THE

PRINCIPLES
AND
PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

CLOSE
This
spurs.

wood,
into

shows
Notice

and

this

bearing.

VIEW

OF

the
that
in

FRUIT
of

tendency
a

the

spur

top

has
of

SPURS

OF

TREE

SHOWN

IN

FIG.

173

develop large numbers

the
node
from
on
developed
nearly every
slow
of
tree
variety
normally
a
a
young
unheaded

shoots

to

of

fruit

two-vear
to

come

and Practice of
Principles

The

PRUNING
Jc weniger wir zu schneiden haben
gesunder bleibt er und desto schoner
Karl Koopmann.
Friichte.

am

Baum,

entwickeln

desto
sich

"

The less a tree is cut, the sounder

the better its fruits.]

[TRANSLATION."
it

will be, and

By
M.
Lecturer

G.

KAINS

on

Horticulture,

University

Columbia

YORK

NEW

ORANGE

COMPANY

JUDD
1920

rn

MDDADV

Copyright,
ORANGE

COMPANY

JUDD

All

PRINTED

by

1917,

Rights

Reserved

iv

U.

S.

A.

Co

tfjc

memory

of

in

II

toell

U)i)o$e

gaineb
anb

""

mp

pruning

f irsft

biscobf

fruit

plantation

manageb

rrb

mp

groining

experience

lobe

for

L.

Frank

If

Would

The

that

If

Of

how
Put

The

that

Would

sound

loss

And
Trees
In

The

lack

Our

Trees

make

their

that

loud

and

fight

so

stern

birds,

the

return.

do

we.

stay

to

persistently
fruit
and
and
foliage
they.
allies, vigilant, are
so

flowers

leaf

the

been

well-being

our

their

life and

How

faithful

How

fondly

flower

and

Since
have

trees

yet, to him
of
friends
these

loves

truly
vocal.

prey,

talk, and

cannot

Is

words

and

their

for

well,
tell.

would

friends,

birds

incessant

the

every

Upon

care,

full

know

trees

good

the

Their

And

of

assail.

we

plea

need

Who

The

hear

year,

protest

their

of

foes

On

oppressed

talk, methinks

could

trees

this

suffering

myriad

For

repeat

we'd

oft

constantly

like

tales

Sad

rest;

mortals
thoughtless
unaware
trees
suffer, why
they fail,
effort
forth
to
repel
no

foes

If

divinely

mistreatment,
patiently for many

While

street

blest.

gross

Borne

Of

elders

they

talk, how

could

trees

the

hearts

or

lives

renew

vows

and

would

to.

dell,

home,

the

deferred

hopes
happy

shady

play

tales

varied

What

tell

they'd

listening

fond

guard

children

Where

Of

the

their

that

trees

Of

form

lovers

Where

The

worth

Talk

Tree

tales

be

surely

trees

in

Brace

talk, the

could

trees

Talk

Gould

If Trees

then

should

limb

and

world

began

steadfast

our

man,

friends,

constantly
depends.
growth
our
we

care

love

should
the

be,
tree.

PREFACE

FEW

fruit

trees

those

of

results

of

opinions
is always

one

attention

at

farm

by
the

have

production

and

of this
been

and

points,

but

been
of

much
are

necessarily
to

access

and
the

time

to

demand

true,

But

the

them,

are

for

and
if

even

through

to

find

this

out

of

print,

features

book
of

which
these

in the
half

workers
time

to
new

which

of thumb

which

edge
increasing knowlthese
investigators to

led

of

they know

to

be

had.

present

investigations

the
as

leges
col-

respective
and

bulletins

Many

can

growers

search, lack

of their

libraries

shall

fruit

agricultural

how

and

investigations

few

very

students

none

verified

much

of these

that

vii

plant

undecided

and

rules

literature.
so

to

discover

disputed

reports

the

and

to

discovered,

scattered

other

attention

and

plant

latter

the

and

efforts

but

has

been

so

hunt

their

only

has

schools,

institutions

reports

as

station

beliefs

many

disproved.

have

in

plant physiology
Much

and

of

before

ever

during

increasing

not

prove

accepted

challenge.

than

experiment

test

to

hold

wherever

and

the

Especially

annually

to

subject

and

principles
satisfactorilyapplied

more

investigations

truths

this

agricultural colleges

by

management

period have

pruning

have

been
crop

devoting

the

contradictory

discussion

decades

two

agriculture.

of

varied,

so

that

held

arouse

as

bureaus.

past

physiology

are

society meetings

given

are

and

During

to

surest

of

interest

apparently

tenaciously

so

especially

much

so

methods

the

horticultural

demonstrations
schools

and

the

of

attract

The

pruning.

growers

of plants,

handling

bushes,

and

diverse

so

history

in the

practices

the

Hence

portant
really imwell

as

set

Vlll

PREFACE

forth

the

fundamental

principlesbased

the

upon

laws

of

plant growth.
The

writings

these

pruning investigations have

quoted freely,the originalinvestigator'sown
words
being used in preference to mine.
I feel simple
This
justice both to investigator and reader, because
in any
on

been

be lost.
to
something is sure
The
reader
will herein
find only slight condensations
of the investigators'
the writers so quoted arc :
original text.
Among
Professors
of Oregon, Biolctti of California,Blake
Lewis
re-statement

of New

Jersey,Whitten

and

Chandler

of Missouri,

of

of Virginia, Howe
Tennessee, Drinkard
of New
York, Selby of Ohio, Newman

and

Collins

of

the

United

and

Gladwin

South

of

States

Keffer

lina,
Caro-

Department

of

Agriculture.
In

the

I have
the
found
preparation of this volume
Experiment Station Record, published by the United
States Department
of Agriculture, of immeasurable
help
in searching for literature on
of its
pruning by means

abstracts

and

voluminous

indexes.

it occasional

From

brief passages,
mainly
have
been
copied, with

concerning foreign investigations,

of
credit to the original sources

information

to

My

instead

special thanks

of
are

due

of the

the

University of Minnesota
tools (Figures 107, 108,
legends which
accompany
of New

York,

itself.

the Record

who

to

W.

Professor
for

110,

photographs

114, 116

them;
made

G. Brierley

to

almost

and

Mr.

B.

all of

of ing
prun118) and
F.
the

liamson
Wilpen

the
drawings, either from rough sketches or
Mr.
to
in bulletins, reports, etc. ; and
original sources
E. T. Kirk
of the Pennsylvania State College for photographs
of local subjects, mostly gathered in the college
The
other photos, except
the campus.
orchard
and on
"snapped"
were
as
specifiedunder "Acknowledgments,"
mainly at State College. Pa., and
own
camera,
by my
developed by Mr. Kirk,

and

ink

from

PREFACE

I
articles
I

had

have
to

notify
be

may

however,

that

will

the

meet

pruning

the

made

in

errors

of

need
to

those

who

all

in

or

will

be

for

whom

few

so

In

has

have

that
been

occasion

tools.

Washington,

L.

I.

G.

and

perfect.
least

any

me,

and
it

M.

Port

note

editions.

future

may

physically

kindly

publishers

books

editing

is

volume

readers

either

these

it

commend

this

that

request

and

error

that

suppose

therefore

experience

long

too

IX

KAINS.

that

the

rection
cor-

hope,

the

book

written,
to

use

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The

individuals

following

referred

illustrations
their

opposite
Prof.

California

Station

258,

107,

108,

265,

282

Station
211

213,

to

114,

118

116,

to

286,

288

to

290

72, 136a

N.

to

State

27, 209,

215,

216,

302

Y.

(redrawn

183

Cowell, Pennsylvania

W.

A.

Prof.

Ithaca,

at

110,

Storrs

at

25

Experiment

Paul

Collins

Fort

at

Station

Experiment

St.

at

Berkeley

at

Station

Experiment

Cornell

plied
sup-

numbers

figure

Minnesota

of

257,

Connecticut

have

names.

Experiment

Colorado

the

by

to

Brierley, University

G.

W.

institutions

and

B.

by

College

Pa.

at

F.

State

95, 304,

Williamson)
College,
307,

311,

312

"

lost

Credit
Farmers'

24

Bulletins

N.

to

Graves

R.

Idaho

248,

254

N.

Y.

Rochester,

of

to

Station

256,

259

to

E.

Kains

D.

of

Station

at

Station

Maryland

Experiment

Station

Mason

Massachusetts
Missouri

State

of

Jersey

Experiment

North

Ohio

York

Experiment

College

Carolina

at

Station

Experiment

Experiment
Station

93

178,

179

269

Park

to

273

22, 102
2

at

Amherst

313

Columbia

122,

214,

217

to

225,

294

131,

195

to

198,

200

Brunswick

New

at

125,

128

to

Geneva

at

Station
at

134,

77, 92,

Pa.

Station

Station

to

Lexington

at

121,
New

to

300

64, 65, 96, 310

at

Station

75

to

70

98, 120,
New

266,

Ames

College,

Experiment

Experiment

132

Pa.

Wyomissing,

Experiment

F.

264,

Lafayette

at

Kentucky

A.

culture
Agri-

298

61, 73,

Experiment

262,

Moscow

at

Station

Experiment

Iowa

of

Department

287

281,

Experiment

Indiana

190,

188,

181,
276

274,

States

United

the

of

Wooster
xi

at

74, 275

Raleigh

33

4, 315

to

324

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Xll

Experiment

Oregon
145

202,

235

States

United

Frontispiece,

184

182,

Station

Experiment

Station

Experiment

Tennessee

Corvallis,

at

180,

177,

to

187,

to

Station

B.

R.
F.

White

of

State

Williamson

of

10,

Wisconsin

193,

Experiment

College,
New

13,

Station

240,

Washington,

at

303,

to

306,
71,

266

C.

D.

305,

~'44

308,

205

to

:;""'."

208

:.'4"

Morgantown

at

238,

239,

243,

242,

245,

246,

250

to

Pa.

253

96

City

York

12,

144,

Pullman

at

Station

Experiment

to

Burlington

at

153,
W.

124,

to

234

Agriculture

Station

Experiment

Virginia

West

23,

Knoxville

at

of

Department

Experiment

Washington

189,

Kingston__137

at

301,
Vermont

191

237

to

Island

Rhode

Station
154

152,

to

17,

15,
at

19,

106,

109,

113,

135.

136a.

263

Madison
11,

66,

67,

123,

127,

136,

191,

;il

CONTENTS
Page

CHAPTER

Introduction

....

...

II

CHAPTER
Plant

Physiology

Related

as

to

Pruning
III

CHAPTER
The

of

Philosophy

Pruning

6
...

.34
.

CHAPTER

IV

Buds

48
.

CHAPTER

Pruning

81

Principles

......

CHAPTER
How

Wounds

VI
121

Heal

VII

CHAPTER
Prevention

and

Repair

Mechanical

of

CHAPTER

Dressings

for

154
......

Nursery

IX

Stock

.167
.

Young

Mature

X
186

Trees
.

CHAPTER

Pruning

Wounds

CHAPTER

Pruning

138
.

VIII

CHAPTER

Pruning

Injuries

Trees

XI

241

CONTEXTS

XIV

Page

XII

CHAPTER

Care

of

274

Trees

Top-Worked

XIII

CHAPTER

Rush

.279

Pruning

Fruit

294

Training

and

Pruning

XIV

CHAPTER

Grape

.....

XV

CHAPTER

354

Shrubs

and

Trees

Ornamental

Pruning

364

Training

and

Pruning

Tree

XVI

CHAPTER

Dwarf

....

XVII

CHAPTER

Odd

of

Methods

and

Pruning

371

Training
.

384

Surgery

Tree

....

XIX

CHAPTER

Rejuvenation

of

Neglected

XVIII

CHAPTER

Practical

405

Trees
....

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

LIST

Page

Fig.

Close
1

Renovating

Wrongly

Tree

First

of

View

Fruit

Spurs

Old

an

Cut

of Tree

with

of

Crop

3
.

.5
Cell

Meristematic

8
9
10
11

Root
Root

Last

12
13

.11

This

of

(Light)

Spring's

.12

Spruce

Stomata

from

15

Leaf
.

Oak

of

Sections

Three

10

Dug

and

and

Cells

Epidermal

9
....

Are

Buds

Also

Roots;

...

Section

Trees

(Black)

Magnified

Cross

in

Year's

and

Grains
.

Magnified

Nursery

How

Seen

Rootlet

Maize

of

Starch

Much

Tip

Tip

Showing

Greatly

Hair

Root

from

Cell

Chlorenchyma

Chloroplasts
7

Old

of

Renovation

After

Apples

....

Trees
5

2
.

Hole

Decay

High-Headed

Too

Tree

Apple

Neglected

Limb

Frontispiece

"

ous
Vari-

Showing

Branch

.17

Tissues
.

14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

Cross

Section

Cut

of

Section

Seedling

of

an

Apple

of

24
25
26

Result
How

White
White

of

Close

Not
Pine

Pine

to

.23

Leaf
.

.24

.25

Leaf

Seedling

Apple
Seen

from

"

.32

Trees

Before
After

34
.

.35

Trees

Plantation,
Plantation

Pruning

Poor

and

Planting

Manage

.27
.28

Above
.

23

22

Cherry

Mazzard

of

Growth
of

Peach

"Leggy"

.21

Edge

of

View

.19

Growths

Comparison
Side

Bundle

Contrasting

Cross

Stem

of

Fibro-Vascular

Diagram

37

Thinning
Thinning

38
.

LIST

XVI

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

Fig.

27
28

Page

Chestnut

Seedling
How

Branches

Old

Years

103

39
.

Buried

Are

.42
.

29
30
31

Apple Twigs of Various

Ages
with
a
Dehorning
Vengeance
Growth

New

.45
.48

"Dehorned"

on

Peach

Tree

49
.

32

37

with the Roots

Nothing Wrong
of Fig
Fruiting Habit
20 Years
Estimated
Apple Branch
Fruiting Spurs of Apple
Blooming Twig of Apple
Peach
Spur

38

Annual

33

.51

53

....

34
35
36

Growth

of

Old

55
.

.56

.57
r"8

Peach

59
....

39

European1

40

Japanese

41
42
43

Sweet

44

Sour

45
46

Four-

60

Plum

.61
.

of Sour

Buds

Blossom

Sweet

Plum

Cherry
Cherry
Cherry
Year

Fruit

,.

Cherry

in Two

Twig

.62

Sections

48
49
50
51

52
53

Peach

Cherry

.65

Twig

of'Peach

Buds

Leaf

Japanese

.66
.

Fruit

Borne

Have

66
.

One

67

Ages
and

Young

68

Old
.69

Old

Year

.71

Cluster

Bloom

Currant

of Various

Branches,

Gooseberry
Grape Cane

.67

Plum

Branches

Currant

Red

That

Twigs

.65
.

47

63
.

64

Sweet

and

Gooseberry
of Blackberry
Fruiting Branch
Red
Fruiting Branch
Raspberry
Black
Raspberry Fruiting Laterals
of a
Characteristic
Grape Shoot

.71

....

54
55
56
57

.73
.

75

and

77

Cane
.

riety
Va-

Labrusca

.78
.

59

Quince Bears Bloom

of Fruiting
Quince Method

60

"Der

61

The

58

"

.79

How

End
Tree

of

Der

Limit"

Butcher's

in

Pruning

82
.

.84

Method
.

LIST

XV111

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

F"K-

92

93
94
95

Page

Way
Wrong
Large Limb
Right Way to
Sad

Effects

Label

Cut

in

Removing

133

......

Make

Cut

Pruning

Sleet

of

Wire

Make

to

134
.

Storm

Makes

.135

Girdled

Limb

Bloom

maturely
Pre136

......

96
97
98
99

Wire

Girdled

Bench

This

Cherry Tree
by Living Tree

Supported

How

Handle

to

History

of

Split

139

Forked

Young

Crotch

.138
.

Tree

140
.141

100

Triple Y-Crotch

142

101

Saving a Y-Crotch
Splitting of Peach
Improperly Formed

142

102

103
104

One

Wood

Living
of

105

Wrong' Way

Tree

with

to

Was

Top

Y-Crotch

143

Y-Crotch

Mend

144
.

Trunk

Between

Limb

and

145

Maple

.....

Low-Headed

Well-Branched

the

Brace

Norway

Where

Peach

146
.

106

107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114

Miscellaneous
Pole

Tools

Pruning

Shears

147
.

Outside

for

Branch

148

Pruning
Pole
Shear
Pruners, Sliding Handle
Type
of Various
Styles
Pruning Shears
Good,

Bad

Common

and

Indifferent

Knives

Collection

149
.

15o

Shears

Hand

151
152

Saws

Pruning

Pruning

of Various

Styles

Pruning Knives
Principal Styles of Double-Handled

153
154

of

Lopping

Shears

155
......

115

Good,

Bad

116

Types

of Hand

117

and

Students'

Pruning Saws
Tree
Pruning

Saws

for

Combination

Pole

Saws

Are
Cuts

Ragged
119

Where

121

Yearling

All

in

Awkward

and

Are

Make

Use,

Undesirable

159
.

New

Various

15S

Start

Roots

Grades
Peach

of

Peach

with

.168
.

120

1 57
.

Saws
.

118

.156

Indifferent

Trees

Central

169

Leader

170

LIST

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

XIX

Fig.

122

123
124

Page

After

in

Pruning Tree
Top of Newly

How
Effect

of Wind

121

Fig.

Set

Tree

Be

May

Unstaked

on

170
.

Pruned

Peach

of

Poor

Trees

.172
.

Form

173
...

126

After

127

Young

173

Trees

Same

Tree

130

Undesirable

Heeled

Properly

Peach

Yearling

129

in

Pruning
After

128

Fig.

132
133
134

Feet

Tops

How

to

When

Nursery

Air

137

Tree

Trees

177

Tree

178
179

Tree

.179

"
.

Roots
of Badly Planted
Space Among
Set Obliquely Against Wind

138

Tree

Grown

138a

Tree

from

139

176
.

.'

Cut

Plant

from

Untrimmed

180
180

Stock

Roots

181
.181

Stub-Pruned

from

Tree

Nursery

"Stringfellowed"

Grown

Tree

Tree

by

Set

136

175

Made

Second-Class

on

Well-Branched

135

Pruned

Being

Growth

of

About

to

.176

Form

Developing
Where

175
.

Form

Desirable
Headed

porary
Tem-

for

174

Before

as

in

.....

131

Pruning

Storage
128

171
.

125

Roots

.182
.

140
141

Tree

Grown

Head

on

from

Tree

Untrimmed

Where

Plant

Nursery

Roots

Cut

Were

182
.

Back

183
.

142

At

143

Tree

Planting

Time

Grown

the Branches

from

with

"Whip"

Cut

Were

the

Back

183

Leader

Left
144

Head

145

Badly

146
147

Formed

Main
Old

184

Formed

1 49

150

Bartlett

186

Seldom

Barren
Fruit
Bear

Because

Spurs

Which

Spur

187

of

Neglect
Bloom
Yearly

.188

Fruit
.

Newtown
Yellow
Before
Tree
Young
Pruning
After August Pruning Young
Yellow
Old
Shoot
Produced
from
Vigorous

Pear

184

Head

148

Back

Cut

....

Branches

but

'Tree

Leader

with

by "Whip"

August
.189
Newtown

189

Bartlett

190

XX

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

I'ig.

151
152
153

page

Back

Heading

Heavy

Typical
Three

Develops

Wood

.191
.

Tree

Leader

192

.....

Decks

of Frame

Limbs

.192

154

Modified

Leader

1!W

.....

155

Modified

Leader
.

156

Good

Modified

157

Modified

Leader

158

Example

of

161
162
163

Back

Good

Effect

Good

Makes
of

Example

194

Unequal Growth
Good
Vegetative
Response
Pear
Bartlett
Spurs
Five- Year-Old
Wagener
Apple

Heading

.193

1!H
.

from

Thinning
.195

160

Leader
.

159

.19:]

Tree

19(i
.

Growth

.197

July Pruning
of
Proper

198

Balance

Between

Branches

.199

164
165
166
167

Balanced

and

..

Unbalanced

Reinvigorated Top
Moderate
Pruning
Pear
Spurs Which

of

Pruning

Old

Pear

Stimulated

Tree

Shoot

Borne

Have

200
.

201
Formation

Well

in

202

vious
Pre-

Years

203
......

168

169
170

Too

Much

Shading by Upper Branches

This
Twig
of Fruit Spurs in the Light
Abundance
Partial Dehorning
Failed
for Wood
Heavy Pruning Makes
Follow
Thinning
Vigorous Growths
Fruit Spurs Due
to Good
Pruning
Nelis
Pear
Typical Five- Year Winter
Shoots
Fruit Spurs Form
Last Year's
on

Killed
204
205
.

20l"

....

171

207
.

172
173
174
175
176

Five-Year

Newtown

178
179

Five-Year

Apple

Well-Formed

Splendid

180

181

Far
Plan

Too

of Tree

Apple
Fruit
at

211
.

Summer

213
.

Distribution

Many

210
.

.212

Previous

Pruned

Apple

Four- Year

209

Pruned
.

177

208

Tree

Head

.214
.

of

Tree

Spurs

Frame

Branches

on

.215
.

.216

Planting Time

.217

LIST

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

XXI

Page

Fig.

182

Pruned

Pear

218

183
184

Fire-Blight Handling
Poor
Type
Cherry

185

Three-

Lambert

Year

in

188

Pefore

Cherry

Early July

Severe

After

Tree

221

of Dead

of the
end

at

After

....

Removal

Thinning

Five-Branched

Tree

Cherry

Early July

Tree

Prune

and

220

Lambert

Three-Year-Old

Old

219
.

......

Pruning
187

Kit

221

Pruning
186

....

Wood

Living Spurs
First

of

222
.

Season

223
.

189
190

Plan

of

192

193

224

Dehorning

One

After

Season's

Growth

Orchard

225

English Walnut
Splendid
Type
English Walnut

225

in
191

Following
Tree
Top

Neglect

Portable

Brush

Low-Headed,

of

Spreading
226

.....

Incinerator

227
....

194
195

Pruned

Well

Good

and

Headed

Open

.228
.

Peach

Yearling

.229
.

196

Peach

Trunk,

229

197

Peach

Trunk,

230

198

One-

Year

199

Good

200

One-Year

201

Tree

Peach

from

Nursery

.231
.

Protector
Peach

231

from

Nursery

Inviting Disaster
Unpardonable
"Pruning"

232
.

241

....

202

203
204
205

Cross
How
Winter
Tree

206

Pruned

Section

of Trunk

208
209
210

211

.242
.

Shown

Bury Stubs
Injured Rhode
Before
Pruning
Apple

in

Fig.

Stub

Admits

243

204
.

.244
.

Island
in

Greening
Early June

Apple
245
.

24("
.

August
September
Showing
Pear
Bark
Healthy
Showing
Fungi Attack
Injured Bark
Pear

Trees

207

Blight

246
246
247

Lenticels
.

.248
.

.248

XX

LIST

11

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig.

212
213
214
215

Page

from

Blight Spread

Pruning Wound
Limb
Cankered
Showing
Blight Exudations
Frost-Killed
Peach
Wood
Variously Handled
Winter
Injury of Peach
Winter
Injuries
.

216

249

250
.

2r"2
.

253

254

......

217

Poor

Severe
218

Peach
of

219

of Peach

Growth

Winter

Trees

Cut

255

Varying

Degrees
256

Back

Be

After

....

with

Back

Pruned

......

Headed

Should

Not

Injury

Severity

Tree

Tree

and

More

Too

Than

Severely
Branches

Many

It

Left

257
.

'

220

Peach
Properly Cut Back
of Peach
Pruned
Not
Unsatisfactory Growth
Back
After
Winter
Severely Enough
Injury
in Foreground
Peach
Shows
Good
Growth
of Eight-Year
Peach
One
Season's
Growth
.

221

222
223
224
225
226

Old

Mixon

Peach

Peach

Free

Tree

with

Very

Five

Greensboro

with

New

228

Greensboro

262

Growth

263

Old

.264

Years

Old

F,ive Years

Five

Greensboro,

261
.

Years

Peach,

260
.

227

259
.

Head

Spreading

Dense

.258

265
.

Old,

Summer

Not

266

Pruned
229

230

Greensboro,
Greensboro,

231

Five- Year

Five

Years

Old, Pruned

in

Five

Years

Old,

Pruned

in

Belle

of

July
in Early

Pruned

Georgia

267

August
.

269

June
232

Five- Year

of

Belle

Georgia

Not

Summer270

Pruned
233

Greensboro

Years

Tree, Seven

mer
Sum-

Old, Not

271

Pruned
234

268

Greensboro

Fourteen-Year

272

Summer-Pruned
.

235
236
237

New

Growth

One

Season's

New

Growth

Worked
238

Red

Apple
Top- Worked
Growth
on
Top- Worked

on

at

End

Apple

Raspberry

of Second

Season

275
.

Apple
Topon

276
.

.277

Tree

Canes

Before

Pruning

280
.

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

LIST

XX111

Page

Fig.

239
240

Red

Earth

Position

in

242
243

244

with
.282

241

281
.

Winter

the

for

Pruning
for Covering
.

Canes

Bramble

After

Canes

Raspberry

Improperly Pruned
Raspberry Cane
Black
Pruning
Raspberry Before
Black
Raspberry After Pruning
with
Plants
Fruiting Canes
Loganberry

283

Red

Wire

on

.284

.285

ported
Sup-

Trellis

.286
.

251

Before
Pruning
Blackberry Canes
After
Pruning
Blackberry Canes
Cane
Supports
Styles of Bramble
Popular Styles of Blackberry Training
and
Main
Branch
Blackberry Cane
Planted
One
Year
Currant
Unpruned
Same
One- Year
Planted
Currant, Pruned

252

Fig. 250
Gooseberry

245

287

246
247
248

249
250

253
254

255

256
257
258
259

Before

Pruning

of Short
of

.288
.289
290

291
292
as

.293
294

Back

First

the

Year

295
.

of

Pruning

Roots
.296

.297
.298

of Grapevine

Pruning

Long

....

Pruning

Headed

Vines

(Muscadine)

Rotundifolia

Unit

292

Pruning
Gooseberry After
in Vineyard
Vines
Growing
Method
Grapevine Showing
for
Planting
Ready
Unit

for

Various

299
.

Systems

of
300

Pruning
260

Pruned
of the

261

Renewal

Umbrella

Vine

Unpruned

and

at

System

Various

Stages
.301

Trellis

302
....

262
263

264
265

Fan
Wire

Post

Vine

System,
Hook
and

Head
Canes

for

Various

at

Holding

Vine

Methods

of

Stake

Pruning:
Tied

to

Ages
to

Horizontal

Trellis

304

Training

Grape

Fan-Shaped

303
.

Fruit

Head,

Trellis

306
.

266

Diagram

of

Ordinary

305
.

Trellis
.

.307

LIST

XXIV

ILLUSTRATIONS

OF

Page

1-ig.

267

268

the

Recurving
Usually
Unpruned
System

269

The

270

The

Tends

273

According

Before

System.
System
Fig. 271

in

of Munson

274

Pruned

Various

Pruning
Training

of

276
277

Vine

the

Vine
315
.317

279

280

31 cS
.

31!)

.321

System

Vine

of

in

Popular

Pruning

322

York
in

32.1

Year

Fourth

Its

....

Horizontal

System
Caywood
System of Grape Training
Parrales
System of Training Vines
Muscadine
(Rotundifolia) Grapevine
Pruned
Vine
Cross-Wire
System Showing
of Tying Fruit
Effect
Sultanina
Vine
Showing

Hudson

278

282

in Vertical

Canes
283

32!)
.

330
.

33ti

Pruned

Vine
of

Treatment

328

333
.

284

327

Position
.

Rooted

I'M

281

314

Grapevine

Training, Vine Unpruned

of Grape
Training
"Umbrella"
Vine,
Unpruned

Methods

New

Fan

of

and

Kniffin
275

the

to

Row

System
System

Munson

3','8

311

Kniffin

Munson

System

Fan

Fruitfulness

272

the

Promote

Trained

Vine

Kniffin

End

to

as

Shown
271

Canes

in

an

Vine

Average

Second

During

338

Season

.......

340

Spur

285

Grape

286

Three-Year-Old

287

Grapevines

288

Forms

289

Treatment

of

Various

of

Pruning

After

Vines

343

Ages
Head
Training

Grapevine
of

Vigorous

Average

One

290

Forms

of Head

291

Horse

Chestnut

in Third

Vine

345
.

Season

or

347

in Second

Pruning

....

of

349

Grapes

Bud

Bloom

Co-Terminal

panding
Ex356
.

....

292

Shade

Tree

293

Huge

Wound

Headed
Well

Too

.357

Low

.358

Made
.

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

1. Pruning

defined.

dying

dead

or

especially
that

parts

for

branches,
fruit

of

to

altered

for
the

save

in the

in

life

the

and

classes

discussed,

The

practice, which

children

the

the

gather
to

the

let

the

fruit

of

have

discovered

understood

plants,

and

the

to

In

limit

and
useful

of

even

by

good

eral
gen-

3, 4), in which

their
in

is

centuries,

few
the

can

few

These
of the

gators
investi-

have

we

by

no

claim

to

important

are,

people

self-called

to

ancient

the

many

but

in

made

also

of

year

passages

of

spite

only

seventh

other

ferred
re-

and

vineyards

the

efforts

practices.

two

(xxv,

knowledge,

of

the

other

have

five

In

demonstrated

many

the

reference

intervening

the

profit,

history, is

but

the

and

present
but

human

prune

years,

by comparatively
and

as

hooks."

practices

reached

principles

told

figurative

"pruning

the

old

as

six

for

to
tree

or

the

In

may

Leviticus

are

3, pruning

is

each.

unpruned.

go

during
means

in

during

vines

and

pruning
origin

of Israel

Testament

old

of

is

specifically

to

reader

knowledge

working

or

underlying

the

so

2, pruning

specimen

called.

pruning

practice

principles
are

is

the

bushes,

pruning

repair

"

1, pruning

the

improvement

popularly

object

of

form

the

classes,

specimens

the

specimen

today

three

and

trees

more

fancied

the

of

or

case

main

the

volume

or

it is

as

surgery,

which

real

finer

benefit

to

namely

fruit

living,

plant parts,

into

pruner

of

case

shrubs,

divides

of the

horticultural

other

or

and

naturally

secure

ornament,

roots

vines

the

undesirable

or

twigs,

aim

the

profit, as

object being
for

It

upon

excess

trees,

remain.

dependent

off

cutting

of

process

is

Pruning

"

however,
who

grow

pruning

ex-

ccj

pcrts,

RRHJ;CIP(LEo

evidenced

as

fruit and

shade

shown

FIG.
Notice

the

1"

plants
secure

by the
and

trees

RENOVATING

PRUNING

OF

ill effects observed

illustrated

AN
which

growths

into

the

PRACTICE

by

in countless
of the halftones

many

in this volume.

upright

Pruning

AND

fruiting branches

demands

he

grow

desired

with

least

at

will

be

results.

water

as

short

many

knowledge

has

pruner

NEGLECTED

OLD,

started

of

On

the

TREE
veloped
de-

less
plant physiology. Un-

working

unable

APPLE

but
which
have
sprouts,
and
stubby fruit spurs.

to

knowledge

prune

contrary,

of how

intelligentlyto
he

may,

and

harm
immediate
ultimate
probably will, do far more
or
than good.
Simply to top off limbs with an ax (Fig. 61)
others with a saw
or
improperly to remove
(Fig. 201) is
not
pruning, but usually a species of tree butchery or

vivisection

for

the

tree

is

almost

sure

to

suffer

and

ing
havAgain, without
end and intelligently
a definite,desired
working within
the scope
of the underlying physiological principles,the
specimen treated may develop nothing but disease,death,

sooner

or

later die from

the effects.

INTRODUCTION

Therefore, a sketch of plant

decay and disappointment.
pruning is given so the reader
physiology as it bears upon
for the pruning prinunderstand
the reasons
better
ciples
may
in
follow
and
subsequent chapters.
practices which
2.

Pruning

kind

every

strawberry, there are various systems

and
of pruning
training. These, so far as
fruit plants are

ideals

woody

in

mainly
which

the

and
the

form

it is

designed
plant and

give the

due

are

variations

to

the

among

varieties

species,

or

others

to

sought,

still

aims

the
others

environmental

to
ditions
con-

the

or

in

Some

growths.

differences

to

the

of

management

annual

of

differ

concerned,

the

With

"

the

fruit,even

the

ideals.

and

systems

fashion

the

locality, and
are
a
merely
many
of
the grower's
matter
whim
or
caprice
questionably
Un(Chapter XVII).
of

best

the
is that

system

nearly
adapted to

most

in

the

nature

the

least.

for

no

the

the

tions
condi-

Whatever

operator

dog

The
and

the

plant

have

jumped

system,
be

to

chased

has

has

of horticultural
to

CUT

WRONGLY

up

work

clear

squirrel
his

to

unless

pruned,

it is

is it

mental

LIMB

WITH

HOLE

DECAY

individual

branch

2"

readily

of the

the

is
FIG.

and

plantation.

In

which

up

present

in

the

tree

position.

it considers

faulty, to

say

important
picture or ideal
more

PRINCIPLES

for

which

to

open

to

accidents

that

attack

maintain,

AND

strive

PRACTICE

in

as

of

OF

pruning.

PRUNING

Fruit

cultivation, storm,

plants

disease

so

are

and

insect

it is often

much
less
impossible to secure,
absolutely ideal specimen, yet the ideal fruit
for its variety or species, must
be held tenaciously
in the pruner's mind, or

an

plant, each

his

mechanical

for

naught,

held

while

skill will

count

the

and

plants he
will necessarily be uneven
prunes
in appearance,
ment,
developother
prolificacy or some
important
or
point
points.
With
clear
ideal constantly
a
work

at

constantly

he

approach

even

realization

and

will

of

TREE

3"

TOO

This

is

man

tall.

He

Note

is

that

also

mainly

reaching

from

point

annual

"

sirable.
unde-

pruning

classes
crop

feet.
start

branches

one

3. Defective

general

over

of

be. small

may

the

With

no

This

ones.

by
;

is bent,

so

or

one

with

is well

popular

instance,

for

the tree

more

1. The

of

right
plants is

fact

many

ways:

because

gies
ener-

than

important

result in

undesirable

in

plant

proverbs
the twig

may

to
dencies
ten-

the

the

illustrated
inches

10

feet

able

direct

to

more

young

HIGH-

HEADED

of his desires,

be

and

direction.

FIG.

proximate
ap-

undesirable

counteract

this

may

"As

clines.
in-

of four
average

insufficient

fruit

or
buds, delayed bearing, irregularity of development,
imperfect utilization of vigor. 2. The quality of the fruit
of over-bearing, especially of
be inferior because
may

weak

plants, irregular distribution

fruit, and

sequently
con-

irregular ripening and injurious

of the fruits with each other, with twigs, branches
more

contact

of the

or

less

INTRODUCTION

of

the

3.

Shortened

plants

other

wounds,

occasional

to

life

of

cost

and

FIG.

4"

of

growth
or

FIRST

CROP

the

the

of

water

sprouts

OF

"

control

APPLES

other

or

of

or

AFTER

objects.

and

suckers,

and

harvesting

OF

or

Excessive

4.

tillage practices,

RENOVATION

and

pruning

over-bearing.

maintenance

pest

soil

because

plants

periodical

plantation
thinning,

with

them,

bearing

OLD

ing
prun-

grading.

TREES

CHAPTER

PLANT

IT

PHYSIOLOGY

AS

RELATED

TO

PRUNING

4. Plant

cells

and

their

"living- machinery"
plant

for

knowledge

upon

functions

which

upon

depend

growers

of

plant

functions.

of

cells.

fruit

profit
the

It is

minute

not

deeply

as

physiologist,
all

plant

in the
to

form

"the

of all vital

affected.

In

by

OF

TIP

division"

usually

less

firm

of

7. The

an

water

protoplasm

"

"The

the

structural

of

cell

usually

sac

surrounded

cellulose

and

essential

element,

active

the

agent

viscid, contractile,
substance

animal

physical
supply
and

of
than

for, unless

plant growth

much

taining
con-

plasm,
protoin

cell-

does
the

any

plant

other
can

cell"

to

do

semi-liquid,
the

principal

(Huxley).
with

the

activities

wrhich
organisms
it more
definitely sets
to

habitats,

localities

environmental,
secure

a
6

tionary).
Dic-

(Standard

the

and

as

forms

of life"

basis

has

cells

that

vegetable

or

Unquestionably

compose.

bounds

wall

nucleus,

granular

"The

of

stratum
sub-

(Crozier).

Protoplasm.

portion

closed

the

and

or

processes

activity."

plants the

as

appears

MAIZE

more

tically
prac-

CELL

MERISTEMATIC
ROOT
FROM

6.

plant

in

living bodies, by which

of
is
multiplication
growth

the

the

of

elements

FIG.

the

important

of

"One

"

into

though

even

the

present

go

does

as

marily
pri-

and

physiological

cells

5. Cell.

depends

structure

however,

the

ornamental

necessary

discussion,
matter

and

beauty

or

of

Knowledge

"

sufficient

these

and

the
gions
re-

physical factor;
and practically

I'klMII'LKS

PRACTICE

AND

OF

PRUNING

after

wilting for several days, but reviving during the night, finally
out
and
sufficient moisture
died, evidently because
n"t
was
furnished
roots
to meet
the demand
by the slow-growing Marianna
from
the peach leaves during a period of excessive transpiration."*
dried

9. Water

by the root system

higher plants, especially those

of

majority
culture

is absorbed

horticulture.

and

and

textures

This

distributions

necessarily linked
quantities of available

the

divided

into

soil,but these

with

not

are

noticeable
Root

water.

great

in

agri-'

forms,

differences

differences

systems

in

be

may

(1) The taproot

less vertically

general classes, namely:

two

used

is of various

system

in the

of the

style,which penetrates the soil more

or
downward
branch
veloped
deroots
(parsnip, hickory), with
at irregular intervals; (2) the fibrous-root
style,
which
has
reveals
but
if any,
main
root
little,
axis,
many
less uniformly sized small
roots
more
starting from
or
the base of the stem
near
(wheat, currant).
10. Root

their

and

hairs

function.

and

Roots

"

rootlets,

fast
minutely they divide, are both the holdtheir positionsin the
whereby plants maintain
organs
soil, and the pipe lines whereby the upper
parts of plants

how

matter

no

with

supplied
they are

are

with

which

singlecells
the

at

not

has

not

Their

function

of the

rootlets.

formed

absorbing

hairs

Kims.

Plant

As

epidermal

tips push forward

older

of the

easily

Propagation,

just in the
extend, but
cells.

"

either water
be

of rootlets,

crude

and

or

mineral

studied

Greenhouse

and

the

appear,
dis-

incapable
the soil.

from

by sprouting
Nursery

oldest

tissues

matter

hairs

root

new

and

ones

replaced by thicker-walled

can

to

are

plant food"
the soil. Always
from
they
few inches of the extreme
tips
water

nature

the

ceased

has

hairs

epidermis

hard-walled

or

secure

in front

to be

Root

is to

positionswithin

occupy

are

thick

mineral

that

hairs

root

root

elongating tip, but

area

an

the

from

out

and

immediate

developed

mainly of

water

push

of this part,

rear

of

the

to

respect

the

importance to
supply. The

of secondary

less
Neverthe-

soil.

the

from

taken

water

seeds

Practice, Page

189.

and

PLANT

or

RELATED

much
11.

the

because

contorted
Root

growing

in

FIG.

are

soil

that

with

saturated

HAIR

hairs

7"

water.

of

the

sheets
days between
they are more
grown
in the soil they are

of soil

contact

usually most
is dry, and
Also, when

FIG.

ROOT

numerous

the

8"

epidermis;

they become

unless

more

less abundant.

transplanted
watered.

to

Often

soil

numerous

Plants
much

b,

d,

rome;

then

TIP

plants

which

is

supply de-

MUCH

MAGNIFIED
a,

wet,

that

waier

ROOT

particles.
on

in

least

GREATLY

MAGNIFIED

minishes

PRUNING

TO

a few
seedlings to grow
When
white
so
blotting paper.
when
less straight, but
grown

allowing
of

AS

PHYSIOLOGY

grown

drier

cortex;
root

and

c,

pie-

cap.

when

in wet

comes
it be-

soil and

will suffer

they will die because

enough to supply the

severely
they cannot

loss of moisture
develop root hairs fast
by transpiration from the leaves.
finds a specially important application in the prunThis
ing
of nursery
stock
at
transplanting time ; the tops of
the plants must
back
the unavoidable
be cut
to balance
be
loss of roots
due
to
digging. (Chapter IX.) It may
proved very simply by the following experiment : Sow
some
cabbage or lettuce seeds in a flat filled with soil of
three
uniform
the
two
or
plants have
quality. When
leaves
and
are
large enough to prick out, divide the most

10

PRINCIPLES

uniform

of

into

ones

filled with

AND

PRACTICE

OF

three

and

groups
of uniform

soil also

in
moist, those
very
in the third set moderately
set

one

those
weeks

transplant

the

plants

transplant in flats
quality. Keep the plants
another
set
dry and
very
moist.

the

to

PRUNfxG

In

three

ground, treating

open

those

of

three

each

the

lot

with

some

others

parts,

any

after removing
of

half the

the

the

open

leaf

found

flat will
those

a,

SEEN

CROSS

IN

phloem;
xylem
endodermis;
d, cortex;

cylinder;

in
suffer

from

which

of

none

the

leaf

this

statement

simply

this book.

Try

it. Prove

it.

extent

of the

agriculturalplants
leaves
water

combined.
from

an

than
Thus

enormous

each

root

that
the
area

the

system
of

the

lot

of

face
sur-

will

it is

cut

tops

is

those
Don't

printed

back

to

in

ance
bal-

in

usually greater

trunk,

soil

than

will understand

you

plants
of

less

because

Then

have
stock should
nursery
the loss of root
digging.

12. The

leaf

removed.

is

area

BELIEVE

why

least.

dry

deprived

those

c,

most,

hairs.

root

e,

suffer

considerable

SECTION

b, central

the
in the

wet

kept

and

and

If

area.

that

plants kept

ROOTLET

root

ditions
ground conform,
are
fairly uniit will
usually

be

9"

lot

destruction

the

and

per
face
sur-

third

the

of about

FIG.

75

leaf

the

and
after

possible less

least

cent

in

thus

ways,

Transplant
of

four

or

are

branches
able

to

and
draw

particles,prop..r-

PHYSIOLOGY

PLANT

the

tionately

AS

greater

quantity of organic

of

the

extent

of

gained

from

be

may

particles and

soil increase.
of

plants
flower
full-grown sun-

yard of soil with

water-absorbing area

fitted

if.

best

are

absorbing

for

fitted

poorly

is

other

at

or

its

cubic

full

cultural
plant (in agriplants, at least,)

not

idea

An

cultivated

that

enormous

an

of the

systems

statement

11

PRUNING

of the

parts

are

in the

because

necessary

matter

the

Such

system.

fineness

root

fill almost

will
root

the

TO

the

as

the

RELATED

water.

supposed

absorb

to

wilted

when

much

this

than

are

water

and

rain

by

are

dew
do

which

leaves

Even

able

less

to

popularly

is

leaves
Yes,
supposed.
weather
hot
wilted
by
turgid after
quickly become

due

the

to

this is far less

but

shower,

than

water
to

reduction

the

in

transpiration

of

the

increased
which

water

draw

to

supply

of

the

roots

plants, however,
take

up

water

readily

than

these

jt

the

Concern
run

in

much

more

but

others,
do

as
,

to

FIG.

Dotted

OI

from

the

diffusion
soil

line

through

DUG

roots

are

chaser

gets;

b, what

the

cut;

account
root

diagrammatically

shows

where

of water

TREES

NURSERY

HOW

not

SUDject

and

10"

ARE

cr

13. Osmosis
of water

some

able

are

such

are

can

of

Leaves

upon.

the

and

air

moister

cooler,

faces
sur-

on

hairs

a,

is

the

what
left

in

the

pursoil.

for passage
and

upward

PLANT

PHYSIOLOGY

AS

RELATED

TO

13

PRUNING

in

due
the tendency of
movements
to
are
plants. The
liquids of different densities to equalize, the weaker
ing
movand diluting the stronger, and vice versa.
toward
Root
hairs
contain
cell sap,
which, besides
tains
protoplasm, conalso
of salts than
does
usually a stronger solution
the

soil water.

other

cells

the

"

leaves,

The

and

more

surfaces
the

root-hair

the

through

the

Hence

flow

of water

and

wall

from

remote

more

interior

this flow

of

maintain

turgor
in

being

case

soil water.
the

of
is

the

to

or

passage

far

solution

ing
water-absorb-

hairs

the

to

stems,

Its

soil

opposite

lack

to

as

is of

of water

called

pressure,

stiffness of

of normal

lent
succu-

effect

ing
(wilt-

of sufficient water
solution

water

in

result

stronger
this

latter

the

plant into the

pruning is concerned, the strength
minor
importance, but unless there
of water

from

the

from

soil

the

to

transpiration, wilting will

in some
cases
phenomenon,

serious

the

roots,

sufficient

roots

be

maintain

to

root

the

plant tissues, the

the

So

inflow

an

soil

the

hydrostatic

or

vegetative parts of plants.

be due
or
plasmolysis) may
that

the

etc.

effect

than

of

cells

turgor, is the principal cause

to

from

is from

even

more

less

or

resulting

in

death.
14.

Root

or

power

transpiration
most

common

is the

box

done
so

is

It

too

given

term

be

may

rapid to
which
phenomenon
so-called
"bleeding"
not

offset
proves

to

the

when

observed
its effects.
this

motic
os-

sap

The
sure
pres-

grapevines, maples,
plants cut in spring about
time
that growth
If the cutting is
normally starts.
earlier the adjacent cells become
dry and shriveled
elders, birches

the

is the

sap
pressure
of the
roots.

the

surfaces

sap

cannot

and

exude.

of

other

In

other

cases

the

wounded

become
clogged
develop corky layers, may
with
solid
material, or
special growths
glutinous or
from
(tyloses) which
come
adjacent cells and clog those
cells or tubes
from
the major part of the bleeding
which
may

14

PRINCIPLES

It may

occurs.

AXD

PRACTICE

OF

be said,parenthetically,
that this

produce ill effects instanced

as
15. Vine
bleeding. C. C. Newman

may

follows

the evil effect of late

vines

the

and
bleed

other
all

at

the

as

spring advanced

as

demonstrated

of muscadine

growing side by side were

pruned,
February 15. The vine pruned in

fine fruit. The

vine
the weather
turned

of

spring pruning

bleeding

has

"

Two

PRUNING

one

vines.*
grape-

November

November

did

15
not

and

produced a wonderful
crop
February began to bleed as soon
slowly at first, but bleeding more
Drops of sap could be seen
steadily
in

pruned
warm,

freely as the spring advanced.

the end of each
vine
vine that had
dripping from
been
The
cut.
later
10
in
pruned in February was
days
putting out leaves than the
in
November.
one
The
pruned
feeble and
it set
growth was
very
little fruit,most
of the canes
dying during the summer.
very
To
a

form

vine

some

that had
in

pruned

as

cut

to

the

pruned

November,

was

it

idea
been

and

on

the same
the sap

on

of sap that would

flow from
late in the season,
third
vine was
a
1A
March
20
inch in diameter,
one
cane,
vine and a rubber
tube
fastened
over
amount

too

conduct
to a large glass jug, the mouth
of which
with
rubber
which
the
tube passed. The
was
a
cork, through
vine began to bleed freely from
the cane
cut
March
20, but the canes
did not bleed at all. A careful
cut in November
record
was
kept
of the sap collected,and in four weeks
from
the time the cane
began
so

to

as

closed

to

bleed,

The

loss

growth

pounds

23

of

sap

of

through
considerably.

checked

was

16. Transpiration
in vapor
parts of

had been
collected from
this one
cane.
this cane
affected the entire vine, and
its

sap

form

from

is the
leaves

into the air of water

passage
and
and other
growing
green

sorbed
aba
plants. Thus
great part of the water
very
tain
into the air. Cerby the root hairs finds its way
of their ability to
plants (eucalyptus trees), because
used
to remove
transpire immense
quantities of water, are
soils that cannot
from
water
readily be
excess
in any
As instances
drained
other way.
tural
agriculamong
that experiments with
be mentioned
a
plants it may
little tree have
that (proportionately)an apple tree
shown
30 years
old would
probably transpire 250 pounds of
about 20 tons
water
during the growing season.
a day, or

this rate

At
*

S.

C.

Bulletin

an

apple orchard
132, Page

7.

with

trees

set

40

40

feet

"

16

I'kIXt

number

Il'l.KS

of stomata

AND

in

PRACTICE

given

OF

PRUNING

water-holddeveloping ing
of surface
tissues, reducing the amount
exposed to
the air, and
be reso
on.
Artificially,
duced
transpiration may
of excessive
leaf
by preventing the development
when
as
nitrogenous plant food is withheld, and by
area,
branches
and twigs and
dividual
inpruning off unnecessary
even
areas,

leaves.

Instances

of

wilting and

loss effects

water

drying

of certain

up

defoliation

the

during dry spells are

herbaceous

the

annuals,

of deciduous

perennials, the partial

total defoliation
of fruit trees
followed
or
by the- development
of new
growth subsequent to a wet
spell in early
Such
instances
indicate that short water
autumn.
supply
tends to maturity of all parts,
during the growing season
often
of which
especially fruits and seeds, the former
are
and
altered in texture
chemical
even
composition.
premature

20.

and
all
In
Transportation of water
plant food.
this volume
"vessels"
deals there are
plants with which
conduits
which
or
greatly facilitate the transpiration of
of two
classes.
of these,
are
liquids. These
(1) Some
the large and
numerous
xylem vessels (25) on the inner
side of the cambium,
lead from
the water-absorbing areas
to the transpiring areas.
Through them the greater part
From
of the copious "transpiration stream"
ascends.
"

them

also

it, and

which
also

stream

have
carries

(2) Other

upward.

less water

or

more

enough
mineral
of these

diffuses
tension

to

nutrients
vessels

to

need

cells which
draw

from

This

it.

part

(sieve tubes),

to

part

smaller

just mentioned, are outside the cambium.

the chlorophyll-containing parts of the
They lead from
to all regions of the plant where
water-transpiring areas
growth and food storage 'are taking place and pass by
such activities are
diffusion through the cell walls where
the "elaborated"
smaller
conduits
occurring. These
carry

ones

than

those

plant foods
process

of

made

from

water

and

photosynthesis (29).

carbon

dioxide

in

the

PLANT

In

PHYSIOLOGY

first

the

AS

the

sap

after

the

case

RELATED

will

17

PRUNING

TO

continue

ascend

to

for

girdled ; in the
will increase
second
the stem
considerably in girth, the
weeks
months,
or
dependent
requiring several
process
other
and
of plant, the size of the stem
the kind
upon
will prove
The
factors.
interesting
following instances
time

considerable

at

this

FIG.

13"

has

stem

been

oint.

SECTIONS

THREE

OF

VARIOUS

SHOWING

BRANCH

OAK

TISSUES

longitudinal section;
/ to middle)
section;
Upper surface, cross
left center,
ends
cross
of medullary
extreme
showing
left, tangential section
rays;
cambium;
d, spring-formed
section
fc, bast;
c,
showing
medullary
ray;
a, cortex;
wood
of previous
/, lenticel.
wood; e, autumn-formed
year;
front

21.

of

Tenacity

life

in

face

trees."

(from

The

fact

that

the

course

of

the

is
through the sap-wood
plants is upward
prived
deheen
that have
well illustrated
by the tenacity of life in trees
considerable
their
trunks
of their bark
around
to
completely
often
girdled by mice and rabbits
heights. For instance, trees are
to
foot, so that it is thought
a
a
height of several inches or even
(128) to help the
resort
to
to
grafting
bridge
repair
or
necessary
is
the instance
More
corded
reremarkable,
however,
healing process.
the
Chronicle
peeling of
by I. Simpson in the Gardeners'
ing
standing oaks to the height of 20 to 40 feet and the subsequent leafcrude

sap

in

exogenous

"

the

out

of

these

end

of

the

trees

season.

and

the

continuance

of

these

leaves

even

to

18

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

the

that timber
merchants
peeling practice are
condition
in
when
better
than
peeled keeps
peeled
after felling. It costs
much
to
more
peel the trees
standing than
is
felled.
the sap begins to rise, and
as
Peeling begins as soon

The

for

reasons

believe

timber

continued

so

till the

Many
from

trees

come

the

of

trees

into

leaf, when

the

are

completely stripped

bark

be

cannot

their

of

tached.
de-

bark

the
branches, yet large untop, except
topmost
barked
and
into full leaf,
their buds
to swell
come
tops continue
while
the peeled trunks
heads
barkless
the
and
to
are
apparently
up
bottom

dry

as

as

leaves

continue

for

board

the

trees

to

perhaps

fade

the

before

tillthe end

the

of

20

is over,

summer

were

loose

Washington
as
high as

at

they stripped the bark

Carolina
poplars. The
but, with

but

the writer's
when

the

of

some

others

on

on

S.

"Potomac

could

they

observation
U.

450

the

continued

trees

few

On

they

season.

Cases similar to these came

under
close of the Spanish-American
war,
turned

feet below.

40

to

mules

army

Flats," where

reach

from

till the

green

at the

about

close
leaf

notable

100

of

the

the
out
a
exceptions, failed to
season,
exceptions all had retained
following spring. These
injured
strips of unbranches
in positions beyond the reach
bark
from
base
to
that food
of the mules
elaborated
to
so
by the leaves could return
the
maintain
of
the roots
life
the
and thus
trees.
the

In

through

orchard

of

accident

some

and
first branches
fruit for

excellent

The

22.

in

Forbes

years

commenting

In

the

of

of
shoots

it would

in

the

on

had

be

more

or

barked

the

the annual

of

several

is in

remained

the
to
ground
its girth, yet it bore

cases

way

in

says

stance
sub-

shoots

in trees
prived
deinteresting facts to be

condition.

no

these A. C.

as

Chronicle

of

tree

pear

the

such

on

less unnatural
trees

bark

of

Gardeners'

partial development
is only one
their bark

in trees

the

many

thereafter.

The

seen

fully three-fourths
"

Onondaga

an

from

for

issue

later

boyhood

"barked"

became

why.

reason

author's

the

The

growth

remarkable

more

of

than

on.

sap
becomes

generally accepted view of tree growth is that the watery

into the leaves, there
rings of the stem
through the outer
greatly changed, and passes from the leaves through special

vessels

in

The

rises

other

the

growing

bast

inner

or

bark

downward

tissues.

and

The

to

removal

cambium
and
therethe bark, fore,

the
of

storage
carried too
far, does not interfere directly with the
growth and support of the leaves but prevents the food which
they
the
of
its
the
ward
downdestruction
to
use
being
by
put
prepare
proper
layer. The continuation
conducting channels and the cambium
if not

of

in

growth
the

upon

the

and
thus

twigs,

annual

capabilityof
of

amount

enabled

In

the

the
the

case

to

of

the

reserve

carry

shoots

on

trees

such

under

circumstances

depends

retain its water-conducting power,

in the roots, which
material contained
are

stem

their

to

absorptive

barked

water-conducting

power

up

to

of

functions.

their smallest branches

the upper
parts of the

and
stem

is

lost,

soon

influences,

outer

large branches

Where

shoots.

however,

their bases,

at

the

part of

sun

as

the

of

bark

carrying

the

ing
grow-

are

ringed

that

so

crown

for

many

decrease

of

vigor

or

the

when

cuts

off the

barked

for

the

to

the

or

two

of

trees, it is difficult to

outside

the

on

resin, which

the
its

ascent

s?veral
-hile the

"

wood

the

their

barked

nous
resi-

In

the

of

wood
with

stem

when

the

water,

acts

occurs

de jay-

to

its influence.
the

as

in the

sap
for

former,

saturation

of

cell-walls lose

the

continued

by

the

r:se

in others

concerned

latter

exercise

also

or

two-year-ol

or

in the

than

conifers

one

are

be

offered

resistance
would

to

six

probably
longer

years

tissue,

authorities, the

the

In

business.
would

in

neighboring

from

species,while

rings in certain
five or
as
many

tirely
en-

materials

say.

some

is confined

sap

ally
usu-

after

years
is due

cortical

fleshy part of the

partly to root grafting

of

sap

trees

ground

reserve

the

to

the

ceases

of

this

whether

store

According

of

portion

roots

of

one

though

barking,

and

the barked

the

of

surface

the

at

continues

off most

of sap.

supply

growth

The

health

of

decay

to

"

remains

proceeds
only

leaves, owing

least

at

their
growth
roots,
with
little
or
no
years

the

with

connected

the

of

19

PRUNING

TO

needs

wind

and

it reaches

before

by evaporation

such

the

below

reduced

or

RELATED

AS

PHYSIOLOGY

PLANT

cells
as

and
tection
pro-

against the cracking and drying of

stem
by atmospheric conditions, and
infection by fungi.
Felled

23.

develop

trees

other
sprouts." An-

interesting feature of the vitalityof

ventitious
woody tissue is the throwing out of adshoots
the

with

willow,
years,

and

larch

stems

ground
month
are

the

bark

etc., on
in this

growing

the

or

dependent

left

two

branches
and

keep
upon

young

on
on

green

such

course

entirely

OF
This
tuIiT

left

the

for

growths
reserve

arcs

SECTION

STEM

microphotograph
how

the

of

stem

(Liriodendron

tree

lipifera)

the

CROSS

14"

shows

three

or

shoots

dwarf

Of

FIG.

oak, poplar,
continue
ground,
for

way

and

Elm,

damp

develop

two.

by

winter

in

on.

and

also

"water-branches"

felled

trunks

tree

lying

or

looks.

the

annular

Notice

of

tuthe

rings, the

medullary
spoke-like
rays,
th": bark
(below) and the pith
This
is four
stem
(above).
years

old.

20

materials

in the

however,

them,
importance,

economic

of

are

that

portion

plants containing the bast

bark.

The

is almost

nil.

It may

they

the

are

that

of

means

which

compounds

"

be

reputation

the

bundle

fibro-vascular

and

increase in the
These
growths,

this fact.

to

of

defined

since

the timber

from
removing the starchy compounds
much
hasten
do
to
decay.
indirectly
of winter-felled
timber
is partly due

24. "Phloem,

1'KTXIXG

OK

inner

the

sap-wood and
accompanies

ring, which

wood

PUACTICK

AND

I'KLXC'iri.KS

tissue.

sieve

Tn

in

exogens

the

from

remaining portion
always sharply
is
The
inner bark
(xylem, 25) by a layer of cambium.
from
The
the xylem.
the phloem, the wood
derived from
down
and
the leaves
elaborated
plant food from
passes
is distributed
by the phloem.
it is

25. "Xylem,
bundle

which

vessels

and

contains
the

26.

the

phloem
it usually occupies

The

"

of

center

in

the

solution

leaves."

the

to

thickened

the

compounds

mineral

bundles.

Fibro-vascular

and

is any,
toward

the xylem

through

up

passes

often

are

is separated from

bundle

the

with

Water

cells

there

when

of the

the"side
stem.

of whose

xylem

cambium,

the

by

the

walls

lignificd. The

and

portion of a fibro-vascular
air-holding
larger continuous

woody

or

tissue

conducting

bundles.
arranged in fibro-vascular
monocotyledonous plants (sorghum, corn) these bundles
distributed
chyma).
irregularly through softer tissue (parenalso
Because
of this irregular distribution, and
above

discussed
In
are

there

because

rings

no

which

dicotyledonous plants,which
of

the

part contains
the

cambium

xylem
*

Kains,

and

Plant

forms

bundles
the

phloem

is between

phloem
Propagation,

form

are

and

dicotyledonous plants,

the

these

inner

Greenhoure

anJ

which

in

the
sets

two

developed

have

bium
cam-

Tn
phloem.
wood-ring, the primary

layer

cotyledonous
mono-

bark, cambium

true

bundles
hand, the fibro-vascular
the
from
separates the xylem

other

tissue

neither
In

bundles,

the

within

cambium

plants usually have

annual
rings of wood.

nor

the

on

is

is

as

Nursery

the

Since

xylem.
of

growth
Practice,

outer

tissue,

new

proceeds
Page

146.

PHYSIOLOGY

PLANT

and,

in

function

the

In

stems.

other

earliest

The

in

the

words,

formed

of

or

less

more

conduction.

tissues

interior

21

PRUNING

TO

old, they gradually

food

and

water

the

shrubs

and

become

tissues

the

as

RELATED

AS

the

Thus

only

serve

"heart

wood"

in

series

trees

strengthen
is dead.

bundles

vascular

circular

to

to

cease

are

ranged
ar-

formed

; those

cambium
between
them.
the
developed from
be
bundles
of these
Ultimately such large numbers
may
formed
that in woody and semi-woody dicotyledonous plants
vidual
form
though the india
cylinder of wood,
they may
be partiallyor wholly separated from
bundles
may
called medullary rays
each
other
by thin plates of wood
later

are

FIG.

A,
chyma

g,

parenchyma,

/; B, longitudinal

BUNDLE

FIBRO-VASCULAR

showing

section, phloem

cross

and

15"

sieve

tubes,

a,

companion

vessels, d, between
b, xylem, c, showing
Letters
cells parenchyma.
section.
Outside

scleren-

cell, e,
the
in

two

bium,
cam-

apply

to

tissues.

various

in such plants produces

(Fig. 14). Since the cambium
annually
new
xylem on its interior, it is steadily moved
of the
the
from
center
outward
or
seasonally farther
side
stem
new
phloem is developed on the outer
; since
of the

thickness
and

since

season

both

cambium,
and

the

the

xylem

the

stems,

as

developed

walled

is thinner

wood

than

active, the

and

whole,
in
that

the

bark

increase

produced

is not

annular

in cross
rings so readily seen
woody plants are formed.

sections

in

increase
in

early part

characteristic

growth

so

the

girth ;
of

when

later
annual
of

the

or

ledonous
dicoty-

22

PRINCIPLES

27. Leaf
of

parts

venation.

parts from

FIG.
The

"pulled"
middle
how

Note

how

ground,

to

the

specimen

much

shorter
it had

left

extend

The

where

has

PRUNING

OF

been

bundles

stated,

no

lead

OF

GROWTHS

CONTRASTING

16"

at

it continued

As

"

vascular

specimen
for
two
light. The
is the upper
specimen

branches.

PRACTICE

the

xylem
absorbing
and the phloem
roots
to the transpiring areas,
the transpiring areas
to parts where
growth

the

of the

areas

AND

shows

the

of

part
until
the

right

and

how

much

in

is

as
more

except

as

the

branchy
grass

for

stub
old

years

favorable
old

CHERRY
thicket

little

first,three

reached

it

on

competitors

and

branches

the

MAZZARD

year's growth

one

lowest

from

where
are

at

its

light, where
piece

middle
it is.

light

It grew
air.
and

base.
it

"

the

dead.

The
Note

developed

three

in

tree

the

years.
open

no
apple

two

"eae

"

In. \\

tree*
";r""\v

the

are

in

the

same

thror

age

o|

""

r-ut

ttiai
t

o(

haa

In. k

ol

"p""'1'1

liKt'^

l'Rh"-

it^

v"ri""ti"!

Note

the

nature

and

diffciTnk-""

proKiMx
in

nmurrr

ol

bi

and
root

shonjj
.".

PHYSIOLOGY

1'I.AXT

branches

and

the

growing

Plants

AS

RELATED

of the

arrangement
in

alone

TO

the

branches

develop

open

25

PRUNING

(Fig. 20).
leaves

formly
uni-

all sides

(Fig. 20), those growing in groups

where
leaves
other
lack
with
them
for
plants compete
is true
of branches
and
light (Figs. 18, 22, 23). The same
in
Hence
the
trees.
twigs
importance of pruning so as
to admit
ample light to supply leaves on the interior twigs
on

branches

and

of

and

trees

shrubs

lighted they

poorly

for

when

such

parts

function

properly. In
for instance, interior twigs on
cases
(three
many
young
to five-year-old)peach trees
improperly pruned
they die
for lack of light.
are

cannot

"

"

29.

foods

from

water

and

the

and

discuss.

more

food

to

the

When

to

is

The

essary
unnec-

intensity
light bear
tion
rela-

manufacture.
vorable,
is fa-

temperature

the

capacity of plants

produce finished plant

the
proportional to

tensitV

Of the

light

food

limit

dioxide
of

plants

the

the

and

water.

this

statement

which

whose

stand
maximum

Carbon
In

vein,

spaces;

in

c,

the

OF

with
epidermis
ft,or inter-

air chambers,
the

cross

section

parenchyma

of

leaf

soft,

or

port
sup-

instances
full

may
glare of

is reached

must
emphasis, however,
increased
intensity factor, because

strong

SECTION

and

stomata,

available

CROSS

Uppcr
cellular

Of

others

19"

in-

tO

Up

FIG.

'

,.

soil

ess
proc-

quality of
less complex
or

the

organic
the

by temperature
factors

other

in

and

dioxide

is influenced

contained

phyll
chloro-

Though

essential, the

are

to

materials

crude
air.

the

carbon

light,
water

whereby the
process
of light,to construct

able, in the presence

is

and

is the

Photosynthesis

in

be
the

sun

and

partialshade.
be

placed on
transpiration of

not

of

suggested

of

Too
this
water

26

PRINCIPLES

tend

may

to

otherwise
It has
in

dry

reduce

PRACTICE

AND

tissues,close the
photosynthesis.

the

active

that

estimated

been

good vineyard practice

leaf surface

J-KTMNC

OK

stomata

vigorous Concord
may

to

expose

the

and

vine
grape-

light

has
an
area
yards. Such
been
estimated
about
ganic
as
a
manufacturing
pound of orin a day during the active
matter
growing season.
this calculation
From
be formed
of the
a
hazy idea may
work
done
orchard
by a vineyard or an
between, say,
be gained as
the
to
April and October, and a hint may
the
importance of pruning and training so as to enhance
of photosynthesis, especially in fruit-bearing
process
plants.

30.

of 10

Growth

and

to

12

square

growth

relations.

"

Though

growth and
indirectly in

been
touched
growth relations have
upon
the previous chapter, it is necessary
that certain
of their
true
phases be discussed separately, because
a
conception
essential
of them
in pruning.
From
the agricultural
is
point
by yield ; from the standstandpoint,growth is measured
of the
forester, usually by size or development ;
from
the standpoint of the ornamental
horticulturist, by
These
ends are
all affected
rious
by vabeauty of specimen.
internal
and
external
factors, such as (1) vitality,
heredity and food supply and (2) environment, moisture,
character
of food and
light.
temperature,
oxygen,
31.

growth.
Popularly, growth is evidenced
in flowering plants by increased
velopmen
weight and size, by dethe seedling stage to maturity and
from
the
quick production of stems, leaves, flowers and fruits. It
the formation
and enlargement
of cells
is dependent upon
and may
lead to strongly marked
changes in both internal
Proof

of

evident

(1) differentiation, due to

either
within
a
single cell or a group
increased
extension
or
length, )ften

structural

changes

greater

are

girth.

external

form.

The

most

structure

and

"

of these

changes
of cells; and
(2)
accompanied
by-

FIG.
how

Note

different

the

angle

opportunity

to

from

get

20"
leaves
the

light.

SIDE

are
one

Note

VIEW

OF

arranged
above
view

on

and
from

AN
the
below
above

SEEDLING

APPLE

in

extends

Each

stem.

it.

Thus

Fig.

it
21.

takes

outward

advantage

at

of

Us

28

PRINCIPLES

32. The

tip of the
plants is the point
Since
new

wood

any

branch

the

perfect
the
These

"jogs"

were

not

the

and

Thus

opposite
caused

which

may

become

each

chance

to

was

has

shown

but

that

the

primary meristem,

division
of the

that
a

extension

rather

rapidly

SEEN

dividingcells

fullest

light

it

as

in

cell

area

takes

seems

the

apparently
of

advantage
as

other

place.

if

other

area,

leaf

seedlings

the

in

the

make

most
al-

an

Note
light.
missing.
were
nursery

row;

directions.

upon

which

no

one

immediately

of extension.

cell.

constitutes

originating tissue.

place, while
is the

flowering

ABOVE

leaves

is dependent
is the

in

general. Dissection

FROM

the

of

indefinite

takes

is

how

nearness

get

branch

the starting point of

where

other

PRUNING

extension

statement

APPLE

by the

there

same

of the

Fig. 20 shows
they get the

in

OF

from

SEEDLING

21"

rosette.

almost

spaces

stem

this

stem,

shown

tree

PRACTICE

bud

or

FIG.
Here

AND

in the

Here
rear

PLANT

RELATED

takes

formation

Leaf

33.

AS

PHYSIOLOGY

TO

29

PRUNING

place immediately

in

of

rear

plants (apple) the leaves occur

in spiral order, in others
opposite (lilac),in still others
Incipiently, they are
tiny
alternately (elm) and so on.
more
they flatten and grow
rapidly
swellings, but soon
which
the stem
does
than
or
they curve
over
more
apex,
In few
bud.
does this leafy axis contrees
less to form
tinue
a
Where
tension
exto extend
during the growing season.
in the spiral,the
each
leaf is left behind
occurs
other
formation
the
natural
whorl
as
tip moves
or
New
forward.
points of growth are usually differentiated
the

stem

later

in

buds

as

some

axils

the

the

of

the

of

end

the

fall at

leaves

In

apex.

; and

leaves

growing

the

when

buds

these

season

become

34. Resting

or

summer

In

"

cold

and

in temperate
in late

buds.

most

trees

and

the

shoot

climates,

early fall in

axis

which

bud

shrubs,

at

least

terminates

is said

to

main
re-

following spring, so also do the

This
is not total, since there is
axillary buds.
dormancy
slight growth activity, except perhaps during the
some
weather
coldest
are
resting buds
(54, 55). The
very
bud
scales
covered
short leaf axes
(specialized leaves)
by
which
important internal
serve
as
protectors of the more
until

dormant

While

parts.

the

the

buds

are

said

in the

fall and

the

winter

been
have
ready for
they may
resting or dormant,
the "rest" as early as July. They do not, however, usually
fall. In spring with the
to be resting until the leaves
appear
ing
favorable
to growth
activity the restreturn
to conditions
buds
vapidly unfold, either a leafy shoot (quince, dierForsythia, Fig. 296), a
villa)a flower (peach, golden bell
a
of flowers
Lindcra) or
cluster
(cherry, spice bush
and flowers
leaves
(apple, thorn"
cluster containing both
to

be

"

"

Crat"gus)
.

35.

The

though
these

types

diverse,
may

of
may

present

be

from

extension

stem

grouped

numerous

in
cases

two

resting buds,
classes, though

of

over-lapping.

30

PRINCIPLES

extension

(1) Rapid
bear

other

no

In

PRACTICE

AND

of

PRUNING

resting buds

parts than

this group

OF

those

belong

into

already

in the

north

many

which

shoots
buds

selves.
themtrees

temperate

and

which
beech
and
be taken
shrubs, among
pine may
as
typical, the former
having a segmented, the latter an
shoot.
In spring the beech
bud
unsegmented
gradually
of
swells, and at first presents a fairly general extension
the
internodes.
Soon
its original
the bud
has doubled
time the method
of extension
best
length, at which
may
be

noted.

that

Beginning

each

active,

internode

in

the

that

so

the

at

basal

node, it will

becomes

turn

terminal

be

seen

successively

most

internodes

the

are

last

to

extend

similar
rapidly. The pine shows
a
development
tively
acunsegmented
except that, having an
stem, the most
in a more
extending part moves
gradually forward
than
in the case
of the beech.
uniform
manner
Apples

and

much

present

pears

trees
(2) Some
normally develop
in the resting bud,

internodes
the

the

at

and

the

shrubs, such
that

so

as

the total

number

growing

beech.

and

willow

those

of the

the

as

than

leaves

more

end

method

same

lilac,

wintered

over

of nodes
is

season

numbers

and

larger than
peach may

The
represented in the buds.
sometimes
and
in this
internodes
develop leaves, nodes
though it perhaps generally develops as described
way,
This
is probably
under
class
more
phenomenon
one.
in young
than
trees
of the cottonwood

common

old

trees

monilifera)
than
ones

as

such

instances

for the

trees,

in

discussed

even

and

character

resting
more

that

of

and

bud

times

nodes,
interyoung

as

many.

conditions, such
season,

may

count
ac-

differences.

secondary
must

or

the

it is concluded

environment

age,

The

contained

were

instance,

poplar (Populus

leaves, nodes

more

no

For

ones.

necklace

or

develop three, four

may

From

develop

may

in older

not

above.

growth

be confounded
Such

of

shoots, especially of fruit

with

growth

the normal

usually

occurs

phenomena
during

32

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AM)

OF

PRUNING

Boston

ivy and grapevines; the leaves completely hide

the flowers, fruit,woody
Among
parts and the supports.
and
trees, Norway
maples, especially the former,
sugar
are
striking because, when, say, 30 or more
very
years
old uninjured specimens growing
show
by themselves
a
and
perfect envelope of leaves covering bare branches
trunk
beneath.
In neglected fruit trees
similar
though
much
be observed.
less marked
development may
are

To

the illustration

carry

further, the
that
or

in

effects

same

in close

grow

FIG.

Adequate

spacing
are

Trees
so

of

may

which

be

22"

other

"LEGGY"

and judicious pruning

tall and
too
far too

close

likely

in

state

very

and
of

still

shrubs
nature

tions,
striking applicafruit plantation.

TREES

have
to

it teaches

in trees

in the

PEACH
would

lesson

noted

whether
groups,
This
has two

plantation.
in the forest, the
one

the

and

be

together

made

these

more

stocky.

They

injured by wind.

in the

forest

produce
much
shade that
branches, being deprived
light, die and ultimately fall off, and only the tops
grow

their lower

PLANT

continue

PHYSIOLOGY

leafy.

the

former

at

too

great

37.

25,

(Fig.

in

Nowhere

have

heights,
leave

this

orchards.

be
to

of

or

removed
too

profitable

to

many

numbers

bring

in

as

the
would

trees

in

given

stubs

of
fruit

teria,
baclimbs.

tion,
planta-

the

in

die

forest,
tall.

too

much

tops

down

areas.

closely

which

might

to

serious

harvesting.

neglected,

orchards

have

because

to

put
and

thinning

because

over

and

as

is

concerned

is

trees

worked

so

be

the

fungi

limbs

and

Often

22.)

produced

inordinately

grow

conspicuous

so

(Fig.

health

cannot

Just

orchardist

spraying,

view,

of

close

too

twigs
the

the

short,

are

the

namely,

together

and.

pruning,
is

the

of

means

shrubs.

lower

lighted,

expense

as

Their

27.)

they

but

long,

whereas

point

decaying

the

and

closely

too

improperly

set

follow

the

have

lumberman's

by

is

would

open

through

trees

result

trees,

"

planted

trees

The

application,

results
of

the

33

PRUNING

forest

decay

enter

striking

Spacing

TO

desirable,

of

may

similar

27.)

the

more

risk

other

the

the

are

which
In

From

trunks.

branchy

26,

in

growing

species

same

25,

RELATED

characterize

which

trunks

bare

(Figs.

AS

so

renovated

be

would

wood
to

be

far

workable
cut

out

to

CHAPTER

THE

38.
a

PHILOSOPHY

Good

fruit

tree

to

of

the

the

reasoned

This
1

Pruning

CLOSE

of the

fruit

every

chapter,
Bailey

Devitalize

that

the

except
gave

the

perhaps

PLANTING

operation

hence

costly

on

the

many

brackets,

Plants?"

34

difference

POOR

spraying
"eat

up

and
the

thinning

of the

evil effects

observers

is itself

injurious,

somewhat

Society

condensed
to

are

profits."

health

observed

the

as

PRUNING

of these

is

Horticultural

ference
dif-

particular styles

life and

has

pruning

in
parts
Peninsular

to

as

the

greatest

equal

AND

reach,

grower

and

of

of

owner

considers

is the

merits

and

of
practically out
and
harvesting
so

therefrom

H.
.

OF

fiopmpruning,

result

are

question

Perhaps

\vh:ch

pruning,

Every

"

least, he

at

There

the

to

PRUNING*

pruning.

or

prune,

as

RESULT

effect

tree.
to

23"
heads

tree
out

of

of

operation.

opinion

methods

FIG.

to

the

of

OF

effects

expects

of

These

bad

and

advisability
and

III

the

question,

have
or

at

answer

"Does

THE

least

hazardous.

away

the

of the

There
to
as

whole.

be

pass

however

FIG.

neglected

observer, but

day

24"

HOW

of

NOT

like
or

the

also,

much

vivisected

must

we

into

numerous,

sufficient

upon

It is urgent,

and

follow

not

proofs

pruning.

this

at
to

us

of

uphold or explain
pruning. They

course,

which

casual

35

PRUNING

instances, however

should
enable

of

injury

the

perniciousness

for

Trees

of

to

even

individual

exalt

OF

I cannot,

examples

patent

are

PHILOSOPHY

as

merits

that

MANAGE

cannot

objects of

be

and

of the

ence
experipractice

the

correct

TO

these

study

subject be
teaching may

cussed,
disbe

TREES
made

to

pay

either

as

ments
invest-

beauty.

of
promulgated, there is a constantly recurring wave
that
convinced
and
error
prejudice. For myself, I am
when
somewhat
heroic, is not a devitalizing
pruning, even
I shall present
practice. In support of this conviction
three sources
from
philosophy, plant physiarguments
"

36

PRIXC

ology and

IIM.KS

PRACTICE

AND

PRUNING

""K

cuss
to disexperience. I do not purpose
mechanical
injuriesto the trees, as a result of wounds,
for we
all know
that such
injuries are a result of careless
it
or
Does
injudicious pruning". My proposition is this:
Is the entire growth
injure a plant to remove
a part of it?
and
to a plant's health
longevity?
necessary
common

39. The

from

argument

struggle

philosophy.

existence

for

There

"

is

tense
in-

an

The
organisms.
world
is now
full, and there can
probably be no permanent
increase in the sum
total of animals
and
plants. If
decrease.
must
one
species increases, another
Changes
in the numbers
of individuals
ters
therefore, largely matare,
of readjustment between
different
Each
kind
types.
is held down
to a certain
equilibrium in relation to other
It is easy
kinds.
that any
to
see
or
species of animal
of the globe,
the surface
plant could completely occupy
of its powers.
if it could multiply to the full extent
Not
with
viduals
others, but the indispecies compete
only do some
with
each
of the same
other
for
species compete
The
of thistles in a
standing room.
greater the number
given field,the less is the opportunity for another thistle
plant to gain a foothold.

Now,

with

competes

branches

be

that

upon

of

branches

tree

and

makes

size

or

an

for

any

animal

or

shape

parts of
animal

an

arc
some

That

weak.

are

some

not

seeds.
; and

buds

So

it

them

is, there

branch,
a

to

flower.

as

joint of

branch

Every

branch

there

is

no

there

The

arc

definite

function

or

are

or

is for the
and

competitors but co-partners,

office which

no

what

Some

limbs

another

more

there

that

but

be.

are

than

"

the

other

comes

exactly alike,

are

position or condition

every

is, more

dividua
colony of in-

or

every

what
and

tree.

any

even

branch

other

every

of branches"

germs

do

to

leaves, flowers

bear

to

"

collection

branch,

plants. Every
is endeavoring

branch,
does

is essentially a

tree

all

among

can

two

their

strong
proper

various

organs

of

each

forming
per-

does

not,

and

they

But

all obtain

branch

but

If all these
follow

of

and

statements

"branches

remaining
not

are

but
be

the

among

the

of

of

all

c,

tree

it,

to

necessary

some

them

detriment

conclusions

of the

ones;

branches

the

gans,
or-

conduce

must

the betterment

to

not

are

of these

destruction

the

to

ceases

perish; b,

contestants

may

it. In

to

words, pruning is

other
a

of

some

existence

for

it

shape.

(Fig-.

tree

three

true, then

are

is struggle

there

a,

branches

25),

Branches

thereby begins to die.

competing individuals.

and

grow

until

its full size

attains

never

of size and

maturity

definite

37

PRUNING

OF

PHILOSOPHY

THE

necessity.
40.

nature.

"

Two

tree

up

came

ago

years

black

wild,

from

instance

An

cherry
near

my

door.*

first year,

The

sent

single straight 19-

up

it

FIG.

shoot, which

inch

buds

27

25

duced
pro-

and

Note

one

8 inches

This

At

therefore, the little tree

had

buds,

19

year,
not

The
tree

39

These

19

reader
here

12

of these

start.

the

bore

branchlet

one

will

discussed

find
has

PINE
THINNING

branches

light.

have

Compare

ANTATION,

PI

died

from

with

Fig. 26.

lack

long.
buds.

branchlet

WHITE
BEFORE

how
of

branchlet

"

it

the end

of the

first

son,
sea-

produced a total of 39
and 27 inches
The
of growth.
second
buds
produced branches, and 20 did
branches
made
total growth of 231
a

interesting
been

studied.

to

study

some

little

seedling

tree

in

the

way

38

I'RI.NC

inches
shoot

and

IIM.HS

produced
36

grew

buds.

FRUNINC,

terminal

The

branch

or

long.

little tree

OF

PRACTICE

370

inches

then, is

Here,

AND

years

old

high

which

two

and

has

effort

an

these

must

be

futile.

but

the

total

has

now

as

makes

this

growth
year], it will
branches
this

its

bear

21G

of

close

will

total effort

branch-

3,500
buds.

or

germs

last

and

made

about

from

[of

the

at

season

have

This

will

little tree

undergo
pruning in the
years, although

severe

coming
a

27

of

year

the

of

year's growth, if it
a
proportional

number

of

tree

result

not

sions
subdivi-

and

branches

first

Many

will

buds

start,

per

efforts

of

the

plain
90

than

more

409

is

It

cent

of

made

bear

to

branches.
that

4]/2 feet

knife

does

touch

not

it.
But

the
of

the

26"

WHITE
AFTER

with

Compare
and

the

Probably

ratio

THINNING

Fig. .25.
pruned

trunks

more

PLANTATION

PINE

severe,

less than

Note
of

piles of

dead

for
a

brush

branches

larger

grows
this

branches

fifth of the buds

top

will

geometrical
long as the tree

as

ning
thin-

in

continue
FIG.

natural

and

after

pruning
will
upon

be
any

will

time
come
be-

sacrificed.
tree

ever

40

PRINCIPLES

for

existence

AND

does

PRACTICE

always

not

fellows, but may

among

OF

PRTXIXr,

result

arise from

from

the

competition
of other

crowding

plants (Figs. 18, 25).

The

three

branches

strong

ground, but
branch'es
no

other

old

within

doubt, branched

no

branches

feet

eventually died

in the

One

has

only

shed

only the
to

their

remainder

in

look

the

is

one

The

it have

trunk

of

They,
the
fore,
there-

we,

branches

how

see

on

survive.

long

can

forest floor to

record

and

of all the

the

but

one,

struggle,

that

long problem

this

as

terminal

on

twigs.

tree

every

conclude

to

reason

little tree

freely

tree, then, is the

of subtraction.
of

defeats

in

disasters

and

that the stronger parts may

live. It is safe to conclude
is such a searching and undogmatic
that if nature

order

orchard
tree

be

and

made

Those

too.

man
pruner,
may
prune,
that pruning is unnatural

should
to

see

be

what

who

persons

taken

has

into

declaim

neglected
transpired in the
a

tops.

41. Is artificial pruning

with
but

20

down,

this

So

and

4 feet from

standing near
of the ground.

trees

low

have

trees

cherry

15

less than

are

criticism

the
I

that

answer

pruning,

and

that

that

excessive?
artificial

it is not

"

pruning
in kind

different

be met

I may

it is fully warranted

by

here

is excessive
from
the

natural
different

is the proThe
ultimate
object of nature
objects in view.
duction
of viable seeds
of seeds, and the larger number
the fleshy portion of the
produced the better. Man covets
is of minor
other
which
character
tance
imporfruit, or some
therefore, thin the plant
the plant. He
to
must,

rigorously
that

size

"

reduce
and

quality
the

simply deflects
42.

The

argument
It is

is

an

struggle for existence

the

common

injury because

it

pruning

exhausts

in

order
He

number.

channel

portant.
plant physiology is equally imassertion that cutting off a limb

removes

in the production of which

is,that

into another

energy
from

before

come

may

"

the
the

given amount
plant expended
a

plant.

This

of tissue
effort

statement

that
as-

PHILOSOPHY

THE

plant has

certain

41

PRUNING

OF

fixed

vitality,from which
whenever
is withdrawn
a
portion of the
a
given amount
I might illustrate this by supposing
plant is cut away.
initial vitality represented by the
that
a
plant has an
that

sumes

number

10 ;

then, if one-tenth

of the

vitality of 9. But
gratuitous. Vitality is very
is

left

conditions
soil and

the

which

under

we

as

there

assumption is wholly
by the
largely determined

this

plant

As

treatment.

die of shock,

cannot

top is removed,

grows

the

"

plants have
sometimes

no

character
nerves,

of

they

it said.

hear

that two
knows
Every fruit grower
trees, of the same
differ
soil and
initial vigor, if given different
care,
may
at the
widely from each other in thrift and healthfulness
If the plant is very
expiration of five years.
largely what
its food
make
it to be, if
supply and other environments
it is constantly renewed
and augmented,
then the removal
of a portion of it cannot
moval
destroy its vitalityunless the re-

is

remaining
which

saved

to

by

the

tree

of

means

saving

time

by building

is

It may

is removed

this

of the

would

tree, and

with

the nutrition

the

up

not

in

replied that the tissue, the

been
in large limbs, might have

other

an

of the

be

by directing it into
earlier pruning.
This
resulted
have
only

other
may

in

an

parts
be

true

economy

of the
;

but
of

parts earlier in the lifetime

of

economy

vitality,for vitality

constantly renewed.
43. Early pruning

if

interfere

to

as

parts.

wood,
top

great

so

as

life

saver.

"

It may

be

of time

question

a proportionate amount
really save
by early
direct the same
amount
can
we
pruning ; that is,whether
of growth
into the remaining portions of the plant by
pruning very early in its lifetime, as we
by pruning
can
when
the superfluous brancheshave
attained
size
som-e
arid have, perhaps, begun
is an
bear.
There
to
exact
balance
and
the
the
between
superficial
root-system
of the plant. The
efficient the
active and
growth
more
If we
root, the larger the top.
a
remove
large portion of
we

42

PRINCIPLES

this top, there

PRACTICE

AND

is

endeavor

PRUNING

OK

supply the deficiencyby

So
an
exceedingly rapid growth.
pruned plants are
cause
benearly always more
vigorous than
unpruned
ones,
of the
into

supply

an

concentration

have
pruning must
The
stimulating
of

of

much
effect

energy,

somewhat

number

smaller

to

of

the

of this
be

must

effect

manuring.

as

growth,

new

felt

Therefore,

branches.

same

the

upon

position
dis-

new

or

root

and

also;
for

food

constant

system

it is

discussion

whether
and

stimulus
to

response

the

it

when

evenly

ing
prun-

is

distributed

lifetime

the

be

heroic

is somewhat
than

new

not

may

when

greater

to

as

this

conditions

point

so

over

of the

tree

imperceptible.
is
Growth
certainly
ing
more
emphatic followheroic
a
pruning.
be

to

as

its total may

greater than that
but

follows

ings
FIG.

BRANCHES

HOW

28"

1, Dead

twig

ARE

started

main

from

in,

My

pointing
oblique

trunk.

equally convinced

twigs

pruning
may

three

each

at
or

often
or

that

equal aggregate

and

observation

own

experience

lead

me

one

to

believe

pruning
trees

am

prun-

severity.

at
in; 2, twig dead
with
in; 3, twig
decayed
twig completely
in; 4, dead

healed

tip being healed

pith being healed
healed
branches
healed
in; 5, two
cut, one
pointing left, vigorous when
dead
6, "eyes" where
out;
part way
up
limbs

BURIED

which

several

of

be

not

to

cut

pruning does not

good to the tree.

out

pay,

These

that
of

annual

all

fruit

is desirable, but
all the

either

superfluous
in

cost

of

superfluous twigs
be left with
or
advantage until they are two
old.
four
Although
stimulating
even
years
in

PHILOSOPHY

THE

effects

plant when

unpruned
the

nutrition

of the

I have

tree

said

that

Siberian

Crab

were

spring.

These

I have

trees

of these

then

removed.

Of

The

other

be

it

alike

near

to

have

inches

tree

7^

was

as

been

useful

the

top, and
the

in the

apple

two

growth

on

inches

wood.

one

The

inches.

745

of

trees

house

any

460

new

was

of wood
The

total

ounces.

third

the

During

pruned.
produced

not

was

very

my

the

and

thoroughly pruned
this, 432

of

near

I measured

found

fluous
super-

vigor. Two

increases

as

seen.

these
a

parts

feet apart

are

wood

afford

of the

over-pruning, by which
injured.

of

25

set

and

of this

weight

inner

pruning

ever

was

tree

the

may

trees

trees

often

danger

unbalance

removed,

are

twigs
to

sun-screen

or

lessen

they

the considerable

branches

many

and
shelter

from

result

may

43

PRUNING

OF

son
sea-

118
new
twigs, with a
unpruned tree
the pruned
total length of 1,758 inches, while
tree
duced
proof
120
and
made
total
1,926
a
growth
new
twigs
14 feet more
The
inches.
pruned tree, therefore, made
growth also, a large
growth than the other and stouter
proportion for a tree only three years set. In other words,

the

tree

bore
a

at

the

similar

the

which

from

end

impossible

It is often

growth

shows
it is

of

"

to

said

had
which

in

14 feet

with

by

the time

than

wood

more

cut

from
pruned. Aside
periment
pruning induced, the ex-

this

common

been

been

not

injure trees
that

had

feet of branches

40

single season

which

tree

greater

about

all similar

ones

is called

what

of the year

when

"

that

shock.

pruning
[and] that

of growth
the amount
performed influences
and
makes
-wood
pruning in summer
pruning in winter
makes
fruit (83, 95, 97, 107, 108, 109). Certainly winter
wood
than
summer
pruning does
more
pruning makes
in the current
the season's
because
growth is nearly
year,
the
pruning is persummer
or
quite completed when
formed.
is

44. Why

pruning

is not

injurious,
"

have

said

that

44

PRINCIPLES

pruning,

of

PRACTICE

be

itself,cannot

interfere

not

AND

with

the

injurious

nutrition

therefore, that

PRUNING

OF

of

the

long

so

it does

as

portant,
It is im-

plant.

this interference
explain how
A (plantderives
certain
a
"occurs.
portion of its food from
the
soil in the
inorganic materials
shape of soluble
(Chapter II).
materials

through the young

and
wood
become
associated
with organized compounds
like starch
and
These
are
organized compounds
sugar.
in the repair and
used
growth of all parts of the plant
and
to the leaves, twigs,
they are, therefore, distributed
trunk
The
and roots.
growth of the roots is, therefore,
and
by the amount
vigor of the top
largely determined
of the
or
leaf-bearing portion. [Hence] the removal
These

greater

part

ascend

of the

top

to

may

the leaves

interfere

plant by preventing the supply of

the

of elaborated

with
a

the

vigor

of

sufficient amount

food.

difficultyis sometimes
experienced in the girdling
tribution
the disor
ringing (100) of grapevines, which
prevents
It
of the elaborated
plant foods to the roots.
is pruned
the
should
be said, however,
that the grape
most
severely of all fruits, and it is, therefore, easy to
overstep the danger line ; and yet it is strange that while
certain
writers
disparage the pruning of trees, they do
In fruit
not
object to the common
pruning of the vine.
tion
nutriwith
of injurious interference
the instances
trees
sidered
by pruning are rare ; they need not be further conhere.
This
is proved by the good results which
of top-grafted trees.
often follow the heroic
treatment
so
This

45.

pruning

is

branches

induces

ones,

and
of

this

"

tree, it must

follow

that

there

the removal

of

be

can

I
large branches.
inference, although I am
willing to

to
to

not

if there

the

bad
practice. But if
large branches
of strong
devitalizing, if the removal
more
vigorous growth in the remaining
tion
is little danger of disturbing the nutri-

of

Removal

cannot

say

jection
ob-

no

agree

that

the

FIG.

29"

APPLE

TWIGS

OF

VARIOUS

AGES

from
fruit
branch
a
old, numerous
B, shoot
season
A, water
one
sprout,
has
of
end.
Each
these
its
toward
fruit
bearing
new
spurs
upper
spurs
almost
all
failed
have
to
mature.
the
apples
to
attempted
fruits, but
produce
31
have
made
to
bear, but have
fruit spurs
attempts
C, eight-year-old
twig whose
of the specimens
most
five times,
falling before
succeeded
in maturing
fruits only
fruit
similar
shoot
with
half
shoot
E,
vigorous
D,
spurs.
three-year-old
grown.
and
became
a
branch.
with ono
fruit spur
its mind"
which
"changed
buds.

spur

46

PRINCIPLES

removal

of such

branches

should

AND

PRACTICE

branches

OI

1'.

be

objectionable
far as the direct injury or shock
to the vitalityof the tree
But there are
is concerned.
important reasons
why large
Such

pruning

open

the

scald

and
or

tree

certain

been

of

the

in all his

remiss

of branches

because

I consider

should

branches

and

physiology
One

is

often

dicates
in-

the

on

not

and

apple

such

many
trees

which

are

vigor.

teacher."
is

pruning

admonition

large branches

removed

affords

absurdities

commonest

from

diameter, it is

of such

from

ago

experience
the

in

myself

best

that

show

the

literature

have

the

common

of

forethought

4 inches

perfect health

most

Aside

practice a devitalizingone.

15 years

46. Experience

process,

neglect.
10

today in

such

may

part
the feeling that he may
be
But while I discourage the

suggests
3 and

metry
sym-

should

large branches

prefer the removal

much

total

to

elsewhere.

operations.

removal

which

to

parts

branches

energy

of very

away

and

remaining
spoil the

of

it is apt

it may
of the tree, and
such

enterprise and

of

grower,

foothold

directed

earlier

lack

of the

some

amount

this, the cutting

all

that

obtain

convenience

represent
have

much

borers

wounds

dangerous

exposes

so

-""

removed.

be

not

not

may

to

prune

If
not

philosophy and
a
devitalizing

still stronger proof.

in our
horticultural

only with

knife,

Not an
orthereby avoiding the cutting of large limbs.
chardist in the country
practices this advice if he prunes
cessful
thoroughly ! If scientific teaching and permanently suc-

that

opposed, then the teaching is wrong.

of our
accepted teaching on pruning
stand the test of time. I have frequently observed
not
well-pruned trees live as long as those unpruned,

and

practice are
[Certainly] some
will

They

am

inclined

to

believe

[surely] produce

more

that

they

[and

may

better

live longer.

fruit] during

their lifetime.
But

suppose

that

pruning

is

devitalizingprocess

"

IV

CHAPTER
BUDS

48.

bud

is

rudimentary

(1)

produces
stem,
of

(3)

third

leaf
flower

second

buds

and

the

There's

he

injured at
is presumably

of

this

been

tower

is

joke
this

in

the

point,

familiar
seen

the

over,

in

so

flowers,

stubs

in

seen

of

the

built

engraver

lodge

his

94.

48

(4)
of

Such

buds,

new

tower

affiliation

is

tree

are

the

buds.

wreck.

The
of
The

had
negative
which
style with

actual

cluster

these

cluster

background.
a

leaves, (2)

or

or

velopment
de-

VENGEANCE

decayed.

have

upon

branch

or

mixed

fourth

of

first

The

WITH

tower

the

because

Fig.

of

wood

DEHORNING

30*"

together.

which

cluster

or

cluster

the

healing

of

leaf

buds,

FIG.
Instead

or

flowers

and

leaves

called

flower

plant part

architecture

49

BUDS

49. Leaf
old

too

buds

the

developed at
shoots
newly
inclosed

in

nodes

spring

expanding

from

branch

bud

is

or

bud

wood

or

anywhere

this function,

perform

to

50. A

be produced

may

in modified

leaves

but

and

leaves

early

terminal

summer

and

scales

bud

by

not

flower

52. A
flower

which

protect a
tions
condifavorable

is

mixed

bud,

53.
terms

to
tree

in

as

Other

favor
was

the
it

used

are

of

31"
the

healing
full

of

cuts

and

leaves

protected

over.

good

NEW

the

termed

of

apple and

pear;

both

correct

describe

when

the

the

leaves

or

in

and

convenience,

the

various

definitelyall of

more

"DEHORNED"
one

merely a
but since,
flowers, it

term.

For

"

still

ON

instance,

Notice
fruit

is often

buds.

GROWTH
for

bud

develops
for

to

"

case

use

names

FIG.
Some

cluster

or

definite to

more

flower

unexpanded

an

branch

scales.

expansion,

upon

is

bud

upon

buds.

lateral

undeveloped

an

not

mostly

are

rudimentary axis and leaves that under

of growth expand into branches
bearing
perhaps flowers also.
51.

stems

on

TREE

PEACH
center

growths
sturdy new
the photo
taken.
was

"

from

should
the

the

have
old

been

branches.

re-cut

The

50

PRINCIPLES

above

classes.

axillary; that
that

54.

As

be

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

position, buds
are
(a) lateral or
is,produced in the leaf axils, or (b) terminal
to

is, borne

also

may

AND

dormant

Dormant

the

at

of

shoots.

Buds

latent.

or

resting

or

extremities

buds

developed during the

quiescent during the winter
are

but remain
growing season,
the dry season
which
or
If they continue
follows.
to rest
longer than this, though still technically-'restingbuds,"
latent.
they are usually termed
55.
do

Latent

buds

dormant

buds

located

do buds

as
a

not

to

the

farther

tree, furnishes

young

growth. They are

portions of shoots

lower

the

on

up

their

and

tion
posi-

growth stimuli
peach, especially

The

excellent

monly
com-

unfavorable

normal

stems.

an

than

into

of
simply because
often expand under

as

stimulus

vigorous

more

force them

upon

and

branches,
do

require

illustration,because

usually only the terminal and a few of the upper buds on

"last year's" growth
normally develop into twigs "this
if the last year's growth be cut
back,
year." However,
buds
which
would
otherwise
twigs will develop from
remain

latent.

Generally

the

first to expand
of these

that

the terminal

from

expands.

For

experiment,

the

lowest

the

highest

bud

that

latent

duties

the

to

let the

has
bud
of

the

next

the

branch

be

developed

cut

more

assume

bud

terminal

and

long

as

be

latent buds

performed

on

"last

remain.

off

to

many

Whether

year's"wood

or

wood

just below

In

twig.

branch

any

the

lateral

lowest

several

develop lateral twigs (Fig. 66).

is long enough, this experiment may

will

from

strong

latent.

will
a

the

are

position, the

their relative

bud

continue

it

near

generally,also, the strength

from
bud, the weakest
There
usually remain

which

buds

those

and

into twigs, and

lateral

lateral

bud

twigs is,according

strongest
nearest

terminal

or

due

time

factorily
less satis-

adjacent buds
If

the
be

the

original

repeated

as

experiment

several

years

51

BUDS

is immaterial

older

their

from

in

that

awake

produce twigs. Very important

of this principle in transplanting nursery
be said
dehorning (Fig. 31), though it must
which
buds
latter practice the
expand are

in

and

trees

living may

and

latency

is made

use

if still

buds

; the

the

mostly
Adventitious

55a.

unexpected

points

two

from

they
standpoint of

are

the

ers
suckroots

sprouts
fro

32)

the

they

the

water

( Fig.

it

and

be

may

and

trunks

branches,

to

or

reasons;

(1)
namely,
develop
may
or

stems

produced at
leaves, they are said
in normal
not
tions.
posiof
they are
pruner
are

importance

great
for

buds

because

the

From

When

"

roots,

on

adventitious,

be

to

buds.

necessary

destroy

these

ventitious,
ad-

able
undesirThe

growths.
suckers
that

in

plants

have

FIG.

been

NOTHING

32"

Trees

which

suckers

grafted

or

budded

almost

are

from
In

habit

some

the

riably
inva-

undesirable,

of the

cases

the

the

be

starved

water

and

WITH

vigorous
always

such

sprouts

healthy

The

roots.

THE

ROOTS

of
growths
have
sturdy,

trouble

is

in

top.

because

that

than

and

abundant

WRONG
show

cion

the
or

stock

is of

different

acter
char-

top.

stock, being often

cion, would

grow

so

of

more

rapidly that

vigorous
the

cion

happens with grafted

and
budded
that
roses
are
neglected in this particular.
buds
are
(2) Conversely, adventitious
important because
be relied upon
to produce
new
they may
growths. The
most
important applications of this development are
(a)
might

to

death,

as

often

52

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

PRUNING

OF

in

the adventitious
buds
plant propagation, where
duce
proroots
on
layers, cuttings, etc., and (b) in pruning
and
"dehorning," where
they, as well as latent buds, are
relied upon
of which
to produce
shoots, some
new
may
be favorably enough
branches
to
placed
develop new
or
whole

even

heads.

56. Where

blossom

intelligentlyfor
essential

that

the

the

vary

and

other

factors, yet each

and

of

age

of blossom

or

their varieties

may

each

BLOSSOM

"last

positions

the

plant,

species
fruit

OR

CLUSTER

has

season's"

its

to

prune

fruit, it is

and

blossom

buds

are

of

buds

turally
na-

these

In

EASILY

and

general, species
general classes

in two
are

the

characteristic

own

bearing.

BUDS

order

of any
species with
with
environment

be grouped
its subdivisions.
These

with

A.

where

varieties

the

vigor
method

the

In

"

of flowers

know

While

among

the

borne.

are

production

pruner

borne.

normally

buds

characterized
SEEN

DURING

thus

WINTER

twigs: 1, A.villary: Peach

(Fig. 46),
hazel, filbert (almost always), almond, currant
(Fig. 49),
gooseberry (mainly, Fig. 50), apricot and Japanese plum
(partly,Fig. 48), apple and pear (sometimes). 2, Terminal,
mainly on spurs. Apple, pear (almost always, Figs. 35, 36),
cherry (Figs. 41, 42, 43, 44, 45), plum (Figs. 39, 40) and
(partly). B. BLOapricot (mainly), almond and currant
on

NOT

BUDS

VISIBLE

because

WINTER

DURING

twigs: 1, axillaryon

canes

or

borne

strong

on

"this

shoots:

son's"
sea-

Grape

(Figs. 51, 57), mulberry, persimmon, olive, chestnut, fig

shoots :
Loquat ; b,
(Fig. 33 ) ; 2, a, terminal on terminal
terminal, or nearly so, on lateral shoots
developed during
fruits (raspberry,Figs.
summer:
Orange and the bramble
55, 56, blackberry, Fig. 54, dewberry)
that

is

formed

the

on

"last

58), medlar,
From
for

the

flower

of short

ends

season"

and

hickory, and
above

and

outline

fruit

shoots

wintered

3, co-terminal,

developed from
Quince
over.

buds

(Fig

walnut.
it is obvious

production

the

that

operator,

in pruning
while

not

53

BUDS

of the

general growth
produced

and

development

rare

to

tree

work
shrub

or

the

have

may
to

as

in which

way

of the

the

upon

form

and

blossom

intelligentlyregulate the
buds, twigs and branches

can

velopmen
debuds

number

which

flowers

these

following

The

fruits.

and

he

so

bear

his

consider

must
are

effects

the

losing sight of

paragraphs will, therefore,

uninstructed
the
help
determine

reader

to

make

decisions

buds

far

so

of

Age

shoot

the

determined

branches

old

become

reveal

to

the

tinguishing
dis-

marks,
and

however,

not,

in

bulge.

this

case

is

fruit

bud

of

marked

apple
the
scars

terminal

branch
to

lateral
assumes

the

twig,
the

FIG.

FRUITING

33"

Fruits

axillary

of

pear

thickening

bud

occur

fruit spurs
which
of the twigs below

left by the

pushed

bud

into

"this

on

FIG

OF

HABIT

season's"

growths.

leadership. Very

diameter
were

terminal

back

cases

and

normal

the

then

duties

as

the

may

marked

in

as

usually kills
first sturdy
which

rings

These

be

When

cases.

age
cept
Ex-

be

easily

too

often

twigs.
secondary
taken
place this

has

the

In

"

and

where

growth

know

to

necessary
of branches

until

as

mined
deter-

scars.
by bud
pruning practice it is

can

to

concerned.

are

57.

how

scales

with

some

are

often

the
which

growth.

When

varieties
three

swellings.
fell off when
the

of

times
The
the

terminals

54

PRLXC

buds

wood

are

II'LKS

straight,but
terminal

wood

they

bud

PRUNING

OK

direction

the

when

1'kACTKK

AM)

of
blossom

are

is

growth
buds

practically
the

when

or

is

shoot

destroyed accidentallyor
will
purposely, an axillary bud will develop a shoot which
less from
the straight line.
or
depart more
(Fig. 67.)
of apple and
This
is especially characteristic
pear
spurs,
in
varieties
which
become
greatly contorted.
many
58. Fruit
buds.
An
examination
and
of twigs
spurs
old of, say, apple and
two
gooseberry, will show
seasons
how
axillary buds often develop, 1, into twigs as already
noted
(50) and, 2, into tiny spurs terminated
by blossom
cluster buds
or
(Fig. 29). Often these latter are so short
or

"

be mistaken

to

as

When

spurs.
to

these

leaves

many

"this season"
and

when

the

twig

last

case

flowers
may

buds

swell, they may

develop several
When
flowers
both.
or
they do not
terminal

the

be formed
less

twig

may

taken;

bud

and

59. Meaning

into

twig "next

one

axil of

makes

scars

fruit spur
or
indicate the number

in the

rection
di-

terminal
essary.
nec-

fruit
When
spurs.
attachat the point of its ment

scar

twig.
of

this

In

extend

of direction

fruit

on

season"

leaf to

season."

change

during
fruits,

more

or

laterally "next

the

to

of the

formed

for several
seasons
grow
that
is, until it develops

thus

of

be

may

in the

maturity it leaves

reaches

bud

develop

or

more

thus
cluster

of bud-terminated

instead

for the extension

bud

branch

or

flowers,

produce

buds

for true

"

It is often

said

that

such

by the spurs,
but
this is not
always true, because
frequently short
at
previous time bore flowers, may
some
twigs, which
and
when
fruit spur,
kill back
to the main
they fall off
The
like those
left by fruits that matured.
leave
scars
scars

only

to

way

be

solitary or
probably been
are

flowers
5car

of

or
a

more

is

sure

in

fruit that

note

whether
Where

clusters.

formed
or

to

fruits borne

by twigs
less

mature

reached

not

or

the

scars

solitary they

; where

fruits

maturity.

in

have

clusters, by

surrounding

the

56

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

60. Slow

fruitfulness.
Since
of
lack
growth favors
lightdue to disadvantageous position tends to reduce food
supply and consequently size of twigs, many
twigs so
Hence
it may
be condeprived develop into fruit spurs.
cluded
that slow
growth favors fruitfulness.
Generally
have
habit
when
the
twigs
developed
fruit-bearing
they
continue
in this habit.
Thus
of age, they
at, say, 20 years
inches
be only a few
have
long though they may
may
number
of fruits.
It does
not
produced a considerable
"

FIG.
The

left-hand
the

on

is in the
shows

which

and

but

branch

new

spurs

FRUITING

branch

bud

being

or

buds

apple

an

SPURS

evidently

has

cluster

two

of

mummy

the

growth,

stub

middle,

the

35"

specimen

has

formed.

two

years

spur

bud

have

been

failed

that

The

OF

home

other

to

is

APPLE
fruit.

swelling

formed.

The

spurs

also

on

the
this

veloped
de-

has

similar

right-hand

beside

mature

bud

cluster

below.

case

specimen

branch

bud

twig show

of

normal

old.
ft

follow

that the habit

be broken

cannot

or

that

in

invigorating old
(Fig. 150.) Injudiciouspruning is one of the

cannot

of

be

taken

destroying

the

of

it,as

fruit-bearing habit;

and

of the spurs.
pruning, especially during the winter
the

removal

of any

is light,will force many

other
well as from
fruit spurs
as
the

crop

strong

advantage
fruit

spurs.

surest

this,

ways

too,

out
with-

(Fig. 171.) Heavy

of

when

season

growths

from

parts of the tree,

so

the

that,

57

BUDS

as

little

be

will
61.

and

called

or

pears

to

than

possibly

of

two,

as

ally
Usu-

more
or

one,

soms
blos-

these

into

develops
a

fruit

mature

The

35).

drop off.
ripening

(Fig.
others
fruit-

The

is

process

apparently

haustive
ex-

an

for

one,

the

which

spur

not

"next
the

tures
ma-

"this

fruit

season"

"

rounding
sur-

flowers.
not

Most
vary.
commonly
cluster
buds
terminally on

maybe
many

years.

expand,
perhaps

leaves

dozen

there

When

dozen

their

spurs

show

half

bear

fruit

buds

they

positions

twigs

several

to

one

bud

little

(Fig. 34).
these

shamefacedly admit,

fruit for

no

fruit

Pome

apples
gnarly

will

orchardist

an

many

will

usually
develop one
year." While
fruit is ripening,
36"

FIG.
a

developing

Variations

the

that

ment
attach-

been

spur.

buds

near

from

to

This
swells

the

branch

following

the

by

cluster

bud

cluster

season

bud.

such

that

the
has

buds
in

and

borne

TWIG
these

as

cluster

the

(below)

fruit-stem

BLOOMING

is

bud

branch

sides

are

the

center

other
of

fruit

this

developed

spur;

short

Note

uncommon.

mainly
a

APPLE

OF

not

are

fruit

spurs

also
branch

short

on

has

evidently
developed

have
that
with

spurs

one
a

of

the

terminal

bud.

into
Thus

short

fruit

spurs

growth

nated
termi-

theoretically

58

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRl'NINC,

each

bear

alternate

continue
make

for

and

year

to

years

many

Such

gnarly growth.

their

rru-n
being the case, great care
to
prevent
usually be exercised
for if
injury to the fruit spurs:
they are destroyed they cannot
be
only way
replaced. The

develop
which,
new

sprouts,
upon
loss of time,
after much

before

from

fruit

season's"

spurs

of

and

the

Certain

produce
axils

Such
to

of

the

at

in

a)

som

branch

several
branch

by

of

blossoms;

of

number
that

Notice

tree.

of

number

cases

1, the
large
2, the small
and
3,
buds;
(clearly seen
been

buds

States, but
in the

sections

where

practiced. The
is that
on

season"
"this
these

as

ceptional
ex-

verv

eastern

"

Unil

mon
comparatively comWest,
especially in

placed
re-

flowers.

this fact

th

interior

the

have

buds

in the

in

fruif"

be

Fii-'.

apples

buds

cases

D'1
(

varieties of

of "last

c"

or

a"^

same

their

mature

SPUR
on

twigs

of leaves

appear
grew

rub

ti;"" of

the

on

blossom

season."
37"

this

them,

"last

36).

be

cm

Ind
exceptions.
varieties
produce

siderable

twig

fruit

fruits

mature

;ri

its

some

This

(56).

outline

Though
always so.
are
usually two

has

PEACH

laid-.

terminal

usually

gathered

FIG.

cluster

pear

in the

spurs

old

form.

will
and

Apple
though
not

to

water

spurs

shown

is

secured

he

can

ones

new

those

varieties

growths only

one

which
season

irrigation i"
practicalvalue
produce
old

blos-

tend

to

59

BUDS

regular annual
varieties
which
produce
Annual
bearing, it must
is dependent
which
not
be

other

upon

fruit

one

the

while

crop,

fruitful
Fruit

rest.

fruit

habit

general
buds

ways

due

;ake
duce
proyear,

the

yet

variety,

to

and

other

vironment
en-

serve
de-

causes

special paragraph.

Stone

fruit blossom
of

those

being simple

are

clustered

not

though

contain

pear

FI3.

leaves,
buds

cherry

little leaves

The

fruit
and

usually drop off before .the

ripens. Sometimes
peach
contain
two
apricot buds

flowers,

though

One

is the

mal

number.

usually
vary

reveal

from

buds

one

flower

two
to

five.

that two

or

The

peach

bears

bud

in

branch

Cherry

three

or

are

"

buds,

The

same

the

usual

its

blossom

pairs with

1, positions

Note,

middle

the

that

normally

between

nearly
the

main

in'trv./s

bu,s.

4"
are
ones

upper

that
not

the

're-

swelling

or'y

above

ard

area,
h or

lowest

"

tends
ex-

with

t:o

blooming
he?r

li?s
els

bloom

that

fh:

2.

bud
!s and

int"rv-ls

bar^

b'low

?o

bu

bloom

branch;

tlu

branch

*erminal;

short,

o1' t! e

of

blx:m

two

the

buds

nor"

x-,.

"lart"

of

near

t' ese

constitute
on:;
season's
growth.

pieces

three

branch

at

that

OF

GROWTH

'.

3:""
"PEACH

is, they

with

few

are

and

; that

and

plum

buds

apple

in

often

viously
pre-

MAY

borne,

are

/ariations

unlike

may

"

outline

the

fruit

The

positions.
(56) shows
in which
pit

62. Pit fruit bud

the

bear
may
foUowj^e

spurs

fruitless.

are

alone, but

be.

to

While

those

nearly as regular
is popularly believed

it

as

do

factor

one

instance, certain

alternate

this is not

but

thi"

upon

may

spurs

each

be

spurs
the

ones

than

only on older growth.

is i habit
stated, however,

others

fruitless

the

bear

while

fruit

or

fruit buds

For

factors.
year,

season

bearers

more

ard

while

!e

bran

h
tha

are.

though

the

is true

of

number

may

plums, excep^

numbers.

branch

buds
b id

i
singly beside
between, except

60

PRINCIPLES

noted

as

AND

PRACTICE

OF

It is believed
paragraphs below.
by many
that this simple bud habit is one
of the reasons
killed
are
peach buds
usually more
largely winter-

two

fruit growers

why
than

of

buds

the

are

well-protected cluster

apples and
In

buds.

the

the flower parts usuallyhave

leaves
An

will

examination
fruits

stone

PRUNING

closely

are

of

those

to

show

the

bud

few

that

similar

which

the
in

contains

of the

and

structure

Still

no

scales.

buds

branch

tion
posi-

there

differences.

are

For

stance,
inand

apricots
plums seldom

many

kind, and
buds

these

and

peaches

of
lary
axil-

the

of

fruits

velop
de-

buds

terminal
any

in

are

protecting bud

fruits.

pome

which

pears,

two

of

also

produce

may

of

instead

blossoms
leaves.

illustrate

To

this

point still further

the

peach

with

between

39"

EUROPEAN

PLUM

this

bud

gives place
so

central

three

produced
(Fig. 37).

being

flowers
last

on

borne

season's

or

habit,
singly

the

duties

if it

of

were

When

more

terminal

the

peach
are

axillarybud,

nearest

extends
as

wood
to

flowers

in

group

When

the

wood.

terminal

form, the

bud

them, but often

are

typical
blooming
largely in pairs

shows

Branch

duces
pro-

wood

even

flower,
FIG.

mally
Nor-

blossom

two

buds

wood

branch

true

in

if
bud

branch
and

the

practicallyas

bud

bud.

fails

to

assumes

following
straight a

son
sea-

line

terminal.

trees

often

arc

in

making normal
couples than

growth
they are

soms
the blos-

solitary.

61

BUDS

growth

the

When

is strong the blossom

buds
bases of the twigs, because

are

nearer

their positips than the

tions
are
by the vigor of the trees
largely determined
When
which
the growth is weak
they are borne.
upon
from
end to
the buds
are
mainly solitary and scattered
the growth is moderate
the buds
end of the twigs. When
of the twigs. Young
and rankthe middles
are
mostly near
show
trees
growing
the twig tips.
them
near
Jt is important to remember
the

that

the

som-bearing
blos-

habit

of the

make
to
peach tends
of
the fruit-bearingarea
the

tree

each

move

from

farther
of

center

the

the

therefore,

maintain

bearing

wood

the

on

allow

not
too

of

supply
which

branches,
must

practically
The

area.

must,

pruner

and

apple

in

set

(Fig.

tree

in the

pear,

the

ing,
of continu-

46), instead
as

son
sea-

he
to

The

far.

tend
ex-

FIG.

wiry

It

is

40"

characteristic

flowers

PLUM

JAPANESE
of

this

species

to

duce
pro-

largely in threes.

interior

ferred
regrowths
to above
rarely bear
They soon
only one.

often
All

this indicates

than

of the

with

young

the trees
cutback
know

62a.

apple
trees

too

high.

far

whose
Pruners

all the leaders

new

The

die and

pear.

This

for several

fully as vigorous
plums vary somewhat

ones

must

is

"leaders"
often

than

more

be

pruning

severe

more

the

or

fruits

cut

years,

out.

of the

peach

especially the

are

remove

prone
or

years,

will

two

even

very

to

case

make

severely

though they

replace them.

with

their

species as

62

to

PRINCIPLES

the

bear
to

positions
"this

on

41"

of the

BLOSSOM

TERMINALS,

those

species
leaves

of
and

on

PRACTICE

their

in the

BUDS

OF

BUT

ARE
THE

ONE

None

buds.

of

on

ARE

NUMEROUS

SEASON'S

short

BORNE
NEAR

ALMOST
THE

TO

ucod.

THE

BASES

GROWTH

cherry, though in the varieties

are
developed in the
hybrids many
one-year

similar

spurs

the

the

them

so

borne

CHERRY

MOST

PRUNING

they naturally belong

classification
(56). The
great

are

SOUR

OF

blossom

growth

fruit buds

OF

to

of

season's"

first group

the

majority

FIG.

AND

These

bloom

of

some

"f

axiN

"next

"ea-

64

PRINCIPLES

be clusters

to

will show

of buds
each

that

axil of

the

AND

leaf.

one

general than

is less

PRACTICE

these

This
the

PRUNING

the branch.

on

of

OF

examination

of buds

groups

method

close

of

production

flower

is borne
bud

of buds

in

bearing-

singly in

the

leaf axils.
64. Cherries

bear

(Figs. 44, 45),

much

their fruit buds

mainly on short
the vigorous
on
laterally

less

shoots, except
termnal

the

the buds

however,

cases,

hence

the

below.

noted

as

being

spurs
young
In all

axillary,

are

branch

bud.

usuallystraightfruit

spurs.

in the

peach the twigs produced

buds
"last year" often bear blossom
The
their
bases.
near
mostly
buds
branch
farther up tnese
twigs
will many
of them
develop "this
for "next
year's"
year" into spurs

As

fruiting(Fig.45).
cherries

certain

considerable

varieties

sour

produce

of

numbers

bloom

After
growths.
fruited they drop off and
these have
branches
thus leave the long naked
the sour
so
seen
commonly
among
The
cherry varieties.
only areas

FIG.

shows

Twig

Cluster

seen)

form

near

wood.

one-year

the

numerous

and

two

on

spurs
wood.

CHERRY

SWEET

43"

tips of

branches
leaves.

as

The

Note

all spurs
indicated
same

base

is

that

bear
the

new

fruit in such

ends

of

and

axial

that

buds.

these

are

slender

branches.

65.
The

Recognition
cluster

of

buds

readily
plumpness
of apricot and
rounded
shape. Those
about
smaller, are
as
conspicuous as
their
of
because
buds
positions as
forms.
Cherry buds, especially on "last
harder
to recognize because
they are
are
terminal

varieties

of

produce
by the
true

on

near

three-year
buds
(not
the

buds

the

the

Among

pears

their

are

of

fruit buds.

of

apples

"

and

distinguished by
and

their

well-

peach, though
apple and pear
well

as

season's"
not

very

their

wood,
much

65

BUDS

FIG.

FIG.

SOUR

44"

-FOUR-YEAR

45

At

is

and

wood.

also

fruit

spurs

b.

are

Each

of

three

or

buds

and

these

four
latter

The

spurs

down

have

Branch

the

cluster

branch

extend

three.

bud

the

on

the

years
The
spurs

tion
func-

whose

spur.

bears

at

the

lower

only branch
their
tips.

buds
on

is to

of
is four

branch

in each

usually

annual

ends

twig

than

blunter

the

branch

buds

and

branch

one

at

is

main

largest

bud

center

at

blossom

the

seen

lar
Simi-

seen

bud,
tip.
buds

is

spur

here.

The

growths.
old; the

one-

two-year

shown

indicate

Letters

dividing

the

between

point
y

SWEET
TWIG

CHERRY

CHERRY

are

also

one-year

wood.

there

because

nothing about
their position to distinguish them.
of
Plums, more
especially those
the Domestica
fering
class, though difin

themselves, all have

vigorous "last season

is

axillary
s" twigs,

minor

fruit buds
sometimes

respects
"

sometimes
on

older

among
on

wood.

66

PRINCIPLES

AND

FIG.

PRACTICE

46"

FRUIT

LEAF

OF

PRTXIXG

AND

BUDS

OF

PEACH

A,

end

and

of

two-year
of one-

beginning
wood.

year

Buds

largely in threes.
outside

ones

buds

the

leaf

buds.

between

ones

is

B,
of

of

part

the

back

fruits
of

to

terminal

one

is

30

10.

at

the

at

spur

with

habit

Compare

plums

in

wood;

this

couples, with
season

twi.2s

the

fruits

upon

*
Paragraph^
Drinkard, Jr., of

at

c,
on

b.

at

Th

and
e

th.
to

the

on

branch

fi("

to

Virginia

(i9

are

also

in
on

47

bloom-bearing
vigorous young

peach bloom
1 Hiring the
between.
is
buds
plum blossom
in

svno^ized

Experiment

varieties

some

and

formation

the

FIG.

like

case,

formation
the

t;

and

spurs

bud

apricot

the

suggest
latter

bud

Fruit

depends

stems

difficult,
though
66.

annual

from

.recognitionof

the

'

starting

both

axillarybuds

"

year
ye

so-call

Fru't

growths

which

one

four

of

e.

growth

C
tips of branch
w
ously.
simultanedeveloped
is \2 inches
long from
c
Fig. 46.

46

Japanese

is

growth
growths

THAT
FRUIT

above

c,

twig
C,

old.

47

annual

note

ring

It

inches

at

TWIGS
BORNE

HAVE

of

case

long.

FIG.
PEACH

5,

this

inches
in

and

in

in

The

part

-year

branch

is cut

Brairh

buds,

particularly.

the

tip.

of

prevent
extens'on
branches
from

the

whole

the

to

numbzr

and

more

FIG.

cut

both

undue

the

d,

Such
be

must

the

the

other
an-

"

part.

severely

reduce

tinuation
con-

another

shoot

third

growths

The

fruit

are

from

proper
the

Station, annual

dormant
often

ceedingly
ex-

it is easy.

development.*
and

in

buds,

"

The

fruit

development

extensive

report,

studies
1909-10.

of

A.

of
W.

67

BUDS

FIG.

JAPANESE

48"

The

year's growth
which
branch
the
laterals
At

time

same

and

inches

old,

being

shown

old.

Fruit

are

one

are

seen

are

largely in threes.

the

fruit

at ft. The

need

fruit

of

fruit buds.

produce
following year's
from
such

spurs

each

buds
Hence

thinning.

wood

and

factors

that

old

branch

with

(spur)

knowledge of
developed will lead

influence

detrimental

assumptions

an

fruit
to

enormous

take

bud

bud

B,

buds

place of

the
to

on

the

buds

time

for
cane

the

of work

/
the

duced
pro-

Two
to

or

grow

four-year-

C,

two-yearpart, and

older

such

buds

and

are

With
was

are

of

knowledge

formation

e.

younger.

development.

amount

at

year.

buds
on

growths

allowed

d.

at
at

bush.

be

each

bloom

its

spurs

one-year

the

of

the

had

buds

bloom

should

removed

old

branch

fruit.

canes

to

year

and

base

twice

two-year

one-year

spurs

the

has

blossom

on

the

on

Hence

formed

or

buds

three

two

of

buds

blossom

OF

Branch
b, girdled.
dividing point being
old, just above
years

the

cluster

upper

should

two

are

old,
years
Branch
d, also

The

rings
Twigs
g

/.

at

year

which

broken;

two

annual

the

BRANCHES
AGES

cane

a,

"

Notice

tively.
respec-

twigs

The
years

long

CURRANT

four-year
injured

c.

the

of

developed

also

branch

at

other

two

is

season.

underside

the

on

A,
leader

inches

24

49"

VARIOUS

the
minal
terlateral
a

and

developed
following

FIG.

one

b at

to

point

died

the

long

the

from

latter
bud

PLUM

shows

branch

the
ducive
con-

these

conducted

(1) the period of fruit bud

formation
ment
develop(2) the gross
by field observations;
sections
of floral parts by microtome
covering the
by Mr.

Drinkard

to

determine,

68

AND

PR1XCIPI.KS

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

the initial period of terminal

bud formation
changes between
ing;
(lateralfor peach and plum) and the time of flower(3) the exact date of differentiation of pollen mothercells and of the similar stage in ovogenesis ; (4) the period
of
origin of
pollen
grains and of ovules.
During the growing

buds

season

were

week

every

10

or

during

and

days

lected
se-

dormant

the
at

season

longer intervals.

They

killed, fixed, emsectioned,

bedded,
were

stained

mounted

and

according

to

approved
and

laboratory methods
various

the

developrecorded
by

and

growth
m

of

stages

of

photomicrographs,
original

the

which

is

It

106.

shows

port
re-

here
necessary
detail these methods,

to

not

we

will pass
67.

General

A,

of

the

allowed

be
wood

cut

cluster.

fruiting
not

The

buds

less

out

Bushes

fruiting.
of
spines
should

spiny
to

when

kept

grow

three

or

usually healthier
is

and

older.

and

Best

in

for

spurs

five-year-old branch
should
variety. Canes
old as
as
this, but be

young
than
ones

two

three

"

form

B,

season.

allowed

pruned
old.

length

next

replace old
position

to

year

three-year

most

wood.

at

four

most

in

which

fruit

great
volved
in-

work

preparing

mi-

the

crosopic sections made

it impossible to study
large

number
At
of

years

pruning

by such

in

or

tions.
observa-

should

shoots
Notice

and

much
be

each

grow

after

out

buds

of

of

to

Two

root.

such

of

strongest

of

amount

OLD

from

growth

one-year

three

BRANCHES,

GOOSEBERRY
AND
YOUNG

50"

the

to

The

"

FIG.

so

are

wood

develops

on

of
of

plum

of

ties.
varie-

first four

apples,
and

peach,

one

pear

rieties
va-

three
each

and

69

BUDS

cherry
fruit

studied, but

were

studied.

was

of many

Even

later
these

of mounts,

hundreds

only

variety

one

involved

the

each

oi

preparation

mostly only those

sections

taken

transversely
the
through
pistil

of the

flower

through
of

the
In

bud

the

or

center

bud

cluster.

ber
early Novemcomparisons

sections
buds

of

from

fruit
ties
varie-

25

of

of

plums

showed

ingly
surpris-

wide

of

range

stead
indevelopment
of
expected
uniformity. Hale, a
Japanese
variety,
the

showed
advanced

most

ment
developflower

with

apparently

parts

to
unfold,
ready
pollen grains well

formed,

pistilswell
ovules

developed,
in the
FIG.

51"

small

The

two-year-old

GRAPE

piece

CANE
at

bud

the

at

section
is

not

is
a

leaves,

fruit

clusters

showed
latter

third

examinations

and

lateral.

the
of

preparing
On

the

to

other

open.

hand,

varieties,

some

pecially
es-

tendrils.

very
of

decidedly
swelled, as though

buds

OLD

left

buds
Normally,
(modified
fruit clusters
or
in
the
tendrils
specimen
Each
the
season.
growing
off during
broken
cane
bearing
new
a
of
is capable
producing

of
remains
but the
bud,
opposite tendrils
develop
of
the
Most
tendrils).
were

of

little knob

The

wood.

YEAR

ONE

base

the

and

ovaries

20

slight development,
month.
Shortly after
apple varieties

even

showed

among

tives,
na-

during

the

mid-December,
a

narrower

70

PRINCIPLES

range

the
the

PKAC1

AND

OF

PRUNING

of

development, the majority being approximately

with
early blooming and fruiting varieties in
same,
the plums.
lead, but not so markedly as among

68. When

buds

fruit

may

be

recognized.

Attempts

"

to

fruit buds
be
approximate date when
may
show
that
observers
distinguished by the naked
eye
should
be guided partly 'by the positions in which
such
Peach
buds
and
normally appear.
plum fruit buds may
in early fall,so
be easily found
cherries, partly by
may
position,partly by their larger size. With
apple and pear
determine

the

the

feat

is less

Increased

size

is not

pronounced
ever,
howor
enough until late November
early December;
a
pocket lens which
magnifies 10 or 15 times will
help locate such buds during October.
easy.

69. Summary

and

conclusions.

"!.Oldenburg

"

apple

fruit

June. Several other varieties

showed
similar development ; a large majority of the fruit
in July, though
the initial stages in many
buds
formed
appeared late into the summer.
Development
cases
tinued
conand fall with completion of flower
through summer
November
1.
Development
through the
parts by about
winter
was
mostly microscopic. In late February and
in the esoccurred
important development
sential
early March
prior to blossoming.
organs
buds

began

2. Kieffer
until

after

August.

to

in late

form

fruit buds

pear

when

fairly well advanced.

during the winter.
similar
changes were
3.

Luster

in

August.
wintering.
until

In
to

peach fruit
In

about

After

flower

buds

buds

three

in the

began
months

November

February, though

to

differentiate

appeared
the

in the

Unimportant
late February
those

to

parts

rapid during

was

the

begin

flower

Initial

mid-July.
Development

mid-November

did not

fall up

cluster

in
to

were

changes occurred
and
early March,
apple.
form

the

first week

ready for
noticeable
curred
no
change occytological changes were
they

were

72

PRINCIPLES

in

week

PRACTICE

AND

In

September.

studied)

the

buds

October

and

continued

OF

this last

differentiated

case

into

PRUNING

(the variety most

flower
parts during

development until late December.

During January development was
only cytological. in
active
early February this variety resumed
growth and
had developed important changes
by the end of the month
in the essential organs.
then
The
flowers
were
ready to
unfold.

Phillippe cherry fruit buds began to form the

in July, and
the
first week
by the close of the month
flower
parts had begun to differentiate, but development
and
fall until
late
proceeded slowly through summer
then
until
November.
From
February changes were
cytological. In late February the essential changes had
buds
taken place. The
began to swell rapidly and were
ready to unfold in early March.
from
deduced
6. The
are
following general conclusions
5. Louis

foregoing data:
which
produce
(a) Buds

the

current

formed

bloom

the

and

the

kind

development of
proper
be influenced
by factors

the

fruit bud

seasonal

on

The

of

crop

preceding summer;
has its beginning in June or

formation

fruit bud

(b)

are

year

the

conditions

for

the

initial

July,

pending
de-

of fruit.

would,

brought to bear upon

fruit
the tree
prior to and during the period at which
takes
bud
formation
chard
place. In the practice of such orcontrol
or
operations as are designed to influence
that such operations should
it appears
fruit bud formation
than
at
effective in spring and
be more
early summer
other
stages of development.
lowing
his conclusions
J. H. Gourley reports the folAmong
(somewhat condensed) :*
formation
Baldwin
studies
of
70. Bud
apple. The
is not
season's
of
current
growth
on
axillary buds
therefore,

"

with

uncommon

of

apples.
*

New

Hampshire

In

the

Baldwin

Bulletin

many

bearing

alternate

Technical

and

No.

9.

trees

other
we

varieties
find

"

DQ
tu

-g

JJ

00

"

"

74

PRINCIPLES

heavier

of

deposition
when

tissues
average
of the

PRACTICE

AND

the

food
has

tree

material
formed

4 per

we

found

about

twigs

and

branches

PRCXIXC

OF

fruit

cent

summer

formed

leaf in the

the

on

fruit

of the second

relationship could be traced

and
the fruit
the growing
season
experiment through a period of
the

of fruit

moisture

"off"

than

year

inches

square

the

the

latter

by the
growth.

fruit

between

No

plots where

absent].

formation

bud

fall is evidenced

terminus

fruit

studied.

trees

period of
and
early

second

A
of

the

to

more

the

where

formed

were

On

specificgravity

condition

[than where
they were
is produced in the
much
larger leaf area
2.08
in the bearing year,
to
amounting

buds

storage

buds.

greater

in winter

the

in

bud

buds

rainfall

the

formation

seven

part

of

this

in

The

years.

during the period

bud
ditions
formation, coupled with good growing conearlier in the season,
produced the largest number
ran

lowest

of fruit buds.

receiving cultivation, and

their capacity
greatly increased
trees
standing in sod.
over

cultivation

Trees

The
as

of fertilizers in addition

use

the fruit bud

yet increased
71. Currants

largely upon
50). They
as

always
a

bud

also

last

long and
tiny growth.

produced

to

inch

plants

is to

season,

several

Currant

kinds.
than

This

and

bear

spurs

year

the

will
cluster

extend

buds

short

however,

old ; in other

season

bud

buds

so

words

twig perhaps only %

bud

cluster

will

or

only develop

not

more

less

or

and

buds

wood

"

three

seasons

ago.

Bushes

duce
proboth

or

and

or

this

on

gooseberry spurs, rarely grow

the
long, perhaps because
tendency
wood
wood
develop fruit on young

two

not

(Figs. 49,

are.

spurs

terminal

has

fruit

often

are

Such

one

their
season"

which

developed

season

formation

cultivation

"last

grew

than

bud

cover,

formation.

buds.

for

fruits, but

and
one

produce
more

inch

leaves

which

fruit

to

gooseberries

shoots

wood

on

wood

and

mistaken

be

to

for

with

more

of

the

of

last

that

have

75

BUDS

been

allowed

older

than

what

fruit

they

develop

is of

do

these

only
the

but

old

and

fruits.

phe-

are

due

partly

produce fruit

to

and

These

the

spurs

and

fewer

that

are

canes

inferior

the power

show

so,

shorter
bear

lose

ages

themselves

younger
borne

shoots
on

for

.size.

inferior
Not

shift

to

shoot
its

to

itself
its

age,

injuries by

sects
in-

eases,
dis-

and

etc., and
the
partly to
of
crowding
growths
young
sent

from

up

the

of

base

For

plant.
these

reasons,

therefore,
allow

to

canes

in

fact,

prefer to
times,
stool
a

or

The

old;

years

55"

RED

erect

stem

FIG.

than

more

five

up

fruit

rarely

growers

grow

the

its

branches

the

whole

out

soon

as

as

year

and

over-wintering

from
stem

last

BRANCH

FRUITING

RASPBERRY
grew

will

die, therefore

the

fruit

has

been

this

buds.

year
After

it may
as
harvested.

developed

well

fruiting
be

cut

many

them

cut

the

each
constant

season

out

three

after
best

are

succession

they

new

allowed
of

have

canes

to

young

fruited two

or

three

produced from the

develop so as to keep

bearing

wood.

76

PRINCIPLES

72. The

AND

bramble

fruits

etc.),like
from

canes

of

their

stools

clumps

becomes

flowers

and

In

part of this summer,

other

In

into

spring
borne

in

bear

fruit

which

last season's

on

the fruits
to

As

form

soon

decline.

as

They

are

long

with

and

next

push

normally
in

season.

flowers

in

out

usually

wood.

borne

terminally the

canes,

as

the

fruit has

are

of

no

in the

ripened

further

use

of the

case

the
to

shoots

not
can-

grape

begin
cause
plant be-

canes

the

Therefore, many
berry
raspthem
cut
out
they have fruited ;
as
soon
as
growers
until the following winter.
The
leave them
ment
arguin favor
of the former
is
that
practice
they are a
to the well
being of the plant, since they interfere
and
air circulation
of infestation
light,and are sources
they will die

menace

until

not

terminate

grows

the branches
(Figs. 55, 56). Thus
this season's
leafy shoots produced from

on

extend

others

borne

normally

live

clusters.

Because

to

be

cane

never

develop few to
(St. Regis raspberry)
the
latter
during

may

cases

resting buds

shoots

resting buds

57).

but

the

words,

It

starting points

canes

the

year

some

fruits may

the

these

woody.

branches.

PRUNING

as

This

less

or

side

crowns,

seasons.

more

several

or

called, but

are

two

OF

berries,
(raspberries,blackberries, dewand gooseberries, develop new

currants

their

longer than

PRACTICE

both

of insects

next

and

winter.

The

diseases.

in favor

argument

that

is that there
is then
during winter
of injuring the young
canes
by roughly pulling
and
the old ones
out, that the danger of infestation
and
over-estimated,
advantages of light and air are
when
work
is
be done
at a season
the pruning can

not

so

cutting
less danger
of

the

them

pressing

73. Grapes
but

out

in

differ

as

resemble
another.

shoots, developed
older

wood,

brambles

during

from

produce

the

summer.

the bramble

fruits in

the

brambles,

Like

resting buds
fruits

their fruit clusters

this
are

on

season,
not

one

respect,

their

leafy

last

season's

but

unlike

terminal.

or

the

Therefore,

77

BUDS

limited
not
are
grapes
To
their 'shoots.
state

in either
the

the

age

the

or

of

extent

succinctly, grapes,
except
their
fruits
bear
noted
shoots
on
below,
as
developed from
As each
velops
shoot deresting buds on last season's growth.
it unfolds
from
a resting bud
leaves, opposite each

of which

is

tendril

is

tendril

FIG.
The

which
hill

as

the

whole
as

soon

the

or

grew

the

branch
fruit

The

fact

will
has

been

that

cluster

which

It may

be

year

therefore

CANE
buds

developed
After

season.

cut

out

not

are

AND
and

the

specialized

botanists

LATERALS

"last"
ground
"this"
developed

die.

Whether

the

of

from

fruit

has

stool

the

or

gathered.

one

blends

into

the

is well

other

cluster
being complete,
Figure 57 the lowest
one
provided with a tendril, and the third being

shown

in

next

rather

the

from

tendril.

FRUITING

RASPBERRY

BLACK

branch

leafy, fruiting branches

agreed.
the

cluster,

or

point concerning

56"

large
the

ripened

aborted

an

is

of grapes

cluster

case

tendril

with

little cluster

knowledge that each resting

to
capable of producing two

as

side

bud

on

last

five

clusters

issue.

year's

With

canes

of grapes,

is
the

78

PRINCIPLES

decide

can

pruner

shall

each

cut

AND

of bunches

OF

general

in order

cane

the vine,

to

of

in

PRACTICE

beforehand

way

produce

to

of

crop

PRUNING

how

he

given number
certain weight to the

certain

alter
quality. Seasonal conditions may
his calculations
made
at pruning time
during winter, but
skillful pruners' calculations
close to the actual yields.
are
acre,

or

FIG.

57"

This

in

the

of

and

northeastern

that
that
buds

lateral

United

fruits. In

States

by secondary
that

in

during

the

sense
same

three

these
will

because

of

the

under

but

may

cases

laterals
a

cane
season.

and

produce

this method

produced
would

on

bear

tendril.

on

may

mature

be
the

three

In

the
fruit

short.

the

conditions

may

clusters

rarely produce

buds

favorable

is

tendril

formed

part

These

is too

season

that

have

and

cluster

laterals.

VARIETY

Note

tendrils

these

part

are

form

LABRUSCA

A
bud.

five of the lower

to

which

some

of

which

OF

axils of this year's leaves

in the

canes

lowest

two

SHOOT

over-wintering

an

the

are

Usually only two

produce clusters,

produced

from

also

leaves

the

GRAPE

developed

leaf
Observe

fruit.

axils

CHARACTERISTIC

shoot
each

opposite
of

canes

shoots

develop
clusters

of

again repeated

first laterals, so
crops

of grapes

80

PRINCIPLES

long-cane

In

diagonal

or

PRACTICE

AND

horizontal

systems,

training,

the

as

PRUNING

OF

is

training

lower

buds

nourished

in

The

preferable
the

of

the

are

crop,

being
be

to

but

systems.
conclusions

and

indicated,
not

better

are

horizontal

observations

herein

upright

to

cane

based

on

regarded

rather

as

one

as

clusive,
con-

preliminary

report.

75.

quince

The

Last

buds

resting
looked

that

all
the

spring
will

grow

develop

mostly

shoots,

leafy

veloped
de-

which

This

alike.

buds

quince

the

season

58.-

Fig.

short
.

of

Some

these
will

positions

quince,

the

bearing

of
FIG.

59

that

Notice

the
and

terminally
b)

(a,
close
fruits

from

appear
to
were

the

points

produced

borne

are

of

buds

lateral

Wisconsin

Annual

tips

this

method
is

called
flowers

the

the

axial

of

shoots

season.

"

Flowers

previous

the

notwithstanding
autumn

This

the

where

in

Report

these

1901.

fact

plants.

previous
quince,

that
"

unquestionably

are

season

in

in

wherever

changed

because

the

at

are

the

grape,

direction

twigs

new

year.

and

are

fruit.

fruits
that

fruit-

plant,

bearing

coter.minal,

years.

mummied

year's

Last

previous

in

borne

were

d,

the

the

borne.

fruits

where

positions

c,

is

blossom

of
b,

a,

is

in
the

because

growth
fruit

of

of

shoots

FRUITING

OF

METHOD

QUINCE

the

least

at

parts

irregular

terminal

produce

Hence

blossoms.

favored

in

shoots

[E.

raspberry,

flower

no

S.

to

Goff.*

buds

formed

their

sion
expan-

blackberry
can

be

tinguished
dis-

CHAPTER

PRUNING

Horticultural
since

literature

of these

many

the
with

student

shown

those

the

standpoint

of

by

merely

not

two

specimens

mens,
specivarying
ing
grow-

differences

species

tice
prac-

working

widely

The

same

many

in

habit

still greater,

are

all these
species greater
yet ; and
modified
augmented
or
by the natural

conditions

order,

under

therefore,

this

reduce

alike.

are

of

plants, aims

under

no

ditions,
con-

between
are

artificial

species,

but

and

encounter

plants,

is because

varieties

by

of

and

side

by

to

the

aims

other

to

likely

pruning,

proficient only

number

This

side

even

the

become

can

environments.

In

is
From

varieties

but

and

reader

considerable

apply

not

contradictions.

apparent

for

rules

specific plants,

to

may

the

conditions,

is full of

apply

therefore

and
and

PRINCIPLES

the

eliminate

to

the

confusion,

important

most

which

has

been

somewhat

made

which

upon

or

growing.

are

least

at

or

effort

principles

plants

ferences
dif-

state

to

rational

ing
prun-

is based.
76.

under

grouped
landscape
the

flower

or

trunks

which

The

as

trunks

eye

to

is for

later

the

free

to

sake

their

and

or

if

far

as

the

in

securing

knots

and

81

of

fruit

If

it is not

with

florist

of
and

the
the

tree

little if at
culturist
horti-

ornamental

groups.

cerned
con-

decay.

plants attractive,

they think
The

and
is

pruning

as

yield

and

specimens,

beauty.

horticulturist's

large

their

have

profit, and
of

from

be

may

forester's, the

the

interested

gardener

specimens
of

So

of form

landscape

pruning

Namely,

mainly

be

of

ornamental

or

beauty

individual

the

ideals.

is

shall

endeavor

aims

grower's.

forester

considers

all.

three

fruit

The

"

gardener's

the

He

aims.

Pruning

consider

they
a

either

forester's

fruit
fruit

at

all it

grower,

82

PRINCIPLES

like the

the

vines, but

and

PRUMNG

OF

their

health

the

to

main

aim

of their

is the

flower

these

three

fruit.

77. Pruning
be

may

classified.

principles

differ in their

men

PRACTICE

landscape gardener, look

trees, shrubs
or

AND

ultimate

aims, the methods

two

main

those

which

under

grouped

While

"

the

and

which

consider

plant

are
principles,

of

blend
be

into

A.

Pruning
1.

of

each

these

less

or

the

tinct,
dis-

less
nevertheother.

They

in the

lowing
fol-

proper

Principles
removal

ment
develop-

them

summarized
table

those

\Yhile

more

some

plant-

form

and

(1)

health

(2)

the

training.

"

may

and

consider
size

the

of the

proper,

of

ploy
em-

heads; namely,

behavior

pruning

they

which

of

with

deal

injured

or

the

essary
unnec-

parts.
2.

3.
FIG.

60"

"DER

of
tree

the
was

him
was

IN

its

slashed
When

top.
done
one

cut

it

secondary
already the

out

decided

to

stump

of

work

its
shows

fate

B.

Training

"go

to

trunk

leaving

shown,

trunk

lot

main

the

so

eral
sevso

ghastly

his
was

better,"
as

4.

wept
branches,

upper

butcher

DER

PRUNING
willow

weeping

This

OF

END

LIMIT"

"

1.

the
for

2.

decay.

affect vegetaPrinciples which

tive
vigor.
affect flower
Principles which
fruit production.
and
the
change
Principles which
into
the
habit
wood-bearing
fruit-bearinghabit,or vice versa.

limit the size

Principles which
form
of
the
plants.
or
affect plantation
Principles which
management,

as

in

the

facilitation of tillage,spraying,harvesting, etc.

3. Principles which
underly training to special forms.

The

most

important

principleswhich

come

under

the

the
from
112) are deduced
The
others
are
laws
of plant physiology (Chapter II).
experience.
or
convenience,
economy
mainly based
upon

these

heads

Familiaritywith

these

former

of

(78

to

principleswill

enable

the

operator

PRUNING

approach

to

if he

than

variety or
nothing but

new

have

83

PRINCIPLES

species with
rule

mere

confidence

more

of

thumb

guide

to

him.

PRINCIPLES
78.

STATED

AND

DISCUSSED

/;/

fruit production and in ornamental

horticulture,
priming is of secondary importance to constant
agement
good manof the plants; in forestry it is an incidental in tree
/.

growing.
This

is axiomatic

rule

for

for

make

the

riot.

run

trees

is

thrift

of

Furthermore,
the

not

one

who

happens to inconvenience
more
likely to deserve
61) than pruning.
79.

2.

80.

?.

Climate

of

pruning will
plants where
neglect and abuse
who
man
neglects or abuses his

the
the

amount

no

will prune,
him.
the

except

Even

name

as

then

of

tree

branch

some

his

pruning is
butchery (Fig.

definite ideal, familarity with the basic principles,

and
a
sential
escareful consideration
of environment
are
to best pruning practice.
This
for unless
the primer
principle is also axiomatic,
unless
hit the mark;
what
he is aiming at he cannot
know
he apply the right principleshe may
work
to the injury or
ment
the inferiority
of the plant; and unless he study the environtelligent
inknow
he cannot
as
apply what principleshe may
he otherwise
might.
as
necessityand
under
under

one

set

localitymarkedly influence both the

that succeed
Methods
the effectsof pruning.
be modified or avoided
of local conditions must
and

otliers.

Plants

show

considerable

differences

of

in the
parts of the country, even
below.
Then, too, local influence must

different
noted

the winters
are
regions where
Jersey to Ohio and southward, wounds
the trees
pruned in winter; whereas
Tn

mild,
may

where

in

development
same

state,

be

considered.

say
in no

the

New

from

wise

as

injure

winters

are

84

PRINCIPLES

cold

very

and

dry,

in the

as

wounds

much

evaporate

trees

In

to

suffer

may

such

mid-autumn

wrought

in hot and

the

season

FIG.
THE

61"

BUTCHER

TREE

so

that

the

less

UPRIGHT
FIG.

allow

may

surfaces

cut

and

seriously from
winterkilling.
is advisable
avoid breaking the bark
to
and
be
early spring. Damage
may
dry regions,as in Arkansas, Oklahoma.

it

between

PRUNING

that

at

from

or

more

regions

OF

plains region of Nebraska

made

adjacent states,
water

PRACTICE

AND

62
REPLACES

LIMB

HORIZONTAL

ONE

METHOD
How
with

"Pruning"

will

life

its

of the

Arizona

way

trunk.

severe

the

While

than
New

with

differences

horizontal

not

became

bent
The

known.

zontally
horibending extended
the
the
to
as
right, but
it
water
developed
sprout

vertical
robbed
The

trunk

and

the

203

is

trunk

after

trunk

heart

the

tree

the

prostrate

trunk

of food.

shortly died, broke

stub
slowly healed

off
over.

of this work.

bordering states, by sun scalding,which often

pruning, but such pruning generally indicates

trees

necessary

to

decay

Figs. 84 and

have

been

neglected perhaps during several

in such regions less pruning is
Doubtless

years.

many

lected
neg-

shorten

because
into

wounds

Such

stages

and

follows

states

tree

advanced

show

to

the

work

wood

that

of

the

always

but

over,

is

axe

in

orchard.

home
heal

never

the

crime

tree

common

an

this

in

more

York,

humid

regions.

Pennsylvania, Ohio

long extent north and south

in pruning practice,
a
more

and

other

eastern

present considerable

strikinginstance

is

PRUNING

be found

to

in the state

mountains
the

to

area

humid

divide

mild

the

branches.

The

trees

dry

of

continue

Cascade

the

soil,and
development, often

feet

of

cherry

late in the

to grow

In

east.

in air and

wood

10

to

the

the

to

one

moisture

excessive

of

where

climates, a cloudy humid

two

clear

favor

growth

Washington,*
into

abundance

climate

annual

an

and

the

area

of

the state

west

85

PRINCIPLES

and

prune

and

autumn

Severe winter
fullyripened wood is often difficult to secure.
pruning aggravates the evil of this excessive wood
growth
and
To
check
by making more
longer wood
growths.
resort
to summer
growth, therefore, growers
pruning, shootroot
or
pinching and even
pruning. The eastern
dry area
is characterized
with
a -fierce,
by "a long, dry summer
and
followed
by
scorching sun
strong, drying winds
sudden
winter
and
with fluctuating temperature
a
severe
changes. In portions of the fruit belt there is barely enough
moisture
in the ground to sustain a tree."
these conUnder
ditions
"come
trees
to maturity at an
early age, and produce
fruit at a time in their lives when
they ought to be making
for
wood
growth and establishinga strong, healthy frame
.

usefulness."

future

winter

in

bear

so

as

to

this

In

region severe
the

overcome

is done

shoot-pinchingare

tendency

avoided

dry plains region,the tops of

than in moister regions.
The
fruit in these dry areas
shade

than

from

orchardists

most

improve

central

west

headed

trees

trunks

pruning
for

the

is done
trees

to

Cherries
fruit at two
1
an
pears
years;
young.
six. The
winter
bear
full crops
at five or
pruning
Summer
and
leaf growth.
wood
to increase
ing
prun-

and

from

too

apples

to

exposure
keep the

Bulletin

up

from

the

color

of

the

this

precautionis

and. branches
sun

limbs

and

needless

popular
are

than

believed

25, Washington

Experiment

Station.

to

the

from
east

ground,

fruit; in the

therefore,

in the

thus

scald.

the

In

the

dense

suffer

wind.

and

lower

flavor

more

must

sun

In

dry area.
be kept more

is less likelyto

to

the

are

trees

in the

east,

very

because

lowthe

be better protected

86

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

81. 4.

Pruning does
for pruned plants resume

not

PRUNING

OF

alter the natural

their normal

habit

of plants,
when
left to

habit

themselves.

will show
that each plant speciOrdinary observation
men,
tinguishe
disvariety and species has an individualitywhich
other plant. No
it from
what
matter
every
way
much
be pruned, therefore, it will seek to exhow
it may
press
that individualityin the new
follows
growth which
pruning, and its success
will be largely proportional
its
to
vigor.
Trees
which
naturally
like Winter
sprawl,
"

"

or

Nelis

Rhode

and

pear

Greening apple,

Island

made

be

cannot

by

erect

grow

and

pruning,

those

be

made

Rational

droop.

and
FIG.
LEADER

RENEWED

natural

63
IN

BROKEN

to

to

faults

correct

maintain
form

to

pruning,
seeks

therefore,

merely

mally
nor-

Rartlett,

and

cannot

mere

ern
like North-

erect,

Spy

to

of

the
the

TREE

tree.

proof of this rule is seen in the wilds and in orchards

trained in more
which
less artificial ways,
or
formerly were
but
which
have
trees
latterlybeen neglected. In nature
bent and held down
which have been blown
or
over
by other
leaders
them
trees
frequently develop new
falling upon
outline of
(Fig. 62, 63) ; in neglected .orchards the formal
often be traced through the
trained
the artificially
tree
may
make
or
a
growths which
top more
surrounding younger
less strikinglydifferent in form.
The

88

PRINCIPLES

the

root

be

area

removal

words,

PRACTICE

AND

also
of

the

reduced

PRUNING

OF

by

pruning.

root

top upsets the balance

In

other

between

root

result is that the

remaining parts make greater

vegetativegrowth than they normally would make and often
be developed in
water
(Fig. 65), and suckers
sprouts
may
size. Hence
and
gardeners have
greater or lesser number
the rule that weak-growing
shrubs
formulated
should
have
their tops pruned severely, but strong ones
only lightly.
Should
the form
to correct
severe
pruning become
necessary
and

ONE

Fir.. 64"

TREES

OF

";r

The

top.

OF

train

to

THE

IS

THE

65"

TREE'S

time, with

months

between,

being pruned

an

interval

depending
herbaceous

"

of

upon
ones,

week

the

to

perhaps

character

such

of

tomatoes

as

removal
not

more

Injurious

reported

effects

hy German

to

several

the

plant
grown
semi-

frequent, perhaps even

manding
of small quantitiesof foliage,and.treesdethan one
at most
two
or
primings a year.

glass,requiring very

weekly

bo

third at

under

TO

ATTEMPT

BUTCHERING

OFFSET

MAN-

of the top may

plant, under-stimulation
piecemeal, say a quarter
by doing the work

avoided

84.

FIG.

FOES

WORST
"LINE

of

pruning

on

investigators who

the
say

growth
the

of

average

tree

trunks

thickness

are

of

PRUNING

89

PRINCIPLES

8.4 centimeters
pruned in pyramidal form was
;
and
dead
branches
crossed
9.5 ; and
the
only
pruned
trees
11.7.
Contrary to the general belief that regular
unpruned
stockier
make
to
trees, these
pruning seems
experiments indicate
that strong
rather
pruning prevents the rapid growth of the stem

the limbs

of

trees

many

by removing

it.

furthers

than

Pruned

85.

that

Tomatoes."

ripe fruits

of

after

pruned

tomatoes

In

the

West

the

plant

fruit set

less.

method
total

English

86.

U.

He

L.

C.

produced

Corbett

experiments

Pickering

has

that

reports

to

up

each

in

apple pruning." At

conducted

dug

trees

and

up

England,

Woburn,

pruning experiments
that
weighed show

is pruned
the larger and
heavier it becomes.
those
trees
20
not
were
pruned
years
per

At

for

12

the

the

the

actual

size of

being

formed.

When

increase

wood

pruned

to

different

the

results

tree, but even

similar branches

it

extents,

found

was

on

that the

the number,
greater
length and weight of
the increase in girth of the original branch.

and

The

reduction
With

crop.

from

apple

dwarf

unpruned
pruned.

hard

in pruning
trees

during

trees,

than

more

were

great

as

increased

differences

16

does

the
not

less

new
were

pruning
formed

regards

as

pruned
un-

of

tree

first five years,

the

twice

the

the

shoots

as

12

were

in

same

new

the

than

less the

marked

more

appears

the

tree

of

end

heavier

cent

years.

less

whereas
the heavily pruned
trees
moderately pruned ones,
the
difference
in
cent
Since
between
lighter.
weight
per
the moderately pruned trees
and
is greatly in excess
that pruning
wood
removed
by pruning, it is concluded

the

found
number

greater

September 1 than did unpruned

season
plant for the whole
was
Of
the various
methods
of pruning tomatoes,
the single stem
somewhat
earlier
and
the
larger fruits,but lessened
gave
yield considerably.
to

plants, but the total yield from

S.

Virginia,*

the

crops

from
the

the

those

were
during
period of five years, and at the end of the twelfth year the unpruned
the moderately pruned
trees
yielded nearly three times as much
as
all.
had
while
the
at
no
ones
practically
hard-pruned
ones,
crop
twelfth
for
fruit
the
in
comparison during
(Only one
variety was

These

second

year.)
obtained with trees of 53 and 80 varieties of
allowed
not
stocks,
respectively. The trees were
paradise
obtained
fruit
from
size
of
claimed
the
it
that
is
and
overbear,

Similar
crab
to

trees

the

results

were

and

pruned
values

of

evidence

hence
approximately the same,
tive
were
proportionalto the weights. Confirmacrops
obtained
the antagonism of pruning to fruiting was

different

to

the
of

extents

by counting the fruit buds

tree, which
refer

With

pruning
*

was

to

dwarf
results

Bulletin

49.

cut

back

was

formed
to

on

different

similar
extents.

healthy, vigorous-growing
apple
in

an

trees

15

increase

branches
All

of

of

the

the above

same
sults
re-

trees.

finds that hard

old the author
years
wood
of the new
formed, but that

90

PRINCIPLES

the

are

crops

This

years.

stunted,

even

from

as

reduced

more

result

PRACTICE

AND

is said

root

OF

the

by
also

to

injury

PRUNING

than

pruning

which

apply
in transplanting.
trees

to

in

former

have

become

Since hard pruning has been shown

for fruitto be the correction
ing,
that freshly planted trees
it is concluded
should
be cut
back
hard to prevent stunting by precocious fruiting.
With
of

which

until the end

not
cut back
were
first season,
the average
size of the leaf
24 per cent
less and the new
formed
wood
trees

the

was

45

back

when

found

than

planted.
be

to

of

end

less

cent

per

the

with

The

similar

ultimate

that trees
not
cut
first year
continued

back

and
the
subsequent years,
them
during the first 10 years
third of that borne
by those
when
back
planted.

Experiments

was

until

form

to

in

cut

trees

result

the

wood

borne

crop
was

only

which

were

by
one-

cut

and
apples, pears
plums
back
a
cutting
freshly
planted tree is immaterial, provided it is done
before
growth begins. If delayed until after
the growth is well started the season's growth
show

on

that the

is much

date

The

reduced.

the lopping
period. Lopping

when

weeks

of

was

the same
remitswere
doneBuringthe dormant

toward

after

the

of

end

May

less

While

it

to

appears

be

the

pruning

FIG.

66
GROWTH

CUT
To

BACK
back

cut

one-

does
year-old
growth
not
materially change
direction

the

limb,

yet

of

it

keeps

fruit-bearing
Note

area

that

the

buds

have

strongest

the
the
low.

uppermost
made

gradually
after

this time

branches

and

additional

reduced,

another

are

from

larger

in tion
proporthe experimenter

that

series

of

that
reached
are
general conclusions
lowest
the
reduced
be
to
prunings should
formation
with
the
possible limits consistent
of

tree

mean,

reduced

more

The

crops

growth.

in

ments
experithat
certain
demonstrate
a
might
lead
be good and even
of pruning may
amount
with
certain
better
to
rieties
varesults, especially
differ largely in their
of apples which
ment.
habits of growth and
require different treatbelieves

YEARLING

is

was

established

these experiments that the crops

^nd
the growth of the tree greater
as

or

started, resulted

growth
This
growth during the year.
than compensated, however,
by an
growth during the succeeding season.
few

pruning

with

of

safety, which

besides
for

sufficient sturdiness

the

the

in most

cutting back

first four

to
cases

after

bear

planting,

five years.
ing
Prunremoval
interferof ing

or

consist merely in the

With
precocious varieties
unripened wood.
should

its

would

or

PR

weak

very

with

since

trees,

head

before

the

heavy

should
is

pruning

with

greater
than
standard

continued

or

with

produce

to

dwarf

compact

gins.

pruning
on)

is th

reduces

roots

prodit
growths (i.e., wood
to induce
fniitfulness.
This

be

desirable

sta

crop

87. J. Severe

91

PRINCIPL

the

growers

More

longer.

; hence

it may

fple No.
when

equivalent t
poorly supp
they tend

6.

the

In

be

vegetative
employed

sense

it is

tops of plants

are

It doe
lack

to

or

takerT*upby,

sao

results

the

are

inciple
at

ion

tion

of

of
for
TflSRTs*'

other
No

transplanting.

(often

cent)

per

and

nursery

an

amount

90

area

perform^^

is

work

root

such
cargfully

how

matter

in tlier un-

is cut
area-^JI2)
the*

than

more

feeding

the

on

mous
enor-

off, thus

fooH

t)f

Supply

ducing
re-

which
s.

be

"xm

sent

offset

To

the

to

up

this unbalanced
FIG.

to

^distribute the

HOW

uced

"

Bpjjp\p"4pod

tivelv, the

tOp

be

mUSt

effec-

growth

second.year
Cutting back
crooked
branches,
produces
latter

very

MADE

ARE

re

reduced

BRANCHES

CROOKED

"k
,

67

"

""^

ditioruand

growth

will

not

be

ers
plantconsiderably. Some
adv^ate
dy^at removing'not less than three-quarters of
all but
cases
io^^^iar's growth, and in many

nTO
strong TITO
balance

on

between

that

growth.

root

This

and. top.

tends

to

establish

the

as

erect.

the
one

new

92

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

pruning is largelypracticedby those nurseries which

make
a
specialtyof specimen plants several years old. It
end
is performed by passing a large U-shaped knife from
Root

of

end

to

the

long

the
roots

results, the
the

several

for
and
is not

of the

base

(1)

that

in the

form

all the

years,

trees

order

rows,

the

at

desired

any

in check

set

are

clump close to the

of the practice are
to

In

right angles to
plants to produce many

be done

may

the

varying depths.

at

trees

beneath

rows

nursery

first.

This

short

fibrous

Root

fruit
such

also

pruning
and

trees

trees

on

pels
com-

in

roots

to

traine

be

remain

may

valuable

small

the

make

area,

cutting

balance.
in

growing dwarf
in special forms,
and
the
(282). Unless

employment

trained

cutting

method

specimens may
where
they
nursery,
while becoming more

finds

best

secure

the

cut

chief advantages

The

stems.

re-establish

to

to

to

as

the second

so

(2) the extensive root system, limited

seriouslyenough injured in digging to

of the top necessary

so

walls

espalier (283) and cordons

velop
deis regularly done
work
the trees
almost
to
sure
are
Its
the objects sought.
unduly and to frustrate
to amateur
plantations.
practiceis mainly limited in America
as

and
root
Harper-Adams
Agricultural College* (England)
stimulated
several
experiments
tnv
during
pruning
years
the weakest
marked
on
growth considerably, the effect being most
fruit buds
growing variety tested, Cox's Orange Pippin. The most

At
branch

formed

were

In

effort

an

side

trees.

make

to

not

that

rioted

unpruned

six espalier pear

trees
develop
both
sides, two
root-pruned two
on
on
one

L. Castlef
the other
two
R.

was

the

on

at

all,in January
but

the

and

following

February.
the

fruit

buds,

side only.

Nothing

special

pruned
year
good fruit; those severely pruned
produced a
crop
few
still unfruitful.
fruits,while those unpruned
were
year,

fair

very
of the

latter

root-pruned

trees

trees

on

of

pruned

later

gave

results

similar

to

the

one

bad
One

earlier

trees.

88. 8. Suckers

and

produced b\ local
or
general disturbance
of plant equilibrium. The time of
the pruning is done
has less influenceupon
their
year when
*

Report

tjour.

1910,

Royal

Page
Hort.

water

sprouts

are

52.
Soc.

(London)

29.

Nos.

1-3,

Pages

146-160.

PRUNING

93

PRINCIPLES

formation than docs the extent

of the pruning and the
vigor of the plant pruned.
As already noted under
Principle No. 6, increased vegetative
growth results from excessive
pruning of the top, and
suckers
be developed to a greater
water
sprouts and
may
lesser extent.
"\Yhen the plants are
below
normal
or
vigor
the root
is smaller
than the top reallyneeds,
and when
area
in sufficient quantity to
plant food will not be elaborated

FIC.
When

beyond

die

died.

One

taking

or

water

less

produce

laler.

sprout

In

this
cut

was

off

sprouts and

water

the

case

(see

branch

main
scar

at

KILLED

ARE

branches

horizontal

beyond
of

base

the

middle

the

erect

one)

parts
has

ones

to

perm.t

photo.

confused

dependent

vertically from

develop

sprouts

sooner

BRANCHES

HORIZONTAL

WAY

ONE

68"

wat^r

upon

Hence

influence in their

ample
season

if

suckers; for these

not

of

excessive

pruning

production. They

food
cannot

may

growths
for
be

develop

their
a
as

are

velopment.
de-

primary
the

re-

94

PRINCIPLES

suit of

ringing (98
the

bending

find

must

Doubtless

above

the time

of

influence

some

checked

outlet

an

the

upon

observation

in such

because

been

shows
do

spring. Rarely

PRUNING

OF

103), girdling,notching,twistingor

to

stems,
has

sap

PRACTICE

AND

the

and

the flow

cases

held

thus

food

pruning is done has

mon
production of such growths. Coming
that t^ey are
produced mainly durcause
beafter midsummer,
they appear
by that time the plants
are
ripening up the tissues
rapidly formed
early in the
year

the

when

food

there
to

spare

growth

has

is little
in

and

sprouts

the

same

the

cessation

The

ends

of

the

off, with
"sap-pumping"
cut

were

of
No

care

was

given

horizontal
the

result

growths
these

new

branches
that

onH
ancl

U^.her

lot

of

developed.

Slze

have
nearly
not
grown
they would
and
have,
They
spindling.
long
inbear
fruit, as
to
however,
begun
dicated
by the short, stubby spurs.

or

r"f
Ot

will

f|o appear
when
than

growths,

suckers

of

growth just
during

Even

CIVA

summer
mid-

because

following spring

PEAR

"PRUNED"

POORLY

that

produce

or

season

discussed.

perience
Ex-

in

rarely
water

no

general

teaches

pruned

plants

or

ceased.

also

69"

back

the constriction.

season,

FIG.

orated
elab-

of

the

the

num-

fVir"c#" ixrViirVi

be

pruning

smaller

done

IS

so

ample time
changed conditions
have

The

usual

utilized

in

way

such

in which
in their

dtmilg
TVi"

V"

readjustment

to

the

tops.

in which
cases

dormant

make

to

the

any
is in the

elaborated

excess

increased

is

food

development

of

the discussion
to summer
Note
as
twigs already formed.
pruning in eastern
Washington (80). The suggestion to
is that the fear of water
be drawn
from this principle
sprout
and

These

production should
growths are
largelythe

sucker

never

result

influence
of

the

primer.

previous neglect,

FIG.
Note
have
of

that

reached

lijjht.

They

up

TWENTY-YEAR-OLD

70"

the

trees
to

have

the

either

broken

PLANTATION

CATALPA

practically
the
light, and
are

off

or

erect

and

lower

branches

been

cut,

almost

branchless
have

died

They

below.
because

of

lick

PRUNING

91.
tend

The

10.

to

buds, especially
on

uppermost

plants,

young

vigorously.

most

grow

97

PRINCIPLES

and
shows,
Ordinary observation
philosophy explains
(Chapter III), that, due to the fightfor air and lightamong
the uppermost
the twigs, growth is from
buds.
This
tural
namethod
be suppressed or
emphasized according
may
the plants are
to the way
managed.
Shortening the annual
tion
growths (106) checks development and so does the formaof constrictions (98). These
methods
each deserve
two

separate
92.

discussion.

By shortening the twigs npo)i which

they are
borne, axillarybuds may be more
fullydeveloped than would
shortened.
not
normally be the case
if the twigs were
//.

It stands
the

food

to

that when

reason

part of

shoot

is removed

intended

shoot
will
by the plant for the whole
reach
the remaining part in relativelylarger supply. But
this principleconnotes
still more.
It deals largely with the
which
tends
broaden
to
practice of heading-in, a process
and
thicken
One
the top of the plant so treated.
other
or
of two
be secured
objects may
by heading-in; namely, (1)
the correction
of an
habit of growth and
undesirable
(2)
the encouragement
of fruit production (Principle 17, below).
Each
of these objects may
of one
involve
the consideration
of the following factors:
or
erence
more
(a) The grower's preftance
shall be trained, (b) the disthe trees
to the way
as
between

the

whether

(c) the

trees,

standard

nature

dwarf,

or

of

and

the

(d)

trees,

the

rate

pecially
es-

of

growth.
a.
one

On
man

the

point,the grower's preference,probably no

It is
the ideas of another
man.
exactly meet

first

can

usually a

of

case

round-headed
; when

tops

are

is the

tree
an

open

possibly before
b. When

"what

trees

the
are

likes, he

he

aim,

centered
tree

set

close

dense, the -effort

to

shortening-in must

one,

comes

When

likes."

it must

into

be

be

shunned,

thick,
ticed
prac-

unless

bearing.

together,just
secure

air and

as

when

their

light tends

to

98

PRINCIPLES

induce

AND

long slender

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

is true
(Fig. 70). The same
(80). Shortening to keep the tree
when
be done
the growths attain

growth

in very
humid
climates
within
heads
bounds
may

feet in a season,
but since mature
and
lengths of 3 or more
such excessive growths, the pracbearing trees rarely make
tice
unfruitful
with
is usually needed
trees.
or
only
young
Excessive
trees
generally indicates too
growth in mature
the remedy is
rich, moist soil, or excessive pruning; hence
check
to
growth by making the proper

correction,

pruning,
The

(80).
moisture
a

correction

be

may

thirsty cover

drainage

that

oats

or

such

crop,

for

for

excess

the

use

of

clover

as

cover

crop,

rye ; that for excessive

or

mer
sum-

or

great fertility,

too

"nitrogen-consuming"

as

to

recourse

practiced in Washington

as

proper

hairy vetch;
a

have

to

or

such

pruning

winter

as
pruning as much
will
possible. Heading-in during winter
matters
worse.
only make
c.
Shortening-in the annual growths of

is

FIG.

dwarf

TYPICAL

71"

PASTURE

avoid

to

WHITE

that,

though

the
high,
trunk
is
branchy
nearly to the ground.
It will make
inferior,
and
knotty
tapering

the

roots.

feet

treatment.

all

In

to

prevent

the

velopmen
de-

proportion to
This
feature deserves
special
(Chapter XVI.)
be
membered
reshortening-in it must
in
that increased
the
pruning
of

PINE

Note
50

is done

trees

GROWN

tops

out

of

lumber.

of the top is necessary,

especially
For
early in the growing season.

interior
when

the

often

lateral

prove

work

is done

on
growths, especially

great annoyance.
sturdier branches

The

summer-pruned

method

is useful

in

grapes,

helping

It
develop frame limbs.
be employed less annually as the trees
need
turity,
approach mawhen
it may
cease
altogether.
So far the discussion has considered
the styleof headingin usually practiced by gardeners and
who
sec!:
amateurs
speciallyfine specimens of fruit. A simpler method
practo

secure

and

to

PRUNING

ticed

largely by

more

whole

out

extend
the

branches,

the

where

especiallypopular
in

The

fruit grower

more

form

cuts

made.

In

bearing

wood.

are

with

is

factor

made

join

removed

of

at

size of

the

older

points
larger

or

few

years

This

the

plan

is

fruits.

stone

included

these

desired

and

are

is to cut

old, when

years

in the management

in the discussion

above.

Neither

12.

the

cuts

growth

of

rate

paragraph
93.

to

fill up

spaces

or

be

Clean, close

vacant

d.

two

cases

branches

branches.

commercial

general outline

all such

In

tree.

the

one,

the

beyond

99

PRINCIPLES

kind

extent

nor

of pruning

influences

the condition
does
and
the estabfruit bearing as much
as
lished
habit of the plant. Quiescence rather
than stimulation
or
spasmodic effort favors the fruit-bearing habit,
which
is influenced b\ pruning, as
well as
bv other treatment,
in \oung
than in old plants.
more

Doubtless
discussed

this principleis the most

in this

because

important of the

score

it

emphasizes pruning
it teaches the importance of continuous
much, but because
so
of the plants. This
of continuous
matter
good care
good
be over-emphasized.
it is not
with
But
these
cannot
care
that this book
is concerned:
phases of plant management
pruning is the subject in hand.
Even
same

chapter, not

casual observation

variety,differ

in the habit of
certain

fruit

more

and

that

of the
plants,even
widely in habit, especially

less

or

bearing.

fruit growers

trees," these

will show

noticeable

So

nurserymen

being propagated

favor
from

is this fact that

so-called
trees

of

greed
"pediknown

performance. Doubtless
part of the phenomenal prolificacy
is due to individuality,
but probably a large part is also due
fruit bearing,
favors
to
some
unrecognized factor which
than
is
of plant nurture
that the case
be more
so
one
may
supposed.
But
ones.

should

let

us

set

aside

such

cases

and

consider

only average
bearing habit

plants begin to bear, the

be maintained.
Nothing will favor this

When

once

more

than

100

J'KIXC

II'I.KS

AM)

PRACTICE

OK

I'Kl'XIXG

Whatever
ously
serijudicious, continuous
good management.
upsets the equilibrium so established will almost surely
also upset the bearing habit.
In cases
where
the bearing
habit has never
been
developed, either due to neglect or
enable
the grower
improper management,
experiment may
to discover
a
remedy such as giving a different type of till-

FIG.
BRANCHES
This

OF

drawing

branches

age,

that

l.OW-HEADED
from

change

insect control

photograph
the

approach

of
or

TREES

vertical.

shows

more

ASCEND

trees

with

Compare

or

TO

that

started

high-headed

AT

ACUTE

with

low

trees

ANC.l

heads

HS

hive

(Figs. 3, 22"".".

type of disease and

less radicallydifferent styleof

plant food,
a

72
TEND

better

pruning.
will furnish
A neglected orchard
Suppose
a
typicalcase.
the tillage,
spraying and other factors just mentioned to be

PRUNING

what

they

orchard
to

let

may;

consider

us

it is evident

JQJ

PRINCIPLES

that the

the

only

pruning. In this
of pruning must
be
directlyto establish

first aim

the

neglect rather than

bearing. Heavy pruning may
be

overcome

fruit
new

wood

take

one

be

may

produced

perhaps

or

several

(81,

the

trees

were

lost, however,

if

quickly

to

This

return

win

lets up,

grower

its former

last statement

have

in time.
for

to

the

been
All

the

undesirable

shows

itself

that should
will

young

the

may

adjust

to

years

order, but the rational treatment

while

and
much
necessary
83, 88), and the tree
new

given
will

orchard

be

will

condition.

orchards

why

severely pruned
in several
only once
are
so
notoriously barren.
years
They
from
are
the
literally
prevented
establishing
bearing habit
thrown
and kept out
out
of balance.
by being
Annual
good
is necessary
care
to secure
Were
the
wholesale
good crops.
several
little and
pruning spread out, then, over
a
years,
often

equal total

an

and
and

One

of

amount

yet the trees

wood

have

might

might have been removed

been brought into bearing

kept activelyfruitful.
of the most

of

forms

common

disturbance

of

brium
equili-

It is almost

over-bearing.
invariablysucceeded
a
is this
condition.
So
later by the reverse
common
year
"full years" and
"off years."
that we
have
phenomenon
is

Extremes

tend

bearing habit
be

cannot

is most

corrected,

and

more

have

as

affected

that

It is well

bearing, but
efforts

the
effect

some
as

factors

of

are

may

be

understood
this

made

in

perhaps

in old

least

the

trees.

alternate

so

firmly that

Since

long-livedplants, such

year

the

it

habit

apple and
safe that the habit started during
seems
the trees, and has been emphasized more
older.
trees
Though pruning may
grew
condition, more
in changing such
pecially
esa
by principleNo. 18, it is only one of the

pronounced

the early years

at

until

other

established,

becomes

the conclusion

pear,

each

follow

to

as

influential.

that

bearing
to
keep

check

habit
it up.

to

growth

favors

fruit

easily be lost unless

While
slow-growing and

may

K)'

PtfllN'CiPi.'KS

moderate-sized

trees

so.
necessarily

Many

AND

are

PRACTICE

often

OF

PRUNING

fruitful, they

very

not

are

instances

of trees
might be mentioned
which
have
both
rapidly and very large, and
grown
very
into bearing young
and
been
come
yet have
remarkably
for
of
Such
fruitful,perhaps each year,
a long series
years.
probably without -exception,will be found to be due
cases,
from
rational management
the fruit grower
time when

the

to

start

began such

management.

Apple pruning investigations.*"Four

years
Experiment Station began a test involving various
94.

was

and

state

515

trees

warrant

to

seem

to

ago

West

Virginia
of

amounts

mant
dor-

following spring this experiment

six orchards

include

ranging from

circumstances

unfavorable

of

The

orchard.

pruning in one
greatly extended

the

least,from

at

or,

to

one

25

features

some

in various
years
stand

of

age.

forth

the

of

parts

In spite
clearly and

preliminary report.

ect;
phases of the projof pruning
effect of amount
of pruning and
season
In
the
fruitfulness.
and
most
vigor,
growth
cases
following
upon
obtained
erate
series of plots were
dormant
1. Heavy
pruning. 2. Mod:
corrective
dormant
dormant
3.
pruning.
pruning.
Light, or
dormant
and early summer
dormant
4. Heavy
pruning. 5. Moderate
and early summer
pruning. 6. Early summer
pruning. 7. Repeated
Midsummer
8.
summer
pruning.
pruning.
will group
namely, the

We

The
week

early
of May,

midsummer

The

repeated

summer

midsummer

and

95.

Amount

the orchards

discuss

and

two

during the last

made
about
but for the last two
were
June 15.
years
from
The
made
pruning was
July 1 to July 15.
of the
pruning was
simply a combination
early
prunings.
prunings

summer

of dormant

made

were

pruning.

Where

"

first

at

varying

of dormant

amounts

would
that
the
considered, we
pruning alone
were
expect
heavier the pruning the longer and heavier
would
be the new
growth
The
to
(83). This was
invariably the case.
question then arose
as
of the new
whether
the average
length and diameter
growth is a
index
of vigor. We
constrained
that this is not
true
to believe
are
the
least
small
trees.
at
always
case,
upon

The

the

number

shoots

which

heavy pruning greatly reduced

reduced

the

number

of

of

buds

started.

and
It

sequently
conseems

reasonable

believe
in number,
the shoots
of
to
that, though fewer
those
of
heavily pruned trees actually measure
as
as
great
up
this
the lightly pruned
To
test
point,
back, perhaps even
greater.
in one
selected
blocks
two
orchard, and
one
was
heavily
were
measurements
pruned, while the other was
lightlypruned. Annual
made
of the new
and
the
were
prunings.
growth
the

W.

H.

Alderman

1915, Page 54.

in

Proceedings

of

the

Society

for

Horticultural

Science,

104

of

a
growth than
greater
pruning stimulated
the
reduction
in
less in
and
summer
vigor was
prunings,
early summer
pruning than with either repeated summer
prunings.

good
foliage is a very
of
leaf
color
size,
study

The
careful

Grimes

the

and

t"m

Golden

index
and

allow

Never

blocks

and

even

at

leaves

are

dormant

there
a

MANY

way.

Such

It

bore
be

all

tree.

in the

Lup-

blocks

that

the

cases

case

summer
mid-

or

73

over-crowding

difficult

paler

to

be

can

prevented

later.

remedy

yellower foliage than

or

This

no

TOGETHER

CLOSE

LIMBS

is

season.

could

made

of

any

the

difference
the

mistaking

in

color

was

summer-pruned

distance.

I from

decrease
great
in the total

these

pruning

in the
that

It is clear
a

develop
early pruning.

summer

pruned

distinct

in this

of

vigor
was

In

TOO

HEAD.

to

correct,

received

those

he-d

tree

by

had

TREE

the

of
number

orchards.

FIG.
DEVELOPED

BADLY

so

PRUNING

dormant

erate

the

OF

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

in
leaf

the

data

secured]

the

size

of

area

on

the

that

of

leaf, number
tree.

If

deficient in chlorophyll, as

pruning

summer

we

leaves

further

evidenced

to

caused
the

consider

bv

their

tree
that

li^h*

PRUNING

color,
the

we

readily

may

the

of
efficiency
Much

this

of

how

greatly summer
pruning has decreased
the
of
factory
plant (29).

see

food

loss

of

105

PRINCIPLES

vigor

expected,

we

but

also

we

expected

increase

In the old orchard

in fruitfulness.
the data
compensating
orchards
have
conflicting. In the young
are
we
attempted to correlate
is negasummer
pruning with early bearing, but the correlation
tive.
all forms
Merely corrective dormant
pruning far "exceeded
of
in some
pruning in bringing about
summer
early bearing, and
the
and
moderate
blocks
cases
heavy dormant-pruned
produced
The
writer
more
trees.
bountifully than did the summer-pruned
has serious
doubts
the wisdom
of deliberatelyimpairing the
to
as
it into bearing.
vigor and the vitalityof a tree to throw

98.

/j.

check

strength of
Too

which

does

'plant tends

not

impair the

health

the

or

fruitfulness.

to

pruning, over-tillage,a too liberal supply of

due
nitrogenous plant food in the soil, whether
to overof leguminous
tillage,
over-manuring, or the too constant
use
all may
cover
effect; excessive
produce the same
crops,
wood
of the fruiting habit.
All but
growth at the expense
the first of these may
be corrected
by reverse
practices,as
already noted (80, 81, 83). The bad effects of heavy pruning
severe

how

and

to

them

correct

also

are

discussed

in the

same

sections.
Other

checking growth, mainly of very local

application,depend upon
checking the flow of elaborated
plant food; for, as already noted
(Chapter II), this food,
in abundance,
when
tends to fruit bud
development, whereas
wood
abundance
of crude
development.
sap tends to increase
this result are
the ways
notching
Among
adopted to secure
the stem
spur,

and

methods

below

above

encourage

bud

to

secure

woody

of

i.

formation
the

and
of

the death

to

"

fruit bud

cambium

bud

ringing

girdling and
favor

of

the

young
shoots

upper

e.,

long woody
deeper than

no

above
wood
below

the

cut

food

stored

fruit

twig. Shallow
the

; when

cambium

through

"

the

girdle favors the production

it, but generally results in

parts of the

in the

of

the

stem

girdle is placed lower on the branch

do
such twigs as may
develop must
elaborated

formation

the

so

so

cut.

than

the

upon

tissues below

When

the

leafy area,
the supply of

the

wound.

If

106

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

When
start.
supply be small, no shoots at all may
heading-in is employed woody shoots generally start most
Those
which
to the wound.
strongly from the bud nearest
buds
from
lower
start
are
usually less and less strong as
from
the cut.
and more
remote
they are more

this

Stripping

99.

which

in

trees

l/2 inch

l/4 to

trees.

A.

Drinkard,

Jr.,* reports an experiment

removal
the
of strips of the bark
stripped by
the
the ground
and
trunks, beginning near
from

were

wide

"

W.

branches.
Several
frequently above, the main
Three
to
stripped for 12 or 18 inches.
were
from
The
first
each
marked
taken
five strips were
tree.
strip was
the bark
be readily peeled from
the
could
by a knife point. Then

extending

of

the

to, and

up

branches

main

tree.

Trees
leaves
well

stripped

until

late

April

on

in the

during the growing

off the

cut

it in

with
shock

more

or

some

The

season.

of

movement

good growth and held their

heal over
stripping wounds
very
The
operation does not completely
fere
interin either direction, but must
administer
and
the operation must
a
the growth
Trees
stripped
processes.

water

measure,

less

to

severe

made

23

fall.

healed
well. When
growth and the wounds
the trees were
stripped on June 23 it appeared that the growth was
heal
did not
with, and the stripping wounds
noticeably interfered
late to secure
the best results from
to be too
rapidly. This appears
of strips of bark
the process.
The
removal
from
the tree
trunks
than does ringing, and gives promise of
does less injury to the trees
utilityin practice.
greater

May

31

excellent

made

Ringing experiments. Drinkard

also reports experiments! in
little
spring pruning accompanied by ringing. The trees showed
very
if any
effect from
after the spring prunringing at various seasons
ing
had
of
been
The
formation
fruit buds
not
performed.
was
of check
in case
trees.
noticeably stimulated, being about the same
as
of
The
fruit set and
the quantity harvested
amount
not
sentially
eswas
that of the check
different from
the
and
wood
trees,
growth
100.

"

the

about

was

dense
the

as

normal.

foliage through

green

check

same

It

trees.

the

clear

seems

The

growing

that

the

series carried

in this

trees

season,

influence

equal
of

to

that

of

spring pruning

of fruit buds
is sufficient to overcome
discouraging the formation
effect
which
stimulative
otherwise
from
might have been derived
any
in

ringing.
Maryland"
to

performed

fruitfulness

induce

fruitfulness, but
could
*

be

Bulletin

Hatch

Exp.

that ringing
this

only special conditions.

5, Virginia
Sta.

by ringing crab apple trees

or
girdling increased
that
operation as a measure

experiment
found

considered

he

applied under

Technical

t Ibid.
" Mass.

an

He

Bui.

Experiment
1.

Station.

PRUNING

Leclerc

Sablon*

du

of

intervals

At

dug

and

ringed three

and

vegetation started

months

two

thereafter

The

analyzed.

four-year

or

lot after

second

107

PRINCIPLES

the

from

trees

of

the

before

trees

pear

first shoots

had

each

formed.

group

were

ringed in February
contained
material
than did the check
more
reserve
trees not
ringed,
while
the stems
contained
less.
After
April, however, as a result of
assimilation
of the ringed trees were
by the leaves, the roots
much
up

poorer

in

whole

the

roots

material

reserve

than

those

pears

of

the

control

On

trees.

the

show
that toward
to
experiment is believed
the end
of
winter
and
the beginning of spring the reserve
material goes
from
the roots
From
to the stems.
the current
orated
of elabMay to October
material

Hedrickf

is from

the

his assistants

and

have

chrysanthemums.
fruit production and
in the leaf and root
plants also suffered.
chrysanthemum
The

roots.

unfavorably

reported

and

tomatoes

the

toward

stems

in

loss

of the

systems

ringing

on

showed

tomatoes

plants. The

carried out
Paddock"
experiments in ringing grapevines. The
hastened
generally
maturity of the fruit, depending on seaprocess
son,
of vine.
On
the whole
variety and conditions
the operation is
is required in its application.
devitalizing and care

Ringing fruit trees.^" The object of ringing fruit 'trees is to

unproductive trees to set fruit. Briefly stated, the theory of
of a band
of bark
the operation is : That
the removal
through the
and
bast of a plant, at the period of most
cortex
vigorous growth,
101.

induce

does

the

hinder

not

unassimilated
below

action

the

is to

the

cause

assimilated

Ringing plants consists

in the

the

parts

upper

bast

cortex

and

to

designate

used

with
since

girdled by mice
nulaire"
induce
The
extent

140;

les

effets

1553-1555.

t N. Y.
" N. Y.

Agr.
Agr.

stored

be

to

this

of

band

bark
is

of

when

as

is

tree

nately
killing, it is unfortu-

phrase, "decortication
which

removal),

an-

is

more

ringing is

object of

to

fruitfulness.

increase

which

girdling. The

or

object of the experiments

to

Sur

ringing

the
bark

or

material

death,

purpose

use

decortication

either

and

the

writers

French

(annular

than

or

effect of

through
girdling
frequently
is usually assince this name
sociated
[and
less deeply in the wood

ultimate

in

girdled for

or

chosen.

of

term

more

results

does
inner

and

The

of

production of fruit buds.

The

operation, but
made

wounds

operation]

the

exact

this

leaves

cells, but

cortex

(20).

removal

trunk.

the

of

the

reserve

the

for

plant

of

in

food

of

amount

extra

an

the

in the

vessels

the

to

roots

layer of woody

outer

through

of

wound,

the

from

passage

through

sap

distribution,

the

prevent
bark

upward

fruit trees

la

de

may

decortication

to

was

be

determine,

ringed without

annulaire,

Rend.

Compr.

if

possible, the
injury

permanent

Acad.

Sci.

(Paris),

1905.

Exp.
Exp.

Sta.

Bui.

Sta.

Bui.

from
$ Condensed
excerpt
Station.
Experiment

288.
151.
G.

H.

Howe's

Bulletin

391

of

the

New

York

cultural
Agri-

108

PRINCIPLES

in what

and

AND

degree,

if at

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

all,the operation induces

stimulates

and

fruitfulness.
should

Ringing

be

performed early

in

June or July, at which time

bark
the wood,
in a
peels readily
leaving the cambium
condition.
The
of the operation hinges upon
succulent
the
success
the greatest
cambial
fact that at this season
occurs
activity,which
of new
the
bark, and
readily facilitates the rapid formation
at
exhaustive
time prevents
evaporation of plant juices. Any
same
to practice ringing when
mant
plant growth is sluggish or dorattempt
always results in the death of the tree, since the cambium,
the woody
cylinder during the operabeing then firm, is torn from
tion.
A common
pruning knife (Fig. 112) or a sharp pocketknife
for performing
the operation.
js a suitable instrument
the

frorn

From

ha*'*

the

effects

FIG.
1.

One-inch

secured, it would

data

injurious

ring

74"
of

bark
1-inch

upon

EFFECTS

apple

OF

that

appear

trees,

YOUNG

RINGING

from
freshly removed
bark
over
ring. 3. New

ringing

that

and

tends

wider

the

to

the

TREES

apple

tree.

3-inch

2.

bark

New

over

ring.

that
be stated
serious will be the injury. It may
the more
bands
in vigor and
used
the trees
were
exceptionally strong and uniform
condition
withstand
in
better
to
wounding
therefore
a
were
possibly
weak
of
the
All
orchard
trees
trees.
making
a
than are
average
smaller
less wood
production. The
foliage and
growth showed
four to
the branches
foliage,likewise, lost its color and fell from

six

weeks

sprang

up

earlier than that of normal

trees.
of
the
wound
lower
at the.
edge

No

gain

to

six

sprouts

tree.
nearly every
endeavoring to provide as

that nature
indicate
would
This
was
of
since passage
for the roots
food
similated
off.
the
been
had
of
cut
trees
portion
upper

fruits which

Two

in
were

productiveness resulted
no
produced showed

from

on

such

food

ringing.

differences

in size

from

the

The

few

or

color

PRUNING

the normal.

from

without

health

109

PRINCIPLES

Clearly, ringing these

increasing fruitfulness.

seriously injured their

trees

Examination

rule, the ringed trees

systems
hairy roots) than
roots
approaching
(nearly
showed
in

low

Trees

that,

as

vitalityhad

extremely

small

the

of

root

had

smaller, shorter

the

unringed

trees.

systems.

root

three

Baldwin

from
trees
Early one
June, 50
setting,were
years
20
inches wide, re2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 and
spectively,
ringed, bands
from
five
of
each.
At
trees
the
being removed
groups
of
the same
in another
time
block
-5
trees
variety and
same
age
of five trees
each
1-inch
being ringed with
ringed, groups
were
wide
rings at the surface of the ground and 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24
In
the ground.
bark
most
inches, respectively, above
cases
new
but
the
end
of
the
at
not
started to form,
season
single tree had
a
of new
in each
trees
made
covering. Several
a
perfect formation
lacked
and all others
dead
lot were
vigor. All foliage dropped about
earlier than
from
five weeks
adjoining unringed trees of the same
The
spring following the ringing but 10 per cent of the trees
age.
that death
resulted
of both
lots started
growth, and this so weak
the

than

While

midsummer.

before

seedlings of

of

average

From

these

seedlings

commercial

the

it is clear

experiments
The

lots of trees

two

that
caused

experiments

with

the

(Fig. 74.)

first ringing of

the

and

tive
representa-

were

orchard.

fruitfulness

less vigorous

were

them

Baldwin

set

to

the

large

trees, however,
ness
vigor and hardi-

These
different results.
trees, lacking the
the seedlings, failed to survive a single operation.

showed
of
In

of

trees

influenced

fruit.

of

crop

these

previous experiments, they

the

of

the

orchardists

to
frequently resort
with
the ringing of their young
bear
to
trees
to induce
fruit,
Under
results.
favorable
most
conditions,
vigorous,
good
young,
very
and
respond to one
thrifty trees ought to withstand
operation, but
subsequent ringing is devitalizingand exerts
practicallyno beneficial
From
the
influence.
experiments at this station, the practice of
increase
induce
and
to
ringing apple trees
productiveness seems
of
the
if a slight
drastic
for
the
Even
too
trees.
practice
good
a
offsets the injury
it seldom
is brought about
increase in fruitfulness
some

western

states

them

to

the tree.

Ringing

was

same,

but

the
that
to

for

the

results

ringing fruit
a

limited

also
more

done

on

injurious

obtained
trees

time,

pears,

as
a

from
a
more

cherries

results.
these

It

and

experiments

general practice. Under

favorable

plums

with

much

is, therefore, concluded

outcome

are

not

some

may

be

favorable
conditions,

expected.

single
a
Hardy, vigorous, young
readily undergo
apple
may
benefited
be
ringing and
operations
thereby, but
subsequent
are
injurious. Trees lacking vigor are often seriously injured by the
have
deleterious
effects of the treatment
practice. The
generally
the
been
various
render
marked
to
so
as
plant organs
tion
operaupon
There
be
to
regular or
seems
no
exceedingly hazardous.
The
in fruit production.
systematic increase
gains do not offset
trees

the losses.

110

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

stripping

Pruning, ringing and

his findings in
summarizing
:*
ard, Jr.,says
102.

experiments, which

The

extended

study the effects of pruning,

various

on

seasons

the

vs.

series of

root

PRUNING

OF

over

fruit

formation.

bud

experiments, A.
tw$

years,

fruit

of

buds

on

In

Drink-

made

were

pruning, ringing and

formation

W.

"

to

stripping at
apple

dwarf

time
of growth
at the
sumption
reSpring pruning of the branches
fruit
formation
of
had
the
buds,
a
tendency to discourage
of wood
stimulation
but
there
growth in the trees.
was
apparent
fruit
Summer
pruning of the branches the latter part of June, when
wood
show
checked
differentiation,
buds
growth
to
normally begin
the
the work
the year
in which
was
done, and greatly stimulated
the crop
and
shown
of fruit buds, as was
formation
by the bloom
in November
Fall pruning of the branches
of fruit the following year.
influence
the
fruit
did
of
not
buds, but
materially
crop
caused
vigorous wood
growth the following year.

trees.

Severe
root
pruning at the time of growth resumption in the
well
were
developed
spring (April 23), at the time the leaves
fruit
differentiation
the
of
bud
and
beginning
(June
at
(May 31),
the
of
preceded
accompanied
or
23), when
by spring pruning
other
Anin fruit bud
formation.
stimulation
branches, produced some
showed
that the spring pruning did
series of experiments
retarded
much
treatment
to offset the effects of root
pruning, which
and the succeeding years ; the leaf area
wood
growth in the current
showed
the
of the trees
reduced
and
the trees
injury from
was
treatment.

resumption of growth in the

stimulation
not
to fruit
give as much
formation
the same
bud
treatment
applied at later dates.
as
parently
Apthis was
too
early for the full effects to be felt by the trees.
Root
the
the foliage was
pruning when
fully developed, and when
fruit buds
the
of spring
absence
differentiated,in
began to become
stimulation
in fruit bud
pruning of the tops, produced very marked
pruning on
April 23,
spring pruning, did

Root

absence

formation.

growth
year,

at

the

of

At

and

and

these

three

times

foliage development

the

trees

suffered

from

the

in

the

the

retarded

treatment
current

and

the

wood

succeeding

treatment.

when
succeeded
Ringing at various seasons,
accompanied
or
by
noticeable stimulation
no
spring pruning of the branches, produced
in
At the time when
of fruit bud
formation.
resumed
growth was
the absence
of spring pruning, it did not
fruit
bud
tion.
formastimulate
The
treatment
given too early. At the time the foliage
was
the
of spring pruning, it gave
was
fully developed, in the absence
when
the
time
best results; however,
the treatment
at
given
was
the fruit buds
lation
stimusome
differentiated,there was
began to become
of fruit bud
development.

Stripping at various
spring pruning, had no
*

Ibid.

when
accompanied or preceded by
fruit bud
formation.
stimulating effect on

seasons

112

PRINCIPLES

sooner

in, a

are

later.

or

bark

to

the

producing constrictions
a
singleknife cut through the
ringing. Bending the ^h ots,
for

employed
cord

cambium,

or

and

from

usually downward,

equivalent,then, to lienclinglateral bud

development (106).

favors

Among the methods

girdlingby wire,

PRUNING

OF

latter is

This

which

process

PRACTICE

AND

their

direction

normal

of

g owtli
flow
sap

impedes

the

without

damaging
in

tissues

Twisting

any

the

the

the
way.

stem

duces
pro-

effect,

same

but

it ruptures

less

severelythe internal,

if

the

not

or

more

external

tissues.
104.

75.

the sap

flow

Obstructing
cither

up

or

ing,
by bendtwisting,notching,
girdling,ringing, etc., is
not
properly a pruning
principle,but a method
of training.
down

The

the stems

employment

obstructions

petty

matter

with
FIG.

76"

SHOOT

GROWTH
PRUNED

Unsatisfactory
interior

of

tree.

way

STUBS
to

Growth

before.

WINTER-

FROM

prune

shoots

becomes

worse

in thick
than

is
when
the

of
very
pared
com-

large

question of consecutive
the
and
even
good care
general subject of pruning.
It has
mainly to

gardening where individual specimen fruits

the aim.
Its
than
rather
yields are
large commercial
employment is mainly confined to trees trained on walls or
and
trellises or in special forms, such as cordons
espaliers.
must
count
the grower
buds, develop fruit
In such cases
do

with

amateur

PRUNING

and

spurs

twigs

where

required

and

observe

many

finickydetails.

other
With

grapes

order, but
of

classes

merely
forms

the

of

ideas

the

these

of the

pruning
the

considerations
vine differs

natural

employed

are

removes

train

of

some

because

mainly

to

other

113

PRINCIPLES

to

desired

some

widely, the number

differ

in

that of trees

the

plant. Two
which
pruning; one

the

form.
of

from

of

in grape

wood,

unnecessary

vine

habit

also be

may

buds

other

which

Since

left

seeks

the
on

various

individual

widely. Some
of
the
principles of pruning,
therefore, play a less prominent
growing than in the
part in grape
also

canes

varies

other

of

management

fruits.

16. Fruit

bearing is more
less influenced bv the time of
or
mer
year ivhcu pruning is done ; sumpriming farors fruit bud
formation, ivhcreas ivinter pruning
105.

tends
ivood

to

brancli

bud

and

formation.

during the d :rmant

season
promptly endeavor
veloping
their losses by demake
to
up
FIG.
77
EFFECTS
OF
AUGUST
PRUNING
ing
increased
growths durThese
results
the
best
poor
the
following spring, but
secured
from
August
pruning
and
to reduce
wood
crease
inlate
between
plants pruned
fruit
spurs.
usually
spring and late summer
before the season
have sufficient time to readjust themselves
closes, so there is little or no excessive development of wood
Plants

pruned

are

periments
ex-

the

following spring.

One

reason

for

this effect

is that

thus
the leaf area,
pruning considerably reduces
Hence
the
plant food.
reducing the quantity of elaborated
In
rather than strengthen growth.
tends to weaken
process
summer

support

of

suckers

and

these
water

statements

sprouts

it may
far
are

be
more

pointed
numerous

out

that

after

114

PRINCIPLES

pruning during

AND

PRACTICE

the dormant

OF

PRUNING

than

season

after

pruning

in

summer.

When

pruning merely checks wood

production without
noticeablyreducing the strength of the pruned plant,it usually
favors fruit bearing; hence
the value of summer
ing
prunof

whatever
annual

the moisture
summer,

If done

but

then

kind, but

growths.
in the
after

the

especiallythe shortening of
The

best

soil becomes

the

twigs
probabilityis

time

to

somewhat

that the

this is when

reduced

attained

have

do

cessive
ex-

their

in

full

remaining

early
length.

buds

will

have

cient
-enough time to fill with food and yet not have suffitime to develop lateral shoots.
In actual practice no
based
set rule can
yet be laid down, certainlynot one
upon
be
for
rule
the
amount
set
date, nor
can
a mere
given
any
with
of summer
be done
pruning that may
safety. Even
be summer-pruned
trees
severely that they will die !
so
may

only safe guide is personal experience based upon

such
of soil,species,variety,
factors as climate, character
the behavior
of the individual plant. Even
and
even
upon
of the practice so
far as the individual
then
the newness
rection,
diwill influence the judgment in one
plant is concerned
the accustomedncss
of the plant, if I may
whereas
coin a word, will influence in perhaps the opposite direction.
the
Plants accustomed
to a certain style of handling from
need
not
will perhaps stand
start
though they may
more,
to the practice. In general,
more
pruning than those new
mer
sumplants trained in special forms give best results when
pinched or pruned.
The

Generally neither
on

the

fruit buds

pinched parts

the

same

nor

fruit spurs

seasons

as

the

are

formed

pinching is
early enough

shortening-inis done
lateral
risk of getting undesirable
for this there is increased
growths. If the operation is performed after the leaves
these growths will rarely occur.
their activity,
reduced
have
considerable
study of bud formation
During recent
years
have brought forth
has been made, but so far the conclusions
done.

When

the

summer

PRUNING

little that

has

115

PRINCIPLES

been

known

for

long time from the

if they have
standpoint of practice. Investigators,even
not
greatly enlarged our knowledge, certainlydeserve
great
credit for undertaking such
tedious
and
painstaking work
To
above.
that discussed
as
a
large extent, their findings
plant physiology.
support pruning principlesbased
upon
106.

buds

be induced
bv shortening exFruitfulness may
cessive
thus
twig growth,
favoring the development of fruit

spurs.

Since

the

vigor, the

other

and

rule

be

ening-in may

this

trees

annually
This
the
as

may

statement

development

how

or

to

of fruit buds

; but

form
the

area

short-

much
In

tion
propor-

of

woody

when

carried

of

be

It includes

fruit buds.

such

indirect fruit thinning, preventing dwarf

the

or

often

no

pruning
equivalent to a severe
development.
actually favor wood
may
that are producing 1 to \l/2feet of new
growth
25 to 35 per cent.
have these growths reduced
other than
is general enough to apply to cases

point

therefore

Fruit

it may

handling the

productiveness.
reduce
production

secure

the formation

parts it favors

beyond

to

how

practice tends

the

as

done

of

method

be considered, therefore

must
to

as

the

and

age

local factors

laid down

be

can

and

77.

and

tree

not

development
and

size of

of their stocks,
to

trees

So

available.

far

other

trees

aims

from

maintaining

ceeding
ex-

the

sired
de-

suit the ideal of the grower

as

fruit

development

bud

is

small effect
have
shortening-in of this kind may
only occasionallyor spasmodically.
ment
shortening-in of terminal twigs favors the develop-

concerned,
if done
The

of fruit spurs
which
tops, spurs

sooner

interior

but

in the upper

later

or

part of the

develop

tree

buds

blossom

in the commercial
(Fig. 173). The practice,fairlycommon
rather
production of dwarf pears, is perhaps properly one
it
and
than of pruning proper,
of training for convenience
not
say
is doubtful
whether
productiveness, or shall we
or

income,

is enhanced

borne

in

not

treated.

so

much

more

by

it.

limited

To
area

be

sure,

than

the
in the

fruit
case

may

be

of trees

116

PRINCIPLES

So

far

the

as

tried to

been

AND

writer

PRACTICE

knows,

settle whether

OF

PRUNING

definite experiments have

no

such

productive as
under
others
treated, but grown
not
so
as
nearly identical
One
conditions
be secured.
conceded
can
as
advantage
when
judiciously perfomed
shortening-in frequently has:
and
it tends to early maturity of the trees
consequently
finds its chief application
precocityof bearing. This, however,
is
it
of
in amateur
paratively
comuse
practice; for commercial
minor
importance.
Pruning at various
not
necessarily mean

107.

does
From

trees

are

Stimulation

seasons."

increase

in

total

the

growth,

studies

the

that

in

except

less

the

is pruned

tree

case

of

old

trees,

Summer

108.

time

pruning

No

trees.

But

summer

the

doubt

pruning

summer

degree
bears

of

increase

direct

reduces

system

nutrition

by

gree

of

and

the

and
the

summer

branch

various

organs

in

relation

summer
pruning
transpiration and photosynthesis.

root

is its
greater
which
the amount

w"

"c"l

of

old

trees.

evidence
the propon
experiments give some
osition,
and
practical fruit
by horticulturists
the fruitfulness
of apple
pruning increases

severe

with

trt-r.

experiments
performed
by Drinkarcl," at
the development
stimulated
began to form,

the time
and
and
trees, the season
the physiological principle involved

that

growth
the

expressed

that

growers,

buds

These

buds.
often

the

of

pruning is antagonistic

hard

fruit

the

fruit

from

mass

the
on

pruning; the hard

by
rule
fruiting,this
applying to both young

of

wood

this

of

is increased

wood

the

of

and
ering*
Pickof Bedford
question, the Duke
does
that hard
have
concluded
not
sult
reultimately
pruning
In
later
does
in a larger tree than
experiments t
light pruning.

their

they found

to

as

fruitfulness
to

severity of
is not

the

the

clear.

foliage
The

resulting

condition

the

area,

balance

of

operation.

It is obvious

interfering
between

is suddenly disturbed.
system
in the tree
is changed' in some

the
The
"K-

pruning.

in
has
described
the various
methods
Quinn,^: who
employed
and
ii".
summer
pruning
disbudding, pinching, thinning, heading
found
that these operations are
fracturing or twisting of branches
effective in greater
in Australia.
lesser
or
degree for conditions
Dickens**
found
from
careful
pruning
experiments that summer
better
dormant
results
than
the
season.
l'"y
pruning during
gave
of
fruitfulness
induce
able to
on
means
summer
pruning, he was
little fruit.
had previously borne
10-year-old apple trees which
very
"

"

Fruit
Report, 1900.
Experiment
Farm, Second
Report, 1907.
Bulletin
" Technical
Station.
5, Virginia Experiment
378.
to
Australia, Fig. 3: 368
J Jour. Agr. and Ind. South
**
136.
Kan.
State Agr. College Exp. Sta. Bui.

Woburn

t Ibid.

Seventh

1899.

PRUNING

Goumy*
into

leaves

by

considers

be

to

buds

Fruit

on

buds
this

that

"

but

"

for

be

may

buds

transformed

the

of

supporting

the

ever,
branch; howlimited in its application and

very

on

practice.
long practiced

general

in England

trees

is, the removal

all the

not

operation

recommended
growers

vigorous

very

defoliation

certain

from

he
not

the

states

fruit buds

117

PRINCIPLES

have

summer
pruning.
opinion and experience of both practical fruit
and scientists,
growers
given some
is that summer
years
ago,
pruning
is uncertain
in its effects,depending
soil,
of
varieties
climate,
upon
fruit and
of
time
operation, that specific objects may
be
plished
accombut
that the operation is of doubtful
by the process,
ticability.
prac-

The

of

consensus

Summer

109.

pruning
give the

Goodspeed

and

of

apples."

trees, pruned to induce a

growth to lateral branches,
than

untouched.
the
dormant

the

dormant

produced

season

pruned

bulletinf Batchelor

recent

annual

greater

that

the

twig growth

terminal

growth

was

dormant

ing
period and also durannual
greater
twig growth than trees
season
only. Trees
pruned during the
total
twig growth than the ungreater

trees.

the

Rubbing
time

produced

summer,

during

pruned

produced

similarly pruned, except

Trees
pruned during the

trees

In

conclusions
following condensed
:
Apple
habit
spreading
by cutting back the terminal

time

to

water

during

the

of

out

sprouts
the

summer,

of

the tree
influence on

center

little

had

or

no

from
crop

These
shoots
removed
much
production.
are
more
readily and
cheaply, however, during this season.
Trees
pruned to a spreading form by cutting back terminal
growth
of both
to lateral branches, in the case
[the two
Jonathan and Gano
varieties experimented upon], averaged
smaller
a
production to the
tree

than

trees

The

ratio

of

allowed
the

during
trees

pruned

trees

allowed

total

four

to

pounds

years

take

to

averaged less marketable

pruned or the unpruned

as

marketable

of

Jonathan

for

with

compared

natural
fruit

The

shape.
to

the

upright growth.

natural

more

is 86

spread,

to

assume

fruit
and
100

91

per

the

two

Gano

for

either

the

rieties
va-

from

each

cent

summer-pruned
than

tree

for

for
trees

winter-

trees.

fruit than the

Jonathan trees produced more
The
trees.
winter-pruned Gano trees produced less fruit
unpruned
has
than
Summer
the
trees.
pruning in this orchard
unpruned
successful
in
increasing crop yields.
proved neither profitable nor
first stages, there seems
its
in
is
the
investigation
only
Although
correlation
between
to be
pruning.
regular bearing and summer
a
the most
Tn the case
of the Gano
regular bearing trees were
trees
the unpruned
Summer
pruning throughout a period of two
ones.
the third
week
in
in June
and
months
week
the
third
between
results.
the same
August produced much
The

de

Recherches

Serie
v

winter-pruned

No.

sur

135

140

to

Utah

les
246.

bourgeons

des

arbres

fruitlers.

Ann.

1905.

Agricultural

College

Experiment

Station.

Sci.

Nat

Bot.

(Paris),

118

The

results

above
trees

loam,

free

from

Gano

and
in

seepage,

available.
irrigation water
overbear
show
soon
a tendency to
Summer
thinned.
and
usually
are
age,
fruit-bearing wood, the vitalityof the

18.

thin the -fruit and

In order
the

thus

be

familiar

Otherwise, he

against his
of

twigs and

buds

the

actual

when

fruit.

time

care

be

be

used

to

bearing.

given

to

the trees.

premium

the

by

summer

more

removal

the

peditious
ex-

more

thinning of
labor
intelligent

therefore, when

and,

better

Its greatest drawback

is the
of bloom
buds that will expand,

the number

be frozen

which

generally

than*

done

to

ditions
con-

variety
buds
(Chapter IV).
parts and actuallywork

is

method

can

in

thinning by

winter

at

uncertaintyas
how

Fruit

is less

be

can

way

desirable

during
It

above

reaching a productive
of
the area
pruning reduces
the
and
tree
productivity.
after

its blossom

economical

and

the

interests.

own

abundance

branch

with

remove

may

on

it is essential that
rule intelligently,

is handling produces

he

young,

pruning may
also favor regular annual

apply this

to

pruner

small

and

Twig

vigorous bearing
rich, sandy
a
planted

to

when

semi-arid
climate, with an
the
varieties under
These

of

110.

PRUNING

OF

apply only

may

Jonathan

apple

of

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

after

they have opened, how many

fruits may
fail to reach maturity. This
viously
uncertainty is obthan
in July!
fruit
Still, many
greater in March
less systematically
cause
or
practiceit more
mainly begrowers
of its economy.
Generally they wait until danger of
frost injury has passed so as to reduce
the uncertainty as
much
as
possible.
many

The

may

fact

that

thinning

strikinglyillustrated by
Shortsville, N. Y.
18 years

was

took

Wells

20

is the
be

good
the

most
sure
care

of

J. Q.

had

borne

never

excellent

year

or

energy
Wells

Baldwin

orchard, mainly of

of age, but
borne

conserves

experience

two

of

apples,

when

crop

is

Mr.

ever,
after, how-

during 22 years, the

This
blossoming time.

crops

being due to frost at

strikingargument for thinningthe author knows.
is partly due to the consecutive
the achievement
the orchard
receives, but it is largely due also

failures

two

to

fruit

possession. Beginning

it has

To

An

the

the

systematicthinning.

If such

is the

record

with

the

120

PRINCIPLES

111.

the

time

the

and

This

of

in
of

healing

have

cells,

the

perhaps
of

factors
either

favorably

112.

tissues,
give
of

physical
decay,

This

VIII.)

but

principle

the

the

healing

to

the

bium
cam-

species

the

character

and

tion
posilocal

other

many

greater

posed
ex-

active.

become

of

when
the

and

and

the

point
stand-

because

out,

vantage
ad-

to

readily

condition
tree,

used

the

most

dry

itself

by

here

wounding,

influence

dressings,
are

do

which

antiseptic

protection,
they

wood

or

lesser

extent

unfavorably.

or

which

the

From

to

the

and

Wound

20.

of

the

or

chapter

opens

feeble

or

variety

affect

may

of

heal

time

after

wound

health

be

season

brief

vigorous
the

the

growing

soon

very

smoothness

may

wounds

large

but

plant,

the

of

the

discussion.

the

the

in

words

few

alone,

before

tissues

However,

elucidation

summarizing

just

made

Yet

the

most

made.

when
needs

VI).

vigor

stubs,

surfaces,

conditions,

to

the

and

the

of
cut

year

principle

(Chapter

and

the

of

roughness

according

kind

the

are

position

and

length

the

which

of

important

I'RrXLNG

OF

heal

wounds

Large

/p.

PRACTICE

AND

receives

and

not

hasten

separate

injure

durable,

prevent

may
not

do

or

and
check

the

(j

which
the

ing
row-

thus

entrance

healinq.
discussion.

(Chapter

CHAPTER

HOW

113.

Natural

danger to the
(Chapter II)
become
the

the

shrubs,
stems

HOW

78"

and

BARK

and

expansion
are

in

the

see

of

old

the

healed

trees,

outmost

by

or

the

dead

or

scaly

(Fig. 78),

oak

is due

of

development

and

HEALING

contorted

to

of

layers

causes

trees

AND

as

as

pressure,

inch,

SPLITTING

said

cylinder

exogenous

splitting

without

necessarily

must

square

such

caused

been

internal

wrinkled,

The

sycamore.

of

BY

has

woody

the

countless

ROUGH

BECOMES

bark

This

to

and

what

the

over

pounds

bark

thus

we

the

cells.

new

50

the

that

those

as

quickly

From

tighter

characteristic

hickory
wounds

and

reaches
of

rupture

heal

tree.

it is apparent

develops

often

FIG.

the

such

bark,

the

girth, usually

tighter

which

in

life of

cambium

HEAL

WOUNDS

wounds

in

growth

by

VI

new

the

non-

the

bark

cells

from

below.
114.

Bark-bound

neglected

orchards,

trees.

the

"

In

bark

some

may
121

for

cases,

become

so

instance,

tough,

hard

FIG.

79"

SECTIONS

CROSS

OF

WHITE

BRANCHES
Left

PINE

BURIED

SCANT!

(2x4)
BY

INGS

SHOWING

TISSUE

four
down:
2, larger ones;
1, living branches;
3, where
reading
horizontal
the
while
showing
ones
small,
together
plant was
very
this
at
dead
the
which
when
tree
started
5, living branch
ends; 4, similar
case;
5.
No.
seasons
to
Right column,
reading down:
old; 6, similar
point was
only two
but
dead
buried
cut
across
stub;
1, oblique cut
2, ditto; 3, oblique limb
across;
but
different
limb
started
at
4, dead
angle; 6, limb which
being buried; 5, similar

limbs

when
to

grow

column,

started

the

trunk

for

at

few

this
years

point
and

was

then

probably
was

six

killed.

or

seven

years

old, had

good

chance

WOtTNFDS

HOW

FIG.

80"

CROSS

PINE
Notice
lower
trunk

has

notice

the

and

and

erain
the

tried

grain
of

out

O.-

SCANTLING

oblique

knot

bent

SECTION

123

HEAL

of

bark
to

in

Also

main

shape by knots
Compare
Fig.

below.

the

cover.

the

;n

wood

which

stem

above
81.
FIG.

DEAD

and

dense

often

said

pruning
or

may

Where

soap,

to

the

be "hark

trees

The

are

more

hound."

The

the
or

cultural

and
not

and

rupture

these

methods

better

limb

to

cover

in

bark

Fig.
how

BURIED

has

obliquely than
trunk,
is making

shows

care

promote

may

dead

81

BEING

lower

attempt

cultivation, fertilizing,

Good

for

that

LIMBS

the

been
the
a

(a
poorly

but

cross

it

the
tion)
sec-

is

ceeding.
suc-

pansion
ex-

of the hark

and

consequent

good health.

effect a
fail fruit growers
may
of
softening the hark with washes

by
by slitting.This

desperate

stub,

80

cut

upper.

latter

process

consists in

change
lye or
cutting

I
m
FIG.

Reading
trunk

to

leaving

try

down
to

heal

82"

HISTORY

(left)
in

the

OF

1, outside
stub

rotted

A
bark
out

STUB
section
where

SIX

IN

showing
hole

the

hole.

CHAPTERS
extension
is

of

left; 2, stub

wood
rotted

from

out,

h
art
occurred
after
the tree
nearer
Decay of wood
3, wood
was
cut;
of tree.
almost
hea'thy
in place; 5, decayed
beside
knot
4, decayed
(Right)
spot
far.
in healthy condition
so
for checks
knot; 6, knot
progressed
decay not
except
In the
left hy a
second
lower
knot
of each
section
is shown
right-hand
corner
a
stub.
In 4, 5 and
6 note
means.
holes
caused
by such
Decay often enters
by borers.
"

HOW

the

through

bark

the cambium

125

HEAL

to

layer,but

tending
deeper, the cut exparallel with

no

direction

the

growth

of

the

on

the

and

main

trunk

limbs.

Very

large

limbs

trunks

may

have

equal
each

and
two

slits made

three

or

WOUNDS

distances

other.

at

FIG.
This

83"

HOPING

STILL!

alive
the
around
keeps the bark
itself from
decaying stub in the "hope"
to protect
the
the
decay creeping nearer
trunk
every
year.

from

This

oak

tree

eration
op-

always performed in spring just as growth begins.

made
the cuts
are
scarcely visible, but in a few days
edges will have
spread, perhaps half an inch apart.
Soon
cells will develop
new
is

When

their

cambium

the

from
wound

be

tissue.

In

and

with

closed
no

the
new

this

does

way

differ from
healing process
that
following the splitting
of

bark

115.

Limb

connections
of

Cross

sections of

made

at

show

how

are

be

in

decline

FIG.

84

FOURTHS
DECAY
TREE

"

OF
AND
BEARS

THAN

MORE
THE

TRUNK

BREAKAGE.
APPLES

THREELOST
YET

ANNUALLY.

BY
THE

ot

,,

the

".

lt: W1H

-11

fr11nl,
trunk,

pn1arp-e
enlarge,

When

the

to

onrl
and

of

a"
as

Tld
an(

trunk

point will

its initial

close

case

the

while

starts

found

duced
pro-

they leave
their
ment
develop-

of

is small

will

how

injury (Fig. 79).

limb

"

trunks

points

limbs

and

trees.

tree

certain

and
records

99.)

trunks

the

other

and

(Compare

trees.

with

forest

in

it
it

center
crows
grows

its

126

PRINCIPLES

be

covered

with

trunk

point

latent

bud

limb

the

initial

of the

of the

logs
the

on

from

trunks

they

normal

limb

will

from

the

of the
the
the

by

When

union

with

dead

board

the

from

Farther

there
1'"lh
F,C.
A
at

cut

the

down

made
wrongly
Decay spread

was

elbow.

flicker
is

dug

out

116.

may

for if he

healing
the

and

ring,

pecially
es-

it shows

that

the

the

point

from

the

hole

where
trunk.

of the

center

trunk

where

the

itltO

back

and
From

"

in

badly

in

said

the

orchards.

take

be

artificial wounds
what

has

been

and

especially in

the

will

make

wounds

rather

than

decay,

usefulness

previous paragraphs it
that
rightly concluded

of

advantage

methods,

and

Natural

contrasted.

may
man

rounded
sur-

This

nest.

thing

common

pruned

is

knot

(Fig. o2).

other
An-

the
just below
and
decayed
a

also

center

wood.

heart

stub

cut

can

only

r"tted

haS

healthy

NEST

85-FL,CKER'S

the

be

may

ing
dur-

and

cut

the

limb

it is loose

at

was

close

where

point

black

the

was

the

dicated
in-

of

the

tree

the

out,

was

limbs

is

form

trunk

When

knocked

limb

knots

the

the

condition

where
be

of

more

ever
When-

limbs

the

the

at

(Fig. 82).
by

trunk.

tion
por-

(Figs. 80, 81, 82).

the

least

at

the

rings

of

the

than

cases

annual

knots

life of

the

later

central

tree

the

times
some-

the

positions

history
by

but

such

from

be

erally
Gen-

than

years

In

of the

boards

trunk.

younger

several

not

knots.

"

the

produced,

are

one

The

of

time.

center

shown

are

PRUNING

year

develop

into

cut

are

one

in

trunk, but

less distant

or

where

OF

rings

only

may

produced

point

annual

are

the

at
a

the

limbs

such

PRACTICE

AND

of

the

in
he

making

such

will
tree

improve

way

increase
he

so

upon

ture's
na-

of

wounds.

as

to

the

prunes.

favor

longevity
When

128

PRINCIPLES

die

break

or

for the
stub
to

off trees

germs

it enters

cover

the

of
!

tree

they leave

stubs

PRUNING

which

on

dust

lects
col-

of the stub

end

heart

When

furnishes

moisture

the

over

whole

OF

congenial conditions
down
the
of decay. As the decay extends
the trunk
despite the efforts of the cambium

with

and

PRACTICE

AND

wood

properly

rot

may

handled

by

bee

that is, when

"

will

the

no

decay but will

continue
to perform its function, namely, that of strengthening
the tree
it will bear heavy loads of fruit,ice or
so
stubs

left

are

the

"

wood

leaving

away,
man

time

In

(Fig.203).

heart

not

snow.

119.

Rational

reduce

to

wounds

minimum

be

may

the

defined

danger

in

and

young
of
and

killing plant tissues

growing parts of trees
of

in

decay

trunks.

The

how?

It will
these

rather

than

120.

knife

FIG.

or

The

and

the

the

grew

increased
broken

decay
heart

by

wood,

the

dark

above
the

if

too

mitted
ad-

so

as

The
far

to

pair of
preferred

be

and

twigs
with

done

be

(Fig. 88), the

shears

possible,

wherever

small

as

as

practicable

as

and

near,

bud

because

rapid healing,

most

be

made

nor

too

near

left

to

should

above,

the
shown

streak.

favor

cut

to

the

bud

in

branch

which

stub

often

together

separately.

up

small

should

original

the
larity
irreguas
disappeared

tree

them

sider
con-

crooked

"

how

girth. A
left

streak

dark

seedling
"

87

how

all

phases

take

to

to

(a) Always such implements should be

sharp so as to leave a clean, smooth
ting
surface exposed by cutcut.
(b) The

DECAYING

shows

three

may

former

HEART

simplify matters

Pruning

branches

where,

when,

"

into

itself

resolves

question

in

wounds

of

making

threefold

and

limbs

mature

pruning naturally
a

which

those

as

if made

the

too

make

the surface

second

will dry

later
out

cut

and

high,

most
upper-

stub

the

die back

to

and

enfeeble

or

necessary

thus

too

growth,

continue

bud, being deprived of food, will

thus

neither

(c)

HOW

kill the

The

bud.

somewhat

of wood

amount

the

upon

wood,

like the

stubs

than

When
buds

and

stubs
second

firmly.In

such

the

should

and

apple

it is often

longer
pear.

which

in

advisable

to

"

the

cases

be

ly
smooth-

pared down
and

inserted

with

seedlings

or

porous

knit

have

stubs

branches

open,

cut

like

wood,

depend
variety of

some

later after

tissues

with

those

will

the

perhaps

peach, being

dense

been

leave

nearer

unions

weeks

to

make

to

cuts

the

the

small

grafts have
fairly long

leave

cion

with

those

pruning

or

and

and

grape

129

HEAL

species
plant being operated upon,

the

to

WOUNDS

close

to

the

growths.

Cd)

tion
forma-

In the
of

young
head

in

tops
trees,

the

may

be

somewhat
spread
by pruning to buds
on

of

outside

the

the

twigs

may

be

they
brought

closer

somewhat

together

by

inside

to

ing
prun-

buds

;
FIG.

raised

somewhat

pruning

to

by

buds

on

A,

slant

lowered
to

sides and

upper

buds

sides.

C,

large
dry and

Will

by pruning
on

Thus

the lower
erect

second

dry

growers,

out

from

made
the

d'e

D,

and

back

to

cut

too

kill bud.

such

L'kely

as

bud

Will

close

cut

and

close
die

Northern

far
to

left

wood

TWIGS

IN

too

B,

of

amount

an

time.

not

bud.

exposed.

surface

large
too

HEADING-

MADE

correctly

cut

proper

Too

the

CUTS

88"

to

back

but
too

with

long.

dry badl
be

must

bud.
to

cut

Sure
next

Spy

".

bud.

above

to

bud.

apple

130

PRINCIPLES

OF

PRUNING

spread out, and sprawling ones,

Island Greening apples,raised, and so on.
like Rhode
121.
of
small
Fall
vs.
twigs and
spring pruning
that
when
branches.
Common
even
experience shows
small
cut
are
properly, as just intwigs and branches

trees,

be

PRACTICE

AND

may

somewhat

"

FIG.
Th;
kind

of

leverage
break.

f 9"

due

[The

WAY

WRONG
the

to
tree

was

of

weight
be

to

TO

CUT

the

1'mb

cut

dawn

OFF

BIG

will

almost

anyway

to

LIMB

always
clear

the

this
prrduce
for a
ground

buiiding !]

dicated
occurs,

(120), there
however,

when

Fall-pruned twigs

be

may

very

the

dying

pruning
frequently

back.

is done
kill back

This
in the
an

rarely
spring.
inch

to

HOW

inches, because

several

therefore

and

out

WOUNDS

perhaps
should

the

die

farther.

even

be

never

For

spring, the idea

longer than they should
at

HG.
A
of

cut

(his

the

90"

with

the

made

from

the

spring.

uppermost
stub.
will
even

most

bud

and

above

bud

Whether

the

the
each

on
or

twigs dry

drying extends,
fall-plantedtrees

reason

that

so

second

CUTTING

START

underneath
When

to

When

be,

TO

made

trunk.
near

this

the

as

places just before

WAY

first be

should

limb

desired

PROPER

far

as

of the

severely pruned back as those set in

being to leave the stubs, say, 6 inches

as

the

made

ends

exposed

back

131

HEAL

not

the

first.

the
s:"\v

See

second

twig

limb

binds

Fig.

growth

foot
sticks

more

second

in

starts

LIMB
from
cut

the

union

should

be

91.

cutting

will attempt

it succeeds

or

be

may

LARGE

OFF

or

cuts

is
to

given, the
bury the dead

not

is immaterial,

there

at such
points
spot in the branch
always be a weak
follow.
Healing occurs
though no actual decay may
and
short
the
is very
the stub
satisfactorilywhen
develops a sturdy twig.

132

PRINCIPLES

branches

When

6-inch

another

stubs

bent

upward

that

would

91"
This
close

sizes

the

CUT

SECOND

to

wood,

as

cheese, and

position

of the

one

newly
This

Fig. 89.

remaining

the

set

matter

training

All

that

trunk, leaving

advantage

limb.

is necessary

now

there
is

to

while

LARGE
is
saw

is

branch

cut

OFF

Notice

they

as

branch

to

for

when

if the

SAWING

90.

For

knife,

strength

IN

Fig.

main

what
some-

LIMBS

splitting

no

off

the

or

short

limb.

when

may,

smoother,
valuable

most

or

MADE
in

with

needed

all one's

shown

as

main

cutting.

cut

trunk

PROPERLY

in

as

be

about

branch

same

of

ease

will

finger or

decided

be

the

little

the

to

to

are

toward

or

normal

etc.

found

namely,

in

the

be

require

is the

tearing of the

is

will

be, far less effort

should

stub

close

of these

branches

FIG.

cut

PRUNING

OF

one's

as

be

to

reason

thick

as

larger are
the

PRACTICE

AND

bent, be

so

job

neater

points

to

done

cut
as

easily

as

well.

remember

This

in pruning

trees.

of

twig pruning

of trees

(Chapter XVII),

as

dwarfs

for

much

special importance in
(270), espaliers,cordons,

has

of the

successful

fruiting

HOW

of such

plants

of fruit

is due

trees

United

off undesirable

cut

but

stubs

leave

walls

inches

several

to

to

TIG.

left
so

to

92"

WRONG

WAY

permanently

evident
remove

how

cut

of cut

should

being

close

removed.

limbs
the

to

to

are

main

be

left

the

air.

approximately

Experiments

than

what

stubs

should

REMOVING

off.

trunk

as

to

growth

been

has

be

never

LIMB

LARGE

should

expose

not

made

be

contend

They claim that

at right angles to
in many

for

It is, however,

cuts

pruners
so

mon
com-

before

From

"

cut

more

necessary

just

IN

CUT

Some

limbs.

should

surface
be

MAKE

when

large

slight shoulder
area

TO

ing
train-

gardener may
during the winter,

longer

that

the

expert

remove

it is evident

explained (116),

the

limbs.

large

cut

trellises is far

his leisure

at

inexperienced assistant
in the spring.
starts
Where

Europe, where

and

an

122.

In

States,

shoots

133

HEAL

it.

to

on

in the

than

WOUNDS

that
a

smaller
the

saw-

the

limb

parts of the

coun-

134

ll'I.KS

l'KIN"

have

try, however,

PRACTICE

AM)

PRUNING

OK

proved beyond

question

the

that

more

the direction
of sap
to
nearly parallel the cut is made
all parts of
flow, the quicker will be the healing, because
thus
with
the
the wound
are
kept in close connection
flow
of elaborated
The
downward
objection that
sap.
almost
thus made
the wound
must
always be larger than
is discounted
in the other case
cured
by the better results seTo
make
this
in healing.
matter
emphatic, the
that no part of an amputated
be laid down
principle mav
branch

should
the

which

extend

from

trunk

the

been

yond
be-

branch

has

cut.

123.

large

Time
limbs.

off

cut

to

From

"

merous
nu-

it

experiments
has

been
of

time

when

year

is

is made

wound
minor
in

that the

deduced

factor

pruning.

very

consider

to

No

son
sea-

one

invariably gives best

results.

It

healing
the
as

that

however,

noted,

is inactive,

cambium

in late fall, winter

perhaps

during

also

and
tracted
pro-

weather.

dry
This

m"

while

occur

can

be

must

has

statement

in very
cold,
because
climates,

specialforce
dry

exposed tissues will

seriously.
probably dry out
the
FIG

RIGHT

WAY

TO

93
MAKE

PRUN

NG

In

CUT

winter

of

large limbs,

the

cambium

all

fall

pruning,
and

the

bark

and

particularly
have

136

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

favors

"bleeding"
author, though he has

summer

The

searched

horticultural

OF

PRUNING

from

the

looked

for

surface.

exposed
instances

literature,knows

and

has

of

that

only one case,

reported by Newman

15),

to

that

plants

this

support

claim

"bleed"

which

by.
injured thereGrapevines, maples,

when

cut

are

ers
eld-

box

Japanese walnuts,
other

woody
plants bleed profusely when
in
wounded,
especially
But
these
early spring.
and

trees

many

from

such

the

Yet

process.

case,

Newman's,

of

that

as

jury
in-

no

authenticated

well

one

suffer

to

appear

that

the contention

supports

well

to

It

fore
is there-

safe

the

on

err

cutting after

avoid

side and

from

result

injury does
such
cutting.

just before growth

such
plants starts.

or

experiments

of

series

pruning

of several

result

the

As

trees

of

in

during

every
in the year, it has been
month
is of
that season
concluded

the

than
consequence
length of the stub and

the

position of

far

WIRE

LABEL

BLOOM

from
is the
limbs
or

which

95
FIG.
GIRDLED
MAKES
PREMATURELY

the limb

nearly

was

with

removed.

important.

more

heal

LIMB

so.

Wounds

quickly, and

most

the

less

healing

is

respect
Of
on

when

quicker

the

to

these two,

wound

the
the

trunk
latter

actively growing
the
than

limbs
on

are

erect

horizontal

HOW

horizontal

nearly

or

it is

that

influence

of

six

said

be

may

that

the

that

the

frozen

noted

as

experiments

that

the
that

to

precede

to

the

solid,

periments
ex-

condition

Lewis

by

as

time

best

frozen

are

mere

belief

popular

to

has

(159).
of

season

is

prune

As

pruning,

during
of

resumption

the

growth

spring.

in

124.

How

the

the

extent

large

remove

in

the

ideal

89,

(Figs.

or

the

on

opposite

side

the

third

90),

(Figs.

to

be

be

long

ere

second

reaches
can

be

cut

is

close

91,
the

easily
made

93).

is

first

trunk

In

making

limb

removed
close

bind

at
to

the

the

trunk.

less

ously
seri-

of

cut

where

the

final

wound

the

first

fall,
proper

before

leaving
point

second

the
a

when

or

(Fig.
is

will

it
this

When

foot

upper

first

cut

the

cuts,

the

on

to

Often
will

or

distance

stick.

or

will

the

close

and

started.

the

at

is

cut

limb

three

second

the

the

will

saw

cut

the

to

and

that

folly

the

more

making

in

limb

trunk,
limb

the

trunk

lies

the

main

the
of

of

of

same

is

It
if

not

the

to

even

ing
mak-

will

surface.

leverage

the

tear

Safety

side

lower

from

more

92).

bacteria

cut,

The

position.

of

surface

and

one

making

to

importance

splintered

with

or

the
smooth

fungi

or

limb

split, splinter

surely

first

of

rough

is

for

development

as

made

smooth

Next

"

position

correct

will

limbs.

large

remove

surface

the

favor

to

to

in

wound

the

limbs

perhaps,

weeks

eight

or

all

Contrary

prune

shown

except,

summary

it

to

137

HEAL

limbs.

wise

not

have
no

WOUNDS

stub
the

not

occurs

cut

which
third

CHAPTER

PREVENTION

AND

VII

REPAIR

OF

MECHANICAL

INJURIES
125.
tha:

Kinds

from

the

while

be

to
or

trees

into

themselves

of

sleet

but
of

considered

are

the

(Fig. 94)

with

such

simple

of the

and

those

fruit,

planter
hired

rabbits,

mice

and

Many

of

these

be

easily

may

will

cases

also
tree

of

are

and
and

too

THIS

or

usually such
trunks.

wires

guy

trunks

and
The

(Fig. 313).

effect is the
Wire

more

stakes

tightly to

around

ropes

by tying

same

in all

cases.

TREE

CHERRY

trunks

class

injuries

caused

fastening

branches
GIRDLED

the

(Figs. 95.

those

are

by

wire

common

very

trees

WIRE

ter
chap-

for

different

Label

9(5),50

the

to

injuries.
126.

96"

sidered
con-

reader

surgery

of

treatment

be

The

refer

vented
pre-

Several

cured.

here.

on

rance
ignosuch

and

may

the

animals,

men.

typical

resolve

injuries

to

to

or

injuries

FIG.

serious

The

due

hogs,

as

3^3

which

cause

pruning.
mainly

show

injuries.

injuries usually

those

carelessness

will

mechanical

of

loaded

are

cases

observation

kinds

many

branches,

of

breakage
here

"

particularly

Storms,

Casual

injuries.

suffer

trees

arrive

of

less when

injuries

Instances

are

fastened
extend

fences

to

them

only part

recorded
138

where

often

(Fig.
way

the

injure

tree

C),

but

309
around

growth

of

the

such

PREVENTION

trees

poplar has
Figure

as

them.

to

AND

the

around

end

Label

REPAIR

OF

extended

over

shows

97

of

oak

injuries are

wire

fences

which

tree

Hunter's

at

139

INJURIES

board

even

an

bench

MECHANICAL

fastened

has

Park,
due

always

grown

vania.*
Pennsylness
careless-

to

ignorance. At
planting time the wire
is left
encircling the
trunk
of the newly set
or

it looks

loose

harmless,
the

when

but

it

grows

soon

check

begins

to

and

to

of

flow

the

the

downward.

leaves

employed
is

ally
usu-

erymen,
by nursespecially

it

because

pernicious

longer than
or
string.

much
iron

is

wire

the

\Vhen

per
Cop-

kind

wire, the

does

orated
elab-

from

sap

lasts

tree

trunk

the

cut

is

it

Because

tree.

on

FIG.

97

;
.

main

the

trunk

jury
its in-

be

severe

BENCH

LIVING

BY

SUPPORTED

TREE

there
upright
were
supports
these
rotted,
but
have
bench,
.with
The
board, not
being in contact
away.
the
soil
and
being quickly dried
after, rains,,
continued
sound
and
bark
fore
thererigid. The

Originally

may

kill

to

as

when

on

the

development

the

to

the

A
trees

similar
grew

so

case

around

is

growth,

and

another

board

been

than

above

around

other

the

deep

trunk

and

the

grew
at

(Fig. 95).

wire
trees

it

abnormal

the
Generally
becomes
larger

Label

beneath

tree;

branch,

an

cause

may

so

on

below

girdles are
injured (-Fig.96).

the

boards

in

Popular
of

of

end
this

as

The

seen.

bench

shows

tree

similar

where,
opposite side shows
but
has.
similarly buried
destroyed by fire, leaving a slot 4 inches
where
the bench
originally met the trunk.

other

pictured

the

end

its

was

the
not

As

Mechanics,

fence.

girdle (Fig. 96)V

necessarily fatal
long as the sap

March,

1916.

In

this

case

140

PRINCIPLES

continues
of the
form

the

PRACTICE

above

and

OF

there

upward

conduits

new

the

flow

to

stem

below

AND

below

is

has

much

that

girdle

for elaborated

occurs

chance

the

food

girdle,especiallythe

injury

PRUNING

will

The

do

with

Girdles

the

be

winter

bark,

and

early

such

that

the

cambium

before

furnishes
trees

by

work

in

make

loss
inner

the
and

the

at

the

die
sap-wood
may
point of girdlingand

die

by

in late

made

cause

may
moisture

in

healed

fall

summer,

healing.
occur

; those

autumn

when

season

may

and

the parts

which

spring

of

unite

reach

to

roots.
to

the parts

the

tree

spring.
hint

girdling:
late

the cut

killing

to

as

This

do

the
and

summer

below

the

san-

wood.

127.

Prevention

splitting.

It

to

than

"

FIG.

TO

HOW

98"

FORKED
limbs

When
head
the
so

HANDLE

splitting

YOUNG

TREE

occur

Nursery

below

the

off as
close
be cut
to
they should
as
possible, unless
they are
gerous
dana
large that the cut will make
Then
be
wound.
they should

their

to

making

removed
case

have
been
back

the

inches

growth and
following season.
cut

to

formed

(See

stubs

the
In

branches

the

form

thus
are

descends

the

cutting

weak
ruin

that

one

the tree.

the

into

farther
or

and

vertical,

both

to

angle.

acute

the bark

break

the
and

trunk

and

the

branches
other

later

cause
be-

leverage will crack

and allow decay to
and

union
will

young

the

weaken

leverage increases

the

Nursery

an

to

sure

there

limb

new

As

have

of

almost

are

text.)

(Fig. 98).

which

practical1y
equal size, especially if both
two

enter

union

Y-crotch.

trees,

the

cure

this

would

Had

of

to

easier

prevent

stub

Y-crotch.
head
good
above,
no
would
have
allowed
*

form.

to

much

branch

the

few

far

is

natural

trunk

shortened

prevent

of crotch

the

decay

becomes

break
trees

and
with

so

thus

Y-

crotches

REPAIR

AND

PREVENTION

treated

be

may

OF

MECHANICAL

in three

141

INJURIES

to

ways

splitting,
completely cut
prevent

be
of the branches
(a) One
may
while
still small.
this
Doubtless
off at planting time
or
and
safest
most
is generally the
satisfactory method
it disposes at
because
of all possibility
once
of breakage,
(b) One
of

usually

smaller
may

severely so
it develop

cut

as

to

into

this is

Often

plan,
ing
prun-

spread

to

as

make

side

branch

than

it would

the

less

erect

be

as

third

The

(c)

leader,

to
in-

than

and

tree

side

if the

be such

applies or
apply only when

method
should

has

Y-crotch
treated

been

suggested,
allowed

to

to,

but

years.
living wood

the Y

form, when

been

for

perhaps,
brace
be

may

between
of

has

grow
A

not

above

as

say,

ten

arms

make

effective

an

especially

year

back

leader.

the

ferred,
pre-

be

rather

branch

the

the

branches,

the

as

sections

progress

velopedbranch
de-

to

HISTORY

99"

These

the

the two
so

FIG.

of

and

of
the

CROTCH

black

cherry

OF
of

decay
main

downward
trunk.

SPLIT
limb

between
In

the

top

show
the
tion
sec-

the
the
to
extent
decay has
progressed
not
much
so
separating the two
as
parts
with
distinct
but
The
cleavage.
a
shown,
lower
and
sections
show
the
middle
decay
downward
discolored
the
at
working
spot on
of

"

finished,an
each.
capitalletter A.
such
is by
brace
to
a
Usually the best way
secure
twining together two
produced by opliving branches
posite
of
branch
should
the Y.
be
arms
Preferably each
inverted

142

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

A.\D

growing
the

OF

PRUNING

on

the

that

arm;

should

the

5 feet. Each

aid

an

if the

drawn

the

arm

It will

years
FIG.

TRIPLE

100"

inch

This

badly

triply weak
large
Two

neglected
of

have

natural
the

Y.

many

are

gether
to-

than

and

two

kept

or

more

branches

have

this method

which
upon
is that the
is based

intertwined

branches

The

off.

cut

and

leafytwigs

with

stronger.
or

When
secured

in

the

but

finished

less

resemble

form

to

grafted

to

the

close

ripened

the

to

move
re-

spring,
the

becomes
brace

the

will
one

can

be

Pine
with

be

well

grafting

much
should

higher

This

alone,

scantling

4-inch
wire

telegraph

used.
wire

101

Y-CROTCH

SAVING

brace, it may
The
opposite arm.
This

of

arms

the

the

should

plete
com-

little by

FIG.

branch

used.

is

shortened

104.

selected
when

union

graft

effective

branch

will unite

as

to

largest, as

The

Figure
only one

off

leave

possibleon

branches

two

be

may

little by little in

of the

shown

as

to

the

as

finally cut

branches,

beginning

be

three

It is advisable

these

more

be

together.
principle

Several

graftage. As soon
tips of the branches

intertwined

union

the

been

little annually
the

also

show.

scars

by

until the

grown

is

tree

It is doomed.

branches

the

Y-CROTCH

because

Y-crotches.

on

two)

or

positionfor

"

foot

closer

they normally stand,

in this

of the

arms

to

should

extend

to

somewhat

(an

the

Y, say, 2

branch

side.

opposite

posite
op-

from

the

long enough
more
beyond

or

branch

approximately

at

of

of

the

distance

angle

or

be

is, each

and

same

acute

side

toward

grow
arm

inner

is
but

because

is not

up.

here
thin

there

very
is too

The

limbs

"give."
be

is

better

bolted

together

144

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

OF

PRUNING

molasses
pulled till the color resembles
taffy. To prevent its sticking to the skin, the hands are
Should
kept greasy.
(because of improper
lumps occur
and
be re-melted
re-cooked.
handling), it may
Usually
kneaded

the

and

into balls

is made

wax

It will

sticks

or

keep indefinitely. Linseed

be

must

waxes

free from

for convenient

oil for

adulterations
oil."

such

Favorite

follows

making

beeswax

2, linseed

increase

oil for softness; resin

2, linseed

128.

or

Bridge

MEND

TO

pint.
repair grafting,*
erroneously

and

tackles

put

is
the

Notice

chain.
to

heal

the

of

limbs.
is

trunk

methods

badly
of

the

to

say

error

the

is

made
by
The
interior

decayed

wrong

of

through

the
the

burying

attempts

wounds

the

cutting of

the

around

chain

with

place

to

Growth

tree

of

back

it

brought

connection
top, for

ting
cut-

that the
for

the

the bark.

through
bridge establishes
not

downward

to

between

establish
and

root

cause
be-

sap

and

girdle has cut

sap-wood it is an
that bridge grafting

necessary

upward
through

the

branches.

wood

accident.

or

the

Unless

owner

oil 1

the
be
inarching, may
trees
of saving valuable
been
have
injured by
rabbits, hogs, human

carelessness

load
over-

the

but

fruit,

of

arms.

of

split because

The

flow

"

"

6, beeswax

mice,
WAY

1 ; resin 4,
oil 1 pint

2, tallow

which

WRONG
Y-CROTCH

as

beeswax

means

ONE

are

wax
pounds, bees3 pounds, tallow
2 pounds ;
4 pounds,
: Resin
cheaper wax
:

called

103"

cottonseed

as

sometimes

FIG.

grafting

formulae

Resin

use.

passes
It is correct,

connection

of elaborated

the

however,

between

of

current

sapto

top and

say

root,

sap is through
is discovered

the

the
the wound
as
layers. As soon
in
operation should be performed. If the injury occurs
should
be protected to prevent drying.
the wound
winter

bark

"Quoted
Practice.

from

the

author's

book,

Plant

Propagation,

Greenhouse

and

Nursery

AND

PREVENTION

REPAIR

OF

MECHANICAL

145

INJURIES

begin to swell the grafting

The
be done.
should
operation is performed as follows :
and
The
injured, and perhaps dry bark, on both upper
is pared back
to living tissue.
lower
edges of the wound
little becions
cut
Several
a
are
long enough to extend
spring

In

no.

when

WOOD

LIVING

104"

MAPLE.

SHOULD

these

yond
bark

both
the

across

BRACE
HAVE

above

and

gap.

The

insure

individual
around
the

tree.

covered

the

BETWEEN

BEEN

trimmed

fittingof
It is often
a
help
the
spring
place. But these

to

buds

the

edges,
below,
ends

bow

thus
and

cion

cions

formed

aids
minor

with

wound

grafting

and
wax,

cions

the

beneath

cut

are

"bridges"
obliquely,

layers of cions and

the

NORWAY

OF

STRONGER

BE

little

making

trunk.

cause
slightly,bein
holding them

outward
in

details

preference. If placed an
trunk, enough cions should
Both

TO

inserted

of the

other

LIMB

AND
UP

and
thus

cambium

the
to

TRUNK
HIGHER

MADE

may

inch

should

preferably

or

succeed

made

be

be

left to

so

apart
to

save

completely
warm

so

as

146

PRINCIPLES

fit into

to

In

lose

chink

every

few

the

years

and

cions

their identity in

OF

thus

will

smooth

is

Bridge grafting
with

PRACTICE

AND

PRUNING

exclude

air and

together

grow

water.

in time

and

trunk.

makeshift

method

not

be

to

pared
com-

mals
protection of trunks by keeping aniof the orchard, by avoiding accumulation
of
out
mice
and
nests,
straw, etc., in which
might form
grass,
splints, tarred
or
by using trunk
building
protectors
but
preferably halfpaper,
inch
galvanized hardware
proper

"

cloth

around

"

until

the

the

veloped
de-

have

trees

bark.

rough
methods

trunks

will

Such
the

prevent

necessity of bridge grafting

in

except

of

cases

unusual

accident.
When
narrow

rnay

inches
be

FIG.

splitting from
heavy load

of

danger

Often

wax.

129.
but
than

such

of

useless,

equipment
work

to

of

back

(Figs.

fresh
cotton

them

side

wound
wuum

by
with

with

the

Of

the market,
some

worse

the

course

and

man

and

with

the

tool

type

of

sist
general, however, the kit will conthree
shears
and two
or
pair of hand

In

side branches
to

and

manure)

of many
styles are upon
of small
are
utility and

will vary

knife,

106

to

by using grafting
in a single season.

or

over

positively harmful.

be done.

of

it is well

the

cow

cloth,

will heal

types and sizes of

different

such

grafting clay (half clay

wounds
tools

Pruning

many

coverins"

even

this in with

bandaging

bridging
In

safe

the

to

one

necessary.

on

are

PEACH

HEADED

No

LOW-

WELL-BRANCHED

105"

no

"

however,

cases,
err

only

say

"

three

girdles

the

108)

may

saws.

out

be

If there is to be much

of hand

added,

and

reach
for

ing
head-

pole primer
removing dead
a

FIG.
a,

loppers

Waters'
all

"

(', combined

lopping

tree

and

saw
n

MISCELLANEOUS

and

PRUNING

TOOLS

b, stronger
/ four styles of branch
pattern; c, d, e and
hook
and
for
brambles;
pruning spud
h, raspberry
hook;
and
saw
chisel; I, m,
lopper; /', pole chisel; k, combined

pruner;

clumsy;

shears;

106"

g,

o,

trunk

scrapers.

148

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OK

PRUNING

from
the stools
hook
blackberry canes
also
a
primer
the best pole pruner
does
work
(Fig. 106 h). Even
poor
the work
itself
except, perhaps, in heading-in, and then
is inferior to that done
by the shears, the knife and the
saw,

but

time

to

these
reach

be

cannot

the

parts

used

be

to

without
removed.

be constructed

simply cannot
properly.

taking

or

The

used

so

as

much

too

pole
to

pruner

make

cut

FIG.
No.

1.

No.
to

get
close

out

POLE

107"

Good
of

2.

shear,
Double

simple,
lever

No.

order.

SHEARS

3.

in

Old

FOR
strong.
shear.

type

of

OUTSIDE
The
No

BRANCH

better

"Waters'

PRUNING

satisfactory pole

most

"

No.

than
shear.

1.

Double

pensive.
Inex-

shear.

Has

more

guard

parts
prevents

wood
bark.
choked
with
and
becomes
often
bruise
and
cutting, leaves
a
A
to
is clumsy.
good shear
Good
very
transport
shear, but the long arm
double
No.
because
5. Objectionable
guard and clumsy arm.
the pole is detachable.
much
too
expensive.
6. Very awkward
Inefficient and
No.
and
clumsy.
No.

4.

Next

to

the

pole

pruner

the

knife

will

be

used

least

the shears
are
quicker,
general equipment because
be dispensed with, because, for certain work,
yet it cannot
ing
tree
such
trunks, nothpruning side shoots off young
as
will take its place. The
pruning knife should be stout,
of the best steel and
made
the blade
kept always very

of the

sharp.

For

this

reason

the

style which

permits

the

re-

PREVENTION

REPAIR

AND

MECHANICAL

OF

replacement of blades in the

specialadvantage where a largeamount
and

moval

It

be done.
and
of

time

saves

going

in knives.

investment

Fig. 112

handle

one

of

offers

pruning must

from

to and

149

INJURIES

the tool house

shows

popular styles

knives.

pruning
Pruning shears will be used

tree

is used

pruncr

FIG.

108"

POLE

and

once,

SHEAR

hundred
at

PRUNERS,

least

SLIDING

times where
a

score

of

the

times

TYPE

HANDLE

Nos.
1 and
2. Reverse
hook
or
as
U-type. Not as handy in use
common
type.
No. 3. Satisfactory light type.
4. Powerfully made
No.
cuts
and
fairly well, but
the head
is extremely heavy.
No.
Undesirable.
5. Objectionable double
guard
No. 6. Double
shear
style. Pole seriously weakened
by the peculiar lever device.
for light work.
Pole
type devised
weakened
by peculiar lever device.

to

the knife.

the age

up

to

It is of

of five
say

or

half

an

especialuse

in

pruning trees

up

to

six years for the removal

of branches
inch in diameter.
are
Many makes

for sale,some
of them
excellent.
Points to bear in mind
when
choosing a pair are to have first-classsteel in the

blade, because

keen

and

edge

is necessary
parts to be

prevent injury to the

Next, the shears should be

spring to 6pen

them

to

do

left

on

good

work

the plant.

working, with a good

promptly after making a cut. The
free

150

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

of preference. The
style of spring is a matter
author likes
the style shown
in Fig. 109 a, because
it is less likelyto become
than are
the styles shown
in b
caught in branches
For
and
work
the
c.
shears
should
general orchard
be rather heavy, with
handle
a
long enough in proportion
to the length of the blade
to give plenty of power
when
A
10-inch
size is
cutting fairly large branches.

FIG.

109"

SHEARS

PRUNING

OF

VARIOUS

STYLES

is

Author's

small
because
and
not
spring
preference
strong,
likely to be
form
of spring because,
unless
stiff likely
twigs; b, undesirable
very
in
also
be
to
pulled loose
to
it; handle
poorly adapted
hand;
by twigs caught
parrot's beak
(see Fig. 110), spring not
good
form;
d, French
style,
c,
very
fruit
author's
second
trimmers,
choice, but preferred by many
hedge
growers;
e,
is the hollowing
of the
blade
the hinge so
improvement
ordinary style. An
near
hold
More
and
as
to
slipping.
costly, but
large limbs
decidedly better.
prevent
a,

fouled

with

for
right for general orchard work; a smaller one
Double-handed
shears
cutting twigs and berry bushes.
than
in removing larger branches
their special uses
have
Unless
the single-hand shears.
could
be cut easily with
kept very sharp they are likelyto do injury to the parts

about

left.

Therefore,

wherever

130.

it

can

Pruning

the
be
saws

saw

should

be

preferred

to

them

used.

(Figs.Ill, 115

to 117

) are

by no

means

152

XC'II'I.KS

I'UI

perfect ; indeed
work

is the

in

the

cuts

the trees

the market

on

Most

name.

uses

it the

shun

it.

it should

where

bit

least

styles and
variety of work

do too

inferior

conspicuous among
(Fig. Ill) pictured
catalogs. It not only

not, but

the

cuts

to

of

be

saws

done.

For

orchard

as

should
5 to

end

24

1 inch

wide

have

inches

27

to

wide

at
at

five

or

of

to
ordinary form
The
ordinary tooth

better

satisfaction

"lumberman's

the
the

COMMON

an

in

only

The

blade.
for

the

handle

is

teeth

the

inch.

will

No.

2, which

is

of
type
its double-edged

objectionable
of
The

California
that

are

surface
teeth

For

of
are

be
the

set

21

to

wide

blade.

in
popular
cutting grapevines

for
to

saw

(Fig.

24
at

such

lighter,smaller
One

with

on

as

from
saw

blade

long, 4 inches
handle, 1 inch at

inches

the

is

tool

lowest

very
cause
be-

the

often

wrell handled

is needed.

is the
a

give

than

tooth"

trees

on

the start,

small

too

So

hand.

gloved
in

handle

that

differs
saw
uppermost
saw
pruning
ordinary
having
a
slightly curved

The
from

base,

six

saw
double-edged
111). For lighter work,

SAWS

PRUNING

long.
small

the
FIG.

such

renovation, the blade

be

and

because-

heavy work,

6 inches

about

pruners

needed

are

who

man

car"?lessly. Experienced
sizes

Several

PRTXIXG

OK

double-edge abomination
and
nurserymen's

seedsmen's

of the

I'UA(TICK

majority

deserve

to

these

the

AM)

grafted

On

ground.
for

smaller

draw

tip and with

ordinary teeth to
the

the

near

it the

cut.

branches

found

be
a

still smaller,

very

f". ;V/,
the

inch

or

("

will

satisfactory.

thinner

saw

will

at
long, 3 wide
the base, tapering to a point and
carrying (), (\l/2or 7
saw
ordinary teeth to the inch is about right. A curved
of special
is often
the handle
with
teeth pointing toward
K"
be about
Its length may
in making
draw
cuts.
use
*J
at the
point 1 inch and at the handle
inches, its width
in .sawing
it is largely used
2 1/ inches.
In California
or
old grapevines for grafting.

do

excellent

work.

One

15

inches

AND

PREVENTION

of

modification

the

permit
set

and

because
which

light blade,
This

is the

work

it is

fine-toothed

112"

bow

clean

cuts

the

saw

of

capable

upper

heavy

makes
of

type

FIG.
three

the

In

KNIVES

differ

117

The

use.

and

his

design.
handle

set

The
too

In

work.

blades
small

for

angle

any

likes

to

the

desired.
for

the

The

tom
bot-

any

may

blades

of

handle.

the

is
This
replaceable.
be
from
changing
kept for
readily slip into the handle
are

designed

saws

permit

practice, however,

students
are

blades

of

shape

blades

the

The

STYLES

VARIOUS
the

blades

interchangeable

experienced

in

except
in which

is shown

demonstration

at

being

branches

small

specially

OF

little

Fig.

for

gives weight

author

Re-blade
knife
Nagle
convenient
assortment
of
an
style because
different
forms.
dull
to
to
or
sharp
ones,
the
when
in
position.
nearly closed
is

one

blade

that

doing.

PRUNING

ones

swivels

with

saw,

narrow,

153

INJURIES

bias, is particularly good

twigs,

The

MECHANICAL

OF

butcher's

the

thin,

very

the

on

REPAIR

too

but

did

not

light, and

like this
the

small-sized

for

student

author

particular

grip part of
hands.

of

variety
the

the

CHAPTER

VIII

DRESSINGS

Many
wounds.

by

fruit

some

the

their

and

expense

FIG.
a,

old

an

made

of

quarter
wood
so

hand

doubtless
them

COLLECTION

the

decayed
with

of

inch

its under
of

the

coats

an

that
almost

and

present

most

lar,
popuof

their

stationary

pruning

because

PRUNING

OF

author

several

KNIVES

no

this

branch

quantities

little

Beneath

8-inch

found

slab

and

of

paint ( !)

it could

Such

effort.

painting.
154

it had

cases

be

It

ing
clingthe

heart

covered

pulled

should

was

wood

"protection"

wound
of

rotten

small

other

years' painting.

thick, had

side.
or

ing
graft-

rarely used,

nowadays

are

to

the

of

pruning,

orchard

the

by
to

wax

clay

; creosote

years

and
b,
blades;
budding
general
and
for
herbaceous
pocket
penknife;
pruning
d, pruner
hawk-bill
knife.
knife; /, popular
style of pruning
et

c,

In

is

ago

more

foresters

raised

are

50

with

faulty protection.

113"
of

Combination

blade;
growths;

past
and

grafting

or

years

method

objections

but

the

growers

the

and

paints

50

protecting

mixed

manure

cow

growers

manure

for

recommended

fresh

paint during

While

day.
the

of

fruit

by

and

wax

tar

been

Poultices
lauded

were

have

things

WOUNDS

FOR

was

out

condemn

by

FIG.

The

1.

bolt

well
lock

made,

rounded
to

blades
Not

of

but

does

save

"double
work

desirable.

which

is

4.

the

pruner's
of'a bolt and

cut"

type

easily.

Has

SHEARS

LOPPING
construction

simple
adjustment.
of

Desirable

and
type.

moderate
No.

2.

cost.

Strong,

and
If provided
with
a
cost.
a. bolt
good as No. 1. No. 3. A very powerful wellCos's
show
more
desirable
simplicity of construction.
The
blade
has
and
a
blunt,
inexpensive.
Fairly good
be
A
also
must
those
above.
on
as
as
vided
prostop
good
Has
of
shear
No.
5. Powerful
knuckles.
English make.

it would

not

for

of

shear.
no

moderate

of

shear

not

No.

DOUBLE-HANDLED

OF
shear

allow

to

rivet

average.

instead

nut

weight

light

bevel

rivet

lock

instead

the

STYLES
well-made

strong,
a

shear,

than

The

has

nut

made

PRINCIPAL

114"

No.

be

lock

as

nut

and

Cannot

locking

device

be

costs

used
for

the

more

in
nut

than

close
and

the

No.

average.

where
quarters
the
handles

6.

pointed
are

weak.

156

PRINCIPLES

the past

During
done
and

others

FIG.

No.

tooth
swivel

are

the

on

place

with

saw

It

it is in
Where

blade.

the

handle.

some

sides

with

iron

an

the

of such

linseed
At

can't

clean

with

It is

in

spite of

a
mean

the

to

No.
similar

handle

thing
exercise

to

of

use

No.

to
on

The

because

No.

is

No.

day,

wi:h

saw

from

cold

ordinary

the

pole
fairly well

1.

the

is

operators.

is

serves

differs

Roth

saw.

No.

and

and

No.

easily it

cuts.

side

trees

implements.

reached

be

makes

ruler.

one

on

both

SAWS
purpose

18-inch

the

weapon

incomplete;

yet

General

2.

tooth

torture

undesirable

PRUNING

No.

with

the

as

INDIFFERENT

large
lengths

of

handle.

are

limbs.

dangerous

better

in

onlv
a

because

hsavy
thj

sawing.

all
In order
to present
reported upon.
an
important question the author has quoted
several
of the
already published writings.

the author

Hitherto

risky.

and

been

have

freely from
raw

be

hand

desirable

AND

museum

blade

It would

chills

is

PRUNING

experimenting has been

pomological investigators

"lumberman's"

the

branches

thin, small-toothed

handle

BAD

heavy saw
Compare
good.

other.

for

the

for

the

affair

much

OF

experiments

GOOD,

115"

sell"

to

best

Many

Long,

styles

"made

decade

determine

to

dressings.

these

PRACTICE

botanists, foresters,

by

1.

AND

oil, but
present,

has

favored

this is too
tin-

case

pure

white

expensive

appears

to

lead
as

him

well
in

in pure
as

favor

too

of

DRESSINGS

157

WOUNDS

FOR

and
tar
carbolineum,
.asphaltum, creosote,
(134).
by Selby (132, 135) and Cook
be made
Wherever
a
dressing is used it may
by adding some
pigment to change
For
be turned
lead paint may
instance, white
colored
writh a little raw
sienna, and cement
gray
similarly treated with asphaltum.

FIG.
Nos.

trood
used.
is

and

cuts

No.

2.

in

any

has

slackened.
in

yse
work

131.

is

OF

SAWS

HAND

FOR

Good
swivel
of the
examples
not
are
position and
expensive.
blade.
loose
These
pins in the

No.

narrow

and

TYPES

116"

4.

Common

quarters.

The

fine

with

type,

is small

handle

for

TREE

blade
This
are

teeth
the

did

not

in wound

once
type
often
lost

toward

gloved

the

"Wax
hinder

is the

bark-

be

may

Make

grips.

when

is

Does

always
tension

the

tapered

in

over

Epitomized

point for
fairly good

process.

those

coal

tar

treated

quite

well

with

to

shellac

and

no

possess
of
them

did

not

untreated.

Nebraska

.Those

ing
heal-

in wound

liquid grafting

only application
appears
heal, though most
to
aiding the wound

the

from

"

which

healed
to have
June] seem
Ibut in September
there
seemed
shellac

to

spicuous
con-

color.

used

hand.

healing.*" Experiments

Iin

of

the

Good

type.

in Nebraska
made
with
six treatments
shellac varnish, white lead paint, pine tar and

advantage

any

less

inexpensive.

Experiments

treatment.

mended
recom-

PRUNING

were

wax,

as

Bulletin

to

as

be]

Paint

50,

Page

as

those

left untreated

slight difference

does

8.

not

hinder

the

in

favor

process

158

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

healing, and there is little evidence that it favors

than
would
more
being no
naturally occur

of

variation
of

sets
tar

wounds
not

seem

the

have

in the
treated
have
to
healed

difference

been

wound

having

been

reported

upper

shows

so

great.

well
Coal

Those
as

treated
those

slight

between
with

though
untreated, al-

tar, however,

to

seems

the

to
healing process,
not
healing extremely well, while

as

two

pine

one

the

only fairlywell/*

FIG.
tool

way.

quite

not

positive hindrance

majority [healed]

The

was

same

it, the

117"
the

STUDENTS'
saw

COMBINATION

complete.
the

up

The

lower

SAWS
blades

with

the

handle

make

set.

Wound

the pracdressings.*" Experience has recently shown

tical
forms
of liquid asphaltum as wound
ings.
dresstar and
relativelylow cost of the gas tar, 15 to 20 cents a gallon,
for wound
dress-*
it adapted to use
and certain of its qualities,
render
is a
is not
limitations.
One
of these
without
ings. This material
ness
thickof
in securing a continuous
sensible
certain difficulty
covering
with the gas
tar.
by
Apparently very good results are secured
using it in the semi-fluid or rather thick state, and this applies as
well to forms
of liquid asphaltum made
with linseed oil,etc.
132.

value
The

While

of gas

times, especiallyin cooler weather, it is desirable to heat

with
the very
fluid, hot
tar, imperfect covering is secured
gas
After
in
condition
is
reached.
favorable
tar.
cooling
part, a more
In general, it would
that two
desirable
seem
applications give more
at

the

results.
*

A.

D.

The

second

Selby, Circular

of

No.

these

may

150, Ohio

be

made

Agricultural

after

an

Experiment

interval
Station.

of

160

PRINCIPLES

AND

least well

surfaces
caused

so

134).

of

lead

the

the

the

close

paints
white

are

lead

caused

second

injury

some

tissues recovered
the

season

injury was

it had

season

is to

weeks

not

time

The

quickly, and
marked

very

used, and

; at

These

two

of the

two,

nearly disappeared.

applying any

experiment
of

wounds

peach

of

treatment

under

caused

injury

much

so

peach should

the

with

wounds

tree

be

never

any

that
treated

of

the

it may
with

substances
said

be

of

any

in

of

the substances

of

observation, it might

larger

to

be

white

in

Had

use.

developed

have

been

is undoubtedly

the best

that

somewhat
fruit

of

on

been

several

it is
any

longer period
in
the wood
exposed
from
the
saved
drcay
a

Tt may

trees.

prove

in which

large wounds;
dressing to use.

the results of this experiment

From

there

have

exposed wood
while, therefore, to cover
sets

worth
lead

would

wounds

often

which

common

that

them,
of all

it may
be inferred that this is true
of wounds
trees
on
fruits.
There
is
show
in
this
stone
nothing to
experiment that
worth
fruits with
while to treat large or small wounds
of tree
and

the

of

the treatment
of wounds
by waiting
of the various
dressings used in

in

gained

be

before

the

at

rather

experiments.

these

the

first

evaporation.

or

the best of the protective substances

is the better.

Nothing
several

the

of

zinc

wounded

oLthe

close

absorption

white

and

application,but
at

PRUNING

all.

either through
White

OF

Avenarius
carbolineum
and yellow ocher
neither
substance
be used
should
injury that
ever
Coal tar not only caused
appeared,
injury, but quickly dis-

much

(compare

PRACTICE

deductions

seem

case

ranted.
war-

applied to pruning wounds

dressings commonly
the healing of the wounds.
than
accelerate
Second,
the
when
whether
the dressings are
the same
applied

First, the
rather
the effects are
retard
wounds

dried

made

are

out.

peach
Probably

to

or

wood

that

later

weeks

some

of

Third, the effects

wounds

on

holds

this statement
these experiments

the

peach

trees

for

true

when

dressings

the
used

should

other

cut

surface

are

so

never

stone

be

fruits

has

injurious
covered.
as

well.

that
the popular notion
trance
dressing to prevent the enis
orchards
least,
in
at
usually exaggerated.
of fungi,
sprayed
to prevent
to attempt
if it is necessary
It is doubtful
cations
decay by applidiscussion
in wounds
under
under
of dressings of the kinds
be proved whether
It remains
in diameter.
to
they
5 inches
4 or
It
be
in
wounds.
real
value
have
covering large
suspected
may
any
that the injury caused
applied to the wounds
by the dressing when
the protection
over-balances
largely, if not wholly, offsets or even
if
be
there
such,
against
decay.
offered,
The
134. Painting tree wounds."
statements
quoted from the New
bulletin
B. Cook
Station
York
above, prompted Howard
Experiment
article
which
the following
from
an
to publish in the Country Gentleman*
Mr.
Cook
that
condensed.
are
peach
agrees
passages

Fourth,
wounds

May

need

to

be

6, 1916, Page

covered

988.

suggest
with

some

that

DRESSINGS

should

wounds

quick-growing, quick
on

them.

on

trees

also

He

heal, and

to

that

agrees

less than

wounds

need

But, he writes, the experimenters

yearly with
however,
observation

not

all

at

older

on

wounds

having

trees

trees
trees

with

open

from

that

certain

especiallysince larger trees

A
thirty-year experiment
of

decay

apple

in the

data
drawn

are

too

which

will

soon

value,

great

With

wounds.

older

to
ten
or
longer it is
years
kept out by spraying alone,
in spraying.
minutely covered
the
effect
the
of spraying on

considerable

of

eventually be

and

broad

so

discover

to

of

are

be

not

are

would

trees

bulletin

seven

will

decay

are
sprayed
velop.
decay will dethe experiment,
couple of years'

trees

any
In

for

5-inch

few

painted.

whether

used, except

were

in diameter

inches

line indeed.

true, it will be

this proves
low
young,

If

uncommon

are

that when

state

short-lived,

are

cuts

be

not

fungicide, it is doubtful

trees

large

because

thirty years

than

younger

the

painted because

be

not

161

WOUNDS

FOR

view

in

unnecessary

conclusions

the

of

The

value.

the

though

even

out"

"way

follow.

and
a
perhaps a chisel,go into an
saw,
not
wound
fully
a
fifty years' standing. Notice
this
with
daubed
Rap
paint some
healed, but evidently*
ago.
years
the
cave-in
wound
the
A
with
hammer.
instead
or
sharply
occurs;
of being a
wound.
sound
at the
surface, but gives evidence
seems
of bung to a decaying mass
half an
inch farther in.
sort
Pry out
will see.
for paint as a preservative !
So much
the bung and you
with

Armed

of

orchard

Now

select

healed
or

part

even

healing
of

or

affairs

You

cap.

over

limb.

are

affect the

swinging
of apples.

nicely healed
!

So

apt

very

Therefore

much

of

to
seen

Let

us

looks

and

such

From

sound

four

five

or

being

wounds

it.

upon

and

upward

an

all

"

perfect

condition

suspended
out

wound

have

can

the

off

saw

decayed

a
we

how

see

are

ventures

owner

that

orchard.

tree

wound

discover

it is

an

limb

The

the

and

"

of

owner

section

barrelfuls

perfectly healed

decaying wound.

can

outward

crash

fair-sized

hollow

hammer,

some

Crack,

snap,

for

perfect healing !
These
is just one
there
must
examples show
reason
why we
that is, for the preservationof
apply something to pruning wounds
the wood.
The
effective of preservatives must
either a
be used
most
"

"

carbolineum
never

or

these

use

killingback

the

grade

one

oils because
bark.

if the

Rut

oil. The

creosote

they are the

usually where

which

also

destroys
two

or

load
Now

the

three

affects

the

tensile
years

heart

wood
of

strength
the

limb

is

the

or

wood

is

must

likely to break

should

we

rot

of

see

of

such

down

an

is

the problem

what

happens

bark

the

the

of

there

must,

dying

and

middle
to

solution

The

I will

says

injurious of paints in

there

problem
to.
First, however, we
presently come
when
dead
our
painting kills the bark : Under
whitish
start, and
following them
comes
a

may,

is sufficientlystudied.

bulletin

most

borers

sap

limb.

extent
under

wood

This
that

in

its fruit

(Fig. 82).
come

to

thoroughly both

wood

we

method
and

bark

of
in

applying the liquid to

Since
healthy state.
a

preserve

ordinary

162

PRINCIPLES

AND

PKACTICK

heartwood-destroying fungi,

PRUNING

OF

in the

center
or
pith and seldom
the center
of
always paint from
the wound
outward.
Instead
of painting across
the sap
clear
wood
to the bark, the ordinary
way, leave a circle absolutely bare around
the outside
from
of
inch
inch
in width.
Remember
to
fy"
an
an
that these
oils will penetrate
little farther
than
a
pecially
paint, esyou
So you
at the base.
have
about
must
care
too
a
using a
heavilv charged brush.
It is good practice to have
a
handy to
rag
swab
surplus.
any
away

if

affect

ever

the

true

start

wood,

sap

In

using these oils,the addition of just enough coal tar to give

dull black
color
after
a
drying will overcome
tendency
any
in
have
to
that they at least appear
they may
or
drying
to
out, so
have
The
is
main
for this appearance
partly faded
reason
away.
that the oils have
sunk
deeply into soft, decaying spots, the result of
the
hole
decay traveling from
some
through the pith of the
the
limb
to
affected.
wound
For
best results in preserving
parent
two
The
coats
be
wood,
second
are
usually recommended.
may
after the first,
time
but ordinarily some
applied at any time a month
after next
feasible.
year's pruning will be most
them

It is sometimes

the
desired to stimulate
quick healing. While
place anywhere is fresh, paint the edge of the bark
This
is made
follows :
the sap wood
and
as
only with liquid wax.
white
Best
resin, one
tallow, one
yellow will do
pound ; beef
Melt together, remove
the fire and stir in eight ounces
from
ounce.
of alcohol.
bottle tightlycorked.
Keep and use from a wide-mouthed
in
small
brush
hole
the
thrust
for applying the
Through a
a
stopper,
of
Perfect
solution.
results
this
been
secured
have
by the use
cut

or

barked

"

"

material.
135.
two

Available
in

steps

antiseptic materials.*

wound

treatment

in the

with

although
a
healthy

(1)

Sterilization

of

cases,

of

spores

dressing
or

only

base

to

the

one

wound

protect

be

may

average

According

"

found

of

pruning

may

be

essential.
per

infection

from

A.

to

in

remove

These
The

se.
(2)
through the

Selby

D.

necessary

case

surface

to

mam-

branch

steps

are

application
of

entrance

bacteria.

(1). The

sterilization consists

or
killing any possible spores
torch
of
be upon
surface, by the use
to
a
septic
more
or
easily by the application of an antithese
germicides are
or
Among
spore-destroying substance.
carbolic
corrosive
acid, petroleum,
sublimate,
gasoline, kerosene,
The
formaldehyde, etc.
sulphate solution, carbolineum,
copper
the
will depend especiallyupon
availabilityof any of these processes
surface.
If the cambium
effect on
the living layer of the wounded
is killed appreciably it will raise the question of possible injury.

bacteria, etc., that may

cauterize the surface,

Because

sulphate
*

of the

of
and

in

the

such possible injury only corrosive

apparently safe.
formaldehyde are

135
to
Paragraphs
Ohio
Agricultural

142

have

Experiment

been

excerpted

Station.

and

condensed

sublimate,
Petroleum
from

copper
com-

Circular

12t"

DRESSINGS

163

WOUNDS

FOR

destroy the living

As to avenarius
carbolineum, a proprietary substance, some
tissues.
of its complete absorption by,
doubt
has been
expressed. Because
it offers
faces,
sursurface
Upon dead
advantages.
the
wounded
many
it
is
able,
availwhich
has
been
from
removed,
those
such as
decay
solutions
of copper
rosive
sulphate, coralso carbolic acid and
are
as
of maligmade
nant
sublimate, etc.
by the removal
Upon wounds
gall, hairy-root or malignant blister
growths, such as crown
it
cankers, an active antiseptic agent is required, and for such use
sublimate
sulphate or corrosive
promises to be superior to copper
pounds, like gasoline, kerosene,

etc., penetrate

and

solutions.

effective dressings are

applied to newly cut surfaces,
(2). When
of
these
if
antiseptic value, the one
possible
are
dressings
especially
considered
the
be
of
relatively
as
dressing may
applying
operation

adequate
136.

to

the

Essential

demands.

requirements

of

wound

dressing.

"

Wound

ings
dress-

spring
sufficientlyfluid to be applied readily under
low
should
form
[fairly
temperatures].
They
pruning
the
surface, even
though
an
impervious, non-cracking layer over
the later drying out
and
large, since such a dressing will prevent
These
two
essentially
requirements are
checking of the wound.
reasonable
cost
covering within
antagonistic, since practically no
form
will
single application at ordinary
impervious covering from
an
a
Whenever
the covering "is not
secured
by a
temperatures.
checks
single application serious
danger through subsequent
may
admit
disease
thus
and
This
occur
tendency to dry out
spores.
limits the usefulness
of paints and
look
satisfactory
pastes, which
when
applied, but dry out by midsummer.
not
Dressings should
be unreasonably costly, an
like
objection to grafting wax,
which,
of separating freely from
the
paraffin is also objectionable because
Adhesiveness
wounded
surface.
is a valuable
in
dressing
a
property
abrasion.
it prevents
because
not
Lastly, a dressing should
injure
the growing
tissues, though slightkilling may
be as objectionable
not
as
imperfect covering.
should

be

conditions

Available

137.

available

tars

manufacture

of

the

materials

materials

the residual
under

"

we

from

for

wound

dressings." Of

the
really
chiefly preparations of asphaltum and
the distillation of wood
(pitch), and from the
have

artificial gas,
of "bitumen"

gas

tar.

The

materials

used

in Europe

are
essentiallyforms of liquid asphaltum.
proprietary preparations offered for dressing
wounds
are
essentially liquid asphaltum in some
form.
The
fossil "gilsonite" of California
is a hardened
form
of
asphaltum.
The
western
contain
petroleums, which
an
asphaltum base, contrast
with
the Pennsylvania
crude
oil, which
lias a paraffin base.
other
Anof asphaltum and
materials
advantage
is
tar
low
cost
gas
as
the very
with
compared
high cost of paints containing linseed oil.
low
of
The
cost
naphtha or gasoline as a solvent is much
in its
the preparations without
risk.
favor, were

The

name

varnishes

or

164

I'KINC

IPLES

AND

PRUNING

OF

PRACTICE

pitch." Gas tar is the residual tar obtained from

This
is produced in considerable
ties,
quantimaking.
gas
there
and
being only a slight demand, it is sold at low prices,
Pitch
of package.
6 to
12 cents
gallon, exclusive
ranging from
a
is the pine tar derived
from
the distillation of pitch pine. Gas
tar
Gas

138.

coal

handled

in

tendency

to

weather

warm

completely

be

tion

it is not

over

the wound
139.

and

tar

in

used

Forms

Trinidad

asphaltum,

various

types

differ

absorbed

the

by

wood.

only in their
heating in order to

Upon

a
strong
this absorp

continuous
sufficiently

asphaltum."

with

tenacious,

guard against subsequent

solid

of

very

that it gives

clear
to

is fluid and

Besides

openings.
the

largely in street
of asphaltum, which
melting points. All
apply them.
used

covering

impure
able
paving, there are availand
are
essentially pure
of these
grades require
more

or

less

For

cient
heating, we use a charcoal heating pot with tall bail of suffispread to swing freely above a 10 to 12-quart galvanized bucket.
is provided with
This
neater
and
vent
openings below
opening
the top of the metal
toward
also
free
from
to
legs
cylinder;
keep
the ground.
In such
it
is
better to melt the asphaltum upon
a
case
hotter
the heating pot to maintain
its
some
lire, and merely to use
in the orchard.
The
temperature
gasoline torch type of heater may
also be used
and
It will usually
freely transported in the orchard.
modifications
to enable
to use
require special
large
one
a
sufficiently
vessel for the asphaltum.
The

until thoroughly liquid, in

carefully melted
with
brush,
applied
a
preferably an old hearth
thin
the surface
broom, a
coating being run
over
beyond the edge of
the living tissue.
A second
be given after the first one
coating may
becomes
The
thickness of the coat
should
termined
debe
partly cooled.
thin
the
smooth
will
surfaces as
surface, as
by
give
upon
hair brushes
complete covering. New
are
usually destroyed in the
highly heated asphaltum.
140. Advantages
and
disadvantages of solid asphaltum.
vantages
adThe
of solid asphaltum are
when
most
must
one
appreciated
cover
for the cavities may
be tilled with the liquid.
a rough splinteredwound,
The
disadvantages of heating are usually great. Under
ordinary

asphaltum

which

condition

is

it is

"

conditions
moist

troubles
to

in

apply

hot

it is not

weather,

and

tendency

feasible to build a lire in the orchard, except

in
since there is danger of igniting the dead grass.
The

maintaining liquid conditions

it

crack

also considerable, since

be kept
asphaltum must
serious
disadvantage is the
are

in a thin coating
effectively
fluid.
Probably the most
very

this

off

is danger
There
during winter.
also, where
the surface is not entirelydry, that the moisture
will produce bubble
when
the asphaltum is applied. This is dangerous, especiallyif bubbles
crack
the
and
below.
surface
disad
Vet, despite these
expose
for
melted
large wounds
vantages,
asphaltum offers a rather higher
to

than
efficiency
141.
say,

10

anything

else

we

have

Liquid forms of asphaltum."

pounds of solid asphaltum

tried.
To
to

liquid asphaltum, use.

of Varnolene, a
pounds

make
20

DRESSINGS

165

WOUNDS

FOR

less naphtha and costing

or
petroleum oil,containing more
20
about
cents
a
gallon. Melt the asphaltum in a kettle of several
withdraw
the fire, then
thoroughly melted
gallons capacity. When
character.
stir thoroughly until of uniform
and
add the Varnolene
heated
and
vessel
be
the
If desired,
uniformity better assured.
again
may
weather
is in
and
This
gives suitable consistency for warm
by
the proportion of one
parts Varnolene
part asphaltum to two
of
winter
to
2"4
the
In
asphaltum
one
preparation
a
part
weight.
WARNING
WHEN
be desired.
by weight may
parts Varnolene

compound

"

THE

IS

VARNOLENE
GAS

This
\Vith

IGNITES,

oil,
by weight.
as

of

inflammable
several

These

is much
gases
but
be
cannot

times

forms

in suitable

in

difference

as

of

much

with

less

melting point of 285".

200", the proportion of

at

use

soldered,

with

oil than

linseed

[Linseed

overlooked.

oil

Varnolene.]

as

time

any

since

the

entirely

liquid asphaltum

for

cans

in tins and

up

asphaltum having
melting point of
a

MABLE
INFLAM-

VAPOR.

from
To make
a fluid asphaltum
of
linseed
to
2
to
1^4
asphaltum
part
parts
the asphaltum until liquid,then add the linseed
the formation
The
danger from
given above.

Heat

Varnolene,

costs

GASOLINE

OF

of

one

directions

oil
the

AN

ASPHALTUM

HOT

MANNER

oil fluid asphaltum."

use

per

THE

reduced.

be

may
Linseed

142.

oil

with

asphaltum

linseed

TO

THE

is for

formula

Varnolene

ADDED
AFTER

packed

be prepared and
may
required. They should

exposure

be

air will make

the

to

put

slight

the consistency.

difficulties
fillingfor cavities.
The
in fillingcavities
shade
in orchard
arising from
or
using cement
traceable
character
the
of
trees
cement
are
to
largely
filling.
rigid
The
light color is at times likewise an objection to cement
as
a
material
for such filling;
it also lacks adaptabilityfor use
in swaying
branches.
For
and
these reasons
sawdust
others, asphaltum and
of
and
tested
Forester
fillings,originated
by John Boddy, City
Cleveland, Ohio, are recommended
by A. D. Selby.* Dry sawdust
of any
solid asphaltum, such
variety and
as
"Byerlyte" and that
used
for
in
brick
used
filling
are
according to the
pavements,
formulae
below.
The
details, briefly stated, are
terial
follows; all maas
being designated by volume.
144. For
cavities in swaying branches:
i part asphaltum
to 3 to

Asphaltum

143.

sawdust

and

"

"

sawdust.

parts
145.

For

sawdust.
melted

Moisten

cavities
Moisten

as

until

added,
in

trunks:"

with

tools

asphaltum

sawdust,

in

tools

desired

evenly

cavities

over

in
i

crude

part

crude

oil.

asphaltum

to

oil.

sawdust

consistency
surface

of

Stir

to

is reached.

Circular

ISO, Ohio

Agricultural

still hot.

vessel

Experiment

No

to

Station.

into

hot

Distribute
avoid

Apply
joints or
separations are required as in cement
fillings.If surfaces
are
irregular or lack uniformity of color, coat them with
liquid asphaltum.

over.

while

parts of

sheet
of
gas

boiling
paper

fillings
tar

or

166

PRINCIPLES

the

In

with

as

is

fruit

cutting

is

or

which

In

kept

be

the

either

of

have

may

is

It
that

for

has

and

to

from
be
used

other

secure

that

noted

can

with

stored
for

purposes.

gas

the

solid

and

filling

of

shipped
the

in

referred

iron

be

may

asphaltum

surfaces

street

in

to

with
drums.

of

or

made.

that

filling.

petroleum

interstices

is

filling

border

will

filling
wood

liquid

or

any

the

netting

wire
the

filling

the

of
tar

asphaltum

refining

the

with

contact

the

as

for

of

oil-coated

of

as

ture,
mix-

close

of
line

surface

general

very

asphaltum-sawdust

exerted

dressing

proper

cut

derived

been
many

be

to

It

base.

it

been

is

successfully

and
is

some

will

done

made.

outer

surface,

it

thoroughness

is

screen

the

case

pressure

irregular

these

any

with

outer

an

use

by

which

properly

coated

In

uniform

more

Finally,

to

netting.

against

metal,

is

be

may

filled

carbobecause

The

parts.

in

surfaces

creosote,

use

fillings

the

cavities

desirable

poultry

of

of

interior

sublimate,

disinfection

and

success

large

very

to

living

to

next

removal

the

what
some-

than

trees

corrosive

advisable

not

use

of

work
the

of

case

it
or

for

the
determine

largely

is

shade

that

recommended

It

penetrating

too

with

advisable

ing,
fillsound

to

material

rotten

in

and

without

removed

be

and

of

sawdust

antiseptic
parts

soft

applications

by

kerosene.

all

seems

further

sterile

decayed
of

away

is

It

trees.

rendered

lineum

removal

with

filled

be

rendered

be

the

PRUNING

OF

to

to

or

that

involves

deeper

be

cement,

recommended

This

wood.

PRACTICE

cavities

of

preparation

asphaltum,
it

AND

an

In

materials

asphaltum
recent

pavements,

years

and

168

AND

IPLES

'KI.\(

PRACTICE

PRUXIXG

OF

if

cured

they are pruned. For this work

nothing equals
shears
knife.
sharp pruning
or
a
Special
heavy sharp
is
laid upon
the cleaner
the "sharp," because
emphasis
the cut
the better.
consists
in cutting off all
work
The
have
clean
the wounds
to
injured roots
so
as
just above
surfaces
and new
to develop good calluses
roots
(Fig. 119).
About

decades

two

stirred

by

the

horticultural

the

ago

Stringfellow or

world

stub-root

"horticultural
the

to

as

The

for transplanting.

the

system,

H.

of

apostle

great

this

heresy,"
of
trimming

trees

nursery

was

method,

late

M.

Stringfellow,
ist
horticulturprominent
of

stubs
The
cut

WHERE

119"

of

roots

back

spring
new

at

(a

year

roots

appear

as

near

NEW
this

ROOTS

Kieffer

had

shown.

Note

that

ends

of

cut

and

tree

The

the

of

most

the

old

crowbar

them

being jammed
!

One

plantingrequires a
method

is to

leave

mere

long

distinct

minimum

tops

sticks

to

In
some
whips.
absolutely

cases

no

roots.

of

stumps

caused
injuries were
by careless
digging.
back
be cut
just above
so
injured should
leave
the wounds
to
so
as
faces
surclean, smooth
will heal
which
better
and
over
quicker
will ragged
and
than
tissues.
badly dried

the

or

Roots

with

to

inches

few

were

following
developed

The

pruned sometimes

cut

START

pear

time.
planting
later) the tree

of nursery

roots

be

trees
F1G.

advised

Texas,

that the

roots

left below
none

of

the

"tree"

into

of time

stubs

of

roots

At

any

rate

limbs

above,

when

is thus

thus

in the soil

gained

modification
inch

and

ground

hole made

advantage

were

"

of the

perhaps 4
inches
root
axis, and perhaps a few
long on the main
if specially well
of branches
stubs
at
a
placed. Tests
the
of
stations
show
that
experiment
large number
method
sometimes
all-around
times
an
advantage, somewas
be genthe plan cannot
Doubtless
the reverse.
erally
recommended.

an

it has

to

fallen

into

"in-

NURSERY

PRUNING

nocuous

desuetude,"

and

except

169

STOCK

as

an

interestingtheory

it is rarely discussed

today.
main
146. Advantages
of Stringfellow system.
The
by Mr. Stringfellow for the stub-root syspoints claimed
tem
in
hole
follows
The
of pruning are
1.
as
:
digsaving
"

FIG.

Caliper

(left

to

VARIOUS

120"

No.

right)

No.

ging; 2, saving

in

GRADES

OF

PEACH

TREES

No.
1, %
inch;
2, z/4 inch;
4, y2 inch; No.
5, ft inch.

No.

3,

5^

inch;

purchaser if trees are root

and
3, corresponding saving
top pruned at the nursery;
in charge for packing ; 4, saving to nurserymen
in taking
for
trees
shipments; 5, reducing to a minimum,
up
of the roots, the danger of
of most
through the removal
freight

to

170

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

all kinds

spreading
even

used

of

eases
fungous disinsects; 6, enabling two
three-year-oldtrees to be
geously
advantaplanting as

and
and

PRUNING

for

one-year-old

as

saving losses

to

ordinarilyburn

thus

trees,

who

nurserymen,
such
trees.

Stringfellow* holds that the usual ill

in transplanting the pecan
is due
entirely to leaving too long a top root.
He
advises
4
5
to
cutting this root
or
inches and
settingthe tree at least 6 inches
success

than

deeper
The
FIG.

YEARLING

PEACH

WITH

LEADER

Starns]

feet in

15

height

test

the

the

whole

fine

as

live and

at

over

the
300

appearance

orchard

as

the

time

averaged

crates

one

upon

any

writer
1:.' to
acre.

[Mr.

fairly satisfied that peach trees,

by the Stringfellow method, will
in stiff
flourish in Georgia, even

soil and

extended

to

J.

C.

meteorological

adverse

under
This

conditions.
Dr.

writer

an

peach

trees

considerably

that the

up.

is

pruned
clay

bore

and

The

seen.

ever

stated

be

It may

Starns]

has

taken

was

in the expeach plat used

periments
conducted
by H. N. Starnsf to
Stringfellow plan presented
on

two-year-old
[Mr.

it

main

121

CENTRAL

hefore

statement

may

and

apples
\yhitten concludes

cover

and

from

reports

also

be

cherries.
from
of

periments
ex-

growers

pruning and
18
12
back
according
inches,
to
to
cutting
of
has
been
the
to
Stringfellow plan,
that
it is not
in showing
great service
like
the large
retain
to
anything
necessary
fibrous
roots
of
formerly supquantity
posed
that the method

to

In

the

be

of

stub-root

necessary.

year

book

of

the

Netnerland

Pomological Society" for 1902, A. C. Ide

severe
pruning 9f
reports experiments on
time
of
at
trees
apple and
pear
young
used
two
and
transplanting. He
one,
*

10.
and
24, Page
Farm
Ranch,
Texas
40.
Station, Bulletin
t Georgia
Experiment

The

FIG.

122

ING

TREE

reader

will

AFTER

"

here

discussion
the
and
on
experiments
illustrating the
favorable
the
articles
agricultural press,
giving both
quoted from
the
comment
on
theory.
i Cultura, 14, Page 424.
of

half-tones

PRUN-

IN

FIG.

find

also
and

121.

series

numerous

unfavorable

PRUNING

three-year-old
in

the

usual

One-half

trees.

others

way;

each

of
their

had

171

STOCK

NURSERY

lot

transplanted

were

pruned

roots

to

stocks.

mere

vigorously
spring, but
of June the closely pruned trees
the end
before
were
larger than the
maintained
When
others, and this lead was
throughout the season.
had developed much
better
the trees
were
dug the closely pruned ones
the

in

Trees

FIG.
The
do
the

not

123"
of

top
as

branches

lowest

and

leader

147.
roots

the

HOW

should

as

in

in

the

seen

When
may

to

be

left

this

the

prune

pruned

cut

to

out

is shown

after the trees

been

be

make

for

the

others

PRUNED
Most

planting.
received

as

on

BE

from

orchardists
in

nursery;

much
better.
right pruned
leave
Better
the
strength.

the

and

develop

new

ones

upon

tree

tops.

"

While

the

carrying the trees to the

best practice to prune
the tops
planted. When
pruned prior to

prior

to

MAY

after

picture.

nursery

field,it is conceded

TREE

immediately
tree

apart
case,

left-hand

have

SET

insufficientlypruned;

farther

be

highest

more

NEWLY

pruned

the

but

ordinarily

the

OF
be

On

in the

others.

TOP
should

tree

enough.

prune

center

The
the

than

systems

root

off

first lot started

to

172

PRINCIPLES

taking
the

and

the

to

AND

field

parts

very

PRACTICE

OF

injuries may

occur

prized

most

PRUNING

in

be

may

the

handling,
When

lost.

not
planting the head may
only be started
the desired
best advantage
at
to
height, but there is a
better
of having the branches
in good condition
chance
which
well
to
as
as
having a larger number
among
choose.
Always in doing such pruning the feet should
and the cuts
be placed one
made
each side of the trunk
on
from
When
below
trees
upward with a keen-edged knife.
the pruning should
be say 6
are
transplanted in autumn,
deinches
the frame
limbs
are
beyond the point where

pruned

after

FIG.

EFFECT

124"

Only
the

with

by

the

greatest

OF

ON

these
have

be

more

careful

there

ma"

be

trees

helped

or

many

less

pruning should be given just

the spring. (Compare
121.)

148.

in

Lengths

of

planters in the past

nursery

have

tree

trunks."

generally

called

of

then

and

balanced

final

starts

NEEDED

WINDBREAK

TREES.

UNSTAKED

can
pruning
difficulty. Staking would

most

sired, because
The

WIND

only

them.

winterkilling.
before

growth

Because
for

trees

tree

with

have
pruned
lengths the nurserymen
to be
the trees
were
off the lower
limbs, especiallywhen
old.
sold when
two
Formerly the height of the
years
trunks

of certain

PRUNING

173

STOCK

NURSERY

trunk

was

to

first decade

the
3

4,

to

feet; during

of this

because

century

low-headed

steadily gaining in
popularity. Still more
recently
trees

are

certain

heading
in

or

have

nurserymen
their trees

some

been

still lower

allowing

cases

all of the

lower

tically
prac-

limbs

to

(Figs. 195, 200). The

advantage of this practice
is that the purchaser may
he
the head
start
just where
it.
happens to want
grow
distinct

149.

Trimming
time.

OF

PEACH
This

FORM

POOR

failed

tree

one-year

to

develop
the

on
well-placed branches
trunk.
Compare
Fig. 126.

main

between

ance

top and

all torn,
should

trees

nursery

dead

root

shrubs
the

most

carefully lifted,it
establish

are

trees

even

is

are
essary
nec-

baK

new

ever,
First, how-

root.

and

the

soil when

and

when

such

dug,

to

planting
trans-

Because

"

is left in the

system
125

at

large proportion of

FIG.

trees

injured
by clean

roots

cuts
pruned back
A
through living parts of these roots.
do
knife makes
clean job, but shears
a
Both
quicker work.
implements should
be keen-edged.
On
the roots
slanting

be

wounds

which
to

downward

face

heal

are

quickly

more

than

supposed
those

Second,
the top must
be considerably reduced,
the trees
otherwise
suffer, be slow
may

facing upward

establish

to

die.
a

mere

or

to

one

side.

themselves.

Peaches

whip,

are

but

usually

Often
trimmed

apples, pears

they

FIG.
AFTER

to

and

The

Fig.

126

PRUNING
tree

same

125.

The

fr'Jnk
J,2^

as

in

dead
cut

out.

174

AND

PRINCIPLES

other

do

trees

not

PRACTICE

handling. Always

severe

should

left

be

to

develop

able

be

to

seem

OK

PRUNING

frame

the

such

of robust

number

goodly

quite

stand

to

buds

Some

branches.

others
the main
be upon
stem,
upon
may
of the branches
developed in the nursery.
pruning have
"Whip"
pruning and "stub"

the

these

of

stubs

"

The

advocates.

is the

former

applicable to yearling

since

trees, and

127"
When

YOUNG

TREES

received

too

in"

early
keeps the

"Heeling
planted in the

field.

stem

branches

for.

no

"

for

at

height. During
out"

planting, nursery
moist

roots

and

all

and

the

first

"

FOR

IN

HEELED

PROPERLY

stock

insures

is the1

growth

nursery

stub

trees

method

are

branches,

the

started

the height desired.

at

may

this

the

tree

be
This

original

the

when

cared

trees

the

are

sired
de-

"feathers

have

used, the
method

to

may

sturdy and

more

STORAGE

shortening
season

are

properly

be

which
twigs, among
develops many
properly placed to form the head.
the

the

TEMPORARY
should

or

When

trees

one-year

steadily gaining in popularity, this method

important. It consists in leaving nothing but

FIG.

and

with

popular

more

their

each

head

leaves

be

eral
sev-

several

being
one

t""

176'

PRINCIPLES

FIG.
UNDESIRABLE
Tree

feet

(Figs.
Even

144).
second-grade
to

with

may,

be

has

in the
150.

made

trees

the

by

selections

WHEN

GROWTH

OF

ABOUT

SET

fairlywell-formed
Colorado
Experiment

the

heads,
Station

account.

mind.

second

were

grade

laterals

lower

tops

in
difficulty

FEET

FORM
HEADED

discussion

planted. The
so

TREE

produce

to

pruning in the reader's

The

BY

trees."
Paddock
experience pruning young
presents an
which
of some
drawings
photographs (from
reproduced!), to fix the points of the various
stages

Actual

herewith

are

of

DESIRABLE
2

following condensed

interesting

131"
MADE

tra
ex-

shown

been

FIG.

trees

some

work,
as

PRUNING

set.

Station*

137

OF

FORM

high when

ment

PRACTICE

130

headed

was

AND

much

were

article is condensed

and

evidently three years old when

in the nursery,
pruned away

had
too

follows

His

as

all been

high for Colorado.

There

was

also

the
at suitable places to
to form
the results are
much
better than
However,
is so often
left as received from
the nursery,
as

getting branches

make

the head.

for

if the tops had

been

done.

The
inches
would

might
*

Annual
v

in Figure

headed

back to about 24
there been
this point they
April. Had
any
have
been
pruned back to single buds, so clusters of leaves
and
formed
thus provided
shade
for the trunks.
have
some
trees

1, 2 and

in

Colorado

132

were

laterals

Report,
Bulletin

19n.

106-

below

FIG.

132"

DEVELOPING

TOPS

ON

SECOND-CLASS

TREES

(see

text)

178

PRINCIPLES

The
the

AND

how

pictures show
time

branches, No.
the

and

tree

looked

trees

No.
pruning.
No.
four
and
produced

five branches

The

the

No.

on

back

cut

were

about

the

were

but

saved

to

formed
two.

form

close

No.

The

No.

for

well

are

together.

the top.
might well be double the distance from
with
after
of
it
the
idea
1
making an
was
pruned,

limb

framework

These

foot.

one

too

are

following April at
five vigorous

in the
had

1
3

about

to

trunk, but

PRUNING

OF

first

the

of

PRACTICE

tributed
dis-

lowest

la

shows

open-centered

tree.

In
the

No.

the

limbs

framework

only difference
left longer
was
three

allowed
from

near

of these

saved

were

to

form

limbs

vigorous

the

All

top close.

are

in No.
The
:"a.
tree, with a leader, as is shown
branch
this and
No.
is that the ti.pmost
between
la
of this tree
The
than the others.
carelessly
pruner

of

surface

to

grow
ground, for

the

of

useful
but
no
they could serve
purpose,
only rob the other limbs of plant food.
Such
best
by
are
prevented
growths
the
in
season.
pinching off the buds early
No.

failed

branches

produced
crotch
in

would

a,

out

the second

made

3c.

One

of

lower

down.

in

to

lb,

side

shoots

single

hud,

with

all of

limbs.
of

limbs

will be

selected

on

limbs

to

form

be

additional
removed

fruit spurs
The

form

of

the

as

the

may

these

about

ea.h

se

of

ond
velop
detwo

secondary
of

the main
The

framework.
cut

ne

rule

.'.

hack

seem

tree, then,

to

velop
de-

desirable.

sh mid

he

beginning of the third

developed
he
and subsequent pruning should
season,
directed
toward
retaining this shape, cutat

the

or

er

should

As

each

i-u

id"

the

branches
the

2c
1

were

during

spurs

numerous

1c,
in

the

back

crt

was

few

placed

may

in

1 and

remove

best

rest

cbse

the

shown

are

was

The

when

the

At

pruned trees ha-1

in
respectively as shown

developing fruit

of

buds

dormant

the

results

one-half.

on

shown

as

is shown
No.
Tree
1
seemed
limbs
the frame

back

had

3b.

fluous, so it
growth, shown

year,

bud,

season

Pruning
and

Both

inducing

so

two

branches

result.

of

growth

lb, 2b and

cut

to

hope

push

to

of

The

top.

the second

soon

back

in

enough

out

suitable

nearly opposite,

are

cut

were

throw

to

form

to

WELL-BRANCHED

5R

PLACED.

NURSLIMBS

ARE

NURSERY

PRUNING

FIG.

HOW

135"

TO

It is important
and
roots
pruned
so
by trampling
FIG.

134.

WHERE

CUT

TO

Same
in

the

tree

The

Fig. 133.

the

limbs

off

when

topmost
first set

of

cut

of

is

2c

into

developing

air

spaces.

distance

suitable

same

earth

and

second

The

above.

tree

as

and

1, the

is to

set

growth

new

No.

The

shaft.

central

vigorous

formed

has

the

back

cut

was

limbs

frame
a

moist

of

part

every

the

hard

and

is set.

top

branch

at

be

tree

the

Although

of

the

among

and
excessive
back
thinning
growths
renewing the bearing wood.
the
The
pruning of tree No. 2 is much
leader
is
that
a
being developed.
except
same,

where

should
the

bring

with

TREE

it down

pack

to
to

as

contact

A
soil

the

ting

cross

indicate

marks

then

formation

the

prevent

to

PLANT

work

shown

as

in

root

179

STOCK

is to

be

veloped
de-

be

cut

back.
The
a

shown

tree

failure.

The

failed
been

done

person

heading given
develop

to

stem

June, but
developed by
will

succeed

to

insert
in

the
this

two

lower

June
chance

that

of
for

year.

with

success

It would

This

do

ting
set-

have

suitable

at

wanted,

which

trees

buds

of

much

spring following
down.

is not

just where

means

better

three

or

far, pretty

is, so

3c

it in the

branches

plan

main

series

the

severe

make

next

be

can

better
the

around

to

in

points
probably be

can

Limbs

great.

so

but
not

the

average

require

such

manipulation.
151.

Methods

of tree

planting.
"

An

experiment

to

test

180

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

various

OF

of

methods

conducted

was

cut

back

to

whips

and

the

left ;

unless

end, in which

the

back

6,
7,

of

tops
and
FIG.
AMONG
BADLY

136

"

AIR

SPACE

ROOTS
PLANTED

roots

touched
un-

half,
all of

In

left

were

trimmed
un-

5, Roots

to

cut
mere

trimmed;
un-

half;

back

The

stub.

5, 6

trees

treated

were

in

as

OF

left

injured or decayed at
cut
case
they were

back

cut

roots

and

back

cut

roots

as

2, trimmed

leader

wood.

sound

to

were

whips

4, untrimmed.
the

cases

two-

methods

to

3, branches

these

the

3 feet ;

about

to

growth

trees

1, Trimmed

leader

of

and

Ten

Spy

each

planted by
follows

Card*

season's

one

Northern

year

W.

described.

and

shown

planting-

tree

F.

by
of

results

the

PRUNING

No.

8,

3.

TREE

Stringfellow
method, the roots
being cut back to a
1 or 2 inches
long, and the
mere
stump
In the spring
tree
to about
a foot high.
of the fourth
following, representative
year
in
each
lot were
trees
graphed
photolowing
(Figs. 138 to 144) and the foltaken

notes

Whips

with

leader

144). Good

trees

and

1.

for the

Their

branched.

well

(Fig.

back

cut

most

greatest

part
defect

FIG.

long, spindling growth which

from
lack
of pruning.
resulted

is in the
has
Meads
the

have

ground.
Rhode

Island

formed
2.

at

Whips

Experiment

2 to

with

Station

3 feet from
leader

Report

TREE

137"
WIND

In
winds
with
toward
shown

un-

1901,

Page

SET

AGAINST

OBLIQUELY

of
high
regions
trees
plant the
the
leaning
tops
the
here.
lean

23S.

them

wind
On

as

sides
hill-

uphill.

NURSERY

PRUNING

do
trees
(Fig. 143). These
in the previous lot.
Most

touched
those

as

good
5

feet

or

the

be

3.

from

FIG.

cut

13S"

4. Branches
Good

roots

Very

A
Heads

good

quite so

untrimmed
similar

better, heads
back

and

few

seem

roots

TREE

138a"

in
5.

formed.

ROOTS

(Fig. 140).
most

Fig. 138.
Branches

counterpart

Fig. 140.
(Fig. 141).
(Fig. 141).
to

the

FROM

slender, but
as

seem

from

well

untrimmed

rather

average.

back

trees

the

experiment.
(Fig. 142).

feet

have

formed

trees

the

FIG.

the

cut

These

and

not

cases

'STRINGFELLOWED"

about

in appearance
well
formed

some

about

balanced

(Fig. 138),

roots

in

well

so

having

unpruned

heads

formed
on

heads

in

roots

FROM
STOCK

untrimmed,

trees.

excellent.
not

well

NURSERY

average
of them
do

ones

half,

uniform

GROWN

TREE

UNTRIMMED

real

not

ground, though
make
good heads.

back

heads

The

the

undesirable

with

trees,

ground.

the

most

Branches

Good

down,

will

branches

lower
to

low

branches

181

STOCK

Growth

back,

cut

of

Growth

Fig.
a

6. Branches
More

are

uneven

140.

trifle
cut

in

182

PRINCIPLES

than

growth

the

method

other

one

two

or

Stringfellow method
excellent

an

with

start.

heads

just

at

OF

Trees

(Fig.l38a). These

start, and

branches

inches
In

the

the

from

eye

takes

planting.

The

conditions

treatment

poor

ones.

trees

have

made

TREE

140"

UNTRIMMED

trees,
number

FROM

GROWN

PLANT

NURSERY

and

or

be

it should
tree

little wood

experiments

tree

branch

in turn

these

of the

account

much

of whether

no

about

at

30

starting point.

observations

these

The

uneven.

ROOTS

STUB-PRUNED

of

FROM

eral
gen-

by the String-

cut

fine trees, but

very

in

same

well-formed
They will make
the ground.
Generally a large

GROWN

TREE

139"

the

somewhat

FIG.

FIG.

PRUNING

lots, but much

cut
back, roots

(Fig. 139).

lot contains
8.

PRACTICE

7. Branches

habit.
fellow

AND

as

was

show

good

tree.

that

it stands,

regardless

cut

at

that

will adjust itself to

still make

remembered

away

under

almost
For

time

of

favorable
any

kind

of

practical pur-

184

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OK

FIG.

PRUXIXC,

144

HEAD

"

"WHIP"
CUT

FIG.

TREE

143"
A

head

FROM

GROWN

"WHIP"

LEFT

LEADER

BACK

started

Trees

which

the

start

apple,

"

headed

at

smaller

growing,

18

fruits,other

than

inches

more

the

lost ; for
the

work

During
start

and

inches

chance

the

This
trees

at

to

the

the
the

proper

first

ground

been

as

be

must

If

set.

head

and

or

be

stone
even

mediatel
im-

done

delayed

will have

for the

least

those

the
6

headed

turally
na-

may

"

where.
any-

neglect

for

practicallyall
will

"feather

out"

the

been
to

time.

summer

"whips"

such

be

pruning

have

pear

trees,

get a good, low

attention
will make
up

no

and

cherries, may

sweet

the

from

spreading

more

lower.

after
year

24

to

cherry

sweet

at

erect,

grow
on

LEADER

be

may

THE

WITH

BY

FORMED

WITH

buds

abundantl

do

PRUNING

fullest

to

establish

Then,

depends

the

among

of

twigs
this

From

done

as

often
be

may

time

on

will

spring

forward

recommended

trunk

be

leaf

soon

broom-like
selected
the

by

tops,
to

form

pruning
Lewis

strong

do

to

root

anyx
desired

the

frame

(Chapter

training

X).

will

area.

II).

the

and

lined
out-

stuff

(Chapter

enough

as

green

its

to

(except

and
action

develop

to

this

because

sturdy

allowed
hindrance

or

169)

185

STOCK

be

let

and

166

165,

following

be

without

action

Root

should

twig

extent

in

help

and

leaf

Every

NURSERY

The

cutting.
ber
num-

limbs.

may

CHAPTER
PRUNING
153.

with

YOUNG

Disappointments

orchardists

growing

the

due,

the

other

the

been

the

While

believe

we

has

grower

these

hand,

one

Many

"

disappointed

principles which

hand,

is because

have

pruning.

on

of fundamental

knowledge
on

from

pruning.!

to

trees

young

be

may

TREES*

attributed

obtained

results

to

lack

underly

much

of

the

too

pruning

alone,

failed

realize

from

and

has

the

portance
im-

other

practices
tillage,
of

ing,
prun-

much

of

of

faction
dissatis-

expected

to

appointmen
dis-

chard
or-

tion,
irriga-

"

ance
mainten-

soil

fertility,

etc.

No

how

fully
skill-

prune

for

matter
we

fruitfulness,
have

soil

such

food
the

FIG.

145"

Never

should

They
12
next

main

the
issue

inches

15

or

FORMED

BADLY

start

bad

prevent

Such

with
and

slight

153

United

by

the

States

t As

chiefly

I. Lewis

to

for

present

the

apple
these

expect

to

satisfactory

secure

results.

greatly

Again,

we

realize

in

177

have
No.

in

author,

of

130,

brackets

the

apply

referenced
to

very

the

from

to

soil.

article

other

considerable

parts

of
of

area

by
With

Station.

Experiment

Oregon

cross

or

methods

the

condensed

somewhat

been

Bulletin

that

this
the

Canada.

and

noted

to

indicated

modifications,

volume

strong

cannot

we

velop
de-

to

tree.

Paragraphs
C.

moisture

to

must

Professor

cient
suffi-

will

will

and

buds,

tions
condi-

time

good,

manner.

arrangement

an

and

right

HEAD

this

limb

one

crotches

the

strengthen

in

spiral whorl

between

above.

one

in

TREE

limbs

we

furnish

to

as

at

unless

in

paragraph
but
pruning,

other

fruits

172

the

also
are

in

to

directions
all

given

deciduous

paragraphs
186

173

in

paragraphs

fruits
to

177.

and

nuts.

153

to

172

Specific

applytions
direc-

YOUNG

PRUNING

elevation, and
relation

be

of the

pruning
of

2,000 feet,
of

that

This
lower
were

old

branches
too

slender,

on

much
weak

146"

Yellow

MAIN

Italian
shaded
fruit

tree

become

spurs

by

is

Newtown

BRANCHES

Prune

have

the

BARREN
has

not

been

have

Idaho,

the

in

branches

very

close

BECAUSE

pruned

like

those

years.

the

of

consists
in

altitude

NEGLECT

OF
for

an

problem from
Oregon on

western

the
through
dying
This
thick, bushy top.
top

fruiting

at

different

barren

and

ways
variety question is alFor
example, the

in southern

silt loam,

which

consideration.

Jonathan

pruning

FIG.

Likewise,

into

taken

factors

are

pruning.

to

to

climate

187

TREES

The
fruit

frame
spurs

largely of
Fig. 168.

and
which

long,

I'RIXC

II'I.KS

AM)

PKACTirE

OF

PRUNING

the
heavy soil at an elevation of 100 feet (80). While
trees
principles underlying the pruning of these two
may
be the same,
the application may
be radically different.
a

We

need, first,to form

these

principles

than

we

individual

FIG.

the

BARTI.ETT

At

are

of

cases

the

BEAR

chosen
a

In
to

branch

At

possibly

types

so-called

of

form
to

set

are

vase

the
assume

trees

from

country

to

suit

Some

BUT

YEARLY

them

of

fruits

where

produced

have

probably

however,

Perhaps,

and

set

of

some

or

the
open

the

or

in

these

the
are

leader

three

tree

is

tree

in

the

tree.

and

has

been

French

our

special needs.

type.

For

to

are

tendency

; any

suppressed

of the three

the

tree, the

five branches

to

of the
lead

west
North-

the

vase-shaped

modified

framework

in

grown

are

globe

Each
being allowed to grow.
is given equal prominence
borrowed

fruit.

no

scars

ripened.

open,

type, and

the

but
b

BLOOM

FRUIT

died.

which

leader

154a.

bloomed

year.

scars

Three

center

of

next

larger

by twigs

154.
:

for

the

left

scars

which

spurs

buds

WHICH

SPURS

FRUIT

SELDOM

blossom

study more
closely
application to our

to

their

past

what

orchards.

OLD

147"

in

of

understanding

and, second,

are,

have

ever

clear

leader

no

five branches

This
modified

example,

tree

was

in this
in parts

PRUNING

Middle

of the

YOUNG

in California

and

West

large number
shearing being employed
to

carry

shade

to

as

branches

the

tree

"globe" or "vase"
term
employed is
to
produce shade,

FIG.
YOUNG

laterals,
force

to

is seldom

scald.

NEWTOWN

tree

admit

more

orchardists
is that

branch
is used

light. The
and
Oregon

term

the

shearing
the

AUGUST

tree

claim

it allows

breaks

PRUNING
YELLOW

that

more

out

the

generally;

tree

ever,
how-

general framework,
is the

types
the

light

may

it is not

same.

to

enter

be

and

second, it

keep

to
:

to

low

branches

crotches.

ruined.

duces
pro-

First, it is

scaffold

adapted

open

tree, thus

the

easy
are

the

of

advantage

better

too

keep

YOUNG

coloring of the fruit ;

a
tree, broad, spreading and
The
headed.
objections to this tree
generally structurally weak, since the
issue at one
point, thus making weak
causing

pact
com-

the

NEWTOWN

of California

Our

so

of

and

AFTER

AUGUST

BEFORE

to

laterals

always

Instead
out

prune

or

dense

almost

PRUNING

open

used, but
tree.

pruning

more

Northwest

"open"

growers

summer

out

sun

is allowed

tree

Pacific

In the

the

the

148

YELLOW
TREE

of

from

is the result.

189

TREES

If

Second,

one

it

all varieties

190

I'KINCIPLES

AM)

all conditions

under

I'KAITICK

found

in

leader

tree

PRUNING

OF

the

Pacific

Northwest

[or

elsewhere].
155.

the

The

East

so-called
the

on

believe

growers

the

in

Pacific

the leader

branch

tree, since the center

have
the ascendency, the

the

pyramid.

true

which

are,

The

are

less

breakage

trees

from

tree

tree

the

less

or

large

very

difficult to

of

With

more

obtain

type

the

always 'allowed

is

trees,

being

there

than

to

headed

low

keep

probably stronger,

this

where

type.

grows

growers
very

open.

called

The

however,

and

largely in

Northwest

be the best

to

leader
to

used

Atlantic

orchards

few

are

been

Seaboard, and is used somewhat

There
Coast, especially in British Columbia.

the Pacific

on

has

the

from

so-

tree.

open

FIG.
The

VIGOROUS

150"
shoot

SHOOT
is

and

pruned

was

PRODUCED

FROM
in

now

fruit

156.

modified

The

leader.

exactly as though we
leader, but, beginning with
trees

the

is

leader

type of

tree

suppressed.

allows

crotches

strong
time

keeps the
type is growing
the
With
may

the

this

going

were

the
The

type
to

second

are

to

it has

cc'iitcr

fifth year,
that this

well,

limbs, and

frame

the

the

to

the

start

grow

the branches

where

of

number

the

we

advantages

relativelyclose

in favor

Note

a.

In

"

space

main

tree

of these

built, and

with
upon

and

to

at

SPUR

PEAR

at

to

the

build
same

ground. This
tried throughout

the
been

Northwest.
any

be

us

condition.

healthy

buds

BARTLETT

OLD

any

also

one

handling.]

weak

types,

bushy

of the

or

three

trees

open

or

trees

systems.

strong
may

trees

be

cured
se-

[It depends

192

I'KI. \CIP1.KS

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

FIG.

153

the

would

TYPICAL
Winter

Five-year-old
an

The

training.
keeping
pace
the

balance

with

the

To

branches

upper

be"un

the

leader

not

this

is

high.

The

Pacific

grows

suppressed.

these

most

the

are

that,

pruning, and

head

trees

in the

of

Under

in

such

this

shade

can

with

trees

the

this type

at

or

Mountain

Rocky

Idaho,

for, that

care

In parts of the

tree.

their

often

to

eastern
way

Coast
trees.

shown

has

they

the

are

thinning, harvesting, spraying'and

we

better

limbs

high-headed

headed

for

economical

scaffold

easiest

extremely

low-headed

Experience
that

another

tree;

that

restore

or

be

must

type

ing
becom-

are

save

low-

as

are

and

upper

headed

pear

branches

lower

comparison.

in

weak

Nelis

typical of

but

center,

open

of

TREE

LEADER

30

that

say
make

will

inches
152"

appearance

tree.

man

FIG.

decks

between

stocky

general

the

of

LIMBS

distances

Note
and

OF

DECKS

THREE

"

FRAME

and

conditions

they

tree,

Inland
inches.

district,and

Oregon
are

of

trunks

main

and

than

with

Empire growers
Many Jonathan
in certain

tions
por-

and

are
Washington,
giving satisfactory results.

must

protect

the

trees

as

FIG.

155
LEADER

MODIFIED
Same
FIG.

154

MODIFIED

154

LEADER

Five-year

Bartlett

after

tree

Note

how

wood

has

been

in

removed
out;
back.

pruning.

Fig.

as

pruned.

little
pear

193

TREES

YOUNG

PRUNING

almost

no

FIG.

thinning
heading

LEADER
Bartlett

Five-year

much

scald.
possible against sun
In Western
Oregon 20 to 25 inches is
considered
better
a
height of head.
Many
felt that 20 to 25 inches
is the proper
height
Peaches

grown

cherries

should
at

about

be

headed

25

very
grow

the

was

mistake.

first few

years

About

inches

35

as

inches

formerly believed that

8
feet, and
high, 7 or

It

before

as

pears.

156

MODIFIED

GOOD

; but

will

low

; prunes

walnuts
no

for

as

apples
they can

30

to

laterals

this

is

make

now

have

growers

should

35

be

and
be

inches.
headed

allowed
considered

splendid

pear

pruning.

head

to
a

for

walnuts.

159.

In the Northwest,
pruning.
only two
and
for pruning are
considered
seasons
; namely, winter
There
is no
summer.
question that in the Northwest,
where
conditions
mild winter
prevail,winter pruning may
time
when
the trees
be done
at any
safely in most
years
laying
dormant.
of severe
winter conditions, deIn sections
are
the growth
the pruning as late as possible before
to be wisest.
Very rarely good
starts in the spring seems
Season

for

"

194

AND

PRINCIPLES

would

fruit growers
unless

complete the work

early in the season,
to

FIG.
MODIFIED
This

Note

the

pruning

it becomes

impossible

is commenced
to

necessary

prune

ary.
Januamount

that

pruned

Th's

the

tree

about

at

right period.

in

trees

fall

or

early winter,
the

prune
fi r s t

very

growers

older

trees

the

leaving

for

ones

younger
last.
We

FIG.

the
EXAMPLE

should

against
when

frozen.

Much

pruning

frozen

even

160.

it is

and

in

after-growth.

the

trees

the

Xorthwest,

summer

July

photographed

was

unless

that

Wagener

in

indicates

acreage

in the

of

type
tree,

five-year-old
was
apple,

of

pruning

large
if

PRUNING

LEADER

leader

pruned

OF

157

splendid

modified

fall

advise

such

has

one

PRACTICE

Three

tion
cau-

Branch

pruning
they are
heart
trees.

after

they

lessons

rot

other

and

It is
come

in

OF
A

is

158

UNEQUAL

growing

branches.

die-back

at

GROWTH
the

expense
therefore

It should

have

resulted

of
be

the
pressed.
sup-

from

trees
what
somepossible to prune
out
fully in the spring.

pruning

young

trees.

"

Pruning

PRUNING

depends

trees

young

these

If

it

mastered

are

balanced
161.

young

trees.

Choosing

and

or

open

an

branches

typical

trees

leader

Note

the
.

the

numerous

terminal

four

be

true

branches
five

are

branched
is

at

the

five frame
the
idea

tree

with

at

on

that

the

that

allowed

tree

is

the

required

buds

is

one
a

eastern

number

way

as

to

growers

of frame

as

than

dangerous
of the

long branches;
shoots.

one-year

on

SPURS

it may
preferred. While
will produce three
tree

one

lose

may

PEAR
into

if four

nevertheless,
a

if

push

not

in diameter

grow,

that

at

practically ruined

limbs,
in such

spurs

larger

the

Oregon

In

BARTLETT
did

which

considered

is

tree

THINNING

tree

to

; say

159

three-branched

average

of

difference,

added.

are

axillary fruit

five-branched

or

much

make

not

FROM

and

structurally weak

lost

the

buds

buds

many

For

old.]

years

branches

new

RESPONSE
fruit

five

or

practice

eastern

10

to

FIG.
VEGETATIVE

GOOD

four

tree,

For

"

out
some
eight, but prune
been
fairly well developed

it docs

year

branches.

of

type

well-

to

are

frame

[In

has

tree

to

year

leader

six

head

the

the

when

from

with

problem
simple, but
develop strong,

the

recommended.

start

after

to

spacing

modified

are

growers
these

difficult

is

principles.
of pruning
unless
they

the

rather

become

fundamental

great

mastered

are

wUl

trees

young

three

upon

195

TREES

YOUNG

who

one

three

whereas,

branch

save

the

it.

and

[This

start

limbs.]

with

or

threethat

it

branches
with

is

four

or

still balance
is the
more

main

than

196

PRINCIPLES

The

AND

PRACTICE

first lesson, then, is to

PRUNING

OF

choose

four

five

or

well-

issue in a spiral around

spaced branches, having them
the tree, if possible, and having them
far apart as they
as
be conveniently spaced [not less than
can
handbreadth,
a
The
farther
handbreadths
more].
or
preferably two
spaced,
apart they are
,_

i_

t^e

stronger

the

better

and

the

To

tree

headed,
it

this,

carefully

it is set

It will

out.

rub

to

necessary

buds
certain

remove

undesirable

branches,

possibly to

from

time

suppress

time

to

branches
tend
the

to

WAGENER

FIVE-YEAR-OLD
This

tree

pruned
October.
no

growth

in

160

of

less

July.
Note

that

response

APP1

than
The
there
as

the

has

taken

was

been

result

this

son
rea-

often

growers

cutting

tin-

in

practically
pruning.

of

stronger

It is for

advocate

was

with

away

build

that

TREE

vigor

average

photo

which

By observing
simple rules one

tree.
FIG.

run

tain
cer-

tree.

these
can

be

tain
cer-

undesirable
to

the

after

two

or

is

watch

must

first month

or

the
it

as

but

very

off,

one

neglect
soon

as

tained.
ob-

tree

do

not

must

better

tree

at

instead

25
of

or

28

inches

at

20

inche-

then
from
setting time, and
spacing the branches
the
the
to
as
near
ground as they can
get them
up
if the tree
is left to itself.
However,
top of the trunk.
will all develop near
the branches
the top of the trunk.
and the tree will be weak.
Only by careful watching can
at

PRUNING

the

increase

extra

head

made

be

in

of

YOUNG

197

TREES

of

height

material

any

advantage.
162.

dominant.

properly
branch

tends

weaker

two

obviate

this.

primer

the

the

to

build

level

the

because

attention

other

will

is

never

well-balanced
this

doing

paid

relation

the

to

[The

another.

to

no

practice is erroneously

based

principle]that

the

on

wood

more

wood

in

branch

one

strongest

former

the

across

wood

strong,

things

weakest

the

The

average

of two

tree

and

least.

is cut,

(83).

grows

is

tree

gradually

The

one

cuts

or

most

of

the

branches

does

tree,

of

remaining stronger
Proper
pruning will

ones.

top,

the

at

grow

rest

one

three

or

cuts

When

branches
side

become

branches
"

to

of the

expense

the

main

Keep

the

In other

concluded

it

more

words,

it

wood

is

if

that

the

GROWTHS

MAKES

left

lower

The

BACK

HEADING

161"

FIG.

fork

low
Yel-

this

of

upper

was
tree
apple
rather
back
severely, the
erately.
one
only modright-hand

shoots

and

Newtown

weak

and

is cut

it will

headed

stronger!

grow

It is true
is

back

pruned

dormant

From

that
back

the

the
as

more

whole

tree

shows

more

will

be

that

heavy
during

the

winter

means

tree

heavy

This, however,
do

with

the
of

one

tree

as

branch

whole
to

growth.
afterhas
and

tree.

nine

the

latter

three

This

photo

heading back, whether

increase
to
light, tends
of shoot
amount
growth in the
heading
However,
heavy
that

heavy
the

resulting growth;
heading-in of a

and

shoots

have

spurs.

from

developed;

while

four

former
the
fruit spurs

three

or

affords

back

greater

formation

shoot

than

making

does

stimulus
less

and

to

moderate

to
spur

ing
head-

back.

to

has

another.

little to do with
If

strong

the

branch

lation
re-

is

II'I.KS

I'KIM

AM)

I'R. \ITK1-;

I'kl'M.NC?

01-

in

close

weak

proximity
the

one,

to

best

way

strengthen the weak

branch
is by
cutting

t""

back

the

The

strong1

development

weak

branch

and

branch

there

is

there

the

large

will

be

on

branches

on

the

is

OF

vigorous
foot

be

of

tree

the

of

response

followed

the

relation

of

Cut

the

branch

in

less,until

tree

one

desired

the

to

branch

vigor

limiting the

hope

not

not

should

quite

The

from
the

the

so

to

the

heading
point of

the

point

hardest

much

branch

the

encourage

only difference

lead

of

view

cut

the

modified
that

back
view

of

the

another.

of leaves

the

between

third

the

in

need

and

be

cut

or

made

one

can

If

leader-type
in

still
that

branches,

branches.

weaker
tree,

that

buds,

second

vigor

Then

is reached.

only by suppressing the strong

number

grow

from

as

branch

weakest

It is

to

of

balance

much

so

to

strongest

least.

be

branches.

two

practice

tober.
Oc-

shoots

new

whole,

one

the

will

there

trimming.

done, then,
as

ing
follow-

tween
bediscrepancy
the development

two.

should

restricted.

continuation

PRUNING

JULY

vigorous five-year Wagener

anple
in
in July and
photographed
pruned
A

branch,

162

This

averaging

leaves

result, the

of the

was

will

and

strong

year

EFFECT

and

sap,

I"y limiting

growth

GOOD

heavy

branch

the

le"s

if

amount,
a

the

develop.

leaf

area;

weak

As

in

be

its

to

demand

of tin-

will

proportion

FIG.

one.

this

sibly
pos-

it is
tree.

pruning

200

i'KlXC

will

II'I.KS

AM)

J'KACTICK

break

easily, as the
critical points ; namely, at
To
as

avoid

this

leader.

pruning

cut

will become

be

__

and

of the

when

apart

harder

one

leader

far

than

the

branches

other.
side

the

Thus

is

with

of

trees.

convenience

FIG.

Note

that

at

of branches;
at
nearly equal strength
rne'hod)
unequal
cutting (the desirab'e
such
resulted
in
completely
destroying
crotches.
stronger
by making

B,

the

on

the.

ance
bal-

other.

With

Cornice

and

to

very

trees

for

seven

to

period

transition
hand

one

Yellow

the

to

trees,

number

twelve

the

building
body-

years,

of

years

of

from

the

at

have

those
the

the

on

Nelis.

will,

time

fruitfulness

reached

ing
build-

\Yinter
this

to

the

age,

body
fruiting

heavy

the

four

the

Third,

years.

which

of

Second,

from

pruning

large degree, determine

a

the

period

Baldwin,

Newtown,
other

many

is

tree.

young

h^s

seven
a

years

period

resulted

has

A, equal cutting

age,

four

PRUNING

UNBALANCED

in

critical

three

This

age.

be

may

those

formative,

164

non-

First,
to

one

sion,
discus-

into

classes.

AND

IM"

and

trees

divided

non-

"

of

young

bearing

mum.
mini-

Classes

in

reduce

to

to

bearing

tribute
dis-

strain
as

way

breakage

of

side

many

the

from

leader

which

..branches

164.

will

strong

great

If this

branch

a
a

such

one

continued,

whole

become

BALANCED

arc-

branch.

process

"

branches

possible. Second,

the
a

at

come

crotches

main

two

as

other

^_

all

balanced

each

that

as

strain

numerous

treat

means

chosen, they shall

in

the

JKf.\l\r,

and

stress

condition,

This

OK

of

trees

bearing

the

from

FIG.
Dehorned

Bartlett
showed

165"

RE1NVIGORATED

pear

formed

little change

in

many

spurs

TOP
new,

below.

OF

stron?

OLD

PEAR
and

shoots

Thinning

of

top

TREE
fruit

spurs

probably

above,
better.

but

202

PRINCIPLES

but

yet

as

have

AND

borne

not

taking up the details

pruning and its
165.

Summer

recent

we

FIG.

heard

166"

MODERATE

old

Tompkins
the

stimulated

has

King

formation

apple
of

become

from

rather

two

and

large

of

have

fruit

In

not

the

first

not

make

summer

very

not

much

of the

of

a
they do make
or
early July, it will often

be

found

first

by
an

moderate

ago

should

length.
amount

removed

be

now

Thinning
of
heading

back

often

trees

advantage

do

where

but

middle

is

out

during

done

season,

the

ing
prun-

shoots.
long
large numbers

medium

developed

the

tree's life,as

growth the
vigorous growth

FORMATION

will be

pruning

much

years

number

been

cases

Of

"

pruning,
fad.
Many

SHOOT
three

spurs.

many

sidered.
con-

it.

headed
back
and
have
consequently
branches
small
of the
spur-bearing
Many
their
afford
the
light throughout
to
remaining
ones
ample
limited
back
needed
than
a
here,
though
more
heading
from
high.
too
growing
will
tend
to
keep the tree
These

mer
sum-

be

trees.

summer

STIMULATED
tree

should

trees

about

many

PRUNING

classes,

non-bearing

much

Before

crop.

three

such

young

are

this

In

to

fruit growers,
expecting too much

which, with

PRUNING

commercial

relation

have

OF

pruning these

of

pruning

years

people

PRACTICE

of
to

June,
head

PRUNING

the trees

That

the
to

be

203

TREES

time, cutting them

back

back

about

the

same

they might
following spring.
be
is, terminal
growths 12 to 30 inches long should
back
laterals are
desired
for
to the point where
new
future body-building of the tree.
With
a tree
running
as

way

cut

that

at

YOUNG

it may
them

branches

two

or

one

be

well

back

for

weaker

branches

FIG.

PEAR

167"

At

following

are

spurs

season's

cut

to

pinch

the

time

SPURS
which
crop.

the second

at

to

of all the

expense

these

branches,

strong

being,

and

thus

others,
to

hold
the

encourage

grow.

WHICH

BORNE

HAVE

bloomed
At

the

the

the

but
same

set

no

except

WELL

IN

fruit, again
that

no

fruit

PREVIOUS

producing
buds

buds

YEARS
for

the

formed.

be greatly
nearly all these trees can
benefited
the latter
by summer
pruning any time from
the
of July, generally about
part of May
up to the middle
middle
of June.
This
of cutting back
pruning consists
the rank
terminal
growth so as to force out and allow
hardened
the laterals to make
growth and become
a good
be gained in
before
whole
fall. In this way
a
year
may
A good practice to
of the trees.
forming the framework

By

year,

204

PRINCIPLES

follow
in

with

June

AND

such

and

PRACTICE

is to

trees

do

PRUNING

OF

of the

heading-back
March
or
April,

most

of the

thinning out in
whenever
the
winter
or
However,
pruning is done.
should
the trees, after they are pruned in June, make
such
rank
a
growth that they need some
topping-back again
the following spring, by all means
do it.
In

most

nearly all

it will be

cases,

of the

terminals,

advisable
the

else

or

do

to

terminal

incline

ping-bac
top-

some

bud

will

continue

to

this

a
producing
If
long, leggy branch.
in
no
topping is done
essary
spring, it will be necto
give these
shoots
a heavy
heading-

growth,

back

in

to

summer

their

long

too

becoming

before

ing
produc-

desirable

TOO

16S"

MUCH

BRANCHES
This
of

its

lack

ones

these
die

in

as

are

vigor.
tips.

the

branches

result

should

fruit

Prune

from
"

the

near

Italian

Soon
of

too

the

whole

much

be
these

removed
trees

young

which

branches

will

shade

from

of

be

never

value

any

above.

growing at
developed.
too

the

Caution,

strenuous

of

expense

the

otherwise, since it tends

eliminates
fruit

which

of young
branches.

to

will

trees,

it does

while

tend

much

balance

to

better
the

not,

be

against
especially
a

as

bring

the

condition

tree;

are

should

exercised

thinning-out

thinning-out of lateral
This
trees,
pruning young
fruitfulness,
directly induce
the critical period in
to
up
distributes

be

must

and

tree

branch

some

however,

the

many

growth

will

spur

to

the

summer

undesirable

any

by lack of 1'ght. Some

already dead; the living
and
Only a few fruit buds

starved

branches

UPPER

TWIG

THIS

branched

old, much
is being

snur

SHADING

KILLED

BY

laterals.

the

During
FIG.

vent
pre-

and

rule,
trees

than
since-

it

two
periods of the year, it
pruning over
the necessity for very
vigorous pruning which
The
give trees.
heavy winter prungrowers

the

ing given

young

trees

205

TREES

YOUNG

PRUNING

serves

as

and

stimulus

often

vegetative growth

(83).
166. Objections to
summer
pruning. Some
growers
pruning on the ground that it
are
opposed to summer
the trees, that it is devitalizing,that it is unwise
weakens
of the leaves
as
they are the "lungs" and
to remove
any
much

too

causes

"

FIG.
This
had

limb

abundant

short,
smaller

169"

stocky

in

the

ABUNDANCE
upper

light. Note
and
vigorous.

branches

to

prevent

part
the

OF
of

an

too

Italian

individual

However,

heavy

SPURS

FRUIT

Prune

IN

shows

tree

and

spurs,

the

it would

be

desirable

shading

of

those

LIGHT

THE

small
to

below.

that

the

have

spurs

fruiting limbs
remove

few

of

are

the

206

PRINCIPLES

manufacturing
however,

only

would
the

rather

the

but

vigor

would

summer

In

that

the

in

last

there

cases,

little difference

growth

is

less

be

may

vegetative

is modification

there

case

makes

some

very

still others, the

ing
prunone

in

pruning,
others

In

be.

devitalization.
of

result
for

that

cases

vigoj.

extent

even

than

The

extreme

It

(29).

tree

pruning. Such

noted.

to

growth,

PRUNING

OF

be devitalizing,certainly where

increased

be

modified

of

in very

singlesummer
will

the

of

organs

ever

might give

PRACTICE

AND

these
it is

as

single

trees, is

young
a

pruning,

summer

question

of

not

much

so

as

mended
recom-

question

change in direction of
The
growth or energy.
minal
clipping-back of a terforces the growth
eral
latinto desirable, new
framework
than

into

rather

tional
useless, addi-

terminnal
There

where

cases

are

frequent

summer

ing
prun-

intervals

short

at

during the
tendency
dwarf

check

to

for

tree;

in
we

has

summer

trees,

growth.

or
ample,
ex-

dwarf

growing
not

must

only

dwarfing stock,
but
must
we
practice
frequent pinching back
of
shoots
(Chapter
XVI).
Again walnut
be dwarfed
trees
by
may
have

FIG.

Old
four

Italian
years

tree

Note

that

little influence

parently had
small
the
fruit spurs

Prune

ago.

fruiting
of

the

FAILED

DEHORNING

170-pARTiAi.

partially dehorned
the

not

fhe

upon

and

branches

limb

treatment

cut

back.

removal

growth

ap-

vieor of
indivHual

of
for
,-p,

VCarS.
~QCPC
CaSCS,

all
a

1 HCSC

hnwpvpr
HOWCVCr,

lateral

period

of

last
urp
ar"

tWO
PY-

208

nal

PRINCIPLES

growth

The

be

may

force

to

AND

cutting

out

back

cut

time

the

branches, probably

the

buds.

PRUNING

OF

for another
to

seems

cause

accumulation

an

it is desired

where

point

the

to

laterals

new

this

at

PRACTICE

year's growth.
thickening of

of tissues

around

varieties,probably, it will lead to direct

it
others, however,
fruiting the following season
; with
in balance, and
will simply tend
to keep the trees
ably
probbe
earlier fruiting than
would
otherwise
encourage
With

some

That

true.

is, results

in
come
may
three years
or

two

rather

in

than

If this ing
prunis
done
at

year.

the

right

very

little

about

time,

secondary

growth

take

will

place,

naturally
in
FIG.
VIGOROUS
Bartlett

spurs

were

September

or

even

t
on

in

out

of

old

tree.

are

terminal

fruit

last

season's

(one

cases

to

seven

age,

four

trees,

THINNING

thinned

At
resulted.
shoots
Vigorous
buds; at a axillary fruit buds
year) shoots.

very

course

many

these

FOLLOW

GROWTHS
pear

172

be

Of

small.

will

does

what

and

one

years

do

not

en-up
hard-

until late

October,

and

then

it would

of

be

in
too

mer
though sumadvantage. Even
pruning with these trees might not lead to an increase
be a distinct
it would
in fruiting the following summer,
help in keeping the trees in balance, and in eliminating
be necessary
the excessive
cutting which might otherwise
the following spring.
be
should
old, which
168. Trees
eight to twelve
years
have
almost
borne,
have
always
in fruiting but
never

late

been

to

do

any

pruning

over-stimulated"

to

over-pruned, over-tilled, over-irri-

PRUNING

gated,

or

but

combination

rank

wood

little

YOUNG

of stimuli

growth,

or

stimulus, whatever

which

"

in forcing

results

producing heavy, large leaves,

is to
the
remedy
remove

fruit.

no

209

TREES

The

it may

be, and

times

several

prune

year.

Summer
about

more

the
in

is, along
At

each

time

become

that

sively
exces-

be

and

it
back

cut

the

thinned

trees
out

what.
some-

ing
follow-

The

be

pruned

are

threatens

should

run

trees

young

probably

come

when

long,

very

will

trees

terminal

growth

more

such

June.

time

the

to

for

pruning

spring a little
thinning and
ing-out m a y
done

tage.
advan-

to

The

tion
applica-

of

summer

pruning

these

to

should

trees

largely

be

tion
distribu-

of the

FIG.

pruning

periods,
thus
an
avoiding
excessive
pruning.
in
rare
Only
very
two

over

cases

can

one

direct
from

such
the

such

back
to

trees,

as

the

opposed

into

tree

same

PRUNING

apple

until

year

rather

tree

last, when

no

winter

with
Fig. 171,
compared
how
variety, it shows
throw
to
heavy,
pruning tends

When

and

age
to

the

Note

bearing.

wood
two-year-old
the
preceding
During
the
of
tree
energies

season
was

fruit

many
in

(enlarged

the

pect
ex-

large

devoted

spurs

on

frontispiece).
to

part
fruit

of

the
spur

formation.

Results

pruning.

trees

of

tree

light,

results

necessary

given

Five-year
heavily pruned each
done.
was
pruning

GOOD

TO

Newtown

Yellow

173

DUE

SPURS

FRUIT

to

their

ing
indirectlyin bring-

come

normal

balance.

the amount

reduce

and

will

in

cases

where

of

It often

comes
be-

tillageor irrigation
the growth
is ab-

210

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

found
advisable
even
normally excessive it is sometimes
such
tween
this by growing crops,
to check
as
hay or grain, be-

the
169.

trees.

of

Applications

trees.
pruning principles to young
should
At the time the tree is given its first pruning we
definitelysettle the question of head (158). Most
growers
have
headed
after
the
they

tree, pay
it until

attention

more

no

following spring,

the

for

when

ready
they are
second
pruning. In many
is

this
found
and

mistake.

to

look

and

in

be

May

the

the

over

chard
or-

newly

At

carefully.

trees

set

will

through

go

the

cases

It

advisable

very

June

to

this

small shoots
very
off.
be rubbed
should

time, certain
buds

or

If

one

is

branch

growing

at

the

of all the others, it may

expense
orchardist
be suppressed. The
may

do

year

to

proper
better

much

very

the

start

and

way,

year's growth.
Only in rare
TYPICAL

174"

WINTER

FIVE-YEAR

NELIS

PEAR

rank

growth

trees

do

not

roots

that
have

made

to

make

and

where

that

the

such

warrant

top the

much

made

they have
trees

sufficient

the

second

will

cases

it in

it be

be

established.
a

so

be

make

strong

summer-pruned

growth,

it will

only
a
sufficiently
a
pruning. Many
young
ing
first year;
they are build-

will

trees

getting firmly

the

put

to

because

year,

occasionally

to

the

a
give the trees
systematic pruning the first

advisable

FIG.

in

tree

for

condition

first

the

that

new

In

growth, it
as

ever,
how-

cases,

soon

is suggested
as

laterals may

they
be

YOUNG

PRUNING

211

TREES

shoots
that are
making such
advantage. Those
be pinched back, provided this pruning
should
growth
of July and
the middle
later than
be done
not
erably
prefcan

formed

to

in

the

15

inches

vigor

of

the

One

branch.

of

pinching

so

hard

the

main

thus

make

to

of course,

long, depending,
,

on
up-

however,
back

force

to

laterals

new

back

cut

make

them

as

be

may

mistake,

the

should

laterals

8 to

from

stubs

Such

June.

the

too

near

and

crotch,

close,
very
which
crotch
a

heavy
will pile up

in years

to

come.

170.

unless

spring,
was

made

one

should

the
the

to

be

open,

the

first year,
nitely
defichoose
of

shape

the

; either
grown
the leader, or

modified
If

tree.

start

the

the
tree

second

The

leader

the

tree

FIG.

BRUIT

175"

was

the

summer-pruned
previous season,
question should
settled

been

of

pruning.

leader

and

is the

the

four

and

cut

If the
or

that
have
the

time

If

the

open

shoots,

were

formed.

buds

one
a

tree

way

has

strongest

back

ones

the

that
been

most

year

the
fruit
leaf

as

to

the

old.

lateral
spurs

main

Two

stem

years

ago

fruit spurs,
three
shoots,

b, b,
d,
c,

two

terminal

the

branch

spaced
according to

branches

and

year's growth
these

terminal

branch

years

Last
from

from
on

Prune

b to

LAST

SHOOTS

is three

three

five branches,

these

to

sprang

modified

in such

Italian

this
a

developed
preceding

type, choose

this

prune

lead.

the

the

or

leader

at

On
from

ON

FORM

SPURS

YEAR'S

and

buds.
are

fruit
The

fruit

the

of

buds
many

spurs

lateral

buds;

the

buds.

maintain

it may
decided

the

maintain
upon,

lead
such

choose

far apart as possible,

their strength, cutting
and

the

weakest

ones

212

PRINCIPLES

the least.
few

One

laterals

laterals.
Each

should

Cut

Each

171.

In

the

limbs

frame

be

of

based

to

15

should
inches

the

by

as

the

June,

principle.
pruner's
judgment
tree

young

allow

for

summer

be

pinched back so as
long, cutting according

third

will

spring

have

from

each
one

to

dozen

all

lateral

but

main

tional
addi-

or

to

on

there

where
before.

on

each

frame

as

the

NEWTOWN
been

PRUNED

light

because

pruning
it
reaching the critical stage when
should
pruning might
Heavy
begin to bear.
bearing.
keep it from
the

tree

is

grOW
A.

as
f

tlu-

laterals
to

grow

erals
lat-

two

Choose

"which
\nnA**~

leader

this

of

avoid

Then

branch

()ne

spaced
possible.

center

cutting these
equally.
has

new

two

will tend

tree.

in

used

The

of

in toward

winter

five

avoid

choosing

the

tree

be

course

which

the
were

should

far apart

Of

ten

these

branches.

as

pruned

be

be

selecting
branches

that

great deal of

should

limb

is

will

branches

each

so

the tree

is

remove

from

one

there

care

It

branch,

when

176-FIVE-YEAR

to

of the original five main

customary

The

to

suppressing the stronger.

branches.

FIG.

all these
on

laterals

to

with

remove

decided

the

middle

branches

to

sufficient growth
branch

vigor, always

five main

leave

or

the

By

made

it from

leave

1'R L'NLNCi

It is customary
"custom"
be
should

should, therefore,

have

pruning.

have

OF

each.

on

judgment.
dictate.]

may

PRACTICE

will then

[But

case

best

AND

Knrlr

Will

,11,
ail(l
do

nilitc

the second

heavily as

as

make

branch.

side

second

the

By
[third?]

these

summer,

be

should

trees

will

which

branch,

be
June they may
second
a
pruning.
left

will

18,

have

much

as

30 inches

tree
to
as

cases,

long.

letting them

of

entire

the

go

Each

15

grown
some

Instead

by
given

the

on

in

or

well

so

that

established

branch

TREES

VOUXC,

PRUNING

summer,

whenever

have
they
sufficient growth,

-made

they
in

be

may

order

out

of laterals. The

set

new

force

to

back

cut

FIG.

following spring in all

the
probability about
only pruning that will
have
and

be

to

there.

done
In

result

of the

about

two

APPLE

PREVIOUS
Note

the

length

from

will

be

the

case

FIVE-YEAR

177"

of

the

shoots

which

sulted
re-

pruning.

summer

little

laterals

PRUNED

SUMMER

thinning

which

come

out
out

here
a

as

pruning in June have made

a
vigorous
very
be cut back
growth, and are getting too rangy,
they may
that
somewhat, although it will be in only extreme
cases
much
these branches.
cutting will have to be done on
Moderate
clipping back is often advisable to prevent the
terminal
bud from continuing growth, and producing long,
So this pruning may
be continued
for
willowy growth.
than
three years,
two
or
never
leaving, as a rule, more
172.
year,

branches

The
a

coming

fourth

where
year.

modification
time

now

"

one

At

of the
to

before.

was

the

beginning

pruning

let down

on

may

the

be

of the
made.

fourth
It is

heavy pruning.

If

214

PRINCIPLES

practices as

one

years,

the

Many

growers

PRACTICE

AND

pruning

severe

will be

tendency

thin out

laterals

terminal

during

as

force

to

the

PRUNING

OF

the

growth

previous

into

tree

and

back

laterals.

new

that

It would

than

in all

leave
hard

shade

to

fruit
has

APPLE
well

and

the

how

HEAD

limbs

the

strong

rather

let the

comes

into

thinned

TREE

frame

won't

crotches

to

69). Until

very

but

tree

grow

bearing

this

little

excess

brushy,

wood

it

done,

possible to
rection
explicit di-

be

give

are.

nitely
defi-

very

tributed
dis-

are

been

be

can

of

fruit

or

out

Fig. 73.

with

Compare

that

cause
be-

formation

not

(66

is

cases

say,

spurs

worked

Just

relation

the

to

buds

how

most

is advisable

much

the

WELL-FORMED

eral
lat-

more

leave.

very

Note

tage
advan-

an

leave

growers

178

too

this time.

be

wood

of

take
mis-

vigorously at

to

many

pruning

by

how

We

too

make

growers

to

an

this terminal

believe

FIG.

wood.

excessively, force

cut
growth,
vigorously, thus forcing out

enormous

the

would

we

it

because

after

very

easily be

may

out.

changes from the former

pruning now
nal
pruning in early June to the time the termiearly summer
buds form
(66). The rule, then, with trees from four
the terminals
back
old is simply to cut
to
seven
years
with the tree, and
sufficientlyso they will not run
away
The

summer

will not

that

the

tree

this is followed,

the

tendency

thin

come

out

to

so

bearing

earlier than

become

will be

they

for

dense.

too

young

otherwise

trees

would.

If
to

FIG.
This
Most
"

only

of

old

Bartlett

these

once

are

in

five

180"

pear

weak.
or

ten

FAR

tree

Hence
years.

has

MANY

TOO
become

they

SPURS

FRUIT
too

produce

full

of

flowers

many-branched
and

fruit

very

fruit

spurs.

irregularly

than

the

with

that

of the

either

the

are

type

open

easily damaged

very

the

crotches

in mind

in

in

culent
suc-

growth, and
handling pear

that

avoid

should

one

wood

be

earlier
and

cease

in the

summer

mind

is lost from

sive
exces-

in

the

it

lier
ear-

than

with

trees,

young

summer

form

to

fruit

be

buds

and

while

the

are

discouraged

from

fruit

on

pruning.
is very

on

such
The

crooked

growth,
of

the

as

themselves

the

be

worry

TIME

branches

They

will

do

but should
young,
The
tendency
way.

by

overcome

of Winter

trees

very

PLANTING

indicate

beginner

not, however,
for

in this

should

to

181

AT

terminals.

growth

troublesome

TREE

still very

bearing

crooked

should

care

trees

terminals

Growers

OF

Numbers

of the

bear

take

FIG.
PLAN

the ends

bear

this often

to

branches

trees

pruning is to
ties
variebe practiced. Some
of pears,
especially
Bartlett, have a tendency
to

the

should
apples. This
in
specially borne

do

if

many

growth.
their
begin

Pears

growth
spring

that

fire

that

works

blight

have

branch

leader

by blight and
poorly formed

are

to

mended
recom-

modified

however,

(Fig. 164). An effort should be made

spaced as far apart as possible,so if
of
blight, the remainder
be
the
tree
easily
may
saved.
It should
always
be borne

generally

the

or

remember,

because

ruined

So it is

of tree.

must

trees

open

often

are

type

They

chosen.

be

open

217

TREES

YOUNG

PRUNING

Nelis
in

too

become

largely

pear
much

summer

and

Bosc

growing.
about

the

older, they will

and

this

crooked

218

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

growth will cease

practically the same

be

to

OF

PRUNING

troublesome.
those

Prune
that

the

in

trees

straight.
Pears may
lateral wood
than apples. They
more
carry
spread relativelyfarther when
they produce a heavy crop,
should avoid thinning the young
trees
so
one
excessively.
all
fruits
from
main
the
trunks
and
or
(196)
Keep
spurs,
down

low

of infection
in

the

the

from

before

pruning

the

174.

fire

tools

20

these

are

source

wise, in pruning

to
see
blight is troublesome,
carefullysterilized (Fig. 183)

are

made.

are

headed

was

as

grow

It is also

blight.

Recommendations

cherry
head

cuts

branches,

frame

district where

any

that

the

on

as

way

for

about

at

cherries.

the
Formerly
Many
growers

"

inches.

35

nice trees.
They are
building very
There
to be a prejudice against pruning a cherry
seems
The
first six years
it may
tree.
be pruned about the same
Summer
has been
directed
for apples.
as
pruning is
thus be obtained.
recommended,
as
splendid results may
The
cherry has a tendency to shoot up
in
air very
the
an
rapidly, making
enormous
growth the first two
years.
at

25.

to

The

is that

result

has

the

not

the

in the

nerve

grower

average

winter

to

cut

severely,so he leaves his trees

come
leggy (Fig. 184). One way to overthis leggy, high type of growth

this back
too

back

is to cut

in the

terminals

the

mer.
sum-

would

good type of tree to

very
be the Mazzard
body, making

the

trunk

and

of

the

FIG.
PRUNED

Note

main

frame

later

Mazzard,

branches

budding

these

over.

PEAR

five-year

Typical
Winter

182

get

Nelis
that

the

tree.

pear
center

will

will

be

is

This
suppressed.
gives indication of
If it
bearing a crop.

being

give strong crotches

and
little gumming

This

Should

and

there

loss

from

trees

of this type.

need

heavy cutting, do not hesitate to

take
However,
large branches.
carefully
to
protect the wounds

cherry

trees

tree

should
stand

bear,
heavier

back

next

Compare

with

it

will

cutting

take
care

YOUNG

PRUNING

is softer

wood

cherry

as

219

TREES

of

than

that

for

prunes

most

pomaceous

fruits.

Recommendations

175.

for

recommendations
trees

generally

are

to

35

20

to

25.

at

trees

headed
Some

The

tree

never

FIG.

183"

"

very

of

any

however,

growers,

becomes

The

plums.
closely.

The

other

our

ing
head-

are

extremely high-

and

headed,
since

of

most

fruit,which

the

is

apply
higher than

apple

inches.

fruits, 30

and

be

to

orated,
evap-

is

lowed
al-

drop
ground

to

the

on

before

ing,
harvestthe

height

the

of

head

the

from

vesting
har-

point
view

does

need

any

of

not
con-

sideration.

However,
will

growers

probably

get

better

results

by
constantly
minal
suppressing tergrowth
d
a n
thinning
the

out

makes
the

bottle
to

centers

wet

these

strong

wood.

all small
do

not

the

bucket

with

tree, and

sponge

bottle.

One

It

the

can

to

swab

large sponge

the

to

is

when
cuts

to

clean

KIT

tablet

solution.

part
fastened

fastened.
in

sponge
a

to

belt.

uncorked

can

The

out

taining
con-

largest
tilted

and
The

necessary.
as

pint of

The

pole

made.

cankers

completes

wooden

outfit.

come
be-

Do

so

not

too

yet keep

to

as

overdo

laterals, spurs
remove

is

similarly

is

in

HANDLING

1000

to

sponge

has

dense,

too

pruner

the

where

sublimate

Corrosive
water

FIRE-BLIGHT

and

much
the

development of
this, however, by removing
Also,
secondary branches.
allow

wood
tree

the

from

fairly open.

the

outside

Many

of

the

growers

220

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

OF

PRUNING

of young
trees
wood
practice cutting off considerable
on
the outside of the tree and leave
the centers
a little dense.
The

is the

better

policy. Try to keep the trees

and
low
low
headed, broad
spreading, so as to build a
for fruiting wood
in succeeding years.
large framework
176. Recommendations
for
Trees
English walnuts.
be headed
should
35 inches, and at the time they
at about
stake 7 or 8 feet long should
headed
be driven
are
a heavy
in the ground
first
close to the body of the tree.
The
four or five laterals that will give a good
choose
summer
reverse

"

and

framework

tend

will

they

tie these

to

the

stake.

If this is not

droop

to

the

ground

too

to

careful

can
tying one
following spring cut
they were
apples. In

up

grow

8 feet

or

branches.

other

them

keep
back

the

many

walnut

"

the

other

the

the
when

they

were

184

FIG.

All

point

of view.

issue

branches

point. Note
the
due

might

first

the

back
have

twice
been

is

ing
headtwo

year

ful.
help-

has

the

off
find

such

pruning
is much

the

of

easier

much

management

for

trees

we

However,
trees

same

namely,

framework

to

peaches.
different fruiting habit

(56).

fruit

the

or

We

as

have

tioned
men-

aim

the

in

the

first few

years

that

for other

types

this

Heading

years.
tree

This

insufficient

back

one

the

taken

poles.

orchard

other

any

"leggy"

how
is.

tree
to

at

on

three

grow

Recommendations

peach

from

main

the

to

were

be

the

from

The

to

to

will

handle

CHERRY

TYPE

POOR

of the

"

which

177.

flow.

grown

any

as
though
they are handled
ing
spreadapples, we
get more
with
larger fruiting areas

trees
trees

done

sap

may

bring
Generally
just before
Formerly

as

all laterals

trees

that

so

allowed

were

four years,
and

be

branch

than

branches.

starting of
trees

one

hard

should

pruning

trees

by

shape. The
exactly as though

higher

this back

Cut

in

trees

feet

or

but

much,

well

done

the
for

building
future

up

years

of

of

YOUNG

PRUNING

FIG.

185

THREE-YEAR

"

ideal

An

the

too

tree

to

general heading
If

whips

Under

with

laterals, they

the

should

spaced branches
or

buds.

two

will

year,

only

one

great

This

tree's

to

after
grow.

shoots, but

JULY

in the

of

be

some

but

chosen

will

give
the danger

and

cut

large leaf
of having a

Under

also
our

will

remove

climatic

have

growth,

dozen
back

wellto

the

surface
tree

weak

trees

all lateral

is

as

few

if the

and

pruned

are

half

growers,

be

dying.

If there

removing

nursery.

is recommended.

20 inches

to

conditions

one

first
with

stand
the

ger
dan-

conditions

peach trees, when

they are pruned back
formed
they have once
strong laterals,never

many

whips,

vigorously

removed,

branches,

two

or

AFTER

EARLY

climatic

trees.

be

should

remove

of the

start

other

is practiced by

which

OLD

TREE

IN

secured, they should

laterals, instead

strong

-YEAR-

CHERRY

soil and

our

grow
very
about
18
to
be

can

customary

THREE

"

PRUNING

trees.

tend

trees

186

LAMBERT

is
from
secured
the nursery,
peach, when
of branches.
large and has a large number
is a straight whip, but it is almost
impossible

The

such

buy

to

FIG.

PRUNING

JULY

fruiting.
generally

BERT
LAM-

EARLY

BEFORE

CHERRY

221

TREES

Some

others

will

trees
not.

will

force

out

new

If, after the buds

buds
start

on

to

and

the

222

PRINCIPLES

short
a

laterals,there

simple

matter

the

ground

consistent

FIG.

have

187"

OLD

and
with

PRUNE

to

the

found

are

thin

to

It is customary
to

PRACTICE

AND

to

head

to

first branch

to

get the

the

TREE

THINNING

OF

too

to

of

as

area

REMOVAI
THE

growth.

LIVING

one

OF

DEAD

SPURS

low

as

out

come

it will be

many,

peaches

crotches

amount

AFTER

be

PRUNING

undesirable

out

try

OF

can

WOOD

sible;
pos-

close

very

well

as

spaced
work

AND

as

to

is

with.

SEVERE

224

PRINCIPLES

wood

tends

looked

be

variation

become

to

for until

Best

178.

AND

height

in

the

PRACTICE

excessive.

for

peach

head.*

tree

recommendations

and

fruit should

much

Not

the fourth

about

PRUNING

OF

year.
is

There

"

suggestions

various

the

to

as

method

considerable

of

peach
planting.

ing
prun-

the time

at

trees

of

of

degree

or

thorities
au-

proper

common

is

recommendation

cut

to

the trees back to a height of

from
18 to 24 inches
less
regardof grade. Some
mend
recom-

others

suggestions
respect
which
to

ideal

height at
the individual
prefers
branches

the

order

to

the
make

led

the

more

of

rather

believe

that

severely the
the

back

to

This

low.

to

some

cut

one

trunk

planting time

at

it branch

has
is

tree,

tree

nursery

severely

tively
rela-

the

back

cut

form.

secure

low-headed
must

with

the

to

have
In

These

apparently

are

some

on

and

inches.

30

even

based

inches

to

the

back

cutting
trunks

tree

the

lower

will be ; and that hence

and
picking the

head

spraying
fruit

performed
easily. But the mere
of
the trunk
cutting back
to a low
essarily
point does not necbe

may

more

FIG.

Four

has

pruning
bore

tree

this

ago

years

for

"dehorned"

was

189

DEHORNING

FOLLOWING

NEGLECT

small

crop

since.

of

medium

formed

spurs

in the

Last

tree

spurs

sprouts

lated
stimu-

is

easily
picked more
sprayed more
one
economically than from

tree

would

formation

increase

the

of

more

trouble.

water

New

condensed
186
178
to
Paragraphs
Station.
Experiment
Jersey

head

is formed

inches

higher
example,

For

72).
fruit
back

sprouts

growers
to

time

the

-six-inch
of

and

then

the

side
from

M.

A.

proceed
branches

Blake's

eral
sev-

(Ki.u.
some

the

cut

with

Comoare

31, 150, 159, 161, 165, 166

them.
accompanying
explanations
Figs. 30,

tree

whose

are

shade.
much
of too
already declining because
and
willowy,
long
from
them
To
getting
keep
thinning out is
and
finally dying, considerable
would
late
stimuwhich
back
Heading
necessary.
the

the

or

promise of
the
newly
the

fruit

the

be

may

the

year

that

mean

no

or

on

but
year;
lower
part of

this

crop

Little

prunes

developed on the water

There
by the dehorning.

that had

Prune

Italian

renovation.

done

been

old

trees

stub

at

planting and
to

that

Bulletin

all

remove

form

(293)

of

on

the

PRUNING

YOUNG

225

TREES

the

selected

branches

to

ff o 1 d

height

of

eral
sev-

feet!
Outline

179.

of

The

"

this article is
results

the

periments.
ex-

object of

the
report
studies
pruning

of

to

with

peach trees at various

heights at the time of planting,
studies
to

pruning
growth
the

which

the

note

the

form,

trees

and
and

to

are

190"

PLAN

OF

Numbers
and

the

make

to

little

and

ONE

and

secondary
the
tions
posi-

lines

cross

merely

freshly dug

are

factor,
the

depending

purchase
studies

confined

are

to

graded
the

of

nurseries,

different

same

stockiness

basis

for

or

the

so

that age.

of

trees

commonly

are

caliper. Trees
considerably in

at

time
for

out

be

may

upon

of

ing,
plant-

some

son
rea-

Such

by height and
height may
vary
caliper as grown
is
caliper method

study of differences in
sizes offered
vigor.
representing common
for sale the following sizes of trees
used
were
in the experiment : caliper ^, "4, fy",l/2 and
studied
""^-inch. The pruning treatments
were
the

are

Some

in results

"June buds" are used to some

tent
exJersey for planting, most
growers
hence
these
one-year-old
trees,

in New

in

point,
stand-

which

expected,
nursery

of

botanical

commercial.

they have become

severely dried
The
also be
planting.
variety may
would
the
certainly
grade or size

as

those

trees.

Although

trees

those

whether

or

for:

differences
the

from

sort

results

the welfare

and

cuts.

trees

before
a

AFTER

this
of

plant from
a
plant growth

ORCHARD

primary

pruning

the

whether

TOP
IN

indicate

branches

of

TREE

GROWTH

looked

concern

the
SEASON'S

be

upon
velopment
de-

branches.

of

study
general types

that

FIG.

the

any

two

such
total

vigor

of
In

of

the

upon

of

attempt

effect

better

As

follows

as

trunks;
12-inch
One
the

; to

tops

reduce

pruned

not

30-inch;

to

of

1,

of

24-inch;

to

to

36-inch

18-inch;

to

6-inch.

the

the

to

2, back

FIG.

the

trees

at

twig

surface

time
to

of

of

cutting
planting

balance

the

back
is to
loss

WALNUT

This

three-year tree
In
properly staked.
pruning, the two lowest
is

laterals
and

principal objects

191

ENGLISH

headed
It

The
30

at

would
or

be

cut

year's growth

back.

cut

should

last

be

inches

tree

was

inches.
better

higher.

if

226

PRINCIPLES

due

to

digging, and

and

to

secure

AND

therefore

experiment

The

berta

lot

consisted

previous fall and kept

are
nearly always drier
these

compare

badly

with

dried

they

before

in

of

large

than

lot of

because

out

decrease

PRUNING

the

danger

spring with

in the

started

was

One

trees.

to

OF

of loss of

trees

growth.

better

PRACTICE

which

trees

dug
Such

It was
freshly dug trees.
freshly dug trees, but the
of improper handling by

delivered, the bark

were

upon

the

been

storehouse.

nursery

El-

lots of

two

had

trees

planned

to

latter lot became

the
of

many

man
nursery-

the

trees

of delivery. This, however, furat the time

nished
being badly shriveled
from
point.
standanother
an
equally good comparison, although

Thirty-five trees of
pruning treatment.

each

each

grade

The

selected

were

roots

making

left in the

were

five

form

trees

to

in which

*,

SPLENDID

192"

FIG.

TYPE

OF

that

the nursery
from
they came
except
all
planted
cleanly. They were
were
given good culture throughout

off

At

close

the

fallen,

notes

measurements
tree.

of

the

were

There

were

growing

taken

were

175

as

made

of

of

the

same

the

season.

the

the

any

the

season

to

ENGLISH

SPREADING

LOW-HEADED,

day

linear

in

tips were
good soil

cut

and

the foliage had

living trees, and
each
twig growth upon
of planting,
at the time

and
number

stored
trees
lived eoccept

broken

WALNUT

after
of

All
five grades.
in the -V^-inch grade
one
which
had been
One tree of the ~x-inch grade
pruned to 30 inches.
with
the
and
not
was
was
slightly injured in cultivation
averaged

:*5

each

others

of

of

the

12-inch

treatment.

This

experiment

shows

practically

PRUNING

loss of

no

all the

planting, as
growing season.
comparison
"^j-inchtrees

pruning
of grades

best

the

trees

total

upon

227

TREES

cutting back

of

unpruned

of

Effect

180.

lack

through

trees

of

YOUNG

twig
of

regardless

the top

of
alive

were

growth.

On

"

pruning

any

the time

at

the

at

of

end

the

the

basis

of
the

treatment

made

average

growth,

total

closely followed
the

i/^-inch

The

smallest

by

trees.
age
aver-

total

growth

made

by

was

the

A
2^-inch trees.
of
the
comparison
various
pruning

less
regard-

treatments

grade

of

that the best

shows

total

average

growth
by the
the

next
cut

FIG.

and

inches

those
12

pruned

trees

36

to

made

was

Built

best

by

back

to

The

inches.

of

admit

lowest

193"

PORTABLE
iron

sheet

air

and

BRUSH
on

allow

ashes

growth

average

out

in

were

trees
a

The

soil for

moist

into

of

number

same

noted,

bark

condition, but they

dried

heeled

the

that

except

it

few

trees

soaked

were

were

in water
then

in the

as

possible

to

form
uni-

and

total

on

the dried-

When

"

shriveled

and

days
used

not

was

trees.

cut

trees

creditable
very
based
treatments

much

was

bottom

the

by the

made

was

18

received

in

fall out.

to

The
inches.
a
unpruned trees made
growth in comparison with the other
growth regardless of form.
of pruning growth
of dried-out
181. Effect
to

INCINERATOR
Holes

runners.

the

and

for several

roots

hours,

planted.
experiment previously
and

pruned

of

trees

secure

7/6-inch

grade.
A

growth

the

^-inch trees
are
of
twigs and trunk
rapid evaporation of
trees

but

would
and

it is

the

expect

moisture
to

find
the

least among

worthy
have

all
the

of

note

would

as

at

be

that

the

than
the

does

greatest

6-inch
the

that

trees.

12-inch
of

close

the

of

treatment

is

as

high

percentage

roots

larger
the

of

bark

permits

among

This

son's
sea-

small

The

The

out.

also

the

of

loss

transit.

more

trees.

unpruned

practicallytrue,
and

as
living trees
and
that the 18 and
suffered
24-inch
treatments
nearly as
the unpruned
This
is significantin connection
trees.
as
of
the
total
basis
comparisons on
growth in the various

treatment

the

expected, that the

drying out in
small
and
easily dried
smaller trees
probably

from

most

of

One

living trees

of

number

clearly indicates,

suffered

trees

the

of

record

the

36-inch

the

6-inch,

much
with

loss
the

treatments.

228

PRINCIPLES

loss of

The

number

hardly

so

AND

in the

trees

many

to be averaged
as
third
than
more
a

total

to

of

the

PRUNING

OF

PRACTICE

^-inch grade seriously affects the

growth. The dried-out trees made
growth that the stored trees did.

total growth
trees
the dried-out
was
among
^-inch grade. A comparison on the basis of pruning
The
the following:
treatment
unpruned
regardless of grade shows
the
36-inch
treatment
the
made
sulted
regrowth;
trees
poorest average
resulted
in the next
growth; the 30-inch treatment
poorest
in the next
best
resulted
in the best growth ; the 24-inch
treatment
this
lot
that
of
be
the
It
trees
to
was
expected
unpruned
growth.
the
the
that
would
make
more
might expect
poorest growth, and one
This
is true
to a certain
the pruning the better the growth.
severe
degree, but it does not follow in regular proportion to the severity
factor appears
into the case.
of the pruning. Another
to enter
The

best

made

by

average

the

freshly dug

Belle of Georgia

of the

trees

with

Studies

182.

trees."

nursery

varietywere

following spring
freshly dug from

The

secured

local

mediately
im-

and

nursery

planted. The
pruning

and

grades

used

were

tests.

Two

of

in the

36-inch

caliper

inch

the
out

trees

One

died.

ments
treat-

in

as

former
140

same

ment
treat-

other

the

arid

y%-

of

was

}/2-inch caliper. The

results

of twig
in terms
that the larger

of this test
show

growth
the
the
grade the poorer
growth of unpruned, freshly
The
smaller the
dug trees.
tinis
better
the
grade
6-inch
of
pruned
growth
in
Or
trees.
expressed
the larger the
other
words,
pressed
the more
they are detrees
in growth
by a 6inch stub pruning treatment.
183.

Distribution

of branches.

"

FIG.

Such
and

tree

harvesting

OPEN

AND

PRUNED

WELL

first

194

growth

sideration

spraying, thinning
of
produces
large crops
C"m"
negIeCtCd treC'
8

the

successful

economical
In

care

order

of

a
support
and management
determine
to

heavy
of

and

show

in

character

crop

the

not

the

of
trees

the

only

of

of
of

con-

form

The

fruit
are

are

commercial

Panting.

fruit
and

to

is

facilitates

trees

volume

mere

and

pVrTwith^g^u.68
related

but

set,

HEADED

the

season

the

desired

is

growth

size

and

free, vigorous

growth

later

and

much

effect of

as

to

sequence.
con-

pruning

PRUNING

each

inches

various

planting

FIG.
This

may

195"
1-inch

size

and

indicate
bud

at

to

for

the

the

trees

the actual

set.

were

in

by

As
of

from

tc

of

the

dead

the

at

were

time

TRUNK,

view

and

of

lower

trunk.

one-year

buds

of buds
of

figures.

PEACff

of

interest

branches

branches

Close

a9

branches

of
direct

distribution

these

PEACH

inches

of

are

distribution

accurately indicated

of branches
treatments

numbers

trees

fairlyaccurately the

YEARLING

height

The

trees.

unpruned

is exceptional
caliper tree
branch
The
development.
bers
num-

observations

number

trunk

GOOD

and

part
Note

branches.

A.

The
the

be

not

the

time

trunk, the number

in all grades

Georgia

of

recorded, however,

not

to

was

indicate

the

at

noted

upon

should

branches

and

the

upon

Belle

heights

they

because

trunk

of

with

experiment
at

formation

branch

upon

229

TREES

YOUNG

from

36-inch
each

""6 grade

branches

the

ground

the

number

succeeding
vary,

to

tbe

upon

of

unpruned

increases
to

height

for
of

trees

each
24

as

group

succeeding

inches.

From

that
show
inches of
this height

then
and
decreases
quite uniform
of the
6 inches
of height. The
trees
unpruned
this
rule.
The
in
from
decrease
slight degree
remains

230

PRINCIPLES

the

number

branches

of

the 24-inch

at

the

larger
In

AND

height

to

branches

each

of

at

instead

OF

inches
the

PRUNING

of height of

36-inch

height

study, the
develop upon

to

first
of

that the largest number

of
lowest 6 inches of trunk-occur

or

point

the

upon

from

or

of

The

treatment.

branches

of trunk,

to

budding,

branches
upon
is also found
Thus

the

tree

Beginning with
the

the

largest

found

24-inch

the

upon

tree

back.

Before

was

discussed
what

point

further, it

prunecl

the

results

trees

One

lot

of

in

There

number

inches

is

of

year

old.

inch

lengths.

branch

view

close

section

be

of

the

trunk

Letters
Note

the
one

show

6-

bud

and

other.

inch

trunks

trunk

Several

was

other

the

facts

case

of

may

with

The
did

trees
not

branches

"

place

in the

scale, but

to
case

that

time

the

upon

un-

be

to

of

branches
the
since

noted.

The

slowly
12

to

the
6

the

of

than

and

is

greatest
inches

of

point

of

trees.

number
to

is to

portion

that

develop
along the

first

less
regard-

This

pruned

immediately
the freshly dug

also be

ground

more

the

the

on

treatment.

out

to.

for

tendency
develop

to

out

somewhat
referred

great

below

of trunk
tends
first 6 inches
developing on
18-inch
treatment
The
severity of the pruning.
the

At

just

near

the pruning

number

as

of

expected perhaps
would
tree
dry

any

formation.

cutting back,

of trunk

of

197

be

dried

all

at

greater

well

behaved

that
to

appears

trees

TRUNK,

the

the

considered

trees

differently from

PEACH

trunk

exception

'be

were

not

was

of

practical importance.

any

FIG.

the

where

may

other lots of trees.

the location of the branches

that

treatment,
branches

this

the

of

in these

inches

the

cut

of

number

below

note

point
trees

plant law
the
tips of

immediately
is

of

where

(91).

however,
is not

veloped
de-

inches

the

at

strongest

ment.
treat-

have
6

the

The

then, follow

treatments,
growth is

branches

back.

cut

was

trunk-

8-inch

the

freely upon
immediately below

of

of

far, then, branches

more

trunk

12-inch

the

inches

the

number

in the

occur

above

in

third

inches

inches

12

largest

the
to

ber
largest num-

second

occurs

The

treatment.

This

of

case

show

results
the

in the 6-inch

upper

begins

trunk
in the

trees.

further

PRACTICE

of

increase

falls below

branches
with

the

its proper

the figures undoubtedly correctly indicate

the

232

"RINCIPLES

standpoint
trees,

of

branch

is indicated

as

AND

OF

PRACTICE

in the
growth, even
total
the
growth
by

PRUNING

of

case

the

freshly dug

all trees

of

pruned

18
inches.
indicates that some
height
methods
of pruning peach
arbitrary and "rule of thumb"
time of planting may
need
revising.

Such

of

question

the 18-inch

which

also

evidence

arises is whether

which

treatments

died

back

to

the trees
6 inches

failed

to

made

the

near

growth
originally pruned

inches.

The

of

records

linear twig growth do

that
the dying
upon

inch

184.

of the

will not

branches.

twig growth of the

ing
indicatis important as
general vigor. The points
which
the trees
develop
total

of
The

the

concern

the

the

lengths from
The
largest
number

Figures

indicate

inches

inch

CALlPER
above

the

bud

at

12-inch
the

ranking

same

18-inch

treatment

as

occurred

resulted

on

in the

the

basis

smallest

in

total

average
of

branches
in

the
the

and

average
treatment.

average

total

all
36next

in the
This

growth.

total

the

inches.

number

of

of

number

12

to

treatment,

largest

hr

tree.

lengths occurred

FROM

PEACH

H-INCH

of

development

The
largest total
occurred
of branches

of

tree.

also

may

in the
of

tion
forma-

length

and

branches

the form

of

head

the

number

factors

ONE-YEAR

to
as

soon

they

Length

the

at

well

be
as

branches.

branches

"

the

out

stubs

6-

dying

any

develop

is

the

cause

that

it is certain

200

dicate
in-

trunk

of

it would

such

remove

NURSERY"

total

not

These

spread

to

base, and

FIG.

to

trees

that

to

however,

branches

the

these

stubs.

stubs,

at

as

growth
upon
fully equal

tree

tips

depressing effect
In
fact, the
growth.

had

stubs

The

and

12

much

as

trees

at

branches

because

start

our

trees

the

of

to

of

number

is
The
of

growth,
it also produced the lowest
average
therefore,
their
of
length,
appears
branches
number
regardless
conclude,
then,
We
of
with
growth.
amount
may
to be correlated

branches

and

of

total

YOUNG

PRUNING

that

the

production

the

the

the pruning
long branches.

severe

more

of

233

TREES

the

greater

toward

tendency
in

to 50 inches

length serves
The
results
treatments.
as
were
comparing
good
as
a
2427
36-inch,
30-inch,
Not
follows:
branches;
71;
69;
pruned,
This shows
an
average
inch, 68 ; 18-inch, 65 ; 12-inch, 69 ; 6-inch, 54.
branches

least three

at

all treatments

for

from

24

tree

from

"not

the
the

about
the

all but

under

developed

the

to

except
that

indicates

This

branches

for

basis

of

of

total number

The

position of the branches

may
separately, differences

to

in length

"6-inch"
yet the

each

If

trees.

branches

vigorous

treatments,

greatly.

vary

the

of

extreme

inches

50

'and

number

same

most

24

pruned"

actual
is

grade

amined
ex-

noted.

are

vigor of the trees and their root systems may

in the number
of buds
be expected
to
a
slight advantage
The
proportion of top to root also bears on
beyond certain limits.
consideration
the importance
of
these
due
to
the case.
Yet, with
size and

Increased

offset

factors, there

evidence

is abundant

different
at
points
development
from
the
peach trees as received
the
of
these
trees
as
growth
upon
If

is cut

tree

hand, if

other

few

buds,

tree

the

all, leaving

at

the

are

trees

Some

stub.

lots

of

yet the

or

data

an

well-developed buds
be
a

expected.

point where
or
perhaps
is to
of

even

the

diseases

have affected
demonstrate
that many

not

looked

be

are

On
there

well,

variation
trees

nursery

insects

start

branch

and

of one-year-old
important bearing
pruned and planted.

fail to

may

dead

especially where
of

they

bud

trunks

has

nursery

point where
development
may
is cut back
just above

tree

different

between

and

above

the

upon

branch

good

numerous,

but

back

that

show

to

same

the

the
are

start

for

variety,
development

facts

are

markably
re-

constant.

Commercial

185.

results."

of a plant that results in

necessarily the most
profitable or
desirable
from
treatment
It
is possible
commercial
a
standpoint.
for a tree
of
to make
amount
it
be in such
a
large
growth, but
may
form
to be poorly adapted
to the production and
a
as
support of a
of fruit.
In general, however,
which
treatment
crop
depresses
any
growth interferes with the tree's commercial
possibilities.

the

vigorous growth

most

treatment

is not

The

tendency for trees of ^-inch grade, cut back to 6 inches

set, is to develop one
two
from
or
large leading branches
near
the point of budding and sometimes
below.
several
Where
branches
of the ground
the control
develop close to the surface
of borers is
difficult. Trees
made
of the same
inches
to
12
grade cut
are
quite
similar
the 6-inch
to
Trees
of the 3^-inch grade
trees.
cut
to
30
inches
well-formed
which
are
trees
and
permit of a short trunk
a
of the main
branches.
good distribution
when

The
failed

18

and

the

few

or

and

24-inch

produce

to

"stub"
no

treatments

branches

finally died.

well-formed

buds

much
Trees
upon

of
above
of
this

^-inch
6

stored

inches

from

Elberta
the

trees

ground

have
large caliper commonly
portion of the trunk and fail

234

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OK

PRUNING

dried

somewhat
well, especially if they have become
inches
The
24
set.
to
J/2-inch
cut
being
grade
The
with
short trunks
and well-placed branches.
trees
desirable
is not
trees
commercially even
unpruned
make
should
fair to good growth.
a
to

start

From

the results

these

of

prefer to cut
grower
he should
purchase

studies it is evident

his trees
of
trees

back

6-inch

to

easily
growth
if

forms
upon

the

should

that

stubs

fore
be-

out

trees

fruit

planting time,

at

suffer
trees
f^-inch caliper. Small
if they are
time previous to
become
allowed
most
to
dry at any
set make
cut to a height of 36 inches when
planting. Trees
a better
than
if
the
trees
cut
more
growth
severely,
question is
top
average
of
and
considered
broadly
regardless
grade.
186.
Summary.
of
One-year-old peach trees
^-inch
a
*M* or
total
made
The
the
the
trees
largest average
grade
growth.
larger
the poorer
The
smaller
the growth when
at planting time.
unpruned
a

"

the damage
if the trees
allowed
are
trees, the greater
before
planting.
dry
The
total growth
largest average
regardless of grade
trunk
when
to
36-inch
trees
cut
by
a
set, except in the case
12-inch
when
Trees
trunks
out
made
trees.
cut
to
set
the

largest

total

average

when

occurred

trees

")^-inchgrade
to

6-inch

made

in

depressed

in

Trees

cut

were

the

when

trunks

The

growth.

18-inch

to

largest

set.

growth when
general failed

to

of

as

back

large

develop

24

6-inch

to

when

of

dried-

the

set.

when

growth

as

made

was

next

total growth

average

trunks

amount

Trees
cut

smallest

become

to

inch

Trees
cut

larger

or

of
back

were

trunks.

branches

well

the

upon

12

to

24-inch

section of the trunk.

Very few well-developed buds occur
this
of
section
the
tree
under
The
conditions.
largest
upon
average
of branches
total number
in
the
from
7
to
12 inches.
occurs
lengths
The

largest

The

of

with
the

number

of

branches

of

all

lengths

curred
oc-

36-inch

number

correlated

total

average

irr the

with the 12-inch

second.
treatment
treatment,
of
all lengths is, therefore, apparently
branches

the

smallest

amount

of

number

of

The

growth.
branches

unpruned
than

more

24

trees

inches

veloped
de-

long.

of branches
that
developed the largest number
inches
The
6-inch
resulted
in
treatment
long.
were
of
number
of
the largest
the formation
branches, 40 to 50 inches
12-inch
the largest number
of brandies.
treatment
long. The
gave
the
number
37 to 40 inches
long. The 18-inch treatment
largest
gave
24-inch
The
of branches, 25 to 30 inches
treatment
the
long.
gave
of branches, 25 to 30 inches long.
largest number
that the more
then conclude
the pruning the
We
severe
may
(83). It should be
greater the tendency to produce long branches
The

36-inch
more

trees

than

that

further, however,

noted

in number

the

from

when

is cut back.

along

the

the

nursery

if there
tree

24

trunk

are

so-called

main

branches

are

reduced

inches.

One-year peach trees

start
chard
growth
planted in the orthe
buds
the point where
well-formed
just below
of such buds
The
number
varies at different points
trees

are

cut

to

into

of

nursery

best

tree.

Buds

when

are

found

to

be

most

PRUNING

18

the

and
Peach

to

trees

the

after

followed

space,

of

height regardless

trees.

citrus

in order

planting should

character

the

and

definite

235

TREES

by the

12

to

spaces.

time

the

at

Citrus

do

12-inch

to

grade

to

some

187.

30-inch

:24 to

according

as

the

at

numerous

YOl'XG

fruits

Few

"

trees^oranges,

be

pruned
stock, and

of

the

of

all other

somewhat
ing
accord-

not

factors.

demand

as

lemons,

etc.
grapefruits,

little

pruning

having been "educated"

by training through
their youthful days.
Much
of the pruning is done
when
the trees
set and
are
The
two.
during the first season
or
lemon
is more
other
(190), however,
pruned than any
member
of the citrus group,
its handling by many
ers
growthus
approaching that of the peach. High heads
are
low
rapidly giving place in popularity to low ones,
so
that
often
the branches
the ground.
factory
So satisrest
on
have
low
heads
proved that many
high-headed
lowered
trees
the
and
velopmen
deare
being
by
encouragement
"

once

of
trunks

the

and

parts

upper

handled
In

water

tops.

bear

fruit.

will

Root

or

between

In

"die-back"

pruning.

severe

therefore

pruning

the

on

gradual cutting

of the

Florida

freeze

sprouts

and

due

time

of the

tops

The

aids
A

of

of

parts

the

branches

roots

in

lower

high in the
the suckers
properly

follows
commonly
are
usually unhurt.

re-establishinga

sharp spade

balance

deep in the
soil in a circle at nearly the limit of the branch
spread will
The
of the malady
usually produce good results.
cause
the proper
be discovered
and
should, however,
remedy
applied.
top

Frozen

trees

actually

at

because

the

not

be

at

once?

the

root.

may

be

ground

dead

thrust

back

left alone, cut

surface.

The

somewhat

or

first is objectionable

be removed
top must
If left,a large part of the

some

time

why

growth must
of slight injury the
dead
twigs become
new

In cases
injured in taking it out.
until the
be postponed
pruning may
better
out.
Cutting is, however,
dry enough to break
than
of
In cases
of severe
injury the whole
breaking.
the
at once,
injured part should
preferably at the
go

236

PRINCIPLES

ground.

Sprouts

The

top.
When

trunk

leave

pruners

heart

the

living wood.
break

branches
both

are

This

leaving only

becomes

weak

so

propped or wired,
unsatisfactory.

and

shaping

and

trees."

orange

left to
removed.

Most

In

cases

wood.

unless

costly

Pruning

188.

old

such

thin

cylinder

that

the

owth

of

is because

the

soft

shoots

which

According

unable

are

to

of

loaded

processes

\\

J.

to

Mills,* the tendency of young

of Washington
Navel
trees
other varieties to assume
a
drooping habit when
making
g

new

large enough.
develop

be

being

form

to

when

it may

of the

decays

PRUNING

used

budded

injured parts

much

wood

be

unhurt

seems

too

OF

may

be

may

top, only the

new

grafts

or

sprouts

the

PRACTICE

AND

and

some

vigorous
weight

the

support

the

Even
that have
been
ing
trees
large, heavy leaves.
long in bearwill be benefited by pinching back
that
branch
takes too
every
is especially
This
vigorous an
upward
growth.
pinching process
with

five years
old.
vantage
Pruning bearing trees." An upright tree has a decided adwhen
loaded
with
fruit. The
over
drooping one
a
crop
less breakage of limbs, and
with
jured
much
fruit is innot
so

necessary
188a.

is borne

trees

to

one

After
the trees
by the wind.
pruning that will promote
other than
the crop
cutting
those that make
from
the side, or
the constant
trimming out of dead
to

be

inside of the
If

the

189.

the

on

need

the

of

seems

trees

prove
im-

or

that

project abruptly
skyward growth, and

sudden

bearing, there

health
limbs

out

or

stunted

be

thinned

never

Renewal

the

found

wood

allowed

of

tops.
"

to

does

not

of

the

tree, but

fruit is safe

from

sunburn

grade.

be

from

out

This

access.

appearance

Such

inside.

"fancy"

as

should
free

had
in

difference

packs

trees

branches
has

sunlight

noticeable
bear fruit
and

the

the

on

trees.

close, the

too

until

in full

are

no

By
grow

Some

early attention
too

groves

close
of

to

inside

the
make

any

makes

it

frost

and

pruning, the

in the center.

old

orange

trees

do

not

the owners
can
give them.
respond
such
effective way
Under
to stimulate
circumstances, the most
new
life and vigor is sometimes
the entire top, leaving enough
to remove
limbs
that will
of each of the main
to distribute equally the suckers
to

the

even'

the

make

afterward

best

treatment

of

the

If

the

only
tops are
partiallycut back, there will be a proportionate
of feeble growth and a corresponding lack of productiveness.
amount
An
when
old orange
tree will rapidly produce a new
cut
top, even
back
in a condition
It is soon
to
bear
to
a
mere
again at
stump.
the roots
its full capacity. When
are
healthy and the soil is properly
thinned

out

and

cultivated
*

California

new

top

tree.

but

and

fertilized, the

Experiment

Station

orange

Bulletin

138.

tree

appears

able

to

produce

YOUNG

PRUNING

of

generations

several

that

found

root-system,

tops

investigation of roots
cutting or pruning of

the

it will

But

old, non-productive

soil,or

of
management
soil should
and

the

in

or

stock.

one

on

with

trouble

the

237

TREES

be

is resorted

top

generally
lies in

trees

in

both.

Thorough

before

made

be
the

severe

any

to.

be
should
preceding paragraphs, all trees
as
Except
and
heat
aid
and
for
frost,
low
wind,
to
trained
protection against
are
the gathering of fruit. Heavily laden branches
generally propped
the loss from
dropping and splitting
as
to
breaking down,
prevent
be safely lightened by thinning the
cannot
is so great that the trees
in

noted

fruit

small.

when

Pruning

190.

The

deck.

the

of

first and

which

should

wood

to

be

limbs, which

the

ends

of

buds

forming

little cluster
these

fruit
a

of

fruiting

grows

tree

so

the

of

the

sucker

painted.

tree

to

prevent

the

proper
fill in the gap.

be

not

longer

be

expected

San

be

it

taken

The

the

and

the

by

indications

and

of

often

and

occurs

of

an

tinguished
dis-

are

and

tree

growths

framework

or

used

is

that

come

a
on

tree, if the

the

that

on

deal

good

is

sprout,

tree

of

for

not
a

may

breaking off, when

it branch
point to make
this

the

case

when

and

is
to

sucker

16

to

the

part
side

sucker

permitted

its

off

to

cut

be

back

used

to

it could

when
it

use

the

of

part

large enough
spread it may
a

The

smoothed

main

the

limb, but as a
split off one
inches long.

abrasion
to

was

not

of

part

it
veloped.
de-

has

the

it is

sprout

circumstances

12

tied

be

its
In

limb

large

then

fruit

only when
already

tree

discussion

of

sucker

part

being a sucker
off entirely and

sucker

used, but

back.

More

are

at

was

no

one.

Building
and

be

just above
may

and

at

growth,

be used,
may
instance, when

For

tree,

split limb

blossom

question has been raised, When

something unexpectedly happens

When

tree.

there

which

it cannot

The
sucker?

about

wood.

where

spurs

the

on

long

leaves

matured

grow

outward

the

of

fruit.

to

nature.

growth

sucker

also

frame

weight

bear

to

and

building

is inclined

2l/2 feet

Sometimes

Fruit

lemons.
as

the

on

this

needed

sometimes

to

fruit

of

spurs

that

growth
1

show

tips.

the

at

limbs,

Another
is the

from

position

and

is young

tree

grow

their

by

the

of

part
a

limbs

fruit, limbs

frame,

when

and

up,

Fruit

angle.

the

by

building

is the

support

are

tree

deck

and

load

to

age

materials

of

lemon

year,

heavy

The

"

consider

to

bearing

at

by

year

up

carry

kinds

Three

is that

wood

must

enough

strong

construct

Building
straight

of

which

breaking.

built

and

trees.*

lemon

young

important thing

most

framework,

without

is of

closely

watched

be

must

training

and

and

lemon

This
or

does
allowed

better

tree

is accomplished

not
to

fruit will

necessarily
bear

fruit during

be produced

address
Excerpt from
an
by W.
1916.
Bernardino,
Cal., February,

by

H.

Fleet

at
before

systematic cutting

that

mean

tree

building

the
an

the

earlier
the

Special

should

of the

date
Citrus

than

out
not

frame.
if the

Convention,

238

PRINCIPLES

is allowed

tree

fruit

spurs

previous

also, and

fruit

Never

has

point

where

the

is

time

having

On
of

within

the

the

the

The

tree.

inches

34

to

It

to

is not

crowning

spaced

so

as

I prefer to
possible to

not

allow

needed

to

the

given

cutting

Four

the

make

to

makes

and

make

the

of

cases

or

the

limbs

very

be

can

another

(127).

if it be not
stem,
another.
Three
opposite

one

the

first two

the

This
rather

be

short

framework.

If

first

will

By

three

or

frames.

growth,

off

or

crown

being opposite
particular plan

one

center

weak

September.
cutting back

part

mean

cut

started

the

the

years,

pruning may
thinning

those

limbs

first

pruning

water

is

tree

the

suckering
rubbing
sprouts,
important to keep the tree, especially the trunk,

not

be

tion
founda-

crown

this

most

long

and

good

not

plenty.

are

too

limbs

no

out

having

cuts

small

mean

as

this

to

care,

branches

stem,

the

at

ground,

it is to

prefer

carry

with

four

and

every

exactly opposite

come

limbs

two

to

in

but

the

begin the framework

to

ground.

to

without

back

off

Up

crown

an

seedling

cut

tree.

Now,

built
I

from

tree,

only

and

orchardist.

the

one

in August
or
necessary
of the top branches
and
are

developing
stakes

is

tree

the

it may
be
inches
from

34

to

will be

of

the

work
frame-

spurs.

lemon

from

propensities.

stem

four

It is dangerous

long cuts
planted early

by

out

the

enough

are

and

own

of

32

always possible

to

grow

as

so

or

grow

of

have

limbs

crown

grown

fruit

or

train

or

nursery

up

with

limbs

in the

height

choice

build

wood,

its

to

fruit

sprout

held

be

little stick

allowed

another.

to

spurs

the

the

in

are

spurs

bud

is matured

to

of

are

begin
the

height

trusted

32

limbs
in

had

matter

of

begin training

to

been

back.
is

there

time

to

When

ends

building

and

built

frame

being developed
the building process
not
to
where
they are too
except

during

fruit

or

fruit

and

of

part
while

remembered

exercised

limbs

year

be

when

reached

it has

the fruit limbs

the

off the

crop

The
question
important one.
stock

propensities,as
in the

fruit limbs
be

must

care

its natural

must

that

tree

these

out

thick.

It

years.

of the
trim

develop

PRUNING

OK

each

follow

to

will

PRACTICE

AM)

be
out

which
I d""

etc.

It

free

from

is

suckers.
A

should

tree

young

three

If

years.

watched

be

it forms

or
closely the first two
its
suckering, especially on
starting the sap in full flow through
Also
tree.
to
allowing the suckers

trunk, there will be trouble in

the limbs
and
foliage of the
the
stunts
growth of the
grow

they are
Rubbing them
forming on the trunk
off when

be taken

the hand.
from
flow

of

the

tall branches

This
of
tree

the

tree

limbs.

be

can

tender
very
I believe
These

are

should
off with

rubbed

knots

prevents
retard

the

free

sap.

pruning

In

the suckers

Therefore,
that they

they

when
or

of

tree.

tender

so

very

habit

the

lemon

are

close
before

is only nine

cut

tree

back

planted nine
very

short

months
for the

in
next

the orchard
deck

or

the

work.
frame-

cutting is done to develop strength in the crown

heavy top growth is developed. Although this
a
months
old, some
short, healthy wood
developed

240

PRINCIPLES

with

knife

should
or

old.

years

then

wood.

Where

better.
the

shear
of

in

ought

to

taken

become

the

the

unless

trunk

to

of
the

handling

of
a

cut

can

be
never

three
little-

the
unless

tree

limb

may

least

out

tree

profit

the

is

tree

they

growing

its

will
owner.

limbs

properly

limbs

Keep

the

diet
proper

always

training

fruit

the

coming

bud

and

indefinitely

"

in

be

lemon
down

even

on

running

good
the
one

cannot

the

With

pruning

into

one

on

spurs

tree.

fruit

more

fed

reservoir

fruit

limbs,

produce

regularly

fruit

food

framework

continually

Every

and

for

and

to

are

and

The
of

ready

are

fruit

proper

and

hundreds

are

soil.

the

manufacturing

results.

fruiting.

continuous

soil

which
to

more

the

it

is

overlooked

condition,

good

buds
fruit

ground.

furnishing

order,

of

the
and

capable

On

thousands

spurs,
so

is

it
at

the

be

not

physical
expect

built.

and

should

good

cannot

one

been

prolific

tree

It

off

cut

of

trees.

young

orchard

framework

which
in

kept

tree,

set,

and

expect

is

has

tree

bearing,

the

free

trees

time.

Never

8.

Never

whether

doubt

if
the

over

go

the

next

but

shears.

in

point

soil

have

limbs

to

pruning

grow

until

it

necessary,

necessary

important

for

leave

in

be

limbs.

the

of

when

round,

would

thick.

the

spurs

and

which

very

food

if

the

with

too

Unless

cut

trunks

is,

That

off,

future
is

It

limbs

it

or

the

year

fruit

out

back.

put

times

its

cut

in

out

be

of

be

the

especially
leave

doubt

be

Keep

6.

and

angular

cut

fruit

five

close

larger

of

ends

circumstances.

any

sprouts,

water

When

7.

little

out
to

up

cut

should

wood
a

off

trees

Never

4.

and

shear

or

crop

under

tree

made

when

over

entirely,

stubs.
the

pencil,

lead

Never

5.

leave

and

pruning

and

limbs

out

not

is

cut

than

smaller

training

in

Do

wax.

^-inch

limb

cutting

In

3.

PRUNING

OF

Every

wax.

especially

waxed,

smooth,

no

then

and

be
six

PRACTICE

AND

prolific

proper

velop
de-

can

bearer

CHAPTER

PRUNING

the

When

in

and

his

expend
fruit

his

trees

injudicious

to

year

of

noted

ways

pruning.

fruit

buds

There

both

very

his

trees.

easily by

dictates

are

ways,

general

as

in

the

will

as

smaller
the

other

in the

varieties

but

stand

the

tions
excep-

many

the

trees

from
set

more

is

rule

the

fruit
produce
(axillary) buds,
will

bear

two

Naturally

and

already

various

stated.

of
than

of

to

from

terminally,

where

which

bearing

harm

no

when

trees

in

buds

; and

apple.

as

do

on
up-

produce

As

"

laterally,

"

bear

will

whittling

is extensive

fruit

(56),

peach

should

pruner

well-being
of

in life.

They

habit

Bearing

their

out

he

minder
re-

year.

192.

style

the

continues

and

enough

and

fruit

pruning

erroneous

and

cidents,
ac-

mere

purpose

hacking

to

without

brush

and

sawing,

where

"

the

thrown

made

attention

pile

scribed
de-

as

will, barring

trees

training

been

trees

young

bearing

pruning.
be

even

may

be

can

of

have

V)

into

come

prospects

crop

the

For

annual

wood

friendly

some

little

for

(Chapter

education

of their

they

energy

pruning
mature

then

time

TREES

the

X,

very

now

the

of

the

in

Chapter

need

From

MATURE

principles

applied

properly

XI

eral
latmore

ing
prun-

branches

kind,

be241

FIG.

limb.
because

shows
A

DISASTER.

INVITING

201."

This

how

not

stub

is

always

decay

is

sure

to

to
a

cut
menace

enter.

242

PRINCIPLES

this

cause

PRACTICE

AND

pruning helps

to

():"' PRUNING

thin

the

fruit

106).

Such

method

which
fruit buds,
applied totrees
produce terminal
wholly or largely, would
probably not only destroy to.)
fruit

many

and

also

but

buds,

the

upset

normal

of

habit

the

the
to
development of wood, even
of destroying the bearing habit
extent
altogether. Kven
with
that produce axillary buds, good judgment
trees
is
differ among
varieties
needed, for the bearing habit may
well as species. For instance, the peach bears
its fruit
as

growth

buds

cause

annual

strong

on

of last year;

growths

cherry

blooms

whereas
less

on

the

vigorous

Therefore
the
severe
twigs.
considered
ideal
for
pruning
in the cherry
the peach would
and
large twi^
develop many
which

would

Apples and pears,

axillary fruit buds

which

terminal

young

FIG.

This

it

close

the

to

193.

the

the

then,

trance
en-

form
also

and

fruit

are

more

which

bear
cause
be-

way,
to

prone

bear.
over-

this matter

sum

may

primer

up,

decide

wound
trunk

the

Pruning

To
aster
dis-

courts

The

it forms

which

normal

more

they

favors

decay.

of
be

in
"PRUNING"

because

should

those

the

fruit.

pruned

be

severely than
202

style of cutting

on

ones

must

spurs,

UNPARDONABLE

little

bear

as

llOW

milch

tree

by

majority

the

apple.
"

he

Shall

the

noting

each

prime

in

way

of its fruit buds.

Tn

general

way

the

ing
follow-

principles already discussed

in developing his judgment
(Chapter V), will aid the pruner
to prune
bearing trees, not only of apples
of how
based

rules,

but
1.

of other

be

formation.

the

Study the habit

fruit bud
may

fruits

on

of

growth

Trees

spread somewhat

as

which

well

as

the

normally

by cutting

to

method

of

grow

erect

outside

buds:

PRUNING

which

those

pruning

to

3.

even

the

out

to

healed

top

tree

barren

water

stub

CROSS
healed

Below,

over.

to

the

Where

SECTION
over

either
of

will

them

become

later

not

and

broken

the

larger

and

suckers

hole

OF

TRUNK

saving

in number
them.

SHOWN

decayed beneath.
left by decay of limb

but

compel

need

of

many

are

such.

be

If

prolific.

as

limbs,
tree

making
which

parts

or

They

them

FIG.

IN
the

left

diagonally

shown

in

of most

there

is

as

healthy stub
Fig. 204.

fruit-bearing habit.
such
growths are not
so

so

204.

little

the

size,
are

At

where

except

needed, shorten

branching and later

properly handled
bearing trees
to

slightly by

(Figs. 171, 189).

sprouts

fill in gaps.

203"
a

close

raised

(Fig. 93).

Cut

FIG.
At

the

diseased

dead,

them

needed

may

made

cleanly and

cuts

4.

others

stripped off,

Remove

bear

the

be

be

may

shoots, because

small

and

are

It may

the

the

spurs

they

sprawl
buds
(120).
to

upper

2. Save
fruit

tend

243

TREES

MATURE

In
cessive
ex-

usually little

interest

to old

trees

244

PRINCIPLES

which

renovation.

need

shortened

PRACTICE

AND

to

two

fruit

cases

buds

good

three

or

such

In

PRUNING

OF

so

If

spurs.

develop

should

they
The

easiest

water

they

still succulent

are

5. Avoid

Rather

remove

much

of wood
small

TREES

HOW

of

much
left

lower
wood

the

stub.

in

No

in

that

for

also

of

large

large branches.
back

the

big

leaders

also

aid

in

in

gaps

because

large
the

shoot

are

form

which

of

will

branches

moval
re-

will

leaves

as
places, where-

some

be

dense

as

follows

often

which

threatening to injure the

some

wounds

than

quicker

others

of too

but

trees

ever.

leave

ones,

scald of the branches

to

thumb,

the

way.

back

the

say

small

heal

ing
decay-

Sun

6. Cut

possible.
an
equal
eral
by cutting sevone's

will

try

down
In

small

hope

this

IK-

as

because

rotted

^ree.
note

corner,

healed

has

handled

the

to

wood

stub

of

heart

the

of

mainly

is the

wood
lightest colored
It is being used
youngest.
to bury the stub.
Decay has
into

while

STUBS

The

out

move
re-

large

branches,

thickness

BURY

to

in mid-

cutting
as

moved.
re-

they may
by boys.

off

branches

amount

204

be
way
is

sprouts

spring, when
easily pulled

FIG.

be
they should
they will form
they do not so

as

the removal

and

over-developing
the tree, but always
take

In
healing the wound.
stub
(Fig. 92). Following

the

up

other

work

words,

this

cut

rule

and
never

will

aid

and, hence, also help

keeping the trees low-headed
of spraying, thinning and
work
harvesting.
in

7. At

least

with
should
trained,
numerous

be

one

of such

limbs

as

cross

others, especially in the

When

removed.

however,
before

8. If necessary

trees

limbs

these

will

seriously

or

interior
have
be

of

been

neither

the

the

terfere
in-

tree,

properly
large

nor

discovered.

thin

out

the

top.

Usually, however,

it

PRUNING

will not

be necessary
above

given

will

9. Branches

to

enough

threaten

form

to

the rules

thinning.
Y

crotches

should

as

condition

of

Rhode

some

ing
prun-

vantage
ad-

an
a

full

in

were

pushed
handled,
the

ojt

yet others

while

of

pruning

severe

out
pushed
strength of

branches,

the

at

the

where

were

base

season

few

injured
after

both

trees

pruning June

August
and

of

the

of

1.5

final

would

tend

to

throw

all the

_;

more

vigorous development
as
much
a
more
shapely head.
made
Photographs
were
and

number

ing
dur-

much

limbs

the

of

into

tree

well

the

of
the
severely injured. Some
after
the
had
buds
secondary
somewhat
less vigorously
were
left untouched.
It was
thought that
which
on
new
growths were
being

trees

thereby securing
first

the

orchard

an

experiments
bettering the
inaugurated
eight-year-old

were
Greening trees
back
severely pruned
new
growths, others

Island

trees

remedy

to

early June

winter

injury." Pruning
Stuart*
with
of
view
a
by William
These
winter-injured trees.
were

Pruning
undertaken

were

on

of this because

year.

194.

in

much

done

have

245

TREES

already indicated
(127).
need
Should
a
neglected orchard
severe
very
bring it back to shape, it will usually be
in the winter
do
the work
to
preceding

10.

crop

do

to

that

handled

be

MATURE

as

of

before

again

9,

same

son,
sea-

September

set

the

of

A
following season.
of
these
affords
study
little evidence
that pruning was
A
beneficial.
comparison of one
27

careful

would

set

show
in

while
be

that

decided

favor

of

While

conclusions
from

the

under

rather

ing
sweep-

be

formed

small

unfavorable
much

at

least

un-

very

can

single experiment,

a
on

this

to

no

would

set

equally favorable

pruned.

pruning,

another

of

vantage
ad-

ducted
con-

scale and

conditions,
may

be

said:

FIG.

205."

ISLAND
BEFORE
*

Vermont

Report,

Experiment
1901.

Station

nual
An-

JUNE.
DAMAGE.

WINTER

GREENING
PRUNING
NOTICE

INJURED
APPLE
IN

EXTENT

RHODE
TREE
EARLY

OF

246

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

Or

of winter
above
(1). That in cases
injury like that mentioned
is
the
be
removal
of
the
to
practically nothing
gained by
h^sty
In other
of the tree.
words, severe
greater portion of the head
is probably more
often
and
pruning is inadvisable
injurious than
it would
beneficial. (2). That in the light of the observations
made
advisable to defer pruning operations to the latter part of the
seem
growing season
or
possibly until the following spring. (3). That
branches
whenever
should
be removed
more
pruning is to be done
no
than

is necessary
to preserve
winter
injury could be avoided

condition.
of

Weak,
than

temperature

the

balance

of

the

by keeping the
unhealthy trees are less
Compare
thrifty ones.

tree

in

tree

able

(4). That

top.
a

thrifty,vigorous
stand

to

extremes

by

statements

Whitten

(203).

195.
and

if

FIG.

206

is the

This
as

FIR. 205.

if

properly trained while young

Even
when
unhealthy, require little pruning.
trees,

pear

APPLE

PRUNED

tree

Mature

shown

FIG.

same

in

206
67

AUGUST

207"

Tree
as

days

in

shown
seen

in

after

F'g.

August;

FIG.

203

pruning.
SHOWING

SEPTEMBER
One

hundred

and

ten
they bear tolerably well.
after
tree
pruning
days
in
shown
Fig. 207.
for high-grade fruit judicious
But
In general the fruitinghabit resembles
pruning is necessary.
trirs
habit of growth is more
erect, but pear
the apple. The
form
desired, as, for
be readily trained in almost any
may
erally
Genetc.
cordons,
(Chapter XVII).
instance, espaliers,
orchards
the trees in commercial
develop as nature

pruned

dictates,but broad, low heads

are

not

hard

to

secure.

24S

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

Stripping (99)

PRUNING

also

probably safer than

much
Just how
in

done

mature

left

to

the

fruit

the

It is

help.
girdling.
pruning may

may

trees

pear

be
be

must

and
judgment
to
experience, the idea being more
thin and
thus
improve the quality of

its

primer's

than
sake.

own

toward

tend

Pruning of
wholly
are
FUNGI

2 10"

196.

ATTACK

policy will
regular annual
bearing.

this

kind, however,

obviate

thinning

summer.

Both
as

necessary

blight,

Pear

for

wood

remove

Such

itself in

fruit

FIG..

to

not
can-

the
tices
prac-

rule.

general

if it attacks

the

BARK

INJURED

will

trees,

upset

damage this
be
largely prevented by a
very
of training (173).
proper
system
Heavy pruning shou Id be avoided
much
as
as
possible ; also all soil
for heavy
that makes
management
over-cultivation,
growth
notably
nitrogenous
fertilizing with
overmethods.

Yet

the

best

the

even

disease

ing
prun-

d"" may

may

"

and

manures

leguminous
trees

in rank
to

excessive

the
cover

crops

growth are
blight than

because

"

to

the

of

fruit

should

be

possible.

branches,
spurs

those

less

the

chief

Instead,

the

soms,
blos-

the

fruit

the

ment
developlimbs

main

on

prevented

ceptible
sus-

more

Since
amply nourished.
are
points of infection
thence
through
spurs

as

the

of

use

much

as

growth

of

HG.

211"

PEAR
BLIGHT

MITS

strong

aged

new
so

wood

that

new

should
fruit

be

encour-

spurs

ma

TMs

stub

wa"

yZJSJT*

wilted

b*-

PRUNING

MATURE

249

TREES

that
be
must
place of those
infected.
because
of becoming
removed
The
perative
imtwo
rules for preventing the spreading of blight are
(1) cut out and burn all infected parts, making the cuts jn
below
the lowest
of
point of discoloration
healthy wood
the
wood
in cross
section
of the
(as viewed
twig or
branch) and (2) the thorough sterilization of all wounds
and
and
tools after making
each
cut.
(Figs. 183,
every
209
to 213.)
197. The
quince is trained either as a bush with severrl
be

developed

stems

or

as

The

only

only

claimed

borers

for

than

form

and

it is believed

than

are

than
be

may

replace

the

old.

age
man-

several
of
ous
seri-

less

be, provided

to

is

attention

proper

to

are

is

T)orers

there

its

are

likelihood

the

that

from

damage

there

form

serious

less

to

has

form

bush

that

and
wood

new

tree

the

likely to be

is

of

the

where

for

is maintained

stem

Each

stem.

one

plantation is easier

the

stems

with

succession

claims

that

the

points

one

constant

The

take

from

damage

where
a

tree

advocates.
that

to

given

the

trees.

To

sprout

is allowed

from

the

base

same

kind

of

to

of

canes

The

old

form
each

grow

the
that

way

gooseberry
grow.

bush

the

secure

are

stems

plant

one

year
in the
and

currant

allowed

to

removed

are

six

after

three
to
having fruited
times, depending mainly upon

health

of

the

nlant

the

Sometimes

FIG.
BLIGHT

212

PRUNING

there

be

may

nf

cfpmc

cf*\r(*r\

as

six

as

many
^irirnic

or

in 1

-acrpc

n
a

is

four

but

probably

the

from
The

downward

COm-

ITlOnest
i

number.
1

produced

"

in

Ihe

tree

torm
"

,1

the

IS

same

way

as

in

now

been
wound

WOUND

stub

This
fected
saw.

bush,

FROM

SPREAD

the

became
an

in-

unsterilized

blight spread
rapidly. As seen

diseased

tissue

has

and
the
pruned
away
is
ready for disin-

fection.

250

PRINCIPLES

the

AND

of

growing
amenable

more

Annual
age

FIG.
These

ing

in

213"

CANKERED

balance

excellent

is rank

50

range

the

Some

trees.

varieties

to

70

growths
of 15

but

which

SHOWING
made

up

cent.

per

should

be

wholly

of

When

shorten-

blight bacteria

properly

from

18 inches.

to

and

bearing

EXUDATIONS

BLIGHT
almost

the

1 to

When

aged,
man-

feet, with

the

growth

produce blooming shoots

will be near
the tips and
will largely be lost in the
so
pruning. The best buds, by the way, are not usually the
terminals

buds

are

are

this form.

to

the

LIMB

drops

the annual
an

PRUNING

OF

quince reaches
thinning the young
growth

sticky, milky

the

others

after

pruning

consists

fruit

other

than

PRACTICE

the laterals

to

are

on

the

upper

half

of the

annual

be
main
The
ideas in annual
growths.
pruning should
and
to
to
an
secure
keep the plant well within bounds
Since the quince
shoots each year.
ample supply of new
to
should
be exercised
is susceptible to fire blight, care
and burn affected parts whenever
cut
out
discovered, just
as

in the
198.

it has

case

The

been

of the pear
mature

(196).

cherry

properly

started

tree

and

requires little pruning

trained

for three

or

if

four

MATURE

PRUNING

is

be

should

aim

The

years.

tall-growing

the

even

back.

Unless
of

heights
bearing
much

35

so

pruned

or

40

is

wood

is

spraying

too,

always

the

varieties

when

25

required

made

to

often

reach

Since

old.

the

of the branches
the

harvest

difficult and

more

will

years

ends

to

and

by judicious heading

trees

the

be

may

sweet

near

There

varieties

sour

varieties

apple

feet

will be

time

with

sweet

like

heads

spreading

form

keep it low-headed.

to

this

difficultyin doing

no

251

TREES

Then,

crop.

costly

too

such

on

tall

trees.

The

with

aims

both

and

sweet

should

varieties

sour

the
near
as
fruiting parts of the trees
throughout
ground as possible, to develop fruiting wood
limbs
and
frame
trunks
the whole
to keep the
top and
will be reduced
scald
to a
well shaded
so
danger of sun
the
In all pruning to develop fruiting wood,
minimum.

be

the

keep

to

fruiting habit

of

mind, because

trees

the

(56, 64)

cherry

with

this habit

other

the

which

wood

strong

hand

the

bears

fruit spurs

bearing constantly for

the

Also

fruits

Varieties
which

they
that
that
or
are

fruit

correctly

they

be

In

planted

pruned

too

orchards,

In

by.

near

the

produced

trouble

severely
that

indicate

too

or

much

be

fed

be

water

that

the
after
is

more.

inferior

size.

bloom,

but
either

are

that

or

; in the

few
the

or

been

in

blossoms

no

trees

latter,

budded

or

liberally,or,
has

On

it is recommended

grafted

where

too

or

they

dormant

either

may

of
of

that

case

while

cases

of two

severely enough,

or

former

the

severely pruned

fertilizingvarieties

usually

cessive
ex-

fruit

what

and

abundance

produce

self-sterile.

are

years,

are

sparsely.

neglected from
and
spindling

of in clusters

sparsely, thus

being pruned

not

several

produced

so

which

set

puny

singly instead

appears

buds

trees

on

standpoint, become

pruning
borne

fruit

to

growths

will force excessive

cutting. Over-pruning
of

submit

will not

in

borne

be

must

have
in

been

irrigated

applied during1

252

PRINCIPLES

the

previous

1'KACTH'E

AND

In

season.

of

each

these

the

cases

reverse

is indicated.

method
199.

The

of

species

FIG.

plum

mature

which

plums

214"

tree.

differ

FROST-KILLED

their habits

PEACH

of growth,

commercial

pruned

far

fruit is borne
for

four

apple, partly
lateral
renew

buds
the

or

more

on

because
and

bearing

after

partly
wood

portion

the

that

the

used

now

be

must

the

because

severely

lific
pro-

the

than

fruit is produced
is

it

the

limbs

of

case

by
tti

necessary

in

than

cut
new

continue

may

because

oftener

tree

represents

trees

trees

more

in

injury.

winter

Right,

of varieties

but
of

widely

the

winter.

dark

The

which

spurs

some

that

mam

HANDLED
after

spring

or

are

less

or

peach

than

years,

there

VARIOUSLY

WOOD

agree

severely

largely

more

yet growers

purposes

less

While

"

not
cut
back
in spring
before
Left, tree
back
cut
both
and
Middle, tree
spring before
back
winter.
said
before
spring after, but not
wood
formed
since the
injury.

for

PRUNING

OF

of

the

apple.
Since

the

trunks

and

the

frame

plum

trees

PRUNING

MATURE

easily injured by

are

plenty

of

parts.

Yet

air to

light and

the

favor

and

keep

to

susceptible
thin

head

the

out

Americana

low

class,

and

enough
first quality fruit.

of

production

varieties,as

pruned

are

back

cut

form,

good

Domestica

The

to

aim

these

varieties, especially of the

maintain

to

as

so

shade

to

top

it is necessary

of most

tops

the

in

leafage

should

pruning

sun,

253

TREES

rule, including the prunes,

probably
^_

less than

of the

any

of

ties,
varie-

require
thinning
fruiting

overbear

more

or

out

of

wood

the
to

as

size and

both
the

less

so

tend

that

however,
to

other

the
Those

groups.

rieties
va-

augment

quality
faVOr

frillt, tO

FIG.

of

ular

and

annual

The
severe

weak

as

pruning.

Special

care

method

the

habit

fruit,while
results

demand

as

of

to

back

in

Light

summer

case

In

the

"full"

thinning
new

general, the

apricot will be

of the

not

out

peach.

the

of

thinning of the

years.

smaller

of wood
thin

to

productive
First

lected
neg-

"off"

Pruning
as

because

When

and

growths

bearing.

avoid

Japanese

varieties

Japanese

develop

and

fruit

wood.

to

the

because

fairly

stand

taken

be

with

service, is

some

in the
also

others

harvesting.

is closely similar.

develop strong

well

serve

should

the

bearing
tend

trees

will

branches

with

and

will

group

employed

well

heading

Annual

later

pruning

of fruit

the

brittle

unusually

work

to

PEACH

forming.

(Figs. 99, 100, 102)

have
of

wood

are

especially thinning

varieties

crotches

found

work,

Japanese

varieties

parts

OF

right healthy;
injured wood.

bearing

facilitate

to

INJURY

extreme

Dark

new

WINTER
and

one

injured.

reg-

ones
,

215"

Left

of

that
the

good

quality plums

fruits.

This

rule

254

PRINCIPLES

AND

applies to Domestica
Japanese kinds.
200.

The

the

others.

Hence

of the

peach
the

methods

and

in

method

and

well

as

resembles

tree

of

and

the

is

pruning

the

vigorously, it
peach so as-

secure

fruit

growth

the

then

be

down

four

years

or

normal

gait,it
wood

peach,

pruning

from

forward

time

duces
pro-

than

that

so

When

cairns

less

that

Since

head.

three

the

in

produce

to

the

cherry

may

low

to

of

trees.

broad

at

habit

modification

these

the

to

as

in

on

grows

like

PRUNING

varieties

respects

some

employed

apricot while young

pruned and trained
sturdy framework

OF

other

apricot

mature

growth

PRACTICE

the

consist

may

merely of heading back

and
the
thinning out
just
stronger growths
the
to
enough
keep
in thrifty
fruiting wood
"

FIG.
Left

injured

216"

INJURIES

WINTER

right, injured apple, healthy apple,

Dark
jured;
plum, healthy plum.
part, inwood
light ring, new
forming.
to

condition
well

in hand.

and

the

tree

Such

pruning will reduce but not obviate

the necessity of summer
thinning.
After the trees get old severe
be necessary
pruning may
in the interior of the tops.
to develop new
fruiting wood
This
necessity is perhaps of even
rence
more
frequent occurit is advisable
than with the peach. Hence
to krcp
close

watch

of the

trees

from

year

to

so

year

as

to

avoid

much
though the apricot will stand
neglect; for even
care.
neglect, it will respond nobly to proper
of the peach the pruning season
in comAs in the case
mercial
and
orchards
is through February
March, it is
until just before
well
to
delay the work
growth starts
so

as

have
summer

to

avoid

survived

unnecessary

the

pruning

is

winter.

cutting of
In

the

popular, the work

the

fruit buds

Pacific

being

Coast
done

that
states

as

soon

256

PRINCIPLES

which

upon

Where

the

spring

may

thus

201.

is

be

fully ripened.
expected summer

more

be

to

are

1'Rl'MNG

OF

generally

frosts

the

after

appear

PRACTICE

wood

late

pruning
may

AND

advantage, since
danger has passed.

the

an

blossoms

quickly responds to pruning than

peach more
other
woody fruit-bearing plant, with the exception
any
The
take
in
of the grape.
pleasure that peach growers
pruning it accounts
largely for the fact that peach or-

FIG.

The

218"

PEACH

:K
AFTER

chards

generally

of other
trees

tree

to

look

better

Failures

often

due

and

to

better

are

have

to

of

the

24

orchardist

inches.
to

annual

secure

trees

It

should

\vell-pruned peach
to

nerve

pruning

make

pruning

as

well

of

than

as

with

growths

of

of

the

aim

growths

effective

any

of its axillary

annual

such

There

cut.

should, therefore, be the

abundance

orchard^

than

fruit except the grape.

This is because
method
of producing its fruit buds.

peach

SEVERITY

WINTER

SEVERE

want

danger pf over-doing

Mature
18

BY

OF

DEGREES

VARYING

WITH

INJURED

fruits.

most

are

is less
other

BEING

by

sistent
con-

soil manage-

The

mcnt.

to

customary
"

the

the

cut

out

ones,

poorer

fully

is cut

wood

219"

TREE
MANY

HEADED

trees

become

broken

down

The
before
easy

to

the

BACK

first

IT
LIKE

GROWTH,

wood

SEVERELY

too

thick,

and

the

SHOWN

THAT

too

fruit

wide
too

ning
thin-

VERY
IN

IT

per

ance
balof

cent

that the

are

BE

SHOULD

AND

UPRIGHT

LARGE
FIG.

the

arguments

grow

THATv

GIVE

WILL

80

The

to

the

to

shorten
to

annually.

annual

MORE

to

of 70

total

of

and

"

effort

It is
growths.
the new
growths

annual
cent

the

and

incidental

per

out

LEFT.

BRANCHES
DENSE

60

to

Thus

much.

as

young

TOO

40

of course,

against allowing*all

FIG.

wood

of the

shortening-in

and

out

of unnecessary
well-shaded
tree
are

removal

maintain

to

257

TREES

MATURE

225.

spreading,

too

easily

inferior.

is
to
pruning just referred
in spring, when
growth starts
distinguish living buds from

done

preferably just
it is comparatively
those killed by frost

258

PRINCIPLES

during

winter.

(106),
Always

but

the

aid

should

aim
fruit

be not
Pruning

202.

PRUNING

OF

pruning aids in thinning the fruit

not
wholly obviate
summer
thinning.
be
the
should
trees
to keep
low-headed,
the
be gathered without
as
possible may

ladders, and

of

PRACTICE

Such

does

much

as

so

AND

when

ladders

than

more

6 feet

they

all

at

high.

vigor." W.

bud

peach

used

are

Chandler*

experimented
of pruning and
peach trees to
trimming
main
conclusions
His
follow
bud
:
vigor.
upon
winter warm
weather
In Missouri
the buds
starts
nearly every
Fruit
less.
that
into growth
buds
have
made
trees
more
or
on
a
vigorous growth, caused
by reasonably
severe
heading back or by cultivation,are
the less liable to winter injury. Heading
vs.

determine

with

back

H.

the

effect

may

be

in any

too

year

since

however,

severe,

fruit buds

the

likely to

most

through the winter safely are those

If
wood.
of the whips of new
the heading back
has been
tl e
too
severe,
growth will be so dense that no fruit buds
will be formed
of those whips.
at the base
In the experiment
the
station orchard
the
smallest
of
trees
having
percentage
come

at

the base

killed

buds

spreading,

those

were

open

cultivation

and

trained
forced

head, and

make

to

to

by

ing
prun-

vigorous

growth.
FIG.

BACK
This
been
It

was

PEACH

bears

Thinning
for the
orchard

next

from

to

than

on

In

peach
vase

the better
the

on
so

badly
The

heads.

with

trees

as

spreading he-id-*

that

fruit

making

trees

on

with

trees

on

40

fruit.

per

the tree
where
it is

[than

of

temperature
cent

the thinned

not

buds

more

hardy fruit buds

practiced]. In the station
set

below

degrees

bv

conducted

more

zero

killed

winter

one

side of

the unthinned

on

F.

nine

left unpruned
for
form, but the lower
parts

trees

Missouri

to

tree

side.

experiments

also much
*

dense

rot

fruit enables

crop

fruiting wood

were

fruit

not

vigorous growth, unless the gro \vtli is

too
vigorous, is larger than that on trees
smaller
This is true
making
cept
exgrowth.
early varieties,where
tree
a
making a rather small wood

with

the

does

had
tree
five-year
severely winter
injured.
saved
ting.
by radical cut-

growth

of

The

CUT

PROPERLY

220"

sparse,

weak

and

less vigorous than

Experiment

Station

Bulletin

A.

became

years

of

the

high
pruned
74.

in

Waugh

headed

open

branches
in the

up
trees

Massachusetts,

were

trees.

of the

same

bare

The

and
and
trees

variety:

died

several
back
weak

moderately

growth

sappy

the

and

vigorous

two

fruit
stronger
of
bearing a
capable
that

As

concludes

FIG.

221

"

best

fruit.
of

form

annual
those

shorter,

were

crop

in

adjacent

an

thick

the

but

than

of

in

were

growth
not

stronger

tree

was

pruned.

It is concluded

peach

headed
with. much

row

topped

cannot

more

More

and

more

from

these

be

secured

pruning.

years' special experiments, Waugh

heading back of peach trees in early

of three

result

insides,

branches

large

the

times

healthier

without

maintained

and

the

trees

and

experiments

three

or
on

Trees

injury.

winter

from

259

TREES

MATURE

PRUNING

that

the

GROWTH

UNSATISFACTORY
SEVERELY

ENOUGH

OF
AFTER

PEACH
WINTER

NOT

PRUNED

BACK

INJURY

In
advisable.
spring is good practice and in all cases
of
one-third
of the wood
this pruning from
to two-thirds
the previous year
should
be removed,
depending on the
When
number
the one-year-old wood.
of living buds
on
fruit buds, advantage should
from
there are
no
cause
any

260

PRINCIPLES

be

taken

in

extraordinary

to

back

to

cut

AND

back

PRACTICE

with

two

severity. Only
the cutting extend

comparative
should

however,

cases,

PRUXIXC.

OF

three-year-old branches.

or

block
left one
peach trees, Waugh
treating winter-injured
one-third
in
another
third
back
cut
midsummer,
a
pruned
unpruned,
of the previous year's growth, and
headed
fourth
to three-fourths
a
left.
branches
the trunk
back
were
near
so
only the stubs of main
In

While

the

large number
(93 per cent) of
the
headed-in
made
trees
by
growth

the

lived.

much

was

experiment also seems

be
not
seriously injured by freezing should
of
main
the
trunks.
52
trees
cent
Only
per
cent

per

FIG.
This

222"

The

IN

PEACH

FOREGROUND

how
shows
in June
picture taken
Both
were
trees
starting into growth.

(Compare

treatment.

Experiments conducted
pruning (heading-in) of
if continued

Experiments
*

back

so

treated

The

tree

of

trees

the

to

lived

after

GROWTH

GOOD

those

with

close

cut

severely

back

Ninety

that

at

after

the

left

winter

Chandler

is

slow

injury.

202

and

203.)

Whitten

winter

differ.

cut

lived,

trees

better.

indicate

to

SHOWS
trees

statements

unpruned

Hawaii

Station

at

peach
result

may

conducted*
Report,

the

1913,

for

Michigan
trees

late

in serious
years

Pages

22-26.

to

sub-station
in

the

indicate

fall and

in

that

early

injury.
determine

the

best

seasons

PRUNING

MATURE

261

TREES

in the

lands
tropical climate of the lowwhen
practicallythe whole
in June very
pruning is done
soon
annually. The
top is renewed
after the gathering of the fruit.
Although the foliage is almost
send
the
out
branches,
trees
soon
new
entirely removed,
many
until
when
which
winter,
vigorously
they begin maturing
grow
needed
the shape of the tree
All suckers
to improve
not
fruit buds.

peach pruning

for

methods

and

shown

have

Hawaii,

in

best

results

removed.

are

FIG.

ONE

223"

BACK

203.

SEASON'S
MERE

TO

Peach

GROWTH

BRANCH

pruning

J. C. Whitten

injured

EIGHT-YEAR

FOLLOWING

experiments.*"

determine

to

especially those

OF

STUBS

the

best

by winter,

PEACH
SEVERE

AFTER
WINTER

CUTTING

INJURY

conducted
Experiments
of pruning peach
yielded the following

method
have

by
trees,
marized
sum-

results.
Under

1.

winter
be

pruned
*

normal

safely

Missouri

and

conditions,

promise

[late] each
Station

Bulletin

to

winter
55.

when
peach
produce a crop
by cutting back

of

have
passed the
fruit, they should

the

main

trees

limbs,

so

as

262

IVI
Ihr

Inn I

Imik,

mi

whirli

ih"

"'"".ll"

,md

Ih.
It

oi

IK

tin-

.k.ui.i

"I

II I i r. Imili

"

they

if

more

secunn".
'

-\

depend

must

not

.n-e

cut

the

upon

"

|,,nu.

"iii|,;i, I

.in.l

Stragglinglln-y may

Fid

224"

*;

it

"

limbs shortened

If, hoWCVCi,
he

so

,T-

extcn,

wood

Iw..

..t

t""

only

leave

to

th.

aimu;.!',

hem

hnihs

tin

h... I, int..

ill

"

the

killed and

been

WOOd.

new

\\liirli ennt;iins
\\inirilillrd, the

injured

their main

Ihe

I,, i-ii

form

to

back

"I

M"".

h.ivc

Inchei "I

"

growth

new

|,,| in;i||..tl

htidi have

him

uninjured.

pruned

I"

i-i-i

thus
severely,

more

|lir

tendency

Mining

h.ivi

is

"niv

the
l.ii-l

Mini

or

i.

tli.

a\".ldm"'.
a

IK

thirds of
ha. k

(iii

have

treei

amount

fw.i

When

in-

111. iv

N"\"

i)

I"

:".

tin

niii|i;ii I

vvlm

kill"

One

hint

in.

in

i'Ki.\"

K'l""".

;ire

liner

evrn

OLD

FREE

MIXON

certain

ih.it there

pr;i. h

'I he

percentage
l""

e
|.t","ln.

i1..i"ic

\\hen

".

oi

them
p.,

.1

the

Killed, iMlt the

are

MI.

MM-

crop
is

is

.ihun.l.im

escaped
-I

iiuii

*o

RCVfrC

hadly

diso

h\"
e

that
-I.M

there

n"-l

e.l. the

i..

"id\
llees

varln

name

-h..uld

product
lli.il

it

still he

may

the
m..v

.1

In

h"-

unit
-.ni.ill

enottfffl
hu,,

hull

he

inNiirri

One

grower

hud

hint

injury

the

ih"-

l"

i.u.h,

..I

Tin-.

trt".

hirdlcnt.

of

is done

.uiiiiH-

the

arc

killed, other*

enough

not
.in

have

uinln

W.....I

-.ev.ie

Into

thty

wh"r"

HEAD

SPREADING

WITH
down

well

admits
light
the new
wood
of It* bud*
killed.

well
thin
form
how
Nott
the hint
of
formed
at
hid
thin tree
when
only 00%
80 to 00%
had
heada
Jtn.tr

bud*

,.ld u.M.d

PEACH

264

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OK

PRUNING

back
by cutting them
severely. The
following is
results of pruning peach trees
subsequent
to a
severe
Peach

6.

the

of

new

first in

which

trees

wood

was

spring and

condition

than

did

not

were

pruned,

after

removed

the

two

weeks

appeared

trees.

7. This

of

them

made

little

growth,

mainly

the

made
this

and

the

to

tops

thin

and

and

twigs.
wood

of

some

their

died.

Trees

8.

back

of

bearing

in

some

below

stock

Trees

0.

into

older

trees,

young

four-year-old

or

limbs
main
best
the
made
6

in

and

of

stubs

long.
They

growth.
of

to

in

feet

to

feet

to

cut

wood

leaving

thus

trees,

"

ground.

the

made

sprout
ling
seedunreliable

of
bearing age
two-year-old wood

of

case

three

the

satisfactory,
un-

was

the

of

many

starting from

limits

where

and

cases,

they did live their growth

back

trunk

as

the

cut

age

tq leave only the

of the main
bases

so

died

the

At

they had

new

very

roots

and

all their

up

containing only dead

annual
layer of new

Their

the

none

branches, the old limbs

trunks

was

of

and

start.

season

confined
the

used

making

the

of

was

of

have

in

energy

Some

the

to

but

vigorous
vigor was
only

satisfactory growth
season.
They

throughout
seemed

part

growth

more

little later

only
into

however.

died

close

in

apparent

temporary,
trees

freeze

which

be

to

of

summary

freeze, started

pruned

for

in

or

growth

new

their heads
entirely renewed
They
during the following season.
also developed
good
layer of
a
and

FIG.
GREENSBORO
One

of

crop.
frame

limb

the

trunk

best

and

11.

with

YEARS

FIVE

OLD

mediately
impruned
formed
harvesting last year's

main

lower
in

right-hand

part

of

Fig. 227.

and
made

limbs,

spurs

10.

In

of

the

main

branches

their

on

good
the

trees, those
2

crop

of

case

cut
or

back
3

trunks

and

fruit

buds.

of

old

two-year
so

as

inches

leave

to

long

did

fine heads.

cut
One-year-old trees
a
single sprout trained

fine trees.

wood

new

the
after

See

226

back
up

nearly to the original

during the growing season

bud

and
made

MATURE

PRUNING

principal growth took

pruning. Trees

The

12.

left after

parts

place

all in

the

near

into

back

cut

265

TREES

more

of the
extremities
than four-year-

showing that in very

into growth.
dormant
the buds
old wood
too
to be easily started
are
in renewing winter-injured trees
The
to cut
amount
requires
away
in choosing between
wood
leaving too much
good judgment
(which
and
and
back
results in weak
too
heads)
too
high
cutting
growth
old

failed

wood

far into

old,

to

wood

dormant

Experiments

13.

pruned
began

trees

buds

Good

14.

after
in

start

227"

GREENSBORO

peach

trees

spring

dormant,

start

the best

time

severe

grew

in

usual

OLD,

It is the

winter

or

to

the

time

peach

to

winter

the

trees

injury.

IMMEDIATELY

PRUNED

JUNE

EARLY

IN

that

showed

prune

benefit

severe

YEARS

late

to

spell up
equally well.

FRUIT

peach.*"

limbs.

new

cold

than

FIVE

HARVESTING

the

cases,

following

summer

pruning
while

some

will not

more

PEACH.

AFTER

20-1. Summer

the

is of

cultivation

during the spring and

FIG.

that

determine

to

time

any
to

at

grow

usual

custom

to

early spring.

prune

When

growth
begins in the spring, the new
When
has the entire season
for its development.
summer
pruning
the
shoots
shade
is not
practiced, the more
rapidly growing upper
result
slower
in
die.
The
which
most
lower,
cases
growing ones,
is that year by year
the fruiting wood
gets farther and farther from

pruning is done

Paragraph

Tennessee

before

204

Agricultural

has

been

growth

condensed

Experiment

Station

from

C.

A.

Keffer's

Bulletin

(108)

of

the

266

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

of five or
six years,
when
the
even
ground; so in the course
it
is
to
trees
use
are
high step-ladders
regularly pruned,
necessary
the crop.
advisable
to harvest
dehorning becomes
Every few years
within
limits.
reasonable
to keep the trees
the

when

Moreover,

the

toward

the

fruiting

wood

is

outer

of

the

main

parts

permitted
limbs

the

to

form

bark

cipally
printhose

of

scald during winter, thus

sun
of spraying and
vesting
hardifficulty
For
when
the trees
all
which
is greatly increased
are
high.
of
it is desirable
to keep the
crowns
reasons
peach trees as close
to the ground
as
possible.
the

near

base

shortening

In

the

order

to

approximately

FIG.

228"

of

the

life of

get
as

much

GREENSBORO,

tree

is open

the

tree.

full

crop

to

The

from

low-crowned

fruit-bearing wood

FIVE

YEARS

OLD,

tree,

is necessary

NOT

SUMMER

of summer
pruning
shape. The purpose
the lower
the tree to develop fruiting wood
on
part of
skeleton branches, which
are
usually bare.

of

the

usual

however,
in

as

trees

PRUNED

is to
the

enable

main

or

set 18 x 20
including early and late varieties,were
feet.
the following spring one-year-old trees were
interplanted
for a peach borer
investigation,so since then the trees have stood
desirable
into bearing it was
deemed
As the trees
9 x 10 feet.
came
this
close
dishow
could
be
to ascertain
at
profitable
long they
kept

Seventy
In

trees,

MATURE

PRUNING

resorted
Heavy pruning was
supplemented by
pruning was

tance.

winter

work

Previous
of

average

fruit

of

crop

buds
Bird

Red

in June;

four

into
the

FIG.

By

But
the

near

of
In

with

of
or

the
not,

in

earlier.
check

unpruned

an

seasons

These

two

trees

rieties
va-

vided
dieach

were

in

and

row,

set

first week

the

The

June.

in

varieties

ripens

weeks

two

week

that

proved
all earlier

and

Greensboro

or

second

it had proprevious year's growth, whether

duced
back
to
varying lengths, from
pruned
was

best

very

and,
in

FIVE

GREENSBORO,

the

far

its base
it.

229"

was

spur

the

usual

inches.

to

days

ten

the

year

pruning.

had

nature

harvest.

after

last

to, and
summer

Greensboro

groups,

wood

peaches
1

similar

the

pruned

were

group

of

moisture

267

TREES

at

results

short

the

most,

it

the

cases

of

OLD,

in

growth

new

close

was

in

to

spurs

early pruning

the

thus
did
the

AUGUST

IN

Where

pruning.
cases

many

main

instances

most

spur,

PRUNED

close

the

attended

long spurs
extremity of the
the pruning. Many

all

YEARS

sprang

limb
the

that

the
from

supported

growth
defeating measurably the
not
new

send
wood

new

out
was

new

was

pose
pur-

shoots.
well

set

with

as
Fig. 227, a picture of a
during
season,
in full bloom
in April. It is
tree
photographed when
difficult by photography to show
leaves
the fruit on
the tree because
and
fruits are
color and the picture is necessarily
so
nearly the same
in advance
of leafage, the
As
the peach blooms
greatly reduced.
of
show
location
the
wood
and
blossoms
the
trees
fruiting
exactly
in full bloom
in illustratingthis article.
therefore
used
are

fruit

buds

Greensboro

the

is shown

in

268

JRIXCIPLES

Comparing
pruned,
fruit
the

seen

that

the

next

season

of

unpruned

detailed

the

in

to

nearer

that

tree

the

part of

main

the

by the

lower

part of

has

crown

middle

of

very

summer

less

many

June.

of the

one

not

was

pruning is to bring the

limbs, and also that in

summer

pruned

the

of

of

PRUNING

OF

Fig. 228,

result

lower

tree

view

shown

the

the

tree

than

PRACTICE

with

227

it is

blossoms

is

Fig.

AND

Figure

main

limbs

226

of

the

of
the trunk
left-hand corner
Fig.
the tree
and its separation into three main
It will
limbs is shown.
be observed
that this limb
(and the others equally) is clothed with
its base
blossom-covered
shoots
from
outward.
Fruit
set
on
tree

every

FIG.

230"

one

of

the

tree

the

tree

in

GREENSBORO,

these

shoots,

is produced
within
be picked from

pruning

summer

the

remainder

late

pruning is harmful

Fig.

buds

is

229

formed

on

of

the

Greensboro

fully

so

YEARS

feet

of

PRUNED

OLD,

fourth

growing
to

for

season

of
of
the

the

tree

succeeding crop.
pruned in August.

new

was
a

very

good

of

entire crop
All

ground.

the

JULY

IN

the

of

the ground
by a man
permits the formation

growth, which
in July (Fig. 230) set

the

tree, pruned

the lower

FIVE

can

Early
But

In

227.

the

fruit

fruit buds
The

Very
of

few
A

crop.

shown

tree

short.
stand

ing
dur-

year's

next

on

height.

average

fruit

boro
Greens-

fruit buds

in the upper
but the lower
part is relativelybare.
part of the crown,
in
Red
Bird trees
quite as full of bloom
pruned in early June were
in
Greensboro
shown
the lower
the
branches
tree
Fi.u
was
as
The

later

early and

late

varieties
summer

respond

pruning.

practically the same

Figure 231 is a Belle

in

manner

to

(of Georgia)

PRUNING

in

tree, primed
The
pruned.
trees
pruned
similar

that

action
To

early June,

it

would

earlier

the

of

included
be

the

prune^any

variety

Belle

in

that

do

limbs

to

as

In
of

of

shade

the

case

late-

OF

others
one

of

that

another
these

GEORGIA

unprofitable.

varieties

PRUNED

before

IN

their

it

Is

crop

so

too

much
the

closelytogether
for

described

as

there

tree

every

JUNE

EARLY

pruned

were

In

grow

varieties

Greensboro

than

be

are
on

shoots

the main

ment.
good fruit developshoots, and a part
leaving fruiting wood

barren

pruned,
placed close together, were
the whole
In this
length of the main limbs.
full a crop
In all
as
as
they should.
in the lower
trees
developed fruiting wood
indicated in Fig. 231,
The late-pruned trees
those

summer-

the

is involved?

crop

and

bear, and

not

not

than

better

season

to

seem

all later

and

sacrifice

BELLE

ripening

would

trees
Champion
and
August.
early June, July

Carman,
above

What

FIVE-YEAR

231"

Belle

no

varieties.

later

of

is harvested
its crop
Carman
feasible to prune

FIG.

is

232
were

same.

after

is gathered?

trees

results
Champion
so
gave
to multiply .photographs.
thought necessary
in this orchard, but
in all probability its

not

was

269

TREES

Fig.

and

Belle

late-pruned

is not

Elberta

MATURE

way
cases

all the
the

part of
and the

trees

duced
pro-

early-pruned

the

crowns,

unpruned

as

trees

270

AND

PRINCIPLES

crown

All

peach

tend

trees

the

illustrated

if the

enough light will reach the

where
of a profitable crop,
produced.
is recognized

It

to

FIG.

the grower.

that

of

part

the

laterally.Figure 233 is a
after its
summer-pruned
It has

been

center

has

there
one-third
hut

height

of

which

the

at

been

not

the

crop

"

full

least, would

feet

"

tree

that

light
was

in

harvested

was

three

years

the

of

ground,

this

9 feet.

being

seem

pruning

fruit in the

enough

June.
previous. Its
trees
previously illustrated,
throughout the crown.
Fully
one

twice, the last time

kept as open as in the
5

the

only in the

and

June,

of

wood

the

total

tree
Compare
Fig. 234, in
wood
permitted to grow
throughout
was
unpruned
The
pruning for early varieties
practice of summer

tree

new

of

the

branches

of

back

cut

outer

fine setting of bloom

its crop
is set within

is

summer.

Summer
of

dehorned

the

open,

SUMMER-PRUNED

get
fourteen-year-old Greensboro
;

kept

the development
fruit is
little or no

NOT

middle

the

before

crown

is

trees

additional
pense
expruning involves
and
is quickly learned
cheaply

is to

necessary

seen

crown

trees

GEORGIA

OF

their

toward

in all the

insure

to

unpruned

method

the

BELLE

All that is
employed.
previous year's growth
inner

in

parts

summer

But

FIVE-YEAR

232"

lower

the

of

center

is

part of the

lower

'growth

develop a stronger
pruning. This

to

parts, whatever
herein.
But

outermost

PRUNING

OF

particularlyin the

less fruiting wood,

(Fig. 232).

much

gave

the

PRACTICE

lower

to

be

will

with

established.
enable

part of

the

grower

to

develop

his late varieties if he

full crop

trains the

trees

272

'KIXCII'LKS

pruning is

Summer

limbs;

for

branches
a

not

in

This

end

the

FIG.

may

spring

them
thus

peach

be

draw

into

to

perhaps

the

of

head

GREENSBORO
HARVEST

strive

growers

to

access

rather

to

the

center.

ing
easily by extendthan
increasing the

IMMEDIATELY

SUMMER-PRUNED
LAST

main

tissues

densely leafy head,

keep the head fairly

to

most

frame

the

supporting
vigorous health.

free

the

on

sides of

their

exercised

scald

sun

upper

form

attained

diameter

Most

the

have

AFTER

height.

against
from

keeping them

be

PRUNING

OF

air may

FOURTEEN-YEAR

234"

but

tends

should

and

sun

insurance

sap,

pruning

so

open

of

the

Because

an

that

shade

only

flow

constant

care

shoots

the

PRACTICE

AND

YEAR

have

the

frame

limbs

angle of 00 degrees with each other as

possible and to spread the top so that the height will be
attention to
half the width
about
(Fig. 224). By proper
especially
pruning, cultivation, feeding, spraying and
be
made
continue
to
borer
control, peach trees
may
of
profitablefar beyond the usually allotted half score
form

years.
older

as

nearly

The
that

an

author
still bear

adequate attention.

has

visited

orchards

profitablecrops

30

years

simply

old and

because

of

PRUNING

One
rid

get

of

the

of

too

because

of

the

be

must

usually

of

there

Often
the

best

when

fruit

frost

be

done

buds

When
and

in

there
the

trunk,

the

preferably

limbs

are

is

removed

limbs.
four
crop
crop

years

the
the

top

this

31

Figure

second

following

the

few
shows

picture

year

and

feet

after
the

was

being
fourth

of

the

but

is

taken.
dehorned
years.

was

It

and

aggeration
ex-

all

the

treated

so

bore

an

ary
second-

and

frame

cuts

smaller

practically

that

tree

limbs

the

severely,

it

In

of
crop.

the

"Dehorning"

back.

cutting

wrork

plenty

on

good

son
sea-

the

season's

down

where

be

haps
Per-

during

that

so

back

well.

fruit

also

may

earlier

following

cut

points

growing

except

before

to

is

The

low

be

may

close

already
of

growths

the

rejuvenated.

better

the

for

twigs

trees.

work

crop.

the

spring

formed

be

the

the

young

are

being

top

the

be

may

ruined

It

handled

may

fruiting

yet

off.

properly

on

undertake

to

has

blown

orchard

peach
time

be

to

of

ones,

the

exercised

bearing

central

exterior

as

likely

quality

old

an

While

in

be

Plenty

top.

sturdy

less

good

open

poor

vigorous

wood

must

care

to

either

by

or

and

bearing

yet

also.

as

is

as

too

up

careful

is

be

may

higher

but

and

pruning

This

maintain

trees

there

not

are

fully

can

the

having

prevent

borne

will

peach

growths

Nothing

top

of

parts

in

growth.

by

cutting.

in

wood

interior

273

TREES

errors

much

in

lower
to

commonest

over-shading

judgment
pruning

MATURE

partial

good

CHAPTER

CARE

205.
in

TOP-WORKED

Availability

nursery)

also

OF

straggling
Thus

of

variety

orchardist.

utility, because
have

to

least

at

which

are

name,

shy bearers,

but

good

too

sucker

others

be

may

do

and

so

graft
the

upon

only

by

the

its

widest

bud

available

but

has

to

failed

number

tree, the

same

sure

untrue

desired

Any

on.

trees

or

versal
uni-

him,

please

seedlings,

"

is

grower

not

the

by

trees

practically

fruit

in which

worked

restricted

being

destroy

to

developed,

of varieties

that

trees

some

poor

weakness.

on

is of

every

for

trunk

worked

method

nearly

bodies

as

(less

top-worked,

are

have

be

orchard

trees

that

may

The

"In

"

used

are

those

and

growers

individual

top-working.

growth

strong

desired

any

TREES

practice unsatisfactory
of

trees

XII

ber
num-

branches

or

stocks."
206.
fruit
the

finds

Top-working
where

districts

orchard

home

place

giving

the

to

the

undesirable
varieties

desirable

yet

is
if

Moreover,
made

nursery

worked

to

being

period
this

too

sparsely

borne

Kains

would

produce

trees

Plant

"

come
a

into

Propagation,

Page

or

274

trees

other

for

words,
busiiu-s-

by

sands
thou-

be

may

good

too

their

and

handled

several

crop

Sometimes
four

years

stroy,
de-

is not
reason.

they
years

less

to

fruit

other

some

is

ties
varie-

few

standpoint,

bearing.

fairly good

238.

there

of

planting

In

because

properly top-worked
yield profitable crops

trees

of

business

district

operation.

the

of

replaced

arrives

from

or,

in

district.

profitable enough

not

in demand,

be

this

When

of

is

planting

experimental

style

planting

the

to

new

variety growing

speculative

commercial

specially adapted
planting.

promiscuous

the

or

in

application

may

before

topfrom

OF

CARE

TOP-WORKED

275

TREES

of graftage,
on
top-working is based
processes
in the author's
book, Plant
and
such is fully discussed
as
and
Nursery Practice, it need
Propagation, Greenhouse
''Cleft grafting
finds
that
here
only be mentioned
its chief use
in amateur
over
practice to work
seedling
varieties.
and
to desired
Everyone
unsatisfactory trees

As

should

know

how

it

to

it, because

perform
there

is

tellingwhen

no

become

may

ful."*
use-

t h e
Usually
top is changed

whole

the

to

over

desired

riety
va-

by grafting or
budding all of the principal
limbs
preferably
"

their

in

smaller

branches
limbs

if the

frame

large so as
maintain
to
or
perhaps
the original
improve upon
are

"

form
Better

the

of

results

are

secured

than

way

limbs.
is

danger

this
of

frame

or

When

this

done,

there

ter
latis

of

ugly

and

gerous
dan-

crotches.

other
An-

advantage
the

erally
gen-

in

by cutting

trunk

the

tree.

smaller

FIG.

in

235"

NEW

APPLE,
AFTER

GROWTH

ONE

ON
BACK

HEADED

TOP-WORKED
AND

THINNED

DEVELOPMENT.

SEASON'S

ing
us-

branches

(say "4

mcn

UP

to

2 inches

for

other
than
grafting, and smaller
^ inch for most
methods) is that the new
growths from the cions are not
when
the
as
so
likely to be broken
by wind, ice or snow
cleft

Ibid.

Page

239.

276

PRINCIPLES

longer

and

under

five

perhaps

large stubs, which

usually weaker
growths.
be
changed
may
years

two

half

years,

should

trees

OF

PRTXIXG

in

is done

work

PRACTICE

AND

worked

be

not

the

top
over

tend

and

Apple
the

to

each

but

four

six

to

size,

fruit

trees

because

tops,
is

specie*;come

quickly

into

cions

the

the

is

best

is

New

growth

headed

back

Compare

heavy
or

and

knocked

should
make

be
them

therefore
out

second

after

season.

Fig. 235.

may

prove

less

dismal

by

headed
branch

snow,

in

and

when,

say,

rather

rank
while

strong,

yet

rather

low

down.

top.

new

c\ou^

develop
looking
if

left
be

may
out

to

top-

by wind

accidents.

inches

in

shoots

which,

18

or

failure

"take"

or

the

more

which

ice, birds

this

cions

of

the

easily blown

as

even

"take"

themselves

weak

least

given

Usually

ON

of

Unless

developing

GROWTH

tant,
imporcare

is at

necessary.
care

setting

after

trees

so

bearing.

proper

the

APPLE

trees

of these

of

little

gained

nursery

While

SEASON'S

velop
de-

may

time

any

top-

though

trees

good

ONE

be

but

young

TOP-WORKED

stone

may

worked,

"

age

of

Mature

growth.

236

pending
de-

character

and

FIG.

than

years,

on

if

mature

faster

in

variety

not

"

trees

pear

new

year;

fast

so

far

produce

to

long,
Sometimes

They
so

as

to

the

(.'ARE

branches
The

should
and

growth
Another

and

however,

is

rather

is

point

the

stock
be

back

of stock

almost

may

of

danger

To

to

than

develop
Some

shade

to

the

remove

trees.

spindling

cion.

and

always

left

somewhat.

of

the

water

the

on

these

trunks

if

sun

them

make

this purpose

serve

union

that
of

trunks

growths,
scald.

strong

headed

stocky

secure

suckers

and

there

to

277

TREES

be

to

highly important

sprouts
stubs

be

also

TOP-WORKED

need

also

may

idea

OF

most

effectively,they should
back
be
to
pinched
them

make
thus

branch

more
develop
Except for such
they should

leaves.
purposes

rubbed

be

off

as

soon

form.

they

as

and

spring of the
the
following
year
the
grafting
grafts
should
be
in
pruned
In

the

much

the

same

trees

young

that

at

no

should

be

than

as

way

dled
han-

are

time.

erably
Pref-

growths
left longer
inches,

18

and

when

of
not
they are
satisfactorylength they
should

be

on

the

thesecond

original

should

be

lowest

bud
be

cut

will

saved.

237

GROWTH

NEW

"

TOP

ON

(Shown

TREE.

APPLE

AT

SEASON

SECOND

in

END

OF

WORKED

Fig. 236.)

back

(Fig. 236)

severely

growths

cut

FIG.

so

as

season.

cion

to

make

Should

them
two

or

develop
more

better

of the buds

best-placed twig
off, to prevent
crowding.
Usually the
make
fore
therethe best growth and should
be necessary
Perhaps some
training may
grow,

all

but

the

278

PRINCIPLES

spread,

to

oftener

the
in

pointing
Should
be

in

the

spring

favorably

allowed
the

to

grow

inferior

first

severely

to

as

so

(compare
should

be

made

than

longer
a

bad

and

fruit

what
an

Fig.

98).

small

entirely

not

When

both

because

cions

be

will

almost

they

of

its

usually
rather

ment
developwound

the

facilitate

to

as

the

of

back

cut

stop

so

be

may

will

removed

possible

as

stocky

tops.

124).

of

care

it is

inch
will

after

year

trees,

to

an

the

first

effort

The

few

allowed

to

grow

form

certainly

inch,

the

heal

to

them
if

they

wounds
if

to

wood
of

properly

wellbe

clipped
a

few

or

years

diameters

reach

when
made

lowed
al-

develop

it may

for

same

make
may

be

left

the

be

being

some

leave

Even

should

small

need

may
to

do.

quickly

the

itself, for

better

will

they

removed

122,

but

spurs.

but

half

check

stubs

removal

case

is

stub

the

instead

The

one

the

to

the

second

removed

the

or

cions

year,

may

quickly,

When
both

the

both

stub

close

wound.

in

be

to

young

take

to

see

branches

poorer

off

cut

grafting.

cion

each

given

formed

into

In

crotch.

that

the

the

the

second

being

should

this

Attention
as

the

as

Never

healing.

will

top.

to

stub,

diameter,

during

if the

improved

over

this

of
in

following

year

heal

be

inches

thus

one

same

year

should

healing
2

the

back

cut

the

second

the

placed

than

larger

are

to

as

so

of

be

it

contract,

spread

to

as

on

grow

season

hasten

to

so

to

Since

(120d).

top

direction.

cions

two

first

as

be

desired

the

less
so

the

tend

should

PRUNING

the

lower

or

prune

graft

left

but

to

necessary

cases

OP

frequently

trees

be

such

raise

contract,

top-worked

PRACTICE

AND

they
(116,

moved,
re-

to

of
are

119.

280

PRINCIPLES

AND

OF

PRACTICE

PRUNING

(No. 4) is generally done in the winter (Figs. 238, 239).

When
canes
summer
pruning is done, the tips of the young
pinched when
are
they reach a height of 18 to 24 inches.
An
important objection to shortening the red raspberry
it also
is that while
lateral growth
it develops desirable
and
suckers
of undesirable
the development
encourages
often

The

stools.

number

tually
ac-

variety,
of available
character
of the soil, the amount
plant
The
and
other
factors.
mer
advantages gained by sumand
to
increase
the bearing wood,
to
pruning are
will

produced

the
food

low

secure

Note

the

much

as

row

with

that

with

varieties
twice

pinched
vines left unpruned.

the

PRUNING

BEFORE

CANES

16

back

with

supports.

no

compared

as

less

or

need

RASPBERRY

continuous

Craig* found
tips were

whose

RED

238"

more

vary

which

canes

FIG.

as

in the

canes

unnecessary

h'lls

of

in

Figs. 240,

raspberries
yielded only about

242.

the

plants

two-thirds

result of a five-year test

the Wisconsin
at
Experiment
writes :
facts
lead
The
the conclusion
to
Stationf F. Cranefield
shoots
of black
that pinching the growing
raspberries, to cause
production of fruit,
branching, gives rise to a slightly increased
the
while
Cuthbert
was
decidedly injured by this practice. The
As

the

Garden
t Annual

and

Forest

Reports

1899

10,
to

Pages
1903

3-4.
inclusive.

FRUIT

BUSH

281

PRUNING

than
Gregg is so slight,however, as to be more
labor
involved
the
increased
and
in
pinching
by
As
the
conclusion
the winter
drawn
plants.
a
general
protection of
this very
from
be stated
thorough trial covering five years, it may
that pinching is not
profitable practice.
a

gain in the
offset

of

case

the

of

cost

209.

Pruning and training black raspberries. Summer

pinching (No. 2, above) is a very popular practice among
this plant does
black
mainly because
raspberry growers,
The
tervals
work
is done
at frequent innot
produce suckers.
whenever
the young
during the growing season
"

"

FIG.

the
work
the

after

CANES

thinning

PRUNING

AFTER
and

out

cutting back.

allowed

be

must

will

If done

are

canes

result

be

branch

supporting.
of

RASPBERRY
238

height of 18 to 24 inches.
and
thumb
forefinger, in a small way,
the tops will be
effectively because

of wood

not

Fig.

as

reach

canes

RED

239"

Same

taller
grow
knife or
with
a
to

cut

far less
low

so

Moreover,

and

will

not

there

will

be

the

of

If

inches

several

pair

shears, the

the

be

do

succulent.

that

so

satisfactory because

down

will

then,

will

canes

nearly
smaller

so

self-

number

fruit,and that usually of

quality,than on canes
pinched at the proper
height
poorer
and
time.
conclusions, 208.)
(Note Cranefield's
Proper summer
pinching, therefore, predetermines both
the

laterals,a smaller

quality and

the

quantity

quantity

of

of fruit to

be

borne

the

fol-

282

PRINCIPLES

lowing

PRACTICE

AND

In

OF

fact, it is the

PRUNING

important single
factor in the growing of first-gradeblack cap raspberries.
Wires, stakes and other supports are rarely used in commercial
the canes
be
raspberry plantations because
may
made
When
themselves.
to support
pinched low (18 to
24 inches), they will do
than
this far better
if pinched
not
are
high (30 to 36 inches), for the stems
only more
stocky, but the laterals are also. High canes
frequently
bend
and often break
from
the weight
to the ground
over
of fruit.
soiled.
Frequently also the fruit becomes
plantations, the fruited canes
Generally, in commercial
season.

in the

removed

are
are

shortened

FIG.

240"

to

BRAMBLE

winter,
12

8 to

CANES

POSITION

IN

grower's ideal, but

buds

upon

rather

them.

far from

In
the

which

at

time

FOR

somewhat

COVERING

on

EARTH

WITH

by the positions

more

varieties

some

laterals

WINTER

THE

main

the

also

inches, depending

FOR

the

most

those

; in others

canes

fruit

of the

buds

borne

are

closer.

Nothing

of the behavior
place of personal observation
of the variety in hand.
has
What
210. Pruning
and
training blackberries.
said above
been
concerning the suckering of red raspberries
the pinching of black
and
raspberries applies
cap
But
since this
less strikingly to the blackberry.
or
more
will take

the

"

fruit

condense
show

to

writes

he
*

Farmers'

and

in

trained

is often

quote

the various
will
Bulletin

apply
643,

other

what

G.

forms

of

with

Pages

more

to

7.

M.

ways

it may

Darrow*

training he
or

has

be
to

well
say

illustrates.

less force

to

the

to

and

What
man-

FRUIT

BUSH

bramble

other

of

agement

which

fruits, especially red

similar

the

have

283

PRUNING

habit

of

berries,
rasp-

throwing

up

suckers.
the

If all of

second

the

of

suckers

which

from

canes,

field

the

year

allowed

are

will

berries

the

to

be
be

can

will
suckers
difficulty. The
parent plants for food, moisture
and
tation
planlight, and the whole

great

will

plants
in

therefore

must

hills,and

or

rows

which

cultivation.

if

compete

IM-

stroyed,
de-

will

plants

have
canes,

larger

better.
soon

the

as

been

have
which

have

should

be

berries

last

picked, the
just borne
cut

and

out

canes

fruit
burned.
FIG.

This

allows

the

destroys
the

on

to

the

during
trellises;

ferred

insects

where

each

11

This

to

four
1111

often

the

Such
borne

the

to

branches

shown

canes

fruit

when

Lateral
as

30

the

near

inches

point cut.
at
pinched

been

not

midsummer

is

cane

of

clipped

was

cane

The

top.

weight

KP
DC

PRUNED

pinched
during
nearly full grown.
later
developed

have

canes

Wire

tr"
1

It
18

as

should
to

this

ground

because

lon"

by
of

24
are

the
their

r"rp

pre-

is needed.

support

plant

PROPERLY

up

-new

SnOWS.

imnallv
3UailV

than

more

leave

to

241

RASPBERRY

inches.

winter

arp

eases
dis-

or

It will

canes.

necessary
the
support

RED

develop,

to

be

rarely
them

any
old

canes

young

in which

room

more

tO

CANE

appear
re-

are

and
roots
stronger
the berries will be

As

Not

the

rows

not

If all

labor.

the

and

with

pulled as
requires

this method

hand

and

picked only with

kept

the

do

rapidly

if cut, but

and

of

all suckers

Suckers

as

much

thicket

destroyed by frequent

be

much

end

The

be

between

appear

must

inferior.

be

dense

the

by

grow,

weakness

and top-heaviness, whereas

stand
short, pinched canes
up.
The
winterkilled
laterals, which
late in the
badly because
produced
.

new

Should

Canes

be

i
al-

season,

permit

have
clear

been

cut

photographing.

back

to

284

PRINCIPLES

lowed

to

be

of
be

The

in

grow

should

will

AND

cut

season,

out

not

all in

bearing

larger

and

stronger

of

training

vary

sections

of the

where

because

the

plants do not
not
wash, the new
fingers when
they

soil

does

with

the

than

2*/2 feet.
be

may

all reach

the

FIG.

plantation

increased

height

shows

be

must

intervals.

The

feet

RASPBERRY
the

relative

pinching

causes

[comparatively low] and to be

with
a
heavy crop of berries.
Even
may

or

before

the
better

ditions
con-

some

tions
sec-

where

the

pinched

off

height of not more

vigorous, the
very

As

at

moval
re-

the

the

do

canes

not

time, the

same

PRUNING
and

(Fig. 243)

times

at

able

frequent

to

canes

to

after.

stand

branch
erect

training is used, the canes

either
and
bent
broken
ments
by tillage impleover
and
the
of canes
by the pickers, the number

when

be

are

several

over

gone

BEFORE

height

be

may

reach

with

and

large

canes

ber
num-

of the

In

country.

3 feet.

2^2

time

in accordance

bushes
to

of

BLACK

242"

hook

pruning

the

this

remaining canes
the thinning.

of

grow

"

When

the

The

canes.

of

excess

than

later

old

in various

The

one

PRUNING

OF

the

systems

height

PRACTICE

quantityof

this method

fruit

being

of

thus

materially reduced.

Under

BUSH

such

conditions

make

it

posts

set

canes

are

wire

each

in

tied

to

above

facilitates

of each
the

either
These
and
do

BLACK

not

RASPBERRY

inside

15

30

to

long
instead

crosspieces.

AFTER

of

wires,

248

shows

Fig.247.)
follows:
the

to

canes

FIG.

WITH

support

top

stretched

blackberry

COMPARE

which

about

upright

are

one

The

PRUNING.

line

as

nailed

are

of

feet ; the

Seealso

of trellis is made

inches

these

of

of trellises.

wires

two

of the

ends

kept

are

and

post

trellis consists

along this
This
keeps the canes
and picking. (Figure

cultivation

18

Such

stretched

ground.

Crosspieces about

243"

wire

sufficient fruit to

save

intervals

popular forms
satisfactoryform

Another

FIG.

at

other

this and

from

trellis will

row

285

PRUNING

profitableinvestment.

2l/2 feet
and

FRUIT

them

242.

on

side.

systems
to

grow

those
very

of

training are

sections

high.

of the

When

adapted
country
the

canes

to

certain

where
grow

ties
varie-

the bushes
very

long

grapevine, a much
higher trellis is used, with two wires (Figs. 247 b, 248-1),
the ground
5 feet from
3 feet, the other
about
about
one
the vigor of the plants (Fig.
the height depending upon
or

are

244).

inclined

The

canes

to

run

of

somewhat

the

erect

like

varieties

are

fastened

to

286

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

the

of the trailing varieties are

tied
those
wires, while
either
in
or
horizontally along the wires
fan-shape
(Fig. 247 c).
A variation of this trellis (Figs. 247 d, 248-2) is used
in
Two
the trailingvarieties are
sections where
some
grown.
nailed to each post, one
18 or 20 inches long are
cross-pieces
the

near

top

about

second

the

and

feet

Wires

below.

along the ends of the crosspieces. Sometimes

the
trained
to
are
bearing and nonbearing canes
the lower
on
wires, frequently the nonbearing canes

strung

are

both
same

*"

FIG.

LOGANBERRY

244"

PLANTS

WITH
WIRE

wires

and

the

vice
These
often

bearing

or

systems
varied

back

at

about
when

each

plant

canes

the

on

and

the

are

suit

to

SUPPORTED

upper

wires

most

popular

ones;

particular conditions
When

grower.

feet apart

more

CANES

ON

and

times
some-

versa.

of the
5

FRUITING
TRELLIS

each

feet

to

the

plants

the

canes

the

the

way,

make
are

tied

set
to

plants

the

or
are

set

arc
venience
con-

in hills

be

pinched
quently,
Frestocky growth.

canes

may

in hills, a
it

they

post is

(Fig. 248-5). The

set

by

trail-

288

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

less

productive than the bushes and much

be killed by borers; fpr when
the tree is
is

stem

one

stems

The

destroyed, whereas

infested

it may

allowed

to

bush

be cut

continue

form

is the

when
out

to

live and

popular

bear

both

one,

attacked

so

in

stem

burned

and

likely to

more

and

bush

its
comes
be-

the other

fruit.

people who

with

for
currants
neglect their plants and those who
grow
how
profit (Figs. 250, 251). No matter
badly neglected,
fruit may
be expected. Pruning, combined
with other
some
will make
fine fruit
rational treatment,
the plants bear
flower
buds
The
borne
mainly on twigs
abundantly.
are

FIG.
Same

246"

CANES

BLACKBERRY

Fig.

as

of last

year's growth and

two

more

on

or

the

older

with

succession

year,
two

or

three

canes

new

new
ones

usually not

and

cutting back.

annual

spurs

on

wood

Usually the finest fruit is borne

it is unwise
to dispense entirely
best
practice keeps a constant
coming up to replace the old ones.

favor

growers

the oldest
or

The

wood.

Commercial
two

but

wood,

of

short

on

PRUNING

AFTER
out

old.

seasons

young

thinning

after

245

six to

12

canes

to

the

bush,

to
develop each
being allowed
being cut out after having produced

ones

more

than

three

crops.

BUSH

FRUIT

289

PRUNING

are
likely to spring from the base
canes
Many more
the bush, but all but the two
three best should
be
or
time also the
out, preferably after fruiting,at which
be cut out
and
to get
canes
immediately burned
may

and

insects

of any

lusty shoots

and
back

to

fruit the

FIG.
a,
in

this

12-foot

case

red

much

the

of

best

and
when
The
one

deal

OF

CANE

old
rid

essary
Unnecbe

may

in
early summer
form
fruiting spurs
Upon these will be

BRAMBLE

cut

which
which
borne

SUPPORTS

for
extra
b, Used
long canes,
framework
for supplaces, d, Good
porting

kinds,

vine-producing
Good
for windy

c,

little else

wood

212.

canes,

canes

cut

raspberries.

outlined
old

STYLES
for

main

present.

in the

they will
following season.

best

be

may

the

Thus

247"

Considered

that
on

buds

two

or

one

they develop.
may

diseases

of

with.

the
the

fruit.
need
young

bushes

the

Under

become
if

too

as

out

be

just
the
essary
nec-

thick.

comes
neglected, as it often is, bemost
unsatisfactory of fruit plants to
it produces
such
treatment
far too

gooseberry,
of

such
Beyond
pruning
be done, though thinning
growths in spring may

290

PRINCIPLES

much

wood

and

fruit deteriorates
difficult and

AND

properly the

far

too

PRACTICE

OF

little and

too

in size and

quality and
painful operation. To
of

amount

wood

PRUNING

must

fruit.

small

The

harvesting becomes
handle
the plants
be vigorously controlled
inferior.

will

be

Just

how

this

is

minor

is of

done

fruit

the

or

to

consequence
actual
the

doing

it.

of

borne

wood

of

except

the

on

all ages

season's

present
and
wide
be

oldest,

the

latitude

for
the

yet
is

fruit
on

duced
prolast
Two-

year's wood.

three-

year

and

year
bears

wood

but

may

allowed

pruning;
best

is

fruit

Since

also

fruit,

good

than

older

oration.
deteri-

this shows

Hence
commercial

usually
FIG.

248

not
S~YLES

POPULAR

1, Canes

of

wires.
method

cut
or

three

base

trailing type

BLACKBERRY
on

two-wire

of

for

and

out

trellis.

shoots

the

bush

are

2, Fouron

two

5, Post-

three
borne

on

which

the

canes,

are

after harvest.
from
all

be

to

crops

immediately
allowed
to develop annually
cut
to replace the wood
out,

burned

than

more

TRAINING

3, Upright canes
trailing vines.
of upright type on
single wire.
4, Canes
used
for upright canes.

trellis

*ire

OF

growers
allow

erally
gen-

Two
the
weak

BUSH

inferior shoots

otherwise

or

and

lush

two

or

shoots
three

point being

cut

out,

to
parts of the plants shortened
be kept well
the bush
within
may

fruit

so

be

spurs

have

to

them.

from

developed

is
principle involved
in sufficient
bearing wood

give good

to

amount

renewal

annual

an

crops.

climates

cool

In

that

from

The
of

291

PRUNING

other

on

buds,

and

bounds

FRUIT

situations, such

and

partially shaded
neath
beand
gardens
as

grapevines
trained

Munson

on

lises
trelCaywood
(Figs.271, 278)

and

bushes*

the

may

given

be

open

in

heads, but
situations

warm

heads

the

should

be

more

dense.

Sometimes

the
is

gooseberry
trained
with

in

six

ten

eight

or

or

form

tree

dozen

frame

the

limbs,

lowest

which

of
be

may

foot

inches

to

18

or

from

the

FIG.
BLACKBERRY

These

ground.
headed

back

to

are

This
30

or

inches

and

lowed
al-

three

shortened.
in

or

The

America.

exhibited

cut

the

the

as

well

249
AND

in July
ground.

MAIN
or

It

prominent

August
sent

normal

or

as

at

out

Canes

somewhat.
as

BRANCH

so

pinched

about

laterals
treated
ones.

buds.

develop

to
to

was

from

winterkilled

rarely do
Note

one

cane

inches

which

CANE

in the

four
method

side

shoots, which

is too

fussy

in turn

for commercial

the
England, where
gooseberry contests, the
In

fruit
tree

also

are

tice
prac-

is to
form

be

and

292

PRINCIPLES

FIG.

FIG.

251"

250"

AND

UNPRUNED

ONE-YEAR

Gooseberries

PLANTED

and

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

CURRANT

PLANTED

ONE

CURRANT,

PRUNED.

currants

are

pruned

very

YEAR

SAME
much

AS

alike.

FIG.

250

BUSH

the

of the

thinning

in

the

developing

FRUIT

fruits

are

markets

know

American

plantations

of

two

plum-like

American

293

PRUNING

nothing.

So

wood

which

ways

gooseberries

is concerned,

far

of

which

the

thinning

as

it is all

aid

done

in

by

moving
re-

portant
It is impruning time.
it pays,
it is not
and
but
productive of such spectacular
fruits as the British
methods
yield.
of the gooseberry
"trees"
able
remarkSome
of England
are
and
for their
One
size, age
reported
productivity.
more

FIG.

or

GOOSEBERRY

252"

to

the

in

circumference

if such

results

and

several

America,

PRUNING.

Vol.

be

could

and
5,

46
fruit

climate

busy

to

take

training.
Page

490.

each

is not

the

YEARS

THREE

measured
old

years

36

had

feet

30-year

It is doubtful

year.

approached

even

the

too

of

PLANTED

Society*

when

pecks

because

people are
pruning
Transactions

at

Horticultural

of

BEFORE

London

record

our

less

the

in many

humid
trouble

parts

enough
to

do

the

of

and
essary
nec-

XIV

CHAPTER

GRAPE

213.

AND

PRUNING

of

Principles

general

principles

Chapter

apply
that

several

are

exclusively,

pruning.

grape

that

the

to

TRAINING

all

to

addition

In

"

to

'the

discussed

plants

apply especially,

or

even

in
haps
per-

grape.

including the
food
from
other
all their
leaves, derive
parts, they act as
mature
they deliver
parasites (Chapter III, 90). When
whatever
debalance
of the
the
food
to
plant. Hence
Since

a.

FIG.

253"

velops

the

superfluous
as

injudicious

PRUNING.

AFTER

GOOSEBERRY

functions,

growing

youngest

in

growth

the

case

pruning,

is

in

The

tendency

inverse

practices

for

proportion

which

SAME

impairs

or

insect

of

augment

if excessive

vine
to

or

294

252,

disease

or

inhibits

part

PRUNED

attack
fruit

the

starve

may

vine

BUT

active

mature

vegetative
such

FIG.

AS

proportionately

possibilities,and
b.

parts,

to

be

activity.

activity

tend

to

leaf
or

duction
provine.

fruitful

Hence,
reduce

296

PRINCIPLES

AND

its

vigor.
(239).

The

g. Other
vine parts

conditions

the

are

number

Hudson

of

of

their

to

will

the

the

Hence

acre

the

of

or

the

the

smaller

in

larger

the

or

larger

berries

; and

average

principle

sizes of vines

number.

clusters,

or

they

PRUNING

typifies this

being equal,

shoots,

vines

OF

system

inversely as

cluster, the smaller

number

PRACTICE

the

individual

vines.
214.
unit"

Pruning
is

units.

applied to

In

"

the

California

the

of

treatment

the

single arms,

method

spur

or

of

training be
pruning. The

cane

though

other

parts of the

just

Vines

maturity

for

parts
and

the

wood

or

METHOD

READY

SHOWING

the

ROOTS

rules

for
or

All

arms.

the

fundamental
GRAPEVINE
OF
PRUNING
FOR
PLANTING.

others

is cut

what

training
"

others

extension

shortening

so

left

are

production,

replacing,

matter

der
un-

reached

pruned

are

renewal

other

country,

have

certain

for fruit

in

circumstances.

which

that

used

less

applicable

as

similar

255

whether

term,
is

FIG.

"pruning

term

off.

system

No
of

the
pruning
principles and

which

the

govern

applied to each
vine so trained, except that vigor of vine.
of every
arm
arm
or
cane
modify the application somewhat.
may
Biolitti presents two
diagrams (Figs. 257, 258),* which
illustrate units of short and
tion
long pruning. His descripis slightly condensed
follows
as
:
system

The
arm

unit in spur
about

"California

seven

Bulletin

are

pruning illustrated in Fig. 257, represents

years
241.

old.

At

the

end

of

the

arm

is the

Ion.;?

two-eye

GRAPE

PRUNING

297

TRAINING

AND

bearing two
canes
(b and
c).
base
Near
single water
arm
a
(d) growing
sprout
would
Such
of old wood.
arm
out
an
normally bear other canes,
all be
removed
but
entirely at pruning they are
as
they would
the
omitted
to simplify
figure.
of
the canes
of the
In
growing out of the spur
pruning one
and
the other
a
new
(a) is cut back to form
previous year
spur
which
for the new
to
removed
cane
use
entirely. In deciding on
suitable
well
for
the
choose
fruiting; viz,
ripened,
must
one
spur, we
(a)

spur

of

thickness

well-formed

those

to

is in the

form

This,

in

most

the

lowest

will be

figure), because
the

length

least.

that

the

of

cases,

(b in the
it increases

the

arm

the

lowest,

ever,
how-

of

If

dition,
con-

position

best

the

preserve

vine.

Of

choose

must

we

which

and

buds.

fulfill this

which

the

is

broken
weak,
otherwise
unsuitable,
take
are
obliged
to

higher

of

base

the

chosen
the

we
one

arising

cane

the

spur

or

up.

When
from

year

is

the

of

moderate

with

previous

the

of

the

of

bud

previous

for

the

length

is

year

new

spur,

the

of

the

is

arm

lengthened imperceptibly. A
from
the first bud (b)
spur
will
it
lengthen
usually
little

from
3

over

the
4

or

inch,

an

inches.

one

bud

second
In

(6)
case,

any

the

too
arm
finallybecomes
in the
long, like the one
ened
shortbe
must
figure, so
or
replaced. This may
be
done
by using a conveniently

placed
for

sprout
as

at

in

water

replacing
tne

spur

figure,

and

F,G

256

Above,

as

ROTUNDIFOLIA

dug;

below,

pruned

(MUSCADINE)
for
planting,

in the
cutting back the arm
the
place indicated
line /. Cutting back
of an
by
should
be
arm
deferred
until the following year
the replacing spur
will produce
as

little or
bear

no

crop

following

fruit.
and
year.

In

the

the

meanwhile

replacing

spur

the
e

fruit

spur

will produce

from
fruit

cane

wood

for

will
the

298

The

chosen

cane

two

one,

by

AND

PRINCIPLES

cane,

or

cut

at

the

more

(b) is
fruit

three

The

g.

PRACTICE

1, 2,
the

should

of

the

single
The

next

unit of

in long and
cane,
a, with

of

was

the

cane,

of

g,

shortened

and

257

pruning.

which

spur,

will

of

entirely
particular
is cut

back

replacing

shown
d.

spur,
two

in
In

Fig.2.""8
tration,
illus-

the

previous.

years

has

the crop
produced
has produced
d, which

SHORT

cane,

of

On
the
fruit

cane,

entirely

removed

d, is used

spur,

half

for

produce

PRUNING

is

a,

renewal

about

lower

The

course

long systems

spur,

OF

"UNIT

the

sprout

of

season.

fruit

to

which

a,

the

spur

fruit buds.

spur

renewal

present

pruning, the

upper

renewal

cane,

and

FIG.

In

or

half

season

for

wood

eye.

its renewal

the

and

Of

fruit

represents
left a fruit

previous

water

fruit

is removed

variety

pruning

it

ing
long and will require shortenconsists
then
short
of
pruning

three

one,

consists

one

in

fruit spur

two

3, leaving

is too

unit

The

year.
of

PRUNING

cane.

The

left.

be

1, leaving a replacing spur

is left only in case
the arm
spur
at

or

the

vigorous

more

buds

at

and

cut

buds

OF

is cut
the
new

/,

long

and

back

at

for

new

for

form

to

the

for

wood

fruit

about

to

;'.

at

The
cane

long

renewal

winter

next

pruning.
This
are

of

old

is the normal

often
fruit

other
cane,

point is that
two-year-old
be
year

used
or

If

necessary.

vigor,

for

canes

may

the

cane

wood.
a

older

method

renewal
wood

the

such
be

used

of

procedure,

cane
as

/.
for

but

is unsuitable

g
or
a

even
new

this

//,i,
fruit

modifications

various
on
near
cane.

shall

of

account

the

base

The

of

lack
the

essential

originate from
In the same
suitably placed cane
may
way,
any
fourWater
from
three-year,
sprouts
spur.
essential
being available (r). .The
point in
used

for

purpose

GRAPE

this

case

is, nearer

is that
the

PRUNING

the

renewal

AND

shall

spur

299

TRAINING

be

below

the

fruit cane,

that

trunk.

are
Replacing spurs for shortening the arms
occasionally needed
in spur
both
be used
for
pruning, but usually the same
as
spur
may
renewal
and
water
be used
for this
replacing. The
sprouts, c, may
cutting it at 1 or :i,according to its vigor.
purpose,

215.

Time

to

vines.

prune

is

The

"

extensive

most

and

portant
im-

dormant
season.
during the
often profoundly influenced
are
Vigor and fruitfulness
by
the work
is done, so
the quantity and
the time
the
are
location
of the
in the vines.
reserve
plant food
J. L.
Vidal, a French
investigator, has studied
minutely the
nutrition
his findings
of the European
grapevine.* Among
the following are
of special interest at this point.
feed the various
the leaves
other
In summer
parts (29)

pruning

done

at*
FIG.

258

-UNIT

OF

LONG

PRUNING

OF

GRAPEVINE

richest
Just before the leaves normally drop the canes
are
in plant food.
after the
leaves
Immediately
drop and
during the following two to five weeks, this food is carried
the

to

roots,

where

again
supply
though
spring
*

"Les

the

Reserves

in storage.
Part
during the dormant

gradually
needs

dormant
opens

it is held

the
de

la

of

the

parts

these

parts

ascent

of

Vigue."

Revue

above

be

must

this
de

ground

food

Viticulture

of this

period
;

for

I, Pages

895

to

even

When

nurtured.
is often

cends
as-

extremely
to

903.

300

PRINCIPLES

It continues

rapid.

food

more

AND

than

until the

is needed

if vines

Hence

PRACTICE

OF

new

PRUNING

growth

elaborate

can

its maintenance.

for

pruned immediately after the leaves

drop the cuttings are in best possible condition for propagation.
A
month
later they will not
be so
good for
such purposes,
but the largest proportion of food will have
been
saved in the roots
to develop the new
spring growth.
If pruning is delayed until spring, large quantities of the
food
will be lost in the prunings.
reserve
Therefore,
vines
will
pruned then
develop poorer
shoots, but a
better

of fruit.

set

Vidal

are

also concludes*

conditions

three

from

being equal, the

time

of

years' experiments that, other

pruning modifies only slightly
the

of

number

bunches

With

borne.

extremely
the
pruning

late

bunches

are

more

vigorous and
proportion of

the
perfect
im-

bunches
and

aborted

is

ers
flow-

less.

The

individual

ries
ber-

larger,

are

heavier

and

more

The

numerous.

growth

is

rapid

for

more

continues

times
259"

VINES

HEADED

BACK
OF

A,

The

and

spur

fan

the
the

C,
system;
overhead
and

FOR

VARIOUS

TEMS
SYS-

and

PRUNING

B,

systems;

the

four-arm

Kniffin, Munson,

two-arm

less regular order

prunings
1").

With

Compt.

were

vines

Rend.

with

made

vegetation progress
the progression of

at

pruned
Acad.

intervals
after

Sc-i. No.

between

brella
um-

1,192.

times

at

creased
in-

positive

in more
retrogress
the time of pruning.
or

January
mid-February, the

17, Page

is

diminished
at

These
in

The

by spring
pruning just as in
winter
pruning

newal
re-

systems.

negative variations

and

for

longer time.
vegetation
FIG.

late

vines

pruned

to

later

about
the

or
or

The

Ap-il

pruning

GRAPE

the

greater

PRUNING

AND

retarding effect

the

bud

on

301

TRAINING

swelling and

the

flowering

season.

at various
experiments in pruning grapes
after
terminal
that
the
pruning
year,
shoots have started serves
as
a partialprotection against spring frosts
increases
and
materially affecting the vigor of
production without
be due
to
of this late pruning appears
chief value
The
the vine.
in
which
the
first
buds
the
to
removal
of
the
are
outlying
to
open
the spring.

In

progress

L.

of

times

report
Ravaz*

on

concludes

-"-

FIG.

PRUNED

260"

UNPRUNED

AND

VINE

RENEWAL

A, Second

B,

year;

STAGES

VARIOUS

AT

0
OF

THE

SYSTEM

third; C, fourth;

D,

vine

unpruned

in

its

fourth

year.

bleeding caused
by pruning after the
avoid
To
this,
15.)
(Compare
still prevent
the vines
from
and
however,
starting too early in the
be removed
spring, all unnecessary
growth may
during the dormant
shortened
all eyes
and
somewhat,
period, the fruiting shoots
moved
requestions whether

He

shoots

have

started

the

is harmful.

the
the base.
nearest
two
except
affected by the length of the shoot
rather

beyond

them, they will

the remaining
which

has

tendency
*

Taille

to

He

any

au

the

Taille

than

earlier

found

Tardive,

Montpelier,

the

basal

the

number

by

eyes

are

of eyes

spring for having

sulphate of iron,
bleeding, has a
prevent

in the

also

that

dressing to
as
a
sensibilityof the tissues

suggested

increase

Hative

start

removed.

eyes

been

not

Since

1912, Page

to

15.

cold.

302

PRINCIPLES

The
1905.

the

experiments have
Primings were
as

OF

PRACTICE

the
cases

terminal
cut

were

His

shoots
back

conclusions

been

PRUNING

vineyard planted in
tage
one
immediately after vinrow,
another
of full leaf ; during the dormant
at the time
period ; at
;
time the eyes
first appeared ; during the budding period ; and

when
all

AND

about

were

two

to

inches

The

long.

shoots

in

eyes.

his

from

drawn

in

conducted

follows:

of experiment* are
seven
years
the first to start
promptly after leaf fall were
growth the following spring; vines pruned when
dormant
most
(late
December
started
and early January)
four days later; those pruned
when
be expected
France
ary
Februbleeding may
about
(in southern

that

vines

20)

buds
when

cut

late.

days
pruning.

20

the

after

harvest

growth

six days later; those

growth
when
the
pruned
eleven
began to swell in March
and
were
days later,

resumed

terminal
those

pruned

the

terminal

Hence
The
while

the

days later
fall leaves dropped.

the

leaves

than

long enough
have

to

of

shoots

the

proved

immediately

utility

of

soon

into

pushed

knowledge

blossoms

after

the

may

be

in

early spring
fornia
Experiments in Cali-

late frosts.

escape

fall pruned

pruned

this

were

lateness

These

of

and

vines

long

the

to

still green.

vines

practical application

retardation

with

inches

or

according

was

were

the

were

started

only exception

10

One

growths

growth

this; several

of

vines

about

the middle
of March
pruned
saved, while those
were
pruned in late fall and early winter were
killed by a late
March
April frost.
pruning in California
delay
may
blooming ten days. Season
of ripening is slightly delayed,
but

when

vines

pruned

shoots

flowers

buds

escape

TRELLIS

UMBRELLA
Post

Hative

au

Probably

Taille

to

not

buds

dozen

Tardive,

1912.

more

will

the

and

liest
ear-

only
tardy

on

are

prune.

carry

may

bearing

but

injury.

much

How

as

early-

early

destroyed

fruit

and

total "* perhaps

these
grofund.ab"ve
Taille

be

the

vine

261

bloom

may

may

such

216.

FIG.

the

occur

their fruit late, because

mature

each

frosts

to

250

20
a

to

than

produce

"

to
score

orous
vig-

30

canes

buds,

of

300

or

more.

50

or

75

shoots,

of
the

304

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

it is easier for the pruned

pruned vines. This is because
vine
and
the principal conto
supply the sugar
stituents
water,
of the large berries, than
to produce the stems,
seeds
which
make
the principal part of the
skins and
up
fruit clusters
the unpruned vines.
small
on
limit beyond which
There
such results
is, of course,
a

begin
causes;

namely,

clusters

and

which

the

the

is due

undue

one

the

The

aim

should

of buds

for

of

for the

number

and

vine, the

of the

and

training
take

experience in
However,
four
FIG.

263

"

VINE

TO

HOLDING

FOR

HOOK

WIRE

11

""

TRELLIS

*""

in

general way between

pruning
general, light winter

range
Tn

whereas
and
as

heavy

reduction
many

normal
year

and

; to

winter
of

pruning
yield. Hence,

fruit spurs
and fruit buds
vigor for the variety as were
leave

fewer

on

weak

for
a
on

it may
with
vines
ten

years
v;np
VIE

number

may

buds.

increases

makes

it is

40

ter.
mat-

rnfntnprr:a1
COimncrClal

yards, the
20

this

to, sav,
"

Nothing
place of

the

that

of

in

factors.

said

riety,
va-

method

the

be

The

with
vary
ality
individu-

will

age

the

of fruit.

^_

will

and

leave

to

production

other

two

berries

therefore

the

of

tions
vegetative functo
drop without

blossoms
be

both

or

sizes

development

cause

number

to

maximum

often

setting fruit.
optimum

This

diminish.

to

the

vigor

safe rule
mature

left the

vines, which

yield.

of
to

vine
leave

vines

of

previous
should

be

vim""t
on
pruned more
severely; and larger numbers
vines
weak
unusually great vigor. Attempts to make
weakness
and
to
tend
to augment
produce normal
crops
small
produce inferior fruit; but by pruning to secure
is
while
the vine
yield, the quality will be maintained

GRAPE

PRUNING

for

being strengthened
vines

i. e.,

the

by

vines

of

parts

AND

subsequent
and

pruning of canes
principles as

same

compared with another.

is by weight ; heavy
a
cane
soft, pithy and light ones.
Herbaceous

or

result

is

the

firm

ones

vine

its

elaborated

and

when

It differs in its effects from

food

and
duce
pro-

may

the

spring
of

effects

so

sults.
re-

same

In

baceous
her-

pruning

are

serious

cause
be-

FIG.

POST

264"

AND

STAKE
TRAINING

GRAPE

vines

the
chance

have

develop

to

rotundifolia

Left,
trained

to

post

late frosts ; the

vines

vigorous

often

are

gives

it concentrates

effect

chance

pruning

Herbaceous

This

more

them

and

that

crossed

stake.
to
Right, vine trained
a
used
in stake-training methods.

This

often

than

to

OF

wires
Often

by

grapevine
at
no

because

top.

wire

vines

following year
before

the

is

jured
insuch
lack

recuperate.
resembles

growth
mentioned

shown

is well

METHODS

(muscadine)

with

leaf surface
enough
to
equalize the loss.
in the spring by

that

winter

ting
cut-

Insects

the

in

the

it is most

diseases

of crop

in

consists

pruning

than

needs

most

active.

better

are

while

the

not

vine
pruning
one
to judge the vigor of

during

done

midsummer

the

governed

of

to

seems

when

the

be

whole

of

maximum

weakening

should

arms

vidual
Indi-

the

as

way

way

and

summer

cutting of green parts.

(83) in
pruning
being in general a
weakening
process.
The

One

production.

same

govern

as

217.

the

in

act

305

TRAINING

in

the

above

winter

pruning
remaining parts.
are

more

or

less

306

PRINCIPLES

balanced

against

AND

PRACTICE

other

each

PRUNING

OF

in

ratio,

inverse
the

and

depending

when

time

applied.
employed
ing
In spring the concentrating effect is greatest, the weakenthe two
balance; later the
least; in early summer
may
be inferior to the weakening.
concentrating may
217a. Summer
pruning practices. The principal uses
of summer
pruning are, 1, to develop useful vine parts by
the

upon

method

"

removing
shoots

and

suckers,
sprouts,
tips of vines; 2, to reduce

water

crease
vigor and inby pinching and removing vine tops;
this reduces
berries
the
by topping

fruitfulness

3,

FIG.

the

enlarge

to

265"

HEAD

PRUNING:

4,

to

vine

"

increase

TIED

CANES

FRUIT

HEAD,

FAN-SHAPED

HORIZONTAL

sweetness;

buds,

unnecessary

TO

TRELLIS

shade

on

the

fruit

by pinching

shoots
topping to develop laterals and to make
grow
thin
Fruit
shade
decrease
to
by defoliating.
upright; 5,
of surface and cion roots
ning, ringing and pruning away
also done
during the growing season.
are
vines
is practiced on
during the
Disbudding, which

or

second
the

and

lower

third

part

years,

of

the

consists
stem

in

when

removing
they

the buds

have

on

developed

become
roots
long so the upper
may
but
is
Thinning shoots is for the same
purpose,
strong.
have
the buds
when
done
developed shoots several inches
long. Disbudding is superiorto it because of less weakening

shoots

to

an

the vine.

inch

Topping

is the removal

of the end

of

shoot

GRAPE

when

about

in

These

AND

disbudded

It is

used

be

may

usually

done

It is most

shoot-thinned

or

of

about

ticed
prac-

have

canes

concentration

the

is its chief

laterals

fruit spurs
midsummer

form

to

307

TRAINING

desired.

than

longer

excessively long because

them.
of
Development

grown

food

foot

the

when

PRUNING

the

effect.

following

sometimes

of

son.
sea-

twice

of shoots
that appear
ing is the removal
the ground surface.
It is most
with
from
or
near
necessary
Water
of sterije
sprouting is the removal
grafted vines.
needed.
of the
where
shoots
not
Pinching is the removal
It tends
to increase
growing tip with finger and thumb.
below.
the size of the leaves
Usually it is done when
15 to
18 inches
the shoots
the shoots
are
long. Thus
to mature.
have ample time in which
Defoliating is the rethrice.

or

Sucker

FIG.
Note

moval

of leaves

increase

season

to

OF
devices

and

ORDINARY
D

used

TRELLIS

for

tightening

the fruit better

expose

It may
be
of the vine.

the

to

wires.

the

sun

largely superseded

so

by

an

.as

to

proved
im-

investigations in heading
employed shortly aiter the flowering
by declaring
of quality.
production is increased, but at the expense

Ravaz*

in grapes

DIAGRAM

color.
form

L.

266"

A, B, C

braces

summarizes

the

that

results

of

if

Pinching

termine
deto
grapevines.f" Experiments
by G. Riviere
of grapevines
of pinching the flowering shoots
spectively
just before
flowering to "no leaves and to 1, 2, 3 and 4 leaves reof grapes,
bunch
snowed
analysis
beyond the second
upon
in the composition of the must
difference
less chemical
more
or
of
The
number
leaves
left.
creased
dethe
content
to
according
sugar
in
no
proportion to whether
approximately
4, 3, 2, 1 or
where
leaves were
145.8
left on
the shoot
beyond the bunches
gm.
218.

the

effect

"

and

from

where

70
36.3

the

gm.

On

none.

where

variety studied
*

Ann

t Soc.

Ecole
Nat.

Nat.
Hort.

the

leaves

other

A'ontpelier N.
1907.
France,

Agr.

left to

were

(Chasselas

the

hand,

Dore)
Ser.

it

acid

60.5

none.

advisable

seems

11, (1912),

increased

content

where

No.

4, Page

285-323

With
where
t

pi.

308

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

least

pinching is employed
of grapes."
bunch

to

leave

experiments

in

grape-shoot

Later
the

that
where
5

were

which

decreased
acid

leaves

in

from

left.

As

the

back

shoots

bearing

the

for

acid

3.65

leaves

should

be

or

content,

phuric
sul-

gm.
gm.

where

it is recommended

work

gm.

3.95

to

must

where

where

left to

were

the

of

205

to

last
show

litre of

obtained

was

corresponding
leaves

no

result

Riviere

per

bunches

the

beyond
by

gm.

found

were

amount

an

159

increase

results

litre where

per

were

pinching

the

Similar

left.

pinching

the

beyond

further

were

leaves

left

leaves
were
left. No

no

leaves

leaves

from

increased

content

sugar

at

PRUXIXG

OF

left

that

beyond

bunch.

second

their effects and treatment.

Wounds,
Barring frosts,drouths,
accidents, properly managed
diseases, insects and
vineyards may
most
continue productive perhaps indefinitely.The
frequent proxi219.

FIG.

"

THE

RECURVING

267"

CANES

canes

vine

first

wire;

well

as

plant.

Hence

main

avoided

and
more

be
ings may
VIII).
L.

used

FAN

SYSTEM

USUALLY

TENDS

Petri*, an
present
;

"Staz.

in

where

permit

the

arms.

or

less

with

the
the

the wounds

effect
entrance

in the

disease, decay

of

physiological

treatment

No.

and

7, Page

501.

functions

of

better, especially on
planning, large wounds
the

of

tree

acremonium.

wound

and

fruit

that
Italian investigator, found
streaks
which
follow
the brown

Ital. 45,

little injuries,such

of

By proper
completely. Antiseptics

mainly, Cephalosporium
Sper. Agr.

trained

is the cumulative

smaller

as

be

regions

interfere

as

the

trunk

may

in

which

pruning wounds,

insects

or

decline

of

cause

trunk

the

system

the

to

mate

be

THE

FRUITFULNESS

which
as
a
single stem
permanent
the renewal
is necessary
laying down
short
Some
fruit will be profrom
stalk
the ground.
be started
near
a
duced
may
the average
the short
with
arms
on
during the third season.
However,
young
should
back
be headed
the wood
not
to permit over-bearing.
as
pretty severely so
this

In
reaches

as

IN

AS

PROMOTE

TO

wounds

and

the
the
may

dress

ter
(Chap-

ways
alfungi were
of
pruning
vines
grape-

two

He

believes

the

GRAPE

formation

gummy-resinous
(though there
the

of

always
cracking

to

prevent
the shears

so

cutting.

Canes

angles

to

the

of the

shears

the

and

Fig.
In

the

the

size.

this

it is best

in this

case

be removed

withDut

220.

to

tions
por-

this best

do

right

at

blade

the

part that is to remain

subject

to

Bioletti

presents

through the bud above

This
at C in Fig. 285.

cut

grow,

intact

cut

:*

best

have

to

the point of

be

never

vine

this

below

as

there

others

most

reason

last bud.

place

molds

for

45"

If the

to

annually
the

may

shears

Swiss

cut

sharp

are

C2

at

and

half

about

the

made

cut

behind

tools.

but

Some

Most

hand

pruners

need

(Fig. 110),

shears

that

weight

and

when

shears

of which

will

must

arms

saw

hold

fit the

(Fig. 114)

prefer the

tool

prefer French,

pruners

any

properly

are

rarely

shears

edge well, are of moderate

will do good work.
Only
double

vines

will

pruner
single hand

patterns,

the

The
projecting stub
the spur has grown
larger,

cane.

When

"

the

styles.

many

needed.

which

grow

injury.

pruning

than

the

make

pruners

is apt to injure the spur

or
the following year, when

will

to

the bud, no
injury results.
of a spur
at the base
fruit
piece of old wood
or
leave
stub.
little
Too
close cutting
projecting
a

about

Vine

are

and

It requires some
skill and
practice to cut
low
place, and if by mistake the cut is made
just bethe breeding place for molds
has its maximum

of

stronger

to

or

the

hand
be

the

placed
resaw

double

hand
The
shears
double
heavy work.
jure
into the objection that
they splitor otherwise
open
the part to be left.
prefer that the
Many
pruners
rather
than
shall have
curved
a
straight blade.
a
The
most
221. Trellis
construction."
popular support

hand

saw

On

excellent

danger

pruned

are

injury

below.

the

angle of
removing

In

be

the

or

To

it is considered

an

bud

inch above

well

part at
should

slight angle.
placed against the
at

diaphragm

forms

For

an

keen

the

spurs

upward.

destroy
exactly in the right
the diaphragm

can

wounding
apparently

are

from
jury.
inprotects the spur
If the spur
is cut
at Ct a long piece of internode
is left,exposing
the pith. As
this pith dries and
shrinks it allows water
to
and

cane

of

fungi

spread

may

following discussion

woody

the

at

for

cut

that it is desired

one

the

enter

an

bend

to

not

be

made

pruning

spur

last

leaves

should

result

The

the original points of the injury.

with
made
sharp shears in such a way
be avoided
ing
splitting. This may
by hold-

be

grain, but

and

direct

from

and

be

to

cut

285

as

309

TRAINING

the

be

to

which, however,

distant

wood

should

Cuts
as

AND

degenerative changes).

are

feature

secondary

PRUNING

shears

California

for

Bulletin

241.

310

PRINCIPLES

PRACTICE

AND

PRUNING

OF

for

varieties, is the
grapevines, certainly of American
trellis. Though
there are
several
forms, depending upon
of training, they all agree
the system
in the main
points
of construction.
wood

of cedar, locust, chestnut

Posts

durable

when

in the

set

ground

spaced

are

other

or

at

tances
dis-

the system,
the character
of vine
depending upon
End
be very
to
growth, etc.
firmly braced
posts must
the weight of vines
and
withstand
ing
fruit, especially durthe strain caused
Figure 266 shows
by heavy winds.
B.
of bracing, the
most
two
popular at A and
ways
Because
10 or 12 wire is generally used.
Number
of expansion
contraction

and

should
the

and

is done

and

posts

wound

be

slack

the

through

pass

the

on

wires

perhaps

due

to

staples loosely
a

reel of

partly

and

in the

Unless

end
this

fall,the end

be

pulled

and

stakes.

may

wires

each

at

kind.

some

unwound

others

some

the

temperature

loose

ing
dur-

winter.
222.

Other

supports

than

trellises

"

Tn

teur
ama-

of all classes are

largely grown
practice grapes
upon
first
The
arbors, porches, fences, buildings, trees, etc.
is often excellent
as
a
landscape gardening feature when
walk.
the principles of pruning and
Where
it covers
a
of
training are adapted to the kind of support, grapes
be
so
produced.
good enough quality for anyone
may
But

for

business

purposes

trellises and

stakes

are

servedly
de-

better
be so
results
can
popular because
the arbor
The
advantages of the trellis over
produced.
The
trellis is cheaper and more
easily built ; it will
:
are
be more
last longer and can
easily repaired ; it will double
of the vines, the size of arbor
the fruit-bearing surface
vines will be more
trellis being the same
and
; the
ductive
procultivated
be pruned, sprayed and
and
they may
the fruit more
and
easily harvested.
varieties
American
223. The
(mainly Labrusca
grape
be
to
bearing
overand
pruned both
prevent
hybrids) must
and to secure
izing
high quality fruit without jeopardmost

the

vigor

of the

vines.

If

common

sense

docs

not

312

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRUNING

OF

PRACTICE

spring, this

50
about
pounds
20 or
30 buds, or
clusters
an
equivalent of
in winter
be left at pruning time
or
early
of two
calculation
being based on an average

clusters

each

the

produce
good-sized
to

to

only

on

when

one

two

15

bud
but

cane,

three

or

generally

canes

better

and

canes

number

Pruning

of buds
be

may

and

leaves

winters

are

in

very
are

at

two

swell

expected to
practice to prune
vines

done

very

main

stem

training employed.

of

aims

needed

to

to

all

remove

the

supply

or

between

time

any

the

sired
de-

fall of
buds

the

before

weeks

more

good
cause
the time of bud
near
swelling bethe
to "bleed"
(15). Where
prone
spring.

the

and

severe

secured

are

the

upon

be

may

bunches.

and

time

are

the

those

except

spurs

buds

results

chosen

are

according to the system

pruning of the grape
proper

Hence

the

these

Sometimes

left.

stems,

or

"

"

must

spurs,

of

yield

average

It is not

vines

considered

be

must

it is

covered

good practice to give a rough pruning in the fall so they

be left in such
be covered
should
easily. More wood
may
be more
than
is actually needed
because
there may
cases
less loss due to covering and
or
uncovering as well as to
buds
and
possible frost injury. The
superfluous wood
be removed
when
the vines
uncovered
are
shortly
may
before
While
there
is some
basis for the
growth starts.
a

advice

not

because

of

to

the

physiological

any

is then

wood

when

prune

brittle

very

and

wood

is

than

reason

hence

frozen, it is

K'ss

the

because

subject

to

unusual

breakage.
That

the

is

judicious pruning
are

secured

Nevertheless

training is far less important

proved by the fact that excellent

of

system

with

there

considerable

is, between

number

pruning

and

inter-relationshipthat fits a certain system

environment.
other
to a given variety or
any
many

various

depend

systems

and

modifications

grape-growing sections.
the fashion
largely upon

of

systems

than
sults
re-

of systems.

training,

an

better

than

Hence

the

seen

in

the

Pruning and training

the
of the locality and

GRAPE

of the

judgment
and
ways

be

to

seem

of

and

the

be

may

the

can

AND

trained

weaker

best

to the

in

cord
vines, such as Cona
greater variety of

like

ones

adapted

313

TRAINING

Vigorous

operator.

Niagara,

than

former

PRUNING

Delaware.

The

the

drooping systems
upright styles. The terms
the positions taken
to
by
to

training
"drooping" and ''upright" refer
the bearing shoots, not
those
of the arms
to
or
canes.
These
two
general classes are
widely popular, whereas
the horizontal
of use.
out
styles have
practically gone
Before
of training, however,
let us
discussing systems
develop the vines through the preliminary stages to the
time
when
systematic training really begins.
The
from
the
is
grapevine received
young
nursery
the growth
of one
sometimes
but usually that of
season,
have
two
two
Often, perhaps generally, it may
seasons.
each
All of this
buds.
or
more
bearing numerous
canes,
the
growth, except two or three nodes and internodes
on
should
be cut
off, thus leaving a single
strongest cane,
stem
perhaps a foot long and bearing two or three sturdy
buds.
tances
disThe
be set at desired
plants so pruned should
both
vines
and
rows
apart (8 to 10 feet) between
The
the first season.
and given good cultural
shoots
care
to bean
sprawl on the ground or better be fastened
may
before
growth
poles to prevent injury. A couple of weeks
back
the
be cut
starts
following spring the vine must
these
three
buds.
From
or
again to two
only one, or at
the system
of training
two
shoots, depending on
most,
later
be allowed
to
to be
during
adopted, should
grow
shoots
These
the
in the vineyard.
second
two
season
will form
trunks.
Up to the beginning of the
permanent
third
trellis is usually needed.
Sometimes,
season
no
however,
wire

extra

during
depend upon

the

latter

strong

vines

second

season.

are

trained
The

to

style

the

lowest

of trellis will

training to be followed.
of grape-training systems
As the illustrations
(Figs. 269
the
from
borrowed
been
to
Kentucky
273) have
of
description will be
Station, clearness
Experiment
the

system

of

314

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUNING

OF

used
text
gained by using the condensed
of that station (224 to 226). This follows:
224.

The

is set

the

and

the

ground.
the

row,

the

70 inches

above

269"

posts, but
taken

If the

up

growth

of the two
grow

until

top wire.

reaches

not

its

Two
36

row

of 20

in

time

must

the

to

lower

have

respective wire.

wires

prevent

above

wire

tween
be-

method

of

stand

f"}/2

stretched
the

upper

GRAPEVINE

PRUNING

stapled

are

the slack

is strong

year

twice

space

and

time, preferably

referred

it reaches

to

wires

inches

40

These

second

of the

shoots

to

this

are

tightlyas

so

the

No.

10

post

intermediate

to

BEFORE

ground.

feet, or

the

row,

may

and

at

and
be
the

the

to

from
ends.

vigorous,
permitted
other

tip pinched off when

This will usually cause
its

92

trellis

stout

long enough
to

SYSTEM.

from

Each

be

lower

KNIFFIN

being

the

of

intervals

in

vines

should

posts

THE

FIG.

to

At

end

Bulletin

permanent

vines
set, thus allowing two
For
successive
two
posts.
any

along

one

each

The

"

are

6 feet above

the

At

the

of

training the

(56 to

system.

firmly braced.

distance

posts

to

Kniffin

be erected.

now

may

double

in

to

it
the

GRAPE

of

development
which

be

may

PRUNING

two

315

TRAINING

more

lateral

in each

direction

or

trained

AND

branches,
its

upon

of

one

wire

own

If this
loosely, all others being pinched out.
pinching of the tip should not be done at the proper
time,
the annual
each
at
cane
pruning time should be sharply
bent and tied to its respective wire.
When
spring growth
the pushing out
of a
cause
begins this will commonly
This
the bend
at the
point where
occurs.
strong shoot
shoot
be trained
and
out
loosely tied to the
upon
may
wire in the opposite direction.
main
The
is to produce two
object in either case
right
upone
stopping at each wire, each with a Tstems,
tied

and

FIG.

270"

shaped
the

of the

wood
not

KN1FFIN

If the
second

is well
more

SYSTEM

head

TRAINING

three

should
or

THE

run

four

VINE

SHOWN

at

each

horizontal
be
buds

cut

IN

FIG

horizontally

out

is complete
the

season,

matured,
than

OF

branches

whose

head

wires.

end

to

THE

back
each.

canes,

wire

upon

at

the

after

the

in most
In

271

later

cases

years,

larger and stronger, the horizontal

annual
be left longer at each
pruning.
canes
may
Upon the opening of spring a strong shoot will com-

as

the

vine

grows

316

PRINCIPLES

AND

from
out
grow
the first three

monly
Upon

PR.U

each

TICK

bud

PKrXIXC,

OK

horizontal

of these

canes.

joints of these spring shoots

fruit are
and
In this system
flowers
these
produced.
should
be permitted to grow
shoots
not
out
horizontally
attached
If they become
by their
along the wires.
be pulled loose
tendrils
again and allowed
they should
This
will tend
to equalize
to hang
directly downward.
of the several
natural
the growth
shoots, which, under
the
to
conditions, tend
vigorously from
develop most
or

four

bud.

terminal

subsequent pruning and training of the vine can

best be explained by reference
to the figures. Figure 269
an
six-year-old vine as it appeared
represents
average
The
A.
in January
cane
or
arm,
just before pruning.
and
before
two
was
considerably longer than
years
grew
the vine was
when
pruned in January one
now
ago.
year
the
then
shortened
This
to
shown,
cane
was
length now
removed
tied
and
it was
all its neighboring canes
were
wire.
the seven
the
to
During the following summer
from
it, together with
strong shoots, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, grew
The

pruned

When

the

from

inch

f and

c,

weaker

two

or

one

g,

was

shortened

was

the

same

seen

in

The
to

winter,

of a,

base

removed
about

to

arm

also

bore

the

buds

fruit

entire

together
cut
by one
ten

two

grew

in

buds

seven

with

years

January

ago
last

season.

down

arm,

the

l/2

to

h,

canes

d,

c.

and

the

cane,

a,

tied to

the

wire

in

as

will

be

X,

at

and

in that

and

shortened

was

year.

the^e

From

in the figure, six

will be seen
as
grew,
from
A,
arm
shoots, each of which, like the shoots

buds

strong
bore

in late

and

position formerly occupied by A,

Fig. 270.

about

seven

shoots,

two

like A,

to
cut

there

four

clusters

off at

with

of fruit.
all its

This
canes

arm

except

was

the

also.
one

only is reserved to take the place

to
eight or
the wire, after being shortened
of B upon
the leftThe
repeated upon
was
nine buds.
same
process
side of the vine, leaving it, after the pruning was
hand
nearest

the

base.

This

GRAPE

completed,
the

entire

can

be

grows

the

in

seen

with

older

the

from

eight

and

variety

noticed

that

vigor

age,

this

twelve

cuts.

As

pruning

annual

be

to

of each

left

individual

that

seen

upon

of buds

longer, the number

be

trained
to

the

in

canes

It will thus

vine

317

TRAINING

270.

Fig.

for

pruning

done

little

as

AND

PRUNING

method
the

vine

be

may

with

varying
vine

left

be

to

treated.

the

upon

old

wood

buds, thus

two

Fig.

it

are

canes

the

is done

of

top

horizontal
each

spurs

shortened
at

as

seen

OF

MUNSON

to

in

ss

tc

lowing
fol-

the

the

will become
sirable
It is de-

year.

keep the old wood

as
practicable.

short

unaccustomed

one

this

work,

that

the

270

so-called

been

arms

to

To

the

cane

possible; otherwise

as

have

point as
original T head
from

year
to the

longer

head

out

trunk.

provides a new
the wire
place upon

as

the

growing

canes

more

main

the

It

close

other

two

frequently when
1 e strong-growing
developed close to

at

making

270. This

less

or
s

be

will

It

it would

vine

as

appear

in

seen

from

is ruined

to-

such

Fig.
close
FIG.

271"

END

ROW

fastened
vines
the \vires,
Note
experience has
pruning,
the
to
posts
demonstrated
beyond question
that it is only by such
treatment
apparently severe
of fruit can
be
that the best and
most
profitable crops

but

not

to

are

grown.

During

the

from
canes,

to

bear

two

coming

most

and
to

season

of the
each
four

30

to

shoot

good

strong

shoot

left upon
reasonably be

35 buds

may

clusters

may

of

grapes.

be
the

pected
ex-

zontal
hori-

expected
It will

be

318

PRINCIPLES

number

of

buds
of

requirements

unpruned

an

225.

The

of

FIG.

good

crop

pruning

fruit.

of

to

The

large
the

meet

fruit

will,

quality than that produced

neglected vine (74).

and

system.
possesses

-MUNSON

after

leave

to

better

training, so

272-

PRUNING

OF

necessary

vine

Munson

which

system

not

upon

of much

be

moreover,

T.

PRACTICE

therefore, that it is

seen,

by

AND

second

much

called

SYSTEM

"

merit, is the

from

OF

method

its

TRAINING

of

Munson

originator, the

VINE

agement,
man-

late

UNPRUNED

the grape
In this
Munson,
specialist of Texas.
system, as practiced by the originator, the trellis is made
by placing two
light posts or stakes in each hole along
their tops separated 18 to 24 inches, like the two
the row,
sides of the letter V, and standing 6 feet high. A wire is
stretched
lengthwise along the tops of these posts and
a

V.

third wire

between
In
of

own

wires

is

with

foot lower

upon

cross

wires

midway

them.

our

hole

about

arrangement
practice essentially the same
secured
by the use of a single post in each
2-foot piece of 2 x 4-inch joistspiked firmly

320

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

PRUXIXCJ

OF

back
fruiting. The vine is renewed
to the head
as
pletely
com273.
as
possible each year.
Fig.
This
material
and
requires slightly more
system
trouble
in erecting the trellis,but the results secured
have
been
unexcelled
by those of any other system, especially
in the case
of strong-growing vines, while even
with
weak
like Delaware,
the results
have
been
growers,
highly
satisfactory.
the advantages of this method
is the favorable
Among
be soiled by spatposition of the fruit,which cannot
tering
in heavy rains.
of mud
The
are
overhung
grapes
which
from
the hot sun,
by a leafy canopy
protects them
while
free circulation
of air is secured, and
a
they are
conveniently placed for spraying and gathering. A minor
advantage, appreciated in a private garden, is the facility
it affords
for passing from
to another
row
one
by slightly
and
under
The
the
wires.
elevated
stooping
walking
position of the wires and vines also greatly adds to the
of cultivating the entire ground beneath.
ease
226.

Kniffin

discusses

Gladwin*

The

similar

to

where

the

to

Some
stiffen

vidcred
*

New

described

one

two

canes

the

to

one

the

wire

as

and

trunks

from
the

Kniffin

as
York

same

number

Experiment

the

lower
one

up

wire,
stem,

is carried

it.
developed from
them
together to make
from

canes

of buds, each

Station,

only
brought

on
spurs
other
stem

stern

distinct vine.

Agricultural

is very
difference

are

canes

vineyards tie the two stems

In using this method, the
the

are

the -height of

before
two

system

the

above,

developed

are

wire

top

Kniffin

permanent

ground,
to

have

may

the

two

tied

and

of

F.

F.

"

descriptions, slightly condensed,

four-cane

two-stem

that
the

from

systems.

modifications

important part. His

follow
(227-237).

an

227.

being

several

other

less prominent in the

or
more
systems
in growing varieties in which
Labrusca
"blood"

and

plays

and

other

and

system
east

modifications

Circular

16.

each

being

stem
con-

GRAPE

228.

instead

the

ground,

treatment
The

differences
of

use

same

umbrella

Kniffin

between

this

two

tied

instead

of

up

wire

top

the

Kniffin

true

and

eight

trunk

to

and

described.
The

chief

system

are

somewhat

the

buds

twenty

are

top wire. These

the

at

subsequent

far

so

from

distance

(Fig. 274)."

canes,

of

the

on

and

others

the

canes

the

to

canes

four

at

above

left

this
then

wire,

down

bent
the

other

system

and

the

to

and

right
along

the

in the

as

changed position. Two

developed from spurs
are

from

of

from

being brought

stems

number

the

are

229.

the

The

differs

wire, carried

lower

321

TRAINING

system

two

is taken

the

tied.

there

of the

one

little below

AND

Kniffin

Y-stem

The

in that

PRUNING

to

wire

lower

secured.

and
The

are

canes

renewed
FIG.

PRUNED

274"

AND

from

yearly

UNPRUNED
KNIFFIN

VINE,

BRELLA"
"UM-

SYSTEM

spurs.

230.
is

has

ground.

of ten

canes

The

renewal

is from

spurs.

trellis commend
Other
one

system

umbrella,

three
wire
only one
The
extends
single stem

two

for

of the

modification

trellis

Kniffin

one-wire

The

each

year,

High
this

modifications
reason

twelve

to

or

like all the

of

Kniffin

low

differs

but

up

to

the

system

in that

the

above

the

feet

four

to

extend

buds

quality

or

wire, where

right and left.

others so far discussed,
fruit and
cheapness of
to

system.
of

another

the

drooping

have

been

type

of

dropped

training
in

mercial
com-

six or
the
The
are
common
more
vineyards.
and
three
four wires
are
quired
reeight-cane Kniffin in which
expensive trellis necan
respectively, making
essarv.

FIG.

275"

VARIOUS

METHODS

renewal

/, High
following spring;
for
3 a,

tying;
after

OF

system
Lake
2, Keuka

2 b, tied; 3,
trimming.

at

end

VINE
of

system,
horizontal

PRUNING

season's

ten-year
arm

spur

POPULAR

growth;
la,
pruned,

vine,

system,

end

IN
vine
not

of

NEW

trimmed

tied;

2 a,

season's

YORK
and

tied

stripped

growth;

GRAPE

231.

The

more

upright

canes

232.

trellis

high

The

inches

each

grow

bearing

and

18

from

the

buds

on

the

third

they reach

above

back

The

again

of

back

two

the

head

these

Thus,

the

wood.

labor

of

233.
Keuka

The

is

New

to

grow

but

from

of each

the

head

of the

be
to

tained.
main-

are

in turn

are

following

year.

and

of the

it will

close

as

base

develop

means

spurs

the

buds

three

renewing

the

fruiting

that

the

amount

seen
a

minimum,

while

the

increased.

(Fig. 275-2) practiced in the

district, appears
as

The
at

at

vine

the

see

grown

Near

or

of

is reduced

York,

is warranted.

two

fruiting canes

system

high renewal,

allowed

When

pinched

cutting being

wood

shoots

spurs

greatly

Keuka

this

older

above,

retained

have

possible.

as

the

are

the

tying

Lake,

of the

the

spurs

wood

year,

upon

these

From

of old

the

to

length

be

should

year

that

carrying

spurs

furnish

to

shoots

tied

may

off,

is tied

permit.

wire, they

canes

vine

but

canes,

From
used

One

sufficient

will

growth

next

previous

of the

short

stem,

to

of the

canes

taken

are

are
a

of

wire, and

bearing

canes

reached

upper

the

beginning
cut

these

as

the

buds,

20

to

stem

or

first

The

above

off.

cut

or

soon

the

the left.

they have
as

trunk

10

usually

18

level of the wire.

to

when

from

are

below

grapeit. The

inches

30

to

main

6 to

the

other

and

to

from

the

wire

or

or

wires,

more

third

just

and

second

two

obliquely
renewing in this
newal,"
namely "high re-

of

or

placed

or

little below

preferably a
to the right

wire

groups,

three

is

to

up

carries

and

second

is carried

canes,

that

the

two

apart, respectively. The

vine

two

are

methods

two,
wire

lower

training

"spur renewal."
system is popular in many
to commend
being much

there

with

323

TRAINING

horizontal

two

renewal

is made

ground, while

of

The

sections,

three.

to

along

wires.

The

growing

or

of

naturally divide into

"cane
or
renewal,"

type

the

AND

type

arms

or

the

across

PRUNING

there

are

first year
random
on

as

modification

scriptio
de-

some

differences

after

setting,the vines

the

ground.

At

the

324

PRINCIPLES

beginning

inches

high,

vine

consists

each

of 5 to

The

The

short

wires, which
will

all the wood

have

trunk.

fourth

two

or

lower

10

three

wire

there

after

about

apart,

inches

20

the

from

arises

wood

secured

from

the

shoot

develop into a
The
advantages

trunk

claimed

and

case

234.

The

getting
renewal

spur

(Fig. 276.) The

for the high
as

entire

to

old

from

has

the

this

as

of

its

nually.
an-

fulness
use-

ground

to

being cut away.

of training are

one

to

minimum

renewal.

horizontal

been

end

the

of the old wood

or

from

is renewed

the

this method

complete

tied.

trunk, and

vine

grow

trellis for this system

renewal.
Two
canes

left of the trunk, which

Thus

approaches

for

head, the reduction

of

of the

trunk, the

the low
the

head

if

frequently
to develop
the fruiting

allowed

are

wire

and

manner,

them.

is allowed
new

this

left

are

result

to

from

the

almost

wire

spurs

stem

the

near

usually short
When

of the

the

nearest

five to

second

long
in

two

eight buds.
pruning depends upon

the

to

secured

head

the

except

away

the buds

have

each

for

tendency

fruiting wood

and

is

tied.
to

is cut

canes

is carried

renewals

repeated
buds

is

the

canes,

and

variety and the vigor of the vine. If two canes

they are tied to right and left along the lower
As

20

to

year

the

three, the third

third

perpendicularly

from

grown

These

retained

number

are

trunk

or

The

and

carried

are

of the

18

permit.

year

that

canes

wire.

stem

third

of the

head

lower

these

growth
following

three

or

the

stem

this

is from

beginning
a

to

it is tied

trellis,which

to

back

pruned

grower,

The

back

PRUNING

are

buds, laid along the

as

The

of the

from

and

fast

as

to

they

strong

cut

of the
8

shoots

second

tied

is

ground.

vines

OF

year

wire

above

finds the

year

vine

lower

inches

20

to

the

PRACTICE

second

If the

to

season

the

of

buds.

two

AND

system.
is practically
the same
arm

spur

placed right and

brought to the height of
are

left
of buds
The
number
just below.
the vigor of the vine and
each
will depend upon
cane
on
the adjoining vines.
the availabilityof the space between

the

lower

wire

or

GRAPE

These

for several
these

The

the

present

year

Two

shoots

winter.

or

of these

each

the

buds

two

there

season

the

to

Then
in

as

are,

at

the

to

the

the

buds

grow

from

wires.

upper

from

on

two

to

allowed

are

buds

from

back

cut

service

doing

arms,

develop

are

cane

before.

as

that

developed
and
entirely away,

is cut

spur

tied

and

spurs

fall the

the

In

shoots

325

TRAINING

permanent

years.

canes

in fall

AND

become

to

are

canes

PRUNING

upper

other

bud

of

cut

to

cane

beginning of the next

shoots
two
previous year,
springing from
the

on

spur

manent
per-

arm.

The

will

spurs

fast

lengthen
become

and

hence

crooked,
is

it

the

practice

best
to

them

away

years

every -few
and
grow

tirely
en-

from

others
FIG.

276"

VINE

IN

ACCORDING

TO

FOURTH

YEAR.

PRUNED

HORIZONTAL-ARM

SPUR

shoots

RE-

SYSTEM.

NEWAL

arise

The

arms.

apart

spurs

the

on

235.

The

renewal

spur

Permanent

from

tied yearly

are

to

two

Chautauqua

or

horizontal

arms

be

distributed

be

may

to

that
from

the

inches

20

arms.

of the

are

ITS

cut

arm

or

system

spur

used

to

system

support

three-wire

is

fication
modi-

just described.

the

which

canes,

trellis.

These

canes

tied

wires
obliquely or perpendicularly. If two
used, they are usually 34 inches apart, if three, about
are
20 inches
for tying up
the following
The
canes
apart.
either
the
old wood
of the
develop directly from
year
may

from

arms,

of

the

hold

past

upon

spurs

on

season's
the

the

or

arms,

This

canes.

vineyardists

of

from

system

Chautauqua

the
has

base
a

buds

strong

County,

New

326

PRINCIPLES

York,

the

as

AND

PRACTICE

principal

the

grape,

PRUNING

OF

Concord, adapts itself

old arms
should
be renewed
at
fairly well to it. The
frequent intervals in order to use it to the best advantage,
in time they become
ties
as
crooked, gnarled and the extremioften
236.

great distance

fan

The

from

while

system,

is not

nearly so popular
made
yearly from

are

is the

system

crooked

becoming
midway between
tied

are

the

wires

HUDSON

277"

FIG.

vine

pruned

in

spurs
reaching in

in the

direction

B,

year;

in

and

the

climate

is used

237.
the

The

cost

of

to

necessitates

horizontal
the

type

trellis and
cane

is left after

each

to
are

tied

lower

of the

to

objection to the
be
to
lengthened,
instances

some

to

shoots

The

VINE
in

OF

fourth

home

for

grown

are

C,

the
use

AGES

VARIOUS

year;

sume,
as-

vine

unpruned

year.

winter

protection, this

or

the

labor

arising from
pruning.

the top wire

slats

is little used

wires

and

the

of
a

This

tem
sys-

at

present,

tying

trunk

is carried

as

it

render
to

feet

dicularly
perpen-

shoots

arising therefrom
the
extending vertically from
the trellis. The one
advantage

wire of
the upper
of control
is the ease
system

to

ing
retain-

ground,

advantage.

prohibitive. One
high

or

vine

fourth

re.iewals

they naturally
obliquely across

SYSTEM.

pruned

localities,

the

wires.

second

HORIZONTAL
third

Here

the

first and

vine.

in certain

serious

vertically,horizontally
In regions where
grapes

wire.

A,

to

of

of the

the

near

One

and
the

still used

spurs

tendency

head

formerly.

as

wood.

little old

very

the

for varieties

that

are

318

PRINCIPLES

PRA(

AND

ibi the

Hudson

Valley, employs

which

reaches

above

vl

ne

fastened

foot

or

ground. Some
fencing of large mesh.
the

One
to

and

cane

the

renew

The

vine
left

i-itied to the stake.

t'O reach
or

the

both, it

bear

and

when

the

of

supported
240.

The

".dvantagcs
a

NOTE

to

shoots

that

this

and

the

at

high.

former
the

spur

pruning

time

system
and

slats.
to

favors

that

or

the

WIRES

OF

to

the

These

uniform

to

upon

trained

are

Summer
become

wires,

pruning
long.

too

tion
distribu-

fruit is both

well

shaded.

overhead
over

the

side.

threaten

bearing wood

foot

is counted

cane

each

on

ARRANGEMENT

which,

to

Each

fastened

the

claim

Growers

tied.

shoots, six

horizontally
is done

be

may

wire

279

VINES.

top of the stake,

dozen

TRAINING

OF

SYSTEM

ing"
reach-

not

from

shoot

new

long enough

It is cut

FIG.

PJRRALES

is about

the
each

to

woven

pruning time,

at

in

slats

narrow

trunk

The

bearing part.

is driven

vertical

use

stake

stout

the wires, but

to

growers

are

spur

four

apart

so

wires,

two

wire, and

top

vine, and

each

behind

ground

the

PRUNING

OF

TICK

the

modification.

Caywood
Munson
In

system

(Fig. 278)

has

no

of which
it is apparsystem,
ently
it the three
wires.
horizontal

GRAPE

stretched
center

wooden

PRUNING

AND

329

TRAINING

The
equal height, are 6 feet above ground.
wires are
stapled to the posts, the other two to 3-foot
crosspieces. In pruning, the vines are cut back to
at

five spurs
and
five canes,
three to right of the head

the latter
and

two

fastened
the

to

left

to
one

the

wires

year,

the

division

the next
being reversed
rants,
curExcept when
year.
gooseberries or plants of similar growth and habit
the trellises (a popular method
beneath
in the
are
grown
Hudson
little to comto have
Valley), this system
seems
mend
it above

form

(Figs.

241.

271

The

overhead

Mun-

in its modern

system

son

the

273).

to

Parrales

in

used

trellis

training certain
varieties

or

Almerian

is

virtually
identical
with
the
style
used
in
cadines
musgrowing
in America
(243).
From

the

head

each

canes

10

15

or

feet

to

FOLIA)

MUSCADINE
GRAPEVINE,

SHOWING

SHALLOW

SPREADING

ROOT

280

FIG.

long, depending
vigor of the vine,
in

provide

these

renewed

are

Spurs

METHOD

ITS
TEM
SYSOF

TOP.

as

left

are

(ROTUNDI-

POPULAR

A
THE

TRAINING

canes

trunk.

"

AND

tended
ex-

tions.
direc-

main

the
for

are

various

Annually
to

the

on

near

each

as

year

sible
posto

this renewal.

wire
multiple cross
system
the
in
muscadine
growing
(Fig. 280) is popularly employed
varieties (243), which
usually set 20x20, 10x20 or 15x15
are
and
stout
feet apart. The posts, one
to each vine, are
very

242.

The

overhead

long enough

to

of

rows

the

braced
are
are

vine

posts

are

passed over
stapled.

2 feet apart

run

arbor

extend
on

set.

the
Other

or

7 feet above

each

of

of the

wires

parallel with

of

the

No.

them

From

tops

side

ground.

vine

smaller
each

set

At

the

ends

plantation, well10 galvanized wires

they
posts to which
size (No. 14) and
of main
wires, thus

330

forming
beside
fastened

The

over

FIG.

the

muscadine

281"

grapes,

SYSTEM

are

rarely pruned because

the

vines.
"

October

to

is
or

an

so

is

which

as

grown

it may

is

be

pinched
The

to

to

shoots

distribute

wires.

CROSS-WIRE

This

trunk

one

post,

popular

SHOWING

pruning

error;

November

for
"

in

known

only recently becoming

but

season

only

directions

various

in

out

of each

PRUNING

OF

points. At the top it

for covering the arbor.

shoots

evenly

243.

top

various

at

trained

them

the

to

develop side
are

Generally

squares.

and

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

if

southern

dens,
gar-

commercially.

VINE

PRUNED

supposed to injure
pruned at the proper
is

thev

will

not

be

hurt,

GRAPE

benefited.

but

PRUNING

AND

If

331

TRAINING

December
to February"
pruned later
lesscopiouslyas spring opensandmake
they bleed moreor
following (15). After young
growth the season
poorer
made
vines have
growths of, say, 6 inches in spring, they
be pruned without
serious
damage, but large vines
may
pruned then will bleed badly. Vines
pruned later may
be a week
later in producing their shoots
than
two
or
untime
pruned vines or vines pruned at the proper
(215).
Methods
of pruning used
Labrusca
varieties
upon
may
with
this group
be employed
of varieties, but the muscadines
arbors
are
(Fig. 280).
generally grown
upon
244.

"

cross-wire

The

used

system,

posts 8 feet apart each

N.

Marlboro,

near

Y.,

6l/2feet above ground and

surmounted
wires
crossing at right angles. The
by two
the posts as single trunks
trained
vines
and
made
to
are
each
of which
extends
to develop four
along a wire
arms,
renewed.
are
(Fig. 281). Annually these canes
has

245.
and

umbrella

The

angles
during
canes

the

at

consists
number

The

of

vine.

the

trunk,

the

same

vines."

the

In

from

which

arms

other

the

are

Paragraphs

the

vines

into

cordons
*

of

4 to

the

California

246

the

vines

of

called

are

divided

cross

and

arms

(244).
the

to

quisite
re-

strength of the
above
ground.

the

there

is

be

divided

systems

be

may

is elongated
along the whole

on

definite

these systems,

to

head

feet

the
to

to

nearly
"hea^e'l

or

owing

trunk

at

called
4

in'o

the

symmetrically

trunk

regularly

are

.'in

greater

the

rope-

"cordons."

according

to

the

length of the

tical
ver-

\l/2 feet, and low, 0-6 inches.

feet, medium,
be vertical or horizontal, according to the direction

high,

may

these

the

system

vines

5 feet

arise

arms

of

systems,

distributed

headed

trunk
The

wire

by

systems,

all the
vines

The

level.
In

commonest

portion of its length. The

like form
of the trunks,
The

head

systems* of vine pruning may

of the arms
according to the arrangement

classes
the

the

indicated

usually

are

vine

right

at

arms

reach

cross

back

difficult to

vines

the

the

cutting

of buds

posts

The

cross

hillsides

on

be

Calif ornian

246.
two

in

as

in

two

From

year.

developed

Pruning

post with

used

trellis would

(Fig. 261).

top

second

the
are

vine.

where

of

consists

construct,

sometimes

system,

ground

uneven

way

to

2-3

263

Experiment

have

been

Station.

condensed

from

F.

T.

Bioletti's

Bulletin

246

332

of the trunk, which

single

be

may

directions.

they
The
vine

is from

4 to

of

composed

or

Double

and

even

inadvisable

very

are

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

the

in all directions

at

PRUNING

long. The horizontal cordons

extending in opposite
but
multiple vertical cordons
occur,
feet

branches

two

have

and

of

arrangement

OF

advantages.

no

of

arms

angle of

an

is said

to be "vase-formed,"
implies is not essential.

vine

headed

about

the hollow

though

be

may

metrical
sym-

Such

degrees.

45

this

which

center

in the great
used
is the form
majority of California vineyards. It is suitable for the "square"
vines
cultivation.
Where
of planting and
cross
are
planted
system
cultivation
in "avenues," particularly when
trellised and where
cross

term

This

in a
are
given a "fan-shaped" arrangement
impossible, the arms
plane, to facilitate working of trellised vines.
the vertical or
On
at
as
upright cordon, the arms
arranged
are
of
the
all
the
trunk
from
sides
regular intervals as possible on
top

is

vertical

within

to

12

inches

15

or

of

the

On

bottom.

horizontal

the

cordon

similarly,but as nearly as possible on the upper

side of the trunk
only.
Each
of these systems
again be divided into two sub-systems,
may
In
6f the annual
according to the management
growth or canes.
short
three
called
to
or
are
oj one
spur pruning, spurs
one,
eyes
left for fruit production.
In the other, called long or
pruning,
cane
left. In rare
is adopted
form
intermediate
are
long canes
cases
an
in which
six eyes
of five or
left. In
long spurs or short canes
are
fruit
and
each
is
cane
pruning
half-long pruning
cane
accompanied
short renewal
two
or
by one
Systems of pruning, where
only
spurs.
they

are

long

canes

arranged

left

are

In

without

all systems,

renewal

replacing

spurs

in

not

are

spurs,
are

in

use

left wherever

fornia.
Caliever
when-

and

needed.

Other

modifications

of disposal of
by the manner
bowed
in a circle
vertically
or
may
tied to a stake driven
and
of each
at
be
vine, or they may
tied laterally to wires
in a horizontal,
stretching along the rows
ascending or descending direction.
the

fruit

introduced

are

which

canes

be

tied up
the foot

Figure 290 b, representing a headed, vase-formed

trunk
medium
and short fruit spurs, is the most
common
in California.
It is suited for all small growing vines
the lower
wine
for muscats.
and
buds, for most
grapes
pruning in this
to the vigor of
Figure

290

It

is

case

the

variety

differs from

is

commonly
varieties, especiallyin

arms.

Figure
arms

are

fruit
of

one

for
short

cane

290

has

the

somewhat
of

four

internode.

Cornichon
spurs.

fruit

and
This

less

and

It is suited
is

individual

higher

soil and

when
of

The

for

in rich

as

trunk
other

bear

The

unit

on

of

cane.

planted

body

which

used

system

internodes, according

Tokay

numerous.

Malaga

for

five internodes,

to

to

only

form

same

the

in the

used
rich

spur

of

and

of

vine, with

and

far

and

the

longer

large growing
apart.

b, except

unit of

is

that

the

short

pruning
a
accompanied by a renewal
spur
vigorous table grapes,
especially
soil, which

difficult system

to

keep

do

not

in good

bear

well

"m

shape owing

PRUNING

GRAPE

the

to

all the

for

tendency

shape.
Figure 290 a

to

the

to

go

canes

usually

is

pruning

short

vigor

vigorous

obtain

It is difficult to

'663

TRAINING

AND

ends

the

on

canes.

casional
Oc-

spurs.

the

keep

to

necessary

fruit

of the

renewal

in

vines

proper

further

is similar to

reduced

of
fruit
This

but

4.
2, 3, or at most
3l/2feet with its renewal

The

to

2l/2to

cane

the

in form,

require support and

is used in a large

canes

method

vineyards

It is not to
serious
defects.

in the

than

greater
vertical position of

even

of

the vine
are

spurs

to

thus

that

at

all

new

fruit

the

of

the

The

has

between
ing,
prun-

spur

getting
using
or
growth from

crop,

renewal

spurs
In this

canes;

for
case

the
he
but

fruit of

no

no

the

fruit

blossoms

get

may

little or

start, the

lized.
uti-

thus

weak

buds

of

pruner

to

even

and

top

be

then

choose

reverting

is

spurs

The

length
c.
growth and vigor
(73). The renewal

highest shoots
though their

the

that,

main

renewal

and
several

year,

it cannot

where

the

290

it has

is

canes

previous

the

to

is at

wood

on

the

Figure

cause

Semillon

as

following
the
good

the

pruning

canes

case,

Sultana

and

weak

result

The

growth.

fruit

fruit
pruning
a
Owing to their length*
high stake.
a

from

in

is still

arms

is

especially

in any
wood

of

of

Sultanina

of

grapes,

shown

system

the

be expended
shaded
so

but

make

shoots

number

new

number

unit

tied to

be recommended

difficultyof obtaining

The

the

spur.

are

wine

certain

for

and

Cabernet.
very

any

value.
defects

Other
method

are

fruiting

shoots

of this

that
are

vigorous
therefore

often

their

drop

the
cessively
ex-

and

tend

to

blossoms

setting and the

produced is
massed
together so it
ripens unevenly and is
difficult to
gather. It
also requires a tall and
expensive stake.

without
fruit

when

:IG.

282"

OF

VINE

SULTANINA

TYING

CANES

FRUIT

SHOWING
IN

EFFECT

VERTICAL

POSITION

S, suckers
/, weak
wood;
canes

which

and

water

fruit
have

wood;

borne

F, strong
sprouts;
C, previous year's
crop.

fruit
fruit

334

PRINCIPLES

Figure
method
of

lower

and

of

bowing

OF

PRUNING

b, an improvement on the last system,

These
are
treating the fruit canes.
circle and
tied by their middle
part to

smaller

be

PRACTICE

differs

290

of

form

AND

the

the

moderates

that

than

has

canes

needed

several

tendency

effects.

the

of

vigor

stake

The

which

the
may

This

canes.

change

the vine

of

in

over

vertical

the

for

useful

bent

only in the

of

rection
di-

expend

to

terminal

More
formed
shoots.
shoots therefore
are
their vigor is somewhat
the fruit canes
and
decreased
on
they
as
fruitful.
tend
caused
The
to be
more
slight mechanical
injury
by
the bending operates in the same
direction (104).

only
jtself

the

on

from
the
fruit canes
being diverted
the renewal
form
to
vigorous shoots, which
soon
causes
spurs
grow
obtain the light and
above
for
the fruit shoots and
air they need
method
is
used
their proper
This
development.
successfully for
certain wine
such
and
Semillon.
It is
Riesling, Cabernet
as
grapes
unsuited to large,vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted
In these cases
wide apart.
fruit canes
two
are
usually insufficient
if
the
leaves
massed
and
more
are
used,
are
and,
so
together
grapes
that they are
and
do
not
subject to mildew
ripen evenly or well.
skill and care.
The bowing and tying of the canes
require much
The

excess

The

body,

Fig.

vigor

of

thus

annual

and

arms

similar

those

pruning
Fig. 288,

of

of

the

with

the

in

shown

system

exception
in one
given a fan-shaped arrangement
plane. It differs
in the disposal of the fruit canes,
which
are
supported by a trellis
from
vine to vine.
This
stretching along the row
method, largely
for the Sultanina
used
is
the
best system
(Thompson's
Seedless),
for vigorous vines which
it is posrequire long pruning, wherever
sible
cultivation.
It is also suitable
for any
to dispense with
cross
growing in very fertile soil.
long-pruned varieties when
265

arms

are

to

that

the

are

vertical cordon

The

with

high

short

system

is

valley.

Its

the vine

the

used

in

and

the

One

of

and

it cannot

top

of

lower

growth

be
the

15

that

are

number

the

spurs

crowding
vine

tend

and

spurs

to

all is obtained

can

be

and

metrically
sym-

This

bottom.

the

San

Joaquin

of
large development
the vigor of the Emperor
the fruit by the proximity
that

cultivation

is interfered

cultivation.

fruit is subjected to various degrees

the
different parts of the vine and
A more
vital defect is that
uneven.
the

The

energies

weaker

below.

After

re-established

each

case

the

of
year

several

in this

and

arms

of cordons
therefore
lose their character
headed
vines with abnormally long trunks.
cordon

in

feet

the

vines

The

the

of

much

so

cross

absorb

become

4^

which

and
shading
coloring are often
maintained
permanently.
in

upright trunk
scattered
evenly
an

inches

it allows

either

is that

of

vineyards

of

It also

trunk

arms

at

many

its defects

temperature

ripening

spurs

within

spreading the
permits

or

spurs

to

fruit

Emperor

without

with.

of

top

advantages
the large

demands,
of

and

arms

from

consists

system

until

years,

and

at

spurs

vine

and

the

the

finallyno
of

most

by allowing

the

simply

become

vigor-

336

(Fig. 283)

PRINCIPLES

XI)

there

will be

no

so

when

If

planted.

left

be

as

planted with
be

crowbar

back

cut

or

is little if any
pieces of roots.

long

and

They

vine

This

be

to

must

until

of

advantage

rootlets

cutting
a
easily and
rapidly. There
in leaving 3 or
slight advantage

the

the

over

more

well-grown

rooted

it forms

that

roots,

be

may

as

do

length,

full

of

they

will

they

if left

as

main
is

sound

wards
up-

they

leaving
feeding

not

are

the

to

rootlets.

The

in

advantage

use

if shortened

better.

vine

no

feeding

well

as

often

of

are

develop

turned

large hole
6 inches; if
dibble, they
a

M" inch.

to

There
roots

being

ends

planted in
long as 5 or
be

to

are

PRUNLNG

the

of

danger

they

may

OF

PRACTICE

of

inches
reserve

ter
beta
they contain
probably promote
ence
growth of rootlets, but little or no differof
between
the growth
has
been
noted

matters

vines

inch

l/2

to

which

of

the
the

have

time

left

been

left

are

and

care

more

roots

shortened

been

which

those

and

Where

longer.

have

roots

long,

over,
more-

in

needed

are

planting.
If the

should

to

FIG.

283

is

This

is the

and

cion,

cion

root.

line

at

The

the
where

should

be

the

roots

in

field,the longest 16
they are cut just below
may

be

or
tecting diaphragm
planted with the second

bud

above.

best
zontal
hori-

to

the

occur

crook

trunk.

the

less

or

Rooted

to
a

18

is,

canes

decayed

inches

just

above

at

vines

bud

upper

often

moreover,

imperfect.

or

the

the
12

shortest.

to

so

inches

14

driest soils.
as

to

root

leave

t""

Always
tion.
forma-

the

pro

Cuttings are
internode.
1
the level of the ground, leaving only
inch

about
bud

only

and

roots,

to facilitate healing and

bud

cut

in

the

to

nearer

original cutting. The

the

joint between

the

top

left

the

badly formed

"

The

one

will have

vine

Planting.
Cuttings differ only in length
those
to the
best suited
nursery,
inches, are

248.

one

the

and

come

less of

leaves

more

10

eyes.

is strongest, has
placed. Where

best

result

will

growth

dicates
in-

pruned.

one

The

growing from
are
equally vigorous canes
tinleave
to
is
best
it
usually
joints
which
from
the
buds
This brings
cane.

lower

the

dotted

bottom

this

different

stock

CR

and

will

If

U, the

of

union

point of

higher bud

sucker

stock;

the

bud.

at

all out

canes,

is left, it should be cut back

the main growth may
Otherwise

base
which

which

in

shows

from

bench-

vine

grafted
SS

ROOTED

PRUNED

VINE

two

or

that which

be
and
cane

"

one

several

entirely, and

removed

be

shortened

buds,

vine has

rooted

should

one

are

of

planted with

the

two

buds

just

GRAPE

PRUNING

above

the

surface.

Bench

above

the

surface.

In

to

First

249.

and
make

With

whether

on

in the

be

hilled

be

inch

so

up

as

The
the

not

or

vines

both

during the first spring

treatment

the

growth

vines

staked

are

vines

rooted

expected

are

the

grafts where

and

of

stock

the

grafts, in which

bench
and

well

disbudded

In

moist

soil, the

develop.

and

must

be

the

proper

before

removed

removal

of

by the
cion

they
of

development

case

the

cion

is essential.

removal

the

of

If the
suckers

few

nurseryman,

develop vigorously
large, or they may
vent
pre-

roots

may

too

grow

resistant

the

should

roots

the

from

roots

been

will

roots.

usually be done

time

some

in

July.

the hill of soil is scraped away

from
the union
this purpose
it
is
and
suckers
removed
after the cion roots
replaced. In
are

and

For

hilling

second

the

around

should

be
that

roots

should

be

Later

in

the

have
and

about
The

it will pass

so

and

the

soil

the

new

any

left

is then

winter

soil

second

September,
union

this

the

so

to

union

the

around

removed.

mature,

covered

unfavorable

season,

from

formed

barely

be
and

dry

entirely

removed

harden

to

will

roots.

may

union

the

up,

union

of

growth

to

first year.

the

moderate,

case

have

The

union

the

soil must

some

from

suckers

the

is unnecessary,
staking the first year
In these
slight advantages.
no
pruning of
cases,
until the winter
the
is necessary
following
cept
planting, ex-

kind

stocks

planted with

are

case

what

with

cuttings and

growt.h will
though it has
any

last

growing season."
will depend
on

summer

and

grafts

the

337

TRAINING

union.

the

cover

AND

without

posed
ex-

injury.

kept upright it will be easy to produce a wellIn many

vine.
formed
cases
no
disbudding, thinning of shoots, or
The
object is to have as abundant
topping need be done.
growth
a
of foliage as possible in order
abundant
and
to stimulate
vigorous
a
main

If the

shoot

is

(21?,, a).

development

root

vigorous varieties

of

vines

rooted

other

In

where

cases,

in rich

planted

are

abundantly
early in order

the vine
water, it is desirable to disbud
all its energies into the single main
cane.
before
just after planting is necessary,
or

supplied with
to

throw

staking
similar

to

First

250.
an

the

described

those

winter

pruning."
vine

good

average

longest of which

the

for

At

will

have

will be

second

season

the end

of the

In

such

cases

methods

and
used.

are

first

from

produced

good,

very

soil

growing

three

to

season,

five

canes,

after the leaves

long. Soon
have
fallen in December
be
or
early in January the vines should
The
method
is
similar
that
for
used
rooted
to
pruned.
precisely
vines before
that the main
touched.
roots
planting except
not
are
All

the

canes

matured,

only,
shallow

two

at

except
least at
of

eyes
roots

in the

root-cutting. Some
large growth

may

of

base,

or

vines

This

should

and

the

of
if any

may
possess

cane

also

escaped

made

well

be

welt-formed

surface.

have

have

should

one

have

It is well

inches
vines

which

sometimes

feet

saved.

are

grafted

removed.

are

the

which

within
case

one

to

an

large

to

cut

This
the

eyes

off
is

all

essary
nec-

summer

exceptionally
enough

from

338

PRINCIPLES

which

to

winter

pruning.

the trunk

start

Staking.

251.

should

be

buds.

In

order

should

be

driven

or

even

stake

so

FIG.
a,

the

after

soon

-to
on

preserve

the

inches.

described

way

been

not

pruning
the

OK

If driven

staked
before

and

alignment

side of

same

later

of

every

vine

for

the

before, the stakes

starting of the
the vineyard, they
at

uniform

injure large

closer

main

not
on

been

tance
disroots
fully
care-

which

the

of preposition of the stake should

always be the leeward
vailing
winds
the
That
during
growing season.
is, the stake should
it instead
placed that the wind will press the vine toward
of

284"

Winter

the second

the

they may
if the vines have
underground stem
the side
planted vertically or slanting toward
is to be placed.

The
be

in

1'KACTICK

If the vines have

"

driven

of about

AND

TREATMENT

OF

pruning;
(W)

shoots

from
upright and

away

it.

AN

b, spring
;

c,

This

attached

AVERAGE

pruning

"

treatment

summer

"

of

tying

suckers
to

stake

SEASON

SECOND

DURING

VINE
removal

(S)
and

and

thinning

will
to

of

topping.

of keeping the
facilitate the work
the stake.
If the vine is on
the other

vine
side

the pressure
of the wind
will stretch the string tight and the swaying
of the vine will gradually wear
it until it breaks, necessitating

retying. By carefully observing this rule, very few vines will

if weak
material
like binding twine
is used.
retying even
252.

Second

quire
re-

pruning." Before
the starting of the buds, in
of the vines appear
spring following the planting, most
about
the same
when
There
as
planted.
they were
is, however,
a
very
notable
in the
difference; they have well-developed root
systems
the

summer

PRUNING

GRAPE

339

TRAINING

AND

formed.
The result is they make
more
a much
they were
and early start and will produce a much
larger growth than
prompt
the
Hence
the first season.
they require very careful attention from
Vines
of
the
the
and
second
summer
season.
spring
during
pruner
make
as
large a growth,
neglected at this time, in this respect, may

soil where

but

it will

large part of

framework

and
handled

properly
vines, the

the

wasted,

be

vines

will

misformed

be

develop a suitable
years
them
into
to
bearing, even
though they are
bring
The
more
during subsequent years.
vigorous the
it
them
is
handle
to
properly
during this
necessary

require

it will

and

more

longer

two

to

one

to

period.
a

The
main object during this second
growing
single,strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane

the

permanent

the
as

trunk

of

buds

off with

rubbing
and

vine
when

or

inches, the

few

start,

best

the

vines

leave
make

an

this

After

they

receive

have

grown

than

disbudding, the
energies
to

shoots

the

left will

shoots
the

root

inches, they should

15

broken

vigorous of
upright
of injuring

tied

the

shoots

should

off

Only

be

tied

be

this is done, they are

likely to be
their
succulent
to
texture.
soft,
owing

the

the

to

will

it grows,

rapidly, as
longest

grow

to

best.

It is better

When

system.

in

largest

two

usually

are

straight vine.
shoot
which, when
stem.
underground

two

of

except

shoots

consists

the

with

all the
10

make

This

disbudded.

be
and

upright

will

crook

awkward

should

lowest

only those which

less-developed buds

Leave

form

to

is done

This

all buds

hand

The

placed.

develop

which

by concentrating all
As soon
into the growth of a single shoot.
the most
precocious has developed a shoot
vine.

the

of

the

of

energies
the

is to

season

from

the

the

less
Un-

stake.

by any heavy wind,

best placed and most

If this shoot

is growing
without
danger
any
it. In this case
the second
shoot
If
should be removed.
in tying it to the stake it may
jured.
inthe shoot has to be bent over
be
In such
the second
shoot
should be allowed
a
to grow
case
whether
until it is known
the first has
of
been
injured. In case
the
shoot
the
second
tied
be
the
time
vines
next
injury
are
may
up
visited and the injured shoot removed.
At

the

stake, this

the

reserved

of

up

since

the

the

up.

be

can

done

shoots, all

first disbudding

should

easily injured the shoots

being brought around
carefully to

soft

after

near

tying

developed
are

two

and

and

new

shoots

be

removed.

should
the

be

tied

windward

which

have

As

they
loosely

up

side

the

of

stake.
will

They

foot
inches

from

If

vines

the

require tying
18

or

inches.

the top of
have

needed

may

heavy

and

until

make

is very

the

stake

may

the
cane

only

are

needed

be

they have
ties,one

two

other

the
to

be

at

headed

about
very

grown
at

the

other
an-

or

middle.

high,

other
an-

later.

other
pruning
growth, no
ever,
Exceptionally vigorous vines, how-

moderate

winter.
8, 10 or
break

likely to

then

and

and

be

when

more

will

tall stake

tying higher up
With
vines
making
will be

once

There

more

the

feet
cords

Such
is
a
cane
long.
which
is
it
attached
by

340

PRINCIPLES

the

to

will

stake.

form

either
for

the

this

crook

of

commencement

it will be

it may

case

it is difficult to
the ties do not

case

when

Even

Tn

awkward

an

PRACTICE

AND

impossible

off at the hottom, or at least

it matures.
In
ground when
trunk
the
good
following year.

break

the

near

form

will not
break, the cane
trunk, as the joints will

leave

to

PRUNING

OF

long that

so

well-placed buds

enough

suited

well

be
be

the

at

winter

pruning.
Both
these difficulties are
avoided
such
by timelv topping. When
have
inches
vigorously growing canes
12 or
18
above
the top
grown
of the stake
This
they are cut back about level with the stake.
is
most
conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or a piece of split
After
bamboo.
in length and
topping, the cane
to
ceases
grow
laterals start
of the joints. It is less
at
most

exposed

the

to

action

of

the

supply the buds needed

the winter
pruning.
The

result

is

then,
with
is

without

or

into

vine.

It

but

must

be

must

allowed
frost

to

forming

This

is the

late

in

the

frost

from

they

vines

when

from

sucker

This
with

Letters

HI

cuts

into

the

moisture

out

earlier.

which
should
very

wood

matured

promote

the

be

avoided.

moist,
or

grow

drying

of

the

crops

In

between
cases

some

for the

same

soil in

should

Cultivation

is

This

frost.

before

vines

young

an

the

as

The

even

than

occur

old

vines

energies
they produce
more

be

accomplished
Late

are
a

upon

dries

therefore

must

autumn.

prevented
by means
irrigations

usually stop by midsurmrer.

advantage
rows

it is good

purpose.

however,
it is

their

soil, which

the

the

and

renewed

frost

foliage they draw

of

of

be

likely to

old.

the

to

Un^rafted

autumn

more

because

crop,

of

rich soils it is often

similar

surplus moisture.
weeds

the

amount

possible, late growth

the

and

larger

bad

and
good
(253).

If

In

lines

and

earlier

down

sucker,

an

vine.

injury

to

vigor that

with

than

vines

growing

stop

directed

positions

indicate

such

is much

growth

late

entire

may

This

year.

with

grow

young

285

SPUR

next

much

will be wasted.

ground

liable to injury from

original shoot.

the

GRAPE

the

early

and

the

particularly
they are killed
completely ruined.
to

is

vine
an

cane

if

as

are

kill

vigorous,
the

liable

killed

likely to

more

FIG.

are

this cause,

union

is

may

vines

Grafted

indeed

the

of

season,

destroy the unmatured

of the results of the year's growth
a

and
If

may

Such

at

which

cane

trunk

permanent
only be large

properly matured.

grow

vine

growth,
single vigorous cane

too

laterals

the

season's

the

not

the

and

second

laterals.

develop

to

the

of

produce

to

wind

for

of

to

vines

grow
to

flowers
sun-

corn,

take

off

practice to let the

the

mer
sum-

GRAPE

winter

Second

253.

described

as

and

is very
which

pruning
single cane

the
which

it is desired
all

In

cases

is done

to

have

to

the

the

half-hitch

firmly.

If

the

will

vines
leaves

and

vines,

this upper
part except
result in a crook-necked
the

under

harmful,
half

about

the

leaves

usually

are

For

the

twine

into

cut

as
means

in the

not

the

the

be

wood.

They

usually sufficient
tied tight.

often

careful

simply

so

of

growth
pruned

the

bend

any

will

bud

top

in the

over

lower

vine.

mer
sum-

is

down

even

tie

second

is always
straight when
the
curving under
high-headed vines

necessary

is

as

pruned,
pressure

ties

three

the

of

many

tied up

vines

the

has

the

in the

to

not

be

pruned
must

sufficient

should

They

is

twine

therefore
make

pand
ex-

there

stakes
the

cannot

to

this

stakes

square

vines

may

is able

round

methods

The

tendency

cane

indicated.

way

it does

grow.

when

even

These

described.
of

large,

not

be

previous winter pruning,

and
taken
the
to
special care
develop a
during
following summer
each.
Vines
which
of
the
in
the
good cane
on
tying-up
development
is thus delayed a year will usually make
cane
vigorous growth
a very
the following summer.
result at the
be
topped. The
They must
with
will
be
laterals,
following winter
cane
pruning
vigorous
a
back

which
of

should

be

to

two

buds.

desired

to

cut

canes

to

All

mature

as

vines
of

cane

length will

This

height of
usually badly matured
to

buds,

two

pruned.

well-developed,

back
the

again

be

With

expansion,

pruner,

those

wire

as

placed so
especially with

and

for

does

than

better

removed,

not

the

be

loose.

be

Some

to

cane

thin

It holds

it is wound

material

should

room

modified.

be

which

softer

of

it grows.
With
that the tie must

However

will

particularlysuitable.
Even
though it is

is

wear.

is

quite

For

spring.

part around

ties should

lower

below

left,

heas'y

around

ground

cane

it from

keep

to

the

if the

made

very

not

necessary.

does
as

hitch
top

to

upper

Even

top tie, wire

and

harm,

no

the

wind

and

the

is held

vine

be

and

partly
tying. By

bud

must

to

as

way

intact

is
destroyed
hitch when
they become
of sap in the spring.

as

the

which

is left

the

hitches

or

facilitate

to

This

highest

internode

upper

foliage. A hitch
girdle and strangle the

cane.

tie is needed

second

of

from

way

straighten

to

flow

the

the

it will

as

of

the

the

vine,
of

treated

top bud.

diaphragm

internode,

node

internode.

weight

been

in such

the

principally

turns

no

This

of

pulled out
supple with

leave

to

the

above

is made

cut

this

the

at

be

the

tying

more

first bud

but

around

swelling

to

left above

be

must

This

bud,

have

happened, the second

simply in cutting back
the height at
to
grow

vine.

the

grow.

upper

making

In

the

bud

protect

many
with

allowed

(Fig. 285), but

swelling of the node.

the

of

head

to

which

has

It consists

been

cutting through

by

destroy

has

vines

accident

simple.

34 1

TRAINING

With

no

full internode

it is desired

part

pruning."
which

to

winter

AND

PRUNING

trunk
and

intermediate

because

with

at

the

which
the

have

length
usually be
the

not

desired

upper
buds.

at

made

should

least twice

part

of

the

It is bad

growth
be
that
cane

cut

of
is

imperfect
practice
lengths, as this results usually in crooked

342

PRINCIPLES

trunks

If

inevitablyto variations

and

different

PRACTICE

AND

PRUNING

OF

in

the

height of

heads

the

of

vines.

the

suckering, disbudding
there

neglected,

will

be

thinning of

and

than

shoots
the

have

been
In

this

be removed
and
placed must
like a single cane.
treated
Unfortunately the strongest is often
the best placed. In fact, if tying up during the summer
has
it
is
often
The
the worst
neglected
placed.
more
vigorous the
the more
likely is the position of the canes
to be defective.
is especiallytrue of grafts on
old vines, which
be treated
should
exceptionally vigorous vines during the second
growing season.

this

all but

case

the

Average

vine

with

two

removed

more

and

spurs;

next

cane

on

vine.

c,

vine

vigorous

three

with
vine

with

not

been
vine
This

like
In

PRUNING

AFTER

VINES

b, vigorous

season;

one

best

THREE-YEAR-OLD

286"

FIG.
a.

strongest

spurs,

three

lowest

the

to

be

spurs.

often
lying flat
are
of neglected vines, the best canes
these cases
skill
of the
It will require all the ingenuity and
the ground.
on
less erect
into a more
or
to get them
pruner
vines.
will result in crooked, misshapen

By removing
can

often

worst

cases

to

soil from

around

the

base
bend

of

the

will

vine

then

be

the

they
cane

leas
In the

easily and the

it is less harmful.
underground stem, where
It is then
IH-C
raise
to
cane.
a
be
impossible
it may
and
to
old
wood
develop
the
back
to
cut all the canes
be

raised

partiallyin the
essary

the

best

position. At

more

at

344

PRINCIPLES

fruit buds

OF

PRACTICE

AND

PRUNING

should

to the
tons
give about 24 pounds, or about seven
of spurs
number
are
planted 12 by 6 feet. The
will give the rewill depend on
the length. Six of two
buds
each
quired
the
where
number, but
canes
are
exceptionally vigorous they
of
smaller
should
number
be left a little longer, in which
case
a

if the

acre,

vines

will suffice.

spurs

When

the

number

canes' should

length of

and

chosen

be

which

the

will

spurs

leave

decided

are

these

spurs

the

on,

in

the

most

position will depend on

whether
vase-form
In the first
want
a
or
a
fan-shaped vine.
we
choose
those
which
will distribute
the spurs
most
we
evenly
case,
and
cross
or
symmetrically on all sides, avoiding any which
point
in
the
which
the
downwards
those
in
rection
disecond, only
canes
run
;
the
of the trellis,avoiding canes
which
stick out
between
this
in
Downward
be
used
pointing canes
rows.
case.
may
It is comparatively easy properly to shape vines which
make
only
moderate
On
the other
growth during the first three seasons.
a
vigorous vines may
finally be brought into practically
hand, very
The
wounds
somewhat
numerous
larger and more
perfect shape.
vine.
healed
are
more
easily
a
vigorous
by
necessary
256.
who
Pruning after the third winter." For the pruner
stands
underthe pruning of young
vines and has brought them
to approximately
the desired
form, the subsequent winter
pruning is very
It
idea
the distinction between
simple.
involves, however, one
new
suitable

position for

forming

This

arms.

"

sterile wood.

fruit and

Up

the

to

first, because
the

because

pruning, this distinction

this time
At

made.

spurs

of

sterile wood

spurs

the

following

winter

sterile wood

long

too

must

be

be

fully
care-

be

must

vigor of
leave

to

necessary

of

fruit

of

number

third

spurs,

the
well

as

Second,
be

must

placed
most

on

left to

or

are

be

must

process

same

followed.

possible, must

as

be

vines, supplementary

left
spurs

where
arms
supply more
they are
has
full complement
of arms
veloped,
dehave
become
replace those which

defective.

otherwise

it is difficult to find water

sprouts in suitable positions
This
be
due
of the vines,
to_ weakness
spurs.
may
have
fruit
the
and
able to develop shoots on
only
spurs

replacing

which
no

it may

spurs,

the
finally,when
to
arms
supply new

Sometimes
for

be

to

and

needed,

choice

of
fruit wood
spurs
the size and
expected from

permit of increasing the

the

to

of

second,

the

controls

distinction

necessary;

and

pruning

fruit

to

not

wood,

year.

after

First, enough fruit

produce the crop.

to

is

fruit

vine
this

however,

on,

winter

each

left to produce the crop

Besides
the vine.
these

Each

is

practically all the wood

necessity of forming the

From

wood.

winter

third

are

surplus vigor

This

long, and
spurs.
wood

at

This
near

the

force

to

difficulty
may

be

time

same

will tend
the

base

met

to

of

by shorter
weak,

force
the

dormant

out

arm.

buds

it should

water

be

sprouts

Their

the

on

If

pruning.

pruned
to

absence

start
at

older
arm

an

to

extra

from

the

wood
i

the

winter

short
older
prim-

GRAPE

PRUNING

AND

345

TRAINING

also be due
the water
to
removed
ing may
having been
sprouts
When
water
of
removed
the need
are
during the summer.
sprouts
should
always be kept in mind, and one
replacing wood
vigorous,
the base of every
well-placed water
sprout left near
long arm.
vines."

Fan-shaped

257.

the

With

winter

pruning
At
height of the head.
second

the

of

formation
whether

it

the

head

shall

winter

be

four, five,
in

eyes

vine

be

for

except
winter

the

variations

given

more

At

third

the

More

spurs.

but

spurs,

in
the

determines

pruner

fan-shaped.
pruned to two

or

be

to

up

pruning, however,
the

and

treatment

the

spurs

cases.

order

tain
ob-

to

fruit, which

some

might

should

vines, the

even

or

some

is in

This

third

commences,

pruning,
not
vigorous vines should
should
be
made
longer,
six

same

the

vase-formed

the

with

headed

is the

obtained

be

not

from

rieties
long pruning vaby leaving many
With
extremely
spurs.
fruit
vines
one
vigorous
cane

be

may

left at

this

wires

of

The

pruning.

trellis should

the

this

up

year,

be

put

if this

has

already been

not

258.

Double-h

vines.

to

of

arms

Some

"

attempt

stages,

other,

two-

or

The

vines.

applied

vase-formed

trellised

The

above

one

forming

is

method

is

in

vines

double-headed
crowned

the

to

and

It is open

vines.

criticisms

same

vertical

the

the

arrange

two

both

growers

their

the

to

done.

as

cordon.

chief of these is that

FIG.

it cannot

be

finally

becomes

fails
and

easier

to

to

vertical

fruit

renewal

and

canes

canes

and

renewal

spurs;

bt bowed

spurs

weak

produce wood.
has

a,

TRAINING

HEAD

GRAPEVINE

OF

FORMS

permanently. The lower

head
or
ring of arms
and

288

maintained

some

It is easier to

advantages,

the

maintain

chief

of

keep the vine in the single plane and

ting into the inter-rows.

yards
in trellised vine-

which
to

is that

prevent

arms

it is
getr

346

PRINCIPLES

Vertical

259.
in

AND

bowed

and

PRACTICE

OF

This

canes."

is

PRUNING

method

unit of pruning is
vineyards. The
just described, consisting of a fruit

many

method

used

the

same

in

as

and

cane

commonly
the

renewal

The

of the vine consists

framework
of a trunk
of medium
with
head consisting of three or
vase-formed
four
height,
a
arms.
The
have
defects of this system
been
pointed out
(246). In the
hands
of skillful pruners
it is used
with
fair success
with
seedless
with
and
wine
Sultanas
such
some
as
Colombar, Semillon,
grapes
Cabernet
and
with
results
Sultanina
Reisling. The
are
satisfactory.
unvery
of the vines, the fruit canes
By this method, on most
from
start
the middle
of the stake, and
high up near
therefore
are
for the best results.
short
too
low
which
The
from
start
canes
spur.

down

most
are
in
cases
suckers, and therefore of little value for
bearing.
vine with bowed
Figure 288 b shows
The
of
a
method
canes.
in the method
is
The
exactly the same
as
just described.
pruning
of the defects of
bowing of the canes,
however, overcomes
some
It is used
that method.
in
wine
regularly
vineyards
many
grape
of the cooler
for very
regions. It is unsuited
vigorous vines in

fruit

rich soil.
Vertical

260.

cordons."

In

head
of young
pruning, the treatment
third winter pruning is identical for all
In cordon
for the first and
second
systems.
pruning the treatment
also
the
That
is
is
the
back to two
is, the vine
same.
cut
buds near
vines

level

the

ol

formation

1 to

2,

and

more

to

as

or

until

the trunk

vertical
in head

is to

give the necessary

At
developed buds.

y/2 feet

to

be

often

necessary

first winter

the
to

at

say,

have

will not

second

to

for

serve

the

long instead of
have a longer
require a year longer
the

to

season's

second

single cane
developed
sufficiently
and
of well-ripened wood
properly
winter
pruning, therefore, it will

the

cut

It may
the end
of

with.

start

to

cane

vines

many

long
sufficiently

cane

is 3 to 4 feet
the trunk
it necessary
makes
This
pruning.

That

this.

is obtained.

cordon

vigorous

obtain

growth

second

ground

of

the

Tn

the

to

up

vine

back

buds,

two

to

as

at

the

pruning.

vine
The
obtained.
winter
for the second
then
be formed
as
may
This
is
left
the
that
longer.
cane
vines, except
pruning of headed
is
vine
When
pruned spurs
s.uch a
is then tied to the stake.
cane

Finally,a

cane

of

required length will

already described

the

be

is a fruit
of these spurs
Each
left at intervals
along the trunk.
The
future treatment
of an arm.
and is also the commencement
spur
in
the
of
head
that
pruning.
arms
the
is
of these arms
as
same
three
cordons."
Horizontal
261.
or
years,
During the first two
are

vines
as

to

for

be

given the

vertical

of

form

cordons,

that

cordons

horizontal

is, they

are

pruned

are

treated

back
into

to

two

exactly
buds

a
single cane
the growth forced
by disbudding
the
of
required
cane
As
well-ripened
a
as
soon
during
along
stretched
is
wire
it
tied
to
horizontally
is
a
obtained,
length

each

winter
the

the

row

at

and

summer.

from

15

to

24

inches

from

the

ground.

GRAPE

this

For

apart

of

trunk

or

cane

vine.
be

The

used

taken

to

not

The

shape
single cane.

best
a

in the

the

wire, it

should

break

to

be

must

injure

or

be

vine, it

next

12

is obtained

when

the cordon

will
the

reach

at

bent
it.

least

from

the

the

trunk.

in

over

Sharp

half

have

is all

ends

end

of
In

gentle

should

times
some-

case,

the

to

this

next

should

attaching
and

curve

be

to

trunk

way

feet

14

to

As

rows.

It is necessary,
however,
formation
of the trunk.
In any

for the

years
down

should

rows

apart

reach

347

TRAINING

cane
following year a new
complete the full length of

the

to

cane

two

first tied

the

feet

or

should

from

year

take

to

the

The

long.

one

6,

vine

each

feet

to

formed

vines

AND

pruning,

of

system

the

and

PRUNING

the

care

avoided.

be

placed on top of the wire, not twisted around it.

end
be tied firmly and the rest of the cane
supported by
the cane
strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when
grows.
In the following spring, most
will
of the buds
on
a
good cane
If the cane
is short jointed, some
should
be
of the shoots
start.
should

cane

The

be

should

FIG.

289"

TREATMENT

OF

AVERAGE

VINE

ONE
a,

Vine

pruned

to

one

shoots

removed

and

in

few
the

the

inches
arms

for

beyond
should

be

the

c,

stake; b, removal

to

vine

shoots
be

bend

in

farther

at

summer

allowed

to

the

apart,

every

VIGOROUS

OR

to

suckers

20

(S)
pinching.

of

develop which
8

vines
to

end.

extreme
12

of
time

If the

arms.

developed
to

SEASON

THIRD

SECOND

permanent

should

arms

tied

spring;

only those

situated

pruned,

and

cane

(W)

IN

IN

inches.

12

For

are

and

are

to

inches

be

lower

veniently
con-

short

from

long pruning,
Shoots

starting

348

PRINCIPLES

the

from

top of

PRACTICE

AND

the

growing

and

cane

OF

PRUNING

verticallyupwards

be

to

are

preferred.
As

the

shoots

develop,

the

should

strongest

be

pinched repeatedly,

if necessary.
This will tend to force the growth of the weaker
to
and
equalize the vigor of all. At the end of the season,
of full
should
be from
5 to 10 canes
growing on each cordon
These

canes

longer

for

then

are

pruned

back

to

two

or

three

buds,

shoots
there

length.

or

little

long-pruned varieties.

the vines
should
be
During the following spring and
summer,
and
removed.
water
carefully suckered
Any
sprouts
unnecessary
the lower
should
side of the cordon
be removed
shoots coming from
the
in
the
shoots
the
side.
growth
on
early to strengthen
upper
At
Such
vines are
side.
dry or decayed on the upper
apt to become
fifth year
the end
of the fourth
from
or
planting at the latest, the
will be fully formed
the final style of pruning may
be
cordon
and
applied.
262.
Renovation
of imperfect
or
The
misshapen vines.
pruner
who
with
the begindefinite ideas properly handles
his vines from
ning
in
them
into
the
most
bring
required shape with
can,
cases,
he
has
vines
Often, perhaps usually,
to deal with
comparative ease.
less serious fault.
which
have
more
some
or
They^ may be misshapen
imperfect owing to mechanical
owing to defective pruning, or otherwise
the
result
of
insect
If
frost, fungi, or
injuries,or as
pests.
"

the vines

given

As

are

overcome

may

them

form

proper

the

become

defects

of

by removing

often

can

be

the

and

overcome

vine

easily.

very

vines

older, it becomes

increasinglydifficult

The

disadvantage
by gradually lengthening the

formation.

be in part avoided
vertical
a
more

where

defects

the

young,

direction.

ill-formed

An

badly placed

and

arms

of

and

arms

head

low

developing

giving
be

may
new

to

head
proved
imarms

needed.

defective that littleimproveold vines are

of many
ment
so
It is possible and occasionally
be obtained
can
by these means.
the trunks of such vines.
This may
profitablecompletely to renew
The

trunks

be

done

at

or

by developing

below

the

surface

trunk

new

the

of

from

ground

and

originating
strong cane
the
then cutting away

old trunk.
But

leaves

whicti

this method
a

large

wound

defect as the grafting of old vines

has the same
the old stump
w"nm"l
where
removed,
was
a

which

of
the entrance
finally allows
wood-rot
last as long as
fungi. Such renewed
vines, however, may
if the old decayed trunk
had
been
left, perhaps longer. They will
also be more
fruitful
easier to handle
and
properly. The change
be
the
loss
of
in grafting. If
without
made
occurs
as
a
may
crop,
the stumps
of sawing them
off is considerable,
are
large, the expense
263.

may

heal

never

Choice

of

and

system.
carefully the characteristics
A

variety which

bears

only

Jn

"

choosing a system, we
particularvariety we

of the
on

the

upper

buds

must

must
are

be pruned

considi-r

growing.
"Ion-."

GRAPE

AND

PRUNING

be given fruit canes.

is, must
varieties,such as Petite Sirah, which

that
when

grafted
their

on

principal

Vines

respect.

and

thorough
the

will

fruit

grapes

two

to

pruning

under

the

or

290"
with

the

poor

Vines

hillside.

accordingly

of

to

the

acre.

OF

or

conditions

modified
vines

in

larger

bear

berries

and

in

The

PRUNING

HEAD

rich
size

small

too

various

and

for

OF

GRAPES

the

varieties.

quarter

cover

trunk;

medium

when

c,

of

an

half-long

trunk.

not

valley
to

It

pounds.

crops

reach

shape
the

soil will
of

available

Zinfandel

in circumference.

would

adapted

with

pruning
medium

feet

size

This

may

and

trunk; b, spur
with
pruning

trunk

same

time.
a

FORMS

high

develop

same
on

vine

canes.

with

and

than

three

of development
much
possibilities
vary
be
Flame
made
to
or
Tokay may

vine

the

grafted

importance.

be

acre

in

of

Mission

Spur

vines

affect the

also

may

FIG.
a,

be

to

seems

Muscat

bunches
are
variety whose
Spurs will not furnish
them
the
inconveniently. On

from
fruit

crowding

shipping

long, but the bunches

quality.

The

pound

of

use

without

some

is also

full crop

the

buds

hand,

of

pruned

of

conditions

bunch

the

of

obtain

without

small

best

many

pruning

soil,abundant
vigorous by
moisture,
vines
require longer pruning than weaker

one-quarter

is difficult to

enough

short

rich

made

size

from

vary

other

This

failure

cultural

cultivation

normal

very

that

noted

with

variety.

same

The

themselves.

frequent

The

stock.

this
of

the

for

reason

resistant

on

be

bear

roots

ungrafted.
and
quickly exhaust

overbear

will

In

roots.

own

than

should

It

when
require fruit canes
growing
vines
shorter
require
general, grafted
ing
prunIf pruned
the same,
the grafted
vines
may

resistant

on

349

TRAINING,

tenth
grow

the
room

of
much

trunk

this size

larger
must

or

number

be

350

AND

PRINCIPLES

The

shape

from

such

be

must

various

PRACTICE

protect

to

as

the

conditions.

unfavorable

PRUNING

OF

vine

much

as

variety

as

Carigfoliage are

fruit and
be pruned
susceptible to oidium, must
so
light and air
to
unduly massed
together. Free exposure
in
The
is
for varieties
this
true
same
great protection
respect.
which
the Muscat,
have
if the blossoms
a
tendency to "coulure"
moist
In frosty locations,a high trunk
will be a
shaded.
too
or
the air is always colder
close to the ground.
as
nane,

not

in the

qualitiesrequired

The

pruning system.
flavor

desirable.

are

with

Even

These

also influence

crop

wine

grapes,

obtained

are

uniform

sible
pos-

like the

choice

our

is

like
are

tection,
pro-

of

perfect ripening and

by having the grapes
to it as
as
near
possible.
full

best

the ground
and
height from
with
the addition
qualitiesare desirable in raisin grapes,
of large size of the berries.
With
the size and
shipping grapes,
essential
acteristics
charthe most
perfection of the berries and bunches
are
at

The

same

The
bunch
and

vine, therefore,

hangs
equally exposed

clear, free
to

from

light

should

injurious
and

be

so

contact

that

formed
with

canes

each
soil

or

air.

The

in crop
maximum
the early bearing of
returns
depend on
the
vines
of
of
the
and
mature
vines,
regularity
bearing
young
of
the
These
careful
attention
insured
longevity
vineyard.
are
by
all the details of pruning, but are
to
the vines
possible only when
given a suitable form.
are

The

of a vineyard depend in a ja^reatmeasure

running expenses
on
form
of
of
Vines
suitable
cultivated,
style
are
pruning adopted.
pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. This depends also

the

both

on

the

form

of

vine adopted

and

on

care

in details.

It is

impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety or

particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. All
any
that can
of the variety
be done
is to give the general characteristics
and
indicate
how
these
to
be modified
by grafting, soil or
may
other
climatic or
conditions.
The
most
important characteristics
of the variety in making
is whether
it
choice of a pruning system
a
normally or usually requires short, half-long, or long pruning. With
this idea, the principal grapes
all
in California, together with
grown
those
station
which
the
have
exist,
data
at
on
experiment
grown
been
divided
into five groups
in the following list :
/.

Varieties

which

require

long

pruning

all conditions.

under

'and Black, Seedless

White
Clairette Blanche, Corinth
tanina White
Rose.
and
Seedless)
(Thompson's

Sultana,

"

Sul-

B""al
usually require loin/ pruning. Bastardo,
Crabbe's
Gris and Noir, Colombar,
de Madeira,
Chardonay, Chauche
Black
Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsannc,
Muscaclelle
de
Marzemino,
Merlot, Meunier,
Bordelais, Nebbiok),
Robin
Noir, Rulander.
Pagadebito, Peverella, Pinots, Rieslings,
Sauvignon Blanc, Semillon, Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancatnenca, Su-inschiller,Tinta Cao, Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, TV-tit Vordot, Walchriesling.
2.

Varieties

which

"

352

PRINCIPLES

it appears

PRACTICE

AND

unnecessarily vigorous,

should

PRUNING

OF

fruit
longer spurs
or
itself.
It is
judged by
for the pruning of
general directions

left.

vine

more

or

should

be

be
Every
than
possible to give more
the whole
be well pruned
the men
unless
who
vineyard. It cannot
sufficient
do the actual
of
to
pruning are
capable
using
judgment
modify their methods
properly for each individual vine.
canes

not

264.

houses

the
back

to

two

foot

and
is

former

back

spring.

Since

and

there

No

inches
from

crop

As

older

not

This

bottom

to

the

older
than

more

sets

and

in, when

to

on

the

the

top

each

second

remaining
favors

to

ones

develop
lateral
be

may

this

on

each

on

foot

distribution

even

house

of the

of

or

the

top.
be

may

gathered

clusterand

the

the

second

laterals

season

should

carry

bepinched (217.21^

should

nodes

two

lowed
is al-

shoot

beyond the cluster. The sub-laterals

two
or
be pinched when
they have developed one
Just before winter the terminal shoot should be cut
at

than

less

fills out

winter

covered

part of the vine

one

then

cane

trained

cane

apart.

tached
at-

in vogue,
pruning are
The
or
long rod system.
popular.
the top of
the tip reaches

fruit is allowed

the

so

partial crop

from

the

pinched.
the

brackets
not

strongest

cut

ground until
the buds
they should be kept out
tied
second
are
spring the canes

shoot

On

be

will

till the

and

eat

In

is removed

side
15

mice

walls,

outer

iron

to

side
in-

of

The

buds

leader

the

shoot.

when

two-thirds

house.

and

up

more

in lateral

it is cut

of the

the

cane

it is" pinched.

food

stores

long

tied

the

systems

system,

spur

house

the

the

perhaps

the

In

Two

the

trunks

glass. Only

grow.

spur

and

the

so

from

two

or

buds

rafters

the

from
to

three

or

is

"

foot

the

to

the

glass. Only the European grape

glass. Two-year-old vines are planted

under

grown

under

Grapes

should
U

a\

es,

about

bud, close to the main

the side ones, all but one
(often within the first quarter inch) and the vines

half way,
stem

covered
In

before.

as

the

third

the

season

laterals

the

being

pruning
allowed

and
to

bear

pinching
about

are

peated,
re-

pound

GRAPE

of

the

to

grapes

reached

is

laterals
the

while
vine

be

the

of

there

is

laterals

risk

and

done

from

and

glass

sub-

be

pinchings

watch

of

before

should

the

bear

sour

work

all

lady's

system

cane

the

this

base

as

may

failing

be
and

first

the

close

cut

the

the

to

new

plant

vet

not

one

is

In

late

ground
laid

end

from

it

the

as

is

to

danger

more

autumn

if

down

older

an

Laterals

system.

spur

the

fruit

there

veloped
de-

annually

replace

to

bear
but

year,

is

cane

may

system.

spur

new

the

of

in

than
in

vines
its

cane

breakage

pinched

be

that

Well-established

one.

cane

in

placed

long
from

of

This

ing
hav-

may

turn

the

success.

trunk

vines

grapes

the

year

it!
In

end

the

small

main

but

foot,

pinching

so

this

Mature

the

to

to

are

the

house.

Frequent

tips

After

laterals,

the

353

TRAINING

cane.

having

essential

could

fill

of

and

ripe.

getting

the

grapes

this

overdoing

main

of

top

of

AND

of

that

the

pounds

two

foot

is

pruning

only

PRUNING

thought
already

are

older
to

scribed.
de-

CHAPTER

PRUNING

ORNAMENTAL

265.

Shade

trees

rarely

"

and

planted

are

high

too

or

SHRUBS

with

apply

shade

of

themselves

hand

every

load
these

shade

of

score

of

campus

with

will

break

gained

them

of this
the

little

lead

campus

has

been

which

trees

The

time

will
of

One

down

several

trees

many

such

storm

decay

that

formed

or

then

shows

94
the

after

the

on

and

another
of

of

Several

College.

cracks

storms

maples,

activity

on

has
tended
ex-

acteristic
char-

storm.

The

broken

parts

ruined.

shade

incurred

if

broke

just

shortening

adoption

winter

seriously

that

dead,

of

removal

inspection
the

to

the

the

the

pruning.

annual

an

tree

branches,

hanging
very

on

occasional

the

of

will

development

ice.

splitting. Figure

previous

view

and

because

The

trees

of

broken

severely

so

through

from

Beyond

thus

(Fig.

faults.

fruit

when

State

that

result

neglect apparent

coatings
less

or

They

ground

the

principally Norway

were

entrance

beauty

heavy

Pennsylvania

cracked

were

noticeable

more

trees,

the

of
to

of

deserve.

other

or

spicuous
incon-

are

the

heads

the

TREES

the

near

results

with

Y-crotches

others

The

recently

storms

too

modification

especially

branches

with

irregular

form

to

less

or

are

the

limbs
too

or

heads.

tree

they

left

up,

more

attention

the

principles used

same

flowers

receive
to

AND

whose

those

"

Y-crotches,

they develop
292)

XV

dying

of

too

and

rampant

required

be

well

to

be

for

will

that

might

give

spent,

measures

demand

started

properly

1""\\

too

or

the

tree-

should

it

juries
in-

prevent
and

ineffective

ex

pensive.
266.
kind

form,

A
of

good

hedge

plant, the

the

depends

thickness

of

for
the

regular periodic attention

354

its

success

planting,
and,

to

upon

the
a

the

choice

less

extent.

of

ORNAMENTAL

PRUNING

the environmental

SIIRUP.S

factors, such

AND

355

TREES

soil, climate,

as

less
Un-

etc.

adapted to the style of training, unless a

unless
sufficient number
of plants be properly set, and
the necessary
periodic attention be given, the hedge will
the

be

plant

more

be

less

or

eyesore.

gruesome

erect-growing species
trying to make
in trying to force
of plants develop flat-toppedhedges nor
erect
style of
plants that normally spread to adopt an
be to apshould
The
rule in all hedge growing
growth.
proach
of the
form
as
nearly as possible the natural
of thinking the hedge that
plant. To the author's
way
that will
the least pruning attention
is the one
demands
give most
pleasure.
The
Japanese barberry is most
nearly ideal for a hedge
vitae for those 10 to 20 feet ;
up to 6 or 8 feet high ; arbor
and
hemlock
for taller ones.
and Norway
When
spruce
allowed
these
of them,
to grow
are
naturally they, none
than
the shortening of occasional,
attention
require more
is

There

use

no

branches

rampant
forms

; but

they give

when

end

no

forced

of

to

unnatural

assume

trouble, besides

being

sightly.
un-

and
in height,
hedge is kept uniform
even
thickness
and
its beauty will be impaired.
development
the plants must
To attain this development
be set very
closely and be pruned intelligentlyseveral times a year
in winter
and
three
times
two
once
or
during the growing
Unless

"

When

season.

start, very
The
habit

form

definite

little

pruning
adapted

best

is that
of the

of

an

must
to

inverted
and

form
be

plants
V

with

is decided

done
of

at

upon
any

more

or

perhaps

at

the

one

time.

less

erect

tening
slight flat-

bulging of the sides. The reason

is that such
form
the
a
permits all of the branches, even
in the inverted
lowest, an opportunity to secure
light,whereas
U and the erect-sided, flat-topped styles the lower
branches
become
older.
shaded
the plants grow
more
as
The
result is that the lower
limbs
of such
hedges die and
thus
of the whole
seriously injure the appearance
place.
apex

356

PRINCIPLES

No

hedge

only

AND

will

PRACTICE

continue

pruning a year,
will develop a heavy growth
a frightened, ragged
appearance,
and

one

is followed
harder

to

winter

pruning

FIG.

291"

Notice,
of

the

new

leaves

and

make

HORSE

1, that

the

annual
terminal

growth
cluster

which

the

be

the

of

indicates

rings
of

has

growth
at

bloom

the

been

bottom

give the hedge

longer this practice
and

addition
be

BLOOM

that

buds.

In

BUD

near

in

of

the

picture;

the
the

in

EXPANDING

slightly changed
borne

to

sheared

fruit

was

on

Shoots

results

should

CO-TERMINAL

scar

winter.

will

and

thrive

to

or

in the

growths

new

direction
where

well

correction.

proper

the

that

will

worse

CHESTNUT

the

growth
2, the

season;

the

look

to

PRUNING

OF

the
a

3, the

base

previous

opposite

PRUNING

two

summer

In

times

three

or

demand

to

seems

SHRUB^

ORNAMENTAL

going
they make

hedges

are

fences, mainly because

soil and

the

upon

still

best

get

method

the
in

to

plants

the

fashion

stock

as

many

injurious

fruit trees.

to

the plants

purposes,

them

through.

get

from

results

development

demands
unnecessary
of them
(osage orange

of insects

make

to

as

difficult

To

of

out

planted for such

pleached while

pliable so

more

their

still

sometimes

are

because

breeders

especially) are
Where
they are

whenever

357

TREES

attention.

such

America

AND

this

are

set

soil and

the

liquely
ob-

mary
pri-

at
compelled to grow
angle usuallyabout45destems

this

"

The

grees.

develop
either

which

allowed

to

bear

them
erect

grow

right angles

In

be

right angles

at

stems

at

then

may

either

that

shoots

new

"

trained
the

to

be

or

is,

that

level ground.

to

the

secondary
branches
cross
originalstems
and form
a mesh, more
especially
the bottom,
near
through which
force their way.
even
pigs cannot
Perhaps the honey locust is the
most
popular plant for this kind
of hedge.
case

the

267.

Ornamental
shrubs

the

shrubs
and

formation

time, preferably
wounds
made

heal
in fall

for form

parts

so

is
as

better
or

to
to

in

trees

of

Each
should

trees.

for other

restrain
the

All
the
bush

too

of

the

cut,
with

three

LOW

lowest

traffic

than
be

done

in

growth

symmetrical.

mental
orna-

to

mote
pro-

at

any

since
than

season

Such

will

later.

summer,

is necessary

limbs

they

because

Pruning

"

may

rampant

TREE

TOO

purposes

beds

that

SHADE

be

interfere

and

flower

292"

HEADED

early spring or early

during the growing

winter.

make

FIG.

if

pruning
of

some

pruning

358

PRINCIPLES

does

PRACTICE

AND

the

that

PRUNING

OF

shall

specimen

be

clipped or
artificial shape. It means
sheared
into some
ing
merely keepdom
the plant within
bounds, but allowing it perfect freeIn all such
be
within
those
limits.
pruning it must
has its own
remembered
that each
shrub
peculiar beauty
be retained.
should
No pruning
an
individuality which
be practiced, at least
which
destroys this beauty should

imply

not

"

where

such

and

nite
defi-

no

for

reason
"

is

there

doing

so

are

cases

rare.

When

it is necessary
the

compel

to

plants
forms,

fantastic

take

growths

young
sheared

the

season,

as

the
be

must

times

several

during

to

growing
well

once

as

or
during late winter
early spring, as in the
When
of hedges.
case
ne.
exceptionally good feli-

293-HUGE
is

There
wounds

the

have

been

small

such

The

limb

the

traffic.

shown

w"und
the*
sides

When

limb

was

with

knife

the

such

avoided!

tree

i" interfered
The

Had

Hence

6$4 inches
most
heaHng

is
's

flowers

are

will

^^

js

^ ^

n^_

enormous

been
a

sary

could

cut
so

was

its

off

cut

annual

low

removal.

ft-^"1,r
treelV

Notice
long.
rap5dly from

as

to

sought, specialnote

blossom-bearing
rules

MADE

WELL
for

excuse

no

this.

as

when

WOUND

habit

aid the

of

the

pruner

to

back

Cllt

to

,1

cr"rintr

f/^^rarrl
toward

co
J
Spring
forthe mation

encourage
of wood
be

plant.

make

success

the

rather

growths

must

few

(83).
made

of

mental
fundaof this

are
pinched or
sturdy branches
will
wood
the remaining
clipped back during summer
if they
ripen much
more
fully than might be the case
allowed
to
naturally. So the parts should
were
grow
This
if unpruncd.
the winter
better than
applies
stand
and
and
tender
trees
especially to semi-hardy
more

kind

of

work.

When

360

PRINCIPLES

few

in

in water

bloomers

days

to

few

PRACTICE

AND

the buds

IMU'NIXC

winter.

during

room

warm

weeks

OF

In

into bloom.

will burst

and
is
trees
pruning flowering shrubs
based on this habit of bloom
production. If the branches
winter
back
cut
or
early spring,
are
severely in autumn,
be debuds
will thus
stroyed.
a
large proportion of the blossom
of severest
In cases
cutting few or no flowers
be
produced,
may
of
partly because
The

first rule

of

removal

their

the

because

partly
bush

or

make

an

will

tree

effort

develop
(81, 83).
The

to

wood

new

of

converse

practice

this

is

the

method;

rect

cor

and

mediatel
im-

namely, pruning

the

.after

blossoming
haspassed.
shoots

new

produced
imvhich

season

develop new
from
largely

to
FIG.
One

of

Note
In

that

other

terminal,

would

buds

the

near

cut

were

they

in

shrubs.

blooming

are
only just starting.
opposite the flowers, in
in still others
opposite each

the bases

near

terminal
of

Several

buds.
these

twigs

flowers

buds

of

the

so

these

details

will form

and

and

branches,

the

of

make

upon

dance,
abun-

shoots

picture.

the

shoots

are

and
each

from

show

spring
buds

branch

the
cases

some

others

earliest

the

FORSYTHIA

BELL"

GOLDEN

295"

the

Thus

thebalance

will have
of the

s.eason

blossom

splendid display the following

spring.
Shrubs

and

trees

of

the

clematis, elder and

in

summer

growths

and
of the

autumn,

present

second
certain

form
season.

group
roses

althaea,

"

"

which

their

blossom

Since

some

drangea
hy-

bloom
buds

of these

on

are

FIG.
The

296"

CO-TERMINAL

over-wintering

buds

METHOD

develop
Contrast

short

with

BLOOM

OF
shoots

Judas

in
tree

spring

BEARING"
and

these

(Fig. 297).

WEIG
bear

the

ELI

blossoms.

362

PRINCIPLES

tender

frost, some

to

OF

PRACTICE

AND

them

leave

pruners

PRUNING

untouched

spring, others give a preliminary pruning

and
mulches
give the
protect the plants with
in

spring

when

winterkilled

the
This

stubs

and

strong

flowers

of

abundance

fall,

of

development
which

shoots

numerous

the

final ing
prunbe cut off.

may

the

encourages

in

until

in due

bear

season.

thought in the preceding

paragraphs, the general rule for
be expressed in three
cases
may

To

sum

both

the

up

This

that, for flowers, the

means

in

in

either

the

that

bloomers,

the

week

of the

work

the

fall of the

of the

case

autumn

summer

be

may

done

latest

at

or

be

should

subjects

spring-blooming
pruned within a
blossoms;

ING.
FLOWER-

AFTER

PRUNE

words:

just

growth starts in the spring.

Plants
planted,
transproperly pruned when
given good soil and sufficient

before

make

them

food

to

ample
good

space
forms

often

than

that

other

well, and

grow

in which

develop

to

need

into

pruning

some

described

already

need
their
have
to
namely, they may
interiors opened up to admit
light and
ting
air. This may
usually be done by cut-

old

out

dead

any

Judas
(C e

the
bud

the

on

to

dead

wood
I

are

for

of

269.

prune
out

after

What
but

any
of such
mer
midsum-

wood
as

soon

work,
than

necessary

sessile
leaf

such

evergreens,

the

noticed.

course,

also

be

Except

more

may

occasional

be

sion
repres-

growth.

rampant
the

should

little

Evergreens.

expanded

extent.

any

folly

or

the

before
have

tree

s)

in

buds

of
red

branches

spring
to

tree
r

almost

borne

Blossom

as

BUD

RED

"

Of

stems.

dying

or

removed
297

FIG.

center

"

one

With
rule

respect
to

bear

to

in

Postpone pruning until the

spring, since the danger from drying-

mind

is :

ORNAMENTAL

PRUNING

i.

at

is

March

is

perhaps

should

be

done

is

growth
weeks

and

the
in

healing

case

month

best
the

usually
the

the

southern
in

April

and

hemisphere,

in

than

greater

SHRUBS

strong
of

the

during
wounds

AND

of

deciduous

in

which

half

will

subjects.
such

of

northern
the

363

TREES

the

half,
next

progress

six

pruning
northern
because
to

eight

rapidly.

CHAPTER

DWARF

270.

TREE

Dwarf

species,
require
is

less

varieties
do

that

then

methods
which

trees

for

many

in

in

hold

to

growing

rather

The
which

and

these

be

well

quote

the

"Plant

Dwarfing

such

worked

be

Plants

may
as

Nurserymen
*

Page

be

tubs

boxes,
can

be

on

also

go

at

the

close

species

by

which

as

they

those

are

In

by
order

keep

to

following

be

of

even

is

this

tural
cul-

are

individuals
of

means

be

to
to

them

small

in

grown

the

open

from

requires

stocks
slow-growing
them
by growing

dwarfed
and
no

pots

too

further

small
than

195.
364

for

their

supplying

and
in

the

that

later

confined

normal

to

understand
it may

small,

paragraphs

graft

the

thor's
au-

Propagation."*

to

trees

handled

grow

would

same

compelled

are

to

the

which,

caprice.

or

be

to

us

concern

pruning

root

compel

pruning.

upon

large but

grow

should

book,
buds

do

convenience

our

how

that

special

who
size

here,

us

concern

place
The

by

than

methods

be

must

of

ground

small.

small.

smaller

plant

open

dependent

normally
top

suit

than

them

Japanese,

far

fore,
there-

first

produced

are

The

not

the

considerable

of

roots

the

do

plants

kind

pots

season.

however,

done,

age,

the
from

transplanted

its first

flower

in

simply

them

that

plants

keep

dwarf

and,

keep

dwarf

to

the

size

There

They

nature.

the

attain

nature

in

to

them

this

they

ones.

normal

practiced by the

years

required
if

of

cases

by

"

handled

because

dwarfness

treatment

make

to

of

mainly

their

group

specially

extreme

cultural

than

varieties

normal-sized

dwarf

are

is another

specially handled
most

the

require special

not

there

and

do

TRAINING

growing

maintaining

larger

grow

do
But

those

"

not

in

small

desirable

than

space

AND

those

considered

difficulty

no

PRUNING

trees,

are

XVI

cions

"r

headed-in.
quarters.

development.

specimens:

after-

DWARF

TREE

PRUNING

AND

365

TRAINING

who
the grower,
depends upon
by neglect or ignorance may
those
from
intended
standards
to be dwarfs.
develop
budded
"dwarfs"
When
planted so
are
grafted or
deeply that
roots
are
developed by the cion above the union with the stock, the
care

will

tree

be

must
are

"half

become
cut

off from
mahaleb

on

grown

dwarf"

time

or

time

to

even
as

stocks, but

so

"standard."

they develop.
is probably

Annual
removal
of roots
cherry trees.
dwarf
in habit.
heading-in will keep the trees
Paradise
and
myrobalan, and apples upon
upon
standard

Grafting or budding"
species, then, is only the
dw7arf

The

trees.

tops restricted
their

roots

must

also

confined

must

be

in

the

from

roots

cherries

majority
the

So, too,
Doucin

cion
of

have

the

plums

variety
the making

expanse

of

training. The expanse

restricted
by pruning or

and

limited

of
and

stocks.

slow-growing

first step toward

by pruning

them

keeping

trees

on

Such
Dwarf

or

of

their

of

by

space.

(87) to restrict growth is little practiced

in America.
Our
cause
tillage methods
largely replace it bethey compel deep rooting. In the growing of
dwarf
and
portant
imtrees
grafted grapevines it finds its most
of roots
which
develop
application in the removal
Root

pruning

the

from

cion

above

the

union

with

the

stock.

is done
train the tree
to
trees
pruning of dwarf
in some
and
The
latter
to restrict growth.
special way
is a winter
heading back
practice for the most
part
the
influence
of such
factors
amount
(106). Various
A
work
vigor, variety, individuality of tree, etc.
age,
in the
terminal
is common
growth of 20 to 30 inches
and
apple trees, especially in
parts of dwarf
upper
pear
those
Some
old.
cut
under, say, ten years
good pruners
off 50 to 80 per
of the annual
the
cent
growth all over
cut
inferior twigs 'entirely
tree ; and
also remove
; others
much
out
a total of fully as
wood, but include a good deal
in
of older wood, their idea being thus to keep the tree withrather than to run
bounds
the risk of getting too many
the former
small
were
stubby twigs as might be the case
the tree
method
followed
too
case
closely. In the former
is more
too
likely to grow
large than in the latter. In
the inthe lateral growth that develops on
either case

Top

"

"

366

PRINCIPLES

terior

of

dwarf

pears

the

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

be
must
during the following season
thinned
at the
next
pruning.
the pruner's ideal
Pruning for form will depend upon
flat(2). Dwarf
trees, however, are
as
generally grown
In America
the
or
as
topped inverted cones
pyramids.
former
is the more
To
popular; in Europe, the latter.
the pyramidal form
central
is developed to
stem
secure
a
the desired height. The
branches
are
produced, as in the
training of standard pyramids (154b),except that they are
author
does
closer together. The
of
not
happen to know
vase-formed
he sees
or
trees, but
open-centered dwarf
for
should
be as desirable
not
no
reason
why this form

While

tree

for

as

pyramidal form is easy

in this
which- normally grow
to get, especially with
pears
As the trees
older, however, particularly if
way.
grow
the grower
off the cion roots, they are
neglects to prune
in long-neglected trees
to grow
tall,their form
prone
very
much
poplar, though,
resembling that of the Lombardy
much
the full-grown trees
than
of this
smaller
of course,
be easily prevented, first
species. This heightening may
by cion root pruning and second, by extending the frame
verted
limbs
and
broadening the top, thus developing the incommercial
In
the
famous
most
shape.
cone
dwarf

the

standards.

trees

orchard

pear

only about
death

of Mr.

pride

in

T.

G.

keeping

is the

with

This

thought
would
of

orchard

of

the

the

the
pay

at

Yeomans's
trees

better.

States, and

visited

the trees
then

dwarf

which

the

had
The

passed

and

to

York,
Kieffer

was

and

growing,
are

pears

ideal

familiar

cut

given
down

planted

the

Since
for

form

since
the

it

lowing
fol-

1906

in
on

special

took

in the

is most

author

half

stature.

limit and
he
profitable age
orchard
began to yield paying
do so
as
long as Mr. Yeomans

their

original

continued

pear

comment

New

Walworth,
farm,

and

form

were

after

was

who

owner,

trained

was

description and

owner

ideal

in

orchard*

commercial

the

Yeomans,

them

American
one

has

author

the

high, though they were

taller it
they ever
got any

If

Yeomans's

the

the

young

feet

12

old.

century

are

the

by the
site, because

believed
crops

the

before

lived.

then
he

Kieffer
the

war

368

PRINCIPLES

When

transplanted the

the bud, had

had

been

Y-crotches

pruning
back

at

most

buds

left

while

four

five

or

cut

the

on

Because

stem.

when

one

year,

without
In

systems.

twigs

cut

were

least because

growth
(91). Only two

trees

the

next

within

branch
This

the lowest.
or

treatment

inches

two,

or

its

of

the

bud
that the upper
of the previous year's

made

was

cut

so

end

of the slight crooks

into
bud

this upper

from

from

wood).

above

forced

so

and

to

root

ones

on

down

leader

immediately

was

left

were

brought the leader

base
(the two-year
The

leader

the

on

at

old

branches

uppermost

part of the

upper

years
row

good

excellent

planting time the

severely, the lowest
in the

two

nursery

more

had

and

is greatest
were

or

PRUNING

were

in the

dozen

OF

trees

back

cut

half

formed

any

PRACTICE

AND

growth

formed

original trunk of which it thus

with
These
two
slight crooks.

the

(Fig. 66)

developed

was

by

side

new

branch

vertically above

became

an

bud

the

extension, but

disappeared in a
looked
few
and the trunk
perfectly straight. In a
years
similar
horizontal
branches
too
were
slightly raised
way
buds, or lowered
by pruning to
by pruning back to upper
beneath.
buds
Others
moved
to the side by prunwere
ing
side buds

to

When
bases

(120d).
branches

finished, the
foot

to

crooks

15

inches

across

and

18

with

pyramids

formed
to

20

high for the

not
only was

By cutting in this way

larger specimens.
the pyramidal form
secured, but the lower branches
in developmnt.
favored
checked
and the upper
ones
of setting out, the trees
this is done
at the time
never

be made

to

take

the desired

were

less
Uncan

form.

that of the first.

the first year resembles
bud
will be
The
leader is cut back
severely so its upper
and in continuation
of the main
above
stem, and the lower

Pruning

and

after

side shoots

pyramid
care

thinning

cut

back

is approached.
was

and

taken
removal

to

of

less and

less

as

the base

of the

turity,
approached maadmit
light and air by judicious
the interior shoots.
Except the

As

the

trees

DWARF

first

pruning

at

during

the

done

As

the

dormant

annual
at

season

cutting
time

any

was

before

spring.

became

trees

369

TRAINING

AND

planting time, the

in the

started

growth

PRUNING

TREE

aged

15

"

to

25

years

the

"

method

and
broadened
the tops,
gradually flattened
and
the nature
of growth
wood
gradually lessened
duction
prothe author
below, so that, when
them, each
saw
like an
tree
was
equilateral triangle set on its apex with
its trunk
10
12 feet
as
a
or
pedestal. The
tops were
and the height, including the trunk, about
12 feet.
across,
of

pruning

The

result

cut

with

the

trees

that

was

lawn

huge

of

carpet

four

apples, cherries
apply.

trees

and
York

in orchards

of

carried

of the

out

and

state

of the

station.

dwarf

apple
Pruning

In

trees

orchard

in

even

so

almost
for

looked

to

centers

trees.

In

the

handling

fruits

the

same

between

agitationon

blank

narrow

if

as

height

present

in the

other

and
tinuous
con-

spaces

the

squares

of

dwarf
rules

general

the part of certain

the fruit growers'

tions
associa-

requested the experiment station at

experiments in the growing of such
size. An
commercial
experiment was
in
three
different
during ten years
the findings reported in Bulletin 406

the
as

was

as

nurserymen,

conduct

to

therefore

parts

and

the

except

of considerable

fruit growers
of New
Geneva

and

each

by

Because

it

mower,

green,

the trees

formed

of

top

wide-spreading

so

between

the

main

the

business

is unfavorable

report

to

proposition.

dwarf

apples." We
well
confess, writes
as
may
U. P. Hedrick
concerning these experiments, that the pruning of
these
has been
trees
most
made,
unsatisfactory. A bad start was
the
for
the
at
most
cut
to
transplanting
as
whips
trees,
part, were
time.
No
been
have
doubt, in the light of later experience, it would
271.

better

to

grow

them

in nursery

rows

year

longer

and

then

make

forming the heads

(270). The trouble in cutting a
forth
fail to break
branches
time
is
that
as
at
whip
transplanting
in
unchecked
the nursery
by transplanting.
row
abundantly as they do
the

start

toward

pruning, supplementing winter

of dwarf
trees.
recognized .yearly treatment
Summer

pruning, is part
The

more

of

the

it is desired

370

PRINCIPLES

restrict

to

the

and

the

Some

tree

rules
of

prune

The

the

head

of

the

of

the

say

that

the

growing

climate
In

no

wholly

that

and

summer

the

summer

with

sisted
con-

of

necessary

severely,

more

otherwise

standards,

attempted,

was

Then

began

the

and
it

is

back
to

hardly

much

too

pinched
them

grow

to

ing
train-

the

satisfactory

least

or

series

Suffice

apples,

dwarf

headed

impossible

in

in

the

to

during

trying

the

work

cold

pruning

was

practiced

time

and

of

because

repeated.
in
in
in

have

\Ye

New

York

Old

later

World.

been
and

almost

it

summer

identical

difference

decided

some

temperature

the

or

not

When
of

manner

sooner

able

would

winter.

next

season,

one

variations
winters

the

in

success

failure

of

been

we

which

growths

second

cold

have

pruning

summer

spindling

attained

great
the

at

attempts

reasonable

the

the

that

It

satisfactory.

Indeed,

trees.

to

been

when

weather

in

and,

was

trees

pruning

proved

be

trouble.

It

the

on

difficult

most

is

weak,

proved

treatment

tried

than

branches

Doucin

summer

work

must

it

succumb

had

rieties
va-

three

has

difficult

more

vigorous.

too

which

these

the

of

thought

in

and

York.

New

avoid

pruning

the

season,

and

mature

26

all.

on

seasons'

apples

or

little

none

of

ten

is

growing

one

to

and

of

dwarf

of

laying

of

who

diseased.

than

same

but

one

plants

if

the
tree,

of

way
test

surplus

and

rather

seasons

no

light
in

operation

of

soils

little

branches,

Paradise

the

small

experiments,

say,

was

two

being

in

that

anyone

comparatively

variety

much

first

trees

to

though

injured

on

the

was

the

agree

the

distinct

patent

trees,

gave

wood

upon

the

were

as

the

pruning
For

in

that

say

health

comparative

three

are

crossed

out

few

depending

of

trees,

cutting

back

this

stocks,

climates,

soil,

difficulties

in

others

All

season,

amount

work.

summer.

pruning

such

course,

the

three

by

The
fair

be

on

standard
of

the

would

winter

training

to

the

different
in

and

while

suffices.

regulated

variety.

and
that

apples

somewhat

finger

the

do

Scarcely
the

to

as

to

shears,

and

much

pruning.
agree

time

thumb

pruning

summer

is, however,

summer

trees

proper

knife

largely

be

must

of

down

the

of

need

in

dwarf

the

or

PRUNING

There

methods

to

out

with

the

greater

growing

use

back

practice

to

taken

OF

necessary.

as

on

growers

pinching

the

opinion

be

to

PRACTICE

amount

authorities

wood

age

the

of

two

of

growth,

greater

divergence
any

AND

forced

moisture
or

quite

in

to

clude
con-

in

the

debar

XVII

CHAPTER

ODD

OF

METHODS

The

and

principles
chapters

modes

training,

commercial

is that

attract

included

of

those

choice

extra

produced
While

specimens

of

some

unusual

these

where

land

suited

to

other

for

their

in

longer-settled
which

World.

Probably

Scotch

the

of

of

fingers
has

the

of

(Figs. 298, 299, 300) are

special tree
training in gardens

In

the

could
In
of

be

the

found

order

start.
trees

watchfulness
that

and

three

customer

of

The

three

examples
N.

Y.

Philadelphia

and

men

need

it is

shrubs,

essential

more

skilled
to

each

do, then,
371

in

his

is to

make

They
the

under

years

to

this.

do

nurserymen
or

special forms

of these

of any

success

European

two,

in

apprenticeship

others.

many

trees

veloped
de-

English

Rochester,

York

New

Boston,

make

to

growing

proper

of

Old

been

excellent
in

these

the

French,

illustrations

vicinity

have

the

in

of

World.

Old

and

of

those

his

served

in

answer

have

we

some

labor

and

States

United

these

not

are

sufficient

with

of

Europe

they

examples

of

majority

estate

an

are

plants

in

cheap

that

favorably

who

gardener

gardens

the

in

country

our

skillful

is

is the

This

said, however,

the

if these

cheap,

land

where

compare

under

is

gardeners

popular

labor

rarity

parts

methods

or

hand

America.

it be

Let

they

by specimen

or

immensely

and

comparative

Canada.

of

no

pleasure growing

take

walls,

continents

high priced-,as

attention

only
class

who

special

practically

fruit, especially

upon

are

costly

the

in

form.

forms

is

have

in which

people

in

application

almost

wealthy

TRAINING

practices discussed

America

in

amateurs,

glass,

in

trained

which

under

the

bizarre

Hence

use.

AND

of

some

find

previous
of

PRUNING

own

order

grow

constant

line.
the

All

style,

METHODS

ODD

OF

PRUNING

AND

373

TRAINING

In America
the demand
variety of plant he wants.
for such plants is so nearly nil that the nurserymen,
with
rare
exceptions, do not carry any such trees in stock.
Many of them, however, will develop such plants to order.
But
himself?
not
develop them
why should the amateur
He
at least as
can
good skill and in
probably command
home
of personal interest
far better
because
at
cases
many
in the plants. How
shall he start?
It will be well
whenever
possible to do the propagation
ideal condition
the plants under
'at home,
to have
so
as
In perhaps no
fa"m the start.
should
older
trees
case
be chosen
of these
than
for any
one
special forms
year
have
been
of training. If the trees
propagated at home,
in the least from
suffer
not
digging because
they need
be left during the second
where
they may
they grew
year
this
under
first.
Note
the
the reasons
for
the
heading
it is not convenient
Dwarf
Trees
to follow
(270). Where
best
this suggestion, the next
thing is to buy yearling
and

age

Choice

trees.

should

be made

the

among

medium-sized,

small-sized
the
specimens, the large and
well-grown
for obvious
main
The
grades being avoided
reasons.
for choosing yearling trees
is that the buds
reason
on
the

trunk

old

or

where

will

older

be

and

far
the

sturdier

than

branches

on

be

may

trunks

two

years

developed exactly

wanted.

and
of
the trunk
the
number
height to have
branches
the style of training
to develop will depend upon
In
be .followed.
all such
be
to
membered
retraining it must
is being forced
that the tree
to
develop in a
receive
less unnatural
and, therefore, must
more
'or
way
To use
illustration,these methods
an
specialattention.
write:
children
beautiful
like teaching school
to
a
are
them
and
.is set before
they attempt to
script specimen
ludicrous
with
imitate
the pretty writing, often
though
The

unintentional

caricatures!

children
more

to

train

so

tree

simple
in the

it is difficult

If
a

feat

way

as

writing,

it should

teach

to

how

go !

telligen
in-

much

Success

374

as

PRINCIPLES

in the

above

AND

case

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNINC,

by the approach to
style of training must

is measured

the

the
be
original design. While
optional with the individual
gardener the fundamental
be followed.
principles of pruning must
these special modes
literature on
of training
As American
and as
is very
European writings are both
meager,
have
and
voluminous
excellent, the following passages
French
and
been
culled, mainly from
English works, to

FIG.

299"

DWARF

PEAR

TREES

TRAINED

IN

SIMPLE

WAY

METHODS

ODD

D.

The

fruit

more

wood

will

to

branches

part of

annular

spring
In

feet

sap flow

which

branches

development
fruit

of

grow

."". Mutilate

required

number

wide

of
to

the

rigor of

augment

than

when

flower

buds

fruits

6. When

them.

7.

Make

fruit-bearing

the

Girardin's
Place

9.

those

fifth

are

an

annular

branches

side

stalk

sap

their
acts

therefore

vessels.

in

fruits

fruits

incision

some

causes

it to

ascend

these

fruit

fruits during
If unsupported,

twisting
they
position during the
are

or

supported

their normal
development ; that is, with the
with
it flows
force
when
more
in

not

developed

when

grafts
under

When

formed.

are

off

vigorous
supports
stretching or twisting of their stalks.
fruit may
unequally and the stretching
grow
Keep

cions.

the

than

species

prevent

larger. 10.
entire
period of
lowermost.
Sap

and

wood

size of fruit.

repeatedly pinching

8. Insert
trees.

grow

vertical

of

upon

injure the

may

roots.

that

close

very

their blossoms.

branches

stalk

further
inch

1-5

growth

on

branches

shoots
by
of
size
tree.
develop

expand

branches

summer

to

suppress

Cut

4.

all

preserve

earth.

Transplant

1.

is,do not leave on the trees

is requisitefor symmetrical
for fruit-bearing branches.
3. Make
them
short
branches
as
as
by pruning

pruning

close

to

stem

replace the

K.]

diminish

to
to

thus

G.

M.

less vigorous

formation

and

spurs

possible.

about

of

layer (98).
the principal
mer.
during sum-

expose

and

roots

the

near

wood

remain

care

conduces

of

parts

or

great

fruit tends

the

to

of
"

with

to

as

to

antagonistic.

stocks
Graft
upon
Apply suitable winter

more

extensions

saw

exterior

so

them

parts

away
are

1.
2.

allow

hand

the

collar

tree

and

but

method

Every

with

penetrate

the

uncover

wide

inch
to

spring cut
practices

two

make

to

successive

from

2.

1-5

enough

in late autumn,

E.

the

and

"

several

6.

[These
trees

from

grow

which

vigor.

deep

for

roots

to

incision

and

In

5.

less wood

the

"

absorb

base,

which

those

diminish

in's side

an

is retarded

377

TRAINING

lated
them, operations calcuspring
Apply to larger branches several Girardfruit buds
into twigs
set
or
grafts cions of fruit spurs
the
Arch
all
branches
of
3.
so
superabundant sap.
part
will be toward
their extent
the sun.
make
4. In February
also

and
to

to

AND

develop (98).

buds

Apply

1.

PRUNING

circulation

sap

more

OF

fruit

stem

a
upward;
easily and the fruit
leaves during their

more

will become

the
larger. 11. Place fruit under
fruits a solution
growth to increase their size. 12. Apply to young
of sulphate of iron
A
the fruit is cool.
(272
8) only when
Repeat

three

times:

When

again when

and
small

shoot

on

fruits are
one-fourth
when
grown;
three parts grown.
increase
13. To
the fruit spur, to which
fruit is attached

little larger ;

size inarch
a
when
a third

grown.

F.

The

less,as
273.

yearly extensions

the branches
Construction
advice

Practical

upon

Fruit

approach
of

the

Culture,

walls

of
a

vertical

and

construction
London.

should

wood

line, or

fences."

of

be

J.

walls

shortened

or

tiie contrary.

Cheal*
and

more

gives

fences

some

upon

cellent
ex-

which

378

train

to

work.

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

PRUNING

OF

fruit trees.
Paragraphs
(273 to 278)
and
The
position of walls
arrangement

his

quoted from

are

will

depend

the

on

always
they should
with
the principal wall
facing
be arranged, if possible, in a square,
south, or as nearly so as practicable. \\ here it is possible,place the
size and

the

walls

the

so

making

fruit, thus

north

the

upon

outside

In
sunshine
or

one

built

be

the

to

Architects

piers.

often

15

to

wall

introduced.

be

should

They

be

of
of

tiles

damage

the

to

should

in

coping for

all

Provide

trees.

projecting

stone,

or

These

further

any

have

much

cause

coping
permanent
the face of the wall.

at

least

inches

good
from

pendently
be provided indeprotection of the trees at

the

cases

flowering.

Removable

274.

be grown.

insist upon

instances

of

time

Bear

that

generally a great fancy for

having them ; but walls can
and
them,
they are
difficultyand
always a great
the gardener.
rangement
They frequently interfere with the arwhen
of the trees
planting. In training they are a great

trouble, and

the

may

in mind

cumstance
feet, according to cirbe
admit
lower,
to
may
of
in the case
large gardens,

; and

also

for

used

be

may

space.

may

be
south

garden

walls

in many
without

nuisance

the

borders

wall

fruits

should

cases

cross

more

piers, and

most

whole

the

useful

many

into

without

built

of

use

side

inside

the

as

height of the walls

The

more

well

as

etc., but

surroundings,

the

of

nature

glass copings

are

useful

very

for

peaches,

tarines
nec-

in
required
only a
spring, at the time of blossoming and setting the fruit, and should be
when
removed
no
glass copings are
longer required. Fixed
very
red
spider and
objectionable, as they keep off all rain, encourage
other
vermin, and necessitate constant
syringing.

In

all

a
great
should be

vines

few

for

are

it is

cases

The

fences.

These

apricots.

and

weeks

saving of labor to wire the

placed in lines not exceeding

the wall.
Galvanized
from
2 inches
hold-fasts,
apart and
all needful
and
appliances are easily obtainable.

Tying

275.

the wire is much

afford the
does not
to

the wall, and

the wall

it preserves
the wood

ripen

to

enabled
the inside or

also
the

outer

In
and

the

back

same

injury due to
thoroughly and

fruit spurs

blossoms

and
of

case

more

form

to

ones,

from

shelter

crop

and

to

constant

nailing

The

branches

frost, which

injury from
is thereby saved.

are

Frequently

all around.

escape

to

pests, while
nailing, and allows
insect

evenly.

buds

or

9 inches

tighteners

than

quickly done

more

walls

damages

all fruits, however,

and
especiallythat of peaches
careful
in tying in order
to
to be very

nectarines, it is needful

prevent

the

branch

wire.

Many

coming

immediately

instances

have

in

occurred

contact

with

resulting from this. There is,however, no

the tie between
the branch
always taken in tying to cross
branch
be
the
held
wire, so
firmly in position without
may
contact

lessened

by painting the wires

with

the wire.

And
and

the

danger

hold-fasts

vanized
gal-

disease and
decay
danger if the precaution
of

is

in actual

the

may

after

be

and

the

coming

still further

fixing.

of

abundance

paths, or

kitchen

used

as

The

grown

admissible
are
division between

themselves

fences

as

present

border

usually arranged
other positions
placed to advantage.
artistic appearance

an

formed

usually

They

between.

the

near

is

garden,

or

the kitchen

and

ornamental

a
an

also

be

can

produce

and

in the ornamental

even

the

are

stretched

wires

with

posts,

fences

such

and

(Fig. 300),
be

they

where

garden

is well

fruit

If the

used

border, which
walk, but there are

central

the

be

in

advantage

to

little space,

flower

the

of

back

of

side

the

outside

as

placed

be

generally may
but
they occupy
fruit.
They may

tine

the

at

either

on

fences

Espalier
garden,

276.

kitchen

379

TRAINING

AND

PRUNING

OF

METHODS

ODD

myy

garden.

of galvanized iron
require at each end a

feet and
the
stays, to bear
angle iron with anchor
be
intermediate
The
of tightening the wire.
only
posts need
form
the ordinary horizontal
of
For
feet.
anchor
with
flat iron
if
will
be
but
made
in
feet
sufficient,
high
6
height
to
5
training,
for training
these
fences
feet
7 to
are
9
good
very
enough
say
low
also be trained upon
Gooseberries
espalier
cordons
may
upon.
trained
double
when
of 3 to 4 feet in height, and
as
cordons,
fences
or
as
palmettes with 3 to 5 branches, they produce the finest possible
for
is strongly recommended
this mode
growing the
fruit; and
of

post

strong
strain

"

"

choice

varieties.

dessert
Wire

277.

arches

kitchen

garden,

ground

space,

give

They

the

and

pleasant shade

fruit

respects they
espaliers. The
flow

spread

the

best

fences

their
be

there is always
maintained
as

is not

substance,

greater
wooden

wired

fences

before

Many
might be

retain

are

very

planting

fences, while

wooden

full

sometimes
is in

fence

wooden

them

temperature

effect of
cordon
the
training
the

the

In

sun.

than

trees

the top gives the gentle check

to
desirable for securing fine fruit at the base

of

for

at

turn

of sap so
Wooden

fruit.

to

to

out

better

are

278.

for

excellent

be

the

of

some

afford

and

into the
suitably introduced
but little
paths. They occupy
for the training of cordons.
means
well
the path, trees
are
supported,

sometimes

may

spanning

case

draft,

some

in the

so

the

useful

fruit.

for

of

the

same

the

of

in

as

uniform

which,

from

night.

theless,
Never-

should

always

They

gardens

tree.

available

it is difficult to nail
other
advantages.

trees, as
also possesses

surrounding

ordinary
upright

wall,

walls

during

the

be

to
as

the

of

case

warmth

the

wire

fences

wooden

placed as
so
good

so

are
no

some

suburban

to

the

villas

turned
to very
useful
and
afford the overwould
wrought
account,
brain-worker
in culhealthful and interesting employment
tab'e
tiyatingfruit trees, as well as enable him to supply his own
with the freshest of fruit. There
also
wooden
numberless
fences,
are
as

well

be

turned

as

above

D.

of

many

farms

our

profitable account

and

by covering

homesteads,
them

with

which

could

fruit, trained

described.

pear
*

to

The

279.

for

walls, in

as

pyramid*

trees.

Bois, "Le

Its
Petit

is

an

old

advantages
Jardin,"

Paris,

and
are,
264

good
that
(279

to

form,
it
284).

can

suitable especially
in
cultivated
be

380

PRINCIPLES

borders, where
circulation
bears

AND

it takes

of

air

PRACTICE

that

light;

It consists

abundantly.

PRUNING

relativelylittle room;

up

and

OF

it casts

principal or vertical stem, covered

point an inch or so above ground
the top of
to
The
somewhat
branches, which
grow
from
each
other
obliquely, are
separated
by a distance of about 10
inches, diminishing gradually in length from
bottom
to
top, thus
the largest diameter
of which
is about
forming a cone,
one-third
of the total height.
The
280.
column
or
spindle." This form, adapted to pears
and
apple trees, has the advantage of taking up less room
than
the
and
of
pyramid
bearing more
quickly. On the other hand, it is not
so
long-lived, and is suitable for less vigorous varieties only. The
column
differs from
the pyramid only in its shorter
lateral branches.
with

lateral

branches
the
tree.

The

281.

inches

tree

the

vase.

from

Around

"

and

then

form

of

282.

grafted

of

The

The

pear

light and

grafted

on

branches

hoops

to

planted at
meeting, form
a

very
283.

pretty

of

all kinds

the

fruits
in

of
a

10

to

about

grow

give to the entire

each
be separated from
maintained
in
they are

fastened

to

stakes

in

inserted

It allows

esteemed.

It consists

of

free

which

stem

certain

is maintained

a
height, and
The
attaching it to wire.

feet

and

apart

garland

their

wreath,

or

trees

stems, when
which
makes

effect.

Espalier training, to be

for

of

first horizontally

to

as

must

walks.

of

long, unbroken

distance

through all its parts.

cordon
Js suitable especially for apple trees
the less vigorous varieties of
to
stock, and
is especially to be
This
form
quince stock.

distance

air

first grows
vertically,then bent at
in this horizontal
position by
are

at

which

inches, and

10

the borders

for

recommended

and

stem,

is justly much

form

Paradise

on

central

vase.

horizontal

trees

ground, arise branches

vertically,in such a way

This

ground.

circulation

the

above

other by a distance
of about
this position by tying them
the

of

that it allows free

little shade; and
that it

of

fruit

which
more

not

amount
they receive an
superior quality. These
apricots, apples, pears,

ripen

situation.

exposed
of

the

It allows

trees.

would

especially recommended,

heat

at

cultivation

sufficient

varieties

would

all, or

When

is suitable
of

pletely
ripen incomagainst walls,
produce fruit of a

trained
to

certain
kinds of
peaches, grapes,
of espalier is the
The
etc.
simplest form
the trees
be planted very
allows
to
gether,
tovertical cordon, which
near
in
few
and
in
moderate
which
a
return,
brings
soon
a
years
this form
is suitable
for only
Like
the column,
the wall.
covers
be trained
the less vigorous varieties. It must
against a moderately
high wall, for its growth is considerably stimulated
by the suppression
the principal stem
has a tendency
of its lateral branches, so
them
it is necessary
back
to
cut
to grow
rapidly. Whenever
very
ment
much, it produces an excessive development of wood, to the detrilike a U
is frequently emA
form
of its productiveness.
ployed.
of the best.
It- is certainly one
284. The
candelabrum
is formed
by several lateral branches, from
include

three

OF

METHODS

ODD

six, distributed
simple palmette or palm
Verrier

Palmette

that

after

with

differs

horizontal

the

branches,
detail.*

in

and

The

stem.

of lateral branches.

with

even

When

"

consists

tree

pear

principal

preceding only in the fact

vertically. Palmettes
grow

its branches

cordon

the

cordon,

381

TRAINING

larger number

from

12

6, 7, 8, 10,

horizontal

The

285.

has

leaf

distance

certain

formed

are

AND

regularly along the

to

The

PRUNING

of

more.

in

grown
a

stem

bent

simple

at

tance
dis-

trained
ground, then
horizontally and
branches.
The
with
cordons
trained
covered
fruit-bearing
are
If
the
the
much
possible toward
plantation is
as
as
strongest light.
train the cordons
to
toward
established
on
slope, it is necessary
a
of the slope. Only pears
the summit
grafted on quince stock, and
Doucin
be thus grown.
stock, can
or
apple trees grafted on Paradise
their own
stock
Pear
and
trees
too
grafted on
are
apple trees
would
otherwise
remain
they
sterile)
vigorous, as they require (for
allows.
the horizontal
cordon
than
room
One-year-old apple
more
Paradise
stock must
be planted at a distance of 10
"cions grafted on
other.
each
feet from
One-year-old apple cions grafted on Doucin
be planted at a distance
of
on
stock, and pears
quince stock, must
of

from

feet

12

inches

15

above

other.

each

first year
ground, and near
The

they

cut

are

the

In

at

distance

located

bud

the

on

in

of

side

about
toward

2l/2inches
which

above

the

stem

the

following spring, these

if the part beyond
But
the bend
cions
must
are
gradually bent.
that the extremity of the cordon
be strictlyhorizontal, it is necessary
facilitate the flow
of sap
and
to
be slightly raised, in order
sequently
conthe elongation of the cordon.
From
this time, the yearly growth of the cordon
be cut in
must
three-fourths
such
two-thirds
of its length.
to preserve
or
a
as
way
with branches, some
covered
of which
fertile (that is,
It is soon
are
the
sterile ones,
others, or
bearing fruit-producing buds), while
is to

be

inclined.

must

be

cut
too

large

Cherry

286.

This

away.

kind

growth,

growing

in Rivers's

cherries

autumn

in

or

of

thus

treatment

still

orchard

orchard

prevents

from

taining
ob-

destroying their fertility.

of growing
The
method
is given below
in detail. Most
more

houses.f

houses

them

"

cherries
trees
grafted on
are
cherry stock, except the Duke
which
Wood,
grafted on mahaleb
are
Early Rivers and Governor
lifted nor
stock.
replanted before
They are never
potting.
and
taken
one
Early in autumn
two-year-old trees
are
up, their
into
shortened
the
be
without
roots
so
they can
breaking,
pots
put
and
be done
fully
careplanted in 8 or 12-inch pots. This potting must
the trees
must
be set so
and
the surnear
face
deep the big roots

of

the

and

will
the

pots

be
with

covered

potting is a
decayed fertilizer.
*G.

Ad.

with

an

inch

of

soil.

Cover

the

bottom

of

soil used
in
good, thick layer of drainage. The
enriched
with
wellone-third
of
light, sandy loam,
a

It

Bellair, "Les

f;A, ". Anderson

is

Arbres

in "American

important

to

firm

the

Fruitiers," Paris, 1891, Page

Garden,"
XIII, 594
(286).

soil
164

well
(285).

around

FIG.

301"

TREATED

A,

d, bark;
C,

Scar

et

decay

from

cut

at

limb

wood.

ax

of

corky

three-fourths

Note
sound

INJURIES

section

Cross

cut.

trunk,
outer

healed.
Line

fully healed.

NORMALLY

HEAL;

UNTREATED

ONES

DECAY

bium;
b, sapwood;
c, camparts; a, heart- wood;
B, Scar
beginning to heal rapidly at the sides.
"blaze"
section
of
Cross
quaking
on
aspen.

showing
bark.

D,
indicates

proper

F, Opening

to

shape of cavity to excavate.

in log.
Only
area
decayed

E, Scar
a

shell

of

CHAPTER

XVIII

PRACTICAL

untreated

at

unobserved

or

The

decay.

from

Principles
principles

288.

may

injured

or

best

be

in

work
often
year

of

insects

and

of

the

good

its

in

decayed

and

removing

dead

Paragraphs

Collins's
162

Pages
balance
this

article
to

deals

tree

Sterilize

(2)

all

Leave

(4)

believe,

owners

only

to

be

the

the

of

tree

favored

undertaken

knowledge

pair
re-

who

few

by

ful
care-

any

life

and

structure

of

287

to

the

190.

mostly

311

with

been

States

about

half

and

how

and

handle

can

his

edge
knowl-

admixture

and

trees

facilitate
to

as

of

the

excerpted
Department
the

physiological

of

and

volume.

884

is

other

cavities

normal

slightly
herewith
features

to
out

with

healing-over
a

Filled
condensed

Agriculture

tree

covering
cutting

in

fillingthe
dentistry."

surgery

from

consists

work.

and

article

or

the

"tree

tree

type,
stubs

waterproof

in

to

character
have

limbs

type

referred

United

its simplest

Another

matter

the

Only

In

decayed
antiseptic

an

materials

is often

in

work."

healing.

aptly indicates

very

trunk

This
will
rapid healing.
the work
from
(5) Watch
attend
to them
immediately.
properly,
more
or,
surgery,

can

manner

or

with

diseased

and

This

process.

of

scope

other

or

the

sense.

treating the scar

decay while
prevent
cement

It

general

normal

and

the

have

it.

often

can

on

for

known

art

this
or

covering wounds
he
decay organisms
cause
damage,
provided
tools
will apply in a practical manner
and
of a tree, together
with
anatomy
a
generous

common

consists

good

cut

These
diseased

decayed,

limbs,

surfaces.

Tree

would

undertake
a

out

all

mental
funda-

few

results.

larger limbs
of a cavity.

appear,

any
workmen."

of

mysterious

to

tree,

Types

290.

On

cavities.

deep
If

work

all

small

condition

persons
a

has

necessary

of

defects.

who

history
the

filling of

for

fitted

are

rtian

limb.

the

the

is not

work,
alone

ject
sub-

are

mention.

to

good

Remove

on

digging
Waterproof

interested

some

as

trees

numerous

secure

(1)
When

favorable

most

year

to

follows:

bark.

Qualifications

289.

too

tree-surgery

the

mean

(3)

the

most

observed

by removing

mean

to

In

be
as

times

at

that

known

sources

these

cases

must

and

surfaces.

cut

from

involved."

wood

done

it may

of

summarized

be

It is well

surgery."

injuries,

SURGERY*

allowed
remain
to
injuries are
often
for
Rot-producing
fungi commonly
gain
years.
these
places, and
eventually the original inconspicuous
of
injury develops into a comparatively
large area
real
of
is
the
aim
tree
to
sulting
rerepair
damage
surgery
such
neglected injuries and rotted
areas.

"

entrance

of

majority

great

tree

all sorts

to

In

of

Object

287.

TREE

Year

included,
already

which

term

cavities
from

Book,
because
discussed

do

J. T.
1913,
the
in

FIG.

A, Cement

303"

CEMENT

shattered

FILLINGS

AND

GUY

ATTACHMENT

CHAIN

of tree.
by cold and swaying
metal-covered
cavit-'es.
fasten
to
C, Simple
way
guy
in
and
rods
for
place,
cement-reinforcing
filling.
not
filled.
creosote
and
tar,
usually cement

B, Section
chain

E,

to

Shallow

hook

of

trunk
bolt.

cavity

showing
D, Nails
for
ready

386

PRINCIPLES

increase

not

the

AND

PRACTICE

OF

strength of the trunk

PRUNING

limb

or

the

to

that is

extent

generally supposed.
Dead

291.

branches,
teeth

set

so

strong
be

needed;

make

For

limbs

the

work

of

removing

with
good-sized saw
chisel, a mallet and a
a
gouge,
the ground
these are
the only

For
implements.
also, at times, a

Treatment

292.

For

implements

wide cut, a
cutting limbs near

to

as

branches."

essential

most

knife.

necessary

diseased

or

the

are

situated

elsewhere

ladder

may

rope.

of cavities."

During the last few years there has

popular interest in the treatment
of decayed places
in old trees.
This type of work
comprises many
inquiries addressed
to the Department
of Agriculture and
refers solely to methods
ployed
emin cementing cavities. This is a logical result of the
present
essential operations:
extensive
all decayed and
(1) Removing
eased
disand waterproofing all cut surfaces, and
matter, (2) sterilizing
that will favor
(3) fillingthe cavity in a manner
rapid healing and
exclude
rot-producing organisms.
widespread

been

The

tools for
socket-handled

digging

side-ground
outtwo
are
decayed matter
with
curved
(one
a
cutting edge
gouges
of about
s/4 inch, and the other perhaps ll/2 inches), a chisel, a
The
mallet, a knife and an oilstone for ordinary work.
gouges,
chisel and knife
should
be used
the cambium
when
never
near
they
lack a keen
edge, as dull tools will injure it. In cutting out deep
for the gouges
cavities,longer interchangeable handles
be necessary.
may
A
ladder
will
be required if the work
or
a
is
stepladder

necessary

than

more

feet

from

out

the ground.

293.

Excavating." Usually an old decayed spot may

be partially
and bark
at the edges,
or
wholly covered
growth of wood
by a new
is
and the visible decayed area
be small as compared
with that which
it is usually necessary
hidden
to en(Fig. 301 D, F). In such cases
large
the gouges
mallet
in order
the opening with
and
make
to
sufficient

in

room

opening should
sufficientlylong
with

little or

If
or
or

the
below

more

which

not

be

to

reach

to

wider

any

all the

additional

no

injury

holes

above

whether

under

tendency

bark

and

tree.
some

distance

practice

side of
in most

diseased wood
the bridges, but
for

trees

the

spanning

value, partly because

the

the

bark

This

it may
be
heartwood

but

diseased

and

common

interior.

the main
below
opening in order
or
of the diseased wood
(Fig. 305 A). This

or
more
bridges of wood
cavity, a practice of doubtful

the

wood

the

necessary,

extends

diseased

opening, it is

see

the

to

external

one

strong

than

decayed

the

to

in

gouges

decayed and

the removal

from

the

use

has
and

above
cut

to

one

tate
facili-

results

in

long interior

it is often

possible
im-

entirely removed

been

mainly

to

because

the

sap

there
wood

of

is

the

severing the sap-conducting

If the holes
both
and
tubes
above
below.
and
are
pointed above
A practice that permits
below, there is less trouble from this source.
narrow
more
a
a
thorough cleaning out of the cavity is to make
include
all the
both
ends
at
and
to
sufficiently
opening, pointed
long
bridges

to

die and

decay

as

result

of

PRACTICAL

diseased

This

wood.

The

all the

excavating

diseased

uninfected

is

wood
should

heartwood

above

of this stage of the work

is to remove
insect-eaten
wood
This
305
(Fig.
B, C).
all

on

reached.

sides

the

of

cavity

until

discolored
water-soaked
or
this is the region in which
the rot-

as

active.

In decayed areas
of many
producing fungus
be only a thin shell of uninfected
wood
standing there may
the cavity (Fig. 301
there is danger of
F), in which
case
unless
braced
or
being broken
by storms
guyed.

Drainage."

294.

The

bottom

all

and

other

shaped that if water

were
and
remain
out
promptly run
none
is commonly
called "drainage." It is
of a cavity
pocket at the bottom

would

water

be

auger

becomes

the

favorable

exterior.

An

lodging place

Undercutting.

295.

is to

from

bored

sides undercut
in
be
Care
must
place.
firmly
the
have
wood
to
however, not
have

the

tree

the

hollow.

cavity
cavity it

This

ture
fea-

practice to have a deep

drainage through an

with

hole

insects

this sort

of

often

fungous spores.
important point in shaping a cavity
if possible, so
hold
the filling
to
as

Another

"

in any
bad

open

for

into

years'
around

the

of

parts

thrown

so

hole

sound

All

removed,

be

is most

should

below

and

feature
and

continue

must

distance

some

area.

important

most

387

SURGERY

extends

often

discolored

visible

the

TREE

the

or

taken,
the

at

thin, as this
opening very
and
the
bark
of
out
drying
promotes
wood
at these
points. Ordinarily the
sap
inch
least 34 of
at
be
an
edges should
be better (Figs.301 D,
\l/" would
thick,and
the

of

edges

the

at the

bark

Inrolled

A).

306

of

edges

an

back
be
cut
nearly
opening should
to
radial
point
rule,
a
as
a
planes,
parallel
the
of
surface
the
will
which
permit
with
fillingto conform
completed cement
the cavity the general
and continue
across
of the woody
contour
part of the trunk
If it is not possible to under(Fig. 306 A)
the fillingfirmly in
to hold
cut
sufficiently
in

"J" PLACED

BOLT

HEAD

be

adopted (Fig.
Great
all

and
the

and

of

the

be

and

sharp knife.
very
coating of shellac,

sap
296.

in

exercised

must

bark

a
a

kept
the

This
which

very

sap

around

working
sharp.

wood

cutting
should

usually

be

must

cambium,
cutting along

the

best

edges

be

made

immediately

followed

the

cover

final

The

can

Bolting." Before
it

one

or

cementing
more

bolts,
A

a
so

long cavity
as

cavity

to

more

in

hold

feet

place.
firmly
usually require a bolt, but long cavities, as

cement

may

bark

both

of

wood.

place through
not

be

must

(297)

B).

306

cutting tools

edges

with

by

care

"Nailing'

under

described

method

place, the alternative

or
a

it is advisable
the

less in

to

and

the

length

will

wood

general rule,

should

FIG.

305"

LONG
A

A,
would
round.
in

Cavities
be

CAVITIES
in

B,

An

trees

two

better

excavated

EXCAVATED

CAVITY

SHORT

make

to

old
and

injury
ready

EXCAVATED

THROUGH
THROUGH

ONE

OPENING

small
cut
openings
through
and
rather
oval
pointed
openings
bark.
caused
the
gnawing
C,
by horses
for
tarring prior to filling.
excavated
the

AND

OPENINGS,

SEVERAL

in

the
than

The

trunks.

injury

It
or

square

shown

PRACTICAL

be

bolUOGB).

so

as

be

Accessary
in
cas^nent
le

heads

(Fig.
to

use

the

of

391

SURGERY

nails

finallyare completely embedded

cavity is already bolted, it may not
the bolts help to hold
the
nails, because
If the

E).

306

many

place.

Treating." After

298.

excavated

ccompletely
the
that

The

cement

TREE

all germs

decay

or

with

the

diseased

and
the

of

sterilize the

to

disease

of

decayed
the edges

and

step is

next

in

the

and

bark

been

lacked,
shel-

cavity in order

the

of

killed

be

may

has

wood

sap

interior

matter

that

and

which

any

surfaces

during subsequent operations

of the best
be one
to
destroyed. Creosote
appears
bark
be
must
and
Every cut part of wood
preparations to use.
this a heavy coating of tar or hot asphalt should be
creosoted.
Over
applied before the cavity is filled.
come

may

contact

be

may

299.
Mixing the cement."
clean, sharp sand free from
The
be used.
sand) should
wheelbarrow,
a
pail, or in

large.

should

be

make
to

stiff

good grade of Portland

to
(1 part of cement

loam

mixing

be

may

In

substituted

is sometimes

Cementing.

for

the

and

cement
3

less

or

of

in

bin, a,
mortar
a
receptacle sufncienliy

done

available

other

any

is added, and
the
large cavities fine

mortar

consistency.

even

300.

and sand sufficient to

quantity of dry cement
before
the requisite amount
thoroughly mixed

rather

an

cut

whole

fill the
of

cavitv
to

water

mixture

worked

gravel, free from

loam,

sand.

placing the mixture in the cavity a mason's

flat trowel
will
and
blade
ordinary garden trowel with a curved
an
A
convenient.
be found
tamping stick, 1 or 2 inches thick and 1
to 3 feet long, according to the size of the cavity, will be needed.
A layer of cement
2 or
be placed in the
3 inches
now
deep may
bottom
the garden
of the cavity with
trowel
and
tamped
firmly in
until
This
is
is
the
inches
cement
8
12
to
operation
place.
repeated
thick.

provided
the

If

the
not

rocks

Wet

they

of

The
top of
flat trowel
so

8 .to

it will

inch

an

to

block

of

in the

embedded
of

out

run

of

two

or

little water

If too

12-inch

be

may

it will tend

wet,

tamping.
promptly.

the

sizes
within

reach

not

is too

operation
pack down

various

of

do

mixture

For

"

cement

has

cement

its outer

face.

the

cavity under
been
used, it will

is smoothed

with

the

from
back
to
slightly downward
front,
facilitate
this
in order
the
block
Over
of
to
cement
drainage.
top
double
is
single sheet of tarred roofing (or thinner) paper
or
a
a
placed after it has been cut so as to fit the cavity. On top of this
another

block

of

slant

is built

cement

the

as

ciently
the first block is suffiwithout
tamping
forcing any

soon

as

weight
the cavity.
If the interior of the cavity extends
well above
it
external
be
opening,
occasionally
necessary
may

of

it

hard

to

at

the

out

downward

stand

of

the

of

bottom

slantinghole

cavity,through which
fill the

and

part

upper

cavity

must

this watery

of

from

outside
of
mixture
the

be

to

level of

the

bore

cut

the top of the

or

interior

be poured to
may
The
main
cavity and the hole.
opening
fore
becompletely closed with the stiffer cement

watery

the

mixture

to

the

is introduced.

cement

392

PRINCIPLES

When

of

smooth

to

the

block

can

still,with

line

with

surgeons

is

become

to

more

chisel

to

trim

back

the

and
the

cambium

the

in

trim

to

hammer.
surface

outer

the

to

with

cement

to

then

and

essary
nec-

with
care

the

trowel, it

the

rule

the

of

with

back

cut

It is

be

it down

taking great
If
operation.

the

be
difficulty,
a

it will

cut

or

cambium,

hard

too

less

or

cold

PRUNING

surface

outer

of

injured

not

below

level

OF

partiallyhardened,

has

cement

the

to

latter
the
is allowed

cement

PRACTICE

carefully the

rlat trowel

that

AND

cambium
most

tree

l/s inch

or

of

cement
use
layer
a
stronger
of sand) to raise it to the level
to one
to two
(one part of cement
of the cambium,
after the rillinghas partially hardened.
thinner
The
mixtures
of
will set
cement
more
firmly. If any
thinner
mixtures
than the one
fill
used
to
already mentioned
are
of
cloth
will
sort
dam
wire
have
be
used
to
some
cavity,
or
to
a
in place until it is hard.
hold
For
the cement
this purpose
strips
of burlap wrapped
the
tightly around
more

tree

so

the

be

may

is not

canvas

dam

at

foot

the

of
The

lower

cavity

cement

The

to

if the

otherwise,
fabric, such as
about

cover

the

of

part

then

may

This

used.

be

ing.
open-

filled

be

the top of the dam.

is smoothed

top

part of

thin ;

rery

carpet, may
first should

or

lower

sufficient

closely woven

more

with

the

cover

opening

mixture
a

to

as

covered

and

scribed,
as
already depaper,
creased
height of the clam is inthe
and
operation repeated.

with

tarred

the

the

Before

the

hard,
surface

of

has

cement

become

the

too

in the

finished

cement

the

and

is removed

dam

the level of
be
it may
or
at
the cambium
once,
ing
finishand
back
a
farther
little
cut
a
usual

FIG.

CAVITY
OR

COVER

TO

NOT

HOW

307"

CEMENT

WITH

to

CONCRETE

be

very

present

before

wet

the

stronger

large proportion of the

in

made

are

one

cavities of

piece, without

partitions. Long
one-piece fillingsare
so

not

proper

the

of

cement

finishing layer is applied.

cavities

cemented

this sort

applied

the

to

surface

The

to

cement

layer of stronger
bring the surface

level.
must

either

manner,

are

the

use

in trees

seen

of

tarred-paper

particularlysubject

recommended

at

except
The

for

to

fects,
de-

short

method

apply.
of
that
already described,
modification
slight
only
employed
by a study of Fig. 308 B, C, D, and
will readily be understood
and
successive
These
them.
figures show
the legends which
accompany
cavity.
in the same
stages of work
cavities, where
is

these

particularobjections

do

not

394

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

PRUNING

OF

of limbs
pecially
esare
fillingsin the crotches
Besides
and
the
water-tight.
bolting
cavity
keep
it,the crevices at the edges of such cement
guying the limbs above
be made
nearly waterproof as thick tar or asphalt
as
fillingsmust

The

of

edges

cement

difficult to

them.

make

can

the cement
thoroughly dry, the outer face
fillinghas become
the edges
with
coal
tar
or
paint,
especially around
painted
may
for
This
done
should
not
be
cracks
where
to
are
likely
appear.
the
into
has
been
after the cement
cavity.
several weeks
put

After
be

in

Defects

work."

with
ment
cefillingsmade
Although
often
and
and
mixtures
concrete) have many,
(cement mortar
that
is so
serious
cheap and so easilyhandled
defects, this material
this
for
the
in
is
used
other
at
generally
so
no
purpose
present
in
mixtures
defects
The
most
serious
cement
are
directly
country.
has become
hardness
and
due
rigidity after the cement
to the
dry.
the cement
of
This inflexibilityresults in cracks
appearing across
in
recommended
in
sections
not
blocks,
or
as
long fillings(where
put
forth in the wind
back
and
(Fig. 303 A).
here) as the tree sways
often
for re-enforcing the concrete
Rods
are
placed in large cavities
block
to be filled in one
(Fig. 303 D).
301.

During

by

preceded
draw

period in winter,

cold

cement

weather,

warm

from

away

the

the

of

has

been

cavity may
comparatively wide

unbolted

an

leaving

often

cement,

that

particularlyone

wood

of the wood
Sometimes,
on
a
(Fig. 303 A).
by the contraction
will
below
the
the
itself
above
tree
o
r
even
or
filling,
split
day,
when
the cavity has been
nailed but not bolted.
through the cement
be prevented to some
This
extent
cracking may
by having nailed
cavities with a vertical partition of tarred
out
throughextending
paper
the length of the filling.
crack

cold

On

the

other

wood

new

decayed
the

organisms
cause

the
may

matter

cement,

trouble.

Open

cavities."

in the

appear

the

or

again gain

further
302.

value

can

If cracks

decay.

which
surface over
fillingforms
a
if the
the
and
during
growing season,
in the cavity is entirely removed
fore
beit very
largely, if not
entirely, checks

cement

form

is used,

cement

from

away

bark
diseased

and

further

hand, the

and

Tn

work

entrance

tree

at

which

cement,

or

the

draws

wood

is not
properly done,
the edge of the cement
is not

considered

of

decay
and

sufficient

be
cleaning and fillingthe decayed areas, these may
this
sterilized
and
In
tion
condiexcavated,
(Fig. 303 E).
waterproofed
they may often be safely left for years if the waterproof covering
to

is renewed
this

warrant

as

soon

as

way

the

probably
advantage of

cracks

or

safe

blisters appear.

Cavities

treated

cavities

in
and

as
ordinary
Shallow
time to time.
inspection from
cavities in valuable
be very
trees
satisfactorilytreated in this
may
The
wood
bark
and
manner.
new
along
produced by the cambium
the margins will form
306
rolled
an
A), as there
edge (Fig.
inwardly
is no
cement
the cavity.
across

have

are

as

easy

cemented

FIG.

309"

PROPER

METHOD
IMPROPER

OF
METHOD

FASTENING
OF

GUY

CHAINS

ATTACHING

limbs
chains
by several
independent
A, Elm
guyed
18
above
inches
guyed by long bolt about
B, Split crotch
around
trunk.
the
by telegraph wires
nearly strangled

AND

BOLTS

ALSO

WIRES
15

the

feet

above

crotch.

the

crotches.

C, Tupelo

tree

396

When

303.
surgery

the

may

is not

sap

enough

work

until

spring

the

the

from

most

time

the

the

sap

begin

to

trees

buds

will

work
Cement
full grown.
it is hard.
It is not
likely to

leaves

are

before

if it is frozen

In

cement.

only

the

PRUNING

OF

undertake
tree
As
general rule, t-ce
surgery."
a
when
of year
time
at almost
safely undertaken
any
cold
the
weather
is
not
and
running too actively

freeze

to

the

with

to

be

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

interfere

expand

in the

will be

ruined

injured by

be

drying for a week.

of tree
with
the work
Closely associated
surgery
the
often
and
guying of limbs
indispensable adjunct, is
an
proper,
further
the splittingof the crotches or to check
splitting.
to prevent
the shape and
The best place to put these guys
depends largely upon
This
varies so widely in different
position of the limbs to be braced.
for
that it will be impossible to give very
specific directions
trees
after it has

frost

Guying.

304.

this kind
A
each

of

been

"

work.

simple method

of

limb, with

hooks

the

guying

in

crotch

the

is

place

to

limbs

two

hook

bolt

through

other

each

toward

and

the
(depending upon
link
of
end
the
size,position and length
limbs) and slipping
While
the
of the hooks
at
chain over
stout
one
(Fig. 303 C).
a
link
is
in
chain
make
the
to
taut
a
a
sufficiently
place
guy
proper
then
chain
the
other
hook.
The
of
the
be
cut
rest
slipped over
may
if desired
(Fig. 309 A).
away
from

to

10

feet

or

this

of

crotch

the

of

Modifications

the

above

more

method

be

may

where

used

three

more

or

is
guyed collectively. A simple method
limb at the proper
bolt through each
place and then
hook
link of the chain
each
bolt hook
desired point,
at any
a
over
of
the
hooks
hold
the
links
of the chain.
end
two
one
serving to
The
under
precautions mentioned
"Bolting" (296) should
always
be followed, so far as they apply to boring and
tarring the hole and
of the bolts.
countersinking the washers

adjoining limbs
to place a hook

turnbuckle
is to

to

are

rod

or

be

bolt

is much

than

better

chain

when

the

be

kept perfectly taut at all times.

Furthermore, this rod
guy
within
permits a ready tightening of the guy
certain
limits should
it later become
I f for any
the guy
is to be placed
reason
necessary.
within
of the crotch, a single long bolt may
foot or two
a
often
be
used
to better
309
and
sometimes
advantage (Fig.
B),
single long
a
bolt may
in place of a chain or
be used
the
turnbuckle
rod where
a
in the wind.
guyed limbs are not likely to twist much
as
they sway

Occasionally
order

to

prevent

it may

become
necessary
the breaking of the trunk

cavity leaves only

from
tree
tipping

thin

over.

shell
This

four
to

may
tree

chains or ropes
to the
guy
the top of the tree and having

about
and

of

equidistant around
west

The

sides of
method

of

the

tree

to

sound
be

(e.

whole

a
an

wood,

or

half

slant
g.,

on

way

to

from

downward

the

tree

in

unusually large

accomplished

about

these

guy

where

prevent

by

the

attaching

the
at

ground
an
angle

north, east, south

the tree).

attaching the

guys

securely

to

the

posts

is itn-

PRACTICAL

If

leather,

stout

make

loop

encircled

and

some

to

each
If

loose

bolts)

limb

the

other.

the

tree

half

about
The

of

eye

the

other.

clear

to

Limbs

Two

from

guys

tree

limb

if this latter

guy

inches

hook
trunk
above

side

opposite
adjoining posts
against a guy

two

of

chafing

The

in the

the

on

should

trees

cannot

be

so

of
are

may

placed

by passing wires, chains

eventually strangle the
may
graph
Encircling fence wires, tele-

guyed

be

never

These
them.
tightly around
or
ropes
portions beyond the encircling band.
wires, clotheslines,or guy wires will
killing all parts of the tree beyond the wires
drawn

the

attached

limbs.

the
or

tree, one
should
be

bolt

one

eyebolt.
prevented by padding the

be

to

be

to

eyebolts (or
holes

about

the

up

way

each

to

limb

or

passed around
adjoining guys

be
may
and
two

of

bands

long enough

trunk

guyjng is needed, two

placed through parallel creosoted

from

attached

each

permanent
be

may

the

broad

two

the

of

is important.

tree

loop.

more

limb

situated

only,

diameter

wide,

the

to

material,

strong

inches

to

them

purposes

the

twice

least

attaching

of

temporary
other
or

canvas

at

favorably

or

as

is for

guying

the

or

method

The

material.

397

SURGERY

TREE

the

around

limb

or

for

trunk

in

act

if these

the

way,

same

remain

tightly

great

any

a
occasionally in less than
309
C).
Trees
worth
repairing. Most
mental
ornaand shade
trees
having only a few dead
attention.
worth
are
unquestionably

length of
(Fig.
year
305.

time

"

"

limbs

which

Others

have

limbs

dead

many

or

ous
numer-

be worth
the exnot
pense,
decayed areas
may
particularly if they are naturally rapidNo
decide
trees.
one
can
growing, short-lived
better

than

worth

the

actual

the

the

of

owner

attempt

to

commercial

value

of

it is

whether

tree

it,because

save

usually

ornamental

an

nothing to do with
the decision.
It is generally a question merely
of
esthetic value, or
historic associations,or
the
of
had
has
who
rarity
species. A man
in
diseased
experience
repairing mutilated
or
shade

or

trees

is

may

tree

has

be

able

possible

who

pays

the

take

to

save

say

the

bills,is the

whether

decide
will

to

little or

the

tree

definitelywhether
tree, but
one

who

is worth

the

it

owner,

will have
the

price

ISN'T
FIG. 310"
GHASTLY

to

it

THIS
?

repair it. Often

the owner
will
realize a greater degree of satisfaction by having a badly diseased or
mutilated
hands
tree replaced. In expert
the moving of large trees
is no
longer a hazardous
undertaking.
306.

to

Commercial

workmen
that

employed
few

have

tree

surgery."

in commercial
any

knowledge

The

writer's

tree

of

surgery

the

observation
leads to the

manner

of

of

the

sion
concluof
growth

398

PRINCIPLES

AND

PRACTICE

OF

PRUNING

something
they do know
allow
to
about
it, they apparently do not
knowledge
modify
their methods
appreciably. It is extremely important that special
contagious disease, such as the chestnut
precautions be taken when
a
[because
is
bark
tree
disease,
infecting a
through ignorance disease
of pear
be spread by infected
tools, as in the case
blight, 1%].
may
fakers.
workmen
and
307. Ignorant
for
tree
Unfortunately
who
the trees
and
set at work
themselves, many
are
men
owners
by
little or
know
unreliable contractor
nothing of the fundamental
an
In their ignorance,
principles concerning the life history of a tree.
such
workmen
make
blunders
serious
are
likely to
through neglecting
which
for
do certain
to
important things, the reason
they do
understand.
not
The faker will always slight any stage of the work,
how
tually
of his neglect can
be effecmatter
no
important, if evidence
hidden
obliterated or
by subsequent operations.
few
There
favorable
are
more
opportunities for practicing frauds
of this nature
than in the operation of fillingcavities in trees.
The
proper
imwood
be
decayed and diseased
partially
removed,
only
may
in
the
used
ne
antiseptic coatings
or
cavity, or no
proper

fungi which

in trees,

disease

causj

if

or,

this

"

FIG.
T
So*

ropes

began

in
to

311"
this

ROPING
case

girdle the

were

TREE

left

large limb

for
at

PREPARATORY
several
the

months

right.

TO

during

BOLTING
the

growing

""""on.

FIG.

312"

STUDENTS

AT

WORK

IN

TREE

SURGERY

400

drainage provided, yet

has

filled

been

to

tooth

partially removed
will

workman
hook
he

of

Misuse

break

to

would

use

will

hook

covering

the

before

is

nearly

moved.
re-

the
parable
com-

only

been

ordinary
long pruning
the

his

that

manner

same

pruning
used,
of adjoining
bark
injuries to the young
cay
deand
disease
wounds
make
through which
the
for
In this manner
openings
new
many

and

the

many

cause

enter.

may

has

"

and
use
get into the top of a tree
off the small dead branches, in the
When
like purpose.
so
a club for a

branches

be

material

wholly removed
decayed matter

been

which

from

other

or

by the dentist before it is filled.

the
Too
pruning hook.
commonly

inevitably

germs

cement

has

wood

diseased

decayed and

308.

filled with

fillingor

the

unless

covered

or

cavity

after the cavity

tell the difference

can

one

no

PKUNINS

OF

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

the one
in addition
to
be created
of disease may
possible entrance
that
be remembered
already existing in the dead branch, for it must
not
tinuing
condoes
decay from
merely breaking off the branch
prevent
furnish
wound
bruise
or
at this point, while
new
may
every
point for decay to enter.
a
new
309.
men
workhave
On
various occasions
Climbing devices.
we
seen
firms
in the employ of well-known
tree
repeatedly jab
surgery
it
where
limbs
into
horizontal
their
the bark
on
climbing spurs
"

have

would

easier

much

been

them

for

to

without

about

move

ing
us-

should

be
climbing spurs
if
be best
they
avoided, or at least severely discouraged. It would
boof these spurs
made
used.
were
never
Every wound
by one
may
of a new
the center
come
region of decay if conditions favorable
for the growth
of decay organisms exist.
The
of spurs
should
use
be strictlyprohibited on
all parts of a tree
subject to a contagious
disease
above
exist
to
ground,
especially if the disease is known
in the vicinity. A
limbs
who
the
trunk
man
uses
on
or
on
spurs
that may
lowed
should
be alnever
readily be reached
by a light ladder
which
Firms
do
trees.
to work
to
on
permit their workmen
spurs

this should
and

all.

at

be

The

classed

of

use

undesirable

as

accordingly avoided.

trees

on

or

firms

dangerous
have

deal

to

with

aged
irreparably damleft in far worse
and
condition
indifferent
after
ignorant or
workmen
have
and
equipped with
climbing spurs
pruning hooks
in them
worked
Tinthan if nothing had
been
done
to them.
ever
edges of the soles and heels of leather shoes, to say nothing of
considerable
protruding nails, commonly
cause
injury to soft ami
tender
bark.
the point
Probably the best and safest footwear, from
of view
of preventing injury to the tree, is some
of rubberform
soled shoe, such as tennis shoes or "sneaks."
All properly equipped

firms of

tree

into

more
a

man

reached

25

per

have

surgeons

to

reach

ladders,

on

rojjes

that
and

ropes

practically every

been

will

reach

40

of

50

shoes

rubber-soled

part

or

tree

that

feet

or

will

low
al-

can

be

spurs.

estimates
cent

trees

ladders

Ladders,

tree.

by climbing

Reliable
fi-'.en

Many

indicate
an

that

average)
and

to

it takes
do

rubber-soled

the

somewhat
longer
on
required work

shoes

are

used

haps
(pera

instead

tree

of

402

PRINCIPLES

within

five minutes

thick

by

water-soaked,

cavity

work

it is filled.

clean, sharp sand

used

Tree

owners

of

need

cavity inspected by
Only a good grade

in

no

tree

obviated

Electrical

20

or

attending

injuries

years

the

to

trees.

to

hence

and

shall

be

of

pense,
ex-

one

year.

axiom

the

The

largely
may
very,
injuries of today.
be

fresh

According

"

agent

three

within

all times

at

fore
be-

cement

repair, free

work

in

removed

his

to

one

colored,
dis-

rotten,

be
or

shall

All

(4)
commercial

Portland

than

in the

remember

to

owner

of

contractor

appear

15

by promptly

312.

The

urged

surgery

mixture

weaker

(7)

that may

are

shall

wood

(6)

defects

any

insect-eaten

or

fill cavities.

to

coal

the

the

and

trimming cut is made.

be
painted with
tar.
(5) All diseased,

shall

surfaces

followed

creosote,

PRUNING

final

the

after

shellacked

and

cut

OF

PRACTICE

AND

G.

to

Stone*

E.

most

is local

trolley or electric light currents

;
the point of contact
of the
place at or near
the
in wet
This
when
weather
the tree.
injury is done
of
which
favorable
is covered
with
film
tree
ditions
conprovides
water,
a
the
for leakage, the current
on
traversing the film of water
limb
of
with
the ground.
The
result of contact
wire
tree
to
a
a
of the current
these
is grounding
under
conditions
and
burning ""f
jured
inthe limb
The
vital
due
and
become
wood
to
layer
"arcing."
and
the point of contact,
at
times
someresulting in an ugly scar
of

injury to
injury

the

trees

i. e., the
wire
with

the

the

made

other

connections

by

to

extensive
shade
the

from

various
of

appearance
number
of

of

the

wires.

have

necessary

great

is also

streets

leakage
dry.
creasing
constantly inany

makes

become

and

is

tree

The

"

wire

guy

found

never

of

number

large

with

purposes

These

The

trees.

surface

tress

wires.

of

use

have

we

the

electricityfor

of

use

In

instruments

trees

weather, or when
injury to
Preventing

313.

leader.

or

sensitive

of

wires

of

limb

the

of
aid

fair

during

to

takes

destruction

tests

more

from

menace

hardly improved

tions
poles and wires, and the legal restricphone,
height, distance apart, etc., of the wires of the telethe probtelegraph, trolley and electric light companies make
lem
the same
with
of maintaining shade
trees
street
ice
on
public servcorporations a serious one.

by

increased
to

as

Of
wire

the

all the

troubles

problem

strict

is often

which

laws

poles must
corporations there
trees

symmetry

planted

are

The

best
has

sections.
*

Massachusetts

on

solution

been

the

as

have

states

have

wardens

tree

the

contend

Notwithstanding

worst.

adopted

to

in

regard

to

the

injuring

corporations often
\Yhere
trees
or
respecting them.
the wires
of three
four
or
public service
carry
be little or
the
can
no
opportunity to preserve
shade
of
when
low-branching
trees, especially

40-foot

natural

which

regarded

some

trees, the agents

for
little regard

shade
have

This

with

of

the

the
of

public

some

side of

same

the

wire

service

laws

the

problem

street

lies in

with

the

burying

wires.
the

in large cities,especially in the

a good
It is an
expensive system, however, and those

done

Agricultural

deal

Experiment

Station,

Bulletin

165.

wires.
ness
busiwho

PRACTICAL

it is the

end

patrons

method

Another

who

to

low, when

grows

are

This

trees.

young

of

or

would

high pole

cable

it.

for

pay

that in

always consider

not

injuries is the erection

the

over

very

The

to

preventing

of

bring the wires

the trees
especially where

poles

have

403

SURGERY

its adoption do

strenuously advocate

so

the

TREE

done,

species that naturally

sufficient

be

high

of

is sometimes

clear them

to

be used
for telephone wires,
rather
Large cables are
pensive
exis termed
the "ring construction"
to install,but what
system
in many
be used
to
instances, particularly in the
advantage
may
suburbs.
it is possible to run
In this way
line through avenues
a
of fine trees
in the country
districts without
necessitating pruning
or
disfiguration.
for

years.

many

injury

much

and

Rights

of

way

sometimes

are

system

for

may

prevented.

trees

poles

private property

on

secured, and by this

the streets, much
from

removed

be

to

back

of

residences

the

means

poles and wires

advantage of the

the

to

may
trees.

such

often
difficult to secure,
and
not
rights are
always
are
either
the
service
the
to
satisfactory
public
owners
corporations or
of the property.
The
former
for these
much
naturally do not care
unless they are
and
the owners
legal and permanent,
rights of way
in granting permanent
risk of lowering the value of the
rights run
a
Most
of
the
high-tension transmission
property.
services,
very
at present
interfere
on
however,
private property, and seldom
are
with trees.
High-tension lines are affected seriously merely by close
have
to
therefore, these rights of way
proximity
trees;
to include
of
broad
land
of
course
strips
expensive.
But

"

On

general principles it is

wise

not

trees, although this is often

allow

to

wires

attached

be

to

Trolley and electric light wires

but
of danger, since
to
are
trees,
they are a source
frequently guyed
is
from
the crossing of the wires, and
injury
likely to occur
ning
lightthe wires
to the
discharges occasionally pass from
ing
tree, caus-

to

It is,however,

damage.
the

erection

done.

often

of

better

allow

to

insulation

ugly poles;
proper
be
insisted
although ordinary insulators
on,
lightning discharges.
The

lag-bolt system
best method,

the

not

in

embedded
metal

connection

as

no

case

it will

limbs,
types,

in
for

the

with

common
sooner

tree

is

it may
not
should
wire
be
a

in

some

girdle it in time.
type of insulator

being effective

some

later

the

have

the

wire

cases

allowed

to

be
pass

live wires

When
should

'free

should

little effect

and

from

trees

to

the

bolt

injury

into

There
from

on

is
come
be-

direct

system

is

objections.

tightly around
come

be employed.

preventing

endure

to

wires

cause
injury. Moreover,
block
objectionable. The

all

in

this than
of

guying wires

for

use
or

and

tree

although

better,
In

but

contact
are

tree,
with

various

low-voltage

lines.

Wires

into contact
with
placement
trees
accidentally come
by the diswhere
the strain is very
poles, particularly on curves,
much
of this injury may
be prevented by embedding
the

often
of

great, but

404

PRINCIPLES

poles

in

Portland

for

AND

PRACTICE

guying

poles

should

It

cement.
to

OF

trees

may

PRUNING

be

pointed

be

obviated

that

out

in

this

the

cessity
ne-

way.

of

methods

and
question of wires
handling this vexatious
in
the
and
forthcoming
future,
at present
even
the tree
there
be a compromise
between
warden
must
city forester
or
the
method
the
best
of
and
to
companies
wiring through
tree
as
belts
of
allowed.
the amount
Conditions
and
pruning
at
present
favor
the
and
corporations, as
furnishing valuable
they are
essary
necIn towns
their
facilities for business, etc.
chises
franthey obtain
location
of poles from
the selectmen
with
little difficulty.
and
The
selectmen
abutters
of
installations
the
notify
contemplated
any
in
wires
of
the
of poles and
the
and
changes to occur
or
systems,
abutters
to
However,
given a hearing.
are
they usually wake
up
installation
the
of
the
their
the
tree
lines, when
duty only after
all responsibility for injury to the trees.
warden
He
must
assume
the pruning
has to choose
between
two
courses
permit
or
prevent
either
the
it. In
the
install
companies
erect
case
can
poles and
burn
their
the
to
the
wires, allowing the wires
through
trees,
way
often
trouble
the
to
causes
although this, of course,
corporation as
well
In case
of injury to trees
the warden
to the consumer.
has
as
but
most
to the
access
courts,
companies
willing to put up with
are
fines
for
the
few
moderate
sake
of the right of
a
through
a
way

Better

shade

should

trees

be

"

belt.

tree

-flj

FIG.
A,
B,
b.

Loose
cross

around
"t

c.

Wire

313"

attached
wire

METHODS
to

lag bolt

OF
and

fastened
with
loop
section.
of
C, Attachment
will
trunk
girdling.
produce

FASTENING

protected
clamp

WIRES
from

and

trolley guy
E, Blocks

tree

TO

by

from

separated
wire.
D,
used

in

Wire
A

TREES

blocks;

and

a,
tree

section.

cross

by

loop tightly
B, showing

blocks;
placed
groove

CHAPTER

REJUVENATION
314.

this
of

other
than

to

NEGLECTED

TREES

neglected

renovate

satisfactorilydepends

question

many

answer

OF

it pay

Will

XIX

which

questions
the

of

owner

the

no

trees?

the

on

able

Doubtless

trees.

that

it would

without

in

(Chapter
when

and

cost

the

in

maintain
after

As

to

will

of

such
SPRAY
Trees

like

head

this

and

AND

The

should

remove

be

pruned

superfluous

to

the

open

are

spaces

in

beyond

profitable repair

of time

required

neglected
to

the
after
been

has
too

of

great

to

outlay

branches.

the
a

and

the

warrant

the

cost

breakage

work

done

HARVEST

for

as

filling cavities

TO

lected
negtrees

reasons

following:

HARD

not

renovate

orchard

TREE

years

proposition,
it

however,

NEGLECTED

of

work

aside.

set

general

314"

ter
chap-

question
to

tree

such

as

surgery

do

to

risk

saved

XVIII),

the

cost

pay

vate
reno-

the

tree

on

are

not

difficulty,

discussed

the

to

many

financially to
be
might

pay

swer
an-

answering

is better

one

trees

FIG.

To

"

orchard
be

may

cultivate

due

the
405

so

number

the

to

large

whole

that

area,

of
loss
the

with

vacant

of

trees

amount

perhaps

40c

50

AND

PRINCIPLES

cent

per

too

to

great

have

or

planting and
the

make

with

removal

of the
the

tall and

so

grown

lowered

more

improper
reasonable
of

PRACTICE

each

PRUNING

CF

venture

become

so

pruning

of success,

alternate

close
be

cannot

when

even

would

tree

may

from

their tops

that

assurance

trees

below

bare

be

would

positions vacant,
profitable; the

tree

the

leave

be
points as these can
spaced properly. Such
and
the
of the trees
determined
only after examination
with
fill vacancies
orchard
To
area
they occupy.
young
is by no
trees
means
a
balance

in

even

for the
old
a

cases;

young

trees

in

sure

to

is

area

trees

will

have

die

will
to

be

cut

if their

by

orchard
to

Far
new
PEACH

TREE

start

BEFORE

out

places

are

trees

the

new

of

management

OLD

or

irregular intervals,

filled

315"

the

"

and

FIG.

of

unsatisfactory

old

or

combination

and

be

all

many

given

at

in

practice

sane

will

be
the

say

better
area,

as

the
cult,
diffi-

least.

choose

rule, and

afresh with

young

REJUVENATION

trees.

315.

the

Renovation

problems

other

than

pruning.

"

Besides

pruning and handling of the trees themselves,

several
be considered
in orchard
questions must
tion.
renovathem
the general thrift and
Among
are
health of
the trees
affected by insects and
as
diseases.
tion
Examinamere

will

Jose

or

show

other

whether

trees

are

affected

scales, fire blight of pear

by borers, San
and
quince, black

OF

REJUVENATION

NEGLECTED

407

TREES

and
plum
sette
cherry, yellows or roIn
of peach, etc.

knot

of

some

should

tree

in

the

cases

(whole
burned,

be

others

; in

branches
others
u

spraying

ffic i e

make
to

316.
often

How

to

how

to

recog-

wood

"blind"

and

"fruiting" wood,
etc.,
cussed
are
points already disin previous
CUTTING

the

determine

to

when

even

have

just mentioned,

Something

ails them.

soil, nearness

of

It may

chapters.
health

of the

disease

no

played
be

lack

or

Trees

trees."

insect, such

havoc

with

of moisture

in the

hard-

of

fertilityin the soil,

"bark
binding" of the

trunk

and

(114),

or

that

cause

nutrition.

branches
other

some

affects

Careful
should

the

of

cases

surest

signs that
in good
are
though the

roots

is

in

trouble,

abundance

of

amination
ex-

In

most

one

the

cover
dis-

cause.

is

the
the
dition,
con-

top
the

suckers

FIG.

317"

OLD
FIRST
AFTER

PEACH

TREE

SEASON'S
CUTTING

as

them.

the surface, lack

to

pan

How

t.

nize

fail to thrive

those

be

will

f?

PEACH
AFTER
OLD
BACK
SEVERELY

316"

still

wood
cuts, what
leave
and
what
to

remove,

FIG.

fected
af-

only the

ATED.
REJUVENGROWTH

408

PRINCIPLES

the

around

main
317.

of

base

branches

the

trunk

OF

and

IMU'XING

water

sprouts

the

on

(Fig. 32).

Successful

of such

PRACTICE

AND

cases.

"

While

it is

fact

that

because

those

vate
given above, attempts to renowould
often prove
or
rejuvenate neglected orchards
of an
unremunerative,
especially in the hands
enced
inexperireasons

as

fruit grower,
that in the older
it is nevertheless
true
settled parts of the country, where
orchards
were
planted

FIG.

by

former

318"

ORCHARD

generation
orchards

countless

BEFORE

RENEWAL

and

which

neglected by
for

practically profitlessto the

to

menace

breeders
on

the

years

owners,

had

and

diseases, have

the
not

but

neighboring plantations

of insects

RENOVATION

OR

had

because

been

present

one,

merely

been

also

been

they

were

re-established

profitablebasis by judicious rejuvenation,soil

fer-

410

PRINCIPLES

in these

orchards

AND

PRACTICE

the trees

in

OF

most

PRUNING

had

cases

merely been

neglected; they had not been butchered

(Figs. 61, 201 to
had decayed
204) so that their trunks and main branches
heartwood.
No, they were
mostly sound to the center.
orchards
318. Renovated
quicker to
respond than
often
in

if not

shorter

of the

FIG.

the

usually possible to
time (fewer years)
kinds

same

conditions

When

trees."

young

320"

and

TREES

the

of fruit

is

CUTTING.

AFTER

set.

such
secure

than

Of

RUBBISH

these

as

exist, it is

profitable returns
when

course,

HAULED

orchard

new

the

younger

AWAY

better

they have been trained for the

first few years,
the more
to be achieved
likely is success
and the longer are
they likelyto continue
profitableunder
With
good management.
apple, pear and sweet
cherry
that are
sound
it is often well worth
trees
attempting to
old, or
rejuvenate specimens fifty to seventy-five years
if badly
but
made
older
in exceptional cases
even
;
trees

wounds
may

have
be

resulted

worthless

for

rotting of the heart wood, trees

only fifteen or
rejuvenation when

in

REJUVENATION

twenty

plums

and
in

that

black

considered

are

quick maturing,
borers, San
neglected orchards
are

other

411

TREES

peaches, apricots, nectarines,

moreover

and

knot

With

NEGLECTED

cherries, which

sour

trees
are

old.

years

and

OF

pests

have

may

the

lived
shortchances

Jose

weakened

scale,
the

specimens so seriously that it will be best not to attempt

and
make
a
new
rejuvenation, but to destroy the trees
plantation on land as far as conveniently possible from
the neglected ones.
319. Vigor of tree
is the important point to seek :. age

FIG.

321"

FIRST

SEASON'S

GROWTH

AFTER

PRUNING.

THINNING

MEN

FRUIT
Note

is merely

incidental.

of the

roots

of the

leaves

and

the

during

new

growth

Vigor
branches
summer.

and

height

of

tree.

by the condition

is indicated

during winter
Unless

the

and
roots

the
are

color

good,

412

PRINCIPLES

the

is very

case

AND

PRACTICE

doubtful

of

OF

PRUNING

Don't

success.

be

disturbed

in the top.
by the small dead branches
They have died
of pest injury. Pay
probably for lack of light or because
and
the water
special attention to the suckers
sprouts
(Fig. 32). The former indicate the vigor of the roots, the
and
the trunk.
latter of the branches
Judicious spraying
will

exterminate

and

give

the

water

diseased

the

trees

wood

In

until

has

limbs
every

have

problem.

and

disease

then

that

enemies

Carefully save
and
incurably

dead

all

removed;
those

thin

them

will fill in the

out,

blanks

removed.

been

orchard

after

been
leave

to

insect

bill of health.

clean

sprouts

exercising care
where

of the

most

each

Some

tree

be

must

specimens

studied

will need

vidual
indi-

an

little

pruning,
majority will

the

but

as

probably need a great

much
deal.
Just how
to do will depend upon
amount

of

and

diseased

wood

top, whether

the

the

top

size and

APPLE

TREE

BEFORE

the

ered,
low-

number,

position

of the

Trees

in fairly normal

tion
condi-

and
ISOLATED

not

or

sprouts.

water

322"

in

be

must

and

FIG.

dead

the

of

convenient

re

height

will

PRUNING

need

only

normal

and
excessive
dead wood
pruning; those with abundant
have
be heavily pruned, and those too
to
growths may
thinning and
high for effective spraying, economical
have
to be dehorned
harvesting may
(Fig. 320).
with
When
water
no
a high-topped tree
sprouts to fall

back

upon

light pruning
force

the

have

must

would

water

its head
be

sprout

lowered, then to rely

it would
mistake, because

growths

desired.

on

not

severe

OF

REJUVENATION

being to
growths.

top

force

the

The

points

later"

be

to

wise

chosen
there

branches

small

stubs

in such
of

the

cases,

such

idea

adventitious

may

be

cut

off two

or

once

to

cut

off the

limbs

three
at

ultimately "two or three years

and
not
enough water
sprouts
the plant food
forced
up by the
"

are

utilize

to

at

413

TREES

development

It is not

because

"

is indicated

needless

later.

years

the

the

of

pruning

NEGLECTED

roots.

the

On

placed

sprouts

FIG.

323"

branches,

the

judgment

is

dehorned
has

taking
small

hand, when

other

tops

necessary.

it

seems

fairly good
limbs

may

top

the

on

APPLE

ISOLATED

that

three

down

well

there

TREE

be

AFTER

necessary

to

lower

of

and

the

BEING

it

are

that

say
a

water

main

PRUNED

Here
trees

many

plenty

trunk

dehorned.

So

better

are

again good
needlessly
when

little at

a
a

tree

time,

five years
the work, by cutting out
to do
in the top each
the trees
Thus
should
year.
to

414

thrown

be

not

process

"Dehorning"

apple

they should
less fruit

or

more

is

trees

of the tops

reduction

PRUNING

OF

balance, and

of

out

steadily,but yield
of rejuvenation.

improve
320.

PRACTICE

AND

PRINCIPLES

used

term

of old

only
during the
not

describe

to

and

neglected trees
of large limbs, especially in the upper
by the removal
the
parts of the top (Fig. 30). To a greater or less extent
though less frequently practiced
proposition is the same,
fruit trees
with
other
(Fig. 31). Jarvis has so well
that his remarks
this type of case*
handled
are
quoted
the

severe

follows

as

SAME

TREE

trees

are

324"

FIG.

"Most

or

feet, and
back
*

to

in

over

about

(Storrs)

or

323

20

Bulletin

be

may
be

may

and

feet.
No.

SUMMER

branches.

often
25

THE

and

upper

height
15

FIG.

high

between

one

Connecticut

IN

too

the

by cutting back
feet

AS

61.

30

The

PRUNING

AFTER

greatly improved
A

tree

shortened

by

feet often

may

horizontal

is 30

that
10

or

be

branches,

15
cut
as

well

as

the

especially
infested

REJUVENATION

OF

NEGLECTED

upright

may

be

with

the

lacking

scale.
is

cut

back

cut

to

advantage,

in

vitality,and also those

the
In. heading-back
upright
made
side
above
usually
just
a

trees

with

branches,

ones,

415

TREES

This
tends
make
the
to
points outward.
With
tree
that
trees
more
spreading in habit.
are
and
where
a
naturally spreading,
more
upright growth
is desired, the cutting may
be done
just beyond an upright
branch

that

side
horizontal
the

branch.

If

branches,

result.

this
much

method

is followed

stronger

with
will

structure

all
be

The

severity of heading-in will depend largely

the vigor of the tree.
Nothing will start a tree into
upon
renewed
vigor like severe
pruning during the dormant
The
season.
cutting back, therefore, should be more
severe
with
weakened
With
trees.
moderately vigorous trees,
there
of producing
is danger
rank
in the
a
growth
form
of watersprouts.
If it is desirable
severely to headback
such trees, it is better to do it gradually, a little each
and
A
still
all nitrogenous fertilizers.
withhold
year,
half of the required
better plan would
be to remove
about
of brush
amount
during the winter, and the remainder
during the growing season.
(The effect of summer
ing
prunis
the
the
of
the
tree
just
opposite of
vigor
upon
the stimulating effect
winter
pruning, and will counteract
of the
of the
latter.)With
most
neglected orchards,
of the pruning
however, the vitalityis so low that most
be done, without
fear of injury, during a single
may
dormant

season.

cutting-back will also depend upon

of scale.
The
work
of spraying is greatly
the presence
in controlling the
for success
simplified and the chances
of
methods
scales
by extreme
are
greatly enhanced
pruning.
been
"After
the trees
have
sufficientlyheaded-in, all
"The

severity

dead

and

such

other

of

branches

diseased

branches

favorable

to

as

are

should
necessary

the free circulation

be

and

removed,
to

produce

of air and

the

also

tion
condiadmis-

416

sion

PRINCIPLES

of

pruning
orchards,
other

sunlight.

direction."

average

man

PRUNING

OF

is

it

While

especially

process,

the

PRACTICE

AND

with
is

possible
the

more

best

likely

the

overdo

to

of
to

neglected
err

in

the

418

INDEX

Page

Page

Cross-wise

40
199

balanced

avoiding

Crotches,

331

prevented

quoted
quoted

Crozier,
Cultura,

buds

Currant

pruning
based

Custom

170
74

Currant

287

Grafting
Grape

414

289
293
117
72
144
143

wax

76

buds
leaf

26

of

area

336

planting
staking
time

338

to

299

prune

352

glass

under

29(5

units

proof.

and

relations

Growth

.26, 56

76
116

95

74

Gooseberry
pruning
Gooseberry
big
tree,
Gooseberry
quoted
Goumy,
quoted
Gourley,
bridge
Grafting,

Grapes
Grape

307

grapes
Defoliating
trees
Dehorning
buds
Dewberry
quoted
Dickens,

320

80,

quoted

Grape,
Grape
Grape
Grape,

212

principle

on

Goff

buds

280

training

grape

splitting

Crotch

43

of

quoted

Gladwin,

159

quoted

Gentlemen,
Crab
tree, history
Cranefield, quoted
Country

396

Guying

11

Diffusion

Disbudding

grapes

345

vines

Double-headed

387

cavity

Drainage,

154

wound

Dressings,
Drinkard,

66,

quoted

227
375

quoted
Breuil,
quoted
of Bedford,
Duke
apple pruning
Dwarf
pruning
tree
Dwarf
Du

116
369
364

Hawaii

effect
back
Heading
low
Heads,
form
to
time
Head,
of
types
Heads,
determining
Health,

402

injuries
quoted
experiments
pruning

377

author,

89.
fences

Espalier

92. 116
878, 880
362

pruning

Evergreens,

260

191,221
103
stockiness

on

183
210
188
407

tree

355

Hedges
107,

quoted
of

pruning

Herbaceous

Electrical

92

experiments

quoted
report,
of
height

Hedrick,

English
English

college

Harper-Adams
Head,

106,110,116

of

effect

Drying,

306

training....
renewal
High
grape
training
cordon
grape
Horizontal

323
335

Society,

Science

Horticultural

369
305

grape.

102

quoted
quoted

107,

Howe,

327

training

Hudson

grape

Huxley,

quoted

159
6

I
tree

Fakers,
Fan

397

surgery

826,

training

grape

for

282

quoted

Bulletin,

Farmers'
Fences

379

trees

287

quoted

Fleet,

Gardeners'
from
quoted
Forbes,
Chronicle
quoted
investigator,
French

writer,

French
Frame

bearing
pruning

Fruit

875
195

of

Journal

South

116

of

season

118
affected
from

by

66

growth..

Kains'

shortening

grape

808

wounds

Kansas

Kniffin

Gardeners'

Georgia
Girdled

Forest, quoted
quoted...
Chronicle,
Bulletin,
quoted

280

and

trees

308

quoted

Australia,

Propagation

17,

17,

111,

18

Kniffin

modifications
training

Knots,

188

Keuka

167,

274,

79, 265,

quoted

364
116
811
313
320
314
148.

Knives

170

quoted

book,

7, 20, 143,
Bulletin, quoted

Keffer, quoted
Bulletin,
Kentucky
Garden

138
400

quoted

115

twigs
in
Fungi

170
402

18

choosing:
vs

quoted
Ide,
electrical
Injuries,
of
Injuries, kinds
Irons, climbing
Italian
investigator,

299

quoted

branches,

Fruitfulness
Fruitfulness

345

how
grape

formed

training

125
323

419

INDEX

Page

Page

headed

Leader
Leader
Leaf
"Le

Peaches,

fruit

pruning

237

Pear

379

Pears,

orchard,
pruning

381

Pears,

186

Pear

Jardin"

quoted..

Fruitieres,"
quoted
girdled trees

in

how

to

when

to

damage

Locality,

influence

pruning

on

Soc.,

Hort.

big

cut
trees

Munson

134

Pickering,

87

Pit

83

Planting

Pole

grape

New
New
New

224
369

Society,

Pomological

Nursery
Nursery

trees,
trees,

lengths

trunk
when

to

of

Ohio

peeled
Circular,

.158,

pruning
Orange
Bulletin,
quoted
Oregon
bloom
season
Ornamentals
shrubs
and
Ornamental
trees
grape

162,

Paddock,

grape

fruit
on

training

165

Marianna

stock

13
6

for.

recommendations

219

81,^

aims
-*

41
5
1

38
40
1
56
193
117
3
79

379

by

affected

pruning

Quince

249

buds
Quince
Quir.ii. quoted

116

80

186
359

354,

357

.328,

Raspberry
Raspberry,

76

buds

pruning
pruning

Raspberry,
quoted
Ravaz,

829
400

Recherches

I'l

281

black

279

red

801,
les bourgeons
orchard
old

sur

Rejuvenation,
Rejuvenation
Renewal,
grape

of

307
117
405

273

peach
training

323

worth

397

Renovation,

329
57

buds

'.

sap

286

107,

quoted

Parrales
Peach

..

18

377

quoted

171

responsibility

Owners'

Peach

training.

30

11

Osmosis
Overhead

57

1'
.

prune

17

quoted.

148
buds

by mules
Fruit
Culture,"
hydrostatic

Quality
Oaks,

219

Pyramids

170

quoted

for

life saver
Pruning
a
defective
Pruning,
defined
Pruning
effects
Pruning
excessive
Pruning
in Bible
times
Pruning
Pruning,
injudicious,
destroys
fruitfulness
of
Pruning,
season
summer
experiments
Pruning,
ideals
and
Pruning
systems
of grapes
no
pruning
Pruning
vs

r"

252

mature

peeled

Pruning

157

364

57, 62

shoots

Prunes,

889

Netherland

quoted
167, 274,

buds

fruit

Pressure,

330

Palletin,
quoted
"bleeding"
vine
on
quoted
Bulletin,
Hampshire
Bulletin,
quoted
Jersey
York
quoted
Bulletin,
107, 159, 320,

143,

recommendations

Pressure,
Protoplasm

Nebraska

book,
20,

pruners

"Practical

318

Nailing

57
178

pruning

Poplars

ing
train-

training

grape

fruit

Poplar

18

116

.89,

methods

Propagation

Pome

261

buds

7,

Newman

quoted

fruit

Plant

236

"bleeding"

18

308

quoted

20

quoted
106, 402
260
quoted..

training

grape

215

25

329

Muscadine
Muscadine

246
for

Phloem

106

258,

366

barked

tree

Plums,
Plums,

experiments,
Michigan
Mills, quoted
quoted
Bulletin,
Missouri
trees
Mules
peel
cross-wire
grape
Multiple

dwarf

Photosynthesis

M
quoted
Bulletin,
Massachusetts

57

old

mature
recommendations

Plum

Maryland,

170

Netherlands

in

buds

183

heads

220
.

137

293

quoted

experiments

Petri,

to

large

remove

Linemen

London

leaves

of

relation

17

for.
.

Pear

Arbrea

273

recommendations

Pear

Petit

261

experiments
rejuvenation

29

Light,
Limbs,
Limbs,

Low

190

256,258

pruning

190

Lewis,
Life

trees

138

pruning

modified
formation

Lemon
"Les

injuries

wire

Label

Peach
Peach
Peach

Repairing,
Revue

de

348

vine
trees

viticulture,

quoted

299

420

INDEX

Page

Page
quoted..

Island

Rhode

report,
experiments

Ringing
Riviere,

175,

hair

Root

losses

Root

pruning

Roots,

Topping

106

Top-worked
Transpiration

307

quoted

Root

179

functions
in

transplanting

....

of

extent

Tree

10

Trellis,

Roots,
Rotundif

306
274

trees
of

Transplanting,
Transportation

91

water

14,

pruning
of

16

water

384
309

grape

of

heads

188

tap
olia

14

"bleeding"

grape

...

Umbrella

331

training

grape

387

Undercutting
Sablon,

quoted

Saws

of,

meaning

Scars,

Selby,

spurs

on

107

Unilateral

150

Units,

of

Utah

Bulletin,

54

53

Gardeners'

from

quoted

17

Chronicle

Carolina

195

trees

19

338
170

Ital., quoted...

308
29

extension

15

Stomata

59

buds

fruit

quoted
pruning
Stringfellow
experiments
Stripping
Stub
pruning
Stub-root
pruning

402

Suckering

807

Stone,

Summer

1(

338,

348
117

experiments
non-bearing

202
of

pruning
when

Surgery,

determining

81

grape

394

do

to

Hative

Taille

au

Tardive,
301

quoted

Vine

renovation

348

Vine

supports

310

79,
Thinning
Thinning

by

Ranch,
pruning

grape

improved
pruning
pruning

quoted..

66, 106,

116

for.

220

w
Walnuts,
Washington
Water,

recommendations

Bulletin,

absorption

"Water

quoted

85

of

branches"

19

functions
Water,
Water-sprouting

of

307

grapes

Waugh,
quoted
Wax,
grafting

258,

143

record
Q., orchard
Virginia
quoted
Bulletin,
J.

West

pruning.
Whitten,
quoted

Whip

label

Woburn
Wound
Wound

118

89,

102

170,
341,

261

.'

174
'.
.

pruning

Winter
Wire

337,

grapes

injuries

Bulletin,
experiments

on

80, 280

89,

116
154

1!
125
308

grapes

128

rational
where

343
138

quoted

dressings
healing
experiments
kinds
contrasted

Wounds
Wounds,
Wounds,

259

to

make

large.

133
.

quoted

and

Farm

Bulletin,

Virginia

87

Bulletin,

Tennessee
Texas

302

linemen

Telephone

350

pruning,

Wounds,

Taille

411

tree

California

Vine

Wisconsin

trees

Summer

22
299

quoted

174

337,

pruning
pruning
pruning

Summer

Vidal,
Vigor,

Wells,

106

grapes

Summer

345

leaf

Venation,

54

quoted
Agr.
Sper.

Stone

188, 380

vines

324
.

grapes

Stem

trees

3!

fruit

Spurs,
Staking

Vase-formed
Vase-formed

33
380

felled
trees
on
Sprouts
training..,.
Spur
grape
training.
renewal
Spur
grape

Staz.

14

limbs

frame
Spacing
plants
Spacing
Spindle-formed

Starns,

307

quoted
quoted

(France)
Bulletin,

Hort.

Nat.

South

Tools,

117

149

of

age

Simpson

Tomato

335
296

354

trees

Shoot,

Timber

grape

training
pruning
quoted

158

Shears

Soc.

grape

....

quoted

Shade

15
173

at

surgery

Types

fibrous

Roots,

shoots

grape

265

quoted.

peeling

20

Xylem

170
1
306

shoots

by

311

bark

146,

17
809
89

Year

Book,

Yeomans's
Y-crotches,

884

quoted
pear

danger

orchard
from

366

140