MICROSTRUCTURE EXAMINATION OF STEEL

TITLE
Microstructure examination of steel
OBJECTIVE

To observe the constituents and structure of metals and their alloys by means of an optical
microscope.

INTRODUCTION
Microscopic examination with digital imaging Microstructure analysis is conducted by microscopic
examination, a process that studies the structure of materials under magnification. The properties of a
material determine how it will perform under a given application and these properties are dependent on
the materials structure. Industrial processes or treatments such as casting, welding and heat treating are
often applied to metals to prepare them for particular applications and to improve their characteristics
and properties. A microscopic examination may be conducted to evaluate the effects of a process on
material using optical microscopy at low magnification or scanning electron microscopy (SEM) under
high magnification.
There may be residual effects of these processes and treatments, inclusion or contaminants that can be
explained by microstructure analysis and microscopic examination. In many cases, the investigation
centers on the correlation between the resulting microstructure and the material properties.
For example, exposure of carbon and alloy steels to elevated temperatures during heat treatment can
cause a loss or gain of carbon near the surfaces of the parts if the atmosphere in the furnace is not
properly controlled. Decarburization causes the surface to be soft and weak with little wear resistance,
while unwanted carburization can cause the surface to become too brittle. Also, if austenitic stainless
steel does not see sufficient temperature for enough time or does not receive a sufficiently rapid quench
during heat treating, the carbon in the alloy will form chromium carbides on the grain boundaries which
will make the material brittle and susceptible to inter granular corrosion. A sensitization test will reveal
this problem.
On the other hand, scanning electron microscopy is used to determine abnormalities such as inclusions,
segregation, and surface layers, as well as fracture features. When used in combination with energy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), the microstructure analysis can identify inclusion type and
corrodents on the fracture face.

Figure 1 (Callister Jr W.D., 2010)

1

Microscopy (Optical)
When a polished flat sample reveals traces of its microstructure, it is normal to capture the image using
macrophotography. More sophisticated microstructure examination involves higher powered
instruments: optical microscopy, electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and so on, some involving
preparation of the material sample (cutting, microtomy, polishing, etching, vapor-deposition etc.). The
methods are known collectively as metallography as applied to metals and alloys, and can be used in
modified form for any other material, such as ceramics, glasses, composites, and polymers.
Two kinds of optical microscope are generally used to examine flat, polished and etched specimens: a
reflection microscope and an inverted microscope. Recording the image is achieved using a digital
camera working through the eyepiece.

THEORY (scitation, [Online], Available: http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal)

The theory exhibits all four attributes of normal grain growth: uniformity, scaling, stability, and
lognormality. A prime new feature of the theory is the division of the grains into topological classes (14
planar, 34 spatial), each with a lognormal distribution of grain sizes. Growth is found to be controlled by
the rate of loss of grains from the lowest topological class. Complete solutions are found for the grain
growth kinetics of each class, as well as the transfer rates between classes. The latter result is used to
explain how the median diameter of those classes in which grains are shrinking still manages to increase
in the manner required to keep their number a constant fraction of the total population. A parabolic
growth law is found for the median grain size of the whole population as well as the median grain size in
each topological class. The growth constant for each class is found to increase approximately as the cube
of the planar topological parameter or the square of the spatial topological parameter. The RhinesCraig
structural gradient is shown to be independent of time and hence a basic constant of normal grain
growth. Stability is due to a maximum in the grain boundary velocity with increasing grain size.

AVERAGE GRAIN INTERCEPT (AGI) METHOD

The average grain intercept (AGI) method is a technique used to quantify the grain - or crystal - size for
a given material by drawing a set of randomly positioned line segments on the micrograph, counting the
number of times each line segment intersects a grain boundary, and finding the ratio of intercepts to line
length. Thus, the AGI is calculated as: AGI = (number of intercepts)/(line length).
A sample with small crystals will have a high AGI value compared to a sample with large crystals.

MATERIALS AND APPARATUS

Optical microscope
Metal specimen
2

Torch light
A cleaned cloth
Abrasive papers

PROCEDURE
First the specimen surface was grounded and polished to a smooth and mirror like finish.
Then it was kept in the optical microscope and the torch or a bulb was provided to supply the
necessary enlightment.
The structure of the specimen was captured through the optical microscope with naked eyes.
Then in order to determine grain size a random length was chosen and five lines with the same
length which were parallel to each other was drawn in the scanned paper of microstructures.
Afterwards the grains covered by each of the drawn lines was counted separately.
Thereafter the number of grains intersected by each line was added and the total was obtained.
The average grain was calculated after dividing the total of the grains from the number of lines
drawn.
Finally the length of a line in m was divided by the average grains.
OBSERVATIONS
Grain Size Determination
Length of a line 80 mm
Length in m (50 / 5) * 8
Number of grains in each of the lines accordingly 7.5, 13, 9.5, 9, 7
Total of grains 7.5 + 13 + 9.5 + 9 + 7 = 46
Average grains 46 / 5 = 9.2
Grain size 80 / 9.2 = 8.695 m

Some rusted areas were seen in brown colour which were randomly oriented..
The surface looked yellowish due to the light which was used to enlighten the area.
Parallel lines were visible due to the scratches uttered while polishing the specimen.
The grain boundaries were not visible as an optical microscope was used.

CALCULATIONS

In order to determine the ASTM grain size number (n) it is necessary to employ the following
equation.
log N = ( n-1) log 2

( Equation 1)
3

To determine the grains per square inch regarding a specific magnification in the microscope can
be obtained as follows.
NM (M / 100) 2 = 2 n-1

Total grains
=
Average grains =

Grain size

(Equation 2)
total of grains intersected from each grain
Total number of grains
Number of lines
Length of a line in m
Average grain size

RESULTS

Total grains
Average grains
Grain size

= 7.5 + 13 +9.5 +9 +7 = 46
= 46 /5 =9.2
= 80 / 8.2 = 8.695 m

DISCUSSION
4

CONCLUSION
7

REFERENCES

Callister Jr W.D., R.D.G. (2010) 'Materials Science and Engineering ' Wiley.

Experiment 3, [Online], Available:

http://www.csun.edu/~tarek/EXP3%20Metallography.htm.

Materials Testing, [Online], Available: http://www.labtesting.com/services/materialstesting/metallurgical-testing/microscopic-examination/#sthash.IQ42g0ms.dpuf.