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Unit I
Communication:
Communication (from Latin commnicre, meaning "to share"[1]) is the act of conveying intended meaning to another entity through the use of mutually
understoodsigns and semiotic rules. The basic steps of communication are the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding,
transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally interpretation of the message by the recipient.
The study of communication can be divided into communication studies, which concerns only human communication, and biosemiotics, which examines the
communication of organisms in general. Communication is usually visual, auditory, or biochemical, while human communication is unique for its extensive use
oflanguage.
Communication process
Communication is a process, and if the process breaks down, communication will fail. In this
lesson, you'll learn about the communication process. We'll also discuss how the concept of noise
can disrupt this process.
Communication Defined
Lindsey is the supervisor of a team of employees in a research and development department for a small tech company that focuses its research on new
apps. Her boss wants Lindsey to work on a new project. But Lindsey can't successfully manage her team in order to complete the project unless she is able
to effectively communicate with them. Communication is the process of conveying information between two or more people. The communication
process is the steps we take in order to achieve a successful communication.
Communication
The communication process consists of several components. Let's take a look.
A sender is the party that sends a message. Lindsey, of course, will be the sender. She'll also need themessage, which is the information to be conveyed.
Lindsey will also need to encode her message, which is transforming her thoughts of the information to be conveyed into a form that can be sent, such as
words.
A channel of communication must also be selected, which is the manner in which the message is sent. Channels of communication include speaking,
writing, video transmission, audio transmission, electronic transmission through emails, text messages and faxes and even nonverbal communication,
such as body language. Lindsey also needs to know the target of her communication. This party is called the receiver.
The receiver must be able to decode the message, which means mentally processing the message into understanding. If you can't decode, the message
fails. For example, sending a message in a foreign language that is not understood by the receiver probably will result in decoding failure.
Sometimes, a receiver will give the sender feedback, which is a message sent by the receiver back to the sender. For example, a member of Lindsey's
team may provide feedback in the form a question to clarify some information received in Lindsey's message.
Verbal communication
Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as nonverbal communication, listening skills and clarification. Human language can be defined as a system of symbols (sometimes known as lexemes) and
the grammars(rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally
occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable
communication with others around them. Languages tend to share certain properties, although there are exceptions. There is no defined line between a language
and a dialect.Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages, and various mathematical formalism is not necessarily restricted to the
properties shared by human languages. Communication is two-way process not merely one-way.
Use standard terminology when communicating information. Request and provide clarification when needed. Ensure statements are direct and unambiguous.
Inform the appropriate individuals when the mission or plans change. Communicate all information needed by those individuals or teams external to the team.
Use nonverbal communication appropriately. Use proper order when communicating information. * for formal English-speaking groups
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages. Examples of nonverbal communication include haptic
communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expression, eye contact, and how one dresses. Nonverbal communication also relates
to intent of a message. Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating. [2] Speech
also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm, intonation, tempo, and stress. There may even be a pheromone component. Research
has shown that up to 55% of human communication may occur through non-verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through para-language. [3] It affects
communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial
arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.
Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Wazlawick's laws: you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin
interpreting any signals received.[4] Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to
replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.
Pros & Cons of communication:
Have you ever noticed how certain employees or teams within the workplace seem to isolate themselves from everyone else? There
is always that one person or group that no one seems to know very well. This makes it difficult to know where their production
levels happen to be, what the quality of their work is, or to determine if their actions are beneficial to the overall company mission.
A transparent system of communication can help to solve these problems
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If one wants to come up in his carrier, _________ intelligence alone is not enough but ________ luck also should favour him. (a, a)
______ honorary secretary is one who is not paid for her services. (an)
The question of how old _______ earth is remained un
Answered for many hundreds of years. (the)
There are many kinds of theories handed down since ancient times. __________ (the) sky is __________ (the) limit for such theories.
About 400 years ago it was proved that _________ (the) Earth was part of _______ (the) solar system.
It served as ________ (a) clue to know _______ age of _______ earth. (the2, the3)
Much later _______ scientists started ________ studying about _______ moon. (the, the, the)
What _______ beautiful shirt! is it made of ___________ silk? or _______ terry - cotton? (a, a, a)
No it is not made of ________ cotton. (a)
I got it stitched near ________ Gandhi Road (the)
Very nice. I'm going to ________ hospital to visit my cousin, who is injured in _______ accident. (the, an)
Meena is _______ spirited nine years old girl who has stolen the hearts of ________ Bangladesh is through her dance recitals. (a, the)
She is travelling through ______India ________ Pakistan and ________ Nepal (the, the, the)
Next year she pl
Ans to visit __________ USA and _______ UK to give dance recitals. (the, the)
____________ feather in one's cap (a)
Birds of __________ feather flock together (a)
__________ pill to swallow. (a)
What ________ fun we have today. (a)
There is _______ little powder left in the tin. (a)
_______ Penthouse is ______ kind of house built on __________ roof. (a, a, a)
I never experienced such ________ summer. (a)
___________ Queen Mary. (The)
___________ Indian ocean. (The)
I met___________ old woman at Alankar theatre (an)
The old woman had ___________ dog. (a)
___________Unilateral decision. (a)
She is ________ nice girl. (a)
He is _________ Indian. (an)
Put ______ sugar. (some)
Put ________ hand full of salt. (a)
__________ you think English is easy
Ans: Do
77. __________ you taken any tablets for it
Ans: Have
78. It is right to say _________ you please help me.
Ans: could
79. The roof of the mouth is called__________
Ans: Plate
80. The study of sound is called __________
Ans: Phonetics
81. Vowels are __________ in number
Ans: 12
82. Consonants are __________ in number
Ans: 24
83. Noun is a __________
Ans: Naming Word
84. Pronouns are used instead of __________
Ans: nouns
85. I __________ done my work
Ans: Had
86. Verb is an __________
Ans: action word
87. I saw a beggar near __________ bus stop.
Ans: the
88. __________ lotus is lovely flowers.
Ans: The
89. Iron & Steel __________ controlled commodities.
Ans: are
90. By next july we __________ living here for four years.
Ans: shall have been
91. The Chinese __________ attacked the Russi
Ans.
Ans: Have
92. I __________ not found such enquires useful.
Ans: Have
93. The patient __________ slept.
Ans: Has
94. The case __________ the lawyer famous.
Ans: made
95. The aeroplane took __________ at six o clock
Ans: off
96. Let the door __________ opened.
Ans: be
97. You __________ loved me.
Ans: Had
98. Anil __________ not complete the work this year
Ans: will
99. Wilson __________ the tallest in our class.
Ans: is
100. _________ then trained to break the lock.
Ans: found
Unit II
Phonetics
Phonetics (pronounced /fntks/, from the Greek: , phn, 'sound, voice') is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of
human speech, orin the case of sign languagesthe equivalent aspects of sign.[1] It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs
(phones): their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with
the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs.
The field of phonetics is a multilayered subject of linguistics that focuses on speech. In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:
Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker.
Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener.
Auditory phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener.
These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude, and harmonics.
Organs of speech:
Speech organs produce the sounds of language. Organs used include the lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, hard palate, velum (soft palate), uvula and glottis.
Speech organsor articulatorsare of two types: passive articulators and active articulators. Passive articulators remain static during the articulation of sound.
[1]
Upper lips, teeth, alveolar ridge, hard palate, soft palate, uvula, and pharynx wall are passive articulators. Active articulators move relative to these passive
articulators to produce various speech sounds, in different manners. The most important active articulator is the tongue as it is involved in the production of the
majority of sounds. The lower lip is other active articulator. But glottis is not active articulator because it is only a space between vocal folds.
Vowels:
In phonetics, a vowel is a sound in spoken language, with two competing definitions. In the more common phonetic definition, a vowel is a sound pronounced with
an open vocal tract, so that the tongue does not touch the lips, teeth, or roof of the mouth, such as the English "ah" // or "oh" /o/. There is no build-up of air
pressure at any point above the glottis. This contrasts with consonants, such as the English "sh" [], which have a constriction or closure at some point along the
vocal tract. In the other, phonological definition, a vowel is defined as syllabic, the sound that forms the peak of a syllable. A phonetically equivalent but nonsyllabic sound is a semivowel.
In oral languages, phonetic vowels normally form the peak (nucleus) of many to all syllables, whereasconsonants form the onset and (in languages that have
them) coda. Some languages allow other sounds to form the nucleus of a syllable, such as the syllabic l in the English word table [teb.l] (when not considered to
have a weak vowel sound: [teb.l]) or the syllabic r in Serbo-Croatian word vrt [vrt]"garden".
The word vowel comes from the Latin word vocalis, meaning "vocal" ("relating to voice").[1] In English, the word vowel is commonly used to mean both vowel
sounds and the written symbols that represent them.
Definition of "vowel"
The phonetic definition of "vowel" (a sound produced with no constriction in the vocal tract) does not always match the phonological definition (a sound that forms
the peak of a syllable).[2] The approximants [j] and [w] illustrate this: both are produced without much of a constriction in the vocal tract (so phonetically they seem
to be vowel-like), but they occur at the onset of syllables (e.g. in "yet" and "wet") (which suggests that phonologically they are consonants). A similar debate arises
over whether a word like bird in a rhotic dialect has an r-colored vowel // or a syllabic consonant //. The American linguist Kenneth Pike (1943) suggested the
terms "vocoid" for a phonetic vowel and "vowel" for a phonological vowel,[3] so using this terminology, [j] and [w] are classified as vocoids but not vowels. However,
Maddieson and Emmory (1985) demonstrated from a range of languages that semivowels are produced with a narrower constriction of the vocal tract than vowels,
and so may be considered consonants on that basis.[4] Nonetheless, the phonetic and phonemic definitions would still conflict for the syllabic el in table, or the
syllabic nasals in button and rhythm.
Spelling Areas:
Spelling is the writing of a word or words with the necessary letters and diacritics present in an accepted standard order, "the conventions which determine how
the graphemes of a writing system are used to write a language".[1] It is one of the elements of orthography and a prescriptive element of language.
Spellings attempt to transcribe the sounds of the language according to the alphabetic principle, but fully phoneticspellings are exceptions in many languages for
various reasons. Pronunciation changes over time in all languages, yet spelling is irregular in most languages and rare in some. In addition, words from other
languages may be adopted without being adapted to the spelling system, non-standard spellings are often adopted after extensive common usage, and different
meanings of a word or homophones may be deliberately spelled in different ways to differentiate them visually.
Dipthongs:
dipthong (/df/ DIF-thong or /dp/ DIP-thong;[1] from Greek: , diphthongos, literally "two sounds" or "two tones"), also known as a gliding vowel,
is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or
other parts of the speech apparatus) moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. In most dialects of English, the phrase no highway cowboys/
no hawe kabz/ has five distinct diphthongs, one in every syllable.
Diphthongs contrast with monophthongs, where the tongue or other speech organs do not move and the syllable contains only a single vowel sound. For instance,
in English, the word ah is spoken as a monophthong //, while the word ow is spoken as a diphthong /a/. Where two adjacent vowel sounds occur in different
syllablesfor example, in the English wordre-electthe result is described as hiatus, not as a diphthong.
Diphthongs often form when separate vowels are run together in rapid speech during a conversation. However, there are also unitary diphthongs, as in the English
examples above, which are heard by listeners as single-vowel sounds (phonemes).
Consonants:
In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are [p], pronounced with
the lips; [t], pronounced with the front of the tongue; [k], pronounced with the back of the tongue; [h], pronounced in the throat; [f] and [s], pronounced by forcing air
through a narrow channel (fricatives); and [m] and [n], which have air flowing through the nose (nasals). Contrasting with consonants are vowels.
Since the number of possible sounds in all of the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet,linguists have devised systems
such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant. In fact, the English alphabet has fewer
consonant letters than English has consonant sounds, so digraphs like "ch", "sh", "th", and "zh" are used to extend the alphabet, and some letters and digraphs
represent more than one consonant. For example, the sound spelled "th" in "this" is a different consonant than the "th" sound in "thin". (In the IPA they are
transcribed [] and [], respectively.)
The word consonant is also used to refer to a letter of an alphabet that denotes a consonant sound. The 21 consonant letters in the English alphabet
are B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, X, Z, and usually W and Y. The letter Y stands for the consonant /j/ inyoke, the vowel // in myth, the
vowel /i/ in funny, and the diphthong /a/ in my. W always represents a consonant except in combination with a vowel letter, as in growth, raw, and how, and in a
few loanwords from Welsh, like crwth or cwm.
Stress:
In linguistics, stress is the relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or sentence. Stress is typically
signaled by such properties as increased loudness and vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and changes in pitch. The terms stress and accent are often
used synonymously, but they are sometimes distinguished, with certain specific kinds of prominence (such as pitch accent, variously defined) being considered to
fall under accent but not under stress. In this case, stress specifically may be called stress accent or dynamic accent.
The stress placed on syllables within words is called word stress or lexical stress. Some languages have fixed stress, meaning that the stress on virtually any
multisyllable word falls on a particular syllable, such as the first or the penultimate. Other languages, like English, have variable stress, where the position of stress
in a word is not predictable in that way. Sometimes more than one level of stress, such as primary stress and secondary stress, may be identified. However, some
languages are considered to lack lexical stress entirely.
The stress placed on words within sentences is called sentence stress or prosodic stress. This is one of the three components of prosody, along
with rhythm and intonation. It includes phrasal stress (the default emphasis of certain words within phrases or clauses), and contrastive stress (used to highlight
an item a word, or occasionally just part of a word that is given particular focus).
Word Accent:
Accent (/k.snt, k.snt/) is the phonetic prominence given to a particular syllable in a word, or to a particular word within a phrase. When this prominence is
produced through greater dynamic force, typically signaled by a combination of amplitude (volume), syllable or vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and a
non-distinctive change in pitch, the result is called stress accent, dynamic accent, or simply stress. When it is produced through pitch alone, it is called pitch
accent(although this term is often used with a somewhat different meaning; see below). When it is produced through length alone, it is called quantitative accent.
[1]
A prominent syllable or word is said to be accented or tonic; the latter term does not imply that it carries phonemic tone. Other syllables or words are said to
beunaccented or atonic. Syllables are frequently said to be in pretonic or post-tonic position; certain phonological rules apply specifically to such positions. For
instance, in American English, /t/ and /d/ are flapped in post-tonic position.
In some languages, accented syllables have the typical features of stress accent as listed above, except that the change in pitch on such syllables may be
distinctive; that is, an accented syllable may carry more than one possible tone (and differences in tone sometimes distinguish words), whereas unaccented
syllables do not carry tone. An example of this is Serbo-Croatian accent. The term pitch accent is frequently used to denote accent systems of this type (in spite of
inconsistency with the definition of this term given above)
Example sentences: I was hot and exhausted but I still finished the marathon.
UNIT III
Communicative grammer
Types of Nouns
There are several different types of nouns used to name people, animals, places, things, and ideas. Here, well take a quick look at various types of nouns so you
can recognize them when you see them and use them appropriately in sentences.
Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are those referring to ideas, concepts, emotions, and other things you cant physically interact with. You cant see, taste, touch, smell, or hear
something named with an abstract noun. Some abstract noun examples are included in the following sentences.
Collective Nouns
When talking about types of noun, its important to remember collective nouns. A collective noun is a word that refers to a group. It can be either singular or plural,
but is usually used in the singular. Some collective noun examples are included in the following sentences.
Common Nouns
Common nouns are used to refer to general things rather than specific examples. Common nouns are not normally capitalized unless they are used as part of a
proper name or are placed at the beginning of a sentence. Some common noun examples are included in the following sentences.
Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are words used for actual things you can touch, see, taste, feel, and hear things you interact with every day. Notice that concrete nouns can also
be countable, uncountable, common, proper, and collective nouns. Some concrete noun examples are included in the following sentences.
Verbs
Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about the action or the state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the subject is doing or what is the
state or situation of the subject.
For example:
- He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject he
- She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the auxiliary verb is shows the state of the subject she as being creative.
There are different types and classifications of Verbs; some of the most important ones are listed below:
Action Verbs
These verbs talk about what the subject is doing in the sentence. Action Verbs are one of the most easily identifiable types of verbs. To recognize them, you simply have to look for the word in
the sentence that answers the question What is the subject doing? e.g. -
The subject here is Rose, and what is Rose doing? Rose is painting. Hence painting is our action verb.
The subject here is dog, and what is the dog doing? The dog is sleeping. So sleepingis our action verb.
There are two types of Action Verbs which describe the Verb and the Subject doing the action and the Object on which the action is done, they are -
Transitive Verbs -
These Action Verbs have a definite object on which, or for which the action is being performed. That means that the action has a definite recipient or object. To identify them you can ask the
question what is the/did the subject -verb-?
Thus, we see that there was a specific object on which the action of painting was being done.
Here we see that the action gave is being performed by the subject Hannah. So the question is what did Hannah give? And the answer is - A big hug.
Here, we also have a indirect object as him. This indirect object would be the answer to the question-
Who did the subject (Hannah) - verb - (give) the object (hug) to?
Intransitive Verbs -
These verbs also show an action but here there is no specific object on which the action is being done. To recognize these verbs, we ask the question what is the/did the subject -verb- ? If there
is no answer present, then the verb in the sentence is an Intransitive Verb.
Here, if we ask the question what is Rose painting? There is no answer which means that in this sentence painting is an Intransitive Verb.
It is telling us about the action of the subject but there is no specific object for the action.
Here, the verb is sneezed. If we ask the question what did Hannah sneeze? There is no answer present for it making sneezed a intransitive verb.
This category of verbs deals with the verb words themselves; and whether they indicate an action or a state of the subject. This category is not concerned with the object in particular.
Dynamic Verbs
These verbs denote an actual action or expression or process done by the subject. They mean an action which can be seen or physically felt or the result of which is seen or physically felt by the
object or an indirect object.
Here the verb is buys which is an action done by the subject she, hence it is a dynamic verb.
Here again we have the definite action swimming done by the subject he, makingswimming a dynamic verb in this sentence.
Stative Verbs
These verbs refer to the state of the subject or the situation of the subject. Stative Verbs tell us about the state of mind of the subject, or the relation between the subject and the object.
Here the Stative Verb is prefers which shows the thinking of the subject She towards the object, which is jam.
Here the subject is cupboard and the stative verb is requires which is telling about the relation between the subject cupboard and the object paint.
Linking Verbs
These verbs are unlike other verbs as they do not tell anything about a subject themselves, instead Linking Verbs connect the subject to a noun or adjective that helps in describing or providing
additional information about the subject. Those nouns or adjectives are called the subject complements.
Here we see the subject is Lisa and the linking verb is is which is connecting Lisa to the subject complement fussy about food which is giving additional information about Lisas preferences.
Here the linking verb is are which is combining the subject They to the subject complement of stubborn which is an adjective.
The best to recognize linking words in a sentence is to see whether the verb can be replaced by is, am or are. If the sentence still sounds logical you know you have a linking verb.
Hence felt was a linking verb and not an action verb. As felt here is simply connecting the subject to the adjective.
Every student felt the relief. - Every student is/am/are the relief.
Hence in this sentence felt is action verb as it is the action of feeling an emotion.
To use verbs correctly in sentences you need to learn more about the construction and use of the various verbs. And how they change form according to tenses and use in a sentence. For correct
application verbs in written text you will need to know about -
Regular and Irregular Verbs - These are the two different ways in which verbs change to form different tenses. Whether to simply add -ed at the end of a verb or does it take a different form
altogether.
Finite and Non-Finite Verbs - These are verbs which can be either the main verb of a sentence or just one that is used as an adjective or noun as well.
Modal Verbs - These verbs tell us whether something is probable or about the skills of a noun etc. There are 10 modal verbs in total and each have an important part in sentence formation.
Catch
Expand Lie
Select
Achieve
Challen
Explain Like
ge
Sell
Add
Change Fear
Listen
Send
Admire
Cheat
Feel
Lose
Sing
Admit
Chew
Fight
Love
Snore
Adopt
Choose Find
Make
Stand
Advise
Clap
Fly
Marry
Stare
Agree
Clean
Forget
Measure Start
Allow
Collect
Forgive Meet
Announc Compar
Fry
e
e
Move
Stink
Study
Apprecia Complai
Gather Murder
te
n
Sweep
Obey
Swim
Argue
Confuse Give
Offend
Take
Arrive
Constru
Glow
ct
Offer
Talk
Ask
Control Greet
Open
Teach
Assist
Copy
Grow
Paint
Tear
Attack
Count
Guess
Pay
Tell
Bake
Create
Harass Pick
Thank
Bathe
Cry
Hate
Play
Travel
Be
Damage Hear
Pray
Type
Beat
Dance
Understa
Help
nd
Become Deliver
Hit
Pull
Use
Beg
Destroy Hope
Punch
Visit
Behave
Disagre
Identify Punish
e
Wait
Bet
Drag
Interru Purchas
Walk
pt
e
Boast
Drive
Introdu
Push
ce
Want
Boil
Drop
Irritate Quit
Warn
Borrow
Earn
Jump
Race
Wed
Keep
Read
Weep
Wink
Breathe Eat
Bring
Employ Kick
Relax
Build
Encoura
Kiss
ge
Rememb
Worry
er
Burn
Enjoy
Laugh
Reply
Write
Bury
Establis
Learn
h
Retire
Yell
Buy
Estimat
Leave
e
Rub
Call
Exercise
Lend
See
Sentence Endings
Three of the fourteen punctuation marks are appropriate for use as sentence endings. They are the period, question mark, and
exclamation point.
The period (.) is placed at the end of declarative sentences, statements thought to be complete and after many abbreviations.
For example:
As a sentence ender: Jane and Jack went to the market .
After an abbreviation: Her Mar . birthday came and went.
Use a question mark (?) to indicate a direct question when placed at the end of a sentence. For example: When did Jane leave for
the market ?
The exclamation point/mark (!) is used when a person wants to express a sudden outcry or add emphasis.
1.
2.
The first is after a word introducing a quotation, an explanation, an example, or a series. It is also often used after the
salutation of a business letter.
The second is within time expressions. Within time, it is used to separate out the hour and minute: 12 : 15 p.m.
Use it in the following manner: We only wanted to get two birds - but the clerk talked us into four pregnant parakeets.
A hyphen (-) is the same symbol as the endash. However, it has slightly different usage rules. A hyphen is used between the parts of
a compound word or name or between the syllables of a word, especially when divided at the end of a line of text.
Examples of this in use include:
Between a compound name: Mrs. Smith - Reynolds
Within a compound word: back - to - back
Pronouns
Definition
A pronoun (I, me, he, she, herself, you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone, everybody, etc.) is a word that takes the place of a noun. In the
sentenceJoe saw Jill, and he waved at her, the pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Jill, respectively. There are three types of pronouns: subject (for example, he); object (him);
orpossessive (his).
Rule 1. Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.
Rule 2. Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They will follow to beverbs, such as is, are, was, were, am, will be, had been, etc.
Examples:
It is he.
This is she speaking.
It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.
NOTE
In informal English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns like me, her, them. Many English scholars tolerate this distinction between formal and casual English.
Rule 3. This rule surprises even language watchers: when who refers to a personal pronoun (I, you, he, she, we, they), it takes the verb that agrees with that pronoun.
Rule 4. In addition to subject pronouns, there are also object pronouns, known more specifically as direct object, indirect object, and object of a preposition (for more detail, see the
definition of a verb in the Finding Nouns, Verbs, and Subjects section). Object pronouns include me, him, herself, us, them, themselves.
Examples:
Jean saw him.
Him is the direct object of the verb saw.
Give her the book.
The direct object of give is book, and her is the indirect object. Indirect objects always have an implied to or for in front of them: Give [to] her the book. Do [for] me a favor.
Are you talking to me?
Me is the object of the preposition to.
Rule 5. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or plural depending on the subject. If the subject is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
In sentences like this last example, many would mistakenly insist that one is the subject, requiring is always on time. But look at it this way: Of those men who are always on time, he is one.
Rule 6. Pronouns that are singular (I, he, she, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, each, either, neither, etc.) require singular verbs. This rule is
frequently overlooked when using the pronouns each, either, and neither, followed by of. Those three pronouns always take singular verbs. Do not be misled by what follows of.
Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Exception: When each follows a noun or pronoun in certain sentences, even experienced writers sometimes get tripped up:
These examples do not contradict Rule 6, because each is not the subject, but rather anadjunct describing the true subject.
Rule 7. To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.
Examples:
Tranh is as smart as she/her.
If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say Tranh is as smart as she is. Therefore, she is the correct answer.
Zoe is taller than I/me.
Mentally completing the sentence, we have Zoe is taller than I am.
Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.
We can interpret this sentence in two ways: Daniel would rather talk to her than to me.OR Daniel would rather talk to her than I would. A sentence's meaning can change considerably,
depending on the pronoun you choose.
Rule 8. The possessive pronouns yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, and whose never need apostrophes. Avoid mistakes like her's and your's.
Rule 9. The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has. The only time who's has an apostrophe is when it means who is or who has. There is no apostrophe
in oneself. Avoid "one's self," a common error.
Examples:
It's been a cold morning.
The thermometer reached its highest reading.
He's the one who's always on time.
He's the one whose wife is always on time.
Keeping oneself ready is important.
Rule 10. Pronouns that end in -self or -selves are called reflexive pronouns. There are nine reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves,
yourselves, andthemselves.
Reflexive pronouns are used when both the subject and the object of a verb are the same person or thing.
If the object of a preposition refers to a previous noun or pronoun, use a reflexive pronoun:
Reflexive pronouns help avoid confusion and nonsense. Without them, we might be stuck with sentences like Joe helped Joe.
The object myself is the same person as the subject I, performing the act of working.
A sentence like Help yourself looks like an exception to the rule until we realize it's shorthand for You may help yourself.
Rule 11. The use of they and their with singular pronouns is frowned upon by many traditionalists. To be consistent, it is a good practice to try to avoid they and its variants
(e.g.,them, their, themselves) with previously singular nouns or pronouns.
The problem is that someone is singular, but they is plural. If we change they to he or she, we get a rather clumsy sentence, even if it is technically correct.
Replacing an inconsistent sentence with a poorly written one is a bad bargain. The better option is to rewrite.
Many writers abhor the he or she solution. Following are more examples of why rewriting is a better idea than using he or she or him or her to keep sentences consistent.
NOTE
Please see our note regarding the word none under Rule 6 of Subject-Verb Agreement.
Rule 12. When a pronoun is linked with a noun by and, mentally remove the and + noun phrase to avoid trouble.
If we remove and her friend, we're left with the ungrammatical Her came over.
If we remove and his wife, we're left with the ungrammatical I invited he.
If we remove my sister and, we're left with the ungrammatical Bill asked I.
Rule 13. If two people possess the same item, and one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both.
Note: As the above examples demonstrate, when one of the co-owners is written as a pronoun, use possessive adjectives (my, your, her, our, their). Avoid possessive
pronouns(mine, yours, hers, ours, theirs) in such constructions.
Auxiliary verb
An auxiliary verb (abbreviated AUX) is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning to the clause in which it appearsfor example, to
express tense, aspect, modality,voice, emphasis, etc. Auxiliary verbs usually accompany a main verb. The main verb provides the main semantic content of the
clause.[1] An example is the verb have in the sentence I have finished my dinner. Here, the main verb is finish, and the auxiliary have helps to express the perfect
aspect. Some sentences contain a chain of two or more auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs, helper verbs, or (verbal) auxiliaries.
Basic examples[edit]
Below are some sentences that contain representative auxiliary verbs from English, German, and French, with the auxiliary verb marked in bold:
a. Do you want tea? do is an auxiliary accompanying the main verb want, used here to form a question see do-support.
b. He has given his all. has is an auxiliary used in expressing the perfect aspect of give.
c. Das wurde mehrmals gesagt. wurde 'became' is an auxiliary used to build the passive voice in German.[2]
That became many times said = 'That was said many times.'
d. Sie ist nach Hause gegangen. ist 'is' is an auxiliary used with movement verbs to build the perfect tense/aspect in German. [3]
She is to home gone = 'She went home/She has gone home.'
e. J'ai vu le soleil. ai 'have' is an auxiliary used to build the perfect tense/aspect in French. [4]
I have seen the sun = 'I have seen the sun/I saw the sun.'
f. Nous sommes hbergs par un ami. sommes 'are' is an auxiliary used to build the passive voice in French. [5]
We are hosted by a friend.
These auxiliaries help express a question, show tense/aspect, or form passive voice. Auxiliaries like these typically appear
with a full verb that carries the main semantic content of the clause.
Article
An article (abbreviated ART) is a word (or prefix or suffix) that is used with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. Articles specify
grammaticaldefiniteness of the noun, in some languages extending to volume or numerical scope. The articles in the English language are the and a/an, and (in
certain contexts) some. 'An' and 'a' are modern forms of the Old English 'an', which in Ganglia dialects was the number 'one' (compare 'on', in Saxon dialects) and
survived into Modern Scots as the number 'wan'. Both 'on' (respelled 'one' by the Normans) and 'an' survived into Modern English, with 'one' used as the number
and 'an' ('a', before nouns that begin with a consonant sound) as an indefinite article.
In many languages, articles are a special part of speech, which cannot easily be combined with other parts of speech. In English, articles are frequently considered
a part of a broader speech category called determiners, which combines articles and demonstratives (such as 'this' and 'that').
In languages that employ articles, every common noun, with some exceptions, is expressed with a certain definiteness (e.g., definite or indefinite), just as many
languages express every noun with a certain grammatical number (e.g., singular or plural). Every noun must be accompanied by the article, if any, corresponding
to its definiteness, and the lack of an article (considered a zero article) itself specifies a certain definiteness. This is in contrast to other adjectives and determiners,
which are typically optional. This obligatory nature of articles makes them among the most common words in many languagesin English, for example, the most
frequent word is the.[1]
Articles are usually characterized as either definite or indefinite.[2] A few languages with well-developed systems of articles may distinguish additional subtypes.
Within each type, languages may have various forms of each article, according to grammatical attributes such as gender, number, or case, or according to
adjacent sounds.
Definite article[edit]
A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one which is identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the speaker has already mentioned, or it
may be something uniquely specified. The definite article in English, for both singular and plural nouns, is the.
The sentence above refers to specific children and a specific way home; it contrasts with the much more general observation that:
The latter sentence refers to children in general and their specific ways home. Likewise,
refers to a specific book whose identity is known or obvious to the listener; as such it has a markedly different meaning from
Give me a book.
which uses an indefinite article, which does not specify what book is to be given.
The definite article can also be used in English to indicate a specific class among other classes:
The cabbage white butterfly lays its eggs on members of the Brassica genus.
However, recent developments show that definite articles are morphological elements linked to certain noun types due
to lexicalization. Under this point of view, definiteness does not play a role in the selection of a definite article more than the
lexical entry attached to the article.[3][4]
The definite article is sometimes also used with proper names, which are already specified by definition (there is just one of
them). For example: the Amazon, the Hebrides. In these cases, the definite article may be considered superfluous. Its presence
can be accounted for by the assumption that they are shorthand for a longer phrase in which the name is a specifier, i.e. the
Amazon River, the Hebridean Islands. Where the nouns in such longer phrases cannot be omitted, the definite article is
universally kept: the United States, the People's Republic of China. This distinction can sometimes become a political matter: the
former usage the Ukraine stressed the word's Russian meaning of "borderlands"; as Ukraine became a fully independent state
following the collapse of the Soviet Union, it requested formal mentions of its name omit the article. Similar shifts in usage have
occurred in the names of Sudan and both Congo (Brazzaville) and (Kinshasa); a move in the other direction occurred with The
Gambia.
Some languages also use definite articles with personal names. For example, such use is standard in Portuguese (a Maria,
literally: "the Maria") and in Greek ( , , , ). It also occurs colloquially
in Spanish, German, Italian and other languages. In Hungary it is considered to be a Germanism.
Rarely, this usage can appear in English. A prominent example is how U.S. businessperson Donald J. Trump is known as "The
Donald", this wording being used by many publications such as Newsweek and New York Post. Another is U.S. President Ronald
W. Reagan's nickname as "The Gipper";[5] publisher Townhall.com issued an article after Reagan's death titled simply "Goodbye
to 'the Gipper'".[6]
Indefinite article[edit]
An indefinite article indicates that its noun is not a particular one (or ones) identifiable to the listener. It may be something that the
speaker is mentioning for the first time, or its precise identity may be irrelevant or hypothetical, or the speaker may be making a
general statement about any such thing. English uses a/an, from the Old English forms of the number 'one', as its primary
indefinite article. The form an is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (even if spelled with an initial consonant, as
in an hour), and abefore words that begin with a consonant sound (even if spelled with a vowel, as in a European).
She had a house so large that an elephant would get lost without a map.
Before some words beginning with a pronounced (not silent) h in an unstressed first syllable, such
as hallucination, hilarious, historic(al), horrendous, and horrific, some (especially older) British writers prefer to
use an over a (an historical event, etc.).[7] An is also preferred before hotel by some writers of British English (probably
reflecting the relatively recent adoption of the word from French, where the h is not pronounced).[8] The use of "an" before
words beginning with an unstressed "h" is more common generally in British English than American. [8] American writers
normally use a in all these cases, although there are occasional uses of an historic(al) in American English.[9] According to
the New Oxford Dictionary of English, such use is increasingly rare in British English too.[7] Unlike British English, American
English typically uses an before herb, since the h in this word is silent for most Americans. The correct usage in respect of
the term "hereditary peer" was the subject of an amendment debated in the UK Parliament. [10]
Using a before a word beginning with a vowel sound in unstressed syllables - such as I left a orange on the working
surface - is not uncommon, but is universally considered non-standard.
The word some is used as a functional plural of a/an.[citation needed] "An apple" never means more than one apple. "Give
me some apples" indicates more than one is desired but without specifying a quantity. This finds comparison in Spanish,
where the singular indefinite article 'un/una' ("one") is completely indistinguishable from the unit number, except where it
has a plural form ('unos/unas'): Dame una manzana" ("Give me an apple") > "Dame unas manzanas" ("Give me some
apples"). However, some also serves as a quantifier rather than as a plural article, as in "There are some apples there, but
not many."
Some also serves as a singular indefinite article, as in "There is some person on the porch". This usage differs from the
usage of a(n) in that some indicates that the identity of the noun is unknown to both the listener and the speaker,
while a(n) indicates that the identity is unknown to the listener without specifying whether or not it is known to the speaker.
[citation needed]
Thus There is some person on the porch indicates indefiniteness to both the listener and the speaker, while There
is a person on the porch indicates indefiniteness to the listener but gives no information as to whether the speaker knows
the person's identity.
Tenses
The concept of time can be split into:
1.
There are four types of tenses. Simple, Perfect, Continuous and Present Perfect Continuous and each of these has a present, past and future form.
PRESENT TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
In Simple Present, the action is simply mentioned and there is nothing being said about its completeness.
I eat.
I sleep.
I play.
In Present Continuous, the action is on-going/ still going on and hence continuous.
I am eating.
I am sleeping.
I am playing.
In Present Perfect, the action is complete or has ended and hence termed Perfect.
I have eaten.
I have slept.
I have played.
In Present Perfect Continuous, the action has been taking place for some time and is still ongoing.
PAST TENSES
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
In Simple Past, the action is simply mentioned and understood to have taken place in the past.
I ate.
I slept.
I played.
In Past Continuous, the action was ongoing till a certain time in the past.
I was eating.
I was sleeping.
I was playing.
Past Perfect is used to express something that happened before another action in the past.
I had eaten.
I had slept.
I had played.
Past Perfect Continuous is used to express something that started in the past and continued until another time in the past.
FUTURE TENSES
SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE
Simple Future is used when we plan or make a decision to do something. Nothing is said about the time in the future.
I will eat.
I will sleep.
I will play.
The future continuous tense is used to express action at a particular moment in the future. However, the action will not have finished at the moment.
Future Perfect expresses action that will occur in the future before another action in the future.
Future Perfect Continuous is used to talk about an on-going action before some point in the future.
I will have been sleeping for two hours when you arrive.
I will have been playing for an hour when it is 5 p.m.
Prepositions are short words (on, in, to) that usually stand in front of nouns (sometimes also in front of gerund verbs).
Even advanced learners of English find prepositions difficult, as a 1:1 translation is usually not possible. One preposition in your native language might
have several translations depending on the situation.
There are hardly any rules as to when to use which preposition. The only way to learn prepositions is looking them up in a dictionary, reading a lot in
English (literature) and learning useful phrases off by heart (study tips).
The following table contains rules for some of the most frequently used prepositions in English:
Prepositions Time
English
Usage
Example
on Monday
months / seasons
in August / in winter
time of day
in the morning
year
in 2006
in an hour
for night
at night
for weekend
at the weekend
since 1980
for 2 years
2 years ago
before 2004
on
in
at
since
for
ago
before
English
Usage
Example
to
past
to / till / until
till / until
of time
going to last
by
up to a certain time
Usage
in
a
t
Example
in the book
car, taxi
picture, world
for table
at the table
for events
o
n
attached
being on a surface
on the table
on the left
English
Usage
y, next to,
Example
beside
u
nder
something else
overcoming an obstacle
go to the cinema
go to London / Ireland
for bed
go to bed
in
elow
ver
a
bove
over it
a
cross
t
hrough
sides
t
o
to
owards
fr
nto
om
English
Usage
Example
who gave it
who made it
on foot, on horseback
by car, by bus
from
of
by
on
in
off
out of
by
horseriding)
for age
at
about
Many phrasal verbs consist of a verb followed by an adverb. Some of these phrasal
verbs are intransitive and some are transitive.
I. Intransitive verbs followed by adverbs
Here are some intransitive phrasal verbs which consist of a verb followed by an
adverb and each phrasal verb has its meaning.
Intransitive
Phrasal Verb
Meaning
blow over
pass
boil away
disappear by boiling
boil over
overflow by boiling
bounce back
recover
buckle down
work seriously
catch on
be widely accepted
cloud over
become overcast
die down
become less
double up
bend over
drop in
visit
fade away
become less
fall off
become less
get away
escape
get by
barely succeed
give in
admit defeat
go on
continue
grow up
became an adult
keep on
persist in
level off
stop rising
log on
contact a computer
log off
move in
move out
nod off
pass out
faint
pitch in
help
play along
pretend to agree
pull in
pull out
set off
leave
settle down
become peaceful
settle in
become used to
show up
arrive
stay up
not go to bed
step down
resign
step in
intervene
take off
touch down
tune in
watch out
beware
wear off
gradually disappear
Meaning
support
bail out
rescue
break in
breathe in
inhale
breathe out
exhale
bring back
return
bring around
persuade
bring up
raise
butter up
flatter
call in
ask to assist
call off
cancel
call up
telephone
cheer on
cheer, encourage
chop down
fell
clean up
tidy
fend off
repel
ferret out
figure out
solve, understand
fill in
complete
fill out
complete
fill up
make full
give back
return
give off
send out
hand down
hand in
hand on
hand over
transfer
hang up
hold back
restrain, delay
iron out
remove
knock out
make unconscious
lap up
accept eagerly
lay off
leave behind
leave out
omit
let down
disappoint
live down
look up
make up
pass up
pension off
phase in
phase out
pick up
pin down
play down
point out
polish off
pull down
pull off
put away
put back
put off
find (information)
invent
not take advantage
dismiss with a pension
introduce gradually
cease gradually
collect
get a commitment
de-emphasize
draw attention to
finish
demolish
succeed
put in proper place
return to original location
reel off
postpone
rope in
rub out
persuade to help
rule out
erase
scale down
sell off
reduce
set back
dispose of by selling
shout down
delay
shrug off
single out
dismiss as unimportant
size up
sort out
assess
sound out
organize
stammer out
sum up
stammer
summon up
summarize
take in
gather
take out
absorb
take over
invite to a restaurant
talk over
assume control
tear up
discuss
think over
destroy by tearing
think up
consider
track down
invent
trade in
try on
try out
turn away
test by using
turn back
refuse admission
turn off
reverse direction
turn on
water down
wear out
dilute
write down
write off
write up
make a note
cancel, regard as
compose in writing
NOTE: The transitive phrasal verb to sort out is formed from the verb to
sort followed by the adverb out.
Example: We sorted out the papers.
1) The position of an object of the verb
In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, if
the object of the verb is a nun, the object can usually either follow or precede the
adverb. In the following examples, the verb objects are underlined.
Example:
- I called of the meeting.
- I called the meeting of.
NOTE: In the first example the object meeting follows the adverb of, while in the
second example the object meetingprecedes the adverb of.
However, in the case of a few phrasal verbs, a noun object must usually follow the
adverb.
Example: We attempted to smooth over is the disagreement.
NOTE: In this example, the phrasal verb to smooth over is followed by the noun
object disagreement. In this case, the object disagreement cannot be placed
before the adverb over.
The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs where a noun object must
usually follow the adverb. Each phrasal verb is accompanied by its meaning and an
example
The following are examples of transitive phrasal verbs where a noun object must
usually follow the adverb. Each phrasal verb is accompanied by its meaning and an
example of its use. The objects of the verbs are underlined.
Verbs followed by adverb followed by noun object
Phrasal Verb
Meaning
drum up
raise
paper over
repair superficially
smooth over
improve
Example:
- She has drummed up support for the plan.
- They attempted to paper over their differences.
- We tried to smooth over the station.
In the case of transitive phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed by an adverb,
if the object of the verb is a pronoun, the object must usually precede the adverb. In
the following examples, the pronoun objects are underlined.
Example:
- I called it of.
- We attempted to smooth it over.
NOTE: In these examples, the object pronoun it precedes the
adverbs of and over.
Most transitive phrasal verbs may be used in the passive voice.
Example:
- The meeting was called of by me.
- The disagreement was smooth over.
NOTE: In these examples, the phrasal verbs to call of and to smooth over are
used in the passive voice.
2) The position of an adverb of manner modifying the verb
In the case of a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb, the verb
and the adverb usually may not be separated by an adverb of manner. In the
following example, the adverb of manner is underline.
Example: I hurriedly called of the meeting.
NOTE: In this example, the adverb of manner hurriedlyprecedes the phrasal
verb called of. The adverb hurriedly may also be placed at the beginning or the
end of the sentence, but may not be placed between the verb called and the
adverb of.
3) Stress in spoken English
When a phrasal verb consisting of a verb followed by an adverb occurs at the end of
a clause, it is usually the adverb which is stressed in spoken English. In the following
examples, the words which are tressed are printed in bold type.
Example:
- How did that come about?
- Please drop in whenever you have time.
NOTE: In the first example, the verb come followed by the adverb about occurs at
the end of a clause, and the adverb aboutis stressed. In the second example, the
verb drop followed by the adverb in occurs at the end of a clause, and the
adverb in is stressed.
4) Ergative verbs
It should be noted that there are a few phrasal verbs consisting of a verb followed
by an adverb, which have the same meaning whether they are used transitively or
intransitively.
Example:
- The engineer slowed down the train.
- The train slowed down.
NOTE: In the first example, the phrasal verb to slow down is used transitively,
with the object train. In the second example, the phrasal verb to slow down is
used intransitively, without naming the originator of the action. In these two
examples, it can be seen that the object of the transitive verb is the subject of the
intransitive verb. However, the general meaning of the two sentences is the same.
Verbs which can be used in this way may be referred to as ergative verbs.
Ergative phrasal verbs
The following are examples of expressions which can function as ergative phrasal
verbs and each ergative phrasal has its meaning.
Phrasal Verb
Meaning
Blare out
Blow up
Destroy by an explosion
Break up
Burn down
Detroy by fire
Calm down
Become calm
Dry out
Become dry
Get across
Transmit
Liven up
Become lively
Pull through
Rol up
Shut down
Wake up
Stop sleeping
Wash out
Remove by washing
Wear away
Gradually remove
Wear out
English sentences follow certain patterns. In this section we will first consider some of the commonest verb patterns and then some of the other
important structures, both literary and conversational.
We have already learned that a sentence consists of two main parts the subject and the predicate. The subject must contain a noun or a pronoun.
It may also contain other words like articles (a/an and the), possessives (my, your etc.) or demonstratives (this, that, these and those).
The predicate must contain a verb. Sometimes the subject is omitted and then we get one-word sentences.
Then there are sentences of two words they just consist of a noun and an intransitive verb. Examples are:
But we cant get far with short sentences of this kind, so we will have to construct more elaborate sentence patterns.
Sentence pattern 1
Subject
Intransitive verb +
adverb
Granny
is coming on Monday.
The sun
The storm
e.g.
Subject (S)
Verb (V)
Complement (C)
Adverbial (A)
Object (O)
1. SUBJECT (S)
Definition :
To get S ask the quesiton Who? before the verb.
e.g.
Subject (S)
2. VERB (V)
Definition :
In every sentence the most important word is the verb. A verb shows action or activity or work done.
e.g.
He is a doctor
(Main verb)
Verb (V)
(a) Auxiliaries
e.g.
Modals : can, could; will, would; shall, should; may, might; must
Semi-modals / Quasi Modals : dare to; need to; used to; ought to
e.g.
talk, sing, write, make, dance, play, cook, leave, teach, sleep
3. OBJECT (O)
Definition :
To get the object O ask the question What or Whome. What is for things and Whome is for persons. Persons may be nouns or
pronouns.
e.g.
He bought a pen
(a pen = Object)
(computer = Object)
I saw him
(him = Object)
- direct object
(a) Do
e.g.
O (what)
likes
animals
(b) IO
- indirect object
e.g.
IO (whom)
DO
gave
Rosy
a pen
4. COMPLEMENT (C)
Definition :
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence are called Complement of the sentence .
e.g.
He
is
a dentist
She
became
a journalist
It
grew
dark
e.g.
They
are
players
She
was
angry
It
seems
absurd
(ii) In S V O C pattern
- the complement tells about the object
e.g.
They
called
David
a genius
found
her
crying
They
elected
Michle
leader
Types of Complement
1. Subject Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is called Subject Complement .
e.g.
She is a doctor
2. Object Complement
Definition :
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is called Object Complement .
e.g.
Adjunct or Adverbial
Definition :
To get A ask the question why, when, where or how .
The use of adverbial is optional whereas complement is essential. It has adverb phrase, adverbial clause, noun-phrase and prepositional phrase.
e.g.
Why? (reason)
When? (Time)
Where? (Place)
How? (Manner)
due to cold
now, later
here, there
by bus / cycle
through floods
after 2 years
every where
through efforts
under compulsion
when young
in the sky
by mixing
carefully
in the morning
at home
by hard work
e.g.
She
Comes
every day
Sit
here
DIRECT SPEECH
Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and there is
no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a previous
conversation.
EXAMPLES
She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "
INDIRECT SPEECH
Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask',
and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas are not used.
She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect speech)
'That' may be omitted:
She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.
Degrees of Comparison
Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with another.
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
They are:
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.
Let us see all of them one by one.
1.Positive degree.
When we speak about only one person or thing, We use the Positive degree.
Examples:
This house is big.
In this sentence only one noun The house" is talked about.
He is a tall student.
This flower is beautiful.
He is an intelligent boy.
Each sentence mentioned above talks about only one noun.
2.Comparative degree.
When we compare two persons or two things with each other,
We use both the Positive degree and Comparative degree.
Examples:
a. This house is bigger than that one. (Comparative degree)
This house is not as big as that one. (Positive degree)
The term bigger" is comparative version of the term big".
Both these sentences convey the same meaning.
When we compare more than two persons or things with one another,
We use all the three Positive, Comparative and Superlative degrees.
Examples:
All the terms used in the above-examples are either adjectives or adverbs.
We have seen all the three Degrees of Comparison.
Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting more" before them.
And their superlative terms, by getting most" before them.
Examples:
Few adjectives and adverbs get their Comparative forms by simply getting er" after them and their superlative terms, by getting est" after them.
Examples:
Hard..harder..hardest
Big.bigger.biggest
Tall..tallertallest
Longlongerlongest
Short..shorter.shortest
Costlycostliercostliest
Simple.simpler.simplest
Degrees of Comparison add beauty and varieties to the sentences.
In grammar, clause structure refers to the classification of sentences based on the number and
kind of clauses in their syntactic structure. Such division is an element oftraditional grammar.
A simple sentence consists of only one clause. A compound sentence consists of two or
more independent clauses. A complex sentence has at least one independent clause plus at least
one dependent clause. A set of words with no independent clause may be an incomplete sentence,
also called a sentence fragment.
[1]
A sentence consisting of at least one dependent clauses and at least two independent clauses may
be called a complex-compound sentence or compound-complex sentence.
[unreliable source?]
[hide]
1Simple sentences
2Compound sentences
4Incomplete sentence
5References
6External links
Simple sentences[edit]
A simple sentence structure contains one independent clause and no dependent clauses.
[2]
I run.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, I, and
one predicate, run.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, girl, and one
predicate, ran into her bedroom. The predicate is a verb phrase that consists of more than one word.
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, dog, and one
predicate, barked and howled at the cat. This predicate has two verbs, known as a compound
predicate: barked and howled. This compound verb should not be confused with a compound
sentence. In the backyard and at the cat are prepositional phrases.
Compound sentences[edit]
A compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a
dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (with or without a comma).
a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences
when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction
is being used to connect the sentences, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A
conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. Conjunctions are words such
as for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. Examples:
I will accept your offer or decline it; these are the two options.
The law was passed: from 1 April, all cars would have to be tested.
The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was occupied.
The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses without the addition of an appropriate
conjunction is called a comma splice and is generally considered an error (when used in the English
language). Example:
[2]
When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I had only
two things on my mind. (S. E. Hinton, The Outsiders)
This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, When I stepped out into the bright sunlight
from the darkness of the movie house. The adverbial clause describes when the action of the main
clause, I had only two things on my mind, took place.
A relative clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase in the independent
clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an adjective.
Let him who has been deceived complain. (Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote)
You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you. (J.K. Rowling, Harry
Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone)
In the first example, the restrictive relative clause who has been deceived specifies or defines the
meaning of him in the independent clause, Let him complain. In the second example, the nonrestrictive relative clause who have never known your family describes you in the independent
clause, You see them standing around you.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun. A noun clause may function as
the subject of a clause, or as a predicate nominative or an object.
What she had realised was that love was that moment when your heart was about to
burst. (Stieg Larsson, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo)
In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses. The noun clause What she had
realized serves as the subject of the verb was, and that love was that moment serves
as complement. The sentence also contains an adverbial clause, when your heart was about to
burst.
Incomplete sentence[edit]
An incomplete sentence, or sentence fragment, is a set of words which does not form a complete
sentence, either because it does not express a complete thought or because it lacks some
grammatical element, such as a subject or a verb. A dependent clause without an independent
clause is one example of an incomplete sentence.
[1]
[3]
Some prescriptive grammars consider sentences starting with a conjunction such as but or and to
be incomplete sentences, but this style prescription has "no historical or grammatical foundation".
Computer grammar checkers often highlight incomplete sentences. If the context is clear from the
rest of the paragraph, however, an incomplete sentence may be considered perfectly acceptable
English.
[4]
[5]
For millions of years, our early ancestors ambled on this planet, navigating a very dangerous world. They did so by communicating effectively their
needs, emotions, fears, and desires with each other. Impressively, they achieved this through the use of nonverbal communications such as
physiological changes (flushed face), gestures (pointing hand), noises (grunting is not a word) and facial or body reactions (quizzical or frightened
look). This has been part of our biological heritage for so long that we still primarily communicate nonverbally, not verbally, and why we need emotional
icons in our written communication.
Fortunately for us we evolved a system to immediately communicate to others how we feel and what we sense. If not for this, a room might be
dangerously hot - not just warm and a swim in a lake might turn into hypothermia. If we had to think, even for a few seconds, at every perilous
encounter (imagine a coiled rattle snake by your leg) we would have died out as a species. Instead we evolved to react to threats or anything that
might harm us and not to think (the "freeze, flight, fight response" I talk about in Louder Than Words).
This system that evolved over time, which alerts us instantly of any perceived danger, also instantly communicates to others around us. Just as our
brain forces us to freeze in place when we see an aggressive dog or large felines while on safari, it also communicates to others instantly, through our
bodies, whether or not we are comfortable or uncomfortable, content or miserable, safe or unsafe. The benefit is two fold, we react to the world around
us and others benefit from our early reactions even as we do from theirs. For example, taste something putrid and everyone around you will know from
your expression; they don't need to taste it also. Quick, authentic, and reliable: body language as I said in What Every Body is Saying, is the "shortcut
to communicating what is most important" because it has been evolutionarily beneficial.
And it is not just about survival or threats, although that is the primary reason we react to certain things so visibly (loud sounds make us freeze or
cower in place). Our brain also telegraphs our intentions. This is why when you are talking to someone you like and suddenly you notice that one of
their feet points toward their car or an elevator, you know that the person probably needs to go. Because they are running late, the body through the
legs communicates that something urgent is pressing (causing psychological discomfort) even though the person continues the conversation. Which is
why we say when it comes to communication, body language is more truthful than the spoken word.
So what is psychologically behind all of this? Simply this: Our needs, feelings, thoughts, emotions, and intentions are processed elegantly by what is
known as the "limbic system" of the brain. It doesn't have to think, it just reacts to the world in real time and our bodies show how we feel. Someone
gives us bad news and our lips compress; the bus leaves without us and we are clenching our jaws and rubbing our necks. We are asked to work
another weekend and the orbits of our eyes narrow as our chin lowers. These are discomfort displays that our limbic brain has perfected over millions
of years, whether we are in China or Chile.
Conversely, when we see someone we really like, our eyebrows will arch defying gravity, our facial muscles will relax, and our arms become more
pliable (even extended) so we can welcome this person. In the presence of someone we love, we will mirror their behavior (isopraxis), tilt our heads,
and blood will flow to our lips making them full, even as our pupils dilate. Once again, our limbic brain communicates through our bodies precisely the
true sentiments that we feel and orchestrates accurate corresponding nonverbal displays.
In a way, our bodies don't really have to do these behaviors and yet we evolved to demonstrate them for a reason: we are social animals that need to
communicate both verbally and nonverbally. How do we know body language is essential for us? Children who are born blind, having never seen these
behaviors will also perform them. A blind child will cover his eyes when he hears something he doesn't like in the same way my neighbor does
whenever I ask him to help me move heavy objects. Fortunately these behaviors are hard-wired.
Whether in business, at home, or in relationships, we can always be assured that true sentiments will be reflected in our body language through
displays of comfort and discomfort. This binary system of communicating how we feel has stood the test of time and survived to help us through its
elegant simplicity.
Obviously this can be very effective in determining how others feel about us and in evaluating how a relationship is evolving. Often when people sense
that something is wrong in a relationship, what they are sensing are changes in body language displays. Couples who no longer touch or walk close
together are easy to spot but sometimes the more subtle behaviors are even more accurate. An example of this is when couples touch each other with
their fingertips rather than their full hand (distancing behavior) indicative of psychological discomfort. This behavior alone may portend serious
problems in the relationship that on the surface may not be so obvious (Clues to Deceit)
And so while there are many aspects of nonverbal communications and body language, focusing on comfort and discomfort can go a long way in
helping us to see more clearly what others are truly feeling, thinking, fearing or desiring. Having that extra insight gives us a more honest appraisal of
others and it will in the end assist us in communicating more effectively and empathetically for a deeper understanding.
Computer fundamentals
Windows introduction
"Windows" redirects here. For the part of a building, see window. For other uses, see Windows (disambiguation).
Microsoft Windows
Screenshot of Windows 10 (July 2015 Release), showing the Action Center and Start Menu
Developer
Microsoft
Written in
C, C++, Assembly[1]
Working state
Publicly released
Source model
Initial release
Latest release
ago) []
Latest preview
ago) []
Marketing target
Personal computing
Available in
137 languages[2]
Update method
Windows Update
Windows Store
WSUS
Package manager
Platforms
Kernel type
Windows NT family: Hybrid
Windows shell
License
Official website
windows.microsoft.com
Microsoft Windows (or simply Windows) is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold byMicrosoft. It consists of several
families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows
Embedded and Windows Phone; these may encompass subfamilies, e.g. Windows Embedded Compact (Windows CE) or Windows Server. Defunct Windows
families includeWindows 9x and Windows Mobile.
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating system shell for MS-DOS in response to the
growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[4] Microsoft Windows came todominate the world's personal computer market with over 90% market share,
overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. However, since 2012, because of the massive growth of smartphones, Windows sells less than Android,
which became the most popular operating system in 2014, when counting all of the computing platforms each operating system runs on; in 2014, the number of
Windows devices sold were less than 25% of Android devices sold. However, comparisons across different markets are not fully relevant; and for personal
computers, Windows is still the most popular operating system.
As of March 2016, the most recent version of Windows for personal computers, tablets, smartphones and embedded devicesis Windows 10. The most recent
versions for server computers is Windows Server 2012 R2. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1Genealogy
2Version history
2.1Early versions
2.2Windows 3.x
2.3Windows 9x
2.4Windows NT
2.4.1Early versions
2.4.2Windows Vista
2.4.3Windows 7
2.4.5Windows 10
2.4.6Multilingual support
2.4.7Platform support
2.5Windows CE
2.6Xbox OS
3Timeline of releases
4Usage share
5Security
5.1File permissions
5.2Windows Defender
5.3Third-party analysis
6Alternative implementations
7See also
8References
9External links
Genealogy
By marketing role
Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector
of the computing industry. As of 2014, the following Windows families are being actively developed:
Windows NT: Started as a family of operating system with Windows NT 3.1, an operating system for server computers and workstations. It now
consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the same time and share the same kernel
Windows: The operating system for mainstream personal computers. The latest version is Windows 10. It is almost impossible for
someone unfamiliar with the subject to identify the members of this family by name because they do not adhere to any specific rule; e.g. Windows
Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8/8.1 and Windows RT are members of this family but Windows 3.1 is not. The main competitor of this family is OS
X by Apple Inc. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by category)
Windows Server: The operating system for server computers. The latest version is Windows Server 2012 R2. Unlike its clients sibling, it
has adopted a strong naming scheme. The main competitor of this family is Linux. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by
category)
Windows PE: A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as a live operating system, used for installing Windows on
bare-metal computers (especially on many computers at once), recovery or troubleshooting purposes. The latest version is Windows PE 5.1.
Windows Phone: An operating system sold only to manufacturers of smartphones. The first version was Windows Phone 7. The latest version
is Windows Phone 8.1. The main competitor of this family is Android by Google. (c.f. Usage share of operating systems Market share by category)
Windows Embedded: Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited
to be called a full-fledged computer. Eventually, however, Windows CE was renamed Windows Embedded Compact and was folded under Windows
Compact trademark which also consists ofWindows Embedded Industry, Windows Embedded Professional, Windows Embedded Standard, Windows
Embedded Handheld and Windows Embedded Automotive.[6]
Windows 9x: An operating system that targeted consumers market. Discontinued because of suboptimal performance. (PC World called its last
version, Windows ME, one of the worst products of all times.)[7] Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT.
Windows Mobile: The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile phone operating system. The first version was called Pocket PC 2000; the third
version, Windows Mobile 2003 is the first version to adopt the Windows Mobile trademark. The last version is Windows Mobile 6.5.
Version history
Main article: History of Microsoft Windows
See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions
The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products. These products are generally categorized as
follows:
Early versions
Main articles: Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0 and Windows 2.1x
The history of Windows dates back to September 1981, when Chase Bishop, a computer scientist, designed the first model of an electronic device and project
Interface Manager was started. It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the name "Windows", but Windows
1.0 was not released until November 1985.[8]Windows 1.0 was to compete with Apple's operating system, but achieved little popularity. Windows 1.0 is not a
complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. The shell of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS Executive. Components
included Calculator, Calendar, Cardfile, Clipboard viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi,Terminal and Write. Windows 1.0 does not allow
overlapping windows. Instead all windows are tiled. Only modal dialog boxes may appear over other windows.
Windows 2.0 was released in December 1987, and was more popular than its predecessor. It features several improvements to the user interface and memory
management.[citation needed] Windows 2.03 changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit
against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.[9][10] Windows 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard shortcuts and could make use
ofexpanded memory.
Windows 2.1 was released in two different versions: Windows/286 and Windows/386. Windows/386 uses the virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 to multitask
several DOS programs and the paged memory model to emulate expanded memory using available extended memory. Windows/286, in spite of its name, runs on
both Intel 8086 and Intel 80286 processors. It runs in real mode but can make use of the high memory area.[citation needed]
In addition to full Windows-packages, there were runtime-only versions that shipped with early Windows software from third parties and made it possible to run
their Windows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows feature set.
The early versions of Windows are often thought of as graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and use it for file system services.[11] However,
even the earliest Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable file format and providing their
own device drivers(timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound). Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the
same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to run
applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce; data segments moved
in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control.
Windows 3.x
Main articles: Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1x
Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share
arbitrary devices between multi-tasked DOS applications.[citation needed] Windows 3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives them access to several
megabytes of memory without the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They run inside the same address space, where the segmented
memory provides a degree of protection. Windows 3.0 also featured improvements to the user interface. Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into assembly.
Windows 3.0 is the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months. [12][13]
Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992, featured a facelift. In August 1993, Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-topeer networking features and a version number of 3.11, was released. It was sold along Windows 3.1. Support for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001. [14]
Windows 3.2, released 1994, is an updated version of the Chinese version of Windows 3.1.[15] The update was limited to this language version, as it fixed only
issues related to the complex writing system of the Chinese language.[16] Windows 3.2 was generally sold by computer manufacturers with a ten-disk version
of MS-DOS that also had Simplified Chinese characters in basic output and some translated utilities.
Windows 9x
Main article: Windows 9x
The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows, Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995. While still remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95
introduced support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware, preemptive multitasking, long file names of up to 255 characters, and provided increased
stability over its predecessors. Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object oriented user interface, replacing the previous Program Manager with the Start
menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer shell. Windows 95 was a major commercial success for Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that "by the time Windows
95 was finally ushered off the market in 2001, it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world."[17] Microsoft published four OEM Service Releases
(OSR) of Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack. The first OSR of Windows 95 was also the first version of Windows to be bundled
with Microsoft's web browser, Internet Explorer.[18] Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000, and extended support for Windows 95
ended on December 31, 2001.[19]
Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows 98 on June 25, 1998, which introduced the Windows Driver Model, support for USB composite devices,
support forACPI, hibernation, and support for multi-monitor configurations. Windows 98 also included integration with Internet Explorer 4 through Active
Desktop and other aspects of theWindows Desktop Update (a series of enhancements to the Explorer shell which were also made available for Windows 95). In
May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an updated version of Windows 98. Windows 98 SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media
Player 6.2 amongst other upgrades. Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.
[20]
On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows ME (Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version of Windows. Windows ME incorporated visual interface
enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows 2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which however, required the removal of the
ability to access a real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with some older programs),[21] expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media
Player 7, Windows Movie Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras), additional system
utilities such as System File Protectionand System Restore, and updated home networking tools.[22] However, Windows ME was faced with criticism for its speed
and instability, along with hardware compatibility issues and its removal of real mode DOS support. PC World considered Windows ME to be one of the worst
operating systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech product of all time.[7]
Windows NT
Main article: Windows NT
Early versions
In November 1988, a new development team within Microsoft (which included former Digital Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark Lucovsky)
began work on a revamped version of IBM and Microsoft's OS/2 operating system known as "NT OS/2". NT OS/2 was intended to be a secure, multiuser operating system with POSIXcompatibility and a modular, portable kernel with preemptive multitasking and support for multiple processor architectures.
However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port of the Windows
API known as Win32 instead of those of OS/2. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs (allowing existing Windows applications to easily
be ported to the platform), but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel. Following its approval by Microsoft's staff, development continued on what
was now Windows NT, the first 32-bit version of Windows. However, IBM objected to the changes, and ultimately continued OS/2 development on its own. [23][24]
The first release of the resulting operating system, Windows NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows 3.1) was released in July 1993, with versions for
desktop workstationsand servers. Windows NT 3.5 was released in September 1994, focusing on performance improvements and support for Novell's NetWare,
and was followed up by Windows NT 3.51 in May 1995, which included additional improvements and support for the PowerPC architecture. Windows NT 4.0 was
released in June 1996, introducing the redesigned interface of Windows 95 to the NT series. On February 17, 2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000, a
successor to NT 4.0. The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand.[24]
The next major version of Windows NT, Windows XP, was released on October 25, 2001. The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify the consumeroriented Windows 9xseries with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its DOSbased predecessors. Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface (including an updated Start menu and a "task-oriented" Windows Explorer),
streamlined multimedia and networking features,Internet Explorer 6, integration with Microsoft's .NET Passport services, modes to help provide compatibility with
software designed for previous versions of Windows, andRemote Assistance functionality.[25]
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main editions: the "Home" edition was targeted towards consumers, while the "Professional" edition was targeted
towards business environments and power users, and included additional security and networking features. Home and Professional were later accompanied by
the "Media Center" edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote
controls), and the "Tablet PC" edition (designed for mobile devices meeting its specifications for a tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional
pen-enabled applications).[26][27][28] Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended support ended on April 8, 2014.[29]
After Windows 2000, Microsoft also changed its release schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003,
was released in April 2003.[24] It was followed in December 2005, by Windows Server 2003 R2.
Windows Vista
After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was released on November 30, 2006, for volume licensing and January 30, 2007, for consumers. It contained
a number ofnew features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features. It was available
in a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism, such as drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new UAC, and stricter license
agreement. Vista's server counterpart,Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008.
Windows 7
Main article: Windows 7
On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 were released as RTM (release to manufacturing) while the former was released to the public 3
months later on October 22, 2009. Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a
more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows Vista was already
compatible.[30] Windows 7 has multi-touchsupport, a redesigned Windows shell with an updated taskbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup,[31] and
performance improvements.
Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released generally on October 26, 2012. A number of significant changes were made on Windows 8, including the
introduction of a user interface based around Microsoft's Metro design language with optimizations for touch-based devices such as tablets and all-in-one PCs.
These changes include the Start screen, which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of continually updated
information, and a new class of apps which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices. Other changes include increased integration with cloud
services and other online platforms (such as social networks and Microsoft's own SkyDrive and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software
distribution, and a new variant known as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM architecture.[32][33][34][35][36][37] An update to Windows 8, called Windows 8.1,
[38]
was released on October 17, 2013, and includes features such as new live tile sizes, deeper SkyDrive integration, and many other revisions. Windows
8 and Windows 8.1 has been subject to some criticism, such as removal of Start Menu.
Windows 10
Main article: Windows 10
On September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows 10 as the successor to Windows 8.1. It was released on July 29, 2015, and addresses shortcomings in
the user interface first introduced with Windows 8. Changes include the return of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability to run Windows Store
apps within windows on the desktop rather than in full-screen mode. Windows 10 is said to be available to update from qualified Windows 7 with SP1
and Windows 8.1 computers from the Get Windows 10 Application (for Windows 7, Windows 8.1) or Windows Update (Windows 7).[39]
On November 12, 2015, an update to Windows 10, version 1511, was released.[40] This update can be activated with a Windows 7, 8 or 8.1 product key as well as
Windows 10 product keys.[41] Features include new icons and right-click context menus, default printer management, four times as many tiles allowed on the Start
menu, Find My Device, and Edge updates.[41]
Multilingual support
Multilingual support is built into Windows. The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language Control Panel.
Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and earlier,
files for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed separately, also from the said Control Panel).
Third-party IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided one is insufficient for their needs.
Interface languages for the operating system are free for download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows. Language Interface
Packs (LIPs) are redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsoft's Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows (XP or later) - they translate
most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the language which Windows originally shipped with). This is used for most
languages in emerging markets. Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specific editions of Windows
(Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and 7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single Language). They do not require a specific base
language, and are commonly used for more popular languages such as French or Chinese. These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download
Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except Windows 8).
The interface language of installed applications are not affected by changes in the Windows interface language. Availability of languages depends on the
application developers themselves.
Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new Language Control Panel where both the interface and input languages can be simultaneously changed,
and language packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a central location. The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 also
includes a counterpart settings page for this. Changing the interface language also changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps (such as Mail, Maps
and News) and certain other Microsoft-developed apps (such as Remote Desktop). The above limitations for language packs are however still in effect, except that
full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets.
Platform support
Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world. Windows NT
4.0 and its predecessors supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000. (Although some these platforms implement 64-bit computing, the operating system
treated them as 32-bit.) However, Windows 2000, the successor of Windows NT 4.0, dropped support for all platforms except the third generation x86 (known
as IA-32) or newer in 32-bit mode. The client line of Window NT family still runs on IA-32, although the Windows Server line has ceased supporting this platform
with the release of Windows Server 2008 R2.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows
XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 counterparts. Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released in 2005, is the last
Windows client operating systems to support Itanium. Windows Server line continued to support this platform until Windows Server 2012; Windows Server 2008
R2 is the last Windows operating system to support Itanium architecture.
On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions to support the x86-64 (or simply x64), the
eighth generation of x86 architecture. Windows Vista was the first client version of Windows NT to be released simultaneously in IA-32 and x64 editions. x64 is still
supported.
An edition of Windows 8 known as Windows RT was specifically created for computers with ARM architecture and while ARM is still used for Windows
smartphones with Windows 10, tablets with Windows RT will not be updated.
Windows CE
Main articles: Windows CE and Windows Phone
The latest current version of Windows CE,Windows Embedded Compact 7, displaying a concept media player UI.
Windows CE (officially known as Windows Embedded Compact), is an edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems
and some mobile phones. Windows Embedded Compact is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows CE kernel. Microsoft licenses Windows CE
to OEMs and device makers. The OEMs and device makers can modify and create their own user interfaces and experiences, while Windows CE provides the
technical foundation to do so.
Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with Sega's own proprietary OS for the console. Windows CE was the core from which Windows Mobile was
derived. Its successor, Windows Phone 7, was based on components from both Windows CE 6.0 R3 andWindows CE 7.0. Windows Phone 8 however, is based
on the same NT-kernel as Windows 8.
Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with Windows XP Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded, modular editions of Windows based on
Windows NT kernel.
Xbox OS
Main articles: Xbox One system software and Xbox 360 system software
Xbox OS is an unofficial name given to the version of Windows that runs on the Xbox One.[42] It is a more specific implementation with an emphasis on virtualization
(usingHyper-V) as it is three operating systems running at once, consisting of the core operating system, a second implemented for games and a more Windowslike environment for applications.[43] Microsoft updates Xbox One's OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from the Xbox Live service to the Xbox
and subsequently installed, or by using offline recovery images downloaded via a PC.[44] The Windows 10-based Core had replaced the Windows 8-based one in
this update, and the new system is sometimes referred to as "Windows 10 on Xbox One" or "OneCore".[45][46] Xbox One's system also allows backward compatibility
with Xbox 360,[47] and the Xbox 360's system is backwards compatible with the original Xbox.[48]
Timeline of releases
Operating system
Operating system
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Operating systems
Common features
Process management
Interrupts
Memory management
File system
Device drivers
Networking
Security
I/O
Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include
accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other
resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts
as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is
usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is
interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer
from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
[1][2]
Examples of popular desktop operating systems include Apple OS X, Linux and its variants,
and Microsoft Windows. So-calledmobile operating systems include Android and iOS. Other classes
of operating systems, such as real-time (RTOS), also exist.