ALTERNATING CURRENTS

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Transformer

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
1. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
(i) Alternating voltage: An alternating voltage (or E.M.F.) is one whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverses periodically.
The instantaneous value (i.e. value at any time t) of an alternating voltage is
given by;
E = E0 sin t
where

...(i)

E = value of the alternating voltage at time t

E0 = maximum value (i.e. amplitude) of the alternating voltage
= angular frequency of supply

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
1. ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
(i) Alternating voltage: An alternating voltage (or E.M.F.) is one whose magnitude changes with time
and direction reverses periodically.
The instantaneous value (i.e. value at any time t) of an alternating voltage is given by;
E = E0 sin t
where

...(i)

E = value of the alternating voltage at time t

E0 = maximum value (i.e. amplitude) of the alternating voltage
= angular frequency of supply

Note that = 2 f where f is the frequency of the alternating voltage. If T is the time period of alternating
voltage, then,
2
= 2 f =
T
It may be noted that in the above equation of the alternating voltage, E0 and are constant. Therefore,
instantaneous value E of alternating voltage changes with time according to sine
I

I0

E0

E
0 t T/4

T/2

0 t T/4

T/2

- I0

E0
Fig. 17.1

Fig. 17.2

function of time.

Note: An alternating voltage can also be represented as a cosine function of time viz., E = E 0 cos
t [See Fig. 17.2]. Both representations lead to the same result.
(ii) Alternating current: An alternating current is one whose magnitude changes with time and
direction reverses periodically.
The instantaneous value (i.e. value at any time t) of an alternating current is given by;
I = I0 sin t
where
I = value of alternating current at time t
I0 = maximum value (i.e. amplitude) of alternating current
= 2 f = 2/T
I
Fig. 17.3 shows the waveform of an alternating current.
I0

Fig. 17.4 shows An alternating voltage source connected to

a resistor R. In Fig. 17.4 (i), the upper terminal of alternating voltage
source is positive and the lower terminal negative so that current flows in
the circuit as shown. After time equal to T/2 (where T is the time period
of alternating voltage), the polarities of the voltage source are reversed
[See Fig. 17.4 (ii)] so that current now flows in the opposite direction. This
is called alternat-ing current because the current flows in alternate directions in
the circuit.

I
0 t T/4

T/2

I0
Fig. 17.3

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

3
I = I0 sin wt

I = I0 sin wt
_

+
_

E = E0 sin wt

E = E0 sin wt

(ii)

(i)
Fig. 17.4

Note: An alternating current can also be represented as a cosine function of time viz. I = I 0
cos t. The current-time graph will be similar to that shown in Fig. 17.2 except replacing voltage
by current along Y-axis.

2. MEAN or AVERAGE VALUE OF A.C.

The average value of alternating current over one complete cycle is zero. It is because waveform is symmetrical
about the time axis and positive area exactly cancels the negative area. However, the average value over a halfcycle (positive or negative) is not zero. Hence half-cycle average value of an alternating current may be defined
as under :
The half-cycle average value of a.c. is that value of steady current (d.c.) which would send the same
amount of charge through a circuit for half the time period of a.c. as is sent by the a.c. through the same
circuit in the same time. It is represented by Im or Iav .
The instantaneous value of alternating current is given by;
I = I0 sin t
Suppose current I (= I 0 sin t) remains constant for a small time dt. Then small amount of
charge sent in a small time dt is given by;
dq = I dt = I0 sin t dt
It q is the total charge sent by the positive half-cycle of a.c. (i.e. 0 to T/2 time), then,

q =

T /2

= I0
=

T /2

I dt =

cos t

T /2

I 0 sin t dt
=

I0

cos 2 cos 0

I0
I
2I
[cos cos 0] = 0 ( 1 1) = 0

2 I0

If Im is the half-cycle average value of a.c., then by definition,

q=

or

...(i)

T
2
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,
q = Im

or
or

Im

T 2I0
=
2

Im

T
T
= 2 I0
2
2
2
I m = I 0 = 0.637 I 0

I m = 0.637 I 0

...(ii)

( = 2 f =

2
)
T

Hence half-cycle average value of a.c. is 0.637 times the peak value of a.c.
For positive half-cycle, Im = + 0.637 I0
For negative half-cycle, Im = -0.637 I0
Obviously, average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is zero.
Similarly, half-cycle average value of alternating voltage is given by ;
Em = 0.637 E0
The student can derive this relation by replacing I0 by E0/R in the above derivation.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Note. A d.c. voltmeter or ammeter reads average (or d.c.) value. Therefore, they cannot be used to
measure alternating voltage/current. It is because the average value of alternating voltage/current
over a complete cycle is zero. We use a.c. meters to measure alternating voltage/current.

3. R.M.S. or EFFECTIVE VALUE OF A.C.

The average value cannot be used to specify an alternating current (or voltage). It is because its value is zero
over one cycle and cannot be used for power calculations. Therefore, we must
search for more suitable criterion to measure the effectiveness of an alternating current (or
voltage). The obvious choice would be to measure it in terms of direct current that would do
work (or produce heat) at the same average rate as a.c. under similar conditions. This equivalent direct current
is called the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) or effective value of alternating current.
The effective or r.m.s. value of alternating current is that steady current (d.c.) which when flowing
through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating
current when flowing through the same resistance for the same time. It is also called virtual value of a.c. and
is represented by Ir.m.s. or Ieff. or Iv.
For example, when we say that r.m.s. or effective value of an alternating current is 5A, it
means that the alternating current will do work (or produce heat) at the same rate as 5A direct
current under similar conditions.

4. RELATION BETWEEN R.M.S. VALUE AND PEAK VALUE OF A.C.

Let the alternating current be represented by ;
I = I 0 sin t
If this alternating current flows through a resistance R for a small time dt, then small amount of heat
produced is given by ;

dH = I 2 R dt = ( I 0 sin t ) 2 R dt = I 02 R sin 2 t dt
In one complete cycle (i.e. time 0 to T) of alternating current, the total amount of heat produced in R
is given by ;
T

H = dH = I 02 R sin 2 t dt
0

= I 02 R

1 cos 2 t

dt
2

I 02 R

T 1 dt T cos 2 t dt
0

2 0
T
2
I R
sin 2 t
= 0
t
2
2 0

sin 2 T

I 02 R
sin 0
(T 0)
2
2

I 02 R
2

sin 2 2
T

( T = 2)

I 02 RT
... (i)
2
If Iv is the virtual (or r.m.s.) value of the alternating current, then heat produced in R in the same time
(i.e. 0 to T) is given by ;
...(ii)
H = I v2 RT
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

H =

I 02 RT
2
I0
Iv =
= 0.707 I 0
or
2

IV = 0.707 I0
Similarly, it can be shown that virtual or r.m.s. value of an alternating voltage is given by ;
Ev = 0.707 E0
The student can derive this relation by replacing I0 by E0/R in the above derivation.
I v2 RT =

Alternate Method:
I = I 0 sin t
If this current is passed through a resistance R, then power delivered at any instant is given by ;

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

5
p

p = I 2 R = ( I 0 sin t ) 2 R
= l02 R sin 2 t
p = l02 R sin 2 t
Because the current is squared, power is always positive. Since
or

I 20 R

Average power

1 2
2 I0R

the value of sin 2 t varies between 0 and 1, its average value is 1/2
0
[See Fig. 17.5].
1 2

Average power delivered, P = I 0 R

...(i)
2
If Iv is the virtual (or r.m.s.) value of the alternating current, then by definition,

t
Fig. 17.4

Power delivered, P = I 02 R
From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

...(ii)

1 2
Iv R
2
I
I v = 0 = 0.707 I 0
or
2

Iv = 0.707 I0
Note that r.m.s. value is the same whether calculated for half-cycle or full-cycle.
I v2 R =

5. IMPORTANCE OF R.M.S. VALUES

An alternating voltage or current is always specified in terms of r.m.s. values. Thus an alternating
current of 10 A is one which has the same heating effect as 10 A d.c. under similar conditions. The
following points may be noted carefully:
(i) The domestic a.c. supply is 230V, 50Hz. It is the r.m.s. or effective value. It means
that the alternating voltage available has the same heating effect as 230V d.c. under similar
conditions. The equation of this alternating voltage is :
E = E0 sin t

= 230 2 sin 2 50 t
( E0 = 2 Ev )
E = 230 2 sin 314t
(ii) When we say that alternating current in a circuit is 5A, we are specifying the r.m.s. value. It
means that the alternating current flowing in the circuit has the same heating effect as 5A d.c.
under similar conditions.
(iii) A.C. ammeters and voltmeters record r.m.s. values of current and voltage respectively.

Note. The alternating voltage/current can be measured by utilising the heating effect of electric
current. Such instruments are called hot-wire instruments and measure the r.m.s. value of voltage/
current since r.m.s. value is the same for half-cycle or complete cycle.

6. PHASOR REPRESENTATION OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGES/CURRENTS

We have seen that an alternating voltage or current can be represented in the form of (i) waves and (ii)
equations. The waveform presents to the eye a very definite picture of what is happening at every instant.
But it is difficult to draw the wave accurately. No doubt the current flowing at any instant can be determined
from the equation form I = I0 sin t but this equation presents no picture to the eye of what is happening
in the circuit.
The above difficulty has been overcome by representing sinusoidal alternating voltage or current by a
line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant angular velocity (). Such a rotating
line is called a phasor. The length of the phasor is taken equal to the maximum value (on suitable scale) of the
alternating quantity and the angular velocity equal to the angular velocity of the alternating quantity. As we
shall see presently, this phasor (i.e. rotating line) will generate a sine wave.
Consider an alternating current represented by the equation I = I 0 sin t. Take a line OP
to represent to scale the maximum value I 0 of the current. Imagine the line OP (or phasor as it
is called) to be rotating in anticlockwise direction at an angular velocity of rad/s about the point 0.
Measuring the time from the instant when OP is horizontal, let OP rotate through an angle (=t) in the
anticlockwise direction in time t. The projection of OP on the Y-axis is OM.

OM = OP sin = I0 sin t
= I, the value of current at that instant

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Hence the projection of the phasor OP on the

I
Y
Y-axis at any instant gives the value of current at

that instant. If we plot the projections

P
MI
I
of the phasor on the Y-axis versus its angular
0
2

position point-by-point, a sinusoidal alternating

t
O
0
current wave is generated as shown in Fig. 17.8.
Note that phasor representation enables us to
quickly obtain the numerical values
and, at the same time, have a picture before the
Fig. 17.8
eye of events taking place in the circuit. Thus in
the position of the phasor OP shown in Fig. 17.8,
the instantaneous value is OM, the phase is (= t) and frequency is /2.
Phasor diagram: The phasor representation is particularly useful for dealing with two or more sinusoidally
varying alternating quantities which have the same frequency but different phases. For example, when a
sinusoidal alternating voltage is applied in a circuit, the resulting alternating current is also sinusoidal and has
the same frequency as that of the applied voltage. However, there is *generally a phase difference between the
applied voltage and the resulting circuit current. We can represent the voltage and current as phasors along
with the phase angle between them. Such a diagram is called a phasor diagram. It is a usual practice to draw
the phasor diagram using r.m.s. values rather than maximum values. This does not alter the phase difference
between the phasors because only lengths of the phasors are changed.
Note. If we take the projection of phasor on X-axis, then the formula for instantaneous current is I = I0 cos
t cos t.

8. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING RESISTANCE

ONLY

When an alternating voltage is applied across a pure resistance, then free electrons flow (i.e. current) in one
direction for the first half-cycle of the supply and then flow in the opposite direction during the next half-cycle,
thus constituting alternating current in the circuit.

E I

E
I

I
0

2p

wt

E = E0 sin wt
(i)

(ii)
Fig. 17.9

Consider a pure resistor of resistance R connected across an alternating source of e.m.f. [See Fig. 17.9
(i)]. Suppose the instantaneous value of the alternating e.m.f. in given by;
E = E0 sin t
...(i)
If I is the circuit current at that instant, then,
F E0 sin t
=
( E = E0 sin t)
R
R
E
I = 0 sin t
or
R
The value of I will be maximum (i.e. I0) when sin t = 1. Therefore, eq. (ii) becomes:
I = I0 sin t
...(iii)
I=

...(ii)
( I0 = E0 /R)

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that the applied e.m.f. and circuit current are in phase
with each other i.e. they pass through their zero values at the same instant and attain their
positive and negative peaks at the same instant. This is indicated in the wave diagram shown
in Fig. 17.9 (ii). The phasor diagram shown in Fig.17.9 (iii) also reveals that current is in phase
with the applied voltage.
(ii) Power absorbed: In an a.c. circuit, voltage and current vary from instant to instant. Therefore,
power at any instant is equal to the product of voltage and current at that instant i.e.
Instantaneous power, p = EI = (E0 sin t) (I0 sin t)= E0 I0 sin2 t

1 cos 2 t
= E0 I 0

E I
E I
p = 0 0 0 0 cos 2t

...(iv)
2
2
Since power varies from instant to instant, average power over a complete cycle is to be considered.
This is found by integrating eq. (iv) w.r.t. time for 1 cycle and dividing by the time of 1 cycle. The time
for one cycle is T.
Average power, P =
Now

1
T

E0 I 0
1
dt
T
2

E0 I 0
cos 2 t dt
2

0 cos 2 t dt = 0

E0 I 0
E
I
0 = 0 0
2
2
2
or
P = Ev Iv
Therefore, average power absorbed by a resistor in an a.c. circuit is equal to the product of virtual
voltage (Ev) across it and virtual current (Iv) through it. Obviously, this power is supplied by the source of
alternating e.m.f.
p=

Note: Since I v =

Ev
R

P = I v2 R

or

Ev2
R

9. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING INDUCTANCE ONLY

When alternating voltage is applied across a pure inductive coil, a back e.m.f. (= L dI/dt) is induced in the
coil due to its self-inductance. The negative sign indicates that induced e.m.f. opposes the change in
current. In order to maintain the flow of current, the applied voltage must be equal and opposite to induced
voltage at every instant.
Consider a pure inductor of inductance L connected across an alternating source of e.m.f. [See Fig.
17.10 (i)]. Suppose the instantaneous value of the alternating e.m.f. is given by;
E = E0 sin t
...(i)

E I

I
0

p/2

I
2p

wt

E = E0 sin wt
(i)

(ii)
Fig. 17.10

If I is the current in the circuit and dI/dt is the rate of change of current at that instant, then e.m.f.
induced in L = L dI/dt. As applied voltage is equal and opposite to induced e.m.f. at every instant,
LdI
E =

dt
or
or

dI
dt
dI
E0 sin t = L
dt
E=L

( E = E0 sin t)

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
E0
sin t dt
L
Integrating both sides, we get,
E
E
I = 0 sin t dt = 0 ( cos t )
L
L
E
I = 0 sin ( t / 2 )

L
The value of I will be maximum (I0) when sin (t /2) = 1.
dI =

or

...(ii)

E0
L
Substituting the value of E0/L = I0 in eq. (ii), we get,
I = I0 sin (t /2)
...(iii)
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that circuit current lags behind the voltage by /2
radians or *90. Hence in a pure inductance, current lags the voltage by 90.
This fact is indicated in the wave diagram [See Fig. 17.10 (ii)]. The phasor diagram shown in Fig.
17.10 (iii) also reveals that Iv lags behind Ev by 90.
(ii) Inductive reactance: Inductance not only causes the current to lag behind the voltage but it also
limits the magnitude of current in the circuit. We have seen above that:
E
E0
I0 = 0
or
= L
L
I0
Clearly, the opposition offered by the inductance to current flow is L. This quantity L is
called the inductive reactance XL of the inductor. It has the same dimensions as resistance and
is, therefore, measured in ohms ().
Inductive reactance, XL = L = 2 f L
Note the XL will be in if L is in henry and f in Hz.
Notes:
I0 =

(a)

Ev = E0 / 2

and

Iv = I0 / 2

E0
E
E
or
= v = XL
Iv = v
I0
Iv
XL
(b) For d.c. f = 0, XL = 2 fL = 2 0 L = 0
Therefore, a pure inductance offers zero opposition to d.c.
(c) XL = 2 f L or XL f. Therefore, greater the f, greater is and vice-versa.
(d) We can show that the units of XL are that of ohm.
1
1
Volt
Volt
XL = L =
henry =

=
= ohm
sec
sec amp/sec amp
(iii)
Average power consumed
E = E0 sin t
I = I0 sin (t /2) = I0 cos t
E0 I0
Instantaneous power, p = E I = (E0 sin t) ( I0 cos t) =
sin2 t
2
Average power, P = Average of p over one cycle
1 T E I
= 0 0 sin t dt = 0
T 0
2
Hence average power absorbed by pure inductance is zero. Let us see what really takes place in a
pure inductive circuit. During one quarter cycle of alternating source of e.m.f., energy is stored in the
magnetic field of the inductor. This energy is supplied by the source. During the next quarter cycle, the
stored energy is returned to the source. For this reason, average power absorbed by a pure inductor over
a complete cycle is zero.

10. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING CAPACITANCE ONLY

When an alternating voltage is applied to a capacitor, the capacitor is charged first in one direction and then in
the opposite direction. The result is that electrons move to and fro round the circuit, connecting the plates thus
constituting alternating current.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

E I
I
0

p/2

E
p

2p

wt

E = E0 sin wt
(i)

(ii)
Fig. 17.11

Consider a capacitor of capacitance C connected across an alternating source of e.m.f. [See Fig. 17.11
(i)]. Suppose the instantaneous value of the alternating e.m.f. is given by ;
E = E0 sin t

...(i)

If I is the current in the circuit and q is the charge on the capacitor at this instant, then,
q
C
At every instant, the applied e.m.f. must be equal to the p.d. across the capacitor.

P.D. across the capacitor =

q
C
q
E0 sin t =
C
q = C E0 sin t

E=

or
or

dq d (C E sin t) = C E cos t = C E sin (t + /2)*

=
0
0
0
dt
dt
E0

I =
sin (t + / 2)
1/ C
The value of I will be maximum (I0) when sin (t + /2) = 1.

Now,

I =

I0 =

...(ii)

E0
1/ C

E0
(ii), we have,
1/ C
I = sin (t + /2)
...(iii)
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from eqs. (i) and (iii) that the circuit current leads the applied voltage by /
2 radians or *90. Hence in a pure capacitance, current leads the voltage by 90. This fact is indicated in
the wave diagram [See Fig. 17.11 (ii)]. The phasor diagram shown in Fig. 17.11 (iii) also reveals that Iv
leads Ev by 90.
(ii) Capacitive reactance: Capacitance not only causes the voltage to lag behind the current but it also
limits the magnitude of current in the circuit. We have seen above that :
E0
E0
1
I0 =
=
or
1/ C
C C
Clearly, the opposition offered by capacitance to current flow is 1/C. The quantity 1/C is called the
capacitive reactance XC of the capacitor. It has the same dimensions as resistance and is, therefore,
measured in ohms ().

Substituting the value of

1
1
=
C 2 f C
Note that XC will be in if f is in Hz and C in farad.
Notes:
(a)
and
Ev = E0 / 2
Iv = I0 / 2

Capacitive reactance, X C =

E
E0
E
1
or
Iv = v
= v =
= XC
X
C
I0
Iv
C
1
1
(b) For d.c. f = 0, X C =
=
= .
2fC 2 0 C
Therefore, a pure capacitance offers infinite opposition to d.c. In other words, a capacitor
blocks d.c.

10

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

1
1
or X C . Therefore, greater the f, smaller is XC and vice-versa.
f
2fC
1
sec
sec
volt sec
(d) X C =
=
=
=
= ohm
C farad coulomb/volt amp/sec
Therefore, the units of XC are ohm.
(iii) Average power absorbed
E = E0 sin t
I = I0 sin (t + /2) = I0 cos t
E0 I 0
sin 2t
Instantaneous power, p = E I = (E0 sin t) (I0 cos t) =
2
Average power, P = Average of p over one cycle
1 TE
= 0 sin 2t dt = 2
T 0 2
Hence average power absorbed by pure capacitance is zero. Let us see what really takes place in a
pure capacitive circuit. During one quarter cycle of the alternating source of e.m.f., energy is stored in the
electric field of the capacitor. This energy is supplied by the source. During the next quarter cycle, the
stored energy is returned to the source. For this reason, the average power absorbed by a pure capacitor
over one cycle is zero.

(c)

XC =

11. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING R AND L IN SERIES

Fig. 17.12 (i) shows a resistor of resistance R ohms connected in series with pure inductor of L henry.
Let
Ev = r.m.s. value of applied alternating e.m.f.
Iv = r.m.s. value of the circuit current

V R = Iv R
...
where VR is in phase with Iv
and
V L = I v XL
...
where VL leads Iv by 90
Taking current as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram of the circuit can be drawn as shown in Fig.
17.12 (ii). The voltage drop VR (= Iv R) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor OA. The voltage drop VL (= Iv XL ) leads the current by 90 and is represented in
magnitude and direction by the phasor AB. The applied voltage Ev is the phasor sum of these two voltage
drops i.e.
VL
Iv
VR

Iv

90

VR

VL

Iv

B
Ev

VL
o

90
O
Ev
(i)

Ev =

or

Iv =

VR

Iv

(ii)
Fig. 17.12

RR2 + L2L = ( I v R) 2 + ( I v X L ) 2 = I v

R 2 + X L2

Ev
R + X L2
2

The quantity R 2 + X L2 offers opposition to current flow and is called impedance of the circuit. It is
represented by Z and is measured in ohms ().
E
Iv = v

where Z = R 2 + X L2
Z
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit current Iv lags behind the applied
voltage Ev by . Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that in an inductive circuit, current
lags behind the voltage. The value of phase angle can be determined from the phasor diagram.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
tan =

11

I X
VL
X
= v L = L
VR
Iv R
R

XL
R
E I
Since the values of XL and R are known, the value of can be
calculated. The wave diagram shown in Fig. 17.13 also reveals that
circuit current lags behind the applied voltage.
If the applied voltage is E = E0 sin t, then equation for circuit
0
current is given by ;
I = I0 sin (t ) where I0 = E0 / Z

(ii) Impedance: The total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current is called impedance Z. In RL series circuit,

or

tan =

E
I

Fig. 17.13

Z = R 2 + X L2 where XL = 2 f L
The magnitude of impedance in R L series circuit depends upon the values R, L and supply frequency f.
(iii) Power consumed
Instantaneous power, p = E I = (E0 sin t) [I0 sin (t )]
1
= E0 I 0 [2 sin t )]
2
1
E0 I 0 [cos cos (2t )]
2
1
1
p = E0 I 0 cos E0 I 0 cos (2t )

2
2
Obviously, instantaneous power consists of two parts :
1
(a) a constant part
E I cos whose average value over one cycle is the same.
2 0 0
1
(b) a fluctuating part E0 I0 cos (2t ) whose average value over one cycle is zero.
2
Average power consumed, P = Average of p over one cycle
=

1
E0 I 0 cos 0
2
E I cos
p= 0 0
or
2
E0
I
=
0 cos
2
2

P = Ev Iv cos
where Ev and Iv are the r.m.s. values of applied voltage and circuit current respectively. The term cos is
called power factor of the circuit and its value is given by (from phasor diagram) ;
=

I R R
VR
= v =
Ev
Iv Z Z
R
cos =
Z
P = Ev Iv cos
R
= ( Iv Z ) Iv
Z
= I v2 R

Power factor, cos =

Alternatively:

[ Ev = I v Z ; cos =

R
]
Z

P = I v2 R

This is expected because power is consumed in resistance only ; inductance does not consume
any power.

12. IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE

The phasor diagram of a R L series circuit is shown in Fig. 17.14. Dividing each side of the phasor diagram
by the same factor Iv, we get a triangle whose sides are R, XL and Z. Such a triangle is known as impedance
triangle [See. Fig. 17.15]. Just as in Fig. 17.14, impedance triangle is also a right-angled triangle. Impedance
triangle is a useful concept in a.c. circuits as it enables us to calculate :

12

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
(i) the impedance of the circuit i.e. Z =

R 2 + X L2 .

(ii) power factor of the circuit i.e. cos = R/Z.

(iii) phase angle i.e. tan = XL/R.
(iv) whether current leads or lags the voltage.
Therefore, it is always profitable to draw the impedance triangle while analysing an a.c. circuit.

Ev

Iv

VL = Iv XL

XL

VR = Iv R

R
Fig. 17.15

Fig. 17.14

Note. The reciprocal of reactance is called susceptance and the reciprocal of impedance is called
admittance.

13. POWER RELATIONS IN AN A.C. CIRCUIT

The power which is actually consumed in an a.c. circuit is called the true power or active power. We know
that power is consumed in resistance only because neither pure inductor nor capacitor consumes any
active power. The power consumed in L or C is zero because all the power received from the source in a
quarter cycle is returned to the source in the next quarter cycle. Consequently, power consumed over a
complete cycle is zero. This circulating power is called reactive power and does no useful work in the
circuit.
Ev

Iv

Ev Iv cos

Ev Iv sin

Ev Iv

Iv sin
Power triangle
Fig. 17.16

Fig. 17.17

Consider an inductive circuit in which circuit current Iv lags behind the applied voltage Ev by . The
phasor diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig. 17.16. The circuit current Iv can be resolved into two
rectangular components viz. (i) Iv cos in phase with Ev and (ii) Iv sin ; 90 out of phase with Ev.

True power, P = Ev Iv cos = Ev Iv cos watts

Reactive power, Q = Ev Iv sin = Ev Iv sin VAR

Apparent power, S = Ev Iv = Ev Iv V A
Ev I v cos
True power
=
Ev I v
Apparent power
Note that it is the component Iv cos of the total current which contributes to true or real power. It is
always desired that this component (i.e. Iv cos ) should be as large as possible because it is this component which does the useful work in the circuit. This is possible only if the value of power factor (i.e. cos
) is large. For this reason, we always wish that power factor of the circuit to be as near to 1 as possible.
Note that component Iv cos is called wattful component while component Iv sin is called wattless
component.

Power factor, cos =

Note: Power consumed in an a.c. circuit is P = Ev Iv cos

(i) For pure resistive circuit,
P = Ev Iv cos 0 = Ev Iv
(ii) For pure inductive circuit,
P = Ev Iv cos 90 = 0
(iii) For pure capacitive circuit,
P = Ev Iv cos 90 = 0

14. WATTLESS CURRENT

When an alternating voltage Ev is applied to a circuit, the alternating current Iv flows in the circuit.
There is generally (except for pure resistive circuit) a phase *difference between E v and I v. The
circuit current I v has two components viz I v cos and I v sin . The component I v cos contributes
to true power (P = E v I v cos ) and is called wattful current. However, the component I v sin does no
useful work in the circuit and is called wattless current.

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

13

The component of current (i.e. Iv sin ) which does no useful work in an a.c. circuit is called wattless
current.
Since the wattless current does no useful work in an a.c. circuit, it should be kept as small as
possible. This can be achieved if we increase the power factor ( = cos ) of the circuit i.e. should
be as close to 0 as possible. It may be noted that wattless current (= I v sin ) is a liability on the
generator because it has to supply additional current. In practice, engineers devote considerable time to
devise ways and means to minimise the wattless current.
Note. The power Ev Iv sin is called reactive power. It is a circulating power and does no useful
work in the circuit. It merely flows from the source to the circuit and vice-versa periodically.

15. A.C. CIRCUIT CONTAINING R AND C IN SERIES

Figure 17.21 (i) shows a resistor of resistance R ohms connected in series with a capacitor of capacitance C
farad.
Iv

90

Iv
VR
R

VC
C
O

Iv

VR

VR

VC

90

VC

Ev

Ev
(i)

Let

(ii)

Ev = r.m.s. value of applied alternating e.m.f.

Iv = r.m.s. value of circuit current

VR = Iv R ....... where VR is in phase with Iv

and
VC = Iv XC ....... where VC lags Iv by 90
Taking current as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram of the circuit can be drawn as shown in
Fig. 17.21 (ii). The voltage drop VR (= Iv R) is in phase with current and is represented in magnitude and
direction by the phasor OA. The voltage drop VC (= Iv XC) lags behind the current by 90 and is represented
in magnitude and direction by the phasor AB. The applied voltage Ev is the phasor sum of these two voltage
drops i.e.
Ev = VR2 + VC2 = ( I v R) 2 + ( I v X C ) 2 = I v
Ev
Iv =
2
R + X C2

The quantity

R 2 + X C2

R 2 + X C2 offers opposition to the current flow and is called impedance of the circuit.

Ev
where Z = R 2 + X C2
Z
(i) Phase angle: It is clear from the phasor diagram that circuit current Iv leads the applied voltage Ev
by . This fact is also illustrated in the wave diagram shown in Fig. 17.22 and impedance triangle
in Fig. 17.23. The value of phase angle is given by (from phasor diagram);

Iv =

E I

E
I

Z
0

2p

wt

Fig. 17.22

Fig. 17.23

XC

14

ALTERNATING CURRENTS
tan =

VC
I X
X
= v C = C
VR
Iv R
R

XC
R
Since current is taken as the reference phasor, negative phase angle implies that voltage lags
behind the current. This is the same thing as current leads the voltage.
(ii) Power consumed: The equations for applied voltage and circuit current are :
tan =

or

E = E0 sin t

where E0 =

I = I0 sin (t + ) where I0 =

2 Ev
2 Iv

Average power consumed = E I = Ev Iv cos [By same way as in Art 17.11]

Alternatively:
P = Power in R + Power in C

= I v2 R + 0 = I v2 R
Ev
R
= Ev I v
= Ev I v cos
Z
Z
P = Ev Iv cos
= ( I v R)

16. RLC SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT

This is a general series a.c. circuit. Fig. 17.26 shows R, L and C connected in series across a supply voltage Ev
(r.m.s.). The resulting circuit current is Iv (r.m.s.).
Voltage across R,
VR = Iv R
...... VR is in phase with Iv
Voltage across L,
VL = Iv XL
...... VL leads Iv by 90
Voltage across C,
VC = Iv XC
...... VC lags Iv by 90
As before, the phasor diagram is drawn taking current as the reference phasor. In the phasor diagram
[See Fig. 17.27], OA represents VR, AB represents VL and AC represents VC. It may be seen that VL is in
phase opposition to VC. It follows that the circuit can be effectively inductive or capacitive depending
which voltage drop (VL or VC) is predominant. For the case considered, VL > VC so that net voltage drop
across L C combination is VL VC and is represented by AD.
B

Ev
Iv

VR

VC

VL

VL

VL V C

VR

VC

Iv

Ev
Fig. 17.26

Therefore, the applied voltage Ev is the phasor sum of VR and VL VC and is represented by OD.
Ev = VR2 + (VL VC )2 = ( I v R )2 + ( I v X L I v X C ) 2
= Iv
Iv =

The quantity
circuit.

R2 + ( X L X C )2
Ev

R2 + ( X L X C )2

R 2 + ( X L X C ) 2 offers oposition to the current flow and is called impedance Z of the

Circuit power factor, cos =

R
=
Z

R + ( X L X C )2
V VC
X XC
tan = L
= L
VR
R
Since XL, XC and R are known, the phase angle f can be determined.
2

Power consumed, P* = Ev Iv cos = Vv2 R

...(i)
...(ii)

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

15

Three cases of R-L-C series circuit: We have seen above that impedance of a R-L-C series circuit is
given by ;
Z =

R 2 + ( X L Xc)2

(i) When XL XC is positive (i.e. XL > XC), phase angle is positive and the circuit will be inductive.
In other words, in such a case, the circuit current Iv will lag behind the supply voltage Ev by ; the
value of being given by eq. (ii) above.
(ii) When XL XC is negative (i.e. XC > XL), phase angle f is negative and the circuit is capacitive. That
is to say, the circuit current Iv leads the supply voltage Ev by ; the value of being given by eq.
(ii) above.
(iii) When XL XC is zero (i.e. XL = XC), the circuit is purely resistive. In other words, circuit current Iv
and supply voltage Ev are in phase i.e. = 0. The circuit will then have a unity power factor.
If the equation of the supply voltage is E = E0 sin t, then equation for the current will be
I = I0 sin (t ) where I0 = E0 /Z
The value of will be positive or negative depending upon which reactance (XL or XC) predominates.

17. RESONANCE IN RLC SERIES A.C. CIRCUIT

The RLC series circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the circuit power factor is unity i.e.
XL = XC. This is called series resonance.
The frequency at which resonance occurs is called the resonant frequency fr. The resonance in R-LC series circuit (i.e. XL = XC) can be achieved by changing the supply frequency because XL and XC are
frequency dependent. At a certain frequency, called the resonant frequency f r, XL becomes equal to XC
and resonance occurs.
At resonance,

XL = XC

or

2 fr L =

or

f r2 =

or

fr =

1
2 fr C
1
42 L C
1

2 LC
If L and C are in henry and farad respectively, then fr will be in Hz.
Effects of series resonance: When series resonance occurs, the effect on the circuit is the same as
though neither inductance nor capacitance is present. The current under this condition is dependent
solely on the resistance of the circuit and voltage across it.
(i) The impedance of the circuit is minimum and is equal to the resistance of the circuit i.e.
Zr = R
... at series resonance
(ii) The current in the circuit is maximum as it is limited by the resistance of the circuit alone i.e.
Ir =

Ev
E
= v
Zr
R

... at series resonance

(iii) Since at series resonance the current flowing in the circuit is very large, the voltage drops across
L and C are also very large. In fact, these drops are much greater than the applied voltage.
However, voltage drop across LC combination as a whole will be zero because these drops are
equal in magnitude but 180 out of phase with each other.
Resonance Curve: The curve between the circuit current and
the supply frequency is known as resonance curve. Fig. 17.29
shows the resonance curve of a typical R-L-C series circuit. Note
that current reaches the maximum value at the resonant frequency
(f r), falling off rapidly on either side at that point. It is because if the
frequency is below fr, XC > XL and the net reactance is no longer zero.
If the frequency is above fr, then XL > XC and the net reactance is again
not zero. In both cases, the circuit impedance will be more than the
impedance Z r (= R) at resonance. The result is that magnitude of circuit current decreases rapidly as the frequency changes from the resonant frequency.

Small R
I
Large R

fr

Fig. 17.29

Note the effect of resistance in the circuit. The smaller the resistance, the greater is the current at resonance and sharper the resonance
curve. On the other hand, the greater the resistance, the lower is the resonant peak and flatter is the resonance
curve (See Fig. 17.29).

16

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

18. Q-FACTOR OF SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT

At series resonance, the p.d. across L or C (the two voltage drops being equal and opposite) builds up to
a value many times greater than the applied voltage Ev. The voltage magnification produced by series
resonance is termed as Q-factor of the series resonant circuit (Q stands for quality) i.e.
The Q-factor of a resonant RLC circuit is the ratio of voltage across L (or C) to the applied voltage i.e.
I X
X
Voltage across L or C
Q -factor =
= r L = L
...(i)
Ir R
R
Applied voltage
X
Q -factor = L

R
The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit can also be expressed in terms of L and C.

1
1
r =
f r =

We know that,
2 LC
LC

Substituting the value of r in eq. (i), we have,

*1 L
...(ii)
R C
The value of Q-factor depends entirely upon the design of the coil (i.e. R-L part of the R-L-C
circuit) because resistance arises in this rather than in a capacitor. With a well designed coil, the
quality factor can be 200 or more.
Physical meaning of Q-factor. Let us now turn to the physical meaning of Q-factor. The Q-factor
of series a.c. circuit indicates how many times the p.d. across L or C is greater than the applied voltage
at resonance. For example, consider an R-L-C series circuit connected to 240 V a.c. source. If Q-factor of
the coil is 20, then voltage across L or C will be 20 240 = 4800 V at resonance i.e.
VC = VL = Q VR = 20 240 = 4800 V
Q-Factor and resonance curve. At series resonance, the circuit current is maximum (Ir = Er/R)
and is limited by circuit resistance only. The smaller the circuit resistance, the greater is the circuit
current and sharper will be the resonance curve. Smaller circuit resistance means large value of Q-factor
(= X L/R). Therefore, the greater the Q-factor of resonant RLC circuit, the sharper is the resonance
curve
Q -factor =

Application of Series Resonance. One important application of series resonance is to tune radio and
R
TV receivers. Fig. 17.30 shows the circuit for tuning a
To
radio receiver. The input signal comes from the anC
Amplifier
tenna and induces a voltage E in L of the *series From
L
E
Antenna
resonant circuit. The voltage across the capacitor
becomes V C = QE where Q is the quality factor of
the circuit. As the value of Q is generally large, the
Fig. 17.30
original signal received by the antenna increases many
times in value and appears across C. The value of VC is much more than that could have been obtained by direct
transformer ratio. Thus the amplifier receives a greatly increased signal.

19. RESONANCE IN PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUIT

A parallel a.c. circuit containing reactive elements (L and C) is said to be in electrical resonance when the
circuit power factor is unity. This is called parallel resonance.
Consider a pure inductor of inductance L connected in parallel with a capacitor of capacitance C across
an a.c. source of voltage Ev (r.m.s.). The circuit will be in resonance when the circuit power factor is unity. This
means that wattless component of the circuit current should be zero i.e.
IL IC = 0
or
IL = IC
IL
L
The frequency at which resonance occurs is called the resonant
frequency fr. The resonance in a parallel a.c. circuit (i.e. IL = IC) can be
achieved by changing the supply frequeny because X L and X C are frequency dependent. At a certain frequency, called resonant frequency
f r, IC becomes equal to IL and resonance occurs.
Iv
IC
C
At resonance,
IL = IC
Ev
Ev
or
= X = X
L
C
Ev
or
XL = XC
Fig. 17.31
1
or
2 fr L =
2f r C
1
fr =

2f r LC

ALTERNATING CURRENTS

17

Current

Note that fr will be in Hz if L is in henry and C is in farad.

Effects of Parallel resonance: The effects of parallel resonance can be summed up as under :
(i) The circuit power factor becomes unity. This implies that the circuit acts as a resistor.
(ii) The impedance (resistive) of the circuit becomes maximum.
(iii) The circuit current is minimum. The small current Iv flowing in the circuit is only the amount needed
to supply the resistance losses.
I
Resonance curve: The curve between the circuit current
and the supply frequency is known as resonance curve. Fig.
17.32 shows the resonance curve of a parallel a.c. circuit. Note that
circuit current (Iv = Ev / Zr) is minimum at parallel resonance. As the
frequency changes from resonance, the circuit current increases
rapidly. This action can be explained as follows. For frequencies other
than the resonance, the reactive currents (i.e. IL and IC) in the two
E
branches of the circuit are not equal. The resultant reactive current
Iv = v
must be supplied by the a.c. source. As the difference of the reactive
Zr
currents in the two branches increases with the amount of deviation
from the resonant frequency, the circuit current will also increase.
O

fr
frequency (f )
Fig. 17.32

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

Circuit Board Assembly

ELECTRICAL DEVICES
1. E.M.F. INDUCED IN A ROTATING COIL
When a coil is rotated with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field, the
e.m.f. induced in the coil is sinusoidal. Such a rotating coil in a uniform magnetic field is
the basic operating principle of an a.c. generator.
Consider a rectangular coil being rotated (anticlockwise) with constant angular
velocity in a uniform magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to the field.

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

ELECTRICAL DEVICES
1. E.M.F. INDUCED IN A ROTATING COIL
When a coil is rotated with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field, the e.m.f. induced in the coil
is sinusoidal. Such a rotating coil in a uniform magnetic field is the basic operating principle of an a.c. generator.

(ii)

( i)
Fig. 18.1

Consider a rectangular coil being rotated (anticlockwise) with constant angular velocity in a uniform
magnetic field about an axis perpendicular to the field.
Let N = number of turns of the coil
A = area of each turn
B = strength of the magnetic field
Suppose at t = 0 (i.e. initially), the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
as shown in Fig. 18.1 (i). Let the coil rotate in anticlockwise direction through an angle ( = t) in time t [See
Fig. 18.1 (ii)]. At this instant, the perpendicular to the plane of the coil makes an angle q with the direction of the
field. Therefore, at this instant, the magnetic flux through each turn of the coil is given by;
= A B cos = A B cos t
( = t)
The e.m.f. E induced in the coil at the considered instant is given by;
E=

d
d
(N) =
(N A B cos t)
dt
dt

d
(cos t) = N A B ( sin t)
dt

E = N A B sin t
... (i)
The magnitude of induced e.m.f. will be maximum (E0) when sin t = 1 i.e.
E0 =
NAB
Eq. (i) becomes,
E = E0 sin t
where E0 = N A B
Thus a coil rotating with a constant angular velocity in a uniform magnetic field produces a sinusoidally alternating e.m.f. Fig. 18.2 shows the waveform of the induced e.m.f. If a resistor of resistance R is
connected across the coil, the resulting current will also be sinusoidal. Its instantaneous value is given by;

= NAB

E sin t
E
= 0
R
R
or
I = I0 sin t
where I0 = E0/R = maximum value
Alternate method: The above e.m.f. equation (i.e. E = E0 sin
E
t) can also be derived from energy principle. Suppose the ends of
the coil are connected to a resistor. At the considered instant (i.e. at E0 = NAB
time t), suppose the induced e.m..f. and the resulting current are E
and I respectively. The torque T acting on the coil is given by;
T = N A B I sin = N A B I sin t
If the coil rotates through a small angle in a small time t,

0
then,
Mechanical work done per second by torque

E0 = NAB
= T
t

Fig. 18.2
= (N A B I sin t)
t

I =

= N A B I sin t
Electrical energy generated per second in the coil
= EI

... (i)

FG
H

IJ
K
...(ii)

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

From eqs. (i) and (ii), we have,

E I=
N A B I sin t
or
E = N A B sin t

E = E0 sin t
where E0 = N A B

2. A.C. GENERATOR (or ALTERNATOR)

An a.c. generator essentially consists of a rectangular coil of several turns rotating in a uniform magnetic field.
Consequently, it produces alternating (sinusoidal) e.m.f. If a load (e.g. a resistor) is connected across the
terminals of the generator, an alternating current flows through the load. In fact, an a.c. generator converts
mechanical energy into a.c. energy.
Principle: An a.c. generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e. whenever the
amount of magnetic flux linking a coil changes, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil. The direction of induced current
in the coil is given by Flemings right-hand rule.
Construction: Fig. 18.3 shows the essential parts of an a.c. generator.
B

P1
Q1
Fig. 18.3

(i) Armature: A rectangular coil ABCD of many turns (only one is shown) of copper wire is wound on a
soft iron core. The coil and its core are collectively called the armature. The function of the core is to increase
the magnetic flux and hence the induced e.m.f.
(ii) Field magnets: The armature is rotated in a strong uniform magnetic field provided by powerful
permanent magnet NS. The axis of rotation is perpendicular to the field.
(iii) Current collecting arrangement: The current collecting arrangement consists of slip rings and
brushes. The two ends of the loop are connected to copper rings P and Q (slip rings) which are insulated from
each other and from the shaft (not shown) on which they are fastened. The two carbon stationary brushes (P1
and Q1) make contact with these rotating rings and lead current that is induced in the coil to the external circuit.
Working: Suppose, initially the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines as shown in
Fig. 18.4 (i). As the coil rotates anticlockwise, at any time t, the flux linking the coil is = NAB cos where (=
t) is the angle between magnetic field and normal to the coil. Since is changing with time, the amount of
magnetic flux linking the coil is also changing. Hence e.m.f. is induced in the coil and current flows through the
load.
(i) Note that direction of induced e.m.f. (and hence current) changes periodically. Thus referring to Fig.
18.4 (i), as the coil moves anticlockwise, the conductor AB is moving downwards through the field
lines and conductor CD is moving upwards. After half a revolution, AB and CD interchange their
positions [See Fig. 18.4 (iii)]. Now conductor CD is moving downwards and conductor AB is moving
upwards. Consequently, according to Flemings right-hand rule, the current in the coil must reverse
as AB changes from downward to upward motion. Hence, alternating current is produced.

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

P
D

E=0
(i)

C
B

Induced e.m.f.

+ _
E = E0
(ii)

E=0
(iii)

B
A

+ _
E = _ E0

E=0
(v)

(iv)

ONE-CYCLE

+E0

90

180

270

360

E0
Fig. 18.4

(ii) Note that magnitude of e.m.f. and current are changing with time. It is because when a coil rotates
with a constant angular velocity () in a uniform magnetic field, the induced e.m.f. at any time t is
given by;
*E =
E0 sin t
where E0 = N A B
Thus the magnitude of e.m.f. changes with time according to sine function of time. The resulting current
is also sinusoidal.
E sin t
E
E
= 0
Instantaneous circuit current, I =
= I0 sin t
I0 = 0
R
R
R
Note. When (i.e. at t = 0) is measured from the position of the coil when its plane is perpendicular to
the direction of magnetic field, then, E = E0 sin t. If is measured from the position of the coil when its
plane makes an angle with the normal to the direction of the field, then, E = E0 sin (t + ). If (i.e. at t =
0, the plane of the coil is parallel to the field), then, E = E0 sin (t + 90) = E0 cos wt i.e. E = E0 cos t.

FG
H

IJ
K

3. POLYPHASE A.C. GENERATOR

The a.c. circuits discussed in the previous chapter are termed as single-phase circuits because they contain a
single alternating current and voltage wave. The generator producing a single phase supply (called singlephase generator) has only one armature winding. But if the generator is arranged to have two or more separate
windings displaced from each other by equal angles, it is called a *polyphase generator and will produce as
many independent voltages as the number of windings or phases.
(i) Two phase a.c. generator. Fig. 18.5 (i) shows an elementary 2-phase a.c. generator. It has two identical
windings or coils A and B displaced 90 from each other and rotating in anticlockwise direction with
an angular velocity in a 2-pole field. Since the two coils are identical and have the same angular
velocity, the e.m.f.s induced in them will be of the same magnitude and frequency. However, these
e.m.f.s will have a phase difference of 90 as shown in the wave diagram in Fig. 18.5 (i). Note that
e.m.f. in coil A leads that in coil B by 90. The equations of the two e.m.f.s are :

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

b2 Coil B
N

a2

Phase A

Phase B

a1

Coil A b1

90

(i)

c1
N

Coil A

b2

a2

a1
b1

Coil B

Phase A

Phase B Phase C

c2

120

240

Coil C
(ii)

Fig. 18.5

EA = E0 sin t
EB = E0 sin (t 90)
(ii) Three phase a.c. generator. Fig.18.5(ii) shows a 3-phase a.c. generator. It has three identical windings or coils A, B and C displaced 120 from each other and rotating in anticlockwise direction with
an angular velocity in a 2-pole field.Since the three coils are identical and have the same angular
velocity, the e.m.f.s induced in them will be of the same magnitude and frequency. However, the three
e.m.f.s will be displaced from one another by 120.Note that e.m.f. is coil B will be 120 behind that of
coil A and the e.m.f. in coil C will be 240 behind that of coil A. This is shown in the wave diagram in
Fig. 18.5(ii). Theequations of the three e.m.f.s can be represented as:
EA = E0 sin t
EB = E0 sin (t 120)
EC = E0 sin (t 240)

4. ADVANTAGES OF 3-PHASE SYSTEM

At power stations, we have 3-phase a.c. generators which produce 3-phase voltages. The following are
the advantages of 3-phase system over the single phase system :
1. Constant power. In a single-phase circuit, the instantaneous power varies sinusoidally from zero to a
peak value at twice the supply frequency. This pulsating nature of power is objectionable for many applications.
However, in a balanced 3-phase system, the power supplied at all instants of time is constant. Because of
this, the operating characteristics of 3-phase apparatus, in general, are superior to those of similar single-phase
apparatus.
2. Greater output. The output of a 3-phase machine is greater than that of a single-phase machine for a
given volume and weight of the machine. In other words, a 3-phase machine is smaller than a single-phase
machine of the same rating. This is a distinct advantage of 3-phase system over single-phase system.
3. Cheaper. The three-phase motors are much smaller and less expensive than single-phase motors
because less material (copper, iron, insulation) is required. Moreover, 3-phase motors are self-starting i.e. they
do not require any special provision to get them started. However, single phase motors require internal starting
device.
4. Power transmission economics. Transmission of electric power by 3-phase system is cheaper than
that of single-phase system, even though three conductors are required instead of two. For example, to transmit
the same amount of power over a fixed distance at a given voltage, the 3-phase system requires only 3/4th the
weight of copper than that required by the single-phase system. This means a saving in the number and
strength of transmission towers.
5. Three-phase rectifier service. Rectified 3-phase voltage is smoother than rectified single-phase
voltage. As a result, it is easier to filter out the ripple component of 3-phase voltage than that of a single-phase
voltage. This is especially useful where large a.c. power is to be converted into steady d.c. power e.g. radio and
television transmitters.
6. Miscellaneous advantages. Other advantages of three-phase system over the single-phase system are :
(i) A 3-phase system can set-up a rotating uniform magnetic field in stationary windings. This cannot be
done with a single-phase current.
(ii) The 3-phase motors are more efficient and have a higher power factor than single phase motors of the
same capacity.

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

10

ELECTRICAL DEVICES

Primary

Secondary
IS

IP
VP

EP

NS

NP

ES

VS

Loa

Fig. 18.14

called the secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage VP whose magnitude is to be changed is
applied to the primary. Depending upon the number of turns on the primary (NP) and secondary (NS), an
alternating e.m.f. ES is induced in the secondary. If load is connected across the secondary, the secondary e.m.f.
ES will cause a current IS to flow through the load. Thus, transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one
circuit to another with a change in voltage level. Note that there is no electrical connection between primary and
secondary. The a.c. power is transferred from the primary to the secondary through the magnetic flux.
Working: When an alternating voltage VP is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is set up in the
core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.fs EP and ES in them according to Faradays
laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. EP induced in the primary is termed as primary e.m.f. and e.m.f. ES
induced in the secondary is termed as secondary e.m.f.
d
d
; ES = NS
Clearly,
EP = NP
dt
dt
ES
NS

=
SP
NP
In an **ideal transformer, VP = EP and ES = VS.
V
N
ES

= S = S = K
V
N
EP
P
P
where
K = transformation ratio
If NS > NP, then ES > EP (or VS > VP), it is then called a step-up transformer. If NS < NP, then ES < EP (or VS
< VP), it is called a step-down transformer.
The following points may be noted carefully:
ES
N
(i)
= S
EP
NP
EP
E
or
= S
NP
NS
This means that e.m.f. induced per turn is the same in primary as well as secondary.
(ii) There is no change in frequency i.e. output power has the same frequency as the input power.
(iii) The efficiency of a transformer is very high so that output power is nearly equal to the input power.
For an ideal transformer,
VP IP = VS IS
VS
I
or
= P
VP
IS
ES
VS
I
I
N
= P = P = S =K

=
EP
VP
IS
IS
NP
VS I S
EP I S
=
(iv) Efficiency of transformer, =
VP I P
EP I P

11. POWER LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER

The power losses in a transformer are of two types viz.
1. Core or Iron losses
2. Copper losses
These losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in temperature and
(ii) a drop in efficiency.
1. Core or Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and
hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as Core or Iron losses. The iron losses depend upon
the supply frequency, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core etc. The hysteresis loss can be
minimised by using steel of high silicon content whereas eddy current loss can be reduced by using core of thin
laminations.