Chapter 1:Atoms,Molecules and Stoichiometry

(a) the number of isotopes of an element

1 The fundamental subatomic particles are proton,

electron and neutron.

(b) the relative isotopic mass of the isotopes

(c) the molecular mass of a compound

2 Protons and neutrons have the relative mass of I,

while electrons are of negligible mass.

(d) the structure of a molecule

3 Protons have a charge of +1, while electrons have

a charge ofI. Neutrons are electrically neutral.

11 1 mol is the amount of substance that contains

the same number of atoms as in 12 gof carbon-

4 Proton number is the number of protons in an

atom.

12 constant is the number of particles present in one

mole of a substance It has a salueOf 6.02 x mol-I.

5 Nucleon number is the total number of protons

and neutrons in the atom.

13 Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a

substance.

6 Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same

proton number but with different nucleon numbers

14 One mole of a gas occupies 22.4 dm' at s.t.p. and

24.4 dm' at room conditions, r.t.p.

7 The relative atomic mass is the average mass of

an element compared to 12 the mass of one atom
of C-12.

Chapter 2 : Electronic Structure of Atoms

S The parts and functions of a mass spectrometer

are vaporisation chamber to vaporisc solid and
liquid samples
(b) ionisation chamber 'Aherepositisc ions are
formed
(c) acceleration chamber where ions are accelerated
to high speed
(d) magnetic field where ions are deflected
according to mie values
(e) detector where ions are detected in an ion
detector
(O recorder where the peaks arc recorded in a mass
spectrum 9 Angle of deflection is imcrsely
proportional to the m/e value.
10 A mass spectrum can bc used to determine

1 Emission spectrum is a line spectrum consisting

of discrete lines with certain frequencies. The lines
in a spectrum become closer as frequency increases.
2 An electron can only occupy a certain energy
level. Thus, its energy is quantised.
3 The energy levels in an atom become closer when
they are further away from the nucleus and finally
converge in the convergence limit.
4 When an electron absorbs energy, it is excited and
moves up to higher energy levels. This is an
unstable state. Thus, the electron will lose energy
and falls back to lower energy levels. The energy is
radiated as light with a fixed frequency, v.
5 Lyman series is formed when electrons fall from
higher energy levels to n = 1.
6 Balmer series is formed when electrons fall from
higher energy levels to n = 2.

7 The energy of an electronic transition can be

calculated from the equation E = hv, where v is the
frequency of the line, and h is the Planck's constant.
8 The subenergy levels in an atom are designated by
s, p, d and f.
9 An orbital is a region where the probability of
finding an electron is maximum.
10 The s-orbitals are spherical while the p-orbitals
are dumb-bell shaped.
11 The maximum number of electrons in an energy
level = 2n2
12 Each electron can be identified by a set of four
quantum numbers.
(a) Principal quantum number, n, that determines
the energy level of the electron
(b) Azimuthal quantum number, l, that determines
the shape of the orbitals
(c) Magnetic quantum number, m, that determines
the orientation of the orbitals in space
(d) Electron spin quantum number, s, that
determines the direction of spin of the electron
13 The Aufbau principle states that electrons will
occupy orbitals of the lowest energy available first
before occupying orbitals of higher energy.
14 Pauli exclusion principle states an orbital can
only be occupied by two electrons with opposite
spins, that is, no two electrons can have the same
four quantum numbers.
15 Hund's rule states that the most stable
arrangement of electrons in degenerate orbitals is
the one with the greatest number of parallel spins.
Chapter 3 : Chemical Bonding

1 Ionic bond (electrovalent bond) is the electrostatic

attraction between
2 An ionic bond is formed when one or more than
one electrons is/are transferred from valence shell
of an atom (metal) to the valence shell of another
atom (non-metal).
3 The strength of an ionic bond is proportional to
the charge on the ions and inversely proportional to
the distance between the ions.
4 Covalent bond (single) is the bond formed when a
pair of electrons are shared between two atoms.
5 The covalent bond is formed by the overlapping
of atomic orbitals or hybridised orbitals of one atom
with another atom.
6 The covalent bond is usually formed between
non-metals.
1 The octet rule is the tendency for atoms in
compounds to achieve noble gas configurations
with eight valence electrons.
8 Electron-pair repulsion theory states that the
geometrical arrangement of atoms or groups of
atoms around a central atom is determined by
electron-pair repulsion in the valence shell of the
central atom.
9 The shape of a molecule can be predicted by using
(a) the electron-pair repulsion theory, (b) the
overlapping of hybridised orbitals.
10 The lone pair of electrons exerts a stronger
repulsion effect than a bonding pair of electrons.
11 Hybridisation is the process of mixing together
two or more atomic orbitals that have similar
energies.
12 When s and p orbitals hybridise, the new orbitals
formed are the sp, sp2 and .sp3 hybrid orbitals.
13 The geometry of hybrid orbitals are as follows:
sp (linear), sp2 (trigonal planar), and sp3
(tetrahedral).

14 A single bond contains one a-bond, a double

bond contains one a-bond and one It-bond and a
triple bond contains one a-bond and two It-bonds. A
a-bond is stronger than a It-bond.
15 The strength of a covalent bond depends on bond
length and bond strength. Thus the bond strength
increases in the order: C C < C < C C.
16 Dipole is a pair of separated positive charge and
negative charge in a covalent bond.
17 The presence of dipoles give ionic character to
polar covalent molecules.
18 Tetrachloromethane (CC14) is a non-polar
molecule eventhough the CCI bonds in it are
polar because the molecule has a symmetrical
structure. Consequently, the dipoles cancel one
another.
19 In a covalent molecule, polarisation is the
separation of electric charges in a molecule due to
unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond.
20 In ionic bonding, polarisation also means the
distortion of the charge cloud of a negative ion by

26 The presence of mobile delocalised electrons

explains the electrical conductivity and thermal
conductivity of metals.
27 The strength of a metallic bond is proportional to
the number of valence electrons and inversely to the
atomic size.
28 Van der Waals forces (bond) are weak
intermolecular forces, that include both permanent
dipole-permanent dipole and temporary dipoleinduced dipole attractions.
29 The larger the molecular size, or the larger the
number of electronS 1 oint of the molecule. van der
Waals forces, and the higher the melting point or
boiling p
30 For organic compounds, a branched chain isomer
has a lower bolling point than a straight chain
isomer. The more numerous the branches, the lower
the boiling point
31 Hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole
interaction that eX1sts between a hydrogen atom
which is covalently bonded to a highly
electronegative atom (e.g. N, O, F) and the lone pair
electron of another highly electronegative atom.

aneighbouring positive ion.

32 The relative strengths of chemical bonds
21 The polarisation of negative ion (anion) by
positive ion (cation) gives covalent character to the
ionic bond.

Ionic bond covalent bond > hydrogen bond > van

der Waals forces

22 The polarisation of anion by cation increases

when (a) the charge on the cation increases, (b) the
size of the cation decreases and (c) the size of the
anion increases.

33 The boiling points of the covalent molecules

such as I-IF, 1-120 and NH3, are higher than
expected because of hydrogen bonding between the
molecules.

23 Nitrogen molecule is inert because of two factors

(a) strong triple bond (NEIN) and (b) nonpolarity of
the bond.

34 Ice is less dense than water because the

arrangement of water molecules in ice as a result of
extensive hydrogen bonding creates a very open
structure.

24 Coordinate bond (dative bond) is a covalent

bond where both electrons in the shared pair are
supplied by one of the bonded atoms.
25 Metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction
between positive metal ions and the 'sea' of mobile
delocalised electrons.

35 Hydrogen bonding also accounts for the

solubility of organic compounds containing the
OH, COOH and NH2 groups and the
dimerisation of carboxylic acids.
Chapter 4:Matter

1 Kinetic theory of gas:

The volume of the gas molecules is negligible
compared to the total volume of the gas.
There is no intermolecular forces of attraction or
repulsion.
2 Boyle's law : P (n, T constant)

collide with the walls of the container, vapour

pressure is produced.
15 A more volatile liquid has a higher vapour
pressure, a lower boiling point and a lower enthalpy
of vaporisation.
16 crystal lattice is the regular arrangement of
particles in a crystal structure. 17 Major types of
crystalline solids:

3 Charles' law :Voc T (n, P constant)

Crystalline solid Interparticle forces Example
4 Avogadro's law :Voc n (T, P constant)
Ionic Electrostatic attraction NaC1
5 Ideal gas law :PV=nRT
Simple molecular Van der Waals or H-bonds 12
6 Dalton's law states that the total pressure of a gas
mixture (with no interaction) is the same as the sum
of the partial pressures of the gaseous components.

Giant molecular Covalent bond C, Si02

Metallic Metallic bond Cu

7 Partial pressure of a gas in a mixture is the

pressure exerted by the gas if it alone occupies the
container at the same temperature.
8 An ideal gas obeys the ideal gas law which states
that a gas has no particle volume and no
intermolecular forces between the gas molecules.
9 Real gas deviate from ideal behaviour because gas
molecules have finite volume, intermolecular
forces exist.
10 Real gases exhibit near ideal behaviour at low
pressure and high temperature.
11 Real gases deviate significantly from ideal
behaviour at high pressure and low temperature.
12 Melting point or freezing point is the
temperature at which solid and liquid exist in
equilibrium.
13 Boiling point is the temperature where liquid and
gas exist in equilibrium, and the vapour pressure
equals the external pressure.

18 Allotropes are different structural forms of an

element.
19 Diamond, graphite and fullerene are allotropes of
carbon.
20 A phase diagram summarises the relationship
between the solid, liquid and gaseous states of a
given substance as a function of pressure and
temperature.
21 Triple point describes the conditions where all
three phases, solid, liquid and gas coexist in
equilibrium.
22 Critical point is the temperature above which a
gas will not liquefy by an increase in pressure.
Beyond the critical temperature, Tc the liquid and
vapour phases are indistinguishable.
23 For carbon dioxide, melting point increases as
pressure increases. For water, melting point
decreases as pressure increases.
24 Addition of non-volatile solute to a solvent

14 Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by a

vapour in equilibrium with its liquid at a fixed
temperature. When the molecules of a vapour

lowers the vapour pressure of the solvent

causes depression of melting point

 causes elevation of boiling point

25 Colligative properties depend on the number of
solute particles in a solution and not on the nature of
the particles.