Properties of concrete

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength, and as
such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it
matures concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and
tension. Concrete which is subjected to long-duration forces is prone tocreep.
Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for the
application. The density of concrete varies, but is around 2,400 kilograms per cubic metre
(150 lb/cu ft).[1] As a result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile
stresses even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete
elements subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in tension.
Reinforced concrete is the most common form of concrete. The reinforcement is often
steel, rebar (mesh, spiral, bars and other forms). Structural fibers of various materials are available.
Concrete can also be prestressed (reducing tensile stress) using internal steel cables (tendons),
allowing for beams or slabs with a longer span than is practical with reinforced concrete alone.
Inspection of existing concrete structures can be non-destructive if carried out with equipment such
as a Schmidt hammer, which is sometimes used to estimate relative concrete strengths in the field.
The ultimate strength of concrete is influenced by the water-cementitious ratio (w/cm), the design
constituents, and the mixing, placement and curing methods employed. All things being equal,
concrete with a lower water-cement (cementitious) ratio makes a stronger concrete than that with a
higher ratio. The total quantity of cementitious materials (portland cement, slag cement, pozzolans)
can affect strength, water demand, shrinkage, abrasion resistance and density. All concrete will
crack independent of whether or not it has sufficient compressive strength. In fact, high Portland
cement content mixtures can actually crack more readily due to increased hydration rate. As
concrete transforms from its plastic state, hydrating to a solid, the material undergoes shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage cracks can occur soon after placement but if the evaporation rate is high they often
can actually occur during finishing operations, for example in hot weather or a breezy day. In very
high-strength concrete mixtures (greater than 70 MPa) the crushing strength of the aggregate can be
a limiting factor to the ultimate compressive strength. In lean concretes (with a high water-cement
ratio) the crushing strength of the aggregates is not so significant. The internal forces in common
shapes of structure, such as arches, vaults, columns and walls are predominantly compressive
forces, with floors and pavements subjected to tensile forces. Compressive strength is widely used
for specification requirement and quality control of concrete. Engineers know their target tensile
(flexural) requirements and will express these in terms of compressive strength.
Wired.com reported on April 13, 2007 that a team from the University of Tehran, competing in a
contest sponsored by the American Concrete Institute, demonstrated several blocks of concretes
with abnormally high compressive strengths between 340 and 410 MPa (49,000 and 59,000 psi) at
28 days.[2] The blocks appeared to use an aggregate of steel fibres and quartz a mineral with a
compressive strength of 1100 MPa, much higher than typical high-strength aggregates such
as granite (100140 MPa or 15,00020,000 psi). Reactive Powder Concrete, also known as UltraHigh Performance Concrete, can be even stronger, with strengths of up to 800 MPa (116,000 PSI).
[3]
These are made by eliminating large aggregate completely, carefully controlling the size of the fine
aggregates to ensure the best possible packing, and incorporating steel fibers (sometimes produced
by grinding steel wool) into the matrix. Reactive Powder Concretes may also make use of silica fume
as a fine aggregate. Commercial Reactive Powder Concretes are available in the 1721 MPa
(2,5003,000 psi) strength range.

Contents
[hide]

1Elasticity

2Expansion and shrinkage

3Cracking
o

3.1Shrinkage cracking

3.2Tension cracking

4Creep

5Water retention

6Concrete testing
6.1Testing fraud in New York City

7See also

8References

Elasticity[edit]
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the aggregates and
the cement matrix and their relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is relatively
constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as matrix cracking
develops. The elastic modulus of the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-30 GPa and
aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to 50 GPa.
The American Concrete Institute allows the modulus of elasticity to be calculated using the following
equation:[4]
(psi)
where
weight of concrete (pounds per cubic foot) and where
compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (psi)
This equation is completely empirical and is not based on theory. Note that the value
of Ec found is in units of psi. For normal weight concrete (defined as concrete with
a wc of 150 lb/ft3 and subtracting 5 lb/ft3 for steel) Ec is permitted to be taken as .
The publication used by structural bridge engineers is the AASHTO Load and
Resistance Factor Design Manual, or "LRFD." From the LRFD, section 5.4.2.4, Ec is
determined by:
(ksi)

where
correction factor for aggregate source (taken as 1.0 unless determined otherwise)
weight of concrete (kips per cubic foot), where and
specified compressive strength of concrete at 28 days (ksi)
For normal weight concrete (wc=0.145 kips per cubic feet) Ec may be
taken as:
(ksi)

Expansion and shrinkage[edit]

Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. However,
if no provision is made for expansion, very large forces can be
created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not capable of
withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of expansion and
contraction. The coefficient of thermal expansion of Portland
cement concrete is 0.000008 to 0.000012 (per degree Celsius) (8
to 12 microstrains/C)(8-12 1/MK).[5]
As concrete matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing
reaction taking place in the material, although the rate of shrinkage
falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time (for all practical
purposes concrete is usually considered to not shrink due to
hydration any further after 30 years). The relative shrinkage and
expansion of concrete and brickwork require careful
accommodation when the two forms of construction interface.
Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is
initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal
loading it will never expand to its originally placed volume.
Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently
used for fireproofing of steel structures.

Cracking[edit]

Salginatobel Bridge, Switzerland.

All concrete structures will crack to some extent. One of the early
designers of reinforced concrete, Robert Maillart, employed
reinforced concrete in a number of arched bridges. His first bridge
was simple, using a large volume of concrete. He then realized that
much of the concrete was very cracked, and could not be a part of
the structure under compressive loads, yet the structure clearly

worked. His later designs simply removed the cracked areas,

leaving slender, beautiful concrete arches. The Salginatobel
Bridge is an example of this.
Concrete cracks due to tensile stress induced by shrinkage or
stresses occurring during setting or use. Various means are used to
overcome this.Fiber reinforced concrete uses fine fibers distributed
throughout the mix or larger metal or other reinforcement elements
to limit the size and extent of cracks. In many large structures joints
or concealed saw-cuts are placed in the concrete as it sets to make
the inevitable cracks occur where they can be managed and out of
sight. Water tanks and highways are examples of structures
requiring crack control.

Shrinkage cracking[edit]
Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo
restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a result of either
drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint is
provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other boundary
conditions) or internally (differential drying shrinkage,
reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the concrete is
exceeded, a crack will develop. The number and width of shrinkage
cracks that develop are influenced by the amount of shrinkage that
occurs, the amount of restraint present and the amount and
spacing of reinforcement provided.These are minor indications and
have no real structural impact on the concrete member.
Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within 0
to 2 days of placement, while drying-shrinkage cracks develop over
time. Autogenous shrinkage also occurs when the concrete is quite
young and results from the volume reduction resulting from the
chemical reaction of the Portland cement.

Tension cracking[edit]
Concrete members may be put into tension by applied loads. This
is most common in concrete beams where a transversely applied
load will put one surface into compression and the opposite surface
into tension due to induced bending. The portion of the beam that is
in tension may crack. The size and length of cracks is dependent
on the magnitude of the bending moment and the design of the
reinforcing in the beam at the point under consideration. Reinforced
concrete beams are designed to crack in tension rather than in
compression. This is achieved by providing reinforcing steel which
yields before failure of the concrete in compression occurs and
allowing remediation, repair, or if necessary, evacuation of an
unsafe area.

Creep[edit]
Creep is the permanent movement or deformation of a material in
order to relieve stresses within the material. Concrete that is
subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep. Short-duration
forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not cause creep. Creep
can sometimes reduce the amount of cracking that occurs in a

concrete structure or element, but it also must be controlled. The

amount of primary and secondary reinforcing in concrete structures
contributes to a reduction in the amount of shrinkage, creep and
cracking.

Water retention[edit]
Portland cement concrete holds water. However, some types of
concrete (like Pervious concrete allow water to pass, hereby being
perfect alternatives to Macadam roads, as they do not need to be
fitted with storm drains.

Concrete testing[edit]

Compression testing of a concrete cylinder

Same cylinder after failure

Engineers usually specify the required compressive strength of

concrete, which is normally given as the 28 day compressive
strength in megapascals (MPa) or pounds per square inch (psi).
Twenty eight days is a long wait to determine if desired strengths
are going to be obtained, so three-day and seven-day strengths
can be useful to predict the ultimate 28-day compressive strength
of the concrete. A 25% strength gain between 7 and 28 days is
often observed with 100% OPC (ordinary Portland cement)
mixtures, and between 25% and 40% strength gain can be realized
with the inclusion of pozzolans and supplementary cementitious

materials (SCMs) such as fly ash and/or slag cement. Strength gain
depends on the type of mixture, its constituents, the use of
standard curing, proper testing by certified technicians, and care of
cylinders in transport. For practical immediate considerations, it is
incumbent to accurately test the fundamental properties of concrete
in its fresh, plastic state.
Concrete is typically sampled while being placed, with testing
protocols requiring that test samples be cured under laboratory
conditions (standard cured). Additional samples may be field cured
(non-standard) for the purpose of early 'stripping' strengths, that is,
form removal, evaluation of curing, etc. but the standard cured
cylinders comprise acceptance criteria. Concrete tests can
measure the "plastic" (unhydrated) properties of concrete prior to,
and during placement. As these properties affect the hardened
compressive strength and durability of concrete (resistance to
freeze-thaw), the properties of workability (slump/flow),
temperature, density and age are monitored to ensure the
production and placement of 'quality' concrete. Depending on
project location, tests are performed per ASTM
International, European Committee for Standardization or Canadian
Standards Association. As measurement of quality must represent
the potential of concrete material delivered and placed, it is
imperative that concrete technicians performing concrete tests are
certified to do so according to these standards. Structural design,
concrete material design and properties are often specified in
accordance with national/regional design codes such as American
Concrete Institute.
Compressive strength tests are conducted by certified technicians
using an instrumented, hydraulic ram which has been annually
calibrated with instruments traceable to the Cement and Concrete
Reference Laboratory (CCRL) of the National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) in the U.S., or regional equivalents
internationally. Standardized form factors are 6" by 12" or 4" by 8"
cylindrical samples, with some laboratories opting to utilize cubic
samples. These samples are compressed to failure. Tensile
strength tests are conducted either by three-point bending of a
prismatic beam specimen or by compression along the sides of a
standard cylindrical specimen. These destructive tests are not to be
equated withnondestructive testing using a rebound hammer or
probe systems which are hand-held indicators, for relative strength
of the top few millimeters, of comparative concretes in the field.

Testing fraud in New York City[edit]

American Standard Testing and Consulting Laboratories, company
president Alan Fortich, and five other executives admitted filing
false documents on "thousands" of New York City construction
projects including the Yankee Stadium, the Second Avenue
Subway, and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center over 10
years. ASTCL had replaced Testwell Inc., another firm indicted for
faking concrete tests, in 2008.[6]

See also[edit]

Segregation in concrete - particle segregation in concrete

applications

Creep and shrinkage of concrete

Properties of Concrete
Properties of concrete are divide into two major groups

Properties of Fresh Concrete

Properties of Hardened Concrete

Fresh Concrete
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and it is in plastic state.
This is also called "Green Concrete". Another term used to describe the state of fresh concrete
is consistence, which is the ease with which concrete will flow.

Properties of Fresh Concrete

Following are the important properties of fresh concrete
1. Setting
2. Workability
3. Bleeding and Segregation
a. Bleeding
b. Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment

. Setting of Concrete
The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete. OR

The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR

The transition process of changing of concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of
concrete is based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus cement properties greatly affect the
setting time.

Factors affecting setting:

Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.
1. Water Cement ratio
2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate
Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can be transported, placed and
consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation.
OR
The internal work done required to overcome the frictional forces between concrete ingredients for
full compaction. It is obvious that no single test can evaluate all these factors. In fact, most of these
cannot be easily assessed even though some standard tests have been established to evaluate
them under specific conditions.
In the case of concrete, consistence is sometimes taken to mean the degree of wetness; within
limits, wet concretes are more workable than dry concrete, but concrete of same consistence may
vary in workability.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the presence of voids in
the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This requires sufficient
workability for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of work under the
given conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and greatly reduces the
strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.
Slump Test can be used to find out the workability of concrete. View Procedure of Slump Test

Factors affecting concrete workability:

i.

Water-Cement ratio

ii.

Amount and type of Aggregate

iii.

Amount and type of Cement

iv.

Weather conditions
1.

Temperature

2.

Wind

v.

Chemical Admixtures

vi.

Sand to Aggregate ratio

i. Water content or Water Cement Ratio

More the water cement ratio more will be workability of concrete. Since by simply adding water the
inter particle lubrication is increased. High water content results in a higher fluidity and greater
workability but reduces the strength of concrete. Because with increasing w/c ratio the strength
decreases as more water will result in higher concrete porosity. So, the lower the w/c, the lower is
the void volume/solid volume, and the stronger the hardened cement paste.
Strength Gain of Concrete

Also See: Rate of

Increased water content also results in bleeding, hence, increased water content can also mean that
cement slurry will escape through the joints of the formwork (Shuttering).

ii. Amount and type of Aggregate

Since larger Aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface areas (for the cement paste to coat) and
since less water means less cement, it is often said that one should use the largest practicable
Aggregate size and the stiffest practical mix. Most building elements are constructed with a
maximum Aggregate size of 3/4" to 1", larger sizes beingprohibited by the closeness of the
reinforcing bars.

Also See: Effects of Different Aggregates on Properties of Concrete

Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is generally
accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to it's originally-placed volume. More the
amount of aggregate less will be workability.

Using smooth and round aggregate increases the workability. Workability reduces if angular
and rough aggregate is used.

Greater size of Aggregate- less water is required to lubricate it, the extra water is available
for workability

Angular aggregates increases flakiness or elongation thus reduces workability. Round

smooth aggregates require less water and less lubricationand gretaer workability in a given
w/c ratio

Porous aggregates require more water compared to non absorbent aggregates for achieving
sam degree of workability.

iii. Aggregate Cement ratio

More ratio, less workability. Since less cement mean less water, so the paste is stiff.

iv. Weather Conditions

1. Temperature
If temperature is high, evaporation increases, thus workability decreases.

2. Wind:
If wind is moving with greater velocity, the rate of evaporation also increase reduces the amount of
water and ultimately reducing workability.

v. Admixtures
Chemical admixtures can be used to increase workability.
Use of air entraining agent produces air bubbles which acts as a sort of ball bearing between
particles and increases mobility, workability and decreases bleeding, segregation. The use of fine
pozzolanic materials also have better lubricating effect and more workability.

vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio

If the amount of sand is more the workability will reduce because sand has more surface area and
more contact area causing more resistance. The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned by
weight or volume. the goal is to provide the desired strength and workability at minimum expense. A
low water-cement ratio is used to achieve a stronger concrete. It would seem therefore that by
keeping the cement content high one could use enough for god workability and still have a low w/c
ratio. the problem is that cement is the most costly of the basic ingredients. the dilema is easily seen
in the graphs below.

3(a). Concrete Bleeding

Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in
which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the
lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in
a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin members like roof slab
or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny weather show excessive bleeding.

Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this water,
certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with the trowel,
the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top surface. This formation of
cement paste at the surface is known as Laitance. In such a case, the top surface of slabs and
pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed on roads produces dust in
summer and mud in rainy season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water cement ratio
used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and un segmented. These
continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the concrete
structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be intercepted by
aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the aggregate. This accumulation of
water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the aggregates and the paste.
The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that
accumulates below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete. The poor bond between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste
due to bleeding can be remedied by re vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and the
consequent bad effect can be reduced by delayed finishing operations.
Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but
continues more or less till the final setting time of cement.

Prevention of Bleeding in concrete

Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.

Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path for the
water to traverse.

Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.

Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement with low alkali content. Rich
mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.

The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is equal to
the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing workability, from the
body of concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the concrete.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much harm, because concrete
being in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the delayed
bleeding, when the concrete has lost its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the concrete.
Controlled re vibration may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.

3(b). Segregation in concrete

Back to top
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous mixture.
There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of
concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.

Segregation may be of three types

1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific gravity.
A well made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape
and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such
concrete will not exhibit any tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of
matrix do not allow the aggregate to fall apart, at the same time; the matrix itself is sufficiently
contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also does not find it easy to move out freely from the
rest of the ingredients.

The conditions favorable for segregation are:

1. Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the
aggregates
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of concrete
Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered that
only comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. It too wet a mix is excessively vibrated; it is likely that
the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is continued just for
required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time, particularly, in too wet
a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of coarse aggregate in matrix.

4. Hydration in concrete

Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles. The hydration of cement is not a
momentary action but a process continuing for long time. Of course, the rate of hydration is fast to
start with, but continues over a very long time at a decreasing rate In the field and in actual work,
even a higher water/cement ratio is used, since the concrete is open to atmosphere, the water used
in the concrete evaporates and the water available in the concrete will not be sufficient for effective
hydration to take place particularly in the top layer.
If the hydration is to continue, extra water must be added to refill the loss of water on account of
absorption and evaporation. Therefore, the curing can be considered as creation of a favorable
environment during the early period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable conditions are, a
suitable temperature and ample moisture.
Concrete, while hydrating, releases high heat of hydration. This heat is harmful from the point of
view of volume stability. Jeat of hydration of concrete may also shrinkage in concrete, thus producing
cracks. If the heat generated is removed by some means, the adverse effect due to the generation of
heat can be reduced. This can be done by a thorough water curing.

5. Air Entrainment
Air entrainment reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air
entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened
concrete. These include:
1. Resistance to freezethaw action in the hardened concrete.
2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
3. Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
5. Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.

Properties of normal strength Portland cement concrete

Typical properties of normal strength Portland cement concrete:

Density : 2240 - 2400 kg/m3 (140 - 150 lb/ft3)

Compressive strength : 20 - 40 MPa (3000 - 6000 psi)

Flexural strength : 3 - 5 MPa (400 - 700 psi)

Tensile strength : 2 - 5 MPa (300 - 700 psi)

Modulus of elasticity : 14000 - 41000 MPa (2 - 6 x 106 psi)

Permeability : 1 x 10-10 cm/sec

Coefficient of thermal expansion : 10-5 oC-1 (5.5 x 10-6 oF-1)

Drying shrinkage : 4 - 8 x 10-4

Drying shrinkage of reinforced concrete : 2 - 3 x 10-4

Poisson's ratio : 0.20 - 0.21

Shear strength : 6 - 17 MPa

Specific heat capacity : 0.75 kJ/kg K (0.18 Btu/lbm oF (kcal/kg oC))

Strength:
The strength of concrete is basically referred to compressive strength and it depends upon three
factors.
1- Paste Strength
2- Interfacial Bonding
3- Aggregate Strength

1. Paste strength:
It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are compacted together. If
the paste has higher binding strength, higher will be strength of concrete.

2. Interfacial bonding:
Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength. Clay hampers the bonding between
paste and aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding between paste and
aggregate.

3. Aggregate strength:
It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to concrete especially coarse aggregates which act
just like bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding and high strength.

Factors affecting Strength of concrete:

Following are the factors that affect the strength of concrete:
1. Water-Cement ratio
2. Type of cementing material

3. Amount of cementing material

4. Type of aggregate
5. Air content
6. Admixtures
1. Water-Cement ratio:
It is water cement ratio that basically governs the property of strength. Lesser the water cement
ratio, greater will be strength.
2. Type of cement:
Type of cement affect the hydration process and therefore strength of concrete.
Amount of cementing material: it is the paste that holds or binds all the ingredients. Thus greater
amount of cementing material greater will be strength.
3. Type of Aggregate:
Rough and angular aggregates is preferable as they provide greater bonding.
4. Admixtures:
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water cement ratio and increase the strength of
concrete at same water cement ratio. Mineral admixtures affect the strength at later stage and
increase the strength by increasing the amount of cementing material

Creep in concrete
Definition:
Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long term
pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually occurs in the
direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more compressed, or a beam
bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break apart. Creep is factored in when
concrete structures are designed.

Factors Affecting Creep

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete

1. Influence of Aggregate

Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which do not
creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less is the
magnitude of creep. The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing
creep.
It can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the creep. Light weight
aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.

2. Influence of Mix Proportions:

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing creep. A
poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep increases with
increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is inversely proportional
to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which are affecting the water/cement
ratio are also affecting the creep.

3. Influence of Age:
Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude of
creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with time. Such
gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more. What is said
above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture content of the concrete
being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a
critical consideration in design.

In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to buckling.

In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep may
relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or movement
of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete structures to reduce the
internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained shrinkage.

In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature conditions

at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of cracking in the
interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to see that increase in
temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete structure.

Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.

Durability of Concrete
Definition
The ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without deterioration for a
long period of years is known as durability.
R
Durability of concrete may be defined as the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical
attack, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties.
Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack and
abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the duration or life
span of trouble-free performance. Different concretes require different degrees of durability
depending on the exposure environment and properties desired. For example, concrete exposed to
tidal seawater will have different requirements than indoor concrete.
Concrete will remain durable if:

The cement paste structure is dense and of low permeability

Under extreme condition, it has entrained air to resist freeze-thaw cycle.

It is made with graded aggregate that are strong and inert

The ingredients in the mix contain minimum impurities such as alkalis, Chlorides, sulphates
and silt

Factors Affecting Durability of Concrete

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors:

Cement content
Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If cement is
reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to inadequate compaction.
However, if water is added to improve workability, water / cement ratio increases and resulting in
highly permeable material.

Compaction
The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction. Usually it is being
governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks, and density of the steelwork

Curing
It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and to ensure
hydration process occur completely

Cover
Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

Permeability
It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that higher permeability is
usually caused by higher porosity .Therefore, a proper curing, sufficient cement, proper compaction
and suitable concrete cover could provide a low permeability concrete

Types of Durability of Concrete

There are many types but the major Concrete Durability types are:
1. Physical durability
2. Chemical durability

Physical Durability
Physical durability is against the following actions
1. Freezing and thawing action
2. Percolation / Permeability of water
3. Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration

Chemical Durability
Chemical durability is against the following actions
1. Alkali Aggregate Reaction
2. Sulphate Attack
3. Chloride Ingress
4. Delay Ettringite Formation

5. Corrosion of reinforcement

Causes for the Lack of Durability in Concrete

1. External Causes:
a. Extreme Weathering Conditions
b. Extreme Temperature
c. Extreme Humidity
d. Abrasion
e. Electrolytic Action
f.

Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases

2. Internal Causes
a) Physical

Volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and cement paste

Frost Action

b) Chemical

Alkali Aggregate Reactions

i. Alkali Silica Reaction
ii. Alkali Silicate Reaction
iii. Alkali Carbonate Reaction

Corrosion of Steel

Shrinkage in Concrete
Concrete is subjected to changes in volume either autogenous or induced. Volume change is one of
the most detrimental properties of concrete, which affects the long-term strength and durability. To
the practical engineer, the aspect of volume change in concrete is important from the point of view
that it causes unsightly cracks in concrete.

We have discussed elsewhere the effect of volume change due to thermal properties of aggregate
and concrete, due to alkali/aggregate reaction, due to sulphate action etc. Presently we shall discuss
the volume change on account of inherenet properties of concrete shrinkage.
One of the most objectionable defects in concrete is the presence of cracks, particularly in floors and
pavements. One of the important factors that contribute to the cracks in floors and pavements is that
due to shrinkage. It is difficult to make concrete which does not shrink and crack. It is only a question
of magnitude.
Now the question is how to reduce the shrinkage and shrinkage cracks in concrete structures. The
term shrinkage is loosely used to describe the various aspects of volume changes in concrete due to
loss of moisture at different stages due to different reasons.

Types of Shrinkage in Concrete

To understand this aspect more closely, shrinkage can be classified in the following way:
(a) Plastic Shrinkage
(b) Drying Shrinkage
(c) Autogeneous Shrinkage
(d) Carbonation Shrinkage
The Types of shrinkage are explained as below:

a. Plastic Shrinkage
Shrinkage of this type manifests itself soon after the concrete is placed in the forms while the
concrete is still in the plastic state. Loss of water by evaporation from the surface of concrete or by
the absorption by aggregate or subgrade, is believed to be the reasons of plastic shrinkage. The loss
of water results in the reduction of volume. The aggregate particles or the reinforcement
comes in the way of subsidence due to which cracks may appear at the surface or internally around
the aggregate or reinforcement.
In case of floors and pavements where the surface area exposed to drying is large as compared to
depth, when this large surface is exposed to hot sun and drying wind, the surface of concrete dries
very fast which results in plastic shrinkage. Sometimes even if the concrete is not subjected to
severe drying, but poorly made with a high water/cement ratio, large quantity of water bleeds and
accumulates at the surface. When this water at the surface dries out, the surface concrete collapses
causing cracks.
Plastic concrete is sometimes subjected to unintended vibration or yielding of formwork support
which again causes plastic shrinkage cracks as the concrete at this stage has not developed enough

strength. From the above it can be inferred that high water/cement ratio, badly proportioned
concrete, rapid drying, greater bleeding, unintended vibration etc., are some of the reasons for
plastic shrinkage. It can also be further added that richer concrete undergoes greater plastic
shrinkage.
Plastic shrinkage can be reduced mainly by preventing the rapid loss of water from surface. This can
be done by covering the surface with polyethylene sheeting immediately on finishing operation; by
fog spray that keeps the surface moist; or by working at night. Use of small quantity of aluminium
powder is also suggested to offset the effect of plastic shrinkage.
Similarly, expansive cement or shrinkage compensating cement also can be used for controlling the
shrinkage during the setting of concrete.

b. Drying Shrinkage
Just as the hydration of cement is an ever lasting process, the drying shrinkage is also an ever
lasting process when concrete is subjected to drying conditions. The drying shrinkage of concrete is
analogous to the mechanism of drying of timber specimen. The loss of free water contained in
hardened concrete, does not result in any appreciable dimension change. It is the loss of water held
in gel pores that causes the change in the volume. Under drying conditions, the gel water is lost
progressively over a long time, as long as the concrete is kept in drying conditions. Cement paste
shrinks more than mortar and mortar shrinks more than concrete. Concrete made with smaller size
aggregate shrinks more than concrete made with bigger size aggregate. The magnitude of drying
shrinkage is also a function of the fineness of gel. The finer the gel the more is the shrinkage.

c. Autogeneous Shrinkage
In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted, when
temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a conservative system is
known as autogeneous shrinkage.Autogeneous shrinkage is of minor importance and is not
applicable in practice to many situations except that of mass of concrete in the interior of a concrete
dam.

d. Carbonation Shrinkage
Carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere reacts in the presence of water with hydrated cement.
Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] gets converted to calcium carbonate and also some other cement
compounds are decomposed. Such a complete decomposition of calcium compound in hydrated
cement is chemically possible even at the low pressure of carbon dioxide in normal atmosphere.
Carbonation penetrates beyond the exposed surface of concrete very slowly.
The rate of penetration of carbon dioxide depends also on the moisture content of the concrete and
the relative humidity of the ambient medium. Carbonation is accompanied by an increase in
weight of the concrete and by shrinkage.

Carbonation shrinkage is probably caused by the dissolution of crystals of calcium hydroxide and
deposition of calcium carbonate in its place. As the new product is less in volume than the product
replaced, shrinkage takes place.
Carbonation of concrete also results in increased strength and reduced permeability, possibly
because water released by carbonation promotes the process of hydration and also calcium
carbonate reduces the voids within the cement paste. As the magnitude of carbonation shrinkage is
very small when compared to long term drying shrinkage, this aspect is not of much significance

Factors Affecting Shrinkage

One of the most important factors that affects shrinkage is the drying condition or in other words, the
relative humidity of the atmosphere at which the concrete specimen is kept. If the concrete is placed
in 100 per cent relative humidity for any length of time, there will not be any shrinkage; instead there
will be a slight swelling. The typical relationship between shrinkage and time for which concrete is
stored at different relative humidities is shown in Figure. The graph shows that the magnitude of
shrinkage increases with time and also with the reduction of relative humidity.
The rate of shrinkage decreases rapidly with time. It is observed that 14 to 34 per cent of the 20
year shrinkage occurs in 2 weeks, 40 to 80 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in 3 months and
66 to 85 per cent of the 20 year shrinkage occurs in one year. Another important factor which
influences the magnitude of shrinkage is water/cement ratio of the concrete. The richness of the
concrete also has a significant influence on shrinkage. Aggregate plays an important role in the
shrinkage properties of concrete. The quantum of an aggregate, its size, and its modulus of elasticity
influence the magnitude of drying shrinkage.
Harder aggregate with higher modulus of elasticity like quartz shrinks much less than softer
aggregates such as sandstone.
Moisture Movement Concrete shrinks when allowed to dry in air at a lower relative humidity and it
swells when kept at 100 per cent relative humidity or when placed in water.
Just as drying shrinkage is an ever continuing process, swelling, when continuously placed in water
is also an ever continuing process. If a concrete sample subjected to drying condition, at some
stage, is subjected to wetting condition, it starts swelling. It is interesting to note that all the initial
drying shrinkage is not recovered even after prolonged storage in water which shows that the
phenomenon of drying shrinkage is not a fully reversible one.
Just as the drying shrinkage is due to loss of adsorbed water around gel particles, swelling is due
to the adsorption of water by the cement gel. The water molecules act against the cohesive force
and tend to force the gel particles further apart as a result of which swelling takes place. In addition,
the ingress of water decreases the surface tension of the gel.
The property of swelling when placed in wet condition, and shrinking when placed in drying condition
is referred as moisture movement in concrete

Acid Attack on Concrete

Acid Attack:
Ordinary Portland cement is alkaline in nature. When the cement paste comes into contact with the
acids its components break down, this phenomenon is known as acid attack.
When acid attack concrete it dissolves both hydrated and unhydrated cement compounds as well as
calcareous aggregates. In many of the cases the chemical reaction results in water soluble calcium
compounds which are leached away. Concrete vulnerability to acid attack increases as the pH of the
acid in contact decreases from 6.5. Degree of aggression is Slight for pH: 6.5 to 5.5, Severe for
pH: 5.5 to 4.5 and Very Severe for pH less than 4.5.
Note that the aggression of the acid attack is not only because of its pH value but also due to the
presence of CO2 in relation with the hardness of water.

Rate of Strength Gain of Concrete

Strength can be defined as ability to resist change. One of the most valuable properties of the
concrete is its strength. Strength is most important parameter that gives the picture of overall quality
of concrete. Strength of concrete usually directly related to cement paste.
Many factors influence the rate at which the strength of concrete increases after mixing.
Before coming toward the factors that influence the strength gain of concrete, it is important to have
concept of these terminologies:
Hardening is the process of growth of strength. This is often confused with 'setting' but setting and
hardening are not the same.
Setting is the stiffening of the concrete after it has been placed. Hardening may continue for weeks
or months after the concrete has been mixed and placed.

Factors affecting strength gain & rate of strength gain of concrete

Concrete porosity
Voids in concrete can be filled with air or with water. Broadly speaking, the more porous the
concrete, the weaker it will be. Probably the most important source of porosity in concrete is the ratio
of water to cement in the mix, known as the 'water to cement' ratio. Water/cement ratio

This is defined as the mass of water divided by the mass of

cement
in a mix. The water/cement ratio may be abbreviated to 'w/c ratio' or just 'w/c'. In mixes where the
w/c is greater than approximately 0.4, all the cement can, react with water to form cement hydration
products. At higher w/c ratios it follows that the space occupied by the additional water above w/c =
0.4 will remain as pore space filled with water, or with air if the concrete dries out.
Consequently, as the w/c ratio increases, the porosity of the cement paste in the concrete also
increases. As the porosity increases, the compressive strength of the concrete will decrease.

Soundness of aggregate
If the aggregate in concrete is weak, the concrete will also be weak. Rocks with low strength, such
as chalk, are clearly unsuitable for use as aggregate.

Aggregate paste bond

The compactness of the bond between the paste and the aggregate is critical. If there is no bond,
the aggregate effectively represents a void & voids are a source of weakness in concrete.

Cement-related parameters
Many parameters relating to the composition of the cement constituents and their proportions in the
cement can affect the rate of strength gain and the final strength achieved. These include:

1. Alite content (Tri-Calcium silicates) & Belite contents (Di-calcium silicates)

2. Alite & belite reactivity
3. Sulfate contents
Alite is the most reactive cement mineral that contributes significantly to concrete strength. More
Alite should give better early strengths ('early' means up to about 7 days).
Sulfate in cement, both the clinker sulfate and added gypsum, retards the hydration phase. If there is
insufficient sulfate, a flash set (rapid hardening of freshly mixed cement paste with noticeable heat
evolution) may occur. on the other hand too much sulfate contents can cause false-setting(rapid
hardening of freshly mixed cement paste with minimum heat evolution)
Some physical parameters of cement also play role in strength gain of concrete like Cement
surface area and particle size distribution.
Fineness is often expressed in terms of total particle surface area. More fine is cement; greater will
be its hydration rate. Particle size distribution is also very important prospect in strength gain of
concrete. Cement with very finely-ground gypsum and clinker particles results in slower hydration.

Tests To Determine The Strength Gain & Rate of Strength Gain Of Concrete
In concrete practice the strength of concrete is characterized by the 28 day value and some other
properties are also related to the 28 day strength. After 28 days, different tests are usually performed
to determine the strength gain of the concrete. These are as under:

For Strength Gain:

Compressive Strength Test
1. Cylinder test
2. Cube test

Tensile Strength Test

Split cylinder test
Flexural Strength Test
1. Two point loading test
2. Three point loading test

Rate of strength gain of concrete:

To determine the rate of gain of strength of concrete, there is a need to select period shorter than 28
day, as 28 day is considered to be the reference time. In concrete practice, it is accepted that after
28 days concrete usually gains most of its strength. Strength determined at an early stage say after
7th day of placing of concrete can be compared to strength determined after 28 days, which is
considered to be the reference time. In this way, rate of gain of strength of concrete can be
determined.
Properties of concrete are divide into two major groups

Properties of Fresh Concrete

Properties of Hardened Concrete

Fresh Concrete
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and it is in plastic state.
This is also called "Green Concrete". Another term used to describe the state of fresh concrete
is consistence, which is the ease with which concrete will flow.

Properties of Fresh Concrete

Following are the important properties of fresh concrete
1. Setting
2. Workability
3. Bleeding and Segregation
a. Bleeding
b. Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment

1. Setting of Concrete
The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete. OR
The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR

The transition process of changing of concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of
concrete is based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus cement properties greatly affect the
setting time.

Factors affecting setting:

Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.
1. Water Cement ratio
2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate

2. Workability of Concrete
Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can be transported, placed and
consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation.
OR
The internal work done required to overcome the frictional forces between concrete ingredients for
full compaction. It is obvious that no single test can evaluate all these factors. In fact, most of these
cannot be easily assessed even though some standard tests have been established to evaluate
them under specific conditions.
In the case of concrete, consistence is sometimes taken to mean the degree of wetness; within
limits, wet concretes are more workable than dry concrete, but concrete of same consistence may
vary in workability.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the presence of voids in
the compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This requires sufficient
workability for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of work under the
given conditions. Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and greatly reduces the
strength: 5% of voids can lower the strength by as much as 30%.
Slump Test can be used to find out the workability of concrete. View Procedure of Slump Test

Factors affecting concrete workability:

i.

Water-Cement ratio

ii.

Amount and type of Aggregate

iii.

Amount and type of Cement

iv.

Weather conditions
1.

Temperature

2.

Wind

v.

Chemical Admixtures

vi.

Sand to Aggregate ratio

i. Water content or Water Cement Ratio

More the water cement ratio more will be workability of concrete. Since by simply adding water the
inter particle lubrication is increased. High water content results in a higher fluidity and greater
workability but reduces the strength of concrete. Because with increasing w/c ratio the strength
decreases as more water will result in higher concrete porosity. So, the lower the w/c, the lower is
the void volume/solid volume, and the stronger the hardened cement paste.
Strength Gain of Concrete

Also See: Rate of

Increased water content also results in bleeding, hence, increased water content can also mean that
cement slurry will escape through the joints of the formwork (Shuttering).

ii. Amount and type of Aggregate

Since larger Aggregate sizes have relatively smaller surface areas (for the cement paste to coat) and
since less water means less cement, it is often said that one should use the largest practicable
Aggregate size and the stiffest practical mix. Most building elements are constructed with a
maximum Aggregate size of 3/4" to 1", larger sizes beingprohibited by the closeness of the
reinforcing bars.

Also See: Effects of Different Aggregates on Properties of Concrete

Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is initially placed, it is generally
accepted that under thermal loading it will never expand to it's originally-placed volume. More the
amount of aggregate less will be workability.

Using smooth and round aggregate increases the workability. Workability reduces if angular
and rough aggregate is used.

Greater size of Aggregate- less water is required to lubricate it, the extra water is available
for workability

Angular aggregates increases flakiness or elongation thus reduces workability. Round

smooth aggregates require less water and less lubricationand gretaer workability in a given
w/c ratio

Porous aggregates require more water compared to non absorbent aggregates for achieving
sam degree of workability.

iii. Aggregate Cement ratio

More ratio, less workability. Since less cement mean less water, so the paste is stiff.

iv. Weather Conditions

1. Temperature
If temperature is high, evaporation increases, thus workability decreases.

2. Wind:
If wind is moving with greater velocity, the rate of evaporation also increase reduces the amount of
water and ultimately reducing workability.

v. Admixtures
Chemical admixtures can be used to increase workability.
Use of air entraining agent produces air bubbles which acts as a sort of ball bearing between
particles and increases mobility, workability and decreases bleeding, segregation. The use of fine
pozzolanic materials also have better lubricating effect and more workability.

vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio

If the amount of sand is more the workability will reduce because sand has more surface area and
more contact area causing more resistance. The ingredients of concrete can be proportioned by
weight or volume. the goal is to provide the desired strength and workability at minimum expense. A
low water-cement ratio is used to achieve a stronger concrete. It would seem therefore that by
keeping the cement content high one could use enough for god workability and still have a low w/c
ratio. the problem is that cement is the most costly of the basic ingredients. the dilema is easily seen
in the graphs below.

3(a). Concrete Bleeding

Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in
which some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the
lowest specific gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in
a highly wet mix, badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin members like roof slab
or road slabs and when concrete is placed in sunny weather show excessive bleeding.

Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this water,
certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with the trowel,
the aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top surface. This formation of
cement paste at the surface is known as Laitance. In such a case, the top surface of slabs and
pavements will not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed on roads produces dust in
summer and mud in rainy season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water cement ratio
used is more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and un segmented. These
continuous bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the concrete
structures. While the mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be intercepted by
aggregates. The bleeding water is likely to accumulate below the aggregate. This accumulation of
water creates water voids and reduces the bond between the aggregates and the paste.
The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that
accumulates below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the
concrete. The poor bond between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste
due to bleeding can be remedied by re vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and the
consequent bad effect can be reduced by delayed finishing operations.
Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but
continues more or less till the final setting time of cement.

Prevention of Bleeding in concrete

Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.

Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path for the
water to traverse.

Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.

Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement with low alkali content. Rich
mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.

The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is equal to
the rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing workability, from the
body of concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the concrete.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much harm, because concrete
being in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the delayed
bleeding, when the concrete has lost its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the concrete.
Controlled re vibration may be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.

3(b). Segregation in concrete

Back to top
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good
concrete is one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous mixture.
There are considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of
concrete. Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.

Segregation may be of three types

1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific gravity.
A well made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape
and surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such
concrete will not exhibit any tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of
matrix do not allow the aggregate to fall apart, at the same time; the matrix itself is sufficiently
contained by the aggregate. Similarly, water also does not find it easy to move out freely from the
rest of the ingredients.

The conditions favorable for segregation are:

1. Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and conta
1. contain the aggregates
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of concrete
Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered that
only comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. It too wet a mix is excessively vibrated; it is likely that
the concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is continued just for
required time for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time, particularly, in too wet
a mix, it is likely to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of coarse aggregate in matrix.

4. Hydration in concrete

Definition of De Icing:
It is similar to freezing and
thawing action
Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles. The hydration of cement is not a
In
winters toaction
remove
ice
momentary
butthe
a process
continuing for long time. Of course, the rate of hydration is fast to
over
structures
e.g.over
decka very long time at a decreasing rate In the field and in actual work,
start large
with, but
continues
of
bridge
etc the
chemical ratio is used, since the concrete is open to atmosphere, the water used
even
a higher
water/cement
sodium
chlorideevaporates
NaCl or calcium
in the concrete
and the water available in the concrete will not be sufficient for effective
chloride
is
added
these
hydrationCaCl
to take
place
particularly
in the top layer.
2
chemicals decrease the freezing
point
water and
ice melts.
If the of
hydration
is tothe
continue,
extra water must be added to refill the loss of water on account of
When
ice melts
they get
absorption
and evaporation.
Therefore, the curing can be considered as creation of a favorable
dissolved
in it.during
A super
environment
thesaturated
early period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable conditions are, a
solution
(called brine and
if NaCl
is moisture.
suitable temperature
ample
used) is formed over the surface
Concrete,
while
high heat of hydration. This heat is harmful from the point of
of
the deck.
Thehydrating,
water thatreleases
has
view of volume
stability. Jeat
of hydration of concrete may also shrinkage in concrete, thus producing
percolated
the concrete
will tend
cracks.
the heat
generated
is removed by some means, the adverse effect due to the generation of
to
go theIf brine
solution
because
heat
be reduced.
This
can be done by a thorough water curing.
of
thecan
osmotic
pressure.
While
moving towards the brine
5. Air Entrainment
tension is created and the
phenomenon of scaling or wear
Air
reducesoccurs.
the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air
andentrainment
tear of top surface
entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened
concrete.
These
include:
Thus again
in next
cycle when
again icing occurs as its top
1. Resistance
freezethaw action in the hardened concrete.
surface
has alreadytobeen
damaged.
2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.

Why is top surface most

3. Compaction
of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
effective
against percolation
of water?
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
The hydration occurs
5. Cohesion
properly onand
thehandling
top laterproperties in bedding mortars.
and is more strong then
De Icing of concrete
the inner.

There is a high cement

concentration at the top.

Because of bleeding the

water comes at the top
along with some cement
which is properly
smoothened. This
smooth surface does not
allow water to enter the
concrete.

Batching, Mixing, Placing & Compaction of Concrete

De Icing Salts of Concrete

Alkali Aggregate Reaction:

Properties of Concrete
Hardened
Concrete
Properties
Fresh Concrete Properties
1. Setting

1. Strength
2. Creep

2. Workability

Concrete is a construction material that

consists, cement, aggregate i.e. gravel and
sand and... [Read More]

3. Shrinkage
1. Batching of Concrete

3. Bleeding and
Segregation

4. Modulus
Of
Elasticity

a. Bleeding

2. Mixing of Concrete ingredients

3. Placing of Concrete - Concreting

b. Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment

5. Water
tightness
(imperme
ability)

4. Compaction of Concrete
5. Transportation of Concrete

6. Rate of
Strength
gain of
Concrete

a) Concrete Slump Test

This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test is done to
make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set range, or
tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable
than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can also be
defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Related Pages

Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):

1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm
bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
2. Small scoop

1. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)

3. Rule

Procedure of slump test for concrete:

1. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test.
2. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample. Compact
the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the
concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
3. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
4. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
5. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from around
the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
6. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
7. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
8. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another must
be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.

b) The Compression Test

The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression test
shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression test
measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong
test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete cylinder
for the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly

specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The

compressive strength is a measure of the concretes ability to resist loads which tend to crush it.

Apparatus for compression test

Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The small
cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate

How to do a compression test?

Procedure for compression test of concrete
1. Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean, level
and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times. Cylinders
may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
6. After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength