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MEASUREMENTS!
MECHANICAL FAILURE PREVENTION TECHNOLOGY
59 th MFPT FORUM
April 19, 2005
John E. Judd
Dynamic Measurement Consultants, LLC Hamden, CT
jejvibes@aol.com
It is easy to get an
accelerometer to
measure acceleration.
The problem is to keep it
from measuring
everything else! .
Walter Kistler
z
z
VIBRATIONS FOUR
RELATED CHARACTERISTICS
z
z
z
Examples of Vibration.
time
PEAK =X/2
RMS = 0.707 X/2
AVERAGE = 0.637X/2
PEAK TO PEAK =X
DISPLACEMENT = X
z
z
z
z
z
Frequency RelationshipDisplacement-Velocity-Acceleration
Accel g units
X = Disp(p-p)
61.45 Hz
Vel-in/sec
= 3.14
A
Ampl.
mpl.
Disp-mils(p-p)
f2
5.18 mils
Freq.
Vel
Displacement
Disp
Displacement = X
Velocity = fX
Acceleration(g) = .051 f2 X
Amplitude
Acceleration
Velocity
Frequency
Note: at 61.45 Hz 1g =
1 in/sec = 5.18 mils (p-p)
IN/SEC
Re
-500.0m
-1.0
20.0m
40.0m
60.0m se
80.0m
100.0m
120.0m
140.0m
160.0m
Gs
Re
-5.0
-10.0
20.0m
40.0m
60.0m se 80.0m
100.0m
120.0m
140.0m
160.0m
IN/SEC
Re
-500.0m
-1.0
20.0m
40.0m
60.0m se
80.0m
100.0m
120.0m
140.0m
160.0m
Gs
Re
-5.0
-10.0
20.0m
40.0m
60.0m se 80.0m
100.0m
120.0m
140.0m
160.0m
3.0m
S1
X: 6600
Y: 1.57844e-005
2.5m
MILs
1.5m
SKF 6205
Low Frequency amplified 52Hz
Ma
1.0m
500.0u
5.0K
Hz 10.0K
15.0K
20.0K
40.0m
S1
X: 66
Y: 0.0
30.0m
IN/SEC
SKF 6205
20.0m
Ma
Emphasis on Low
Frequency
6kHz
10.0m
High Frequency
Reduced
5.0K
Hz 10.0K
15.0K
500.0m
300.0m
Ma
Gs
S1
X: 6600
Y: 0.0703045
20 kHz Acceleration
SKF 6205
Spectrum
Here is the52Hz
bearing
condition information!
200.0m
100.0m
5.0K
Hz 10.0K
15.0K
20.0K
The NATURE OF
ACCELEROMETERS
THE OPERATIONAL BASICS .
z IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS.
z POSSIBLE PROBLEMS ?
z HOW TO SPOT & AVOID THEM.
z
AVD CONCLUSION?
For low frequency information, Balance,
Alignment, Foundation, or low end bearing
fault frequencies use Velocity. (in/sec)
For sensing early degradation in rolling
element bearings use acceleration. (g)
A VIBRATION TRANSDUCER
THE ACCELEROMETER
Produces voltage proportional to
Instantaneous acceleration.
Acceleration = Rate of change of Velocity =
(In g units = 0.051 f2 X
(Hz)
SIMPLE ACCELEROMETER
MASS
Down
Reaction
Force
VOLTAGE
POSITIVE
Motion
Upward
Reaction
Force
NEGATIVE
Motion
BASE
MOTION
VOLTAGE
Positive Charge
Negative Charge
+
XSTAL
+
SHEAR STRESS
REACTION
FORCE
SENSOR BASE
MOTION
COLLECTORS
CRYSTALS
MASS
MOUNTING BASE
Ca
eo
Ca + Cext
24v
IMPORTANT ACCELEROMETER
CHARACTERISTICS
SENSITIVITY
z NOISE DISTRIBUTION
z LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE
z HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE
z FILTERED OR UNFILTERED
z BASE STRAIN
z TRANSVERSE SENSITIVITY
z TEMPERATURE
z
SENSITIVITY
RESPONSE
The transducer conversion
constant along its major
axis in Volts, or
millivolts/g.
Usually at specified
frequency, temperature
and level ( 1 g )
Example: 100 mv/g @
100Hz, 1g, 720 F
1-3mv/g
Base motion
100 mv/g
Transverse Sensitivity
Rotate
Machine
motion
Motion
MINIMUM
Triax?
5%
Maximum
Expressed as %
of basic
sensitivity.
charge
5%
voltage
Thermal shock!
Change in Sensitivity due
to temperature transient!
0.14g/C0
g
Model X
Model Y
0.004/C0
10 Seconds
Ambient to
320F
Linearity-Change in Sensitivity
with level
Basic
Sensitivity
@ 100 Hz
Deviation
1g
Level g
Input
motion
If large difference at
1x between magnet
and hard mounted
sensor check base
strain.
Greased
bushing will
minimize effect.
High Overall
z
26
High Overall
z
MOUNTED RESONANT
FREQUENCY
The axial resonance of the mounted
accelerometers sensing crystal and its
associated mass. The frequency at which
the unfiltered basic sensitivity is maximum.
Usually expressed in kHz.
Ratio - A out / A in
vs. Frequency
Fn = 1/2 K/M
A out
XSTAL
A input
Internal
Filter
10kHz
+/-3dB
+/- 5%
Typical
Specified
Low
Range
But
Useable
Useable
range
5-10kHz
+/- 5%
Typical
3-5 Hz
fn
Resonance
range 15 to
25kHz
10 15
kHz
Useable for
high frequency
Frequency
Mounting
A - Stud Mounting
B - Adhesive Mounting
C - Magnetic Mounting
D - Hand Held
D
C
B
A
100Hz
1kHz
10kHz
41
39
x
BEST
fn
Bracket
resonance
can modify
machine
spectrum!
38
SURFACE PREPARATION
Thin film
Silicon grease.
Chamfer
Accelerometer mounting
surfaces shall be flat within
700 micro inches Rms
Remove burrs
Surface finish of 125 microinches
or better
A-59
42
z
z
z
USE OF MAGNETS!
TEST ACCEL
WITH FLAT +/5% RESPONSE
TO 10KHz
INTERFACE #1
SUPER
MAGNET
INTERFACE #2
HIGH FREQUECY
REFRENCE ACCEL.
Sweeping sinusoidal
vibration Input motion
generated from high
frequency vibration
exciter.
+20%
+10% @ 6kHz
SUPER MAGNET W/
OILED SURFACE (+10%)
10kHz
1)HARD MOUNT
2) S-MAGNET/GREASE
10 kHz
Conclusion on Magnet?
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Frequency response
5%
35
500 Hz
2300 Hz
Data attenuated
Down 8dB
DataUp
Amplified
4 dB
700Hz
36
Fn est. 0.16(AE/L(ms+0.3mr))
SUGGESTION:
10,000 Hz
20 dB
Attenuation!
Bearing information
NADA!
ONLY USE
HANDHELD
PROBES FOR
CHECKING LOW
FREQUENCY
BALANCE AND
ALIGNMENT ABOVE
1200 CPM!
37
NOISE SOURCES!
GENERAL
z GROUNDING NOISE
z BASE COUPLED NOISE
z EFFECTS OF INTEGRATION
z LOW FREQUENCY NOISE!
z
Line Powered
Analysis
Equipment
noise voltage
on ground
Current
flow
through
ground
loop
Noise
capitively
couples
into signal!
Machine Surface
13
<
<
>
<
>
>
Accel.
12 Vdc
Bias Level
Vibration
Signal>
GROUND NOISE
TM
Internal
Faraday
Shield
Good solution!
Glass Isolated
outputs.
Noise is
shunted to
ground!
Thin film
Isolation
Trademark Vibra-Metrics Inc.
14
Another
Isoshield tm
Design.
16
Loss of Isolation
60 Hz
running
speed
Conductive materials
at the accelerometer,
cable, or connections
are conmon cause of
ground loops !
17
z
z
z
z
z
COMMON SOURCES
OF
LOW FREQUENCY NOISE!
Frequency
OA= 0.8
1
0.8
Ski-slope
M10v
M10A
M10H
0.6
0.4
1x =0.19
0.2
0
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
18
Understand INTEGRATION!
Amplifies low frequency noise.
FFT of
Acceleration
Frequency
Velocity g/0.0163*f
z
FFT integrated to
Velocity
or 1/f
Frequency
23
SKI SLOPE
W/O FILTER
Hi Pass Filter
set below frequency
of interest.
Velocity
noise.
Velocity = 61.5 x g
F
Velocity
signal
1/F
NOISE
SIGNAL
Frequency
25
24 Volts
TIME
22
SKI SLOPE ?
Real Motion?
Structural / support motion is usually
discrete frequency. Increase
analysis resolution.
Look for distinct peaks that relate to
floor or structural resonance.
Otherwise its probably noise!
z Put sensor on floor or structure!
z
20
support
High Resolution
noise
5 kHz
Low resolution
21
5 kHz
Possible Causes:
1) Could be real motion of floor or
supporting Structure?
2) Sensor turn on time?
3) Sensor 1/f noise?
4) Integration processing noise?
6) Clipping Saturation products?
7) Aliasing signal processing errors?
8) Wrong high pass filter?
19
Where:
0,001g =
100
volts!
0.001g
0.01g
0.1 g
3 Hz
Corner
Select
Sensor
with prop
low
frequenc
response
corner!
Electronic noise
Increasing!
z
z
z
z
EPRI GUIDE
40%
BELOW 30 HZ = 60%
+/- 10%
EPRI GUIDE
Peak?
EPRI GUIDE
Useful Range
300 %
Pressure
HAND PROBE 2 STINGER %PERCENT DEVIATION AT
HIGH FREQUENCY
EPRI GUIDE
7:1
Negative side
Frequency
400Hz
ERROR SOURCE
SIGNAL CLIPPING !
0 Vdc
24 Vdc
<
<
>
<
>
>
Accel.
Vibration
Signal>
DYNAMIC RANGE
z
z
15
10
10
w/ 24v
supply +/10 VOLT
LIMIT
14 volt
bias
Note:
-5
10 volt peak =
100 g 100mv/g
-10
10 g- 1volt/g
-15
2 g 5volt/g
1g 10volt/g
-10 -5
0 +5 +10
Most
power now
+/- 12 volts
Bias +/- 2v
Also Remember!
z
Time Domain
100
g 80
A
sec
peak
Domain
100 G
Time
20 G MAX
Frequency
46
CL[P
BIAS
VOLT
CL[P
Accel
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Frequency
50
SENSOR - Clipping
z
Sensor Sensitivity !
z 10,
g LEVEL X SENS
Supply voltage
normally 24 VDC
10-12
Dynamic Range
volts
Bias Voltage
12 VDC nominal
45
Clipping
causes DC
offsets!
Zero ref.
T = RC
T =1/6.28fL
Low
frequency
corner 3 Hz
T=0.05 sec.
DC
SHIFT
Power
supply
1/6.28RC= fL
Where:
R= input z
C= capacity of xstal
fL = Low frequency corner
Time
Cause of ski slope - low frequency noise?
Time (seconds)
Accel
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Frequency
50
AMPLITUDE
FREQUENCY
AMPLITUDE
F1 + F2 F1 F2
F1+F3
F1- F3
F2 +F3 F2 F3
Clipping !
Look for g levels beyond the dynamic
range of the sensor. There may be clipping beyond
the frequency range being viewed.
Accel
Normal range
of interest.
Frequency
F max
51
Most Common!
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
ERROR SOURCE
VOLTAGE SWING
Slew limited.
+ 8V
Slew Rate
100
10,000 Hz
100mv/g
0.1 VOLTS/g
= 0.1 x 100 = 10 volts
6,28 x freq. X Emax
6.28 x 10,000(10
x 10
VOLTS)
628,000 volts/sec
0.628volts / micro- sec
I = C de/dt
Where:
I = current C= capacitance =15pf/ft
de/dt = Slew Rate .628V/ u-sec
I = 1000(15 x 10 - 12) .638 V/10 -6
I = 9ma
STRANGE SIGNALS ?
z
z
z
Accel.
Output
Volts
+5%
+5%
-5%
-5%
Frequency
fn
40
Error Sources!
Measuring Shock or
Transient Impulse with
accelerometer.
Impact response
To avoid
accelerometer ringing
in an impact test:
fn > 10/T & flp =0.5 fn
Where: fn is mounted resonance.
Droop Error!
Droop error
Zero shift
GETTING USEFUL
INFORMATION
FROM YOUR
ACCELEROMETER?
[See session on
Bearing Lifeguard tm
Multiple Discriminant Analysis.]
SAMPLE
Est Avoided
Cost =$22,000
MACHINES
MAIN CAMPUS
LIFE FACTOR
DISTRIBUTION
144 MACHINES
HAVE REDUCED
BEARING LIFE!
35
30
25
L-FACTOR
20
AHU
PUMPS
MOTORS
15
10
5
ILLUSTRATION
100
75
50
25
FAIL
% L 10
WB,K2
1080
2
1800
3
3600 RPM
BAD
40
AHU
PUMPS
MOTORS
BAD MOTORS
30
20
10
0
L-FACTOR
ALERT
1-3
3-7
BAD
7-10
SAMPLE
FEB
MAR
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
ILLUSTRATION
Questions?
Where to get more information ?
Contact your sensor manufacturer!
z Contact the Vibration Institute!
z Dynamic Measurement Consultants!
z
jejvibes@aol.com
57