. Those
that are large enough to reach the ground are called
meteorites. Meteorites hit the ground with speeds of
up to 70 kilometres per second, or 252 000 kilometres
per hour. They are very hot and explode on impact,
leaving craters much bigger than themselves. The Wolf
Creek crater in Western Australia, pictured below, has
a diameter of about 850 metres. The crater s rim rises
about 25 metres above the surrounding plains and its
floor is about 50 metres below the rim.
Some scientists believe that a meteorite caused the
extinction of the dinosaurs about 65 million years
ago. They believe that the impact of the meteorite
lifted tonnes of dust into the atmosphere, blocking
out sunlight from the surface for several months. This
would have killed all plants and changed the climate,
making it impossible for larger animals like dinosaurs
to survive.
Add a little water to the sand and mix it to make it
damp but not too wet.

Design an investigation, using the equipment listed
above, to examine how the speed of impact of a

meteorite affects the diameter of the crater that is
created. Be sure to collect quantitative data.
Record your data in a suitable table and plot your data
as a line graph.
DISCUSSION
1
Identify the independent and dependent variables

in your investigation.
Identify two important controlled (constant)

variables in your investigation.
Write a suitable conclusion to your investigation.
Activities
REMEMbER
1 Identify the name given to natural satellites of planets.
2 Describe the asteroid belt.
3 Describe what comets are made of.
4 Define the term meteorite .
5 Explain the difference between a meteor and a
meteoroid.
ThINk
6 Explain the difference between a planet and a moon.
7 Explain how asteroids are different from moons.
8 In which year is Halley s comet next likely to be visible
from Earth?
9 Explain why the tail of a comet gets larger as it gets
closer to the sun.
The Wolf Creek meteorite crater in Western Australia
8 the solar system
223
LooKIng BACK
1 Explain how a day on Jupiter can be about 10 hours long.
2 Identify why our knowledge of the planets has increased so
rapidly over the past 30 years.
3 The atmospheres of Mercury and Venus are very thin.
Describe the effect this would have on the temperature on
those planets.
(d) Which position(s) of the moon would result in a quarter

moon?
(e) Which position(s) of the moon would result in a full
moon?
8 The photograph below shows the Earth as it is seen from
the moon.
4 The diagram below shows half of the Earth in sunlight while

the other half is in darkness. Which Australian season is
represented in the diagram. Explain how you know.
23.5o
North Pole
Light from
the sun
Equa
tor
Light from
the sun
South Pole
Axis
23.5o
Photographs like this one of the Earth were taken from

the Apollo 8 spacecraft in 1968 as it orbited the moon.
5 How many times does the moon rotate around its own axis
while completing a single orbit of the Earth?
6 Calculate how many rotations the Earth has completed
since you were born.
7 The diagram below shows the moon in eight different
positions during an orbit around the Earth.
(a) Copy the diagram and shade the parts of the Earth and
moon that are in darkness.
(b) How long does it take the moon to complete a single
orbit?
(c) Why is it not possible to see a new moon during the
day?
(a) Why is the Earth visible even though it does not emit its
own light?
(b) Would you expect the Earth to always be visible from
the part of the moon that faces it? Explain your answer.
9 The stars appear to change their positions during each
night and during each year. Explain why the stars appear to
move in circular arcs during the night.
Sun s rays
C
B
H
G
The moon s orbit around the Earth as seen from above Antarctica
224
3 The diagram below shows the Earth orbiting the sun.
10 Distinguish between a neap tide and a spring tide.

11 The table below shows the high
and low tide heights at Bondi
beach over a 24-hour period of
time.
Time
Height (m)
2.30 am
0.37
9.05 am
2.05
3.52 pm
0.1
9.53 pm
1.37
A
Sun
(a) Calculate how many

hours pass between two
consecutive high tides.
(b) Calculate how many
hours pass between two
consecutive low tides.
(c) Explain how high tides occur.
(d) Deduce why one high tide is
lower than the other.
12 (a) Identify which of these photographs shows an eclipse

of the sun and which shows an eclipse of the moon.
At what positions does Australia experience summer and

winter respectively?
A A and C
B C and A
C B and D
D D and B
(1 mark)
4 Shooting stars are
A meteors.
B comets.
C supernova stars.
D stars.
(1 mark)
5 (a) Which astronomer developed the model of the universe

shown in the diagram below?
(1 mark)
Cel
es
tia
l
(b) Use labelled diagrams to explain how each eclipse

occurs.
13 Identify the region of the solar system where you would
find the most asteroids.
sp
re
he
Jupiter
Sun
Mercury
Saturn
Mars
Venus
Earth
TEST YOURSELF
Moon
1 The length of a day on the planet Venus is 243 Earth days.

The length of a year on Venus is only 225 Earth days. This
means that
A it takes 243 days for Venus to orbit the sun.
B Venus completes a rotation in 243 Earth days.
C Venus completes a rotation in 225 Earth days.
D it takes 225 days for the sun to orbit Venus.
(1 mark)
2 During a solar eclipse:
A the moon is blocked out by the sun.
B the sun is blocked out by the Earth.
C the moon is blocked out by the Earth.
D the sun is blocked out by the moon.
(b) Identify where the stars are in this model.

(1 mark)
(c) Explain why this model of the universe was so well
accepted for almost 1500 years.
(4 marks)
work
sheets
(1 mark)
8.8 Solar system puzzle

8.9 Solar system summary
8 the solar system
225
StUDY CHeCKLISt
Components of our solar system
identify the planets in the solar system in order 8.1
identify some features of each of the planets 8.2
compare the sizes of the planets in the solar
system 8.1
compare the distances between the planets in the solar
system 8.1
describe the orbits of the planets 8.1, 8.2
identify the forces keeping the planets in orbit 8.3
explain why Pluto is no longer considered to be a
planet 8.1
outline features of the sun 8.3
distinguish between comets, meteors, meteorites and
meteoroids 8.9
ICt
eBook plus
SUMMARY
Interactivities
Day, night and time zones
This interactivity enables you to calculate the time of the day or
night, anywhere in the world, on any given date and time. A full
world map is included with the international dateline, time zones
and lines of latitude and longitude clearly marked.
Movements of the planets, moons and sun

outline the ways in which the Earth moves 8.4
explain night and day in terms of Earth s rotation 8.4
explain, in terms of the tilt of Earth s axis and
its revolution around the sun, what causes the

seasons 8.4
describe the surface of the moon 8.5
identify the phases of the moon and explain how they
occur 8.5
describe the effects of the sun and the moon on the
Earth s oceans 8.6
distinguish between neap and spring tides 8.6
describe the appearance of the sun during a solar
eclipse and the moon during a lunar eclipse 8.7
explain how solar and lunar eclipses occur 8.7

Tides
Learn about high and low tides by adjusting the position of the
moon in relation to the sun and Earth to see the resulting tidal
bulge. A worksheet is attached to further your understanding.
history of science
identify some of the ideas about the universe that
different cultures have contributed to science
throughout history 8.8
describe ideas developed by different cultures (using
examples, including those developed by Aboriginal
peoples) to explain the world around them 8.8
describe some models and theories that have been
considered in science and then modified or rejected as
a result of available evidence 8.8

Eclipses
This interactivity challenges you to test your knowledge of
eclipses by matching each description to its correct term.
Instant feedback is provided.
226
Energy
Fireworks are noisy,

colourful and bright.
They contain a fuel
that explodes when
ignited, creating a loud explosion.
Powdered metals are included in the
mixture of explosives to produce the
brightly coloured sparks we see.
Energy transformations take place
when fireworks explode, producing
sound and light.
In this chapter, students will

9.1
identify situations or phenomena
that demonstrate different forms

of energy
use models to describe different
forms of energy
identify objects with energy
due to motion (kinetic) or other
properties (potential)
apply the Law of Conservation
of Energy to account for the
total energy involved in energy
transfers and transformations
9.2
describe the processes of
heat transfer by conduction,

convection and radiation
9.3
describe light as a form of energy
not requiring a medium

describe sound as a form of
energy requiring a medium

9.4
describe technological
developments that use the

principles of sound energy.
Fireworks display over Sydney during

New Year s Eve celebrations
9 Energy
Thinking about energy
1. In groups create a mind map around the central theme of energy.
Begin by brainstorming different types of energy. Then continue your
mind map outwards to include examples of devices that use or release
each type of energy. The mind map has been started for you.
Energy
Light
2. Conduct an audit of your house. Walk around the

house and speak to your parents to list features
that keep your house:
cool in summer
warm in winter.
3. If you were to renovate your house, how could you
improve how well it keeps you cool in summer
and warm in winter?
4. The two photos on the right show houses designed
for a hot climate and a cold climate. Identify
which is suited to which climate. Compare the
two houses by listing features of each that make
them suited to their respective climates
5. You have 100 mL of water in a beaker at 20 C
and a second beaker with 100 mL of water at
80 C. Predict what would happen if you combine
the two samples in the same beaker. Test your
prediction by carrying out this experiment.
6. Draw up a table with two columns. In the first
column, list objects that give out light. In the
second column, outline how the light is produced
or identify the source of energy.
7. Place your fingers over your Adam s apple at
the base of your throat while you make a deep
humming sound. What do you feel? Use that
observation to try to explain how the humming
sound is produced.
Light globe
9.1
Energy transformations
What is energy?
Have you ever felt like you were
full of energy ? If so, you probably
felt like moving around or doing
something active. Objects can have
energy too. We cannot always see
the energy that they possess, but
we can often observe the effects of
objects gaining or losing energy.
Winding up a toy or pulling back
the string of an archery bow gives
these objects lots of energy.
faster an object moves, the more

kinetic energy it has. Kinetic energy
also depends on the mass of the
moving object; a truck travelling
60 kilometres per hour has more
kinetic energy than a car travelling at
the same speed. Moving objects can
do work by travelling distances or by
colliding or pushing other objects.
Another common type of
energy is gravitational energy.
Objects above the ground have
gravitational energy because the
Earth s gravitational force can cause
them to fall to Earth. The higher
an object, the more gravitational
energy it has.
Often, objects with gravitational
energy do not appear to have any
energy at all. However, they still
eBook plus
eLesson
Energy in disguise
Did you know that all energy is
constantly being transformed and
transferred from one object to another?
Theres more going on in your world
than meets the eye.
eles-0063
have the potential to do work and so

the energy is stored. Gravitational
energy is an example of potential
energy. Pole vaulters at the top
of their jump have a great deal of
gravitational potential energy that
is transformed to kinetic energy as
the vaulter falls back to the ground.
Other examples of potential forms
of energy are elastic energy (such as
when a rubber band is stretched),
nuclear energy (such as that in a
nuclear bomb) and chemical energy
(evident in chemical reactions).
Objects at a height above the ground

have stored energy called gravitational
potential energy. The higher an object is,
the more gravitational potential energy
it has.
Energy is defined as the

ability to do work.
In some cases, energy may cause
an object or other nearby objects
to move like a wind-up toy or the
arrow fired from a stretched bow.
The energy of an object can also
give objects the potential to move,
or it can create sound, heat or light.
Types of energy
There are several types of energy
that an object might possess.
One common type of energy is
kinetic energy. All objects that are
moving have kinetic energy. The
All objects that are moving have

kinetic energy. The faster an object
moves, the more kinetic energy it
has. Moving objects can do work by
travelling distances or by colliding
with other objects.
9 Energy 229
Many other types of energy

are important in our daily lives.
These include sound energy, heat
energy, light energy and electrical
energy.
Nuclear
Gravitational
L
I A
P O T E
Kinetic
Chemical
Types of
energy
Electrical
Elastic
Light
Sound
Heat
The chemical energy in household

batteries is an example of potential energy
that powers many household devices.
Types of energy changes involved in bouncing on a trampoline

1. At the very top of a jump, the
bouncer is momentarily stopped
she has no kinetic energy.
But she does have gravitational
potential energy due to her
height above the trampoline.
As the force of gravity pulls
the bouncer down, some of her
potential energy is transformed
into kinetic energy.
3. At this point, the

bouncer pushes
off the trampoline.
The elastic potential
energy is transformed
back into kinetic energy
and some gravitational
potential energy.
230
2. As the bouncer strikes the

trampoline, her kinetic and
gravitational potential energy are
transferred to the trampoline s
surface and springs. The energy is
momentarily stored in the springs.
It is called elastic potential
energy.
4. As the bouncer rises again, her

kinetic energy is transformed into
gravitational potential energy again.
At the top of the jump, the bouncer
has no kinetic energy, just
gravitational potential
energy.
How much energy?

Energy is measured in a unit called the joule (J), named after the British
physicist James Joule (1818 1889). The kinetic and gravitational potential
energy of objects can be calculated using a couple of simple formulae.
Calculating gravitational potential energy
Calculating kinetic energy
Gravitational potential energy of an object = mgh

where:
m represents the mass of the object (in kg)
g represents the object s acceleration when falling
(10 metres/second2 on Earth)
h represents the object s vertical height
(in metres).
For example, to calculate the potential energy of an
80 kg skier on a chairlift 20 m off the ground:
potential energy = 80 kg 10 m/s2 20 m

= 16 000 joules or 16 kilojoules
Kinetic energy of a moving object = 12 mv2 where:

m represents the mass of the moving object
(in kg)
v represents the object s speed
(in metres/second).
For example, to calculate the kinetic energy of
a cyclist and bicycle with a total mass of 100 kg
travelling at 5 metres/second:
kinetic energy = 12 100 kg (5 m/s)2
= 1250 joules or 1.25 kilojoules
InvEstIgatIon 9.1
Bosshead
Comparing energy use with a block and tackle

A block and tackle is a system of pulleys that allows
heavy loads to be lifted with minimal effort. In this
experiment you will compare the energy use with
and without the use of a block and tackle for lifting
heavy loads.
You will need:
500 g or 1 kg load
5 N or 10 N spring balance
string
scissors
ruler
2 double pulleys
Clamp
ulley
pring balance
Block and tackle
etort stand
oad
Attach the load to the spring balance with string and
record the force needed to lift the mass by hand.

Calculate the work done (in joules) to lift the mass 0.1 m
(10 cm) by hand using the formula:

work = force distance (in metres)
DisCussion
1
Compare the energy used in lifting the mass using a

block and tackle with that used when lifting the mass
by hand. If there was a difference suggest why.
Compare the force required to lift the mass with the

block and tackle with that required when lifting the
mass by hand. What advantages does a block and
tackle have in lifting loads?
If 50 J of work is done to lift a student up by 10 cm,

use your results to estimate how much work would
be needed using a block and tackle.
Construct a block and tackle as shown at right.

Attach the spring balance to the end of the string and
record the force needed to lift the mass using the block
and tackle.
Calculate the work done in joules to lift the mass 0.1 m
(10 cm) with the block and tackle using the formula above.
Draw up a suitable table to record the force, distance
and work done with and without the block and tackle. Be
sure to use appropriate units for each measurement.
9 Energy 231
Transferring and transforming energy

Energy can be transferred to another object or to the
surrounding environment. For example, if you hug a
hot-water bottle, the heat is transferred from the bottle
to you. The heat has been transferred from one object
to another, but has not changed form.
Energy can also be transformed into other forms
of energy. For example, the electric motor in a hair
dryer transforms electrical energy into mechanical
energy (the energy that causes the parts to move).
Sometimes, during a transformation of energy, not all
of the energy is transformed into useful forms. Some
of the energy may be transferred to the surrounding
environment as unwanted heat, or transformed to
light or sound. For example, not all of the energy

you use to ride a bike up a very steep hill goes into
making the pedals move. Some of the energy is
wasted when your body gives off heat.
The Law of Conservation of Energy

When objects stop moving, they no longer have kinetic
energy. But the energy is not lost. Instead, it is changed
(transformed) into another type of energy or moved
(transferred) to another object. The Law of Conservation
of Energy tells us that the amount of energy in the
universe is always the same. Energy is never lost and
energy is never created.
Sometimes it is difficult to track where the energy
goes. For example, most of the kinetic energy when
you clap your hands is transferred to air as sound,
but you might also notice that your hands get warm.
This demonstrates that some of the original energy is
transformed to heat.
In a game of pool, a moving white ball is used to push another

ball. The kinetic energy of the white ball is transferred to the
coloured ball.
232
A clock radio transforms electrical energy into sound energy

when the alarm or radio is heard and into light energy in the time
display.
Electrical energy (in the form of an electric current) is passed

through the wire in the centre of the bulb (the filament), and is
then transformed into heat and light energy. The light energy is
the desirable energy, but the heat is considered wasted energy
because it has no benefit to us in this system.
Heat the corn until the popping stops.
InvEstIgatIon 9.2
Turn off the Bunsen burner, put the saucepan on the
Popping corn
You will need:
saucepan with lid
popping corn
matches
heatproof mat to cool and take the lid off the saucepan
to observe any changes.
vegetable oil
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat
Pour a little cooking oil in the saucepan.

Pour enough popping corn into the saucepan to cover
DiScuSSion
1
What type of energy did the popping corn have before

heating? What type did it have during heating?
Even though you could not see the corn when

the lid was on, how do you know that an energy
transformation took place?
the base and place the lid securely on top.

Light the Bunsen burner and heat the saucepan in a blue
flame, making sure the flame is spread evenly over the

base of the saucepan.
InvEstIgatIon 9.3
Energy and chemical reactions
Chemical reactions often
involve energy changes.
Chemical reactions that get
hot because they generate
heat are called exothermic
reactions. Chemical reactions
that cause the reactants to drop
in temperature absorb heat from
the environment and are called
endothermic reactions.
Temperature probe
Test-tube rack
Data logger
You will need:

dilute (0.1M) hydrochloric acid solution
test tubes
test-tube rack
data logger and temperature probe
(or glass thermometer accurate to 0.2 C)
1 cm long strip of magnesium metal
ammonium chloride
teaspoon
Reaction 1
Dilute hydrochloric acid

Magnesium metal
Quickly remove the temperature probe and add half a
teaspoon of ammonium chloride.

Replace the temperature probe in the test tube and
record your observations. Swirl the contents of

the test tube and record the minimum temperature
reached.
Pour approximately 2 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid
solution into a test tube in a test-tube rack.

Place the temperature probe or thermometer into the
solution and record the initial temperature once it

reaches a steady value.
Record all your observations and measurements in a
single suitable table.
Put the strip of magnesium metal into the acid solution
and record your observations. Swirl the contents of

the test tube and record the maximum temperature
reached.
Reaction 2
DiScuSSion
1
Which reaction was exothermic and which was

endothermic? How do you know?
Identify the energy transformation that took place in

the exothermic reaction.
Explain why the temperature drops in an endothermic

reaction.
Pour 2 mL of tap water into a clean test tube.

Place the temperature probe into the solution and record
the initial temperature once it reaches a steady value.
9 Energy 233
in traditional light globes,

electricity passes through a thin
filament in the globe, causing
it to glow white hot. The light is
a useful form of energy but the
heat is a wasted form of energy.
compact fluorescent lights (cFL)
offer a more energy-efficient form
of lighting as they generate less
wasted heat.
Compact fluorescent lights

transform a greater proportion
of electrical energy to light and
less to wasted heat.
10
light
30
heat
70
light
Electrical energy
REMEMBER
1 Recall four types of energy.
2 identify the type of energy:
(a) a person has when running
(b) a spring has when it is pulled.
3 Use a suitable example to describe what is meant by an:
(a) energy transfer
(b) energy transformation.
4 outline the Law of Conservation of Energy.
5 identify the different types of energy involved in a
trampoline jump.
THinK
6 Imagine riding your bike along a flat gravel road. If you
brake suddenly, the bike eventually stops. It no longer
has kinetic energy. However, the energy is not lost.
Describe what happens to the kinetic energy.
7 A saucepan of water is heated to boiling on an electric
hotplate. List three examples of the ways that energy is
transformed or transferred.
cALcuLATE
8 calculate the gravitational potential energy of a 2 kg cat
sitting on a tree branch 15 metres from the ground.
heat
Electrical energy
activities
234
90
9 calculate the kinetic energy of a 60 kg sprinter

running 8 m/s.
10 A child sitting at the top of a playground slide has
2000 joules of gravitational potential energy. She flies
off the end of the slide with 1200 joules of kinetic
energy.
(a) calculate the amount of energy transformed to forms
of energy other than kinetic energy.
(b) Suggest what these other energy forms might be.
cREATE
11 Construct a poster to outline the different energy forms
that are involved in the operation of a hair dryer. Add
labels to your poster showing where the different forms
of energy are used or produced.
eBook plus
12 Use the Coaster interactivity in your eBookPLUS to

identify the positions on a roller-coaster ride where
the car has more kinetic energy and where it has more
gravitational energy. int-0226
work
sheets
9.1 Types of energy

9.2 Gravitational potential energy
9.3 Converting gravitational potential
energy to kinetic energy
9.4 Endothermic and exothermic
reactions
9.2
Heat and temperature

Heat is a form of energy and, like other forms
of energy, it can be measured in joules (J). Heat
and temperature are not quite the same thing. The
temperature of a substance is a measure of how hot
or cold it is. It is usually measured in degrees Celsius
( C) using a thermometer.
In many cases, substances with more heat energy
have a higher temperature, but this may not always be
the case. For example, on a cold day, a gas heater may
provide a bedroom with 1000 J of energy and increase
the room s temperature to 26 C. The same gas heater
may provide a large living room with 1000 J of energy
but increase the room s temperature to only 23 C.
Both areas have the same amount of heat energy, but
the bedroom has a higher temperature.
During cold
weather, snakes
lie against rocks
that have absorbed
some heat from
the sun. The fastmoving particles
in the rocks
transfer some of
their energy to the
snake, warming
it up.
Why temperature changes

Heat energy flows from a hotter object to a colder one.
When an object receives heat energy, its particles move
faster and its temperature rises. When an object gives
up heat energy to another object, its particles move
more slowly and its temperature drops.
The temperature of an object or substance depends on how fast

the particles inside it are moving. The faster the particles move,
the higher the temperature.
Heat continues to flow from hotter objects to

colder objects until their temperatures are equal. The
movement of heat then stops. Heat never flows from
colder to hotter objects.
For example, if a cup of hot chocolate is left sitting
on a bench, it cools down. The fast-moving particles
in the hot chocolate give up some of their energy to
the air near the cup. The hot chocolate keeps cooling
until it reaches room temperature.
If chilled juice is left sitting on a
bench, it warms up. The particles
in the juice gain some energy from the warmer air

near the glass. If left out of the fridge, the juice warms
up until it reaches room temperature.
Thermometers
When an object absorbs heat, its particles move faster.
The faster the particles move, the more space they take
up. As the particles take up more and more space, the
object expands.
A thermometer works because the substance
inside it takes up more space when it is heated. The
substance used in most modern thermometers is
alcohol, dyed red to make it easier to see.
Most glass thermometers measure temperatures to
1 C but digital thermometers are more accurate and
can often measure temperatures to 0.1 C. Digital
thermometers are commonly used by doctors to check
whether a patient has a high temperature. You might
use a digital thermometer in your experiments if you
need to measure small temperature changes with great
accuracy.
A digital thermometer used by a doctor
9 Energy 235
#
Column
A very fine column rises from the bulb,
up the thermometer. When the bulb is
heated, the alcohol inside heats up too.
As the alcohol expands, it has only one
place to go
up the column! The amount
that the alcohol expands depends on its
temperature. Higher temperatures make the
alcohol expand further up the column.
#
#
#
#
#
Scale
The scale is designed so that the height
of the alcohol in the column indicates the
temperature. This thermometer would be
useful for measuring temperatures between
0 and 100 C. It is measuring a temperature
of 23 C.
#
#
#
#
#
Bulb
The dyed alcohol is stored in
the bulb of a thermometer.
Heat transfer by conduction

The metals used to make pots and pans are very
good conductors of heat. This helps to ensure that the
InvEstIgatIon 9.4
Modelling a thermometer
You will need:
heatproof mat, Bunsen burner and matches
gauze mat and tripod
flask stopper with hole in it
glass tube
retort stand
bosshead and clamp
food colouring
water-based marker
Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram.
Use the retort stand and clamp to keep the flask and
glass tube steady.

Use a water-based marker to mark the level of coloured
water in the glass tube.

Light the Bunsen burner.
Observe what happens to the level of coloured water
heat from the flame or hotplate is spread evenly. To

understand how heat is transferred through an object
by conduction, you need to look inside the object.
The particles in a solid are packed very closely
together. They can vibrate on the spot, but they
cannot move from one place to another. If some of
the particles are heated, they cannot move along the
object to transfer heat to the whole object.
Heat travels by conduction when fast-moving
particles collide with other particles nearby, making
them move faster. Heat can travel by conduction
through objects, or from one object to another, such
as from a cooktop to a saucepan.
Heat travels by conduction at different speeds,
depending on the type of substance. Heat travels more
quickly in solids than in liquids or gases because
conduction occurs more quickly when the particles
in an object are closer together. Gases are the poorest
conductors because the particles in them are far apart.
Solids are usually very good conductors of heat
because the particles in them are packed closely
together, although not all solids conduct heat well.
Metals are generally good conductors while non-metals
like glass, plastic and wood do not conduct heat as well.
Materials that conduct heat poorly are called insulators.
DiScuSSion
1
Explain how the equipment used in this experiment

could be used as a thermometer.
Use the particle model to explain what happens to the

level of water when the flask is heated and cooled.
Glass tube
Stopper
Clamp
Retort
stand
Water
with
added
food
colour
Flask
Gauze
mat
Tripod
Bunsen
burner
in the glass tube while it is being heated. Record your

observations.
Turn the Bunsen burner off before the water boils.
Observe what happens as the water cools. Record your
observations.
236
Heatproof mat
When particles are heated (for example, with a flame),

they start to move more quickly.
When the fastmoving particles
collide with other
particles, they
cause nearby
particles to start
vibrating more
quickly as well.
Bunsen
burner
flame
Conduction in solids, liquids and gases

The particles in a solid are packed closely
together. If some particles receive heat
energy and begin to move faster, they
collide easily with other particles nearby
and pass the heat energy along.
Direction of heat transfer
High
temperature
The particles in liquids are further apart

than the particles in solids. When some
particles receive heat energy and start
to move faster, they collide with other
particles. But the distance between the
particles means that there are fewer
collisions. So, heat is transferred by
conduction more slowly in a liquid than
in a solid.
Low
temperature
Eventually, as particles
keep colliding with
others, some of
their energy
is transferred
along the
object. This
process is
known as
conduction.
The particles in a gas are far

apart. Heat does not travel
easily by conduction through
gases.
Set up the equipment using either
InvEstIgatIon 9.5
the tripod and rods (as shown

below left) or the conduction
apparatus (as shown below right).
comparing rates of conduction

You will need:
heatproof mat
Bunsen burner
matches
tripod
variety of rods (such as copper,
iron, brass, glass) or a conduction
apparatus
wax candle
ruler
stopwatch
Light the candle and melt a blob
of wax onto each rod at the same

distance from the end of each.
Light the Bunsen burner, turn it
to the blue flame and start the

stopwatch as you begin to heat the
end of each rod.
Draw up a suitable table to record
Two ways to do
this experiment
the time it takes each blob of wax

to melt and produce drops of wax.
Stop heating after 5 minutes.
Draw an appropriate graph to
present your findings.
DiScuSSion
1
What evidence is there to suggest

that heat travelled along the rods?
Through which rod did heat

travel the fastest?
Which rod is the poorest

conductor of heat? What evidence
do you have for this conclusion?
Why was it important to put the

blobs of wax the same distance
from the Bunsen burner?
Blob of wax
Blobs of wax
Various
rods
Bunsen
burner
Tripod
Heatproof mat
Bunsen burner
Conduction
apparatus
Heatproof mat
9 Energy 237
Heat transfer by convection

Have you ever noticed that, in summer, the air in a
two-storey house is warmer upstairs than downstairs?
You may have heard the saying that hot air rises.
On the previous page, you learned that heat travels
by conduction fastest in solids because the particles
are more closely packed together. Transfer of heat by
conduction in liquids and gases is not very efficient;
instead, heat travels through liquids and gases by
convection.
Convection heaters work on this mode of heat
transfer. The heater causes the particles of air in front
of it to gain energy and spread apart. This warmer
air is less dense, so it rises, losing some of the heat
energy it gained. This causes the air to cool and
become denser as the particles move closer together
again. The cooler air then falls. This flow of warm air
up and cool air down creates a circular current called
a convection current. The same pattern can be seen in
liquids.
InvEstIgatIon 9.6
Modelling convection currents
You will need:
250 mL beaker
heatproof mat, Bunsen burner and matches
potassium permanganate crystal
drinking straw
forceps
Fill the beaker with water. Place it over the Bunsen
burner as shown below.

Carefully drop a crystal of potassium permanganate
down the straw.

Slowly remove the straw, making sure not to disturb
the water.
Light the Bunsen burner and turn it to a blue flame,
being careful not to disturb the beaker.

Draw a diagram to show what happens to the crystal
as the water is heated.

Particles lose
heat energy.
Forceps
Crystal of potassium
permanganate
Cold air sinks.
Warm air rises.

Particles gain
heat energy.
Drinking
straw
Beaker
Water
Gauze
mat
Tripod
Heatproof
mat
Heat
Modelling a convection current
Bunsen
burner
DiScuSSion
Gas heater
Convection currents consist of warm air rising and cool air
falling.
238
Explain why the particles moved the way they did

in this experiment.
This investigation modelled heat transfer by

convection. Outline the benefits of modelling
concepts in science.
Are convection currents modelled accurately in

this investigation? What limitations are there to
modelling concepts in science?
Cold water in
Cold water enters the hot-water
system through a pipe that takes it to
the bottom of the tank.
A hot-water tank has a heating element

in the base that creates a convection
current. This current causes the warm
water to circulate in the water tank
ready for delivery to the hot-water tap.
Ready to use
A pipe connects the water at the top
of the water tank with the shower and
every other hot-water tap. If this water is
not used, it cools and sinks to the bottom,
where it is heated again.
Sinking
The particles in the cold water
move more slowly than the
particles in the warmer water.
The cold water sinks because
its particles are close together.
Cold water is more dense than
hot water.
Rising
Hot water rises because its particles are
further apart than those in cold water;
it is less dense than cold water. As the
hot water rises, cold water continues to
move to the bottom of the water tank.
Gas flame
A gas hot-water system has a
flame at the bottom of the water
tank. The flame heats the water
near the bottom of the tank. An
electric hot-water system has
elements inside the water tank,
similar to those in a kettle.
Heating
The flame heats the cold water
at the bottom of the tank. The
particles move more quickly and
spread out.
Convection currents within a hot-water tank
coastal sea breezes

Sea breezes are often created by convection currents
along a coastline. As land along the coast warms up
during the day, warm air rises. This warm air cools
as it rises above the sea. Cool air then moves in to
Day
Cool air
sinks.
Warm air
rises.
Warmer land
Cool air
replaces
warm air.
Cooler sea
replace the warm air over the land causing a circular

convection current. At night, the sea temperature is
higher than the temperature on land so convection
currents move in the opposite direction.
Night
Cool air
sinks.
Cool air
replaces
warm air.
Warm air
rises.
Cooler land
Warmer sea
Sea breezes caused by convection currents
9 Energy 239
Heat transfer by radiation

The sun provides energy to the Earth. Without heat from
the sun, the Earth would be far too cold for humans to
live on. Heat from the sun must travel through space to
reach the Earth. The heat does not travel by conduction
or convection because there are too few particles in
space to vibrate or move between the sun and the Earth.
Heat from the sun reaches the Earth by radiation.
Heat that travels by radiation is called radiant
heat. Radiant heat travels very quickly because it
does not rely on the movement of particles to move
energy from one place to another. The heat from the
sun takes about eight minutes to reach the Earth, but
would never reach us by conduction or convection.
InvEstIgatIon 9.7
Absorbing radiant heat
You will need:
heater or microscope lamp
3 identical soft-drink cans
black and white paint
3 thermometers (or 3 temperature probes and a data
logger).
Paint one can white and one black, and leave the
third with an unpainted, shiny surface.

Pour equal amounts of cold tap water into each can.
Place the thermometers in the cans.
Measure the initial temperature of the water in
each can. Record your results in a suitable table.

Place the three cans at the same distance from
the radiator or lamp. Turn on the power to the heat

source.
In a suitable table, record the temperature of the
water in each can every 2 minutes for a total of

14 minutes.
DiScuSSion
Place your hand near the base of the globe of a lamp. Turn on the
lamp. You feel the heat from the globe almost instantly. Heat does
not travel through air easily by conduction so, the heat does not
reach your hand by conduction. Rather, the heat reaches your
hand by radiation.
Transmission, absorption and reflection

Radiant heat behaves in a similar way to light. When
radiant heat strikes a surface, it can be reected,
transmitted or absorbed. Most surfaces do all three;
some surfaces are better reflectors, others are better
absorbers and some transmit more heat.
Transmitted
heat
Absorbed
heat
Radiated
heat
Reflected heat
240
Why was the temperature of the water measured

before starting to heat the water?
How did the temperature of the water in each can

change during the experiment?
Which cans were better absorbers and which

were better reflectors of radiant heat? How can
you tell?
Why was it important to use cans that were the

same size?
Heater
Transmitted radiant heat

Clear objects, like glass, allow light
and radiant heat to pass through
them. The temperature of these
objects does not increase quickly
when heat reaches them by radiation.
Absorbed radiant heat
Dark-coloured objects tend to
absorb light and radiant heat. Their
temperatures increase quickly when
heat reaches them by radiation.
Reflected radiant heat
Shiny or light-coloured surfaces tend
to reflect light and radiant heat away.
The temperature of these objects
does not change quickly when heat
reaches them by radiation.
Black
White
Shiny
infra-red scanners
insulation
All objects, including the human body, radiate some

heat. The human body usually radiates more heat
than the environment around it. Infra-red scanners
detect the radiant heat coming from the human body.
That s why infra-red scanners are useful for finding
people lost at sea, in bushland or even buried under a
collapsed building.
Slowing down the flow of heat is the key to keeping

drinks cool in the summer and warm in the winter.
On a hot day, heat flows from the hot environment
to a cold drink, until they are both at the same
temperature. On a cold day, heat flows from a
warm drink to the cooler environment, until their
temperatures are equal.
Heat does not travel into or out of a thermos
flask very easily. For this reason, a thermos flask can
be used to keep cold drinks cold and warm drinks
warm. A thermos flask has a number of features
that slow heat transfer by conduction,
convection and radiation.
Stopper
The stopper is made from
materials that do not allow
much heat to move through
them by convection or
conduction.
An infra-red image
Silver surface
The silver surfaces facing the
inside of the container reflect
radiant heat back into the
container. Silver surfaces facing
the outside of the container
reflect radiant heat away from
the container.
Protective case
Air gap
Air does not allow much heat to
travel through it by conduction.
Vacuum
Nearly all particles are taken
out from between these two
layers making up the wall of
the flask. Without particles,
heat cannot move through
the walls by conduction or
convection.
Foam pads keep the glass

bottle in place and absorb
impacts.
A thermos flask
9 Energy 241
insulating your body

The temperature of the human
body is about 37 C. When the air
temperature is much less than this,
heat moves from your body to the
environment. In very hot weather,
heat moves from the environment
to your body.
Unless your body is touching
a very hot or a very cold object,
you won t gain or lose heat by
conduction very easily. Most of the
movement of heat near your body
happens by convection and by
radiation.
Clothes keep you warm in
winter by stopping your body heat
from escaping.
Fabrics made from natural bres,
like wool, are good insulators of
heat. This is because natural fibres
contain only very small pockets
of air. This prevents convection
currents forming and carrying heat
away.
Air can flow easily through
thin material, keeping you cool in
summer. Loose fitting clothes allow
more convection currents to form.
The convection currents help heat
to escape from your body.
InvEstIgatIon 9.8
Reducing heat loss
You will need:
4 identical soft-drink cans
range of insulating materials
(such as wool, nylon, cotton, foam
and newspaper)
plasticine
data logger with temperature probes
or thermometers
Design an experiment to compare
how well various insulating

materials retain the heat in a can
filled with hot water.
Outline the procedure used in your
experiment. Include a can filled

with water and without insulation
as a control in your experiment.
242
Losing radiant heat

All objects give off
some radiant heat.
The amount depends
on the temperature
around the object. On
a hot day, an object
does not transfer as
much radiant heat
away as in the cold
weather.
Absorbing radiant heat

When sunlight strikes
any object, including the
human body, the object
absorbs some radiant
heat.
Convection
Convection currents form
when the heat from your
body warms the air next
to it. The air rises, taking
some of your body heat
away with it. Convection
currents can form only in
air that is free to move.
A thermometer can be held in place
in each can with plasticine.
DiScuSSion
1
Identify the variables that you

attempted to control in this
experiment.
Explain whether it was important

for each can of water to start off
at the same temperature.
Which material was the

best insulator? Support your
conclusion with your data.
The insulating material

slowed the transfer of heat by
two processes. Name these
processes and explain how the
insulation prevented them.
Why was it important to include

a control in this experiment?
Tabulate your results; draw a line
graph for each material on a single

set of axes.
Thermometer
Soft-drink can
Plasticine
holding
thermometer
in place
Insulating
material
We do most of our cooking using energy from

electricity and gas or wood fires. However, these
are generated from non-renewable resources: that
is, resources that we use much faster than we
can replace them. Scientists have been working to
harness renewable energy, such as solar energy,
for everyday tasks. The solar cooker project has
been particularly important in developing countries
that rely on wood fires for cooking. Solar cookers
work by transforming light energy from the sun
into heat energy. The inside of the concaveshaped cooker is covered in a shiny metal such as
aluminium. Light rays from the sun are reflected
off the shiny surface and concentrated into a
central area called the focus. Food placed at the
focus cooks more quickly because the light (and,
hence, heat) is more intense at this point.
activities
REMEMBER
1 identify which type of object (solid,
liquid or gas) allows heat to travel
fastest by conduction.
2 outline the effect of heating an
object on the speed of the particles
inside it.
3 Explain how a thermometer works.
4 identify which is denser, hot or cold
water.
5 Explain why water rises when
heated by a flame at the bottom of
a container.
6 identify which method of heat
transfer does not require a medium
containing particles.
7 outline three different things that
can happen to radiant heat when it
reaches a surface.
8 outline two uses of infra-red
scanners.
THinK
9 Draw two labelled diagrams of
the particles inside a metal to
demonstrate how the particles
would move before and during
being heated with a Bunsen burner.
10 Explain whether heat can

travel by conduction through
a vacuum (where there are no
particles).
11 identify some of the materials
commonly used for saucepan
handles. Explain why these
materials have been used for
this purpose.
12 Explain why the smoke from a
factory does not keep rising
forever.
13 Explain why it is almost impossible
for criminals to hide from infra-red
scanners.
14 identify two features of a thermos
flask that reduce heat loss by:
(a) conduction
(b) convection.
15 outline two ways that heat moves
between your body and the
environment.
16 Explain what is wrong with the
following statement.
A thick coat keeps the
cold out.
inTERPRET
17 The table above shows results
collected during an experiment
similar to the one on page 237.
Material
Time taken for

piece of wax to
melt (s)
Rock
8.0
Copper
6.5
Brick
11.0
Silver
5.0
Aluminium
7.7
List the items in the table from

the best conductor of heat to the
poorest conductor of heat.
inVESTiGATE
18 investigate what a convection oven
is and how it works.
19 investigate the contribution of
James Joule to science.
20 The change in temperature of
water inside shiny, black and
white containers was investigated
on page 240. Design and perform
an experiment to investigate the
heat-absorbing properties of
different colours. Which colours
absorb more heat? How can you
tell?
work
sheet
9.5 Conduction and convection
9 Energy 243
9.3
Light and sound energy

Light energy
In some energy transformations, light energy is
produced along with heat. The light and warmth
we receive from the sun each day are the result of a
nuclear fusion reaction in the sun as hydrogen atoms
are fused into larger helium atoms.
Like radiant heat, light produced by the sun takes
around 8 minutes to reach us here on Earth. That s not
a very long time considering it has to travel 150 million
kilometres. Light from any object travels very fast, with
a speed of 300 million metres per second. Light does
not need a material like air to travel through, which
explains why sunlight can travel through space.
Closer to home, the incandescent light globe glows
white hot, generating light and allowing us to go
about our evening activities.
The moon and the statue (below) are not luminous

We see non-luminous objects because light from
luminous objects bounces from them. The bouncing
of light from an object is called reflection. You see the
moon because it reflects light from the sun
and
some of that reflected light enters your eyes. You see
the statue because it reflects light from the sun or, if it
were indoors, the lights in the room.
We are able to see things when light coming
from them enters our eyes. The light energy is then
transformed into electrical energy by special nerve cells
called receptors at the back of each eye. That energy
is then sent to the brain, which tells us what we are
looking at.
Luminous and non-luminous objects

Objects like the sun, that produce their own light by
transforming some other form of energy, are said to
be luminous. An example of a luminous organism
is the firefly. When a male firefly wants to attract a
mate, it flashes its light on its abdomen and performs
a dance. Females watch from near the ground and
respond by flashing their lights.
Most of the living things that produce their own
light live in the ocean. The angler fish lives in the dark
depths of the ocean and produces its own light to
attract prey.
Non-luminous objects may appear

bright when they reflect light.
The firefly s light comes from a chemical

reaction in cells of the abdomen (left).
Angler fish have light-emitting bacteria in
the tips of their antennae (right).
244
Put the radiometer in direct
InvEstIgatIon 9.9
sunlight. Record your observations.
observing a radiometer
Put it in the shade. Record your
observations again.
A radiometer consists of four vanes,

each of which is black on one side
and silver on the other. The vanes
are balanced on a vertical support
so that they can turn with very little
friction. The mechanism is encased
inside a glass bulb from which air has
been pumped out, making it almost a
vacuum.
What effect does sunlight have

on a radiometer?
How does this experiment

demonstrate that sunlight is a
form of energy?
You will need:

radiometer
Research a scientific theory to

explain the effect of sunlight on
the radiometer.
DiScuSSion
InvEstIgatIon 9.10
Luminous and non-luminous
sources of light
You will need:
light globe and 2 wire leads
DC power source
light-coloured object (such as
a white eraser)
long cardboard tube
Connect the light globe to the
power source.
Set the power source to 6 or
8 volts and switch it on.

View the light globe and the light-
coloured object in turn through the

cardboard tube from about 1 metre
away. Describe your observations.
Now bend the cardboard tube
and repeat the previous step.

Straighten the cardboard tube
DiScuSSion
again and view each object with the room

darkened.
Could you see either object

when the cardboard tube was
bent? What does this tell you
about how light travels?
Which of the objects viewed

was luminous? Support your
response with evidence from this
investigation.
Which of the objects viewed

was non-luminous? Support your
response with evidence from this
investigation.
Record each of your observations in a table like the
one below.
Observations
Object
Light globe
Light-coloured
object
Straight tube in a
bright room
Bent tube in a
bright room
Straight tube in a
dark room
9 Energy 245
CAUTION Never pierce a glow

stick. Never let the chemical
contents touch the skin or eyes.
InvEstIgatIon 9.11
investigating glow sticks
Glow sticks produce light through
a process similar to that used by
fireflies. When the plastic outer
tube of a glow stick is bent, a vial
inside the tube is broken causing its
contents to combine with another
chemical surrounding the vial. A
chemical reaction then produces
light energy. This process is called
chemiluminescence.
Place one glow stick in icy water
and the other in hot water.

Observe the reactions in each glow
stick. Look closely at their contents

and note any differences between
the reactions in the glow sticks.
DiScuSSion
You will need:

ice
hot water
2 large beakers
2 glow sticks
Outline the energy transformation

taking place in each glow stick.
Describe any differences

between the reactions in the two
glow sticks.
Place a mixture of ice and cold
Explain any differences in the

observations made of the two
glow sticks.
water in one beaker and hot water

in a second beaker.
Snap two glow sticks and invert
each, allowing the contents to mix.
Sound energy
In 1883, the Indonesian island of Krakatoa was
blown apart by a volcanic explosion. The sound of the
explosion was probably the loudest that human ears
have ever detected. It was heard as far away as South
Australia. That s over 3000 kilometres away! Sound,
along with light and heat, is a form of energy. The
explosion at Krakatoa released such a huge amount of
sound energy that it could be heard so far away.
The vibrations caused by the volcanic explosion

on Krakatoa in 1883 had enough energy to travel
through the air for at least 3000 km.
This photo shows Krakatoa erupting
more recently in 1995.
246
Sound waves
Direction of
sound wave
The sound wave

a moment later
Sound is caused by fast, back-and-forth movements

called vibrations. When you strike a drum, the drum
skin vibrates. The movements of the drum skin
cause air particles around the drum to be pulled
back and spread out. A fraction of a second later, the
air particles are pushed together. This pulling and
pushing of air particles continues until the drum skin
stops vibrating.
Compression
The energy of the vibrating drum skin is transferred
to the nearby air particles. The air particles vibrate as
Rarefaction
quickly as the drum skin vibrates. The vibrating air
particles bump into nearby air particles, making them
vibrate as well. This creates a series of compressions
(layers of air particles that are close together) and
Air particles
rarefactions (layers of air particles that are spread
apart) that we call sound waves.
If there is enough energy transferred to the vibrating
air, the vibrations are passed on all the way to your
Vibrating drum
ear. If the vibrations reach your ear, you hear sound.
When a mobile phone rings in a bell jar, the sound
can be heard clearly. When the air in the bell jar is
sucked out by a vacuum pump, the sound fades.
If all of the air is removed, no sound can be heard
Sound waves consist of a series of compressions and rarefactions.
at all. This is because sound cannot travel through
empty space. The energy of vibrating
objects can travel only by making
particles vibrate. In empty space,
there are no particles to vibrate.
Bell jar
Bell jar
Light on the other hand does not
require a medium to travel through.
It can travel through a vacuum. So
Mobile phone
you can still see the mobile phone,
even if you can t hear it.
Sponge
Laser pointer
To vacuum
pump
Sound waves require a medium to

travel through; light does not.
InvEstIgatIon 9.12
To vacuum
pump
Modelling sound waves using a slinky spring
Modelling sound waves

You will need:
slinky spring
Pull the slinky spring from both
ends to stretch it a couple of

metres along the floor.
Create vibrations at one end of the
slinky by moving the coils in and out.

Watch the series of compressions and rarefactions
travel to the opposite end and reflect back.
DiScuSSion
1
Describe how your model is similar to real sound waves.
Describe how your model is different from real sound

waves.
9 Energy 247
How fast does sound travel?

You might remember that light travels at
300 million metres per second. Sound does not
travel as fast. The speed of sound through air is
about 340 m/s. Sound travels faster in denser
materials; for example, sound travels through
water at 1500 m/s and through rock at about
6000 m/s.
When lightning strikes during a
thunderstorm, a giant electric spark heats the
air around it. The hot air expands quickly,
crashing into the cold air around it. The sound
of that crash is thunder. So why do you always
hear thunder after you see the lightning? The
answer lies in one of the differences between
sound energy and light energy. Sound travels
through air at about 340 m/s. Light travels
through air at 300 000 km/s.
The delay between when you see lightning
and when you hear thunder is about three
seconds for each kilometre that you are away
from the lightning.
Sounding great
Just as light can be transmitted, reflected and
absorbed, so can sound.
All materials transmit some sound, some
better than others. That s why you can
sometimes hear conversations from another
room through the walls.
Sound is reflected by hard surfaces, such
as the tiles in bathrooms and showers. Each
note that you sing in the shower lasts longer
because its sound is reflected. This effect is
called reverberation.
Soft materials, like curtains and carpet,
absorb much more sound than walls covered
with tiles or plaster.
The concert hall in the Sydney Opera
House was designed to control the reflection
and absorption of sound and provide good
sound quality during musical performances.
Timber panelling was incorporated in the
ceilings and walls as it was considered to
have good acoustic properties, minimising
the reflection of sound, called echoes, from
the walls and preventing reverberations from
repeated echoes during concerts.
Concert hall of the Sydney Opera House
248
Measuring sound
While we can hear sound waves,
they are invisible. However, they
can be studied by converting
the sound energy into electrical
energy using a device called a
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).
A microphone connected to the
CRO measures the air pressure
changes associated with the
compressions and rarefactions
of a sound wave and produces a
graph on the CRO screen called
a waveform. This allows us to
record how quickly the sound
wave makes the air vibrate and
compare the energy levels of
sound waves.
The pitch of a sound depends
on how quickly it makes the air
vibrate. High-pitched sounds
make the air vibrate quickly. As a
result, they produce bunched-up
waveforms. Low-pitched sounds
This peak represents air that has been
compressed (squashed up). It is at a
higher pressure than normal.
make the air vibrate less quickly,

so the waveforms are more spread
out.
The number of times every
second that a sound makes the
air vibrate is called its frequency.
Frequency is measured in a unit
called hertz (Hz). High-frequency
sounds are more high pitched than
low-frequency sounds.
Loud sounds produce a tall
waveform on a CRO display. This
is because more sound energy
produces a larger electrical signal.
Soft sounds, on the other hand,
produce a shorter waveform.
The decibel (dB) scale is
commonly used to measure the
sound level or loudness of sound.
On the decibel scale, the quietest
audible sound is 0 dB. Each
10-fold increase in sound level is
an extra 10 dB higher. So a sound
1000 times more powerful than
This trough represents air that is
spread out. It is at a lower
pressure than normal.
the quietest audible sound is

30 dB. Some common sounds and
their decibel ratings are shown at
right.
Any sound above 85 dB can
cause hearing loss, and the loss is
related both to the loudness of
the sound as well as the length of
exposure. You know that you are
listening to an 85 dB sound if you
have to raise your voice to be heard
by somebody else.
The calls of the blue whale, with sound

levels of more than 180 dB, can be
even louder than the launch of a space
shuttle. Scientists working in the
Southern ocean recorded blue whale
calls at this sound level and could,
therefore, locate blue whales up to
200 km away.
The decibel scale

Decibels (dB)
160
150
140 Jumbo jet on take off
130
CRO
120 Threshhold of pain

Tuning fork
110 Car horn
Taller waveforms represent louder

sounds. That s because louder sounds
change the air pressure more than soft
sounds do.
100
90
Lawn mower
80
70
60
Normal conversation
50
CRO
40
Tuning fork
This waveform is more bunchedup than the waveform in the top

diagram. It represents a sound
with a higher frequency.
This tuning fork vibrates

faster than the one above.
It makes a higher pitched
sound.
30
20
Whisper
10
0
Quietest audible sound
9 Energy 249
The ear and hearing

The main job of the ear is to detect
sound. It collects the energy of
vibrating air and changes it into
electrical signals, which are sent to
the brain. Each ear has three main
parts
the outer ear, the middle
ear and the inner ear.
Middle ear
The middle ear contains the
three smallest bones in the body.
Together, they are known as the
ossicles. These tiny bones send
vibrations from the eardrum to
the inner ear. They also make
the vibrations larger. One of the
ossicles (the stirrup) presses
against a thin layer of skin called
the oval window at the entrance
to the inner ear.
The aye-aye is a rare animal that

ascar.
lives on the island of Madagascar.
gle
it feeds at night and has goggle
eyes and huge ears. The aye-aye
searches for food by tapping
one of its stick-like fingers on
tree trunks. it listens to the
sound as vibrations go through
the wood. The sound tells it
where gaps, cracks and hollows
are under the bark and where
tasty grubs are hiding. Then it chews
through the wood and hooks out the
grub with its long middle finger.
Semicircular canals
These three tubes have nothing to do with hearing. They control your sense of
balance. When you move, fluid in the tubes flows past cells that sense the movement.
These cells send signals to the brain. The signals tell you when you are moving and
whether you are up, down or on your side. When you move around in circles quickly,
the fluid moves quickly
even for a while after you stop. The messages from the
cells in the semicircular canals tell your brain that you are still moving. However,
the messages from your eyes tell the brain that you are not moving. These mixed
messages to the brain make you feel dizzy.
Auricle
The outside part of the ear
contains a spongy type of
tissue called cartilage.
Outer ear
The outer ear collects the energy of
the vibrating air and funnels it along
the ear canal. The air along the ear
canal vibrates. That makes the eardrum
vibrate. High-pitched sounds make the
eardrum vibrate quickly. Low-pitched
sounds make the eardrum vibrate slowly.
Ear canal
The ear canal contains wax and
tiny hairs to trap dust so that it
doesn t get to the eardrum. If the
wax builds up enough to block
your ear canal, a doctor can
remove it.
250
Inner ear
The inner ear is filled with fluid. The vibrations are passed along the fluid
into a snail-shaped tube called the cochlea. The inside of the cochlea is
lined with millions of tiny hairs. Each hair is attached to a nerve receptor.
When the fluid vibrates, the hairs move. The receptors change the energy
of the moving hairs into electrical energy and send signals through the
auditory nerve to the brain. You interpret those signals as sound.
PVC/cardboard tube
InvEstIgatIon 9.13
Stretched balloon
Target practice
You will need:
Candle
PVC or cardboard tubes
of various lengths and
diameters
balloon
scissors
rubber band
ruler
candle and holder
matches
Select a tube. Measure and record
its length and diameter.

Cut the neck from the balloon. Open
the balloon and stretch it over the

end of the tube and secure it firmly
to the tube using the rubber band.
Light the candle and place it on a
bench.
Starting just in front of the candle,
try to blow out the candle by
Rubber band
pinching and then pulling and

releasing the stretched rubber
sheet at the end of the balloon. If
you were successful move back
away from the candle and try again.
Record the maximum distance from
which you can blow out the candle.
Collate the class s results, including
the lengths and diameters of the

tubes.
DiScuSSion
1
Explain why you were able to

blow out the candle.
Identify an independent variable

in this experiment.
Identify the dependent variable

in this experiment.
Analyse the class s results to

determine the most effective
dimensions for your device.
You could design a separate
experiment to determine the tube

diameter and length that are most
effective at blowing out the candle.
Auditory nerve
Nerves from the receptors in
the cochlea merge to form this
large nerve that sends signals
to the brain.
Eustachian tube
This tube joins the middle ear to
the nose and throat. It is usually
closed. When the air pressure on
the eardrum is not the same on
both sides, the tube opens. Air
then moves either into or out of
the middle ear until the pressure is
balanced again.
When the air pressure on one
side of the eardrum changes
quickly, you can feel a pop as
the Eustachian tube opens and air
rushes through it. This happens
when you are in a plane that is
climbing steeply. The air pressure
in the plane becomes less than
the air pressure in your middle ear.
The Eustachian tube then opens
and some air moves from the
middle ear to the nose and throat
so that the air pressure on your
eardrum is balanced.
9 Energy 251
InvEstIgatIon 9.14
Sound proofing
You will need:
variety of materials to test (such
as wood, fabric, glass and
cardboard)
source of sound (such as an mp3
player)
sound level meter or data logger
and sound probe
Design an experiment to
investigate the most effective

material to insulate against noise.
Record your results in a
suitable table and graph.

Analyse your results to draw an
appropriate conclusion.
activities
REMEMBER
1 outline how light energy is
produced in the sun.
2 identify the type of energy that a
firefly uses to produce light.
3 outline how sound is created.
4 Draw and label a sound wave
to demonstrate rarefactions and
compressions.
5 Explain why sound cannot travel
through empty space.
6 outline the function of the outer ear.
7 Describe how the ear enables us to
hear sounds.
108 million km from the sun to

Venus.
10 compare the movement of air
particles in a compression with
those in a rarefaction.
11 identify the three things that can
happen to sound energy when it
reaches a solid object like a wall.
12 If you see lightning and then hear
thunder 9 seconds later, calculate
how far you are from the lightning
strike.
13 Explain why there are three
semicircular canals in the ear
rather than just one.
14 The speed of sound through various
materials is listed below.
Speed of sound
(m/s)
THinK
Material
8 identify each of the following

objects as luminous or nonluminous.
(a) Sun
(b) Moon
(c) Human eye
(d) Venus
(e) Burning candle
Brick
3650
Sea water
1531
Iron
5950
9 Light energy travels through

empty space and air at a speed
of 300 000 km/s. calculate how
long light takes to travel the
252
The African elephants ears enable

it to hear low-pitched sounds
from other elephants over four
kilometres away. They also use
their giant ears to release heat,
sometimes flapping them to cool
down more quickly.
Some insects have ears but they
are not on their heads. The ears
are membranes like eardrums
on the surface of their bodies. A
cricket has an ear just below the
knee of each of its front legs. A
grasshopper has an ear on each
side of its body just below the wing.
Most insects, however, do not have
ears but detect vibrations with
sensitive hairs on their antennae or
other parts of their bodies.
Air (at room

temperature)
343
Glass
5100
Distilled water
1497
(a) identify the trend in the data.

(b) Explain why there is such a
trend.
inVESTiGATE
15 investigate how glow sticks produce
light energy.
16 You can feel your vocal cords
vibrate if you place your hand
gently over your throat while you
talk. Say a long hummmm in a
deep voice and feel the vibrations.
Describe how the vibrations change
when you say hummmm in:
(a) a louder voice
(b) a higher voice.
17 Is it true that older people find it
more difficult to hear high-pitched
sounds? Using secondary sources,
investigate the normal frequency
range of human hearing and
whether that range depends on
age.
eBook plus
18 Use the Virtual oscilloscope

simulate measuring sound energy.
19 Use the My ear weblink in your
eBookPLUS to watch an animation
of the effect of sound waves on
cochlear structures.
work
sheets
9.6 Light energy

9.7 Sound energy
9.4
PREScRiBED FocuS AREA

sound technology
Hearing requires the ear to detect sound energy.
Unfortunately, not all of us have perfectly functioning
ears. The bionic ear is helping some people with
hearing problems, and Australian scientists are at the
forefront of its development.
The bionic ear

The cochlear implant, also known as the bionic ear,
has allowed some people with inner-ear problems to
hear sound for the first time. When deafness results
from serious inner-ear damage, no sounds are heard
at all. Normal hearing aids, which make sound louder,
do not help in these cases because the cochlea cannot
detect the vibrations. However, the cochlear implant
can often help by changing sound energy from
outside the ear into electrical signals that can be sent
to the brain.
Imaging by Dr Jin Xu
An enlarged x-ray of the cochlea showing the experimental

electrode array inside
3. The electrical code is sent through

a cable to the transmitting coil.
Radio waves are then used to
send the code through the skin.
1. A microphone
is worn behind
the ear.
2. The speech
processor
changes the
sound into an
electrical code.
It can be worn
on a belt, or a
smaller version
can be built into
the microphone
and worn
behind the ear.
4. The receiver stimulator is implanted in a

bone behind the ear. It decodes the signal
and sends electric pulses through wires
towards the cochlea.
5. Electrodes
placed inside the
cochlea receive
the decoded signals.
The 22 electrodes allow
a range of different pitches
to be detected. The electrodes
stimulate the hearing receptors.
6. The hearing
receptors send
messages through
the auditory nerve
to the brain. The
sound heard by
the user is not
completely natural
because there are
only 22 electrodes
replacing the
tens of thousands
of hair cells in
the cochlea of a
normal ear.
How a cochlear implant works
9 Energy 253
ultrasound
While the human ear can
detect sound frequencies
between 20 and
20 000 Hz, frequencies
well beyond the range
of human hearing are
used in a variety of useful
technologies.
Sound with
frequencies higher than
those that humans can
hear is called ultrasound.
This image of an unborn
baby was produced
with ultrasound. To produce images like the one above, ultrasound is
sent through the mother s body. Some of it is reflected from the baby. A
computer is used to change the reflected ultrasound into an image. The
images are used to check for problems during pregnancy.
Ultrasound is also used to check for cracks in metal, drill holes in glass
and steel, and how well metals are joined together.
catching prey in the dark

Bats use ultrasound to find their
prey in the dark. The ultrasound they
emit from their nostrils is reflected
from insects. Bats can tell from the
reflected ultrasound, or echo, exactly
where their prey is. The further away
the insects are, the longer it takes
the echo to return to the bat. The
echo from more distant insects is also
fainter. This use of echolocation by
bats is called biosonar.
Sonar
Ultrasound is used in sonar to produce images of underwater objects or
the ocean floor.
The use of reflected sound to locate objects is called echolocation.
1 Ultrasound is sent down into the water.
2 Objects under the water (and the ocean floor) reflect some of the ultrasound.
activities
REMEMBER
3 A receiver detects the reflected ultrasound.
1 outline the difference between

sound that we hear and
ultrasound.
A computer uses the time taken for

the reflected ultrasound to return
to the ship to calculate the
depth of objects in the water.
It can also map the ocean floor.
2 identify two medical uses of

ultrasound.
3 Describe how ultrasound
enables bats to locate insects.
Transmitter/receiver
4 identify what the electrodes in

the cochlear implant replace.
1
Reflected ultrasound
(echo)
Transmitted ultrasound
THinK
5 Explain why the use of sound
to locate objects is called
echolocation.
6 identify which sense the use of
biosonar replaces in bats.
254
7 Explain why hearing aids do not

help people with a seriously
damaged cochlea.
LooKIng BaCK
1 Identify the type of energy possessed by a:
(a) bus on its way to school
(b) wind-up toy
(c) gas heater.
13 (a) Recall which variable is a measure of the number of

times an object vibrates every second.
(b) Describe how a sound changes when this variable
increases in value.
2 Describe the Law of Conservation of Energy.
14 Give an example of an object that heat (and light) is:

(a) reflected from
(b) absorbed into
(c) transmitted through.
3 Identify the energy transformations that occur as:

(a) a skier skis down a slope
(b) a firecracker is ignited
(c) a bungee jumper reaches the bottom of a jump.
4 Calculate the energy of:
(a) a 65 kg bungee jumper about to jump from a height of
60 metres
(b) an 800 kg car travelling 15 m/s.
5 In 10 minutes, an incandescent light globe is supplied with
1000 joules of electrical energy. During that time, the globe
emits 400 joules of light energy along with 600 joules of
heat energy. Calculate the efficiency of the globe in terms
of light output.
6 Compare the particles in a beaker containing water at 67 C
with particles in another beaker containing water at 11 C.
7 Outline the difference between heat and temperature.
8 Heat can move in three ways: conduction, convection and
radiation. Deduce which method is most likely to transfer
heat:
(a) from the sun to the planets
(b) from a person s feet to cold floor tiles
(c) through the air
(d) through water
(e) from an open fire to your body
(f) through a solid metal rod.
9 Identify the features of a thermos flask that control the
movement of heat by conduction, convection and radiation,
and explain how these features limit the transfer of heat by
each of these methods.
10 A spatula of ammonium chloride crystals are added to 5 mL
of water in a test tube. Explain why the water temperature
drops from 22 C to 15 C within 3 minutes.
11 Explain why convection heaters are so effective in heating
a room of a house.
12 The waveform below was produced by plucking a string on
an electric guitar.
Copy the waveform. In another circle of the same size,
draw a waveform that:
(a) shows a louder sound
(b) has a higher pitch.
15 Copy and complete the table below, indicating with a tick

which statements refer to light and which refer to sound.
Some of the statements apply to both light and sound.
Statement
Light
Sound
Travels through empty space at

300 000 km/s
Can be reected
Always caused by vibrating objects or
substances
Can travel through transparent
substances
Cannot travel through opaque objects
Can be measured in decibels
Can be produced from another form
of energy
Is detected by receptors in the human
body
Travels faster than a speeding bicycle
16 (a) Explain why sound waves cannot travel through empty
space.
(b) Explain why light waves can travel through empty space.
17 Draw a flow chart to outline the process of hearing by the
human ear.
18 Construct a table to indicate whether the following objects
are luminous or non-luminous. Some of the objects listed
can be either luminous or non-luminous. For example, a
torch is luminous if it is switched on and non-luminous if it
is not switched on. So, for a torch, a tick would be entered
in both the luminous column and the non-luminous
column.
sun
moon
Mars
light globe
candle flame
cat s eye
diamond
TV screen
19 Identify which forms of energy (heat, light or sound) can
easily travel through:
(a) glass
(b) shiny aluminium
(c) air
(d) empty space.
9 Energy 255
20 The information in the table below indicates how home

appliances transform electrical energy into light or sound
energy.
Appliance
Transform
electrical energy
into light energy
Transform
electrical energy
into sound energy
Hair dryer
Television
Desk lamp
Home computer
Light globe
rm
l energy into lig
ht
sfor
Tran
m electric
al e
n
erg
y
o
int
nd
sou
Tra
ns
fo
The same information can be represented in a Venn

diagram as shown below.
ca
ctri
ele
Desk lamp
Light globe
Television
Home
Computer
Hair dryer
Vacuum cleaner
Airconditioner
4 A conversation is measured by a data logger to have a

loudness of 60 dB. An ambulance siren passes by and is
recorded at 90 dB. How much louder is the siren than the
conversation?
A 1000 times
B 300 times
C 100 times
D 30 times
(1 mark)
5 Describe some of the technologies involving sound that
have been developed by scientists. Explain how these
technologies have benefited society.
(6 marks)
work
sheets
The overlapping section of the Venn diagram contains the

appliances that transform electrical energy into both light and
sound energy.
Convert the information in the table completed in

question 15 into a labelled Venn diagram.
256
(1 mark)
3 The energy transformations that occur when an electric

kettle boils water are
A electrical energy to heat energy and kinetic energy.
B potential energy to heat energy.
C electrical energy to kinetic energy.
D potential energy to heat energy and
kinetic energy.
(1 mark)
Airconditioner
1 Energy is defined as
A the ability to do work.
B the temperature of an object.
C the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of an
object.
D the amount of heat an object possesses.
(1 mark)
2 A feature of sound waves is that they
A travel at about 340 m/s through air.
B do not require a medium to travel through.
C consist of troughs and crests.
D travel faster through less dense objects
like liquids than through solids.
Vacuum cleaner
TEST YouRSELF
9.8 Energy puzzles

9.9 Energy summary
stUDY CHECKLIst
Energy transformations
eBook plus
define the term energy 9.1

identify different forms of energy and situations or
ICt
phenomena in which different forms of energy are

evident 9.1
use models to describe different forms of energy
9.1 9.3
identify objects that possess kinetic energy because of
their motion and quantify the kinetic energy 9.1
identify objects that possess gravitational potential
energy and quantify the gravitational potential
energy 9.1
apply the law of conservation of energy to account
for the total energy involved in energy transfers and
transformations 9.1
sUMMaRY
eLessons
Energy in disguise
Did you know that all energy is constantly being transformed
and transferred from one object to another? This eLesson helps
you to discover that there s more going on in your world than
meets the eye as you learn about the different types of energy
and the laws that govern it. A worksheet is attached to further
your understanding.
Heat and temperature

compare the terms heat and temperature 9.2
describe the transfer of heat by conduction, convection
and radiation
9.2
analyse situations in which heat is transferred by one

or more of the following: conduction, convection and
radiation 9.2
investigate the ability of materials to prevent the transfer
of heat 9.2
outline the use of infra-red scanners 9.2
interactivities
Light and sound energy
describe light as a form of energy not requiring a
medium for propagation
9.3
contrast luminous and non-luminous objects 9.3

describe sound as a form of energy requiring a medium
for propagation 9.3
investigate and compare the pitch and frequency of
sounds 9.3
describe the function of the human ear in hearing 9.3
identify structures in the human ear involved in hearing
and outline the process of hearing 9.3
Coaster
This interactivity helps you apply your knowledge of energy to
an amusement ride. Identify the positions in a roller-coaster
ride where the car would have more kinetic energy and where
it would have more gravitational energy. Instant feedback is
provided.

explain how the bionic ear can assist the hearing
impaired
9.4
outline some applications of ultrasound technology 9.4
9 Energy 257
10
Body systems part 1
As you sit
reading this book,
many complex
processes are
taking place inside your body. Your
cells are burning up glucose to release
energy. Oxygen and nutrients are
being delivered to every part of your
body and waste products are being
removed from your cells. Your blood
is transporting substances throughout
your body and the specialised organs
that make up your body systems are
working together to keep you alive.

10.1
describe respiration and explain how it
keeps organisms alive

10.2
distinguish between unicellular and
multicellular organisms and explain

why multicellular organisms require
specialised organs and systems
identify body systems and organs and
learn how substances move in and out
of cells
10.3
investigate the structure of the
respiratory system and the function of

its organs
10.4
outline the causes of asthma
10.5
explore the links between smoking and
cancer
10.6
describe the role, structure and
function of organs of the circulatory

system
describe the components of blood and
outline their function
10.7
learn about the heart and blood
pressure
10.8
describe some technological advances
in medicine.
Your blood transports oxygen, nutrients

and waste products around your body
and helps protect it from disease.
Know your type

In this chapter you will learn
about blood and the important
substances it carries around the
body. How much do you already
know about blood? Do you know
your own blood type, for example,
and why your blood type is
important?
The ABO grouping system
divides blood into four groups:
A, B, AB and O. Also, a person s
blood can be either positive (+)
or negative ( ) based on whether
their blood contains a particular
factor, called the Rhesus factor.
The following table shows the
percentage of the population with
each blood type.
O+ O A+ A B+ B AB+ AB
Blood type
Percentage
40 9 31 7
of pop. (%)
If you need a blood transfusion,

it is very important to know your
blood type and that of the donor
because some blood types cannot
be mixed. If the wrong types are
mixed, the blood cells may clump
together and cause fatal blockages
O
Donors blood
A
B
AB
Patients blood
O
A
B
AB
Blood types are compatible
these blood types can be mixed.
Blood types are not compatible
these blood types clump together if
mixed.
in blood vessels. The table below

shows which blood types can be
mixed and which cannot.
Know your body

1. Identify which blood type is the
most common. Which is the
least common?
2. Identify which blood group(s),
A, B, AB or O, can be accepted
by (a) all blood groups,
(b) blood group AB and
(c) blood group A.
3. Identify which blood group,
A, B, AB or O, can receive
transfusions from all blood
types.
4. Find out what happens if an
Rh-negative mother has an
Rh-positive child. Does this
affect her future children?
5. Find out what happens when
people donate their blood at
a blood bank. How often can
you donate blood, how long
does it take and how much
blood do they take? Summarise
your findings in a brochure,
storyboard, PowerPoint
presentation or cartoon.
6. (a) Some people have religious
grounds for disagreeing
with the use of blood
transfusions. Imagine a fouryear-old child with a lifethreatening condition. Her
parents will not allow her to
have the blood transfusion
that she needs. What should
the doctors do? Discuss this
with your team and report
your decision to the class.
If there are any differences
of opinion, organise a class
debate on the issue.
(b) Would your response be

different if the child was
18 years old and wanted
the blood transfusion but
her parents would not
allow it?
7. A day after donating blood, a
person finds that they have an
infectious disease that can be
transmitted by blood. What
should they do? Discuss this
with your team, giving reasons
for your opinions.
8. Working in small groups, each
group lays out a long piece
of butcher s paper on the
classroom floor. One student
lies down on the paper, face
up, with their arms slightly
away from their body. Another
student from the group uses a
marker pen or pencil to trace
around the outline of the
student lying on the paper.
(a) Combining your group s
knowledge, draw the
following organs where you
think they belong in the
body outline and show what
you think is their shape and
approximate size: lungs,
heart, intestines, kidneys,
ovaries, stomach, liver,
pancreas, bladder, brain.
(b) Use reference books to
check how close you were
to the actual location and
shape of the organs. Did
you draw any organs in
completely the wrong place?
Were you about right in the
sizes you estimated for the
organs?
work
sheet
10.1 Blood types
10.1
Energy for living

All living things need energy. This
energy is generated by a process
called respiration.
Respiration is a chemical
reaction in which glucose reacts
with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water. Energy is also
released. This can be written as a
word equation:
glucose + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water + energy
or as a symbol or formula equation:
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
Respiration occurs inside cells

in organelles called mitochondria.
Mitochondria are found in both
plant and animal cells. Cells that
have a high energy requirement
contain more mitochondria than
cells that require less energy.
The muscle cells in your legs, for
example, have lots of mitochondria.
Mitochondrion
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Respiration occurs in the mitochondria
of cells.
260
Where does the glucose come from?

In animals, the glucose comes
from the food the animal eats.
The digestive system breaks
down the food into small
molecules including glucose.
The glucose travels through the
bloodstream to our cells and can
pass through the cell membrane
into the cytoplasm.
In plants, the glucose is
produced by photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is the process
where plants use sunlight to
change carbon dioxide and water
into glucose and oxygen. The
glucose is made in the leaves
and travels to all parts of plants
in special tubes called phloem
tubes.
Where does the oxygen come
from? Oxygen comes from the air
for land organisms and from the
water for aquatic organisms. In
humans, oxygen enters our bodies
via our lungs. It then diffuses
through the walls of the alveoli in
our lungs, into our bloodstream,
and it is taken to all the cells of the
body.
Some aquatic animals take in
oxygen through their gills, others
through their skin. Plants produce
oxygen when they photosynthesise.
If they need to take in additional
oxygen, it enters the plant through
small holes in the leaves and stem.
Respiration also produces the
waste products carbon dioxide and
water. Our lungs excrete (get rid of)
the carbon dioxide. We use some of
the water produced by respiration
for various processes in the body,
but some of it may also be excreted
via the skin (as sweat) or via the
kidneys (as urine).
Diabetes mellitus is a group of

diseases that affect the way your
body uses blood sugar (glucose).
Usually glucose is able to enter your
cells because of the action of insulin.
Insulin is made in the pancreas. If
you have diabetes, glucose cannot
get into your cells. It stays in your
blood. It then shows up in your urine.
This happens either because your
body does not make enough insulin,
or your cells do not allow glucose
to enter. Too much glucose in your
blood can damage almost every
major organ in your body. This then
leads to death.
There are different forms of
diabetes. Type 1 diabetes usually
starts in childhood and type 2
diabetes usually starts later in
life. By eating correctly, having a
healthy weight and getting lots of
exercise, you have less chance of
getting adult-onset diabetes. If you
have diabetes, diet and exercise
are important. Also, watching your
glucose level and using medicine
to control blood sugar can help you
have a healthy life.
A little history
How do we know about respiration and the need for oxygen to survive?
It s all thanks to the work of some very clever scientists from the past.
Some of their work is discussed on this page.
Robert Boyle (1627 91) showed

that something in air was needed
to keep animals alive as well as
to keep a candle burning. He
carried out experiments in which
he put various items inside jars
inverted over water to ensure that
no air could enter the jar. When
he placed a burning candle inside
a sealed jar, the candle went out.
When he placed a small animal
inside the sealed jar, the animal
became unconscious. If he put
air back into the jar, the animal
sometimes revived.
Lit candle
Candle goes out.
Mouse with green

plant survives.
Small animal
alive
After some time,

small animal
becomes
unconscious.
Robert Boyle showed that something in air was needed

to keep a candle burning and an animal alive.
Priestley s experiment
Burning candle
floating on cork
After a short while,

candle goes out.
Add green plant.
Later the candle

can burn again.
Joseph Priestley (1733 1804) took Boyle s experiment

one step further. Like Boyle, he put a candle in a jar
inverted over some water and the candle went out. He
then introduced a living plant inside the same jar without
letting any air in. After a few days, he was able to relight
the candle and found it could burn for a short time. This
showed that the living plant could produce the substance
that was needed for the candle to burn (oxygen).
Priestley also set up an experiment with an animal inside
a sealed jar with a plant. In another sealed jar he placed
the same animal but no plant. Only the animal living in the
jar that contained the plant survived. The plant must have
produced something that the animal needed to survive
(oxygen again!).
Mouse alone dies.
Joseph Priestley showed that plants produce the substance

needed to keep a flame burning and an animal alive.
Lid
Hole to allow oxygen in

Insulating layer
Antoine Lavoisier (1743 94) also contributed to our

understanding of respiration. He showed that respiration was
a process that produces heat, just like burning (combustion).
He placed a guinea pig in a calorimeter, a device designed
to measure the amount of heat released when a substance
burns. A picture of the calorimeter used by Lavoisier is shown
on the right. Lavoisier measured the amount of ice that melted
in order to calculate the amount of heat released by the
guinea pig as it respired.
Guinea pig placed here

Ice placed here
Water drips out here

Lavoisier used this calorimeter (shown here cut away
to reveal the inside) to show that respiration releases
heat energy. He placed the guinea pig inside the
basket and surrounded it with ice, which melted and
ran out of the funnel.
10 Body systems
part 1
261
Activities
INVESTIGATION 10.1
Candle in the jar
You will need:
birthday candle
Blu-Tack
heatproof mat
glass jars or glasses of different
sizes (such as jam or instant
coffee jars)
stopwatch
measuring cylinder
graph paper
Using the Blu-Tack, attach
the birthday candle to the

heatproof mat.
Light the candle.
Invert one of the glass jars over
the candle and time how long it

takes for the candle to go out.
Repeat this, using jars of
different sizes.
Measure the volume of each
jar by filling the jar with water

and emptying the water into a
measuring cylinder.
DISCUSSION
1
Draw up a table like the

one below to record your
results.
Jar
number
262
Time
taken for
candle(s)
to go out
REMEMBER
1 Write down the word equation for
photosynthesis.
2 Identify the part of the cell where
respiration occurs.
3 (a) Recall the substances needed
for respiration.
(b) Outline how humans take
these in.
4 (a) Recall the waste products
formed by respiration.
(b) Outline how humans get rid
of these substances.
5 Identify which of the following
statements are correct. Rewrite
any incorrect statements to make
them correct.
(a) All living things respire.
(b) Plants respire at night and
photosynthesise during the
day.
(c) Respiration releases energy.
(d) Photosynthesis releases
energy.
(e) The waste products from
respiration are glucose and
carbon dioxide.
(f) Photosynthesis produces
carbon dioxide gas.
(g) When a candle burns, it
uses up oxygen gas.
(h) Animals that live in water
do not need oxygen to survive.
THINK
Jar
volume
(mL)
Plot a line graph showing

jar volume on the horizontal
axis and the time taken for
the candle to go out on the
vertical axis.
Is there a relationship
between the size of the jar
and the time taken for the
candle to go out? Explain
your answer.
6 Study the diagram on page 261

showing Priestley s experiment.
(a) Explain why there was water
at the bottom of the jar and in
the container that the jar was
sitting in.
(b) If Priestley had tried to
relight the candle as soon as
he had put the plant in the jar,
would it have stayed alight?
Explain your answer.
(c) If the plant was dead, would
the experiment have worked?
(d) Would Priestley s
experiment have produced
the same results if it had
been carried out inside a dark
room? Explain your answer.
(e) In the part of the diagram
with the mice, which of the
two jars (left or right) is the

control?
7 Study the picture of Antoine
Lavoisier s calorimeter on
page 261.
(a) How did Lavoisier ensure
that oxygen could enter the
chamber where the guinea
pig was placed?
(b) Explain why it was
necessary to have very good
insulation between the layer
of ice and the outside of the
container.
(c) Extension. Ice melts at 0 C.
It takes 4.2 joules of energy
to heat 1 mL of water by
1 C. The ice started out at a
temperature of 4 C. After
the guinea pig had been left in
the calorimeter for 30 minutes,
50 mL of water was collected.
Calculate the amount of heat
released by the guinea pig.
INVESTIGATE
8 Lavoisier, Boyle and Priestley used
animals in their experiments. What
procedure must scientists follow
today if they want to use animals
in experiments? Justify why such
procedures are necessary.
9 The type of respiration described
on page 260 is aerobic respiration.
Anaerobic respiration is another
type of respiration. Use resource
materials or the internet to find
the answers to the following
questions.
(a) Outline the difference
between aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
(b) Write a word equation for:
(i) the type of anaerobic
respiration that occurs in
your muscles when you
sprint
(ii) fermentation (another type
of anaerobic respiration).
(c) What is lactic acid? Outline
why it is important to athletes.
(d) What type of organisms
carry out fermentation?
Identify some foods and drinks
made using fermentation as
part of the manufacturing
process?
work
sheet
10.2 Cellular respiration
10.2
All systems go
In chapter 5, pages 127 8, you learned that there are
unicellular and multicellular organisms. Unicellular
organisms are made up of one cell only. That one cell
must do all the jobs needed to keep the organism
alive. Unicellular organisms are very small so the
substances they need, such as oxygen and glucose,
can simply diffuse into the cell from its surroundings.
Waste products can diffuse out of the cell and into the
surroundings.
Carbon dioxide out
Oxygen in
Other waste
products out
Glucose and
other useful
substances in
Oxygen and other useful substances diffuse into cells and waste
products diffuse out of cells.
Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells.

Some multicellular organisms, such as flatworms and
sea lettuce, are so thin that most of their cells are in
direct contact with their surroundings. Oxygen can
diffuse from the water in which they live directly into

their cells. Carbon dioxide can diffuse out of their
cells into the water.
For larger animals with many layers of cells, things
are not so simple. Many of their cells are not in direct
contact with their surroundings. In humans, for
example, most cells are deep underneath our skin.
How do oxygen and nutrients reach these cells? How
do these cells remove their waste products and where
does the waste go?
Most multicellular organisms are very complex and
contain a number of systems that work together to
keep the organism alive. For example:
the respiratory system takes in oxygen and gets rid
of carbon dioxide
the digestive system breaks down food into particles
that are small enough to pass through the walls of
the intestines and into the bloodstream
the circulatory system carries these nutrients, as well
as oxygen, to all cells in the body. It also carries
waste away from cells and takes it to organs that
can excrete (get rid of) this waste.
Systems consist of organs. For example, the organs
that make up the digestive system include the
stomach, oesophagus, pancreas, intestines and liver.
Organs are made up, in turn, of different types of
tissues. Your heart is an organ and it contains cardiac
muscle tissue, blood, connective tissue and adipose
tissue (fat). Tissues are made up of cells, and cells,
in turn, are made up of molecules, which consist of
atoms joined together.
A flatworm (above) and sea lettuce (right) are examples of

multicellular organisms that are so thin they do not require
complex organs and systems to keep them alive.
10 Body systems
part 1
263
All matter in the

universe is made
up of atoms.
A group of atoms is
called a molecule.
An organelle is made up of
thousands of molecules.
Cells are the basic

building blocks of all
living things. They
contain different types of
organelles.
The central nervous

system consists of
the brain and the
spinal cord.
Connecting
nerves
(peripheral
nervous system)
Groups of cells that do a specialised

job are called tissues. The smooth
muscle in your body is a tissue.
Organs like the human brain are made

up of different kinds of tissue.
The building blocks of life
264
Several organs working

together make up a system,
such as the central nervous
system and peripheral
nervous system.
Ovaries
Liver
Reproductive
Excretory
Kidney
Testes
Trachea
M
uscles
Muscles
System
Musculoskeletal
Lungs
Respiratory
Skeleton
System
Brain
Blood vessels
Blood
Central nervous
(circulatory)
Spinal cord
Heart
Gall bladder
Eyes
Ears
Digestive
Sensory
Stomach
Nose
Liver
Can you suggest examples for the empty boxes in this mind map?
INVESTIGATION 10.2
You might have heard of people
having a burst lung . That seems to

suggest that lungs are hollow, like
balloons. Slice through one of the
lungs to find out if it really is hollow.
Exploring organs
You will need:
sheeps pluck (heart and lungs)
with part of the liver and trachea
attached
newspaper and tray to place
the pluck on
plastic disposable gloves
balloon pump on vacuum cleaner
Carefully observe the sheep s heart,
Cut through the heart and liver to
find out if they are hollow.
DISCUSSION
1
Copy and complete the table

below in your workbook.
Which major blood vessels can

be seen?
Where does the air go when the

lungs blow up?
What happens to the lungs when

air is blown in?
Why does the heart need to be

hollow?
Explain why there are rings of

cartilage around the trachea.
Use reference books to nd out

the function of the liver.
lungs, liver and trachea.

Push a piece of rubber tubing into
the trachea until it reaches one of

the lungs. Using a balloon pump or
a vacuum cleaner in reverse mode,
blow some air into the trachea.
CAUTION For hygiene reasons, it is not
recommended that you use your mouth
to blow air into the tube inserted in the
trachea.
Cut off a small piece of lung, liver
and heart. Place each in a beaker

full of water. Which one floats?
Why?
Phew . . . Garlic breath! Have you

ever heard someone say this? Garlic
or onion breath comes from further
down than your mouth! It has travelled
through a number of your body
systems. After you have eaten food
containing either of these, and it has
been digested, it is absorbed through
the walls of your intestines and then
into your blood. When the smelly onion
or garlic blood reaches your lungs
through your circulatory system, you
breathe out the smelly gas.
Organ
Shape (sketch)
Approx. size
Colour
System to
which this
organ belongs
Liver
Lung
Heart
Trachea
10 Body systems
part 1
265
Investigate which of these systems are found in:

(a) an earthworm
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Outline how unicellular organisms take in oxygen and
nutrients.
2 Copy and complete the following statements.
(a) A molecule is made up of
together.
are the small parts inside cells.
(b)
(c)
joined
are made up of groups of cells that

carry out a specialised job.
are made up of different types of
(d)
tissues.
(e) Organs work together to make up a

(f) The
to keep it alive.
(b) an ant
in an organism work together
THINK
3 Classify each of the following as a type of cell (C),
tissue (T), organ (O) or system (S).
Eye
Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Heart
White blood cell
Liver
Skin
Skin cells
Brain
Neuron (nerve cell)
Circulatory system
Intestine
(c) a jellyfish.
4 Identify which body system has the function of:

(a) detecting stimuli
(b) supporting and moving the body
(c) taking in oxygen and getting rid of carbon dioxide
(d) conducting messages from one part of the body to
another.
INVESTIGATE
5 The following systems are found in the human body.
Digestive
Musculoskeletal
Endocrine
Nervous
Circulatory
Respiratory
Reproductive
Immune
266
work
sheet
10.3 Organ systems
10.3
Breathe in, breathe out

Breathe in deeply . . . Now breathe
out. You have just introduced some
extra oxygen into your body and
removed some unwanted carbon
dioxide. You do this about 15 20
times per minute without thinking.
The muscle movements required
for breathing are automatic and
controlled by the respiratory centre
in the brain.
When you breathe in, you take
in the mixture of gases called air.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are
gases found in the air around you.
Oxygen makes up about 21 per
cent of the air, while carbon
dioxide makes up only about
0.04 per cent. Your body uses some
of the oxygen you take in. The
table at right shows that the air
that you breathe out contains less
oxygen and more carbon dioxide
than the air you breathe in. The

percentages in the table are
approximate and vary a little with
weather conditions and height
above sea level.
The air that you breathe enters
your body through your nose
and mouth. Unless your nose
is clogged up by a cold, it is the
most important airway. The hairs
and sticky mucus in your nose
trap dust and dirt and other
harmful material such as diseasecausing bacteria. Breathing in
through your mouth gets the air
in faster but without being filtered
The water vapour that you breathe

out carries heat away from your body
and helps you to control your body
temperature. You lose about 500 mL
of water each day by breathing out
water vapour.
by the nose. When you play

sport, your body uses oxygen
more quickly and it is often
necessary to breathe in through
your mouth, bypassing the filter
system in your nose.
What goes in and what comes out

Gas
Oxygen (%)
Carbon
dioxide (%)
Air breathed in
21
0.04
Air breathed out
16
(a)
Water
vapour (%)
Nitrogen (%)
usually <1%
78
78
(b)
Epiglottis
Oesophagus
(food pipe)
Trachea
Capillaries
Bronchi
Alveoli
Lungs
Bronchioles
(a) Organs of the respiratory

system with (b) a portion of the
lung expanded to show details
10 Body systems
part 1
267
Going down?
Direction of
blood flow
After entering your body, the air moves into a narrow

tube called the trachea, which is more commonly
known as the windpipe. At the top of this tube is a
flap of tissue called the epiglottis. The job of this tissue
is to stop food from going down into your lungs. If
food does manage to pass it and go down the wrong
way , a cough soon brings it back up again.
The trachea divides into two narrower tubes called
the bronchi. Each of these tubes leads to a lung.
Inside the lung, each tube divides into many smaller
tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles branch
out, getting smaller and smaller until they end at
thousands of tiny air sacs called alveoli.
Air moves
in and out
Oxygen
Alveolus
(air sac)
Carbon
dioxide
What happens in an alveolus?

An alveolus is full of air. There are many small blood
vessels called capillaries that run over the surface of
the alveoli. The walls of the alveoli and the walls of
the capillaries are very thin. Oxygen passes through
these walls from the alveolus into the blood. Carbon
dioxide goes in the opposite direction. This is an
example of diffusion.
When a substance diffuses across a membrane,
it moves in the direction that will even out the
concentration on both sides of the membrane. In the
lungs, the concentration of oxygen is higher inside the
alveoli than in the blood so oxygen diffuses out of the
alveoli and into the blood inside the capillaries.
(a) Breathing in
Air
Trachea
Direction of
blood flow
Capillary
In an alveolus, oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide

diffuses out of the blood.
The concentration of carbon dioxide is greater in

the capillaries than in the alveoli, so carbon dioxide
moves out of the bloodstream and into the alveoli so
that it can be breathed out.
The movement of a muscle called the diaphragm
helps the lungs do their job by sucking in and pushing
out air. The diagram below shows how this happens.
(b) Breathing out
Air
Trachea
Rib cage
Rib cage
Heart
Heart
Lung
Lung
Lung
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
(a) Breathing in.
The diaphragm tightens, allowing the lungs to expand,
and the air is sucked in.
268
(b) Breathing out.

The diaphragm relaxes, making the lungs smaller,
and the air is pushed out.
Lung
Air sucked in
Air blown out
Lung capacity
Blu-Tack to ensure
good seal
Although adults can breathe out

up to 5 litres of air with each
breath, they usually breathe out
only about half a litre. The largest
volume of air that you can breathe
in or out at one time is called your
vital capacity.
Lid has hole

drilled in it.
Straw
Sticky tape to
ensure good seal
Balloon
inflates
(blows up).
Balloon
deflates
(goes down).
Balloon
Sticky tape
or rubber band
Cut off top of a
balloon to make
a rubber sheet .
A model lung. When the rubber sheet at the

bottom is pulled down, the pressure inside the
jar drops and air is sucked into the balloon.
The balloon inflates (blows up).
Balloon
allowed to relax
Balloon
pulled down
Use the table at the bottom to determine your
INVESTIGATION 10.3
approximate vital capacity in litres.
Measuring your vital capacity
Release the air from the balloon and repeat your
measurement of vital capacity three more times. Average

your results to get your best estimate of the maximum
blow-out of your lungs.
You will need:

balloon
ruler
Blow up a balloon to about 20 cm in diameter two or
DISCUSSION
three times to stretch it. Release the air each time.

Take the biggest breath you can, then blow out all the air
Why were you asked to stretch the balloon rst?
you can into the balloon. Tie up the end of the balloon to
hold in your blown out air.
Why did you measure your vital capacity four times?
(a) Draw up a table with the following headings.
Use a ruler to measure the diameter of the balloon as
shown below.
Name
Ruler
Approximate diameter
measurement
Balloon
Male or
female?
Does this student

play a wind
instrument?
Lung
capacity (L)
(b) Collect results from all the students in your class

and complete the table.
(c) Calculate the average lung capacity for all the
girls and all the boys. Do girls have a bigger or
smaller lung capacity than boys in your class?
(d) Calculate the average lung capacity for all
the students in your class who play a wind
instrument. Compare that with the average value
for the other students in the class. Does playing a
wind instrument have an effect on lung capacity?
Hold balloon here.
Flat surface
(e.g. table)
How to measure the diameter of the balloon

4
Determining vital capacity
Suggest another way of measuring the amount of air

exhaled with each breath.
Balloon diameter (cm)
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Approx. vital capacity

(litres)
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.8
2.1
2.6
3.0
3.6
4.2
4.8
10 Body systems
part 1
269
Whales, like all other mammals,

have lungs. Unlike fish, they need
to swim to the surface every so
often to take in a huge breath of air.
Large whales blow out then suck in
about 2000 litres of air through
one or two nostrils on the top of
their head. They need only about
two seconds at the surface to do
this. The air blown out contains a lot
of water vapour and forms a cloud
or spout that can shoot up to eight
metres into the air.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 List all of the parts that a molecule
of oxygen must go through when
travelling from the air into your
bloodstream.
2 Describe the job done by each
of the following parts of the
respiratory system.
(a) epiglottis
(b) diaphragm
(c) alveoli
(d) lungs
THINK
3 The terms breathing and
respiration are often confused
with each other. Differentiate
between these two terms.
4 When you breathe out onto a
window on a cloudy day it fogs up.
(a) Identify the substance that
makes the window fog up.
(b) Is the same substance
breathed out on warm days? If
so, why doesn t the window fog
up?
5 Some people describe the
structure of the lungs as an
upside-down, hollowed-out tree.
Identify which parts of the lungs the
following parts might represent.
(a) Trunk
(b) Branches
270
(c) Twigs
(d) Leaves
6 Study the diagram of the model
lung on page 269 and answer these
questions.
(a) Identify the organs or body
parts that the following parts of
the model represent.
(i) Straw
(ii) Rubber sheet
(iii) Balloon inside bottle
(iv) Plastic bottle
(b) Copy and complete the
following paragraph.
When you pull down on the
rubber sheet, the space
inside the bottle becomes
. There is
still the same number of
air particles in that space
so the air particles move
.
further
This makes the air
pressure inside the bottle
and it causes
air to be
the straw.
When the rubber sheet is let
inside
go, the
the bottle returns to its original
size and air is
of the straw.
(c) Explain why alveoli and
capillaries need to have very
thin walls.
7 A year 8 student wrote in her exam

paper: Humans breathe in oxygen
and breathe out carbon dioxide .
Her teacher wrote: That s not
entirely correct. If that were true,
then mouth-to-mouth resuscitation
could not keep a person alive .
(a) Rewrite the statement made
by the year 8 student so that it
is correct.
(b) Justify the teacher s comment.
(c) If you breathed in air
that had a lower oxygen
concentration than your blood,
describe what would happen in
your alveoli.
INVESTIGATE
8 Find out what a spirometer is.
9 Research then write half a page
to explain how high altitudes affect
your breathing.
CREATE
10 Construct a model lung as shown in
the diagram on page 269. You can
use the following items:
two clear 1-litre plastic bottles
with tops
four balloons
two plastic drinking straws
rubber bands or very sticky tape
plasticine or Blu-Tack
scissors.
work
sheet
10.4 Breathing
constructing a report
10.4
Short of breath?
If you do not suffer from asthma,
it is very likely that you know
someone who does. Asthma is a
very common condition that affects
about one in seven Australian
adolescents. About one in ten, or
10 per cent, of adults are affected.
Young children are the greatest
sufferers of asthma, with one in
four affected. One alarming fact
about asthma is that the number
of people who suffer from it has
doubled in the last 30 years. The
reasons for this increase are not
clear but you might have some
ideas of your own after reading this
information.
What is asthma?
Asthma is a narrowing of the air
pipes that join the mouth and
nose to the lungs. The pipes most
affected are the bronchi. They
become narrower as:
the muscle wall of the air pipes
contracts
the lining of the air pipes swells
too much mucus is produced.
Normal
Muscles contract
Lining swells
Too much mucus

produced
Asthma is a narrowing of the air pipes.
The narrow pipes make

breathing difficult and can result
in wheezing, coughing and a tight
feeling in the chest. The coughing
is usually worse at night.
What causes asthma?

It is not known why some people
get asthma and others do not. It
seems that it can be inherited, but
many people from families without
a history of asthma are affected.
Asthma is certainly the result of
sensitive airways. An asthma attack
occurs when those sensitive airways
are triggered. If the sufferer has
a cold, the airways are already
inflamed and are more likely to be
triggered.
Triggers
Some of the common triggers of an
asthma attack are:
vigorous exercise
cold weather
cigarette smoke
dust and dust mites
moulds
pollen
air pollution
some foods and food additives
some animals.
Not all asthma sufferers are
affected by the same triggers. Some
people suffer attacks only as a
result of exercise. Others might be
affected by any one or more of the
triggers. It is important that those
who get asthma try to find out
what triggers the attacks. Many of
the triggers can be avoided.
Controlling the triggers

The best way to control asthma
is to avoid the triggers. Of course,
it is not always possible to

identify the triggers. People who
are affected by cold weather,
pollen or air pollution may even
move to other places to avoid
their triggers.
Pollen from some grasses and
trees is very light and becomes
airborne on even slightly windy
days. The inhaling of pollen
can be reduced by avoiding
outdoor activities and keeping
windows and doors closed on
breezy spring days. Moulds live
in warm, humid conditions and
thrive in bathrooms, kitchens and
bedrooms. Their spores are easily
breathed in, triggering attacks in
some asthma sufferers. Moulds
can be reduced by airing the house
regularly.
Pollen and moulds are also the
main triggers of hay fever. Hay
fever clogs up the nose in much
the same way as asthma affects the
air pipes. It causes sneezing and a
runny nose.
Those asthma sufferers whose
attacks are triggered by air
pollution are warned to remain
indoors as much as possible and
avoid vigorous activity on smoggy
days. If tobacco smoke is a trigger,
the cigarette smoke of others needs
to be avoided.
Dust mites are a common trigger
of asthma attacks. Dust mites are
microscopic animals that live in
their thousands in warm, moist
and dark places like doonas,
sheets, pillows, carpets and
curtains (see photograph on the
next page). Dust mite droppings
float in the air and are easily
inhaled.
10 Body systems
part 1
271
The hygiene theory

Dust mites thrive best in bedding and
carpets because these contain plenty
of dead human skin cells. Humans
shed a complete layer of dead skin
cells every month. That amounts to
about 1 kilogram of skin cells each
year. In fact, most of the dust in your
house consists of dead skin cells.
A house dust mite
There has been a dramatic increase in the number of children diagnosed

with asthma over recent years. One theory that some scientists have
proposed to explain this is the hygiene theory. According to this theory,
diseases such as asthma, eczema, hay fever and some other allergies
might be increasing because children are being brought up in an
environment that is too clean. If children are not exposed to enough
germs as children, their immune system (the system that ghts off germs
that invade the body) does not develop properly. The result is that
sometimes the immune system will mistake harmless substances (such
as pollen) for nasty germs and go into full attack mode when exposed to
these.
these The result is an asthma attack or an allergic reaction.
The following data have been used to support this theory.
Children who grow up on farms (where there are a lot more germs)
are less likely to get asthma than children who grow up in cities. The
more children are exposed to the faeces (poo) of animals, the less
likely they are to get asthma.
children who live in a house where there is a pet (a source of
Young
Y
germs) are less likely to develop asthma.
Children who go to day care or have older brothers and sisters are less
likely to get asthma than children who are not exposed to the germs of
other children.
At
A present, the hygiene theory is just that a theory. That means
scientists are not sure whether it is correct or not. Further scientic
studies may either support or disagree with this theory. For now, many
doctors are advising parents that allowing toddlers to play in the dirt may
be doing their health some good.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Describe what happens to the air pipes to the lungs
during an asthma attack to make breathing difcult.
2 Explain why an asthma attack is more likely to be
triggered in a person with a cold.
3 Dene the term asthma trigger.
(b) Write down two hypotheses suggesting why

there has been a sharp increase in the incidence of
asthma.
(c) Outline how each of your hypotheses could be
tested.
6 Explain why it is unlikely that you would ever rid a house
completely of dust mites.
7 (a) In a group, brainstorm ideas about the common
triggers of asthma and how they can be controlled.
(b) Summarise your discussion in a table similar to the
one below.
THINK AND DISCUSS

4 If you were part of an audience of 1400 students
in a concert hall for a music excursion, calculate
how many of them would be likely to be asthma
sufferers.
(Hint: Use the information on the previous page.)
5 The number of people who suffer from asthma has
doubled in the last 30 years. The hygiene theory is just
one possible explanation for this.
(a) Outline some other possible reasons why the
number of people suffering from asthma has
increased so dramatically.
272
Trigger
Moulds
How the trigger can be controlled

Air the house regularly.
INVESTIGATE
8 What is the difference between a hypothesis, a theory
and a law? Give an example of each.
9 Find out the two major types of asthma medication.
Outline how they differ from each other.
10.5
Up in smoke
About 18 000 Australians die each year as a result
of diseases caused by smoking. In fact, smoking is
the largest preventable cause of death and disease
in Australia.
Just one cigarette

There are clearly many long-term effects of smoking.
However, the diagram below shows what happens to
you after smoking just one cigarette.
There are some more obvious effects such as bad
breath, body odour and watery eyes. After several
cigarettes, your teeth and fingers become stained.
Your sense of taste is reduced. Even your stomach is
affected as acid levels increase.
Smoking and your lungs

Lung cancer is the most well-known disease caused
by smoking. Chemicals that cause cancer are called
carcinogens. Cigarette tobacco contains a number
of carcinogens. The chemicals in cigarettes also clog
up the fine hairs in your air tubes with a mixture of
mucus and foreign chemicals.
(a)
Coughing is the body s way of trying to clear the air

tubes. However, not all of the clogging can be cleared
by coughing. The dirty mixture remains in the air
tubes, causing swelling, making them sensitive and
slowing down the passage of air. Eventually the sticky
mixture sinks down into the lungs, where it blocks
some of the pathways to the alveoli, where freshly
breathed air should deliver oxygen to the blood.
The diseases caused by this blocking process are
called chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, or
COPD. Emphysema is the worst of these diseases and
results in the eventual destruction of the alveoli.
Smoking and lung cancer

It seems hard to believe but there was a time when
people did not know that smoking causes lung cancer.
A number of medical studies now show that there
is a clear link between smoking and the likelihood
of developing lung cancer. The two graphs on the
following page show the results of some of these
studies. Can you make sense of these graphs?
(b)
Acetone
(paint stripper)
Pulse increases
beats by 20 heart
beats per minute.
Blood
pressure
rises.
Muscles and
organs get
less oxygen.
Cyanide
(used in gas chambers)
Tar is the mixture of chemicals
that sticks to the walls of the air
pipes and alveoli.
Skin temperature
drops by up to 5 C.
Methanol
(rocket fuel)
Carbon monoxide is a poisonous

gas that lowers the amount of
oxygen carried by the blood. It is
one of the gases released in car
exhaust.
Arsenic
(termite poison)
Just one
cigarette?
Cadmium
Physical endurance
is reduced.
Butane
Ammonia
(floor cleaner)
Phenol
Vital lung
capacity
decreases.
Vinyl
chloride
Muscle tension
increases.
(a) Some of the health effects of smoking

a cigarette, and (b) the substances in a single cigarette
Nicotine is a poisonous
chemical that causes
addiction to cigarette
smoking. It is often used in
pesticides.
10 Body systems
part 1
273
Graph 2
Graph 1
Graph 1: The risk of dying
from lung cancer increases
with the number of
cigarettes smoked daily.
80
4000
Cigarettes smoked
per person per year
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Activities
Cigarette
consumption
(men)
3000
150
Cancer
deaths
(men)
100
2000
50
1000
10
20
30
40
1900
Cigarettes smoked per day
1920
1940
Year
1960
1980
ANALYSE AND EVALUATE

1 The table below shows how the popularity of smoking has changed over the past 50 years or so.
Percentage of adult Australians who smoke
Year
1945
1964
1969
1974
1976
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1998
2004
Males (%)
72
58
45
41
40
40
37
33
30
28
29
26
Females (%)
26
28
28
29
31
31
30
28
27
24
24
20
(a) Construct a line graph of the

data in the table. Use Year
on the x-axis and % of adult
Australians who smoke on the
y-axis. Draw lines for males and
females in different colours.
(b) Suggest why the percentage
of females who smoke has
changed little while the
percentage of males who
smoke has declined greatly.
(c) Use dotted lines to predict the
trends up to the year 2020.
What percentage of males and
females do you predict will be
smoking in the year 2020?
2 Study graph 1 above.
(a) Copy and complete the
following statements:
(i) People who smoke
10 cigarettes a day are
times more
likely to develop lung
cancer than non-smokers.
(ii) People who smoke
30 cigarettes a day are
times more
likely to develop lung
cancer than people who
smoke 10 cigarettes a day.
(b) If a packet of cigarettes costs
$15 and contains 20 cigarettes,
calculate how much a person
274
smoking 40 cigarettes a day

spends on smoking:
(i) each day
(ii) each week
(iii) each year.
3 Study graph 2 above.
(a) Describe how the incidence of
lung cancer changed between
1900 and 1980.
(b) Identify when the number of
male smokers peaked.
(c) Identify when the number of
deaths from lung cancer peaked.
(d) Explain why there is a 20-year
gap between the two numbers.
(e) The graph shows data for male
smokers only. Predict when the
number of cases of lung cancer
in women peaked (use the
graph you drew for question 1
to answer this).
because it was their fault that

they got sick.
(b) Cigarettes should cost more.
The extra money made from
them could then be given
to hospitals to help pay for
treating people with smokingrelated diseases.
(c) Cigarette companies who make
profits from smoking should
be made to pay for hospital
treatment of patients with
diseases caused by smoking.
5 Although smoking is now banned
in many places, including public
transport vehicles, workplaces and
some restaurants, it is still legal.
Propose why smoking has not been
made illegal when it causes so
much damage?
eBook plus
THINK
4 Smoking-related diseases cost
taxpayers many millions of dollars
because hospitals are mostly
paid for by governments. Write
down your opinion of each of the
proposals below. Justify your opinion.
(a) The cost of hospital treatment
for diseases caused by smoking
should be paid by the patient
6 Use the Quit Now weblink in

your eBookPLUS to learn about
the national tobacco campaign.
Create a poster that sends one
single important message about
smoking.
work
sheet
10.5 Smoking and diseases
Lung cancer deaths

(per 100 000 people)
Relative risk of lung cancer
90
Graph 2: This graph shows

that the number of deaths
from lung cancer has risen
as cigarette consumption
has increased but there is
a 20-year lag time because
lung cancer takes many
years to develop.
20-year lag time between

smoking and lung cancer
Smoking increases risk

of lung cancer
10.6
Blood highways
The respiratory system gets oxygen
into our lungs. Once the oxygen is
in the lungs, it needs some way of
getting to all the cells of the body.
That is the job of the circulatory
system. The circulatory system
consists of the heart, the blood
vessels and blood.
Many of the substances carried

around in the blood are dissolved
in the plasma. Nutrients such as
glucose and some waste products,
including carbon dioxide, are
dissolved in the plasma.
Blood by the bucketful

An average-sized human has about
five litres of blood; that s about
a bucketful. It travels around the
body in tubes called blood vessels.
If these vessels were laid end to
end, they would encircle the Earth
two and a half times. These tubes
enable materials in your body to
be transported from one place to
another.
Some of these blood vessels are
called arteries. They have thick,
elastic, muscular walls and carry
blood under high pressure away
from your heart. Some other vessels
are called veins. They have thinner
walls, and valves that prevent the
blood from flowing backwards.
Veins carry blood to the heart.
The most numerous and
smallest blood vessels are called
capillaries. Your body contains
about 1 000 000 km of capillaries,
which penetrate almost every
tissue. No cell is very far away from
one. Capillaries are very important
blood vessels because they carry
materials such as oxygen and
nutrients to the cells and remove
wastes including carbon dioxide.
What s in blood?
The liquid part of blood is called
plasma. It is a straw-coloured
liquid and consists mostly of water.
The reason that blood looks red

is that it contains many red blood
cells. In a drop of blood there are
about 300 million red blood cells.
They are red because they contain
a chemical called haemoglobin,
which is red in colour.
The job of red blood cells is

to carry oxygen around the body.
When red blood cells reach the
lungs and oxygen diffuses into
the blood, the oxygen reacts with
the haemoglobin in red blood
cells to form a chemical called
oxyhaemoglobin, which is an
even brighter red. So blood that
contains a lot of oxygen is actually
brighter red than blood that is low
in oxygen.
Red blood cells are very
small so they can fit inside tiny
capillaries. They form from cells
in the bone marrow and, when
mature, they lack a nucleus. This
saves space. They also have a
concave shape. This means that,
for their size, they have a large
surface area that allows them to
carry lots of oxygen.
Red blood cells

have a biconcave
shape
(a)
Vein
Artery
Capillary
(b)
Valve open
Valve closed
The valve is
open when
blood flows
in the
correct
direction.
(a) A cross-section of an artery, a vein and a capillary.
(b) Veins have valves to ensure that blood flows in only one direction.
The valve
ensures
that blood
cannot flow
the wrong
way.
10 Body systems
part 1
275
There are a lot fewer white blood

cells in blood but they are larger
than red blood cells and have a
nucleus. White blood cells have an
irregular shape and are not rigid so
they can squeeze into small blood
vessels. They are involved with
fighting disease. Some white blood
cells engulf (gobble up) germs while
others produce chemicals called
antibodies that attack germs. When
you are sick, the number of white
blood cells in your blood increases.
Platelets are also found in blood.
Platelets help blood to clot if a
blood vessel is cut. This seals up
the cut so that germs cannot get in.
"LOODINMAMMALSCONSISTSOF
0LASMA
Cells
Platelets
(less than 0.01% of blood)
(about 55% of blood)

3ERUM
s PERMM3
s FUNCTION
AIDSINCLOTTING
of blood
&IBRINOGEN
FUNCTION
CONTAINS
CLOTTINGOFBLOOD
s WATER
s PROTEINS
s GASES
2EDBLOODCELLS
7HITEBLOODCELLS
EGCARBON
(about 45% of blood) (less than 0.1% of blood)
DIOXIDE
s NUTRIENTS
s nMILLIONPERMM3 s PERMM3
s WASTEMINERALS
s NONUCLEUS
s NUCLEUSPRESENT
ANDOTHER
s CYTOPLASMWITH
s COLOURLESSCYTOPLASM
SUBSTANCES
HAEMOGLOBIN
s FUNCTION
s FUNCTION
DEFENCEAGAINSTDISEASE
CARRIESOXYGENAND
CARBONDIOXIDE
The components of blood
Activities
REMEMBER
Human blood cells seen through a light
microscope. The white blood cells are
shown as pink, each with a nucleus.
INVESTIGATION 10.4
Viewing blood cells
You will need:
prepared slide of blood smear
microscope
View the prepared slide under
the microscope on high power.

Find a white blood cell on the
slide.
DISCUSSION
1
Sketch a few red blood cells

and one white blood cell.
Estimate how many red

blood cells would t inside
a white blood cell.
276
Estimate the number of

red blood cells that can t
across the eld of view.
1 Outline what blood is and what it

does.
2 Name and describe the types of
blood vessels in which blood
travels around your body.
3 Compare red blood cells, white
blood cells and blood platelets.
4 Explain the advantage of red blood
cells not having a nucleus.
5 Explain why haemoglobin is
important.
6 Why isn t blood the same colour in
all animals?
THINK AND ANALYSE

7 The higher the altitude, the less
oxygen there is in the air. Propose
a reason why people living at high
altitudes usually have more red
blood cells than people living at
low altitudes.
8 The branching diagram above
shows the composition of blood.
Construct a divided bar graph that
shows what proportion of blood
consists of plasma, red blood cells,
white blood cells and platelets.
Insect blood looks a little like raw

eggwhite, because it contains no
pigment. The blood of crabs and
crayfish, however, contains the
pigment haemocyanin. This pigment
has copper in it and is blue when
combined with oxygen. This is different
from haemoglobin in humans, which is
red when combined with oxygen.
9 Copy and complete the following:

There are
times more red blood cells than
white blood cells in blood.
INVESTIGATE
10 Research one of the following
circulation topics and summarise
your findings to the class in a
poster or PowerPoint presentation:
blood transfusions, rhesus
babies, varicose veins, leukaemia,
haemophilia, thrombosis,
embolisms, aneurisms.
11 Find out more about how blood
circulates in insects and lobsters.
DISCUSS
12 With a partner, construct a PMI (see
page 513) for a law that makes it
compulsory for everyone over 16 to
donate blood at least once a year.
10.7
Have a heart
Often linked with emotions, love and courage, the heart has a special
meaning for most of us. In a clinical sense, however, it is merely a pump
about the size of your clenched fist.
Two pumps in one

To be more precise, the human heart is actually two pumps. Veins
bring blood back from all parts of the body to the heart. The veins
join up into a large vein called the vena cava. This vein leads into the
top right chamber of the heart. The blood is then pushed into the
Oxygen in
Lung
Carbon dioxide out

Trachea
Aorta (carries blood to the body)
bottom right chamber. From here

it is pumped out to your lungs
where it picks up oxygen and
becomes more reddish in colour.
It also loses some of the carbon
dioxide from it. The oxygenated
blood then returns to the lefthand side of your heart to be
pumped out again to your body
tissues, where it delivers oxygen
and nutrients. The deoxygenated
blood then returns to the righthand side of the heart for the
cycle to be repeated.
Four chambers
The human heart has four
Pulmonary chambers. The upper two

arteries (to
chambers are called the left
lungs)
atrium and right atrium (plural
Pulmonary = atria), and the lower two

veins (from
chambers are the left ventricle
lungs)
and right ventricle. The two sides

of the heart are different. The
walls of the left side are thicker
and more muscular because they
Left side need to have the power to force
of heart the blood from the heart to the
rest of the body.
Flap-like structures attached
Left
to the heart walls, called valves,
ventricle
prevent the blood from flowing
backwards and keep it going in
one direction. If you listen to
Artery your heart beating you will hear a
lub dub sound. The lub sound
Blood
is due to the valves between the
Capillaries
ventricles and atria shutting. The
Body tissue cells
dub sound is due to the closing
of the valves that separate the
heart from the big blood vessels
that lead to the lungs and the rest
of the body.
Left atrium
Right
atrium
Right side
of heart
Right
ventricle
Body
tissue
cell
Vena
cava
Capillary
wall
The movement of blood through the heart
10 Body systems
part 1
277
The pulmonary valve is

a semilunar valve. It is
between your right ventricle
and your pulmonary artery.
The aortic valve is a
semilunar valve. It
is located between
your left ventricle
and your aorta.
Not all animals have four-chambered

hearts; in fact, some don t have
hearts at all! A fish heart has two
chambers, while amphibians and
reptiles have three-chambered hearts.
Can you suggest any advantages or
disadvantages of these hearts over a
four-chambered mammalian heart?
INVESTIGATION 10.5
Dissect a heart
You will need
sheeps heart preferably with the
blood vessels still attached
dissecting instruments
dissecting board
The left
atrioventricular
(or mitral) valve is a
bicuspid valve; it has two cusps.
It is located between your left
atrium and your left ventricle.
Blood pressure
The heart s pumping action and
the narrow size of the blood vessels
result in a build-up of considerable
pressure in the arteries. The force
with which blood flows through
the arteries is called blood pressure.
It is affected by different activities
and moods. It also goes up and
down as the heart beats, being
highest when the heart contracts
(systolic pressure) and lowest
when the heart relaxes (diastolic
pressure). A person s blood pressure
is expressed as a fraction. This
fraction is the systolic pressure over
the diastolic pressure: for example,
120/70.
Keeping the pace

Each minute that you are sitting
and reading this, about 5 7 litres of
blood completes the entire circuit
around your body and lungs. In
a single day, your heart may have
278
The right atrioventricular

valve is a tricuspid valve;
it has three cusps. It is
situated between your
right atrium and your
right ventricle.
beaten about 100 000 times and

pumped about 7000 litres of blood
around your body.
A normal human heart beats
about 60 100 times a minute, this
rate increasing during exercise or
stress. With each heartbeat, a wave
of pressure travels along the main
arteries. If you put your finger on
your skin just above the artery in
your wrist, you can feel this pulse
wave as a slight throb. Your pulse
rate immediately after exercise can
be used as a guide to your physical
fitness. The fitter you are, the less
elevated your heart rate will be
after vigorous exercise.
The regular rhythmic beating
of the heart is maintained by
electrical impulses from the heart s
pacemaker, which is located in
the wall of the right atrium. Some
people with irregular heartbeats
are fitted with artificial electronic
pacemakers to regulate the heart s
actions and correct abnormal
patterns.
Identify the parts of the heart
using the illustration on the

previous page.
Try to locate where blood
enters and leaves the heart:

(a) to and from the lungs
(b) to and from the rest of the
body.
Sketch and label the heart
and use arrows to show the

direction of blood flow.
Cut the heart in two so that
both halves show the two

sides of the heart (similar to
the illustration on the previous
page).
In a diagram, record your
observations of the thickness

of the walls on the left side of
the heart compared with the
right side.
Suggest reasons for the
differences observed.
Try to locate the valves in the
heart.
DISCUSSION
1 Describe the valves and
suggest their function.

2 Write a summary paragraph
about the structure and

function of the heart.
Try clenching your fist every second for five

minutes. Getting a little tired? The heart is made
up of special muscle called cardiac muscle, which
never tires. Imagine having a cramp or stitch
in your heart after running to catch the bus! Due
to its unique electrical properties, heart muscle
will continue to beat even if it has been removed
from the body. Scientists have shown that even
tiny pieces of this muscle cut from the heart will
continue to beat when they are placed in a test
tube of warm salty solution.
Artery
Oxygen and
nutrients
Blood flow
Connected highways
Blood travels to all parts of the body in the
capillaries. Oxygen and nutrients move out of
the blood and pass through the walls of the
capillaries. Waste products, including carbon
dioxide, are removed from cells and pass
through the walls of the capillaries and into the
bloodstream. The carbon dioxide is removed in
the lungs. Other waste products are filtered out of
the blood as it passes through the kidneys.
Wastes
Body
cells
Blood flow
Vein
In the capillaries, oxygen diffuses out of the blood and waste produced
by cells diffuses into the bloodstream.
Measure your heart rate in beats per minute (bpm)
INVESTIGATION 10.6
by counting the number of times your heart beats in

15 seconds and then multiplying this number by 4.
Check your heart

You will need:
stopwatch
blood pressure monitor
Capillary
(containing
red blood
cells)
Measure your blood pressure using the blood pressure
monitor.
(a)
Go for a walk in the playground or around the school
oval. Measure your heart rate and blood pressure

again.
Find your pulse, either
on the inside of your

wrist or in your neck
(see the illustrations).
Make sure you use two
fingers, not your thumb,
to find your pulse.
Run up and down a flight of stairs. Measure your heart
rate and blood pressure again.

Copy the table below in your workbook and enter your
own results.
(b)
Test
Heart rate
(bpm)
Blood
pressure
(mmHg)
Before exercise
After walking
After running up stairs
DISCUSSION
Two places where your pulse should be easy to find:

(a) radial location (wrist) and (b) carotid location (neck)
What effect does exercise have on heart rate and

blood pressure?
Design and carry out an experiment to test the

following hypothesis: There is a link between a
persons resting heart rate and the number of hours
the person spends exercising each week.
10 Body systems
part 1
279
There are also many capillaries

associated with the intestines.
The digestive system breaks down
food into particles that are small
enough to diffuse through the
walls of the intestines and into
the blood. These nutrients are
then delivered to all cells by the
bloodstream.
Blood also passes through
the liver. Your liver is like a
chemical factory, with more than
500 different functions. Some of
these include sorting, storing and
changing digested food. It removes
fats and oils from the blood and
modifies them before they are
sent to the body s fat deposits for
storage. It also helps get rid of
excess protein, which can form
toxic compounds dangerous to
the body. The liver converts these
protein wastes into urea, which
travels in the blood to the kidneys
for excretion. It also changes other
dangerous or poisonous substances
so that they are no longer harmful
to the body. Your liver is something
you cannot do without.
As the diagram illustrates, your
blood vessels make up a very busy
highway system!
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Contrast the following:
(a) the blood in the two sides of the
heart
(b) the structure of the two sides of
the heart
(c) systolic and diastolic pressure.
2 Explain why there are valves in the
heart.
3 Define the terms systolic blood
pressure and diastolic blood
pressure .
4 (a) Recall how many times a
normal human heart beats
each minute.
280
Head, upper limbs

Pulmonary artery
Aorta
Lung
Lung
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Right
atrium
Left
ventricle
Right
ventricle
Intestines
Liver
Vena
cava
Kidneys, trunk
and lower limbs
Connected highways
the routes for blood
circulation
(b) Outline what might cause the

rate of heartbeats to increase.
(c) Outline how the rhythmic beating
of the heart is maintained.
5 Describe what is unusual about
cardiac muscle.
6 Explain why you can t live without
your liver.
THINK AND CREATE

7 (a) Copy the connected highways
diagram above into your
workbook.
(b) Use a coloured pencil to
show the path taken for a
red blood cell to travel from
the pulmonary vein to the
pulmonary artery, if it goes via

the intestines.
8 Mark the following sites (a, b, c, d)
on your diagram. In which blood
vessel(s) would you expect the
highest:
(a) blood pressure
(b) blood glucose levels
(c) blood carbon dioxide level
(d) oxygen level?
9 List the following in the order that
a red blood cell would reach them
after leaving the aorta.
pulmonary artery, left ventricle,
right atrium, intestine, lung,
pulmonary vein, left atrium, liver,
right ventricle
10 Convert your classroom or

sports oval into a circulatory
highway system . Pretend to
be a red blood cell and travel
along the route it would take
around the body.
12 Interpret the cardiac cycle below to

answer the following questions.
(a) In which stage do the atria
contract?
(b) In which stage do both the atria
and ventricles relax?
11 (a) Read through the information

on pages 277 8 to refresh
your memory on the
structure and function of
your heart.
(b) Construct a flow chart to
show the movement of blood
through your body using the
following labels.
13 Systole is the contraction of your

heart muscle and diastole is the
relaxation of your heart muscle.
Propose what the following might
mean.
(a) Atrial systole
(b) Ventricular systole
(c) Atrial diastole
(d) Ventricular diastole
left atrium, right atrium,

right ventricle, left ventricle,
pulmonary artery, pulmonary
vein, lungs, aorta, vena cava,
from body, to body
INVESTIGATE
14 Hypertension or high blood
pressure has been called the silent
killer . Find out about high blood
pressure and answer the following

questions.
(a) What do doctors consider to be
high blood pressure?
(b) Outline how high blood pressure
can lead to death.
(c) Outline what people with high
blood pressure can do to bring
their blood pressure back to
normal.
eBook plus
15 Test your ability to label the parts of

the heart by completing the Beat it!
int-0210
work
sheets
10.6 Blood and blood highways

10.7 Removing waste from the
blood
Atrial systole, ventricular diastole
Ventricular systole, atrial diastole
Semilunar
valves
closed
Atrioventricular
valves open
0.1 s
Semilunar
valves
open
0.3 s
0.4 s
Atrial and ventricular diastole
Atrioventricular
valves closed
One complete cardiac cycle can take about 0.8 seconds

in an adult human with a pulse of about 75 beats per
minute.
Source: Fig. 42.6, p. 876 from BIOLOGY, 6th ed. by Neil A. Campbell and
Jane B. Reece. Copyright 2002 by Pearsons Education, Inc.
Reprinted by permission.
10 Body systems
part 1
281
10.8

Transport technology
Heart and blood vessel diseases
are the major killers in Australia.
They claim twice as many lives as
cancer and 20 times more than
traffic accidents. Modern medicine
and technology have produced
techniques and procedures that
attempt to minimise the effects
of diseases and disorders of the
circulatory system.
Healthy valve
Diseased valve
Artificial
valve insertion
Faulty heart and vein

valves
As we saw on pages 277 8, the
heart, like many other pumps,
depends on a series of valves
to work properly. These valves
open and close to receive and
discharge blood to and from
the chambers of the heart. They
also stop the blood from flowing
backwards. If any of the four
heart valves becomes faulty, the
function of the heart may be
impaired.
It is now possible to replace
faulty heart valves with artificial
valves like the one shown above.
This requires surgery. The patient
may also need to take medicine
to prevent their blood from
forming clots as it flows through
the artificial valve.
About 15 per cent of Australians aged

between 20 and 65 have hypertension
(high blood pressure). This increases
their chances of developing heart
disease and strokes. To prevent this,
people should maintain a healthy body
weight, take regular exercise and eat
a diet that is low in fat and salt.
282
A faulty heart valve may

be replaced by an artificial valve. Why are the
heart valves so important to the functioning of the heart?
If I only had a heart . . .

The tin man from The Wizard of Oz would have been very happy with
the development of an artificial heart. This mechanical device can be
made of titanium and
plastic. Surgeons also
An artificial heart
implant a small electronic
device in the abdominal
wall to monitor and control
the pumping speed of the
heart. An external battery
is strapped around the
waist and can supply about
4 5 hours of power. An
internal rechargeable battery
is also implanted inside the
wearer s abdomen. This is
so they can be disconnected
from the main battery for
about 30 40 minutes for
activities such as showering.
A heart
but no pulse?
If only the left ventricle is

damaged, and the rest of the
heart is in good working order, a
back-up pump may be implanted
alongside the heart. One model of
these devices results in its wearers
having a gentle whirr rather than
a pulse. This is the sound of the
propeller spun by a magnetic field
to force a continuous stream of
blood into the aorta.
Atria
Ventricles
Contraction
Relaxation
R
T
P
Q S
P
Q S
(a) Normal electrocardiogram
Getting the beat!

An electrocardiogram (ECG) shows
the electrical activity of a person s
heart. ECG patterns are valuable
in diagnosing heart disease or
abnormalities.
To produce the ECG, electrodes
(flat pieces of metal that are
connected to the ECG machine
by wires) are stuck to the skin.
The machine measures the tiny
electrical impulses produced by
the heart as it beats. It produces a
trace similar to the one shown in
the diagram above. An abnormal
trace could indicate that the patient
has arrhythmia. This is a condition
where the heart beats irregularly.
Another reason for an unusual trace
could be a cardiac infarction. In this
condition there is dead tissue in the
heart. The electrical signal cannot
travel through the dead tissue so
the ECG looks abnormal. There
are many other conditions that can
cause an unusual ECG, and doctors
will often follow up an abnormal
ECG with further tests.
Artificial blood
a
reason to support
scientific research
If you lose a lot of blood, you
may need a blood transfusion.
The blood from another person
is injected into your veins to
replace the blood you have lost.
(b) Abnormal electrocardiogram

Electrocardiograms
However, donated blood is always

in short supply and the blood that
is transfused must match your
own blood type. If the person
who donated the blood had an
infection, there is also a risk of
passing on that infection. What s
the solution? Artificial blood.
No-one has quite succeeded as
yet in making a perfect replacement
for blood but a number of teams
of scientists around the world are
working on it. The ideal blood
replacement would be a product
that has a long shelf life, does not
need to be refrigerated, does not
need to match the patient s blood
type and is guaranteed to be free of
disease-causing germs.
A type of artificial blood called
Hemopure has been approved to
treat some cases of severe anaemia
in South African hospitals. It is
made from haemoglobin obtained
either from blood that has passed
its use-by date or from animal
blood. The haemoglobin is
wrapped in certain chemicals so
that it behaves a lot like red blood
cells do and can carry oxygen
around the body.
Hemopure is not an ideal
replacement for donated blood,
and it has not been approved for

human use in Australia. There are
side effects to using this product.
In some countries, including
South Africa, the number of
people infected with HIV (human
immunodeficiency virus) is much
higher than in Australia and
donated blood that is free of the
virus is in very short supply. In
certain instances the benefits of
this blood substitute can thus
outweigh the risks from the side
effects.
Hemopure is a type of artificial blood that

has been approved to treat some cases of
severe anaemia in South Africa.
10 Body systems
part 1
283
Transplant pioneer
If your heart or lungs were not
working properly and you had
needed a heart or lung transplant
in the 1980s, the doctor to see was
Victor Chang.
Victor Chang was an Australian
doctor who was awarded a
Companion of the Order of
Australia for his contribution to
medicine. Dr Chang played an
important role in establishing the
heart transplant unit at St Vincent s
Hospital in Sydney. He set up a
team of 40 health professionals
who were the finest in their field
and developed new procedures and
techniques that led to an improved
rate of success. Of his patients,
92 per cent were still alive one year

after their heart or lung transplant
operation and 85 per cent were
still alive five years later.
The first heart transplant
operation that Victor Chang carried
out at St Vincent s Hospital was in
1984 on a young girl called Fiona
Coote. Fiona is now an adult and,
although she has since needed a
second heart transplant, she owes
her life to Dr Chang.
Dr Victor Chang also developed
an artificial heart valve, called the
St Vincent heart valve, and was
working on developing an artificial
heart. Unfortunately his life was
tragically cut short in 1991 when
he was murdered by gunshot.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall which group of diseases is the major killer in
Australia.
2 Explain why valves are important to the functioning of the
heart.
3 Outline why a patient may have surgery to insert an
artificial valve.
4 Explain what an electrocardiogram is and when is it useful.
5 Describe how an ECG is used to detect heart
abnormalities.
6 Describe how heart valves are similar to the valves in
veins.
7 Outline the features that the ideal artificial blood would
need.
THINK
8 Outline some situations where hospitals would go
through large amounts of donated blood in a short time.
9 Propose why artificial blood might be particularly useful
to army doctors working with soldiers fighting wars.
10 Interpret the electrocardiograms on the previous page to
(a) At P , are the muscle cells of the atria contracted or
relaxed?
(b) After the QRS wave, is the ventricle relaxed or
contracted?
284
The late Dr Victor Chang,

pioneering heart transplant surgeon
(c) How does the normal electrogram differ from the

abnormal electrogram?
(d) Suggest what might be wrong with the heart activity
shown on the abnormal electrogram.
INVESTIGATE
11 Is there a risk of getting HIV from a blood transfusion
in Australia today? Investigate what measures exist to
ensure that the blood used for transfusions is free of the
HIV virus.
12 Describe what artificial hearts are made of and how they
work.
13 Describe how blood loss can cause death.
14 Use the internet to research one of the following:
strokes, heart murmurs, hole in the heart ,
atherosclerosis, angina, heart attack, arrhythmias,
pericarditis, hypertension. Summarise your findings in a
PowerPoint presentation or as a poster.
15 Find out more about organ transplants. Which organs
have successfully been transplanted into humans?
What determines whether a donor organ is a match for
a particular organ recipient? Why do organ recipients
need to take medicine for the rest of their lives after
having the transplant?
eBook plus
16 Use the Electrocardiogram game weblink in your

eBookPLUS to simulate performing ECGs on patients
referred to you by medical doctors.
LOOKING BACK
1 Write down a word equation for respiration.
2 In one experiment, Joseph Priestley found that a guinea
pig left in a sealed jar will die after a short period of time
whereas a guinea pig in a sealed jar containing living
plants can survive. Explain Priestleys observations using
your knowledge of respiration and photosynthesis.
5 The following diagram shows an alveolus. Match the letters

in the diagram with the correct labels from the following
list.
Alveolus
Bronchiole
Air ows into the lungs
Deoxygenated blood
3 Copy and complete the following table.
Oxygenated blood
Main organ in
system
Name of tissue
Nerve tissue
(c)
(b)
and spinal cord
system
and skeleton
Musculoskeletal
system
Muscle tissue and
(a)
Name of system
tissue
(d)
4 Make a copy of the diagram below for your workbook.

(a) Label the lettered parts (A to N) of the human
circulatory system and blood vessels on your
diagram.
(b) Use a red pencil to colour in the blood vessels with
oxygenated blood, and a blue pencil for those with
deoxygenated blood.
(c) State whether the blood in the following blood vessels
is deoxygenated or oxygenated:
(i) K
(ii) J
(iii) N
(iv) E
(v) L.
(d) Draw up a table that shows the differences in
structure and function of the arteries, veins and
capillaries.
Head
L
F
E
(e)
6 Identify all the body parts that oxygen would need to travel
through to get from the air you inhale through your nose to
the cells in your big toe.
7 The hygiene theory is a hypothesis that has been
proposed to explain an increase in the incidence of asthma.
Over time, evidence supporting this hypothesis might
accumulate. A scientic theory is based on a hypothesis
that is supported by a great deal of scientic evidence.
(a) What would cause a theory to gain acceptance among
scientists and doctors?
(b) Can you think of scientic theories that have gained
more acceptance over time?
8 List three examples of recent technological advances in the
eld of medicine.
A
Heart
B
D
Liver
G
I
J
Hepatic
portal vein
Rest of body
H
Elastic fibres
and smooth muscle
Elastic fibres
and smooth muscle
One cell thick
The human circulatory system
9 In this chapter you have seen the importance of your

transport system.
(a) In a group, create mind or cluster maps (see
pages 5145) that summarise what you know about the
following.
Blood
Blood vessels
Heart
Lungs
Kidneys
Liver
(b) For each of the six parts of your body listed above,
brainstorm in your group as many questions as you
can. Then, select one question for each body part to
do your own research. Report your ndings back to
the group.
10 Body systems part 1
285
10 Use your six thinking hats (see page 517) for three of the
following issues or statements.
(a) Drinking of any alcohol in Australia should be illegal.
(b) Smoking in public should be punishable by a 10-year
prison sentence.
(c) Only people under the age of 40 should be allowed to
have a heart transplant.
(d) Smokers should not be allowed to have surgery.
(e) Blood transfusions should be illegal.
(f) Everyone should have the right to a blood transfusion.
(g) Organ donation should be compulsory.
(h) Overweight people should not be allowed to have
surgery on their circulatory system.
TEST YOURSELF
1 What are the substances required for respiration?
A Carbon dioxide and water
B Carbon dioxide and oxygen
C Oxygen and glucose
D Oxygen and water
(1 mark)
2 A diagram of the respiratory system is shown below.
1
2
3
4
The parts labelled 1 to 4 are

A trachea, alveolus, lung and diaphragm.
B bronchus, trachea, lung and diaphragm.
C larynx, lung sacs, diaphragm and rib.
D trachea, alveolus, intercostal muscles and pulmonary
artery.
(1 mark)
286
3 What is the main function of the circulatory system?

A To carry out respiration
B To rid of waste
C To transport substances around the body
D To break down food into small particles
(1 mark)
4 A diagram of the circulatory system is shown on the
previous page. Which label is pointing to an artery that
contains blood that has a much lower oxygen concentration
than most arteries?
A E
B J
C N
D K
(1 mark)
5 Explain why multicellular organisms such as humans
need to have specialised organs such as a heart
and lungs.
(2 marks)
6 Discuss whether it should be compulsory for all Australian
adults to donate blood at least once a year.
(4 marks)
work
sheets
10.8 Body systems 1 puzzle

10.9 Body systems 1 summary
STUDY CHECKLIST
Cells
eBook plus
identify the substances that move in and out of

cells
ICT
10.1
distinguish between unicellular and multicellular

organisms 10.2
describe some of the experiments that early scientists
did to find out about respiration 10.1
outline the process of respiration 10.1
SUMMARY
Interactivities
Beat it!
The heart is one of the most important organs in the human
body. This interactivity tests your ability to label the parts of the
heart. Instant feedback is provided.
Multicellular organisms
explain why multicellular organisms need specialised
organs and systems 10.2
identify the materials required by organisms for the
processes of respiration and photosynthesis 10.1
Humans
describe the roles of the respiratory system and
circulatory system in maintaining humans as functioning

organisms 10.3
explain how air goes in and out of the lungs 10.3
describe what happens in an alveolus 10.3
outline the changes that occur in the respiratory system
of a person who has an asthma attack 10.4
justify why smoking is damaging to your health 10.5
identify and describe the components of blood 10.6
describe the structure of the heart 10.7
explain how the heart works to circulate blood through
the body 10.7
dene the terms blood pressure , pulse and heart
rate 10.7
outline how blood circulation relates to the removal of
waste products from the body. 10.7

outline examples of new technologies in medicine that
are the result of scientific research and knowledge of
the circulatory system 10.8
10 Body systems
part 1
287
11
Bits of matter
There are millions of

different substances
in the world. Some,
like water, occur
naturally. Others, like paper and plastic,
are made in factories. Some substances,
like sugar and blood, are made by living
things. All substances have one important
thing in common; they are all made of the
tiny building blocks of matter that we call
atoms.

11.1
describe the structure of the atom
11.2
explain what an element is and learn
the chemical symbols for common

elements
11.3
distinguish between metals, non-
metals and metalloids

11.4
explain the differences between
elements, compounds and mixtures

11.5
learn about metal alloys and describe
their advantages over pure metals

11.6
understand that molecules are made
from bonded atoms

11.7
appreciate the vital role that carbon
plays in the biosphere

11.8
describe how the model of atomic
structure has evolved over time in line

with new evidence and discoveries
Model of a large molecule in

the human body. Red spheres
indicate oxygen atoms, yellow
indicate phosphorus, blue
indicate nitrogen and grey
indicate carbon.
What s inside?
When you were little, you probably
shook and squeezed your birthday
presents while they were still
wrapped up to work out what was
in them before you opened them.
1. What sort of information can
you infer about a wrapped
present by shaking it or
squeezing it?
2. Imagine that you have a brightly
wrapped box with something
in it. Describe the different
guessing techniques that you
would use to work out what is
in the box without opening it.
InveStIgatIon 11.1
How small are the bits that matter?
You will need:
a strip of paper cut from an A4 sheet (about 30 cm long)
pair of scissors
ruler
a lot of patience and care
a sense of humour
Construct a table like the one below and record the length of the strip of
paper.
Cut the strip of paper in half across the middle. Put one half aside. Measure
the length of the other half.

Cut the measured half in half again. Again, put one half aside and measure
and record the length of the other half.

Before you go any further, predict how many times you will be able to cut
the strip in half.

Continue this process until you can no longer cut the strip in half.
How small are the bits?

Number of cuts
Length of strip (approximate)
30 cm
15 cm
7.5 cm (easy?)
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 mm (you re doing well to get this far!)
9
10
12
14
18
1 micron (1 millionth of a metre, one thousandth of a

millimetre)
22
26
31
The size of a single atom
11.1
atoms
All matter is made up of tiny particles that are called
atoms. In fact, atoms are so tiny that 24 million of the
smallest atoms would fit side by side in 1 centimetre,
and you could fit 120 000 atoms across the average
human hair! They are so small that we have only
recently developed the technology that allows us to
see them. So, if they re so small, how did anyone even
know they were there?
In the beginning
The idea of the atom started with a thinking exercise
that Democritus, a teacher and philosopher living in
Greece about 2500 years ago, gave to his students to
discuss. Maybe it went something like the story below.
Imagine a twig that

has fallen from a tree.
Can we break it in half?
Yes!
Is there any limit to how

many times we can split the
halves into other halves?
We dont know.
290
Democritus named these tiniest particles of matter

atomos, which was the Greek word meaning unable
to be divided. Of course, very few of the other
philosophers of the time agreed with him, and it took
another 2400 years before evidence of these atoms (as
we now call them) was gathered.
Inside the atom

Not all atoms are created equal! Scientists have
identified more than 100 different types of atoms. Not
all of these atoms are found easily on Earth. Some
of them have been observed only under laboratory
conditions and have existed for only fractions of a
second before breaking up.
Now if I take one of

those halves, could
I split that also in half?
We suppose so.
And can we split

that half again?
Ummm ...
yes?
In the end, I think that you would reach a stage where

you had something so tiny that it couldnt be split
any further. What do you think students?
You are so clever,

Democritus!
The different types of atoms are made up of different combinations of

even smaller particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
Using sophisticated equipment, such as scanning transmission electron
microscopes, scientists can produce pictures that show the tiny atoms in a
material. They have yet to develop the technology to directly observe the
particles that the atoms themselves are made of.
Structure of an atom summary
Part of atom
Where found
Relative weight
Charge
Proton
Nucleus
Heavy
Positive
Neutron
Nucleus
Heavy
Neutral (no charge)
Electron
Around nucleus
Light
Negative
In the middle of the atom is the nucleus.

The nucleus is made up of protons
and neutrons held tightly together.
The nucleus has a positive charge
because it contains protons.
Protons are found in the nucleus.

They have a positive charge and
are much heavier than electrons.
Scanning tu
tunnelling microscope image of
atoms in a crystal of silicon
Neutrons are found in the

nucleus and have no charge
(neutral). They are much heavier
than electrons.
Electrons move around the
nucleus. They have a negative
charge. They are much lighter
than protons and neutrons.
An atom usually has equal numbers of positive protons and negative electrons. This
makes the atom neutral. This atom has six protons and six electrons.
The electrons whiz around the nucleus in different levels. The electrons do not fly off
the atom because they are attracted to the protons in the nucleus. This is because
opposite charges attract (positive protons attract negative electrons).
Protons and neutrons are made up of

different combinations of even smaller
particles called quarks. Quarks were
rst named by the American scientist
Murray Gell-Mann in 1964. Gell-Mann
named th
the rst three quarks up,
down and strange, with another
three, bottom,
bo
top and charm,
being ide
identied later.
A proton is made of two up quarks
and one down quark, while a neutron
is made of two down quarks and
one up quark. The word quark can
be pronounced to rhyme with either
mark or cork.
Atoms also have a lot of empty space.
11 Bits of matter
291
InveStIgatIon 11.2
Atomic spaces
You will need:
1 hula hoop
1 straw
rice grains
cotton thread
table tennis ball
sticky tape
broom and dustpan
Set up the equipment as shown in
the diagram below.
From across the room, but within
target distance, use the straw as a

peashooter to fire rice grains at the
table tennis ball.
CAUTION Ensure that the rice grains
are not fired towards any person.
through and how many hit the table
tennis ball. (Note: Hits to the cotton
thread do not count!)
Construct a bar graph to display

your results.
Construct a bar graph to show

the class results.
Which part of the atom does the

table tennis ball represent?
What does the hula hoop

represent?
Use the broom and dustpan to clean
up the mess you ve left on the floor.
REMEMBER
1 Recall the important idea that Democritus had 2000 years
ago about the substances that make up the world.
2 Define the word atomos .
3 Describe an atom.
4 Name the three parts of an atom and explain where they
would be found.
5 Explain why electrons do not fly off an atom.
6 Recall what makes up most of an atom.
THInK
7 If a neutral atom has 12 protons, calculate how many
electrons it has.
Count how many grains go right
activities
292
DIscussIon
8 In ancient Greece, scientists developed their

theories by discussion rather than by doing formal
experiments to test their ideas. Assess what problems
might arise from using only the ancient Greek approach
to science.
cREATE
9 construct a model of an atom. It should have at least
six protons, six neutrons and six electrons. Use any
materials that you like. Perhaps try using a bowl of jelly
with lollies in it to represent the parts of the atom! Your
model should have a key.
InVEsTIGATE
10 Investigate what nanotechnology is and what connection
it has with atoms.
11.2
It s elementary!
The alchemists
In the Middle Ages, when kings and queens lived
in castles and were defended by knights in shining
armour, there lived the alchemists. They chanted secret
spells while they mixed magic potions in their flasks
and melted metals in their furnaces. They tried to
change ordinary metals into gold. They also tried to
find a potion that would make humans live for ever.
They studied the movements of the stars and claimed
to be able to see into the future. The kings and queens
took the advice of the alchemists very seriously.
The alchemists never found the secrets they were
looking for, but they did discover many things about
substances around us. There were other people of
these ancient times whose work has also helped us
to understand the substances around us. Blacksmiths
worked with metals to make stronger and lighter
swords and armour, fabric dyers learned how to
colour cloth, and potters decorated their work with
glazes from the Earth. Without the knowledge passed
down by these people, the world as we know it would
be very different! They discovered twelve important
substances: gold, iron, silver, sulfur, carbon, lead,
mercury, tin, arsenic, bismuth, antimony and copper.
Five of these were discovered by the alchemists.
They discovered that the twelve substances could not

be broken down into other substances. Scientists
investigated many common everyday substances as
well, including salt, air, rocks, water and even urine!
They discovered that nearly everything around us
could be broken down into other substances. They
gave the name element to any substance that could
not be broken down into other substances. Between
1557 and 1925, another seventy-six elements were
discovered. We now know that ninety-two elements
exist naturally. In recent years scientists working in
laboratories have been able to make another twentyfive artificial elements. In total there are now 117
known elements.
Element basics
An element is a substance that contains only one
kind of atom. As there are about 117 elements, this
means that there are only 117 types of atom that we
know of so far. What makes these atoms different
from each other is that they are made up of different
combinations of protons, neutrons and electrons. It
is the specific combination of these smaller particles
in the different atoms that gives each element its
particular physical and chemical properties.
Just as no two people are the same, neither are
any two elements. Elements can be distinguished by
looking at such things as their:
colour
hardness and brittleness
melting and boiling points
density
state (whether they are solid, liquid or gas at room
temperature)
reaction with acids or other chemicals.
Warning! Danger!
Real science
In about the seventeenth century, people stopped
thinking about magic and instead carried out
investigations based on careful observations. These
new seekers of knowledge were called scientists.
Many elements are safe to handle. However, there

are many that are not. For example, the elements
sodium, potassium and mercury need special care and
handling. Sodium and potassium are soft metals that
can be cut with a knife. They both get very hot if they
come into contact with water. They are stored under
oil so that water in the atmosphere cannot reach
them.
11 Bits of matter
293
InveStIgatIon 11.3
checking out appearances
You will need:
samples of chemical elements
(such as carbon, sulfur, copper,
iron, aluminium and silicon)
Copy the table below into your
workbook.
Carefully examine each of
the elements in the set; look

for colour, appearance and
hardness.
Complete the table by filling in
the description. One example is

completed for you.
Element
Hydrogen
State
Gas
Description
Clear,
colourless,
explosive
chemical symbols
In our everyday lives, we tend to
Many of the elements have symbols
have a standard set of shorthand
based on their Latin or Greek names.
ways of writing common words. For
For this reason, tin (stannum) is sn,
example, we write St for street ,
gold (aurum) is Au, lead (plumbum) is
Mr for mister and e.g. instead
Pb and mercury (hydrogyrum) is Hg.
of for example. In a similar way,
scientists use a standard shorthand
way of writing the names of the elements. Each element is represented by
either a single capital letter or a capital followed by a lowercase letter
these are known as the elements chemical symbols. The chemical symbols
of some of the more common elements that you may encounter are
shown in the table below.
Element name
Aluminium
Carbon
Copper
Gold
Helium
Hydrogen
Iron
Element symbol
Al
C
Cu
Au
He
H
Fe
activities
REMEMBER
In days gone by, substances containing
mercury were used to make hats. In
those days it was not known that
mercury is a very poisonous substance.
Poisoning by mercury can affect
your nervous system and your mind.
This sometimes happened to people
who made hats and were exposed to
mercury for a long time: hence the
expression mad as a hatter !
1 Recall why sodium and potassium

need to be stored under oil.
2 Describe the element carbon.
3 State one harmful effect of
mercury on humans.
4 Recall which problems the
alchemists of ancient times tried
to solve.
5 Define the term element .
6 Recall which types of substances
blacksmiths helped us to
understand.
7 Describe how the scientists
differed from the alchemists.
THInK
8 Give one reason for displaying
chemical safety symbols at the
entrances of many buildings.
Lewis Carroll s Mad Hatter
character in Alice s Adventures
in Wonderland was mad because
mercury was used in the making of
hats.
294
9 Hydrogen is an element that

is not very dense. How would
you describe the density of
mercury?
Element name
Mercury
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Silicon
Silver
Sulfur
Zinc
Element symbol
Hg
N
O
Si
Ag
S
Zn
InVEsTIGATE
10 The element mercury was known
to ancient people and was very
important to the alchemists. Find
out all you can about this liquid
metal. What does its name mean?
Where is it found? What has it
been used for in the past? What
is it used for now? What is the
safety procedure if mercury is
spilt? Why is mercury dangerous?
11 Many years ago, balloons were filled
with hydrogen so that they could float
high in the sky. However, hydrogen is
no longer used in balloons because it
explodes too easily. At fairs, carnivals
and in florists shops, you can often
buy colourful gas-filled balloons that
fly high into the sky if you let them go.
These balloons are filled with another
element called helium. Investigate
who discovered the gas helium,
where it was discovered and when.
eBook plus
12 Play the It s elementary! revelation

game in your eBookPLUS and test
your ability to identify common
elements from their symbols.
int-0229
11.3
grouping elements
It is often convenient to group
objects that have features in
common. Shops provide a good
example of this. In a department
store, the goods are grouped so
that you know where to buy them.
You go to the clothing section for a
new pair of jeans, to the jewellery
section for a new watch and to the
food section for a packet of potato
chips. Scientists also organise
objects into groups. Biologists
organise living things into groups.
Animals with backbones are
divided into mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and fish.
Geologists organise rocks into
groups. The elements that make
up all substances can also be
organised into groups.
Metals and non-metals

Scientists have divided the
elements into two main groups:
the metals and the non-metals.
Metals
The metals have several features in
common:
They are solid at room
temperature, except for mercury,
which is a liquid.
They can be polished to produce
a high shine or lustre.
They are good conductors of
electricity and heat.
They can all be beaten or bent
into a variety of shapes. We say
they are malleable.
They can be made into a wire.
We say they are ductile.
They usually melt at high
temperatures. Mercury, which
melts at 40 C, is one
exception.
non-metals
Only twenty-two of the elements
are non-metals. At room
temperature, eleven of them are
gases, ten are solid and one is
liquid. The solid non-metals have
most of the following features in
common:
They cannot be polished to
give a shine like metals; they are
usually dull or glassy.
They are brittle, which means
they shatter when they are hit.
They cannot be bent into shape.
They are usually poor
conductors of electricity and
heat.
They usually melt at low
temperatures.
Many of the non-metals are
gases at room temperature.
Common examples of non-metals are sulfur,

carbon and oxygen.
Metalloids
Some of the elements in the non-metal group look like metals. One
example is silicon. While it can be polished like a metal, silicon is a poor
conductor of heat and electricity and cannot be bent or made into wire.
Those elements that have features of both metals and non-metals are
called metalloids. There are eight metalloids altogether: boron, silicon,
arsenic, germanium, antimony, polonium, astatine and tellurium.
Metalloids are important materials often used in electronic components of computer

circuits.
11 Bits of matter
295
Connect the circuit shown in the diagram, to determine
InveStIgatIon 11.4
whether electricity passes through each of the elements.
Looking for similarities

DIscussIon
You will need:

safety glasses
samples of sulfur, zinc, tin, carbon, silicon, copper
steel wool or very fine sandpaper
battery or power pack
wires with alligator clips
light globe
Make a copy of the table below and use it to record your
observations.
Which of the six elements have a shiny surface when

polished?
Which of the six elements do not have a shiny surface

when polished?
Which of the six elements can be bent?
Which of the six elements cannot be bent?
Which of the six elements allow electricity to pass

through?
Which of the six elements do not conduct electricity?
Attempt to divide the elements into two groups on the

basis of your observations. Suggest names for these
two groups.
Which of the six elements tested does not seem to fit

into either of these two groups?
Rub each of the elements with the fine sandpaper and
observe whether they are shiny or dull.

Try to bend the metal.
Power supply
(transformer)
Lamp
Characteristics of some elements

Element
Element to
be tested
Shiny or
dull?
Does it
bend?
Does it conduct
electricity?
Sulfur
Zinc
Tin
Contacts
(alligator clips)
Carbon
Silicon
Connect your element sample into this circuit.
Copper
activities
IMAGInE
REMEMBER
1 Recall four features that metals have in common.
2 Recall four features that non-metals have in common.
8 Imagine that you are a scientist who has discovered

what appears to be a new element. It is golden in colour
and very shiny. Propose experiments to test if it is a metal
or non-metal. What results would you expect to get if it
is a metal?
3 Define the term metalloid . List some examples.
InVEsTIGATE
4 Recall which metal is liquid at room temperature.
9 Polonium is a metal discovered by Marie Curie. She also

discovered another metal. Find out its name and the
important role it played in medicine.
5 Define the term metallic lustre .
THInK
6 While all metals have similar characteristics, there are
also differences between them. List three ways in which
metals can differ from each other.
7 Silicon is used in the chips of computer circuits, but it
is never used in the connecting wires of electric circuits.
Deduce why not.
296
work
sheets
11.1 The periodic table: atomic structure

11.2 Metals and non-metals
11.4
Compounds
There are millions and millions of
different substances in the world.
They include the paper of this
book, the ink in the print, the
air in the room, the glass in the
windows, the wool of your jumper,
the cotton and polyester in your
shirt or dress, the wood of your
desk, the paint on the walls, the
plastic of your pen, the hair on
your head, the water in the taps
and the metal of the chair legs. The
list could go on and on.
All substances can be placed
into one of three groups: elements,
compounds or mixtures.
Elements are substances that
contain only one type of atom.
Very few substances exist as
elements. Most substances
around us are either compounds
or mixtures.
Compounds are usually very
different from the elements
that they are made of. In
compounds, the atoms of one
element are joined very tightly
to the atoms of another element
or elements. The elements
that make up a compound
are completely different
substances from the compound.
For example, common table
salt (sodium chloride) is a
compound made up of the
elements sodium (a silvery
metal) and chlorine (a green,
poisonous gas).
Mixtures can be made up of
two or more elements, two
or more compounds or a
combination of elements and
compounds. The substances
that make up mixtures can
usually be easily separated
from each other. When
the parts of a mixture are

separated, no new substances
are formed. Fizzy soft drink is
a good example of a mixture. It
contains water, gas, sugar and
flavours. If you shake the soft
drink, the gas bubbles separate
from the water and go into the
air. You still have the water in
the bottle and the gas in the
air; they are just not mixed
together any more. The parts of
the mixture can be separated
quite easily. The gas escapes
when the lid of the container
is opened, and the water can
be separated by evaporation,
leaving behind sugar and some
other substances.
When the atoms of different
elements bond together, a
compound is formed. When
heated together, the elements
iron and sulfur form a new
compound called iron sulfide.
Iron sulfide has the formula FeS.
Every compound has a formula
made up of the symbols of the
elements that make it up. Unlike
mixtures, the elements within
a compound cannot be easily
separated from each other.
Elements can be separated from

the compounds that they make up
in a number of ways including:
passing electricity through the
compound
burning the compound
mixing the compound with
other chemicals such as acids.
Each of these methods involves
a chemical reaction. Now, let s
look at these methods a bit more
closely.
A compound is completely different from

the elements that it is made of. Table
salt consists of the elements sodium and
chlorine.
Some common substances

Substance
Type
Composed of:
Scientific name
Gold
Element
Gold
Gold
Diamond
Element
Carbon
Carbon
Water
Compound
Hydrogen and oxygen
Dihydrogen oxide
Table salt
Compound
Sodium and chlorine
Sodium chloride
Brass
Mixture
Copper and zinc
Brass
Soft drink
Mixture
Water, sugar, carbon dioxide and

other compounds
Sea water
Mixture
Water, sodium chloride and other

compounds
11 Bits of matter
297
splitting water
We are surrounded by water. It is
in our taps, in our bodies, in the
rivers, in the sea and in the air,
and it comes down as rain. We
wash in it, cook in it and drink
it. We cannot live without water.
Water is not an element
it can
be broken down into simpler
substances. The illustration at
right shows a piece of apparatus
called a Hofmann voltameter.
Water is placed in the voltameter,
which is connected to a battery.
The electricity splits the water into
the elements that it is made of:
hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen and oxygen are both
elements. They are both gases, and
they look the same; they have no
colour and no smell. Hydrogen is
a much less dense gas than oxygen.
This means that a balloon filled
with hydrogen will float up very
high, but one filled with oxygen
will not.
The element hydrogen is

present in all acids. By placing
a piece of metal in an acid, the
hydrogen is forced out. The
hydrogen can be collected and
tested with a flame.
The element oxygen is present
in water, air, rocks and even
hair bleach. Oxygen is the gas
that all living things need to
stay alive. It is also necessary for
all substances to burn
even
hydrogen does not burn in the
absence of oxygen.
When hydrogen gas is
burned, it combines with the
oxygen in the air to form water.
This releases a lot of energy. If
large amounts of hydrogen and
oxygen are used, enough energy
can be released to lift a space
rocket.
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Water
6V battery
or power supply
Water is split in a Hofmann voltameter. The
clear gas in the left tube is hydrogen. The
gas in the right tube is oxygen. What do
you notice about the amounts of hydrogen
and oxygen that are produced?
InveStIgatIon 11.5
splitting hydrogen from acid
carbon dioxide is the gas that is

added to soft drinks to give them
their fizz. solid carbon dioxide,
commonly known as dry ice , is
used to keep things cold at outdoor
events.
The most abundant compound
on planet Earth is water (H2o).
Two-thirds of the Earth s surface is
covered with water, in which many
other compounds (such as salt)
are mixed. The compound water is
the only substance that is naturally
present on Earth in all three states
solid (about three-quarters of
the Earth s water is frozen near
the north and south Poles and in
glaciers), liquid and gas (water
vapour in the atmosphere).
Your own body contains more water
than any other substance about
60 per cent of your body is made up
of water. If you think that s a lot, an
elephant is 70 per cent water and a
tomato is 95 per cent water.
298
You will need:

safety glasses
2 test tubes and test-tube rack
matches
dilute hydrochloric acid
measuring cylinder
magnesium metal
Dilute hydrochloric
acid
Measure 10 mL of hydrochloric
acid and pour it into the test tube.

Add a piece of magnesium and
place the second test tube on

top of the first, as shown in the
diagram. Carefully observe what
happens.
After one minute, take the second
test tube off the first. While it is

still inverted, immediately light the
gas in the second test tube with a
match.
DIscussIon
1
Describe what happened in the

test tube containing the metal
and the acid.
Piece of magnesium
metal
Collect the hydrogen gas by placing the
second test tube over the first.
What does hydrogen gas look

like?
What happened when you lit

the gas?
Look closely at the second test

tube. Describe what you see
inside it.
activities
InveStIgatIon 11.6
Making a compound from its elements
You will need:
4 5 cm strip of clean, shiny magnesium ribbon.
(It can be coiled
to fit in the crucible.)
crucible with lid
pipeclay triangle
tongs
safety glasses
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat
matches
REMEMBER
1 Describe how compounds differ
from elements.
Lid
Magnesium
ribbon
inside
Crucible
Pipeclay
triangle
Bunsen
burner
Tripod
2 Recall the important differences

between a mixture and a
compound.
3 Recall three ways in which
elements can be separated
from their compounds.
4 Fizzy soft drink is a mixture of
several compounds. List three
of the compounds and suggest
how each of them could be
separated from the mixture.
5 If atoms are bonded together,
describe what this means.
6 Recall which elements are
present in carbon dioxide.
THInK
7 Describe how you know that
water is not simply a mixture of
Examine the piece of magnesium and note its appearance before putting it
in the crucible and covering it with the lid.

Put the crucible on the pipeclay triangle as shown in the diagram.
Heat the crucible with a strong blue flame, monitoring the reaction by
occasionally lifting the lid a little with tongs.

When all the magnesium ribbon has been changed, turn off the flame and
leave the crucible on the tripod to cool.
9 How can only 92 different

elements make millions of
different compounds?
InVEsTIGATE
DIscussIon
1
Describe the substance in the crucible.
Is magnesium an element or a compound? Give a reason for your

decision.
Magnesium is one of the reactants in this experiment. What is the other

reactant?
Is the substance remaining in the crucible an element or a compound?

What is its name?
What is the evidence that a new substance has been made?
Copy and complete the following word equation to describe the

chemical reaction that has taken place.
+
7
8 Magnesium oxide is a
compound of magnesium and
oxygen. Describe how you know
that it is a completely different
substance from each of the two
elements it is made up of.
Apart from observing whether the reaction is complete, give another

reason for lifting the lid of the crucible a little with tongs during the
burning.
10 construct models of some

compounds. You may have to
work out how many of each
type of atom there are in a
compound and in what shape
they are joined together.
11 Joseph Priestley was one of
the first scientists to discover
the element oxygen. He also
discovered many compounds
that are gases. Investigate and
report on the life of Joseph
Priestley.
work
sheet
11.3 The periodic table:

elements and symbols
11 Bits of matter
299
11.5
Mixed up metals
Not everyone is good at sport; not
everybody can draw; we certainly
know that all people are not the
same height! Just as people are
different, so are the pure metals.
And just as you wouldn t pick
someone who cannot sing to take
the starring role in the school
musical, you cannot pick any old
metal to do a particular job. For
example, iron is very strong so it is
great for building bridges, but you
wouldn t make a bracelet from it.
Gold is good in jewellery because
of its lustre and its rarity (which
makes it very valuable). However,
it is very soft so it cannot be used
for jobs that need a strong metal.
So, what happens when you need
a metal that has a combination of
properties that no pure metal has?
An alloy is a mixture of pure
metals that has properties that the
pure metals on their own do not
have. They are made by melting the
metals that need to be combined
and then mixing them together,
much as you do with milk and
melted butter when you make
a cake. Remember, though, that
the atoms of the original metals
do not combine with each other
an alloy is not the same as a
compound. Let s look at a few
examples of alloys.
Bronze is a mixture of copper
and tin, and it has been used for
over 3000 years to make weapons,
statues, coins and bells. It is very
strong and durable
much
stronger than either copper or tin.
Many of the large statues that you
see in public places, such as the
statue of Queen Victoria outside
the Queen Victoria Building (QVB)
in Sydney, are made of bronze.
300
While bronze is deep brown in colour to start with,

it can get a whitish green coating, called verdigris,
on it when it has been exposed to air and moisture.
Brass is commonly used for fittings on boats
because it is resistant to the corrosion that other
metals suffer when exposed to salt water for a long
time. It is a mixture of copper and zinc and has a
bright gold appearance. The musical instruments
such as tubas, trumpets and trombones that you find
in the brass section of the orchestra are made of brass. Bronze statue of Queen
Victoria outside the Queen
The properties of an alloy can be adjusted by
Victoria Building in Sydney
using different proportions of the metals that make
them. When different proportions of carbon are added to iron, they
form different grades of steel. Steel contains between 0.2 and 2 per cent
carbon. The more carbon there is in steel, the stronger and harder it is.
However, more carbon also makes steel more brittle.
Alloy
Bronze
Brass
Made of
Copper, tin
Copper, zinc
Steel
Stainless steel
Rose gold
Solder
Iron, carbon
Iron, nickel, chromium
Gold, copper
Lead, tin
activities
Used for making

Statues, coins
Engine parts, decorative fittings,
musical instruments
Bridges, buildings, car parts
Cutlery, kitchen fittings
Jewellery
Joins for electrical components
6 Draw a picture of the atoms in

a sample of brass. Provide a key
that identifies the atoms present.
REMEMBER
1 Define the term alloy .
2 Explain why alloys may be used
instead of pure metals for some
purposes.
3 Identify the alloy in the table above
that contains a non-metal. What is
the non-metal?
THInK
4 Lead melts at 327 C and tin melts
at 232 C, yet solder s melting point
is 183 C. Explain this surprising
fact.
5 Describe the properties of alloy
wheels that could not be provided
by a pure metal.
InVEsTIGATE
7 Although our coinage looks silver
and gold, it is actually made of
different alloys. Investigate how our
coins are made and what metals
are used to make them.
8 What was the Bronze Age and
when did occur? Research this
time period and find out what life
was like back then.
9 Is it possible to separate the
metals of an alloy once they have
been mixed? Investigate this using
your library and the internet.
work
sheet
11.4 Alloys
11.6
Making molecules
The naturally occurring elements are the building
blocks of everything in our world. The atoms of
various elements can be joined in a wide variety
of ways to produce many compounds. Elements
and compounds can be combined in many ways to
make countless mixtures.
Atoms can join, or bond, in many different
ways. In some substances, atoms are joined in
groups called molecules. For example, in oxygen gas,
oxygen atoms are joined in groups of two. In the
compound carbon dioxide, there are one carbon

and two oxygen atoms joined in every molecule.
Atoms can join to form small or large molecules of
many different shapes.
Some compounds are not made up of
molecules. Instead the atoms bond by lining up
one after the other. Sodium bonds to chlorine,
which bonds to sodium and so on. Common table
salt is an example of a substance that is bonded in
this way.
Cut out 15 squares, with each
InveStIgatIon 11.7
(a) water, which contains

1 oxygen and 2 hydrogen
atoms
(b) methane (natural gas),
which contains 1 carbon and
4 hydrogen atoms
(c) benzene (in petrol), which
contains 6 carbon and
6 hydrogen atoms
(d) glucose (sugar), which
contains 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen
and 6 oxygen atoms
(e) hydrogen peroxide (found
in hair bleach), which contains
2 oxygen atoms and 2
hydrogen atoms.
side 2 cm, from the blue sheet of

paper.
Mix n match
You will need:
green, red and blue sheets of
paper
scissors, pencil, ruler
1 large sheet of cartridge
paper
Cut out 25 diamonds, each 2 cm
long and 1.5 cm wide, from the

green sheet of paper.
Cut out 30 equilateral triangles, with
each side 2 cm, from the red sheet

of paper.
1.5 cm
Imagine that different types
of atoms are represented by

particular shapes:
a blue square = carbon
a green diamond = oxygen
a red triangle = hydrogen
and that, by placing them side by
side on the sheet of paper, you are
joining them.
Place two green diamonds
next to each other on the

sheet. This represents the
element oxygen, as shown in
the diagram below.
DIscussIon
2 cm
2 cm
2 cm
A green diamond represents an

atom of oxygen. Together, two
diamonds represent a molecule of
oxygen.
Which of these compounds

contain only hydrogen and
carbon atoms?
In what ways are these two

substances different from each
other?
Which of the compounds contain

only oxygen and hydrogen? Do
these compounds have the same
characteristics?
Think about the appearance

of the compound sugar. How
does it differ in appearance
from the elements that it is
made of?
2 cm
Place one blue square on the sheet
2 cm
2 cm
Cut these shapes from coloured
paper.
between two green diamonds. This

represents the compound carbon
dioxide. Label it with its name and
symbol.
Represent and label the following
substances:
11 Bits of matter
301
compounds of today and tomorrow

Polymer is the name given to a compound made of molecules that are
long chains of atoms. Most polymers are made up of chains containing
carbon atoms. Plastics are synthetic polymers. Cotton and rubber
are examples of natural polymers. Although scientists first developed
polymers in laboratories in the 1800s, it was not until after World War II
that most of the modern polymers were invented. Modern polymers
are used in food wrapping, paint, plastic glass , polystyrene foam for
packaging and cups, banknotes, cases for electronic appliances such
as computers and televisions, clothing, glues, shopping bags, sports
equipment and even tea bags!
(a)
(b)
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term molecule . Name two compounds that are made up of
molecules.
2 Are all compounds made up of molecules? Explain.
3 Name four elements that are made up of molecules.
(c)
4 Define the term polymer .
THInK
Models representing the molecules of the
compounds (a) carbon dioxide, (b) water
and (c) methane. The black balls represent
carbon, the red, oxygen, and the white,
hydrogen.
5 Recall the difference between an atom and a molecule.

6 Copy and complete the table below. Use the formula of each compound
to deduce how many elements are present and which ones they are. (The
formula of a compound not only tells you which elements are present, but
also indicates the ratio of atoms of the different elements. For example, in
the compound NH3 there are three hydrogen atoms for each nitrogen atom.)
Compound
nitrogen is an element. It is a
clear, colourless gas made up
of molecules. Each molecule
is made up of a pair of atoms.
nitrogen makes up 80 per cent of
the atmosphere. That means that
four-fifths of each breath you take
in is nitrogen. our bodies cannot
use this nitrogen so we breathe
it straight out again! The gases
oxygen, hydrogen and chlorine also
exist as molecules made up of pairs
of atoms.
Gold is the only metal element found
in large amounts in its pure form,
rather than bonded in compounds
with other elements.
It has been calculated that nearly
half of the weight of the Earth s
crust is due to the element oxygen!
Most rocks contain compounds that
include the element oxygen.
302
Copper sulfate
Formula
Number of
elements
CuSO4
Zinc sulfide
ZnS
Ammonia
NH3
Sulfuric acid
Names of
elements
Copper, sulfur,
oxygen
H2SO4
Hydrochloric acid
HCl
Table salt
NaCl
InVEsTIGATE
7 Australia has led the way in the production of polymer money. Find out all
you can about how these banknotes are made.
eBook plus
8 Complete the Making molecules interactivity in your eBookPLUS by creating

the correct model of the molecule as each chemical formula appears.
int-0228
work
sheet
11.5 Making compounds
11.7
Carbon
the stuff of life
That s made of carbon?
Finding carbon
Carbon is a most amazing element. It is found in

three different forms. One form is diamond, another
is graphite (the lead in lead pencils), and the third
is called amorphous carbon (coal, charcoal and
soot). The three forms are different from each other
because the carbon atoms are joined in different
ways. Diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon are
called carbon allotropes. Allotropes of an element
have different appearances and properties due to
differences in their molecular structures.
It is possible to change one form into another.
Amorphous carbon can be changed to graphite by
mixing it with sand and heating the mixture to about
2000 C. To change graphite to diamonds, huge
pressures and very high temperatures are needed. This
occurs deep within the Earth over long periods of
time, and can also be done in special factories.
Diamonds do not melt! When heated they change
straight from solid to gas. This happens at about
3500 C. Diamond is the hardest substance known
and is used to make drill tips and cutting tools.
Carbon is found combined with other
elements in a huge range of compounds.
No other element forms as many
different compounds as carbon.
Carbon is found in everything
from the skin of an elephant
to paint on the walls!
Carbon is one of the five elements that were

discovered by the alchemists (see page 293).
Concentrated sulfuric acid can be used to detect the
presence of carbon in sugar. This acid is too dangerous
for you to use in the classroom, but the diagram on
the right shows what happens when sulfuric acid is
poured over some sugar in a beaker. The sulfuric acid
changes the other elements in sugar into different
substances, leaving the carbon behind as charcoal.
Sulfuric
acid
Cone of
charcoal
Sugar
250 mL beaker
When sulfuric acid is

added to sugar, the
beaker gets very hot,
steam escapes and the
element carbon is left behind.
The three forms

of carbon: diamond,
graphite and amorphous carbon
A company in switzerland uses the ashes of dead people to

make diamonds. Their clients want a permanent memento
of their loved ones and are prepared to pay around $10 000
Australian dollars. To create the diamonds, the ashes are
prepared and then placed under high temperature and high
pressure for weeks. The diamonds can then be cut and
polished into the desired shape and even inscribed with a laser.
11 Bits of matter
303
InveStIgatIon 11.8
It s elementary, my dear Watson!
You will need:
safety glasses
Bunsen burner, heatproof mat and matches
metal tongs
small samples of substances to investigate (such as woollen cloth, cotton
wool, sugar cube, wood, bread, peanut, steel wool, glass, paper and
aluminium foil)
The early scientists were investigators, working methodically to find an
answer to a mystery, a bit like the famous detective Sherlock Holmes. The
scientists searched for elements in everyday substances. Your task in this
experiment is to find out if the element carbon is present in some common
substances. Earlier investigators discovered that carbon can be detected if
a substance turns black when it is burnt.
Your teacher may allow you to burn some plastic in the fumehood.
CAUTION Burning plastics produce poisonous fumes. A fume cupboard must

be used.
Hold a small piece of the substance you are going to test in the metal tongs.
Put it in the blue flame of the Bunsen burner.
When it catches alight take it out of the flame and, keeping it above the
heatproof mat, allow it to burn slowly. Does it turn black?

Draw up a table like the one below and record your observations.
DIscussIon
1
In which of the substances tested is carbon present?
Can you be sure that, if the substance went black, carbon was present?
Give a reason for your answer.
Can you be sure, if a substance didn t go black, that it didn t contain

carbon?
Give a reason for your answer.
Substance
Observations
Is carbon present?
Wood
Cotton wool
The chemistry of life

All living things are made up of compounds including proteins, fats and
carbohydrates. The main element in these compounds is carbon. Carbon
is not found only in living things. It is also found in the air in carbon
dioxide and under the sea in limestone. The carbon atoms in carbon
dioxide were once carbon atoms in living things. The carbon atoms in
living things will eventually become carbon atoms in the air or carbon
atoms in limestone under the sea. The illustration opposite shows how
nature constantly recycles carbon atoms.
304
Plants take in carbon dioxide

through their leaves and, in a
process known as photosynthesis,
use the carbon dioxide and
water to make starch. Starch is a
compound made up of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Plants use the starch to make
other substances and for energy to
grow. Animals eat plants or planteating animals. The carbon atoms
then become part of the animals
bodies.
Carbon atoms in the bodies
of living things return to the air
in several ways. These ways are
respiration, decomposition and
burning.
Respiration is a process that
occurs in the cells of every
living thing, from a microscopic
water plant to a humpback
whale. Respiration releases
energy and produces carbon
dioxide. The carbon dioxide
released by the cells in your
body is taken by your blood to
your lungs. The carbon dioxide
that you breathe out contains
carbon atoms that were once
part of your body.
Decomposition is what happens
when plant or animal material
breaks down, such as in a
compost heap or after something
is buried. Microscopic living
creatures called decomposers
absorb some of the substances
in the dead material and release
carbon dioxide to the air by
respiration.
When substances containing
carbon are burned, carbon
dioxide is released. Coal, natural
gas and oil are all fuels formed
from living things, and contain
carbon atoms. When these
fuels are burned in homes, cars,
factories and power stations,
carbon dioxide is released into
the air. Bushfires also release
carbon dioxide back to the air.
Plants absorb
some oxygen.
Animals breathe
in oxygen.
Plants absorb
CO2 during
the day.
Both plants
and animals
release CO2.
Plants release
oxygen during
the day.
Fossil fuels
release CO2
when burned.
Animals absorb
carbon when
they eat plants.
Petroleum
Oil
Gas
Coal
The flow of carbon atoms through the environment
activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall and describe the three
different forms of the element
carbon.
2 Recall where plants get the carbon
from that they need to make starch.
3 Describe three ways in which
carbon can return to the
atmosphere.
4 Recall where respiration takes
place.
5 Define the term allotrope .
6 Define the term decomposition .
THInK
7 Describe how animals obtain
carbon.
8 Where does the carbon come from
to form limestone at the bottom of
the sea?
9 The amount of carbon dioxide in the
Earth s atmosphere is increasing.
Deduce why this is happening.
10 When sulfuric acid (chemical

formula H2SO4) is added to sugar
(chemical formula C12H22O11),
it produces steam (H2O) and a
large amount of a black, cindery
solid.
(a) Identify the elements present
in (i) sulfuric acid, (ii) sugar and
(iii) steam.
(b) Given that none of the
elements has vanished, deduce
which elements are present in
the black solid.
(c) Sulfur is generally a bright
yellow powder. Deduce why it
is not readily seen in the black
solid.
11 Would it be possible for life to
continue on Earth without plant
life? Explain your answer.
GRAPH AnD AnALYsE

12 Many different materials are used
to provide heating. The table above
shows how much carbon there is
in each of them. The last column
indicates how much heat (in
therms) that 50 kg of that material
provides.
Material
Wood
Peat
Lignite
Black coal
Brown coal
Natural
graphite
Carbon
content
(%)
11
10
30
80
73
90
Heat
production
(therms)
8.5
10
12
17
14
18.5
(a) Draw a bar graph showing

the percentage carbon content
of each material.
(b) Deduce which is the best
material to use to provide heat.
(c) Does the table indicate
any relationship between the
amount of carbon in a material
and the amount of heat that it
provides? Explain your answer
clearly.
InVEsTIGATE
13 Investigate the greenhouse effect.
How is it related to carbon dioxide?
work
sheet
11.6 Carbon
11 Bits of matter
305
11.8
PREscRIBED Focus AREA

History of science
Development of the atomic model

In science, as in any other
field of knowledge, models
and theories are put forward
to explain observations. When
evidence is found that contradicts
these models and theories, they
are modified to fit the new
information or they may even be
rejected altogether. In this way, our
ideas about what an atom looks
like have been developed over
thousands of years.
In the fifth century BC,
Democritus proposed the idea that
all matter was made up of small
particles that he called atoms. Over
the next two thousand or so years,
people argued over whether atoms
actually existed. Even those who
believed in the idea of atoms had
no real idea of what the atoms
actually looked like, and there was
a general tendency to regard these
mysterious little things as being very
small solid balls of stuff, a bit like
very tiny marbles. It wasn t until the
eigtheenth century that scientists
turned their attention to finding out
whether atoms existed and what an
atom actually looked like.
John Dalton (1766 1844)

John Dalton is considered to
be a pioneer of modern atomic
theories. In his 20s and 30s, he
experimented extensively on gases
to learn more about them and the
particles they are made of. Based
on his observations, he arrived at a
number of important conclusions
about matter and atoms, which he
presented in 1803.
Daltons atomic theories
1. Matter is made up of atoms that
are indivisible and indestructible.
306
2. All the atoms of an element are

identical.
3. Atoms of different elements
have different masses and
different chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements
combine in simple whole
numbers to form compounds.
5. Atoms cannot be created or
destroyed in a chemical process.
When a compound decomposes,
the atoms separate but are
themselves unchanged.
model in which the atom was a

sphere of positive charge that had
negative charges (which he called
electrons) scattered through it,
much like sultanas and plums in
a plum pudding. Not surprisingly,
this is called the plum pudding
model of the atom.
JJ Thomson
Positive
charge
John Dalton
JJ Thomson (1856 1940)

JJ Thomson experimented with
electric charges and cathode ray
tubes (which were used in the
twentieth century to produce
pictures in television sets). He
suggested that the glow produced
in the tube when electricity was
passed through it was due to the
movement of small corpuscles. He
believed these negatively charged
particles to be parts of the atom
itself. Further experimentation
with gases seemed to suggest that
there were both negative and
positive charges in the atom. In
1904, he proposed an atomic
The plum pudding model
Negative
charges
(electrons)
Ernest Rutherford
(1871 1937)
Rutherford s ideas of the atom
came as the result of experiments
he was doing in which he fired
positive charges at gold atoms.
He found that some of the positive
charges could pass right through
the atom and, in some cases, the
charges bounced right back.
If Thomson s model was correct,

this would not have happened.
Rutherford proposed a new model
of the atom that explained his
observations. In this model, the
atom was mostly empty space, with
all of its positive charge in a clump
in the centre (the nucleus). He
thought that the electrons moved
around the nucleus in fixed orbits,
much as planets do around the
sun. For this reason, Rutherford s
model is sometimes called the
planetary model of the atom.
then, hadn t been able to explain.

Bohr agreed with Rutherford that
the atom was mostly empty space
and that most of the mass was
in the nucleus where the positive
charges were located. However,
he proposed that the electrons
changed orbits and so they
formed electron clouds around
the nucleus. In this model, it was
impossible to predict exactly where
an electron was at a particular
time.
Positive
charge
Electron
cloud
Bohr s model of the atom
And now?
At the moment, Bohr s model of
the atom is the most consistent
with what scientists observe
happening in experiments.
However, there are still a few
things that even this version
cannot explain. One day, a
new model will be developed
to explain what Bohr s model
cannot.
Neils Bohr
Ernest Rutherford
activities
REMEMBER
Positive nucleus
Electron
Rutherford s model of the atom
niels Bohr (1885 1962)

Niels Bohr saw that, if Rutherford s
model of the atom was correct,
atoms would be very unstable
and matter would fall apart all
the time, and this didn t happen.
Bohr s model of the atom was a lot
more complicated but seemed to
be consistent with what scientists
observed, and it explained a lot of
strange things that science, up to
Date
Event
Fifth
Democritus proposed the
century existence of atoms.
BC
1 Recall which model of the atom is

currently used.
1804
Dalton developed his theory

of atoms and matter.
2 Describe how Thomson s model

of the atom differed from that of
Democritus.
1897
JJ Thomson discovered the

electron.
1911
3 Explain why the model of the atom

has changed over the centuries.
Rutherford developed the

planetary model of the atom.
1913
4 compare and contrast Rutherford s

and Bohr s models of the atom.
Bohr developed a model of

the atom.
1919
The proton was discovered.
1932
The neutron was discovered.
5 Explain why Rutherford s model is

called the planetary model.
InVEsTIGATE
cREATE
6 The table below shows
when different events in the
development of the atomic model
occurred. Use these dates to
construct a timeline of the events.
Remember that you will need to
choose an appropriate scale!
7 Bohr s model of the atom is also

called the quantum model. Find
out what a quantum is.
8 Many of the scientists mentioned
on pages 306 7 won Nobel prizes
for their work. Use the library and
the internet to discover who won
a Nobel prize and what for.
11 Bits of matter
307
LooKIng BaCK
1 Copy and complete the following table, which describes the
structure of atoms.
Part of
atom
Location
Size and
weight
(relative)
Electric
charge
Large
Positive
6 Describe what diamonds, the lead in pencils and coal

have in common.
7 Identify which of the bits of matter is represented by each
of the cartoons below.
Neutron
Outside the nucleus
2 Complete the following table to summarise what you know
about metals and non-metals.
Property
Metals
Non-metals
Conduct electricity
well
Conduct heat well
Surface features
State at room
temperature
8 Each of the diagrams below represents one of the bits of

matter that make up substances.
Malleable
Ductile
Brittle
3 Identify which of the following are (a) metals and (b) nonmetals.
chlorine gas, sodium, silver, lead, sulfur, oxygen, silicon
4 Most of the substances around you are compounds and
mixtures.
(a) Describe the differences between a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen and a compound of hydrogen and
oxygen.
(b) In your own words, explain the difference between a
compound and a mixture.
(c) Deduce which elements you would be most likely to find
in their pure form around the home.
5 Complete the table below to identify whether the

substances listed are elements, compounds or mixtures.
Explain your decisions.
Substance
Element, compound
or mixture?
Gold
Diamond
Carbon dioxide
Air
Why do you
think so?
Identify which of the diagrams represents:

(a) an atom of an element
(b) a molecule of an element
(c) a molecule of a compound.
9 The famous crime writer Agatha Christie mentioned the
metalloid arsenic frequently in her novels. Propose why it
was important in her stories.
Sea water
Pure water
Iron
Ammonia
Table salt (NaCl)
308
10 Imagine you are a scientist who is investigating what is

produced when various chemicals are mixed together.
In one reaction a hard, bright green solid is produced.
You do not know what it is. Suggest some tests you
could do to help you decide whether it is an element or a
compound.
11 Identify which of the following substances are elements,

compounds and mixtures:
gold, air, carbon dioxide gas, sea water, oxygen gas, sodium
chloride, graphite, orange juice, aluminium metal, icecream, pure water.
12 Are all allotropes molecules? Explain.
13 Describe the plum pudding model of the atom.
14 What is an alloy? Identify the metals that make up the
following alloys:
(a) bronze
(b) solder
(c) stainless steel
(d) brass.
TEsT YouRsELF
1 A compound is a substance that is
A made up of one type of atom.
B made up of different atoms mixed together.
C always a solid.
D able to be broken down into the elements it is composed
of.
(1 mark)
2 The central section of an atom is called the
A nucleus.
B electron.
C middle.
D neutron.
3 The chemical symbol for silver is
A Si.
B S.
C Ag.
D Sr.
(1 mark)
4 The plum pudding model of the atom was first proposed by

A Democritus.
B Ernest Rutherford.
C Niels Bohr.
D JJ Thomson.
(1 mark)
5 Imagine you are a scientist in charge of developing new
materials. The Australian Space Agency has approached
you because they need a new substance to coat the
outside of the space shuttles they are designing. The
substance must be:
able to withstand the heat of the shuttle re-entering the
Earth s atmosphere
exible enough to bend when the wings of the shuttle
bend
strong enough to stand the vibration of take-off, landing
and other movement
light enough to be part of a ying spacecraft
resistant to chemical attack
able to reect the solar radiation in space.
Your task is to design the coating for the space shuttle.
Include:
(a) whether it will be solid, or an innovative liquid or gas
coating. It could be a combination of these in layers or
as a mixture!
(b) what atoms, elements or compounds it will be made of
(c) how the coating of substances will work to meet the
criteria from the Australian Space Agency. This will
include the properties of your substances and how they
are put together.
(d) a drawing of your coating indicating its special features
and how it works.
(6 marks)
work
sheets
11.7 Bits of matter puzzles

11.8 Bits of matter summary
(1 mark)
11 11 BitsBitsthat
of matter
309
StUDY CHeCKLISt
Atoms
ICt
eBook plus
describe the structure of an atom 11.1

recall the three main particles that make up an atom and
where they are found in the atom 11.1
explain what makes atoms different from each
other 11.1
recall how an atom differs from a molecule 11.6
SUMMaRY
Interactivities
It s elementary! revelation game
In this revelation game, you must identify common elements
from their symbols to reveal the full periodic table. You must
answer quickly to complete the game in time.
Elements
contrast the characteristics of metals and
non-metals
11.3
classify common elements as metals or

non-metals
11.3
identify the chemical symbols for common

elements
11.2
distinguish between natural and synthetic

elements
11.2
define the term allotrope 11.7

describe what is meant by the term alloy 11.5
recall the metals that make up common alloys such as
brass, steel and bronze
11.5
describe how carbon is recycled in nature 11.7

compounds
describe how elements are different from
compounds
11.4
describe how compounds differ from mixtures 11.4,

Making molecules
In this interactivity, you will use carbon, chlorine, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen atoms to create the correct models of a
series of chemical formulae. Instant feedback is provided.
11.5
recall examples of compounds that are made up

of the same elements which differ in their physical
properties 11.4
identify common compounds 11.4
explain how compounds may be broken up into their
component elements 11.4
History of science
compare the models of the atom put forward by Dalton,
Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr
11.8
310
12
Chemical reactions
Chemical
reactions are
happening
everywhere.
Chemical reactions in your body
digest food, decay your teeth and
much more. Chemical reactions occur
in batteries to provide electricity,
in the oven when you bake a cake,
in your hair when it is bleached or
coloured and in your car when it
burns fuel. The list goes on
and on
and on.

12.1
distinguish between physical and
chemical changes and learn the signs

that a chemical change has taken
place
12.2
distinguish between reactants and
products and use word equations to

describe chemical reactions
12.3
apply a number of techniques to
change the rate of a chemical

reaction
12.4
investigate the chemical reaction
involved in the corrosion of iron

12.5
learn about the reactions involved in
combustion and burning

12.6
learn how pH distinguishes acids from
bases, and how neutralisation of acid

with a base can help indigestion
12.7
learn how the increased use of fossil
fuels has caused the environmental

problem of acid rain.
Chemical reactions can be explosive

and colourful as during this launch
of a scramjet rocket in Woomera,
South Australia.
What is a chemical
reaction?
You ve probably already heard a
lot about chemical reactions
at
school, on television, at the movies
or in books. But what is a chemical
reaction, and how do you know
whether a chemical reaction has
taken place?
Check out the images on this page

and answer the questions based
on what you already know about
chemical reactions.
1. The boiling liquid in the pot at
left is changing colour. It began
as a mixture of reds, greens
and blues and, after stirring, is
changing into an dangerouslooking, yellow soup.
(a) Write down your opinion
about whether or not a
chemical reaction is taking
place.
(b) Explain how you know
whether a chemical reaction
has taken place.
(c) Is there a chemical reaction
taking place underneath the
pot? Explain your answer.
(d) Clouds are forming above
the pot. Is this evidence of
another chemical reaction?
2. Does a chemical reaction take
place when you burn toast?
What observations support your
answer?
3. Does a chemical reaction take
place when you toast bread
without burning it? Explain your
answer.
4. Is the frozen substance in this

man s beard and the inside
edge of his hood the result of a
chemical reaction? Explain your
answer.
5. Runners in long-distance races

sweat heavily. The water lost
due to sweating evaporates from
the skin. Is this evaporation an
example of a chemical reaction?
6. What happens when you use

detergents? Are these chemical
reactions?
12.1
time for a change?

Have you noticed the way that
things change? When a tub of
ice-cream is left on the table on
a warm day, the ice-cream melts.
When water is heated, it may
turn into a vapour. When an
apple is sliced, it turns brown. In
chapter 2, we looked at some of
these changes when we studied the
changes of state that matter may
undergo as a result of adding or
removing energy. For example:
When energy is added to a
solid, it melts to form a liquid.
If we keep adding energy to the
liquid, it boils or evaporates to
form a gas.
When we remove energy from
a gas by cooling it, the gas
condenses to form a liquid. If
we keep cooling it, that liquid
freezes to form a solid.
All of this may explain the icecream and the water, but does it
explain why the sliced apple turned
brown?
Physical changes
All of the changes of state we ve
described are physical changes.
A physical change does not break

any bonds between the atoms
of a molecule or make different
substances with different atoms.
When water is in the form of ice,
it is made up of water molecules,
each of which is made up of one
oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms. When the ice is turned
into water or into water vapour,
it is still made up of water
molecules.
Another characteristic of a
physical change is that it is usually
reversible. Water can be turned into
ice and then back into water again
very easily.
chemical changes
Substances are said to have
undergone a chemical change
when the particles that make them
up undergo change. Usually this
occurs when the chemical bonds
between particles in molecules
are broken or when new chemical
bonds are formed. There are a
number of different ways that you
can tell if a chemical change has
occurred:
Evaporation
Melting
A new substance is formed.

A solid appears or disappears.
The temperature of
the substances changes
spontaneously.
A colour change occurs.
Bubbles appear.
A flame appears or light is
produced.
When you hard-boil an egg,
for example, you can see that a
chemical change has taken place
because the albumen has changed
from a clear liquid to a rubbery
white solid, while the yolk has
changed from a translucent yellow
liquid to a paler yellow, crumbly
solid.
Most chemical changes are
difficult to reverse. Once the egg
has been cooked, you cannot
turn it back into its raw state.
Obviously a little commonsense is
needed here though. For example,
if you drop a raw egg and the
shell breaks, you cannot reverse
what has happened, yet this is
not considered to be a chemical
change.
When a sliced apple turns
brown, this indicates that a
chemical change has occurred
to the surface of the apple. This
particular change is a form of
oxidation, a chemical reaction
that we will look at in more detail
later.
How does a candle

burn?
Solid
Liquid
Freezing
Changes of state are physical changes.
Gas
Condensation
Sometimes, a process that seems

very simple is the combination
of both physical and chemical
changes. Let s look at the example
of a burning candle.
313
When you try to light a piece

of solid wax it melts, but it does
not burn. If solid wax doesn t
burn, how does a candle burn?
Is it the string wick that is in the
middle of the candle that burns?
String burns, but it doesn t burn
as a candle does. How then does a
candle burn?
How does a candle burn?
When you light the wick of a

candle, the wax at the top of the
candle melts. The molten wax is
drawn up the wick, just as water
soaks into a paper towel. As the

liquid wax flows up the wick and
gets closer to the heat of the flame
it evaporates. The wax vapour
mixes with oxygen in the air and
burns.
How does a cake rise?

When an acid is added to
bicarbonate of soda, a new
substance
carbon dioxide gas
is produced. This process is a
chemical change and is used in
cakes to help them rise during the
cooking process.
Baking powder is a mixture
of bicarbonate of soda and
cream of tartar. When baking
powder is added to cakes, the
cream of tartar dissolves in the
liquids of the cake mixture and
forms tartaric acid. This acid is
then available to react with the
bicarbonate of soda.
Self-raising flour contains
baking powder so, when a recipe
includes self-raising flour and a
liquid, you know that the cooking
process will involve a chemical
InveStIgatIon 12.1
Describing change
In a burning candle, there are
both physical and chemical
changes. The melting of solid
wax to form liquid wax and the
evaporation of liquid wax to form
wax vapour are physical changes.
The burning of wax vapour is a
chemical change. The wax vapour
reacts with oxygen in the air to
form new substances including
carbon dioxide and ash.
Physical and chemical changes
can be described using word
equations.
Melting chocolate can be
described by the equation:
solid chocolate
liquid chocolate
The burning of paper can be

described by the equation:
paper + oxygen
smoke + ash
To confirm that the white vapour is not smoke, carry out
the following test.
A burning candle
Relight the candle. Once it is burning properly, blow it out.
You will need:

safety glasses
candle
jar lid
matches
heatproof mat
Quickly light the top of the vapour trail. The flame should
Place a jar lid on a heatproof mat.

Light a candle and allow a drop of wax to drip onto the
jar lid. Place the candle on the drop of wax and fix it to
the jar lid.
Observe the candle and write down as many
observations of the burning candle as you can.
run down the vapour to the wick and relight the candle.
Discussion
1
How far is the flame from the solid wax?
The solid wax has formed a little pool of liquid wax

around the wick. Why has this happened?
Describe the odour of the vapour.
CAUTION Do not smell the vapour directly. Fan the odour to

your nose with your hand.
4
Draw a diagram of a candle and its flame. Label this

diagram to explain how a candle burns.
Explain why lighting the wax vapour causes the

candle to relight.
Discuss your observations with others in your group.

Blow out your candle and you will see the white vapour
rising from the top of the wick.
314
change. The carbon dioxide gas

produced during this chemical
change rises through the cake
mixture as it cooks and helps to
aerate it.
Stop stirring the mixture when it boils.
InveStIgatIon 12.2
How can you tell a chemical reaction
has taken place?
You will need:
110 g sugar
150 mL cold water
500 mL beaker
hotplate
stirring rod
220 C thermometer
test tube
patty pans
heatproof mat
electronic balance
measuring cylinder
2 teaspoons of golden syrup
half a spatula of cream of tartar
half a spatula of bicarbonate of soda
laboratory coat and safety glasses
Mix the sugar, cold water, golden syrup and cream of
tartar in the beaker.

Gently heat and stir the mixture over the hotplate until the
sugar has completely dissolved.
Allow the mixture to reach 154 C, and then remove it
from the hotplate.

CAUTION
The beaker and the mixture are very hot. Remove them from the
hotplate with care.
Dissolve the bicarbonate of soda in 1 2 mL of
warm tap water in the test tube. Pour the dissolved

bicarbonate of soda into the sugar mixture, stirring
gently.
Pour the hot mixture into patty pans.
Allow to cool before examining.
Discussion
What evidence is there that a chemical reaction has taken
place?
THinK
activities

7 Write two word equations to describe the changes of
state that occur when a candle burns.
REMEMBER
1 Describe the difference between a physical and a
chemical change.
2 Recall two examples of physical change.
3 Recall two examples of chemical change.
4 identify which term goes with each definition.
Definition
Term
Change from solid to liquid
Freezing
Change from gas to liquid
Melting
Change from liquid to solid
Condensation
Change from liquid to gas
Evaporation
8 Write a word equation to describe the chemical change

that occurs when a candle burns.
9 When you hard-boil an egg, the inside of the egg gets
hard. Explain why this is a chemical change and not a
physical change.
cREATE
10 Candles are a good example of both physical change
and chemical change. Write a poem about a candle
burning.
work
sheet
12.1 Physical and chemical changes
5 Recall which type of physical change can always be

reversed by heating or cooling.
Observation
Physical or chemical change
Water freezing to form snow

A cake cooking
Lighting the gas on the stove
Petrol evaporating at the petrol pump
Lighting a match
Steam condensing on the bathroom mirror
Melting gold to cast gold bars
Dynamite exploding
Bleaching a stain
Dissolving eggshell in acetic acid
315
12.2
Describing chemical changes

When a chemical change occurs, new substances are
produced. The process of producing new substances
is called a chemical reaction. Almost all the products
you use or wear each day are made by chemical
reactions: from cosmetics to concrete, plastics to
paper, glass to graphite, stainless steel to shampoo,
fibres to food additives, margarine to medicines
and many, many more. You can usually tell that a
chemical reaction has taken place if there is a change
in colour, a gas is given off, heat or light is produced
or a precipitate (cloudiness) appears.
Reactants and products

The substances that you begin with in a chemical
reaction are called the reactants; the substances that
are produced are called the products. When you wash
the dishes, a chemical reaction occurs between the
detergent and the mess on the dishes. When you
shampoo your hair, some of the chemicals in the
shampoo react with the greasy substances on your
scalp that contain dust, dirt and tiny organisms like
bacteria that can make your hair unhealthy. When you
turn on a battery-powered torch, a chemical reaction
takes place in the batteries that causes the flow of
electrons (electric current) to move through the bulb
and the torch lights up.
Chemical reaction experiments

Before you start each of the four experiments on these
two pages, design a suitable table for recording your
observations.
As you do the experiments:
1. Make a note of the appearance of the
reactants you are starting with.
2. Observe carefully to detect any
changes that occur.
3. Describe the products of the
reaction.
InveStIgatIon 12.3
Magnesium metal in hydrochloric acid
You will need:
heatproof mat
safety glasses
test tube and test-tube rack
1 cm piece of magnesium ribbon
dropping bottle of 0.5M hydrochloric acid
Put the magnesium in the test tube.
Add 20 drops of hydrochloric acid to the test tube.
CAUTION The test tube may become quite hot.

Discussion
What observation provides evidence that a chemical
reaction has taken place?
InveStIgatIon 12.4
Heating copper carbonate
You will need:
safety glasses
test-tube holder
spatula
copper carbonate powder
Pour two spatulas of copper carbonate in the test
tube.
Using the test-tube holder, heat the test tube.
Remember to move the test tube in and out of the

flame and point the test tube away from people.
Stop heating when the copper carbonate has
changed colour.
Safety glasses should always

be worn during experiments
involving chemical reactions.
316
Discussion
What observation provides evidence that a chemical
InveStIgatIon 12.5
sodium sulfate and barium
chloride
You will need:
heatproof mat
safety glasses
test-tube holder
dropping bottle of 0.1M sodium
sulfate solution
dropping bottle of 0.1M barium
chloride solution
Put 20 drops of sodium sulfate
solution in the test tube.

Add 20 drops of barium chloride
solution to the test tube.

Discussion
What observation provides
evidence that a chemical
Writing word equations

Each of the chemical reactions in the experiments on these two pages
can be described by a word equation. In each case, the reactants are on
the left side of the equation and the products are on the right side of the
equation.
1. When magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas
and magnesium chloride are formed:
magnesium + hydrochloric acid
hydrogen gas + magnesium chloride
2. Heating copper carbonate forms copper oxide and carbon dioxide:

heat
copper carbonate
copper oxide + carbon dioxide gas
Although heat is required for this chemical reaction, it is not a

substance and therefore is not a reactant. For this reason, heat is
written above the arrow.
3. The sodium sulfate and barium chloride in the solution react to form
solid barium sulfate and sodium chloride, which remains dissolved in
the solution:
sodium sulfate + barium chloride
solid barium sulfate + sodium chloride
4. Steel wool (which is made of iron) dissolves in copper sulfate solution

to form iron sulfate solution and copper metal:
iron + copper sulfate solution
iron sulfate solution + copper
InveStIgatIon 12.6
steel wool in copper sulfate
solution
You will need:
heatproof mat
safety glasses
glass stirring rod
1 cm ball of steel wool
dropping bottle of 0.5M copper
sulfate solution
Put the steel wool in the test
tube, using the glass stirring

rod to push it gently to the
bottom of the test tube.
Add copper sulfate solution
to the test tube to a depth of

2 cm.
Discussion
What observation provides
evidence that a chemical
activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall four observations that could
provide evidence that a chemical
reaction has taken place.
2 When magnesium metal reacts
with hydrochloric acid, hydrogen
gas and magnesium chloride are
formed.
(a) identify the products.
(b) identify the reactants.
produce carbon dioxide and

water.
(b) Sodium metal reacts with
chlorine gas to form sodium
chloride.
(c) Hydrogen gas and oxygen
gas combine to form water.
(d) Zinc metal dissolves in
hydrochloric acid to form
hydrogen gas and zinc
chloride.
5 Explain why the reaction that takes
place when copper carbonate is
heated is called a decomposition
reaction.
THinK
3 What is the only real proof that
a chemical reaction has taken
place? Explain your answer.
4 Write word equations that describe
the following chemical reactions.
(a) Octane gas is burned with
oxygen in a car engine to
cREATE
6 Some experiments with chemical
reactions can be dangerous.
construct a safety poster for one of
the experiments you have done.
work
sheet
12.2 Describing chemical

changes
317
12.3
Faster and slower

Not all reactions occur at the same rate. The explosive
reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water
is very fast and can release enough energy to propel
spacecraft into orbit. Other reactions, such as the
rusting of iron, can take weeks, months or even years
to be complete.
InveStIgatIon 12.7
The effect of temperature on a reaction
You will need:
safety glasses
heatproof mat
Bunsen burner
matches
marble chips
test tube
test-tube rack
test-tube holder
dropping bottle of 1M hydrochloric acid
Carefully slide one or two marble chips to the bottom
of the test tube.

Add the hydrochloric acid to half-fill the test tube.
Observe the reaction.
Now gently heat the test tube and observe the
reaction.
Discussion
Explosions are fast chemical reactions.
Sometimes it is important for the rate of a

particular reaction to be either slowed down or made
much faster than it would normally occur. There are
a number of ways in which we can alter the rate of a
chemical reaction.
changing the temperature

You ll remember from our studies of the particle
model on pages 43 7 that adding energy in the form
of heat causes the particles in a substance to move
faster and to collide with each other more often.
When particles collide, the bonds between atoms may
break and new bonds may form. As the added heat
increases the number of collisions, the breaking and
318
Has a chemical change occurred? What evidence

have you observed?
What effect did heat have on the rate of this

reaction?
In this reaction, the calcium carbonate, which

makes up the marble chip, reacts with the
hydrochloric acid to form calcium chloride, water
and carbon dioxide gas. Write a word equation for
this chemical reaction.
creation of bonds occurs faster. In other words, the

chemical reaction between substances occurs much
faster if you heat them.
Of course, this works the other way as well; cooling
the substances involved in a chemical reaction reduces
the reaction rate. We make use of this fact when we
store food in the refrigerator, rather than leaving it
on the kitchen bench. Food goes off when microorganisms produce chemical substances that degrade
the food. Food in the fridge is much cooler than on
the bench, and this reduces the rate at which the
micro-organisms produce degrading substances.
changing the surface area

Have you ever had a composite resin
filling in your tooth? The dentist uses
blue light or ultraviolet (uV) radiation
to set this type of filling. The visible or
uV light speeds up the reactions that
cause the materials in the filling to
harden. Without the uV light, you would
be waiting for hours for this type of
filling to set.
UV light can speed up the setting of

a composite resin filling.
Have you ever noticed

that sugar in granular
form dissolves much
faster than a sugar cube
when you add it to a
cup of tea? When you
break up a substance
into smaller pieces, you
increase the surface
area of that substance.
This means that more
particles can immediately
come into contact with
the particles of another
substance, allowing reactions
between them to happen
much faster.
Bath bombs, for example, are sold as solid
balls that are dropped into your bath water to release carbon dioxide
gas and scented oil. As the water reacts with the Epsom salts in the bath
bomb, it slowly disappears. However, if you crush the bath bomb into a
powder and then put it in your bath, it reacts very quickly.
using a catalyst
Catalysts are chemicals that speed up chemical reactions. They are not
reactants because they are not changed by the reaction. For example,
catalytic converters in car exhausts use a precious metal, such as
platinum, as a catalyst. This enables nitrogen oxide to react with toxic
gases, such as carbon monoxide, to form less the harmful carbon dioxide
and nitrogen gases; this reaction would not occur in the absence of
platinum. This reaction can be shown as:
carbon monoxide + nitrogen oxide
platinum
carbon dioxide + nitrogen
Catalysts produced by living organisms are called enzymes. Many of

the chemical reactions taking place inside your body involve enzymes.
Enzymes are also responsible for some of the changes we see in our food.
If you have ever left a half-eaten apple in your lunch box or locker,
you ve seen enzymes at work. Apples and other fruits go brown because
chemicals in them, called phenolics, react with oxygen in the air. The
brown chemicals produced are called quinones. Enzymes speed up the
reaction.
The chemical word equation for this reaction is:
phenolics + oxygen
Apples go brown when phenolics react

with oxygen in the air.
enzymes
quinones
The human body produces many different enzymes to speed up the

digestion of our food. Amylase helps us digest starches, protease is
needed for protein digestion, and lipase must be present if we are to
digest fats and oils.
319
changing the
concentration
The concentration of a solution
depends on how much solute
is dissolved in a set amount of
solvent. The more solute that
is dissolved, the greater the
concentration of the solution is.
The more concentrated that a
solution is, the more particles of
solute it contains that can react
with other substances. If there
are more particles available for
a chemical reaction, the reaction
will occur faster. So, use more
concentrated solutions to make a
reaction go faster, and use more
dilute solutions to make a reaction
go more slowly.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the rate of a chemical
reaction .
2 Describe four different methods of
changing the rate of a reaction.
3 Explain how heating increases the
rate of a reaction.
4 Define the term catalyst .
5 Explain why a catalyst is not
considered a reactant.
6 compare enzymes and catalysts.
Discuss with your partner how
InveStIgatIon 12.8
changing the reaction rate
You will need:
safety glasses
heatproof mat
test tubes and test-tube rack
white chalk
mortar and pestle
spatula
0.5M hydrochloric acid
1M hydrochloric acid
measuring cylinder
Hydrochloric acid reacts with
chalk to produce carbon

dioxide gas, water and calcium
chloride.
Put a small amount of chalk
in a test tube and add enough

hydrochloric acid to cover it.
Observe the chemical reaction.
inVEsTiGATE
11 Amylase, pepsin and lipase are
all enzymes found in the human
digestive system.
(a) investigate how they are
involved in digestion.
(b) Write a chemical word
equation for the reactions that
they speed up.
usE DATA
12 In an experiment investigating how
temperature affects the reaction
rate of an unknown metal in acid,
students collected the following
data.
THinK
7 Does a refrigerator stop food from
rotting or does it just slow the
rotting? Explain your answer.
8 Food keeps well in a refrigerator.
Deduce why it keeps even longer in
the freezer.
9 Propose why some washing
powders contain enzymes.
10 Deduce why the word enzyme
appears over the arrow in the
chemical word equation for the
browning of fruit.
320
Temperature
( C)
Reaction time
(seconds)
10
60
20
53
30
48
40
44
50
40
60
35
70
30
80
24
90
18
you could use this reaction to

demonstrate one of the following
hypotheses.
(a) Increasing the concentration
or amount of reactants speeds
up a chemical reaction.
(b) Increasing the surface
area of reactants speeds up a
chemical reaction.
(c) Decreasing the
concentration or amount of
reactants slows a chemical
reaction.
Design your experiment and write
down the method that you have

chosen.
Predict the results you would
expect to obtain that would support

the hypothesis you have chosen.
Perform the experiment.
Prepare a report of your findings.
(a) construct a line graph that

shows how increasing the
temperature affected the
reaction rate. Put temperature
on the horizontal axis and time
(b) Predict how long the reaction
would take if the temperature
was:
(i) 65 C
(ii) 95 C.
(c) Describe the shape of the
graph.
(d) Propose a change to the
experiment that would cause
the reaction to occur faster.
eBook plus
13 Change the temperature,

concentration and surface area in
the Reaction rates interactivity in
your eBookPLUS to see how they
affect the rate of a reaction; then
decide how the rates of particular
reactions could be changed.
int-0230
work
sheet
12.3 Speeding up
reactions
12.4
Rusting is a chemical reaction

The Sydney Harbour Bridge is
continually painted to protect
it from moisture and the air,
which would cause its
steel girders
to rust.
Rusting is an example of corrosion. Corrosion

is a chemical reaction between a metal
and substances in the air or water around
it that eats away the metal and causes it
to deteriorate. There are many examples of
corrosion: silver tarnish; the green film that
forms on copper or brass objects; and, the most
common one, the rusting of iron. Corrosion
causes enormous damage to buildings, bridges,
ships, railway tracks and cars.
Rust
Rust is the product of the corrosion of iron.
Iron reacts with water and oxygen in the air to
form iron oxide and other iron compounds that
make up the familiar red-brown substance known
as rust. Rusting is a chemical reaction that can be
represented by the following word equation:
iron + water + oxygen
rust
Even strong buildings and bridges that are made from steel, an
alloy of iron, are weakened by rusting. The Sydney Harbour Bridge,
for example, is continually painted to protect it from moisture and the
air, which would cause its steel girders to rust. Ships and cars are also
constructed largely of steel. Despite the strength of the steel, they need to
be protected from the corrosive effects of the environment.
InveStIgatIon 12.9
observing rusting
Steel wool is made from iron. You
can observe rusting of the iron
in steel wool by performing the
following experiment.
You will need:
glass Petri dish
water
steel wool (without any soap)
small glass
permanent marker
Pour some water into the Petri
dish.
Place the steel wool in the
middle of the Petri dish.

Cover the steel wool by placing
the glass over it upside-down.

Mark the level of the water on
the outside of the glass with a

permanent marker.
Leave for several days, adding
water as required to keep the

level at the mark on the glass.
Steel wool
Glass
Petri dish
Water
speeding up rusting
Some substances in the environment make the rusting reaction happen
much more quickly. One of the most effective of these is salt. Steel
dinghies that are used in the ocean rust much faster than those that are
used only in fresh water. This is because the salt in the water allows the
reaction between the oxygen in the air and the iron in the steel to occur
much faster.
Some chemicals released from factories may not be corrosive
themselves but may allow the rusting process to occur faster. Even the
exhaust from aircraft can speed up rusting. Research by the CSIRO
has found that corrosion rates in a large city are highest near airports,
industrial plants, sewage treatment works and large bodies of salt water.
Rusting is much slower in very dry environments such as deserts. In
the Mohave Desert in southern California, hundreds of aircraft that are
not in immediate use by airlines are stored in the open air. Due to the
extremely low humidity
the rainfall is nearly zero
rusting occurs
extremely slowly. As a result, some of the aircraft are still structurally
sound despite being exposed for nearly twenty years!
Observing the rusting of iron

Construct a table in which you
can record your observations

over several days.
Discussion
1
What did you observe about

the level of water inside the
glass? Can you explain why
this happened?
Write a word equation for

the chemical reaction that
occurred inside the glass.
321
Rust protection
The layer of rust that forms on an
iron object flakes off the metal,
allowing air and moisture to get
through to the iron below. This
causes more rusting to occur, and
eventually the iron becomes a heap
of rust. It is important to protect
InveStIgatIon 12.10
Rusting and salt water
You will need:
test tubes and test-tube rack
measuring cylinder
iron nails
water
salt (sodium chloride)
Design an experiment to test
the effect of the saltiness of

water on the time taken for an
iron nail to rust.
Discuss your design with
a partner. You will need to

consider which conditions
must be kept the same and
which condition will be varied.
You will also need to set up a
control test tube. Find out the

purpose of a control.
Write down your method. It
should be clear enough for

someone else to follow without
any help.
Construct a table in which to
record your observations over

the next few days.
iron and steel from corrosion,

especially if it is part of a bridge or
the hull of a ship.
There are several ways to protect
iron and steel from rusting.
One way is to prevent oxygen
or moisture from contacting
the metal. This is called surface
protection. The metal can be
protected by coating it with
paint, plastic or oil. If the surface
protection becomes scratched or
worn off, the metal below can be
attacked by moisture and oxygen
and rusting will occur. Examine
the painted surface of an old car.
Wherever the paint has chipped
off you will find that corrosion has
occurred and the rust can be seen.
Another way to protect iron
from rusting is to coat it with
a layer of zinc. This is called
galvanising. Zinc is a more reactive
metal than iron, and in the
presence of moisture and oxygen
the zinc layer corrodes, leaving
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term corrosion .
2 Define the term rusting .
3 Describe what surface protection is.
4 Explain what galvanised iron is and
what advantage it has over iron.
THinK
Discussion
What effect did salt have on
the time taken for the iron
nail to rust?
How do your results

compare with those of
others in your class?
6 Discuss how galvanising can

protect iron from rusting when
the zinc coating corrodes more
quickly than the iron.
Write a report on your

findings.
inVEsTiGATE
Suggest why people who

live in seaside resorts have
problems with their cars
rusting.
7 Do other metals corrode as iron

does? Design an experiment to
find the answer to this question
using strips of copper, magnesium,
3
4
322
5 Explain why rusting occurs faster

near Botany Bay than in areas
further away from the sea.
the iron unaffected. Many roofing

materials and garden sheds are
made from galvanised iron. You
can also buy galvanised nails.
Rusting can be useful

Not all rusting is bad. You can
buy, from a pharmacy, hand
warmers, which are commonly
used by skiers and campers. These
packages produce heat when you
shake them. The contents of the
packet include powdered iron,
water, salt and sawdust. When the
packet is shaken vigorously, the
iron undergoes a rusting reaction,
which produces heat.
city councils face problems caused by

the action of dogs on metal lampposts.
The corrosive properties of the dogs
urine rusts the steel of the lampposts
a few centimetres above the ground.
zinc, lead and aluminium. Use

sandpaper to remove any coating
caused by corrosion from the
metal strips; they should be shiny.
8 Corrosion is found in many places.
Survey your school for rust spots.
Account for your findings.
9 If you have access to an old car,
survey it carefully and record all
the rust spots on the car. Explain
why some parts of the car are
more likely to rust.
10 Aluminium corrodes quite quickly,
yet it is used to make soft-drink
cans. investigate why aluminium
cans are not corroded by the
drinks they store.
eBook plus
11 Use the How rust works weblink in

your eBookPLUS to watch a video
about rust and the corrosion of iron.
work
sheet
12.4 Rusting
12.5
Burning is a chemical reaction

Burning is a chemical reaction.
It involves the combination of
oxygen with a fuel and usually
produces heat and gases. Reactions
that involve combination with
oxygen are called oxidation
reactions.
There are many other oxidation
reactions that can occur. The
rusting of iron to form iron oxide
is an oxidation reaction. Rusting
could correctly be described as a
very slow type of burning reaction.
Burning fossil fuels

When a fossil fuel reacts with
oxygen, heat is produced, along
with carbon dioxide and water
vapour. Fossil fuels are those fuels
that are formed from the remains
of living things. Petrol, natural gas
and coal are fossil fuels.
the piston, which turns the drive

shaft. The products of the reaction,
carbon dioxide and water vapour,
leave the car engine through the
exhaust pipe.
InveStIgatIon 12.11
Burning magnesium
You will need:
safety glasses
Bunsen burner, heatproof mat
and matches
tongs
2 cm piece of magnesium ribbon
sandpaper
If the magnesium ribbon is dull,
use sandpaper to remove the

dull layer.
Hold the magnesium ribbon
An oxyacetylene torch is used in

construction work.
The oxyacetylene torch
A backdraught occurs when a fire in

a closed room dies down because
it has been starved of oxygen, but
flammable gases continue to stream
out of the hot materials in the room.
When a door to the room is opened,
air is quickly drawn inside, restoring
the supply of oxygen and allowing
the fire to reignite. The resulting fire
consumes all the flammable gases in
a few seconds and produces sufficient
heat to ignite any remaining materials
in the room. This is very dangerous to
firefighters.
with tongs in the Bunsen

burner flame.
CAUTION Do not look directly at
the flame
eye damage may occur.
After burning the magnesium
metal, observe the product of

burning that is left.
To obtain temperatures as high as

3000 C
hot enough to melt
iron and weld metals
acetylene
fuel is mixed with pure oxygen in
an oxyacetylene torch.
acetylene + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water
Describe the magnesium

metal before burning.
During burning, the

magnesium reacted with
the oxygen in the air by
combining with it to form
magnesium oxide. Describe
the magnesium oxide.
How do you know that a

chemical reaction has taken
place?
Write a word equation for

the chemical reaction.
Discussion
The car engine

Burning is also known as
combustion. Car engines work by
the combustion of petrol or gas
in the cylinders. A mixture of
air and fuel is drawn into each
cylinder and ignited by a spark
from the spark plug. The fuel
reacts rapidly with oxygen in the
air. The resulting explosion pushes
323
InveStIgatIon 12.12
Burning paper
You will need:
safety glasses
tongs
gas jar
limewater
paper
deflagrating spoon
Pour 10 mL limewater into the gas jar.
Put a ball of scrunched-up paper into the deflagrating spoon.
Light the paper and lower it into the gas jar.
When burning has stopped, remove the deflagrating spoon and cover the jar.
Shake the gas jar and observe the colour of the limewater.
Discussion
Oxidation reactions provide the thrust to

launch a space shuttle.
What happened to the limewater?
What gas was given off by the burning paper?
activities
REMEMBER
Rocket fuels
1 Define the term burning .
Liquid and solid fuels are used in

the NASA space shuttle program.
When these fuels are burned,
they provide sufficient thrust to
launch a space shuttle into orbit
hundreds of kilometres from Earth.
Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen
react to power the shuttle s main
engines.
hydrogen + oxygen
water
Most of the thrust required

to launch the shuttle into orbit
comes from chemical reactions
in the solid fuel, which is located
in the solid rocket boosters.
In space, liquid fuel such as
hydrazine is oxidised to produce
an enormous volume of gas. As
the gas is released, the rocket is
thrust forwards. By controlling
the direction of the thrust, it is
possible to steer the rocket.
324
2 Explain what evidence there is that

burning is a chemical reaction.
3 Define the term fossil fuel . List
three examples of fossil fuels.
4 List and describe three examples of
useful oxidation reactions.
5 Write a word equation for each of
the examples in question 4.
6 Is rusting an example of burning?
Explain.
THinK
7 Complete this word equation.
fuel + _____________
_____________ + water vapour
8 Name at least one fuel that is not

a fossil fuel.
9 Recall the three different oneword names given to the chemical
reactions in which fuels react with
oxygen.
cREATE
10 Choose one fuel from the list
below and construct a poster on
the use of this particular fuel.
Include in your poster where
it comes from, what it is used
for and a word equation for its
oxidation reaction.
methane
ethanol
butane
propane
kerosene
lignite
diesel
acetylene
11 Fire extinguishers are used to fight
fires. One type of fire extinguisher,
the soda acid type, is commonly
found in public buildings. When
this fire extinguisher is turned
upside down, a chemical
reaction takes place inside the
fire extinguisher to produce
the liquid that spurts out of the
nozzle. investigate what is inside
the soda acid fire extinguisher
and explain how it works.
construct a poster on how this fire
extinguisher works.
work
sheet
12.5 Combustion
12.6
acids and bases

Acids and bases are two groups of
chemicals that affect you every
day. In your stomach, acids help
to digest your food, and, in your
mouth, bacteria produce acids
that can destroy the enamel of
your teeth. Most cleaning agents,
including soap, are bases that
can dissolve oil and grease from
surfaces. In industry, acids are
used to produce a wide range
of products including drugs,
explosives, fertilisers and plastics.
The products shown in the
photographs below are examples of
acids and bases that can be found
around the home.
sour and bitter

Many of the foods you eat contain acids. Tomatoes, citrus fruits, vinegar
and lemonade are all acidic. Acids have a sour taste; in fact, the name
acid comes from the Latin word acidus meaning sour. Some acids, like
the acid found in car batteries (sulfuric acid), are very corrosive. They
react with solid substances, eating them away.
Bases have a bitter taste and feel slippery or soapy to touch. Some
bases are very corrosive, especially caustic soda (sodium hydroxide).
Caustic soda breaks down fat, hair and vegetable matter and is the main
ingredient in drain cleaners. Other bases are used in soap, shampoo,
toothpaste, dishwashing liquid and cloudy ammonia as cleaning agents.
Bases that can be dissolved in water are called alkalis. Some common
acids and bases are listed in the tables below.
Acid base indicators are substances that can be used to tell whether a
substance is an acid or a base. Some common indicators are listed in the
table on the next page. Acid base indicators react with acids and bases
and produce different colours in each. Some of them are natural dyes,
while others are artificially made.
Common acids and bases
Acid
Uses
Hydrochloric acid
To clean the surface of iron during its manufacture

Food processing
The manufacture of other chemicals
Oil recovery
Nitric acid
The manufacture of fertilisers, dyes, drugs and explosives
Sulfuric acid
The manufacture of fertilisers, plastics, paints, drugs,

detergents and paper
Petroleum rening and metallurgy
Citric acid
Present in citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons

Used in the food industry and the manufacture of some
pharmaceuticals
Carbonic acid
Formed when carbon dioxide gas dissolves in water

Present in zzy drinks
Acetic acid
Found in vinegar
The production of other chemicals, including aspirin
Base
Some common acids and bases

are found around the home.
Uses
Sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda)
The manufacture of soap

As a cleaning agent
Ammonia
The manufacture of fertilisers

As a cleaning agent
Sodium bicarbonate
To make cakes rise when they cook
325
Indicators and their colours in acids and bases

Indicator
Colour in acid
Colour in base
Methyl orange
Orange
Yellow
Litmus (made from lichens)
Red
Blue
Bromothymol blue
Yellow
Bluish-purple
Phenolphthalein
Colourless
Pink
Red wine
Red
Green
Red cabbage juice
Red
Yellow
indicators and it changes colour as the

strength of an acid or base changes.
The colour range of universal indicator
is shown below.
pH
1
3
12
14
An unusual indicator
coccus
The colour range of universal indicator.

It is pink in strong acid (pH 1), blue in
strong base (pH 14) and green in neutral
solutions (pH 7).
Dactylopius
pH wheel
showing the
colour range of the
universal indicator
10
Measuring pH
You can describe how acidic or basic
a substance is by using the numbers
on the pH scale. The pH scale ranges
from 0 to 14. Low pH numbers (less
than pH 7) mean that substances
are acidic. High pH numbers (more
than pH 7) mean that substances are
basic. If a substance has a pH of 7
it is said to be neutral
neither
acidic nor basic. This is shown
on the pH scale below. Acids
and bases can be graded from
strong to weak. For example,
a strong acid has a very low
pH (pH 0 or 1) and a strong
base has a very high pH (pH
13 or 14).
pH can be measured using a
pH meter or a special indicator
called universal indicator.
Universal indicator is a mixture of
cochineal is a red dye made from the

dried and ground-up bodies of female
scale insects (Dactylopius coccus).
These insects live on cactus plants in
Mexico. cochineal is used as a food
colouring but is also an acid base
indicator.
bicarbonate
of soda
Holbrook's
Vinegar
BIG
Sea water
Co
lg
MILK
MR
MUSCLE
Jif
at
OVEN
SPRAY
Black
coffee
1M
HYDROCHLORIC
ACID
0
1
STRONG
ACID
Gastric juices
5
WEA
ACID
The pH values of some common substances
326
BRASSO
PURE
WATER
7
NEUTRAL
pH
9
10
WEA
BASE
AJAX
11
C LO U DY
A M M ON I A
12
CAUSTIC
SODA
13
14
STRONG
BASE
When your stomach rumbles

Have you ever had indigestion? Do you burp? Does
your stomach rumble? These things happen as a result
of the chemical reactions in your stomach.
Your stomach contains hydrochloric acid, which
helps food digestion. However, if it becomes too
acidic you may experience a burning feeling. This
is called indigestion. The treatment for indigestion
is to take an antacid powder or tablet. An antacid
contains a base, which neutralises the excess acid
in the stomach and relieves the pain. As in all
neutralisation reactions, a salt and water are produced.
One commonly used antacid is milk of magnesia. It
consists of a solid base, magnesium oxide suspended
in water. The base reacts with the hydrochloric acid in
your stomach. The word equation for this chemical
reaction is:
magnesium hydrochloric
oxide +
acid
base
magnesium
chloride + water
acid
salt
The products are the salt, magnesium chloride, and

water.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall at least three uses of acids
and three uses of bases.
2 How can acids be distinguished from
bases?
3 compare the common properties of
some acids and bases.
4 Describe the difference between a
base and an alkali.
5 Recall which acid or base is
used:
(a) to make cakes rise
(b) in fizzy drinks
(c) in drain cleaners
(d) in vinegar
(e) in cleaning agents
(f) in car batteries.
6 Define the term acid base indicator .
7 Explain how antacids relieve
indigestion.
8 Explain what causes the burning
sensation in your stomach when
you have indigestion.
InveStIgatIon 12.13
Antacids
You will need:
safety glasses
heatproof mat
100 mL conical flask
universal indicator
0.05M hydrochloric acid solution
spatula
antacid powder (e.g. Eno salts or Mylanta)
Pour some hydrochloric acid into the conical flask.
Add 2 or 3 drops of universal indicator.
Note the colour of the solution, and determine its pH.
The acid in the conical flask represents the stomach
fluids.
Add a spatula of antacid powder to the conical flask
and gently swirl the flask.

Observe the reaction and note the colour of the
solution and the pH.
Discussion
1
What happened to the pH of the solution when the

antacid was added?
Was the level of acidity reduced by the antacid?
9 Recall which type of substance has

a pH value:
(a) less than 7
(b) more than 7
(c) equal to 7.
(b) vinegar
(c) pure water
(d) a strong base.
Substance
pH value
6.0 12.0 3.0 7.0 8.0
THinK
10 When you take antacid tablets for
an upset stomach, does the pH of
your stomach contents increase or
decrease? Explain your answer.
cREATE
11 Design and construct a hazard
warning label for a:
(a) bottle of concentrated
hydrochloric acid
(b) car battery
(c) bottle of drain cleaner that
contains mainly caustic soda.
13 Which two of the substances in

question 12 would you expect to
be the most corrosive? Justify your
answer.
14 construct a bar graph to display the
pH values of the five substances in
question 12.
inVEsTiGATE
15 investigate what a peptic ulcer is,
how it is caused and how it can be
treated.
eBook plus
usE DATA
12 A pH meter was used to measure
the pH of five different substances,
and the results are shown in
the table below. identify which
substance could be:
(a) a weak base
16 Play the pH rainbow in your

eBookPLUS and drop liquids in
their correct position on the pH
scale. int-0101
work
sheet
12.6 Acids and bases
327
12.7

acid rain
Every year, acid rain causes
hundreds of millions of dollars
worth of damage to buildings and
statues. The photographs below
show the damage that has been
caused to a statue over sixty years.
Forests, crops and lakes are also
affected by acid rain blown in from
industrial areas.
What causes acid rain?
eLesson
Rain is normally slightly acidic.
The
rain
is
burning!
As clouds form and rain falls, the
See some of the destruction that acid
water reacts with carbon dioxide in
rain has caused on Earth. Learn why
acid rain is created and how we can
the atmosphere to form very weak
stop it from occurring.
carbonic acid. If concentrations of
eles-0065
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are
high, these gases react with the water
in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric, nitric and other acids. When rain
falls, it is far more acidic than it would normally be and is known as acid
rain. If the acid rain falls as snow, acid snow can build up on mountains.
When this snow melts, huge amounts of acid are released in a short time.
eBook plus
Where do the gases come from?

Most of the gases that cause acid rain come from the burning of fossil
fuels (natural gas, oil and coal) in industry, power stations, the home and
cars. North America and Europe have a greater problem with acid rain
because they use coal with a higher sulfur content than Australian coal.
The sulfur dioxide released by volcanoes also contributes to acid rain.
react with water in

the atmosphere.
Acidic gases
Acid rain
kills trees.
trees
washes minerals
from soil into
streams
These photographs were taken in 1908

(top) and in 1969 (bottom). You can see
the damaging effects of acid rain on this
statue.
328
acidifies lakes and streams,

and kills fish, plants and
other life in water.
Acid rain is formed when acidic gases (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) pollute the air
and react with water.
Damage caused by acid rain
solving the problem
Acid rain damages the cells on the surface of leaves

and affects the flow of water through plants. It also
makes plants more likely to be damaged by frosts,
fungi and diseases. Acid rain collects in streams,
rivers and lakes, making the waterways more acidic.
A healthy lake has a pH of about 6.5 and fish, plants
and insects can live in it. Acid rain causes the pH
of the lake to fall. Some aquatic plants and animals
cannot tolerate these acidic conditions and die. It
is not only the acidic water that can kill the aquatic
life. Acid rain reacts with soil, releasing minerals,
which may contain elements such as aluminium. The
aluminium is washed into the streams, rivers and
lakes and poisons the aquatic plants and animals.
When acid rain eats into buildings and statues, it
is reacting with calcium carbonate in the marble or
limestone.
The problem of acid rain and all the damage that

it causes can be solved only by reducing the release
of acidic gases into the air. Some ways of doing this
include:
looking for alternative ways of producing electricity
encouraging people to use public transport or to car
pool.
calcium carbonate + acid rain

gypsum + water + carbon dioxide
The gypsum formed by acid rain on a statue is a

powdery dust (calcium sulfate), which is washed away
by the rain. As this chemical reaction continues, the
statue is slowly eaten away.
InveStIgatIon 12.14
investigating acid rain
Design and carry out an experiment to investigate the
effect of acid rain on the growth of plants.
You will need:
empty milk cartons
potting soil
distilled water
vinegar (or 0.1M hydrochloric acid solution)
measuring cylinder
seeds (such as lucerne, peas, cress, beans)
universal indicator
Cut the milk cartons so that they are about 10 cm
high. These will make suitable containers for growing

the seeds, five seeds per container.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term acid rain , and explain how it is
caused.
2 Explain why rain is slightly acidic even without air
pollution.
3 Describe two different ways in which acid rain can
harm the plants and animals in streams and lakes.
4 Complete this word equation.
acid rain + calcium carbonate
___________
THinK
5 Motor vehicles make a large contribution to the acid
rain problem. Most of them use fuel that releases
acidic nitrogen oxides when it is burned. Write an
account that discusses how motor vehicle pollution
could be reduced over the next thirty years.
cREATE
6 Write a newspaper article that analyses the
devastation caused by acid rain.
7 construct a wall chart that explains how acid rain is
formed in our environment and the damage that it can
cause.
iMAGinE
8 Imagine that you live near a factory or power station
that is producing acidic gases and causing harm
to the environment. You wish to be elected to the
local government board to stop this problem. Write
a speech that you could give at an election meeting
that clarifies the issue.
Test the effect of water with different pH values on
the growth of the seeds. To ensure that your tests are

fair, you will need to keep everything the same in your
experiment, except the one thing that you are varying.
In this case you are varying the acidity (pH) of the
water that you are putting on the plants.
Prepare a report on your investigation. This could
be a written report, a video, a wall chart or an oral

presentation.
inVEsTiGATE
9 Use the library to investigate which countries are most
affected by acid rain.
10 investigate how damage caused by acid rain could be
stopped or at least reduced.
work
sheet
12.7 Acid rain
329
LooKIng BaCK
1 Identify each of the following as either a chemical or a
physical change.
(a) The wax on a burning candle melts.
(b) The wax vapour at the top of the candle wick burns
with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water vapour
and heat.
(c) Calcium carbonate is dissolved by hydrochloric acid to
form calcium chloride, water and carbon dioxide gas.
(d) Hydrogen gas explodes with oxygen gas to form
water.
11 Some chemicals react as soon as they come into contact

with each other. Others need a trigger to get them started.
Identify two things that can trigger a combustion reaction.
12 The setting of concrete is a chemical reaction that takes
place between concrete and water. It is a very slow
reaction. Give at least two reasons why scientists may be
asked to find ways to speed up the reaction.
2 Write word equations for each of the chemical changes in

question 1.
3 Explain how you know that:
(a) toasting bread is not a physical change
(b) rusting of a nail is not a physical change.
4 Some chemical reactions can be useful. Recall three
examples of useful chemical reactions.
5 Catalysts are sometimes added to the reactants taking part
in a chemical reaction.
(a) Define the term catalyst .
(b) When a word equation is written to describe a chemical
reaction, catalysts are not included as either reactants
or products. Explain why.
6 Rusting is an example of a slow chemical reaction.
(a) Recall the three reactants of rusting.
(b) Identify the product of the rusting reaction.
(a)
(b)
7 For each of the following reactions, propose

methods to make the reaction happen more
quickly.
(a) Burning a pile of dry leaves
(b) Cooking potatoes
(c) Dissolving marble chips in acid
(d) Removing a stain using bleach
(e) Making an iron nail go rusty
(f) Letting milk go sour
8 Just as chemicals can be grouped or classified, so
can chemical reactions. Recall the names given to
the following two groups of chemical reactions.
(a) Reactions of metals with oxygen
(b) Reactions of acids with bases
9 Imagine that you are given a safe, but unknown,
liquid and are asked to decide if it is an acid, a
base or neutral. You are provided with an acid
base indicator that is safe to use, but it does not
have a label on it. You don t know what the colour
changes to the indicator mean.
Outline a step-by-step procedure to describe
how you could find out whether the substance is
an acid, a base or neutral. You are permitted to
use common substances found in just about any
kitchen.
10 Each of the four photographs at right (a, b, c, d)
shows a chemical reaction taking place. Compare
these chemical reactions.
330
(c)
(d)
13 The oxyacetylene torch shown here is used to melt metals

to allow them to be joined together.
4 Consider this word equation for a chemical reaction:

magnesium + hydrochloric acid
magnesium chloride + hydrogen gas
The reactants in this equation are
A magnesium and hydrogen gas.
B magnesium chloride and hydrogen gas.
C magnesium and hydrochloric acid.
D magnesium, hydrochloric acid, magnesium
chloride and hydrogen gas.
(a) Identify what type of chemical reaction takes place in

the oxyacetylene torch.
(b) What evidence is there in the photo that may help you
justify your answer to part (a)?
14 Many dentists believe that the increase in cavities in young
adults is due to the increased consumption of soft drinks at
a younger age. They theorise that a chemical reaction takes
place between the tooth enamel and the acid in the soft drink.
(a) Recall what acid is found in soft drinks.
(b) Design an experiment that will allow you to investigate
the effects of the soft-drink acid on teeth. (Hint: Find out
what material(s) teeth are made from.)
15 (a) Explain why children s steel swing sets rust much
faster in Lennox Heads than those in Dubbo.
(b) Suggest two ways in which the rusting of the steel
swing sets can be prevented (or at least slowed down).
TEsT YouRsELF
1 Which one of the following would you describe as a
chemical change?
A Ice-cream melting in the sun
B A match burning
C Breaking an egg
D Boiling water for a cup of tea
(1 mark)
2 Which of the following is not a reaction with oxygen as one
of the reactants?
A Combustion
B Oxidation
C Rusting
D Neutralisation
(1 mark)
3 Which substance is used to coat iron in the process of
galvanisation?
A Gallium
B Zinc
C Paint
D Salt
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
5 Have you ever noticed how things made of silver, such as

expensive cutlery, old tea services and even jewellery, get
a black film over them if they are not used often? That black
film, called silver tarnish, is a form of corrosion that occurs
when sulfur in the air reacts with the silver metal forming a
blackish layer of silver sulfide. You can see the same thing
happening much faster if you use a silver teaspoon to eat
an egg at breakfast the sulfur from the egg yolk comes
into direct contact with the silver and tarnish forms on the
teaspoon in a matter of minutes.
The good thing is that you can use a bit of knowledge
about chemical reactions to remove the tarnish. One of the
easier methods of cleaning tarnished silver is to wrap a
sheet of aluminium foil loosely around the object and then
place it in a tub of warm water that has had bicarbonate
of soda (sodium bicarbonate) dissolved in it. It is important
that the aluminium foil is completely covered by the warm
water and that the warm water can get inside the foil. Over
time, aluminium from the foil reacts with the silver sulfide
of the tarnish to form aluminium sulfide and silver (which
remains on your object).
silver sulfide + aluminium
aluminium sulfide + silver
This reaction can take anywhere between a few minutes

to a few hours depending on the size of your silver object
and how much tarnish there is to remove. When the tarnish
has all gone, the silver object is rinsed in clean water to
remove any aluminium sulfide.
(a) Explain why hot water rather than cold water
is used in this method of cleaning silver. Use your
knowledge of particle theory to support your
answer.
(1 mark)
(b) Draw a labelled scientific diagram of the
set-up for cleaning silver.
(1 mark)
(c) Does this method work if you use copper foil
rather than aluminium foil? Design an experiment
that will allow you to find out.
(2 marks)
(d) This method normally takes a few hours to
work. Describe at least two methods you could
use to make this process happen faster. Use
examples you have encountered in your study
so far to justify why you think these methods
would work.
(2 marks)
work
sheets
12.8 Chemical reactions puzzles

12.9 Chemical reactions summary
331
StUDY CHeCKLISt
chemical changes
ICt
eBook plus
recall the physical changes that matter may

undergo
12.1
compare a chemical change with a physical

change 12.1
define the term chemical reaction 12.2
describe how you can tell if a chemical reaction has
occurred 12.2
construct word equations to describe chemical
reactions 12.2
SUMMaRY
eLessons
The rain is burning
In this video lesson, you will discover the cause of acid rain
and learn about the damage it can do to buildings, plants and
waterways. This problem is increasing but there are practical
ways to stop it. A worksheet is included to further your
understanding.
Describing reactions
define the term precipitate 12.2
distinguish between reactants and products 12.2
identify the reactants and products in word
equations
12.2
Reaction rates
define the term reaction rate 12.3
describe processes that allow the rate of a chemical
reaction to be changed 12.3
distinguish between processes that speed up a reaction
and those that slow a reaction 12.3
explain why increasing temperature, surface area or
concentration makes a reaction occur faster 12.3
common reactions
explain the process of rusting 12.4

compare rusting and combustion 12.5
describe how rusting can be prevented or slowed 12.4
construct word equations to describe common oxidation
reactions 12.5
Acids and bases

distinguish acids from bases 12.6
describe the function of acid base indicators and give
examples of these indicators
interactivities
Reaction rates
This interactivity allows you to change the temperature,
concentration and surface area of reagents to see how they
affect the rate of a reaction, and then decide how the rates of a
number of reactions could be changed.
The pH rainbow
This interactivity helps you develop your knowledge of pH by
challenging you to drop different liquids in their correct position
on the pH scale. Instant feedback is provided.
12.6
identify acids, neutral substances and bases (alkalis)

according to their pH
12.6
explain how antacids settle a rumbling stomach 12.6

discuss the causes of acid rain and its effects on the
environment
12.7
332
13
Plants
Plants are
everywhere
around us. They
grow in parks
and gardens, in playgrounds and
bushland, and even in the oceans.
They are made up of cells and have
organs like us. In fact, many of the
processes that occur in humans also
happen in plants. There are some
major differences though. Most
significantly, plants do not need to eat
food. Instead, they photosynthesise.
Most plants are anchored to the
ground. Some plants produce flowers
that are involved in reproduction.
Plants are not just pretty to look at,
however. Our survival depends on
them. Let s find out more about the
world of plants and how they work.

13.1
describe the role of the roots and
stems of plants
13.2
learn about the conducting tissue of
plants
13.3
describe the process of
photosynthesis
13.4
investigate experiments done
by scientists to learn about

photosynthesis
13.5
describe the structures and
functions of flower parts

13.6
learn about the life cycle of
flowering plants
13.7
design, carry out and report
on experiments involving seed

germination or plant growth
13.8
compare the characteristics of
major groups of plants.
Plants are all around us. Some, like these,

are pretty to look at, but air survival
depends on the plant kingdom.
13 Plants
useful plants
Many useful substances are
obtained from plants including
medicines, ingredients for
cosmetics, food and wood for
furniture. The diagram at right is
the start of a mind map about the
use of plants as resources.
Cotton
Plants as
resources
Wood
Food
Fabrics
Paper
Used to
manufacture
products
Complete this mind map by adding at least

10 more branches to it.
InvestIgatIon 13.1
extracting and using a plant dye
You will need:
calico or white cotton
waterproof marker
250 mL beaker
brightly coloured plant part (such as red beetroot, spinach
leaf, walnut shell, onion skin, brightly coloured berries,
tea leaves or coffee beans)
scissors, knife or mortar and pestle
hotplate or Bunsen burner, tripod and heatproof mat
alum mordant
strainer or gauze fabric
Recipe for alum mordant (can be prepared by the teacher
for the whole class):
Weigh out 10 g of alum and 5 g of tartaric acid for every
100 g of fabric.
Dissolve in warm water (use 250 mL water for ten groups).
Lesson 1
Cut the fabric into five pieces about 10 cm 10 cm. Label
the pieces A to E with a waterproof marker. Leave piece
A untreated. Pieces B and C will be treated with alum
mordant and then dyed. Pieces D and E will be dyed but
not treated with alum mordant.
Put pieces B and C in a 250 mL beaker. Add enough
may choose to chop it into small pieces using scissors or

a knife, or you may grind it using a mortar and pestle.
Add the finely divided plant part to a 250 mL beaker and
add 200 mL water.

Heat gently for 30 minutes using a hotplate or Bunsen
burner. This will extract the dye from the plant material.
Allow the dye to cool down until the next lesson.
Cosmetics
Medicines
Lesson 2
Filter the dye using a strainer or gauze fabric and then
boil it.
Remove pieces B and C from the mordant, squeeze them
dry, and then put them in the dye.

Put pieces D and E in the dye as well.
Allow the fabric to soak in the dye for at least 30 minutes
(or until the next lesson).

Remove the pieces of fabric from the dye and allow them
to dry.
Lesson 3
Rinse pieces B and D only in water and allow them to dry.
DiscussiOn
1
Why was one piece of fabric left untreated?
Did the plant dye change the colour of the fabric

significantly? Which fabric samples do you need to
compare to answer this question?
Is the vegetable dye colourfast ? Which fabric

samples do you need to compare to answer this
question?
The mordant is supposed to help the dye soak into

the fabric and make the dye more colourfast. Was the
mordant effective? How can you tell?
Compare your results with those of other groups.

Which plant part made the most effective plant dye?
Which variables were controlled in this experiment?
In this experiment the results were qualitative.

(a) What is the difference between qualitative and
quantitative results?
(b) Suggest a way that the results could be made
quantitative.
water to just cover the fabric. Add 25 mL of alum

mordant. Leave to soak until the next lesson.
Depending on the type of plant part you are using, you
Chemicals extracted
from plants and used as
ingredients in
commercial products
13.1
Plants have organs too!

Plants are multicellular organisms; they are made
up of more than one cell. Like other multicellular
organisms, they contain organs that work together to
keep them alive. The main organs of plants are the
roots, stem, leaves and flowers.
Photosynthesis occurs in
the leaves.
Flowers are the reproductive
organs of plants. They develop
into fruits containing seeds.
Hairy roots and all

Roots both anchor the plant and help it to obtain
water from the soil. Plants obtain water and mineral
salts through their roots. Root hairs found on the
outermost layer of the smallest roots can greatly
assist this process. These are long cells that act like
thousands of tiny fingers reaching into the soil
for water and soluble salts. For most plants, it is
important for their roots to be in soil that is well
drained. Plants need oxygen for respiration, and the
uptake of mineral salts is usually reduced if the roots
are waterlogged.
The stem holds up the leaves

and flowers. It is also involved
in transporting water from the
roots to the leaves and sugars
from the leaves to other parts
of the plant.
Fruit
Roots anchor the plant in the

ground and absorb water
and minerals from the soil.
Xylem
Phloem
Root hairs
Root hairs seen with an electron
microscope
Main root
Root hair
absorbs
water and
minerals
(arrows
indicate
direction
of flow).
Lateral root
Root hairs
Water
Root tip
Water and
solutes to stem
Soil particle
Xylem Root
vessels cortex
Epidermis
(with root
hairs)
Soil
Structure of plant roots
13 Plants 335
Which minerals do
plants need?
nitrogen: the gas

of life
Animals get the minerals they need

from the food they eat. Plants
do not eat food. They make the
sugars they need for energy by
photosynthesis, and they absorb
minerals from the soil. Some
minerals, called trace elements,
are needed only in tiny amounts.
Others minerals are needed in
larger amounts. These are shown
below.
Plants need large amounts of

nitrogen to produce proteins.
There is plenty of nitrogen around.
In fact, most of the air is nitrogen
gas (78 per cent). However, plants
are not able to use nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen fixing changes nitrogen
in the air into nitrogen compounds
in the soil. Plants soak up the
nitrogen compounds through
their roots.
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is an important part of the
protein in plant cells. It also makes
up part of the chlorophyll in plants.
It is important for leaf growth. Plants
lacking nitrogen are usually stunted
and have pale green or yellow leaves.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is important
for plant growth. Plants
lacking phosphorus are
stunted and have poor
root growth. Their fruit is
also small.
The main way that nitrogen is

fixed is by nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Some of these bacteria live freely
in the soil. But they are also found
living on the root systems of plants
such as clover, peas, she-oaks and
wattles. Every few seasons, farmers
may alternate their regular crop
with a legume crop, such as clover,
that has nitrogen-fixing bacteria to
help increase the nitrogen content
of the soil. If they don t do that,
they have to use fertilisers, which
can be expensive. Scientists are
now trying to produce new plants
with nitrogen-fixing properties.
There are two other ways in
which nitrogen gets into the soil:
1. Lightning causes nitrogen and
oxygen to react with each other
and puts nitrogen into the soil.
2. The decomposition of dead
animals and plants releases
nitrogen into the soil.
Calcium
Calcium is important
for cell growth. Lack
of calcium causes
poor buds and stunted
growth.
Sulfur
Sulfur is a part of
protein in plant
cells. Low sulfur
levels can cause
leaves to go
yellow.
Potassium
Potassium is also important in making
chlorophyll. It makes plant cells strong
and helps with water movement in cells.
Lack of potassium causes weak cells. It
also causes older leaves to be floppy.
336
Magnesium
Magnesium is needed
to make chlorophyll.
Not enough magnesium
causes the plant s lower
leaves to go yellow.
The white root nodules on this plant

contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
Plants without soil

Hydroponics is a way of growing
plants without soil. Hydroponic
systems use coarse sand, pebbles
or rock-wool to support the
plant s roots. The nutrients that
plants usually get from the soil
are supplied in a water solution.
The water solution is trickled over
the roots of the plants. This allows

the roots to get lots of oxygen
and not become waterlogged.
Vegetables such as lettuces,
tomatoes and beans are sometimes
grown hydroponically.
activities
10 explain why it is important to know what plants look like if
they lack certain minerals.
ReMeMBeR
Organ
11 Describe what can be done to help plants suffering from

a lack of minerals.
Function
Roots
tHinK anD ReasOn
Stem
Use the table below to answer the following.
Leaves
Flower
2 Outline why plant roots have small hairs.
3 Recall the minerals that plants need in large amounts.
4 Recall two important chemicals in plants that include the
element nitrogen.
5 Define the term nitrogen fixing .
6 Outline three different ways in which nitrogen can enter
the soil.
12 (a) Propose how a gardener would use the information in

the table.
(b) If a plant had a nitrogen deficiency, describe the
symptoms that it would show.
(c) Sketch and label a plant with a phosphorus
deficiency.
(d) Sketch and label a plant with a potassium and
magnesium deficiency.
investigate
13 Observe a number of different types of roots, using a
stereomicroscope, and then record your observations as
diagrams.
tHinK
7 classify the following vegetables as leaf, stem, fruit,
flower or root.
(a) Carrot
(b) Celery stick
(c) Lettuce
(d) Potato
(e) Beans
(f) Peas
(g) Artichoke
(h) Capsicum
(i) Cauliflower (j) Tomato
(k) Broccoli
(l) Onion
14 Find out what the main chemicals in fertiliser are.

15 Design an experiment to test each of the following
hypotheses.
(a) Bean plants that have fertiliser X added to their soil
produce larger beans.
(b) Rose bushes produce more flowers if fertiliser A is
added to the soil they grow in.
(c) Pine seedlings grow fastest if you add one capful of
fertiliser B to every 500 g of potting mix.
8 At the supermarket, some lettuces are labelled

hydroponic lettuce . Define what this means.
9 explain why you can kill pot plants by overwatering them,
particularly if the pot does not have drainage holes.
work
sheet
13.1 Roots, stems and leaves
Some symptoms of mineral deficiencies in plants

Deficient mineral
Plant part
Nitrogen
Potassium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Leaves
Upper leaves pale

green, lower leaves
yellow
Yellow leaves with dead Upper leaves normal,

spots
lower leaves pale green
or yellow
Small purple leaves
Stem or roots
Weak stem
No observed effect
No observed effect
Poor root growth
Fruit and owers
No observed effect
Poor ower and fruit

growth
No observed effect
No observed effect
13 Plants 337
13.2
Hold and carry

Plant stems serve two important functions; they
hold up the leaves and flowers, and they transport
substances throughout the plant. Water must travel
from the soil up to the leaves, and sugars made in the
leaves need to be transported to all parts of the plant.
conducting tissue: xylem and phloem

The roots, stems and leaves of plants contain
conducting tissue to transport substances from one
part of the plant to another. There are two types of
conducting tissue: xylem and phloem.
Xylem tissue carries water and minerals from
the roots of plants to all other parts of the plant. It
consists of long hollow tubes made up of the remains
of dead cells. The cells that xylem tubes are formed
from have their cell walls strengthened with a woody
substance called lignin. This makes them quite sturdy.
DiscussiOn
InvestIgatIon 13.2
stem transport systems
You will need:
celery stick (stem and leaves)
knife
two 250 mL beakers
water
blue food colouring

red food colouring
hand lens
Slice the celery along the middle to about halfway up the
stem.
Fill two beakers with 250 mL of water. Colour one blue
and the other red with the food colouring.

Place the celery so that each side of the celery is in a
separate beaker.
Leave for 24 hours and then observe the celery.
Cut the celery stick across the stem.
Use the hand lens to look at the inside of the stem.
338
Water can move in only one direction in xylem

tubes: from the roots to the leaves. There are a
number of forces that keep water moving upwards.
Transpiration plays an important role. Plants lose
water from small holes in their leaves called stomata.
Water molecules stick together slightly, so, when one
water molecule comes out of a stoma, it drags the next
molecule up the stem, which in turn drags the next
molecule up, and so on. This is called a transpiration
stream.
Phloem tissue transports sugars made in the leaves
to other parts of the plant. Phloem is made up of two
types of cells: sieve cells and companion cells. Sieve
cells, like xylem cells, arrange themselves end to end
to form long tubes, but the cells that make up sieve
tubes are still alive. They are called sieve cells because
their cell walls have holes in them (like sieves) at
each end of the cells to allow substances to move
Look at where the water has travelled in the celery.

Draw a diagram to show your observations.
Draw a diagram to show what you can see when you

cut across the stem.
Where is the differently coloured water found in the

stem?
Where are the different colours found in the leaves?
Draw a diagram of the whole celery stick and trace

the path of the water through each side to the leaves.
How could you turn a white carnation blue? Try it.
If we cut through a stem, we can see

the conducting tissue of plants.
The photo shows a crosssection of a plant stem
under the microscope.
Xylem
from one cell to another.

Sugars can move both up and
down sieve tubes. The movement
of sugars throughout the plant is
called translocation.
Vascular bundles
Phloem
Phloem
Xylem
Vascular bundles
Xylem for support

The phloem and the xylem vessels
are located together in groups
called vascular bundles. The strong,
thick walls of the xylem vessels
are also important in helping to
hold up and support the plant. The
trunks of trees are mostly made
of xylem. Did you know that the
stringiness of celery is due to its
xylem tissues?
activities
ReMeMBeR
Tissue
What it
carries
Direction of
movement
Name of
cells that
form tubes
Are cells that

form tubes
living?
Xylem
Some water evaporates through the
stomata; some water is used for
photosynthesis.
Phloem
2 Outline why vascular bundles are important to plants.
investigate
3 Use reference books to define the terms monocotyledon and dicotyledon ,
and describe some of the features of each of these groups of plants.
4 examine prepared slides showing cross-sections of stems of different plants.
(a) Do they all have their vascular bundles organised in a ring?
(b) Find out which of the stems you observed came from dicotyledons
( dicots ) and which came from monocotyledons ( monocots ). Describe
the difference in the arrangement of vascular bundles between monocot
and dicot plants.
Water flows up
the stem in xylem
tubes.
5 investigate the relationship between wood and xylem tissue.

Root hairs take
up water in
the soil.
6 How long do you think it would take for a plant to take up 50 mL of water?
What conditions might speed it up? Propose a hypothesis, and then design
an experiment to test your hypothesis.
7 Design an experiment to test the time taken for different volumes of water to
be taken up by a plant.
The movement of water from roots to

leaves is known as the transpiration
stream.
work
sheet
13.2 Plant transport highways
13 Plants 339
13.3
Leafy exchanges
Being green helps plants make
their own food.
solar powered
Plants are often called producers.
This is because they use energy
from light to make complex,
energy-rich substances for food
from simpler substances such as
carbon dioxide and water. This
process is called photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis produces oxygen
gas and glucose. There are small
holes in the leaves called stomata
(singular = stoma). These small
holes allow gases such as carbon
dioxide, oxygen and water vapour
to move in and out of the leaf.
They are located mainly on the
underside of leaves. The stomata
can be seen clearly under the
microscope. They are surrounded
by two kidney-shaped cells
called guard cells. The guard cells
can open or close the stomata
depending on the plant s need.
When the plant has plenty of
water, the guard cells fill up with
water and stretch lengthways.
This opens the pore. If water is
in short supply, the guard cells
lose water and collapse towards
each other to close the pore. This
is one way that the plant can
control its water loss.
Stomata are surrounded by guard cells on the underside of a leaf.

Guard cells
Epidermal
cells
Stomatal
pore
Nucleus
scientists have used genetic

engineering technology to produce
plants that glow particular colours when
they have mineral deficiencies. this
provides farmers with information about
which soils need extra minerals added.
Cell wall
thickening
Guards cells are filled with water

and the stomatal pore opens.
Stomata can close to conserve water.
340
Guard cells collapse and

the stomatal pore closes.
Why plants are green

Plants are green because they contain the green pigment chlorophyll.
This pigment is found in chloroplasts inside the cells. Chlorophyll
traps energy from sunlight so that it can be used in photosynthesis
( light + putting together ). The reaction for photosynthesis is
shown below.
sunlight
chlorophyll
glucose + oxygen
Light energy
from the sun
Plants need light to photosynthesise. In the dark, no

photosynthesis occurs. Like other living things, however,
plants respire and require oxygen all the time.
Leaf crosssection
Cell membrane
Water
from
the
plant s
roots
Cell wall
Carbon dioxide
Vacuole
Oxygen gas
Nucleus
Stoma
Chloroplast
Single leaf cell
Chloroplasts
Leafy exchanges
Try to find a pair of guard cells and
InvestIgatIon 13.3
one of the stomata.
Observing leaf epidermal cells

DiscussiOn
You will need:

leaf
clear sticky tape
microscope slide
microscope
Is the stoma (the opening) open

or closed?
Make a drawing of a group of

cells, including the guard cells.
Include as much detail in your
drawing as possible.
Label the guard cells and

stomata.
Title and date your drawing.

Write down the magnification
used.
You can make a slide of leaf

epidermal cells with sticky tape.
Put some sticky tape over a section
of the underside of a leaf.

Press the sticky tape firmly onto the
leaf.
Tear the tape off. Some of the lining
cells should come off with the

sticky tape.
Press the tape, sticky side down
onto a microscope slide.

View the sticky tape under the
microscope.
13 Plants 341
sugary sweet
glucose
the many journeys of
Plants may use the glucose made by photosynthesis in

four main ways:
1. used straight away as energy
2. stored
changed into starch or oil and stored in
the stems, roots, seeds and fruits
3. used to make cellulose for the cell walls
InvestIgatIon 13.4
Looking at chloroplasts under a microscope
You will need:
tweezers
moss, spirogyra or elodea
water
light microscope, slides, coverslips
dilute iodine solution
4. combined with minerals and used to make proteins

and other substances for plant growth.
Zooming in to where the action is

Using a light microscope, you may be able to see the
chloroplasts within cells as small, green, roundish
shapes. These are the mini-factories that use the
energy from sunlight to make glucose.
Put a drop of dilute iodine solution under the coverslip.
(Iodine stains starch a blue-black colour.)

Using the microscope, examine the leaf again.
DiscussiOn
1
Draw what you see before staining.
Label any chloroplasts that are present.
Describe the colour of the chloroplasts before

staining.
What gives chloroplasts their colour?
Place the plant material in a drop of water on a
Did the iodine stain any part of the leaf a dark colour?
microscope slide and cover it with a coverslip.
If so, what does this suggest?
What conclusions can you make about chloroplasts?
Using tweezers, carefully remove a leaf from a moss
or elodea plant or take a small piece of spirogyra.
Use a light microscope to observe the leaf.
activities
ReMeMBeR
1 Describe why plants are called producers.
2 Recall the name of the process by which plants make
their own food.
3 Recall the word equation for photosynthesis.
4 explain why plants are green.
5 Use a bubble map to summarise four different ways
in which plants may use the glucose made by
photosynthesis.
tHinK
6 explain each of the following.
(a) Leaves have a flat shape.
(b) The leaves on many trees are attached to branches
in such a way that the leaves do not overlap very
much.
(c) Rainforest plants tend to have much larger leaves
than desert plants.
342
7 Suggest how guard cells got their name.

8 explain why guard cells and stomata are usually found
only on the lower part of the leaf, away from direct
sunlight.
9 Would you expect to find chloroplasts in the cells of
plant roots? explain your answer.
investigate
10 View prepared slides of leaf epidermis from different
species of plants and find pictures of leaf epidermis from
various plants on the internet. Do all epidermal cells
have the same shape?
11 Place a plastic bag over the leaves of plants growing in
the school grounds. Seal the bag and record the amount
of water collected over 24 hours. What conclusions can
you draw from your results?
work
sheets
13.3 Leafy exchanges

13.4 Photosynthesis
13.4
Investigating photosynthesis
How do we know that plants need carbon dioxide,
water and chlorophyll for photosynthesis? What
evidence do we have that photosynthesis produces
InvestIgatIon 13.5
Out of the light
You will need:
pot plant that has been kept in the
dark for a few days
several strips of aluminium foil
scissors and sticky tape
hotplate
500 mL beaker of boiling water
test tube of ethanol
forceps
iodine solution and dropping pipette
Petri dish
watchglass with a small sample of
potato starch
oxygen and glucose? Many scientists have done

experiments over many years to gradually reveal all
the facts we now have about photosynthesis.
CAUTION Ethanol is ammable. Do

not place it near a naked ame. Use a
hotplate to heat the water.
Remove the leaf from the ethanol
with the forceps and dip it into the

hot water in the beaker again to
remove any excess ethanol.
Stand the test tube in the beaker of
hot water and leave for 10 minutes.

This treatment will remove the
chlorophyll.
Place the leaf into a Petri dish and
cover with iodine solution. Note any

colour change and where on the
leaf any such change occurred.
While the leaf is in the ethanol,
test a small sample of potato

starch on a watchglass with the
iodine solution. Note any colour
change.
DiscussiOn
1
Glucose is produced during

photosynthesis and is then
converted to starch and
stored. Did your test show any
differences in starch production
between the sections of leaf
exposed to the light and the
sections kept in the dark?
Which variable was investigated

in this experiment?
Why was the plant kept in the

dark for a few days before the
experiment?
What inferences (suggested

explanations) can you make from
your observations?
What is the control in this

experiment?
Fix aluminium strips to one leaf of
a plant as shown in the figure on

the right. Make sure that both sides
of the leaf are covered by the strip
and that you do not damage the
leaf.
Sticky
tape
Aluminium
foil
Leave the plant in the light for
3 days.
Remove the leaf from the plant and
take off the foil.

Dip the leaf into boiling water for
Make sure that the aluminium strips are

secured, and that you do not damage
the leaf.
10 seconds, and then place it in a

test tube of ethanol.
activities
tHinK anD anaLYse
Use the Discovery journal of
photosynthesis on the next page to
answer questions 1 to 8.
1 If you bought a small plant today
and watered it regularly, one
year later its mass would have

increased. According to Nicholas
of Cusa the increase in mass would
have come from the water you
gave the plant, rather than the soil.
(a) Describe how you could prove
that the matter in the soil had
not turned into plant matter.
(b) Was Nicholas of Cusa correct?
Propose what actually causes
the increase in the mass of the

plant.
2 Stephen Hales suggested that
plants get some nourishment
from the air. identify what plants
actually need from the air to
photosynthesise.
3 Study Priestley s experiment.
(a) Propose why a candle goes out
if it is placed in a sealed jar.
13 Plants 343
Discovery journal of photosynthesis

Jan Baptista van Helmont
Demonstrated that most material
Dutch physician
in a plants body does not come from
(15771644)
soil; he suggested it comes from water
Nicholas of Cusa
German cardinal
(14011464)
Proposed idea that

weight gained by plants
is from water, not earth
Priestleys experiment
Suggested plants get

some nourishment
from air
Stephen Hales
British physiologist/clergyman
(16771761)
Showed that plants

could restore air
injured (by respiration)
Joseph Priestley
British chemist/clergyman
(17331804)
Showed that plants need sunlight to restore

injured air and that only the green parts do this;
all parts of plants injure air (i.e. respire)
Various European chemists (late 18th century)

Oxygen discovered and identified as restored
air, carbon dioxide discovered and
identified as the injured air
Maize seedling
held by the cork,
with roots in the
culture solution
Light
Julius von Sachs

German botanist
(18321897)
Burning candle
floating on cork
Candle goes
out.
Mouse with green

plant survives.
Add green
plant.
Later the candle

can burn again.
Mouse alone
dies.
Jan Ingenhousz
Dutch physician
(17301799)
Jean Senebier
Swiss minister (17421809)
Leaves in water without
carbon dioxide give
off no oxygen.
Demonstrated that plants

use carbon dioxide
dissolved in water as food
Leaves in water with

carbon dioxide give
off oxygen.
Oxygenenriched
air
Discovered plant respiration, and that chlorophyll is

found in chloroplasts; showed that starch grains form
during photosynthesis, and that plants take in and use
minerals from the soil; showed that minerals were
required for making chlorophyll
Reflected light
Theodor Wilhelm Engelmann

German physiologist (18431909)
Showed that oxygen was produced by chloroplasts; and
that red and blue light are the most important
wavelengths for photosynthesis
Absorbed light
Transmitted light
344
Chloroplast
(b) Why was Priestley able to

relight the candle after the plant
had been growing in the jar for
some time?
(c) Why does a mouse die if left in
a sealed jar?
(d) Why did the mouse survive if
it was placed in a sealed jar
containing living plants?
(e) Priestley stated that plants
could restore injured air . What
do you think he actually meant
by that?
4 Jan Ingenhousz s statement could
be re-written in the following
way.
Plants need sunlight to produce
(a) ________. Only the green parts
of plants can produce (b) ________
by (c) p________. All parts of plants
(d) r________.
7 Look at the diagram next to the

name Julius von Sachs. identify
which of the discoveries made by
Von Sachs was probably made using
this apparatus.
8 identify the colours of light that are
absorbed best by chloroplasts.
Use the diagram above to answer
questions 9 to 11.
9 If you were investigating the effect
of carbon dioxide concentration on
photosynthesis and enclosed a plant
in a plastic bag with soda lime in it,
justify why you would put the control
plant in a plastic bag without soda
lime.
10 Starch found in a leaf is used as
evidence of photosynthesis in the
leaf. identify where else the starch
might have come from.
5 Which gases were identified as

restored air and injured air in the
late eighteenth century?
11 If you were measuring the

effect of light intensity, justify
why would you also need a
thermometer.
6 Outline what the experiment carried

out by Jean Senebier revealed
about photosynthesis.
12 Discuss whether photosynthesis

is the reverse of aerobic
respiration.
13 During a 24-hour period of

day and night, identify when
a plant respires and when it
photosynthesises.
14 Apart from the production of food,
how are plants important to life on
Earth?
investigate
15 Select one of the questions
about photosynthesis
experiments in the diagram
above. Design (and if possible
perform and report on) an
experiment to find the answer or
more information about it.
16 Your group will be assigned one
of the scientists in the Discovery
journal of photosynthesis on the
previous page.
(a) Find out more about the
experiments relating to
photosynthesis carried out by
that particular scientist.
(b) Were this scientist s ideas
accepted immediately? Which
ideas did their new ideas
replace?
13 Plants 345
13.5
the sex life of plants

Flowers are involved in reproduction. They contain the sex
organs of plants. Some flowers contain male sex organs,
some contain female sex organs and some contain
both! Flowers are designed to increase the chance of
pollination, the process where pollen produced
by the male parts of flowers lands on the
stigma of the female part of a flower.
Petals are brightly coloured to

attract insects and birds.
The nectary produces
sweet nectar to attract
insects and birds.
Petal
Nectary
Stigma
The stigma is a
sticky pad that
pollen lands on.
Style
Anther
Filament
CARPEL
(female)
The ovary
protects the
ovules.
STAMEN
(male)
Ovary
Ovule(s)
Sepal
Ovules are the

female sex cells.
Receptacle
Sepals protect the

flower bud before it
opens.
The stamen is the

male part of the
flower that produces
pollen, which
contains the male
sex cells.
Pollination
Pollination describes the way in which pollen grains
reach the stigma. Plants may pollinate themselves
(self-pollination). More often, however, they obtain the
pollen from the flower of a different plant of the same
species (cross-pollination). Cross-pollination increases
the variation among the offspring and gives them a
better chance of survival. The pollen grains may be
transferred to other flowers by wind, insects and other
animals.
Insect-pollinated flowers usually have attractive,
brightly coloured petals and nectaries. The pollen
grains themselves may be in a shape that makes them
become easily attached to the insect.
Wind-pollinated flowers are usually less conspicuous
and have no large scented petals or nectar. Their shape
346
Self-pollination
Cross-pollination
The difference between self-pollination and cross-pollination
enables small, light pollen grains to be shaken from

the plant and carried away with even the slightest gust
of wind. The anthers hang outside the flower and the
feathery stigmas spread out to catch airborne pollen
grains.
Identify and label the male and
Investigation 13.6
female parts you can see.
What s in a flower?
Place the flower on the cutting
You will need:

flowers
sharp knife or razor blade
cutting board
hand lens
tweezers
board and hold it with the tweezers.

Carefully cut the flower in half
Cut down
centre
down the middle (a vertical crosssection).

Use the hand lens to look at the
ovary and eggs.

Draw the cross-section and label
the female parts inside the flower.

Which do you think is
insect pollinated and which
is wind pollinated?
Fertilisation
After pollination comes fertilisation.
Once the pollen lands on the
stigma of a flower, pollen tubes
grow down the style. The male sex
cells travel down the pollen tubes
all the way to the ovules inside the
ovary where fertilisation occurs.
Fertilisation is the fusing of a male
sex cell with an ovule.
some plants are shaped in the form

of the sexual partner of an insect, and
the plants may secrete chemicals that
excite or stimulate the insect. this
may increase the contact between
the insect and the plant pollen. some
insects are so fooled by these plants
that they attempt to mate with them.
On occasions, insects even release
their own sperm into the flower.
DiscussiOn
Draw a
1 Which parts of the flower

become the seeds?
picture of your
flower. Locate,
count and label the
petals and sepals.
2 Which part of the flower do you

think will grow into the fruit?
6 Find pictures of examples

of wind-pollinated and insectpollinated flowers.
activities
ReMeMBeR
1 Match the words in the left-hand
column below with those in the
right-hand column.
Sepal
Sperm
Petal
Sugar
Pollen
Leaflet
Nectary
Colour
Ovule
Egg cell
2 Propose why plants usually
produce so many pollen grains.
pollination and fertilisation.
4 Complete the table below for each
of the labelled plant parts in the
diagram at the top of the previous
page.
Flower
part
Function
Male, female
or neither
7 The sunflower, shown above, is

actually not a single flower. The
heart of the flower consists of
hundreds of small flowers close
together. The petals are not
actually real petals either. They
are modified leaves, but they do a
great job of attracting insects. This
flower organisation enables many
flowers to be pollinated at once as
insects walk over the heart of the
flower to collect nectar.
(a) investigate which other plants
have their flowers organised
like the sunflower.
(b) Are there some other ways
that small flowers can be
organised to look like one
large flower from far away?
Find examples.
eBook plus
investigate
The bee orchid looks and smells like

a bee to other bees.
5 Is there a relationship between the

colour of a flower and the strength
of its scent? Design and carry
out an investigation to determine
whether the colour of the flower
influences how strong the scent is.
8 Complete the Sex life of plants

interactivity in your eBookPLUS
to answer questions about how
plants reproduce. Success
rewards you with a video of
pollination. int-0211
work
sheet
13.5 Plant reproduction
13 Plants 347
13.6
Plants and parenthood

Are you aware that when you bite into an apple, cherry or orange you are
actually eating the enlarged ovary of the plant? Did you know that these
swollen ovaries contain the plant s babies in their embryonic form? The
plants are using you as a way of distributing their young out into the world.
eggs, embryos, seeds and fruit

Once the flower has done its job and the egg cell has been fertilised
by the pollen nucleus, another sequence of events takes place. The
fertilised egg, in the middle of the ovule, divides into a little ball of cells
that becomes an embryo. Special tissue called endosperm surrounds the
embryo and supplies it with food.
seeds and germination

The embryo, inside the seed, is
made up of three different parts:
the baby shoot (plumule), the baby
root (radicle) and one or two thick,
wing-like cotyledons.
Plumule
Radicle
Seed coat
Cotyledons
Ovules
Ovary
Anther
Stigma
Ovules
are fertilised.
Ovules
10 days
later
Ovary
Ovary or
fruit
Ovules or
seeds
30 days
later
60 days
later
A pear: from flower to fruit
The ovule becomes the seed and tissue forms around it to provide a
protective seed coat. During the formation of the seed, the ovary expands
and turns into a fruit.
seed dispersal
One of the main jobs of fruits is to
help disperse or spread the seeds.
There is a variety of ways in which
plants disperse their seeds: dispersal
may involve animals, including birds
(as for tomatoes, grapes and apples);
water (as for coconuts); or wind (as
for grasses and dandelions). Some
plants can disperse their seeds by
themselves. For example, the fruits
of some plants in the pea family
(legumes) split open suddenly when
they are ripe and dry, throwing the
seeds out for long distances.
348
When the conditions are right,

the seed bursts open and a new
plant grows out. This process
is called germination. When
germination is complete, the
embryo has become a young plant
or seedling.
Fruit
Seed
Parachute
Legume
Fruit
Dandelion
Wind dispersal (left) and self dispersal

(above)
There are three environmental

conditions that are needed by all
seeds before they can germinate:
water, oxygen and a certain
temperature, usually warm.
Water is necessary for the seed to
swell and burst open and then
to transport food to the growing
embryo. Oxygen is required to
help provide the energy needed
for growth and development. The
required temperature depends on
the particular type of plant.
Some Australian plants, such
as Banksia and mountain ash
(Eucalyptus regnans), require high
Germination of a broad bean
Leaf
Cotyledons
Seed coat
Root
temperatures to burst the fruit so

that the seeds may be released.
This adaptation gives these plants
an excellent chance of survival in
regions prone to bushfires.
InvestIgatIon 13.7
seeds
Moist sand
inside paper
towel
You will need:

2 maize seeds, 2 sunflower
seeds and 2 beans soaked
for at least 24 hours
gas jar or tall glass
paper towel
Seed (between
paper towel
and glass so it
can be seen
from the
outside)
Line the inside wall of the
gas jar with a double layer of

paper towel.
Pour some sand inside the jar
Glass jar
or tall
glass
until it is about one-third full.

Place the seeds between the
How to set up this experiment
any observable shoot and root

in a table each day.
2
Add more sand to the jar. This
will keep the paper towel pressed

against the sides of the jar.
Pour water over the sand until all
the sand in the jar is moist.

Observe each seed daily for three
weeks.
Record how many days

it takes for each seed to
germinate. Once the seeds have
germinated, record the length of
After three weeks, draw a

diagram of one of the plants.
Label the shoot, roots and
leaves.
Draw a graph showing how the
length of the shoot of each plant
changed over time.
Did the two different types
of seed grow the same way?
Describe the similarities and
differences.
ReMeMBeR
1 Recall which part of a flower
develops into a fruit after
fertilisation.
2 Describe the conditions needed
for germination.
3 explain why light is usually
necessary only once the plant
has germinated.
4 If birds eat the seeds of fruit,
explain how the seeds can be
dispersed.
tHinK
5 construct a mind map showing
some foods that are seeds or
that are the products of seeds.
investigate anD Design

6 Design an experiment to
investigate whether water affects
the germination of a variety of
different types of seeds.
7 investigate where the germinating
seed gets its food from and
report back in a diagram.
Did you obtain the results that

you expected? Explain.
8 Find seeds or pictures of seeds

and classify them according to
how they are dispersed. Try a
Google image search using the
key words seed dispersal .
Write a conclusion on the basis

of your findings.
work
sheet
DiscussiOn
1
Although light is not necessary

for the germination of most seeds,
it is needed once the young shoot
breaks through so that the plant
can make its own food.
activities
Paper towel lining jar
watch them grow
paper towel and the glass (so

that you can see them from the
outside of the jar). Ensure that
they are spread around the jar so
that each seed will have plenty of
room.
Withered
cotyledons
13.6 Seeds
13 Plants 349
13.7
PRescRiBeD FOcus aRea

Plant research project

It s your turn to be a scientist! In the following
investigation, you will design and carry out an
experiment involving plants. You will also prepare a
scientific report about your experiment.
eBook plus
eLesson
Growing plants in Australia

This video lesson is presented by a top Australian horticulturist
and will provide you with tips for successfully growing plants.
eles-0055
choosing a problem
Deciding on a problem to solve is often the hardest
part of a research project. The following pointers may
help you:
In your experiment, you will need to deliberately
change one of the variables. This could be:
the amount of water
additives to water (such as sugar, salt, caffeine
and vitamin C)
type of growth medium (such as sand, garden
soil and gravel)
amount of light (You could use different types of
shadecloth.)
colour of light. (You could use coloured
cellophane over the pots.)
The variable you change deliberately is the
independent variable.
You will need to decide what to measure. The
thing you measure is called the dependent variable.
Examples of things you could measure include:
time taken for seeds to germinate
height of the shoots each day
number of leaves on each plant
mass of seeds produced by each plant.
You will need to make sure that the experiment
is fair. That means that all variables except the
independent variable should be kept the same
(controlled).
You must also include controls. For example, if
you wanted to find out how plants were affected
by salty water (independent variable), you might
give three plants salty water. You would also need
to give a second group of plants normal tap water
(the control). The only difference between the two
groups of plants should be that one group gets salty
water while the other gets normal tap water.
If you were testing several groups of plants with
different amounts of salt, you would still need to give
one group of plants normal tap water. The plants with
tap water are the control in the experiment. It shows
whether the salt (independent variable) has an effect
350
You need at least two groups of plants.
on plant growth (dependent variable). The control

is used for comparison to see if the independent
variable has an effect. If you were testing different
types of soil, you would need to ensure that all other
variables (controlled variables) are the same for each
group of plants.
1. If you were testing the effect of different types of
shadecloth on the growth of plants, describe the
conditions under which the control group should
be grown.
2. Write a brief plan for your investigation. Read the
next section, Conducting the investigation before
you start. Include in your plan:
(a) what you want to find out (the aim of your
investigation)
(b) a list of materials that you will use
(c) an outline explaining how you will make sure
that your tests are fair.
conducting the investigation
them to poke through the soil. If you are short of

time, you may want to use seedlings rather than
seeds for your experiment. The pictures below show
some ways to set up plant experiments.
4. Prepare a table in which you can record the
progress of your plants for three to four weeks.
Use the sample table below as a guide. It can be
used like a diary to keep all your observations and
measurements together.
5. Predict what you expect to find out. This is your
hypothesis.
1. Make sure you use at least 10 seeds or seedlings for

your experiment.
2. If you are using seeds, you will need to soak them
in water overnight before starting the experiment.
3. There are a few ways to set up the experiment. To
investigate germination, you could use the same
apparatus as in Investigation 13.7, or you could
put the seeds on moist cotton wool in a dish. To
investigate the growth of plants, you could plant
the seedlings in soil or potting mix and wait for
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Press a hole about 2 cm deep

into the potting mixture with
a pencil.
If you are planting more than one

plant in each container, mark the
position of each seed by sticking
a toothpick beside it.
Label your container with

your name and the date and
any other vital information,
e.g. salty water , red light .
Water your seeds, but take

care not to overwater!
Leave your seeds in a
warm and sunny position.
Planting your seeds

Step 1
Step 2
Moist cotton wool
Seeds
Petri dish or plate
Water the seeds as required to keep the

cotton wool moist, but do not overwater as
mould will grow on the seeds.
Put some cotton wool in a Petri dish or plate. Add

enough water to moisten the cotton wool. Place the
pre-soaked seeds on top of the cotton wool.
Another way to set up your experiment
Height of seedling (mm)

Tap water
Date
Day
5/3
10
What I did
Watered all plants at
3 pm; gave each plant
50 mL water
Salt water
7.1
8.0
8.9
7.5
8.2
Ave.
5.0
4.4
5.8
4.8
5.2
Ave.
Observations and
diagrams
Sample table. This table could be used to record the results for an experiment to find out if watering plants with
salt water affects their growth.
13 Plants 351
Using your data

While your plants are growing, you can record the
progress of the plants on a line graph like the one
below. This graph shows how the height of two
groups of six plants changes. You could use graphs
in a similar way to show how the number of leaves
changes or how many seeds germinate each day.
If any of your plants die, your investigation is not a
failure. You must, however, make a reasonable attempt
to explain why they died.
Progress of bean plants
1 In the table on the previous page, ve bean plants

are watered with each type of water. Explain why
this is better than testing just one plant with each
type of water.
Tap water
Salt water
25
2 Genevieve is investigating the effect of shadecloth

on the growth of bean plants at home. She places
three plants under the pergola at the back of her
house, which is covered with shadecloth. She
places the other three against the wall at the front
of the house. All plants are in the same size pots
and are given the same amount of water. Describe
how Genevieve could improve her experimental
design.
20
Height (cm)
C
B
A
10
F
D
No
shoots
visible
E
Plant died
10
15
20
25
Time (days)
Use a graph to record the progress of your plants. The
independent variable is on the x-axis; the dependent variable is
on the y-axis.
Writing your report

In reporting your investigation to others, you should
use the headings listed below. You will nd a
description of what should be included under each
heading on pages 53839 of this book.
Aim (purpose)
Procedure (materials and method)
Results (your observations and measurements,
including tables, graphs or photos, if
appropriate)
Discussion (including evaluation of method and
results)
Conclusion (a statement about the key ndings
in your experiment, which must be related to the
aim)
352
Activities
THINK
30
15
Also, make sure that you give your report an

appropriate title. A good title for this investigation
would be:
The effect of ______________________ on the
growth of bean plants
The effect of ____________________ on seed
germination.
3 Cameron is trying to nd out whether sand or

garden soil is better for growing radishes. He
also wants to nd out if sugar added to the
water that is given to plants makes a difference.
Cameron plants three seeds in sand and three
seeds in garden soil. The plants growing in sand
are watered with tap water. The plants growing
in garden soil are given the same amount of a
mixture of sugar and water.
(a) What two questions is Cameron trying to answer
with his experiment?
(b) Identify the major problem with Camerons
experimental design.
(c) Is it possible for Cameron to design a better
experiment to answer both of his questions with
only six seeds? Explain how.
4 Summarise what you know about scientic method and
reports into a mind map or another visual map.
INVESTIGATE
5 Propose how a plant would grow in a container that
is upside down. Design and perform an experiment to
nd out.
6 Propose how a plant would grow in a fully enclosed
container with a hole in one side. Design and perform
an experiment to nd out.
7 Can a plant grow without soil? Design and perform an
experiment to nd out.
13.8
Which plant?
In this chapter, we have focused
on the group of plants we are most
familiar with: the flowering plants.
Most of the plants that grow in
gardens and most of the plants
used as food are flowering plants,
so it is easy to forget that there
are other groups of plants. Many
plants do not produce flowers,
some do not produce seeds and
others do not even have roots or
conducting tissue.
classifying plants
One of the main ways plants can
be grouped is according to whether
they have transport tissue. Known
as vascular tissue, this transport
tissue consists of two sets of tubes.
One set, made of phloem cells,
transports sugars throughout the
plant. The other set, made of xylem
cells, transports water and minerals
from roots in the soil to other parts
of the plant.
Plants with vascular tissue are
called tracheophytes. They have
roots, stems and leaves. They
include flowering plants, conifers
and ferns. The other two major
plant groups do not have vascular
tissue. They include bryophytes
(mosses and liverworts) and algae.
There is some debate among
biologists about the classification
of algae. Some biologists consider
that most algae are plants. Others
argue that only multicellular algae
(such as the large seaweed that
you sometimes see at the beach)
belong in the plant kingdom; they
assign unicellular algae with a true
nucleus to the kingdom Protista.
Another approach is to place all
algae in the kingdom Protista.
The blue-green algae, however, are
not classified by most scientists as

plants or protists as they lack a true
nucleus; instead they are assigned
to the kingdom Monera.
the language of plants

Plants can be described using
different words, depending on a
person s purpose. For example, in
describing a bottlebrush tree:
a scientist would use its correct
botanical name, Callistemon
citrinus, and say it belonged to
the angiosperm or flowering
plant group
a gardener might say I planted a
new tree called a bottlebrush
a horticulturist would tend to
use both scientific and common
names.
carnivorous plants
some plants trap animals to get the
nutrients they need. these plants
live in soils that are poor in some
nutrients. they still make their own
food by photosynthesis and absorb
available soil nutrients. However, they
get their nitrogen and some minerals
from digesting animals such as insects
and spiders.
the venus flytrap is a well-known
example of a carnivorous plant. the
venus flytrap s leaves are shaped like
two wings, with long spines along the
edge. On the surface of the wings are
trigger hairs. When the insect walks on
the hairs, it causes the two halves to
close quickly. the spines interlock to
form a cage and trap the insect. the
plant makes a sweet liquid to attract
the insects. Once an insect is trapped,
the plant makes a digestive juice to
break it down.
A bottlebrush flower (Callistemon citrinus)
Words used to describe groups of plants

Scientific term
Common name
Bryophytes
Mosses and liverwort
Pteridophytes
Ferns
Angiosperms
Flowering plants
Gymnosperms
Conifers
Tracheophytes
Plants with stems
Gardeners use words like

tree , shrub , herb and grass to
describe groups of plants. To a
scientist, a tree could belong to the
angiosperm or gymnosperm group.
A scientist would carefully examine

the characteristics of the plant to
find out if it had flowers, seeds and
fruit, or cones containing seeds.
The scientific names for individual
plants and groups of plants are
more specific than the common
names.
13 Plants 353
Plant group
Location
Stem and roots
Leaves
Flowers
Seeds
Flowering plants (e.g. roses, fruit trees,

grasses, eucalyptus trees)
Mostly on land
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes reproduce
from seeds. Seeds
form inside ower,
which develops
into a fruit.
Conifers (e.g. firs, pines, spruces)
On land
Yes
Yes mostly ne
and needle-shaped
No
Yes form on
scales of cones
Ferns (e.g. maidenhair fern, fishtail fern)
Damp, shady, cool

regions
Yes
Leaves are fronds

that uncurl as they
get bigger.
No
No reproduce
from spores on
leaves. These are
released from
brown spore cases
that form on the
underside of
leaves.
Mosses (e.g. sphagnum moss)
Damp, shady, cool

regions
No stems. Roots
are more like ne
hairs.
Yes, but simple

structure tiny
and dainty
No
No reproduce
from spores
Algae
Water (oceans,
lakes, rivers)
No
No
No
No reproduce
from spores
354
activities
ReMeMBeR
1 Recall the main difference between bryophytes and
tracheophytes.
2 Which groups of plants are called tracheophytes?
3 Decribe two differences between conifers and flowering
plants.
tHinK
4 explain why plants with vascular tissue can grow larger
than ones without it.
5 A description of three plant specimens follows. identify
the plant group that each may belong to.
(a) A plant with needle-like leaves and seeds that form
inside cones
(b) A plant with an obvious root system, a stem, leaves
and with fruit containing seeds
(c) A plant found in a cool, shady rainforest, with a
horizontal stem and curled up new leaves with rows
of brown spots underneath them
Grevillea treueriana
6 identify which plant group the plant below belongs to.
Callistemon pachyphyllus
(b) compare and contrast each of the following pairs of

plants.
(i) Callistemon pachyphyllus and Callistemon citrinus
(ii) Grevillea treueriana and Callistemon citrinus
(c) explain why the name Callistemon citrinus is written
in italics but not the name bottlebrush.
investigate
7 Use the information on page 354 to construct a key that

shows one way to classify plants. Start by deciding
which feature best divides plants into two groups. For
each group, decide what features they have in common,
and how they differ. This will help you decide how to
break them down further into sub-groups. If you need
some help with drawing keys, check some shown on
pages 89 90 in chapter 4.
8 (a) Which of the two plants above right is more closely
related to Callistemon citrinus (shown on page 353)?
explain how you can tell from the names of the plants.
(Hint: See page 93.)
9 Many flowering plants are useful to humans as food and

to manufacture products such as paper and furniture.
Many of the chemicals used to make medicines, dyes
and cosmetics are extracted from flowering plants. Find
pictures of plants that are useful to humans and create
a collage entitled Flowering plants
an important
resource .
eBook plus
10 Use the Corpse flower weblink in your eBookPLUS to

learn why this flower smells so dreadful.
work
sheet
13.7 Classifying plants
13 Plants 355
LooKIng BaCK
1 Identify the minerals needed in large amounts by plants.
2 Recall two examples of trace elements.
8 Write down in your workbook which letter in the following

diagram corresponds to each of these terms.
ovules, sepals, filament, style, stigma, ovary, anther, petals,
stamen, carpel
3 Compare and contrast xylem and phloem.

4 Write a word equation for photosynthesis.
5 Recall what happens to the sugars made in

photosynthesis.
6 Explain how stomata open and close and why this is
important to the plant s survival.
7 Study the following graph showing changes in size of

stomatal openings.
(a) Describe any pattern in the size of the stomata
throughout the day.
(b) How might the plants decrease the amount of water lost
from them each day?
(c) Describe what happens to a plant when it wilts. Explain
your answer with diagrams.
(d) Under what conditions would a plant be turgid? Explain
your answer with diagrams.
Stomatal opening (per cent)
Changes in size of stomatal openings over 24 hours

100
Sunrise
Sunset
80
60
40
20
0
Midnight
6 am
12 noon
6 pm
Midnight
H
I
J
E
B
D
C
9 Charlotte wanted to find out if temperature affects the

growth of plants. She bought four seedlings. She put one
seedling in the fridge and one in her garage (which has no
windows so is dark and cooler than her house). She put
the third seedling on the windowsill (in full sun) and the
fourth seedling on her desk (out of the sun but in daylight).
Charlotte measured the height of each seedling every day
for 10 days. Her results are shown in the table below.
(a) Write an aim for Charlotte s experiment.
(b) Suggest three improvements to Charlotte s experiment.
(c) Graph Charlotte s results.
(d) Write a conclusion for this experiment.
10 Construct a concept map to summarise what you know
about plant classification.
Heights (cm) of seedlings

Position
356
Day 1
Day 2
Day 4
Day 5
Day 6
Day 7
Day 8
Day 9
Day 10
6.0
6.2
6.6
7.0
7.3
7.5
7.7
8.0
Fridge
5.0
Garage
5.0
5.6
6.2
6.6
7.0
7.3
7.6
7.9
8.4
8.8
Windowsill
5.0
6.0
6.7
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.6
10.2
10.6
Desk
5.0
5.8
6.3
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.1
9.6
10.0
5.5
Day 3
11 Suggest which two of the following organisms are most

closely related. (Hint: see page 93.)
3 What is the name of the part labelled A in the diagram below?
Mentha spicata
Tussilago farfara
Borago officinalis
A
B
C
D
Stamen
Style
Stigma
Ovule
(1 mark)
4 Which of the following flow charts shows the stages of the

life cycle of a flowering plant in the correct order?
Foeniculum
officinale
Flower formation
Flower formation
Growth
Germination
Pollination
Fertilisation
Flower formation
Growth
Fertilisation
Pollination
Fertilisation
Flower formation
Fruit formation
Fruit formation
Pollination
Seed dispersal
Seed dispersal
Germination
Fruit formation
Fruit formation
Germination
Seed dispersal
Germination
Pollination
Growth
Growth
Seed dispersal
Fertilisation
Primula officinalis
Mentha
piperita
Scabiosa
columbaria
(1 mark)
test YOuRseLF
1 Which of the following statements is correct?
A Water moves up and down the stem of a plant in the
xylem tubes.
B Phloem tissue takes sugars from the roots to the
leaves of plants.
C Phloem tissue takes water from the leaves to other
parts of the plant.
D The movement of water from the roots to the leaves
occurs in xylem tubes.
(1 mark)
2 When does respiration occur in plants?
A Never. Plants photosynthesise rather than respire.
B At night only
C During both night and day
D During the day only
(1 mark)
5 Use your knowledge of plants to explain the following.

(a) It is possible to grow plants without soil (hydroponically)
as long as certain nutrients are added to
the water.
(1 mark)
(b) Seedlings that are grown in the dark do not become
green. They may initially grow faster than plants left in
sunlight, and then eventually die.
(1 mark)
(c) Some farmers find that their orchards produce more
fruit if there are beehives near the orchard.
(1 mark)
6 Variegated leaves are green in some parts and yellow in
other parts. The yellow parts of the leaves do not contain
chlorophyll. Predict whether photosynthesis would occur in
the yellow parts of the leaves.
(3 marks)
work
sheets
13.8 Plants puzzles

13.9 Plants summary
13 Plants 357
stUDY CHeCKLIst
ICt
Plant structure and function
eBook plus
describe the structure and function of plant roots 13.1

explain why plants need to take in certain nutrients
through their roots 13.1

assess the importance of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria
found in root nodules 13.1
describe the structure and function of plant stems 13.2
distinguish between xylem and phloem tissue 13.2
describe the structure and function of leaves 13.3
outline the role of stomata in plant leaves 13.3
sUMMaRY
eLessons
Growing plants in Australia
This video lesson is presented by a top Australian
horticulturalist and provides you with tips for successfully
growing plants in Australia. Watch this video as an
introduction to your experiments with plants.
Photosynthesis
recall the word equation for photosynthesis 13.3
explain why plants need to photosynthesise 13.3
identify chloroplasts in plant cells viewed under a
microscope
13.3
interpret the results of experiments relating to

photosynthesis
13.4
extract information from a timeline outlining some of

research carried out to investigate photosynthesis
13.4
Life cycle of flowering plants

recall the names and functions of the parts of flowering
plants
13.5
distinguish between pollination and fertilisation in

flowering plants
13.5
describe how fruit and seeds are formed from

flowers
13.6
outline some ways in which seeds can be

dispersed
13.6
interactivities
Sex life of plants
This interactivity delves into the seedy world of the sex life
of plants. Play the revelation game and answer questions
about how plants reproduce. Success rewards you with an
animation of the sex life of plants.
investigate factors that affect seed germination by

designing and carrying a scientific experiment
13.6, 13.7
Plant classification
distinguish between algae, mosses and liverworts,
ferns, conifers and flowering plants 13.8
account for the fact that scientists and gardeners might
use different names to refer to the same plant 13.8
construct a dichotomous key to classify plants into the
five main plant groups 13.8

design, carry out and write a report about a scientific
investigation involving seed germination or plant
growth 13.7
distinguish between independent, dependent and
controlled variables 13.7
358
14
Body systems part 2
To stay healthy,
it is important to
have a balanced
diet. Food is a fuel
that provides us with the energy we
need to live. It also contains important
nutrients that our bodies need to
function properly. Our muscles use
the energy from the food we eat to
allow us to move. This and other
processes that occur inside the body
generate waste products that must
be removed; this is the job of the
excretory system.

14.1
learn about and measure the energy
content of food
14.2
distinguish between the main
nutrients found in food

14.3
discuss the importance of a balanced
diet
14.4
learn about the work of dietitians
14.5
describe the structure and function of
the digestive system

14.6
distinguish between mechanical and
chemical digestion and describe the

structure and role of teeth in digestion
14.7
explain the role of enzymes in
chemical digestion
14.8
describe the function of the skeletal
system and explain how muscles

and bones work together to allow
movement
14.9
explain the role of the excretory
system and describe the functions of

the main organs involved in excretion.
You should eat a wide variety of

food to get the nutrients and
energy that your body needs
to function properly.
14Body systems
part 2
Bush tucker
When Europeans first came to Australia, they thought
that it was a dry, empty land with no water or food.
The Australian Aboriginals, however, lived and
survived in this harsh land. They followed a simple
hunter gatherer lifestyle.
For tens of thousands of years, Aboriginal people
used a range of native plants and animals for food,
medicine, tools, clothing and shelter. They ate
seasonal fruit, nuts, roots, vegetables, meat and fish.
Although this was all available in the bush, many
European settlers nearly starved. Others got very sick
or died from eating native food incorrectly. Many of
the fruits and nuts need to be treated to make them
safe to eat.
Nowadays, native food is widely eaten and is called
bush tucker. The knowledge about native plants
and animals that has been passed on by traditional
Australian Aboriginals over thousands of years is also
important in making new products.
1. Which food group is missing from the traditional

Aboriginal diet?
2. Why is it important to know what is in the food we
eat?
3. Why do we need to eat different types of food?
nutrition in the media

Hardly a week goes by without current affairs
programs and newspapers running a story about
childhood obesity, the latest weight loss diet, food
allergies or the effect of particular nutrients on health.
1. Use a database such as EBSCO to search for an
article about an issue that relates to nutrition. Make
sure you choose an article you can understand.
2. Briefly outline what the article is about.
3. Is the article based on scientific evidence or
personal opinion? How can you tell?
4. Can the information in the article be trusted?
Explain how you might check the reliability of the
information in the article.
14.1
Food as a fuel
Are you feeling full of energy
today? The human body, just like
a car, needs to be provided with
fuel to keep working. That fuel is
the food we eat. Our bodies break
down the food and release the
energy that is locked up inside it.
This energy can then be used by
our bodies to move, grow and carry
out important processes that are
vital to our health.
The amount of energy needed each day depends on how much

physical activity a person does, as well as other factors including their
size, age and gender. The table below shows the amount of energy used
by a range of activities. For example, a person who sits at a desk for most
of the day needs to eat less food than a person who spends a large part
of the day walking. If we take in more energy than we need, our bodies
store the excess energy as fat. If we take in less energy than we need,
some of this fat can be broken down and used for energy.
Activity
Approximate energy use

(kJ) per hour
Sleeping
250
Food as a fuel
Very light
sitting, reading, watching television, driving
450
To keep a car running, you need

to provide it with petrol. Inside
the engine, the petrol reacts with
oxygen; it undergoes combustion
or burns. This releases energy
that is used to run the motor.
Something very similar happens
inside our bodies. The food we
eat is broken down into a number
of chemicals including glucose.
Just like petrol, glucose can react
with oxygen to release energy. This
process is called respiration.
Food contains stored energy. The
amount of energy stored in the
food is measured in kilojoules (kJ)
or Calories (with a capital C).
One calorie (with a lowercase c)
is the amount of energy needed
to heat 1 g of water by 1 C.
One calorie is equivalent to
4.2 joules (J).
One kilojoule (kJ) is equal to
1000 joules.
One Calorie (with a captial C) is
equivalent to 1000 calories (with
a lowercase c).
So, if a breath mint contains
2 Calories, that means that it
contains enough energy to heat
200 g water (about a cup) by
10 C.
Light
walking leisurely, washing, shopping, light sport
such as golf
950
Moderate
fast walking, heavy gardening, moderate
sport such as bicycling, tennis, dancing
1800
Heavy
vigorous work, sport such as swimming,
running, basketball and football
3500
Maintain weight
Gain weight
Energy intake
Lose weight
Energy used
To maintain a healthy weight, it is important to balance your energy intake with the
energy you use.
14 Body systems
part 2
361
InveStIgatIon 14.1
It seems so simple doesn t it? Take
in more energy than your body uses
up and you will put on weight. Take
in less energy than your body uses
up and you will lose weight. Yet
some people seem to be able to eat
a high-energy diet with little effect
on their weight.
one scientist set out to
determine whether eating too
much food has the same effect
on all people. Fredrick nystr m
of Link ping university in sweden
recruited 18 lean and healthy
volunteers and asked them to
double their energy intake and
avoid exercising for one month. For
health reasons, the volunteers were
asked to stop the experiment if
their weight increased by more than
15 per cent of their original weight.
one volunteer reached this after
just two weeks. Another volunteer
found that his weight had increased
by only 4.6 kg by the end of the
experiment.
nystr m has suggested that
perhaps some people release more
of the extra energy they take in as
heat rather than store it as fat. so,
after overeating, these people may
feel warmer or more fidgety as their
bodies use up some of the extra
energy.
Measuring the energy in food

You will need:
small metal basket (used to fry food)
samples of small biscuits, potato chips, uncooked pasta, crouton or small piece
of toast
thermometer
large test tube
Bunsen burner
measuring cylinder
The apparatus used in
this experiment
Test tube
Burning food
Wire basket
Before starting this experiment, read all the steps below and make a list of the
risks (dangers) associated with this activity and how you plan to minimise these
risks.
Use the clamp to attach the test tube to the retort stand.
Measure 30 mL of water and pour it into the test tube.
Measure the temperature of the water.
Weigh the biscuit.
Place the small biscuit in the wire basket and set fire to it using the Bunsen
burner. When the biscuit is alight, put the basket containing

the biscuit underneath the test tube. The heat released from the
burning biscuit will heat the water. Hold the basket under the test
tube until the biscuit is completely burned. You can tell that the biscuit is
completely burned if it is all black and will not re-ignite in the Bunsen burner
flame.
Measure the temperature of the water again.
Calculate the amount of energy that was stored in the biscuit, using the
following equation.
Eating energy-dense food caused
all of the volunteers to gain weight,
but some gained weight a lot faster
than others.
362
Energy (in joules) = 4.2 volume of water (in mL) increase in

temperature (in C)
Calculate the amount of energy per gram of food by dividing the amount of
energy by the mass of the food.
Repeat the steps above using the other food samples.
Food
DIscussIon
Biscuit
Chip
Pasta
Crouton/
toast
Copy and complete the aim of

this experiment: To compare
the amount of ___________
contained in a range of foods .
Copy and complete the

conclusion: The food that
contained the most energy per
gram was __________________ .
Why was it necessary to

calculate the amount of energy
per gram of food?
Did all the heat from the burning

food go into heating the water?
Explain how this might have
affected the validity of this
experiment.
a. Mass of food (g)

b. Volume of water (mL)
c. Initial temperature of water ( C)
d. Final temperature of water ( C)
e. Increase in temperature (= d
c)
f. Energy in food (J) (= 4.2 30 e)

g. Energy in food (kJ) (= f 1000)
h. Energy per gram of food (kJ/g)
(= g a)
activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall the name of the process
where glucose reacts with oxygen
to release energy.
2 Recall which unit energy is usually
measured in.
3 Copy and complete the following
statements:
(a) 1 kilojoule = _____________
joules
(b) 1 Calorie = ______________
calories
(c) 1 calorie = ______________
joules
(d) 1 Calorie = ______________
kilojoules
4 If you take in more energy than your
body needs, explain what happens
to the extra energy.
usE DATA
5 Use the table on page 361 to answer
the following questions.
(a) How much energy is used up
in 1 hour of fast walking?
(b) calculate the amount of
energy used in 30 minutes of
running.
(c) Explain why two people might
both dance for 20 minutes but
burn very different amounts of
energy.
6 The tables below show the

recommended daily energy intake
for 12 15 year olds and the amount
of energy contained in a range of
foods sold at a snack bar.
(a) What is the recommended
daily energy intake for
someone of your age and
gender?
(b) For lunch, Fred ate one
hamburger and an apple pie
with ice-cream. He also drank
one medium orange juice.
(i) calculate Fred s energy
intake.
(ii) Fred is 13. calculate
the percentage of his
recommended daily energy
intake that his lunch contains.
(c) Identify the combination of
main course and dessert that
supplies the least energy.
Recommended daily energy intake, in
kilojoules, for 12 15 year olds
Recommended daily
intake (kJ)
(d) calculate how many minutes

of walking would be needed to
use up the energy contained in
two slices of pizza. (Hint: See the
table on page 361.)
eBook plus
7 Use the Kilojoule Burn calculator

learn how many calories you will
burn from performing a number of
common exercises.
work
sheet
14.1 Food facts
Nutritional information for a

snack bar menu
Food
Energy (kJ)
Pizza (2 slices)
2060
Hamburger
1900
Salad sandwich
940
Chocolate eclair
1320
Fresh fruit salad
290
2310
Age (years)
Male
Female
12
9 800
8600
Apple pie with

ice-cream
13
10 400
9000
Medium cola
14
11 200
9200
Strawberry thick shake
15
11 800
9300
Medium orange juice
384
1230
530
14 Body systems
part 2
363
14.2
essential intake
Why are some foods better for you
than others? It is almost always
because of the nutrients they
contain. Nutrients are substances
that give us the energy and the raw
materials to grow, move, repair and
build tissue, reproduce, and to stay
alive. Nutrients can be divided into
five main groups.
carbohydrates
Carbohydrates provide a source
of energy. There are two types of
carbohydrates: simple carbohydrates
and complex carbohydrates. Simple
carbohydrates are also called sugars.
They include glucose, sucrose (the
type of sugar used for cooking),
fructose (a type of sugar found in
fruit) and lactose (found in milk).
Complex carbohydrates are made
up of simple sugars joined together.
Starch is an example of complex
carbohydrate. It is found in bread,
cereal, pasta, rice, potatoes and
many other foods. Starch needs to
be broken down into glucose before
it can be used by the body for
energy. Fibre or cellulose is another
type of complex carbohydrate.
Cellulose is also made up of
glucose, but the glucose units are
joined up in a different way from
starch. Humans lack the necessary
enzymes to break cellulose into
glucose, but bacteria that live in
the gut can break it down to some
extent. A lot of the fibre you eat is
excreted from your digestive system
without having been broken down
into glucose. However, it still plays
an important role in keeping us
healthy (see page 368).
All carbohydrates are made
up of the chemical elements
364
These foods contain a large amount of

carbohydrate.
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Carbohydrates are organic
compounds. That means that
they contain the element carbon.
On average, 1 g of carbohydrate
provides 16 kJ, although the exact
amount of energy depends on the
type of carbohydrate.
Proteins
Good sources of protein include
meat, fish, dairy products, eggs,
nuts and legumes. Proteins are a
source of energy like carbohydrates,
but they have another important
role. Proteins are broken down
by the body into amino acids.
The amino acids are then used to
make important chemicals such
as enzymes. They are also used to
make muscle, hair, nails and other
vital tissues. Proteins are organic
compounds and they are made up
of the elements carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen, with 1 g of
protein providing 17 kJ of energy.
In your great-grandparents days,

many children were given a daily
dose of cod liver oil to maintain good
health. It turns out that your greatgrandparents may have been right
about the benefits of fish oil. Fish oil
is rich in omega-3 fatty acids. These
fatty acids are being investigated as
a possible treatment for conditions
including rheumatoid arthritis,
depression, attention deficit disorder
and heart disease.
A number of scientific studies
have shown that omega-3 fatty
acids affect behaviour and mood.
For example, Bernard Gesch did an
experiment involving British prison
inmates. He gave half the people who
had volunteered for his study a daily
supplement that contained omega-3
fatty acids and other vitamins and
minerals. The other prisoners were
given a placebo (a tablet that looked
just like the supplement but did
not contain fatty acids, vitamins or
minerals). over time, he found that
the prisoners taking the supplement
were involved in a lot fewer violent
incidents. The prisoners taking the
placebo showed no significant change
in their behaviour.
These foods are a good source of

omega-3 fatty acids.
InveStIgatIon 14.2
Testing food for nutrients
You will need:
test-tube rack
4 test tubes
safety glasses
glucose solution
starch solution
gelatine solution
distilled water
iodine solution
test-tube holder
Benedict s solution
tongs
candle or Bunsen burner
matches
heatproof mat
0.01 M copper sulfate
solution
1.00 M sodium hydroxide

solution
food samples (if solid, crush
a small amount into a
mash with water)
Do each of the three tests described below on a sample

of each of the four liquids shown on the right. Make
sure to use a fresh sample of each liquid for each test.
Glucose
solution
Copy and complete this table for recording the
test results.
Test results
Water
Starch
solution
Glucose solution
Gelatine
solution
Starch solution
Water
Gelatine solution
Starch test
Glucose test
Protein test
Starch test
Add two drops of iodine solution to each of the
Glucose
solution
four test tubes. Observe any colour change and

record the results.
Starch
solution
Gelatine
solution
Water
Iodine
Glucose test
Add four drops of Benedict s solution
to each of the four test tubes. Gently

heat each test tube over the candle
or Bunsen burner flame. Observe
any colour change and record the
results.
Glucose
solution
Starch
solution
Gelatine
solution
Water
Benedicts
solution
CuSO4
NaOH
Protein test
Add ten drops of copper sulfate solution to each of
the four test tubes. Then add five drops of sodium

hydroxide solution to each test tube. Observe any
colour change and record the results.
10
Glucose
solution
Using the three tests above, investigate the food
Starch
solution
Gelatine
solution
Water
5 Copper
sulfate
solution
Sodium
hydroxide
solution
samples for the presence of starch, glucose and protein.
DIscussIon
1
Construct a table to record your observations.
Which foods contain two or more of the nutrients tested for?
14 Body systems
part 2
365
Lipids
Lipids include fats and oils. Foods
that are high in fat include nuts,
butter, cooking oil, fried food,
pastry and many snack foods such
as biscuits and chips. Fats are a
source of energy. They are also
needed to provide cushioning for
organs, to maintain a stable body
temperature and to keep your skin
and hair healthy. Lipids are broken
down by the body into fatty acids,
which are used in many chemical
processes in the body. Fats and
oils are organic compounds that
contain the elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. On average,
1 g of fat releases 37 kJ of energy.
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic nutrients that
are required in very small amounts.
We need 13 vitamins.
Vitamins A, D, E and K are
fat soluble and are found in foods
containing fats and oils.
Vitamins B and C are
water soluble and are found in
cereals, fruit, vegetables, meat
and nuts. Lack of a particular
vitamin leads to a vitamin
deficiency disease; for example, lack
of vitamin D can lead to tooth
decay and bone deformities.
Minerals
Minerals are nutrients that
do not contain the elements
carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
For this reason they are called
inorganic nutrients. There are more
than 20 minerals that are required
in our diet, including calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, sodium,
iron, potassium and zinc. Minerals
are found in all types of food and
in drinking water. Each mineral
has a particular job to do to keep
the body healthy. A lack of a
mineral can also cause a deficiency
disease.
366
activities
REMEMBER
1 Copy and complete
the table at right.
2 Identify what the
items in the following
pairs have in
common.
(a) Carbohydrates
and lipids
(b) Cellulose and
starch
(c) Fats and oils
(d) Iron and
potassium
(e) Hormones and
enzymes
Feature
Carbohydrates
What the body

uses this nutrient
for
Energy source
Proteins
Lipids
Example of food
containing this
nutrient
What this nutrient
is broken into by
the body
Amino
acids
Chemical
elements that
make up this
nutrient
Carbon,
hydrogen,
oxygen
Energy per gram

(kJ/g)
3 compare organic nutrients and

inorganic nutrients.
4 Which vitamins are fat soluble and
which are water soluble?
5 Define the term mineral in relation
to the food we eat.
6 Explain why it is important to
use a placebo when testing the
effect of a dietary supplement or
medicine.
7 In his experiment (see page 364),
Bernard Gesch used a supplement
that contained both fatty acids
and other minerals and vitamins.
outline how he could test whether
it was the fatty acids or the
vitamins and minerals that caused
the improvement in the behaviour
of the prisoners.
usE DATA
8 Use the nutritional panel above
right to answer these questions.
(a) The recommended daily
intake of protein for a
13 year old is 40 g. calculate
the percentage of the
recommended daily intake of
protein supplied by one serving
of this food.
(b) If one serving of this food
provides 6 per cent of the
recommended daily intake
of fat, calculate the daily
recommended intake of fat.
(c) Which food could this label

belong to?
NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION
Servings per package: 8
Serving size: 30 g
Average Average
quantity quantity
per
per
serving
100 g
Energy
470 kJ
1570 kJ
Protein
1.4 g
4.6 g
Fat total
2.8 g
9.3 g
saturated
2.0 g
6.7 g
Carbohydrate
21.0 g
70.0 g
sugars
8.7 g
28.9 g
Dietary fibre
1.7 g
5.5 g
Sodium
50 mg
180 mg
InVEsTIGATE
9 Collect 10 nutrition panels
from food packages. Use the
information on the nutrition panels
to rank the foods from highest to
lowest for:
(a) energy
(b) fat
(c) carbohydrate
(d) protein.
10 Some foods are labelled with the
Heart Foundation Tick. Find out
what requirements the food must
meet to be allowed to display the
tick.
work
sheet
14.2 Nutrients
14.3
Healthy eating
Hamburger, pizza, jelly and ice-cream; apples, oranges, carrots and peas
there is such a variety of food to choose from. How do you choose?
Which foods should you eat more of and which should you eat less of?
The bottom (larger) section of the pyramid below shows the types of
food that you should eat most of. The foods that you should eat least of
are in the top (smaller) section.
Health professionals usually classify food into the
following
wing five groups:
Eat least
1. breads and cereals
Foods that are high in fats and sugars should be
2. vegetables
egetables
eaten in small amounts only. Fat is part of many
3. fruits
foods that we eat, so there is no need to add
extra. Sugars are simple carbohydrates and
4. milk and milk products
are often found in processed food.
5. meats, nuts, beans and eggs.
Different types of food contain different
Eat moderately
nutrients, which are required for growth and
Meats, nuts, beans and eggs are good
activity.. The amount of each nutrient you
sources of protein. Aim for two
need depends on your age and activity
servings of these daily. Selecting
level.
lean cuts of red meat and skinless
A balanced diet contains all the
chicken adds little to your fat
intake.
food groups in the correct amounts
Milk and milk products are
to keep you healthy. You need to
important for their calcium
eat more of foods that contain
and energy content. Three
complex carbohydrates, vitamins
servings a day are
required, or 600 mL of
and minerals and less of
milk.
foods high in salt, sugar
Low-fat milk has
and fat.
less energy in it,
but still contains
vitamins and
minerals.
Eat most
Fruits and
vegetables
are
rich in
complex
carbohydrates,
vitamins and
minerals. Try to eat five
servings of vegetables and two
servings of fruit a day.
Breads and cereals are good sources of
complex carbohydrates. Wholemeal bread and
wholegrain cereals contain more fibre and vitamins
than white bread and flours. At least four servings of bread
and cereals should be eaten daily.
14 Body systems
part 2
367
In one end and out the other

Fibre is found in the walls of plant cells. It is only
partially broken down by your digestive system.
Although it really does go in one end and out the
other , it serves a very useful purpose and is an
essential part of your diet. It provides bulk to your
food, allowing it to move properly through your
intestines. Without fibre, undigested food travels too
slowly through the large intestine, losing too much
water. The result is that the solid waste (faeces or
poo) is hard and difficult to release. This is known
as constipation. Bowel cancer and other medical
conditions have been linked to a diet low in fibre.
Fibre can be found only in foods that come
from plants
foods such as fruits and vegetables,
wholegrain breads and cereals,
nuts and seeds.
A grain of wheat
Wholegrain products are
higher in dietary fibre
because they contain
Endosperm
the outer covering,
or bran, of the grain.
When grains are highly
Bran
processed, as they are in
the production of white
bread, white flour and
Embryo
many breakfast cereals,
the bran is removed.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term balanced diet .
2 List the five food groups under
the headings: Eat most , Eat
moderately and Eat least .
3 Recall how many servings of fruit
and vegetables you should eat
every day. (A serving is a typical
amount of a food that you would
eat in a single meal.)
4 Recall how many litres of water a
day we lose through breathing out,
sweating and urinating.
I ll have water with that!

Water is an important part of your diet.
The human body is about 60 per cent
water. If you lose 10 per cent of your
body water, then you become ill. If you
lose 20 per cent, you can die. Loss of
water is called dehydration. We lose
water every day through breathing out
(0.5 L per day), sweating (0.5 1 L per
You need to replace
the water you lose.
day) and urinating (1.5 2 L per day).
We get about 1.0 1.5 L of water per
day from the food we eat and about
0.25 L of water per day from chemical
processes in the body. We also get
water by drinking it, and we should
drink 1 2 L per day to keep our bodies
healthy.
Water makes up most of the fluid
part of blood, called plasma. It allows
food and waste to be moved about the
body. saliva is a watery fluid in your
mouth that makes your food slippery
so that it is easy to swallow. Water also
helps to keep your body cool, through
sweating. sweating causes water to
evaporate from your skin, using body
heat to do so.
We cannot live
more than three days
Sweating: 0.5 1 litre/day
without drinking water,
Breathing out: 0.5 litres/day
but can go forty days
Urinating: 1.5 2 litres/day
without food.
fruit for morning tea; and a meat

pie for lunch, what would be a
good dinner to help balance your diet
to fit the healthy-eating pyramid?
6 (a) Make a list of all the
food you ate over the last
24 hours.
(b) classify the food you ate into
the groups that make up the
healthy food pyramid.
(c) How many serves of fruit and
vegetables did you eat?
(d) Identify which food groups
you need to eat more of to
make your eating habits fit the
healthy-eating pyramid.
DEsIGn AnD cREATE

THInK
5 If you had cereal and orange
juice for breakfast; yoghurt and
368
7 Design and make a poster to

promote the healthy-eating pyramid
for your school canteen. Use the
types of food your canteen sells

to decorate your poster.
InVEsTIGATE
8 The law requires certain nutritional
information to be written on food
packages. Do some research and
find out what nutritional information
companies need to include on their
packaging.
eBook plus
9 Test your ability to identify common

foods that are high in certain
nutrients by completing the
A healthy diet interactivity in your
eBookPLUS. int-0214
work
sheet
14.3 Food pyramid
14.4
PREscRIBED Focus AREA

Science careers: dietitian

through a drip or nasogastric tube
(a tube that goes into the nose
and down to the stomach). If a
patient cannot eat due to a medical
condition (such as tongue cancer),
a dietitian will calculate how much
and what type of food solution the
patient needs.
Joanne
Dietitian,
giving dietary advice to a patient
Joanne (not her real name) is a

dietitian in a large city hospital.
She is an expert on the science of
food and its effect on the body.
She works closely with doctors
and other health practitioners
and provides expert nutrition and
dietary advice to patients. She has
also been involved with a number
of research projects.
A large part of the work of
dietitians is to educate people
about the type of diet they should
be eating by explaining complex
scientific information about
nutrition in a way that patients
can understand. Patients who have
recently been diagnosed with dietrelated diseases, such as diabetes,
coeliac disease, heart disease and
certain types of cancers, are referred
to a dietitian to advise them on
the types of foods they should eat.
Certain medical conditions require
that the patient follows a very strict
and very specific diet. For example,
patients with kidney problems may
need to dramatically cut down the
amount of salt they take in. This
means that ordinary foods such as
cheese and rice bubbles can create
health problems for them.
Dietitians are also called upon
when patients need to be fed
and some dietitians work for the

government or large companies
that manufacture food.
The skills needed to be a
dietitian vary with the type of work
that they do, but all dietitians
need a very good knowledge of
food and its effect on the body.
Good communication skills are
also important as well as strong
interpersonal skills (being able to
work with people). All dietitians
have university qualifications.
Some universities require students
to complete a science degree before
specialising in nutrition.
activities
THInK
A doctor inserting a nasogastric tube into
a patient
A number of dietitians also do

research. For example, Joanne has
been involved in a study to assess
the effect of patients nutritional
status on the time it takes for
them to recover from an injury or
illness. She worked out whether
the patients were well nourished
or malnourished and recorded
the length of time the patients
stayed in hospital. She showed
that malnourished patients needed
more time in hospital to recover
from their injury or illness.
Not all dietitians work in
hospitals. Some dietitians have
their own practice (an office
where patients come to see them),
and other dietitians work with
particular communities. Sport
dietitians work with athletes
1 Justify why dietitians need

good communication and
interpersonal skills.
2 Identify other skills that might
be important for dietitians.
3 Explain why athletes may need
to see a dietitian.
InVEsTIGATE
4 Osteoporosis, scurvy,
atherosclerosis and rickets are
all diseases with a dietary link.
For each disease, find out what
the symptoms are and how the
disease is linked to the type of
food eaten.
eBook plus
5 Use the Dietitians Association

find the name of the university
closest to where you live that
offers a course that can qualify
you to work as a dietitian.
14 Body systems
part 2
369
14.5
the digestive system

The role of the digestive system is to break down the
food that we eat into particles that are small enough
to pass through the walls of the intestines and into
our blood. A number of organs make up the digestive
system. Some organs break up the food mechanically
by cutting, grinding or churning it. Other organs
secrete chemicals that can break the chemicals in the
food into smaller molecules.
Teeth
Used to bite and chew food into small pieces.
Tongue
Works the food into a little round ball, called a bolus.
It then pushes the ball to the back of the mouth,
where it is swallowed.
Epiglottis
A flap of tissue that closes off the entry to your
lungs so that food does not go down and cause
you to choke
Oesophagus
Directs the food to the stomach. It is a long
muscular tube that moves the food by the process
of peristalsis. Peristalsis squeezes food down
the oesophagus by repeated waves of muscle
contractions.
Liver
Controls the number of glucose molecules in the
blood. When there is too much, the liver stores
it as glycogen and releases it when needed. It
also makes bile, which breaks down fat into small
droplets in the small intestine. The bile is stored
by the gall bladder until it is needed in the small
intestine. The liver also breaks down toxins in the
blood.
Stomach
A large muscular organ that churns and mixes
the food. The stomach lining releases chemicals
that start to break down protein. It also releases
hydrochloric acid, which kills unwanted bacteria.
The stomach can hold between two and four litres
of food and can store it for about four hours.
Appendix
A small projection at the beginning of the
large intestine. In humans, it does not help with
digestion.
370
eBook plus
eLesson
From dinner plate to sewerage system

Watch the amazing journey of food through the human body.
eles-0056
Salivary glands
Make about 1.5 L of
saliva a day. Saliva
moistens the food,
making it easier to
chew and swallow.
Saliva also contains
chemicals that
break down the
starch in food.
A gory tale from the past
Partly digested food is forced along the

oesophagus by peristalsis
a wave of
involuntary muscular contractions.
Gall bladder
Stores bile made in the liver until needed
in the small intestine
Pancreas
Makes chemicals that are used in the
small intestine. It also reduces the effect
of the acid from the stomach on the
walls of the small intestine.
Small intestine
A long, hollow, coiled tube about six
metres long. It is the main organ of
digestion. Food, which is now like a
creamy soup, passes slowly into it. Liquid
from the pancreas and bile from the
gall bladder enter the small intestine to
help with digestion. The small intestine
is where the breakdown of starch and
proteins is finished and fat breakdown
occurs. The food particles are then tiny
and can pass through the wall of the
small intestine into the bloodstream.
Large intestine
Undigested food and water pass into the
large intestine from the small intestine.
Bacteria in the large intestine help in
making some vitamins and are the main
source of gas. Water, vitamins and
minerals pass into the bloodstream.
Rectum
Faeces is stored in this last part of the
large intestine. Faeces contains the
waste products of digestion. It consists
of about 75 per cent water and 25 per
cent solid matter
mainly dead bacteria
and fibre.
Anus
Releases the faeces as waste
When Alexis St Martin

was accidentally shot
in the stomach at close
range, he was not
expected to recover
from his injuries. He
had a hole the size of
a fist in his stomach.
An army surgeon
named Beaumont
treated him. Alexis
did recover but, as
the wound healed
itself, the edge of the hole in his stomach attached itself to the edge of
the hole in his skin, so there was a small passage between the inside of
his stomach and the outside of his body. The passage had to be sealed
with bandages so the food and stomach juices could not leak out of his
stomach.
Beaumont used this opportunity to study the process of digestion.
Alexis became Beaumont s servant. As well as doing all the tasks
normally expected of a servant, Alexis was also involved in a number
of experiments on digestion. Beaumont collected some of the fluid that
emerged from the hole in Alexis stomach and did tests on it. He could
also dangle various foods by a string into Alexis s stomach and pull them
out after a period of time to find out what had happened to the food in
the stomach.
Zooming in on the small intestine

Nutrients must pass
through the walls of the
small intestine and into
the bloodstream. The
walls of the small intestine
are not smooth; they are
lined with small finger-like
projections called villi. This
increases the surface area
through which nutrients
can diffuse across the walls
of the small intestine.
There are also many
small blood vessels called
capillaries associated with
the villi. These transport
the nutrients away from
the intestines.
Small finger-like projections

called villi line the walls of the
small intestine.
14 Body systems
part 2
371
Coeliac disease is a condition where

the villi of the small intestine are
damaged. People with coeliac disease
are intolerant to gluten, a substance
found in wheat, oats, barley and rye
and the numerous food additives
made from these. If they eat foods
containing gluten, the villi in their
small intestines become damaged
over time. This means that they can
no longer absorb certain nutrients
properly. An early symptom of coeliac
disease is anaemia (low blood iron
levels) as iron absorption is reduced
by the damaged villi. Some coeliac
sufferers may also experience
stomach pains and bloating after
eating foods containing gluten.
It is possible for coeliac disease to
develop in childhood, but many people
do not develop it until their thirties
or later. Scientists are not sure why.
Perhaps certain triggers are needed
for the disease to develop. If coeliac
disease is diagnosed in its early
stages, it is reversible provided that
the person completely avoids gluten for
the rest of their life. This is challenging
as gluten is found in so many foods
including most types of bread, pasta,
cakes and biscuits. Failure to avoid
gluten can have dire consequences for
people with coeliac disease. Apart from
feeling unwell and being decient in
certain nutrients, coeliac sufferers who
do not follow a gluten-free diet also
have an increased risk of developing
bowel cancer.
Activities
3 Complete the following sentences.
REMEMBER
1 Match the following words with
their denitions: oesophagus, gall
bladder, liver, digestion, stomach,
small intestine, epiglottis, rectum,
peristalsis.
(a) The process of breaking food
down into particles that are
small enough to pass through
the walls of the intestines
(b) The tube that joins the
mouth to the stomach
(c) Muscular contractions that
move food along the digestive
tract
(d) A ap of tissue that blocks
the entry to the lungs when
you swallow
(e) The organ that produces bile
(f) Where the digestion of
protein begins
(g) Where bile is stored
(h) Where fat is broken down
(i) Where faeces is stored until
it can be released
2 Copy and complete the table
below for each of the organs
labelled in the diagram below.
Organ Function
Involved in
physical or
chemical
digestion or
both
When food is digested, some of

the substances in the food end up
in the _________ __________.
Other substances, such as
bre, cannot be broken down
completely and are ___________
out of the body in the form of
___________.
4 Describe coeliac disease.
THINK
5 Explain why the food you eat needs
to be digested.
6 If you stand on your head and take
a bite of a chocolate bar, can you
still swallow it? Explain why.
7 Beaumonts experiments on Alexis
St Martin raise some ethical issues.
(a) Dene the word ethical.
(b) Justify why Beaumonts
experiments would be seen as
unethical by some people.
(c) Do you think Beaumont
could do such experiments
today? Explain your answer.
IMAGINE
8 Imagine that you are a cheese
and salad sandwich. You have
just been eaten. Write a story to
describe your passage through the
digestive system from the mouth
to the anus.
9 Imagine that one of your friends
has coeliac disease. Design a
dinner and breakfast menu that
you could serve to your friend
if she was coming over for your
slumber party.
DESIGN AND CREATE
10 Design a poster of the digestive

system to explain to year 3
students how food is digested.
eBook plus
G
H
C
D
E
F
Damaged intestinal villi, leaving

holes on a attened wall
372
11 Test your knowledge of the

digestive system by completing
the Digestive jigsaw interactivity
in your eBookPLUS. int-0216
work
sheet
14.4 The digestive system
14.6
Mechanical digestion
Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking
food down by cutting, grinding or churning it.
The teeth do most of the mechanical digestion. In
humans, the front teeth cut the food and the back
teeth grind it. When food is chopped up into small

pieces, there is a larger area of the food exposed. This
allows the chemicals produced by the digestive system
to work on the food more effectively.
Teeth
Humans have four different types
of teeth. Each type has a different
shape, position in the mouth and
job in breaking down food.
Molar
You have between eight and twelve
molars, depending on your age. The last
four molars are known as your wisdom
teeth; they usually appear at the age of
17 or older. Molars grind food. They have
between three and five cusps. The rough
cusps help to break down the food.
Incisor
Incisors are spade shaped. They have a
straight, sharp edge for cutting and biting
food. You have eight incisors in total
four on both the upper and lower jaw at
the front of the mouth.
Canine
There are four pointed canines
one on
each side of the incisors. They are used
for shearing and tearing through tough
food.
Premolar
Premolars roll and crush food. There
are eight premolars
two next to each
canine. They have two pointed cusps to
help break down food.
structure of a tooth
Although different in size and
shape, all teeth are made up of
the same material.
Gum
Gum surrounds the tooth, stopping food
particles getting into the root.
Enamel
Enamel is the hardest substance in
the body. It forms a coating over the
exposed surface of the tooth.
Pulp
The pulp contains the nerves and blood
vessels.
Dentine
Dentine (sometimes spelled dentin)
makes up most of the tooth. It is a
bone-like material that gives the tooth
its shape. Dentine is not strong and
wears away if exposed.
Root canal
The root canal is the channel where the
nerves and blood vessels go down into
the jawbone.
Bone
Teeth are locked into the bone of
the jaw.
14 Body systems
part 2
373
What do they eat?
InveStIgatIon 14.3
Herbivore (wombat)
How well do you brush your teeth?
Herbivores eat plants. They

have large incisors for biting
and cutting. Herbivores do
not have canines. They have
large premolars and
molars because the fibrous plant material needs
a lot of grinding.
You will need:

3 nutrient agar plates
3 small labels
3 cotton buds
sticky tape
toothbrush
toothpaste
incubator set at 35 C
dissection microscope
Note: This is best done after lunch, prior to cleaning

teeth.
Label the three agar plates as Dirty , Toothpaste and
Brush only .
carnivore (Tasmanian devil)

Carnivores eat other animals.
Because their prey is alive
and moving, they have
large canines for stabbing
and holding on to it. Their
incisors are used for tearing m
eat. The molars and premolars in carnivores have
cutting edges.
omnivore (human)
Omnivores eat both plants
and animals. They have all
of the different types of teeth
needed to break down both
meat and plants.
Wipe a cotton bud
carefully over your

uncleaned teeth and
gums.
Gently wipe in a
zigzag pattern
over agar plate
labelled Dirty .
Replace the lid
and seal around the

edges with sticky tape.
Repeat the steps above after brushing with no
toothpaste and then with toothpaste.

Incubate agar plates for 24 48 hours.
Observe the agar plates using the dissection
microscope. Do not open agar plates. Observe

through the plastic dish.
Insectivore (numbat)
Insectivores are carnivores
that eat only insects. Their
teeth are small and pointed
so that they can crush the
exoskeleton of the insect. Insects are then
swallowed whole.
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term mechanical digestion .
2 Identify the four types of teeth and their function.
3 Define the terms carnivore , omnivore and herbivore .
4 Explain why it is important to break food down into small
pieces.
374
DIscussIon
1
Sketch the three agar plates, showing any growth.
Which agar plate had the most growth? Why?
Why should we brush our teeth with toothpaste?
THInK
5 Justify why herbivores do not have canines.
6 Describe what would happen to your teeth if they did not
have enamel covering them.
7 How do we know what dinosaurs ate when all we have
is their fossilised bones?
8 Modify Investigation 14.3 to test the following hypothesis:
Mouthwash prevents the growth of bacteria that cause
tooth decay.
14.7
Chemical digestion
Once the food has been broken
down into small pieces, chemicals
called enzymes can get to work
on the food particles. There are
many types of enzymes in the
body. Those involved in digestion
break down the complex chemicals
found in food into small molecules
that can pass through the walls of
the small intestine and into the
bloodstream.
Enzymes
Enzymes are special chemicals that
speed up the chemical reactions
in your body. The enzymes
themselves do not change and can
be reused over and over. So, only a
very small amount of an enzyme is
needed. Each enzyme has its own
special shape, just as a key has a
special shape. Enzyme keys can t
into food particles just as a key ts
into a lock. And, like a key tting a lock, each enzyme can t into only
one type of substance. If an enzyme matches a food particle, the food
particle breaks apart.
There are hundreds of enzymes working in your body. The digestive
enzymes are only one group.
Enzyme locks onto
food particle.
Food particle
(top) and free
enzyme
Enzyme is unchanged
and can repeat the
process on another
food particle.
Enzyme breaks
the food
particle into
smaller pieces.
Some enzymes of the human

digestive system
Amylase
Amylase
Amylase
Amylase
Starch molecule
(chain of glucose
molecules)
Amylase enzymes cut starch

into glucose molecules.
Glucose molecules
Wall of small intestine
Amylase is made in the salivary

glands, pancreas and small intestine.
It works in the mouth and small
intestine to break down starch into
simple sugars such as glucose.
Protease
Protease is made in the stomach,
pancreas and small intestine. It breaks
down protein into amino acids. It
works in both the stomach and the
small intestine.
Lipase
Glucose in bloodstream
Amylase enzymes break down starch into glucose molecules,
which can diffuse across the wall of the small intestine.
Lipase breaks down fats and oils into

fatty acids and glycerol. It is made in
the pancreas, and lipids are digested
in the small intestine.
14 Body systems part 2
375
Fat stuff
Breaking down lipids, such as fats
and oils, is hard work! Because
lipids are insoluble in water, they
tend to clump together into large
blobs. A substance called bile
helps solve this problem. Bile is
produced by your liver and stored
in your gall bladder. As half of the
bile molecule is attracted to water
and the other half is attracted
to lipids, it helps to emulsify or
separate the lipids so the lipase
enzymes can gain access to them
and do their job. This is an
example of mechanical digestion
(bile) and chemical digestion
(lipase) working together to get the
job done!
376
Bile emulsifies
fat so that lipases
can break it down.
High or low GI?
Glycaemic
index
Extremely
high
You might have noticed that some

foods are labelled as low GI. The
GI or glycaemic index of a food
is a measure of the time it takes
for your blood sugar level to rise
after you eat that food. Foods
that are high in sugar, and starchy
foods that are low in fibre, can
be digested quickly by amylase.
These foods have a high GI and
they provide only a short burst
of glucose. As your blood glucose
level drops, you may start to feel
hungry again. Foods with a low GI
are digested more slowly. Blood
glucose levels rise more slowly and
over a longer period of time, so
you feel full for longer. Choosing
low GI foods might help maintain
a healthy weight and perhaps also
prevent certain diseases such as
type II diabetes.
The table above indicates the
glycaemic index of a range of
foods. The graph at right shows the
blood glucose spike and drop that
occur after eating high GI foods,
and the more moderate, longer
lasting rise in blood glucose level
after eating low GI foods.
Grains
Puffed rice Wholemeal

Cornflakes
bread
White bread Muesli
Brown rice
Porridge oats
Bran
Rye bread
White pasta
Brown pasta
Tomato soup Barley

Lima beans
Fruit and
vegetables
Parsnip
Baked
potato
Carrot
Sweet corn
Mashed potato
Boiled potato
Apricots
Bananas
Sweet potato
Peas
Baked beans
Grapes
Orange juice
Pears
Apples
Oranges
Apple juice
Red lentils
Soybeans
Peaches
Plums
Sugar
Glucose
Honey
Sucrose
Potato chips
Sponge cake
Yoghurt
High-fat
ice-cream
Peanuts
Snacks
Corn chips
Chocolate
Crackers
Biscuits
Low-fat
ice-cream
8
Blood glucose (mmol/L)
Moderately
high
High
Moderately
low
Low
High GI
(e.g. chocolate)
Low GI
(e.g. peanuts)
5
0
50
100
Minutes after intake
150
Foods with a
high GI, such as
chocolate, cause a
sharp rise in blood
sugar. Foods with a
low GI, such as nuts,
result in a more
moderate but longer
lasting rise in blood
sugar.
taken to set. If the milk has not set

after 15 minutes, record the time
as 15+.
beaker 3 and boiling water (from a

kettle) for beaker 4. These are the
water baths .
InveStIgatIon 14.4
Does temperature affect
enzymes?
Half-fill four test tubes with milk and
You will need:

4 beakers
8 test tubes
milk
4 thermometers
fresh pineapple puree (Fresh
pineapple can be pureed using a
food processor. If fresh pineapple
is not available, use junket powder
or a junket tablet dissolved in 10 mL
water.)
Add water to the beakers so that
they are two-thirds full. Use cold tap

water and ice for beaker 1, cold tap
water for beaker 2, hot tap water for
Copy and complete the table of
results below.
put one test tube in each water bath.

Place one teaspoon of fresh
Temperature of
milk and pineapple
mixture ( C)
pineapple puree (or 1 mL junket

solution) in the other four test tubes.
Put one of these test tubes in each
water bath.
Allow the test tubes to stand in the
water baths for at least 5 minutes.
DIscussIon
1
Pineapple juice and junket

contain an enzyme that causes
a protein in milk (casein) to
undergo a chemical reaction and
change texture; that is why the
milk sets. At what temperature
did the enzyme work best?
Did the enzyme work well at very

high temperatures? Explain your
answer.
Which variables were controlled

in this experiment?
Do you think that the same

results would be obtained if
tinned pineapple puree was
used instead of fresh pineapple?
For each water bath, pour the
fresh pineapple puree into the

milk and stir briefly. Quickly record
the temperature of the milk and
pineapple mixture and then allow it
to stand undisturbed. The mixture
will eventually set. Record the time
Pineapple
puree
Pineapple
puree
Milk
Milk
Iced
water
Room
temperature
water
Warm
water
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term chemical digestion .
2 Describe the function of enzymes.
3 Identify the three main digestive
enzymes, where they are made and
the type of substance they break
down.
4 Describe what happens to enzymes
when they get very hot.
5 Describe how bile helps lipase
enzymes get their work done.
THInK
6 Explain why the food you eat needs
to be chemically digested.
7 When you eat a piece of bread,
nothing much can be tasted at
first. As you continue to chew,
Boiled
water
After 5 minutes, combine

milk and pineapple puree
and return to water bath.
a sweet taste can be detected.

Explain why.
8 It is sometimes necessary, for
medical reasons, to remove the gall
bladder. The gall bladder stores
bile. Justify why a person who has
had their gall bladder removed
might need to follow a low-fat diet.
9 Study the table on page 376.
(a) Identify the types of foods that
have an extremely high GI. Are
there any general trends?
(b) Deduce how the fat content of
a food affects its GI.
(Hint: Look at where the
high-fat foods are in the table.)
(c) High-fat ice-cream has
a lower GI than low-fat
ice-cream. Discuss whether it is
healthier.
10 Amylase breaks starch down into
glucose. Iodine solution turns
Time taken
to set (min)
blue-black when it is added to

starch, but it is a light brown colour
when starch is not present.
(a) Jossie combined 10 mL of
starch solution with 1 mL of
amylase solution. She removed
a small amount of the mixture
and added iodine solution. The
iodine solution turned blueblack. Half an hour later, Jossie
removed another small amount
of the mixture and tested it with
iodine solution. This time the
iodine remained light brown.
Explain Jossie s observation.
(b) Design an experiment to test
the hypothesis that amylase is
more active (converts starch to
glucose faster) at 50 C than at
20 C.
work
sheet
14.5 Mechanical and chemical

digestion
14 Body systems
part 2
377
14.8
Bodies on the move

Muscles use the energy from
food to enable us to move.
They move the bones they are
attached to, allowing us to walk,
run, lift objects and perform fine
movements such as those involved
in writing. Together, muscles and
bones form the musculoskeletal
system, the system responsible for
body movements.
Muscles
Muscles are tough and elastic
fibres. You have muscles to make
your heart pump, muscles to
help you digest food and muscles
to help you breathe. Many
muscles, however, are joined to
bones. Muscles pull on bones by
contracting, or shortening. Muscles
never push.
The movement of muscles is
controlled by the brain, which
sends signals through your nerves.
Muscles such as those that make
your heart pump and those that
control your breathing are called
involuntary muscles. They work
without you having to think. The
muscles that are connected to
bones are called voluntary muscles
because you have to choose to use
them.
In animals without bones,
such as worms and slugs, the
muscles bring about movement
by stretching and shortening
certain parts of the body. It can
be quite an effective way to move
in water. Squid and jellyfish, for
example, can propel themselves
reasonably quickly in water
even though their muscles are
not attached to hard parts. They
achieve this by pumping water
378
into body cavities and releasing

it suddenly to provide thrust. On
land, this option is not available.
To achieve high speeds on land,
it is necessary for muscles to be
anchored to something rigid.
Insect muscles are attached to a
layer of tough material on the
outside of their bodies. This layer
is called the exoskeleton. It is made
of a substance called chitin. The
diagram below shows how insects
can move by contracting and
relaxing their muscles.
Shoulder
joint
Scapula
Humerus
Biceps
Ulna
Triceps
Radius
Elbow
joint
Triceps
contract
Biceps
relax
Biceps
contract
Triceps
relax
When your biceps contract, your arm

bends upwards. When your triceps
contract, your arm straightens.
Exoskeleton (cuticle)
Joint
Extensor muscle
Flexor muscle
The muscles in insects are attached to

the exoskeleton, the outer covering of the
body. This grasshopper can extend its leg
by contracting the extensor muscle and
relaxing the flexor muscle.
There are more than 200 bones

in the skeleton of an adult
human. Apart from providing
a rigid structure for muscles to
attach to, thus allowing you to
move, the skeleton also has two
other important functions. The
skeleton provides support and
forms a frame that gives your
body its basic shape. Without a
skeleton, you would be a jelly-like
blob.
Bones
In humans and other vertebrates
(animals with a backbone), the
muscles are attached to bones
inside the body by bundles of
tough fibres called tendons.
The muscles move the bones by
contracting and relaxing.
Certain bones of the skeleton

also protect vital organs. For
example, the brain is protected
by the bones of the skull, and the
heart is protected by the rib cage.
Skull
(cranium)
InveStIgatIon 14.5
Rubbery bones
Lower jaw
(mandible)
Collarbone
(clavicle)
Breastbone
(sternum)
Ribs
Spine
(vertebrae)
Pelvic girdle
You will need:

2 chicken or turkey bones
2 jars
vinegar
Clean the two chicken or turkey bones and leave
them to dry overnight. Place one bone in a jar of

vinegar and the other in a jar of water.
Allow the bones to soak for at least three days. Then
remove the bones and observe any changes.

Thighbone
(femur)
Kneecap
(patella)
Vinegar is an acid and dissolves minerals such as

calcium and phosphorus compounds, removing them
from the bone.
Return the bone to the jar of vinegar for another
week, then remove and observe any further changes

in the bone. Try to tie the bone in a knot.
Shinbone
(tibia)
DIscussIon
What s in a bone?
Long bones, such as the shaft of the femur (in
your thigh), have an outer layer of hard, strong
compact bone that covers an interior of spongy tissue
containing the bone marrow. Some of the most
important parts of your blood are made in the bone
marrow. Some other bones in your body, such as the
head of the femur, are made up of lighter spongy bone,
which is more open in structure than compact bone.
Bones are alive. They contain living cells and need
a blood supply to provide oxygen and other nutrients.
If bones were not alive, how would you grow taller?
How would a broken arm or leg mend?
Hard covering of compact bone:
includes calcium and phosphorus
Bone marrow
Spongy tissue
The structure of a bone
Your bones cannot remain hard without an

adequate supply of two important minerals: calcium
and phosphorus. In fact, until you reach the age
of about 20, the soft cartilage that made up your
skeleton when you were born is being gradually
What changes occurred in each of the two bones?
How did the bone change after more than a week

in vinegar?
Why was the jar of water used in the first part of

this experiment?
replaced. Cartilage is very soft and rubbery, not as

hard and solid as bone.
The hardening of your bones as you get older is
called ossification. After ossification, the bone is made
up of about 70 per cent non-living matter and 30 per
cent living matter. As you get old, your bones may get
dry and brittle. That is why older people break their
bones more easily.
Not all cartilage changes into bone. The ends of
your bones remain covered in cartilage. Your trachea
(windpipe), nose and ears are made mostly of
cartilage.
Investigation 14.5 above shows what could happen
to your bones without a supply of important minerals.
Joints
A joint is where two bones meet. The elbow and knee
are examples of joints. At a joint the bones are held
together by bundles of strong fibres called ligaments.
The ends of each bone are covered with cartilage. The
cartilage is covered with a liquid called synovial fluid.
Together, the cartilage and synovial fluid stop the
bones from scraping against each other.
14 Body systems
part 2
379
Slippery cartilage where

bones rub together
Synovial fluid
Bone Bone marrow
Ligament
The region where bones meet is called a joint.
Most joints allow your bones to move. The amount and direction of
movement allowed depends on the type of joint.
(a)
(b)
Humerus
Pelvis
(c)
(d)
Broken bones
Radius
Hinge joint
When a bone breaks, the ends of

the bone need to be put back into
place (set), so that they can grow
together. If a bone is shattered
into several pieces, it is sometimes
possible to use pins or wire to hold
the pieces in place while the bone
heals. A greenstick fracture occurs
when the bone cracks but does
not break. Greenstick fractures are
common in children because the
bones are more flexible.
Ulna
Head of femur
Socket
Ball
Pivot
Hinge
Socket
Different types of joints: (a) pivot joint, (b) hinge joint, (c) ball and socket joint,
(d) immovable joint
osteoporosis
The knee and elbow are hinge joints, like those in a door. They allow
movement in only one direction.
The hip and shoulder joints are ball and socket joints. They allow
movement in many directions.
Osteoporosis is a loss of bone

mass that causes bones to become
lighter, more fragile and easily
broken. It occurs in middle-aged
joint from one end of the muscle to the other. Try pulling
on the muscle. Can you get the bones to move by pulling
on the muscle?
InveStIgatIon 14.6
chicken wing dissection
You will need:
chicken wing
scalpel
scissors
dissection tray or board
newspaper
disposable gloves
Use scissors to cut through the joint. As you do so, look
for tendons and shiny white cartilage.
DIscussIon
1
Sketch one of the joints in the chicken wing. Label

the bones, the tendons and the muscles. Show clearly
where the muscle inserts (attaches to the bones).
Use arrows to show how the bones move when the
muscle is shortened.
Feel the cartilage with a gloved hand. Does the

cartilege feel rough or slippery? Why does it need to
be slippery?
Is cartilage harder or softer than bone?
Using the scissors and scalpel, gently pull away the skin
from the chicken wing. Put the tip of the scalpel blade
between the skin and the muscle to separate the skin
from the muscle.
When you have completely removed the skin from one
joint, inspect it carefully. Follow each muscle near this
380
The joint between your skull and

spine is a pivot joint. It allows a
twisting type of movement.
Some joints, such as those that
join the plates of your skull, do
not move. Such joints are called
immovable joints. While not
allowing movement, these joints
provide a thin layer of soft tissue
between bones. Their job is to
absorb enough energy from a
severe knock to prevent the bone
from breaking.
or elderly men and women. In Australia, about

60 per cent of women and about 30 per cent of
men are affected in some way by osteoporosis. It is
believed to be caused by a lack of calcium in the diet.
Insufficient exercise is also an important factor in the
development of osteoporosis.
In your teen years, you can help protect yourself

from getting osteoporosis later by having a healthy
diet. It should include dairy products such as milk,
cheese and yoghurt and other foods high in calcium.
Such a diet will help ensure that your bone mass is
adequate as an adult.
9 Describe why our skeleton isn t made of just one
bone.
activities
10 Explain why it is that, in a similar accident, an adult

gets a broken bone while a child may suffer only a
greenstick fracture.
REMEMBER
1 Cover up the diagram of the human skeleton on page 379
and test your memory of the names of some of your
important bones by completing the table below.
Scientific name
11 Find out where in the human skeleton the following

bones are.
(a) Humerus
(b) Fibula
(c) Coccyx
(d) Scapula
Common name
Vertebrae
Skull
12 The muscles in your food pipe contract and relax

to push food down into your stomach. Are these
muscles voluntary or involuntary muscles? Explain
your answer.
Clavicle
Breastbone
Mandible
Thighbone
13 Describe what would happen if the cartilage in your

knee joint wore out.
Patella
Shinbone
cREATE
2 Describe the job done by each of the following parts of a

joint.
(a) Ligament
(b) Cartilage
(c) Synovial fluid
14 construct a skeleton mobile to hang from the ceiling.

(a) Trace the skeleton diagram on page 379 (or a
larger one from another book), colour it and cut
it into a number of sections.
(b) Paste each section onto cardboard and
thread the sections together to make a skeletal
mobile.
3 Some joints are referred to as immovable joints. What is

the use of having joints that don t move?
4 Identify an example of each of the following types of joint.
(a) Hinge
(b) Ball and socket
(c) Pivot
(d) Immovable
work
sheet
14.6 Bones, joints and muscles
5 Ligaments and tendons are bundles of

tough fibres. Identify the major difference
between a ligament and a tendon.
6 Describe the action of the biceps and
triceps muscles as you bend your
elbow to raise your forearm.
7 Recall which organs the skull and rib
cage protect.
THInK AnD InVEsTIGATE

8 Look carefully at each of the
skeletons at right. Three of them are
incomplete. Identify which skeletons
are incomplete and name the missing
parts.
14 Body systems
part 2
381
14.9
getting rid of waste

The human body takes in
substances including
food, water and oxygen. It also
needs to get rid of unwanted
substances that are produced by
the body.
A number of organs are involved in
getting rid of waste, including the
lungs, the liver, the skin and the
organs that make up the excretory
system.
Many of the chemical reactions
that occur inside cells produce
toxic waste products. If our bodies
could not get rid of these we
would die. Excretion involves
the removal of these harmful
substances from the body. Carbon
dioxide, produced in respiration, is
excreted via the lungs; we breathe
Vena cava
it out. Our skin excretes some

salts and water in the form of
sweat. Another harmful substance
we need to excrete is urea. It is
produced from the breakdown of
proteins. The kidneys remove urea
from the blood.
If you put your hands on your
hips, your kidneys are close to
where your thumbs are. You have
two of these reddish-brown, beanshaped organs. Without them you
would survive only a few days.
Kidneys play an important role
in filtering your blood. About a
quarter of the blood that your
heart pumps is sent to your
kidneys. These small organs filter
about 50 litres of blood each hour.
As blood passes through the
kidneys, the urea and some other

harmful substances are removed.
Other substances, like salts and
water, which may be in excess, can
also be removed. This keeps their
concentration in the blood
constant. If this did not occur, your
cells would not work properly.
Urine is produced by your
kidneys. This watery fluid contains
unwanted substances. Tubes called
ureters transport urine from your
kidneys to your bladder to be
stored temporarily. As it fills, your
bladder expands like a balloon. It
can hold about 400 mL of urine.
Urination occurs when urine moves
from your bladder through a tube
called the urethra and out of your
body.
Aorta
Renal artery
Kidney:
filters the blood
and produces
urine.
Renal vein
Ureter:
transports urine from
kidney to bladder.
Bladder:
stores urine.
Urethra:
transports urine from
bladder to outside body.
The excretory system
382
Blood, water and urine

Both blood and urine are mostly made up of water. Water is very
important because it assists in the transport of nutrients within and
between the cells of the body. It also helps the kidneys do their job
because it dilutes toxic substances and absorbs waste products so that
they may be transported out of the body.
A comparison of what is found in the blood and the urine. How are they different?
Quantity (%)
Substance
In blood
Water
In urine
92
95
Proteins
Glucose
0.1
Chloride (salt)
0.37
0.6
Urea
0.03
Too much or too little

The concentration of substances in the blood is influenced by the
amount of water in it. If you drink a lot of water, more will be absorbed
from your large intestine and the kidneys will produce a greater volume
of dilute urine. If you do not consume enough liquid, you will urinate
less and produce more concentrated urine.
Freshwater fish:
rarely drinks.
Fluid
Water in
through gills
Lots of
dilute urine
Saltwater fish:
drinks sea water.
Fluid
H2O
Which type of fish

rarely drinks?
Water leaves via gills.
Little urine
Fish maintain their salt and water balance in different ways, depending
on whether they are freshwater or saltwater fish. Have you ever noticed
that putting salt on vegetables such as eggplants draws the water out of
the vegetables? Something similar happens to fish living in sea water,
such as snapper. Because the salt concentration is higher outside their
bodies than inside their bodies, they tend to lose water through their skin.
They need to drink sea water constantly to ensure they do not dehydrate
and they only produce small amounts of very concentrated urine. The
situation is reversed for freshwater fish, such as Murray cod. The salt
concentration is higher inside than outside their bodies, so water tends
to diffuse into their bodies. They need to get rid of this water so they
produce large amounts of very dilute urine, and they rarely drink.
The human kidneys remove excess

salt from the blood to help keep levels
constant. Different types of animals
have other ways of removing excess
salt from their bodies. Turtles, for
example, have salt-secreting glands
behind their eyes. Hence you may see
a turtle shedding tears . Penguins, on
the other hand, may appear to have
runny noses because that is where
their salt-secreting glands are located.
Getting rid of alcohol

Drinking excessive amounts of
alcohol is linked to many health
risks. The part of the digestive
system that is most affected by
alcohol is the liver. When alcohol
enters the liver, it breaks down the
alcohol into energy and the waste
products carbon dioxide and water.
The carbon dioxide is released
through the lungs, and water
leaves the body as urine, sweat and
breath vapour (this is why people
who drink too much can smell of
alcohol ).
If you drink alcohol faster than
the liver can break it down, the
alcohol that is not eliminated is
absorbed in the body and you
become intoxicated. The liver
works at a fixed rate and can
detoxify about one standard drink
each hour. So coffee, cold showers,
fresh air and vomiting do not
speed up the process of getting rid
of alcohol from your body.
Alcohol also affects the amount
of urine produced by the kidneys.
It reduces the body s production
of a hormone that keeps urine
concentrated. The kidneys produce
more urine than usual, instead of
reabsorbing water into the body.
As a result, you urinate more and
can become dehydrated. In extreme
cases, a heavy drinker can lose so
much water that the body cannot
function properly.
14 Body systems
part 2
383
People with kidney disease

may not be able to remove the
waste materials from their blood
effectively. They may be linked up
to a machine that does this job
for them. Their blood is passed
along a tube that lets wastes,
such as urea, pass out of it.
However, useful substances, such
as glucose, proteins and red blood
cells, stay in the tube and are kept
in the blood. This process is called
haemodialysis.
Dialysate
Blood cell
Waste products
Dialysis tubing
Vein
Blood pump
Radial artery
Dialysis
tubing
Compressed
CO2 and air
Bubble trap
Fresh dialysing
solution
Constant temperature
bath
Dialysing
solution
Used dialysing
solution
Haemodialysis
activities
REMEMBER
1 Define the term excretion .
2 Draw and label a diagram of the excretory system
showing the following: renal arteries, renal veins,
ureters, bladder, urethra.
3 What do blood and urine have in common?
4 outline what happens when you drink a lot of water.
5 Describe one way in which excess salt is removed from
your body.
6 Explain how haemodialysis can assist people with kidney
disease.
THInK
7 Look carefully at the diagram of haemodialysis and
suggest reasons why the following are included in the
process:
(a) blood pump
(b) bubble trap
(c) constant temperature bath.
8 Identify what you would expect to find in the used
dialysing solution.
9 Explain why red blood cells don t pass through the
dialysis tubing.
10 compare dialysis with the way a real kidney works.
384
AnALYsE AnD EVALuATE

11 Use the table on the previous page and the other
information on pages 382 3 to answer the following
questions.
(a) construct two divided bar graphs to show the
quantity of water, proteins, glucose, salt and urea in
blood and in urine.
(b) Identify which substance is in the greatest quantity.
Suggest a reason for this.
(c) Identify the substances found only in blood.
(d) Identify the substances found in urine in a greater
quantity than in blood. Suggest a reason for this.
(e) Explain why the concentration of urea in the urine
may vary throughout the day.
InVEsTIGATE
12 Research and report on one of these conditions: urinary
incontinence, kidney stones, dialysis, kidney transplants,
cystitis.
13 Find out:
(a) the differences between the urethra in human
males and females
(b) why pregnant women often need to urinate more
frequently
(c) how the prostate gland in males may affect
urination in later life
(d) which foods can change the colour or volume of
urine
(e) which tests use urine in the medical diagnosis of
diseases.
LooKIng BaCK
1 Complete the table below to summarise what you know
about some of the substances in food.
Nutrient
Carbohydrates
Fats and oils
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Fibre
Why is it
needed?
In which foods is
it found?
5 What useful purpose do the bacteria in your large intestine

serve?
6 List three digestive enzymes and outline the substances
that each enzyme breaks down.
7 Describe the features of the small intestine that make it
suitable for absorbing food particles.
8 Explain why we would die if our kidneys stopped working.
9 Describe what happens to a piece of meat after it is eaten.
Include information about what happens after the amino
acids have entered the bloodstream and how the waste
ammonia produced is removed from the body.
2 (a) What is the purpose of digestion?

(b) Explain the difference between mechanical and
chemical digestion.
3 Identify the name and role of the organs marked in the
following diagram of the human digestive system.
(a)
TEsT YouRsELF
1 What is the main role of proteins in the diet?
A Proteins are a source of essential fatty acids.
B Proteins are a source of important vitamins and minerals.
C Proteins are broken down to produce glucose, which is
needed for respiration.
D Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are
needed for growth and repair and to make important
molecules including enzymes.
(1 mark)
2 In which part(s) of the digestive system does mechanical
digestion occur?
A Mouth only
B Mouth and stomach
C Mouth and small intestine
D Small intestine and large intestine
(1 mark)
(b)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(c)
3 Which of the following is not a unit used to express the

amount of energy in food?
A Kilowatt
B Kilojoule
C Calorie
D Joule
(1 mark)
4 Which organ removes urea from the bloodstream?
A Bladder
B Liver
C Kidney
D Urethra
(1 mark)
5 Explain why you need to include fibre and water
in your diet.
(2 marks)
6 (a) Describe the role of teeth in the process of
digestion.
(b) Justify why humans have different types of
teeth.
(c) What are enzymes? Describe their role in
digestion.
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
7 Use your knowledge of bones and their function to explain

why all large land animals have a skeleton.
(1 mark)
4 Investigate what passes into the bloodstream from:
(a) the small intestine
(b) the large intestine.
work
sheets
14.7 Body systems 2 puzzles

14.8 Body systems 2 summary
14 Body systems
part 2
385
StUDY CHeCKLISt
ICt
nutrition
eBook plus
explain why animals need to eat food 14.1

describe how the energy content of food can be
SUMMaRY
eLessons
measured experimentally 14.1

describe the roles of carbohydrate, protein, lipid,
vitamins, minerals, fibre and water in the diet 14.2, 14.3
describe some chemical tests for starch, glucose and
protein 14.2
outline some healthy eating guidelines 14.3
From dinner plate to sewerage system

This video lesson explains the amazing journey of food through
the human body, from dinner plate to sewerage system. Learn
how our bodies release chemicals to break down food and absorb
energy-giving nutrients, all without us even being aware of the
process. A worksheet is attached to further your understanding.
Digestive system
label a diagram of the digestive system 14.5
describe the function of the main organs of the digestive
system
14.5
distinguish between mechanical and chemical

digestion
14.6, 14.7
describe the role of teeth in digestion 14.6

compare the teeth of herbivores, carnivores and
omnivores
14.6
describe the role of enzymes in digestion 14.7

investigate the effect of temperature on the activity of
an enzyme
14.7
skeletal system
Interactivities
label the major bones of the human skeletal
system 14.8
outline the role of the skeletal system 14.8
explain how muscles and bones work together to allow
movement 14.8
describe the structure of bones 14.8
identify examples of hinge, pivot and immovable joints in
the body 14.8
A healthy diet
This interactivity looks at the nutrient contents of different foods
and challenges you to test your ability to identify common foods
that are high in certain nutrients. Instant feedback is provided.
The digestive jigsaw
This interactivity looks at the jigsaw puzzle that is the digestive
system. Test your knowledge by re-creating the human digestive
system. Instant feedback is provided.
Excretory system
explain why excretion of waste is essential 14.9
label a diagram of the excretory system 14.9
describe the roles of the main organs of the excretory
system
14.9
account for the different ways in which freshwater and

saltwater fish solve the problem of water balance
14.9
14.9
define the term haemodialysis

summarise information about the work of
dietitians
14.4
386
15
Ecology
Rock pools,
like the one in
this photo, can
be seen at low
tide on rock platforms. They are like
underwater gardens, teeming with
different types of seaweed and all
sorts of small animals. The organisms
that live in rock pools are ideally
suited to their environment and
interact with both their environment
and each other. Ecology is the study
of these interactions.

15.1
learn about the biotic and abiotic
features of ecosystems
15.2
measure abiotic factors of
ecosystems and estimate the

abundance of organisms
15.3
learn about the types of relationships
that exist between different species

15.4
learn about food chains and food
webs
15.5
learn about the role of decomposers
in ecosystems
15.6
learn about the carbon cycle and
global warming
15.7
learn about the effect of bushfire on
Australian ecosystems and some

adaptations of Australian animals and
plants to their environments
15.8
learn about the effect of drought and
flood on Australian ecosystems

15.9
learn about the work of Australian
environmental scientists.
The organisms that live in habitats,

such as this rock pool, interact with the
environment and each other.
15 Ecology
a personal environmental-impact
assessment
1. Everything we do affects the environment in some
way. Complete the following survey to see how
your impact on the environment compares with
that of other people in your class.
Circle the response that most closely represents
your lifestyle.
R = rarely S = sometimes U = usually
Food consumption and packaging
Water
I limit my showers to five minutes or less.
USR
I have a water-saving shower head.
USR
I have the tap turned off when brushing my teeth.
USR
I water the garden after dark or not at all.
USR
My house has access to a rainwater tank.
USR
I use scented, coloured or pictured toilet paper.
RSU
The environment
I treat living things with respect.
USR
I discuss environmental issues with my friends.
USR
When shopping, I take my own bags.
USR
I plant some trees every year.
USR
My family grows some of its own food.
USR
I make an effort to improve my environmental habits.
USR
I compost food waste.
USR
My family buys organic foods.
USR
I avoid snacks that have a lot of packaging.
USR
I eat at fast-food restaurants that use a lot of

packaging.
RSU
Personal environmental-impact score: ____________
Household energy and supplies

I turn off electric lights and appliances when no-one
is in the room.
USR
I decide what I want from the refrigerator before

opening it.
USR
I keep windows and doors closed while heating or

cooling my house.
USR
I avoid using a clothes dryer.
USR
In my home we have energy-saving light bulbs.
USR
I use airconditioning in summer.
RSU
I use facial tissues.
RSU
Transport
I regularly walk or ride a bicycle to school.
Scoring
Add up the number of points for each section. If
the first letter is circled, it is worth 0; the middle
letter is worth 2; the last letter is worth 5.
USR
Recycling and reusing

I recycle aluminium, paper, glass, plastic bottles and
steel cans.
USR
I use both sides of a sheet of paper.
USR
If I am out somewhere and buy a drink, I carry the

container home to recycle it if there is no recycling
bin available.
USR
I have a reusable lunch box.
USR
I use plastic shopping bags.
RSU
A high score means you use more resources,

produce more waste and have a greater impact
on the Earth. Your eco-footprint would be large.
Compare your score with other class members and
attempt to work out why your score is higher or
lower than other people s scores.
2. Write the following words in your workbook.
As you come across each word in this chapter,
write down a definition of that term in your own
words.
ecosystem
habitat
distribution
abundance
collaboration
symbiosis
mutualism
parasitism
commensalism
epiphyte
saprophyte
extinct
endangered
consumer
producer
decomposer
adaptation
respiration
photosynthesis
eBook plus
3. Use the Ecological footprint weblink in your

eBookPLUS to calculate how many Earths it would
take to support your current lifestyle.
15.1
a place to call home

Next time you go for a bushwalk or walk along a rock
platform, take a good look around. Try to count the
different types of living things that surround you.
Some organisms such as trees and large animals are
very obvious, but there are many smaller creatures
and plants that are easier to miss. There are even
The sun is the source of all
life on Earth. It supplies the
energy that plants use to
make their food. All animals
depend on the food that
plants make for their energy.
thousands of microscopic animals living in the soil.

The living things in natural environments, regardless
of their size, depend on each other and on their
surroundings for survival. Ecology is the study of the
way in which organisms interact with other organisms
and with their environment.
Animals depend on trees and plants. Trees

and plants provide food (fruit, flowers and
seeds) and a home for many insects and
animals. Plants also make some of the
oxygen that we need to breathe.
Many plants and animals have

relationships that help each other. In this
example, a bee is pollinating a flower
so that the flower can make seeds. The
seeds will grow into new plants.
Animals depend on rocks for shelter

and a safe home away from those who
may want to eat them. Lizards also sit
on rocks in the sun to get warm.
Animals depend on
other animals for
food. This is just
another part of the
web.
Water is essential to all life. Animals and plants

are mostly made up of water. Amazingly, your
own body is made up of about 70 per cent water!
Some animals and plants also live in water.
Many animals, like ants and worms, live

in the soil. Worms also use the soil as
their food. Plants can get nutrients from
the soil through their roots. They also use
the soil to support themselves.
Humans are animals too. Often we think

we are not, but we depend on the web of
nature just like all other animals.
15 Ecology 389
it s all about
relationships
An ecosystem is made up of living
and non-living things that interact
with each other. A pond, a rock
platform and a rainforest are
all examples of ecosystems. The
living things in an ecosystem (the
organisms) are the biotic factors.
The non-living features are the
abiotic factors. Abiotic factors
include temperature, soil pH and
amount of available light. The
abiotic factors determine the types
of organisms that can survive in
an area and, in turn, the living
things affect the abiotic features
of an ecosystem. The living things
also interact with each other.
A habitat is the place where
a particular organism lives. For
example, the habitat of the platypus
is freshwater creeks, rivers and lakes
of eastern Australia. The rock pool
shown below is a habitat for many
species. A habitat must provide
the things that animals and plants
need to stay alive. For example,
organisms living in this rock pool,
and other habitats, need:
food
clean water
shelter
space
a mate for reproduction
gases, like oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
390
The distribution of a species tells

us where it is found, whereas the
abundance or density of a species
tells us how many of these
organisms live in a particular area.
For example, the Sydney funnel-web
spider (Atrax robustus) is found in
New South Wales, from Newcastle
to Nowra and west to Lithgow. That
is its distribution. There are more
funnel-web spiders in the Hornsby
area than in the Parramatta area, so
we can say that the abundance
or density of funnel-web spiders is
higher in the Hornsby area than in
the Parramatta area.
Sydney
funnelweb
spider
gaia
A biologist named Professor James
Lovelock developed the scientific
theory of Gaia (pronounced guyah). This theory states that the
Earth s physical environment and
living creatures have developed
together over a very long time.
Trees, clouds, rivers, rocks,
air, animals and plants are all
separate. But together they are
also a super-organism. Gaia is
named after the mythical Greek
goddess of Mother Earth. We are
all part of this giant organism.
Each environment makes up an
important part of it.
The forests are like skin. They
sweat to keep us cool. The rivers
and oceans are like blood. They
carry supplies such as nutrients
and dissolved oxygen, and wash
away wastes. The air is like
lungs. The rocks, strong and
solid, are like bones.
What hurts one part of the
Earth, hurts it all. What helps
one part of the Earth, helps it all.
The earth is alive!

australian aboriginals have
traditionally believed that the whole
earth is living. They believe that
animals and plants are not any
different from the rocks, mountains,
sun, fire, water or air. after all, animals
and plants cannot survive without
these things. The Rainbow serpent
(carpet snake) is said to be the
creator of life.
she is responsible for the colours
and shape of earth. she called spirits
to make the mountains, light, water
and colour that brought mother earth
to life. do you think a mountain or
river can be alive?
InvEstIgatIon 15.1
Lid
a mini ecosystem
You will need:
1 L clear plastic bottle
scissors or knife
masking tape
soil or potting mix
small plants or seedlings
grass clippings or ground mulch
(including small organisms). If there
are few organisms in the grass
clippings or mulch, you may want to
add ants or slaters.
Tape sealing the bottle
Plants
Cut the top off the bottle.
Pour the soil or potting mix into the
Mulch or grass clippings

containing small organisms
bottom of the bottle.

Plant the seedlings into the potting
mix.
Moist soil
Place the ground mulch or grass
clippings over the potting mix and

around the seedlings.
Add sufficient water to moisten the
discUssion
1
Explain why it is not necessary

to regularly water the plants in
this ecosystem.
The living things in the

ecosystem use up oxygen.
(a) Recall what the living things
need oxygen for.
(b) Why doesn t the oxygen run
out?
Where do the living things get

their energy from? Why is there
no need to feed them?
soil.
Put the top back on the bottle and
seal it with masking tape. The bottle

should be completely sealed so that
no air, nutrients, animals or plants
can be added or removed from the
mini ecosystem for the duration of
the experiment.
Observe your mini ecosystem
each lesson for the duration of

this topic.
activities
RemembeR
1 define the terms ecosystem , organism , biotic , abiotic ,
habitat , distribution and abundance .
2 Recall two examples each of biotic and abiotic factors in
an ecosystem.
3 explain why the sun is said to be the source of all life on
Earth.
4 identify what a habitat needs for organisms to be able to
live there.
If the ecosystem is balanced,

the organisms inside the bottle
continue to live for a very long
time without needing extra water
or food.
(a) Explain what a balanced
ecosystem is.
(b) What could cause this
mini ecosystem to become
unbalanced?
Think
5 explain how the Earth can be likened to one giant
organism.
6 Humans have a habitat too. describe your habitat.
cReaTe
7 Create a colourful poster to demonstrate how your
favourite animal or plant lives in its habitat. Include
information about how it gets food, water, oxygen or
carbon dioxide, and the other plants or animals it needs
for survival.
work
sheets
15.1 Ecosystems and habitats

15.2 Biotic and abiotic factors
15 Ecology 391
15.2
Investigating the environment

The first step in protecting our environment is to
find out as much as we can about it. That involves
taking measurements. We can measure abiotic
factors, such as temperature and soil pH, as well as
the abundance of particular animals or plants in an
ecosystem.
Why are abiotic factors important?

The abiotic factors of an ecosystem affect which
species can survive there. For example, most species
can survive only within a certain temperature range.
Emperor penguins can tolerate temperatures well
below 0 C but would die if the temperature reached
40 C. Humans would not survive well below 0 C
without the help of many layers of clothing. Each
species has a tolerance range for each abiotic factor.
The optimum range is the range within the tolerance
range in which it functions best. Measuring the abiotic
factors in a habitat can provide information on the
abiotic requirements for a particular organism in that
habitat. Can you think of features that organisms
possess to increase their chances of survival in some
habitats more than in others?
distribution
The distribution of a species tells us where it is
found. To work out the distribution of a species,
scientists sometimes use a transect. This involves
recording all the organisms found in a narrow strip
of an ecosystem. For example, if you wanted to draw
a transect of a rock platform, you could lay two
parallel string lines a short distance apart from the
edge of the water up to the beach. You could then
walk along the string lines from the water to the
beach and record all the living things you see in the
narrow strip between the string lines. That would
show you how the types of living things found on
the rock platform change as you move away from the
edge of the water.
Marker
Marker
Continuous
sampling
Zone of intolerance
Zone of intolerance
Number of organisms
Optimum range
Too cold!
Organism
cannot survive
in this
environment.
Too hot!
Abiotic factor
e.g. temperature
Tolerance range
This is the range in
which it can survive.
Organism
cannot survive
in this
environment.
Each species tolerates a certain range of temperatures.
392
Line transects provide information on the distribution of a species

in a community.
abundance
The abundance of a species tells us how many of
these organisms are in a particular area. Measuring the
abundance of elephants in NSW would be easy. There
are only a few elephants in NSW (at Taronga Zoo and
Western Plains Zoo), and elephants are easy to see.
If we had to measure the abundance of limpets on a
rock platform, however, we would have a much harder
time. Two techniques that are sometimes used to
estimate abundance are the quadrat method and the
capture recapture method. The quadrat method works
best for species that do not move around much, such
as trees and limpets. The capture recapture method is
more suited to species that move, such as rabbits and
fish.
Life in a square
A quadrat is just a sampling area (often 1 square
metre) in which the number of organisms in that area
is counted and recorded. When organisms are counted
in a number of quadrats, this is usually considered to
be representative of the total area under investigation.
The abundance of the organism in the total area can
be estimated using the equation:
estimated
average number per quadrat total area
abundance =
area of quadrat
For example, some students counted the number of
oysters in quadrats with an area of 0.25 m2 and found
that the average number of oysters was 15. They then
estimated the total number of oysters on the rock
platform as follows:
average of oysters per quadrat = 15
total area of rock platform = 300 m2
area of quadrat = 0.25 m2
15 300
estimated abundance =
= 18 000
0.25
Students using quadrats to estimate the abundance of oysters
InvEstIgatIon 15.2
Using quadrats to estimate the abundance of
eucalyptus trees
discUssion
1
Quadrat
number
You will need:

maps of environments A and B (provided by your teacher)
overhead transparency sheet
Environment B
3
4
Measure the length and width of each map and calculate
the area of each using the following equation.
Average
area = length width

2
Estimate the abundance of eucalypts in each

environment using the equation shown above.
Ask your teacher for the actual abundance of

eucalypts in each environment. Compare your estimate
with the actual abundance.
What could you have done to make your estimate more

reliable?
Close your eyes and drop the quadrat anywhere on
the map. Count how many eucalypts (crosses) are

inside the quadrat. Repeat four more times. Do this for
both maps.
Environment A
eucalyptus tree as a cross.
overhead transparency film. Calculate the area of the

quadrat.
Number of eucalypts
The maps of environments A and B show each
Make a quadrat by cutting a 3 cm 3 cm square out of
15 Ecology 393
becomes slightly cloudy or turns

completely white/grey. Work out
the salinity of the water sample
using the table below. Repeat
using water sample B.
InvEstIgatIon 15.3
measuring abiotic factors
You will need:
water samples A and B and soil
samples A and B (provided by your
teacher)
thermometer
dropper bottle of universal indicator
solution
universal indicator colour chart
dropper bottle of silver nitrate solution
(0.1 mol/L)
calcium sulfate powder
Description
discUssion
1
Copy and complete the result

table below.
A pH less than 7 is considered

acidic. The lower the pH the
more acidic the sample is.
(a) Which water sample was
more acidic?
(b) Which soil sample was
more acidic?
One of the environments is

near the ocean and so some
sea water mixes with the
water in the river. Was this
environment A or B? Explain
your answer.
Which of the tests in this

investigation were qualitative
and which were quantitative?
Which variables were controlled

in the salinity test?
Salinity
Clear
Nil
Slightly cloudy
Low
Completely white/grey
High
Put a small amount of soil
sample A on a watchglass. The

soil should be slightly moist. If the
soil is very dry, add a few drops
of distilled water. Sprinkle some
calcium sulfate over the soil. Add
some drops of universal indicator
over the calcium sulfate powder.
Compare the colour of the powder
with the colour chart and record
the pH of the soil. Repeat using soil
sample B.
In this investigation you will measure

some abiotic factors for environments
A and B. The soil samples were
collected from these environments.
The water samples were collected
from rivers that run through each
environment.
Use the thermometer to measure
the temperature of each water

sample and each soil sample.
Pour 5 mL of water sample A
into a test tube. Add 3 drops of

universal indicator. Compare the
colour of the water with the colour
chart and record the pH of the
water sample. Repeat using water
sample B.
Pour 5 mL of water sample A into
another test tube. Add 3 drops

of silver nitrate solution. Note
whether the sample remains clear,
Abiotic factor
Soil temperature ( C)
Water pH
Water salinity
Soil pH
RemembeR
1 Recall what sort of information line transects
provide.
2 define the term quadrat .
3 Recall what sort of information quadrat sampling
provides.
4 Write the equation used to determine the
estimated abundance of a population in a
particular area.
Environment B
Water temperature ( C)
activities
394
Environment A
Think
5 Study the diagram below and then answer the questions
on the following page.
(a) identify five abiotic factors that may affect the

fishes health and chance of survival.
(b) Apart from the fish, identify other biotic factors
in the fish tank.
(c) explain how the plants and the bacteria in the
gravel might play a part in keeping the fish alive.
Use daTa
6 The location of five different types of trees in the
two quadrats at right is indicated by the five different
symbols.
(a) Count and record the number of trees in each
quadrat.
(b) Count and record the number of the different
species in each quadrat.
(c) identify which quadrat provides a greater variety
of habitat types for wildlife. explain your answer.
(d) Propose why the rainforest species in both
quadrats are located most densely near the
creek.
Location A
S:
41 g/L
T:
26 C
O:
19%
Location B
S:
38 g/L
T:
26 C
O:
28%
Location C
S:
37.5 g/L
T:
24 C
O:
41%
ey
Blackwattle tree
Messmate, rough-barked
eucalypt
Creek
Myrtlebeech, a rainforest tree

Sassafras, a rainforest tree
Mountain ash, smooth
-barked eucalypt
7 The graph below shows the physical conditions at low

tide along a rock platform from a cliff to the sea. Use this
graph to answer the following questions.
(a) describe the patterns along the rock platform for each
of the abiotic factors measured.
(b) identify the features that organisms living at the
following locations would need.
(i) Location A
(ii) Location D
(iii) Location F
Location D
S:
36 g/L
T:
20 C
O:
56%
Location E
S:
35 g/L
T:
17 C
O:
72%
Location F
S:
34 g/L
T:
15 C
O:
99%
Elevation above the low water mark (m)
Cliff
3.0
2.0
1.0
HWM
0.0
LWM: low water mark

HWM: high water mark
S: salinity
T: temperature
O: oxygen concentration
16
Abiotic factors
15
14
Pool
13
12
Sea
LWM
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Distance from low water mark (m)
salinity, temperature and dissolved oxygen at low tide on a rock platform
Source: Biozone International (Year 11 Biology 1996 Student Resource and Activity Manual)
work
sheets
15.3 Distribution and abundance

15.4 Measuring abiotic factors
15 Ecology 395
15.3
You scratch my back

The world is composed of many
ecosystems and each contains
thousands and sometimes millions
of organisms. These organisms
interact with each other in many
different ways. Some organisms
depend on other organisms for
food, shelter or protection.
collaboration
Collaboration involves individuals
working together for shared
benefit. Members of the same
species may work together to
achieve a common goal. Dolphins
herding schools of fish together is
one such example.
symbiosis
Symbiosis describes an interaction
between two different organisms
Tapeworms are parasites that live

in the intestines of several animals,
including humans. They vary in
length from 1 cm to 10 metres. Their
heads are equipped with suckers and
sometimes hooks. because they live
on the digested food in the intestine,
they do not need a digestive system
of their own. each tapeworm has both
male and female sex organs so it does
not need a mate to reproduce.
where at least one of them benefits.

The other organism may also
benefit, be unaffected or be harmed
or even killed. There are three main
types of symbiosis: mutualism,
parasitism and commensalism.
mutualism
An interaction between two
different organisms that benefits
both is called mutualism. In many
cases, neither species can survive
under natural conditions without
the other. The tiny protozoans
found in the intestines of termites
help digest wood fibres. The
protozoan does not live anywhere
else and the termite would die
without the protozoan
they
both benefit. Lichen, which is often
found growing on rocks, is made
up of a fungus and an alga living
together. Both the fungus and the
alga benefit from the interaction.
The alga uses light from the sun to
make food in the form of glucose
(a carbohydrate). The fungus uses
the carbohydrates made by the alga,
but also shelters the alga so that it
does not get too hot or dry out.
Parasitism
Parasitism is an interaction where
one species (the parasite) lives in
or on another species (the host)
from which it obtains food, shelter
and other requirements. Some
parasites harm their hosts but
do not usually kill them. Tinea
fungus causes a skin irritation
called athlete s foot, and gets
nutrients from its host, but does
not kill the host. Rafflesia, a giant
flower without leaves, lives on the
roots of trees in the Malaysian
jungle. The mistletoe plant lives
on other plants and draws water
and nutrients from their stems, but
still makes its own food through
photosynthesis, so it is only a
partial parasite.
Mistletoe obtains water and nutrients

from its host, but also makes food through
photosynthesis. It is a partial parasite.
commensalism
M
Mutualism:
lichen is made up of a fungus
and an alga living together.
396
Commensalism is an interaction
between populations of two
species in which one species (the
commensal) benefits from another
(sometimes called the host)

without damaging the host. For
example, the remora fish, often
found swimming under sharks,
feed on scraps of food left by the
shark, without interfering with the
shark s lifestyle. The interaction
between the clownfish and the sea
anemone is another example of
commensalism.
. . . and others
Some symbiotic interactions
do not fall into the three major
categories:
Epiphytes are plants that
simply grow on the outside
of other plants without taking
nourishment from them.
Staghorn ferns, orchids and many
other plants, found mainly in
tropical rainforests, are epiphytes.
Epiphytes are not parasites
because they make their own
food like other green plants.
Saprophytes are organisms that

live on dead and decaying plants.
Most fungi belong to this group.
Most fungi are saprophytes.
Commensalism: the clownfish depends

on the sea anemone for food, shelter and
protection.
Elkhorn ferns and orchids are epiphytes.
activities
RemembeR
1 define the term symbiosis .
2 (a) identify an example of a parasite and host.
(b) How does the parasite affect the host?
(c) How is the parasite affected in this relationship?
3 define the term mutualism . Give an example.
Think
4 compare commensalism and mutualism.
5 explain the type of relationship that humans have with the
bacteria living on their skin.
6 describe some ways that humans try to control parasites.
7 Justify why the organism that a parasite lives on or in is
called a host.
8 explain why it is harmful to a parasite s survival to kill its
host.
9 classify the following as examples of parasitism, mutualism
or commensalism. Give reasons for your answers.
(a) Cleaner fish eat parasites off a larger fish to keep
it clean.
A leech feeds on the blood of

animals, when it can attach itself
to one, but can survive without
drinking blood. Some leeches
feed on dead and decaying
animals and plants.
An insect larva bores into a tree
for food and shelter, sometimes
harming the tree, but sometimes
having no effect.
(b) Cattle ticks suck the blood from cows.

(c) Ants take food from our kitchen.
(d) Termites consume wood, but cannot digest it.
Protozoans in the termite s gut break down the wood,
releasing sugar for the termites. The protozoans
cannot live anywhere else.
(e) Aphids suck the sap from rose plants.
(f) A dog has a tapeworm in its intestine, absorbing
the digested food.
(g) Egrets feed on the insects that cows stir up.
(h) Many harmless bacteria live in human intestines.
(i) Root nodules of clover contain bacteria
the
clover benefits, but can survive without the bacteria;
the bacteria don t live anywhere else.
(j) Ringworm is a fungal disease on human skin.
invesTigaTe
10 The koala and the bacteria that live in its gut have
a symbiotic relationship. investigate how each of the
organisms benefits from this relationship.
11 Choose one of the following parasites. explain how it
infests its host and how it affects its host.
malaria parasites, tapeworms, ticks, insects that make
galls in trees, blight-causing bacteria
15 Ecology 397
15.4
Food chains and webs

All of the animals in a rock pool need to eat. Food is
where animals get the energy they need to grow, move
and reproduce. Some animals eat plants, but many eat
other animals. What do you think the animals in this

rock pool are having for dinner tonight?
Other larger fish, such as the zebra

fish, may be found in rock pools.
This fish feeds only on seaweed.
The octopus is an expert

hunter. Octopuses eat fish,
crabs and
shrimp.
Birds visit a rock pool

to feed on fish, crabs,
shrimp, sea urchins or
shellfish.
Algae and sea plants use
the sun s energy to make
food. Algae and seaweed are
producers.
Sea stars eat anything they can
find. This includes crabs, shellfish
and algae. They push their stomach
out through their mouth and digest food
outside their body.
The elephant snail has a shell that
does not completely cover its body. It
hides under ledges in rock pools and
comes out at night to feed on algae.
Many animals, such as this sponge,
filter the water for plankton.
Rock pool shrimp are scavengers.
The blenny fish is a common rock
pool fish that eats other small
animals, recently dead meat or algae.
398
Producers
Many snails, such as the

conniwink, chiton and
limpet, eat algae. They
use their rough tongues
to scrape algae off rocks.
Sea urchins hide during the day

and move about at night feeding
on algae. They have spikes to
stop other animals eating them.
Producers are organisms that can make their own

food. All plants make their own food using the
energy of the sun in a process called photosynthesis.
In photosynthesis, plants use water, and carbon
dioxide from the air, to make glucose (a type of
sugar) and oxygen.
To do this, the plant also needs a green
pigment called chlorophyll. This is usually found
in the leaves. The chemical word equation for
photosynthesis is:
sunlight
glucose + oxygen
chlorophyll
consumers
Sea anemones have sticky

tentacles that catch anything
that floats by in the water.
This includes fish, algae,
microscopic animals, and
plants called plankton.
The dog whelk is a snail that

eats other snails. It drills a
hole through the snail s shell
with its rough tongue and
sucks out the insides.
The green turban is a
snail that feeds on larger
seaweeds.
Crabs feed on dead or decaying material
in rock pools. Animals that feed on
dead and decaying material are called
scavengers. They eat anything they can
find. The decorator crab covers itself in
seaweed for camouflage.
Consumers are organisms that rely on other

organisms for their food. Consumers feed on
plants or other animals. The food is used as the
material for growth and to release energy for living.
The energy in foods is released in a process called
respiration. Respiration takes place in every living
cell. Plants also use respiration to release energy
from the food they have made. Respiration is a
chemical reaction in which organisms use oxygen
and glucose to produce carbon dioxide and water.
Energy is released during the reaction. The chemical
word equation for respiration is:
oxygen + glucose
energy released
meat or vegetables?
Carnivores are animals that eat only the meat of
other animals. In a rock pool, these include the
dog whelk and the octopus. Animals that eat only
plants are called herbivores. The elephant snail and
the green turban snail are examples of herbivores.
Some animals have a more balanced diet and eat
both animals and plants. These organisms are called
omnivores. The sea star is an omnivore in the rock
pool.
hunting or hunted?
An animal that hunts another animal is called a
predator. The animal it hunts is called its prey. An
example of predator prey relationship in the picture
on these two pages is the relationship between the
seagull and the urchin. The seagull is the predator
and the urchin is the prey.
15 Ecology 399
food chains
food webs
A food chain shows how the energy

stored in one organism is passed
to another. Each organism depends
on the one before. All food chains
start with a producer, such as algae.
The producer obtains its energy
from the sun and provides the
nutrients and energy that other
animals need. Herbivores that
eat the plants, such as the green
turban snail, are called first-order
consumers. Carnivores that eat
first-order consumers, such as the
dog whelk, are known as secondorder consumers. The seagull is a
third-order consumer because it
eats the second-order consumer.
A food chain can be represented
by a simple diagram.
Many animals eat more than one type of food. This means that they are
in more than one food chain. Joining a number of food chains together
produces a food web. Note that some animals, such as the seagull, may
actually be in more than one level, depending on which chain you follow
to the top. A food web also has decomposers. Decomposers are organisms,
such as bacteria, worms and fungi, that break down dead animals and
plants. The nutrients in the dead animals and plants are recycled back
into the food web.
Octopus
Energy
Second-order
consumer:
dog whelk
Animal waste and dead organisms
Third-order
consumer:
seagull
Zebra fish
Green
turban
snail
Crab
Shrimp
Energy
Blenny
First-order
consumer:
green turban
snail
Energy
Producer:
seaweed
400
Dead and
decaying material
Seaweed
and algae
Decomposers
Seagull
activities
an energy pyramid
Producers absorb the sun s energy
during photosynthesis to make sugar.
some of the sun s energy is stored
in the sugar. When consumers eat
producers, the energy is passed
up the food chain. however, some
of this energy appears to be lost
at each link in the chain. but the
energy cannot just disappear.
instead, it is transferred to the
surrounding environment as heat,
wastes, and even sound. This means
that only a small amount of the sun s
energy makes it to the top consumer.
for energy to reach the animals at
the top of the food chain, there must
be many plants at the bottom of the
chain. This means that a food web
rarely has more than six trophic
levels. at each level there are fewer
animals of each type because there
is less energy available. This is
shown in the energy pyramid.
Dog whelk
Limpets
RemembeR
1 define the terms producer , consumer and
decomposer .
2 Recall where producers get their energy from.
3 outline how consumers release energy from the food
they eat.
4 Write an equation for respiration.
5 describe what happens to the amount of energy
available to organisms as it moves through an energy
pyramid.
Think
6 compare the types of information that can be
represented in a food chain and a food web.
7 Give examples, from the rock pool on pages 398 9,
of herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, predators and
prey.
8 Predict what would happen to the animals in a rock
pool if the seaweed and algae died.
9 explain the advantage of animals having more than
one food source.
Energy
Energy
1 octopus
Energy
2 larger fish
6 small fish
500 plants
This food chain has four trophic levels.
10 Julie and James were studying animals in their local

park. They made the following observations:
Grasshoppers eat grass.
Mice eat grass seeds and grasshoppers.
Small birds eat grasshoppers.
Snakes eat mice and small birds.
Kookaburras eat snakes.
(a) construct a food web using this information. The
producers should be at the bottom.
(b) identify which organisms:
(i) are producers
(ii) are first-order consumers
(iii) are second-order consumers only
(iv) are second- and third-order consumers
(v) are herbivores
(vi) are omnivores
(vii) compete for food
(viii) have more than one food source.
(c) Predict what would happen if the snakes died
out.
work
sheet
15.5 Food chains and food webs
15 Ecology 401
15.5
natural recyclers
Tyrannosaurus rex stalked the Earth over 65 million years ago. We have found the bones,
but what happened to the atoms that made up its flesh? Saint Joan of Arc, a great
military leader and religious visionary, was burned at the stake in 1431. What became
of the atoms in her body? What will happen to the atoms in your body when you die?
The answer to each of these questions is the same
they are recycled.
flies and maggots

Flies lay their eggs on dead and decaying animals. The
eggs hatch into larvae that are called maggots. The
maggots can quickly eat away large parts of a dead
animal. The maggots grow
up to become flies, which
lay eggs somewhere else,
or become food for other
animals. This recycles the
nutrients from the dead
animal back into the
ecosystem.
Worms
Worms are very effective recyclers. Worms eat just about
anything and can do so quickly. They are especially
good at recycling our
food waste. Worms are
found underneath dead
organisms in the soil. They
feed on animal and plant
remains, recycling them
into nutrients for plants.
bacteria
Bacteria can grow on anything
dead or alive. They
grow and reproduce very quickly. Bacteria reproduce by
simply dividing in half.
Bacteria feed on decaying
material to help break it
down and recycle nutrients
for other animals. This
photograph of bacteria
was taken using an elecron
microscope.
402
fungi
Mushrooms and toadstools are fungi that feed on
dead material. Another variety of fungi is called
mould and looks fuzzy. Fungi grow microscopic
threads into the food they are feeding on. These
threads help to break down the dead organism.
Fungi may become food for other animals, or they
may decay. This allows the nutrients to be recycled
back into the ecosystem.
call in the decomposers cycles in nature

After organisms die, the
decomposers are responsible for
breaking down their bodies and
recycling the atoms that make
them up. Decomposers include
worms, some insects, bacteria and
fungi. They feed on the chemicals
that make up the dead organism
and convert them into other
chemicals. By doing this, they
return the nutrients that make up
the dead organisms to the soil and
the atmosphere, where they can be
taken up by plants and other living
things.
Decomposers can also break
down some of the rubbish humans
produce. Things that can be
broken down by decomposers,
such as paper and food scraps,
are said to be biodegradable,
whereas substances like plastic
or foam that cannot be broken
down by microbes are said to be
nonbiodegradable.
The amazing worm farm

about 60 per cent of our household
rubbish can be used as worm food.
Worms eat just about anything that
was once living, including kitchen
scraps, garden waste and manure.
They love pizza and will even eat the
box it comes in! Worms can eat about
half their body weight in food each
day. We can use a worm farm to feed
our once-living rubbish to worms. This
is how a worm farm works.
The lid has ventilation holes to
let air in. The holes are small
so that flies and
insects cannot get in.
A bedding of shredded
paper, manure, leaf compost,
or a mixture of these, is
added first. The bedding
must always be kept damp.
Worms are placed in the bedding.
Decomposers play an important

role in cycling nutrients. They
are involved in the carbon cycle
(see page 406) as well as in the
nitrogen cycle.
In chapter 13, you learned that
plants need nitrogen to build
proteins, and that, even though
the atmosphere contains over
80 per cent nitrogen, plants cannot
absorb the nitrogen they need
directly from the air. They can
absorb it only in the form of nitrate
compounds through their roots.
Certain bacteria, called nitrogenfixing bacteria, are the only
organisms on Earth that can absorb
nitrogen and turn it into nitrate
compounds. Plants use the nitrate
compounds they absorb from the
soil to build proteins. When an
animal consumes a plant, it uses
the plant proteins to make new
animal proteins. Other bacteria,
called nitrifying bacteria, are also
involved in the nitrogen cycle.
When an organism dies, its proteins
break down and the nitrogencontaining molecule ammonia
(NH3) is formed. This also
happens when an animal s wastes
decompose. Nitrifying bacteria turn
the ammonia firstly into nitrite
compounds and then into nitrate
compounds. A third group of
bacteria, the denitrifying bacteria,
Food scraps are added on top of the
bedding for the worms to eat. A sheet of
newspaper or hessian is put over the top of
the food to keep it dark.
an entomologist is a scientist
who studies insects. sometimes
entomologists are asked to provide
information to help solve crimes. after
a person or animal dies, insects are
attracted to the corpse and feed on
it. They lay their eggs in the corpse,
and larvae eventually emerge from the
eggs and develop into adult insects.
over time, different types of insects
colonise the body. by looking at the
types of insects and what stage of
their life cycle they are at, it is often
possible to work out the time of death.
it is sometimes also possible to find
out other information about the crime
from the types of insects that have
colonised the body. if a body spent
some time in a dry cool area before
being buried in dry sandy soil, the
insects living on it would be different
from those if it had been buried in dry
sandy soil straight after death.
Professor Jerry Butler is a real-life

entomologist. He is shown here
examining hairy maggot blowfly
larvae retrieved from a murder victim.
The top level is still empty. There are

holes between levels to allow the worms
to move up when the level below is full.
The worms turn the
bedding and food
scraps into compost.
This is the nutrientrich worm poo .
Liquid runs into the

tray on the bottom
and is known as
worm wee . It makes
an excellent liquid
fertiliser for plants.
15 Ecology 403
can turn nitrates back into nitrites and ammonia, and even into nitrogen
gas. This is not good for plant growth as it is the nitrates that a plant needs
to make protein, not the nitrites. Nitrites are poisonous to plant growth.
Nitrates can also be formed by lightning during storms, causing nitrogen
and oxygen to react together.
Nitrogen in
the air
Lightning
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
Plant
proteins
engine such as Picsearch or

AltaVista Image Search.
In the search box, type
science cartoons or science

environment cartoons
or science sustainability
cartoons or recycle cartoons .
Choose a cartoon that you
think makes an important point.

Eaten by
Nitrites in
the soil
The nitrogen cycle
Write a paragraph explaining
Animal proteins
Decomposition
Ammonia
in the soil
activities
RemembeR
1 define the term biodegradable .
2 identify two types of biodegradable
waste.
3 identify two types of nonbiodegradable waste.
4 Recall the main groups of
decomposers.
5 Propose why decomposers are also
called natural recyclers.
6 explain why worms are such good
recyclers.
8 outline why animals and plants

need nitrogen.
9 Both bacteria and maggots are
decomposers that feed on dead
material. But they are also different
types of organisms. compare the
size and reproduction of bacteria
and maggots.
10 explain why a worm farm is a
useful way of disposing of some
household rubbish.
11 outline why paper bags are better
for the environment than plastic
bags.
nitrogen-fixing bacteria, denitrifying
bacteria and nitrifying bacteria.
Think
7 identify the organisms that are
responsible for absorbing nitrogen
from the air.
what message the selected

cartoon gets across and why it
is funny.
Dead animals
and plants
Nitrifying
bacteria
404
One of the simplest and best

definitions of sustainability is to
meet our needs in the present
without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet
their needs .
Absorbed by plants
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrifying
bacteria
sustainable cyberhunt
Choose an image search
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrates in
the soil
InvEstIgatIon 15.4
invesTigaTe
13 Do some research to find out more
about worms. This could include
information about their body

structure, how they reproduce,
what they do or do not like to eat,
and their behaviour.
14 Some types of worm are good
recyclers and others are not.
Design an experiment to test
how good different worms are at
recycling food scraps.
You could compare garden worms
with some worms bought at a
garden centre.
design and cReaTe

15 construct a worm farm for your
class. This could be used to recycle
your class s lunch waste. Using
an appropriate search engine, you
should be able to find a simple
design on the internet.
work
sheet
15.6 Cycles in nature
15.6
It s getting hot in here

How many days did the
temperature rise above 40 C
last summer? Unfortunately, very
hot days are something we may
need to get used to. Australia and
the rest of the world are getting
warmer, and climate patterns are
changing. Some parts of Australia
are set to become even drier than
they are now. Scientists believe
that the cause of climate change
is human activity upsetting the
composition of our atmosphere.
The greenhouse effect

The Earth is surrounded by a
layer of gases. This natural layer
of gases (which includes carbon
dioxide and water vapour) traps
the sun s warmth and keeps the
Earth at the correct temperature
for maintaining life. This
greenhouse effect has kept the

Earth s temperature fairly constant
for a very long time.
The enhanced
greenhouse effect
Human activity has increased the
amount of gases that trap heat
in the atmosphere. These gases
are called greenhouse gases. They
include carbon dioxide, methane,
water vapour, nitrous oxide and
ozone. With more greenhouse
gases in the air that trap heat, the
Earth s temperature is rising. This
is called the enhanced greenhouse
effect. The rising temperature of
the Earth (which the enhanced
greenhouse effect contributes
to) is commonly called global
warming.
The Earth is covered by a blanket

of gases that trap enough heat to keep
the temperature stable.
Most heat escapes back into space.
eBook plus
eLesson
Global warming in Australia

Learn why many scientists believe the
Earth is getting hotter and how Australia
is addressing this global problem.
eles-0057
What causes the

increase in greenhouse
gases?
carbon dioxide
To understand why carbon

dioxide levels are rising, we need
to understand the carbon cycle.
Many processes release carbon
dioxide into the air. When living
things respire, and when dead
organisms decompose, carbon
dioxide is released. Burning fossil
fuels such as coal,
petrol and gas also
More carbon dioxide and other
releases carbon
greenhouse gases in the air trap more
dioxide. On the
heat from the sun. The Earth s
other hand, plants
temperature will rise.
absorb carbon
dioxide when they
photosynthesise.
Humans are burning
large amounts of
fossil fuels to make
electricity and run
cars. We have also
cut down many
trees and replaced
them with buildings
or crops that do not
take up as much
carbon dioxide as
growing trees. This
has caused carbon
dioxide levels to
rise.
15 Ecology 405
Recycling carbon
Carbon atoms are found in the air, soil, rocks, in oil and gas below the Earth s surface, and in all living
things. The number of carbon atoms on Earth always remains the same. When living things use carbon
atoms, the atoms don t just disappear. They are recycled. The diagram below shows the recycling of carbon.
It also shows how humans have added to the amount of carbon dioxide in the air. We must take care not to
interfere with the natural recycling process.
Humans burn fossil fuels to make
energy. Burning fossil fuels releases
carbon back into the air as
Deforestation leads to an
carbon dioxide gas.
increase in the amount of
carbon dioxide in the air.
Dead trees can t absorb
carbon dioxide from the
air. The organisms that
decompose trees also
release carbon dioxide.
Dead material can form

oil and gas within the
Earth s crust. Oil and gas are
known as fossil fuels.
other greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide is not the only gas that is causing the
Earth to get hotter. Methane and nitrous oxide are
also increasing as a result of human activity. Methane
is produced by grazing animals such as sheep and
cattle. Some other important sources of methane are
landfills (where garbage is dumped after it is collected
from your house) and agriculture. Bacteria that live
in the soil where crops grow produce methane.
Rice paddies, in particular, are a significant source
of methane. The main source of nitrous oxide is
farming; it is produced when bacteria break down
urine produced by livestock and fertilisers added to
the soil.
Carbon is found
in the air as the
gas carbon dioxide.
Plants take carbon dioxide from
the air. They use it to make food
in the form of sugars.
Living things release

carbon dioxide back
into the air through
respiration.
Animals get carbon atoms by

eating plants or other animals
that eat plants.
Dead matter and

waste contain carbon.
Decomposers release
carbon dioxide back into
the air through respiration.
Scientists have used ice cores to track the amount of

carbon dioxide in the air and the Earth s temperature.
The graphs on the next page show how these have
changed over the past 420 000 years.
Where s the evidence?

For thousands of years, snow has fallen in Antarctica.
The snow turns to ice, which builds up over time.
Dust, gases and other substances from the air become
trapped in the ice. The trapped substances provide
information about what was in the air at the time the
snow fell.
406
This ice core was drilled from more than 3.7 km down. Parts of it
are more than 150 000 years old.
Temperature difference over 420 000 years
350
300
Temperature difference
CO2 (ppm)
CO2 in the air over 420 000 years
250
200
150
0
2
4
100
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
Number of years ago
The line on the graph for carbon dioxide resembles the

temperature line. When the temperature was higher, there
was more carbon dioxide in the air. When the temperature
dropped, so did the amount of carbon dioxide. (The
abbreviation ppm means parts per million.)
400 000
300 000
200 000
100 000
Number of years ago
Zero on the temperature scale represents the Earth s

average temperature now. Greater than zero is warmer than
now, and below zero is cooler. On the temperature line, the
peaks represent warmer periods of time. In between the
peaks, the average air temperature was up to 6 C lower
than now. These colder times are called the ice ages.
how much hotter?
is there a solution?
No-one really knows how much hotter the Earth s

temperature may get. It is thought that it may increase
between 1.4 C and 5.8 C over the next century. This
does not sound like much, but it could cause many
changes in the climate. The changes could include:
more heatwaves, droughts and bushfires
more wild storms, such as tropical cyclones
less rain and less snow in the mountains
rising sea levels as the polar icecaps melt. This
could cause some islands and coastal cities to flood.
The changes in climate may have a follow-on effect
on plants and animals. These may include:
plants growing faster in some areas because of
higher temperatures and more carbon dioxide
becoming available for photosynthesis
plants growing slower, or dying in other areas, due
to the lack of rainfall
plants or animals becoming extinct as their habitat
changes. For example, animals in the high country
that are adapted to cold weather may find it
becomes too warm.
bacteria and fungi growing faster in the warmer
climate. This would increase the risk of disease.
humans suffering from heat stress and increased
pollution in cities.
Many scientists and most world leaders are becoming

increasingly aware of the need to address global
warming. In 1997, at a meeting in Kyoto, most world
leaders signed a document (the Kyoto Protocol),
agreeing to reduce the amount of greenhouse
gases they produce. Australia did not sign the
Kyoto Protocol until 2007. At the Climate Change
conference in Bali in December 2007, nations
agreed to work on a new document to replace the
Kyoto Protocol and sign it at a UN climate change
conference in Copenhagen in 2009.
Reducing greenhouse emissions will not be easy.
It is likely to involve cutting down on our use of
fossil fuels. That might mean cutting down on our
use of cars or finding a different source of energy
for cars. We will need to reduce our use of electricity
or generate our electricity without burning fossil
fuels. Our farming methods may also need to be
modified, and we may need to change our diet so
that we eat less meat and favour locally grown fruit
and vegetables. Making all devices as efficient as
possible, so that less energy is wasted, and recycling
or re-using as many products as possible will also
help us reduce greenhouse emissions and help keep
the planet cool.
15 Ecology 407
activities
RemembeR
1 describe the greenhouse effect.
Argument
2 Does the greenhouse effect occur naturally? explain your

answer.
If all countries agree to

Against
drastic cuts, no-one will
buy Australia s coal, and
jobs will be lost in the coalmining industry.
3 describe the enhanced greenhouse effect.

4 identify human activities that add more greenhouse
gases to the air.
5 describe two possible effects of global warming on
animals.
6 Predict the effect of global warming on bacteria and
fungi.
7 What is the Kyoto Protocol?
8 What is the purpose of the UN climate change
conference that will be held in Copenhagen in 2009?
Think
9 explain how cutting down trees increases the amount of
carbon dioxide in the air.
10 If more carbon dioxide is added to the air, predict what
will happen to the temperature of the Earth.
11 outline some ways that humans could reduce the amount
of carbon dioxide added to the air.
12 If the sea levels rise when the Earth s temperature
increases, predict what would happen to the sea levels if
it got colder. Why?
13 explain how each of the following actions could reduce
greenhouse emissions.
(a) Walk or use public transport rather than getting a
lift in the car to school each day
(b) Have shorter showers
(c) Eat less meat and rice and more vegetables
(d) Buy fruit that is in season and grown locally
rather than imported fruit
(e) Avoid wasting things like paper and recycle as
much as possible
(f) Avoid using heaters, airconditioners, clothes
dryers and other electrical appliances
14 At the UN climate change conference in Copenhagen in
2009, world leaders will probably have to agree on the
amount by which their countries will cut greenhouse
emissions. For example, they might agree that by 2020
they will release 20 per cent less carbon dioxide than
in 2007. The table on the right lists reasons for and
against making drastic cuts in greenhouse emissions.
classify each argument as either in favour of or against
making large cuts, and then classify each argument
as scientific, economic or legal. The first example has
been done for you.
408
In favour of
or against
emission
cuts
Type of
argument
(scientific,
economic or
legal)
Economic
Global warming has already

begun. If we do not cut our
greenhouse gas emissions
now, it may be too late to
reverse the damage.
If really tough targets are
set, it will be difficult for
many nations to reach the
targets. It will be necessary
to decide how to penalise
these nations.
If global warming
continues, scientists
predict that some areas of
Australia may experience
permanent drought
conditions.
Climate change will affect
farming and could cause
some farmers to become
bankrupt.
The changes to business
practices needed to reduce
greenhouse emissions will
cost businesses lots of
money and may lead to job
losses.
imagine
15 You are a newspaper reporter. Write a story to explain
the enhanced greenhouse effect to people. Include a
description of the causes of global warming and some of
the effects it may have.
eBook plus
16 Use the Global warming weblink in your eBookPLUS to

find out more about what you can do in your home to
reduce the amount of carbon dioxide released. Produce
a brochure to teach people how they can help slow
global warming.
work
sheet
15.7 Global warming
15.7
Fired up for change

Aboriginals have traditionally used
fire to hunt animals and clear
undergrowth. This caused grasses
to grow. The extra growth attracted
new animals. Fire has always
been present in Australia and is
a major cause of change in the
environment.
When fire has not occurred for a
period of time, undergrowth builds
up, and more sticks and leaves fall
to the ground. The longer the time
between fires, the more plants and
leaf litter there is. This means more
fuel for a fire. People, camp fires,
barbecues, cigarette butts, power
lines, burning off and lightning can
all start fires.
fire! fire!
Some fires are lit on purpose, like
those used by Aboriginals and park
rangers to regenerate the land.
These small controlled fires also
help to reduce the risk of a big
fire because they use up some of
the fuel. Large out-of-control fires
in bushland are called bushfires.
Bushfires do more damage to
animals and plants because
they are hotter and burn nearly
everything. They often destroy
homes and property.
It is believed that the regular
controlled fires that were lit by
Aborigines as part of their hunting
practices have contributed to the
type of vegetation now growing in
Australia. The regular fires probably
changed rainforest areas into the
open eucalypt forests that cover
much of Australia today.
Australian native grasses get their
tops burned off every few years.
But they still manage to survive.
Within days you can see new

sprouts growing out of the burnt
grass. Australian plants have had
to get used to fire. They must live
with it, or not live at all.
Animals manage to survive a fire
in many ways:
Insects hide under the bark of
trees or in the soil.
Flying insects flee and return
after the fire.
Small controlled fire
Some leaf litter destroyed; many insects
and decomposers survive on the ground.
Birds and bats fly away.

Large animals, such as kangaroos
and wallabies, run away.
Wombats and snakes hide in
their underground burrows.
Koalas run away or stay in the
tops of trees where the fire is not
too hot.
Animals find shelter in the parts
of the ecosystem that have not
been burned.
Large bushfire
All leaf litter destroyed; no insects and
decomposers survive on the ground.
Soil releases stored nutrients. Ash provides many minerals and fine texture.
This helps seeds to germinate and new plants to grow.
Heat and smoke cause some plants to
release seed and some seeds to germinate.
Heat and smoke cause most plants to

release seed and many seeds to germinate.
Many unburnt patches where grasses and

shrubs survive; animals can find food and
shelter here.
Few unburnt patches; no food or shelter is

left for animals.
Many animals survive and can stay in the

area. Food is still available.
Many animals are killed, or must move to

another habitat. No food is available.
Fallen branches and logs survive to provide

shelter for animals.
No fallen branches or logs survive so there

is less shelter.
15 Ecology 409
Why the australian bush needs fire
after a fire is very rich in nutrients and fertilises the

soil. After a fire, plants rapidly grow new shoots and
leaves. Both plants and animals recover very quickly
from a fire. A fire can have both good and bad effects
on an ecosystem. The effect of a fire depends on the
fire intensity
that is, how hot it is.
In the Australian bush, fire is a natural part of the

life cycle of many plants. Many Australian plants
cannot germinate without fire. Their seeds are encased
in hard husks that can be opened only by the high
temperatures produced in fires. The ash left behind
Eucalypts have buds
underneath the bark. After a fire
these epicormic buds sprout
new green shoots.
Eucalypts store some seeds on the plant.

Eucalypts have woody gumnuts that protect
the seed from the heat. After a fire, the seed
pods dry out and open. The seeds fall into the
ash and germinate.
The bark of trees
helps to protect
the trunk and buds
underneath from
damage in a fire.
Fire causes many grasses to flower. This

grasstree will produce a flower spike
7 10 months after a fire. Insects pollinate
the flowers, the seed is released, and
new plants grow.
The trunk of the grasstree is
protected by a thick layer of old leaf
bases. The leaves on the top may be
burned; but the plant is not killed.
Banksias live for only 8 15 years.
They store their seed on the plant.
A fire causes the seed pods to open,
releasing the seed.
Many plants
flower as a
result of fire.
The redbeak orchid
flowers only
in the first
season after
a fire.
410
Grasses have their

growth tissue at the
base of the plant. When
the top burns off, the
heat rises and the
growth area is protected
from damage. Grasses
can then regrow quickly
after a fire.
Some plants, such

as lilies, have
tubers under the
ground. If the top is
burned off, they use
the energy stored in
the tubers to start
growing again.
Many plants drop seed that is stored

in the soil. The heat of a fire may
crack the hard coating of wattle
(acacia) seeds and allow them to
germinate. The chemicals in the
ash or the smoke may also cause
germination. In Tasmania, wattle seeds
that are 300 400 years old have been
found in soil, just waiting for a fire.
Many plants, such as

eucalypts and banksias,
have swollen parts on their
roots called lignotubers.
These are protected
from the fire by the soil.
Lignotubers contain many
buds. After a fire they send
up new shoots.
InvEstIgatIon 15.5
Collect the seeds and plant them
in the seedling trays. Care for them

until they are large enough to plant
in the garden.
germinating seeds with fire

Many seeds need fire to germinate.
It could be the smoke, heat or the
chemicals in ash that cause the seeds
to germinate.
You will need:
hakea or banksia seed pods
unopened
newspaper
matches
bucket of water
seedling trays
seedling mix
acacia seeds (silver or black wattle
work well)
oven
Part A
Collect unopened banksia or hakea
seed pods from trees in your local

area.
Wrap the seed pods in newspaper
and burn them in a safe area.

(Alternatively, heat the pods in an
oven.)
Observe the seed pods after burning.
activities
RemembeR
1 outline why Aboriginals traditionally
used fire.
2 describe what happens in the bush
in the periods between fires.
CAUTION
Make sure you are supervised by an
adult.
Burn seed pods only in a safe area.
Do not do this activity on a hot windy
day or a day of total re ban.
Have a bucket of water or a re
extinguisher ready.
Pods stay hot for some time after
burning. Give them time to cool before
touching them.
What effect did heat or fire have

on the pods?
How does the opening of seed

pods in response to heat help
plants to grow at the right time?
Part B
equal piles. Record the number of
seeds in each pile.
Plant these seeds in a separate
seedling tray. Sprinkle some ash

over the seedling tray.
Keep the trays moist. Wait for the
seeds to germinate. This could take

many days.
Count the number of seedlings
that have germinated in each tray.

Compare class results.
Look after your seedlings and,
when large enough, plant them in a

garden.
discUssion
3
How did heat change the look of

the seeds?
Which group of seeds

germinated better?
What caused one group to

germinate more?
How is this similar to what a fire

would do?
8 explain whether a controlled fire or

a bushfire is more damaging to the
environment.
9 If a fire occurred in the same
place two or three years in a row,
describe what may happen to some
of the animals and plants in the
area.
4 define the terms lignotuber and

epicormic bud .
11 explain why park rangers burn

areas of the bush today.
5 describe how a grasstree responds

to and survives fire.
12 describe what would happen to the

red-beak orchid if there were no
fires for 50 years.
7 explain the difference between a

controlled fire and a bushfire.
Heat the second pile in the oven.
Divide the acacia seeds into two
10 explain how bushfires can start:

(a) without any human activity
(b) as a result of human activity.
Think
tray.
discUssion
3 Recall three positive effects of a fire

on the environment.
6 explain how eucalypt seeds are

protected from fire.
Plant one pile of seeds in a seedling
13 compare a eucalypt and a banksia

in the way they cope with fire.
14 Look at the photograph above and
describe what has happened and
what the area may look like in the
near future.
eBook plus
15 Use the Bushfire weblink in your

eBookPLUS to find out what to do if
you are caught in a bushfire. Write
an emergency survival information
card that people could use if they
were caught in a bushfire.
15 Ecology 411
15.8
Floods and droughts

The Australian continent is a land of extremes; years
of drought can be broken by torrential rain that
results in flooding. Both drought and flooding can
affect the environment. But a question on the minds
of many scientists is whether global warming will
make the Australian climate even more extreme.
drought
Australia is the driest continent on Earth. Even in
periods without drought, areas away from the coast
of Australia generally receive very little rainfall, and
much of central Australia is so dry that the land is not
suitable for farming. Even near the coast it is often
necessary to irrigate (water) crops.
Droughts also affect the environment. During

periods of drought there is more soil erosion and
bushfires are more frequent. Species of plants that
are not drought tolerant may be replaced by more
drought-tolerant species. This, in turn, affects the
types of animals that live in a particular area. Until
about 50 000 years ago, much of Australia was
covered with lush rainforests full of plants with
large soft leaves. The Australian climate became
drier over time. The rainforest plants were not suited
to the dry conditions and were replaced by plants
with smaller, harder leaves that are better suited to
the dry conditions. The plants covering much of
Australia today are ideally suited to dry conditions.
adaptations for dry conditions

Adaptations are features that help an organism
survive in its environment. The pictures below and on
the next page show some adaptations of the eucalyptus
tree and the eastern grey kangaroo that enable them to
survive in the dry Australian environment.
Light-coloured fur reflects heat
and allows the kangaroo to blend
in with its surroundings.
Large ears
dissipate heat.
The kangaroo produces

concentrated urine to
conserve water.
Little grass grows in times of drought, and grazing

animals run out of food.
Australia regularly experiences periods of drought.

The drought in the early part of the twenty-first
century was the worst on record. Many farmers were
forced to sell their farms as their crops failed and their
livestock starved. In towns and cities, dams dried up
and measures were taken to conserve the water that
was left.
412
Bouncing allows
kangaroos to travel quite
fast without using much
energy, so they need less
food. This helps them
survive in times of
drought.
The forelimbs have

many blood vessels
close to the skin. The
kangaroo licks its
forelimbs; as the saliva
evaporates, it draws
heat away.
Adaptations that help a kangaroo survive in a dry environment
Woody fruits (gumnuts) protect

seeds from drying out.
Leaves have a thick waxy

cuticle to reduce water loss.
Blue-grey leaves
reflect heat.
global warming, while others argue that Australia s

climate has cycled through periods of drought and
flood for many years before the world started to
warm up. Most agree, though, that further global
warming is likely to permanently change rainfall
patterns. Southern Australia, where most of the
population lives, is set to become drier. Creative
solutions to the water supply crisis are urgently
needed.
activities
RemembeR
1 describe the effect of drought on people and the
environment in Australia.
2 define the term adaptation .
3 describe three adaptations of the eucalyptus tree and
the grey kangaroo for dry conditions.
Leaves hang vertically

so that a smaller area
of the leaf is exposed
to the sun in the middle
of the day.
4 describe the effect of flooding on people and the

environment.
Think
5 Make a list of ways you can conserve water at home.
Bark has a light colour

to reflect heat.
6 outline the likely effect of global warming on rainfall

patterns in Australia.
invesTigaTe
7 Find out what a water desalination plant is and discuss
whether it was a good idea to build one in Sydney.
Adaptations that help eucalypt trees survive in a dry environment
floods
When rain does fall in Australia, it often results in
flooding. Floods affect agriculture; livestock may
drown and crops can be destroyed. When a town or
city is flooded, the damage to property can be very
costly to repair. In some cases, lives may be lost and
diseases may spread as sewerage systems overflow
and mix with the floodwaters. Floods also affect the
natural environment. Vegetation may die if it remains
under water for a long time, and topsoil is washed
from one area to another by the floodwater.
The effect of global warming on

rainfall patterns
The recent drought was the worst in Australia s
recorded history. Some climate experts are blaming
8 Use a research database such as EBSCO and search

for an article about a flood that occurred in Australia
recently. For this flood, find out:
(a) where it occurred
(b) the impact it had on people and property.
eBook plus
9 Use the Sydney Catchment Authority weblink in your

eBookPLUS to find out how full the dams supplying
Sydney s water are.
10 Use the Water investigator game weblink in your
eBookPLUS weblink to build your own virtual home
and calculate your family s water usage.
11 Use the New Inventors weblink in your eBookPLUS,
browse the inventions by category and select the
category environment . List at least five Australian
inventions that are aimed at conserving water,
recycling water or obtaining fresh water from sea
water.
15 Ecology 413
15.9
PRescRibed focUs aRea

Being part of the solution

The Australian environment is under threat from
human activity. However, the situation is not
hopeless; if we all do our bit to look after our
environment, we can continue to enjoy this great land
of ours, now and in the future.
Renewable or not?
Resources are things we use to make things, as a food
source or to generate energy. Some resources are
renewable. That means that they can be regenerated
over time. Wood, leather, meat, wheat, fish, cotton
and wool are all renewable resources. Non-renewable
resources cannot be regenerated; once they are used
up they cannot grow back or re-form. Gemstones
such as diamond and rubies are non-renewable.
Marble and granite are also non-renewable. Metals are
extracted from non-renewable metal ores, and most
plastics are made from non-renewable petroleum.
Choosing to use resources that are renewable is one
way that you do your part to look after the planet
and ensure that Earth s resources are not depleted for
future generations .
that, unlike fossil fuels, they will not run out. It must
be remembered that even renewable energy sources
can harm the environment though. Wood, vegetable
oil and ethanol all produce carbon dioxide when
burned to release energy, thus contributing to global
warming, and building dams to harness energy from
water can destroy ecosystems.
Reduce, re-use and recycle

Growing crops, processing the crops to make food,
making goods such as clothes, electronic goods and
books, as well as transporting goods and food around
the country all produce pollution and greenhouse
gases. When you throw out these goods and they are
left to decay in landfill, more pollution results. In
most cases, making electricity also causes pollution
and releases greenhouse gases. The best thing you
can do to look after the environment is to buy fewer
things and continue to use the things you already
have. You can also avoid wasting electricity and food,
choose goods with little packaging that are made
locally, and re-use, compost or recycle as much of
your rubbish as possible.
choosing your energy source

Toasting bread, boiling water for tea and
lighting a dark room all require energy.
The impact of generating this energy
on the environment can vary greatly
according to the source of energy used.
Electricity can be produced in many ways.
Currently most of the electricity used
throughout the world is produced by
burning fossil fuels such as coal or gas.
Fossil fuels are not renewable. Nuclear
power plants use uranium, another nonrenewable resource. It is also possible to
produce electricity by burning wood or
using energy from tides, the wind, water
flowing downhill and the sun. These
sources of energy are renewable. Similarly,
cars can run on non-renewable petroleum,
or with modifications to the engine they
can run on renewable vegetable oil or
ethanol made from plants. The advantage
of using renewable sources of energy is
414
Australia s landfills are costing $740 million each year in environmental damage.
This could be reduced by re-using, recycling, composting and buying goods with
less packaging.
Use bathroom scales or an
InvEstIgatIon 15.6
electronic balance to estimate

the mass, in kilograms, of the
contents of each garbage bag.
Think carefully about the best way
to do this for each bag. Don t forget
to divide by 1000 to convert to
kilograms, if you measure the mass
in grams.
investigating rubbish
You will need:
rubber gloves
several garbage bags
marking pen
bathroom scales
electronic balance
calculator
Which type of rubbish is the

most common (by mass)?
Why is the total mass per year

only an estimate?
Which types of rubbish collected

could be recycled?
Discuss this question with the

rest of your group: How could
the amount of wasted recyclable
rubbish be reduced? Following
the discussion, write down your
own answers to the question.
below to record your results in. The

example shown in the table records
part of the rubbish taken on a
single day from a single bin outside
a school canteen. The total mass
collected from the bin that day was
8 kilograms.
around the school by collecting

litter left on the ground over a
period of several days or by sorting
out the rubbish left in a bin near the
school canteen.
CAUTION Do not handle any sharp
objects or put them in garbage bags.
Inform your teacher if sharp objects are
found. Do not empty a bin while bees or
wasps are nearby.
Collect litter in a large garbage bag
Per cent
(by mass)
Calculate the percentage of the
total mass for each type of rubbish,

using the following formula. (See
the example in the table.)
Food 36%
For each type of rubbish, estimate
the mass that would be disposed

of over a period of a year. Think
carefully about how this should be
done. The food scraps referred to
in the table were found in a rubbish
bin outside a school canteen. They
represented one full day s rubbish
in that bin. The mass was multiplied
by 200 because there are about
200 days in a school year.
or spread the contents of a rubbish

bin over the ground.
Wearing rubber gloves, sort the
rubbish into seven different rubbish

bags:
food scraps
paper and cardboard
plastic
glass
aluminium cans
other metal
other rubbish.
Food scraps
This experiment can be done
Type of rubbish
discUssion
percentage
mass of type
of total =
100%
total mass
mass
Mass collected
(kilograms)
2.5
Paper 21%
Glass 16%
Plastic 10%
Garden 7%
Steel 5%
Aluminium 1%
Other 4%
A survey of household rubbish
shows that a lot of materials that
could be recycled are being wasted
and unnecessarily damaging the
environment.
Percentage of total mass
Estimated mass per year (kg)
2.5
100% = 31%
8
2.5 200 = 500
15 Ecology 415
scientists making a
difference
If you have an interest in ecology,
you may want to make a career out
of conserving the environment.
The scientists described on this
page are all contributing to finding
solutions to environmental
problems.
helene marsh
Professor Helene Marsh studies
dugongs. A dugong is a type of
mammal that lives in the ocean
and feeds on seagrass. Her research
initially involved studying the
carcasses of dugongs that had
died in shark nets. She worked
out a way of estimating the age
of dugongs by studying their
tusks. Later, she focused on the
reproductive cycle of dugongs.
Helene has also been involved
with estimating the abundance
of dugongs in various areas using
aerial photographs. By measuring
the abundance of dugongs
regularly, it has been possible
to identify areas where dugong
numbers are falling and suggest
strategies to maintain dugong
numbers.
of sea birds that die as a result

of long-line fishing. Long-line
fishing uses a very long line with
many baited hooks sunk into the
ocean. Graham has found that, if
the line sinks too slowly, sea birds
including albatrosses, petrels and
shearwaters are lured by the line,
get caught on the hooks and die
as the line sinks further into the
ocean. By weighing down the lines
so that they sink faster, a lot fewer
birds are lost. He has worked with
long-line manufacturers to design
lines that have weight built into
the fabric of the line. Graham has
also been involved with important
research on the ecology of the
emperor penguin.
Graham Robertson
One of the steps involved in

photosynthesis actually converts
light into electricity. Plants can
do this step with 30 40 per cent
efficiency. Deanna has been
able to make molecules called
porphyrin dendrimers, which, like
chlorophyll, can convert light into
electrical energy. These molecules
can be used to make solar panels.
It is hoped that this will lead to the
production of solar panels that can
produce more electricity per square
metre.
Tim flannery
Professor Tim Flannery was
named Australian of the Year
in 2007, largely for helping
make Australians more aware of
environmental issues. He started
his scientific career studying
the evolution of Australasian
mammals. This involved looking
at living examples of mammals
as well as fossils. In 1994, Tim
Flannery published a book called
The Future Eaters that described
the damage humans have caused
to the Australian environment.
He has argued that the Australian
environment can cope with only
about 6 million people and that
we should be trying to cut down
rather than increase Australia s
population. In his book The
Weather Makers, he focused on
global warming and suggested
controversial ways of addressing
this issue.
Long-line fishing can kill sea birds.
deanna d alessandro
Helene Marsh bottle feeding a dugong
graham Robertson
Dr Graham Robertson is trying to
find ways to reduce the number
416
One way to make electricity

without burning fossil fuels is by
using solar cells. Solar cells convert
the sun s light into electricity.
Traditional solar cells are only
about 12 per cent efficient, so very
large panels are needed to produce
small amounts of electricity.
Tim Flannery
RemembeR
1 define the terms renewable and
non-renewable.
2 Recall four examples of renewable
resources.
3 contrast renewable and nonrenewable energy sources and
provide two examples of each.
Think
4 The words listed below are used on
pages 415 417. Match each word
with its meaning.
Words
Landfill
Meaning
Process waste in such a
way that a new product
can be made from it
Compost
Teeth that stick out of the

mouths of elephants and
dugongs
Recycle
Dead body
Dugong
A method of waste
disposal where rubbish is
dumped into holes in the
ground and covered with
dirt
Tusks
Something used to attract

an animal
Carcass
The number of organisms

living in a country or area
Abundance A way of disposing of plant

matter, paper and food
scraps where bacteria and
worms break it down until
it can be spread over the
garden
Bait
How many organisms live

in a particular area
Population
A marine mammal
Year
Blue whales killed
Fin whales killed
Sei whales killed
Sperm whales killed
Totals
invesTigaTe
5 contrast re-using and recycling.
activities
1930
25 000
14 000
1000
1000
6 Soft-drink bottles are recyclable.

Toilet paper can be made from
recycled paper. explain the
difference between the terms
recyclable and recycled .
7 Most councils now issue recycling
bins. Recall some items that can go
in your recycling bin.
8 What are some advantages and
disadvantages of using solar panels
to produce electricity?
Use daTa
The data in the table below has
been adapted from PR & AH Ehrlich,
Population, Resources, Environment
(WH Freeman, San Francisco, 1972).
13 Use the library or internet to find

out more about one of Australia s
most threatened vertebrate species.
Write a short report, or design a
poster, and include the following
information:
(a) a description of the animal and
its habitat
(b) a list of the animal s
requirements (including food
and shelter)
(c) reasons why the animal is
threatened with extinction
(d) what, if anything, is being done
to save the species.
Choose your vertebrate from the
species listed below.
mountain pygmy possum,
Leadbeater s possum, spotted-tailed
quoll, dugong, southern right whale,
humpback whale, western blackstriped snake, western swamp
turtle, platypus frog, trout cod, bar
bar frog, mallee fowl, helmeted
honeyeater, golden-shouldered
parrot, yellow-bellied parrot
Calculate the total for each
column and construct a column

graph showing the data for all
four whales, and the totals, on
a graph, using the same set of
axes for all of them. Put the years
on the horizontal axis (scale of
1 cm = 5 years, starting at 1930)
and the numbers of whales killed
on the vertical axis (scale of
1 cm = 5000). Use different colours
for the different whales and the
total numbers, and include a legend
to show which colour represents
which whale.
eBook plus
14 The solar cube is another type of

solar panel that Australians are
working on. Use the Solar cube
weblink in your eBookPLUS to find
out why it is more efficient than
traditional solar panels.
9 Which whale was killed less and

less over the whole period?
15 Play the Survival game in

your eBookPLUS and test your
knowledge on how you can help to
save the environment.
int-0217
10 When was the total number of

whales killed the greatest?
11 (a) What can you say about the
rate of killing whales after
1965?
(b) Why do you think this
happened?
12 Why do you think there were fewer
whales killed in total in 1940 than in
1930?
1940
15 000
14 000
1000
5000
1950
7000
23 000
3000
12 000
16 Complete the Threats to Earth

interactivity in your eBookPLUS
and spot the differences in an
environment before and after
human contact. int-0218
1960
3000
32 000
8000
20 000
1965
2000
20 000
25 000
30 000
1970
0
5000
15 000
23 000
15 Ecology 417
LooKIng BaCK
1 Read the following statements. Decide if they are true or
false. Correct any statements that are false by rewriting
them.
(a) A habitat is the place where an organism lives.
(b) An ecosystem is the conditions within a place that
affect the animals and plants.
(c) The idea that the whole Earth functions as one
complete organism is called the theory of Gaia.
2 Identify what a habitat needs to supply for animals to
survive.
3 Identify what a habitat needs to supply for plants to survive.
4 Redraw the table below to correctly match the heads and
tails.
Heads
Tails
(a) Herbivores are . . .
A organisms that produce their own

food.
(b) Producers are . . .
B animals that eat plants.
(c) Consumers are . . .
C organisms that live in or on other

organisms and obtain their food
from them.
(d) Parasites are . . .
D organisms that break down dead

plants and animals.
7 Describe the difference between a food chain and a food

web.
8 Answer these questions about the food web shown
below.
(a) Identify the producer and describe how it gets its
food.
(b) Draw a food chain involving a producer, a first-order
consumer and a second-order consumer.
(c) Identify a third-order consumer.
(d) How do the consumers get their food?
(e) How many trophic levels are shown?
(f) A magpie dies, but does not get eaten. Explain what
would happen to its body.
(g) Identify a herbivore and carnivore in the food web.
(h) Identify an omnivore.
Kookaburra
Blue heron
(e) Decomposers are . . . E animals that eat other organisms.

5 Unjumble the words below to reveal some of the important
terms in this chapter. Write down what each term means
and give an example.
(a) lotiolpun
(b) phetypie
(c) cudperro
(d) ovinorme
(e) dofo incah
(f) asitreap
6 Copy the puzzle below into your workbook,
then use the clues to complete it.
(a) __ __ __ __ __ E __ __ __ __ __ __
(b) __ __ __ __ __ N __ __ __ __ __
(c) __ __ __ __ __ V __ __ __ __
(d) __ __ __ __ __ I __ __ __
(e) __ __ __ __ __ R __ __ __ __ __ __
(f) __ __ __ __ __ O __ __ __ __ __ __
(g) __ __ __ __ __ N __ __
(h) __ __ __ __ __ M __ __ __ __ __ __
(i) __ __ __ __ __ E __
(j) __ __ __ __ __ N __ __ __ __ __
(k) __ __ __ __ __ T __ __ __ __ __ __
418
Carpet snake
Mouse
Grasshopper
Rabbit
Grass
Clues
(a) Animals that eat the same sort of food, and live in the same area
(b) Animals that are close to extinction
(c) Meat-eating animals
(d) A place where an organism lives
(e) Plant-eating animal
(f) A stable system made up of living and non-living things
(g) Describes plants or animals that no longer exist
(h) Organisms such as bacteria and fungi that break down plant and
animal remains
(i) A diagram that shows the feeding relationships of organisms in an
ecosystem
(j) Information about the number of organisms determined by sampling
(k) The interaction between members of two species that benefits both
species
9 Explain why so many plants are required to support

just one octopus in the ecosystem represented by the
biomass pyramid shown below.
6 larger fish
3 In an ecosystem
A matter and energy are recycled.
B only matter is recycled.
C only energy is recycled.
D neither matter nor energy is recycled.
6 small fish
500 plants
(1 mark)
4 The main role of bacteria and fungi in an ecosystem is to

A recycle energy.
B carry out photosynthesis inside plant cells.
C prevent overpopulation by causing disease.
D recycle minerals in dead organisms so that they are
available to plants.
(1 mark)
10 The powerful owl is an

endangered species in
Victoria. Logging has
destroyed a lot of its
habitat. Explain what
would happen to the
food web that the
powerful owl is part
of if it became
extinct.
5 Classify the following as biotic or abiotic factors.

Water
Food
Plants
Sunlight
Soil
Climate
Gases in the air
Parasites
Predators
Shelter
(2 marks)
The powerful owl is an

endangered species.
11 Redraw the table below to match each type of relationship

with an example.
Example
(a) Competition
A Snakes hunt and eat mice.
(b) Predator prey
B Lampreys are fish that attach themselves

to sharks. They feed on scraps of the
shark s food and the shark is unaffected.
(c) Mutualism
C An aphid sucks the sap from a rose bush.
(d) Parasite host
D Male kangaroos fight each other for the

attention of females.
(e) Commensalism
1 The abundance of a species refers to the

A change in the number of individuals of that species over
time.
B area over which the species is found.
C biotic factors that affect where an organism is found.
D number of organisms in a particular area.
(1 mark)
2 Sharks and other large fish often have smaller fish called
remoras attached to their bodies. As the shark eats, small
morsels of food escape from its mouth and the remora
fish feed on these. The shark is not harmed by this. This
relationship is an example of
A parasitism.
B predation.
C competition.
D commensalism.
(1 mark)
1 octopus
Type of relationship
TesT YoURseLf
E Termites contain a fungus in their

stomach that digests the wood they eat.
The fungus cannot live anywhere else.
Without the fungus, the termites would
starve.
6 Construct a food web using the following information about

a river ecosystem:
Snails eat water weed.
Mayy larvae and tadpoles eat algae.
Water beetles eat mayy larvae.
Tortoises eat tadpoles and snails.
Small sh eat tadpoles and snails.
Large sh eat water beetles and small sh.
Water snakes eat large sh.
(4 marks)
work
sheets
15.8 Ecology puzzles

15.9 Ecology summary
15 Ecology 419
stUDY CHECKLIst
ICt
measuring ecosystems
eBook plus
define the following terms:

ecosystem 15.1
habitat 15.1
distribution 15.1
abundance 15.1
collaboration 15.3
symbiosis 15.3
mutualism 15.3
parasitism 15.3
commensalism 15.3
epiphyte 15.3
saprophyte 15.3
extinct 15.9
endangered 15.9
consumer 15.4
producer 15.4
decomposer 15.4
adaptation 15.8
identify examples of biotic and abiotic factors in
ecosystems 15.1
calculate an estimate of the abundance of a species
using the quadrat method 15.2
investigate some abiotic features in an
environment 15.2
sUMMaRY
eLessons
Global warming in Australia
This video lesson looks at the phenomenon of global warming.
Learn about greenhouse gases and why many scientists believe
the Earth is getting hotter. Discover some of the potentially
catastrophic effects this could have on the Earth, and learn how
governments and individuals can address this global problem.
Relationships in ecosystems
describe examples of the following interactions between
species: parasitism, mutualism and commensalism
15.3
construct food chains and food webs 15.4

describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems 15.4,
15.5
Photosynthesis and respiration

describe the role of photosynthesis and respiration in
ecosystems
15.4
global warming
define the terms greenhouse effect and enhanced
interactivities
The survival game
This interactivity looks at the survival of the environment
through a fun snakes and ladders style game. Play the
game and test your knowledge on how you can help save the
environment.
greenhouse effect 15.6

outline strategies for addressing the issue of global
warming 15.6
natural events
describe the effects of bushfires, floods and droughts on
the environment
15.7, 15.8
describe examples of adaptations of animals and plants

to Australian ecosystems
15.7, 15.8
solutions to environmental problems

outline some actions that high school students can take
to protect the environment
15.9

investigate the work of some Australian environmental
scientists
420
15.9

Threats to Earth
This interactivity looks at what is threatening life on Earth. See
if you can spot the 10 differences in an environment before and
after human contact. Instant feedback is provided.
16
Electricity
What does a battery

have in common with
a bolt of lightning?
It turns out to be quite
a lot. They both store electrical energy
and transfer energy to allow electric
charges to move. In this chapter you will
investigate the nature of electricity and
examine how electricity is used in our
daily lives.

16.1
describe how an object gains an
electrostatic charge
identify examples where the effects of
electrostatic forces can be observed

describe the behaviour of electrostatic
charges when brought close together

describe the electric eld around
charged objects
16.2
describe the elements of an electric
circuit
16.3
describe how electric circuits transfer
energy
construct circuits and draw circuit
diagrams to show the transfer of

energy
16.4
outline how electricity can provide a
solution to our dwindling oil reserves.
Sparks caused by electricity discharging between

two iron nails
16 Electricity
Inside the atom
An atom of boron contains
ve protons, six neutrons and
ve electrons. Draw and label
a diagram to represent a boron
atom. (Hint: see page 291 in
chapter 11.)
Electricity around you

1. List as many examples as you can
of when you have experienced
static electricity. You might like
to discuss these in pairs.
2. (a) What is lightning?
(b) What do you think causes
lightning?
(c) Can you suggest the link
between lightning and
thunder?
3. (a) List all of the devices in your
home that use:
(i) electricity by connecting
to a power point
(ii) batteries only
(iii) batteries and electricity
from a power point.
(b) Identify whether most of
the electrical devices in your
home use power points,
batteries or both.
(c) Construct a table like the
one below and place each
device you listed in part (a)
in the appropriate column.
(d) For which of the purposes
listed in the table are the
most electrical devices

used?
4. If you were restricted by law to
only ve individual electrical
devices in your home, which
ve would you choose? Give
a reason for each of your
choices.
5. List any actions that you can
take each day to minimise your
use of electricity in your home.
6. Design a questionnaire that
you can use to survey people
over 30 years of age, to nd
out how electrical devices have
changed during their lifetime.
Use your questionnaire to
survey:
at least one person between
30 and 40 years old
at least one person over
40 years old.
(a) Summarise what you found
out about how electrical
devices have changed during
the past 40 years.
(b) What does your
questionnaire tell you about
how much people depend
on electricity?
7. Draw a timeline to show
how electrical devices have
developed since the invention
of the incandescent light globe
by Thomas Edison in 1879.
Some devices and their years
of invention are listed below to
help you get started. Conduct

some research to add at least
three more devices to your
timeline.
Electric elevator 1889
Electric toaster 1908
Electric kettle 1923
Electric shaver 1928
Electric photocopier 1938
Microwave oven 1953
Cassette tape recorder 1963
Videotape recorder 1975
CD player 1983
DVD player 1995
Try this
In which of the following electric
circuits are the components
correctly arranged so that the light
globe will work?
A
Purpose of electrical devices used in the home

Heating and
cooling
Lighting
Food storage
and preparation
Cleaning
Personal
grooming
Entertainment
Other
16.1
Static electricity
You may have experienced static
electricity when you removed a
jumper or blouse. It sometimes
causes your hair to stand up on
end or creates little sparks that
tingle. To explain the nature of
static electricity, it is important to
have a good understanding of the
atom and the subatomic particles
that make them up.
eBook plus
eles-0067
Electrons
Positive or negative?
At the centre of each atom is a
heavy nucleus. Surrounding the
nucleus is a lot of empty space
and tiny particles called electrons.
Electrons are constantly moving
around the nucleus. Each electron
carries a negative electric charge.
Inside the nucleus are two
different types of particles. The
protons inside the nucleus are
much heavier than electrons. Each
Protons
Inside atoms
The idea that all matter is made
up of atoms originated in ancient
Greek times around 2500 years
ago. Experiments done in the
1800s and 1900s provided
evidence for the existence of
subatomic particles that today
we call electrons, protons and
neutrons.
Scientists understanding of the
structure of atoms has helped them
to explain how objects can acquire
an electric charge. Benjamin
Franklin, an American scientist
in the 1700s, was the rst person
to use the term charge. He also
named the two charges positive
and negative. Like the poles of a
magnet, they are opposite to one
another.
eLesson
Producing static electricity

Learn about static electricity and watch
it being produced by charging perspex
and ebonite rods.
+
+ ++
-
Nucleus
Neutrons
Benjamin Franklin discovered the electrical

nature of lightning. There is some
contention though whether he actually
carried out this dangerous experiment.
proton carries a positive electric

charge. The neutrons inside the
nucleus are similar to protons
but carry no electric charge. The
positive electric charge of a proton
exactly balances the negative
charge of an electron. Atoms
usually contain an equal number
of electrons and protons.
Any material that has more
protons than electrons is said to be
positively charged.
Any material that has more
electrons than protons is said to be
negatively charged.
Any material that has equal
numbers of electrons and protons
is said to be neutral. The term
uncharged is also used to describe
neutral materials.
A neutral atom contains an equal number

of protons and electrons. (Some of the
protons are hidden in this diagram.) This
diagram represents a carbon atom. The
number of neutrons is not always the same
as the number of protons.
The central part of the atom is called

the nucleus. The nucleus is very small
compared with the overall size of the
atom. To give you an idea of the size of
the nucleus compared with the whole
atom, imagine this: If an atom was as
big as the Sydney Cricket Ground, the
nucleus would be the size of a marble
placed at its centre.
16 Electricity 423
Getting charged
Standing still
Objects usually become charged

by the addition or removal of
electrons. This charge is called an
electrostatic charge because, once
an object gains an electric charge,
it remains static or stationary on
that object, unless the charge is
transferred to another object. Only
in conductors (mainly metals) do
charges move through the object,
creating a current of charge rather
than a static charge. This will be
discussed further.
There are two ways that an
object can gain an electrostatic
charge: by friction or by contact
with another object that is already
charged.
The electricity that builds up on plastic rulers and balloons when charged
and on the Van de Graaff generator is called static electricity. Static charge
can leak slowly through substances such as rubber and air. When electric
charge moves quickly, as it does through metals, it is no longer called static.
Hence, the electricity that ows along wires in appliances is not static.
+
+
+
+
+
Rubbing a neutral material against

another adds or removes electrons.
When you rub a plastic ruler with
wool, for example, electrons from
atoms near the surface of the
neutral wool are forced onto the
neutral plastic ruler. The wool,
having lost electrons, becomes
positively charged. The plastic
ruler, having gained electrons,
becomes negatively charged.
If a neutral material is touched by

a charged object, electrons can be
transferred from atoms near the
surfaces of the two objects. When
the charged object is removed,
the previously neutral material
has gained or lost electrons.
The student touching the dome
in the photograph on the right
becomes charged by contact and
loses electrons to the dome. The
students hair stands on end, as
the positively charged strands repel
one another.
Electrons are the easiest particles
to add to or remove from atoms,
because they are not held tightly in
the nucleus as protons are.
Dome
Rollers
+
+
By friction
By contact
424
+
Belt
Metal object
A Van de Graaff generator has a large rubber belt held tightly between
two rollers. When the motor is turned on, the belt rotates. As it moves,
the belt rubs against the rollers. Electrons are transferred from the top
dome, which is in contact with the rubber belt, to the top roller. This
leaves the dome with a build-up of a large positive charge. Bringing a
metal object near the dome allows electrons to ow to neutralise the
charge on the dome, and this produces a spark. The spark you see is the
dome discharging.
The Van de Graaff generator was
rst built in 1929. Its purpose was
to smash atoms to nd out more
about them. A static charge builds
up on the dome. A students hair
can stand on end in an experiment
with the Van de Graaff generator.
INVESTIGATION 16.1
The attraction of electricity
You will need:
2 balloons
woollen cloth
light thread
metre ruler
Suspend one balloon from the metre
Remove the cloth and position
the balloons so that they are as

close together as possible without
touching each other. Observe any
movement of the balloons.
Describe the movement of the

single balloon.
Does the balloon have the same

charge as the woollen cloth after
it is rubbed? Explain.
Describe the movement of the

two balloons.
After being rubbed with the

woollen cloth, do the balloons
have like or unlike electric
charges? Explain.
Copy and complete the following

sentences by choosing the
correct word from the pair of
underlined words.
Metre ruler
1m
ruler with light thread, as shown in

the diagram.
Rub the balloon with a woollen
DISCUSSION
Light thread
cloth.
Remove the woollen cloth and then
place it close to, but not touching,

the part of the balloon that was
rubbed. Observe any movement of
the balloon.
Balloon
Objects with like charges

attract/repel each other.
Suspend a second balloon from the
metre ruler so that it is close to, but

not touching, the rst balloon.
Objects with unlike charges

attract/repel each other.
Rub each of the balloons with
a woollen cloth rub on the

surfaces that are facing each other.
Suspend a balloon from a metre ruler.
INVESTIGATION 16.2
The Van de Graaff generator
CAUTION Your teacher will carry out this activity. Do
not touch the charged dome of a Van de Graaff generator
unless instructed to by your teacher. Always use an earthed
rod to discharge. Carry out the demonstration while
standing on a plastic tray.
You will need:
Van de Graaff generator
several strands of wool
Part B
Tape several
strands of wool
onto the dome.
Make sure they
are spread out over
the surface of the dome.
Turn the generator on
and let it charge up
once more.
Part A
Turn the Van de Graaff generator on and let it charge up.
Bring the earthed metal rod near it.

Turn the generator off and discharge it using the earthed
metal rod.
DISCUSSION
DISCUSSION
What happens to the wool?
What do you observe occurring between the rod and

the dome when it is turned on?
Explain why this happens in terms of the charges on

the dome and on the wool.
Explain your observation. Use words like charging

and discharging in your explanation.
The wool forms a pattern around the dome. Explain

why this pattern forms.
16 Electricity 425
All charged up
Objects with the same charge
repel each other while those
with opposite charges attract
each other. If sufcient charge
builds up in oppositely charged
objects, the attraction between
the electric charges is so great
that they can jump across small
air gaps. Lightning is caused by
the movement of electric charge
between a cloud and the ground.
However, the clouds and ground
are both neutral! Lightning seems
to show that electric charge can
move between neutral objects as
well as between oppositely charged
objects. The explanation for this
can be found on the next page.
But it wasnt charged!

Charged objects and neutral
objects can be attracted to each
other. A charged plastic pen
attracts a neutral stream of water.
A charged balloon sticks to a
neutral wall. A charged comb
will make dry hair stand up. The
illustration below shows how a
negatively charged plastic pen is
able to pick up a small, neutral
piece of paper.
Only a few charges have been
labelled in the illustration. In
reality there would be millions
and millions of them. The labelled
charges are there to show whether
an object is neutral or charged, and
how the charge is arranged in the
object.
When the negatively charged

pen is close to the paper, electrons
are repelled from the top surface
of the paper, leaving the surface
with a positive charge. Note that
the whole piece of paper is still
neutral. If there is enough charge
and the pen is close enough to
the paper, the force of attraction is
great enough to pull the paper up.
Once the paper is touching the
pen, the charge moves across and
arranges itself so that it is evenly
spread out.
Mapping electric force

Any charged object either pushes
or pulls on other charged objects
around it. A positively charged
object exerts an attractive force
on a negatively charged object
and exerts a repelling force on

a positively charged object. A
diagram can be drawn to represent
the electric force around a charged
object. The area around the
charged object is called the electric
eld. The electric eld lines are
closest together near the charged
object. This is where the force is
strongest.
INVESTIGATION 16.3
Defying gravity
You will need:
plastic ballpoint or felt-tip pen
woollen, cotton or nylon cloth
balloon
Rub a plastic pen with a piece
of cloth, then hold it near a thin

stream of water from a tap.
Describe what happens to the
water.
Rub an inated balloon with
the woollen cloth and place it

against a wall.
Does the balloon stick to the
wall?
If the balloon does not stick to
This diagram illustrates electric elds

around a positive and a negative charge.
The eld lines always show the direction
of the force that would be applied to a
small positive charge placed in the area.
the wall, try rubbing it with a

different type of cloth.
DISCUSSION
1
Explain the behaviour of the

water and balloon in your
own words.
Explain the effect of the

cloth on the balloon.
Negatively charged
pen
Neutral paper
Electrons are repelled
from the top surface
of the paper.
Charged and neutral objects can be attracted to each other.
426
Positively charged
surface is attracted
to the pen.
When lightning strikes

The particles of water and ice
inside clouds are constantly
moving against each other. Their
movement causes charge to build
up in the cloud. Some parts of the
cloud become more negative, while
other parts become more positive.
The charges keep building up.
Eventually, there is so much charge
built up in part of the cloud that it
quickly discharges to another cloud
or to the ground below. The result
is the spectacular spark we call
lightning.
If a bolt of lightning strikes
a building, it can cause a huge
amount of damage. It is known
that lightning takes the easiest path
to the ground, so lightning rods are
attached to the top of tall buildings.
It is more likely that lightning will

strike the rod, keeping the rest of
the building safe.
Although lightning is spectacular
to watch, it can also be very
dangerous. Make sure you do not
talk on the telephone during an
electrical storm. Lightning can
strike the phone line and travel to
every phone on the line. Mobile or
cordless phones are much safer. It
is also unsafe to be outside during
an electrical storm. Take shelter
inside a building or in a car. Never
take shelter under trees, as they are
often struck by lightning.
When getting out of a

car is a hazard
A moving car is a great charge
builder. As a car moves, its body
Some parts of the

cloud become
negatively charged,
other parts become
more positively
charged.
rubs against the air and its tyres

rub against the road. The rubbing
can cause charge to build up on
the car and its passengers. As you
get out of the car and go to touch
the metal body, a spark crosses
the small gap between your hand
and the metal just before you
touch it.
Static electricity is a hazard in

an operating theatre. Charge can
build up on blankets and discharge
quickly, causing a spark. Many of
the instruments used in an operating
theatre can also create sparks. This
is very dangerous because operating
theatres use gases that could easily
explode. Doctors and nurses wear
gowns made from natural bres that
do not build up electric charge easily.
The patient and all of the equipment
are earthed. An object is earthed when
it makes contact with the ground. By
earthing the patient and any equipment,
charge ows to the ground before it
can build up and cause a spark.
Built-up charge
discharges to the
ground during a
lightning flash.
The heat created during a lightning

strike heats the nearby air to a very
high temperature. The air suddenly
expands and produces the crashing
sound we know as thunder.
16 Electricity 427
When cleaning makes things dusty

When you use a cloth to wipe over furniture it can sometimes make
matters worse. Rubbing leaves the surface with an electric charge that
can attract small dust particles in the air. The dust particles are neutral
and will be attracted to either a positive or negative charge left on the
furniture.
Using a furniture polish reduces the attraction between the furniture
and dust particles by helping built-up charge to leak into the air.
Have you ever noticed that your computer screen is dustier than thee
nt
rest of the computer? Television and computer screens are excellent
dust collectors. Charges build up on the screen, attracting dust particles.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 (a) Identify which two particles of an atom carry electric
charge.
(b) Identify which type of electric charge each of these
particles carries.
2 When you rub a plastic ruler with a woollen cloth, the
plastic ruler becomes negatively charged.
(a) Describe what happens to the atoms in the cloth
and ruler to cause this change.
(b) Complete the following sentence.
As the ruler becomes negatively charged, the cloth
becomes _____________ charged because it has
more _____________ than electrons.
3 Complete each of the following sentences by using the
words attract and repel.
(a) Two positively charged objects would be expected
to _________ each other.
(b) Two negatively charged objects would be
expected to __________ each other.
(c) A positively charged object would be expected to
__________ a negatively charged object.
4 Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how it is possible for a
neutral object to be attracted to a charged object.
5 What is the release of built-up charge called?
THINK
6 In the diagram of the carbon atom on page 423, some
of the protons are not visible. How many are hidden by
other protons?
7 Two balloons are hanging on threads next to each other,
but not touching. They begin to move away from each
other. If one of the balloons is positively charged, identify
the charge of the other balloon.
8 Explain why the student touching the dome of a Van
de Graaff generator on page 424 would be wearing
rubber-soled shoes and standing on a plastic mat.
428
9 Work out from the following list of observations whether

balloons A, B, C, D and E are positively or negatively
charged.
Balloon A is attracted to balloon B.
Balloon C repels balloon A.
Balloon D is attracted to balloon E.
Balloon B repels balloon D.
Balloon E is positively charged.
10 If a pen is rubbed with a woollen cloth, it can attract a
piece of paper.
(a) Is the pen neutral or charged?
(b) Is the paper neutral or charged?
11 Draw a labelled diagram to show how a neutral stream
of water from a tap is attracted to a charged plastic
pen. Use the symbols + and to represent positive and
negative charge.
INVESTIGATE
12 Have you ever heard a crackling sound when you
remove your clothes at night? What causes it? Design
and carry out an investigation to test which types of
clothes are most likely to cause the crackling.
13 Search the internet to nd out how many people are
struck by lightning each year in Australia.
CREATE
14 Devise a model, using people to represent positive
and negative charges, to show how objects become
positively and negatively charged. Use your model to
demonstrate:
(a) whether a neutral object contains any electric
charges
(b) what must happen to make an object
(i) negatively charged
(ii) positively charged.
work
sheets
16.1 Positive and negative

16.2 Charging up!
16.3 Attraction and repulsion
16.2
Electric circuits
At the ick of a switch, you
can turn on a light, play a song
on your mp3 player or use a
computer. Electrical energy makes
these appliances work by changing
into light, sound or other useful
form of energy.
Moving electricity
Static electricity results when
positive or negative charge builds
up in a non-conductor because
there is no easy path for electrons
to move. The electricity that ows
out of a power point or battery is
not static but can travel through a
path called an electric circuit. Just
as electrons are transferred in static
electricity, electrons are the charges
that travel through electric circuits.
Interestingly, electrons werent
discovered until the 1900s, well
after electricity had been described
and so, originally, it was thought
that positive charges travelled
through electric circuits.
A battery or other power supply
gives the electrons energy to move
around a circuit. This energy is
called electrical energy. Electrons
keep moving until the power
supply is removed or the path is
broken.
Completing a circuit
When you switch on a light or
torch, turn on a computer or press
play on an mp3 or a DVD player,
you are closing an electric circuit.
This allows electric charges
(electrons) to travel around the
circuit. These charges carry electrical
energy, which is transformed to
useful forms of energy by electrical
components in the circuit.
circuit. The connecting leads

provide this path.
The essentials of electrical

circuits
For an electric circuit to do its job
of converting electrical energy to
another useful form of energy,
three things are necessary:
a power supply, such as a battery,
to provide the electrical energy.
In most household appliances
the power supply is connected
by plugging into a power point.
a load, such as a light globe,
in which electrical energy is
changed into other forms of
energy.
a conducting path so that electric
charge can ow around the
INVESTIGATION 16.4
Making the right connections
Try this investigation at the start of
this unit.
You will need:
two 1.5 V batteries
two 3 V globes
3 wire leads
Blu-tak
Activity 1
Using the equipment provided, how
would you connect a battery to a
single light globe so that it glows?
Try it out until youve got it working.
Record your successful set-up as
a labelled diagram.
DISCUSSION
1
What did you try that didnt work?
Where does the electrical

energy come from?
In which direction do you think

the electric charges ow? Label
it on your diagram.
An mp3 player changes electrical energy

into sound energy.
Activity 2
How would you connect two
batteries to a single light globe?
Try it out until youve got it
working.
a labelled diagram.
DISCUSSION
4
What effect does providing

a second battery have on the
light? Explain why.
Activity 3
How would you connect two light
globes to a single battery so that
you get a:
(a) bright glow
(b) dim glow?
a labelled diagram.
DISCUSSION
5
Explain your results.
16 Electricity 429
Current and voltage

whats the difference?
INVESTIGATION 16.5
Switched on circuits
You will need:
3-volt globe and holder
1.5-volt battery and holder
5 connecting leads with alligator clips or banana plugs
2 tapping switches
Part A
Connect circuit 1 as shown.
DISCUSSION
1
How can you stop the

globe in circuit 1 from
glowing?
Part B
Connect circuit 2 as shown.
Circuit 1
Close the switch.

If nothing happens, open the
switch, check that your

circuit is connected
properly and try
again. If nothing
happens this time,
replace the globe.
Conductors and
insulators
Open the switch and
remove the globe from

its holder. Close the
switch.
Circuit 2
DISCUSSION
2
Describe what happens to the globe in circuit 2 when the switch is

closed.
Does the globe light up when it is removed? Why not?
DISCUSSION
430
Explain what happens

to the light globe in
circuit 3 when:
(a) neither of the
switches is closed
(b) either one of the
switches is closed
(c) both of the switches
are closed.
The cords that plug into power

points from electrical appliances are
coated in plastic. Electricity can pass
through the metal wires inside the
cord because metal is an electrical
conductor. It cannot pass through the
plastic because plastic is an electrical
insulator. Without the plastic,
electricity could pass through to any
person touching the cord.
Transporting electricity
Part C
Put the globe back in its holder and add a second switch as shown in
circuit 3.
As we now know, electrons are the

carriers of electric charge around a
circuit. The rate of ow of electric
charge through an electric circuit is
called the electric current. An electric
current is a measure of how much
electric charge passes a given point
in the circuit per second. The unit of
electric current is the ampere, which is
commonly abbreviated to amps (A).
The voltage of the battery or
other power supply is a measure
of how much energy is available
to push the charges through the
circuit. If the circuit is not closed,
current cannot ow and the
electrical energy cannot be used to
move the charges around. The unit
of voltage is the volt (V).
Circuit 3
To get to our homes, electricity

travels through metal cables. The
cables are usually high above the
ground out of reach.
It is important for the electricity
to travel along the cables, but not
through the poles that support
the cables. For this reason, power
poles are often made of wood or
concrete. Both of these substances
are insulators.
Metals and non-metals

Conductors allow electrons
to ow through them. Most
metal objects are conductors of
electricity because some electrons
in the atoms of metals are free
to move. When wires of metal
are connected to a power supply,
free electrons in the wires move
through the wires to create an
electric current.
Insulators do not allow electrons
to ow through them. Many
objects made from non-metals are
insulators. The electrons inside
insulators are strongly bound
to the nucleus of the atoms and
cannot move easily.
Free electrons
Positively charged nuclei of atoms

Electrons in conductors are free to move.
The volt and the ampere, the unit

of electric current, were named
after two men who made important
discoveries about electricity more
than 50 years before Thomas Edison
invented the electric light globe.
Alessandro Volta (17451827),
an Italian physicist, invented the
rst electric battery in 1800. His full
name was Count Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta. Count Volta
discovered that a moist cloth placed
between two different metals could
produce a small electric current. The
rst electric battery is known as the
voltaic pile and consists of alternating
disks of copper and zinc. Each pair of
copper and zinc discs was separated
by a piece of cloth soaked in salty
water. Voltas electric organ, as he
called it, was about 30 cm high.
Andr Ampre (17751836) was
a French mathematician with an
interest in physics and chemistry.
According to some historians, he had
mastered all
known mathematics by the age of 12.
He is best known for his discovery
that two nearby parallel wires
carrying electric current could
attract or repel each other.
Count Voltas pile
Place each item in turn between
INVESTIGATION 16.6
Conductors and insulators
the alligator clips.

Light globe
You will need:

light globe and light-globe holder
battery or other power supply (no
more than 6 V)
3 connecting wires (at least 2 with
alligator clips)
objects to test (for example, copper
sheet, paper, plastic, coin, fabric,
iron nail, glass, ice-cream stick,
paperclip and aluminium foil).
Complete the table for each item as
you test it.

Alligator clips
Material to
be tested
Battery
DISCUSSION
1
List the items that conducted

electricity.
What is the purpose of the light

globe?
Look at the items that are

conductors of electricity. What
do they have in common?
Set up the equipment as shown.

Draw up a table like the one below.
Object
Light globe on or off?
Conductor or insulator?
4 (a) Is air a conductor of

electricity?
(b) How can you test to see if it is?
5
Are the alligator clips

conductors or insulators?
16 Electricity 431
A light in the dark

Many battery-operated devices use
more than one battery. In torches,
portable radios, and mp3 and CD
players, two or more batteries are
connected in series. The batteries are
connected end-to-end as shown in
the diagram on the right. It is
important to ensure that the positive
end of one battery is connected to
the negative end of the other.
Circuit diagrams: a
common language
Diagrams of electric circuits need
to be drawn so that people all over
the world can read them. Circuit
diagrams use straight lines for
connecting leads and symbols for
other components of circuits.
Connecting wire
Two wires crossing

over one another
Resistor
Cell
Battery (two cells

in series)
Light globe
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Filament
This small coil of wire in a globe is called
a filament. When a current passes
through a globe, the filament gets hot
and produces light.
The electrical
energy from
the batteries is
changed into
light and heat
energy in the
filament.
Globe base
The globe base is
connected to the
metal strip and the
batteries.
Switch
When the switch is
open, the metal strip
does not make contact
with the base of the
globe. A current cannot
flow. When the switch
is closed, the metal
strip is forced against
the base of the globe
to complete the circuit.
The electric current
then flows.
Metal strip
The metal strip
completes the circuit
between the batteries
and the globe.
A torch is a simple electric circuit.
Two wires joined
Switch closed
Switch open
Some circuit symbols
432
Circuit diagram for a torch
Plastic covering
The plastic cover is an insulator
and so doesnt allow a current
to flow through it.
Batteries
Batteries provide
electrical energy for
the torch to work. The
energy stored in each
battery forces electrons
to move from the negative
terminal through the circuit
and towards its positive
terminal at the other end.
This can happen only if the
battery is part of a closed
circuit.
Voltage
These batteries are
1.5 volts (V ) each.
Together, the two batteries
provide 3 V to the torch.
The voltage is a measure
of how much energy the
battery gives the electrons
to move them around the
circuit. Notice how they
are connected end to end,
with the positive terminal
of one battery against the
negative terminal of the
next.
Spring
The spring keeps the batteries in
contact with the base of the globe.
The torch circuit

The power supply of a torch usually consists of two
or more 1.5-volt batteries connected in series. When
two 1.5-volt batteries are connected in series, the total
voltage supplied to the circuit is 3.0 volts. This means
that twice as much electrical energy is available to
move the electric charge around the circuit.
The load in a torch circuit is the globe. When the
switch is closed, electric current ows around the
circuit. As electric charge passes through the globe, its

electrical energy is transformed to heat in the lament.
The lament inside the globe is made of the metal
tungsten and glows brightly when it gets hot.
The conducting path in a torch consists of the
spring that pushes the battery against the base of the
globe (or a metal globe holder) and the metal strip
that includes the switch. When the switch is open, the
metal strip does not make contact with the globe and
the circuit is not complete.
APPLY
Activities
13 Draw a circuit diagram containing a battery, two globes

in series and an open switch.
REMEMBER
14 Use symbols to draw a circuit diagram of the circuit

used in activity 2 of Investigation 16.4 on page 429.
1 Dene the term closed circuit.

2 Identify the part of an electric circuit in which electrical
energy is changed into other useful forms of energy.
3 Identify which terminal of a battery electrons move from.
4 Dene the term voltage.
5 State the name given to materials that allow electrons to
ow through them.
6 Explain the purpose of the plastic coating around
electrical cords.
CREATE
15 Construct a steady-hand tester. You will need a wire
coathanger, a loop of thin wire, wire cutters, battery,
electric bell or light globe, connecting wires, and a shirt
box, shoe box or cereal packet for the base.
Bent coathanger
7 Explain why metals are better conductors of electricity

than non-metals.
Base
THINK
8 Explain how electricity transmission towers can be made
from metal but not conduct electricity from the cables to
the ground.
Light globe or
electric bell
9 If three 1.5-volt batteries were used to power a torch,

calculate the voltage they would provide to the torch.
10 Explain why it is important to have circuit symbols that are
recognised by scientists and electricians around the world.
11 Identify which of the following arrangements will cause
the globe to light up.
Battery
A steady-hand tester. The alarm can be a bell hidden in the
base or a globe attached to the base. Hide as much of the
connecting wires as you can.
eBook plus
12 Describe how a torch works. Use the words current,

energy and circuit in your description.
A
16 Use the Electric circuits weblink in your

eBookPLUS to play a series of games that test
your knowledge of simple circuits.
work
sheets
16.4 Simple circuits

16.5 Series and parallel circuits
16.6 Conductors and insulators
16 Electricity 433
16.3
Electricity at work
Series circuits
Do you remember how the parts
of the torch on page 432 were
connected together? The circuit
contained several components,
connected one after the other.
Conductors, like the metal strip
and the light globe case, linked
the components. The circuit
was a single, complete loop.
This type of circuit is called a
series circuit.
The good thing about series
circuits is that they are simple to
put together. But if any part of a
series circuit doesnt work, such
as one of the globes in the rst
circuit below, none of the circuit
will work. A series circuit will not
work if even one part of it breaks
down.
When batteries are connected in series, electrons owing through the circuit must ow
through each battery. The electrons are given electrical energy from each battery.
Note that the positive terminal of one battery is joined to the negative terminal of the
other.
The ammeter
An ammeter is always connected

in series. This way, the electrons
that ow through the circuit will
also ow through the ammeter.
The circuit symbol for an
ammeter is shown below.
An ammeter is a device that

measures electric current, which
is the rate of charge owing
through a circuit per second. The
more electrons that ow through
the circuit per second, the higher
the current and the higher the
ammeter reading.
This ammeter measures

milliamperes.
200
100
30
50
20
DC 30
mA
10
40
40
The negative (black) terminal

of the ammeter is connected
so that it is closer to the
negative terminal of the
battery
than to the
positive
terminal.
50
500
mA
50
mA
The positive (red) terminal
of the ammeter is connected
closer to the positive terminal of
the battery. Select the positive terminal
with the highest value first. If the current
is too small to register on this scale,
switch to the more sensitive terminal.
Both of these circuits are series circuits.

The componens in these circuits are
connected in series.
434
There are usually two or more

scales on an ammeter. Your
selection of positive terminals tells
you which scale to read.
CAUTION An ammeter is easily damaged. If the current reading goes off the
scale, open the circuit immediately.
The voltmeter
The energy that electrons have as
they move around a circuit comes
from a battery or other power
supply. As the electrons move
around the circuit, some of their
energy is transformed into other
forms of energy by the appliances
in the circuit. The energy that is
transformed by components along
the circuit is measured in volts
using a voltmeter.
Like an ammeter, a voltmeter is
placed in a circuit with its positive
terminal closer to the positive
terminal of the power supply
than the negative terminal. But,
unlike an ammeter, a voltmeter is
connected parallel to a component
in a circuit.
The symbol for a voltmeter is
shown below.
Parallel circuits
Imagine what would happen
if the electrical appliances in
your home were all connected in
series? Every time a light blows
out, no other electrical appliance
would work.
To avoid this problem, most
circuits contain components
connected in parallel. This means
that each component is connected
in a separate path. A parallel circuit
works even when one part of it
breaks down.
At point A, the electrons can move

along either the first path or the second
path. If the paths are identical, half of
the electrons will take the first path and
the other half will take the second path.
Although the electric current is divided
between the two paths, electrons in
each path will carry the voltage (energy)
provided by the battery (power source).
Second path
Christmas lights if these lights are

connected in parallel, when one light
blows out, the others still work.
First path
The voltmeter in this circuit tells us how much of the electrons

energy is turned into light energy. This light globe uses almost
all of the energy given to the electrons.
Electrons
Electrons
This battery gives

1.5 V of energy
to the electrons
as they leave the
battery.
1.5 V +
10
0
1
Volt
15
A parallel circuit has more than one path

for the electricity to follow. If one of the
paths has a break in it, the other paths will
still work. Only components in the broken
part of the circuit will stop working.
15
3V
A parallel circuit drawn as a circuit

diagram.
Voltmeters can measure how much energy electrons lose

as they pass through a component.
16 Electricity 435
INVESTIGATION 16.7
Series and parallel

You will need:
two 3-volt globes and holders
1.5-volt battery and holder
6 wire leads
Part A: Series circuits
Connect one globe and the battery
together with wire leads so that
the globe lights up.
Add a second globe in series with
What would be the effect on

the other globes if a third globe
were added in series? If a third
globe is available, test your
prediction.
Part B: Parallel circuits

Connect the two globes, battery
and wire leads as shown in the
diagram below.
Remove one globe from its holder.
Replace the globe that was
removed, then remove the other

one.
the rst globe as shown in the

diagram below.
Remove one globe from its holder.
Replace the globe that was
removed, then remove the other

one.
What affects
brightness?
The brightness of each globe
depends on both the voltage
and the electric current. In series
circuits, the electrons share their
energy (voltage) among all of the
globes in the circuit. The more
globes there are, the more the
energy needs to be shared and the
less brightly they glow.
The branches of a parallel circuit
do not share the energy carried
by electrons. So, identical globes
placed in parallel glow with equal
brightness. No matter how many
branches are added to a parallel
circuit, the brightness of each
identical globe is the same.
Globes connected in parallel
DISCUSSION
Globes connected in series
Draw a circuit diagram to

represent the circuit that you
have connected.
How does the brightness of

the two globes compare with
the brightness of a single
globe connected to the same
battery?
How does the brightness of the

two globes compare with the
brightness of a single globe
connected to the same battery?
What effect does the removal

of one globe have on the other
globe?
10 Does it matter which globe is

removed?
DISCUSSION
1
436
What effect does the removal

of one globe have on the other
globe when the battery is
connected?
Does it matter which globe is

removed?
Can electric current ow in this

series circuit when either globe
is removed?
Would it be sensible to have

all of the ceiling lights in your
home connected in series? Give
a reason for your answer.
11 Can electric current ow in this

parallel circuit when either
globe is removed?
12 Outline whether the removal of
one globe has any effect on the
other globe.
13 What would be the effect
on the other globes if a third
globe were added in parallel?
If a third globe and enough
connecting leads are available,
design a circuit to test your
prediction.
These lights are connected in parallel.

Why?
What about in your home? All

globes are connected in parallel but,
because they are not all identical,
some may glow more brightly than
others. This is because the electrons
owing through each globe receive
the same voltage, but the electric
current owing through the globes
in each parallel branch differs.
The numbers printed on light
globes tell us how quickly the
globes use energy. A 23-watt light
globe uses energy more quickly
than an 11-watt light globe and so it
shines more brightly. The electrons
that pass through these globes carry
the same amount of energy (240 V

in Australia). But a greater current
passes through the 23-watt globe
than the 11-watt globe in any given
time. So, current, as well as voltage,
affects brightness.
Electricity in a packet
The electrical energy needed to
operate most electrical devices in
the home and at school is obtained
by plugging into a power point.
Much of the electrical energy used
in NSW is provided by power
stations in the Hunter Valley.
Batteries are portable. They are
mostly used to provide electrical
energy in devices that need to be
moved about. They can also be
used in devices such as smoke
detectors as a backup in case of a
power failure.
A car battery
Alkaline zinc/manganese
dioxide batteries
A button
battery
ow. A chemical reaction takes

place inside the cell, creating an
electric current.
Dry cells
The general-purpose cells used in
torches, clocks, smoke detectors
and toys are lled with a paste of
chemicals. The two electrodes are:
a central rod of carbon, which is
attached to the positive terminal
of the cell
a zinc case, which is in contact
with the negative terminal of the
cell.
When a conducting path
is provided between the two
terminals of the cell, a chemical
reaction takes place between
the paste and the zinc case. This
releases electric charge, allowing an
electric current to ow around the
circuit. A separating layer stops the
chemicals from reacting while the
cell is not in use.
These general-purpose cells
are called dry cells because the
electrolyte (the substance inside the
cell through which electric charge
moves) is not a liquid.
Positive terminal
Asphalt seal
Air
Paste of chemicals
Carbon rod
A rechargeable battery
Separating layer
Types of batteries
Zinc case
A battery is made up of two

or more cells connected in series.
However, in everyday language the
word battery is used for a single
cell. Each battery used in a torch
is actually a single cell. An electric
cell consists of a positive and a
negative electrode and a substance
through which electric charge can
Negative terminal
A general-purpose dry cell
Other types of dry cells work

in the same way but use different
electrodes or electrolytes.
Alkaline cells contain an
electrolyte that allows a greater
The very rst electric cell was created

by accident over 200 years ago. Luigi
Galvani, an Italian physician, was
dissecting the leg of a recently killed
frog. The leg was held by a copper
hook. When he cut through the leg
with an iron knife, the leg twitched.
Galvani thought that he had discovered
a new, special type of animal
electricity. Several years later, it was
realised that Galvani had produced
the worlds rst electric cell. Electric
current had owed from one electrode
to the other through the tissue of the
frogs leg.
electric current to ow. They are

ideal for heavy-duty torches,
battery-operated shavers, mp3
players and digital cameras.
Mercury cells produce a voltage
that is much steadier than other
dry cells. Their steady output
makes them ideal for pagers,
hearing aids, watches, calculators
and measuring instruments.
9 and 12 V batteries
Many of the cells you use provide
1.5 V of energy to the electrons in
a circuit. When you purchase a 9 V
battery, it is actually six 1.5 V cells
joined together in series and placed
in a single container.
Cars are powered by 12 V
batteries. Like other batteries, the
chemical reaction in these batteries
create free electrons, and other new
products. One difference between
car batteries and other batteries
is that a car battery recharges
when the car engine is running.
The running engine reverses the
chemical reaction in a battery.
After a few years, the battery needs
to be replaced because some of
the products of the chemical
reactions inside the battery build
up, stopping it from recharging
properly.
16 Electricity 437
Alligator clips
INVESTIGATION 16.8
Modelling an electric kettle
You will need:
250 mL beaker
50 cm length of ne nichrome wire
pen or pencil
power pack
2 wire leads and alligator clips
thermometer (preferably digital) or a
data logger and temperature sensor
stopwatch
Beaker
+
AC
POWER SUPP
LY
VOLTS
DC
6 8
10
12
Water
Power pack
Measure 100 mL of water into the
250 mL beaker.
Nichrome wire coil
Wind the middle of the nichrome
wire around a pen or pencil to make

a coil from the wire.
Connect the apparatus as illustrated
at right.
Record the initial temperature of the
water before the power is switched

on.
Measure the temperature of the
DISCUSSION
water every minute for 15 minutes.
Describe the temperature

change that you have observed.
Describe the energy transfer that

is taking place.
Extrapolate your graph to

predict the temperature after
20 minutes.
Predict the temperature

change you would observe if
4 V was supplied to the coil.
Record your data in a table like the
one below.
Draw a line graph to illustrate the
temperature change.
Set the power pack to 2 V, turn it on
and start the stopwatch.

Time (min)
10
Temperature (C)
INVESTIGATION 16.9
Trial different arrangements of the
Microammeter
A lemon battery
100
10
0
00
lemons can be used

to make an electric
cell. A chemical reaction
occurs between the different
metals and the acid in the fruit so
that electrons are forced to move
around a circuit.
produced the maximum current,

and record the current.
Galvanised nail
DISCUSSION
500
0 A
500
A
50
A
Citrus fruits like
438
Draw the arrangement that
5000
Wire lead
500
400 50
40
200
30
20
30 0
roa
mp
ere
s
Mic
4000
You will need:

3 lemons
range of nails
(galvanised, iron,
steel)
6 wire leads with
alligator clips
microammeter
30
lemons and metals to create the

maximum possible current.
2000
1000
Lemon
Squeeze each of the whole lemons
to break up some of the pulp

inside.
What variables did you test to

see if you could increase the
electric current produced?
Which variables increased the

electric current produced?
Outline the energy conversion

that is taking place in this
experiment.
12 What would be the readings on ammeters B and C

in the circuit below?
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Copy and complete the following sentences by choosing

the correct word from the pair of underlined words.
(a) When light globes are connected in series/parallel,
the same electric current always ows through each
globe. The globes share the voltage of the power
supply.
(b) When light globes are connected in series/parallel,
the electric current splits and is shared by the
globes. Each globe uses the same voltage.
2 Identify the instrument used to measure the size of an
electric current.
A
50 mA
13 Look at the two circuit diagrams below. When the

switches are closed in each circuit, the globes will glow.
3 Identify the terminal of an ammeter that should be

connected to the positive terminal of a battery.
4 When a voltmeter is used to measure the transformation
of energy by an electrical load, identify whether it is
placed in series or parallel with the load.
Circuit 1
5 Explain why a 50-watt globe glows more brightly than a

25-watt globe.
6 Outline what takes place inside a cell to cause an electric
current to ow.
7 Outline how alkaline cells differ from general-purpose dry
cells.
Circuit 2
8 If a car battery can be recharged, explain why it cant last

for ever.
THINK
9 A circuit is set up as illustrated below.
(a) In which circuit will the globes glow more brightly?

(b) Explain your answer to part (a) in terms of the
voltage available for each globe.
CREATE
(a) If the lament of globe A breaks, do globes B and

C remain lit or do they stop working also?
(b) If the lament of globe B breaks, which globe or
globes (if any) remain lit?
(c) If the lament of globe C breaks, which globe or
globes (if any) remain lit?
10 In a house, four light globes are connected in parallel.
However, the lights are in separate rooms. This means
that a separate switch is needed for each globe. Draw a
circuit diagram of this circuit.
11 The lament in an electric light globe is a poor conductor
of electricity. Would a lament made of a very good
conductor of electricity light up? Explain your answer.
14 Design and create a circuit with two switches and an

electric bell so that the bell rings when either one (or
both) of the two switches is closed. Draw a picture and
circuit diagram of your circuit. Invent your own symbol
for the bell. If a bell is not available, use a light globe
instead.
INVESTIGATE
15 Many battery manufacturers claim that their batteries
are the best. Design an experiment to nd out which
brand of dry cell gives best value for money. Make sure
your experiment is a fair one.
work
sheet
16.7 Testing batteries
16 Electricity 439
16.4

The next generation of motor cars

What sort of car do you expect to
be driving thirty years from now?
Will it be just a newer, sleeker,
lighter version of the cars you see
on the road today? How much will
petrol cost: $2 per litre or $20 per
litre? Most medium-sized cars have
petrol tanks that hold between 50
and 80 litres. How much will it
cost to ll the tank? Will you have
trouble breathing the polluted air
in trafc-clogged cities?
It is unlikely that you will
be driving a car with an engine
powered by petrol. There are
several reasons for this:
Petrol is made from oil and the
worlds oil supply is rapidly
decreasing. At the same time,
the amount of oil being used is
increasing. It has been predicted
that the worlds oil reserves will
run out in less than fty years.
Petrol is becoming more
expensive. As the cost of petrol
increases, alternative fuels
become more attractive. LPG
(liqueed petroleum gas) is
already increasing in popularity
as a fuel for cars.
Petrol-driven car engines cause
air pollution. Gases released
from car exhausts include
carbon monoxide (a poisonous
gas), carbon dioxide (a major
cause of global warming and
a probable cause of climate
change) and nitrogen oxides
(which lead to smog and acid
rain).
batteries is used to power the cars

motor, which turns the wheels. The
batteries can be recharged while
the driver is at home or at work.
Electric cars have three main
benets:
Their use will reduce the
demand for oil. The worlds oil
reserves will last longer.
They do not release exhaust
gases. This would reduce air
pollution in large cities.
They are very quiet.
There are also some drawbacks
to electric cars:
Electric cars can travel only
about 160 kilometres before
the batteries need recharging
whereas a tank of petrol allows
most cars to travel between
400 and 800 kilometres before
refuelling.
The batteries, which are very
expensive, need replacing after a
few years.
eBook plus
eLesson
The Australian International Model

Solar Challenge
Learn about the exciting annual event
where Australian high school students
compete by building and racing model
cars and boats that are powered by
solar energy.
eles-0068
Electric cars do not accelerate

quickly and can usually reach
speeds of only 100 km per hour.
Electric cars are more expensive
to buy than petrol-driven cars.
If everyone owned electric
cars, power stations would
need to supply more energy
for recharging their batteries.
Although air pollution in cities
would be reduced, the air
pollution around the power
stations would be increased.
Electric cars
One of the most attractive
alternatives to the petrol-driven car
is a car powered by rechargeable
batteries. Electrical energy from the
440
The Tesla Roadster is a high performance electric car available in the USA from 2007.
It can accelerate from 0 to 100 km/h in 4 seconds, has a top speed of 200 km/h and can
travel 350 km before the batteries need recharging.
Solving the problems
capacitors) so that vehicle batteries require less

frequent recharging.
Some of the disadvantages of electric cars will be

overcome as the need to replace petrol-driven cars
becomes more urgent.
Engine
Automotive engineers are using scientic
principles, together with computer
technology and modelling, to design lighter
cars. They are also developing car bodies to
reduce air drag. These changes will reduce
the amount of energy needed to keep cars
running.
Batteries store energy.
Electric cars that have been converted from
petrol-driven cars need at least 12 standard
Fuel tank
Radiator
leadacid car batteries (connected in series)
Electric motor
to run at normal speeds. These batteries are
very heavy. Research is continuing to develop lighter
A hybrid car combines rechargeable batteries with a petrol
batteries that will last longer.
engine.
As more electric cars are made, the cost of each car
will decrease. Also, as petrol becomes more expensive,
the higher cost of electric cars will seem to be less of a
problem.
New car designs, better batteries and decreasing
costs make electric cars a very likely alternative to
petrol-driven cars in the future.
REMEMBER
Activities
The hybrid car

The hybrid car combines a bank of rechargeable
batteries with a petrol engine. It provides many
of the benets of an electric car but with better
acceleration, and it can be self-recharging. They
typically consume half the amount of petrol per
kilometre that a conventional petrol-driven car uses.
The exhaust fumes of hybrid cars still contribute
to air pollution but to a much lesser extent than
petrol-driven cars.
While few models of electric cars are
commercially available, there are many hybrid
vehicles already on the market. Hybrid vehicles
are particularly effective in stopstart city trafc. In
some models, the energy normally lost as heat and
friction when braking is transformed to electrical
energy and used to recharge the hybrid vehicles
battery. This system can save the energy equivalent
of 1 litre of petrol over 100 km.
Science is at the forefront of efforts to improve
the technology in hybrid cars. For example, the
CSIRO is working in partnership with car makers
to develop more efcient leadacid batteries for
use in hybrid vehicles so they can be more compact
and lightweight. Their research is also focused on
developing electrical energy storage devices (called
1 List three benets of electric cars.

2 State ve disadvantages of electric cars at the
current time.
3 Outline the features of a hybrid car.
THINK
4 Explain why electric cars are likely to become popular
after being ignored for over 60 years.
5 Outline the disadvantages of electric cars that hybrid
cars partially or entirely overcome.
6 State whether you think the government should force
car manufacturers to stop making petrol-driven cars
and replace them with electric or hybrid cars. Give
reasons for your opinion.
7 Discuss whether society should support scientic
research into new vehicle technologies.
CREATE
8 Create a poster or brochure advertising a model of
hybrid vehicle to describe:
the technology used in the vehicle (use clear
language that is easy for your classmates to
understand)
its features (include labelled diagrams) and its
performance
the benets of the vehicle over conventional
petrol-driven cars.
16 Electricity 441
LOOKING BACK
1 Identify which of the following atoms is positively charged,
which is negatively charged and which is neutral.
(a)
(b)
(c)
10 Match each term in the following table with its correct

description.
Word
Description
Static electricity A material that allows current to ow

through it
2 This Van de Graaff generator has an overall positive

charge.
Electron
Positively charged particle in the nucleus

of an atom
Proton
The build-up of charge on an object
Current
A material that does not allow current to

ow through it easily
Voltage
Particle in an atom with a negative charge
Conductor
A path that has no breaks in it
Closed circuit
The energy supplied to move charges

around a closed circuit
Insulator
The ow of charges around a closed circuit
11 Use symbols to draw circuit diagrams containing a light

globe in series with an ammeter, a battery and a switch.
(a) Draw electric-eld lines around the Van de Graaff

generator.
(b) Outline how the positive charge on the Van de Graaff
generator could be discharged.
3 Explain why you should avoid standing under trees in a
thunderstorm.
12 Use symbols to draw a circuit containing two globes in

parallel with each other and with a battery. Place a switch
in the circuit to operate both lights at the same time.
13 There is a mistake in each of the circuit diagrams below.
Find the mistakes and then redraw the circuits correctly.
(a)
(b)
4 When a plastic rod is rubbed with a certain cloth, the rod

becomes positively charged. Predict the charge on the cloth.
5 State whether the following are true or false.
(a) Objects with like charges attract.
(b) Two neutral objects repel each other.
(c) Neutral objects contain both negative and positive
charges.
(d) Objects with an overall negative charge still contain
some positive charges.
(e) If two objects repel, they must be positively charged.
A
+
+
(c)
6 A plastic spoon that has just been dried with a tea towel is
placed near some pepper spilled on a kitchen bench. Some
of the pepper is attracted to the spoon and sticks to it.
Explain why this happens.
7 (a) As planes move through the air, they build up large
amounts of static electricity. Suggest how this happens.
(b) Before refuelling, a wire is used to connect the plane to
the ground. Explain why this is important.
8 Explain how you can tell where an electric eld is
strongest.
9 Imagine you are a tiny particle carrying a small positive
charge. Outline what will happen to you near a large:
(a) positive charge
(b) negative charge
(c) neutral object.
442
14 If a 9 V battery is used to power a circuit with four globes in

parallel to each other, how many volts of electrical energy
will each globe receive?
15 Why does a 12 W globe glow more brightly than a 24 W
globe when connected in parallel, even though the
electrons passing through each of them receive the same
amount of energy?
16 Using the correct symbols, draw this circuit as a circuit

diagram.
3 Identify which of the rows in the table below lists the series
and parallel circuits among those shown here.
Circuit 1
Circuit 2
Circuit 3
Circuit 4
Volts
10
15
3
15
3v
17 Catherine and Lauren used the circuit shown in the

diagram on page 431 to test ve materials labelled AE.
Their observations are shown in the table below.
Catherine and Laurens data
Material
Light globe (on or off)
Electric current (mA)
On
130
Off
Off
On
100
On
50
Series circuit(s)
(a) Identify which of materials A, B, C, D and E are

conductors. Explain how you know.
(b) Identify which of materials A, B, C, D and E are
insulators. Explain how you know.
(c) Identify which of the materials is the best conductor.
Explain how you know.
Parallel circuit(s)
Circuit 3
Circuits 1, 2, and 4
Circuits 2, 3 and 4
Circuit 1
Circuits 2, and 3
Circuits 1 and 4
Circuits 3, and 4
Circuits 1 and 2
(1 mark)
4 If switches X and Z in the circuit diagram below are closed,

identify the light globes that will be lit.
TEST YOURSELF
B
1 When a plastic rod is rubbed with a nylon cloth the rod

becomes positively charged. This is because the
A plastic rod has gained protons.
B nylon cloth has lost electrons.
C plastic rod has lost electrons.
D nylon cloth has gained neutrons.
(1 mark)
2 A battery is connected to two identical globes that are
connected in parallel. The current owing through one
globe is 400 mA. Identify which of the rows in the table
below shows the current through the battery and the
current through the other globe.
Current through the
battery (mA)
Current through the

other globe (mA)
400 mA
800 mA
400 mA
400 mA
800 mA
800 mA
800 mA
400 mA
Y
F
C
D
A
B
C
D
None
A, B and F
C, D and E
A, B, C, D and E
(1 mark)
5 Sams family is thinking of replacing their family car with

a hybrid vehicle. However, it is probably 30 per cent more
expensive than a comparable petrol-driven car. Outline
the advantages and disadvantages of purchasing a hybrid
vehicle. Make a judgement about whether Sams family
should buy the hybrid vehicle and support your opinion.
(6 marks)
work
sheets
(1 mark)
E
Z
16.8 Electricity puzzle

16.9 Electricity summary
16 Electricity 443
STUDY CHECKLIST
ICT
Electrostatic forces
eBook plus
outline the components of an atom 16.1

describe ways in which objects acquire an electrostatic
charge 16.1
describe the behaviour of charges when they are
brought close to each other 16.1
identify examples where the effects of electrostatic
forces can be observed 16.1
illustrate the electric eld around a charged object 16.1
SUMMARY
eLessons
Producing static electricity
Learn about static electricity, how it is created and the effect
that charged and uncharged objects have on each other when
they are put together. Watch static electricity produced by
charging perspex and ebonite rods. A worksheet is attached to
further your understanding.
Electrical energy
outline the essential parts of an electric circuit 16.2

compare conductors and insulators 16.2
dene the current and voltage in an electric circuit 16.2
compare series and parallel electric circuits 16.3
identify symbols used in circuit diagrams 16.2, 16.3
dene the terms series circuit and parallel
circuit 16.3
use circuit diagrams to represent simple series and
parallel circuits 16.3
identify the energy transfer taking place in an electric
circuit 16.2, 16.3
outline how an ammeter is used to measure current in
an electric circuit 16.3
outline how a voltmeter is used to measure voltage in an
electric circuit 16.3
outline how batteries provide circuits with electric
energy 16.3

The Australian International Model Solar Challenge
Learn about the exciting annual event where Australian high
school students compete by building and racing model cars and
boats that are powered by solar energy.

describe the principles that have been used in the
development of electric and hybrid vehicles
16.4
discuss the positive and negative effects of petrol-driven

vehicles and the new generation of electric and hybrid
vehicles 16.4
justify why society should support scientic research on
alternatives to petrol-driven vehicles 16.4
444
17
Staying healthy
The bacteria in this

photo might be small
but they can certainly
make you very sick.
Bacteria, viruses and fungi are examples
of micro-organisms that can cause
disease. Fortunately, medical science
has provided us with weapons against
some of these microbes in the form of
powerful medicines. Our body also has its
own defence mechanisms including the
skin. It s important to remember that only
a very small proportion of all microbes
are bad news. Some microbes are used
to make food products such as yoghurt
and cheese. Other microbes live on and in
our bodies and play an important role in
keeping us healthy.

17.1
distinguish between infectious and
non-infectious diseases
17.2
learn about bacteria and how to grow
them in the lab

17.3
describe examples of harmful and
beneficial microbes
17.4
learn about viruses
17.5
appreciate the importance of the
discovery of antibiotics as well

as some of their advantages and
disadvantages
17.6
describe the structure of the skin and
the important role it plays in keeping

us healthy
17.7
understand how skin cancer forms
and outline some discoveries by

Australian scientists to fight skin
cancer
17.8
learn about some careers in the field
of medical science.
Coloured electron
micrograph of
bacteria that cause
gas gangrene
17 Staying healthy
thinking about diseases
1. Copy the table below into your workbook. Work
with two or three other students to fill in the table
for 10 diseases.
2. Study the graph below. It shows the main causes of

death worldwide in 2002.
Maternal conditions (5 )
Other (5 )
Cardiovascular
disease (29 )
Injuries (9 )
Is this an
infectious
disease?(a)
Name of
disease
(a)
Which part of the body

does this disease
affect?
Infectious diseases are those you can catch from other people. They are
caused by microbes or other disease-causing organisms.
2. Some diseases are hereditary; they tend to run

in families. List as many examples of hereditary
diseases you can think of.
analysing disease data

1. Study the graph below. It shows the main causes of
death in Australia in 2005.
Disease
Coronary heart
disease
Stroke
Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease
Depression
Lung cancer
Dementia
Diabetes
Colorectal cancer
Asthma
Osteoarthritis
0
10
12
14
Main causes of death in Australia in 2005

Source: Australian Institute of Health & Welfare
(a) What were the three main causes of death in

Australia in 2005?
(b) Which of the diseases shown in the graph are
examples of lifestyle diseases (diseases caused
by lifestyle factors such as smoking, lack of
exercise and unhealthy eating habits)?
(c) Are there any infectious diseases shown in the
graph?
Cancer (13 )
Infectious diseases (19 : 45

in low-income African and
Asian countries; 63 among
children under 5 globally)
Respiratory and digestive

conditions (20 )
Main causes of death worldwide in 2002
(a) What percentage of people died from infectious

diseases:
(i) worldwide
(ii) in low-income African and Asian countries?
(b) Why do you think there is such a large
difference in the percentage of people who
died from infectious disease between wealthier
countries and poor countries?
(c) What percentage of children who died before
the age of 5 died of infectious diseases? Why is
this figure so high? (Hint: Think about the other
main causes of death and who they are likely to
affect.)
(d) Draw a column graph to represent the data
shown in the pie chart above.
(e) If the same data was collected for 2012 and
a similar graph drawn, how do think the two
graphs would differ? Give a reason for your
answer.
17.1
Catch us if you can

Diseases can be divided according to whether they are
infectious or non-infectious, as shown in the cluster
map below.
eBook plus
eLesson
Killing Australians
Learn about the leading causes of death in Australia.
eles-0069
Cystic fibrosis
Bovine spongiform
encephalopathy
(mad cow disease)
Colour blindness
Osteoporosis
Haemophilia
Anaemia
Influenza
Obesity
Measles
Goitre
Inherited
AIDS
Nutritional
Chickenpox
Depression
Schizophrenia
Viruses
Mental
Prions
Botulism
Tetanus
Tuberculosis
Lactose
intolerance
Chemical
(metabolic)
Non-infectious
Disease
Infectious
Cholera
Bacteria
Diabetes
Protozoa
Giardiasis
Drug
related
Accident
related
Malaria
Animals
Environmental
Cancer
Ageing
Louse
Fungi
Asbestos
related
Ringworm
Tapeworm
Heart
disease
Arthritis
Tinea
Liver fluke
Thrush
Stomach
Breast
Colon
17 Staying healthy
447
Infectious diseases are those that can be spread

or transferred from one organism to another. The
common cold, inuenza and chickenpox are examples
of infectious diseases.
Non-infectious diseases cannot be spread from one
person to another. Arthritis and diabetes are examples
of non-infectious diseases. You cannot catch them
from someone else.
Cant catch us!

The seven main types of non-infectious diseases are
related to:
nutrition, including overeating, undereating and
eating an unbalanced diet
ageing, the gradual breakdown of body tissues
cancer, the multiplication of body cells at an
abnormal rate
inherited disorders, which are passed on from your
parents genes
mental disorders, with a variety of causes including
chemical deciencies, stress and trauma
chemical deciencies that result in metabolic
disorders
environmental diseases resulting from exposure to
poisons, asbestos, re, accidents and drugs.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Distinguish between the causes of infectious and noninfectious diseases.
2 Recall seven types of non-infectious diseases.
3 Classify the following diseases as infectious or noninfectious.
ringworm, colon cancer, thrush, arthritis, cholera,
diabetes, osteoporosis, malaria, measles, depression,
anaemia, AIDS
4 Use the mind map on the previous page to distinguish
between the causes of:
(a) goitre and arthritis
(b) haemophilia and anaemia
(c) AIDS and malaria
(d) tinea and chickenpox.
THINK AND INVESTIGATE

5 Explain why nutritional diseases are not classied as
infectious diseases.
6 Until the middle of the twentieth century, infectious
diseases killed many more people than non-infectious
448
Catchy diseases
Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens (diseasecausing organisms). Some pathogens are large enough
to be seen without a microscope. Tapeworms, head
lice and liver ukes are examples of pathogens you
can see without a microscope. Most pathogens are
tiny and cannot be seen without a microscope. Many
diseases are caused by single-celled bacteria, protozoa
or fungi. Viruses and prions are not big enough to
be seen with a light microscope but they can cause
serious illness. AIDS is caused by a virus whereas mad
cow disease is caused by prions. When you catch a
disease from another person, the pathogen they are
carrying invades your body.
Head lice
are pathogens
that can be seen
without a microscope.
diseases. However, since about 1930, in the

developed countries of Australia, North America and
Europe, more people have died from non-infectious
diseases. Account for this change.
7 The biggest killer of Australians in 2006 was heart
disease. Explain how diseases of this kind, such as heart
attacks, might be related to nutrition.
INVESTIGATION
8 (a) Investigate the cause, symptoms and methods
of prevention for one of the following diseases:
osteoporosis, schizophrenia, haemophilia, anaemia,
arthritis, heart disease, lung cancer, skin cancer.
(b) Report your ndings back to your team or class in
a PowerPoint presentation, visual thinking tool or
poster.
(c) In your team, discuss with others any ways in
which the community or government may be
involved in reducing the impact or frequency of
these diseases.
9 Fatal familial insomnia is a disease caused by prions.
(a) Investigate the symptoms of this disease.
(b) Even though fatal familial insomnia is caused by
prions, it is also considered to be a hereditary
disease. Find out why.
17.2
Germs everywhere
They make you sick, they can
cripple you and even kill you. They
are more dangerous to human life
than sharks, crocodiles, snakes and
even other humans. On the other
hand, you couldn t live without
them. Some of them even live
inside your body. They are among
the smallest living things on the
planet. You know them as bacteria.
All organisms that are too small
to be seen without a microscope
are called microbes. Bacteria are
microbes made up of only one
cell. There are many different types
of bacteria. Some are helpful and
some relatively harmless, but some
can be fatal to humans. Bacteria
live in a variety of places, such as
in dirt, in water, inside your large
intestines and even underground.
Bacteria are among the earliest
life forms that appeared on Earth
billions of years ago. A typical
bacterium is about 1 micron in size
(a thousandth of a millimetre).
They can be rod-shaped, spherical
or spiral-shaped.
Bacteria reproduce by binary
fission; a single cell divides into
two cells. These two cells then
grow until they reach a certain
size. Each of them then divides
into two to produce four cells.
These four cells in turn divide to
produce eight cells. If the bacteria
are in ideal conditions, this process
can occur quite rapidly. In fact,
if a single bacterium is kept in a
moist environment, provided with
a supply of nutrients and kept at
the right temperature, it can give
rise to a colony of bacteria that is
so large it can be seen without a
microscope in just 24 hours.
Colonies of bacteria can be seen

on the agar. Colonies contain
thousands of bacteria. Each colony
is formed from one bacterium by
binary fission.
Bacteria reproduce by binary fission.
Microbiologists are scientists

who study microbes. They can
find out a lot about bacteria by
growing them on agar, which is a
jelly-like substance. (Some people
eat agar as a dessert.) The agar is
poured into a shallow dish called
a Petri dish and allowed to set.
Substances such as vegemite can be
added to the agar to help bacteria
grow. When microbiologists grow
bacteria that live in blood, they use
blood agar, which is a mixture of
blood and agar that sets like jelly.
To grow colonies of bacteria, a
very small amount is wiped onto
the surface of the agar; at this stage,
they cannot be seen. The agar plate
is then incubated; that is, it is left
in a cabinet that maintains the
optimum temperature for bacterial
growth. The bacteria divide over
and over by binary fission. After
one or two days, the agar plates
are removed from the incubator.
Colonies of bacteria on an agar plate
it is possible to grow bacteria on

gelatine (the substance that makes
jelly set). gelatine is not as suitable
as agar though because it melts
in hot weather and some bacteria
can digest gelatine and turn it into
liquid. these are the problems that
the microbiologist Walther Hesse
faced until he asked his wife how
she managed to make jellies that did
not melt in hot weather. Lina Hesse s
secret recipe was agar. She had got
the idea of using agar in her jellies
from a neighbour who had emigrated
from Java. Walther Hesse switched
from using gelatine to agar with great
success. this technique was then
adopted by robert Koch, a famous
microbiologist Hesse was working
with, and today agar is one of the most
common substances used to grow
bacteria.
17 Staying healthy
449
Pour the sample of water over the surface of the
INVESTIGATION 17.1
agar and swish it around. Seal and label the agar as

before.
Where are those germs?

You will need:
sterile cotton buds
nutrient agar plates in Petri dishes (3 per group)
sticky tape
marker pen
sterile Pasteur pipette
CAUTION Agar plates should not be opened after incubation.
Swipe a sterile cotton bud across a surface of your
choice (such as canteen counter, computer keyboard,

phone mouthpiece or bin lid).
Incubate the three plates upside down at 30 C for
48 hours. Remove the plates from the incubator and

observe the colonies of bacteria through the lid of the
Petri dishes (do not open the Petri dishes).
diScuSSioN
1
Draw a diagram of each Petri dish showing the

location and size of the colonies.
Colonies of bacteria tend to be smooth whereas

colonies of fungus appear furry and are often larger.
Do you have colonies of bacteria or fungi or both on
your plates?
Look at the other groups plates.

(a) Which of the surfaces tested by your class had the
most microbes? How can you tell?
(b) Which body part tested had the most microbes?
(c) Which of the water samples tested contained the
most microbes?
Explain why it would be dangerous to unseal the

agar plates and lift the lid to look at the colonies of
microbes.
Find out from your teacher how the plates are

disposed of safely at your school.
Design an experiment to test whether antibacterial

surface spray really does kill bacteria.
Swipe the cotton bud across the surface of the agar. Be
careful not to push down too hard. The cotton bud should
not leave a mark on the agar.
Use sticky tape to seal the plate around the edge.
Use a marker pen to write your group s name and where
you collected the sample from.

Use a different cotton bud to swipe a part of your body
(such as the inside of your nose, your teeth, inside your

ear or your scalp).
Swipe the cotton bud on the surface of the second agar
plate, then seal and label it as before.

Use the sterile Pasteur pipette to collect about 1 mL water
from a location of your choice (such as a fish tank, puddle,

local creek, school swimming pool or drain pipe).
Activities
reMeMber
1 define the term microbe .
Generation
Time
(min)
Number
of cells
2 List the three shapes that bacteria

can have.
40
3 outline how bacteria reproduce.
80
4 recall what bacteria need to grow

and reproduce.
120
160
200
5 What is agar? explain why it is an

ideal substance to grow bacteria
on.
tHiNK aNd aNaLYSe

6 Escherichia coli is a species of
bacteria. Under ideal conditions,
the generation time for E. coli is
40 minutes. That means that every
40 minutes the E. coli cells divide to
produce two cells.
450
(a) Copy and complete the table

below.
7
8
9
10
(b) construct a graph showing how
the number of cells changes
over time. Time should be on the
horizontal axis and the number

of cells on the vertical axis.
(c) describe the shape of the graph.
(d) deduce how long it would take
for a colony of E. coli to reach
over 2000 cells.
7 When microbiologists prepare
agar to grow bacteria, they boil
the agar mixture for a few minutes
to ensure that the agar is sterile
(free of microbes). explain why it is
important for the agar to be sterile.
iNveStigate
8 Robert Koch made some important
contributions to microbiology.
Research and summarise some
of Koch s discoveries in an
information report.
work
sheet
17.1 Classifying bacteria
17.3
The good, the bad and the ugly

Single-celled organisms such as
bacteria and some fungi can make
you seriously ill, make your teeth
rot and cause food to decay. Not
all micro-organisms are bad news
though. Some microbes are used
to make food, and others play
an important role in keeping us
healthy. Microbes are also involved
in the recycling of nutrients in
ecosystems.
the bad guys

Bacteria and other micro-organisms
are responsible for many diseases.
Some diseases caused by bacteria
include tetanus, pneumonia,
meningococcal meningitis, tooth
decay and some cases of sore
throat and ear infections. Bacteria
in food and water can cause food
poisoning and gastroenteritis. Even
pimples are caused by bacteria.
they feed on the nutrients in the

food. Storing food in the fridge
slows down its decay as the low
temperature slows down the growth
of bacteria. Another way to keep
food from rotting is to dry or freeze
it. If there is little water available,
or the water is frozen, bacteria
cannot reproduce and the food will
not decay. Microbes in food can
also be killed by high temperatures
or radiation. Canned food and
long-life milk have a long shelf
life because the microbes in these
foods have been killed by heat.
Bacteria and fungi are responsible for the

decay of food.
the good guys

The rash on this patient s legs is
caused by the bacteria responsible for
meningococcal meningitis.
Bacteria can also cause disease

in other animals and in plants.
Anthrax and mastitis are bacterial
diseases of cattle. Leaf blight and
spot, found in plants, are bacterial
diseases.
Micro-organisms are responsible
for the decay of food. The
microbes break down the food as
Microbes are involved in the

preparation of a range of foods.
Yeast (a fungus) is used to make
bread and most alcoholic drinks
including wine and beer. Yeast
converts glucose (a type of
sugar) into alcohol and carbon
dioxide gas. This is known as
fermentation. Without yeast,
wine and beer would not contain
alcohol. In bread, the alcohol
formed by the yeast evaporates as
the bread is cooked. The carbon
dioxide bubbles that form in the

fermentation process are important
though. They are the reason that
bread dough rises, and they make
bread light and fluffy.
Many dairy products including
yoghurt, cheese, butter and sour
cream are made using bacteria.
To produce yoghurt, the bacterial
species Streptococcus salivarius and
Lactobacillus delbbrueckii are added
to milk. The bacteria multiply
and produce lactic acid as a waste
product. The lactic acid causes a
protein in the milk to clump, so
the milk solidifies. Sometimes,
other species of bacteria, including
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus
casei and Bidobacterium are added
to the yoghurt to increase its health
benefits and improve the taste.
Even coffee and chocolate could
not be made without bacteria.
The tough outer coat of coffee
and cocoa beans is broken down
by bacteria and fungi as part of
the process of making coffee
and chocolate. Also, without the
action of bacteria, olives would be
inedible, pickles would be plain
cucumbers and sauerkraut would
simply be cabbage.
in the future, the dentist s drill might

be replaced by a spray of bacteria
or a vaccine. tooth decay is caused
by a bacterium called Streptococcus
mutans. a vaccine against this
bacterium would greatly reduce the
incidence of tooth decay. certain
bacteria can prevent the growth of
S. mutans. Mouthwashes or sprays that
contain good bacteria may one day be
used to control tooth decay.
17 Staying healthy
451
Many of the microbes that live

on or in our bodies help to keep
us healthy. The bacteria that grow
on our skin produce acid and
make our skin slightly acidic. This
prevents the growth of diseasecausing bacteria. Bacteria in our
intestine help to break down some
of the complex carbohydrates
in the food we eat and produce
important vitamins. Exposure to
certain bacteria may also help
strengthen the immune system
that fights disease. For this reason,
some people regularly eat food
that contains the right type of
bacteria, such as yoghurt with a
live bacterial culture.
INVESTIGATION 17.2
preserving apples
You will need:
small apple cubes (peeled)
test tubes
range of substances to test
(such as water, ethanol,
sugar solutions of different
concentrations, vinegar,
salt solutions of different
concentrations)
Pour a sample of each of
the solutions you are testing

into a separate test tube. For
example, you could put water
in test tube 1, ethanol in test
tube 2 etc.
Place one apple cube in each
test tube.
Set up one additional test
tube containing only an apple

cube.
Bacteria and fungi

in soil break down
dead animal and plant
material to provide the
nutrients that plants
need to grow.
452
Activities
reMeMber
1 identify some diseases caused
by bacteria.
2 identify the bacteria that cause
tooth decay.
3 Name five foods that are
produced using bacteria.
diScuSSioN
tHiNK
Write an aim for this

experiment.
Design a table to record

your observations for each
apple cube in each lesson
for the next two weeks.
4 explain why plants and animals

would eventually die if all
bacteria were suddenly killed.
Some yoghurts contain live bacteria.
Bacteria and fungi are also

important in the cycling of
nutrients in ecosystems. They
decompose (break down) dead
animals and plants as well as the
urine and faeces produced by
animals, and return the chemicals
to the soil and air. Without
microbes, the soil would be
depleted of nutrients, and plants
would soon cease growing.
people who are obese have a different

mix of bacteria in their gut from thin
people. it is not known whether the
type of diet that leads to obesity also
promotes the growth of one type
of bacteria in the gut over another
or whether the bacteria affect the
amount of energy a person can absorb
from the food they eat.
bacteria make up about 30 per cent
of the weight of faeces.
Each lesson, record any

changes to the pieces of
apple. Take note of the
colour, the presence of mould
and any other signs of decay.
Which substance best

preserved the apple
pieces (stopped them from
decaying)?
Why do you think certain

substances can preserve
food?
Which test tube was the

control?
List some examples of

foods that are preserved
using:
(a) salt
(b) sugar
(c) alcohol
(d) vinegar.
5 explain why it is important to

wash your hands after using
the toilet and before eating.
6 Design an experiment to
investigate which conditions
cause bread to go mouldy
fastest.
iNveStigate
7 Long-life milk lasts for months
at room temperature until it is
opened. Find out the process
involved in making milk long
life . Does the process affect
the nutritional value of the milk?
8 Research a bacterial disease.
Summarise your findings in a
report with the headings Cause ,
Symptoms and Treatment .
9 Find out what probiotics are
and why some people add
probiotics to their diet.
work
sheet
17.2 The good and the bad
17.4
Viruses
living or not?
Viruses are able to infect us and

take over our cell machinery to
make more of themselves. Except
by their effects on our bodies,
we cannot detect their presence
without advanced technology.
using others for

their needs
cell-less
Viruses do not have cells like
animals, plants, fungi and bacteria.
They do not have a nucleus,
membrane or cytoplasm. They do,
however, contain substances found
only in living cells. Viruses consist
of a protein box, containing a tiny
strand of a substance found in the
cell nucleus of living cells. This
substance is called nucleic acid. The
nucleic acid holds the instructions
for making new viruses.
Some of the shapes of viruses
are shown below.
Tobacco mosaic
virus
Influenza
virus
When they are inside living cells,

viruses act as if they are alive.
When they are outside living
cells, they do not display the
characteristics of living things.
They can be isolated and
crystallised in a similar way to
chemical compounds. Some
scientists classify viruses as nonliving because they cannot function
independently. A virus may lie
dormant for many years. Then,
when it comes in contact with a
suitable living cell, it invades the
cell and forces it to make hundreds
of new virus particles. When
the cell dies, it bursts open and
releases the new particles, which
may then infect other cells.
Bacteriophage
Cold sore
virus
The viruses that cause influenza

(the flu) and the common cold
leave the bodies of infected people
in droplets of mucus. The shiny
spray that flies out with a sneeze
is packed with virus particles that
you may inhale. These droplets
may be transferred to a tissue or
the hands of the person with the
virus, or to a door handle or a lift
button. If you touch your eyes,
nose or mouth before washing
your hands, you can transfer the
virus to a mucous membrane
where it can invade your cells and
multiply.
Some types of virus can live
outside the body for a surprisingly
long time, which explains how
people can catch a virus without
a face-to-face meeting with a sick
person.
curing a viral illness
350 nm
100 nm
aaaachoooooo!
100 nm
150 nm
Polio virus
Adenovirus
12 nm
25 nm
Foot-and-mouth
virus
10 nm
Shapes of some common viruses. Did you know that a nanometre (nm) is equal to a
millionth of a millimetre?
These viruses
destroy the
leaves of
tobacco plants.
The red objects

are the viruses
that cause
AIDS.
Antibiotics kill bacteria, but they do

not kill viruses. Many antibiotics
work by disrupting the cell walls
of the bacteria. Viruses don t even
have a cell wall. So, antibiotics
will not cure the common cold or
the flu because they are caused by
viruses. The job of ridding your
body of the cold and flu viruses
is left to your body s own immune
system.
The best defences against
viruses are to keep your hands
clean, avoid touching your eyes
or picking your nose, and
maintain a healthy immune
system by eating healthily, keeping
a positive frame of mind and
getting enough sleep.
17 Staying healthy
453
the SarS virus

The SARS virus is a very nasty flu-like virus, that hit
the headlines in 2003. It causes fever, headache and
difficulty in breathing. SARS stands for severe acute
respiratory syndrome. The first victim of the virus was
a 48-year-old businessman who had travelled from the
Guangdong Province in China, through Hong Kong,
to Vietnam. The businessman died of the disease and
so did the doctor, Dr Carlo Urbani, who diagnosed
the virus as a new one.
The virus spread rapidly and, within weeks, had
infected thousands of people around the world. To
try to reduce the spread of the virus, schools were
closed throughout Hong Kong and Singapore.
people. Fortunately, people with SARS showed flu-like

symptoms very early on, which made it easy to spot
victims, treat them and isolate them. If a virus takes a
long time to produce symptoms, it is more difficult to
prevent the virus from spreading.
Activities
reMeMber
1 define the term nucleic acid . Where is nucleic acid
found?
2 outline how viruses are similar to non-living chemical
compounds.
3 outline how viruses are similar to living cells.
4 describe how the flu virus is passed from one person
to another.
5 recall whether antibiotics are effective against
viruses.
6 What does SARS stand for?
tHiNK aNd reaSoN

7 explain the statement Viruses cannot function
independently .
8 (a) Use the information on the previous page to
construct a column graph that shows the names of
the different types of virus on the vertical axis and
their size on the horizontal axis.
(b) identify the virus that is:
(i) the biggest
(ii) the smallest.
(c) classify the viruses into groups on the basis of:
(i) their size
(ii) their shape.
(d) construct a classification key (see pages 89 91)
for the viruses shown on the previous page.
Artist s impression of the SARS virus (with the red spikes)
invading a host cell, so that it can replicate itself
At the same time, scientists around the world

worked frantically to find out how the virus was
spreading. Chinese scientists did experiments that
showed the virus could live for five days outside
the body in a drop of saliva. Another study showed
the virus survived a stint of more than 24 hours
on a plastic surface. German scientists found that
household cleaners did not kill the virus, which
meant that disinfecting hospitals with everyday
cleaning fluids would not stop the virus spreading.
In the end, the spread of the virus was stopped
by isolating the people who had caught it and
preventing them from having contact with other
454
9 explain why washing your hands frequently can

reduce the risk of catching diseases such as the flu.
10 explain why it is more difficult to control the spread of
viruses that take a long time to produce symptoms.
iNveStigate
11 Find out more about some of the diseases that viruses
cause. Summarise your information in a poster.
12 Find out about the special measures that were taken
at airports to control the spread of SARS at the height
of the epidemic.
13 What is bird flu? Can it be transmitted to humans?
work
sheet
17.3 Viruses
17.5
preScribed focuS area

A weapon against germs

One hundred years ago, many
children died both from infectious
diseases and bacterial infections.
A small scratch was sometimes
enough to allow deadly bacteria to
enter the body and cause swelling,
the formation of pus and severe
pain. Children born today can
avoid the harsh consequences of
many bacterial infections.
Today, we take antibiotics to avoid

the harsh consequences of bacterial
infections. These photographs of a young
patient in 1942 show how serious an
infection can be. After being treated with
penicillin, the patient s condition improved
and she recovered fully.
an accidental discovery
The first antibiotic to be used
successfully to treat a patient was
penicillin. Alexander Fleming
discovered the antibacterial
properties of penicillin by accident.

He had been growing bacteria on
agar plates, and when he went on
holidays he forgot that he had left
some open agar plates on a bench
near a window sill. When Fleming
came back from his holiday, he
noticed that mould was growing
on some of the plates. No bacteria
had grown around the mould but
the rest of the plates were covered
with bacteria. He concluded that
the mould must be producing a
substance that prevents the growth
of bacteria. He called the substance
penicillin, but he was not able to
extract it, so it could not yet be
used to treat bacterial infections.
he was knighted in 1944. His

likeness appeared on an Australian
$50 banknote and a suburb of
Canberra was named after him.
Howard Florey
the australian connection
Scientists working in teams
It was a team of scientists, led

by an Australian named Howard
Florey, that discovered how to
extract penicillin. Howard Florey
was born in Adelaide in South
Australia in 1898. He was a keen
student who loved sport and
chemistry. He studied medicine at
the University of Adelaide where
he won a Rhodes scholarship to
Oxford University, England. While
in England he led the team that
finally extracted penicillin in 1940.
In 1945 he shared his Nobel Prize
with Alexander Fleming and Ernst
Chain. In speaking of his discovery,
he modestly stated, All we did was
to do some experiments and have
the luck to hit on a substance with
astonishing properties.
Penicillin was so successful in
saving lives that population control
became an issue for medical
researchers. Florey later worked on
contraception research. In honour
of his contribution to medicine,
In the 1940s, it was unusual for

scientists to work in teams. Yet
Howard Florey gathered together
a group of experts and divided the
problem up so each one worked
in an area that best suited their
talents. The researchers and their
responsibilities were as follows:
Ernst Chain shared the
Nobel prize for the discovery
of penicillin. Chain found
Fleming s notes and brought
them to the attention of the
team. He worked with Edward
Abrahams looking for ways to
purify penicillin.
Norman Heatley used ether and
bedpans to develop ways to
extract penicillin.
AD Gardner and Jena Orr-Ewing
worked together to see how
organisms reacted to penicillin.
Margaret Jennings worked with
Florey to conduct animal trials
of the substance. Their most
important test was conducted
17 Staying healthy
455
on Saturday 24 May 1940. They

gave eight mice a lethal dose
of streptococcus bacteria. They
then gave four mice penicillin.
Within 24 hours these four had
recovered while the four control
mice were dead. They knew they
had something worth telling the
world about.
Ethel Florey worked with her
husband on the clinical trials of
penicillin.
Albert Alexander was the
first human to be treated with
penicillin. He had been scratched
by a rose thorn, and his face was
so terribly swollen with a bacterial
infection that his only remaining
eye had to be lanced. He was given
penicillin and started to recover,
but unfortunately not enough
penicillin was available to control
his horrendous infection and he
died. Florey s team then worked
hard to make large quantities
of penicillin. The war in Europe
meant there was little financial
support for their work. However,
Fleming went to America and
got assistance to begin mass
production of the drug, and it was
used to treat wounded soldiers in
the last months of World War II.
456
There are some problems with

penicillin: a small percentage of
the population is allergic to
penicillin; and an increasing
number of bacteria have developed
resistance to penicillin. When
penicillin was first discovered, it
was effective against many bacterial
species. It is now common for a
patient to show no improvement
after taking penicillin to treat a
bacterial infection. New antibiotics
such as streptomycin and sulfur
drugs have been developed, but
bacteria are rapidly developing
resistance to these too. The
antibiotic vancomycin is currently
the last resort. It is used to treat
only bacterial infections that have
shown no improvement with all
other antibiotics. Unfortunately,
some bacteria are developing
resistance to vancomycin so it is
important for scientists to continue
the search for new antibiotics.
Antibiotics kill or prevent the
growth of disease-causing bacteria.
However, they also affect friendly
Activities
reMeMber
Miracle cure-all?
1 define the term antibiotics .
Initially penicillin had to be

injected in the bloodstream, as
natural penicillin is destroyed by
stomach acid. Today, it is possible
to treat many infections by
taking syrup or tablets containing
chemicals derived from penicillin.
These chemicals are not broken
down by stomach acid. Once the
penicillin reaches the bloodstream,
it works by stopping bacteria
from forming cell walls as they try
to divide. This is why penicillin
is useful for treating bacterial
infections only; it is powerless
against viruses. A case of the flu or
chickenpox, both viral infections,
cannot be cured with antibiotics.
2 recall what produces penicillin.
3 recall who discovered penicillin.

4 outline the role that Howard Florey
played in the development of
penicillin as a drug.
5 explain how penicillin works.
tHiNK
6 describe what would have happened
if you had an ear infection before
antibiotics were invented.
7 Why are antibiotics prescriptiononly medicines? (Prescription
medicines can be purchased only
from a chemist if you have a written
prescription for that particular
medicine from a doctor.) discuss
In these photographs, bacteria were

grown in penicillin for 30 minutes. The
bacteria grow longer as shown at (b), but
eventually rupture (d), unable to divide due
to the influence of the penicillin.
bacteria, such as the bacteria found

in your intestines. That is why
taking antibiotics sometimes causes
problems including diarrhoea and
stomach aches. Eating yogurt or
other food containing friendly
bacteria can help reduce the side
effects of antibiotics.
whether antibiotics should be

available without a prescription.
8 What precautions must we all take
to ensure that antibiotics remain
useful to us?
9 assess whether Florey would have
been successful in extracting
penicillin if he had been working
on his own rather than as part of a
team. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of working in a team?
iNveStigate
10 Meningococcal meningitis is a
bacterial infection. investigate why
people can die from this disease
despite antibiotics being readily
available in hospitals.
11 Use the internet to find out more
about Nobel prize winners.
work
sheet
17.4 Penicillin
17.6
Skin deep
Your skin plays an important role in keeping you healthy. As well as
holding the insides of your body in, it also:
protects your body from microbes that could cause disease
is almost completely waterproof
protects the inside of your body from chemicals and harmful radiation
from the sun
detects heat, cold, pain, pressure and movement
helps control your body temperature
forms vitamin D in sunlight
releases water and other waste products.
Your skin varies in thickness between about 0.5 millimetres and
5 millimetres. The thickest part is on the soles of your feet. Skin consists
of three layers.
Layer of dead skin
Sebaceous
gland
Hair
Pore
Epidermis
Pain receptor
Light-contact receptor
Heat receptor
Dermis
Sweat gland
Cold receptor
Pressure receptor
Fatty layer
Movement receptor
Nerve
When you get hot, it is important

that your body cools itself down so
the blood remains at its constant
temperature of about 37 C. Your
sweat glands produce a liquid that
is released through the pores at the
surface of your skin. When the water
in your sweat evaporates, it takes
some of the heat out of your body.
are you ticklish?

Are you more ticklish on some
parts of your skin than others?
Below the surface of your skin
there are many receptors, which are
attached to nerves. The nerves send
messages to the brain. There are
different receptors for heat, cold,
light contact, pain, pressure and
movement. They are all receptors
to the sense of touch.
The light-contact receptors are
nearer to the surface and closer
together in some parts of your
skin than others. It is those parts
that are most sensitive to tickling.
Some parts of the skin are also
more sensitive to pain, heat, cold,
pressure and movement than
others. Your sensitivity depends
a lot on how close together the
receptors are to each other and how
deep they are.
Blood vessels
The skin is divided into three layers.
The epidermis is the top layer. It contains several layers of cells. At the
very top is a layer of dead skin cells, which flake off continually. At the
bottom of the epidermis, new cells are always being produced. They push
upwards on the older cells, moving them towards the surface. Below the
epidermis is the dermis, which contains receptors for the sense of touch.
It also contains sweat glands and many small blood vessels. Beneath the
dermis is a thicker layer of fatty tissue, which acts as an insulator to help
keep the body temperature constant. This fat has been stored by the body
and can be used when needed to provide extra energy.
Sweat doesn t actually smell until it is

consumed by the bacteria that live on
the surface of your skin. the regions
around your armpits and external sex
organs are warm and moist, providing
ideal conditions for bacteria to grow
and feed on the sweat. this is why
these areas can get smelly.
17 Staying healthy
457
Activities
INVESTIGATION 17.3
Where is the skin most sensitive to light contact?
reMeMber
You will need:

2 toothpicks
ruler
2 rubber bands
blindfold
1 recall the six different types of

touch receptors.
2 The skin is an important
organ because it contains
the receptors for the sense of
touch. outline other reasons
why your skin is important to
you.
3 distinguish between the
epidermis and the dermis.
Can you feel one point or two?
Draw a table like the one below in your workbook.

Use rubber bands to attach two toothpicks to a ruler so that they are 2 cm
apart.
Blindfold your partner. Gently touch your partner s inside forearm with the
points of the two toothpicks.

Ask your partner whether two points were felt. Move one toothpick towards
the other in small steps until your partner is unable to feel both points. To
make sure that there is no guesswork, use just one point from time to time.
Record the distance between the toothpicks when your partner can feel
only one point when there are really two points in contact.
Repeat this procedure on the palm of one hand, a calf (back of lower leg),
a finger and the back of the neck.

Swap roles with your partner and repeat the experiment.
Where is your skin most sensitive?

Distance (cm) between two points
when only one point is felt
Part of the skin
Your partner
You
4 explain how sweat cools

you down when your body
gets hot.
5 Summarise your answers to
questions 1 4 in a concept
map.
tHiNK
6 deduce why the thickest part of
your skin is on the soles of your
feet.
7 explain why some parts of your
skin, such as the back of your
hand, are more sensitive to
heat than others.
8 How do the movement
receptors receive a sensation
of movement when they are
well below the surface of the
skin?
Inside forearm
Palm of hand
iNveStigate
Calf
9 With a partner, play a guessing

game to see how well you
can use your sense of touch
alone to identify 10 unknown
objects.
You will need a blindfold
and 10 objects of about the
same size. Sandpaper, plastic,
coins and pieces of carpet,
polystyrene, nylon and wool
would be ideal. See who
can identify the most objects
correctly.
Finger
Back of neck
diScuSSioN
458
Which touch receptors were being used in this experiment?
Which area of the skin was most sensitive?
Which area of the skin was least sensitive?
Suggest why the skin is not equally sensitive all over the body.
Which parts of the skin are likely to have the most light-contact
receptors?
Suggest further experiments to investigate light-contact receptors more

closely.
17.7
Skin cancer
Skin cancer is the most common
form of cancer in Australia. In fact,
two out of three Australians are
likely to get skin cancer at some
time during their lives. The most
serious forms of skin cancer are
responsible for about 1000 deaths
each year in Australia.
What causes skin

cancer?
The main cause of skin cancer is
exposure to the sun. The ultraviolet
radiation reaching Earth from
the sun is not visible. Ultraviolet
radiation, which is also the cause
of sunburn, is at its peak in the
middle of the day when the sun
is directly overhead. Ultraviolet
radiation causes cancer in the cells
of the epidermis, the top layer of
the skin, because it damages the
cells genetic material, called DNA.
prevention is better
than cure
To avoid getting skin cancer, follow
the following simple steps:
1. Avoid going out in the sun in
the middle of the day (11 am
3 pm), particularly in summer.
2. Wear a shirt with sleeves and a
hat when outside.
3. Wear a broad spectrum
sunscreen labelled 30+ or higher.
The three main types of skin cancer

Squamous cell carcinoma
eBook plus
eLesson
A cure?
Learn about the revolutionary new
Australian trials to nd a vaccine for skin
cancer.
eles-0070
less common and more dangerous

than basal cell carcinoma
appears as a red, scaly sore

usually found on the hands,
forearms, face and neck, but can

spread to other parts of the body
mostly affects people over 40 who
have been exposed to the sun for
many years
kills about 200 Australians each
year
Basal cell carcinoma
most common form of skin cancer

and also the least dangerous
appears as a red, flaky lump on the

skin
rarely spreads to other parts of the
body but needs to be treated before

it grows large or forms a deep sore
Melanoma
As the bodys cells die, new cells

are made to replace them. in a
healthy person, just the right number
of new cells are formed using a
process called cell division. if cells
become damaged, they can multiply
out of control. cells keep dividing
over and over until a mass of cells
called a tumour is formed. the cells
in a tumour are not specialised.
they cannot do the job of the cells
they are replacing. for example,
brain cancer cells cannot work like
normal brain cells. Some tumours
are malignant. that means they can
spread to other parts of the body.
An Australian drug company called
peplin has developed a gel made
from a common weed called
Euphorbia peplus, which has been
used successfully to treat some
skin cancers. the plant contains
a cancer-fighting chemical. peplin
has found a way of extracting this
chemical from the plant and making
it into a gel that can be applied to
skin cancers. When the gel was
tested, it cleared most skin lesions
after just two days.
early detection
The key to curing skin cancer is
early detection. Even melanomas
can be cured in more than 95 per
cent of patients if they are detected
quickly. If you see a new lump or
spot, or a changing freckle or mole,
see a doctor promptly.
least common but most dangerous form of skin cancer

first sign is a change in size, shape or colour of a freckle or mole, or the
appearance of a new spot on normal skin
can spread quickly to other parts of the body

most common in adults aged between 30 and 50 years, usually caused by long
periods of exposure to the sun during childhood and adolescence

about 800 each year in Australia
cause of the most deaths from skin cancer
17 Staying healthy
459
Some questions about fun in the sun

Q: Is a suntan healthy?
A: No. A suntan is evidence that
you have been exposed to the
sun for too long. A suntan
will not protect you from skin
cancer. Fake suntan lotions do
not offer protection from skin
cancer either.
Q: Do I need to worry about

sunburn or skin cancer when
it s cloudy?
A: Yes. Although clouds block
out a lot of the sun s visible
light, they do not block
out enough ultraviolet
radiation to protect your skin
completely, especially during
summer. The graphs below
show that light cloud cover
has little effect on the harmful
ultraviolet radiation reaching
the ground on a summer s
day in Sydney. Heavy
cloud, however, decreases
the amount of ultraviolet
radiation reaching the ground
by over 90 per cent.
Q: Do I need to use sunscreen

when I wear a hat?
A: Yes. The sun s radiation is
reflected from the ground and
from water. Snow and sand
reflect a lot of radiation, even
on cloudy days. In addition,
many hats, including baseball
hats, do not protect you
from direct radiation. Widebrimmed hats or legionnaire
hats provide the best
protection because they shade
the neck and ears.
Q: What does SPF 30+ mean?

A: SPF stands for sun
protection factor. It allows
you to estimate how long
you can stay in the sun
before your skin starts to
go red. This period can be
estimated by multiplying the
amount of time that it takes
your skin to redden by the
SPF factor. For example, if
your unprotected skin starts
to burn after 10 minutes in
the hot sun, proper use

of SPF 4 sunscreen would
allow you to remain in the
sun for 10 4 = 40 minutes
before burning starts. After
that 40 minutes, you would
burn, even with more
sunscreen applied. An SPF
water-resistant 30+ sunscreen
reapplied every 2 hours
would allow you to remain
in the sun for at least
10 30 = 300 minutes
before burning starts.
SPF 30+ sunscreen blocks
out about 97 per cent of the
sun s radiation.
Q: What does broad spectrum

mean?
A: The Cancer Council NSW
recommends a broad
spectrum SPF 30+ sunscreen.
Broad spectrum sunscreens
offer protection from the
three different types of
ultraviolet radiation: UVA,
UVB and UVC.
ltraviolet radiation throughout the day
Extreme
Very high
Heavy cloud
High
Light cloud
Moderate
9.00 am
11.00 am
1.00 pm
Cloud-free day
3.00 pm
5.00 pm
9.00 am
11.00 am
1.00 pm
3.00 pm
Cloudy day
These graphs show how the ultraviolet radiation reaching the ground changes on a typical summer day in Sydney.
460
5.00 pm
Activities
reMeMber
1 identify the most serious form
of skin cancer and outline how it
is caused.
2 distinguish between a benign
tumour and a malignant tumour.
3 recall which part of the sun s
radiation is the major cause of skin
cancer and sunburn.
4 identify the most dangerous time of
day to be out in the sun.
5 outline what you should look for on
the skin when checking for signs of
skin cancer.
6 outline five ways that you can help
protect yourself from skin cancer.
iNveStigate aNd deSigN
(b) Which age groups of females

are mostly affected by
melanoma?
(c) Does melanoma appear to be
more common in males or in
females over the age of 50?
Why do you think this is the
case?
13 Design and carry out a survey

(consisting of a series of questions)
to investigate whether people
of different age groups protect
themselves from the danger of skin
cancer by wearing hats, shirts and
sunscreens. By sharing your data
with other members of your class,
you may be able to form a sound
conclusion.
create aNd deSigN

11 Design a colourful poster that
would encourage people to protect
themselves from the sun s harmful
radiation.
work
sheet
17.5 Skin
12 Design and construct a multipurpose

hat that shades the head and has
at least one other purpose. Give
your multipurpose hat a name.
Prepare an advertising brochure
and instruction manual for your hat.
tHiNK
7 Melanomas occur mostly in adults
over the age of 30. explain why it is
so important that young children
and adolescents are aware of the
dangers of the sun s radiation.
Age
)
y
( ears
Age distribution of melanoma

in New South Wales
2003 to 2005
85 +
80 84
8 Daniel has very pale, sensitive skin

that begins to burn after only eight
minutes in the summer sun. He
goes to the beach and takes a tube
of SPF 6 sunscreen with him.
(a) If he doesn t go swimming,
calculate how long he would
be able to sit in the sun before
getting burned, assuming
that he applies his sunscreen
correctly.
(b) If he used SPF 15+ sunscreen
instead, would he be safe
sitting in the sun all day? Justify
your answer.
75 79
70 74
65 69
60 64
55 59
50 54
45 49
40 44
35 39
30 34
25 29
20 24
9 Kimberley is planning to play a

game of tennis with a friend on a
warm summer s day. What should
she take with her to protect her
skin from the sun?
15 19
10 14
tHiNK aNd reaSoN
5 9
0 4
10 extract the answers to the

following questions from the
graphs at right.
(a) Which age groups of males are
most affected by melanoma?
15
0
0
10
5
ales
e of m
g
a
t
n
e
Perc
5
10
15
es
emal
e of f
g
a
t
n
e
Perc
Source: NSW Central Cancer Registry
17 Staying healthy
461
17.8
preScribed focuS area

Healthy careers
Most of us are familiar with a small number of
careers in health and medicine, including nursing,
pharmacy, dentistry and general medicine. However,
a staff list for a hospital or medical research
centre would show you that there are many more
careers dedicated to getting people back to health.
Numerous scientists work in the field of medicine
and play an important role in identifying the causes
of diseases and developing and testing treatments.
Scientists playing detective

Medical pathologists are scientists who study
disease. They do tests to determine the cause of a
disease. If you go to a doctor s surgery or hospital
and have a sample of blood taken, a pathologist
will organise technicians to run tests on the blood
sample and prepare a report on the results of
the tests. Pathologists also test tissue samples. If
you had a mole removed, a pathologist would
determine if the mole was harmless or a type of skin
cancer likely to spread to other parts of your body.
During surgery, a surgeon often sends body tissue
to pathology. The results of pathology tests help the
surgeon decide whether to finish the operation or
keep looking for other things that might be wrong
with the patient.
Some pathologists do post-mortem examinations
( postmortem means after death ). A post-mortem
examination is done if the cause of a person s
death is unclear. The pathologist examines and
tests the organs to determine the cause of death.
Forensic pathologists are called in when foul play
is suspected. They collect evidence that may lead
to the conviction of criminals. In reality, only a
small proportion of post-mortem examinations are
concerned with solving crimes.
Medical scientists
Many scientists carry out research in the field of
medicine. Some are employed by drug companies to
develop and test new drugs to treat diseases. Others
work for government agencies and universities on
particular diseases. Teams of Australian scientists
are currently trying to find cures for certain types of
cancers and developing new vaccines.
462
Australian contributions to medical science

A team of scientists led by Howard Florey discovered how
penicillin could be extracted, purified and produced (see
pages 455 6) and, recently, and an Australian company
has developed a treatment for some skin cancers (see
page 459). Some other contributions to medical science by
Australian scientists are summarised below.
Aspro, the fizzy headache tablets,
were invented by the Australian
Chemist George Nicholas. Aspirin
itself had been developed earlier
by the German company Bayer, but
it was Nicholas who first produced
the convenient Aspro tablets in
Melbourne between 1915 and 1917.
By the 1940s, it had become the
world s leading headache treatment.
An Australian scientist
developed Aspro tablets.
Dr Fiona Wood pioneered the development of spray-on

skin to treat burns patients, including victims of the Bali
bombing in 2002. She started a company that makes the
spray-on skin using the patient s own skin cells. It can
be applied to burnt areas of the body or to scars. It is
also used in cosmetic surgery. The main advantage of
spray-on skin is that it reduces scarring. She was named
Australian of the Year in 2005.
Before the 1990s, it was widely believed that painful stomach
ulcers were caused by stress. In 1982, Barry Marshall and
Robin Warren showed that bacteria called Helicobacter
pylori cause stomach ulcers and that it was possible to
treat ulcers successfully with antibiotics. To prove that
these bacteria cause ulcers, Barry Marshall swallowed the
bacteria and soon developed symptoms associated with the
formation of a stomach ulcer. Both scientists were awarded
a Nobel prize in 2005 for their discovery.
Robin Warren and
Barry Marshall
were awarded
a Nobel prize
for their work
on the cause
and treatment of
stomach ulcers.
The world s first vaccine against cervical cancer is also

an Australian invention. It was developed by Professor
Ian Frazer in the 1990s and was first approved for use in
countries including the USA and Australia in 2006. The
vaccine protects against a virus that is the cause of many
cases of cervical cancers.
Activities
CAREER PROFILES
REMEMbER
1 Describe the work of a medical
pathologist.
2 Explain why post-mortem
examinations are sometimes
done by pathologists.
Name: Arianne Lee
Job title: Clinical trials assistant
Field of science: Medical clinical
research
First interest in science

Arianne s interest in science
was first sparked in grade four,
after learning about famous
scientists from the past. She
has always been fascinated
by how relevant science is to
everyday life.
Some time ago, Arianne was
a patient in clinical trials for
asthma medication and has
since taken an interest in the
health sciences. Her father s
work in the pharmaceutical
industry has also given her an
interest in this field of science.
The job
Arianne is a link between a
research company that tests
pacemakers and the hospitals
that run the tests. She decides
who will test the pacemakers
and in which hospitals.
Arianne seeks permission from
ethics committees before any
tests are conducted. These
committees decide whether
the tests are appropriate and
also make sure that proper
procedures will be followed.
After collecting data from the
clinical tests, she reports on the
results.
Study
Arianne has a Bachelor of
Science. Her major areas are
physiology and pharmacology.
These areas are related to
human biology and chemistry.
Name: Paula Fisher

Job title: Laboratory scientist
Field of science: Histology
Paula Fisher is a histologist.

Histology is the study of the
cells and tissues that make up
animals, including humans.
Histologists look at small
samples of cells and tissues
under microscopes.
The job
Cancer is a condition where
cells grow abnormally.
Each year, many people are
diagnosed with cancer. Experts
agree that the earlier treatment
starts, the better the chances of
survival.
Paula and her team
help engineers to design
machines. Their machines
make diagnosing cancer a
much faster process. Paula s
job requires her to run the
machines and make sure that
the cells are clear and easy to
see. This makes diagnosing
cancer more accurate as well as
faster.
Study
Paula enjoyed biology and
chemistry at high school. She
studied Applied Science at
university and followed this
up with a Graduate Diploma
in Medical Laboratory Science.
Many universities require
students wanting to get into
this field to have studied
chemistry and one other
science, usually physics or
biology.
3 What medical trials did Arianne

participate in herself?
THINK
4 Which sciences would you
need to study in senior school
to become a histologist?
5 Identify what the two
professions described on this
page have in common.
6 In groups of two or three, make
a list of the skills and other
qualities people in the health
sciences need.
7 Working with two or three other
students, make a list of at least
20 careers that relate to health.
For each career, explain in one
sentence what that particular
occupation involves.
8 Would doctors have prescribed
antibiotics to treat a stomach
ulcer before it was discovered
that stomach ulcers were
caused by a bacterial infection?
INvESTIgATE
9 Interview a person who works
in a health-related profession.
Summarise the interview in
a report with the following
headings.
(a) Name
(b) Occupation
(c) Place of work
(d) A typical day at work
(e) Personal attributes required
for this occupation
(f) Study required for this
profession
10 Find out what ingredients make
Aspro tablets fizz in water.
17 Staying healthy
463
LOOKING BACK
1 Use the table below to answer the following questions.
Major causes of death in Australia
Year: 1919
20% pneumonia
10% heart disease
8% tuberculosis
7% accidents
5% cancer
4% stroke
Year: 2001
29% cancer
21% heart disease
9% stroke
5% asthma, emphysema, bronchitis
4% accidents
2% diabetes
2% pneumonia and inuenza
(a) Account for the fact that the percentage of people

dying from diseases such as pneumonia has decreased
greatly since 1919.
(b) Explain why the percentage of people dying from heart
disease has increased so much.
(c) What new additions to major causes of death are listed
in 2001?
(d) Explain why you think each of the diseases in part (c)
has emerged as a major killer.
(e) Account for the fact that accidental deaths have
decreased so much.
2 Charlotte wanted to find out if antibacterial soap really
works. She prepared two agar plates. She swiped her
fingers over the surface of plate A. She then washed her
hands with antiseptic soap and wiped her fingers over the
surface of plate B. She incubated both plates. Her results
are shown below.
A
(a) Write a conclusion for Charlotte s experiment.

(b) Which plate was the control?
(c) What were the independent and dependent variables in
this experiment?
(d) Which variables need to be controlled in this
experiment so that it is a fair test?
3 Jossie wanted to find out the best conditions for growing
bread mould. She put a slice of bread on each of five plates
and left the plates in various locations around her house.
Her results are shown below.
Observations after
Location
3 days
Fridge
No mould
Freezer
No mould
Kitchen bench Small amount of
mould
(a) 25% of bread covered
Top of fridge
with mould
50% of bread covered
Bathroom
with mould
cupboard(b)
Observations after
6 days
Small amount of mould
No mould
with mould
with mould
with mould
(a) The top of the fridge is warmer than room temperature.

(b) The bathroom is humid for most of the day.
464
(a) What conditions promoted the growth of mould?

(b) Why did the bread go mouldy a lot more slowly inside
than on top of the fridge? Why did the bread not go
mouldy in the freezer?
(c) Suggest some improvements to Jossie s experiment.
4 Equipment used in a doctor s surgery must be sterilised
before use. Suggest why.
5 When antibiotics first became widely available, doctors
prescribed them to treat even minor coughs and colds.
Today, doctors usually prescribe antibiotics only if the
patient does not improve after a few days and the disease
is highly likely to be caused by a bacterial infection. Explain
why doctors have become more cautious.
6 The skin is described as the first line of defence against
disease. Explain why.
teSt YourSeLf
1 Which of the following lists contains only non-infectious
diseases?
A Down syndrome, lead poisoning, lung cancer
B Down syndrome, polio, diphtheria
C Smallpox, polio, diphtheria
D Smallpox, lung cancer, polio
(1 mark)
2 A particular type of bacteria divides every 20 minutes. If
you started with one bacterium, after 20 minutes, there
would be two bacteria; after another 20 minutes, there
would be four bacteria. How many bacteria would there be
after 80 minutes?
A 6
B 6
C 16
D 32
(1 mark)
3 Which of the following foods use microbes as part of its
manufacturing process?
A Chocolate
B Bread
C Ham
D Cheese
(1 mark)
4 Which of the following groups of organisms contains the
smallest organisms?
A Bacteria
B Insects
C Protozoa
D Fungi
(1 mark)
5 Choose an infectious disease that you have studied in this
chapter.
(a) Outline the cause of the disease.
(b) Describe some of the symptoms of the
disease.
(3 marks)
6 Describe an experiment you could do to test the following
hypothesis: There are more bacteria on a kitchen chopping
board than on a toilet seat.
(3 marks)
work
sheets
17.6 Staying healthy puzzles

17.7 Staying healthy summary
STUDY CHECKLIST
types of diseases
ICT
eBook plus
distinguish between infectious and non-infectious

diseases
17.1
recall examples of diseases caused by each of the

following types of pathogens: bacteria, fungi, viruses and
prions 17.1
bacteria
describe how bacteria reproduce 17.2
outline how bacteria can be grown in the
laboratory
SUMMARY
eLessons
Killing Australians
You may think that venomous snakes or spiders are the leading
cause of death in Australia, but you d be wrong. Learn about the
different types of diseases which are proving to be Australia s
biggest problem and the factors which come into play when
helping to minimise the chance of contracting these killers.
A worksheet is included to further your understanding.
17.2
describe harmful and beneficial effects of bacteria 17.3

explain why bacteria are a vital component of all
ecosystems
17.3
viruses
discuss whether viruses should be classified as living or
non-living
17.4
Skin
describe the structure of the skin 17.6
outline the role of the skin 17.6
explain what happens when the process of cell division
gets out of control in the body 17.7
outline how you can minimise the risk of skin
cancer 17.7

outline the role of Alexander Fleming and Howard Florey
in the development of antibiotics

A cure?
Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in Australia
with around 400 000 people diagnosed each year. Learn about
the revolutionary new trials led by Australian scientists to find a
vaccine for skin cancer. A worksheet is included to further your
understanding.
17.5
assess the advantages and disadvantages of using

antibiotics to treat diseases
17.5

list some careers in the field of medical science and
outline what each career involves
17.8
17 Staying healthy
465
18
The night sky
On a clear night,
thousands of stars are
visible to the naked
eye, although some
of the fainter stars might only be seen
away from the light pollution created by
street and city lighting. It is difficult to
comprehend the scale of the universe.
The sun, our closest star, is crucial
to our own existence as it provides the
heat and light that all life depends on.
However, it is rather average for a star,
with a diameter of 1.4 million km and a
temperature of 6000 C at its surface.
The sun is just one of billions of stars
that make up the Milky Way Galaxy, and
there are thought to be billions of galaxies
in the universe.

18.1
describe some major features of the
universe, including galaxies, stars and

nebulae
relate the solar system to the Milky
Way Galaxy and to the universe at
large
describe differences in sizes of, and
distances between, structures making
up the universe
18.2
relate the model of the solar system to
the observed sky

interpret and compare celestial
objects visible in the night sky

18.3
describe developments in technology
that have transformed the study of

astronomy and our understanding of
the universe.
Infra-red image from NASAs Spitzer Space Telescope of the core

of the spiral Milky Way Galaxy. Dust lying between Earth and the
galactic centre would block a picture taken using visible light.
Thinking about the night sky

1. What are stars and what are they made of?
2. Each of the following objects might be visible in the night sky:
galaxies
planets
stars
moons
constellations.
Arrange these objects in a table from largest to smallest. Work in pairs
and use your current knowledge to suggest a definition for each term.
3. Observe the stars on a dark night, preferably around the time of a new
moon. Draw the positions of the ten brightest stars and label your
diagram to indicate the colour of each.
4. While observing the night sky, you might notice stars of different
brightness and slightly different colours. Can you explain why?
5. Explain why the positions of stars change over the weeks and months.
6. What is a light-year? Why is it a useful concept in astronomy?
7. Outline the purpose of a telescope. If you have seen a telescope up
close, describe how it works.
8. Form a group with two or three other students that have a different
star sign from your own. Ask each group member to collect their
horoscope from a magazine or newspaper each week for two to three
weeks. Paste yours into your workbook and record whether any of the
predictions seem to match incidents in your week.
9. Humans have sent numerous space probes into space. Conduct some
research to outline where they have gone and what they have studied.
INVESTIGATION 18.1
Light pollution
You will need:
2 sheets of A4 paper
pen
sticky tape
torch
Prick holes in a sheet of A4
paper using the tip of a pen

to model the five stars of the
Southern Cross (see page 476).
Stick this sheet of paper over
another sheet and tape them

both to a window so that
daylight shines through them.
Now shine a torch over
the stars and record your

observations again.
DISCUSSION
1
What effect did shining the

torch have on the visibility of
the stars?
Explain what this

investigation demonstrates
about when and where
astronomers can observe
celestial objects.
18.1
A sense of perspective
Light-years away
The universe is so big it is difficult
to comprehend its size. It would
take light 12 15 billion years to
reach the most distant objects in
the universe.
The closest star to our solar
system that is visible to the naked
eye, Alpha Centauri, is about
41 000 billion kilometres away.
The distances between objects
in the universe are so vast that
expressing them in kilometres
would involve immense numbers.

Instead, astronomers use a much
larger unit of distance, the lightyear. A light-year is the distance
that light travels in one year.
If light travels 300 000 km per
second, then in one year it travels
300 000 60 s/min 60 min/h
24 h/day 365.25 day/yr =
about 9500 billion kilometres.
This means that Alpha Centauri is
4.3 light-years away.
When we look at the stars, we
see the light produced by them.
However, because of the vastness of

space, that light takes a long time
to reach us here on Earth. In fact,
viewing stars is like looking back
in history; the light we see today
from Alpha Centauri was emitted
4.3 years ago. The galaxy nearest to
our own, the Andromeda Galaxy,
is the most distant object visible
to the human eye; at 2.2 million
light-years away we are looking
at the light it released 2.2 million
years ago, before the appearance of
modern humans, Homo sapiens.
Possible black hole in centre

Approximate location of
our solar system on the
Orion arm of the Milky Way
Areas of glowing pink, blue
and green gas are nebulae
where new stars form.
50 0
00 l
ight
-ye
ars
Spiral arms
Direction of
rotation
An artist s impression of the Milky Way. The Milky Way, along with our neighbouring galaxy, the Large Magellanic Cloud,
forms part of the Local Group of galaxies.
468
Galaxies
On a dark night, a hazy white band can be seen across
the sky. Greek legend explains that the hazy band
of light was formed from milk spilled by the baby
Hercules. The hazy band is actually part of the Milky
Way Galaxy that we live in. The word galaxy comes
from the Greek word gala, meaning milk.
A galaxy is made up of a huge number of stars
and dust, held together by gravity. A hundred years
ago, astronomers believed that the Milky Way Galaxy
was the only galaxy in the universe. Thanks to
developments in optical telescopes and radio telescopes,
astonomers have now detected about 100 billion other
galaxies. With the help of the Hubble Space Telescope in
orbit around the Earth, astronomers have been able to
locate galaxies that are more than one billion lightyears away!
Galactic shapes
How can we see the Milky Way Galaxy if we are in the
Milky Way Galaxy? The answer lies in its shape.
The Milky Way is shaped like a spiral, with arms
coming from its centre. Our solar system is located
on one side of the galaxy, on a spiral arm called the
Orion arm. When looking at the Milky Way in the
night sky, you are actually seeing the stars in the
central part of the spiral.
American astronomer Edwin Hubble recognised
that galaxies could be grouped according to their
shapes. Galaxies like ours are called spiral galaxies.
Elliptical and irregular galaxies are two other types.
also a spiral galaxy. At 2.2 million light-years away, it

is the most distant object visible from Earth with the
naked eye.
Irregular galaxies
These have no definite shape. Irregular galaxies tend
to have very hot, new stars mixed in with lots of
dust and gas. The Magellanic
Clouds are two small,
irregular galaxies that
look like two fuzzy
clouds near the
constellation
called the
Southern Cross.
They are the
closest galaxies
to our own
Milky Way Galaxy.
The gravitational
pull between all three
galaxies is so strong
that eventually they will all
become part of the Milky Way Galaxy.
Elliptical galaxies
Elliptical galaxies are oval or egg-shaped galaxies. They
contain masses of old red stars with little gas or dust.
Unlike spiral galaxies, the stars in elliptical galaxies
move around in every direction. Elliptical galaxies,
such as M87, have grown to an enormous size by
pulling in other galaxies.
Spiral galaxies
Spiral galaxies rotate.
They have a bright
bulging middle
with two or
more curved
arms of stars
spiralling
out from
the centre.
The middle
parts of spiral
galaxies spin
faster than the
edges. The older red
stars are found closer to
the centre and the younger blue stars are located on
the outer arms of the spiral. The Andromeda Galaxy is
18 The night sky
469
Barred spiral galaxies
Nebulae
These are a type of spiral galaxy. However, the central

disk is replaced by a bar-shaped middle. In barred spiral
galaxies, arms spiral out from either end of the bar.
In the photograph of the constellation Orion below,

there is a cloudy-looking, pink region. This is the
Orion Nebula, known as M42. It looks small, but it is
about 30 light-years across. A nebula is a cloud of gas
and dust. In some nebulae, such as the Orion Nebula,
stars begin to form as the gas and dust come together
due to the force of gravity. The centre of the nebula
heats up, causing it to glow.
The constellation Orion. Part of this constellation is also commonly

known as the Saucepan.
A computer-simulated view of a cluster of galaxies far from our

own Milky Way Galaxy
The two Antennae galaxies colliding. During this collision,

billions of stars will be formed. They give us a preview of what
may happen when our Milky Way Galaxy collides with the
neighbouring Andromeda Galaxy in several billion years.
470
Not all nebulae glow. Some of them absorb light

from nearby stars and appear as dark spots in the
sky. One of these dark nebulae can be seen in the
Southern Cross constellation as a dark patch to its
lower left. It is known as the Coal Sack.
The Southern Cross and the Pointers. The Coal Sack Nebula is the
dark patch to the lower left of the Southern Cross.
The Carina Nebula in

the Milky Way Galaxy.
New-born stars are
visible within the
pillars of dust and gas.
The colours in this
image are not actually
visible but have been
computer generated
based on the different
elements present in the
nebula; for example,
red indicates sulfur
emissions, green
indicates hydrogen, and
blue indicates oxygen.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Explain why so many more stars are
visible in the night sky in rural areas
than in the city.
2 Define the term light-year and
identify the number of kilometres in
a light-year.
3 Identify how big the universe is
thought to be.
4 (a) Identify four types of galaxies.
(b) Name an example of each type
of galaxy.
5 Identify the diameter of the Milky
Way Galaxy.
6 Outline where we are located within
the Milky Way Galaxy.
7 Identify the force that holds the
stars together within a galaxy or
nebula.
8 Name the galaxy closest to our own.
9 Define the term nebula . Why are
they such important objects?
THINK
10 Explain why stars (apart from the
sun) are not visible during the day.
11 Explain why looking at stars is like

looking back in time.
12 Arrange these astronomical objects
from largest to smallest: galaxy,
moon, universe, planet, star, nebula.
13 Explain why we can see the Milky
Way in the night sky even though
we are within this galaxy.
CALCULATE
14 It takes 8 minutes for light from
the sun to reach the Earth. If light
travels at 300 000 km/s, calculate the
distance of the sun to the Earth in
kilometres.
15 The distances to some prominent
celestial objects are listed below.
Copy the table and calculate the time
it would take a space probe
to travel from Earth to each
destination if travelling at a speed of

6 km/s (using current technology) as
follows:
time taken by space probe =
300 000 km/s
time taken by light
6 km/s
eBook plus
16 Create a poster or PowerPoint

presentation of some fascinating
images of stars, nebulae or galaxies
taken using telescopes. Use
captions to convey the information
that these images reveal. As a
starting point, use the Galaxies
weblink in your eBookPLUS to find
images of different galaxies.
work
sheet
Destination
Moon
Mars (at its closest point in orbit)
Sun
Alpha Centauri (the closest star visible in the night sky)
Sirius (the brightest star in the night sky)
Large Magellanic Cloud (a galaxy close to the Milky
Way)
18.1 A long way from here
Time taken Time taken by

by light
a space probe
seconds
1.3 seconds
minutes
3.1 minutes
minutes
8.3 minutes
years
4.3 years
years
8.7 years
years
179 000 years
18 The night sky
471
18.2
Stars and constellations

The brightness of stars
Many stars in the night sky are visible to the naked
eye. One of the brightest celestial (sky) objects is,
in fact, not a star but the planet Venus. Unlike stars,
planets do not produce their own light but reflect
the sun s light. Stars are immense spherical masses of
hydrogen gas undergoing a fusion reaction, producing
helium and enormous amounts of light and heat
energy.
The brightness of a star does not necessarily tell
us how far away a star is. The closest star to our solar
system, Proxima Centauri, was not discovered until
modern telescopes were invented. It is so dim that it
cannot be viewed with the naked eye or even a basic
telescope. The brightest star in the sky is Sirius. It is
almost twice the distance of Proxima Centauri, at
8.6 light-years from Earth, but Sirius is much larger.
eBook plus
eLesson
Twinkle, twinkle
Have you every wondered why stars twinkle? Find out in this
video lesson.
eles-0071
INVESTIGATION 18.2
The brightness of stars
You will need:
graph paper with
millimetre squares
ruler
small torch
Colour in a small
circle with a diameter

of about 1 cm to
represent the Earth
on a sheet of graph
paper.
Hold a torch, representing a star, 2 cm from the graph
paper and record the diameter of the circle of light

created.
Move the torch back a further 2 cm at a time and
repeat the process until the diameter of the light

circle exceeds the size of the graph paper.
Record the proportion of total light output of the star
received by the Earth (as a percentage) at each

distance as follows:
proportion of light received =
diameter of Earth
100
diameter of light circle
Record all your data in a suitable table.

Plot a line graph to demonstrate the relationship
between the distance from a star (x-axis) versus the

proportion of light received on Earth (y-axis). Draw a
line of best fit.
DISCUSSION
1
This investigation models the effect of distance on

the brightness of stars viewed from Earth. Write a
suitable conclusion for this investigation.
2 What benets does modelling have in science?

Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky
472
Twinkling stars
Giant stars and dwarves
Stars appear to twinkle in the night sky. This is

because the light travelling from a star is distorted
by the Earth s atmosphere. The light is bent in
all directions as it passes through the moving air
of the atmosphere, which causes the image to
change slightly in brightness and position and
hence twinkle. This is one of the reasons the
Hubble telescope in orbit high above the Earth is
so successful at capturing clear images of celestial
objects. In space, there is no atmosphere to make
the stars twinkle, allowing a much better image to
be obtained.
Rigel and Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion are

both examples of stars known as supergiants. Both
of these stars are much larger than the sun and both
are in the process of dying. Their hydrogen fuel is
running out, causing them to swell up. They appear
as different colours because they have different
temperatures. Rigel is much hotter than Betelgeuse
and is a blue supergiant, while Betelgeuse is a red
supergiant. Eventually, both of these stars will explode.
Stars similar in size to our own sun also swell up
as their fuel supply gets low. They turn red and are
known as red giants. The outer layers are eventually
blown off leaving behind a small, but very hot core
called a white dwarf.
Light from a star
Earth
Layers of the atmosphere
Pockets of warm and cold air in the Earth s atmosphere bend light
from a star, making the star appear to twinkle.
When stars similar in size to our own sun get low on fuel, they
swell up to become red giants and then explode, leaving behind a
solid, heavy core called a white dwarf.
INVESTIGATION 18.3
Twinkling stars
You will need:
aluminium foil
glass dish
torch
Fill a glass dish with water.
Take a sheet of aluminium foil large enough to cover the
Put the crinkled foil under the glass dish.

Darken the room and then shine a light down at an
angle into the dish while the water is still. Observe the
reflected image.
Stir the water and, while it is still moving, shine the torch
into the dish and once again observe the reflected image.
DISCUSSION
1
What effect did the turbulence of the water have on

the image of reected light?
How do these results help explain why stars twinkle?
base of your dish.

Crinkle the foil into a loose ball then open it out again.
18 The night sky
473
Constellations
Astronomers of ancient civilisations grouped stars
according to the patterns or shapes they seemed to
form. These shapes were usually of gods, animals or
familiar objects. Today, astronomers divide the sky
into 88 regions of stars. The group of stars within each
region is called a constellation.
When viewed from Earth, the individual stars
in a constellation may appear to be very close to
each other. However, they can be separated by huge
distances in space and in fact have no real connection
to each other at all. The stars that make up the
constellation Orion, for example, are at very different
distances from Earth.
In ancient times, it was thought the stars wandered

through the night sky; today we explain the stars
apparent movement in terms of the motion of the
Earth through space as it orbits the sun.
Over the course of an evening, the positions of
constellations appear to move from east to west. This
is due to the Earths spin. Just like the sun and the
moon, stars rise in the east and set in the west. A
time-lapse photograph of the stars taken over several
hours shows the changing positions of the stars due to
the Earths spin. The central point around which the
star trails appear to rotate is called the South Celestial
Pole and it indicates the Earths axis of rotation.
Perpendicular
to orbit
Axis
tilt
North Celestial
Pole
Direction of orbit
around the sun
225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
ars
ye
htLig
Ecliptic
South Celestial
Pole
25
Rotational axis
Graph showing the distances that
stars in the constellation Orion are
away from Earth
Stars appear to move around the celestial poles due to the spin of
the Earth.
The constellations visible on any given night

depend on the time of year. For example, Gemini and
Leo are clearly visible in March but not in October.
Virgo,
Leo
Autumn
Libra,
Scorpio,
Sagittarius
Taurus,
Gemini
Winter
The constellations
that are visible depend
on the position of the Earth
in space.
474
Sun
Summer
Spring
Aquarius,
Capricorn
Star trails produced by time-lapse photography
5_61_0873X_Core Science 4 ch 18.indd 474
31/3/10 12:58:01 PM
The zodiac
Twelve constellations pass through
what is known as the ecliptic, the
path that the sun traces in the sky
during the year. Ancient Greek
astronomers believed that these
twelve constellations had a special
significance and are known today
as the constellations of the zodiac.
Comparing astronomy and

astrology
Some people today confuse the
terms astronomy and astrology.
Until a few hundred years ago,
there was hardly any difference
between them, but today, with our
systematic study of the night sky,
they are seen to be quite different.
Astronomy is the scientific study of
our solar system and its place in the
Aries
Taurus
March 21
April 20
April 21
May 21
Cancer
Leo
June 22
July 23
July 24
August 23
Libra
Scorpio
September 24
October 23
October 24
November 22
Capricorn
Aquaruis
December 22
January 20
January 21
February 19
The signs of the zodiac
(22 May 21 June)

Take your time this week and don t make any
hasty decisions. It is important that you make
time to relax or your health will suffer. ou are
spending too much effort trying to please others.
eep an open mind when it comes to friends,
and don t be too quick to judge. Think carefully
about your finances this week if you want to
improve your long-term prospects.
A horoscope prediction for a Gemini

someone born between 22 May and 21 June
universe. Astrology is a study of how

the positions of the sun, moon and
planets are said to affect our lives.
Before people began to
understand the science of space,
many cultures thought events in
the skies were the work of gods.
Eclipses, comets, a full moon or
the return of the sun
Gemini
after a long winter
were signs from the
gods for people to
take action or to make
decisions.
May 22
The ancient Greeks
June 21
believed that events
on Earth (such as a
Virgo
person s birth) were
influenced by whatever
constellation was
passed by the sun at
August 24
that time. These beliefs
September 23
gave rise to what
we call horoscopes.
Sagittarius
In a horoscope,
each of the zodiac s
12 constellations
becomes a star sign.
Each has its own
November 23
symbol and special
December 21
features.
Astronomers are
Pisces
scientists. They make
and use observations
to learn more
about the universe,
Febuary 20
including our solar
March 20
system. Astrologers
are not scientists.
However, they make predictions

about people s lives based on star
signs and observations of the sun,
moon and planets. The dates listed
in horoscopes are based on when
the sun passed in front of each
constellation over 2000 years ago.
Today, those dates are different,
but the dates for each horoscope
remain the same.
Navigation by the stars

For thousands of years, sailors
used the positions of the stars to
guide them on long sea journeys.
The invention of the sextant in
1731 made it much easier to do
this. It enabled sailors to work out
their latitude, position from the
equator, by measuring the angle of
a particular star above the horizon.
In the Southern Hemisphere, the
stars used for navigation form the
Southern Cross. This group of stars
is used because the angle between
the horizon and the Southern Cross
is always equal to the latitude of
your position. Sailors used clocks
to calculate the longitude of their
position. Longitude measures your
position around the globe from
Greenwich near London, which acts
as a reference point.
Today, sailors use the global
positioning system (GPS) to find
their way across the oceans. Special
GPS receivers that look a bit like
mobile phones are used to process
data from 24 satellites. The GPS
gives a position accurate to within
15 metres.
A sextant
used by
early sailors
18 The night sky
475
DISCUSSION
INVESTIGATION 18.4
Star charts
The stars you drew should be in about the same

position a few nights later, but the moon will have
moved. Explain why, in terms of the motion of the
moon.
When viewed a few weeks later, the stars are in a

slightly different part of the sky. Explain why, in terms
of the motion of the Earth.
Go out one night when the moon is visible and try to find
some stars that appear close to the moon.

Sketch the positions of the moon and nearby stars.
Go out one or two nights later at the same time and
compare your drawing with what you see.

Go out a few weeks later at the same time and compare
your drawing again with what you see.
INVESTIGATION 18.5
Using a sky map
A sky map, sometimes called a star
chart or star map, shows the positions of
planets, stars and constellations visible
in the night sky from a given location at
a certain time of the year. Use the Star
maps weblink in your eBookPLUS to
find and print a map of the stars for the
current month of the year.
A key is provided with most star
maps to indicate whether the celestial
object viewed is a planet, star or
other object. The brightness of stars is
indicated by the diameter of the circle
depicting them. A magnitude scale
is used to compare the brightness
of stars; brighter stars such as
the Southern Pointers have a low
magnitude value while fainter stars
have a larger magnitude value.
You will need:
star map for the Southern Hemisphere
for the current month
small torch (preferably with red
cellophane taped over the end)
pair of large binoculars or a telescope
(optional)
highlighter pen
the outer circular edge represents the

horizon.
Use the small torch to view your star
map at night.
Find the Southern Cross constellation
and the two nearby Pointers, Alpha

and Beta Centauri. There are many
crosses in the night sky; the key to
finding the Southern Cross is locating
the pointers alongside.
If you have a pair of large binoculars
or a telescope, locate and view

some prominent celestial objects
near the Southern Cross.
Southern Cross
Jewel Box
Beta Centauri
Coal Sack
The Coal Sack is a dark patch in

the Milky Way between the two
brightest stars of the Southern Cross
(Alpha and Beta Crucis). This is a
dark cloud of gas about 60 lightyears across and 500 light-years
away that blocks our view of the
stars in the Milky Way behind it.
The Jewel Box is a bright cluster
of stars on the edge of the Coal
Sack and near Beta Crucis. It gets
its name from the various colours
visible when the stars are viewed
through a telescope. The Jewel Box
contains about 50 bright stars, all of
which are only a few million years
old. It is about 25 light-years across
and about 7700 light-years away.
Locate the approximate position of
the South Celestial Pole by following
the line of the long arm of the
Southern Cross and finding where it
intersects with a line perpendicular
to the line joining the two Pointers.
Alpha Centauri
Canopus
Southern Cross
Gamma Crucis
Beta Crucis
Delta Crucis
Pointers
South
Celestial
Pole
Select a clear night, preferably with
little moonlight available.
Achemar
Epsilom Crucis
Once you have selected a viewing
position, you might like to lie down

and turn the chart so that the direction
you are facing (north, south, east
or west use a compass if you
are unsure) is shown at the bottom
of the map. The centre of the chart
represents the point directly above
your head, called the zenith point, and
476
Alpha Crucis
South
Locate as many constellations and
Alpha Centauri, at 4.3 light-years

away, is the closest star visible to
the naked eye in the night sky.
other prominent celestial objects as

possible.
Highlight each of the constellations
on your sky map once you have
viewed them.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Identify the:
(a) closest star to Earth apart from the sun
(b) brightest star in the night sky.
we see the constellation Leo. The ancient Greeks that

created the star signs lived in the Northern Hemisphere.)
15 The five main stars of the Southern Cross constellation are
shown on page 476. All five stars appear to be the same
distance from the Earth but they are not. The brightness of
each star and its actual distance from Earth are listed in the
table below.
2 Explain why stars appear to twinkle.

3 Define the term constellation .
Distance
from Earth
(light-years)
Brightness
(magnitude
value)
4 Name the 12 constellations of the zodiac.
Star
5 There are 88 named constellations. What is special about

the 12 constellations of the zodiac?
Alpha Crucis
321
0.8
Beta Crucis
353
1.3
6 Explain why different constellations are visible in different

months of the year.
Gamma Crucis
88
1.6
Delta Crucis
364
2.8
Epsilon Crucis
228
3.6
7 Explain why the positions of stars appear to change over

the course of an evening.
8 Define the term South Celestial Pole and describe how it
can be found.
9 Outline the difference between astronomy and astrology.
10 Outline what a horoscope is.
THINK
11 The Hubble Space Telescope was put into orbit around
the Earth in 1990. Explain why this telescope was
responsible for the discovery of many new galaxies and
other celestial objects.
12 In Investigation 18.5 on page 476 it was suggested that the
torch should be covered in red cellophane. Explain why.
13 Refer to a star map to identify a:
(a) star of magnitude 0
(b) constellation along the ecliptic
(c) planet that should be visible.
14 The diagram below shows how the stars in the Leo
constellation appear above Australia. Trace the positions
of the stars into your workbook. Check the horoscope on
page 475 to find the symbol for Leo and attempt to join
the stars with straight lines to form a shape that looks
like the Leo symbol.
(a) Identify the star closest to the Earth.

(b) Identify the brightest star.
(c) Beta Crucis and Gamma Crucis have a similar
brightness when viewed from Earth. Identify which
star produces more light and justify your response.
CREATE
16 Use the internet to research the arrangement of stars
in the constellation of your zodiac sign. Copy the
arrangement onto A4 paper so that the stars cover most
of the paper. Poke holes through the stars, making larger
holes for brighter stars. Use one of the following two
methods to display your constellation:
Join the stars with straight lines to display the object
that the constellation is based on. Attach the paper to a
window to allow light to illuminate the stars.
Put the paper onto an overhead projector and project
the stars onto a whiteboard. Use a whiteboard marker
to draw straight lines between the stars.
eBook plus
17 Match each constellation to the correct representation

on the sky map by completing the Star matching
18 Use the Star maps weblink in your eBookPLUS to print a
map of the stars for any month of the year.
19 Use the NASA weblink in your eBookPLUS to learn more
about the United States space program in the past, today
and into the future.
20 Use the Hubble weblink in your eBookPLUS to see
images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope.
work
sheets
(Note: The diagram that you draw should be upside down.

Because we live in the Southern Hemisphere, this is how
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
Constellations
Star brightness
Star maps
Semicircular sky map
18 The night sky
477
18.3

Probing the universe

Our understanding of the universe has increased
phenomenally over the past century as a result of
remarkable technological advances in the field of
astronomy. From the use of the first telescopes in the
1600s to the development of radio telescopes in the
1940s, astronomers have sought to collect and analyse
information from distant stars and galaxies. More
recently, space missions have deployed satellites in orbit
around the Earth beyond the obscuring atmosphere
to peer into the more distant reaches of the universe.
Scientists now have the ability to send space probes
to visit distant planets in our solar system to collect
data, enabling a better understanding of our planetary
neighbours.
The optical telescope

In 1609, Galileo Galilei became the first person to
use a simple optical telescope to view the night sky.
Among other things, he was the first person to see
the craters on the moon. He also discovered the four
largest moons around Jupiter and that the Milky
Way was actually made up of millions of stars. The
invention of the optical telescope allowed us to start
uncovering some of the secrets of the universe.
Optical telescopes collect light and make distant

objects appear much closer. Observatories have huge
telescopes that are able to view more distant objects
because their large diameter collects more of the dim
light. They are usually built far from the lights of
cities and high on mountains to minimise distortion
by the atmosphere. These types of optical telescopes
can also split the light being collected from a star
and give information about the object s temperature,
movement and even the chemicals it is made of.
Radio telescopes
As well as light, stars give off other types of radiation
such as ultraviolet rays and radio waves. Radio waves,
for example, are used on Earth by televisions, mobile
phones and radios.
The finder scope is used
to find objects in the sky.
It helps you line up the
main telescope.
Light from distant

stars enters here.
The eyepiece for the

main telescope
Flat mirror
A closer look with a telescope

When Galileo pointed a telescope
at the planet Saturn, he said it had
ears . What he was
really looking at
was Saturn s rings.
If you pointed an
optical telescope
at Venus you would
see that it has
phases just like our
moon. You would
also be able to see
the famous Great
Red Spot on Jupiter.
Concave mirror
The tripod supports the

heavy telescope and helps
keep the telescope steady.
Optical telescope
478
Radio telescopes collect radio

waves that are emitted by distant
objects. These telescopes are
shaped like huge dishes, with a
central antenna. The dish focuses
the collected radio waves onto the
antenna. The antenna then sends
the signals to a computer, which
creates an image of the object.
Radio telescopes are able to
see through dust in space. For
this reason, they were the first
telescopes to detect planets outside
our solar system. Radio telescopes
can take images through the centre
of galaxies where stars are forming.
Radio waves
Receiving antenna
Radio waves
people on missions to these far

away places, not to mention the
danger involved! So, scientists use
technology to gather information
out in space and transmit it back
to Earth.
The former Soviet Union sent up
the first spacecraft in 1957. Since
then, scientists have sent satellites,
space probes, space stations and
space shuttles out of the Earth s
atmosphere. Each type of spacecraft
is sent to carry out a different
mission.
Putting people into space

The first living things in space were
two Russian dogs. They orbited the
Earth in 1960. Eight months later,
a Russian cosmonaut became the
first human in space. The Soviet
Union and the United States raced
to put the first man on the moon.
In 1969, America won the race
when Neil Armstrong became
the first human to walk on the
moon. In more recent times, space
shuttles have taken their crews to
fix satellites and work on space
stations.
Parabolic reflector
A radio telescope detects radio waves

using a parabolic reflector and receiving
antenna.
Using technology to
explore space
Scientists are constantly learning
more about the universe. As new
technology is developed, new
discoveries are made and new
theories developed.
Most of the objects in the
universe that scientists study
are a long way from Earth. It
would take too long to send
Satellites
A satellite is any object that orbits
another object. The moon is a
satellite of Earth because it orbits
the Earth. It is a natural satellite
whereas artificial satellites are those
that scientists have built and sent
into space.
Some artificial satellites gather
information about space. Others
are involved with GPS technology
or monitoring of climate,
vegetation or land surfaces.
The Hubble Space Telescope is a
satellite that gathers information
about stars and galaxies. It sends
computer images back to Earth for
scientists to analyse.
Other artificial satellites are used
with communication technologies,
such as mobile phones. They
receive radio and other signals
from one place on Earth and beam
them back to other locations on
Earth.
The Solar and Heliospheric

Observatory (SOHO) is the only
artificial satellite to orbit the sun.
The SOHO studies the sun and its
atmosphere. SOHO was launched in
1995 to study the sun s interior and
its atmosphere. Its results have been
so valuable that its two-year mission
has been extended to the current day.
As well as providing new data about
the sun, SOHO has discovered 1500
comets, making it the most successful
discoverer of comets in the history of
astronomy.
The Apollo 11 mission sent Neil Armstrong

and his crew to the moon.
18 The night sky
479
Some signicant developments in astronomy

3000 BC
Egyptians developed calendars using
the positions of the stars. They drew the
oldest known constellation shapes.
2446 BC
Chinese astronomers discovered that
planets move in space.
370 BC
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and
scientist. He believed that the Earth
was not flat, even though most people
in his time believed it was. He thought
the Earth was the centre of the universe
with the sun, moon and stars orbiting
the Earth instead of the sun.
AD 150
Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy
studied the movement of the moon and
the planets. He believed that the Earth
was at the centre of the universe. His
ideas and theories lasted more than
1400 years.
AD 1796
Pierre Simon Laplace of France
suggested that the sun and the rest of
the solar system formed from a cloud of
gas called a nebula.
AD 1687
Isaac Newton was able to explain why
the planets orbited the sun. His
Universal Law of Gravitation showed
that all objects in the universe attract
each other.
AD 1609
Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo
Galilei was the first to turn the optical
telescope to the skies. His observations
supported Copernicus theory over
Ptolemy s. Galileo s ideas about
astronomy conflicted with the ideas
held by the Catholic Church at that time.
So, at 74 years of age, he was placed
under house arrest for the remainder of
his life.
AD 1006
Chinese astronomers observed the
brightest supernova ever recorded. A
supernova is the explosion of a massive
star at the end of its life. It shone for
two months and was so bright that it
could be seen even during the day.
Probes
Space probes have been sent to other planets in the
solar system. These probes can orbit a planet, fly
past it or land on it. So far, no probe has returned to
Earth.
Special cameras on board the probes send images
of the planets back to Earth. Other instruments may
take readings to find out what substances are present
in a planet s atmosphere.
AD 1927
George Lemaitre of Belgium put forward the
Big Bang theory that suggested that the
universe formed in a huge explosion 13 15
billion years ago.
AD 1945
An amateur radio operator built the first
radio telescope in America.
AD 1946
Edwin Hubble, an American astronomer,
helped build the biggest reflecting
telescope ever made. He observed that
distant galaxies in every direction are
moving away from the Earth.
AD 1974
Stephen Hawking, a physicist from England,
developed ideas that improved our
understanding of black holes. He believes
the universe has no edge or boundary.
AD 1543
Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish
mathematician and scientist. He
suggested that the sun, not the Earth,
was at the centre of the universe. He
also explained the movement of the
stars by the rotation of the Earth on its
axis. It was a long time before anyone
else believed his idea.
480
AD 19051916
Albert Einstein developed his theories of
relativity. Einstein greatly added to our
understanding of the universe through his
description of gravity and new ways of
thinking about space and time.
AD 1977
The twin American space probes Voyager 1
and Voyager 2 were sent separately to the
two largest planets in the solar system,
Jupiter and Saturn. It took the Voyager craft
two years to travel to Jupiter and a further
two years to reach Saturn.
Once a probe has been launched, scientists guide

it by remote control. Astronauts cannot visit a probe
to make repairs. So, it is important for a probe to be
built to last for many years.
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are probes that were sent
out in 1977. Their missions were to investigate Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Both Voyager probes
have continued to relay messages back to Earth well
after their original missions have been completed.
AD 2008
NASAs Phoenix spacecraft landed on the surface
of Mars and confirmed the presence of water ice
in soil samples.
In 1989, NASA launched the Galileo

space probe. It reached Jupiter in
December 1995. Galileo was made of
two parts. One part orbited Jupiter and
a smaller probe entered the
planet s atmosphere. After
nearly an hour of collecting
data, the smaller probe
was vaporised by the heat
of Jupiter s atmosphere, as
scientists had predicted.
The data collected by the
probe has been valuable to
scientists.
AD 1990
The Hubble Space Telescope became the first
optical telescope to orbit the Earth. It is as big as a
truck and orbits above the Earths atmosphere,
where it can take crystal-clear images deep into
outer space.
AD 1989
The Cosmic Background Explorer, or COBE,
satellite was launched in 1989. COBE helped
scientists understand how the universe expanded,
cooled and then formed clumps of matter. These
clumps eventually formed all the stars and
galaxies.
One of the Voyager spacecraft
Both of these probes now have new missions to travel

to the outer reaches of our solar system. Both of the
Voyagers have power and fuel to last them until about
the year 2020.
Space stations
Space stations are homes away from home! They
are manned spacecraft, in which astronauts can
live for months at a time. Space stations are
satellites; they orbit the Earth at an altitude of about

400 kilometres. Astronauts can conduct special
experiments on space stations because they are
not affected by gravity as they are on Earth. Living
on space stations also helps scientists understand
how the body reacts to living without the effects of
Earth s gravity. This information could be valuable if
we should ever live on the moon or another planet
in the future.
18 The night sky
481
The first module of the

International Space Station (ISS)
was put into orbit around
the Earth in 1998. By 2008,
it was 85 per cent complete
and will eventually consist
of 14 pressurised modules
including laboratories, docking
compartments, airlocks and
living quarters. Astronauts
will be able to live on the ISS
for three to six months at a
time and conduct experiments
under the unusual conditions
present in orbit.
The International Space Station in 2008
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Name two telescopes that detect
types of radiation other than light.
2 Explain why observatories are
usually built on hilltops or
mountains.
3 Outline the universe proposed by
Copernicus.
4 Explain why Galileo was placed
under house arrest.
5 Many man-made objects have been
launched into space. When was
the first spacecraft launched? By
which country?
6 The United States put the first man
on the moon.
(a) Name the first man to land on
the moon.
(b) In what year did he land on the
moon?
7 Define the term satellite .
THINK
8 Sketch a diagram of what the
universe looked like according to
Aristotle.
482
9 The images on the right show

a portion of the night sky seen
with the naked eye (top),
binoculars (middle) and an
optical telescope (bottom).
Use these images to explain
why telescopes are important
pieces of technology.
10 Explain why radio telescopes are
curved like a dish.
11 Explain why the Hubble Space
Telescope can see further into
space than telescopes on the
ground.
12 Outline some reasons to support
funding of the International Space
Station.
INVESTIGATE
13 There is a type of optical telescope
called a refracting telescope.
Find out how it works and how
it is different from a reflecting
telescope.
14 Choose an astronomer from this
chapter and write a short biography
of the person. Include some
personal information about the
astronomer that is interesting for
others to read.
15 Describe the history of the Hubble

Space Telescope and some of the
information it has revealed about
the universe.
work
sheet
18.6 Space probes and

satellites
LOOKING BACK
1 Dene the term light-year .
16 Outline how the Southern Cross and Southern Pointers can

be used to locate the South Celestial Pole.
2 How large is the:

(a) universe
(b) Milky Way Galaxy?
3 How old do scientists believe the universe is?
17 Outline how a star map indicates:

(a) a galaxy
(b) a planet
(c) the brightness of a star.
4 Identify the type of galaxy in each of the following photos.

A
TEST YOURSELF
1 Which of the following shows celestial objects arranged
from smallest to largest?
A Universe, galaxy, nebula, constellation, planet
B Planet, constellation, nebula, galaxy, universe
C Planet, star, nebula, constellation, galaxy, universe
D Planet, nebula, star, constellation, galaxy, universe
(1 mark)
2 The positions of stars change slowly over the course of the

night because
A the Earth rotates from east to west.
B the Earth orbits the sun.
C the stars orbit the sun.
D the Earth rotates from west to east.
(1 mark)
3 The brightness of the main stars in the constellation Orion
is listed below.
5 If galaxies are so common, explain why only three can be

seen with the naked eye.
6 Explain why looking at the night sky is said to be like
looking back in time.
7 Outline how constellations and galaxies differ.
8 Identify where the solar system is located in the Milky Way
Galaxy.
9 Dene the term nebula and explain how it relates to stars.
10 Identify the constellation used by sailors in the Southern
Hemisphere for navigation.
11 Explain whether the stars in a constellation are close
together.
12 Identify the galaxy closest to our own and how far away
it is. How long would it take a space probe to reach this
galaxy if it could travel at half the speed of light?
Star
Betelgeuse Mintaka
Rigel
Bellatrix
Magnitude
0.45
0.18
1.64
2.25
The brightest star is

A Rigel.
B Mintaka.
C Betelgeuse.
D Bellatrix.
(1 mark)
4 The closest star to our solar system (apart from the sun)
that is visible to the naked eye is
A Proxima Centauri.
B Alpha Centauri.
C Rigel.
D Betelgeuse.
(1 mark)
5 Explain how any three developments in technology have
increased our understanding of the universe.
(6 marks)
work
sheets
18.7 The night sky puzzle

18.8 The night sky summary
13 The planet Venus and the star Sirius are clearly visible
to the naked eye at night. Contrast these two celestial
objects.
14 Outline the factors that affect the brightness of a star.
15 Explain why most of the constellations visible in summer
are different from those visible in winter.
18 The night sky
483
STUDY CHECKLIST
Galaxies and nebulae
dene the term galaxy 18.1
relate the solar system to the Milky Way Galaxy 18.1
identify three different types of galaxies and give an
example of each type of galaxy 18.1
dene the term nebula and relate it to the formation of
stars 18.1
dene the term light-year and explain the need to use
this large distance unit 18.1
ICT
eBook plus
SUMMARY
eLessons
Twinkle, twinkle
Have you ever looked up at the stars on clear night and
wondered why stars twinkle? Why do stars twinkle but not the
moon? This video lesson helps to answer these questions and
more. A worksheet is attached to further your understanding.
Stars and constellations

use the sizes of stars and their distances away to
account for the brightness of different stars visible in the

night sky 18.2
dene the term constellation 18.2
use a sky map to locate and identify constellations, stars
and other prominent celestial objects 18.2
explain why stars twinkle 18.2
account for the movement of stars and the difference in
constellations visible at different times of the year 18.2
contrast astrology and astronomy 18.2
relate a zodiac symbol to the layout of a constellation s
stars 18.2

outline key developments in technology, including the
use of optical and radio telescopes that have contributed
to our understanding of the universe 18.3
Interactivities
Star matching
Constellations are names for groups of stars that appear in the
sky. Test your knowledge of different constellations by matching
them with the correct representation on the sky map. Instant
feedback is provided.
484
19
The changing Earth
The Earths
surface is
constantly
changing.
Volcanoes and earthquakes can
cause quick changes, but most of
the changes to the Earths surface
happen slowly. Rocks on and below
the surface of the Earth are slowly
and constantly being changed by
natural events. Rocks also provide a
valuable record of past events.

19.1
learn about the mineral composition
of rocks and how to distinguish

between minerals
19.2
describe how igneous rocks are
formed and distinguish between

different types of igneous rock
19.3
explain how rock weathers and how
the process of erosion redistributes

sediment
19.4
understand how sediment is
deposited to form sedimentary rocks

and distinguish between different
types of sedimentary rock
19.5
learn how metamorphic rock is
formed from other rock types. They

appreciate that the rock cycle
describes the constant formation and
reformation of rocks from one type
into another in the lithosphere
19.6
appreciate how examination
of sedimentary layers reveals

information about Earths history
19.7
understand that human activity
also causes changes to the Earths

surface.
This aquatic reptile died over 300 million years ago. Fossils and the
rocks in which they are found provide a valuable record of the past.

Thinking about the changing Earth
The Earth is constantly changing. Some of the changes take millions of
years others take place within seconds.
1. Take a look at each of these images and write down what each tells
you about the Earth and the way that the Earth is changing.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
(d)
2. Which one or more of the changes depicted in the photos above are
caused or made worse by human activities?
3. How are rocks formed?
4. The terms igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic describe different
types of rocks. Just from looking at the words, suggest how each type
of rock is formed.
5. How many names of rocks do you know? List them and then, if you
can, classify them as igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic.
19.1
Solid rock
The Earths crust and the upper
sections of the mantle form the
Earths lithosphere (from the Greek
words lithos meaning stone and
sphaira meaning globe. It is in the
lithosphere that rocks are formed by
a variety of different processes such
as melting, erosion, weathering,
crystallisation and deposition.
All rocks can be divided into
three main groups: igneous,
sedimentary and metamorphic.
We will look in more detail at how
each of these rock groups is formed.
What are rocks made of?

Rocks are made up of substances
that are called minerals. The term
mineral describes any solid
material made up of a consistent
combination of chemical
substances that occur naturally.
These chemical substances can take
the form of chemical compounds
(which are made up of combined
elements) or elements found in
Many minerals leave a streak when rubbed

against the rough surface of an unglazed
white tile. Hematite has a red-brown
streak. The streak left by a mineral and the
actual colour of a mineral are not always
the same. Not all minerals leave a streak.
their pure form. It is very unusual

to nd pure elements in nature
but gold and diamond (which is
made up of carbon that has been
subjected to high pressure and
heat) are two examples. These
types of minerals are referred to as
native elements.
Most of the minerals that
make up the Earths crust are
compounds of oxygen and silicon;
these are called silicates. They
differ in appearance and in their
chemical and physical properties
due to variations in what metals
they are combined with and the
proportion of each element present
in the mineral molecule. Two
minerals may be made up of the
same elements but differ in the
proportions. For example, iron
oxide (Fe2O3) is a reddish brown
substance that gives rust its colour,
whereas Fe3O4 forms magnetite, a
dull grey stone.
It can also happen that one
mineral can come in a number of
different colours. Quartz is made
of silicon dioxide (SiO2) and, in
its purest form, is a clear white
stone. However, small impurities
in the compound can cause quartz
of every colour of the rainbow to
exist. Generally, colour alone is not
a good indicator of what mineral
is present in a sample of rock.
After all, a citrine, a topaz and a
champagne diamond are all clear
yellow stones but differ completely
in chemical composition.
Geologists consider a number
of different properties in order to
identify a specic mineral in a rock
sample:
A minerals lustre describes
how it reects light from its cut
surface. The lustre of a mineral

may be described as dull,
metallic, pearlescent, glassy,
brilliant, waxy or silky.
The transparency of the mineral
describes how well light travels
through it. Opaque minerals
(such as iron oxide) do not let
light through at all; transparent
minerals (such as diamond and
pure quartz) allow light to pass
easily through them; while other
minerals (such as calcite) are
translucent, allowing only some
light through a sample.
A minerals streak is the colour
and texture of the mark that the
mineral leaves behind when it
is scratched across a hard white
surface. Not all minerals leave a
streak.
The fracture of a mineral
describes the appearance of the
break when a sample of the
mineral is snapped.
These properties are considered
along with the minerals hardness.
Geologists use a system called the
Mohs hardness scale to determine
this property. This scale was
developed by the geologist Friedrich
Mohs; it consists of a comparative
list of ten minerals arranged in
order from softest (hardness value
of 1) up to the hardest (10). A
harder mineral scratches a softer
mineral. Typical minerals for
each of the ten hardness values
are shown on the next page. The
hardness of a particular mineral
can be found by comparing it with
minerals on the Mohs scale. For
example, if the mineral sample can
be scratched by a piece of quartz
but not by orthoclase, its hardness
lies between 6 and 7.
487
Ideally, you would keep a sample of each of the ten reference minerals
handy, but it is possible to use common materials to nd a minerals
hardness. Some of these items and their typical hardness values are also
shown in the diagram below.
Softest
Mohs scale of hardness

Talc
Gypsum
Calcite
Fluorite
Apatite
Orthoclase
Quartz
Topaz
Corundum
Diamond
10
1 Describe what the lithosphere is

and where it can be found.
Soft grey lead pencil point
2 Dene the term mineral. Recall

at least two examples of
minerals.
Fingernail
Copper coin
3 Recall two examples of native

elements.
Iron nail
4 Identify which minerals are

present in granite.
Sandpaper
5 Recall at least three properties

that you could observe to
help you identify an unknown
mineral.
A scale for testing the hardness of minerals
Scrape the mineral across the
unglazed side of a white ceramic

tile. Record the colour of the
streak.
Which mineral is it?

You will need:
mineral kit
common materials to substitute for
unavailable Mohs scale minerals
magnifying glass
white ceramic tile
Use the Mohs scale minerals
or the common materials to

estimate the hardness of the
mineral by trying to scratch it. An
approximate range, such as 56, is
sufciently accurate.
shown below and use it to record

your observations as you work
through the following steps for
each mineral.
DISCUSSION
1
Other than those already

described, what additional
properties of minerals could be
used to identify them?
If two unlabelled mineral

samples have the same colour
and lustre, can you be sure that
they are the same mineral?
Explain how you would nd out.
Describe the colour and lustre of
the mineral.
Use the magnifying glass to look
closely at the mineral and describe

the shape and size of its crystals.
Properties of some minerals
Mineral
Colour
Lustre
REMEMBER
Common materials
Hardest
INVESTIGATION 19.1
Activities
Crystal shape
and size
Streak
Hardness
6 Identify the approximate

hardness on Mohs scale (to
the nearest whole number) of a
mineral that can be scratched
by sandpaper but not by an iron
nail.
THINK
7 Distinguish between a rock and
a mineral.
8 Explain what the size of the
crystals in a rock tells you
about the way the rock was
formed.
9 You have a sample of each
of two minerals but no other
equipment to test them for
hardness. How could you tell
which mineral was harder?
10 A mineral can be scratched
by a copper coin but not by a
ngernail. You know that the
mineral is quartz, uorite or
calcite. Which mineral is it?
11 Is table salt a mineral? Think
carefully about your answer
and suggest reasons for and
against classifying it as a
mineral.
work
sheet
488
19.1 Identifying and

classifying minerals
19.2
Fiery rocks
Think about the word igneous for
a moment. Does this word remind
you of any other words? How
about ignite or ignition? In fact,
all of these words have a common
origin and they come from the
Latin word ignis meaning re. So,
we can think of igneous rocks as
coming from a hot, ery place.
Igneous rocks are formed
from molten rock from the
upper sections of the mantle.
The temperature in this part of
the mantle can reach as high as
1400 C. The molten rock from
the mantle is called magma. The
magma is pushed upwards into
the crust by pressure in the mantle.
In some places, the crust is very
weak or has been ruptured so
the magma can break through
and ow onto the Earths surface.
Magma that ows onto the Earths
surface is called lava. Volcanoes
are formed where the crust is weak,
allowing magma to break through.
Igneous rocks can be formed
from either magma or lava. Those
that have formed from magma
that cooled below the surface are
called intrusive rocks or plutonic
The batholith forms under

the Earths surface when
magma cools.
1.
rocks. They cool slowly and

become visible only when the
rocks and soil above them wear
away. Large bodies of intrusive
rock are called batholiths. These
can stretch over distances of up to
1000 kilometres.
Extrusive rock forms

from lava that cooled
quickly above the surface.
Earths surface
Intrusive rock forms

from magma that cooled
slowly below the surface.
Igneous rocks can form below or above the Earths surface.
Cracks form in the

batholith while it cools.
2.
Igneous rocks that are formed

from lava cooling above the surface
are called extrusive rocks. They
generally cool very quickly. Igneous
rocks that form from lava spilling
from underwater volcanoes are also
classied as extrusive rocks.
The softer rocks and soil around the batholith may wear
away.
3.
4.
If a batholith is exposed to the environment, it will start to wear away along the cracks.
Over time, the batholith may break down completely. The breakdown of rocks is called weathering.
489
The appearance of an igneous

rock depends on what substances
were in the molten rock that it was
made from and how quickly the
molten rock cooled. The substances
in an igneous rock determine
its colour and hardness. Crystals
are formed when lava or magma
cools. The size of the crystals in
an igneous rock depends on how
quickly it cooled. Intrusive rocks
have larger crystals than extrusive
rocks because the crystals have
had more time to grow. When lava
emerges from a volcano, contact
with the cool air or cold water
makes it cool very quickly, not
giving large crystals time to grow.
Common igneous rocks

Frothy rocks
Some violent volcanic eruptions
shoot out lava lled with gases.
The lava cools quickly, while it is
still in the air, and traps the gases
inside. Rocks that form this way
are full of holes. Two examples of
these rocks are pumice and scoria.
Pumice
Pumice is a pale-coloured rock.
It is very light because it is full
of holes. It oats on water and
sometimes washes up on beaches.
Powdered pumice is used in some
abrasive cleaning products.
Scoria
Scoria is heavier than pumice
and has more iron so it is darker
than pumice. It is usually found
closer to the volcanos crater than
pumice. Scoria is a red-brown
490
or grey rock that can be used in

garden paths or around drainage
pipes.
Obsidian
Obsidian is a smooth, black rock
that looks like glass. It is formed
when lava cools almost instantly.
This rock is different from basalt
because it cooled so quickly that
no crystals formed. Sometimes
very ne air bubbles are trapped in
the rock, which give it a coloured
sheen.
Basalt
Basalt is an extrusive rock that can
take on many appearances. One
big difference between samples of
basalt is the size of the crystals that
make up the rock.
Basalt with bubbles

When viewed under a microscope,
it is apparent that the crystals in
this basalt are large. This is because
they formed from lava on the
ground. The crystals had time to
grow before the rock became solid.
Notice the holes. The lava was
lled with gases
when it began
to cool.
The gases
have since
escaped.
Pillow basalt
This rock formation came from a
volcano that was once under water.
The rocks formed from underwater
volcanoes are smooth and round.
The crystals in this basalt are so
small that they are difcult to see.
Granite
Granite is a common intrusive
rock. The crystals in granite form
over long periods of time and grow
large enough to make them easy
to see with the naked eye. Granite
is very hard and can be used for
building. Headstones and other
monuments can be made from
granite that has been polished to
give it a glossy nish.
The crystals found in granite
are a mixture of white, pink, grey,
black and clear minerals. These
are quartz (clear to grey), feldspar
(white and pink) and mica (black).
Feldspar is made of aluminium
silicate, and black mica is
aluminium silicate combined with
potassium, magnesium and iron.
INVESTIGATION 19.2
Does fast cooling make a difference?
You will need:
freshly made saturated solution of potassium nitrate
potassium nitrate
spatula
250 mL beaker
3 test tubes and test-tube rack
test-tube holder
crushed ice
safety glasses
hand lens
CAUTION Safety glasses must be worn during this experiment.
Half-ll a beaker with crushed ice.
Quarter-ll a clean test tube with saturated potassium
nitrate solution. Add a spatula of potassium nitrate to the

solution.
Gently heat the solution over a Bunsen burner ame until
the added potassium nitrate has dissolved or until the

solution starts to boil.
Pour half the warm solution into each of two clean test
tubes.
Place one test tube in the beaker of crushed ice and the
other test tube in the rack to cool.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Describe two ways in which you can
distinguish between intrusive and
extrusive rocks.
2 Recall how a batholith is formed.
3 Summarise the differences between
granite and basalt.
Crushed ice
Potassium
nitrate solution
Cool one solution quickly and the other one slowly.
When crystals have formed in each test tube, examine
them with a hand lens.
DISCUSSION
1
Draw a labelled diagram of some crystals in each test

tube, concentrating on their shape and size.
Which test tube contained the largest crystals the

one that cooled quickly or the one that cooled slowly?
3 Which type of igneous rock would you expect to have

larger crystals, those that cool slowly beneath the
surface or those that cool quickly above the surface
or underwater?
4 Why do safety glasses need to be worn in this
experiment?
THINK
9 Explain how you would decide
whether an igneous rock came
from a volcano.
10 Rhyolite is an extrusive rock that
contains the same minerals as
granite. In what way would you
expect it to be different from granite?
11 In which of these two rocks did
the lava cool faster? Explain your
answer.
4 Recall why the crystals in pillow

basalt are smaller than the crystals
in basalt that formed on the ground.
5 Scoria and pumice are formed in
a similar way. Explain why their
colours are different.
8 Explain why pumice is so light.
INVESTIGATE
14 Locate a building, statue or
memorial in your area made from
granite. Describe the granite in the
building or structure and explain why
granites features make it so useful.
eBook plus
6 Recall what type of extrusive rock

could easily be mistaken for glass.
7 Describe one way in which intrusive
rocks can become visible on the
Earths surface.
(a) All intrusive rocks form

batholiths.
(b) Rocks are made up of
substances called minerals.
(c) All igneous rocks are extrusive
rocks.
(d) Intrusive rocks are more likely
to have larger crystals than
extrusive rocks.
(e) Batholiths come from volcanoes.
12 Describe what the presence of

bubbles in rocks tells us about lava.
13 Identify which of the following are
true.
15 Use the Who am I? weblink in your

eBookPLUS to play the Rock Game
and identify rocks from a series of
clues.
work
sheet
19.2 Igneous rocks
491
19.3
Wearing away
Volcanoes continue to erupt,
leaving igneous rocks on and
under the Earths surface, yet the
surface of the Earths crust isnt
a huge mass of solid rock. The
actions of wind, water and ice
constantly break down rocks on
the Earths surface.
The process of breaking
down rocks is called weathering.
Weathering is a slow process,
but the rate at which it happens
depends on the type of rock and
the natural action involved. In a
climate as severe as Australias, we
can see many different examples of
weathering.
The action of the sea breaks off
pieces of coastal rock, often leaving
spectacular features such as the
Twelve Apostles at Port Campbell
National Park, Victoria.
The wind wears rock away,
especially in dry conditions when
it blasts the rock with sand and
soil it has picked up.
Acid rain can form if there is a
lot of pollution in the air. It can
react with chemicals in rocks,
making them crack and crumble
more easily.
Water on the ground can react
with certain chemicals in rocks,
soil and decaying plants, producing
acids and bases that speed up the
weathering of rocks.
Weathering doesnt change only
rocks. It changes buildings, roads
and cars even your own skin
weathers as you get older!
492
The Twelve Apostles,

on the coast of southern Victoria
Wave Rock, Western Australia, a

spectacular example of weathering
by the wind and chemicals
Tree roots widen the

cracks in rocks.
INVESTIGATION 19.3
Chemical weathering
You will need:
piece of limestone
distilled water
dilute hydrochloric acid
2 dropping pipettes
Put a drop of distilled water on
the piece of limestone.

Put a drop of dilute
hydrochloric acid on a different

part of the piece of limestone.
DISCUSSION
1
Does the distilled water

have any observable effect
on the limestone?
What is the effect of the

dilute acid on the limestone?
Fast-flowing water can move sand,

soil and even big rocks over long
distances. All creeks and rivers flow
to the sea or to inland lakes, but, by
the time they reach the seas or lakes,
the water flows much more slowly.
6 Sand is picked up by currents in

the waves along one beach and
deposited on other beaches.
Strong winds have enough
energy to pick up sand
and carry it inland.
2 As the water slows down, the bigger

rocks are deposited.
3 By the end of the rivers journey, all
but very fine sediments have been
deposited.
4 Coastlines can change quite quickly as
a result of weathering, erosion and the
deposition of sediments.
5 Ocean waves wear away the rocks
that make up cliff faces. The waves
pound rocks, smashing them into
smaller and smaller pieces.
Carried away
Weathered rock is usually moved
from one place to another by
the wind, running water, the sea
or glaciers. This process is called
erosion. The weathered rock moved
by erosion is deposited and settles
on the land, riverbeds and oors
of lakes, seas and oceans to form
sediments. Deposits of dead plants
and animal remains are also called
sediments.
Soil is formed by weathering,
erosion and deposition of rock. Soil
also contains humus decaying
plant and animal material that
plants can grow in.
A fast-moving river is likely
to carry sand, gravel and smaller
particles with it. As it slows down
on its path to the sea, it loses
energy, and particles are deposited,
forming sediments. The larger
particles, such as gravel and
sand, settle rst. By the time the
river reaches the sea, it is usually
travelling so slowly that the very
ne mud particles begin to settle.
3
5
4
6
493
INVESTIGATION 19.4
Cracking up
Some objects, like glass, crack if their
temperature changes quickly. Rocks
can do the same. The cracking occurs
because the outer part of the rock
cools more quickly than the inside of
the rock after a hot day. Cracking can
also occur when it rains on a hot day.
The cracks gradually get larger, until
large akes begin to fall off. Granite
often weathers this way.
You will need:

mixture of garden soil, gravel, sand
and clay
large jar with lid
watch or clock
Before commencing this
experiment, form your own

hypothesis about the order in
which the different types of
particles in the mixture will settle.
Give reasons for your hypothesis.
garden soil, gravel, sand and clay
in a large jar to quarter-ll it.
Add enough water to three-
quarters ll the jar and place the lid

on rmly. Shake the jar vigorously.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Dene the term weathering.
2 Recall ve causes of weathering.
3 Dene erosion, and describe how it
differs from weathering.
4 Distinguish between a soil and a
sediment.
5 As a ooded river slows down,
identify which particles are likely to
settle rst: gravel, sand or ne clay.
THINK
6 The Sphinx and the Great Pyramids
of Egypt have stood for thousands
of years, yet weathering has
affected them more during the past
50 years than in the previous years
since they were built. Describe the
most likely cause of increased
weathering.
7 Acid rain is a serious problem in
industrial areas where there is a
494
Then compare your observations

of the jar with your diagram.
Sediments and water
Place enough of a mixture of
Trees can begin to grow within

cracks in rocks. As the trees grow, the
cracks are forced apart, eventually
splitting the rocks. This speeds up
weathering.
Leave the jar for a day or two.
DISCUSSION
1
Which type of sediment settled

after you rst shook the jar?
Where are the other particles of

sediment while the rst layers
are settling?

showing clearly any layers that
form. Identify the layers if you
can.
Which sediments settled after a

day or two?
Why did the last sediments take

so long to settle?
Was your hypothesis supported

by your observations?
What is the relationship

between the size of sediment
particles and the time taken to
settle?
Put the jar down and watch
carefully as particles begin to

settle.
Note the time taken for each layer
of sediment to settle completely.
lot of air pollution. However, rain

reaching the ground after falling
through clean air is also slightly
acidic. Explain how this could be.
8 Identify which feature of Wave Rock
on page 492 is the result of:
(a) weathering by wind
(b) weathering by chemicals.
9 Describe some evidence of the
weathering of:
(a) buildings
(b) cars
(c) roads.
10 Compare the sediment found at
the bottom of a still lake with
the sediment on the banks of a
mountain stream.
11 In alpine regions, rocks can be
shattered by frozen water. Explain
how this can happen.
12 What type of sediment would
you expect to nd on the bed of
the Yarra River in Melbourne, the
Derwent River in Hobart or the
Swan River in Perth?
13 The Twelve Apostles on page 492

were originally named because
12 stacks were close together
along the western Victorian coast.
Some of the stacks have since
collapsed into the sea.
(a) What is probably the main
cause of the weathering of
these stacks? Explain.
(b) Which part of each stack is
likely to weather most quickly?
(c) Has this coastal feature been
caused by weathering, erosion
or both? Explain your answer.
14 Why are larger sediments
deposited before ner ones in river
systems?
15 How much weathering and erosion
would take place on the moon?
How long would you expect a
footprint to remain on its surface?
Justify your answers.
work
sheet
19.3 Weathering and erosion
19.4
Its sedimentary, Watson!

Rocks that are formed from the particles of sediments
are called sedimentary rocks. Most sedimentary rocks
are formed from weathered rock that has been
deposited due to erosion. Grains of sediment are
cemented together to form a solid rock. The process is
shown in the diagrams below.
Sediments are laid down by
ice, wind or water, in horizontal
layers called beds.
Rocks from living things

Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is formed from
deposits of the remains of marine organisms such
as shellsh and corals. The hard parts of these dead
animals contain calcium carbonate. These deposits
are cemented together over a period of time in very
much the same way as sedimentary rocks form from
weathered rock.
Within each bed, the sediment

grains are squashed together
so that they are in close
contact.
Water seeps in between the

grains, bringing with it many
dissolved chemicals.
When the water evaporates,

these chemicals are left behind
as crystals around the edges of
the grains. These crystals
cement the grains of sediment
together to form rock.
Many sedimentary rocks form in this way.
Sandstone is formed from grains of sand that

have been cemented together over a period of time.
Mudstone and shale are formed from ner grains of
sediment deposited by calm water in the form of
mud. Siltstone has grains slightly larger than those of
mudstone. Conglomerate contains grains of different
sizes that have been
cemented together.
This limestone, rich in corals and shells, is many metres above

sea level. How did it get there?
Coal is formed from the remains of dead plants

that are buried by other sediments. In dense forests,
layers of dead trees and other plants build up on
the forest oor. If these layers are covered with water
before rotting is completed, they can become covered
with other sediments. The weight of the sediments
above compacts the partially decayed plant material.
Over millions of years the compacting increases the
temperature of the sediment and squeezes out the
water, forming coal.
Rocks from chemicals
Conglomerate is formed from sediments that might be deposited

by a fast-owing or ooded river.
Some sedimentary rocks form when water evaporates

from a substance, leaving a layer that is compressed
after being buried by other sediments. Rock salt is an
example of a rock formed in this way. It forms from
residues of salt that remain after the evaporation of
water from salt lakes or dried-up seabeds.
495
Rocks in layers
Layers of sedimentary rock are
often clearly visible in road
cuttings and the faces of cliffs.
The limestone in the photograph
opposite was formed on the ocean
oor. Layers of sediments and
sedimentary rocks can be pushed
upwards by the same forces below
the Earths surface that cause
mountains to be formed. Those
forces can also bend and tilt the
layers.
Coal is used as a fuel. It is

burned in electric power stations to
boil water. The steam is then used
to drive the turbines that produce
electricity. In some countries, coal
is burned in home heaters.
Using sedimentary
rocks
Sandstone and limestone are often
used as external walls of buildings.
These sedimentary rocks are well
suited to carving into bricks of any
shape. Shale can be broken up and
crushed to make bricks.
Limestone is broken up to
produce a chemical called lime.
Lime is used to make mortar,
cement and plaster, in the
treatment of sewage and on
gardens to neutralise acid in the
soil.
The chalk used to write on

blackboards is like limestone, but
it is not as hard as most limestone.
Chalk is formed from very ne grains
of calcium carbonate that have
separated from sea water and settled
to become a white, muddy sediment
on the sea oor. The sediment hardens
over time to form chalk. This process
takes millions of years. The remains
of shellsh and other sea animals are
also found in the sediment that forms
chalk, but most of these remains are
microscopic.
The white cliffs of Dover that
overlook the English Channel are
composed of chalk.
496
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Recall what all sedimentary
rocks are formed from.
2 Explain, with the aid of a
diagram, how grains of
sand can become part of a
sedimentary rock.
3 Sedimentary rocks that have
formed from the erosion of
weathered rock cannot be
identied by their colour. Recall
the feature that allows you to
identify them.
4 Explain how a rock can be
formed from the remains of
animals.
5 Recall how coal is formed.
THINK
Layers of sedimentary rock can be pushed

upwards, bent and tilted by forces beneath
the Earths surface.
6 Explain why sedimentary rocks

are found in layers.
7 A road cutting reveals a layer
of sandstone beneath a layer
of mudstone. Between them
is a much thinner layer of
conglomerate. Identify which
layer would have formed:
(a) from sediments beneath the
sea
(b) while the area was ooded
by a swollen, fast-owing
river
(c) while the land was the oor
of a still lake
(d) most recently.
8 Explain why limestone and coal
are sometimes referred to as
biological rocks.
9 Limestone is mostly formed on
the ocean oor. Account for the
fact that the Nullarbor Plain is
riddled with limestone caves.
10 In which type of sedimentary
rock would you be most likely
to nd embedded seashells?
Explain.
INVESTIGATE
11 What do peat, brown coal and
black coal have in common?
Investigate what makes them
different from each other.
work
sheet
19.4 Sedimentary rocks
19.5
Rocky changes
Sedimentary rocks are those that
have formed from deposits of
weathered rock or the remains of
living things.
Igneous and sedimentary rocks
deep below the Earths surface are
buried under the huge weight of
the rocks, sediments and soil above
them. They are also subjected to
high temperatures. The temperature
increases by about 25 C for every
kilometre below the surface. This
heat and pressure can change the
composition and appearance of the
minerals in rocks.
The process of change in the
rocks is called metamorphism
and the rocks that are formed
by these changes are called
metamorphic rocks. The name for
these changed rocks comes from
the Greek words meta, meaning
after or changed and morphe,
meaning form.
the amount of pressure caused

by the weight of the rocks above
how quickly the changes take
place.
Metamorphic rocks that are
mainly the result of great pressure
can often be identied by bands
or at, leaf-like layers. These bands
are evident in the sample of gneiss
(pronounced nice) pictured below
left. The diagram below shows
how rocks can be changed by the
high temperatures that result from
contact with hot magma.
Layers of
sedimentary
rock
Other common examples of the

formation of metamorphic rocks
are:
Shale
(sedimentary)
Sandstone
(sedimentary)
Limestone
(sedimentary)
mainly pressure
mainly heat
mainly heat
Slate
Quartzite
Marble
Metamorphic
rock
Hot
magma
The formation of metamorphic rock by

contact with hot magma
Shale is a common type of sedimentary

rock. It has ne grains and crumbles easily
along its layers. When shale is exposed to
moderate heat and pressure, it forms slate.
Have you ever tried to lift one end of a

pool table and noticed how incredibly
heavy it is? Its really heavy because
the at surface under the felt is not
wood as you may have thought its
actually made of slate. Because of its
natural hardness and its at face, it
makes an ideal even surface!
Gneiss is formed mainly as a result of
great pressure on granite.
The changes that take

place during the formation of
metamorphic rocks depend on:
the type of original rock
the amount of heat that the
original rock is exposed to
497
INVESTIGATION 19.5
Rocks the new generation
You will need:
labelled rock samples including:
granite
gneiss
limestone
marble
sandstone
quartzite
shale
slate
hand lens
Marble forms from limestone under
heat and pressure. It contains the same
minerals as limestone.
Try to sort the rocks into pairs of parent rock and corresponding
metamorphic rock. Use the examples on this page and the previous page
if you have trouble pairing the rocks.
Examine each pair of rocks with a hand lens.
Clues from
metamorphic rocks
The nature of metamorphic rocks
above and below the ground can
provide clues about the history
of an area. Think about why the
presence of quartzite or marble
high in a mountain range would
suggest that the area was once
below the sea.
The presence of slate might
suggest that the area was once
the oor of a still lake or river
mouth. The sediments were
probably buried under many other
sediments and cemented together
to form shale. The shale was
transformed, or metamorphosed,
into slate as a result of new rock
formed above it.
Uses of metamorphic
rock
The strength, resistance to
weathering and appearance of
marble make it suitable for use in
statues and the walls and oors
of buildings (inside and outside).
It is usually highly polished. The
hardness, at structure and strength
of slate make it ideal for use in
buildings, especially in roong and
oor tiles. The sedimentary rocks
from which marble and slate are
formed could not be used for these
purposes.
498
Copy and complete the table below by noting the similarities and
differences between the parent and metamorphic rock of each pair.

Comparing parent and metamorphic rocks
Parent
rock
Metamorphic
rock
Similarities
Differences
Main cause of
metamorphism
Shale
Gneiss
Sandstone
Marble
DISCUSSION
1
Why is the term parent rock used?
Use the last column of your table to suggest whether the main cause of
metamorphism was heat or pressure.
A tadpole grows into a frog, female

frogs lay eggs, and eventually more
tadpoles emerge from the eggs.
Thats a life cycle. Some of the
changes in rocks can be described as
cycles too. Weathered rock is moved
by erosion and the particles form
sediments, which can be cemented
together to form sedimentary rocks,
which in turn may eventually change
into metamorphic rocks. Once those
rocks are exposed at the surface,
the weathering starts all over again.
A complete cycle normally takes
millions of years, but sometimes
never takes place at all. Why?
There are many cycles in nature. Some

happen faster than others.
The rock cycle

The rock cycle describes how
rocks can change from one type
to another. Weathering, erosion,
heat, pressure and remelting
an
at
He
are processes that help change

rocks. The rock cycle is different
from other cycles because there
is no particular order in which
the changes happen. Some rocks
have been unchanged on Earth
Hea
t an
dp
e
sur
res
dp
me
Re
for millions of years and may

not change for millions more.
Some rocks change very quickly,
especially near the edges of the
plates that make up the Earths
crust.
Wea
the
ring
a
g
ltin
er
o
sio
Metamorphic rock
nd
res
su
re
Igneous rock
Sedimentary rock
Weathering and erosion

Remelting
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Rocks are classied into three
groups. Metamorphic rocks make
up one of these. Identify the two
groups of rock that metamorphic
rocks are formed from.
2 Recall the processes that can cause
rocks to change form and become
metamorphic rocks.
3 Describe how the appearance of
gneiss differs from granite.
4 Recall how granite can be
transformed into gneiss.
5 Explain why slate is commonly used
in oor tiles.
6 When sandstone is under heat
and pressure, identify which
metamorphic rock it might form.
7 Identify the rock type that slate is
formed from.
8 Classify the following rocks

as sedimentary, igneous or
metamorphic.
(a) Sandstone
(b) Marble
(c) Basalt
(d) Gneiss
(e) Granite
THINK
9 Explain what the bands in
metamorphic rocks tell us about
how the rocks were formed.
10 If an igneous or a sedimentary rock
gets so hot that it melts completely,
it does not become a metamorphic
rock. Explain why.
11 Deduce why geologists describe
limestone as the parent rock of
marble.
12 Metamorphic rocks are generally
formed deep below the surface of
the Earth. However, they are often
found above the ground even
high in mountain ranges. Explain

how this can be so.
13 Limestone is a sedimentary rock.
Describe the events that could
occur to change limestone into
another rock.
INVESTIGATE
14 Investigate the uses of marble and
slate. Where are they obtained?
What are they used for? Why are
they expensive?
eBook plus
15 Apply mainly heat or pressure to

a series of rocks and watch them
change with the Metamorphic
rocks interactivity in your
eBookPLUS. int-0234
16 Use the Rock cycle weblink in your
eBookPLUS to watch an animation
of how rocks undergo change.
work
sheet
19.5 The rock cycle
499
19.6
Tracking changes in rock

Layers of clues
Sedimentary rocks form in layers.
Each new layer forms on top of the
older layers below. Sedimentary
rocks are therefore useful for
giving scientists clues about
the order in which events have
happened. Sudden events, like
exploding volcanoes, are
recorded in the layers. Slow
movements beneath the surface
can also be seen in the layers.
compare the ages of rocks all

around the world. Sedimentary
rocks that contain the same fossils
have usually formed at about the
same time.
knowing their age in years is called

relative dating.
Palaeontologists study fossils.
A fossil is evidence of life in
the past. Fossils can be used to
Living in the past

The layers in rocks are
useful for nding out
about the order of
events in a particular
area. Finding out
about the order of
events, or comparing the
ages of rocks without actually
Fossil of a reptile
7 These layers were deposited last. They have started

to weather and erode.
6 A long period of weathering and erosion left the layer
of limestone with a flat surface. When a volcano then
erupted nearby, lava from the volcano cooled to form
basalt on the flat surface.
5 A sudden event, like an earthquake, has occurred
to break the layers of rocks like this. This event took
place after the lower layers were folded. A break like
this is called a fault.
4 A slow event has caused the lower levels to buckle.
This is called folding. Folding can occur when rock
layers are under pressure from both sides.
3 The third event to occur was the deposition of
limestone. It tells us that there were probably marine
organisms present in the area during this time.
2 This is the second layer deposited. Shale is a finegrained rock that is deposited in a quiet environment
such as a swamp, lake or the slow-flowing part of a
river.
500
Mudstone
Conglomerate
Basalt
Limestone
Shale 2
Conglomerate 1
1 Conglomerate was deposited first in this rock sample.

This layer was deposited by a glacier or an active
environment like a very fast flowing river.
How fossils form

The remains of most animals
and plants decay or are eaten
by other organisms, leaving no
trace behind. However, if the
remains are buried in sediments
before they disappear, they can be
preserved, or fossilised. Fossils can
take several forms.
The hard parts of plants and
animals are more likely to be
preserved than the softer parts.
Wood, shells, bones and teeth
can be replaced or chemically
A fatal fall . . . or was it murder?

In 1991, some German hikers found
a body preserved in ice near the
ItalyAustria border. Scientists used
radiometric dating and found that the
body was about 5300 years old! They
thought that the person, known now as
the Iceman, had died of hypothermia
(extreme cold). Ten years later,
another group of scientists using hightech X-rays found the remains of an
arrowhead lodged near his left lung.
Specialists have not yet conrmed
whether the Iceman fell back onto
his arrow or if he was murdered. And
without any witnesses to question, the
truth may never be known!
changed by minerals dissolved

in the water that seeps into
them. Fossils formed in this
way are the same shape as
the original remains but are
made of different chemicals;
petried wood is an example.
Animal bones and shells can
be preserved in sediments or
rock for many years without
changing. The types of bones,
shells and other remains found
in the layers of sedimentary
rock provide clues about the
environment, behaviour and
diets of ancient animals.
Sometimes, fossils of whole
organisms, including the soft
parts, are preserved. Such fossils
are rare and valuable. Insects
that became trapped in the sap
(called amber) of ancient trees
have sometimes been wholly
preserved. Similarly, if the
remains of animals or plants
are frozen and buried in ice,
they can be fully preserved.
Whole bodies of ancient woolly
mammoths (including skin,
hair and internal organs) have
been found trapped in the ice
of Siberia and Alaska. These
This insect was trapped in the sap of a tree millions

of years ago.
remains provide clues to the

way that living things have
changed since ancient times.
Whole bodies and preserved
skulls of animals can even
reveal evidence of their last
meal before death.
The remains of animals or plants
sometimes leave an impression,
or imprint, in hardened
sediments or newly formed rock.
It is also possible for remains
trapped in rock to be broken
down by minerals in water,
leaving a mould in the shape of
the organism.
Some fossils, called trace
fossils, provide only signs of
the presence of animals or
plants. For example, footprints
preserved in rock can provide
clues about ancient animals,
including dinosaurs, and
how they lived. By studying
the shape, size and depth of
footprints, hypotheses can be
made about the size and weight
of extinct animals as well as how
they walked or ran. Plant, leaf
and root imprints and feather
impressions are other examples
of trace fossils.
An ancient woolly mammoth. Whole bodies of these ancient

animals have been discovered in the ice of Siberia and Alaska.
501
You have two records of the seashell the mould or
INVESTIGATION 19.6
.
imprint in the sand and the plaster cast.
Making a fossil
DISCUSSION
You will need:

small seashell
small box (shoebox or milk carton)
ne sand
plaster of Paris
Half-ll the box with ne, damp sand.
Make a clear imprint of a small seashell in the sand.
Mix some plaster of Paris and pour it carefully into the
imprint.
Once the plaster has set, remove the plaster cast
carefully from the sand.
Which parts of animals are most likely to be

preserved as casts?
Is the fossil of a fern leaf more likely to be found as a

cast or a mould? Why?
Dinosaur fossils are found in casts and moulds.

What evidence of dinosaurs is likely to be found as a
mould?
CAUTION Do not put plaster of Paris down the sink.
5 Describe the clues that fossils

provide about life in the past.
Activities
REMEMBER
1 A road cutting reveals the layers of
rock shown below. Identify which of
the rocks in the cutting is:
(a) the oldest rock
(b) the youngest rock
(c) evidence of volcanic activity
(d) not a sedimentary rock.
6 Describe how whole ancient

living things can be preserved as
fossils.
7 Dene the term trace fossils, and
explain how they are useful.
8 Distinguish between a cast and a
mould.
THINK
Shale
Sandstone
Basalt
Limestone
Mudstone
Layers of rock exposed by a road cutting
2 Recall why some layers of

sedimentary rock are tilted, even
though the sediments that formed
them were laid in horizontal beds.
3 Distinguish between the relative
age of a rock and its actual age in
years.
4 Recall what a palaeontologist
studies.
502
9 Identify which of the rocks shown at

left would be most likely to contain
the fossil of:
(a) a seashell
(b) the leaf of a fern usually found
in swamps.
10 Explain why some layers shown at
left are thicker than others.
11 Explain why the hard parts of
plants and animals are more likely
to be preserved than the softer
parts.
12 Is an ancient Egyptian mummy
found in a newly discovered tomb a
fossil? Explain your answer.
13 Normally, older layers of rock
are found below younger layers.
Sometimes, however, younger
layers are found beneath older
layers. Deduce how this could
happen.
14 Describe how fossil records can

help us to link rocks from different
parts of the world.
CREATE
15 Use plasticine to construct a sample
of sedimentary rocks. Apply a
gentle force to the sides of the
layers. Describe how the layers fold
under gentle pressure.
INVESTIGATE
16 Even an animals droppings can
become fossilised. Use the internet
or your library to investigate the
following.
(a) Which animal was responsible
for a huge fossilised dropping
found in Canada in 1998?
(b) How long was the dropping?
(c) What can palaeontologists nd
out from it?
(d) Scientists give fossilised
droppings a special name.
What is it?
eBook plus
17 Rate the rock formations in order

from the oldest to the most recent
with the Relative age of rocks
int-0233
work
sheet
19.6 Tracking changes in rock
19.7

Human-made erosion
Without weathering and erosion,
the rocks that rise to the Earths
surface would keep building up.
Both weathering and erosion
are natural processes. But what
happens when humans disturb the
natural process?
Imagine a world where acid falls
from the sky, a place where deserts
replace fertile land and where the
beaches are vanishing. These are
some of the effects that humans
have already had on the Earth.
Why save the trees?

The roots of trees help to hold
the soil together. Removing trees
exposes good, fertile soil to wind
and water. The soil is blown or
washed away, leaving the land
Acid rain
Every day
many harmful
chemicals are
pumped into the
air. Some are
naturally formed
chemicals, but
many are from
cars, factories
or from other
human activity.
The chemicals
in the air can
dissolve in water, much like salt in hot
water. The dissolved chemicals return
to the ground in rainwater, snow or
fog, and the combination is
called acid rain.
Acid rain can poison trees, soil
and water supplies. It even eats away
at rocks, including those used in
buildings and statues.
destroyed. Early Australian settlers originally cut down trees to create

farmland. As the population grew, more trees were cleared to provide
space for industrial areas and housing. Since then, industrial areas have
grown larger and the forests smaller. Trees are still being cleared for wood
and wood products like paper (see photo above).
Over the past 200 years, over two-thirds of Australian forests have been
cleared.
Coasts under threat

Coastal areas can be badly affected by erosion. Bare sand is easily washed
away by water and blown inland by the wind. Vegetation
egetation
that binds the sand
together has been torn
up by recreational
vehicles. Vegetation
near beaches in tourist
areas such as the
Gold Coast has been
removed and replaced
with huge buildings.
Barriers such as sea
walls, mesh fences
and groynes are built
to hold sand on the
beaches.
503
INVESTIGATION 19.7
Rubber tubing
Tap
Why plant trees?

Plastic lid
You will need:

stream tray or box
damp sand
wooden block
rubber tubing
plastic lid from a soft-drink bottle
several small twigs
Twigs
Moist sand
Pack the sand into the tray.

Make a groove in the sand to represent a
Wooden
block
creek or river.
Creek
Set up the equipment as shown in the
diagram at right.
Drain
hole
Sink
Make sure to plant trees on one side
of the creek only.

Use the rubber tubing to aim water into
DISCUSSION
the lid.
Where does most of the erosion occur along the

creek?
What effect do the trees have on erosion?
Allow water to ow slowly but steadily into the lid
and then overow into the creek.
On the mend
Scientists, conservation groups
and government bodies play an
important part in improving the
environment. The aim is to reduce
the impact of human activity and
repair past damage. Some methods
for reducing erosion and repairing
the damage already caused by
erosion include:
farmers ploughing their elds
around hills rather than up and
down the slope. This reduces the
amount of soil washed down
hills by rain.
sealing roads and gutters to
direct water into proper drains
controlling numbers of livestock
replacing trees that have been
removed
fencing off large sections
of beaches and banning
recreational vehicles in many
coastal areas
reducing the impact of
introduced animals, such as
rabbits, on native vegetation.
504
Activities
REMEMBER
1 Dene the term acid rain.
2 Give two reasons why forests
have been cut down.
3 Explain how cutting down trees
speeds up erosion.
4 Describe two ways that farmers
can reduce erosion.
THINK
5 Explain why a barrier
has been placed at the
back of the beach in the
photo on page 503.
6 The photograph at right
shows an example of
tunnel erosion. Suggest
what has caused the
erosion and how it may
be stopped.
CREATE
7 Construct a ow chart to show
how deforestation can occur.
8 Imagine you work for a local
council in an area that has both
national parks and coastlines. Your
job is to educate people in the
area about erosion and land care.
Design and construct a leaet
that gives reasons for not using
recreational vehicles in the area.
LOOKING BACK
4 Draw diagrams to explain the difference between

weathering and erosion.
5 There is a lot of evidence that the Earth is changing.
Volcanoes erupt, coastlines disappear, cracks appear in
the ground, and fossils of seashells can be found on the
top of some high mountains. In some cases, ancient cities
have been found beneath the sea. Some of these changes
are caused by natural events that change the Earth over
millions of years; other natural events happen very quickly,
in days, hours, minutes or even seconds. Unfortunately, not
all of the events that change the surface of the Earth are
natural. Some of them are caused by human interference
with the environment.
(a) Copy and complete the table below that lists some of
the natural events that change the Earth. Work in a
small group to add as many natural events to the table
as you can.
(b) Work in a group to construct a table like the one below
that lists non-natural events that shape the Earth or
might shape the Earth in the future.
(c) For each of the events that you have included in your
table for part (b), describe:
(i) whether the changes made to the Earths surface
would continue to have effects if humans were to
suddenly be removed from the planet
(ii) ways in which these events could be
stopped.
Natural event
Conditions that cause the

event
osion
and er
ring
the
3 Often, when lava cools, the rocks formed near the edge of
the lava ow have different-sized crystals from the rocks
formed in the middle of the ow.
(a) Describe where in the ow the rocks with the smallest
crystals would form.
(b) Propose a reason for this.
?
re
su
es
ea
W
2 Evaluate if the word in italics makes the statement true or

false. If the statement is false, replace the word in italics to
make it true.
(a) Extrusive rocks form above the Earths surface.
(b) The faster the cooling time, the larger the crystal size in
igneous rocks.
(c) Weathering is the process of moving broken down rock
or soil from one place to another.
6 Fill in the blanks in the diagram below.
Hea
t an
dp
r
1 Identify which of the following are extrusive igneous rocks

and which are intrusive igneous rocks: scoria, basalt,
granite, obsidian, pumice.
Igneous rock
W
ea
the
ring and erosion
7 Explain why acid rain eats away some types of stone used
in buildings, but not others.
8 Deforestation is a worldwide problem.
(a) Describe how deforestation speeds up the process of
weathering and erosion.
(b) Recall some measures that are being taken to reduce
erosion and improve the environment.
9 The Grand Canyon in Arizona, shown below, has been
forming over millions of years. It once formed the lower
slopes of a mountain range that was twice as high as
Mount Everest. Today, it is the largest gorge on Earth. The
Colorado River ows in the bottom of the gorge.
(a) Describe how the gorge was probably formed.

(b) State what types of rock would be found here and
explain your answers.
Likely effects on the Earths
surface or crust
Likely effects on humans
Cyclone
Earthquake
Volcanic erruption
Drought
Tsunami
Erosion
505
10 Identify the following rocks based on their descriptions:

(a) This rock is deposited in layers that are squashed
together over long periods of time. It is most easily seen
in road cuttings or cliff faces.
(b) This rock is formed from limestone that has been
heated and placed under great pressure. It is very hard
but is able to be formed into sculptures.
(c) This igneous rock is speckled in appearance due to its
large crystals of feldspar, mica and quartz.
(d) This dark, glassy rock is formed from the same material
as basalt but has no crystals.
(e) This is a pale rock that has a lot of holes in it. It can
oat on water and is used as an abrasive.
5 Describe the order of events that occurred to form these

rock samples.
(a)
Mudstone
Limestone
Sandstone
TEST YOURSELF
Mudstone
1 Rocks that have formed from cooled lava are described as

A plutonic.
B igneous.
C metamorphic.
D sedimentary.
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
3 The lithosphere includes the

A crust and the upper sections of the mantle.
B crust only.
C mantle only.
D top layer of the crust only.
(1 mark)
(b)
Mudstone
Basalt
2 Fossils are most likely found in

A granite.
B basalt.
C obsidian.
D shale.
Conglomerate
4 The hardest mineral on Mohs scale of hardness is

A talc.
B quartz.
C corundum.
D diamond.
(1 mark)
506
(3 marks)
Sandstone
Limestone
(3 marks)
work
sheets
19.7 The changing Earth puzzles

19.8 The changing Earth summary
STUDY CHECKLIST
Rock composition
eBook plus
describe the lithosphere 19.1

recall that all rocks are made up of minerals 19.1
identify minerals based upon their hardness, lustre,
colour and streak 19.1
dene the Mohs hardness scale
19.1
Types of rock
distinguish between extrusive and intrusive igneous
rocks
ICT
SUMMARY
Interactivities
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks form when other rocks are placed under
heat, pressure or both. The original rock that changes into
metamorphic rock is called a parent rock. This interactivity
enables you to apply heat or pressure to a series of rocks and
watch them change.
19.2
explain the differences between igneous, sedimentary

and metamorphic rocks
19.2, 19.4, 19.5
describe how metamorphic rocks are formed from

sedimentary and igneous rocks
19.5
identify a variety of igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks
19.2, 19.4, 19.5
recall how crystal size depends on cooling rate 19.2

describe the rock cycle 19.5
explain how rock layers reveal information about
changes to the Earth
19.6
Weathering
dene the terms weathering, erosion and
sediment
19.3
recall different ways that sediment may be

deposited 19.3
explain how acid rain affects rocks and human-made
structures 19.7
identify Australian examples of rock formations that
have been created by erosion and weathering 19.3

Relative age of rocks
This interactivity tests your knowledge of how rocks are formed.
Arrange a series of rock formations in order from the oldest to
the most recent. Instant feedback is provided.

describe the effect of deforestation on soil erosion 19.7
describe methods that can be used to reduce soil
erosion
19.7
507
20
Student research project and skills
Scientists use
investigations to
solve problems;
they design and
carry out experiments. They keep records
of the procedures used and the results
obtained, and they draw conclusions from
their findings. Very few scientists work in
isolation. To make good progress in any
field of science, scientists need to share
reports on their work. In this chapter, you
will learn about the work of scientists and
the skills needed to design, carry out and
report on a scientific investigation.

20.1
describe a problem and develop a
hypothesis to test
20.2
use a range of thinking tools to plan a
student research project

20.3
use a range of visual tools to develop
a timeline for a project

20.4
use a range of sources to gather
information and assess the reliability

of this information
20.5
identify different types of variables,
describe a procedure for a simple

controlled experiment, select
appropriate equipment and evaluate
data for reliability and validity
20.6
organise data and display it using the
appropriate graph
20.7
organise data using spreadsheets
20.8
organise data using databases
20.9
draw conclusions from experimental
results, write a project report and

acknowledge sources of information
appropriately.
Scientists use a wide

variety of equipment
to make accurate
measurements.
Researching the CsIRO

Use the CSIRO weblink eBook plus
in your eBookPLUS to
1. What is the CSIRO?
2. The CSIRO s website describes
some of the research done
INVESTIGATION 20.1
If you are using thermometers,
record the temperature of

the coffee in both cups every
30 seconds.
milk now or later?

You have just finished making yourself
a cup of coffee when the phone rings.
So that your coffee is as warm as
possible, should you add the milk to
your coffee now or after you have
finished talking on the phone? Does
your answer depend on the length of
the phone call?
You will need:
kettle
2 identical cups
instant coffee
milk
2 thermometers or a data logger with
2 temperature probes
2 measuring cylinders
Your teacher will assign a particular
phone call time to each group of

students.
Heat some water in a kettle and
use it to make two cups of instant

coffee. Make sure you use the
same type of cup, the same amount
of hot water and the same amount
of coffee powder.
Put a thermometer or temperature
probe in each cup of coffee. If

you are using a data logger, set
it to collect results for at least
10 minutes.
Measure 40 mL of milk in each of
two measuring cylinders.

Add 40 mL of milk to one of the
cups.
other two students the area of

research they have just read
about. Try doing this without
referring to your notes.
by CSIRO scientists. Read

the information provided for
one area of research that the
CSIRO is involved with and
summarise this research in
point form.
3. Form groups of three. Each
student should explain to the
After your phone call time has
passed, add the milk to the second

cup.
Continue measuring the
temperature in both cups every

30 seconds until 10 minutes has
passed since you added the milk to
the first cup.
If you used thermometers, record
your results in a table like the one

below.
Temperature ( C)
Time
(minutes)
Milk
added at
time 0
Milk added
after phone
call
A data logger can be used for this

experiment.
DIsCUssIOn
1
Does hot coffee cool faster than

warm coffee? How can you tell
from your graph?
Did the two lines on the graph

cross at any stage? What does
this indicate?
Write a conclusion based on

your results.
Does the length of the phone

call affect the results? Compare
your graph with those of other
groups.
Why was it important to put

exactly the same amount of
water in both cups and to use the
same type of cup?
What are the advantages and

disadvantages of using a data
logger for this experiment?
How could this experiment be

improved? Explain your answer.
0
0.5
1
1.5
Plot line graphs of your results on
the same set of axes. Put time on

the horizontal axis and temperature
If you used a data logger, a graph is
plotted automatically. If necessary,

adjust the settings so that the graph
shows the temperatures measured
by both probes on the same set of
axes. Put the graph into the results
section of your experiment report or
into your workbook.
20.1
Choosing a problem
Choosing a problem to investigate can be the hardest
part of a student research project (SRP). Ideally, the
problem should relate to something you are interested
in. You need to make sure that you can write a
hypothesis for the problem you choose and that it can
be tested by carrying out a scientific experiment.
What s the problem?

The problem you choose to investigate should relate
to science. It should be written as a question, and it
should be something you do not already know the
answer to; the problem should challenge you. On
the other hand, you also need to make sure your
challenge is achievable with the resources available
at school. Some examples of problems suitable for a
Year 8 student to investigate are shown at right.
Some problems can be answered by doing just
one experiment. Other problems are more complex
and have many parts. To solve such problems, you
may need to design and carry out a number of
experiments. For example, if you are trying to find
out what type of parachute will slow down a toy s
fall most effectively, you may do an experiment
to investigate the ideal material to use for the
parachute, a second experiment to test the design of
the parachute and a third to test the ideal size of the
parachute.
The aim of the game

Each of the experiments you do to solve your problem
should have an aim. The aim of the experiment is
the reason for doing the experiment. It is often more
specific than the problem you are investigating and
it should start with the word to. Below are some
examples of aims for experiments.
To find out which flower colour makes the best
acid base indicator
To find out if the size of the sheet of paper used to
make a paper aeroplane affects how far the plane
will fly
To compare the speed of balloon rockets gliding
along fishing line with that of balloon rockets
gliding along string
To compare the cooling rate of test tubes wrapped
in different types of fabric
510
Possible student research project topics

Does the thickness of a rubber band affect how far it
stretches? Do other features of rubber bands affect

how far they stretch?
What type of paper aeroplane flies furthest?
What type of parachute slows a toy s fall best?
Which plants make good acid base indicators?
What type of balloon rocket travels fastest?
What is the best recipe for soap bubble mixture?
Do tall people jump higher and further than short
people?
Does the amount of exercise you do affect your heart
rate? In what way?
What type of fabric keeps you warmest in winter?
How do fertilisers affect the growth of plants?
Does talking to plants improve their growth?
Can plants grow without soil?
What makes algae grow in an aquarium?
What is the best shape for a boomerang?
What type of wood gives off the most heat while
burning?
What makes iron rust?
Which paint weathers best?
Which battery lasts longest?
Which type of glue is best?
Which food wrap keeps food fresher?
Which fabrics burn faster?
How can the
growth of mould
on fruit be slowed
down?
Which concrete
mixture is
strongest?
Which parachute
will slow the toy s
fall more? Is the
test fair?
What is your
hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a sensible
guess about the outcome of an
experiment. It should relate to
the aim and should be able to
be tested with an experiment.
The results of the experiment
will either support (agree with)
the hypothesis or not support
(disagree with) the hypothesis.
It is not possible to conclusively
prove that a hypothesis is
correct. When scientists make
a hypothesis, they usually do a
number of experiments to test
that hypothesis. Sometimes, a
number of teams of scientists test
the same hypothesis with slightly
different experiments. Even if the
results of each experiment agree
with the hypothesis, the scientists
could never say that the hypothesis
is proven to be correct. They
would say that each experiment
has provided further evidence to
support the hypothesis.
Use your own observations

Your hypothesis should be based
on observations you have made. It
might also be based on your own
reading. For example, if you are
trying to design the best parachute
for a toy, you should read about
Stool
Sticky tape
Drinking
straw
parachutes before writing your

hypothesis. You might find out
that light, closely woven fabric
that does not increase in weight
too much when wet makes better
parachutes than heavy fabric that
soaks up a lot of water. When
walking home in the rain, you
might observe that your cotton
T-shirt soaks up a lot of water
and becomes heavy, whereas your
nylon jacket does not soak up
water. As a result, your hypothesis
might be: Closely woven nylon is a
better fabric to use for a parachute
than loosely woven cotton.
Fine-tuning your hypothesis

A statement that cannot be tested
with a scientific experiment is not a
suitable hypothesis. The statement
People born in January are more
conscientious than others is not
a good hypothesis unless you can
find a reliable way to measure
conscientiousness. The statement
People born in January work
more hours than others is a better
hypothesis because the number of
hours worked is something that
can be measured. Similarly, the
statement Watching television
makes you fat would be difficult
to test scientifically; however, the
statement Children who watch
more than two hours of television
each day are more likely to be

overweight than children who
watch less than two hours could
be tested scientifically.
Aeroplanes made from
cardboard fly better than those
made from paper is not a suitable
hypothesis because fly better
has not been defined so cannot
be tested scientifically. Fly better
could mean fly further, fly in
a straighter line or stay in the
air longer. A better hypothesis
would be Aeroplanes made from
cardboard fly further than those
made from paper.
hypotheses and predictions

Hypotheses and predictions are
not the same thing. A hypothesis is
a more general statement. Purple
flowers make good acid base
indicators is a hypothesis; it is a
general statement about all purple
flowers. However, a hypothesis
can be used to make a prediction.
Purple impatiens will make a good
acid base indicator is a prediction.
It is a specific statement about one
particular type of flower.
The table on the next page
shows how problems and
observations can lead to
hypotheses and predictions, with
possible results from testing these.
Stool
Fishing line
Air
Balloon
Does a balloon rocket glide faster along
a fishing line or a string?
Which plane will fly further?
20 Student research project and skills
511
Problem
Observation
Hypothesis
The television remote

doesn t work.
If I press the on button

The batteries in the
on the remote, the
remote control are flat.
television won t come on.
My hair is sometimes dry

and frizzy.
No parrots come to our
bird feeder.
Test results
The remote still doesn t
work.
My hair is driest soon

after washing it with
Mum s shampoo.
Mum s shampoo dries out If I use a different

my hair.
shampoo, my hair won t
dry out.
My new shampoo does

not dry out my hair.
Problem solved!
There is bread in the bird

feeder, and magpies and
miners feed there.
Parrots prefer seeds. I ll

try wheat seeds.
Parrots were not

attracted to the feeder.
Activities
REmEmBER
1 Copy and complete the following statements using these
words: aim, to, hypothesis, problem, predictions, support,
observations, prove, tested.
(a) An aim always starts with the word _____________.
(b) A ________________ is usually worded as a
question to answer.
(c) The results of an experiment can ___________ a
hypothesis but they never ____________ that the
hypothesis is correct.
(d) A __________________ is an educated guess about
the outcome of an experiment.
(e) The ______________ of an experiment is the
purpose of the experiment.
(f) A hypothesis can be ____________ by carrying out
a scientific experiment.
(g) We can use a hypothesis to make
_________________.
(h) A good hypothesis is based on _______________
and often also on research.
2 Distinguish between the terms hypothesis and
prediction .
ThInk
3 Classify each of the statements below as an aim, a
hypothesis, an observation or a prediction:
(a) Substances dissolve faster in hot water than in cold
water.
(b) At 80 C, it will take 30 seconds for one teaspoon of
sugar to dissolve in a cup of water.
(c) At 70 C, it took 40 seconds for one teaspoon of
sugar to dissolve in one cup of water.
Problem
The dog won t eat its dinner.
512
Prediction
If I change the batteries,
the remote will work.
Parrots will come if I fill

the feeder with wheat
seeds.
(d) To find out if sugar dissolves faster in hot or cold

water.
(e) It will be windy tomorrow.
(f) A red sunset is always followed by a windy day.
(g) The wind speed is 5 km/h.
(h) To find out if there is a relationship between the
colour of the sky at sunset and the top wind speed
on the following day
4 Is each of the following statements a suitable
hypothesis? If not, justify your answer.
(a) White chocolate tastes better than dark chocolate.
(b) Washing powder X removes tomato sauce stains
faster than washing powder Y.
(c) Plants grow faster under red light than under green
light.
(d) Sagittarians are nicer people than Leos.
(e) Playing video games increases the muscle strength
in your thumbs.
(f) Playing video games affects the development of
social skills.
(g) Science teachers are more interesting people than
English teachers.
(h) Science teachers perform better in IQ tests than
English teachers.
5 Consider the table above. Construct alternative
hypotheses for the problems where the test results did
not support the original hypothesis.
6 Consider the information given in the table below. In
groups of three, discuss the information and create two
possible hypotheses that explain the observations listed.
Make predictions about the possible outcomes of testing
based on each of your hypotheses.
work
sheet
20.1 Starting an investigation
Observations
The dog has not eaten dinner for three days
in a row.
The side fence has a hole in it.
There has been a recent change to the
brand of dog food served.
The neighbours have a new puppy.
Hypotheses
Predictions
20.2
Thinking about your problem

Much of a scientist s work involves thinking about
problems and trying to come up with solutions.
Sometimes ideas seem to pop into your head when
you least expect it, such as when you are out walking
the dog. In some instances though, thinking needs to
be an organised process. The thinking tools described
on the next few pages will help you make a start on
your student research project.
Looking from all sides: PmI

PMI stands for plus, minus, interesting. A PMI is
a thinking tool that encourages you to look at an
idea from a number of perspectives before making a
decision. Use the following steps to construct a PMI
on a particular topic.
1. Write your topic or problem at the top of the
page.
2. Draw three columns underneath the topic.
3. Fill in the three columns with good things and
bad things about the topic or problem and
things you find interesting but are neither good nor
bad.
Imagine that a student was thinking of choosing
the following problem for their student research
project Do guinea pigs eat more food when the
weather is cold? The example below shows a PMI that
the student used to decide whether to choose that
particular problem for her project.
how ideas overlap: venn diagrams

Venn diagrams are often used in mathematics, but
they can be useful to scientists as well to show the
common points between different ideas or concepts.
Use the following steps to draw a Venn diagram for
two topics.
1. Draw two overlapping circles with the topic written
above each circle.
2. In each circle, write down ideas that relate to each
topic.
3. Write ideas that relate to both topics in the
overlapping section.
Below is a Venn diagram that shows some of the
similarities and differences between respiration and
photosynthesis.
Photosythesis
s/CCURSONLYIN
PLANTS
s2ELEASESOXYGEN
s0RODUCESSUGARS
s2EQUIRESLIGHT
s4AKESINENERGY
Choosing the following problem for my SRP:

Do guinea pigs eat more food when the weather is cold?
Plus
I have four
guinea pigs at
home so I don t
need to buy
guinea pigs.
I know a lot
about guinea
pigs and I enjoy
looking after
them.
Minus
I dont want to make
my guinea pigs
uncomfortable or sick
by exposing them to
extreme temperatures.
Four guinea pigs may
not be enough to provide
reliable data, and my mum
will not let me buy more
guinea pigs.
My Science teacher may
not approve an SRP that
involves animals.
Respiration
s#HEMICALREACTION
THATOCCURSINLIVING
THINGS
s&ASTERATHIGHER
TEMPERATURES
s2ELEASESGAS
s/CCURSINALL
LIVINGTHINGS
s2ELEASESENERGY
s0RODUCESCARBON
DIOXIDEANDWATER
A Venn diagram
Interesting
How will I measure
how much food the
guinea pigs have
eaten?
I may need a food
dish that the
guinea pigs
cannot tip
over.
513
mapping your thinking
Identifying similarities: double bubble maps
Once you have selected a problem, a bubble map,

cluster map or mind map can help you organise
your thoughts. These three thinking tools have many
similarities and some key differences.
Like Venn diagrams, double bubble maps can be used

to show things that are common to two different
topics. Use the following steps to construct a double
bubble map.
1. Create separate single bubble maps for the two
topics that you are comparing.
2. Identify the characteristics that are the same or
similar.
3. Redraw to create a double bubble map by placing
the similar bubbles in the middle.
The example at the bottom of the page shows a
double bubble map for two important environmental
issues: thinning of the ozone layer and global
warming.
Identifying key ideas: single bubble maps

A single bubble map is the simplest way to map
your thinking. Use the following steps to construct a
bubble map on a particular topic.
1. Write your topic in the middle of the page.
2. Around the topic, write down any ideas that relate
to your topic and join these ideas to your topic
using lines.
In the example below, a student created a single
bubble map to organise her thinking about the
problem she chose for her SRP Which features of
rubber bands affect how far they stretch?
Thickness
Exposure
to UV light
Type
CTyof
rubber
Features of
rubber bands
that may affect
how far they
stretch
Age of or
Covered
rubber
band
uncovered
Covered or
uncovered
Length of
rubber band
stimulating ideas: cluster maps

A cluster map starts in the same way as a bubble map,
but each of the bubbles around the central topic can
itself have other ideas linked to it. Use the following
steps to construct a cluster map.
1. Think of a topic and write it in the middle of a
sheet of paper.
2. Around your topic, write down any ideas that link
with it. Draw lines from the ideas to your topic.
3. Write down new ideas that are related to your first
ideas, and link them with lines.
The cluster map on the opposite page was created
by a student who chose the following problem for her
SRP Which parachute design will slow down a toy s
fall most effectively?
Single bubble map
Pollution of the
atmosphere
Will lead to
rising
ocean levels
Main gases
responsible are
carbon dioxide
and methane
Global
warming
Linked to
burning of
fossil fuels
Double bubble map
514
Environmental
problem
Caused
by gases
Main gases
responsible
are CFCs
Thinning of the
ozone layer
Will lead to
more cases
of skin cancer
Size
Cotton
Shape
Nylon
Canopy
Type of
thread
Closeness
of weave
Number of
strings
Fabric
Parachute
design
Strings
Length of
strings
Material used
for strings
Thickness
A cluster map
Exploring and summarising ideas: mind maps
re
he
W
W
ea
th
er
Garden
A mind map is similar to a cluster map but it also has

the relationship between the ideas written on the lines
An example of a mind map is shown below. It was
that join them. Creating a mind map for a particular
used by a student to revise the plant growth topic. A
topic is a great way of revising that topic to prepare
mind map could also help you plan your SRP.
for an examination. Use the
following steps to construct a
Water
Fertiliser
Shade
mind map.
1. Write your topic in the
Humidity
Rain
middle of a sheet of paper
and draw a number of lines Type of potting mix
branching out from it.
Temperature
Hail
2. Think of some main ideas
related to the topic and
Insects
Pot
Water
write one on each branch.
3. Draw a number of lines
Rats
branching from each of
your main ideas.
Fertiliser
Vertebrate
Pests
Plant
4. Think of words or terms
Size of the pot
growth
related to one of your main
ideas and write one on
Possums
each branch.
5. Continue adding branches
Slow growing
until you run out of ideas.
Snails
6. You can decorate your
map with colour, clip art,
Fast growing
drawings, photos, etc. to
Bacteria
Viruses
Fungi
make the ideas and links
clearer.
A mind map
it s
Diseases
g
tin
lan
tp
ea
Ag
Ty
pe
of
pla
nt
ed
nt
pla
515
Linking ideas: concept maps

A concept map is similar to a mind
map in that they both show the
relationship between ideas in a
topic. However, a concept map also
explains the relationship between
elements, with statements written
on the links. Use the following
steps to draw concept map.
1. Write down all the ideas you can
think of about a particular topic.
2. Select the most important ideas
and arrange them under your
topic heading. Link these main
ideas to your topic and write the
relationship along the link.
3. Choose ideas related to your
main ideas and arrange them in
order of importance under your
main ideas, adding links and
relationships.
4. When you have placed all of
your ideas, try to find links
between the branches and write
in the relationships.
An example of a concept map
is shown above right. It illustrates
some of the important ideas
and links associated with electric
circuits.
Electric circuits
has a
voltage
need a
can be
power supply
closed circuits
to allow
used to
provided by
516
open circuits
switch
electric current
battery
can break
follows
flows
through
provides
load
energy
conducting path
like a
filament
in a
is converted in a
torch
A concept map
Scientific investigation
Hypothesis
Observation
Educated
guess
Not certain
Prediction
Sensible
sorting ideas into groups:

affinity diagrams
An affinity diagram helps you
to group common ideas or
viewpoints. Use the following steps
to construct an affinity diagram on
a particular topic.
1. Think about a topic and write
any ideas you have onto small
pieces of paper.
2. Examine your pieces of paper
and put similar ideas into
groups. Feel free to rearrange
your groups until you are happy
with them.
3. Think of names for your groups.
An example of an affinity
diagram is shown at right.
Each category name represents
an important part of scientific
investigations.
or
Seeing
Tasting
Hearing
Feeling
Smelling
Noticing
Measurement
Conclusion
Balance
Ruler
Outcome
Findings
Thermometer
Stopwatch
Final
Fairly certain
An affinity diagram
The cause of it all: fishbone diagrams

A fishbone diagram is particularly
useful if you are trying to establish
the cause of an event. Use the
following steps to construct a
fishbone diagram on a particular
event.
1. Think of an event that you do
not know the causes of.
2. In pairs or a team of four, organise

your list of causes into groups.
3. Write the event that you are
analysing as the fish s head of a
fishbone diagram. Your groups
of causes then become the main
bones of the diagram, one bone
for each group.
4. Write the title of each of your

groups of causes on its relevant
fishbone.
5. Write the causes on the smaller
fishbones that are joined to
the sides of the main bones.
(You can attach causes to more

than one bone or group of
causes.)
Charlotte constructed the
fishbone diagram below for her
SRP problem How can I keep
The water in the vase is missing something

the plant needs to survive.
Cutting the plant

damages the stem.
Activities
REmEmBER
The salt
concentration
is too low.
The conducting tissue
of the plant is damaged
when the stem is cut.
cut flowers looking fresh for

the longest possible time? In
her fishbone diagram, she has
considered the reasons why flowers
die rapidly after they have been cut
from a plant.
The plant loses sap

where the stem is cut
(just as humans lose
blood) so it dies.
Flowers die
rapidly after
being cut
from a plant.
Plants need
roots to survive.
A fishbone diagram
Thinking with different hats

There are a number of very useful tools that can help develop your
thinking. One of these was created by a great thinker by the name of
Edward de Bono. He developed the idea of using different coloured
thinking hats for different types of thinking. These hats don t even have to
be on your head. The idea behind each hat just needs to be in your head.
The following example shows how your thinking hats can be used to
discuss whether expensive space exploration should continue.
Problem: Spending billions of dollars on space exploration

Red hat: How do you feel about all the money spent on exploring space?
Yellow hat: How do we benefit from space exploration?
Black hat: What s wrong with spending billions on space exploration?
White hat: What information do we need?
Green hat: What other things could we spend the money on?
Blue hat: What can be gained from space exploration in the future?
1 What does PMI stand for?

2 Identify a type of diagram that
consists of two overlapping
circles.
3 Distinguish between bubble
maps, cluster maps and mind
maps.
4 Compare Venn diagrams with
double bubble maps.
ThInk
5 Construct a PMI for each of the
following ideas.
(a) School students should not
wear a uniform.
(b) School canteens should sell
only healthy food.
(c) Parents should be fined
if their children are
sunburned.
(d) The legal driving age should
be changed to 21.
(e) All high-school students
should be given a free
computer paid for by the
government.
6 Construct a Venn diagram with
one circle labelled Plants
and the other Animals and
complete using features of
plants and animals. (Hint: See
chapters 4 and 5.)
7 (a) Construct a bubble map for
the topic The solar system .
(Hint: See chapter 8.)
(b) Add additional bubbles to
change your bubble map
into a cluster map.
8 Choose one of the topics you
studied in science this year
and, working in groups of three
to four students, construct a
mind map for that topic.
517
20.3
Organising your thinking

Timelines and gantt
charts
think about all the tasks required

and construct a timeline or Gant
chart that shows when you need
to have completed each task.
This will help you complete your
project on time without having
to rush any part of the project.
Constructing a timeline
1. Draw a line to represent the
total amount of time available;
for example, if you have 6 weeks
to work on your project, you
might draw a 12 cm line.
2. Divide the line evenly to
represent blocks of time; for
example, 2 cm might represent 1
week.
3. Indicate on the timeline when
you plan to have completed
particular tasks.
When you are set a large complex

task such as your SRP, it is
important to plan how you will
use the time you have available.
Leaving all the work until the last
few days before the due date is
unlikely to result in a high-quality
project report. Depending
on the problem
you have chosen to
investigate, you might
need to allow time for
plants to grow or for
results to be collected
over a period of time.
Writing the final report,
taking photographs
and constructing tables
and graphs of your
results also take time.
Before you start on your
Spreadsheet software can be used to draw Gantt charts.
project, you should
1 Mar.
8 Mar.
A student s SRP timeline
518
15 Mar.
22 Mar.
A Gantt chart is another way of

planning your time. It can show
more clearly that some tasks will
be done over an extended period
of time. If you have access to a
computer, a Gantt chart can be
drawn easily using Microsoft Excel
or another spreadsheet program.
1. Draw a table with each column
representing a particular block
of time, such as a week.
2. List the tasks to be completed
in the first column of the table.
Each task should take up one
row of the table.
3. Shade the cells of the table that
represent the time when you plan
to work on that particular task.
An example of a Gantt chart for a
student SRP is shown below.
Experiments completed
29 Mar.
Project
handed out
Decide on problem.
Library
research
Constructing a gantt chart
Plan due
Do experiment.
Work on
report.
Diagrams can help us to organise

our thinking and also to organise
our time when planning a
complex project. Storyboards,
timelines, Gantt charts, cycle maps
and flow charts are tools used
to represent complex scientific
processes, plan presentations and
help you manage your time as you
work on your SRP.
5 Apr.
Results entered
in spreadsheet
12 Apr.
Due date
Using storyboards to plan your work

A storyboard is similar to a comic strip. It is a
series of diagrams that might be used to plan a
PowerPoint presentation, movie or project. If you
are planning a movie, each diagram might represent
an outline of a scene in the movie. For a PowerPoint
presentation, each diagram could represent one
slide of the presentation. Your teacher might give
you the option of presenting your SRP to your class
using a short movie or PowerPoint presentation. A
storyboard would be an excellent tool to plan such a
presentation.
going with the flow: flow charts and

cycle maps
Flow charts and cycle maps are representations of
particular processes. The method for an experiment
can usually be represented by a flow chart. A cycle
map is similar to a flow chart, but it forms a closed
cycle so it is useful to represent processes that repeat
themselves, such as the water cycle or the life cycle of
an organism. To draw a flow chart or cycle map, write
each step or event and link them with arrows.
Collect
B
Assess
Outline of
scene 1
Examine
Outline of
scene 2
Perform
Agree
A cycle map for a team meeting

Outline of
scene 3
Flower
formation
Outline of
scene 4
Growth
Pollination
Outline of
scene 5
Outline of
scene 6
Fruit and seed

formation
Germination
Seed
dispersal
General plan for a storyboard
A cycle map showing the life cycle of a flowering plant
Storyboard for a movie presentation of a student SRP
519
The problem
Our new puppy keeps barking and
whining each night when we put
him outside.
Test
I ll place a ticking clock under
the puppys bedding. I will try this
method for three nights.
Hypothesis
The puppy is scared of the dark.
Results
The puppy barked and whined
for the first hour each night.
Test
I ll place a small lamp near the
puppys bed. I will try this method
for three nights.
Think again
The results don t agree with
my hypothesis. I need a new
hypothesis.
Check hypothesis
My hypothesis has been
generally supported, but not
fully supported.
Think again
Modify my hypothesis and
test again.
Results
The puppy keeps barking and
whining most of the night.
Check hypothesis
My hypothesis has not been
supported. Providing light for the
puppy has had no effect at all.
Test
I ll place a ticking clock and
hot-water bottle under the
puppys bedding. I will try this
method for three nights.
Hypothesis
The puppy misses the noise of its
mother and brothers and sisters.
Results
The puppy barked and whined
for 15 minutes on the first night,
5 minutes on the second night
and not at all on the third night.
Check hypothesis
My results agree with my
hypothesis. Peace at last
Hypothesis
The puppy misses the noise and
warmth of its mother and brothers
and sisters.
A flow chart of the process used to stop a puppy barking at night
Activities
REmEmBER
1 Recall two similarities and two
differences between a timeline and
a Gantt chart.
2 Identify a visual tool that looks like a
cartoon strip.
3 Compare cycle maps with flow
charts.
ThInk
4 Interpret the flow chart above
to answer the following
questions.
(a) What was the problem to be
solved?
(b) What action was taken when
the first and second hypotheses
were not supported?
(c) What variable was used in
each of the three experiments?
(d) Do you think each experiment
was a fair test? Explain.
520
(e) What other explanations could

there be for the change in the
behaviour of the puppy in the
final experiment?
5 Identify the visual tool that you
would use to show each of the
following.
(a) When various groups of
animals first appeared on Earth
(b) The procedure used to extract
DNA from cells
(c) The life cycle of a butterfly
(d) The date on which each of your
assignments is due this term
(e) An outline of the video you
would like to make for your
cousin s sixteenth birthday
6 Construct a timeline that shows
some of the key events that have
occurred in your life so far.
7 Construct a Gantt chart that shows
which subject you plan to work on
each night of this week.
8 Construct a flow chart that shows
how to make slime using the
following recipe.
Combine 20 mL PVA glue, 20 mL

water and 3 drops of food colouring
and stir. Prepare a saturated
solution of borax. Use a syringe
to measure 20 mL borax solution
and add it to the glue mixture. Stir
vigorously until the slime forms.
Rinse the slime with water before
playing with it.
9 Construct a cycle map for the
water cycle (Hint: See page 177 in
chapter 7.)
20.4
Research and record keeping

Scientists do experiments to test hypotheses, which are
based on observations as well as knowledge previously
discovered by other scientists. An important part
of the job of scientists is to read reports written by
other scientists and to do background research before
designing their experiments. Scientists also need to
keep records of all their observations and any changes
they make to the design of their experiments. When
you do a student research project, you will probably
be asked to do this by keeping a logbook.
What is a logbook?
A logbook is a document where you keep a record
of all the work you do towards a project. Each entry
should be dated like a diary. In your logbook, you
might include the following items.
A timeline or other evidence of planning your use of
Part of a blog site used by a researcher to share the results of her

investigations into acid base indicators
time
Notes about conversations you have had with
teachers, friends, parents or experts on your project

and how these conversations affected your project.
Make sure you record each person s details so you
can acknowledge their contribution in your report.
Notes from library research you have done for your
project. Include all the details you will need for your
bibliography.
A plan or rough outline of the method you will use for
your experiment(s)
Notes about any problems you encountered during
your project and how you dealt with these
Information on any changes you made to your original
plan
Results of all your experiments (these may be
presented roughly at this stage)
A plan or storyboard for your presentation if you are
required to present your research to your class.
A logbook can be written by hand on paper, it

can be done with a wordprocessing program on a
computer or even be in the form of a website. A blog
is a website that has dated entries so it can be used as
a logbook. It has the added advantage that you can
invite other people, such as your friends, parents and
teachers, to look at your work and post comments.
You should check with your teacher on the format
required for your logbook.
Researching your topic

Before you start your own experiments, you should
find out more about your topic.
As well as increasing your general knowledge of
the topic, you need to find out whether your problem
has been investigated by others. Information already
available about your topic might help you to design
your experiments. It might also help you in explaining
your results.
Make notes on your topic as you find information.
You may be able to include some relevant background
information in your report.
Using the library

The best place to start is the school library. There are
several different types of information sources in the
library. They usually include the following.
Nonfiction books
Use the subject index catalogue to find out where
to find books with information about your topic.
Your library catalogue is most likely to be stored
in a computer database. You might need to ask the
librarian to help you use the catalogue at first. It is
also a good idea to browse through the contents list
of science textbooks. Your topic may appear.
521
Reference books
Industry
These include encyclopedias, atlases and yearbooks.

The index of a good encyclopedia is a great place to
start looking for information.
Information on some topics can be obtained from

certain industries. For example, if you were testing
glues for strength, or batteries to find which ones
last longest, the manufacturers might have useful
information. Use the yellow or white pages of the
phone book to find addresses and send a polite letter
or email.
Journals and magazines

There are quite a few scientific journals that are
suitable for use by school students. New Scientist, Ecos,
Australasian Science, Popular Science, Choice, Helix and
Scientriffic are available in many school libraries. They
provide up-to-date information, but flicking through
journals is a very slow way to find a relevant article.
Instead, you might try using a journal index, such as
EBSCO. Ask your school librarian which journal is
available at your school.
Information files
Many school libraries keep information files (also
called vertical files) of newspaper articles on topics of
interest or even collections of articles on CD-ROM. Ask
your school librarian if you don t know how to use
these resources.
Audiovisual resources
When you use the library catalogue to look for
resources, you may discover that your school has
a relevant DVD you can borrow or a digital video
you can watch. If your school subscribes to digital
video library software, you may be able to search for
relevant video resources at your school.
Relatives or friends
Perhaps you or a relative know somebody who works
in your area of interest. Let your friends and relatives
know about your intended research.
They might be able to put you in contact
with people who are experts in the area you are
researching. Perhaps they can obtain information that
is relevant to your project from their workplace. For
example, if your project involves plants and a family
member or friend works in a plant nursery, they might
be able to give you expert information on the best
ways to grow your plants. This could help avoid some
preliminary experiments that you would otherwise
need to perfect your techniques.
In some instances, it may be possible for you
to obtain some of the resources you need for your
experiment from friends and relatives as well. For
example, if your project involved comparing the
effectiveness of different types of ear muffs, these
might be able to be borrowed over the weekend from
a friend s workplace.
Beyond the library

Information on your topic may be available from the
following sources.
Your science teacher

This may seem obvious, but many people don t even
think to ask. Your science teacher may also be able to
direct you to other sources of information.
Government departments and agencies

Federal, state and local government departments and
agencies may be able to provide you with information
or advice on your topic. Try searching through the
government listing at the front of the white pages of the
phone book. Addresses to write to are usually listed. A
polite letter or email to the appropriate department or
agency is the best way to ask for help.
The internet
The internet provides a wealth of information on
almost any topic imaginable. The trick is to use the
right search words. Search engines such as Google,
Yahoo!, AltaVista and Ask.com will help you find the
information you need.
522
Use a variety of information sources when looking for background

information for your project.
In your logbook complete a checklist like the

one on the next page to see if you have thoroughly
searched sources of information.
how to use information
Checklist of information sources

School library:
nonction books
reference books
journals and magazines
information le
audiovisual resources
Beyond the library:
your science teacher

government departments and
agencies
the internet
industry
relatives or friends
other sources
Activities
REmEmBER
1 Outline why a logbook is a bit like a diary.
Make notes on information that

is relevant to your research topic.
Think about what you really need
to know. You need information
that will help you to:
plan your experiments
understand your results later on
show in your report how your
research relates to everyday
life or why your research is
important.
You will need to keep an
accurate list in your logbook of
the steps you have taken and the
resources that you have used.
(a) Explain what an online catalogue is.

(b) Distinguish between online catalogues and search
engines such as Google.
(c) It is usually better to start a search using the library
online catalogue rather than an internet search
engine. Explain why.
2 Define the term blog .

3 An easy way to find information about a topic is to use
a search engine. Outline how you might find information
about your topic in your school library without using a
computer.
eBook plus
6 You can find information about science topics in science

textbooks and on the internet.
(a) Explain why you would not find the results of
scientific research that was done last month in a
science textbook.
(b) assess the advantages of using science textbooks as
a source of information.
(c) assess the advantages of using the internet as a
source of information.
8 Use the Wikipedia weblink in your eBookPLUS to

answer the following questions about Wikipedia, an
online encyclopedia.
(a) When did Wikipedia start?
(b) Who founded Wikipedia?
(c) How is Wikipedia different from other online
encyclopedias such as World Book Online and
Encarta Online?
(d) Some of the information in Wikipedia is not reliable.
Explain what reliable means and why that might be
the case for Wikipedia.
(e) How could you assess whether a particular piece of
information you found on Wikipedia was reliable?
(f) Outline some reasons why people may wish to put
inaccurate information on Wikipedia.
(g) Discuss whether certain people should be banned
from contributing to Wikipedia. Give reasons for your
answer.
(h) Which Wikipedia entries are most likely to be highly
reliable, those that have been edited many times by
a large number of people or those that have been
written by only one person and never edited. Explain
your answer.
7 Your school and local library probably have an online

catalogue.
9 Use the Wiki weblink in your eBookPLUS to have a go at

writing a class wiki on a topic of your choice.
4 Define the following terms.

(a) Vertical file
(b) Journal
(c) Search engine
(d) Encyclopedia
(e) Nonfiction
ThInk
5 Imagine you are scientist. assess the advantages and
disadvantages of maintaining a blog rather than keeping
a logbook in your office.
523
20.5
Designing your method

Your student research project will include one or more experiments. Each
experiment must be carefully planned to ensure that the results are valid,
reliable and accurate. Designing a scientific investigation usually begins
by considering the variables involved in the experiment. You should also
think about the observations and measurements that you will need to
make. Most importantly, your experiment must be safe and minimise risk
to yourself and others.
variables
Variables are the conditions that can be changed in an experiment. In
chapter 1 (see pages 25 6), you learned that there are different types of
variables in experiments. The example below will help you revise this.
Problem: Do black cars heat up in the sun faster than white cars?
Type of variable
Definition
Independent
The variable that is

deliberately changed in the
experiment
Dependent
The variable that is

Temperature
measured in the experiment
Controlled
Variable that must be kept

constant to ensure that the
experiment is fair
Which car will heat up faster on a hot day?
524
Example
Colour of car
Location of car (both cars in full sun)

Outside temperature
Type of car
Window tinting
Location of thermometer in car
valid experiments
A valid experiment tests what it is
designed to test. For example, if
you want to measure a student s
intelligence, getting the student to
complete an IQ test would be a
more valid test of her intelligence
than measuring how high she can
jump. Imagine that a student wants
to find out if washing powder X
cleans better than washing
powder Y. A valid test might
involve staining two pieces of the
same type of fabric with the same
amount of engine oil and washing
these in the same way. After
washing, the amount of grease
left on each piece of fabric could
be compared. On the other hand,
asking people to compare the
smell of the two washing powders
would not be a valid way of testing
which powder washes clothes
better. Using washing powder X to
wash cotton stained with tomato
sauce and using washing powder Y
to wash wool stained with engine
grease would not be a valid test
either.
In a valid experiment, only one
variable (the independent variable)
is changed. The other variables are
controlled (kept the same) as far as
possible.
A control is usually needed in
experiments that test whether a
particular variable has an effect.
A control allows the scientists
to compare the results with and
without changing the variable.
For example, if you want to test
whether a fertiliser makes a plant
grow faster, you would need to
grow two plants under identical
conditions and apply the fertiliser
to only one of the plants. By

comparing how quickly both
plants grew, you could decide
whether the fertiliser has an effect.
The placebo effect

When scientists test the
effectiveness of medicines and
other medical treatments, they
need to take into account the
placebo effect. A placebo looks and
tastes identical to the real medicine
but does not contain any of the
active ingredients found in the
medicine, so it should not have
an effect on patients. Many studies
have shown that patients given a
placebo report improvements in
their condition. To allow for the
placebo effect, scientists usually
test new drugs by giving half the
patients the real medicine and the
other half (the control group) a
placebo. The patients are usually
not told whether they are taking
the placebo or the real medicine.
This is called a blind study. In
addition, in a double-blind study,
the nurses and doctors who deal
with the patients and collect the
results do not know which patients
are receiving the placebo. This
ensures that they do not treat the
patients receiving the placebo
differently or prompt them when
asking about their symptoms.
accurate experiments
Reliable experiments
The degree of accuracy of the

results of an experiment depends
on the instruments that have been
used to measure the results. If you
want to measure the length of
your classroom, you could pace
along the length of the room and
count the number of steps from
one end of the room to the other.
You could also use a trundle
wheel with marks every 10 cm,
or you could use a tape measure
marked in millimetres. The tape
measure would provide the most
accurate measurement. Similarly, to
measure 100 mL water, you could
use a measuring cylinder that is
graduated in millilitres or you
could use a measuring cup that is
marked every 100 millilitres. The
measuring cylinder would provide
a more accurate measurement than
the cup.
An experiment is reliable if it
consistently produces the same
results when it is repeated. Imagine
that you want to compare the
strength of plastic bags by filling
the bags with weights until the
bag breaks. If the experiment is
reliable, you will find that the mass
needed to break a particular type
of bag would always be about the
same each time the experiment was
repeated. If the results vary greatly
between trials, the experiment is
not reliable. You can improve the
reliability of an experiment by
repeating it a number of times
and calculating the average of the
results.
80 mL
70 mL
50 mL
60 mL
40 mL
50 mL
40 mL
30 mL
30 mL
20 mL
10 mL
10 mL
0 mL
0 mL
80 mL
Measuring cylinder:
Each fine graduation 1 mL
60 mL
40 mL
20 mL
Do the tablets really work or is it a placebo

effect?
Beaker
Each graduation 20 mL
Burette
Each fine graduation 0.1 mL
Each fine graduation 1 m
Each of these contains 40 mL of water. Which measurement is most accurate?
525
Experiments can be repeated in

different ways. In some instances,
it is just a matter of doing the same
experiment again. For example,
if you want to compare the speed
of a balloon rocket gliding along
string with one gliding along
nylon fishing line, you would do
the experiment a few times and
then calculate and compare the
average speeds (see the figure
at the bottom left of page 511).
Each repetition of an experiment
is called a trial. Increasing the
number of trials increases the
reliability of the experiment. For
experiments involving plants,
animals and people, it is usually
easier to do the experiment once
but use a large number of plants,
animals or people. The number of
organisms used in the experiment
is called the sample size. Reliable
experiments have a large sample
size.
INVESTIGATION 20.2
The flying straw
You will need:
paper
scissors
straws
sticky tape
metre ruler or tape measure
stopwatch
Cut out two strips of paper. One strip should be 10 cm by 2 cm and the other
should be 20 cm by 2 cm.
Attach the strips of paper to a straw as shown in the photo below.
A flying straw
Throw the straw forwards and observe how far it flies. This is the basic
flying straw.
keep it safe
The most important thing to
consider when planning an
investigation is safety. Your
teacher may ask you to write a
risk assessment before you start
your research project. A risk
assessment involves listing any
potential hazards relating to your
investigation and explaining how
you will minimise these risks. For
example, if you were doing an
experiment to test whether the
temperature of an acid affects how
quickly it reacts with magnesium,
your risk assessment might look
like this.
Risk
526
DIsCUssIOn
1
The length of the straw is one variable that may affect how far the
flying straw can fly. List at least five other variables that may affect the
distance flown.
Choose one of the variables from question 1 and design an experiment

to test the effect of this variable. Decide what you will measure first. It
could be the distance flown, the amount of time the straw stays in the
air or whether the straw flies in a straight line. Your experiment should
include:
(a) the aim
(b) a hypothesis
(c) the method, including a diagram
(d) a table to enter your results.
Carry out the experiment and enter the results in the table you designed.
Write a conclusion based on your results.
How the risk will be minimised
Acid splashing into face and

eyes
Wear safety goggles.

Heat acid using a water bath rather than directly
over a Bunsen burner flame.
Use dilute acid rather than concentrated acid.
Cutting fingers when tearing

small pieces of magnesium
Use scissors to cut magnesium.
ThInk
Activities
2 Copy and complete the table at the

bottom of the page.
REmEmBER
1 Match each of the following
words with its meaning: variable,
dependent variable, independent
variable, controlled variables,
sample size, reliability, accuracy,
validity, trial, risk assessment.
(a) How exact the measurements
are in an experiment
(b) The number of plants, animals
or other items used in an
experiment
(c) The variables that must be kept
constant in an experiment
(d) Whether the experiment
actually tests what it is
supposed to test
(e) The variable that is deliberately
changed in an experiment
(f) Name given to each repetition
of an experiment
(g) Whether the experiment
produces similar results when it
is repeated
(h) A list of the hazards in an
experiment and how these will
be minimised
(i) Something that can be changed
in an experiment
(j) The variable that is measured in
an experiment
Hypothesis
Plants grow faster when it
is hot.
3 Charlotte wanted to compare the

amount of air in two brands of icecream. She placed a large spoon
of each ice-cream in two different
cups and let the ice-cream melt.
She then measured how much liquid
was in each cup. There was less
liquid in cup B so she concluded
that ice-cream B must contain more
air.
(a) Describe one way that Charlotte
could improve the validity of her
experiment.
(b) Outline how the accuracy of
Charlotte s experiment could be
increased.
(c) Outline how the experiment
could be made more reliable.
(b) Describe how the experiment

could be made more:
(i) accurate
(ii) reliable
(iii) valid.
DEsIgn
5 Design experiments to test the
following hypotheses.
(a) Eggs become less dense as
they age.
(b) Detergent A produces more
foam than detergent B.
(c) Cola drink P contains more
sugar than cola drink C.
(d) Talking to plants makes them
grow faster.
(e) Chocolate S melts at a higher
temperature than chocolate Q.
work
sheet
20.2 Accuracy and reliability
4 Jossie wanted to find out if the

mass of a rock affects how far the
rock can be thrown. She weighed
some rocks, threw each rock as
far as possible and measured the
distance by pacing between the
point where she threw the rock and
the point where it landed.
(a) Construct a table listing at least
two risks associated with this
experiment and how each risk
could be minimised.
Independent variable
Temperature
Dependent variable
Height of plant
Controlled variable
Plant species, amount of water,
soil type
Exercise increases breathing

rate.
Guinea pigs eat more when
it is cold.
Sugar dissolves faster in hot
water than in cold water.
The more you water plants,
the faster they grow.
527
20.6
Presenting your results

Values or measurements obtained from an
investigation are called data. Having collected the
data, it is important to present it clearly so that
another person reading or studying it can understand
it. Tables and graphs are a great way to organise data.
Using tables
A table organises data so that trends are more easily
identified. An example of a simple table is shown
below; it includes all the features you need to
remember when constructing a table.
Always include a
title for your table.
Depth
(km)
Temperature
( C)
15
44
73
102
130
158
187
215
242
Nutrients in 100 g of -plus cereal
Enter the data in the

body of the table. Do
not include units in this
part of the table.
Do large paper aeroplanes fly further

than small paper aeroplanes?
21
15
Length of paper (cm)
14
10
Distance flown
(m)
Other B vitamins (0.02 g)

Fat (0.5 g)
Niacin (0.02 g)
Iron (0.01 g)
Calcium (0.5 g)
Fibre (5 g)
Sugars (18 g)
Labels
Width of paper (cm)
Trial 1
4.5
6.2
3.2
Trial 2
4.9
5.9
3.6
Trial 3
4.6
5.8
3.5
There are five different types of graphs: pie charts,

column graphs and bar graphs, divided bar graphs,
histograms and line graphs.
A pie chart (also known as a sector graph) is a circle
divided into sections that represent parts of the whole.
This type of graph can be used when the data can be
added as parts of a whole. The example below shows
the food types, vitamins and minerals that make up
the nutrients in a breakfast cereal.
You may need to construct more complex tables,

like the one below, to present your student research
project results.
528
Organising data as a graph is a widely recognised

way of making a clear presentation. It makes the
information easier to read, interpret, show trends and
make conclusions.
A graph, especially a line graph, can also be used to
find values other than those used in the investigation.
This can be done by interpolation or extrapolation
(see pages 530 1).
Pie charts (or sector graphs)
The column
headings show
clearly what has
been measured.
Use a ruler to
draw lines for
rows, columns
and borders.
Average
Why use graphs?
Types of graphs
Include the measurement units

in the headings.
Temperature of the Earth at
different depths
Using graphs
Units
Protein (20.5 g)
Complex carbohydrates (55.45 g)
A pie chart
Divided bar graphs

Divided bar graphs are also used to represent to
represent parts of a whole. However, the data is
represented as a long rectangle, rather than a circle,
divided into sections. The example below shows the
type of footwear worn to school today by male and
female students.
The example below shows the lengths of different

metal bars when heated. Each bar represents a
different metal bar.
Lengths of different metal bars when heated in the same way
Note: The metal

bars were of
identical lengths
before heating.
Metal A
Types of footwear worn to school today
Metal B
Metal bar
Female
Metal C
Male
Metal D
0
10
20
30
40
50
Number of students wearing footwear

School shoes
Thongs
Running shoes
Boots
Column graphs and bar graphs

A column graph (sometimes called a bar graph) has
two axes and uses rectangles (columns or bars) to
represent each piece of data. The height or length of
the rectangles represents the values in the data. The
width of the rectangles is kept constant. This type of
graph can be used when the data cannot be connected
and is therefore not continuous.
The example below shows data on the average
height to which different balls bounced during an
experiment. Each column represents a different type
of ball.
Histograms are similar to column graphs except that

the columns touch each other because the data is
continuous. They are often used to present the results
of surveys. In the histogram below, each column
represents the number of students that reached a
particular height.
Heights of a group of students in a class
20
15
Height of bounce (m)
1.2
1.0
0.8
Number of students
All balls were bounced by

the same person, from the
same height and onto the
same surface.
30
Histograms
Heights to which different types of balls bounced
1.4
20
Length (cm)
A bar graph
A divided bar graph
1.6
10
10
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
Golf ball
Tennis ball
Basketball
140
Type of ball
A column graph
145
150
155
160
165
170
Height (cm)
A histogram
529
Line graphs
A line graph has two axes
a horizontal axis and
a vertical axis. The horizontal axis is known as the
x-axis, and the vertical axis is known as the y-axis.
The line graph is formed by joining a series of points
or drawing a line of best fit through the points. Each
4. Setting up the scales

Each axis should be marked into units
that cover the entire range of the
measurement. For example, if the
distance ranges from 0 m to 96 m,
then 0 m and 100 m could be the
lowest and highest values on the
vertical scale. The distance between
the top and bottom values is then
broken up into equal divisions and
marked. The horizontal axis must also
have its own range of values and
uniform scale (which does not have to
be the same scale as the vertical
axis).
The most important points about the
scales are:
s THEYMUSTSHOWTHEENTIRERANGEOF
measurements
s THEYMUSTBEUNIFORMTHATISSHOW
equal divisions for equal increases
in value.
530
2. Title
Tell the reader what the graph is
about The title should describe the
results of the investigation or the
relationship between variables.
1. rid
Graphs should always be drawn on
grid paper to ensure that the values
are accurately placed. Drawing
freehand on lined or plain paper is not
accurate enough for most graphs.
Distance covered by a
runner in 15 seconds
Data table
100
80
Distance (m)
3. Setting up and labelling the axes

Graphs represent a relationship
between two variables. When
choosing which variable to put on
each axis, remember that there is
usually an independent variable
(which the investigator chooses) and
a dependent variable. For example, if
students wish to find out how far a
runner could run in 15 seconds, they
may choose to measure the distance
covered every five seconds. The time
of each measurement has been
chosen by the students and is the
independent variable. The distance
that is measured is therefore the
dependent variable. Usually the
independent variable is plotted on the
horizontal x-axis and the dependent
variable on the vertical y-axis.
After deciding on the variable for
each axis, you must clearly label the
axes with the variable and the units in
which the variables are measured.
The unit is written in brackets after the
name of the variable.
point represents a set of data for two variables, such

as height and time. Two or more lines may be drawn
on the same graph. Line graphs are used to show
continuous data
that is, data in which the values
follow on from each other. The features of line graphs
are shown below.
Distance (m)
Time (s)
37
10
96
15
60
5. Putting in the values

A point is made for
each pair of values
(the meeting point of
two imaginary lines
from each axis). The
points should be
clearly visible. Include
a point for (0, 0) only if
you have the data for
this point.
40
20
10
15
Time (s)
6. Drawing the line
A line is then drawn through the points.
A line that follows the general direction of the points is called a line of best fit
because it best fits the data. It should be on or as close to as many points as
possible. Some points follow the shape of a curve, rather than a straight line. A
curved line that touches all the points can then be used.
The type of data you are graphing may lead you to expect either a straight line
or a curve. For example, you might expect the increase in temperature of water
being boiled to be presented as a straight line because the temperature increases
at a steady rate. The growth rate of a red panda (see page 540) would be curved
because the panda will have growth spurts. Inspection of the data will help you to
decide whether your line should be a straight line or a smooth, curved line.
Interpolation
Extrapolation
Line graphs can be used to estimate measurements

that were not actually in an experiment. The table
below shows the results of an experiment where
a student measured how many spoons of sugar
dissolved in a cup of tea at various temperatures.
In many cases it is also possible to assume that the

two variables will hold the same relationship beyond
the values that have been plotted. This is called
extrapolation. Consider the table below, which shows
the results obtained when different masses were
attached to a spring and the increase in length of the
spring was measured.
Amount of sugar that dissolves in one cup of tea at different

temperatures
Temperature ( C)
Mass of sugar dissolved (g)
20
30
40
60
60
98
80
120
100
160
The student did not measure how much sugar

dissolved at 50 C, but we can work this out by
interpolation. First we need to plot the data collected
in the experiment. Then we read off the graph the
amount of sugar that would dissolve at 50 C. The
same procedure can be used to work out the water
temperature that would be needed to dissolve 130 g
sugar in one cup of tea. This is shown in the graph
below.
Effect of temperature on the amount of sugar dissolved in tea
Amount that a spring stretched when various masses were

attached to it
Mass attached to the spring
(kg)
Length by which spring

stretched (cm)
0.5
1.0
16
1.6
26
32
If you want to predict the mass needed to stretch

the spring by 32 centimetres, you need to plot the
data on a graph and extrapolate the value.
The data in the table above have been plotted
on the graph below. Values have been plotted up
to a mass of 1.6 kg and an increase in length of
of 26 centimetres. The line on the graph has been
projected onwards (as the dotted lines show). This
extrapolation shows that a mass of 2 kg will stretch
the spring 32 centimetres.
Effect of mass on spring stretch
180
140
Length by which spring stretched (cm)
160
Dotted line 2
Mass (g)
120
100
Dotted line 1
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
Temperature ( C)
Using a line graph for interpolation
80
100
30
20
10
0
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Mass attached to spring (kg)

Using a line graph for extrapolation
531
(i) Can you suggest any uses of plastics that would

contribute to waste products? List them and
explain your choices.
(ii) Can you suggest alternatives to reduce the
amount of plastic waste products?
Activities
anaLYsE anD EvaLUaTE
1 (a) Construct a line graph of the data shown in the table
at the top left of the previous page.
(b) Use your graph to interpolate the mass of sugar that
would dissolve in one cup of tea if the temperature of
the tea was (i) 70 C and (ii) 90 C.
2 (a) Complete the bottom row of the table on page 528.
(b) Construct a column graph showing the length of the
paper used to make the plane on the horizontal axis
and the average distance flown on the vertical axis.
5 The data in the following table relates the speed of a car

to its stopping distance (the distance the car travels after
the brakes are applied).
Relationship between the speed of a car and its
stopping distance
Speed of car (m/s)
3 Construct a column graph using the information below.

Nutrients in 30 g serving of ice-cream
Amount (g)
Protein
2.00
Fat
6.00
Carbohydrate
polysaccharide
11.00
Carbohydrate
sugars
10.00
Cholesterol
0.02
Calcium
0.10
Potassium
0.80
Sodium
0.05
Building
4.0
Furniture and bedding
8.0
Housewares
4.0
Marine, toys and leisure
2.0
Packaging and materials

handling
31.0
Transport
Others
5.0
14.0
(b) Choose two uses of plastic from your graph. For each
use, state a particular item that is made of plastic.
(c) There has been recent controversy about the waste
products that humans create.
532
20
36
30
72
40
120
400
200
0
0
24.0
8.0
12
Increase in mass of pondweed with time
Percentage (%)
Electrical/electronic
10
600
Uses of plastics in Australia
Agriculture
6 The following graph shows the increase in mass of

pondweed (a type of plant that grows in ponds).
4 The following table shows the uses of plastics in

Australia.
(a) Select a suitable graph type and prepare a graph
from this table.
Use
(a) Construct a graph of the data.

(b) Make a conclusion about the information in the graph.
(c) How could this information be applied to your
everyday life?
Dry weight of pondweed (mg)
Nutrient
Stopping distance (m)
2
4
Time (weeks)
6
1
(a) What was the mass of the pondweed after 3 2 weeks

of growth?
(b) How long did it take for the pondweed to reach a
mass of 250 grams?
(c) Predict the mass of pondweed after 6 weeks of
growth.
(d) Can you be sure that your extrapolation in part (c) is
valid? Justify your answer.
(e) Would the interpolations in parts (a) and (b) be more
valid than your extrapolation? Discuss your ideas in
class.
work
sheet
20.3 Presenting results
20.7
Using technology: spreadsheets

A spreadsheet is a document that stores data in
columns and rows. Spreadsheets used to be written
on paper by hand. Shopkeepers and bank tellers
needed to keep neat handwritten ledgers to record
all transactions. Today, computers and software
such as Microsoft Excel are used to create and edit
spreadsheets. Spreadsheets can also be used to create
graphs and charts at the click of a button.
some spreadsheet terminology

In a spreadsheet, the data is organised in rows and
columns. The columns are named using letters
(such as column A) and the rows are named using
numbers (such as row 3). Cells are the boxes in the
spreadsheet. The cell reference tells us which column
and row the cell is in. For example, cell B3 is in
column B and row 3. The active cell is the cell you
will type the data in. In Excel, it has a dark border
around it. This is shown in the diagram below.
Working with Excel spreadsheets

When you create a spreadsheet, you need to decide
how many columns and rows you will need and enter
a suitable heading for each column. This is similar to
designing a table. Make sure that you include units
where relevant. When using Excel, you can format
cells in a variety of ways by clicking on Format and
then Cells.
Entering formulae in Excel

If you want to do calculations on the data in a
spreadsheet, you need to enter a formula. In Excel, a
formula always starts with an equals sign (=). If you
want the total of cell A2 and cell B2 to appear in cell
C2, you would type the formula =A2+B2 in cell C2,
and then press the [Enter] key. You can also use one
of the many functions available in Excel. For example,
it is much quicker to use the Average function to
calculate the average of 50 numbers than to type in a
formula to add the 50 cells and divide the total by 50.
The Insert function button, fx, can be used to view the
format required for particular functions.
Drawing graphs and charts
Cell B3 is the active cell.
INVESTIGATION 20.3
Dissolving aspirin
You will need:
beaker
thermometer
ice
Bunsen burner, tripod, heatproof mat
2 tablets of soluble aspirin, such as Aspro
stopwatch
Your teacher will assign each group two temperatures to
test. For example, your teacher might ask you to test 20 C

and 50 C.
Drawing a graph using Excel is easy. Just

highlight the data you want to graph, click
on the Chart wizard button and follow the prompts.
However, remember that a line graph is called an
XY scatter graph in Excel.
Pour 200 mL water into a beaker. Adjust the temperature
of the water by adding ice or by heating the water over a

Bunsen burner until the water temperature matches one
of the temperatures you are to test.
Add one of the tablets to the water. Use the stopwatch
to record the time taken for the tablet to dissolve
completely.
Repeat these two steps for the second temperature.
DIsCUssIOn
1 Create a spreadsheet with the column headings
Water temperature ( C) and Time taken to
dissolve (s) .
533
Enter all the groups results in your spreadsheet.
If necessary put the results in order from the lowest

to the highest temperature by selecting (highlighting)
all the data and clicking on the Sort ascending
. You should end up with a table similar
button
to the one below.
rather than keeping handwritten

records in a book.
Activities
REmEmBER
CREaTE
1 In the screenshot below, identify the

letter pointing to:
(a) cell C2
(b) cell E5
(c) the active cell
(d) a formula
(e) the Chart wizard button
(f) the Insert function button
(g) a column
(h) a row.
3 (a) Collect the following data for

each student in your class,
(i) First name
(ii) Gender
(iii) Foot length (cm)
(iv) Height (cm)
(v) Favourite subject
(vi) Country where mother was
born
(b) Enter the data you collected into
a spreadsheet.
(c) Use the Chart wizard to
construct an XY scatter graph
(without joining points)
showing foot
G
length on the
x-axis and height
on the y-axis.
(d) Use your graph
to decide if there
is a relationship
between foot
length and height.
F
2 List two advantages and two

disadvantages of using a computer
spreadsheet program to store data
B
E
C
534
With the data still selected, click on the Chart wizard

button. When prompted, choose an XY scatter graph
with the points joined by a straight line. When
prompted, enter Does the water temperature affect how
long it takes for a tablet to dissolve? as the chart title,
Temperature ( C) as the x-axis title and Time taken
to dissolve (s) as the y-axis title. You should obtain a
graph similar to the one below.
(e) Apply a filter to the Gender

column. To do this, click on
one of the data entries in the
column. Then click on Data,
then Filter and then AutoFilter.
Click on the arrow next to the
column heading to select data
for just the girls, just the boys or
both boys and girls.
(f) Construct an XY scatter graph
of height versus foot length for
the girls in the class only. How
is the graph different from the
graph showing the data for the
whole class?
(g) Look at the Favourite subject
column and count how many
students liked each subject
most. Create a new spreadsheet
with the column headings
Subject and Number of
students .
(h) Use the Chart wizard to
construct a column graph and
a pie chart that show the data
in the spreadsheet you just
created.
(i) Repeat parts (g) and (h) for the
data in the Country column.
20.8
Using technology: databases

Spreadsheets are useful for
organising and presenting data.
However, for very large amounts of
information, a database can make
it easier to keep the data organised
and to search quickly for data that
matches particular criteria.
What is a database?
You use databases all the time
without even thinking about
them. When you look up a phone
number in the white pages, you are
using a database of people in your
city or town who have telephones.
When you look up a book s table
of contents, you are looking at a
database of the chapter names and
the page numbers where you can
find them. The index at the back
of books and your train or bus
timetables are also databases.
The phone book is a huge database of

people with telephones in your city or
town.
Another way of thinking of a

database is to describe it as a table
of data. Of course, you have been
making tables of data yourself all
year. A telephone book is a huge
table with three columns of data
names, addresses and telephone
numbers. The contents of a book
is a table with just two columns
chapter titles and page numbers.
Shop catalogues and library

catalogues are also examples
of databases. A shop catalogue
contains a list of items sold by
the shop as well as a description
of each item and its cost. It is a
database with three columns. A
library catalogue stores data about
all the resources held in the library.
In this case, the columns in the
database include authors, title,
subject and type of resources (such
as book or video).
Electronic databases
A database on paper has
limitations. You can crossreference only two things and then
usually only in a specific order.
For example, you can look up a
person s telephone number easily
only if you first look up their
name and address. You can t do
the reverse; that is, you can t look
up a phone number and find out
the name of the person who has
that number (unless, of course, you
have a lot of time and patience).
For this reason, most databases
are now stored electronically. To
find a library book you can use
a computer to access the library s
catalogue. You can perform a
search for topics, authors, date of
publication and more. You can
refine your search and perhaps
look for just magazine articles
or videos. You can even read a
short summary (synopsis) of each
article. This is all possible because
computers are very good at storing
lots and lots of data and retrieving
it very quickly.
Unlike a database on paper, a
computer can store data (such as
the topic and author of a book)

in a table with as many columns
as you like and it can search any
of the columns rather than just
the first one. And it does all this
very quickly. The only problem
is that a computer can t actually
think, so it is up to the person who
designs the database to do so very
thoughtfully so that it will be easy
to search.
Why use an electronic

database in science?
Scientists often have huge amounts
of data that they need to organise
and search (or allow others to
search). For example, the scientists
who help the police to solve crimes
are called forensic scientists. They
know that a substance called DNA,
which is found in every one of
our cells, is unique to each human
being; that is, no two people on
the planet have the same DNA
unless they are identical twins.
As each person on the planet has a unique

set of DNA, police can solve crimes by
matching DNA samples from crime scenes
to DNA information stored on a database.
Forensic scientists are setting up

a database of DNA from convicted
535
criminals that helps police to crack unsolved crimes.

Police can compare any DNA in tissue found at crime
scenes with the DNA database.
Astronomers gather huge amounts of data about
the solar system using optical telescopes, radio
telescopes and information sent back by space probes.
The large amount of information they gather is
organised in computer databases so that they, or other
astronomers around the world, can search the data to
use in their research projects.
directory into a computer database, it would have

three fields: name, address and telephone number.
Each person s details would then be a record. It would
look something like the screenshot below.
Designing databases
Just as a table is made up of columns and rows, so
too is a database
except that the columns are called
fields and the rows records. If you made the telephone
Activities
Access icon shown below.
anaLYsE anD EvaLUaTE

Creating a database of Nobel prize winners
Before creating your database, you will need to find some
information to put in it. This is best done as a class activity
with each student in the class researching one or two Nobel
prize winners.
Use the Nobel prize weblink in your
eBook plus
eBookPLUS to find a list of Nobel prize
winners.
Each student in the class should research one or two
different Nobel prize winners. Choose people who have
won a Nobel prize for work in the categories of Chemistry,
Physics or Medicine.
For each prize winner, collect the data listed below. Ideally
the data should be written on cards that can be passed
around the class, or it could be displayed in large writing
on butcher s paper around the room.
First name
Last name
Country of birth
Year of birth
Category of award (such as Chemistry, Physics
and Medicine)
Organisation (where the person worked)
Nobel prize awarded for (one sentence or
phrase that outlines the work for which the
scientist received the award)
Share received (if the award was shared by a
group of people)
Microsoft Access software is commonly used
to create databases. The following instructions
are for the 2003 edition of this software. Other
editions are similar to use but the screens are
not exactly the same. You can start Access by
clicking on Start, then Programs and then the
536
When you open the software, click on File and then
New. A list of options will appear in the task pane on the

right-hand side of the screen. Choose the option Blank
database. A dialog box will appear for you to enter a name
for your database and navigate to the folder where you
want to save the database. Choose a sensible name (such
as Nobel prize winners ) and save it where you normally
save your science work. This is shown in the screenshot
below.
A new dialog box will be displayed. Choose the option
Create table in Design view and press [Enter]. A new

screen will appear where you can enter field names,
which are the column headings for the database. Enter
the field names as shown below. You will note that,
by default, the data type is Text even though some of
the fields are numbers. This is not important for this
database.
done this, click Next. In the next dialog box, enter a name
for your query, select Modify the query design and click on
Finish.
Click on a field to select it.
Click on the single arrow

to move the field into the
Selected Fields box.
The screen below will appear. Now enter the

Now that you have designed the database, it is time to
change to datasheet view. Click on

the Datasheet view button in the
top left-hand corner of the screen.
You will be prompted to save the table. Give the table a
suitable name (such as Table 1 ) and click Save. When you
are asked if you want to create a primary key, click No.
The table shown below should appear. You are now in
datasheet view. Note that the Design
view button now appears in the left-hand
corner of the screen.
criteria you want the query to look for in the

appropriate boxes. In the Category column, type
Chemistry (without the quotation marks) in the
Criteria row. In the Country of birth column, type
United States in the Criteria row. Quotation marks
will automatically appear when you press [Enter].
This is shown below.
Enter the data that you and your classmates found
into the table. When you have done this, save your
database.
The great thing about databases is that they allow you
to search for data that matches particular criteria. This is
called running a query. We are going to create a query to
find all the Nobel prize winners in our database who were
awarded a prize for Medicine and were born in the United
States.
Make sure you are in datasheet view. Click on the arrow
next to the New object button.
Select Query and then Simple
query wizard and click OK. The fields in your table will be
displayed; click on the ones you want to appear in the
query then click on the single arrow to move them into the
Selected Fields box. Select the following fields: first name,
last name, country of birth and category. When you have
Now click on the Run button in the toolbar
near the top of the screen. The query

will run and a table displaying the Nobel
prize winners that match your criteria will
appear.
Create a new query to display the Nobel prize winners
who won the Nobel prize for Physics and were born in
England.
537
20.9
Writing your report

A variety of formats can be used to present a student
research project. Your teacher might expect you to
give an oral presentation to your class or to prepare a
poster or PowerPoint presentation about your project.
In most instances, though, your written report should
use some of the headings used by scientists when they
publish their investigations in scientific journals. You
should check with your Science teacher which of the
following sections to include in your report.
Abstract
Briefly describe your experiments and your main
conclusions. Even though this appears at the
beginning of your report, it is best not to write it until
after you have completed the rest of your report.
Introduction
Present all relevant background information. Include
a statement of the problem that you are investigating,
saying why it is relevant or important. You could also
explain why you became interested in the topic.
Aim or problem
State the purpose of your investigation: that is, what
you are trying to find out.
Results
Observations and measurements (data) are presented
in this section. Wherever possible, present data as
a table so that they are easy to read. Graphs can be
used to help you and the reader interpret data. Each
table and graph should have a title. Ensure that you
use the most appropriate type of graph for your data
(see pages 21 and 528 30).
Discussion
Discuss your results here. Begin with a statement of
what your results indicate about the answer to your
question. Explain how your results might be useful. Any
weaknesses in your design or difficulties in measuring
could be outlined here. Explain how you could have
improved your experiments. What further experiments
are suggested by your results?
Conclusion
Hypothesis
Using the knowledge you already have about your
topic, make a guess about what you will find out by
doing your investigation.
Materials and method

Describe in detail how you did your experiments.
Begin with a list of the equipment used and include
This is a brief statement of what you found out and

may link with the final paragraph of your Discussion.
It is a good idea to read your Aim again before you
write your conclusion. Your conclusion should also
state whether your hypothesis was supported. Don t
be disappointed if it is not supported. Some scientists
deliberately set out to reject hypotheses!
Rubbish found in the schoolyard
(percentage by weight)
30
25
Number of people
Height of plant (cm)
photographs of your equipment if appropriate. The

description of the method must be detailed enough
to allow somebody else to repeat your experiments.
It should also convince the reader that your
investigation is well controlled. Labelled diagrams can
be used to make your description clear. Using a stepby-step outline makes your method easier to follow.
20
15
10
5
0
10
15
Number of days
20
25
Food
40
20
15
10
5
0 Black
Brown Red
Colour of hair
Blond
Aluminium
10
Plastic
20
(Left to right ) A line graph, a bar graph and a pie chart. Choose the type of graph that is appropriate to your data.
538
Paper
30
Bibliography
Make a list of books and other
printed or audiovisual material
that you have referred to. The
list should include enough
information to allow the source
of information to be easily
found by the reader. Arrange the
sources in alphabetical order.
For each resource, list the following
information in the order shown.
Author(s) (if known)
Title of book or article
Publisher or name of journal/magazine
(if not in title)
Acknowledge the
Place of publication (if given)
help you received.
Date of publication
Chapter or pages used
Some examples are listed below.
Breidahl, H. Australia s Southern Shores, Lothian, Melbourne,
1997, Chapter 2.
World Book Encyclopedia, Volume 4, 1991, pp. 234 236.
The Battle of the Bathroom , Choice, Sydney, November 1990,
pp. 34 37.
You may be required to present your research
project to your classmates.
Acknowledgements
List the people and organisations who gave you help or advice.
You should state how each person or organisation assisted you.
Activities
REmEmBER
1 Identify which section of your investigation report you
should write each of the following in.
(a) A list of the books and other resources you used to
find information for your project
(b) A table showing all the measurements you recorded
(c) A diagram of the equipment you used
(d) The purpose of the experiment
(e) A brief summary of your investigation and findings
(f) A statement that relates the results back to the aim
and outlines what your results show
ThInk
2 When scientists write up their investigations for
publication in a scientific journal, the abstract is one of
the most important parts of the report. Explain why the
abstract is usually read by many more people than the full
report.
4 Explain why it is important for scientists to publish their

investigations in scientific journals and to read the
reports written by other scientists.
5 Many scientists choose to have their reports published in
journals written in English, even if English is not their first
language. Suggest why.
InvEsTIgaTE
6 Find out what a patent is and why scientists sometimes
patent their ideas.
7 There have been instances where scientists have faked
their results or committed other types of scientific
misconduct.
(a) Use the words scientific misconduct in a search
engine to find examples of such instances.
(b) Outline why you think that some scientists might be
tempted to fake or fabricate their results.
(c) Explain why cases of scientific misconduct are
damaging to all scientists.
(d) What do you think might happen to scientists who
are found to have faked their results?
3 Justify why it is important for scientists to clearly

describe the method they used when they write a report
of their investigation.
539
LOOKING BACK
1 The boiling point of water changes with air pressure. For
example, water may not boil at 100 C at the top of Mount
Everest, where the air pressure is less than the pressure
at sea level. The following data shows the boiling point of
water at various air pressures.
Boiling point of water at different air pressures
Air pressure in
kilopascals (kPa)
Boiling point of water

( C)
Red panda cubs masses 1996 97 (grams)

Week
Singalia
Sallyana
213
219
285
290
330
349
365
377
403
408
465
452
20
536
514
40
564
576
21
60
594
610
45
80
10
650
637
101
100
11
703
680
200
120
12
714
740
13
814
796
14
872
812
15
956
806
16
1111
786
17
1043
890
2 Draw a cluster map that summarises the key ideas on

pages 524 6.
18
1130
1000
19
1163
1083
3 Singalia and Sallyana are two red panda cubs born at

Sydney s Taronga Zoo. The table at right shows their
masses during their first 22 weeks. The photograph below
shows one of the cubs being weighed.
20
1182
1162
21
1225
1218
22
1335
1270
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Graph the data.

Describe the shape of your graph.
What is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level?
Would it take a longer or shorter time to boil water at
the top of Mount Everest, compared with the time it
would take at sea level? Explain your answer.
(e) Which were the fastest and slowest growth periods for
each panda?
(f) What age was each of the cubs when they reached
1 kg?
(g) Predict the age at which each cub will reach
1.5 kg. Explain how you made your prediction. What
assumption did you make to answer the question?
TEsT YOURsELF
Use the following scenario to answer questions 1 and 2.
(a) Construct a line graph showing both sets of data on the
same set of axes. Use different symbols for the points
for each panda and label each line with the panda s
name. You may have to extend the vertical axis to fit in
the scale for the pandas masses (or else convert the
masses to kilograms and plot in kilograms).
Interpret the graph from part (a) to answer the following
questions.
(b) Describe the growth of each of the panda cubs. How do
they compare with each other?
(c) How long did it take the cubs to double their mass
measured in week 1?
(d) Did the pandas grow at the same rate during the
22 weeks?
540
Kimberley and Glenn were walking past their neighbour s house

when they noticed that a front window was broken. Glenn told
Kimberley that somebody had probably thrown a ball through
the window. They had a closer look and noticed clothes
scattered all over the floor and drawers open. Kimberley
noticed some blood on the broken glass. She told Glenn that
the house had been burgled. Glenn agreed and they called the
police.
1 The statement Kimberley noticed some blood on the
broken glass is
A an observation.
B a hypothesis.
C a conclusion.
D an inference.
(1 mark)
foam than other washing powders. Emily did the following

experiment to compare how much foam was produced by
three brands of washing powder.
2 Who suggested a hypothesis?

A No-one
B Glenn only
C Kimberley only
D Both Glenn and Kimberley
(1 mark)
Use the following scenario and graph to answer questions 3

and 4.
Jane and Greg decided to test how quickly water would boil
when using either the yellow flame or blue flame of the Bunsen
burner. They set up identical experiments, except that Jane
used a blue flame and Greg used a yellow flame. Their results
are graphed below.
100
Jane s
result
Temperature ( C)
80
This is
when
Greg
changed
Bunsen
burners.
60
Greg s
result
40
20
10
15
Time (min)
She put one teaspoon of each washing powder in

separate 100 mL measuring cylinders.
She added 60 mL warm water to each measuring
cylinder.
She shook each measuring cylinder vigorously.
She measured the height of the foam produced in each
measuring cylinder.
20
3 What was the temperature of Greg s water when Jane s

water reached 100 C?
A 100 C
B 60 C
C 62 C
D 70 C
(1 mark)
4 Jane removed her beaker and Greg quickly placed his
beaker over Jane s Bunsen burner. Assuming that the
temperature of Greg s beaker did not drop while swapping
Bunsen burners, at what time will his water boil?
A 17 minutes
B 22 minutes
C 15 minutes
D 18 minutes
(1 mark)
5 Huang and Tina conducted an experiment to find out if
radish plants grow better in the shade. They placed three
plants under a veranda at the back of the house and
another three in a sunny place in the front yard. All plants
were planted in the same soil. Huang and Tina watered
each of the plants equally each day.
(a) Did they conduct a fair test?
(b) How could Huang and Tina improve the design of
their experiment? List as many improvements
as possible.
(2 marks)
6 If you have a front-loading washing machine, you should
use low-sudsing washing powder, which produces less
100 mL
80 mL
Foam
60 mL
Use a ruler
to measure
the height
of the foam.
40 mL
20 mL
One teaspoon
washing powder
60 mL water
The amount of foam
produced can be
measured with a ruler.
(a) Identify the independent and dependent variables in

Emily s experiment.
(b) Identify the variables that Emily controlled?
(c) Which variables could have been controlled better?
(d) Suggest how Emily s experiment could be made more
reliable.
(4 marks)
541
Text types
When completing assessment tasks or answering examination questions it is important to use the
correct text type. The table below describes some text types commonly used in Science.
Text type
542
Examples of questions
that would require the
use of this text type
Features of text type
Discussion
Discuss whether research

involving the use of
embryonic stem cells
should be legal in
Australia.
In a discussion the writer presents both sides of an issue. The

first paragraph is used to introduce and describe the problem or
question. A number of paragraphs are then used to introduce
lines of argument both in favour of and against the issue. This
is followed by a concluding paragraph where the writer may
express a particular viewpoint after having considered all the
arguments or conclude that they remain undecided based on all
the arguments they have outlined.
Explanation
Explain why average

daily temperatures are
higher in summer than in
winter.
An explanation explains why or how something happens. It

starts with a description of the object or phenomena. This is
followed by a step-by-step explanation. This text type contains
linking words such as because, as a result and consequently, which
describe cause and effect.
Procedure
Write a procedure for the

separation of sand from
copper sulfate.
A procedure is a list of steps. Each step starts with a verb. Most

recipes are procedures.
Exposition
Should mining of
uranium in Kakadu
National Park be allowed?
Write a letter to the editor
of the The Sydney Morning
Herald outlining your
views on the issue.
An exposition has a similar structure to a discussion, but it

favours one side of the argument instead of giving similar
weight to both sides of the issue.
Recount
Recount how you

prepared a sample
of onion epidermis
for viewing under a
microscope.
A recount is written in the past tense. It is a sequenced

description of what happened or what you did. In includes
linking words such as then, after, next and finally.
Report
Write a report about an

endangered species.
A report provides information about something. It is written in

the present tense and includes facts and technical terms. The
first paragraph is a general description. Each of the paragraphs
in the body of the report describes a different aspect of the item.
Note: An experiment or scientific report is not the same as a
report. The features of a scientific report are described on p. 538.
Response
Write a review of the

game Body invaders.
In a response the writer describes their personal reactions to

something, such as how it made them feel or what they learned
from it.
Glossary
abdomen: the end part of an insects body, behind the thorax
abiotic factors: the non-living features in an ecosystem
abrasive: a property of a material or substance that easily
scratches another
absorb: take in something. Absorbed energy, such as light,
sound or heat, can be stored or released as a different form
of energy.
abundance: the number of a species living within an area
acid: a chemical that reacts with a base to produce a salt and
water. Edible acids taste sour.
acid rain: rainwater, snow or fog that contains dissolved
chemicals, such as carbon dioxide, that make it acidic. Acid
rain can cause rock to weather faster than pure rain can.
acidity: describes the amount of acid in a mixture. Acids have
a sour taste and neutralise bases. Too much acid in water
would make it harmful to drink.
air: the mixture of gases in the atmosphere
air pressure: the amount of force pushing on the air
air resistance: the force of air pushing on an object as the
object moves through the air
alchemist: olden-day chemist who mixed chemicals and tried
to change ordinary metals into gold. Alchemists also tried
to tell the future.
algae: commonly known as seaweed; an organism belonging
to Kingdom Protista that lives in water. It contains
chlorophyll and may range from a single-celled organism to
a multi-celled long structure.
alkali: a base that dissolves in water
allotropes: forms of an element that have different appearances
and properties due to differences in their molecular
structure. Diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon are
allotropes of carbon.
alloy: a mixture of a metal with a non-metal or another metal
alum: the common name for the chemical potassium
aluminium sulphate
alveoli: tiny air sacs in the lungs at the ends of the narrowest
tubes. Oxygen moves from alveoli into the surrounding
blood vessels, in exchange for carbon dioxide.
ammeter: a device used to measure the amount of current
in a circuit. Ammeters are placed in series with other
components in a circuit.
amoeba: microscopic organism consisting of one cell that has
a thin membrane. It belongs to Kingdom Protista but has
animal-like features.
ampere: the unit for measuring electric current, usually
abbreviated to amps (A)
amylase: an enzyme in saliva that breaks starch down into
sugar
antacid: a substance containing a base used to treat
indigestion. It neutralises excess acid in the stomach.
antennae: the pair of ne probing feelers on the head of many

invertebrates (e.g. ies, crabs)
antibiotics: chemicals that kill bacteria or other microorganisms
antibodies: chemicals produced by animals to ght some
pathogens
aqueous solution: a solution in which water is the solvent
arteries: hollow tubes (vessels) with thick walls carrying blood
pumped from the heart to other body parts
arthropod: animal that has an exoskeleton, a segmented body
and jointed legs (e.g. insects, crabs)
assimilate: take in and process something. Living things
assimilate substances.
asthma: narrowing of the air pipes that join the mouth and
nose to the lungs
asteroid: one of the millions of rocky bodies that orbit the
sun. Some asteroids are like tiny pebbles; others may be
hundreds of kilometres in diameter.
asteroid belt: the collection of asteroids that orbit the sun
between Mars and Jupiter
astronomy: the study of space, including stars, planets, comets
and galaxies
atmosphere: the layer of gases around the Earth
atom: a very small particle that makes up all things. Atoms
have the same properties as the objects they make up.
attract: a pull towards another object
auditory nerve: a large nerve that sends signals to the brain
from the hearing receptors in the cochlea
axis: an imaginary line running through the centre of the
object, about which it rotates
axle: the central part around which a wheel turns
backdraught: explosive burning of hot gases that occurs after
air enters a room that is poorly ventilated because of a re
bacteria: the smallest life form found on Earth. Some types of
bacteria are responsible for decay and disease.
balanced: describes forces that are equal but act in opposite
directions. Balanced forces cancel each other out.
ball and socket joints: joints where the rounded end of one
bone ts into the hollow end of another
ball bearings: steel balls inserted into the hub of a wheel that
help the wheel roll around the axle, rather than slide over
it. The rolling motion of the ball bearings helps to reduce
friction.
bar graph: a diagram using the lengths of rectangles (bars) to
show the size of the same property for different objects or at
different times. The bars may be horizontal or vertical; also
called a column graph.
barred spiral galaxy: a type of spiral galaxy in which the
central disk is replaced by a bar-shaped middle, with arms
spiralling out from either end of the bar
Glossary 543
basalt: a dark, igneous rock with small crystals formed by

fast cooling of hot lava. It sometimes has holes that once
contained volcanic gases.
base: a chemical that reacts with an acid to produce a salt and
water. Edible bases taste bitter.
batholith: intrusive rock mass that measures more than
100 kilometres across
batteries: two or more electric cells connected in series
beaker: container for mixing or heating substances
beam balance: an accurate measuring scale used in the science
laboratory
bicuspid: a type of valve with two cusps (points). The valve
between the hearts left atrium and left ventricle is a
bicuspid valve.
Big Bang: the theory that describes how the universe formed.
The theory says that the universe formed when a small space
exploded about 13 billion years ago.
bile: a substance produced by the liver that helps digest fats
and oils
binary ssion: reproduction by the division of an organism
(usually a single cell) into two new organisms
binocular microscope: a microscope with two eyepieces, so you
use both eyes to look at the object
biologist: a scientist who studies living things
biomechanics: the study of how animals, including humans,
move
biomechanist: a scientist who studies how people move
biotic factors: the living things (organisms) in an ecosystem
black hole: a very dense star that has a very strong gravitational
pull
bladder: sac that stores urine
blood pressure: measures how strongly the blood is pumped
through the bodys main arteries
blood vessels: the veins, arteries and capillaries through which
the blood ows around the body
boiling: the change of state from a liquid to a gas. Boiling
occurs when the entire liquid is heated and continues until
the liquid turns completely into a gas.
boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid changes to a
gas
bolus: round, chewed-up ball of food made in the mouth that
makes swallowing easier
bonds: forces that hold particles of matter, such as atoms,
together
bone marrow: a substance inside bones in which blood cells
are made
brass: an alloy made from a mixture of copper and zinc
breathing: movement of muscles in the chest causing air to
enter the lungs and the altered air in the lungs to leave. The
air entering the lungs contains more oxygen and less carbon
dioxide than the air leaving the lungs.
544
Glossary
brittle: describes a material that shatters when it is hit

bronchioles: small branching tubes in the lungs leading from
the two larger bronchioles to the alveoli
bronze: an alloy that is a mixture of copper and tin
bryophytes: plants that do not contain vascular tissue
Bunsen burner: a device that burns gas, producing a hot ame;
used to heat or burn objects in the laboratory
buoyancy: the upward push of water or any other uid on a
submerged or partly submerged object
burning: combining a substance with oxygen in a ame
bushre: a large, uncontrolled re in bushland
calcium: a fairly reactive metal that is not found by itself in the
body, but as part of many important substances, such as
cartilage and bones
calculus: the branch of mathematics concerned with the
measurement of quantities that are continually changing
calorimeter: a device designed to measure the amount of heat
released when a substance burns
cancer: a disease resulting in the uncontrolled growth of body
cells, forming tumours
canines: sharp, pointed teeth used for tearing and ripping food
capillaries: minute tubes carrying blood to body cells. Every
cell of the body is supplied with blood through capillaries.
capturerecapture: a method used to estimate the number of
organisms in an area. Individuals are captured and marked
on a rst visit, and this is compared with the number
recaptured on a second visit.
carbohydrates: organic substances, such as sugars and starch,
that are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and
contain useful chemical energy
carbon dioxide: a gas in the air produced by respiration and
used by plants as part of photosynthesis. The burning of
fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide.
carcinogens: chemicals that tend to produce cancer in the body
cardiac muscle: special kind of muscle in the heart that never
tires. It is involved in pumping blood through the heart.
carnivore: animal that eats other animals
cartilage: a waxy, whitish, exible substance that lines or
connects bone joints or, in some animals such as sharks,
replaces bone as the supporting skeletal tissue. The ears and
tips of noses of people are shaped by cartilage.
cell: the smallest unit of life. Cells are the building blocks
of living things. There are many different sized and
shaped cells in animals and plants, as well as single-celled
organisms.
cell membrane: a structure that encloses the contents of a cell
and allows the movement of some materials in and out
cell sap: the mixture of water, dissolved substances, food and
waste material found in the vacuoles of plant cells
cell wall: a wall around the cell membrane in plant cells

providing a tough extra covering that gives strength and
support to the plant cell
cellulose: the cell walls of plants are made of this
centre of gravity: the point of a body where the weight would
be concentrated if the body were a single point
centrifuging: separating a mixture by rotating the container
quickly. The heavier parts of the mixture move to the
outside of the spinning container. Cream is removed from
milk by centrifuging.
cerci: a pair of movement detectors at the rear of many insects.
They may look like antennae.
charge: (noun) a property of all objects. Charge can be positive
or negative. There are some particles inside an atom that
have no charge; (verb) to give an object an overall electric
charge by adding or removing negative charges. Objects can
be charged by rubbing.
charged: describes an object that has more of one type of
charge than the other
chemical engineer: a scientist who combines chemistry and
engineering to select materials to develop new products
chemical reaction: a chemical change in which one or more
new chemical substances is produced
chemical symbol: the standard way that scientists write the
names of the elements, using either a capital letter or a
capital followed by a lowercase letter, for example, carbon is
C and copper is Cu
chemist: a scientist who studies how substances react with
other substances
chlorine: element added to a water supply to kill harmful
micro-organisms
chlorophyll: the green-coloured chemical in plants that absorbs
the light energy used in photosynthesis, which makes food
from carbon dioxide and water
chloroplast: oval-shaped organelle found only in plant cells.
Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll. They are
the factories in which carbon dioxide and water are
changed by sunlight and water into food by the process of
photosynthesis.
cilia: hair-like tips on cells. The cilia that line your windpipe
and lungs help stop germs, dust and uid getting to your
lungs.
circulatory system: the body system that circulates oxygen in
blood to all the cells of the body. The circulatory system
consists of the heart, the blood vessels and blood.
classifying: placing organisms or objects into groups based on
common characteristics
clouds: visible collections of small water droplets in the air
high above the ground
coal: a sedimentary rock formed from dead plants and animals
that were buried before rotting completely
cochlea: the snail-shaped part of the inner ear. It is lined with

tiny hairs that are vibrated by sound and stimulate the
hearing receptors.
collaboration: working together for shared benet
colloid: a mixture in which extremely small particles of one
substance are spread evenly throughout another substance
colourfast: of xed or lasting colour
column graph: a diagram using the lengths of rectangles (bars)
to show the size of the same property for different objects
or at different times. The bars may be horizontal or vertical;
also called a bar graph.
combustion: the process of combining with oxygen, most
commonly burning with a ame
comet: a body composed of rock, dust and ice. When close to
the sun, it has a tail that points away from the sun.
commensal: describes a species that benets from its
relationship with another species without harming the
other species
commensalism: relationship between organisms where one
benets and the other is unaffected
compact bone: the hard shell of a bone. The minerals it
contains give it strength.
complex carbohydrates: organic substances such as cellulose
and starch. These are made up of long chains of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen and are very strong.
component: an object placed in a circuit, for example, a globe
or switch
compound: two or more different types of atoms that have been
joined (bonded) together
compressed: squeezed into a small space. Gases can be
compressed, but liquids and most solids cannot be
compressed.
compressions: the processes of pushing a material into itself
conclusion: what was found out in an investigation. It is a
general statement that sums up a number of observations
or the results of an experiment. The conclusion of an
experiment relates to the stated aim.
condensation: a change in state from a gas to a liquid; can
occur when gas comes into contact with a cold surface
condense: change state from gas to liquid
conducting path: connected series of materials along which an
electric current can ow
conducting tissue: a type of tissue in the roots, stems and leaves
of plants that transports substances from one part of the
plant to another. The two types of conducting tissue are
xylem and phloem.
conduction: transfer of heat through collisions between
particles
conductor: material that allows electric charge to ow through
it
Glossary 545
conglomerate: sedimentary rock containing large particles of

various sizes cemented together
constellation: group of stars that has been given a particular
name because of the shape the stars seem to form in the sky
when viewed from the Earth
constipation: a condition of the bowels, caused by lack of
dietary bre, in which solid wastes cannot easily leave
consumer: organism that relies on other organisms for its food
contact force: a force that acts only between objects that are
touching
contaminated: describes a useful substance that contains one
or more other substances that affect its use
contract: become smaller in size
control: a parallel experiment where everything is the same as
the test set-up except the variable. It is used to ensure that
the result is due to the variable and nothing else.
controlled variables: the conditions that must be kept the same
throughout the experiment
controlling variables: the process of ensuring that all
conditions, except one (the experimental variable), that
could affect the results of an experiment are kept the same
convection: transfer of heat through the ow of particles
corona: the suns bright, hazy atmosphere. It is only obvious
when there is a total eclipse. You must never look at the sun
even for a brief moment. You could permanently damage your
eyes.
corrosion: a chemical reaction that wears away a metal.
Air, water or chemicals in air and water, as well as many
household substances, can be corrosive. Many acids and
other corrosive substances are dangerous.
corrosive: describes a chemical that wears away the surface of
substances, especially metals
cosmonaut: the Russian term for astronaut
cotyledons: special leaves of the embryo plant inside a seed that
provide food for the developing seedling
criteria: properties of a eld
cross-pollination: transfer of pollen from stamens of one
ower to the stigma of a ower of another plant of the
same type
crust: the outer layer of the Earth, made mostly of solid rock
cusp: ridge or point on the surface of molars and premolars
cyanobacteria: single-celled organisms known as bluegreen
algae. They are related to bacteria rather than algae and
belong to the Kingdom Prokaryotae Monera.
cyclone: a weather formation that starts over water and
intensies as a result of very low pressure, air temperature
greater than about 27 C and average wind speed higher
than 60 km/h
cytoplasm: the jelly-like material inside a cell. It contains many
organelles such as the nucleus and vacuoles.
546
Glossary
data: observations or measurements made and recorded

during an investigation
data sensor: device that measures and sends information to the
data logger to which it is connected
data type: the type of information to be recorded, such as
numbers
database: an organised collection of information
decanting: pouring liquid off the top when sediment has
settled to the bottom of the container
decibel (dB) scale: a scale used to measure the sound level or
loudness of sound, in decibels (dB)
decomposers: small organisms that break down dead and
decaying matter
decomposition: breaking up of a substance into smaller parts
deep water currents: complex currents that move in the depths
of the oceans below about 400 metres, which is about 90%
of the oceans water. The other 10% experiences surface
currents.
deciency disease: disease caused by the lack of a vitamin or
mineral
deforestation: the removal of trees from the land
dehydration: loss of water from the body
denitrifying bacteria: bacteria in the soil that chemically
change useful nitrate compounds into poisonous nitrites
and ammonia gas
density: the number of a species living within an area
dentine (or dentin): bone-like material that gives the tooth its
shape
deoxygenated: describes blood from which some oxygen has
been removed
dependent variable: a variable that is expected to change
when the independent variable is changed. The
dependent variable is observed or measured during the
experiment.
deposition: the laying down of weathered rock particles and
soil by rivers, wind, oceans and glaciers
depression: area of low air pressure that develops where
warmer air is rising from the Earths surface. As this warmer
air cools, it allows cloud to form; so, a depression or low
pressure system usually brings rain and strong winds.
dermis: the medical name for the deeper part of the skin
description: information about a eld in a database
diagnose: to identify a disease or condition
diamond: colourless, sparkling crystal valued in jewellery for
its beauty. It is a three-dimensional arrangement of carbon
atoms that differs from the layers in graphite.
diaphragm: exible, dome-shaped, muscular layer separating
the chest and the abdomen. It is involved in breathing.
diastolic pressure: the lower blood pressure reading during
relaxation of the heart muscles
diatom: microscopic organism, consisting of one cell, that lives

in water. It belongs to Kingdom Protista, but has plant-like
features (e.g. it contains chlorophyll).
dichotomous key: a diagram used to classify things, by grouping
them into smaller and smaller groups that are more and
more alike, based on choosing one of two features
diffuse: spread throughout another substance
diffusion: the spreading of one substance through another due
to the movement of their particles
disperse: scatter
dissolved: describes a substance that has mixed completely with
a liquid so that it is no longer visible. Dissolving requires
the substance to separate into very small particles.
distillate: the liquid collected during distillation when the
evaporated substance condenses
distillation: a separation technique that uses evaporation
to separate substances. The mixture is heated so that one
substance evaporates. The vapour is collected and condenses
into a liquid.
distilled water: pure water collected by condensing steam
distribution: the area inhabited by a plant or animal species
divided bar graph: a type of bar graph in which the bars are
divided into sections to represent parts of a whole
domain: a mini-magnet found in magnetic materials
drag: the force that acts on an object moving against air or
water
dry cells: devices containing chemicals as solids and pastes that
react to supply an electric charge
ear canal: the tube that leads from the outside of the ear to the
eardrum
eardrum: a thin piece of stretched skin inside the ear that
vibrates when sound waves reach it
echolocation: the use of sound to locate objects by detecting
echoes
ecliptic: the path that the sun moves along each year
ecology: the study of the way in which organisms interact with
other organisms and with their environment
ecosystem: community of living things that interact with each
other and with the environment in which they live
electric circuit: the path that electrons ow along. Electrons
require a closed path of conductors for electricity to ow.
electric current: a measure of the number of electrons owing
through a circuit every second. An increase in current
means an increase in the rate of ow of electrons in the
circuit.
electrocardiogram (ECG): graph made using the tiny electrical
impulses generated in the heart muscle, giving information
about the health of the heart
electrodes: conductors through which an electric current enters
or leaves an electric cell
electrolyte: acid, base or salt that conducts electricity when

dissolved in water or melted
electromagnet: a magnet formed by wrapping a coil of wire
around an iron core. When electricity passes through the
coil, the iron core becomes magnetic.
electromagnetic spectrum: energy radiated as electric and
magnetic elds that can travel through space from the sun.
There are many different types of electromagnetic energy,
such as light, microwaves and radio waves.
electron: negatively charged, very light particle of an atom.
Electrons move around the central nucleus of the atom.
electron microscope: instrument for viewing very small objects.
An electron microscope is much more powerful than a light
microscope and can magnify things up to a million times.
electronic scales: device for measuring mass, in grams (g) and
kilograms (kg)
electrons: negatively charged, very light particles of an atom.
Electrons move around the central nucleus of the atom.
electrostatic force: a non-contact force of electric charges at rest.
We experience electrostatic forces when we pull off a jumper
and our hair stands on end.
element: pure substance made up of only one type of atom
elliptical galaxy: an oval or egg-shaped galaxy
embryo: group of cells formed from the zygote and developing
into different body organs
emphysema: condition in which the air sacs in the lungs break
open and join together, reducing the amount of oxygen
taken in and carbon dioxide removed
emulsify: combine two liquids that dont normally mix easily
emulsion: a colloid with droplets of one liquid spread evenly
through another
enamel: hard substance that covers the outside of the tooth
and protects the dentine
endoskeleton: skeleton or shell inside the body
endosperm: food supply for the embryo plant in a seed
endothermic: chemical reactions that absorb heat energy
from the surroundings, causing the reactants to drop in
temperature
energy: the ability to make something happen, such as moving
something, making a light glow or making a noise
engineer: a person who uses designs or scientic ideas to
design and build devices or structures or new technology for
a useful purpose and make it work
enhanced greenhouse effect: the increase in the Earths
temperature caused by humans adding more carbon dioxide
and other heat-trapping gases to the air
environment: the living and non-living things that affect
organisms in a particular place: that is, the surroundings of
a living thing
enzymes: special chemicals that speed up reactions but are
themselves not used up in the reaction
Glossary 547
epicormic bud: a bud under the bark of a tree that sprouts after
a re
epidermal cells: attened type of cells that protect the top and
bottom surface of leaves. Stems and roots also have an outer
ring of these cells for protection.
epidermis: outermost layer of the skin
epiglottis: leaf-like ap of cartilage behind the tongue that
closes the air passage during swallowing
epiphytes: plants that use other plants for support but not for
food
epithelial tissue: the lining cells that form the outside or inside
surfaces of a plant or animal
erosion: the process of moving weathered rock or soil from one
place to another
evaporate: change state from liquid to gas
evaporation: a change in state from liquid to gas. Evaporation
occurs only from the surface of the liquid.
excrete: remove wastes from the body
exoskeleton: skeleton or shell that lies outside the body
exosphere: the outer region of the Earths atmosphere where it
meets space
exothermic: describes chemical reactions that get hot because
they generate heat
expand: increase in size due to the movement of particles in a
substance
extinct: describes volcanoes that are no longer active. Extinct
volcanoes have not erupted for thousands of years and show
no sign of future eruption.
extrapolation: use of a graph to determine unmeasured data
values beyond the range of measured data values
extrusive rock: igneous rock that forms when lava cools above
the Earths surface
eye: the central low-pressure region of a cyclone. There is very
little wind in the eye of a cyclone.
faeces: waste products released by animals in solid form
fair test: a method for determining an answer to a problem
without favouring any particular outcome: another name
for a controlled experiment
fat: an organic substance that is solid at room temperature and
is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
fat soluble: describes a substance able to dissolve in fat
fault: a break in a rock structure. The rock on either side of the
break can move.
fertilisation: penetration of the ovum by a sperm
fertilised: an egg cell is fertilised when a male sex halfcell enters it. In animals, the male sex cell is the sperm;
in plants, it is contained in the pollen. A fertilised egg
eventually grows into a new organism.
fever: a symptom of illness in which the body experiences very
high temperatures
548
Glossary
bre: a chemical substance produced by plants. It is made up

of very large molecules.
eld: in a database, type of information recorded in a column
for each record
lament: the male part of a ower that holds up the anther;
also the coil of wire made from a metal that glows brightly
when it gets hot. The laments in light globes heat up when
electricity ows through them.
lter: a device that allows some materials to pass through. It
blocks particles too large to t through the holes or pores.
lter funnel: used with lter paper to separate solids from
liquids
ltrate: the liquid or particles that pass through a lter
ltration: a separation technique that separates objects of
different sizes
ammable: describes substances such as methylated spirits that
burn easily
re intensity: a measure of how quickly heat is released from
a re
at le database: a simple database with a single table
oatables: substances that are less dense than water so can
oat on water
oc: a clump of particles heavy enough to sink to the bottom
rather than remain oating in a liquid
occulation: the process of adding a chemical to a suspension
to create ocs, which settle to the bottom
uid: a substance that ows and has no xed shape. Gases and
liquids are uids.
uoride: substance added to a water supply to help prevent
tooth decay
fog: a visible collection of small water droplets in the air at
ground level
folding: the buckling of rocks. It is caused when rocks are
under pressure from both sides.
food chain: diagram that shows how the energy stored in one
organism is passed to another.
food web: diagram showing several food chains joined
together to demonstrate that animals eat more than one
type of food
force: (noun) a push, pull or twist. Forces are measured in
newtons (N). (verb) to push, pull or twist
fossil fuel: substance, such as coal, oil and natural gas, that
has formed from the remains of ancient organisms. Coal,
oil and natural gas are often used as fuels; that is, they are
burnt in order to produce heat.
fracture: in relation to identifying minerals from their
properties, a minerals fracture describes the appearance of
the break when a sample of the mineral is snapped
freezing: change of state from liquid to solid
frequency: the number of vibrations each second
friction: a force that acts against the movement of an object. It

occurs between any surfaces that are touching and trying to
move past each other.
fruit: ripened ovary of a ower, enclosing seeds
fuel: a substance that is burnt in order to release energy,
usually in the form of heat
fungi: organisms, such as mushrooms and moulds, that help
to decompose dead or decaying matter
Gaia: a theory that the Earths physical environment and living
creatures have developed together over a very long time;
named after the Greek goddess of Mother Earth
galaxy: a very large group of stars held together as a system by
gravity
galvanising: protecting a metal by covering it with a more
reactive metal that will corrode rst
gas: state of matter with no xed shape or volume
gas giant: a large planet mostly made up of gas. Jupiter is a gas
giant.
geologist: a scientist who studies the structure of the Earth,
especially its rocks
germinate: grow a plant from a seed
germination: rst sign of growth from the seed of a plant
global positioning system (GPS): a system that gives your
location in longitude and latitude at the touch of a button
global warming: an increase in the Earths temperature over a
period of many years
glucose: a simple carbohydrate and the simplest form of sugar
granite: a hard, igneous rock with different coloured crystals
large enough to see. It forms slowly below the Earths
surface.
graphite: a black form of carbon easily rubbed onto other
substances
gravitational attraction: an attraction that exists between any
two bodies in the universe that have mass
gravitational energy: type of energy from the Earths
gravitational force that causes objects above the ground to
fall to Earth. The higher an object, the more gravitational
energy it has.
gravity: the force of attraction that exists between any two
bodies in the universe that have mass. The gravity at the
Earths surface is the pull on objects near its surface towards
the centre of the Earth.
greenhouse effect: a natural effect of the Earths atmosphere
trapping heat, which keeps the Earths temperature stable.
The suns energy passes through the atmosphere and warms
the Earth. Heat energy radiated from the Earth cannot pass
through the atmosphere and is trapped.
greenstick fracture: a break that is not completely through the
bone, often seen in children
ground water: rainwater that has soaked into the lower levels
of the soil and has saturated the soil
groyne: a jetty built into the sea to prevent the erosion of the
beach
guard cells: cells on either side of a stoma that work together
to control the opening and closing of the stoma
gum: the rm esh in which the teeth are set
gyres: ocean currents that have formed circular patterns
over large areas of water between continents. Gyres move
anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere and clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere.
habitat: the place where an organism lives
haemoglobin: the red pigment in red blood cells that carries
oxygen
hardness: a property of a mineral that can be found using
Mohs hardness scale. For example, if a mineral sample can
be scratched by a piece of quartz but not by orthoclase, its
hardness lies between 6 and 7.
hearing loss: permanent damage to the ear affecting a persons
ability to hear sounds
heartbeat: contraction of the heart muscle occurring about
60100 times per minute
heat: energy that moves from one place to another place that is
at a lower temperature
heatproof mat: surface that protects benches from damage by
heat and chemicals
herbivores: animals that eat only plants
heresy: stating an opinion that goes against the orthodox
teachings of a religion
hertz: the unit of frequency. Abbreviation is Hz. One hertz is
equal to one vibration each second.
high pressure system (or high): an area of high air pressure that
moves across the land, tending to bring ne weather, dry
with very few clouds. Highs tend to move fairly slowly and
cover a large area.
hinge joints: joints in which two bones are connected so that
movement occurs in one plane only
histogram: a graph with equal intervals marked on the
x-axis for the values of a quantity, and frequency
of occurrence of each value shown by the height of
adjoining columns
histologist: a scientist who studies the cells and tissues that
make up animals, including humans. Histologists look at
small samples of cells and tissues under microscopes.
homogenised milk: processed milk. The butterfat (oil) is broken
up into droplets and spreads evenly through the rest of the
milk. This milk is an emulsion, so the butterfat does not
settle out.
host: organism living in a relationship with another organism.
The host supplies something needed by the other organism
(called the parasite).
Glossary 549
humus: organic matter resulting from the decomposition of

plant and animal tissue in the soil. Humus helps the soil
hold water and mineral nutrients needed by plants.
hydrogen: the element with the smallest atom. By itself, it is a
colourless gas and combines with other elements to form a
large number of substances, including water. It is the most
common element in living things.
hydrosphere: the water on the Earths surface
hypothesis: a suggested explanation for past observations that is
tested in an experiment
immovable joints: joints that allow no movement except when
absorbing a hard blow
immune system: parts of the body involved in defending it
against disease
in series: connected one after the other so that the same
current passes through each load. The positive end of one
cell must be joined to the negative end of the next cell.
incisors: teeth with straight, sharp edges that are used for biting
and cutting food
incubated: placed in a cabinet that maintains an optimum
temperature for bacterial growth
independent variable: the variable that the scientist changes to
observe its effect on another variable
indicator: a substance that changes colour when it reacts with
acids or bases. The colour shows how acidic or basic a
substance is.
indigestion: a chemical reaction in the stomach related
to difculties in digesting food. Indigestion can cause
discomfort, burping and stomach rumbling.
industrial chemist: scientist who uses chemistry to create new
materials, such as synthetic bres
infectious diseases: diseases that can be transferred from one
organism to another
inference: a logical explanation about what happened and why
it happened
inuenza: a virus, also known as the u, that can spread in
droplets of mucus
infra-red radiation: invisible radiation emitted by all objects.
You feel infra-red radiation as heat.
inner core: the solid centre of the Earth
inorganic nutrients: chemical substances other than organic
nutrients that are needed by living things
insect-pollinated owers: owers that receive pollen carried on
the body parts of insects from other owers
insoluble: unable to be dissolved
insulator: material that does not allow heat to move through it
intensication: a weather process that begins when moist,
warm rising air meets colder air and the water vapour
condenses into rain, making this upper air even colder. The
warm air then rises faster and the winds spiralling into the
low pressure system speed up.
550
Glossary
interpolation: use of a graph to determine unmeasured data

values within the range of measured data values
interstellar space: the space in between the stars outside our
solar system
intrusive rock: igneous rock that forms when magma cools
below the Earths surface
invertebrate: an animal without a backbone
investigation: activity aimed at nding information
involuntary muscles: muscles not under the control of the will;
they contract slowly and rhythmically. These muscles are at
work in the heart, intestines and lungs.
ionosphere: the highest layer of the atmosphere where the air
is spread extremely thin. This layer reects radio waves,
enabling communication between many parts of the Earth.
irregular galaxy: a galaxy that has no particular shape
irrigate: to water crops, especially when there is insufcient
rainfall
Jupiter: the largest of the planets, with 17 satellites
kilogram: the unit in which mass is measured
kinetic energy: energy due to the motion of an object
laboratory: a room tted with apparatus for scientic research
land breeze: the breeze that occurs when differences in air
pressure cause air particles to ow from the land towards
the ocean
landll: an area set aside for the dumping of rubbish
larvae: a stage in the life cycle of egg-laying animals. It is the
stage after the egg hatches.
latitude: a distance measured in degrees, north or south of the
equator
lava: a mixture of molten rock and gases that has reached the
Earths surface from a volcano
Law of Conservation of Energy: a law that states that
energy cannot be made or lost. However, energy can be
transformed from one type to another or transferred from
one object to another.
leaf litter: layer of dead leaves on the ground in a forest
left atrium: upper left section of the heart where oxygenated
blood from the lungs enters the heart
left ventricle: lower left section of the heart, which pumps
oxygenated blood to all parts of the body
ligament: band of tough tissue that connects the ends of bones
or keeps an organ in place
light: radiation to which our eyes are sensitive, making it
possible to see objects that emit or reect it
light microscope: instrument for viewing very small objects. A
light microscope can magnify things up to 1500 times.
lightning: the spark caused when built-up charges in a cloud
discharge quickly to other clouds or the ground
lightning rod: conductive metal rod, often attached to the top

of tall buildings. Lightning rods help to keep buildings safe
from lightning strikes.
lignin: a hard substance in the walls of dead xylem cells that
make up the tubes carrying water up plant stems. Lignin
forms up to 30% of the wood of trees.
lignotuber: a lump on the roots of a tree that sprouts after a re
lime: compound (calcium hydroxide) added to a water supply
to reduce acidity
limestone: a sedimentary rock formed from the remains of sea
organisms. It consists mainly of calcium carbonate.
line graph: a graph made by plotting pairs of data as points
and joining the points together, or drawing a line through
the middle of the points, called the line of best t
line transect: line placed across a community of organisms,
which is used to measure their distribution and density
lipases: enzymes that break fats and oils down into fatty acids
and glycerol
lipids: type of nutrient that includes fats and oils
liquid: state of matter that has a xed volume, but no xed
shape
lithosphere: the outermost layer of the Earth; includes the crust
and uppermost part of the mantle
living: being alive or once alive. Living things have a number
of features in common; for example, they reproduce, and
require food and oxygen.
load: device that uses electrical energy and converts it into
other forms of energy; force, such as the weight of an object,
resisting motion against which a lever works
longitude: a distance measured in degrees, east or west from
a dened place called the Prime Meridian. The Prime
Meridian passes through a town called Greenwich (near
London).
low pressure system (or low): area of low air pressure that
develops where warmer air is rising from the Earths
surface. As this warmer air cools, it allows cloud to form;
so, a low pressure system usually brings rain and strong
winds.
lub dub: the sound made by the heart valves as they close
lubricant: substance with large particles that can slide easily
over each other. Lubricants are used between surfaces that
rub against each other to reduce wear and increase motion
between the surfaces.
luminous: releasing its own light
lustre: describes how a mineral reects light from its
cut surface. Lustre may be described as dull, metallic,
pearlescent, glassy, brilliant, waxy or silky.
magma: a very hot mixture of molten rock and gases, just
below the Earths surface, that has come from the mantle
layer below the Earths outer crust
magnetic eld: a map of lines showing the size and direction

of a magnetic force. The size of the force is shown by how
close together the lines are. The direction at any point is
given by the direction in which the north pole of a magnet
would face.
magnetic force: the force (a push or pull) that acts between
magnets (including the Earth) and magnetic objects
magnetic North Pole: the place on Earth to which the north
pole of a magnet is attracted
magnetic South Pole: the place on Earth to which the south
pole of a magnet is attracted
magnication: the number of times the image of an object has
been enlarged using a lens or lens system. For example, a
magnication of two means the object has been enlarged to
twice its actual size.
magnify: to enlarge an object using a lens or lens system
mantle: the thick layer inside the Earth, below the crust. Most
of the mantle is solid rock, but the upper part is molten
rock called magma.
manufacturing processes: processes used to make products
Mars: a small planet near Earth. Space probes have brought
back samples from Mars.
mass: the quantity of matter in an object (usually measured in
grams or kilograms)
massive: describes an object with a very large mass
matter: anything that has mass and takes up space. The three
main states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
measuring cylinder: used to measure volumes of liquids
accurately
melting: the change of state from solid to liquid
melting point: the temperature at which a solid substance turns
into a liquid (melts) or a liquid turns into a solid (freezes)
meniscus: the curved upper surface of a column of liquid
Mercury: the small planet nearest the sun
mesosphere: the middle layer of the atmosphere, between the
stratosphere and the thermosphere
metal: element that conducts heat and electricity; shiny solid
that can be made into thin wires and sheets that bend easily.
Mercury is the only liquid metal.
metalloids: elements that have the appearance of metals but
not all the other properties of metals
metamorphic rock: rock formed from another rock that has
been under great heat or pressure (or both)
metamorphism: the process that changes rocks by extreme
pressure or heat (or both)
meteor: the ery streak of light from a meteoroid that has
entered the Earths atmosphere from space and has become
so hot that it burns
meteorite: a fallen meteoroid that has reached the Earths
surface
Glossary 551
meteoroid: small bodies of rock and/or metal travelling

through space
microbe: very small organism that can be seen only through a
microscope
micrographs: images produced by an electron microscope
micron: unit of length, a thousandth of a millimetre
microscope: an instrument for viewing small objects
Milky Way Galaxy: the galaxy of which our solar system is a
very small part
millimetre: unit of length, a thousandth of a metre
minerals: substances that make up rocks. Each mineral has its
own chemical make-up.
mineral salts: chemical compounds that occur naturally and
belong to the group called salts. Many dissolve in water
and contain elements that are essential for healthy plant or
animal growth.
mitochondria: small rod-shaped organelles that supply energy
to other parts of the cell. They are usually too small to be
seen with light microscopes. Singular: mitochondrion.
mixture: a combination of substances in which each keeps its
own properties
Mohs hardness scale: scale developed by the geologist Friedrich
Mohs; it consists of a comparative list of ten minerals
arranged in order from softest (hardness value of 1) up
to the hardest (10). A harder mineral scratches a softer
mineral.
molars: teeth with a large rough surface used for grinding food
molecule: two or more atoms joined (bonded) together,
forming a small particle
monochloramine: a type of disinfectant added to the water
supply to kill any dangerous bacteria or micro-organisms
monocular microscope: a microscope in which the specimen is
seen using one eye only
moon: a body that naturally orbits a planet
moulds: cavity in a rock that shows the shape of the hard parts
of an organism; types of fungi found growing on the surface
of foods
mudstone: a ne-grained, sedimentary rock without layering
multicellular: having many cells. Most plants and animals are
multicellular.
mutualism: relationship between two different organisms in
which both benet
native elements: minerals in their pure form, for example, gold
and diamonds
natural bres: bre that forms naturally; that is, it has not been
made by humans
neap tide: a weaker high and low tide that occurs when the
sun and moon are not in the same line as the Earth. At such
times, the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon work
against each other.
552
Glossary
nebula: a cloud of gas and dust particles that may come

together and heat up to form a star
nectary: gland secreting a sugary uid
negative electric charge: the charge on an atom or object with
more electrons than protons
negatively charged: having more electrons than protons (more
negative charges than positive charges)
Neptune: a small planet near the edge of the solar system, with
an atmosphere of methane gas
nerve cells: type of cell in the body designed to carry electrical
impulses by which the nervous system functions
neuropsychologist: a scientist who studies different areas of the
brain to better understand brain functions such as memory
and learning
neutral: having the same number of protons and electrons
neutron: tiny, but heavy, particle found in the nucleus of an
atom. Neutrons have no electrical charge.
newton (N): the unit for measuring forces
nitrates: types of compounds called salts that contain the
NO3 group, made up of three oxygen atoms bonded to one
nitrogen atom
nitrifying bacteria: bacteria that change dissolved ammonia
into nitrite compounds, or nitrites into nitrate compounds
nitrites: types of compounds called salts that contain the
NO2 group, made up of two oxygen atoms bonded to one
nitrogen atom
nitrogen-xing: changing nitrogen in the air into nitrogen
compounds in the soil. Plants cant use nitrogen gas from
the air. They obtain nitrogen through their roots from
nitrogen compounds in the soil.
Nobel Prize: one of six international prizes awarded annually
for outstanding achievement in physics, chemistry,
medicine, literature, economics and the promotion of peace
non-contact force: a force that acts between objects even though
the objects are not touching
non-infectious diseases: diseases that cannot be transferred
from one organism to another
non-living: not alive and never having been alive
non-luminous: describes objects that do not emit their own
light, but can be seen by reected light
non-metal: element that does not conduct electricity or heat.
Non-metals melt and turn into gases easily and are brittle
and often coloured.
nucleus: the roundish structure inside cells that acts as the
control centre for the cell. Plural: nuclei.
nutrients: substances that provide energy and chemicals that
living things need to stay alive, grow and reproduce
observation: information obtained by the use of our senses or
measuring instruments
obsidian: a black, glassy rock that breaks into pieces with
smooth shell-like surfaces
oil: an organic substance that is liquid at room temperature

and is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
omnivores: animals that eat plants and other animals
optical telescope: a telescope that uses light to produce images
of distant objects
optimum range: the range, within a tolerance range for a
particular abiotic factor, in which an organism functions
best
orbit: the path that an object follows when it moves all the way
around another object, such as the path of the Earth around
the sun
organ: group of tissues working together to carry out a
particular job
organelle: small structure in a cell with a special function
organism: living thing
osmosis: the diffusion of water in or out of a cell
ossicles: a set of three tiny bones that send vibrations from the
eardrum to the inner ear. They also make the vibrations
larger.
ossication: hardening of bones
osteoporosis: loss of bone mass that causes them to become
lighter, more fragile and easily broken
outer core: the liquid layer surrounding the solid inner core of
the Earth
oval window: an egg-shaped hole covered with a thin tissue. It
is the entrance from the middle ear to the outer ear.
ovary: the hollow, lower end of the carpel containing the
ovules (the female egg cells)
ovule: receptacle within an ovary that contains egg cells
oxidation: chemical reaction involving the loss of electrons by
a substance
oxygen: a gas in the air (and water) that animals need to
breathe in; made up of particles with two oxygen atoms.
Plants produce oxygen as part of photosynthesis.
oxygenated: describes the bright red blood that has been
supplied with oxygen in the lungs
oxyhaemoglobin: haemoglobin with oxygen molecules attached
ozone layer: a layer in the stratosphere, about 25 km above
Earth, that has high concentrations of ozone gas. The ozone
layer absorbs over 90% of the suns ultraviolet light.
pacemaker: electronic device inserted in the chest to keep
the heart beating regularly at the correct rate. It works by
stimulating the heart with tiny electrical impulses.
palaeontologist: a scientist who studies fossils
paper chromatography: method of separating a mixture of
different colours. The liquid soaks through the paper and
carries the mixture with it. Some substances in the mixture
are carried through the paper faster than others so the
substances are separated along the paper.
paper mill: place where paper products are manufactured
parallax error: the error that occurs when scales are read
inaccurately from an angle
parallel circuit: circuit that has more than one path for
electricity to ow through. If one of the paths has a break in
it, the others will still work.
paralysis: loss of the ability to move
parasite: organism that lives in or on another organism. The
parasite benets while usually harming the host organism.
parasitism: an interaction where one species (the parasite) lives
in or on another species (the host) from which it obtains
food, shelter and other requirements
particle model: a description of the moving particles that make
up all matter and how they behave. The model explains the
properties of solids, liquids and gases.
pathogen: disease-causing organism
penicillin: substance, rst extracted from moulds, that kills
many types of bacteria. It was the rst antibiotic drug.
penumbra: the lighter, outer part of a shadow
peristalsis: the process of pushing food along the oesophagus
or small intestine by the action of muscles
permanent magnet: a magnet that retains its magnetic effect for
many years
petals: the coloured parts of a ower that attract insects
Petri dish: a shallow, circular glass dish, often used in the
laboratory for growing bacteria
pH scale: scale from 1 (acidic) to 14 (basic) that measures how
acidic or basic a substance is
pharmaceutical industry: an industry that manufactures
medicines and other medical treatments
pharmacology: the study of the effect of drugs on living things
phloem: type of tissue that transports sugars made in the leaves
to other parts of a plant
phloem cells: long, narrow, living cells that are joined together
to form long tubes in a plant. The tubes move the food
made in the leaves to other parts of the plant, such as the
roots and storage areas.
phosphorus: a substance that plays an important role in almost
every chemical reaction in the body. Together with calcium,
it is required by the body to maintain healthy bones and
teeth.
photosynthesis: the food-making process in plants that takes
place in chloroplasts within cells. The process uses carbon
dioxide, water and energy from the sun.
photosynthesise: describes a plants ability to use carbon
dioxide, water and the suns energy to make food
physicist: a scientist who studies the laws of nature
physiologist: a scientist who studies how the parts of living
things work together
physiology: a study of how the parts of living things work
together
Glossary 553
physiotherapist: a person who treats body weaknesses through

massage and exercise
pie chart: a diagram using sectors of a circle to compare the
size of parts making up the whole
pitch: the highness or lowness of a sound. The pitch that you
hear depends on the frequency of the vibrating air.
pivot joint: joint that allows a twisting movement
planet: a large object that orbits a star. Planets do not produce
their own light.
plankton: microscopic animals and plants that oat in sea
water
plasma: the yellowish, liquid part of blood that contains water,
minerals, food and wastes from cells
plastic: synthetic substance capable of being moulded
platelets: small bodies involved in blood clotting. They are
responsible for healing by clumping together around a
wound.
plumule: small bud at the tip of the embryo plant in a seed
plutonic rocks: igneous rocks that form when magma cools
below the Earths surface; also called intrusive rocks
poles: two areas of a magnet (the north and south poles) where
the magnetic force is the strongest
pollinate: transfer pollen from the stamen (the male part) of a
ower to the stigma (the female part) of a ower
pollination: transfer of pollen from the stamen (the male part)
of a ower to the stigma (the female part) of a ower
polymer: substance made by joining smaller identical units. All
plastics are polymers.
pore: small opening in the skin. Perspiration reaches the
surface of the skin through pores.
positive electric charge: the charge on an atom or object with
fewer electrons than protons
positively charged: having more protons than electrons (more
positive charges than negative charges)
post-mortem: examination carried out on a body by a
pathologist if the cause of a persons death is unclear
potential energy: energy that has the potential to do work and
so the energy is stored, such as gravitational energy, elastic
energy and chemical energy
power supply: a device that can provide an electric current
precipitate: solid product of a chemical reaction that does not
dissolve in water
predators: animals that hunt other animals for food
premolars: teeth with two points that roll and crush the food
pressure: a push or squeeze on an object
prey: animal hunted by other animals for food
primary key: a eld which links two or more tables in a
database
proboscis: a long feeding tube attached to the head of some
insects. It sometimes rolls up when not in use.
554
Glossary
processed food: packaged food that has been altered by cooking

and adding chemicals to it
producers: organisms, such as plants, that use photosynthesis
to make their own food from the suns energy
product: new chemical substance that results from a chemical
reaction
properties: characteristics or features of an object or substance
proteases: enzymes that break proteins down into amino
acids
protein: chemical made up of amino acids needed for the
growth and repair of the cells in living things
proton: tiny, but heavy, particle found in the nucleus of an
atom. Protons have a positive electrical charge.
pulp: the part of the tooth that contains the nerves and blood
vessels
pulse: alternating contraction and expansion of arteries due to
the pumping of blood by the heart
pumice: a pale rock that forms when frothy lava cools in the
air. Pumice often oats on water as it is very light and full of
holes that once contained gas.
quadrat: a sampling area, often one square metre, in which the
number of organisms in that area is counted and recorded
qualitative: type of observation that describes what is seen
quantitative: type of observation where a measurement with a
specic value is used
quarks: small particles that combine in different ways to make
up protons and neutrons
query: a request for information from a database
radiant heat: heat that is transferred from one place to another
by radiation
radiation: a method of heat transfer that does not require
particles to transfer heat from one place to another
radicle: root of the embryo plant in a seed
radio telescope: a telescope that uses a huge dish, or a
collection of smaller dishes, to pick up radio waves (not
light waves) from distant stars and galaxies
radio waves: a type of energy that is created when electric and
magnetic elds move together
rarefactions: in sound waves, the layers of air particles that are
spread apart (between compressions)
reactant: chemical substance used up in a chemical reaction.
Some chemical bonds in a reactant are broken during the
reaction.
receptors: special cells that detect energy and convert it to
electrical energy that is sent to the brain
record: a collection of information about one object in a row
of a database
recycling program: a program often run by local councils to
collect recyclable materials from peoples homes
red blood cells: living cells in the blood that transport oxygen
to all other living cells in the body. Oxygen is carried by the
red pigment, haemoglobin.
red giant: a star in a late stage of its life. Helium atoms in the
core fuse to form carbon and other heavier elements. It
retains its burning hydrogen shell. The stars size increases
because the outward push of the nuclear reactions inside
it is greater than the inward pull of gravity. This expansion
allows the star to radiate more energy so its surface cools to
a red colour.
rene: restrict a search
reected: bounced off
relative dating: comparing the ages of rocks without actually
knowing their ages in years
reliable: describes consistent results obtained from repeated
experiments
repel: push away
repulsion: a push away from another object
residue: the material left behind when a mixture is ltered
respiration: the chemical process that takes place in every cell
to release energy. Glucose reacts with oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and water.
reverberation: the longer lasting sound caused by repeated
reection from hard surfaces
right atrium: upper right section of the heart where
deoxygenated blood from the body enters
right ventricle: lower right section of the heart, which pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs
rigid: stiff, not exible
rock salt: a sedimentary deposit formed when a salt lake or
seabed dries up. Its main chemical is sodium chloride.
root canal: the channel through which the nerves and blood
vessels of the teeth go into the jawbone
root hairs: tube-like outgrowths of cells on the surface of roots.
They have thin walls, which allow water and dissolved
substances to move into the root.
rotate: turn around on an axis
rust: a brown substance formed when iron reacts with oxygen
and water
rusting: the corrosion of iron
safety glasses: plastic glasses used to protect the eyes during
experiments
saliva: watery substance in the mouth that moistens food
before swallowing
saltfall: a process in which salt water from the ocean
evaporates into the atmosphere and returns to the lands
interior as rain
sample size: the number of organisms used in an experiment.
Reliable experiments have a large sample size.
sandstone: a sedimentary rock with medium-sized grains. The

sand grains are cemented together by silica, lime or other
salts.
saprophytes: organisms that eat dead and decaying plant and
animal material
satellite: an object that orbits another object. The moon is the
Earths satellite. Scientists have made and launched many
articial satellites.
Saturn: a large planet famous for the rings of material around
its equator
scavengers: animals that eat dead plant and animal material
scientists: people skilled in or working in the elds of science;
scientists use experiments to nd out about the material
world around them
scoria: a dark, igneous rock formed from gassy lava that cools
quickly
sea breeze: the breeze that occurs when differences in air
pressure cause air particles to ow from the ocean towards
the land
search: the use of a computer to nd information in a database
sector graph: a diagram using sectors of a circle to compare the
size of parts making up the whole
sediment: the material that collects when suspensions are left
to stand. Insoluble substances that collect at the bottom of a
container are sediments.
sedimentary rocks: rocks formed from sediments deposited by
water, wind or ice. The sediments are cemented together in
layers, under pressure.
seed: product of a fertilised ovule
seed coat: the protective layer around a seed
seedling: young plant produced from the embryo in a seed
after germination
self-pollination: transfer of pollen from the owers own
stamen to its stigma
semilunar: a type of valve which is half-moon shaped. The
aortic valve is semilunar and is located between the hearts
left ventricle and aorta.
sensor: device connected to an instrument such as a data logger
that measures and sends information
separate: to divide into parts
separating funnel: a pear-shaped glass container, with a tap
at its base, used to separate two liquids that do not mix.
Opening the tap removes the bottom liquid and the liquid
oating on top is left in the funnel.
separation: the process of dividing a mixture into its parts
septic tank: a sewage treatment system placed underground
in backyards of houses not connected to town sewage
treatment plants
series circuit: a circuit with the components joined one after
the other in a single continuous loop
Glossary 555
sewage: a mixture of water and substances that ow from

laundries, bathrooms, kitchens and toilets
sewerage: the system of drains and pipes that takes sewage
away from a property
sextant: an instrument used to measure the height of an object
above the horizon in order to calculate its latitude
shale: a ne-grained rock formed in layers by the consolidation
of clay
show: display
sieving: separating particles of different sizes by allowing the
smaller particles to fall through holes in a container
siltstone: a sedimentary rock with a particle size between that
of sandstone and mudstone
simple carbohydrates: organic substances such as glucose and
sucrose. These are made up of short chains of carbon,
solar energy: energy sent out into space from the sun
solar system: our Sun and everything that orbits it, including
the eight planets (including Earth), the planets moons,
asteroids and comets
solid: state of matter that has a xed shape and volume
solubility: a property of a substance that describes how quickly
it dissolves. Substances with different solubilities dissolve at
different rates.
soluble: able to be dissolved
solute: a substance that is dissolved in a solvent to form a
solution
solution: a mixture of a solute dissolved in a solvent. Solutions
are transparent (clear) but may be coloured.
solvent: a substance in which a solute dissolves to form a
solution
sonar: the use of reected sound waves to locate objects under
water
sound waves: vibrations of particles in the air
space probe: an unmanned spacecraft that sends information
back to Earth
space shuttle: a spacecraft with a plane-like orbiter that can be
reused. It is made up of the orbiter (the part which returns
to Earth), liquid fuel tank and solid rocket booster.
space station: a large manned base in space where astronauts
can live for some months. Many experiments are performed
there because gravity has no effect inside an orbiting
spacecraft.
species: a group of living organisms capable of interbreeding
with each other but not with members of other species
spiracles: small openings in the body through which some
animals breathe. All insects have spiracles.
spiral galaxy: a galaxy that has a dense centre of old stars, and
arms that contain stars, dust, planets and gases that curve
around the centre in a spiral shape
556
Glossary
spongy bone: bone tissue with a lattice-like structure that is less

dense than compact bone
spore: a reproductive cell of some organisms (e.g. ferns and
fungi) that is protected within the organism until the time is
ready for it to be released
sports psychologist: someone who studies how athletes train
their minds to help produce greater success in the sports
arena
sports psychology: the study of how athletes train their minds to
help produce greater success in the sports arena
spring tide: very high tide that occurs when there is a new
or full moon. At such times, the Earth experiences the
combined gravitational attraction of the sun and the moon
because all three bodies are in a straight line.
stamen: male part of the ower; includes the anther
(containing the pollen) and the stalk to which it is attached
(the lament)
star: a ball of gas that gives off heat and light. The heat and
light result from nuclear reactions that happen inside the
atoms of the gases.
starch: a complex carbohydrate that stores energy in plants
static electricity: a build-up of charge in one place
steel: an alloy made from combining carbon and iron
stereo microscope: a microscope in which the specimen is seen
using both eyes
stigma: the female part of a ower, at the top of the carpel, that
catches the pollen during pollination
stomata: small openings located mainly on the lower surface
of leaves. These pores are opened and closed by guard cells.
Singular: stoma.
stratosphere: the second layer of the atmosphere up to about
55 km above the Earths surface, between the troposphere
and the mesosphere
streak: the colour and texture of the mark that a mineral leaves
behind when it is scratched across a hard white surface
streamlined: shaped so that drag through a uid is minimised
sublimation: the change in state from a solid into a gas without
rst becoming a liquid (or from a gas into a solid without
rst becoming a liquid)
substance: something made of matter
sugars: simple carbohydrates that contain carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. Glucose and sucrose are sugars.
supergiants: a very large type of star that is expanding while
running out of fuel, and will eventually explode
supernova: a huge explosion that happens in the life cycle of
super-giant stars
surface currents: ocean currents that affect the surface above
about 400 metres, which is about 10% of the oceans water.
The other 90% experiences deep water currents.
surface protection: coating over a metal surface to prevent
corrosion
surface tension: the rmness of the surface of a liquid created

by the attraction between particles at the surface. The surface
acts like an elastic skin.
suspended: hanging, not falling or sinking
suspension: a mixture of a gas or liquid and an insoluble
substance. The insoluble substance settles to the bottom
when the mixture is left to stand.
sweat gland: tiny, coiled tube in the skin through which water
and salt are removed from the body, helping to control
body temperature
symbiosis: very close relationship between two organisms of
different species. It may benet or harm one of the partners.
synovial uid: the liquid inside the cavity surrounding a joint.
It helps bones to slide freely over each other.
system: several organs working together to make up a system.
For example, the brain and spinal chord make up the
central nervous system.
systolic pressure: the higher blood pressure reading during
contraction of the heart muscles
table: the basis of a database, consisting of information in
elds and records
telescope: an instrument used for looking at and detecting far
away objects
temperature: a measure of how hot or cold a substance is. It is
measured in degrees Celsius.
temporary magnet: a magnet that stays magnetic only while it
touches a permanent magnet, or one that is magnetic for a
very short time
terminal: the points where electrons enter and leave a battery
or other electrical device. Electrons leave from the negative
terminal and return to the positive terminal.
terrestrial planet: Earth-like planet that is small and solid
test tube: thin glass container for holding, heating or mixing
small amounts of substances
test-tube baby: baby resulting from fertilisation of an egg by
sperm in the laboratory
thermometer: instrument used to measure temperature. Most
school thermometers contain alcohol that is dyed red. As
the temperature rises, the alcohol expands up a thin column
in the thermometer. The length of the alcohol column
indicates the temperature. Extra care must be taken with
thermometers containing mercury as it is poisonous.
thermosphere: a layer of the atmosphere that extends to about
400 km above the Earth, between the mesosphere and
exosphere
thorax: the section of an insects body between its head and its
abdomen
tidal month: the time it takes from one full moon to the next.
A tidal month is not the same as a calendar month (e.g.
August).
tidal range: the difference between the higher of the high tides
in a given day and the lower of the low tides
tinea: a painful skin disease, caused by a fungus, that often
occurs between the toes
tissue: a group of cells that come together to perform a specic
function. For example, muscle tissue is formed by muscle
cells, and nerve tissue is formed by nerve cells.
tolerance range: range of an abiotic factor in the environment
in which an organism can survive
tooth decay: the formation of holes in the surface of teeth
toxic: describes chemicals that are dangerous to touch, inhale
or swallow
trace elements: elements needed in minute amounts in
compounds in the soil for healthy plant growth
trace fossils: fossils that provide evidence, such as footprints,
that an organism was present when the rock was formed
trachea: narrow tube from the mouth to the lungs through
which air moves
tracheophytes: plants that contain vascular tissue
traction: a force that keeps objects from slipping or losing
contact with a surface. Traction is similar to friction.
transferred: moved from one place to another
transformed: energy changed from one form to another
transfusion: injection of blood from another person into your
veins to replace the blood you have lost
translocation: transport of materials, such as water and glucose,
in plants
transmit: pass through something, such as light or sound
passing through air
transmitted: passed through something, such as light or sound
passing through air
transparency: allowing most of the light to pass through a
substance
transpiration: loss of water from plant leaves through their
stomata
transpiration stream: movement of water through a plant as a
result of loss of water from the leaves
trial: repetition of an experiment. Increasing the number of
trials increases the reliability of the experiment.
tricuspid: a type of valve with three cusps (points). The valve
between the hearts right atrium and right ventricle is a
tricuspid valve.
trophic: describes the different levels in a food chain, food web
or food pyramid
troposphere: the layer of the atmosphere closest to the Earths
surface. The particles of the air are packed most closely
in this layer and they spread out further away from the
surface.
ultraviolet (UV) rays (radiation): invisible radiation very
similar to violet light, but not visible, more energetic and
able to damage skin cells
Glossary 557
umbilical cord: a cord that connects a developing embryo/

foetus to the mothers placenta
umbra: the darker, central part of a shadow
unbalanced: describes two or more forces that do not cancel
each other out. Unbalanced forces can start an object
moving, speed it up, slow it down, change its direction or
change its shape.
unicellular: describes an organism having only one cell
universe: all of space and the matter and energy contained in it
Uranus: a small planet with an unusual rotation. It spins
rapidly with its axis of rotation pointed towards the sun.
ureter: tube from each kidney that carries urine to the bladder
urethra: tube through which urine is emptied from the bladder
to the outside of the body
urination: passing of urine from the bladder to the outside of
the body
urine: yellowish liquid, produced in the kidneys. It is mostly
water and contains waste products from the blood such as
urea, ammonia and uric acid.
vacuole: a sac within a cell used to store food and wastes. Plant
cells usually have one large vacuole. Animal cells may have
several small vacuoles or none at all.
valves: ap-like folds in the lining of a blood vessel or other
hollow organ that allow a liquid, such as blood, to ow in
one direction only
variable: quantity or condition in an experiment that can
change
varicose veins: expanded or knotted blood vessels close to the
skin, usually in the legs. They are caused by weak valves that
do not prevent blood from owing backwards.
vascular bundles: groups of xylem and phloem vessels within
plant stems
veins: blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart. They
have valves and thinner walls than arteries.
vena cava: large vein leading into the top right chamber of the
heart
Venus: the planet closest to Earth. Venus is very hot due to an
atmosphere of mainly carbon dioxide.
verdigris: the whitish green coating that develops on bronze
when it has been exposed to air and moisture
vertebrate: an animal with a backbone
vibrations: repeated fast, back-and-forth movements
vital capacity: the largest volume of air that can be breathed in
or out at one time
vitamins: organic nutrients required in small amounts. They
include vitamins A, B, C, D and K.
voltage: the amount of energy contained in electrons owing
in an electric circuit
voltmeter: a device used to measure the amount of energy
used by a component in a circuit. Voltmeters are placed in
parallel with the components that they are measuring.
558
Glossary
volume: the amount of space taken up by an object or

substance
voluntary muscle: muscle attached to bones; it moves the
bones by contracting and is controlled by an animals
thoughts
water: a colourless liquid made up of particles containing two
hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, and written
as H2O
water condenser: a glass device for cooling a gas to form a
liquid. It is a tube within a tube. The gas ows through the
inner tube while water moves through the surrounding
outer tube to cool the gas.
water soluble: describes substances that dissolve in water
water still: a device used to distil water
watertable: the top portion of the ground saturated by water
water vapour: water in the state of a gas when the temperature
is less than 100 C. Water vapour remains in the air as a
result of the evaporation of water from the Earths surface.
waveform: a graph that shows the energy of sound versus time
weathering: the process of breaking down rocks by conditions
in the atmosphere
weight: a measure of the size of the gravity force pulling an
object towards the centre of a massive body, such as the
Earth. The weight of an object depends on the objects mass.
white blood cells: living cells that ght bacteria and viruses.
They are part of the human bodys immune system.
white dwarf: the core remaining after a red giant has shed
layers of gases. A white dwarf has no nuclear reactions and
its only energy source is gravity that pulls it into a core of
very dense matter, a jumble of tightly packed electrons,
protons and neutrons.
wind: the ow of air particles as they move from an area of
higher air pressure to an area of lower air pressure
wind-pollinated ower: ower that receives pollen carried by
the wind from another ower
x-axis: the horizontal axis on a graph
xylem: tissue that carries water and minerals from the roots of
plants to all other parts of the plant
xylem cells: long narrow cells that are joined together to form
long tubes in a plant. The tubes, made from xylem cells,
move water and dissolved minerals up from the roots to the
stem and leaves. The wood in a tree trunk consists mostly of
dead xylem cells.
y-axis: the vertical axis on a graph
yeast: a fungus that causes certain foods (e.g. dough) to rise
zodiac: the region that the sun, moon and planets seem, from
Earth, to occupy as they pass in front of 12 constellations
that make up what we call star signs
Index
A
abdomen 106
abiotic factors 390, 392, 394
abrasive cleaning products 490
Aboriginal culture
astronomy 21718
bush tucker 360
classication of living things 110
re 409
living Earth 390
Rainbow Serpent 390
Abrahams, Edward 455
abundance of species 390, 392
acetic acid 325
acidbase indicators 325, 326
acid rain 3289, 503
acids 3259
adaptations for dry conditions 412
adipose tissue cells 131
adult stem cells 137
afnity diagrams 516
agar 449
ageing-related diseases 447, 448
AIDS 447, 453
air 180, 183, 267
air classier 62
air pressure 1835, 249
air resistance 150, 151, 152
alchemists 293
alcohol 51, 235, 236, 383, 451
Aldrin, Buzz 210
Alexander, Albert 456
algae 109, 128, 180, 353, 354
alkaline batteries 437
alkaline water 78
alkalis 325
allotropes 303
alloys 157, 300
Alpha Centauri 468, 476
altitude and air pressure 183
altocumulus 178
alum 78
aluminium 41, 62, 294, 490
alveoli 267, 268
amber, fossils in 501
amino acids 364, 375
ammeter 432, 434
ammonia 325, 403, 404
Amoeba 93, 109, 127
ampere 430
Ampre, Andr 431
amphibians 96, 97, 98, 278
amylase 375, 376
anaemia 372
ancient Greek astronomy 218
Andromeda Galaxy 468, 469, 470
angiosperms 353
Animalia 92, 93, 127, 128, 129
animals
cells 122
classication 95107
extinct 501
annelids 105
antacid 327
antennae 104, 106
anther 346
antibiotics 29, 453, 4556
antibodies 276
antimony 293, 295
anus 371
aorta 280, 382
aortic valve 278
appendix 370
aqueous solutions 64
arachnids 107
Architeuthis dux 105
Aristarchus 219
Aristotle 174, 218, 219, 221, 480
Armstrong, Neil 209, 210, 479
arsenic 273, 293, 295
arteries 275
arthropods 96, 104, 106, 107
Aspro 462
assimilation 86
astatine 295
asteroid belt 222
asteroids 222
asthma 2712
astrology 475
astronomy 4, 21721, 475
ancient Greek 218
astrology compared 475
geocentric model 218, 219, 221
heliocentric model 219, 220
history of 21721, 480
Incan 218
indigenous Australian 21718
Renaissance 21920
atmosphere 175, 180
atoms 54, 120, 263, 264, 2901, 3067,
423
bonding 297, 301
development of atomic model 3067
electrical charge 423
neutral 291
plum pudding model 306
structure 291
atrioventricular valve 278
auditory nerve 250, 251
aurora australis 181
aurorae 181
Australian bush 409, 410
Australian mammals 1001
axis
Earth rotating on 205
line graphs 530
sun rotating on 203
axle 151
aye-aye 250
B
backdraught 323
bacteria 29, 30, 76, 85, 86, 93, 1089, 120,
128, 406, 44952
agar, growing in 449
antibiotics killing 29, 453
bad 449
binary ssion 449
body odour, causing 457
colonies 449
cycling of nutrients 403, 452
decomposer 400, 402, 403, 452
diseases caused by 445, 447, 448, 449
good 449
nitrifying 403, 404
nitrogen-xing 403
penicillin used against 108, 4556
reproduction 449
single-celled organism 93, 108, 449
size 120, 449
baking powder 314
balanced forces 147, 148
ball and socket joints 380
ball bearings 151
bar graphs 21, 529
barometer 184
barred spiral galaxies 470
basal cell carcinoma 459
basalt 490, 500
bases 3256
batholiths 489
bathroom science 37, 47
bats 254
batteries 431, 432, 434, 437
car batteries 325, 437
dry cells 437
9 V and 12 V 437
types 437
Bay of Fundy 212
beaker 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 67, 525
beam balance 17
Behrendt, Dr Ralph 189
Betelgeuse 473
bicarbonate of soda 314, 325
biceps 378
bicuspid valve 278
bicycle helmet 167
Big Bang theory 480
bile 370, 376
billy tea 69
binary ssion 127, 449
binocular microscope 116
biodegradable substances 403
biologists 4, 5
biomechanics 6, 14
bionic ear 253
biosonar 254
biotic factors 390
birds 96, 97, 98, 110
Index 559
black hole 468, 480

bladder 382
blood 70, 2756, 382
articial 283
capillaries, moving through 275, 279
circulatory system 263, 265, 27581
concentration of substances in 383
deoxygenated 277
donations 70
mixture 70, 275
oxygenated 277
plasma 70, 71, 275, 368
platelets 70, 71, 137, 276
red blood cells 70, 130, 131, 137, 275,
276
separating 70, 71
serum 276
transfusion 283
type 259
water in 368, 382
white blood cells 70, 130, 137, 276
blood pressure 278, 282
blood type 259
blood vessels 274, 371
blue-green algae 109, 128, 353
blue whale 95, 249
Bohr, Neils 307
boiling 40, 46
boiling ask 72
boiling point 40, 41, 42
bolus 370
bone cells 130, 379
bone marrow 130, 137, 379, 380
bones 37881
boron 295, 422
bosshead 7, 8
botanists 4
Boyle, Robert 261
bran 368
brass 297, 300
breathing 26770
broken bones 380
bromothymol blue 326
bronchi 267
bronchioles 267, 268
Brown, Robert 120
bryophytes 353
bubble maps 514
bungee forces 162
Bunsen burner 7, 8, 10, 20
buoyancy 27, 146, 165
burette 525
burning 304, 3234
backdraught 323
candles 31314
fossil fuels 323, 405
oxidation 323, 324
rocket fuels 324
bush tucker 360
bushres 40911
Butler, Jerry 403
560
Index
C
cakes rising 314
calcium 78, 336, 366, 379
calcium carbonate 495
calculus 31
Calories 361
calorimeter 261
cancer 447, 448, 459
brain 459
cervical 462
skin 414, 45962
candles burning 31314
canines 373
capillaries 267, 268, 275, 279, 280, 371
capturerecapture method 392
car(s) 4401
batteries 325, 437
electric 440
engine 323
hybrid 441
safety 168
carbohydrates 364, 367, 396
carbon 293, 3035, 405
amorphous 303
chemical symbol 294
diamond 297, 303, 487
nding 303
ow of 305
fuels 304
graphite 303
non-metal 295
recycling 405
steel made from 300
carbon dioxide 301
acid rain 328
air containing 180, 267
diffusing out of cells 125, 263
dry ice 298
excreting 86, 260
fermentation 451
re hydrants 52
zzy drinks 53, 64, 298
greenhouse effect 405
Mars 198
molecules 301, 302
photosynthesis 85, 86, 335, 340, 341,
3435, 399, 405
respiration 85, 86, 260, 267, 304, 382,
399
traps 182
Venus 197, 204
carbon monoxide 273, 319
carbonated drinks 53, 64, 298
carbonic acid 325, 328
carcinogens 273
cardiac muscle 279
Carina Nebula 471
carnivores 374, 399, 400
carnivorous plants 353
carpel 346
Cartesian diver 166
cartilage 97, 379, 380
catalyst 319
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) 249
caustic soda 325
cell (electrical) 432, 437
cell membrane 122, 128, 260
cell sap 122
cell walls 122, 128, 129, 340
cells 114, 11942, 264
adipose tissue cells 131
animal cells 122
blood cells 70, 130, 131, 275, 276
bone cells 130, 379
classication according to 92
death of 123
diffusion into/out of 125, 263
discovery of 119
egg cells 131
epidermal cells 133, 136, 340
guard cells 133, 340
histologists studying 463
leaf cells 133
lung epithelial cells 131
multicellular organisms 128, 129, 263,
335
muscle cells 130
nerve cells 131
organelles 122, 123, 124
phloem cells 133, 136, 260, 338, 353
plant cells 122, 128, 133, 335
root hair cells 133
size 120, 123
skin cells 123, 131
sperm cells 131
stem cells 1379
unicellular organisms 127, 129, 263
xylem cells 133, 136, 338, 353
cellulose 122, 364
central nervous system 264, 265
centre of gravity 147
centrifuging 68
blood 70, 71
cerci 106
Ceres 222
cervical cancer vaccine 462
Chain, Ernst 455
chalk 496
Chang, Victor 284
changing state of matter 40, 46, 31316
chemical changes 313, 316
chemical energy 230
chemical engineers 6
chemical reactions 233, 31130, 399
batteries 437
burning 3234
catalyst 319
changing rate of 320
chemical reactions (continued)

concentration of solution 319
describing 316
energy from 233
products 316
rate of 31820
reactants 316
rusting 3212
surface area, changing 319
temperature, effect of 318
word equations 316
chemical symbols 294
chemicals in cigarettes 273
chemicals in water 78
chemists 5
chilopods 107
chlorine 78
chlorouorocarbons 182
chlorophyll 93, 122, 336, 341, 399, 416
chloroplasts 122, 123, 129, 133, 341, 344
chromatography 73, 74
cigarette smoking 273
cilia 131
circuit diagrams 432, 435
circulatory system 136, 263, 265, 27581
cirrocumulus 178
cirrus 178
citric acid 325
clamp 7, 8
classes 93
classication 83113
Aboriginal names 110
animals 95107
circular keys 91
classes 93
dichotomous keys 8990
families 93
genera 93
groups 92
hierarchy 93
invertebrates 95, 96, 1047
kingdoms 92, 93, 108, 127
living/non-living 858
orders 93
phyla 93
plants 3535
species 93, 104
vertebrates 95, 96, 979, 110
clouds 1778
cluster maps 514
cnidarians 96, 104
coal 495, 496
Coal Sack 470, 476
coastal erosion 503
cobalt 156, 157
cochlear implant 253
cockroach 105
coeliac disease 372
cohesion 166
collaboration 396
colloid 66, 78
colourfast 334
Columbia space shuttle 152
column graphs 21, 529
combustion 323
comets 2223
commensalism 3967
common cold 453
compact bone 379
compass 156, 157
complex carbohydrates 367
compounds 298, 301, 302
compression 43, 52, 247
concentration of solution 319
concept maps 516
condensation 40, 313
conducting path 429
conducting tissue 338
conduction 2367, 241, 242
conductors 430, 431
conglomerate 495, 500
conical ask 7, 8, 20, 67, 72
connecting wire 432
connective tissue 135
constellations 469, 470, 4745
constipation 368
consumers 399
contact forces 145, 146
contraction 501
controlled tests 25, 350, 524
controlling variables 164
convection 2389, 241, 242
convention currents 238, 239
Copernicus, Nicolaus 30, 175, 21920, 480
copper 293, 294, 300, 431
copper carbonate 316, 317
copper sulfate and iron 317
cord blood stem cells 137
corrosion 321
corrosive substances 9, 321, 325
Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) 481
cotyledons 348, 349
cross-pollination 346
crustaceans 107
crystallisation 73
cumulonimbus 178
cumulus 178
Curie, Marie 31
current
convection 238, 239
deep water 178
electric 430
ocean 178
cusps 373
cyanobacteria 93, 109, 128
cycle maps 519
cycling nutrients 403
cycling safety 167
cyclones 1857
cytoplasm 122, 127, 260
D
DAlessandro, Deanna 416
Dalton, John 306, 307
dangerous chemicals 9
cigarettes 273
contaminated water 78
data loggers 15
databases 5356
designing 536
electronic 535
elds 536
searches 535
decanting 67
decibel scale 249
decomposers 304, 400, 402, 403, 452
decomposition 304, 336
deep water currents 178
deforestation 405, 503
dehydration 368, 383
Democritus 290, 306, 307
denitrifying bacteria 403
density 489
density of species 390
dentine 373
deoxygenated blood 277
dependent variable 25, 350
deposition 493
dermis 457
designing experiments 258, 5247
diabetes mellitus 260
diagnosis 463
diamond 297, 303, 487
diaphragm 135, 268
diastolic pressure 278
diatomaceous earth 108
diatoms 108, 109
dichotomous keys 89
dietitians 369
diffusion 38, 44, 125, 263
digestion 3706
chemical 375
mechanical 373
digestive system 130, 135, 136, 260, 263,
265, 280, 368, 3702
Dimetrodon 97
diplopods 107
Diprotodon 101
diseases 44565
infectious 447, 448
microbes causing 44952
non-infectious 447, 448
pathogens 447
viruses causing 4534
dispersal of seeds 348
dissolving 64
distillate 72
distillation 72
distilled water 72
distribution of species 390, 392
Index 561
divided bar graphs 529

DNA 122, 128, 459
domains 156
double bubble maps 514
drag (friction) 147, 151
drought 412
dry cell batteries 437
dryland salinity 1889
dugong 416
dust mites 271, 272
dusting 428
Dutrochet, Ren 120
dwarf planets 193, 195
E
ear 2501
bionic 253
ear canal 250
eardrum 250
Earth 17290, 1958, 2058
age 172
atmosphere 180, 204
crust 175
diameter 172, 174, 205
inner core 175
magnetic eld 156
mantle 175
mass 172
orbit around sun 207
outer core 175
rotation 2056
shape 1745, 205
stars viewed from 474
structure 175
surface 175
surface area 174
temperature 176, 407
water 1779
earth scientists 4
earthworms 95, 105
echinoderms 96, 104
echoes 248
echolocation 254
ecology 387420
ecosystem 390, 391
ectotherms 97, 98
eddy current 62
Edison, Thomas 431
egg cells 131
Einstein, Albert 4, 30, 480
elastic potential energy 229
electric cars 440
electric cells 432, 437
electric circuits 42939
brightness 436
circuit diagrams 432, 435
completing 429
conducting path 429
562
Index
essential features 429

load 429
parallel circuits 435, 436
power supply 429
series circuits 434
torch 432, 433
electric current 430
electric eld 426
electric force, mapping 426
electrical charge 423, 426
attraction/repulsion of charged
objects 426, 428
electrical energy 232, 429
electricity 42144
batteries 431, 432, 434, 437
circuits 42939
coal used to produce 496
conductors 430, 431
insulators 430, 431
static 4238
transporting 430
electrocardiogram (ECG) 283
electrolyte 437
electromagnetic spectrum 204
electromagnets 157, 158, 159
electron microscope 108, 114, 115, 116, 121
electronic databases 535
electronic scales 17
electrons 54, 291, 306, 307, 423, 424, 426,
429, 431
electrostatic charge 424
electrostatic forces 146
elements 293, 487
compounds made from 298
dangerous 293
distinguishing 293
grouping 2956
metalloids 295
metals 295
mixtures of 298
native elements 487
non-metals 295
symbols 294
elephant 252
elliptical galaxies 469
embryonic stem cells 137, 138
embryos 97
plants 348, 368
emphysema 273
emulsify 376
emulsion 66
enamel (teeth) 373
endangered species 414
endoskeletons 95
endosperm 348, 368
endothermic reactions 233
endotherms 97, 98
energy 30, 22957
calculating 231
chemical reactions and 233

elastic potential 229
electrical 232, 429
food and 3613
gravitational 229, 231
heat 232, 234, 23543
joule as unit of 231
kinetic 229, 231, 232
Law of Conservation of Energy 232
light 232, 234, 2446
measuring 231
potential 229, 231
pyramid 401
saving 231
solar 204, 240, 243
sound 24652, 429
transferring 232
transforming 232
types 22930
Engelmann, Theodor Wilhelm 344
enhanced greenhouse effect 405
entomologists 403
environment 390
acid rain 3289, 503
dryland salinity 1889
ecology 387420
erosion 493, 5034
global warming 4057, 413, 414
greenhouse effect 1812, 204, 4057
measuring 3924
waste water 76
environmental diseases 447, 448
environmental-impact assessment 388
enzymes 319, 364, 375, 377
Eocene epoch 102
eosin 125
epicormic buds 410
epidermal cells 133, 136, 340
epidermis 335, 457
epiglottis 267, 268, 370
epiphytes 397
epithelial cells 131, 135
equations for chemical reactions 316
Eratosthenes 175, 218
erosion 493, 5034
eucalypts 410, 413
Euglena 93, 109, 127
Eustachian tube 251
evaporating dish 7, 8, 10
evaporation 40, 72, 73, 313, 314, 457
Evergraze 189
Excel spreadsheets 533
excretion 86, 260, 263, 280, 382
excretory system 265, 3824
exoskeletons 95, 104, 378
exosphere 180, 181, 183
exothermic reactions 233
expansion and contraction 501
experiments
accuracy 525
aim 350, 510
control 26, 350, 524
designing 258, 350, 5247
fair tests 25
hypothesis 19, 25, 351, 51012
reliability 26, 525
report 204, 352, 5389
results 52832
safety 526
sample size 526
student research project (SRP) 50841
trials 526
valid 524
extinct animals 501
extinction 414
extrapolation 161, 531
extrusive rocks 489
eye (of cyclone) 185
F
faeces 368, 452
fair tests 25
famous scientists 2931
fat-soluble vitamins 366
fats 366, 367, 375, 376
fatty tissue 457
fault (in rock) 500
feldspar 490
fermentation 451
fertilisation 131, 347
fever 454
bre 364, 367, 368
brinogen 276
lament (plant) 346
lament (torch) 432, 433
lter 76
lter funnel 7, 8, 9, 20, 67
lter paper 67, 68
ltrate 67, 68
ltration 67
blood 70
ngernails 131
re 40911
re intensity 410
reworks 227
sh 96, 97, 98, 278, 383, 398
sh oil 364
shbone diagrams 516
Fisher, Paula 463
ve kingdoms 92, 93, 108, 127
ammable substances 9
Flannery, Tim 416
atworms 105
Fleming, Alexander 5, 18, 29, 455
ies 402
oatables 76
oating 48
oc 78
occulation 78
oods 413
Florey, Ethel 456
Florey, Howard 455, 462
ow charts 519, 520
owers 335, 346, 347, 348
uids 151
friction in 151
uoride 78
fog 177
foggy mirror in bathroom 37, 47
folding 500
food
bacteria in 445, 451
bush tucker 360
energy and 3613
essential intake 364
fuel, as 3613
healthy eating 3678
low/high GI 376
microbes in 445, 451
food chains 398400
food pyramid 367
food webs 398400
forces 6, 14370
balanced/unbalanced 147, 148
contact/non-contact 145, 146
electrostatic 146
friction 6, 146, 14953
gravitational 146, 15864
magnetic 146, 1549
measuring 146
newton as unit of 31, 146, 160
representing 147
types 145
what are 145
fossil fuels 304, 323, 405
fossils 5002
fracture
greenstick 380
mineral 487
Franklin, Benjamin 29, 423
freezing 40, 313
frequency 249
friction 6, 146, 14953
electrostatic charge 424
uids 151
measuring 150
reducing 151
space shuttle 152
traction and 150
using 149
what affects 149
what is 149
frothy rocks 490
fruit 348
fuel 304
burning fossil fuels 323, 405
burning rocket fuels 324
coal 496
food as 361
fungi 93, 108, 1289, 397, 400, 402,
44852
cell design 129
cycling of nutrients 452
decay of food 451
disease caused by 445, 448
Fungi kingdom 92, 93, 108, 128
G
Gagan, Michael 102, 103
Gaia 390
galaxies 46970
Galilei, Galileo 30, 209, 210, 221, 478, 480
Galileo space probe 481
gall bladder 370, 371, 376
Galvani, Luigi 427
galvanising 322
Gantt charts 518
Gardner, AD 455
garlic breath 265
gas giants 195, 1989
gases 38, 53
carbonated drinks 53
changing state 40, 46
compression 43, 52
conduction in 236, 237
expansion 50
particles in 43, 44, 46
well-known gases 53
gauze mat 7, 8, 10
gelatine 449
Gell-Mann, Murray 291
genera/genus 93
Genyornis 101, 103
geologists 4, 5, 487
germanium 295
germination 348, 349, 351, 409, 411
germs 449
Gesch, Bernard 364
giant kangaroo 101
giant mammals 101
giant squid 105
glass sorting facility 62
global positioning system (GPS) 475
global warming 4057, 413, 414
globe 432, 433
brightness 436
glow sticks 246
glucose 85, 260, 342, 364, 365, 375, 396
blood glucose level 376
diabetes mellitus 260
fermentation 451
photosynthesis 340, 341, 342, 343, 399
respiration 85, 260, 399
gluten 372
glycaemic index (GI) 376
glycogen 370
Index 563
gneiss 497
gold 293, 294, 295, 300, 302, 487
granite 490
graphite 303
graphs 21, 52833
gravitational attraction 212
gravitational energy 229, 231
gravity 31, 146, 15864, 180, 183, 203, 212
bungee jumping 162
centre of 147
galaxies held together by 469
Newtons law of 31, 162, 480
skydiving 163
tides and 212
greenhouse effect 1812, 204, 4057
greenhouse gases 406
greenstick fracture 380
ground water 188
growing (living things) 86
groynes 503
guard cells 133, 340
gum 373
gymnosperms 353
gypsum 329
gyres 179
H
habitat 390
haemodialysis 383
haemoglobin 275, 283
hair 131
Hales, Stephen 344
Halleys comet 223
hardness (minerals) 4878
Hawking, Stephen 480
head lice 447, 448
health sciences 4623
healthy eating 3678
hearing 250
hearing loss 249
heart 27784
articial 282
chambers 277
disease 282, 283
faulty valves 282
functions 277
left/right atrium 277, 280
left/right ventricle 277, 280
rate 279
transplant 284
valves 277
heartbeat 278
heat 235
conduction, transfer by 2367, 241, 242
convection, transfer by 2389, 241, 242
energy 232, 234, 23543
insulation 2412
radiant 240
radiation, transfer by 2412
temperature distinguished 235
564
Index
heating containers 10
heating substances 10
Heatley, Norman 455
heatproof mat 7, 8, 10
helium 53, 165, 203, 294
Helmont, Jan Baptista van 344
Hemopure 283
herbivores 374, 399, 400
heresy 30
hertz 249
Hesse, Walther 449
high GI foods 376
high pressure system 185
hinge joints 380
Hipparchus 219
histograms 529
histologists 463
Hofmann voltameter 298
Holocene epoch 102
Hooke, Robert 119, 120
Hopper, KE 102
horticulturalists 4
host 396
hot-water tank 239
Hubble Space Telescope 469, 473, 479, 481
human body temperature 51, 97
humerus 380
humus 493
hybrid cars 441
hydrochloric acid 316, 317, 325, 327, 370
hydrogen 203, 294, 297, 298
hydroponics 336
hydrosphere 175
hygiene theory of asthma 272
hypertension 282
hypothesis 19, 25, 351, 51012
choosing 51012
ne-tuning 511
prediction distinguished 511
inuenza virus 453, 456

infra-red radiation 204
infra-red scanners 241
Ingenhousz, Jan 344
inherited disorders 447, 448
inner ear 250
inorganic nutrients 366
insectivores 374
insect-pollinated owers 346
insects 106, 107, 252, 378, 346, 347, 403,
403
insoluble substances 64, 65
insulating your body 242
insulation 2412
insulators 236, 430, 431
insulin 260
intensication 185
International Space Station (ISS) 482
interpolation 531
intestine 370
intrusive rocks 489
invertebrates 95, 96, 1047
investigations 3, 293, 3502
in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) 1378
involuntary muscles 378
iodine 125
ionosphere 180, 181
iron 293, 300, 366, 490
anaemia 372
boiling point 41
copper sulfate and 317
magnets affecting 155, 156, 157
melting point 41
rusting 3212
steel made from 300
iron oxide 487
irregular galaxies 469
irrigation 412
J
I
ice ages 407
ice core 406
Iceman 501
identication keys 89
circular 91
dichotomous 8990
igneous rock 48991, 497
image 253
immovable joints 380
immune system 453
Incan astronomy 218
incisors 373
incubation 449
independent variable 25, 350
indigestion 327
industrial chemists 6
infectious diseases 447, 448
inference 18
Jennings, Margaret 455

joints 151, 37980
joule 231
Jupiter 195, 196, 198, 207, 219, 478, 480
moons of 221, 222, 478
K
kangaroo 412
Kepler, Johannes 220
Keplers laws of planetary motion
kidney disease 384
kidneys 280, 382, 383
kilojoules 361
kilopascals 183
kinetic energy 229, 231, 232
kingdoms 92, 93, 108, 127
Koch, Robert 449
Krakatoa 246
Kyoto Protocol 407
220
L
laboratory equipment 7, 8
drawing 20
safety 912
land breeze 184
landll 62, 406, 414
Laplace, Pierre Simon 480
large intestine 371, 383
larvae 402, 403
latitude 475
lava 489, 490
Lavoisier, Antoine 261
Law of Conservation of Energy 232
leaf cells 133
leaf litter 409
Lee, Arianne 463
Leeuwenhoek, Antonie van 119, 120
Lefevre, Christophe 102
Lemaitre, George 480
length 1415
library, using 5212
lichen 85, 109, 326
ligaments 379, 380
liger 93
light
energy 232, 234, 2446
luminous/non-luminous objects 244,
245
speed of 244, 248
vacuum, travelling through 247
light globes 234
light microscope 116, 122, 342
lightning 29, 54, 248, 336, 404, 423, 426,
427
lightning rod 29, 427
light-year 468
lignin 338
lignotubers 410
lime 78, 496
limestone 495, 496, 497, 500
line graphs 21, 530
line transects 392
Linnaeus, Carl 92
lipase 375, 376
lipids 366, 375, 376
liquids 38
lithosphere 175
litmus 326
liver 280, 370, 382, 383
living things 858
load 429
logbook 521
longitude 475
Lovelock, James 390
low GI foods 376
low pressure system 185

lubricants 151
luminous objects 244, 245
lunar eclipses 214
lung cancer 273, 274
lung capacity 269
lung epithelial cells 131, 135
lungs 267, 269, 280, 382
smoking and 2734
lustre 487
M
mad cow disease 447, 448
Magee, John 102, 103
Magellanic Cloud 468, 469
maggots 402
maglev train 159
magma 489
magnesium 366, 490
burning 323
hydrochloric acid and 316, 317, 327
plants needing 336
tap water 78
magnetic eld 155
Earth 156
mapping 155
magnetic forces 146, 1549
magnetic North Pole 156
magnetic South Pole 156
magnets 60, 62, 146, 1549
attracting 146, 154, 155
electromagnets 157, 158, 159
permanent 154, 157, 158
poles 146, 154, 155, 156
repelling 146, 155
temporary 154, 157
using 158
magnication 119
mammals 96, 97, 98, 100
Australian 1001
giant 101
mantle (of Earth) 175
manufacturing processes 62
mapping
electric force 426
magnetic eld 155
thoughts 51417
marble 497, 498
Mars 195, 196, 197, 198, 219
moons 222
Marsh, Helene 416
Marshall, Barry 462
marsupials 100
mass 160, 212
estimating 17
gravity and 160, 212
measuring 17
units of measurement 17, 160
weight distinguished 160
matter 36, 288

bonds 46
changing states 40, 46, 313
density 489
plasma 545
ranking substances 37
solids, liquids and gases 3753
volume 39
McKenzie, HA 102
measuring 1318
data loggers 15
energy 231
environment 392
forces 146
friction 150
length 1415
mass 17
parallax error 15
reading scales 16
sensor 15
sound 249
time 18
volume 15, 39
measuring cylinder 3, 7, 8, 9, 525
medical scientists 462, 463
megafauna 101, 103
Megalania 101
melanoma 459
melting 40, 46, 313
melting point 40, 41
meniscus 15, 39
mental disorders 447, 448
mercury 51, 293, 294, 295
Mercury 195, 196, 197, 198, 219
mercury poisoning 294
mesosphere 180
metabolic disorders 447, 448
metalloids 295
metamorphic rocks 4979
metals 295, 300, 430, 431
metamorphism 497
meteorites 223
meteoroids 223
meteors 223
methane 53, 180, 199, 302, 405, 406
methyl orange 325
methylene blue 125
mica 490
microbes 445, 44952
microbiologists 4, 119
micrographs 118
micrometres/microns 120, 449
micro-organisms 445, 44952
microscopes 105, 11419
binocular 116
electron 108, 114, 115, 116, 121
invention 119
Index 565
microscopes (continued)
light 116, 122, 342
monocular 116, 117
rules for handling 116
sketching specimen under 125
staining specimen 125
types 116
using 116
middle ear 250
Milky Way Galaxy 466, 469, 470, 478
mind maps 514, 515
mineral salts 335
minerals 336, 366, 4878
hardness 4878
lustre 487
plants needing 336
rocks made of 487
streak 487
transparency 487
Miocene epoch 102
mistletoe 396
mitochondria 85, 122, 123, 128, 260
mixtures
chemical 297
colloid 66
emulsion 66
metals 300
separating 5963, 6775
solution 645
Mohs hardness scale 487, 488
molars 373
molecules 263, 264, 301
molluscs 96, 104
Monera 92, 93, 1089, 127, 128, 129, 353
monochloramine 78
monocular microscope 116, 117
monotremes 100
moon 20911
landings 209, 210
lunar eclipses 214
phases 210
tides affected by 212
moons 222
mould 402
movement (living things) 85
mudstone 495, 500
multicellular organisms 128, 129, 263, 335
muscle cells 130
muscle tissue 135, 263
muscles 378
mutualism 396
N
native elements 487
natural bres 241
navigation by the stars
neap tides 213
nebulae 468, 470
nectary 346
566
Index
475
negative electric charge 423

negatively charged material 423, 426
nematodes 105
neon 53
Neptune 195, 196, 198, 199, 480
nerve cells 131, 244
nerve tissue 135
nervous system 136
neuropsychologists 5
neutral atom 423
neutral material 423, 424, 426
neutrons 291, 307, 423
newton 31, 146, 160
Newton, Isaac 31, 146, 162, 480
Nicholas, George 462
Nicholas, Kevin 102
Nicholas of Cusa 344
nickel 156, 157
nicotine 273
nimbostratus 178
nitrates 403, 404
nitric acid 325, 328
nitrifying bacteria 403, 404
nitrites 403, 404
nitrogen 180, 302, 336, 403, 404
boiling point 41
chemical symbol 294
compounds 336
cycle 404
xing 336, 403
melting point 41
plants needing 336
nitrogen xing 336
nitrogen-xing bacteria 403, 404
nitrous oxide 53, 405, 406
Nobel prize 30, 455, 462
non-biodegradable substances 403
non-contact forces 145, 146
non-infectious diseases 447, 448
non-living things 85, 87
dead things distinguished 87
living things distinguished 858
non-luminous objects 244, 245
non-metals 295
Norman, Dr Hayley 189
North Celestial Pole 474
North Pole 156, 175, 205
Northern Hemisphere 175, 207
notochord 97
nucleic acid 453
nucleus
atom, of 291, 423
cell, of 108, 109, 122, 123, 125, 127,
128, 129, 260
nutrients 336, 364, 365, 389
nutrition-related diseases 447, 448
Nystrm, Fredrick 362
O
observations 14, 18, 293, 511
measuring 1318
qualitative 14
quantitative 14
observatories 478
obsidian 490
ocean
currents 178, 179
gravitational attraction of moon and
sun 212
gyres 179
tides 21213
oesophagus 267, 370, 371
oils 366, 375, 376
Oligocene epoch 102
omega-3 fatty acids 364
omnivores 374, 399
onion cells 124
optical telescopes 469, 478
optimum range 392
orbit 195, 469
organelles 122, 123, 124, 264
organisms 92, 390, 500
organs 135, 136, 263, 264, 265
Orion 470, 473, 474
Orr-Ewing, Jena 455
osmosis 125
ossicles 250
ossication 379
osteoporosis 3801
outer ear 250
oval window 250
ovary (plant) 346, 348
ovules (plant) 346, 348
oxidation 323, 324
oxyacetylene torch 323
oxygen 180, 261, 267, 298, 302
boiling point 41
breathing 267
chemical reactions involving 323
chemical symbol 294
diffusing into cells 125, 263
Earths crust 487
gas 301
germination, required for 349
living things needing 261
melting point 41
non-metal 295
phenolics reacting with 319
photosynthesis 85, 86, 93, 127, 335,
340, 341, 3435, 399
red blood cells carrying 130
respiration 85, 86, 260, 261, 267, 335,
399
splitting from water 298
water composed of hydrogen and 297,
298
oxygenated blood 277

oxyhaemoglobin 275
ozone 53, 180
ozone layer 180, 182
P
pacemaker 278, 463
palaeontologists 4, 500
Palaeocene epoch 102
palisade cells 133
pancreas 371, 375
paper chromatography 73, 74
paper mills 62
parallax error 15
parallel circuits 435, 436
paralysis 138
Paramecium 127
parasites 108, 396
parasitism 396
partial lunar eclipse 214
partial solar eclipse 215
particle model 43, 44, 50
Pasteur, Louis 30
pathogens 448
pathologists 462
pelycosaurs 97
penicillin 108, 4556
penumbra 214, 215
Peplin 459
peristalsis 370, 371
petals 346
Petri dish 449
petrol 440
pH scale 326, 329
pharmacists 5
pharmacology 463
phenolics 319
phenolphthalein 326
phloem 335, 338, 339
cells 133, 136, 260, 338, 353
Phoenix spacecraft 481
phosphorus 335, 366, 379
photosynthesis 85, 86, 93, 127, 128, 133,
180, 260, 304, 335, 340, 341, 3435,
399, 401, 405, 416
phyla/phylum 93
physical changes 313
physicists 5, 6
physiologists 5, 6, 463
physiotherapists 6
pie charts 21, 528
pillow basalt 490
Pilobolus 108
pitch 249
pivot joint 380
placebo effect 525
placenta 100
placentals 100
planets 193202
astronomy, history of 21720

dwarf 193, 195
gas giants 195, 1989
Keplers laws of planetary motion 220
terrestrial 195, 1978
plankton 399
plant cells 122, 128, 133, 335
plant dye 334
Plantae 92, 93, 127, 128, 129
plants 33358
botanical names 353
carnivorous 353
cells 122, 128, 133, 335
classication 3535
common names 353
conducting tissue 338
germination 348, 349, 351, 409, 411
hydroponic 336
minerals needed by 336
nutrients 336
organs 335
photosynthesis 85, 86, 93, 127, 128,
133, 180, 260, 304, 335, 340, 341,
3435, 399
producers 340, 399
reproduction 3469
research 3502
roots 335
sex organs 346
stem 338
transpiration 338
useful 334
plasma 545
plasma (in blood) 70, 71, 275, 368
Plasmodium 109
plastics 302
plastics optical sorting facility 62
platelets 70, 71, 137, 276
platinum 319
platyhelminthes 105
platypus 100, 101
Pleistocene epoch 102
Pliocene epoch 102
plumule 348
Pluto 193, 195, 196
plutonic rocks 489
PMI (plus, minus, interesting) 513
poles (magnetic) 146, 154, 155, 156
pollination 206, 346
pollution 414
polonium 295
polymers 302
pores 457
porifera 96, 104
porphyrin dendrimers 416
positive electric charge 423
positively charged material 423, 426
post-mortem examinations 462
potassium 293, 336, 366, 490
potential energy 229, 231

power supply 429
precipitate 316
predator 399
predictions 511
premolars 373
pressure 500
prey 399
Priestley, Joseph 261, 344
prions 92, 447, 448
proboscis 106
Procoptodon 101
producers 340, 399
products 316
properties 60
protease 375
protein 335, 364, 365, 367, 375
Protista 92, 93, 108, 109, 127, 129, 353
protons 54, 291, 307, 423
protozoa 447, 448
Proxima Centauri 472
psychologists 5, 6
pteridophytes 353
Ptolemy, Claudius 219, 220, 221, 480
pulmonary arteries 277, 280
pulmonary valve 278
pulmonary veins 277, 280
pulp (teeth) 373
pulse 278
pumice 490
Pythagoras 174, 175
Q
quadrat method 392, 393
qualitative observations 14
quantitative observations 14
quarks 291
quartz 490
quartzite 490, 498
quinones 319
R
radiant heat 240, 242
absorption 240, 242
infra-red scanners 241
reection 240
transmission 240
radiation 31, 204, 2412, 478
radicle 348
radio telescopes 469, 4789
radio waves 478, 479
radiometer 245
radius 378, 380
rain 185, 413
rainfall patterns 413
rarefaction 247
reactants 316
receptors 244, 457
Index 567
record keeping 20, 521

rectum 371
recycling 62, 63
red blood cells 70, 130, 131, 137, 275,
276
red cabbage juice 326
red wine 326
Reeve, Christopher 139
relative dating 500
reliability (of experiments) 26, 525
renal artery 382
renal vein 382
reporting on investigations 204, 352,
5389
reproduction 86, 3469
reproductive system 265
reptiles 96, 97, 98, 278
researching SRP topic 5213
residue 68
resistor 432
respiration 85, 86, 122, 260, 261, 267, 335,
341, 361, 382, 399
respiratory system 136, 263, 265, 26774
responding (living things) 85
retort stand 7, 8, 20, 68
reverberation 248
Rigel 473
ringworm 108
Robertson, David 189
Robertson, Graham 416
robots 87
rock 487502
cycle 498, 499
erosion 493, 5034
extrusive 489
fossils in 5002
igneous 48991, 497
intrusive 489
layers 496
metamorphic 4979
minerals, made of 4878
molten 489
sedimentary 4956, 497, 500
tracking changes in 5001
weathering 4923
rock pools 387, 398
rock salt 495
rocket fuels 324
root canal 373
root cortex 335
root hair cells 133
root hairs 335
roots 335
rose gold 300
roundworms 105
Ruska, Ernst 121
rust 321
rusting 3212
Rutherford, Ernest 3067
568
Index
S
Sachs, Julius von 344
safety glasses 7, 8, 9
salinity 1889
saliva 368, 370
salivary glands 370, 375
salt
boiling point 41
contaminated water 78
melting point 41
removing from body 383
salinity of water 1889
separating from water 72, 73
sodium chloride 297, 301
saltbush 189
saltfall 188
sample size 526
sandstone 495, 496, 497
saprophytes 397
SARS virus 454
satellites 222, 479, 481
Saturn 193, 195, 196, 198, 199, 219, 478,
480
S-bend trap 76
scavengers 398
scales, reading 16
scanning electron microscope 121
Schwann, Theodor 120
science
branches of 46
meaning of word 2
mixing of branches 5
technology and 5
science laboratory 713
dangerous chemicals 9
equipment 7, 8
safety 912
scientists 46, 293
Australian 1023
environmental 416
famous 2931
medical science 4623
scoria 490
sea breezes 183, 239
sea water 297
seasons 207
seatbelts 168
sector graphs 528
sediment 65, 493
sedimentary rock 4957, 500
seed 348
seed coat 348, 349
seed dispersal 348
seedling 348
segmented worms 105
seismic waves 175
seismograms 175
seismologists 4
self-pollination 346
semicircular canals 240

semilunar valve 278
Senebier, Jean 344
sensor 15
sensory system 265
sepals 346
separating funnel 68
separating mixtures 5963, 6775
blood 701
household rubbish 63
liquid and sediment 67
recycling 62, 63
solutions 725
septic tank 76
series circuits 434
serum 276
sewage 767
sewage treatment plants 767
sewerage 767
sex cells 86
sextant 475
shale 495, 497, 500
Sharp, Julie 102
Shaw, Dr George 101
sieving 67
silicon 294, 295, 487
siltstone 495
silver 293, 294, 321
simple carbohydrates 367
single bubble maps 514
single-celled organisms 93, 108, 127, 449
sinking 48
Sirius 475
skeletal muscles 130
skeleton 95, 104, 378, 379
skin 136, 382, 4578
cancer 414, 45962
cells 123, 131
spray-on 462
skull 378, 379
sky maps 476
skydiving 143, 163, 164
slate 497, 498
small intestine 370, 371, 375
smoking 2734
smooth muscle cells 130, 264
sodium 78, 293, 366
sodium bicarbonate 314, 325
sodium chloride 297, 301
sodium hydroxide 325
sodium sulfate and barium chloride 317
soil salinity 1889
Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
(SOHO) 479
solar cooker 243
solar distillation 72
solar eclipses 215
solar energy 204, 240, 243
solar radiation 182, 204
solar system 193226, 468

Earth 2058
historical theories 21721
moon 20911
planets 193202
sun 2034
solder 300
solids 38
expansion and contraction 46, 50
melting 40, 46
rigid 43
solubility 73
soluble substances 64, 65
solute 64
solutions 645
separating 725
solvent 64, 74
sonar 254
sound 24754
energy 24652, 429
hearing 2501
measuring 249
medium to travel through 247
reverberation 248
speed of 248
technology 2534
vibrations 247
waves 247
South Celestial Pole 474, 476
South Pole 156, 175, 205
Southern Cross 469, 475, 476
Southern Hemisphere 175, 207, 475
space exploration 47982
space probes 479, 4801
space shuttles 152, 479
space stations 479, 481
spatula 7, 8
species 93, 104
abundance 390, 392
distribution 390, 392
extinction 414
speed of light 244, 248
speed of sound 248
sperm cells 131
spinal cord 97, 264
injury 138, 139
spiracles 106
spiral galaxies 469
spongy bone 379
spores 108, 354
sports psychologists 5, 6
sports safety 168
sports shoes 167
spreadsheets 5334
spring balance 146, 147, 160, 161
spring tides 213
squamous cell carcinoma 459

St Martin, Alexis 371
staining specimen 125
stainless steel 300
stamen 346
starch 364, 365, 370
stars 466, 468, 469
brightness 472
constellations 469, 470, 4745
navigation by 475
red giants 473
sky maps 476
supergiants 473
twinkling 473
white dwarves 473
static electricity 4238
steel 62, 157, 300
stem cells 1379
adult 137
cord blood 137
embryonic 137, 138
research 137, 138
stereomicroscope 116
stigma 346, 347
stirring rod 7, 8, 67
stomach 370, 375
stomach ulcers 462
stomata 133, 338, 340
storyboards 519
stratocumulus 178
stratosphere 180, 182
stratus 178
streak 487
streamlining 150, 151
choosing problem 51012
designing experiment 258, 5247
mapping thoughts 51417
organising thoughts 51820
PMI (plus, minus, interesting) 513
possible topics 510
presenting results 52832
record keeping 521
report 204, 5389
researching topic 5213
technology, using 5337
thinking with different hats 517
style (plant) 346, 347
sublimation 40
sugar 364, 367, 375
sulfur 293, 294, 295, 336
sulfur dioxide 328
sulfuric acid 303, 325, 328
sun 2034, 389, 466
air pressure affected by heat from 183
corona 215
diameter 203, 466
energy from 204, 240, 243
planets orbiting 195
radiation 182, 204, 240
rotating on axis 203

solar eclipses 215
UV radiation 204, 319, 459, 460
sun safety 459
sunscreen 459
superfast electron microscope 121
supernova 480
super-organism 390
surface currents 178
surface protection 322
surface tension 166
suspension 65
sweat 368, 382, 457
sweat glands 457
switch 432
Sydney funnel-web spider 390
Sydney Opera House 248
symbiosis 396
synovial uid 151, 379, 380
systolic pressure 278
T
Tank Stream 76
tapeworms 396, 447, 448
technology
science and 5
space and 479
using 5337
teeth 370, 373
decay 451
llings in 319
structure 373
telescopes 478
optical 469, 478
radio 469, 4789
tellurium 295
temperature 15, 235
changes in 235
chemical reactions, effect on 318
Earth 176, 407
heat distinguished 235
human body 51, 97
measuring 1516, 51, 235
sun 203, 466
tendons 378
terminal velocity 163
terrestrial planets 195, 1978
test tube 7, 8, 9, 20
test-tube baby 138
test-tube holder 7, 8
test-tube rack 7, 8
Thales of Miletus 174
thermometer 7, 8, 15, 16, 51, 72, 2356
bulb 236
column 236
digital 235
glass 235, 236
scale 236
Index 569
thermos ask 241

thermosphere 180, 181
Thomson, JJ 306, 307
thorax 106
Thylacoleo 101
ticklishness 457
tides 21213
time, measuring 18
timelines 518
tin 293, 300
tinea 108, 398, 447
tissues 135, 263
tolerance range 392
tongs 7, 8
tongue 370
tooth decay 451
tooth structure 373
toothpaste 108
torch 432, 433
total lunar eclipse 214
total solar eclipse 215
toxic substances 9
trace elements 336
trace fossils 501
trachea 267, 268, 379
tracheophytes 353
traction 150
transfer of heat 40
translocation 339
transparency 487
transpiration 338
transpiration stream 338
trials 526
triceps 378
tricuspid valve 278
tripod 7, 8, 10, 20
trommel 62
trophic levels 401
troposphere 180
Trounson, Alan 138
tubers 410
tumour 459
tuning fork 249
U
ulna 378, 380
ultrasound 254
ultraviolet radiation 204, 319, 459,
460
ultraviolet (UV) rays 182
umbra 215
unbalanced forces 147, 148
unicellular organisms 127, 129, 263
universal indicator 326
universe 203, 468, 469
Uranus 195, 196, 198, 199, 480
Urbani, Dr Carlo 454
urea 382
570
Index
ureters 382
urethra 382
urination 382
urine 382, 383, 452
V
vacuoles 122, 123, 127, 129, 341
vacuum
heat not travelling 241
light travelling 247
sound not travelling 247
Van de Graaff generator 424, 425
van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie 119, 120
variables 25, 350, 524
vascular bundles 339
vascular tissue 353
veins 275, 277
vena cava 277, 280, 382
Venn diagrams 513
Venus 195, 196, 197, 198, 204, 219, 472,
478
Venus ytrap 353
verdigris 300
vertebrae 97
vertebral column 97
vertebrates 95, 96, 979, 110
veterinarians 4
vibrations 247
villi 371, 372
Virchow, Rudolf 120
viroids 92
viruses 92, 120, 445, 447, 448, 4534
vital capacity 269
vital organs 378
vitamin D 204, 366
vitamin deciency disease 366
vitamins 366
volcanoes 4, 489, 492
volt 430, 431
Volta, Alessandro 431
voltage 430, 432, 435, 436
voltmeter 432, 435
volume 15, 39
voluntary muscles 378
Voyager space probes 480, 481
vulcanologists 4
W
Warren, Robin 462
waste water treatment 767
watchglass 7, 8
water 36, 78, 177, 2978, 389
boiling point 40, 41, 42
compound of oxygen and hydrogen
298
contaminated 78
country water supplies 78
dehydration 368, 383

diffusion into/out of cells 125, 263
Earths surface 177
evaporation 40, 72, 73
uoride 78
freezing 40
germination, required for 349
human body, in 368, 383
melting point 40, 41
molecules 302
muddy 78, 79
osmosis 125
salinity 1889
separating oil from 68
separating salt from 72, 73
splitting 298
Sydney tap water 78
waste water treatment 767
water condenser 72
water cycle 178
water-soluble vitamins 366
water stills 73
water vapour 72, 267, 405
watertable 188
waveform 249
weather 1837
weathering 4923
weight 160, 161
whales 95, 249, 270
white blood cells 70, 130, 137, 276
wholegrain foods 368
wind 183
wind-pollinated owers 346
Wood, Dr Fiona 462
woolly mammoth 501
worm farms 403
worms 95, 96, 400, 402, 403
X
x-axis 530
X-rays 31, 204
Xena 195
xylem 335, 338, 339
cells 133, 136, 338, 353
vessels 335, 339
Y
y-axis 530
yakt 110
yeast 93, 108, 451
yoghurt 445, 451, 452
Yolngu people 217
297,
Z
zinc 294, 322, 300, 366, 431
zodiac 475
zoologists 4

Core Science 4 Book

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Core Science 4 Book

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

core science

Stage 4 Complete course

First published 2009 by

Core science stage 4 complete course/

978 0 7314 0873 3 (pbk.)

For secondary school age.

Reproduction and communication for educational purposes

About this book viii

What do scientists do? 4

What s the matter? 38

Other states of matter? 54

Looking back 111

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND

Australian scientists at work 102

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE

Down the S-bend 76

3.1 Separating substances 61

Using a microscope 116

Looking back 140

What are forces? 145

Looking back 169

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND

Looking back 190

The planets: then there were eight 195

Early ideas in astronomy 217

Looking back 255

Energy for living 260

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE

Looking back 285

8 The solar system

9.1 Energy transformations 229

Transport technology 282

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND

Introducing the Earth 174

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE

Development of the atomic model

Time for a change? 313

Looking back 330

A place to call home 389

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA CURRENT ISSUES, RESEARCH AND

Being part of the solution

Plants have organs too! 335

16.1 Static electricity 423

Looking back 356

14.1 Food as a fuel 361

Science careers: dietitian 369

Looking back 385

Plant research project 350

Catch us if you can 447

PRESCRIBED FOCUS AREA APPLICATIONS AND USES OF SCIENCE

A weapon against germs 455

18 The night sky

18.1 A sense of perspective 468

19 The changing Earth

Solid rock 487

Human-made erosion 503

20 Student research project and

Choosing a problem 510

Next generation teaching and learning

Using the JacarandaPLUS website

Using eBookPLUS references

eBookPLUS logos are used throughout the printed

Searchlight IDs (e.g. int-0001) give you instant access