4.1 ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS Basic Principles hecho pix prt aes heat ard presiire). The pressure can be brougt abou by a vacuum on ane sie ofthe sheet by apple premure or by camping the hot shec between a mal and fanaa, well Te roi i reared xvas iol Thi prose ny ri argc eta ting ‘Once in a softened state, the mould is raised from below the sheet and the trapped air between the mould support plate (platen) and the heated sheet is evacuated by means of a ac pi Ang priv agli Se prSOGtby feng Ws ead sest dovereno the cud tat ts up cto ore, Coc ee bv oh distor tempernture the maul tables lowered andthe mud part removed ‘The advantages of thermoforming are: *+ Lower equiornent costs (in comparison to injection moulding and associated moulds). + The ability to make parts with thinner walls * The ability to make large surface area parts, * Shorter possible lead times from conception to production, * Less costly “mode!” changes due to less expensive tooling. ‘Atypical thermoforming process can be broken down into the following steps: ‘The mould is placed on the platen and lowered into the machine. 2 Clamp - the sheet: material is held in a frame of some kind, 3 Heating - the heater system is positioned over the sheet and heated to the desired temperature for forming (ref. figure 4.1) Heaters a te alge amp fare / Reflector ver lg ee Mould Platen seal. Paten Fig 4.1: Heating stage.4. Forming - once the optimum thermoforming temperature for the material has been reached the heater system is removed, The platen and mould are raised into the forming position (ref. igure 4.2), Forming is achieved by vacuum pressure andlor mechanical assist of some kind. ne [SS | Sao a \ar i Fig. 42: - The forming stages (a) start of forming, (b) finish 5. Cooling - the part is cooled sufficiently to be removed without distortion, Part cooling may be enhanced by the use of blower fans 6 Trimming - excess material, usualy in the area of the clamps surrounding the mould, is removed. 4.2 Forming Processes Heating ‘The most important characteristic of a heating system is that the heat supplied is uniform, Heating can be performed ina variety of ways, ranging from simple oven heating and hot plates to sophisticated ceramic infrared heaters that heat one or both sides ofthe sheet at the same time Radiant Heating Infrared raciant heating isthe fastest way of heating plastic sheet of fm to thermoforming ‘temperature and is the most popular method, There are many different types of radiant heaters avaiable: coiled wire (ichrome), tubular rods, ceramic panels, quartz heaters and gas- fred IR. panels. The advantages of infrared radiant heaters is that they are, easly tumed on and off, and allow the selective use of heat. Radiant heaters are generally classified as to their energy density, usually expressed in kilowatts peer square metre (kW). The higher this energy the less heating time willbe required. Although heater densities may vary with equipment, thére are also differences with regard to raterials. High ternperature plastics, such as the polycarbonates, are the highest. requiring about 45kW/im. Polystyrene and ABS have the lowest energy requirements at about 25 Wim’ - typical heater energy densities for crystaline polymers, such as polyethylene and polypropylene, are in the region between 30 and 45 kWW/n ATHLONE EXTRUSIONS‘Ceramic elernents are the most widely used radiant heater type. The majority of ceramic heaters run at temperatures below red heat (430°C to 650°C) and radiate long wavelength heat (3.0 to 40 micron) which is readily absorbed by thermoplastics. One minor disadvantage of ceramic heaters is their high thermal mass which makes them slow to warmn ‘Up (typically 10-15 minutes) and slow in their response time when adjustments are made. Some commercial vacuum formers now have the option of quartz emitters which comprise ofa coiled resistance heating wire contained within a quartz glass tube to prevent sagging and provide electrical insulation. This heating system has much less thermal mass with resultant improvement in response time. The visible medium wavelength emission from quartz heaters is aso more efficiently projected with the use of reflectors so that a greater percentage of heat can be directed downwards. The down side of the quartz system is that the medium wavelength heat does not penetrate thermoplastic materials as effectively as long wavelength sources, therefore caution must be exercised when they are used to heat heavy-gauge sheet, While radiant heaters are a very effcient means of heating, this efficiency decreases with time and is dependant on the heater type (see table 4 ). Any decrease in heater efficiency will increase the time to achieve sheet forming temperature. While heater temperature can be increased to compensate for a decrease in efficiency, the radiant wavelength range can shift to less efficient regions of the spectrum, ie. less heat is absorbed over a given time period. Since efficient sheet heating isa key to optimum economic performance, itis recommended that ll elements should be replaced over strictly scheduled periods, regardless of apparent performance. Heater Type | Efficiency (%) | Average Life | Efficioncy at |_ Expected Efficiency at*** New [After 6| (hrs) fend of Life ths** zmths | 18mths | 24mths Coiled Wire, Nichtome | |1618] 810 | 1,500 11.13 445 | 223] 144 Tubular rods* | 42 | 21 | 3,000 19 105 | 53] 26 Ceramic Panels 62 | 55 | 1245,000 | 3136 49 43] 38 Quartz Heaters] 55 | 48 | 810,000 | 3336 42 37 | 32 Gas-ired IRPaneis | 40-45] 25 | 56,000 1142 13 7 4 ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS + Sand, polishing increases efficiency by 10-15% ** After 6 months use 4-8% efficiency can be gained by replacing all reflectors #8 One month = 440 hrs Table 4.1: Radiant heater efficiencies.Plastics are poor heat conductors. Therefore heavy-gauge sheet will require isproportionately longer heating times. Heating the sheet from both sides, known as sandwich heating, will help to decrease this time. Its aso important that heaters are located properly with respect to the sheet. to prevent surface overheating - overheating is characterised by a colour change (yellowing) and pitting on the sheet surface. For sheet greater that 2.0mm, heating of both sides of the sheet is required via sandwich heaters to prevent unacceptably long cycles and overheating of one of the sheet surfaces. Typical guidelines for the heating of HIPS and ABS sheet are given in Table 4.2 . HIPS ABs Sheet surface temperature*(*C) Target 135 165 Maximum 180 220 Minimum 95 110 Heater Temperature (°C) Normal 430 540 Max. Sheet Heating Rate (sec./mm) Two side heater 20 20 One side heater 30 30 Heater Distance from top of sheet (mm) 150300 150.300 Heater Distance trom Bottom of sheet (mm) 300450 300.450 * measured by means of optical pyrometer or temperature labels (e.g. 3M) Table 4.2: Guidelines for heating of HIPS and ABS sheet Higher quality formings and more economical forming cycles can be accomplished by pre- heating heavy gauge sheet (greater than 3.0mm thick) prior to forming Ifthe sheet is heated Con both sides, preheating can be omitted, except for sheet greater that 5.5mm thickness. To avoid degradation the shortest cycle time should be used. Heating time will depend on the efficiency of the heating system employed, sheet thickness, colour and the nature of the sheet material to be formed, Heating cycle times: Thin-gauge v Thick-gauge sheet “The heating rate will depend upon whether the sheet can be considered as thin gauge or heavy-gauge. ‘When heating thin-gauge sheet or fm the surface temperature isnot significantly greater than either the centreline or average temperature. Sheet surface bistering and degradation ‘then are not the primary concems. As the energy input to the sheet surface effectively controls the heating cycle time, thin sheet can be heated at high heater energy densities in relatively short cycle times. The rate of heating thick sheet is governed by the maximum allowable sheet surface ‘temperature before the onset of surface blistering or degradation occurs. Due to the radiation sensitivity of plastic, racation heating is limited to the outer 0.25mm ofthe sheet Raciated heat transmitted to the outer skin and absorbed by same must be conducted to the centre ofthe sheet, and itis this thermal conduction process that governs the heating ime {for very heavy-gauge sheet. The use of sandwich heaters, where both sides of the plastic sheet are subjected to radiated heat, will reduce heating times ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS:‘AS plastics are poor conductors of heat there exists the possiblity that sheet surface ‘temperatures of thicker sheet may reach undesirable levels, For very thick sheet then the heating cycle time is controlled by the sheet centreline temperature and so the heating rate must be controlled to prevent surface overheating Because of the high thermal gradient that exists for heavier gauge sheet there are limits to both the heater energy densities and the heating times that can be used, Longer heating cycles and the use of heaters of low energy density reflect the need to allow the heat to soak into the sheet, A rough guideline to sheet heating times i that they are proportional to the square of the sheet thickness, all other factors remaining constant. ‘Additionally, after the sheet has reached its forming temperature and the heat source has been removed, it is usual practice to allow time for temperature across the sheet to reach ‘equilibrium - this is known as the sook time, during which the sheet temperature approaches an average value (see Fig 43). The extent of the soak time will depend on a number of factors, most notably the sheet thickness HEATED HEATED SINGLE SIDED DOUBLE SIDED . <- s 3S Looe we JA Boe : 5 : © Attera noi 205 — ae cee = Meese ites - ao Se ee Fig 43: Temperature profiles for thin and heavy gauge sheet. ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONSForming Forming is the process step in which the softened sheet is forced to conform to the contours ofa mould, There are three basic ways to do this: . by using a vacuum to pull the sheet against the mould . use of positive air pressure to push the sheet against the mould; . ‘a mechanical force can be used, eg. plug assist ‘A.combination of any two of these can be incorporated in a typical production forming. machine depending on the part design. In vacuum forming the softened sheet is transferred to the mould and sealed airtight around ‘the mould, A vacuum js then used to evacuate the air between the mould and sheet - this wil pull and hold the sheet against the mould “The liiting factor however in any vacuum forming process is that atmospheric pressure only isthe forming mechanism anc thsi ited to 1 bar. Situations occur where a combination ‘of poor material plasticity and a requirement for very high qualty definition are simply not achievable with atmospheric air pressure alone. Pressure forming invotves pushing and holding the sheet against the mould by the use of air pressure. In doing o the air pressure between the mouid and the sheet must be alowed to escape, usually ‘achieved in conjunction with a vacuum, “The use of mechanical force involves such systems as matched moulds, plug assists and spacing jigs. Plug assists are mechanical components used to assist the sheet to reach deep draw or hard-to-form sections of the mould. Plugs can be temperature controlled depending, ‘on the forming technique used and the part design. Typically such plugs are made from ‘aluminium and are run at the highest temperature at which sticking or excessive thinning does not occur. Too low a temperature will cause the part bottom to become thicker, and it may harden or freeze to the plug, Other plug variables are the volume the plug occupies in relation to the cavity itself, its design and the speed of entry. ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONSCooling ter forming, the part must be cooled suficiently to be removed from the mould without distortion, sticking or other damage. This is known asthe set temperature - the Vat softening temperatures of most styrenics are between 90-100%C. Therefore the shest ‘temperature should be cooled down to approximately 10°C below the Vicat softening point so that the forming is rigid enough for removal. The time taken for this will depend on the cooling system if ary, employed andthe sheet thickness “The cooling stage isthe time controling step for thermoforming especialy for semi-crystaline polymers suchas PP, HOPE, LDPE, etc, Cooling is accomplished by conductive heat lass to ‘the mould and convection to the surrounding air. It is important to control the rate of part shrinkage, particulary for crystalline materials this is usually done by controling the mould temperature. The rate of heat removal canbe increased by using forced air on the exposed sde of the part. A water mists sometimes used in conjunction with forced air to increase the cooling capacity ofthe ar (use of a water spray can lead to spotting). Several high output fans can accomplish most ofthe cooling requirements. For high production rates, moulds are usualy made of materials having high thermal conductivity, such as cast or hollow aluminium, Cooling cols are usually incorporated into cast aluminium moulds used for large production quantities. However cooling the part too rapidly can cause large thermal stresses with resultant distortion or reduction of physical properties. For this reason, many moulds are maintained at temperatures of 35-65°C, or even higher if thermal stresses are a problem, After cooling, the parts are sometimes removed from the mould by building up air pressure inside the mould which forces the part off (male forming). In other cases, the part will shrink away from the mould (female mould), and is then removed, ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONSTrimming Before the trimming operation, the extent of part shrinkage should be considered. AS it cools, the part will shrink inal directions. Most of the shrinkage wil take place by the time the part has reached room temperature. However some shrinkage may continue to be noticed for some hours ater cooling, or longer depending on the sheet gauge. ‘Trimming may be done in the mould, usually where high production is required, coupled with non-critical tolerances, eg, soft drink cups. For larger parts, with lower production rates or where close tolerances are required, special trimming equipment is used. For small quantities, ‘trimming devices such as shears, band or circular saws, or routers can be used. Where higher production is required, cutting dies such as steel rule dies are ernployed - heavier machined cutting dies, or clicker dies, are used for thicker gauge material. Increasingly water-jet and laser cutting devices are being employed for automatic trimming of medium and heavy ‘gauge parts, CNC routers, ahough expensive, are worth considering if production volumes are suflcient - they offer the advantages of accuracy of trimming and reproducbilty coupled with reduced labour costs. ‘seetias: clicker de Plastic, wood or metal Fig. 44 Cutting Dies Table 43 below illustrates the suitability of trimming techniques for various polymer types. Polymer Die | Shear [Nibble [Router] revi Abrasive [band] Hot ]Hot [Water] Laser cur | cur [cue Saw saw |Wire] Gas jet | Cut Jee prmapal eas fom [2 [2 poems olse@ [re ass, (9) 7A/5H 126] 3M [4@ Pasabale@ re uPVC rere fea) 9@/7@lsa] 76] 7e Pa@/2@3@13@ |7e 9 = Preferred Method / 0 = unsuitable (0) incicate heavy gauge materia Table 4.3: Suitability of Trimming Techniques <> ATHLONE EXTRUSIONS4.3. Male/Female Forming Thermoforming is referred to as either male or female. This refers to the method of draping. the sheet over the mould. Male mouldings are sheets which are formed on the mould and must be ified off to remove, Female formings are sheets which are formed in the mould and ‘must be taken out upon removal (see figure 4.5 below). Whichever technique is used, the part willbe either formed ‘on’ a male mould or ‘i’ a female mould male mould female mould sr Tl mould mould Fig. 45: Male and Female Forming 4.4 Moulds for Thermoforming Tooling Materials ‘Thermoforming permits the use of the broadest range of mould tooling materials, Prototype moulds are frequently made of wood, plaster or resin, For high volume applications, however, materials with good thermal conductivities are chosen where ‘temperature control isa requirement. Aluminium is generally chosen since itis easly cast or ‘machined, and cooling cols can be readily incorporated in the mould. Vacuum Holes ‘Vacuum holes should be located in the mould atthe pont where the sheet touches last, to minimise the possibilty of trapping ar and not completely forming the part. For thin sheets the holes should have dameters of 025 to 040 mn. For heavier sheets the holes may be 1.0 1.50 mm or larger: providing thatthe holes do not resut in marks or Bleishes onthe formed part. Sheet Gauge Vacuum Hole Diameter (mm) (om) <15 025 15-60 0.8 - 1.15 >60 Upto lS ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONSDraft Angles Female moulds alow easier release than their male counterpart. Some female moulds may ‘not require any draft angle on the outer surface of the part to affect easy release, since the part may shrink away. Most female moulds should incorporate a draft angle of 2-3°; male ‘moulds should have 5-7° angles for easy release. Depth of Draw ‘The depth of draw is the ratio of the average sheet thickness civided by the average part thickness, and itis a prime factor controling the final average part thickness of the formed part. For moderately deep draws (< |:1) male drape forming wil give more uniform wall thickness than straight female vacuum forming, For very deep draws or depth-to-width ratios ‘exceeding II. plug assist ferae forming is recommended to obtain the most uniform material distribution (see Table 44) Thermoforming Mould Depth-to-Width Technique Type Ratio Straightvacuum | Female ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS4.6 Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide Most of the major problems identified in thermoforming can be traced back to inadequate process control. improper sheet temperature at the time of forming is a primary source of problems. Poor draw-down control and insufficient cooling are also typical causes. The Table below lsts the majority of recurring problems in thermoforming along with the suggested courses of action to correct or eliminate the processing problem. Problem Possible Cause Blisters or Bubbles (I) Overheating / heating sheet too rapidly Q Bxcessive moisture Poor Mould Release (|) Part or mould too hot @ Mould undercuts @) Insufficient draft angle (A) Poor mould surface Sheet Scorched (I) Top or bottom surface. too hot ‘Suggested Course of Action lower the heater temperatures or reduce the top heater ‘temperature and increase the bottom heater temperature if using sandwich heaters. increase the distance of heater from the clamped sheet pre-dry sheet. preheat sheet use sandwich heaters (heat on both sides). do not remove material from ‘moisture-proof wrap until ready to use - close when not in use, increase cooling cyde. decrease mould temperature ‘add or increase air eject pressure and / or duration, increase taper! draft. convert from male to female forming, use mould release. improve mould surface. decrease heating cycle time. decrease heater temperature, check for ‘runaway’ heater if localised (turn sheet 180° - if hot spot stays in same place then heater recone) <> ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS4.6 Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide (continued) Problem Possible Cause ‘Suggested Course of Action Incomplete Forming (|) Sheet is cold increase heating time. increase heater temperature. increase heater watt density increase heating uniformity bring heater closer to clamped sheet. @) Insufficient vacuum check for plugged vacuurn holes / test with PE fm, ~ Increase number of vacuum holes. + relocate vacuum holes. + increase size of vacuum holes. @ Vacuum not drawn ——~ check vacuum system for leakage. fast enough ~ check vacuum system design as meeting required evacuation rate. ~ increase size of vacuum holes. ~ increase vacuum pump capacity add plug / pressure assist. (4) Part draw ratio too large Part Warpage (1) Parttoo hot when increase cooling cycler add more removed cooling capability by adding fans: use water cooled moulds. @) Poor mould design ~ redesign with tapers, ribs etc @) Uneven part cooling increase mould temperature and / or ‘temperature uniformity ~ check mould cooling system. (4) Poor material distribution - check for uneven heating of sheet. . ~ use plug assist or pre-stretch for deep draw, Nor-uniform Bilow (1) Uncontrolled sheet _- check operation of heaters heating improve zone heating contro check for drafts or air currents ‘around heating station. )_Non-uniform air pressure - check pressurised air system for leaks. within blow ~ check sheet sealing + redirect incoming ar. @) Localised cooing of | ———~ reduce air velocity sheet ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS:4.6 Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide (continued) Problem Webbing Appearance Surface Marks Excessive Sheet Sag Chill Marks Possible Cause (1) Sheet too hot (2) Insufficient vacuum G) Sharp comers on deep draw (4) Improper mould layout (©) Vacuum rate too fast (1) Dirty mould Q) Mould too hot or too cold @) Poor mould surface (4) Diy or surface damaged sheet (5) Airentrapment (6) Water croplets (1) Sheet too hot Q) Sheet area too large (1) Stretching stops when sheet meets cold mould or plug (2) Improper mould or plug design Suggested Course of Action decrease heating cycle. decrease heater temperature, check vacuum system for leaks. ‘check for clogged vacuum holes. + increase number of vacuum holes, ‘check for proper location of vacuum, holes increase size of vacuum holes. increase radius. increase spacing between moulds. use smaller vacuum holes / restrict rmain vacuum lines. ‘lean moult increase frequency of clearing, increase mould temperature. ~ decrease mould temperature. smooth / polsh surface, improve handing and storage techniques to protect sheet; clean sheet, add vacuum holes in affected area lightly sand surface area ‘check all hose pipes, gaskets for water leaks. = decrease heating cycle time. decrease heater temperature. improve zone heating control ~ increase mould temperature. increase plug temperature. relieve mould or plugin critical areas. <> ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS4.6 Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide (continued) Problem Distortion of Part Upon Removal Poor Material Distribution Thin Comers with Deep Draw Parts Sheet Sticking to Assist Plug ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS Possible Cause (1) Part not cooled adequately (I) Uncontrolled sheet heating 2) Moule too cold @) Sheet sipping out of frame (1) Uncontrolled sheet heating 2) Uncontrolled material distribution @) Too thin sheet gauge (1) Plug temperature too hot @ Wooden plug assist Suggested Course of Action check operabilty of cooling system. = increase cooling cycle time. ~ increase cooling capacity of cooling system, Le. adding fans ete check operation of heaters. improve zone heating control check for drafts or air currents around heating tation, increase mould temperature. check for uniform heating of mould check temperature control system of mould improve frame clamping capability preheat frame to normal operating temperatures check operation of heaters around dana ‘check operation of heaters, improve zone heating control check for drafts or air currents around heating station. ‘consider other forming techniques such as pre-stretch bilow and / or plug assist. increase sheet gauge decrease plug temperature. lubricate plug change plug surface characteristics eg, use ‘Teflon’ as plug materia. lubricate plug. change plug surface characteristics 6g, use Teflon’ as plug materia. @4.6 Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide (continued) Problem Tearing of Sheet while Forming ‘Change in Colour Intensity Stress-whitening of Sheet Loss of Embossing Possible Cause (I) Sheet too hot @) Poor material distribution @) Prestretch too large (A) Sheet too cold (I) Overdrawing sheet @ Mould too cold @) Assist plug too cold (A) Sheet cooling before itis completely formed (I) Sheet too cold (I) Depth of embossing 100 low for draw ratio @ Non-uniform drawing ‘Suggested Course of Action ~ decrease heating cycle tne. ~ decrease heater temperature preheat sheet ~ cheek for controlled heating pattem. reduce billow blowing rate. reduce billow temperature. increase heating cycle time. ~ increase heater temperature. increase sheet gauge. increase sheet temperature. provide pre-draw. provide plug assist for deep draw parts increase mould temperature. ~ increase plug temperature. increase heater temperature! heating cycle time or reduce time interval between removal of heat and start of forming, ~ increase heating cycle time, increase heater temperature. ~ increase depth of embossing pattern, ~ decrease draw ratio, ~ improve zone heating control, = use plug assist and/or bilow to pre-stretch sheet. ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS4.6 Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide (continued) Problem Possible Cause Suggested Course of Action Cracking of Part (I) High formectin stress ~ increase sheet temperature during in Use forming + use proper forming sheet temperature and cooling rate for deep draw parts ~ increase edge comer radi 2) Part thickness too low increase sheet gauge, for draw @) Uncontrolled sheet improve zone heating contro ATHLONE ‘EXTRUSIONS