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The inferior fibred are tensioned and the upper ones are compressed. The resistance
capacity is reduced, because the behavior of the element depends on the resistance of the
tensioned concrete. At small values of loads in the most solicited cross section there occurs a
crack, because here the stress exceeds the limit of the tensile strength of the concrete; the
crack suddenly develops on the section and leads to the breaking of the beam (brittle breaking).
By introducing reinforcement in the tensioned zone of the beam, the behavior is essentially
changed, Fig. 1.1.b. The moment when the first crack occurs, the tensile stress in the cracking
section is taken by the reinforcement, and so the cracking does not lead to the breaking of the
element.
When the load grows, new cracks occur. This new elements is called reinforced concrete.
Therefore, the main function of the reinforcement is to take the tensile stress when the concrete
cannot take it.
This association of two materials wits different properties, like steel and concrete, was made
possible because:
By hardening, the concrete adheres to the steel and under loads both materials have a
simultaneous deformation
Concrete and steel do not produce chemical reaction, which can destroy one of them. On the
contrary, the concrete protects the reinforcement against the corrosion.
The concrete and the steel have almost the same coefficient of thermal dilation, so that
internal stresses cannot destroy the system.
Having in view the disadvantages of the reinforced concrete another material was created,
which is the prestressed concrete.
It presents the same association of concrete reinforcement, but the properties are different
because in this case reinforcement has an active role.
Assuming we have a beam, if the reinforcement are transferred to the concrete in different
ways (adherence, metallic anchorage, etc.), the artificial stressed introduced in this way have
opposite sign to those produced by loads. This superposition of two effects leads to a very
suitable stress state for concrete.
Dubai Tower
Burj Dubai are 160 de etaje
i a costat 8 miliarde $.
Cldirea are 160 de etaje,
peste 30.000 de apartamente i
gzduiete cel mai mare
mall din lume.
Proiectarea betonului pentru elementele
verticale a fost
determinat de urmtoarele cerine: o
rezisten la compresiune de 10 MPa la
10 ore pentru a asigura
viteza de execuie prevzut, o
rezisten final de 80 MPa pe cub i un
modul de deformaie de 44 GPa
(n EC2, acest modul corespunde la un
beton C90/105),
Viaductul Millau
The reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete find today a large domain of
application in works like:
-
buildings;
special constructions: tanks, silos, bunkers, towers for radio and television;
undergrounds constructions.
precast elements (units) when some elements are poured on site and some
elements are realized in factory.
The reinforced concrete has a large application because it has some advantages:
1. The concrete is a cheap material, because the cement and the steel that are
expensive materials are in small ratio in concrete (1020%).The aggregates are
obtained at low prices;
2. he reinforced concrete constructions are resistant to fire, to different loads;
3. The durability of the reinforced concrete does not need any maintenance works.
The reinforced concrete elements present also some disadvantages, like:
1. The monolith constructions are realized at positive temperature; the cold
weather works need some special operations to protect them.
2. The constructions present a very big weight compared to their resistance.
3. For these constructions, it is very difficult to make a consolidation or to change
elements.
4. The tensioned zones are with cracks in serviceability, for a lot of elements.
These disadvantages can be the eliminated using the prestressed elements.
Other disadvantages of the reinforced concrete have been eliminated in the last
years, and so, today the reinforced concrete is one of the most important
construction materials.
In 1850, Lambot made a boat by wire mesh, plastered on the two sides.
At the same time, Francoise Coignet realized reinforced concrete elements,
like prefabricated vaults; these units were used for sewerages and
landing base.
A concrete reinforced floor was built by Wilkinson in U.K. in 1865 (someones
consider him the inventor of reinforced concrete).
T.Hyett proposed in 1873 the execution of a floor, made by prefabricated
reinforced concrete elements (units).
But the father of reinforced concrete is considered to be the French
Gardener, Joseph Monier, who replaced the wood vases with reinforced
concrete vases. Between 1860-1880, Monier made some construction of
reinforced concrete, like: tanks, tubes, slabs, beams, walls, bridges, etc.
At the same time, reinforced concrete was used for buildings and Ward
erected the first recorded reinforced concrete building in the United
States in 1875 in Port Chaster, New York.
From this beginning, a completely new field of engineering has developed
and continues to expand.
Although the early experiments were made in the United States, the first patent for
prestressed concrete was issued in1888 to P.H.Jackson; it was in Europe that this type of
construction was developed.
Franch, German and Danish engineers tried various ways of prestressing concrete, but none
was successful until the 1930, when in France, Freyssinet used high strength steel wire.
Anghel Saligny was the first who introduced the reinforced concrete in our contry. It is wellknown that he had created the metallic bridge over Danube at Cernavoda. In 1888, Angel
Saligny used for the first time, the reinforced concrete to realize some grains silos in the
harbours Braila and Galati. To realize these silos, Saligny had used prefabricated units of
reinforced concrete; at the same time, to realize the foundations of silos, Saligny had used
the reinforced concrete piles.
Near A. Saligny, Ilie Radu was another engineer who had applied the reinforced concrete in
our country; he had realized a lot of reinforced concrete bridges: the first bridges were
realized on the road Tecuci Vaslui, over river Dofteana, etc.
The first building with more concrete reinforced floors is the dwelling from Sinaia railway
station (1906).
The period 1906-1940 was for the construction industry a period of development. A lot of
buildings were realized in this period: the buildings from the street N. Balcescu in
Bucharest (1930-1940), the buildings of the Ministry of hard Industry Bucharest (1928),
the C.F.R. Building (1937), the Justice Ministry (30 m height) etc. In the domain of
hydraulic construction: the dam of Bilciuresti Ialomita, the special works from Buftea
lake, the dam of Ogrezeni, the canal Arges Bucuresti with different other special works,
After 1944, the construction industry has developed in continuous rhythm. In the last 20 years
the concrete has become the main material of construction and have been realized a lot of
construction: dwellings, industrial constructions, social cultural buildings, hydraulic
construction (Bicaz, Moreni, Sadu, Iron Gates), etc.
COLOSEUM ROME
PANTHEON ROME
PONT DU GARD
SMEATON TOWER
CHAPTER 2
CONCRETE
2.1 COMPONENTS
2.2 STRUCTURE
2.3 FRESH CONCRETE
2.4 HARDENED CONCRETE
Types of concrete
New types of concrete:
Lightweight concrete, density under 2000 kg/m3;
High strength, very high strength, high performance concrete,
having compressive strength fck> 210 MPa , and tensile strength
until 15 MPa;
Concrete with high ductility with fibers (steel, glass, etc);
Self compacted concrete, without compacting;
Polymer concrete;
Hydraulic concrete;
Road concrete;
Heavy concrete with metallic balls for radioactive structure;
Green concrete obtained by using wastes or by-products (fly ash,
cinder, blast furnace, microsilica, rice ash,etc.)
Concrete is a mixture of cement 15%, water 8%, aggregates (sand 34%, coarse aggregate 43%)
and additions, in small proportions. The cement by hydration becomes the cement stone (matrix)
which connects the aggregates thus forming the artificial stone named concrete. This material can
be molded into almost any form or shape desired and it presents high mechanical strengths,
impermeability, resistance to the action of temperature and fire, durability.
The quality of hardened concrete is given by its composition, the quality of the materials
composing the mixture, but also by the conditions of execution: preparing, pouring and treatment
Types of cement
There are several types of cement used in
constructions, as follows:
Ordinary Portland cement, that is the most
inexpensive cement and is widely used.
Rapid hardening Portland cement. Concrete
made with this cement hardens more rapidly
than concrete made with ordinary Portland
cement. Such a property enables early stripping
of concrete formwork, especially advantageous
for precast work where repeated uses are made
of the same shutter.
Cementitious materials of
different types
Originally, concrete was made using a mixture of
only tree materials: cement, aggregate and
water; almost invariably, the cement was
Portland cement. Later on, in order to improve
some of the properties of concrete, either in the
fresh on in the hardened state, very small
quantities of chemical products were added into
the mix. These are chemical admixtures, often
called simply admixtures.
Aggregates
Aggregates act as relatively inexpressive inert
filler, providing stability against volume and
influencing strength and stiffness.
Special aggregates
Lightweight aggregates. The essential
characteristic is the high porosity, which results
in a low apparent specific gravity. They can be
natural or can be manufactured from natural
materials or from industrial by-products.
Admixtures
Admixtures are substances that are added to
mortar, cement plaster, concrete to produce
specific result. They may or may not cause a
chemical reaction within mortar, stucco, cement
plaster or concrete. They can be divided into
three categories: those for (1) mixing into
concrete, (2) surface application or finish, and
(3) mixing into mortar, stucco and cement
plasters.
Concrete admixtures include accelerators,
retarders, finally divided powders, plasticizing
agnts, air-entraining agents, waterproofing
compounds and color pigments.