PETROLEUMGEOLOGY

BASICCONCEPTOFPETROLEUMGEOLOGY
Reouirements
for Petroleum
Accumulation.........
TechnicalandEconomicRisksin Exploration................
PETROLEUM GENERATION AND ACCUMULATION
Petroleum
Chemistry
CnrdeOil Classifications
...
KerogenTypes..
Temoerature
andTime............
Geothermal
Gradients
andThermalConductivity.................

MIGRATION AND ACCUMULATION PROCESS

MigrationProcesses...........
ReservoirPorosityand Permeability

Trapping
Mechanisms.......
Structural
Traps..................

,.',,,,.4 '

. . . .1. 0
1l
T2
15
15
17

t9
20

.zl
25

Distribution
of TrapTypes.....

27
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION
BasinDescriotionand Classifications
Explorationof a PetroleumBasrn..........

30

BASICCONCEPTOF PETROLEUM
GEOLOGY
Requirementsfor Petroleum Accumulation
The task of findinga petroleumfield is not a simpleone. First.there must be a rock
containing
originalorganicmatter--asourcerock. Usuallythis is a mudrockor shale,
whichis a very commonrock type and makesup about 80o/oof the world's
sedimentaryrock volume.However,even an averageshalecontainsonly about 1olo
to 20loorganicmatter, and this numbercan vary widely.lvlanyshaleshavevery low
organiccontentand make poor sourcerocks.
Then,the sourcerock must be burieddeeplyso that temperatureand time can cause
the organicmatter to matureinto petroleum.This usuallyrequiresdepositioninto
sedimentary
basins,depressed
areasthicklyfilledby sediments.
Our searchfor
petroleumis furtherlimited,sinceoverhalfof the world'scontinental
areasand
adjacentmarineshelveshavesedimentcoverseithertoo thin or absent.
Evenwherethe organicmatter can becomemature,not all of it becomespetroleum.
In a typicalexample( Fioure1 ) a normalmarineshalewith only 1olooriginalorganic
matter will have lessthan a third of it convertedto the hydrocarbonmoleculesthat
makeup oil and naturalgas (Waples,1981).The rest remainsbehindas an insoluble
organicresidue.
However,the leastetficientstep is yet to come.Of all the petroleumgenerated,only
a small part, usuallylessthan 1yo(Hunt, 1977), is able to undergomigrationout of
the sourcebed to accumulatewithin a porousand permeablereservoir.The majority
of petroleum,or even in somecasesall of it/ will be dispersedfor lackof a good
arrangementof strata to trap it, or will leak out to the surface,for lack of a good
impermeable
sealor caprock.
Fivefactors,therefore,are the criticalrisksto petroleumaccumulation( Figure2 ):
(1) a maturesourcerock, (2) a migrationpath connectingsourcerock to reservoir
rock, (3) a reservoirrock that is both porousand permeable,(4) a trap, and (5) an
impermeableseal.If any one of thesefactorsis missingor inadequate.the prospect
will be dry and the explorationeffort will be unrewarded.Not surprisinglythen, less
than half of the world'sexploredsedimentarybasinshave provedproductive,(Huff,
1980)and typicallyonly a fractionof 10loof the petroleumbasin'sarea, and at most
5o/oto lOo/o,is actuallyprospective(Weeks,1975).

Technicaland EconomicRisks in Exploration

Thereare a numberof technicaland economicrisksinvolvedin the exploration
effort,such as the abilityto recoverthe petroleumand the qualityof the oil or gas.
Lessthan 600lo,and sometimesas low as 10o/oof the oil in the ground(oil-in-place)
and 70o/oto 900/oof the gas-in-placehas provedeconomically
recoverableby modern
technology.The geologicalsettingmust be accuratelyassessedto optimizethis
recovery.Furthermore,in any petroleumbasin,there will be sometraps that are too
smallor reservoirsof too poor qualityto pay backdrillingand productioncosts.
Assessorsalso needto be able to predictwhetherthe productwill be oil or gas, since
in remoteareasthe addeddifficultiesand handlingcostsof naturalgas may be
prohibitive.Similarly,it is often importantto predictthe chemistryof crudeoils and
naturalgas mixtures,particularly
!n areaswherethe resultsmay be only marginally
commercial.Thesemust all be, in part, considerations
of the explorationgeologist.
At this point,the task may seemoverwhelmingly
difflcult,but it is importantto
rememberthat Naturefollowsrulesand doesnot randomlydistributethis petroleum

of these rulesis basedon numerous

beneaththe earth'ssurface.our understanding
past lessonslearnedfrom the drillingof many successful
wellsand many dry holes.
It is the applicationof these rules;to situationsthat are alwayssomewhatunique,
that is the "art" within the scienceof petroleumgeology.

PETROLEUMGENERATION
AND ACGUMULATION
PetroleumChemistry
The topic of organicchemistryis very complex,eventhoughour concernsare only
with the simplestorganiccompoundgroup,the hydrocarbons.
Thisis the groupthat
makesup most of petroleum.Strictlyspeaking,hydrocarbons
are compoundsthat
containonly two elements,hydrogenand carbon.Consequently,
petroleumis quite
simplein its elemental
composition.
It containsrelatively
few impurities,
mainly
atomsof nitrogen,sulfur,and oxygen.Table 1 (below),showsthe average
compositionof petroleumin all three of its naturalstatesof matter, as naturalgas,
liquidcrudeoil and solidor semi-solid
asphalt.
Average Comparisonof Crudeoil, Natural gas, Asphalt

crude oil

Asphalt

Natural Gas

(% Weight)

(% Weight)

(o/oWeight)

Carbon

82.2-87.L

80-85

65-80

Hydrogen

LL.7-14.7

8.5-11

L-25

Sulfur

0.1-5.5

2-8

trace-0.2

Nitrogen

0 . 1 -1 . 5

V-Z

Oxygen

0.1-4.5

Element

I-If,

Table 1: Averagechemicalcompositions
of naturalgas, crudeoil, and asphalt(from
Levorsen1979)
Sulfurand nitrogenare both undesirableelementswithin petroleum.Sulfuris most
abundantin the heaviercrudeoilsand in asphalt.It canalsooccurin naturalgas
mixturessuchas the poisonouscorrosivegas H2S,Suchnaturalgas is calledsour
gas (as opposedto sweetgast whereH2S is low or absent). Nitrogencontentis
generallyhigherin both asphaltsand naturalgas, when comparedto crudes.In
asphalt,it occursmostlyin high molecularweight hydrocarboncompoundscalled
NSOcompoundsbecausethey containimpuritiesof nitrogen,sulfurand oxygen,In
naturalgas mixturesnitrogenoccursmostlyas the inactivegas N2 whichlowersthe
heatingcapacity(Btu) of the naturalgas. Othercompoundsmay also occurin
naturalgasmixtures,including
CO2and the inertgases.
Althoughthe elementalcompositionof hydrocarbons
is relativelysimple,there are a
vast numberof waysin whichthe atomscan be arranged.Compounds
with similar
physicaland chemicalpropertiesbe groupedinto hydrocarbonseries,of whichfour
are particularlyimportantin petroleumchemistry- the paraffins,naphthenes,
aromatics,
and resinsand asphaltenes
( Fiqure1).

'-i-i-l-'

C"Hrn

nrj{E !ffir*ddrrr

'7-'r"

F i g u r e1

ParaffinsoccuTas chain-likestructureswith the generalformulaCnH2n+2The

gas methane(CH4),the
carbonnumber/"n", rangesfrom one in the hydrocarbon
simplestmemberof the paraffinseries,to over40. A naturalgascomposed
of nearly
puremethaneis calleddry gas.Otherlightweight
paraffins/
w'th carbonnumbersup
to 5, are also gaseousat normaltemperaturesand pressures.A naturalgas that
containstheseother heavierparaffingasesalongwith methaneis calledwet gas.
Paraffins
with carbonnumbershigherthan S are normallyliquid.Highmolecular
weight paraffinsbecomeviscous,waxy solids.
Naphthenesform as closedring structureswith the basicformulaCnH2nCompounds
of the naphthene
serieshavechemical
and physicalproperties
similarto equivalent
paraffinswith the same carbonnumber.Togetherwith the paraffins,naphthenes
form the major componentsof most crudeoils.
The aromaticsare the third groupand havea structurebasedon a hexagonalring of
carbons/with alternatesimpleand doublebonds.Thisbasicunit is calledthe
benzenering,afterthe simplestand mostabundantaromaticcompound,benzene.
paraffinic
Otheraromaticcompounds
are madeby substituting
chainsor naphthenic
ringsat some of the hydrogensites,or by fusingseveralbenzeneringstogether.
The fourth group,the reslnsand asphaltenest
are alsocomposedof fusedbenzenering networks,but they containother atomsand are not true hydrocarbons.
These
"impurities"
are the highmolecular
weightNSOcompounds.
Resinsand asphaltenes
are the heaviestcomponents
of crudeoil and the majorcomponents
in manynatural
tars and asphalts

Crude Oil Classifications

Crudeoilsmay be classified
by their relativeenrichment
in the four primary
hydrocarbongroups.One method,proposedby Tissotand Welte(1978) plots
paraffins,
naphthenes
and the combination
of aromaticand NSOcompounds
as three
axesof a triangulargraphand dividesthe graphintofieldsthat represent
six crude

o i l c l a s s e s( F i q u r e1 ) .

(PAFAFFII,IS)

{NAPHIHENES}

lttan 1issolandWee, lgtq: tepnntedby pdIistar ct Syinqetvedag)

Figure1

14ostnormalcrudeoils fall within only three of thesefields.They can be either: (1)

richin paraffins(paraffinic
oil); (2) they can havenearlyequalamountsof paraffins
and naphtheneswhichtogethermake up more than 50o/oof the crude(paraffinicnaphthenic
oil); or (3) they can havesubequalamountsof paraffins
and naphthenes,
whichtotal lessthan 50o/o,and the compositionis dominatedby the aromatics,
resinsand asphaltenes
(aromaticintermediate
oil).
Oil may degradeinto heavyoil and tar as a resultof bacterialactionand of flushing
by fresh meteoricwatersof surfaceorigin.This oil falls into one of two classes
(aromatic-aspha
phthenic),bothof whichare enrichedin
lticor aromatic-na
aromatics,
Somemay containnaphthenes
(aromatic-naphthenic
oil) but the paraffin
contentis alwaysvery low. Deepburial,however,usuallyhasthe oppositeeffectin
alteringcrudeoil. It tendsto makean oil lessdenseand moreparaffinic,
through
processesinvolvingboth thermal maturationand the precipitationand removalof
asphaltic
molecules.
The chemistryof petroleumdeterminesthe types and amountsof refined
produced.Fioure2 showsa generalizedcorrelationbetweenthe
hydrocarbons
hydrocarboncomponentsof petroleum,its density,and the commercialproducts
resultingfrom the refiningprocess.

Kerosene
<+a-+F++

tulined
Products NArUrar
(usesl
Gas

Wax
+'-

tuel,heatinq)(waterproofing'
{dresel
canotesl
Ltbricating
> tGasoline
>
E
luel)
{luelggs,,. (motor
salves)
0ubrication,
rbonblack)
tPG
Naothas
Fueloil
Asohalt
(tuel) (solvenls)(turnace
rooling)
tuel.diesel)(r06ds

2
Natural
Hydrocarbon Gas -_
Range Dry Wet
Carbon
Number Cr
{-

Liquid
Crude -

Solid

Cs
C7 C12 Crs
Cr8Cm (toC60)
Inareasing
Paralins
Increasin!
Aromatics
andI'lS0-------+

3 Rur"ti",
,800-.835
Density
(APlFange) (47'-381

.840-.876
(37"-30')

.S00-.970
(2s'-15'/

Figure 2

Thereare severalmeasures
of the weightor densityof crudeoil commonlyused,two
of which,relativedensityandAPI degrees,are shownin Fioure2 . Naturalgasand
lightweight
oil yieldmostlyfuels.casolineconsistsmostlyof mediumweight
hydrocarbons
with carbonnumbersrangingfrom 7 to 12. Thesecanoccureither
naturallyor be crackedfrom higherweightmolecules.
Crackingis the processin
whichcarbon-to-carbon
bondsare brokendownby heat,into simpler,lighterweight
hydrocarbons.
Otherhighweightcompounds,
with carbonnumbersgreaterthan 15,
are refinedas lubricants,
waxesand asphalts.

Kerogen Types
Maturationis the complexprocessthroughwhichbiologicalmolecules,createdby
livingorganisms,
are conveftedinto petroleum.
In the earlystagesof this alteration,
or diagenesis,
an intermediate
form of organicmatter,calledkerogen,is formed.
Kerogenis createdby the breakdown
of complexbiological
molecules,
reactions
betweensome of the newlycreatedsimplermolecules,and the lossof most nonhydrogenand carbonatomslike NH3,CO2and H20.
Microscopically,
kerogencan be seenas yellow-orangeto brown-blackparticlesor
amorphous
material.Sincethis materialoriginated
from differentkindsof living
organisms,
with differentkindsand proportions
molecules,
kerogens
will
of biological
not all havethe samechemical
compositions
and will yielddifferenttypesand
amountsof petroleum.
into
Geologists
havefoundit convenient
to groupkerogens
four fundamentally
differentclasses( Fiqure1 ).

F i g u r e1

Type I kerogenis derivedmostlyfrom the remainsof al9ae,and when it maturesit

yieldsmainlycrudeoil. It is alsocapableof generating
the mostpetroleumof all the
kerogentypes.Type II kerogenconsistsmostlyof amorphousmaterial,derivedfrom
plants
the bacterial
and mechanical
breakdown
of a mixtureof marine,one-celled
and animals.Thiskerogenis alsooil-pronebut yieldsmorenaturalgasthanTypeI.
Type UI kerogen,derivedfrom the higherland plants,is sometimesknownas coaly
kerogen.The humicmaterialin TypeIII kerogenhasa low capacityto form oil and
yieldsmostlynaturalgas. Type IV kerogenconsistsmostlyof inert particlesthat
havebeenhighlyoxidizedbeforeburial,likecharcoal.
It is the rarestkerogentype
and has practically
no abilityto generateeitheroil or gas.
The chemistryof crudeoil can alsobe linkedto kerogentype and originalorganic
matter.Usuallyland-derived.
nearcontinental
non-marine
organicmatterdeposited
drainageareas(TypeIII coalykerogen)will form mostlygas, but any oil formedwill
be low sulfur,paraffinic
to paraffinic-naphthenic
crudeoils.lYarineorganicmatter,
particularly
protein-rich
typesderivedfrom marineanimals(TypeII mixedmarine
kerogen)tendsto yieldhighsulfuraromatic-intermed
iatecrude.

Temperatureand Time
Petroleumis generatedwhen kerogenis subjectedto the increasedtemperatures
that accompany
sedimentburial( Fiqure1 ).

Generatlon Inten6ity

g
E

Figure1

The alterationof kerogento petroleumis similarto other thermalcrackingreactions.

Largekerogenmolecules
of
decompose
uponheating/to yieldsmallermolecules
petroleumThesereactionsusuallyrequiretemperaturesgreaterthan 60 oC.At lower
temperatures,
duringearlydiagenesis.
naturalgas/(calledbiogenicmethaneor
marshgas) is generatedthroughthe actionof microorganisms
that live nearthe
earth'ssurface.Vast quantitiesof biogenicmethaneare probablygenerated,but
most of this will not encountera trap and will be lost to the atmosphere.
The temperaturerangebetweenabout60oCand 175oCis commonlycalledthe o/
window( Ftauret ). This is the principlezoneof oil formation.It beginsat burial
depthsof 1to 2 km and endsat depthsof 3 to 4 km in mostareas/depending
on
factorssuchas the geothermalgradient.The first oil generatedis heavyand tendsto
increases,
the
be richestin aromaticand NSOcompounds.
As burialand temperature
oil becomeslighterand moreparaffinic.
At temperatures
muchabove175'C,the
generationof liquidpetroleumceasesand gas formationbecomesdominant.When
formationtemperaturesexceed225oC,most kerogenhas usedup its petroleumgeneratingcapacity.Sourcerocksbecomeovermature.However,some methanecan
still be created,even at thesevery high temperatures,by the breakdownof the
generated
larger,heaviermolecules
of previously
crudeoil.
Sincethe conveTsion
of kerogento petroleumis basicallya seriesof chemical
reactions,time must also play a major role in this process.Young,Tertiary-agerocks
gradientsin orderto generate
must be deeplyburiedor havehighgeothermal
significant
amountsof petroleum.
Althoughgeneration,
migrationand entrapment
havebeendocumented
in rocksas youngas 1.0 to 1.5 millionyearsold, major
petroleumaccumulations
havenot beenfoundin rockslessthan 10 millionvearsold
(Halboutyet al., 1970).On the otherhand,someolderPaleozoic
and Mesozoic
sourcerocksmay not have beenburiedvery deeply,perhapsonly to the uppermost
part of the "oil window",but havestill generatedpetroleumbecauseof the time
factor. However,in most petroleumoccurrences/
temperatureappearsto be a more
significantfactorthan time.

Geothermal Gradients and Thermal Conductivity

Temperature,modifiedby time, has been instrumentalin the formationof most
majorpetroleumaccumulations.
canbe
Duringdrilling,formationtemperature
measuredby loweringself-recording
Whenthis is
thermometers
intothe borehole.
gradientcan be determined.
donefor variousdepthlevels,the geothermal
gradient,whichmeasures
The worldwideaveragegeothermal
in the
the increase
earth'stemperaturewith depth, is about 26 oc/km (l4oF/1O00ft). Gradients
measuredin sedimentary
basinsaroundthe worldtypicallyrangefrom lowsof about
1 8 ' C / k m t o h i g h so f 5 5 ' C / k m .
A low geothermalgradientcausesthe first formationof oil to beginat fairly deep
subsurface
levels,but it alsocausesthe oil windowto be quitebroad( Fioure1 ).

Thermal Gradient ('C/km)

Figure1

In contrast,a high geothermalgradientenhancesthe earlyformationof oil at

relatively
shallowburialdepths,but it causesthe depthrangeof the oil windowto be
quite narrow.Overall,however,the oil-formingprocessis more efficientin young
gradientand oil canform earlyat
sourcerocksfwherethereis a highgeothermal
shallowdepths(Klemme,1975).
gradientis mostoftendirectly
The magnitude
of a petroleumbasin'sgeothermal
relatedto the earth'sheatflow; it will be highwhereheatflow is high( HeatFlow=
Geothermal
Gradient* ThermalConductivity
highgeothermal
). Consequently,
gradientsare often found !n basinsthat are associatedwith activedeformation,sea
floorspreading
(tectonic)processes.
will usuallybe
and mountain-building
Gradients
low in basinsassociated
with old, stableinteriorsof the continents,
the craton.
Gradients
will alsotendto be low in areasinsulated
by coolunderlying
rocksor thick,
rapidly deposited
sediments.
gradientwill be influenced
Locally,
the geothermal
rocksthrough
by the subsurface
whichthe earth'sheat must pass.The thermalconductivityof rocks,is inversely

t0

gradient( HeatFlow= Geothermal

relatedto the geothermal
Gradient* Thermal
Conductivity). It variesboth with the rock type or lithology,and the kindsand
gradientwill normallyvary
amountsof pore-filling
fluids.Thus,the geothermal
(
vetically througha stratigraphicsequence Fiqure2 ), and temperaturewill have a
nonlinear
relationshiD
to burialdepth,

ThermalConductivity
{watts/meter - k}

Temperature("C)

Snrie
Sandslone
4t

.,

%".
b\

"u'

F i g u r e2

The present-daygeothermalgradientmay be of lessimportanceto maturationthan

paleogeothermal
conditions,particularlyin areasthat have undergonelarge-scale
upliftand erosion,The chemicalreactions
are
completed
at highertemperatures
normallynot reversible.It is thereforemost importantto be able to establishthe
past.Various
highesttemperature
attainedat sometime in the geological
measurementmethods,or paleothermometers,
have beendevisedto determinethe
maximumformationtemperatureof a sourcerock.

SubsurtacePressure
Pressure,whichlike temperatureincreaseswith depth, playsa relativelyminor role
-generation
process(Phillippi,
in the petroleum
1965),but hasotherimpoftant
effects.
The total overburdenpressureexertedat any point in the subsurfaceis the sum of
two forces:the weightdue to the over-lyingrock (lithostaticpressure)and pressure
due to fluidscontainedwithinthe pore spaces(fluid or pore pressure);therefore,
is
OverburdenPressure= LithostaticPressure+ FluidPressure..Lithostaticpressur,e
transmittedvia grain-to-graincontactsand averagesabout .6 psi/ft (.136 kglcm'z.
m) (13.6kPa/m).Fluidpressureis usuallytransmittedvia pore-to-pore
communication
extendingto the surfaceand is then calledhydrostaticpressure.For
a typicalsubsurfacebrine,hydrostaticpressuregradientis about .465 psi/ft (.1052
kglcm'm) ( 10.52kPalm).
Pressures
increase
with burialdepthand in a normallypressured
well,the fluid
pressureis alwaysslightlyless,and the lithostaticpressureslightlymore,than half

ll

of the total overburdenpressure,at any depth ( Fiqure1 ).

500

1000

Pressure(kglcm2)

Figure 1

However,abnormallypressuredrocksare sometimesencounteredin drilling,often

(i.e.
unexpectedly.
This may causeseriousproblems.If the rocks are overpressured
wherea permeabilitybarriersealsporefluidsoff from communication
with the
surface),the pressureexertedby the drillingmud may not be great enoughto hold
backthe fluidsin the rock.This couldcausea well to "blow out". Underpressured
rocks are lesscommon.However,they too can causeproblems,when high-pressure
drillingmuds enter the lower-pressured
formationcausinglossof circulationand
pluggingup of porespaces.
Thiscan lowerthe mud columnin the wellto sucha
degreethat even a normallypressuredformationmay blow out.
Althoughabnormally
highpressures
in varioussedimentary
may be encountered
provinces,they are particularlyprevalentin rocksdepositedin delta environments
wheresedimentatlonmay be too rapidfor deepshalesto thoroughlycompactand
dehydrate.h this case,someof the weightof the overlyingsediment,whichwould
otherwisebe taken up by grain-to-graincontactsin normallycompactedrocksis
taken up by the fluid in the porespaces.

The Source Rock

Sourcerocksare any rocksin whichsufficientorganicmatter to form petroleumhas
preserved,
beenaccumulated,
are usually
and thermallymatured.Organicparticles
fine-grained,and will settleout most easilyin quiet-waterenvironments.Therefore,
sourcerocksare most commonlyfine-grainedrocks,particularlyshales.Other
potentialsourcesare fine-grainedcarbonates(lime mud), mud-carbonatemixtures
(marl),or coal( Fioure1 ).

12

Shale

Carbonate

Coal

lDa:a /rorn KJF/nrae,t../80,

Figu re 1

rockwill
whetheran organic-rich
Oneof the mostimportantfactorsin determining
becomea sourcerock is its thermal maturity.However,some potentialsourcerocks
haveneverreachedthis thermallevel.An exampleis oil shaleslikethe GreenRiver
can be artificially
Shaleof the U.S.Rockyf4ountain
region,whereinstantmaturation
inducedby heatingthe rocksto temperatures
of about500 oC,a processcalled
pyrolysis.
been
Tar sands,likethe Athabasca
tar sandsof westernCanada,havesometimes
regardedas immaturesourcerocks.However,
the majorityopinionis that they were
onceconventional
oil reservoirs,
in whichthe oil becamedegradedfrom flushingby
fresh meteoricwatersand by bacterialaction,these processeshavingconverted
lighteroil into a viscousasphaltic
tar.
on
Preservation
of organicmatteris usuallyharderto achievethan its production.
land,with the exception
of someIakesand coalswamps,mostorganicaccumulations
are rapidlydestroyed
throughoxidationand biological
activity.f4orecommonly
preserved
organicmatteris
in marineenvironments.
Rapiddeposition
is one way to avoidthe destruction
of organicmatterand is
characteristic
of sourcerocksin thick,prograding
sedimentwedges,suchas deltas.
Rapiddeposition.
however,leadsto dilutionof the organicmatterby sediment.
Someshalesourcerocksfoundin rapidlyprograding
deltashaveorganiccontentsof
only 10lo.Shaleusuallyrequiresa higherorganiccontentthanthis to be an adequate
sourcerock. However,deltasoften haveexcellentsource/reservoirrock geometries,
and structures
are developed
earlyin response
to the sedimentload.In suchcases,
migrationand accumulation
of petroleumis probablymoreefficientthan usual,and
evenorganic-poor
shalesmakeadequatesourcerocks.
In mostcases,however,marineshaleswith organiccontentshighenoughto be
petroleumsourcerocksare slowlydeposited,underoxygen-freeconditionsthat
preventorganicdestruction.
marine
Thisoccursmostcommonlyin restricted

l3

environments,wherea basinis silledor otherwisepreventedfrom easy

communication
with the oDenocean.

EXERCISE

Whencommerciallyimportantnaturalgas is found, its generationcan usuallybe

relatedto eitherone of two factors.What are they?
When commerciallyimportant natural gas is found, its generationcan usually be
related to either one of two factors. What are they?
As a generalrule, how doesthe chemistryand densityof deeplyburiedand/or old oil
differ from that of young,shallowoil?
Old or deeply buried oil is lighter and richer in paraffin hydrocarbons. Young or
shallowlyburied oil is heavy and is the richest in aromatic and Nso-compounds.
List three of the four commonrock typesthat can be sourcerocksfor petroleum.
7. shale,
2, marl,
3, carbonate,
4. coal,

14

MIGRATION
AND ACCUMULATION
PROCESS
Migration Processes
At present,migrationis the most poorlyunderstoodand leastmeasurablestage in
the cycleof generation,
migration,and accumulation.
Prjmarymigration,which
involvesthe expulsionof petroleumfrom the sourcerocks,is still a great mystery.
Variousmodelsfor primarymigrationhave been proposed,althoughnoneappearsto
haveall the answeTs.
Secondarymigrationprocesseswhich involvethe movementof petroleumthrough
permeablelayers(carrierbeds)to the trap, are better understood.Nonetheless,
it is
still often very difficultto applythese conceptsto the explorationof a particulararea.
Althoughsecondarymigrationis governedprimarilyby buoyancy,whichtendsto
move petroleumupwardby displacingheavierwater,the tectonicand hydrodynamic
regimealso becomesimportant.Consequently,
a wide variety of spatial
arrangementsbetweensourcerocksand carrier/reservoirbedsis possible( Fioure1
).

Intertingering
Do/yndip,
Undetlying Overlying Inteftedded
o|oet
source
soutce
source

Figure1

In older,more consolidated
basinswherethere is little disruptivedeformation,
secondarymigrationoccursupdipalongextensivestructural-stratigraphicramps,
that carry petroleumfrom the deep basinto the hingeareasor a regionalarch (
Fiqure2 ).

l5

Figure 2

may
Long-distance
in thesecases,and largeaccumulations
migrations
are possible
migrationin
resultif the drainageareais particularly
large.However,secondary
youngbasinsthat are lessconsolidated
( and may be overpressured
) involvesmore
movementthroughfracturesand faults( Fiqure3 ).

Figure 3

In thesesituations,secondarymigrationoften occursover short distances.It is often

n-normal
influenced
by waterreleased
and by greater-tha
throughcompaction
verticalwater and petroleummovements,and the pathwaysare more difficultto
predict.Migration
is furthercomplicated
in that it canoccurquickly,overa short
time interval,or intermittently
overa longtime span,eitherearlyor latein a basin's
history.

16

Thus,whilethe conceptof secondary

applyingit
migrationis simpleto understand,
to the explorationtask is often exceedinglydifficult.

Reservoir Porosity and Perm eabiIity

Thereare two fundamentalphysicalpropertiesthat a good reservoirmust have: (1)
porosity,or sufficientvoid spaceto containsignificantpetroleum;and, (2)
permeability,the abilityof petroleumto flow throughthesevoids.
The only commonrock types that normallyhavethe favorablecombinationof
porosityand permeabilityto be reservoirsare sandstonesand carbonates( Fioure1

Sandstone

Garbonate
Fractured
rccks
types
&
dolomite)
of
other
0imestone

Fioure1

lYanyporousrocksare uselessas reservoirs,becausetheir passageways

or porethroatsare too smallto allowpetroleumto move throughthem. This can be due to
finegrainsize( as in siltstones
and shale), or to poorsorting( wherefine and
coarsegrain sizesare intermixedand the finer particlesclogthe passageways
)(
F i g u r e2 , a n d F i o u r e3 ) .

17

Coarse-grained,
well sorted
Good Permeability

Figure 2

The bestreservoirs
are coarse-to medium-grained
and showa highdegreeof
sortrng.

FineGrained

Poorly-sorted

PoorPermeability
Figure3

14uddy
sandstone
lithologies,
deposited
by turbiditycuTrents,
or rockscontaining
l8

unstablemineralswhichare easilyweatheredto clay generallymake poor reservoir

rocks.However,even poor reservoirqualitiescan be amply compensated
when there
is a considerable
thickness,
or net pay thickness,
to the oil columnor greatareal
extent for the productivehorizon.
Permeabilityis measuredin a unit calledthe Darcy.Mostreservoirs/however,only
have permeabilities
recordedin the rangeof the millidarcy(0.001 Darcy). Reservoir
permeabilities
typicallyrangebetween5 and 500 millidarcies,
althoughsome
reservoirsmay have permeabilities
exceeding5 Darcies.Gas,whichis lessviscous
than crudeoil, may be ableto flow from tight sandsor denselimestoneshaving
permeabilities
of onlya few millidarcies
or less.
Porosityin reservoirrocksis normallybetween10oloand 2oo/o,but some excellent
reservoirsmay haveporositiesof 30o/oor more.Accumulations
in reservoirswith less
than about 5oloporosityare usuallynot commercial.Porositycan be dividedinto
severaltypes, as summarizedin Fiqure4 .

t(c
E
'E

o.

-g
E
o

t'
d)

Figure4

ReservoirRockTypes
Sandstonesusuallyhave primaryporosity,whichdecreaseswith depth of burialas
the grainsare compactedand intergranularcementationdevelops.However,
leachingof carbonate
cementsand unstablemineralsin sandstones
cancausegood
secondaryporositieseven at depthswherethey would normallybe tight.
Carbonatereservoirsare usuallycementedquite early, and most losetheir primary
porosity.Carbonatesin petroleumreservoiTs
usuallyexhibitsecondaryporosity.This
10

pore
may be due to solutionprocessesr
to fracturing,or to intercrystalline
development.Intercrystallineporosityis particularlyimportantin many dolomite
reservoirs/wherecoarsecrystallinedolomitehas replacedlimestone.A volume
reductionof up to 13oloaccompanies
this reactionand may helpto createthe
secondaryvoids.Secondaryporositiesin both limestonesand sandstonesare often
developedby leachingalongfault zonesand unconformitysurfaces.In suchcases,
these zonesmay becomeimportantconduitsfor secondarymigrationof
hvdrocarbons.
A smallfractionof world oil reserveshas beenfound in lithologiessuchas shaleor
igneousand metamorphicbasementrocks.In these rocks,as in many tight, brittle
sandstonesand carbonates,the oil resideswithin fractureporosity.Suchreservoirs
can be quite productive;the fracturedMontereychert reservoirsof Californiaare one
examDle.

TrappingMechanisms
The last criticalfactor in the cycleof generation,migrationand accumulationis the
developmentof a trap. A trap is a geometricconfigurationof structuresand/ or
strata, in which permeablerock types (the reservoir)are surroundedand confinedby
impermeablerock types (the seal).In somecases,traps may be createdby
hydrodynamicfactors,that is, by the movementof subsurfacewaters,but these are
relativelyrare. lvlosttraps fall into one of three categories( Fiqure1 ): structural
traps, stratigraphictraps, or combinationtraps that have both structuraland
stratigraphicaspects.

&

Anticlinas

'|9"
e2NN

Faults

Structural Traps

3%

Unconformity

StratigraphicTraps

Combinalion
Stretigrephic Treps

Combination
Trap

Figure 1

20

Trapsmay containoil, naturalgas,or a combination

of both,with gastrappedat the
highestlevel( Fioure2 ).

ffi;tFF"tFrE
ffi
WEffiFrl,
:i;-:;?i

ffi

Figure2

Belowthe oil and gascolumnsand at the edgesof the trap,the poresof the
heavierthan oil.
reservoirare filledwith water,whichis, with few exceptions,
Structuraltraps ( Fiaure2, (a)) are limitedin sizeby their closure,the vertical
distancebetweenthe highand Iow pointsof the structure.
Theymay be full to their
full. lYany
spillpointsoT,as is moTecommon,may be lessthan completely
stratigraphictraps ( Fiaure2, (b)) are limitedonly by the quantityof petroleumthey
contain.Others,however,may be limitedby the sizeand shapeof the reservoirand
by laterallitholog
ic changes.

Structural Traps
Structuraltrapsare the most commonexplorationtarget,sincethey are often relativelyeasyto detectand
have providedover three-quarters
ofthe world's discoveredreserves.This is particularlytrue ofanticlines.
Anticlines may originatein many ways,throughcompression( Fieure I ),

2l

4 -

Figure 1

or as compactionand drapefeaturesover rigid high blocks ( Fieure2 ).

Figure 2

Anothrtype ofanticlinal trap, calleda rollover anticline,forms whererapid sedimentationonto

22

underaompacted
muds causesinstabilityand slumping.This prcducesa type offault calleda growth fault,
which may also trap oil ( Fieure 3 ).

Figure 3

Anticlines may occur aloneor in combinationwith faults ( Fieure4 ).

Figure4

Thesefaultsmayor maynothelpproduce
thetrap.Faultsmayalsobetrapsin theirownright( ligurell);
Usually,thereis
if petroleum
is to accumulate.
but in eithercasethefaultsmustbetightandimpermeable
no wayto testthisexceptby drilling.

z)

Figure5

Salt flow structuresor diapirscan generateanticlinaltrapsin the overlying sediment,as well asfault and
stratigraphictrapsalongtheir flanks ( Figure 6 ). Together,thsesalt flow-relatedtrapsaccountfor about
2oloofthe world's pefoleum reserves.

'++
+t-++

++
+t-++
++
+t-++
++ +
+t-++

Figure 6

24

Sratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphictraps,dueto lateraland veftical changesin rock type, accountfor about 137oofthe world's
with unconformities,whether
reserves.They fall within a wide rangeofcategoris.Someare associated
aboveor below them ( Fieure I ).

poslconlofinity
Pre-and

FigureI

sequences.
Othersare updip stratigraphicpinchouts( Fiqurc 2 ), within fluctuatingtransgressive-regressive

/,-///

//,.

/ aa.//.a.u,

t,/t/t/tti/,

7i/tiii/t/i:i/,
7.t/t/t:/it%iit
/..i
aa/..

ry.r.

//.../ /i
/./,/,,."..

aaa.//./// /)

Y.
ii/i,t/tttt

Ti/it//i/i/i:t
7ilirltiti/:it
114.' z-')..2,5.i
Updiplllatigaphic pinchdi

Figure 2

Stratigraphictrapsmay also be relatedto diageneticchanges( Fieure3 ), wheredifferentialsolutionor

25

cementationhavecausedthe rock type to vary laterally.

-ffi
-:-.j-'j:

$:;t;:;=7;;1
-.-:--.f-'j:::--:-:--1
Diagooetic(porositypinchodl

Figure 3

Somsandstonetrapsare elongatedbodies,eitherchannelsor coastalbanier bars(shoestringsands)(

Figure4 ).

Channelor barderbar (sfioesting sand)

Figure4

Theseare usuallysunoundedby shales,which may act as both sourcerock and seal.Carbonatereefscan

form stratigraphictrapsifa high porosityis preservedor a secondaryporcsity is developed( Fiaure5 ).
They often occur along shelfmargins,adjacentto deeperbasinswheresourcerocks can acaumulate.

LO

Figure 5

When comparedto structuraltraps,evidencefor stratigraphictlaps is often subtlea.ndthy havehistorically

beendifficult to find. However,seismictechniqueswhich detail lithologic changeshavesincebecome
availableto aid in the searchfor stratigraphictraps.
Combinationtlaps containabout9yoofthe world's petroleumreserves.Thesehaps are often found in areas
where faults and folds were activelygrowing during deposition.Inmany cases,thesegrowing structures
producedlateralchangesin sedimentfaciesor unconformities,.which
helpedform the trap.

Distributionof Trap Types

The formationof largetrapsconcurent with the stagesofpetroleum generationand migrationhasbeena
major factor in the formationofmost giant petroleumfields (Halboutyet al., 1970).A^giantfield is one that
containsover 500 million barrelsofrecoverableoil or its gasequivalent(3.5 trillion ft'). Giant fields are of
particularimportanoe,sincetogetherthey aocounlfor over three-quarters
ofthe world's known reserves.
An impodant lssonto be leamedfrom giant petroleumoccurencesis that the timing oftrap development
is critical both to the presenceand sizeofoil accumulations.
Optimal conditionsfor efficient migrationand
entrapmentoccur when structuresare activelygrowing, and stratigraphicfeaturessuchasunconformities
are being created,at aboutthe sametime as the generationand migrationstage.Late-stageshucturesmay
well be banen or may entraponly gas,sinceit is more easilyremobilizedthan oil. lt is importantto
rememberthat the task ofpetroleum xploralionis more complicatedthanthe simple locationofsubsurface
traps.Even in a petroleum-richbasin,the majority ofstructuresthat are testedwill be dry.

Sea/s
Trapsmust be sealedby impermeablebarriersin orderto stopthe continuedupwardmigralion of
petroleum.In the caseof anticlines( Fieure I ,

27

Anliclinetrap

Faulllrap

plnchodtrap
Straligraphic

unconformity
!rap

Figure I

(a)), only a vertical seal,or caprock.is required;but faults ( Figure I , (b)) and stratigraphictraps( Fisure 1
, (c)) must be sealedboth vertically and latelally.
Shaleis the dominantcaprockofworldwide reserves( Fisure 2 ) and is overwhelminglythe sealin basins
rich in terrigenoussediments,where sandstones
are the dominantreservoirrock.

Shale

Evaporite
(salt)

Caltonate
(limestone& dolomite)

Figure2

28

Evaporites,however,a.rethe most efficient caprock.They are particularlycommonin carbonate-rich

basins,andthey often form sealsfor carbonatereservoirs.Furthermore,evaporitescommonlydevelopin
rcstrictedbasinsettings,where accumulationsoforganic- ch sourcerocks are also favored.Dense
carbonatesarethe third most abundantcaprocklithology and sealabout27oofthe world's reserves.

EXERCISE
What factorsleadto a high degreeof primary porosityand permeabilityofa sandstonereservoir?

They are medium-to-coarse-grainedand show a high degree of sorting (screeningof

fine from coarse grains).
When reservoirsare found in rock types other than sandstoneor carbonate,where's
the oil usuallycontained?
Oil in reservoirsthat are not sandstonesor carbonatesare usuallv containedwithin a
secondary fracture porosity.
Listthe three major categoriesof petroleumtraps. Whattrap type overwhelmingly
accountsfor most of the world'sknownreserves?
The three major categories of traps are structural/ stratigraphic and combination
traps. Anticlines, a type of structural trap, overwhelmingly account for most of the
world's known reserves.
Whattwo rock types are most importantin formingcaprocksor seals?
The two most impoftant sealsare shalesand evaporites.
that
Thereare two commongeologicalfeatureswhich havesubsurfaceexpressions
are difficultto predict.In some casesthey are quite permeableand form impoftant
migrationpathways.In other cases,they are impermeableand may form tight seals
for traps. What are thesetwo features?
Faultsand unconformitiesmayl dependingon permeability, be either migration
pathways or form impermeableseals.

29

PETROLEUM
EXPLORATION
BasinDescriptionand Classifications
Becauseofthe burial andtemperaturerequirementsneededfor the maturationoforganic matter,most
petroleumwill be found in sedimentarybasins.Sedimentarybasinsare depressions
on the earth'ssurface,
causedby subsidence,
that receivegrcater-tlan-average
sedimentthicknesses.
Most basinshav sedimentfills in excessof2 kilometers,and somemay contain l0 or more kilometen of
sedimentaryrock. This is usuallysufficientfor at leastpart oftheir containedorganicmatterto matureto
petroleum,
However,being within the "oil window" is not enough.The petroleumrichnessofsedimentarybasins,or
eventhe presenceofpetroleum at all, is also highly dependenton sourcerock and reservoirdevelopment,
migrationpathways,geothermalregime,style andtiming oftrap development,andtlle presenceofgood
sealinglithologies.The ageofthe sedimentaryrockswithin a basinis also of someimportance.
Even thoughpetroleumreservescanbe found in rocks ofall ages,most giant fields and most ofthe world's
rservesoccur in sequences,
oflate Mesozoicand Cenozoicage( Fisure 1 ) . Paleozoicrocksprobably
had potentialto generatehydrocarbonsequalto that ofthese youngerrocks,but therehasbeenmore time in
which to destroyall or part ofthe petroleumthroughuplift and erosion(Halboutyet al, 1970).

FigureI

Petroleumenrichment,the incidenceofgiant fields, andthe habitatofpetroleum within sedimentarybasins

can be relatedto structural,sedimentological,
and geothermalsettings,which canbe usedto describea
numberof pefoleum basintypes.

30

Thereare severalgeneralways in which sedimentarybasinscanbe grouped( Figure 2 ).

Convergenl
Oivergent
Margin Cralonic Margin
Basin
Easin Basin

\r'
lntermediate
Crust
Figure2

They canbe divided on the basisoftheir underlyingmaterialor crust:

. continentalarust,which is relativelylight, graniticand underliesmost continentalareas;or,
. intermediatecrust,cornpositionallybetweengraniteandbasaltand occurringalong continent-ocean
margins.
They may also be groupedaccordingto the stability and movementoftlis underlyingcrust,as either;
o cratonicbasins,developedon the stablepartsofcontinentsaway from continentalmargins;
o divergent-marginbasins,formed along continentalmarginswherethe seafloor is spreadingand riftdrift (extensional)movementsoccur; or,
. convergent-margin
basins,formed along continentalmarginswhere continentsand/oroceansare in
collision and someoceancrustmay be consumed.
For the purposeofpetroleum exploration,however,we needa finer-tunedclassificationschemesuchasthe
ten-partbasinclassificationschemebasedon the work ofHuff(1980) andKlemme (1980),whichis
summarizedin Fisure 3 .

JT

Figure 3

Worldwide reservescan be related to their location within a petroleum basin, regardlessof its basin type (
Fisue 4 ).

Hinge-a.ea

Deep baain

luoblle Rlm

Figure 4

Most petroleum is found along a basin's flanks, either atong hinges that mark the break between the basin
and normal sedimentthicknessesofthe shelf, or along mobile rims. A sizeable amount ofpetroleum, about
18%, also occurs in extrabasinal settings. For example, in the central United States,a regional stratigraphic

high that receivedthinner-than-average

sedimentpersistedfor most ofthe last 600 million years.Yet this
region,the Cincinnatiarch,is a major petroleumprovinceand hassomegiant field production.
Oil usuallybecomesJighterand gasmore abundantwith depthin most sedimentarybasins.Oil also
becomeslighter and gasmore prevalentlaterallytoward a basin'scenter.The heaviestcrudeis typically
found along basinmargins.This lateralandvertical distributionofoil and gasis ofconsiderableimportance
to exploration.Partofthis pattemmay be attributedto increasedthermalmaturationwith depth.However,
anotherexplanationis that the lighter gasdisplacesearlierformedoil that had alreadyaccumulatedin the
trap (Gussow,1954).When the trap becomesfull to its spill point, the oil is displacedand movesupward
toward the basin'sflanks.

Explorationof a PetroleumBasin
Petroleumexplorationcan be divided into a seriesofcritical informationphases.With eachstep,there is a
progressivelyincreasingdatabase,from which to evaluatethe petroleumprospectsofa region.
PhaseI is the stageofearly surfacemappingand reconnaissance
geophysics( Fiqure I ).

rlgure r

It beginswith the unexploredbasin.To varying degrees,theremay be somepreviousknowledgeof surface

geologyand structures.Theremay also havebeenreportsofsurface indications(e.g.,surfaceseeps,
springs,asphalticvein-fillings, gasdetectedin waterwells, etc.)to encouragethe exploration.Surface
evidnceofpetroleum hasbeenimportantin the discoveryofnearly every major onshorepetroleum
provincein the world (Levorsen,1979),althoughthereare also major areaswith abundantsurfaceevidence
that haveprovento be subcommercial(e.g.,Cubaand Morocco).
At this stage,the geologist'srole is to obtain a more detailedknowledgeofsurfaca structures(i.e., potential
traps)and evaluateother aspectscritical to the explorationtask,suchas sedimentaryfacies,continentaliry,
and possiblemtamoryhism.The explorationgeologistmust work closelywith the gophysicistto relate
the surfacestratigraphyand structuresto the subsurface.At this stage,a geologicanalogis often usedto
comparethe unexploredbasinto other producing"look-alike" basinswhich appearto have common
seolosiccharacteristics.

.).)

PhaseII is the stageof seismic survey ( Fisure 2 ) .

Figure 2

(This is the initial step, in offshore exploration.) During this stage,more data is obtained on the depth
configwation ofpotential traps and hopefully some knowledge ofthe characterand volume ofthe
sedimentary fill is gained. It has generally been observedthat the chancesoffinding commercial oil is
roughly in proportion to the total sedimentvolume (Levorsen, 1979), particularly if mosl of it lies within
the depth range ofthe oil and gas window (Klemme, 1980). The volume ofsubsurface shale (source
potential) is also evaluated.
PhaseIII is the stageofexploratory or "wildcat" drilling, which stablishesfor the first time a detailed
sampling ofthe sedimentchamcter (reservoir, source and caprock potential), maturation, and the
geothermal regime ( Figure 3 ) .

Figure 3

34

The potential for a discovery exists at this stage,since the most promising prospects,usually surface or
seismically detectedsubsurfacestructures,are ddlled f[st. However, even a dry hole is not necessarily a
totaffailure. It can supplya largeamountofdata (e.g,,subcommercialshows;water-filledreservoir
downdip from a possible pinchout, etc.) that, if intelligently studied, may lead to the placement ofnev
wildcat wells.
PhaseIV, the discoveryphase,follows the successfulcompletionofsome wildcat wells ( Fisue 4 ) .

Spudded

Figure 4

At this stage,reservoirs are establishedand hydrocarbon types may be linked to certain stratigraphic units
ard/or trap types. Further wildcat drilling in less developedparts ofthe basin may be guided in part by the
play andpetroleumzone concepts.A play is defmedas a groupofgeologically similar, "look-alike"
prospects,usually at flxed horizons sharing common sfatigraphic features (lithology, unconformity). A
basin may also be divisible into discrete petroleum zones. Theseare sediment volumes whose contained
pools show several characteristicsin common. Application ofthe play and petroleum zone conceptsusually
causesthe successratio of drilling (discoverdfields/testedprospects;or bbls. founcVthickness
drilted)to
improve during the discovery stage.Many ofthe basin's largest fields will have been discovered, and
exploration for more subtle traps may corrmence.
PhaseV, the production phase,begins to provide exploration gaologists witl reserve estimatesand a
history ofthe hydrocarbon potential ofthe basin ( Eigqe :L). There is enough information to work out
field-size distribution pattems, which may help guide further exploration as the area matures.Both the field
size ofnew discoveries and the successrate of drilling typically tapersoff during this stage.

35

Figure 5

Commonly,not all ofa sedimentarybasinis at the samestageofdrilling and developmentat the sametime.
Part ofthe basinmay be maturelydrilled, while other areasthat may have appearedinitially less
geologicallyfavored,or were lessaccessible,
may still be only semi-matureor untested.Also, shallower
depthsmay have beenthoroughlytestedand have establishedproduction,while at the sametime deeper
stratigraphichorizonsmay be only at the seismicsurveyor wildcat stagesofdevelopment.It is significant
that new discovedesare still being madein sedimentarybasinswheredrilling and developmenthave
proceededfor 50 or moreyears.

EXERCISE
Two wells ( Fiqure1 ) , both successfulwildcatstappingthe same reservoir,have been drilled
intoa simplesedimentary
basin.As a rule,in whichwellwouldyou expectto encounter:
a. the mostDetroleum:

b. the heaviestcrudeoil in the basin;

c . t h e h i g h e s tg a s - t o - o l lr a t i o ( G O R ) ?
a. Well #2
b. Well #2
c. Well #1

36