w

art + societate / arts + society

#45, 2014 30 lei / 11 , 14 USD

Aspiraiile celor care ar vrea s izoleze arta de lumea social snt asemntoare cu cele ale porumbelului
lui Kant ce-i imagina c, odat scpat de fora de frecare a aerului, ar putea zbura cu mult mai liber. Dac
istoria ultimilor cincizeci de ani ai artei ne nva ceva, atunci cu siguran c ea ne spune c o art detaat
de lumea social e liber s mearg unde vrea, numai c nu are unde s mearg. (Victor Burgin)
The aspirations of those who would isolate art from the social world are analogous to those of Kants dove which dreamed of
how much freer its flight could be if only were released from the resistance of the air. If we are to learn any lesson from the
history of the past fifty years of art, it is surely that an art unattached to the social world is free to go anywhere but that it has
nowhere to go. (Victor Burgin)

Veda Popovici
I Know..., September 2013, photography, Veda Popovici

On the cover: Dan Mihlflianu, Pocket Revolution, bottles, self-distilled alcohol, cotton, edition of 365 (prototype), MAGMA, Sf. Gheorghe, 2014

arhiva

Luis Camnitzer: sinteza angajamentului pentru art cu angajamentul pentru o via mai bun

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

109

LUIS CAMNITZER: A SYNTHESIS OF THE COMMITMENT TO ART WITH A COMMITMENT TO A BETTER LIFE

Ovidiu ichindeleanu
7

+ performance art in Eastern Europe

Continuitate i schimbare: arta performance n Europa de Est

ncepnd cu anii 1960
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: PERFORMANCE ART IN EASTERN EUROPE
SINCE THE 1960S

Amy Bryzgel

Arta colonial contemporan (1969)

CONTEMPORARY COLONIAL ART (1969)

Luis Camnitzer
verso

11

161

Accesul la mainstream (1987)

ACCESS TO MAINSTREAM (1987)

Dup Dussel: nceputul critic al modernitii filosofice

ntre Las Casas i Guamn Poma
AFTER DUSSEL: THE CRITICAL BEGINNING OF PHILOSOPHICAL
MODERNITY BETWEEN LAS CASAS AND GUAMN POMA

Luis Camnitzer

Ovidiu ichindeleanu
15

Art i politic: esteticile rezistenei (1994)

ART AND POLITICS: THE AESTHETICS OF RESISTANCE (1994)

20

ANTI-CARTESIAN MEDITATIONS: ABOUT THE ORIGIN

OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL ANTI-DISCOURSE OF MODERNITY

POLITICAL POP (1998)

Enrique Dussel

galerie

24

Dan Mihlianu: Liquid Economy: Production/Consumption/Alienation

scena

45

ntotdeauna la un pas de art

ALWAYS A STEP AWAY FROM ART

Diana Marincu
Cum s lupi pentru lucruri care nu exist
HOW TO FIGHT FOR THINGS THAT DONT EXIST

Tobi Maier
59

Arta n epoca redundanei informaionale. Alexandru Polgr n dialog cu George Crngau

ART IN THE AGE OF INFORMATIONAL REDUNDANCY. Alexandru Polgr in Conversation with George Crngau

66

Dezacord i certitudine
DISSENT AND CERTAINTY

Gerardo Montes de Oca Valadez

74

Contramonumente, sculpturi precare i coregrafii efemere,

sau ce este de fcut n faa resureciei fascismului?
COUNTER-MONUMENTS, PRECARIOUS SCULPTURES AND EPHEMERAL CHOREOGRAPHIES,
OR WHAT IS TO BE DONE AGAINST THE RESURRECTION OF FASCISM?

Cristian Nae
81

Performance-ul ca obiect de cercetare artistic. Alexandru Polgr n dialog cu Szilrd Mikls

PERFORMANCE AS AN OBJECT OF ARTISTIC RESEARCH. Alexandru Polgr in Conversation with Szilrd Mikls

87

The Moldavian Dream. Teatrul angajat al Nicoletei Esinencu

THE MOLDAVIAN DREAM: NICOLETA ESINENCUS ENGAGED THEATER

Iulia Popovici
92

Reflecii despre practica artistic din Romnia: nainte de 1989 i acum

REFLECTIONS ON ARTISTIC PRACTICE IN ROMANIA, THEN AND NOW

Amy Bryzgel & Corina L. Apostol

insert

106

Meditaii anticarteziene: originea antidiscursului filosofic al modernitii

Pop politic (1998)

Luis Camnitzer

49

163

Flaviu Rogojan: Exhibition Views

arhiva

Luis Camnitzer: sinteza angajamentului pentru art

cu angajamentul pentru o viafl mai bun

IDEA art + societate / IDEA arts + society

Cluj, #45, 2014 / Cluj, Romania, issue #45, 2014

Editat de / Edited by:

IDEA Design & Print Cluj i Fundaia IDEA
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Ovidiu ichindeleanu

www.ideamagazine.ro
e-mail: ideamagazine@gmail.com
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OVIDIU ICHINDELEANU
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CIPRIAN MUREAN
Acest numr apare cu sprijinul generos al lui Pl Pter.
This issue has been published with the generous support of Pl Pter..

Revista apare cu sprijinul Administraiei Fondului Cultural Naional.

Revista apare cu sprijinul Administraiei Fondului Cultural Naional.

Textele publicate n aceast revist nu reflect neaprat punctul de vedere al redaciei.

Preluarea neautorizat, fr acordul scris al editorului, a materialelor publicate n aceast revist constituie
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Unul dintre instrumentele fundamentale de lucru pe care le folosete gndirea decolonial e rsturnarea perspectivei eurocentrice. Prin schimbarea reperelor istorico-epistemice din perspectivele proprii ale periferiilor noneuropene se urmrete instituirea unui revizionism istoric radical, necesar pentru aducerea la
vizibilitate, cu consecine, a istoriilor reprimate ale modernitii. Mutaia poate fi realizat fie programatic, la
un nivel instituional al politicului, fie gradual, ca o revoluie nceat, la nivelul cultural al politicului, prin adunarea treptat de referine diferite ale rezistenei, altfel reduse la invizibilitate de colonialitatea cunoaterii. n ambele cazuri, ceea ce ctig vizibilitate i solicit munca intelectual angajat i de durat e profunzimea istoriei
oprimate, adncimea altor istorii, conexiunile nebnuite i necesitatea gndirii noneurocentrice.
Aceast arhiv cu scrieri ale lui Luis Camnitzer face parte din a doua categorie. Dei aceast orientare e susceptibil recuperrii, deturnrii i/ori oportunismului, din cauza poziiei inevitabile de avangard cultural, e n acelai timp cea mai lizibil i vizibil pentru ochi mai puin obinuii cu clarobscurul periferiei. Selecia propune o
mutaie a perspectivei din interiorul unor practici artistice i teoretice ce i afl calea spre liberare tocmai n
contientizarea raporturilor complexe dintre centru i periferie.
Luis Camnitzer e un artist uruguayan diasporic, stabilit din 1964 n SUA, care i-a cldit ntreaga practic de
artist conceptual pe ntrebri ridicate dinspre periferia nonoccidental i rezistena mpotriva autocolonizrii,
motivat de contientizarea situaiei de venic imigrant n relaie cu imperiul n inima cruia triete. Prima imigrare a lui Luis Camnitzer a avut loc afar din Europa i nainte de zorii memoriei: nscut n Lbeck n 1937, prinii
si au fugit din Germania nazist n 1939. Sptmna petrecut pe vaporul transatlantic a contat ns mult n
viaa bebeluului de abia un an: dup ce a studiat arhitectura i sculptura n Uruguay, Camnitzer a ncercat ntoarcerea n Germania, studiind sculptura i imprimeria grafic la Mnchen, unde s-a simit ns cu totul latinoamerican. A revenit apoi pe continentul american, ns, purtat n continuare de destinul exilului, Camnitzer a
imigrat ca uruguayan n imperiul Statelor Unite n 1964, n acelai timp n care n Uruguay ajungeau experi
venii din Statele Unite, precum Dan Mitrione, care aveau s predea i s generalizeze folosirea torturii pentru reprimarea disidenelor de stnga, incluznd proeminent prieteni, profesori i colegi de-ai si de generaie
care rmseser n Montevideo.
Ca artist conceptual, Camnitzer ajunge s pun ntrebri necesare pentru actul de a concepe ntr-o art contemporan care se strduie s perceap i s lupte mpotriva presiunii puterilor capitaliste i coloniale. Camnitzer se ntreab cum poate lucra artistul n afara condiiilor dominante i ce anume localizeaz politic artistul,
fr a grbi actul nelegerii n reprezentare. De fapt, motivul ntrzierii necesare, al crerii unui timp propriu
ca parte din strategia de rezisten, de refacere a istoriei, poate fi regsit nu doar n raportarea sa fa de deceniile 506070809000 ale artei contemporane, care produce de altfel o ntreag alt istorie a artei,
ci i n atitudinea sa fa de propriile idei sau momente de turnur, care se opune radical atitudinii artistului
din periferie care compenseaz retardul perceput al periferiei sale originare cu asimilarea celor mai avansate forme ale avangardei. Astfel, primul text din grupaj ncepe cu declaraia: Mi-au trebuit cam cinci ani s
neleg c acest enun era adevrul altcuiva; n propria sa practic, Camnitzer a realizat Uruguayan Torture Series
(19831984) cu dubl ntrziere, de un deceniu de la evenimente. Acesta e contextul invizibil n care trebuie citit i reflecia sa despre arta pop din acest dosar. Valenele apolitice i politice ale artei pop arat cu
totul altfel ntr-o revizitare a sa mpreun cu colegii si de generaie, care rmseser n Montevideo i suferiser abuzurile anilor de tortur ai dreptei. n fond, unul dintre profesorii si de sculptur se dovedise a fi unul
dintre liderii micrii Tupamaros, care fusese dat afar rapid de la universitate dup ce a fost arestat pentru
jefuirea unei bnci.

Tel.: 0264431603; 0264431661

0264594634
ISSN 15838293
Tipar / Printing:
Idea Design & Print, Cluj

OVIDIU ICHINDELEANU (n. 1976). Doctor n filosofie (2008), cu o tez despre mediile moderne ale sunetului i arheologia cunoaterii la
1900, n pregtire pentru publicare n limba englez. Studii de filosofie la Cluj (Universitatea Babe-Bolyai), Strasbourg (Universitatea Marc
Bloch) i Binghamton (Universitatea de Stat New York), cu specializare n filosofiile german i francez ale ultimelor dou secole. n prezent,
pregtete volumul Colonizarea postcomunist. O istorie critic a culturii de tranziie.

arhiva

ntr-o lume socializat astfel nct nelegerea realitilor dominaiei se convertete foarte repede n pesimism
i cinism, iar arta funcioneaz ca supap controlat a atitudinilor critice, Camnitzer reamintete nevoia de timp
al rezistenei i revoluiei, faptul c nsui actul nelegerii adevrului va fi convertit de forele istoriei ntr-o abstracie alienant dac nu e nsoit de munca din domeniul ideilor, angajat n profunzime nu doar pentru alfabetizarea perceptual n coninut, ci i pentru asumarea construciei nsei a unei culturi a schimbrii sociale i
politice. n aceasta const, aici, utilitatea artei. Iar prin Camnitzer, micrile artei contemporane, cmpul su epistemic surprins de el ntre abstracionism, conceptualism i arta pop, snt recentrate din perspectiva unei periferii participative, intervenioniste, senzoriale, care are, spre deosebire de curentele occidentale la care se
raporteaz, un angajament politic foarte clar. n alte scrieri, Camnitzer declar fr echivoc c, n ceea ce privete arta conceptual latinoamerican, istoria canonic e att de ideologizat nct ar trebui tears i nlocuit
cu o alt istorie. Succesiunea micrilor artistice canonizat n centrele occidentale e nlocuit cu genealogia
dada-situaionism-Tupamaros-conceptualism; pentru nelegerea adecvat a artei conceptuale latinoamericane, a modurilor n care aceasta refolosete materiale, adopt i adapteaz postri i ctig densitate, Camnitzer propune la un moment dat conceptele intraductibile, n istoria artei, de ajiaco, supa caraibian de resturi,
salpicn, salata rece de carne i legume, i compota, compotul.
Textele lui Camnitzer pot fi vzute, la limit, ca un fel de exerciiu freirian al contientizrii politice sau chiar ca
un exerciiu fanonian al observrii modurilor intime ale asimilrii coloniale, al alfabetizrii n citirea propriei situaii coloniale, aplicat desigur la lumea artei. Rezultatul nu e doar deschiderea ctre alte istorii ale artei, dar
i un repertoriu de referine i strategii alternative pentru esteza liberrii. Doar prin asumarea poziiei de imigrant
din lumea subdezvoltat ajunge Camnitzer s surprind caracterul provincial al artei occidentale dominante, s caute i s observe istoriile locale relevante prin care arta, dar i alte practici rspund mprejurimilor proprii i le transform. De la micarea de gheril urban Tupamaros, Camnitzer nva despre creativitate n general
i despre necesitatea activrii proceselor creatoare n arene nonartistice, iar de la artitii latinoamericani nva
diferena dintre subversiunea de dragul subversiunii i un angajament sintetic pentru art i pentru o via mai
bun. Istoria local pe care o traseaz Camnitzer poart i o alt nvtur ce poate fi aplicat altundeva, anume
c la periferie, spre deosebire de Occident, edificarea culturii i agitaia politic nu snt separate, iar aceasta are
consecine paradigmatice pentru natura abstraciei nsei, indiferent c aceasta e exprimat cu instrumentele
artei sau cu cele ale teoriei.

Arta colonial contemporan (1969)

Luis Camnitzer

Aveam aproape optsprezece ani cnd am citit primele trei volume din The Culture of the Cities de Lewis Mumford. Din toat cartea am reinut doar o singur idee, o descriere cu care m-am identificat spontan: Baia e
unicul loc al intimitii care ne-a mai rmas. Mi-au trebuit cam cinci ani s neleg c acest enun era adevrul
altcuiva. E adevrat ntr-un megalopolis, dup cum l numete nsui Mumford, un monstru de ora crescut
prea mare, dar cu siguran nu era adevrat n oraul meu, Montevideo, cu mai puin de un milion de locuitori i spaii foarte largi, cel puin pe atunci i n contextul meu. Un simptom al culturii metropolitane reuise
s evoce n mine, un locuitor al coloniilor prin mijloace aparent intelectuale , o experien pe care nu o
avusesem niciodat.
i-ntr-o zi am plecat din ara mea. Pe atunci, oamenii fluierau cnd doreau s i exprime n mod public dezaprobarea. Cinci ani mai trziu m-am ntors i am descoperit c fluieratul era folosit pentru aprobare, la fel ca
n Statele Unite ale Americii.
Un domn dintr-o ar dezvoltat inventeaz cartofii prjii. n propriul su context trit, el reuete s mbogeasc astfel calitativ ora de cocktail, mbogindu-se i pe sine cantitativ. Din contr, n context colonial
el introduce un nou obicei, o chestiune de statut, un punct de identificare prin care colonia se poate raporta
la metropol, creznd c simte i se comport la fel. Putem spune c ceea ce a avut loc e un viol cultural prin
intermediul cartofului.
Astfel de exemple evideniaz doar fragmente din procesul de transculturare, doar o parte din cercul vicios
al dependenei economice, al monoproduciei, al crerii nevoilor artificiale i al substituirii valorilor culturale.
E un proces a crui mplinire e situaia ideal n care mai toat lumea chiar vrea s participe. Transculturarea
a creat un mod de a asculta ultimul album, de a citi ultima carte, de a mesteca ultima gum, conform tuturor
calapoadelor metropolitane. Nici nu e necesar ca acest proces s se realizeze n toate segmentele sociale. Din
perspectiva Imperiului, n condiiile n care mecanismul general e bine uns, aceast necesitate scade n proporie cu cantitatea de putere deinut de fiecare segment social.
Cele mai multe clase sociale ncap ntre Cadillac i coca-cola, dei unele rmn sub cea din urm. Agenia de
pres UPI le ofer tuturor informaie imediat, totalizat i universal.1 n acelai timp, furnizarea informaiei
filtrate produce ignoran imediat, totalizat i universal.
Artistul face parte din aceste segmente sociale informate i izolate. n zonele coloniale, artistul ocup un rol
destul de vag definit undeva ntre bufon i purttor de cuvnt. El e o sprtur prin care continu procesul
de filtrare impus de presiunea informaional a Imperiului. E ciudat faptul c expresia art colonial are doar
conotaii pozitive i se refer doar la trecut. n realitate, aceasta e prezent, fiind numit, cu benevolen, stilul internaional. Cu mai puin politee, ea tinde s fie epigonic, de mna a doua i uneori doar oportunist.
Exist un proces cognitiv i o retoric foarte specifice Imperiului, i care nu snt noi. Ca preedinte al Statelor
Unite, John Quincy Adams declara n 1842: Datoria moral de a ntreprinde schimburi comerciale ntre naiuni
se bazeaz doar pe premisa cretin a datoriei de a ne iubi vecinul. Pe atunci, concluzia tras pe baza acestui concept a fost c, din moment ce China nu era cretin, era antisocial i amenintoare. Ca urmare, principiul fundamental al Imperiului Chinez e anticomercial. Aceasta a constituit justificarea moral pentru declanarea
rzboaielor opiului, dup cum au fost numite, cele dou rzboaie purtate n primul rnd ntre Marea Britanie i China, dar de pe urma crora a profitat puternic civilizaia occidental i cretin.
Comodorul Perry s-a dus cu patru nave de rzboi s i ofere Japoniei izolaioniste un tratat comercial. apte
luni mai trziu, n februarie 1845, s-a ntors dup rspuns cu o flotil mai mare.
Precum comerul, arta e dincolo de jocurile politice meschine: arta mbuntete comunicarea i nelegerea ntre oameni; e un numitor comun al nelegerii. Lumea devine tot mai mic n fiecare zi, iar sub preul

Textele din prezenta arhiv snt preluate din

volumul Luis Camnitzer, On Art, Artists, Latin America and Other Utopias, ed. Rachel
Weiss, Austin, University of Texas Press,
2009.
Editorii i mulumesc lui Luis Camnitzer,
Peggy L. Gough i UTP pentru acordarea
drepturilor de publicare.

1. United Press International, cea mai

mare agenie de pres din Statele Unite
din secolul XX (i n momentul n care
scria Camnitzer). Fondat n 1958, i-a
pierdut poziia hegemonic pe piaa
nord-american n favoarea ageniei
Associated Press n anii 19801990.
(N. tr.)

LUIS CAMNITZER s-a nscut n Germania n 1937, a crescut n Montevideo, Uruguay, triete i lucreaz n New York din 1964. S-a afirmat
internaional nu doar ca artist, ci i ca teoretician, critic i pedagog. n anii 19601970 Camnitzer a fost aliat oficial cu conceptualitii americani, dar
n ultimii 50 de ani a realizat o oper autonom.

arhiva

2. Jumtate de secol mai trziu, Statele

Unite consum 28% din bunurile de
consum din lume, ns n condiiile n
care producia global de bunuri de consum a crescut la niveluri fr precedent
n istoria umanitii. mpreun, Statele
Unite, Uniunea European i Japonia
continu s consume aprox. 62% din
bunurile de consum din lume, chiar dac
anumite rapoarte susin c din 2013
China a depit consumul Japoniei. Cf.
UNSD (Divizia de Statistic a Organizaiei Naiunilor Unite), unstats.un.org.
(N. tr.)

3. Bienala de la Veneia din 1964, la care

marele premiu a fost acordat artistului
american Robert Rauschenberg, e considerat momentul de turnur n care
s-a schimbat raportul de autoritate ntre
artele vizuale din Europa i cele din Statele Unite, prin succesul artei pop nordamericane. Frana a acuzat juriul de
colonizare cultural american. (N. tr.)

acestei expresii e ascuns diferena ce crete tot mai mult, n fiecare clip, ntre necesitile culturale ale rilor economic dezvoltate i cele ale rilor subdezvoltate sau n curs de dezvoltare.
Realizrile metropolei se bucur automat de validitate internaional. Dac i numeti n Statele Unite pe un
Jasper Johns sau Rauschenberg artiti locali buni, cu toate implicaiile de provincialism, asta sun a insult,
e ofensator. Amndoi snt staruri universale, iar arta nu are frontiere. Dimensiunile problemei transculturrii
pot fi intuite din faptul c arta nu are frontiere nu mai e o figur de stil, o vorb de duh, ci mai degrab o
banalitate.
Distorsiunea e ns i mai profund. Statele Unite ale Americii, care dein 6% din populaia lumii, consum
50% din bunurile de consum din lume.2 Pe lng consecinele militare legate de necesitile meninerii acestei situaii i mulumit acestei proporii destul de monstruoase, SUA au puterea de a stabili condiiile pieei
pentru bunuri de consum. Bunurile de consum artistice nu constituie o excepie de la regul.
Imperiul se strduie s disemineze o cultur, chiar dac aceast cultur e doar un set de obinuine. n metropol snt produse bunuri de consum artistic a cror origine e o cultur existent. Creaia acestor bunuri (pe
care le numim produse culturale) i consumul lor se acumuleaz n ceea ce numim istoria artei. Aceast
istorie e metropolitan, iar atunci cnd apar istorii locale n alte locuri, acestea snt compilate folosind aceeai
msurtoare. Cel care determin ceea ce e universal determin i modul n care trebuie realizat universalitatea.
Pentru artistul din colonii, ntrebarea care se pune e urmtoarea: e participarea la jocul metropolitan cu arta
doar o amnare a eliberrii coloniei de care aparine? E absurd creaia de produse culturale atunci cnd nu
exist o cultur care s le justifice.
America Latin a fost o colonie vreme de cinci secole, fr niciun spaiu de respirat, unde s i asume identitatea. Sarcina rmne aceeai: edificarea culturii proprii, aflarea unei identiti culturale. Artistul, n loc s lucreze la aceast problem, are aceeai atitudine ca restaurantele chinezeti din rile occidentale: se supune benevol
imaginii pe care i-o d cultura metropolitan. i anun numele cu litere n stil chinezesc, i fac reclam sub
titulatura de mncare exotic i includ, pentru orice eventualitate, o pagin de mncare metropolitan n meniu.
Fr prea mult contiinciozitate tiinific, voi mprumuta civa termeni din teoria informaiei originalitate,
redundan, banalitate pentru a situa mai bine artistul care lucreaz n afara direciei dominante [mainstream].
n mod tradiional, arta echilibreaz cu atenie aceste trei elemente. Originalitatea e contribuia operei de art.
Redundana, care e un deeu de informaie repetitiv din punct de vedere tehnic, asigur recepionarea inteligent a mesajului de ctre public. Banalitatea e cadrul de referin sau setul de elemente cunoscute, de care
originalitatea are nevoie ca de un vehicul, pentru a nu muri n ermetism i incomunicabilitate.
Una dintre deciziile care localizeaz politic artistul e sistemul banalitii sau sistemul de referin pe care l folosete. Artistul colonial crede c face aceast alegere n libertate deplin. Cu toate astea, n general el are de
ales doar ntre trei posibiliti, care snt la rndul lor bazate pe manufactura produselor culturale. Aa ia natere situaia paradoxal c artitii cu contiin politic snt cei care continu s lucreze pentru cultura metropolitan. Cele trei opiuni snt stilul internaional, folclorismul regional pitoresc i subordonarea fa de coninutul
politico-literar. Toate aceste opiuni alimenteaz distorsiuni odat ntoarse n cultura lor originar.
Contribuia sau originalitatea unui produs cultural funcioneaz doar ca rafinare a culturii din care provine (pentru cultura nsi, dar i pentru expansiunea sau prozelitismul su). Originalitatea produce o sofisticare a procesului de consum. Apoi, creaia produselor culturale n zona colonial devine un instrument pentru mbogirea
sau creterea gradului de sofisticare al culturii metropolitane. Cu puterea tot mai mare a stilului internaional,
rezultatul e evident n ceea ce privete producia Americii Latine. Tendinele estetice aflate n uz snt permanent n urma tendinelor promovate n centrele imperiale, fr evoluiile corespunztoare din acele centre.
Ca urmare, artitii se dezvolt individual prin rupturi artificiale, care pot fi explicate doar prin data la care a ajuns
revista de art sau data la care a avut loc expoziia cu informaia la zi. Mrirea fluxului informaional nu face
dect s accelereze viteza schimbrilor.
Alan Solomon, care a ngrijit expoziia SUA la Bienala de la Veneia, unde Rauschenberg a ctigat marele premiu, lucrrile sale fiind transportate cu un avion militar3, a ludat un grup de artiti din Rosario, Argentina, fiindc
lucra dup standardele din New York, cu o ntrziere de doar cteva sptmni. Pictorul din New York Frank
Stella a declarat: Dac sntem cei mai buni, e corect ca ei s ne imite. n acelai timp, artitii coloniali s-au
plns de costurile cromrii i n general ale plasticelor, care i scoteau de pe piaa internaional. n acelai timp,

EAT (Experimente n Art i Tehnologie) deschide filiale n diferite ri subdezvoltate, de obicei la cererea artitilor nii.4
Ignorana deliberat e o reacie mpotriva stilului internaional care duce la folclorism. Aceast opiune, n loc
s se bazeze pe activitile din centrele culturale imperiale, se bazeaz pe tradiiile locale, n special pe simptome formale ale tradiiilor locale. Aceast opiune prezint dou probleme. n primul rnd, aceste tradiii nu
snt de obicei sensibile la realitatea imediat i prezent, ncurajnd fuga de realitate. n al doilea rnd, n afara
ctorva excepii, aceste tradiii snt moarte. Au avut loc prea multe colonizri pentru a asigura o continuitate
ntre tradiii i artist. De obicei artistul e din clasa mijlocie i consum mai degrab dect triete tradiiile respective. Opiunea folclorist devine tot de mna a doua, ca i opiunea de a urma stilul internaional.
A treia opiune e subordonarea lucrului artistic fa de coninutul politico-literar. Aceast opiune se datoreaz unui angajament politic care preced decizia creatoare. n sine, acesta ar fi un proces normal. Limitrile apar atunci cnd procesul de creaie se dedic doar produciei de ilustraii, preocupat doar de caracterul
didactic, folosind n acelai timp regulile jocului indicate de istoria artei. Funcia didactic are nevoie de un procentaj mare de redundan, lsnd puin loc pentru originalitate.

4. EAT a fost o organizaie nonprofit care

reunea n anii 1960 artiti i oameni de
tiin pentru realizarea unor lucrri
interdisciplinare. Principalul su rol a fost
familiarizarea artitilor cu tehnologii de
nalt nivel i asistarea lor.

Am descris opiunile de mai sus n forma lor cea mai pur. Pe piaa internaional, ctigtorii care provin din
colonii par s foloseasc mai multe opiuni simultan. Probabil c n acest mod obin un grad mai mare de contribuie i comunicabilitate.
Toi artitii care urmeaz aceste reguli ale jocului, indiferent de sistemul de referin folosit, snt limitai de un
sistem mai larg, care e indiferent fa de esteticile sau politicile lor. E vorba de sistemul obiectului. O pictur
e o pictur i poate fi recunoscut ca atare n orice form sau orice coninut ar avea. Acelai lucru e valabil pentru orice obiect de art, chiar dac nu urmeaz liniile formale tradiionale. Maina de publicitate e suficient de
puternic pentru a transmite etaloanele recunoaterii care snt numite n fiecare moment avangard. nsi
eticheta avangard e un astfel de etalon.
Relaia dintre obiect i consumul su (care rezum caracteristicile relaiei dintre art i societate) e un fel de
termometru pentru funcionalitatea artei. n societatea capitalist, economic dezvoltat, obiectul de art e supus
legii cererii i ofertei. Prin creaia sa, artistul e situat n cadrul produciei de obiecte, iar prin nvturile sale n
producia de creatori. Pentru ambele e pltit cu puin filantropie sau deloc, din moment ce structura puterii
l accept ca important sau cel puin folositor.
Situaia se reflect i n investiia economic fcut de artist sau de patronul su n producia efectiv a lucrrilor. n 1968, la festivalul anual de sculptur al muzeului Whitney, costul mediu al investiiei n materiale trebuie s fi fost n jur de 200 de dolari SUA. Suma asta e mai mare dect venitul anual al majoritii locuitorilor din
rile subdezvoltate.
n acelai timp, compromisurile pe care trebuie s le fac artistul din colonii snt mult mai evidente i dureroase. n mod obinuit, artistul nu poate tri din talentele sale. Are un job sau mai multe, fr nicio legtur cu
arta sa. Vinde turitilor sau unei mici elite naionale. Depinde de filantropia guvernului i de expoziiile sale corupte politic. Are mereu de ales ntre principiile sale i coruperea scopurilor.
Cred c exist dou posibiliti de schimbare. nti, pe calea moderat, artistul va continua folosirea aceluiai
sistem de referin cruia i aparin formele mulumit crora ceea ce face continu s fie considerat art, ns
nu pentru a produce produse culturale, ci mai degrab pentru a aduce la vizibilitate datele unei culturi emergente. Asta nseamn s informezi despre situaii care nu snt n mod necesar estetice, dar care pot influena
mecanismele ce vor produce sau vor defini n cele din urm o cultur. Elementele procesului de transculturare trebuie izolate, evideniate i contientizate de asta cred c avem nevoie, dar i de o idee despre esenele
ce ar permite crearea unor noi platforme. Aceasta e ceea ce putem numi o alfabetizare perceptual. Condiia acesteia e ns asumarea subdezvoltrii economice ca stimulent cultural, fr judeci de valoare relative. Ceea ce poate fi negativ n termeni economici e doar un fapt n temeni culturali. n acest moment, o mare
parte a locuitorilor din zonele subdezvoltate mor de foame, dar artitii continu s produc art ce corespunde societii cu stomacul plin.
A doua cale const n influenarea structurilor culturale prin intermediul celor sociale i politice, aplicnd aceeai creativitate folosit de obicei n art. Dac analizm activitile anumitor grupuri de gheril, n special Tupamaros i alte cteva grupuri urbane, putem observa deja ceva n acest sens. Sistemul lor de referin e cu totul

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strin de sistemele tradiionale ale artei. Cu toate acestea, permite expresii care contribuie la o schimbare structural total, dar care se bucur i de o mare densitate a coninutului estetic. Pentru prima oar, mesajul estetic poate fi neles ca atare, fr ajutorul vreunui context artistic dat de muzeu, galerie etc.
Gherila urban funcioneaz n condiii foarte asemntoare celor cu care se confrunt artistul tradiional atunci
cnd trebuie s produc o lucrare. Au un scop comun: comunicarea unui mesaj i, n acelai timp, schimbarea pe parcurs a condiiilor n care se regsete publicul. Artistul i gherila ncearc, n mod similar, s identifice de ct originalitate e nevoie, pe fondul a ceea ce e cunoscut, pentru a sublinia un mesaj pn la nivel de
notorietate, incluznd uneori trimiteri n necunoscut. Atunci cnd se trece de la obiect la situaie, de la legalitate elitist la subversiune, apar cteva elemente noi. Publicul, un consumator pasiv, trebuie dintr-odat s participe activ pentru a fi parte din situaie. Trecnd de la legalitate la subversiune, apare necesitatea de a identifica
stimulentul minimal cu efect maximal un efect care, prin impactul su, justific riscul asumat i l recompenseaz. n timpul anumitor perioade istorice, la nivelul obiectului, aceasta a nsemnat s te confruni i s creezi
mistere. La nivelul situaiilor, i n acest caz, asta nseamn schimbarea structurii sociale.
Aceste coincidene nu snt suficiente pentru a face artist din lupttorul de gheril urban, aa cum practica pictatului nu e suficient pentru a face artist dintr-un pictor. Dar exist anumite cazuri cnd gherila urban dobndete un nivel estetic ce transcende funcia pur politic a micrii. Atunci cnd micarea ajunge la acest nivel, ea
se afl cu adevrat pe calea crerii unei noi culturi, n loc s dea o nou form politic unor vechi percepii.
Opiunile artei tradiionale ndeplinesc din punct de vedere social aceeai funcie ca toate celelalte instituii folosite de structurile puterii pentru a asigura stabilitatea. De aceea, ele duc la o estetic a echilibrului. n mod machiavelic, n acest cadru, un mesaj revoluionar poate fi redus la funcia de asigurare a stabilitii. Arta devine n acest
caz supapa de siguran pentru exprimarea nevrozelor individuale i colective ce i au originea n inabilitatea
de a face fa mediului. Produsele sale preiau rolul de corecie ntrziat a unei percepii oprite la nivelul sistemului de convenii i stereotipuri care dau stabilitate societii. Produsele artistice creeaz un sistem un pic nnoit
care va fi n cele din urm asimilat de istorie, necesitnd apoi un nou sistem, i aa mai departe, la nesfrit.
Obiectele de art, genernd mai mult simpatie dect empatie, snt folosite pentru identificarea n stare de alienare a consumatorului. De pild, consumatorul poate s se identifice cu mesajul moral al unui film. l aplaud,
simind c n acest mod i pltete partea de angajament personal, fr a trebui s i schimbe viaa n vreun
mod semnificativ. E aceeai aciune catarctic oferit de religie.
Opus acestei situaii e estetica dezechilibrului, a afectrii structurilor, care solicit participarea deplin sau respingerea deplin i nu permite confortul alienrii.
Ea duce la confruntare, care aduce schimbarea.
Ea duce la integrarea creativitii estetice n toate sistemele de referin folosite n viaa cotidian.
Ea face din individ un creator permanent, l pune n stare de percepie constant. l face s i determine mediul
nconjurtor conform propriilor necesiti i s lupte pentru obinerea schimbrilor.
Traducere de Ovidiu ichindeleanu

10

Accesul la mainstream (1987)

Luis Camnitzer

A aborda accesul la mainstream n cadrul artelor nseamn a aborda chestiunea succesului de pia. Din acest
motiv, subiectul a provocat mereu emoii contradictorii n primul rnd dorina i resentimentul , iar aceste
emoii au fost deosebit de puternice n rndul artitilor ce nu aparin grupului social care produce i sprijin ceea
ce se cheam art mainstream.
Cu toate c termenul mainstream are reverberaii democratice, sugernd o instituie deschis i sprijinit de
majoritate, el e mai degrab elitist, reflectnd o clas social i economic particular. n realitate, mainstream
presupune un grup restrns de paznici culturali i reprezint un nucleu select de naiuni. E numele unei structuri de putere care promoveaz o cultur hegemonic autodesemnat. Din acest motiv, dorina de a aparine
mainstream-ului i aceea de a-l distruge apar adesea n acelai timp la indivizi care snt sau se simt marginali n
raport cu acesta. n funcie de origine i fundal social, accesul individual la mainstream e pentru unii mai dificil
dect pentru alii.
Discuii despre suferina unor grupuri etnice sau naionale diferite, mpreun cu anecdote ilustrnd eecuri i
succese n ncercarea lor de a avea acces la mainstream, nu ajut la clarificarea chestiunii; ele doar ne distrag
de la ea. Ceea ce merit atenie snt elementele comune experienei tuturor, de pild, colonialismul ca for
ce afecteaz att coloniile interne, ct i pe cele externe, valorile inculcate prin instituiile de educaie ce separ
oamenii de identitile lor i fetiizarea de ctre pia a succesului individual n raport cu construirea unei culturi. Acestea snt chestiuni consistente. Prin aceste elemente piaa devine un instrument al omogenitii, iar
mainstream devine un eufemism pentru aciunile acesteia.
Secolul nostru a vzut introducerea ctorva noi metode productive n analiza proceselor artistice i a problemelor artei. O parte din iraionalitatea i obscurantismul precedente a fost ndeprtat i putem vedea acum arta
mai mult ca o modalitate a cogniiei, ca un fel de a formula i rezolva probleme n cadrul cogniiei. Asta a adus
oarecare claritate, bine-venit n domeniul artistic. Dar a avut i consecine mai puin pozitive atunci cnd aceste premise analitice au fost duse la extrem; s-a tras concluzia c arta ar trebui perceput n termeni formaliti,
iar acetia nu fr asemnare cu termenii din matematic ar trebui omogenizai ntr-un stil internaional.
De fapt, conceptul unui stil internaional poate fi vzut drept unul folositor pentru hegemonia politic i
expansionismul cultural.
Micrile moderniste dezvoltate n centrele culturale occidentale de-a lungul acestui secol n particular mitul
Abstracionismului au fost asociate mereu cu promovarea unui stil internaional, iar acest stil a fost n cele
din urm folosit ca un rspuns cultural la totalitarism, el nsui un termen din Rzboiul Rece, creat pentru a
denigra autocraia sovietic prin clasificarea sa n aceeai categorie cu regimul nazist.
n acelai timp cu aceste dezvoltri, naionalismul a devenit un cuvnt ce simboliza regresia cultural, minimiznd astfel utilitatea acestui termen ca instrument anticolonial. De vreme ce expansionismul cultural a inclus
i creterea pieei, acceptarea acestor condiii ca linii directoare ale pieei n-a fost dificil. Drept consecin,
artiti ce fceau parte din etnii i naiuni ale unor culturi subordonate puteau avea succes pe aceast pia dac
lucrau ntr-un repertoriu formal acceptabil, n timp ce expresia etniei i/sau a naionalitii trebuia s se limiteze la coninut. Aceast etnicitate rezidual a permis proiectelor lor s fie percepute ca fiind uor exotice, ndeajuns pentru a menine, de partea pieei, imaginea mulumit de sine a deschiderii i pluralismului. Aceeai etnicitate
rezidual semnalase c rdcinile artistului snt nfipte nc n comunitatea sa de origine.
Totui mndria comunitii depindea mai mult de faptul c artistul ei a reuit n lumea artei dect de contribuia cultural pe care o aducea comunitii sale. Artiti precum Romare Bearden sau Fernando Botero, de
pild, snt mai respectai n comunitile lor pentru preurile lor de pia dect pentru vreo schimbare posibil
a viziunii pe care ar fi putut s-o introduc n rndurile conaionalilor sau coetnicilor lor. Un simptom clar al colonizrii e tendina de a vedea trecerea de la cultura subordonat la cea hegemonic drept un semn de progres
i succes.
n anii receni, eclectismul n vog pe pia pastia postmodern a permis introducerea unor crpturi
efemere n acest tablou. Identitii naionale germane i celei italiene, aa cum au fost proiectate ele de neoexpresioniti i de transavangarditi, li s-a permis s aib un loc, n pofida faptului c ele nu se conformeaz n

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totalitate ideii de omogenitate internaional. Prin arta feminist i graffiti, afirmarea unei identiti de grup distincte a primit statut de expoziie, iar kitsch-ului i s-a permis s conteste purismul formalist. n timp ce prile
implicate n aceast diversificare a mainstream-ului nu i-au asumat ntreaga responsabilitate pentru ideologiile politice implicate n munca lor, n mod clar contribuiile lor au avut tendina de a se nscrie ntr-una dintre
cele dou categorii ale postmodernismului: de dreapta i de stnga.
n postmodernismul de dreapta David Salle ar putea fi un exemplu snt reintroduse, regurgitate chiar, produse de pia din trecut, cu o putere de vnzare revitalizat. n postmodernismul de stnga Kenny Scharf ca un
exemplu pentru exprimarea identitii, Hans Haacke pentru politic cteva elemente pn atunci inacceptabile au fost introduse n cmpul pieei i, drept rezultat al succesului lor, au ncurajat sperana c definiia nsi
a mainstream-ului poate fi schimbat.
Aceast speran a fost urmat de dezamgire. O structur multinaional de galerii a reinternaionalizat aceste oferte. nainte de implicarea galeriilor multinaionale i a preurilor, Germania i Italia fuseser contrapartea
artistic a ce snt Taiwan i Coreea pentru industrie. Tiul postmodernismului de stnga a fost tocit de ic pentru a se potrivi mai bine cu galeriile. Diversitatea s-a amalgamat n repertoriul extins al pieei i ceea ce ar fi
putut s nsemne o sprtur cultural s-a tocit n nimic altceva dect o cretere a ofertei de mrfuri.
E foarte uor s denigrezi piaa ca pe un ru. Imboldul ei denaturant, aplombul cu care se autofelicit, aplatizarea sa cultural care trece peste toate ca un buldozer i rasismul ei de profunzime toate astea o transform
n inta criticilor. Dar majoritatea acestor denigrri presupun c, n anumite condiii, piaa ar putea fi corectat.
Dac ar exista curatori i critici exprimnd punctele de vedere ale minoritilor. Dac ar exista un acces mai
uor pentru artitii minoritari. Dac ar exista mai multe galerii pentru minoriti sau mai mult loc pentru artitii
minoritari n galeriile mainstream.
Cnd critica pieei urmeaz acest curs, pierdem din vedere faptul c, n primul rnd, piaa se afl n propria-i
slujb i n aceea a unui anumit sistem socioeconomic, iar asta va continua indiferent de orice schimbare n
ce privete rasa, sexul sau naionalitatea celor care joac un rol n cadrul ei. Lrgirea paletei de actori activi va
ajuta cu siguran civa indivizi s supravieuiasc n timp ce muncesc. Dar aceast realizare nu trebuie confundat cu o revoluie mpotriva pieei. Culturile subordonate i periferice vor continua s i menin statutul defavorizat atta timp ct pieele lor proprii i specifice rmn defavorizate. Ele vor continua s fie supuse erodrii
atta timp ct internaionalismul slugarnic e perceput ca un simbol al statutului.
Accesul la mainstream nseamn n realitate transformarea artistului n mainstream. Spre sfritul anilor 1960,
a existat o presiune pentru ceva numit capitalism negru, care a fost n mod clar mai degrab o promovare
a capitalismului dect a faptului de a fi negru. Conform presupoziiei neexaminate a acestuia, capitalismul era
cel mai bun de nu chiar singurul mod de via i, prin oferirea unei invitaii i a niscaiva ajutoare de a participa la el, problemele sale critice vor disprea. N-a fost, cum s-a pretins, o chestiune de integrare, analizndu-se probleme a dou pri n sperana de a crea o a treia opiune. Fusese o chestiune de a tolera accesul
uneia dintre pri la un mainstream controlat de cealalt. Capitalismul nu trebuia schimbat; trebuia lrgit.
A sosit poate momentul de a concentra eforturile noastre critice mai degrab pe artistul colonial dect pe pia.
Artitii coloniali formeaz un grup schizoid i nesigur. Pe de o parte, ne dorim cu orice pre s expunem ntr-un
muzeu sau n cea mai bun galerie. Dac nu reuim, ne considerm ratai. Pe de alt parte, dac alii reuesc,
ne miroase a cooptare. Dac un comentator alb de limb englez vorbete despre chestiuni ale minoritilor,
percepem observaiile sale ca ignorante i condescendente, orict de bine informate sau de bine intenionate ar fi ele. Dac observaiile snt fcute de membrul unei minoriti n contextul pieei, le concediem ca larghee calculat a cuiva care vine s umple un procent; nu acceptm n totalitate aceast afirmaie ca pe o dovad
c arta mainstream s-a redefinit efectiv.
Motivul pentru aceast reacie ambivalent nu se bazeaz pe coninutul remarcilor, ci pe contextul n care snt
fcute ele, semnalnd o nencredere care, folosit cum trebuie, ar putea fi sntoas. Concentrarea noastr
obsesiv pe pia, colorat de frustrarea accesibilitii n teorie i de inaccesibilitatea de facto n practic, ne mpiedic n folosirea corect a instinctelor noastre. Abia cnd ne-am resemnat cu eecul ne uitm n alt parte i
ne apucm de critic. Ct timp exist o ans de succes, putem formula anumite critici, dar aciunile noastre
vor contrazice cuvintele noastre. n timp ce critica ne d un sentiment de conexiune cu comunitatea noastr
de origine, scopul nostru rmne accesul la mainstream cu orice mijloace.
Arta e orice se potrivete pe pia, iar ceea ce nu se potrivete e tratat ca strin acestui cmp. Aceast diviziune simplist pierde din vedere procesele prin care trebuie s trecem n ncercarea noastr de a ajunge pe pia

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i distorsiunile puternice la care sntem supui. Venind din culturi subordonate sau periferice, impulsul artistului minoritar de a participa la pia, de a gsi un loc n centrul culturii hegemonice, e produsul colonizrii.
Pentru a avea succes n a deveni un membru al acestei culturi, trebuie s trecem printr-un proces minu ios de asimilare. Cnd nu reuim cu totul n imitaia noastr, sntem lsai ntr-o stare foarte vizibil i jalnic
de afectare.
n toate cazurile de minoriti transformate n mainstream artistul strin, capitalistul negru care vrea s devin
mainstream , procesul colonizator duce la interiorizarea dorinei de asimilare. Cnd colonizarea e reuit, asimilarea devine ceva natural i inevitabil. Ni se va da voie s participm la cmpul competiiei i la afacerile
libere, aa nct toi devin proprietarii bucuroi i creduli ai unor posibiliti egale. Dar pe drumul ctre acest
platou, au loc anumite schimbri n expresia individului. Unele dintre aceste schimbri devin credibile, altele
mai puin. Dac ele snt credibile, asimilarea a reuit. Dac nu, singurul lucru obinut e afectarea, poza. Ceea
ce se exprim e perceput ca un semn de kitsch, o trstur nouveau-riche sau arivism. O cultur ce trebuie uitat e acoperit parial cu una care nc n-a fost complet nsuit sau o cultur pe care n-o mai inem bine
minte e reinterpretat n mod fals pentru ochii unei culturi prost nelese.
O cronic recent a unui concert al cntreei peruane Yma Sumac afirm c spectacolul ei de scen a fost
o stilizare vulgar, sexi, de la sud de grani [a Statelor Unite], a marilor spectacole de oper, n care ea a
jucat o div primitiv n acord mistic cu forele naturii. i mai ncolo: De ambele pri ale scenei erau replici
din polistiren ale zeitilor incase, iar cntreaa, costumat ntr-o mantie mov transparent, a afiat o superbie teatral. Dei nu prea e posibil ca privitorul s se fi ateptat ca dna Sumac s mprumute statui incase originale de la Muzeul Metropolitan, descrierea este totui un bun inventar al multiplelor feluri n care ea a transgresat
bunele maniere ale culturii nalte hegemonice. Pn i posibila originalitate a transgresiunilor sale e pus n umbr,
mai jos, de o comparaie cu spectaculozitatea lui Liberace. Ceea ce lipsete cu totul din aceast cronic e un
inventar al transgresiunilor pe care dna Sumac le-a fcut n raport cu propria sa cultur, al violrilor operate
pentru a corespunde pieei lui Liberace i ecourilor acestei piee n Peru.
Colonizarea, asimilarea i afectarea snt trepte ale aceleiai scri, aflate doar la distane diferite de ceea ce se
consider a fi vrful de atins. Majoritatea dintre noi care au venit din culturi diferite au pit pe toate trei treptele, n parte datorit unor decizii personale, dar cel mai adesea din cauza unor presiuni sociale i culturale
nepercepute. Toate cele trei trepte semnific o substituire a valorilor culturale, o pierdere a ce am avut. Mai
important, ne deteriorm capacitatea de a cerne propria noastr realitate pentru a gsi crmizile independenei noastre. Noi, cei care sntem artiti venii din alte ri, am fost supui trziu la colile de art i ne-am
formatat incomplet n centrele culturii. Noi, cei care am trit n centrele culturii, am fost procesai n mod direct
pentru a ne topi n aliajul general. n ambele cazuri, s-a creat n noi un ir de nevoi artificiale, fcndu-ne s considerm centrele culturii i valorile lor ca definind ntr-adevr punctul cel mai nalt al scrii, s credem c propriile noastre culturi de origine, culturile subalterne, snt nevalide. i cu toate astea, pe undeva, o legtur rmne
vie, trgndu-ne napoi la acele culturi i definind o smn anti-mainstream.
Am fost nvai s vedem arta ca pe un gest apolitic, lipsit de consecine politice, opernd ntr-un spaiu nonpolitic. Cnd politica se strecoar n lucrrile noastre, ea e limitat la nivelul unui coninut rezidual, placndu-ne
oarecum contiina, fr a ne fora s ne revizuim strategiile. Nu vedem c politica nu se reduce doar la coninut, ntr-un mod simplist. Trim mitul alienant de a fi n primul rnd artist. Nu sntem. Sntem n primul rnd
fiine etice deosebind ce e bine de ce e ru i ce e drept de ce e nedrept, nu doar n domeniul individului, ci
i n contexte comunitare i regionale. Pentru a supravieui din punct de vedere etic, avem nevoie de o contiin politic menit s ne ajute la nelegerea mediului nostru nconjurtor i trebuie s dezvoltm strategii pentru aciunile noastre. Arta devine instrumentul pe care l-am ales pentru punerea n practic a acestor strategii.
Alegerea noastr de a deveni artiti e o decizie politic, independent de coninutul lucrrilor noastre. Definiia
noastr a artei, a culturii pe care o servim, a publicului cruia ne adresm, a ce trebuie s obin munca noastr
e o decizie politic.
Astfel, problema nu e accesul nostru la mainstream, ci accesul acestuia la noi. Doar n aceti termeni poate aciona mainstream-ul ca o cutie de rezonan pentru activitile noastre, fr a ne eviscera. Dac mainstream-ul vine
la noi sau trece pe lng noi e de o importan secund. Lucrul cel mai important e ca noi s rmnem n breasla care construiete o cultur i s tim n modul cel mai precis cu putin a cui i ce fel de cultur construim.
E la fel de important s ne reducem egourile. Ideea de a construi o cultur poate lsa impresia c am putea
s-o facem singuri. De fapt, rolul nostru e echivalent cu acela al unei crmizi n construirea unei cldiri. n anu-

13

arhiva

mite circumstane, aceast atitudine poate suna ca o postur separatist, dar nu e. Ea nu implic o ntoarcere la naionalismul provincial sau la parohialism. E o poziie care subliniaz c puterea de vnzare nu e neaprat
n interesul nostru, dar stoparea colonialismului este.
Exist o diferen important ntre autonomia cultural i ovinism. Autonomia cultural duce la generarea de
indivizi independeni. ovinismul duce doar la rasism i, dac i se d puterea, la imperialism. Imperialismul nu
e altceva dect provincialism cu putere de intimidare.
Ceea ce implic poziia afirmat aici nu e, de fapt, nimic altceva dect o reordonare a prioritilor n momentul cnd o schimbare radical de care este aa de mare nevoie pare de neatins.
Traducere de Alexandru Polgr

14

Art i politic: esteticile rezistenflei (1994)

Luis Camnitzer

Exist dou posibiliti de a aborda problema artelor vizuale n lumea subdezvoltat. Conform primei, se declar
c arta e un set universal de valori i tehnici n cadrul crora fiecare se bucur de libertatea sa de expresie. n
cealalt, se consider c indiferent de modul n care pictezi, din momentul n care pensula e ridicat, nc nainte ca aceasta s ating pnza, rezultatul e deja menit s fie un produs i exemplu al colonizrii.
Dei admit caracterul caricatural al acestei polarizri, mrturisesc c snt, temperamental, mult mai aproape
de a doua poziie. Creaia unui artist e att de mult produsul efectului combinat, impus, al valorilor i gustului
internalizat, nct ideea de libertate pare a fi oarecum nelalocul ei. Arta ca tentativ intenional de rezisten
ar putea fi un concept mult mai folositor.
Dei aceast abordare s-ar putea opune artei bune din America Latin conform determinaiilor mainstream
ea ne permite s identificm ceea ce face ca anumite lucrri de art s fie importante. Mai mult, ne foreaz
s extindem limitele a ceea ce e considerat a fi art. Dac vom concepe arta ca fenomen cultural n America
Latin, va trebui s explorm frontierele dintre art i politic. Dou concepte se impun din intersecia acestora: estetica politizat i politica estetizat. Voi ilustra primul concept cu exemplul expoziiei politice Tucumn
arde, care a fost produsul radicalizrii unui grup de artiti argentinieni. Voi ilustra al doilea concept prin corpul
de operaiuni ale Micrii de Eliberare Naional din Uruguay, mai bine cunoscut sub numele de Tupamaros. Ambele exemple snt din anii 1960, perioada din istoria recent cnd estomparea limitelor dintre art i
politic atinsese cota maxim.
n august 1968, civa artiti din Rosario i Buenos Aires au organizat Prima ntlnire Naional a Artei de Avangard, pentru a conspira la elaborarea unei forme de art cu totul noi din punct de vedere etic, estetic i ideologic.1 Preocupat fiind de cooptarea tradiional a oricrei forme de art capabile s deranjeze societatea, grupul
a czut de acord c dezvoltarea artei nu mai poate consta n formarea unei micri de avangard, c locul expunerii artei nu mai putea fi o galerie sau un muzeu i c arta nu se mai poate autolimita la publicul de elit. Arta
trebuia s deranjeze societatea, susinea grupul, obinnd rezultate similare celor ale aciunii politice. n acelai timp, n mod diferit de aciunea politic, arta ar fi trebuit s formeze cultura la un nivel mai profund, cu un
impact mai de durat.
Cu ajutorul unor sociologi, economiti, jurnaliti i fotografi, grupul a decis s lanseze o operaiune de contrainformaii. A ales ca subiect al expoziiei provincia Tucumn din nord-vestul Argentinei. Scopul era s contracareze publicitatea guvernamental, care prezenta provincia n termeni paradiziaci, pentru a dezvlui
adevratele condiii socioeconomice din Tucumn. Grupul susinea c doreau s devin activiti i promotori ai luptei sociale din Tucumn i s creeze o cultur subversiv, paralel, care va mcina mainria culturii oficiale.2 Rubn Naranjo, unul dintre participani, a explicat ntr-un interviu recent c grupul i propusese
s creeze un spaiu deschis de ctre art, unul n care realitatea social e oferit prin i dincolo de tipul denunurilor furnizate n mod obinuit de cronicile sociale sau politice.3
Grupul a nceput prin culegerea de informaii, cu ajutor oficial, despre condiiile de trai din Tucumn. Artitii
au susinut conferine de pres pentru a-i face publicitate, descriind ns proiectul doar ca elaborarea unui
profil cultural al provinciei. Schema a funcionat; grupul a reuit chiar s atrag materiale pozitive n media
central.
Ajutorul oficial a disprut ns dup deschiderea expoziiei. Artitii au montat instalaii folosindu-se de ntreaga cldire a Uniunii Generale a Muncitorilor (CGT) din Rosario i Buenos Aires. Ei au montat laolalt interviuri, fotografii murale i date de cercetare despre acumularea bogiei de ctre familiile bogate. Vizitatorii erau
servii cu cafea Tucumn fr zahr , iar ncperile erau cufundate la fiecare zece minute n ntuneric pentru a indica frecvena mortalitii infantile (lucru explicat n ntuneric de o voce prin difuzoare puternice).
Manifestul distribuit la deschiderea expoziiei din Rosario fcea apel la o art revoluionar: o art total care
modific totalitatea structurii sociale; o art transformatoare care distruge separaia idealist dintre opera de
art i realitate; o art social care se unete cu lupta revoluionar mpotriva dependenei economice i a
reprimrii de clas. Dup cteva zile, presiunea exercitat de poliie asupra sindicatelor a forat CGT s nchid
expoziia.

1. Andrea Sueldo, Silvia Andino, Graciela

Sacco, Accin de la vanguardia contra
accin de la poltica, Rosario, Argentina,
Kraft, 1987, p. 57.

2. Ibid., p. 60.
3. Carlos Basualdo, interviu cu Rubn
Naranjo, Rosario, 21 februarie 1992.

15

arhiva
4. Tucumn arde a fost o operaiune colectiv, derulat n condiii pariale de
anonimitate. Urmtorii artiti snt printre cei implicai n implementarea proiectului: Beatriz Balb, Roberto Jacoby
i Len Ferrari din Buenos Aires; Graciela Borthwick, Jorge Cohn i Jorge
Conti, din Santa Fe; Eduardo Favario,
Osvaldo Boglione, Aldo Bortolotti,
Nora de Schork, Graciela Carnevale,
Noem Escandell, Rodolfo Elizalde,
Emilio Ghilioni, Marta Greiner, Rubn
Naranjo, Roberto Puzzolo, Juan Pablo
Renzi, Mara Teresa Gramuglio, Mara
de Arecha-vala, Estela Pomerantz, Nicols Rosa, Jos Lavarello, Edmundo
Giura, Carlos Schork, David de Nully
Braun, Roberto Zara, scar Bidustwa, Ral Prez Cantn Sara Lpez
Dupuy i Jaime Rippa, din Rosario. Cf.
Sueldo, Andino, Sacco, Accin de la
vanguardia. Veai i Fernando Faria,
Hernando Ameijeiras, La muestra Tucumn arde fue un hecho indito en
el pas, La Maga, Buenos Aires, 24 fe bruarie 1993, p. 2829.
5. Numele Tupamaros se refer la trei lucruri: Tupac Amar, conductorul rebeliunii inca, executat de spanioli n
1782 n Cuzco; lupttorii gaucho uruguayani pentru independen de la
nceputul secolului XIX, care s-au numit Tupamaros, onorndu-l astfel pe
Tupac Amar; i un cntec al trupei Olimareos, un grup de cntrei folk care
erau foarte populari n anii de nceput
ai micrii. Numele a aprut pentru
prima oar ntr-o brour a Micrii de
Eliberare Naional intitulat T.N.T.,
Tupamaros No Transamos (Noi, Tupa maros, nu facem compromisuri).
6. 30 preguntas a un Tupamaro, Revolucin y Cultura, Havana, nr. 21, decembrie 1970, p. 22.
7. Rgis Debray, La lezione dei Tupamaros,
Milano, Feltrinelli, 1972, p. 6. Admiraia lui Debray e cu att mai remarcabil
cu ct Tupamaros acionau contrar convingerilor sale. n cartea sa Revolution in
the Revolution?, New York, Monthly
Review Press, 1967, p. 56, Debray
proclama c propaganda armat ur meaz aciunii militare, ns nu o prece d. Propaganda armat se ocup mai
mult de frontul intern dect de frontul
extern al gherilei. Ideea de baz e c, n
condiiile actuale, cea mai important
form de propagand snt aciunile militare de succes.
8. MLN, Actas tupamaras, Buenos Aires,
Schapire, 1971. Calitatea axiomatic a
acestor idei i distinge pe Tupamaros de
cele mai multe alte grupri de gheril
din America Latin.
9. Debray, Lezione, p. 19.
10. Forele Armate ale Uruguayului, Subversin: Las fuerzas armadas al pueblo
oriental, Montevideo, 1976, p. 360.
11. Debray, Lezione, p. 13, 3839. Conducerea Tupamaros nu era contient
de acest aspect al muncii lor. ntr-o

16

Ameninarea cu poliia i armata, precum i climatul general al reprimrii din acea vreme au dus la dispersarea artitilor. Cei mai muli dintre ei nu au mai produs niciun fel de art civa ani. Unii au intrat n underground
i s-au alturat micrii de gherl, alii au fost fcui disprui, iar cel puin unul dintre ei, Eduardo Favario, a
murit n lupt dup ce s-a alturat Armatei Revoluionare Populare.4 Un fel de grev s-a instaurat spontan n
mediul artei pentru o lung perioad de timp. Galeriile de art s-au limitat la expunerea unor picturi tradiionale inofensive. Aceti ani au fost numii Tcerea lui Tucumn arde.
n 1962, un grup de gheril din Uruguay care se va autointitula Tupamaros a ntreprins prima serie de aciuni.5
Organizai de disideni provenii din diferite grupri politice n special Partidul Socialist i Federaia Anarhist
i de studeni (inclusiv studeni artiti), Tupamaros nu au avut ambiii artistice. Se considerau procurorii poporului, dezvluind corupia din guvern, industrie i bnci.
Teza general care ghida grupul era c aciunile revoluionare duc la situaii revoluionare.6 Analizndu-i pe
Tupamaros n comparaie cu alte micri de gheril din America Latin, analistul politic Rgis Debray sublinia
lipsa de prejudeci a acestui grup. Nu exist nicio dogm transmis, scrie el, ca i cum ar descrie creaia unei
opere de art, nicio strategie revoluionar independent de condiiile determinate de loc i de timp. Orice
trebuie reinventat de fiecare dat la faa locului.7
Dat fiind faptul c grupul a ales s opereze n mediul urban o situaie fr exemple precedente de succes ,
Tupamaros au avut grij s conceap operaiuni de gheril care nu alienau publicul, ci, mai degrab, ctigau
sprijinul acestuia.8 Principalul scop al gruprii a devenit publicitatea i comunicarea, nu victoriile militare. ntr-unul dintre documentele lor strategice, Tupamaros discut despre propaganda armat. Propaganda armat
devine foarte important n anumite condiii, de exemplu atunci cnd o micare de gheril devine cunoscut
la nceputul dezvoltrii sale. E la fel de important atunci cnd un grup are nevoie s clarifice poziiile sale fa
de popor n perioadele n care snt luate msuri drastice ce nu ilustreaz cu claritate scopurile gherilei i care
nu pot fi nelese cu uurin de mintea popular.9 Forele armate uruguayene au evaluat aceast strategie n
1977 cu o obiectivitate surprinztoare: nconjurate de mult publicitate, aceste aciuni ncearc s arate c
metodele poliiei i guvernului snt stngace i ineficiente, astfel ca organizaia s par a fi, prin ridiculizarea acestora, la vrful imaginaiei i inventivitii.10
Documentele de strategie Tupamaros snt mai degrab seci i plictisitoare, ca i cum grupul i-ar fi rezervat
toate energiile creatoare pentru aciuni. Operaiunile lor au atins un nivel al esteticii care i-a fcut pe observatori ca Debray s vorbeasc de Tupamaros ca de un fenomen cultural, n care timpul i momentul interveniei erau folosite n moduri regsite mai des n regia de film.11 Aceast abordare contravenea experienelor
cubaneze i vietnameze, care erau modelele standard pentru rzboiul de gheril. nsui Fidel Castro proclamase oraul un cimitir de revoluionari i resurse, ntrind astfel argumentele mpotriva oricrei micri de
gheril bazate n mediul urban.12 Cu toate acestea, strategia a funcionat: activitile Tupamaros au generat rspunsuri simpatetice din partea publicului i au avut efecte cu mult dincolo de rezultatele funcionale imediate ale
oricrei operaiuni concrete.
Grupul a orchestrat prima operaiune important de distribuire a alimentelor n 1963. Dndu-se drept membri ai unui club politic de cartier, gherilele au comandat un camion cu bunuri de la un mare furnizor de alimente, inclusiv dat fiind apropierea Crciunului o mare cantitate de dulciuri. I-au spus oferului s livreze
bunurile la o adres aproape de un cartier srac, acolo au capturat vehiculul i au distribuit alimentele locuitorilor cartierului.13
n timpul trgului de carte din 1968, un grup a lsat pe asfalt o cutie care apoi a explodat, mprtiind n mulime
fluturai de propagand. Mainria semna cu o sculptur de Tinguely.14 Pe 1 ianuarie 1969, Tupamaros au
atacat curtea unde se judecau cazurile ctorva membri i au recuperat 41 de arme ce fuseser gsite de poliie
ntr-o ascunztoare. Pe 7 februarie, grupul a lsat un pachet cu peste o sut de kilograme de substan explozibil n faa casei unui oficial al armatei, cunoscut expert n explozibile. Dup ce l luaser iniial dintr-un depozit al armatei, grupul a decis c explozibilul era prea periculos pentru propriile obiective. Ca urmare, l-au dat
napoi oficialului, mpreun cu o not detaliat ce explica motivele pentru care se rzgndiser.
Pe 19 februarie, mbrcai n uniforme de poliie, Tupamaros au luat 220.000 USD din luxosul cazinou San
Rafael din Punta del Este, apoi s-au oferit s napoieze procentul de baciuri datorat angajailor. Pe 15 mai,
au ocupat un post important de radio n timpul transmisiunii unui meci internaional de fotbal i au difuzat un
mesaj politic timp de ase ori ntr-o jumtate de or. Pe 16 iulie, gherilele au furat steagul folosit de grupul de
33 de patrioi care intraser n Uruguay n 1825 pentru a lupta pentru independen. Considerat n Uruguay

a doua emblem naional dup steagul naional, pe steagul din 1825 e inscripionat fraza Libertate sau moarte. Gruparea a promis c va da steagul napoi muzeului n momentul n care situaia avea s se schimbe (n
momentul n care scriu, nc nu a fost dat napoi).15 n cteva instane diferite, grupul a ocupat camera de proiecie a unor cinematografe, difuznd pe ecran filme de propagand ale gherilei.
Cea mai elaborat i spectaculoas manevr a fost Operaiunea Pando, n care au fost implicai aproximativ o sut de membri ai gherilei. Sub pretextul nmormntrii unei rude care murise n Argentina cu civa ani
nainte, a fost angajat un cortegiu funerar compus din cinci maini i o dubi. Renhumarea trebuia s aib
loc n Pando, un ora de 20.000 de locuitori, la patruzeci de kilometri de Montevideo. Procesiunea, ce includea membri ndurerai ai familiei, s-a oprit n cteva puncte de-a lungul rutei pentru a se reuni cu rude. Dup
ce grupul s-a reunit n Pando, gherilele i-au neutralizat pe oferii angajai, apoi, folosind armele ascunse n
sicriu, grupul a ocupat sediul poliiei, al pompierilor, cldirea telefoanelor i, n cele din urm, cele patru bnci
ale oraului.
Pe termen scurt, din punct de vedere pragmatic, Operaiunea Pando a euat, deoarece n urma confruntrilor cu poliia, la ntoarcerea grupului n Montevideo, trei lupttori de gheril au fost ucii, iar 18 au fost arestai.16 Pe termen lung i din perspectiv estetic, operaiunea a fost ns un succes remarcabil. n succesiunea
evenimentelor, ocuparea fiecrei cldiri a constituit o poveste n sine, cte un mic scenariu de sine stttor. Pando
a dat tonul pentru jocul de teatru jucat de oraul Montevideo i de locuitorii si pe un scenariu scris de actorii gherilei.
Dei Tupamaros nu au avut scopuri estetice explicite, ei au inut s stabileasc un sistem de comunicare eficient. Pentru aceasta, aveau nevoie de un tip de iconografie. Imaginile Tupamaros nu au fost ns imagini ilustrative pentru micare ori pentru cauza sa, ci, mai degrab, imaginea general proiectat de micarea nsi.17
Pentru aceast proiecie, micarea s-a folosit de mass-media.
n acest sens, e util comparaia ntre Tupamaros i micarea de rezisten contra rzboiului din SUA n anii
1960. Evenimentele yippie18 din SUA, desfurate n contextul avantajos al unui mediu mai puin represiv, erau
concepute pentru a fi vizionate pe ecranul televizorului. n Marul contra Morii, pn la cimitirul naional din
Arlington, din 13 noiembrie 1969, demonstranii au purtat baloane negre, simboliznd pierderile cauzate de
rzboi. Spectacolul creat astfel putea fi apreciat doar din afara marului, nu i de participanii nii. Audiena
intit nu trebuia s fie prezent acolo unde erau demonstranii, ci era constituit, se spera, din cei care aveau
s urmreasc demonstraia n casele lor, la tirile televizate.19
n timp ce activitii nord-americani s-au acomodat cu formatul media, Tupamaros au fost relativ independeni.
Prin propriul post de radio mobil, propria producie de pamflete i ocuparea ocazional a diverselor posturi
publice, gherilele se confruntau mai puin cu pericolul unei imagini manipulate. n loc s se raporteze la medierea neprietenoas fcut de mass-media, Tupamaros au folosit o reea de zvonistic foarte direct i simpatetic, folosind astfel mai degrab mecanismele folclorului dect pe cele ale publicitii. Operaiunile lor erau
o combinaie de evenimente i art mass-media. Att activitatea imediat perceptibil, ct i memoria sa nregistrat de media sau de zvonul popular au dus n cele din urm la un folclor revoluionar. Scopul a fost dezvoltarea unei contiine politice.
n contextul Americii Latine, Tucumn arde i operaiunile Tupamaros pot fi considerate vrful tradiiei esteticii
politizate i a politicii estetizate, incluznd aici muralismul mexican, diferitele coli latinoamericane de grafic popular i arta afiului, precum i micarea de art interdisciplinar din Cuba anilor 1960.20 Chiar dac aceast tradiie
nu a dus la dispariia semnificativ a artei comerciale, cel puin a ncercat s subverteasc doctrina artei ca proprietate i s sublinieze chestiuni de clas legate de art. Dei nu a fost gsit o soluie clar la problema eliminrii frontierei dintre art i politic, termenii contradiciilor au fost stabilii cu claritate.
Pn n anii 1970, arta s-a ntors ns la limitele sale originare, dei nu neaprat la vechile tradiii artistice. n anii
1960 a fost introdus n centrele culturale o nou form de prezentare: mediul sau instalaia. Acest format pare a fi mai potrivit necesitilor din America Latin dect celor din culturile hegemonice. Practicate iniial
de artiti latinoamericani ce triau la Paris i New York, instalaiile artistice au explodat la mijlocul anilor 1970
i la nceputul anilor 1980, mai ales n Mexic, Cuba i Chile. n toate aceste cazuri, la baza procesului de dezvol tare s-a aflat fluxul hegemonic al informaiei dinspre nord i aproprierea subtil a mijloacelor. n unele cazuri,
artitii au ncercat s reintegreze politica n instalaiile lor.
Artitii mexicani s-au evideniat n acest proces, nu att datorit inovaiilor formale, ct datorit faptului c s-au
organizat n grupuri numite Los Grupos ce subliniau auctorialitatea colectiv.21 Membrii grupurilor pro-

discuie recent pe aceast tem, foti

membri Tupamaros au speculat c doi
factori au influenat creativitatea lor. n
primul rnd, membrii micrii nu aveau
ncredere n niciun fel de stereotip, o
nencredere care i fcuse s devin di sideni ai gruprilor politice tradiionale. n al doilea rnd, cei mai muli
conductori ai micrii fuseser la nchisoare naintea celor mai importante
aciuni. La nchisoare ei intraser n
contact cu deinui de drept comun, iar
aceasta le-a permis elaborarea unui
mod de gndire neobinuit, pe care l-au
tradus n aciune politic, dup evadarea lor. Cf. Conversaie cu autorul, 6
septembrie 1993.
12. Debray, Revolution in the Revolution?,
p. 69. Cteva presupoziii nu se potrivesc situaiei din Uruguay. n primul
rnd, conducerea gherilei trebuia s
opereze din afara oraului i deci nu
putea fi contactat. n al doilea rnd, se
presupunea c cei aflai la conducerea
micrii urbane vor fi n mod necesar
burghezi, alienai i ineficieni. Alte argumente mpotriva unei micri urbane se bazau pe dificultatea de a tri viei
duble, dificultatea de a tri totalmente underground i lipsa controlului
asupra aciunilor. Cu toate acestea,
principala diferen ntre Tupamaros
i alte micri de gheril consta n faptul c prima nu urmrea cucerirea puterii. Ea urmrea n schimb crearea
condiiilor pentru o preluare popular
a puterii. Tupamaros nu i-au atins
scopul, ns eecul lor nu poate fi explicat cu argumentele lui Debray sau
Castro. Unul dintre principalele motive ale cderii grupului a fost creterea
rapid a numrului de membri fr
stabilirea unui sistem de filtrare mpotriva infiltrrii inamice la vrful ierarhiei.
13. Acest tip de operaiuni a fost abandonat mai trziu, fiindc Tupamaros au
ajuns la concluzia c investiia de timp
i risc nu era justificat de ajutorul efectiv furnizat oamenilor.
14. Jean Tinguely, artist elveian, cunoscut
pentru sculpturile sale mobile, absurde
i satirice. n anii 1960, a creat Omagiu
pentru New York, o mainrie care s-a
autodistrus n grdina Muzeului de Art
Modern din New York.
15. Subversin, vezi cronologia din paginile 603766, o descriere factual,
aproape zi de zi, a evenimentelor din
Uruguay dintre 1960 i 1973 considerate de armat a fi legate de ceea ce
ei numeau stnga subversiv.
16. MLN, Actas tupamaras, p. 137178.
17. Spre deosebire de publicaiile multor al tor micri de gheril, cele ale Tupamaros erau, cel mai adesea, fr imagini.
18. Micarea urban yippie, iniiat printre
alii de Abbie Hoffman i Jerry Rubin n
a doua jumtate a anilor 1960 la New
York, urmrea s reuneasc micarea

17

contracultural hippie i Noua Stng

politic, n scopul realizrii unui nou tip
de revoluie, neataat de niciun curent
politic tradiional. (N. tr.)
19. n cartea sa The Whole World Is Watching, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980, Todd Gitlin susine
c momentul originar al estetizrii consumului media e apariia lui Jerry Rubin
n faa Comitetului pentru Activiti
Antiamericane al Congresului n 1966.
Rubin fusese sftuit de R. G. Davis, pe
atunci director al Trupei de Mimi din
San Francisco, s poarte un costum din
timpul Revoluiei Americane. Teoria
din spatele aceste idei era c, n timp
ce orice declaraie putea fi distorsionat
de mass-media, imaginea nu putea fi
(p. 171). Abbie Hoffman a nscenat
un eveniment la fel de teatral pentru
spectatorii de televiziune. Pe 24 august
1968, Hoffman a generat haos la bursa
de valori din New York aruncnd 300
de bancnote de un dolar ntre agenii
de burs. Hoffman declara c pentru
apariia ulterioar la televiziune, am
ateptat pn cnd camera era pe mine
n timp ce vorbeam i la sfritul discursului am spus cteva cuvinte fr sunet,
ntre care cuvntul fuck, pentru toi
cei care puteau s citeasc un pic pe
buze. Vezi Abbie Hoffman, America Has More Televisions Than Toilets,
in Douglas Kahn i Diane Neumaier
(ed.), Cultures in Contention, Seattle,
Real Comet Press, 1985, p. 141. Gitlin echivaleaz producia de semnificaii
din cultura de mas comercial cu producia de valoare prin munc (regsind
aceeai lips de control al oamenilor).
Gitlin consider c aceast relaie cu
media a contribuit la eecul Noii Stngi:
Atenia acordat de mass-media a
adus lumina incandescent a ateniei
sociale, pe care a convertit-o apoi n
cldura reificrii i a judecii (p. 246).
20. Prin micarea de art interdisciplinar
din Cuba m refer la proiecte precum pavilionul Cubei la Expoziia Universal din Montreal n 1968 i alte
ntreprinderi arhitecturale-vizuale-mu zicale cubaneze din anii 1960.
21. Vezi Artes Visuales, Mexico City, nr.
23, ianuarie 1980, numr ce conine
manifeste ale grupurilor i un eseu de
Rita Eder.
22. Catalogul publicat cu aceast ocazie
include o introducere de Gabriel Garca Mrquez, care i apr pe Los Grupos cu vechiul argument c dac nu ar
fi participat la expoziie, ar fi lsat spaiu
pentru adversarii lor reacionari.
23. Grupul TAI era compus din Luis Acevedo, Alberto Hijar, Andrs de Lun, Felipe Leal, Morris Savariego i Afilio Tuis.
24. Rita Eder, El arte pblico en Mxico:
Los grupos, Artes Visuales, Mexico
City, nr. 23, ianuarie 1980, p. v.

18

veneau din specializri foarte diferite (printre ele: filosofie, poezie, fotografie, pictur mural i arhitectur) i
i executau viziunile n medii diferite: tiprituri, teatru stradal, film, instalaii i combinaii ale acestora. Patru grupuri Taller de Arte e Ideologa (TAI), Proceso Pentgono, Suma i Tetraedro au reprezentat Mexicul la a
zecea bienal de art din Paris, n 1977, rentorcndu-se astfel pe o aren artistic mai ortodox.22 Grupul TAI
a conceput un container de import-export n care se putea intra.23 O ncpere construit din deeuri, ce evoca
cartierele mrginae, containerul coninea simboluri populare religioase, sportive i mortuare. n textul de catalog, grupul TAI declara c scopul su e s realizeze creterea posibilitilor de ruptur cu acele idei, sentimente i percepii determinate de ideologia clasei dominante. n 1978, diferitele grupuri au ncercat s se unifice,
crend Frontul Mexican al Grupurilor de Lucrtori Culturali, cu misiunea declarat dei n cele din urm lipsit de succes de a se altura luptelor proletariatului i rnimii pentru a dobndi controlul asupra mijloacelor de producie i a circulaiei muncii.24
n Chile, arta cea mai interesant a aprut, paradoxal, n timpul dictaturii lui Pinochet (19741990). Confruntai cu o cenzur foarte dur cu publicitatea din jurul evenimentelor dect cu evenimentele nsele, i a crei
judecat estetic era imprevizibil, artitii au fost nevoii s i adapteze limbajul. Au gsit o soluie folosind formele avangardei, care erau validate internaional i prindeau la snobii din aripa mai intelectual a regimului militar, deopotriv cu o ambiguitate codat a coninutului.25 Lucrrile au devenit astfel acceptabile la nivel oficial,
fiindc deviau de la micarea art pentru mase ce dominase Chile n timpul guvernului socialist al lui Salvador Allende, ns lectura lor a rmas clandestin.
O ntreprindere comun, Colectivul pentru Aciuni Artistice (CADA) cuvnt care nseamn fiecare n spaniol a ncercat s opereze n afara instituiilor artei i s se adreseze publicului larg, dei nu a renunat complet la spaiile expoziionale. ntr-o lucrare tipic din anii 1980, intitulat S nu mori de foame n art, artitii au
distribuit lapte-praf ntr-un cartier mrgina, au achiziionat o pagin alb n jurnalul Hoy, folosind titluri ce sugerau ideea de lapte i deficit, au citit un text n faa cldirii Organizaiei Naiunilor Unite din Santiago, au expus
cutii de lapte (i un text) ntr-o galerie, au trimis zece camioane de lapte la Muzeul de Art i au nchis intrarea n muzeu cu o pnz alb.26
Civa artiti au adoptat instalaia ca mediu potrivit i pentru arta mai individualist, cu diferite grade de aderen i deviere de la codul formal internaional. Unii au ncercat s faciliteze comunicarea mesajului propriu adernd la repertoriul formal internaional: fotografii lucioase, lumini fluorescente i o anumit calitate a designului.
Alii au ncercat s transmit o percepie a srciei materiale, folosind materiale perisabile, nonarhivabile. Alegerea unei opiuni era o chestiune de strategie; ambele variante erau valide din punct de vedere politic, dei restrnse, n general, la parametrii oferii de audiena tradiional a artei.27
n aceeai perioad, n Cuba, instalaiile au devenit exemplul unei anumite tendine cultural-economice. n loc
s contribuie la confundarea politicii i a artei ca form de rezisten, instalaiile erau dedicate mai degrab limitelor artei i ale vieii de zi cu zi. Pn n 1981, arta cubanez a fost n primul rnd bidimensional. Muzeul Naional din Havana are ncperi i ncperi umplute cu tablouri i doar cteva coridoare n care pot fi vzute ceva
sculpturi.
n interiorul acestei tradiii relativ neschimbate, formatul instalaiei a prilejuit trei deschideri importante: a introdus un mod viabil de a folosi cele trei dimensiuni, a deschis repertoriul unui numr infinit de lucruri care pot
fi folosite artistic i a permis elaborarea unei alternative, contra realismului reprezentaional i a abstraciei rafinate. Realismul nu mai era despre lucruri; putea fi lucruri.
n timp ce n America de Nord i Europa formatul instalaiei a fost produsul speculaiei formaliste pornind de
la spiritul performance-urilor din anii 1960, n Cuba a devenit o form de bricolaj sau asamblaje. n contextul srciei materiale relative, se putea folosi orice. Bricolajul estetic a eliberat artitii de problemele legate de
importuri i penurie. Le-a oferit un mediu care ncuraja aproprierea la un nivel material, dar i teoretic. Artitii
au nceput s mprumute, digere i reasambleze soluiile altor artiti, plasndu-le n uz local. Au creat un eclectism al supravieuirii i un eclectism al disperrii. Aceti termeni pe care i-am creat acum civa ani, pentru
mai mult precizie elimin judecata moral inclus n acuzaiile de derivatism pe care mainstream-ul le ataeaz
cu bucurie, adesea, pentru orice e fcut n Sud.
n Cuba, estetica bricolajului a urmat i exemplul Asociaiei Naionale a Inovatorilor i Raionalizatorilor
(ANIR). Aceast instituie, care exist n Cuba, n forma actual, nc din 1976, se bazeaz pe canibalizarea prilor,
reciclarea lor i folosirea unei filosofii a remodelrii instituit de Che Guevara n Sierra Maestra.28 Instituia reunete oameni de tiin i tehnicieni care snt solicitai s rezolve cu ingenuitate n loc de piese orice problem

tehnic ce survine n timpul produciei. De pild, din bagasse, un reziduu din trestia-de-zahr, a fost fcut placaj, iar din reziduuri de aluminiu au fost produse n mas balamale folosind cuie pe post de ax. Dei capacitatea ANIR de a depi problemele complexe de azi poate fi pus la ndoial, instituia continu s fie o metafor
pentru folosirea ingenuitii la periferie i pentru o adevrat estetic a srciei.
Folosirea instalaiilor a devenit o marc a artitilor cubanezi ai generaiei Volumen I, o expoziie din 1981 cuprinznd 11 artiti din Havana, care a devenit un moment istoric de referin pentru schimbarea din arta cubanez dup anii 1970, mai dogmatici.29 Artitii lucraser cu premisa c identitatea cubanez, cubana, nu depindea
de insularitate, ci putea fi mbogit prin digerarea constribuiilor artistice din ntreaga lume. Cea mai radical lucrare din Volumen I a fost probabil instalaia lui Gustavo Prez Monzn, realizat dintr-o reea de fire
legate cu pietre. Expoziia a generat controverse, mituri i deschideri pentru artitii nii, iar aceste repercusiuni mai pot fi resimite n producia celor mai tineri artiti cubanezi de azi.
Modul instalaiei a fost internalizat de artitii din America Latin, fr a elimina pictura tradiional i alte medii.
Astzi, explorrile interdimensionale snt dirijate ca o component natural a ntreprinderilor artistice. Instalaia a devenit o form artistic pentru metisaj i un instrumentent al naionalizrii. Reprezint o strategie de acomodare i apropriere. n acest sens, n Cuba, arta instalaiei e la fel ca religia cu rdcini africane Santera, care
sintetizeaz i adapteaz simbolurile i artefactele catolicismului. Ca urmare, nu e surprinztor faptul c Santera a influenat mult art cubanez din acest secol, iar civa dintre cei mai experimentai artiti ai instalaiei
din generaia anilor 1980 printre ei, Jos Bedia i Ricardo Rodrguez Brey snt implicai i n ritualuri.
Nu toate rile au, precum Cuba, ceea ce trebuie pentru naionalizarea tradiiilor strine, iar presiunea n
cretere constant a globalizrii informaiei nu are un caracter benefic ntotdeauna. Criticul cultural Guy
Debord a formulat cu claritate acest punct atunci cnd a susinut c ceea ce definete dominaia regiunilor subdezvoltate nu e doar hegemonia economic, ci i hegemonia spectacolului.30
Cu toate acestea, spectacolul poate genera propriii si anticorpi. Un activist social mexican care lupt pentru
salvarea chiriailor nsrcii de la evacuare i-a dat numele Superbarrio. Estetica sa e legat de scena de lupte
locale (wrestling) i de cultura de benzi desenate din jurul acesteia. Legenda spune c n 1987, un vnztor ambulant care fusese odat lupttor a auzit pe strad o gospodin care era pe cale s fie evacuat din casa sa:
Avem nevoie de Superman ca s ne scape de oamenii tia ri. Omul i-a luat un costum i masc, i-a cusut
SB pe piept i a nceput s i fac apariia la evacuri. A venit i la tribunal, unde a prezentat obiecii legale
suficient de puternice pentru a preveni mai mult de 1500 de evacuri n cinci ani. Deoarece evacurile nu snt
anunate public dinainte, Superbarrio trebuie s fac aranjamente pentru a reui s fie prezent n momentele critice. Astzi, sub acelai nume opereaz o echip de Superbarrios cel puin trei indivizi, ns poate mai
muli. Ceea ce facem noi e transformarea protestului ntr-o petrecere festiv, a explicat Superbarrio ntr-un
interviu. Trebuie s deschidem robinetele creativitii, ale ingenuitii populare, ale memoriei colective. Trebuie s salvm tradiiile noastre i formele noastre culturale pentru btlia pe care o purtm. Trebuie s reinventm acele forme de aciune n care oamenii nu snt spectatori, ci protagoniti.31
Dei acest articol nu e o istorie a artei recente din America Latin, poate cel puin indica anumite direcii pe
care istoriile tradiionale tind s le ignore. Politica estetizat e scoas din istoria artei. Folosirea esteticii n politici poate figura n analize culturale sau antropologice, ns doar atunci cnd ia forma pompei oficiale i rituale,
nu atunci cnd e un instrument al rezistenei. Esteticile politizate, pe de alt parte, snt discutate mai ales ca stiluri asociate cu liderii politici care exercit un control riguros Hitler, Stalin sau Mussolini.
O examinare a acestor chestiuni din punctul de vedere al rezistenei ne poate ajuta s redefinim scopul produ cerii de art i s popularizm strategii care au fost excluse cu atenie din procesul creativ. Pentru cei din lumea
subdezvoltat, e esenial s facem distincia ntre arta ca instrument pentru crearea culturii i pentru dobndirea independenei i arta ca ntreprindere comercial globalizant.

25. Nelly Richard numete aceasta o

stare flotant a sensului, in Margins
and Institutions: Art in Chile since
1973, Art & Text, Melbourne, nr. 21,
1986, p. 31.
26. Ibid., p. 5455. Membrii CADA au
fost Lotty Rosenfeld, Juan Castillo (artiti), Fernando Balcells (sociolog), Ral
Zurita (poet) i Diamela Eltit (scriitoare).
27. Artiti ca Alfredo Jaar i alii consider
c dac nu urmezi aspectul hegemo nic n art, comunicarea mesajului e
afectat. Prin aceasta, ei risc s devin
artiti mainstream. Pe de alt parte,
artiti precum Catalina Parra i Eugenio Dittborn, care prefer finisaje mai
relaxate i folosesc materiale perisabile n lucrrile lor, tocmai din dorina de
a dezvolta o identitate mai local, pot
deveni inta paternalismului specific
mainstream-ului. Problema cu care se
confrunt artitii politici e c, din momentul n care lucrarea lor e produs
n izolare de contextul politic originar
i e vzut prin lentilele internaionalismului mainstream, instrumentele formale folosite snt considerate mai
degrab trsturi specifice individuale
dect expresii ale unei culturi colective.
28. Che a organizat n muni, cu mult
atenie, o fabric de pantofi i o fabric
de armanent pentru gherile. Aceste
fabrici operau prin asamblarea de uniti noi din fragmente ale unor piese
aruncate. n 1959, o iniiativ muncitoreasc bazat pe aceast experien
a dus la crearea Comitetului Prilor n
diferite fabrici din Cuba revoluionar.
n 1960 au fost formate comitete de
consultare pentru producia prilor. n
1961, Che nsui a promovat sloganul
Muncitor, construiete-i propria main. n 1965 a fost instituit Convenia
Inovatorilor i a Inventatorilor, iar n
1976 ANIR, instituie dedicat memoriei lui Che.
29. Cei 11 artiti ai Volumen I au fost Jos
Bedia, Juan Francisco Elso Padilla, Jos
Manuel Fors, Flavio Garcianda, Israel
Len, Rogelio Lpez Marn (Gory),
Gustavo Prez Monzn, Ricardo Rodrguez Brey, Toms Snchez, Leandro
Soto i Rubn Torres Llorca.
30. Guy Debord, Society of the Spectacle,
Detroit, Black and Red, 1983, p. 55.
31. Mario Kapln, Superbarrio contra los
desalojos, Brecha, Montevideo, 5
martie 1993, p. 1011.

Traducere de Ovidiu ichindeleanu

19

arhiva

Pop politic (1998)

Luis Camnitzer

1. Marcha (Montevideo), 19 mai 1965,

p. 21.
2. Aceast poziie n-ar trebui confundat
cu poziia etic a lui Oldenburg n chestiuni politice. Cnd a devenit la mod s
profii de piaa artificial de art creat de
ah i de soia lui n Iranul anilor 1970,
Oldenburg a fost printre primii care s
interzic galeriei lui s le trimit lucrri.

20

n 1961, pe cnd mintea mea era cufundat nc ntr-un fel de expresionism, am vzut expoziia noilor realiti
la galeria Sydney Janis din New York. Fusese prima mea vizit la New York i prima ntlnire cu arta pop. La
vremea aceea, nu m-am ataat foarte tare de lucrrile pe care le vzusem i le respinsesem ca o copie ntrziat a dadaismului. Cu toate astea, urmtoarea mea ntlnire cu popul, cu ocazia unei alte vizite doi ani mai
trziu, m-a silit s trec prin prima dintre cele cteva revizuiri ale opiniei mele.
De data asta am fost contrariat de sentimentul c nimic nu putea contamina o lucrare pop. n schimb, orice
element de art pop ar fi contaminat orice ar fi fost produs n vreun alt fel. Un fragment cubist introdus de un
artist pop n orice pictur sau obiect era menit s fie asimilat i digerat pn se transforma n estetic pop, pe
cnd reciproca nu era adevrat.
n parte, desigur, asta se datora faptului c arta pop era nc vie, n timp ce alte micri erau deja moarte. E
adevrat c, n perioada sa iniial, cubismul i-a apropriat cu uurin forma tiprit. Dar fusese vorba mai degrab
de o trompe loeil a sracului i de o extindere a repertoriului pictural dect de un dispozitiv iconic voit, n
jurul cruia s fie organizat ntreaga realitate. Doar dadaismul a dezvoltat o putere similar cu aceea a artei
pop i, deoarece ambele micri se concentreaz pe obiecte i pe legturile dintre ele, cele dou par destul
de nrudite. n acest sens, reacia mea iniial fusese n acelai timp de neles i neoriginal.
Al doilea lucru de care mi-am dat seama la vremea aceea fusese c artitii pop nu operau pe baza impulsurilor emoionale, ci i foloseau capetele. Cu alte cuvinte, pentru ei arta devenise o modalitate de a pune probleme cu o claritate nemaipomenit de la primii constructiviti (sau, poate, de la realismul social).
A treia revelaie a fost aceea c atmosfera pictural era practic abolit, plasnd obiectul descris (i, ntr-o mare
msur, obiectul artistic ca atare) n acelai vid hedonist n care preau s existe obiectele banale de consum.
Dup aceste revelaii, spre 1964, devenise clar c arta pop era categoric o micare artistic la acelai nivel cu
marile micri din trecut ale avangardei.
Dar o greeal pe care am fcut-o a fost aceea de a vedea arta pop drept prima micare cu adevrat sintetic
a secolului, pe cnd toate celelalte fuseser analitice. De obicei, micrile artistice au subliniat i au ales cte un
aspect particular al practicii artistice, fcnd din aceast frm punctul de vedere pentru analiza artei nsei. Credeam c arta pop, cu caracterul ei aparent primitor i cu tendina ei spre problematizare, a reuit s evite aceast
abordare fragmentar. n loc s ncerce unificarea unui cmp, ea abordase realitatea ca un cmp deja unificat.
Aceast percepie a avut dou consecine. Una era c interpretasem arta pop ca revolt perceptual din interiorul unei societi a consumului. Majoritatea artitilor implicai n aceast micare veniser din orae mici
sau din mediul rural. Prea deci firesc s le atribui acelai sentiment de copleire pe care l-am avut cnd ajunsesem la New York. Am proiectat n arta pop propriile-mi reacii politice la o lume ce prea altfel incontrolabil. Recursesem la urmtoarea imagine: a te afla n tigaie i a decide ca ncercare de supravieuire s-i
preiei mnerul.
A doua consecin a fost c nelegerea mea a artei pop producea frustrare. Simeam c era o micare ce ar
fi trebuit s ncoleasc la periferie, i nu la centru. Aveam de-a face aici cu imperialismul obiectului de consum atacat de societatea care l producea, i nu de victimele sale principale victime care erau, bineneles,
tovarii mei latinoamericani i eu nsumi. Am decis c, nc o dat, ansa de a te afla n linia nti estetic a lumii
ne-a fost furat de artitii de la centru i, mai ru, de data asta rspunderea ne revenea exclusiv nou.
Am fost pur i simplu consternat cnd am aflat c nu exista nicio poziie politic deschis n producerea pieselor etichetate drept pop. ntr-un interviu pe care l-am fcut pe atunci cu Oldenburg1, el descria arta pop
ca motenitoare direct a expresionismului abstract i a informalismului. Revrsarea de materiale (i de
emoii i gesturi, cred) devenise acum o revrsare de obiecte, iar aceast atitudine nu schimba nimic n mod
semnificativ. Politica era respins, potrivit lui, din cauz c ea, mpreun cu sociologia, economia etc., erau
discipline prea complexe pentru a te implica dac te aflai deja n art, iar problema era, n cele din urm, s
supravieuieti.2
ntr-o ntrevedere informal cu Robert Rauschenberg la un vernisaj, el a negat orice fel de implicaii politice
ale operei sale i, n schimb, a accentuat o reacie cu obiectul direct i fr valoare n sine. L-am ntrebat dac

expoziia sa Oracle era o acceptare a dadaismului i mi-a rspuns: Nu, dadaismul are o atitudine politic, eu
nu am. Fac asta i folosesc aceste obiecte pentru c mi place, de dragul obiectului nsui.3
Doar yvind Fahlstrm, ntr-o conversaie la fel de informal, artase un interes fa de interpretrile politice ale operei sale, pe care le-a explicat parial prin faptul c s-a nscut i a fost crescut n Brazilia. Indignat de
invazia american a Republicii Dominicane, l suprase conformismul politic al multor artiti. Dar e interesant
c Fahlstrm nu s-a vzut i nici n-a fost vzut ca un membru cu drepturi egale al micrii pop.4
Date fiind toate astea, a fost, de asemenea, surprinztor c, cel puin n America Latin, arta pop n-a avut niciun
ecou semnificativ. La vremea aceea (nsemnnd la civa ani dup New York), ncercri de a produce o art pop
indigen n Argentina, Brazilia i Columbia au creat doar versiuni facile i folclorizate ale soluiilor formale dezvoltate la New York. Cnd politica aprea n aceste lucrri, era vorba de probleme legate de coninut forma rmnea una de import. Era o problem de care am scpat mai trziu, ca simptomatic pentru o derivare incomplet.
Din afara societii de consum americane, contribuia cea mai evident i mai de neles a artei pop fusese modificarea regulilor compoziiei. Opera de art era acum expus ca o pies de publicitate n locul compoziiei
tradiionale la care te atepi n art. Asta a nsemnat o ruptur vizual cu efecte dincolo de arta pop, care afectase chiar pictori precum Francis Bacon (tocindu-i violena voit pn la punctul de a-i da un caracter inofensiv). Mai mult, limbajul vizual se strduia s obin aspectul de manufactur, cu toat semnificaia ntru totul
contradictorie ce rezulta de aici. Aa cum enun cuvntul manufacturat, obiectul artistic era fcut nc n mare
parte cu minile, dar, aa cum implic acelai cuvnt, s-a ncercat obinerea unui finisaj industrial, care nega prezena oricrei urme a minii. Doar Warhol a vrut s mearg la extrem, nu doar prin folosirea esteticii bunurilor de consum, ci prin transformarea n marf a erorilor de producie. Astfel, erorile de focalizare n lucrrile
sale bazate pe fotografie i erorile de tiprire n cele bazate pe imprimarea prin site au devenit parte din estetica sa. n cele din urm, printr-o turnur pervers i planificat, pn i olografia sa pictural a dobndit statutul de marf, mai important dect capacitatea sa de a exprima ceva.
n anii 1960, chestiunea mai complex a raportului dintre consumatorul american i mrfurile aflate la dispoziia
sa prea intangibil pentru comprehensiunea cuiva din afar. Era de nenchipuit s existe cineva interesat de
crearea unei imagini iconice bazate pe obiecte care, din capul locului, dezumanizau oamenii. Prea echivalent cu a face o imagine iconic din faa lui Hitler. Cnd n 1972 Warhol l folosise pe Mao n acest sens, acesta din urm era nc ntr-o categorie diferit, era admirat de stnga i respectat de Nixon, nu era clasificat oficial
ca uciga n mas.
Arta pop, att de bazat pe aceast interaciune american foarte particular, fusese, de fapt, mult mai uor de
neles ca form a unei estetici foarte provinciale. Puterea internaional a Statelor Unite a reuit s distribuie
trucurile formale ale acestei estetici, dar nu i esena ei, care a rmas local. Prin urmare, n alte ri arta pop
propriu-zis a rmas la manire du pop, fr a atinge vreodat punctul unei aproprieri complete. Aceast
imagine a artei pop o estetic provincial a Statelor Unite a aruncat o nou lumin asupra ntregii micri.
Dintr-un punct de vedere vizual, o nelegere corect, de la periferie, a artei pop din Statele Unite ar fi fost
reflectat mult mai fidel n aspectul fcut de mn al obiectelor. Dintr-un punct de vedere cultural mai profund,
mai mult dect o apropriere a regulilor de design, chestiunea era aceea de a evalua rolul obiectului de consum n societatea periferic. Dei obiectele folosite ca iconografie n arta pop periferic fuseser adesea vernaculare, raportarea la aceste obiecte n-a fost examinat, mpiedicnd o interpretare i o expresie veritabil politice
ale problemei. Chestiuni precum panteismul, fetiimul, statutul lucrurilor importate, implicaiile de clas ale
diverselor niveluri ale consumului i, astfel, multiplicitatea interaciunilor reale i posibile ntre consumator i
marf fuseser toate lsate n afara discuiei.
n acest sens, n timp ce n Statele Unite arta pop prea o estetic simpl i destul de ncptoare (atunci cnd
nu era aplaudat drept ceva foarte rafinat, ea putea trece nc drept ceva popular, fr a fi cu totul respins),
la periferie ea deschidea o cutie a Pandorei pe care niciun artist nu voia s i-o asume n ntregime. La un nivel
mai simplu, a existat o rezisten mpotriva internaionalizrii a ceea ce fusese o producie vernacular a Statelor Unite, cel puin n ce privete acceptarea sa drept canon sau stil de urmat n afara granielor acestora.
Era n regul s fie consumat doar atta timp ct i se ataa eticheta de import. Creterea preurilor la care
se vindea arta pop din Statele Unite a fost acceptat, dar artitii locali au avut tendina de a evita popul ca model,
spre deosebire de cazurile expresionismului abstract i ale altor micri.
n America Latin, expresia rezistenei la marf s-a ivit prin procese de inserie i reinserie, acest din urm termen fiind folosit de artistul brazilian Cildo Meireles n lucrrile sale din 19691970. Meireles retrgea din cir-

3. La simpata de los objetos, Marcha

(Montevideo), 13 august 1965, p. 21.

4. Ibid.

21

arhiva

5. Ibid.

6. Shifra Goldman, Painters into Poster

Makers, Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 3 (1984), p. 162173.

7. Cu mult nainte de Sherrie Levine i

nc din 1968, artistul venezuelean Jos
Guillermo Castillo decupase reproduceri dup picturi din Art News i le
semna cu numele su, fr nicio alt
modificare. Artistul italian Giulio Paolini
i-a apropriat, de asemenea, reproduceri dup picturi de diveri autori nc din
1963, dar ntr-o form mai puin radical, resemnificndu-le cu titluri date de
el, o procedur pe care a continuat-o
timp de un deceniu.
8. Thomas Crow ar trebui ludat pentru
menionarea lui Sturtevant n The Rise of
the Sixties, New York, Harry W. Abrams,
1996, p. 159.
9. Poziia lui Hamilton i aceea a tovarilor
si de expoziie au fost politic mai puin
virulente i angajate dect aceea a lui
Heartfield, dar mprteau totui o estetic i un sim al satirei cu privire la mrfuri i la valorile clasei de mijloc.

22

culaie produse destinate consumatorului (sticle de coca-cola nedeschise, bancnote), imprima pe ele mesaje politice i le reda circuitului consumului normal adic le reinsera. n comparaie cu arta pop din Statele
Unite, fluxul dintre consumul cotidian i cel artistic era astfel inversat.
n cadrul lucrrilor mai tradiionale s-a trasat adesea o legtur direct ntre opera artistului cubanez Ral
Martnez (19271995) i arta pop din Statele Unite. Martnez studiase la Chicago n 1952 i a lucrat n domeniul publicitii n Statele Unite i Cuba, deci conexiunea pare evident. Cu toate astea, opera lui Martnez arat
cel mai clar posibilitile de apropriere ale unei estetici, n raport cu simpla derivare a ei. Dispozitivele pop nu
au fost utilizate pentru a introduce n muzeu imaginile iconice ale consumului, ci pentru a aduce a insera
imagini iconice eroice n domeniul consumului popular. La fel cum Rauschenberg numea obiectele de consum un peisaj american5, Martnez fcea referire la eroii Revoluiei, poporul ca peisaj cubanez. n msura
n care existase o influen a artei pop din Statele Unite n arta sa, aceasta din urm fusese apropriat prin digestie politic i doar parial; picturile lui au rmas att ambientale, ct i picturale. Nu a utilizat dect calitatea iconic i aranjamentele seriale.6
A fost nevoie de o poziie conceptual pentru a produce lucrri cu o valoare iconic asemntoare cu aceea
a artei pop din Statele Unite. Aceast poziie conceptual ajutase la fel cum o fcuse arta pop n Statele Unite
la formularea artei n termenii problemelor. n timp ce reinseriile lui Meireles evit trsturile vizuale iconice, opera lui Antonio Caro le exploateaz. Lucrarea sa Colombia, cuvnt scris cu caracterele Coca-Cola, i utilizarea stilului folosit n afiele populare ale coridelor pentru a transmite mesaje politice spre mijlocul anilor 1970
snt exemple ale acestui proces. Saltul lui Hlio Oiticica de la constructivism la lucrul cu colile de samba spre
finele anilor 1960 e un alt exemplu. Tucumn arde, o expoziie creat de un grup de artiti argentinieni n 1968
pentru a lupta mpotriva represiunii economice i sociale practicate de dictatur n provincia Tucumn, fusese, de fapt, o metaexpoziie servind aceleai scopuri. Tehnicile de prezentare i gestul expunerii fuseser recontextualizate i transformate ntr-o nou imagine iconic.
n Statele Unite, aceeai poziie conceptual a ajutat, n cele din urm, la politizarea artei pop, genernd activitatea conceptualist trzie cunoscut sub numele de neoconceptualism, care n realitate ar trebui s fie clasat drept o estetic postpop. A fost un proces fcut vizibil n mod uluitor de artista Sturtevant n expoziia ei
ce a avut loc la galeria Bianchini din New York. Expoziia a constat din piese de mobilier combinate cu alte
piese pictate foarte convingtor n maniera actorilor principali de pe scena pop. Un dulap aprea astfel ca o
colaborare ntre Lichtenstein, Oldenburg, Johns i Warhol, ceea ce a provocat admiraie pentru capacitatea
artistei de a-i coordona pe aceti deschiztori de drumuri ca muncitori pentru propriile ei intenii. Folosind n
cazul acesta arta ca un faux-ready-made, ea a transformat efectiv n art pop noile imagini iconice ale artei
i a deschis o cale pentru ceea ce se va numi mai trziu apropriaionism.7 De asemenea, ea a demascat ntr-un mod eficace i din interior valoarea monetar a operelor de art, o transgresiune cu siguran mai subver siv i mai periculoas dect gesturile paralele de dematerializare din cadrul conceptualismului din Statele Unite.
Asta ar putea explica n parte dispariia ei din istoria anilor 1960.8 Un deceniu mai trziu, Jenny Holzer folosea procesul de reinserie, adoptnd mijloace de exprimare i un limbaj banal pentru circulaia aforismelor
ei. La rndul ei, Barbara Kruger i apropriase tehnici comerciale de prezentare, pe care le exagerase pentru
a-i transmite sloganurile.
n cele din urm, arta pop poate fi vzut n lumina a dou paradigme: una este aceea a operei din secolul al
nousprezecelea a lui Harnett, Peto, Haberle i a celor care se nrudesc cu ei; cealalt e aceea a lui John Heartfield. O istorie propriu-zis ar ncepe cu expoziia britanic This Is Tomorrow (1956) i, urmnd lucrarea lui Richard
Hamilton din cadrul acesteia, ar lega micarea cu Heartfield.9 Grupul orientat spre imagini iconice al primilor
artiti pop din Statele Unite a stabilit, dup ce le-au urmat indiciile, o conexiune cu pictorii din secolul al nousprezecelea.
Arta pop nu trebuie vzut doar prin folosirea mrfurilor cotidiene drept icoane artistice, ci i ca o micare mai
larg ce abordeaz reeaua de relaii dintre consumator i obiect, opernd prin urmare ntr-un context politic. Dou curente subestetice din Statele Unite trebuie menionate aici. Unul e exemplificat de opera lui Luis
Jimnez. Monumentele sale din poliester date cu sclipici n culorile curcubeului salveaz i reinsereaz problematici ale gustului i eroismului n modaliti ce introduc n cultura nalt chestiuni legate de identitate, clas
i etnie.
Al doilea curent e ilustrat de munca unor fotodocumentariti precum Allan Sekula, Martha Rosler i Louise
Lawler. De fapt, ei snt legai de colajul iniial al lui Richard Hamilton, Just What Is It That Makes Todays Homes

So Different, So Appealing (1956), care a servit drept copert a catalogului expoziiei This Is Tomorrow. Prin pnzele din 1968 ale pictorului islandez Erro (scene ale Rzboiului din Vietnam n buctrii ale clasei de mijloc) i
pn la Bringing the War Home: Home Beautiful (19691972) de Martha Rosler, ncepem s nelegem lucrrile acestor artiti i concentrarea lor pe interaciunea cu mrfurile. Ei folosesc fotografia pentru a valida adevrul
analizei lor critice a acestor relaii. Furnizeaz o documentare contextual a icoanelor societii de consum,
le prezint ntr-o form ireproabil i le redau cmpului unificat al realitii consumului (unificat cel puin n contextul galeriei). Poate c acest cmp nu e subminat de opera lor, dar cel puin privitorii pot fi supui unei oarecare conversii ideologice nainte ca lucrarea s fie cooptat.
Cutia Brillo e poate un bun exemplu aici, deoarece servete ca numitor comun att pentru curentele politice, ct i pentru cele nonpolitice ale artei pop. Pentru artitii orientai spre imagini iconice, cutia e exact asta,
cu accentul pus pe numele de firm. Pentru artistul relaional, ea devine, dincolo de un obiect de consum, i
tribuna improvizat de pe care se emit mesaje.
Traducere de Alexandru Polgr

23

galerie
Modernitatea trzie nu are punct de fug, marginile i snt n continu expansiune, nomadicul domin viaa de zi cu zi, iar permanena i continuitatea snt doar
branduri turistice. Globalul contemporan ncorporeaz practicile locale, le niveleaz, le amestec i le transform n semne recognoscibile, n bunuri de consum;
relaiile snt intense, dar de scurt durat, benzile rulante de producie devin invizibile, mainile de vndut vise strlucesc cu litere mari, de neon, iar prezentul se
transform n aburi i vapori. Aceste trsturi, dintre care multe compun epoca modernitii lichide descris de Zygmunt Bauman la nceputul noului mileniu,
se regsesc nc din prima parte a anilor 90 n lucrrile artitilor contemporani, mai ales ale celor din fostul bloc estic, pentru care graniele se lichefiaz la propriu i capitalul devine sinonim cu circulaia liber (the free flow of capital). Acetia s-au remarcat drept colecionari de imagini ale efemerului, documentariti ai
noilor peisaje urbane, ateni la ntlnirile idiosincratice dintre culturi ajunse dintr-odat n convieuire, inventariindu-i experienele personale ca pe ultime mrturii ale unei lumi a crei schimbare ireversibil o percepem n timp real sau crend pentru cellalt condiii de experien plurisenzoriale, care s indice infiltrarea
diferitului n familiar.
Dan Mihlianu nu s-a oprit cu investigarea i nregistrarea acestei lumi la anii n care a plecat din Romnia n Europa mai mult sau mai puin de Vest. Proiectul
su de cercetare viznd economia lichid a devenit unul permanent, n care se pot citi permeabilitile contextelor locale i global, interschimburile continue
dintre acestea, evitarea instaurrii unui sistem uniform i unitar prin supravieuirea economiilor sau stilurilor de via alternative, precum i flexibilitatea structurilor social-politice n care artistul (lucrtorul cultural) poate oricnd oferi un model de adaptare.
n selecia alctuit pentru IDEA putem citi principalele direcii din aceast cercetare, fiecare dintre ele reprezentnd o imagine sintetizatoare att a ultimilor 25 de
ani, ct i a unui prezent deschis de la perechile purtate de jeans (19902013) la mulimile n strad i la sticla potenial incendiar. (Raluca Voinea)
Termenul de economie lichid se refer la fluiditatea, volatilitatea, versatilitatea i imprevizibilul unui fenomen global existena economiilor alternative, autonome, paralele sau subterane, n cadrul actualului sistem economic oficial. Persistena unor practici tradiionale sau arhaice, combinate cu noi tehnologii i forme
de producie n procesul reajustrii la noi situaii politice, sociale i economice care se petrec periodic n societatea noastr, este un factor de continuitate i dezvoltae, dar i o alternativ la economia global, subordonat structurilor i intereselor transnaionale. Exist o interconexiune puternic ntre structurile economice,
sociale i culturale de la toate nivelurile, care face ca dihotomiile oficial/underground, legal/ilegal, industrial/artizanal, cultur nalt/cultur popular, profesionist/amator, calificat/autodidact, tradiional/vizionar s fie aproape inseparabile. (Dan Mihlianu)

Dan Mihlianu: Liquid Economy

Production/Consumption/Alienation
Late modernity doesnt have a vanishing point, its edges are in continuous expansion, the nomadic dominates daily life and permanence and continuity are just touristic brands.
The contemporary global incorporates local practices, it evens, mixes and turns them into recognizable signs, into consumption goods; relationships are intense but short-lived, the
production assembly lines become invisible, the dreams-selling machines shine in big, neon letters and the present turns into steam and vapours. These traits, many of which compose the epoch of liquid modernity as it was described by Zygmunt Bauman at the beginning of the new millennium can be found already in the first part of the 90s in the works
of contemporary artists, especially those in the former Eastern bloc, for whom the borders literally liquefy and capital becomes synonymous to free circulation (the free flow of capital).
These artists became known as collectors of pictures of the ephemeral, documentarists of the new urban landscapes, attentive to the idiosyncratic encounters between cultures suddenly forced to coexist, inventorying their personal experiences as last testimonies of a world which irreversible change we now perceive in real time, or creating for the other conditions of multi-sensory experience which indicate the infiltration of the different into the familiar.
Dan Mihlianu hasnt stopped investigating and recording this world to the years when he left Romania for the more-or-less Western Europe. His research project on liquid economy
has become a permanent one, in which one can read the permeability of local and global contexts, the continuous interchanges between them, the avoidance of a uniform and unitary
systems instauration through the survival of alternative economies or life-styles, as well as the flexibility of social-political structures in which the artist (the cultural worker) can at any
time offer a model of adaptability.
In the selection made for IDEA one can read the main directions of this research, each one of them representing a synthetic image both of the past 25 years and of an open present
from the used pairs of jeans (19902013) to the crowds in the streets and the potentially incendiary bottle. (Raluca Voinea)
The term Liquid Economy refers to the fluidity, volatility, versatility and unpredictability of a global phenomenon the existence of alternative, autonomous, parallel or underground economies, within the actual official economical system. The persistence of traditional and archaic practices combined with new technologies and production forms in the
process of readjustment to new political, social and economic situations that are occurring periodically in our society, is a factor of continuity and development, but also an alternative
to a global economy, subordinated to transnational structures and interests. There is a strong interconnection between economic, social and cultural structures at all levels, which
makes the dichotomies official/underground, legal/illegal, industrial/artisanal, high culture/popular culture, professional/amateur, skilled/autodidact, traditional/visionary, almost
inseparable. The project looks into the main aspects of liquid economies positions relations resources practices infrastructure sustainability production distribution
consumption capitalization. (Dan Mihlianu)

DAN MIHLIANU born 1954 in Bucharest, cofounded subREAL in 1990 (cooperation until 1993), has initiated and coordinated a series of international projects, such as: Balt-OrientExpress, ifa-Galerie Berlin, Kunsthale Exnergasse Vienna, National Museum of Art Bucharest, 1996; Transferatu, ifa-Galerie Berlin, 1999; Transcafe, Galeria Noua Bucharest, 2000;
Liquid Matter, Kunstraum Bethanien Berlin, 2006; Social Cooking Romania, NGBK Berlin, 2007.
Since the 1980s his work has been exhibited in various solo and group shows, among others: Les Rencontres Internationales, Paris, Berlin, 2014; Literacy-Illiteracy, 16th Tallin Print
Triennial, 2014; Les enfants de Ceauescu et de George Soros, Plan B Gallery, Berlin, 2013; subREAL Retrospect, MNAC, Bucharest, SALT, Istanbul, 2012, 2013; Official History,
Galerie Renate Kammer, Hamburg, 2011; Plaques tournantes, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin, 2010; Nightsense, Nuit blanche Toronto, 2009; Divided Files, 3.14 International
Contemporary Art Foundation Bergen, 2008; The Process, Prague Biennale 3, 2007; New Video, New Europe, Renaissance Society Chicago, Contemporary Art Museum St. Louis,
Tate Modern London, Stedelijk Museum Amsterdam, The Kitchen New York, 20042006; Tracing Space, Bergen Kunsthall, 2005; Not on the Sky & not on the Earth, Museum of
Modern Art, Skopje, 2004; Context, Romanian Pavilion, La Biennale di Venezia. 49., 2001; CTRL [SPACE], ZKM/Museum for Contemporary Arts Karlsruhe, 2001; Periferic 4, Iai, 2000;
Video Cult/ures, ZKM/Museum for Contemporary Arts Karlsruhe, 1998; Ad Hoc, Museum of Contemporary Art Ludwig Museum, Budapest, 1997; Firewater, Art in General, New
York, 1996; Nineteen-fifty-four, Knstlerhaus Bethanien, Berlin, 1994; Aperto, 45th International Art Exhibition Venice Biennale/Biennale di Venezia, 1993; Production of Cultural
Difference, 3rd International Istanbul Biennial, 1992; Points East, Third Eye Centre, Glasgow, 1990; Impact Art Festival, Municipal Art Museum, Kyoto, 1986, 1987, 1988; Art of Today,
Club of Young Artists, Budapest, 1986, 1987; European Print Triennial, Grado, 1987.

24

Great Distillations, copper, galvanized steel, flower, fermented fruits, alcohol, 1994

Apparat, Neue Schnhauser Strasse 20, Berlin, 19941999

Degree 0, miniature bottles, single malt spirit, edition of 100, Glenfiddich Distillery, Scotland, 2002

Liquid Matter Archive, steel structure, copper stills, bottles, alcohol, Kunstraum Bethanien, Berlin, 2006

Union, brandy bottles cast in concrete, multiple of 100, 30 10 10 cm each, MNAC, Bucharest, 2005

Plaques tournantes, polyurethane, inkjet prints, cardboard, wood, aluminium, PVC, 20072012

Vodka Pool, vinyl pool liner, vodka, coins, Nightsense, Nuit Blanche, Toronto, 2009

Diary, used jeans, wood structure, 350 200 cm, 19902013

New Working Class Heroes, Full-HDV, sound, 60 min. loop, Universit du Qubec Montral, 2009

Les enfants de Ceauescu et de George Soros, two-channel sound and video projection, furniture, objects, Plan B Gallery, Berlin, 2013

scena

ntotdeauna la un pas de art

Diana Marincu

Nita Mocanu, Jurnalul unei discuii despre educaie i altele,

1214 septembrie 2014, Conset, Cluj

Formatul expoziiilor de art contemporan se schimb constant i se distaneaz

de ideea marilor ntlniri cu arta, pentru a produce nu o ratare a acestei promisiuni, ci o lucid detaare de acest tip de ateptri. Sub influena nevoii de a introduce noi instrumente pentru crearea unui discurs mai relaxat i mai deschis spre
public, expoziiile se transform adesea n spaii de reflecie, unde perspectivele unice
i conceptele tari snt nlocuite de incertitudini, demonstraii pariale i puncte de
vedere multiple. ntotdeauna la un pas de art, sintagm extras din lucrarea Jurnal evaziv a Nitei Mocanu, reprezint cel mai bine esena ultimei sale prezentri
n cadrul Atelierelor Conset din Cluj i, mai mult dect att, i poate extinde diagnosticul i spre starea general a scenei artistice romneti. ntr-o ncercare de a
renuna la un format static de prezentare, atelierul Nitei Mocanu a nceput cu o
expunere a lucrrilor personale legate de situaia educaiei n Romnia pe care
o cunoate bine, fiind profesoar la Liceul de Arte din Arad pentru a se transforma ulterior ntr-un laborator de gndire i producie de idei despre nvmnt, modelate n funcie de participani pe parcursul a trei sptmni. Ultima parte a prezentrii
(1214 septembrie) a integrat tot acest material acumulat, decupndu-l apoi n forma
unor poeme vizuale de tip jurnal care reprezint vocile interlocutorilor sau citate ale clieelor att de rspndite n domeniu: Unde ai vzut tu feti cu pr verde?,
baletul n jurul naturii moarte, linia care definete forma, educaia artistic e o
tain, arta contemporan e de ni, i acum, drapaje din alt secol, veselia ritmului vizual etc.
Atelierele Conset, desfurate la Casa Tranzit din Cluj, au pornit de la ideea confruntrii dintre domeniul artelor vizuale i alte sfere ale cunoaterii, prin care contextualizarea mai extins a artei ar putea determina noi abordri teoretice. Situndu-se pe
o poziie contrar rigiditii specifice instituiilor dedicate artelor, Conset se definete
ca o instituie temporar, experimental, menit s lrgeasc orizontul de ateptare i de ncorporare a posibilelor producii de sens. Artitii invitai de Szilrd
Mikls, iniiatorul atelierului, i construiesc proiectele n funcie de dialogul cu civa parteneri i cu publicul interesat s i aduc o contribuie, iar finalitatea nu include cu necesitate o expoziie ca rezultat al cercetrii. Structura Conset pare mai
degrab o formul de mediere intens ntre cadrul producerii lucrrilor i cel al
receptrii, printre jaloane precum biblioteca, ntlnirile cu artitii, proieciile video i
publicaiile.
Nita Mocanu, prima artist n reziden la Conset, recurge la expoziie ca la un instrument flexibil pentru a face public un proiect de analiz critic despre stadiul actual
al sistemului educaiei vizuale din Romnia, aducnd accente diferite subiectului
de la o voce singular, subiectiv, n prima zi, la mai multe voci, mai coagulate, n

ALWAYS A STEP AWAY FROM ART

Diana Marincu
Nita Mocanu, Diary of a Discussion on Education and Other Things,
1214 September 2014, Conset, Cluj
The format of contemporary art exhibitions constantly changes and
distances itself from the notion of great encounters with art, not
in order to avoid the failure of this promise, but for achieving a conscious detachment from this sort of expectations. Under the influence of a need for introducing new instruments for creating a
discourse more relaxed and more open to the public, exhibitions
often become spaces for reflection, where single perspectives and
hard concepts are replaced with uncertainties, partial demonstrations and multiple points of view. Always a step away from art, a
phrase I extracted from Nita Mocanus Evasive Diary, best represents
the essence of her last presentation at the Conset Workshops in Cluj
and, more than this, can also expand a diagnosis of the general
situation in the Romanian art scene. In an attempt at renouncing
to static display, Nita Mocanus workshop started with an exhibition
of personal work on the status of education in Romania which she
knows well, being a teacher at the Art High School in Arad , and
later transformed itself into a laboratory of thinking and producing
ideas about the school system, designed in consideration of the participants during three weeks of collaborative work. The last part of
the presentation (1214 September) has integrated this accumulated
material in its entirety, cutting it in shape of diary-type visual poems
representing the voices of discussion partners or quotations of various clichs widespread in the field of education: Where did you see
a little girl with green hair?, the ballet around still life, the line
defining the form, art education is a mystery/sacrament, contemporary art is a niche, and now, some draping from a different century, the gaiety of visual rhythm, etc.
The Conset Workshops at the Tranzit House in Cluj started from the
idea of confronting the domain of visual arts with other spheres of
knowledge, whereby the expanded contextualization of art could
determine new theoretical approaches. Standing on a position opposite to the rigidity characterizing art institutions, Conset defines itself
as a temporary experimental institution meant to widen the horizon
of expectations and incorporations of possible productions of meaning. The artists invited by Szilrd Mikls, the initiator of the workshops, build their projects in a dialogue with a number of partners
and with the public interested in contributing, but the end product
of such proceedings do not necessarily imply an exhibition as a result
of the research. The structure of Conset is rather a form of intense
mediation between the frame of art production and that of art

Exhibition view, Diary of a Discussion on Education and Other Things, 2014. Photo credit: Miron Vilidr Vivien

DIANA MARINCU (n. 1986) este doctorand la Universitatea Naional de Arte din Bucureti, Departamentul de Istoria i Teoria Artei,cu o cercetare despre discursurile curatoriale construite n jurul unor criterii
politico-geografice n ultimii douzeci de ani. Semneaz cronici de art n revistele Arta, Observator cultural,
Dilema veche, Poesis Internaional i n alte publicaii.

44

DIANA MARINCU (b. 1986) is a Ph.D. candidate at the National University

of Art in Bucharest, Art History and Theory Department, with a research
focusing on the curatorial discourses built in relation with political and
geographical criteria in the last twenty years of exhibition making.
She writes art reviews in Arta, Observator cultural, Dilema veche, Poesis
Internaflional, and other publications.

45

Exhibition view, Diary of a Discussion on Education and Other Things, 2014. Photo credit: Mihai Pltic

ultima zi. Aceast schimbare i solidarizare ntre participani nseamn mai mult dect
ntrirea poziiei artistei n cadrul demersului su critic, fiind de asemenea o prob
din punct de vedere metodologic pentru un viitor atelier de lucru ce-i propune
schimbarea la nivel naional a programei colare n domeniile artistice.
De la o expoziie de autor la una de tip laborator i n final la una poetico-documentar, parcursul Jurnalului unei discuii despre educaie i altele a urmrit dou ipostaze ale partenerilor de discuii cea de artist i cea de profesor , vzute ca dou
identiti distincte. Cum gndeti i cum acionezi n cele dou registre? Care snt
urgenele fiecreia dintre ele i cum comunic acestea? Cum ar trebui acionat pentru a schimba programa inadecvat, bazat strict pe formalismul limbajului vizual?
Ce fel de susinere are, de fapt, arta ca obiect de studiu n coal? Cum se pot reeavalua cerinele educaiei vizuale din Romnia pentru a gsi punctul de intersecie
ntre via i coal? n ce fel s-ar putea dezvolta o gndire critic ntr-un cadru normativ precum cel al nvmntului public? Acestea snt cteva dintre ntrebrile care traverseaz documentarea nceput deja de Nita Mocanu la Arad n 2010 sub forma
unui chestionar video i continuat aici n urma discuiilor cu Szilrd Mikls i Dnes
Miklsi, un alt iniiator al proiectului Conset i participant la atelierele acestuia. Fiecare dintre artitii sau curatorii invitai de Nita i-a povestit propria experien de
la coal, iar Nita a transformat ideile i informaiile ntr-un fel de mind map din texte
i fotografii. Identificnd cele mai sensibile puncte ale traseului educaie cultur
politic, majoritatea profesorilor au fost de acord c cerinele manualului i programa, aa cum arat ele n acest moment, nu snt altceva dect sisteme de a configura
o realitate paralel despre art, izolat de orice responsabilitate social i imun la
schimbrile instrumentelor specifice sau ale definiiilor artei cu care operm. Obiec-

46

reception, via flagpoles such as the library, meetings with artists,

video projections and publications.
Nita Mocanu, the first artist-in-residence at Conset, resorts to the
exhibition as a flexible instrument for making public a project of critical analysis about the current situation in the system of visual education in Romania, contributing different emphases to this topic
from a singular subjective voice on the first day of the project to
many voices, more coagulated, on the last. This change and solidarity between the participants means more than strengthening the
artists position within her critical discourse, being also a methodological trial for a future workshop that has set as its aim the
transformation at national level of the curriculum in teaching artistic
disciplines.
From a personal exhibition to a laboratory and, in the end, to a poetic-documentary, the trajectory of the Diary of a Discussion on Education and Other Things pursued two postures of the partners in
dialogue that of the artist and that of the professor viewed as two
distinct identities. How does one think and how does one act in these
two registers? What are the urgencies of both and how do they communicate? What is the kind of support art receives as a subject matter in schools? How can one reassess the requirements of visual
education in Romania in order to find the meeting point between
life and school? How can one develop critical thinking in a normative frame such as that of public education? These are some of
the questions traversing the documentation started by Nita Mocanu
in Arad in 2010 as a video questionnaire and continued here following discussions with Szilrd Mikls and Dnes Miklsi, another initiator and artist-in-residence at Conset. Each artist and curator invited
by Nita Mocanu shared his or her school experience, and Mocanu
transformed ideas and information into a sort of mind map made of
texts and photos. Identifying the most sensitive points of the trajectory education-culture-politics, the majority of the teachers agreed
that the requirements of the textbooks and the curriculum in their
current state are nothing but systems for configuring a parallel reality about art, isolated from any social responsibility and immune
to changes in specific instruments or art definitions with which we
operate. Today, the relevant objectives are not the contrast
between warm and cold colors, neither the painterly treatment of
a surface. These can constitute, as Nita Mocanu suggests, a practical
guide of materials and working techniques, but cannot replace the
formative role played by this subject as regards the motivation and
goal of expression through art. Nita Mocanus 2012 video The
Development of Sensibility presents an 8th-grader reading a text
resembling Eugen Ionescus absurd writings the reference skills
for the Development of sensibility, creativity and artistic imagination in the official school curriculum. Gradually, the rhetorical impetus of the girl recedes and errors and emotions appear. It seems as
if the meaning of the text exceeds the semantic reference and a link
is totally missing from the logical connection of activities and objectives. From the same series, The Development of Creativity conveys
a collage of phrases quoted from the curriculum according to the
principles of using elements of plastic language, without paying
attention to the meaning of words and privileging the dexterity
in cutting.
Other projects attempting at destabilizing clichs on education can
be found in the work of h.arta group, for which emancipation, decanonization of culture and usefulness of art are constant concerns.
On Art and the Way We Look at the World, a project included in the
International Biennial of Contemporary Art Periferic 7, Iai, 2006,
has kept its relevance today, after 8 years since the proposition of
some principles, a quasi-manifesto, indeed, for a re-definition of our
relationship to contemporary art in a public institutional context,
principles such as: We can believe that the artist is always a genius,
who is not understood in his or her time, somebody completely
different from us, common people. It depends on us whether we
want to perpetuate these ideas on art and keep a reverential and

Evasive Diary Autumn warm colors, blue is a cool color, digital photography, 2014

tivele relevante astzi nu snt contrastul cald-rece, nici tratarea pictural a unei suprafee. Ele pot constitui, aa cum propune Nita Mocanu, un ghid practic de materiale i tehnici de lucru, dar nu pot nlocui rolul formativ pe care aceast disciplin l are
n ceea ce privete motivaia i scopul exprimrii prin art. Videoul Nitei Mocanu,
Dezvoltarea sensibilitii, din 2012, nfieaz o elev de clasa a VIII-a citind un text
desprins parc din Eugen Ionescu competenele de referin pentru Dezvoltarea sensibilitii, creativitii i imaginaiei artistice din programa colar. Treptat, emfaza retoric a fetei scade i apar erorile i emoiile. Pare c semnificaia textului
depete referentul semantic i c o verig de legtur lipsete complet n nlnuirea logic a activitilor i obiectivelor. Din aceeai serie, Dezvoltarea creativitii red
un colaj al unor sintagme extrase din programa colar conform principiilor de folosire a elementelor limbajului plastic, fr a ine cont de sensul cuvintelor, ci doar
de dexteritatea de a decupa.
Proiecte care au ncercat de-a lungul timpului s destabilizeze clieele educaiei se
regsesc i n munca grupului h.arta, pentru care emanciparea, decanonizarea culturii i utilitatea artei snt cteva preocupri constante. Despre art i felurile n care
privim lumea, un proiect inclus n Bienala Internaional de Art Contemporan
Periferic 7, de la Iai, n 2006, este la fel de relevant i astzi, la distan de opt ani
de la redactarea unor principii, aproape manifest, pentru o redefinire a raportului
cu arta contemporan n context public instituional, precum: Putem crede c artis-

humble attitude regarding art (and culture, in general), or instead

we want to consider art as something close, normal, natural and
useful, something about which we talk in our lives, something that
not only reflects reality in a passive way, but can effectively change
things.
If one always ignores the thought producing potential, and its possibility of shaping new identities, visual education ends up as the least
respected subject taught in schools, the one with the smallest potential for being integrated as an instrument of knowledge in the life of
pupils. Henry Giroux, a known exponent of multicultural critical pedagogy in the United States, argues in his Pedagogy and the Politics
of Hope that the current crisis of pedagogy has one of its causes in
the lack of sensibility the system displays when it comes to the way
in which pupils perceive and assimilate information, as well as to the
relationship built between teachers and pupils at the level of power
structures legitimizing and perpetuating a dominant culture, supposed to not challenge too much the social and institutional frame
in which the transmission of knowledge takes place. Objectivity, efficiency and technique, viewed as priorities, separate, instead of bringing together, history and the present, the idealism of public education
and the space we live in, harmony and the struggle for a better society. What is taught in schools is not synonymous with what happens
outside of the classroom, and this tension manipulates our vision
about the relationship between information and power. Inhibiting
any attempt at a moral inquiry about the relationships between

47

tul e ntotdeauna un geniu, neneles de epoca sa, cineva complet diferit de noi, oamenii obinuii. Depinde de noi toi dac vrem s perpetum aceste idei despre art,
dac vrem ca atitudinea noastr n faa artei (i a culturii, n general) s fie una reverenioas i umil sau dac vrem, dimpotriv, s socotim c arta poate fi ceva apropiat, normal, firesc i folositor, ceva ce vorbete despre vieile noastre, ceva ce nu
doar reflect pasiv realitatea, ci care poate schimba n mod real lucrurile.
Dac se ignor mereu potenialul de a produce idei i de a contura noi identiti,
educaia vizual sfrete prin a fi cea mai umil materie predat n coli i cu cel mai
mic potenial de a fi integrat ca instrument al cunoaterii n viaa elevilor. Henry
Giroux, un exponent cunoscut al pedagogiei critice multiculturale din Statele Unite,
susine n studiul Pedagogy and the Politics of Hope c una dintre cauzele crizei actuale a pedagogiei o constituie insensibilitatea sistemului fa de felul n care elevii percep i asimileaz informaiile prezentate i fa de relaia construit ntre profesor
i elev la nivelul structurilor de putere care legitimeaz i perpetueaz o cultur dominant, n msur s nu provoace prea mult organizarea social i instituional n
care are loc transmiterea cunoaterii. Obiectivitatea, eficiena i tehnica, vzute ca
prioritare, separ, n loc s aduc mpreun, istoria i prezentul, idealismul nvmntului public i spaiul n care trim, armonia i lupta pentru o societate mai bun.
Ceea ce se pred n coli nu este sinonim cu ceea ce se ntmpl n afara slii de
clas i aceast tensiune manipuleaz viziunea asupra raportului informaie-putere. Inhibnd orice tentativ de chestionare moral a relaiilor dintre privilegiai i subordonai, sistemul educaional actual depolitizeaz i exclude programatic orice
iniiativ critic ndreptat spre asimetria relaiilor de putere. Henry Giroux pledeaz
pentru o pedagogie radical, care s in cont de trei direcii importante: politica statului care influeneaz identitatea colii, textul ca instrument ideologic i cadrul
vieii tuturor entitilor participante, cu motenirile culturale, experienele i limbajele specifice. innd cont de acestea, se deschide o pedagogie a posibilitii, incluznd vocea colii, vocea elevului i vocea profesorului.
Astfel, una dintre prioritile nvmntului artistic ar trebui s se concentreze pe
refacerea legturilor dintre spaiul nchis al slii de clas i societatea n care triesc
elevii i urgenele lor. Nita Mocanu a oferit ocazia profesorilor de a-i face auzit
vocea, un prim pas al unui dialog esenial pentru recunoaterea unor probleme ignorate prea mult timp. Plasnd citate extrase din discursul profesorilor n diferite locuri din ora pentru a le fotografia n context, Nita Mocanu oscileaz ntre dou
manifestri ale mesajului, din estetic nspre etic i invers. Cea mai poetic lucrare
a expoziiei, videoul Martie, este o metafor despre legturi indestructibile, maternitate i obligaii. Dou mneci, a mamei i a copilului, snt cusute una de alta, ntr-o
apropiere forat, dar necesar. Faptul c la un moment dat firele snt tiate determin detaarea i eliberarea de sub protecia adultului i nceputul unei noi relaii,
de egalitate de data aceasta. Gestul acesta firesc, transpus n zona teoretic a problemei ridicate de Nita Mocanu, se poate traduce n asumarea total a unui echilibru ntre cele dou instane, profesor i elev, privite cu empatie i responsabilitate.
Odat definit teritoriul de ntlnire, polifonia vocilor i multiplele straturi istorice ale
acestei relaii, am ncredere c coala ar putea integra n timp i fetia cu pr verde.

Evasive Diary The classes for finding beauty in a A4 format,

digital photography, 2014

Tiago Borges and Yonamine

AfroUFO, installation, 2014, Leo Eloy/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

Cum s lupfli pentru lucruri care nu exist

Tobi Maier
privileged and subordinated, the current educational system depoliticizes and programmatically excludes any critical initiative aiming at
the asymmetry of power relations. Henry Giroux pleads for a radical
pedagogy, which would consider three important directions: state
policies that influence school identity, texts as ideological instruments and life contexts of all participants, with their specific cultural
heritage, experiences and languages. Observing these directions,
a pedagogy of possibility opens up, one that includes the voice
of the school, that of the pupil and that of the teacher.
Thus, art education should take as a priority the focus on rebuilding
the connections between the closed space of the classroom and the
society in which pupils are living, as well as their urgencies. Nita
Mocanu has offered teachers the possibility of making their voice
heard, which is a first step for an essential dialogue for recognizing
long-ignored concerns. Placing quotations from the discourse of
teachers in various locations in the city and taking pictures of them,
Nita Mocanu oscillates between two manifestations of the message,
from the aesthetical to the ethical and back. The most poetic work of
the exhibition, a video titled March, is a metaphor about indestructible links, motherhood and obligations. Two sleeves, one of the mother and the other of the child, are sewn together in a constrained but
necessary closeness. The fact that at some point the threads are cut
determines detachment and liberation from the protection of the
grown-up and the beginning of new relationship, this time of equality. This natural gesture, transposed in the theoretical field of the
question raised by Nita Mocanu, can translate as a complete assumption of a balance between the two positions, that of the teacher and
that of the pupil, viewed with empathy and responsibility. With the
definition of the meeting place, of the polyphony of voices and of the
various historical layers of this relationship, I have trust that the
school could also integrate, in time, the little girl with green hair.
Translated by Alexandru Polgr

Cea de-a 31-aediie a Bienalei de la So Paulo, 6 septembrie 7 decembrie 2014

In 1967, artistul brazilian Hlio Oiticica i-a publicat textul General Scheme of the
New Brazilian Objectivity deodat cu inaugurarea unei expoziii la Muzeul de Art
Modern din Rio de Janeiro.La vremea respectiv, el pleda pentru luri de poziie
din partea artitilor n problemele politice, sociale i etice, fcnd semn, n acelai
timp, spre o tendin a practicii artistice colective. Citndu-l pe criticul i scriitorul
brazilian Ferreira Gullar, Oiticica era n favoarea tezelor potrivit crora artitii trebuie s fie fiine sociale, a cror oper nu trebuie doar s fie creat, ci i s ncerce s schimbe contiina celor din jur.1 Dei Oiticica nu e prezentat n expoziie ca
atare, majoritatea lucrrilor care se pot vedea la cea de-a 31-a ediie a Bienalei de
la So Paulo snt ptrunse de acest spirit.
Titlul sus-menionat al expoziiei este doar una dintre mai multele denumiri pe care
echipa curatorial le-a ales pentru expoziie.Printr-o micare inteligent de eludare a preteniei instituionale de a avea o identitate clar i ca semnificant al multitudinii de aspecte puse n joc, unii ar citi titlul i drept Cum s... caui, s recunoti,
s citeti despre, s i nchipui...lucruri care nu exist. Cu mult nainte de deschiderea expoziiei n parcul Ibirapuera, echipa din jurul lui Charles Esche, Galit Eilat,
Nuria Enguita Mayo, Oren Sagiv i Pablo Lafuente a organizat ntlniri deschise n
toat ara, ntlniri care se prelungesc prin prelegeri i performance-uri n pavilionul
Bienalei de la So Paulo. Acest accent pus pe temporalitatea discursiv n arta contemporan se manifest i n arhitectura expoziiei.Vizitatorul e ntmpinat de o
TOBI MAIER este curator i scriitor activnd la So Paulo, unde a fost curator asociat la a treizecea ediie a Bienalei de la So Paulo (2012). Mai nainte, a lucrat ca muzeograf la Frankfurter Kunstverein, n Frankfurt am Main
(20062008), i la Ludlow 38, satelitul pentru art contemporan din centrul oraului al Institutului Goethe
de la New York (20082011). Recent, a coeditat OEI #6061, Extra-disciplinary spaces and de-disciplinizing
moments: In and out of the 30th Bienal de So Paulo (2013) i OEI #66, poema/processo (2014), precum i
cel de-al patrulea numr al revistei braziliene online Peridico Permanente.

48

HOW TO FIGHT FOR THINGS THAT DONT EXIST

Tobi Maier
31st So Paulo Biennial, 6 September 7 December 2014
In 1967 Brazilian artist Hlio Oiticica published his text General
Scheme of the New Brazilian Objectivity in conjunction with an exhibition at the Modern Art Museum of Rio de Janeiro. At the time he
was advocating for artists to take a position towards political, social
and ethical problems as well as pointing at a tendency towards a
collective art practice. Quoting Brazilian critic and writer Ferreira
Gullar, Oiticica supported the theses that artists have to be social
beings, whose work must not only be created but also attempt to
change the consciousness of people around them.1 While Oiticica
is not presented in the exhibition itself, this spirit permeates much
of what is on view in the 31st edition of the So Paulo Biennial.
The above mentioned exhibition title is only one of several designations that the curatorial team has chosen for their exhibition. In a
clever move to escape the institutional demand for a clear identity
and as a signifier for the multiplicity of issues at stake, others would
read How to look for, recognise, read about or imagine
Things That Dont Exist. Long before the show opened in Ibirapuera
Park, the team around Charles Esche, Galit Eilat, Nuria Enguita
Mayo, Oren Sagiv and Pablo Lafuente had initiated open meetings
allover the country, which continue to evolve through lectures and
performances in the Biennial Pavilion in So Paulo. This emphasis on

TOBI MAIER is a curator and writer based in So Paulo, where he was an

associate curator for the 30th edition of the Bienal de So Paulo (2012).
Previously, he worked as a curator at Frankfurter Kunstverein in Frankfurt
am Main (20062008) and at Ludlow 38, the downtown satellite for contemporary art of the Goethe-Institut in New York (20082011). He recently co-editedOEI #6061,Extra-disciplinary spaces and de-disciplinizing
moments: In and out of the 30th Bienal de So Paulo (2013) and OEI #66,
poema/processo (2014) as well as the fourth edition of the Brazilian online
magazine Peridico Permanente.

49

Edward Krasinski
Spear, Leo Eloy/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

Edward Krasinski
Spear and Other Works, 19631965, with photographs by Eustachy Kossakowski, Sofia Colucci/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

Mujeres Creando
Espacio para Abortar [Space to Abort], urban intervention, participative platform, 2014, Leo Eloy/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

50

scena

Otobong Nkanga
Landversation, installation, 2014, Sofia Colucci/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

52

the discursive temporality in contemporary art unfolds in the exhibitions architecture. The visitor is welcomed by a large Agora, a structure that allows immediate visibility to the discursive and performative
aspects emphasized by the curators. The ground floor of the pavilion
is open for free circulation, converted into a public space, where
the counting of visitors through the turnstiles only starts once we
start to ascend to the first floor.
From a desire to generate conflict, to think and act collectively, the
exhibition proposes a discussion on politics, religion, gender, economic
or social structures in contemporary life, opening the way for other
approaches that transform the hegemony of image representation and
voices that surround us. While there has generally been a lot of disenchantment with political promises in the country and street protests
advocating for social justice as well as better education and medical
services keep sparking in So Paulo since 2013, these more explicit
themes have little visibility in contemporary artistic production in Brazil
and gain essential momentum through this biennial. If art of the artists
are represented by projects of a collaborative nature. Yet, with few
artistic activities integrated into the social fabric of the city, the biennial pavilion has become an aggregator for these initiatives, which at
times appear to be mere visual result of activists performances.
The dialectical emphasis on the Middle Eastern conflicts in several
works on view backfired on curators and instititution a week before
the opening when a number of participating artists signed an open
letter against Israels financial contributions to the exhibition, in the
immediate aftermath of the Israeli army heavy bombing of Gaza
this summer. The issue was solved after lengthy meetings through
a change in the credit line, mentioning that artists are supported by
funding from their respective countries. Little effort was spent on
discussing the ethical standpoints of other commercial enterprises
that are offsetting their tax breaks through involvement with the
biennial, Brazils cultural flagship. Instead, while seated on the
Agora near the entrance, visitors are able to reflect on the political,
economical and artistic status quo when pondering Dan Perjovschis
satirical drawings, this time applied in black and white ink directly
on the buildings glass faade.
Some presentations such as the precious 35 mm films Aguaspejo
Grenadino (19531955) and Fuego en Castilla (19581960) by
Spanish director Jos Val de Omar, or the delicate sculptures of
Edward Krasinski (Spear and Other Works, 19631965), stand out
with a sublime expography and furthermore attempt to establish
a much needed historical context for this show. While Val de Omar
openly criticized the clerical sway and the Catholic Churchs ties with
the Franco dictatorship, Krasinski performed his sculptures in the
routinely controled public realm of 1960s socialist Poland. These
installations pinnacle in contrast to the rather quiet works by Jo Baer
who in a new series of works is depicting pagan symbols and neolythic sculptures that are painted from memories to the time she
spent living in Ireland during the 1970s or Vivian Suters large-scale
canvases that boldly embrace the traces and accidents brought about
by nature and the tropical climate of her adopted Guatemala.
Bringing the street into the institution, Halil Altnderes film Wonderland (2013) is a powerful document of anger, resistance and urban
hope. The hip-hop collective Tahribad- Isyan from Istanbul became
famous for its videos posted on the Internet and is the protagonist
in this poignant production that protests blatant gentrification in a
neighborhood historically occupied by Roma population. In the same
vein, and with an explicitly political tone, projects like Clara Ianni
and Dbora Maria da Silvas film Apelo (2014), or Espacio para Abortar (2014), an installation by the Bolivian collective Mujeres Creando,
discuss the state-sanctioned violence in Brazil or the patriarchal repression of women in countries of South America where abortion is illegal.
AfroUFO (2014) by Tiago Borges and Yonamine, with musical contributions from Cibelle Cavalli Bastos, represents the possibility of
flight, or the journey to another reality in the future. Metaphorically
the work connects to utopia possibly to be found in the neighbouring

mareAgora, o structur ce permite vzului accesul nemijlocit la aspectele discursive i performative subliniate de curatori.Parterul pavilionului e deschis liberei circulaii, fiind transformat ntr-un spaiu public, iar numratul vizitatorilor la turnichete
ncepe doar cnd dm s urcm la primul etaj.
Dintr-o dorin de a genera conflict, de a gndi i aciona n mod colectiv, expoziia
propune o discuie despre politic, religie, gen, structuri economice sau sociale din
viaa contemporan, deschiznd calea pentru alte abordri care transform hegemonia reprezentrii imaginilor i a vocilor ce ne nconjoar.Dei, n general, n ar
a existat un nivel ridicat de dezamgire n ceea ce privete promisiunile politice, iar
din 2013 la So Paulo se organizeaz ntruna proteste de strad care pledeaz pentru justiie social, dar i pentru educaie i servicii medicale mai bune, aceste teme mai explicite snt puin vizibile n producia artistic contemporan din Brazilia,
dar ele capt o amploare esenial prin intermediul acestei bienale.Dac aici arta
joac un rol n remodelarea posibilitilor de viitor, o mare parte dintre artiti snt
reprezentai prin proiecte ce presupun colaborarea.Existnd totui puine activiti
artistice care s fie integrate n esutul social al oraului, pavilionul bienalei a devenit un colector de asemenea iniiative, care uneori par a fi doar rezultatul vizual al
performance-urilor activitilor.
Accentul dialectic pus pe conflictele din Orientul Mijlociu n mai multe dintre lucrrile expuse s-a ntors mpotriva curatorilor i a instituiei cu o sptmn nainte de

Dan Perjovschi
Wall, Work, Workshop. The So Paulo Drawing, window drawing, 2014,
Leo Eloy/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

Jo Baer
In the Land of the Giants and Other Works, paintings, 2009-2013, Leo Eloy/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

53

vernisaj, cnd mai muli artiti din bienal au semnat o scrisoare deschis mpotriva participrii Israelului la finanarea expoziiei, n perioada imediat urmtoare
bombardrii masive din aceast var a Fiei Gaza de ctre armata israelian.Dup
lungi ntlniri, problema a fost rezolvat printr-o schimbare survenit n linia de credit, cu menionarea faptului c artitii snt susinui financiar de propriile ri. Nu s-a
prea omort nimeni cu discutarea punctelor de vedere etice ale altor companii comerciale care contribuie la bienal, vitrina cultural a Braziliei, pentru a-i scdea din impozit. n schimb, aezai nAgora de la intrare, vizitatorii au posibilitatea de a reflecta
asupra statu-quoului politic, economic i artistic, meditnd la desenele satirice ale
lui Dan Perjovschi, fcute de data asta cu cerneal neagr i alb direct pe faada
de sticl a cldirii.
Unele prezentri, cum ar fi valoroasele filme pe 35 mmAguaspejo Grenadino (1953
1955) i Fuego en Castilla (19581960) ale regizorului spaniol Jos Val de Omar
sau sculpturile delicate ale lui Edward Krasin
ski(Spear and Other Works, 19631965),
ies n eviden printr-o expografie sublim, ncercnd, n plus, s stabileasc contextul istoric att de necesar pentru aceast expoziie. n timp ce Val de Omar a criticat n mod deschis influena clerului i legturile BisericiiCatolicecu dictaturalui
Franco, Krasinski i-a realizat sculpturile n sfera public n mod obinuit controlat
din Polonia socialist a anilor 1960.Aceste instalaii ies bine n eviden, spre deosebire de lucrrile mai degrab linitite ale lui Jo Baer, care, ntr-o serie nou de lucrri,
zugrvete simboluri pgne i sculpturi neolitice pictate din memorie dup perioada pe care a petrecut-o n Irlanda n timpul anilor 1970, sau de pnzele de mari dimensiuni ale lui Vivian Suter, care cu ndrzneal asum s nfieze urmele i accidentele
cauzate de natur i de climatul tropical al patriei ei de adopie, Guatemala.
Aducnd strada n instituie,filmul Wonderland al lui Halil Altndere (2013) reprezint
o viguroas documentare a furiei, rezistenei i speranei urbane.Trupa de hip-hop
Tahribad- Isyan din Istanbul a devenit celebr pentru videoclipurile postate pe

54

Halil Altndere
Wonderland, video, 2013, Pedro Ivo Trasferetti/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

Clara Ianni and Dbora Maria da Silva

Apelo [Plea], 2014, Pedro Ivo Trasferetti/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo
Val del Omar
Water-mirror of Granada, video, 19531955, Leo Eloy/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

scena

internet i e protagonista acestei producii incisive care este un protest mpotriva

mburghezirii ostentative ntr-un cartier ocupat n mod tradiional de populaia rom. Pe aceeai linie i cu un ton explicit politic, proiecte precum filmul Apelo (2014)
al Clarei Ianni i al lui Dbora Maria da Silva sau Espacio para Abortar (2014), o instalaie a grupului bolivian Mujeres Creando, abordeaz violena folosit de stat n Brazilia sau represiunea patriarhal a femeilor din ri din America de Sud unde avortul
este ilegal.
AfroUFO (2014) al lui Tiago Borges i Yonamine, la care a contribuit muzical Cibelle
Cavalli Bastos, reprezint posibilitatea zborului sau cltoria spre o alt realitate n
viitor.Metaforic vorbind, lucrarea se leag de utopia ce poate fi eventual gsit pe
continentul african vecin, care altminteri este puin reprezentat n expoziie.Cu un
sound electronic, graffitiuri fluorescente, animaii HD alb-negru, care amintesc de
spiritul neoconcretismului brazilian,AfroUFO este, n acelai timp, una dintre puinele lucrri din expoziie care exprim estetica i nelinitile universului post-internet,
n care triesc muli dintre noi.
Dac unul dintre motivele pentru crearea arhitecturii deschise a dispunerii expoziionale a fost intenia de a aduce un omagiu manierei moderne de a construi a lui Oscar
Niemeyer (cea de-a 31-a ediie a bienalei este prima de dup moartea arhitectului, n decembrie 2012), aceasta culmineaz ntr-un spectacol postmodern la etajul
al treilea, cu o instalaie de filme creat de Mark Lewis (Invention, 2014).ntre perei
de sticl fumurie i reflectorizant snt proiectate cadre lungi cu locuri enigmatice din
So Paulo, printre ele regsindu-se i panorame din cldirea de locuine Copan a
lui Niemeyer, de 38 de etaje, i navetiti care folosesc grbii scrile rulante din staia
de metrou Pinheiros, care, din punct de vedere spaial, se afl n dialog cu scara spaiului expoziional n sine.Aceste imagini snt afiate n analogie cu imagini ale unui cuplu
care discut pe terasa mallului Galeria do Rock i cu localnici deambulnd de-a lungul cunoscutei autostrzi urbaneMinhoco,care se nchide n fiecare duminic.
Unul dintre puinele proiecte organizate n afara spaiului principal al bienalei i n
contextul urban al centrului oraului So Paulo este piesa Ultimul cuvnt este penultimul 2 (2008/2014) a companiei Teatro da Vertigem.Inspirat de eseul Lpuis al lui Gilles Deleuze [Cel epuizat, postfa la Quad de Samuel Beckett, Paris,
Minuit, 1992 n. red.],aciunea se petrece ntr-un pasaj subteran abandonat care
leag podul Viaduto de Cha cu piaa Ramos de Azevedo.Publicul aezat n vitrinele goale din pasaj e martorul unui spectacol brechtian despre degradarea uman,
anxietate, nebunia urbanizrii i speculaii imobiliare.Pe sunetele ocazionale ale muzicii electronice, o femeie de afaceri se fie agitat n sus i-n jos, o sumedenie de
ageni car omniprezentele semne cu de nchiriat i de vnzare, un brbat cu
prul lung trage pe nas o linie imens de cocain folosind un con pentru trafic, altul
i d jos pantalonii, oferindu-i fesele pentru sex, o doamn n vrst e abandonat
goal ntr-un scaun cu rotile de persoana care o ngrijete.Actorii se amestec printre trectorii obinuii atunci cnd traverseaz pasajul, care este nchis de obicei, n
timp ce publicul rmne n spatele geamului reflectorizant, urmrind ngduitor un
spectacol care evoc viaa de zi cu zi i epuizarea senzorial din megalopolis.Dup
piesa 958metros a companiei Teatro da Vertigem,pus n scen la sfritul anului
2012 n cartierul industrial Bom Retiro, unde se produc textile, i performance-urile
deschiztoare de drum alecompaniei Teatro Oficina,condus de Z Celso,se pare
c adevrata avangard a culturii vizuale contemporane braziliene poate fi gsit n
teatru.
Cea de-a 31-a ediie a Bienalei de la So Paulo abordeaz mai multe probleme sociopolitice amenintoare i le ofer vizitatorilor un spaiu amplu i timp pentru a se
confrunta cu ele.Cu toate acestea, multe dintre lucrrile din cadrul expoziiei folosesc lingua franca a filmului i emit un ton didactic;alte instalaii rmn opace n lipsa

56

African continent, otherwise little represented in the exhibition. With

an electronic sound, fluorescent graffiti, HD animations in black and
white that evoke the Brazilian neoconcrete spirit, AfroUFO is also
one of the few works in the show conveying the aesthetics and anxieties of the post-Internet universe, in which many of us live.
If one of the reasons for the open architecture of the exhibition design
was also the intention to pay tribute to the modern building of Oscar
Niemeyer (the 31st Biennial is the first after the architects death in
December 2012), it culminates in a postmodern spectacle on the
third floor with an installation of films by Mark Lewis (Invention, 2014).
Between walls of smoked and mirrored glass, long shots of several
enigmatic sites around So Paulo are projected, among them views
of Niemeyers 38-story residenctial Copan building and commuters
rushing up and down the escalators of the Pinheiros metro station,
which in turn dialogue spatially with the staircase of the exhibition
space itself. These images are shown in analogy with footage of a
couple conversing on the porch of the Galeria do Rock shopping mall
and locals strolling down the popular city highway Minhoco, which
closes every Sunday.
One of the few projects organized outside the biennials main venue
and within this urban context of downtown So Paulo is Teatro da
Vertigems The Last Word is the Penultimate 2 (2008/2014).
Inspired by Gilles Deleuzes The Exhausted, the play takes place in
an abandoned underground passage connecting the Viaduto de Cha
bridge with the Ramos de Azevedo Square. Audiences are seated in
the empty shopfronts of the passage and witness a Brechtian spectacle on human decay, anxiety, the craze of urbanisation and real estate
speculation. To the ocassional sounds of electronic music, a business
woman parades nervously back and forth, a mix of agents carry
ubiquitous for rent and for sale signboards, a long haired man
snorts a gigantic line of cocaine using a traffic cone, another one
pulls down his trousers offering his buttocks for sex, an elderly lady
is being abandoned by her carer sitting naked in a wheelchair.
Actors mix with regular passerbys as they are crossing the usually
closed pasage while audiences remain behind the mirrored glass
compliant with a spectacle that evokes everyday life and sensory
exhaustion in the megalopolis. After Teatro da Vertigems 958 metros, staged during late 2012 around the textile production district
Bom Retiro, and the seminal performances by Z Celsos Teatro
Oficina, it seems the true vanguard of contemporary Brazilian visual
culture is to be found in theatre.
The 31st So Paulo Biennial addresses many imminent socio-political
issues and is giving the visitors ample space and time to engage
with them. However within the exhibition a large fragment of works
employ the lingua franca of video and transmit a didactic tone; other
installations remain opaque without a guidebook at hand. In an era
when network communication has greatly influenced the way we
perceive and produce images, the aesthetics of some of the works
on view feels repetitive, and, at times, even commissioned works
appear dated. These are balanced with projects where the viewer
can play a role, such as in the ecological discussions with representatives from a number of landuse collectives that participate in Otobong
Nkangas Landversation (2014) or where one is allowed to contribute
with their ones own voice as in Ruangrupas radio karaoke (RURU,
2010). Thus this edition of the biennial departs from a local and
Brazilian landscape that opens to the world.
While the proliferating regional art market has put an emphasis on
the latest trends, this edition of the biennial represents an engaged
position that believes in arts potential to imagine and support transformations throughout different spheres of society. The exhibition
thus represents an evidently subjective diagram in the struggle to
conceive things that dont exist yet in an otherwise hermetically
indexed Brazilian worldview. Remains with the viewers as participants to carry this agency into their everyday life and find ways
to capture and sustain some of the inspiration offered by the visual
and discursive scenario that is this exhibition.

unui ghid. ntr-o epoc n care comunicarea n reea a influenat foarte mult felul
n care percepem i producem imagini, estetica unora dintre lucrrile expuse pare
repetitiv i, uneori, chiar i lucrrile comandate par nvechite.Lor li se opun proiectele n care privitorul poate juca un rol, precum discuiile despre ecologie cu reprezentani ai unor colectiviti direct implicate n folosirea pmntului i care particip
la proiectul Landversation (2014) al lui Otobong Nkanga sau cele n care e permis
folosirea propriei voci, cum ar fi programul radio cu piese karaoke creat de grupul Ruangrupa (RURU, cu ncepere din 2010). Astfel, aceast ediie a bienalei
pornete de la un peisaj local i brazilian care se deschide ctre lume.
n vreme ce piaa regional de art n plin dezvoltare a pus accentul pe cele mai
recente tendine, aceast ediie a bienalei reprezint o poziie angajat care crede
n potenialul artei de a-i imagina i a sprijini schimbri n mai multe sfere ale societii.Expoziia este astfel o diagram, evident subiectiv, n strduina de a concepe
lucruri care nu exist, ns ntr-o viziune brazilian asupra lumii, indexat de altfel ermetic.Rmne n sarcina privitorilor ca participani s transpun aceast for
n viaa de zi cu zi i s gseasc modaliti de a surprinde i de-a pstra o parte din
inspiraia oferit de scenariul vizual i discursiv care este aceast expoziie.

Note:
1. Hlio Oiticica, Esquema geral da Nova Objetividade, in Glria Ferreira
and Ceclia Cotrim (eds.), Escritos de Artistas, Rio de Janeiro, Jorge
Zahar editor, 2006, pp. 164165.

Traducere de Alex Moldovan

Not:
1. Hlio Oiticica, Esquema geral da Nova Objetividade, in Glria Ferreira i Ceclia Cotrim (ed.), Escritos de
Artistas, Rio de Janeiro, Jorge Zahar editor, 2006, p. 164165.
Vivian Suter
Untitled, paintings, 2014, Pedro Ivo Trasferetti/Fundao Bienal de So Paulo

scena

Arta n epoca redundanflei informaflionale

Alexandru Polgr n dialog cu George Crngau
GEORGE CRNGAU e un artist care ncearc bazinul genetic digital cu degetul, n timp ce sufer de afeciuni
legate de realitate. Nscut n 1988, la Focani, triete i lucreaz la Cluj, unde e reprezentat de Galeria Sabot.

The Friendly Shore (detail), 2014

The Ocean (detail), 2014

Channeling the projection,

digital manipulation,
660 487 pixels, 2013

Alexandru Polgr Trim ntr-o epoc a nihilismului care se automplinete.

Sensul vieii e acela c nu are niciunul. Cel puin nu dincolo de sensurile noastre omeneti cotidiene (neleg c cerul e albastru, dar nu exist de ce pentru existena cerului). Nu exist niciun proiect cuprinztor al omenescului din noi, dect acela de a mplini
sarcina i lumea Capitalului: futilitate msurat n miliarde de dolari i yeni, n cantiti enorme de energie etc. (Jean-Luc Nancy, de pild). Arta nu face excepie. Piaa
stabilete preul. Acesta e nivelul obiectiv. Tot restul e o poveste pe care oamenii o
spun despre ei nii i vieile lor. Lumea adevrat a devenit o poveste, propoziia
lui Nietzsche sun mai tios ca oricnd. Dar exist oare un nivel obiectiv?, aceast
suspiciune e prin ea nsi dovada c totul are o tendin radical de a deveni o poveste. E arta o poveste? E oare, cum muli cred, un limbaj pentru a spune o anecdot
(adesea personal)? Chestiile personale se vnd uneori bine, dar mai e arta i altceva? Este ea un simplu mijloc de comunicare pentru diversele gselnie blocate n obsesia cuiva? Sau exist oare i o alt parte a ei? Una de care, n practica nsi a artei,
altceva se las prins, ceva care n-are de-a face cu povetile i e dificil de sondat, ceva
mai suveran dect Politica i statele ei, ceva ce ar trebui numit Destinul sau Programul n dezvoltarea sa real actual ca lume a noastr? Exist o cale de ieire din pragmatica programat a tririi n aceast lume particular, cu instituiile ei (sau lipsa lor),
cu posibilitile sale de a face (crora a face art li se subordoneaz)? Ar trebui oare
s ncercm s scpm? Ctre ce?
George Crngau Cred, ntr-adevr, c lumea a devenit o poveste. O poveste care, cumva, se diger n mod repetat pe sine i cu fiecare nou digestie anumite lucruri se pstreaz, iar altele snt terse. Dar asta e o formul mai degrab
dect un simplu gnd i cred c e o formul proiectat asupra strii actuale a umanitii chiar de ce-i dorete aceast umanitate de la sine. Una dintre trsturile mai
particulare pe care le-am motenit de la secolul trecut (pe lng explozia a tot peste
tot, cu aspectele sale bune i mai puin bune) e o anumit nostalgie. Cnd toat lumea
a plonjat n entuziasmul fa de noul mileniu nceput n anii 2000, am ajuns la contientizarea vid a faptului c totul ncepea s aib un ritm repetitiv. Oamenii se coc nc
n povetile optimiste ale secolului trecut, o abordare de neles dac lum n considerare faptul c, adesea, avem n jurul nostru mai mult informaie despre aceast
epoc dect despre oricare alta. E ruda noastr cea mai apropiat, ca s zic aa, i
cred c oamenii merg la ea pentru a le aproba viitorul. Mai mult, cred c naintarea noastr n calitate de civilizaie ne-a adus ntr-un punct n care nu ne mai putem nchipui o lume fr ea. Ne considerm trecutul la fel de mult o parte a vieilor
noastre cotidiene ca orice altceva. Chiar dac vedem doar documente de arhiv
ale sale, dac te uii la rata de cretere a contiinei globale, oamenii au avut mereu
aceeai preocupare pentru un tip de interaciune bazat pe ficiune. E baza evoluiei, s-a spus. Apariia industriei filmului n-a fost de prea mare ajutor, poveti nltoare, personaje rsfoind un scenariu pn cnd ajung s-l mplineasc. Aceasta e
chestiunea, cred. Oamenii se identific cu povetile i se presupune c-i pot

ART IN THE AGE OF INFORMATIONAL REDUNDANCY

Alexandru Polgr in Conversation with George Crngau

ALEXANDRU POLGR (n. 1976), absolvent de filosofie, traductor, redactor de revist.

ALEXANDRU POLGR (b. 1976), philosophy graduate, translator, journal editor.

GEORGE CRNGAU is an artist dipping his toes in the digital genepool,

while suffering from reality related afflictions. Born in 1988, Focani, he
lives and works in Cluj, and is currently represented by the Sabot Gallery.

Alexandru Polgr We are living in the age of self-accomplishing

nihilism. The meaning of life is that it has none. (I understand that the
sky is blue, but there is no why for the existence of the sky.) There is
no other overarching project of our humanness, but accomplishing
the task and the world of Capital: aimlessness counted in billions
of dollars and yens, in enormous quantities of energy, etc. (Jean-Luc
Nancy, for instance). Art is no exception. The market establishes the
price. This is the objective level. Everything else is a story people tell
about themselves and their lives. The real world has become a fable,
Nietzsches sentence sounds sharper than ever. But is there an
objective level? this suspicion itself is the proof that everything has
a radical tendency towards becoming a story. Is art a story? Is it a
language to tell an (often personal) narrative, as many believe?
Personal stuff sells sometimes well, but is there anything else to art?
Is art a simple means of communication for various brainchildren
stuck into someones obsession?
Or is there another side? A side on which in the very practice of art
something else gets caught, something that is not story-like and it is
difficult to even fathom, something more sovereign than Politics and
its states, something we might call the Destiny or the Program in its
actual real development as our world? Is there a way out of the programmatic pragmatics of living in this particular world, with its institutions (or the lack of them), with its possibilities of doing (to which
doing art is also subsumed)? Should we try to escape? Towards
what?
George Crngau I do believe that the world has become a fable.
A fable that, in a certain way, repeatedly digests itself, and with each
new digestion certain things are retained, while others get erased.
But this process is a formula more than a thought, and I believe it is
a formula cast upon the current state of humanity by humanitys own
craving for itself. One of the more peculiar traits I inherited from this
past century (alongside the boom of everything everywhere, with its
good and lesser good aspects) is a certain nostalgia. Once everybody
plunged into enthusiasm for the new millennium emerging at the
beginning of the 2000s, I came upon a blank realization that everything was starting to have a repetitive rhythm. People were still baking in the uplifting stories of the past century, an understandable
approach considering the fact that, for the most part, I believe we
have around us more information regarding this era than any other.
It is our closest relative, so to speak, and I think people turn to this
relative for future clearance. Moreover, our entire advancement as
a civilization brought us to a point where we cannot really fathom a
world without it. We consider our past as much part of our daily lives
as everything else. Even if we are witnessing only archival footage
of it, if you look at the growing rate of global awareness, people

59

anomalous expansion of water, digital manipulation, 853 1,280 pixels, 2014

1406806552325, digital manipulation, 2,315 2,056 pixels, 2014

always carried the same preoccupation for a type of interaction

based on fiction. It is the basis of evolving, they said. The rise of
the movie industry did not help much, uplifting stories, characters
perusing a plot until they accomplish whatever the plot states. That
is the issue, I think. People identify with stories and they can supposedly manage their everyday concerns through the prospects of
fictional characters, fictionalized real people in reality shows,
and, more often than this, clinging to the notion of answers in the
least place you would expect. As far as art is concerned, I cannot
really imagine it being a story as a whole. It used to be in a time
when constructs had indeed a certain meaning, when life itself was
dictated by a set of clear patterns (patterns that have long gone
down the road of obsoleteness). Art attached itself to the manner in
which life has been perceived and explained, and when all this gradually started shifting to a less enchanted view, people gathered
around individual stories. Like going back around the campfire and
debating stars, instead of attending an academy in which sedimentary knowledge was in no way to be disproven. Returning to the past
century, I do believe that this was the right time for the personal
story aspect to come into the limelight. It was a time when everybody got unified (in tragedy or accomplishment, and, indeed, hope).
Unfortunately, being the close relative that I talked about earlier,
it also infused in the next generations an offspring of similar values.
While this in a normal state is natural, the next generations were
filled with themselves, social networking developed in such an abrupt
way that everybody was everybody and the then and now have fused
together. We currently have everybodys stories in our pocket, but
those stories keep having the same plot and the same ideals.
No answers, no riddles, it is just the tale that was told for millennia
in a manner in which it exists today. So, as far as I am concerned,
the art world is filled with more of the same. People try hard to bring
us lyrics and I am not sure that there is a way to escape this. Sure,
one can escape, but this usually comes through forms of alienation
that sometimes can prove futile. As to where to escape, this would
also become a story in itself, a small figment of an imagination of
where to, just not here. I think the escape comes while in a state
of unawareness. You realize it while in development.
I read your exhibition in February 2014 (The Ocean and the
Friendly Shore, Sabot Gallery, Paintbrush Factory) as an attempt at
grasping the planetary informational ocean in the age of meaninglessness, a sampling that might bring us to the historic essence of the
whole. To my mind, there is no friendly shore out of this, even if you
try somehow, through a specific signal a sort of tube that takes us
from the realm of the ocean to that of the friendly shore , to
guide us towards something else. What is this? Some, in fact, have
even noticed that the friendly shore is more unfriendly than the
ocean...
To say that I wanted to grasp the planetary informational ocean
in the process of its expansion is probably a bit too much, but,
indeed, I tried to convey a certain type of propagation that I observed in this particular system (art). While, for the most part, the idea of
what an artist does is mainly readable as a formula (you find yourself, do what it is that you do, stick with it, brand it, slap it, stick it on
a poster and voil), I have had this feeling that once you decide on
these kind of factoids and you go with them, you tend to fall on a
steep slip into repetition (and not the kind that is the father of learning). Being my first gallery show, I always got the vibe from people
around that this was a moment to bring to the world the who and
the what of my practice, which seemed a bit off as a task (mainly
because it was a task). So, I thought of it more of illustrating a system
I observed within my own interests, but which also extended towards
the way everything was moving all around. The friendly shore was
never meant to be friendly. I do not think it is in the real world, but
rather in an abstract preoccupation. It is an area where strictness
and implemented thought is king, and the shifting of nuance on the
friendly shore had to do more with afflictions coming from entropy

Stone Cold, altered image/collage, 2,296 3,408 pixels, 2014

rezolva grijile zilnice prin perspectivele unor personaje fictive, oameni reali transformai n ficiune n aa-zisele reality shows, i, mai mult dect att, agndu-se de
ideea unor rspunsuri n locurile n care te-ai atepta cel mai puin. n ce privete
arta, nu mi-o pot imagina cu adevrat ca fiind cu totul o poveste. Fusese aa ceva
cnd constructele aveau, ntr-adevr, un anumit sens, cnd viaa nsi dicta o suit
de tipare clare (tipare care de mult au devenit vetuste). Ea s-a ataat de felul n care
viaa era perceput i explicat, iar cnd toate astea au nceput treptat s treac la
o viziune mai puin ncnttoare, oamenii s-au adunat n jurul povetilor individuale. Ca o ntoarcere la focul de tabr i la discuii despre stele, n loc s mergi la o
academie n care cunoaterea sedimentat nu se putea contrazice niciodat. Revenind la secolul trecut, cred, ntr-adevr, c fusese timpul potrivit pentru aspectul de
poveste personal s ias la lumina rampei. Fusese un timp n care toi s-au unificat (ntr-o tragedie sau o mplinire i, desigur, speran). Din pcate, fiind ruda apropiat de care vorbeam mai nainte, el a inculcat n generaiile urmtoare un vlstar
de valori similare. Dei, ntr-o situaie normal, asta e firesc, generaiile urmtoare s-au umplut cu ele nsele, ceva numit social networking s-a dezvoltat ntr-un fel
att de abrupt nct toi snt toi, iar trecutul i prezentul au fuzionat. n clipa de fa
avem povetile tuturor la ndemn, dar aceste poveti continu s aib acelai scenariu i aceleai idealuri. Fr rspunsuri, fr enigme, exist doar basmul care fusese spus timp de milenii n felul n care are el trecere astzi. Din punctul meu de vedere,
arta e plin de lucruri asemntoare. Oamenii ncearc din rsputeri s creeze versuri noi pentru aceeai melodie i nu snt sigur c exist o modalitate de a scpa
acestui gest. Cu siguran c se poate scpa, dar asta se ntmpl de obicei prin forme
de alienare care se dovedesc uneori futile. Ct despre unde se poate scpa, asta
ar fi tot o poveste, un mic produs al imaginaiei lui unde, doar nu aici. Cred c
scparea vine ntr-o clip de incontien. i dai seama de ea n timpul unei desfurri.
i-am neles expoziia din februarie 2014 (The Ocean and the Friendly Shore,
Galeria Sabot, Fabrica de Pensule) ca pe o ncercare de a surprinde oceanul informaional planetar n epoca lipsei de sens, o mostr care ne-ar fi putut aduce la esena istoric a ntregului. n ce m privete, nu exist rm prietenos pe care s putem acosta,
chiar dac mi se pare c ncerci, printr-o signalectic specific un fel de tub care
ne scoate din domeniul oceanului i ne poart spre rmul prietenos , s ne ghidezi spre altceva. Despre ce-ar fi vorba? Unii chiar au remarcat c rmul prietenos
e mai neprietenos dect oceanul...
A spune c am vrut s surprind oceanul planetar informaional n procesul expansiunii sale e probabil un pic mult, dar, ntr-adevr, am ncercat s redau un anumit
tip de propagare pe care am observat-o n acest sistem particular (arta). Cu toate
c, n mare parte, ideea a ce face un artist se poate citi ca o formul (te gseti
pe tine, faci ce faci tu, rmi consecvent, i pui un nume de marc, l crpeti, l lipeti
pe un poster i iat). Am avut sentimentul c odat ce decizi n privina acestor tipuri
de informaii neverificate i mergi cu ele, tinzi s aluneci pe versantul abrupt al
repetiiei (i nu al celei care e tatl nvrii). Fiind vorba de prima mea expoziie
personal ntr-o galerie, mi s-a prut c simt la cei din jur c acesta e momentul n
care trebuie s lmuresc lumea cu cine-le i ce-ul practicii mele, ceea ce prea,
ca sarcin, un pic deplasat (n mare parte pentru c fusese o sarcin). Aadar, m-am
gndit la ea mai mult ca ilustrnd un sistem pe care l-am observat n propriile mele
interese, dar care se prelungea ctre felul n care totul se mica n jurul nostru. rmul
prietenos nicio clip n-a vrut s fie prietenos. Nu cred c el se afl n lumea real,
ci mai curnd ntr-o preocupare abstract. E o zon n care stricteea i gndirea aplicat primeaz, iar schimbrile de nuan pe rmul prietenos s-au datorat mai degrab
unor afeciuni venind din entropie dect unei intervenii contiente. Precum vitri-

Birdman Bust, digital manipulation/project sketch, 850 1,205 pixels, 2014

61

scena

Aruba-Kiteboarding, digital manipulation, 2,338 1,700 pixels, 2013

na cu porelanuri idioate pe care oamenii o pstreaz ntr-o anumit ordine ani

de-a rndul, pn cnd ea pare de neschimbat, de parc porelanurile ar fi crescut
n locul acela. De fapt, construcia expoziiei a avut scopul de a arunca o lumin mai
pozitiv asupra fazei iniiale a lucrurilor, n care alterrile intr n joc i n care permeabilitatea gndirii se obine mult mai uor. n cele din urm, poate c oamenii care
invoc maturitatea n acest domeniu au dreptate i, ca fiine umane generice
funcionale, ar trebui s facem frumos ordine n dezordinea noastr i s punem
totul pe rafturi pentru ca alii s vad. Dar cred c e un pic arogant s te compori
de parc totul i-ar gsi scopul prin metod i ordine, sau poate c lipsa mea de
maturitate e cea care mi joac feste. Pentru a m ntoarce la nceputul ntrebrii
tale, mi se pare aproape imposibil s deosebesc ntre bucile de informaie pe care
le primim astzi prin orice fel de mijloc de comunicare. Foarte puine informaii vin
ntr-un lot care s par efectiv real. Ele par toate ca poveti despre telenovele, piese
de teatru la televiziunea britanic. Snt pur i simplu lipsite de credibilitate, aa c
mi se pare c nu trebuie s le lum n considerare sensul, ci mai degrab felul n
care exist i reaciile la care ne ateptm de la ele, un fel plin de crpturi din cauza
rapnelului ce se rotete n jurul lumii fr rost.
Destul de straniu, tubul tu de ghidare ncepe dintr-un punct al oceanului, de
fapt, din cerul su orizontal situat deasupra apei propriu-zise, cer care pare nnorat de o trilem: pictur, fotografie, real; a opta pentru oricare dintre ele pare futil.
Modifici pictura, crend un efect straniu pe o capodoper clasic. Fotografiezi intrarea galeriei i proiectezi clieul obinut pe peretele opus, peste pictura modificat, totul
fiind acoperit de proiecia transparent a unei buci de sticl tiate neregulat, care
atrna aproape de mijlocul ncperii ce gzduia oceanul. Exist attea filtre, attea
limitri impuse luminii care scap din ocean (poate de aceea avem nevoie de ghidaj).
Privitorul intr prin fundul oceanului i e nconjurat de o lume stranie. Reflexiile apei
de pe fundul oceanului devin jucria lui printr-o bucat de plastic transparent ce reflect
lumina proiectorului. Pe un alt perete e un ecran ce prezint fr-ncetare ceva gunoi
informaional informaie devenit obosit, uzat n chiar materialitatea ei, un efect
obinut prin recopiere succesiv. Pe peretele opus, vluri albastre, semitransparente,
marcheaz locul a dou portrete de Alex Mirutziu, prezentate n expoziia anterioar;
o amintire, un semn care e lizibil doar pentru cei care au vzut-o. Aceast autoreferenialitate ne trimite direct la cel cruia i se adreseaz trilema. Desigur, privitorul ge -

62

rather than a conscious intervention. Like the cabinet of shitty porcelains people keep in a certain order for years, until they seem
immutable, completely like they have grown in that particular spot.
In actuality, the build of the show had the purpose of pinning a more
positive light on the initial phase of things, where alterations come
into play and where the permeance of thought is much more easily
obtained. In the end, maybe people who are invoking maturity in
this field are right and as general functioning human beings we are
supposed to tidily set our mess in order and put it up on shelves for
other people to witness. But I believe it is a bit pretentious to behave
as if everything finds purpose through method and order, or maybe
it is my own immaturity that gets in the way. For a quick loop to the
beginning of your question, I consider it nearly impossible to discern
among pieces of information that we receive today via any kind of
media. Very few come with a batch that actually feels real. They all
feel like narratives on soap operas, dramas on British television, they
are simply untrustworthy, thus, I believe that one does not need to
take their meaning into account, but rather the way they exist and
their expected reactions, a way highly fractured with shrapnel revolving around the world to no avail.
Strangely enough, your guiding tube runs from a part of the
ocean, in fact, from its horizontal sky above, which seems
clouded by a trilemma: painting, photography, real; the option for
any of them seems futile. You intervened on a painting, creating a
strange effect on a historical masterpiece. You took a photograph
of the gallerys entrance and projected it on the opposite wall on this
manipulated picture, all covered by the transparent projection of
a piece of unevenly cut glass that was hanging close to the middle of
the room that hosted the ocean. There are so many filters, so many
limitations to the light that escapes from the ocean (this is why one
might need guidance). The viewer enters through the bottom of the
ocean and is surrounded by a strange world. The reflections on
the bottom of the ocean are becoming his or her plaything through

animalmineralvegetal, collage, 787 1,024 pixels, 2012

speedboat, 3 D rendering, dim. variable, 2014

Z10 Front Angle, digital manipulation, 7,150 6,559 pixels, 2014

neric, dar, de asemenea, i mai apropiat, cei care locuiesc acest spaiu majoritatea pictori sau artiti lucrnd cu alte mijloace de exprimare (aproape toat coala de
la Cluj); dar recunosc c o asemenea lectur ar putea fi prea ngust. Nu vreau s fii
mai precis n legtur cu asta, dar am observat c ar putea exista aici i ceva de genul
unui dialog local despre art. Cu toate astea, n ciuda acestei speculaii, e evident din
ceea ce am numit o trilem c are loc un dialog cu arta nsi i mijloacele sale multiple de exprimare sau, dac nu asta, atunci se face mcar o afirmaie, una al crei
sens complet i mrturisesc c mi scap. E literal intraductibil i poate c nu e nevoie de ceva mai avansat dect faptul c trebuie s aib loc o dezbatere despre ce s
faci? n art n oceanul/epoca redundanei informaionale. Iat deci ntrebarea, i mi
face mereu plcere s-i ntreb asta pe artiti: care e sarcina artei? Care e sarcina ta?
Exist vreuna (pentru art i pentru tine)?
Expoziia de la Sabot a fost construit pe premisa c informaia a nceput la un
moment dat s obin un statut de supraacumulare, cu o predilecie spre tipul vizual.
A fost vorba n mare parte de un fel de Cltoriile unui *.jpeg, dac am vrea s fim
romantici n legtur cu asta. Multele filtre pe care le-ai observat s-au bazat pe ideea
de a purta i de a deteriora, ncercnd s redea ceva ce poate urmri un segment din
procesul de autodigestie a informaiei. Desigur, fiind construit ntr-un loc i timp particulare, acest proces diafan a devenit ptat de condiiile generate la faa locului, transformndu-se n cele din urm ntr-o trstur a parcursului creat. A-l numi intraductibil
ar fi aproape corect, dar ai fcut deja un pas spre a-l traduce cnd l-ai suprapus cu un
anumit context. l poi fixa n interpretri echivalente, dar niciuna dintre ele nu poate
fi izolat ca singurul cadru de referin. Toate astea snt doar sisteme, alternri ale unor
ecuaii deja rezolvate, care transcend n mod ocazional ntr-o natur oarecum profetic (dar nu mai mult dect profeiile obinuite despre serii de coincidene, pe care
le vedem deja peste tot). n mod fundamental, am impresia c exist oameni care
se apuc de art pentru a se menine cumva n echilibru, pentru a gestiona un scenariu din capul locului debilitant n feluri care permit un fel de permeabilitate a gndirii, dar mijloacele de a obine aceste lucruri nu constituie deloc un limbaj universal.
Controlul exercitat de mulimile de utilizatori rmne n continuare valabil.
tiu c muli artiti aflai la nceputul carierei lor, cei care abia au ieit de pe bncile colii, de pild, ntmpin mari dificulti n ce privete practicarea artei, adic a lucrului pentru care au fost pregtii ani de-a rndul. Ei majoritatea lor trebuie s gseasc

a piece of transparent plastic that reflects the light of a projector.

On a wall there is a screen playing relentlessly some informational
rubbish information that become tired, over-used in its very materiality, an effect obtained through the successive copying of it. On the
opposite wall, blue and half transparent veils mark the place of two
portraits of Alex Mirutziu, presented in a previous exhibition; a memory, a sign that is readable only to those who have seen that exhibition. This self-referentiality sends us directly to the addressee of the
trilemma. Of course, the general viewer, but also, more closely,
those inhabiting this space most of them painters or artists in other
media (almost the entire School of Cluj); but I admit that such a reading might be too narrow. I dont want you to be more specific on this,
but I noticed that there might be also something of a local dialogue
on art. However, in spite of this speculation, it is obvious from what
I called the trilemma that a dialogue with art itself and its manifold
medialities takes place or, if not that, at least a statement is made,
a statement whose full meaning, I admit, escapes me. It is literally
untranslatable, and perhaps there is no need for something higher
than the fact that a debate must go on about what to do? in art on
the ocean/age of informational redundancy. So, here is my question,
and I always like to ask this from artists: what is the task of art? What
is your task? Is there any (for art and for you)?
The show at Sabot was build on the premise that information
started at some point to achieve a hoarded status, with a predilec-

tion for the visual type. It was mainly the travels of a *.jpeg, if one
would like to feel romantic about it. The many filters you have
noticed where based on the notion of wear and tear, trying to convey
something that can trace a segment in the process of information
self-digesting itself. Of course, being built in a specific place and
time, this ethereal process had become tainted by conditions generated there, ultimately transforming itself into a trait of the parcourse created. To call it untranslatable would be almost right, you
already made a step in translating it when you overlaid it over a certain context. You can pin it to many equivalent interpretations, but
none of them can be singled out as the only framework of reference.
All of these are just systems, alternations of already solved equations
that occasionally transcend into some kind of prophetic nature (but
no more that the average prophecies about sets of coincidences we
already witness all around). Ultimately, I have a strong feeling that
there are people who engage in art in order to keep themselves on
balance somehow, to manage an already crippling scenario in ways
that allow some sort permeability of thought, but the means of

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alte slujbe pentru a continua s fac art. Arta e un pic ca fotbalul, este profitabil
doar la vrf, pentru cei care, ntr-un fel sau altul, au reuit s capitalizeze ceva faim.
E arta artitilor obinuii (adesea autodesemnai) mai puin? tim c valoarea artistic nu e reflectat perfect de valoarea de pia. S lum asta ca pe un fel de
nedreptate fundamental i s lsm piaa s fie? Sau piaa e un pericol, un fel de a
sufoca tot ce nu poate deveni marf, dar e artistic bun? tiu c muli artiti i doresc
o pia mai puternic, una care poate plti facturile, iar asta e firesc, dar arta nsi
ca practic general are oare de suferit din cauza acestei nevoi de a se adapta
condiiilor contemporane ale pieei? Sau snt ele cu totul neutre? Arta i piaa snt dou
realiti separate, cu excepii rare n care arta costisitoare este i bun. Arta bun a
trecutului e, de asemenea, costisitoare, de pild, dar cum stau lucrurile cu prezentul? Adic, exist oare o anumit schimbare de regim n arta contemporan, ceva ce
i-ar da acesteia profilul cel mai veridic? Redundana costisitoare i redundana ieftin
rmn redundane. Arta a devenit jucria unor microcercuri (de obicei intelectuale),
ceva ce ncepe s semene cu un fel de subcultur izolat i foarte sectar, un fel de
ghetou al celor care au mijloacele intelectuale i materiale de a o savura. Universalismul n art pare a fi mai ndeprtat ca nicicnd. Arta n general pare s fie o practic o meserie care pare misterioas sau chiar dubioas pentru cei muli, un simplu
semn indescifrabil pe oceanul planetar informaional, dar un semn att de enigmatic
nct nici mcar nu ne mai strduim s-l descifrm, considerndu-l ceva ce nu merit
o adevrat dezbatere social. Arta pare mereu mai puin important dect orice altceva (politic, societate, chiria de pe luna urmtoare etc.). Este ea mai puin important?
Care e poziia ta n raport cu aceste ntrebri?
Ei bine, acesta e tipul de statu-quo care a fost n atenia trgului nc de cnd
am nceput s m familiarizez cu sistemul educaional. Lumea se ntreba despre educaie/pregtire/posibiliti ce vin cnd te apuci de un ciclu de studii care se extinde pe
tot parcursul anilor ti de formare. Dei realitatea este c, n mare parte, colile i carierele se amestec rar n aceast mrunt parte a globului pe care am motenit-o. Exist,
de asemenea, problema a ci oameni ajung s fie n stare s-i neleag inteniile
pe care le nutresc fa de ei nii. Cum spuneam, n marea parte a anilor de nceput, rutina ncepe s apar i structurile ncep s se coaguleze ntr-un loc, abia atingnd materialele aflate la dispoziie. Am ntlnit oameni care au ales s studieze arta
n diverse stadii ale vieii lor i ei se confrunt cu aceleai probleme ca n orice alt
carier pe care i-ar fi ales-o. Depinde, de fapt, foarte mult de indivizii nii. Nu
snt un microbist. n realitate, nu m intereseaz foarte tare lucrurile astea, ele au
de-a face mai mult cu congregaii, cu o cunoatere sedimentar pe care s-a construit arta. Cu toate c valoarea artistic poate c nu e reflectat n valoarea de pia,
vorbim despre un orizont mult mai larg dect cel pe care l putem percepe. Recoltele produciei artistice inund societatea mai mult ca nicicnd i nu e de mirare c
exist un anumit dispre fa de ntregul angrenaj al lucrurilor. E, de fapt, covritor.
Adaptri i schimbri ce vor s mblnzeasc piaa snt factori n plus ce mi se par
c se afl ntr-un fel de torsiune. Oamenii cred despre practica unui artist c se bazeaz
pe o tez exprimabil ntr-un singur rnd, o serie care poate trece la zone de interes doar dac sincronizarea e cea bun. Sincer, asta-i o perspectiv proast. Dac
poi avea acces la aceast zon dup bunul-plac, de ce s nu integrezi valorile de
pia n cercetarea ta artistic? Spun c se poate dansa pe mai multe ritmuri i cred
c e inutil s ncerci s stai ntr-o singur parte a terenului de joc mai mult dect n
alta. E o chestiune de sincronizare i circumstane. n esen, e vorba de luarea unei
decizii. n ce privete fluxul de practici artistice pe care l-am subliniat mai nainte, e
pur i simplu firesc ca perspectiva general s se schimbe nspre o activitatea
orientat de practic. Oamenii neleg c exist aceast pia, c pot urma anumite tipare i mbria ideologii de dragul unei confirmri.

Upscale Sonic Fusion, digital manipulation, 2,450 3,332 pixels, 2014

Homeless Neptune, mixed media, dim. variable, 2012

achieving these things are in no way a universal language. Crowd

control will still be in effect.
I know that many artists at the beginning of their career, those
who just got out of school, for instance, find it extremely difficult to
do art, that is, the thing for which they were trained for years. They
most of them must find various other jobs to keep doing art.
Art is a bit like football, it is profitable only at the top, for those who,
in a way or another, have managed to capitalize on some fame. Is the
art of ordinary (often self-proclaimed) artists less? We know that
artistic value is not fully reflected in market value. Should we take this
as some sort of basic injustice and let the market be? Or is market a
danger, a way of suffocating everything that is not marketable, but is
artistically excellent? I know many artists desire a stronger market,
one that can pay the bills, and this is only natural, but does art itself
as a general practice suffer because of this need to adapt to the
contemporary market conditions? Or are they completely neutral?
Art and market are two separate realities, with rare exceptions when
pricy art is also good. The good art of the past is extremely pricy,
for instance, but how do things stay with the present? I mean, is there
not a certain regime change in contemporary art, something that
actually gives its most truthful profile? Expensive redundancy or
cheap redundancy is still redundancy. Art has become the
plaything of certain microcircles (usually intellectuals),
something that starts resem bling a sort of isolated and
often extremely sectarian subculture, a sort of ghetto for
those who have the intellectual
skills of enjoying it. Universalism
in art seems farther removed
than ever. Art in general seems
to be a practice a profession
that seems mysterious or even
suspicious to many, a simple
undecipherable sign on the
planetary informational ocean,
but a sign so enigmatic that one

Nu prea cred c piaa e acest tip de entitate sordid care se ghiftuiete cu redundan i art prost neleas. E o parte care a fost mereu prezent i a avut mereu
acest aspect tenebros. Cred doar c fusese mai dificil s vezi direct dinamica pe care
o implica. A fi suprasaturat nu e ceva nou. Cred c asta face parte ntr-un fel din
definiia pieei. Produsele circul n toate direciile; imperii se construiesc i se drm. E o dinamic recognoscibil n orice fel de pia. Provocarea principal, cred,
nu e s deosebeti ntre ceea ce s-ar numi art bun sau art proast, pe acestea
le ai i fr piaa ca atare (pieele se pot construi i ca nite golemi din noroi i pot
primi suflul vieii de la oamenii care au puterea s le-o dea). Pentru mine, ca artist
care mai are nc de ajuns n cmpul pieei, piaa reprezint o provocare secundar
intrigant i o consider necesar dincolo de exigena subzistenei. Pe de alt parte,
n ce-i privete pe artitii care fac compromisuri pentru a alimenta mainria, cred
c unora dintre ei poate c le lipsete o anumit perspectiv despre lumea n care
au ales s se cptuiasc i despre propria lor preocupare cu arta. Cum spuneam,
mi se pare util s integrezi cercetarea pieei chiar la nivelul unei contientizri elementare pentru a gsi partea mobil a lucrurilor. Nu exist garanie c vom gsi rspunsuri acolo, dar, n acelai timp, asta e adevrat
pentru orice fel de ap tulbure pe care ne-am decide s-o explorm. Cu toat echitatea, arta e, ca
atare, o jucrie. Microcercuri sau nu, ncepnd cu
artitii i terminnd cu instituiile i colecionarii, fiecare parte implicat ajunge s se joace cu un fel de
idee care mputernicete sau discrediteaz mecanisme fictive. Sfritul va fi cnd ne vom gsi soluii printre toate prile care se rotesc.
Traducere de Alexandru Polgr

does not even try reading it, considering it something unworthy of a

true social debate. Art seems always less important than anything
else (politics, society, next months rent, etc.). Is it less important?
How do you position yourself as regards these questions?
Well, this is the sort of status quo that has been the talk of the
town ever since I got acquainted with the educational system.
People were questioning the education/training/possibilities that
come with engaging in a study cycle that extends throughout most
of their formative years. While the reality is that, for the most part,
schools and careers rarely mix in this little part of the globe we
inherit. There is also the question of how many people come to a
point in which they are able to grasp their intention for themselves.
As I was saying, for the most part of early life, the routine comes
into play and structures begin to form in a place, barely grasping the
materials at disposal. I have met people that have chosen to study
art at various stages in their lives and they usually face the same
issues as any other careers would have imposed. It very much
depends on the individuals really. I am not a great football fan.
I actually could not care less, but this sort of thing has more to do
with congregations, with sedimentary knowledge that the art world
was build on. While artistic value may not be reflected in market
value, we are talking about a much more expansive horizon than
we may perceive. Crops of artistic production are flowing into society more than ever and it is no surprise that there is a certain amount
of disdain for the whole gearing of things. It is, in fact, overwhelming. Adaptations and changes in order to appease the market are
yet other factors that I find to be in sort of a twist. People think
of the practice of an artist as a one liner, a series that can shift
towards areas of interest only if the timing is right. Frankly, this is a
dumb perspective. If you can access this area as you please why not
integrate market values in your artistic research. You can dance
to more than one rhythm is what I am saying, and I think it is futile
to try and stay in one part of the field or the other, it is about timing
and circumstance, and about decision making at its very core. As to
the influx of artistic practices that I was underlining earlier, it is only
natural that the general perspective gets shifted towards a practice
oriented activity. People understand that there is this market, that
they can follow certain patterns and embrace ideologies for the sake
of confirmation.
I do not really consider the market as being this type of sordid entity
that feasts on redundancy and poorly conceived art. It is a side that
has always been present and always had this shadowy aspect to it.
It is just that I believe it was more difficult to witness firsthand the
dynamics which it implied. Being oversaturated is not a new thing.
I think that this is in a certain way part of the definition of a market.
Products travel near and far, and empires are built and destroyed.
It is a dynamic recognizable in any type of market. The main challenge I think is not discerning between what would be called good
art or bad, you get those without the market per se (markets can
also be built like golems out of mud and given the breath of life
by empowered people). For me as an artist who has yet to be part
in the marketable area, the market represents a side-quest that
intrigues and I believe it necessary beyond the aspect of livelihood.
On the other hand, as far as the artists who turn to compromise in
order to feed the machine are concerned, I believe that some may
lack a certain perspective of the world they have chosen to thrive
in and their own preoccupation for the arts. As I was saying, I find it
useful to integrate market research even at a basic awareness level
in order to find the moving parts of things. There is no guarantee
that what one will find answers there, but at the same time this is
true to any type of murky water environment one explores. In all
fairness, art is a plaything in itself. Micro-circles or not, starting from
the artists and ending with the institutions and collectors, every
party involved gets to play with a sort of notion that empowers or
discredits fictitious mechanisms. The end would be when one manages to find solutions for himself among all the rotating parts.

ON<>OFF, digital manipulation, 2014

64

65

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Dezacord i certitudine
Gerardo Montes de Oca Valadez

Sezgin Boynik, Mihaela Brebenel & Vlad Morariu, Fokus Grupa,

Freee Art Collective, Petra Gerschner, Cathleen Schuster & Marcel Dickhage
Expoziie final curatoriat de Andrei Siclodi
12 iunie 26 iulie 2014, Knstlerhaus Bchsenhausen Kunstpavillion Innsbruck

Locul nostru n lume, ca indivizi i membri ai unei societi, presupune existena

unei serii de continue negocieri i puneri de acord. Nu totul trebuie i poate fi pus
de acord n mod unitar, iar multe aspecte ale vieii noastre rmn incerte i deschise, n timp ce altele necesit hotrre clar i certitudine. Acest termen, certitudine,
se refer la ceea ce este sigur, hotrt. E o variant anterioar a lui cernere: a distinge, a decide, dar i a deplasa, a separa. Cu alte cuvinte, n a fi sigur de ceva e presupus o deplasare. Pe de alt parte, dezacordul [dissent] nseamn s ai altfel de
sentimente, s simi i s gndeti diferit dis-sentire i e completat de conjuncia
de (diferit de). Prin urmare, diferenele snt n mod inerent relaionale, cum e i
dezacordul n sine. Dezacordul i certitudinea se completeaz reciproc. Asemenea
dialectici snt abordate de activitatea curatorial a lui Andrei Siclodi, cu toate c el trece,
cu siguran, dincolo de aceste procese continue i folosete noiunile de dezacord
i certitudine mai degrab ca pe nite concepte dinamice caracteriznd starea de
spirit schizofrenic a construciei hegemonice a realitii din zilele noastre ce funcioneaz potrivit logicii pieei.
Expoziia multistratificat i intersectorial este produsul finit al Programului Art
i teorie pentru bursieri internaionali de la Knstlerhaus Bchsenhausen, 2013
2014, o platform de cercetare i producie sub forma unei rezidene artistice i
teoretice. Cu acest prilej, diferiii participani s-au ntlnit i s-au angajat n dezbateri
critice i schimburi de idei legate de domeniile lor de cercetare, subiectele lor de
interes, abordrile i metodele lor artistice. n acest cadru i pe lng cei cinci bursieri, nc dou contribuii au fost integrate n expoziie de Vlad Morariu, care i-a
invitat pe cei de la Fokus Grupa i Freee Art Collective. Aceast platform i abordare deschis i fertil a permis ivirea temei i a modului de prezentare a expoziiei,
cu respectarea preocuprilor participanilor i a modului n care aceste singulariti
s-au ntlnit. Rezultatul este o constelaie variat configurat de artiti, curatori, cercettori, scriitori i teoreticieni.
Expoziia conine materiale la fel de diverse, precum videoul, desenele, fotografia,
obiectul gsit i textul. E complex din punct de vedere conceptual, abordeaz subiecte numeroase i diferite care snt cu adevrat semnificative, att n contextul actual
al nemulumirii politice i economice globale, ct i n domeniul criticii instituionale. Unele dintre subiectele abordate snt speculaiile de pia; nedreptatea social,
GERARDO MONTES DE OCA VALDEZ s-a nscut n 1978 la Guadalajara (Mexic). Este psiholog (Universidad de Guadalajara), muzician, artist i activist. A absolvit un master n cultur vizual la Universitatea
Aalto (Finlanda) i a frecventat, timp de un an, cursurile programului de master n art i tiin al Universitii de Arte Aplicate (Viena). n prezent este doctorand n filosofie al Universitii de Arte Frumoase din
Viena. Ultimul su proiect, intitulat Sentiments of Fidelity i desfurat la Muzeul de Art din Rauma, Finlanda, a investigat conceptul de ncredere i rolul su n procese de subiectivare, n biopolitic, i n aciuni
contrahegemonice. Recent a coordonat laboratorul interdisciplinar internaional Crime Scene care a avut
loc n timpul ultimei ediii a Bienalei Balticum (2014) din Rauma, n colaborare cu Migrating Art Academie.

66

DISSENT AND CERTAINTY

Gerardo Montes de Oca Valadez
Sezgin Boynik, Mihaela Brebenel & Vlad Morariu, Fokus Grupa,
Freee Art Collective, Petra Gerschner, Cathleen Schuster &
Marcel Dickhage
Concluding exhibition curated by Andrei Siclodi
12 June 26 July 2014, Knstlerhaus Bchsenhausen Kunstpavillion
Innsbruck
Our place in the world, as individuals and members of a society,
requires a series of constant negotiations and agreements. Not
everything has to and can be agreed homogeneously, and many
aspects of our lives remain uncertain and open while other aspects
necessitate a clear determination and certainty. This term, certainty,
refers to that which is certain, determined. A previous variant of
cernere: to distinguish, to decide, and also to shift, to separate.
In other words, to be certain implies a shift. On the other hand, dissent means to differ in sentiments, to feel and think differently dissentire and it is complemented by the conjunction than (different
than). Hence, differences are inherently relational, as dissent itself is.
Dissent and certainty complement each other. Such dialectics are
taken into consideration in the curatorial work made by Andrei Siclodi,
nevertheless he decidedly goes beyond these continuous processes
and uses the notions of dissent and certainty rather as dynamic concepts that characterise the schizophrenic mood of todays hegemonic construction of reality that works in the logics of the market.
The multilayered and intersectional exhibition is the outcome of the
International Fellowship Program for Art and Theory in Knstlerhaus
Bchsenhausen 20132014, a platform of research and production
in the format of an artistic and theoretical residency. In this occasion
the different participants met and engaged in critical debates and
exchange of ideas regarding their fields of investigation, topics of
interest, artistic approaches and methods. Within this frame and in
addition to the five fellowship holders, two more contributions are
integrated in the exhibition by Vlad Morariu, who invited Fokus
Grupa and Freee Art Collective. This open and fertile platform and
approach allowed the emergence of the exhibitions theme and display, respecting the participants concerns and the way these singularities met. The result is a diverse constellation conformed by artists,
curators, researchers, writers and theoreticians.

GERARDO MONTES DE OCA VALDEZ, born 1978 in Guadalajara (MX).

Psychologist (Universidad de Guadalajara), musician, artist and activist.
Studied an M.A. in Visual Culture at the Aalto University in Finland, having
done a year exchange in the M.A. programme in Art & Science at the
University of Applied Arts in Vienna. He is currently a Ph.D. candidate in
Philosophy at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna. His last project Sentiments
of Fidelity at Rauma Art Museum in Finland focused on the notion of trust
and its role in processes of subjectivation, biopolitics and counter-hegemonic agencies. He has recently coordinated the interdisciplinary and international laboratory Crime Scene during the last Rauma Biennale Balticum
2014 in Rauma, in collaboration with Migrating Art Academies.

Dissent and Certainty, exhibition view (works by Sezgin Boynik, Petra Gerschner, Cathleen Schuster & Marcel Dickhage (f.l.t.r.); ceiling by Fokus Grupa)
Photo: Daniel Jarosch/Tiroler Knstlerschaft

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protestul, revolta i controlul exercitat de stat; forme de reprezentare i relaii de

putere; practicile istoriografice critice i alternative; dialectica teoriei i practicii;
forme ale criticii instituionale; arta i militantismul. Aceast complexitate nu este imediat sesizabil n forma uoar, aerisit i chiar primitoare a prezentrii generale. Cu
toate acestea, n scurt timp, vizitatorul se afl provocat i dezorientat. Contradiciile i tensiunile ideologice neoliberale snt viguros abordate n lucrri, laolalt cu reflecii
teoretice despre reprezentare, art conceptual i critic instituional.
Imediat ce ptrunde n Kunstpavillion Innsbruck, spectatorul se gsete n faa unui
spaiu alb foarte larg i ngrijit. Din acest punct, vizitatorul vede primele dou ncperi
alturate, scldate n lumina natural oferit de generosul luminator al cldirii. n prima
ncpere, lumina natural care ptrunde strlumineaz seria de desene ale Fokus
Grupa, reproduse tipografic i montate chiar pe luminator. Structura plafonului traseaz o gril de celule translucide acolo unde e montat instalaiaI Sing to Pass Time
(II). Cele 19 desene se refer la aciuni i micri sociale n care au fost angajai artiti
occidentali, din SUA i din fosta Iugoslavie ntre anii 1920 i 1980, la luptele care
au urmrit mbuntirea condiiilor lor de munc i de trai. Artitii modific folosirea obinuit, tradiional a plafoanelor destinate frescelor reprezentnd puncte de
vedere i aspiraii dominante. Spre deosebire de plafoanele care acoper i separ,
luminatorul din Kunstpavillion este un strat mai fragil i translucid. Prin urmare, instalaia nu acoper sau separ, ci deschide i conecteaz instituia cu anumite elemente exterioare nonumane n special lumina natural i praful strns pe ferestre ,
permindu-le un joc cu acele imagini ale luptelor ceteneti din trecut.n acest fel,
lucrarea subliniaz necesitatea regndirii limitelor instituiei i felul n care elemente instituionale i nonumane exterioare pot arunca o lumin asupra modului cum
nelegem i rescriem istoria contrahegemonic.
Mediul de expresie ales, desenul, face o trimitere elegant la miestria i grija de multe
ori necesare n schimbarea i aciunile sociale cum ar fi n construirea de reele de
solidaritate i formarea de comuniti. n felul acesta, estetiznd politica, ei repolitizeaz imaginile politice i, cel mai important, imaginarul politic. Acest aspect,
mpreun cu faptul c imaginile nu snt unele cunoscute, permite publicului s se raporteze la ele ntr-un mod deschis, mai puin dependent de forme de reprezentare i
identificare date. i, dac e s ne gndim la ce spunea Beuys, atunci oricine, nu doar
artitii, are potenialul de-a pune la ndoial i a redesena sau resemnifica istoria. Asta
nseamn c orice brbat ori femeie este (cel puin potenial) un agent social.
Dedesubtul acestei instalaii, chiar n faa privitorului, lucrarea Petrei Gerschner The
weapon of criticism cannot, of course, replace criticism by weapons trimite evident
la lucrarea lui Karl Marx Contribuii la critica filosofiei dreptului a lui Hegel, unde acesta discut despre fora material a ideilor atunci cnd teoria e mbriat de mase.
Lucrarea e un comentariu la muzeul Tirol Panorama din Innsbruck, n special la seciunea Mituri despre Tirol, care e alctuit dintr-o serie de mici sculpturi amplasate n nie nuntrul unor socluri nalte (aproximativ 2,25 metri), reprezentnd
protagoniti de sex masculin ai aa-numitului Mare Rzboi Austriac mpotriva lui Napoleon de la nceputul secolului al nousprezecelea. mpreun cu aceste figuri dominante conductori militari, religioi i ai opoziiei , masele anonime, femeile i
alte minoriti snt identificate ca necunoscute (adic femei necunoscute) prin
piedestale goale i o meniune pe o plac de pe podea. Gerschner redimensioneaz piedestalul, fcndu-l mai scund i mai accesibil oamenilor. Apoi, ea umple absena
cu o pavea (varianta mai modern i mai ptrat a pietrei de caldarm), care este
poleit manual cu acelai fel de foi de aur ntlnit n decoraia unora dintre cldirile din Innsbruck (i folosit n mod obinuit n multe culturi dominante). E cunoscut faptul c bucile de pavaj snt adesea folosite de manifestani mpotriva opresiunii
oficiale narmate atunci cnd evenimentele devin violente.

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The exhibition contains diverse materials as video, drawings, photography, found objects and text. It is conceptually complex, it addresses quite a few manifold topics that are indeed relevant both in the
current context of global political and economic discontent and in the
field of institutional critique. Some of the addressed topics are market
speculation; social injustice, protest, uprising and state control; forms
of representation and power relations; critical and alternative historiographic practices; theory and praxis dialectics; forms of institutional
critique; art and activism. This complexity is not immediately evident
in the light, airy and even welcoming formality of the general display.
Nonetheless, the visitor will soon find her self confronted and bewildered. Neoliberal ideological contradictions and tensions are powerfully addressed in the works together with theoretical reflexions on
representation, conceptual art and institutional critique.
Right after stepping in the Kunstpavillion Innsbruck the spectator is
before a very spacious and tidy white space. From this point the visitor sees the first and second adjoined rooms filled with natural light
coming from the wide skylight of the building. In the first room the
natural light coming in illuminates Fokus Grupas series of drawings
reproduced on prints and mounted on the skylight itself. This ceilings structure draws a grid of translucent cells where the installation
I Sing to Pass Time (II) is mounted. The 19 drawings are about actions
and social movements from western European, US American and
former Yugoslavian artists from the 1920s to the 1980s, struggles
aimed to enhance their own living and working conditions. The artists
alter the common historical use of ceilings dedicated for frescos representing dominant views and aspirations. Unlike those ceilings that
cover and separate, the skylight in the Kunstpavillion is in turn a more
fragile and translucent layer. Therefore the installation does not cover
or separate, instead it opens and connects the institution with some
exterior and non-human elements especially the natural light and
accumulated dust on the windows , let them interplay with the
images of past citizen struggles. This way the work underlines the
necessity to rethink the limits of the institution and how the external,
non institutional and non-human elements can shed light on our comprehension and re-writing of counter hegemonic history.
The chosen media, drawings, beautifully address to the craftsmanship and care many times necessary in social change and actions
like in network and community building. By doing so, aestheticizing
politics, they re-politicize political images and, most importantly,
political imagery. This aspect, together with the fact that the images
are not of common knowledge, allows the audience to relate to them
in a rather open way less dependant to given forms of representation
and identification. And if we follow Beuys statement, then everyone,
not only the artists, has the potential to question and re-draw, re-signify history. It translates in: every man and woman is (at least potentially) a social agent.
Underneath this installation, right in front of the viewer, Petra
Gerschners work The weapon of criticism cannot, of course, replace
criticism by weapons makes immediate reference to Karl Marxs
A Contribution to the Critique of Hegels Philosophy of Right where
he discusses the material power of ideas when theory is embraced
by the masses. This piece is a comment on the Tyrol Panorama
Museum in Innsbruck, particularly to the section Myths of Tyrol
that is conformed by a series of small sculptures placed in high
pedestals (about 2.25 m high) representing male protagonists of
Austrias so called Great War against Napoleon in the early 19th
century. Together with those dominant figures military, religious
and opposition leaders , the anonymous masses, women and other
minorities are identified as the unknown (i. e. unknown women)
by empty pedestals and a mention on a floor plaque. Gerschner
resizes the pedestal, making it shorter and more accessible to people.
Then she fills the absence with a sett (the more modern and square
version of a cobblestone) which is hand-glided with the same kind of
gold leaf used in some of the buildings in Innsbruck as part of their
decoration (commonly used in many dominant cultures). It is of com-

Sezgin Boynik
On Contradiction, installation, 2014 (detail), photo: WEST. Fotostudio/Tiroler Knstlerschaft

Petra Gerschner
Politics of the Public Body, 2014, photo: WEST. Fotostudio/Tiroler Knstlerschaft

69

Petra Gerschner
The weapon of criticism cannot, of course, replace criticism by weapons, installation, 2014 (detail), photo: WEST.
Fotostudio/Tiroler Knstlerschaft

Prin asta, artista trimite la scrierea dominant a istoriei i la politica identitii, legnd
localul de global. Ea nu introduce prezena printr-o reprezentare convenional,
ci prin indicarea absorbiei instituionale tot mai mari a rezistenei civice prin politici i instituii culturale. Cnd privitorul se apropie de piatr survine o anumit tensiune, un fel de for gravitaional. S fie o chemare potenial la o potenial aciune?
S fie o invitaie subtil de-a o lua i a ntrupa aciunea, pentru a mobiliza o astfel
de nemicare dincolo de graniele instituiei?
ndemnurile la aciune i la formarea de opinii snt cteva dintre subiectele principale abordate de Freee Art Collective, care au scos literalmente expoziia afar din
Kunstpavillion. Ei folosesc un panou comercial format din 24 de coli, amplasat pe
o strad din Innsbruck, n apropiere de muzeul Tirol Panorama, nfind o fotografie cu apte oameni care in cu susul n jos un banner textil mare pe care scrie
Protest Drives History (fotografia e fcut la Stockholm). Dar fotografia cea mare,
montat pe panou, este la rndu-i pus cu susul n jos, aa c lozinca se citete corect.
Lucrarea lor altur aciunea colectiv, corpul i limbajul, ntr-un context n care
graniele dintre privat, public i pia se ntlnesc i dispar. Fundalul rsturnat al imaginii, n contrast cu textul pus corect, n sus, creeaz o tensiune stranie ntre coni nut i context, o interaciune crucial n procesul de formare a opiniei n domeniile
colectiv i politic.
Pe lng coninut i context, conceptul de cadru joac un rol important n cercetarea teoretic a lui Vlad Morariu. Lucrarea sa Parerga: politica ncadrrii n discursul
actual al criticii instituionale mprumut conceptul de parergon al lui Derrida pentru a trata direct complexitile ncadrrii i graniele dintre instituii, domenii i practici. Morariu propune gndirea artei politice ca spaiu median, acionnd, n acelai

70

mon knowledge that setts are often used by demonstrators against

the armed official oppression when the events turn violent.
By doing this the artist addresses to the dominant writing of history
and the politics of identity linking the local and the global. She does
not bring presence by means of conventional representation, but by
pointing to the increasing institutional absorption of civic resistance
in cultural policies and institutions. Certain tension, some sort of
gravitational force emerges when the viewer approaches the rock.
Is it a potential call for a potential action? Is it a subtle invitation to
take it and to embody action, to mobilize such stillness beyond the
institution?
Calls for actions and opinion-formation are some of the main topics
addressed by Freee Art Collective, bringing the exhibition literally
out of the Kunstpavillion. They make use of a 24-sheet commercial
billboard in a street in Innsbruck near Tyrol Panorama Museum
with a photography of 7 people holding upside-down a large textile that reads Protest Drives History (shot in Stockholm). But the
large photograph mounted on the billboard is turn also upside-down
so the slogan reads properly. Their work brings together collective
action, body and language in a context where the borders of the private, the public and the market meet and vanish. The upside down
background of the image in contrast to the right side up text create
a strange tension between content and context, crucial interplay
in the process of opinion-formation in the collective and political
realms.
Alongside with content and context the concept of framework plays
an important role in Vlad Morarius theoretical research. His work
Parerga: The Politics of Framing in the Current Discourse of Institutional Critique borrows Derridas concept parergon to directly
deal with the complexities of framing and the borders between institutions, fields and practices. Morariu proposes to think of political art
as a space in-between and at the same time working both inside and
outside the institution. This ideas are clearly shown in his collaborative work with Mihaela Brebenel. Their participation was strongly
determined by an event form last year, when they found a large
amount of photographic slides in twenty bags outside Goldsmiths
Library in London thrown in trash containers. For their joint participation in the Kunstpavillion they chose to project, in the second room,
the slide labelled La porte-voix rouge des masses/Agitprop Theatre,
Germany, 1920s, a drawing representing a demonstration of the
Arbeiter Theaterbund Deutschlands (ATBD) bringing a direct relation to the other art works already mentioned.
Such finding and recuperation points to the questions of who has the
right to decide what political images are valuable, which are not and
what the criteria is. Ironically, by the time I saw the exhibition the
slide itself had already lost much of its ink and the projected image
was slowly disappearing, as if the precarity embedded in todays
capitalism had the power to affect and hide its own representations
and forms displayed in the institutions.
For its part, Sezgin Boynik contributes to these reflections from
another angle that strongly resembles Art & Language Group, especially in the theoretical and conceptual approach and textual formality. In his work On Contradiction Boynik makes use of the first room
presenting five diagrams on gridded papers of a kind used in mathematics and hard sciences. Each of these diagrams is accompanied by
a white paper full of handwritten text where the artist seems to carry
very intense dialogues and debates on the ideas and models of five
different theoreticians Niklas Luhmann, Alain Badiou, Mel Ramsden
from Art & Language Group, Darko Suvin and Rastko Mocnik. A large
number of ideas is intricately-woven in those five sheets of paper,
generating a feeling of inaccessibility that contrasts with the very
tidy and quite geometrical diagrams. Underneath those papers Boynik
installed a table with a longer diagram that resembles those visualising statistical information in two vectors. A series of phrases in
English and other different Central and Eastern European languages
with no translation are indexed and linked. The reflexions revolve

Freee Art Collective

Protest Drives History, 2014, billboard, Innsbruck (beneath the Tyrol Panorama
Museum which is dedicated to the representation of the Myth of Tyrol),
photo: WEST. Fotostudio/Tiroler Knstlerschaft

timp, att n interiorul, ct i n afara instituiei. Aceste idei snt prezentate n mod clar
n lucrarea realizat de el n colaborare cu Mihaela Brebenel. Participarea lor a fost
puternic motivat de un eveniment de anul trecut, cnd, n douzeci de saci aruncai n containere de gunoi n faa Bibliotecii Goldsmiths din Londra, au gsit un mare
numr de diapozitive. Pentru proiectul lor comun din Kunstpavillion ei au ales s
proiecteze, n a doua ncpere, diaporama intitulat La porte-voix rouge des mas ses/Agitprop Theatre, Germany, 1920s, un desen reprezentnd o demonstraie a Arbeiter Theaterbund Deutschlands (ATBD) prin care au creat o legtur direct cu
celelalte lucrri deja pomenite.
Asemenea descoperire i recuperare trimite la ntrebri precum cine are dreptul
de-a hotr care imagini politice snt valoroase, care nu snt i potrivit crui criteriu.
Ironia face c, pn am ajuns s vd expoziia, diapozitivele n sine i pierduser deja
o mare parte din culoare, iar imaginea proiectat disprea ncet, de parc precaritatea integrat capitalismului de astzi avea puterea de a afecta i a-i ascunde propriile reprezentri i forme prezentate n instituii.
La rndul su, Sezgin Boynik contribuie la aceste reflecii dintr-un alt unghi, care se
aseamn puternic cu cel al Art & Language Group, mai ales n abordarea teoretic i conceptual, ca i n formalitatea textual. n lucrarea sa On Contradiction,
Boynik folosete prima ncpere pentru a prezenta cinci diagrame pe hrtie caroiat de tipul celei folosite n matematic i n tiinele exacte. Fiecare diagram este
nsoit de o foaie alb acoperit cu text scris de mn n care artistul pare s poarte dialoguri i dezbateri foarte intense cu ideile i modelele a cinci teoreticieni diferii
Niklas Luhmann, Alain Badiou, Mel Ramsden din Art & Language Group, Darko
Suvin i Rastko Mocnik. Pe cele cinci foi de hrtie e o mare concentraie a nume-

71

scena

roase idei nclcit ntreesute, ceea ce genereaz un sentiment al inaccesibilitii care

contrasteaz cu diagramele foarte ngrijite i geometrice. Sub aceste hrtii, Boynik
a instalat o mas cu o diagram mai lung, semnnd cu acelea care vizualizeaz date
statistice ntr-o reprezentare cu doi vectori. O serie de fraze n limba englez i n
alte limbi central i est-europene netraduse snt indexate i legate de altele. Refleciile graviteaz n jurul conceptelor de ideologie, autoadministrare, lupt de clas
i al raportului dintre supus i stat.
Combinaia de propoziii n alte limbi, lsate aa, netraduse, precum i citarea unor
teoreticieni din Europa de Est nu tocmai cunoscui trimit cu ndrzneal la cotele
de putere i la vizibilitatea sau invizibilitatea lor n producerea i distribuirea de cunotine. O ntrebare care domin lucrarea este posibilitatea pe care o au contradiciile din formaiunile politice i cadrele teoretice s capete forme estetice.
Lucrarea ofer o imagine de ansamblu asupra gndurilor unui gnditor i, mpreun
cu desenele Fokus Grupa i cu paveaua Petrei Gerschner, genereaz un gest foarte interesant cu privire la raportul dintre teorie, practic i aciune politic.
Aceste intersecii trimit la materialitatea protestului, tratat n detaliu n lucrarea lui
Gerschner Politics of the Public Body, care se gsea n deja pomenita ncpere secund.
Aceast instalaie este o invitaie deschis la a lua o poziie critic mpotriva hegemoniei. Pe podea se afl un covor rou de tipul celor folosite la vernisaje i evenimente de gal. Pe el st scris lozinca Alturai-v nvingtorilor, distrugei capitalismul.
n faa lui, pe un ecran, ruleaz un videoclip cu mai multe demonstraii masive (din
Brazilia, Turcia i Germania) nfind confruntri cu poliia, adunri publice i momente de protest festiv. Pe un perete de lng covor, o serie de mici fotografii prezint de aproape, n plan-detaliu, tehnici poliieneti folosite n demonstraii reale
mpotriva unor persoane.
Covorul te invit pe un ton festiv, fotografiile documenteaz controlul fizic individual, iar videoul arat potenialul prezenei colective i puterea acesteia de a se confrunta cu opresiunea poliiei. Aici caracterul performativ al rezistenei i protestului
ntlnete caracterul performativ al controlului poliienesc i de stat. n aceast lucrare, Gerschner abordeaz dimensiunea corporal a aciunii, puterea i efectul protestului public. Lucrarea e direct legat de ceea ce Judith Butler, mprumutnd
conceptul lui Arendt, pune n discuie cu inteligen: spaiile de apariie, spaii generate n demonstraii plurale, n vorbirea i n aciunile femeilor i brbailor care susin
mpreun dreptul de-a avea drepturi, punnd, n acelai timp, sub semnul ntrebrii
legitimitatea puterii de stat prin intermediul prezenei corporale i a permanenei.1
Un asemenea drept i permanena snt reprezentate direct de lucrarea ei din seria
History Is a Work in Progress, o fotografie a unui desen stradal fcut cu pooarul nfind
dou femei care poart burka i se srut tandru.
O prezen att de intim ne amintete c, fie i atunci cnd viaa n sine este extrem
de contingent, ea este ntr-adevr o perpetu realitate nc nentmplat i fcut
de om. Simpla contemplare a devenit insuficient n anumite zone geografice, ntr-un moment al istoriei, iar un asemenea act de a privi realitatea a nceput s nu mai
fie preuit. Prin urmare, speculaia, actul de a privi la i a lua n considerare lucrurile
a fost integrat n sistemul pieei n jurul anului 1770. A devenit o strategie capitalist
nsemnnd s cumperi i s vinzi n cutare de profit din creterea i scderea valorii de pia. Logica schizofrenic a pieei a nceput s evolueze alturi de nfiinarea
instituiilor financiare i a reformelor juridice care le susin. E o ndelungat istorie a
nenfrnatelor practici financiare speculative i de prad, a dominaiei i exploatrii, care
continu pn n prezent. S riti totul a devenit o norm, cu att mai mult cnd e n
detrimentul vieii celorlali. Aceste aspecte snt cele pe care Cathleen Schuster i
Marcel Dickhage le repun n scen i le documenteaz ficional n cele dou videouri,
Layers i Money and Trade Considered. Primul, proiectat pe un ecran din a doua ncpe-

72

around the concepts of ideology, self-administration, class warfare

and relation between subject and State.
The combination of sentences in other languages rendered with no
translation as well as the citation of not so know Eastern European
theoreticians bravely points to the quotas of power and their visibility or invisibility within the production and distribution of knowledge.
A question that dominates the work is the possibility for contradictions in political formations and theoretical frameworks to find aesthetic forms. The work provides an overview into a thinkers thoughts
and, together with Fokus Grupas drawings and Petra Gerschners
sett, generate a very interesting gesture on the relation between
theory, praxis and political agency.
These intersections lead back to the materiliaty of protest, dealt in
detail in Gerschners work Politics of the Public Body, found in
already mentioned second room. This installation is an open invitation to take a critical side against hegemony. On the ground lies a
red carpet like the ones placed in galas openings and celebrations.
It reads the slogan Join the winning side smash capitalism. In front
of it a screen plays a video of several massive demonstrations (of
Brazil, Turkey and Germany) showing police confrontations, public
assemblies and moments of festive protest. On a wall next to the
carpet a series of small photographies closely framing riot police
techniques implemented in real demonstrations to individuals.
The carpet invites in a festive tone, the photos document the individual physical control and the video shows the potential of collective
presence and its power to confront the police oppression. Here the
performativity of resistance and protest meet the performativity of
police and state control. In this work Gerschner addresses to bodily
dimensions of action and the power and effect of public protest.
It is directly related to what Judith Butler, borrowing Arendts
concept, sharply discusses: the spaces of appearance, spaces generated in plural demonstrations, in speech and actions of women and
men together claiming the right to have rights while at the same
time questioning the legitimacy of state power by means of bodily
presence and permanence.1 Such right and permanence is directly
depicted by her piece from the series History Is a Work in Progress,
a photography of a street stencil shows two women wearing burkas
kissing each other tenderly.
Such intimate presence reminds us that even when life itself is highly
contingent, it is indeed a continuous human made yet-to reality.
Mere contemplation became not enough in certain geographies at
some point of history, and such act of looking at reality started to be
unpriced. Hence, speculation, the act of looking at and considering
things, was incorporated into the market system during the 1770s.
It became a capitalist strategy, meaning buying and selling in
search of profit from rise and fall of market value. The schizophrenic
logics of the market started to evolve alongside with the establishment of the financial institutions and legal reforms that support
them. A long history of unbridled speculative and predatory financing practices, of domination and exploitation that continues up until
now. Risking everything became a norm, even more at the expense
of others lives. These issues are what Cathleen Schuster & Marcel
Dickhage re-enact and fictio-document in their two videos Layers
and Money and Trade Considered. The first one, installed on a screen
on the second room, is inspired by John Laws Money and Trade
Considered with the Proposal for Supplying the Nation with Money,
published in 1705. It addresses the financial bubbles generated by
Laws ideas implemented in France back then and its consequences,
performed in a theatrical form recreating Laws Europe and epoch.
The second piece also makes evident the built up and staged qualities of the scenarios and dialogues but in a more updated TV setting,
establishing a direct connection with todays mediated personal
struggles. In turn, this works title refers to a speculation method
used to create financial bubbles nowadays.
The two pieces come along with their respective film scripts. The
spectator will be captured and confused by a complex series of mul-

re, e inspirat de memoriul lui John Law, Banii i comerul supuse ateniei dimpreun
cu propunerea de a furniza naiunii bani, publicat n 1705. Videoul se refer la bulele financiare generate de ideile lui Law aplicate n Frana acelor zile i la consecinele
lor i e realizat ntr-o form teatral prin recrearea Europei i a epocii lui Law. Cea
de-a doua lucrare pune i ea n eviden trsturile construite i nscenate ale scenariilor i dialogurilor, dar ntr-un decor TV actualizat, stabilind o conexiune direct cu
luptele personale mediatizate de astzi. Titlul lucrrii, n schimb, se refer la o metod
speculativ folosit pentru a crea bule financiare n zilele noastre.
Cele dou lucrri vin mpreun cu scenariile lor aferente, ca filme. Spectatorul va
fi captat i fcut confuz printr-o serie complex de dialoguri multistratificate. Aceste scenarii snt doldora de trimiteri intertextuale din diverse surse. Pentru a-i face
o idee mai clar despre chestiunile abordate i intenia artitilor, vizitatorul ar trebui s ia aceste publicaii i s investeasc ironia face s folosim un termen foarte reprezentativ pentru pia timp, efort i, probabil, munc de cercetare. Merit
pe deplin. Lucrrile conin un mare numr de trimiteri, oferind conexiuni i reflecii
foarte interesante, pertinente pentru felul cum stau azi lucrurile n ceea ce privete
contradiciile nesfrite ale speculaiei integrate n viaa noastr de zi cu zi.
E limpede c fiecare bursier participant aduce n expoziia de grup diferite preocupri i interese reclamnd o reflecie serioas asupra felului cum viaa e condus
de o logic minat de contradicii i distrugtoare. Pe moment, se poate c nu-i uor
s identifici i s urmreti numeroasele straturi de idei discutate de artitii n reziden i modul n care acestea pot fi articulate. Pe de alt parte, acesta este, de asemenea, i unul dintre punctele forte ale expoziiei. Ea te atinge, uotete i provoac.
Cnd i cnd, l zpcete pe spectator ntr-un fel care face ca ntrebarea s persiste i s revin n gndurile lui. Expoziia rmne prezent i reclam o investigaie activ
i, probabil, o poziionare.

tilayered dialogues. These scripts are full of intertextual references

from diverse sources. To get a clearer idea of what the issues addressed are and the intention of the artists, the visitor would have to take
those publications with her and invest ironically, a term highly referential to market time, effort and perhaps some research. It is
totally worth it. The works contain a vast number of references, providing very interesting connections and reflections relevant for
todays state of affairs regarding the endless contradictions of speculation embedded in our everyday lives.
It is clear that each participant of the fellowship programme brings
to the group exhibition different concerns and interests that demand
serious reflections on how life is directed by contradictory and
predatory logics. For a moment it might not be easy to trace and follow the many layers of ideas discussed by the artists in the residency
and the way they can be articulated. Nevertheless, this is also one of
its fortitudes. The exhibition touches, whispers and provokes. At
moments it confuses the spectator in a way that question last and
come back in her thoughts. The exhibition remains present and
demands a further active investigation and, perhaps, a positioning.

Note:
1. See Judith Butler, Bodies in Alliance and the Politics of the Street.
Cf. http://eipcp.net/transversal/1011/butler/en/ (last accessed
20 October 2014).

Traducere de Alex Moldovan

Not:
1. Vezi Judith Butler, Bodies in Alliance and the Politics of the Street. Cf. http://eipcp.net/transversal/
1011/butler/en/ (accesat pe 20 octombrie 2014).

Mihaela Brebenel & Vlad Morariu

[de][re] composition no. 1, 2014 and Cathleen Schuster & Marcel Dickhage,
Money and Trade Considered, 201314 (f.l.t.r.),
photo: Daniel Jarosch/Tiroler Knstlerschaft

scena

Contramonumente, sculpturi precare

i coregrafii efemere, sau ce este de fcut
n fafla resurecfliei fascismului?
Cristian Nae

Chto Delat?, Face to Face with the Monument, Viena, 15 mai 21 iunie 2014

Astzi, multe discuii despre monument par a reveni, aproape inevitabil, la distincia
propus de Pierre Nora ntre memorie colectiv i istorie. Cea dinti este neleas
de Nora ca un proces suplu i dialectic de reamintire i uitare, integrat din punct
de vedere social n tradiie un ansamblu de forme de organizare a vieii n raport
cu o serie de practici ce i asigur constant actualitatea, n vreme ce istoria apare ca
o modalitate modern de reconstituire i organizare a trecutului din rmiele sale,
ce se datoreaz obturrii accesului spontan la aceast memorie a comunitii prin
accelerarea transformrilor sociale.1 i mai adesea, se recurge la definirea monumentului ca lieu de la mmoire, adic drept o materializare a memoriei n anumite locuri
n care persist un sens al continuitii istorice i n care memoria se cristalizeaz i
se secret pe sine.2 Sunt ns monumentele materializri ale unor practici ale reamintirii devenite ntre timp opace pentru orice form spontan de reculegere i de comemorare, adic de constituire a unei comuniti temporare articulate n jurul unor
experiene mprtite? Reprezint ele vestigiile unui mod de a vizualiza istoria caracteristic unei moderniti culturale deja vetuste? Constituie acestea urme ale unei memorii care a fost, nc de la formarea lor, capturat de istorie, adic selecionat,
ncadrat conceptual i redat n termeni simbolici altfel spus, supus inevitabil unei
anumite ideologii? i mai cu seam, la ce ne mai ajut astzi o asemenea distincie
ntre memoria fragmentar, imprecis i actualizat spontan a colectivitilor eterogene i istoria ca metanaraiune ce legitimeaz hegemonia unor grupuri dominante, n msura n care eroziunea accelerat a statutului simbolic al monumentelor
poate reprezenta efectul unei probleme mai vaste, care privete nu doar fragmentarea, ci i tensionarea tot mai acut a sferei publice?
Am asistat n ultimii ani, n Europa, la resurecia unor fragmente de ideologie naionalist i la camuflarea unor idei i atitudini fasciste n programe politice de dreapta cu iz extremist, autocratic i totodat mesianic, care rspund delegitimrii tot mai
pronunate a democraiei de tip reprezentativ n faa celei participative i a formelor spontane de protest colectiv. ns tocmai acest fapt este simptomatic pentru modul
n care articularea puterii se extinde astzi asupra memoriei colective, mplinind sarcina istoriei indicat de Nora, aceea de a dezarticula orice ncercare spontan de
coalizare a comunitii i de a terge, astfel, orice urme necodificate ale experienei
istorice de a funciona, cu alte cuvinte, asemenea unui aparat ideologic de stat.
Recursul la distincia lui Nora poate fi, aadar, folositor n msura n care ne reamintete faptul c, n esen, articularea comunitii reprezint un gest politic, de natur
performativ, pentru care rememorarea trecutului vizeaz rediscutarea i rearticularea critic a prezentului deci, transformarea viitorului. Iar aceast versiune

COUNTER-MONUMENTS, PRECARIOUS SCULPTURES

AND EPHEMERAL CHOREOGRAPHIES, OR WHAT IS TO BE DONE
AGAINST THE RESURRECTION OF FASCISM?
Cristian Nae

CRISTIAN NAE pred teoria artei la Universitatea de Arte din Iai. Este beneficiarul mai multor granturi de
cercetare privind istoria artei n Estul Europei dup 1945. Interesele sale de cercetare urmresc, de asemenea, istoria expoziiilor i studiile vizuale privind modernitatea din perspectiv comaparativ.

CRISTIAN NAE teaches art theory at the University of Fine Arts from Iai.
He is the beneficiary of several research grants on art history in Eastern
Europe after 1945. His research interests also comprise history of exhibitions and visual studies on modernity from a comparative perspective.

Chto Delat?, Face to Face with the Monument, Vienna,

15 May 21 June 2014
Today, many debates on monuments seem to return, almost
inevitably, to the distinction coined by Pierre Nora between collective memory and history. The first is conceived of by Nora as a
supple and dialectical process of remembering and forgetting,
socially integrated in the tradition a totality of forms for organizing
life connected with a series of practices that constantly assure its
topicality, while, on the other hand, history appears as a modern
mode of reconstructing and organizing the past out of its remainders, a mode which is due to an obstruction that, by an acceleration
of social transformations, affects spontaneous access to this memory
of the community.1 More often than not, memory is defined as lieu
de la mmoire, a materialization of memory in some places where
a sense of historical continuity persists and in which memory crystallizes and secretes itself.2 But are monuments materializations of certain practices of remembrance, practices that have become opaque
in time for any spontaneous form of recollection and commemoration, that is, of constituting a temporary community around shared
experiences? Are they remnants of a mode of visualizing history typical for an already obsolete cultural modernity? Are they traces of a
memory that has been, since their inception, caught by history, that
is, selected, conceptually framed and conveyed in symbolic terms
in other words, inevitably subdued to a certain ideology? And, more
importantly, of what use is today the distinction between a memory
of heterogeneous collectivities fragmented, imprecise and spontaneously updated/materialized and history as a meta-narrative that
legitimates the hegemony of some dominant groups, insofar as the
accelerated erosion in the symbolic status of monuments can represent the effect of a larger question, which regards not only fragmentation, but also an increasingly critical tension in the public sphere?
Europe has recently witnessed the resurrection of some fragments
of nationalist ideology and the camouflage of certain fascist ideas
and attitudes in rightwing political programs with a taste for extremism, autocracy and, simultaneously, messianism, coming as answers
to an increasingly obvious lack of legitimacy affecting representative
democracy in comparison to participative democracy and spontaneous forms of collective protest. However, this is the symptomatic
fact for the way in which the articulation of power extends today

Chto Delat?, Paper Soldier, part of Into the City, 2014, Chto Delat?

74

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participativ a colectivitii se constituie, astzi, mpotriva elementelor simbolice osificate n formele impozante specifice ideologiei dominante.3 mpotriva unor asemenea ritualuri publice, este uneori necesar s alienm temporar monumentele
existente, s reinventm monumentul sub forme precare, efemere, invizibile sau
performative la nevoie, sub forma unor antimonumente, monumente polemice, antiautoritare, capabile s articuleze o politic a comemorrii care s mputerniceasc anumite grupuri sociale s-i dezvolte propriile ritualuri ce acord importan
unor anumite spaii i gesturi. De asemenea, este nevoie ca istoria s i poat recunoate omisiunile i mistificrile, s reactiveze memoria grupurilor oprimate, s poat
expune naraiuni i gesturi reprimate i s rearticuleze n spaiul public discursuri i atitudini marginalizate. n acest sens, un monument poate fi punctul de plecare al unei
serii de practici discursive care combin cadrele intelectuale ale nelegerii i investirea libidinal a imaginilor i locurilor, altfel spus, a unor practici artistice angajate social
care dramatizeaz trecutul i evoc potenialul revoltei i rezistenei publice.
Asumnd sarcinile anterior descrise, proiectul artistic Face to Face with the Monument, dezvoltat de colectivul artistic Chto Delat? n cadrul Wiener Festwochen, are
drept pretext o arheologie a monumentului soldatului sovietic aflat n piaa Schwarzenberg din Viena. Situat ntr-o rotond aproape de intrarea n curtea palatului Belvedere, care contureaz un spaiu circular dominat de silueta impozant a acestui
soldat anonim (ce sugereaz eliberarea de sub dominaia naional-socialismului prin
intervenia armat a socialismului sovietic la finele celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial), acest loc al memoriei, de cele mai multe ori ignorat de turistul n cutarea fastului vienez, a reprezentat nexusul unei serii de instalaii i intervenii performative
desfurate timp de aproximativ o lun de zile. Aceste intervenii au vizat s elibereze potenialul destabilizant al acestor simboluri (fascism i socialism) n actuala configuraie sociopolitic, n care capitalismul global pare a fi ncorporat resursele creative

76

over collective memory, fulfilling the task of history indicated by

Nora, namely, that of dis-articulating any spontaneous attempt
made by the community at creating coalitions and, thus, erasing any
uncodified traces of historical experience in other words, the task
of functioning as an ideological state apparatus. Therefore, using
Noras distinction can be useful, insofar as it reminds us of the fact
that, basically, the articulation of community is a political gesture of
a performative nature, for which the remembrance of the past aims
at re-discussing and critically re-articulating the present thus, at
transforming the future. This participative version of collectivity
emerges today against symbolic elements ossified in the towering
forms specific to dominant ideology.3 Against such public rituals, it is
sometimes necessary to temporarily alienate existing monuments,
to reinvent the monument in precarious, ephemeral, invisible or performative forms in the guise of some anti-monuments, if needed,
polemic, anti-authoritarian monuments, capable of articulating
a politics of commemoration that would empower certain social
groups with developing their own rituals that emphasize certain
spaces and gestures. Similarly, there is a need for history to develop
an ability of recognizing its omissions and mystifications, to reactive
the memory of oppressed groups, to present repressed narratives
and gestures, and to re-articulate marginalized discourses and attitudes in the public space. In this sense, a monument can be the
point of departure for a series of discursive practices combining
intellectual frameworks of understanding and libidinal investment in
images and places, in socially engaged artistic practices dramatizing
the past and evoking a potential for revolt and public resistance.
Accepting these types of tasks, the artistic project developed by
the artistic collective Chto Delat? at the Wiener Festwochen, Face
to Face with the Monument, finds its pretext in an archeology of the
Monument for the Soviet Soldier located in Schwarzenberg Square
in Vienna. Placed in a rotunda close to the entrance of Belvedere
palace, which marks a circular space dominated by the towering

ce preau a constitui, pn nu demult, apanajul stngii, contribuind la radicalizarea

biopoliticii. Ce mai poate oferi ns discursul angajat critic n faa conservatorismului
eurocentric tot mai intolerant i a formelor camuflate ale socialismului cu accente
naionaliste? Cum poate un loc destinat comemorrii s devin un spaiu al negocierii publice, articulnd disensiuni, elibernd antagonisme reprimate i reactivnd pluralismul inerent sferei publice?
Proiectul elaborat i coordonat de Chto Delat?, cu un vdit caracter participativ i
procesual, a ncorporat multiple elemente artistice: coregrafii i dramatizri cu caracter performativ, o serie de billboard-uri nsoite de prelegeri publice, un tur ghidat (n format audio) i o proiecie de filme, precum i o instalaie temporar nsoit
de o vast pictur mural, realizat colectiv mpreun cu participani la atelierul condus de Nikolay Oleynikov, a crei form, deopotriv precar i funcional, reclama necesitatea recuceririi caracterului public al monumentului. n cadrul su, o serie
de artiti i colective artistice (precum Bankleer, Schwabingrad Ballet i Lampedusa
in Hamburg, Ines Doujak, John Barker, Martin Krenn, Luigi Copolla, IRWIN, Oliver
Ressler) i teoreticieni (Oliver Marchart, Erich Klein, Johen Gerz, Suzana Milevska)
au contribuit la construcia unui amplu proces de chestionare istoric i rememorare colectiv.
Seria de billboard-uri a vizat n mod direct dramatizarea istoriei, implicnd activarea
tensiunilor sale latente, care nu gsesc uor loc n reprezentarea colectiv (precum
n cazul billboard-urilor realizate de Oliver Ressler i IRWIN, ce vizau, n manier
diferit, forme etatizate ale intoleranei i excluziunii sociale pe temeiul apartenenei
la o identitate naional). n termeni mai generali, a fost pus astfel n cauz contribuia Austriei la politica represiv i nchis a Uniunii Europene n privina migraiei, relaia
dintre politicile fiscale europene i rbufnirile recente ale naionalismului, att n interiorul Uniunii, ct i la marginile sale (Bankleer, Schwabingrad Ballet i Lampedusa
in Hamburg, Ines Doujak i John Barker). Indirect, discursul artistic a atins traumele i frustrrile latente datorate Rzboiului Rece n urma disoluiei imperiului sovietic, precum i capacitatea utopiei socialiste, ca element de export al Revoluiei din
Octombrie, de a funciona asemenea unui agent eliberator ntr-o cultur i societate conservatoare precum cea austriac. n locul soldatului anonim, expatriaii, emigranii ilegali i muncitorii subremunerai care construiesc reelele subterane ale politicii
internaionale (Ines Doujak i John Barker), cei care constituie, astzi, multitudinea, au dobndit, temporar, vizibilitate. Prin pronunatul su caracter nonspectacular, prin atitudinea pe alocuri brechtian a personajelor, citatele din autori care continu
s informeze imaginarul politic contemporan precum Gramsci sau Pasolini i combinaia de forme muzicale cu impact social, proiectul coral coordonat de Luigi Copolla
Mase i motete a rspuns direct nevoii de rearticulare social a corpului colectiv, pentru care corpul simbolic al monumentului ar putea i ar trebui s constituie o metonimie. n vreme ce turul ghidat audio imaginat de Olga Egorova oferea
cadrul propice unei interaciuni ntre memoria personal i cea narat de un imaginar martor al celui de-al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, atelierele de dans i cel de desen
mural au susinut latura participativ a proiectului la nivel colectiv. Cele din urm au
contribuit la articularea material a ideii potrivit creia cooperarea spontan a indivizilor poate produce multitudinea, adic acea form de articulare social n care
solidaritatea permite coeziunea temporar a grupurilor sociale, fr a refuza singularitatea i diferena n numele subiectului colectiv abstract.
n fapt, nu sarcina simbolic a monumentului ca element autoritar, materializat sculptural, destinat a supravieui curgerii timpului, sau o anumit iconografie particular,
destinat, n cazul de fa, a capta energia transformatoare a socialismului, se dovedete inadecvat astzi, ci tocmai incapacitatea formelor sale publice de reprezentare de a constitui forme ale rememorrii care, prin asumarea unui caracter procesual,

figure of this anonymous soldier (suggesting the liberation from the

domination of national-socialism through the armed intervention
of Soviet socialism at the end of WWII), this site of memory, most
often ignored by tourists searching for the Viennese glamour, was a
nexus for a series of installations and performative interventions lasting about a month. These interventions aimed at releasing the destabilizing potential of these symbols (fascism and socialism) within the
current socio-political configuration, in which global capitalism seems
to have incorporated the creative resources that seemed to constitute until recently a reserve of the left, contributing to a radicalization of biopolitics. What can, however, offer a critically engaged
discourse when faced with the increasingly intolerant Euro-centric
conservatism and the camouflaged forms of socialism with nationalist nuances? How can a site for commemoration become a space for
public negotiation, articulating dissensions, releasing repressed
antagonisms and reactivating the inherent pluralism of the public
sphere?
The project conceived of and coordinated by Chto Delat?, with an
obvious participative and process-like character, incorporated various artistic elements: choreographies and performative dramatizations, a series of billboards connected with public lectures, a guided
tour (in audio format) and film projections, as well as a temporary
installation accompanied by a large mural painting, made in collaboration by participants to a workshop conducted by Nikolay Oleynikov,
a workshop whose form, simultaneously precarious and functional,
reclaimed the necessity of re-conquering the public character of the
monument. Within the project, a number of artists and art collectives
(such as Bankleer, Schwabingrad Ballet and Lampedusa in Hamburg,
Ines Doujak, John Barker, Martin Krenn, Luigi Copolla, IRWIN, Oliver
Ressler), as well as theorists (Oliver Marchart, Erich Klein, Johen Gerz,
Suzana Milevska) have contributed to constructing a vast process of
historical interrogation and collective remembrance.
The series of billboards directly aimed at the dramatization of history, involving the activation of hidden tensions, which are not easily
found in collective representation (as in the case of billboards by
Oliver Ressler and IRWIN, focusing in different ways on the state
forms of intolerance and social exclusion based on belonging to
a national identity). In more general terms, the inquiry focused on
Austrias contribution to the repressive and closed policies of the
European Union as regards migration, the relationship between
European fiscal policies and the recent outbursts of nationalism both
in the Union and at its borders (Bankleer, Schwabingrad Ballet and
Lampedusa in Hamburg, Ines Doujak and John Barker). Indirectly,
the artistic discourse has touched upon the hidden traumas and frustrations resulting from the Cold War in the aftermath of the dissolution of the Soviet empire, as well as upon the ability of socialist utopia,
as an export item of the October Revolution, to function as a liberating agent in societies and cultures as conservative as the Austrian
one. Next to the anonymous soldier, expats, illegal emigrants and
underpaid workers building the underground networks of international politics (Ines Doujak and John Barker), those who constitute
today the multitude have gained a temporary visibility. Through its
marked non-spectacular character, through the sometimes Brechtian
attitude of the characters, through quotations from authors that
keep on informing the contemporary political imagination, such as
Gramsci or Pasolini, and through combining musical forms having
a social impact, the project coordinated by Luigi Copolla, Masses
and Motets, directly answered to the need for a social re-articulation
of the collective body, for which the symbolic body of the monument
could and should constitute a metonymy. While the guided tour
imagined by Olga Egorova has offered an appropriate framework for
an interaction between personal memory and a memory narrated by
an imaginary witness of WWII, dance and mural drawing workshops
upheld the participative aspect of the project at a collective level.
These contributed to the material articulation of the notion that spontaneous cooperation among individuals can produce multitude,

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s se nscrie n timp n loc s l eludeze i s poat opune rezisten politicilor publice la nivel microsocial. Acestea trebuie s poat corespunde proieciilor colective
ale unor grupuri sociale marginalizate sau oprimate, a cror form de expresie predominant revolta colectiv constituie nervul din corpul social atins de elementul performativ privilegiat de proiectul artistic iniiat i gestionat de Chto Delat?.
Elementul coregrafic caracteristic multora dintre proiectele participative cu caracter colectiv implicate n acest proiect poate fi asociat opiniilor exprimate de Jacques
Rancire, potrivit cruia coregrafia reprezint o form predeterminat de distribuie
spaial a corpurilor i relaiilor dintre ele ce corespunde aciunii fundamentale a politicii de a gestiona spaiul public. n articularea sa mimetic, coregrafia poate deveni
ns potenial subversiv. Iar atunci cnd ia forme spontane, precum manifestaia
public, aceasta este forma elementar a aciunii politice, opera esenial a politicii constnd n configurarea propriului su spaiu ce ofer vizibilitate lumii subiecilor
i operaiilor sale cu alte cuvinte, un spaiu de manifestare.
Chestionnd cadrul instituional n care a avut loc proiectul, se poate acuza uor complicitatea proiectelor coregrafice i corale invitate sau comisionate de Chto Delat?
cu genul de teatralitate spectacular promovat de Wiener Festwochen, precum
i caracterul de outsourcing pe care multe proiecte cu caracter performativ le implic n practica artistic i curatorial contemporan.4 Cu toate acestea, paradoxul proiectelor critice de acest gen dezvoltate recent n spaiul public, care se bucur,
prezumtiv, de mare vizibilitate, rezid mai curnd n slaba implicare efectiv a publicului larg i eterogen n scenariile i propunerile artistice dezvoltate, cel mai adesea, tot pentru comunitatea profesional, dect n amplitudinea lor i, implicit, n
caracterul spectacular pe care l-ar implica. Cel din urm a fost inteligent evitat de
artitii invitai n versiunea vienez a proiectului prin modul specific de articulare estetic a proiectelor frust, direct i pe alocuri, chiar poverist. ns, n linia concepiei
ranciriene, s-ar putea argumenta c tocmai acest lucru ofer o articulare precar
a politicului i esteticului un spaiu de manifestare public insuficient. O asemenea concluzie ar fi, cu toate acestea, pripit. Prin caracterul discret al interveniilor
sale la nivelul comunitii locale, Chto Delat? a fcut mai curnd vizibil inapetena
crescnd pentru gndire critic a clasei de mijloc vieneze, a relevat masivul fundal
de uitare i indiferen colectiv, precum i singularitatea i fragilitatea poziiilor cu
potenial insurgent ntr-un spaiu public mereu ocupat de turismul ce capitalizeaz
armul burghez al unei moteniri imperiale. ntr-un sens mai general, proiectul a
evideniat impasul inerent stngii culturale atunci cnd coopteaz formele de manifestare public specifice culturii de mas pentru a comunica pe scar larg ntr-o societate n care revoluia pare aproape o utopie, iar tensiunile reprimate la marginile
Europei snt eludate. ns ceea ce trebuie remarcat n cea din urm privin este
faptul c, sub ameninarea tot mai acut a fascismului deghizat n politici sociale protecioniste, estetizarea politicii i coregrafierea maselor angajate spectacular fr a pstra
distana dintre actori i spectatori, att de necesar conservrii autonomiei artei n
opinia lui Rancire, ar fi cu mult mai periculoase dect articularea temporar a unor
fragile i efemere microcomuniti angajate politic prin intermediul reconfigurrii artistice a spaiului public. Acest pericol poate justifica, astzi, precaritatea proceselor
sociale generate de procesele artistice i cea a schimburilor ce au loc efectiv ntre
memoria personal a privitorilor, materializarea simbolic a memoriei n spaii cu
destinaie public i amnezia colectiv. Cci reamintirea simbolic a potenialului de
rearticulare social, prin recunoaterea n prezent a mrcilor i urmelor trecutului, nseamn, de fapt, o important recucerire a rolului public al artei i, implicit, reafir marea capacitii sale de a negocia i de a expune public disensiuni reprimate i tensiuni
sociale ocultate. Iar, potrivit lui Walter Benjamin, ceea ce nu este recunoscut n prezent, chiar i sub forma unei imagini fulgurante ce strlucete o clip pe ecranul memo-

78

that is, a form of social bonding in which solidarity allows for a temporary cohesion of social groups, without refusing singularity and
difference in the name of an abstract collective subject.
In fact, it is not the symbolic task of the monument, as an element
of authority materialized in a sculpture and meant to survive to the
passing of time, or a certain particular iconography (meant, in this
case, to receive the transformative energy of socialism), that proves
itself inadequate today, but the incapacity of its public forms of representation to constitute forms of remembrance that, by taking on a
process-like character, would inscribe themselves in time, instead of
eluding the latter, and could oppose a resistance to public policies
at a micro-social level. These must be able to correspond to collective projections of marginalized or oppressed social groups, whose
predominant form of expression collective revolt constitutes the
nerve in the social body reached by the performative element privileged in the artistic project initiated and conducted by Chto Delat?.
The choreographic element characteristic to many of the collective
participative projects involved in this project can be juxtaposed with
Jacques Rancires views, according to which choreography represents a predetermined form of spatial distribution of bodies and of
their relationships, corresponding to the fundamental action of politics, namely the management of public space. In its mimetic articulation, choreography can potentially become subversive. When it takes
on spontaneous forms, such as public demonstrations, this represents the elementary form of political action, the essential work of
politics being the configuration of its own space that offers visibility
to the world of subjects and its operations in other words, a space
for manifestation.
Interrogating the institutional framework in which the project took
place, one can easily accuse the complicity between choreographic
and choral projects invited and commissioned by Chto Delat? with
the type of spectacular theatricality promoted by Wiener Festwochen,
as well as the outsourcing character presented by many performative projects in contemporary artistic and curatorial practices.4 However, the paradox of recent critical projects in this genre developed
in the public space, which presumably enjoy a great visibility, resides
rather in the precarious involvement of the heterogeneous general
public in the artistic scenarios and propositions, created most often
for a professional community still, than in their amplitude and,
implicitly, in their spectacular character they could imply. The latter
has been smartly avoided by artists invited to the Viennese version
of the project, via the specific modes of aesthetic articulation of the
projects rough, direct and sometimes even Poveristic. However,
in line with Rancires conception, one could argue that precisely
this offers a precarious articulation between politics and aesthetics
an insufficient space for public manifestation. Such a conclusion
would be, however, too hasty. Through the discrete character of its
interventions at the level of local community, Chto Delat? has made
visible the increasing distaste for critical thinking of the Viennese
middle class. It has revealed the huge background of collective
oblivion and indifference, as well as the singularity and fragility of
potentially insurgent positions in a public space always occupied by
a tourism that capitalizes on the bourgeois charm of an imperial heritage. In a more general sense, the project emphasized the inherent
deadlock of cultural left in communicating on large scale within a
society in which revolution seems almost a utopia, and repressed
tensions at the margins of Europe are eluded. However, what must
be noted as regards the latter aspect is the fact that, under the
increasingly critical threat of a fascism disguised in protectionist
social policies, the aestheticization of politics and the choreography
of masses engaged in the spectacle without keeping a distance
between actors and spectators, which is so necessary to preserve the
autonomy of art according to Rancire, would be more dangerous
than the temporary articulation of fragile and ephemeral micro-communities politically engaged through artistic reconfigurations of the
public space. This danger can justify today the precariousness of

riei nainte de a se disipa n neant, risc s fie nghiit definitiv de uitarea istoriei5, rbufnind, violent, atunci cnd cuvintele i imaginile nu mai pot schimba deja nimic.
Note:
1. Pierre Nora, Between Memory and History Les Lieux de la Mmoire, Representations, nr. 96, primvara 1989, p. 724.
2. Ibidem, p. 7.
3. Un exemplu recent l constituie reconstrucia, n Skopje, a unei istorii saturate, materializat printr-un exces de monumentalizare care corespunde nevoii de a inventa i de a legitima ideologia naionalist i a impune, din exterior, o contiin naional solid ntr-un spaiu cultural instabil.

social processes generated by artistic processes and that of actual

exchanges between personal memories of the viewers, symbolic
materializations of memory in public places and collective amnesia.
For, the symbolic reminder of a potential for social rearticulation,
through a recognition in the present of marks and traces of the past,
means, in fact, an important re-conquering of a public role for art
and, implicitly, a re-affirmation of its ability to negotiate and publically expose repressed dissentions and hidden social tensions. According to Walter Benjamin, that which is not recognized in the present,
not even in the shape of a flashing image shining for a second on the
screen of memory before dissipating into nothingness, faces the risk
of disappearing forever in the oblivion of history5, violently flaring up
when words and images can no longer change a thing.

4. Claire Bishop, Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship, Verso, 2012.
5. Walter Benjamin, Theses on the Philosophy of History, trad. Harry Zohn, in Illuminations, Shocken Books,
1969, p. 255. n romnete, vezi Walter Benjamin, Despre conceptul de istorie, in Iluminri, trad. de Catrinel Pleu, Cluj, Idea Desing & Print, 2002, p. 196.

Translated by Alexandru Polgr

Notes:
1. Pierre Nora, Between Memory and History Les Lieux de la Mmoire,
Representations, no. 96, spring 1989, pp. 724.
2. Ibidem, p. 7.
3. A recent example involves the reconstruction, in Skopje, of a consumed
history, materialized in an excess of monumentalization corresponding
to the need of inventing and legitimizing a nationalist ideology, as well
as externally imposing a solid national consciousness in an unstable
cultural space.
4. Claire Bishop, Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politica of Spectatorship, Verso, 2012.
5. Walter Benjamin, Theses on the Philosophy of History, trans. Harry
Zohn, in Illuminations, Shocken Books, 1969, p. 255.

scena
Maybe3, graphic cover by Szabolcs Veress, 2012

Performance-ul ca obiect de cercetare artistic

Alexandru Polgr n dialog cu Szilrd Mikls
SZILRD MIKLS s-a nscut n 1981 la Miercurea-Ciuc. A studiat grafic la Universitatea de Art i Design
Cluj (20002004) i a lucrat ca asistent la Universitatea Partium Facultatea de Arte, Oradea (20052007).
Este membru fondator al mai multor proiecte i asociaii nonprofit din Cluj: Conset (www.conset.ro), program de ateliere (2014 prezent); Protokoll (www.protokoll.ro), PAC coala Popular de Art Contemporan (20092011); Julesz Community; conset.org, platform de publicare online (20042007). Este
consultant artistic la Casa Tranzit (2004 prezent).Triete i lucreaz la Cluj.

Etna archive, Sfntu Gheorghe, 2014, photo: Szilrd Mikls

Alexandru Polgr De civa ani, dar spune-mi o dat precis dac tii, ai nceput s te ocupi de arta performance din Romnia i mai ales de materialul festivalului de performance de la lacul Sf. Ana. Ce te-a determinat, ca artist, s ncepi un
asemenea proiect de cercetare?
Szilrd Mikls De cercetarea zilelor de performance de la lacul Sf. Ana m-am
apucat printr-o invitaie de a participa la o expoziie, a crei tem era apocalipsa,
Sfritul lumilor. Aceasta a fost partea a treia a unei suite de expoziii organizate o
dat la cinci ani intitulate Maybe i a avut loc n septembrie 2012 la spaiul expoziional Magma de la Sfntu Gheorghe. Lucrarea video pe care am fcut-o pentru aceast
expoziie s-a constituit din montajul a dou serii fotografice i al unor inserii textuale. Fceam camping cu un prieten n zona lacului Sf. Ana, unde cu ani n urm, n
anii 1990, au avut loc zilele performance devenite faimoase. Am folosit un aparat
fotografic analog i film color. Am ndreptat aparatul ctre amicul meu i am fcut
fotografii timp de o zi i jumtate, nregistrnd practic prezena lui acolo. Am fcut
un eseu fotografic, tiind c acesta trebuie s se ncadreze n cele 24 de cliee ale
filmului color pe care l aveam n aparat. Ne-am jucat cu gndul c el era prezent
acolo n rolul unui artist performance i c repuneam n scen festivalul de performance. De fapt, ncercam s-i fac un portret, fr ca asta s fi fost precedat de vreo
cercetare a performance-ului.
Pe pagina web a Fundaiei Etna, care organiza Festivalul AnnArt, exist cteva filme
documentare despre festival cu rezoluie foarte slab, fcute fie de organizatori, fie
de diverse televiziuni. Am observat i am descris cteva performance-uri uitndu-m
la aceste filme, pe care le-am introdus mai apoi ca inserii textuale printre fotografii. Aceste descrieri de performance, care relateaz la persoana nti singular, n numele amicului meu, despre diversele aciuni, de multe ori le descriu pe acestea ntr-un
mod eronat sau lacunar, le interpreteaz greit. Cu toate c am ncercat s formulez lucrurile ntr-un mod obiectiv, materialele primare din filmele documentare snt
adesea montate, iar calitatea imaginii e foarte slab, din cauz c a fost optimizat
n raport cu standardele internet de acum civa ani. Era clar c valoarea lor documentar, cel puin pentru unele aciuni, nu e deplin sau de ncredere, totui am
inut orbete la ele, ca unice izvoare la care puteam avea acces public la vremea
aceea. Al treilea strat n filmul meu video e o alt serie de fotografii, care surprinde o zi obinuit din viaa unui cine care era cu noi. Cele dou portrete alterneaz
uor monoton pe parcursul filmului. Datele calendaristice inserate n mijlocul filmului ofer o cheie de interpretare, prin care durata evenimentelor nregistrate la lacul
Sf. Ana devine lizibil, 19901999, mpreun cu anul n care s-a nscut cinele, 1999.
Prin asta trimit n mod concret la arhiv, dar aceast semnalare apocaliptic din mijlocul filmului e urmat, cu aceeai monotonie, de nirarea acelor aciuni care, prin
alterarea lor, prin asocierea lor cu o fa strin i cu un animal domestic, ar putea
avea un efect alienant asupra celor care cunosc evenimentele dintr-un alt unghi,
ca material documentar pus la dispoziie. n acest caz am ncercat s pun n eviden

PERFORMANCE AS AN OBJECT OF ARTISTIC RESEARCH

Alexandru Polgr in Conversation with Szilrd Mikls
SZILRD MIKLS was born in 1981 in Miercurea-Ciuc. He studied graphic
at the Art and Design University in Cluj (20002004) and worked as a
teacher at the Partium University Department of Arts in Oradea (2005
2007). He is a founding member of several projects and nonprofit associations in Cluj: Conset (www.conset.ro), workshop program (2014); Protokoll (www.protokoll.ro), PAC coala Popular de Art/Peoples Art
School (20092011); Julesz Community; conset.org, on-line publishing
platform (20042007). He is an artistic consultant at the Tranzit House in
Cluj (2004). Presently he lives and works in Cluj.

Alexandru Polgr A few years ago, but please specify the exact
date if you know it, you started dealing with performance art in
Romania and especially with the material of the performance festival
organized at Lake St. Ana. What brought you, as an artist, to start
such a research project?
Szilrd Mikls I have started researching performance days at
Lake St. Ana by an invitation to participate in an exhibition on the
topic of apocalypse, The End of Worlds. This has been the third part
of an exhibition series called Maybe, organized every five years called,
which has taken place in September 2012 at the Magma exhibition
space in Sfntu Gheorghe. The video work I have made for this exhibition has been constituted by combining two photo series with text
inserts. I was camping with a friend in the area of Lake St. Ana,
where years ago, in the 1990s, there were organized the performance days since then famous. I have used an analogical photo camera
and a colored roll. I oriented the camera towards my friend and took
pictures for a day and a half, practically documenting his presence
there. I have made a photographic essay, knowing that it had to fit
in the 24 pictures of the roll I had in my device. We have played with
the thought that he is a performance artist and we have tried reenacting the performance festival. In fact, I tried to make a portrait of
him, without any previous research on performance.
On the web page of the Etna Foundation, which used to organize the
AnnArt Festival, there are a few poor quality documentary films about
the festival, made either by the organizers, or by various TV stations.
I observed and described a few performances watching these films,
and I later inserted these descriptions in the two photo series. Writing in the name of my friend, these descriptions about the various
actions often misinterprets them, either because they are simply mistaken or because information was lacking. In spite of the fact that I
have tried to formulate things in an objective manner, the raw materials of the documentary films are often cut, and the quality of the
image is very poor, because it was optimized to internet standards
now obsolete. It was clear that their documentary value, at least for
some of the actions, is not full or trustworthy, but I blindly stuck with
them as the sole sources of information I could access at that time.
The third layer of my video is another series of photographs, which
captures a normal day in the life of a dog accompanying us. The two
portraits alternate in a slightly monotonous manner during the film.
The calendar dates inserted in the middle of the film offer a key for a

81

Stateless Anthropology (infrastructure), installation view, New York Hotel, Cluj, 2013, photo: Szilrd Mikls

Stateless Anthropology, sketches from the Etna archive, installation view, Salonul de Proiecte, 2014, photo: tefan Sava
Stateless Anthropology, installation view, Salonul de Proiecte, 2014, photo: tefan Sava

Mihly Botond, photo: Szilrd Mikls, 2012

scena

critica felului n care se utilizeaz arhiva sau arhivarea, ntr-un context instituional reading, whereby the duration of the events at Lake St. Ana becomes
local n care colaborarea dintre generaii (Etna/Magma) a devenit problematic, n- obvious, 19901999, as well as the in year in which the dog has been
born, 1999. By this, I concretely reference the archive, but this apoctr-o ar n care nu exist instituii publice asumndu-i rolul arhivrii, al cercetrii i alyptic signal at the middle of the film is followed, with the same
al medierii. M-am apropiat de performance n calitate de gen artistic dinspre docu- monotony, by a list of those actions that, through their alteration,
mente, ntipriri materiale i practici instituionale. De atunci, m-am ntors de mai through their association with a strange face and a domestic animal,
have an alienating effect on those who know the events from
multe ori acolo, pentru a-mi face o idee despre arhiva Fundaiei Etna din Sfntu Gheor- could
a different angle, as a documentary material at hand. In this case
ghe. Asta m-a fcut s m intereseze o cunoatere mai bun a performance-ului de I tried to highlight the critique of the way in which the archive is utidup schimbarea de regim. Pri din aceast munc le-am fcut deja publice, chiar lized in a local institutional context, where collaboration between
generations (Etna/Magma) has become problematic, in a country
cu mai multe ocazii, sub titlul de Antropologie apatrid.
where there are no public institutions assuming the role of creating
De ce apatrid? i de ce antropologie? Ce se afl n spatele acestei expresii archives, research and mediation. I have approached performance
curioase? Cum se poate raporta asta la chestiunea arhivei, att n ce privete utiliza- as a genre from the point of view of documents, material imprints
rea generic a acesteia, ct i n ce privete lipsurile arhivelor locale? i chiar crezi c and institutional practices. Since then, I returned many times there
nu exist colaborare ntre generaii? Ce ar nsemna asta, sau cum i imaginezi o aseme- to get an idea about the archive of the Etna Foundation in Sfntu
Gheorghe. This triggered an interest in a better acquaintance with
nea colaborare? i, dincolo de aceast chestiune politic sau, oricum, de sociologie performance after the regime change. Parts of my work I have
cultural, s neleg c preocuparea ta cu performance-ul e rodul unei pure ntmplri? already made public on several occasions under the title Stateless
Cci chestiunea arhivei i chestiunea colaborrii intergeneraionale pot fi studiate n Anthropology.
cazul oricrui alt gen artistic. De ce totui performance-ul? Cum se coreleaz aces- Why stateless? And why anthropology? What is behind this
curious phrase? How can this relate to the question of the archive,
te ntrebri?
both in its generic utilization and in the light of its lacks at a local
ncerc s gndesc prin munca mea. Asta nseamn c nu ncerc s interpretez level? Do you really believe that there is no collaboration among
lumea doar intelectual, ci intervin i fizic, creez obiecte, iau decizii care fac vizibile generations? What would such a collaboration mean, how do you
imagine it? And, beyond this political or socio-cultural question,
conglomerate de informaie, procese, care opereaz cu sau snt determinate de should we understand that your preoccupation with performance
categoriile diverselor tiine, precum sociologia, economia, politica. N-a
is simply an accident? For, the question of the archive
and the question of intergenerational collaboration
vrea s prezint practica artei extinse n felul acesta ca pe un fel de ideocan be studied on any other artistic genre. Why perlogie, din cauza asta folosesc sintagma cu oarecare autoironie, ca o anaformance? How do these questions stay together?
logie a artei.
I try to think through my work. This means that I
Antropologia apatrid nseamn pentru mine a ptrunde n interior, a cerdo not try to interpret the world only in an intellectual
manner, but I also intervene physically, I create
ceta omul ndeaproape, asemntor cu munca de teren a antropologiei
objects, I make decisions that bring visibility to conclasice, numai c nu mai este teren la care s ne ntoarcem. Nu exist,
glomerates of information, processes, and operate
Screen shots
poate n-a existat niciodat, un centru n care s se adune cunoaterea pri- (http://www.c3.hu/~actio-ts/
with or are determined by the categories of various
vitoare la om, adic un loc n care strngerea de informaii s fac parte videok/annart_videok.html)
sciences, such as sociology, economics, politics, etc.
I would not like to present the expanded art practice
dintr-o alt administraie (voi reveni). Antropologia apatrid trebuie deci
resulting from here as some sort of ideology; this is why I use that
s-i pun n eviden cunoaterea n locul n care o obine, s-o articuleze pe teren. phrase with a certain self-irony, as an analogy of art.
Astfel, exist deci i un fel de purttor geografic, spaial al expresiei, pe lng faptul c Stateless anthropology means for me to penetrate to the inside, to
apare n ea o for de organizare. Bineneles c pe antropologi expresia i face s zm- search man from close, similarly to the field work carried out in clasbeasc, dar ei snt totui de acord c antropologia nu mai poate fi altfel dect apatrid, sic anthropology, but there is no field for us to go back. There is no
center, perhaps it never was, where the knowledge about man gathaa c, ntr-un anume sens, expresia e i tautologic. Titlul are, de fapt, i o semnifica- ers, that is, a place where the collection of information would be part
ie ascuns, care se activeaz n comunitatea local, acolo unde cercetarea mea des- of a different administration (I will return to this). Therefore, stateless
pre performance-urile de la lacul Sf. Ana a nceput. Semnificaia etimologic a cuvntului anthropology must highlight knowledge in the place it finds knowlbozgor, expresia utilizat pentru a desemna n mod peiorativ maghiarii din Romnia, edge; it must articulate knowledge on the field. There is then a certain geographical, spatial carrier of this phrase, besides the fact that
este lipsit de patrie. Dac ncerci s-o surprinzi pornind de la aceast semnificaie, a certain force of organization appears in it. Of course, anthropoloadic dinspre abordarea etnic, aceast antropologie are totui o patrie, chiar dac gists smile when they hear such a phrase, but they agree that
una subversiv, negativ, i aceasta e existena din afara oricrui stat, exodul. Acest anthropology can be in no other way but stateless, thus, in a certain
the phrase is tautological. The title has, in fact, a hidden
titlu, cnd l-am folosit pentru prima oar, servise deci i eluri tactice, ntruct cele dou sense,
meaning, which activates itself in the local community, in the place
instituii care i-au asumat practica artei contemporane la Sfntu Gheorghe locul pen- where my research about the performances at Lake St. Ana has starttru care mi-am creat lucrarea amintit mai sus au devenit incompatibile tocmai pe ed. The etymological meaning of the word bozgor, pejoratively
marginea sentimentului de identitate naional. Cauzele acestei incompatibiliti au, describing Hungarians from Romania, is without a homeland, a
country. If you try capturing it from the point of view of this meandesigur, mai multe straturi, iar analiza lor va cere mult atenie. Pentru mine s-au for- ing, that is, approaching it ethnically, this anthropology still has a
mulat ntrebri legate de tipul de predeterminare ideologic pe care l poart perfor- home(land) , but this is a subversive, negative homeland, being outmance-ul ca opiune artistic, de posibilitatea ca acesta s se poat plasa n capul side of any states, exodus. This title, when I used it for the first time,
eforturilor sociale progresiste din diversele contexte istorice, precum n Europa de has also served practical goals, because the two institutions that
assumed contemporary art practices in Sfntu Gheorghe the place
Est din perioada schimbrii de regim, sau, n fine, de cauzele pentru care asemenea for which I created my work mentioned above have become incomeforturi rmn n custodia unor instituii de autor i, ca atare, nu pot fi transmise.
patible because of the feeling of national identity. The causes of this

Practicile artistice contemporane din Romnia snt organizate i gestionate de sfera

civil. Dar sprijinul obinut de organizaiile civice e mereu nesigur, de la un proiect
la altul, i e expus unei logici a finanrii care nu le permite acestora s preia sfera
de sarcini a instituiilor publice. Interesul meu vizeaz n primul rnd performativitatea acestor instituii, privitor la ele ncerc s formulez o interogaie speculativ, cu
ajutorul creia se poate lumina fundalul lor ideologic. Pentru arta plastic din Romnia dup 1989, performance-ul ca practic artistic a devenit extrem de important.
De asemenea, n ce privete practica artistic experimental nainte de schimbarea de regim, istoria artei pune mereu accentul pe performance, instrumentul cel
mai economicos al criticrii sistemului. Corpul, obiect i instrument al rezistenei,
care caut s scape din administraia represiv a dispozitivului de stat. Dar unde ar
putea scpa? ntr-o alt administraie. AnnArt a fost unul dintre festivalurile care, dup
schimbarea regimului, au fost dedicate aproape n exclusivitate acestui gen. Faptul
c, pentru o vreme relativ lung (19901999), i-a pstrat acest profil poate fi privit i ca o decizie de autor. Administraia sa, precum i realizrile sale organizatorice ofer inspiraie, au o semnificaie special, cci asta fixeaz, nregistreaz
documentar corpurile puse n joc n cadrul performance-ului. Dincolo de ambiii personale, care uneori omogenizeaz aciunile din cadrul lor, ar fi nevoie de crearea unor
instituii care ofer n mod egal posibilitatea unei raportri critice pentru persoanele care construiesc sau cele care utilizeaz acest cadru. Nu cred c n-ar exista colaborare ntre generaii, spun doar c instituiile create dintr-o poziie de autor nu-i
pot pune n eviden cum se cuvine caracterul public.
Anul acesta ai fost invitat la o expoziie a Salonului de Proiecte de la
Bucureti. Acolo te-ai prezentat cu o lucrare rezultat deja din cercetarea despre care vorbim. Un scaun ce poart pe ezutul su forma cortului AnnArt. De ce aceast pies absurd de mobilier e cea mai bun imagine
a lucrurilor care te preocup acum?
Uitndu-m la nregistrrile despre AnnArt, fantezia mea a fost atras
de un cort imens, cu o structur tetragonal, care era folosit drept centru al festivalului. La vremea aceea credeam c e vorba de un cort militar, pe care
a fost pictat logoul AnnArt, dar ntre timp am aflat c el a fost proiectat de un arhitect pe baza unei schie fcute de Gusztv t, organizatorul principal al AnnArt
i custodele arhivei Etna. n documentele din cadrul arhivei, cortul apare sub
numele de centrul AnnArt i a fost ridicat n fiecare an de echipa care a ajutat la
organizarea festivalului. Peisajul nesat de corturi, dintre care ieea n eviden aceast
structur nalt de ase metri, mi s-a prut uor utopic. Mi s-a formulat n minte analogia imagistic a societii care se organizeaz pe sine dup schimbarea de regim,
modelul unei instituii utopice menite s aeze n forme instituionale practica unei
liberti radicale, performance-ul. Un amic mi-a atras atenia c el lectura acest cort
n juxtapunere cu corturile micrilor occupy, care avanseaz exigena reorganizrii sociale. n cadrul acestora, cortul sugereaz un nou tip de caracter local, un
nou contract social. Exist imagini n care oamenii se mbrac efectiv cu aceste corturi i defileaz n ele n spaii publice sau alearg nonalant n faa poliitilor (tent
monsters). n ce privete cercetarea zilelor de performance, am fost curios mai ales
de fundalul lor organizaional, de autodefinirea lor instituional i de dezvoltarea
lor infrastructural, i nu att de analiza unor aciuni individuale. Cu ocazia primei
mele vizite la arhiva Etna, care e o arhiv latent ce funcioneaz cu o sistematizare intern precar, m-am interesat n primul rnd de aceste lucruri, cumva pentru
a putea lega i arhiva existent, n capacitatea ei fizic i administrativ, precum i
n continuitatea ei instituional, de date reale, de economie, de istoria local. Forma
aceasta s-a nscut ca o abstracie a infrastructurii, iar scaunul e utilizat ca un instrument de msurare a omului, o unitate de msur ce face ct un om. Prin faptul c

incompatibility have, of course, many layers, and their analysis

requires lot of attention. I have started formulating questions about
the type of ideological predetermination that performance as an
artistic option bears, about the possibility that performance could
take a leading role in progressive social struggles in different
historical contexts, as it did in Eastern Europe during the regime
change, and, finally, about the causes for which such efforts remain
in the custody of some one author institutions and, as such, they
cannot be transmitted.
Contemporary art practices in Romania are organized and managed
by the civil sphere. But the support received by civic organizations is
always unsure, project-based, and exposed to a logic of funding that
does not give them the possibility of taking over the tasks of public
institutions. My interest focuses primarily on the performativity of
these institutions, about which I try to formulate a speculative interrogation in order to shed light on their ideological background.
For the visual arts in Romania before 1989, performance as an artistic practice has become something extremely important. Similarly,
as regards experimental art practices before the regime change, art
history always emphasizes performance, which seems to be the most
economical way of criticizing the system. The body, object and instrument of resistance, tries to escape the repressive administration of
the state apparatus. But where could it escape? To a different administration. AnnArt was one of the festivals that, after the regime
change, embraced only this genre. The fact that, for a relatively long
time span (19901999), it managed to keep its profile can be seen as
the choice of an author. Its administration, as well as its organizational achievements, has a special meaning, for this
fixes, documents the bodies set in motion by performance. Beyond personal ambitions, which sometimes
homogenize actions, we would need institutions offering the possibility of an equally critical relationship
with the institution to those who build it and those who
use it. I do not believe that there would be no collaboration between generations; I am only saying that institutions created from an auctorial position cannot
properly highlight their public character.
This year you have been invited to an exhibition at Salonul de
Proiecte in Bucharest. Your participation there has involved a piece
of work resulting from the research we are talking about. A chair
that bears on its seat the shape of the AnnArt tent. Why is it that this
piece of absurd furniture is the best image of your current preoccupations?
Watching the various records about AnnArt, my fantasy has
been attracted to a huge tent with a tetragonal structure used as the
center of the festival. At that point, I thought that it was a military
tent, on which they printed the logo of AnnArt, but I have soon
learned that it was built by an architect on the basis of some sketches drawn by Gusztv t, the main organizer of AnnArt Festival and
curator of the Etna archive. In the documents stored in the archive,
the tent appears under the name AnnArt center and it was installed
each year by the team helping out with the organization of the festival. The landscape full of tents, with this six meter one in the middle,
seemed slightly utopian to me. It was like an imagistic analogy of a
self-organizing society after the regime change, the model of a utopian institution meant to place in institutional forms the practice of a
radical freedom performance. A friend has made me attentive to
the fact that he was reading this tent in juxtaposition with the tents
of the occupy movements, which advance the requirement of social
reorganization. Within these, the tent suggests a new locality, a new
social contract. There are pictures in which people wear their tents
and demonstrate in this outfit in public or run nonchalantly before
the eyes of the police (tent monsters). As regards my research of performance days, I was curious especially about their institutional background, about their institutional self-definition and their infrastructural
development rather than of analyzing individual actions. On my first

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Kobak, photo: Szilrd Mikls, 2012

am aezat pe el aceast form de cort ce seamn cu un cristal, caracterul funcional al scaunului s-a pierdut, dar am ncercat cumva s reintroduc totui o funcie.
Nu tiu n ce msur acoper aceast cutare formal felul n care gndesc. E un
pic ca o hieroglif sau ca sicriul n poziia ezut al lui Magritte. nc i caut funcia. Nu
proiectez omul n ea, ci ncerc s-l localizez ntre o aciune pierdut i una pe care
nc n-a gsit-o. Pe lng acest obiect, cu sprijinul Salonului de Proiecte am fcut nc
o vizit la Sfntu Gheorghe, pentru a digitaliza toate casetele video care se gsesc
n arhiv i care conin materiale despre Festivalul AnnArt. Din montajul acestui material am fcut un portret video al cortului. n acest film au ajuns exclusiv clieele pe
care apare cortul. Din cauza acestui principiu simplu de selecie, n multe cazuri aciunile ce au loc n prim-plan snt ntrerupte, iar evenimentele cotidiene primesc aceeai importan ca performance-urile i evenimentele oficiale organizate n jurul
cortului.
n ultima vreme, festivalurile de performance din Romnia au disprut unul dup
altul. De parc le-ar fi nghiit pmntul. Toat lumea cu puine excepii s-a ntors
la fabricarea de obiecte. Cum explici n cadrul cercetrii tale aceste schimbri?
ntr-adevr, au pornit mai multe evenimente cu acest profil la nceputul anilor
1990, pentru a le aminti doar pe cele mai semnificative, Vector de la Iai a nceput
tot ca un festival de performance, iar apoi s-a fcut bienal de art contemporan;
Zona din Timioara, dei fusese un festival cu o concepie curatorial puternic, dar
din ultimul su catalog se poate citi deja o distanare de acest gen. Printre practicanii
de atunci ai performance-ului s-a putut auzi de mai multe ori c exist o lips de reflecie teoretic. Tot n anii 1990 s-a zis i c performance-ul nu e pe bani. Azi exist
deja artiti tineri care au crescut n cmpul magnetic al galeriilor comerciale. n epoca
de glorie a performance-ului asta n-a fost ceva firesc. Cred c n privina asta m aflu
nc la nceput cu studierea acestor ntrebri. Caut ntrebarea cea bun n legtur
cu toate astea, cea care avanseaz deja un rspuns din care s putem nva.

visit at the Etna archive, which is a latent archive functioning with a

precarious internal systematization, I have been interested primarily
in these things, somehow for being able to connect this existing
archive, in its physical and administrative capacity, as well as in its
institutional continuity, with real data, economy and local history.
This form has been born as an abstraction of infrastructure, and the
chair is used as an instrument for measuring man, as a yardstick for
one man. By the fact that I placed on it this tent shape resembling a
crystal, the functional character of the chair has been lost, but I have
tried somehow to reintroduce a certain function. I do not know to
which extent this formal search covers the way I think. In a sense,
it is as a hieroglyph, or as the sitting coffin made by Magritte. I still
search its function. I do not project man onto it, but I try to locate
man between a lost action and one that was still not found. Beside
this object, with the support of Salonul de Proiecte, I have visited
again Sfntu Gheorghe, for digitalizing all video tapes in the archive,
which contain materials about the AnnArt Festival. By cutting this
material, I have made a portrait of the tent. In this film I have introduced just pictures of the tent. Because of this simple principle of
selection, in many cases actions taking place in the foreground interrupt, and everyday events receive the same importance as performances and official events organized around the tent.
In the last time, performance festivals have disappeared one
after another in Romania. Everybody with rare exceptions
returned to the fabrication of objects. How do you explain this shift
in your research?
Indeed, many events with a similar profile have started at the
beginning of the 1990s. To remind just the most significant, Vector
from Iai has also started as performance festival, and later become
a contemporary art biennial; Zona of Timioara, despite the fact that
it was a festival with a strong curatorial concept, in its last catalogue
one can notice a certain distancing from performance as a genre.
Practitioners of performance in that time often expressed the need
for theoretical reflection. Similarly, they said that performance was
not about money. Today, there are many young people who grew up
in the magnetic attraction of commercial galleries. When performance lived its age of glory, this was not something natural. I believe
that I am very much at the beginning of studying these questions.
I am looking for the right question to ask, the question that already
formulates an edifying answer.
Translated by Alexandru Polgr

The Moldavian Dream.

Teatrul angajat al Nicoletei Esinencu
Iulia Popovici
La etajul doi am lucrat o sptmn, mi-au pltit tot frumos.
Dup ce am terminat etajul doi mi-au propus s lucrez cu ei mai departe i la
etajul opt.
Tipul era de treab, mai jumulea i el, dar ddea i la alii.
Am rmas i n dou luni am terminat etajul opt. [...] M durea spatele, aveam
febr muscular tot corpul. [...]
Am nceput s tuesc i zic, trebuie s-mi iau lapte, c am nghiit prea mult praf,
dar unu din lucrtorii de acolo mi zice: trebuia s nvei mai ghini la coal!
(Nicoleta Esinencu, American Dream, 2014)

Tatiana Miron e student la Teatru, iar ca s mearg n SUA cu programul Work

and Travel, familia ei mprumut 3.000 de dolari de la un fel de cmtar. Programul se dovedete o schem de exploatare a muncii tinerilor est-europeni i napoierea banilor se amn ani de zile, pn cnd, pentru plata datoriei, Tatiana i mama
ei se vd nevoite s lucreze ilegal pe antierele Moscovei. E povestea real a actriei
din American Dream, spectacol care reia teme recurente ale Nicoletei Esinencu
mirajul occidental, imperialismul rusesc i, pentru prima dat, subiectul delicat al
statutului muncitorului estic/moldovean abuzat.
Ceva s-a schimbat, n ultimii patru ani, n felul n care Esinencu face teatru un transfer nu doar tematic, intim legat de modificarea schemelor de producie a spectacolelor ei, i anume, de la producia comisionat internaional i jucat n regim de
proiect n festivaluri europene la cea de repertoriu, cu un spaiu de creaie stabil (Teatru-Spltorie din Chiinu) i un public pentru care acest teatru reprezint
o reflecie asupra propriei viei.
Numele dramaturgului Nicoleta Esinencu i datoreaz notorietatea n spaiul de limb
romn scandalului din jurul pavilionului naional de la Bienala de la Veneia din 2005,
n al crui catalog a fost publicat Fuck you, Eu.ro.Pa!, una dintre primele piese ale
autoarei moldovence, scris n timpul unei rezidene n Germania. Un text ce chestioneaz obsesiile identitare ale Republicii Moldova cu precdere, obsesia vocaiei europene ncrcnd societatea moldoveneasc de complexul vinoviei
postcomuniste i postsovietice , Fuck you... conine, in nuce, esena mecanismelor teatrale puse n micare de Esinencu i a preocuprilor ei recurente, de la occidentalism la poziia social a femeii, trecnd prin conflicte etnice mocnite i relaia
ambigu cu romnismul.
n urmtorii ani, Esinencu i colectivul de actori cu care lucra au format METT (Mobile European Theater Trailer), n cadrul cruia au produs o serie de spectacole prezentate aproape exclusiv n strintate excepia reprezentnd-o antidt (20082009),

THE MOLDAVIAN DREAM:

NICOLETA ESINENCUS ENGAGED THEATER
Iulia Popovici
I worked a week on the second floor. They paid me well. After
I was done with the second floor, they told me to keep on working with them on the eighth floor, too. The guy was cool, he
took some money for himself, but he gave some money to others
as well. I stayed and in two months I finished up the eighth
floor. . . . My back was aching; I had a muscle fever in my entire
body. . . . I started coughing and told myself: I must get some
milk, I inhaled too much dust, but one of the workers from there
told me: You must have done better in school!
(Nicoleta Esinencu, American Dream, 2014)
Tatiana Miron is a drama student and, for being able to go to the
USA with the Work and Travel program, her family borrows 3,000
$ from a sort of pawnbroker. The program turns out to be a scheme
for exploiting the work of East-European youngsters and the return
of the money is postponed for years, until Tatiana and her mother
must accept illegal work on Moscows construction sites for paying
their debts. This is the real story of the actor in American Dream, a
show that continues a number of recurrent topics in Nicoleta Esinencus work such as the mirage of the West and Russian imperialism
and, for the first time, the sensitive topic of the status of the abused
East-European/Moldavian worker.
Something has changed in the last four years in Esinencus way of
doing theater a transfer, affecting not only topics, strongly linked
to the modification of production formulas in her shows, a transfer
from productions commissioned and performed internationally as
projects at European festivals to repertoire production, within
a stable space for creation (Laundry-Theater [Teatru-Spltorie] in
Chiinu) and a public for which this theater represents a reflection
upon their own life.
The name of the playwright Nicoleta Esinencu owes its notoriety
in the Romanian linguistic territory to a scandal about the national
pavilion at the 2005 Venice Biennial, in whose catalogue one of the
first plays by the Moldavian authoress, written during a residence
in Germany, Fuck you, Eu.ro.Pa!, has been published. This is a text
interrogating the identity obsessions Republic of Moldova in particular the obsession with the European vocation, charging the
Moldavian society with a post-communist and post-Soviet guilt complex and contains, in nuce, the essence of theatrical mechanisms
mobilized by Esinencu and of her recurrent concerns, from Occidentalism to the social position of women, passing through latent ethnic
conflicts and the ambiguous relationship with Romanianness.
In the years thereafter, Esinencu and the actors collective with
whom she was working have formed METT (Mobile European Theater

Traducere de Alexandru Polgr

IULIA POPOVICI e jurnalist cultural, critic de art n domeniul artelor performative i curator. Este redactoarea
seciunii de arte performative a sptmnalului Observator cultural din Bucureti i cocurator al Platformei Independente pentru Arte Performative din cadrul FestivaluluiTemps dImages de la Cluj.Scrie despre scena experimental de art performativ, grupuri i artiti din Romnia i Europa de Est, art angajat i practici de nregistrare
documentar, precum i despre identitatea regional i provocrile sociale ale artelor performative contemporane.

86

IULIA POPOVICI is a cultural journalist and performing arts critic and

curator. She is editor for the performing arts section at theObservator
cultural weekly cultural magazine (Bucharest) and co-curator of the
Independent Performing Arts Platform in the framework ofTemps
dImagesFestival, Cluj.She writes about the alternative performing arts
scene, collectives and artists in Romania and Eastern Europe, engaged
art and documentary practices, as well as about regional identity and
the social challenges of contemporary performing arts.

87

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American Dream, photoc redit: Nata Moraru

actors and with whom Esinencu co-authored, together with writer

Dumitru Crudu, her first play, The Seventh Whorehouse, which is
a documentary) to Luminia cu (who was a constant presence in
the METT shows before 2009). This happens because the Moldavian
authors artistic language and social-political engagement marks a
powerful break with traditions not only from Chiinu, but also from
Romania (to which the Moldavian scene started to refer almost exclusively after 1991).
Esinencus type of performative art intersects a whole series of current emergent practices it is permeated by performance art
(the identity of the actors is never dissolved in that of the characters,
the logic of acting being replaced by that of representation), it proposes collaborative work methods, without being what is called
a devised theater (the text never results from improvisations by
the performers), and the playwright always directs his or her texts
(an increasingly widespread symptom, from the German Rene Pollesch
to the Hispano-Argentinean Rodrigo Garca).
This in spite of the fact that Nicoleta Esinencu does not consider herself a director: I have never wanted to do directing and I am not
doing this now either. I have always made things in collaboration
with actors and visual artists. . . . I never think about how to stage
a text, for me it is more important what I want to say, she declares
in a 2013 interview for the French magazine Le Bruit du monde.
Similarly to the performative dimension of her stage creations (which
one can find, for instance, at Rodrigo Garca), this positioning of the
playwright as a theater-maker, show maker, is part of a complex
process that redefines the division of labor in theater. This, in Chiinu,
comes in the wake of the ambiguous status of the actors (all the more
that in Moldova there are no stage directing schools, and usually
directors are, by education, actors): outside of the system of public
theaters nobody can survive by doing only this art. For some, a few
really, university education is a starting point, for others the diversity
of occupations goes from hand-made production to moderating TV
shows.
The collaborative character of the Laundry-Theater supposes, therefore, not only artistic cooperation, but also the cooperative administration of a multifunctional space: actors are not only stage designers,
too, but also light and sound technicians, DJs, party hosts and event
organizers. It is a model that goes completely against the grain of
the classic position of the artist in Eastern-Europe, namely that of the
artist-as-a-genius and that of art as a socially recognized and publicly supported privilege.
In American Dream, ready-made texts (advertising materials of the
Work and Travel program, etc.), combined by Esinencu in her recurrent playwright strategy with manipulated documentary materials,
and reproduced sometimes in a verbatim manner, are added to personal storytelling which she explored for the first time in Dear
Moldova, Can We Kiss Just a Little?, a show with non-actors/experts
of everyday life, created together with the German director Jessica
Glause. If Dear Moldova... is a special case the work with nonactors supposing the staging of their direct experience (connected
here to what it means to be gay, to have gay parents or children in
the Republic of Moldova) , this form of storytelling has appeared for
the first time at the Laundry-Theater in the show of an invited artist
(Fiction by Wojtek Ziemilski), building on the experience of actor Ion
Bor, who was a truck-driver between Moldova and Italy.
The representation of actors not only as exponents of a voice belonging to invisible citizens, as bearers of the untold stories of those who
have no power, but also as citizens themselves, with a life experience
typical for the Moldavian social context, continues an artistic project
based on the ability of theater to offer ways of societal emancipation.
For which it does not matter that it lives in the basement of a laundry
in Chiinu.

METT de dinainte de 2009). Asta, pentru c limbajul artistic i angajamentul socialpolitic al autoarei moldovence marcheaz o ruptur de for cu tradiiile nu doar
de la Chiinu, dar i din Romnia (la care scena moldoveneasc a nceput s se
raporteze aproape exclusiv dup 1991).
Tipul de art performativ al lui Esinencu intersecteaz o serie ntreag de practici
emergente actuale e infuzat de performance art (identitatea actorilor nu e niciodat dizolvat n cea a unor personaje, logica interpretrii fiind nlocuit de cea a
reprezentrii), propune metode colaborative de lucru, fr ns a fi ceea ce se numete devised theater (textul nu e niciodat generat din improvizaiile performerilor), iar autorul dramatic e i autorul montrii propriului text (un simptom
european tot mai rspndit, de la germanul Rene Pollesch la hispano-argentinianul
Rodrigo Garca).
Asta cu toate c Nicoleta Esinencu nu se consider regizoare: Niciodat n-am vrut
s fac regie i nici acum nu cred c fac regie. Tot timpul am fcut lucrurile mpreun
cu actori i artiti vizuali. [...] Niciodat nu m gndesc cum o s fac, pe scen, un
text, pentru mine e mult mai important ceea ce vreau s spun, spune ea ntr-un
interviu din 2013, pentru revista francez online Le Bruit du monde. La fel ca dimensiunea performativ a creaiilor ei scenice (care se regsete la, de pild, Rodrigo
Garca), aceast poziionare a dramaturgului ca theater-maker, realizator de spectacol, face parte dintr-un proces complex de redefinire a diviziunii muncii n teatru. Care, la Chiinu, vine n siajul statutului ambiguu al actorului (mai ales; n Moldova
neexistnd o coal de regie, regizorii snt de obicei, prin formaie, actori ei nii):
n afara sistemului teatrelor publice, nimeni nu poate supravieui exclusiv din
aceast art. Pentru unii, puini, nvmntul universitar e un debueu, pentru ceilali, varietatea ocupaiilor merge de la produse hand-made la moderarea de emisiuni TV.
Caracterul colaborativ al Teatrului-Spltorie presupune, astfel, nu doar cooperarea artistic, ci i cea legat de administrarea unui spaiu multifuncional: actorii nu
snt doar i scenografi, i tehnicieni de sunet i lumin, ci i DJ, gazde de petreceri
i organizatori de evenimente. E un model n total contradicie cu poziia clasic,
n Est, a artistului-ca-geniu i a artei ca privilegiu recunoscut i susinut social.
n American Dream, textelor ready-made (de promovare a programului Work and
Travel etc.), pe care Esinencu le alterneaz, n strategia ei dramaturgic recurent,
cu materiale documentare prelucrate, uneori preluate verbatim, li se asociaz elementele de storytelling personal prima dat explorate de ea n Drag Moldova,
putem s ne pupm puin de tot?, un spectacol cu nonactori/experi ai vieii cotidiene, creat mpreun cu regizoarea german Jessica Glause. Dac Drag Moldova... e un caz special lucrul cu nonactori presupunnd tocmai punerea n scen
a expertizei lor directe (legate, aici, de ce nseamn s fii homosexual, s ai prini
sau copii gay n Republica Moldova) , aceast form de storytelling a aprut prima
dat la Teatru-Spltorie n spectacolul unui artist invitat (Ficiune, de Wojtek Ziemilski),
pornind de la experiena unuia dintre actori, Ion Bor, ca ofer pe curse ntre Moldova i Italia.
Reprezentarea actorilor nu doar ca exponeni ai vocilor cetenilor invizibili, ca pur ttori ai povetilor nespuse ale celor lipsii de putere, ci i drept ceteni ei nii,
cu experien de via tipic pentru contextul social moldovenesc, duce mai departe un proiect artistic bazat pe capacitatea teatrului de a oferi ci de emancipare societal. Pentru care conteaz prea puin c-i triete viaa n subsolul unei spltorii
din Chiinu.

Translated by Alexandru Polgr

88

89

antidt, photoc redit: Nata Moraru

comisionat de Goethe Institut n proiectul After the Fall, aniversnd 20 de ani de la

cderea Zidului Berlinului. antidt (creat n timpul marii crize a gazului rusesc din
2008) nu aborda direct chestiunea marilor seisme politice ale anului 1989
resimite mult atenuat la Chiinu n favoarea unui subiect asupra cruia avea s
revin: intoxicarea. O metafor suprapunnd intoxicarea cu gaz celei informaionale, inclusiv n ce privete micrile geopolitice, repoziionrile imperiilor i reorientarea alianelor ntotdeauna, n deficitul corpului social, al cetenilor.
Paradoxul face c, n ciuda faptului c spectacolele nu erau prezentate n Moldova, ceea ce se juca erau relaiile sociale i drepturile civile, o miz constant, de la
A (II) Rh+ (care vorbea despre naionalism i puritatea sngelui) i Mame fr pizd
(o monodram despre nregimentarea feminitii) la radical.md (reproducnd conversaii rasiste i xenofobe, despre romni, romi, rui, ucraineni, arabi..., de pe forumuri moldoveneti). i, dei spectatorii nu aveau, n majoritatea lor, acces direct la
ceea ce se rostea pe scen, limba s-a aflat ntotdeauna n centrul btliei reprezentaionale a Nicoletei Esinencu: spectacolele ei au fost primele care au dat drept de
existen teatral vorbirii de pe strad din Moldova, amestec de dialect romnesc,
mprumuturi masive din rus i rus de maidan, exilat din spaiul public mainstream
pentru vina de a fi o form de trdare identitar (fa de romnitatea aspiraional).
A existat un factor declanator n decizia Nicoletei Esinencu de a lucra la Chiinu
previzibil, e vorba despre manifestaiile antiguvernamentale din capitala Moldovei, din aprilie 2009, care au dus, ntr-un final, la alegeri anticipate i schimbri politice radicale. Indiscutabil, data de 7 aprilie (cnd conflictele dintre protestatari i forele
de ordine au devenit violente, punctul culminant fiind incendierea Parlamentului)
funcioneaz i acum, pentru mult lume, drept moment inaugural pentru o lume
nou. ns tocmai mitizarea instantanee a acestui moment perceput drept revoluia anticomunist de care Moldova n-a avut parte n anii 90 (fosta republic sovietic s-a desprit de URSS printr-o decizie a Parlamentului, iar izbucnirea imediat
ulterioar a rzboiului din Transnistria a amnat sine die procesul comunismului)
a generat, pentru o seam de artiti (nu doar Esinencu, ci i, de pild, artistul vizual
Pavel Brila), o reacie de opoziie.
Footage e, dintre produciile lui Esinencu, cea n care adresabilitatea acioneaz cel
mai asumat distinctiv: nu e (doar) un comentariu acid despre revoluia-care-va-fitelevizat i despre producia controlat de imagini ca substitut al realitii, e (mai
ales) o reacie la cald i un semnal de alarm (relund supratema din antidt) asupra mecanismelor manipulatorii puse n micare n exact timpul desfurrii spectacolului. Footage a fost, practic, ultima colaborare ntre Nicoleta Esinencu i o parte
dintre actorii cu care lucrase pn atunci. Schimbrile politice de dup aprilie 2009
au dus, la Chiinu, la apariia spaiilor artistice alternative, noninstituionale, i la multiplicarea iniiativelor teatrale independente (iar avnd n vedere inexistena lor total anterior, chiar i faptul c au nceput s existe porniri n aceast direcie, nu neaprat
materializate i nu neaprat invadnd ara, reprezint ceva remarcabil). Acesta a fost
cocteilul complicat care a dus la deschiderea Teatrului-Spltorie, spaiul artist-run
din subsolul Spltoriei Nufrul de la Chiinu, un proiect complex dedicat artei
social-politice i colaborrilor regionale, care au adus n Moldova artiti din Romnia, Polonia, Germania...
*
Exist n mod flagrant o relaie ntre ndelungata experien artistic independent
a Nicoletei Esinencu i diversificarea peisajului scenic independent de la Chiinu.
n fapt, toi practicienii actualei scene alternative moldoveneti au lucrat, n diferite momente, cu ea de la Mihai Fusu (care le-a fost profesor unora dintre actori
i cu care Esinencu a scris, alturi de scriitorul Dumitru Crudu, prima ei pies, documentar, A aptea kafana) la Luminia cu (care a jucat constant n spectacolele

90

Dear Moldova, photoc redit: Nata Moraru

scena

Trailer), wherein they have produced a series of shows presented

almost exclusively abroad one exception to this rule being antidt
(20082009), commissioned by Goethe Institut for their After the Fall
project, an anniversary of 20 years since the dismantling of the Berlin
Wall. antidt (created during the great crisis of Russian gas in 2008)
avoided to approach directly the question of the great political seism
of the year 1989 felt less strongly in Chiinu , and focused instead
on a different topic to which she will return: intoxication. A metaphor
that juxtaposes gas intoxication with informational intoxication, including that concerning great geopolitical movements, repositioning
of empires and re-orientation of alliances always at the expense
of the social body, of the citizens.
Paradoxically, despite the fact that the shows were not presented
in Moldova, what has been played had to do with social relations and
civil rights, a constant concern from A (II) Rh+ (that spoke of nationalism and the purity of blood) and Mothers without Cunts (a monodrama about the co-optation of femininity) to radical.md (reproducing
racist and xenophobic conversations about Romanians, Roma, Russians,
Ukrainians, Arabs... picked from Moldavian internet forums). Although
most spectators would not have a direct access to what was spoken
on the stage, the language has always been at the very centre of the
representational battle fought by Nicoleta Esinencu: her shows were
the first to give a right to theatrical existence to the Moldavian street
language, a mixture of Romanian dialect with many borrowed terms
from Russian and street Russian, an idiom exiled from mainstream
public spaces for being guilty of identity treason (in the eyes of those
aspiring to Romanianness).
There has been a trigger in Nicoleta Esinencus decision for working
in Chiinu predictably, this came with the anti-government
demonstrations from the capital of Moldova in April 2009, which
have led, in the end, to early elections and radical political changes.
No doubt, 7th of April (the day when conflicts between the protestors and the police have turned violent, culminating in setting the
Parliament into fire) still functions for many as an inaugural moment
of a new world. However, it is precisely the instant turning of this
moment into a myth, a moment perceived as the anticommunist revolution that Moldova avoided in the 1990s (the former Soviet republic separated from the USSR through a decision of the Parliament,
and the outbursts following the Transnistrian war have delayed sine
die the trial of communism), that has generated for a number
of artists (not only for Esinencu, but also for the visual artist Pavel
Brila, for instance) a reaction of opposition.
Among Esinencus productions, Footage is the one in which addressability operates in a most assumedly different way: it is not (only)
an acid commentary on the revolution-to-be-televised and on the
production controlled by images as substitutes for reality, it is (especially) an instant reaction and a warning (reiterating the main topic
of antidt) about the manipulative mechanisms mobilized during the
spectacle. Practically, Footage was the last collaboration between
Nicoleta Esinenscu and some of the actors with whom she had worked
previously. The political changes following April 2009 resulted, at
Chiinu, in the emergence of alternative, non-institutional art spaces
and in the multiplication of independent theatrical initiatives (given
their total lack before, the existence of such kickoffs is quite remarkable, despite their manifestations or frequency in the country).
This has been the complicated cocktail leading to the opening of the
Laundry-Theater. An artist run space in the basement of the Nufrul
Laundry in Chiinu, the theater is a complex project dedicated to
social-political art and regional collaborations, which brought to
Moldova artists from Romania, Poland, Germany...
*
There is an obvious relationship between Nicoleta Esinencus long
independent artistic experience and the diversification of the independent theater landscape in Chiinu. In fact, all practitioners of
the current Moldavian alternative have worked, at different moments,
with her from Mihai Fusu (who was the teacher of some of the

radical.md, photoc redit: Nata Moraru

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Reflecflii despre practica artistic din Romnia:

nainte de 1989 i acum
Amy Bryzgel i Corina L. Apostol
n mod tradiional a fost rolul academiei s transmit i s dezvolte stiluri i abordri
artistice. n Europa Occidental i n America de Nord, figurile de vaz ale avangardei au devenit adesea profesorii generaiei urmtoare de artiti experimentali; de
pild, Jackson Pollock a studiat la Liga Studenilor de la Arte cu Thomas Hart Benton,
iar munca acestuia n cadrul picturii murale l-a expus pe Pollock la pictura de mari
dimensiuni; partenerul lui Pollock, Lee Krasner, studiase cu pictorul expresionist abstract Hans Hoffmann; Allan Kaprow la fel pe lng studierea compoziiei muzicale bazate pe elementul temporal cu John Cage, la New School for Social Research.
Faptul c a fost expus la ambele l-a condus pe Kaprow la elaborarea happeningului, citnd pictura-aciune a lui Pollock ca o influen de baz.1
Cu toate astea, n Europa de Est din perioada comunist, practicile de art experimental s-au dezvoltat ca o soluie pentru evitarea produciei artistice oficiale sprijinite de stat. Academia i-a pstrat angajamentul fa de tradiie, concentrndu-se pe
pricepere i tehnic mai degrab dect pe inovaie. Aa cum afirmase Kristine Stiles,
viznd chiar arta din Romnia, niciun fel de art experimental n-a fost predat n
academiile de art. Informaia a fost obinut de-a lungul generaiilor n mare parte
oral, iar schimbul de idei experimentale era periculos, pentru c fusese supravegheat
de Securitate, poliia secret din Romnia. Fiecare generaie a fost obligat s-i reinventeze arta experimental. Asta a creat dificulti pentru arta experimental n ce
privete obinerea unei densiti, greuti, graviti sau amplori istorice.2 Consecinele acestei stri de fapt fuseser semnificative nu doar pentru artitii din perioada
socialist, ci mai ales pentru generaia maturizat dup schimbarea de regim. n Europa de dup 1989, artitii din fostul Est snt activi la nivel global i li se cere s aib priceperea, cunoaterea i experiena de a concura n aceast aren, n ciuda faptului
c, prin cile oficiale de formare, au avut un acces slab la istoria global a artei.
Peste tot n Europa de Est, artitii mai tineri din ziua de azi se plng de educaia tradiional pe care le-a dat-o academia. Cnd vorbise despre predecesorii artistici ai generaiei sale, figuri precum Sanja Ivekovic i Dalibor Martinis, artista croat Sandra Sterle
afirmase c, din cauza faptului c asemenea artiti n-au devenit profesori, am pierdut ceva3, referindu-se la hiatul din cadrul cunoaterii i dezvoltrii la care duce, n
mod normal, acceptarea tradiiilor. La nceputul anilor 1990 fusese mai dificil s ajungi
la informaie, dar odat cu apariia internetului, artitii mai tineri au nceput s devin
autodidaci, nvnd on-line despre arta conceptual, performance i alte abordri
postmoderne. n unele cazuri, asta a nsemnat c artitii tineri au tiut mai multe despre desfurrile din arta contemporan din afara rii lor. De pild, cnd a fost ntre-

REFLECTIONS ON ARTISTIC PRACTICE IN ROMANIA,

AMY BRYZGELe istoric al artei care studiaz arta performance-ului n Europa de Est. Pred la Universitatea
Aberdeen. Autoare a crii Performing the East: Performance Art in Russia, Latvia and Poland since 1980 (2013)
i iniiatoare a arhivei online performingtheeast.com. n prezent pregtete o nou carte, intitulatPerformance
Art in Eastern Europe since the 1960s.

AMY BRYZGELis an art historian researching performance art in Eastern

Europe. Teaches at the University of Aberdeen, author of
Performing the
East: Performance Art in Russia, Latvia and Poland since 1980 (2013), and
creator of the online archive performingtheeast.com. Currently preparing
a booktaking a more comprehensive approach to performance art in the
region, entitledPerformance Art in Eastern Europe since the 1960s.

CORINA L. APOSTOL, liceniat n arte la Universitatea Duke, urmeaz un doctorat n cadrul Departamentului de Istoria Artei la Universitatea Rutgers, NJ. Cercetarea ei este concentrat pe arhivele artitilor din Europa
de Est i Rusia n perioada postsocialist. Beneficiind de o burs Dodge, Corina L. Apostol este asistent la Muzeul
de Art Jane Voorhees Zimmerli, unde lucreaz n cadrul Coleciei Norton i Nancy Dodge de art nonconformist din Uniunea Sovietic.

CORINA L. APOSTOL (B.A., Duke University) is a Ph.D. candidate in the

Art History Department at Rutgers University, NJ. Her research focuses on
artists archives in Eastern Europe and Russia in the post-socialist period.
As a Dodge fellow, Apostol is a graduate assistant at the Jane Voorhees
Zimmerli Art Museum, where she is working on the Norton and Nancy
Dodge Collection of nonconformist art from the Soviet Union.

92

THEN AND NOW

Amy Bryzgel and Corina L. Apostol
Traditionally, it has been the role of the academy to pass on and
develop artistic styles and approaches. In Western Europe and North
America, leading figures of the avant-garde often became the teachers of the next generation of experimental artists; for example,
Jackson Pollock studied under Thomas Hart Benton at the Art
Students League, whose work in mural painting exposed Pollock
to large-scale painting; Pollocks partner, Lee Krasner, studied under
abstract expressionist painter Hans Hoffmann; Allan Kaprow also
studied under Hofmann, in addition to studying time-based composition with John Cage at the New School for Social Research. His exposure to both led him to develop the Happening, citing Pollocks
Action Painting as a foundational influence.
In Eastern Europe, however, under communism, experimental art
practices developed as an alternative to official state-supported
artistic production. The academy maintained a commitment to tradition, focusing on skill and technique over innovation. As Kristine Stiles
has stated, specifically with regard to art in Romania, no experimental art was taught in art academies. Information from generation
to generation was obtained mostly through word-of-mouth, and then
it was dangerous to exchange experimental ideas that were vulnerable to scrutiny by Securitate, the Romanian secret police. Each generation was forced to reinvent experimental art for itself. This made
it more difficult for experimental art to gain density, weight, gravity
or momentum in history. The consequences of this have been significant not only for artists working during the socialist period, but
especially for the generation coming of age after the system change.
In post-89 Europe, artists from the former East are operating on the
global stage, and are expected to have the skills, knowledge and
experience to compete in that arena, despite having had little access
to that history through formal education.
Throughout Eastern Europe, younger artists nowadays lament the
traditional education afforded them by the academy. When speaking
about the artistic predecessors of her generation, such as Sanja
Ivekovic and Dalibor Martinis, Croatian artist Sandra Sterle stated
that because those figures didnt become teachers, we lost something, referring to the gap in knowledge and development that
passing on traditions normally affords. While in the early 1990s it
was more difficult to come by information, with the advent of the
Internet, younger artists began to self-educate, learning about conceptual art, performance, and other postmodern approaches, online.

bat dac tia despre munca experimental a unor artiti precum Ion Grigorescu i
Geta Brtescu, artista romnc Veda Popovici a rspuns c, la nceput, nu, dar cnd
a aflat de munca lor, activitatea sa a fost stimulat tiind c a existat un precedent
pentru munca pe care o fcea n istoria ei cultural proprie.4
Pe parcursul cercetrii noastre, am remarcat amndou aceste hiaturi generaionale ce vizeaz att cunoaterea istorico-artistic, ct i nelegerea sociopolitic a trecutului ndeprtat i a celui apropiat. ncercnd s pricepem mai bine natura acestor
diferene, am fcut interviuri cu patru artiti romni din generaii diferite: doi care
s-au maturizat sub dictatura lui Ceauescu, Ion Grigorescu i Lia Perjovschi, i doi
din generaia actual, Vlad Basalici i Veda Popovici. Punnd baterii similare de ntrebri fiecrui artist, sperm s punem n lumin diferenele de experien ale artitilor din generaii diferite, i nu doar n termeni de practic artistic, dar i ca nelegere
istoric. Prin includerea a dou artiste, am putut aborda chestiuni legate de feminism, un concept abia sau chiar deloc prezent n perioada socialist. Viaa din Romnia socialist a asigurat egalitate n teorie, ceea ce a nbuit dezvoltarea celui de-al
doilea val de feminism n anii 1960 i 1970. Cu toate c femeile aveau acces egal
la munc i sisteme de ngrijire a copilului, planurile megalomane ale lui Ceauescu
n privina creterii populaiei Romniei au presupus legi restrictive cu privire la avort
i contracepie, deci statul a meninut un control strict asupra corpului femeii. Mai
mult, rolurile sexuale tradiionale adesea s-au meninut i n sfera domestic, aa
c femeile purtau dubla povar de a trebui s lucreze att n afara casei, ct i s-o
gospodreasc pe aceasta. n perioada postcomunist, feminismul a devenit o
chestiune important pentru cetenii care s-au trezit ntr-o lume postfeminist fr
s fi trecut vreodat printr-o revoluie feminist.
Punnd ntrebri orientate privitoare la chestiuni precum condiiile de munc, motenirea artistic i ambientul sociopolitic, aceste interviuri doresc s identifice diferenele i asemnrile majore dintre artitii din perioada socialist i cei de dup.
Prin asta, artm att continuitatea, ct i discontinuitatea dintre practicile artistice din
Romnia de atunci i de acum.
Traducere de Alexandru Polgr

Note:
1. n 1958, el i-a scris faimosul eseu The Legacy of Jackson Pollock, n care s-a referit la aspectul temporal
al picturii lui Pollock ca fiind semnificativ, marcnd o trecere la un nou tip de a face art, una n care artistul
a abandonat pictura de dragul experienei mai viscerale a vieii reale i a aciunii.
2. Kristine Stiles, INSIDE/OUTSIDE: Balancing Between a Dusthole and Eternity, in Zdenka Badovinac (ed.),
Body and the East: from the 1960s to the Present, Ljubljana, Slovenia, Moderna Galerija, 1999, p. 19.
3. Sandra Sterle, interviu cu Amy Bryzgel, 24 aprilie 2014.
4. Veda Popovici, interviu cu Amy Bryzgel, 27 martie 2014.

In some instances, this resulted in younger artists knowing more

about developments in contemporary art outside their country than
within. For example, when asked whether she was aware of the experimental work by artists such as Ion Grigorescu and Geta Brtescu,
Romanian artist Veda Popovici replied that initially, she was not, but
when she learned about their work, it intensified her own activity,
knowing that there was a precedent for the work that was doing
within her own cultural history.
In the course of our research, we have both noted these generation
gaps in terms of both art historical knowledge and socio-political
understanding of the distant and recent past. In an effort to understand better the nature of these differences, we conducted interviews with four Romanian artists from generations: two who came of
age under Ceauescus dictatorship, Ion Grigorescu and Lia Perjovschi,
and two from the current generation, Vlad Basalici and Veda Popovici.
In posing a similar series of questions to all of the artists, we hope to
illuminate the differences in experience by artists of different generations, not only in terms of artistic practice, but also historical understanding. By including two women artists, we were able to address
the issue of feminism, a concept that was barely present, if at all,
during the socialist period. Life in socialist Romania guaranteed
equality in theory. which stifled the development of a second wave
of feminism in the 1960s and 1970s. While women had equal access
to work and readily available childcare, Ceauescus megalomaniac
plans to increase the Romanian population meant that there were
restrictive laws regarding abortion and contraception, thus the state
maintained strict control over a womans body. Furthermore, traditional gender roles were often maintained in the domestic sphere,
thus women bore a double burden of having to work outside the
home and maintain it as well. In the post-communist period, feminism has become a relevant issue for those citizens suddenly finding
themselves in a post-feminist world without ever having gone through
a feminist revolution.
In posing targeted questions related to issues such as working conditions, artistic legacy, and the social and political environment, these
interviews aim to identify key differences and similarities between
artists working under socialism and after its fall. In doing so, we
demonstrate both continuity and transformation between artistic
practices in Romania, then and now.
Notes:
1. In 1958 he penned his famous essay The Legacy of Jackson Pollock,
in which he cited the temporal aspect of Pollocks painting as significant, signifying a shift to a new type of art making, one in which the
artist abandoned painting for the more visceral experience of real life
and action.
2. Kristine Stiles, INSIDE/OUTSIDE: Balancing Between a Dusthole and
Eternity, in Zdenka Badovinac, ed., Body and the East: from the 1960s
to the Present, Ljubljana, Slovenia, Moderna Galerija, 1999, p. 19.
3. Sandra Sterle, interview with Amy Bryzgel, April 24, 2014.
4. Veda Popovici, interview with Amy Bryzgel, March 27, 2014.

Interviu cu Lia Perjovschi

LIA PERJOVSCHI, nscut n 1961 la Sibiu Academia de Arte din Bucureti, 19871993 Fondatoare i
coordonatoare a AAC/CAA (Arhiva de Art Contemporan/Centrul de Analiz a Artei), un proiect organic i
nc n proces (sub diferite nume, din 1985) i a Muzeului Cunoaterii (bazat pe interes i cercetare interdisciplinare, din 1999) i-a prezentat lucrrile n mai mult de 500 de conferine, ateliere, expoziii personale
sau de grup din toat lumea (de la Nasher Museum at Duke University Durham, NC, US, 2007, Centre Pompidou, Paris, 2007, Tate Modern, Londra, 2008, Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, 2010, documenta 13,
2012, la coli de art sau spaii alternative). Triete i lucreaz la Bucureti i Sibiu.

Care au fost unele dintre provocrile cu care te-ai confruntat ca artist n perioada de dinainte de 1989? Dar comunitatea artistic n general?

Interview with Lia Perjovschi

LIA PERJOVSCHI... born in 1961 in Sibiu, Romania... Art Academy Bucharest
19871993... Founder and coordinator of CAA/CAA (Contemporary Art
Archive and Center for Art Analysis) an organic still in process project
(under different names since 1985) and Knowledge Museum (based on
interdisciplinary interest and research since 1999)... She has shown her
works in more than 500 lectures, workshops, personal or group exhibitions around the globe (from Nasher Museum at Duke University Durham
NC US 2007, Centre Pompidou Paris 2007, Tate Modern London 2008,
Van Abbemuseum Eindhoven 2010, documenta 13 2012, to art schools,
or alternative spaces). She lives and works in Bucharest and Sibiu,

Romania.

93

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Lia Perjovschi
CAA (Contemporary Art Archive) Kit, Van Abbemuseum, 2010

94

CORUPIA.
IZOLAREA.
LIPSA DE INFORMARE, A DEZBATERILOR PROFESIONALE AUTENTICE I A
INSTITUIILOR DE ART CONTEMPORAN.
M-am lovit de corupia din sistemul educaional. Am intrat trziu, n 1987, dup
mai multe ncercri, la Academia de Art din Bucureti. Expoziiile de atunci aveau
doar titluri, nu i concepte. Nu existau criterii transparente de selecie a artitilor.
Nu m-am lovit de cenzur, ca ali artiti care expuneau atunci. Problema mea era
mai degrab ce subiect s-mi aleg. Noi nu eram antrenai s gndim, ne era antrenat doar mna ca s desenm frumos. S gndeti, s te plasezi ntr-o situaie, s
te raportezi critic la context erau probleme care nu se puneau atunci. Arta era nc
nvluit n misterul din secolul al nousprezecelea, legat de limbajul aluziv.
La ntrebarea De ce stm n academie dac-i frig?, mi s-a rspuns doar c Trebuie. Cnd a trebuit s merg n Palatul lui Ceauescu [azi Palatul Parlamentului], unde
trebuia s lucrez la un mozaic, am ntrebat De ce?. Majoritatea oamenilor de atunci
evitau s ntrebe De ce?. Eu obinuiam s ntreb colegii din diverse domenii din
jurul meu, din teatru, din jurnalism, cum i fac meseria, ce ntrebri i pun. Aveam
impresia c eram cu toii obinuii s vorbim cu dedesubturi, c nu exista claritate.
Mi se prea c oamenii n general nu aveau perspective. Era o rutin plictisitoare:
coal, serviciu, acas. Este o generaie care nici acum nu realizeaz c depindea
de ea s fac nite instituii dup revoluie. Eu mi-am schimbat strategia i practica
pentru c am preluat rolul unor instituii inexistente sau care nu funcioneaz.
Care crezi c snt principalele provocri cu care se confrunt artitii de azi?
PIAA DE ART.
LIPSA INSTITUIILOR DE ART CONTEMPORAN.
Arta din Statele Unite, n mare, este inut ntr-o etap foarte naiv sub influena pieei. n Anglia lucrurile snt puin altfel, exist finanarea instituiilor, nu numai
piaa de art. n Romnia, agenda pieei se vede, lucrrile artitilor devin inofensive. Subiectele abordate snt citite convenabil pentru oamenii cu bani. Cred c atunci
cnd te gndeti la ei mai mult dect la tine sau la reete pentru a vinde lucrri, intervine o autocenzur periculoas.
n general, exist arta angajat social, politic, de supravieuire, i arta comercial care
este ct mai neutr, pentru a nu deranja pe nimeni. Snt aproape dou lumi paralele.
Cine au fost unii dintre artitii sau intelectualii de care erai interesat cnd ai nceput s lucrezi ca artist?
NIMENI.
Din pcate, eu nu am vzut ceva care s-mi plac i s m ajute s m dezvolt
ca artist n anii 1980. Nu existau cataloage pe vremea aceea, ci doar brouri cu
nume i liste de lucrri. Cteva cri, filme i piese de teatru au avut un rol
important pentru mine n anii 1980. Cartea Alexandrei Titu, Experiment n arta
romneasc dup 1960, a aprut de abia n 1996. Pn atunci nu exista un portret ct de ct al comunitii de art. mpreun cu Dan [Perjovschi] am organizat
nite ntlniri n apartamentul nostru din Oradea, cu prieteni, colegi din jurnalistic, film, teatru, speologie.
Cum ai caracteriza scena de art din Romnia nainte de revoluie?
ANEMIC, PLICTISITOARE.
Prea c nici artitii nu credeau n ceea ce fceau. Publicul era format din artiti i
prietenii lor. La cteva galerii ale UAP care erau poziionate n centru mai intrau oameni
curioi, vznd c se strnge lume n spaiu.
Cum ai caracteriza scena de art din Romnia n prezent?
MAI DIVERS, DAR TOT MAI MULT ABANDONAT PE MNA PIEEI DE
ART.

What were some of the challenges you faced as an artist before

1989? And the artistic community in general?
CORRUPTION.
ISOLATION.
LACK OF INFORMATION AND OF TRUE PROFESSIONAL DEBATES,
AS WELL AS OF CONTEMPORARY ART INSTITUTIONS.
I had to confront the corruption in the educational system. I was
accepted late, in 1987, after many attempts, at the Bucharest Art
Academy. Exhibitions at that time had only titles, not also concepts.
There were no transparent criteria for selecting the artists. I did not
face censorship, as other artists who exhibited in that time. My problem was rather what topic to choose. We were not trained to think,
they trained only our hand, so we could draw nicely. To think, to
place yourself in a situation, to critically react to your context these
were questions that were not discussed. Art has been still covered in
the mystery of the 19th century, linked to allegoric language.
To my question: Why stay in the academy if it is so cold?, the answer
was: You must. When I had to go to work in Ceauescus Palace
[today the Palace of the Parliament], where I had to do a mosaic,
I asked: Why?. At that time, the majority of people avoided this
question. I used to ask my colleagues from different fields, from theater or journalism, about how they managed to do their jobs, about
the questions they asked. I had the impression that we were all used
to talk with hidden meanings, that it was no clarity.
It seemed to me that people in general had no prospects. It was a
boring routine: school, work, home. This is a generation that even
now does not realize that it depended on them to create institutions
after the revolution. I have changed my strategy. And my practice
also, because I took over the role played by lacking or not functioning institutions.
What are, in your opinion, the main challenges faced by current
artists?
THE ART MARKET.
THE ABSENCE OF CONTEMPORARY ART INSTITUTIONS.
Under the influence of the market, art in the US is largely kept in
a very nave stage. In England things are somewhat different, there
is such a thing as funding the institutions, and not only the art market. In Romania the agenda of the market is quite clear the works
of the artists become inoffensive. Approached topics are read in a
convenient manner for people who have money. I believe that when
you start thinking more about them or recipes for selling works than
about yourself, there intervenes a dangerous self-censorship.
In general, there is engaged social, political, survival art, and there
is commercial art, which is more neutral, for not bothering anybody.
There are almost two parallel worlds.
Who were some of the artists or intellectuals whom you have
found interesting when you started working as an artist?
NOBODY.
Unfortunately, I have not seen anything that I would like or something that would help me in developing as an artist in the 1980s.
In that time, there were no catalogues, only brochures with names
and lists of works. Some books, movies and drama plays had an
important role for me in the 1980s. Alexandra Titus book Experiment in Romanian Art Since 1960 has been published only in 1996.
Up to then, there was no usable portrait of the art community.
Together with Dan [Perjovschi], we organized some meetings in our
apartment in Oradea, with friends, colleagues in journalism, film,
theater, speleology.
How would you characterize the art scene in Romania before the
revolution?
ANEMIC, BORING.
It seemed that not even artists believed in what they were doing.
The public consisted in artists and their friends. At some galleries of
UAP [Association of Visual Artists], located downtown, a few people
would enter, but mostly because they were curious why people gathered there.

95

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Acum scena de art e mai divers, snt evenimente, proiecte, expoziii. Chiar dac
nu ajung s le vd pe toate, simt c vibreaz ceva.
Ce subiecte i s-au prut interesante i relevante nainte de 1989? i astzi?
CE ESTE ARTA I CUM S SUPRAVIEUIESC FCND ART.
Acum, ca i atunci, m gndesc la rolul artei, dar nu m intereseaz neaprat s produc o art angajat social, politic. n schimb apreciez foarte mult gesturile oneste
ale unor artiti care snt angajai social. Lipsa contextului m-a fcut s analizez i s
construiesc. Azi m consider un constructor n funcie de lucrurile care lipsesc.
Cum a afectat cderea dictaturii arta din Romnia? Cum i-a afectat pe artitii
de aici?
POZITIV; ESTE MAI MULT DECT O SCHIMBARE ESTETIC.
PE ARTITI I-A TREZIT.
Revoluia ne-a trezit. Mi se pare c am ieit ca dintr-o nchisoare, am nvat s ne
articulm ideile, s pim, s vedem mai clar contextul din jur. Nu vreau s sune
prea dramatic, dar, n cazul meu, am avut senzaia c eram inut mult sub orizont,
c nu aveam perspective.
Faptul c am nceput s cltoresc a schimbat lucrurile. La nceput m-au impresionat spaiile imense, curate, lucrrile instalate profesionist i cu respect din strintate. Dar i aceste mari expoziii, cum snt Documenta sau Bienala de la Veneia, nu
m-au convins pn la capt. De obicei mi aleg cteva lucrri din ele ca repere de
discuie.
Dup revoluie au aprut subiectele, temele, ncercri de articulare a unor probleme i a contextului. Cu toate acestea, cred c generaia de dup revoluie s-a confruntat cu lipsa unei metodologii de educaie artistic n sistemul de nvmnt.
Revoluia a influenat ceva, dar nu n structur.
A fost feminismul relevant pentru tine nainte de revoluie? Dar astzi?
FIIND FEMEIE, MI-A INFLUENAT LUCRRILE, PRACTICA ARTISTIC.
AM FOST FEMINIST FR S TIU ISTORIA MICRII. INFORMAIILE DESPRE FEMINISM AU VENIT PREA TRZIU PENTRU MINE, DE ACEEA SNT O
FEMINIST CU F MIC.
nainte de revoluie m uitam la ceea ce domina n societate, de exemplu voioia
de 8 Martie (Ziua Femeii), care era greu de nghiit. n acea zi restaurantele erau
pline de femei, iar n spaiul domestic copiii i soii splau vasele, dar doar n ziua

How would you characterize the Romanian art scene presently?

MORE DIVERSE, BUT INCREASINGLY ABANDONED TO THE ART
MARKET.
Now the art scene is more diverse, there are events, projects, exhibitions. Even though I never manage to see them all, I feel that something vibrates.
What topics you deemed interesting and relevant before 1989?
And now?
WHAT IS ART AND HOW TO SURVIVE BY DOING ART.
Now, just like then, I am concerned with the role played by art, but
I am not necessarily interested in creating a socially or politically
engaged art. Instead, I appreciate a lot honest gestures by some
artists who are socially engaged. The lack of context made me analyze and build. Today I see myself as a builder, depending on things
that are missing.
How did the fall of the dictatorship affect art in Romania? How
did it affect artists from here?
POSITIVELY; IT IS MORE THAN AN AESTHETIC CHANGE.
IT MADE ARTISTS TO WAKE UP.
Revolution woke us up. It seems to me as if we have been released
from prison; we have learned how to articulate our ideas, to move, to
see the surrounding context more clearly. I do not want it to sound
too dramatic, but in my case I had the feeling that I was kept under
the horizon, that I had no prospects.
Things changed after I started travelling. Initially, I was impressed
by the large, clean spaces, works professionally and respectfully
installed abroad. But also these large exhibitions, such as Documenta or the Venice Biennial, had something unconvincing for me. Usually, I choose some works of them as landmarks for a debate.
After the revolution, subject matters, topics, attempts at articulating
some problems and the context appeared. However, I believe that
the generation after the revolution faced the lack of a methodology
in art education. Revolution has influenced a few things, but not the
structure.
Was feminism relevant for you before the revolution? What
about today?
BEING A WOMAN, YES, IT DID INFLUENCE MY WORKS, MY ART
PRACTICE. I WAS A FEMINIST WITHOUT KNOWING THE HISTORY
OF THE MOVEMENT. INFORMATION ON FEMINISM CAME TOO
LATE FOR ME, THIS IS WHY I AM A FEMINIST WITH A SMALL F.
Before the revolution I looked at what was dominant in society, for
instance, the gaiety of 8th of March (Womens Day), which was hard

aceea. ntr-un fel am ncercat s boicotez aceast supunere; dar nu tiam profunzimile gndirii feministe, teorii, istorie.
Kristine Stiles [profesoar de istoria artei la Duke University] m-a introdus n tema
asta n 1992, iar pe urm am nceput s citesc texte n Europa, Statele Unite. Mi-au
plcut programele de womens studies i de gen din universiti. Nu am participat n expoziii feministe, pentru c nu am vrut s fiu pus ntr-un anumit sertar. Eu
m consider o cetean a acestei planete, triesc aici n Romnia, snt femeie.Toate
acestea mi articuleaz subiectivitatea, dar nu snt subiecte care domin n lucrrile mele.
n anii 1990, cnd fceam performance art, eram puin vizibil, pentru c nu bifam
ceea ce se cuta: n perioada aceea, performance-urile trebuiau s fie dure, categorice, cu femei viguroase i goale de foarte multe ori. Acestea nu erau instrumentele mele. A fost unul dintre motivele pentru care m-am concentrat pe cercetare.
Am nceput s construiesc arhiva, centrul de analiz a artei contemporane.

to swallow. In that day, restaurants were full of women, and in the

domestic sphere children and husbands would wash the dishes, but
only on that day. In a way, I tried to boycott this submission, but
I was not aware of the depth of feminist thought, theory and history.
Kristine Stiles [professor of art history at Duke University] introduced
me to this topic in 1992, and after that I have started to read texts
in Europe and the United States. I liked womens and gender studies
programs in universities. I have not participated to feminist exhibitions, because I did not want to be put in a certain box. I consider
myself a citizen of this planet, I live here in Romania, I am a woman.
All these articulate my subjectivity, but they are not predominant
topics in my works.
In the 1990s, when I was doing performance art, I had very little visibility, because I did not correspond to what was looked for: in that
time, performances had to be tough, categorical, with vigorous and
often naked women. These were not my instruments. This was one of
the reasons why I focused on research. I started building the archive,
the center for an analysis of contemporary art.

Interviu cu Veda Popovici

Interview with Veda Popovici

VEDA POPOVICI (nscut n 1986, n Romnia) lucreaz ca artist, teoretician i activist, n mare parte ntr-un
fel diletant. Printre ariile ei de interes se regsesc reprezentrile colective n art, coloniale (i) patriarhale i
caracterul primejdios/neprimejdios al artei din punct de vedere politic. Unul dintre proiectele ei cele mai recente, The Other Us A Workshop for Reinventing Identity, abordeaz n mod critic identitatea naional i ncearc
s clarifice mecanismele din fundalul acestui construct. n prezent, este doctorand la Universitatea de Art
din Bucureti, cu o cercetare despre naionalism n arta romneasc din anii 1970 i 1980. Triete i lucreaz
la Bucureti. http://veda-popovici.blogspot.ro

VEDA POPOVICI (born 1986, in Romania) works as an artist, theoretician

and activist mostly in a dilettante manner. Her interests include collective
representations in art, colonial (and) patriarchal histories and the political
harmfull-/harmlessness of art. One of her latest project, The Other Us
a Workshop for Reinventing Identity, critically addresses national identity and seeks to clarify the mechanisms behind its construction. Currently,
she is a Ph.d. Candidate at the University of Art in Bucharest with a
research on nationalism in Romanian art of the 70s and 80s. She lives
and works in Bucharest. http://veda-popovici.blogspot.ro/

Care snt provocrile cu care te confruni ca artist astzi?

Cea mai mare provocare, dup mine, e s te poziionezi coerent critic fa de
regimul politic la putere. Astzi acesta este neoliberal, iar problemele cooptrii i
aproprierii coninutului radical al artei snt foarte importante i reale. Este o provocare pentru mine s am o poziie care reuete s alunece printre degetele acestor tendine de domesticire i pacificare.
Care crezi c erau provocrile cu care se confruntau artitii nainte de 1989?
n anii 1970 si 1980 exista de asemenea un tip de apropriere i cooptare, dar
cu alte mijloace. Cred c atunci cel mai important ar fi fost ca artitii s aib o poziie

What are the challenges you face as an artist today?

The biggest challenge in my opinion is to position myself in a consistently critical manner against the political regime in power. Today,
this regime is the neoliberal one, and the questions of co-optation and
appropriation of arts radical content are very important and real. It is
a challenge for me to have a position that manages to slip through the
fingers of these tendencies of domestication and pacification.
What were in your opinion the challenges faced by artists before
1989?
In the 1970s and 1980s there was a similar type of appropriation
and co-optation, but by other means. I believe that then the most

Veda Popovici
The Wretched of the Sand, performance/photography, 2013

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scena

critic fa de ideea de naiune, care dup prerea mea era cea mai mare miz
politic a regimului de atunci. Prin aceast noiune i familia sa conceptual, populaia putea fi manipulat foarte bine. Cu toate c regimul Ceauescu a avut componente socialiste, a fost un regim naionalist i xenofob, hiperautoritar, cu un aparat
de control i supraveghere extraordinar de dezvoltat, cu care s-au confruntat i
artitii.
Cum a afectat revoluia arta din Romnia? Cum i-a afectat pe artitii de aici?
Momentul revoluiei a fost unul fondator pentru o nou subiectivitate colectiv n general, nu numai pentru artiti. Revoluia a avut o component antiautoritar fundamental. Muncitori, intelectuali, ingineri i rani, categorii care erau influenate
de regim n mod diferit, au ieit n strad cot la cot s dea jos acest sistem, pe care-l
percepeau extrem de invaziv fa de viaa lor. Aceast solidaritate a fost, din punctul meu de vedere, componenta fundamental a revoluiei i cea care, paradoxal,
a fost prima uitat n decada urmtoare.
n contextul comunitii artistice, muli s-au impregnat de acest antiautoritarism, iar
alii au fost mai degrab orientai ctre recunoaterea Occidentului. Dup revoluie,
Occidentul a artat un interes colonial ctre artitii din aceast regiune. Aceast dinamic i-a fcut pe unii s-i piard o parte din contiina i premisele critice de la care
porniser: revolta fa de autoritate, fa de nregimentare, definiii, convenii, canoane, tradiie.
Cum ai caracteriza scena de art din Romnia nainte de revoluie?
Diferenele fundamentale dintre comunitatea de artiti de acum i cea de dinainte de 1989 in foarte mult de condiii externe. Schimbrile importante pe care le-a
suferit Romnia dup revoluie nu au venit numai din spiritul antiautoritar al oamenilor, ci a fost vorba i de o bine cunoscut circumstan geopolitic.
Muli artiti ai anilor 70 i 80 erau atunci sedui de esenialismul naionalist, reproducnd discursul regimului, iar o alt parte triau hrnii de o dorin uria pentru
Occident. Cele dou etosuri nu erau neaprat contradictorii, ci puteau fi bine mpletite. Din acest punct de vedere, cred c putem vorbi despre caracterul politic
al produciei de art de atunci.
Cum ai caracteriza scena de art din Romnia n prezent?
Astzi exist o zon experimental, progresist, care sufer de precaritate i
marginalizare n sistemul de art, ca i artitii de dinainte de revoluie. O diferen
important ns este dezvrjrea fa de sistemul de art din Occident. Nu mai exist
aceeai dorin de a face parte, de a fi recunoscut n Occident aa ca n decadele
precedente. Generaia mea este mult mai critic fa de acest spaiu geopolitic. Cred
c e o schimbare important fa de anii 90, chiar dac seducia Occidentului nc
exist i funcioneaz. Comunitatea artistic cu care m identific eu este mult mai
implicat n contextul local. Este important, firete, s lucrm i cu tovarele din
Occident, s schimbm idei i experiene, dar pn la urm revenim acolo unde
munca noastr poate conta cel mai mult. E un semn de maturitate, cred c epoca
de aur a altermodernitii i a artistului-nomad e apus. Aceste proiecte locale poate
c nu snt vzute ca nite realizri majore n afara granielor, dar snt foarte relevante n contextul specific de aici.
De asemenea, cred c ntre artitii tineri din ziua de azi exist o tendin ctre crearea de comuniti i colective strategice, n faa tendinei de atomizare i de individualism radical sub capitalismul neoliberal. Eu m consider comunitarian din punct
de vedere politic. Nu cred c exist un adevr politic anume la care pot ajunge de
una singur i toate adevrurile mele le construiesc n funcie de comunitatea din
care fac parte.
Cine au fost unii dintre artitii sau intelectualii de care erai interesat cnd ai nceput s lucrezi ca artist?

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important thing would have been for artists to have a critical position against the notion of nation, which, in my view, was the biggest
political stake of the regime in that period. Through this notion and
its conceptual family, the population has been manipulated very well.
Despite the fact that the Ceauescu regime had socialist components, this was a nationalist and xenophobic regime, hyper-authoritarian, with an extraordinarily developed apparatus of control and
surveillance, which artists also had to face.
How did revolution affect art in Romania? How did it affect artists
from here?
The moment of the revolution was a foundational one for a new
collective subjectivity in general, and not only for artists. The revolution had an anti-authoritarian fundamental component. Workers,
intellectuals, engineers and peasants, categories differently influenced by the regime, went out in the streets shoulder to shoulder in
order to end this system, which they have perceived as being extremely invasive as regards their life. This solidarity has been, from where
I am standing, the fundamental component of the revolution and the
one that, paradoxically, has been the first to be forgotten in the next
decade.
In the context of artistic community, many people were permeated
by this anti-authoritarianism, while others were oriented rather
towards recognition from the West. After the revolution, the West
has showed a colonial interest towards artists in the region. This
dynamics made some people to partially lose the critical awareness
and premises from which they started: revolt against authority, regimentation, definitions, conventions, canons, tradition.
How would you characterize the art scene in Romania before the
revolution?
The fundamental differences between the art community now
and before 1989 have to do very much with external conditions.
The important changes that Romania underwent after the revolution
sprung not only from the anti-authoritarian spirit of the people, but
it was also a well-known geopolitical circumstance.
Many artists from the 1970s and 1980s were seduced by the nationalist essentialism, reproducing the discourse of the regime, and a different part of them were nourished by a huge desire towards the West.
These two types of ethos were not necessarily in contradiction; it was
possible to entwine them. From this point of view, I believe that we
can speak of the political character of art production in that period.
How could you characterize the present art scene in Romania?
There exists today an experimental, progressive area, which suffers of precariousness and marginalization within the art system, just
as artists before the revolution. An important difference is the disenchantment with the Western art system. One cannot find the same
desire of being part of or of being recognized by the West as in the
previous decades. My generation is much more critical of this geopolitical space. I think this is an important shift in comparison to the
1990s, even though the seduction of the West still exists and functions. The art community with which I identify myself is much more
involved in the local context. It is important, of course, to work with
our female comrades in the West, to exchange ideas and experiences, but in the end we come back to where our work can count
most. It is a sign of maturity, for I believe that the golden age of
altermondialization and nomad-artists is over. These local projects
are perhaps not seen abroad as some great achievements, but they
are very relevant in the specific context from here.
Similarly, I believe that among young artists from today there is a
tendency towards creating strategic communities and collectivities,
when confronted with the tendency towards atomization and individualism under neoliberal capitalism. Politically, I see myself as a communitarian. I do not believe that there is a certain political truth that
I can reach by myself, and I build all of my truths according to the
community of which I am a part.
Who were some of the artists or intellectuals that you were interested in when starting to work as an artist?

Dada, clar, e un reper fundamental. Mi se pare important c dada a fost o micare internaional, care a funcionat n mai multe contexte, dizolvnd anumite dihotomii ntre Est i Vest, n ciuda diferenelor economice, culturale i a imperialismului
de atunci. Situaionismul este o alt form cultural i politic care mi se pare relevant. Mai ales dac ne gndim la rolul situaionitilor n micrile sociale din 1968
69 din Frana, la angajamentul lor politic.
n contextul romnesc, mi se pare interesant critica de art postmodern din anii
1970, care este legat de subiectul disertaiei mele la Universitatea de Arte din Bucureti. Cred c era o perioad bogat n afecte, idei, colaborri ntre artiti i intelectuali, care simeau c edific ceva important. Cred c generaia anilor 90 i 2000
a dus mai departe nite idei progresiste care fuseser sdite n anii 1970. n special
zona conceptual, politic, de comentariu social artiti precum Lia Perjovschi, Dan
Perjovschi, Mona Vtmanu, Florin Tudor, Vlad Nanc, tefan Tiron, Alexandra
Croitoru. Eu simt c vin n continuarea a ceea ce au nceput ei.
Ce subiecte i se par interesante i relevante astzi?
n primul rnd, funcia artei n coordonatele sociopolitice mai mari ale capitalismului. Snt n cutarea de noi instrumente de limbaj artistic care s aib un potenial politic emancipator i antiautoritar, subversiv. Asta-i provocarea. Arta indic
sistemului capitalist neoliberal principalele caracteristici ale unei contiine critice subversive, iar acesta caut s neutralizeze aceast contiin.
Pentru mine este important s m definesc ca o artist angajat, politic, n contextul de aici i n cel internaional. M intereseaz n special mecanismele contemporane ale capitalismului colonial i ale patriarhatului, iar, n mod ideal, arta mea servete
ca un instrument pentru a critica aceste sisteme de opresiune. Cred c artitii ar
trebui s recupereze zona agitaional i cea angajat n art, care din pcate snt
demonizate.
Este feminismul relevant pentru tine i practica ta artistic?
Feminismul i micarea queer snt viziuni colective politice cu care m identific. Ambele corespund unor micri internaionale, iar acest lucru e deseori pierdut din vedere. Exist prejudecata, reprodus global, conform creia numai n spaiul
Occidentului se nasc micri antiautoritare de eliberare, revoluionare, progresiste, i care, la rndul lor, snt foarte vizibile doar acolo.
Unii artiti cred c funcia artei i practica lor nu au legatur cu genizarea, c este
deasupra acestor categorii. Pot empatiza cu aceast poziie doar dintr-o dorin pentru o lume post-gen. Problema este c aceast lume ideal unde nu exist discriminare i inegalitate ntre genuri este foarte departe de noi. Strategic cred c are
mult sens s lucrezi cu genul i sexualitatea n calitate de constructe. Trebuie s ne
construim insulele noastre de libertate n contextul nostru, fr a legitima hegemonia patriarhal existent.

Dada, clearly, is a fundamental landmark. I think it is important

that Dada has been an international movement, which has functioned
in many contexts, dissolving certain dichotomies between East and
West, in spite of economic and cultural differences, and of the imperialism of that time. Situationism is another political and cultural
form that I find relevant. Especially if we think about the role played
by situationists in the social movements in France in 1968 1969 and
their political engagement.
In the Romanian context, I find interesting postmodern art criticism
in the 1970s, which is the topic of my dissertation at the Bucharest Art
University. I believe that this was a period reach in affects, ideas, collaborations among artists and intellectuals, who had the feeling of
building something important. I also believe that the 1990s and 2000s
generation had developed certain progressive ideas that were planted
in the 1970s. Especially the conceptual, political and social commentary part artists such as Lia Perjovschi, Dan Perjovschi, Mona
Vtmanu, Florin Tudor, Vlad Nanc, tefan Tiron, Alexandra Croitoru.
I feel that I come in the continuation of what they have started.
What topics seem interesting and relevant for you today?
First of all, the function of art in the larger sociopolitical coordinates of capitalism. I search for new instruments of artistic language,
which would have an emancipative, anti-authoritarian and subversive
political potential. This is the challenge. Art points out to the neoliberal capitalist system the main characteristics of subversive critical
consciousness, and the system tries to neutralize this consciousness.
For me, it is important to define myself as an engaged, political artist
both locally and internationally. I am interested especially in the contemporary mechanisms of colonial capitalism and of the patriarchy,
and, in reality, my art serves as an instrument for criticizing these
systems of oppression. I believe that artists should recuperate the
area of agitation and engagement in art, which are unfortunately
demonized.
Is feminism relevant for you and your artistic practice?
Feminism and the queer movement are collective political visions
with which I identify. Both correspond to international movements,
and this is often lost from sight. There is the globally reproduced
prejudice according to which anti-authoritarian movements of emancipation, revolutionizing, progressive, very visible in the West, can be
born only in that space.
Some artists believe that the function of art and their practice have
no relationship with genderization, that they are above these categories. I can empathize with this position only from the point of view
of desire for a post-gender world. The problem is that this ideal world,
where there is no discrimination and inequality between genders, is
very remote from us. Strategically, I think that it makes more sense
to work with gender and sexuality than with other constructs. We
must build our islands of freedom in our own context, without legitimizing the existing patriarchal hegemony.

Interview with Ion Grigorescu

Interviu cu Ion Grigorescu

ION GRIGORESCU, nscut n 1945 la Bucureti, unde triete i lucreaz, este o figur iconic a performanceului i artei conceptuale din Romnia. La sfritul anilor 70, Grigorescu a nceput s-i filmeze performanceurile, care se concentrau pe aciuni ritualizate n jurul corpului su. Lucrrile sale au fost achiziionate de colecii
precum MoMA New York, Muzeul de Art Modern din Varovia, MNAC Bucureti sau Kontakt i au fost
prezentate n nenumrate expoziii n Romnia i n lume.

Care au fost unele dintre provocrile i obstacolele cu care v-ai confruntat ca artist
nainte de 1989? Ce subiecte vi s-au prut relevante nainte de 1989?
n anii 70 am nceput s fac nite expoziii cu fotografii acas, cu lucrrile mele
i ale unor artiti plastici, critici de art, compozitori, care tiam c fac i fotografie

ION GRIGORESCU, born in 1945 in Bucharest where he lives and works,

is an iconic figure of performance and conceptual art in Romania. By the
end of the 70s Grigorescu began recording his performances, which
concentrated on ritualized actions around his body. His works have been
acquired by collections such as MoMA New York, Museum of Modern Art
Warsaw, MNAC Bucharest or Kontakt, and have been shown extensively
around the world.

Which were some of the challenges and obstacles you confronted as an artist before 1989? What topics were relevant to you before
1989?
In the 1970s, I have started making some exhibitions with photographs in my apartment, exhibiting my works and those by visual
artists, art critics, composers about whom I knew they have also
made classic photography. These exhibitions had not taken place

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clasic. Aceste expoziii nu erau n cadrul Uniunii Artitilor, care refuza s ne ofere
o sal pentru a arta aceste lucrri. Oficial, ei motivau c nu au secie de fotografie, dar am aflat c ziceau direct: Asta nu e art. Art erau pictura, sculptura, arta
fcut de mn, care excludea aparatura i reproducerea mecanic. Aa c am nceput s fac aceste expoziii n cas, nti de fotografii, iar pe urm am fost captivat de
aparatul de film i de casetofon. Obinuiam s nregistrez discuii, ntlniri prieteneti
cu ali artiti sau pe mine nsumi, fr a avea un program anume. Era o form de
autoeducare. Din motive economice apariia crizei de film, de materiale fotografice, a importurilor , dar i practice nu vroiam s fac numai genul sta de ncercri
sau s le duc pn la capt , am abandonat, nu am mai fcut.
n 1974 am avut o lucrare ntr-o expoziie denumit Arta i Istoria: era o fotografie fcut dup televizor cnd se artau demonstraiile de la 23 August, cu citate din
Ceauescu din Scnteia. Scopul meu era s pun la ncercare textul lor pe care eu
l foloseam cum vroiam, s pun n eviden textul lui Ceauescu despre ct s-a sacrificat poporul romn pentru aa-zisele realizri actuale, despre revoluia cultural care
va urma. Mi-am dat seama c comisia de cenzur nu avea cum s se ating de lucrarea asta. Dar imediat dup aceea, a devenit interzis ca artitii s scoat citate i s
le foloseasc cum vroiau ei n lucrri. Pe urm, n anii 1980 nu mai era admisibil
nici mcar s foloseti cuvinte imprimate, doar imagini.
La sfritul anilor 70 apruser greutile pe care toat lumea le discuta: statul la coada
infernal dup produse alimentare, umblatul cu tramvaiul sau cu autobuzul nghesuit dimineaa, supravieuirea pe scara blocului oamenii locuiau nuntru ngheai
sau prea nclzii. Mie mi s-a prut c toate greutile astea erau legate de conceptul de art ntru totul. n perioada asta m plictisisem de restul genurilor artistice,
film, fotografie, i m gndeam la o nou variant performance; n vremea aceea
nu tiam denumirea aceasta, terminologia a venit mai trziu.
n anii 80 era foarte periculos s obii dovezi fotografice despre demolrile care
aveau loc n Bucureti i despre antiere. Astzi exist o documentaie, ce-i drept
incomplet, dar exist.
Cine au fost unii dintre artitii sau intelectualii de care erai interesat cnd ai nceput s lucrai ca artist?
Cnd am nceput s lucrez la sfritul anilor 60, surse de informaii despre art
existau la biblioteci, Biblioteca Uniunii Artitilor, Biblioteca Muzeului Naional de Art,
revista Arta. Aveam access i la reviste internaionale: Artforum, Kunstforum, Art and
Artists Guide. Acestea erau oarecum la zi, iar aici, n periferie, aproape nu mai conta
decalajul ntre ce se ntmplase i ce era reprezentat n revist. mi aduc aminte c
eram interesat de nite artisti care au lucrat n art contemporan, urmrind ce se
ntmpl n strintate: Paul Neagu, care a avut o expoziie nainte de a emigra n
Marea Britanie, sau Iulian Mereu, care era i redactor la revista Arta. n perioada aceea aveam nite ncercri izolate de a face ceva, fr s discut cu ali artiti, fr
s ne verificm unul prin cellalt. Nu expuneam i nu aveam ceva n comun dect
foarte puin i vag cu aceti artiti.
Care snt pentru dumneavoastr valoarea i semnificaia colaborrilor cu ali artiti?
n anii 70 m ntlneam cu ali artiti i improvizam. Nimeni nu era silit s fac
ceva, totul era foarte spontan, nici mcar nu ne propuneam s facem art. Ne reuneam mai degrab din plcerea de a ne revedea sau de a ne plimba undeva, de a
vedea virtuile unui peisaj mpreun. n 1978 foarte muli artiti cu care ncepusem
aceste lucruri au emigrat i am rmas singur s lucrez. De atunci nu am mai reuit
s mi refac prietenii aa de strnse. n acelai an mi-am dat demisia de la Casa Pionierilor, iar n decada urmtoare m-am rupt complet de scena de art din Bucureti. M-am retras din viaa public a galeriilor i am plecat n antiere de restaurare
la biserici. Aa mi-am ctigat i existena atunci, nu din art.

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within the Artists Association, which refused to give us a hall for

showing such works. Officially, they explained this through the fact
that they did not have a photography department, but I found out
that they declared directly: This is not art. Art was painting, sculpture, handmade artifacts that excluded devices and mechanic reproduction. This is how I started to make these exhibitions at home,
initially with photographs, and later I have been captivated by the
film camera and the tape recorder. I used to record conversations,
friendly meetings with other artists or simply myself without a specific program. It was a form of self-teaching. For economic reasons
the emergent crisis of rolls, photo materials and imports , but also
for practical reasons I did not want to make only this type of essays,
or to complete them, for that matter I decided to abandon this,
I simply stopped doing it.
In 1974, I had a piece at an exhibition called Art and History:
it was a photograph of a television screen showing the August 23
demonstrations, juxtaposed with quotations from Ceauescus
speech published in the Scnteia magazine. My goal was to test this
text, which I used freely, to emphasize Ceauescus text about how
much sacrifice the Romanian people has brought for the current
achievements and about the coming cultural revolution. I have realized that the censorship cannot touch this work. But immediately
after, there come a prohibition for artists to extract quotations and
to use them as they wanted in their works. Later, in the 1980s, it was
not even possible to use printed words, only images.
At the end of the 1970s, the difficulties discussed by everybody have
appeared: the infernal lines for food products, travelling on fully
packed trams and buses in the mornings, surviving on staircases
people would live inside their frozen or overheated apartments.
To my mind, all these difficulties seemed to be completely linked
with the concept of art. In this period I got bored with the other
artistic genres, film, photography, and I was thinking about a new
version performance; at that time I did not know it was called like
that, terminology came later.
In the 1980s it was dangerous to obtain photographic evidence of
demolitions taking place in Bucharest and of construction sites. Today,
there is a documentation incomplete, it is true , but there is one.
Who were some of the artists or intellectuals you were interested in when you started to work as an artist?
When I started to work in the late 1960s, there were sources of
information on art in libraries, the Library of the Artists Associations,
the Library of the National Art Museum, the Arta magazine. I could
also access international journals: Artforum, Kunstforum and Art and
Artists Guide. These were in a certain sense up to date, and here, at
the periphery, the distance between developments in the art world
and their representations in journals was almost insignificant. I recall
that I was interested in some artists working in contemporary art
and following the developments from abroad: Paul Neagu, who had
an exhibition before emigrating to the UK, or Iulian Mereu, who
was also an editor of the Arta magazine. At that time, I had some
isolated attempts at doing something, without discussing with other
artists, without checking on each other. We did not exhibit and had
in common only very little and very vague things.
What are for you the value and the significance of collaborating
with other artists?
In the 1970s, I met other artists and we would improvise.
Nobody was forced to do anything. Everything was very spontaneous. We did not even set as a goal to ourselves to make art.
We have met rather because of the pleasure of seeing each other,
of taking a walk somewhere, of examining the virtues of a landscape
together. In 1978, many artists with whom I have started these things
emigrated and I was left to work alone. Since then I have never managed to create such strong friendships again. The same year I quit
my position at the Pioneers House, and in the next decade I isolated
myself completely from the Bucharest art scene. I withdrew from the
public life of galleries and went to work on church restoration sites.

n prezent consider c e prea trziu pentru mine s am colaborri, pe de o parte

din cauza diferenei de vrst. E o ruptur de generaie. Tinerii care ar putea face
ceva au o atitudine prea respectuoas i m plaseaz undeva prea sus. La Bienala
de la Veneia din 2011 am lucrat cu Anetta Mona Chia i Lucia Tkcov pentru
pavilionul Romniei, dar ideea de a expune mpreun a fost a curatorilor. ntr-adevr,
pentru mine din interior era greu de vzut legtura, dar din exterior, formal, mergea. Am lucrat i cu Ion Bitzan la ediia din 1997 a Bienalei, tot n pavilionul Romniei. Atunci am ncercat amndoi s mimm obiecte de art veche, dar a fost o
nereuit mi-am dat seama c nu e ce trebuia n contextul de acolo. Am mai lucrat
cu Nicu Ilfoveanu, un artist care avea mijloace fotografice i o bun nelegere a ceea
ce vroiam s realizez, dar nu a considera-o ca pe o colaborare n adevratul sens
al cuvntului.

Ion Grigorescu
Untitled, [The Romanians have lied he said that we have, we can and we dont
lack anything to be Europeans, that we can do business, that COMMUNISM
didnt glue itself to us, that we were not and we are not SECURITI/Secret Police],
drawing, 1989

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scena

Cum a afectat cderea dictaturii arta din Romnia? Cum i-a afectat pe artitii
de aici?
n toamna lui 1989 eram plecat la lucru pe un antier la o biseric n Mehedini. Acolo ascultam Europa Liber, ca i ali preoi i rani, dei nu discutam ntre
noi ce aflam de la radio. Aa, n decembrie am aflat de Timioara i m-am dus imediat la Bucureti. Am prins perioada cnd se trgea cu gloane n populaie i cu tunuri
prin ferestrele Muzeului de Art. Dei eram n mulime, n momentele acelea eram
mai mult ngrijorat pentru familia mea, nu aveam intenia de a intra n Comitetul
Central aa cum au fcut alii. M-am gndit foarte puin la art i nu am fcut fotografii atunci, dei erau evenimente care meritau imprimate. Simeam c era o fervoare de participare, nu de nregistrare distanat, la o parte de evenimente.
n primul salon de art liber de la evenimentele din decembrie 1989, nu a fost
nicio lucrare despre revoluie sau despre faptul c oamenii au murit i s-au mpucat
ntre ei. Aproape numai peisaje i naturi moarte, cum era nainte de revoluie. Cred
c asta arat i cultura unui popor. n perioada aceea am expus o lucrare care avea
o pentagram cu un ap n mijloc n loc de om, centrul universului; mprejur am
scris Romnul a minit, laolalt cu nite explicaii de la Petre Roman [prim-ministrul Romniei ntre 1989 i 1991] despre adioul fa de Securitate i construirea capitalismului n continuare. Pentru mine aceste explicaii erau nite minciuni.
n anii 1990, stimulai de apariia Centrului Soros, artitii i teoreticienii au nceput
s formeze nite arhive i s publice nite studii despre generaia precedent care
erau foarte bune. Au nceput s vin i cercettori interesai din afar. n acelai timp,
am observat c muli tineri artiti m luau (nu numai pe mine) drept un model, un
disident cu o atitudine exemplar. Mi-am dat seama c trebuie s fac expoziii n
care s art care e adevrul, s vorbesc despre compromisuri, despre faptul c viaa
de zi cu zi nu era numai cu dinii ncletai fa de dictatura pe care eu mi-o nchipuiam fr capt.
Care credei c snt principalele provocri cu care s-au confruntat artitii dup
1989? Dar n prezent?
Artitii romni aveau nc dup revoluie UAP [Uniunea Artitilor Plastici]
drept coloan vertebral, adic fr ea nu ar fi putut exista i curnd au vzut cum
coloana li se subiaz i odat cu marile industrii averile Uniunii dispar i ele. Ca
urmare, o parte au cutat independena, restul au pierdut ateliere, au srcit, continund s fie membri ai UAP. Cam prin 199495, Ministerul Culturii a fcut ultimele achiziii. Saloane naionale nu s-au mai fcut, deci ultimele sperane ca statul s
mai hrneasc artitii au pierit. Pn i studiile la Academie, devenit apoi Universitate de Arte, i-au pierdut importana. Artitii erau obinuii s lucreze i s vnd
la negru i s-au dezvoltat n capitalism cte puin.
ntre tineri au nceput s se nchege noiunile de curator, galerist, ceea ce i-a ajutat s se afirme i s gseasc unde s se exprime n public. Cei mai n vrst s-au
hrnit cu sperana ca Ministerul s deschid un muzeu i s li se recunoasc meritele istorice. Muzeul [MNAC Muzeul Naional de Art Contemporan] a aprut
foarte greu [n 2004], dup mult ateptare i bineneles fr consultri. Tot generaia nou a fost beneficiara muzeului, a revistelor de art i a galeriilor care, treptat, au i dus n strintate marfa. Abia acum civa ani s-a echilibrat puin situaia,
dup ce au aprut casele de licitaie, care, parc rspunznd vechilor colecionari
ai artei anilor 6070, n special colecionari de pictur, nu att au refcut cota artitilor n vrst, ct au mobilizat marfa acumulat, imobilizat n ateliere. Nu cota, spun,
pentru c deja la data aceea erau deja lansai tineri noi, pictori din Cluj (absolveni
ai Institutului de acolo), lansai n strintate, poate ar fi interesant de studiat comparativ vrsta i aspiraiile politice i estetice ale binefctorilor mecena la est i la vest
de noi.

102

This is how I earned my living at the time, not from art.

Presently, I consider that it is too late for me to work in collaboration, partially because of the age difference. There is a generation
break. Youngsters who could do something are too respectful and
place me somewhere too high. At the Venice Biennial in 2011, I have
worked with Anetta Mona Chia and Lucia Tkcov for the Romanian
Pavilion, but the idea of exhibiting together came from the curators.
Indeed, for me it was difficult to see the internal link, but externally,
formally, it was alright. I worked with Ion Bitzan for the Romanian
Pavilion of the 1997 edition of the same biennial. At that point we
both tried to imitate old art objects, but it was a failure I realized
this was not what was needed in that context. I have also worked
with Nicu Ilfoveanu, an artist who had the photographic means and
a good comprehension of what I wanted to work on, but I would not
see it as collaboration in the very sense of the term.
How did the fall of the dictatorship affect Romanian art? How did
it affect artists around here?
In the autumn of 1989, I was gone to work on a church restoration site in Mehedini county. There I have listened to radio Free
Europe, as other people, priests and peasants, did, even though we
never talked about what we were listening on the radio. In December I heard about Timioara, and I went to Bucharest immediately.
I arrived at the moment when they were shooting at people and
canons were placed in the windows of the Art Museum. Although
I was in the crowd, in those moments I was more concerned with my
family, I did not have the intention of entering the Central Committees building, as other people did. I was thinking very little about
art, and I did not take any pictures, although these were events
worth of recording. I felt that it was a fever of participation, and not
of aloof recording, remote from the events.
In the first free art salon since the events in December 1989, there
was not a single work on revolution, or about the fact that people
have died and have shot one another. There were almost exclusively
landscapes and still lifes, just as before the revolution. I believe this
also demonstrates the culture of a people. At that time, I exhibited
a work with a pentagram having a goat in its middle instead of a man,
the center of the universe; around this image I wrote the words
The Romanians have lied, together with some explanations by
Petre Roman [the prime minister of Romania between 1989 and
1991] about the farewell to Securitate and the building of capitalism.
For me, these explanations were only lies.
In the 1990s, stimulated by the establishment of the Soros Center,
artists and theorists have started to build archives and publish studies about the previous generation, materials that were very good.
Some interested researchers from abroad started coming. At the
same time, I have noticed that many youngsters took me (and not
only me) as a model, a dissident with an exemplary attitude. I realized that I must create exhibitions in which I can show the truth,
speak about the compromises, about the fact that everyday life
was not only about clenching our teeth against a dictatorship that
I believed to be endless.
What are in your opinion the main challenges faced by artists
after 1989? And what about the present times?
After the revolution, Romanian artists still had as a spine the
UAP [Uniunea Artitilor Plastici the Association of Visual Artists],
that is, without this institution they could not exist, and very early
they have seen how their spine becomes less and less, and with
the disappearance of grand industries, the money of UAP disappears, too. Consequently, some searched for independence, others
lost their studios, became poor, continuing to be members of UAP.
Around 19941995, the Ministry of Culture made its last acquisitions.
National salons ceased to be organized; therefore, the last hopes
that the state will feed artists perished. Even education at the Academy, which became the Art University, lost its importance. Artists
were used to work and sell behind the counter, and they developed
a little under capitalism.

Among youngsters, concepts such as curator and gallery owner

started coagulating, which helped them in affirming themselves
and in finding a place of public expression. The older ones have
nourished the hope that the Ministry will open a museum and their
historical merits will be recognized. The Museum [MNAC Muzeul
Naional de Art Contemporan National Museum of Contemporary Art] has appeared through great hardships [in 2004], after
many expectations and without public consultations. Once again,
it was the new generation that has benefited from the Museum, art
journals and galleries, which, gradually, have also taken the merchandise abroad. Only recently the situation has become more balanced
only, after the appearance of auction houses that, as if in response to
old collectors of art from the 1960s and 1970s, especially collectors
of paintings, have somewhat changed things. Not that they would
regain the market value of old artists, but at least they mobilized the
accumulated merchandize staying unmoved in studios. Not the market value, I say, because at that point, new artists have already
emerged, painters from Cluj (graduates of the Art Academy), launched
abroad. It would be perhaps interesting to study comparatively the
age and the aesthetical and political aspirations of art benefactors
in the East and the West.
It is funny, or frightening, that, in the compulsory wealth declarations by politicians and state officials, one can find certain quantities
of art; in coffee shops and restaurants, in banks and private institutions one can only see art of an average quality, an unhistorical
modernism, especially painting. Some institutions in Strasbourg
or Brussels played the role of benefactors blindly, choosing European
topics that Bucharest has not yet developed (minorities, identities).
More than under socialism, artists had to learned independence
from sources pertaining to art administration. Many times they had
to set a price, and when artists set a price, they know with whom
they shook hands and what kind of art they have made. Participation
in different artistic contexts, where galleries have a different age,
and money has a different influence, has acquainted us with an
almost military rigor. Our domestic indecision is still poetic! What
arguments are able to command there? We should wait for our
market value to grow!

Interview with Vlad Basalici

VLAD BASALICI is visual artist and performer, he lives and works in
Bucharest and London. In his projects he researches the modes in which
we perceive temporality. His works, individual or realized in different collaborations, have been presented in institutions or contexts such as: the
Festival eXplore Bucharest, Alternative Film/Video Festival Belgrade,
Dansehallerne Copenhague, Alert Studio Bucharest, Paintbrush Factory
Cluj, Center for Visual Introspection Bucharest, National Dance Center
Bucharest, tranzit.ro/ Bucharest, Brut Vienna.

Vlad Basalici
Black Space, performance, photograph by Iulius Costache, Atelierul de Producie, Bucharest, 2010

What are the challenges you face as an artist today?

My objectives are to be rigorous in what I am doing, to complete
projects I took on, regardless whether they are big or small. I also
desire to survive through what I do as an artist. Now I work and live
between London and Bucharest. I was active in several contexts with
foreign artists, where I received more support from Romania than
what they received from their own countries. This does not mean
that here one is not in a precarious condition as an artist, but in comparison to what happens in other parts of the world, things are more
nuanced.
Generally, artists trying to live of their art depend on certain structures. I believe it is important to set yourself clear rules, connected
to how much you are ready to negotiate. There were situations when
I was part of a larger project, where I had to renounce certain things
for the sake of functioning. There also were situations I entered in
a certain context, which later gradually changed. I realized that my
piece would have not function in the new situation, and I decided to

103

scena

Nostim sau terifiant este faptul c n declaraiile de avere ale demnitarilor statului
se regsesc cantiti de art; n cafenele i restaurante, n bnci i instituii private
vedem, n mare, doar art de calitate medie, un modernism anistoric, n special pictur. Cteva instituii de la Strasbourg sau Bruxelles au fcut i ele mecenat fr
alegere, pe teme europene pe care Bucuretiul nu i le fcuse nc (minoriti, identitate). Mult mai mult dect n socialism, a trebuit s se nvee independena de sursele de oblduit arta. De mult mai multe ori a trebuit s fie pus preul, iar cnd un
artist pune preul e contient cu cine a dat mna i ce fel de art a fcut. Participarea n alt context artistic, unde galeriile au alt vrst i banii alt fluen, ne-a fcut
cunotin cu rigori aproape militare. Pi indecizia de acas este nc poetic! Cu
ce argumente s comanzi acolo? S ateptm s ne mai creasc cota!

Interviu cu Vlad Basalici

VLAD BASALICI este artist vizual i performer, triete i lucreaz n Bucureti i Londra. n proiectele sale cerceteaz modurile n care percepem temporalitatea. Lucrrile sale, individuale sau realizate n diverse colaborri
au fost prezentate la Festivalul eXplore Bucureti, la Alternative Film/Video Festival Belgrad, Dansehallerne,
Copenhaga, Alert Studio Bucureti, Fabrica de Pensule Cluj, Centrul de Introspecie Vizual Bucureti, Centrul Naional al Dansului Bucureti, tranzit.ro/Bucureti, Brut Viena.

Care snt provocrile cu care te confruni ca artist astzi?

Obiectivele mele snt s fiu consecvent n ceea ce fac i s duc la capt proiectele pe care mi le-am propus, fie c snt mari sau mai restrnse. mi doresc i s
supravieuiesc prin ceea ce fac ca artist. Acum lucrez i locuiesc ntre Londra i Bucureti. Am fost activ n mai multe contexte cu artiti strini, n care am primit mai mult
sprijin din Romnia dect ei din rile lor. Asta nu nseamn c aici nu eti ntr-o situaie
precar ca artist, dar, comparativ cu ceea ce ntmpl n alte pri, lucrurile snt mai
nuanate.
n general, artitii care ncearc s supravieuiasc din arta lor depind de anumite
structuri. Mi se pare important s i stabileti nite reguli, legate de ct eti dispus
s negociezi. Au existat situaii cnd am fcut parte dintr-un proiect mai mare, unde
a trebuit s las de la mine pentru ca lucrurile s funcioneze. Au existat i situaii n
care am intrat ntr-un anumit context care treptat s-a modificat. Mi-am dat seama
c lucrarea mea nu ar mai fi funcionat n noua situaie, i atunci m-am retras. ncerc
s evit poziia de victim. Dac proiectul meu se poate face, bine, dac nu, fiecare merge pe drumul lui.
Care crezi c erau provocrile cu care se confruntau artitii nainte de 1989?
Cred c i artitii se loveau atunci de probleme similare: s supravieuiasc i
s fie consecveni n ceea ce fceau, dar condiiile i presiunile erau altele atunci. n
anii 1980 puteai s faci ceea ce vroiai tu n atelier, dar nu puteai s ari lucrrile unui
public larg. i atunci trebuia s faci o alegere, dac continui s lucrezi aa cum crezi
tu, neateptnd s se ntmple ceva.
Acum exist o speran c o s se ntmple ceva cu ceea ce faci. Atunci cred c lucrurile erau mult mai dificile. Accesul la public era restricionat. Nu aveai acces liber la
spaiul public. i acum snt nite limite: ori te pliezi, ori acionezi de unul singur. Uneori
ai impresia c foarte multe situaii snt permeabile, dar cnd vrei s faci ceva i dai
seama c nu e aa de uor. Consecinele atunci ns puteau s fie mult mai grave
dect acum.
Cum ai caracteriza scena de art din Romnia nainte de revoluie?
Am citit recent cartea Alexandrei Titu despre perioada asta, Experiment n
arta romneasc dup 1960. n anii 1970 artitii i permiteau s experimenteze foarte mult. La un moment dat a existat o anumit efervescen. Artitii i asumau ris-

104

withdraw. I try to avoid the position of the victim. If my project can

be done, I am happy, if not, everybody follows their path.
What were in your opinion the challenges artists faced before
1989?
I believe that artists faced similar difficulties at that time: to survive and to be rigorous in what they were doing, but the conditions
and pressures were different. In the 1980s you could do whatever
you wanted in your studio, but you were not able to show your work
to a larger public. You had to make a choice: to keep on working as
you thought it right, without expecting anything to happen.
Currently there is a hope that something will happen with what you
do. At that time, things were much more difficult, I think. The access
to the public has been restricted. One could not access public space.
Even presently there are some limitations: either you adapt, or you
act alone. I have the impression sometimes that many situations are
accessible, but when I try doing something I realize that it is not so
easy. But, in the past, consequences could be much harsher than now.
How would you characterize the art scene in Romania before the
revolution?
I have recently read Alexandra Titus book about this period,
Experiment in Romanian Art Since 1960. In the 1970s, artists could
afford to experiment a lot. At a certain point, there was a certain
effervescence. Artists took on risks. In the 1980s, there was a break.
The situation in Romania deteriorated, and some artists have
become isolated. Many have chosen to make more conventional
paintings or sculptures, as this sort of works has been accepted and
bought up by the state via UAP (the Association of Visual Artists).
As if these artists would have told themselves: Our childhood is
over, we must do more serious things now.
How would you characterize the Romanian art scene of the present moment?
An important period for me was when I worked for three years
in the old CNDB (Bucharest National Center for Dance), together
with a group of artists with whom I was in a constant dialogue. A
critical honesty was created in that group. As an artist, one made a
performance, presented it and people would tell him or her what are
its weak points. One had to have an articulate and honest discourse
about what others were doing, without trappings. In the spring of
2011, we were threatened to be evacuated any day, and artists felt
they could experiment because they lived without knowing what will
happen next day. I do have projects within the new CNDB, too, but
the situation is not the same, dynamics have changed. Before, the
institution had a budget for producing new performances, now this
is gone. The former CNDB has been a moment that is now gone.
Currently,
I am closer to the visual scene, which is much more fragmented,
kept together by a few poles: exhibition spaces, institutions.
Who were some of the artists or intellectuals that you have been
interested in?
I am interested in a few artists about whom I believe that they
were alive in the 1970s, such as Geta Brtescu, Ion Grigorescu,
Miklos Onucsan.
What topics are interesting and relevant for you today?
For me, this is not so much about topics, but about how they
manage to fit certain projects. I am interested in temporality, which
I always see in relation to something specific. I am stimulated by this
something that in certain projects has to do with the private, intimate space, and in other projects with public space. I am interested
in that tension that transforms the present into a space of expectation.
For instance, in my last video Broken Intervals (2012), exhibited at
the Salonul de Proiecte in Bucharest, I start from the revolution in
Romania in 1989. My work, however, is not about revolution, but
about the way in which we give a meaning to such an event. The
video contains only the time codes of certain sequences filmed during the revolution, the rest of the action is deleted from the image.

curi. n anii 1980 s-a produs o fractur. Situaia din Romnia s-a deteriorat, iar unii
artiti au devenit izolai. Muli au ales s fac o pictur i sculptur mai convenionale, fiindc acest gen de lucrri erau acceptate i achiziioanate de stat prin UAP
(Uniunea Artitilor Plastici). E ca i cum aceti artiti au spus: Ne-am trit copilria,
acum trebuie s trecem la lucruri serioase.
Cum ai caracteriza scena de art din Romnia n prezent?
O perioad important pentru mine a fost atunci cnd am lucrat timp de trei
ani n cadrul vechiului CNDB (Centrul Naional al Dansului Bucureti), alturi de
un grup de artiti cu care eram mereu n dialog. Acolo se crease o onestitate critic n interiorul grupului. Ca artist, fceai un performance, l prezentai i oamenii i
spuneau direct unde nu funcioneaz. i la rndul tu trebuia s ai un discurs articulat i onest despre ce fceau ceilali, fr nflorituri. n primvara lui 2011 eram ameninai c o s fim evacuai n orice zi, iar artitii simeau c pot experimenta fiindc triau
fr s tie ce se va ntmpla mine. Am proiecte i la noul CNDB, dar situaia nu
mai e aceeai; s-a schimbat dinamica. Atunci aveau un buget de producie pentru
performance-uri noi, care acum nu mai exist. Fostul CNDB a fost un moment care
s-a consumat. Acum snt mai aproape de scena vizual, care e mult mai fragmentat, inut mpreun de civa poli: spaii de expunere, instituii.
Cine au fost unii dintre artitii sau intelectualii de care eti interesat?
M intereseaz ctiva artiti care mi se pare c au fost vii n perioada anilor 1970,
ca Geta Brtescu, Ion Grigorescu, Miklos Onucsan.
Ce subiecte snt interesante i relevante pentru tine astzi?
Pentru mine nu e vorba att de mult de subiecte, ct de modul n care ele ajung
s se potriveasc cu anumite proiecte. M intereseaz temporalitatea, pe care o
vd ntotdeauna n legtur cu ceva anume. M stimuleaz acest ceva care n anumite proiecte ine de spaiul privat, intim, iar n altele de spaiul public. M intereseaz acea tensiune care transform prezentul ntr-un spaiu al ateptrii.
De exemplu, n ultimul meu video, Intervale sparte (2012), expus la Salonul de Proiecte din Bucureti, pornesc de la revoluia din Romnia din 1989. ns lucrarea nu
este despre revoluie, ci despre modul n care noi dm sens unui astfel de eveniment. Filmul conine doar timecodurile din diverse secvene filmate n timpul revoluiei, restul aciunii este ters din imagine. n momentul n care reduci informaia,
obii o alt informaie.
Cum crezi c a afectat revoluia arta din Romnia? Cum i-a afectat pe artitii
de aici?
Distana temporal dintre ce s-a ntmplat acum 20 de ani i momentul prezent este important. Dei fa de anumite evenimente eti implicat emoional, i
atunci e greu s iei distan. n anii 1990 era o nevoie de a discuta i, cu toate astea,
totul era vzut n alb i negru, pe cnd acum lucrurile s-au mai decantat i artitii se
raporteaz mai critic la ce s-a ntmplat atunci. Cred c i n art nu mai este acelai
gen de ncrncenare i lucrurile snt vzute mai la rece. Ct privete vechea dihotomie Est-Vest, cred c acum nu mai este aa de pregnant, pentru c ne micm
ntr-un spaiu global.
Care snt pentru tine valoarea i semnificaia colaborrilor cu ali artiti?
Mie ntotdeauna lucrrile pe care le-am fcut mpreun cu ali artiti mi s-au
prut mult mai experimentale n raport cu traseul propriu. n sensul c atunci cnd
mi propun s fac ceva, tiu cum o s arate, n linii mari. ntr-o colaborare, ceea ce
faci nu e nici al tu, nici al celuilalt, ci undeva ntre, ntr-un spaiu de negociere. Prin
colaborri eti deraiat, i mi se pare important lucrul acesta pentru c ncep s descopr nite lucruri pe care nu le-am observat pn atunci.

When you reduce information, you obtain different information.

How did revolution affect art in Romania in your opinion? How
did it affect other artists from here?
The temporal distance between what has happened 20 years
ago and the current moment is important. However, certain events
involve us emotionally, and then it is difficult to keep a distance. In
the 1990s was a need to talk, but in spite of this everything has been
seen in black and white, while now things are more clear, and artists
relate more critically to what happened in that time. I believe that in
art, too, there is less of that type of dogfight and things are seen in a
more sober manner. As regards the old dichotomy East/West, I think
that now this is no longer so important, because we move in a global
space.
What are for you the value and significance of collaborating with
other artists?
It always seemed to me that things I have done with other artists
were more experimental in comparison to my own trajectory. In the
sense that, when I set my mind to do something, I know what it will
look like at large. In a collaboration, what you do is neither yours,
nor of the other, but it is somewhere in-between, in a space of negotiation. Through collaborations one is off the track, and this thing
seems important to me because I start discovering certain things
that I never noticed until that point.
Translated by Alexandru Polgr

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insert

Fotografiile expoziiilor au preluat rolul principal n comunicarea artei i a contextelor ei. Trecerea de la a gndi despre art n termeni de expoziie,
i nu att de lucrri, respectiv valoarea superioar acordat practicilor curatoriale, mpreun cu expansiunea geografic global a evenimentelor de art contemporan snt factori ce determin motivul pentru care nregistrarea documentar a expoziiilor a devenit att de important. Acest limbaj fotografic are ns i el regulile sale canonice sau mcar anumite limite impuse de acest mijloc de exprimare, cci oricine
poate vedea cu uurin c ncercarea de a fotografia munca de aranjare n spaiu fcut de curator ajunge n cele din urm s nregistreze
mai curnd pereii dect lucrrile. La prima vedere, acest dezechilibru spaial al coninutului n raport cu golul alb (n cazul spaiilor de tip cub
alb) pare s fie mai degrab dezavantajos pentru scopul de a comunica arta. Dar spaiul gol al pereilor nu e niciodat gol i, la fel cum contextul merge mn n mn cu coninutul n economia expoziiilor, spaiul alb din fotografii e esenial n comunicarea unui context artistic. n ciuda
unor critici severe, formatul expoziional de tip cub alb e nc forma cea mai rspndit de a prezenta arta. Preteniile sale de neutralitate,
goliciune, universalitate snt uor de anulat de ncrctura sa politic i istoric, dar, cu toate astea, acest format funcioneaz ca o convenie
consolidat, acelai lucru fiind valabil pentru nregistrarea fotografic i preteniile sale de obiectivitate i atemporalitate.
n seria Exhibition Views, mai multe imagini menite s comunice n mod oficial despre o expoziie snt lipite n aa fel nct s se creeze un spaiu
virtual, nou. Pereii galeriilor, ai muzeelor i ai trgurilor din imagini construiesc un spaiu expoziional fictiv i improbabil, susinnd o nou configuraie a lucrrilor, care ar putea fi un fragment dintr-o expoziie imaginar. Aducnd laolalt perei din diverse cuburi albe ncrcate politic
produce tensiune de-a lungul lipiturilor, unde incompatibilitatea modurilor expoziionale e reflectat n calitatea diferit a imaginilor fotografice fcute publice. (Traducere de Alexandru Polgr)

Flaviu Rogojan: Exhibition Views

Exhibition views or installation shots took over the leading role in communicating art and its contexts. The shift of thinking about art in terms of exhibitions, rather
than works, and the higher value attributed to curatorial practices, together with the global geographical expansion of contemporary art events, are all factors in
determining why exhibition documentation has become so important in contemporary art. This photographic language is not without its canonic rules or medium
limitations, as one can readily see that by trying to photograph the curators work of spatial arrangement you end up recording more wall than work. At first glance
this territorial imbalance of content versus white void (typical of white cube spaces) seems to be rather disadvantageous to the purpose of communicating art.
But the empty wall-space is never empty, and just as context is on par with content in the economy of exhibitions, the white space in exhibition views is just as essential in communicating an art context. The white cube exhibition format is still, in spite of heavy criticism, the most widespread way of showing art. Its claims of neutrality, emptiness, universality, are easily overridden by its underlying political and historical load, yet it functions as an entrenched convention, and the same applies
to this type of photographic documentation, with its claims of objectivity and timelessness.
In the Exhibition Views series several official exhibition communication installation shots are stitched together in such a way as to create a new virtual space. The galleries, museum, and trade fair walls from each picture build up a fictional and improbable virtual exhibition space, holding a new configuration of works that could
form a fragment of an imaginary exhibition. Bringing together walls from different politically charged white cubes causes tension at the seams, where the incompatibility of exhibition modes is reflected in the varying image qualities of released photos. (Flaviu Rogojan)

FLAVIU ROGOJAN (b. 1990) lives and works in Cluj. Previous exhibitions include: Dear Money, Viennafair, Vienna (2013); Its Compulsory That We Have a Title, Salonul de Proiecte,
Bucharest (2013); Carrot and Stick, Baril, Cluj (2012). From 2011 to 2012 he was the project coordinator/curator of Ata ProjectSpace.

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

Continuitate i schimbare: arta performance

n Europa de Est ncepnd cu anii 1960
Amy Bryzgel

Autoperforationsartisten (Micha Brendel, Else Gabriel, Rainer Gr)

Allez! Arrest, 1988, performance in Leipzig, Eigen + Art Gallery, courtesy: Micha Brendel

108

n Europa de Est arta performance are o tradiie bogat care dateaz nc din anii
1960, dar istoria ei n-a fost nc scris. Articolul de fa prezint o compactare a
cercetrilor mele de pn acum n legtur cu istoria practicilor de art performance n Europa Central, de Est i de Sud ncepnd cu 1960, pe baza unei incursiuni
originale n izvoarele primare i a unei munci de teren amnunite n fiecare dintre rile regiunii, care include fostele ri sovietice ale Europei de Est (Ucraina, Moldova, Bielorusia i rile Baltice); rile-satelit ale Europei Centrale (Polonia,
Cehoslovacia, Ungaria, Bulgaria, Romnia); Iugoslavia; Germania de Est i Albania.
De vreme ce marea parte a regiunii n-a avut acces la Occident n perioada Rzboiului Rece, tradiiile artei performance, i anume arta-aciune [action art], body art i
happening-urile, s-au aflat aici ntr-o relativ izolare. Controlul de stat complet
asupra artei oficiale (pictur i sculptur) a fcut c performance-ul s-a dezvoltat n
mod neoficial, n cercuri restrnse; el a mai adus dup sine i c, la nivel local, nu
s-a putut dezvolta niciun fel de discurs critic despre acest subiect. Mai mult, lipsa
de acces a cercettorilor occidentali a nsemnat c aceste tradiii n-au ptruns n discursul occidental despre arta performance. n ciuda acestui hiat dintre cercetare i
practic, artitii din regiune erau branai, unii au avut ocazia chiar s cltoreasc
(Milan Knak, Tadeusz Kantor, Paul Neagu, pentru a da cteva nume), iar artitii occidentali au vizitat i ei Estul (Gina Pane, Chris Burden), un fapt care face i mai surprinztoare absena literaturii de specialitate n legtur cu aceast istorie.
n anii 1960, arta performance a devenit un gen dominant n Occident. mboldii
de o dorin de a unifica arta i viaa, artiti precum Allan Kaprow au ajuns s creeze happening-uri, care au lrgit limitele ramelor picturii i au fost o art vizual ce
are loc n spaiu i timp real. Artiti feminiti, precum Carolee Schneeman, utilizaser i body art, dar ambiia lor fusese aceea de a deveni ageni activi n procesul creator, i nu spectatori pasivi. Din cauza acestei concentrri pe aciunea efemer, Amelia
Jones caracterizase arta performance ca un indicator al trecerii de la modern la postmodern, n msura n care, din cauza naturii ei interactive i a faptului c acord vizibilitate artistului, ea servete la destabilizarea subiectului cartezian. Mai mult, n anii
1960, Lucy Lippard i John Chandler observaser, n cadrul artei minimale, conceptuale i performance, o deplasare de la concentrarea pe fabricarea de obiecte la concentrarea pe procesul de creaie.1 n msura n care, prin utilizarea corpurilor lor,
artitii creau opere de art n timp real [live], opere care depindeau de prezena
publicului i de interaciunea cu el, arta performance occidental intise adesea s
scape de orizontul devenirii-marf.2
Artitii din Europa Central i de Est comunist i socialist au nceput s experimenteze cu arta performance tot n anii 1960, dar din raiuni care au fost adesea
diferite de cele ale artitilor occidentali i care au fost diferite i ntre artitii estici.
De pild, n rile comuniste ale Europei Centrale, n locul pieei de art au existat diverse grade de control statal asupra artei oficiale i spaiilor de expunere. Spre
deosebire de Occident, mai curnd dect o critic a instituiilor artistice, utilizarea
performance-ului n Est fusese adesea o modalitate de rectigare din priza statului
a propriului corp i a spaiului din jurul lui. n loc s opereze ca o extensie a picturii, acesta a funcionat ca o zon liber n care se putea experimenta, ca o nou form
de art, care oferea posibiliti aparent nelimitate. Scriind despre arta performance
din America de Nord n anii 1960 i 1970, Robyn Brentano i aduce aminte c

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE: PERFORMANCE ART

IN EASTERN EUROPE SINCE THE 1960S
Amy Bryzgel
In Eastern Europe, performance art has a rich tradition dating back
to the 1960s, yet its history has not yet been written. This article
presents a consolidation of my research thus far on the history of
performance art practices in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe
since 1960, based on original primary source research and in-depth
field work in each country in the region, which includes the former
Soviet countries of Eastern Europe (Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, and
the Baltics); the Satellite countries of Central Europe (Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania); Yugoslavia; East
Germany, and Albania. Since much of the region was closed off to
the West during the Cold War, performance art traditions, namely,
action art, body art and happenings, existed in relative isolation.
Complete state control over official art (painting and sculpture)
meant that performance developed unofficially, within closed circles;
it also meant that no critical discourse on the subject was able to
develop locally. Furthermore, lack of access by Western scholars
meant that these traditions did not enter the discourse on performance art in the West. Despite this gap between scholarship and practice, artists in the region were well connected; some travelled West
(Milan Knk, Tadeusz Kantor, Paul Neagu, to name a few), yet
Western artists also travelled East (Gina Pane, Chris Burden), a fact
that makes the absence of literature on this history even more
surprising.
In the 1960s, performance art became a dominant genre in the
West. Motivated by a desire to unite art and life, artists such as Allan
Kaprow created happenings that expanded the limits of the painting
frame as visual art events taking place in real time and space. Feminist artists, such as Carolee Schneeman, also used body art, but their
motivation was to become active agents in the creative process, as
opposed to passive bystanders. Because of this focus on ephemeral
action, Amelia Jones has characterized performance art as indicative
of a shift from modern to postmodern, insofar as it serves to destabilize the Cartesian subject, given its interactive nature and the fact
that it gives visibility to the artist. Furthermore, in the 1960s, Lucy
Lippard and John Chandler noted a shift from a focus on creating
objects to the process of creation in minimal, conceptual and performance art in the 1960s.1 Insofar as artists were creating live works
of art through the use of their bodies, which were dependent on the
presence of and interaction with the audience, Western performance
art was often aimed at escaping commodification.2
It was also in the 1960s that artists in communist and socialist EastCentral Europe began to engage with performance art, but for reasons that often differed from those in the West, and which also varied
throughout the region. For example, in the communist countries of
Central Europe, instead of an art market, there existed varying
degrees of state control over official art and exhibition spaces. Unlike
in the West, rather than a critique of art institutions, the use of performance in the East was often a way of reclaiming ones body, and
the space around it, from the state. Instead of operating as an extension of painting, it often functioned as a free zone in which to experiment, as a new art form that offered seemingly limitless possibilities.
Writing about performance art in North America in the 1960s and
1970s, Robyn Brentano recalls that there was a sense in the air that
art would contribute to social change by changing consciousness

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plutea n aer sentimentul c arta va contribui la schimbarea social prin modificarea contiinelor i prin faptul c opereaz n afara cadrelor instituionale ale establishment-ului artistic, cu scopul de a ajunge la un public nonartistic.3 n acest sens,
din cauza posibilitilor pe care le permitea, performance-ul i atrgea pe artiti de
ambele pri ale liniei de separaie geopolitic. Cu toate astea, n Iugoslavia socialist, unde societatea consumului fusese ncurajat i conexiunile cu Occidentul erau
mai puternice, performance-ul a dat natere adesea unor critici la adresa instituiilor artistice. ns aceste voci ale dezacordului au aprut nu din spaiul galeriilor sau
al instituiilor de art profesioniste, aa cum s-a ntmplat deseori n Occident, ci mai
curnd din Centrele de Cultur Studeneti, nfiinate de Tito n marile orae din spaiul
fostei Iugoslavii (Zagreb, Belgrad, Skopje) pentru a ine n fru activitatea studeneasc
rebel ce-a urmat dup valul de proteste internaionale din 1968.
Cu toate astea, n Estul socialist, despre chestiunea femeilor se credea n mod
universal c fusese rezolvat, fcnd feminismul inutil un import enervant din Occident. Prin urmare, spre deosebire de Occident, exemplele de performance
feminist erau rare (pn i n Iugoslavia), chiar dac existau i excepii remarcabile,
de pild n opera lui Sanja Ivekovic (Croaia/Iugoslavia) i Jana elibska (Slovacia/
Cehoslovacia). Aceti artiti utilizaser performance-ul pentru a duce un rzboi pe
dou fronturi mpotriva societii patriarhale din cadrul socialismului real-existent
i a spoielii sale egalitariste. Astfel, arta performance feminist din Europa de Est a
derivat dintr-o sfer social secund, separat de orice micare occidental pentru drepturi civile i n rspr cu ideile tradiionale despre formarea i identitatea
sexual din aceast regiune. Acestea snt doar cteva exemple ale modalitilor n
care gestul familiar al performance-ului a rezonat n mod diferit n spaiul specific al
Estului.
ns caracterul unic al artei performance n Europa de Est poate fi pus n eviden
nu doar printr-o comparaie cu practicile occidentale, ci i prin contextualizri locale i regionale, dat fiind c formele i semnificaiile acestei arte n cadrul regiunii
prezint variaii de la ar la ar i s-au dezvoltat n momente diferite, n funcie de
loc. Din cauza felului n care s-a adoptat socialismul de stat n fiecare republic socialist i n fiecare satelit al fostei Uniuni Sovietice, precum i n Iugoslavia nealiniat i
n izolata Albanie, metodele i gradul controlului statal asupra libertilor individuale de expresie fuseser extrem de diverse. n timp ce artitii din Iugoslavia s-au bucurat de o abordare liberal, cei din regimurile lui Ceauescu i Hoxha au avut o alt
soart. n Europa Central, artitii din Cehoslovacia au avut de ndurat restricii mai
severe n anii 1970, dup invazia din 1968 a trupelor Pactului de la Varovia, pe
cnd n Polonia controlul a devenit mai strict abia dup Legea marial din 1981. Totui,
n timp ce n anii 1970 a avut loc o cretere brusc a artei performance n sfera neoficial din Cehoslovacia, n ri precum Letonia, de pild, ea n-a devenit semnificativ pn n anii 1980. n Estonia i Moldova, ea a nceput s nfloreasc dup
nfiinarea Centrelor Soros pentru Art Contemporan n anii 1990. De asemenea, artitii performance din diversele ri ale Europei de Est au avut de luptat cu
probleme diferite, n funcie de contextul local. n acest sens, chiar dac exist puine
exemple de art performance feminist n Letonia, numeroi artiti polonezi discut
n lucrrile lor chestiuni legate de sexualitate (Natalia L. L., Ewa Partum, Zbigniew
Libera, Katarzyna Kozyra, pentru a da cteva nume). Natura i maniera n care aceste performance-uri au avut loc servesc drept barometru pentru situaia sociopolitic din diverse perioade i locuri ale sferei socialiste.
n acest articol voi examina condiiile sociale, politice, ideologice i materiale n care
acionau artiti din Est, n comparaie cu cei din Vest. Voi explora ce nseamn a crea
art performance n aceste condiii i funcia pe care a avut-o performance-ul n acest
context. Voi extrage, de asemenea, exemple din perioada postcomunist, juxtapu-

110

and by operating outside the institutional confines of the art establishment where it could reach a non-art public.3 In this sense, performance appealed to artists on both sides of the divide for the new
opportunities it afforded. In socialist Yugoslavia, however, where
consumerism was encouraged and connections with the West
stronger, performance often did engender a critique of artistic institutions. But these voices of dissent emerged not from the space of
the gallery or professional art institutions, as they often did in the
West, but rather from within the Student Culture Centers established in major cities across the former Yugoslavia (Zagreb, Belgrade,
Skopje) by Tito, to contain rebellious student activity following the
wave of international protests in 1968.
That said, throughout the socialist East, the womens question
was widely believed to be resolved, rendering feminism unnecessary
an annoying import from the West. Consequently, unlike in the
West, examples of feminist performance were rare (even in Yugoslavia), although with some notable exceptions, for example: the work
of Sanja Ivekovic (Croatia/Yugoslavia) and Jana elibska (Slovakia/
Czechoslovakia). These artists used performance to wage a war on two
fronts: against the patriarchal society in really existing socialism and
its veneer of equality. Thus feminist performance art in Eastern Europe
developed from within a second social sphere, separate from any civil
rights movements as in the West, and counter to received ideas
regarding gender formation and identity in the region. These are but
a few examples of the ways in which the familiar gesture of performance resonated differently in the distinctive space of the East.
It is not only juxtaposition with Western practices that can shed light
on the unique character of performance art in Eastern Europe, but
local and regional contextualization as well, given that the forms and
meanings of performance art in the region also varied from country
to country, and developed at different times, depending on the location. Because of the manner in which state socialism was adopted
in each republic and satellite of the former Soviet Union, as well
as in non-aligned Yugoslavia and isolated Albania, the methods and
extent of state control over individual freedoms of expression were
wide-ranging. While artists in Yugoslavia benefited from a liberal
approach, those under Ceauescus or Hoxhas regimes fared differently. In Central Europe, artists in Czechoslovakia endured tighter
controls in the 1970s, following the invasion of Warsaw Pact troops
in 1968, yet in Poland it was following Martial Law, in 1981, that controls became stricter. However, while the 1970s witnessed a surge in
performance art in the unofficial sphere in Czechoslovakia, for example, this genre did not become as significant in Latvia until the 1980s.
In Estonia and Moldova, it began to blossom following the establishment of the Soros Centres for Contemporary Art in the 1990s. Furthermore, performance artists in different countries of Eastern Europe
grappled with different issues, depending on the local context.
As a case in point, while there are few examples of feminist performance art in contemporary Latvia, numerous Polish artists deal with
gender issues in their work (Natalia L. L., Ewa Partum, Zbigniew
Libera, Katarzyna Kozyra, to name a few). The nature of and manner
in which these performances took place serve as a barometer for the
socio-political situation in different times and places in the socialist
sphere.
In this article I examine the socially, politically, ideologically and
materially different conditions in which artists from the East were
operating, in comparison to the West. I explore what it means does
to create performance art in these conditions, and what the function
of performance was in this context. I also probe examples from the
post-communist period, juxtaposing the work of contemporary
artists with their predecessors. In most instances, experimental art
practices such as conceptual and performance art were not taught in
the art academies across Eastern Europe, and many artists learned of
international examples before becoming aware of precedents from
within their own native country. Most, if not all, of the contemporary
artists in this article have experienced this situation. Consequently

nnd lucrri ale unor artiti contemporani cu cele ale predecesorilor lor. n majoritatea cazurilor, practicile artistice experimentale, precum arta conceptual i performance, nu fuseser predate la academiile de art din Europa de Est i muli artiti
au nvat din exemple internaionale, nainte de a cunoate precedentele din rile lor de origine. Chiar dac nu toi, muli dintre artitii contemporani discutai n
acest articol s-au aflat n aceast situaie. Prin urmare, practicile contemporane de
art performance utilizeaz o palet larg de surse de inspiraie, dar nu continu
neaprat tradiiile locale.
Din cauza diviziunii dintre Est i Vest n perioada Rzboiului Rece i datorit lipsei
de acces la artitii contemporani din Europa de Est, teoreticienii occidentali au fost
cei care au codificat i definit genul, concluziile lor bazndu-se mai ales pe practici
occidentale de art performance, care le erau mai familiare.4 De pild, importantul text din 1979 al lui Roselee Goldberg, Performance Art: from Futurism to Present, detecteaz originile artei performance n futurismul italian i n dadaism. n discuia
despre istoria artei performance i a destinului ei n secolul al douzecilea, textul lui
Goldberg nu menioneaz desfurrile europene de partea cealalt a Cortinei de
Fier. Amelia Jones scrisese pe larg despre semnificaia performance-ului i a body art
pentru trecerea la postmodernism, dar ea utilizeaz doar exemple de artiti care
au lucrat n America de Nord.5 n mod asemntor, lucrarea lui Peggy Phelan despre ontologia performance-ului i rezistena acesteia la nregistrarea documentar
se concentreaz doar pe artiti ce lucreaz n Occident. Cu toate astea, nregistrarea documentar a artei performance primete rezonane cu totul diferite dac lum
n considerare condiiile sociopolitice specifice n care acionau artitii estici.
n ediiile revizuite ale textului lui Goldberg (2001, 2011), autoarea a introdus o
discuie de o pagin despre arta performance din Europa de Est, menionnd un numr
restrns de artiti: Tom Ruller (Republica Ceh/Cehoslovacia), Marina Abramovic (Serbia/Iugoslavia), Vlasta Delimar (Croaia/Iugoslavia), Katarzyna Kozyra (Polonia), Oleg Kulik (Rusia) i Noua Academie (Rusia). Goldberg caracterizeaz (destul
de miop) performance-ul din aceast regiune ca o form de protest politic, afirmnd
c arta performance a funcionat n Est aproape exclusiv ca o form de opoziie politic n anii represiunii.6 Chiar dac au existat artiti care fceau declaraii politice explicite n opera lor, a susine la rndul meu c aceste cazuri snt cu mult mai puine
dect spune Goldberg. De fapt, destul de des, arta performance i cea conceptual
au oferit artitilor o aren n care se putea experimenta, i nu att un instrument al
activitii politice disidente.
Mai mult, Goldberg caracterizeaz destul de reductiv semnificaia artei performance pentru artitii din Est, creznd c imaterialitatea acestei forme de art a fost
ceea ce i-a atras pe artitii ce lucrau sub regimurile comuniste. Cu cuvintele sale,
sub ameninarea permanent a supravegherii poliieneti, a cenzurii i a arestrii,
n-a fost surprinztor c majoritatea artei de protest a avut de-a face cu corpul. Un
artist putea face un performance oriunde, fr materiale sau atelier, iar lucrarea nu
lsa urme.7 Chiar dac ntr-o anumit msur e adevrat c arta performance era
atractiv datorit posibilitii de a crea opere de art efemere, de fapt, arta performance din Europa de Est (ca i cea din Europa Occidental) a lsat o urm foarte
semnificativ, sub form de documente fotografice, textuale i (rar) video. ns urmrirea dezvoltrii performance-ului n regiune i evaluarea semnificaiei i importanei
sale pentru artitii din perioada comunist au fost fcute posibile nu doar de aceste documente vizuale, ci i de mrturiile verbale furnizate de artiti n absena oricrui
discurs critic despre performance n cadrul instituiilor. n sfrit, Goldberg remarc
faptul c n body art individul e punctul central i aaz acest aspect n contrast cu
impulsul colectiv prezent n comunism. De pild, ea interpreteaz Olympia de
Kozyra, o lucrare din 1996, ca accentund autonomia artistului, o realizare sem-

contemporary performance art practices draw on a range of sources,

yet do not necessarily form a continuation of local traditions.
Because of the division of East and West during the Cold War, and the
lack of access to contemporary artists in Eastern Europe, it was Western theorists that codified and defined the genre, their conclusions
based primarily on Western performance art practices that were more
familiar.4 For example, Roselee Goldbergs seminal 1979 text,
Performance Art: from Futurism to Present traces the origins of
performance art to Italian Futurism and Dada. In discussion the history
of performance and live out throughout the twentieth century, her
text makes no mention of developments in Europe beyond the Iron
Curtain. Amelia Jones has written extensively on the significance of
performance and body art to the shift to postmodernism, yet she does
so using only examples of artists producing work in North America.5
Likewise, Peggy Phelans work on the ontology of performance art and
its resistance to documentation only focus on artists working in the
West. However, the documentation of performance art takes on an
entirely different resonance when one considers the specific sociopolitical conditions under which artists in the East were operating.
In the revised editions of Goldbergs text (2001, 2011), the author
included a one-page discussion on performance art in Eastern
Europe, mentioning a limited number of artists: Tom Ruller (Czech
Republic/Czechoslovakia), Marina Abramovic (Serbia/Yugoslavia),
Vlasta Delimar (Croatia/Yugoslavia), Katarzyna Kozyra (Poland), Oleg
Kulik (Russia), and the New Academy (Russia). Goldberg characterizes performance in the region, rather myopically, as a form of political protest, stating that performance art had functioned almost
exclusively in the East as a form of political opposition in the years of
repression.6 While there were artists that made overt political statements in their work, I would argue that these instances are far more
limited than Goldberg asserts. In fact, more often than not, performance and conceptual art offered artists an arena in which to experiment, rather than being a vehicle of dissident political activity.
Furthermore, Goldberg rather reductively characterizes the significance of performance art for artists in the East, believing that it was
the art forms immateriality that appealed to artists working under
communism. In her words, with the constant threat of police surveillance, censorship and arrest, it was not surprising that most
protest art related to the body. An artist could perform anywhere,
without materials or studio, and the work left no traces.7 While to
some extent it is true that performance art appealed due to the possibility of creating ephemeral artworks, in fact performance art in
Eastern Europe (as in the West) left one very significant trace, in the
form of photographic, textual, and (in rare cases) video documentation. It is not only these visual documents, but also the verbal accounts
provided by artists in the absence of any critical discourse surrounding performance in the institution that make it possible to
trace the development of performance in the region and assess its
meaning and significance to artists at the time. Finally, Goldberg
notes the focus on the individual inherent in body art, and contrasts
this with the collective impulse present in communism. For example,
she interprets Kozyras 1996 work Olympia as emphasizing the
autonomy of the artist, a significant achievement in countries that
had for more than half-a-century rejected individualism outright.8
While it is true that communism emphasized the collective at the
expense of the individual, this research demonstrates that more
often than not, artists opposed state control not with individualism,
but with self-organization.
The significance of Goldbergs original 1979 text is not overstated.
In fact, this text played its role in the development of performance in
the region. As Goldberg noted in the 2011 edition, Tom Ruller used
the text in a 1985 court case against him, as evidence to support his
claim that his actions were in fact examples of performance art as
opposed to dissident activity. Bulgarian art historian and critic Diana
Popova acquired a copy of the text in the 1980s, and translated it into
Bulgarian, circulating it in the artistic community as samizdat.9 Artists

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nificativ n ri care mai mult de un secol i jumtate au respins individualismul.8

Cu toate c e adevrat c n comunism s-a subliniat colectivul n raport cu individualul, cercetarea de fa demonstreaz c n majoritatea cazurilor artitii s-au opus
controlului de stat nu prin individualism, ci prin autoorganizare.
Nu exagerez aici deloc n privina semnificaiei textului iniial din 1979 al lui Goldberg. De fapt, acest text i-a jucat rolul n dezvoltarea performance-ului n regiune.
Aa cum remarcase ea n ediia din 2011, Tom Ruller utilizase textul ntr-un proces care i s-a intentat n 1985, ca dovad n sprijinul afirmaiei sale c aciunile pe
care le-a fcut fuseser, de fapt, exemple de art performance, i nu activitate disident. Istoricul i criticul de art bulgar Diana Popova a obinut o copie a textului
n 1980, pe care a tradus-o n bulgar i a rspndit-o n comunitatea artistic sub
form de samizdat.9 Artitii din regiune au menionat i alte texte care au contribuit la comprehensiunea lor privind acest gen; 20959-IDEA#45-int-2 de pild, artistul romn Iosif Kirly citeaz Assemblages, Environments and Happenings (1966)10
de Allan Kaprow, iar Ruller menioneaz Total Art: Environments, Happenings and
Performance, cartea din 1974 a lui Adrian Henri, pe care a cumprat-o n 1977,
cnd cltorise cu tatl su n strintate, n Europa de Vest.11 n majoritatea cazurilor, artitii care au avut acces la aceste texte au fcut deja experimente de art performance, iar descoperirea unor asemenea texte i a precedentelor pentru acest
tip de activitate a fcut lucrrile lor mai convingtoare, furniznd astfel i un combustibil pentru dezvoltarea ulterioar a acestei forme artistice.
Opiunea mea pentru termenul art performance e deliberat i necesar, graie
condiiilor particulare n care au intrat n discursul din Europa de Est diversele tipuri
de forme artistice care se desfoar n timp real [live art forms]. n timp ce termenul art-aciune [action art], utilizat de numeroi istorici de art din regiune
(Morganov, Pintilie, Euringer-Btorov), e pertinent pentru exemplele istorice din
Europa Central, performance este singurul termen folosit relativ universal n ntreaga regiune. Muli artiti din regiune menionaser c atunci cnd au nceput s lucreze n performance, n-au avut un termen pentru munca lor i s-au referit la ea
n diverse feluri, de pild ca aciune, spectacol [show] sau happening. Cnd terminologia a ptruns n discurs, asta s-a ntmplat prin texte fundamentale precum acelea menionate mai sus. n locuri precum Moldova, Estonia i Albania, performance
s-a dezvoltat mult mai trziu i este folosit mai des dect aciune [action]. Unde e
pertinent i potrivit s-o fac, folosesc termenul aciune ca pe unul istoric, pentru
a-i distinge pe artitii care i descriu opera n felul acesta (cei din Cehoslovacia, de
pild).
n plus, utilizarea de ctre mine a termenului Est e, de asemenea, deliberat, deoarece schieaz un concept politic i temporal, cu referire clar la acele ri ale Europei care au fcut experiena unei forme de socialism garantat de stat, provenind
din sfera de influen sovietic de-a lungul secolului al douzecilea. M bazez pe
binomul Est-Vest, deoarece reflect maniera n care vorbesc artitii despre munca
lor i poziia lor n lume. Examinez rile din regiune n mod comparativ, aa cum
provin ele din i snt legate de tradiia european a artei moderne, de care s-au distanat doar ncepnd cu perioada Rzboiului Rece.
n seciunea nti a articolului, sondez diversele surse teoretice i locale care au
modelat munca artitilor performance n Europa de Est, de la artitii occidentali la care
s-au raportat i pn la izvoarele istorice i culturale unice pentru fiecare context n
parte. n seciunea urmtoare, m concentrez pe corp i examinez felurile n care
artitii i-au folosit corpurile n performance, pentru a-i face drum printre diversele grade de control statal asupra produciei artistice, i i-au cultivat formele lor unice
de integrare individual i de autodefinire, care cuprind nu doar identitatea individual, ci i identitatea naional-cultural i cea sexual. Deoarece muli artiti occi-

112

in the region have also noted other texts that contributed to their
understanding of the genre, for example, Romanian artist Iosif Kirly
cited Allan Kaprows Assemblages, Environments and Happenings
(1966)10, and Ruller mentioned Adrian Henris 1974 book, Total Art:
Environments, Happenings and Performance, which he bought in
1977 when he traveled abroad with his father, in Western Europe.11
In most cases, however, artists who came into contact with these
texts had already been experimenting with performance art, and the
discovery of such texts and precedents to that type of activity simply
gave credence to their work, and provided fuel to develop it further.
My choice of the term performance art is deliberate and necessary,
owing to the particular conditions in which various types of live art
forms entered the discourse in Eastern Europe. While the term action
art, employed by several art historians of the region (Morganov,
Pintilie, Euringer-Btorov), is relevant to historical Central European
examples, performance is the only term used relatively universally
across the region. Many artists in the region have mentioned that
when they began working in performance, they did not have a term
for their work, and referred to it in various ways, for example, as an
action, show, or happening. When the terminology entered the discourse, it did so through significant texts, such as those mentioned
above. In places such as Moldova, Estonia and Albania, performance
developed much later, and is more widely used than action. Where
it is relevant and appropriate to do so, I employ the term action as
a historical one, to distinguish between artists (such as those in Czechoslovakia, for example) who referred to their work in that manner.
Furthermore my use of the term East is also deliberate, as it outlines a political and temporal concept, making a clear reference to
those countries in Europe that experienced some form of state-sponsored socialism stemming from the Soviet sphere of influence during
the twentieth century. I rely on this East-West binary, as it reflects
the manner in which the artists refer to their work and position within the art world. I examine the countries in the region comparatively,
as they all emerge from and are connected to the European tradition
of modern art, having becoming distanced from only since the period of the Cold War.
In the first section of the article, I probe the varying theoretical and
local sources that informed the work by performance artists in
Eastern Europe, from the Western artists with whom they engaged to
historical and cultural sources unique to each context. In the next section, I focus on the body, and examine the ways in which artists used
their bodies in performance to navigate the varying degrees of state
control over artistic production and cultivate their own unique forms
of individual integration and self-definition, which includes not only
individual identity, but national-cultural and gender identity as well.
While many artists in the West used performance to critique the institution of art, from the gallery system, commercialization of the art
object, and the institutionalization of art in the museum, in the subsequent section I examine the forms of critique that performance took
in the East. In the final section, I examine the manner in which artists
utilized performance art as a participatory art form to expand the
range of their audience and engage with viewers in ways that would
otherwise not have been possible, and also to give voice to the general public. In addressing these issues, I aim to demonstrate not why
performance art in the region was important, but also the unique
forms it manifested.
I. Introduction: Origins
In Performance Art: from Futurism to Present (1979), Roselee Goldberg outlines the development of performance art in (Western)
Europe and North America, pointing to its origins in Futurism and
Dada at the beginning of the twentieth century. She then traces a
neat trajectory through Surrealist games and automatist drawings to
Jackson Pollocks Action Painting, and ultimately to the Happenings
and performances of Allan Kaprow in the 1950s and 1960s. From
there she goes on to discuss examples of performance art in places

dentali folosiser performance-ul pentru a critica instituia artei, cu sistemul ei de galerii, comercializarea obiectului artistic i instituionalizarea artei n muzeu, n seciunea urmtoare examinez formele de critic pe care le-a luat performance-ul n Est.
n seciunea final, examinez felul n care artitii utilizaser arta performance ca pe
o form participativ de art, pentru a lrgi rndurile publicului lor i a ajunge la spectatori n feluri care altfel n-ar fi fost posibile, dar i pentru a da o voce publicului general. n discutarea acestor chestiuni, doresc s art nu doar de ce arta performance
a fost important n regiune, ci i formele unice n care ea s-a manifestat.
I. Introducere: Originile
n Performance Art: from Futurism to Present (1979), Roselee Goldberg descrie dezvoltarea artei performance n Europa (Occidental) i America de Nord, indicndu-i originile n futurism i dadaism, la nceputul secolului douzeci. Ea traseaz apoi
o traiectorie clar, prin jocurile suprarealiste i desenele automatiste, la pictura-aciune [action painting] a lui Jackson Pollock i, n cele din urm, la happening-urile i
performance-urile lui Allan Kaprow din anii 1950 i 1960. Odat atins acest punct,
ea continu prin a discuta exemple de art performance n locuri precum SUA, Marea
Britanie, Austria i Germania, dar nu menioneaz deloc artiti lucrnd n acest gen
n condiiile sociopolitice specifice socialismului garantat de stat din Europa de Est.
Cu toate c Goldberg plaseaz dezvoltarea artei performance n a doua jumtate a secolului al douzecilea, ntr-o reiterare a avangardei istorice, n particular a
dadaismului i a futurismului, n marea parte a Europei de Est, artitii n-au avut asemenea tradiii din care s se inspire. Evoluia performance-ului ca gen e unic pentru fiecare ar din regiune, cci artitii se inspir din surse locale i internaionale
diverse.
n Europa Central, artitii au nceput s lucreze n genul performance n anii 1950
i 1960, aproximativ n aceeai perioad ca artitii din Europa Occidental i America de Nord. n 1962, anul n care a avut loc la New York happening-ul Courtyard
al lui Allan Kaprow i se organiza ntr-o pivni din Viena Blood Organ de Otto Muehl
i Hermann Nitsch, Milan Knk (n. 1940) i gzduia la Praga ale sale Short-term
Exhibitions, n cadrul crora pictase nite pnze pe care le-a expus pe strad, n faa
cldirii unde locuia.12 Doi ani mai trziu, n Polonia vecin, Tadeusz Kantor (1915
1990) i pune n scen primul happening, Cricotage, la Varovia, n timp ce trei colegi
din Bratislava, Alex Mlynrcik (n. 1951), Stano Filko (n. 1938) (ambii artiti) i Zita
Kostrov (istoric de art), creeaz Happsoc, un happening virtual la care se zice c
a participat, la nceput de mai, ntreg oraul.13 n 1966, Tams Szentjby (n. 1944)
i Mikls Erdly (19281986) organizaser primul happening din Ungaria, intitulat
The Lunch: in Memoriam Batu Khan. Chiar dac fiecare moment crescuse din contexte i situaii locale, contactele internaionale ale acestor artiti au contribuit i ele
la dezvoltrile locale. De pild, Kantor cltorise n Statele Unite n 1965, unde l-a
ntlnit pe Kaprow; n 1964, Alex Mlynrcik l-a ntlnit pe Pierre Restany cu ocazia
unei cltorii la Paris i a corespondat cu el i dup ce s-a ntors n Cehoslovacia;
Szentjby participase la Panoramic Sea Happening a lui Kantor la Osieki, Polonia,
n 1967. Astfel, ideile s-au rspndit nu doar dinspre Vest spre Est, ci i pe teritoriul estic (precum i dinspre Est spre Vest), printr-o seam de reele informale.
Un punct important de conexiune ntre Est i Vest a fost Fluxus, o reea internaional de artiti nfiinat de George Maciunas14, nscut n Lituania. Graie legturilor
estice ale lui Maciunas, n 1966 a avut loc la Vilnius, n Republica Sovietic Socialist Lituania, un concert Fluxus. Acesta fusese organizat la Institutul Pedagogic din
Vilnius de muzicologul Vytautas Landbergis (care a devenit mai trziu un proeminent politician lituanian) i a presupus un concert-haos. A fost mai degrab un eveniment privat, cu profesori i studeni, i, conform mrturiei consemnate de Petra

such as the US, UK, Austria, Germany, yet no mention is made of

artists working in this genre under the specific socio-political conditions of state-sponsored socialism in Eastern Europe. While Goldberg
traces the development of performance art in the latter half of the
twentieth century to a reiteration of the historical avant-garde, specifically Dada and Futurism, in most of Eastern Europe, artists did not
have such traditions to draw from. The evolution of performance as
a genre is unique to each country in the region, as artists drew from
various local and international sources.
In Central Europe, artists began working in performance in the
1950s and 1960s, around the same time as artists in Western Europe
and North America. In 1962, the same year of Allan Kaprows Courtyard happening in New York City and Otto Muehl and Hermann
Nitschs Blood Organ, which took place in a basement in Vienna,
Milan Knk (b. 1940) was hosting his Short-term Exhibitions in
Prague, wherein he painted and exhibited his works on the street
in front of his building.12 Two years later, in neighboring Poland,
Tadeusz Kantor (19151990) staged his first happening, Cricotage,
in Warsaw, while colleagues Alex Mlynrcik (b. 1951), Stano Filko
(b. 1938) (both artists) and Zita Kostrov (an art historian) in Bratislava created Happsoc, a virtual happening in which the entire city was
said to be taking part at the beginning of May.13 The following year,
in 1966, Tams Szentjby (b. 1944) and Mikls Erdly (19281986)
organized the first happening in Hungary, entitled The Lunch: in
Memoriam Batu Khan. While each instance grew out of the local
context and situation, these artists international contacts also contributed to local developments. For example, Kantor had traveled
to the US in 1965, where he met Kaprow; in 1964, Alex Mlynrcik
met Pierre Restany while on a trip to Paris, and continued correspondence with him after his return to Czechoslovakia; Szentjby participated in Kantors Panoramic Sea Happening in Osieki, Poland, in 1967.
Thus ideas spread not only from West to East but also across the East
(as well as East to West), through a range of informal networks.
One significant point of connection between East and West was
Fluxus, an international network of artists founded by George
Maciunas14, who was originally from Lithuania. It was because
of Maciunass connections to the East that Vilnius, in the Lithuanian
Soviet Socialist Republic, hosted a Fluxus concert in 1966. The concert
was organized by the musicologist Vytautas Landbergis (who later
became a prominent Lithuanian politician), at the Vilnius Pedagogical Institute, and involved a concert chaos [chaos concert]. This
was mostly a private event, with teachers and students present and,
according to Petra Stegmann, there was no large audience, no press,
no scandal.15 Indeed, it can be deduced that it did not make a big
impression on the artistic scene at the time. When asked about their
awareness of the Fluxus event when they were beginning their artistic careers in the 1980s, artists Ceslovas Lukenskas (b. 1959) (member of the Post Ars [Post Art] group) and Diugas Katinas (b. 1965)
(member of alias Lapas [Green Leaf]), both commented that they
might have been vaguely aware that something of the sort had taken
place, but were not clear on the details.16 Rather, Katinas indicated a
different source of inspiration for his work in performance in the late1980s: a recitation of abstract sound poetry by Lithuanian poet Sigitas
Geda, which was broadcast on television. Gediminas Urbonas (b. 1966),
also a member of alias Lapas, recalled a book on Viennese Actionism
that was brought into the country by art historian Raminta Jurenaite,
whose father was a prominent member of the communist party, and
thus able to travel abroad.
In neighboring Estonia, artists became aware of Fluxus through connections in Poland. Composer Toomas Velmet recalls that artists
were inspired to create the first happenings in Estonia after they had
witnessed Fluxus-type events at the Warsaw Music Festival in 1964.
Commenting on the early happenings that took place in Estonia in
1965 and 1966, he stated that this was not musical experimentation;
there was very little music in it, and it was more like a happening.
We called these things the theatre of the absurd or instrumental

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Ion Grigorescu
The Ritual Bath, 1979, performance, 40 photographs, courtesy: the artist

Flo Kasearu in collaboration with Andra Aaloe, Tanel Rannala, Juhan Teppart
Freedom Poster, 2008, caption: Use axe to break free, courtesy: the artists

Green Leaf
The Way, 1990, happening in Vilnius, Lithuania, courtesy: Diugas Katinas

Zoran Todorovic
Agalma, 20032006, performance/action, courtesy: the artist

114

Flo Kasearu in collaboration with Andra Aaloe, Tanel Rannala, Juhan Teppart
Freedom Poster, 2008, caption: I quite like that cross. I think that crosses are kind of cute :P,
courtesy: the artists

theatre, in which the musical instruments played their part. The ideology of the performance was affected by that and by the performances of John Cage and Merce Cunningham, which we managed to
see in 1964 in Warsaw, during the Warsaw Autumn Festival.17 That
said, he also stated that at that point, they did not even know what
Fluxus was18, although the artists were aware of their strategies
through the works of Cage and Cunningham. The earliest happenings in Estonia were thus created not by visual artists, but by musicians and writers. One of the most infamous happenings took place
in 1968, as an official event at the Tallinn Writers House, entitled
Cremona Round. The piece involved improvised action and noise
music. At one point a violin caught on fire, because proper safety
procedures were not followed. While no one was punished, Arvo
Prt, one of the organizers, had to write a letter to the Composers
Union explaining what had happened.
Pavlna Morganov has written about the circuitous manner in which
Fluxus materials made their way to Prague via Leningrad. In 1964
1965, Fluxus members and brothers Eric and Tony Anderson visited
Prague, creating a private performance in Herberta Masarykovs
apartment. Owing to the private nature of this visit, Morganov
writes, it left almost no trace.19 However, the Andersons later traveled to Leningrad, where they met Czech art critic Jindrich Chalu peck, who brought information about Fluxus back to Prague when
he returned to Czechoslovakia. Noting similarities between Milan
Knks Aktual Art20 and the aims of Fluxus, he sent information on
Knks actions to the US. When Maciunas learned of this activity,
he named Knk the director of Fluxus East.21 In 1966, the first
Fluxfest occurred in Prague, which consisted of an exhibition by
Dick Higgins and Alison Knowles (invited by Chalupeck), as well
as a series of three concerts by Ben Vautier, Jeff Brener and Serge
Oldenbourg (invited by Knk), in which Knk also took part.
Prague was not the only Central European city to have contact with
Fluxus. In 1969, Budapest hosted its first Fluxus concert, which was
organized by Tams Szentjby. According to Petra Stegmann, both he
and Erdly had heard about Fluxus in 1966, when they read about it
in Jrgen Becker and Wolf Vostells book Happenings. Fluxus, Pop Art,
Nouveau Ralisme (1965).22 The concert took place using Fluxus scores
(most likely sent to him by Gbor Altorjay, who had fled Hungary in
196723), and involved Szentjby performing all of the actions, such as
throwing a cake in his own face, and crashing into a piano. He also
performed Tomas Schmidts Zyklus fr Wassereimer (oder Flaschen)
[Cycle for Water Bucket (or Bottles)], which involved pouring water
from one bottle into another. What distinguished this event from the
Fluxfest in Prague was that these performances were Szentjbys interpretations of Fluxus, as he had not been in any direct contact with
Fluxus artists internationally.24 Likewise, in Bratislava, Milan Adamciak
(b. 1946) organized concerts and events in the style of Fluxus and John
Cage. For example, his happening Water Music was organized together with Robert Cyprich (19511996) in a swimming pool in 1970, and
involved music being played in the changing rooms and under water.25
In 1977, Jarosaw Kozowski (b. 1945), one of the founders of the
anti-authoritarian artistic network SIEC [NET], wrote to Maciunas
proposing an exhibition together. His response was that the artists
create the event themselves, since the nature of Fluxus is that no
professional experience is required to enact the performances.26
The event lasted for four days, and consisted of Maciunass FLUXVERSION I, FLUXVERSION II, Flux Sports, a Flux Clinic, and a presentation of Flux Films and Slides, on the last day.
In Ceauescus Romania, the situation was much different than in
Hungary, Czechoslovakia or Poland. Although when Ceauescu came
to power in 1965, he distanced himself from the Soviet Union and
appeared open to the West, his rule became increasingly repressive
throughout the 1970s, reaching its culmination in his paranoid delirium in the 1980s. Ileana Pintilie has argued for the use of the term
underground art to label experimental artistic activity in Romania
during the period of Ceauescus rule, because of its lack of visibility,

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Stegmann, n-a fost un public mare, pres, scandal15. De fapt, se poate deduce
c n-a creat o impresie puternic pe scena artistic a vremii. ntrebai despre ct de
multe tiau despre acest eveniment Fluxus la nceputul carierelor lor artistice n anii
eslovas Lukenskas (n. 1959) (membru al grupului Post Ars [art potal])
1980, artitii C
i Diugas Katinas (n. 1965) (membru al alias Lapas [Frunz Verde]) au declarat
c tiau, poate, vag c aa ceva avusese loc, dar nu prea tiau detalii.16 Mai mult,
Katinas a indicat o alt surs de inspiraie pentru munca sa n cadrul performanceului spre finele anilor 1980: nite poeme de sunet, abstracte, recitate de poetul
Sigitas Geda la televizor. Gediminas Urbonas (n. 1966), tot un membru al alias
Lapas, i aduce aminte de o carte despre acionismul vienez, care a ajuns n Lituania prin istoricul de art Raminta Jurenaite, al crei tat fusese un membru de vaz
al partidului comunist i deci a putut face cltorii n strintate.
n Estonia vecin, artitii au nceput s afle despre Fluxus prin legturile lor cu Polonia. Compozitorul Toomas Velmet i aduce aminte c artitii fuseser inspirai s
creeze primele happening-uri din Estonia dup ce au vzut evenimente de tip Fluxus la Festivalul de Muzic de la Varovia n 1964. Privitor la happening-urile timpurii care au avut loc n Estonia n 1965 i 1966, el declarase c nu era vorba de
experimentalism muzical; existase foarte puin muzic n ele i totul semna mai mult
a happening. Numisem asemenea manifestri teatru absurd sau instrumental,
n care instrumentele muzicale i-au avut rolul lor. Ideologia performance-ului fusese
influenat de aceste aspecte i de spectacolele lui John Cage i Merce Cunningham,
pe care am reuit s le vedem n 1964 la Varovia, n cadrul Festivalului de Toamn
de acolo.17 El mai afirmase i c, la momentul acela, nici mcar nu tiau ce-a fost
Fluxus18, dei artitii cunoteau strategiile lor prin lucrrile lui Cage i Cunningham.
Primele happening-uri din Estonia fuseser create deci nu de artiti vizuali, ci de muzicieni i scriitori. Unul dintre cele mai scandaloase happening-uri a avut loc n 1968,
ca un eveniment oficial al Casei Scriitorilor de la Tallinn, i fusese intitulat Cremona
Round. Aceast bucat a inclus aciune improvizat i muzic din zgomote. La un moment dat, o vioar a luat foc, deoarece nu s-au urmat procedurile de protecie potrivite. Dei nimeni n-a fost pedepsit, Arvo Prt, unul dintre organizatori, a trebuit s
trimit o scrisoare la Sindicatul Compozitorilor pentru a da explicaii.
Pavlna Morganov scrisese despre felul ntortocheat n care au ajuns materialele
Fluxus la Praga via Leningrad. n 1964-1965, fraii Eric i Tony Anderson, ambii
membri Fluxus, vizitaser Praga, executnd un performance privat n apartamentul
lui Herberta Masarykov. Datorit naturii private a acestei vizite, scrie Morganov,
ea aproape c n-a lsat nicio urm.19 Totui, fraii Anderson au cltorit mai trziu la Leningrad, unde l-au ntlnit pe criticul de art ceh Jindrich Chalupeck, care,
odat ntors n Cehoslovacia, adusese veti despre Fluxus la Praga. Remarcnd ase mnri ntre Aktual Art20 a lui Milan Knak i elurile Fluxus, el a trimis informaii despre aciunile lui Knak n Statele Unite. Cnd Maciunas a aflat de aceast activitate,
l-a numit pe Knak director al Fluxus Est.21 n 1966, a avut loc primul Fluxfest la
Praga, constnd dintr-o expoziie de Dick Higgins i Alison Knowles (invitai de Chalupeck), precum i trei concerte de Ben Vautier, Jeff Brener i Serge Oldenbourg
(invitai de Knak), la care a participat i Knak.
Praga n-a fost singurul ora central-european care s se afle n contact cu Fluxus.
n 1969, Budapesta i gzduise primul concert Fluxus, care fusese organizat de Tams
Szentjby. Potrivit lui Petra Stegmann, att el, ct i Erdly auziser despre Fluxus n
1966, cnd au citit despre ea n cartea lui Jrgen Becker i Wolf Vostell Happenings.
Fluxus, Pop Art, Nouveau Ralisme (1965).22 Concertul a avut loc folosindu-se partituri Fluxus (trimise cel mai probabil de Gbor Altorjay, care a prsit Ungaria n
196723) i Szentjby a executat toate aciunile, cum ar fi s-i arunce un tort n propria fa, zdrobindu-l de un pian. El a executat, de asemenea, Zyklus fr Wassereimer

116

in terms of both viewers and the art historical discourse. In her

words, this suggests that these performances were unknown in the
public space, which is defined not only by the audience and a number of participants who are spectators, but also by the presentation
of art in literature, especially in art history and in art criticism.
In contrast to other Eastern countries, an artist in 1970s Romania
could not develop a street performance or a happening, or communicate with the general public.27 This is evident in the examples of
performance art from Romania in the 1970s. As early as 1968, Paul
Neagu created a public performance on the busy streets of Bucharest,
exhibiting his mixed-media boxes with which passersby could interact. By the 1970s, this type of public display was already impossible,
and artists such as Ion Grigorescu (b. 1945) and Geta Brtescu
(b. 1926) took refuge in their studios, creating performances for the
camera. These staged and filmed or photographed actions can be
considered performances, insofar as one considers the camera lens
the audience. As Ileana Pintilie has written, in reference to one
of Grigorescus performances, Masculin/Feminin (1976), if this film
was not necessarily conceived for public presentation which seems
obvious then the artist must have ascribed such a role to the video
camera, to the lens which should record the image and which
becomes a partner of his explorations, a sort of accomplice of his
most intimate thoughts and states of excitement, mental and physical.28 The same could be said for the actions staged in her studio
by Geta Brtescu from around the same time, one of which was
filmed by Grigorescu. Confined to the interior world of their studios,
these artists often focused on the banality of everyday life and things
surrounding them, such as the artists hands (Brtescu) or his body
(Grigorescu). Grigorescu also retreated to the free space of the countryside to stage solo performances, once again for the camera.
Performance came even later to neighboring Bulgaria. Evidence
of performative activities dates to the 1980s, with the Cuckovden
Group and DE (Dynamic Aesthetization) Group, which gathered
around the figure of Orlin Dvorianov (b. 1951). The Cuckovden Group
staged carnival-like actions, happenings and performances as early
as 1985. The City Group, which came together in 19861987 following the initiative of art critic Filip Zidarov, aimed to develop an alternative to the stylistic stagnation in Bulgarian art during the 1980s.29
The artists associated with this group staged an inaugural eponymous exhibition in 1988, and the following year orchestrated a largescale public happening entitled The Tower of Babylon in Gabrovo.
In January 1990, their action Chameleon took place in front of the
Palace of Culture in Sofia, and was described as a political happening, as the figure of the chameleon was constructed using communist party membership cards for the skin.
In socialist Yugoslavia, the conditions for creating experimental art
were different than in communist Central and Eastern Europe. While
it is widely acknowledged that artists in Yugoslavia benefited from
greater tolerance toward experiment and more freedom of expression than their neighbors to the East30, it should be remembered that
this freedom existed under certain conditions and was largely contained. The main condition, much like in Poland, was that artists
refrain from criticizing the government or its leadership. Experimental activity in Yugoslavia was thus initially confined to a number of
Student Culture Centers that were created across the country by Tito
following the 1968 student protests that took place in Belgrade, Paris,
and across the globe, to provide an anodyne space in which rebellion could be controlled, which would prevent it from coming into
contact with the public sphere. Tito understood that youth were
prone to rebellion, and since it couldnt be stopped, it could at least
be delimited. Miko uvakovic has also noted a further strategy of
neutralization of effects of the cultural and social transgression31,
by dissuading artists from exhibiting their experimental activity in
their home environment, but rather to do so in other regions of the
Yugoslav Republic. Therefore, the status quo in each region would
be maintained, and transgressive activity would be displaced.

(oder Flaschen) [Ciclu pentru o gleat (sau sticle)] de Tomas Schmidt, care a constat din a turna ap dintr-o sticl ntr-alta. Ceea ce a deosebit acest eveniment de
Fluxfest-ul din Praga fusese c aceste performance-uri au fost intepretrile pe care
le-a dat Szentjby micrii Fluxus, cu toate c n-a fost n contact internaional direct cu niciunul dintre artitii Fluxus.24 n mod asemntor, la Bratislava, Milan
Adamciak (n. 1946) a organizat concerte i evenimente n stilul Fluxus i al lui John
Cage. De pild, happening-ul su Water Music fusese organizat n 1970 mpreun
cu Robert Cyprich (1951-1996) ntr-o piscin, cu muzic interpretat n vestiare
i sub ap.25
1977, Jarosaw Kozowski (n. 1945), unul dintre fondatorii reelei artistice antiautoritare SIEC [NET], i scrisese lui Maciunas propunndu-i s fac o expoziie mpreun. Rspunsul acestuia fusese c artitii creeaz evenimentul ei nii, ntruct
Fluxus e de aa natur nct nu e nevoie de nicio experien profesional pentru a
executa un performance.26 Evenimentul a durat patru zile i a constat din FLUXVERSION I, FLUXVERSION II, Flux Sports de Maciunas, respectiv o Clinic Flux i o prezentare a Filmelor i Clieelor Flux n ultima zi.
n Romnia lui Ceauescu, situaia a fost cu mult diferit dect aceea din Ungaria,
Cehoslovacia sau Polonia. Cu toate c atunci cnd Ceauescu ajunsese la putere
n 1965, el s-a distanat de Uniunea Sovietic i prea s fie deschis fa de Occident, regimul su a devenit tot mai represiv n anii 1970, atingndu-i punctul culminant n delirul su paranoic din anii 1980. Ileana Pintilie a argumentat n favoarea
utilizrii termenului de art subteran [underground art] pentru a eticheta activitatea artistic experimental din Romnia n perioada regimului Ceauescu, datorit lipsei sale de vizibilitate att n termeni de public, ct i n ce privete discursul
istorico-artistic. Cu cuvintele ei, asta sugereaz c aceste performance-uri rmneau
necunoscute n spaiul public, care e definit nu doar de publicul propriu-zis i de
numrul participanilor care snt spectatori, ci i de prezentarea artei n literatura de
specialitate, mai ales n istoria artei i n critica de art. Spre deosebire de alte ri
est-europene, un artist din Romnia anilor 1970 n-a putut desfura performanceuri sau happening-uri stradale sau s comunice cu publicul larg.27 Acest lucru e evident n exemplele de art performance din Romnia anilor 1970. Deja n 1968, Paul
Neagu crease un performance public pe strzile animate ale Bucuretiului, expunndu-i cutiile mixed-media cu care trectorul putea s interacioneze. Spre anii 1970,
acest tip de spectacol public fusese deja imposibil, iar artiti precum Ion Grigorescu
(n. 1945) i Geta Brtescu (n. 1926) se refugiaser n atelierele lor, crend performanceuri pentru camera de luat vederi. Aceste aciuni puse n scen i filmate ori fotografiate pot fi considerate performance-uri, n msura n care lentilele camerelor de
luat vederi pot fi echivalate cu publicul. Cum scrisese Ileana Pintilie pe marginea unuia
dintre performance-urile lui Grigorescu, Masculin/Feminin (1976), dac acest film
n-a fost conceput neaprat pentru o prezentare public ceea ce pare evident ,
atunci artistul trebuie s fi desemnat un asemenea rol camerei video, lentilelor care
trebuiau s nregistreze imaginea i care deveneau un partener n explorrile sale,
un fel de complice al celor mai intime gnduri ale sale i al strilor sale de entuziasm, mental i fizic.28 Acelai lucru putea fi spus despre aciunile asemntoare
puse n scen n atelierul ei de Geta Brtescu, aciuni dintre care una fusese filmat
chiar de Grigorescu. Limitai la lumea interioar a atelierelor lor, aceti artiti s-au
concentrat adesea pe banalitatea vieii de zi cu zi i a lucrurilor care i nconjurau,
cum ar fi minile artistei (Brtescu) sau corpul artistului (Grigorescu). Grigorescu s-a
i retras n spaiul liber al satului pentru a pune n scen acolo performance-uri solo,
tot pentru camera de luat vederi.
Performance-ul a ajuns i mai trziu n Bulgaria vecin. Dovezi ale unor activiti de
tip performance au aprut n anii 1980, cu grupurile Cuckovden i DE (Estetizare

The Student Culture Center (SKC) in Belgrade was crucial to the

development of experimental art, with the 1970s being the heyday
of its activity. Seminal performances by Marina Abramovic (b. 1946),
Raa Todosijevic (b. 1945), Zoran Popovic, Era Milivojevic (b. 1944),
Nesa Paripovic (b. 1942) and Gergelj Urkom (b. 1940) took place
here, as well as the April Meetings, during which artists from abroad,
such as Joseph Beuys and Gina Pane, came to present their work.
Todosijevic described SKC as a marginal, closed space32, where
artists were given free reign to experiment. When asked how their
work passed by censorship and other restrictions, he stated that they
werent taken seriously, since they were only students.33 Neverthe less, commenting retrospectively, the artist felt that they were
working in a significant moment, and Todosijevic recalls that while
working together, they felt certain they were going to create a new
kind of art.34
A performative element can be seen as developing even earlier in
Croatia, with the activities of the Gorgona Group (19591966), which
often staged happenings and actions, sometimes on Mount Sljeme,
as well as in the work of Tomislav Gotovac (19372010). Gotovac provides an interesting link between the artistic scenes in Zagreb and
Belgrade, as he spent the years 19671975 in Belgrade while studying film directing in the Academy of Performing Arts there.35
In 1962, he created his first action, on Mount Sljeme, Showing Elle,
a photographic action in which the artist partially undressed and
showed pages of Elle magazine to the camera. While the artist
showed one object a female underwear model appearing on one
of the pages he also becomes the object himself, by having himself
photographed, also with his clothing removed. While the artist had
originally intended to be completed naked, he refrained from removing all of his clothes, as there were women present at the event.
Still, the message is still conveyed effectively with the artist bareback he is equally naked as the underwear model in the photos that
he displays to the camera.
In the former USSR and its republics, where Stalinism and its control
over the arts had a much further reach, both geographically and
temporally, the experimental practices that began to develop after
the Thaw, in the 1960s, were mostly confined to painting and sculpture. In the 1970s, examples of performance practices began to
appear, most notably in Russia and the Baltic states. In 1976, the
Moscow-based group Collective Actions staged its first action.
Entitled Appearance, it involved around 30 participants traveling
to Izmailovsk Field in Moscow, upon invitation by the organizers.
Following their arrival, the participants were given certificates confirming their presence at the action. Octavian Eanu has characterized the work of Collective Actions, from 19761989, as a form of
artistic experiment an effort to find unique ways to investigate
the nature of art.36 Their work followed a common formula,
involving a journey to the countryside, an action taking place there,
and followed by discussion involving all present. Their work hinged
on the concept of empty action, a state in which the participants
were held by the anticipation of the action facilitated by the process
of traveling to the event and waiting for it to take place. Eanu
described this as akin to a meditation practice, where the subject is
focused for a long period of time on a certain object, idea or psychological state.37 In other words, for these actions, it was the process
of traveling to them and participating that takes precedence over
the action itself, above any singular meaning and significance.
This focus on process as opposed to object production resembles the
impetus surrounding the development of Western performance art.
Latvias first happening took place in 1972, when artist and fashion
designer Andris Grnbergs (b. 1946) married his partner, Inta
Jaunzeme, in an action entitled The Wedding of Jesus Christ.
The action took place in the Latvian countryside, and a dozen artists,
poets and musicians in Grnbergss social circle participated.38
Grnbergs was a member of Latvias small group of hippies, and the
.as well as indigenous pagan culture, such as the traditional Midsum-

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

Dinamic), adunate n jurul figurii lui Orlin Dvorianov (n. 1951). Grupul Cuckovden punea n scen aciuni de tip carnaval, happening-uri i performance-uri nc din
1985. City Group, format n 19861987 n urma iniiativei criticului de art Filip
Zidarov, dorea s dezvolte o replic alternativ la stagnarea stilistic din arta bulgar a anilor 1980.29 Artitii asociai cu acest grup au lansat o expoziie inaugural cu
acelai nume n 1988, iar anul urmtor au organizat la Gabrovo un happening public
de proporii, intitulat The Tower of Babylon. n ianuarie 1990, aciunea lor Chameleon avusese loc n faa Palatului Culturii din Sofia i fusese descris ca un happening politic, corpul cameleonului fiind construit din carnete de membru al partidului
comunist n loc de piele.
n Iugoslavia socialist, condiiile pentru a crea art experimental fuseser diferite
n raport cu Europa Central i de Est comuniste. Dei se tie prea bine c artitii
din Iugoslavia s-au bucurat de o toleran mai mare n privina experimentului i de
mai mult libertate de expresie dect vecinii lor din Est30, trebuie totui s inem minte
c aceast libertate existase doar n anumite condiii i era n mare parte inut n
fru. Condiia principal, foarte asemntor cu Polonia, fusese aceea ca artitii s nu
critice guvernul sau conducerea acestuia. Activitatea experimental din Iugoslavia
fusese deci limitat iniial la o seam de Centre de Cultur Studeneti, care, dup
protestele studeneti din 1968, care avuseser loc la Belgrad, Paris i peste tot n
lume, au fost create pe ntreg teritoriul rii de Tito, cu scopul de a furniza spaii
analgezice n care rebeliunea s poat fi controlat, ceea ce o mpiedica s vin
n contact cu sfera public. Tito nelesese c tinerii nclinau spre rebeliune i pentru c nu puteau fi oprii, ei puteau fi mcar nrcuii. Miko uvakovic observase,
de asemenea, nc o strategie de a neutraliza efectele transgresiunii culturale i sociale31, i anume descurajarea artitilor n a-i expune activitatea experimental n mediul
n care triau, convingndu-i s fac expoziii n alte regiuni ale Republicii Iugoslavia.
Prin urmare, statu-quoul din fiecare regiune era meninut, iar activitatea transgresiv era dislocat.
Centrul Cultural Studenesc (SKC) din Belgrad fusese crucial pentru dezvoltarea artei
experimentale, anii 1970 fiind punctul culminant al activitii sale. Performance-uri deschiztoare de drumuri de Marina Abramovic (n. 1946), Raa Todosijevic (n. 1945),
Zoran Popovic, Era Milivojevic (n. 1944), Nesa Paripovic (n. 1942) i Gergelj Urkom
(n. 1940) au avut loc aici, mpreun cu ntlnirile din Aprilie, pe parcursul crora artiti
din strintate, precum Joseph Beuys i Gina Pane, veniser s-i prezinte munca.
Todosijevic descrisese SKC ca fiind un spaiu marginal, nchis32, unde artitilor li se
ddea voie s experimenteze. Cnd fusese ntrebat cum a trecut munca lor de cenzur i de alte restricii, el afirmase c, fiind doar studeni, nu erau luai n serios.33 Cu
toate astea, retrospectiv artistul era de prere c au lucrat ntr-un moment semnificativ i i aducea aminte c atunci cnd lucrau mpreun simeau c vor crea un
nou tip de art.34
Un element de performance poate fi vzut ca dezvoltndu-se chiar mai devreme
n Croaia, cu activitile Grupului Gorgona (19591966), care a pus de mai multe
ori n scen happening-uri i performance-uri, uneori pe muntele Sljeme, respectiv cu opera lui Tomislav Gotovac (19372010). Gotovac ofer o legtur interesant ntre scenele artistice din Zagreb i Belgrad, deoarece i-a petrecut anii
19671975 la Belgrad, unde studia regie de film la Academia de Arte Performative.35 n 1962, el crease prima sa aciune pe muntele Sljeme, Showing Elle, o aciune fotografic n care artistul s-a dezbrcat parial i filmase pagini din revista Elle.
Cnd artistul arat un obiect un fotomodel pentru lenjerie intim feminin ce apare
pe una dintre pagini , el devine acel obiect, fotografiindu-se la fel de dezbrcat ca
fotomodelul. Dei artistul intenionase iniial s rmn complet gol, el s-a abinut
de la a-i dezbrca toate hainele pentru c erau i femei prezente la eveniment.

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mer celebrations, which also take place in the countryside and

involve a celebration of and commingling with nature. Grnbergs,
who was often under police surveillance for his atypical style of dress,
described these happenings as pure escapism, rather than any
attempt at artistic experiment or development in the visual arts.39
Just as in many areas of the former Soviet sphere of influence, it was
the possibility of free expression combined with the safe haven of
the countryside (away from police surveillance) that created small
pockets of freedom throughout the East.
In the Soviet Republics of Moldova, Ukraine, Belarus and as well as
isolated Albania, however, actions, body art and performance came
much later onto the scene. In Moldova, a space for experimental art
really only opened up after the country broke free from the Soviet
Union and established its independence. This space was created
by the Soros Center for Contemporary Art, which was founded in the
countrys capital in 1993, just a similar centers were set up across
Eastern Europe in that decade. The SCCA Chiinu established
a creative camp, CarbonART, which provided a forum in which
young artists learned new techniques and were given the freedom to
experiment with conceptual, performance and land art. Artists such
as Pavel Brila (b. 1971), Mark Verlan (b. 1963), Lilia Dragneva
(b. 1975) and Lucia Macari (b. 1974) all began their performative
work through contact with the SCCA and CarbonART. As Dragneva

Tomislav Gotovac
Hair-Cutting and Shaving in Public III (homage to Carl Theodore Dreyer,
the film Jean dArc and Maria Falconetti), June 6, 1981, 12:00 noon,
performance in Zagreb, Vjesnk Bookstore, courtesy: the Tomislav Gotovac Institute

Cu toate astea, mesajul a fost transmis n mod eficace artistul la bustul gol e la fel
de dezbrcat ca modelul de lenjerie intim n fotografiile pe care le arat camerei
de luat vederi.
n fosta URSS i republicile sale, unde stalinismul i controlul su asupra artei au fost
mai profunde, att geografic, ct i temporal, practicile experimentale care au nceput s se dezvolte dup Dezghe, n anii 1960, se limitau cel mai adesea la pictur
i sculptur. n anii 1970, exemple de practici performance au nceput s apar mai
ales n Rusia i rile Baltice. n 1976, grupul moscovit Aciuni Colective i-a pus
n scen prima aciune. Intitulat Apariie, ea a constat din faptul c 30 de participani s-au deplasat n parcul Izmailovski din Moscova la invitaia organizatorilor. Odat
ajuni acolo, participanii au primit certificate confirmnd prezena lor la aciune. Octavian Eanu caracterizase munca celor de la Aciuni Colective ntre 1976 i 1989
ca o form de experiment artistic un efort de a gsi modaliti singulare de a investiga natura artei.36 Munca lor urma o formul comun, implicnd o cltorie la ar,
o aciune ce avea loc acolo, urmat apoi de discuii ntre participani. Munca lor se
articula pe conceptul de aciune vid, o stare n care participanii erau adui de
anticiparea aciunii, favorizat de cltoria la locul evenimentului i ateptarea ca el
s aib loc. Eanu a descris acest lucru ca nrudit cu practica meditaiei, n care subiectul e concentrat pe o perioad mai lung pe un anumit obiect, pe o anumit idee
sau stare psihic.37 Cu alte cuvinte, pentru aceste aciuni, procesul cltoriei la locul
n care urmau s se desfoare ele i participarea primeaz asupra aciunii nsei;
ele se afl deasupra oricrui sens i oricrei semnificaii particulare. Aceast concentrare pe proces, drept ceva opus producerii de obiecte, seamn cu elanul din jurul
dezvoltrii artei performance occidentale.
Primul happening din Letonia a avut loc n 1972, cnd artistul i creatorul de mod
Andris Grnbergs (n. 1946) s-a cstorit cu partenera lui, Inta Jaunzeme, ntr-o aciune intitulat Cstoria lui Isus Cristos. Aciunea a avut loc ntr-un sat din Letonia i
au participat o duzin de artiti, poei i muzicieni, prieteni ai artistului.38 Grnbergs
a fost un membru al micului grup de hippies ai Letoniei, iar happening-urile pe care
le-a organizat aveau asemnri att cu cultura hippie, ct i cu cultura pgn indigen,
cum ar fi srbtorile tradiionale ce au loc n timpul solstiiului de var i la ar, implicnd o celebrare a naturii i o comuniune cu ea. Grnbergs, care fusese adesea sub
supravegherea poliiei din cauza stilului atipic n care se mbrca, descrisese aceste happening-uri ca pur escapism, i nu att o ncercare de a face un experiment artistic sau o contribuie la artele vizuale.39 La fel ca n multe alte zone ale fostei sfere
de influen sovietice, crearea unor mici parcele de libertate n Est s-a datorat posibilitii expresiei libere, combinate cu adpostul pe care l oferea satul (departe de
supravegherea poliiei).
n republicile sovietice precum Moldova, Ucraina i Bielorusia, ca i n izolata Albanie, aciunile, body art i performance au aprut totui mult mai trziu. n Moldova,
un spaiu pentru arta experimental s-a deschis cu adevrat doar dup ce ara s-a
desprins de Uniunea Sovietic i a devenit independent. Acest spaiu fusese creat
de Centrul Soros pentru Art Contemporan, care a fost nfiinat n capitala rii n
1993, cnd centre similare au fost create n tot Estul n deceniul cu pricina. CSAC
Chiinu a nfiinat o tabr de creaie, CarbonART, oferind un forum n care artiti
tineri au deprins noi tehnici i li s-a dat libertatea de a experimenta cu arta conceptual, performance i land art. Artiti precum Pavel Brila (n. 1971), Mark Verlan (n.
1963), Lilia Dragneva (n. 1975) i Lucia Macari (n. 1974) i-au nceput munca n
cadrul performance-ului prin contactul cu CSAC i CarbonART. Cum afirmase
Dragneva n textul ei pentru volumul East Art Map, cderea Zidului Berlinului, care
a coincis cronologic cu momentul n care Moldova a devenit o republic suveran
(1991), n-a adus prin sine schimbri structurale n sfera artei. A fost nevoie de efor-

stated in her text for East Art Map, the fall of the Berlin Wall, which
chronologically coincided with Moldova becoming a sovereign
Republic (independence came in 1991), didnt in itself bring about
structural changes in the sphere of art. Purposeful efforts were needed in order to synchronize creative quests with the mainstream
searching of contemporary art.40 Those purposeful efforts were
made by the SCCA.
Like in Moldova, in Albania, performance art practices did not appear
until the 1990s. Prior to the end of Enver Hoxhas rule in 1985, and
the end of communist rule in 1992, there was little experiment in art
other than subtle attempts to break from the strict canon of socialist
realism, for example, through the use of non-representational color
and abstraction in painting. These attempts, however, were quickly
quashed, when the author of one such painting, Edison Gjergo, was
imprisoned for his Chagall-like painting The Epic of Morning Stars
(1972), and the painting was confined to storage.41 Consequently it
wasnt until the 1990s that artists began to branch out from painting
and use action and the body in their work. One of the first performances to take place in Albania was by an artist duo, Flutura (b. 1970)
and Besnik Haxhillari (b. 1960), who go by the artistic name The
Gullivers. In 1998, one year after they immigrated to Berlin, they
returned to Tirana to perform The Place Where Gullivers Sleep in
the National Gallery of Tirana. The two mounted their bed on
the wall, and slept in the gallery, merging the private space of the
artists private life with the public space of the museum.
In the closed socialist state of the German Democratic Republic,
experimental art was also slow to develop under tight restrictions.
Although German-born Joseph Beuys was a pivotal figure in contemporary performance art, little was known of his work just a few hundred miles East of his hometown. Despite efforts to disparage Beuys
and diminish the role of Fluxus and performance art in contemporary
art practices, information regarding his work penetrated the Berlin
Wall in various ways. In publicly denigrating his work, art critics and
artists such as Hermann Raul and Willi Sitte brought attention to it
and thus interest. Conversely, art historians who did not agree with
these negative estimations, for example Klaus Werner and Eugen
Blume, actively promoted his work through publications and public
lectures.42 In fact, Claudia Mesch has outlined three separate strands
of performance strategies in East Germany, one of which emerged
from those artists who followed the example of Beuys, such as Erhard
Monden (b. 1947), who planned a number of collaborative performances with Beuys, following his visit to East Germany in 1981, which
never took place with the actual participation of the artist.43
The other two strands are occupied by the Clara Mosch group44 from
Karl-Marx-Stadt (now Chemnitz), who had their first exhibition in
1977; and the third strand is represented by the Autoperforationsartisten, or Self-Perforation Artists, from Dresden.45 The actions
of both groups have their origins in the annual parties or carnivals
organized by art institutions.46 The Clara Mosch artists met as
students in Leipzig, and moved to Karl-Marx-Stadt to work in the
more liberal atmosphere created there by art collector Georg Brhl.
It was there that they organized exhibitions and plein air activities
(which were in fact documented by their Stasi mole, Ralf-Rainer
Wasse), such as week-long outings in which they would work collaboratively in the landscape. The Autoperforationsartisten staged their
first performance in 1986, Die Spitze des Fleischbergs [The Tip of the
Meat Mountain] in the context of a student carnival, and in 1987 they
presented Herz Horn Haut Schrein [Heart Horn Skin Shrine] in Dresden as part of their diploma work, the final piece necessary for completing their studies in stage design.
This admittedly very loose sketch of the origins and beginnings of
performance art in the former communist countries of Central, Eastern and Southern Europe demonstrates both continuity with the
Western model as well as divergence. While on the one hand, in the
1960s artists on both sides of the East-West divide were experimenting with and creating time-based works of art that privileged

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

turi consecvente pentru a sincroniza cutrile creatoare cu cercetarea mainstream

din cadrul artei contemporane.40 Aceste eforturi consecvente au fost fcute de
CSAC.
La fel ca n Moldova, n Albania practicile de art performance n-au aprut pn n
anii 1990. nainte de sfritul regimului lui Enver Hoxha n 1985 i sfritul regimului comunist n 1992, abia dac existase experimentalism n art, n afara unor ncercri
subtile de a evada din canonul strict al realismului socialist, de pild, n pictur, prin
utilizarea culorii ntr-un mod nonreprezentaional i a abstraciei. Cu toate astea,
aceste ncercri au fost urgent reprimate, cnd autorul unei picturi de acest gen,
Edison Gjergo, fusese nchis din cauza unei pnze n stilul lui Chagall intitulate Poemul stelelor de diminea (1972), aceasta sfrind ntr-un depozit.41 Prin urmare, abia
n anii 1990 artitii au nceput s prseasc pictura i s utilizeze aciuni i propriul
corp n lucrrile lor. Unul dintre primele performance-uri care au avut loc n Albania fusese cel al duoului artistic format din Flutura (n. 1970) i Besnik Haxhillari
(n. 1960), care i-au alocat numele de scen de Gulliverii. n 1998, la un an dup
ce emigraser la Berlin, s-au ntors la Tirana pentru a executa la Galeria Naional
performance-ul Locul unde dorm Gulliverii. Cei doi i-au amplasat patul pe un perete i au dormit n galerie, unificnd spaiul privat al vieii private a artitilor cu spaiul
public al muzeului.
n statul socialist etan al Republicii Democrate Germane, arta experimental s-a dezvoltat, de asemenea, ncet, n condiiile unor restricii severe. Dei germanul Joseph
Beuys a fost o figur central n arta performance contemporan, lucrrile sale erau
puin cunoscute la cteva sute de kilometri spre est de oraul su natal. n pofida eforturilor de a-l discredita i de a diminua rolul jucat de micarea Fluxus i de arta performance n cadrul practicilor de art contemporan, informaii privitoare la munca
lui au trecut de Zidul Berlinului n multiple feluri. Denigrnd public munca sa, critici
de art i artiti precum Hermann Raul i Willi Sitte au atras, de fapt, atenia asupra
ei i, astfel, au trezit un interes pentru ea. Invers, istorici ai artei care nu erau de acord
cu aceste evaluri negative, de pild Klaus Werner i Eugen Blume, i promovau n
mod activ opera prin publicaii i prelegeri publice.42 Claudia Mesch a schiat trei genuri
separate de strategii performance n Germania de Est, una provenind de la artitii care
urmau exemplul lui Beuys, cum ar fi Erhard Monden (n. 1947), care, dup vizita lui
Beuys n Germania de Est n 1981, a planificat o suit de performance-uri n colaborare cu acesta, chiar dac acestea n-au putut avea loc niciodat cu participarea sa.43
Celelalte dou genuri snt constituite de grupul Clara Mosch44 din Karl-Marx-Stadt
(acum Chemnitz), care i-a avut prima expoziie n 1977, respectiv de Autoperforationsartisten sau Artitii Care Se Guresc Pe Ei nii din Dresda.45 Aciunile ambelor grupuri i au originea n petrecerile i carnavalurile anuale organizate de instituiile
de art.46 Artitii de la Clara Mosch s-au ntlnit ca studeni la Leipzig i s-au mutat la
Karl-Marx-Stadt pentru a lucra n atmosfera mai liberal creat acolo de colecionarul Georg Brhl. Aici s-au organizat expoziii i activiti plein air (care au fost documentate de crtia Stasi care i urmrea, Ralf-Rainer Wasse), cum ar fi ieiri la sfrit
de sptmn n care lucrau n colaborare n peisaj. Autoperforationsartisten i-au pus
n scen primul performance, Die Spitze des Fleischbergs [Vrful muntelui de carne],
n 1986, n contextul unui carnaval studenesc, iar n 1987 au prezentat Herz Horn
Haut Schrein [Sanctuarul pielii de pe cornul inimii] la Dresda, ca parte a lucrrii lor
de licen, ultima pies fiind necesar pentru a-i ncheia studiile ca scenografi.
Aceast schi, destul de lax, recunosc, a originilor i nceputurilor artei performance n fostele ri comuniste din Europa Central, de Est i de Sud demonstreaz i
continuitate, i divergen n raport cu modelele occidentale. Pe de o parte, n anii
1960 artitii de ambele pri ale diviziunii Est-Vest au fcut experimente cu i au realizat lucrri bazate pe elementul temporal, care privilegiau procesele n raport cu

120

process over object production, such as actions, happenings and

body art, artists in the East utilized a range of approaches to manufacture their own unique forms and manifestations of the genre.
The reasons for these diverse practices are myriad, and not only
dependent on the socio-political situation. While in some cases
artists forced to work in the studio or countryside made the best
of the situation by working with those limitations rather than halting
their development in reaction to them (for example in Romania or
Czechoslovakia during the normalization period), in other instances
artists drew from and developed local avant-garde traditions, for
example in Poland and Yugoslavia. While Fluxus was instrumental
in spreading concepts and ideas regarding developments in contemporary art, it was not the only source for artists in Eastern Europe,
nor were other developments in the West. In fact, the research
demonstrates that performance art practices in the East developed
concurrently with those in the West, as opposed deriving from
them.
II. Performance and the Body
In the socialist spaces of Eastern Europe, the body had a unique resonance. Since public (and to a certain extent private) space was regulated by the state, this meant that the individual was constantly
subject to the power and discipline that derives from living within
the panopticon.47 Surveillance took varying forms, and existed to
varying degrees across the East. In East Germany, either the Stasi
infiltrated artist groups (Clara Mosch), or artists feared that they had
(Autoperforationsartisten), but never really knew. In places such as
Romania, or normalization-era Czechoslovakia, there was a similar
degree of monitoring of public space. While in the 1960s in Czechoslovakia Milan Knk was able to enact public exhibitions and
performances on the streets, in the 1970s, artists retreated to the
private spaces of apartments, basements and the countryside. Sanja
Ivekovics (b. 1949) 1979 performance Triangle demonstrated the
extent to which even the semi-private space of her balcony was monitored during an official visit of Tito to Zagreb. Sitting on her balcony, drinking whisky and pretending to masturbate, the security
officers stationed atop a high-rise hotel across the street noticed her
and summoned their colleagues on the street below to knock on her
door and ask her to leave the balcony (along with her things).
Throughout the communist period, the body found itself in the crosshairs of state surveillance.
In utilizing the body as artistic material, examples of body art, action
art and performance from the region illuminate the manner in which
the body is always already located within a system be it political,
artistic, or otherwise. The nature of these different systems becomes
most evident when juxtaposing examples not only from the East and
the West, but from across Eastern Europe. In addition to a geographic distinction, there is also a temporal one, when one considers the
changes that occurred from the communist to the post-communist
period. For example, Piotr Piotrowski has characterized the postcommunist period as agoraphilic, manifesting a drive to enter the
public space, the desire to participate in that space, to shape public
life, to perform critical and design functions for the sake of and within social space.48 Conversely, during the communist period this participation and design took place within a second public sphere, with
a limited audience and viewership. That is not to say that this work
did not have a social or political impact. In fact, in Antipolitics in
Central European Art (2013), Klara Kemp-Welch has demonstrated
how artists in Central Europe, whose work was not necessarily political, participated in the changes taking place across the region
throughout the second half of the twentieth century.49
The use of the body as material also had a simple, practical element
to it, given that it was readily available, and many artists were
attracted to body art for the freedom it gave them to create and
experiment. Dan Perjovschi (b. 1961) commented on the significance
of performance and body art in Romania in the 1980s and 1990s in

producia de obiecte, aici nscriindu-se aciunile, happening-urile i body art; artitii

din Est utilizaser o gam larg de abordri pentru a-i crea formele i manifestrile lor unice ale acestui gen. Exist o puzderie de motive pentru aceast divergen
a practicilor, ele nu depind doar de situaia sociopolitic. n timp ce n anumite cazuri
artitii silii s lucreze n atelierele lor sau la ar au ncercat s scoat ce era mai bun
din aceast situaie, lucrnd cu aceste limitri mai degrab dect s-i opreasc dezvoltarea ca reacie la ele (de pild n Romnia i Cehoslovacia n timpul perioadei
de normalizare), n alte cazuri artitii se inspiraser din i dezvoltaser tradiiile avangardiste locale, de pild n Polonia i Iugoslavia. Dei Fluxus era esenial n rspndirea conceptelor i ideilor privitoare la diverse dezvoltri n arta contemporan,
ea n-a fost singura surs de inspiraie pentru artitii din Europa de Est, la fel cum
acest titlu nu poate fi alocat nici dezvoltrilor occidentale. De fapt, cercetarea demonstreaz c practicile de art performance din Est s-au dezvoltat simultan cu acelea din Vest, i nu au derivat pur i simplu din ele.
II. Performance-ul i corpul
n spaiile socialiste ale Europei de Est, corpul are o rezonan singular. De vreme
ce spaiul public (i, ntr-o anumit msur, i cel privat) fusese reglat de stat, asta a
nsemnat c individul era supus mereu puterii i disciplinei ce rezult din viaa n panopticon.47 Supravegherea lua forme diferite i a existat n diverse grade pe teritoriul esteuropean. n Germania de Est, fie Stasi ajunsese s se infiltreze n grupurile de artiti
(Clara Mosch), fie artitii se temeau de asemenea infiltraii (Autoperforationsartisten), dar nu puteau fi siguri niciodat. n locuri precum Romnia sau Cehoslovacia perioadei de normalizare, a existat un grad similar de monitorizare a spaiului
public. n timp ce n anii 1960, n Cehoslovacia, Milan Knak a fost n stare s realizeze expoziii i performance-uri publice pe strzi, n anii 1970 artitii s-au retras
n spaiile private ale apartamentelor, pivnielor i satelor. Performance-ul din 1979
al lui Sanja Ivekovic (n. 1949), Triunghiul, a demonstrat msura n care pn i spaiul
semiprivat al balconului ei fusese monitorizat cu ocazia unei vizite oficiale a lui Tito
la Zagreb. Stnd pe balconul ei, bnd whisky i fcndu-se c se masturbeaz, ofierii de securitate aezai pe acoperiul unui hotel nalt de pe partea cealalt a strzii
au observat-o i i-au chemat colegii de pe strad s-i sune la u i s-o roage s
prseasc balconul (mpreun cu lucrurile ei). Pe ntreg parcursul perioadei comuniste, corpul s-a aflat n atenia supravegherii exercitate de stat.
n folosirea corpului ca material artistic, exemplele de body art, action art i performance din regiune lumineaz felul n care corpul e din capul locului situat ntr-un
sistem fie el politic, artistic sau de alt fel. Natura acestor sisteme diferite ctig cea
mai mare eviden atunci cnd e juxtapus cu exemple nu doar din Vest, ci i cu
exemple din rile est-europene. Cnd se analizeaz schimbrile ce au avut loc ntre
perioada comunist i cea postcomunist, pe lng deosebirea geografic, exist i
una temporal. De pild, Piotr Piotrowski caracterizase perioada postcomunist ca
una agorafil, manifestnd un impuls spre a intra n spaiul public, dorina de a participa la acel spaiu, de a modela viaa public, de a mplini funcii critice i de design de dragul spaiului social i n el.48 Spre deosebire de asta, n perioada
comunist aceast participare i acest modelaj au avut loc ntr-o sfer public
secundar, cu un public restrns. Ceea ce nu nseamn c aceast activitate n-a avut
un impact social sau politic. De fapt, n Antipolitics in Central European Art (2013),
Klara Kemp-Welch demonstrase cum anume artitii din Europa Central, a cror
oper n-a fost neaprat una politic, au participat la schimbrile ce-au avut loc n
aceast regiune n a doua jumtate a secolului al douzecilea.49
Utilizarea corpului ca material prezint, de asemenea, un detaliu simplu, practic,
dat fiind c era foarte la ndemn i muli artiti fuseser atrai de body art din cauza

Romania, stating that first of all it was cheap, which made it useful
in a time of material deficit. Insofar as artistic production was regulated by the state, resources were often scarce, and usually only allocated to official commissions. For example, the artist recalled the
difficulty he had in getting a large quantity of white paper to create
his performative installation, Red Apples (1988), when he covered
the entire living room of his apartment in paper as a surprise for his
wife, Lia Perjovschi (b. 1961) an environment in which they lived
for several days. But the artist also noted that after the revolution in
Romania, the body was also considered radical, because of the fact
that people had died on the streets; the body was not just visceral,
but real.
While Goldberg argued that artists in Eastern Europe utilized body
art because it left little trace of the unofficial and experimental artistic activity that it engendered, most of their performances were documented, and those documents had the potential to implicate not
only the artists, but also the bystanders involved. In Tom Pospiszyls
essay on the photographs of Czech Action Art from the 1970s, Look
Whos Watching: Photographic Documentation of Happenings and
Performances in Czechoslovakia, he discusses the fact that most of
the performances from that period (in contrast to the 1960s) took
place in private, with a small audience of close friends. Because of
this, the documentation of performances took on a greater significance, especially because it enabled the performances to be seen
by other audiences either contemporaneously, through circulation
of the photographs, or by a future, delayed50 audience, which may
or may not have included the state apparatus. As Pospiszyl has written, the audience that is captured in the photographs knows very
well that they are taking part in an art action. They also know that
the photographs will be seen by a large secondary audience and
maybe by the police, who can decode them as a disturbance of
the peace. They take that risk. Their presence and willingness to be
photographed means that they become part of the event.51 The
documentation of these performances is thus a crucial element to
the longevity of the work of art. It also demonstrates the risky nature
of experimental activity in the region, for both artist and viewer.
Zdenka Badovinac chose the body as the focus of her landmark exhibition, Body and the East: from the 1960s to the Present (Moderna
Galerija, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 1998), precisely because of its unique
resonance in the context of Eastern Europe. Pointing out the fact
that the body is social construct, it is inherently intersubjective, and
can function as another representational economy.52 This statement echoes those made by Amelia Jones around that same time,
that body art insistently pose[s] the subject as intersubjective (contingent on the other) rather than complete within itself (the Cartesian
subject who is centered and fully self-knowing in his cognition).53
Thus, interpreting these bodies in their context can provide illumination with regard to the socio-political factors surrounding them.
In other words, by examining the various uses and expressions of the
body in different locations across Eastern Europe, we gain a better
understand not only of the particular significance of the body in each
environment, but also of the nuances of the differing manners in
which state-sponsored socialism was adopted in each, as well as the
distinctive significance of the body and performance in the East, in
comparison with in the West. Although Jones doesnt write about
artists from Eastern Europe in her work, her analysis of performance
art can be instructive when looking at artists from the region, as she
herself emphasized the necessity of contextual analysis. According to
her, the social, political and cultural context is crucial to this analysis of what body art . . . can tell us about our current experiences of
subjectivity.54 In this section, I examine the manner in which artists
from the East used their bodies in performance to navigate the varying degrees of state control over artistic production and cultivate
their own unique forms of individual integration and self-definition,
including gender, national-cultural, among others.

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

Jir Kovanda
Contact, 3 September 1977, Prague, Splen and Vodickova streets, performance in Prague, 1977, Kontakt Collection Erste Bank, courtesy: the artist

Jir Kovanda
Untitled, xxx, 3 September 1977, Prague, Vclavsk nmest. On an escalator... I turn around and gaze straight into
the eyes of the person standing behind me, performance in Prague, 1977, Kontakt Collection Erste Bank, courtesy:
the artist

libertii pe care le-a dat-o n creaie i experimentare. Dan Perjovschi (n. 1961) a
fcut un comentariu pe marginea performance-ului i a body art n Romnia anilor
1980 i 1990, declarnd c, nainte de toate, acestea erau ceva ieftin, ceea ce le-a
fcut utile ntr-o perioad de penurie. n msura n care producia artistic era reglat de stat, resursele erau adesea puine i alocate de obicei doar unor comisii oficiale. Artistul a evocat, de pild, dificultatea pe care a avut-o n a primi o cantitate mare
de hrtie alb pentru a crea o instalaie-performance, Mere roii (1988), n care a tapetat ntregul living al apartamentului su cu hrtie, ca o surpriz pentru soia sa, Lia
Perjovschi (n. 1961) un ambient n care au trit cteva zile. Dar el a mai fcut i
observaia c, dup revoluie, n Romnia corpul fusese considerat tot ceva radical, deoarece oamenii muriser pe strzi; corpul nu era doar visceral, ci i real.
Dei Goldberg argumentase n favoarea ideii c artitii est-europeni utilizaser
body art pentru c lsa urme puine ale activitii artistice neoficiale i experimentale creia i ddea natere, majoritatea performance-urilor realizate de aceti artiti
fuseser nregistrate i acele documente aveau potenialul de a-i implica nu doar
pe artiti, ci i pe spectatori. n eseul lui Tom Pospiszyl despre fotografiile action
art-ului cehesc din anii 1970, Look Whos Watching: Photographic Documentation of Happenings and Performances in Czechoslovakia, acesta discut faptul c
majoritatea performance-urilor din acea perioad (spre deosebire de anii 1960) au
avut loc n privat, cu un public restrns de prieteni apropiai. Din aceast cauz, nregistrarea documentar a performance-urilor primise o semnificaie mai mare, mai ales
pentru c ea a permis ca performance-urile s fie vzute i de alte categorii de public
fie ele contemporane, prin rspndirea fotografiilor, sau viitoare, amnate50, care
au putut sau nu s-i includ pe cei din aparatul de stat. Aa cum scria Pospiszyl, publicul surprins n fotografii tia foarte bine c participa la o aciune artistic. El tia i
c fotografiile vor fi vzute de un public secundar vast i poate de poliie, care le
poate decoda ca pe o perturbare a ordinii. El i asuma riscurile. Prezena sa i consimmntul la a fi fotografiat nsemnau c el devine parte din eveniment.51 nregistrarea documentar a acestor performance-uri e deci un element crucial pentru
longevitatea operei de art. Asta demonstreaz i natura riscant a activitii experimentale n cadrul regiunii, att pentru artist, ct i pentru spectator.

Zdenka Badovinac a ales corpul ca punct de concentrare al expoziiei sale extrem

de importante Body and the East: from the 1960s to the Present (Moderna Galerija, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 1998), tocmai datorit rezonanei sale singulare n contextul Europei de Est. Subliniind natura de construct social a corpului, acesta e n mod
inerent intersubiectiv i poate funciona ca o alt economie reprezentaional.52
Aceast afirmaie e ca un ecou al celei fcute de Amelia Jones aproximativ n aceeai perioad. Potrivit acesteia din urm, body art afirm n mod insistent subiectul drept ceva intersubiectiv (depinznd de cellalt), i nu att drept ceva complet n
el nsui (subiectul cartezian centrat i perfect autocunosctor n cogniia sa).53 Astfel, interpretarea acestor corpuri n contextul lor poate furniza o lmurire n privina factorilor sociopolitici care le antureaz. Cu alte cuvinte, examinnd diversele utilizri
i expresii ale corpului n diferite locuri din Europa de Est, obinem o nelegere mai
bun nu doar a semnificaiei particulare a corpului n fiecare ambient, ci i a diverselor nuane ale modalitilor n care socialismul garantat de stat fusese adoptat n fiecare dintre ele, precum i cu privire la semnificaia mai particular a corpului i a
performance-ului n Est, n comparaie cu Vestul. Dei Jones nu scrie despre artiti
din Europa de Est n lucrarea ei, analiza pe care o desfoar despre arta performance poate fi instructiv cnd ne ocupm de artitii din regiune, de vreme ce i
ea a subliniat necesitatea analizei contextuale. Potrivit lui Jones, contextul social,
politic i cultural e crucial pentru aceast analiz a ce ne poate spune [...] body art
despre experienele noastre actuale ale subiectivitii.54 n aceast seciune examinez felul n care artitii din Est i-au folosit corpurile n performance pentru a evita
diversele grade de control statal asupra produciei artistice i au cultivat forme singulare de integrare individual i autodefinire, inclusiv sociosexual i naional-cultural, printre altele.

122

The Present Body

Amelia Jones cites a significant shift that took place in art history
and art criticism with the appearance of Hans Namuths photographs of Jackson Pollock at work, which illustrated an article
published in 1951 in Art News by Robert Goodnough, Pollock Paints
a Picture. In her estimation, Pollocks action painting, which was
revealed in these photographs, and which she terms the Pollockian
performative, effectively reveal the artist to the viewer. His action,
and thus the action of body artists, unveils the hidden body that
secured the authority of modernism.55 In doing so, it reveals the act
of interpretation as interested, as opposed to the Kantian disinterested approach, whereby the interpreter presumably determined
the inherent meaning and value of the work of art through objective
criteria.56 In revealing the body of the author, body art makes clear
the social space in which the artist is located and from which s/he
creates. In fact, Jones argues that body art confirms the disrupting
of the unified, closed, and independent Cartesian subject. In her
words, body art confirms what phenomenology and psychoanalysis
have taught us: that the subject means always in relationship to
others and the locus of identity is always elsewhere.57 Consequently,
it is through body art that the artist makes him or herself present,
whether it is in the social space of the public or private sphere.
In many instances, it was difficult for the body, in the context of performance art, to be truly present in the East, insofar as its audience
for experimental art was limited. Ivana Bago and Antonia Majaca
have characterized the audience for this work as a delayed one,
insofar as the reception for these works of art was primarily to be
found among future viewers, not among the general public present
at the time of the works creation. With regard to artists working in
Croatia in the 1970s, Bago wrote that they found themselves in an
empty space . . . where the products of their work were neither destined for the market nor desired by socialist society, and could only
be stored for a delayed audience, for future use.58 In fact, this
echoes statements by artists as to why they documented their work
at the time of creation, given that in most cases they would not be
able to exhibit it contemporaneously, either in the East or in the
West. For example, Romanian artist Iosif Kirly (b. 1957) stated that
he photographed his actions for a future audience59, thinking
that maybe it would be seen, and maybe it wouldnt. Similarly, Dan

Corpul prezent
Amelia Jones citeaz o cotitur semnificativ ce a avut loc n istoria artei i n critica de art odat cu apariia fotografiilor lui Hans Namuth despre Jackson Pollock
n timp ce muncete, fotografii ce ilustraser un articol publicat n 1951 n Art News
de Robert Goodnough, intitulat Pollock Paints a Picture. n evaluarea ei, pictura-

Perjovschi commented that he documented his work and the work of

his colleagues in order to have a witness to it, stating that in many
instances, he never thought it would be seen.60 When asked why he
documented an early work of performance art that he was involved
in in Latvia, painter Raimonds Lctis (b. 1948) commented that the
artists decided that it was an important moment, and it needed to
be captured and preserved in that way.61 Given the lack of possibility for many of these works of art to be publicly exhibited, the documentation thereof served the purpose of capturing, preserving and
eventually presenting that work to an audience that could not be
physically present with the artist.
Thus in examining works of performance in which the body features
as a presence or material, it is important to consider the significance
of the documentation of the action or event in this particular context
of Eastern Europe. Peggy Phelan has argued for the ontology of performance art, stating that performances only life is in the present.
Performance cannot be saved, recorded, documented or otherwise
participates in the circulation of representations of representations:
once it does so, it becomes something other than performance.62
Given that Phelan was writing primarily about Western performance
art, one might concede her point. However, it is my contention that
the specific socio-political circumstances in Eastern Europe require
a different view with regard to documentation. Philip Auslander has
provided such a view, in his argument against liveness as a requisite
of performance art. In defense of this idea, he maintains that live
performance is not resistant to mediatization. In fact, in his view,
the word live is not used to define intrinsic, ontological properties
of performance that set it apart from mediatized forms, but rather is
a historically contingent term.63 For example, he argues that the
idea of live only came about following the advent of the radio, with
which the distinction between recorded sound and live sound might
not be immediately apparent to the listener. In his words, the concept of the live was brought into being not just when it became possible to think in those terms . . . but only when it became urgent to
do so.64 For Auslander, the very act of documenting an action or
work of live art is what makes it a performance.65
Indeed, Pavlna Morganov has commented on the significance
of both the photographic and textual documentation of action art
in relation to the work of Czech artist Jir Kovanda (b. 1953), who
began working in performance in Prague in the 1970s. She described the consistent manner in which Kovanda dedicated one sheet
of paper to record each action, titling and dating it, and sometimes
including a short description, photograph, or series of photographs.
In her words, today these sheets of paper, which he once carried
around in well-worn folders to show those interested, are viewed
as artifacts. Indeed, they possess a certain aesthetic quality since
Kovanda conceived of them as a kind of collage . . . Yet they were
only records and documents, proof that the action took place and
the methods used.66 She further noted the fact that in the post-communist period, when artists became aware of the commodity value
of these documents, artists changed their perception67 of this documentation, coming to regard it more as a work of art than a mere
record of events. Just as the documentation of performance art in
the West became commodified, through the circulation, exhibition
and selling of these visual records, artists in Eastern Europe faced
a similar situation upon entering the art market in the 1990s.
One can witness the significance of the photographic camera when
examining the body and action art produced by artists across Eastern
Europe from the 1960s until the system change at the end of the
1980s and beginning of the 1990s. In Hungary, the work of Tibor
Hajas (19461980) stands as a compelling example of the symbiotic
relationship between performance and photography. The artist, who
was in fact a poet, created dramatic performances with his body
both in front of an audience and in private, but almost always with
a camera present. His 1978 performance Dark Flash, which took
place in Warsaw, is understood to be the first performance in the

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

aciune a lui Pollock, care a fost revelat n aceste fotografii i pe care ea o numete
performativul pollockian, l arat spectatorului efectiv pe artist. Aciunea sa i deci
aciunea artistului care practic body art dezvluie corpul ascuns care a asigurat autoritatea modernismului.55 Astfel, aciunea reveleaz actul interpretrii ca fiind unul
interesat, n opoziie cu abordarea dezinteresat discutat de Kant, n care se
presupune c interpretul determin sensul intim i valoarea operei de art prin criterii obiective.56 n revelarea corpului autorului, body art face patent spaiul social n
care artistul se situeaz i pornind de la care el/ea creeaz. De fapt, Jones susine
c body art confirm dezmembrarea subiectului cartezian unificat, nchis i independent. Cu cuvintele ei, body art confirm ceea ce ne-au nvat fenomenologia i
psihanaliza: c subiectul nseamn [ceva] mereu n raport cu alii i locul identitii
e mereu altundeva.57 Prin urmare, prin body art artistul se face prezent n spaiul
social al sferei publice sau private.
n multe cazuri, n contextul artei performance, a fost dificil pentru corp s fie cu
adevrat prezent n Est, n msura n care publicul artei experimentale era unul
restrns. Ivana Bago i Antonia Majaca au caracterizat publicul acestui gen ca unul
amnat, n msura n care receptarea acestor opere de art era de gsit n primul
rnd printre spectatorii din viitor, i nu n rndurile publicului general prezent n timpul crerii operei. n ce privete artitii ce lucrau n Croaia anilor 1970, Bago scria
c s-au gsit ntr-un spaiu gol [...] n care produsele muncii lor nu erau destinate
nici pieei, nici dorite de societatea socialist, i nu puteau fi dect stocate pentru un
public amnat, pentru o utilizare viitoare.58 De fapt, asta sun ca un ecou al unor
declaraii fcute de artiti despre motivele pentru care i-au nregistrat operele n
timpul crerii lor, dat fiind c n majoritatea cazurilor ei nu puteau s le expun n
contemporaneitatea lor, nici n Est, nici n Vest. De pild, artistul romn Iosif Kirly
(n. 1957) afirmase c el i-a fotografiat aciunile pentru un public viitor59, gndindu-se c ele poate c vor fi vzute, poate c nu. n mod asemntor, Dan Perjovschi
spunea c el i nregistrase lucrrile i pe cele ale colegilor si pentru a avea un martor la ele, afirmnd c n multe cazuri nu s-a gndit deloc c ele vor fi vzute.60
Cnd fusese ntrebat de ce a nregistrat o lucrare timpurie de art performance n
care fusese implicat n Letonia, pictorul Raimonds Lctis (n. 1948) spusese c artitii au decis c a fost un moment important i c trebuia nregistrat i conservat
n felul acela.61 Dat fiind imposibilitatea pentru multe dintre aceste opere de art
de a fi expuse, nregistrarea lor a servit scopului de a surprinde, de a conserva i,
n cele din urm, de a prezenta acele opere unui public care n-a putut fi coprezent fizic cu artistul.
Astfel, n examinarea lucrrilor performance n care corpul apare ca prezen sau
ca material, e important s lum n considerare semnificaia nregistrrii documentare a aciunii sau a evenimentului n contextul particular al Europei de Est. Peggy
Phelan dezvoltase un argument pentru ontologia artei performance, afirmnd c singu ra via a performance-ului este n prezent. Performance-ul nu poate fi salvat, nregis trat, prins n documente sau, altminteri, el particip la rspndirea unor reprezentri
despre reprezentri: odat ce ajunge s fac asta, el devine altceva dect performance.62
Dat fiind c Phelan scria n primul rnd despre arta performance occidental, putem
fi de acord cu observaia ei. Cu toate astea, opinia mea este c circumstanele sociopolitice specifice ale Europei de Est necesit o alt perspectiv n ce privete nregistrarea documentar. Philip Auslander furnizase o asemenea perspectiv n
argumentul su mpotriva timpului real ca o condiie necesar a artei performance.
n aprarea acestei idei, el susine c performance-ul n timp real nu se opune nregistrrii. De fapt, n opinia sa, expresia timp real nu e folosit pentru a defini trsturi
intrinsece, ontologice ale performance-ului, care l-ar separa de formele de nregistrare, ci e mai degrab una istoricete contingent.63 De pild, el argumenteaz c

124

history of Hungarian performance art (outside of the tradition of happenings already discussed).68 The piece involved the artist hanging
from the ceiling with his hands bound and his eyes blindfolded,
while he used a flash to attempt to take photographs in the dark
room. As with many of the artists performances, the piece pushed
his physical body to the limits, and the artist in fact lost conscious ness and had to be revived by the viewers present.69 The artist
explored similar motifs in an earlier work, which Lszl Beke has
termed a pre-performance, at an opening for the exhibition Exposition, wherein the artist sat blindfolded, holding a camera, listening
to instructions given by his assistants and attempting to take a photograph of another camera that was on auto-exposure, which was
hanging from a rope.70
While the photo camera and flash featured prominently in his performances, in some instances he replaced the camera flash with an
explosion of magnesium. Maja Fowkes ascribes his interest in photography to its role as a mediator between that which we see and that
which actually exists in the world. In her words, it is a metaphor for
the relation between existing reality and its appearance.71 Beke has
stated that he used flash in darkened rooms because of the physiological effects on the viewers eyes, insofar as it would produce a
momentary visual imprint of his work, and thus his body, on the retina. In Bekes words, Hajas required the audience participants to take
home the image, burnt into their eyes.72 Edit Andrs has stated that
for Hajas, it wasnt just the possibilities of performance that offered
the artist freedom, but also the photograph. According to her, the
only sites of freedom that remain for Hajas are his own body and the
medium of the photograph.73 Because of the fact that the artist was
not able to live out his reality in an unrestricted manner, in communist Hungary (he was arrested in 1965 and imprisoned for one year,
following his participation in a street demonstration), photography
offered the possibility of constructing a different reality. According to
Andrs, he believed that the photograph was a medium of freedom
and the inverse of reality, instead of being a mere documentation of
it.74 It should be noted that Hajas was a poet and writer, and yet was
also, according to Beke, the founder of Hungarian performance art,
thus indicating another unique source for the art form in the region
literature. When viewing the photographic documentation of Hajass
work, there can be no doubt that his focus is on the body as an active
subject, a material to be manipulated and pushed to its physical limits. The corporeality of his work notwithstanding, it is his work with
the photograph that underscores the significance of the performative
action for the artist.
Another artist who worked consistently with his body throughout his
decades-long career was Croatian (Yugoslav) artist Tomislav Gotovac.
While the artists concentration on performance developed from his
interest in film, his performative work goes beyond mere documented action and showcases the mundane aspects of everyday life.
For example, he marked the years from 19761981 as a long-dura tional performance, entitled Letting all Hairs on Head Grow, which
ended with a public performance at the Vjesnk Bookstore in Zagreb,
Hair-Cutting and Shaving in Public III (1981). In 1960, two years prior
to his first performance, Showing Elle, the artist created a series of
five photographs in which he dressed up and pretended to be an
actor in a French film (Heads, 1960). Although not created as a performance, but rather as staged photographs75, these early pieces
bear an uncanny resemblance to Cindy Shermans Untitled Film Stills
(19771980), although they predate them by nearly twenty years.
For his use of the body as his prime material, Jea Denegri has
argued that the artist uses his body as a readymade, treating his
own body, that is, as both the subject and object of the artistic
event.76 Indeed, throughout his oeuvre, it is the artists body that
is present both in his work, and among his viewers, as many of his
actions took place in the public space of downtown Zagreb.
In Czechoslovakia in the 1970s, the public performances of the
1960s, that had taken place on the street and implicated casual

ideea timpului real a aprut odat cu apariia radioului, n cazul cruia distincia dintre sunetul nregistrat i sunetul n timp real poate c nu e nemijlocit transparent
pentru asculttor. Cu cuvintele sale, conceptul de timp real a luat natere nu chiar
atunci cnd a devenit posibil s gndim n aceti termeni [...], ci abia cnd a devenit
urgent s-o facem.64 Pentru Auslander, gestul nsui al nregistrrii unei aciuni sau
piese de art ce are loc n timp real este ceea ce face din ea un performance.65
n aceast ordine de idei, Pavlna Morganov discutase despre semnificaia nregistrrii
fotografice i textuale a artei-aciune [action art] cu privire la opera artistului ceh Jir
Kovanda (n. 1953), care ncepuse s foloseasc genul performance n Praga anilor
1970. Ea a descris ntr-un fel coerent felul n care Kovanda a dedicat o pagin pentru a nregistra fiecare aciune, punndu-i un titlu i atandu-i o dat, iar uneori incluznd o scurt descriere, o fotografie sau o serie de fotografii. Cu cuvintele ei, astzi,
aceste pagini, pe care odat le-a purtat n dosare roase de uzur pentru a le arta
celor interesai, snt vzute ca obiecte de sine stttoare. De fapt, ele posed o anumit calitate estetic de vreme ce Kovanda le-a gndit ca pe un fel de colaj [...] Totui,
ele au fost doar nregistrri i documente, dovezi c aciunile au avut loc i ale metodelor folosite.66 Ea a mai fcut observaia c n perioada postcomunist, cnd artitii au devenit contieni de valoarea de schimb a acestor documente, ei i-au schimbat
percepia67 asupra nregistrrii documentare, ajungnd s-o priveasc drept oper
de art, i nu doar o pur fixare a unor evenimente. La fel cum nregistrarea documentar a artei performance occidentale a devenit marf, prin circulaia, expunerea i vnzarea acestor nregistrri vizuale, artitii din Europa de Est s-au confruntat
cu o situaie similar odat ce au intrat pe piaa artistic n anii 1990.
Semnificaia camerei fotografice devine evident dac se examineaz piesele body
art i de art-aciune create de artitii est-europeni din 1960 i pn la schimbarea
de regim spre finele anilor 1980, nceputul anilor 1990. n Ungaria, opera lui Tibor
Hajas (19461980) st ca un exemplu convingtor al raportului simbiotic dintre performance i fotografie. Artistul, care fusese de fapt poet, a creat performance-uri dramatice cu corpul su att n faa unui public, ct i n privat, dar aproape ntotdeauna
n prezena unei camere de luat vederi. Performance-ul su din 1978, care a avut
loc la Varovia i a fost intitulat Dark Flash, e considerat a fi primul performance n
istoria maghiar a genului (n afar de tradiia deja discutat a happening-ului).68 n
aceast pies, artistul atrn pe o funie fixat de tavan, cu minile legate i ochii acoperii, n timp ce folosete un bli i ncearc s fac o fotografie n camera ntunecat.
Precum n cazul multor performance-uri ale artistului, piesa l mpinge la limitele corpului su fizic, iar artistul i-a pierdut, de fapt, cunotina i a trebuit s fie readus n
simiri de ctre spectatorii prezeni.69 El explorase motive similare ntr-o lucrare timpurie, pe care Lszl Beke a numit-o pre-performance la vernisajul expoziiei Ex poziie, n care artistul era aezat cu ochii acoperii, innd un aparat de fotografiat
i ascultnd de instruciunile pe care le primea de la asistenii si n ncercarea de a
fotografia un alt aparat de fotografiat, care atrna de o sfoar i era reglat pe autoexpunere.70
Dei camera foto i bliul au fost foarte prezente n performance-urile sale, n unele
cazuri el a nlocuit bliul aparatului de fotografiat cu o explozie de magneziu. Maja
Fowkes pune interesul su pentru fotografie pe seama rolului de mediator al acesteia ntre ce vedem i ce exist n realitate n lume. Cu cuvintele ei, e vorba de o
metafor pentru raportul dintre realitatea existent i aparena ei.71 Beke afirmase c Hajas utilizase bliul n camere ntunecate din cauza efectelor fiziologice pe care
le avea acesta asupra ochilor privitorilor, n msura n care producea o imprimare
vizual momentan a lucrrii sale i, astfel, a corpului pe retin. Cu cuvintele lui Beke,
Hajas dorea ca publicul participant s ia acas imaginea ars n ochii si.72 Edit Andrs
afirmase c pentru Hajas nu doar posibilitile performance-ului ofereau libertate artis-

passersby as viewers or audience members, typical of Milan Knk,

were gradually pushed underground or outside the city. Following
the failed Prague Spring and the invasion of Czechoslovakia by
Warsaw Pact troops in 1968, the era of normalization began; a
time during which politicians aimed to bring Czechoslovakia back
in accord with the Soviet party line. While this did not put an end
to artistic experiment, it did displace it. The body art troika, for
example, which consisted of artists Karel Miler (b. 1940), Jan Mlcoch
(b. 1953) and Petr tembera (b. 1945), produced a number of actions
during this period in places such as the basement of the Museum of
Decorative Arts in Prague. At the time, tembera was working there
as a night guard, and used the position to his advantage by organizing clandestine performances and events there in the evenings, for a
trusted group of friends.
These artists produced body art for a relatively short period of time,
and much of this work focuses on the relation of the body to the surrounding world, as well as its physical limits. For example, in Either
and Or (1972), Karel Miler is photographed in two positions: laying
on the road, then laying on the curb next to it. In this way he delimits the roads existence in relation to, and dependent on his body.
Several of his actions feature a similar theme, for example Identification (1973), a photographic performance in which Miler tries to capture, on film, the precise moment when gravity takes effect, and he
falls to the ground from a pile of concrete slabs on which he had
been squatting. In Perpendicular (1973), the artist leaned his body
back in order to make himself perpendicular with the hill on which
he was standing. The fact that many of these actions take place outof-doors and in the countryside is significant. When not working in
the concealed spaces of the Decorative Arts Museums basement,
the countryside represented a unique arena of freedom for artists
in the Czech lands. Many of the actions that they created during this
time seem to form a hybrid with Land Art, such as those discussed
by Miler above. In this sense, they can be said to resemble British
Land Art, with its focus on the individual in the landscape, as
opposed to American Land Art, which concentrated on the vastness
of the American terrain.
The artistic atmosphere in 1970s in Bucharest was not dissimilar to
that in Prague at the same time. Ion Grigorescu was a painter who
also created performances for the photo and video camera. Much
like the work of the Czech artists mentioned above, his experiments
took place either in his studio or in the countryside, and were shared
only with a small group of friends. Echoing Denegris assessment
of Gotovac, Ileana Pintilie has also noted that Grigorescu treats the
body as a ready-made77 (italics hers), considering it a material or
tool like any other available for the artist to examine, manipulate
and record. The artist has examined his body doing boxing and yoga
(Box-Yoga, photographic performance, 1980), in relation to a chair
(Chairs, 1977), and through a fish-eye lens in the context of his home
(Our Home, 1976). He is also, like Gotovac, interested in the everyday regardless of how mundane, repetitive and ordinary78, writes
Pintilie, capturing himself cutting bread in The Kitchen (1975), sleeping (The Sleep, 2007) and washing himself in a number of different
ways: in Bathing (1975) he captured himself in his apartment, from
the waist up, washing himself with water in a basin; in Washing
Gestures (1978), we see a full-body view of Grigorescu in front of a
blank background, demonstrating the different gestures he uses to
wash his body, presumably in the shower; Washing with Light (1979)
shows similar gestures, but this time the motion is captured as streaks
of light using a long shutter opening on the camera; finally, in
The Ritual Bath (1979), the artist, seated, performs the process of
bathing, but using blue paint instead of water and soap, so that the
viewer sees the trace of his motions on the body.
Writing about his experiments with body art in 2004, the artist stated: My works evolved on a formal, visual path, in search of faire
vrai, an attempt to get out of the picture surface. Writing scenarios,
doing theatre in the mirror, voyeurism, illusion, excitement, manipu-

125

Ghenadie Popescu
Torba (Bag), film still from performance in Chiinu, Moldova,
2007, cameraman: Ruben Agadjanean, courtesy: the artist

Sislej Xhafa
Padiglione Clandestino (Clandestine Pavilion), 1997,
lambda print, 160 110 cm, courtesy: Galleria Continua,
San Gimignano/Beijing/Les Moulins

Yuriy Kruchak and Yulia Kostereva

The 7th of November, November 2009, art intervention in Geneva, Switzerland, photo: Yuriy Kruchak,
courtesy: the artists

126

Marina Naprushkina
Patriot, 2007, performance in Minsk, courtesy: the artist

Miervaldis Polis
The Bronze Man, 1987, performance in Riga, Latvia, courtesy: the Latvian Centre for Contemporary Art

127

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

tic, ci i fotografia. Potrivit ei, singurele locuri ale libertii care rmn la Hajas snt
propriul su corp i mijlocul de expresie al fotografiei.73 Din cauza faptului c artistul n-a fost n stare s-i triasc realitatea ntr-un mod nerestricionat n Ungaria
comunist (el fusese arestat n 1965 i nchis pentru un an, dup participarea sa la
o demonstraie stradal), fotografia i-a oferit posibilitatea de a construi o realitate
diferit. Potrivit lui Andrs, el crezuse c fotografia era un mijloc de exprimare a
libertii i, totodat, inversul realitii, n loc s fie simpla ei nregistrare.74 Trebuie
remarcat c Hajas fusese poet i scriitor, dar, potrivit lui Beke, el fusese deopotriv
i fondatorul artei performance ungureti, indicndu-se astfel o alt surs singular
a acestei forme de art n regiune literatura. Cnd privim nregistrarea fotografic
a muncii lui Hajas, nu poate exista vreo ndoial c el se concentreaz pe corp ca
subiect activ, un material de manipulat i mpins pn la limitele sale fizice. n ciuda
prezenei corpului n opera sa, abia munca sa n cadrul fotografiei subliniaz semnificaia aciunii performative pentru acest artist.
Un alt artist care a lucrat n mod consecvent cu corpul su pe tot parcursul carierei sale de mai multe decenii fusese artistul croat (iugoslav) Tomislav Gotovac. Dei
atenia acordat de artist performance-ului deriv din interesul su pentru film, munca
sa n cadrul performance-ului depete simpla aciune nregistrat documentar i
arat aspectele banale ale vieii cotidiene. De pild, el a marcat anii scuri ntre 1976
i 1981 ca pe un performance de lung durat, intitulat Lsnd toate firele de pr din
cap s creasc, aciune care s-a terminat cu un performance public n librria Vjesnk
din Zagreb, Tierea prului i rasul n public III (1981). n 1960, cu doi ani naintea
primului su performance, Showing Elle, artistul crease o serie de cinci fotografii n
care s-a costumat i a pretins c este un actor dintr-un film franuzesc (Capete, 1960).
Dei n-au fost create ca performance-uri, ci mai degrab ca fotografii aranjate75, aceste piese timpurii seamn n mod ciudat cu Untitled Film Stills (19771980) de Cindy
Sherman, chiar dac ele le preced pe acestea din urm cu aproape douzeci de
ani. Din cauza utilizrii de ctre el a corpului ca material primar, Jea Denegri susinuse c artistul i folosete corpul ca un readymade, tratndu-l ca subiect i obiect al
evenimentului artistic.76 n realitate, n ntreaga sa oper, corpul artistului e prezent
att n lucrrile sale, ct i n rndul privitorilor, ntruct multe dintre aciunile sale au
loc n spaiul public din centrul Zagrebului.
n Cehoslovacia anilor 1970, performance-urile publice ale anilor 1960, care avuse ser loc pe strad i i atrgeau pe trectorii ntmpltori ca privitori sau ca membri
ai publicului, performance-uri tipice lui Milan Knak, fuseser treptat marginalizate
sau exilate n afara oraului. Dup euarea Primverii Pragheze i invadarea Cehoslovaciei de trupele Pactului de la Varovia n 1968, a nceput epoca normaliz rii; o perioad n care politicienii au vrut s readuc Cehoslovacia n acord cu linia
de partid sovietic. Dei asta n-a dus la sfritul experimentelor artistice, cu siguran
c le-a dislocat. Troika body art, de pild, care a constat din artitii Karel Miler (n.
1940), Jan Mlcoch (n. 1953) i Petr tembera (n. 1945), a produs o seam de aciuni
n aceast perioad, n locuri precum pivnia Muzeului de Arte Decorative din Praga.
n perioada aceea, tembera lucrase acolo ca paznic de noapte i a folosit acest statut n favoarea sa, organiznd performance-uri clandestine i evenimente de sear
pentru un grup de prieteni de ncredere.
Aceti artiti au produs body art pentru o perioad relativ scurt de timp i mult din
aceast munc se concentreaz pe raportul dintre corp i lumea nconjurtoare, precum i pe limitele fizice ale corpului. De pild, n Sau, sau (1972), Karel Miler e fotografiat n dou poziii: ntins pe osea i ntins pe bordura de lng ea. n felul acesta,
el delimiteaz existena oselei n raport cu i n funcie de corpul su. Multe dintre
aciunile sale prezint teme similare, de pild Identificare (1973), un performance fotografic n care Miler ncearc s surprind, pe film, momentul precis n care gravitaia

128

lating optical apparatus, allowing optical apparatuses to produce

art, allowing work to replace the works. This leads to conceptualism.
The body gradually disappeared to make room for writing and criticism.79 The focus on the body derived from his interest in reality
and authenticity, thus he utilized the most visceral and real material
available. Furthermore, he commented that he became convinced
that life itself is a performance80, which also explains his focus on
everyday life.
Grigorescus use of the body to get at the real echoes the strategy
used by the Slovenian art group OHO, who employed the concept
of reism in their work, by focusing on the object and its literal representation. Their most iconic and exemplary work of this approach is
Mount Triglav (1969), a performative live sculpture created by three
of the groups members, David Nez (b. 1949), Milenko Matanovic
(b. 1947) and Drago Dellabernadina, in Zvezda Park in the center of
Ljubljana. Standing next to each other and draped in a black cloth,
the artists became a living instantiation of Mount Triglav, a national
symbol of Slovenia and the nations highest mountain peak. They
also literalized the mountain, whose name means three heads
in Slovenian. The artists maintained that the words used to express
different concepts were just as real as the objects themselves, and
were worthy of being articulated. In their artistic manifesto, they
stated that the objects are real. We approach reality of an object by
accepting it as it is . . . The word registers or pronounces such voice
of an object. Speech articulates that voice signified by words. This is
where speech meets music, which is the voice of the object captured
as sound.81 Thus the name and the physical land mass have equal
weight as objects to the artists, which is expressed in their action,
through the physical presence of their bodies both in the public
space, and in the photographic documentation.
The Exposed Body
While declaring the presence and substance of the human body was
significant in the communist landscape, one of the most declamatory
statements the artist can make is to expose his body to the public.
As Badovinac has mentioned, the exposure of the naked body is limited in both Eastern and Western environments. However, according
to her, in the West this is usually due to morals and public decency,
whereas in the East, the appearance of the nude in public could take
on more political dimensions.82 In the Soviet Union, for example,
there was a prohibition against nudity in art in general, and constant
surveillance of public spaces meant that the exposure of ones body,
male or female, could have serious consequences. Still, the exposure
of ones naked body in the public sphere represents the ultimate
form of freedom of expression. Tomislav Gotovac had his first taste
of this freedom in 1971, in Belgrade, when he ran though a busy
street, completely unclothed, as part of a scene in the film Plastic
Jesus. Though the action lasted just a few seconds, as Gotovac ran
from the safety of one car to another, parked further down the street,
it is considered to be the first instance of streaking in Eastern Europe.
Streaking became a phenomenon in US popular culture in the
1970s, most likely in response to the sexual revolution and hippie
movement. For Gotovac, however, working in a country that did not
undergo a sexual revolution, baring ones skin in the public sphere
equated to the avant-garde tactic of shocking the bourgeoisie.
The fact that he counted on his actions to shock can be seen in the
manner in which he constructed them. Ten years after his run in
Belgrade, the artist created his first public performance involving
streaking, entitled Lying Naked on the Asphalt, Kissing the Asphalt
(Zagreb, I Love You!), where he did all of the things mentioned in the
title, screaming the titular statement as he walked along Ilica Street,
one of Zagrebs main thoroughfares. The performance, much like
most of his that involved public nudity or other indiscretions, ended
with his arrest by the police. In fact, the artist embarks on these
actions knowing full well that they will be interrupted by these socalled guardians of morality.83 As Jea Denegri has written about

ncepe s acioneze i el cade la pmnt de pe un morman de plci din beton pe care

sttea ghemuit. n Perpendicular (1973), artistul i-a aplecat corpul n spate pentru a
sta perpendicular pe un deal. Faptul c multe dintre aceste aciuni au loc n natur i
la ar e semnificativ. Cnd nu lucrau n spaiile ascunse din pivnia Muzeului de Arte
Decorative, satul reprezenta o aren singular de libertate pentru artitii din Cehia.
Multe dintre aciunile pe care le-au realizat n aceast perioad par s formeze un hibrid
cu land art, aa cum spune Miler mai sus. n acest sens, se poate spune c ele seamn
cu lucrrile land art britanice, cu concentrarea sa pe individ n mijlocul peisajului, spre
deosebire de land art american, concentrat pe vastitatea spaiului american.
Atmosfera artistic din Bucuretiul anilor 1970 a fost asemntoare cu aceea din
Praga la acea vreme. Ion Grigorescu fusese un pictor care fcea i performance-uri
pentru camera foto i video. Foarte asemntor cu lucrrile artitilor cehi menionai mai sus, experimentele sale au avut loc fie n atelierul su, fie la ar i erau mprtite doar cu un mic grup de prieteni. Ca un ecou al evalurii pe care o face
Denegri lui Gotovac, Ileana Pintilie a observat la rndul ei c Grigorescu trateaz
corpul ca pe un readymade77 (italicele ei), considerndu-l un material sau o unealt
oarecare, aflat la dispoziia artistului pentru examinare, manipulare i nregistrare.
Artistul i-a examinat corpul n timp ce fcea box i yoga (Box-Yoga, performance fotografic, 1980), n raport cu un scaun (Scaune, 1977) i prin lentile ochi-de-pete n
contextul apartamentului su (Casa noastr, 1976). La fel ca Gotovac, e interesat
de viaa cotidian, indiferent ct de banal, repetitiv i obinuit78, scrie Pintilie, el
nregistrndu-se n timp ce taie pine n Buctria (1975), doarme (Somnul, 2007) i
se spal n moduri diferite: n Baia (1975) s-a nregistrat n apartamentul su, splndu-se de la mijloc n sus ntr-un lighean; n Gesturi de mbiere (1978), vedem o
imagine cu ntreg corpul lui Grigorescu n faa unui fundal neutru, artnd diferite
gesturi pe care le folosete pentru a se spla, probabil la du; A te spla cu lumin
(1979) arat gesturi similare, dar de data asta micarea e nregistrat sub form de
dre de lumin folosind procedeul expunerii fotografice lungi; n cele din urm, n
Baia ritual (1979), artistul aezat execut gestul mbierii, dar folosind vopsea albastr
n loc de ap i spun, aa nct privitorul vede urmele micrilor sale pe corpul su.
Scriind n 2004 despre experimentele sale pe terenul body art, artistul afirmase:
lucrrile mele au evoluat pe o pist formal, vizual n cutarea lui faire vrai, o ncercare de a iei din suprafaa imaginii. A scrie scenarii, a face teatru n oglind, voaierism, iluzie, entuziasm, a manipula aparatul optic, a permite aparatelor optice s
produc art, a permite lucrrii s nlocuiasc lucrrile. Asta duce la conceptualism.
Corpul a disprut treptat pentru a face loc scrisului i criticii.79 Concentrarea pe corp
deriv din interesul su pentru realitate i autenticitate, aa a ajuns s foloseasc materialul cel mai visceral i cel mai real la ndemn. Mai mult, el a spus c a ajuns s
fie convins c viaa nsi este un performance80, ceea ce explic atunci i concentrarea sa pe viaa cotidian.
Folosirea de ctre Grigorescu a corpului pentru a ajunge la real e ca un ecou al
strategiei folosite de grupul artistic sloven OHO, care folosise conceptul de reism
n lucrrile sale, prin concentrarea pe obiect i pe reprezentarea sa literal. Lucrarea lor cea mai emblematic i mai exemplar pentru aceast abordare este Muntele Triglav (1969), o sculptur performativ vie creat de trei dintre membrii
grupului, David Nez (n. 1949), Milenko Matanovic (n. 1947) i Drago Dellabernadina, n parcul Zvezda din centrul Ljubljanei. Stnd unul lng altul i fiind acoperii
de o pnz neagr, artitii au devenit o reprezentare vie a muntelui Triglav, un simbol naional al Sloveniei i vrful cel mai nalt de pe teritoriul rii. Ei au literalizat, de
asemenea, muntele, al crui nume nseamn trei capete n sloven. n opinia artitilor, cuvintele folosite pentru a exprima diverse concepte snt la fel de reale ca obiectele nsele i merit s fie pronunate. n manifestul lor artistic, afirmaser c

these actions, Gotovac literally bares himself to bare all those who
in their own everyday lives resist and are afraid of the risks of any
kind of change. Exposing his own naked body in a public place is for
Gotovac a direct gesture, and a symbolic deed of freedom of behavior; he allows himself a large measure of freedom... calling on other
people... to fight for their right to their personal freedom, irrespective in which area of human existence this freedom of action needs
to be won.84 While individuals in Yugoslavia experienced a greater
degree of personal freedom than in neighboring socialist countries,
as in any country there were limits to that freedom, as witnessed
with Ivekovics performance Triangle, mentioned above. Lazar
Stojanovic, the director of Plastic Jesus, was sentenced to a year
and a half in prison because of the film (which was in fact his graduation project from film school), because he used film footage in
a way that seemed to equate fascism and socialism (Gotovac, however, was not arrested for his part in the film).85 That said, Gotovac
continued his public actions using both his naked and clothed body
throughout his career, which lasted well into the post-socialist period.86 The continuity of this leitmotif supports Denegris suggestion
that Gotovac used it as an expression of freedom, regardless of the
particular human rights issues being faced at any particular time.
The Limits of the Body
The artists body can undergo its most significant transformation
by being pushed to its physical limits, damaged or destroyed.
Examples of extreme body art action can be seen throughout the
history of performance art in the East and in the West. For example,
in Shoot (1974), American artist Chris Burden had himself shot in
the arm by a friend, in an attempt to experience first-hand the violence witnessed on a daily basis in the Vietnam War that was being
televised throughout the world. In treating the body as raw material, it follows that one possibility is to subject that material to a test,
to see how much it can withstand. Zdenka Badovinac has already
decried claims that the restrictive atmosphere in Eastern Europe
led to a greater aggression of Eastern European artists toward
their bodies in performance art, by citing examples, such the one
above. She does assert, however, that the significant difference
between works of art created in these two distinct geo-political
spaces, is something invisible and unsignified87 in other words,
the meaning changes in connection with the context. According
to Badovinac, similar gestures are read differently in different
spaces.88
The artists associated with the Student Culture Center in Belgrade
often engaged in activity that stretched their bodies to their physical
limits in their performance. Marina Abramovic is perhaps best known
for this type of work, but she is certainly not the only artist from
Belgrade representative of this trend. In her first performance,
Rhythm 10, which actually took place in Edinburgh in 1973, in the
context of the Edinburgh Festival, she involved herself in a game
of self-harm, by stabbing a knife in between her fingers, spread out
on the floor. Each time she stabbed herself, she switched knives,
until she used all twenty. As she had recorded the performance,
she then played the tape back, attempting to copy her previous gestures, including the ones that brought her harm. In other performances, such as Rhythm 5 (1974) the artist lost consciousness due to
smoke inhalation, and in Rhythm 2 (1974), the artist had seizures
and then lost control of her body due to medication that she took
to induce these physical states. In that same year, Raa Todosijevic,
another artist associated with the Student Culture Centre, performed
Drinking Water Inversions, Imitations, and Contrasts, during which
he drank 26 glasses of water, in an attempt to synchronize his swallowing with the breathing of a fish that he had removed from water.
Because of the large quantity of water he drank in such a short time,
he vomited periodically throughout the 35-minute performance.
Branislav Jakovljevic has written about the performances that took
place at the Student Culture Centre in the context of the protests

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

obiectele snt reale. Ne apropiem de realitatea unui obiect prin a accepta c este
aa cum este [...]. Cuvntul nregistreaz i pronun o asemenea voce a obiectului. Vorbirea rostete vocea semnificat prin cuvinte. Aici e locul n care vorbirea
se ntlnete cu muzica vocea obiectului nregistrat ca sunet.81 Astfel, numele i
masa spaiului fizic au o greutate egal ca obiecte pentru artist, ceea ce e exprimat
n aciunea lor prin prezena fizic a corpurilor lor n spaiul public i prin documentarea fotografic.
Corpul expus
n timp ce declararea prezenei i a substanei corpului omenesc fusese semnificativ n peisajul comunist, una dintre afirmaiile cele mai puternice pe care le pot face
artitii e s-i expun corpul unui public. Aa cum menionase Badovinac, expunerea corpului gol e limitat att n mediul estic, ct i n cel vestic. Cu toate astea, potrivit ei, n Vest asta se datoreaz moravurilor i decenei publice, pe cnd n Est, apariia
nudului n public poate cpta dimensiuni mai politice.82 n Uniunea Sovietic, de
pild, existase o prohibiie n privina goliciunii n art n general, iar supravegherea
constant a spaiilor publice a nsemnat c expunerea corpului cuiva, brbat sau femeie, putea avea consecine serioase. Totui expunerea n public a corpului gol reprezint forma suprem a libertii de exprimare. Tomislav Gotovac a gustat pentru
prima oar aceast libertate n 1971, la Belgrad, cnd a alergat pe o strad aglomerat complet dezbrcat, ntr-o scen din filmul Isus din plastic. Dei aciunea a durat
doar cteva secunde, Gotovac alergnd dintr-un automobil ntr-altul, parcat undeva n josul strzii, scena e cunoscut drept primul moment de alergare nud n Europa de Est. Alergarea nud a devenit un fenomen n cultura popular american n
anii 1970, cel mai probabil ca rspuns la revoluia sexual i la micarea hippie. Cu
toate astea, pentru Gotovac, lucrnd ntr-o ar prin care revoluia sexual nu a trecut, dezbrcatul n sfera public a echivalat cu tactica avangardist a ocrii burgheziei. Faptul c s-a bazat pe aciunile sale pentru a oca poate fi vzut din felul n care
le-a construit. Zece ani dup alergatul su n Belgrad, artistul i-a creat primul performance public care implica goliciune, intitulat Stnd culcat pe asfalt, srutnd asfaltul (Zagreb, te iubesc!), n care a fcut toate lucrurile menionate n titlu, rcnind
afirmaia din titlu n timp ce mergea pe strada Ilica, una dintre arterele principale
ale Zagrebului. Performance-ul, asemntor multor lucrri ale sale care implicau nuditate sau alte indiscreii, s-a terminat prin arestarea sa. De fapt, artistul s-a apucat de
aceste aciuni tiind foarte bine c ele vor fi ntrerupte de aceti aa-numii paznici
ai moralitii.83 Aa cum scrisese Jea Denegri despre aceste aciuni, Gotovac se
dezbrac literal pentru a-i dezbrca pe toi cei care, n viaa lor cotidian, rezist
la i le e team de riscurile oricrui fel de schimbare. Expunndu-i propriul corp
gol ntr-un spaiu public este pentru Gotovac un gest direct i o fapt simbolic innd
de libertatea comportamental; el i permite o mare libertate [...] chemndu-i pe
ceilali [...] s lupte pentru dreptul lor la libertatea lor personal, indiferent n care
zon a existenei omeneti trebuie ctigat aceast libertate de aciune.84 Dei indivizii din Iugoslavia au experimentat un grad mai mare de libertate personal dect
cei din rile socialiste vecine, precum n orice alt ar existaser i aici limite ale
libertii, aa cum se arat n performance-ul Triunghiul de Ivekovic, menionat mai
sus. Lazar Stojanovic, regizorul filmului Isus din plastic, fusese pedepsit cu un an i
jumtate de nchisoare din cauza acestui film (care fusese, de fapt, proiectul su de
diplom la Facultatea de Film), deoarece i s-a imputat c a folosit filmul ntr-un fel
care prea s echivaleze fascismul i socialismul (Gotovac n-a fost arestat totui pentru rolul su din acest film).85 Gotovac i-a continuat aciunile publice folosindu-i
att corpul gol, ct i pe cel mbrcat de-a lungul ntregii sale cariere, care a durat
destul de mult i s-a ntins i n perioada postcomunist.86 Continuitatea acestui lait-

130

that took place in Belgrade, among other places across the world,
in 1968. In his view, the protests were a true challenge to the system,
in that the student bodies that appeared in the streets were disorderly and destructive, and they refused to be homogenized in the
way that one witnesses in the socialist spectacles such as mass
rallies, Youth Day Relay Races, or Youth Work Actions.89 He describes
such mass actions as the epitome of allegory, insofar as the people
present are not represented as individuals, but rather emblematic
of the unity of the socialist state under the prevailing ideology.
Jakovljevic draws a parallel between the 1968 student protests and
the performances that took place in SKC several years later. In his
words, the works of the Belgrade performance artists from the early
70s are the sole legitimate continuation of the aesthetic intervention
of June 2 and 3, 1968 [the dates of the student protests AB].90
For him, whereas the bodies of the spectacle were allegorical, the
SKC bodies were examples of de-allegorization, insofar as they turn
towards the instantaneous, the perishable, the ephemeral91, citing
works by Abramovic and Todosijevic as examples. He contrasts
Todosijevics ascetic body in Drinking Water with the athletic bodies that exercise in the stadium, noting that in it was the protests
that made visible the bodies that were vulnerable and wounded;
emaciated, unregimented bodies that dont march and dont exer cise in union.92 Like Todosijevic, Abramovic deliberately made herself vulnerable, not only in front of her viewers, as in Rhythm 2, but
also among them, as in Rhythm 0 (1974), when she empowered her
audience by giving its members 72 objects to use on her as they
wished, including objects that caused pleasure, and those that
caused pain.
Czech body artists Petr tembera and Jan Mlcoch created works of
art that focused on the body and its limits of endurance. For example,
in Grafting (1975), tembera undertook a grueling attempt to graft
a tree to his arm, uniting his body with nature, which resulted in him
getting blood poisoning. That same year, he performed Sleeping in
a Tree, wherein he slept in the branches of a tree after going
without sleep for three nights. In Morganovs view, in these works
tembera used his body as a means for exploring and testing an
undetermined situation.93 Jan Mlcochs 20 Minutes also took place
that year, a performance in which he sat against the wall, while a
long rod with a knife at the end was pointed at his stomach. Setting
an alarm clock for twenty minutes, he asked an assistant to move the
rod closer to him, thus pressing the knife into his stomach, if he lost
concentration at any point. Because of a malfunction with the clock,
the performance lasted for 44 minutes. Like tembera, Mlcoch cre ates situations that would present danger or harm to him, and willfully accepts the challenge. Jindrich Chalupeck has interpreted this
as being about control. In his words, they want to handle these
extreme situations, not succumb to them.94 The artists present the
body as their strongest material to weather any challenge, whether
real or contrived.
While in the communist period the body was utilized by artists as a
symbol of freedom, and a tool of self-expression, it remains relevant
and valid material for artists in the post-socialist period as well.
Although limits on artistic freedom may be different after the system
change, the body is still seen by many to represent the ultimate
expressive element, one of the most visceral ways of connecting
with ones viewers or having an impact on them.
For example, Serbian artist Zoran Todorovic (b. 1965) does not see
the physical limits of the bodys exterior as an obstacle. Rather, he
moves beyond the layer of the skin to access the bodys interior,
commandeering it in his work. In Agalma (20032005), the artist had
fat removed from his stomach, which he used to make soap. During
the exhibition of the piece, visitors were able to wash their hands
with the soap; they also had the possibility of being bathed by the
curators, in a private bathroom (in a rented hotel room). The piece is
a token of affection for the viewers, as the title refers to the Greek
word for a gift offered to the gods. In fact, it is a gesture of intimacy,

motiv sprijin sugestia lui Denegri conform creia Gotovac i-a folosit corpul ca pe
o expresie a libertii, indiferent de chestiunile particulare legate de drepturile
omului, care ar fi aprut la un moment dat.
Limitele corpului
Corpul artistului i poate atinge transformarea cea mai semnificativ cnd e mpins
la limitele sale fizice, vtmat sau chiar distrus. Exemple extreme de body art pot
fi vzute n ntreaga istorie a artei performance att n Est, ct i n Vest. De exemplu, n Shoot (1974), artistul american Chris Burden s-a lsat mpucat n bra de
un prieten, n ncercarea de a tri violena direct prezent n mod obinuit n Rzboiul din Vietnam, difuzat n ntreaga lume prin intermediul televiziunii. Considernd
corpul ca pe o materie prim, rezult c o posibilitate e aceea de a supune acest
material unui test, pentru a vedea ct poate suporta. Zdenka Badovinac a dezamorsat deja pretenia c atmosfera restrictiv din Europa de Est a dus la o mai mare
agresiune a artitilor est-europeni fa de propriile corpuri n arta performance, citnd
exemple precum cel de mai sus. Ea spune totui c diferena semnificativ dintre
operele de art create n aceste dou spaii geopolitice distincte e ceva invizibil i
neasignat87 cu alte cuvinte, semnificaia se schimb n legtur cu contextul. Potrivit lui Badovinac, gesturi similare snt citite n mod diferit n spaii diferite.88
Artitii asociai cu Centrul de Cultur Studenesc din Belgrad s-au angajat adesea
n performance-urile lor la activiti ce duceau corpurile lor la limitele fizice. Marina
Abramovic e poate cea mai cunoscut pentru acest tip de munc, dar cu siguran
c ea nu e singurul artist din Belgrad reprezentativ pentru acest curent. n performance-ul ei Rhythm 10, care a avut loc la Edinburgh n 1973, n contextul Festivalului de la Edinburgh, ea s-a angajat ntr-un joc de autovtmare, nfignd un cuit
n spaiul dintre degete, palma sa fiind aezat cu degetele deprtate pe podea. De
fiecare dat cnd se rnea, ea schimba cuitele, pn a ajuns s le foloseasc pe toate
douzeci. Dup ce a nregistrat performance-ul, ea a dat banda napoi, ncercnd s
copieze gesturile ei de mai nainte, inclusiv cele care au rnit-o. n alte performance-uri, cum ar fi Rhythm 5 (1974), artista i-a pierdut cunotina datorit inhalrii
de fum, iar n Rhythm 2 (1974) a intrat n convulsii, iar apoi a pierdut controlul asupra corpului ei datorit unor medicamente pe care le-a luat pentru a induce aceste stri fizice. n acelai an, Raa Todosijevic, un alt artist asociat cu Centrul de Cultur
Studenesc, a executat Drinking Water Inversions, Imitations, and Contrasts, pe parcursul cruia a but 26 de pahare de ap, n ncercarea de a-i sincroniza nghiiturile cu respiraia unui pete scos din ap. Din cauza cantitii mari de ap bute ntr-un
timp att de scurt, el a vomitat de cteva ori n timpul performance-ului de treizeci
i cinci de minute.
Branislav Jakovljevic scrisese despre performance-urile care au avut loc la Centrul
de Cultur Studenesc n contextul protestelor de la Belgrad i din ntreaga lume
n 1968. n opinia sa, protestele au fost o adevrat provocare pentru sistem deoarece corpurile studenilor care au aprut pe strzi erau dezordonate i distructive,
iar ei refuzau s fie omogenizai n felul n care se putea vedea n spectacolele socialiste cum ar fi defilrile, alergrile de tafet cu ocazia Zilei Tineretului sau aciunile de munc ale tineretului.89 El descrie asemenea aciuni n mas ca pe un prototip
al alegoriei, n msura n care oamenii prezeni nu snt reprezentai ca indivizi, ci
mai degrab ca embleme ale unitii statului socialist sub stindardul ideologiei
dominante. Jakovljevic traseaz o paralel ntre protestele studeneti din 1968 i
performance-urile care avut loc n cadrul CCS civa ani mai trziu. Cu cuvintele sale,
lucrrile artitilor de performance din Belgrad de la nceputul anilor 1970 snt singura continuare legitim a interveniei estetice de pe 2 i 3 iunie 1968 [datele protestelor studeneti AB].90 Pentru el, n timp ce corpurile din cadrul spectacolului

as the viewer is invited to become a participant and benefit from the

artists pain by washing his hands with the soap. Artist and viewer
could not be any closer following the latters consumption of the
work.
In Assimilation (19972006), Todorovic made aspic from human
tissue that had been discarded after different cosmetic surgeries,
for example rhinoplasty or liposuction, and served it to viewers at
the opening of his exhibition. Those attendees were aware of the
contents of the food being offered them; some tasted it, and others
did not. Here, the recycling of these pieces of human flesh raises
questions about contemporary notions of beauty; by giving viewers
the opportunity to feast on that which is discarded in order to beautify, the artist asks them to consume for nourishment that which is
seen as waste and excess by another. In the context of the opening
in the gallery, it also gave rise to question about one of the most
extreme forms of body mutilation, cannibalism, as some attendees
asked whether it was legal, or even healthy, to eat human flesh.
The very visceral and recent public performances of Russian artist
Petr Pavlensky (b. 1984) provide continuity with the past in the use
of the body as a manifestation of freedom. However, Pavlenskys
performances are overtly political, not to mention public, and in the
post-Soviet space of contemporary Russia this volatile mix has resulted in the artists detention and arrest. The artist has created a number of performances whose intention is to function as direct political
protest and commentary. For example, in 2012, he appeared in front
of Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, with his mouth sewn shut,
holding a banner that equated the actions of punk feminist performance group Pussy Riot95, for which two members were eventually
sentenced to prison, with those of Jesus Christ. The piece recalls the
now iconic image of David Wojnarowicz in a film still from the movie
Silence = Death, a documentary featuring artists reactions to the
AIDS crisis in New York City, an action also associated with a political message. Pavlenskys 2013 performance, Carcass, involved the
artist laying naked, wrapped in barbed wire, in front of the Legislative Assembly in St. Petersburg, in protest of violations of human
rights and liberties by the current Russian government. That same
year, in Fixation, he nailed his scrotum to a cobblestone in Red
Square, symbolizing the apathy and indifference of contemporary
Russian society, which prevents people from acting and protesting
against the very government that violates their individual liberties.
The Body within the System
Michel Feher has described the body as an actualizer of power relations96 in contemporary society. At the same time, he says, it resists
power. Consequently, for him, the body encompasses the tension
between mechanisms of power and techniques of resistance.97
Nowhere is this truer than in the socialist spaces of Eastern Europe,
where the body, in both public and private space, was constantly
policed. While compliance and conformity was a survival strategy,
one possible escape was to completely disengage, in order to avoid
the repercussions that came with activism. A third way has been discussed by Klara Kemp-Welch as antipolitics, wherein artists pursue
their authentic selves but do not engage in politics directly. Amelia
Jones notes the fact that it was Jackson Pollocks active body that
was promoted around the world as a symbol of freedom (artistic and
otherwise) during the Cold War.98 Furthermore, she described the
development of performance art that involved the body, both of the
artist and viewer, as a wake-up call by artists for passive audiences
in the consumer age. In her words, artists created these works to
solicit rage, compassion and other emotions which would presumably break down the apathy and passivity promoted by corporate
bureaucracy.99 What the East lacked in corporate bureaucracy, it
made up for in governmental bureaucracy, and one could argue that
artists in Eastern Europe also utilized body art as a counter to passivity and apathy. Being actively engaged within the cultural sphere
offered a sense of empowerment that was perhaps unavailable in

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

fuseser alegorice, corpurile CCS au fost exemple de dezalegorizare, n msura

n care ele vizau instantaneul, perisabilul, efemerul91, citnd ca exemple lucrri de
Abramovic i Todosijevic. El pune n contrast corpul ascetic al lui Todosijevic din
Drinking Water cu corpurile atletice care fac gimnastic pe stadion, fcnd observaia c n acest corp ascetic a avut loc protestul ce a fcut vizibile corpurile vulnerabile i rnite; corpurile emaciate, nenregimentate care nu mrluiesc i nu se
mic la unison.92 Ca Todosijevic, Abramovic s-a fcut n mod deliberat vulnerabil, nu doar n faa privitorilor, ca n Rhythm 2, dar i printre ei, ca n Rhythm 0 (1974),
cnd a predat iniiativa celor din public, dndu-le 72 de obiecte pe care le puteau
folosi pe corpul ei aa cum doreau, printre acestea fiind unele care produceau plcere, dar i unele care produceau durere.
Reprezentani cehi ai body art, Petr tembera i Jan Mlcoch creaser opere de art
care se concentrau pe corp i pe limitele sale de anduran. De pild, n Altoire (1975),
tembera a fcut o ncercare chinuitoare de a altoi un pom pe braul su, unindu-i
corpul cu natura, ceea ce a dus la o septicemie. n acelai an, el a executat performance-ul A dormi ntr-un copac, n care, dup trei nopi nedormite, s-a dus la culcare pe ramurile unui copac. n opinia lui Morganov, n aceste lucrri tembera i-a
folosit corpul ca pe un mijloc de a explora i de a testa o situaie incert.93 20 de
minute de Jan Mlcoch a avut loc n acelai an. E vorba de un performance n care
s-a aezat cu spatele la un perete n timp ce un b lung cu un cuit la capt era orientat spre abdomenul su. Fixnd un ceas detepttor s sune dup douzeci de minute, el l-a pus pe asistentul su s aduc bul mereu mai aproape, existnd riscul ca
dac i pierde concentrarea cuitul s i se nfig n abdomen. Din cauza unei defeciuni a ceasului, performance-ul a durat 44 de minute. La fel ca tembera, Mlcoch
creeaz situaii care prezint pericole sau n care s-ar putea rni i accept de bunvoie provocarea. Jindrich Chalupeck a interpretat asta ca fiind despre control. Cu
cuvintele sale, ei voiau s rezolve aceste situaii extreme, s nu le cedeze.94 Artitii
prezint corpul ca materialul lor cel mai puternic pentru a rezista oricrei provocri,
reale sau inventate.
Cu toate c n perioada comunist corpul fusese utilizat de artiti ca un simbol al
libertii i un instrument al autoexprimrii, el rmne un material revelator i valid
i pentru artitii din perioada postsocialist. Chiar dac limitrile libertii artistice pot
fi diferite dup schimbarea de regim, corpul e vzut nc de muli ca reprezentnd
elementul expresiv suprem, modalitatea cea mai visceral de a te conecta cu privitorii sau de a avea un impact asupra lor.
De pild, artistul srb Zoran Todorovic (n. 1965) nu consider limitele fizice ale exteriorului corpului ca un obstacol. El merge mai degrab dincolo de stratul pielii pentru a avea acces la interiorul corpului, dominndu-l n lucrrile sale. n Agalma
(20032006), artistului i s-a ndeprtat un strat de grsime de pe abdomen, pe care
l-a folosit apoi pentru a fabrica spun. n cadrul expoziiei, vizitatorii au avut posibilitatea de a se spla pe mini cu acest spun; li s-a oferit, de asemenea, s fie mbiai
de curatori ntr-o baie privat (ntr-o camer de hotel nchiriat). Piesa e o dovad
a afeciunii pentru privitori, titlul citnd un cuvnt grec pentru o ofrand oferit zeilor. n realitate, e vorba de un gest de intimitate, cci privitorul e invitat s participe la durerea artistului i s beneficieze de pe urma ei splndu-i minile cu spunul.
Artistul i privitorul n-ar putea fi mai apropiai de att dup ce acesta din urm consum opera.
n Asimilare (19972006), Todorovic a fcut o piftie din esuturi omeneti aruncate n urma unor intervenii chirurgicale cosmetice, cum ar fi rinoplastia sau liposucia,
o piftie pe care a oferit-o privitorilor la vernisajul expoziiei. Participanilor li s-a spus
ce li se ofer. Unii au gustat-o, alii nu. Aici, reciclarea acestor buci de carne omeneasc ridic probleme despre ideile contemporane de frumusee; acordnd pri-

132

other spheres. As Morganov has noted, artistic experiment was

a method of endurance. In her words, during the dark years of
normalization, it was a world that they created for themselves to
survive.100
Performance art offered unique opportunities of resistance in a time
of great political control. It enabled the artist to not only express
opposition or dissent, but actually embody it. A case in point is Ion
Grigorescus video performance Dialogue with Ceauescu (1978),
where the artist, playing the role of himself, as interviewer, and also
the role of Nicolae Ceauescu (by wearing a mask), proceeds to
interview the man who had effectively closed down public dialogue
in communist Romania. The artists comments about the piece indicate the freedom it afforded him: I tried to . . . imagine how he
would answer tough questions that in real life nobody would have
dared to ask him.101 He also commented on the risk involved, and
stated that when his colleague, Geta Brtescu, saw the masks that he
used for the performance in his studio, she rebuked him, stating that
she didnt even want to know what he was doing with them.102
This performance, in embarking on such subject matter, posed a risk
not only to the artist, but to those in his social circle who could have
been implicated by default, should the material have been discovered.
In Czechoslovakia, during the normalization period, artists also
utilized the artistic space to give voice to concerns over what was
taking place in the social and political sphere. In Bianco (1977), Jan
Mlcoch lay on the floor for a half hour, spitting into his own face.
He then sat at a table and worked on signing his name to a piece of
paper for one half hour, but at the end of the thirty minutes, his signature was still not complete. The piece was a reference to Charter
77, a text published in that same year calling on the Czech government to address human rights violations in the country following the
Prague Spring. The decision to sign the document was in no way
clear cut; while on the one hand the signatories did so to remain true
to their ethical beliefs, on the other they faced persecution and loss
of employment, not only for themselves but also for their families.
Mlcochs hesitance to sign represents the resistance on the part of
many individuals.
In Hungary, Tams Szentjby was known for making highly politicized works that were critical of the regime. Eventually, his activity in
experimental art and contact with dissidents led him to be imprisoned, following which went into exile in Switzerland in 1975.103 In 1972,
he created a public performance in front of the Hotel Intercontinental in downtown Budapest. Entitled Sit Out Be Forbidden!, he reenacted the gagging of Black Panther co-founder Bobby Seale at
his trial for inciting violence at the 1968 Democratic Convention in
Chicago, following his outbursts in the courtroom. In the Hungarian
context, the significance of a man sitting with his mouth bound with
a leather belt is an obvious reference to censorship encountered not
only by artists, but all individuals. Under the Kdr regime, following
the 1956 Revolution, Hungarian artists operated under the policy
outlined by cultural director Gyrgy Aczl, known as the three Ts
Tilts, Trs, Tmogats [Prohibited, Tolerated, Supported].104
While many ambiguous acts or works of art could easily fall within
the tolerated category, Szentjbys overtly political action veered
into the category of the prohibited, and the police appeared shortly
after his 20-minute performance ended.105
State control and surveillance over everyday life persists in contemporary Belarus, which has been ruled by authoritarian President
Alexander Lukashenko since 1994. The public sphere is still tightly
surveilled, making any public action or demonstration nearly impossible, for artists as well as activists, as it will be subject to immediate
police interruption and arrest. This context makes any public artist
action or performance that much more remarkable. In Patriot from
2007, Belarusian artist Marina Naprushkina (b. 1981) entered a bookshop and purchased a framed portrait of President Lukashenko. She
proceeded to carry it through the streets of Minsk under her arm, on
the subway, through the largest squares and main streets of the city;

vitorilor posibilitatea s se ospteze cu ceea ce s-a aruncat n vederea nfrumuserii,

artistul le ofer s consume drept hran ceea ce alii consider deeu i exces. n
contextul vernisajului din galerie, lucrarea a pus ntrebri despre una dintre formele cele mai extreme ale mutilrii corpului, canibalismul, unii participani ntrebnd
dac era legal sau chiar sntos s mnnci carne de om.
Performance-urile publice recente i foarte viscerale ale artistului rus Petr Pavlenski
(n. 1984) furnizeaz o continuitate cu trecutul n privina folosirii corpului ca manifestare a libertii. Cu toate astea, performance-urile lui Pavlenski snt explicit politice i publice, iar n spaiul postsovietic acest amestec volatil a dus la arestarea i detenia
artistului. Acesta crease o suit de performance-uri a cror intenie e aceea de a funciona ca un protest i, totodat, ca un comentariu politic direct. De exemplu, n 2012,
el a aprut n faa catedralei din Sankt Petersburg, cu gura cusut, innd o pancart
care echivala aciunile grupului de performance punk i feminist Pussy Riot95, dou
dintre membrele cruia au fost condamnate n cele din urm la nchisoare, cu cele
ale lui Isus Cristos. Piesa aduce aminte de imaginea acum emblematic a lui David
Wojnarowicz dintr-o fotografie de film din pelicula Tcere = Moarte, un documentar ce prezint reaciile artitilor la criza SIDA din New York, aciune asociat i cu
un mesaj politic. n performance-ul din 2013 al lui Pavlenski, intitulat Strv, artistul st
culcat pe jos, gol, cu corpul nfurat n srm ghimpat, n faa Adunrii Legislative
din Sankt Petersburg, pentru a protesta mpotriva nclcrii drepturilor omului i a
libertilor civile de guvernul rus actual. n acelai an, n Fixaie, el i-a fixat scrotul
de caldarmul Pieei Roii cu un cui, simboliznd apatia i indiferena societii ruse
contemporane, care i mpiedic pe oameni s acioneze i s protesteze mpotriva guvernului care i violeaz libertile individuale.
Corpul n cadrul sistemului
Michel Feher descrisese corpul ca pe un actualizator de raporturi de putere96 n
societatea contemporan. Totodat, el spune c acesta rezist puterii. Prin urmare, pentru el, corpul cuprinde tensiunea dintre mecanismele puterii i tehnicile de
rezisten.97 Niciunde acest lucru nu e mai adevrat dect n spaiile socialiste ale
Europei de Est, unde corpul, att n spaiul public, ct i n cel privat, fusese mereu
supravegheat. Chiar dac ascultarea i conformismul fuseser strategii de supravieuire, una dintre posibilele ci de scpare a fost dezangajarea complet, pentru a evita
repercusiunile care nsoeau activismul. A treia cale fusese discutat de Klara KempWelch drept o antipolitic, n care artitii urmreau sinele lor autentic, dar nu se angajau direct n luptele politice. Amelia Jones observ faptul c trupul activ al lui Jackson
Pollock a fost promovat peste tot n lume ca un simbol al libertii (artistice i de
alt natur) n perioada Rzboiului Rece.98 Mai mult, ea descrisese dezvoltarea artei
performance care implica trupul, att al artistului, ct i pe cel al privitorului, ca pe un
semnal de alarm pe care artitii l dau publicului pasiv ntr-o epoc a consumului.
Cu cuvintele ei, artitii au creat aceste lucrri pentru a trezi furie, compasiune i
alte emoii despre care se presupunea c pot pune capt apatiei i pasivitii promovate de birocraia corporatist.99 Ceea ce Estului i lipsea n termeni de birocraie corporatist fusese asigurat prin birocraia guvernamental i s-ar putea arta c
artitii est-europeni au folosit body art i pentru a se opune pasivitii i apatiei. Participarea activ la sfera cultural oferea i un sentiment de for care a fost poate de
negsit n alte sfere. Aa cum remarcase Morganov, experimentul artistic fusese
o metod de rezisten. Sau, cum spune ea, n perioada anilor ntunecai ai normalizrii, artitii i creaser o lume pentru a supravieui.100
Arta performance oferise posibiliti unice de rezisten ntr-o perioad de control
politic intens. Ea a permis artistului nu doar s-i exprime opoziia i dezacordul,
ci chiar s le ntrupeze. Un exemplu n acest sens e performance-ul video al lui Ion

the entire action was filmed on video. When she arrived home, she
put the portrait on the wall and stood by it while the national anthem
was played. The artist managed to do this without attracting suspicion, by walking very quickly and never looking back. While she
didnt do anything to disparage the president or his portrait, the
ambiguity of the act meant that she could potentially have been
found in violation of article 368, part 2 of the Criminal Code insult
to the President of the Republic of Belarus. The piece was so ambiguous that some people asked her, as she passed, whether she was
for or against Lukashenko. Another person asked if he could take
a picture, and queried the purpose of the action. She responded
by asking him why he wanted to take a picture.106 This interchange
demonstrates the high level of suspicion and fear surrounding
people in a country that is strictly policed.
In post-communist Eastern Europe, different concerns with the state,
government and politics emerged. Many artists, and individuals,
found themselves in the precarious position of being on the border
between East and West, insofar as the West had opened up to this
region of the world, yet the disparity between the local infrastructure and economy underscored the lingering divide between East
and West that had supposedly been erased with the tearing down
of the Berlin Wall.
Two contemporary artists from Moldova address the concerns of the
Eastern artist directly, through performances that utilize disguise
and costume, in particular using the plastic woven plaid bags that
can be found across Eastern Europe, Africa and Southeast Asia, often
referred to disparagingly as refugee bags. Ghenadie Popescu has
created a suit out of the bags, and in 2006 he made his first performance in the suit, when he walked around Chiinus Central
Market, looking at different items including the very bags that his
suit was made of, which were for sale there. He says that the suit signifies the time of transition107 to capitalism, which, in his view, has
lasted too long. These bags started appearing in the country in the
1990s; prior to that, throughout the Eastern bloc, shopping bags of
any kind, even the plastic ones that are now customary in grocery
stores, were nearly impossible to come by. The new market economy
brought with it new products, many of which were cheap and flimsy,
including these bags. But the bags were often all that people could
afford; even the artist commented, with regard to his use of the
bags: I am from Eastern Europe. I am poor. This is all that I can
afford.108
Tatiana Fiodorova (b. 1976) also makes use of these iconic bags in
her performances, referencing both her own personal experiences
as a citizen of Eastern Europe, as well as the situation for locals in
general. In 2009, Fiodorova applied for a visa to travel to the UK,
and was rejected, with no reason given. In response to this, the
following year, she did a performance where she painted her body
black representing herself as a slave, or person without rights,
in the context of Europe and the European Union. Entitled I Go, the
piece involved the artist walking around Chiinu with her face and
arms painted black, carrying a plastic plaid shopping bag, representative of individuals from less affluent geographies. But this shopping bag was a blue plaid one, to which she affixed a circle of gold
stars, making it resemble the EU flag. In her performance she visited
the Brancusi Exhibition Hall, a caf, and even an event entitled FLOW
(Festival for Conversation for Culture and Science), where she met
the mayor of Chiinu and had her photo taken with him. She recreated the performance in several other cities, without the black paint.
These performances featured the EU shopping bag, photographed
in various locations across Europe: Bucharest, Prague, Krakow, Brussels, Paris, and Amsterdam.
In her video performance European Clothing (2010), the artist examined the world of clothing and fashion as an identifier, by traveling
through Chiinu to the Central Market, where she tries to buy
European clothing so that she can fit in in Western society.
Underneath her clothing, however, she wears old Soviet unisex

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Grigorescu Dialog cu Ceauescu (1978), n care artistul, jucnd att rolul su, ca intervievator, ct i pe cel al lui Nicolae Ceauescu (cu ajutorul unei mti), se apuc s-i
ia un interviu omului care a pus efectiv capt dialogului public n Romnia comunist. Comentariile artistului despre aceast pies indic libertatea pe care aceasta
i-a dat-o: am ncercat [...] s-mi imaginez cum ar fi rspuns el la ntrebrile grele
pe care n viaa real nimeni n-ar fi ndrznit s i le pun.101 El comentase i pe marginea riscului implicat n aceast aciune i afirmase c atunci cnd colega lui, Geta
Brtescu, vzuse n atelierul su mtile pe care le-a folosit pentru performance, ea
l-a mustrat, spunnd c nici mcar nu vrea s tie ce fcea el cu aceste mti.102 Acest
performance, prin faptul c s-a angajat ntr-o asemenea tem, a nsemnat un risc nu
doar pentru artist, ci i pentru cei aflai n cercul su de prieteni, care puteau fi implicai automat dac materialul ar fi fost descoperit.
n Cehoslovacia, n perioada normalizrii, artitii au folosit spaiul artistic i pentru
a da glas grijilor pe care i le fceau n legtur cu ce se ntmpla n sfera social i
politic. n Bianco (1977), Jan Mlcoch s-a ntins pe podea o jumtate de ceas, scuipnd n aa fel nct scuipatul s-i ajung pe fa. S-a aezat apoi la o mas i s-a strduit
nc o jumtate de or s-i pun semntura pe o bucat de hrtie, dar cnd timpul a expirat, semntura nc nu era gata. Piesa fcea aluzie la Carta 77, un text publicat n acelai an, care someaz guvernul cehoslovac s se pronune cu privire la
nclcrile drepturilor omului ce au avut loc cu ocazia Primverii Pragheze. Decizia de a semna documentul nu era deloc clar; dei semnatarii au fcut-o pentru
a rmne fideli convingerilor etice pe care le mprteau, ei se confruntau totui
cu persecuia i omajul, la care se expuneau nu doar pe ei nii, ci i expuneau
i familiile. Ezitarea lui Mlcoch n a semna reprezint o ezitare a multora.
n Ungaria, Tams Szentjby fusese cunoscut ca fcnd lucrri intens politizate, care
erau critice la adresa regimului. n cele din urm, activitatea sa pe terenul artei experimentale i contactele sale cu muli disideni i-au adus o pedeaps cu nchisoarea,
iar cnd a fost eliberat n 1975, s-a autoexilat n Elveia.103 n 1972, a fcut un performance public n faa hotelului Intercontinental din centrul Budapestei. Intitulat Sit
Out Be Forbidden!, el a rejucat reducerea la tcere cu un clu n gur a lui Bobby
Seale, cofondatorul Black Panthers, n urma izbucnirilor sale n sala de judecat, la
procesul care i s-a intentat pentru incitare la violen cu ocazia Congresului Democrat din Chicago n 1968. n context maghiar, semnificaia unui om care sttea aezat
cu un clu n gur era o aluzie evident la cenzura cu care se confruntau nu doar
artitii, ci toi indivizii. Sub regimul Kdr, dup Revoluia din 1956, artitii maghiari
acionau n cadrul regulilor elaborate de directorul cultural Gyrgy Aczl, cunoscute sub numele de cele trei T-uri Tilts, Trs, Tmogats [Interzicere, Tolera re, Sprijin].104 Dei multe gesturi i lucrri ambigue puteau ajunge cu uurin n
categoria tolerat, aciunea politic fi a lui Szentjby vira nspre categoria interdiciei, iar poliia a aprut la scurt timp dup terminarea performance-ului ce a durat
20 de minute.105
Controlul i supravegherea exercitate de stat asupra vieii cotidiene persist n Be larusul contemporan, care a fost dominat de preedintele autoritar Aleksander
Lukaenko ncepnd cu 1994. Sfera public e nc puternic urmrit, fcnd orice
aciune sau demonstraie public aproape imposibil, att pentru artiti, ct i pentru activiti, sub ameninarea ntreruperilor poliieneti i a arestrilor prompte. Acest
context face aciunile artistice publice sau performance-urile cu att mai remarcabile. n Patriotul (2007), artista belarus Marina Naprukina (n. 1981) a intrat ntr-o
librrie i a cumprat un portret nrmat al preedintelui Lukaenko. Ea l-a crat apoi
sub bra pe strzile Minskului, la metrou, prin cele mai mari piee i pe strzile principale ale oraului, ntreaga aciune fiind filmat cu o camer video. Cnd a ajuns acas,
a agat portretul pe perete i a stat lng el n poziia de drepi n timp ce asculta

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Tatiana Fiodorova
I Go, intervention at FLOW (International Festival for Conversation for Culture
and Science), Chiinu, Moldova, 2010, pictured with invited guest, the Mayor
of Chiinu, Dorin Chirtoac, courtesy: the artist

underwear. While she may be able to change her outward appearance to become Western, she will always have her Eastern origins
beneath the surface. A similar sentiment can be seen in the performance Star (2012), where the artist models clothing from the Red
Star clothing factory, where her mother used to work, during the
Soviet era. She then attempts to make an EU flag using material
from the factory, fabricating a European Union flag with materials
made in the Soviet Union.
Fiodorova is committed to art that carries a message and addresses
issues in contemporary society, demonstrating that the impulse to
challenge the status quo and tackle injustices is just as strong in the
post-Soviet period. Her performance The World is Dirty, the Artist
Must be Dirty (2012) re-enacts Marina Abramovics 1975 performance, Art Must be Beautiful, Artist Must be Beautiful. Dressed in
black, and seated in a small space covered with her plaid bags, the
artist sits down, takes a jar out of her shopping bag, and proceeds
to cover her exposed skin with black paint, chanting the words the
world is dirty, the artist must be dirty, just as Abramovic repeated
similar lines as she brushed her hair. Fiodorova associates her position as a citizen of a post-Soviet republic of the former Soviet Union
as having inferior status in the rest of Europe, an attitude that is
reflected in the mass media and official rhetoric in the West, which
often spreads fear and hate regarding a suspected mass influx
of Eastern Europeans coming to the West to work, take advantage of
the benefits systems, and overstay their visas. But the performance is

imnul naional. Artista a reuit s fac toate acestea fr a atrage atenia, mergnd
foarte repede i neuitndu-se nicio clip n urm. Dei n-a fcut nimic care s-l discrediteze pe preedinte sau portretul acestuia, ambiguitatea gestului a nsemnat c
ea ar fi putut fi acuzat de nclcarea articolului 368, paragraful 2 din Codul penal
insult la adresa preedintelui Republicii Belarus. Piesa fusese att de ambigu, nct
civa oameni au ntrebat-o, n timp ce mergea pe strad, dac era pentru sau mpotriva lui Lukaenko. O alt persoan a ntrebat-o dac putea s-i fac o poz i voia
s tie care era scopul aciunii. Ea a rspuns prin a-l ntreba de ce voia s-i fac o
poz.106 Acest schimb de replici demonstreaz nivelul nalt de suspiciune i team
care i mpresoar pe oameni ntr-o ar supravegheat strict.
n Europa de Est postcomunist, au aprut diverse griji viznd statul, guvernul i politica. Muli artiti i indivizi s-au trezit n poziia precar de a fi la grania dintre Est i
Vest, n msura n care Vestul s-a deschis ctre aceast regiune a lumii, cu toate c
disparitatea dintre infrastructura i economia local subliniaz persistena diviziunii
dintre Est i Vest, care se presupune c ar fi disprut odat cu demolarea Zidului
Berlinului.
Doi artiti contemporani din Moldova abordeaz n mod direct grijile artitilor estici,
prin performance-uri ce utilizeaz deghizrile i costumele, dar mai ales plasele de
voiaj esute din plastic, ce pot fi gsite n toat Europa de Est, Africa i Asia de SudEst, menionate adesea cu dispre ca plase de refugiai. Ghenadie Popescu a fcut
un costum din aceste plase, iar n 2006 i-a fcut primul performance mbrcat n
felul acesta. El s-a plimbat n jurul Pieei Centrale din Chiinu, examinnd diverse
bunuri inclusiv plasele din care a fost fcut costumul su i care erau puse la vnzare acolo. El spune c acest costum semnific perioada de tranziie107 la capitalism, care, n opinia sa, a durat prea mult. Aceste plase au nceput s apar n ar
n anii 1990; nainte de asta, n ntreg blocul estic, pungile pentru cumprturi de
orice fel, chiar i cele de plastic, care snt astzi obinuite n toate magazinele, au
fost aproape imposibil de gsit. Noua economie de pia a adus cu ea noi produse, multe dintre ele ieftine i de proast calitate, inclusiv aceste plase. Dar plasele fuseser adesea tot ce oamenii i puteau permite; pn i artistul declarase n privina utilizrii
de ctre el a acestora: Snt de aici. Snt srac. Asta-i tot ce-mi pot permite.108
Tatiana Fiodorova (n. 1976) utilizeaz i ea aceste plase emblematice n performanceurile ei, fcnd aluzie att la experienele ei personale n calitate de cetean est-european, ct i la situaia local n general. n 2009, Fiodorova a solicitat o viz de cltorie
n Marea Britanie i a fost refuzat fr nicio explicaie. Ca rspuns, anul urmtor
a fcut un performance n care i-a vopsit trupul n negru reprezentndu-se pe sine
ca sclav, o persoan fr drepturi n contextul Europei i al Uniunii Europene. Intitulat I Go, piesa consta din artista plimbndu-se pe strzile Chiinului cu faa i braele
pictate n negru, purtnd plase de plastic cu modele de pleduri, reprezentative pentru indivizii provenind din regiuni mai puin bogate. Dar aceast plas de voiaj era
albastr, iar artista a decorat-o cu un cerc fcut din stele galbene, fcnd-o s semene cu drapelul UE. n cadrul performance-ului ea vizitase Centrul Expoziional
Constantin Brncui, o cafenea i chiar un eveniment intitulat FLOW (Festival de
Dialog pentru Cultur i tiin), unde s-a ntlnit cu primarul Chiinului i s-a fotografiat cu el. Ea a refcut acest performance n multe alte orae, fr vopseaua neagr.
Aceste performance-uri au inclus plasa de voiaj UE, fotografiat n diverse locuri
din Europa: Bucureti, Praga, Cracovia, Bruxelles, Paris i Amsterdam.
ntr-un performance video intitulat European Clothing (2010), artista a examinat lumea
mbrcmintei i a modei ca semne de identificare, cltorind prin Chiinu, ctre
Piaa Central, unde ncearc s cumpere mbrcminte european pentru a se
putea adapta societii occidentale. Sub mbrcmintea ei se afl totui o pereche de chiloi sovietici de mod veche i unisex. Dei ea i poate schimba imagi-

not just about the position of a dirty outsider, it is also about art,
because the artist feels that art should not simply be about creating
beautiful images. Rather, it should deal with conceptual issues and
current problems.
The concerns with the discrepancies and distance between East and
West captivated Romanian artist Teodor Graur (b. 1953) in the immediate aftermath of the Revolution in Romania and the end of communism. In a 1993 performance at the Zone Festival in Timioara, Graur
emphasized the disconnect between East and West by using a shortwave radio to attempt to make contact with the West, which had
supposedly just opened up to countries such as Romania. Speaking
in English, the artist asks if anyone can hear him, but there is no
response. The tension between East and West was played out quite
vividly in a car race orchestrated by the artist, together with the
Euroartists Group, at the AnnArt Festival in Sfntu Gheorghe, Romania, in 1994. In the action, a Volkswagen Polo races with a Romanian
Dacia. Eventually, the cars come into contact with each other head
on, and proceed to duel. In the end, the German driver is declared
the winner the German car is better and more powerful and he is
even awarded the prize of a young Romanian girl who was a passenger in the Dacia. The fact that more than twenty years separates
this early work of Graur and that of Fiodorova and Popescu indicates
that the concerns of the Eastern European citizen are still pertinent
and present, even one generation after the system change and the
opening up between East and West.
At the time of writing, the status of the European Union remains a
contentious subject across Europe. Discussion regarding economic
disparities, inequitable distribution of resources, and questions as to
whether current members will secede, is ongoing. In Eastern Europe,
however, there exist different topics of discussion surrounding the
Union, most notably the question of accession, and what potential
benefits or risks there are to joining the Union. While many from the
former communist countries of Eastern Europe were eager to join
the EU prior to the financial crisis of 2008, seeing it as a guarantee
of safety and economic security, nowadays that argument is harder
to maintain. In the post-communist period, a number of artists have
utilized body art to create vivid statements about the relation of the
EU to their individual destinies.
Slovenian artist Ive Tabar (b. 1966) is perhaps one of the most vocal
artists on the subject of the EU and his countrys relation to it. Tabar,
who is in fact a medical professional, with no formal artistic training,
created a series of four performances in the period immediately
before and after Slovenias accession to the EU in 2004. The first
piece, Europa I, from 1999, dealt with Slovenias obsession with
entry into the EU. The artist imbibed a blue liquid with gold stars
in it, then placed tubes in his nose and pumped his stomach out.
The piece plays on the Slovenian phrase to have something/someone in your stomach, which is used when you cant stand that thing
or person, and indicates that you have to simply pump it out. The
next piece in the series, Europa II (2001), was Tabars protest against
EU membership, which he found less pleasant than drilling a hole in
his shin bone, which he did in the gallery.109 Whereas in English, the
saying is Id rather have a hole in my head than... (do something),
in Slovenian, the phrase is its better to drill a hole in ones knee
than... With his performance, Tabar literalizes the expression to
convey his sentiments regarding EU accession.
On the eve of Slovenias entrance into the EU, Tabars performance
(Europa III, 2003) involved him removing his middle fingernail, which
had been painted with the Slovenian coat of arms, affixing it to a
plastic salamander a species indigenous to Slovenia; and then
conquering it (and thus Slovenia) by sticking an EU flag into the
salamander, demonstrating the fact that the country would now be
taken over by the Union.110 Finally, in 2007, three years after Slovenia
became a full EU member, the artist created a performance that
expressed disappointment with the unfulfilled expectations that that
membership was supposed to have brought. In Europa IV, he again

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nea exterioar pentru a deveni occidental, nu se va putea dezbra de originile

ei estice de sub aceast suprafa. Un sentiment similar poate fi vzut n performanceul Star (2012), n care artista servete de fotomodel pentru haine confecionate la
fabrica Steaua Roie, unde lucrase mai demult mama ei, n perioada sovietic. Ea
ncearc apoi s fac un steag UE folosind materiale din fabric, producnd un asemenea drapel cu materiale fcute n Uniunea Sovietic.
Fiodorova e angajat de partea unei arte ce poart un mesaj i abordeaz probleme ale societii contemporane, demonstrnd c impulsul de a provoca statu-quoul
i a discuta despre nedrepti a rmas unul puternic i n perioada postsovietic. Performance-ul ei The World is Dirty, the Artist Must be Dirty (2012) repune n scen
un performance din 1975 de Marina Abramovic, Art Must be Beautiful, Artist Must
be Beautiful. mbrcat n negru i aezat ntr-un spaiu strmt, acoperit cu plasele sale din plastic, artista st aezat pe jos, scoate un borcan dintr-una din plase i
ncepe s-i acopere prile expuse ale corpului cu vopsea neagr, intonnd cuvintele lumea e murdar, artistul trebuie s fie murdar, la fel cum Abramovic repetase replici asemntoare n timp ce se pieptna. Fiodorova i vede poziia ei n calitate
de cetean al unei republici postsovietice ca avnd un statut inferior n restul Europei, o atitudine care e reflectat i n mass-media i retorica oficiale din Vest, care
rspndesc adesea team i ur n privina preconizatului val de imigrri n mas a
est-europenilor, care vin n Vest s-i gseasc un loc de munc, profit de beneficiile sistemului i stau mai mult dect le-ar permite vizele. Dar performance-ul nu e
doar despre poziia intrusului murdar, ci i despre art, deoarece artista simte c
arta n-ar trebui s fie doar despre crearea de imagini frumoase. Mai degrab, ea
ar trebui s abordeze chestiuni conceptuale i probleme actuale.
Imediat dup Revoluia din Romnia i dup sfritul comunismului, preocuprile privitoare la discrepanele i distanele dintre Est i Vest l-au captivat i pe artistul romn
Teodor Graur (n. 1953). ntr-un performance din 1993 la Festivalul Zona din Timioara, Graur subliniase lipsa de legtur dintre Est i Vest cu ajutorul unui radio cu
unde scurte prin care ncerca s intre n contact cu Vestul, despre care se presupunea c tocmai devenise mai deschis ctre ri precum Romnia. Vorbind englezete,
artistul ntreab dac e cineva care l aude, dar nu primete niciun rspuns. Tensiunea dintre Est i Vest a fost prezentat foarte sugestiv printr-o curs de maini organizat de artist, mpreun cu grupul Euroartists, la Festivalul AnnArt din Sfntu
Gheorghe, Romnia, n 1994. n cadrul acestei aciuni, un Volkswagen Polo concureaz
cu o Dacie romneasc. La un moment dat, mainile au intrat n contact direct i
s-au duelat. La terminarea concursului, oferul german e declarat nvingtor automobilul nemesc e mai bun i mai puternic i i se ofer drept premiu tnra romnc
aflat ca pasager n automobilul Dacia. Faptul c exist o distan de douzeci de ani
ntre aceast lucrare timpurie a lui Graur i lucrrile lui Fiodorova i Popescu arat c
grijile cetenilor est-europeni snt nc pertinente i prezente, chiar i dup o generaie de la schimbarea de regim i deschiderea dintre Est i Vest.
Cnd scriu aceste rnduri, statutul Uniunii Europene rmne un subiect litigios n ntreaga Europ. Discuii despre disparitile economice, distribuia inechitabil a resurselor i ntrebri despre faptul dac membri actuali se vor desprinde din Uniune
snt la ordinea zilei. Totui n Europa de Est dezbaterile despre Uniune au teme diferite; ele vizeaz cel mai vizibil chestiunea accesului la Uniune i posibilele beneficii
i riscuri ce rezult din aderarea la ea. Dei muli oameni din fostele ri comuniste ale Europei de Est fuseser dornici s adere la UE nainte de criza financiar din
2008, vznd UE ca pe un garant al siguranei i al securitii economice, n prezent e mai dificil s se susin acest argument. n perioada postcomunist, au existat artiti care utilizaser body art pentru a crea declaraii sugestive despre relaia
dintre UE i destinele lor individuale.

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drank a blue liquid, then cut a hole into his stomach, stuck a catheter
into it, and transferred the blue liquid into a container with gold fish
in it. Reading this performance literally, the EU pisses on the promises it made to Slovenia.
Tabar began creating these performances after coming into contact
with Jurij Krpan, director of the Kapelica Gallery in Ljubljana, a
venue known for hosting extreme body art performances by artists
such as Tabar, Orlan, Art Orient Objet, Ron Athey, among others.
Tabar began working with Krpan because he wanted to use his medical knowledge combined his body to express himself.111 In doing so,
he carries on the tradition of utilizing the body as the fundamental
tool with which one can use to vividly convey the most intimate
thoughts and feelings.
Tanja Ostojic (b. 1972) took a different, yet equally personal approach
to the issue of EU membership and immigration. The reality of life as
an artist of Serbian origin, following the NATO sanctions of the 1990s,
hit hard as Ostojic gained notoriety for her work, and started receiving invitations to participate in international exhibitions that come
with such recognition. Frustrated by the complicated procedures
that she had to go through to obtain a visa to travel abroad, she
decided to take an alternative approach, one that would simultaneously benefit her if it was successful by giving her the status of
a Westerner with free right of movement through the EU yet also
implicate the bureaucratic structures and mechanisms that prevent
people from having access to these affluent geographies. The project was entitled Looking for a Husband with an EU Passport (2000
2005), and started with an Internet campaign, where the artist advertised herself, putting her naked body on display for the viewer, and
asked for prospective suitors to contact her at the email address,
hottanja@hotmail.com. The artist received a number of responses,
and finally settled on a mate, a German man, Klemens Golf, who was
also an artist. Ostojic chose him as the most suitable candidate because
of the fact that he was well aware of the pragmatic element of the
project, and understood the conditions of the arrangement, thus he
didnt have any romantic notions that the marriage would be anything but one of convenience.112 The artist emphasized that they did
everything according to the law it was, in fact, a legal marriage.
But it was one that enabled her to get a marriage visa to come and
live in Germany. By thwarting the system, the artist demonstrates
its weaknesses and unsuitability on a human level.
This was not her first experience massaging the law. In fact, a work
that coincided with the beginning of Looking for a Husband with an
EU Passport involved the artist deliberately breaking the law, by
crossing the border between Slovenia and Austria on foot, through
the forests and mountains. Illegal Border Crossing (2000) was born
out of necessity, as the artist had an exhibition to get to, and the visa
process simply took too long.
The projects by Tabar and Ostojic represent the extreme lengths
that artists will go to to convey an important message. While Tabar
uses his medical knowledge about the body to push it to its physical
limits, using his own flesh as a carrier of meaning regarding the
important issues of the day, Ostojic completely obliterates the line
between art and life, creating projects into which her entire life is
subsumed. In doing so, both artists create very poignant messages
that bring attention to relevant issues faced by their compatriots.
The Body and Self-Definition
As previously mentioned, Joness notion of performance as intersubjective has particular resonance with regard to body and performance art in Eastern Europe. While the communist state promoted
uniformity, it was during and after the end of communist rule that
individual nations began to reassert their individual national cultural
identities. For example, in the Baltic States, the discussion of national-cultural identity was the foundation for the argument of the right
to self-determination and independence, which eventually led to the
gradual dissolution of the Soviet Union. In Yugoslavia, the govern-

Artistul sloven Ive Tabar (n. 1966) e poate unul dintre artitii cei mai vehemeni n
privina relaiei dintre UE i ara sa. Tabar, care lucreaz de fapt n domeniul medical, fr o educaie artistic formal, crease o serie de patru performance-uri n perioada de dinainte i de dup aderarea Sloveniei la UE n 2004. Prima pies, Europa I,
din 1999, a discutat obsesia Sloveniei cu privire la intrarea n UE. Artistul a nghiit
un lichid albastru care coninea stele galbene, apoi i-a plasat nite tuburi n nas i
i-a fcut o spltur stomacal. Piesa se bazeaz pe vorba sloven: a avea ceva/
pe cineva n stomac, folosit atunci cnd nu supori ceva sau pe cineva, de care trebuie atunci s scapi printr-o spltur stomacal. Cealalt pies din serie, Europa II
(2001), fusese protestul lui Tabar mpotriva statutului de membru al UE, care i sa prut mai puin plcut dect gurirea propriei tibii, pe care a executat-o ntr-o galerie.109 n timp ce n englez exist expresia mai degrab a avea o gaur n cap dect
s..., n sloven aceeai vorb se traduce mai bine mi-a face o gaur n genunchi
dect s... Cu acest performance, Tabar literalizeaz expresia pentru a-i exprima
sentimentele despre aderarea la UE.
n ajunul intrrii Sloveniei n UE, performance-ul lui Tabar (Europa III, 2003) a presupus ndeprtarea unghiei de pe degetul su mijlociu, pe care pictase stema Sloveniei. El lipise apoi unghia pe o oprl dintr-o specie rar [proteus anguinus (n. tr.)],
de gsit n puine locuri, dar i n Slovenia; dup aceea oprla (i deci Slovenia) e
cucerit prin nfigerea n ea a unui drapel UE, demonstrnd faptul c ara va fi dominat acum de Uniune.110 n sfrit, n 2007, la trei ani dup ce Slovenia a devenit
un membru cu drepturi depline al UE, artistul a realizat un performance care exprima dezamgirea fa de nemplinirea ateptrilor pe care trebuia s le onoreze
aderarea. n Europa IV, el a but iar un lichid albastru, apoi i-a fcut o gaur n abdomen n care nfipsese un cateter i a extras lichidul albastru, drenndu-l ntr-un acvariu cu petiori de aur. Citind n mod literal acest performance, UE se pi pe
promisiunile fcute Sloveniei.
Tabar a nceput s fac aceste performance-uri dup ce intrase n legtur cu Jurij
Krpan, directorul galeriei Kapelica din Ljubljana, un loc cunoscut ca gazd a unor
performance-uri extreme de body art, realizate de artiti precum Tabar, Orlan, Art
Orient Objet, Ron Athey i alii. Tabar a nceput s lucreze cu Krpan deoarece voia
s-i utilizeze cunotinele medicale i propriul corp pentru a se exprima pe sine.111
Fcnd asta, el duce mai departe tradiia folosirii corpului ca un instrument de baz
prin care se pot reda n mod sugestiv cele mai intime gnduri i sentimente.
Tanja Ostojic (n. 1972) a avut o abordare diferit, dar la fel de personal, a problemei aderrii la UE i a imigraiei. Din cauza sanciunilor NATO din 1990, realitile
vieii ca artist de origine srb au afectat-o grav dup ce munca ei obinuse notorietate i a nceput s primeasc invitaii de participare la expoziii internaionale. Frustrat de procedurile complicate de obinere a unei vize pentru cltorii n strintate,
ea a decis s abordeze lucrurile diferit, ntr-un fel care s-i aduc beneficii (dac reuea),
acordndu-i statutul de occidental cu drept de cltorie nelimitat n UE. Totodat
ns, abordarea ei viza, de asemenea, structurile i mecanismele birocratice care
i mpiedic pe oameni s aib acces la aceste geografii cu dare de mn. Proiectul s-a chemat Looking for a Husband with an EU Passport (20002005) i a pornit
cu o campanie pe internet, n care artista i fcea reclam, expunndu-i corpul dezgolit i rugndu-i pe potenialii peitori s-o contacteze la adresa e-mail hottanja@hotmail.com. Artista a primit numeroase rspunsuri i, n cele din urm, s-a decis n
favoarea unuia dintre pretendeni, un german pe nume Klemens Golf, care era i
el artist. Ostojic l-a ales ca fiind cel mai potrivit din cauza faptului c acesta era contient
de elementul pragmatic al proiectului i a neles condiiile aranjamentului, astfel nct
n-a existat nicio iluzie romantic n privina faptului c mariajul lor ar fi mai mult dect
unul de convenien.112 Artista a subliniat c au fcut totul potrivit legilor a fost,

ment promoted a uniform, collective Yugoslav identity over individual ethnicities, which reappeared following the death of Tito in 1980
and the gradual disintegration of the nation.
According to Jones, it is through body art that we can investigate
the manner in which individual identity takes shape. In her words,
body art asks us to interrogate not only the politics of visuality but
also the very structures through which the subject takes place... 113
She also reminds us of the contingency of that identity, that the self
cannot be known outside of its cultural representations.114 Piotr
Piotrowski has characterized action and body art in Eastern Europe
as a vehicle through which artists arrived at self-knowledge115, and
in many instances this was done through an interrogation of the subject in light of local history and culture.
Borjana Mrdja (b. 1982) is an artist who became markedly aware of
her own identity at a very early age. She grew up in Kozarac, a city
in Bosnia with high Bosniak population and a Serb minority. When
the war started, as she recalls, I was called a Serb in abusive way,
and as a child I didnt realize what it meant. At that time I thought
that we are all the same as Yugoslavians. The city was directly hit by
war activities, and my family and me had to leave suddenly. So at a
very early age I began to realize and question those historic, national
and religious differences. And these are the roots of my interest in
identity issues...116 Several years after the war, in 2010, she recognized that a scar she had on her hand, from being burned by an iron
in 1985, had transformed into a shape resembling the current
borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and captured this in a photograph where she outlined the border in pen, titling the piece Border.
She said that the photograph demonstrates the burden of the border, an entity that is usually invisible and conceptual, which in this
instance is actually imprinted on her own body. The scar echoes the
burden of the invisible border that each of us bears in the form of
our own personal, individual identity, which is mapped onto our
social, cultural, national and ethnic identities, in addition to the
meanings of those identities that are imposed upon us from outside.
In 2011, Mrdja shared this experience related to border inscriptions
on the body with her audience, at the MS Dockville Festival in
Hamburg. However, in this performative piece, entitled Border MS
Dockville, the border unites, instead of dividing. Mrdja designed a
stamp with the outline of the border of the location of Dockville, and
stamped the hand of each visitor to the festival, all of whom for the
duration of their time at the festival shared the same borders both
in terms of the space that they were occupying and by the border
inscribed on their bodies. In doing so, she demonstrates the temporal nature of borders, which are relative and subject to change.
While Mrdjas scar was accidental, Romanian artist Dan Perjovschi
deliberately marked his skin with an indicator of his national identity,
in a performance entitled Romania (Zone Festival, Timioara, 1993),
during which he had the word Romania tattooed on his arm, literally
branding himself with his national identity. Ten years later, he had
the tattoo removed in a performance entitled Erasing Romania.
But the ink, he said, can never be truly removed; by treating it with
lasers the ink is simply redistributed through his arm.117 The symbolism is not lost on the artist: although he declared himself healed
of Romania, he can never escape his origins.
Bulgarian artist Rassim (Krastev) (b. 1972) continually redefines himself through the contours of his physical body, carving it out as a
sculpture. One his earliest projects was Corrections, a long-durational performance in which the artist spent two years developing his
body, working out according to a program devised by a professional
body builder, and consuming special foods and proteins to bulk up
his muscles. According to the artist, body-building was prohibited
during the communist period, as it was associated with Western capitalist culture.118 In fact, there was only one specialist in this type of
training in Bulgaria, whom the artist used as a consultant on the
project. The aim of the project, according to the artist, was to create
a new, modern sculpture. When the piece was exhibited in Bulgaria,

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Borjana Mrdja
Border MS Dockville, 2011, action at MS Dockville Festival, Hamburg, courtesy: the artist

Borjana Mrdja
Border, 2010, photograph, courtesy: the artist

Dan Perjovschi, with assistant Adrian Scorobete

Romania, photo: Ileana Pintilie, performance at Zone International Performance Festival, Art Museum Timioara 1993, courtesy: the artist

Dan Perjovschi
Erasing Romania, 2003, performance in the
context of In the Gorges of the Balkans,
Kunsthalle Fridericianum Kassel
(curator Ren Block), photo: Niels Klinger,
courtesy: Kunsthalle Fridericianum

138

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de fapt, o cstorie legal, dar una care i-a permis s obin o viz de edere n Germania. Dejucnd sistemul, artista demonstreaz slbiciunile acestuia i caracterul su
impropriu la un nivel pur omenesc.
Aceasta n-a fost prima ei experien de dejucare a formelor juridice. De fapt, o lucrare care a coincis cu nceputul proiectului Looking for a Husband with an EU Passport
a presupus ca artista s ncalce n mod deliberat legea, trecnd pe jos grania dintre Slovenia i Austria, peste muni i prin pduri. Illegal Border Crossing (2000) s-a nscut din necesitate, cci artista trebuia s ajung la o expoziie, iar procesul de obinere
a vizei a durat pur i simplu prea mult.
Proiectele desfurate de Tabar i Ostojic reprezint extremele la care ajung artitii
pentru a transmite un mesaj important. n timp ce Tabar i utilizeaz cunotinele
medicale despre corp pentru a-l mpinge la limitele sale fizice, folosindu-i propriul
trup ca vehicul al unui mesaj despre chestiuni importante ale zilei, Ostojic terge
cu totul linia ce desparte arta i viaa, crend proiecte n care ntreaga sa via e pus
n joc. Prin asta, ambii artiti creeaz mesaje foarte incisive, care atrag atenia asupra problemelor importante cu care se confrunt compatrioii lor.
Corpul i autodefinirea
Cum spuneam mai sus, ideea lui Jones despre performance drept ceva intersubiectiv are o rezonan particular cu privire la body art i arta performance n Europa
de Est. Dei statul comunist promovase uniformitatea, abia n momentul n care
comunismul se apropia de sfrit i n perioada de dup schimbarea de regim naiunile individuale au nceput s-i reafirme identitile culturale naionale individuale. De pild, n rile Baltice, discuia despre identitatea naional-cultural s-a aflat
la temelia argumentului despre dreptul la autodeterminare i independen, care
a dus n cele din urm la disoluia treptat a Uniunii Sovietice. n Iugoslavia, guvernul a promovat o identitate uniform, colectiv, care s-a aflat deasupra etniilor individuale, reaprute dup moartea lui Tito n 1980 i dezintegrarea treptat a naiunii.
Potrivit lui Jones, prin body art se poate investiga felul n care capt form identitatea individual. Cu cuvintele ei, body art ne face s interogm nu doar politica
vizualitii, ci i structurile nsele prin care subiectul are loc...113 Ea ne aduce aminte, de asemenea, de contingena identitii, de faptul c sinele nu poate fi cunoscut n afara reprezentrilor sale culturale.114 Piotr Piotrowski caracterizase arta-aciune
i body art n Europa de Est ca mijloace prin care artitii ajung la autocunoatere115,
iar n multe cazuri asta a avut loc printr-o interogare a subiectului n lumina istoriei
i a culturii locale.
Borjana Mrdja (n. 1982) e o artist care a devenit deosebit de contient de identitatea ei la o vrst extrem de fraged. Ea a crescut n Kozarac, un ora din Bosnia
cu populaie majoritar bosniac i cu o minoritate srb. Cnd a nceput rzboiul,
i amintete ea, eram batjocorit pentru c snt srb i, copil fiind, n-am neles
ce nsemna asta. Pe atunci credeam c toi sntem iugoslavi. Oraul a fost lovit de
operaiunile de rzboi i familia mea a trebuit s-l prseasc urgent. Aa c destul de timpuriu am nceput s contientizez i s interoghez diferenele istorice, naionale i religioase. Aici se afl rdcinile preocuprii mele cu chestiuni legate de
identitate...116 n 2010, civa ani dup rzboi, ea i-a dat seama c o ran pe care
a avut-o pe mn, o arsur din 1985, cptase o form care semna cu graniele
actuale ale Bosniei i Heregovinei, ceea ce ea a artat ntr-o fotografie pe care a
trasat conturul precis al graniei cu un stilou, intitulnd piesa Border. Ea a spus c fotografia demonstreaz povara graniei, o entitate de obicei invizibil i conceptual,
care n acest caz e ntiprit pe corpul ei. Rana rspunde ca un ecou poverii cu care
apas grania invizibil asupra fiecruia dintre noi sub forma identitii noastre personale individuale, care se aplic peste identitile noastre culturale, naionale i etni-

140

curator Maria Vassileva wrote about Rassim as the new Michelangelo119; whereas Michelangelo created sculpture from marble, Rassim
sculpts his body. For the artist, Corrections was a live sculpture,
which took two years to create.
The artist said that the project developed out of the situation in his
life at the time. In 1991, he entered the army, as part of his mandatory military service. It was difficult for him, and he was looking for
a way to escape, however he came to the realization that there is no
escape from real life. After his military service, he entered the art
academy and tried to think about a way to connect his life with his
art. And from there he developed the idea of creating a live sculpture with his own body. At the time, this type of radical body art was
marginal in Bulgaria; it wasnt really accepted by academics, and
there were no real sources for the artist to draw from, so he says that
he was mainly working intuitively. The project was actually financed
by a foreign investor FRAC Languedoc-Roussillon in Montpellier,
France. Luchezar Boyadzijev has noted the fact that Rassims transformation had in fact been paid for by the West.120 Whereas Bulgaria itself was going through a period of transformation, Rassims was
the only one that was really successful, and it had been financed by
Western sources.
Four years later, Rassim underwent another physical change, in Corrections II (2002), when the artist had himself circumcised, the procedure documented accordingly. The artist commented that this
piece was about religion, which was a contentious issue both in the
aftermath of 9/11 and in Bulgaria during the communist period.
In the 1980s, the communist government changed the names of
Bulgarian people of Turkish origin, effectively Christianizing them.
The artist took a different approach, by physically altering his body.
As the artist has commented, despite these alterations, he remained
the same person.121 Likewise, the changing of ones name does not
effectively change the person at all. As Diana Popova has argued,
in changing his body, Rassim has literally become like the Other122;
in being circumcised, he identifies with this Other, and yet still
remains himself.
While Mrdja noted the burden of the border, Serbian artist
Vladimir Nikolic (b. 1974) feels this pressure as a geographic and
political one. As a Serbian artist, Nikolic describes himself as bearing
a geopolitical burden123, and feels that he cannot present his work
in an international context as a free man, unencumbered by his
ethnicity, since foreign curators and art historians expect his work
to reflect his origins, specifically the post-conflict situation of Serbia.
As a way of dealing with these concerns, in 2004, he brought a
Montenegrin dirge singer to the grave of Marcel Duchamp to sing,
as part of an artistic performance entitled Death Anniversary.
In the artists experience, curators only expect art about war from
a Serbian artist, yet this is precisely the opposite of what Duchamp
had intended with the readymade to take an object out of its context and provide it with a new meaning, divorced of its source. In the
performance, the dirge singer is positioned between Nikolic and
Duchamp, preventing the former from gaining access to the legacy
of the latter, and entering the international art context freely.
It is interesting to note that while these artists use performance art
to map out and explore their national cultural and artistic identities,
they do so using an ephemeral and fleeting gesture, demonstrating
the fact that identity can never be fixed, and is constantly redefined
and renegotiated in relation to context. Nevertheless, these passing
sentiments are given more permanence by way of simply being
present.
The Gendered Body
Performance art was a preferred genre among feminist artists in
North America who were working at a time when performance was
rapidly gaining currency among both male and female artists, in the
1960s and 1970s, providing a platform that enabled agency in the
artwork especially in an era of political activism. Performance

ce, adugndu-se sensurilor impuse din exterior acestor identiti. n 2011, Mrdja
i-a mprtit cu publicul experiena n privina nscrierilor graniei pe corp la Festivalul MS Dockville din Hamburg. Totui, n piesa ei de performance, intitulat Border MS Dockville, grania unete n loc s divid. Mrdja a creat un timbru pe care
erau imprimate graniele locului Dockville, iar apoi a lipit un asemenea timbru pe
mna fiecrui participant la festival, iar acetia pe durata ntregului festival au
mprtit aceleai granie att n termenii spaiului pe care l ocupau, ct i n aceia
ai graniei nscrise pe corpurile lor. Astfel, ea demonstreaz natura temporal a
granielor, care snt relative i se pot schimba.
n timp ce rana lui Mrdja fusese accidental, artistul romn Dan Perjovschi i-a folosit pielea ca indicator al identitii sale naionale ntr-un performance intitulat Romania (Festivalul Zona, Timioara, 1993), n care i-a tatuat pe bra cuvntul Romnia,
stigmatizndu-se literal cu identitatea sa naional. Zece ani mai trziu tatuajul a fost
ndeprtat ntr-un performance intitulat Erasing Romania. Dar cerneala, zice el, nu
poate fi ndeprtat cu totul; prin tratarea sa cu ajutorul unui laser, ea a fost pur i
simplu mprtiat n braul su.117 Simbolismul nu se pierde: dei s-a declarat
nsntoit de Romnia, el nu poate scpa niciodat de originile sale.
Artistul bulgar Rassim (Krastev) (n. 1972) se redefinete n permanen prin contururile corpului su fizic, pe care-l modeleaz ca pe o sculptur. Unul dintre proiectele sale cele mai timpurii fusese Corrections, un performance de lung durat n care
artistul a petrecut doi ani modelndu-i corpul, fcnd gimnastic dup un program
conceput de un culturist profesionist i innd diet pentru a-i face muchii s creasc.
Potrivit artistului, culturismul fusese interzis n perioada comunist, fiind asociat cu
cultura occidental capitalist.118 De fapt, a existat doar un singur specialist bulgar
n acest tip de antrenament, pe care artistul l-a i folosit drept consilier n acest proiect. Scopul proiectului, potrivit celor spuse de artist, fusese acela de a crea o sculptur nou, modern. Cnd piesa a fost expus n Bulgaria, curatorul Maria Vassileva
scrisese despre Rassim ca despre un nou Michelangelo119; pe cnd Michelangelo
crease sculptur din marmur, Rassim i sculpteaz corpul. Pentru artist, Correc tions fusese o sculptur vie, a crei creaie a durat doi ani.
Artistul spune c proiectul s-a dezvoltat din situaia vieii lui n acea clip. n 1991,
a ajuns n armat, ca parte a serviciului militar obligatoriu. Fusese dificil pentru el i
cuta o cale de scpare, dar i-a dat seama c nu exist scpare din viaa adevrat.
Dup serviciul militar a intrat la academia de art i a ncercat s gseasc o modalitate de a-i pune n legtur viaa i arta. De aici a ajuns la ideea de a crea o sculptur vie cu propriul corp. La acel moment, acest tip radical de body art fusese marginal
n Bulgaria; el nu fusese cu adevrat acceptat de universitari i nu existaser surse
veritabile din care s se poat inspira, aa c, spune el, trebuia s lucreze mai mult
intuitiv. Proiectul fusese finanat, de fapt, de un investitor strin FRAC LanguedocRoussillon din Montpellier, Frana. Lucezar Boiadiev observase c transformarea
lui Rassim fusese pltit de Vest.120 Dei Bulgaria nsi trecea printr-o perioad de
transformare, Rassim fusese singurul care a avut un succes veritabil i a fost finanat
din surse occidentale.
Patru ani mai trziu, Rassim a trecut printr-o alt schimbare fizic n Corrections II
(2002), cnd a fost circumcis, procedura fiind nregistrat n mod corespunztor. Artistul afirmase c aceast pies era despre religie, care fusese o chestiune controversat att dup 11 septembrie, ct i n Bulgaria postcomunist. n anii 1980, guvernul
comunist schimbase numele bulgarilor cu origini turceti, cretinndu-le efectiv. Artistul a recurs la o abordare diferit, alterndu-i fizic corpul. Potrivit comentariilor fcute de el, n ciuda acestor alterri, el rmsese aceeai persoan.121 n mod asemntor,
schimbndu-i corpul, Rassim a devenit literal precum un Altul122; fiind circumcis,
el se identific cu acest Altul, i totui rmne acelai.

enabled women to become active subjects, as opposed to passive

objects of the artwork.124 In revealing the artist in the act of creation,
no longer cloaked by the canvas of the painting, the work is no
longer susceptible to the purported objective criticism of modernist
formalism, which examines the work of art independent of any external social or political factors, including the fact that the artist is a
gendered subject. Instead, she argues, when the body in performance is female, obviously queer, non-white, exaggeratedly (hyper)masculine, or otherwise enacted against the grain of the normative
subject (the straight, white, upper-middle-class, male subject coincident with the category artist in Western culture) the hidden logic
of exclusionism underlying modernist art history and criticism is
exposed.125 Through the presence of the body in performance,
other subjectivities gain visibility and agency.
The notion of feminism in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe
prior to 1989 is complicated by the fact that, during that time, the
womens question, or an official level, was considered largely to have
been resolved.126 While the feminist movement erupted in North
America in the 1960s, and a feminist art movement began on its
heels in the 1970s, women across the East, benefiting from equal
job opportunities and equal pay, did not revolt. Even though in the
domestic sphere, the situation was quite different, with traditional
gender roles being maintained, in the social sphere, feminism was
considered unnecessary, an annoying import from the West. The
drive to rectify iniquities in the private sphere was further hampered
by socio-political circumstances in the East. As Martina Pachmanov
has explained, in places where the state exercised control over much
of everyday life, the common enemy for all was the totalitarian
regime, which women and men in the counterculture fought
against.127 Of course not everyone, however, agreed that feminism
was unnecessary. For example, in the 1970s, artists such as Jana
elibsk (Slovakia/Czechoslovakia), Natalia L. L. (Poland), and Sanja
Ivekovic (Croatia/Yugoslavia) created pioneering works that addressed
issues of gender and femininity.
In the post-socialist period, the veneer of egalitarianism that the
regimes claimed to offer quickly crumbled, leaving behind the patriarchal society that had always been present beneath. That said, no
new wave of feminism emerged to combat the new forces of conservative right-wing governments, nor the reinvigorated voice of the
Church. Bojana Pejic has suggested that in the former Yugoslavia, for
example, the aversion to feminism in the post-socialist period relates
to a desire to forget the shared past of Yugoslavia following the bitter wars of the 1990s.128 In other countries, the Church replaced the
state as the authoritarian voice, and continued to uphold traditional
gender roles. Furthermore, across Central Europe, women saw femininity as a new right to exercise, following the homogenization of
gender and stifling of femininity in favor of the image of the proletarian mother of the newfound socialist state.
In socialist Yugoslavia, which succeeded in combining consumer culture with ideology, the situation was ripe for critique of the culture
of the spectacle, the reification of the female body and the male
gaze. Sanja Ivekovic, for example, scrutinized these mechanisms at
work in the mass media, exposing the manner in which femininity
and notions of beauty are constructed. In her 1976 video performance, Make-Up, Make-Down, the application of make-up is fetishized, by being shown as a sensual act. The camera focuses on the
female subjects cleavage and hands (her face is not visible), which
slowly manipulate and caress various objects containing make-up:
tubes of lipstick and mascara, a bottle of lotion, etc. She followed
this piece with the performance Un Jour Violente (1976), where she
applied make-up and dressed according to an advertisement in
Marie Claire, which told women how live glamorous lives through
their style. In the course of the performance, in three different
spaces, she applied three different looks provided by the magazine: tender, violent and secret, attempting to become or align with
the representation of woman.

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n timp ce Mrdja subliniase povara graniei, artistul srb Vladimir Nikolic (n. 1974)
simte aceast presiune ca fiind una geografic i politic. Ca artist srb, Nikolic se
autodescrie ca purtnd o povar geopolitic123 i simte c nu-i poate prezenta munca
ntr-un context internaional ca un om liber, nestnjenit de etnia sa, deoarece curatorii i istoricii de art strini se ateapt ca lucrrile sale s-i reflecte originea, mai
ales situaia postconflict din Serbia. Ca o modalitate de a da seam de aceste probleme, n 2004 el a adus un bocitor din Muntenegru care s cnte la mormntul lui
Marcel Duchamp, ca parte a performance-ului artistic Death Anniversary. Potrivit experienei artistului, curatorii ateapt de la artitii srbi doar art despre rzboi, totui
asta e exact opusul a ceea ce intenionase Duchamp cu readymade-ul s scoi
un obiect din contextul su i s-i acorzi un nou neles, separat de sursa lui. n cadrul
performance-ului, bocitorul e aezat ntre Nikolic i Duchamp, mpiedicndu-l pe
primul s aib acces la motenirea celui de al doilea i s peasc liber n contextul artistic internaional.
E interesant de observat c n timp ce aceti artiti utilizeaz arta performance pentru a-i cartografia i explora identitile naionale culturale i artistice, ei fac asta utiliznd gesturi efemere i trectoare, demonstrnd faptul c identitatea nu poate fi fixat
niciodat, fiind mereu redefinit i renegociat n raport cu contextul. Cu toate astea,
acestor sentimente trectoare li se d o durat mai lung prin faptul c snt pur i
simplu prezente.
Corpul mprflit pe sexe
Arta performance fusese un gen preferat al artitilor feminiti din America de Nord,
care lucrau ntr-o perioad cnd performance-ul ctiga teren cu rapiditate att n rndurile artitilor brbai, ct i n rndurile artitilor femei, n anii 1960 i 1970, furniznd
o platform care a permis aciune n cadrul operei de art mai ales ntr-o perioad
de activism politic. Performance-ul le-a permis femeilor s devin subieci activi, spre
deosebire de statutul de obiecte pasive ale operei de art.124 Prin revelarea artistului
n actul creaiei, nemaifiind acoperit de pnza picturii, lucrarea nu mai e susceptibil
la presupusa critic obiectiv a formalismului modernist, care examineaz opera de
art independent de factori sociali sau politici, inclusiv de faptul c artistul e un subiect
sexuat. n schimb, atunci cnd corpul n performance e feminin, explicit homosexual,
nealb, exagerat (hiper)masculin sau altfel angajat mpotriva subiectului normativ (heterosexual, alb, din ptura superioar a clasei de mijloc i masculin, care coincide cu categoria artistului n cultura occidental), logica ascuns a excluderii aflate la baza
istoriei moderne a artei i a criticii ei este expus.125 Prin prezena corpului n performance, alte subiectiviti capt vizibilitate i putere de aciune.
nainte de 1989, ideea de feminism n Europa Central, de Est i de Sud e compli cat suplimentar de faptul c, n acea perioad, chestiunea femeilor, cel puin la nivel
oficial, fusese considerat drept una care prea n mare parte rezolvat.126 Dei
micarea feminist a erupt n America de Nord n anii 1960, iar micarea artistic
feminist a nceput n tromb n anii 1970, femeile din Est, beneficiind de posibiliti egale de angajare i de salarii egale, nu s-au revoltat. Chiar dac n sfera do mestic situaia era destul de diferit, rolurile sexuale tradiionale fiind pstrate, n
sfera social feminismul fusese considerat drept ceva superfluu, un import enervant din Vest. Impulsul de a rectifica nedreptile din sfera privat fusese mpiedicat i de circumstanele sociopolitice din Est. Aa cum explicase Martina Pachmanov,
n locuri n care statul exercita controlul asupra unei mari pri din viaa cotidian,
dumanul comun tuturor fusese regimul totalitar, mpotriva cruia luptau brbaii
i femeile constituind contracultura.127 Cu toate astea, desigur, nu toi fuseser de
prere c feminismul era superfluu. De pild, n anii 1970, artiti precum Jana elibsk
(Slovacia/Cehoslovacia), Natalia L. L. (Polonia) i Sanja Ivekovic (Croaia/Iugosla-

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Nearly three decades later, in 2009, Borjana Mrdja continued this

interrogation of the image and the construction of beauty. In the
video performance Almost Perfect Work, the artist applied lipstick
using a specially constructed glove, the tips of which contained
tubes of lipstick. In this piece, the artists face became the work surface, and the sounds of a construction site, heard in the background,
confirm the activity as such. Here, Mrdja has turned Ivekovics sensual act of manipulating phallic tubes of makeup into an awkward one,
as the glove is difficult to use gracefully as a lipstick applicator.
Instead of cleavage and gentle movement, the viewer sees the hard
work and toil that it takes to beautify oneself. In some ways, this performance is Mrdjas jour violente, suggesting that this struggle
against the image is ongoing. Furthermore, the reconstitution of
these gestures demonstrated the continued relevance of their examination. It important to note that when Mrdja first made the piece,
she had been unaware of the precedents in Ivekovics work.129
Furthermore, Mrdja, whose interest in individual subjectivity and
national-cultural identity has already been discussed, does not view
these works as feminist per se. Rather, she maintains that her work is
focused on the issue of identity, be it gender, national, or otherwise.
Russian artist Vladislav Mamyshev-Monroe (19692013) first became
Marilyn Monroe in the 1980s, taking inspiration from the film Some
Like it Hot, which he recalled seeing in movie theaters at that time,
and which features not only Marilyn Monroe as Sugar Cane Kowalski
the lead singer in an all-female band but also Tony Curtis and
Jack Lemmon in drag. In 1986, the artist was discharged from the
army and committed to a psychiatric hospital after he dressed up as
Marilyn Monroe using hair from dolls to fashion a wig and altering
curtains for a dress. In 1989 Mamyshev-Monroe appeared at the
opening of an exhibition entitled Women in Art in Leningrad dressed
as Marilyn, which caused a scandal on television and in the mass
media, resulting in death threats to the artist. The artists use of disguises has been called a therapy of possible multiple-personality
disorder130 by Olesya Turkina, and Mamyshev-Monroes use of
costume and disguise helps him orient himself on an axis that is defiantly between not only gender binaries, but also between East and
West. In his words, through the use of costume and alternate identities he is able to express his desire to embody mankind in all its
variety, experience all these destinies myself, take on myself all these
countless sins, neutralise these countless good deeds, eliminate sexual, national, social and other differences and remain myself in this
singular variety.131
In 2010, Mamyshev was violently attacked in Russia in an act of gay
bashing. He documented his injury and his recovery on his Facebook
page, in a photographic performance entitled Taming Beauty,
in which he became Marilyn Monroe once again, using his public
personality as a spokesperson for gay rights. Using a combination
of staged photographs and text captions, the artist created a story
about how after the bump on his forehead turned into a black eye,
my Great Sacred Muse Marilyn Monroe appeared... and so I became
Marilyn Monroe without the makeup132, effectively comparing himself to a similarly tragic figure, and channeling her energy to survive
the gruesome attack.133
Bulgarian artist Boryana Rossa (b. 1972) has also challenged the
notion of rigid gender roles and sexual identity in her very visceral
piece from 2004, The Last Valve, when, in a private performance
in her apartment, she sewed shut her vulva with surgical thread.
In doing so, she denies access to her body through the phallus by
sealing it closed. She also challenges patriarchal attitudes toward
gender by playing on the phrase stitched up cunt, referring to a
woman who is frigid and doesnt always automatically make herself
available to the male for sex, by literalizing this position. More importantly, her action suggests a future world that is free of gender distinctions, envisioning a society that will accept more flexible notions
of sex and gender, to embrace diversity and not to curse it.134 Her
gender ambiguity resembles Mamyshevs, insofar as the artist delib-

via) creaser lucrri de pionierat care abordau chestiuni legate de sex i feminitate.
n perioada postsocialist, spoiala de egalitarism pe care regimurile pretindeau c
l ofereau ncepea s se subieze tot mai mult, lsnd n urm societatea patriarhal
care se afla mereu sub aceast suprafa. Cu toate astea, n-a aprut un nou val de
feminism care s combat noile fore ale guvernelor conservatoare de dreapta sau
vocile revigorate ale bisericii. Bojana Pejic sugerase c n fosta Iugoslavie, de pild,
aversiunea mpotriva feminismului din perioada postsocialist are de-a face cu dorina de a uita trecutul comun al Iugoslaviei, n urma amarelor rzboaie din anii 1990.128
n alte ri, biserica a nlocuit statul ca voce autoritar i a continuat s susin rolurile sexuale tradiionale. Mai mult, n Europa Central, femeile vedeau faptul de a
fi femeie ca pe un nou drept pe care-l puteau exercita, care venea dup omogenizarea sexual i sufocarea feminitii n favoarea imaginii mamei proletare din statele socialiste.
n Iugoslavia socialist, care a reuit s combine cultura consumului cu ideologia,
situaia era coapt pentru o critic a culturii i a spectacolului, a reificrii corpului feminin i a privirii masculine. Sanja Ivekovic, de pild, a luat n vizor aceste mecanisme aa cum funcionau ele n mass-media, expunnd felul n care snt construite
feminitatea i ideile despre frumos. n performance-ul ei video din 1976, Make-Up,
Make-Down, utilizarea fardurilor e fetiizat, fiind artat ca un act senzual. Camera
se concentreaz pe decolteul i minile subiectului feminin (faa sa nu e vizibil), care
manipuleaz ncet i mngie obiecte coninnd cosmetice: tuburi de ruj i mascara, o
sticl cu loiune etc. Ea a continuat aceast pies cu performance-ul Un jour violente
(1976), n care s-a fardat i s-a mbrcat potrivit unei reclame din Marie Claire, care
spunea femeilor cum s triasc viei fermectoare prin stilul lor. Pe parcursul performance-ului, n trei locuri diferite, ea i-a construit trei imagini diferite oferite de
revista cu pricina: tandr, violent i misterioas, ncercnd s devin reprezentarea
femeii sau s i se conformeze.
Aproape trei decenii mai trziu, n 2009, Borjana Mrdja a continuat aceast interogare a imaginii i construciei frumuseii. n performance-ul video Almost Perfect Work,
artista i-a dat cu ruj folosind o mnu confecionat special, n aa fel nct vrfurile degetelor se terminau n nite tuburi cu ruj. n aceast pies, faa artistei devine
suprafaa de lucru, iar sunetele de antier din fundal confirm acest aspect. Aici, Mrdja
a transformat actul senzual al lui Ivekovic, acela de a manipula tuburi falice de cosmetice, ntr-un gest straniu, cci mnua nu poate fi utilizat cu graie pentru a aplica rujul. n locul decolteului i al micrilor delicate, privitorul vede efortul i truda
pe care le cere nfrumusearea. n anumite sensuri, acest performance e o jour violente a lui Mrdja, sugernd c aceast lupt mpotriva imaginii are loc nc. Mai mult,
reconstituirea acestor gesturi a demonstrat pertinena nc vie a examinrii lor. E
important de remarcat c atunci cnd Mrdja a fcut aceast pies nu tia de precedentul din opera lui Ivekovic.129 Mai mult, Mrdja, a crei preocupare cu subiectivitatea individual i identitatea naional-cultural fusese deja discutat, nu privete aceste
lucrri ca fiind feministe per se. Mai degrab, ea susine c munca ei se concentreaz
pe chestiuni legate de identitate, fie ea sexual, naional sau de alt natur.
Artistul rus Vladislav Mamiev-Monroe (19692013) a devenit pentru prima oar
Marilyn Monroe n anii 1980, inspirndu-se din filmul Unora le place jazzul, pe care
l-a vzut la cinematograf n acea perioad i n care apare nu doar Marilyn Monroe,
ca Sugar Cane Kowalski solista unei orchestre formate exclusiv din femei , ci i
Tony Curtis i Jack Lemmon deghizai n femei. n 1986, artistul a fost lsat la vatr
i internat ntr-un ospiciu dup ce se mbrcase ca Marilyn Monroe, folosind prul
unui manechin de mod i croindu-i o rochie din nite perdele. n 1989, MamievMonroe a aprut la vernisajul unei expoziii din Leningrad intitulate Femei n art

erately maintained his male gender, biologically, despite having the

outward appearance of a female.
III. Performance and the Institution
One of the challenges posed by feminism to the institution of art
confronted the perpetuation of the normative subject as artist
(as noted by Jones above). The rise of feminism in North America
occurred in concert with the civil rights movements, which demanded a voice and representation for all minorities and underrepresented groups. The 1960s and 1970s in the West was a time of great
civic protest and challenging of the status quo. The institution of art
was not immune to these challenges, and as numerous other
received ideas were questioned by activists in the social sphere,
artists began to contest the long-held assumed truths about art
itself, and the institutions that developed and promoted art.
As Alexander Alberro has written, it was at this time that artists
began to expose the institution of art as a deeply problematic field,
making apparent the intersections where political, economic and
ideological interests directly intervened and interfered in the production of public culture.135 Performance art, then, was one vehicle
(together with Conceptual Art) that artists used to critique the institution of art, challenge the commercialization of the art object, and
contest the gallery system that bestows a value upon it. In foregrounding the process of creation and the experience of the artwork,
artists circumvented the stale atmosphere of the museum, creating
a live work of art that could not stagnate by being hung on the wall.
Furthermore, given the fact that performance was a non-traditional
art form with significantly less history of institutionalization, compared to, for example, painting and sculpture, it offered the possibility for artists to question the nature of art, along with the role of the
artist, and expand the definition of both.
While artists in the West used institutional critique to expose the hidden mechanisms at work in relation to art, in Eastern Europe, where
all artistic production was subject to state control, these mechanisms
were not hidden, but overtly acknowledged and deliberately stated.
Artists were well aware of the fact that the work they produced needed to conform to certain standards and represent the dominant ideology, although the degree to which these mandates were enforced
varied greatly from state to state. For this reason, the institutional
critique that one associates with Western art from the 1960s and
1970s takes on different forms in the East. In some instances the critique is leveled against the state, whereas in others a challenge is
posed to the control of the art market and creation of the artistic
canon by the West.
Yugoslavia was perhaps the most liberal area of the Eastern bloc,
and artists quite frequently and easily travelled abroad. For that
reason, one can find examples of artists, such as Dalibor Martinis
(b. 1947), whose performances address the institution of art from a
critical point of view. In his 1976 performance Art Guard, the artist
played the role of a security guard in the Museum of Contemporary
Art in Zagreb, simultaneously proclaiming the value of certain works
of art by guarding them, yet also preventing the publics access to
the paintings by sitting directly in front of the selected works.
By positioning himself in this manner, he raises questions about the
art gallery system that bestows value on a work of art, and the effect
that has on the works visibility in the public sphere. Similarly, in
Work for Pumps Gallery (Pumps Gallery, Vancouver, 1978), the artist
addressed the concept of the white cube, the neutral space of the
gallery that is supposed to provide the appropriate background for
the work of art. Instead of creating a painting for exhibition, he used
the act of painting to cover the walls of the gallery, painting them
white, in preparation for a new exhibition. The artist commented
that this piece not only challenged the notion of the neutrality of the
white cube, but also provided a situation for reciprocity and artistic
collaboration. In Martiniss words, this piece expressed the possibility for the work of one artist to be at the service of that of others.

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costumat ca Marilyn, ceea ce a fcut obiectul unui scandal n mass-media, aducndu-i i cteva ameninri cu moartea. Utilizarea costumelor de ctre artist a fost numit
o terapie pentru dedublarea personalitii130 de Olesia Turkina, care susinea c
gestul lui Mamiev-Monroe l ajut s se orienteze pe o ax ce se afl, n mod rebel,
nu doar ntre mprirea pe sexe, dar i ntre Est i Vest. Cu cuvintele sale, prin utilizarea costumaiei i a identitilor variabile el e n stare s-i exprime dorina de a
ntrupa umanitatea n ntreaga ei varietate, de a tri prin el nsui toate destinele,
de a lua asupra sa nenumratele pcate, de a neutraliza nenumratele fapte bune,
de a elimina diferenele sexuale, naionale, sociale i de alt natur i de a rmne
el nsui n aceast diversitate singular.131
n 2010, Mamiev a fost atacat cu brutalitate n Rusia ntr-un act de mutruluial a
homosexualilor. El i-a documentat traumatismele i nsntoirea pe pagina Facebook personal, ntr-un performance fotografic intitulat Taming Beauty, n care a devenit iar Marilyn Monroe, utiliznd personalitatea sa public drept purttor de cuvnt
pentru drepturile homosexualilor. Folosind o combinaie de fotografii manipulate
i fragmente de text, artistul a creat o poveste despre cum, dup ce cucuiul din cap
i s-a transformat ntr-un ochi negru, Muza mea Mare i Sacr Marilyn Monroe a
aprut... i astfel am devenit Marilyn Monroe fr ajutorul fardului132, comparndu-se efectiv cu o figur la fel de tragic i canaliznd energia ei pentru a supravieui
brutalitii atacului.133
Artista bulgar Boryana Rossa (n. 1972) a pus de asemenea sub semnul ntrebrii
ideea rolurilor i identitilor sexuale rigide n piesa sa foarte visceral din 2004, The
Last Valve, cnd, ntr-un performance privat din apartamentul ei, i-a cusut vaginul
cu un fir de sutur chirurgical. Prin asta, blocheaz accesul falic la corpul ei. Ea lanNedko Solakov
A Life (Black and White), 1998present, black and white paint; two workers/painters constantly repainting the walls of the exhibition space in black and white for the entire duration of the exhibition,
day after day (following each other); dimensions variable. Edition of 5 and 1 AP; Collections of Peter Kogler, Vienna; Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago (a gift of Susan and Lewis Manilow, Chicago);
Hauser and Wirth Collection, St. Gallen; Museum fr Moderne Kunst, Frankfurt am Main; Tate Modern, London, courtesy: the artist. Installation view: Plateau of Humankind, 49th Biennale de Venezia,
Venice, 2001, photo: Giorgio Colombo
Dalibor Martinis
Work for Pumps Gallery, 1978, performance in Pumps Gallery, Vancouver, Canada, courtesy: the artist

After my exhibition, the white painted gallery was used for the exhibition of the works of other artists.136 Instead of competition among
artists, which the institution instills, his piece promotes cooperation.
Twenty years later, Bulgarian artist Nedko Solakov (b. 1957) created
a similar performance, with a different effect. A Life (Black and White)
(1998) consists of instructions by Solakov, which can be followed by
anyone, however the artist maintains the rights to the concept and
images of the piece. Two painters, who need not be professionals,
paint and re-paint the walls of the gallery, one with white paint, the
other with black. Each participant paints over the others work. However, among the stipulations is that the room must be half black and
half white at all times, requiring communication and coordination
between the two painters. In this performance, the act of painting
itself becomes mechanized and institutionalized, as the painters have
a set amount of breaks that they can take, including a 30-minute
lunch break. That said, the process of creation is foregrounded, at the
expense of the final aesthetic product. Furthermore, it emphasizes
the social element of art, as the creation of the artwork requires communication, awareness of the other, and cooperation.
The transition of Eastern Europe to the free market was neither
straightforward nor simple, and many countries struggled with the
resultant mass inflation and the rebuilding of infrastructure that
comes with such changes. The transition for artists was no less complicated, and many artists nowadays are faced with the challenge of
surviving in their trade without the state support that many artists
once received under socialism. In the post-communist period, work
that addresses the status of the Eastern European artist in the art
market indicates new concerns over making a living as an artist fol-

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seaz astfel o provocare i atitudinilor patriarhale fa de sexualitate, jucndu-se cu

expresia stitched up cunt, care se refer la o femeie frigid i care nu e gata s
se pun la dispoziia brbatului pentru a face sex. Artista literalizeaz aceast expresie. Mai important, aciunea sa sugereaz o lume viitoare care e liber de distincii
sexuale, preconiznd o societate care va accepta idei mai flexibile despre sex i sexualitate, va saluta diversitatea i n-o va surghiuni.134 Ambiguitatea ei sexual seamn
cu aceea a lui Mamiev n msura n care artistul i-a pstrat n mod deliberat masculinitatea din punct de vedere biologic, n pofida faptului c are aspectul exterior
al unei femei.
III. Performance-ul i instituflia
Una dintre provocrile pe care le lanseaz feminismul la adresa instituiilor artistice a avut de-a face cu perpetuarea subiectului normativ ca artist (aa cum observase Jones mai sus). Apariia feminismului n America de Nord a avut loc odat cu
micrile pentru drepturi civile, care cereau o voce i o reprezentare pentru toate
minoritile i grupurile subreprezentate. Anii 1960 i 1970 n Occident au fost o
perioad de protest civil intens i de interogare profund a statu-quoului. Instituia
artei n-a fost imun la aceste provocri i, la fel cum multe alte idei primite de-a
gata au fost chestionate de activiti n sfera social, artitii ncepuser s conteste multe
dintre tradiionalele, dar doar presupusele adevruri despre art i instituiile care
o dezvoltau i promovau. Aa cum scrisese Alexander Alberro, n aceast perioad
artitii au nceput s expun instituia artei ca un cmp profund problematic, fcnd

lowing the transition. For example, Croatian artist Sinia Labrovics

(b. 1965) performance, Perpetuum Mobile (2009), suggests that
artists nowadays must be self-sustaining. During the piece, the artist
first attempts to urinate into his mouth. When he ultimately fails, he
uses his hand to cup the urine and drink it. The performance was
created in response to a request for him to perform for free; the
artist was told that the festival that he was invited to had very little
money, so while he was invited to present his work, he would not be
remunerated.137 Since he had to work without pay, he devised a performance that he could use to feed and sustain himself.
Mladen Miljanovic (b. 1981), from Banja Luka, Serbia, considers part
his role as an artist to be at the service of the viewer. While still a
student, he created the performance I Serve Art (2006), wherein he
isolated himself inside the military base in Banja Luka, which, during
his third year of studies, became the Academy of Arts. Before
becoming an artist, Miljanovic had been a soldier, and served his one
year of mandatory duty in the army just after high school. Since the
artist found himself once again in that same space where he had
once trained soldiers, he decided to decontaminate the space by
occupying it. In his words, he mapped the space with [his] body138,
beginning his service to his viewers in a manner similar to the way in
which a soldier does through intense, dedicated training. The artist
saw this moment as a significant one historically; the fact that the art
academy was moved into this former military base indicated a shift
in society, from a militarized position to one focusing on education.139
While the artist had previously been trained to serve his country, and
also trained others to do so, now he would train himself to serve his
fellow citizens in a different way through his art.

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

patente punctele de intersecie n care interesele politice, economice i ideologice interveneau n mod direct i interferau cu producia culturii publice.135 Arta performance (mpreun cu arta conceptual) fusese deci un mijloc pe care artitii l-au
utilizat pentru a critica instituia artei, a interoga comercializarea obiectului artistic
i a contesta sistemul de galerii care i acord valoare acestuia. Punnd accentul pe
procesul creaiei i al experienei operei de art, artitii s-au sustras atmosferei sttute a muzeului, crend o oper de art vie, care nu putea stagna atrnnd pe un perete. Mai mult, dat fiind faptul c performance-ul a fost o form de art nontradiional,
cu o istorie semnificativ mai scurt n ce privete instituionalizarea dect, de pild,
pictura i sculptura, el le-a oferit artitilor posibilitatea de a interoga natura artei, m preun cu rolul artistului, i s extind definiia amndurora.
n timp ce artitii occidentali foloseau critica instituional pentru a expune mecanismele ascunse aflate la lucru n cadrul artei, n Europa de Est, unde ntreaga producie
artistic fusese supus controlului statal, aceste mecanisme fuseser nu ascunse, ci
recunoscute n mod deschis i afirmate n chip deliberat. Artitii erau perfect contieni de faptul c lucrrile produse de ei trebuiau s se conformeze anumitor etaloane i s reprezinte ideologia dominant, chiar dac gradul n care aceste obligaii
fuseser impuse varia n mod considerabil de la stat la stat. Din acest motiv, critica
instituional, care e asociat cu arta occidental din anii 1960 i 1970, capt forme
diferite n Est. n unele cazuri critica e orientat mpotriva statului, n timp ce n altele provocarea e adresat controlului exercitat de piaa de art i crerii canonului
artistic de ctre Occident.
Iugoslavia a fost poate zona cea mai liberal a blocului estic, artitii avnd posibilitatea de a cltori n strintate destul de frecvent i de uor. Din acest motiv, se pot
gsi exemple de artiti, cum ar fi Dalibor Martinis (n. 1947), ale cror performanceuri abordeaz instituia artei dintr-un punct de vedere critic. n performance-ul su
din 1976, Art Guard, artistul a jucat rolul unui paznic de la Muzeul de Art Contemporan din Zagreb, simultan proclamnd valoarea anumitor opere de art prin faptul c le pzea, dar i mpiedicnd publicul s aib acces la picturi, aezndu-se direct
n faa lucrrilor selectate de el. Prin acest lucru, el ridic ntrebri despre galeriile de
art care dau valoare unei opere de art i despre efectul pe care l are asta asupra
vizibilitii lucrrilor n sfera public. n mod asemntor, n Work for Pumps Gallery
(Pumps Gallery, Vancouver, 1978), artistul a abordat conceptul de cub alb, spaiul
neutru al galeriei despre care se presupune c furnizeaz fundalul potrivit pentru opera
de art. n loc s creeze o pictur pentru aceast expoziie, el a folosit gestul de a
zugrvi n alb pereii galeriei, pregtind o nou expoziie. Artistul spusese c aceast
pies nu doar a pus n discuie ideea de neutralitate a cubului alb, ci a i creat o situaie
pentru reciprocitate i colaborare artistic. Cu cuvintele lui Martinis, aceast pies
a exprimat posibilitatea ca o lucrare a unui artist s se afle n slujba altui artist. Dup
expoziia mea, galeria zugrvit n alb fusese folosit pentru expunerea unor lucrri
semnate de ali artiti.136 n locul competiiei dintre artiti, pe care o inculc instituia, piesa sa promoveaz cooperarea.
Douzeci de ani mai trziu, artistul bulgar Nedko Solakov (n. 1957) crease performance-uri similare, cu un efect diferit. A Life (Black and White) (1998-) const din
indicaiile lui Solakov ce pot fi urmate de oricine, dar artistul i rezerv dreptul asupra conceptului i imaginilor piesei. Doi zugravi, nu neaprat profesioniti, vopsesc
i revopsesc pereii galeriei, unul cu alb, cellalt cu negru. Fiecare participant vopsete peste munca fcut de cellalt. Cu toate astea, printre clauze se afl i aceea
c ncperea trebuie s fie mereu jumtate neagr i jumtate alb, ceea ce impune celor doi zugravi comunicare i coordonare. n acest performance, gestul nsui
al picturii devine automatizat i instituionalizat, de vreme ce zugravii pot lua un numr
fix de pauze, inclusiv o pauz de prnz de 30 de minute. Astfel, procesul creaiei

146

He developed this idea of service in some later pieces, such as Taxi

to the Museum (2010), when the artist literally provided a service to
his viewers, by offering a taxi service that would take them to and
from the Museum of Modern Art in Vienna (MUMOK), where he had
a solo exhibition at the time. For this 7-day performance, the artist
was available by cell phone to pick up and drop off any passenger
who wanted to visit the museum. The artist mentioned that he wanted to fill the space in between the moment when a person leaves
his home to embark on a trip to the museum and when he actually
enters it. If that space can be filled with art or an artistic experience,
then that further bridges the gap between art and life, and between
art and the everyday world. With this performance, Miljanovic transformed the everyday experience of transporting oneself to the work
of art into a work of art itself, while also providing a useful service to
his viewers.
Allez! Arrest by the Autoperforationsartisten, in East Germany, also
represented the examination of the role of the artist, as well as the
art market, in much different socio-political circumstances. The piece
was an 11-day long interactive performance staged in the progressive Leipzig Gallery Eigen + Art. During that time the artists lived in
the gallery, slept and worked there, and invited the public to come
visit them in the gallery for a few hours during the day, from 68PM,
when they would exchange artwork for food. The piece was based
on Joseph Beuyss concept of social sculpture. Information about
Beuyss work was not widely circulated in official circuits, however
artists were aware of his work through unofficial channels. Officially,
the political aspects of his work were often glossed over. For example, several months prior to Allez! Arrest there was an exhibition of
Beuyss drawings in the GDR, however the social aspects of his work
and performance werent mentioned. In response to that exhibition
(and its omissions), the artists decided to present the other side of
Beuyss work through their own performance. The artists were
unsure whether the idea of this piece would be well-received, and
whether or not they would eat, but in fact, the visitors to the gallery
were quite generous, and kept them alive with a daily supply of
munitions. In this piece, artistic creation became an act of exchange
and collaboration between artist and viewer, and the artwork itself
is what sustained the artists, perhaps in a more satisfying way than
Labrovics solution.

Sinisa Labrovic
Perpetuum Mobile, May 30, 2009, performance at Gallery SIZ, Rijeka, Croatia,
photo: Romano Peric, courtesy: the artist

apare n prim-plan, n detrimentul produsului estetic final. Mai mult, lucrarea accentueaz elementul social al artei, deoarece crearea operei de art cere comunicare, atenie la cellalt i cooperare.
Tranziia Europei de Est ctre piaa liber n-a fost nici direct, nici simpl. Multe ri
au avut de luptat cu inflaia masiv ce a rezultat de aici i cu reconstrucia infrastructurii ce nsoete asemenea schimbri. Pentru artiti, tranziia a fost nu mai puin complicat i muli dintre ei se confrunt astzi cu provocarea de a supravieui n
profesia lor fr sprijinul acordat de stat pe care muli artiti l primeau odinioar sub
regimul socialist. n perioada postcomunist, lucrri ce abordeaz statutul artistului
est-european pe piaa artei indic noi griji legate de subzistena ca artist dup
tranziie. De pild, performance-ul artistului croat Sinia Labrovic (n. 1965) Perpetuum Mobile (2008) sugereaz c artitii de astzi trebuie s se ntrein singuri. n
cadrul acestei piese, artistul ncearc mai nti s-i urineze n gur. Cnd n cele din
urm nu reuete, el i folosete cuul palmei pentru a-i bea urina. Performanceul fusese creat ca un rspuns la solicitarea de a lucra gratis; artistului i se spusese
c festivalul la care a fost invitat dispunea de fonduri foarte limitate, aa c dei fusese invitat s-i prezinte lucrarea, el nu avea s fie remunerat.137 De vreme ce a trebuit s lucreze fr a fi pltit, el a conceput un performance pe care l putea folosi
pentru a se hrni i a se autosusine.
Mladen Miljanovic (n. 1981) din Banja Luka (Bosnia i Heregovina, Republica Srb)
consider ca fcnd parte din rolul su ca artist s se afle n slujba privitorului. Pe vremea cnd era nc student, el crease performance-ul I Serve Art (2006), n care s-a
izolat n baza militar din Banja Luka, o cldire care, n cel de-al treilea an al studen iei sale, devenise Academia de Art. nainte s devin artist, Miljanovic fusese soldat i i-a fcut anul de serviciu militar obligatoriu imediat dup liceu. Cum el s-a
trezit iar n spaiul n care nainte antrena soldai, a decis s decontamineze spaiul,
ocupndu-l. Cu cuvintele sale, el a cartografiat spaiul cu corpul [su]138, ncepndu-i serviciul n slujba privitorilor si ntr-un fel similar cu modul n care procedeaz
un soldat printr-un antrenament intens, luat n serios. Artistul considerase acest
moment ca unul semnificativ din punct de vedere istoric; faptul c Academia de Art
fusese mutat n aceast fost baz militar a indicat o transformare n cadrul

Throughout his work, Lithuanian artist Artu-ras Raila (b. 1962) has
been rethinking the role of the art institution and of art in society,
and attempting to expand the conventional modes of production,
display and viewership. In 1997, in a work entitled Once You Pop
You Cant Stop, which was part of Dimension 0, an international festival of performance art, Raila commissioned a group of bikers from
the motorcycle club Crazy in the Dark to drive into and through the
Contemporary Art Centre (CAC) in the center of Vilnius. In this way
he literally opened the doors of the museum to different groups from
outside the institution. At one point the artist suggested that the
Unified Lithuanian National Workers Movement (VNLDS), a NeoNazi group and an unofficial political party (insofar as it was not recognized by the Ministry of Justice) move its headquarters from
iauliai to the CAC, however this did not come to pass. Nevertheless,
Raila was insistent on introducing the art world to this group of
people, and vice versa. He invited the members to Vilnius for the
opening of the exhibition Cool Places, where he had created a performance on the roof of the CAC, complete with drummers and
go-go dancers. The members of VNLDS were impressed, especially
since the exhibition had changed their preconceived notions about
art. Whereas previously they had thought that art was just monuments and stupid abstract paintings140, they were pleased to see
that the unconventional installations and performances presented
in the context of the exhibition could be included in the rubric of art.
Finally, in Roll Over Museum (2004), an exhibition that was done
with the participation of four automobile tuning enthusiasts, Raila
further broadened the category of art by introducing the work of
these four men into the museum space. The exhibition consists of the
enthusiasts four cars, respectively, a photograph of each with his
vehicle, and video documentation of the mechanics speaking about
their cars and they work they have done on them.
The end of the Cold War ostensibly marked the end of the division
between East and West in the art world. The art market and international stage was subsequently open for artists from Eastern Europe,
at least in theory, as restrictions on movement and exchange were
eliminated. That said, what Piotrowski has referred to as the vertical, hierarchical discourse of art history continued. Meaning, the
West was still widely acknowledged to be the center of the art world,
and all art was judged in relation to it. In Piotrowskis view, the East
tolerated this situation, because it gave them the illusion of belonging to the Western family instead of the culture of the Eastern
Bloc.141 Despite the fact that Piotrowski has called on art history to
challenge this hierarchical system, the status of the artist in relation
to the West is one that continues to concern artists from the region.
In 1992 Croatian artist Mladen Stilinovic (b. 1947) exhibited a
declamatory banner stating that An Artist who Cannot Speak English is no Artist. One decade later, Serbian artist Vladimir Nikolic,
together with Vera Vecanski, created a video performance entitled
How to Become a Great Artist (2001). In the video, a young woman
appears sheepishly before the camera, complaining that she would
like to become a great artist, but simply doesnt know how.
The voice of one such great artist speaks to her, telling her various
things that she needs to do one of which, is to know how to speak
English. He sits beside her, paintbrush in hand, and asks her to
repeat the phrases I am a great artist. You are a great artist.
He is not a great artist. Furthermore, the video instructs that an
artist must be focused and concentrated, and keep pace with high
art. The two master and apprentice engage in a dance that
shows them moving to the pace of the art world.
Keeping pace with the art world was challenging for artists in some
areas of Eastern Europe. In Bulgaria, for example, an experimental
contemporary art scene did not appear until the end of the 1980s,
which is somewhat late in comparison with the rest of the East.
A project by art historian and curator Vera Mlechevska and writer
Dimiter Shopov addresses this issue in Bulgarian art history, along
with the national complex regarding the lack of an avant-garde tra-

147

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

societii, de la o poziie militarizat la una concentrat pe educaie.139 Dei artistul

a fost antrenat s-i serveasc ara i, de asemenea, i pregtise pe alii pentru acelai lucru, acum se antrena pentru a-i servi compatrioii ntr-un alt fel prin arta sa.
El dezvoltase ideea servirii publicului n cteva piese ulterioare, cum ar fi Taxi to the
Museum (2010), n care furnizase efectiv un serviciu privitorilor, oferindu-le un taxi
care s-i transporte la i de la Muzeul de Art Modern din Viena (MUMOK), unde
avea o expoziie personal. De-a lungul acestui performance ce a durat apte zile,
artistul putea fi sunat pe telefonul mobil pentru a transporta orice pasager care voia
s viziteze muzeul. Artistul menionase c voia s umple spaiul de timp dintre
momentul n care cineva i prsete locuina pentru a merge la muzeu i cel n
care pete pe ua acestuia. Dac acest spaiu poate fi umplut cu art sau cu o experien artistic, atunci hiatul dintre art i via, precum i cel dintre art i lumea cotidian e redus. Cu acest performance, Miljanovic transformase experiena cotidian
a deplasrii la opera de art n opera de art nsi, n timp ce furnizase i un serviciu util privitorilor si.
Allez! Arrest de Autoperforationsartisten din Germania de Est a reprezentat, de
asemenea, o examinare a rolului pe care-l au artistul i piaa artei n circumstane
sociopolitice cu mult diferite. Piesa fusese un performance interactiv ce a durat 11
zile, pus n scen n progresista galerie Eigen + Art de la Leipzig. n acest interval,
artitii au locuit n galerie, au dormit i au lucrat acolo, invitnd publicul s vin n vizit
timp de cteva ceasuri pe zi, de la ora 18:00 la 20:00, cnd artitii schimbau lucrri
pe mncare. Piesa fusese bazat pe conceptul de plastic social al lui Joseph
Beuys. Informaia despre munca lui Beuys nu era prea rspndit prin canalele oficiale, dar artitii o cunoteau totui prin cele neoficiale. n mod oficial, aspectele politice ale operei acestuia au fost adesea ascunse sub o spoial neltoare. De pild,
cu cteva luni nainte de Allez! Arrest avusese loc o expoziie a desenelor lui Beuys
n RDG, dar aspectele sociale ale operei sale i performance-ul n-au fost menionate. Ca rspuns la acea expoziie (i omisiunile ei), artitii au decis s prezinte cealalt fa a operei lui Beuys prin propriul lor performance. Artitii n-au fost siguri c
ideea acestei piese va fi bine primit i dac vor obine ceva de mncare, dar vizitatorii galeriei s-au dovedit a fi foarte generoi i i-au ntreinut cu un aport zilnic de
hran. n aceast pies, creaia artistic a devenit un act de schimb i de colaborare ntre artist i privitor, iar opera de art ca atare a fost ceea ce i-a susinut pe artiti,
poate ntr-un mod mai satisfctor dect soluia gsit de Labrovic.
n opera sa, artistul lituanian Artu-ras Raila (n. 1962) a regndit rolul instituiei artei i
al artei nsei n cadrul societii i a ncercat s extind modurile convenionale de
a produce, a expune i a privi. n 1997, ntr-o lucrare intitulat Once You Pop You Cant
Stop, care a fcut parte din Dimension 0, un festival internaional de art performance, Raila a angajat un grup de motocicliti din clubul Crazy in the Dark s intre cu
motocicletele n i s treac prin Centrul de Art Contemporan (CAC) din centrul oraului Vilnius. n felul acesta, el a deschis literal porile muzeului pentru grupuri diferite din afara instituiei. La un moment dat, artistul sugerase ca Micarea
Muncitoreasc Naional Lituanian Unificat (VNLDS), un grup neonazist i un partid neoficial (nefiind recunoscut de Ministerul Justiiei), s-i mute sediul din iauliai la
CAC, dar asta nu s-a ntmplat totui. Cu toate astea, Raila insistase s familiarizeze
acest grup cu arta, i viceversa. El i invitase pe membrii grupului la Vilnius cu ocazia
vernisajului expoziiei Cool Places, n cadrul creia fcuse un performance pe acoperiul
CAC, cu toboari i dansatoare de discotec. Membrii VNLDS fuseser impresionai, mai ales c aceast expoziie le-a schimbat ideile preconcepute despre art. Dac
nainte credeau c arta inea doar de monumente i picturi abstracte cretine140,
ei s-au bucurat s vad c instalaiile i performance-urile neconvenionale prezentate n cadrul expoziiei puteau fi incluse n rubrica artei. n sfrit, n Roll Over Museum

148

dition. Whereas most post-communist and post-socialist countries

are eager to showcase those artists who continued the traditions of
the avant-garde, Bulgaria carries the stigma of not having such traditions, and historians often try to make up for this fact by suggesting
that there may have been artists working in this manner, but it simply wasnt documented. Mlechevska and Shopov, however, confront
this situation in an ironic manner, by presenting and discussing the
work of Gavazov, a fictional character of their invention that they
present as Bulgarias notable avant-garde artist. In their lecture performances, which they have been doing since 2011, they present
Gavazov as the artist who has done everything and pioneered everything one could imagine. For example, they cite him as the father of
conceptualism, installation art, and experimental film. The authors
exaggerate his achievements to mock this situation where artists or
nations try to stake a claim in being the first to do or create something. All of Gavazovs work exists in description form only, because,
to show them, visually, would be to destroy the myth.142 Without the
physical evidence of his work, the myth can be perpetuated and
even aggrandized, as the imagination runs wild with Gavazovs innovative accomplishments. Additionally, the artists challenge the Amerocentric and Eurocentric art world by claiming that Gavazov had
influenced African Minimalism, juxtaposing his work with a nonWestern (albeit fictional) art form. While most Eastern European
artists try demonstrate their success or influence in Western Europe
or North America, Gavazov found his success in Africa.
One of the best modes of critique utilized by artists throughout Eastern Europe both during communism and after was self-organization.
During the socialist period, artists created and presented work to a
select group of colleagues as a matter of survival, in an alternative to
official state-sponsored venues and mechanisms. Some artists even
found alternatives to presenting their work in state-sponsored exhibition venues by creating their own venues. Such was the case with
the Group of Six Artists143 from Zagreb, who organized exhibitionactions around Croatia in the 1970s, for example, in public places,
such as on the street and on beaches. They did this because they
sought not only greater communication and direct contact with their
viewers, but also a wider audience than they would encounter in a
museum or gallery setting.144 During the exhibition-actions, the
artists would be present to show and discuss their work with those
who expressed interest. Similarly, in Sarajevo in the 1980s, the
Zvono Group utilized alternative venues because there simply were
no places for them to show their experimental work. The artists used
shop windows as temporary exhibition spaces, and in the performance Sport and Art (1986), they crashed a soccer field during the
intermission of a game by running onto the field. They painted on
the field, and then ran around the field with their paintings a
mobile exhibition. Some artists took self-organization to another
level, by creating their own institutions. Such was the case with
Podroom, an artist-run gallery space led by Dalibor Martinis and
Sanja Ivekovic in Zagreb. Finally, the Polish artists Zofia Kulik
(b. 1947) and Pawe Kwiek (b. 1951), working together in the 1970s at
KwieKulik, endeavored to gain official recognition, and with it a budget, for their Studio of Activities, Documentation and Propagation
(Pracownia Dziaan , Dokumentacji, i Upowszechniania PDDiU), by
having it recognized as an official institution by the Ministry of Culture,
administered by the Institute of Culture or the City Bureau of Art Exhibitions. The artists established the studio, along with methods for documenting ephemeral art, however the official support for the project
was stalled indefinitely, through bureaucratic red tape.145
The institution that is perhaps most emblematic of hierarchical Western hegemony within the art world is the Venice Biennale. Following
the regime change, many countries had difficulty organizing competitions to send artists, or even selecting them or financing their exhibitions, so often countries in Eastern Europe remained unrepresented.
In 1997, Kosovan-born artist Sislej Xhafa (b. 1970) created the Clandestine Albanian Pavilion, a performance in which he appeared at

(2004), o expoziie realizat cu participarea a patru entuziati ai modificrii automobilelor, Raila a lrgit i mai mult categoria artei prin introducerea muncii acestor patru
oameni n spaiul muzeului. Expoziia const din automobilele celor patru entuziati,
respectiv dintr-o fotografie a fiecruia cu maina lui i o prezentare video a mecanicilor auto despre aceste maini i a modificrilor pe care le-au fcut.
n aparen, sfritul Rzboiului Rece a marcat sfritul diviziunii dintre Est i Vest n
lumea artei. Mcar n teorie, piaa artei i scena internaional s-au deschis spre artitii
estici, odat ce restriciile privitoare la cltorie i schimb au fost abolite. Totui, ceea
ce Piotrowski numise discursul vertical, ierarhic al istoriei artei a continuat. Asta
a nsemnat c Vestul era recunoscut n continuare n mod masiv ca fiind centrul lumii
artei i toat arta era judecat prin raportare la el. n opinia lui Piotrowski, Estul a
tolerat aceast situaie pentru c i ddea iluzia c aparinea familiei occidentale,
i nu culturii blocului estic.141 n ciuda faptului c Piotrowski a chemat istoria artei
s interogheze acest sistem ierarhic, statutul artistului n raport cu Vestul continu
s-i preocupe pe artitii din regiune.
n 1992, artistul croat Mladen Stilinovic (n. 1947) i-a expus pancarta cu lozinca bombastic An Artist who Cannot Speak English is no Artist. Un deceniu mai trziu, artistul srb Vladimir Nikolic, mpreun cu Vera Vecanski, crease un performance video
intitulat How to Become a Great Artist (2001). n acest video, o tnr timid apare
n faa camerei, plngndu-se c ar vrea s devin o mare artist, dar pur i simplu
nu tie cum. Vocea unui asemenea mare artist i vorbete, spunndu-i diverse lucruri
pe care ar trebui s le fac unul dintre ele fiind s nvee engleza. El st n spatele ei, cu o pensul n mn i i spune s repete expresiile I am a great artist. You are
a great artist. He is not a great artist. Dup aceea, filmul video spune c un artist
trebuie s fie concentrat i s in ritmul cu arta superioar. Cei doi maestrul i
ucenicul ncep s danseze pe ritmul lumii artei.
A ine ritmul cu lumea artei fusese ceva dificil pentru artiti din anumite zone ale
Europei de Est. n Bulgaria, de pild, scena de art contemporan experimental
n-a aprut pn la sfritul anilor 1980, adic destul de trziu n raport cu restul Europei de Est. Un proiect de Vera Mlecevska (istoric de art, curator) i Dimiter opov
(scriitor) abordeaz aceast chestiune n istoria artei bulgare, mpreun cu complexul naional privitor la lipsa unei tradiii avangardiste. Pe cnd majoritatea rilor postcomuniste i postsocialiste doresc s-i etaleze artitii care au continuat tradiiile
avangardei, Bulgaria poart stigmatul de a nu avea asemenea tradiii, iar istoricii ncearc s compenseze acest fapt, sugernd c poate au existat artiti care lucrau n
acest stil, dar munca lor pur i simplu n-a fost conservat. Totui, Mlecevska i opov
se raporteaz la aceast situaie ntr-un mod ironic, prezentnd i discutnd munca
lui Gavazov, un personaj fictiv inventat de ei, pe care l prezint ca fiind cel mai
nsemnat artist de avangard al Bulgariei. n performance-urile lor de tip prelegere,
pe care le fac ncepnd cu 2011, ei l prezint pe Gavazov ca artistul care fcuse tot
i fusese pionierul a tot ce se poate imagina. De pild, ei l citeaz ca printe al conceptualismului, al instalaiei i al filmului experimental. Autorii exagereaz realizrile lui pentru a ironiza situaiile n care artitii sau naiunile ncearc s formuleze
pretenia de a fi fost primii sau primele care au fcut ceva. ntreaga oper a lui Gavazov exist doar sub form de descriere, deoarece a le arta vizual ar nsemna distrugerea mitului.142 Fr dovada fizic a muncii sale, mitul poate fi perpetuat i fcut
chiar mai mre, cci imaginaia poate zburda liber n privina realizrilor inovatoare ale lui Gavazov. n plus, artitii lanseaz o provocare pentru lumea amerocentric i eurocentric, pretinznd c Gavazov influenase minimalismul african,
juxtapunnd munca sa cu o form de art nonoccidental (chiar i fictiv). Pe cnd majoritatea artitilor est-europeni ncearc s-i demonstreze succesul sau influena n Europa Occidental sau America de Nord, Gavazov i-a gsit succesul n Africa.

the biennale dressed in an Albanian soccer uniform, with an Albanian flag in his backpack and a soccer ball at his feet, which he kicked
around by himself and with other visitors to the biennale. Xhafa is
not the only artist from the region to address the lack of representation at the exhibition. In 2000, Nedko Solakov handed out cards
printed with the colors of the Bulgarian flag and a statement, issued
in Bulgarian, Italian and English, stating that after nearly 30 year of
absence from the officially participating countries at the Venice Biennale, The Republic of Bulgaria is proud to announce that it is prepared
to properly participate in the next Venice Biennale in the year 2001.
The cards were handed out on the streets of Sofia.146 These artists
use the ephemeral mode of performance art to compensate for the
lack of a fixed and stable presence in one of the pavilions in Venice.
The flexibility of performance art enabled artists to use the genre in
a range of ways that would call into question not only the work of art
and the role of the artist, but also the institutions that supported
them. This held equally true for artists working during the communist and post-communist periods. The question of survival was as relevant to artists in late-socialist Germany (Autoperforationsartisten,
Allez! Arrest) as it is to an artist working in contemporary Croatia
(Labrovic, Perpetuum Mobile). In expanding the notion of art and the
institution, many artists found new and unusual ways to interact with
and involve the public in their work, by chauffeuring them to the
museum (Miljanovic) or bringing their exhibitions into the public
space (the Group of Six Artists). In the next section, I probe further
the particularities of the relationship with the viewer explored by
performance artists in Eastern Europe, past and present.
IV. Performance and the Viewer
In his 1966 text, Assemblages, Environments and Happenings, American artist Allan Kaprow, the founder of the Happening, stated his
intention to keep the line between art and life as fluid, and perhaps
indistinct, as possible147, the result of which would be that audiences
would be eliminated entirely. The involvement and participation
of the audience has been central to much of performance art since
its inception. In their Futurist Evening cabarets, the Italian Futurist
artists would attack or play tricks on their audiences so as to get
their attention, and provoke a reaction. Surrealist games involved
the participation of all present to make a collective work of art.
Later, Kaprow involved the audience to create a seamless flow
between art and life. More recently, participatory art projects have
straddled the divide between art work and social project.
During the communist period, contact with the viewer was challenging, as it had the potential to implicate those involved in unsanctioned or suspicious activity. In the public sphere, everyday citizens,
under the scrutiny of state surveillance, largely aimed to remain
anonymous and blend in with the homogenous masses. In Czechoslovakia in the 1970s, for example, public street performances were
rare, and if they occurred, they were often met with indifference.
Such was the case with the work of Jir Kovanda, who found a way to
create artistic actions in the public space without attracting attention. He did so through the use of minimal gestures, barely perceptible to passersby as artistic actions, or as anything out of the ordinary.
In Theater (1976), the artist stood on the busy main square in Prague
(Wenceslas Square) and made ordinary gestures, such as scratching
his head, which were captured in photographs by a colleague. The
next year, he performed Untitled in a similar spot; this time he stood
in the middle of the sidewalk, against the flow of foot traffic, with his
arms outstretched, as if he were being crucified.148 While the action
may have looked out of place on such a busy street, even nowadays,
the artist emphasized that the action was quite fleeting, and only
lasted a few seconds149, only long enough for his colleague to snap a
picture, but not long enough to attract any real attention. His actions
became more bold in Contact (1977), an action in which he appeared
to accidentally bump into passersby on the street, briefly making
contact with them through touch (which was also captured on film).

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+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

Autoorganizarea fusese una dintre modalitile cele mai bune ale criticii pe care artitii
din Europa de Est au utilizat-o att n perioada comunismului, ct i dup ea. n timpul perioadei comuniste, artitii au creat i au prezentat lucrri unui grup select de
colegi, ceea ce era o chestiune de supravieuire, o opiune diferit n raport cu spaiile i mecanismele sponsorizate de stat. Unii artiti au gsit chiar alte modaliti de
a-i prezenta lucrrile dect expoziiile finanate de stat, crendu-i propriile locuri
de expunere. Aa s-a ntmplat cu Grupul celor ase Artiti143 din Zagreb, care n
anii 1970 organizaser aciuni-expoziii n Croaia, de pild n locuri publice, cum
ar fi strzile sau plajele. Ei au fcut asta nu doar pentru c au cutat o comunicare
mai profund sau un contact mai direct cu privitorii lor, ci i deoarece vizau un public
mai larg dect acela pe care-l ntlneau ntr-un muzeu sau ntr-o galerie.144 Pe parcursul aciunilor-expoziii, artitii fuseser prezeni pentru a-i arta munca i pentru discuii cu cei interesai. n mod asemntor, n anii 1980 la Sarajevo, Grupul Zvono
utilizase spaii paralele pentru c pur i simplu nu existau locuri n care s-i prezinte opera experimental. Artitii au utilizat vitrinele ca locuri temporare de expunere, iar n performance-ul Sport and Art (1986) i-au fcut apariia pe un teren de fotbal,
pe care au nceput s alerge n timpul pauzei unui meci. Odat ajuni n mijlocul
terenului au fcut nite picturi rapide i dup aceea au nconjurat de cteva ori terenul artndu-i lucrrile o expoziie mobil. Unii artiti dezvoltaser i mai mult
ideea de autoorganizare, fcndu-i propriile instituii. Aa s-a ntmplat, la Zagreb,
cu Podroom, un spaiu de expunere gestionat de artiti, condus de Dalibor Martinis
i Sanja Ivekovic. n sfrit, artitii polonezi Zofia Kulik (n. 1947) i Pawe Kwiek
(n. 1951), care au lucrat mpreun n anii 1970 la KwieKulik, s-au strduit s obin
recunoaterea oficial i, odat cu ea, un buget pentru Atelierul lor de Activiti, nregistrare Documentar i Propagare (Pracownia Dziaan, Dokumentacji, i Upowszech niania PDDiU), propunnd ca acesta s fie recunoscut de Ministerul Culturii ca
instituie oficial, administrat de Institutul de Cultur sau de Biroul Orenesc al
Expoziiilor de Art. Artitii au nfiinat atelierul i au inventat metode de nregistrare a artei efemere, dar sprijinul oficial pentru proiect a fost blocat ntr-un mod ambiguu, prin trgnare birocratic.145
Instituia poate cea mai emblematic pentru hegemonia occidental ierarhic din
lumea artei este Bienala de la Veneia. Dup schimbarea de regim, multe ri ntlniser dificulti n organizarea competiiilor pentru nominalizarea artitilor sau
chiar pentru selectarea lor ori finanarea expoziiilor fcute de ei, aa c, adesea,
rile estice au rmas nereprezentate. n 1997, Sislej Xhafa (n. 1970), un artist nscut
n provincia Kosovo, a creat Pavilionul albanez clandestin, un performance n care
a aprut la bienal mbrcat n echipamentul albanez de fotbal, cu un drapel albanez n rucsac i o minge de fotbal pe care o lovea cu piciorul, fcnd pase cu ali vizitatori ai bienalei. Xhafa nu e singurul artist din regiune care abordeaz absena
reprezentrii la expoziie. n 2000, Nedko Solakov a distribuit cartonae pe care
au fost imprimate culorile drapelului bulgar i o declaraie n bulgar, italian i englez,
potrivit creia dup aproape 30 de ani de absen din rndul rilor ce particip n
mod oficial la Bienala de la Veneia, Republica Bulgaria e mndr s anune c e
pregtit s participe formal la urmtoarea Bienal de la Veneia n 2001. Cartona ele au fost distribuite pe strzile Sofiei.146 Aceti artiti utilizeaz modalitatea efeme r a performance-ului pentru a compensa lipsa unei prezene fixe sau stabile n cadrul
unuia dintre pavilioanele veneiene.
Flexibilitatea artei performance le-a permis artitilor s foloseasc acest gen n feluri
multiple, care pun sub semnul ntrebrii nu doar opera de art i rolul artistului, dar
i instituiile care le sprijin. Asta fusese adevrat i pentru artitii care au lucrat n
perioada comunist i n cea postcomunist. Chestiunea supravieuirii fusese la fel
de important pentru artitii din Germania socialismului trziu (Autoperforationsar-

150

Having any other form of direct contact with the viewer, for example
by approaching or addressing him or her directly, as opposed to
accidentally, would have been impossible in Prague at that time.
Finally, in Untitled (1977), the artist stood backwards on the subway
escalator, this time making eye contact with the strangers he
encountered behind him.
This was perhaps the only type of contact that was possible with a
non-art audience in the public space in normalization-era Czechoslovakia. Pavlna Morganov has noted that the reaction of those passing by is representative of the social reality at that time. In her
words, the mixture of their indifferent, baffled and aggravated
looks is the essence of the public spaces totalitarian reality.150
Tom Pospiszyl reminds us that even being captured on film,
whether part of the action or not, could potentially implicate culpability in the eyes of the secret police, who also took such photos.
Commenting on the position of the passersby, he stated, even if
they remain passive during the whole event, they are participants,
accomplices.151 Kovanda managed to implicate his compatriots as
little as possible, using such subtle gestures that they were hardly
detectable as anything unusual in the everyday public sphere.
In perestroika-era Latvia, however, the liberal reforms on free speech
and openness created a space wherein artists could begin to interact
with their viewers in unusual ways. In 1987, Latvian artist Miervaldis
Polis put on a bronze suit and hat, and covered his face and hands in
bronze paint and walked around downtown Riga as a living, breathing statue. He attracted considerable attention, and by the end of
the performance, huge crowds were following him. The KGB officers
who noticed the performance thought that he was making fun of
Lenin, as he was dressed in a manner that resembled the myriad
bronze statues that dotted all Soviet cities at that time, including
those that honored Lenin. Although the artist was neither questioned
nor detained, the bus driver who drove him to downtown, from his
house in the suburbs, was. Four years later, the artist pulled off
another public performance that was even more politically charged,
when he lit a remote-controlled toy tank on fire in the middle of
a public demonstration, and gave the controls to a small child.
The action took place on the second anniversary of the Baltic Chain,
a mass demonstration during which citizens from all three Baltic
nations held hands from Tallinn to Vilnius. This was August 23, 1991
two days after the failed Moscow coup, and the vote by the Latvian
Parliament for independence and the banning of the communist
party. The action could have been interpreted as critical of the
lingering presence of the Soviet Army in Latvia. However, it was
done so surreptitiously as to barely attract much attention.
A similar atmosphere prevailed in perestroika-era Lithuania.
The artistic group alias Lapas [Green Leaf] was formed in Vilnius at
the end of the 1980s, by a group of artists who created actions and
installations collectively.152 Essentially they used the group as a platform from which to experiment with different media and ideas.
According to Diugas Katinas, one of the groups members, this was
a time when anything was possible153, as Lithuania was in a time of
transition one system was on its way out, but the new one hadnt
yet been established. Consequently, in December 1990, alias Lapas
was able to stage The Way, a massive happening/action in the center of Vilniuss Old Town, in front of the old City Hall. In front of the
building, they set up metal sculptures, and figures in white body
suits spread sand and coal in lines on the road. As the cars drove
along the road that passes between the square and the Town Hall,
their wheels picked up the sand and coal and distributed it through
the city, so the cars become both consumers and creators of art.
Quite accidentally, after the performance, Vilnius had its first snowfall of the season. This meant that not only was the coal spread
through the city, but that it splashed on buildings and walls, which
made it difficult to clean up. The artists and their co-conspirators
(the general public) had left a more permanent mark on the city
than planned, and this ephemeral act left a lasting trace.

tisten, Allez! Arrest) ca i pentru artitii care lucreaz n Croaia zilelor noastre (Labrovic, Perpetuum Mobile). Lrgind ideea de art i aceea de instituie, muli artiti au
gsit modaliti noi i neobinuite de a interaciona cu i de a implica publicul n munca
lor, fcnd pe oferul de taxi (Miljanovic) sau aducndu-i expoziiile n spaiul public
(Grupul celor ase Artiti). n seciunea urmtoare, m voi adnci i mai mult n particularitile raportului cu privitorul explorat de artitii performance din Est, n trecut i n prezent.
IV. Performance-ul i privitorul
n textul su din 1966, Assemblages, Environments and Happenings, artistul american Allan Kaprow, fondatorul happening-ului, i declarase intenia de a face linia de
separaie dintre art i via att de fluid, i de indistinct chiar, ct se poate147, cu
rezultatul preconizat de a elimina cu totul publicul. Implicarea i participarea publicului fusese central pentru marea parte a artei performance nc de la naterea
ei. n spectacolele lor de cabaret Serile futuriste, artitii futuriti italieni i atacau sau
i pcleau publicul pentru a-i trezi atenia i a provoca o reacie. Jocurile suprarealiste presupuneau participarea tuturor celor prezeni, cu intenia de a crea o oper
de art colectiv. Mai trziu, Kaprow implicase publicul pentru a crea un flux nentrerupt ntre art i via. Mai recent, proiectele de art participativ au luat ntre
roi linia ntrerupt ce separ opera de art de proiectul social.
n perioada comunist, contactul cu privitorul era dificil, ntruct i putea implica pe
participani ntr-o activitate neautorizat sau dubioas. n sfera public, cetenii obinuii, sub conul supravegherii de stat, doreau cel mai adesea s rmn anonimi i
s se piard n masele omogene. n Cehoslovacia anilor 1970, de pild, performanceurile publice stradale fuseser rare, iar dac aveau totui loc, ele se loveau de indiferena trectorilor. Aa s-a ntmplat cu opera lui Jir Kovanda, care a gsit o
modalitate de a crea aciuni artistice n spaiul public fr s atrag atenia. El a fcut
asta prin utilizarea unor gesturi minimale, abia perceptibile pentru trectori, ca aciuni
artistice sau drept ceva ieit din comun. n Theater (1976), artistul sttea n piaa central aglomerat din Praga (piaa Wenceslas) i fcea gesturi obinuite, cum ar fi scrpinatul n cap, care erau fotografiate de un coleg al su. Anul urmtor, el a realizat
performance-ul Untitled ntr-un loc asemntor; de data asta a stat n mijlocul trotuarului mpotriva fluxului de pietoni, cu braele larg deschise, de parc ar fi fost crucificat.148 Dei aciunea putea prea deplasat pe o strad att de aglomerat chiar
i n zilele noastre, artistul subliniase c aciunea era una destul de efemer i durase doar cteva secunde149, att ct s-i permit colegului su s fac o fotografie,
dar destul de lung ca s atrag efectiv atenia. Aciunile sale au devenit mai ndrznee
n Contact (1977), un performance n care se ciocnea aparent accidental de cte un
trector, provocnd un scurt contact prin atingere (care au fost nregistrate, de asemenea, pe film). A intra n orice alt form de contact direct cu privitorul, de pild
abordndu-l sau vorbindu-i n mod direct, altfel dect prin hazardul trucat, ar fi fost
imposibil n Praga acelei perioade. n sfrit, n Fr titlu (1977), cu faa spre cei ce
urcau, el sttea pe scara rulant a metroului, ncercnd s intre n contact vizual cu
strinii pe care-i ntlnea.
Acesta fusese poate singurul tip de contact posibil cu un public nonartistic n spaiul
public al Cehoslovaciei din perioada normalizrii. Pavlna Morganov fcuse observaia c reacia trectorilor e reprezentativ pentru realitatea social a acelei perioade. Cu cuvintele sale, amestecul privirilor lor indiferente, mirate sau surprinse e
esena realitii totalitare a spaiului public.150 Tom Pospiszyl ne aduce aminte c
pn i nregistrarea pe film, c fcea parte dintr-o aciune, c nu, putea nsemna
culpabilitate n ochii poliiei secrete, care i ea fcea asemenea fotografii. Exprimndu-i opiniile despre poziia trectorilor, el afirmase c i atunci cnd rmneau pasivi

Claire Bishop has noted the return to the social154 in the art of the
1990s and 2000s, with a surge in participatory, social and interactive
art projects. This echoes Piotrowskis characterization of the postcommunist period as agoraphilic, as artists moved into the public
sphere.155 Miwon Kwon has traced this development back to the more
static forms of site-specific art, and considers the socially engaged
projects of the turn of the twenty-first century as a more radical critique of the institution. In her words, a dominant drive of site-oriented practices today is the pursuit of a more intense engagement
with the outside world and everyday life a critique of culture that is
inclusive of non-art spaces, non-art institutions and non-art issues.156
As the world of art comes to be deemed as too elitist, artists abandon that world for the public sphere. While Bishop demurs the tendency to trace the rise in social art projects to the fall of communism157,
it is interesting to note the development of these types of projects in
the East, the precise location of fall, which Bishop believes deprived
the Left of the last vestiges of the revolution that had once linked
political and aesthetic radicalism.158 Artists in the region engaged
with socially based artworks for a range of reasons, from raising concerns or awareness with regard to socio-political issues, to reclaiming a lost past or giving voice to the general public through social
and artistic engagement.
The Montenegro Culture Bureau is a collective of amateur artists
working in Podgorica, who create actions and happenings to draw
attention to and critique the patriarchal culture in contemporary
Montenegrin society. The group is made up of people from various
professions, for example a lawyer, journalist and sociologist, yet they
come together under the platform of art to tackle social issues.
In other instances artists used their public projects to create a wider
audience for contemporary art. In any case, the communal spirit that
was perhaps aimed at but never realized under communism was
finally able to be activated in the post-socialist space.
Yuriy Kruchak and Yulia Kostereva, from Ukraine, began working
on community and social art projects in reaction to what they saw
as apathy and inaction in contemporary Ukrainian society. This was
prior to the events of Euromaidan in Kiev, in 20132014. Kruchak
and Kostereva established Open Place as a platform to create connections between their artistic practice and everyday life. In their
words, Open Place aims at the establishment of the connections
between an art process and different layers of the Ukrainian
society.159 In 2009, in Geneva, they staged an interactive performance entitled The 7th of November (the date of the 1917 October
Revolution). The artists invited 20 local citizens to move 80 plastic
plaid bags, the same used by Fiodorova and Popescu in their performances, filled with newspapers, across the city, and eventually
bring them to a public sculpture in front of the Palace of Nations,
Broken Chair, which was installed as a monument in support of the
international treaty for a ban on cluster bombs. The participants of
the action used the bags to repair the chair, creating an artificial
support or fourth leg for it.
The purpose of the action was to bring attention to the status of
migrants in Geneva, and in general throughout the world. The artist
recalls that as artists from Eastern Europe in Switzerland, they themselves felt like barbarians160, which they imagine is not dissimilar to
the way in which most immigrants there feel, or are made to feel by
local inhabitants. The bags were used because of their iconic association with foreigners. In their travels through the city, the group
made a real imposition on the public space, as 80 of these large
bags blocked the view of the city on the bus, and disrupted sightseeing, interfering with the pristine views. By bringing these bags out
into the public space, they confronted passersby with a reality that
they might not like to see or acknowledge. They brought the bags
to the chair to repair it, using the chair as a symbol of a broken
nation or union. Finally, the artists said that in doing this action,
they wanted to show that barbarians could also fix something.161
In doing so, they demonstrated that public space is not just for

151

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

pe parcursul evenimentului, ei erau participani, complici.151 Kovanda a reuit s-i

implice compatrioii ct mai puin posibil, utiliznd gesturi att de subtile, nct ele erau
abia detectabile drept ceva ieit din comun n sfera public de zi cu zi.
n Letonia din perioada perestroiki, reformele liberale n privina exprimrii libere i a deschiderii au creat totui un spaiu n care artitii puteau ncepe s interacioneze cu privitorii lor n feluri neobinuite. n 1987, artistul leton Miervaldis Polis i-a
pus un costum i o plrie din bronz, i-a acoperit faa i minile cu vopsea de aceeai
culoare i s-a plimbat n centrul oraului Riga ca o statuie vie. El a atras o atenie
considerabil i, spre finele performance-ului, fusese urmat de o mulime de oameni.
Ofierii KGB care au remarcat performance-ul au crezut c i bate joc de Lenin,
cci era mbrcat ca puzderia de statui ce punctau toate oraele sovietice din acea
perioad, inclusiv cele care l celebrau pe Lenin. Dei artistul n-a fost nici interogat, nici reinut, oferul de autobuz care l-a dus din centru pn la locuina sa din
suburbii a fost. Patru ani mai trziu, artistul a reuit s organizeze cu greu un alt performance public, care a fost chiar mai ncrcat politic, cu ocazia cruia a dat foc unui
tanc de jucrie teleghidat n mijlocul unei demonstraii publice i i-a dat telecomanda unui copil. Aciunea a avut loc la cea de a doua aniversare a Lanului Baltic, o
demonstraie de proporii n care cetenii celor trei naiuni baltice s-au inut de mn
de la Tallinn la Vilnius. Asta se ntmpla pe 23 august 1991 dou zile dup ce lovitura de stat de la Moscova a euat, iar Parlamentul leton i-a dat votul pentru independen i punerea n afara legii a partidului comunist. Aciunea s-ar fi putut
interpreta ca o critic la adresa prezenei prelungite a armatei sovietice n Letonia.
Cu toate astea, ea a fost fcut foarte discret, ca s nu fie prea bttor la ochi.
O atmosfer asemntoare domnea n Lituania din perioada perestroiki. Grupul
artistic alias Lapas fusese format la Vilnius spre sfritul anilor 1980 de o seam de
artiti care fceau aciuni i instalaii colective.152 n spe, ei au folosit grupul ca pe
o platform de experimentare cu diverse mijloace de exprimare i idei. Potrivit lui
Diugas Katinas, unul dintre membrii grupului, era vorba de o perioad n care totul
era posibil153, cci Lituania se afla ntr-o perioad de tranziie sistemul vechi disprea,
iar cel nou nu apruse nc. Prin urmare, n decembrie 1990, alias Lapas a putut
pune n scen n faa Primriei, n centrul Oraului Vechi din Vilnius, Calea, o aciu ne/happening masiv. n faa cldirii ei instalaser sculpturi din metal i oameni n costume albe mprtiau nisip i crbune pe carosabil. Cnd mainile treceau pe strada
ce desparte piaa central de Primrie, roile lor purtau nisipul i crbunele n tot
oraul, iar astfel automobilele deveneau i consumatoare, i creatoare de art. Din
pur ntmplare, dup performance, Vilnius fusese acoperit de prima zpad din acea
iarn. Crbunele a fost deci nu doar mprtiat prin tot oraul, ci i mprocat pe
cldiri i ziduri, ceea ce a ngreunat ndeprtarea lui. Artitii i acoliii lor (publicul general) au lsat un semn mai insistent n ora dect fusese plnuit, iar acest act efemer
a lsat o urm durabil.
Claire Bishop remarcase ntoarcerea la social154 n arta anilor 1990 i 2000, cu o
cretere brusc n ce privete proiectele artistice participative, sociale i interactive. Asta corespunde cu caracterizarea perioadei postcomuniste de ctre Piotrowski ca fiind una agorafil, cci artitii s-au mutat n sfera public.155 Miwon Kwon
a urmrit aceast dezvoltare pn la formele mai statice ale artei adaptate la ambient
[site-specific] i consider proiectele angajate social de la nceputul secolului al
douzeci i unulea drept o critic mai radical a instituiilor. Cu cuvintele sale, un
impuls dominant al practicilor orientate spre ambient astzi e scopul unei angajri
mai intense de partea lumii exterioare i a vieii cotidiene o critic a culturii care
include spaii, instituii i chestiuni nonartistice.156 Cum lumea artei ncepe s fie considerat drept una prea elitist, artitii o abandoneaz n favoarea sferei publice.
Dei Bishop obiecteaz mpotriva tendinei de a pune nmulirea proiectelor de art

152

Gjorgje Jovanovic
For Skopje with Love, participatory action in Skopje, 2011, courtesy: the artist

tourism, but also a space for dialogue. They also gave the local citizens who participated the experience of what it might be like to exist
as a foreigner in that environment, and thus a space from which to
sympathize with his or her position.
In 2012, three project leaders two artists (Astrit Ismaili and Tobias
Bienz) and one lawyer (Rina Kika); two from Kosovo (Kika and Ismaili)
and one from Switzerland (Bienz), created PRISHTIN mon amour,
a project that defies categorization. It was simultaneously a performance, installation, participatory art project and social project as well.
In the end it involved 180 participants from Prishtina and other
cities, all of whom came together to make this massive undertaking
possible. The project reclaimed a piece of public space in the city
the Palace of Culture, Youth and Sports, or, as it is locally known,
Boro and Ramiz, in which an evening of performance took place, one
that comprised performances by several different artists. In effect,
the entire project was a performance in and of itself, because of the
preparatory work involved, and also the involvement of participants
it entailed.
In 2000, an electrical fire left part of this Yugoslav-era multi-purpose
venue unusable, and it started to become used unofficially as a parking lot. The alternative name for the building, Boro and Ramiz, comes
from the names of two partisan fighters, Boro Vukmirovic and Ramiz
Sadiku, a Serb and Albanian who together fought the fascists in
World War II. They were the perfect symbol of inter-ethnic harmony
in Titos Yugoslavia. The PRISHTIN mon amour project turns this
idea of unity and togetherness into a reality without any hidden
agenda, political or otherwise. In the end, it brought the community
together, and created a memorable event for the inhabitants of
Prishtina, which anyone could be a part of. The participants helped
to clean up the building and make it ready to host the performances
that were to inhabit the building on the final night of the project.
On September 8, 2012, over thirty artists and performers with work
(either performance or installation) were on display, and the event
was attended by over 2,000 people.

social pe seama cderii comunismului157, e interesant de observat dezvoltarea acestor tipuri de proiecte n Est, care e tocmai locul colapsului comunist, despre care
Bishop crede c a privat stnga de ultimele vestigii ale revoluiei ce punea cndva
n legtur radicalismul politic i cel estetic.158 Artitii din regiune au nceput s creeze opere de art bazate pe social dintr-o seam de motive, de la dorina de a atrage atenia asupra chestiunilor sociopolitice pn la a revendica un trecut pierdut sau
a da un megafon publicului general, prin angajamentul social i artistic.
Biroul Cultural din Muntenegru e un colectiv de artiti amatori ce lucreaz n Podgorica i creeaz aciuni i happening-uri pentru a atrage atenia asupra culturii patriarhale din societatea muntenegrean contemporan i a o critica. Grupul e format
din oameni cu diverse profesii, un avocat, un jurnalist i un sociolog, care se reunesc sub platforma artei pentru a aborda chestiuni sociale. n alte cazuri, artitii i-au
folosit proiectele publice pentru a crea un public mai larg pentru arta contemporan. n orice caz, spiritul colectiv care a fost poate un scop niciodat atins sub regimul comunist a fost n sfrit n stare s fie activat n spaiul postsocialist.
Iurii Kruciak i Iulia Kostereva, din Ucraina, au nceput s elaboreze proiecte de art
comunitar i social ca reacie la ceea ce vedeau ca apatie i inaciune n societatea ucrainean contemporan. Asta se ntmpla nainte de evenimentele Euromaidanului din Kiev n 20132014. Kruciak i Kostereva au nfiinat Open Place ca o
platform pentru crearea de legturi ntre practica artistic i viaa cotidian. Cu cuvintele lor, Open Place dorete s stabileasc legturi ntre un proces artistic i diversele straturi ale societii ucrainene.159 n 2009, la Geneva, ei au pus n scen un
performance interactiv intitulat 7 Noiembrie (data Revoluiei din Octombrie 1917).
Artitii invitaser 20 de ceteni locali s care 80 de plase din plastic esut, similare
cu cele folosite de Fiodorava i Popescu n performance-urile lor. Acestea erau pline
cu ziare i localnicii trebuiau s le poarte prin ora i s le lase n faa unei sculpturi
din faa Palatului Naiunilor, sculptur care se cheam Scaunul rupt i a fost plasat

Artists have also used the ambiguity of public space inhabited by

an artistic project to provide citizens with a voice on current political
issues, within the more neutral zone of art. In For Skopje with Love
(2011), Macedonian artist Gjorgje Jovanovic invited the public to
engage with and respond to recent political events, by writing their
opinions and thoughts on boards like those that one would see at a
demonstration or protest, and put them on sites around the city.
Giving a voice to the public was especially important in the wake of
the 2011 protests in Macedonia, which erupted after the government
attempted to cover up the brutal killing of a 21-year-old, who was
beaten to death by the special police forces, during a celebration
in the main square in Skopje, following the re-election of the ruling
party. The idea behind the Jovanovics project was that all inhabitants are responsible for their city. The artist said that he hoped participants would contribute their thoughts feelings, good or bad, and
take an active role in shaping the future of their surroundings,
instead of simply passively standing by.162
Estonian artist Flo Kasearu also used the public space as a blank canvas to provide a voice to its citizens. When the Estonian government
erected a controversial Freedom Monument in the city center of the
capital, on Tallinns Freedom Square, the artist plastered the city
with blank sheets of paper headed with the words: FREEDOM/we
announce a contest to find the best solution, silently inviting citizens
to contribute their ideas with regard to the meaning and significance
of the word freedom on the paper below. Although not overtly
critical, the poster campaign indicts the government for not consulting the general public about the design, and rectifies the situation
by giving them a chance to speak, albeit retroactively. Kasearus intervention in the public space, and the publics participation, made
visual the varying opinions with regard to the monument.
While initially forays into the public sphere brought more direct contact with the viewer, and expanded the potential audience of an artwork, during the communist period, the possibility to create such
projects were dependent on the local socio-political situation, and
the tolerance level of local authorities to interruptions in the public
space. In the case of Kovanda, his interventions went unmolested
because they were barely detectable, however perestroika and the
Fall of the Berlin Wall enabled artists such as Polis and alias Lapas
to safely intervene in the public sphere. In the post-communist period, these project gradually expanded and developed into social
projects, such as PRISHTIN mon amour, and political acts that
straddled the border between art and activism, for example in the
work of Jovanovic and Kasearu. In all cases, it is the performative
aspect of these artworks that enable them to enter, remain in, and
affect the public sphere.
Conclusion
While this is by no means a comprehensive survey of performance
art practices in Central, Eastern and Southern Europe, in this article
I have attempted to show a range of practices by artists from the
region from both before and after the fall of communism. What
I hope this text has demonstrated is the unique manner in which
artists from the region engaged with performance art practices,
both responding to and expanding on developments in the West,
as well as developing their own distinctive forms of the genre. While
the system change brought about great changes in everyday life,
artists in the post-communist period continued to address regional
and local concerns, many of which were in fact a result of these
changes, for example the opening up of the East to West, and the
desire for free-movement within Europe. Artists in the post-communist period drew both from Western and local sources, although in
many instances they learned of work in performance outside their
own borders before discovering local examples. Consequently, their
work demonstrates both continuity and change from the communist
to the post-communist period within the field of performance art.

153

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

acolo ca un monument n sprijinul tratatului internaional care interzice folosirea bombelor cu fragmentare. Participanii la aciune au folosit plasele pentru a repara scaunul, crendu-i un al patrulea picior.
Scopul aciunii a fost acela de a atrage atenia asupra statutului imigranilor din Geneva i din lume n general. Artitii i aduc aminte c, n calitatea lor de estici, ei nii
s-au simit barbari160 n Elveia, un sentiment despre care cred c nu e neasemntor cu felul n care se simt sau snt fcui de localnici s simt majoritatea
imigranilor acolo. Plasele au fost folosite din cauza asocierii lor emblematice cu strinii.
Deplasndu-se prin ora, grupul i-a impus prezena n spaiul public, cci cele 80
de plase de mari dimensiuni au blocat imaginea oraului vzut din autobuz, confruntnd pasagerii obinuii cu o realitate pe care nu le-ar plcea s-o vad sau s-o recunoasc. Ei au crat plasele la scaun pentru a-l repara, folosindu-l ca pe un simbol
al naiunii sau al uniunii fragmentate. n cele din urm, artitii spuseser c, fcnd
aceast aciune, au dorit s arate c barbarii putea i ei s repare ceva.161 Prin asta,
ei au demonstrat c spaiul public e nu doar pentru turism, ci i pentru dialog. Ei,
de asemenea, le-au furnizat localnicilor participani o experien despre cum ar putea
fi s trieti ca un strin n acest mediu i, astfel, un spaiu din care se putea empatiza cu condiia de strin.
n 2012, trei conductori de proiect doi artiti (Astrit Ismaili i Tobias Bienz) i un
avocat (Rina Kika); doi din Kosovo (Kika i Ismaili) i unul din Elveia (Bienz) creaser PRISHTIN mon amour, un proiect inclasabil. Fusese simultan un performance, o instalaie, un proiect de art participativ i un proiect social. Au fost implicai
cu totul 180 de participani din Pritina i din alte orae, fiecare colabornd la a face
posibil aceast iniiativ de proporii. Proiectul a revendicat o bucat de spaiu public
din cadrului oraului Palatul Culturii, Tineretului i Sporturilor sau, cum e cunoscut la nivel local, Boro i Ramiz. Aici a avut loc o sear de performance, compus
din aciuni de mai muli artiti. n realitate, ntregul proiect fusese un performance
n sine i al lui nsui, graie muncii de pregtire i implicrii participanilor.
n anul 2000, un incendiu cauzat de un scurtcircuit a fcut inutilizabil o parte din
aceast cldire iugoslav cu utilizri multiple, care, neoficial, a devenit o parcare. Cellalt
nume al cldirii, Boro i Ramiz, vine de la numele a doi lupttori partizani, Boro
Vukmirovic i Ramiz Sadiku, un srb i un albanez care luptaser mpreun mpotriva fascitilor n perioada celui de al Doilea Rzboi Mondial. Ei fuseser simbolul
perfect al armoniei interetnice din Iugoslavia lui Tito. Proiectul PRISHTIN mon amour
transform aceast idee a unitii i comunitii ntr-o realitate, fr vreun plan
ascuns, politic sau de alt natur. n cele din urm, el a reunit comunitatea i a creat
un eveniment memorabil pentru locuitorii Pritinei, un eveniment la care putea participa oricine. Participanii au ajutat la curarea locului i l-au pregtit pentru gzduirea performance-urilor care urmau s populeze cldirea n ultima noapte a
proiectului. Pe 8 septembrie 2012, au fost prezentai peste treizeci de artiti cu performance-uri sau instalaii, iar la eveniment au sosit peste 2000 de persoane.
Artitii au utilizat ambiguitatea spaiului public populat de un proiect artistic i pentru a le oferi cetenilor o voce n legtur cu chestiuni politice, n zona mai neutr
a artei. n Pentru Skopje, cu drag (2011), artistul macedonean Gjorgje Jovanovic a
invitat publicul s se confrunte cu i s rspund la evenimentele politice recente,
notndu-i opiniile i gndurile pe pancarte precum acelea utilizate n cadrul demonstraiilor i protestelor, pentru a le aeza mai apoi n diverse locuri din ora. A permite publicului s se exprime a fost extrem de important dup protestele din 2011
din Macedonia, care au izbucnit dup ce guvernul a ncercat s ascund uciderea
cu brutalitate a unui tnr de 21 de ani, care a fost btut de forele speciale ale poliiei
cu ocazia unei srbtori din piaa central din Skopje, dup realegerea partidului aflat
la guvernare. Ideea din spatele proiectului propus de Jovanovic fusese c toi lo-

154

Notes:
1. Lucy Lippard and John Chandler, The Dematerialization of Art, Artforum International 6/6, 1968, pp. 3136.
2. Already by 1973, in her Postface to Six Years: The Dematerialization
of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972, Lippard had acknowledged that
these hopes that ephemeral and conceptual art would be able to
avoid commercialization had been in vain.
3. Robyn Brentano, Outside the Frame: Performance, Art, and Life,
in Robyn Brentano, ed., Outside the Frame: Performance and the
Object, a Survey History of Performance Art in the USA since 1970
(exhibition catalogue), Cleveland, Cleveland Center for Contemporary
Art, 1994, p. 42.
4. Kristine Stiles is perhaps the one exception to this rule, as her texts on
performance art take an inclusive approach and consider artists from
the East and the West.
5. For example, the Japanese performance artists she mentions are
those who presented work in the US.
6. Roselee Goldberg, Performance Art: from Futurism to Present, New
York, Thames and Hudson, 2011, p. 214.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Diana Popova, in conversation with the author in Sofia, June 2, 2014.
10. Iosif Kirly, in an interview with the author in Bucharest, March 26, 2014.
11. Tom Ruller, in an interview with the author in Aberdeen, UK, May
15, 2014.
12. Pavlna Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events,
Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain,
Prague, Karolinum Press, 2014, p. 50.
13. Happsoc was both a manifesto and association made up of two artists,
Alex Mlynrcik, Stano Filko and theoretician Zita Kostrov.
14. Maciunass family left Lithuania in 1944, when he was thirteen, and
settled in New York in 1948.
15. Petra Stegmann, Fluxus and the East, Centropa: A Journal of
Central European Architecture and Related Arts 14/1, January 2014,
p. 42.
eslovas Lukenskas, in an interview with the author
16. As mentioned by C
in Vilnius, September 30, 2013, and also by Dziugas Katinas, in an
interview with the author in Vilnius, October 3, 2013.
17. As qtd. in Sirje Helme, PopKunst Forever: Estonian Pop Art at the
Turn of the 1960s and 1970s, Tallinn, Art Museum of Estonia Kumu
Art Museum, 2010, p. 145.
18. As qtd. in Helme, p. 146.
19. Pavlna Morganov, Action! Czech Performance Art in the 1960s and
1970s, Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and
Related Arts 14/1, January 2014, p. 25.
20. Knk formed the Aktual Art group together with Jan Trtlek, Sona
vecov and the Mach brothers (see Morganov, Czech Action Art:
Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art
Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 50), and together they created untraditional
art works and art forms, including performance and happenings.
21. See Morganov, Action! Czech Performance Art in the 1960s and
1970s, p. 25.
22. Stegmann, p. 48.
23. See ibid.
24. According to Stegmann, p. 50.
25. See Andrea Btorov, Alternative Trends in Slovakia during the
1960s and Parallels to Fluxus, in Fluxus East: Fluxus Networks in
Central Eastern Europe (exhibition catalogue), Berlin, Kunstlerhaus
Bethanien, 2007, p. 166.
26. See Stegmann, p. 51.
27. Ileana Pintilie, Action Art in Romania Before and After 1989,
Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related
Arts 14/1, January 2014, pp. 8687.

cuitorii snt responsabili pentru oraul lor. Artistul spusese c spera ca participanii
s contribuie cu gndurile i sentimentele lor, bune sau rele, i s joace un rol activ
n a modela viitorul locului n care triesc, n loc s se dea pasiv la o parte.162
Artistul estonian Flo Kasearu utilizase i el spaiul public ca pnz alb pentru a oferi
o voce cetenilor. Cnd guvernul estonian a ridicat un controversat Monument al
Libertii n centrul capitalei, Piaa Libertii din Tallinn, artistul a umplut oraul cu
afie pe care scria: LIBERTATE/anunm un concurs pentru a gsi cea mai bun
soluie, invitnd astfel cetenii s vin cu idei cu privire la sensul i semnificaia cuvntului libertate. Dei nu e n mod explicit critic, campania de afie acuz guvernul c n-a consultat publicul general n legtur cu forma monumentului i rectific
situaia dndu-i aceluiai public ansa de a se exprima, cu toate c retroactiv. Intervenia lui Kasearu n spaiul public i participarea publicului au fcut vizibile opiniile
privitoare la monument.
Cu toate c, iniial, incursiuni n sfera public au produs un contact mai direct cu
privitorul i au lrgit publicul potenial al unei opere de art, n perioada comunist
posibilitatea de a realiza asemenea proiecte depinsese de situaia sociopolitic local i de nivelul de toleran al autoritilor locale cu privire la asemenea perturbri
n spaiul public. n cazul lui Kovanda, interveniile sale au scpat de represalii pentru c erau aproape neobservabile, dar perestroika i cderea Zidului Berlinului
le-au permis unor artiti precum Polis i alias Lapas s intervin fr pericole n sfera
public. n perioada postcomunist, aceste proiecte au fost treptat lrgite i dezvoltate n proiecte sociale, cum ar fi PRISHTIN mon amour, i gesturi politice ce
ncalc grania dintre art i activism, de pild opera lui Jovanovic i Kasearu. n fiecare dintre aceste cazuri, aspectul de performance al lucrrilor a fost acela care le-a
permis s ptrund n sfera public, s rmn n ea i s-o afecteze.
Concluzie
Chiar dac aceasta nu e o trecere n revist complet a practicilor de art performance din Europa Central, de Est i de Sud, n articolul de fa am ncercat s art
o gam de practici desfurate de artitii din regiune att nainte de cderea comunismului, ct i dup aceea. Ceea ce sper c a demonstrat acest text este felul singular n care artitii din regiune au abordat practicile de art performance, att ca un
rspuns i ca o lrgire a dezvoltrilor occidentale, ct i ca o invenie a unor forme
specifice i proprii ale genului. Dei schimbarea de sistem a produs numeroase modificri n viaa cotidian, artitii din perioada postcomunist au continuat s abordeze preocupri regionale i locale, multe dintre ele fiind, de fapt, un rezultat al acestor
modificri, de pild deschiderea Estului ctre Vest i dorina de libertate de micare n Europa. Artitii din perioada postcomunist s-au inspirat att din surse occidentale, ct i din surse locale, dei n multe cazuri ei au aflat despre munca din cadrul
performance-ului atunci cnd se aflau n afara granielor rii lor de batin, iar asta
chiar nainte de a descoperi exemple locale n acest sens. Prin urmare, munca lor
n cmpul artei performance prezint att continuitate, ct i schimbare n trecerea de
la perioada comunist la cea postcomunist.
Traducere de Alexandru Polgr

28. Ileana Pintilie, Between Modernism and Postmodernism, in Alina

erban, ed., Ion Grigorescu: the Man with a Single Camera, Berlin,
Sternberg Press, 2013, p. 33.
29. Diana Popova and Svilen Stefanov, eds., N-Forms? Reconstructions
and Interpretations, Sofia, Soros Center for the Arts, 1994 (exhibition
catalogue), p. 23.
30. See Piotr Piotrowski, In the Shadow of Yalta: Art and the Avant-garde
in Eastern Europe, 19451989, London, Reaktion, 2009, pp. 285286.
31. Miko uvakovic, The Clandestine Histories of the Oho Group, Ljubljana,
Zavod P.A.R.A.S.I.T.E., 2010, p. 45.
32. Raa Todosijevic, in an interview with the author in Belgrade, August
3, 2013.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. See the artists biography in Aleksandar Battista Ilic and Diana
Nenadic, eds., Tomislav Gotovac, Zagreb, Museum of Contemporary
Art, 2003, p. 300.
36. Octavian Eanu, Transition in Post-Soviet Art: Collective Actions
Before and After 1989, Budapest, Central European University Press,
2012, p. 89.
37. Ibid., p. 101.
38. See Mark Allen Svede, Many Easels, Some Abandoned, in Alla
Rosenfeld and Norton C. Dodge, eds., Art of the Baltics: The Struggle
for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets, 19451991,
New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 2001, p. 207.
39. Andris Grnbergs, in an interview with the author in Riga, February
2009.
40. Lilia Dragneva, Ten Years of Moldovan Contemporary Art, in IRWIN,
East Art Map: Contemporary Art and Eastern Europe, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2006, p. 240.
41. See Edi Muka, Albanian Socialist Realism or the Theology of Power,
in IRWIN, East Art Map: Contemporary Art and Eastern Europe,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2006, p. 133.
42. Fabiola Bierhoff, Appropriation in East German Performance Art
the Legacy of Joseph Beuys, paper given at the panel Performance
Art in Central and Eastern Europe, College Art Association annual
conference in Chicago, IL, USA, February 15, 2014.
43. See Claudia Mesch, Modern Art at the Berlin Wall: Demarcating Culture in the Cold War Germanys, London, I. B. Tauris, 2009, p. 192.
44. Clara Mosch was formed in 1977 and consisted of artists Michael
Morgner, Thomas Ranft, Carl Friedrich Claus, Gregor-Thorsten Schade
and Dagmar Ranft-Schinke. The groups name comes from an amalgamation of the four artists last names.
45. The group initially consisted of three artists, Micha Brendel (b. 1959),
Else Gabriel (b. 1962) and Via Lewandowsky (b. 1963); Rainer Gr
(b. 1960) later joined the group.
46. See Mesch, p. 193.
47. The reference is to the panopticon as a metaphor for the manner in
which modern disciplinary societies are policed, monitored and regulated by constant surveillance, employed by Michel Foucault in his
work Discipline and Punish, 1975.
48. Piotr Piotrowski, Art and Democracy in Post-Communist Europe,
London, Reaktion Books, 2012, p. 7.
49. See Klara Kemp-Welch, Antipolitics in Central European Art: Reticence as Dissidence under Post-Totalitarian Rule, 19561989, London,
I. B. Tauris, 2013, p. 9.
50. See Ivana Bago and Antonia Majaca, Dissociative Association,
Dionysian Socialism, Non-Action and Delayed Audience: Between
Action and Exodus in the Art of the 1960s and 1970s in Yugoslavia,
in Ivana Bago and Antonia Majaca, eds., in collaboration with Vesana
Vukovic, Removed from the Crowd: Unexpected Encounters I,
Zagreb, [BLOK], 2011, pp. 280282.
51. Tom Pospiszyl, Look Whos Watching: Photographic Documentation of Happenings and Performances in Czechoslovakia, in Claire

155

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

Note:
1. Lucy Lippard i John Chandler, The Dematerialization of Art, Arforum International 6/6, 1968, p. 3136.
2. Deja spre 1973, n Postfaa ei la Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972,
Lippard i-a dat seama c speranele ca arta efemer i cea conceptual s evite comercializarea erau nefondate.
3. Robyn Brentano, Outside the Frame: Performance, Art, and Life, in Robyn Brentano (ed.), Outside the
Frame: Performance and the Object, a Survey History of Performance Art in the USA since 1970 (catalog de
expoziie), Cleveland, Cleveland Center for Contemporary Art, 1994, p. 42.

Bishop and Marta Dziewanska, eds., 19681989 Political Upheaval and

Artistic Change, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 85.
52. Zdenka Badovinac, Body and the East, in Zdenka Badovinac, ed.,
Body and the East: from the 1960s to the Present (exhibition catalogue), Ljubljana, Moderna Galerija, 1998, p. 10.
53. Amelia Jones, Body Art: Performing the Subject, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1998, p. 11.
54. Ibid.

33. Ibid.

80. Grigorescu, in Dziewanska, p. 68.

34. Ibid.

81. I. G. Plamen and Marko Pogacnik, from Manifest OHO-a, quoted in

Miko uvakovic, The Clandestine Histories of the Oho Group, Ljubljana, Zavod P.A.R.A.S.I.T.E., 2010, p. 29.

35. Vezi biografia artistului in Aleksandar Battista Ilic i Diana Nenadic (ed.), Tomislav Gotovac, Zagreb,
Museum of Contemporary Art, 2003, p. 300.
36. Octavian Eanu, Transition in Post-Soviet Art: Collective Actions Before and After 1989, Budapest, Central
European University Press, 2012, p. 89.

84. Ibid., pp. 273274.

85. See Jasna Dragovic-Soso, Saviours of the Nation: Serbias Intellectual
Opposition and the Revival of Nationalism, London, C. Hurst & Co.,
2002, p. 48.

55. Ibid., pp. 1314.

56. Ibid., p. 3.

38. Vezi Mark Allen Svede, Many Easels, Some Abandoned, in Alla Rosenfeld i Norton C. Dodge (ed.),
Art of the Baltics: The Struggle for Freedom of Artistic Expression Under the Soviets, 19451991l, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 2001, p. 207.

5. De pild, artitii performance japonezi pe care i menioneaz snt cei care prezentaser lucrri n Statele
Unite.

57. Ibid., p. 14.

39. Andris Grnbergs, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Riga, februarie 2009.

58. Ivana Bago, A Window and a Basement: Negotiating Hospitality

at La Galerie Des Locataires and Podroom the Working Community
of Artists, Art Margins 1, 23, 2012, p. 136.

40. Lilia Dragneva, Ten Years of Moldovan Contemporary Art, in IRWIN, East Art Map: Contemporary Art
and Eastern Europe, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2006, p. 240.

7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Diana Popova, ntr-o conversaie cu autoarea la Sofia, 2 iunie 2014.

59. Iosif Kirly, in an interview with the author in Bucharest, March 26,
2014.
60. Dan Perjovschi, in an interview with the author in Bucharest, March
24, 2014.

10. Iosif Kirly, ntr-un interviu luat de autoare la Bucureti, 26 martie 2014.

61. Raimonds Lctis, in an interview with the author in Riga, July 7, 2009.

11. Tom Ruller, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Aberdeen, Marea Britanie, 15 mai 2014.

62. Peggy Phelan, Unmarked: the Politics of Performance, New York,

Routledge, 1993, p. 146.

12. Pavlna Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art
Behind the Iron Curtain, Prague, Karolinum Press, 2014, p. 50.
13. Happsoc fusese att un manifest, ct i o asociaie fcut de doi artiti (Alex Mlynrcik, Stano Filko) i un
teoretician (Zita Kostrov).
14. Familia lui Maciunas a prsit Lituania n 1944, cnd el avea treisprezece ani, i s-a stabilit la New York n
1948.
15. Petra Stegmann, Fluxus and the East, Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related
Arts 14/1, ianuarie 2014, p. 42.
eslovas Lukenskas, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Vilnius, 30 septembrie 2013, dar
16. Aa cum menionase C
i Dziugas Katinas, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Vilnius, 3 octombrie 2013.
17. Citat in Sirje Helme, PopKunst Forever: Estonian Pop Art at the Turn of the 1960s and 1970s, Tallinn, Art
Museum of Estonia Kumu Art Museum, 2010, p. 145.
18. Citat in Helme, p. 146.
19. Pavlna Morganov Action! Czech Performance Art in the 1960s and 1970s, Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related Arts 14/1, ianuarie 2014, p. 25.
20. Knk formase grupul Aktual Art mpreun cu Jan Trtlek, Sona vecov i fraii Mach (vezi Morganov,
Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron
Curtain, p. 50) i mpreun ei creaser opere i forme de art netradiionale, inclusiv performance-uri i
happening-uri.
21. Vezi Morganov, Action! Czech Performance Art in the 1960s and 1970s, p. 25.
22. Stegmann, p. 48.
23. Vezi ibid.
24. Potrivit lui Stegmann, p. 50.
25. Vezi Andrea Btorov, Alternative Trends in Slovakia during the 1960s and Parallels to Fluxus, in Fluxus
East: Fluxus Networks in Central Eastern Europe (catalog de expoziie), Berlin, Kunstlerhaus Bethanien, 2007,
p. 166.
26. Vezi Stegmann, p. 51.
27. Ileana Pintilie, Action Art in Romania Before and After 1989, Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related Arts 14/1, ianuarie 2014, p. 8687.
28. Ileana Pintilie, Between Modernism and Postmodernism, in Alina erban (ed.), Ion Grigorescu: the Man
with a Single Camera, Berlin, Sternberg Press, 2013, p. 33.
29. Diana Popova i Svilen Stefanov (ed.), N-Forms? Reconstructions and Interpretations (catalog de expoziie),
Sofia, Soros Center for the Arts, 1994, p. 23.

63. Philip Auslander, Liveness: Performance in a Mediatized Culture,

New York, Routledge, 2008, p. 60.
64. Ibid., p. 59.
65. Philip Auslander, On the Performativity of Performance Documentation, in Barbara Clausen, ed., After the Act: The (Re)Presentation of
Performance Art, Vienna, MUMOK Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung,
2005, p. 29.
66. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art,
Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 33.
67. Ibid.
68. Maja Fowkes, Off the Record: Performative Practices in the Hungarian Neo Avant-Garde and Their Resonance in Contemporary Art,
Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related
Arts 14/1, January 2014, p. 58.
69. Lszl Beke, The Hungarian Performance Before and After Tibor
Hajas, in Zdenka Badovinac, ed., Body and the East: from the 1960s
to the Present (exhibition catalogue), Ljubljana, Moderna Galerija,
1998, p. 103.
70. See Fowkes, p. 65.

41. Vezi Edi Muka, Albanian Socialist Realism or the Theology of Power, in IRWIN, East Art Map: Contemporary Art and Eastern Europe, Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2006, p. 133.
42. Fabiola Bierhoff, Appropriation in East German Performance Art the Legacy of Joseph Beuys, comunicare n cadrul colocviului Performance Art in Central and Eastern Europe, conferin anual a College
Art Association, Chicago, IL, SUA, 15 februarie 2014.
43. Vezi Claudia Mesch, Modern Art at the Berlin Wall: Demarcating Culture in the Cold War Germanys, London, I. B. Tauris, 2009, p. 192.
44. Grupul Clara Mosch a fost format n 1977 i i cuprindea pe artitii Michael Morgner, Thomas Ranft, Carl
Friedrich Claus, Gregor-Thorsten Schade i Dagmar Ranft-Schinke. Numele grupului vine dintr-o amalgamare a numelor de familie ale celor patru artiti.
45. Grupul a constat iniial din trei artiti, Micha Brendel (n. 1959), Else Gabriel (n. 1962) i Via Lewandowsky (n. 1963); Rainer Gr (n. 1960) s-a alturat mai trziu.

87. Badovinac, p. 16.

88. Ibid.
89. See Branislav Jakovljevic, in Claire Bishop and Marta Dziewanska,
eds., 19681989 Political Upheaval and Artistic Change, Chicago,
University of Chicago Press, 2011, pp. 4041. The Youth Relay races
had been organized since 1945 in Yugoslavia, and starting from
1957 they occurred annually, on Titos birthday, May 25. The Youth
Work Actions were started after World War II to meet the needs of
reconstruction and industrialization following the war.
90. Ibid., p. 48.
91. Ibid., p. 47.

47. M refer aici la panopticon ca metafor a felului n care societile moderne disciplinare snt supravegheate, monitorizate i reglate de controlul permanent (vezi Michel Foucault, A supraveghea i a pedepsi).

92. Ibid., p. 42.

48. Piotr Piotrowski, Art and Democracy in Post-Communist Europe, London, Reaktion Books, 2012, p. 7.
49. Vezi Klara Kemp-Welch, Antipolitics in Central European Art: Reticence as Dissidence under Post-Totalitarian Rule, 19561989, London, I. B. Tauris, 2013, p. 9.
50. Vezi Ivana Bago i Antonia Majaca, Dissociative Association, Dionysian Socialism, Non-Action and
Delayed Audience: Between Action and Exodus in the Art of the 1960s and 1970s in Yugoslavia, in Ivana
Bago i Antonia Majaca (ed.), n colaborare cu Vesana Vukovic, Removed from the Crowd: Unexpected Encounters I, Zagreb, [BLOK], 2011, p. 280282.
51. Tom Pospiszyl, Look Whos Watching: Photographic Documentation of Happenings and Performances in Czechoslovakia, in Claire Bishop i Marta Dziewanska (ed.), 19681989 Political Upheaval and Artistic Change, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 85.

93. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land

Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 167.
94. Jindrich Chalupeck, as qtd. in Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art
Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 175.
95.The performance took place on February 21, 2012 in Moscows
Cathedral of Christ the Savior. Three members of the group were
arrested and charged with hooliganism motivated by religious
hatred, because of the fact that their performance took place in
an area of the church reserved only for priests, and for the fact that
they were acting and dressed inappropriately for that space.
The performance was later disseminated through a video called
Punk Prayer Mother of God, Chase Putin Away, and was a protest
of the Orthodox Churchs overt support for Putin during his
presidential election campaign.

71. Ibid.

52. Zdenka Badovinac, Body and the East, in Zdenka Badovinac (ed.), Body and the East: from the 1960s
to the Present (catalog de expoziie), Ljubljana, Moderna Galerija, 1998, p. 10.

72. Beke, p. 105.

53. Amelia Jones, Body Art: Performing the Subject, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1998, p. 11.

73. Edit Andrs, Do I Dream Freely or on Command? in Bojana Pejic,

ed., Gender Check: Femininity and Masculinity in the Art of Eastern
Europe (exhibition catalogue), Cologne, Buchhandlung Walther
Knig, 2009, p. 123.

54. Ibid.

96. Michel Feher, Of Bodies and Technologies, in Hal Foster, ed., Dis cussions in Contemporary Culture, 1, Seattle, Bay Press, 1987, p. 161.

55. Ibid., p. 1314.

97. Ibid.

56. Ibid., p. 3.

98. Amelia Jones, The Artists Body, London, Phaidon Press, 2012, p. 23.

74. Ibid., p. 121.

57. Ibid., p. 14.

75. It is important to note that these photographs were staged in the

language of film, and were made as photographs for the simple reason that at the time the artist was not able to make a film. This is an
interesting contrast to Cindy Shermans Untitled Film Stills, for example, which were created to look as if they were stills from films that
actually existed. Here, Gotovac creates stills in lieu of a film that he
would like to create. See Jea Denegri, The Individual Mythology
of Tomislav Gotovac, in Aleksandar Battista Ilic and Diana Nenadic,
eds., Tomislav Gotovac, Zagreb, Museum of Contemporary Art, 2003,
p. 269.

58. Ivana Bago, A Window and a Basement: Negotiating Hospitality at La Galerie Des Locataires and Podroom
the Working Community of Artists, Art Margins 1, 23, 2012, p. 136.
59. Iosif Kirly, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Bucureti, 26 martie 2014.
60. Dan Perjovschi, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Bucureti, 24 martie 2014.

101. Ion Grigorescu, in an interview with Anders Kreuger in New York,

August 29, 2009, http://www.ludlow38.org/files/wyoming-transcription-grigorescu-anders-kreuger.pdf. Accessed October 2, 2014.

61. Raimonds Lctis, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Riga, 7 iulie 2009.

102. Ion Grigorescu, in an interview with Anders Kreuger, p. 283.

62. Peggy Phelan, Unmarked: the Politics of Performance, New York, Routledge, 1993, p. 146.

103. The artist was jailed after a copy of Gyrgy Konrd and Ivn
Szelnyis manuscript, The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power,
(19731974) was discovered in his apartment following a raid. See
Kemp-Welch, pp. 138140.

63. Philip Auslander, Liveness: Performance in a Mediatized Culture, New York, Routledge, 2008, p. 60.
64. Ibid., p. 59.

31. Miko uvakovic, The Clandestine Histories of the Oho Group, Ljubljana, Zavod P.A.R.A.S.I.T.E., 2010,
p. 45.

78. Pintilie (2013), p. 23.

65. Philip Auslander, On the Performativity of Performance Documentation, in Barbara Clausen (ed.), After
the Act: The (Re)Presentation of Performance Art, Vienna, MUMOK Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung, 2005,
p. 29.

79. Ion Grigorescu, in Marta Dziewanska, ed., Ion Grigorescu: In the Body
of the Victim, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 68.

66. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind
the Iron Curtain, p. 33.

77. Pintilie (2014), p. 89.

99. Ibid., p. 27.

100. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land
Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 162.

76. Ibid., p. 273.

156

86. It is worth mentioning that the consequences for such actions before
and after the socialist period were similar, as most of the public performances where the artist appeared naked ended with the artists
arrest. According to Darko imicic, curator of the Tomislav Gotovac
archive, in most cases the judge was sympathetic, and imposed the
minimum sentence necessary, which was usually a fine. Darko
imicic, in an interview with the author in Zagreb, August 15, 2013.

46. Vezi Mesch, p. 193.

30. Vezi Piotr Piotrowski, In the Shadow of Yalta: Art and the Avant-garde in Eastern Europe, 19451989, London, Reaktion, 2009, p. 285286.

32. Raa Todosijevic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Belgrad, 3 august 2013.

83. Denegri, p. 273.

37. Ibid., p. 101.

4. Kristine Stiles e poate singura excepie de la aceast regul, textele ei despre arta performance abordnd
artiti att estici, ct i vestici.

6. Roselee Goldberg, Performance Art: from Futurism to Present, New York, Thames and Hudson, 2011, p.
214.

82. Badovinac, p. 16.

104. Pter Gyrgy, Hungarian Marginal Art in the Late Period of State
Socialism, in Ale Erjavec, ed., Postmodernism and the post-Socialist
Condition: Politicized Art under State Socialism, Berkeley, University
of California Press, 2003, p. 179.
105. See Kemp-Welch, p. 127.

157

+ arta performance-ului n Europa de Est

67. Ibid.
68. Maja Fowkes, Off the Record: Performative Practices in the Hungarian Neo Avant-Garde and Their Resonance in Contemporary Art, Centropa: A Journal of Central European Architecture and Related Arts 14/1,
ianuarie 2014, p. 58.
69. Lszl Beke, The Hungarian Performance Before and After Tibor Hajas, in Zdenka Badovinac (ed.),
Body and the East: from the 1960s to the Present (catalog de expoziie), Ljubljana, Moderna Galerija, 1998,
p. 103.
70. Vezi Fowkes, p. 65.
71. Ibid.
72. Beke, p. 105.
73. Edit Andrs, Do I Dream Freely or on Command? in Bojana Pejic (ed.), Gender Check: Femininity and
Masculinity in the Art of Eastern Europe (catalog de expoziie), Kln, Buchhandlung Walther Knig, 2009,
p. 123.
74. Ibid., p. 121.
75. E important de observat c aceste fotografii fuseser puse n scen n limbajul filmului i au fost realizate ca fotografii din motivul simplu c n acea perioad artistul n-a putut s fac un film. Acesta e un contrast interesant n raport cu Untitled Film Stills de Cindy Sherman, de pild, care au fost create s arate de
parc ele ar fi fost fotografii din filme reale. Aici, Gotovac creeaz fotografii n locul filmului pe care i-ar fi
plcut s-l fac. Vezi Jea Denegri, The Individual Mythology of Tomislav Gotovac, in Aleksandar Battista Ilic i Diana Nenadic (ed.), Tomislav Gotovac, Zagreb, Museum of Contemporary Art, 2003, p. 269.
76. Ibid., p. 273.
77. Pintilie (2014), p. 89.
78. Pintilie (2013), p. 23.
79. Ion Grigorescu, in Marta Dziewanska (ed.), Ion Grigorescu: In the Body of the Victim, Chicago, University
of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 68.
80. Grigorescu, in Dziewanska, p. 68.
81. I. G. Plamen i Marko Pogacnik, din Manifest OHO-a, citat in Miko uvakovic, The Clandestine Histories of the Oho Group, Ljubljana, Zavod P.A.R.A.S.I.T.E., 2010, p. 29.
82. Badovinac, p. 16.
83. Denegri, p. 273.
84. Ibid., p. 273274.
85. Vezi Jasna Dragovic-Soso, Saviours of the Nation: Serbias Intellectual Opposition and the Revival of Nationalism, London, C. Hurst & Co., 2002, p. 48.
86. Merit menionat privitor la consecinele unor asemenea aciuni c ele fuseser similare nainte i dup
perioada socialist, cci majoritatea performance-urilor publice n care artistul aprea dezbrcat se terminau cu arestarea sa. Potrivit lui Darko imicic, curatorul arhivei Tomislav Gotovac, n majoritatea cazurilor judectorul era nelegtor i acorda sentina minim necesar, care era, de obicei, o amend. Darko
imicic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Zagreb, 15 august 2013.
87. Badovinac, p. 16.
88. Ibid.
89. Vezi Branislav Jakovljevic, in Claire Bishop i Marta Dziewanska (ed.), 19681989 Political Upheaval and
Artistic Change, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011, p. 4041. n Iugoslavia, alergrile cu tafet
cu ocazia Zilei Tineretului au fost organizate ncepnd cu 1945, iar din 1957 ele aveau loc anual, pe 25
mai, de ziua lui Tito. Aciunile de munc ale tineretului au nceput dup al Doilea Rzboi Mondial din nevoia reconstruciei i industrializrii de dup rzboi.
90. Ibid., p. 48.
91. Ibid., p. 47.
92. Ibid., p. 42.
93. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind
the Iron Curtain, p. 167.
94. Jindrich Chalupeck, citat in Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art
and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 175.
95. Performance-ul a avut loc pe 21 februarie 2012 la Catedrala lui Cristos Mntuitorul din Moscova. Trei dintre membrele grupului au fost arestate i acuzate de huliganism motivat de ur religioas, deoarece performance-ul lor a avut loc ntr-o zon a bisericii rezervat doar pentru preoi i deoarece s-au comportat
i erau mbrcate impropriu pentru acel spaiu. Performance-ul a fost rspndit mai trziu printr-un film video
intitulat Rugciunea punk Mam a lui Dumnezeu, izgnonete-l pe Putin i a fost un protest mpotriva sprijinului deschis pe care l-a acordat Biserica Ortodox lui Putin n timpul campaniei sale prezideniale.

158

106. Marina Naprushkina, in an interview with the author in Berlin, May 7,

2014.

96. Michel Feher, Of Bodies and Technologies, in Hal Foster (ed.), Discussions in Contemporary Culture, 1,
Seattle, Bay Press, 1987, p. 161.

107. Ghenadie Popescu, in an interview with the author in Chiinu,

March 31, 2014.

97. Ibid.

108. Popescu, interview with the author, March 31, 2014.

109. Toma Krpic, Medical Performance: the Politics of Body-Home,
PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art 94, 32/1, January 2010,
p. 39.
110. Ibid., pp. 39, 41.
111. Jurij Krpan, in an interview with the author in Ljubljana, August 26,
2013.
112. Tanja Ostojic, in an interview with the author in Berlin, May 8, 2014.
113. Jones (1998), p. 23.
114. Ibid., p. 29.
115. Piotrowski (2009), p. 364.
116. Borjana Mrdja, in an e-mail to the author, March 6, 2014.
117. Dan Perjovschi, in an interview with the author in Bucharest, March
31, 2014.

98. Amelia Jones, The Artists Body, London, Phaidon Press, 2012, p. 23.
99. Ibid., p. 27.

101. Ion Grigorescu, ntr-un interviu cu Anders Kreuger la New York, 29 august 2009, http://www.ludlow38.
org/files/wyoming-transcript-ion-grigorescu-anders-kreuger.pdf. Accesat pe 2 octombrie 2014.

140. As conveyed by Artu-ras Raila, in an interview with the author in Vilnius, October 2, 2013.

102. Ion Grigorescu, ntr-un interviu cu Anders Kreuger, p. 283.

141. Piotrowski (2012), p. 22.

103. Artistul a fost trimis la nchisoare dup ce n apartamentul su s-a gsit o copie a manuscrisului lui Gyrgy
Konrd i Ivn Szelnyi The Intellectuals on the Road to Class Power (19731974). Vezi Kemp-Welch, p.
138140.

142. Vera Mlechevska, in an interview with the author in Sofia, May 31,
2014.

104. Pter Gyrgy, Hungarian Marginal Art in the Late Period of State Socialism, in Ale Erjavec (ed.), Post modernism and the post-Socialist Condition: Politicized Art under State Socialism, Berkeley, University of
California Press, 2003, p. 179.
105. Vezi Kemp-Welch, p. 127.

119. According to Rassim, in a Skype interview with the author, June 24,
2014.

107. Ghenadie Popescu, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Chiinu, 31 martie 2014.

122. Diana Popova, Corrections 2 Art by the Scalpel, on Rassims website: http://www.rassim.com/corrections_2.html# (accessed October
3, 2014).
123. Vladimir Nikolic, About Death Anniversary, 19682004, 2007, text
available on the artists website: http://www.vladimir-nikolic.com/
foto/about%20death%20anniversary.pdf (last accessed October 3,
2014).
124. This notion has been contested by artist Mary Kelly and feminist theorist Griselda Pollock, for example, who argue that the presentation
of the (naked) female body in performance art simply participated in
the phallocentric fetishism thereof. Jones addresses this critique in
her 1998 text, see pp. 2229.

108. Popescu, interviu cu autoarea, 31 martie 2014.

109. Toma Krpic, Medical Performance: the Politics of Body-Home, PAJ: A Journal of Performance and Art,
94, 32/1, ianuarie 2010, p. 39.
110. Ibid., p. 39, 41.
111. Jurij Krpan, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Ljubljana, 26 august 2013.
112. Tanja Ostojic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Berlin, 8 mai 2014.
113. Jones (1998), p. 23.
114. Ibid., p. 29.
115. Piotrowski (2009), p. 364.
116. Borjana Mrdja, ntr-un e-mail ctre autoare, 6 martie 2014.
117. Dan Perjovschi, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Bucureti, 31 martie 2014.
118. Rassim, ntr-un interviu Skype cu autoarea, 24 iunie 2014.

125. Jones (1998), p. 9.

119. Potrivit lui Rassim, ntr-un interviu Skype cu autoarea, 24 iunie 2014.

126. See Bojana Pejic, Eppur si muove Introduction, in Bojana Pejic,

ed., Gender Check: a Reader, Cologne, Buchhandlung Walter Knig,
2010, p. 21.

120. Lucezar Boiadiev, ntr-o conversaie cu autoarea la Sofia, 29 mai 2014.

127. Martina Pachmanov, In? Out? In Between?, in Bojana Pejic, ed.,

Gender Check: a Reader, Cologne, Buchhandlung Walter Knig,
2010, p. 39.
128. See Bojana Pejic, The Morning After: Plavi Radion, Abstract Art and
Bananas, in Bojana Pejic, ed., Gender Check: a Reader, Cologne,
Buchhandlung Walter Knig, 2010, p. 109.
129. Borjana Mrdja, in an interview with the author in Banja Luka, July 29,
2013.
130. Olesya Turkina, Russia in Search of New Identity: Art Identities
in Conflict, 1998, http://www.klys.se/worldconference/papers/
Olesya_Turkina.htm (accessed June 6, 2014).
131. Vladislav Mamyshev-Monroe, Where the Heck Am I? Where Are My
Things? in Laura Hoptman and Tom Pospiszyl, Primary
Documents, Boston, MA, MIT Press, 2004, pp. 234235.
132. Vladisav Mamyshev-Monroe, Facebook album Taming Beauty, on the
artists Facebook page (last accessed October 3, 2014).

137. Sinisa Labrovic, in an interview with the author in Zagreb, August 18,
2013.
138. Mladen Miljanovic, in an interview with the author, July 28, 2013.

106. Marina Naprukina, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Berlin, 7 mai 2014.

121. Rassim, in a Skype interview with the author, June 24, 2014.

136. Dalibor Martinis, as qtd. in Nada Bero, Dalibor Martinis: Public

Secrets, Zagreb, Museum of Contemporary Art, 2006, p. 61.

100. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind
the Iron Curtain, p. 162.

118. Rassim, in a Skype interview with the author, June 24, 2014.

120. Luchezar Boyadzijev, in conversation with the author in Sofia, May

29, 2014.

Institutional Critique: an Anthology of Artists Writings, Cambridge,

MIT Press, 2009, p. 7.

121. Rassim, ntr-un interviu Skype cu autoarea, 24 iunie 2014.

122. Diana Popova, Corrections 2 Art by the Scalpel, pe website-ul lui Rassim: http://www.rassim.com/
corrections_2.html# (accesat pe 3 octombrie 2014).
123. Vladimir Nikolic, About Death Anniversary, 19682004, 2007, text disponibil pe website-ul artistului:
http://www.vladimir-nikolic.com/foto/about%20death%20anniversary.pdf (accesat pe 3 octombrie 2014).
124. Aceast idee a fost contestat, de exemplu, de artista Mary Kelly i de teoreticianul feminist Griselda
Pollock, care susin c prezentarea corpului feminin gol n arta performance a participat pur i simplu la
fetiizarea falocentric a acestuia. Jones i formuleaz critica n textul ei din 1998, vezi p. 2229.
125. Jones (1998), p. 9.
126. Vezi Bojana Pejic, Eppur si muove Introduction, in Bojana Pejic (ed.), Gender Check: a Reader, Kln,
Buchhandlung Walter Knig, 2010, p. 21.
127. Martina Pachmanov, In? Out? In Between? ,in Bojana Pejic (ed.), Gender Check: a Reader, Kln, Buchhand lung Walter Knig, 2010, p. 39.
128. Vezi Bojana Pejic, The Morning After: Plavi Radion, Abstract Art and Bananas, in Bojana Pejic (ed.), Gender Check: a Reader, Kln, Buchhandlung Walter Knig, 2010, p. 109.
129. Borjana Mrdja, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Banja Luka, 29 iulie 2013.

139. Ibid.

143. The Group of Six Artists consisted of Boris Demur (b. 1951), eljko
Jerman (19492006), Vlado Martek (b. 1951), Mladen Stilinovic (b.
1947), Sven Stilinovic (b. 1958) and Fedor Vucemilovic (b. 1956).
144. Mladen Stilinovic, in an interview with the author in Zagreb, August
19, 2013.
145. See Klara Kemp-Welch, Art Documentation and Bureaucratic Life:
The Case of the Studio of Activities, Documentation and Propagation, in Jacek Dobrowolski, Maciej Gdula, Klara Kemp-Welch, and
Georg Schollhammer, eds., Zofia Kulik/Przemyslaw Kwiek: KwieKulik,
Zurich, JRP Ringier, 2012, pp. 518520.
146. It is also worth mentioning Tanja Ostojics 2001 performance at the
Venice Biennale, Ill Be Your Angel, during which she acted as an
escort to Harald Szeemann, director of that years biennale, following
him around the event dressed in couture. The performance not only
addressed the power structure of the biennale, but the relationship
between artist and curator, especially the particular dynamic of the
female Eastern European artist with the Western male curator. Other
artists have also addressed the lack of representation at the Venice
Biennale, for example, in 2011 Moldovan artist Tatiana Fiodorova
created a series of t-shirts with the words Artist Without Pavilion
on the front, in reaction to the situation where a group of wealthy
citizens purchased an exhibition venue at the biennale and claimed
to represent Moldovan art with their traditional and conservative
paintings. That same year Bosnian artist Nela Hasanbegovic created
a created an installation in the town of Pocitelj: a makeshift pavilion,
in lieu of an actual pavilion, installed in Venice, for artists from
Bosnia and Herzegovina to represent their country. For years, the
country could not agree on a method for selecting artists to send to
Venice. Later, the city of Pocitelj made the pavilion into a permanent
construction.
147. Allan Kaprow, Assemblages, Environments and Happenings
(19591961), reprinted in Charles Harrison and Paul J. Wood, eds.,
Art in Theory 19002000: an Anthology of Changing Ideas, London,
Blackwell Publishing, 2002, p. 722.
148. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land
Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 184.
149. Jir Kovanda, in an interview with the author in Prague, June 27,
2011.
150. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land
Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind the Iron Curtain, p. 186.
151. Poszpiszyl, p. 85.
152. The group consisted of Gediminas Urbonas, Diugas Katinas, Aidas
Bareikis, Julius Ludavicius, Artu-ras Maktutis, Gintaras Sodeika,
among others.
153. Dziugas Katinas, in an interview with the author in Vilnius, October
3, 2013.
154. Claire Bishop, Artificial Hells, London, Verso, 2012, p. 3. In her February 2006 article in Artforum she referred to this as a social turn.

133. In 2013, he died as tragically as his namesake, and under equally

suspicious circumstances, drowning in a few inches of water at his
hotel in Bali.

130. Olesya Turkina, Russia in Search of New Identity: Art Identities in Conflict (1998), http://www.klys.se/
worldconference/papers/Olesya_Turkina.htm (accesat pe 6 iunie 2014).

134. Boryana Rossa, on her website: http://boryanarossa.com/the-last-valve/,

accessed October 6, 2014.

131. Vladislav Mamyshev-Monroe, Where the Heck Am I? Where Are My Things?, in Laura Hoptman i
Tom Pospiszyl, Primary Documents, Boston, MA, MIT Press, 2004, p. 234235.

156. Miwon Kwon, One Place After Another: Notes on Site Specificity,
October 80, Spring 1997, p. 91.

135. Alexander Alberro, Institutions, Critique, and Institutional

Critique, in Alexander Alberro and Blake Stimson, eds.,

132. Vladisav Mamyshev-Monroe, albumul Facebook Taming Beauty, pe pagina Facebook a artistului, accesat pe 3 octombrie 2014.

157. Claire Bishop, The Social Turn: Collaboration and its Discontents,
Artforum, February 2006, p. 179.

155. Piotrowski (2012), p. 7.

159

verso
133. n 2013, el a murit la fel de tragic ca omonimul su i n circumstane la fel de dubioase, necndu-se n
civa centimetri de ap ntr-un hotel din Bali.
134. Boryana Rossa, pe website-ul ei http://boryanarossa.com/the-last-valve/ (accesat pe 6 octombrie 2014).

158. Ibid.
159. As stated on the Open Place website, http://www.openplace.com.ua/
eng/about/mission/ (accessed October 6, 2014).

135. Alexander Alberro, Institutions, Critique, and Institutional Critique, in Alexander Alberro i Blake Stimson (ed.), Institutional Critique: an Anthology of Artists Writings, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2009, p. 7.

160. Yulia Kostereva, in a Skype interview with the author, June 19, 2014.

136. Dalibor Martinis, citat in Nada Bero, Dalibor Martinis: Public Secrets, Zagreb, Museum of Contemporary Art, 2006, p. 61.

162. Gjorgje Jovanovic, in an interview with the author in Skopje, June 21,
2013.

161. Ibid.

Dup Dussel:
nceputul critic al modernitflii filosofice
ntre Las Casas i Guamn Poma
Ovidiu ichindeleanu

137. Sinisa Labrovic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Zagreb, 18 august 2013.

138. Mladen Miljanovic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea, 28 iulie 2013.
139. Ibid.
140. Cum spune chiar Artu-ras Raila, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Vilnius, 2 octombrie 2013.
141. Piotrowski (2012), p. 22.
142. Vera Mlecevska, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Sofia, 31 mai 2014.
143. Grupul celor ase Artiti a constat din Boris Demur (n. 1951), eljko Jerman (19492006), Vlado
Martek (n. 1951), Mladen Stilinovic (n. 1947), Sven Stilinovic (n. 1958) i Fedor Vucemilovic (n. 1956).
144. Mladen Stilinovic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Zagreb, 19 august 2013.
145. Vezi Klara Kemp-Welch, Art Documentation and Bureaucratic Life: The Case of the Studio of Activities, Documentation and Propagation, in Jacek Dobrowolski, Maciej Gdula, Klara Kemp-Welch i
Georg Schllhammer (ed.), Zofia Kulik / Przemyslaw Kwiek: KwieKulik, Zrich, JRP Ringier, 2012, p. 518520.
146. Merit menionat performance-ul din 2001 al lui Tanja Ostojic la Bienala de la Veneia, Ill Be Your Angel,
n cadrul cruia ea a jucat rolul escortei lui Harald Szeemann, directorul bienalei din acel an, urmndu-l
peste tot mbrcat ca scoas din cutie. Performance-ul n-a abordat doar structura de putere a bienalei,
ci i raportul dintre artist i curator, mai ales n ce privete dinamica particular dintre artistele estice i
curatorii occidentali. Ali artiti au abordat, de asemenea, lipsa de reprezentare la Bienala de la Veneia,
de pild, n 2011 artista din Moldova Tatiana Fiodorova crease o serie de tricouri inscripionate cu cuvintele Artist Without Pavilion, ca reacie la situaia n care un grup de ceteni bogai au cumprat un loc
de expunere la bienal i au pretins c reprezint arta din Republica Moldova cu picturile lor tradiionale i conservatoare. n acelai an, artista bosniac Nela Hasanbegovic crease o instalaie n oraul Pocitelj:
un pavilion improvizat, n locul unuia real, instalat la Veneia i oferit artitilor din Bosnia i Heregovina
pentru a-i reprezenta ara. Ani de-a rndul, ara n-a putut s cad de acord n privina unei metode de
selecie a artitilor care s fie trimii la Veneia. Mai trziu, oraul Pocitelj a transformat pavilionul ntr-o construcie permanent.
147. Allan Kaprow, Assemblages, Environments and Happenings (19591961), retiprit in Charles Harrison i Paul J. Wood (ed.), Art in Theory 19002000: an Anthology of Changing Ideas, London, Blackwell
Publishing, 2002, p. 722.
148. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind
the Iron Curtain, p. 184.
149. Jir Kovanda, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Praga, 27 iunie 2011.
150. Morganov, Czech Action Art: Happenings, Actions, Events, Land Art, Body Art and Performance Art Behind
the Iron Curtain, p. 186.
151. Poszpiszyl, p. 85.
152. Grupul a constat, printre alii, din Gediminas Urbonas, Diugas Katinas, Aidas Bareikis, Julius Ludavicius,
Artu-ras Maktutis i Gintaras Sodeika.
153. Diugas Katinas, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Vilnius, 3 octombrie 2013.
154. Claire Bishop, Artificial Hells, London, Verso, 2012, p. 3. n articolul ei din februarie 2006, publicat n
Artforum, ea s-a referit la asta prin sintagma cotitur social.
155. Piotrowski (2012), p. 7.
156. Miwon Kwon, One Place After Another: Notes on Site Specificity, October 80, primvara 1997, p. 91.
157. Claire Bishop, The Social Turn: Collaboration and its Discontents, Artforum, februarie 2006, p. 179.
158. Ibid.
159. Cum se spune pe website-ul Open Place, http://www.openplace.com.ua/eng/about/mission/, accesat
pe 6 octombrie 2014.
160. Iulia Kostereva, ntr-un interviu Skype cu autoarea, 19 iunie 2014.
161. Ibid.
162. Gjorgje Jovanovic, ntr-un interviu cu autoarea la Skopje, 21 iunie 2013.

160

Meditaiile anticarteziene ale lui Enrique Dussel snt o contribuie filosofic la revoluia epistemic revendicat de gndirea decolonial.
Mai precis, dei se articuleaz n ntregime din interiorul disciplinei filosofice, ceea ce revendic gestul filosofic al lui Dussel nu e nimic mai puin
dect o dimensiune epistemic general n cmpul cunoaterii, cu consecine etice i politice fundamentale.
Analiza filosofic a lui Dussel e completat sau chiar nlocuit n text de
un discurs istoric revizionist, n maniera specific gndirii decoloniale, fie
c ea se desfoar ntr-un spaiu epistemic deschis, ca la
Walter Mignolo, de pild, fie c realizeaz munca de
rsturnare a raporturilor de putere i de deschidere a orizonturilor din interiorul unei discipline a cunoaterii.
Enrique Dussel e un filosof argentinian nscut n La Paz,
Argentina, n 1934; dup ce i-a susinut doctoratul n filosofie n Spania, a trit o perioad ntr-un kibbutz din Israel,
pentru a nva ebraica i a explora dimensiunile spirituale ale srciei, dup care a mai susinut un doctorat n istorie la Sorbona, ntorcndu-se dup zece ani de emigrare
n Argentina n 1967; aici, n contextul agitaiei politice de
dreapta, la captul unei prezene intelectuale tot mai intense pe plan local i regional, a primit numeroase ameninri cu moartea, casa sa a fost aruncat n aer de extremiti de dreapta
i a fost expulzat din Universitatea Cuyo. Dussel a plecat n exil n Mexic,
unde lucreaz din 1975, elabornd un corp de gndire ce urmrete
sistematic interpelrile oprimailor care apar la orizontul totalitii hegemonice i potenialul lor de liberare.
Scrierile sale filosofice au realizat aliane i deschideri ale filosofiei cu mai
multe paradigme epistemice ale teoriei sociale critice din a doua jumtate a secolului XX (catolicismul social, teoria critic a dependenei, teologia liberrii, teoria sistemelor-lume i marxismul deschis). n prezent,
mulumit contactului cu gndirea decolonial i filosofia politic indigen,
Dussel exploreaz pentru prima oar ceea ce el nsui numete un grad
maxim al contiinei la nivel internaional, o condiie esenial pentru
o filosofie a liberrii. Printre altele, acest contact i d posibilitatea de a
repoziiona nsi istoria filosofiei i reperele sale fundamentale n materialul de fa, de dimensiunea unui articol. Puterea din spatele acestui gest epistemic e dat de contextul istoric al micrilor indigene din
America Latin, de la revoluia zapatist i chavism la victoriile lui Evo
Morales, care au articulat nu doar unul, ci mai multe moduri de desprindere de neoliberalismul occidental, dar i de tradiia intelectual recent
a gndirii decoloniale. Atunci cnd Dussel folosete conceptul de colonialitate, chiar dac nu mai citeaz explicit, referina originar rmne
munca de pionierat epistemic a lui Anbal Quijano i Walter Mignolo.
Articolul lui Anbal Quijano, Colonialitatea puterii, eurocentrism i

America Latin, publicat n premier n limba romn n IDEA art +

societate #3334/2009, a constituit de altfel un astfel de material de
dimensiuni relativ mici, ns cu un impact structural mai puternic dect
serii ntregi de cri academice.
Dussel propune renelegerea istoriei filosofiei moderne pornind de la
ceea ce s-a ocultat n naraiunile eurocentrice ce au pus n lumin doar
teleologia raiunii, seria Renatere epoca raiunii secolul Luminilor
etc., i anume colonialitatea modernitii: Dussel evideniaz rolul jucat
de prima modernitate timpurie, cea din secolul XVI, n care filosofia a
suferit o revoluie epistemic, n urma efortului intelectual depus n context colonial de nvaii noului ordin iezuit, care au fcut posibil, printre altele, apariia lui Descartes. Prima modernitate timpurie a fost ns
ocultat i redus la invizibilitate de metanaraiunea hegemonic a istoriei filosofiei, care a situat nceputul modernitii n secolul XVII, trecnd
tocmai peste momentul cuceririi coloniale a Americilor i mai ales peste
stabilirea noului sistem-lume, cel n care ne aflm nc n prezent, indiferent dac ne-am nscut n Romnia sau n Argentina. n
gndirea decolonial, investigarea n termeni proprii a
prii ntunecate a modernitii (Mignolo), a mecanismelor i efectelor de lung durat ale colonialitii puterii
(Quijano) se opune acestei reduceri la invizibilitate i acestei erijri n universalism a provinciei europene, evideniind,
printre altele, faptul c marii filosofi occidentali au elaborat
teoriile juridice, politice i filosofice ale emanciprii, egalitii, democraiei i dreptului liberal n context i n complicitate cu traficul global de sclavi care a fondat i a stabilizat
vreme de mai bine de trei secole capitalismul noului sistem-lume.
E important s subliniem c nu doar discursul hegemonic a fost afectat de amnezia colonial, ci i formele de articulare ale
rezistenei. Dussel arat c primul discurs critic al modernitii, mpotriva unei moderniti surprinse n proces de cristalizare (dar din interiorul ei), cel al lui Bartolom de Las Casas, articuleaz deja cu claritate n
secolul XVI poziii radicale care vor fi redescoperite abia dup revoluiile burgheze, n secolul XIX. Mulumit redeschiderii contactului
cu Las Casas, anumite poziii radicale ale teoriei critice sociale i ale stngii contemporane se dovedesc a fi lipsite de contiina colonialitii; n
particular, n ciuda unor turnuri autocontradictorii ale lui Marx nsui (n
mod semnificativ, referitor la colonialismul britanic n India i la experiena modern a Europei de Est), aceasta rmne o limit istoric a marxismului i a ideologiei i politicilor partidelor comuniste din secolul XX,
care n cele mai bune cazuri s-au situat n spaiul dintre amnezia colonial a ideologiei dezvoltrii, proiecia rasist a experienei coloniale asupra Celuilalt i reducerea colonialitii la imperialism. Mai snt multe de
nvat din faptul c Las Casas articula deja n secolul XVI o poziie antiautoritar i antimonarhic bazat pe dreptul colectiv al popoarelor, pe
deschiderea radical i reciprocitatea fa de cellalt cultural, pe necesitatea dreptului i a istoriei scrise din perspectiva popoarelor oprimate i
exploatate, propunnd o form de democraie popular bazat pe
consens.
Iar aceasta nu atinge dect posibilitile criticii interne, din interiorul modernitii, cci, n fond, Las Casas rmne un ideolog al cretinismului.

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Pentru a explora gradul maxim al contiinei critice la nivel universal,

Dussel ncepe practic o nou cercetare cu Guamn Poma, intelectualul indigen de limb quechua din secolele XVIXVII, pe care Mignolo
i ali gnditori latino-americani l propuseser ca opus al lui Descartes,
al fondrii modernitii din cealalt perspectiv filosofic, indigen. n
primul rnd, Guamn Poma propune un sistem hermeneutic radical diferit, care funcioneaz n mod simultan n registrul scrierii alfabetice i n
cel al scrierii ideografice, i care nu doar c a fost ignorat complet de
mari filosofi europeni, precum Gadamer sau Ricoeur, dar chiar i privirile mai deschise ale lui Aby Warburg i Walter Benjamin au fost private
de simpla intrare n contact cu aceast diferen redutabil. Guamn Poma
articuleaz o critic a fetiismului banului, vzut n procesul de instituire
a sistemului-lume, i analizeaz n detaliu partea ntunecat a modernitii, distrugerile pe ale cror ruine se ridic. Guamn Poma dezvluie
modernitatea ca surs a corupiei i distrugerii printr-un discurs intelectual confrontaional, care nu i spune doar puterii adevrul, ci i apropiailor si, colaboraionitii indigeni i chiar sracii, pe care nu i idealizeaz,
observnd modul n care puterea nsi acioneaz prin banalitatea anumitor practici de zi cu zi, din viaa cotidian i din cea intim. Din punct
de vedere filosofic, opera lui Guamn Poma dezvluie genealogia de
la ego conquiro la ego cogito, pe ultimul ca o culme a primului i deschiderea alternativ a unei contiine critice radicale ce i articuleaz judecile
generale printr-o sintez social a istoriei colective i a experienei personale. Din punct de vedere politic, Guamn Poma articuleaz o contiin politic din perspectiva oprimailor, a sracilor lui Iisus Hristos,
a crei rezisten e fondat pe revendicarea propriei istorii locale, pstrat n via ntr-un context opresiv prin metodologia creativ a sincretismului, i al crei localism e calificat de fapt dintr-o perspectiv global,
am putea spune protointernaionalist. Dei critica sa e devastatoare n
sine nsi, Guamn Poma se situeaz deja epistemic n zona alternativelor la modernitate, prezentnd de pild instituii politico-sociale bazate pe necesitile reproducerii vieii (adic ceea ce feminismul i ecologismul
occidental consider a fi revoluionar abia n secolele XIXXX) i instituii ale proprietii colective.
Mulumit muncii filosofice a lui Dussel, care se raporteaz la istoria global a filosofiei, cititorul est-european e situat astfel, n mod direct, n
istoria colonial a modernitii. Prin Dussel i eroii si putem resimi modul
n care colonialitatea a avut efecte n Europa, i nu doar asupra coloniza ilor. Nou ne rmne s facem munca de familiarizare i dezvoltare a
alfabetizrii cu specificul propriei situri coloniale, mpotriva prejudecii
eurocentrice, exprimat att dinspre dreapta, ct i dinspre stnga politi c, prejudecat ce proiecteaz tot ceea ce ine de colonialism asupra
unui cellalt, rasializat i separat de propria subiectivitate, implicit european. Pn n prezent, proieciile eurocentrice continu s nege
ndeosebi diferena esenial dintre colonizare i colonialitate, nchiznd,
ca urmare, percepia modalitilor prin care s-a articulat n aceast par te a lumii ceea ce am numit colonizarea postcomunist a minilor, corpurilor i instituiilor dup 1989. Dup cum am subliniat n numeroase
rnduri, aceasta nu e o colonizare metaforic, ci material, i nu doar
cultural, ci i n sensul global, colonial, al transferului valorii-munc n
modernitate, de care snt contieni, de altfel, toi imigranii est-europeni n Occident, chiar dac nu ntotdeauna i pe plan politic.

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ntre Las Casas i Guamn Poma nu se contureaz doar un alt fundament al modernitii filosofice, ci i al dialecticii nsei, ca sarcin contemporan a filosofiei critice, care rmne nc a fi situat pe deplin n
cmpul epistemico-politic dintre critica intern a modernitii i critica exterioritii sale radicale. Aceasta e adevrata sarcin a gndirii radicale, fiindc,
dup cum spune vorba neleapt a lui Audre Lorde, instrumentele stpnului nu vor demonta niciodat propria sa cas.

Meditaflii anticarteziene:
originea antidiscursului filosofic
al modernitflii*
Enrique Dussel
Snt contient c acest articol este n mod explicit polemic. Polemic fa
de judecata dispreuitoare legat de existena unui Sud al Europei (i
prin urmare a Americii Latine), care a fost construit la nivel epistemic
de Iluminism, din centrul i nordul Europei, de la mijlocul secolului XVIII.1
Iluminismul a construit (a fost un making desfurat n mod incontient)
trei categorii care au ascuns exterioritatea european: orientalismul
(descris de Edward Said), occidentalismul eurocentric (fabricat ntre alii
de Hegel) i existena unui Sud al Europei. Respectivul Sud a fost
(n trecut) un centru al istoriei n jurul Mediteranei (Grecia, Roma, imperiile spaniol i portughez, fr a mai meniona lumea
arab a Maghrebului, deja discreditat cu dou secole nainte), dar n acel moment era deja un rest cultural, o periferie cultural, datorit faptului c, pentru Europa secolului
XVIII care realiza revoluia industrial, ntreaga lume a Me diteranei era o lume veche. Cornelius de Pauw spunea
c Africa ncepe n Pirinei i considera c Americile iberice, n mod evident, erau colonii ale rilor deja semiperiferice Spania i Portugalia. Astfel, America Latin pur i
simplu a disprut de pe hart i din istorie pn n ziua
de azi, la nceputul secolului XXI. Scopul acestui material
sumar, care cu siguran va fi criticat pentru preteniozitate, este de a ncerca reinstalarea Americii Latine n geopolitica mondial i n istoria filosofiei.
1. A fost Ren Descartes primul filosof modern?
Vom ncepe prin a cerceta una dintre istoriile europene ale filosofiei din
ultimele dou secole. Istoriile nu indic doar perioada evenimentelor,
ci i locul geopolitic pe care acestea l ocup. Modernitatea i are originea, conform interpretrii actuale pe care ncercm s o contrazicem,
ntr-un loc i ntr-un timp. Deplasarea geopolitic a acestui loc
i a acestui timp nseamn, de asemenea, i o deplasare filosofic,
tematic, paradigmatic.

* Editorii i mulumesc autorului pentru acordarea drepturilor de publicare.

Sursa: Meditaciones anti-cartesianas: sobre el origen del anti-discurso filosfico de la Modernidad, Tabula Rasa, Bogot, Colombia, nr. 9, 2008.
ENRIQUE DUSSEL este profesor de filosofie la Universitatea Autonom Metropolitan din
Iztapalapa i la Universitatea Autonom Naional din Ciudad de Mexic. Este absolvent al Facultii de Filosofie n anul 1957 la Universitatea Naional din Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina; n
1959, doctor n filosofie la Universitatea Central din Madrid; n 1965, liceniat n studii ale religiei la Institutul Catolic din Paris; n 1967, doctor n istorie la Sorbona, Paris; n 1981, doctor honoris causa al Universitii din Fribourg, Elveia; n 1995, doctor honoris causa al Universitii Mayor
de San Andrs, La Paz, Bolivia.

a. Cnd i unde a fost situat n mod tradiional originea Modernitii?

Stephen Toulmin scrie: Unii dateaz originea modernitii n anul
14362, odat cu adoptarea tiparului cu litere mobile; alii n 1520 d.H.,
cnd are loc rebeliunea lui Luther mpotriva autoritii bisericii; alii n 1648,
adic sfritul Rzboiului de 30 de Ani; alii la Revoluia American sau
Francez din 1776 sau 1789; n timp ce timpurile moderne ncep
pentru civa abia n 1895... tiina modern i tehnologia pot fi vzute ca surs fie a binecuvntrilor, fie a problemelor, fie a ambelor. n orice
caz, originea lor intelectual face ca anii 1630 s fie cea mai plauzibil
dat de ncepere a Modernitii.3
n general, inclusiv pentru J. Habermas4, la baza Modernitii s-ar afla
o micare de la Sud la Nord, de la Estul la Vestul Europei, din secolul XV pn n secolul XVII, care ar fi aproximativ urmtoarea: a) de la
Renaterea italian la Quattrocento (neluat n considerare de Toulmin);
b) Reforma protestant din Germania; c) revoluia tiinific a secolului XVII, care va culmina cu d) revoluia politic burghez englez,
nord-american i francez. A se observa curba procesului: din Italia, n Germania, n Frana, spre Anglia i Statele Unite. E clar c trebuie s respingem aceast construcie
istoric iluminat a procesului naterii Modernitii, dat
fiind c este o viziune intraeuropean, eurocentric, autocentrat din punct de vedere ideologic, din perspectiva centralitii Nordului Europei de la nceputul secolului
XVIII o viziune care s-a impus pn n zilele noastre.
Pentru a ntrevedea originea Modernitii cu ochi noi este
necesar situarea n afara Europei germano-latine i analizarea acesteia din perspectiva unui observator extern
(implicat, desigur, dar nu din punctul zero al observaiei). Aa-numita Europ medieval sau feudal, care ocup
o ntreag epoc denumit n mod obinuit noaptea obscurantismului,
nu este dect iluzia eurocentric a unei Europe care nu se descoper
pe sine nsi prin ceea ce a fost, ncepnd din secolul VII: o civilizaie
periferic, secundar, izolat, nchis, asediat de ctre i fa de lumea
musulman, care este mai dezvoltat i mai bine conectat cu istoria
Asiei i Africii pn n anul 1492. Europa a trebuit s stabileasc relaii cu
marile culturi prin Mediterana oriental, care din anul 1453, odat cu
preluarea Constantinopolului, era n mod definitiv otoman. Europa era
nchis de la nceputul secolului VII, fapt care mpiedica (n ciuda ncercrii cruciadelor) orice contact cu elementele cele mai intense ale culturii, tehnologiei i economiei lumii vechi pe care am numit-o stadiul
al III-lea al sistemului interregional asiatico-afro-mediteranean.5
Am studiat aceast relaie geografic i ideologic n numeroase lucrri.6
Voi face un rezumat al acestei problematici. Europa nu a fost niciodat
centrul istoriei mondiale, pn la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea (s spunem
pn n anul 1800, acum doar dou secole). Va fi centru al istoriei mondiale ca urmare a revoluiei industriale. ntreaga istorie mondial anterioar pare a avea Europa n centrul su doar datorit iluziei optice a
unor ochi obnubilai de eurocentrism (poziia lui Max Weber). Aceasta distorsioneaz fenomenul originii Modernitii. S analizm cazul lui
Hegel.7
n toate Prelegerile universitare, Hegel expune temele sale avnd ca orizont de fond o anumit categorizare istoric mondial. n Prelegeri de

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filosofia istoriei, Hegel mparte istoria n patru momente: lumea oriental8, lumea greac, lumea roman i lumea germanic. Se poate
vedea sensul schematic al acestei construcii ideologice, complet eurocentrice, ba mai mult dect att: o construcie germanocentric a Nordului Europei (deja s-a produs negarea Sudului Europei). Pe de alt
parte, lumea germanic (nu se numete european) se mparte n
trei momente: lumea germano-cretin (eliminnd elementul latin),
Evul Mediu (fr a-l situa din punct de vedere geopolitic n cadrul istoriei mondiale) i epoca modern. Aceast ultim epoc, la rndul ei,
are trei momente: Reforma (fenomen germanic), Reforma n constituirea statului modern, i Iluminismul i Revoluia.
n Prelegerile de filosofia religiei, Hegel mparte istoria n trei momente:
a) religia natural (care include religiile primitive, religia chinez, vedanta, budismul, religia parilor, religia siriac); b) religia individualitii
spirituale (iudaismul, religia greac, roman) i, drept apogeu al acesteia, c) religia absolut (cretinismul). Orientul este mereu propedeutic,
infantil, face primii pai. Lumea germanic (Europa de Nord) reprezint finalul istoriei.
Pe de alt parte, n Prelegeri de estetic, Hegel consider istoria n sensul de dezvoltare a idealului formelor particulare ale frumuseii artistice,
n trei momente: a) formele artei simbolice (zoroastrism, arta brahmanic, egiptean, hindus, mahomedan i arta mistic cretin); b) forma artei clasice (grecii i romanii) i c) forma artei romantice. Cea din
urm se mparte n trei: a) arta cretinismului primitiv; b) arta cavalereasc a Evului Mediu i c) autonomia formal a particularitilor individuale (care, ca i n cazurile anterioare, apare n Modernitate).
Dar niciun text nu e mai potrivit pentru subiectul nostru dect Prelegerile de istoria filosofiei. Acestea ncep cu a) filosofia oriental (conform
orientalismului recent construit), cu filosofia chinez i indic (filosofia vedanta, a sistemului samkhya i filosofia budist a lui Gautama,
printre altele); trece apoi la b) filosofia elen (fr a se ocupa de filosofia roman)9; continu cu c) filosofia Evului Mediu, n dou momente: i) filosofia arab, incluznd filosofii evrei, i ii) filosofia scolastic,
ce va culmina cu Renaterea i Reforma luteran10; i, n cele din urm,
d) filosofia modern (Neuere Philosophie). n acest punct trebuie s ne
oprim. Hegel bnuiete unele probleme, dar nu tie s le dea o raionalitate suficient. Scrie referitor la Modernitate: Omul a ctigat ncredere n sine nsui (Zutrauen zu sich selbst) [...] Odat cu inventarea
prafului de puc11 a disprut furia individual din lupt [...] Omul12
descoperi America, comorile i popoarele ei, descoperi natura i pe sine
nsui (sich selbst).13
Cu aceste afirmaii referitoare la condiiile geopolitice exterioare Europei, Hegel se nchide ntr-o analiz centrat doar pe Europa. Astfel, n
primele pagini despre filosofia modern, el ncearc s explice noua si tuaie a filosofului fa de realitatea social i istoric. Punctul su negativ de plecare este Evul Mediu (pentru mine, faza a III-a a sistemului
interregional). Abia n secolele XVIXVII i face din nou apariia filosofia, adevrul ca adevr.14 Pentru Hegel, aceast nou filosofie se de dubleaz, din primul moment: a) exist, pe de o parte, un realism al
experienei, care coboar speculativul ... la realitatea dat (Hegel, 1970XX: 68)15, i care, pe de o parte: (a1) observ natura fizic, iar pe de
alt parte: (a2) analizeaz politic lumea spiritual a statelor (Hegel, 1970-

164

XX: 67).16 n acelai timp: b) exist o direcie idealist, n care totul se

afl n gndire, spiritul este el nsui tot coninutul.17
n al doilea rnd, Hegel detaliaz problemele centrale ale noii filosofii (de
exemplu, Dumnezeu i deducia sa din spiritul pur; conceptul de bine
i de ru; problema libertii i a necesitii).
n al treilea rnd, se ocup de dou faze istorice: a) Mai nti, anunarea
acestei concilieri, ca ncercri particulare, nc nedeterminate, nc
impure; aici i avem pe Bacon din Verulam [care se nate n Londra n
1561] i pe Jacob Bhme (Hegel, 1970-XX: 70)18; b) Concilierea metafizic. Abia aici ncepe filozofia propriu-zis a acestei epoci; ea ncepe
cu Descartes.19
n primul rnd, n mod evident, Hegel l introduce n aceast istorie pe
Jakob Bhme (care se nate n Alt-Seidenberg n anul 1575), mistic german i cunoscut filosof al interioritii germanice, doar ca o not folcloric simpatic i naionalist, nimic mai mult. n al doilea rnd, chiar dac
ncearc s vorbeasc despre elementele istorice, exterioare ale vieii
filosofilor, Hegel nu merge mai departe de indicarea aspectelor sociologice care l transform pe filosoful modern ntr-o persoan obinuit,
de pe strad (i nu ntr-un clugr), o persoan care nu se ndeprteaz
de restul societii (Hegel, 1970-XX: 7172).20 Hegel nu i imagineaz
deloc, din perspectiva ignoranei sale nord-europene, cataclismul geopolitic mondial care s-a produs ncepnd cu sfritul secolului XV n toate
culturile n Extremul Orient, Asia de Sud, India, Africa subsaharian i
Amerindia din cauza invaziei europene n cel de-al patrulea continent.
n aceast viziune eurocentric i provincial, Descartes apare n discursul istoric al lui Hegel (1970-XX: 70) drept cel cu care ncepe cu adevrat
filosofia epocii moderne.21
b. Descartes i iezuiii
Ren Descartes se nate n Frana, n La Haye, lng Tours, n anul 1596
i moare n anul 1650. Rmas orfan la puin timp dup natere, este
educat de bunica sa. Adic triete la nceputul secolului XVII. n anul
1606 intr n colegiul iezuiilor La Flche, unde va primi pn n anul 1615
unica sa pregtire filosofic formal.22 Adic prsete casa la vrsta de
zece ani, iar printele iezuit Chastellier este ca un al doilea tat pentru
el. Prima lucrare filosofic pe care o studiaz se numete Disputationes
Metaphysicae de Francisco Surez, publicat n anul 1597, la un an dup
naterea lui Descartes. Se tie c spaniolul basc Ignacio de Loyola (care
se nate n pragul Modernitii, n anul 1491, cu un an nainte de descoperirea Atlanticului occidental de ctre Columb, i care moare n anul
1556, cu patruzeci de ani nainte de naterea lui Descartes), dup ce
a fost student la filosofie n Paris, a nfiinat colegii pentru pregtirea filosofic a clerului i tinerilor nobili sau a tinerilor din clase nstrite burgheze. n anul 1603, iezuiii au fost chemai de regele Henric al IV-lea (dup
ce au fost expulzai din Frana n anul 1591), rege care va nfiina colegiul
La Flche n anul 1604, donndu-i un palat enorm (patru hectare).
Pregtirea, conform Conciliului de la Trento (conciliul care modernizeaz Biserica Catolic, raionaliznd toate aspectele sale), era absolut modern n a sa ratio studiorum. Fiecare iezuit constituia o subiectivitate
singular, independent, modern, fr cntri sau rugciuni n corul comunitii, cum era cazul clugrilor benedictini medievali. Fiecare iezuit
trebuia s treac n fiecare zi printr-un examen de contiin individual.23

Prin urmare, tnrul Descartes trebuia s se retrag n fiecare zi de trei

ori, n tcere24, s mediteze la propria sa subiectivitate i s examineze cu extrem claritate i contiin de sine intenia i coninutul fiecrei
aciuni, aciunile realizate n fiecare or, judecnd cele fcute din perspectiva criteriului omul este creat pentru gloria, veneraia i servirea lui Dumnezeu.25 Era vorba de o rememorare a exercitatio animi de Augustin
de Hipona, exerciiul cotidian al lui ego cogito: Eu snt contient c am
fcut aceasta i aceea; un exerciiu menit dominrii subiectivitii prin
disciplin (nc nainte de calvinismul propus de Max Weber ca etic a
capitalismului). Studiile erau foarte metodice.
n textul Constituciones de los colegios, Loyola cere ca elevii s nu studieze sintetic domeniile principale, nici ntr-un mod imperfect, ci s se
apropie de ele n profunzime, cu timpul i dedicaia necesare [...] Domeniile pe care trebuie s le studieze toi snt: literele umaniste, logica, filosofia natural i, dac exist predispoziie, noiuni de matematic
i moral, metafizic i teologie scolastic [...] n afara acestor studii trebuie s existe n fiecare zi o or de dezbatere a fiecrei
materii care se va studia [...] n fiecare duminic, dup ora
mesei, s existe dezbateri publice.26
Astfel, este posibil ca tnrul Descartes, din anul 1606 pn
n anul 1611, s fi exersat lectio, repetitiones, sabbatinae
disputationes i la sfritul lunii menstruae disputationes.27
n aceste exerciii i citea pe Erasmus, Melanchton i
Sturm i texte din colecia Frai ai vieii comune, dei cel
mai cunoscut era iezuitul spaniol Francisco Surez (care
era n via n momentul n care Descartes a studiat filosofia i care va muri n anul 1617, cnd Descartes abandona colegiul).
Descartes a nceput pregtirea sa filosofic propriu-zis cu
Logica (aproximativ n 1610, dup studiile sale clasice de latin). A studiat-o n versiunea consacrat, folosit n toate colegiile europene ale
iezuiilor, o versiune cu numeroase ediii n vechiul continent, din Italia i
Spania pn n Olanda, Germania sau Frana acelui moment. Este vorba
de Logica mexicana sive Commentarii in universam Aristotelis Logicam, publicat la Kln n anul 1606, an n care Descartes intra n colegiul La Flche,
a filosofului mexican Antonio Rubio (15481615).28 Cine ar fi bnuit c
tocmai Cartezianul a studiat partea dur a filosofiei, Logica, Dialectica,
dintr-o lucrare a unui filosof mexican! Acest detaliu constituie un detaliu
al argumentului nostru. n anul 1612, Descartes a nceput studiile de matematic i astronomie, o parte a curriculei, dup cum am menionat. De
metafizic (Disputationes Metaphysicae a lui Surez e prima lucrare pe care
a citit-o Descartes, conform propriei sale mrturisiri) i etic s-a ocupat
n anii 1613 i 1614. Cum vom vedea n continuare, aceast lucrare a
lui Surez (anticipat de sugestiile din Coimbra ale lui Pedro de Fonseca)
nu mai este deja un comentariu la Metafizica lui Aristotel, ci este vorba
de primul text sistematic pe aceast tem, care anticipeaz toate ontologiile secolelor XVII i XVIII, cum ar fi cele ale lui Baumgarten, Leibniz sau
Wolff, i la care acetia au recurs n mod explicit.
n toate etapele argumentului cartezian se pot observa influene ale
studiilor sale printre iezuii. De la meditaia radical a contiinei asupra
ei nsei n ego cogito pn la salvarea lumii empirice prin recursul la
Infinit (tem tratat sub acest titlu n Disputatio 28 a operei meniona-

te a lui Surez), la demonstraia existenei divinitii n stilul lui Anselm

(problem tratat n Disputatio 29), pentru ca, pornind de la aceast lume
empiric, s reconstruiasc o lume real cunoscut din punct de vedere matematic. Metoda (pentru care matematica era un exemplu) era
una dintre temele care se discutau cu pasiune n slile colegiilor iezuite. Acetia, cum este evident, proveneau din Europa de Sud, din Spania secolului XVI, din lumea mediteranean ndreptat recent spre
Atlantic. Aadar, nu prezint oare niciun interes din punct de vedere filosofic secolul XVI? Nu este oare Descartes rezultatul unei generaii anterioare care a pregtit acest drum? Nu exist oare filosofi ibero-americani
moderni, anteriori lui Descartes, care au deschis problematica filosofiei
moderne?
c. Descartes i augustinianismul lui ego cogito. Noua paradigm modern
Problematica lui ego cogito29 are antecedente occidentale i mediteraneene, chiar dac acest lucru nu terge nimic din noutatea sa. Referinele
la Augustin de Hipona nu pot fi ascunse, dei Descartes pretindea uneori c nu s-a inspirat din marele retor roman din
nordul Africii. Nu a admis nici influenele din Francisco
Snchez sau din ali gnditori. n vremea sa, Augustin oferea argumente mpotriva scepticismului lumii academice;
Descartes mpotriva scepticismului libertinilor. Pentru
aceasta a apelat la indubitabila existen a lui ego cogito.
Subiectul revine mereu la contiina de sine (sau autocontiina), problematic filosofic ce fcea trimitere, de asemenea, la un text clasic din Aristotel, din Etica nicomahic
(IX, 9, 1170 a. 2934), cel din care se inspir Augustin:
cel care vede simte (aisthnetai)30 c vede, cel care aude
[simte] c aude, cel care merge [simte] c merge, i la fel,
n fiecare form de activitate, exist n noi ceva care simte (aisthanmenon)
c desfurm o activitate, care simte deci, dac simim (aisthanmeth)
c simim (aisthanmetha) i dac gndim (noomen) c gndim, [iar] a simi
c simim sau a simi c gndim nseamn a simi c existm, cci a exista (enai) este a simi sau a gndi.31
Este vorba de fenomenul autocontiinei, care trebuie definit, conform
lui Antonio Damasio, ca un sentiment (feeling) legat neurologic de centrii vorbirii.32 n mod analog, din punctul su de vedere, Augustin scrisese n De Trinitate (X, 10, n. 14): Vivere se tamen, et meminisse et
intelligere et velle et cogitare et scire et iudicare quis dubitet? Quando
quidem etiam si dubitat, vivit i Nulla in his veris academicorum argumenta formido dicentium: quid, si falleris? Si enim fallor, sum (De Trinitate, XV, 12, n. 21).33
Din aceast cauz, Mersenne, dup ce a citit Discursul lui Descartes,
i-a avertizat prietenul de asemnarea textului su cu cel al lui Augustin
din De civitate Dei, cartea XI, capitolul 26. Descartes i rspunde c Augustin a folosit textul cu un alt sens dect uzul pe care i l-am dat eu (Gilson,
1951: 191).34 Arnauld va avea aceeai reacie, referindu-se la textul De
Trinitate menionat deja. Ulterior, Descartes, n rspunsul su la criticile aduse Meditaiilor, sugereaz nc un text-surs.35 Prin urmare, se poate
afirma c Descartes cu siguran citise i se inspirase din Augustin, ceea
ce nu anuleaz noutatea i profunzimea argumentelor sale, care nu
doar c vor respinge scepticismele, ci vor fonda subiectivitatea n ea nsi.

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Aceast intenie este cu totul absent la Augustin, care o fonda n

Dumnezeu. La autorul din Cartagena nu apare niciodat o subiectivitate solipsist. Aceast nou fundamentare, intuit n experiena ontologic din anul 1619, lng Rin, trebuie nscris ns n tradiia augustinian:
Metoda lui Augustin este similar cu cea a lui Descartes. [...] Deoarece [Descartes], ntr-un mod matematic, decide s porneasc de la
gndire, [i] deja nu va mai putea, ntr-un mod metafizic, s porneasc
de la o alt gndire care s nu fie a sa. Dat fiind c a decis s mearg de
la gndire la obiect, nu va mai putea defini gndirea sa ntr-un alt mod
dect prin coninutul pe care gndirea l ofer intuiiei care l aprehendeaz [...] O metafizic a distinciei dintre corp i suflet gsea n Augustin un sprijin puternic [... la fel ca i] n dovada existenei lui Dumnezeu
[... pe care] Sfntul Anselm considerase necesar s o modifice i s o simplifice [... fiind] unica ieire care i se oferea lui Descartes.36
Descartes considera n acel moment matematicile, adic al treilea nivel
de abstracie la Francisco Surez37, ca fiind prototipul folosirii raiunii. Descoperea astfel o nou paradigm filosofic, una cunoscut n filosofia an terioar, dar care nu fusese folosit ntr-un sens ontologic reductiv.
Metafizica ego-ului individual modern, paradigma contiinei solipsiste (ar
spune Karl-Otto Apel), i ncepea lunga sa istorie.
d. Ratio mathematica, raionalismul epistemic i subiectivitatea ca funda ment al dominaiei politice a corpurilor coloniale, de culoare, feminine
Din punct de vedere antropologic (adic etic i politic), Descartes s-a
confruntat cu o aporie pe care nu o va putea soluiona niciodat. Pe de
o parte, avea nevoie ca acel ego din ego cogito s fie un suflet independent de orice materialitate, de orice extensiune. Pentru Descartes, sufletul era un res, dar un lucru spiritual, nemuritor, substan separat de
corp: [...] Am neles c eul era o substan (substance) a crei ntreag
esen sau natur consta doar n a gndi, i c, prin aceasta, nu avea nevoie de niciun loc i nu depindea de niciun lucru material. Astfel c acest
mine (moi) care e sufletul meu (me), datorit cruia snt ceea ce snt,
era cu totul distinct de corp, i era mai uor de cunoscut dect acesta.38
Dup publicarea n anul 1637 a Discursului i apoi a Meditaiilor, Arnauld
nelegea c Descartes ncerca prea mult39, dat fiind c, afirmnd pe
deplin substanialitatea independent a sufletului (res cogitans), i era
imposibil s o uneasc apoi unui corp la fel de substanial (res extensa).
Regius, ntr-un mod mai clar, arta c singura soluie era o unitate accidental (per accidens) a sufletului i corpului.
n acest caz, Descartes trebuia s afirme substanialitatea sufletului pentru a prezenta, n faa scepticilor, toate garaniile suficiente despre posibilitatea unei mathesis universale, a unei certitudini fr ndoial. Dar,
pentru a putea integra problema senzaiilor, imaginaiei i pasiunilor, el
trebuia s defineasc modul n care corpul (o main aproape perfect,
care const doar n cantitate) ar putea s fie prezent n suflet. Pe lng
aceasta, dup ce se asigurase de existena lui Dumnezeu (prin demon straia anselmian a priori), trebuia acum ca sufletul s poat accede la
o lume exterioar, fizic, real. Corpul era medierea necesar.
Astfel a czut ntr-un cerc vicios: pentru a se deschide unei lumi exterioare era nevoie de presupoziia unei uniuni dintre corp i suflet; dar
uniunea corpului i sufletului se baza pe ipoteza unei lumi exterioare fa
de care ne deschidem prin simuri, imaginaie i prin pasiunile care au

166

fost puse sub semnul ntrebrii de cogito. Gilson menioneaz c, din

momentul n care Descartes se decide s uneasc sufletul i corpul, i
va fi dificil s le disting. Dat fiind c nu va putea s le gndeasc dect
ca dou, trebuie totui s le simt ca unu.40 Iar atunci cnd concepe corpul ca o main fr calitate (doar cantitativ: obiect al matematicii, al
mecanicii), lui Descartes i se complic ipoteza, din cauza a dou obiecii.
Prima este: cum poate comunica o main fizic cu o substan imaterial? Ipoteza spiritelor animale (transportate de snge), care s-ar uni
n glanda pineal cu corpul, nu era convingtoare. A doua obiecie este
urmtoarea: cum pot pasiunile s mite sau s rein actul cognitiv al sufletului? Orict de mult ar ncerca, Descartes nu poate arta niciodat c
pasiunile, legate de corp, se conecteaz cu sufletul i cu actul su cognitiv prin micare. Pe lng aceasta, doarece corpul este doar o main
cantitativ, iar pasiunile vor avea nevoie de un organism calitativ, ele rmn
ntr-o zon de ambiguitate total.
Aceast main pur nu-i va da seama nici de culoarea pielii sale, nici
de ras (evident, Descartes gndete doar din interiorul rasei albe) i n
mod clar nici de sex (la fel, gndete doar din perspectiva sexului masculin). Acesta este corpul unui european (nu schieaz i nici nu se refer
la un corp colonial sau al unui amerindian, al unui sclav african sau al unui
asiatic). Indeterminarea cantitativ a ntregii caliti va fi, de asemenea,
nceputul tuturor abstraciilor iluzorii ale punctului zero41 al subiectivitii filosofice moderne i al constituirii corpului ca marf cuantificabil
cu un pre (cum se ntmpl n sistemul sclavagist i n sistemul de salarizare, n capitalism).
2. Criza fostei paradigme i primii filosofi moderni.
Ego conquiro: Gins de Seplveda
Cu toate acestea, nainte de Descartes existase deja ntreg secolul XVI,
pe care filosofia modern central-european i nord-american a pretins c nu-l cunoate, pn n prezent. De fapt, modul cel mai direct de
fundamentare a practicilor de dominare colonial transoceanic colonialitatea ce se nate odat cu Modernitatea, fiind prin aceasta o noutate n istoria mondial const n demonstrarea faptului c o cultur
dominant i ofer beneficiile civilizaiei unei culturi mai napoiate (inabilitate pe care Seplveda o va numi n latin tarditate, rmnere n urm,
iar Kant unmndigkeit, imaturitate42).
Acest argument, care se gsete la baza ntregii filosofii moderne (din secolul XVI pn n secolul XXI), e prezentat pentru prima dat n mod strlucit i cu ecouri ulterioare de Gins de Seplveda (m. 1573, elev al
filosofului renascentist P. Pomponazzi, 14621524), n dezbaterea din
Valladolid din anul 1550, care a fost promovat de Carol al V-lea
(15001558) dup maniera califilor islamici, pentru a-i liniti contiin a. Era vorba de o dezbatere atlantic (nu mai era o disput mediteranean ntre cretini i saraceni), unde miza era nelegera statutului
ontologic al indienilor, nite barbari diferii de cei din Grecia, China
sau lumea musulman. Montaigne43, cu un profund sim critic, i-a definit drept canibali (sau caribes44), adic cei pe care putem s-i numim barbari n comparaie cu regulile noastre raionale.45 Seplveda scrie:
Se va considera mereu c este just i conform normelor de drept
natural ca aceste neamuri [barbare] s se supun imperiului principatelor i naiunilor mai culte i umane, pentru ca prin virtuile

acestora i prin prudena legilor acestora s renune la barbarie i

s treac la o via mai uman i la cultul virtuii.46
E o recitire din Aristotel, filosoful grec al sclaviei din Mediterana oriental, situat acum la orizontul Oceanului Atlantic. Adic, o recitire cu semnificaie mondial:
i dac ei resping imperiul, acesta se poate impune prin intermediul
armelor i un asemenea rzboi va fi unul just, conform dreptului natural [...] n concluzie: este just, convenient i conform legii naturale
ca brbaii cinstii, inteligeni, virtuoi i umani s i domine pe toi
cei care nu au aceste caliti.47
Acest argument tautologic, care pornete de la superioritatea propriei culturi pentru simplul fapt c este cultura proprie, se va impune n toat Modernitatea. Se declar lipsit de umanitate coninutul altor culturi pentru
simplul fapt c snt diferite de cultura proprie, ca Aristotel, care declara n
Politica, c asiaticii i europenii snt barbari pentru c umani erau doar
locuitorii oraelor [elene]. Cel mai grav element din acest argument filosofic este c legitimeaz rzboiul just mpotriva indigenilor,
ntruct acetia mpiedic cucerirea, care n viziunea lui
Gins era violena necesar ce trebuia s fie exercitat
pentru ca barbarul s se civilizeze. Dac acesta ar fi civilizat, nu ar mai fi nevoie de rzboiul just:
Cnd pgnii snt doar pgni [...] nu exist o cauz just
pentru a-i pedepsi, nici pentru a-i ataca cu armele: nct,
dac n Lumea Nou ar exista popoare culte, civilizate i umane care s nu adore idolii, ci pe adevratul Dumnezeu [...] rzboiul ar fi ilicit.48
Cauza rzboiului just nu este faptul c ei snt pgni, ci faptul c nu snt civilizai. Astfel, culturile imperiului aztec, culturile maya sau inca nu constituiau pentru Seplveda o
mostr a unui nalt grad de civilizaie. Iar, pe de alt parte, ideea de a
gsi un alt popor care s l adore pe Dumnezeul adevrat (european,
cretin) era n sine o condiie absurd. De aceea a fost justificat n mod
tautologic rzboiul de cucerire a popoarelor napoiate, printr-un
argument care include mereu sofismul dezvoltrii:
Dar uite ct de mult se nal ei i ct de mult m difereniez eu de
aceast opinie, vznd contrarul n aceste instituii [aztece sau incase],
o dovad a barbariei brutale i a servituii nnscute a acestor
oameni [...] Au [n mod cert] o modalitate instituional de republic, dar nimeni nu posed vreun drept bun propriu49, nicio cas,
niciun teren de care s dispun i pe care s-l lase prin testament
motenitorilor si [...] snt supui voinei i capriciului [stpnilor], i
nu libertii [...]. Toate acestea [...] snt un semn clar al sufletului de
sclav supus al acestor barbari.50
Seplveda concluzioneaz n mod cinic, artnd c europenii i educ
pe indigeni n virtute, umanitate i adevrata religie, [care] snt mai valoroase dect aurul i argintul51 pe care europenii le extrgeau cu brutalitate din minele americane.
Odat ce era dovedit justiia expansiunii europene ca oper de civilizare, de emancipare din barbaria n care erau scufundai indigenii, toate celelalte elemente se justific: cucerirea prin folosirea armelor;
expolierea rezervelor menionate de aur i argint; declararea amerindienilor ca umani n abstract, ns nu i a culturilor lor; o organizare

politic prin care puterea rezid n instituii coloniale; impunerea unei

religii strine n mod dogmatic etc.
nainte de Seplveda, profesorul John Major (14691550), un scoian
la Paris, afirmase n lucrarea Comentario a las Sentencias, din 1510, referindu-se la amerindieni: acel popor triete ca o bestie (bestialiter) [...]
i prin urmare primul care i va cuceri va domni n mod just asupra lor,
pentru c prin natura lor snt sclavi (quia natura sunt servi).
n cele din urm, ntregul argument se fundamenta din punct de vedere politic n dreptul pe care l avea regele Spaniei pentru exersarea respectivei dominaii coloniale. n cartea I, titlul 1, legea 1 din Recopilacin
de las Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias (Legile Indiilor, 1681) se poate citi:
Dumnezeu, stpnul nostru, prin infinita sa mizericordie i buntate, a
binevoit a ne da, fr meritul nostru, o parte att de mare n Regatul acestei lumi [...] Aceast concesiune, oferit prin bula Inter caetera din anul
1493 semnat de pap, funciona ca justificare politic (sau religioas),
dar nu i filosofic. De aceea, argumentul lui Seplveda era necesar i
complementar.
Exist un ultim argument pe care doresc s-l menionez, i
acesta este urmtorul: A doua cauz este dezvluirea
imaturitilor ticloase [...] i salvarea de la grave injurii a
multor inoceni muritori, pe care aceti barbari i jertfeau
n fiecare an.52 Rzboiul era justificat prin salvarea victimelor umane oferite divinitilor, ca n Mexic. Vom vedea surprinztorul rspuns al lui Bartolom de Las Casas.
3. Prima filosofie metafizic modern timpurie:
Francisco Surez
Invazia modern a Americii i expansiunea Europei n
partea occidental a Atlanticului au produs o criz n
vechea paradigm filosofic, dar fr a formula nc o nou paradigm
n totalitate aa cum va ncerca Ren Descartes, pornind de la postulate dezvoltate n secolul XVI. Trebuie s menionm c producia filosofic a secolului XVI n Spania i Portugalia era legat de evenimentele
atlantice i deschiderea Europei spre lume. Peninsula Iberic era teritoriul european care tria efervescena neateptatelor descoperiri. n
Spania ajungeau n permanen informaii din provinciile de peste oceane, din America Latin i Filipine; iar n Portugalia, din Brazilia, Africa i
Asia. Profesorii universitari de filosofie din Salamanca, Valladolid, Coimbra sau Braga (care funcionau ca un singur sistem universitar din anul
1581, prin unirea Portugaliei i Spaniei) aveau studeni care veneau din
aceste teritorii sau se ndreptau spre ele, iar subiectele legate de aceste lumi le erau familiare i tulburtoare. Nicio universitate european
de la nord de Pirinei nu avea o asemenea experien mondial. Aa-numita a doua scolastic nu a fost doar o simpl repetiie a unor idei afirmate deja n Evul Mediu latin. Irupia n universiti a unui ordin religios
absolut modern, iezuiii nu doar fiindc era influenat de Modernitate, ci mai ales pentru c era una dintre cauzele intrinsece ale acesteia53
, va impulsiona primii pai ai unei filosofii moderne n Europa.
O istorie a filosofiei latinoamericane trebuie s se intereseze de gndirea filosofic a noului ordin modern al iezuiilor, fondat n anul 1539, ajuns
n Brazilia n 1549 i n Peru n 1566, cnd cucerirea (la conquista) i organizarea instituional colonial a Americii Latine se instalaser definitiv.

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Iezuiii nu mai puneau, deja, sub semnul ntrebrii ordinea stabilit. Din
contr, s-au ocupat de cele dou rase pure ale continentului: creolii
(descendeni ai spaniolilor nscui n America) i popoarele originare de
amerindieni. Rasele, cum a demonstrat Anbal Quijano, erau modalitatea curent de clasificare social n Modernitatea timpurie. Metisul i africanul nu aveau aceeai demnitate. De aceea, n colegiile i domeniile
iezuite existau sclavi africani care lucrau pentru a se obine profituri ce
puteau fi apoi investite n misiunile din America Latin.
n ceea ce privete Peninsula Iberic, a avut loc o dezvoltare simultan
a filosofiei, dat fiind c, n realitate, America colonial iberic i Spania
i Portugalia metropolitane formau o lume filosofic a influenelor continue i reciproce. S ne apropiem de civa maetri ai filosofiei din prima
Modernitate timpurie, care vor deschide drumul celei de-a doua Moderniti timpurii (cea din Amsterdam, a lui Descartes i Spinoza, acesta din urm evreu spaniol sau sefard, inclusiv prin pregtirea filosofic).
Nu putem s nu l menionm pe Pedro de Fonseca (15281597), creator n Portugalia al scolasticii baroce (15501660).54 Din 1548 pn
n 1551 a studiat n Coimbra, unde a nceput s predea din anul 1552.
Comentariile la Metafizica lui Aristotel (1577)55 constituie lucrarea sa cea
mai cunoscut. Scrierile sale au fost publicate n mai multe ediii (comentariul su la Metafizica a ajuns la 36 de ediii) la Lyon, Coimbra, Lisabo na, Kln, Veneia, Mainz i Strasbourg. Chiar dac nu a fost doar rezultatul
interveniei personale a lui Fonseca, el e cel care a format echipa de iezuii
(ntre ei Marcos Jorge, Cipriano Soares, Pedro Gomes, Manuel de Gis
i alii) care i-a propus s modifice n totalitate modul de expunere a
filosofiei, printr-o variant mai pedagogic, profund i modern, una
care ncorpora descoperirile recente, critica metodele vechi i inova toate
domeniile. Editarea acestui curs a nceput n 1592. Au rezultat opt volume publicate pn n 1606, cu titlul de Commentarii Collegii Conimbricensis, text necesar pentru elevii i profesorii de filosofie din toat Europa
(Descartes i Leibniz, de exemplu, au ludat consistena acestui curs).
Descartes propune, n faimoasa sa lucrare, o meditaie referitoare la metod. Aceasta era tema preferat a filosofilor din Coimbra din secolul XVI56,
care se inspirau din problematica deschis, printre alii, de Rodolphus
Agricola (14421485), care l va influena pe Petrus Ramus n tratatele despre Dialectic, adic domeniul n care se studia metoda. Luis Vives
(14921540) va fi, de asemenea, un alt gnditor influent n problema
metodei. nsui Fonseca, n cunoscuta sa lucrare Instituii dialectice
(1564)57, identific metoda ca fiind arta de a raiona despre orice nt rebare probabil. Dup noi precizri, Fonseca spune c ordinea
metodic are trei obiective: soluionarea problemelor, revelarea a ceea
ce este necunoscut i clarificarea a ceea ce este confuz58, dnd ca exemplu metoda matematic, ceea ce-l va duce la un esenialism topicometafizic sui-generis, care ntr-un anumit mod anticipeaz metoda
cartezian.
n ceea ce-l privete, Francisco Surez (15481617), din acelai ordin
religios i cu acelai impuls al renovrii, e cel care a desvrit opera predecesorilor si. Din anul 1570, a fost profesor n Salamanca, Coimbra
i Roma. Ale sale Disputationes Metaphysicae (1597) pot fi considerate prima ontologie modern. El a lsat deoparte modul de expunere
al Comentariilor lui Aristotel i pentru prima dat a prezentat o carte sistematic, ce va marca toate ontologiile ulterioare (putem vorbi de Baum-

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garten, Wolff i prin ei de Kant i Leibniz; dar n plus va influena ontologiile lui Schopenhauer, Heidegger i Zubiri). Surez a avut un spirit independent exemplar, s-a folosit de maetrii filosofiei, dar niciodat nu a
depins de niciunul dintre ei. Dup Aristotel i Toma de Aquino, Duns
Scotus a fost cel care l-a inspirat cel mai mult. Opera sa are o ordine
sistematic. n primele 21 de Dispute se ocup de ontologia general.
De la numrul 28 intr n chestiunea Fiinei Infinite i a fiinei finite.
Disputationes Metaphysicae59 au avut 19 ediii din 1597 pn n 1751,
opt dintre ele n Germania, unde au nlocuit timp de un secol i jumtate manualele lui Melanchton.
Datorit posibilei sale influene asupra lui Ren Descartes i originalitii
sale, ar trebui menionat Francisco Snchez (15511623), gnditor
portughez care a scris lucrarea inovatoare Quod nihil scitur (C nimic nu
e tiut), aprut n Lyon n 1581, reeditat la Frankfurt n 1628 din care
Descartes a preluat, probabil, anumite idei n opera sa fundamental.
Snchez i propunea s ajung prin ndoial la o certitudine fundamental. tiina fundamental este cea care poate dovedi c nihil scimus (nu
tim nimic): Quod magis cogito, magis dubito (cu ct gndesc mai mult,
mai mult m ndoiesc). Dezvoltarea ulterioar a unei asemenea tiine
trebuia s fie, n primul rnd, Methodus sciende (metoda cunoaterii);
ulterior, Examen rerum (observarea lucrurilor) i, n al treilea rnd, De
essentia rerum (esena lucrurilor). De aceea, dei scientia est rei perfecta cognitio (tiina este cunoaterea perfect a lucrurilor), n realitate ea nu e desvrit niciodat.
n acelai mod, Gmez Pereira, evreu sefard convertit, medic i filosof
cunoscut care s-a nscut n Medina del Campo i a studiat n Salamanca, a scris o lucrare tiinific autobiografic (ca Discursul asupra metodei), cu straniul titlu: Antoniana Margarita, opus nempe physicis, medicis
ac theologis... n aceasta se poate citi, dup ce autorul pune la ndoial
toate certitudinile, precum nominalitii: Nosco me aliquid noscere, et
quidquid noscit est, ergo ego sum (tiu c tiu ceva, i dac e posibil
s fiu capabil de a ti ceva, atunci eu exist).60
n ambiana filosofic a secolului XVI, un anumit scepticism fa de
cele vechi a deschis porile pentru noua paradigm filosofic a Modernitii din secolul XVII. Influena acestor autori din Sud n Europa Central i n rile de Jos a fost determinant la nceputul secolului XVII.
Ei snt cei care au rupt structura vechii paradigme (arabo-latine a Evului Mediu).
4. Primul discurs antifilosofic al modernitflii timpurii.
Critica Europei, imperiul-lume:
Bartolom de Las Casas (15141566)
Dei preced gnditorilor menionai, am lsat la urm poziia filosofic
a lui Bartolom de Las Casas (14841566), pentru a arta cu o mai mare
claritate diferena sa fa de celelalte poziii. Bartolom este primul critic frontal al Modernitii, la dou decenii dup naterea acesteia. Originalitatea sa nu rezid ns n opere de Logic sau Metafizic, ci n Etic,
Politic i Istorie.
Totul ncepe ntr-o duminic de noiembrie 1511, cnd Antn de Montesinos i Pedro de Crdoba au lansat n oraul Santo Domingo prima
critic mpotriva colonialismului inaugurat de Modernitate. Pornind de
la texte semite (din Isaia i din Evanghelia dup Ioan 1, 23), ei au excla-

mat: Ego vox clamantis in deserto [] Eu snt o voce [ ] n deertul

acestei insule [] toi v aflai ntr-un pcat mortal, i n el trii i
murii, din cauza cruzimii i tiraniei pe care o aplicai asupra acestor victime inocente (Las Casas, 1957-II: 176).61 Este un ego clamo de acuzare, care critic noua ordine stabilit; un eu critic fa de un ego conquiro
originar al Modernitii:
Nu snt persoane [amerindienii]? Nu au suflete raionale? Nu sntei obligai s-i iubii ca pe voi niv? [] Cum de v aflai ntr-un
somn att de profund i de letargic? (Las Casas, 1957-II: 176)
Toat Modernitatea, timp de cinci secole, va rmne n aceast stare de
letargie a contiinei etice i politice, ca i cum aceasta ar fi adormit,
fr sensibilitate62 fa de durerea lumii periferice din Sud.
n strns legtur cu aceast intervenie critic din Santo Domingo, trei
ani mai trziu, n 1514, de data asta n Cuba, n satul Sancti Spiritus, la trei
ani dup ce Luther i afiase tezele n Erfurt i dup ce Machiavelli publicase Principele, Bartolom de Las Casas nelegea cu claritate sensul
acestei critici. Cnd Europa nu se trezise nc din ocul pe
care i-l produsese descoperirea (pentru ea) unei ntregi
Lumi Noi, Bartolom iniia deja critica sa asupra efectelor
negative ale acestui proces civilizator modern.
ntr-un stil strict filosofic, argumentativ, Bartolom: a)
contest pretenia de superioritate a culturii occidentale,
din care se deduce barbaria culturilor indigene; b) printr-o poziie filosofic cu totul creativ, stabilete diferena
clar dintre (b1) faptul de a-i oferi Celuilalt (amerindianului) pretenia de universalism a adevrului su i (b2) fr
a nceta s afirme, n mod onest, posibilitatea validitii universale a propunerii sale n favoarea Evangheliei; i, n cele
din urm, c) demonstreaz falsitatea ultimului argument
posibil de fundamentare a violenei cuceririi, la conquista: salvarea victimelor de sacrificii umane, datorit faptului c ar fi mpotriva dreptului
natural i ar fi nedrepte, indiferent din ce punct de vedere s-ar analiza. Totul este argumentat n opere voluminoase scrise n mijlocul unor
permanente lupte politice, din perspectiva unui praxis curajos. Eecurile nu vor anula voina sa de a sluji locuitorilor din Lumea Nou, recent descoperii i tratai nedrept: Cellaltul unei Moderniti care abia se
nfiripa.
Viaa lui Las Casas se poate mpri n diverse etape care permit descoperirea evoluiei sale teoretice i filosofice, din momentul n care a ajuns
n Caraibe, pn n ziua rupturii cu stilul de via n complicitate cu cuceritorii (15021514). De la tnr soldat al lui Velzquez n Cuba, la preot
catolic (numit n Roma n anul 1510) i preot responsabil de Sancti Spiritus, pn n aprilie 1514, cnd citete textul lui Ben Sira (34, 2022),
ntr-o celebrare liturgic solicitat de guvernatorul Velsquez, text care
afirm: A oferi spre sacrificare ceea ce s-a furat de la sraci nseamn
a sacrifica fiul n prezena tatlui. Viaa sracului se reduce la pinea lui,
iar cine i ia pinea nfptuiete un asasinat. A-i sustrage alimentul
nseamn s-l omori pe srac, s-l privezi de salariul datorat este vrsare de snge.63 Iar n textul su autobiografic Bartolom scrie:
A nceput s considere mizeria i nrobirea pe care le sufereau acele
popoare [amerindienii]. [...] Aplicnd [textul semitic] la cellalt [realitatea din Caraibe] a demonstrat, convins de adevr, c este

nedrept i tiranic tot ceea ce se svrea cu amerindienii din aceste Indii. (Las Casas, 1957-III: 356)
Acest filosof al modernitii timpurii aduga:
Ca o confirmare a tuturor celor care i se preau favorabile n lecturile mele i a celor pe care obinuia s le spun i s le afirme, din
primul moment n care a nceput s resping ntunericul ignoranei,
nu a mai citit nicio carte n latin sau un raionament sau o prere
ntemeiat care dovedea i corobora justiia acestor amerindieni, pentru a condamna nedreptile pe care le-au suferit, rutile i prejudiciile. (Las Casas, 1957-III: 357)
Din 1514 pn n 1523 va cltori n Spania, se va ntlni cu Cisneros
(administrator al regatului), cu regele, va pregti ntemeierea unei comuniti pacifice de rani spanioli care trebuiau s mpart viaa cu amerindienii n Cuman (primul proiect de colonizare pacific). Planul se va
lovi de eec i Las Casas se va retrage n Santo Domingo.64 Noua etap
(15231539) va fi alctuit din lungi ani de studiu, nceperea n anul 1527
a Istoriei Indiilor, carte care trebuie citit din perspectiva unei
noi filosofii a istoriei, i a monumentalei Istorii apologetice
a Indiilor, unde descrie dezvoltarea exemplar i viaa
etic a civilizaiilor amerindiene, mpotriva criticilor referitoare la barbaria acestora:
S-a scris c nu erau popoare cu raiune pentru a se guverna singure, fr politici umane i republici ordonate [...] Pentru a demonstra neadevrul acestor lucruri, se reproduc
i se copiaz n aceast carte [numeroase exemple]. n ceea
ce privete politica, spun eu, nu doar c s-au dovedit a fi
popoare foarte prudente i cu o nelegere vie i remarcabil a republicilor lor [...] guvernate cu pruden, dotate, i n care justiia prospera [....] (Las Casas, 1957-III: 34)
n alt loc, Bartolom scrie:
Toate aceste universuri i popoare infinite, de orice gen, Dumnezeu le-a creat ca fiind cele mai simple, fr rutate, fr duplicitate,
foarte supuse i fidele stpnilor lor naturali, fr ranchiun, fr agitaia care e n lume. (Las Casas, 1957-V: 136)
Astfel dovedete c n multe cazuri ei erau superiori europenilor, mai
ales din punct de vedere etic, respectnd n mod strict propriile lor valori.
De aceea, ei nu pot suporta i izbucnesc cu furie imens brutalitatea violent cu care modernii europeni au distrus aceste popoare
infinite:
Cei care au trecut pe acolo i care se numesc cretini [dar nu snt
prin faptele lor] n general au extirpat i au ters de pe faa pmntului acele naiuni demne de compasiune n dou feluri. Mai nti prin
rzboaiele nedrepte, crude i sngeroase. Apoi, dup ce au murit
toi cei care puteau tnji, suspina, gndi n libertate65, toi cei care puteau
scpa de chinurile suferite, precum toi stpnii naturali i brbaii (pentru c de obicei rzboaiele nu las cu via dect tinerii i femeile),
au fost supui oprimrii prin cea mai dur, oribil i aspr servitute, pe care nu au mai suferit-o nici oamenii, nici bestiile. (Las Casas,
1957-V: 137)
n 1537 un secol nainte de Discursul despre metod al lui Descartes66
Las Casas a scris n latin De unico modo (Singura cale de a atrage toate
neamurile spre adevrata religie), cu care a iniiat predicarea pacific ntre

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verso

popoarele indigene care vor primi numele de Vera Paz n Guatemala.

Ceea ce atrage atenia cel mai mult din fragmentul de carte care a ajuns
pn la noi (doar capitolele de la cinci la apte)67 snt fora teoretic a scriitorului, entuziasmul pentru tem, enorma bibliografie care era disponibil n oraul La Ciudad de Guatemala din acel moment. Este o lucrare
intelectual impresionant. Cu precizie logic, cu o cunoatere incredibil a textelor semite, a tradiiei greceti i latine a Prinilor Bisericii i a
filosofiei latine medievale, cu un sens imperturbabil al distinciilor, Las
Casas epuizeaz argumentele cu o cantitate abundent de citate, pe care
i un scriitor prolix de azi le-ar invidia.
Bartolom avea 53 de ani, o populaie de cuceritori mpotriva sa i o
lume indigen maya pe care nu o cunotea n mod concret, dar pe care
o respecta ca fiind egal. E un manifest de filosofie intercultural, de pacifism politic, o critic cert i anticipat a tuturor rzboaielor juste
(cum ar fi cel justificat de John Locke) ale Modernitii (de la cucerirea
Americii Latine, care se prelungete dup cucerirea puritan a Noii Anglii,
a Africii i Asiei, la rzboaiele coloniale i pn la rzboiul din Golful Persic, din Afganistan sau din Irak n zilele noastre). Ar fi util ca guvernatorii europeni i nord-americani s reciteasc aceast lucrare semnificativ,
scris tocmai n momentul originii critice a gndirii moderne.
Argumentul central este formulat astfel, din punct de vedere filosofic:
nelegerea cunoate prin voin atunci cnd ceea ce cunoate nu
i manifest imediat adevrul, fiind necesar o argumentare anterioar pentru a putea accepta c n cazul respectiv este vorba de
un lucru adevrat [...] se trece astfel de la un lucru cunoscut la unul
necunoscut prin discursul raiunii. (Las Casas, 1942: 81)
A accepta ca adevr ceea ce afirm Cellalt echivaleaz cu un act practic, un act de ncredere n Cellaltul care pretinde c spune adevrul, iar
acest lucru se produce n virtutea faptului c intelectul este fundamentul actului uman care conine rdcina libertii [...]. De fapt, ntreaga
raiune a libertii depinde de modul de a fi al cunoaterii, pentru c intelectul nelege n msura n care voina vrea (Las Casas, 1942: 82). Anticipnd cu secole etica discursului, Las Casas recomanda studierea
naturii i a principiilor retoricii (Las Casas, 1942: 94). Adic, unicul mod
de a atrage membrii unei culturi strine ctre o doctrin necunoscut
pentru ei este aplicarea artei convingerii (ntr-un mod persuasiv, prin
intermediul raionamentului n ceea ce privete intelectul, i care s fie
n acelai timp uor atractiv pentru voin) (Las Casas, 1942: 303 304).
A atrage libera voin a asculttorului pentru ca acesta, fr s fie constrns, s poat accepta justificrile raionale. Este evident c nfricoarea,
pedepsirea, folosirea armelor i rzboiul snt mijloacele cele mai nepotrivite pentru posibila acceptare a unei asemenea argumentri.
Bartolom era convins c impunerea unei teorii asupra Celuilalt prin
folosirea violenei, prin arme, era doar expansiunea unui Acelai v zut ca acelai. Era includerea dialectic a Celuilalt ntr-o lume stranie
n care aprea ca un instrument, ca alienat.68
Micarea violent de extindere a Modernitii
Legenda schemei: I. Lumea indigen. II. Lumea european modern.
A. Orizont ontologic european. B. Orizont al includerii Celuilalt n
proiectul Imperiului-lume colonial modern. 1. Act violent al extinderii moderne (cucerirea, la conquista, care poziioneaz lumea indi-

170

gen ca un tot, un objectum dominatum).69 2. Act de dominare a

modernului asupra lumii periferice.
Dimpotriv, Las Casas i propune un dublu act de ncredere: a) n Cellalt
ca cellalt (deoarece dac nu se accept demnitatea egal a Celuilalt i,
dimpotriv, acesta este interpelat, interogat, nu exist posibilitatea unui
acord etic raional) i b) n posibilitatea acceptrii de ctre Cellalt a propunerii unei noi doctrine, ceea ce necesit i din partea Celuilalt un act de
credin. Pentru aceasta este necesar ca cellalt s fie liber, s accepte
prin voina sa argumentele care i se propun.
Actul de ncredere n cuvntul Celuilalt, ca act de responsabilitate fa de
Cellalt
Legenda schemei: Iniial: I. Lumea cretin (Las Casas). II. Lumea indigen. A. Orizont ontologic al cretinului. B. Alteritatea Celuilalt. 1.
Interpelarea Celuilalt pentru justiie (a indigenului). 2. ncrederea lui
Bartolom n cuvntul acestuia (revelarea culturii sale diferite). n al
doilea rnd, dac se inverseaz acum situaia, I ar fi lumea indigen
i 1 interpelarea argumentat de Bartolom de Las Casas. Aceast
interpelare trebuia s fie urmat de o argumentare ale crei justifi cri, printr-o amabil moiune a voinei70, ar permite Celuilalt (indigenului, sgeata 2) acceptarea propunerilor fcute de cei care nu
foloseau armele pentru propagarea cretinismului (Bartolom de
Las Casas).
Dup ce a practicat n Vera Paz metoda pacific de ndoctrinare a populaiei maya, Las Casas merge n Spania, unde, dup multe eforturi,
reuete promulgarea Noilor legi din anul 1542, care vor suprima treptat instituia proprietii coloniale, encomienda, din toate teritoriile Americii Latine. n aceast perioad i apar multe lucrri argumentative n
aprarea amerindienilor, Cellaltul Modernitii. Este numit episcop n
Chiapas, dar va trebui s renune ulterior din cauza violenei cuceritorilor (care se exersa nu doar mpotriva populaiei maya, ci n egal msur
i mpotriva episcopului).
ncepnd din 1547 se va instala n Spania, dei va mai traversa de mai
multe ori Oceanul. Acum va redacta cea mai mare parte a lucrrilor sale
de maturitate. n 1550 polemizeaz cu Gins de Seplveda n Valladolid:
aceasta este prima dezbatere public, n mod esenial filosofic, a Modernitii. Eterna ntrebare adresat Modernitii va fi: ce drept are Europa de a domina colonial Indiile? Odat rezolvat aceast problem (pe
care Las Casas o respinge convingtor din punct de vedere filosofic, dar
a crei refutare va eua n praxisul colonial modern al monarhiilor absolutiste i al sistemului capitalist ca sistem-lume), Modernitatea nu-i va
mai pune niciodat ntrebri existeniale sau filosofice referitoare la
acest drept de a domina periferia, pn n prezent. Dimpotriv, acest drept
de dominare se va impune ca un fapt natural i va constitui baza ntregii filosofii moderne. Filosofia modern ulterioar, dup secolul XVI, se
va dezvolta avnd ca premis evident i n acelai timp ocultat lipsa necesitii raionale (deoarece este imposibil i iraional) de funda mentare etic i politic a expansiunii europene. Acesta nu mpiedic
impunerea respectivei dominaii ca un fapt incontestabil, construind un
sistem mondial bazat pe continua exploatare a periferiei. Prima filosofie modern a Modernitii timpurii avea nc o contiin tulburat de
injustiia comis i a respins legitimitatea acesteia.

De aceea dorim s revenim la dou argumente raionale care dovedesc injustiia expansiunii coloniale a Modernitii. Respingnd ideea c
falsitatea idolilor poate fi o cauz a rzboiului de exterminare, Las Casas
argumenteaz astfel:
Dat fiind c ei [amerindienii] susin c [...], adornd idolii lor, l ador
pe Dumnezeul cel adevrat [...] i n ciuda ipotezei c ei au o contiin greit, pn cnd adevratul Dumnezeu nu le va fi predicat cu
argumente mai bune, mai credibile i mai convingtoare, mai ales cu
exemplele comportamentului cretin, ei snt obligai, fr nicio ndoial, s apere cultul divinitilor i religiei lor i s ias cu forele lor
armate mpotriva tuturor celor care ncearc s le interzic cultul lor
[...]; astfel snt obligai s lupte mpotriva acestora, s-i omoare, s-i captureze i s exercite toate drepturile care snt corolarul unui rzboi just,
conform dreptului popoarelor. (Las Casas, 1989: 168)
Acest text evideniaz mai multe niveluri filosofice care trebuie analizate. Faptul esenial este c admite valoarea de adevr universal a viziunii amerindiene (deoarece, din perspectiva lor, ei l ador
pe adevratul Dumnezeu). Asta nu nseamn c Las
Casas nsui nu justific, din punctul su de vedere, tot un
adevr universal (dat fiind c Las Casas afirm c au o
contiin greit). Las Casas accept revendicarea amerindienilor, deoarece acetia nu au primit argumente
credibile i convingtoare. i cum nu le-au primit, au tot
dreptul de a afirma convingerile lor, de a le apra, inclusiv prin posibilitatea unui rzboi just.71 Cu alte cuvinte, el
inverseaz dovada lui Seplveda. Nu barbaria sau falii
lor idoli justific iniierea unui rzboi just mpotriva lor, ci,
dimpotriv, pentru faptul c au diviniti adevrate (att
timp ct nu se dovedete contrarul), ei snt cei care au motive pentru a iniia un rzboi just mpotriva europenilor invadatori. Argumentul ajunge la paroxism atunci cnd se confrunt cu obiecia cea mai
dificil pentru un cretin, cea propus de Gins de Seplveda, care justific rzboiul spaniolilor pentru a salva viaa victimelor inocente ale sacrificiile umane pentru divinitile aztece. Las Casas aduce urmtorul
argument:
Oamenii, prin dreptul lor natural, snt obligai a-l onora pe Dumnezeu cu mijloacele cele mai bune pe care le au la ndemn i a-i
oferi drept sacrificiu cele mai bune lucruri [...] ns rmne ca legea
uman i legislaia pozitiv s determine ce anume lucruri trebuie
s-i fie oferite lui Dumnezeu, acest fapt fiind decizia ntregii comuniti [...]. nsi natura le dicteaz i le arat [...] c n lipsa unei legi
pozitive care s stabileasc contrarul, ei au datoria de a sacrifica in clusiv victime umane unui Dumnezeu care, adevrat sau fals, e considerat ca adevrat, astfel nct, oferindu-i cel mai preios lucru, ei
i mulumesc pentru toate beneficiile primite. (Las Casas, 1989:
155160)
Din nou se poate observa c el recunoate Celuilalt posibilitatea revendicrii adevrului (fals, considerat [de ei, att timp ct nu se va dovedi
contrarul] drept adevrat). Astfel, Bartolom ajunge la ceea ce am putea
numi gradul maxim de contiin critic posibil pentru un european
n Indii. Aceasta nu este contiina critic a amerindianului oprimat nsui,
dar argumentul este att de original, nct Las Casas mrturisete ulte-

rior c am avut i am dovedit multe argumente pe care, nainte de mine,

nimeni niciodat nu a ndrznit s le ating sau s le scrie, i unul dintre
ele a fost s nu m mpotrivesc nici legii, nici raiunii naturale [...] de a
oferi spre sacrificare oameni unui Dumnezeu, fals sau adevrat (avndu-l pe cel fals drept adevrat) (Las Casas, 1957-V: 471). Prin aceasta, el trage concluzia c justificarea cuceririi prin salvarea de viei a
victimelor umane, pretins de Seplveda, nu dovedete ceea ce-i propune, ci doar arat c indigenii, dat fiind c ei consider respectivele sacrificii ca fiind lucrul cel mai demn de oferit, conform credinelor lor (care
nu au fost respinse cu argumente convingtoare), dac snt oprii prin
for de la realizarea acestora au dreptul de a porni un rzboi, un rzboi
just mpotriva spaniolilor.
n plus, n Filosofia politic, cu un secol nainte de Hobbes sau Spinoza,
Las Casas definete poziia sa n favoarea dreptului poporului (n acest
caz, poporul amerindian) mpotriva instituiilor n vigoare, inclusiv regele, atunci cnd nu se ndeplinesc condiiile de legitimitate i nu se respect libertatea membrilor republicii. Pentru responsabilii
guvernamentali din Peru care doreau s plteasc un tribut regelui pentru a lua n stpnire (practic) pentru totdeauna serviciile amerindienilor, Bartolom a scris De regia
potestate, care trebuie citit mpreun cu De thesauris i
Tratatul celor dousprezece ntrebri. n prima dintre respectivele lucrri ne spune:
Niciun rege sau guvernator, orict de suprem ar fi, nu poate
comanda sau guverna ceva ntr-o republic mpotriva
poporului (populi) sau supuilor, fr s fi avut consensul (consensu) legal al acestora. Altfel, aciunile sale nu ar fi valabile (valet) conform normelor de drept [...] Nimeni nu
poate [...] s produc n mod legitim (legitime) un prejudiciu mpotriva libertii popoarelor sale (libertati populorum suorum);
dac cineva decide mpotriva binelui comun al poporului, fr a lua
n seam consensul poporului (consensu populi), respectivele decizii snt nule. Libertatea (libertas) este cea mai valoroas i respectat trstur pe care o poate avea un popor liber. (Las Casas, 1969:
4749)
Acest punct de vedere atenta mpotriva preteniei regelui de a exercita o putere absolut. Las Casas este convins c epicentrul puterii este
poporul, supuii, i nu doar ntre regatele care semnau pactul cu regele sau regina Castiliei. De aceea, legitimitatea deciziilor politice se baza
pe acceptul prealabil al poporului.
Ne aflm n primul secol al Modernitii timpurii, nainte de a se consolida ca evident i universal mitul Modernitii europene ca o civilizaie,
care i exercit puterea cu drept universal asupra coloniilor i globului
(acel ius gentium europeum al lui Carl Schmitt), mit fetiizat n mod definitiv n Filosofia dreptului de Hegel.72 Bartolom de Las Casas explic:
Toi infidelii, din orice sect sau religie ar fi ei [...] n ceea ce privete
dreptul natural sau divin i ceea ce numesc dreptul popoarelor, snt
stpni pe lucrurile lor [...] De asemenea, n acelai mod posed legitim principatele, regatele, statele, demnitile, jurisdiciile i domeniile lor. Administratorul sau guvernatorul nu poate fi altul dect cel
care a fost ales de la nceput de societate i comunitate. (Las Casas,
1957-V: 492)

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Fa de pontiful roman sau de regii spanioli, care sub obligaia de

predicare a Evangheliei i confereau un drept asupra lucrurilor (iure
in re) (Las Casas, 1954: 101) adic asupra amerindienilor , Las Casas
observ, din nou, c respectivul drept se exercita doar in potentia, avnd
nevoie de intermedierea unui acord cu indigenii (ca drept la bunuri,
ius ad rem), pentru a opera in actu. Cum nu a existat un asemenea
consimmnt, cucerirea nu este legitim. Prin urmare, el trage urmtoarea concluzie ndreptit:
Prin aceasta Regele, stpnul nostru, este obligat, sub acuzaia de a
nu i mai salva sufletul, de a restitui acele regate regelui Tito [astfel era numit un inca nc n via], succesor sau motenitor al lui
Gayna Cpac i al celorlali inca, ducnd la ndeplinire aceast fapt
prin toate forele i puterea sa. (Las Casas, 1954: 218)
Aceasta e lucrarea cea mai bine argumentat de la nceputul Modernitii, prima filosofie modern, care respinge n mod minuios dovezile
enunate n favoarea justificrii expansiunii coloniale a Europei moderne. Aa cum am ncercat s dovedim, este vorba de primul antidiscurs
al Modernitii (un antidiscurs care este n acelai timp filosofic i modern), care iniiaz o tradiie ce a avut mereu reprezentani n istoria filosofiei latinoamericane din urmtoarele cinci secole.
Antidiscursul filosofic critic al lui Las Casas va fi folosit de rebelii din rile de Jos pentru a se elibera de Spania la nceputul secolului XVII; va fi
recitit din nou n cadrul revoluiei nord-americane; n momentul independenei coloniilor latinoamericane n 1810 i n alte momente de transformare profund a continentului. Dei nvins din punct de vedere politic,
filosofia sa va iradia pn n prezent.
5. Critica modernitflii din perspectiva exterioritflii
radicale. Antidiscursul critic al lui Felipe Guamn
Poma de Ayala
Cu toate acestea, maximul contiinei posibile la nivel universal este contiina critic a indigenului nsui, care sufer dominaia colonial
modern, al crui corp sufer direct traumatismul provocat de ego conquiro modern.
n acest sens, nimic nu e mai bun dect istoria emoionant, antidiscursul propriu-zis al Modernitii al lui Guamn Poma de Ayala. Victima nsi
este cea care profereaz critica. S ncercm s urmrim argumentele pe care le-a prezentat Guamn Poma mpotriva primei Moderniti
timpurii.
Au existat trei momente n care comunitile indigene au avut de suferit, tot mai accentuat, n procesul dominaiei coloniale moderne. n primul rnd, indigenii au suferit ororile cuceririi, la conquista, iar comunitile
indigene care au reuit s supravieuiasc au fost ncadrate n sistemul
de encomienda i n minele mita73 instituii care au fost criticate cu duritate de Bartolom de Las Casas. n al doilea moment, ncepnd cu ceea
ce s-a numit Junta Magna pe care Filip al II-lea o convoac pentru a
unifica politicile coloniale, i care e reprezentat de Francisco de Toledo, viceregele din Peru, utopiile mesianice franciscane i ale lupttorilor n favoarea comunitilor indigene primesc n 1569 ocul frontal al
unui nou proiect colonizator: atunci se decide o nou strategie antilascasasian. Contraargumentul din interiorul raionalitii moderne a fost
orchestrat n timpul guvernrii acestui vicerege, un eurocentric decis,

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care a recomandat (se pare) vrului su Garca de Toledo s scrie Pa recer de Yucay.74 n aceasta se ncearc demonstrarea faptului c incaii
erau nedrepi i tiranici i, prin urmare, europenii ar fi justificai n realizarea cuceririi, conquistei i a distribuirii amerindienilor, pentru a-i emancipa de o asemenea opresiune.
Poziia lui Juan Gins de Seplveda fusese modificat, dar, n orice caz,
la nivelul faptelor se va impune ca argument hegemonic. De la reciprocitatea economic i comunitar a marilor culturi indigene s-a trecut la
despotism; a avut loc un mcel demografic (n anumite regiuni a supravieuit doar a treia parte din populaie), indigenii i-au abandonat comunitile i au rtcit prin viceregat (acetia snt yanas, de unde provine
numele de yanaconas), printre altele pentru a nu plti tributul cerut pe
atunci n monede de argint.75
n al treilea moment, sub regimurile haciendei, marile proprieti agricole, organizarea exploatrii miniere prin mita, plata tributurilor n argint i reducerile (de diverse tipuri), popoarele indigene vor fi supuse
definitiv structurii de dominaie a societii coloniale. Vom situa critica
lui Guamn n acest al treilea moment.
Ne vom opri asupra unei istorii dramatice, un protest critic mpotriva
colonialismului modern ce tocmai se ntea, o ultim ncercare de a salva
ceea ce se putea din vechea ordine care domnise n Imperiul Inca: impresionanta lucrare a lui Felipe Guamn Poma de Ayala, El primer nueva
cornica y buen gobierno [Cea dinti cronic nou i buna guvernare].
Scris pe baza experienelor adunate probabil ntre anii 1583 i 1612,
dar redactat definitiv pn n anul 161676, lucrarea este o mrturie a
interpelrii critice a Modernitii fcut de Cellalt, o perspectiv unic
n genul su, dat fiind c permite descoperirea hermeneuticii autentice a unui amerindian dintr-o familie inca, ntr-o lucrare scris i elaborat cu o profund capacitate semiotic, de o perfeciune inimitabil.
Guamn Poma, nc mai mult dect incasul Garcilaso de la Vega, datorit faptului c este indigen care stpnete limba quechua i tradiiile po porului su dominat, arat aspecte netiute ale vieii cotidiene a
comunitii indigene de dinaintea cuceririi (la conquista) i sub dominaia
modern i colonial.77 De fapt, Guamn Poma produce o sintez
interpretativ, o naraiune critic ce conine o etic i o politic din perspectiva unei localizri a viziunii sale, pe care o situeaz ca perspectiv central att n timp, ct i n spaiu, ntr-un mod absolut creativ. De
la nceput afirm:
Considerm c amerindienii din timpurile inca au avut idoli ca pgnii, au adorat soarele ca tat Inca i luna ca mam i stelele ca fraii
lor. [...] n ciuda acestor credine, au respectat poruncile i bunele
fapte de milostivire ale lui Dumnezeu n acest regat, adic ceea ce
nu fac acum cretinii. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 854)78
Prin urmare, se va adopta perspectiva cretin-modern, care va fi criticat ca parte a unei strategii retorice, pentru a transforma propunerile sale n unele mai acceptabile. Pornind din aceast perspectiv se
schieaz trecutul, unul idolatru, e adevrat, dar n care indigenii respectau exigene etice similare poruncilor cretine. Unica diferen consta n faptul c amerindienii duceau la capt respectivele exigene, spre
deosebire de cuceritorii europeni moderni. Guamn va demonstra cu
argumente contradicia n care triete Modernitatea. Se critic n acest
caz praxisul dominaiei cretinilor spanioli, pornind de la propriul lor text

sacru: Biblia. E o argumentare perfect, care demonstreaz contradicia

performativ a Modernitii n totalitatea sa.
Prin urmare, este evident c Guamn distinge ntre credina pe care am
putea-o numi teoretic (sau cosmoviziune) i practica sau etica propriu-zis. n vremea incailor, acetia au crezut n idoli, n cosmoviziunea lor (din perspectiva dogmaticii cretine), dar au respectat poruncile
n comportamentul lor etic, ceea ce nu respect acum cretinii europeni. Adic indigenii au fost de fapt, nc nainte de cucerire, cretini
mai buni prin practicile lor dect cretinii spanioli de acum. ntreaga Cronic este o disput mpotriva Modernitii pe care au adus-o drept contribuie spaniolii cuceritori, n numele aceluiai cretinism pe care l
predicau.79 Ca i creolii, amerindianul Felipe Guamn e deja cretin, opinnd ns c nu spaniolii au adus cretinismul.80 Aceast tez i permite
o nelegere hibrid a timpului i spaiului propriei sale naraiuni sincretice. El unific ntr-o ampl naraiune (care nu este doar fragmentar
precum cele postmoderne) viziunea incas i cea cretin din perspectiva existenei oprimate a amerindienilor, sracii lui
Iisus. Demonstreaz astfel c are o viziune proprie
(amerindian, un punct de vedere care pornete de la
sraci i oprimai, periferici, coloniali) asupra cretinismului nsui:
Adevrat spun c Dumnezeu s-a fcut om, Dumnezeu cel adevrat i srac, altfel, mreia i lumina pe
care o aduce nu ar avea pe cine s bucure, dat fiind
c soarele pe care l-a creat nu s-ar vedea81 [...] i aa
a poruncit s fie adus srcia, pentru ca sracii i
pctoii s se bucure i s-i vorbeasc. i aa a poruncit apostolilor i sfinilor s fie sraci i smerii i miloi
[...] Spun asta cu certitudine, bazndu-m pe srcia
mea, socotindu-m srac ntre attea animale care mnnc sracii,
care m mnnc i pe mine ca i pe ei. (Guamn Poma, 1980-II:
845846)
ntregul discurs al interpelrii este construit din punct de vedere normativ din perspectiva dialecticii care se stabilete ntre a) srcie, umilin
i fericitul echilibru al satisfacerii necesitilor primarea tuturor n cadrul
comunitii inca din trecut, mpotriva b) bogiei, mndriei i dorinei infinite i nesatisfcute de aur i argint, adic idolul Modernitii care se
ntea. E o critic mplinit a Modernitii din perspectiva lumii anterioare Modernitii; din perspectiva utopiei ecologice a unei justiii etice i
comunitare n care exista o bun guvernare i nu existau violena, furtul, mizeria, urenia, violul, lipsa de msur, brutalitatea, suferina, laitatea, minciuna, arogana, moartea.
Lucrarea se mparte n trei pri. n prima parte se nfieaz cu multe
nouti informative i n limba quechua ordinea politic i cultural anterioar cuceririi. Este utopia ex quo. n a doua parte se descriu atrocitile
dominaiei moderne coloniale asupra culturii inca, ce fusese comparabil, n splendoarea sa, cu imperiile roman, chinez sau altele considerate exemplare de ctre europenii moderni. n a treia parte, care
mereu ncepe cu: a se lua n considerare (a se medita, a se analiza,
a se lua n considerare din punct de vedere etic), Guamn realizeaz
o dezbatere direct cu regele Filip al III-lea al Spaniei, pentru a-i explica posibile soluii pentru dezastrul dezordinii coloniale amerindiene. Tex-

tul lui Guamn a fost scris la un secol dup clasica lucrare Principele a
lui Machiavelli, scris n 1517 pentru un condottiero italian ns are o
semnificaie mondial, nu doar italian, provincial; i cu patruzeci de
ani nainte de Ming-i tai-fang lu (Ateptarea rsritului) de Huang Tsunghsi (16101695), o lucrare politic chinez din 1663, care ofer recomandri unui tnr principe Manch.
n prima parte, Guamn Poma prezint o integrare sui-generis a tradiiilor istorice cronologice moderne i inca, dar sub prisma logicii dominante a celor cinci vrste clasice ale lumii aztece, maya sau inca. Se
pornete de la Vechiul i Noul Testament iudeo-cretin i de la o viziune istoric european, dar se ader n mod neateptat la cronologia istoric a incailor. Vrsta nti (ca primul soare al aztecilor i mayailor) este
Adam i Eva (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 16); vrsta a doua este a lui Noe;
vrsta a treia a lui Abraham; A patra vrst a lumii ncepe de la regele David (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 23); A cincea vrst a lumii, care
este, n cosmoviziunea indigen, ordinea actual, se iniiaz cu naterea lui Iisus Hristos (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 25).
Urmeaz istoria prinilor Sfntul Petru, Damasius, Ioan
i Sfntul Leo I.
n acest moment al naraiunii, care pn acum era n exclusivitate european, istoria e ntrerupt cu o imagine exemplar: Lumea pontifical/ Indiile din Peru deasupra Spaniei/
Cuzco/ Castilia dedesubtul Indiilor (Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 35). n imaginarul spaial al lui Guamn Poma, sus
se afla Peru, cu munii la orizont i soarele pe cer (Inti).
Cuzco era n centru, cu cele patru suyos (regiunile conform celor patru puncte cardinale). Jos se afla Castilia,
n centru, de asemenea cu patru regiuni. Logica spaial
inca organizeaz lumea modern european.
Apoi apar Almagro i Pizarro cu corbiile lor. Venind dinspre Europa,
ei poziioneaz istoria n Peru (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 39). Abia dup
ce e localizat istoria deja n Peru, prin acest act al irupiei Modernitii,
n mod paradoxal, fr nicio descriere inca despre originea cosmosului (ceea ce trdeaz o anumit influen modern n indigenul cretinat), n istoria din America Latin e redat pentru prima dat naraiunea
celor cinci vrste sau generaii ale miturilor amerindiene (Guamn
Poma, 1980-I: 41sqq.). Astfel se exprim un discurs foarte complex, care
indic modul particular al lui Guamn Poma de structurare hibrid a cosmoviziunii sale. De fapt, naraiunea cuprinde diferite niveluri de adncime, bipolariti proprii, structuri de semnificaie foarte bogate.
n primul rnd, totul ncepe din nou cu cele cinci generaii indigene (ncepnd cu cele patru generaii de la Uari Vira Cocha Runa pn la Auca
Runa).82 Deoarece Imperiul Inca e a cincea (Guamn Poma, 1980I: 63 sqq.), se descriu cei doisprezece inca, ncepnd cu Cpac Ynga. Cu
toate acestea, e interesant de observat c, n guvernarea celui de-al doilea inca, Cinche Roca Ynga, se articuleaz cele dou naraiuni (cea
modern i cea inca, echivalndu-i astfel pe inca cu mpraii romani).
Guamn situeaz n acel moment naterea lui Iisus Hristos n Betleem (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 70).83
Ulterior, la puin timp dup aceasta, apostolul San Bartolom i-ar fi fcut
simit prezena n Peru, instalnd crucea din Carabuco n provincia
Collao, ceea ce ar fi dovedit astfel tradiia predicrii cretinismului n epoca

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apostolilor (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 72).84 Acest mod de a unifica cronologiile (cea a culturii occidentale moderne cu cea a incailor) dovedete existena unui tip specific de naraiune istoric, cea a sensului
istoriei, iar aceste exemple ne arat cum snt posibile comparaiile kronotopos-ul centru-periferie, n care periferia este sus, i nu jos, i unde
Sudul este punctul de localizare al discursului, locul enunrii, locus enuntiationis.85
Dup aceasta, Guamn Poma descrie faptele n baza unui principiu dual
(conform tuturor cosmoviziunilor din America, din Alaska pn n ara
de Foc), dat fiind c, dup ce i-a descris pe incai, acum este rndul celor
dousprezece regine i doamne coyas, soiile inca (Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 99); al celor cincisprezece cpitani ai imperiului (Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 122); al celor patru prime regine doamne din cele patru pri
ale imperiului (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 154).86 Se poate observa c att
coyas incase, ct i reginele celor patru regiuni demonstreaz pre zena clar a femeii n cadrul cosmoviziunii andine: lng brbat (Soarele) se afl mereu femeia (Luna).
Odat ce a ncheiat lunga list a principalilor, Guamn descrie un
ansamblu inedit de ordonane, mandate sau legi promulgate de incai
(Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 159167).87 E ca un Cod al lui Hammurabi
peruan, dar mult mai complet dect cel mesopotamian, cel puin datorit tematicii sale variate. Autoritile imperiului comand i dirijeaz
din Cuzco diversele regiuni, provincii, localiti, comuniti, structuri de
guvernare, de vistierie, de administrare, structuri militare, de construcie de apeducte, drumuri, temple, palate i case; legile privesc preoii
principali i secundari; auxiliari; dar i zilele de srbtoare, ritualurile, cultele, tradiiile, sacralitile (huacas)88; ntregul mod de organizare a muncii agricultorilor, colectorilor, tributurilor, mprirea pmntului; codurile
etice pentru familie, cstorie, educaie, judecat i procese, aducerea
de mrturii elemente care dovedesc complexitatea politic a civilizaiei
incase.
Apoi, Guamn Poma descrie obligaiile brbailor n funcie de vrst (pe
care o numete calles, drumuri) (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 169).89 D
explicaii referitoare la bolnavi i la cei infirmi care nu pot munci (numii
uncoc runa):
Pe orb l cstoreau cu alt orb, pe chiop cu alt chiop, pe cel mut
cu un alt mut, pe cel pitic cu alt pitic, pe cel ghebos cu alt ghebos,
pe cel cu nasul crpat cu altul cu nasul crpat [...]. Iar toi acetia aveau
pmnturi, case, moteniri i ajutor din serviciul lor i astfel nu era
nevoie nici de spital90, nici de poman, datorit acestei guvernri sacre
i poruncilor acestui regat, cum nu a existat n niciun regat, att al
cretinilor, ct i al infidelilor, i nici nu va putea exista, orict de
cretini [ar fi]. (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 177)91
ntr-adevr, atunci cnd se ntea un copil n Imperiul Inca i se atribuia
o parcel de pmnt, i dac el nu putea s o lucreze, o lucra altcineva
n locul su, pentru alimentarea i susinerea sa. Cnd deceda, acest
teren era redistribuit. Prin dreptul naterii, copilul nu primea niciun certificat, niciun document, ci medierea necesar pentru reproducerea vie ii sale pn la moarte. Acest tip de instituii snt cele la care se refer
Guamn ca lipsind n sistemul civilizator modern.
De asemenea, se descriu n acelai mod vrstele (calles, drumurile)
femeilor (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 190 sqq.). Activitile sau muncile din

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fiecare lun snt, de asemenea, explicate.92 Se indic divinitile (idolii), riturile, sacrificiile (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 219 sqq.)93, ceremonii le de vrjitori, posturile, penitenele, nmormntrile; se refer la
clugriele coyas (fecioarele vestale ale Soarelui, Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 272).
Urmeaz un Capitol referitor la justiie (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 275
sqq.), care conine pedepsele aplicate de incai celor care nu ndeplineau ordinele date. Existau peteri (zancay) unde animale veninoase l mncau de viu pe inamic (auca), trdtor (yscay songo), ho (suua),
adulter (uachoc), vrjitor (hanpioc), brfitor mpotriva inca (ynca cipcicac), etc. Existau nchisori pentru crime mai minore, se puneau n
aplicare biciuiri, lapidri, spnzurtoarea, atrnarea vinovailor de pr pn
la moartea lor etc.
De asemenea, existau importante srbtori (Guamn Poma, 1980-I:
288 sqq.), religioase i profane, cntece de dragoste (haray haraui)
(Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 288 sqq.)94, cu melodii frumoase i dansuri
populare din toate regiunile imperiului. Guamn mai descrie i marile
palate din diferite orae (mereu cu desene foarte valoroase), marile depozite de bunuri, statuile, catafalcurile incailor, tipurile de cadouri. Spre
final descrie unele funcii politice (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 312 sqq.): viceregele (Yncap rantin), primarul de la curte, responsabilul cu ordinea n
teritorii, naltul magistrat (tocricoc), administratorul (suyucoc), curierul
(chasqui), responsabilii de separarea teritoriilor (sayua cchecta suyoyoc) care confirmau terenurile fiecrei persoane, att ale regelui Inca,
ct i ale comunitii. Pe lng aceasta, el descrie drumurile regale95, podurile suspendate etc. i termin cu secretarii inca, casierul i trezorierul
(cu al su quipoc: text scris n noduri de corzi, prin care efectuau msurtorile, memorau numerele, tributurile, datoriile etc. Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 332333), inspectorul i consiliul regal.
Prima parte a acestei mrturii se ncheie cu o ntrebare:
Cititorule cretin, vezi aici ntreaga lege cretin.96 Nu am gsit c
amerindienii snt att de preocupai de aur, nici de argint, nici nu am
gsit lume care s datoreze o sut de pesos, nici mincinoi, nici
triori, nici lenei, nici prostituate, nici prostituai [...] Spunei c trebuie s restituii; nu vd c le restituii nici n via, nici n moarte.
Cretinule, mie mi se pare c voi toi v condamnai la iad97 [...]
n via, sntei mpotriva indienilor sraci ai lui Iisus Hristos [...] Ca
i spaniolii care au avut idoli, aa cum a scris printele Luis de
Granada [...], indienii, ca barbarii i pgnii, au plns dup idolii lor,
atunci cnd acetia au fost distrui n perioada cuceririi. i voi avei
idoli n latifundiile voastre i bani din toat lumea. (Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 339)
E o critic acid la adresa noului fetiism al capitalismului modern, care
va sacrifica umanitatea Sudului i natura n faa noii diviniti: creterea
ratei profitului (capitalul). Guamn observ acest fapt i-l descrie n
mod explicit.
n a doua parte a operei sale, ncepe s explice contradicia dintre cretinismul predicat i praxisul pervers al Modernitii timpurii. Este cea mai
necrutoare, ironic i brutal descriere a violenei din prima expansiune a culturii occidentale moderne. Istoria ncepe cu ntrebarea pe care
incasul Guaina Capac i-o pune lui Canda, primul spaniol care ajunge
n Peru: i-l ntreb pe spaniol ce mnca; rspunde n limba spaniolului

i prin semne c se servea de aur i argint. i aa au dat mult praf de

aur i argint i vase de aur (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 342).
Dup aceasta, totul s-a redus la cutarea aurului i argintului: Toi spuneau: indienii, indienele, aurul, argintul, aurul, argintul din Peru. Pn
i muzicienii cntau melodia Indienii, aur i argint (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 342): i din cauza aurului i argintului, o parte a acestui regat al popoarelor de amerindieni sraci rmnea fr locuitori98 (Guamn Poma,
1980-II: 342). Aa au fost primii oameni; nu le era fric de moarte, erau
interesai de aur i argint. Dar i cei de acum, magistraii spanioli,
preoii, administratorii; din cauza lcomiei dup aur i argint se duc n
iad (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 347). Despre cum amerindienii s-au pierdut fr divinitile lor, fr aucas i regii lor, fr marii lor stpni i cpitani. n aceste timpuri ale cuceririi, conquista, nu exista nici un Dumnezeu
al cretinilor, nici rege al Spaniei, nici justiia nu exista (Guamn Poma,
1980-II: 361).
Acumularea originar a capitalului Modernitii ncepuse distructiva sa
expansiune ca sistem-lume prdtor. Dup haosul i violena iniial ncepe buna guvernare numit astfel cu
ironie a viceregelui Mendoza, despre care afirm:
[...] Proti i incapabili i fricoi erau sracii spanioli, arogani ca Lucifer. Din Luzbel s-a nscut Lucifer, marele diavol. Aa sntei voi, i m tem c vrei s v
spnzurai singuri i s v tiai capul i s v desfacei
n buci99, s v spnzurai ca Iuda i s v aruncai singuri n iad. Vrei s fii mai mult dect poruncete
Dumnezeu. Dac nu sntei rege, de ce vrei s fii
rege? Dac nu sntei prin, nici duce, nici conte, nici
marchiz, nici cavaler, de ce vrei s fii toate astea? Dac
sntei mturtor, cizmar, croitor sau evreu sau maur,
nu luai pmntul, ci pltii ceea ce datorai. (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 405)
Guamn descoper procesul care trece de la ego conquiro, subiectivitatea n expansiune, autocentrat, care nu respect legile i depete
toate limitele prin arogana sa, pn la culmea lui ego cogito, fundat n
Dumnezeu nsui, ca proprie mediere pentru reconstruirea lumii sub
dominaia sa i n interesul su, pentru exploatarea teritoriului i a populaiei din Sud.
Iar Guamn va descrie una dup alta funciile publice i modul n care
acestea oprim, fur, pedepsesc, violeaz pe brbaii i femeile indigene,
motiv pentru care vor pierde pmntul i ntreg regatul va rmne gol
i depopulat, iar regele va rmne foarte srac (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 413). Dup primele perioade ale preedinilor i auditorilor de tribunale, cei mai cretini100 nu s-au mai pronunat niciodat n favoarea amerindienilor sraci. Toi i oprim i mai mult pe indigeni i
favorizeaz vecinii bogai i pe cei de la mine (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 453). Guamn este scandalizat mai ales de modul n care autoritile,
inclusiv spaniolii i sclavii, folosesc soiile amerindienilor, dat fiind c fur
din gospodriile lor i se culc cu femeile cstorite, iar pe fecioare
le dezvirgineaz. i aa devin ele pierdute i devin prostituate i nasc
muli copii metii101 i nu se nmulesc amerindienii (Guamn Poma,
1980-II: 468).102 Spaniolii, n special cretinul (sic) responsabil de amerindienii acestui regat (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 519), snt criticai pen-

tru faptele lor, care dau dovad de un sadism special, dat fiind c ei i
maltrateaz pe sracii lui Iisus Hristos din tot regatul (Guamn
Poma, 1980-II: 523).103 Guamn dezvluie astfel una dintre marile ne drepti ale ordinii coloniale, politic i economic, a Modernitii. Nici
biserica nu va rmne neatins de critica sa sigur, ironic i ascuit
(Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 533).104 Guamn colecioneaz i unele documente referitoare la tratate i sentine, pentru a oferi exemple ale
opresiunii nedrepte mpotriva amerindienilor (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 670687).
n ceea ce privete amerindienii care colaboreaz cu conchistadorii, numii
mici efi [mandoncillos], care se consider nobili fr a fi nobili, doar pentru simplul fapt c ei poruncesc n numele spaniolilor: existau incai
care erau stpnii de baz, care aveau sub ordinele lor o mie de amerindieni tributari (quranga curaca), sau cinci sute, exista comandantul
mare, care era responsabil de peste o sut de oameni, i micul stpn
[mandoncillo] pentru cincizeci de amerindieni, pentru zece sau cinci (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 688). n acelai timp, exist curacas,
care conduc minele i lucrrile din min. Unii erau exploatatori, hoi, beivi, mincinoi, prefcui, hoi la drumul
mare, care furau gospodria amerindienilor sraci (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 736).105 Ca ntotdeauna, lista continu
cu doamnele, reginele i coyas, soiile micilor efi, pe
care le numete doa (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 707). Pe
lng asta, amerindienii cretini desemnai de spanioli, colaboraionitii care distribuiau justiia (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 739) din cauza corupiei generalizate (care nu era
permis n timpurile incailor) i nu i ndeplineau mereu
funciile.
n cele din urm, Guamn se confrunt chiar cu indigenii, cei din poporul srac: Dac i-ar lsa preoii, sacerdoii doctrinelor i respectivii magistrai, administratori i spanioli, ei ar avea sfini
i mari nvai i cei mai cretini oameni. Totul este stricat de oficialii
amintii i de comportamentele lor (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 764).
Faptul c amerindienii snt nc buni i politici se datoreaz pstrrii
vechilor lor obiceiuri, n ciuda tuturor furturilor realizate de cuceritori.
Modernitatea, n acest caz, este cauz a corupiei i distrugerii. Acum
Guamn descrie credinele pornind de jos, de la indigeni (aa cum
mai nainte descrisese divinitile i huacas din epoca incailor): de la
Hristos crucificat, la Sfnta Treime, Fecioara Maria, sfinii, purgatoriul,
ofrandele, botezul, pomana. n ciuda attor adevruri, acum localitile
erau pline de sraci care cereau poman (nu existaser ceretori pe
vremea incailor): Vina pentru toate acestea este a recitatorilor sfintei biserici care nu sar n ajutorul sracilor, bolnavilor, infirmilor, chiopilor, ologilor, btrnilor i orbilor, orfanilor din orice neam (Guamn
Poma, 1980-II: 791).
Aceste rnduri relev mizeria extrem ntre indigeni, mizerie care era
imposibil s existe n timpul incailor. Situaia indigenului se nrutise
vizibil odat cu prezena Modernitii. Astfel au aprut creoli i creole amerindieni, indigeni nscui n aceast via a epocii cretinilor, care
snt coruptibili cu uurin pentru c au pierdut comunitatea lor i se transform n yanaconas (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 803), beivi i cocainomani. Dar i cel mai cretin, dei tie s scrie i s citeasc, purtnd

175

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mtnii i mbrcndu-se ca un spaniol, cu guler, ar prea un sfnt, dar

la beie vorbete cu demonii i venereaz sacralitile huacas (Guamn
Poma, 1980-II: 809). De aceea au rmas puini amerindienii filosofi,
astrologi care tiu orele, duminicile, zilele, lunile i anii pentru a semna
i a culege recoltele din fiecare an [...] (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 830).
Criticul nostru ncheie astfel descrierea strii lamentabile n care se afl
indigenii: autorul a mers n lumea srac cu poporul indigen srac pentru a vedea lumea, a ajunge acolo i a scrie aceast carte i cronic, n
slujba lui Dumnezeu i a Maiestii Sale i spre binele popoarelor indigene ale acestui regat (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 845).
n a treia parte, de la utopia trecutului106 i negativitatea nefastului prezent, Guamn imagineaz acum un viitor proiect de bun guvernare,
din perspectiva orizontului utopic al viitorului Ora al cerului pentru bu nii pctoi (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 880)107 i a Oraului infernului108
[... pentru] bogatul avar, nerecunosctor, plin de pofte, arogan, [ca]
pedeaps pentru pctoii arogani i bogai care nu se tem de Dumnezeu (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 882).109 Expunerea ocup prima
parte (Consideraii ale unui cretin al lumii privind existena lui Dumnezeu110). Se nelege c Modernitatea este trecut la infern.
Urmeaz capitolul ntrebrii111, unde argumenteaz cu o logic politic de o nalt densitate raional, adresndu-se unui cititor critic i
vorbind despre problemele cele mai grave descoperite n lumea colonial a Modernitii i expuse n opera sa Cronica. El pune n gura regelui Spaniei ntrebri care ar fi adresate autorului (Guamn), i care
ar merita s fie analizate special, dar din cauza dimensiunilor acestui articol nu le voi comenta.
La sfrit descrie cu tristee lumea [la care] se ntoarce autorul, punctul de pornire al sracului, poporul sracilor lui Iisus Hristos, dup ce
au trecut mai mult de treizeci de ani, timp n care acest srac a strbtut
ntregul Peru pentru a-l informa pe regele Spaniei i a-i propune o mbuntire a acelei dezordini. Aceste mbuntiri posibile se numesc
Consideraii. Ca ntreaga sa oper, aceste propuneri se ncadreaz n
perspectiva unui orizont al crui sens provine dintr-o profund nelepciune cosmologic, ce ncepe cu geneza: Dumnezeu a creat cerul
i lumea i tot ceea ce este n ea (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 852). Apoi,
mparte timpul n zece perioade, avnd drept ax central Peru nu
Modernitatea sau iudeo-cretinismul. Anume: cele patru vrste deja
cunoscute (de la Uari Vira Cocha pn la Auca Runa); a cincea este cea
a incailor; a asea este a lui Pachacuti Ruma (vrsta la care s-a ntors
totul cu picioarele n sus, n care totul s-a ntors pe dos: este vorba
de o revoluie cosmic prealabil cuceririi); a aptea este nsi vrsta
cuceririi cretine runa; a opta este cea a rzboaielor ntre cuceritori
n Peru; a noua este cea a justiiei cretine, starea de bunstare (a se
citi aceast expresie ntr-un mod ironic) a primei epoci coloniale; a zecea,
ordinea colonial impus.
Guamn ncepe cu o consideraie din perspectiva originii i a procesului universului (pacha): serviciul sracilor infirmi i peregrini, care
respect legea veche i legea lui Dumnezeu (Guamn Poma, 1980III: 852), cu al su corpachanqui (Trebuie s fii ospitalier!). Operele
de milostenie snt criteriul final al textului lui Guamn, compasiunea fa
de cel slab, bolnav, srac. n aceast exigen etic i politic coincid legea
veche din Peru i cele mai bune elemente ale cretinismului reinter-

176

pretat de autorul nostru. De fapt, Guamn avea o interpretare mesianic a cretinismului, o teologie a liberrii explicit anticipat:
Iisus Hristos a murit pentru binele tuturor oamenilor. A trecut prin
chinuri i a fost un martir [...]. n viaa aceasta a umblat srac, persecutat. Iar dup ziua judecii va veni [...] pentru a plti sracilor
dispreuii. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 876) Primul preot pe lume a
fost Dumnezeu i omul viu, Iisus Hristos, preot care a venit din cer
srac i l-a iubit mai mult pe srac dect pe bogat. Iisus Hristos a fost
Dumnezeul viu care a venit s caute suflete, nu bani n lume [...]
Sfntul Petru [...] a lsat totul sracilor [...] i toi [apostolii] au fost
sraci i nu au cerut un salariu, nici rent, nici nu cutau [s aib] gospodrii. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 899)
Pentru a rezuma:
Cine apr pe sracii lui Isus Hristos servete lui Dumnezeu. n evanghelia sa este cuvntul lui Dumnezeu i aprarea amerindienilor
Maiestii Sale servete coroanei regale. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 906)
Pe lng asta, Guamn recomanda ordonarea instituiilor cu un anumit
grad de unitate, dat fiind c anterior totul se nelegea deoarece se afla
sub puterea patern a unui singur inca, n timp ce n dezordinea Modernitii coloniale exist muli Yngas: magistratul Ynga, doisprezece lociitori Ynga, fratele sau fiul magistratului i femeia i scribul snt i ei Ynga
[...] (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 857). De asemenea, era necesar s se
in cont de faptul c, pentru amerindieni, situaia se nrutise din cauza
prezenei europenilor: S se considere c amerindienii au acum attea procese n aceast via. n timpul Yngas nu aveau niciunul (Guamn
Poma, 1980-III: 857).
Dar cel mai important argument politic pentru buna guvernare consta n restituirea puterii incailor:
Trebuie s luai n considerare faptul c ntreaga lume este a lui Dumnezeu i aa Castilia este a spaniolilor, Indiile snt ale amerindienilor i Guineea este a celor negri. C fiecare dintre ei este proprietar
legitim, nu doar prin lege [...] Iar indienii snt proprietarii naturali ai
acestui regat i spaniolii proprietari naturali ai Spaniei. Aici n acest
regat snt strini, mitimays. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 857858)
Pornind de la viziunea incas a spaialitii geopolitice mondiale, Guamn
ncearc s justifice proiectul su contnd n mod strategic pe sprijinul regelui Spaniei. Aa cum n trecut Imperiul Inca fusese centrul universului
(Pacha), buricul su (Cuzco), de unde se extindeau cele patru pri
ale lumii (n direcia celor patru puncte cardinale, ca n China sau ntre
azteci n altepetl112, alctuind o cruce cosmic); tot aa, extrapolnd
aceste structuri geopolitice imaginare ntr-o lume mai global, propunea
poziionarea n centru a regelui Filip al Spaniei, cu cele patru pri sau
regate (incaii, care preluau din nou puterea n toat America; cretinii
n jurul Romei, africanii n Guineea i turcii pn la marea Chin).113
Un monarh al lumii cu patru regate era o proiecie globalizat a Imperiului Inca, dar n acelai timp se propunea restituirea autonomiei incailor, aa cum propusese i Bartolom de Las Casas, chiar dac acetia
ar fi fost condui de mna n lume (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 889) a regelui Spaniei: Deoarece este Ynga i rege, niciun spaniol sau preot nu trebuie s intre, pentru c Ynga era proprietar i rege legitim (Guamn Poma,
1980-III: 858). Astfel apare n mod clar un proiect de eliberare politic n
viitor, ceea ce s-ar considera a doua emancipare: prima s-a produs parial

n anul 1810, iar a doua include emanciparea popoarelor indigene,

anunat de Evo Morales n Bolivia, un aymara, i nu quechua ca Guamn.
Iar dac nu este posibil acest proces de restituire, atunci e necesar
conceperea unor msuri la toate nivelurile structurii administrative, politice, ecleziastice, militare, sexuale, educative etc., pe care Guamn, cu
o rbdare infinit, le-a descris el nsui n aceste consideraii. Ca
exemplu, un ultim citat:
S se considere c magistratul intr spunnd: Eu i voi face dreptate, i fur. i preotul intr zicnd: Eu te voi cretina. Te voi boteza i cstori i ndoctrina, i fur i jecmnete i ia femeia i fiica.
Administratorul i ceilali spanioli spun: Justiie, s slujeasc regelui
pentru c snt vasalul lui. i fur i ascund tot ce au. Iar mai ri snt
stpnii de trib [amerindieni] pui i efii; i jecmnesc cu totul pe nefericiii i sracii amerindieni. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 893)
Adorno i Horkheimer nu au exprimat n San Diego cu atta claritate
aceast fa mai ntunecat a Modernitii, nici chiar n Dialectica modernitii. De aceea, dup aceste dramatice consideraii,
Guamn trece la partea a doua, organizat n jurul a cincisprezece ntrebri pe care autorul le pune n gura regelui Felipe. A doua dintre ele sun aa:
Spune-mi, Felipe Ayala, n acele vremuri, cum e posibil s fi existat atia amerindieni n timpurile lui Ynga?
Spun Maiestii Voastre c n acele vremuri doar Ynga
era rege [...] Dar se tria ntru legea i poruncile
Ynga. i cum aveau un rege, serveau linitii n acest
regat i se nmuleau i aveau pmnturi i alimente,
fii i femei. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 896)114
La a cincea ntrebare, regele chestioneaz:
Spune-mi, autorule, cum se va mbogi amerindianul?
Maiestatea Sa trebuie s tie c ei trebuie s aib o gospodrie n
comun, pe care ei o numesc sapci, cu terenuri cu porumb i gru, cartofi, ardei, mango, bumbac, vi-de-vie, ateliere artizanale, vopsitorii de esturi, coca, arbori fructiferi. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 898)
Pentru o parte din membrii Modernitii, buna guvernare consta ntr-o via de cretin pentru toi spaniolii (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 902)
iar totul se putea rezuma la aceasta. Dar dac s-ar fi realizat acest punct,
ntreaga Modernitate s-ar fi nruit i nu ar mai fi existat acumularea de
bogie la centru. Vedem c Guamn, ca i Karl Marx, organizeaz strategia sa de argumentare conform aceluiai principiu ca i criticul din Trier:
s l pun pe cel care pretinde c este cretin ntr-o contradicie performativ evident ntre actele sale perverse i etica dictat de cretinismul nsui.115
i ce lume a gsit autorul cnd s-a ntors n satul su?
Dup ce a servit Maiestii Sale treizeci de ani, intrnd n casele lor
i pe cmpuri i puni, a gsit totul distrus. i-a gsit fiii i fiicele lor
goi, servind indienilor tributari. i nu i-a recunoscut pe fiii i nepoii
si pentru c au devenit aa btrni; artau de optzeci de ani, palizi
i slabi i goi i desculi. (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 1008)
i asta nu e tot, deoarece Cronica sa va rmne ngropat ntr-o bibliotec european din Copenhaga pn n anul 1908. Lumea sracilor amerindieni, sracii lui Iisus Hristos din Modernitate, va mai atepta nc
secole pn i se va face dreptate...

6. Concluzii
Ar mai putea fi luat n considerare gndirea i nelepciunea popoarelor indigene americane care nu au suferit impactul cretinismului (cum
fusese cazul lui Guamn Poma). Aceasta constituie o rezerv critic a
viitorului datorit exterioritii lor radicale. Dar ncheiem aici aceast
naraiune pentru a nu ne extinde mai mult.
Se pare c n anul 1616 Felipe Guamn Poma de Ayala a ncheiat Cronica sa. n anul precedent, tnrul Ren Descartes abandona, la aproape 20 de ani, studiile sale n colegiul iezuit din Flche. Noul filosof nu
tia, nici nu putea ti nimic despre o ntreag lume periferic i colonial
pe care o instaurase Modernitatea. Viitorul su ego cogito constituia un
cogitatum care, ntre alte totaliti pe care le avea la dispoziie, va situa
corporalitatea subiecilor coloniali ca maini bune de exploatat, precum
amerindienii din teritoriile administrate, din min sau din latifundiile
latinoamericane, sau sclavii africani din marea cas a plantaiilor din Brazilia, Caraibe sau Noua Anglie. Cu spatele la Modernitate, subiecilor
coloniali li se va anula pentru totdeauna condiia de fiin
uman, pn n ziua de azi.
Dac ipoteza pe care am dorit s o introducem este
adevrat, ea arunc ntr-o cu totul alt lumin multe cercetri recente referitoare la sensul Modernitii filosofice. Dac
Modernitatea nu ncepe din punct de vedere filosofic cu
Descartes, care trebuie s fie considerat drept marele gnditor al celui de-al doilea moment al Modernitii timpurii,
atunci cnd deja s-a produs n mod ireversibil ocultarea
fiinei coloniale, i nu a fiinei lui Heidegger, atunci ar trebui s nceap un ntreg proces de decolonizare filosofic.
n secolul XVII, Olanda Companiei Indiilor Orientale, cu
capitala la Amsterdam, apare ca lume nscut dup criza
Spaniei, a regilor spanioli din secolul XVI i a imperiului lui Carol al Vlea (imperiul-lume al lui Immanuel Wallerstein), care au deschis Europa spre amplul orizont al primului sistem-lume, colonialist, capitalist,
eurocentric, modern. Anul 1637, n care a fost publicat Discurs despre
metod n Olanda, din interiorul unei ordini dominate deja de burghezia triumftoare, nu constituie n acest sens originea Modernitii, ci al
doilea moment al su. Paradigma solipsist a contiinei, a lui ego cogito, inaugura dezvoltarea sa copleitoare, uniformizant, de-a lungul ntregii durate a Modernitii europene ulterioare i va ajunge ntr-o form
modificat pn la Hume, Kant, Hegel, Jean-Paul Sartre sau Paul Ricoeur.
n secolul XX, aceast paradigm va fi criticat n mod radical de Lvinas,
care, pornind de la a cincea meditaie din Meditaiile carteziene ale lui
Edmund Husserl116, va ncerca s se deschid fa de Cellalt, dar fa
de un Cellalt al Modernitii europene, aflat nc n Europa. Holocaustul evreiesc va fi un dezastru iraional intraeuropean i un rezultat ndeprtat al Iluminismului, aa cum arat Adorno i Horkheimer.
Dar nici nsui Lvinas, nici ntreaga coal de la Frankfurt, cu cele trei
generaii ale sale, nu au reuit s depeasc Modernitatea, fiindc nu
au recunoscut colonialitatea exercitat de puterea occidental. Lvinas
rmne n mod inevitabil eurocentric: dei descoper iraionalitatea
totalizrii subiectivitii moderne, nu se poate situa n exteriorul Europei metropolitane, imperiale i capitaliste.
Traducere de Corina Tulbure

177

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Note:
1. Acest articol este rezultatul unei extinse cercetri a autorului referitoare la gndirea i practicile modernitii/colonialitii n America. Textul a fost iniial o conferin prezentat n cadrul
celui de-al doilea Congres al Asociaiei Filosofice din Caraibe (Puerto Rico, 2005), la invitaia lui Lewis Gordon. Ulterior am expus subiectul ntr-o conferin la al X-lea Trg al Crii
n Santo Domingo (25 aprilie 2007), unde de asemenea am nceput pregtirile pentru celebrarea celui de-al cincilea centenar al primului apel critico-mesianic n Santo Domingo, din
1511, n stilul timpului de acum al lui Walter Benjamin, mpotriva nedreptii Modernitii
care se ntea, a colonialismului care se inaugura, nu doar pe continentul american, ci peste
tot la periferia sistemului-lume.
2. De menionat c n China se descoperise tiparul cu cteva secole nainte, att la nivel
empiric, ct i istoric.
3. Stephen Toulmin, Cosmopolis, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 5, 9.
4. Habermans include descoperirea Lumii Noi, dar, urmnd teza lui Max Weber, nu poate
ajunge la nicio consecin a acestei menionri accidentale. Jrgen Habermas, El discurso
filosfico de la Modernidad, Buenos Aires, Taurus, 1989, p. 15.
5. Enrique Dussel, Poltica de la Liberacin. Historia mundial y crtica, Madrid, Trotta, 2007.
6. Enrique Dussel, The invention of the Americas, New York, Continuum, 1995; tica de la
Liberacin, Madrid, Trotta, 1998; Hacia una filosofa poltica crtica, Bilbao, Descle de Brouwer, 2001; Poltica de la Liberacin, op. cit.
7. Pentru textele lui Hegel, autorul folosete ediia Suhrkamp n douzeci de volume, din 1970.
Pentru aceast traducere, pstrm referinele originare citate de autor, adugnd citatele exacte din ediia romn, G. W. F. Hegel, Prelegeri de istorie a filozofiei, 2 vol., traducere de
D. D. Roca (dup ediia jubiliar a operelor lui Hegel publicat de Herman Glockner ntre
1927 i 1940), Bucureti, Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Romne, 19631964. Cnd
autorul citeaz textual din ediia Suhrkamp, referina e compus dintr-un numr cu cifre
romane, separat printr-o cratim care indic volumul din care s-a preluat citatul. Astfel, de
exemplu, Hegel 1970-V: 98 nseamn c este pagina 98 din volumul 5 din ediia menionat. Acelai model va fi folosit pentru Bartolom de Las Casas i Guamn Poma de Ayala.
(N. ed.)
8. Deja este prezent ideologia orientalismului.
9. n ediia romn, G. W. F. Hegel, Prelegeri de istorie a filozofiei, filosofia chinez i cea indic
snt rezumate n p. 111134, iar filosofia elen ocup p. 137660 din volumul I, respectiv p. 7209 din vol. II. (N. ed.)
10. Asta nseamn c, pentru Hegel, Renaterea nu este nc o parte constitutiv a Modernitii.
n acest punct, dar din multe motive diferite, coincidem cu Hegel, mpotriva lui Giovanni
Arrighi, de exemplu. ntr-o viziune eurocentric, care este cea obinuit, Hegel indic
urmtoarele: deja Wiklef, Hus i Arnold din Brescia, pornind din filozofia scolastic [...] dar
fr dovezi savante scolastice, adresndu-se numai spiritului i sufletului. Abia cu Luther a
nceput libertatea spiritului n miezul lui (Hegel, 1970-XX: 50) [Hegel, op. cit., vol. 2, p.
340]. Dac nu s-ar fi deschis Atlanticul pentru Europa de Nord, Luther ar fi fost un Wiclef
sau Hus al nceputului de secol XVI, fr vreo semnificaie posterioar.
11. Se pare c Hegel nu tie c praful de puc, hrtia, tiparnia, busola i multe alte descoperiri tehnice se inventaser cu secole n urm n China. Eurocentrism infantil al ignoranei.
12. Ca i cum indigenii americani nu ar fi fiine umane care descoperiser propriul lor
continent de multe milenii. Ca i cum era nevoie de sosirea europenilor pentru ca omul
s descopere America. Ideologeme vulgare care nu snt demne de un filosof de renume.
13. Hegel, 1970-XX: 62 [Hegel, op. cit., vol. II, p. 352].
14. Reapare filosofia Antichitii, dei cu diferenieri, fr a descoperi n mod complet turnura geopolitic radical a Modernitii, care se situeaz pentru prima dat ntr-un sistem-lume
imposibil pentru greci sau romani [Hegel, op. cit., vol. II., p. 354].
15. Hegel, op. cit., vol. II., p. 355. (N. ed.)
16. n acest loc, traducerea n romn a lui D. D. Roca e explicativ, evitnd transpunerea direct
a formulei lui Hegel: fu supus observaiei spiritualul, felul n care acesta, n realizarea lui,
nfptuiete o lume spiritual, formnd statele. Hegel, op. cit., p. 355356. (N. ed.)
17. Hegel, op. cit., vol. II., p. 356. (N. ed.)
18. [Hegel, op. cit., vol. II., p. 358.] Att Bacon, ct i Bhme se nasc n a doua jumtate a secolului XVI. Trebuie amintite datele, dat fiind c Bacon va tri pn la nceputul secolului XVII,
nscndu-se la 70 de ani de la nceputul invaziei Americii de ctre Cristofor Columb,
cnd Bartolom de Las Casas era aproape de moarte (1566).
19. Hegel, op. cit., vol. II., p.359. (N. ed.)

178

20. Acum vedem filozofii n legturi cu lumea, angajai ntr-o activitate oarecare, fcnd parte
dintr-o stare comun, n stat alturi de alii. Hegel, op. cit., vol. II., p. 359360. (N. ed.)
21. n limba german n original: Cartesius fngt eigentlich die Philosophie der neueren Zeit an.
22. Stephen Gaukroger, Descartes: An intellectual biography, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997.
John Cottingham (ed.), Descartes, Cambridge, Reino Unido, Cambridge University Press,
1995.
23. Ignacio de Loyola vorbete deja n anul 1538, n Autobiografia sa, de examinarea contiinei prin metoda liniilor (Loyola, Ejercicios, Madrid, BAC, 1952, p. 109). n caietul su el
trasa o linie pentru fiecare zi, unde se indicau greelile comise, care erau contabilizate n
funcie de ore; exista o linie pentru fiecare zi, de diminea la trezire, dup-amiaza i noaptea (de trei ori pe zi). Loyola, op. cit., p. 162.
24. A-l folosi pentru a-i examina n fiecare zi contiina. Loyola, op. cit., p. 430.
25. Loyola, op. cit., p. 161.
26. Loyola, op. cit., p. 588590.
27. Prin urmare, nu este o excepie faptul c lucrarea cea mai important a lui Surez i ia titlul din recomandrile Regulii lui Ignacio de Loyola, Disputationes Metaphysicae, i c
Descartes nsui a scris Rgles sur la direction de lesprit (expresia direction de lesprit ne
amintete de ndrumtorii spirituali ai colegiilor iezuite). n lucrarea Discours de la Mthode
vorbete n continuare de reguli: Principales rgles de la mthode, Quelques rgles
de la morale. S fie vorba aici de amintiri din tineree?
28. Dei era originar din Peninsula Iberic, a ajuns n Mexic la vrsta de 18 ani i a studiat filosofia la Universitatea din Mexic (fondat n 1553). Acolo a scris lucrarea care se va numi,
astfel, Logica mexicana (cu titlul nc n limba latin). n Mexic a scris, de asemenea, Dialecticam (publicat apoi n 1603 la Alcal), Physica (publicat la Madrid, 1605), De Anima
(Alcal, 1611) i In de Caelo et Mundo (Madrid, 1615). Printre ali maetri studiai n colegiu era portughezul Pedro de Fonseca, profesor la Coimbra din anul 1590.
29. Textele centrale se afl n partea a IV-a din Discurs despre metod i n Meditaia a doua
din Mditations touchant la Premire Philosophie (Meditationes de prima philosophia, care,
n prima sa versiune n limba francez, se asemna mai mult cu titlul influentei lucrri a lui
Suarez: Mditations mtaphysiques).

legii Conimbricensis, In tres libros de Animae, ed. de Antonii Mariz n Coimbra, se poate citi
un Tractatus De Anima Separata referitor la nemurirea sufletului, din care e posibil s se fi
inspirat Descartes. A se citi articolul lui Mario S. de Carvalho, Intellect et Imagination, Rencontres de Philosophie Mdivale 11, 2006, p. 127, n care se specific, conform celor propuse iezuiilor din Coimbra de Pomponazzi i Caetanus: Unicitatea sufletului... nu ine doar
de independena sa de materie, ci i de faptul c are o activitate progresiv. Descartes va
prelua aceasta ca paradigm.
39. Gilson, op. cit., p. 246.

61. Bartolom de Las Casas, Obras escogidas, 5 vol., Madrid, BAE, 1957. Pentru modul de
folosire a referinei originale, a se vedea nota 7. (N. tr.)

41. Santiago Castro-Gmez numete pretenia fr limite a gndirii carteziene de a se situa n

afara oricrei perspective particulare drept un hybris al punctului zero. E similar cu artistul renascentist care traseaz linia orizontului i punctul de fug al tuturor obiectelor pe care
le va picta, dar artistul nsui nu apare n tablou, chiar dac el este cel care mereu privete
i compune tabloul (este punctul de fug n sens invers), i decide, de asemenea, ceea
ce se ntmpl cu punctul zero al perspectivei. Departe de a fi punct de vedere indiferent, acesta este tocmai punctul care constituie toate compromisurile. Weber, cu pretenia
sa de viziune obiectiv, fr presupuse valori, este cel mai bun exemplu al imposibilitii
acestei pretenii a punctului zero. Ego cogito inaugureaz aceast pretenie n cadrul Modernitii.

62. Montesinos se ntreab: Nu v dai seama de asta?. Urmtoarele pagini ale Istoriei Indiilor Occidentale snt demne de a fi citite n profunzime. Era momentul n care Modernitatea ar fi putut s-i schimbe drumul. Nu s-a ntmplat asta i ruta s-a stabilit, inflexibil,
pn n secolul XXI. Era att de mare mirarea cuceritorilor c aciunile lor mpotriva amerindienilor ar putea fi lipsite de justiie i de etic, nct nu le venea s cread. S-a discutat
ndelung. Dominicanii aveau argumente filosofice, colonitii obiceiurile lor tiranice i nedrepte. n cele din urm, au avut ctig de cauz obiceiurile colonitilor i pe aceast baz
s-a ntemeiat filosofia modern european. ncepnd din secolul XVII, nu se va mai discuta niciodat despre dreptul europenilor moderni (i n secolul XX al nord-americanilor)
de a cuceri planeta.

42. i care ar consta n ceea ce am numit sofismul dezvoltrii, credina c Europa ar fi mai
dezvoltat dect alte culturi precum dezvoltarea [Entwicklung] conceptului la Hegel. Vezi Karl-Otto Apel i Enrique Dussel, tica del discurso y tica de la liberacin, Madrid, Trotta, 2005, p. 107; Enrique Dussel,
The invention of the Americas, New York, Continuum, 1995.
43. Michel de Montaigne, Oeuvres comptes, Paris, Gallimard, Pliade,
1967, p. 208.
44. Grupul tan din insulele Antile nu pronuna litera r, i prin urmare caribe i canbal erau acelai lucru.
45. Montaigne tie foarte bine c, din perspectiva celor numii barbari, europenii erau demni de a fi numii de acetia slbatici, din cauza actelor
iraionale i brutale pe care le comiteau mpotriva lor.
46. Gins de Seplveda, Tratado sobre las justas causas de la guerra contra
los indios, Mxico, DF, FCE, 1967, p. 85.

31. [Aristotel, Etica nicomahic, traducere de Stella Petecel, Bucureti, IRI, p. 202.] Aceast autocontiin a actelor umane era numit de stoici synasthesis (Arnim, J. V. 1964. Stoicorum
veterum Fragmenta, Stuttgart, 1964, p. 773911), iar de Cicero tactus interior. Este vorba
de hight self consciousness [nalta contiin de sine] din G. M. Edelman, Bright Air, Brillant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind, New York, Basic Books, 1992.

48. Seplveda, op. cit., p. 117.

32. Antonio Damasio, op. cit., Edelman, op. cit.

51. Ibidem. Un indigen ecuadorian, ntr-o cltorie n America Latin a papei Ioan Paul al II-lea,
i-a dat acestuia o Biblie, ca gest de restituire a religiei pe care catolicii pretinser c o vor promova ntre indigeni, i i-a cerut s restituie bogiile extrase din Indiile Occidentale.

34. Etienne Gilson, tudes sur le ro

le de la pense mdivale dans la formation du systme cartesien, Paris, J. Vrin, 1951, p. 191.
35. Si non esses, falli omnino non posses (De libero arbitrio II, 3, n. 7). A se vedea ediia Ch.
Adam-P. l. Tannery.
36. Gilson, op. cit., p. 201.
37. Deja n Commentarii Collegii Conimbricensis, comentarii la Fizica lui Aristotel (In octo libros
Physicorum Aristotelis), se vorbete despre cele tres esse abstractiones: abstracia
materiei sensibile (filosofia natural), abstracia materiei inteligibile (metafizica) i abstracia
ntregii materii (matematicile). n aceast carte se vorbete de nelepciunea originar, secunum Aegyptios, cnd nc nu se czuse ntr-un elenocentrism absolut, dat fiind c egiptenii fuseser cei care au descoperit c nelegerea universului nu se poate atinge fr
solitudine, atque silentio (acea skhol pe care Aristotel o atribuie egiptenilor). Mario de
Carvalho arat c n acest curs de fizic apare deja un concept modern al timpului imaginar (care ne trimite la Kant). Mario De Carvahlo, Aos hombros de Aristteles (Sobre o
no-aristotelismo do primeiro curso aristotlico dos Jesutas de Coimbra), Revista filosfica de Coimbra 32, 2007, p. 291308.
38. Ren Descartes, Oeuvres et lettres de Descartes, Paris, Gallimard, Pliade, 1953, p. 148,
respectiv Ren Descartes, Oeuvres de Descartes, editat de Ch. Adam-P. Tannery, 11 vol.,
Paris, J. Vrin, 1996, p. 33 [traducere O. ]. n volumul din anul 1598 al Commentarii Col-

60. Francisco Bueno, Los judos de Sefarad, Granada, Ediciones Miguel Snchez Bueno, 2005,
p. 328.

40. Gilson, op. cit., p. 250.

30. A gndi e un act al sensibilitii pentru Aristotel i de asemenea, azi, pentru A. Damasio,
care amintete c acest cogito este un feeling. Antonio Damasio, Looking for Spinoza: Joy,
Sorrow, and the Feeling Brain, Orlando-London, Harcourt Inc., 2003.

33. n limba latin n original. n limba romn: Cu toate acestea, cine se ndoiete c triete
i c rememoreaz i nelege i vrea i cuget i tie i judec? Deoarece chiar dac se ndoiete, triete; Nu m tem de argumentele academicienilor care zic: i dac greeti? Chiar
dac greesc, exist. (N. ed., traducere de O. .).

2, vol. 2, p. 6 sqq., ncepnd cu opinio Scoti expenditur (fapt perfect coerent, dat fiind
c Duns Scotus a fost cel care a vorbit n acest mod despre noiunea de absolut). n sec.
3, se ocup de analogie. La Dialctica sa trebuie adugat Isagoge filosfica, publicat n
anul 1591 i care a avut 18 ediii pn n anul 1623 (ediia critic a lui Joaqun Ferreria Gomez
a fost publicat n 1965).

47. Seplveda, op. cit., p. 87.

49. nainte de Locke sau Hegel, Seplveda postuleaz proprietatea privat drept condiie a
umanitii.
50. Seplveda, op. cit., p. 110111.

52. Seplveda, op. cit., p. 155.

53. Iezuiii au ajuns repede s dein monopolul aproape complet al predrii filosofiei n Europa catolic, pentru c protestantismul ddea mai mult importan teologiei.
54. Jos Ferrater Mora, Surez et la philosophie moderne, Revue de Mtaphysique et de Morale 13 (2), 1963, p. 155248. A doua scolastic, n sensul su tradiional, se inaugureaz
cu lucrrile lui Juan de Santo Toms, Cursus philosophicum (1648), oper de o excepional claritate i profunzime, care va cdea n uitare n urmtoarele decenii.
55. Am consultat Commentariorum Petri Fonsecae in libro Metaphysicorum Aristotelis, editat de
Franciscum Zanettum, Roma, 1577, cu textul n limba greac i traducere n latin, precum i comentariile.
56. Miguel B. Pereira, Pedro da Fonseca. O Mtodo da Filosofa, Coimbra, Universidade de Coimbra, 1967, p. 280.
57. n Coimbra am putut consulta Institutionum Dialecticarum, Libri Octo, publicat de Iannis
Blavii, 1564. A se vedea ediia din anul 1964 a lui Joaquin Ferreria Gomes a Instituies
Dialcticas. La nceput afirm: Hanc artem, qui primi invenerunt Dialecticam nominarunt,
postrea veteres Peripatetici Logicam appellaverunt. Fonseca, op. cit.
58. Pereira, op. cit., p. 340.
59. Am consultat Metaphysicarum disputationem, publicat de Koannem i Andream Renaut,
Salamanca, 1597, care include n volumul 1 primele 27 Disputationem i n volumul 2 celelalte, pn la 54. Problema Fiinei Infinite i a fiinei finite se explic de la Disp. 28, sec.

63. A se citi comentariul meu n Dussel, 2007, op. cit., p. 179193.

64. Enrique Dussel, Desintegracin de la Cristiandad colonial y liberacin,
Salamanca, Sgueme, 1977, p. 142.
65. A se observa c Bartolom descrie dialectica stpnului i sclavului. Pe
lng aceasta, el arat c pacificarea Americii Latine s-a putut realiza doar
dup ce au murit toi cei care puteau suspina sau gndi n libertate.
Bartolom are o clar viziune anticipat a violenei colonialismului.
66. Descartes va fundamenta ontologia modern n abstractul i solipsistul ego
cogito. Bartolom, n schimb, va fundamenta critica etic i politic a respectivei ontologii n responsabilitatea fa de Cellalt, cruia i datoreaz
argumente pentru a demonstra propria pretenie de adevr. E o paradigm fondat din perspectiva Alteritii.
67. Care totalizeaz 478 de pagini n ediia mexican din anul 1942.
68. Enrique Dussel, Historia General de la Iglesia en Amrica Latina, Salamanca, Sgueme, 1983.
69. La Descartes sau Husserl, ego cogitum l construiete pe Cellalt (n acest caz colonial) ca
pe un cogitatum, dar, nainte de aceasta, ego conquiro deja l constituise ca un cucerit (domi natum). n latin, conquiro nseamn: a cuta cu strdanie, a ntreba cu grij, a reuni. De
aceea conquisitum este ceea ce se caut cu srguin. Dar n Reconquista spaniol mpotriva musulmanilor, cuvntul a preluat sensul de a domina, a supune, a iei n lume pentru
a recupera teritorii pentru cretini. n acest sens, acum dorim s-l folosim cu o semnificaie
ontologic.
70. Enrique Dussel, The Underside of Modernity: Apel, Ricoeur, Taylor, and the Philosophy of Liberation, New Jersey, Humanities Press, 1996, cap.1, 5 i p. 65.
71. Dac aplicm o doctrin att de clar la cazul cuceririi Noii Anglii i din acel moment ajungem pn la actualul rzboi din Irak, se poate nelege c patrioii care i apr teritoriul se
justific prin argumentul lui Las Casas. A se vedea Enrique Dussel, Materiales para una poltica de la liberacin, Mxico, Plaza y Valds, 2007, p. 299.
72. Enrique Dussel, Poltica de la Liberacin. Historia mundial y crtica, Madrid, Trotta, 2007.
73. mprire prin tragere la sori pentru a stabili numrul de amerindieni care vor participa la
muncile n min. (N. tr.)
74. Astfel se explic n textul cu data de 15 martie 1571 publicat n Coleccin de documentos
inditos para la historia de Espaa din anul 1842, n vol. 13, p. 425469.
75. Nathan Wachtel, La vision des vaincus: les Indiens du Prou devant la conqute espagnole,
15301570, Paris, Gallimard, 1971, p. 184, arat c n perioada inca, ayllu (comunitatea
de baz) pltea tributuri n munc i producea pentru curacas (stpni) i regele inca; curaca pltea tributuri regelui inca i oferea de lucru comunitii ayllu; iar regele inca oferea servicii stpnului curaca i comunitii de baz ayullu.
n Imperiul Inca, bogia rmnea ntr-un circuit nchis. Odat cu momentul cuceririi, la
conquista, comunitatea ayllu pltete tribut n argint (pentru a-l obine, fiecare trebuie s
se vnd pentru un salariu) unui curaca i unui spaniol; curaca pltete tributurile ctre spaniol i serviciile ctre ayllu; dar spaniolul nu ofer niciun serviciu comunitii ayllu, nici stpnului, curaca. Pe lng aceasta, bogia spaniolului iese din circuitul peruan i se ndreapt

179

verso
spre Europa. Extracia colonial a bogiei, care dureaz mai bine de 500 de ani, este baza
sistemului colonial globalizat din prezent, care i-a schimbat mecanismele, dar nu sensul
su profund de transfer al valorii-munc.
76. Rolena Adorno, La redaccin y enmendacin del autgrafo de la Nueva cornica y buen
gobierno, in John V. Murra i Rolena Adorno (ed)., El primer nueva cornica y buen
gobierno. Tomo 1. xxxiixlvi, Mxico DF, Siglo Veintiuno, 1980.
77. Cf. Eduardo Subirats, El continente vaco: La conquista del nuevo mundo y la conciencia moderna, Mxico DF, Siglo XXI, 1994; Nathan Wachtel, La vision des vaincus: les Indiens du Prou
devant la conqute espagnole, 15301570, Paris, Gallimard, 1971.
78. Felipe Guamn Poma de Ayala, El primer nueva cornica y buen gobierno, 3 vol., editate
de John V. Murra i Rolena Adorno, Mxico DF, Siglo Veintiuno, 1980. [Pentru maniera
referinelor originare, a se vedea nota 7. (N. tr.)]
79. Bineneles c exist excepii: Considerm nelepii [...] sfini doctori luminai de Sfntul Spirit [...] ca Printele Luys de Granada [...] ca Printele Fray Domingo [de Santo Toms...]
muli sfini doctori i titrai, maetri, cu studii [...] Alii [n schimb] care nu au scris nceputul literelor a, b, c vor s se numeasc titrai, snt falsificatori i semneaz ca domnul Beiv
i doamna Bostan, scrie el cu umor, ironie i sarcasm. Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 855.
80. n procesul de emancipare de la sfritul secolului XVIII i nceputul secolului XIX (cum ar
fi cazul lui Servando de Mier n Mexic), faptul de a nu datora spaniolilor nici mcar cretinismul a fost cauza care conferea puterea de a nega i alte beneficii pe care ar fi putut s
le aduc spaniolii n America Latin, odat cu conquista, cucerirea i organizarea colonial.
81. ntre incai, nimeni nu putea privi soarele (Inti), nici mcar regele inca.
82. Guamn, care probabil aparinea unei aristocraii provinciale preincase, idealizeaz epoca
anterioar incailor, poziionndu-i pe acetia drept idolatri. Este posibil ca prin aceasta s
resping argumentul lui Francisco de Toledo, viceregele, acceptnd anumite critici mpotriva incailor, dar nu i mpotriva culturii Tawantinsuyo n totalitatea sa.
83. S-a nscut i a domnit n timpul lui Cinche Roca Ynga, cnd avea optzeci de ani. i, n vremea lui Cinche Roca Ynga, a suferit ca un martir i a fost crucificat (Guamn Poma, 1980I: 70). Naterea lui Iisus Hristos iniia a cincea vrst din cronologa european i cretin,
dar acum se articula cu a cincea vrst incas din vremea celui de al doilea inca. Cum indic
istoria din Noul Testament: n vremea mpratului Tiberiu... (Luca, 3,1). Guamn Poma
o exprim ntr-un mod metaforic: n vremea mpratului Cinche Roca Ynga...
84. n aceste vremuri au existat mari cataclisme, de aceea aceast epoc se numete pachacuti (cel care transform pmntul) sau pacha ticra (cel care o pune cu capul n jos)
(Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 74).
85. Cf. Walter Mignolo, The Darker Side of de Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality & Colonization, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1995; idem, The Idea of Latin America,
Oxford, Reino Unido, Blackwell, 2005.
86. Exist liste cu celelalte regine ale fiecrei regiuni a imperiului.
87. Se ajunge la urmtorul ordin: Poruncim ca porcii lenei i murdari s fie pedepsii cu mizeria chacara [pmnturilor lor] sau a casei sau a farfuriilor n care mnnc sau s fie obligai
s bea ntr-un mate mizeria de la splarea capului sau minilor sau picioarelor lor, drept
pedeaps n tot regatul (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 164). Igiena, curenia erau exigene etice
la fel de importante ca i tripla porunc: S nu mini, s munceti, s nu furi!
88. n spiritualitatea preincas a populaiilor indigene, huacas puteau fi obiecte, monumente
sau locuri nvestite cu puteri sacre. (N. ed.)
89. Despre rzboinicii de la vrsta de 33 de ani (dei existau rzboinici de la vrsta de 25 pn
la 50 de ani); despre btrnii care merg (de la vrsta de 60 de ani); despre cei cu vrsta
de 80 de ani; despre bolnavi i rnii; tineri de 18 ani; de 12 ani; de 9; de 4; copilul cnd
se trie; copilul la o lun. Fiecare vrst avea mai nti drepturile sale i ulterior responsabiliti.

95. mi amintesc cum n tineree urcam pe munte, la 6500 de metri nlime n Uspallata, ntr-o lung depresiune, unde deodat am traversat un drum absolut drept, pn la linia orizontului (poate erau n jur de 30 km). Ni s-a spus: este drumul inca, la aproximativ 4000
km de Cuzco. ntr-adevr, Guamn scrie: Cu organizarea lor i cu teritoriul delimitat i
semnalat, fiecare drum avea o lime de patru vara i n ambele pri erau puse pietre n
form dreapt, cum nu au fcut nicieri n lume, exceptnd regii inca (Guamn Poma,
1980-I: 327). n zona Mediteranei am vzut drumurile cu pietre ale Imperiului Roman,
din nordul Africii pn n Palestina, Italia sau Spania. Niciunul nu era att de drept ca drumul inca.
96. Vrea s spun c: n obiceiurile inca se poate observa deja ntreaga frumusee i valoarea principiilor eticii cretine moderne, pe care europenii o predicau dar nu o puneau
n practic.
97. Este reproul unui amerindian cretin.
98. Depopularea s-a datorat violenei cuceririi, destructurrii sistemului agricol incas (de exemplu incaii ntreineau apeducte de 400 km lungime n condiii perfecte, n mijlocul
munilor, cu poduri de piatr etc.; lumea colonial european a lsat s se distrug ntregul sistem hidraulic construit n mai bine de 1000 de ani) i n special bolilor necunoscute de rasa indigen.
99. A se citi: tiat n buci.
100. A se observa ironia: Se numesc cretini, spunea Bartolom de Las Casas, o observaie
similar cu cea a lui Guamn: cretini numai cu numele, adevrai demoni pe dinuntru, ca i propunerea de expansiune a democraiei n Irak a lui George W. Bush. Modernitatea este mereu identic cu ea nsi.
101. Guamn i dispreuia n mod special pe metii, pe care i numete meticei [mesticillos].
102. Una dintre obsesiile lui Guamn este c vor disprea amerindienii acestui regat
(Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 483), dat fiind c femeile amerindiene snt luate de la soii lor
naturali. De la mineri, spaniolii iau fiicele amerindienilor cu fora i le despart de brbat
i le dezvirgineaz ei i majordomii lor i le foreaz pe aceste femei, trimind pe brbaii
lor n min n timpul nopii sau undeva foarte departe (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 489).
n acelai timp nu se poate imagina suferina amerindienilor n mine i n coloniile izolate (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 488-505). n plus, i caracterizeaz pe spanioli ca fiind mici
de statur, grai, lenei, plini de orgoliu, sadici n comportamentul lor cu servitorii amerindienii. (p. 506515): Mai nti de toate sntei mpotriva sracilor lui Iisus Hristos (Guamn
Poma, 1980-II: 515).
103. i de asemenea pe femei pentru c triesc n concubinaj i uit de obligaiile i de serviciile personale. i au relaii sexuale cu fetele singure i cu vduve (Guamn Poma,
1980-II: 526).
104. Amerindienele curvsresc i nu exist soluie. i aa nu doresc s se cstoreasc pentru c merg dup preot sau dup spaniol. i aa nu se nasc indieni n acest regat, ci metii
i metise i nu exist soluie (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 534). Critica mpotriva bisericii ajunge pn la pagina 663, fiind una dintre instituiile de care se ocup n mod special. n unele
aspecte, franciscanii i mai ales prinii iezuii snt unicii vzui cu ochi mai buni. Acest fapt
dovedete o ipotez de baz n istoria ideologic a Americii Latine (Guamn Poma, 1980II: 603). Dac ar fi preoii i dominicanii, cei din ordinul Sf. Maria i augustinii, ca aceti
preoi iezuii, care nu vor s se ntoarc n Castilia bogai, nici nu vor s aib pmnturi,
pentru c bogia lor este n sufletele oamenilor! (Guamn Poma, 1980-II: 447).
105. Guamn aparinea unei familii Yarovilcas, stpni locali anteriori incailor (1980-III: 949).
Nite curacas impostori, colaboraioniti ai spaniolilor, le-au luat pmnturile. De aceea
Guamn i dispreuiete pe aceti stpni de mna a doua, curacas care nu erau nobili,
dar pstrau aparenele de nobil. Din partea mamei este posibil s fi avut o descenden
secundar din incai.

93. Cu siguran sacrificii umane, de la copii de cinci ani (Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 241) la alii
de doisprezece ani sau aduli.

106. Se pare c nc exist un dublu trecut: n primul rnd, trecutul inca, ce este considerat n
mod frecvent drept punct de referin. Dar uneori se observ o anumit critic fa de
dominaia inca, vzut din perspectiva regiunilor ndeprtate de Cuzco (creia i
aparinea Guamn). De pild: Al patrulea Auca Runa erau popoare cu puine cunotine,
dar nu au fost idolatri. i spaniolii aveau puine cunotine, dar la nceput au fost idolatri
pgni, ca i indienii din vremea inca ce au fost idolatri (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 854).
S-ar prea c pentru Guamn cea mai mare dezvoltare civilizaional include idolatria, ns
acelai lucru nu e valabil n cazul popoarelor mai modeste, ntre care nu exist dominaie
reciproc, cum ar fi civilizaiile dinaintea Imperiului Inca. Vechii indieni priveau cerul pn
la a patra vrst a lumii numite Auca Runa [...] Amerindienii din vremurile inca au idolatrizat ca pgnii i au adorat soarele, tatl inca (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 854).

94. Opera sa a lsat mrturii ce nu pot fi regsite n alte surse quechua (Guamn Poma, 1980I: 288 sqq.).

107. Scrie: Oraul lui Dumnezeu i al sracilor care au respectat cuvntul lui. n acest ora se
includ foarte puini spanioli i toi amerindienii oprimai, sracii lui Iisus Hristos.

90. Michel Foucault ar fi fost interesat de aceast instituie incas.

91. n acelai mod, femeile i bolnavele, femeile chioape i cele oarbe, vduvele, gheboasele, cele pitice deineau pmnturi agricole i case i puni din care se ntreineau i i procurau mncarea i astfel nu erau nevoite s cereasc. Guamn Poma, 1980-I: 197.
92. Spre sfritul lucrrii apare o descriere foarte valoroas a muncilor ranilor propriu-zii
(Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 1027), unde va modifica oarecum prima sa viziune de sus, n
cadrul srbtorilor inca.

180

108. Este interesant de observat c folosete categoriile istorice i politice ale lui Augustin de
Hipona. A se vedea Enrique Dussel, Materiales para una poltica de la liberacin, MadridMxico, Plaza y Valds, 2007, p. 4445.
109. Comenteaz autorul nostru: A se ine cont de rbdarea amerindienilor din viaa asta n
care sufer attea ruti din partea spaniolilor, preoilor, magistrailor, metiilor i mulatrilor, negrilor, a yanaconas i chinonas care i las fr via i fr suflu pe amerindieni. A
se cunoate acest lucru.
110. Astfel numete aceast tem n Cuprinsul final (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 1067). Subiectul este tratat de Guamn Poma (1980-III: 852).
111. Care ncepe aici: Guamn Poma (1980-III: 896).
112. Referitor la organizarea dual i n patru regiuni a Imperiului Inca i a culturii existente n zon, Martti Prssinen, Tawantinsuyu: The Inca State and its Political Organization, Helsinki, Societas Historica Finlandiae, 1992. Vezi i James Lockhart, Los nahuas despus de
la Conquista. Historia social y cultural de la poblacin indgena del Mxico central, siglos
XVIXVIII, Mxico DF, FCE, 1999.
113. A se lua n considerare maiestatea pe care o deinea Ynga Topa Inga Yupanqui, rege din
Peru [... ca i cea pe care o au] regii i principii, mpraii lumii, precum cel al Imperiului
Otoman i regele Chinei, mpraii Romei i toi cretinii i evreii i regele din Guineea
(Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 888). Inca era un rege de acelai nivel ca i cel din istoriile altor
culturi, i pe lng aceasta, Ynga avea patru regi din cele patru pri
ale acestui regat (Guamn Poma, 1980- III: 888). Autorul nostru propune acum un nou proiect: S fie rege Felipe [... sub domnia lui ar
exista patru regi secundari:] Mai nti ofer un fiu al meu ca prin al acestui regat, nepot i strnepot al lui Topa Ing Yupangi [astfel se reproducea
proiectul Monarhiei Indiilor al lui Torquemada...]. Al doilea, un principe al regelui din Guineea, negru; al treilea, regele cretinilor din Roma
[...]; al patrulea, regele arabilor din Imperiul Otoman, toi patru ncoronai cu sceptru i onoruri (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 889).
114. Spune-mi, autorule, de ce acum nu se nmulesc indienii i devin mai
sraci? Spune-i Maiestii Sale: mai nti nu se nmulesc pentru c cele
mai frumoase femei i fecioare ajung la preoii care ndoctrineaz, la
administratori, magistrai i spanioli, majordomi, lociitori i funcionari
crescui de ei. i de aceea exist att de muli metii i metise n acest
regat. S-i spui cu durere cum iau femeile de la gospodriile sracilor
[... Indianul] vrea mai bine s moar dect s vad atta durere (Guamn Poma, 1980-III: 897-898).
115. Articolul din Marx la care ne referim afirm: Statul [luteran german] care recunoate cretinismul ca suprema sa norm, iarBiblia drept cart a sa, trebuie s se confrunte cucuvintele Sfintei Scripturi, fiindc Scriptura este sfnt pn la cuvnt [pentru luterani]. Acest stat
[...] este implicat ntr-o contradicie dureroas, insolubil din punctul de vedere al contiinei religioase, atunci cnd se face referin la acele maxime ale Evangheliei cu care nu
numai c nu se conformeaz,dar nici nu se poate conforma, dac nu dorete s se dizolve complet ca stat [Karl Marx, Despre problema evreiasc, traducere de Alexander
Tendler, www.marxists.org. Cf. Marx Engels Werke (MEW), vol. 1, Berlin, Dietz Verlag,
1956, p. 359360.]
116. Merit realizat o lectur mai atent a celei de-a cincea meditaii, despre Dezvluirea sferei transcendentale de existen ca intersubiectivitate monadologic, Edmund Husserl,
Meditaii carteziene, Bucureti, Humanitas, 1994; ediia n limba german, Cartesianische
Meditationen, Haag, Martinus Nijhoff, 1963, p. 121 sqq. Filosoful din Freiburg ncearc
aici s mearg mai ncolo de ego cogito, atunci cnd vorbete de problematica Celuilalt,
din perspectiva lumii comune a vieii (der gemeinsamen Lebenswelt) (p. 162), pornind
de la faptul c trebuie s admitem c ceilali se constituie ca ceilali n mine (p. 156). Sartre
nu va putea depi n totalitate aporia constatat n privire (Jean Paul Sartre, Ltre et
le nant, Paris, Gallimard, 1943, p. 310 sqq..), aa c l va construi pe Cellalt ca obiect,
n mod iremediabil. Cellalt, de partea sa, m construiete i el pe mine ca obiect: La
personne est prsente la conscience en tant quelle est objet pour autrui (p. 318).
(N. ed.)

181

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