Communication2012 - Notes Unlocked

PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION
Cable with Optical Fibers
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Irrespective of the form of communication process being considered, there are
three basic elements of every communication system viz., transmitter, channel and
receiver. Fig 36.1 shows the block diagram of the basic elements of a communication
system.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION
1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Irrespective of the form of communication process being considered, there are three basic elements of every
communication system viz., transmitter, channel and receiver. Fig 36.1 shows the block diagram of the basic
elements of a communication system.
Communication System
Source of
information
Message
signal
Transmitter
Transmitted
signal
Receiver
Channel
Estimate of
message
signal
Use
inform
Received
signal
Fig. 36.1
(i) Information. The inforamtion to be communicated comes from information source which originates
it. The information may be written message or speech or some still picture. Unless the mesage
that comes from the information is electrical in nature, it will be unsuitable for sending.
(ii) Transmitter. The purpose of the transmitter is to transform the message or information produced by
the source of information into a form suitable for transmission over the channel. Generally, the information is not electrical in nature. The transmitter first converts the message into equivalent electrical
variations. It is then called signal.Then transmitter gets the signal modulated i.e. signal modulaties
the high-frequency wave (called carrier). The actual method of modulation varies from one system
to another. After modulation, the transmission of signal is possible.
(iii) Channel. The channel is a link connecting the transmitter and receiver. Generally, the channel is open
space as in case of radio or TV transmission. The properties of channel are very important parameters in deciding the performance of any system.
In the process of transmission, signals are contaminated by noise signals. This is called channel noise.
Noise is unwanted energy, usually of random character generated by numerous natural or man-made events
e.g. lightning, turning on or off electrical equipment etc.
(iv) Receiver. The receiver is an important component of communication system. Its function is to do
demodulation or detection or decoding. In this process, the original signal is separated from the
carrier and is fed to the loudspeaker, punched cards, radar displays or television picture tube etc.
2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Regardless of the system of communication, it must fulfill the following two basic requirements: (i)
Accurate communication (ii) Fast communication
(i) Accurate Communication. By accurate communication, we mean that the basic nature and identity
of the signal should not change during the process of transmission. In other words, the received
signal should be an exact replica of the sent signal. But it never happens. In the process of transmission, signals are contaminated by noise signals which are generated by many man-made and natural
events. Man-made events are faulty connections in equipment, turning on or off electrical equipment
etc. The natural phenomena that give rise to noise include lightning, solar flares etc. In order to avoid
noise disturbance, it is necessary to raise the signal power.
The ratio of useful signal power to the noise signal power is called signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).
S/N =
Useful signal power

Noise signal power
For accurate transmission, S/N should be as high as possible.

(ii) Fast communication. Fast communication means transmitting more than one message simulataneously
over the same channel. The rate of communication can be increased by (a) increasing the channel
band-width (b) increasing S/N.
3. INTRODUCTION TO RADIO COMMUNICATION

In radio transmission, it is necessary to send audio signal (e.g., music, speech etc.) from a broadcasting
station over great distances to a receiver. This communication of audio signal does not employ any wire and
is sometimes called wireless. The audio signal cannot be sent directly over the air for appreciable distance.
Even if the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, the latter cannot be sent very far without employing
large amount of power. The energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency. At audio frequencies (20
Hz to 20 kHz), the signal power is quite small and radiation is not practicable.
The radiation of electrical energy is practicable only at high frequencies e.g. above 20 kHz. The high
frequency signals can be sent thousands of miles even with comparatively small power. Therefore, if audio
signal is to be transmitted properly, some means must be devised which will permit transmission to occur at
high frequencies while it simultaneously allows the carrying of audio signal. This is achieved by superimposing
electrical audio signal on high frequency carrier. The resultant waves are known as modulated waves or radio
waves and the process is called modulation. At the radio receiver, the audio signal is extracted from the
modulated wave by the process called demodulation. The signal is then amplified and reproduced into sound
by the loudspeaker.
4. RADIO BROADCASTING, TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

Radio communication means the radiation of radio waves by the transmitting station, the propagation of these
waves through space and their reception by the radio receiver. Fig. 36.2 shows the general principles of radio
broadcasting, transmission and reception. As a matter of convenience, the entire arrangement can be divided
into three parts viz., transmitter, transmission of radio waves and radio receiver.
1. Transmitter. Transmitter is an extremely important equipment and is housed in the broadcasting
station. Its purpose is to produce radio waves for transmission into space. The important components of a
transmitter are microphone, audio amplifiers, oscillator and modulator (See Fig. 36.2).
(i) Microphone. A microphone is a device which converts sound waves into electrical waves. When
the speaker speaks or a musical instrument is played, the varying air pressure on the microphone generates
an audio electrical signal which corresponds in frequency to the original signal. The output of microphone is
fed to a multistage audio amplifier for raising the strength of weak signal.
(ii) Audio amplifier. The audio signal from the microphone is quite weak and requires amplification.
This job is accomplished by cascaded audio amplifiers. The amplified output from the last audio amplifier is
fed to the modulator for rendering the process of modulation.
Sound
Audio
Amplifers
Transmitting
Aerial
Microphone
Oscillator
Modulator
Fig. 36.2
(iii) Oscillator. The function of oscillator is to produce a high frequency signal, called a carrier wave.
Usually, a crystal oscillator is used for the purpose. The power level of the carrier wave is raised to a sufficient
level by radio frequency amplifier stages (not shown in Fig. 36.2). Most of the broadcasting stations have
carrier wave power of several kilowatts. Such high power is necessary for transmitting the signal to the
required distances.
(iv) Modulator. The amplified audio signal and carrier waves are fed to the modulator. Here, the audio
signal is superimposed on the carrier wave in a suitable manner. The resultant waves are called modulated
waves or radio waves and the process is called modulation. The process of modulation permits the transmission
of audio signal at the carrier frequency. As the carrier frequency is very high, therefore, the audio signal can
be transmitted to large distances. The radio waves from the transmitter are fed to the transmitting antenna or
aerial from where these are radiated into space.
2. Transmission of radio waves. The transmitting antenna radiates the radio waves in space in all
8
directions. These radio waves travel with the velocity of light i.e., 3 10 m/sec. The radio waves are
electromagnetic waves and possess the same general properties. These are similar to light and heat waves
except that they have longer wavelengths. It may be emphasised here that radio waves are sent without
employing any wire. It can be easily shown that at high frequency, electrical energy can be radiated into
space.
3. Radio receiver. On reaching the receiving antenna, the radio waves induce tiny e.m.f. in it. This
small voltage is fed to the radio receiver. Here, the radio waves are first amplified and then signal is extracted
from them by the process of demodulation. The signal is amplified by audio amplifiers and then fed to the
speaker for reproduction into sound waves.
5. ANTENNA
An antenna or aerial is a system of elevated conductors which couples the transmitter or the receiver to
free space.
The antenna is employed for both transmitting and receiving the radio frequency signals. Many of the
important characteristics of a given antenna are identical for both transmitting and receiving functions and the same antena is used for both functions.
/4
(i) Fig. 36.3 shows the dipole antenna and is basically used as radio antenna. The
physical length of the antenna is /2 where is the wavelength in free space at the
/4
frequency of operation of station.
(ii) A microwave antenna is used for transmitting and receiving signals in the microwave range (1 to 50 GHz). This antenna has great directivity. For this reason, it is
Fig. 36.3
used in radar systems and for receiving broadcast directly from the satellites.
6. MODULATION
As discussed earlier, a high frequency carrier wave is used to carry the audio signal. The question arises how
the audio signal should be added to the carrier wave. The solution lies in changing some characteristic of
carrier wave in accordance with the signal. Under such conditions, the audio signal will be contained in the
resultant wave. This process is called modulation and may be defined as under :
The process of changing some characteristic (e.g., amplitude, frequency or phase) of a carrier wave in
accordance with the intensity of the signal is known as modulation.
Modulation means to change. In modulation, some characteristic of carrier wave is changed in
accordance with the intensity (i.e., amplitude) of the signal. The resultant wave is called modulated wave or
radio wave and contains the audio signal. Therefore, modulation permits the transmission to occur at high
frequency while it simultaneously allows the carrying of the audio signal.
Need for modulation. Modulation is extremely necessary in communication system due to the following
reasons :
(i) Practical antenna length. Theory shows that in order to transmit a wave effectively, the length of
the transmitting antenna should be approximately equal to the wavelength of the wave.
8
3 10
velocity
=
Now, wavelength =
metres
frequency frequency (Hz)
As the audio frequencies range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, therefore, if they are transmitted directly into space, the
length of the transmitting antenna required would be extremely large. For instance, to radiate a frequency of
8
3
20 kHz directly into space, we would need an antenna length of 3 10 /20 10 = 15,000 metres. This is too
long antenna to be constructed practically. For this reason, it is impracticable to radiate audio signal directly
into space. On the other hand, if a carrier wave say of 1000 kHz is used to carry the signal, we need an antenna
length of 300 metres only and this size can be easily constructed.
(ii) Operating range. The energy of a wave depends upon its frequency. The greater the frequency of
the wave, the greater the energy possessed by it. As the audio signal frequencies are small, therefore, these
cannot be transmitted over large distances if radiated directly into space. The only practical solution is to
modulate a high frequency carrier wave with audio signal and permit the transmission to occur at this high
frequency (i.e., carrier frequency).
(iii) Wireless communication. One desirable feature of radio transmission is that it should be carried
without wires i.e., radiated into space. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because the efficiency
of radiation is poor. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high frequencies ( > 20 kHz).
For this reason, modulation is always done in communication systems.
7. TYPES OF MODULATION
As you will recall, modulation is the process of changing amplitude or frequency or phase of a carrier wave in
accordance with the intensity of the signal. The carrier wave is a sinusoidal wave and can be represented as
:
ec = EC cos ( c t + )
where
ec = instantaneous voltage of carrier wave

EC = amplitude of carrier wave
c = 2 fc
= angular velocity at carrier frequency fc

= phase angle
Depending upon whether we change EC (amplitude), f (frequency) or (phase), modulation is of three
types viz.
(i) amplitude modulation

(ii) frequency modulation
(iii) phase modulation
In India, amplitude modulation is used in radio broadcasting. However, in television transmission,
frequency modulation is used for sound signal and amplitude modulation for picture signal. We shall discuss
es
these types of modulation in turn.
8. AMPLITUDE MODULATION
When the amplitude of high frequency carrier wave is changed in accordance
with the intensity of the signal, it is called amplitude modulation.
In amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier wave is changed
in accordance with the intensity of the signal. However, the frequency of the
modulated wave remains the same i.e., carrier frequency. Fig. 36.4 shows the
principle of amplitude modulation. Fig. 36.4 (i) shows the audio electrical signal
whereas Fig. 36.4 (ii) shows a carrier wave of constant amplitude. Fig. 36.4 (iii)
shows the amplitude modulated (AM) wave. Note that the amplitudes of both
positive and negative half-cycles of carrier wave are changed in accordance
with the signal. For instance, when the signal is increasing in the positive
sense, the amplitude of carrier wave also increases. On the other hand, during
negative half-cycle of the signal, the amplitude of carrier wave decreases.
Amplitude modulation is done by an electronic circuit called modulator.
The following points are worth noting in amplitude modulation :
(i) The amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the intensity
of the signal.
(ii) The amplitude variations of the carrier wave is at the signal frequency fs.
(iii) The frequency of the amplitude modulated wave remains the same i.e.,
carrier frequency fc.
Signal
ec
(i)
t
Carrier
(ii)
e
A.M. Wave
(iii)
Fig. 37.3
Fig. 36.4
9. MODULATION FACTOR
An important consideration in amplitude modulation is to describe the depth of modulation i.e., the extent to
which the amplitude of carrier wave is changed by the signal. This is described by a factor called modulation
factor which may be defined as under :
The ratio of change of amplitude of carrier wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave is called the
modulation factor ma i.e.
Amplitude change of carrier wave
Modulation factor, ma =
Normal carrier wave (unmodulated)
The value of modulation factor depends upon the amplitudes of carrier and signal. Fig. 36.5 shows
amplitude modulation for different values of modulation factor ma.
(i) When signal amplitude is zero, the carrier wave is not modulated as shown in Fig. 36.5 (i). The
amplitude of carrier wave remains unchanged.
Amplitude change of carrier = 0
Amplitude of normal carrier = A
Modulation factor, ma = 0/A = 0 or 0%

(ii) When signal amplitude is equal to the carrier amplitude as shown in Fig. 36.5 (ii), the amplitude of
carrier varies between 2 A and zero.
A
A
A.M. Wave
(i)
Signal
Carrier
A
A
No Signal
2A
Carrier
Signal
(ii)
A.M. Wave
A
A
0.5A
Signal
Carrier
(iii)
A
A
A.M.Wave
1.5A
+
Carrier
2.5A
Signal
(iv)
Amplitude change of carrier
Modulation factor, ma=
1.5A
A.M. Wave
Fig. 36.5
= 2AA = A
Amplitude change of carrier
= A/A = 1 or 100 %
Amplitude of normal carrier
In this case, the carrier is said to be 100% modulated.

(iii) When the signal amplitude is one-half the carrier amplitude as shown in Fig. 36.5 (iii), the amplitude
of carrier wave varies between 1.5 A and 0.5 A.
Amplitude change of carrier = 1.5 A A = 0.5 A
Modulation factor, ma = 0.5 A/A = 0.5 or 50 %

In this case, the carrier is said to be 50% modulated.
(iv) When the signal amplitude is 1.5 times the carrier amplitude as shown in Fig. 36.5 (iv), the maximum
value of carrier wave becomes 2.5 A.
Amplitude change of carrier wave = 2.5 A A = 1.5 A
1.5 A
Modulation factor, ma =
= 1.5 or 150 %
A
In this case, the carrier is said to be 150 % modulated i.e., over-modulated.
Importance of modulation factor. Modulation factor is very important since it determines the strength
and quality of the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is contained in the variations of the carrier
amplitude. When the carrier is modulated to a small degree (i.e., small ma), the amount of carrier amplitude
variation is small. Consequently, the audio signal being transmitted will not be very strong. The greater the
degree of modulation (i.e., ma), the stronger and clearer will be the audio signal. It may be emphasised here that
if the carrier is overmodulated (i.e., ma > 1), distortion will occur during reception. This condition is shown in Fig.
36.5 (iv). The AM waveform is clipped and the envelope is discontinuous. Therefore, degree of modulation should
never exceed 100%.
10. ANALYSIS OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE

A carrier wave may be represented by ;
ec = EC cos c t
where
ec = instantaneous voltage of carrier
EC = amplitude of carrier
c = 2 fc
= angular velocity at carrier frequency fc
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude EC of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the intensity
of the signal as shown in Fig. 36.8. Suppose the modulation factor is ma. It means that signal produces a
maximum change of ma EC in the carrier amplitude. Obviously, the amplitude of signal is ma EC. Therefore, the
signal can be represented by ;
e s = ma EC cos s t
where
e s = instantaneous voltage of signal
ma EC = amplitude of signal
s = 2 fs = angular velocity at signal frequency fs
SIGNAL
ma EC
EC
EC
EC
CARRIER
A.M.WAVE
Fig. 36.8
The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at signal frequency fs. Therefore, the amplitude of AM wave is
given by
= EC + ma EC cos s t = EC (1 + ma cos s t)
The instantaneous voltage of AM wave is :
e = Amplitude cos c t
= EC (1 + ma cos s t) cos c t
= EC cos c t + ma EC cos s t cos c t
m E
= EC cos c t + a C (2 cos s t cos c t)
2
ma EC
= EC cos c t +
[cos (c + s) t + cos (c s) t]*
2
m E
m E
= EC cos c t + a C cos (c + s) t + a C cos (c s) t
2
2
The following points may be noted from the above equation of amplitude modulated wave:
(i) The AM wave is equivalent to the summation of three sinusoidal waves; one having amplitude EC
and frequency fc, the second having amplitude ma EC /2 and frequency (fc + fs) and the third having amplitude
ma EC /2 and frequency fc fs.
(ii) The AM wave contains three frequencies viz., fc, fc + fs and fc fs. The first frequency is the carrier
frequency. Thus, the process of modulation does not change the original carrier frequency but produces two
new frequencies (fc + fs) and (fc fs) which are called sideband frequencies.
(iii) The sum of carrier frequency and signal frequency i.e., (fc + fs) is called upper sideband frequency.
The lower sideband frequency is fc fs i.e., the difference between carrier and signal frequencies.
11. SIDEBAND FREQUENCIES IN AM WAVE

In an amplitude modulated wave, the sideband frequencies are of our interest. It is because the signal frequency
fs is contained in the sideband frequencies. Fig. 36.9 shows the frequency spectrum of an amplitude modulated
wave. The frequency components in the AM wave are shown by vertical lines. The height of each vertical line
is equal to the amplitude of the components present. It may be added here that in practical radio transmission,
carrier frequency fc is many times greater than signal frequency
e
fs. Hence, the sideband frequencies are generally close to the
carrier frequency. It may be seen that a carrier modulated by a
single frequency is equivalent to three simultaneous signals;
the carrier itself and two other steady frequencies i.e. fc + fs and
EC
fc fs.
Let us illustrate sideband frequencies with an example.
Suppose the carrier frequency is 400 kHz and the signal
m aE C
frequency is 1 kHz. The AM wave will contain three
2
frequencies viz, 400 kHz, 401 kHz and 399 kHz. It is clear that
upper sideband frequency (401 kHz) and lower sideband
fc fs
fc
fc + fs
frequency (399 kHz) are very close to the carrier frequency
FREQUENCY
(400 kHz).
Fig. 36.9
Bandwidth. In an AM wave, the bandwidth is from (fc fs) to (fc + fs) i.e., 2 fs. Thus in the above example,
bandwidth is from 399 to 401 kHz or 2 kHz which is twice the signal frequency. Therefore, we arrive at a very
important conclusion that in amplitude modulation, bandwidth is twice the signal frequency. The tuned
amplifier which is called upon to amplify the modulated wave must have the required bandwidth to include the
sideband frequencies. If the tuned amplifier has insufficient bandwidth, the upper sideband frequencies may
not be reproduced by the radio receiver.
12. TRANSISTOR AM MODULATOR

Figure 36.10 shows the circuit of a simple AM modulator. It is essentially a CE amplifier having a voltage gain
of A. The carrier signal is the input to the amplifier. The modulating signal is applied in the emitter resistance
circuit.
Working. The carrier ec is applied at the input of the amplifier and the modulating signal es is applied in
the emitter resistance circuit. The amplifier circuit amplifies the carrier by a factor A so that the output is A
ec. Since the modulating signal is a part of the biasing circuit, it produces low- frequency variations in the
emitter circuit. This in turn causes **variations in A. The result is that amplitude of the carrier varies in
accordance with the strength of the signal. Consequently, amplitude modulated output is obtained across RL.
It may be noted that carrier should not influence the voltage gain A; only the modulating signal should do this.
To achieve this objective, carrier should have a small magnitude and signal should have a large magnitude.
+ VCC
RC
R1
CC
C in
RL
ec
R2
RE
Carrier
CE
Signal
Fig. 36.10
13. POWER IN AM WAVE

The power dissipated in any circuit is a function of the square of voltage across the circuit and the effective
resistance of the circuit. Equation of AM wave reveals that it has three components of amplitude EC, ma EC /
2 and ma EC /2. Clearly, power output must be distributed among these components.
Carrier power, PC =
Total power of sidebands, PS =
Total power of AM wave, PT
* EC
( ma EC
2 2
EC
2R
...(i)
( ma EC
2 2
R
2
2
2
2
2
2
ma EC
ma EC
ma EC
+
=
=
8R
8R
4R
= PC + PS
2
2
2
2
2
E
m E
E
m
= C + a C = C 1 + a
2R
4R
2R
2
EC [2 + ma ]
2R
2
Fraction of total power carried by side bands,
2
or
...(ii)
PT =
...(iii)
ma2
Exp. (ii)
PS
= Exp. (iii) =
....(iv)
2
2 + ma
PT
As the signal is contained in the sideband frequencies, therefore, useful power is in the sidebands.
Inspection of exp. (iv) reveals that sideband power depends upon the modulation factor ma. The greater the
value of ma, the greater is the useful power carried by the sidebands. This emphasises the importance of
modulation factor.
2
2
(i) When ma = 0 , power carried by sidebands = 0 /2 + 0 = 0
(ii) When ma = 0.5, power carried by sidebands
2
(0.5)
= 11.1 % of total power of AM wave
2
2 + (0.5)
(iii) When ma = 1, power carried by sidebands

2
(1)
= 33.3% of total power of AM wave
2
2 + (1)
As an example, suppose the total power of an AM wave is 600 watts and modulation is 100%. Then
sideband power is 600/3 = 200 watts and carrier power will be 600 200 = 400 watts.
The sideband power represents the signal content and the carrier power is that power which is required
as the means of transmission.
2
EC
m E
and PS = a C
2R
4R
PS
1 m2
PC = 2 a
1 m2 P
or
PS =
2 a C
Expression (v) gives the relation between total sideband power (PS) and carrier power (PC).
Note.
PC =
...(v)
14. LIMITATIONS OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Although theoretically highly effective, amplitude modulation suffers from the following drawbacks:
(i) Noisy reception. In an AM wave, the signal is in the amplitude variations of the carrier. Practically
all the natural and man made noises consist of electrical amplitude disturbances. As a radio receiver cannot
distinguish between amplitude variations that represent noise and those that contain the desired signal,
therefore, reception is generally noisy.
(ii) Low efficiency. In amplitude modulation, useful power is in the sidebands as they contain the signal.
As discussed before, an AM wave has low sideband power. For example, if modulation is 100%, the sideband
power is only one-third of the total power of AM wave. Hence the efficiency of this type of modulation is low.
(iii) Small operating range. Due to low efficiency of amplitude modulation, transmitters employing this
method have a small operating range i.e., messages cannot be transmitted over larger distances.
(iv) Lack of audio quality. This is a distinct disadvantage of amplitude modulation. In order to attain
high-fidelity reception, all audio frequencies up to 15 kHz must be reproduced. This necessitates bandwidth
of 30 kHz since both sidebands must be reproduced. But AM broadcasting stations are assigned bandwidth
of only 10 kHz to minimise the interference from adjacent broadcasting stations. This means that the highest
modulating frequency can be 5 kHz which is hardly sufficient to reproduce the music properly.
15. FREQUENCY MODULATION

When the frequency of carrier wave is changed in accordance with the intensity of the signal, it is called
frequency modulation.
F
B
In frequency modulation, only the frequency of the carrier wave is
changed in accordance with the signal. However, the amplitude of the A
SIGNAL
E
G
modulated wave remains the same i.e. carrier wave amplitude. The
C
frequency variations of carrier wave depend upon the instantaneous
D
(i)
amplitude of the signal as shown in Fig. 36.13 (iii). When the signal
voltage is zero as at A, C, E and G, the carrier frequency is unchanged.
CARRIER
When the signal approaches its positive peaks as at B and F, the carrier
frequency is increased to maximum as shown by the closely spaced cycles.
(ii)
However, during the negative peaks of signal as at D, the carrier frequency
is reduced to minimum as shown by the widely spaced cycles. The following
points may be noted :
F.M. WAVE
(i) All the signals having the same amplitude will change the carrier
frequency by be the same amount irrespective of their
frequencies.
A B C D E F G
(iii)
(ii) All modulating signals of the same frequency, say 2kHz will
Fig.
36.13
change the carrier at the same rate of 2000 times per second
irrespective of their individual amplitudes.
Mathematical Analysis of FM. We now find the basic voltage equation for frequency modulated wave. In
frequency modulation, the amplitude of the carrier remains constant but frequency of carrier varies. The
amount by which the carrier frequency is varied from its unmodulated value is called deviation and this
deviation is made proportional to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. The instantaneous value
of frequency of the modulated carrier is given by ;
...(i)
f = fc (1 + kf Em cos m t)
10
where
fc = unmodulated carrier frequency

k f = proportionality constant
Em cos m t = instantaneous value of modulating signal
From equation (i), the maximum and minimum values of f are :
fmax = fc (1 + kf Em)
fmin = fc (1 kf Em)
Maximum deviation, = fmax fc = fc fmin = kf Em fc
= kf Em fc
Note that frequency deviation is a function of the amplitude of the modulating signal. A graph of the
variation of frequency f with time is shown in Fig. 36.14. Note that this is a frequency - time curve, not an
amplitude-time curve.
f
fc + kf E m fc
fc
fc kf E m fc
t
Fig. 36.14
Considering eq. (i) again, we have,
f = fc (1 + kf Em cos m t)
or
= c (1 + kf Em cos m t)
But
d
dt
or
dt = c (1 + k f
Em cos m t ) dt
k f Em
sin m t
= c t +
m
k f Em c
sin m t
= c t +
m
sin t
(t) = c t +
m
fm
( = kf Em fc)
The instantaneous value of FM voltage wave is given by ;

eFM (t) = EC sin (t)
or
eFM = EC sin c t + f sin m t
...(ii)
m
The term /fm is a measure of the change in angular velocity and as such, is an indication of the level of
modulation. It is, therefore, called the modulation index mf .
Maximum frequency deviation
Modulation index, mf = f = Modulating signal frequency

m
Equation (ii) can now be written as :
eFM = EC sin (c t + mf sin m t)
Frequency Spectrum. The frequency spectrum of a FM wave is quite complex as compared to the
frequency spectrum of AM wave. In the frequency spectrum of AM wave, there are only three frequencies
(the carrier and the first two sidebands). Howerer, the output of a FM wave consists of a carrier and infinite
number of sidebands. Their frequencies are ( f c f m ), ( f c 2 f m ), ( f c 3 f m ) ..... The following points may
be noted about the frequency spectrum of FM wave.
(i) The sideband frequencies are separated from the carrier on either side by fm, 2fm, 3fm .......
(ii) The sidebands at equal distances from fc have equal amplitudes so that the sideband distribution is
symmetrical about the carrier frequency.
11
Bandwidth of FM Wave. The amplitudes of sidebands diminish as the order of the sidebands increases.
Sidebands having amplitudes greater or equal to 2% of the unmodulated carrier are called significant sidebands.
Those sidebands having amplitudes less than 2% of the unmodulated carrier are called insignificant sidebands.
Bandwidth of FM wave = 2 n fm
where
n = number of significant sideband pairs
fm = frequency of modulating signal
Power Relations in FM wave. In an amplitude - modulated wave, the power level of the carrier is not
affected by the modulation factor (ma). The signal is in the sideband frequencies and the power level of
sideband frequencies increases with the increase in modulation factor (ma). Consequently, the total power of
modulated wave increases with the increase in the modulation factor. On the other hand, the total power in an
FM wave does not change regardless of the value of modulation index (mf). Mathematically, this should be
obvious, since the amplitude of such a wave is not affected by modulation.
16. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FM

Advantages
(i) It gives noiseless reception. As discussed before, noise is a form of amplitude variation and a FM
receiver will reject such signals.
(ii) The operating range is quite large.
(iii) It gives high-fidelity reception.
(iv) The efficiency of transmission is very high.
(v) Since FM has a large number of sidebands, it can be used for stero sound transmission.
Disadvantages of FM
(i) A much wider band is required by FM. The bandwidth required is 7 to 8 times as large as for AM.
(ii) FM transmitting and receiving equipments are complex, particularly for modulation and demodulation.
Therefore, FM is more expensive than AM.
(iii) FM reception is limited to line-of-sight.
17. TWO IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FM AND AM

(i) In AM, there is one pair of sidebands but in FM there are a very large number of pairs of sidebands.
(ii) In AM, the increase in the value of modulation index (ma) increases the sideband power i.e. the total
power transmitted increases. However in FM, the process of modulation does not add any power to the
modulated wave but simply redistributes the power in the unmodulated carrier into the carrier and sidebands.
18. PHASE MODULATION

If the phase angle of the carrier wave is changed in accordance with the modulating signal, the resultant
wave is phase-modulated.
The carrier wave is given by the equation :
ec = EC sin (c t + )
...(i)
where
ec = instantaneous voltage of carrier wave
EC = amplitude of carrier wave
c = angular frequency of carrier wave
= phase angle
If the phase in eq. (i) is varied so that its magnitude is proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating wave, the resulting wave is phase modulated. Therefore, expression for phase-modulated
wave is
ePM = EC sin (c t + kp Em cos mt)
or
ePM = EC sin (c t + mp cos m t)
where
mp = kp Em = modulation index for PM wave
In phase modulation, the phase deviation is directly proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
voltage (mp Em) and is independent of its frequency. In FM, the modulation index is inversely proportional
to the modulating frequency (mf 1/fm).
19. DEMODULATION
The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or detection.
At the broadcasting station, modulation is done to transmit the audio signal over larger distance to a
receiver. When the modulated wave is picked up by the radio receiver, it is necessary to recover the audio signal
from it. This process is accomplished in the radio receiver and is called demodulation.
Necessity of demodulation. It was noted previously that amplitude modulated wave consists of carrier
and sideband frequencies. The audio signal is contained in the sideband frequencies which are radio
12
frequencies. If the modulated wave after amplification is directly fed to the speaker as shown in Fig. 36.15, no
sound will be heard. It is because diaphragm of the speaker is not at all able to respond to such high
frequencies. Before the diaphragm is able to move in one direction, the rapid reversal of current tends to move
it in the opposite direction i.e. diaphragm will not move at all. Consequently, no sound will be heard.
RECEIVING
AERIAL
STATION
SELECTOR
R.F.
AMPLIFIER
NO SO
Fig. 36.15
From the above discussion, it follows that audio signal must be separated from the carrier at a suitable
stage in the receiver. The recovered audio signal is then amplified and fed to the speaker for conversion into
sound.
e
20. ESSENTIALS IN DEMODULATION
POSITIVE
In order that a modulated wave is audible, it is necessary to change the

HALF
nature of modulated wave. This is accomplished by a circuit called
detector. A detector circuit performs the following two functions :
NEGATIVE
(i) It rectifies the modulated wave i.e. negative half of the
HALF
modulated wave is eliminated. As shown in Fig. 36.16 (i), a modulated
wave has positive and negative halves exactly equal. Therefore, average
t
current is zero and speaker cannot respond. If the negative half of this
(i)
modulated wave is eliminated as shown in Fig. 36.16 (ii), the average
value of this wave will not be zero since the resultant pulses are now all
e
in one direction. The average value is shown by the dotted line in Fig.
36.16 (ii). Therefore, the diaphragm will have definite displacement
corresponding to the average value of the wave. It may be seen that
shape of the average wave is similar to that of the modulation envelope.
t
As the signal is of the same shape as the envelope, therefore, average
ii
(
)
wave shape is of the same form as the signal.
Fig. 36.16
(ii) It separates the audio signal from the carrier. The rectified
modulated wave contains the audio signal and the carrier. It is desired to recover the audio signal. This is
achieved by a filter circuit which removes the carrier frequency and allows the audio signal to reach the load
i.e., speaker.
21. A.M. DIODE DETECTOR

Figure 36.17 shows a simple detector circuit employing vacuum diode and filter circuit. The modulated
wave of desired frequency is selected by the parallel tuned circuit L1C1 and is applied to the vacuum diode.
During the positive half-cycles of modulated wave, the diode conducts while during negative half-cycles, it
does not. The result of this rectifying action is that output of the diode consists of positive half-cycles of
modulated wave as shown.
C1
L1
A.M. WAVE
C
SPEAKER
RECTIFIED
AUDIO
CURRENT PULSES OUTPUT
Fig. 36.17
13
The rectified modulated wave contains radio frequency and the signal cannot be fed to the speaker for
sound reproduction. If done so, no sound will be heard due to the inertia of speaker diaphragm. The r.f. (radio
frequency) component is filtered by the capacitor C shunted across the speaker. The value of this capacitor
is sufficiently large to present low reactance to the r.f. (radio frequency) component while presenting a
relatively high reactance to the audio signal. The result is that the r.f. (radio frequency) component is bypassed by the capacitor C and the signal is passed on to the speaker for sound reproduction.
Note. If vacuum diode is replaced by a crystal diode, the circuit becomes crystal diode detector.
22. A. M. RADIO RECEIVERS

A radio receiver is a device which reproduces the modulated or radio waves into sound waves. In India, only
amplitude modulation is used for radio transmission and reception. Therefore, such radio receivers are called
A.M. radio receivers. In order to reproduce the A.M. wave into sound waves, every radio receiver must
perform the following functions :
(i) The receiving aerial must intercept a portion of the passing radio waves.
(ii) The radio receiver must select the desired radio wave from a number of radio waves intercepted by
the receiving aerial. For this purpose, tuned parallel LC circuits must be used. These circuits will select only
that radio frequency which is in resonant with them.
(iii) The selected radio wave must be amplified by the tuned frequency amplifiers.
(iv) The audio signal must be recovered from the amplified radio wave.
(v) The audio signal must be amplified by suitable number of audio-amplifiers.
(vi) The amplified audio signal should be fed to the speaker for sound reproduction.
23. TYPES OF A. M. RADIO RECEIVERS

A.M. radio receivers can be broadly classified into two types viz., straight radio receiver and superhetrodyne
radio receiver. The former was used in the early days of radio communication. However at present, all radio
receivers are of superhetrodyne type.
1. Straight radio receiver. Fig. 36.18 shows the block diagram of a straight radio receiver. The aerial is
receiving radio waves from different broadcasting stations. The desired radio wave is selected by the R.F.
amplifier which employs a tuned parallel circuit. The selected radio wave is amplified by the tuned r.f.
amplifiers. The amplified radio wave is fed to the detector circuit. This circuit extracts the audio signal from
the radio wave. The output of the detector is the audio signal which is amplified by one or more stages of
audio-amplification. The amplified audio signal is fed to the speaker for sound reproduction.
RECEIVING
AERIAL
R.F. AMPLIFIER
DETECTOR
A.F.
AMPLIFIER
Fig. 36.18
Limitations.
(i) In straight radio receivers, tuned circuits are used. As it is necessary to change the value of variable
capacitors (gang capacitors) for tuning to the desired station, therefore, there is a considerable variation of Q
between the closed and open positions of the variable capacitors. This changes the sensitivity and selectivity
of the radio receivers.
(ii) There is too much interference of adjacent stations.
2. Superhetrodyne receiver. The shortcomings of straight radio receiver were overcome by the invention
of superhetrodyne receiver by Major Edwin H. Armstrong during the First World War. At present, all modern
receivers utilise the superhetrodyne circuit. In this type of radio receiver, the selected radio frequency is
converted to a fixed lower value, called intermediate frequency (IF). This is achieved by a special electronic
circuit called mixer circuit. There is a local oscillator in the radio receiver itself. This oscillator produces high
frequency waves. The selected radio frequency is mixed with the high frequency wave by the mixer circuit. In
this process, beats are produced and the mixer produces a frequency equal to the difference between local
oscillator and radio wave frequency. As explained later, the circuit is so designed that oscillator always
produces a frequency 455 kHz above the selected radio frequency. Therefore, the mixer will always produce
14
an intermediate frequency of 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the receiver is tuned. For instance, if
600KHz station is tuned, then local oscillator will produce a frequency of 1055 kHz. Consequently, the output
from the mixer will have a frequency of 455 kHz.
The production of fixed intermediate frequency (455 kHz) is the salient feature of superhetrodyne circuit.
At this fixed intermediate frequency, the amplifier circuits operate with maximum stability, selectivity and
sensitivity. As the conversion of incoming radio frequency to the intermediate frequency is achieved by
heterodyning or beating the local oscillator against radio frequency, therefore, this circuit is called
superhetrodyne circuit.
24. STAGES OF SUPERHETRODYNE RADIO RECEIVER

Fig. 36.19 shows the block diagram of a superhetrodyne receiver. It may be seen that R.F. amplifier stage, mixer
stage and oscillator stage use tuned parallel circuits with variable capacitors. These capacitors are ganged
together as shown by the dotted interconnecting lines. The rotation of the common shaft simultaneously
changes the capacitance of these tuned circuits.
(i) R.F. amplifier stage. The R.F. amplifier stage uses a tuned parallel circuit L1C1 with a variable
capacitor C1. The radio waves from various broadcasting stations are intercepted by the receiving aerial and
are coupled to this stage. This stage selects the desired radio wave and raises the strength of the wave to the
desired level.
(ii) Mixer stage. The amplified output of R.F. amplifier is fed to the mixer stage where it is combined with
the output of a local oscillator. The two frequencies beat together and produce an intermediate frequency
(IF). The intermediate frequency is the difference between oscillator frequency and radio frequency i.e.
I.F. = Oscillator frequency Radio frequency
The IF is always 455 kHz regardless of the frequency to which the receiver is tuned. The reason why the
mixer will always produce 455 kHz frequency above the radio frequency is that oscillator always produces a
frequency 455 kHz **above the selected radio frequency. This is achieved by making C3 smaller than C1 and
C2. By making C3 smaller, oscillator will tune to a higher frequency. In practice, capacitance of C3 is designed
to tune the oscillator to a frequency higher than radio wave frequency by 455 kHz. This frequency difference
(i.e. 455 kHz) will always be maintained because when C1 and C2 are varied, C3 will also vary proportionally.
It may be noted that in mixer stage, the carrier frequency is reduced. The IF still contains the audio signal.
Fig. 36.19
(iii) I.F. amplifier stage. The output of mixer is always 455 kHz and is fed to fixed tuned I.F. amplifiers. These
amplifiers are tuned to one frequency (i.e. 455 kHz) and render nice amplification.
(iv) Detector stage. The output from the last IF amplifier stage is coupled to the input of the detector
stage. Here, the audio signal is extracted from the IF output. Usually, diode detector circuit is used because of
its low distortion and excellent audio fidelity.
(v) A.F. amplifier stage. The audio signal output of detector stage is fed to a multistage audio amplifier.
Here, the signal is amplified until it is sufficiently strong to drive the speaker. The speaker converts the audio
signal into sound waves corresponding to the original sound at the broadcasting station.
15
25. ADVANTAGES OF SUPERHETRODYNE CIRCUIT

The basic principle involved in superhetrodyne circuit is to obtain a fixed intermediate frequency with the help
of a mixer circuit and local oscillator. The superhetrodyne principle has the following advantages :
(i) High r.f. amplification. The superhetrodyne principle makes it possible to produce an intermediate
frequency (i.e. 455 kHz) which is much less than the radio frequency. R.F. amplification at low frequencies is more
stable since feedback through stray and interelectrode capacitance is reduced.
(ii) Improved selectivity. Losses in the tuned circuits are lower at intermediate frequency. Therefore, the
quality factor Q of the tuned circuits is increased. This makes the amplifier circuits to operate with maximum
selectivity.
(iii) Lower cost. In a superhetrodyne circuit, a fixed intermediate frequency is obtained regardless of the
radio wave selected. This permits the use of fixed R.F. amplifiers. The superhetrodyne receiver is thus cheaper
than other radio receivers.
26. ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL

(i) Analog signal : A continuously varying signal (voltage or current) is called an analog signal. For
example, an alternating voltage varying sinusoidally is an analog signal (See Fig. 36.20). If such an analog
signal is applied to the input of a transister amplifier, the output voltage will also vary sinusoidally. This is the
analog operation i.e., the output voltage can have an infinite number of values. Due to many-valued output,
the analog operation is less reliable.
v
5V
t
0
Fig. 36.20
Fig. 36.21
(ii) Digital signal : A signal (voltage or current) that can have only two discrete values is called a
digital signal. For example, a square wave is a digital signal (See Fig. 36.21). It is because this signal has only
two values viz. + 5 V and 0 V and no other value. These values are labelled as High and Low. The High voltage
is + 5 V and the Low voltage is 0 V. If proper digital signal is applied to the input of a transistor, the transistor
can be driven between cut off and saturation. In other words, the transistor will have two-state operation i.e.
output is either low or high. Since digital operation has only two states (i.e. ON or OFF), it is far more reliable
than many-valued analog operation. It is because with two-state operation, all the signals are easily recognised
as either low or high.
27. ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Today most of the communication systems use analog modulation to transmit the signal. However, the
present day trend is towards digital modulation.
(i) Analog Communication : A communication system that employs analog modulation to transmit
the signals (e.g., speech, music etc.) is called analog communication. In analog modulation, the high
frequency carrier wave (analog signal) is modified according to the low frequency analog signal (e.g.
human voice). The two most popular analog modulation techniques are amplitude modulation (AM) and
frequency modulation (FM).
Figure 36.22 shows the principles of analog communication of human voice using analog AM and FM.
16
SOUND WAVE CONVERTED INTO VOLTAGE VARIATIONS
HIGH FREQUEN
SINE CURVE
CARRIER WAVE
~
QUARTZ
CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
CARRIER WAVE'S AM
LOCALLY MODULA
VOLTAGE VARIAT
FREQUENCY MODULATION
CARRIER WAVE'S FRE

LOCALLY MODULAT
VOLTAGE VARIAT
AM RADIO
STATION
MODULATES
CARRIER WAVE
FM RADIO
STATION
MODULATES
CARRIER WAVE
Fig. 36.22
(ii) Digital Communication : A communication system that employs digital modulation to transmit the
signals is called digital communication. In digital modulation , the analog voltage curve representing the
human voice is broken up into thin vertical strips with amplitude being represented by a string of binary digits
(1s and 0s). The binary digits are then broadcast to the intended receiver where the process is reversed to
reconstruct the original voice tones.
Fig. 36.23 shows the principle of digital modulation. In this figure, each specific amplitude in the voltage
curve is represented by a three-digit binary number ranging in value from decimal 0 to decimal 7. When the
distant receiver picks up the binary pulses, it uses them to reconstruct an analog version of the original signal
being sent.
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE VARIATION S
6
4
2
AMPLITUDE
AMPLITUDE
(Binary Values) (Digital Values)
SAMPLE TIMES
0
110
010
111
101
001
DIGITAL PULSES TRANSMITTED TO DISTANT RECEIVER
8
VOLTAGE
100
VOLTAGE VARIATION S
6
4
2
0
SAMPLE TIMES
0
Fig. 36.23
VOLTAGE CURVE GOES

TO LOUDSPEAKERS.
SPEAKERS AND HUMAN EARS
SMOOTH SOUND CURVES.
17
28. ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

The following are the advantages of digital communication over the analog method :
(i) Ditigal signal can be easily received. The receiver has only to detect whether a pulse is high or low.
(ii) Digital circuits do not need to produce or detect precise values of voltage and/or current at particular
points in the communication system. Because of this, it is easier and cheaper to mass-produce digital
circuitry.
(iii) Digital communication circuits are generally more reliable than analog circuits because faults will not
often occur through variations in performance caused by changing values of components, misaligned
coils etc.
(iv) The effects of noise and interference are very much reduced in the digital system.
(v) The use of digital signals to carry the data overcomes the measurement problem of analog system.
(vi) Once the information to be transmitted is in digital form, it is easier to manipulate and process than
purely analog signals.
29. PULSE MODULATION
Amplitude
Amplitude
The two types of modulation processes viz., amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM) may
be called continuous wave (CW) modulation. It is because in these processes, some parameter of the
continuous high frequency carrier is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. However, it has been
found that the signal to be transmitted can be sampled at discrete intervals and the resulting pulses are used
to modulate the carrier. As a result, the carrier wave is transmitted in pulse; the position of the pulses or the
pulse width can be made to vary in accordance with the sampled modualting signal. This is called pulse
modulation. Pulse modulation is efficient because the carrier power is on for only the time of pulses.
Types of Pulse Modulation : A number of techniques have been used to convert the sampled amplitude
of the modulating signal into suitable form. The different characteristics of a pulse are (i) amplitude (ii)
duration and (iii) position. Any of these
characteristics can be varied in proportion to the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal.
Accordingly, there are three principle types of pulse
Time
modulation :
(i) Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
(ii) Pulse-Duration Modulation (PDM) or
pulse-width modulation (PWM).
(iii) Pulse-Position modulation (PPM)
(i) Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM) : In
this type of pulse modulation, the modulating signal
is sampled at regular intervals and each sample is
made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at
the instant of sampling. The pulses are then used
to modulate a carrier. Fig. 36.24 illustrates the pulse
amplitude modulation. Note that minimum pulse
amplitude corresponds to the negative maximum of
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
the modulating signal.
Fig 36.24
(ii) Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) : This type of modulation is also often called PDM (Pulse-Duration
Modulation) and less often PLM (Pulse-Length Modulation). In this technique, the amplitude of the pulses
is kept constant. Instead, the amplitude of the modulating singal (at the instant of sampling) determines the
width of the pulse. This is shown in Fig. 36.25 (ii). Note that the pulse width increases to a maximum
corresponding to the positive peak of the modulating signal. However, pulse width decreases to a minimum
corresponding to the negative peak of the modulating signal.
(i)
Time
(ii)
(iii)
Pulse-duration and pulse-positi o
nModulation
Fig. 36.25
18
(iii) Pulse-Position Modulation (PPM) : In this technique, the amplitude and width of the pulses is kept
constant while the position of each pulse is varied by each instantaneous sampled value of the modulating
signal. This is illustrated in Fig. 36.25. (iii). The dashed vertical lines correspond to the centre position of the
pulse when the amplitude of modulating signal is zero. An increase in modulating signal amplitude (positive)
causes the pulse to be displaced to the right (lag) while negative amplitudes displace the pulse to the left
(lead). In either case, the amount of displacement is proportional to the modulating signal amplitude.
30. PULSE-CODE MODULATION (PCM)

In pulse modulation discussed above, noise and other interference can alter the pulse and produce some error
in the reconstructed signal. In voice communications, such errors may not be too serious. However, when
transmitting coded information, such as for remote control of a missile or telemetered data from an orbiting
satellite, more accuracy or better noise immunity is desired. Reliability can be greatly increased by converting
the analog signal or data into digital form and then transmitting in digital units. This system of encoding is
known as pulse-code modulation. The modulating signal is sampled as in pulse modulation but the amplitude
of each sample is converted into a digital pulse train.
31. DATA TRANSMISSION AND RETRIEVAL

Data transmission means to transmit the data (e.g. speech, music etc) through space by employing some form
of modulation. The data retrieval means to receive the modulated wave at the receiving end and process it to
recover the original data.
Data transmission. Fig 36.26 shows the block diagram of data transmission. Generally, the data to be
transmitted is available in audio frequency (AF) range. The data is first converted into electrical signal and
then filtered so that no unwanted signal is picked up. The AF signal is then amplified by AF and power
amplifiers. The amplified AF signal is fed to the modulator. A high frequency carrier wave is produced by an
oscillator. The carrier wave is amplified by high frequency (HF) amplifier and is supplied to the modulator. The
carrier wave is modulated by the AF signal. The output of the modulator is amplified and filtered and then fed to
the transmitting antenna.
AF
processor
and filter
AF
data
AF
Amplifier
Modulator
HF
oscillator
Transmitting
Antenna
AF
power
amplifier
Power
Amplifier
Line
Filter
HF
amplifier
Data transmission
Fig. 36.26
Data Retrieval. Fig 36.27 shows the block diagram of data retrieval. At the receiving station, the
receiving antenna picks up various modulated signals. The filter or tuner selects the desired modulated wave. It
is amplified by a multistage amplifier and is then fed to the demodulator.
Demodulator
Receiving
Antenna
Line
Filter
HF
Amplifier
I
AF
pre
amplifier
AF
power
amplifier
AF
Data
processor
AF
Data
HF
Amplifier
II
Data Retreival
Fig. 36.27
The demodulator recovers the AF signal. The detected AF signal is amplified. The amplified signal is then
processed and filtered to receive the desired imformation/data.
19
32. MODEM
A Modem is an electronic device that modulates outgoing electromagnetic signals at the transmission end
of a communication channel and/or demodulates the incoming signal at the receiving end.
Modems are placed at the both ends of the communication circuit as shown in Fig. 36.28. The name
modem is a contraction of the term MOdulator and DEModulator; as the name implies, both functions are
included in a modem. The modem at the transmitting station accepts the digital output from a computer or
business machine and converts it into analog singals for use in modulating a carrier signal. At the receiving
end of the system, the carrier is demodulated to recover the data. Modems differ in rate of data transmission,
modulation methods and bandwidth.
Modem
Modem
Modulator
section
Demodulator
Demodulator
section
Modulator
Business
machine
Communications
circuit 4-wire
Fig 36.28
Modes of modem operation. The modems can be used to transmit and retrieve the data in the following
three modes :
(i) Simplex mode. In this mode of modem operation, the signal can be transmitted between the
transmitter and the receiver in only one direction.
In this mode, the modem uses only one transmission channel so that no signalling is available in the
direction from the receiver to the transmitter. This is an economical method of data transfer, but it is very
limited in application. It is because it does not accommodate error correction and requests for retransmission.
(ii) Half-duplex. In this mode of modem operation, the signals can be transmitted between the transmitter
and the receiver in both directions but only in one direction at one time.
It requires only one transmission channel but the channel must be bidirectional. Some economics results
from half-duplex operation. However, speed of transmission is reduced because of the sharing of the same
circuit and waiting while the transmission circuit components accomplish turn around.
(iii) Full-duplex. In this mode of modem operation, the signals can be transmitted between the transmitter
and the receiver in both directions at the same time.
In this mode, two circuits (i.e. two 2-wire circuits or one 4-wire circuit) are required, one for each direction
of transmission. Modems are placed at each end of the circuits to provide modulation and demodulation as
shown in Fig. 36.28.
33. FACSIMILE TELEGRAPHY (FAX)

The electronic reproduction of a document at a distant place is known as facsimile telegraphy or FAX.
Facsimile means exact reproduction. Information is transmitted at a much faster rate in television
transmission than it is in facsimile transmission. The small bandwidth required for facsimile makes it suitable
for transmission over normal telephone line. The FAX system has (i) Facsimile sender (ii) Facsimile receiver.
(i) Facsimile sender. Fig 36.29 shows the layout of facsimile sender system. The original document is
first fixed around a drum by means of clips. The drum is then simultaneously rotated about its axis
and made to traverse along it under a fixed scanning spot. The light reflected from the scanning
area is focussed onto a photocell. The electrical output of the photocell represents the outputsignal. This is called optical scanning.
Photocell
Signal output
Motor and
chopper disk
Mask with small

aperture
Optical lenses
Lamp
Rotation
Transmitter
drum
Fig 36.29
Traverse
Lamp
20
(ii)
Facsimile receiver. The mechanical aspects of scanning in the receiver are similar to those in the
sender and very often identical equipment is used at both ends. Scanning in the receiver must of
course produce an optical output from the electrical input signal, the reverse of what happens in the
transmitter.
34. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The electromagnetic waves are used in radio, television and other communication systems. The transmitting
8
1
antennas radiate electromagnetic waves which travel outward in all directions with a velocity of 3 10 ms .
These waves are little affected by the surrounding atmosphere, rain, snow etc and are able to penetrate nonmetallic objects easily. However, these waves are stopped dead by metals or fine mesh wire screens.
The power of electromagnetic waves radiated from a transmitting antenna is ordinarily spread over a
relatively large area. Therefore, power available at most of the receiving antennas is only a small fraction of the
radiated power. In some cases, the transmission loss (ratio of radiated power to received power) may be as
15
20
great as 10 to 10 . Therefore, it is the transmission loss between transmitting and receiving antennas which
determines whether the received signal will be useful or not.
35. SPACE COMMUNICATION

The phenomenon of sending, receiving and processing information through space is called space
communication.
In space communication, electromagnetic waves carry information over long distance through space
without the use of wires. For this reason, it is some times called wireless. Radio, television and satellite
communication fall under this category.
The radiation of electrical energy is practicable only at high frequencies e.g. above 20 kHz. Since audio
frequencies (20 Hz to 20 kHz) are small, the audio signal (e.g. music, speech etc) cannot be sent directly over
air for appreciable distance. It is because the energy of a wave is directly proportional to its frequency and at
audio frequencies, the signal power is quite small. Therefore, radiation is not possible.
In order to send the audio signal over great distance, we first convert the audio signal into electrical
signal. Then electrical audio signal is superimposed on high frequency wave (called carrier wave). The
resultant waves are known as modulated waves or radio waves and the process is called modulation. At the
radio receiver, the audio electrical signal is recovered from the modulated wave by the process called
demodulation. The electrical audio signal is then amplified and reproduced into sound by the loudspeaker.
36. IONOSPHERE
Outer Atmosphere
The upper portion of atmosphere about 50 km to

G Region
400 km above the earths surface is called ionosphere.
Ionosphere plays an important part in the
F2 Layer
propagation of radio waves into space. In the region
of ionosphere, the air is quite thin and ultraviolet
250
F1 Layer
400
radiations from the sun cause ionisation of the widely
m
km
0k
spaced air molecules into electrons, positive ions and
2
2
E Layer
negative ions. Because of the variation of the
250
m
0
composition of air, there are several regions of high 14 km 0 1 10 k
D Layer
- 14
density within the ionosphere, dividing the ionosphere
P O S PH ER
90 km
O
R
T
E
into layers. The formation of layers and the height of
90
Earth
50 km
these layers are affected by the time of day, season of
Fig. 36.30
the year and year-to-year variation in the suns activity.
Fig 36.30 shows the various layers of ionosphere.
(i) The lowest layer, called D layer, exists only in the daytime at an altitude of 50 to 90 km above the
earths surface. Ionisation in this region is relatively weak and does not affect the direction of travel
of radio waves.
(ii) The next layer, the E layer, is in a region of about 90-140 km above the surface of earth. It has a
maximum density at noon but is only weakly ionised at night.
(iii) The last layer, the F layer, is quite variable. At night, it exists as a single layer in a region of about 140-400
km above the earths surface. However in daytime, it splits into two layersF1 and F2 as shown in Fig
36.30.
The action of these ionised layers on a radio wave is to refract or bend the wave back toward the region
of lower density in much the same fashion as light waves are bent when travelling through different media.
The amount of refraction, and whether or not a radio wave is bent back toward earth, will depend on (a) the
frequency of radiated wave (b) the density of the ionised layer and (c) the angle of incidence at which the
wave enters the ionosphere.
21
37. PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

Radio communications use electromagnetic waves propagated through the earths atmosphere or space to
carry information over long distances without the use of wires.
3
(i) The electromagnetic waves which range from 3 kHz to about 300 GHz (1GHz = 10 MHz) are called
radio waves.
(ii) When radio waves are launched from a transmitting antenna, they travel outward in *all directions at
a velocity of 3 108 m/s.
(iii) The radio wave spectrum extends from 10 kHz to 300 GHz i.e., electromagnetic waves having frequency
range from 10 kHz to 300 GHz are called radio waves.
(iv) The radio waves are little affected by the surrounding atmosphere, rain, snow etc., and are able to
penetrate non-metallic objects easily. However, radio waves are stopped dead by metals or fine
meshed wire screens.
(v) The radio waves travel in free space and do not need a medium for propagation.
38. TYPES OF RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

Except for highly directional antennas, the energy radiated from a transmitting antenna travels into space in
many directions. As the distance from the transmitting antenna increases, the field intensity decreases.
Depending upon the frequency of radio waves, the distance between transmitter and receiver antenna, the
path (or paths) by which radio waves reach the receiving antenna, the radio wave propagation may be
classified as :
1. Ground wave propagation
2. Ground-reflected wave propagation
3. Sky wave propagation
4. Space wave (or line of sight) wave propagation
1. Ground Waves or Surface Waves. In ground wave propagation, the radio wave travels close to earths
surface. It is, therefore, also known as surface wave. Because the waves hug the earth so closely, they are
profoundly influenced by the electrical characteristics of the ground over which they travel. Since the absorption
of the waves increases considerably with frequency, the ground waves are generally useful only at low
frequencies.
(i) Below 500 kHz, reliable communication can be obtained over distances up to 1500 km by ground
waves alone.
(ii) Amplitude modulated radio waves in the medium frequency band are transmitted primarily via ground
waves.
(iii) At higher frequencies used by frequency modulation and television, the ground wave is so reduced
in strength by absorption as to become virtually useless beyond a few kilometers around the
transmitter.
Note that in Fig 36.31 the ground wave does not reach the receiving aerial. To receive it, the receiving
aerial should be moved closer to the transmitter.
sky wave
lost in space
d ire c
transmitting aerial
t wav
io n o
s p he
r ef
re
l ec
ted
s ky
r ec
wa
ve
eiv
i ng
ground wave
ae
r ia
l
ground reflected wave
Fig. 36.31
2. Ground-reflected waves. As shown in Fig 36.31, the ground-reflected wave travels from the transmitting
aerial to the earth (e.g. mountain) and is reflected to the receiving aerial. Since it is not subject to continuous
absorption by the earth, this wave travels considerably farther than the ground wave.
(i) The reflected wave exists even at high frequencies and provides, together with direct wave, the main
means of transmitting FM radio and television programmes.
(ii) This type of wave is reversed in phase (by 180) at the point of reflection, which many time leads to
undesirable results. If, for example, the ground-reflected and direct waves have travelled over the
same length of path, they will arrive at the receiving aerial 180 out of phase with each other and
almost completely cancel out. On the other hand, if path lengths of the two waves differ by halfwavelength (180), the waves will reinforce with each other, resulting in increased signal strength.
This increase and decrease in signal strength periodically is called fading.
(iii) As shown in Fig. 36.31, fading can also occur by the interaction of sky and ground waves.
22
3.
Sky waves. In this case, the radio waves are radiated away from the surface of the earth. The sky
wave travels through space with very little energy loss until it reaches the ionosphere. The ionosphere
acts as a radio mirror to direct the sky waves back to earth [See Fig 36.32]. Transmission by means
of sky waves is an elusive and tricky business. It is subject to fading and erratic changes with
seasons, night and day and atmospheric conditions. Yet it is the primary means of around-the-world
short-wave communication. Let us see why the sky waves are so unreliable.
F-LAYER
E-LAYER
IONOSPHERE
2
2
CRITICAL ANGLE
A
C
1
TRANSMITTING AERIAL
GROUNDWAVE
SKIP ZONE
RANGE
SKIP DISTANCE
Fig. 36.32
Although there are at least four distinct ionised layers in the ionosphere, the most important of these are E and
F layers. The actual mechanism of sky wave is illustrated in Fig. 36.32. Here the transmitting aerial is seen to
radiate sky waves over a wide range of vertical angles w.r.t. earth. Sky wave 1, radiated at small vertical angle,
is reflected from F layer and returns to earth at a great distance from the transmitter. Sky wave 2 leaves the
transmitting aerial at somewhat greater angle and is reflected back to earth by the lower E layer. Since it enters
the ionosphere sooner, it is reflected back more quickly, at a shorter distance from the transmitter.
(i) Critical frequency. As the frequency of sky waves increases, the ionosphere becomes progressively
less effective in reflecting the wave back to earth.
The highest frequency above which the ionosphere no longer returns the sky wave back to earth when
transmitted in vertical direction is called critical frequency.
Since the critical frequency depends on the density of ionisation, it will clearly vary with the time of day
and season of the year. Furthermore, it is possible for a particular frequency to pierce the E layer but still be
returned from the F layer because it has higher density of ionisation. Of course, a still higher frequency will
pierce both layers and be lost.
(ii) Critical angle. As the vertical angle of the sky wave w.r.t. earth is increased, the ionosphere layers
are no longer capable of reflecting sky waves back to earth as shown by sky waves 3, 4, and 5 in Fig. 36.32.
For a given frequency, the vertical angle above which the sky wave no longer returns to earth but
travels outward into space is called critical angle.
Sky waves at or above critical angle may be refracted (bent) by ionosphere but they are not reflected back
to earth. The critical angle primarily depends on density of ionisation and on the frequency of the wave.
(iii) Skip distance. The distance between the transmitting aerial and the point where the sky wave is
first received after returning to earth is called skip distance. In Fig 36.32, the ground distance AC is skip
distance. The ground-wave range here is AB.
(iv) Skip zone. The ground distance BC is called skip zone. No signal can be picked up in the skip zone.
4. Surface (line of sight) waves or Direct waves. At frequencies above 30 MHz, radio transmission
cannot be carried out by *ground waves or **sky waves.
Therefore, we use direct waves for transmission of radio
Straight-line path
waves having frequencies above 30 MHz. As the name
suggests, this wave travels directly in an almost straight line
from the transmitting antenna to the receving antenna [See
Geometrical
Fig 36.33]. The direct waves become increasingly important
straight-line distance
as the frequency goes up and the radio waves tend to travel
more and more in straight lines. FM and television signals
are transmitted by direct waves. The radar, microwave relays,
air navigation aids and many other services rely solely on
Fig. 36.33
direct-line-of-sight transmission.
Because of the curvature of the earth, the range of transmission depends upon the height of the transmitting
antenna. The greater the height of transmitting antenna, the greater is the range of transmission and vice-
23
versa. As proved in Art. 19.25, the range of TV transmission is given by :

Coverage range, d = 2Rh
where
R = radius of earth
h = height of transmitting antenna
39. MICROWAVE
TRANSMISSION
Microwave radio system operate at frequencies from 1 GHz to 50 GHz. The microwave transmission is
mainly direct (line-of-sight) waves whether it is on the ground or in a satellite system. The microwave systems
provide the needed transmission bandwidth and reliability to allow the transmission of many thousands of
telephone channels as well as several TV channels over the same route and using the same facilities. Generally,
carrier frequencies in the range 3-12 GHz are used. Since microwaves travel only on line-of-sight paths, it is
necessary to provide repeater stations at about 50 km intervals. This makes the equipment cost for such a
system very large but this is more than made up for by the increased channel capacity. Microwave transmitter
output powers are low because highly directional high-gain antennas are used.
40. THE RADIO SPECTRUM

The table below gives the radio spectrum indicating frequency band, frequency range, wavelength range
and typical uses.
Frequency Band
Frequency Range
Wavelength Range
Very low frequency (v.l.f.)
10-30 kHz
30,000-10,000 m
Low frequency (l.f.)

Medium frequency (m.f.)
High frequency (h.f.)
Very high frequency (v.h.f.)
30-300 kHz
300-3,000 kHz
3-30 MHz
30-300 MHz
10,000-1,000 m
1,000-100 m
100-10 m
10-1m
Ultra-high frequency (u.h.f.)
300-3,000 MHz
1m-10 cm
Super-high frequency (s.h.f.)
3,000-30,000 MHz
10-1 cm
Extremely high frequency
30,000-300,000 MHz
1-0.1 cm
Typical Uses
Long-distance point-topoint communication
Marine, navigational aids
Broadcasting, marine
Communication of all types
Television, f.m. broadcasting,
radar, air navigation, shortwave broadcasting
Radar, microwave relays,
short-distance communication
Radar, radio relay, navigation, experimental
Experimental
(e.h.f.)
41. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

Microwave radio systems on the ground (or in a satellite) propagate in a line-of-sight mode. Due to the
curvature of the earth, the range of microwave transmission on earth is very small ( 50 km). Therefore,
microwave radio system on the ground requires repeater stations at about 50 km intervals. This increases the
overall cost of the system. In order to increase the range of microwave system, we use satellite communication.
A communication satellite is a spacecraft in orbit around the earth which carries on board microwave
receiving and transmitting equipment capable of relaying signals from one point on earth to other points.
Microwave frequencies must be used to penetrate the ionosphere since all practical satellite orbits are at
heights well above the ionosphere. Also, microwave frequencies are required to handle the wideband signals
encountered in present-day communications network.
(i) A communication satellite is made geostationary. That is to say, a communication satellite has the
same angular velocity as the earth (i.e. one complete cycle per 24 hours) and so it appears to be stationed over
one spot on the earth. Viewed by an observer on earth, it is stationary. Viewed by an observer at rest with
respect to the fixed stars, the satellite orbits the earth from west to east at the equator with the period of 24
hours so, that its motion is synchronised with the earths spin [See Fig. 36.34]. A communication satellite
receives the waves transmitted from earth station/stations and retransmits the same (at different frequency)
back to another earth station/stations.
24
Satellite or
Relayed
TV signal
Stationary
satellite
Height above
r ground = 36000 km
6400 km
(Earth radius)
Fig. 36.34
Fig. 36.35
(ii) In order that a communication satellite has a period of 24 hours, it must orbit around the earth at a
height of 36000 km (app.) above earths surface (See Fig. 36.35).
(iii) The orbit of geostationary satellite is called parking orbit. The orbital speed of the satellite in the
parking orbit is about 3.1 km/s.
Satellite communication system. In satellite communication system, a message signal is transmitted
from an earth station via an uplink to the satellite, amplified by electronic circuitry on board the satellite and
then retransmitted from the satellite via a downlink to another earth station as shown in Fig. 36.36.
Earth
transmitting
station
Uplink
Earth
North pole
Satellite
(in geostationary orbit)
Downlink
Earth
revceiving
station
Fig. 36.36
The most popular frequency band for satellite communication is 6 GHz for the uplink and 4 GHz for the
downlink.
Note : A geostationary satellite can establish a communication link over a large part of earth but a single
satellite cannot cover the entire earth. It is because the curvature of earth keeps a large part of earth out of
sight for a single satellite. In order to provide microwave communication over the entire surface of earth,
atleast three geostationary satellites are required. Each geostationary satellite is 120 apart from the other.
Advantages of satellite communication
(i) A single relay station can cover a very large area of earth.
(ii) It is very reliable.
(iii) The cost of communication is independent of distance between any two points on earth.
(iv) The satellite communication can be employed for establishing mobile communication with a fair
degree of ease.
(v) The satellite communication is more accurate for search and navigation as compared to other systems.
Disadvantages of satellite communication
(i) The cost of placing the satellite in geostationary orbit is very high.
(ii) The geostationary orbit is quite crowded and at the most 360 satellites can be there.
(iii) In telephone conversation, the response is not instant.
(iv) Since the signals from satellites are open to all, satellite communication can be disastrous from
security and privacy point of view.
(v) The satellite equipment is subject to extreme environmental conditions. If any part of the system
becomes faulty, it is difficult to apply corrective measures.
42. REMOTE SENSING

The technique of collecting information about an object from a distance without making a physical contact
with it is called remote sensing.
25
One important application of remote sensing is to gather information (e.g., temperature, nature, size etc.)
about remote and inaccessible areas of earth. For this purpose, we utilise the services of a remote-sensing
satellite. The remote-sensing satellite is placed in sun-synchronous orbit around the earth. A satellite in the
sun-synchronous orbit has similar lighting conditions every time it passes over the particular area of the earth
at the same local time. Constant lighting angles help the satellites observations about that area to be more
standard, useful and easier to interpret. The remote-sensing satellite is equipped with various instruments to
enable it to record and send the desired information to the earth station.
The following are the two types of satellites used for long distance communication :
(i) Passive satellites. Those satellites which are used only for reflecting the signal back to earth are
called passive satellites.
It is equipped with a reflector which merely reflects the signal back to earth. No electronic device is fitted
in such a satellite. The signal from the transmitting earth station is beamed towards the satellite and it reflects
the signal back to the desired location on earth.
(ii) Active satellites. Those satellites which are equipped with various equipment (e.g. antenna system,
transmitter, receiver, power supply etc) to process the signal and retransmit it back to earth are called
active satellites.
The microwave signal from earth transmitting station is beamed towards the satellite. The satellite
equipment does the required processing of the signal and sends it back to earth receiving station either
instantly or after storage in its memory and waiting until the satellite faces the earth based receiving station.
Applications. In the recent years, remote sensing by satellites has achieved considerable importance in
the fast developing space science. The important applications of remote-sensing satellites are given below :
(i) It is used to estimate the damage caused by floods.
(ii) It is used to track icebergs in the sea.
(iii) It is used to locate the missing aircraft.
(iv) It is used for spying work for military purposes.
(v) It is used for maritime communication and positioning services.
(vi) It is used for weather observations.
(vii) It is used to prepare wasteland maps.
(viii) It is used for the assessment of drought.
(ix) It is used to detect potential fishing zones.
(x) It is used to survey the nature of forest land on earths surface.
43. COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

A physical medium between the transmitter and the receiver is called communication channel or transmission
medium.
The communication channel is a link which transfers the signals from the transmitter to the receiver. All
communication systems require a channel. This is because sending a message from one point to another
involves the transmission of energy. The energy may be in various forms such as electromognetic waves,
sound or mechanical motion. There are many examples of communication channel. A light beam from a
flashlight can be used for signalling and in this case air is the channel. Similarly, free space is the channel for
radio communication. If light is sent through a glass pipe, then glass pipe forms the channel. The quality of
transmission depends upon many factors including nature of medium and the nature of signal.
The transmission channel is of two types viz guided transmission channel and unguided transmission
channel. In guided transmission channel, the signal follows a guided path e.g. telephone lines, optical fibres
etc. In the unguided transmission channel, the signal follows unguided path e.g. radio waves in free space.
44. LINE COMMUNICATION

The interconnection of two points that are some distance apart from each other with the help of wires to
transmit signal is called line communication.
In many communication systems, it is often necessary to interconnect points that are some distance apart
from each other. The connection between a transmitter and its antenna is a typical example of this. The general
layout, sizes and separations of such wires becomes significant when frequency becomes high.
45. TWO WIRE LINES

The most commonly used three wire lines are (i) Parallel wire lines (ii) Twisted pair wire lines (iii) Co-axial wire
lines.
(i) Parallel wire lines. As the name suggests, in a parallel wire line, two metallic wires run parallel to each
other inside a protective insulation coating (PVC) as shown in Fig. 36.37. They are commonly used to connect
26
an antenna with a TV receiver. The conductors used in such wires may

Conductor I
be hard or flexible. If the frequency becomes very high, the system of
wires start radiating energy in the form of radio waves. Therefore,
Conductor II
parallel lines are not suitable for microwaves.
Insulation
(ii) Twisted pair wire lines. A twisted pair of wires consist of two
Fig. 36.37
insulated copper wires twisted around each other at regular intervals
(See Fig. 36.38). The wires are twisted zto minimise electrical
Conductor
interference. They are used to connect telephone systems.
The advantages of twisted pair wire lines are (a) low cost (b)
easy to install (c) less prone to electrical disturbances and (d)
can transmit analog as well as digital signals. However, their
Outer
main drawback is that over large distances, the transmitted
Insulator
Conductor
Fig. 36.38
signals become weak.
Outer shielding
(iii) Coaxial wire lines. Fig. 36.39 shows the essential parts of a
copper mesh
coaxial wire line. It consists of central copper conductor surrounded Inner
copper wire
by PVC insulation over which a sleeve of copper mesh is placed (See
Fig. 36.39). The copper mesh is covered with an outer shield of thick
PVC material. Such wires do not suffer from radiation problems and
Inner
can be used for microwave and ultra high frequencies (UHF). The
Outer
PVC insulation
advantage of co-axial wires is that communication through these wires
PVC insulation
Fig. 36.39
is more efficient than through the twisted pair wires.
46. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSMISSION LINE

In its simplest form, a transmission line consists of two parallel wires with dielectric between them [See Fig.
36.40 (i)].
(i) The line has some resistance (R) per unit length (say per metre). The line also has inductance (L) per
unit length. These components (R and L) must be considered as series elements.
(ii) There is some capacitance (C) per unit length between the two wiresregardless of spacing between
the wires and the insulation between them. One more factor is that no insulation between the wires is perfect.
Therefore, some leakage current will flow between the wires. Thus the lines will have conductance (G) per unit
length. Both C and G have shunt effects.
L
Insulation
R
C
R
G
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 36.40
Therefore, every transmission line can be replaced by an equivalent electrical circuit containing each of
these four parameters in proper proportion. Such an equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 36.40 (ii). At radio
frequencies, L is more effective than R and C is more effective than G. Therefore, at radio frequencies, we can
ignore R and G and the circuit reduces to the one shown in Fig. 36.40 (iii).
Characteristic Impedance (Z0)
The input impedance ( i.e. impedance measured at the input of the line) of a transmission line when its
length is infinite is called characteristic impedance. It is represented by Z0.
The characteristic impedance is also called input impedance or reference impedance of the line. Consider
a transmission line of infinite length that has far end open. Let us connect an ammeter at the input end and
apply voltage E0 to the line. The ammeter indicates that current is flowing in the lineeven though the far end
is open. It may seem that we do not have a complete circuit but that is not so. The circuit is completed through
the distributed constants of the line. The amount of current (I0) indicated by the ammeter at the input end
depends on the input voltage E0 and on the constants of the line. If we double the applied voltage, the current
will double. By ohms law,
E
Characteristic impedance, Z0 = 0
I0
The practical range of characteristic
impedance of transmission lines is
Parallel wire lines,
Z0 = 75 500
Twisted pair wire lines,
Z0 = 70 150
Coaxial wire lines,
Z0 = 10 150
Velocity factor of a transmission line. The electromagnetic waves travel through air / vacuum with a speed of
8
1
3 10 ms . This speed is reduced when electromagnetic waves travel in line that use dielectrics.
27
The ratio of velocity of waves through a given line (v) to the velocity through air (vc ) is called velocity
factor of the line i.e.
v
Velocity factor, V .F . =
vc
For a transmission line, velocity factor ranges from 0.6 to 0.9
47. LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINES

There are three types of losses that occur in a transmisssion line viz
(i) Radiation losses (ii) Conductor heating (iii) Dielectric heating.
(i) Radiation losses . These losses arise when a transmission line may act as an antenna if the separation
of the conductors is a fraction of the wavelength of the wave. It applies more to parallel lines than to coaxial
lines.
(ii) Conductor heating. Conductor heating or I2R loss depends upon the current passing through the
transmission line and therefore inversely proportional to the characteristic impedance (Z0) of the line. It also
increases with frequency because of skin effect.
(iii) Dielectric heating. The dielectric heating is proportional to the voltage across the dielectric and
hence inversely proportional to the characteristic impedance of the line. It increases with frequency for solid
dielectric lines. For air, dielectric heating is negligible.
48. CABLE SYSTEM

Many two-wire lines are often wanted between the same two places. This can most conveniently be
provided by making a cable with a number of pairs of insulated wires inside it. Fig. 36.41 shows a coaxial cable
used for high frequency communication. This cable has one of its conductors completely surrounded by the
second one in the form of a tube. The number of cables per tube may vary from 4 to 22.
Energy is used up to make the current flow against
the resistance along the conductors and against the
insulation resistance between the conductors. Energy is
also used up in charging and discharging the capacitance
between the conductors. The result is that the energy that
reaches the receiving end of the line is reduced. The loss
of energy along the line is called attenuation. In order to
make up the loss of energy, we use signal boosters placed
at suitable distances along the route of the line.
49. TELEPHONE LINKS
Paper tape
Coaxial tube
Interstice
quads
Lead sheath
Fig. 36.41
Telephony involves the conversion of sound signals into an audio-frequency electrical signal which can
then be transmitted over the transmission channel and then reconverted into sound at the receiver. The
electrical signal may be transmitted by wires or radio.
1. Wire Telephony. In this case, individual telephone sets are connected to the telephone exchange
boxes using a twisted pair. These telephone exchange boxes are located in different parts of the city and are
connected to the main telephone exchange by a cable. This method is feasible if the number of telephone sets
is small. This problem is solved through multiplexing.
The simultaneous transmission of a number of messages over the same channel is called multiplexing.
Two important types of multiplexing are :
(i) Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
(ii) Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
In FDM, the total channel bandwidth is divided into smaller bands. Each user is assigned one band. In
TDM, the channel uses only a single frequency band and all users share it. Each user has access at a
different time.
2. Microwave telephone link. In microwave system, high frequency radio waves (carrier) are used to
transmit the audio electrical signal. Clearly, the communication channel is free space and there is no expense
in laying out wires and cables.
28
Repeaters
Transmitting
Antenna
Receiving
Antenna
Earth
Fig. 36.42.
The voice signal is converted into audio electrical signal. The signal modulates high frequency radio
waves (i.e. microwaves) in the transmitter. The modulated waves are radiated from the transmitting antenna.
Since the microwave propagation is in the line-of-sight, its range is limited to a small distance ( 50 km). In
order to transmit the signal over large distances, we erect a number of antennas at suitable distances as shown
in Fig. 36.42. These antennas installed between the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna are called
repeaters. Each repeater receives the transmitted signal, amplifies the signal and relays the amplified signal to
the next repeater. Finally, the signal reaches the receiving antenna. The main problem with microwave link is
that it cannot cover the entire earth surface due to the presence of various oceans and mountains. To
overcome this difficulty, we use communication satellites.
3. Communication satellite as telephone link . The call from the calling subscriber is routed to the
telephone exchange through a 2-wire line. Then call is beamed to the communication satellite orbiting the
earth. The communication satellite sends the call back to the desired receiving station.
50. OPTICAL COMMUNICATION

A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying the information at a much faster rate than radio
waves and microwaves. The transmission medium for a light beam cannot be air for two principal reasons.
First, light is subject to much absorption in open space. Secondly, plenty of interference can be expected from
the many light sources in constant use. For these reasons, we use optical fibres for the transmission of light.
Optical fibres are hair-thin glass strands and use the principle of total internal reflection for the transmission
of light through them.
Cladding
Narrow core
Fig. 36.44
To understand the transmission of light through an optical fibre, consider a thin fibre of glass as shown
in Fig. 36.43. If the light beam moving through the glass strikes the top edge of the glass at an angle of 51 (or
at an angle greater than the critical angle), the light beam suffers total internal reflection. The reflected light
beam moves toward the bottom surface of the glass and strikes it at an incident angle of 51 (See Fig. 36.43).
The light beam is once again totally reflected. The light beam continues to move along the fibre after suffering
successive total internal reflections. The fibre (called the light pipe) carries light along the fibre much the way
water flows along a pipe. No light is lost from the sides.
The composition of an optical fibre is such that light entering it suffers successive total internal reflections.
An optical fibre is a very narrow light pipe (See Fig. 36.44). It consists of a small (about 8 m thick) glass core
surrounded by a large (about 125 m thick) glass *cladding. The refractive index of cladding is slightly lower
than that of the core. Because the cladding (hair thin) has a lower refractive index than the core, light rays
inside the core are totally internally reflected. The edges of the core act like a perfect mirror and the light rays
can travel a long way inside the glass. Optical fibres can be as long as 200 km.
29
51. CONSTRUCTION OF OPTICAL FIBRE

Modern optical fibres are formed by two layers of glass. As shown in Fig. 36.45, the fibre core (8 m) is
surrounded by a concentric core of lower index glass known as cladding (125 m). The cladding is surrounded
by a protective layer. The total internal reflection occurs at the core-cladding
Cladding
interface. In fibres designed for high-speed telecommunications, the core
is only a few microns in diameter, not much larger than the wavelength of
Protective
Coating
the light used. In such cases, the full electromagnetic wave picture must
be used to describe the propagation of the light. However, when the highest
Core
data transmission rates are not required, fibres with a large core of perhaps
a hundred micron or more are used. Such fibres are known as multimode
Fig. 36.45
fibres. For multimode fibres, ray picture is adequate to describe the
behaviour of the light.
52. ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS

Optical fibres are important in communications because they offer a practical alternative to copper wires and
cables. We give below some advantages and applications of optical fibre communications:
(i) In metropolitan areas, thin glass fibres are replacing thick, bulky and expensive copper cables to
carry thousands of simultaneous messages among the major switching centres.
(ii) Unlike electricity, light is indifferent to temperature and fluctuations in surrounding magnetic field.
Therefore, the signal is very clear in optical fibre communication.
(iii) Optical fibre communication has several advantages over satellite communication. One advantage is
that communications are more difficult to jam or intercept.
(iv) Optical fibre systems are not sensitive to electrical noise so that they can be used for data transmission
in electrically noisy environment.
(v) The rate at which a communication system can carry information depends upon the frequency of the
information-carrying signal. Since the frequency of the light signals in optical fibre system is many
times the frequency of electrical signals propagating in conducting cables, optical fibre system can
carry information at a much faster rate.
(vi) Since the optical fibres are very thin, they can be laid in the existing underground system without the
need for extensive excavation.
53. ORDINARY LIGHT AND LASER LIGHT

To begin with, we shall describe the difference between ordinary light and laser light.
(i) Ordinary light. An ordinary light source (e.g., tungsten bulb) emits light in all directions (so that
intensity decreases rapidly with distance) and the emitted light is incoherent . It is incoherent (the different
parts of the beam are not in phase with each other) since the excited atoms which emit the light act independently.
8
The result is that each photon emitted can be considered as a short wave train lasting 10 s ; these wave
trains bear no phase relation to one another.
Incoherent beam of light
Coherent
beam of ligh
Source of
ordinary light
Source of
laser beam
Fig. 36.46
(ii) Laser light. A laser light is a very narrow intense beam of monochromatic coherent light. It is
produced by a device called laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). A laser light is
unique due to the following reasons :
(a) The laser light is monochromatic i.e., all the photons have the same wavelength and hence frequency.
(b) The photons in the laser light are in phase with each other. In other words, laser light is coherent
rather than a group of independent photons whose vibrations are independent of each other. The
coherence of a laser beam allows it to be used to transmit information (such as telephone
conversations) in much the same way that high-frequency radio waves transmit information for
television broadcasting.
(c) Ordinary source of light emits light in all directions and the light intensity drops as the light spreads
after it leaves the source. However, a laser beam is narrow and intense. Even though the power of
a laser beam may be low, the small spread of the beam causes the laser light to be relatively intense.
30
54. ABSORPTION AND EMISSION PROCESSES IN ATOMIC SYSTEM

In order to understand how laser operates, we must first be familiar with some of the basic processes involved
in an atomic system. We shall only deal with qualitative aspect of such processes. We know that an atom will
emit radiation at certain frequencies which correspond to the energy separation between the various allowed
states. Consider an atom with many allowed states, labelled E1, E2, E3..... as in Fig. 36.47 where the lowestlying state, E1, is called the ground state.
Ground state
E4
E3
E2
Excited state
E2
E2
DE
hf
E1
E1
Before
E1
After
Fig. 36.47
Fig. 36.48
(i) Stimulated absorption. When light is incident on the atom, only certain photons will interact with
the atom. Only those photons whose energy h f matches the energy separation E between the two levels
can be absorbed. A schematic diagram representing this stimulated absorption process is shown in Fig.
36.48. At ordinary temperatures, most of the atoms are in the ground state. If a vapour cell containing many
atoms of an element is illuminated by a light of continuous spectrum of photon frequencies, only those
photons of energies (E2 1), (E3 E1), (E4 E1) and so on can be absorbed. As a result of this absorption
process, some atoms are raised to various allowed energy levels called excited states. Note that in Fig. 36.48,
dots represent electrons in the various states.
(ii) Spontaneous emission. Once an atom is in the excited state, there is a certain probability that the
electron will revert back to lower energy level by emitting a photon. This process is known as spontaneous
emission and is illustrated in Fig. 36.49. Here initially the electron is in the state E2. As the electron jumps from
this excited state to the ground state, a photon of energy E = E2 E1 is emitted. In typical cases, an atom will
8
remain in the excited state only for about 10 s.
Excited state
Ground state
E2
E2
E1
E1
hf
Before
After
Fig. 36.49
(iii) Stimulated emission. Suppose an atom is in an excited state as in Fig. 36.50 and a photon of energy
h f = E2 E1 is incident on it. The incoming photon will increase the probability that the atom will revert to its
ground state and thereby emit a second photon of energy h f. This process of speeding up atomic transitions
to lower levels is called stimulated emission. Note that there are two identical photons that result from this
process, corresponding to the incident photon and the emitted photon. The emitted photon will be exactly in
phase with the incident photon. These photons can, in turn, stimulate other atoms to emit photons in a chain
of similar processes. The many photons produced in this fashion are the source of intense, coherent light in
a laser.
55. PRINCIPLE OF LASER ACTION

We have seen above how an incident photon can cause transitions either upward (stimulated absorption) or
downward (stimulated emission). Both processes are equally probable when light is incident on a system of
atoms, there is usually a net absorption of energy because there are many more atoms in the ground state than
in excited states. That is, in a normal situation, there are more atoms in the state E1 ready to absorb photons
than there are atoms in states E2, E3...... ready to emit photons. However, if one can invert the situation so that
there are more atoms in an excited state than in a lower state, a condition called population inversion, a net
emission of photons can result. This, in fact, is the fundamental principle involved in the production of a laser
beam (i.e. light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation). The amplification process corresponds to
a build up of photons in the system as the result of a chain reaction of such events. Therefore, the following
three conditions must be satisfied in order to achieve laser action :
31
(i) There must be an inverted population i.e., there should be more atoms in an excited state than in the
ground state.
(ii) The excited state must be a metastable state, which means its lifetime must be long compared with
the usually short lifetimes of excited states. In this manner, the process of stimulated emission will
occur before spontaneous emission.
(iii) The emitted photons must be confined within the system long enough to allow them to stimulate
further emission from other excited atoms. This is achieved by the use of reflecting mirrors at the
ends of the system. One end is made totally reflecting and the other is slightly transparent to allow
the laser beam to escape.
56. LASER
Laser means Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser is a device that produces a
very narrow intense beam of monochromatic coherent light.
Construction. Figure 36.51 shows the schematic diagram of commonly used helium-neon laser. It
consists of a glass tube filled with a low pressure mixture of helium and neon in the ratio of about 15% helium
to 85% neon. The ends of the tube are sealed with mirrors. One mirror is totally reflecting and the other is
partially reflecting.
Excited atom
100% Mirror Glass tube
Leaky mirror
2
6
Fig. 36.51
Working. The laser action in a helium-neon laser occurs as under :
(i) When high voltage is applied across the tube, electric discharge takes place. Because of the discharge
in the laser tube, both helium and neon are excited to higher states. As they fall back to their lower energy
states, they give off the light we normally associate with neon signs. The atoms are emitting their waves in an
uncoordinated way and so the light waves are incoherent. To obtain predominantly coherent waves, we must
have a population inversion so that stimulated emission will predominate. The gases helium and neon are
used in the laser tube because they are capable of achieving a population inversion in a simple way as
explained below.
(ii) Because of the gas discharge in the tube, many helium (and neon) atoms are excited to various
energy states. As shown in the energy-level diagram of Fig. 36.52, helium has energy state A that is 20.6 eV
higher than the ground state of the atom. This state is
Metastable
metastable state. In such a state, the atom resists falling to
lower states and so it exists in state A for an abnormally
B
1.96 e
long time. As a result, excited helium atoms make transitions A
C
to state A and remain there. Over a certain time, a large
20.6 e
V
number of helium atoms become semilocked in state A and
so a population inversion is possible.
Ground state
He
Ne
(iii) The second gas chosen for the laser, neon, has
Fig. 36.52
energy states B and C (See Fig. 36.52), whose energies are
close to the energy of state A in the helium atom. When a helium atom in state A collides with unexcited neon
atom, it can excite the neon atom to state B by giving the neon atom its excitational energy. (Actually, the
excited neon atom in state B has slightly more energy than the helium atom in state A. This additional energy
is acquired by the neon atom from the kinetic energy of the participants in the collision). However, state B in
the neon atom is also a metastable state. Therefore, as the time passes, many neon atoms become semilocked
in state B and so a population inversion occurs for neon atoms.
Metestable state
state
Metastable
(iv) Let us now return to Fig. 36.51 where the tube is now assumed to B
have enough neon atoms in excited state B that a population inversion
exists. Eventually one atom (labelled 1) falls to state C (See Fig. 36.53) E = 1.96 eV
= 6328
and emits a photon with energy 1.96 eV ( = 6328 ). This photon
stimulates neon atom 2 to emit a like photon. Then in succession, a C
multitude of excited neon atoms emit identical photons that are all in
Fig. 36.53
phase as indicated in Fig. 36.51. In a short time, the tube is filled with
coherent waves moving back and forth between the two mirrors at the ends of the tube. A very intense,
monochromatic, coherent beam is set up in the tube. A small fraction of the beam exits from the tube through
the leaky mirror at one end. The reflecting mirrors not only maintain a high light intensity within the medium
but also serve as the optical resonator that tunes the laser beam to a very sharp frequency.
32
57. APPLICATIONS OF LASER

Since the development of first laser in 1960, there has been a tremendous growth in laser technology. The
applications of laser technology are ever increasing. We list below some very useful applications of laser.
(i) Laser beam in medical field. Coherence allows the laser beam to be focussed into an exceptionally
small area, providing both an extremely precise and intense beam. Thus surgeons can destroy diseased
tissues at a well-defined point without affecting the healthy tissues. The laser beam can also be used to
weld the detached retina. Fig. 36.52 shows a small detachment of the retina. The heat produced by the short
laser flash welds the retina. Lasers are very useful in eye surgery for three principal reasons. First, the weld
spots can be extremely small an important factor when the detachment occurs in the central part of the
retina that is used for seeing fine detail. Secondly, welds can be made in a fraction of a second. Thirdly, laser
weld causes no pain.
Retina
Detached
retina
Fig. 36.54
(ii) Laser in metal industry. Laser beams are very intense (never look up the beam) and they can melt or
even vapourise substances. Laser beams are used to drill holes and cut metal sheets. They can do this more
quickly and more accurately than metal drills and saws. Fig. 36.55 shows the drilling of hole with a laser beam.
(iii) Laser in communication. The phase coherence of laser light makes it exactly similar to electromagnetic
radiation except for a tremendously higher frequency. Therefore, many new channels of communication can
be utilised for voice, pictures or data transmission by modulating the electric field of a coherent laser beam.
(iv) Other applications. Other applications of laser beams are :
(a) to produce three-dimensional images of objects in a process called holography.
(b) for telephone communication along optical fibres.
(c) to perform precision surveying and length measurements.
58. LIGHT MODULATION

We can use light wave as a carrier to be modulated by an information signal in the same way as these
signals can modulate radio waves. In order to transmit information via an optical fibre communication system,
it is necessary to modulate a property of light with the information signal. This property may be intensity,
frequency, phase or polarisation (direction) with either digital or analog signals. The choices are indicated by
the characteristics of the optical fibre, the available optical sources and detectors and considerations of the
overall system.
Modulation of light can be done in two ways :
(i) Direct modulation (ii) Indirect or external modulation
(i) Direct modulation. This is the simplest form of analog modulation for optical fibre communication. In
this method, the optical output from the source is modulated by varying the current in the device around a
suitable bias or mean level in proportion to the message.
(ii) External modulation. External modulators are active devices which are primarily used to modulate the
frequency or phase of light. These are non-semiconductor devices.
33
59. OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Fig 36.56 shows the block diagram of optical fibre communication system.
Information
source
Electrical
transmit
Optical
Source
Optical
detector
Optical
fibre cable
Electrical
receive
Destinatio
Optical fibre communication system
Fig 36.56
The information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter comprising an electrical stage which
drives an optical source to give the modulation of light-wave carrier. The optical source which provides
electrical-optical conversion may be either a semiconductor laser or light emitting diode (LED). The
transmission medium consists of an optical fibre cable and the receiver consists of an optical detector which
drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier.

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PRINCIPLE OF COMMUNICATION

Cable with Optical Fibers

2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Useful signal power

For accurate transmission, S/N should be as high as possible.

3. INTRODUCTION TO RADIO COMMUNICATION

4. RADIO BROADCASTING, TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION

ec = instantaneous voltage of carrier wave

= angular velocity at carrier frequency fc

(i) amplitude modulation

Modulation factor, ma = 0/A = 0 or 0%

Amplitude change of carrier

Modulation factor, ma=

In this case, the carrier is said to be 100% modulated.

Modulation factor, ma = 0.5 A/A = 0.5 or 50 %

10. ANALYSIS OF AMPLITUDE MODULATED WAVE

11. SIDEBAND FREQUENCIES IN AM WAVE

12. TRANSISTOR AM MODULATOR

13. POWER IN AM WAVE

Total power of AM wave, PT

(iii) When ma = 1, power carried by sidebands

14. LIMITATIONS OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION

15. FREQUENCY MODULATION

fc = unmodulated carrier frequency

Maximum deviation, = fmax fc = fc fmin = kf Em fc

The instantaneous value of FM voltage wave is given by ;

Modulation index, mf = f = Modulating signal frequency

16. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FM

17. TWO IMPORTANT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FM AND AM

18. PHASE MODULATION

20. ESSENTIALS IN DEMODULATION

In order that a modulated wave is audible, it is necessary to change the

21. A.M. DIODE DETECTOR

22. A. M. RADIO RECEIVERS

23. TYPES OF A. M. RADIO RECEIVERS

24. STAGES OF SUPERHETRODYNE RADIO RECEIVER

25. ADVANTAGES OF SUPERHETRODYNE CIRCUIT

26. ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNAL

27. ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

SOUND WAVE CONVERTED INTO VOLTAGE VARIATIONS

CARRIER WAVE'S FRE

DIGITAL PULSES TRANSMITTED TO DISTANT RECEIVER

VOLTAGE CURVE GOES

28. ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

29. PULSE MODULATION

30. PULSE-CODE MODULATION (PCM)

31. DATA TRANSMISSION AND RETRIEVAL

33. FACSIMILE TELEGRAPHY (FAX)

Mask with small

34. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

35. SPACE COMMUNICATION

The upper portion of atmosphere about 50 km to

37. PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES

38. TYPES OF RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

versa. As proved in Art. 19.25, the range of TV transmission is given by :

40. THE RADIO SPECTRUM

Very low frequency (v.l.f.)

Low frequency (l.f.)

Ultra-high frequency (u.h.f.)

Super-high frequency (s.h.f.)

Extremely high frequency

41. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION