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These are the lecture notes as I have promised. Again, I have to stress that these are just from
the slides and I cannot upload the figures since they do not belong to us. You have to look for
some of the figures yourselves (they are usually found in textbooks, too). Maswerte kayo, I put
some figures here.
These notes do not and cannot in any way replace listening during the lecture in class.
Napansin nyo naman siguro ang dami2x ko sinasabi na wala sa slides :) And the examples I
cite are local so you also cannot find them in a basic geology book. For the concepts, though,
the books are very helpful :)
The point is, you may have these lecture notes BUT you are not assured of a high score in the
exam. Listen and try to participate in the lecture and ask questions when things are not so clear.
Rakenrol,
Ma’am Jill
GEOLOGY - study of the earth, its origin, history, materials, processes and resources
Main Branches:
Basic Concepts:
1. Catastrophism
sudden, worldwide catastrophes are the agents of change that alter the physical features of
the Earth over time
widely accepted by theologians in the early 1800s due to similarity with Biblical events such
as Noah’s Flood
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
2. Uniformitarianism
advocates the idea that the Earth is continuously modified by geologic processes that have
always operated throughout time (at different rates), and that by studying them we can
understand how the Earth has evolved through time
contends that the Universe originated from a cosmic explosion (origin unknown) that hurled
matter in all directions 15 and 20 billion years ago
Edwin Hubble justified Lemaître’s theory through observations that the Universe is
continuously expanding; galaxies are moving away from each other
the solar system originated from a single rotating cloud of gas and dust, starting 4.6 billion
years ago, which contracted due to gravity
the idea was first proposed by Immanuel Kant and Pierre Simon de Laplace in the 18th
century
The Big Bang produced enormous amount of matter: rotating cloud of gas and dust.
The rotating gas-dust cloud began to contract due to gravity. Most of the mass became
concentrated at the center, forming the SUN.
THE SUN
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
sun’s center became compressed enough to initiate nuclear reactions, consequently
emitting light and energy (sun became a star)
a middle-aged star
THE PLANETS
planets nearest the sun contained high-temp minerals (e.g. iron) while those that are far
away contained lower-temp materials (e.g. methane and ammonia, and some that
contained water locked in their structures)
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars - inner or terrestrial planets (nearest the sun)
Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune - giant or Jovian planets (outer planets; far from the sun)
2. Planets’ rotation direction the same as direction of revolution except for Venus, which rotates
in a retrograde direction.
3. Uranus and Pluto rotate about axes that are tipped nearly on their sides.
THE EARTH
- started as “dust ball” from the nebular gas and dust brought together by gravity (accretion),
which was heated (heating) and eventually segregated into layers (differentiation) as it cooled
- when cooling set in, the denser elements (e.g., iron) sank while the lighter ones floated out into
the surface, creating a differentiated Earth
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
CONSEQUENCES OF THE HEATING & DIFFERENTIATION OF THE EARTH
* Life started when atmosphere was modified due to the appearance of the blue-green algae.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION (by mass) - 34.6% Iron, 29.5% Oxygen, 15.2% Silicon, 12.7%
Magnesium
SHAPE - Oblate spheroid (flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator)
1. Continents
2. Ocean basins
>Crust
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
2. Continental – granitic composition (SiAl); 20 to 60 km thick; density:~2.7g/cm3
> Core – iron rich sphere with small amounts of Ni and other elements
*Discontinuities/Boundaries
Mechanical layers
http://cache eb com/eb/image?id=73583&rendTypeId=35
1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere – weak sphere; beneath the lithosphere and within the upper mantle
basically concerned with the buoyancy of the blocks of the Earth’s crust as they rest on the
mantle
changes in the load over certain regions causes the lithosphere to make adjustments until
isostatic equilibrium (i.e., neither rising or sinking) is reached
Mountains have “roots” which extend down into the mantle. Thus, elevation is proportional to
the depth of the underlying “root”.
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
PRATT’S THEORY (2)
Elevation is inversely proportional to density. Thus, the higher the mountain, the lower is its
density; that is, light rocks “float” higher.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Isostasy.Airy&Pratt.Scheme.png
1. Cooling through conduction and radiation (Lord Kelvin, 1897): ~24 – 40 m.y.
2. rate of delivery of salt to oceans (John Joly, 1901): ~90 – 100 m.y.
3. thickness of total sedimentary record divided by average sedimentation rates (1910):
~1.6 b.y.
4. Amount of evolution of marine mollusks (Charles Lyell, 1800s): ~80 m.y. for the
Cenozoic
5. radioactivity (Henri Becquerel, 1896): ~500 m.y.
6. Radiometric dating: 4.5 – 4.6 b.y. (which is, of course, the accepted age)
Lecture 3 - MINERALS
MINERALOID - naturally occurring, inorganic material that is amorphous Ex. glass, opal
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
>Cleavage - the tendency of a mineral to break in particular directions due to zones of
weakness in the crystal structure
*Fractures or irregular breakages occur when bond strengths in a crystal structure is equal in all
directions.
>Luster - the ability of minerals to reflect light (e.g. vitreous, pearly, dull, metallic, etc)
>Specific gravity - Ratio of volume of a substance and the weight of the same volume of water
Other properties
1. Magnetism – ex. Magnetite (Fe3O4)
2. Fluorescence – ex. CaF2
3. Reaction to chemicals – ex. CaCO3
4. Taste – ex. NaCl
5. Odor – ex. S
CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
1. Silicates
2. Non-silicates
ELEMENT % BY WEIGHT
oxygen, O 46.6
silicon, Si 27.7
aluminum, Al 8.1
iron, Fe 5
calcium, Ca 3.6
sodium, Na 2.8
potassium, K 2.6
magnesium, Mg 2.1
all others 1.5
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
- structure possessing parallel single chains of silicate tetrahedra is called an inosilicate (single
chain or double chain).
derived from a Greek word that means "chain". (e.g. pyroxene and amphibole)
The Non-Silicates
1. Native metals – gold, platinum, iron
2. Oxides – oxygen is combined with one or more metals (e.g. hematite, magnetite)
3. Sulfides – opaque with distinct colors (e.g. pyrite, galena)
4. Sulfates – SO4 (e.g. barite, anhydrite)
5. Carbonates – carbonate ion plus metal
6. Phosphates – PO4 (e.g. apatite) plus metal
7. Hydroxides – OH plus metal
Ores – useful metallic (and some nonmetallic) minerals that can be extracted and which contain
useful substances
ROCKS
What is a rock?
• a naturally-occurring aggregate of one or more minerals; may or may not contain
mineraloids, natural glass and organic matter.
• Types of rocks vary based on composition, color, texture, structures, etc.
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
http://www.washington.edu/uwired/outreach/teched/projects/web/rockteam/WebSite/rc
What is magma?
• Molten material which may contain suspended crystals and dissolved volatiles (gases
e.g. water vapor, CO2, SO2)
• Molten rock composed of varying amounts of
- Liquid; Silicate (sometimes carbonate or sulfide); Ions of K, Na, Fe, Ca, Mg, Al
- Solid; Minerals; Rock fragments
- Dissolved gas; H2O, CO2, SO2
• Temperature: 600-1200oC
• Generated by increase in temperature, decrease in pressure and addition of volatiles
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
• Hot spots – mantle plumes
Granitic magma
a. Low density
b. High viscosity
c. Relatively high silica content
d. Crystallize at ~600ºC)
basaltic (mafic)
andesitic (intermediate)
rhyolitic (felsic)
Basaltic magma accounts for about 80 percent of all magma erupted by volcanoes.
Rhyolitic and andesitic magma accounts for 10 percent each.
* There is a wide variety of igneous rock types but only a few basic types of magma, because
the asthenosphere and upper mantle have a fairly uniform composition.
Processes:
-Assimilation of country rock – When a molten body moves up through "country rock“, it
assimilates rock (melts and incorporates elements from the surrounding rock). This changes the
magma composition.
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
-Magma mixing - If two or more magmas with different chemical compositions come in contact
with one another beneath the Earth’s surface, then it is possible that they could mix with each
other to produce compositions intermediate between the end members.
-Partial Melting – rocks melt incrementally because the minerals that compose them have
different melting points. The composition of the resulting magma is different for every melting
temperature.
*As you lower the temperature, the silicate structure becomes more complex
Properties of Magma
>Viscosity
– property to resist flow
– Effects of different factors
• ↑ temperature, ↓ viscosity
• ↑ SiO2, ↑ viscosity
• ↑ dissolved H2O, ↓ viscosity
>Density
– heavier oceanic crust mafic rocks
– lighter continental crust felsic rocks
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
Classification of igneous rocks (Based on texture or crystal size)
Aphanitic – very fine-grained (<2mm in diameter) as a result of rapid cooling at the surface.
- minerals too small to be seen by the naked eye.
Phaneritic – coarse-grained (>5 mm) mineral sizes due to magma cooling at depth.
Other textures:
Vesicular – contains tiny holes called vesicles which formed due to gas bubbles in the lava or
magma.
Glassy – molten rock quenched quickly as it was ejected into the atmosphere.
Pegmatitic – interlocking crystals greater than 1 cm
Pyroclastic – formed when volcanic materials are extruded violently.
Block or bomb – >64 mm; block is extruded in a solid state while bomb is partially or wholly
molten
COMPOSITION
Metallic Resources
Produced by igneous processes
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
Hydrothermal solutions contain metal ions that eventually precipitate out
Found in:
Veins
Disseminated deposits
Gold, silver, platinum etc
Lecture 5 - VOLCANISM
What is a volcano?
Types of volcanoes
1. Shield – slopes are gentle (15o or less); shape resembles a Roman shield lying
on the ground; made up of successive lava flows
2. Cinder cone – relatively small (<300 m high); steep slopes (30 – 40o); made up of
pyroclastic material
3. Composite or strato-volcano – layered structure (tephra and lava flows)
Distribution of volcanoes
• Pacific Ring of Fire – subduction zones
• Hot spots
• Spreading centers – spreading centers
>Plinian - generate sustained eruptive columns, with some reaching heights of ~45 km.
These eruptive columns produce widespread dispersals of tephra which cover large
areas with an even thickness of pumice and ash.
Magma: viscous
Explosive activity: ejection of large volumes of ash; caldera collapse
Effusive activity: ash flows, small to very luminous; may be absent
Ejecta: glassy ash and pumice
Structure(s): widespread pumice lapilli and ash beds;
generally no cone-building
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)
>Peleean
Magma: viscous
Explosive activity: like Vulcanian, commonly with
glowing avalanches
Effusive activity: domes and/or short, very thick flows;
flows may be absent
Ejecta: like Vulcanian
Structure(s): Ash and pumice cones; domes
*Volcanic steam plumes rise from new fumaroles on the north flank of Pinatubo after
steam-driven explosions on 2 April 1991; Increase in CO2 and SO2 concentrations
*Why is there an increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes prior to an eruption?
As magma rises into the reservoir beneath the volcano, the rising magma and gases
exert pressure that causes the rocks to break and trigger earthquakes
Volcanic hazards
1. Volcanic gases – SO2, CO2 , HCl, etc.
2. Lava flow – streams of molten rock
3. Pyroclastic flow – hot, dry rock fragments
4. Lahar – mixture of water and rock fragments
5. Tephra – volcanic rock that are blasted into the air
Mount Pinatubo eruption - Magmatic explosive eruption on 12 June 1991 forms
enormous eruption column of gas and ash above the volcano (Plinian eruption)
Effects
• Gases – health problems
• Lahars – severe flooding, destruction to lives and property
• Lava flows – destruction to lives and property
• Tephra – obscure sunlight, impassable roads, infrastructure damages
Benefits:
• Fertile agricultural lands
• Source of geothermal energy – benign source of electricity
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Geology 11 ‐ Lecture Notes – Gabo (2008)