Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.
Splashing rain water which rebounds after hitting the wall surface may
also cause dampness.
3.
4.
5.
In case of flat roofs, inadequate roof slopes, improper rain water pipe
connections, and defective junction between roof slab and parapet wall
may prove to be the source of dampness.
1.
2.
3.
Surface treatment
4.
Guniting
5.
2.
The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be made level,
even and free from projections. Uneven base is likely to cause damage to
DPC.
3.
4.
The compounds made from clay, sand or lime (chalk, fullers earth, etc) help
to fill the voids in concrete and make it water proof.
Another form of compounds like alkaline silicates, aluminium sulphates,
calcium chlorides, etc react chemically when mixed with concrete to produce
water proof concrete.
Pudlo, Imperno, Siks, etc. are some of the many commercially made
preparation of water proofing compounds commonly used. The quantity of
water proofing compounds to be added to cement depends upon
manufacturers recommendations. In general, one kg of water proofing
compound is added with one bag of cement to render the mortar or concrete
water proof.
(3) Surface Treatment:
As described earlier, the moisture finds its way through the pores of materials
used in finishing. In order to check the entry of the moisture into the pores,
they must be filled up. Surface treatment consists in filling up the pores of
the surfaces subjected to dampness. The use of water repellant metallic
soaps such as calcium and aluminium oleates and stearates is such effective
in protecting the building against the ravages of heavy rain. Bituminous
solution, cement coating, transparent coatings, paints, varnishes fall
under this category. In addition to other surface treatment given to walls, the
one economically used is lime cement plaster. The walls plastered with
cement, lime and sand in proportion of 1:3:6 is found to serve the purpose of
preventing dampness in wall due to rain effectively.
(4) Guniting:
This consists in depositing an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over
the surface to be water proofed. The operation is carried out by use of a
machine known as cement gun. The assembly broadly consists of a machine
having arrangements for mixing materials and a compressor for forcing the
mixture under pressure through a 50mm diameter flexible hose pipe. The
hose pipe has nozzle at its free end to which water is supplied under pressure
through a separate connection.
The surface to be treated is first thoroughly cleaned of dirt, dust, grease or
loose particles and wetted properly. Cement and sand (or fine aggregates)
usually taken in proportion of 1:3 to 1:4 are then fed into the machine. This
mixture is finally shot on the prepared surface under a pressure of 2 to 3 kg
per square cm by holding the nozzle of the cement gun at the distance of 75
to 90 cm from the working surface. The quantity of water in the mix can be
controlled by means of regulating valve provided in the water supply hose
attachment. Since the material is applied under pressure, it ensures dense
compaction and better adhesion of the rich cement mortar and hence treated
surface becomes water proof.
(5) Cavity Wall Construction;
This consists in shielding the main wall of the building by an outer skin wall
leaving a cavity in between the two. The cavity prevents the moisture from
traveling from the outer to the inner wall.
To assess the rates payable for deviations, extra items of work to the
builder
To compare the costs with sanctioned amount and to take action for
regularization of excess/ less cost
To workout the budget and cash flows at various stages of the work
and arranging interim/ final payments
8. Daily wages: Wages which the builder is bound to pay to labour which
will not be less than statutory wages.
9. All in rates: Wages + proportionate element of terminal benefits such as
bonus, gratuity.
10. Standing charges: Includes element of depreciation, interest whereas
running charges include cost of operation of plant, POL, operator &
supporting staff.
11. Fixed/ variable overheads: fixed overheads are those incurred only
once like construction of site office, where as variable overheads are salaries
paid and other expenses as per employment of labour hours every month.
12. Standard schedule of rates: Many organizations/ departments shall
have schedule of rates of materials/ items of works. These schedules contain
specifications for materials & methods giving references to relevant Indian
standards. The schedules are revised at periodic intervals of 3 to 5 years or
yearly. In certain cases certain percentage addition/ deduction is specified to
bring them in line with market rates.
13. Derived rates: The rates derived by interpolation/ extrapolation of rates
inserted in the contract. For e.g. The rate for PCC 1:3:6 can be derived
from quoted rate for PCC 1:4:8. The rate for M-20 can be derived from
quoted rate for M- 25 concrete.
14. Star rates/ Market rates: The rates worked out based on market
enquiry/ quotations and applying the percentage above/ below for similar
quoted trade items plus overheads and profit. Alternately rates worked out
for material/ labour based on paid bills/ vouchers produced by contractor
plus profit.
3. Correct technique: The correct technique and the correct tools are
essential for repairing damaged concrete.
The repairs should be done while the concrete is still very young, so that the
repairs are much the same as the parent concrete. All areas to be repaired
should be free from loose dirt or dust so that no attempt is being made to
bond the repair of particles of dust.
Individuals assigned to complete repairs should know what action is required,
i.e. they should have been trained in the appropriate tasks, because repairing
concrete requires greater skill than placing concrete first time around.
Aggregate and sand: Preferably the same as used in the original mix,
together with limestone fines (which also helps to lighten the colour).
Gauging liquid: this is generally water with a polymeric material such as
styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), polyvinyl acetate (PVA) or an acrylic
material. These improve the cohesion and adhesion of the repair to the
parent concrete, and also give better physical properties to the hardened
concrete, such as imperviousness and elasticity.
When repairing cracks the above materials can be used but sometimes an
epoxy or polyester resin will sometimes be required, depending on the width
of the crack.
If the repair is extensive, then the formwork, formwork ties or clamps and
string-backs may be needed. All repairs should be cured, so plastic sheeting
and tape to adhere it to the concrete should be available.
3. Now prepare the replacement concrete. A rule of thumb for this is to use a
1:2 combination of cement and limestone fines with the cement comprising
of an equal mixture of Portland and white cement. Gauging liquid can contain
equal amounts of water and polymer, although on low maturity repairs water
on its own should suffice.
4. Gauging liquid should be added such that the mixture is just moist. A low
slump mix specially necessary on a vertical surface so that it does not slump
out of position.
5. The replacement concrete is then placed into the cavity using a trowel.
6. In a repair this small, the use of vibrator is impractical, so a rod is used to
compact the concrete, which is then smoothed again using the trowel.
7. The concrete repair is then cured by placing some plastic sheeting over it
and securing it with adhesive tape.
With the honeycombed concrete removed and the area removed of dust, the
formwork can be erected. The formwork will need a special hole cut into it
The concrete mix for the repair can be the same as the mix used in the
original pour. The concrete can be placed through the opening and vibrated
using a small vibrating poker. The repair may also need some external
vibration as well. Care must be taken when placing the last of the concrete
as to ensure that all the void is filled.
The formwork should be left in place for 24 hours and then removed.
The repair mix is normally made from a 1:4 mix of cement and fine grade
sand (silver sand is often used) with sufficient water to make a very stiff
paste, so that it holds together when squeezed, but no water escapes.
The treatment is most effective if done as soon as the formwork is struck,
preferably the day after casting. A carborundum stone should be used to
scour the surface and to expose any other blow holes close to the surface.
The grinding of the surface will also expose more unhydrated cement
particles that can bond with the repair work.
A hessian pad is filled with the mix and rubbed over the concrete surface in
an overlapping circular motion, filling the holes and coating the surface with
a fine cement paste.
Since the main function of concrete in the cover zone is to protect the steel
reinforcement from corrosion, cracks in floor slabs can generally be filled with
a cement paste. This is particularly satisfactory if the slab is to have a
surface topping, which will hide the crack and provide extra protection.
Cracks in walls or other places where this method can not be used, need to
be repaired by other means.
Firstly the cracks must be analysed and determined if they are live or not. A
live crack indicates that it is likely to grow over time, and a flexible joint
needs to be formed. Dead cracks can be injected with a resin.
Thus, in case of high rise buildings, the following provision should be made
for safety of buildings from fire:
(i) National building code should be followed for fire-safety requirement
of high rise structuresand at least one lift should be designed as fire-lift as
defined in the Code and be installed.
(ii) At least one stair-case shall be provided as a fire staircase as defined in
the National Building Code. Provided that this shall not be applicable if any
two sides of a staircase are kept totally open to external open air space.
(iii) Water Supply: Underground tank of the capacity of one lakh liters and
two lakh liters for the buildings situated within the municipal limit and
outside of the municipal limit respectively be invariably provided in all the
high rise buildings. Water in the normal use tank should come only through
the overflow of fire tank so provided.
(iv) In high rise buildings, the internal fire hydrants shall be installed as
provided in the National Building Code or as prescribed in the Indian
Standard Code of practice for installation of internal fire hydrants in high rise
buildings. The detailed plan showing the arrangement of pipe lines, booster
pumps and water-tanks at various levels shall be submitted for approval of
the concerned authority along with the plans and sections of the buildings.
(v) In case of high rise buildings, an external fire hydrant shall be provided
within the confines of the site of the building and shall be connected with
Municipal Water mains not less than 4 in diameter. In addition, fire hydrant
shall be connected with Booster Pump from the static supply maintained on
site.
(vi) In case of high rise buildings separate electric circuits for lift installation,
lighting of passages, corridors and stairs and for internal fire hydrant system
shall be provided.
(vii) All the requirements under the above regulations shall be clearly
indicated on plans duly signed by the owner and the person who has
prepared the plans. The Competent Authority may direct the owner to submit
such further drawings as may be necessary to clarify the implementation of
the provisions of the above regulations.
(viii) Every building having a height of more than 25 Mts. shall be provided
with diesel generators which can be utilized in case of failure of the
electricity.
(ix) The standard of National Building Code must be adopted fully in
providing stair-case and alarm system.
(x) There should be Provision of dry-powder fire extinguisher to the extent of
two on each floor with a capacity of 5 kgs, in all the high rise buildings.
1. Permeability of concrete.
2. Thermal movement:
Remedial Measures:
have to be taken into account in the structural design itself to enable the
structure to withstand thermal stresses without developing any undesirable
cracks.
3. Creep
4. Corrosion of Reinforcement
A properly designed and constructed concrete is initially water-tight and the
reinforcement steel within it is well protected by a physical barrier of
concrete cover which has low permeability and high density. Concrete also
gives steel within it a chemical protection. Steel will not corrode as long as
concrete around it is impervious and does not allow moisture or chlorides to
penetrate within the cover area. Steel corrosion will also not occur as long as
concrete surrounding it is alkaline in nature having a high pH value.
Concrete normally provides excellent protection to reinforcing steel.
Notwithstanding this, there are large number of cases in which corrosion of
reinforcement has caused damage to concrete structures within a few years
from the time of construction. One of the most difficult problems in repairing
a reinforced concrete element is to handle corrosion damage. Reinforcement
corrosion caused by carbonation is arrested to a great extent through repairs
executed in a sound manner. However, the treatment of chloride-induced
corrosion is more difficult and more often the problem continues even after
extensive repairs have been carried out. It invariably re-occurs in a short
period of time. Repairing reinforcement corrosion involves a number of steps,
namely, removal of carbonated concrete, cleaning of reinforcement
application of protection coat, making good the reduced steel area, applying
bond coat and cover replacement. Each step has to be executed with utmost
care. When chlorides are present in concrete, it is extremely difficult to
protect reinforcing steel from chloride attack particularly in cases where
chlorides have entered through materials used in construction and residing in
the hardened concrete.
This increase in volume causes high radial bursting stresses around
reinforcing bars and result in local radial cracks. These splitting cracks results
in the formation of longitudinal cracks parallel to the bar. Corrosion causes
loss of mass, stiffness and bond and therefore concrete repair becomes
inevitable as considerable loss of strength takes place
5. Moisture Movement:
Most of the building materials with pores in their structure in the form of
intermolecular space expand on absorbing moisture and shrink on drying.
These movements are cyclic in nature and are caused by increase or
decrease in inter pore pressure with moisture changes.
Initial shrinkage occurs in all building materials that are cement/lime based
such as concrete, mortar, masonry and plasters. Generally heavy aggregate
concrete shows less shrinkage than light weight aggregate concrete.
Controlling shrinkage cracks.
Shrinkage cracks in masonry could be minimized by avoiding use of rich
cement mortar in masonry and by delaying plaster work till masonry has
dried after proper curing and undergone most of its initial shrinkage. In case
of structural concrete shrinkage cracks are controlled by using temperature
reinforcement. Plaster with coarse well graded sand or stone chip will suffer
less from shrinkage cracks and is preferred for plastering for external face of
walls.
Considering the building as a whole, an effective method of controlling
shrinkage cracks is the provision of movement joints. The work done in cold
weather will be less liable to shrinkage cracks than that in hot weather since
movement due to thermal expansion of materials will be opposite to that of
drying shrinkage.
nourished and maintains good health during the pregnancy, so that her child
is healthily formed. Similarly for a healthy building it is absolutely necessary
for the construction agency and the owner to ensure good quality materials
selection and good construction practices. All the way to building completion
every step must be properly supervised and controlled without cutting
corners.
Some of the main causes for poor construction practices and inadequate
quality of buildings are given below:
Architects and Engineers are parents of the buildings they plan and design
and therefore their contribution to the health and life of the building is quite
significant. Once the plans are drawn the structural designs and
specifications are prepared, it is then the turn of the agency to construct the
building and bring the blue print to reality. Special care must be taken in the
design and detailing of structures and the structure should be inspected
continuously during all phases of construction to supplement the careful
design and detailing.
8. Poor Maintenance
A structure needs to be maintained after a lapse of certain period from its
construction completion. Some structures may need a very early look into
their deterioration problems, while others can sustain themselves very well
for many years depending on the quality of design and construction.
.
Balconies and canopies are generally cantilever RCC slabs. Due to additional
loading they deflect and develop cracks. As the steel reinforcement in these
slabs have less concrete cover and the balcony and canopy slab is exposed to
more aggressive external environment, corrosion of steel reinforcement
takes place and repairs become necessary.
The loft tanks are generally installed in toilets or kitchens, which are humid
areas of the buildings. The structure in addition to being overloaded is also
more prone to corrosion of reinforcement steel in these areas and therefore
deteriorates and if not repaired, part of the building can even collapse.
space throughout
exceed
5m
3.0 m
6m
3.0 m
9m
3.9 m
12 m
4.8 m
15 m
5.7 m
18 m
6.6 m
21 m
7.5 m
but in no case it shall be less than 1.8 m. Such a yard shall form an
inseparable part of the site.
Rear open space: Every residential building shall have a yard of an average
width of 4.5 m and at no place the yard measuring less than 3 m as an
inseparable part of the building, except in the case of back to back sites
where the width of the yard could be reduced to 3m provided no erection, reerection or material alteration of the building shall be undertaken, if at
common plot line straight lines drawn downwards and outwards from the line
of intersection of the outer surface of any rear wall of the building with the
roof perpendicular to that line form an angle of more than 63.5 degree to the
horizontal.
Side open space: every residential building may have a permanently open
air space not less than 1m in width on one of its sides other than its front
and rear and such side open space shall form an inseparable part of the site.
In case, side open air space is to be used for ventilation, it shall be in
accordance with the requirements mentioned in the previous paragraph. In
case, the side open space abuts a road, the width shall not be less than 3m.
8. Header: it is a brick or stone which lies with its greatest length at right
angles to the face of the work.. in case of stone masonry header is
sometimes known as through stone. The course of brick work in which all the
bricks are laid as headers is known as header course.
9. Stretcher: it is a brick or a stone which lies with its longest side parallel
to the face of the work. The course of brick work in which all the bricks are
laid as stretchers is known as stretcher course.
10. Bond: This is the method of arranging bricks so that the individual units
are tied together. Bonding is essential to eliminate conyinuous vertical joints
both in body as well as on the face of wall.
11. Spalls: these are the chips of stones used for filling the interstices in
stone masonry.
12. Quoins: these are the stones used for the corners of walls of a structure.
13. Bat: it is the portion of brick cut across the width.
14. Closer: it is the portion of the brick cut length wise in such a manner
that its one long face remains uncut.
15. Queen closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick
length wise into two portions.
16. King Closer: these are the portions of a brick obtained by cutting off the
triangular piece between the center of one end and the center of one side.
17. Bevelled Closer: it is that portion of a brick in which the whole length of
the brick is beveled for maintaining half width at one end and full width art
the other.
18. Frog: it is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made
with the object of forming a key for the mortars. This reduces the weight of
the brick also.
19. Plinth: it is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base
of the wall above ground level. It indicates the height of the ground level
above the natural ground level. It protects the building from dampness.
20. Plinth Course: It is the top most course of the plinth masonry.
21. String Course: It is a horizontal projecting course of masonry projecting
out of the face of the wall for shedding rain water off the face. It imparts an
IMPROVING EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANCE OF SMALL BUILDINGS
The earthquake resistance of small buildings may be increased by taking
some precautions and measures in site selections, building planning and
constructions as explained below:
2. Building Planning:
Symmetric plans are safer compared to unsymmetric. Hence go for square or
rectangular plans rather than L, E, H, T shaped. Rectangular plans should not
have length more than twice the width.
3. Foundations:
Width of foundation should not be less than 750 mm for single storey
building and not less than 900 mm for storeyed buildings. Depth of
foundation should not be less than 1.0 m for soft soil and 0.45 m for rocky
ground. Before foundation is laid remove all loose materials including water
from the trench and compact the bottom. After foundation is laid back-fill the
foundation properly and compact.
4. Masonry:
In case of stone masonry:
Fill the voids using small chips of the stones with minimum possible
mortar.
Place rough faces towards top and bottom to get good bond.
Walls with too many doors and windows close to each other collapse
early.
Windows should be kept at same level.
The total width of all openings in wall should not exceed 1/3rd the
length of wall.
Doors should not be placed at the end of the wall. They should be at
least at 500 mm from the cross wall.
Clear width between two openings should not be less than 600 mm.
6. Roof:
Building with 4 sided sloping roof is stronger than the one with two
sided sloping, since gable walls collapse early.
7. Chejjas:
8. Parapet:
Masonry parapet wall can collapse easily. It is better to build parapet with
bricks up to 300 mm followed by iron railings.
10. Bands:
The following R.C. bands should be provided
(a) Plinth band
(b) Lintel band
(c) Roof band
(d) Gable band.
For making R.C. bands minimum thickness is 75 mm and at least two bars of
8 mm diameters are required. They should be tied with steel limbs of 6 mm
diameter at 150 mm spacing. If wall size is large, diagonal and vertical bands
also may be provided.
11. Retrofitting:
Retrofitting means preparing a structure in a scientific manner so that all
elements of a building act as an integral unit. It is generally the most
economical and fastest way to achieve safety of the building. The following
are some of the methods in retrofitting:
It is reported that in USA fire kills more people each year than all other
natural disasters combined including floods, cyclones and earthquake.
The fire load in a building should be kept to the minimum possible. The
term fire load indicates the amount of heat liberated in kilo joules per
square metre (kJ/m2) of floor area of any compartment by the
combustion of the content of the building including its own combustible
part. It is determined by multiplying the weights of all combustible
materials by their respective calorific values and dividing that with floor
area.
A building may be made more fire resistant by:
1. Using suitable materials.
2. Taking precautions in building construction
3. By providing fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers.
glass with steel wire is more resistant to fire and during cooling
process, even if it breaks, fractured glasses are in their original
position.
Aluminium: It is good conductor of heat. It has got higher resistance
to fire.
Asbestos Cement: It is non-combustible material. It possesses high
fire resistance.
PROCEDURE
1. From the plan (fig 1), the centre line of the walls are calculated. Then the
centre lines of the rooms are set out by setting perpendiculars in the ratio
3:4:5. Suppose the corner points are a, b, c, d, e, f and g which are marked
by pegs with nails on top.
2. The setting of the corner point is checked according to diagonals ac, bd, cf
and eg.
3. During excavation, the centre points a, b, c, d, e, f, g may be removed.
Therefore the centre lines are extended and the centre points are marked
about 2m away from the outer edge of excavation. Thus the points A1, A2,
B1, B2 and like wise, are marked outside the trench. Centre line are shown
clearly by stretching thread or rope. The centre points fixed 2m away from
the excavation are marked with sit out pegs.
4. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked
by thread with pegs at appropriate positions.
5. The excavation width is then marked by lime or by with furrow with spade.
6. If the plan is much to complicated and follows a zigzag pattern, then the
centre pegs are kept at suitable positions according to site conditions.
COMPONENTS OF STAIRCASE
Following are the terms used for components of staircase:
Step The step is composed of the tread and riser.
Tread The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the
samespecifications (thickness) as any otherflooring. The tread "depth" is
measured from the outer edge of the step to the vertical "riser" between
steps. The "width" is measured from one side to the other.
Riser The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be
missing for an "open" stair effect.
Nosing An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If
it is present, this means that, measured horizontally, the total "run" length of
the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, as the treads actually
overlap each other slightly.
Starting step or Bullnose Where stairs are open on one or both sides,
the first step above the lower floor may be wider than the other steps and
rounded. The balusters typically form a semicircle around the circumference
of the rounded portion and the handrail has a horizontal spiral called a
"volute" that supports the top of the balusters. Besides the cosmetic appeal,
starting steps allow the balusters to form a wider, more stable base for the
end of the handrail.
Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the stairs can be less
sturdy, even with a thick post. A double bullnose can be used when both
sides of the stairs are open.
Stringer, Stringer board or sometimes just String
The structural member that supports the treads and risers. There are
typically two stringers, one on either side of the stairs; though the treads
may be supported many other ways. The stringers are sometimes notched so
that the risers and treads fit into them.
Stringers on open-sided stairs are often open themselves so that the treads
are visible from the side. Such stringers are called "cut" stringers. Stringers
on a closed side of the stairs are closed, with the support for the treads
routed into the stringer.
A term for the vertical posts that hold up the handrail. Sometimes simply
called guards or spindles. Treads often require two balusters. The second
baluster is closer to the riser and is taller than the first. The extra height in
the second baluster is typically in the middle between decorative elements on
the baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned with the
tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing angle.
Newel
A large baluster or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural
element, it extends below the floor and subfloor to the bottom of the floor
joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used where a
railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in
the wall. For open landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a
decorative newel drop.
Finial
A decorative cap to the top of a newel post, particularly at the end of the
balustrade.
Baserail or Shoerail
For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a
baserail. This allows for identical balusters, avoiding the second baluster
problem.
Fillet
A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing.
ROBUSTNESS OF BUILDINGS
Robustness of Buildings is explained by an example of a building collapse.
The whole building collapsed due a pressure cooker blast on 20th floor.
Early one morning in 1967 a large part of the building (shown in fig.) in north
London, collapsed, after an explosion on the 20th floor. The resulting enquiry
led to a major developments in the way we think about design. It made
designers aware of robustness.
Ronan point is a large panel structure made from precast wall and floor units.
Very early in the morning a gas cooker exploded in a flat on the 19th floor.
The result provoked to be catastrophic. The explosion caused the kitchen wall
to disintegrate. This led to the collapse of the flat above, since its support
had been removed. All the debris from the floors above fell onto the kitchen
floor which collapsed and precipitated a domino effect onto the floors below,
as shown in the figures below:
Member Redundancy:
The concept was developed that any single member should be able to be
removed without causing overall collapse. This could be achieved in the
Ronan point type of structure by tying together the members.
The connections between all members allow the floors above to remain intact
and not collapse onto the floors below, should any member be removed.
Key Elements:
More importantly for the basic planning of structures, it was recognized that
structures which depend for their support on only one, or a very few key
elements should be avoided, such structures are not Robust.
Such measures for security and control could bring in the use of:
2.
Porcelain Tiles
3.
Vitrified Tiles
Stones:Stones are available of various shapes and size and each have different
characteristics.
Here we list few of the stones
1.
Kadappa Stone
2.
Kota Stone
3.
Dholpur Stone
4.
Marble
5.
Sandstone
6.
Jaisalmer
7.
Granite
Most of the stones are known from the place where they are available. Kota
stone is available from Kota in Rajasthan, Dholpur Stone from Dholpur,
Jaisalmer stone from Jaisalmer etc.
Stones such as Jesalmer, Granite and Marble are available with different
texture and colour. Their rate depends according to their properties and
texture. Generally flooring pattern and material depends upon the budget of
the building. Though it does not mean that if the budget for the flooring is
high it would result into good flooring. For flooring to be aesthetically
appealing and functionally workable proper selection of the material and
proper installation of the flooring plays an important role.
WOODEN FLOOR
Apart from Stones and Tiles another flooring pattern is wooden floor. Wooden
floor looks aesthetically good. PERGO is the company name which has been
into the business of wooden flooring since years and has done a great job.
GLASS FLOORING
Apart from these, technology has become such that the wildest thing which
could not been thought of 10 years ago is now possible with the help of
technology. One such example of it is GLASS FLOORING.
Apart from flooring glass can also be used in Staircases.
FALSE FLOORING
False Flooring is flooring used for buildings with high service requirement
mostly offices which carries high amount of cables etc. and sometimes Airconditioner, water supply pipes. Additional structural support and lighting are
often provided when a floor is raised enough for a person to crawl or even
walk beneath.
This type of floor consists of gridded metal frame work or understructure of
adjustable-height legs (called Pedestal) that provide support for individual
floor panels, which are usually by 2 X 2 feet or 60 X 60 cms in size. The
height of the legs/pedestals is dictated by the volume of cable and other
services provided beneath, but typically arranged for clearance of at least six
inches or 15cms.
The panels are normally made of steel-clad particle board or a steel panel
with a cementitious internal core. There are a variety of flooring finishes to
suit the application such as carpets, high pressure laminates, marble, stone,
and anti-static finishes for use in computer rooms and laboratories.
Many modern computer and equipment rooms employ an under-floor cooling
system to ensure even cooling of the room with minimal wasted energy.
Cooled air is pumped under the floor and dispersed upward into the room
through regularly spaced diffuser tiles or through ducts directed into specific
equipment.
LAMINATE FLOORING DO IT
YOURSELF
Laminate flooring
In todays trend of homely yet modern design is plenty of space for
laminateflooring. The ease of maintenance and hygienic properties of this
type of flooring are just two of the reasons that more and more people
choose to go laminate. It will be able to give you the feel of a wooden floor,
without having to spend bags of money. And nowadays it is so easy to lay it
yourself!
With the development of the click-and-go laminates, you really dont need to
be a professional to be able to lay your own floor. Which saves you a lot of
money! In this guide we will give you a few handy pointers to laying your
own laminate floor and how to care for it.
flooring you choose is appropriate for the room youre going to put it in. For
example, you best use waterproof laminate flooring for the bathroom and the
kitchen! Have a look around your local DIY stores, comparing qualities and
prices to make sure you make the right choice.
Be sure you check and double check the size of your room and buy 5%
more than you think you need. You will always need more for cutting and
nobody likes going back to the DIY shed for one pack of planks! Besides
that, when you do return, they might not have your colour match
anymore.
Underlay (to make the floor sound proof and to provide insulation).
Take 5% extra of this as well.
Tape measure
Scissors
Circular saw/Jigsaw
Handsaw
Spirit level
Square
Nails/screws etc.
Chisel
Hammer
Levelling compound
Bucket
Damp-proof membrane (for when you have tiles, asphalt/concrete or
vinyl as your sub-floor)
Hammer
How to start?
First of all you have to condition the flooring to the rooms temperature and
humidity. Leave it in its packing and lay it horizontally (to prevent bending of
the laminate) for at least 48 hours before you start to lay it.
Remove all the flooring you will not need anymore (like carpets, etc.). Leave
only the sub-floor. You will now have the opportunity to access any underfloor electrics and plumbing, so take it! It will save you a lot of time in the
long run.
Determine whether your floor is level enough to start adding the underlay or
whether you have to level it out first. Important! Not taking enough time to
level the floor at this stage will later surface in a number of problems, like
bending and warping of the boards and a general unevenness of the floor.
This will reduce the enjoyment you will have from your floor and will also
shorten its life expectancy. A floor is considered level when difference in
height is less than 1mm over a metre.
To level a concrete sub-floor, you will use your hammer and chisel to chip
away the protruding areas, and your levelling compound to fill any gaps.
However, if they floor is generally not level, it is best to apply the levelling
compound over the whole area, which will give a perfectly smooth finish allover. A damp-proof membrane now has to be put in place according to the
composition of the sub-floor.
allow for a gap between the boards and the wall). Also measure the width of
the pipe. Use a jigsaw to cut out the area around the pipe, starting at the
edge of the board. This way you can remove the bit where the pipe will come
through the board, and you can replace the bit behind the pipe (using a bit of
glue to hold it in place). Use pipe covers to neatly cover around the pipe.
After removing the spacers from around the floor, use edging trim around the
room to neatly finish off the floor.
Now you just have to give it a sweep and youre ready!
Top tips
Have a good look around your local DIY sheds before you commit
yourself to a particular type of flooring. Nowadays there are a lot of
different
designs and colours available, and there are quite a few offers on
laminate flooring, so shop around and get yourself a good deal!
A shopping list is always a good idea!
Measure measure measure before you go to your DIY shed. And even
then buy about 5% more than you need. Especially if youve never done
laminate flooring before it helps if you dont need to worry about miscutting a few boards. You dont want to go back for one extra pack just
because you couldnt be bothered with it in the first place!
Always buy the right flooring for the right environment. Check whether
the floor will be water resistant when you want to apply it to your kitchen
or bathroom.
Plan any electrical or plumbing work ahead. When you remove your
carpet or old floor, you have the easiest access to the wires and pipes
under the floorboards, so do it before you lay your new floor!
Take your time while fitting the floor! Although you really want to finish
it tonight, deep in your heart you know the floor will look a lot better
when you sleep on it and look at it again with fresh eyes the following
morning!
If you decide to go for a glued laminate floor, please keep the drying
times in mind. This mainly determines the strength of the flooring.
If you decide to take the floor with you when you move (only possible
with the glueless variant), be careful with unlocking the boards. The
tongues snap quite easily if treated roughly.
Use a special laminate floor cleaner to optimise the shine and durability
of your floor. Do not use any abrasive or bleach-based products.
SLABJACKING
SLABJACKING
sufficient.
Drilling Holes
Holes that are 1-1/4 to 2 inches in diameter are drilled by pneumatic drills,
core drills, or other devices which are capable of drilling grout injection holes
through the concretepavement and the base material. The equipment must
be in good condition and operated in such a manner that the holes are
vertical and round. The down feed pressure, whether by hand or mechanical
means should not exceed 200 pounds per square inch (1,379 kilopascals).
Where the concrete pavement is tight against the base material, the use of
an airline or blow pipe may be necessary to form a cavity under the
pavement slab for the grout pressure to take effect. Where the pavement is
placed and bonded to cement treated or other stabilized base material, grout
holes should be drilled completely through the base material. The grout
should be injected below the base material rather than between the
pavement and base material.
Grout Mixtures.
A variety of grout mixtures have been successfully used for slabjacking. They
generally consist of three to seven parts fine aggregates or a mixture of
aggregate and pozzolans or flyash to one part Portland cement with enough
water to produce the desired consistency. Wetting agents or other additives
may also be used to increase the flowability. The use of a wetting agent
lubricates the grout and permits runs of up to 6 feet (, and it also tends to
reduce pyramiding (a stiff grout may form a pyramid under the slab,
leaving unfilled cavities). A definite method of proportioning the grout
mixture should be used to ensure uniform consistency. The proper
consistency to be used for any given condition is best determined by
experience. Generally, a mix of stiff consistency is used to raise the
pavement slabs and a more fluid mix is used for filling voids. The consistency
should be checked by a flow faulted, the hole at the low corner should be set
back to avoid raising the adjacent slab. Where the pavement has settled and
the slabs are in contact with the sub base, a single hole located in the middle
of the panel may be sufficient.
Drilling Holes
Holes that are 1-1/4 to 2 inches in diameter are drilled by pneumatic drills,
core drills, or other devices which are capable of drilling grout injection holes
through the concrete pavement and the base material. The equipment must
be in good condition and operated in such a manner that the holes are
vertical and round. The down feed pressure, whether by hand or mechanical
means should not exceed 200 pounds per square inch (1,379 kilopascals).
Where the concrete pavement is tight against the base material, the use of
an airline or blow pipe may be necessary to form a cavity under the
pavement slab for the grout pressure to take effect. Where the pavement is
placed and bonded to cement treated or other stabilized base material, grout
holes should be drilled completely through the base material. The grout
should be injected below the base material rather than between the
pavement and base material.
Grout Mixtures
A variety of grout mixtures have been successfully used for slabjacking. They
generally consist of three to seven parts fine aggregates or a mixture of
aggregate and pozzolans or flyash to one part Portland cement with enough
water to produce the desired consistency. Wetting agents or other additives
may also be used to increase the flowability. The use of a wetting agent
lubricates the grout and permits runs of up to 6 feet (1.8 meters), and it also
tends to reduce pyramiding (a stiff grout may form a pyramid under the
slab, leaving unfilled cavities). A definite method of proportioning the grout
mixture should be used to ensure uniform consistency. The proper
consistency to be used for any given condition is best determined by
experience. Generally, a mix of stiff consistency is used to raise the
pavement slabs and a more fluid mix is used for filling voids. The consistency
should be checked by a flow other elevation differences. If the temperature is
high, the concrete may be in compression at the slab ends and may not be
free to move. This may require freeing the joints by sawing to complete the
lifting process.
Grout Pumping
Pumping and jacking operations should normally start at the lowest point in a
depressed area and work outward in both directions. Pumping progresses by
lowering into successive holes an injection pipe connected to the discharge
hose of the grout pump. An expanding rubber packer is used to seal the open
space between the pipe and the drill hole. The injection pipe must not extend
below the bottom of the pavement and it must be equipped with a return line
to circulate the grout while no grout is being placed. Lifting should be done in
increments of about 1/4 inch with frequent changes in injection locations to
keep slab stresses at a minimum and avoid cracking. The rate of grout
injection should be uniform and as slow as possible, usually a minimum of
1/2 cubic foot (0.014 cubic meter) per minute to a maximum of 2 cubic feet
(0.056 cubic meter) per minute. Initial pumping is normally at the lower rate
and is increased as lifting progresses. As the desired elevation is approached,
the lifting rate should be reduced. When grout is extruded from joints,
cracks, or from the pavement edge before the target elevation is reached,
regrouting in new drill holes and additional slabjacking will be necessary.
Gauge pressures for slabjacking are normally in the range of 75 to 200
pounds per square inch with short pressure surges up to 600 pounds per
square inch (4,134 kilopascals) to initiate lifting of bonded slabs. Constant
observation and analysis of pressure behavior is the most important single
factor affecting good Slabjacking. A rapid increase could signal a stoppage of
flow that could be followed by a buildup of pressure and excessive lift and
cracking, if pumping continues. A sudden reduction of pressure could indicate
a loss of lift due to subsurface leakage. In slabjacking operations, the
temperature is important when raising slabs to correct faulted joints or other
elevation differences. If the temperature is high, the concrete may be in
compression at the slab ends and may not be free to move. This may require
freeing the joints by sawing to complete lifting
process.
grouting operation should be kept clean of excess grout and other materials.
Grout and cement slurry on the pavement should be broomed and washed
off to avoid unsightly discoloration and to remove the grout slurry before it
bonds to the surface.
REPAIRS OF COMMERCIAL
BUILDINGS
Concrete construction is generally expected to give trouble free service
through out its intended design life. However, these expectations are not
realized in many constructions because of structural deficiency, material
deterioration, unanticipated over loadings or physical damage. Premature
material deterioration can arise from a number of causes, the most common
being when the construction specifications are violated or when the facility is
exposed to harsher service environment than those expected during the
planning and design stages. Physical damage can also arise from fire,
explosion as well as from restraints, both internal and external, against
structural movement. Except in extreme cases, most of thestructures require
restoration to meet its functional requirements by appropriate repair
techniques.
Buildings and other structures have a certain useful life, which depends on
the specifications adopted. The large number of monuments, which are
cherished heritage structures have stood well over a period of time. But
some of these have shown signs of distress due to age, aggressive natural
environment industrial pollution etc. Further, distress gets aggravated due to
overloading/ misuse of buildings. A few buildings have also failed due to
faulty design / construction. Thus, Repairs & Rehabilitation of buildings are of
vital importance.
Scope
The Scope is:
1. To identify the causes of Repairs of Residential buildings
2. To select and plan the effective remedy using appropriate methodology.
2. Repair Management:
Three distinct stages are to be recognized while taking up a repair job.
Stage 1: The first stage involves documentation of damage, its type and
extent, prognosis of repaired structure and recommendations on repair
methodology. For major jobs it will be worth while to engage an independent
consultant to do this job.
Stage 2: The second stage requires preparation of detailed drawings,
sketches, execution guidelines and notes, material and works specifications
and tender document. The tender document should adequately cover various
elements to the extent possible. Specific provisions in terms of material
specifications should be included. It should clearly define modalities of
Voltage line
Vertically (meters)
Horizontally (meters)
2.4 m
1.22 m
3.66 m
1.83 m
2.
spouts projecting at the road level or the water pipe may be permitted in
accordance with the drainage plan.
a) Sunshade over windows and ventilators: Projections of sunshades
over windows or ventilators when permitted by the authority shall fulfill the
following conditions:
i. Notwithstanding anything contained in these bye-laws, no projection of any
sort shall be permitted over the land and the road or over any drain or over
any portion outside the boundaries of the site below a height of 2.8 m from
the road level.
ii. Sunshades provided above a height of 2.8 m from the ground level shall
be permitted to project upto a maximum width of 60 cm if the road over
which they project exceeds 9m in width.
iii. No projection of any sort whatever shall be permitted on roads less than
9m in width or on roads having no footpaths.
b) Porticos in existing developed areas: Porticos may be allowed in such
roads as can leave a minimum clear space of 18m between kerbs or if a
stipulation has been made for such construction in the lease deed or in such
cases where its construction would completely fall in a gap in the existing
arcade, provided that these shall be constructed as follows:
i. It shall not be less than 3m wide and is either cantilevered or supported on
thin steel or RCC pillars.
ii. Nothing shall be allowed to be constructed on the portion which shall be
used as an open terrace.
iii. Nothing shall be allowed to project beyond the line of arcades.
iv. The space under the portion shall be paved and channeled according to
the directions of the authority.
Type of Building
Maximum riser
Public buildings
15 cm
30 cm
Domestic buildings
19 cm
25 cm
2.
Not be directly over or under any room other than another latrine,
washing place, bath or terrace, unless it has a water tight floor.
3.
4.
5.
6.
iii. Ventilation ducts: Provided such ducts have 130 square cm of area for
each square meter of area with a minimum total area of 300 square cm and
least dimension of 9cm.
c) Stores, backrooms: These will have atleast half the ventilation required
for living room.
d) Basement and floors: Basements and rooms located therein except
room shall be lighten and ventilated by windows in exterior walls having a
ventilating area of not less than 2.5% of the floor area.
e) Kitchen shall be ventilated according to standards prescribed for
habitable rooms near the ceiling as far as possible.
f) Stairways: every staircase should be lighted and ventilated from an open
air space of not less than 3m depth measured horizontally in case of ground
and one upper floor structure, 4.5 m in case of ground and two upper and in
higher structure than this, the open air space shall not be less than 6m,
provided that the lighting area shall not be less than 1 sq.m per floor height.
Every staircase shall be ventilated properly.
It should be impervious.
2.
3.
4.
2.
3.
DPC above ground level: For DPC above ground level with wall
thickness generally not exceeding 40cm, any one of the type of materials
mentioned above may be used. Cement concrete is however commonly
adopted material for DPC at plinth level, 38 to 50mm thick layer of
cement concrete M15 (1:2:4 mix) serves the purpose under normal
conditions.
DPC Material for floors, roofs etc: For greater wall thickness or
where DPC is to be laid over large areas such as floors, roofs, etc, the
choice is limited to flexible materials which provide lesser number of
joints like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts, plastic sheets etc.
The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen
and laid with joints properly lapped and sealed.
1.
2.
2.
The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be made level,
even and free from projections. Uneven base is likely to cause damage to
DPC.
3.
4.
9. Removal of all unused and hanging forms, loose materials etc. stored on
exposed floors.
10. Inspection of all props and shores for adequacy to handle all the loads.
11. Removal of defective props.
12. Alignment of props such as verticality, height and spacing between props
should be inspected.
13. All props should be rested on bearing plates.
14. Props should be placed on hard bearing surface.
15. Safe nailing and firm locking of clamps on adjustable props.
16. Lateral stability of formwork and complete fixity at the joint between
props when one prop is placed on the top of the other.
17. Proper bearing below the stringers and joists at points of supports.
18. De-shuttering and removal of props below concrete slabs and beams
after development of adequate strength in concrete.
19. Construction loads not placed on freshly cast slab or beams while
removal of formwork or before concrete attaining required strength.
There can be many more checklists for formwork which has not been written
here. If you think any addition has to be made, please write those in
comments.
1. Ensure lateral bracings provided firmly supports the forms at all points of
support.
2. Block out (stop end) braced to resist vertical and lateral loads.
3. Form panels are adequately braced and tied with each other.
4. Formwork corners shall be adequately tied to prevent leakage or bulging
and spreading of concrete.
5. Ensure sufficient length is provided for wall ties and has sufficient strength
and spacing as required.
6. Check wales for proper proper spacing and joints between should be
staggered from one tier to the next.
7. In double member wales, one member left continuous across the location
of form ties.
8. Wall ties and bolts tightened properly.
9. In case double member wales is used, both wales should have identical
depths.
10. Check for adequate lap between forms and previously cast concrete.
11. Ensure that grout leakage does not occur at joints between panels and
joints between old concrete and panels above them.
12. Check the provision of resistance against uplift in case of sloping faces of
concrete formwork.
13. Ensure experienced supervisor is available at site while installing the wall
forms and while placing concrete.
FORMWORK TECHNICAL,
FUNCTIONAL & ECONOMIC
REQUIREMENTS
Formwork is a temporary mould into which fresh concrete and reinforcement
are placed to form a particular reinforcedconcrete element.
A typical breakdown of total construction percentage costs shows that
formwork material and labour alone consists of 35% of the total concrete
construction cost. In the construction of a structural element, the cost
distribution can be found approximately as:
Formwork should be of the desired shape, size and and fit at the
location of the member in structure according to the drawings.
Formwork should support the designed loads any other applied loads
during the construction period.
Form sections should be of the size that can be lifted and transported
easily from one job site to another.
Formwork shall be designed such that it fits and fastens together with
reasonable ease.
Forms should be made such that workers can handle them without any
safety issue, respecting the Health, Safety, and Hygiene Regulation in
effect.
Used on the continent and in North America for many years, ICF has proved
to be robust, cost effective method of constructing of variety of building
types from houses and basements to multi-storey cinemas and commercial
buildings.
Design Considerations:
The exterior of the building can be clad in any finish the architect
requires including masonry, brick slips, render tiles, curtain walling and
weather boarding. Internally, plaster or dry lining is applied directly to the
face of the expanded polystyrene formwork.
ICF is quick and easy to use without the need of skilled tradesman. In
fact, any builder can quickly erect an ICF structure since the lightweight
units are easier to handle than traditional materials. Typically an
experienced team of four can erect and concrete the walls of a threebedroomed bungalow in a day, significantly reducing the contract
program.
The low labour and reduced need for skilled tradesman result in more
efficient use of increasingly scarce construction workers. Also, with the
speedy construction of watertight building envelope, internal services and
finishings can progress independently of external cladding.
Service ducts and utilities can be pre-installed within the concrete core
or chased into the expanded polystyrene using a router of hot-wire cutter.
The occupants benefit from low running expenses, as the energyefficient building costs less to heat. In fact, some houses need no heating
other than that provided by solar energy.
The ICF insulation reduces impact sound, while the concrete core
provides a solid mass to reduce airborne noise. This makes the system
ideal for party wall construction.
All ICF materials are inert, giving no toxic fumes. Also, the building
maintains an even comfortable temperature, and air quality is essentially
controlled good news for those with asthma or other allergies. There are
no problems with condensation, mould or mildew.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels
should have plane surface.
7.
8.
The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when
exposed to the elements.
9.
Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of
formwork:
1.
2.
3.
Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:
It should be
1.
well seasoned
2.
light in weight
3.
4.
Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth
and even surface on all faces which come in contact with concrete.
25 mm to 40mm thick
Joints, ledges
50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm
Posts
Plywood Formwork
Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up
panels of required sizes. The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably
with that of timber shuttering and it may even prove cheaper in certain cases
in view of the following considerations:
1.
2.
3.
Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the
edges by small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through
the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in
large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are largely
used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the
shuttering is possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for
circular or curved structures.
Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber
formwork and their reuses are more in number.
2.
Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and
speed.
3.
4.
5.
Construction of formwork:
This normally involves the following operations:
1.
2.
Shuttering
3.
Provision of camber
4.
Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides
should be removed first as they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2.
3.
Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow
early removal of formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be
allowed to be removed until all the concrete reaches strength of atleast twice
the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the time of removal
of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order
to prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.
Figure 1 to 6 shows formwork for different types of members in civil
engineering construction.
Figure 1(a): Details of timber formwork for RCC beam and slab floor
Period of time
1 to 2 days
3 days
7 days
7 days
14 days
14 days
21 days
GOOD FORMWORK:
There are two factors that decide how well the concrete will look in the final
result.. one is how the concrete is placed and compacted, and the other is
the quality of the formwork.
Formwork is made from expensive materials, and requires great skill and
experience in its manufactures. Its importance is evident when you consider
that the cost of fabrication, erecting and striking the formwork, often exceeds
the cost of the concrete it is designed to shape and support.
Formwork usually needs to be used many times for it to be cost efficient.
This can only be done if it is carefully handled, cleaned and stored,
regardless of what material it is made from.
For anything other than most smallest of concreting jobs e.g. walls over 1m
in height, a drawing should be provided, showing what formwork is required.
This need not be an intricate design drawing, a simple sketch is usually
sufficient.
The below picture shows part of a concrete structure soon after the formwork
has been struck. Not the poor finish (circled). This is an imprint off the
painted plywood formwork. Some of the paint has run, and this has been
transposed to the concrete. It is important to remember that the face of the
concrete is effectively a negative of the formwork face. Always inspect the
formwork prior to pouring.
Steel:
Steel is also used in pre-fabricated formwork. Purpose made steel forms are
fabricated when dimensional tolerances are critical, or when the forms are
planned to be re-used. Steel forms become cost-efficient after about a dozen
uses, although they can be used upto 100 pours if they are carefully cleaned
and stored.
Aluminium:
Often used in pre-fabricated formwork, that is put together on site.
Aluminium is strong and light, and consequently fewer supports and ties are
required. The lighter sections will deflect more, but this can be avoided by
simply following the manufacturers recommendations.
Plastics:
Glass reinforced plastics (GRP) and vacuum formed plastics are used when
complicated concrete shapes are required (e.g. waffle floors). Although
vacuum formed plastics will always need support, GRP can be fabricated with
integral bearers making it self supporting. Like steel, plastic formwork can be
re-used many times, as long as care is taken not to scour the surface whilst
vibrating the concrete.