Study Guide

Chapter 15
Section 1

BONES, MUSCLES, AND SKIN

Body Organization and Homeostasis

Levels of Organization
- The levels of organization in the human body consist of
cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Cells
- The basic unit of structure and function in living thing. (e.g. Somatic
cells)
Tissue
- A group of similar cells that perform the same function. (e.g.
Nerve tissue)
Organ
- A structure that is composed of different kinds of tissue. (e.g.
Heart)
Organ System
- A group of organs that work together to perform a major
function. There are 11 organ systems in the human body:
Circulatory,
Digestive, Endocrine, Excretory, Immune, Muscular, Nervous, Reproductive,
Respiratory, Skeletal, Skin
Organism
-
An individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.

Tissues
Muscle
- The muscle tissue can contract and relax which moves the arm.
Nerve
- Nerve tissues carry out messages back and forth between the
brain and every other part of the body.
Connective
- It provides support for your body and connects all its parts.
Epithelial
- Covers the surfaces of your body, inside and out.
Homeostasis
- The process by which an organisms internal environment is kept
stable in spite of changes in the external environment.
Stress
- The reaction of your body and mind to threatening, challenging, or
disturbing events.
Physical Response to Stress
- Of your stress level gets very high in a short
amount of time, your body releases adrenaline into your bloodstream.
Fight or Flight
- Different reactions are caused by adrenaline, one is to
fight the stressor or escape from it.
Long Term Stress
- Some types of stress last for a long amount of time,
for example, moving and tests/quizzes. To get rid of that stress, find ways
to relax.
Dealing With Stress
- Be sure to notice that you have stress and quickly try
to suppress it with doing something you enjoy.

Section 2

The Skeletal System

The 5 Major Functions of the Skeleton

Provides shape and support
Enables you to move
Protects your internal organs
Produces white blood cells
Stores certain materials until your body needs them.
Marrow
- The spaces in bone contain soft connective tissue

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How Bones Form
- As an infant, most of your skeleton is cartilage then over time,
a lot of your cartilage is replaced by bone.
Joints
- A place in the body where two bones come together.
Ball and Socket
- Allows the greatest range of motion (e.g. shoulder)
Hinge
- Allows extensive forward or backward motion (e.g. knee)
Pivot
- Allows one bone to rotate around another (e.g. neck)
Gliding
- Allows one bone to slide over another (e.g. wrist)
Immovable Joints
- Joints that connect bones together in a way where the bones
have little movement or no movement at all. (e.g. Bones of the skull)
Movable Joints
- Allow the body to make a wide range of movements.
Taking Care of Your Bones
- A combination of a balanced diet and regular
exercise can start you on the way to a lifetime of healthy bones.

Section 3

The Muscular System

Muscle Action
- Any type of body movement is done by contracting and relaxing
a muscle
Involuntary
- Involuntary muscles are muscle you cannot control (e.g. your
heart)
Voluntary
- These are muscles that you
can
control (e.g. skeletal muscles)

Types of Muscles
- Your body has three types of muscle tissue -- skeletal muscle,
smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle.
Skeletal or Striated
- They are attached to the bones of your skeleton,
these muscles provide the force to move your bones.
Cardiac
- The cardiac muscle is only found in the heart; is involuntary
though the muscle is striated like the skeletal muscles, also doesnt get
tired
Smooth
- These muscles are involuntary and found in the esophagus
Muscles at Work
- Most muscle cells contract when they receive messages from
the nervous system; Because muscles cells can only contract, not extend,
skeletal muscles must work in pairs. While one muscle contracts, the other
muscle in the pair returns to its original length.

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Taking Care of Your Skeletal Muscles
- Exercise is important for muscle care
because the muscle cells individually grow which makes the muscle grow.

Section 4

The Skin

Skin
- It is the largest organ of your body and probably one of the most important.

It

prevents water loss,

protects your body from injury and infection,

regulates body temperature,

eliminates waste (oil, bacteria),

gathers
information about the environment, and it

produces vitamin D.

Dermis
- The layer underneath the epidermis. It

contains hair follicles, is a

home for sweat and oil glands,

holds blood vessels and nerve cells.

Epidermis
- The layer above the epidermis. It is

mostly made out of dead skin

cells, it is

always replacing itself with more epidermal cells, and it

holds
pores for sweat and hair.

4 Simple Healthy Skin Habits

Eating properly
Drink enough water
Limit your exposure to the sun
Keep your skin dry and clean
Melanin
- A pigment in your body that gives your skin color and gives some
protection from the sun.
Acne
- It is a bacterial infection where the oil glands get clogged. Acne is hard to
control.

Chapter 16
Section 1

FOOD AND DIGESTION

Food and Energy

The Necessity of Food

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Nutrients
- They are the substances in food that provide the raw materials and
energy the body needs to carry out all the essential processes.
The 6 Nutrients
Carbohydrates
- Are composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and are
a major source of energy.
Simple
- AKA sugars; Found naturally in fruits, milk, and some
vegetables.
Complex
- AKA starch or fiber; Found in some plant foods a better
source of energy because it lasts much longer.
Fats
- High-energy nutrients that are composed of carbon, oxygen, and
hydrogen. Even more energy than carbs, also does more than provide
energy.
Proteins
- Nutrients that contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
They are important for tissue growth and repair.
Amino Acids
- Proteins are made up of amino acids; there only 20
types of amino acids and thousands of proteins are made by them
Complete Proteins
- Complete proteins are found in animal sources
and contain all the essential amino acids.
Incomplete Proteins
- Incomplete proteins come from plant
sources and because they are missing one or more essential amino
acids
Vitamins
- They act as helper molecules in different kinds of ways. They
can help in many things from connective tissue formation (C) to blood
clotting aid (K).
Minerals
- They are nutrients that only found in soil, they cannot be made
living things. To get these vitamins, you need to eat plant foods or animals
that eat plants (though animals give you less minerals). The plants you eat
have absorbed minerals from the soil.
Osteoporosis
- A condition in which the bodys bones become weak
and break easily (Mineral loss)

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Water
- If any living thing goes without water for a long time, it will most
definitely die. Water makes up most of the bodys fluids, including blood.
You when you need to sweat, a form of water is released to cool down.
The watery part of blood carries most of the bodys nutrients.

Section 2

The Digestive Process Begins

Functions of the Digestive System

- It has three main jobs
Breaks down food into molecules
Absorb the molecules into the blood and carry throughout the body
And to eliminate unneeded waste from the body.
Digestion
- The process by which your body breaks down food into small nutrient
molecules
Mechanical Digestion
- When you take your first bite and chew the food
into a bolus; when your stomach contracts and relaxes to mix the food
around
Chemical Digestion
- Saliva starts the chemical digestion then it goes into
your stomach where the food really gets mixed together and broken down
by strong acids.
The Mouth
- The mouth releases saliva to prepare for an upcoming meal.
The Esophagus
- The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the mouth to
the stomach.
Epiglottis
- A flap of tissue preventing food from entering your windpipe.
Peristalsis
- Involuntary waves of muscle contractions down the
esophagus.
The Stomach
- It is a J-shaped muscular pouch located in the abdomen. It
contracts and relaxes to move the food around.
Mucus
- A thick, slippery substance produced by the body and lines the
inside of your stomach to protect the tissue from being damaged by acid.

Section 3

Final Digestion and Absorption

The Small Intestine

- It is the part of the digestive system where most of the
nutrients are taken in and where most of the chemical digestion too takes place.
The Villi
-
They are specialised for absorption in the small intestine as they
have a thin wall, about one cell thick, which enables a shorter diffusion
path.
The Role of the Liver
- The liver is located in the upper portion of th
abdomen. It makes the bodys bile.
Bile
- A substance that breaks down fats
Gallbladder
- An organ that stores bile
Help from the Pancreas
- The pancreas makes enzymes then flows them
into the small intestine
Absorption in the Small Intestine
- In the small intestine, billions of villi are
in the small intestine to help absorb the nutrients.
The Large Intestine
- Absorbs the water left behind and ends in the rectum.
Rectum
- A short tube that connects to the large intestine
Anus
- A tube like organ of the body that eliminates waste

Other Words
Vertebrae
- 26 small bone that make your backbone
Cartilage
- A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone; also prevents
bones from rubbing against another
Ligaments
- The bones in movable joints are held together by strong connective
tissues
Tendon
- A strong connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone
Calorie
- The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of
water by one Celsius degree
Unsaturated Fats
- Usually liquid at room temperature; olive oil, canola oil, and
salmon

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Saturated Fats
- Usually solid at room temperature; meat, egg yolk, dairy
products, palm oil, and coconut oil
The Food Guide Pyramid
- It classifies foods into six groups and indicates how
many servings from each group should be eaten everyday to maintain a healthy
diet.
Food Labels
- They allows you to evaluate a single food as well as to compare
the nutritional values of two foods.
Percent Daily Value
- It indicates how the nutritional content of one serving fits
into the diet of a person who consumes a total of 2,000 Calories in a given day.
Bolus
- A ball like thing that has been chewed up
Enzyme
- It is a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body.
Maltase
- Breaks down barley
Lactase
- Breaks down dairy products
Lipase
- Helps absorb fat
Pepsin
- Breaks down protein
Bile/Emulsifier
- Breaks down fat in the small intestine

Textbook Pages:
Body Organization and Homeostasis
The Skeletal System

Pages 462 - 479

Pages 480 - 487

The Muscular System

Pages 488 - 492

Food and Energy

Pages 506 - 513

The Digestive Process Begins

Pages 518 - 523

Final Digestion and Absorption

Pages 526 - 529

Ahri Choe; May 25; Science Study Guide Chapters 15 & 16