Lillian Michaels

Characteristics of Disabilities Project

SPED 738-99 Professor McCambridge
June 24, 2014
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDERS
Cognitive Characteristics: Children with ASD exhibit uneven cognitive abilities. The disorder
occurs in children of all intellectual levels, but even kids who show high intellectual functioning
can still display unevenly developed cognitive skills. More difficulties arise in the area of verbal
skills than non-verbal and children on the spectrum generally do better with tasks involving
immediate memory than with things such as abstract thinking. Smith, M., Segal, J., Hutman, T.
(2014).
Academic Characteristics: The KSDE Eligibility Indicators require a showing that the autism
adversely impacts the students educational performance or that it is slowing the students
educational growth or placing the student in a position below his/her peers. Because of the
cognitive challenges associated with autism, many students with ASD are not on grade level in
certain areas, although they may be highly proficient in others. Smith, M., Segal, J., Hutman, T.
(2014).
Social Characteristics: ASD is marked by difficulty with basic social interactions. For example,
many children with ASD have trouble making eye contact, fail to respond properly to other
people and stimuli in their environment, do not initiate interactions with others, and may not
respond appropriately to others moods or actions. National Institute of Mental Health. (June,
2014). A Parents Guide to Autism Spectrum Disorder, retrieved from NIMH website
http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parents-guide-to-autism-spectrumdisorder/index.shtml
Emotional Characteristics: Because ASD frequently involves sensory processing deficits,
children on the spectrum often have difficulty regulating their emotional responses to stimuli.
For example, particular sounds, light patterns, textures, smells, etc. may cause a student with
ASD to react in an emotional manner, sometimes resulting in tantrums. Smith, M., Segal, J.,
Hutman, T. (2014).
Communication Characteristics: Verbal and non-verbal communication are particularly
challenging for students with ASD. Often speech is delayed, and other speech problems include
the tendency to repeat words or phrases without communicating an idea, difficulty
communicating needs or desires and an inability to appreciate nuances in other peoples speech,
such as sarcasm or irony. Smith, M., Segal, J., Hutman, T. (2014).

Physical/Medical Characteristics: People with ASD have a tendency to engage in repetitive or

stereotyped behaviors such as hand flapping, rocking or spinning, but otherwise, there are no
recognized physical or medical characteristics associated with ASD.
Career Development Characteristics: Students with ASD display a wide variety of cognitive,
social and communicative abilities, so career development must be closely tailored to the
strengths of the individual student in order to maximize success. Families should also be aware
of adult living facilities for people with ASD, as this may be an excellent opportunity for greater
independence for the individual.
Interventions/Strategies:

ABA, or Applied Behavior Analysis, can be used to reinforce new behaviors, such as
learning to speak or play, and to reduce the frequency of undesirable behaviors. Verbal
Behavior and Pivotal Response Training are examples of ABA interventions.
Developmental, Individual Difference, Relationship-based (DIR)/Floortime Model
focuses on the childs own interests and preferences in order to improve communication,
thinking and social skills and to reduce negative behaviors.
TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication handicapped
Children) focuses on visual cues and adapting the childs environment to increase
independence.
Interpersonal Synchrony focuses on the social aspect of ASD and uses imitation skills to
teach kids how to interact with others in a meaningful way.

National Institute of Mental Health. (June, 2014). A Parents Guide to Autism Spectrum
Disorder, retrieved from NIMH website http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/a-parentsguide-to-autism-spectrum-disorder/index.shtml

DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY
Cognitive Characteristics: Developmental delay is characterized by a childs failure to reach
specific developmental milestones during the same timeframe as his/her peers. Among these
milestones are important thinking, or cognitive skills such as learning, understanding, reasoning
and remembering information. University of Michigan Health System. (June, 2014).
Developmental
Milestones,
retrieved
from
UMHS
website
http://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/devmile.htm
Academic Characteristics: The cognitive characteristics described above often cause students
with developmental delay to be significantly below grade level in the core academic areas. The
KSDE Eligibility Requirements indicate this disability where a student fails to respond to
academic interventions or where the students performance on benchmark assessments,
curricular objectives or state assessments is significantly lower than the students peers.

Social/Emotional Characteristics: Inability to recognize familiar people, show apprehension

about strangers, show affection to familiar people, and respond to anothers emotions at an
appropriate age are all indicators or developmental delay. National Dissemination Center for
Children with Disabilities. (Feb., 2013). Developmental Milestones, retrieved from NICHCY
website http://nichcy.org/disability/milestones
Communication Characteristics: Delays in language development are the most common types of
developmental delay. These include problems with speaking, using body language and gestures
and understanding what other people say. University of Michigan Health System. (June, 2014).
Developmental
Milestones,
retrieved
from
UMHS
website
http://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/devmile.htm
Physical/Medical Characteristics: Deficits in gross and fine motor function can also be
indicators of developmental delay. Children with developmental delay often have difficulty
walking, standing, running and using their hands to do any number of tasks such as eating and
writing. University of Michigan Health System. (June, 2014). Developmental Milestones,
retrieved from UMHS website http://www.med.umich.edu/yourchild/topics/devmile.htm
Career Development Characteristics: Because developmental delay encompasses such a wide
variety of challenges, there is an equally wide ranging spectrum of career and adult living
possibilities for students with this disability. For example, many of the delays in development
can be minimized or eliminated with early intervention and treatment. Others will present
lifelong obstacles and require commensurate support. In light of the fact that a student can be
diagnosed with a developmental delay in a number of areas or in only one, care should be taken
to identify the students areas of strength and examine career opportunities accordingly.
Interventions/Strategies:

Speech and language therapy are used to improve specific areas of speech and language
such as formation of words, learning new words, forming sentences, or improving
listening skills. Students who do not speak may be taught to use sign language and/or
assistive communication devices.
Behavior therapy focuses on reducing negative behaviors and promoting adaptive skills.
These therapies can be conducted by psychologists, behavior specialists, or social
workers and can occur in the school setting or in the community. Behavior therapy often
ties into other forms of therapy or treatment a student receives.
Physical therapy may be indicated to address gross and/or find motor deficits rising to the
level of developmental delay. According to MyChildWithoutLimits.org, Pediatric
physical therapy strives to promote independence, increases participation in the home,
school and community, facilitates motor development and function, and improves
strength.

Occupational therapy is often confused with physical therapy but differs in the objectives
addressed. While physical therapy targets such as pain management, range of motion and
strength, occupational therapy seeks to improve all aspects of independence, including
fine motor, visual-perceptual, cognitive and sensory processing skills. United Cerebral
Palsy (2014). How is Developmental Delay Treated?, retrieved from My Child Without
Limits
website
http://www.mychildwithoutlimits.org/understand/developmentaldelay/how-is-developmental-delay-treated/

EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE
Cognitive Characteristics: Some conditions which fall under the canopy of emotional/behavioral
disturbance (EBD) are marked by interrupted or compromised thought processes. For example,
students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have difficulty attending to
classroom instruction which causes them to struggle with comprehension and reasoning. On the
other hand, some anxiety disorders, such as Obsessive/Compulsive Disorder (OCD) can cause a
student to become fixated on a series of repeated thoughts and actions. Psychology.com (2011).
Mental Health Topics: Child Behavior Disorders retrieved from Psychology.com website
https://www.psychology.com/resources/child_behavior.php
Academic Characteristics: Below grade level performance is typical in students with emotional
challenges. Students with emotional disturbances often lack basic skills and are more likely than
other students to drop out of high school. http://www.hrmvideo.com/catalog/commonpsychological-disorders-of-adolescence
Social Characteristics: Emotional disturbances often make it difficult for students to relate to
peers and adults in a socially appropriate manner. For example, depression may manifest as
withdrawal from social interactions and communication. Similarly, symptoms of bi-polar
disorder, namely dramatic mood swings and sometimes violent behavior, can make it difficult for
a student with this challenge to make and keep healthy relationships in or out of school. Students
with emotional disorders are usually unpopular and actively rejected by their peers.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cTHcd2NDysU
Emotional Characteristics: By definition, this encompasses most of the issues to be considered
when teaching a student with emotional disturbance of any sort. These can range in severity
from generalized fear, sadness and anxiety to severe phobias, or unrealistic and overwhelming
fears of specific people, things or situations. In the case of some disorders, such as bi-polar
disorder, children can experience a wide range of emotions at varying times without ability to
control those emotions or their attendant behavior. Psychology.com (2011). Mental Health
Topics:
Child Behavior Disorders retrieved from Psychology.com website
https://www.psychology.com/resources/child_behavior.php
Communication Characteristics: The ability to communicate effectively is specifically impacted
by many of the conditions falling under the heading of emotional disturbance. For example,

conditions such as schizophrenia, in which a child can experience hallucinations and disordered
thoughts, can make communication difficult for both the student and the teacher. Likewise,
students suffering from Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or severe depression may be
unable to verbalize their emotions due to the overwhelming magnitude of those emotions. This
inability to express emotions may manifest in disruptive and even violent behavior.
Psychology.com (2011). Mental Health Topics: Child Behavior Disorders retrieved from
Psychology.com website https://www.psychology.com/resources/child_behavior.php
Physical/Medical Characteristics: Anorexia and bulimia are both types of eating disorders which
fall under the heading of EBD. Students with anorexia have difficulty maintaining a healthy
minimum body weight while those suffering from bulimia tend to binge eat and then purge their
bodies of the food consumed by means such as self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives or
excessive exercise. Each of these disorders can cause life-threatening health problems. Panic
disorder causes physical symptoms such as accelerated heartbeat, shortness of breath and
dizziness. Psychology.com (2011). Mental Health Topics: Child Behavior Disorders retrieved
from Psychology.com website https://www.psychology.com/resources/child_behavior.php
Career Development Characteristics: The transition from school to work and other adult roles is
a crucial time for students with EBD. If the transition is unsuccessful, the student could be at
risk for many serious mental health complications including increased risk of substance abuse
and dependence. The University of South Florida has compiled a guide to address the need for a
comprehensive approach to this transition.
It can be accessed as a pdf at
http://cfs.cbcs.usf.edu/_docs/publications/AHCA_TAY08.pdf
Interventions/Strategies:

Behavior modification is at the heart of EBD interventions. According to the Laurent

Clerc National Deaf Education Center, there are several steps which must be addressed in
this model. They include:
Identification of the behavior to be changed
Creating a baseline of the observed behavior
Develop short and long-term goals and create a plan for achieving the goals
Reevaluate the plan for effectiveness
Modify the plan as needed to optimize the outcome
Gallaudet University (2014). Emotional/Behavioral Disorders retrieved from Gallaudet
University website
http://www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/information_and_resources/info_to_go/educate_ch
ildren_%283_to_21%29/students_with_disabilities/emotionalbehavioral_disorders.html

PASS. A non-confrontational program to keep students on task while they are in the
general education classroom. http://www.hrmvideo.com/catalog/common-psychologicaldisorders-of-adolescence

INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
Cognitive Characteristics: The definition of intellectual disability includes 3 prongs, the first of
which is cognitive impairment, or challenges in learning, reasoning and problem solving.
Intellectually ability is typically measured using IQ testing. Average IQ is around 100. The
cognitive portion of the classification of intellectual disability occurs where an individuals IQ
score is in the range of 70-75. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities. (2013). Frequently Asked Questions on Intellectual Disability retrieved from the
AAIDD
website
http://aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition/faqs-on-intellectualdisability#.U54Jf_ldWnZ
Academic Characteristics: The ability of a student with intellectual disabilities to achieve to
his/her personal potential in the classroom is affected by the cognitive challenges described
above as well as by limitations in adaptive behavior, which includes the following ten areas:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Self-Care bathing, dressing, grooming, and feeding ones self;

Communication Skills understanding and using verbal and nonverbal language;
Self-Direction problem solving, exercising choice, initiating and planning activities;
Social Skills maintaining interpersonal relationships, understanding emotions and social
cues, understanding fairness and honesty, obeying rules and laws;
5.
Leisure Skills taking responsibility for ones own activities, having the ability to
participate in the community;
6.
Home or School Living housekeeping, cooking, doing laundry, maintaining living
space;
7.
Functional Academics using reading, writing, and math skills in everyday life;
8.
Community Use shopping, using public transportation, using community services;
9.
Work ability to maintain part-time or full-time employment, either competitive or
sheltered, ability to work under supervision, cooperate with coworkers, be reliable and
punctual, and meet work standards, and;
10.
Health and Safety ability to protect ones self, responding to health problems.
Bright Hub Education. (June, 2012). What are Adaptive Skills in Special Education? By
Stephanie Torreno retrieved from the Bright Hub Education website
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-learning-disorders/73324-improving-adaptivesskills-in-students-with-intellectual-disabilities/
Primarily the communication, self-direction and social skills components will play a large role in
determining the students academic success.
Social Characteristics: The adaptive behaviors listed above include a category of social skills
which present challenges for learners with intellectual disabilities. These social characteristics,

such as developing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and working with others, will
occur across all personal, educational and community aspects of the students life.
Emotional Characteristics: Self-esteem is included in the list of social skills measured as part of
the adaptive skills prong of intellectual disability. Certainly an individuals limitations and skills
relative to those of their peers form the basis for much of his/her self-image and therefore have
an important impact on self-esteem. Care should be taken to promote each students positive
self-image and maximize self-esteem.
Communication Characteristics: Many of the adaptive challenges associated with intellectual
disability are communication-centered. For example, many of the relationship-based skills will
turn on the students ability to understand and use verbal and non-verbal language. Other skills
such as those required for functional academics, community use and work require the student to
use a variety of communication tools in order to succeed.
Physical/Medical Characteristics: There are no specific physical or medical characteristics
uniquely associated with intellectual disability.
Career Development Characteristics: Many of the adaptive behaviors described by Stephanie
Torreno will have a significant impact on the career development path of a student with
intellectual disability. Because the degree and nature of the disability is as unique to each
student as his/her fingerprint, educators and other adults should strive to assist the student to
examine his/her interests and passions in order to maximize the options available to the student.
Some students will require jobs which are closely supervised while others may be significantly
more independent. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities.
(2013). Frequently Asked Questions on Intellectual Disability retrieved from the AAIDD website
http://aaidd.org/intellectual-disability/definition/faqs-on-intellectual-disability#.U54Jf_ldWnZ
**It should be noted that the third prong of the diagnosis of intellectual disability is the age of
onset. Intellectual disability is indicated if the cognitive and adaptive challenges occur during
the developmental period which, in the United States is considered to be before the age of 18.
Interventions/Strategies:

Classroom strategies: Bright Hub Education offers the following list of strategies to
assist students with ID in the general education or special education classroom:
o Use concrete items and examples to explain new concepts and provide
practice in existing skill areas.
o Role model desired behaviors, and clearly identify what behaviors you
expect in the classroom.
o Plan ahead with your class activities.

o Use appropriate communication methods such as Makaton signing for

pre verbal students or those with beginning language.
o Do not overwhelm a student with multiple or complex instructions.
o Use strategies such as chunking, backward shaping and role modeling
as helpful teaching approaches.
o Be explicit about what it is you want a student to do.
o Learn about the needs and characteristics of your student, but do not
automatically assume they will behave the same way today as they did
yesterday.
o Ask for their input about how they feel they learn best, and help them
to be as in control of their learning as possible.
o Put skills in context so there is a reason for learning tasks.
o Involve families and significant others in learning activities, planning
and special days, as well as in informing you about the needs of their
young person.
Bright Hub Education. (June, 2012). Intellectual Disabilities in the Classroom By Anne Vize
retrieved from the Bright Hub Education website
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-inclusion-strategies/9893-teaching-studentswith-intellectual-disabilities/

Assistive Technology: The Bright Hub Education website also recommends the use of
electronic learning tools such as computer games, audio books and computer programs
such as Power Point and Clicker 5.

LEARNING DISABILITIES
Cognitive Characteristics: According to the KSDE Eligibility Indicators, the student with a
learning disability will demonstrate low cognitive skills within a particular academic area(s)
while cognitive skills in other areas are unimpaired. The cognitive challenges can show up in the
areas of basic reading skills, math, written and oral expression, or listening comprehension. The
Reading Rockets website sums up learning disabilities (LD) as, a disorder that affects a
childs ability to interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the
brain.
http://www.readingrockets.org/reading-topics/learning-disabilities
Academic Characteristics: Students with LD struggle academically for a variety of reasons
which are closely tied to the nature of the specific type of LD involved. For example, a student
with dyslexia will have difficulty reading a story, but have no difficulty remembering and
analyzing the story if it is read aloud by someone else. The KSDE Eligibility Indicators require a
finding that the student is failing to meet academic standards for his/her grade level in one or
more areas and that the issue persists despite the application of other interventions.

Social Characteristics: Students with LD often find it difficult to read non-verbal cues from
others as well as express and control their feelings. This can make it difficult for those students
to form healthy relationships with their peers. Furthermore, they often feel frustrated and
embarrassed at failing to master skills which their classmates can do easily. Kemp, G., Smith,
M., and Segal, J. (December, 2013)
Emotional Characteristics: Research has demonstrated that many children with LD experience
emotional difficulties such as depression, anxiety, loneliness and low self-esteem. Peck (1985)
found that 50% of children under age 15 who committed suicide in Los Angeles County over a
3-year period had been diagnosed as learning disabled. LD Online, (1999). Understanding
Childrens Hearts and Minds: Emotional Functioning and Learning Disabilities by Jean Cheng
Gorman retrieved from LD Online website http://www.ldonline.org/article/6292
Communication Characteristics: Both verbal and written communication can be affected by
learning disabilities of various types. For example, a student with dysgraphia will have difficulty
organizing ideas for writing as well as writing legibly whereas a student with auditory processing
disorder will struggle following anothers speech and predicting how a speaker will end a
sentence. National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2014). What are Learning Disabilities?
retrieved from NCLD website http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/what-is-ld/whatare-learning-disabilities
Physical/Medical Characteristics: Aside from medication management issues, there are no
physical or medical considerations which are specific to students with LD.
Career Development Characteristics: Some people with learning disabilities will require
accommodations to perform their jobs, others may need little or no accommodation. As with
many other disabilities, LD encompasses a number of different situations, so each students
strengths and challenges must be assessed in order to guide the student toward careers or life
situations where they are most likely to succeed. Students must learn to articulate how their LD
impacts them in a variety of situations, especially those requiring learning and performing work
related tasks. Preparing for job interviews, anticipating barriers throughout the employment
process, and developing ways to mitigate these barriers are essential skills that must be learned.
Building the Bridge Between Community College and Work for Students with Learning
Disabilities by Deborah Stern (2002).
Retrieved from LD Online website
http://www.ldonline.org/article/Building_the_Bridge_Between_Community_College_and_Work
_For_Students_with_Learning_Disabilities
Interventions/Strategies:

Response to Interventions (RTI): This is an early intervention model which seeks to

identify students in need of targeted learning strategies and to ensure that students who
need assistance get it as early as possible. According to the National Joint Committee on
Learning Disabilities (2005), Core concepts of an RTI approach are the systematic (1)

application of scientific, research-based interventions in general education; (2)

measurement of a student's response to these interventions; and (3) use of the RTI data to
inform instruction. LD Online (2010). Responsiveness to Intervention and Learning
Disabilities,
retrieved
from
LD
Online
website
http://www.ldonline.org/article/Responsiveness_to_Intervention_and_Learning_Disabiliti
es
Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) have identified common teaching practices of successful
teachers, such as teaching in small steps, practicing after each step, guiding students
during initial practice, and providing all students with opportunities for success.
NICHCY, (2007), Interventions for Students with Learning Disabilities, retrieved from
NICHCY website http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/nd25.pdf
Joan Poulan presents a writing instruction approach in her video in which she encourages
students to make a planning and thinking worksheet addressing 3 questions, namely, Who
is reading? Why are they reading? and What do they already know? She then lays out
several steps for effective writing. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1Wt05eh4BU

SENSORY (Hearing) IMPAIRMENTS

Cognitive Characteristics: There are 2 primary cognitive impairments which are classified as
hearing impairments. The first is Central Auditory Processing Disorder (CAPD) which is
characterized by difficulty in processing and interpreting auditory signals often the result of a
neurological problem. The second is Auditory Neuropathy in which transmission of auditory
signals from the outer ear to the brain is impaired. National Institute on Deafness and Other
Communication Disorders (NIDCD), (March, 2011). Auditory Neuropathy retrieved from the
NIDCD website https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/pages/neuropathy.aspx
Academic Characteristics: Although student with hearing impairments generally have the same
academic abilities that their hearing peers have, their educational performance is often delayed
due to reading and language difficulties. Mavropoulos (2000). Slideshow on Characteristics of
Children
and
Youth
with
Hearing
Impairment
at
http://www.uvm.edu/~cdci/prlc/unit4_4slide/sld001.htm
Social Characteristics: Because the ability to easily communicate with others is such an integral
part of everyday social interaction, the student with hearing impairment is at an obvious
disadvantage in social situations. The level of difficulty will depend on whether the student
communicates primarily through the use of an amplification device or a cochlear implant or
through sign language or other expressive means. Students who rely on sign language to
navigate a general education setting will require the services of a translator in order to
communicate with peers and adults. This presents a natural obstacle to spontaneous social
interactions. However, people who are deaf and/or hard of hearing have organized into a tightknit social community which provides a great deal of support to its members, as well as reaching
out to the hearing community to help improve understanding of deaf issues. Deaf Culture,

as it is known, has its own values behaviors and traditions centered on improving access and
opportunities for those who are deaf or hard of hearing. Gallaudet University (2014). About
American
Deaf
Culture
retrieved
from
the
GU
website
https://www.gallaudet.edu/clerc_center/information_and_resources/info_to_go/educate_children
_(3_to_21)/resources_for_mainstream_programs/effective_inclusion/including_deaf_culture/abo
ut_american_deaf_culture.html
Emotional Characteristics: According to Margaret du Feu and Kenneth Fergusson, deaf children
tend to be more exposed than their hearing peers to risk factors which can lead to adjustment
disorders in adolescence. These factors include academic failure, low self-esteem, rejecting
relationships, inconsistent discipline, failure of age-appropriate development and abuse. Most
of these risk factors are associated with negative feelings about deafness inadequate ageappropriate communication skills. du Fue and Fergusson, (2014). The Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Available at http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/9/2/95.full
Communication Characteristics: It goes without saying that communication is the key obstacle
of students with hearing impairments. The development of technologies such as the cochlear
implant has created opportunities for hearing impaired people to hear sounds and to develop
spoken language in a way that was not possible before. Other people prefer the exclusive use of
visual communication such as sign language. When a hearing impaired student is becoming part
of a classroom, the teacher must determine how that student communicates and be prepared to
accommodate the student in any number of ways. Hall, Oyer and Haas (2001)
Physical/Medical Characteristics: There are a number of medical conditions which may be
associated with hearing impairment. For example, Vestibular Schwannoma is a type of benign
tumor which attaches to the balance and hearing nerves of the inner ear. Menieres Disease is
also a disorder of the inner ear which involves dizziness, ringing in the ears, hearing loss and
congestion in the ears. Although Menieres Disease is usually found in adults, it can develop at
any age. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), (May,
2014).
Health
Topics
retrieved
from
NIDCD
website
https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance/pages/meniere.aspx
Career Development Characteristics: Students need to be taught to advocate for themselves once
they leave the high school environment. Colleges and universities are required to provide
accommodations for students with disabilities, which of course includes those with hearing
impairment, but the student needs to be proactive in searching out the services necessary to their
particular situation. The same is true of employment situations in light of the Americans with
Disabilities Act which requires employers to provide reasonable accommodations to people with
disabilities who are otherwise qualified for a particular job. Hearing Loss Association of
America, (2014).
Young Adults and Hearing Loss retrieved from HLAA website
http://www.hearingloss.org/content/young-adults-and-hearing-loss
Interventions/Strategies:

Hall, Oyer and Haas (2001) recommend the following accommodations when teaching
hearing impaired students:
Ensure the child has an optimal hearing and listening environment in the classroom;
There should be minimal distance between the teacher and the child to facilitate
lipreading;
Face the child during all oral communication;
Ensure there is good lighting to reinforce clear sight of visual aids;
Dont exaggerate pronunciation as this will deter understanding;
Use as much visual information as possible to reinforce auditory information provided;
Keep environmental noise to a minimum to keep from interfering with listening devices;
and
Teachers should frequently check to see that the listening devices are working properly.

Hearing Assistive Technology for Children (HATS) The American Speech-LanguageHearing Association recommends that all amplification devices and cochlear implants
have the following features:
Telephone/telecoil switches: Help to isolate sounds being received and filter background
noise to improve clarity of sound.
Microphone/telecoil combination switches: Allows the child to self-monitor his/her voice
Direct Audio Input: Allows connection with assistive learning systems.
American Speech-Language Hearing-Association, (2014). Hearing Assistive Technology
for
Children
(HATS)
retrieved
from
ASLHA
website
http://www.asha.org/public/hearing/Hearing-Assistive-Technology-for-Children/

As part of The Ohio State Partnership Grant, Improving the Quality of Education for
Students with Disabilities, Carlton and Hertzfeld recommend several guidelines for
teachers of students with hearing impairment. The list includes physical considerations
such as placement of the student in the classroom, as well as factors to consider when a
sign language interpreter is present in the room. The Fast Facts series produced by this
grant is a comprehensive and detailed collection of intervention strategies for teachers. It
is found at : http://ada.osu.edu/resources/fastfacts/

ORTHOPEDIC IMPAIRMENTS
Cognitive Characteristics: Some students with orthopedic impairments have no cognitive,
perceptual or learning issues while others, especially those whose disability involves neuromotor
impairment, may have serious intellectual deficiencies. Because of the wide range of
impairments which fall into this category, the specific cognitive challenges for each student will
be determined by the type and severity of illness or injury causing the impairment. Special
Education Nation, (2014). Orthopedic Impairment retrieved from the Special Education Nation
website https://sites.google.com/site/specialeducationnation/orthopedic-impairment
Academic Characteristics: The academic implications of orthopedic impairment largely go hand
in hand with the cognitive characteristics described above. As such, they are specifically
dependent on the nature of the orthopedic disability. For most students with orthopedic
impairments, the impact on learning is focused on accommodations necessary for students to
have access to academic instruction. Special Education Nation, (2014). Since many students
with orthopedic impairments have no cognitive deficits, all efforts should be made to include
them in the general education classroom.
Social Characteristics: According to Teresa Odle, some students with orthopedic impairments
may have little in common with their peers due to lack of common experiences. For example,
physical limitations may make it impossible for kids with orthopedic issues to play sports or
participate in other extracurricular activities that create bonds between other students. These
students social interactions often are limited due to limited motor, self-help and self-care skills.
Teresa Odle (Dec., 2009) Orthopedic Impairments. Retrieved from Education.com at
http://www.education.com/reference/article/orthopedic-impairments/
Emotional Characteristics: Dependence on others for assistance with basic self-care skills can
lead to feelings of helplessness and poor self-concept for students with orthopedic disabilities.
The fact that many orthopedic impairments involve chronic and sometimes terminal illnesses
also makes these students more prone to symptoms of depression. Odle, (2009).
Communication Characteristics: As noted below, some of the diseases which cause orthopedic
impairment can also affect the students ability to communicate verbally or to use sing language.
Students with cerebral palsy, for example, often have difficulty communicating verbally and
would benefit from assistive technologies such as communication boards. Project Ideal, (2013).
Orthopedic
Impairments
retrieved
from
Project
Ideal
website
http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/orthopedic-impairments/
Physical/Medical Characteristics: This type of disability is primarily physical/medical in nature.
Orthopedic impairments are often divided into 3 main categories in order to narrow down
required interventions. The categories are: neuromotor impairments, or those affecting the
brain, spinal cord and nerves (i.e. cerebral palsy, spina bifida); musculoskeletal disorders, or

diseases and defects related to the bones and muscles (i.e. juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, limb
deficiency); and degenerative diseases, or those which affect motor movement, such as
muscular dystrophy. Degenerative diseases are also characterized by the fact that the condition
will deteriorate over time. Project Ideal, (2013). Orthopedic Impairments retrieved from Project
Ideal website http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/orthopedic-impairments/
Career Development Characteristics: Because the category of orthopedic impairments
encompasses so many different challenges for students, the career development goals for each
student will depend on his/her specific situation. George Washington University has published a
Guidance and Career Counselors Toolkit which lays out a number of strategies that educators
can use to help students organize their career development goals. They include:

Use real-world examples to illustrate the connection between the skills and knowledge
students are developing in school and their future employment.
Implement career pathways exploration (see section on career pathways).
Help students discover their talents, strengths, and career interests by attending college
fairs, career fairs, job shadowing, and career exploration activities.
Collaborate with local businesses to provide work-based experiences, such as tours,
mentoring, and job shadowing.
Develop class projects where students research and learn about different careers.
Help students understand the need for advanced skills and education for future work.
Involve business people in curriculum design to make courses more relevant to the world
of work.
Encourage student participation in their IEP meetings.
Offer instruction in workplace readiness, such as teamwork and problem solving.

George Washington University, (2006). Guidance and Career Counselors Toolkit retrieved from
GWU website https://heath.gwu.edu/files/downloads/toolkit.pdf
Interventions/Strategies:

Use of multiple specialists to assist the student with various aspects of development.
For example, physical and occupational therapists to work on gross and fine motor skills,
respectively, speech and language pathologist to help the student develop appropriate
speech patterns, and adaptive physical education instructors to help guide the student
toward activities which are within the students capabilities and offer opportunities for the
student to interact with peers in a meaningful way.

Use of assistive technology to help the student access the general education curriculum.
For example, speech recognition and screen reading software, augmentative and
alternative communication devices, and academic software packages help students to
interact with general education material in a way that they can easily manage.

Project Ideal, (2013).

Orthopedic Impairments retrieved from Project Ideal website
http://www.projectidealonline.org/v/orthopedic-impairments/

SPEECH/LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS
Cognitive Characteristics: Language impairments begin with cognitive deficits. According to
the National Institutes of Health, To develop language, a child must be able to hear, see,
understand and remember. Medicine Plus, (2012). Language disorder children, retrieved
from
the
National
Library
of
Medicine
website
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001545.htm All of those skills require correct
reception and processing of information, or cognitive skills.
Also, some speech impairments, such as apraxia, are the result of a cognitive deficit. A child
with apraxia has difficulty pronouncing sounds, syllables and words, not because of muscle
issues, but because the brain fails to process signals properly in order to move the muscles
required to form the sounds. American Speech-Language Hearing-Association, (2014).
Childhood
Apraxia
of
Speech
retrieved
from
ASLHA
website
http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/childhoodapraxia/
Academic Characteristics: Speech and language are at the heart of virtually every aspect of the
education process, so impairments in this area will naturally affect a students ability to achieve
to his/her potential in the classroom if they are not identified and addressed.
Social Characteristics: Speech and language impairments are often components of other
disabilities, such as cerebral palsy or intellectual disability and, as such, will have the social
implications discussed above. However, some students have only the speech and language
impairment, enabling them to participate more fully in social activities. However, because they
have a difficult time expressing needs and thoughts, language disorders may be a contributing
cause of severe behavioral problems. Medicine Plus, (2012). Language disorder children,
retrieved
from
the
National
Library
of
Medicine
website
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001545.htm
Emotional Characteristics: Speech and language deficits can cause feelings of low self-esteem.
Depression, anxiety and other psychological issues can have a tendency to exacerbate language
deficits. Medicine Plus, (2012). Language disorder children, retrieved from the National
Library of Medicine website http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001545.htm
Communication Characteristics: Again, communication is the central obstacle for students
whose primary disability is speech and language related. There are many things that a teacher
can do to help improve each students ability to communicate effectively in the classroom,

including preferential placement, proper use of assistive technologies, and educating other
students about appropriate ways to interact with the student. Hall, Oyer and Haas (2001)
Physical/Medical Characteristics: Speech and language difficulties can result from a variety of
other medical conditions such as cerebral palsy, autism spectrum disorders, attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder, cleft lip or palate, and various types of brain injuries. In those
instances, the teacher must educate him/herself about the implications of the overall disability as
well as how the speech and language piece affects the students ability to learn. American
Speech-Language Hearing-Association, (2014). Child Speech and Language retrieved from
ASLHA website http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/ChildSandL.htm
Career Development Characteristics: Students whose primary disability is speech and language
related should be encouraged to pursue the careers in which they are most interested. Many
speech and language issues can be addressed with the help of augmentative and alternative
communication devices (AAC). They can be as simple as a picture board or as complex as a
computer program that turns text into speech. AT (assistive technology) is often the key that
helps students engage in the give and take of shared thought, complete school work, and
demonstrate their learning. The same can be said of the work place. National Institute on
Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, (June, 2012). Assistive Devices for People with
Hearing, Voice, Speech or Language Disorders retrieved from the NIDCD website
http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/hearing/pages/assistive-devices.aspx
Interventions/Strategies:

Speech/Language Therapy. This is the most important intervention to consider for a

student with speech and/or language impairment. The Hanen Centre recommends the
following guidelines for choosing a speech or language therapist:
o Choose a therapist who considers the teacher/parent to be an
intervention partner;
o Choose a therapist who is experienced and knowledgeable;
o Choose a therapist who is child friendly
As teachers, we probably do not have a lot of input into the selection of speech and
language pathologists or specialists in our district. We can, however, work as closely as
possible with those professionals to ensure that we are providing the maximum assistance
to our students in terms of their speech and language goals. The Hanen Centre, (2011)
Guidelines for Choosing a Speech-Language Pathologist retrieved from the Hanen Centre
website
http://www.hanen.org/Helpful-Info/Articles/Choosing-a-Speech-LanguagePathologist.aspx

The National Institutes of Health recommends psychological counseling, i.e.

psychotherapy, counseling or cognitive behavioral therapy, in addition to speech/language

therapy because of the possibility that the student may suffer from emotional or
behavioral problems related to the speech or language issues. Medicine Plus, (2012).
Language disorder children, retrieved from the National Library of Medicine website
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001545.htm

TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Cognitive Characteristics: These can vary greatly depending on the location and severity of the
initial injury. Cognitive problems may include difficulty concentrating, slower processing of
information, problems with recent memory which make new learning more difficult and
executive functioning which includes goal setting, planning and organizing tasks. American
Speech-Language Hearing Association, (2014). Traumatic Brain Injury retrieved from the
ASLHA website http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/tbi/#cog_probs

Academic Characteristics: The cognitive challenges brought on by TBI may have an impact on
the students ability to learn new information, to set goals and organize thoughts and work,
and/or to attend to instruction and lessons properly. Often TBI is overlooked as the cause of
these cognitive deficits if they result from an injury which happened much earlier in the childs
life. It is very important for parents and teachers to communicate about difficulties a student
may be experiencing following a TBI. National Dissemination Center for Children with
Disabilities, (Oct., 2012).
Traumatic Brain Injury retrieved from NICHCY website
http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/tbi
Social Characteristics: The emotional issues described below can cause some students with TBI
to have difficulty in social situations. Social communication may be difficult and family and
friends of people with TBI frequently report inappropriate behavior of which the person is not
even aware. Children with TBI often have trouble relating to others. The Brain Injury
Association of America, (2014). Brain Injury in Children retrieved from BIA website
http://www.biausa.org/brain-injury-children.htm#return to school
Emotional Characteristics: Damage to the brain can cause a number of emotional and
psychological impairments to children. These include mood swings, denial, self-centeredness,
anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, restlessness, lack of motivation and difficulty controlling
emotions. The Brain Injury Association of America, (2014). Brain Injury in Children retrieved
from BIA website http://www.biausa.org/brain-injury-children.htm#return to school
Communication Characteristics: Speech and language may be affected by the cognitive
challenges associated with TBI. For example, children with TBI expressing ideas or explaining
their thoughts to others. They may also have trouble understanding written or spoken messages
from others. In addition, the muscles of the lips and tongue may be weakened, resulting in

speech which appears slurred or slow. American Speech-Language Hearing Association, (2014).
Traumatic
Brain
Injury
retrieved
from
the
ASLHA
website
http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/tbi/#cog_probs
Physical/Medical Characteristics: A number of physical and/or medical issues can surround a
child with a TBI. In addition to speech, vision and hearing problems, they may experience
frequent headaches, loss of motor coordination, muscle spasticity, paralysis, seizure disorders,
lack of balance and fatigue. The Brain Injury Association of America, (2014). Brain Injury in
Children retrieved from BIA website http://www.biausa.org/brain-injury-children.htm#return to
school
Career Development Characteristics: Issues which may affect the career development path for
students with TBI include visual problems or light sensitivity, sound sensitivity, memory
problems, cognitive fatigue, difficulty concentrating and difficulty with organizational skills such
as staying on task, completing tasks and meeting deadlines. The Brain Injury Association of
America, (2014). Brainline.org (2014). Employment and Training retrieved from the Brainline
website at http://www.brainline.org/landing_pages/categories/employment.html Mariann Young,
PhD. recommends that advocacy efforts begin early and that potential employers be educated
about the specific needs of the individual in order to maximize the students potential for success.
See Dr. Youngs Youtube video, Advice for Young Adults with TBI Entering the Workforce
found
on
the
Brainline.org
website
at
http://www.brainline.org/landing_pages/categories/employment.html
Interventions/Strategies:

Teaching Strategies for Students with Brain Injuries by Marilyn Lash (available as a pdf
from the brainline.org website at http://www.biausa.org/brain-injury-children.htm#return
to school) lists a number of accommodations teachers can make in the classroom in order
to help students with TBI succeed. They include strategies related to attention and
concentration, memory, organization and following directions.

The Direct Instruction (DI) model is based on the principles of applied behavior
analysis (Engelmann & Carnine, 1982) that include pacing, frequent opportunity to
respond, feedback, and reinforcement to maintain student engagement and ensure
learning. These principles can be applied in designing an instructional program with
students with a TBI (Glang, Singer, Cooley, & Tish, 1992). Some recommended steps
in using a DI method include the following:

Select a meaningful goal or skill the student will need to learn and present it at the
level of the student;

Provide a simple rationale to help the student understand the relevance of the
skill;

Give clearly stated task directions (limit the number of steps) and ask the student
to repeat or paraphrase the directions to ensure understanding;

Break tasks into small steps and demonstrate each step;

Provide opportunities for student response and practice at an appropriate pace;

Provide immediate feedback and error correction when necessaryfeedback

should be positive and systematic; and

Use verbal praise and encouragement frequently.

Quoted directly from brainline.org (2014). Classroom Interventions for Students with
Traumatic
Brain
Injuries
retrieved
from
brainline.org
website
at
http://www.brainline.org/content/2008/07/classroom-interventions-students-traumaticbrain-injuries_pageall.html