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Planning an experiment
NOTE: Pyrogailol dissolved in NaOH absorbs O2 from a
system whilst soda lime absorbs CO2
CORMS styled questions (usually 6 marks).
Have some repetition in it so that you can have comparison, and to reduce risk
of errors and anomalies. If you were to only take one measurement, and it's
wrong, you would not have any valid data.
Change/Con
trol
What factor are you investigating? Will you have a range of values? (Yo
always have a minimum of 5 values in a range) Or will you have two gro
with the factor and one without? What is your control?
Organism
Repetition
You MUST take more than one reading- you should take a minimum of 3
and repeat the whole experiment.
Measureme
nt
What will you be measuring, how often and what are the units? You should
how you will take the measurement, and with what equipment.
Same
You must say what factors you will keep the same to make sure you have
out a fair test, e.g. temperature/light intensity/volume of water etc.
organisms:
organelles,
organs and systems.
cells,
tissues,
Cell Structure
a) Levels of Organisation
2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles,
cells, tissues, organs and systems
b) Cell Structure
2.2 recognise cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell
membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole
2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane,
cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole
2.4 describe the differences between plant and animal cells
1.
A cell membrane controls what goes in and out of the cell.
2.
3.
The nucleus is like the 'brain' of the cell, it controls the cell, telling it what
to do. It also contains strands of chromosomes, DNA which is important
when the cell reproduces.
4.
Page2
Plant cells have extra features:
1.
They have a cell wall, made of cellulose. It gives the cell shape and
structure and provides support. It also means the cell can't burst; it
becomes turgid when it is full of water.
2.
They have chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll - the green pigment that
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Plant cells have a permanent vacuole that contains cell sap; it provides
support.
animal
cell
lack
of
water leads to shrinking
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Specification:
2.12 recall simple definitions of diffusion, osmosis and active transport
Diffusion: this is the net movement of fluid molecules from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. i.e down a concentration
gradient. The steeper the gradient, as in the bigger the difference in
concentration, the faster diffusion will occur. It is passive - no energy is required.
Osmosis: this is like diffusion, except it involves water molecules. So again,
water molecules move via osmosis from a region of high water potential to a
region of low water potential, through a partially permeable membrane. In our
body cells, the cell surface membrane is partially permeable, its function is to
control what is allowed to enter the cell.
Active transport: This is the active uptake of molecules against a
concentration gradient using ATP energy, through a selectively permeable
membrane.
e.g. root hair cells taking up nitrate ions
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2.13 understand that movement of substances into and out of cells can
be by diffusion, osmosis and active transport
Diffusion: e.g. oxygen diffusing into red blood cells, or carbon dioxide diffusing
into leaves for photosynthesis, or glucose/maltose diffusing through one cell
thick epidermis of villi to the capillaries.
Osmosis: e.g. when water diffuses into plant cells it makes the cells turgid, which
provides the plant with support so it can stand upright. If water diffuses out of
the cell, it becomes flaccid and wilts. The cell is turgid because the water
entering the cell makes the cytoplasm and the vacuole push against the cell
wall, exerting turgor pressure.
Active transport: e.g. root hair cells actively taking up mineral ions such as
magnesium for chlorophyll. In humans, in our kidneys, salts are actively taken up
into the blood.
2.15 understand the factors that affect the rate of movement of
substances into and out of cells to include the effects of surface area to
volume ratio, temperature and concentration gradient
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Concentration gradient: The steeper it is, i.e. the greater the difference in
concentration between 2 regions, the faster the rate of diffusion/osmosis.
2.16 describe simple experiments on diffusion and osmosis using living
and non-living systems
Potato experiment. Take a cylinder of potato (which has a high starch content)
and place it in a beaker of distilled water. The potato with increase in volume as
the water moves from high water potential in beaker to lower water potential in
potato, increasing its volume the solution is hypotonic as it has lower
concentration of solutes than the potato. Now do the same, but with very sugary
water (sucrose) and observe potato shrink as water in potato moves from
higher water potential in potato to the lower water potential in the sucrose, in
hypertonic solution.
(Isotonic solution has same concentration of solutes no change in size
Hypotonic solution has lower concentration of solutes increase in size
Hypertonic solution has higher concentration of solutes decrease in size)
Also, potassium permanganate experiment, in which you simply fill a shallow
circular tub with water then add potassium permanganate to one end and watch
it diffuse throughout the liquid gradually.
Varying volume agar jelly cubes in hydrochloric acid and a pH indicator,
measuring the time taken for entire cube to change colour.
Page7
Carbohydrate
immediate energy
bananas, brown rice, whole meal foods and potatoes.
Protein
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Growth; repair
sea food, eggs, pork and soy.
Lipids
long term energy store; insulation; protection
fish, eggs, milk and beef.
Vitamin A
maintaining normal reproduction; good vision; formation and maintenance
of healthy skin, teeth and soft tissues of the body; immune function (has antioxidant properties).
Milk, cheese, eggs, fatty fish, yellow-orange vegetables and fruits such as
carrots, pumpkin, mango, apricots, and other vegetables such as spinach,
broccoli.
Vitamin C
aiding absorption of iron and copper; healthy bones; helps fight
infection.
Blackcurrants, orange, grapefruit, guava, kiwi fruit, raspberries, sweet peppers
(Capsicum), broccoli, sprouts
Vitamin D
immune function; healthy skin; muscle strength
Sunlight on skin allows the body to produce Vitamin D. Few foods contain
significant amounts however main dietary sources are fortified margarine,
salmon, herring, mackerel, and eggs.
Calcium
development and maintenance of bones and teeth; good functioning
muscles and nerves; heart function
Milk, cheese, yoghurt, bony fish, legumes, fortified soy beverages and fortified
breakfast cereals.
Iron
Haemoglobin in red blood cells (important for transport of oxygen to
tissues); component of myoglobin (muscle protein).
Red meats beef, lamb, veal, pork, fish, chicken and wholegrain cereals
Dietary fibre
Keeping the bowels functioning well; reduces the risk of bowl cancer
Cereals, bread, rice, beans and nuts.
Water
Chemical reactions in cells need water; respiration; cytoplasm; blood
plasma
2.31 describe the structure of a villus and explainPage8
how this helps
absorption of the products of digestion in the small intestine
The villi are in the small intestine, and are small protrusions that trap and absorb
broken down food molecules.
They have microvilli on their surfaces to increase surface area further.
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They have very thin walls, only one cell thick; this enables molecules to pass
through easily in a short diffusion pathway.
They also increase the surface area of the small intestine wall meaning that
there is a lot of surface for diffusion to happen through.
On the outside of villi there are capillaries which pick up the diffused food into
the blood stream, and they get a great supply of blood to maintain a high
concentration gradient.
2.30 understand that the liver produces bile and stores it in the gall
bladder, and understand the role of bile in neutralizing stomach acid
and emulsifying lipids
Bile is produce by the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
Enzymes in the small intestine work best in alkaline conditions, their optimum
pH level is around 8-9, but the food is acidic after being in the stomach. Bile is
alkaline and so when it is released into the small intestine it enables the
enzymes to work on the chime by neutralizing it.
Bile also emulsifies fat; this gives it a larger surface area, which means that it
is easier for lipases to work.
The absorption of fatty acids and glycerol from the small intestine
Following the chemical and mechanical breakdown of food in the digestive tract,
most nutrients are absorbed into the blood through intestinal Page9
capillaries. Many
digested fats, however, are too large to enter the blood capillaries and are
instead absorbed into lymphatic capillaries by intestinal lacteals. Fats are added
to the blood when lymph joins the bloodstream.
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2.29
understand
the role of digestive enzymes, to
include the digestion of starch to
glucose by amylase and maltase,
the digestion of proteins to amino
acids
by
proteases
and
the
digestion of lipids to fatty acids
and glycerol by lipases
Enzymes break down food into simpler molecules that can diffuse through the
thin ileum lining and are soluble in blood plasma for transportation. Also, these
simple molecules are necessary for essential processes like respiration or
making new tissue, but also to synthesize new long chain molecules/tissue
for different purposes like glycogen or cellulose or starch or sucrose
hence these simple molecules are the building blocks.
Amylase and maltase convert starch to glucose and maltose
Proteases convert proteins to amino acids
Lipases convert lipids to (3) fatty acids and glycerol.
Enzymes and reactions
Many chemical reactions can be speeded up by substances called catalysts.
Within living organisms, these reactions (metabolic reactions) are controlled by
catalysts called enzymes. Enzyme molecules are proteins that catalyze
metabolic processes by lowering the activation energy but not being used up per
se. Their active sites lock onto specific
substrates, breaking them down into the
products.
Enzymes and reactions:
Temperature, pH and enzymes:
The activity of enzymes is affected by
Page10
temperature and pH.
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Changes in pH also alter an enzymes shape and slow down its activity, but this
can usually be reversed if the optimum pH is restored.
An extreme pH can denature enzymes the active site is deformed permanently.
Enzymes - 'Lock and key' model
Enzymes are very specific, each kind of enzyme catalyze one kind of reaction
only. To catalyze a reaction, enzyme molecule and substrate molecule need to
meet
and joint together by a temporary bond.
Each molecule has a special shape and an active site into which
its substrate molecule fits exactly.
This enzyme is amylase, and its active site is just the right size and shape
for a substrate molecule (starch in this case).
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2.28 explain how and why food is moved through the gut by peristalsis
Food is moved through the gut by peristalsis, whereby in the oesophagus, it
contracts and relaxes in succession to force food down the digestive system.
Muscles move food because mechanical action is needed to get food through the
system.
2.27 understand the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion
Ingestion: taking food into the body, i.e. eating through your mouth.
Digestion: process in which large insoluble molecules of food are broken down
into smaller ones.
Absorption: the process by which soluble molecules produced
by digestion are
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taken from the gut (occurs mostly in the small intestine.) The soluble products of
digestion are then transported to the various tissues by the circulatory system.
Assimilation: the cells of the tissues absorb the molecules for use.
Egestion: removal of waste- undigested- products as faeces.
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Page13
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Ileum
adapted as:
It has folds
Very long (7mts) so increased surface
area
Great blood supply to maintain high
concentration gradient
Thin lining for short diffusion pathway
Villi adapted as:
One cell thick epidermis
Capillaries have great blood supply
Microvilli increase surface area
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Biological molecules
Specification:
2.5 recall the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins
and lipids (fats and oils)
2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as
large molecules made up of smaller basic units: starch and glycogen
from simple sugar; protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and
glycerol
2.7 describe the tests for glucose and starch
2.8 understand the role of enzymes as biological catalysts in metabolic
reactions
2.9 understand how the functioning of enzymes can be affected by
changes in temperatures
2.11 describe how to carry out simple controlled experiments to
illustrate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in
temperature
Hydrogen carbonate
Concentration:
Indicator
for
CO2
Hydrogen
6.
Oxygen
7.
Sulphur
8.
Phosphorous
9.
Nitrogen
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Page15
Test
for
starch
Iodine
test:
Starch can be detected by the iodine test. A few drops of iodine solution added
to any substance containing starch will produce a blue-black colour.
Add a few drops of iodine solution to a piece of potato on a white plotting tile.
What
do
you
observe?
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reactions
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of proteins that speed up chemical
reactions without being used up/chemically altered. They lower activation
energy.
2.9 understand how the functioning of enzymes can be affected by
changes in temperatures
Colder temperatures mean that the molecules arent moving around as fast, so
the metabolic reactions occur slower.
However, an enzyme has an optimum temperature wherein the enzymes
perform the best they can as the warm temperature means the rate of reaction
is high, but the temperature isnt too high as we shall see below.
Very high temperatures denature enzymes so they do not function anymore.
This is because enzymes active sites, where they latch onto substrate to form
enzyme-substrate-complexes, are deformed by very high temperatures and
cannot easily break down more molecules.
2.11 describe how to carry out simple controlled experiments to
illustrate how enzyme activity can be affected by changes in
temperature
The effect of temperature on enzyme activity, example-amylase
I will have 5 water baths of temperatures 0, 20, 40, 60, 80 with a similar
test tube in each one and a test tube at room temperature as a control. Each
test tube contains 30 cm3 of 0.5M starch solution. The control test tube will have
boiled amylase solution added to it to see if starch will break down by itself
without the amylase being able to catalyze the digestion.
I will add 10 cm3 of amylase solution to each test tube in the water baths, the
amylase solution being of the same source of amylase and the same
concentration. I will time how long it takes for the amylase to digest the starch.
To tell when the starch has been digested, I will add one drop of iodine solution
to the mixture, which will start of blue-black, as starch is still present, and will
turn yellow when it has been digested to simple glucose molecules. So I will time
how long it takes for this to happen using a stopwatch.
To ensure reliability, I will repeat the experiment 3 times at each temperature
and calculate the mean, but ignoring anomalies. Results will be recorded in a
table and plotted on a graph for comparison.
Respiration
2.33 recall that the process of respiration releases Page17
energy in living
organisms
Just recall this. Energy is locked up in food molecules such as glucose. Living
organisms release energy by breaking these molecules down or oxidising them.
Without respiration, you wouldnt have energy to do all your physical activities
and survive. Plants and most animals, including humans, respire aerobically.
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the
differences
between
aerobic
and
anaerobic
Transport in Humans
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Its functions:
o
The other circuit links the heart with the rest of the body (systemic
circuit).
The importance of a double circulation
The blood pressure in the systemic circulation is kept higher than that in
the pulmonary circulation. The left ventricle, with a thicker wall, pumps
blood under higher pressure to the body and delivers oxygenated blood
effectively to all parts of the body. The right ventricle has a thinner wall and
pumps blood to the lungs under lower pressure, thereby avoiding any lung
damage.
Page19
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Arteries
Take blood away from the heart
Blood in them is under high pressure
They are delivering blood to an organ
Thick, muscle wall; small lumen
Arteries get smaller the further away they are, due to lower volume and
pressure away from heart.
Veins
Take deoxygenated blood to the heart
Blood is under low pressure
Their blood is returning from an organ
Relatively thin wall; large lumen (to give low blood pressure)
Valves stop blood flowing back in the wrong direction
Capillaries
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is taken place here
Very thin cell walls (one cell thick) so that substances can diffuse easily with
short diffusion pathway.
In arteries, lumen is smaller because: with a higher pressure of blood coming in
waves at every heart beat, the arteries must have a thick elastic layer to stretch
and expand under stress, as compared to veins. Furthermore, blood pumped
from the thicker left ventricle is much thicker because it must reach all parts of
the systemic circuit, i.e. most body cells, thus there is greater risk of rupture,
thus a thicker outside muscular layer is necessary as this can be fatal. Also,
given the fact that the majority of the pressure is given by the heart, as per
P=F/A, having a smaller cross sectional area for constant force given by the
heart results in greater pressure far from the heart so the whole body can be
reached. Unlike veins, there are no infolding valves to prevent back flow.
In veins, lumens can be bigger as the blood flow through is more constant and
not in waves - it doest have to adapt to changes in pressure and volume of
blood as much , thus it doesnt need a thick elastic layer. Also, as it is so far from
the heart that initiates blood flow, blood pressure through veins is less, thus risk
of rupture is less and a thick muscular wall is not necessary. Veins, unlike
arteries have valves that prevent back flow and so do not need to maintain high
pressure. They are often located close to muscles; when they contract, they
force blood in veins onward.
2.64 explain how the heart rate changes during exercise and under the
influence of adrenaline
During exercise muscles require more energy, which is created through
respiration. That requires more oxygen to be brought to cells and more carbon
dioxide to be taken away, this means the heart needs to increase its speed so
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that more blood is sent to muscles.
2.63 describe the structure of the heart and how it functions
The heart can be thought of in four sections: the right atrium; the right ventricle;
the left atrium; the left ventricle. A description of the workings of the heart:
The right atrium fills with blood (from the vena cava) and the valve is closed;
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This area is squeezed forcing the blood through an tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle; This area contracts forcing the blood through semi-lunar valves up
through the pulmonary artery where it is oxygenated at the lungs; the
pulmonary vein fills the left atrium with oxygenated blood upon return; This
contracts, forcing the blood through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle;
when the left ventricle contracts the blood is forced out through the aorta,
having gone through the semi-lunar valves. The septum prevents oxygenated
blood mixing with deoxygenated blood.
Things to remember:
o Veins lead to the heart; arteries lead away.
o Atrium means entrance hall in Latin; hence the atrium is where blood enters
the heart.
o The left side is bigger than the right as it has to pump blood through the
whole body, and the right ventricle pumps blood at a low pressure to prevent
pulmonary damage.
o Coronary arteries and veins supply the heart with its own blood, and if these
get blocked, you could have a heart attack or a blood clot in your heart.
o You
talk
about
the
heart
from
right
to
left,
as
if
you
were examining someone's heart and using his or her own left and right.
o The Atria are wider and more thin-walled as they only pump the blood a short
way to the ventricles.
o The Septum separates the deoxygenated blood from the oxygenated blood.
o The pulmonary artery splits into two to go to each lung.
o Tendon connects muscle to bone.
o Ligament connects bone to bone synovial fluids in joints between bones,
synovial membrane and capsule.
2.62 understand that platelets are involved in blood clotting, which
prevents blood loss and the entry of microorganisms
When you have a wound you are at risk of losing blood and
Platelets are produced in the bone marrow- they are fragments of cells. The
chemicals in platelets turn fibrigen in the blood into a solid called fibrin. A
network of fibrin creates inherits red blood cells and platelets; it will then dry
over to form a scab, beneath which the tissue can begin to repair.
2.60 describe how the immune system responds to disease using white
blood cells, illustrated by phagocytes ingesting Page21
pathogens and
lymphocytes releasing antibodies specific to the pathogen
White blood cells are specialized cells that can stop pathogens in your body.
Phagocytes
They can detect the presence of pathogens because of chemicals they give off.
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The cell then engulfs the pathogen. If then destroys the cell with digestive
enzymes phagocytosis.
Lymphocytes
When a lymphocyte meets its specific pathogen it divides: one cells it creates
being a memory cell; the other being the cell, which will create anti-bodies
specific to the pathogen.
One type of antibody clumps pathogens together for easier digestion for the
phagocytes, whilst one other neutralizes the pathogens antigen, the other
cause the cells to burst, or put labels on the pathogens to make them more
visible to the phagocytes.
If the memory cells every meet the pathogen again they will
create the anti-bodies more quickly and in greater quantity.
Phagocytosis
Phagocytes have the ability to move out of capillaries to the
site of an infection. They then engulf (ingest) the infecting
pathogens and kill them by digesting them.
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o
o
o
Extension (not technically on syllabus, but not sure) Plasma carries CO2
around the body. How? CO2 + H2O HCO3 - + H + The CO2 reacts with water
molecules to produce the Hydrogen Carbonate ion. In the lungs the reaction
reverses to produce CO2 again. CO2 is, therefore, carried as an aqueous ion in
the plasma
2.59 explain how adaptations of red blood cells, including shape,
structure and the presence of haemoglobin, make them suitable for the
transport of oxygen
Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body. In order to do this they
have haemoglobin - which is made from iron - that can bond to oxygen to make
oxyhaemoglobin.
Page23
Red blood cells are enucleate (they have no nucleus) to make
room for the
haemoglobin. There are no mitochondria as the cells respire anaerobically so the
cells don't use any oxygen. They are biconcave; they are a flat disk with a dip in
the middle. The shape and flexibility of a flat disk enables them to pass through
narrow capillaries.
They have a dip in the middle to increase the surface area to volume ratio and
decrease the distance for diffusion meaning that diffusion of oxygen happens
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quickly. They have very thin walls also for a short diffusion pathway.
Page24
The air in your nasal passages enters the pharynx, then to the larynx, and then
into your trachea. The trachea lies in front of your oesophagus. It extends
downwards from the larynx into the chest cavity. The lower end of the trachea
divides into two tubes, the bronchi (singular: bronchus), one to each lung. Each
bronchus divides repeatedly and ends in very small, fine bronchioles. Each
bronchiole ends in a cluster of air sacs called alveoli.
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Each lung lies in the pleural cavity, within which the lung expands. The pleural
cavity is lined by two transparent elastic membranes called the pleura (singular:
pleuron) or pleural membranes. The inner pleuron covers the lung. The outer
pleuron is in contact with the walls of the thorax and the diaphragm. A thin
layer of lubricating fluid between the pleura allows the membranes to glide over
each other easily when the lungs expand and contract during breathing.
Within the lungs, the bronchial tubes divide repeatedly, giving rise to smaller
tubes called bronchioles as mentioned earlier. They each end in a cluster of air
sacs or alveoli (singular: alveolus). Thousands of alveoli are found in the lungs,
providing a very large surface area for gas exchange.
Your chest wall is supported by the ribs. They are attached dorsally to the
backbone in such a way that they can move up and down. The ribs are attached
ventrally to the chest bone or sternum. Two sets of muscles,
the external and internal intercostal muscles, can be found between the
ribs. They are antagonistic muscles. When the external intercostal muscles
contract, the internal intercostal muscles relax and vice versa.
The diaphragm, which is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle and elastic tissue,
separates the thorax from the abdomen. When the diaphragm muscles contract,
the diaphragm flattens downwards and whey they relax, the diaphragm arches
upwards again.
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role
muscles
and
of
the
ventilation
During inhalation/inspiration:
1
Your diaphragm contracts and flattens to make more volume of air inside
thorax.
3.
4.
5.
Page26
Your ribs move upwards and outwards. Your sternum also
moves up and
forward.
The volume of your thoracic cavity increases.
6.
Air pressure in your lungs causes them to expand to fill up the enlarged
space in your thorax.
7.
Expansion of your lungs causes the air pressure inside them to decrease.
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8.
During exhalation/expiration:
Your ribs move downwards and inwards. Your sternum also moves down to
its original position.
Air pressure within the lungs is now higher than atmospheric pressure. The air is
forced out of your lungs to the exterior.
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A low temperature will limit the rate as the molecules will move less and
therefore the reaction happens slower
2) Carbon dioxide
A shortage of the rate as fewer molecules will be available for the reaction.
3) Light intensity
A shortage of light means there is less energy to power the reaction.
Limiting factors explained:
Light, temperature and the availability of carbon dioxide interact and in practice
any one of them may be the factor that limits photosynthesis.
If one of these factors is closest to its minimum value it will limit the rate.
Increasing this factor will increase the rate.
The rate will continue to increase until another factor becomes limiting.
Any further increase in the original factor will now not increase the rate.
With no limiting factors, increasing a factor above a certain level will not
increase the rate. All chlorophyll molecules are being used.
Gas Exchange in the leaf - key points:
The surface area of leaves is increased by the flattened shape and internal air
spaces.
Most photosynthesis takes place in the palisade cells.
Carbon dioxide needs to reach the palisade cells.
Plants have stomata to obtain carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
This carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis.
The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells, which surround them.
Stomata open during daylight hours, to enable carbon dioxide to diffuse in.
Transpiration
The process by which plants lose water vapour from the surface of their
leaves.
It evaporates into the air spaces in the leaf, and then diffuses out through the
stomata.
Transpiration is more rapid in hot, dry and windy conditions: Page 5
O Heat causes the water to evaporate quicker.
O Dry conditions increases the water vapour concentration gradient. Wind
moves the water vapour away from the leaf, maintaining the concentration
gradient.
Most of the water lost by transpiration leaves through the stomata.
Stomata close when it is dark, when carbon dioxide is not required.
Page28
This reduces the amount of water lost by the plant at a time when it is not
needed for photosynthesis.
If plants lose water faster than the roots replace it, the stomata can close to
prevent wilting.
2.17 describe the process of photosynthesis and understand its
importance in the conservation of light energy to chemical energy
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Light
intensity.
Carbon-dioxide
concentration.
Page29
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Temperature
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Protoctists
These are microscopic single-celled organisms
Eukaryotic
Some, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features
an animal cell
Some like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants
A pathogenic example is Plasmodium, responsible for causing malaria
like
*Algae are normally defined as protozoa because most algae are unicellular
units working closely with one another and those that are multicellular are
very simplistic structures, lacking the complexity and organs of plants
Viruses
These are macro particles, proteins, smaller than bacteria
Acellular
They are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells
reproduction is the only thing it can do from Mrs C Gren
They infect every type of living organism
They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes
They have Acellular structure but have a protein coat surrounding contain
one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, of only a few genes, that are
all that it is required to reproduce
Sometimes, they may inherit stolen membrane from a host cell called an
envelope may surround the virus particle
Examples include the influenza virus (causes flu) and HIV virus (causes
AIDS)
1.1
Understand
characteristics:
they
they
they
they
they
they
they
they
that
living
organisms
share
the
following
require nutrition
respire
excrete their waste
respond to their surroundings
move
control their internal conditions
reproduce
grow and develop.
MRS C GREN
Page32
Feeding relationships
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Page33
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A food web links several animals within a habitat showing what consumes what
and is consumed by what. It shows the feeding interactions between food webs.
Page34
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4.7 explain why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one
trophic level to the next.
The reason why not all of the energy will make it to the next tropic level is that
some of it will be used up on the level it is at.
The energy is used for the life processes of the animal that it is in if a
mammal, a lot of energy is used for maintaining a high, constant body
temperature.
Energy can be used for respiration and movement.
Page35
Some of the biomass is egested/excreted.
Things like bones or stalks may not be eaten.
4.6 understand the transfer of substances and of energy along a food
chain
As one thing consumes another, the energy and other things inside it for
example fat and vitamins get transferred to the consumer, absorbed through
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the ileum and assimilated by cells. Glucose molecules not immediately needed
for respiration can be used to make glycogen for storage, building up bio-mass.
If you eat a fatty piece of beef you get the fat from the cow.
Nitrogen Cycle
Vascular bundles
Page36
Xylem and phloem tissues are found in groups called vascular
bundles. The
position of these bundles varies in different parts of the plant. In a leaf, for
example, the phloem is usually found closer to the lower surface.
Root
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Xylem vessels are tough and strong, so the vascular bundles are in the centre of
the root to resist forces that could pull the plant out of the ground.
Stem
The stem has to resist compression (squashing) and bending forces caused by
the plants weight and the wind. The vascular bundles are arranged near the
edge of the stem, with the phloem on the outside and the xylem on the inside.
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that need them in the form of sap, like young leaves or roots that
must grow and synthesise proteins
Phloem cells do not have nuclei; rather, they are controlled by
companion cells in order to direct the contents to their destinations
Phloem translocation is the name given to the movement of sap around
the phloem network
2.52 describe the role of the xylem in transporting water and mineral
salts from the roots to other parts of the plant
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leaves of a plant. Because of osmosis water from soil reach the xylem of
roots of a plant. Water molecules are bonded to each other by hydrogen
bonding, hence water form a string of molecules during its movement
toward xylem. The water molecules stick together (cohesion) and get
pulled up by the force called tension. This force is exerted because of the
evaporation at
the surface of
the leaf. Also,
the
partial
attraction of the
water to the
xylem
(adhesion)
aids this.
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stream.
Mineral salts like phosphate, nitrates and magnesium cannot be retrieved
passively through diffusion as the concentration is higher in the roots than
in the soil to enable easy osmosis, therefore they are retrieved using
Active Transport and energy through a selectively permeable membrane
lined with carrier proteins that envelope nutrient ions on the outside of
the membrane that fit its shape, in order to release them into the root
cells, dissolved in the water.
2.54 understand that transpiration is the evaporation of water from the
surface of a plant roots
The absorbed water is transported through the roots to the rest of the plant
where it is used for different purposes:
It
It
It
It
Leaves
Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by having a large surface area, and
contain openings, called stomata to allow carbon dioxide into the leaf. Although
these design features are good for photosynthesis, they can result in the leaf
losing a lot of water. The cells inside the leaf have water on their surface. Some
of this water evaporates, and the water vapour can then escape from inside the
leaf by diffusion. To reduce loss the leaf is coated in a wax cuticle to stop the
water vapour escaping through the epidermis. Leaves usually have fewer
stomata on their top surface to reduce this water loss.
Turgidity
You should be able to explain why most plants will wilt if they get flooded by sea
water. (Hint: sea water contains many chemicals in solution, such as salt.
Osmosis will move water across the plant cell membrane, from the weaker to the
stronger solution.)
2.55 explain how the rate of transpiration is affected by changes in
humidity, wind speed, temperature and light intensity
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Leaf 2
Leaf 3
Leaf 4
None
Upper only
Lower only
Both
% decrease in mass
40
36
The results show that most transpiration happens from the lower surface of the
leaf:
coating the upper surface caused water loss similar to coating no surface
at all (leaf 2 vs leaf 1)
coating the lower surface caused water loss similar to coating both
surfaces (leaf 3 vs leaf 4)
Water uptake can be measured by an instrument called a volume
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potometer:
The diagram below shows the apparatus set up for a potometer. Vaseline is
applied around the rubber bungs to ensure an airtight seal, thus the only
water loss from the apparatus is via transpiration. The function of the
reservoir is to allow the air bubble to travel back to the start of the
measuring scale on repeating the experiment. As water moves up through
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time
the
the plant the air bubble moves along the scale giving
measure of water absorbed by the
plant
over
and hence
transpiration rate.
The faster the bubble moves, the greater the rate of water uptake - and so the
greater the rate of transpiration. You can vary the conditions to investigate the
effect of changing temperature, humidity, wind speed or light intensity (hair
dryer, heat, and lamps).
The following factors affect the rate of transpiration:
The opening and closing of the stomata is controlled by the guard cells.
In light, guard cells take up water by osmosis and become turgid.
Because their inner walls are rigid they are pulled apart, opening the
pore. In darkness water is lost and the inner walls move together closing
the pore.
Because of this, the transpiration rate is increased by an increase in light
intensity.
Plants which live in extreme environments have adaptations to control their
transpiration rate.
Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce and evaporation is rapid, or in
windy habitats where evaporation can also be rapid. Their typical features are:
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes. The advantages
of sexual reproduction are that the offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from
both parents, and that thus there are more alleles (gene variants), genetic
variation among the offspring, increasing the ability for an organism population
to collectively adapt to environmental changes. Genetic variation increases the
chances of a species survival as some individual organisms will be better
adapted to changes in the environment. The disadvantages of sexual
reproduction are that two parents are required, so it will take more time and
energy to reproduce this may be difficult in barren scenarios.
Asexual reproduction, on the other hand, does not involve gametes as the
offspring arise from one parent through cell division the offspring are clones.
Thus the advantages of asexual reproduction are that only one parent is
required, and that beneficial qualities are more likely to be passed on to the
offspring since all offspring are genetically identical to the parent. However, the
disadvantage of having genetically identical offspring is that there is less
variation, so the organism will be less adapted to changes in the environment.
Fertilisation:
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Sexual Reproduction:
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
The species has a greater chance of Finding a mate takes time and
survival in changing conditions as
sexual reproduction takes longer
there is more variety.
than asexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction:
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Human
reproduction:
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3.8 describe the structure and explain the function of the male and
female reproductive systems
Male reproductive system
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that it can exchange gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide, and also nutrients
and urea wastes
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The embryo cannot breath, digest or excrete in the amniotic fluid in the amnion
sac
The embryo quickly develops a placenta (the blood vessels and structures of the
placenta are of the embryo, not the mother!), which brings the mothers blood
supply very close to the foetus blood supply. The two blood streams never mix
(otherwise the mothers white blood cells would attack the foetus!), but they are
close enough for diffusion to occur.
Diffuse from foetus to mother - CO2, water, urea
Diffuse from mother to foetus - O2, glucose, amino acids, minerals
The placenta is adapted for diffusion in much the same way as other exchange
organs, i.e. it has;
- Huge surface area (it has lots of villi-like projections)
- Only a few cells thick, short diffusion pathway
- Blood supplies keep the concentration gradients high
Oxygen diffuses
blood;
Carbon
and
urea
Antibodies also pass from mother to foetus to give the foetus passive immunity
during the pregnancy and for a few months after birth.
Throughout pregnancy, the placenta releases oestrogen, progesterone, HPL
(Human Placental Lactogen), and CG (Chorionic Gonadotrophin).
Page48
Waste substances from the foetus are carried by the umbilical artery. They
diffuse into the blood-filled space and into the mother's vein to be carried away.
Nutrients are carried by the mother's artery to the placenta. They diffuse into
the capillaries of the foetus. They are taken to the foetus by the umbilical vein.
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Oestrogen:
- Sexual drive develops
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Plant reproduction:
Flowers
Flowers are important in the sexual reproduction of plants. They produce male
sex cells (pollen grains) and female sex cells (contained in the ovules). These
must meet for reproduction to begin - a process called pollination.
Parts of a flower
Structur
e
Function
Sepal
Petal
Stamen
Anther
Stigma
The top of the female part of the flower, which collects pollen
grains
Ovary
Ovule
Filament
Style
Receptac
le
Base just below the sepal that provides support to the flower
Carpel
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Insect-pollinated flowers
Flowers with brightly-coloured petals are usually insect-pollinated
flowers. Insects carry pollen from one flower to another.
Wind-pollinated flowers
Grasses have wind-pollinated flowers. They have small petals, and
their stamens and stigmas hang outside the flower.
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The petals may die and fall away, as they are now redundant
2.
The zygote will begin to divide my mitosis and specialise into an embryo
plant this has a radical (small root) and plumule (small shoot)
3.
The other contents of the ovule develop into cotyledons, which are
seed leaves (some plants may have two and so one can split the seeds
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of these dicotleydons or some have one monocotyledons). The
Cotyledons provide the carbohydrate and lipid energy and food store for
the seed prior to, and during, germination
4.
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5.
The micropyle remains, in order to allow some water to enter the seed
when conditions are met for germination
6.
7.
The surrounding ovary may fill up with sugars like fructose and sucrose
and expand to form fruits
8.
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which it uses as a fuel for respiration to provide the energy for growth. During
this stage the seed must produce leaves so it can begin to photosynthesize. The
danger is that the seed will run out of stored energy before it makes leaves. If
this happens it will die. Thus, before germination and the growth of roots and
shoots in order to begin photosynthesising its own energy source (glucose) for
respiration, it must continue to use up the carbohydrate and lipid source of the
cotyledons.
Plants must disperse their seeds so that the germinating seeds do not
have too much competition that may reduce numbers. There are four
methods of dispersal:
1. Wind
2. Animal
3. Mechanical
4. Water
Artificial cloning in plants
Cloning plants has many important commercial implications - it allows a
successful variety of a plant to be produced cheaply in a short space of time and
on a massive scale.
Cuttings (Propagation):
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Runners
Some plants naturally produce side branches with plantlets on them. The
spider plant does this. Other plants, such as strawberries, produce
runners with plantlets on them.
Bulbs
Many plants naturally develop underground food storage organs that later
develop into the following years plants - potato tubers and
daffodil bulbs
Page55
are examples of this.
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5.3 Fertilisers
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These compounds go down into the soil and are taken up from the root
structure, and move in the transpiration stream up to the leave.
Potassium essential for plant membranes
Nitrate essential for making plant proteins
Phosphate essential for DNA and membranes
(Magnesium - to make chlorophyll)
Fertilisers can be divided into two groups:
1. Organic fertilizers
Produced from animal waste on farm
This usually take the forms like Cow faeces, collected by the farmer
It often goes through the process
of decomposition and fermentation and form a substance known
as slurry.
This gives crop plant a supply of nitrate and phosphate to promote
growth.
2. Artificial fertilizers
Take the forms of chemicals
Potassium nitrate
Ammonium nitrate
Apply to the field, they will go into solution in the soil water. This will
release nitrates and promote growth in the same way as it would do at the
compound.
Problems with fertilizers: Eutrophication:
1. Rainwater can dissolve nitrates from farmers fertilizers
2. The nitrates are leached into rivers
3. Increased concentration of nitrates causes algal blooms where algae
grow and multiply very fast
4. This cuts off light to the river-bed plants, making photosynthesis harder;
they then die
5. Decomposition Bacteria that decay plants use up the rivers
oxygen, and no oxygen is put back into the river as plants cannot
photosynthesise and die
6. The lack of oxygen - the water is anoxic - causes sea-life like fish to die
5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and
disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop
plants
When all the crops are of the same type in (say, a field) we call this a
monoculture:
Monocultures are typically susceptible to pests due to abundance, presence
often for large amounts of time per year, and also lack of variation. This
can lead to financial losses on the behalf of the farmer.Page57
To overcome this farmers have two solutions:
Biological Control:
Biological control introducing a biological organism which will eat the pest, but
not the crop plant (e.g. birds are sometimes encouraged inside greenhouses
because they eat caterpillars)
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Advantages
. No toxic chemicals, no bioaccumulation etc
. Less impact on the wildlife, or humans
Disadvantages
- Not 100% effective
Can be difficult to control, there is a danger that the introduced species
would start preying on an alternative prey so it will not die out
It is difficult to match a predator to prey, and so can just find alternative
prey instead, being detrimental to environment
It can take a long time
Pesticides:
Pesticides are chemicals designed to kill the pest but not the crop.
Advantages:
- Pesticides are chemicals so they are easy to obtain
-
Easy to apply
Very effective
Disadvantages:
- Pesticides can be toxic, they could kill other animals and plants, then the
pests they are aimed to kill; pesticides can also be harmful to humans
-
(Bioaccumulation:)
Bioaccumulation is when toxins build up in a food chain. The animals at the top of the
food chain are affected most severely.
This is what happens:
1.
2.
Small amounts of toxic substances - often from human activity - are taken up by
plants.
These plants are eaten by primary consumers.
3.
4.
At each stage (trophic level) of the food chain, harmless substances are excreted
but the toxins remain in the tissues of the organisms - so the concentration of toxin
becomes most concentrated in the body tissues of the animals at the top of the food
chain.
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Page59
Fermentation experiment
1. Dissolve sugar in previously boiled water, making sure no oxygen bubbles
remain.
2. Add yeast and mix to form a suspension, and pour into a boiling tube.
3. Add a layer of parrafin oil.
4. Connect a delivery tube to a second boiling tube, this time containing
limewater or hydrogencarbonate indicator (red to yellow).
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temperature
concentration of sugar
Making yoghurt
Some bacteria are useful to us. They may be useful in making:
yoghurt
cheese
vinegar
silage (fermented plant material used to feed cattle and sheep in winter)
compost
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In addition, male and female fish are kept in separate tanks unless the farmer
wants them to breed.
Fish farming has some advantages over sea fishing, including:
The fish kept in fish farms may be the products of selective breeding, for
example to produce fish that grow faster than wild fish.
There are drawbacks to fish farms:
There is a greater risk of disease because the fish may be closely related
due to selective breeding and they live closely together.
Sterile water, pesticides and antibiotics may be neededPage61
to control
disease.
The large amounts of waste produced by the fish must be removed
regularly, and this may cause eutrophication of the surrounding water.
The fish may be fed using pellets made from other, less valuable fish that
may have been caught from the wild. This has the potential to damage
wild fish stocks.
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Tropisms
2.67 understand the origin of carbon dioxide and oxygen as waste products of metabolism
and their loss from the stomata of a leaf
CO2 and O2 are excreted by leaves via the stomata. O2 is excreted during photosynthesis
and CO2 is excreted during respiration, and they are released through the stomata of a leaf,
controlled by guard cells.
2.68 recall that the lungs, kidneys and skin are organs of excretion
Excretion in Humans:
Humans have 3 main excretory organs;
1. Lungs excrete CO2 and H2O
2. Skin excretes H2O
3. Kidneys excrete H2O, urea, excess minerals and other wastes.
2.70 describe the structure of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder
and urethra
2.71 describe the structure of a nephron, to include Bowmans capsule and
glomerulus, convoluted tubules (proximal PCT and distal DCT), loop of
Henley and collecting duct
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney; i.e. where both
ultrafiltration and osmoregulation occurs
2.72 describe ultrafiltration in the Bowmans capsule and the composition of the
glomerular filtrate
Blood in the Afferent Arteriole leading to the Glomerulus is at High
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Pressure with a greater diameter; the renal artery is directly connected
to the aorta.
The Efferent Arteriole is narrow, thus leading to a high pressure in the
glomerulus
The
high pressure forces the plasma in blood, and the solutes
dissolved like H2O, salts, Amino Acids, Glucose, Urea , and is called the
Glomerular Filtrate
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2.73 understand that water is reabsorbed into the blood from the collecting duct
Too much water is present in the Glomerular Filtrate, and so excess is
Selectively Reabsorbed in the Collecting Ducts
2.74 understand that selective reabsorption of glucose occurs at the proximal
convoluted tubule
Selective reabsorption of glucose molecules from the Glomerular Filtrate
occurs in the first Proximal Convoluted Tubule; it gets filtered out because
it is a small molecule dissolved in the blood plasma
Normally no glucose is present in urine , but if a positive test is received, it
can be an indication of diabetes - insulin stimulates glucose uptake by
increasing the permeability of the first convoluted tubules but in diabetics
there is a deficiency of insulin, therefore too little glucose it taken up in the
kidneys, leading to high blood sugar levels
The reabsorption of glucose is facilitated by INSULIN
2.76 understand that urine contains water, urea and salts
2.75 describe the role of ADH in regulating the water content of the blood
Key Terms
ADH (Anti-Diuretic Hormone)
A hormone released from the pituitary gland which helps water levels in the
body, as and when excess/lack of water is detected by the hypothalamus.
Specialised nerve cells, called osmoreceptors, in the hypothalamus of the brain
sense the Na concentration of the blood. The nerve endings of these
osmoreceptors are located in the posterior pituitary gland and secrete ADH.
The more concentrated the plasma, the more ADH is released into the blood.
When the ADH reaches the kidneys, it causes them to reabsorb more water. This
keeps more water in the body and produces more concentrated urine.
When the plasma is more dilute, less ADH is released into the bloodstream. This
allows more water to leave the kidneys, producing a more dilute urine.
This method of control is an example of negative feedback.
ADH, which is secreted by the pituitary gland, controls the ability of water to
pass through and away from the cells in the walls of the collecting ducts (by
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through the walls of the ducts. The more ADH present, the more water can pass
through as ADH makes the collecting duct walls more permeable. More ADH
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makes the concentration of the urine greater and the volume lower.
It is ADHs responsibility to makes sure water concentration/potential of
blood is isotonic with the cytoplasm of cells, so that they neither crenate
nor undergo lysis.
When blood water levels are too low:
1. Hypothalamus detects
2. Pituitary gland releases ADH into bloodstream
3. ADH travels all over the body
4. Only the cells in the collecting duct of the nephrons of the kidney have
receptors for ADH, so only they respond to the hormone
5. The collecting duct becomes more permeable
6. Water is drawn out of the collecting duct back into the blood
7. Water levels return to normal
When blood water levels are too high:
1. Hypothalamus detects
2. Pituitary gland releases less ADH into bloodstream
3. Less ADH travels all over the body
4. Only the cells in the collecting duct of the nephrons of the kidney have
receptors for ADH, so only they respond to the hormone
5. The collecting duct becomes less permeable
6. Water is not drawn out of the collecting duct back into the blood
7. Water levels return to normal
How alcohol and ecstasy affect ADH
Alcohol suppresses ADH production. This causes the kidneys to produce more dilute
urine. It can lead to dehydration.
Ecstasy increases ADH production. This causes the kidneys to reabsorb water. It can
result in the body having too much water.
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2.69 understand how the kidney carries out its roles of excretion and osmoregulation
(osmoregulation happens as if the tissue fluids in the body are either hypotonic or
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hypertonic to the cytoplasm in the cells, the cells may undergo lysis or crenation
respectively)
Excretion
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The final liquid produced by the kidneys is a solution of urea and salts in water. It is called
urine, and it flows out of the kidneys, along the ureters and into the bladder. It is stored in the
bladder for a while, before being released from the body through the urethra.
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The fluid in the renal capsule is a solution of glucose, salts and urea dissolved in water.
Some of the substances in this fluid are needed by the body. All of the glucose, some of the
water and some of the salts need to be kept in the blood.
Wrapped around each kidney tubule are blood capillaries. Useful substances from the fluid
in the kidney tubule are reabsorbed, and pass back into the blood in these capillaries.
The remaining fluid continues on its way along the tubule. By the time it gets to the
collecting duct, it is mostly water, with urea and salts dissolved in its. It is called urine. The
kidneys are extremely efficient at reabsorbing water. Over 99% of the water entering the
tubules is reabsorbed.
The relative amount of water reabsorbed depends on the state of hydration of the body
(how much water is in the blood), and is controlled by secretion of the hormone ADH from
the pituitary gland, as the blood water level is checked by the hypothalamus.
On a hot day: we sweat more to cool down --> the body needs to conserve water -->
produce a small amount of concentrated urine.
On a cold day: little sweat is being produced --> we tend to produce a larger volume of dilute
urine.
Filtered blood returns to the vena cava (main vein) via a renal vein, at lower pressure.
Naturally the blood after the glomerulus and before reabsorption of water occurs is the most
viscous. The urine formed in the kidney passes down a ureter into the bladder, where it is
stored. A sphincter muscle controls the release of urine through urethra.
Blood sugar
Glucose in the blood stream
Bladder
A bag/sac in animals stores urine prior to urination
Blubber
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A thick layer of fat between the skin and the muscle layers of whales and other
marine mammals, from which an oil is obtained.
Kidney tubule / Nephron Filtration
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Page69
A condition where little or no insulin is secreted by the pancreas in response
to an
increase in blood sugar level
Dialysis
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Page70
Insulin
A hormone secreted by the pancreas and involved in the regulation of the
metabolism of carbohydrates in particular the conversion of glucose to glycogen,
which lowers the blood glucose level.
Kidneys
A pair of organs that maintain proper water and electrolyte balance regulate acidbase concentration, and filter the blood of metabolic wastes which are then
excreted as urine.
Medulla (of the kidney)
The central and more deeper part of the kidney, more concentrated with salts. It
has bulges called pyramids extending to the inside/concave side of the kidney.
Nephrons join up at the Medulla, before emptying urine into the pelvis and then
ureter.
Metabolism
The chemical processes occurring within a living cell or organism that are
necessary for the maintenance of life. In metabolism some substances are broken
down to yield energy for vital processes while other substances, necessary for life,
are synthesised.
Negative feedback
Feedback that reduces the output of a system.
Renal artery
An artery originating from the aorta and supplying the kidney. It is linked directly to
the aorta to provide a large blood pressure for ultrafiltration. Kidneys get 1/4 of
the bodys cardiac output for this reason.
Renal vein
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Page71
A vein that returns blood to the heart via the inferior vena cava. It naturally has
regulated salt, regulated water content, less oxygen, and no urea as compared
with blood just before the glomerulus.
Selective Reabsorption
Useful materials like amino acids, sugars, etc are reabsorbed into the blood at
the proximal convoluted tubule. Water is reabsorbed at the Loop of Henley this is where urine is made. Focussed osmoregulation occurs in the distal
convoluted tubule and the collecting duct, as here the permeability and thus
rate of water reabsorption can be altered by Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH)
produced by the pituitary gland. More water is reabsorbed if the level of water
in the body is low. Conversely, less is reabsorbed if blood water level is hight - this
is Negative Feedback!
This can happen either in the Cortex but mainly in the Medulla as here the
concentration of salts is greater.
Sweating
To excrete perspiration or moisture through the pores in the skin.
Urea
A water-soluble compound that forms the bulk of the nitrogen containing waste
present in urine. It is the end product of protein metabolism - when ammonia is
formed in the body as a result of deamination of excess amino acids in the liver
(removal of amino group like NH2), it is corrosive and so is connected to CO2
particles changing it into urea and water. It is carried from the liver in the blood to
the kidneys. The highest concentration of urea is in the Hepatic Vein. The
urea is removed during ultrafiltration at the kidneys.
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When amino acids are broken down they make ammonia, which is toxic, so the
liver turns ammonia into urea.
Urea is the product of the metabolism of amino acids
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Ureter
The long, narrow duct that conveys urine from the kidney to the bladder.
Urethra
The duct through which urine is discharged from the bladder and through which
semen is discharged in the male.
Urine
The waste product secreted by the kidneys that in mammals is discharged from
the body through the urethra after the sphincter muscles at the bladder relax; it
consists of some water, urea and salts as well as other metabolic wastes and
toxins being excreted.
Vasodilation
Dilation/Expansion of a blood vessel, usually to bring the blood vessel closer to
the surface of the skin - i.e. when hot, so heat loss to outside air can be
maximised.
Vasoconstriction
Constriction of a blood vessel, usually to move them away from the skin surface i.e. when cold, so heat loss to outside air is restricted.
Osmosis
A passive process in which some of the molecules of a solution move across a
semi-permeable membrane from a region of high water potential to one of low
water potential. It does not require respiration but does require living cell
membranes
Pancreas
A long, irregularly shaped gland lying behind the stomach, the secrets pancreatic
Page73
enzymes like amylase, proteases and lipase and juice into the duodenum and
insulin into the bloodstream.
Partially (or selectively for active transport) permeable membrane
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A membrane which allows some substances to diffuse through, but not others.
THERMOREGULATION (it is a negative feedback loop: when hot, it tries to make the
body temperature cooler to 37 degrees but when cold, tries to increase it):
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Page74
STIMULI = Skin
RECEPTOR = Hypothalamus
CO-ORDINATION = (Chemical with ADH) Brain + Spine = Central Nervous System
EFFECTOR = Kidney - specifically, the collecting tubes of nephrons
RESPONSE = Regulated/ Filtered Blood
MRS GREN
2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and
an effector
Flowering plants
2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuli
Plants respond to changes in the environment or stimuli, which could be things like
Temperature, Light, and Gravity.
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The link between plant receptors, (effectors) and response usually takes the form of
hormones, like auxin.
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The response could be Growth or Tropisms etc. Response to light is phototropism and
response to gravity is geotropism.
Plants also respond to stimuli. As plants don't have nerves their responses are limited to
hormones only. Plants respond to the following stimuli;
- Gravity. Roots grow towards gravitational pull and stems grow away, therefore roots are
positively geotropic, whereas shoots are negatively geotropic. In roots Auxin actually
inhibits growth, therefore if a root begins to grow sideways or at an angle to the action of
gravity, auxin accumulates on the lower side; there is more growth on the upper side of
the root, therefore it grows/bends down towards the action of gravity.
- Light. Shoots grow towards light. Shoots are positively phototropic. When plants are
growing, more auxin accumulates on the shaded side of the plant as opposed to the
illuminated side. This means the shoot grows more on the shaded side than the
illuminated one, growing/bending towards light.
Phototropism is controlled by hormones released by the growing tip of the shoot. Only the
tip makes the hormone. If you remove the tip, the shoot stops growing. The hormone
made by the tip is called Auxin. Auxin is a plant hormone that moves through the plant as
a solution in water, and is produced in the tips of shoots before diffusing backwards,
stimulating cell elongation.
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The best example is to grow a runner bean seed with a clinostat, which as it rotates
slowly should show that the root seems to be continuously turning as it trie to grow with
positive geotropism, in line with gravity. Let the root start to grow downwards first to show
that it is truly geotropic.
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You also need to know an experiment that demonstrates Phototropism. The best example
is to repeat the example above, but look at the growth of the shoot!
Endocrine System
Neurotransmitter - Chemical involved in passing nerve impulses from one nerve cell
to the next across a synapse.
2.84 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal
In neurones, the impulses are not an electrical current, but rather the
movement of ions through the axon, before chemicals sent across the
synapse or junction between neurones cause the same to happen for
the next neurone, and so on, sending the signal.
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cord and is linked to sense organs by nerves - nerves are a bundle of neurones e.g.
spinal nerves, optic nerve, e.t.c
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2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical
impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting
in rapid responses
2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by
the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object
The nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
Sense organs (e.g. pain receptors in skin, or photoreceptors in the eye) are linked to the
brain via nerves.
Stimulation of the sense organs results in an electrical signal (a nerve impulse) being sent
along the nerve to the brain. Nerve impulses are very quick (~120m/s), allowing rapid
responses to the stimulus. This involves sensory neurones going to the spinal cord, up the
spinal cord, and to the brain, which then sends impulses down the spinal cord which then
go via motor neurones to effectors, which carry out actions. Some sense organs are not
connected directly to the brain. This is a defence mechanism allowing almost instant
responses to threatening or dangerous stimuli (e.g. pain). These instant responses are
controlled by nerves in the spine, rather than the brain and are called reflexes.
Reflex arcs are where the neurones go through the spinal cord only, not the brain, thus it is
an unconscious action. Usually, it is in order to protect from heat, force, danger, etc.
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Receptor > Sensory neurone through the dorsal (dorsal = back) root ganglion,
which has the neurone cell body > Across a synapse to the relay neurone > Via a
synapse, impulses travel along motor neurone > Effector acts
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The Myelin Sheath is a fatty layer which prevents short circuits and speeds up
impulses.
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Iris - Controls the amount of light enter ring the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil.
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Ciliary muscle - Changes the shape of the lens by altering the tension on the suspensory
ligaments.
Retina - Contains light-sensitive photoreceptor cells (rods = black and white, cones =
colours) which convert light energy into a nerve impulse (i.e. transduce light energy to
electrical energy).
Fovea - Area where most light is focused at the center of the retina, very sensitive to
colour (most cones here).
Optic nerve - Transmits nerve impulses to the brain, where they are interpreted.
Choroid - Make the interior dark by having lots of blood vessels, which prevents internal
reflection of light and nourishes the retina
Blind spot - no cones or rods/ photo receptors are present at this point of the retina, as it is
where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Vitreous Humour - Jelly-like liquid that maintains eye pressure and shape behind the lens
Aqueous Humour - Runny fluid that nourishes the cornea and maintains the correct
pressure at the front of the eye.
Light is detected by photoreceptors in the eye. These receptors form the retina (the inner
lining of the eye). There are two types of photoreceptor;
There are two types of reflex you need to know about in the eye;
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In the dark
1. Photoreceptors detect
2. Reflex occurs
3. Muscles in the Iris are the effectors
- Radial muscles in Iris contract
- Circulatory muscles in Iris relax
4. Pupil diameter opens
5. More light enters the eye
In the light
1. Photoreceptors detect
2. Reflex occurs
3. Muscles in the Iris are the effectors
- Radial muscles in Iris relax
- Circulatory muscles in Iris contract
4. Pupil diameter closes
5. Less light enters the eye
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This is because the angle at which light rays approach the lens when near is greater
than if they are farther away, so must be refracted more, and so need a fatter,
rounder lens.
Distant Object
1. Incoming light is parallel
2. Ciliary muscles relax
3. Suspensory ligaments are tight
4. Lens is pulled thin
5. Light is refracted less
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Too hot
When you are hot the following happen (controlled by reflexes);
1. Hairs on skin lie flat (less insulating air trapped)
2. Sweating starts
3. Blood is diverted close to the surface of the skin (more heat radiation)
Too cold
When you are cold the following happen (controlled by reflexes);
1. Hairs on skin stand up (more insulating air trapped)
2. Sweating stops
3. Shivering starts, so muscles respire more, producing more heat
4. Blood is diverted away from the surface of the skin (less heat radiation)
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Vasodilation arteriole opens
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The net effect is to open arterioles under the surface of the skin when hot and close them
when cold.
Hyperglycaemia: blood glucose level is dangerously high (causes coma and can be fatal)
Hypoglycaemia: blood glucose level is dangerously high (causes coma and can be fatal)
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Type I Diabetes: a disease in which people cannot make insulin (glucose is not
selectively reabsorbed in the nephron)
2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant
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2.90 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH,
adrenaline, insulin, testosterone, progesterone and oestrogen
Homologous pair - chromosomes come in pairs, and they code for the same thing
e.g. petal colour
Allele - when, in a homologous pair of chromosomes, specific genes are different
but code for the same type of thing - i.e. white instead of red flowers, therefore the
phenotype or what you might see will be different, and a different set of
characteristics will emerge
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Let R be the allele for red flower, and W be allele for white flower
RR X WW
all R all W
Genotypes of offsprings are all RW in First Filial Generation
RW X RW
R and W R and W
Genotypes of offspring: RR, RW, WW in ration 1:2:1
Phenotypes of offspring: RR = Red, WW = White, RW = Pink
3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells
which contain identical sets of chromosomes - when a parent cell divides to
provide daughter cells
We know that diploid cells are entering mitosis as their nuclear membrane
begins to break down = Prophase. At this stage, the pair of chromatids
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connected by the centromere, is distinctly visible - two chromatids make up each
chromosome.
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Metaphase = a structure called the spindle forms and chromatids attach to it.
Mitosis
In mammals, body cells are diploid. The chromosomes need to be copied exactly
so that new cells can be produced for:
growth
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Identical cells
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Mitosis
1. Produces 2 daughter cells
2. Daughter cells are diploid (i.e. only have 46 chromosomes)
3. Daughter cells are genetically identical to each other
4. Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cell
5. Occurs in one stage
6. Happens everywhere in the body
Meiosis
1. Produces 4 daughter cells
2. Produces gametes
2. Daughter cells are haploid (i.e. have 23 pairs of chromosomes)
3. Gametes are genetically different to each other
4. Gametes not genetically different to parent cell
Therefore, fertilization produces a diploid cell (which will grow by mitosis) from two haploid
gametes.
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Each parent gives only one of each of the pairs of chromosomes to their gametes. A pair
of chromosomes will have exactly the same genes on them, but not necessarily the same
alleles! This is the source of genetic variation in gametes.
- Dominant always affect the phenotype (allele represented with capital letter)
- Recessive never affect the phenotype in the presence of a dominant allele (allele
represented with lower case letter)
- Co-dominant affect the phenotype equally in the presence of another co-dominant
allele (both alleles have capital letters)
Inheritance:
Inheritance patterns are always given using a genetic diagram. If this comes up you get
loads of marks for it, but only if you use the genetic diagram!
Inheritance of gender is governed by the 23rd chromosome. Boys have an X and a Y, girls
have two X chromosomes
Variation:
Variation within a species is produced by two factors
1. The environment
2. The genotype.
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Mutation - a rare, random change in the genetic code of a gene. The mutated gene will
therefore produce a slightly different protein to the original non-mutant gene. The new
protein might
Beneficial mutations give a selective advantage to the individual. Individuals with this kind
of mutated allele are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass their alleles on. This is the
basis of Natural Selection
Natural Selection:
Mutations can be inherited or happen on their own. The frequency that mutation occurs
naturally can be increased by exposure to radiation (e.g. gamma rays, X-rays and
ultraviolet rays) and some chemical mutagens (e.g. chemicals in tobacco).
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