TimeLine

69 BC VII born in Alexandria

Cleopatra
Ptolemy
51BC Auletes dies - his will give kingdom to daughter, Cleopatra VII & her younger

Cleopatra is dethroned by Theodatas and Achillas. Murder of Popmey. Reinstatment of Cleopatra b

48 BC
47 BC
46 BC

Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar) born

Cleopatra goes to Rome

44 BC
43 BC

Assassination of Caesar & Cleopatra returns to Egypt

Formation of Triumvirate (Antony, Octavian and Lepidus)

41 BC

Antony meets Cleopatra in Tarsus and follows her to Egypt

40 BCTriumvirate partition the Mediterranean (O= Western provinces, A = Eastern an

36 BC

Elimination of Lepidus = Octavian now controls Africa

34 BC

Antony makes the Donations of Alexandria to Cleopatras children

32
Antony
BC divorces Octavia, The western provinces become allies to Octavian & declare
Battle of Actium (Octavian wins). Antony and Cleopatra seek refuge at Ale
31 BC
Octavian
Alexandria win making Egypt a roman province, Suicide of Antony and Cleo
30
BC

1. Historical Context
a. Geography,
resources of

topography and
Ptolemaic
Egypt and its
neighbours

Ptolemaic Empire
After the death of

Alexander the
Great, his empire was thrown into
disarray (323
BC) due to lack of heirs
Divided intro
three kingdoms ruled by members of the
Macedonian aristocracy:
o Macedonia
o Seleucid Empire of Asia Minor and the Levant
o Ptolemaic Egypt
These empires fought bitterly over land and prestige
o Intermarried between to form alliance -> although they shifted
constantly
o Egypt emerged as the most prosperous
The Ptolemaic kingdom extended from:
o Syria to the East
o Cyrene to the West
o Nubia to the South

Alexandria
Found by Alexander in 331 BC
Highly prosperous port city with access to the Mediterranean Sea
Encouraged science, art and trade
Largest city in the ancient world at the time of Cleopatra
o Marble monuments, palaces, theatres, amphitheatres, temples
o Library and Museum of Alexandria, largest in the ancient world
o The Lighthouse of Alexandria and causeway
Crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa
o Huge range of products: ivory, spices, foodstuff, arts etc.
Three primary ethnic groups
o The Greek community

Lived in the centre of the city

Privileged minority
o The Jewish community
o The Egyptians
Grid street layout similar to Greek cities
Strabo: the greatest emporium in the inhabited world

Native Egyptians
Lived in country towns and villages along the Nile
Primarily farmers
Builders, traders and craftworkers
Resources
Largest producer of grain in the Mediterranean world
Rick in vegetable oils and exporter of papyrus and linen
Alexandrias location promoted exportation
o Cotton, corn, barley, flax and rice
o Limestone, gypsum, alabaster, copper, iron, granite and tin
Nile

Annual flooding and transportation of silt

Flowing water through Alexandria
o Quality of water and air (no stagnant marshes)
o Systems of canals, reservoirs and filters provided clean water
for the city

b. Egypts relationships with Rome and with neighbouring Eastern powers

Rome
Rome at this time was rapidly expanding through Europe and into
Africa and the East
o Establishing client-kingdoms and provinces
Egypt represented a valued prize for Rome
o A gateway into Africa and Asia
o Almost guaranteed prosperous grain supply
o Still strong military strength
o Rich in resources gold and other minerals
By the time of Cleopatra, Egypt was in steep decline in terms of its
power and Rome had already outpaced Alexandria as a leading
cosmopolitan
Ptolemy VI Philometer
First to seek Roman support after his younger brother challenged him
for the throne

Ptolemy X Alexander
Began borrowing large sums from Rome Egypt began amassing a
large debt
Left all of Egypt to Rome in his will as repayment, although the it
never occurred
o Shows Egypts dependence on Rome and Rome restraint from
full annexation
Independence
Egypt was allowed to keep its independence since there was the risk
that a Roman governor of Egypt would be able to amass enough
wealth and power to challenge Rome itself
c. Overview of Ptolemaic Egypts political and social structure
Greek Dominance
Since Ptolemy I founded the Ptolemaic empire, all of Egypt political
and economic activates were dominated by Greeks
Greeks made up one fifth of the total population
Land use strictly run and supervised by Greek officials
o Help monopoly over all produce, businesses and workshop
o Land cultivated by native Egyptians
Introduced system of coins replaced Deben
Controlled the banks and treasuries
Agriculture
Greek agricultural techniques and equipment bought by military
colonists resulted in an improved agricultural output by the country
Wheat and barley were the main crops, with large amounts of
exportation

2. Background and rise to prominence

a. Family background and feuds
Ptolemy I
Started the Ptolemaic bloodline
Strengthened his control of Egypt using both military and religious
strategies
Sought to synchronise Greek and Egyptian religion
o Formation of Ruler Cult

Ptolemy II
Married sister, Arsinoe II and associated her with the kingship and
also became a god - Initiated custom of Brother-Sister marriage
Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatras Father
Heavily disliked by Alexandrians and Egyptians due to heavy tax
collection and sending huge sums of money to Rome for their support
Revolts by farmers, economic problems, corruption and the
deterioration of the nations finances
Romes military presence increased and Egypts dependence on Rome
increased
Rome ceased Cyprus to pay debt - 58BC Alexandrians rioted and
kicked Auletes out of Egypt
o Fled to Rome and Berenice IV became queen
Berenice IV Cleopatras Older Sister
Alexandrians place Berenice IV (Auletes eldest daughter) on the
throne
The Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius used his army to restore
Auletes in exchange for 10,000 talents
o Used army to reinstate Auletes and execute Berenice
Gabinius leaves Egypt, leaving behind a military guard
Cleopatras Early Reign
51 BC Auletes dies from sickness Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII take the
throne
The first two years of her reign were tense, even though no one
directly challenged her she still had powerful enemies
Pothinius Ptolemy XIII chief advisor
o Disliked how Cleopatra did not consult him in important decision
making
o Ptolemy was demanding his share of power
o She would display her power by minting coins with her profile
without Ptolemy shown
In the first two years of her reign, the Nile failed to flood.
o Caused crop failures and famines
b. Education
Early Education
Raised in royal womens apartments and followed a centuries old
system of education that prepared them to rule alongside their
husbands

Female curriculum was the same as the males

Sought to nurture Greek culture
o Studied classical Greek literature
Cleopatra educated in the art of rhetoric, science, arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy and medicine
o She was a gifted drawer and could play the lyre

Language
Cleopatra was particularly talented in foreign languages
One of few in the royal family who could speak numerous languages
allowed for international negotiations
Plutarch: listed the languages spoken, saying she could pass from
one language to another
o Ethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrew, Arabians, Syrians, Medes,
Parthians and many others

c. Marriage practice of the Ptolemies

Brother-sister Marriage: An Egyptian Tradition
The practice of brother-sister marriage had long been a tradition in
Egyptian culture and royal family
This practice was adopted by the Ptolemies at the start of their
empire
Allowed for no major diluting of the Greek blood line
Most siblings were not directly related (half or step siblings)
Ptolemy XIII was 12 at the time of his marriage to Cleopatra
o Evidence that the marriage was never consummated
Scullard: did not have an equal alliance, as shown by archaeological
evidence. Cleopatra constantly ignored her co-regents presence by
excluding his name from any official decree regardless of the
Ptolemaic insistence that the male presence be first among co-rulers.
d. Role and image of royal Ptolemaic women
Status of women
Even though it was tradition in Greek that women had less freedom
than women, the mixing with Egyptian cult allowed women to
exercise more independence
Poetry and plays portray womens status and activities in daily life
Figures display women dancing, reading and talking

Women could become priestesses or even honorific magistrates,

philosophers, artists and poets
Could become rich and undertake projects in their own name

Royal Women
Women in the royal household were just as active as men, they were
allowed to ascend to the throne and co-rule with their husbands
Cleopatra wore a tall headdress of gold plumes (a symbol of Amun)
with a sun disk, a pair of horns (symbols of Hathor and Isis) and a gold
cobra (symbol of Wadjet)
Cleopatra used religion to support her claims to the throne
o Constantly aligned herself with Isis the mother goddess of
Egypt
o She payed homage to Egyptian gods and placed funds in
Egyptian temples
Rome Perceptions of Cleopatra
Personified many of the qualities Roman society found inappropriate
for women
Seen as presumptuous, promiscuous and lavish in her way of life
o Romans preferred a much simpler lifestyle than the courts of
Egypt
Past Cleopatras
Cleopatra I: Co-ruled with husband during his life
Cleopatra II: Strong support from Jewish and Egyptian population, the
army and native Alexandrians
o Ruled on her own for a period
Cleopatra III: power struggles with her sons
o Promoted herself as Isis, Cybele and Aphrodite
e. Significance of the ruler cult in the East
Rulers Cult
Founded by Ptolemy I who adopted the style and divinity of ancient
pharaohs
o Sought to synchronise Greek and Egyptian religion
o Consolidated his reign worshipped as god
Cleopatra
Viewed as a living goddess worshipped by Egyptian and Greek
priests

Shortly after she became queen, she travelled down the Nile with one
of the sacred bulls of the Buchis temple
o Believed to be Amun in animal form
o Showed Cleopatras respect for Egyptian gods
She needed the support of the priests as they belonged to the rich,
powerful families
o Cleopatra gave generous gifts to prominent temples
Kleiner suggests that Cleopatra was conscious of the imagery of
various events and occasions:
o Trip down the Nile with Caesar in 47BC as a great opportunity to
publicise their alliance and combined authority
o Birth of Caesarion, she immediately reinforced her association
with Isis and Caesars family association with Venus by
producing coins
o Birth temples or mammisi reinforced link between Caesarion
and Horus

3. Career
a. Civil war in Rome and Pompeys murder
Civil War
In 49 BC Julius Caesar and his once close friend Pompey became rivals
for supreme power of Rome
Caesar lead army into Italy illegal act of aggression that starts civil
war
o Becomes enemy of the state
o Refuses to give his army back to the state
o Senate allows Pompey to oppose Caesar
Put pressure of Eastern kingdoms as Roman leaders demanded
money and troops in return for their future support in order to fuel the
war effort
o Pompey asked for the Ptolemies aid, who sent 60 ships and 500
troops

Egypts Instability
Caesar wins a decisively at the Battle of Pharsalus over Pompey
o Pompey flees to Egypt where he hopes for support
Pompey is murdered by Ptolemy XIII men on arrival
o Advised by Pothinius who believed it would make Ptolemy
favourable to Caesar
Caesar reportedly wept, lamented and denounced the murders when
he saw the head of Pompey

Plutarch: It was tragic that the fate of Pompey the Great be decided
by three men (Achillas, Theodotus and Pothinus)
Chauveau: suggests that Caesars distress over Pompeys murder was
feigned
o Saved Caesar criticism for the necessary execution

b. Co-regency with Ptolemy XIII and Alexandrian civil war

Co-regency
Auletes death: Ptolemy XIII was only ten, thus co-rule with Cleopatra
who was 18
Ptolemy XIII was only pharaoh by name, for the first three years of
their rule Cleopatra was nearly completely dominant
o Gave edicts, orders and instructions, aided by courtiers

The country at this time was fought with difficulties

o Corruption in Egyptian bureaucracy
o Indigenous people unsettles and unsatisfied
o Famines and bandits pillaging the countryside and rebellions
Tension also existed within the royal family
o Cleopatras younger sister Arsinoe desired the throne
o Ptolemy XIIIs advisors (Pothinus, Achillas and Theodotus)
wished to dethrone Cleopatra
Cleopatra devalued the current by a third in order to increase the
exports necessary to kick state the Egyptian economy
She was determined to avoid a war with Rome which would have
been disastrous for Egypt

Revolt
In 48 BC Cleopatra is forced to flee Alexandria after discovering plot
to kill her (organised by Pothinus and Ptolemy)
o Seek refuge among the Arab tribes east of Egypts border

Cleopatra was able to raise an army of mercenaries and led them

against Ptolemys troops at Mount Cassius, although Pompeys
unexpected arrival occurred before the confrontation

Meeting Caesar
Cleopatra takes advantage of Caesars arrival in Alexandria to meet
him and gain his support in the sister-brother feud
Caesar becomes entranced by Cleopatras famous carpet entrance
and goes on to support her goal to become to sole ruler of Egypt.
Recorded by Plutarch
Caesar tried to resolve the conflict by re-reading Auletes will, saying
that the two were to live together and co-rule, as followed by
Egyptian customs
Alexandrian Civil War
Cleopatra, Caesar and Ptolemy lived together in Alexandria for a time,
Cleopatra on the throne while Ptolemy had little authoritative power
o Ptolemy (along with Arsinoe and Pothinus) continue to oppose
Cleopatra
Pothinus begins to plot against Caesar, although is discovered and
executed
At the same time, Arsinoe escapes Alexandria to join forces with
General Achillas and the Egyptian army who are planning to march
against Caesar
Cleopatra immediately sided with Caesar, while Ptolemy XIII used
conspirators and elaborate lies to turn the Alexandrians against
Cleopatra
48 BC Achillas marches 20,000 Egyptian infantry and 2000 cavalry
against Caesar
o The palace was under siege by the Egyptian army
o Ptolemy joins the army and a full civil war begins
72 Egyptian warships and 50 Roman ships were anchored in the
harbour
o Caesar ordered for them all to be set on fire
o The fire spread to the quays, burning many buildings and
granaries and damaging the Library
The battle continued in the streets of Alexandria for many weeks
Reinforcement arrived from Rome and were able to force the
Egyptians towards the Nile, where many drowned
Ptolemy XIII is one such drowned
Arsinoe is sent into exile at the Temple of Artemus

With Ptolemy dead and the Civil War won, Cleopatra marries Ptolemy
XIV to reconfirm her power
Southern explain that Cleopatra was now free from rivals and
protected by the most powerful individual in the world

c. Relationship with Julius Caesar

Caesar
Caesar was famous all through his life for his love affairs which
allowed Cleopatra the opportunity to form an intimate alliance
After the death of Pompey he was the most powerful individual in
Rome, which made him a strongly desired ally with Cleopatra
Gives Cleopatra a chance at a wider role in the world outside of Egypt
Meeting Caesar
When Caesar arrives in Alexandria, he orders both Cleopatra and
Ptolemy XIII to disband their armies and meet him for peaceful
negotiation
Cleopatra knew that if she was to openly travel into the city,
Ptolemys henchmen would assassinate her
o Travel in by rug, charms Caesar and become lovers that night

Plutarch: Caesar was first captivated by Cleopatras bold wit and

was afterwards so overcome by the charm of her society
Southern: Rather than succumbing to her scheming and being
deceived by the evil temptress, Caesar probably reviewed the
available royal talent and decided that she was the most sensible,
knowledgeable, conscientious, independent and resourceful of the
four. In a word, the most fit to rule.

Post-Civil War
After the civil war, Caesar had control over Alexandria which he
bestowed again to Cleopatra
o Caesar could have kept the kingdom of Egypt to himself,
although bestowed all of it back to Cleopatra and even gave
away Roman territory in the process
Cleopatra was secure for the first time
o Enemies were dead or defeated and had promised protection
from Caesar
The two enjoyed a two-month cruise on the Nile
o This gave Cleopatra a chance to show off the strength of her
alliance with Caesar to the Egyptian people

Becomes pregnant with Caesarion at this time and gave birth to him
in 47 BC
The poet Lucan paints an image of the decadences of life in
Alexandria and the extravagance of their tastes

Travel to Rome
After the cruise Caesar returns to Rome, leaving three legions in
Alexandria to protect Cleopatra
A year later, he invites Cleopatra to Rome, who arrives in 46 BC with
Caesarion and Ptolemy XIV
o She claims she is negotiating a peace treaty between Egypt and
Rome but she also wanted to ensure Caesars protection
o Brought Ptolemy as she didnt want him or his advisors to cease
power when she was gone
Caesar had accepted a lifelong dictatorship in 44 BC, sat on a golden
throne in the Senate and was rumoured to wish to be king of Rome
and overthrow the Senate
She was declared a friend and ally of the Roman people and Egypt
was protected from annexation
Caesar erects a statue of Cleopatra in the temple of Venus Genetrix
o Integration of Cleopatra into Roman tradition
o Southern: an elevation beyond what any woman could hope to
attain
Marriage Possibility
Apparently Caesar wished to pass a law to make it legal to marry
Cleopatra
Cleopatra would have strongly wished to marry Caesar
o She was the mother of his only living heir
o It would tie Rome and Egypt together and secure her power and
protection
o Would likely make Caesarion future king of both empires
Disapproval of Cleopatra
The Roman elites strongly disliked Cleopatra:
o She represented a shift towards a monarchy of Rome, which
threatened the republican aristocracy
o The threat of foreign Oriental ways tainting Roman society
Cicero: I hate the Queen. The Queens insolence too when she was
living in Caesars house in the gardens beyond the Tiber, I cannot
recall without indignation.
It was thought that it was Cleopatra who encouraged Caesar to use
force to become a dictator

Ides of March 44BC

Caesar is murdered in the Senate building by a crowd of conspirators
who had become fearful of his growing power
o Cleopatra, aware of her danger fled back to Egypt
Before or immediately after their return to Egypt, Ptolemy XIV dies
o Possibly poisoned at Cleopatras command
o Makes Caesarion her co-regent
Rome returns to a bloody civil war
42 BC: formation of the Second Triumvirate between Octavian
(Caesars great nephew and adopted heir), Antony and Lepidus
Antony takes control of Eastern Mediterranean region, which includes
Egypt
Return to Alexandria
Cleopatra was once more in danger as her protector was dead and
many hostile nations way Egypt as a rich prize and hoped to conquer
it
Fearful that Caesars enemies would attempt to murder her and
Caesarion
She tries to win the support of the Alexandrian nobles
o Offering rich rewards
o Threw money and gifts into the crowd
Many viewed her as a traitor for her relationship with Caesar had her
two years spend in Rome
o Angry that Cleopatra did not assist the famine victims
d. Relationship with Mark Antony:
The Second Triumvirate 42BC
Antony: long and decorated military career, trusted consul of Caesar,
admired for loyalty and honest, control of East
o Suetonius: the gentlest and kindest of soldiers
o Travels to the East to consolidate support
Octavian: young, little military experience, adopted heir of Caesar
(rejects Caesarion)
Meeting between Antony and Cleopatra 41BC
Antony summons Cleopatra to his military camp in Tarsus to question
her about whether she had assisted his enemies, primarily Cassius
o This was largely a pretext to meet Cleopatra and gain her
military and financial support for the growing power struggle
between himself and Octavian

Antony also had wished to invade Parthia, thus emanating the

conquests of Alexander the Great. This military achievement would
make him the obvious power among the triumvirate
Plutcarch gives detail on the meeting
Even though Antony invites Cleopatra multiple times, she ignored
these invitations and comes on her own accord as if in mockery of
them
She sailed a barge up the river that with money, gifts and ornaments
of value, such as so wealthy a kingdom might afford
o She herself was dressed in the image of Venus, attended to by
Cupids and Sea Nymphs
o Venus was come to feast with Bacchus [Antony]
Antony invites Cleopatra to dine with him, although refuses and
makes Antony come to her.
Cleopatra answers to allegation of supporting Cassius
o She explains she sent four of her Roman legions to aid in the
battle against Cassius and would have sent ships if the weather
permitted
An alliance was formed
o He needed Egypts resources to aid his ambitions of conquest in
Parthia
o He represented Roman protection her. Antony sent an assassin
to kill Arisone IV (her last rival to the throne)

Winter in Alexandria
Plutarch suggests the Antony was seduced to Cleopatra and carried
away be her to Alexandria, there to keep holiday
There he forgot his responsibility and was wasting the time and
money when he was meant to be invading Parthia and consolidating
his support in Rome
o Octavian has an opportunity to build a strong support group in
Rome and consolidate his resources
o They engaging in luxuries, behaving like a boy, in play and
diversion, squandering and fooling away in enjoyments most
costly
o Romans found Antonys adoption of Alexandrian customs
disturbing.
o Cleopatra never left Antonys side for the rest of the year
Amimetobis Inimitable life
o A group of intellectual and social elite, devoted to pursuing an
endless joy, freedom and intoxication of life
Grant: The official coinage link Antony and Cleopatra, not only as
Gods, but as human leaders in the partnership of Romans and
Greeks

By winter of the next year, Antony left Egypt due to growing tensions
elsewhere in the empire
o Parthian armies had occupied southern Asia Minor, Syria and
Judea, becoming an increasing threat to Rome
o He was loosing support in Rome due to Octavian

Six months after Antony had left, Cleopatra gave birth to twins,
Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios
It was four years until she saw Antony again, through which time he
had married Octavia
o This was a political marriage arranged by Octavian in order to
tie Antony to their family and discourage further relationships is
Cleopatra
o Suetonius: marriage was an alliance between families.
Octavian arranged a marriage between his sister Octavia

Antony Leaves
Antony and Octavian spend 39BC 37 BC in Athens. During this time,
tensions between the two men increased though war was narrowly
averted through Octavias pacifying interventions

Antony, Octavian and Lepidus meet in Tarentum in 37BC and renew

the triumvirate for 5 more years
o Octavian gives Antony two of his legions to assist in the
Parthian wars, Antony repays him with 100 armed galleys
o Octavian goes to fight Sextus, Pompeys son in Sicily
o Antony sets sail for Asia

Antony Returns
Antony leaves Italy and sails to the Syrian city of Antioch
o Uncertain whether this was due to plan for an expedition
against Parthia or to be reunited with Cleopatra and renew their
alliance
In 36 BC Antony and Cleopatra are married in Antioch under Egyptian
laws
Cleopatra doesnt lose sight if her political ambitions and asks Antony
to give her the territories of Coele-Syria and Judea
o Antony denies although still gives her Chalcis, the Syrian coast,
Cyrus and a number of other scattered areas
Later that year, with the financial and military backing of Cleopatra,
Antony moves to engage the Parthians

Cleopatra returns to Alexandria and mints coins to commemorate her

enlarged empire. They depict Cleopatra and Antony as Dionysus and
Aphrodite, or Osiris and Isis
o Cleopatra gives birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus

Antony suffers a heavy defeat in Parthia 36 BC

o Forced to retreat in the midst of an icy winter
o Many of his army killed by dysentery, hunger, cold and Parthian
archers
o He lost 20,000 infantry and 40,000 cavalry
Antonys infatuation with Cleopatra have been said to have been one
of the causes for defeat
o Began too late in the season (close to winter) because he didnt
want to leave her
o Conducted a rushed and haphazard assault because he wished
to quickly return to her
Cleopatra arrived with provision, clothing and money, taking the
survivors back to Alexandria

Cleopatra and Diplomacy

During 35 BC, Cleopatra engaging in many diplomatic dealings with
surrounding states
o Alliance with Armenian king, sealed by the betrothal of her son
Alexander Helios with the kings daughter
o Allows asylum for Alexandra, Herods mother in law
o Treaty with King of Media that allows Cleopatra and Antony to
reclaim lost parts of Syria and would supply Egypt with Cavalry
troops
Antony and Octavia
Octavia wished to visit Antony, for she had remained loyal to him
even though he was bigamous
Cleopatra refused to allow them to meet
o Plutarch describes the dramatic behaviour she performed to get
her way
Antony cancels the meets and Octavia returns to Rome
The Roman people were disgusted by this treatment of Octavia and
angry about Antony and Cleopatras claims to divinity

This outrage in Rome was heightened by the donations of Alexandria

and acknowledging Casearion as Caesars true son and heir
With this anger against Antony, Octavian was able to easily convince
the Senate to declare war on Egypt and Antony

Eastern acquisitions and the donations of Alexandria

Acquisitions
Antony had planned to set a new empire in North Africa and the
Middle East to challenge Rome
o Cleopatra supported him as this would greatly increase her
power and influence of Egypt
o She wished to reclaim Syria, Lebanon, Phoenicia and parts of
Asia Minor
Antony installed local kings loyal to him, thus expanding his and
Cleopatras sphere of influence wished to create stable political
climate
Romans were critical of the favour Antony showed to Cleopatra
o By giving her territory, he was taking land away from Roman
governors
These expansions meant Cleopatra was better equip to assist
Antonys military ambitions
o Had greater access to timbre needed to supply a powerful navy

Defeat in Parthia (36BC)

o Cost Antony and Cleopatra vast sums of money, significant
portion of their army and also some of his pride
o Cleopatra paid the troops as there was no plunder/ booty
o Major set-back in ambitions for Eastern control
o Depleted his war-fund and sapping his self-reliance, made him
for dependent on Cleopatras financial assistance - Cary

Donations
After the conquest of Armenia (34BC), Antony did not hold a triumph
in Rome, instead commemorated his victory in Alexandria
The ceremony:
o Procession of Armenian king in gold chains
o Public banquets
o Antony wore a crown of ivy, a gold robe, boots that
characterised him as a god, carried an staff and rode a sacred
chariot
o Procession culminated with a presentation of Antonys spoils of
war to Cleopatra
o Both sat on golden thrones as titles and territories were granted
to Cleopatra and their children
Coins feature Antony as Armenian conqueror and Cleopatra Queen
of Kings

These proclamations were sent to the Senate for confirmation,

although were denied
o Many of the regions were Roman territories and although he
controlled them, they were not his to give away

Honours, Titles and Announcements

Cleopatra
- Antony proclaimed her Queen of Egypt, Cyprus,
Libya and central Syria.
Caesarian (13 years old) - He was still Cleopatras co-ruler; was officially
proclaimed the son of Caesar and was given the
title of King of Kings.
Alexander Helios (Aged
6)

Cleopatra Selene (Aged

6)
Ptolemy Philadelphis
(aged 2)

- He was declared king of Armenia and overlord of

Media and the Parthian territory extending as far
as India.
- He received an honour guard of Armenian
soldiers.
- Would marry the King of Medias daughter and
gain the throne there as well
- She received parts of Cyrenaica and parts of
Crete.
- He received Phoenicia, Syria and Cilicia.
- He received an honour guard of Macedonian
soldiers.

e. Conflict with Octavian: The Battle of Actium

Lead up
During 32BC Octavian became is intense Roman propaganda
campaign to provoke war against Antony and Cleopatra
o Lucan: Cleopatrathe lascivious fury who was to become the
bane of Rome
o Plutrach: Antonius, like Hercules in the picture where Omphale
is seen removing his club was over and over again disarmed
by Cleopatra and beguiled away
o Dio: Let no one count him a Roman, but rather an Egyptian
Rumours:
o The Caesarion was not Caesars son
o Antony engaged in orgies with Cleopatra
o He was under the spell of a sorceress
In 32BC, Antony and Cleopatra were living in their strong military
base in Ephesus (Turkey)
o Cleopatra appeared publicly as a queen, dispensed justice,
escorted by Roman soldiers, presided over meetings and
reviewed troops

Antony wished to avoid conflict and remain in senatorial law, although

after a report of the donations, Antonys divorce Octavia and his will
to be buried in Alexandria by [Cleopatras] side (Dio); Octavian, the
Senate and the Roman people all reacted violently
o Due to this, many of those who still on Antonys side went back
to Octavian
o Antony was stripped of his authority and Octavian made a
spectacle of his declaration of war against Cleopatra and
Antony

The Battle

Support

Infantry
Archers
Cavalry

Antony and Cleopatra

o Libya
o Cilicia
o Arabia
General: Canidius
20,000 infantry as well as
additional auxiliary troops
2,000
12,000

Octavian
o Gaul
o Africa
o Sicily
o Sardina
General: Marcus Agrippa
16,000 infantry
3,000
12,000

Navy

290 Roman ships (mostly

large battle ships with 30-50
Transports)
60 Egyptian Warships

400 warships (mostly small

liburnian vessels)

Octavians forces arrive in Greece, patrolling the coast, fighting

Antonys soldiers, capturing his forts and sinking his ships
He was able to trap the bulk of Antony and Cleopatras fleet in the
gulf of Ambracian
o Food and water supplies where blocked
o The area as marshy and damp and during the summer many
became ill with malaria
Octavian aimed to lure Antony out of the Ambracian gulf to surround
and overpower him with a much larger fleet
By September, the situation had become desperate and they had two
options
1. Attack by land Antonys land forces were superior, more
experience and Antony was more of an experienced general
2. Break through their navy Antony and Cleopatras navy was
smaller, although their ships were larger and they had a chance
to break through their blockade with speed
The first plan would seem more logical although they decide on the
second plan, likely due to suggestions made by Cleopatra
Agrippa was able to quickly outflank and surround Antonys larger and
slower ships, although in doing so he created a gap that allowed
Cleopatra to escape (and her 60 ships) and followed by Antony (with
about 20 ships)
Why Cleopatra escapes (three myths spread by victors Grant)
1. Cleopatra had betrayed Antony, her escape was not
organised, and she wished to save herself at the first sign of
defeat
2. Antony deserted his troops because he was hopelessly
infatuated
a. Propertius: how infamous a love was she/ Who bade him
turn his ships and flee
3. The battle was complete exaggerated by Octavians
propaganda which wished to display it is the climactic defeat of
Antony and Cleopatra and thus the consolidation of the empire
a. Virgil: the whole ocean boiledhigh mountains crashed
against high mountain
There is also the modern interpretation that this escape was
prearranged

The rest of Antonys forces where quick to surrender or be destroyed

Wallace-Hardill:
o It was a battle for Roman values
o Antony was (almost) an innocent victim
Goedecke says Cleopatra can be held accountable for the war since
the idea of civil war was hated by Romans

Aftermath
After the battle, Antony and Cleopatra return to Alexandria where
Antony lives alone for a time while Cleopatra prepared for an invasion
of Rome
o Octavian did not have enough gold to pay his armies so he
could not invade immediately
o Many of Cleopatras ships were burned by supports of Octavian,
making escape was impossible - Flamarion
Octavian continues with his propaganda campaign
o Octavian presented as the saviour of Rome in the face of
barbarism and corruption
In 30BC Octavian reaches Alexandria and Antony marches his army
out of the city (for higher ground) although he watches as his fleet
and cavalry desert him in favour of Octavian
o Myth that Dionysus had left the city that night
o Plutarch: The god [Dionysus] whom Antony had always made it
his study to copy and imitate, had now forsaken him
Antonys forces are quickly defeated and he commits suicide shortly
after
f. Portrayals of Cleopatra as a ruler: Greek and Egyptian
Cleopatras Dress
She would have presented herself in different ways for different
occasions/ audiences
o Everyday dress would have been Hellenic Greek
Coins display her in Greek fashion with a diadem
o On special occasions she presented herself in Egyptian fashion
Isis a form of political propaganda and forms a
connection with native Egyptians
Plutarch: She was addressed as the New Isis
A relief at the temple of Dendra shows her in Egyptian
style
Greek

Poems (Theocritus, Callimachus) depict the extravagances of court

life, religion in Egypt and the influence of earlier queens
Plutarch
o Bias due to his stoic philosophy and thus tends to paint
Cleopatra as an extravagant seductress
o Also a Roman citizen
Appian
o Tends to blame Antonys ruin on Cleopatra
Coins
o On coins found in Greece, she appears with Antony as son and
heir. Early coins show a young feminine queen while later ones
show a less flattering and authoritative queen.

Egyptian
Temple of Dendra
o Reliefs show Isis, loving of Caesarion and highly maternal
(breast feeding)

g. Manner and Impact of her Death

Preparations
Cleopatra seemed determined not be to taken by the Romans and
paraded through Rome as her sister had done
Build a tomb and started to experiment different poisons on criminals
to see of they were painless or not
o Plutarch: She found the bite of an asp induced a quiet sleep
without pain
Cleopatra attempted to reason with Octavian, although he feared that
as long as she and her children where live, they were a threat to
Rome

Antonys infantry was quickly defeated by Octavian in his final stand

in Alexandria
Antony rushed back to the city, shouting the Cleopatra betrayed him
o Cleopatra locks herself in her mausoleum (along with her
riches) and has servants tell Antony she killed she fears
Antony will harm her
o Antony, as Plutarch recounts believes it and cries No, Antonius,
why delay longer? Fate has snatched away you only reason for
living
Antony stabs himself and passes out although does not die
o Wakes up and is told that Cleopatra is still alive and wants to
see him

o Scared to let herself out due to the dangers of Octavians army,

Cleopatra was Antony brought through a window by ropes
o Plutarch: she called him her lord, her husband, her emperor

Octavian wanted to take Cleopatra alive for a triumph in Rome and

for her treasures
o Octavians men enter the tombs and disarm her
Octavian takes control of the city and gives a lengthy speech
explaining his mercy for the Alexandrians and admiration for the city
Cleopatra is allowed to bury Antony
o She is kept under close guard for fear of suicide
When Octavian visits her, she flings herself to his feet and pleads for
her life and her childrens safety
o Dio accuses Cleopatra of attempted to seduce Octavian
o Plutarch accounts differently, stating that her grief had left her
in no condition to seduce though she had offered other gifts

Cleopatra visits Antonys tomb one final time

o She is bathed, adorned in cosmetic and dressed in royal robes
by her servants
o A servant was allowed to enter with a basket of figs (found to be
unsuspicious)
Dio: No one knew for sure how she died
Two pricks found on her arm suggested asp bite
o She sends a letter to Octavian wishing to be buried with Antony
This wish is granted
o Bradford: While Octavian was now in complete control of
Rome, in a way she had defeated him, as she had not allowed
him to parade her in Rome

Octavian ordered the destruction of the image of Antony although

allowed many of Cleopatras to stay intact (due to bribes from
Alexandrians)

Impact
End of the Ptolemaic dynasty
Made it easy for Rome to complete its conquest of Egypt
Roman soldiers defaced ancient Egyptian monuments and destroyed
official documents
Alexandria continued to be a great centre of learning and trade but
elsewhere, Egypts power and prosperity began to decline
Because Caesarion was Julius Caesar's son and might pose a threat to
Octavian's power, Octavian had the boy strangled by his tutor.
Cleopatra's other children were sent to Rome to be raised by Octavia.

o Cleopatra Selene married King Juba II of Mauretania and had

two children, Ptolemy and Drusilla.
o No one knows what happened to Alexander Helios and Ptolemy
Philadelphus
Octavian awarded arches, crowns, honours, titles, powers and a triple
triumph on his return to Rome
Egypt did not become a normal province, it became a private
possession of future Roman emperors and was administered by
special appointees
o Egypt was administered by the equestrian order
o The emperor was able to choose offices
Introduced new Roman tax
The countries wealth allowed Octavian to satisfy his veterans and
build a loyal clientele
Was the new primary source of grain for the empire

Scullard: the century of civil wars that had started with the murder
of Tiberius Gracchus was ended. The Republic and liberty had gone;
men turned gratefully to their new saviour

Her suicide was considered noble by Romans

o Horace and Virgil: reveals how she undergoes a transformation
from a monster, to a sympathetic figure, to a noble ruler

4. Evaluation
a. Impact and Influence on her Time and Assessment of Life and Reign
Cleopatra had 2 main goals in her life and in her reign; to keep Egypts
independence and to protect her children and their inheritance. However
during her life and reign she did many different things including:
Donating books and restoration of the Alexandrian library
o Some books are believed to be written by her
Repaired building + ships
Reorganised the army and increased the naval fleet
Instructed Caesarion in the complex hierarchy of the Throne, Religion
and Court.
When she was on the throne, Alexandria was the greatest city of the
eastern Mediterranean. Her kingdom showed all signs of peace, order
and prosperity
Increased Egypts land
Saved her people from poverty
Improved irrigation systems for farming
Caesar
Encouraged Caesar to make decisions
o Under her influence Caesar began several plans for
improvement and reform - Flamarion
The Senate saw her as a threat to Rome, her coming to Rome
signified a change in Caesar, their steadfast leader, and a possible
change to the way in which the Roman Republic would operate
politically.
She provided ships and wealth during the civil war
Antony
Greatly influenced his ambitions of increased power
o She donated large amounts of wealth to aid Antonys conquests
o This was advantageous for both Egypt and Rome -> larger
territories

Flamarion: Most brilliant of Cleopatras deep political perceptions

was the clear understanding that Egypt could never be saved from
Rome except by a Roman

Bevan: Dominion stretching not only over the lost ancestral lands,
but over wider territories than Ptolemy I or Ptolemy II or Ptolemy III
had ever dreamed of

Legacy
Tarn: For Rome, who had never condescended to fear any nation or
people, did in her time fear two human beings; one was Hannibal, and the
other was a woman"

Cleopatra was able to do the unthinkable: she brought Egypt into a

powerful position that could oppose Rome

End of the Ptolemaic empire

o She was the last pharaoh of Egypt
o Egypt was now completely under the control of Rome
Pervasive influence of Egyptian religion throughout the Roman empire
o Identified herself as Isis, which picks up due to her and is found
all through the Empire Rome, Pompeii, Africa etc.
o An interest in Egyptian paraphernalia
Propaganda campaign
o The fact that Roman writers talked about her was part of her
legacy

Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Cleopatra

Booth: imagery and myths of Cleopatra have changed, often reflecting the
morals of their time rather than those of her time
Chauveau: an empty figure without an existence of her own that can be
used to suit any authors political or social agenda
Ancient
Negative Perspective
Propertius (Latin poet): Indeed, the whore queen of sinful Canopus
Lucan (Roman poet): She was Egypts master and Romes whore
Florus (Roman historian): focuses on sexuality
Octavians propaganda campaign greatly influenced
Her wig and cosmetics made Romans view her as a whore
Focus on her seduction, sorcery, lust, extravagance and degeneracy
Booth: Romans saw her as an unnatural women who went against
the current culture by choosing her own lovers and exerting political
and erotic power

Positive Perspective
Many ancient sources agree that she was intellectual and had an
attraction of nature
o Dio: Impossible to converse with her without being
immediately captivated by her
Plutarch condemns some of her extravagances (due to his stoic
philosophy) although still represents an accurate picture
Recognize her culture, intelligence, patronage to the arts, donations
of 200,000 books to library in Alexandria all seen as alien traits in
Roman women
Little archaeological evidence: a few inscriptions, papyri and coins
Modern - Historical
Positive
An reevaluation of facts lead many to view Cleopatra in a positive
light
Fletcher: one of the most dynamic figures the world has ever seen
Crawford: The real Cleopatra had charisma and her sexiness
stemmed from her intelligence
Negative
Some, influenced by their society view her differently
Knight (early 20th century): there is in her a streak of mysterious and
obscene evil
Western Culture
Renaissance
Booth: Believed there was a certain nobility in her actions, as dying
for love
Chaucer: traditional courtly lady
Boccaccio: epitome of vice and debauchery
o Culture of blaming women for mens sexual desires
Elizabethan
Booth: A morality tale about fidelity and passion
Shakespeare: the dangers of excessive love -> tragic heroine
17th 18th century view her as a weak and passionate woman caught
up in male politics
o Followed culture of the time that viewed educated women as
superfluous
Romantics
Focused on drama and passion surrounding her death
19th 20th Century
Increased popularity of her image
Movies:

o Portrayed as decadent fashion

o Over 25 films made in the 20th century
o Theda Bara (1917): divinely, hysterically, insanely malevolent
(Davis)
o Claudette Colbert (1934): presented her as an ideal wife and
lover, but not a businesswoman (Booth)
o Vivian Leigh: young, frightened and childlike
o Elizabeth Taylor
Kahn: "By fusing the xenophobia that fostered Roman national identity with
patriarchal gender ideology, they demonized Cleopatra as Rome's most
dangerous enemy, a foreigner and a woman ruler whose power was fatally
inflected by her sexuality"
Bradford: She was a woman of infinite courage and political resource. She
has fought to free her country from the iron dominance of Rome and secure
its inheritance of her first son
Appearance
Popular image of beautiful, Femme Fatale able to easily manipulate
men through seduction Elizabeth Taylor
Plutarch:
o Her beauty, so we are told, was not that of an incomparable
kindbut the charm of her presence was irresistible
Depicted on ancient coins with a long hooked nose and masculine
features
Dio: Octavian refused to look Cleopatra in her eyes less he was
bewitched