GENETICS LABORATORY

EXERCISE 1-7
Exercise 1
Phenotypic
Variation
in
Organisms
Variation
Basic quality of living
things
What
proves
the
identity
of
the
individual
species
(different from other
types of organisms)
Maintains
the
characteristics
that
relate it with others of
its own kind (same
species)
Variation can come in
different types of forms
1. Physiological variation
a. Albinism: Inability to
produce melanin
b. Diabetes: Deficiency of
insulin
2. Morphological variation
Different shapes (round or
oval), texture (smooth or
wrinkled), color patterns
(plain to bent lines or
mosaics), eye (red eye or
white eye)
3. Behavioral variation
Migration or nesting habits
of birds
- There is also variations
attributed to distinguish
sexuality

Phenotype
Expressed traits of the
genotype reflected on
the organism

Physical expression of
the
trait
or
characteristic

Genotype
Alleles:
different
variations of a gene
and assemble in a loci
or gene
Alleles determine the
genotype
of
the
species

Exercise 2
Physical Basis of Heredity
Cell
The basic structural and
physiological unit of the body
of an organism
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
cells carry genetic information
in their chromosomes
Cells undergo cell division:
Chromosomes replicate and
produce daughter cells
Cell cycle: Chromosomes
grow
and
reproduce

metabolic
activities
are
regular and repetitive

Cell Cycle
Interphase

MPF
CdK and cyclins which triggers
progression throughout the cell
P53
Partakes in apopstosis
Functions to block cell cycle
Cell Division
Mitosis
- New cells are generate
- Produces Diploid organisms
(same as the parent cells)

The cell cycle is 16 hours

Mitosis happens for 1 hour
Interphase is a non-mitotic
portion of the cell cycle
Gap 0
Gap 1
Synthesis
DNA replication occurs
Gap 2
Mitosis
Chromosomes
start
to
separate
Cytokinesis starts to occur
(division of the cytoplasm)
- The cell cycle has 3
checkpoints for regulation
(G1, G2 and M)
- Non-dividing cells go to the
G0 phase
CDK
Cylin dependent kinase
Major control switches of the cell
which causes the movement from
G1 to S to G2 to M

Prophase
Chromosomes condense and
become visible
Centrioles form and move
towards opposite poles
Nuclear membrane dissolves
Mitotic spindle forms
Spindle fibers attach to each
sister chromatid
at the
kinetochore
spindle
fibers
are
microtubules made up of
tubulin
Metaphase
Centrioles have fully migrated
to opposite poles
Chromosomes line up at the
metaphase plate equatorial
plate
Anaphase
Spindles
attached
to
kinetochores
are
shorten
(pulled)
Sister chromatids are pulled
apart and chromatids are at
the opposite poles
Telophase
Chromosomes decondense
Nuclear envelop is formed

 Cytokinesis (division of the

cytoplasm) is completed
Formation of 2 daughter cells
- plants do not have cytokinesis
because It has a cell wall

Meiosis
- Formation
of
gametes,
generated for reproduction
(production of haploid cells)
- Chromosome
number
in
daughter cells is reduced to
half
Important events:
1. Crossing
over
between
homologous chromosomes at
prophase I
2. Independent assortment of
homologous
pairs
at
metaphase I
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Chromosomes condense and
become visible
Centrioles move to opposite
poles
Nuclear membrane starts to
dissolve
Formation of Tetrad (4
chromatids): Homologs pair
up and begins to dissolve
Crossing over: Homologous
chromosomes swap genetic
material
Metaphase I
Microtubules grow from the
centrioles and attach to the
centromeres
Tetrads are lined up along the
metaphase plate or the cell
equator
Anaphase I
Centromeres
break
and
homologous chromosomes
separate (sister chromatids
are still attached)
Cytokinesis begins

Telophase I
Cytokinesis
is
producing
two
daughter cells

complete
haploid

Meiosis II
Prophase II
Centrioles form and move
towards opposite poles
Nuclear membrane dissolves
Metaphase II
Microtubules grow from the
centrioles and attach to the
centromeres
Sister chromatids line up
along the cell equator
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate
Cytokinesis
begins
(Division of the cytoplasm)
Telophase II
Chromosomes decondense
Formation of four haploid
daughter cells
1. Allium Cepa
Chromosome number 2n: 16
2. Whitefish Blastula
- Used to study MITOSIS
- Chromosomes are actively
dividing
Chromosome number 2n: 80
2. Grasshopper Testis
Chromosome number 2n: 24
Prophase I
Leptotene
Chromosomes
are
finely
beaded filaments
Chromatin is filamentous
Chromosomes are uncoiled

Zygotene
Thicker chromosomes
Synapsis occurs at
synaptonemal complex
Bouquet formation

the

Pachytene
Chromosomes shorten and
become thicker
Complete
pairing
and
exchange of chromosomal
arms
Haploid condition
Diplotene
Chromosomes are partly split
Chiasma
Diakinesis
Coiling of chromosomes
Chromosomes are at its
shortes and thickets
Terminalization of one or more
chiasmata

Exercise 3
Reproductive Cycles
Haplobiontic diploid (H,d)

Involves one type of parent a

diploid or 2N individual which
produces gametes through gametic
meiosis

Haplodiplobiontic, diploid-haploid
(H. d-h)

Haplobiontic, haploid (H,h)

Involves one type of parent a

haploid which produces gametes
through mitosis

Involves two types of parents one

stage is diploid (diploid sporophyte
stage), producing spores through
meiosis.
The
haploid
spores
germinate into a gametophyte (N)
that produces gametes through
mitosis

Life cycle
1. Agaricuss (Mushroom)
2. Zea Mays (Corn)

Exercise 4
Karyotyping
Method that is used in
determining the number,
shapes,
and
sizes
of
chromosome
set
of
organisms
Somatic cells undergoing
metaphase of mitosis best
exhibit chromosomes for
this purpose
Chromosomes
Compact and composed of
two identical threads
Double
nature
of
chromosomes extends along
its length except at the region
of the centromere which may
be at the middle, off- center,
close to one end or at the
terminal end

3. Drosophila
(Fruit fly)

Melanogaster

Human karyotype
Correct
number
of
human
chromosomes: 46 (23 pairs)
White blood cells were used to
karyotype
Method used for karyotyping human
chromosomes:
1. Subject the cultured human
blood cells to a mitotic
stimulator
2. White blood cells under
mitosis and then trapped in
metaphase by colchicine
3. Cells swell and nuclear
membranes
rapture
and
chromosomes scatter
Y chromosome is shorter
than X chromosome
Diseases
1. Trisonomy Syndrome
2. Klinefelters Syndrome

Exercise 5
Care and Culture of Drosophila
Melanogaster

Exercise 7
Drosophila
Melanogaster:
Polytene Chromosome

Why is a fruit fly used?

1. Short life cycle
2. Produces a fairly large
number of offspring
3. Easy to grow and maintain in
the laboratory using a variety
of simple culture media
4. Convenient to handle and
store due to small size
5. Possess only 4 pairs of
chromosomes
making
analysis of crosses easy
6. Great variability of inherited
characteristics
7. Availability of literatures
Fruit fly has 8 chromosomes
(4 pairs)
Trapping
Make use of banana peels or
any dry fruit
Banana peels or any dry fruit
is used as a bait for the fruit
flies
Culturing
Mashed
banana
(Food
medium for the drosophila)
Propionic acid or yeast
(OPTIONAL)
Subculturing
This is done when there are
many flies in one culture
bottle
CONGESTION may be a
factor which can cause the
deaths of the flies

Unregulated
gene
action
may
result
unusually to unusual
gene behavior
Repeated
replication
ovvurs
while
in
synopsis of homologue
which
produces
polytene
or
poly-

stranded
giant
chromosomes
Polytene
chromosomes
aare
viewed as enlarged
chromatin puffs which
are
long
looped
structures of DNA

Histochemical techniques
Use third instar larva
Acetocarmine/Acetoorcinol
- This dye is used to stain
the DNA (DNA specific
stain)