GAS TURBINE BLADE

COOLING
By
Aditya Saini
P2008ME1103
Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar

Introduction
Gas turbines play a vital role in the todays industrialized society, and as the demands
for power increase, the power output and thermal efficiency of gas turbines must also
increase. The whole turbine is responsible for extracting energy from the high
temperature, high pressure gas produced by the combustor. A turbine blade is the
individual component which makes up the turbine section of a gas turbine and they are
often the limiting component of gas turbines because these blades have to sustain the
detrimental effects of high temperature and high pressure. Such extreme conditions
weaken the blades and make them more prone to creep failures and can also make the
blades susceptible to corrosion failures. Those high temperatures coupled with
centrifugal stresses and fluid forces can further lead to fracture and yielding. In the
advanced gas turbines of today, the turbine inlet temperature can reach as high as
1500C, this temperature even exceeds the melting temperature of the metal.

Fig .1 plot of how the Turbine entry temperature has increased over the years.

There are two ways in which the blades can survive such a harsh environment. One
solution comes in the form of advanced materials and the other way to tackle this
problem is to adopt various cooling techniques, which can be done either internally or
externally.

Figure 1 shows a plot of how the research in various fields has led to an increase in the
turbine entry temperature over the years.

Materials
The need for better materials spurred much research in the field of alloys and
manufacturing techniques, and that research resulted in a long list of new materials and
methods that make modern gas turbines possible.[1] One of the earliest of these was
Nimonic, used in the British Whittle engines.
The development of superalloys in the 1940s and new processing methods such as
vacuum induction melting in the 1950s greatly increased the temperature capability of
turbine blades. Further processing methods like hot isostatic pressing improved the
alloys used for turbine blades and increased turbine blade performance.[1] Modern
turbine blades often use nickel-based superalloys that incorporate chromium, cobalt,
and rhenium.[2]
Aside from alloy improvements, a major breakthrough was the development of
directional solidification (DS) and single crystal (SC) production methods. These
methods help greatly increase strength against fatigue and creep by aligning grain
boundaries in one direction (DS) or by eliminating grain boundaries all together (SC).[1]

Blade cooling
Gas turbine blades are cooled internally and externally. The cooling of turbine
components is usually classified in three categories, namely, convection, jet
impingement, and film cooling. The former two methods are related to removal of heat
from the structure after it has been transferred to the wall; while in film cooling, the
heat transfer is achieved by creating a protective film of coolant between the surface
and the hot gas.
Various internal and external cooling techniques are employed to decrease the blade
material temperature below the melting point. Convection cooling works by passing
cooling air through passages internal to the blade. Heat is transferred by conduction
through the blade, and then by convection into the air flowing inside of the blade. A
large internal surface area is desirable for this method, so the cooling paths tend to be
serpentine and full of small fins. Jet impingement cooling and pin fin cooling are also
utilized as a method of internal cooling. External cooling is also called film cooling.
Internal coolant air is ejected out through discrete holes or slots to provide a coolant

film to protect the outside surface of the blade from hot combustion gases. With
advanced cooling methods, the turbine inlet temperature could approach a temperature
of 2000 K.

FILM COOLING
The coolant, i.e. air, after passing through of the interior of the turbine blade is made to
exit the blade through holes on the leading edge. This cool air comes out of the leading
edge and forms a layer or a thin film protecting the blade from the hot gases.

Fig.2
Source: (from http://lttwww.epfl .ch/research/htprojects/fi lmcool.htm)

The primary process by which film cooling reduces the heat transfer to the wall is by
reducing the gas temperature near the wall, i.e. reducing the driving temperature
potential for heat transfer to the wall. As the coolant flows from the coolant holes, it
mixes with the mainstream gas resulting in an increase in coolant temperature. A
typical example of this is presented in figure 2 which shows measurements of the
temperature profile along the centerline of a coolant jet as it flows downstream of the
coolant hole.

Fig. 3.Thermal profiles showing the coolant distribution flowing from a film cooling hole
Source: Bogard, Airfoil film cooling

The coolant temperature at the wall will be at the adiabatic wall temperature, Taw, and
this temperature is generally assumed to be the driving temperature potential for heat
transfer into the wall. Generally a normalized form of Taw, referred to as the adiabatic
effectiveness or fi lm effectiveness, is used to characterize the film cooling performance.
The film effectiveness, , is defined as follows:[3]

Where Tc,exit is the coolant temperature at the coolant hole exit. For perfect film
cooling performance, the film effectiveness would have a value of = 1.0, i.e. Taw would
be equal to the coolant temperature at the exit of the hole; while a value of = 0 would
indicate that the film cooling has not reduced the gas temperature at the wall. In
practice, values decrease rapidly downstream of the coolant holes due to the strong
turbulent dispersion of the coolant jet. The primary measure of film cooling
performance is the film effectiveness, , since this has a dominating effect on the net
heat flux reduction.[3]

Ideally a film of coolant would be introduced to the surface of an airfoil using a slot
angled almost tangential to the surface in order to provide a uniform layer of coolant
that remain attached to the surface. However, long slots in the airfoil would seriously
reduce the structural strength of the airfoil, and hence are not feasible. Consequently
coolant is typically introduced to the airfoil surface using rows of holes. The film cooling
performance is dependent on the hole geometry and configuration of the layout of the
holes. Furthermore, various factors associated with the coolant and mainstream flows,
and the airfoil geometry, also significantly affect the cooling performance.

Factors affecting Film cooling performance

The various factors influencing the performance of the film cooling are listed in table 1
and some of the are discussed in greater detail further.

Table 1 Factors Affecting Film Cooling Performance

Source: Bogard, Airfoil film cooling

Mainstream Effects on Film Cooling Performance

There are a number of mainstream factors that can affect film cooling performance
including approach boundary layers, turbulence levels, Mach number, unsteadiness, and
rotation [4]. Because of the very high levels of mainstream turbulence exiting the
combustor and entering the turbine section, turbulence levels have the largest effect on
film cooling performance. High mainstream turbulence levels degrade film cooling
performance by increasing heat transfer coefficients and generally decreasing film
effectiveness.

Film Cooling with Shaped Holes

Improved film effectiveness can be achieved if the exit of the hole is expanded so that
coolant is slowed through a diffuser. There are two advantages for such a shaped hole:
the coolant exit velocity is reduced and a broader jet cross-section is presented to the
mainstream flow. Both these characteristics will reduce the tendency for the coolant jet
to separate. This results in good film effectiveness levels for shaped holes.

Airfoil Surface Effects on Film Cooling Performance

Surface curvature and surface roughness are significant factors affecting film cooling
performance. Clearly for turbine airfoils strong convex curvature exists around the
leading edge and along the suction side of the airfoil. Sometimes strong concave
curvature is encountered on the pressure side of the airfoils. Surface roughness varies
with the length of operation of the engine; new airfoils are relatively smooth, but after
some period of operation the surfaces can become quite rough due to erosion, spalation
of thermal barrier coatings, and deposition of contaminants. [3]
Surface roughness degrades film cooling performance by increasing the heat transfer
coefficient and potentially reducing film effectiveness. Heat transfer coefficients can be
increased by as much as 50% to 100% [5]. The decrease in film effectiveness at the
optimum blowing ratio was primarily due to the roughness upstream of the coolant
holes. The upstream roughness doubled the boundary layer thickness and significantly
increased turbulence levels which resulted in more separation of the coolant jets and
increased dispersion of the coolant.

INTERNAL COOLING
A typical cooled turbine blade is shown in figure 4. As shown in the figure, the vane is
hollow, so cooling air can pass through the vane internally. The coolant is extracted
from the internal channel for impingement and pin fin cooling. Jet impingement is a
very aggressive cooling technique which very effectively removes heat from the vane
wall. However, this technique is not readily applied to the narrow trailing edge. The
vane trailing edge is cooled using pin-fins (an array of short cylinders). The pin-fins
increase the heat transfer area while effectively mixing the coolant air to lower the wall
temperature of the vanes. After impinging on the walls of the airfoil, the coolant exits
the vane and provides a protective film on the vanes external surface. Similarly, the
coolant travelling through the pin-fin array is ejected from the trailing edge of the
airfoil. [6]

IMPINGEMENT COOLING
Impingement cooling is commonly used near the leading edge of the airfoils, where the
heat loads are the greatest. With the cooling jets striking (impinging) the blade wall, the

leading edge is well suited for impingement cooling because of the relatively thick blade
wall in this area.
Impingement can also be used near the mid-chord of the blade. Figure 4 shows jet
impingement located throughout the cross-section of an inlet guide vane. Several
aspects must be considered when developing efficient cooling designs. The effect of jethole size and distribution, cooling channel cross-section, and target surface shape all
have significant effects on the heat transfer coefficient distribution. Jet impingement
near the mid-chord of the blade is very similar to impingement on a flat plate; however,
the sharp curvature at the leading edge of the vane must be considered when utilizing
impingement in this region.

Fig. 4 Turbine Vane Cross-Section with Impingement and Trailing Edge Pin-Fin Cooling
Source: Han and Wright

Effect of multiple jets

The use of multiple jet impingements differ from single jet in performance, where a
multiple jet configurations Nusselt number is largely dependent on the Reynolds
number, due to the inherent cross-flow between jets significantly effecting the velocity
and viscosity of the stream [6]. Another important limitation considered is the spacing
between the jet and target when subjected to a strong cross-flow. With a large spacing
between the jet and target, a substantial cross-flow can deflect the jet away from the
desired impingement surface.
Although cross-flow can enhance the convective properties by increasing the motion of
cooling particles, deflection of the jets from the target reduces the amount of heat
transferred and is therefore unfavourable.

Rotational Effect on Jet Impingement Cooling

It has been concluded by various studies that rotation of the blades decreases the
impingement heat transfer, but the effective heat transfer is better than a smooth
rotating channel. The effect of rotation is least when jet direction has an angle of 45 to

rotation direction. However, a maximum of 40% reduction in heat transfer is noted

when jet direction is perpendicular to rotation direction. This may be because the
Coriolis force creates a swirl action on the spent flow and also deflects the jet when jet
direction is parallel to rotation direction. [6]

PIN-FIN COOLING
Due to manufacturing constraints in the very narrow trailing edge of the blade, pin-fin
cooling is typically used to enhance the heat transfer from the blade wall in this region.
The pins typically have a height-to-diameter ratio between and 4. In a pin-fin array
heat is transferred from both the smooth channel end wall and the numerous pins. Flow
around the pins in the array is comparable to flow around a single cylinder. As the
coolant flows past the pin, the flow separates and wakes are shed downstream of the
pin. In addition to this wake formation, a horseshoe vortex forms just upstream of the
base of the pin, and the vortex wraps around the pins. This horseshoe vortex creates
additional mixing, and thus enhanced heat transfer.
Many factors must be considered when investigating pin-fin cooling. The type of pin-fin
array and the spacing of the pins in the array effect the heat transfer distribution in the
channel. The pin size and shape also have a profound impact on the heat transfer in the
cooling passage. Because pin-fins are commonly coupled with trailing edge ejection (as
shown in figure 2), the effect of this coolant extraction must also be considered.

Pin Array and Partial Length Pin Arrangement

There are two array structures commonly used. One is the inline array and the other is
the staggered array. Figure 5 shows a typical experimental test model with a staggered
array of pin-fins.

Fig. 5 . A Typical Test Model and Secondary Flow for Pin-Fin Cooling Studies
Source: Source: Han and Wright

A closer spaced array (smaller x/D) shows a higher heat transfer coefficient. Their
observations of various researches have clearly indicated that addition of pin-fins
significantly enhances the heat transfer coefficient. However, the addition of pins also
increases the pressure drop in the flow channel. The average Nusselt number in a
channel with short pin-fins is primarily dependent on the Reynolds number of the flow,
and a weaker dependence is shown for the pin spacing. [6]

Effect of Pin Shape and Array Orientation

Straight cylinders in staggered array formation have the highest heat transfer followed
by filleted cylinders in the staggered formation. It is interesting to note that the fillet
cylinder inline formation has better heat transfer than the straight cylinders in the
inline formation. Though a staggered array gives higher heat transfer coefficients,
performance of the inline straight cylinders is best among the group and the fillet
cylinders in staggered formation are the worst. [6]
The cube-shaped pins have the highest mass transfer coefficients among the shapes
considered and round pins have the lowest mass transfer coefficients. Corresponding
pressure loss coefficients are higher for the cube and diamond shaped pins relative to
the circular pins.

Rotational Effect on Pin-Fin Cooling

Pin-fin cooling has been investigated for many years, but only recently has the effect of
rotation been considered in channels with pin-fins. Recently, Willett and Bergles studied
the effect of rotation on heat transfer in narrow rectangular channels (AR = 10:1) with
smooth and with typical pin-fin array, respectively, including channel orientation effect
with respect to the plane of rotation [7]
They found that the heat transfer enhancement in the pin-fin channel due to rotation
and buoyancy was less than the enhancement in the smooth channel. They showed that
heat transfer enhancement mainly is due to pin-fin flow disturbance; pin-fins
significantly reduce the effect of rotation, but they do not eliminate the effect.

CONVECTION COOLING
Apart from the jet impingement cooling, another technique that is adopted for effective
cooling is rib turbulated cooling. Jet impingement is used to cool the leading edge of the
blade, and pin-fin cooling with ejection is used near the trailing edge. In this method the
coolant is allowed to pass through serpentine passages lined with ribs inside the blade.
Fig. 6 shows the various methods of cooling the entire blade.

Fig.6 Schematic of a Modern Gas Turbine Blade with Common Cooling Techniques
Source : Han and Wright

Rib turbulators are the most frequently used method to enhance the heat transfer in the
internal serpentine cooling passages. The rib turbulence promoters are typically cast on
two opposite walls of the cooling passage. Heat that conducts from the pressure and
suction surfaces through the blade walls is transferred to the coolant passing internally
through the blade. This heat transfer mainly depends on the factors like the channel
aspect ratio, the rib configuration and the Reynolds number of the coolant flow. Various
studies have been conducted to understand the effects better and it has been found that
as the coolant passes over a rib oriented 90 to the mainstream flow, the flow near the
channel wall separates. Reattachment follows the separation, and the boundary layer
reattaches to the channel wall; this thinner, reattached boundary layer results in
increased heat transfer coefficients in the ribbed channel. If the rib turbulators are
skewed to the mainstream flow direction, counter-rotating vortices are created. Figure
7 shows in a channel with angled ribs, two counter rotating vortices are formed in the
cross-section of the cooling passage. However, if V-shaped rib turbulators are used, four
vortices are generated. The additional set of counter-rotating vortices associated with
the V-shaped ribs results in more heat transfer enhancement in a channel with Vshaped ribs than angled ribs. The ribs also create turbulent mixing in the areas of flow
separation. With this additional mixing, the heat is more effectively dissipated from the
wall, and thus additional heat transfer enhancement. [6]
Multiple studies have shown that by skewing the ribs, so they are angled into the
mainstream flow, the heat transfer coefficients can be further enhanced. Placing the ribs
with an attack angle between 30 and 60 results in increased heat transfer and reduces
the pressure penalty. The height of the ribs is typically 5-10% of the channel hydraulic
diameter, and the rib spacing-to-height ratio varies from 5 to 15.

Fig. 7. A Typical Test Model for Turbulated Cooling Studies with

Rib Induced Secondary Flow
Source: Han and Wright

An additional factor that should be considered when determining the heat transfer
distribution in cooling channels is the decreasing coolant flow rate due to extraction for
film cooling. Most modern turbine airfoils have ribs in the internal coolant channel and
film cooling for the outside surface. Therefore, some of the cooling air is bled through
the film cooling holes. The presence of periodic ribs and bleed holes creates strong axial
and spanwise variations in the heat transfer distributions on the passage surface.

Rotational Effect on Rib Turbulated Cooling

Heat transfer in rotating coolant passages is very different from that in stationary
coolant passages. Both Coriolis and rotating buoyancy forces alter the flow and
temperature profiles in the rotor coolant passages and affect their surface heat transfer
coefficient distributions[8]. It is very important to determine the local heat transfer
distributions in the rotor coolant passages under typical engine cooling flow, coolant-toblade temperature difference (buoyancy effect), and rotating conditions. Effects of
coolant passage cross-section and orientation on rotating heat transfer are also
important. Since the direction of the Coriolis force is dependent on the direction of
rotation and flow, the Coriolis force acts in different directions in the two-passes. For
radial outward flow, the Coriolis force shifts the core flow towards the trailing wall. If
both the trailing and leading walls are symmetrically heated, then the faster moving
coolant near the trailing wall would be cooler (therefore heat transfer would be
enhanced) than the slower moving coolant near the leading wall (i.e.,heat transfer
would be decreased). Rotational buoyancy is caused by a strong centrifugal force that
pushes cooler heavier fluid away from the center of rotation. In the first channel
rotational buoyancy affects the flow in a similar fashion as the Coriolis force and causes
a further increase in flow and heat transfer near the trailing wall of the first channel;
whereas, the Coriolis force favors the leading side of the second channel. The rotational
buoyancy in the second channel tries to make the flow distribution more uniform in the
duct.

Effect of Channel Cross-Section and Channel Orientation on Rotating

Channel Heat Transfer
The first studies of heat transfer in rotating channels were performed on square
channels oriented normal to the direction of rotation. A study by Wagner et al. reported
that the heat transfer coefficients on the trailing surface of the first pass can be
enhanced 2-3 times that of a non-rotating channel, while the leading surface
experiences a declination of up to 50% [9]. Opposite trends were present in the second
pass of this smooth channel. The cooling channel was lined with angled turbulators, and
it was found there is less of an effect of rotation in a ribbed channel than a smooth
channel [10]. Similar to the non-rotating channel, 45 angled ribs provide more
enhancement than 90 ribs in a rotating channel. It was also found that the overall heat
and mass transfer in a rotating channel with ribbed surfaces was not affected by the
Coriolis force.

REFERENCES
[1] Koff, Bernard L. (2003). "Gas Turbine Technology Overview - A Designer's
Perspective". AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and Exposition: The
Next 100 Years. 1417 July 2003, Dayton, Ohio. AIAA 2003-2722.
[2] Flack, p. 429.
[3] Bogard, Airfoil film cooling
[4] D. G. Bogard and K.A. Thole, Gas Turbine Film Cooling, accepted AIAA Journal of
Propulsion and Power, 2006.
[5] J.L. Rutledge, D. Robertson, and D.G. Bogard, Degradation of Film Cooling
Performance on a Turbine Vane Suction Side Due to Surface Roughness, ASME Gas
Turbine Expo, GT2005-69045, 2005; also see note 19 (Bogard).
[6] Han and Wright, Enhanced Internal Cooling
of Turbine Blades and Vanes
[7] F.T. Willett and A.E. Bergles, Heat Transfer in Rotating Narrow Rectangular Ducts
with Heated Sides Oriented at 60- Degree to the R-Z Plane, ASME Paper No. 2000-GT224 (2000); F.T. Willett and A.E. Bergles, Heat Transfer in Rotating Narrow Rectangular
Pin-Fin Ducts, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 25 (2002): 573-582.
[8] J.H. Wagner, B.V. Johnson, and F.C. Kopper, Heat Transfer in Rotating Serpentine
Passages With Smooth Walls, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery 113 (1991): 321-330;
S. Dutta and J.C. Han, Rotational Effects on the Turbine Blade Coolant Passage Heat
Transfer, Annual Review of Heat Transfer 9 (1997): 269-314.
[9] 69. J.H. Wagner, B.V. Johnson, R.A. Graziani, and F.C. Yeh, Heat Transfer in Rotating
Serpentine Passages With Trips Normal to the Flow, ASME Journal of Turbomachinery
114 (1992): 847-857.
[10] B.V. Johnson, J.H. Wagner, G.D. Steuber, and F.C. Yeh, Heat Transfer in Rotating
Serpentine Passages with Trips Skewed to the Flow, ASME Paper No. 92-GT-191, ASME
Journal of Turbomachinery. 116 (1992): 113-123.