Biology - Blueprint of life

1. Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanism of

inheritance, accompanied by selection, allow change over
many generation
Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals of: Changes in physical
conditions in the environment, Changes in chemical conditions in the environment and
Competition for resources
Evolution: the change in a species over time
Change in environment is the driving force behind evolution. Environmental change limits
resources, placing selective pressures on organisms. Competition for resources will arise.
Survival of the fittest occurs- those with favourable characteristics survive and reproduce.
Changes in physical environment (temp, water & light availability, wind):
Changes in Aus physical environment in the past 25 million years, has led to evolution:
Increased aridity led to decrease in rainforests and increase in grasslands and
woodlands.
Drying up of lakes led to species that could conserve water e.g. water-holding frog
Changes in chemical environment (gas and salt levels, pH):
The increasing oxygen levels in the environment when photosynthetic organisms
appeared on Earth, led to aerobic (respiring) organisms.
DDT resistant mosquitoes
Competition for resources (food, water, nesting sites, mates):
Competition can occur within or between species
In Aus, the introduced species (rabbits, cane toads) has caused competition with
native species, leading to the extinction of many species. E.g. the European rabbit
has outcompeted the bilby and Bitou bush has outcompeted Acacia in many areas
Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how an
environmental change can lead to changes in a species
Species: mosquitoes
Environment change: spraying of insecticides such as DDT to kill mosquito cause a chemical
change in the environment
Change within species: increase in frequency of pesticide resistance in the species.

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Result: Most of the mosquito population, who were not resistant to DDTs, died out. Those
few individuals resistant to DDTs due to random mutation, survive and pass on favourable
characterises to offspring. This resulted in an increase in frequency of pesticide resistance in
the species= evolution
Describe, using specific examples, how the theory of evolution is supported by the
following areas of study, (1) Palaeontology; including fossils that have been considered to
be transitional forms, (2)Biogeography, (3) Comparative embryology, (4) Comparative
anatomy, (5)Biochemistry.
1. Palaeontology- (study of fossils)
Fossils: any preserved remains or traces of past life preserved in rock, ice, amber, tar, volcanic
ash.
Fossils show the evolution of organisms that originated from a common ancestor, revealed in
transitional fossils. These are the missing links between groups - exhibit characteristics of
two different groups of organisms and reveal a successive change in a species over time
Evidence: Archaeopteryx shows a transition between reptile to bird. It has the long-bony tail,
claws and reptilian teeth of a reptile, but a wish-bone, feathers and wings of a bird.
Seed ferns show a transition between ferns (reproduce by spores) and conifers and flowering
plants (reproduce by seed-bearing).
Limitations: Fossil record is incomplete, bias towards organisms with body parts better suited
to fossilising (Lack of soft-bodied/early organism fossils)
2. Biogeography (study of geographical distribution of organisms)
A new species arises when a group of organisms become isolated from the rest of the
species and are faced with different environmental pressures, supporting evolution from a
common ancestor.
Evidence: Flightless birds - emus in Aus, kiwis in NZ, ostriches in South Africa, and rheas in
South America. This suggests these birds originated from a common ancestor on Gondwana,
and evolved on the isolated continents
Limitations: Limited to studies of species which have become isolated at some point
3. Comparative embryology (comparing development stages of embryos of different
species)
Similarities in embryonic development suggest a common ancestor.
Evidence: the embryos of different vertebrates are very similar in early stages. E.g. fish,
amphibian, reptile, bird and mammal embryos all show gill slits and tails at some stage
4. Comparative anatomy (study of similarities and difference in structure of organisms)
Similar structures are evidence that they evolved from a common ancestor
Evidence: Homologous structures are evidence for divergent evolution. These are organs that
have the same basic structure, but with different functions, that have derived from a
common ancestor. E.g. Pentadactyl limb possessed by all vertebrates (wing of bird, forarm of
lizard, flipper of whale, hand of human). E.g. Vascular bundle in flowering plants.

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Some homologous structures have become vestigial structures, remnants of body parts no
longer useful e.g. human appendix
Analogous structures are evidence for convergent evolution. This is the evolution of
structures to serve a common purpose in a common environment, but do NOT share a
common ancestor. E.g. protective spines of Aus echidna and Euro hedgehog to discourage
predation
Limitations: Fossils are incomplete and bias, confusion between analogous and homologous
5. Biochemistry (study of chemicals in cells)
Organisms that share a common ancestry also share the same basic biochemistry. E.g.
humans and chimpanzees have very similar biochemistry = closely related
Amino acid Sequencing: The amino acid sequence of proteins in species is studied.
Similarities suggest common ancestor. Number of differences suggests the length of time
since they separated
DNA hybridisation: Heat is applied to DNA to separate into 2 single strands. Single strands
from two different species are mixed. Heat is applied again and the higher the temperature
required to separate the bonds between the bases indicates how closely they are related
Advantages: Allows comparisons of organisms where there are no homologous structures,
detailed
Disadvantages: Complex, costly, and can only be performed in high-technology labs
Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for divergent and convergent evolution.
The theory of evolution by natural selection was proposed by Darwin and Wallace. It states
that within every species there is variation. More offspring are produced than the
environment can support. Competition for resources. Organisms that possess variations best
suited to the environment (survival of the fittest) will survive and pass on these favourable
adaptations to their offspring. Over time, these increase in the population
Isolation: A new species arises when a group of organisms become isolated from the rest of
the species and are faced with different environmental pressures. Hence, different variations
are beneficial. Natural selection occurs.
Divergent Evolution: Organisms from a common ancestor evolving to become different due
to different environment pressures
E.G. Darwins finches on the Galapagos Islands. He found 13 different species. He proposed
that they originated from one population, but were subjected to a variety of selective
pressures around the island. As natural selection occurred, the species evolved into diverse
populations
Convergent Evolution: Distantly related organisms evolving to become more similar due to
similar environmental pressures. Natural selection occurs similar adaptations
E.g. the fin and flipper in sharks (fish), dolphins (mammals) and penguins (birds)
Use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in technology
have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships.

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New technologies (e.g. DNA hybridisation, amino acid sequencing) have allowed comparison
of chemicals in organisms, increasing knowledge about the relationships between species.
These have produced evidence to both support and disprove traditional classification
schemes
Change in evolutionary thinking:
These technologies have improved our understanding of humans relationship to
chimpanzees & gorillas. They have caused a change in the classification of primates.
Before, thought that humans were in a separate family to gorillas and chimpanzees (which
were placed in the family with orang-utans). However, recent developments proved that
gorillas and chimpanzees are more similar to humans (in same family) than with orang-utans.
Humans and chimpanzees have 98% of same DNA sequence.
Analyse information on the historical development of theories of evolution and use
available evidence to assess social and political influences on these developments.
Early 1800s- Lamarck
The Enlightenment saw great evolution in scientific thinking. However, Christianity
remained a dominant force
His theory said a change in animals from simple to complex forms
It challenged religious and social beliefs. Society did not support him
Mid-1800s Darwin and Wallace
Evolution by natural selection
Darwin withheld theory for 25 years, afraid of societal rejection
Published theory during a time of great societal change- Industrial revolution, Church
power was being questioned. Caused much debate between evolutionists and
creationists
By 1880, natural selection was widely accepted
Used to explain industrial revolution- technology and education = selective pressures
Late 1900s Gould
Theory of punctuated equilibrium
Criticised for being out of tune with mainstream evolutionary thinking, differing from
Darwins gradualism

2. Gregor Mendels experiments helped advance our

knowledge of the inheritance of characteristics:
Outline the experiments carried out by Gregor Mendel
Mendel studied the genetics of the garden pea plant to investigate the inheritance of
characteristics. Mendel performed only monohybrid crosses - a genetic cross where only one
characteristic is being studied. He examined 7 characteristics of peas, including stem height
(short/tall), seed shape (round/wrinkled) and pod colour (green/yellow).
He began by crossing two pure breeding (homozygous) plants with alternative forms (alleles)
for each trait. E.g. tall with short. Then he crossed their off-spring
Results: He thought offspring would be a blend of traits. However, all F1 offspring resembled
one parent e.g. all tall. He suggested that for each trait, one factor was dominant. In F2, the

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other parents traits. E.g. tall:short = 3:1, known as the monohybrid ratio. He states that this
other factor (short) was recessive and masked by the dominant factor.
He developed mathematical ratios, summed up in Mendels law of dominance and
segregation
Characteristics are not blended, but are discrete units
Each characteristic is determined by a pair of factors (genes)
In a gametes, only one factor is present
During fertilisation, the offspring receives one factor from each parent randomly
One factor is dominant of the other, which is recessive they DONT blend
Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to his success
Valid and reliable:
Studied only one characteristic at a time: changed only one variable and controlled
all others
Performed a large number of crosses - reliability
Accuracy:
Tightly controlled fertilisation:
Removed immature of stamen to stop the prevent self-pollination
Grew plants in separate green-house to prevent accidental cross-pollination
Manually transferred pollen from one pure-bred plant to the stigma of the other
used a plant with easily identifiable characteristics
Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using Mendels
explanations
when two pure-breeding parents with contrasting alleles are crossed, they create

monohybrids
E.g. a homozygous (TT) tall plant crossed with a homozygous (tt) short plant
F1 = all heterozygous (Tt) exhibiting dominant allele (tall)
when hybrids are crossed, the ratio of dominant to recessive offspring is 3:1 (called

the monohybrid ratio)

E.g. two heterozygous (Tt) tall plants are crossed
F2 = 3 tall plants : 1 short plant

T
t

T
TT
Tt

t
Tt
tt

Distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes in monohybrid crosses

Homozygous genotypes have the same allele for a characteristic. E.g. TT
Heterozygous (hybrid) genotypes have different alleles. E.g. Tt
Distinguish between the terms allele and gene, using examples
Gene: a section of DNA on a chromosome that contains the genetic code for a particular
characteristic. Individuals have two alleles for each gene E.g. gene for height of plants
Alleles: alternative forms of the same gene, found in identical positions on homologous
chromosomes. E.g. Tall (T) or short (t) are two alleles for plant height.
Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotypes using
e.gs
Genotype: the genetic make-up of an individual
Phenotype: the expressed characteristics of an organism

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For every characteristic, there are two alleles in the genotype.

In a heterozygous individual, only one allele is expressed. This is termed the
dominant allele and it determines the phenotype.
The allele not expressed is termed recessive. It does not affect the phenotype of an
individual
E.g. Pea Plant height in a heterozygous individual- the plant will contain both the dominant
tall allele (T) and the recessive short allele (t) in its genotype. However, only the tall allele will
be expressed in the phenotype.
Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until
sometime after it was published
Too progressive- very little was known about genetics. Its significance was possibly

not realised

Was radically different to accepted belief at the time that offspring are a blend of

traits

He only presented his papers to a small group of scientists

He had no established reputation as a scientist dismissed by scientific community as

amateur
Process information from secondary sources to describe an example of
hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridisation
Hybridization within a species is the breeding of two different breeds of a particular
species. They are used to produce offspring with favourable characteristics.
E.g. The Labradoodle a cross between a Labrador and a poodle. It was originally
bred in the 1980s, when the Australian Guide Dogs Association set out to create a
guide dog that would be safe for allergy sufferers. Poodles wool-like coat was
thought to be hyperallogenic. Although the program had little success, the
Labradoodle was found to have the pleasant temperament of a Labrador and the
high intelligence of a poodle and it is now one of the most popular crossbreeds.

3. Chromosomal structure provides the key to

inheritance:
Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of chromosomes
Sutton:
Studied meiosis in cells of grasshoppers, suggesting that:
During meiosis, chromosomes line up in homologous pairs
Pairs segregate, so that each gamete receives one chromosome from each
pair
Fertilisation restores full set of chromosomes
Concluded that chromosomes were the carriers of Mendels hereditary factors
(genes)
Boveri:
Studied inheritance patterns in sea urchins, suggesting that:

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Egg and sperm each contribute half of the chromosomes to the zygote
If the nucleus of only one parent is present, then offspring will only show the
characteristics of that parent, however with abnormalities
Concluded that a complete set of chromosomes is necessary for normal development

Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes

Chromosomes consist of 60% protein (histone) and 40% DNA. The DNA is coiled tightly
around the protein core.
Genes are a section of DNA on a chromosome
Identify that DNA is a double-stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each strand
comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases Adenine (A), thymine (T),
cytosine (C) and guanine (G) connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases,
A-T and G-C.
DNA:
A double-stranded molecule twisted into
a double helix shape
Each strand is made up of a sequence of
nucleotides
Each nucleotide is made up of a sugarphosphate backbone and a nitrogenous
base
There are four different bases - adenine,
thymine, guanine, and cytosine
Adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and
guanine with cytosine (G-C)
The bases of complementary strands pair
together, held together by weak
hydrogen bonds
Explain the relationship between the structure and behaviour of chromosomes during
meiosis and the inheritance of genes
During the first stage of meiosis, homologous chromosomes line up and crossing over occurs,
in which they may exchange genes. This behaviour ensures that linked genes on a
chromosome can be inherited independently of each other, increasing variability
Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring
Gamete formation:
Crossing over- homologous chromosomes line up and crossing over occurs, in which they
may exchange genes. This behaviour ensures that linked genes on a chromosome can be
inherited independently of each other, increasing variability
Random segregation- As chromosome pairs separate and move to opposite ends of the
cell to split into four gametes, genes on different chromosomes sort independently of
each other, resulting in gene combinations in gametes that differ from original parent
Sexual reproduction:
Random fertilisation- male and female sex cells fuse together randomly during
fertilization.

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Describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and alleles that exhibit co-dominance and
explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian results
Co-Dominance: When neither allele is dominant over the other, resulting in both being
expressed in the phenotype. E.g. roan-coloured cattle
If Shorthorn cattle has the gene for red and
white hairs, both will be expressed= roan
Does not give the simple Mendelian ratio of 3:1,
because a heterozygous animal has two dominant
alleles, rather than a dominant and a recessive
It results in the 1:2:1 ratio.

Sex-linked Genes:
Sex is a genetically determined characteristic,
determined by a pair of chromosomes called the sex chromosomes
Females have two X chromosomes. Males have an X and a Y chromosome
Because the Y is much smaller than the X, some genes are only coded for by the X
these are called sex-linked genes and are inherited with sex traits
Most sex-linked characteristics are recessive:
E.g. Haemophilia is a recessive allele found only on X
H is the dominant, normal allele; h is the recessive, haemophiliac allele.
Females:
A normal females genotype XHXH
A carrier female has the genotype - XHXh
A haemophiliac female has the genotype X hXh
Males:
A normal male - XHY
A haemophiliac male - XhY
Males only have to inherit a single gene to have the characteristic
Females may be carriers, but they may possess the normal gene as well, which masks the
effect of the haemophiliac gene
This is why some sex-linked characteristics are much more common in males than
females
Mendels experiments did not show sex-specific effects, so sex-linked genes do not
follow Mendelian ratios

Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage
Studied the breeding of the fruit fly (drosophila)
He looked at crosses between red-eyed and white-eyed flies and found that the results
couldnt be accounted for by simple Mendelian ratios.
He hypothesised that the gene for eye colour is carried on the X chromosome, concluding
that it was sex-linked
Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and the
resulting phenotypes in examples of co-dominance
In homozygous genotypes (RR), will simply express the present allele in phenotypes
In heterozygous organisms (RW), neither allele is dominant over the other, resulting

in both being expressed in the phenotype. E.g. roan-coloured cattle

E.g. blood groups in humans- 3 alleles (O, A & B). Both A & B alleles present = both
expressed

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Outline the ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene
The environment may hinder or enhance the expression of a gene.
Hydrangeas: the acidity or alkalinity of soil influences flower colour. Acidic soil = blue,
alkaline = pink
Human growth: human height has a genetic basis, but a lack of nutrients or presence of
toxins (cigarette smoke) can restrict growth
Construct a model that demonstrates meiosis and the
processes of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes
and the production of haploid gametes

4. The structure of DNA can be

changed and such changes may be
reflected in the phenotype of the affected organism:
Describe the process of DNA replication, and explain its significance
DNA replication- the process by which an exact copy of DNA is made, during mitosis and
meiosis
Process:
Catalysed by the enzyme helicase, the DNA double helix unwinds
Catalysed by the enzyme DNA polymerase, the weak hydrogen bonds between the
two strands break, allowing DNA to unzip and separate into two strands
Nucleotides are added alongside both strands opposite their complementary bases,
to create two identical DNA molecules
Significance:
identical copies of DNA made, so that the daughter cells has the same genetic code
allows for growth and repair through mitosis
allows for the formation of gametes through meiosis
Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production of
polypeptides
DNA controls the production of polypeptides which form proteins
1. Catalysed by enzyme RNA polymerase, the DNA unwinds and the weak hydrogen
bonds between the two strands break, allowing DNA to unzip
2. Transcription: a transcription of the sense strand of DNA (contains info for protein
synthesis) occurs, whereby RNA nucleotides are assembled to form a complimentary
strand called an mRNA. The sequence of bases is the same as the non-sense strand,
except T is replaced with U
3. the mRNA moves out of nucleus into cytoplasm
4. Translation: mRNA enters a ribosome. As it moves along ribosome, tRNA molecules
are attached, by temporarily pairing the three bases of tRNA anticodons with the
complimentary codons on mRNA.
5. tRNA brings with it an amino acid which are linked to form a polypeptide chain.
These chains are then spliced off their tRNA carriers, and further processed to form a
protein
6. tRNA moves into cytoplasm to pick up another amino acid. mRNA is broken down
into individual nucleotides for reuse

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Simple model:

Explain the relationship between polypeptides and proteins.

A protein is a complex molecule made up of one or more polypeptide chains, folded into a
particular shape, to suit a specific function.
A polypeptide is made up of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation

In the early 1800s, the harmful effects of radiation were unknown and scientists, such
as Maria Curie, were exposed to large amounts of radiation over long periods of time.
Curie died from Leukaemia due to overexposure to radiation
UV radiation has been recorded to increase the incidence of skin cancers in humans.
Survivors of Hiroshima bombing and the nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl suffered
mutations such as infertility and cancers, as a result of being exposed to high-levels of
radiation

Explain how mutations in DNA can lead to the generation of new alleles.
Mutations are any changes in DNA sequence. This results in changes to the amino acids that
are produced, meaning there is a source of new alleles. To produce changes in alleles, the
mutation must occur in the sex cells of the organism which are then passed on to the next
generation. These changes to the genes result in the production of new proteins. Most
mutations are not harmful and lead to variation, but some will lead to genetic disorders.
Explain a modern example of natural selection
The Peppered Moth:
Originally population was mainly composed of lighter moths
They camouflaged on lichen covered trees to hide from birds
During Industrial Revolution, trees covered in soot and lichen die off
Light moths can no longer camouflage, become easier prey. Darker moths can hide
better now
Population shifts from mainly light to mainly dark.
Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided
support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection
Darwins theory requires variation to be present within an organism. We now know the
source of this variation:
Mutation of the base sequence of DNA
The random segregation of chromosome pairs during meiosis

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 Crossing over of genetic material during meiosis

Random fertilisation of sex cells
These support his theory as they provide the mechanisms for variation on which natural
selection act.
Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs from the
gradual process proposed by Darwin
Darwins Gradualism:
He proposed that populations change gradually over a long period of time
He used transitional fossils to support this
Punctuated Equilibrium:
Put forward by Gould and Eldridge
That evolution occurs in short bursts of rapid change, followed by long periods of
stability
The fossil record shows millions of years passing without any notable change, and
then evolve suddenly (e.g. soft-bodied organisms dominated the seas for hundreds
of millions of years, and then, in the space of a few million years, they disappeared)
Analyse information to outline evidence that lead to Beadle and Tatums one gene one
protein hypothesis and explain why this was changed to one gene one polypeptide
Beadle and Tatum
They subjected the spores of bread mould to X-rays in order to cause mutations and
found that some of the mutated spores could not grow on the nutrient base of bread
unless they added a specific amino acid arginine
They hypothesised that the X-rays had destroyed the gene that coded for the protein
arginine calling this the one gene one protein hypothesis
This was later changed to one gene one polypeptide, because many proteins are made up
of more than one polypeptide, and a gene only codes for one polypeptide.
Process information from secondary sources to describe and analyse the relative
importance of the work of James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice
Wilkins in determining the structure of DNA and the impact of the quality of collaboration
and communication on their scientific research
Scientist
Franklin
Wilkins
Watson
Crick

Role
Used X-ray crystallography to discover that the shape of the DNA molecule was
a helix
Studied the structure of large molecules. Informed Watson and Crick of
Franklins discoveries
Worked with Crick to model the structure of the DNA molecule. Suggested that
pairing of bases made it possible to copy and pass on genetic information
Worked with Watson to model the structure of the DNA molecule. Studied the
genetic code.

Franklin was a woman working in a predominantly male field. Before publishing her work,
she wished to gather more evidence but Wilkins showed her results to Watson and Crick
without her permission. This information was enough for Watson and Crick to develop their
model of the double helix structure of DNA.

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Watson and Crick worked well together. They published their findings with each other.
Franklin died of cancer in 1958. 4 years later the other three were awarded the Nobel Prize.
The accepted model of the structure of DNA is usually known as the Watson-Crick model:
there is no mention of Franklin.

5. Current reproductive technologies and genetic

engineering have the potential to alter the path of
evolution
Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population: artificial insemination, artificial pollination, cloning
Reproductive technologies are used for selective breeding to produce hybrid offspring with
particular desirable characteristics. All reduce genetic variability.
Artificial pollination: pollen from the stamens of one plant is dusted onto the stigma of the
same or different plant. E.g. Mendel used this technique in his experiments with pea plants
Artificial insemination: sperm is taken from a chosen male and artificially introduced into
several selected females. E.g. in livestock, used to produce desirable characteristics- crossing
a male Friesian (produce large quantities of milk) with female jersey cows (produce creamy
milk) to create offspring who produce large amounts of creamy milk.
Artificial pollination and insemination alter the genetic composition of a population:
Individuals with traits considered by the breeder to be advantageous are selectively
bred to produce ideal hybrid offspring with new combinations of alleles.
Allows humans to manipulate combinations of alleles and therefore increase the
frequency of those considered advantageous by the breeder, rather than alleles that
increase their fitness in the environment
Reproductive cloning: is the production of an individual genetically identical to one parent
1. Cloning of ideal hybrids (e.g. seedless grapes) is a form of selective breeding
Process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in cloning
Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is a cloning methodology. It was used to create Dolly the
Sheep. It involves 3 animals:
1. Udder cells taken from sheep 1 and starved of nutrients to stop them dividing
2. Nucleus of unfertilised egg taken from sheep 2 removed by enucleation
3. Udder cell from sheep 1 injected into enucleated egg of sheep 2. Electric current
applied to fuse the two cells.
4. The embryo began to grow in virto. It was implanted into uterus of sheep 3, where it
continued to grow. After pregnancy, a lamb was born genetically identically to sheep
1
Outline the process to produce transgenic species and include examples of this process and
reasons for its use
Transgenic organism- one whose normal genome has been altered by introducing a gene
from another species into it in a process called genetic engineering.

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Reasons: creating foods with increased nutrients and higher yields. Introducing resistance in
species to disease, pests and pesticides
Process: cut, copy and paste
1. cut- a gene for a favourable characteristic is removed from the cell of an organism,
using restriction enzymes
2. copy- gene cloning occurs, whereby multiple copies of gene is made, usually carried
out in bacteria
3. paste- the genes are inserted into an egg cell of another species and after
fertilisation becomes part of the newly formed organisms DNA
4. The egg develops into a mature organism with the new gene switched on to
function
Four main ways of pasting:
1. Micro-injection of DNA into single cell
2. Biolistics- Using a gene gun to fire DNA on particles into target cells
3. Electroporation- applying electric current to target cells to increase membrane
permeability, allowing new genes to be inserted
4. Transduction by a vector
Example: Bt cotton
Reasons:
Pests such as the caterpillar of the Helicoverpa zea moth destroy millions of dollars
worth of cotton each year. The Bt gene codes for the production of a toxic protein
that is harmless to humans and most animals, but deadly to caterpillars.
This reduces the need to use pesticides better for environment, reduces the
development of pesticide resistance
Increases cotton yield
Process:
1. cut- Bt gene is removed from the bacterium Bacillius thuringienis, using restriction
enzymes
2. copy
3. paste- the genes are inserted into cotton plant embryos through transduction by a
vector
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of transgenic
species and use available evidence to debate ethical issues arising from the development
and use of transgenic species
Examples:
Salmon gene inserted into strawberries in Scandinavia so they can grow in cold
temperatures
Spider genes inserted into goats so that they secrete tiny silk strands used to create
sutures and uniforms that are light and strong
Human insulin gene inserted into fish in Belgium, used to treat diabetics
Ethical issues:
Ethical issue

Arguments for

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Arguments against

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Environmental
issues

Reduces use of pesticides

Loss of biodiversity
Potential for escape of the

Financial &
social justice
issues

Increases production of food for growing

Health issues

Human rights
issues

human population
Higher yield at lower cost
Less spoilage of produce during
transportation
Foods with higher nutritional value can be
developed
Reduces use of pesticides
Plants can produce vaccines to improve
human health
GM crops may be used to solve food
shortages in third-world countries,
producing a higher yield at lower cost

transgenes into other

populations
Speeds up genetic change in a
species
Is it ethical for single
companies to have the rights
to these technologies while
others dont, creating a
monopoly
Safety of GM foods unknown
especially for people with
allergies
Vegetarians may unknowingly

eat food with animal genes

If a human gene is inserted
into an animal, are we
humanising it? Is it acceptable
to eat the meat of an animal
that contains human genes?

Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproductive technologies on genetic diversity of
species using a named plant and animal example that have been genetically altered
Reproductive technologies often lead to a decrease in biodiversity, as large numbers of
identical organisms are produced and bred (e.g. through cloning) or if organisms are
selectively in-bred to maintain parent lines of hybrids that benefit us in terms of agriculture
produce. A lack of variation is a major risk factor in extinction of a species, as they are less
likely to survive sudden environmental change or would be vulnerable to pathogens.
Genetically modified plants:
E.g. Bt cotton is rapidly replacing other varieties of cotton in commercial agriculture.
Disadvantages:
Many natural varieties of cotton will be lost
Having a monoculture means that the crop becomes more susceptible to
environmental change and may also lead to Bt resistance in insects
Genetically modified animals:
Some salmon have been genetically modified so that they grow bigger than normal salmon.
Female salmon are attracted to and mate more often with larger males. If the transgenic
salmon were to be released in the wild population then wild females would mate with the
larger transgenic males. This transgene would rapidly spread in the natural population,
reducing diversity.

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