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Breanna Byers
Professor Collins
ENGL 1302
6 April 2016
Psychological Phenomenon: Nightmares
Nightmares are a phenomenon that no one can rationalize. It is difficult to explain how
and where they manifest. Using various causal arguments, science fanatic and Test Tube Plus
host Trace Dominguez seeks to captures his audiences attention, in hopes of leading them to
support his phenomenal discoveries about nightmares. The use of necessary, numerous remote,
and reciprocal causes in Where Do Nightmares Come From? video suggests that nightmares
only occur during rapid eye movement, after a traumatic experience, due to stress and anxiety,
and that disturbing nightmares can lead to psychosis.
Dominguez uses a necessary cause to make a claim that he believes is factual. He states,
Dreams occur during rapid eye movement (REM) (Where Do). Dominguez believes that
dreams can only occur when rapid eye movement is in place. Scientist Tadao Horis, of
Hiroshima University, research shows that during REM sleep, one can recall their dreams more
vividly and clearly as opposed to non-REM sleep (128). REM sleep has become a debatable
topic due to the fact that not much is known about the brains activities during REM sleep. Horis
research uses electroencephalography to study the brain during REM sleep and non-REM sleep.
His studies help to discredit the contrary belief that dreams only occur during REM sleep.
Although intense dreams do occur during Rapid Eye Movement, Tadaos research discredits
Dominguezs necessary statement that a dream presents itself during REM sleep. Because of
Horis claim that one can partially remember their dreams during non-rapid eye movement,

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Dominguezs reasoning is incorrect. His statement gives a half-truth, which can hurt his
character and claim. He boldly and confidently makes his claim without doing the proper
research necessary to justify it. Due to Dominguezs failure to mention that dreams can also
occur outside of REM sleep, his audience views him as an unreliable source. The use of a
necessary cause aids in Dominguezs ineffectiveness and fallaciousness of his argument.
The use of a remote cause in the video suggests that dreams can occur after trauma and to
give a measurement on the rate of dreams that one has in a weeks time. Trace Dominguez states
a shocking fact that intense dreams occur after trauma (Where Do). He uses this statement
to help expand his theory as to why people have nightmares. Traumatic experiences can effect a
person, causing one to have fearful dreams. Psychologist, Doctor Bryony Sheaves from the
University of Oxfords study reveals that people diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
and Borderline Personality Disorder, have nightmares increase to 49% to 71%. Psychological
distress leads to these intense nightmares; Sheaves study helps to confirm Dominguezs claims.
Due to the increase of dreams in persons with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, this proves that
trauma leads to reoccurring nightmares. Because a traumatic experiences causes mental distress,
ones dreams can lead to emotional instability (Sheaves et al. 355). This validation helps his
viewers trust in his arguments. Not only does this fact stun his viewers, it also helps the
audiences intellectual view of Trace. Because of this newfound view, he successfully wins his
viewers over. Dominguez then gives the statistic that two to six percent of people experience a
nightmare every single week (Where Do). In a study performed by Psychologists Ross
Levin, graduate of State University of New York at Buffalo, and Tore Neilson, Professor of
Psychiatry at the University of Montral, 85% of adults experienced one nightmare a year and
two to six percent of those studied reported having nightmares occur at least once a week (84).

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The research done by psychologists Levin and Neilson suggests that Dominguez is correct in his
study. The only flaw with this information is that this study took place in 1994. Now twenty-two
years later, perhaps the figures he presents in his claim are inaccurate. In order to make his claim
stronger, he should research more recent studies and report his findings to his audience. Then,
Dominguez would present a more accurate statistic as opposed to their studies. Though flawed,
using a remote cause helps his case by displaying accurate statistics and facts.
A remote cause is also used to demonstrate how stress and anxiety can lead to a
nightmare. Dominguez states, Most nightmares are stress-related. Theyre anxiety-related.
Some are work-related (Where Do). This fact is chosen to create a shock factor amongst his
viewers. Because of this statement, Dominguez manages to fully engage his audience, leading to
their trust of his statement. Similar to Dominguez, psychologists Levin and Neilson share
parallel views in regards to stress and anxiety. The psychologists believe that their association
with nightmares suggests that nightmare production is related to a personality style characterized
by intense reactive emotional distress (Levin and Neilson 85). Their research suggests if one
possess a carefree and worry-free personality, perhaps they will not suffer from nightmares. In
opposition, if one is easily stressed out or easily prone to anxiety, then their personality type can
trigger nightmares, thus proving Trace correct. Due to this newfound information, his audience
can logically see if they fit the personality type most susceptible to nightmares. This information
will trigger more research from his audience, hence proving him correct. It will also prove that
Dominguez is a reliable source for information regarding stress and nightmares. This specific
remote cause helps Dominguez to properly diagnose the cause of nightmares, gaining his
audiences trust.

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Trace Dominguezs video uses a reciprocal cause to stress that nightmares can lead to
clinical issues for which a distressed individual may have to seek professional help. He states,
Five percent of adults are having nightmares so severe and frequent that they cause clinical
issues to where they have to seek help (Where Do). This startling fact creates speculation;
prompting the audience to conduct their own research. Behavioral Scientist Barry Krakow of the
University of New Mexico School of Medicine and Psychologist Antonio Zadra, Professor of
Psychology at University of Montral, studies show that five to eight percent of the general
population have issues with nightmares. Most of the nightmares occur in the clinical
(psychological) population. However, their studies involve improving their patients sleep quality
by treating insomnia has decreased nightmares in their patients; hence suggesting that nightmares
can reveal a sleep disorder opposed to an indicator of psychiatric imbalance which can be
successfully treated by improving sleep quality (Krakow and Zadra 46-47). Although Trace is
correct in his statistics, the new information that nightmares in clinical patients could progress
due to sleep disorders help to counterclaim his argument. In order to help his claim, he should
have provided his audience with information on psychosis patients and their sleep patterns. By
doing this, Dominguez would have successfully validated his claim; his failure to validate his
claim created faultiness. The faulty reasoning leads his audience to distrust him and view his
evidence as invalid. The use of a reciprocal cause proves Traces evidence is invalid.
The Where Do Nightmares Come From? film uses causal arguments to credit
Dominguezs statements. Although the majority of his claims are factual, they work as a whole to
counterclaim and discredit his arguments. His misinformation causes his audience to feel
confused and misinformed. Due to the research presented, Traces video becomes misleading

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and distrusting because of his failure to properly validate his claims, therefore discrediting his
study on the cause of nightmares.

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Annotated Works Cited
Hori, Tadao, et al. "Brain Potentials Related To Rapid Eye Movements And Dreaming
During REM Sleep: A Short Review Of Psychophysiological Correlates." Sleep &
Biological Rhythms 6.3 (2008): 128-138. Academic Search Complete. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.
This article provides information on the occurrence of dreams. The study uses a test
called electroencephalography to demonstrate the brains activities during Rapid Eye
Movement (REM). This study will determine if dreams in fact occur during REM.
Krakow, Barry. Zadra, Antonio. "Clinical Management Of Chronic Nightmares:
Imagery Rehearsal Therapy." Behavioral Sleep Medicine 4.1 (2006): 45-70. Psychology
and Behavioral Sciences Collection. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.
Mr. Krakows and Mr. Zadras article provide statistics on how many people have
nightmares every night. They provide information on how cognitive therapy may
conclude that nightmares do not lead to psychosis. They provide their view on how
nightmares may be an underlying sleep disorder.
Levin, Ross. Nielsen, Tore. "Nightmares, Bad Dreams, And Emotion Dysregulation: A Review
And New Neurocognitive Model Of Dreaming." Current Directions In Psychological
Science (Wiley-Blackwell) 18.2 (2009): 84-88. Psychology and Behavioral Sciences
Collection. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.
This article provides information on nightmares that lead to psychosis. Cognitive
neuroscientists and sleep physiologists study the effects of nightmares on their subjects.
This will aid in displaying the effects of a nightmare on a persons mental health.
Sheaves, Bryony. Onwumere, Juliana. Keen, Nadine. Stahl, Daniel. Kuipers, Elizabeth.

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"Nightmares In Patients With Psychosis: The Relation With Sleep, Psychotic, Affective,
And Cognitive Symptoms." Canadian Journal Of Psychiatry 60.8 (2015): 354-361.
Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.
This article studies the cause and effect of nightmares. It also provides statistics as to how
many people have nightmares. This also provides the reader with the causes of
nightmares.
Test Tube Plus. Where Do Nightmares Come From? Online Video Clip. YouTube, 1 Aug.
2015. Web. 7 Mar. 2016.
This video is the subject of the causal argument assignment. This clip focuses on the
causes of nightmares. The video provides the viewer with statistics and various debatable
causal arguments.