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Laura Brady
History 303 Final Paper
December 8, 2014

The Most Influential Battle

The Battle of New Orleans, though fought after the war was over, gave
the United States of America the feeling of victory and secured Andrew
Jacksons status as a military hero, making it the most influential battle of
the War of 1812. While the overall war was considered a stalemate between
the United States and the British, The Battle of New Orleans itself had lasting
effects on the United States. The success at New Orleans provided an
opportunity for Americans to feel victorious. This victorious spirit helped seal
a bond between the states, creating a more united country. Andrew
Jacksons role in securing the victory in New Orleans made him a national
hero, paving the path for his political career.
The Treaty of Ghent also known as the Peace of Christmas Eve, was
signed on December 24, 1814. The treaty essentially restored things to the
way they were before the war. Each side agreed to evacuate enemy
territory, leave all acquired enemy property, return all prisoners of war, and
return all land to prewar owners. The news of this treaty did not reach the

United States until February 1815. Henry Clay, one of the negotiators in
Ghent, sent his personal secretary Henry Carroll back to the United States
with news of the treaty. Bad weather forced the ship carrying Carroll and
news of the treaty to dock in New York rather than Chesapeake Bay, further
delaying the news of peace from reaching American leaders. Travel time and
bad weather meant that the Battle of New Orleans, the United States
greatest triumph in the War of 1812, technically took place after the war was
already over.

Taking place between December 23, 1814 and January 8, 1815, the
Battle of New Orleans was the last major battle fought in the War of 1812. In
an attempt the protect New Orleans from British attack, Major General
Andrew Jackson marched into the city on December 1, 1814. Upon arrival, he
found the city was unprepared to defend themselves against an attack. Not
only did the city lack a plan, it lacked the money and man power to carry out
any such plan.2
Army General James Wilkinson, a former appointed Governor of
Louisiana, squandered the public funds,3 during his time as governor,
leaving the city low on money. Meanwhile, the war was a heavy financial
burden on the young country and increased the national debt from $57
million in 1812 to $127 million in 1815. Due to increasing national debt, the
ability to procure public funding was becoming more difficult. In November

1814, the federal government defaulted on a loan leaving many local banks
unwilling to loan the government additional funds.4

The War was an unpopular war amongst the people of New Orleans
and many lacked a sense of allegiance to the United States. The large
majority of residents in New Orleans were French and Spanish. Many of
which, declared themselves liege subjects of Spain or France,6 in order to
avoid militia duty. The lack of preparedness, money, and patriotism left
Louisiana feeling defeated.7
Jacksons arrival changed everything. After surveying the area, Jackson
immediately began organizing. New Orleans, a port city, had several key
points accessible by water. Jacksons first order of business was to
strategically block the waterways from the gulf. He then set up an
intelligence system among the blockades that would keep him aware of
British movements. Jackson then organized and sent all the men under 50
that were exempt from militia duty to search the city for anything that could
be useful. They gathered bayonets, pickaxes and any other tools they could
find. Jackson then put these men to work constructing city defenses.

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Time in the city lead Jackson to fear that a public panic10 could take place
due to the rising threat of British invasion. Jackson was unsure if, the local
population would even rally and defend their city.11 In order to establish
order he imposed martial law and issued a proclamation to the city saying,
Those who are not for us are against us and will be dealt with accordingly.

His unrelenting methods did not win him points amongst some, but his take
charge attitude got the city ready for the impending battle.

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William Clairborne, Governor of the Louisiana territory, put out a call

for all the militia in the area. Militia men came from all over including 850
Tennessee riflemen who marched 135 miles to New Orleans in three days.
Though this increase in men was promising, it was still not enough to defend
the city against a large, well trained British army. Jackson, through various
methods, including bribes and threats, gathered a militia together that
included a hodgepodge of men, to defend New Orleans. In addition to the
traditional militia, this diverse group included slaves, free black men, as well
as French and Spanish settlers. Jackson even enlisted the help of Barbarian
pirates. Under Jacksons leadership, these men from vastly different
backgrounds came together to defend New Orleans.13
With Jacksons organization and take charge attitude, the previously
unprepared city was ready to defend itself. The city didnt have long to wait.
In mid-December, The Royal Navy, attacked and defeated the gunboat fleet
on Lake Borgne. This allowed British Vice Admiral Cochrane to transfer his
troops to Isle aux Pois, a strategic move that would gain the British a
crossing onto the mainland. A week later, mainland access allowed British
troops to advance through the Villere Canal to within nine miles of New
Orleans. The British troops were now in a position for a direct assault. On
December 23, 1814, in hopes to preempt a British assault, Jacksons troops

attacked under the cover of night, wounding and killing nearly 300 British
men. While this did not push the British back, it proved that Jackson and his
militia could hold their own in battle.14
By Christmas Day, Jackson had built mud fortifications on the east bank of
the Mississippi River at the Rodriquez Canal. After a few failed attempts to
scare the Americans into retreat, the British, now under the command of
Lieutenant General Sir Edward Packenham, directly assaulted Jacksons line
of defense on January 8, 1815. The mud fortifications proved to be sufficient
and Jacksons citizen militia surprisingly claimed a clear victory against
Britains well-trained veteran Army. A swift battle claimed the lives of more
than two thousand British soldiers, including three generals. In comparison
Jacksons militia sustained only seventy-one casualties.

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The victory at the Battle of New Orleans allowed Americans to overlook the
majority of the war and focus on the final victory, boosting feelings of
national patriotism throughout the country. On January 21, 1815, Jackson
expressed this feeling in a proclamation to all the army corps in the New
Orleans area. In the proclamation, he applauded his troops for coming
together, from different states and backgrounds and working together to
form, an honourable union.16 The victory at the final battle in the war was
fought by a widely diverse group of men working together for a single cause,
which forged a bond in the United States that had not been present

previously. What had once been a country of different states, was bound
together as one nation.17
Albert Gallatin, a former senator and the longest serving United States
Secretary of the Treasury, felt the war had been, useful.18 He believed that
the war, specifically the victories, reminded the public of the feelings and
character that had bonded them following the Revolution. He said, They are
more Americans; they feel and act more as a nation19 While there were
still feelings of regional loyalty, after the War of 1812, there was also a new
feeling of pride in national identity.20
Politics played a large role in the countrys newfound patriotism. By the end
of the war, it was obvious that few Americans bothered to look honestly at
the gains and losses of war. While the United States had a clear victory in
New Orleans, the rest of the war was not as victorious. From the start the
United States had many struggles to overcome in the war including, a
shortage of men in the army and navy, an expensive and often
untrustworthy militia, untrained military leaders, and significant financial
troubles all culminating in the loss of several battles. The treaty of Ghent,
which signified the end of the war, was a stalemate at best. The United
States legally gained nothing from the War. Despite military troubles and a
stalemate treaty, Republicans showcased the war as a success.21
Republicans, having been the ones to push for the divisive war, seized
the opportunity Jacksons New Orleans victory offered to proclaim a United

States victory. Republicans, in order to justify the push for war, loudly touted
the victories. Success at New Orleans helped cement Republican power and
lead to a period of one-party rule. Never was there a more glorious
opportunity for the Republican Party to place themselves permanently in
power.22 Exploiting the victory at New Orleans to the fullest extent,
Republicans helped rewrite the history of the War of 1812 in the minds of the
American people.23
In order to rewrite history, Republicans spread Jacksons New Orleans victory
throughout the nation. In his book, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict,
Donald Hickey argues that the Battle of New Orleans was key in presenting
the war as an American Victory. Republicans were calling The Battle of New
Orleans the turning point of the war before they even knew the terms of the
Treaty of Ghent. Congressman Charles J Ingersoll said, But the Victory at
Orleans has rendered them glorious and honorable...24 He felt that the
American wrongs had been set right, and their rights had been recognized.
He proclaimed, Who is not proud to feel himself an American?25
The rewritten history that the United States had won the war became
so common place that the Niles Register in 1816 said, We did virtually
dictate the Treaty of Ghent.26 Over the years, most forgot about the
struggles and failures of the war and were left with the memory of a
triumphant defeat of Great Britain. While the war was basically a stalemate
and Republicans turned one battles victory into a victorious war, one thing

that is certain is that the Battle of New Orleans helped seal the feelings of
national pride that swept the country following the War of 1812.27
The feelings of pride and patriotism could also be seen in the celebrity
culture28 and marketing of patriotism that took place after the war.
Miniature portraits and other souvenir items boasting the images of Navy
heroes from the war became very popular. United States Naval officer
Commodore Stephen Decatur, whose imaged was mass produced following
the war, is one such example of this new military celebrity culture.
Wealthier Americans wanting to show their patriotism purchased
Staffordshire pottery. This pottery, commemorating the War of 1812,
although produced in England, was quite popular in the United States
following the war.29
The Battle of New Orleans not only helped transform a country of
states into a united nation, it also helped launch Andrew Jacksons political
career. Before the War of 1812, Jackson would not have been given the
chance at a political career in the United States. According to Matthew
Rainbow Hale, assistant professor of history at Goucher College, before the
War, Easterners held intense disdain, for backcountry settlers.30
Jackson, the non-aristocrat from the hills of Tennessee, was one of those
backcountry settlers. The victory in New Orleans helped change their
image. Uncivilized, settlers became brave, strong, rugged, frontiersmen in

the eyes of the country. Historian Nicole Eustace Said, After the War of 1812,
a new style of leader steeped in the lure of the backcountry, rose to power.31
Jacksons military successes earlier in the war, especially his victory at
Horseshoe Bend, had started to gain national attention, but his actions in
New Orleans proved him to be a national hero. When Jackson arrived in New
Orleans on December 1, 1814, he found a city that was completely
unprepared for battle. His quick and strategic actions to secure the
waterways and his ability to build a militia set the United States up for
victory. While American victory in New Orleans was made more possible by
poorly planned tactics on the part of the British, Jacksons military prowess
was what sealed the deal. Jackson was a natural leader. He was fiercely
determined and courageous, making him an effective military leader. It is
said that Jacksons immediate actions to defend New Orleans, convinced all
that he was the man the occasion demanded.32 He had the ability to rally
men and he, demanded and got more from his militia than other
commanders.33
Not only was Jackson a leader of men, as he aptly proved in New
Orleans, he was also a true military leader. Jackson, immediately after
arriving in New Orleans developed a defensive plan. He strategically placed
the militia, blocking potential entry points into the city and developed a
communication system with his men. Throughout the Battle of New Orleans
Jackson made military decisions that lead to victory. His ability to wisely

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decide whether to launch a preemptive attack as he did on December 23,

1814 or to pull back and reorganize as he did on December 25, 1814, was
key to victory.34
The months following his New Orleans victory, Jackson was paraded
around to parties and dinners to meet local dignitaries, politicians and
admirers. As Jackson made the rounds, newspapers would report on the
elegant dinners as well as the inspiring toasts he gave. On one such
occasion Jackson toasted, Union the sure basis of our political existence.
The dinners and news coverage of the dinners helped promote Jacksons
image and keep his hero status at the forefront of the nations mind.35
Although Jackson was unsuccessful at obtaining the presidency in his
first attempt, his success as a military leader gave him a firm foundation to
build on. Jackson was able to use his military status during his campaign,
capitalizing on the American admiration of the self-evident patriotism of
those who served in uniform.36 Before the war, Jackson would have been
considered, backcountry.37 His prominence as a military leader allowed
him to overcome that stigma and eventually win the Presidential race in
1828.
The War of 1812 was wrought with troubles for the United States. The
country lost its capital to the British and almost collapsed financially, but its
the victory at the Battle of New Orleans that changed a nation, making it the
most influential battle of the War of 1812. Jacksons subsequent rise to the

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presidency began with his military accomplishments specifically from the

leadership shown in the Battle of New Orleans. More importantly, the
triumphant spirit, brought on by the victory of a battle that had no effect on
the outcome of the war, was able to unify the nation.

1 Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (University of Illinois press,
1990) 299.
2 Ibid.,206.
3 Ibid
4 J.C.A. Stagg, The War of 1812: Conflict for a Continent (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2012) 157.
5 Reginald C. Stewart, Civil-Military Relations During the War of 1812 (Santa Barbara:
Praeger Security International) 38.
6 Hickey, The War of 1812, 206.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.,207.
9 Stewart, Civil-Military Relations, 114.
10 Ibid.,112.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 Hickey, The War of 1812, 207.
14 Stagg, The War of 1812, 152.
15 Ibid.
16 Walter R. Borneman, 1812, The War that Forged a Nation (New York: HarperCollins
Publishers Inc.,2004) 303.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.,304.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid.
21 Stagg, The War of 1812, 154.

22 Hickey, The War of 1812, 307.

23 Ibid., 308.
24 Ibid.,309.
25 Ibid.
26 Ibid.
27 Ibid.,308.
28 Dr. Sara Babcox First, Class lecture, 10/20/2014.
29 Ibid.
30 Nicole Eustace, Interchange: War of 1812, Journal of American History (2012): 527.
31 Ibid., 534.
32 Hickey, The War of 1812, 206.
33 Stewart, Civil-Military Relations, 84.
34 Hickey, The War of 1812, 210.
35 Nicole Eustace, 1812: War and the Passions of patriotism (Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press,2012) 234.
36 Stewart, Civil-Military Relations, 21.
37 Eustace,Interchange: War of 1812, 527