SOIL COMPOSITION

WT=WA+WW+WS ; WA0
WT=WW+WS

VT=VA+VW+VS ; VV=VA+VW
VT=VV+VS

MOIST=DRY(1+w)

SAT=DRY(1+ wSAT)
W

SOIL PROPERTIES

Wet Unit Weight(T)

=

Dry Unit Weight(D)

=

Moisture Content(w)
W
w=
100%
W
Void Ratio (e)
=
Degree of Saturation (s)
=

100%

Porosity(u)
=

Example 1:
A sample of soil obtained from a test pit 0.0283m3 in volume has a mass of 63.56kg. The entire sample is
dried in an oven and found to have a dried mass of 56.75kg. Calculate the water content, wet density
and dry density.

Example 2:
Determine the wet density, dry unit weight, void ratio, water content and degree of saturation for a
sample of moist soil which has a mass of 18.18kg and occupies a total volume of 0.009m 3 when dried in
an oven, the dry mass is 16.13kg. The specific gravity of the soil solids is 2.70

Example 3:
A sample soil obtained from a borrow pit has a net weight of 42lbs. The total volume occupied by the
sample when in the ground was 0.34ft3. If small portion of the sample is used to determine the water
content then wet sample mass is 150g and after drying 125g. Determine 1.) Water content 2.) Wet unit
weight 3.) Dry unit weight
Example 4:
Given the ff:
Gs=2.69
e=0.65
w=10%
Determine the dry unit weight and wet unit weight
Example 5/Seatwork:
Given the ff:
VT =150cm3
WT= 250g
S=100%
WS=162g
Determine the dry density, water content, void ratio and specific gravity of soil solids

NON SATURATED

1+

(1 + )
1+

(1 + )

1+

+ )
1+

SATURATED SOILS

SUBMERGED SOILS

=
=

=
=

1)
1)

);

=1

(
OR

1)
+1

OR

=
=
=
=

1
2
=

1+

Example 1:
The moist mass of 2.8x10-3m3 of soil is 5.53kg. If the moisture content is 10% and specific gravity of soil
solids is 2.72. Determine the following: T, D, e, n, s
Example 2:
For a given soil, the following are known GS=2.74, moist unit weight (T) 19.8kg/m3 and moisture content
(w) 16.6%. Determine: D, e, n, s
Example 3:
The dry density of a soil is 1750kg/m3. Given GS=2.66. What is the moisture of soil when it is saturated?
Example 4:
In an unsaturated soil formation it is known that the dry unit weight is 18.06KN/m3. The specific gravity
of soil particle is 2.75
a.) What is the saturated unit weight of the sample?
b.) What is the submerged unit weight of the sample?

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Index Properties refers to those properties of soil that indicate the type and condition of soil and
provide relationship to structural properties such as the strength, compressibility, tendency for swelling
and permeability.
A. Consistency in the remolded state and plasticity
At higher water content the soil-water mixtures possesses the properties of a liquid;
At lesser water contents the volume of the mixture is decreased and the materials exhibits the
properties of a plastic;
At still lesser water content, the mixtures behave as a semi-solid and finally solid

ATTENBERG SCALE/LIMITS
Liquid Limit (LL)
The water content indicating the division between the liquid and plastic state.
Plastic Limit (PL)
The water content at the division between plastic and semi-solid state.
Shrinkage Limit (SL)
The water content at the division between solid and semi-solid state.
Plasticity Index (PI)
-indicates the range of water content through which the soil remains plastic.
-use PI as basis for classification of fine grained soils
=

Liquidity Index (LI)

-provides indication of soils consistency and/or sensitivity potential.
-value less than 1 indicates the natural water content is less than liquid limit

-a very low value or near zero indicates that the water content is near plastic limit
-negative values indicates a desiccated or dried soil, hard soil.
=

%
%

%
=
%

Example 1:
A fine grained soil is found to have a liquid limit of 70% and plastic limit of 38%. What is the plasticity
index?
Example 2:
A silt soil has a plastic limit of 25 and plasticity index of 30. If the natural water content of the soil is 35%.
What is the liquidity index?

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

(Mechanical Analysis)
This classification test determines the range of size of particles in the soil and the percentage of particles
in each size of the sizes between maximum and the minimum.

Two methods in particle size distribution:

1. Sieving
2. Sedimentation

Sieve Designation
#4
#8
#10
#20
#40
#60
#100
#200
#270
#400

SHAPE OF PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION CURVE

Sieve openings (mm)

4.76
2.38
2.00
0.84
0.42
0.25
0.149
0.074
0.0533
0.037

EFFECTIVE SIZE (D10)

-is taken as the particle size corresponding to the 10% passing from the gram size curve. It is this size
that is related to permeability and capillarity.
UNIFORMITY COEFFICIENT (Cu)
-particles comparative indication of the range of particle size in the soil
=

Cu>10 well graded soil

Cu<5 uniform soil
10>Cu>5 gap graded soil

Example:
Following are results of sieve analysis. Draw the graph size curve
Sieve #
4
10
20
40
60
80
100
200
PAN
TOTAL MASS: 729g
Graph:

Mass of Soil
Retained
0
40
60
89
140
122
210
56
12

Cumulative Mass
Retained

% Retained

%Finer

COEFFICIENT OF GRADIATION (Cc)

=

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Soil Classification systems have been primarily devised to facilitate the transfer of information
between interested parties. In the engineering and construction field the broad general properties of
concern relate to the performances or usefulness for supporting structures and the handling or working
qualities of soil.
Exiting Classification systems
1. US Department of Agriculture
2. AASHTO Classification System
3. Unified Soil Classification System
(USCS ASTM D-2487)
Example: Classify the following soil using USCS
% Finer
#4
#10
#40
#200
LL
PL

1
100
98
85
70
40
26

2
100
100
96
72
58
35

3
100
90
68
30
30
21

4
95
82
55
41
32
20

5
100
80
78
59
32
17

6
99
57
54
28
CC=2.1
CU=3.9

7
90
8
39
31

RELATIVE DENSITY (DR)

The shear strength and resistance to compression are related to the density (unit weight) higher
shear strength and move resistance to compression are developed by the soil when it is in a dense or
compact condition.
=

%=

100%

where
eMAX=void ratio of the soil at loosest condition
eMIN=void ratio of the soil at densest condition
eO=void ratio of the soil at natural condition

%=

100%

where
=dry unit weight for loosest condition
=dry unit weight for densest condition
= dry unit weight for natural condition

IN PLANE DENSITY OR FIELD DENSITY

Refers to the volumetric weight usually expressed as KN/m3 or pcf of as soil in the undisturbed
(in situ) condition or in a computed fill.

METHOD IN DETERMINING IN-PLACE DENSITY

1. Sand Cone Method
2. Rubber Balloon Method
3. Nuclear Equipment
COMPACTION
Any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit weight. This is because the
water takes up the spaces that would have been occupied by the solid particles. The moisture content
at which the maximum dry density attained is generally referred to as OPTIMIM MOISTURE CONTENT.
COMMON TEST PROCEDURE
1. Standard Proctor Test
2. Modified Proctor Test
Description of Condition
Loose
Medium Dense
Dense
Very Dense

Relative Density %
<35
36-65
65-85
>85

Example 1:
A granular soil located in a borrow pit is found to have an in plane dry density of 1895 kg/m3. In
the laboratory values of dry maximum and minimum density are determined as 2100 kg/m3 and
1440kg/m3. Calculate the relative density.
Example 2:
In undisturbed sample of sand has a dry weight of 4.20 lbs and occupies a volume of 0.038ft3.
The soil solids have specific gravity of 2.75 Laboratory Test Performed to determine the maximum and
minimum densities indicate void ratios of 0.42 at the maximum density and 0.92 at the minimum
density. Compute relative density of this material.

MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH SOIL

(Permeability, Capillarity)
PERMEABILITY(Hydraulic Conductivity)
Soil deposits are porous and material is considered a permeable material. It should be realized
that flow occurring through the void spaces between particles and not through the particles themselves.
FACTORS AFFECTING FLOW
1. The pressure difference existing between two points where flow is occurring.
2. The density and viscosity of the fluid.
3. The size and shape and number of pore openings.
4. The mineralogical, electrochemical and other pertinent properties of fluids.
DARCYS LAW FOR FLOW
The quantity of water flowing through the soil through a given a period was proportional to the
soil area normal to the direction of flow and the differences in water levels indicated in the piezometer
and inversely proportional to the length of soil between the piezometer through which flow took place.
Q hA

t
L

Q
hA
=k
t
L

U
= hydraulic gradient (L)
L

Q
= q = Av = discharge or flow
t

PIEZOMETER

q=Q/t

q=Q/t

AREA

q=kiA=Av
v=ki

EMPIRICAL RELATIONSHIPS
For uniform sands (loose condition)
k=10(D10)2
k in mm/s
D10 in mm
For dense or compacted sands
k=3.5(D15)2
k in mm/s
D15 in mm

Soil Type
Clean Gravel
Clean sand, sand and
gravel mixtures
Fine sands, silts
Sand-silt-clay mixtures
glacial tills
Homogenous clays

High
Medium

Khyd, Coefficient of
Permeability or
Hydraulic Conductivity
(mm/s)
10 to 100
10 to 10-2

Low
Very low

10-2 to 10-4
10-3 to 10-6

Very low to practically

impermeable

10-6 to 10-10
10 -3 to 10-6

Relative, Degree of
Permeability

Drainage Properties
Good
Good
Fair to poor
Poor to practically
impervious
Poor to practically
impervious

LABORATORY PERMEABILITY TESTS

Constant Head Test
-for coarsed grained soil (sands, gravel)
-volume of flow through the soil is relatively large
-permeability is computed on basis of fluid that passes through the sample
=

FILTERS
h

A= CROSS SECTIONAL AREA

OF THE SAMPLE

Falling Head Test

-for fined grained soil (silt, clay)
-volume of flow through the soil is very small or zero
-permeability is computed on the basis of fluid flowing into the sample

t1

2.303

a=area of stand pipe

t2

A=area of soil sample

Example 1:
Solve for k if given is
L=120mm
A=600mm2
a=200mm2
h1=60cm
h2=55cm
t2-t1=30 minutes

CAPILLARITY
The groundwater table (GWT) or phreatic surface is the level to which the underground water
will rise in an observation well pit or other open excavation in the earth.
Water in Capillary Tubes
SURFACE TENSION
GLASS TUBE
hC
FREE WATER SURFACE

Adhesive due to surface tension is equal to the effect of downward pull of gravity in the capillary tube.
2

Ts=surface tension

=0.005 lb/ft, 0.064 N/m, 73 dynes/cm

=
=

31

CAPILLARY RISE IN SOIL

Soil Type
Height(m)
small gravel
0.02-0.1
coarse gravel
0.15
fine sand
0.3-0.1
silt
1-10
clay
10-30

Example 1:
A constant head permeability test is performed in a laboratory where the soil sample is 25cm in
length and 6cm2 in cross section. The height of water is maintained at 2ft at the inflow end and 6in at
the outlet end. The quantity of water flowing through the sample is 200ml in 2 minutes.
a. Make a sketch of the describe conditions
b. What is the coefficient of permeability in millimeters/minute?
Example 2:
A falling head permeability test is performed on a fine grained soil. The soil sample has a length
of 120mm and a cross sectional area of 600mm2. The water in the stand pipe flowing into the soil is
0.60m above the top of the sample at the start of the test. It falls 50mm in 30 minutes. The stand pipe
has cross sectional area of 200mm2.
a. Make a sketch of describe condition
b. What is the coefficient of permeability in mm/s?
c. in feet/min?
d. on the basis of the calculated value for khyd, what is the probable soil type?

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

H1
H2
H3
H4

KH1
KH2
KH3
KH4

KV1
KV2
KV3
KV4

+
(

+
+

+
+

)
)

FLOW NETS
are pictorial method of studying the path that moving water follows, where water enters and
escapes from a permeable zone of soil by travelling short distance.
FLOW LINES
the path that the water follows
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES
Lines connecting points of equal total energy head lines

Where:
q= KHW (NF/Nd)(width) (for isotropic soil)
k=coefficient of permeability of soil
hw=elevation difference between at upstream and downstream limits of the flow net
NF= number of flows channels for the flow net
ND=number of equipotential drops for the flow net
width=width of the structure

Example:
Estimate the equivalent hydraulic conductivity flow in horizontal and vertical direction

1m

KH=KV=10-3cm/sec

1m

KH=KV=2 x 10-4cm/sec

1m

KH=KV=10-5cm/sec

1m

KH=KV=2 x 10-3cm/sec

H=4m

STEPS IN DRAWING A FLOW NET

FLOW NETS FOR REPRESENTATIVE SEEPAGE PROBLEMS

Example 1:
A masonry dam having a sheet pilling cut off at the upstream end is located at a reservoir site, as
indicated by the sketch. Draw a flow net for the subsurface flow and compute the seepage. Also
calculate the uplift force acting on the base and the escape gradient of the water at the downstream tip
of the dam.

SOLUTION:

COMBINED STRESSES IN SOIL MASSES

SURFACE LEVEL

SOIL DEPOSITS

POINT OF ANALYSIS

major principal plane

minor principal plane

Area=1

(1)

(1)

SUMMING FORCES PARALLEL TO N

where:
=

1+

=
=

Note:

= 0

1+
+

+
= 90

SUMMING FORCES PARALLEL TO N

=

where:
2
=

2
2

2
2

Note:

= 45

= 0

MOHRS CIRCLE
TENSION

COMPRESSION

MINOR PRINCIPAL PLANE

MAJOR PRINCIPAL PLANE

Example 1:
At a point in a stressed material the major principal stress is 120Kpa. (compression) and minor
principal stress is 40Kpa (compression)
a. Determine the maximum shear and normal stress where shear is maximum
b. Determine the value of normal and shear stress acting on a plane 30% from the major
principal plane.

SUBSURFACE STRESSES
Stresses caused by soil mass
1.

Vertical Stress

GWT

2. Horizontal (Lateral) Stresses

=
where:
k=coefficient of lateral earth pressure
Typical values of k
Soil Type
Granular (loose)
Granular (dense)
Clay (soft)
Clay (hard)

k
0.5 to 0.6
0.3 to 0.5
0.9 to 1.1
0.8 to 0.9

STRESS CAUSED BY VERTICAL SURFACE LOADING

With increasing depth, the area over which new stress develop will increase, but the magnitude
of the stresses will decrease.

SURFACE LOADING

Z1
Z2
Z3

BOUSSINES Q STRESS DISTRIBUTION

3
2

WESTGAARD STRESS DISTRIBUTION

1+2

SIXTY DEGREE APPROXIMATION

1+

( + )( + )

B
z

1
1/2z

1/2z

Example 1:
At a point in a stressed material the stress combination acting on a plane is 8000psf
compression and 2000psf shear. While on an orthogonal (perpendicular) plane the stress combination
is 2000psf compression and 2000psf shear.
a. Determine values major and minor principal stress
b. Find the angle between the plane on which the 8000psf compressive stress acts and the
major principal plane.
Example 2:
At a planned construction site substance sampling indicates that the soil unit weight is
19.5Kn/m3
a. Determine the vertical stress at a depth of 4m if the GWT is deep.
b. Determine the vertical stress at depth of 4m, if the GWT is 2m below the surface.
c. Determine the effective vertical stress if GWT is at the ground surface.
Example 1:

Compute the stress increase resulting 8ft below the center of a 10ft square foundation imposing
500psf.
a. Use 60 approx
b. Use Boussinesq conditions
Example 2:
A circular foundation 12ft in diameter imposes a pressure of 8000psf onto the soil. At the 12ft
depth, determine the vertical stress increase beneath the center and the edge of the loaded area.
a. Westergaard
b. 60 approx