3-Slurry Ponds, Ash, Tailings and Dredged Sediments

Slurry Ponds, Ash, Tailings and Dredged Sediments
Raising of Dykes of Ash Slurry Pond - A Case Study

S.K Singh
PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, India ( sksingh@pec.ac.in)
Manoj Datta
PEC University of Technology, Chandigarh, India (director @pec.ac.in)
ABSTRACT The present paper deals with design of raising of dykes for ash pond by upstream method using
ash as construction material with suitable protection and drainage measures for a Thermal Power Plant in
Punjab (India). A site investigation was carried out at the pond and dyke area through SPT and undisturbed
sampling. Stability analyses were also carried out. Minimum factor of safety for the existing dyke (2.5 H : 1 V)
without any consideration of seepage is observed to be 1.5 and in the case of ponding of water (seepage
condition) FOS drops down below 1.0. All the design details including remedial measures are presented in the
paper.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal power is the chief source of energy in India
and accounts for nearly 70 percent for total energy
production. Indian coal used in thermal power plants
(TPP) are having large impurities and hence resulting
ash content after combustion is very high (40-50%).
Coal ash is the ash produced by burning of pulverized
coal in TPP that gets collected at the bottom of
furnace as well as in electrostatic precipitators. The
coal ash generated from all the existing thermal power
plants is over 100 million tones per year (Gulhati &
Datta, 2005). The percentage utilization of coal ash
in various construction activities is still limited in
India compared to other countries. In view of high
ash content and low percentage utilization, most of
the fly ash has to be suitably disposed off on land by
creating an engineered ash pond to take care of
environmental concerns. The fly ash as well as
bottom ash produced by the plant is generally
disposed of in an ash pond in the form of slurry or
sometimes (seldom) in dry state. Fly ash and bottom
ash from the power plant is mixed with water in a
ratio varying from 1 part ash and 6 to 10 parts of
water. The slurry is then pumped upto the ash pond
which are located within few kilometers distance from
the power plant. Due to land scarcity, the dykes of

the ash pond are raised once it is filled with ash to take
care of further load of generated ash. Typically, ash
generated from 500 MW thermal power plants gets
filled to 10 m height over a period of 5 years (Gandhi et
al., 2000). Therefore, ash ponds are constructed in
stages and the height of dyke of the ash ponds are
required to be raised time to time as and when the ash
level reaches nearly top of existing dyke. The raising
of dyke at one time may vary from 3 to 5 m.
The present paper deals with the case study of raising
of ash dykes by 3 to 6 m by upstream method for a
thermal power plant (4x410 MW) located in Punjab
state (India). The ash pond occupies a very large
area of 847 acres (3.43 million sq m). Starter dykes of
height 3 m were constructed all along the perimeter
of the ash pond in the beginning. These dykes were
raised by 3 m for the first time in the year 1997 and
subsequently some part of the dykes were raised
further by 3 m in the year 2004. Ash level in the pond
reached top level of the dyke in the year 2009
requiring further raising of the dykes to prevent ash
slurry from overflowing over the dykes Therefore,
the case was considered for the raising of dykes by 3
m (3rd raising) and in some stretch by 6 m (2nd raising).
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International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India
OBSERVATIONS FROM SITE VISIT

The site visit was undertaken during 2009 and the
following observations were noted:
The ash pond (Photo 1) occupies a very large area
(3.43 million sq m).
(a)
No decanting arrangement for slurry water
was available.
(b)
Slurry water was observed to dry out due
to evaporation and downward flow.
(c)
At most places the pond was dry.
(d)
No seepage was observed on the
downstream side of the dykes.
(e)
Downstream slope was covered with shrubs
and access to the toe was difficult.
(f)
No toe drain was provided.
(g)
No failure of dyke had been reported in the
past.
(h)
The stability analysis should be carried out
for dry condition and seepage condition both,
since water may be ponded behind the dyke
due to inadequate drainage facility.
Photo 1 Photograph of Ash Pond

(For colour figure, refer to CD)
SITE INVESTIGATION
A site investigation programme was drawn up with
the following objectives:
To determine the final cross section of
existing dykes.
To ascertain the depth of ash at various
locations within the pond and existing dyke.
To ascertain the type of soil and its
properties at various locations.
To ascertain the depth of water table.
A total of 22 bore holes were drilled, some at the
crest of the existing dyke, some at the toe and others
in the ash pond. Standard penetration test (SPT) was

conducted as per IS 2131(1981) and undisturbed
samples were taken for the evaluation of engineering
properties of soil.
RESULTS OF LABORATORY TESTS ON ASH
The results of laboratory tests of 5 samples received
from site and mixed samples are summarized in Table 1.
TABLE 1: Geotechnical Properties of Coal Ash
On the basis of the laboratory tests, the following

observations are made:
(a) The ash is predominantly sandy silt though in
one sample the sand content is observed to be
larger.
(b) The ash is non-plastic in nature.
(c) The OMC is observed to vary from 28 to 37%
and the maximum dry density is observed to vary
from 1.06 to 1.21 gm/cc in standard Proctor test.
(d) The shear strength of compacted ash can be
characterized by C= 0 and = 31 degrees.
INFERENCES FROM SITE INVESTIGATION
REPORT
Site investigations report indicated the following:
(a) The crest width of the existing dyke is 3.0m and
the height varies between 3.7m to 8.45m at
different locations.
(b) The downstream slope of the existing dyke has
an inclination of 2.5: 1.0 (h:v).
(c) The depth of water table varies between 2.45 to
6.40m below the ground surface.
(d) The depth of ash is observed to vary from 4.5 to
10.6 m below the crest of the embankment and 0
to 3.0 m below the toe of the embankment.
(e) The sub soil comprises of silty sand.
The following properties of the ash and soil have
been used for design on the basis of the site
investigation report:
(a) Ash:
Unit weight = 12 kN/cu.m
C= 0,
= 31 deg
Singh and Datta
(b) Soil:
Unit weight = 20 kN/cu.m

C = 0,
= 32 deg
STABILITYANALYSIS
Stability analysis was performed using standard
software GEOSLOPE version Slope/W 2007. The
existing dyke adopted for stability analysis comprised
of ash as the embankment material and silty sand as
the subsoil. Raising of dyke was considered by the
upstream method of construction. Factor of safety
of 1.5 and above is considered to be acceptable for
long term stability. The analysis was done for the
following cases:
Stability of Existing (Starter) Dyke (without seepage)
Stability of existing (starter) dyke was analysed
without seepage (dry case). The minimum factory of
safety is observed to be close to 1.5 which shows
that the embankment is stable.
Stability of Existing (Starter) Dyke (with seepage)
If slurry water remains ponded behind the exisiting
(starter) dyke for excess period of time, seepage can
occur through the dyke. The factor of safety is
observed to fall below 1.0, making the dyke unstable.
As reported by field engineers, such a case is not
observed at GNDTP Bhatinda ash pond where water
percolates downward or dries up by evaporation.
However, internal drains (rock toe, toe drain and side
drain) are provided in starter as well as raised dykes
as remedial measures to drain off ponded water.
Stability Analysis with 3 m Raising
Stability analysis of existing dyke with 3 m raising
was carried out. The minimum factory of safety is
observed to be 1.66 which is above 1.5 and hence,
the embankment is stable.
Stability Analysis with 6 m Raising
The minimum factory of safety for 6 m raising is
observed to be 1.53 which shows that the
embankment is stable.
DESIGN: RAISING OF DYKE BY 3.0M
Figures 1, 3 and 4 shows the components of the ash
dyke designed for raising the height by 3.0m by the
upstream method. The following are the key features:
(a)
Crest width : 3.0m
(b)
Height : 3.5m
505
(c) Outer slopes (both upstream and

downstream): 2.5 : 1.0
(d) Main material (hearting): compacted ash
(e) Cover: 0.5m thick made of local soil which will
support vegetation
(f) Internal drains (chimney and blanket):
consisting of sand having less than 5% fines
as shown in Fig. 1.
(g) Rock toe for raised dyke: As per details shown
in Fig. 3.
(h) Toe drain, cross pipe drain for raised dyke: as
shown in Fig. 1.
(i) Contrary slopes (1 in 500) are provided at 50
m interval for longitudinal alignment of toe
drain.
(j) Rock toe and toe drain along starter dyke:
These are remedial measures for starter dyke
as shown in Fig. 4.
(k) Erosion protection: Vegetative cover (local
grass which is self sustaining) is to be
provided on the upstream and downstream
slopes; suitable lining / riprap may be
considered if erosion due to wave action is
observed on upstream slope.
(l) Free board : 0.6m
DESIGN: RAISING OF DYKE BY 6.0M
Figures 2 through 4 show the components of the ash
dyke designed for raising the height by 6.0m by the
upstream method. The following are the key features:
(a)
Crest width : 3.0m
(b)
Height : 6.5m
(c)
Outer slopes (both upstream and
downstream): 2.5 : 1.0
(d)
Main material (hearting): compacted ash
(e)
Cover: Same as 3 m raising
(f)
Internal drains (chimney and blanket): Same
as 3 m raising
(g)
Rock toe for raised dyke: Same as 3 m
raising
(h)
Toe drain and cross pipe drain for raised
dyke: Same as 3 m raising
(i)
Rock toe and toe drain along starter dyke:
Same as 3 m raising
(j)
Erosion protection: Same as 3 m raising
(k)
Freeboard : 1.0 m
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DESIGN: CENTRAL DYKE FOR PIPELINES

Figure 5 shows the components of the ash dyke
designed for placement of pipes as a central
(partition) dyke. The following are the key features:
(a) Crest width : 3.0m
(b) Height: up to 3.0m
(c) Outer slopes (both upstream and
downstream): 2:5:1:0
(d) Main material (hearting): compacted ash
(e) Cover: Same as 3 m raising
(f) Internal drains (chimney and blanket):
consisting of sand having less than 5% fines
as shown in Fig. 5.
(g) Rock toe: Same as 3 m raising
(h) Erosion protection: Same as 3 m raising
INFLOW POINTS FOR SLURRY WATER
The inflow points where slurry water is discharged
from pipelines should not damage the raised dykes.
The discharge should be at least 50m away from the
toe / heel of the raised dyke by a suitable arrangement
which moves the mouth of the discharge pipe inside
the ash pond. Alternatively the slope and base of the
raised dyke or central partition dyke, at inflow points,
should be protected as shown in Fig. 6.
CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS
(a) Construction of dykes for raising the height will
be done on dry ash pond area. If an area has been
ponded in the recent past, it must be allowed to dry
out for at least 30 days.
(b) The top 0.3 m of the ash at the surface of the ash
pond will be excavated and re-compacted in the same
manner as for the dyke.
(c) Ash for the dyke will be compacted at OMC in
layers of 350mm thickness using vibratory smooth
steel-drum rollers.
(d) The roller speed and number of passes will be
determined from field trial embankment and minimum
95% of Proctor Maximum Dry Density will be
achieved.
(e) A standard quality control programme will be
followed as for monitoring the quality of compaction
of ash as for earthworks.
(f) To prevent dust emissions, the ash will be covered

with local soils as early a possible.
(g) Material for construction of drains and filters
must meet the filter criteria.
(h) Opinion of a local horticulture expert may be taken
to ascertain the type of vegetative cover to be
provided, keeping in view the local soil and climatic
conditions.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the existing dyke, no slurry decantation
arrangement was provided and F.O.S of the starter
dyke falls below 1 in case of seepage occurs through
dyke. Therefore, necessary arrangement for safe exit
of slurry water has been provisioned from stability
point of view.
Results of stability analysis in section 6.2 indicate
that seepage of water through the existing dyke under
condition of prolonged ponding can affect the
stability of the dyke. At present such a condition has
not been observed. However, as the height of dyke
is raised, the head of water increases and the
possibility of seepage increase. Hence monitoring of
phreatic line inside the existing starter dyke is
recommended by use of piezometers. Open stand
pipe piezometers, up to a depth of 10m from the crest
of the existing embankment may be installed at a
spacing of 250m along the dyke. If seepage is
detected by the development of phreatic line, remedial
measures in the form of a suitable berm and an
internal drain on the downstream side of the existing
dyke would have to be adopted.
REFERENCES
Gandhi, S.R; Raju, V.S. and Kumar, V. (2000) (Eds)
Management of Ash Ponds, Narosa Publishing
House, New Delhi
Gulhati S.K. and Datta M. (2005) Geotechnical
Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill Pub, New Delhi
IS 2131 (1981) Method for Standard Penetration Test
for Soils, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi
Singh and Datta
Fig.1 Raising of Dyke by 3M
Fig 2 Raising of Dyke by 6M
Fig 3 Details of rock toe of raised dyke
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Fig 4 Details of toe drain and rock toe for starter dyke
Fig.5 Cross section of Central Dyke
Fig 6 Protection Details of Central Dyke at Inflow Points
The Effects of Iron-waste Samples in the Characterization of Tailings

Dam Behaviour
J G Milonas
Management of Geotechnical and Hydrogeology, Vale S.A (joice.milonas@vale.com)
L F M Ribeiro
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Braslia (lmartins@unb.br)
A P Assis
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Braslia (aassis@unb.br)
ABSTRACT: The geotechnical behaviour of hydraulic fills is strongly dependent on the deposition
characteristics, which tend to control the strength, permeability and deformability properties of tailings dams.
However, this analysis is complex due to the difficulty of obtaining representative samples of field conditions.
An alternative to solve this problem has been the use of reconstituted samples that simulate the field patterns.
Hence, these methodologies not always simulate all relevant depositional effects. Aiming to support the
sample reconstitution process of iron waste tailings, this work presents an alternative methodology of obtaining
undisturbed samples from the deposits formed by the hydraulic deposition simulation equipment. It can be
concluded that the methodology to collect undisturbed samples linked to hydraulic deposition simulation tests
proved to be an advance in the evaluation of tailings dam behaviour.
INTRODUCTION
Tailings dams that were built by hydraulic fill
techniques show high variability in their geotechnical
characteristics. The evaluation of these
characteristics, which changes by depositional
variables and tailings characteristics, is extremely
important to understand the behaviour of tailings
retaining structures and guarantee their stability.
The technical literature refers to the large number of
reconstituted tailings samples, which are made by
special remoulding techniques, for the determination
of resistance and hydraulic parameters of these
structures. However, it is also known that the
hydraulic deposition process can generate deposits
with several layers and bedding forms due to
variability of the size and density of particles and
flow process. These structural features, which are
typical of hydraulically deposited landfills, are
difficult to recreate in laboratory when using granular
samples produced by remoulding techniques as
referred above.
To deal with uncertainties that are inherent to
reconstituted samples, a methodology to obtain
undisturbed granular iron ore samples is developed.

These samples came from deposits that were created
by hydraulic deposition simulation tests in
laboratory.
To evaluate of the hydraulic deposition process
influence in the geomechanical behaviour of tailings
dams, a comparative analysis of resistance
parameters was performed. These parameters were
determined by drained triaxial tests and refer
respectively to undisturbed samples and
reconstituted samples. Both of them present similar
characteristics such as density, humidity, specific
mass of grains, and grain size distribution.
HYDRAULIC FILLS
Dams that are built by hydromechanical techniques
are landfills whose process is associated to the
handling, transportation, and distribution of the
construction material by humid means. In the
hydraulic deposition process, grains tend to deposit
or flow near the landfill surface according to different
flow regimes. The interaction between the flowing
sediments and the deposited layer generates
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6th
changes in the formed layer. These changes are

caused by the accumulation and/or erosion of
sediments and generate distinct sedimentary
structures that, as a consequence, produce distinct
geotechnical characteristics.
The segregation of particles along the flow path is
the main feature of hydraulic fills. The segregation
generates a significant effect on the density,
geometry of the deposition path, and grain size
distribution of the deposit. The characteristics of
hydraulic fills depend on the tailings composition
(grain densities, fluid viscosity, etc.) and the
deposition method. In this context, the hydraulic
deposition process creates typical structural
characteristics such as beddings, depositional
microstructures, etc. which are difficult to be created
in laboratory by remoulding samples.
two reservoirs and a special pump that promotes the

continuous movement of the mixture (tailings and
water) in order to maintain the concentration constant
during the test.
The mud discharge in the channel is performed by
means of a flow controller that keeps the mud parallel
to the channel walls in order to produce a uniform
flow and minimize possible effects of them. At the
final portion of the channel there is a drainage system
to keep the level of the decantation pond constant
by eliminating the excess of water. Figure 1 shows a
schematic drawing of the equipment. More details of
this equipment and test procedures can be found in
Ribeiro (2000).
EQUIPAMENTAND MATERIALS
The Hydraulic Deposition Simulation Test (HDST)
The Hydraulic Deposition Simulation Test (HDST)
was developed by Ribeiro (2000). That equipment
aims the study of hydraulic deposition mechanisms
through physical simulations in laboratory. These
simulations seek to evaluate the geotechnical
behaviour of tailings deposits with regard to some
variables (flow characteristics, discharge rate, mud
concentration, etc.) that affect hydraulic deposition.
The test allows the collection of representative
samples in order to obtain geotechnical parameters
that are similar to the field parameters.
The HDST apparatus consists basically of three parts:
the feeding system; the deposition channel, the main
HDST part; and the discharge system. These elements
are necessary to simulate the landfill characteristics.
Moreover, they work in an integrated manner in order
to keep stable the flow parameters and other
necessary conditions for a controlled hydraulic
deposition process.
The deposition channel is 6.0 meters long, 0.4 meters
wide and 1.0 meter high. Its glass walls allow the
visualization of the whole deposition process along
the channel. The feeding system is constituted by
Fig.1 Schematic drawing of the Hydraulic Deposition

Simulation Test (HDST) (Ribeiro, 2000).
Iron waste of the gua Limpa Complex

Tailings used in these studies come from the iron ore
processing of the mine of the gua Limpa Complex
in Brazil. This mine, which belongs to Vale, is located
in Rio Piracicaba (MG) at a distance of 140 km from
Belo Horizonte, the state capital. These tailings have
a typical grain size distribution that corresponds to
medium to fine sands. Table 1 displays values of
typical parameters of the iron tailings of the gua
Limpa Complex Mine.
TABLE 1 Characteristics of the Iron Tailings from gua
Limpa Mine (Espsito, 2000 and Ribeiro, 2000)
D10 a (mm)
D50 b (mm) D90 c (mm) Cud Gse
Fef (%) SiO2g (%)
Al2O3h (%)
0.06
0.19 0.48 4
3.1
23
67
0.40
Milonas, Ribeiro and Assis 511
Effective diameter; bAverage diameter; cDiameter that

corresponds to 90% in the grain size distribution curve;
d
Uniformity coefficient; eRelative density of the solid
particles; fIron; gSilicon oxide; hAluminum oxide.
a
METHODOLOGY FOR OBTAINING

UNDISTURBED SAMPLES
To obtain undisturbed samples, the hydraulic
deposition simulation test was performed using the
same procedures presented by Ribeiro (2000).
Approximated values of 15% by weight of the mixture
concentration and 15 l/min of flow rate were adopted
during the simulation test. These numbers represent
the common values used in previous simulation tests
using iron tailings in the HDST.
To obtain undisturbed samples, successive hydraulic
deposition simulations were performed to build a
deposit with a thickness higher than 10 cm (height of
the undisturbed sample) in the central region of the
deposition channel or at 3.0 meter distance from the
discharge point. The drainage system of the
deposition path was carefully controlled in order to
promote a subaquatic deposition at the final portion
of the deposition channel.
After concluding the hydraulic deposition, the
material deposited in the channel was kept still for 24
hours approximately to drain the excess of water along
the deposition path and guarantee good sampling
conditions.
Samples were collected in four points along the HDST
channel. The first point was situated close to the
Fig.2 Scheme of the distribution of samples along the

HDST channel: (a) longitudinal section; (b) top view.
discharge point of the channel. For each point, three

undisturbed samples were collected for triaxial and
geotechnical characterization tests. These locations
also provided material for reconstituted samples that
were submitted to the same tests. Figure 2 illustrates
the scheme of the sampler points in the HDST
deposition channel. Their position was chosen with
the purpose of evaluating and analyzing possible
structural variations of the deposit by hydraulic
segregation.
Two-part cylinders were especially designed to
collect of undisturbed samples. They have thin walls
and a wedge-shaped extremity to facilitate their
penetration into the layer. Their dimensions are:
internal diameter of 47 mm, height of 100 mm, and
thickness of 1.2 mm.
The methodology to collect undisturbed samples can
be briefly described by the following stages:
preparation and levelling the surface of the deposit
region to be sampled; positioning of the cylinders
and lateral paring of the core; careful penetration of
the cylinder; removal of samples from the HDST
channel; packing, identification, and conditioning of
samples in the controlled temperature-moisture
chamber (Milonas, 2006).
The lateral paring combined with the use of thinwalled cylinders tends to minimize the impact caused
by the penetration process. All the procedures were
carefully realized in order to minimizing the
disturbance. Figure 3 illustrate the process of
obtaining undisturbed samples.
Fig.3 Lateral paring of the core and sample removal

from the HDST channel.
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Concerning the characteristics of the undisturbed

samples, Fig. 4 shows typical depositional structures
such as beddings and others features that were kept
in the samples from the HDST.
(a)
(b)
Fig.4
Undisturbed samples from different locations
used in the triaxial tests: (a) at the 2.8-meter distance
from the discharge point; (b) at the 0.1-meter distance
from the discharge point.
SAMPLE REMOULDING PROCESS

In general, the remoulding process occurred
homogeneously by the simple deposition of material
in layers followed by the dynamic compaction. This
aims to give the material the same density of the
undisturbed samples or in the field. In addition to
density, other conditions such as water and iron
content, grain size distribution were recreated. This
methodology was standardized with the purpose of
creating conditions to compare the results obtained
from undisturbed samples and their reconstituted
counterparts.
LABORATORY TESTS
Geotechnical Characterization
The characterization tests of tailings referred in this
paper followed integrally the guidelines of the
Brazilian Standard Test Method (ABNT).
The density of iron particles is greater than the
density of silica grains. This property exerts strong
influence on the specific weight of tailings.
Therefore, small variation of the iron content can
cause significant change of their specific weight. For
tailings from the gua Limpa Complex mine, Espsito
(2000) observed a linear relation between specific
weight of grains and iron content and proposed the
Equation 1 to relate these variables.
sa = 0.025 FEb + 2.60
a
Specific weight of grains (g/cm3); bIron content.
(1)
Table 2 displays the results of the geotechnical

characterization of undisturbed samples, and Fig.6
shows the corresponding grain size distribution.
Equation 1 was used to determine the iron content
of the HDST-collected samples.
TABLE 2 Geotechnical characteristics of undisturbed
samples.
Spl wa
b
dc
sd
Fee
nf
eg
(%) (kN/m 3 ) (kN/m 3 ) (kN/m 3 ) (%)
0.1A
0.1B
0.1C
1.0A
1.0B
1.0C
2.0A
2.0B
2.0C
2.8A
2.8B
2.8C
However, in the remoulding process, typical depositional

structures are not reproduced and, as a consequence,
samples display homogeneous profiles (Fig.5).
12.1
12.4
12.7
14.9
12.2
12.7
15.2
14.6
15.4
12.6
10.7
14.3
23.1
24.6
22.6
22.5
24.5
20.9
20.5
20.6
18.8
20.2
18.5
20.0
20.7
22.0
20.0
19.5
21.9
18.5
17.8
17.9
16.3
17.9
16.8
17.6
35.9
38.0
35.9
33.9
36.8
31.5
30.5
29.0
28.4
27.7
27.9
28.2
42.4
51.2
42.4
34.4
46.0
24.4
20.4
14.4
12.0
8.8
10.0
11.2
0.42
0.42
0.44
0.42
0.41
0.41
0.41
0.38
0.43
0.39
0.40
0.38
0.73
0.73
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.70
0.71
0.62
0.75
0.54
0.67
0.61
Water content; bNatural specific weight(kN/m3); cApparent

dry specific weight(kN/m3); dSpecific weight of the solid(kN/
m3); eIron percentage; fPorosity, and gVoid index.
Fig.5 Reconstituted sample (0.1A) submitted to triaxial

test (For colour figure, refer to CD)
1000
50 kPa
100 kPa
200 kPa
800
1 - 3 (kPa)
The geotechnical properties related to undisturbed

and reconstituted samples presented similar values.
In the remoulding process the main physics
characteristics were carefully reproduced in order to
allow the comparisons. Considering this aspect, the
remoulding process of samples for triaxial tests could
be considered satisfactory. The data obtained from
the remoulding samples were analogous to the
undisturbed ones presented in Table 2. The
homogeneity was the only different feature.
600
400
200
0
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
Axial Strain (%)
(a)
100
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 1 Sample 1 -
% Passing
80
60
0.1 m
1.0 m
2.0 m
2.8 m
40
20
0
0.0001
(b)
0.001
CLAY
Fig. 6
0.01
0.1
Particle Diameter (mm)
SILT
SAND
10
GRAVEL
Grain Size Distribution.

Fig. 7 Response of the undisturbed sample collected at

the 1.0-meter distance from the discharge point: (a) stressstrain curves, (b) Shear strength envelope
1000
50 kPa
100 kPa
Triaxial Tests
For the determination of strength parameters of iron
ore tailings, drained triaxial tests were performed
applying confining pressures of 50, 100, and 200 kPa.
Two samples were used: undisturbed samples, which
are representative of the hydraulic deposition process,
and homogeneous reconstituted samples. The
specimens were saturated, compressed and sheared
according to procedures suggested by HEAD (1986).
Saturation was monitored, ensuring B values of at
least 0.98 for all specimens. The triaxial tests were run
at a sufficiently low axial displacement rate to ensure
full drainage within the sample (0.07 mm/min).
The shear strength behaviour from triaxial tests with
an undisturbed sample and a remoulding sample
related to 1.0-meter from the discharge point are
shown in Figure 7 and 8 respectively.
1 - 3 (kPa)
800
200 kPa
600
400
200
0
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
Axial Strain (%)
(a)
(b)
Fig. 8 Response of the remoulding sample at the 1.0meter distance from the discharge point: (a) stress-strain
curves, (b) Shear strength envelope.
514
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Considering the strength parameters, Table 3

summarizes the results of all triaxial tests carried out
in both kinds of samples.
TABLE 3
Strength parameters from triaxial tests.
Samples
Undisturbed
Samples
naverage
()
0,1
1,0
2,0
2,8
0,43
0,41
0,41
0,38
38,5
38,7
38,7
41,3
Remoulding
() b
34,9
35,2
35,6
36,2
Porosity, b Effective frictional angle
Although the undisturbed samples and their

reconstituted counterparts show similar density,
water content, grain size distribution, porosity and
iron content, the stress-strain curves suggest a
distinct behaviour and show the influence of the
deposition process. Additionally, it can observe an
increase in the strength parameters linked to the
undisturbed samples
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The laboratory-testing program here described
allowed the analyses of the variability of geotechnical
parameters as a function of the hydraulic deposition
process. This process is associated to erosion and
deposition events, related to the segregation pattern.
The particles movement, characterized by rolling and
sliding, is evidenced by the formation of beddings in
the flow direction represented by a sequence of iron
and quartz bands.
Near to the discharge point, the deposit contains
higher concentration of fines and iron particles.
There is an increase of the average diameter of
particles in the central part of the deposit, associated
predominantly to quartz particles. This fact can be
explained by the high values of specific gravity linked
to the iron particles and consequently highest
velocities to transport them. These observations
reinforce the results obtained by Ribeiro (2000),

Hernandez (2002), and Presotti (2002) using similar
iron wastes. These authors demonstrated that the
segregation of iron ore tailings occurs predominantly
due to the weight of particles.
In the present studies, the porosity decreased
slightly, indicating the existence of denser and more
stable deposits at the 3.0-meter distance from the
discharge point.
In addition to the hydraulic deposition process, high
variability of geotechnical parameters was also
observed along the transversal section of the channel.
These differences are probably associated to the flow
pattern, which tends to generate small channels by
formation of small barriers that redirects the flow and
produces some regions with different physics
characteristics.
HDST-originated undisturbed samples were able to
keep beddings and other structural features that were
generated during the hydraulic deposition as shown
before. The sample remoulding process was
considered satisfactory because it was able to
reproduce some of the properties of the material from
the HDST deposition channel, however in
homogeneous conditions.
Strength parameters are higher for undisturbed
samples than their reconstituted counterparts. Stressstrain curves revealed different behaviours for both
samples. Undisturbed samples display a fragile
behaviour while their reconstituted samples have a
ductile behaviour. In general, undisturbed samples
present a well-defined failure surface. On the other
hand, the reconstituted samples produced a bulge in
the central region instead of defining any failure
surface (Fig.9). The effective frictional angles () of
undisturbed samples were 3o to 4o higher than the
reconstituted samples (Table 3).
The different behaviour of undisturbed samples can
be associated to a larger interlocking of grains
generated during the hydraulic deposition. That
interlocking keeps the particles packed to each other
and creates, as a consequence, a larger link among

them. The existence of beddings parallel to the flow
direction also helps explain the distinct behaviour of
undisturbed samples. It is important to reinforce that
these features were not reproduced during the
remoulding methodology.
(a)
(b)
Fig.9 Final aspect of specimens obtained at 2.8-meter
from the discharge point for the confining pressure of 100
kPa. (a) undisturbed sample, (b) reconstituted sample.
Figure 10 represents the response of frictional angle

versus average porosity. It can observe that an
increase in the porosity represents a decrease in the
value obtained for both sort of samples. It is also
observed that undisturbed samples show better
results than their reconstituted counterparts. This
difference, which is close to 10% in numerical terms,
emphasizes the importance of the deposition effects
for the geomechanical behaviour of iron ore tailings.
CLOSING REMARKS
The applied methodology to collect undisturbed
samples, which is associated to hydraulic deposition
simulation tests, showed to be an important advance
in the evaluation of the geotechnical behaviour of
tailings dams. Some results have already indicated
this as a matter of fact. However, it is important to
emphasize that this methodology is still at the
beginning and additional studies are necessary to
improve it. This work seeks to develop ideas
concerning the behaviour of hydraulic fills through
the use of undisturbed samples by HDST simulations.
This approach became feasible due to the advantages
that the HDST apparatus offer in order to reproduce
field conditions. In relation to the researches already
realized with the HDST, most of them have
demonstrated the applicability of the equipment to
forecast the geometry, grain size distribution, and
density of tailings dams construction by hydraulic
fill method (Ribeiro, 2000; Cavalcante, 2000). The
collection of undisturbed samples along the HDST
deposit presents an innovative character and
demonstrates the importance of the application of
physical simulations to estimate the hydraulic fills
behaviour.
REFERENCES
Cavalcante, A.L.B. (2000) Efeito do Gradiente de
Permeabilidade na Estabilidade de Barragens de
Rejeito Alteadas pelo Mtodo de Montante, MSc.
Dissertation,, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of
Braslia, 186 p.
Espsito, T.J. (2000) Metodologia Probabilstica e
Observacional Aplicada a Barragens de Rejeito
Construdas por Aterro Hidrulico, PhD Thesis,
Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Braslia, 363 p.
Fig. 10
porosity.
Relationship between frictional angle and
Head, K.H. (1986) Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing.

London, UK: Pentech Press, Vol.3, 1240 p.
516
6th
Hernandez, H.M. (2002) Caracterizao Geomecnica

de Rejeitos Aplicada a Barragens de Aterro
Hidrulico, MSc. Dissertation, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, University of
Braslia, 174 p.
Lopes, M.C.O. (2000) Disposio Hidrulica de
Rejeitos Arenosos e Influncia nos Parmetros de
Resistncia, MSc. Dissertation, Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Braslia, 157 p.
Milonas, J.G. (2006) Anlise do Processo de
Reconstituio de Amostras para Caracterizao
do Comportamento de Barragens de Rejeitos de
Minrio de Ferro em Aterro Hidrulico, MSc.
Dissertation, Department of Civil and

Environmental Engineering, University of
Braslia, 146 p.
Presotti, E.S. (2002) Influncia do Teor de Ferro nos
Parmetros de Resistncia de um Rejeito de
Minrio de Ferro, MSc. Dissertation, Department
of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Ouro
Preto, 153 p.
Ribeiro, L.F.M. (2000) Simulao Fsica do Processo
de Formao dos Aterros Hidrulicos Aplicado a
Barragens de Rejeitos, PhD. Thesis, Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of Braslia, 235 p.
Optimization of the Inwash Technology of the Cascade

Tailing Dump Levee in Permafrost Region
A.B. Lolaev,
North Caucasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (State Technological University), Vladikavkaz,
Russia (ablolaev@rambler.ru)
V.V. Butygin
Norilsk Institute of Industry, Norilsk, Russia (vya8998@rambler.ru)
A.P. Akopov,
Russia (builder87@rambler.ru)
A.Kh. Oganesian,
Russia (pushkin1984@rambler.ru)
M.N. Sumin
Russia (maximilianiv@rambler.ru)
ABSTRACT: The exploitation of the tailing dump in Norilsk industrial region (north of Siberia)
has begun since 1983 with the purpose of warehousing of tails and organization of system of
turnaround water supply. The tailing dump is the cascade type of dumps with difference in
grades of the tops of dams about 20 meters. The technology of controlled inwashing of the
levee was designed and recommendations for stability providing were carried out. The results
of investigations will permit to provide safety exploitation of tailing dam, improve the
environmental situation in the region and increase the efficiency of production.
INTRODUCTION
High level of industrialization of northern regions of
Russia causes significant geocryological problems
in the soil. Only in Siberia in the areas of large mining
and metallurgical enterprises dozens of million cubic
meters of different deposits have been accumulating
for a long time in the tailing dumps.
the further economic development. Taking into

account the fact, that disposal area should function
for 15- 20 years, the main objective of this paper is
to develop the special technology of inwash of the
cascade type of the tailing dump in Norilsk region
for its operation period and make in-situ
investigations of these techniques.
CASE HISTORY
Sufficient attention has been given lately to this

problem of geotechnics of mining, metallurgical
wastes and tailing dams in Norilsk regions (Lolaev
et al., 1997, Lolaev et al., 2004, Lolaev and Butygin,
2005).
The problem of capacity increasing of operating
tailing dumps becomes more and more urgent with
The climatic characteristics of Norilsk industrial

region are:
average annual temperature of the air is -9.4 0C;
the maximum temperature of the air is +32 0C and
the minimum temperature is -56 0C;
the maximum speed of wind is 40 m/sec;
winds with speed above 15 m/sec are observed
during 90 days;
518
6th
the strong winds and snowfalls are observed up

to 130 days a year;
average amount of precipitations is 564.5 mm per
year.
The object of research of the present work is the
tailing dump Lebyazhie, located on the territory
of Norilsk industrial region.
The exploitation of the disposal area has begun
since 1983 with the purpose of warehousing of tails
from concentrating mill and organization of system
of turnaround water supply (Recommendations,
1977).
The basic hydraulic engineering structures include:
pool for reception of pulp and storage of tails
local tailing dam;
system of pipelines for transportation of pulp
system of pipelines for turnaround water supply
with coastal and floating pump stations
spillway system
The disposal area provides sedimentation,
clarification and natural stabilization of ionic
structure of turnaround water acting with tails. The
clearing of water from firm phase is done with the
help of gravitation method.
The constructive characteristics of the dam are:
1.
2.
3.
the disposal area - 4.02 sq.kms

the length of the tailing dam - 8.1 kms
the tailing dam is carried out as a persistent
drainage prism from metallurgical slag:
the width of the prism - 8 m
the length of the prism - 8500 m
4. the capacity of disposal area - 16.7 mln. m3
5. the settlement term of operation - 20 years
6. the height of the dam - 39.3 m;
7. the inclination of a top drain level - 1: 50
8. the inclination of a bottom slope - 1: 4
9. the maximal depth of pool 4.7 m
10. the average depth of pool 2.5 m.
The exploitation period of the tailing dump was
planned for twenty years.
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Since 1992 in connection with the changes in
technological processes of concentrating mill,
reduction of volumes of processing of ores and
complexities in transportation of tails, the northern
part of a tailing dam practically was not raised, that
has resulted in considerable reduction of capacity
of pool. The decision about tailing dam filling by
old (stale) tails was accepted in 1997 for the rapid
rise.
The data obtained during the field and laboratory
researches have made the reasons and production
of physical model of the inwashing of the tailing
dump. With the help of this model the known
technologies of constructions of such type of tailing
dump, were estimated, the exploitation data was
analyzed, the suggestions of exploitation services
were approved.
As a result of mutual research-and-production
investigations the technology of controlled
inwashing of the levee was designed. It includes
the following operations:
the construction of the retaining prism from
metallurgical slag. The metal distributing
slurry pipeline is laid on it;
the construction of ring slag fill in the beach
zone at the specific distance from the axis
of the distributing slurry pipeline. It retains
the solid particles in the beach zone and
simultaneously it illuminates the water
coming into the pool.
The scheme of the levee inwash is shown in Fig. 1.
Functions of a slurry collecting prism in operation
of an inwash are the following:
Fig. 1 The Scheme of the Levee Inwash
Lolaev et al. 519
1 - distributive slurry pipeline; 2 - geotextile antifiltration screen; 3 load; 4 a slag prism; 5 a

retaining prism of a dam; 6 slurry collecting slag
prism
slurry collecting prism promotes more intensive
consolidation of hydraulic fill tails and increase
of stability of a dam;
it allows operating of bottom contour formation
in pond zone that is rather an important factor
that provides winter storing of tails under ice;
it promotes more intensive frost penetration in
an inwash massif that raises its static and
filtration stability and in that way provides
environmental safety of the tailing dump;
it carries out reinforcing a body of a levee
function.
On a backslope of a dam an impervious screen from
geotextiles is being placed. The inwash is made by
sections of 800-1000m in width, after formation of a
layer of tails with the capacity of H0,5 m, hydraulic
fill section is left for rest (10-15 days). The given
way of an inwash already for the first years (19971998) has provided an advance growth of a dam.
This measure has allowed to increase the height of a
dam and the capacity of the disposal area for the next
10 years. Today the top of the dam is about 70 m.
Now, in connection with planned substantial growth
of an exits of tails there was a new problem emerged
the increase in the capacity of the Lebyazhie
tailing dump and its service time. Therefore
optimization of the inwash technology of the tailing
dump was carried out in view of this important
condition.
From 2006 the tailing dump has the second tailing
pond. The second pond is under the construction.
The top of the dam of the second pond is about 50
meters now. Thus the tailing dump Lebyazhie is
the cascade type of dumps with difference in grades
of the tops of dams about 20 meters. Planned level
of the top of the dam is 90 meters.
The constructive characteristics of the second
tailing pond and dam are:
1.
2.
3.
the disposal area - 2.4 sq.kms

the length of the tailing dam - 4.3 kms
the tailing dam is carried out as a persistent
drainage prism from metallurgical slag:
the width of a prism - 8 m
the length of a prism - 4313 m
4. the capacity of disposal area - 16.7 mln. m3
5. the settlement term of operation - 20 years
6. the height of dam 19-20 m;
7. the inclination of a top drain level - 1:50-1:100
8. the inclination of a bottom slope - 1:4-1:5
9. the maximal depth of pool 5.2 m
10. the average depth of pool 2.9 m.
Despite the received beneficial effects of
introduction of technology of an operated inwash
of a levee on the second tailing pond, its practical
realisation is connected with the considerable
material and financial expenses, connected, in their
turn, with the annual relifting of a dam, resurfacing
of slurry pipelines, etc.
Optimisation of the inwash technology has been
executed by the following criteria: stability of the
levee; decrease in material and financial expenses
for operation; industrial and environmental safety
of a construction, the maximum use of capacity etc.
The technology which satisfies all criteria is
considered to be the optimum one.
As the basic technological variants of operation the
following ones were being considered:
1. Operation of two fields by turns, achievement
of a design elevation by the first field, with lag
of growth of a dam ridge of the second field and
operation of two ponds.
2. Operation of two fields by turns with an
advanced inwash of a levee of the second field
and operation of two ponds.
3. An advanced inwash of the second field before
achievement of a ridge of a levee of the first
field and the further operation of integrated
tailing dump with one pond .
Variants of inwash and warehousing of tails were
investigated by means of physical and mathematical
modelling. Object of researches was the
520
6th
substantiation of parametres of modelling,

conformity from positions of the theory of model
tests similarity of results to the results of tests insitu, modelling of inwash methods of two fields
during the summer and winter periods. On the basis
of the analysis of mathematical calculations and
results of model tests the optimum technological
parametres of the inwash scheme of the dam were
defined in the course of approbation.
The developed technology of the dam inwash takes
into consideration the height of a dam inwashed for
one cycle and as a whole for a year, the width of
front of an inwash, the quantity of the inwashed
tails, operations schedule etc. The beach sectoring
for the determination of the volume of the inwashed
tails is presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 4 Scheme of a Dam Inwash on Years

During the inwash process and the subsequent
consolidation the values of physical and mechanical
properties of the filled-up grounds are being
established. The changes of the dam stability
coefficient during the working life are carried out.
The obtained results are included in a database and
can be replenished in the course of reception of new
data about the structure of the inwashed body or
about the physical and mechanical properties of tails
composing it. On the basis of the carried out works
the generalisation of the results is being made and
technological regulations are being developed.
CONCLUSIONS
Fig. 2 The Beach Sectoring

The quantity of the inwashed tails for a cycle was
defined further. The inwash of the dam is made by
gradual moving of the inwash sections 900-1200 m
in length (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Sequence of the Sections Inwash

The schedule of the inwash works is made for the
whole year. This, in its turn, has allowed to design
the duration of the dam operation until achievement
of its design elevation (Fig. 4).
Thus, the optimisation of the inwash technology has

allowed: to achieve the increase in the stability
coefficient of the dam and of the construction as a
whole during its working life, to raise the level of the
industrial and environmental safety, to provide the
achievement to the design elevation of the levels of
the ridges of the first and of the second field dams
simultaneously. That will permit to provide the
required capacity for warehousing of the tails for the
whole working life without building of new stores.
REFERENCES
Lolaev, A.B. et al. (1997). Site investigation of tailing
dam in permafrost region. Proceedings of the
Geoenvironmental Engineering Conference.
Lolaev, A.B., Butygin, V.V. and Kaitmazov, N.G. (2004).
Environmental Aspects of Hydrotechnical
Construction in Cryolitic Zone. Proc. 7th Intern.
Symposium on Cold Region Development.
Sapporo,Japan
Lolaev, A.B. and Butygin, V.V. (2005). Geological
and ecological problems of industrial
hydraulic engineering in cryolite zone.
Moscow: Nedra. 240. (in Russian).
Recomendations on designing the structures of tailing
pools and dams in severe climatic conditions.
(1977). Moscow: Stroyizdat. (in Russian)
Acid Mine Drainage Pollution in a Tailings Pond in the State of Mexico

L Lizrraga-Mendiola
University Autonomous of the State of Hidalgo, Mexico (lililga@gmx.net)
M R Gonzlez-Sandoval, M C Durn-Domnguez
National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico (cuquisgssast@hotmail.com,
mcduran@servidor.unam.mx)
A Blanco-Pin
University Autonomous of the State of Hidalgo, Mexico (albblanc@yahoo.com)
ABSTRACT
The mineralogy of tailings deposited in the tailings pond consists of: Pyrite (55%), sphalerite (2%), galena (0.7%), and
chalcopyrite (0.6%). The results from chemical analysis showed that exist pollutants: Fe, Mn, SO42- and Zn. The study
area is divided in two zones: In the zone 1, it was observed the presence of natural weathering, due to a phenomenon
known as acid rock drainage (ARD); on the other hand, in zone 2, there was a clear influence of acid mine drainage
(AMD). Seasonal variations were observed, and the pollutants behavior shows dissolution capacity of rocks and
tailings during dry and wet season, related to acidic pH values.
INTRODUCTION
Sulphide minerals, such as pyrite, are exposed to
atmospheric conditions and weathered in tailings
impoundments, waste rock piles and walls of pit
lakes. During sulphide oxidation, S and Fe(II) are
dissolved and oxidized, with the assistance of
dissolved O2 and Fe(III). Acid, SO4-rich effluent
that is formed in this process transports heavy
metals and Fe to the environment (Kumpulainen
et al., 2007). Thus, the monitoring and modeling
of the distribution of metals, especially in mining
areas, is an important subject in studies aimed at
the evaluation of environmental pollution (Edet et
al., 2004). Local climate conditions can control
the formation of secondary minerals because the
chemical composition of the draining water can
vary with seasons (Kimball, 1999; Kim et al.,
2002; Yu and Heo, 2001; Schroth and Parnell,
2005). Chemical changes in water vary due to
variations in temperature and precipitation. The
objective of this study was to evaluate the
seasonal variation of minerals which control the
acid mine drainage (AMD) and the acid rock
drainage (ARD) generation.
Description of the Study Area

The study area is located SW of the State of
Estado de Mexico, in the central part of the
Mexican Republic (Fig. 1). The altitude is 1200
meters (m.a.s.l.), and the predominant climate is
from temperate to warm (30 C in summer, 10 to
16 C in winter) with dry winter and rainy
summer (1500 mm annual average rainfall).
Processing plant
At the processing plant, the extracted mineral is
crushed and milled to 200-mesh particle size. The
Zn, Pb and Cu sulfides are concentrated by
flotation, and the remnant materials, around 95%
of the mineral (rich in pyrite -FeS2-), are pumped
as water slurry to the tailings pond. The
mineralogy of these tailings presents high contents
of potentially acidic drainage generating minerals:
Pyrite (55%), sphalerite (2%), galena (0.7%), and
chalcopyrite (0.6%). Currently, this mine site is
active; the tailings pond surface area is 132800 m2
approximately, and contains around 5.5 millions
of tons of tailings (Lizrraga-Mendiola et al.,
2008).
522
6th
in rainy season and slightly acid during dry season

(Table 1).
TABLE 1 Description of Water Samples (LizrragaMendiola et al., 2008)

Sample
PJMA1
PJMA2
PJMA3
PJMA4
PJMA5
PJMA6
Fig.1 Location of the Study Area, as well as the
Sampling Points (Lizrraga-Mendiola et al., 2008).
PJMA7
PJMA8
PJMA9
Methodology
Water and tailing samplings were carried out
during the years 2004-2007. Methodology of
sampling and analysis is discussed by LizrragaMendiola et al. (2008). For the hydrogeochemicalmodeling, the PHREEQC program was used, and
the Wateq4f database included in this program
was utilized for calculations (Parkhurst and
Appelo, 1999).
Results and Discussion

In previous studies Lizrraga-Mendiola et al.
(2008) have defined the study area into two zones:
zone 1 (upstream the tailings pond, out from the
influence of pollutants), and zone 2 (downstream
the tailings pond, on the influence of AMD
pollutants migration) (Fig. 1, Tables 1 and 2).
Water chemistry
The results obtained from the chemical analysis
showed that, for both zones (zone 1 and zone 2),
the pH (acid) is below the permissible maximum
limit (PML) (DOF 1994) during wet, but also
during dry seasons; pH (basic) is above the PML
PJMA10
Description and distance from tailings

pond
Small pond, to the west (250 m)
Rainwater deviated, to the west (150
m)
Water recovered from processing
activities (400 m)
Tailings water deviated through pipes
(350 m)
Springwater conducted through pipes
(1500 m)
Groundwater from mines, deposited
as superficial water in pools (1000 m)
El Ahogado river, downstream (1300
m)
El Ahogado river, upstream (950 m)
Only in PJMA9 during dry season (april 2005) pH

value was very acidic. With respect to the
parameters that indicate the presence of AMD,
almost all of them show to be higher than PML in
every season of sampling (Table 2). Only in
PJMA1 and PJMA2, pH, Mn and Zn were equal
or almost equal to PML. Although it is observed a
clear difference between zones 1 and 2, in zone 2
there is an augment in AMD pollutants
concentration during dry season (acid pH, and
high Fe, Mn, SO42-, and Zn values).
However, even when there is no direct influence
in zone 1 from the tailings pond, and when pH
was basic occasionally, there was found the
presence of AMD pollutants also. From these
results, it can be interpreted that the pollution
source in zone 1 can be a natural weathering from
rocks, phenomenom better known as acid rock
drainage (ARD).
Mendiola et al. 523
TABLE 2 Pollutants found in the Sampling Points around the Tailings Pond (minimum, maximum value)
Mineral species
Ionic strength, I (M)
Anglesite, PbSO4 (sec)
Anhidrite, CaSO4 (sec)
Cd(SO4)
Celestite, SrSO4
Fe(OH)3 (a)
FeS (ppt)
Goethite, FeO(OH)
Gypsum, CaSO4.2(H2O)
Hausmannite, Mn3O4
(prim)
Hematite, Fe2O3
Mackinawite, (Fe,Ni)S0.9
Manganite, MnO(OH)
Melanterite,
Fe(SO4).7(H2O) (sec)
Pyrite, FeS2
Pirochroite, Mn(OH)2
Pirolusite, MnO2 (sec)
Esphalerite, (Zn,Fe)S
Willemite, Zn2SiO4
Zn(OH)2
Zone 1
PJMA14
1.411-3
PJMA22
6.303-4
PJMA24
7.753-4
PJMA25
2.906-4
PJMA74
1.585-3
Zone 2
PJMA44
8.046-2
-0.21
-0.46
2.94
2.8
-3.39
8.83
8.7
2.51
-9.84
-8.18
-28.82
19.63
19.81
7.32
-4.32
-4.25
-11.86
3.35
-83.48
9.24
-14.16
0.02
-12.7
-6.11
-5.42
-7.16
-10.72
-6.06
-11.1
-47.05
-0.62
-2.43
20.28
-82.74
-12.42
-137.51
-5.89
-8.75
-5.87
-7.66
-10.91
-18.08
-70.96
0.71
-1.75
1.24
-1.37
-2.91
*PML: Permissible maximum limits (DOF, 1994). Blank spaces mean no contaminant value determined. 2April 2005,
4
September 2005, 5January 2006, 6March 2007. Values in bold are almost equal or equal to the PML.
Hydrogeochemistry
From the hydrogeochemical modeling analysis,
the following behavior of these pollutants was
observed: during wet seasons and basic pH values,
pollutants remained on equilibrium or precipitated
(oversaturation); on the other hand, during dry
seasons and acid pH values, pollutants remained
diluted or subsaturated (Table 3). The ionic
strength (I) of water ranges between 7.753-4 and
8.046-2 (mean of 4.06-2). According to Alpers and
Blowes (1994) and Appelo and Postma (1999), the
I for freshwater is normally > 0.02. The values of
the I show that water samples from the area are
fresh. On the other hand, according to Sracek et al.
(2004), in oxidizing environments, like in this
case of study, the principle attenuation mechanism
of contaminants related to AMD is the adsorption
on Fe(III) oxide and hydroxides. Also, the
changes in pH can be related to some redox
reactions, driving dissolution of carbonates and

silicates. Unfortunately, in the study area, there is
no presence of these minerals in abundance to be
considered as an alternative to solve this pollution
problem. Seiler et al. (2005) found in their study
that some parameters such as W and Cl in the
Carson River appeared to be controlled by
evaporative concentration, using PHREEQC to
calculate ionic activity product (IAP), and
compared it with Ksp for primary W minerals. In
this study, PHREEQC is used to observe the
seasonal variation of saturation index values (SI).
From Table 3, primary minerals such as FeS,
Fe2S, and ZnS are very subsaturated and are
present in zone 1. From these, pyrite showed to be
the most soluble mineral, liberating Fe during dry
season. Hematite was the only Fe-mineral
oversaturated during all sampling seasons (and has
no presence in zone 2).
524
6th
TABLE 3 Summary of Hydrogeochemical Results

of Water Samples in zones 1 and 2
Sample
PML*
pH
6.58.5
PJMA1
8.762
PJMA2
5.194
,
9.355
PJMA3
PJMA7
PJMA8
6.24,
3.546
PJMA10
PJMA4
4.552
,
4.085
PJMA5
6.245
,
3.576
3.982
,
6.195
2.52
PJMA6
PJMA9
Fe
0.3
Mn
0.05
SO42250
Zone 1
0.542,
0.054
4.25
0.464,
0.054
5.25
5.132
4.05
5.12,
18.85
5.085
0.262
15.22,
11.54
3.45
39.55
Zone 2
4.15,
4.52,
0.486
8.164
48.82,
5.94
3.182,
12.016
5.65,
9.576
3.182,
12.816
88.562,
0.464
7.352,
0.064
Zn
5.0
7.462
2216.45
,
46506
107.
672,
37.56
2883.12
,
38304
17.85
,
10.3
16
7.422
,
46.25
7.132
,
45.65
8.152
,
5.05
2806.52
,
46606
1504.55
,
48806
3786.92
,
2594.0
35
Behavior of contaminants
From Figures 2 and 3, there is observed that
contaminants (Fe, Mn, Zn, and pH and SI) are
related. When pH was acid, concentration of these
ions were higher; on the contrary, when pH was
slightly acid or neutral, ions concentration
decreased in both zones. This behavior was almost
the same during every season of the years
analyzed for this study. From these, the pH in
zone 2 was the most acidic and the pollutants
concentrations the highest.
Fig.2 Contaminants Behavior vs pH.
April 2005, 4September 2005, 5January 2006, 6March
2007.
With respect to secondary minerals, Mn-minerals

were the most abundant and are subsaturated
during all seasons of sampling in both zones. In
zone 2, only in PJMA4 there was possible to
analyze the hydrogeochemical behavior due the
scarcity of information. This hydrogeochemical
behavior is congruent with water chemistry
results, indicating that no matters the season of the
year, mineral concentrations are higher enough to
generate AMD or ARD pollution, depending on
the location of sampling points with respect to the
tailings pond. What it was expected is that
sampling points closer to the tailings pond were
more polluted.
Fig.3 Saturation Index vs pH.
Mendiola et al. 525
In Figure 3, the behavior of SI vs pH shows that,

acidic (PJMA2-2), slightly acidic (PJMA1-4 and
PJMA7-3) in all seasons, while pH was basic
(PJMA2-4) during wet season. From zone 2, the
only sampling point represented shows high
dissolution capacity and the most acidic
environment during wet season. From these
results, it can be mentioned that ARD in zone 1,
and AMD in zone 2 have the potential to produce
pollution through the dissolution of rocks and
tailings minerals, respectively.
Conclusions
This study shows an analysis of pollutants related
to AMD and ARD pollution. Seasonal changes
were measured, during dry and wet seasons
through several years. From these, it was observed
that pollutants were present every season
measured, and that these pollutants are related to
acidic pH and negative SI values. These
conditions indicate the facility of rocks (in zone 1)
and tailings minerals (in zone 2) to dilute and to
liberate pollutants, characteristic of ARD and
AMD, respectively. It is recommended for the
study area, to make physical and geotechnical
tests in soil and tailings samples, in order to
design and to place an impermeable covering on
the surface of the tailings pile, to avoid the
diffusion of the oxygen and rainwater across
tailings, the principal factors that trigger the
oxidation of sulfides. This remediation measure
will only control the AMD, but it is not possible
that controls the ARD.
Acknowledgement
The authors thanks to an anonymous reviewer for
the help in the improvement of this paper.
References
Alpers C.N. and Blowes D. (Eds.) (1994)
Environmental
geochemistry
of
sulfide
oxidation. Boca Raton: ACS Symposium.
Appelo C.A.J. and Postma D. (1999)
Geochemistry, groundwater and pollution.
Rotterdam: Balkema.
from zone 1, SI was near neutral, and the pH was

Edet A.E., Merkel B. J. and Offiong O. E. (2004)
Contamination risk assessment of fresh
groundwater using the distribution and chemical
speciation of some potentially toxic elements in
Calabar (southern Nigeria). Environmental
Geology, 45: 1025-1035.
Kimball B.A. (1999): Seasonal variation in metal
concentrations in a stream affected by acid mine
drainage, St. Kevin Gulch, Colorado. In:
Filipek, L.H., Plumlee G.S. (Eds.), The
Environmental Geochemistry of Mineral
Deposits. Part B: Case Studies and Research
Topics. Reviews in Economic Geology, vol. 6B.
Society of Economic Geologists, Littleton, CO:
467-477.
Kim J.J., Kim S.J., Tazaki K. (2002):
Mineralogical characterization of microbial
ferrihydrite and schwertmannite, and nonbiogenic Al-sulfate precipitates from acid
drainage in the Donghae mine area, Korea.
Environmental Geology, 42: 19-31.
Kumpulainen S., Carlson L., Risnen M.L.
(2007): Seasonal variations of ochreous
precipitates in mine effluents in Finland.
Applied Geochemistry, 22: 760-777.
Lizrraga-Mendiola L., Gonzlez-Sandoval M.R.,
Durn-Domnguez M.C. & Mrquez C. (2008):
Geochemical behavior in a Zn-Pb-Cu mining
area in the State of Mexico (Central Mexico).
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.
Vol. 155(1): 355-372. DOI 10.1007/s10661008-0440-1. ISSN 0167-6369 (Printed), 15732959 (Online).
Parkhurst, D.L. Appelo, C.A.J. (1999): Users
Guide to PHREEQC (Version 2)-A computer
program for speciation, batch-reaction, onedimensional transport, and inverse geochemical
calculations. Water Resources Investigations
Report 99-4259.
Schroth A.W., Parnell Jr. R.A. (2005): Trace
metal retention through the schwertmannite to
goethite transformation as observed in a field
settings, Alta Mine, MT. Applied Geochemistry,
20: 907-917.
Seiler R. L., Stollenwerk K. G., Garbarino J. R.
(2005):
Factors
controlling
tungsten
526
6th
concentrations in ground water, Carson Desert,

Nevada. Applied Geochemistry, 20: 423-441.
Sracek O., Bhattacharya P., Jacks G., Gustafsson
J. P., von Brmssen M. (2004): Behavior of
arsenic and geochemical modeling of arsenic
enrichment in aqueous environments. Applied

Geochemistry, 19: 169-180.
Yu J.Y., Heo B. (2001): Dilution and removal of
dissolved metals from acid mine drainage along
Imgok Creek, Korea. Applied Geochemistry, 16:
1041-1053.
Slope Stability Analysis of Lined Waste Containment System

Embankment Using A Simple Optimization Tool
SARAT KUMAR DAS
National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India (saratdas@rediffmail.com)
Manas Ranjan Das
ITER, SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India (manasdas.iter@gmail.com)
Rajanikanta Biswal
School of Technology, KIIT University, India (rajanibiswal62@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT The slope stability analysis of lined waste containment system embankment is done using
wedge analysis to find out the minimum factor of safety and the critical surface. The above procedure can be
done by trial and error or by using the concept of optimization problem. Nevertheless, for design of
embankment of waste containment system, use of very elaborate optimization method is not required.
Keeping this in view, in this paper a spread sheet based optimization tool has been used to select the critical
failure surface and the minimum factor of safety.
INTRODUCTION
The stability of slopes of waste containment
systems is one of the most important parameter for
the design of waste containment system, like
hydraulic conductivity of clay liner (Sharma &
Reddy 2004). The stability of slopes needs to be
considered both for with and without seismic
condition. The observation of down-slope
movement in landfills during the Loma Prieta
(1989), Northridge (1994), and Nisqually (2001)
earthquakes is of major concern for the design of
waste containment system. The factor of safety of
1.5 is considered without seismic load and with
seismic load FOS of 1.1 is found to be satisfactory.
Though different dynamic analysis are also in use
for the analysis and design of slope of waste
containment system, limit equilibrium method
using pseudo-static is still most popular due to its
simplicity and reliability. As limit equilibrium
method does not consider the magnitude of the
displacement of the slope, the method cannot find
out the structural failure due to sum of all
displacements. However, it is assumed that taking
a FOS of 1.1, provides a degree of certainty that
slope is sufficiently stable and permanent

displacement will not occur as the yield
acceleration will not exceed. If the FOS is less
than 1.0, then seismic deformation analysis will be
required to find out the permanent deformation.
The commonly used limit equilibrium methods are
an upper bound type of solution as per limit
analysis. In the stability analysis of slopes, it is
usual to assume that for practical purposes the
problem can be considered as two dimensional. In
the limit equilibrium method only the concept of
statics is applied. Slope stability problem,
however is in general statically indeterminate. As
a result, some simplifying assumptions are to be
made so that unique factor of safety can be
evaluated. The differences between various limit
equilibrium methods of analysis relate to the
assumptions that are made in order to achieve
statically determinacy and the particular
conditions of equilibrium that are satisfied. The
shape of the potential slip surface may be quite
irregular depending on the homogeneity of the
slope material. This is particularly true in natural
slopes where joints and fractures dictate the
locations of the failure surface. If some planes of
weakness exist, most critical slip surface will
probably be a series of planes passing through the
528
6th
weak strata. In some cases, a combination of plane,

cylindrical, and other irregular failure surfaces
may also exist (Huang, 1983).
The slope stability analysis of lined waste
containment system embankment are done using
wedge analysis, mostly with single or two wedge
to find out the minimum factor of safety and the
critical surface. The above procedure can be done
by trial and error or by using the concept of
optimization problem.
The analysis of the
optimization problem can be considered in two
stages: (i) development of objective function and
(ii) application of suitable optimization technique
in solving the objective function. Although the
optimization
techniques
in
geotechnical
engineering is being used since 1960s still it is
being used in large offices and projects due to
expensive software and the skill required for the
same. However, it is important that the
optimization schemes should be affordable and
simple to be followed by the professional
engineers.
Nevertheless,
for
design
of
embankment of waste containment system, use of
very elaborate optimization method is not required.
Keeping this in view, in this paper a three wedge
failure surface is considered and a spread sheet
based optimization tool has been used to select the
critical failure surface and the minimum factor of
safety. Charts for factor of safety based on the
above parameters have been presented for ready
references.
METHODOLOGY
The development of limit equilibrium as
optimization problem is straight forward,
consisting of (i) development of objective function
and (ii) selection of optimization technique.
Development of objective function is based on
different stability analysis method and shape
(circular, wedge and noncircular) of the sliding
mass the slope. In design, the shape of the
unknown slip surface is generally assumed while
the location is determined by some trial and error
procedure. The wedge type of slip surface is more
appropriate for slopes, where critical potential slip
surface includes a relatively long linear segment
through a weak material bounded by stronger
material. A relatively strong levee embankment

founded on weaker, stratified alluvial soils and the
cover to a lined waste containment system are
common example of such slopes (Huang 1983).
Development of objective function
In the present study, the three-wedge method for
stability analysis of slopes (Huang, 1983) is used
for the development of objective function. This is
a force equilibrium method and development of
the equations used for the analysis is described in
details in Huang (1983). Figure 1 shows a typical
geometry for the three-wedge slope failure. It
consists of active wedge, passive wedge and a
central wedge. Figure 2 shows the free body
diagram for the three wedge method.
Figure 1 Typical three-wedge failure surface of a slope
Figure 2 The free-body diagram for three-wedge

method
The details about the formulation and the

governing equations have been elaborated in
Huang (1983) and Das (2005). The optimization
method may be described as finding out the
minimum factor safety which in mathematical
programming form it can be written as:
Das, Das and Biswal
Min F:
Subjected to
529
sensitivity analysis results also can be displayed

by the command sensitivity
( P1 P2 ) cosId N 3 sin T ruW3 cosT sin T

T3 cosT3 CsW3 0.
(1)
The variables (design vectors) are l1, l2, l3,

and the application dependant
input parameters are slope angle (E), cohesion (ci),
height of slope (H), angle of internal friction
(Ipore pressure parameter(ru) and seismic
acceleration coefficient Cs..
As per physically condition it is found that the
direction of the Ti should be positive (Huang,
1983), and the kinematical conditions are applied
for the geometry of the failure surface.
TTT and F
l1 u cos T1 l 2 cos T 2 l3 cos T 3 t H / tan E

l1 u sin T1 l 2 sin T 2 l3 sin T 3 H
(2)
E t T1
(4)
(5)
Ti t 0.0; i = 1,2,3
(3)
The above optimization problem is implemented

using solver of MS Excel. Figure 3 shows the preprocessing with necessary inputs/ parameters for
the slope and optimization box in the inset. The
target cell to be minimized is selected in Set
Target Cell, then it is clicked for Min, the
variable like the geometry of length and angle of
wedges are selected for Guess. The necessary
constraints are added one by one by the command
Add and then it is clicked Solve to find out the
optimum value.
Fig.3 Optimization model using Microsoft Excel

showing the pre-processing
Figure 4 shows the optimized value with the

window Solver Results in the inset. The
Fig.4 Optimization model using Microsoft Excel

showing the optimized values
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The three wedge stability analysis are
implemented for different example problems using
the above methodology. Table 1 presents a
comparison of the results of a slope with height
12m, cohesion c 15kN/m2, slope angle 450 and
angle of internal friction (I) as 250 using genetic
algorithm (Das 2005) and present method. It can
be seen that results are comparable with seismic
case and more for without seismic coefficient.
This variation is expected as a generalized reduced
gradient optimization algorithm used in MSExcel
is a initial point dependent (Deb 1995).
TABLE 1
Comparison of factor of safety (FOS)
using GA and the present method
Examples
Cs
0.00
FOS
using
GA
1.202
FOS
(Present
method)
1.552
0.10
1.060
1.066
0.16
1.000
1.000
The method is applied to other examples with

seismic coefficient (Cs) values of 0.1, 0.16, 0.24
and 0.32 keeping in mind the seismic coefficients
for corresponding to earthquake zones, II, III, IV
and V as per Indian standard for Earth quake
design of structure IS: 1893(2002).
530
6th
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents determination of factor of
safety of slopes of waste containment system
using three wedge method in conjunction with a
simple optimization tool based on spread sheet
based software. It was found that the method is
efficient in finding out the factor of safety with
good precision. Few charts are presented to find
out the factor of safety for different seismic zones
of India.
Fig.5
Variation of factor of safety with C/JH for
different seismic zones of India.
Figure 5 shows the variation of FOS with C/JH

for different seismic coefficient (zones), for a
slope angle of 300 and I value of 300. As expected
with increase in C/JH the FOS increases and
decreases with increase in Cs values. Similar
charts can be prepared for other values of slope
angle and I values. As discussed previously the
FOS should be more than 1.1 with seismic loads,
it was observed that all the slopes with C/JH >
0.1 are safe.
REFERENCES
Das S.K. (2005) Slope stability analysis using
genetic algorithm Electronic Journal of
geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 1.
Deb K. (1995) Optimization for Engineering
Design Algorithms and Examples, PrenticeHall of India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,.
Huang Y.H. (1983) Stability analysis of slopes.
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, USA.
IS 1893: 2002 Criteria for earthquake resistant
design of structures: Part1 general provisions
and buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards New
Delhi, India.
Jade S. and K.D. Shanker (1995) Modelling of
slope failure using a global optimization
technique, Engineering Optimization, Vol. 23,
No.2, pp. 255-266.
Sharma,
H.D.
and
Reddy
K.R.(2004)
Geoenvironmental
Engineering:
Site
Remediation, Waste Containment and Emerging
Waste Management Technologies, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Fig.6 Variation of factor of safety with slope angle (E)

for different seismic zones of India.
Similarly for C/JH, the variation of FOS with

different slope angle in different seismic zone is
shown in Fig. 6. As expected the FOS decreases
with increases in slope angle and seismic
coefficient. So a design office can generate such
ready to use charts for most possible cases of
C/JH, E and I.
Gainful Use of Solid Industrial Wastes as Resource Geo-Material for

Embankment Construction
A.Ghsoh
A.Ghosh
Scientist, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarkhand, India,(aghoshcbri@yahoo.com)
S.K.Jain
Scientist, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarkhand, India,(skj195@gmail.com)
Dalip Kumar
Technical officer, Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarkhand, India,(dalip.cbri@yahoo.com)
Anand Singh Kalura and Shaifaly Sharma
Proj. asstt. Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee, Uttarkhand, India,
(ShaifalySharma1@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT Amongst the various solid industrial wastes Ash, and Redmud are generated in huge
quantities. Ash generally is mixed with water and is discharged in the form of slurry in the settling
pond. The waste settles through the sedimentation process in the pond. The excess water is
decanted out of the pond and recycled. Red mud is disposed off through dumpers in the red mud
pond which flows like a viscous fluid by gravity in the pond. Investigations were carried out to
explore the possibility of utilising these wastes as resource geo-material for civil engineering
constructions. In this paper utilisation of ash, and red mud has been discussed.
INTRODUCTION
With the industrialisation the country is producing
a variety of waste materials which are rejected by
the industries due to the lack of proper utilization
technology. Two major wastes e.g Ash from the
thermal power plant and Redmud from the
aluminum plant has been gainfully utilized for civil
engineering construction purposes. The utilization
is briefly described below.
ASH UTILISATION
Generation of ever increasing quantities of ash, as a
result of combustion of coal, poses serious threat to
the eco-system. Dumping, disposal and utilisation
of growing tonnage of this waste from thermal
power plants, commonly known as Flyash, is a
challenging task particularly as not more than 5
percent of it has been put to gainful use in the
country till 1993 94 which was increased to 15%
as result of concerted efforts [Kumar et al (2001)].
Recently due to the use of flyash to produce PPC
the utilisation of ash has gone up to nearly 30%.

However for civil engineering purposes ash could
be used as:
1. Backfill material
2. Material for construction of embankment
or road etc
3. Abandoned ash pond could be reclaimed
for human habitation purposes.
Reclamation Of Abandoned Ponds For Human
Settlements
Most of the flyash is disposed off in specially
designed ash ponds, which are subsequently
abandoned. This has resulted in the growth of a
number of ash ponds in the vicinity of thermal
power plants and in some cases close to urban
settlements. According to a recent estimate, over
1,00,000 acres of land is required for flyash
dumping over a span of 30 years to cope with the
present flyash generation rate of 110 million tons
annually.
532
6th
Previous work
Abandoned flyash ponds have no monetary value.
In view of the urban sprawl, several of these
abandoned pond sites have adequate potential for
development for human habitation. Such approach
would also bring about an overall development of
the area with added advantages of conservation of
land resources and abatement of pollution hazards.
It is reported that >Ballisager et al
(1981),Havukainen (1983), Ueshita et al (1990)@
flyash ponds have been used for various uses like
parking lots, grazing fields, play grounds including
golf courses, picnic spots etc. However, practically
no example is known to exist indicating the
reclamation of flyash disposal sites for human
settlement.
In India, isolated examples are
available where attempts have been made for the
construction of small structures over ash fills.
Aforestation has also been attempted over such fills
to develop green belt.
Demonstration site
Couple of abandoned ash ponds were visited and
discussions were held with owner of such ponds.
Finally, for the construction of demonstration
dwelling units abandoned ash pond at National
Fertilisers Ltd, Panipat was selected.
Methodology
Samples of flyash from different profiles and
locations from the site were collected for laboratory
evaluation.
(a) Laboratory study- Engineering Properties
Direct shear test

Grain size analysis test
Proctor density test
Attreberg's Limit test
(b) Field study
The exploration program comprising of the

following activities were drawn and executed:
Boring through the entire depth of flyash
plus about 3m in the virgin soil.
Standard Penetration Test.
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test.
Open pit excavation.
Plate Load Test.
Full scale foundation test.
Studies for spatial variability
Panipat Ash Pond Site Field Tests
Three Dynamic Cone Penetration Tests (DCPT)
were carried out. The minimum and maximum
value of the same varies between 3 to 15 blow
count. The depth of the flyash was found to be
around 12.0m. Beyond the depth of the flyash mass
the DCPT value reaches to refusal.
One bore hole upto the virgin ground ( depth 13.0m
approx.) was made and Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) was carried out in the bore hole. The
minimum and maximum N value varies between 2
to 8 within the flyash mass. The same attains the
refusal value in the soil deposit below the flyash.
Plate Load Tests (PLT) were carried out with 30 x
30 cm and 45 x 45 cm plate in the virgin deposit of
flyash and on the stabilized bed as well. The
stabilized test beds were treated with grout
columns. The result is summarized in Table 1.
Full Scale Foundation Test
Full scale foundation system comprising of four
full scale isolated footings connected at the top
with inverted T beam were constructed. The
loading was done in stages for three days. The
foundation system collapsed at the load intensity of
38.75 t/m2 showing punching shear failure mode.
Laboratory Test - Direct Shear Test

Direct shear tests were carried out on the samples
collected from the different horizons. The shear
parameters are given below in the Table 2.
Ghosh et al.
CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLINGS
After completing the field and laboratory
investigations construction activities were under
taken at site. The aim was to follow the
conventional procedure of construction as closely
as possible. Five full scale residential units have
been constructed at the ash pond at Panipat. One
has been constructed as double storey unit.
All the buildings were monitored for a period of
two years. Maximum settlement of the order of 12
mm was observed (Ghosh et al 1999).
ASH AS BACKFILL MATERIAL
Ash being light weight material and at the same
time because it has reasonably high friction angle it
turns out to be an excellent material for backfill
purposes. The pressure exerted on the retaining
wall is much less as compared to soil backfill. As a
result taller retaining with less cross-sectional
dimensions can be constructed. 10.0m high RCC
retaining wall, 1.1 K.M long holding 1.8 million
cubic metre of ash as backfill was designed. The
retaining wall was instrumented at different
sections. Tilt and lateral displacement of the wall
was monitored. The wall is functioning
satisfactorily (Ghosh et al 2006).
ASH AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL FOR
EMBANKMENT
Utilising the excellent shear properties of ash
embankment for the ash ponds was designed. Local
soil was also used for the construction purpose.
Alternate layers of soil and ash was placed, rolled
and compacted. As high as 60.0 m tall embankment
has been contrasted to store the ash slurry. The
embankment was constructed by stage incremental
method.
REDMUD UTILISATION
The bauxite residue commonly known as redmud is
one of the major industrial waste in this country.
The aluminium manufacturing plants everywhere
533
in the world is facing the problem of redmud

utilisation and disposal. In this country too the
utilisation of redmud is practically non existent
primarily because the plants producing the redmud
are disposing it in the redmud pond and once the
ponds are filled up to its full capacity a new pond is
opened up. Sporadic attempts were made to utilise
the waste for manufacturing building component
but could not be successfully commercialised.
Redmud and ash collected from a plant has been
mixed in the equal proportion (Redmud : Ash ::50 :
50) and embankment has been designed to raise the
height of the redmud storage pond. The
engineering properties of the (1) Ash, (2) Redmud
and (3) the mixture is given in table 3 - 5.
Stability Analysis
The embankments so designed were checked
against slope failure. Limit equilibrium and seismic
stability analysis were carried out to check the
stability of the embankment.
Seismic stability analysis
Seismic stability analysis of slope considers the
effect of earthquake forces while computing the
displacement of the slope. Newmark (1965) first
proposed to compute the permanent displacement
of earth and rock fill dams when subjected to
strong seismic forces instead of computing the
conventional factor of safety. Credit goes to Sarma
(1975), Makdisi and Seed (1977) to bring the
concept to the level of common application.
Subsequently work has been done to compute the
displacement of blocks and slopes subjected to
strong motion by Chang et al (1984) and Lin et al
(1986). Vonthun and Haris (1981) computed the
displacement of a rockfill dam when subjected to
an earthquake load utilising this concept. Ghosh
and Haupt (1989) computed the seismic stability of
rock wedge combining the concept of Newmark
and the conventional limit equilibrium method.
534
6th
Mechanics and Rock engineering, Vol.22, pp. 109

125.
Time Acceleration history along with the

geometry of the embankment and the engineering
parameters of the construction material evaluated
in the laboratory was used as input parameter.
Permanent displacement of the slope of the
embankment was computed under the action of the
seismic force. It is concluded that under the action
of the seismic force no major damage of the
embankment is expected.
Ghosh, A., Bhatnagar, J.M.(1999), Reclamation of

abandoned flyash ponds for human settlements.
Flyash disposal and deposition beyond 2000A.D.
Narosa Publishing House. PP 162 170
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Utilising ash as the major construction material as
high as 60.0 m tall embankment has been
constructed. Millions of cubic meters of ash has
been gainfully utilised in the process.
Havukainen, J.(1983) Utilisation of compacted coal

ash in earthwork. Proc. of 8th Euro. Conf. on
Soil Mech. and Found. Eng. Vol 2
About 1.8 million cum of ash was utilised as

backfill material. The high friction angle of the ash
and low density could be gainfully utilised for
designing the relatively taller and thinner section
RCC retaining wall.
Huge quantity of redmud and ash could be
gainfully utilised for raising the height of the
redmud pond embankment. Time and money for
transporting good quality of soil and or rock
fragments from the borrow pit area other wise
required for raising the embankment height could
be saved.
Acknowledgement
Author is thankful to the Director CBRI for his
kind permission to publish the paper.
REFERENCES
Ballisager,C.C.,Sorensen,J.L.(1981) . Proc. of 10th
Intl. Conf. on Soil Mech. and Found. Eng Vol 2.
Chang, C.J., Wai, F.C. and James, T.P.Y. (1984),
Seismic displacement in slope by limit analysis.
Jour. Geotech. Engineering ASCE, Vol.110(7),
pp. 860 874.
Ghosh, A. and Haupt, W. (1989), Computation of
the seismic stability of rock wedge. Jour. of Rock
Ghosh, A., Kumar, D., Ahmed, Z. (2006),

Instrumentation and monitoring of a retaining
wall. Proc. Indian Geotechnical Conf. IGC 2006
pp 909 - 912
Kumar Vimal, Flyash Management : Indian

Endeavour, Proc. Natl seminar on Utilization of
flyash in water resources sector, April, 2001,
New Delhi
Lin, J.S. and Whitman, R.V. (1986), Earthquake
induced displacement of sliding blocks. Jour.
Geotech. Engineering ASCE, Vol. 112(1), pp. 4459.
Makdisi, F.I. and Seed, H.B. (1977), A simplified
procedure for estimating earthquake induced
deformations in dams and embankments.
University of California, Barkley, EERC, Report
No 77/79.
Newmark, N.M. (1965), Effects of earthquake on
dams and embankments. Geotechnique,
Vol.15(2), pp. 139 160
Sarma, S.K. (1975), Seismic stability of earth dams
and embankments. Geotechnique, Vol. 25(4), pp.
743 461
Ueshita, K., Daito, K. (1990). Environmental
Geotechnique in Nagoya, Japan. Proc. of 10th
South East Asian Geotech. Conf. Vol. - 1
Vonthun, J.L. and Harris, C.W. (1981), Estimation
of displacement of rock fill dams due to seismic
shaking. Intl. Conf. on recent advances in
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil
Dynamics, Vol.1, pp. 417 - 423
Ghosh et al.
TABLE 1 Plate Load Test Results at ash pond (NFL, Panipat)

Bearing capacity by
Bearing Capacity by
settlement (25cm)
tangent method
Ultimate | Allowable
Ultimate | Allowable
(t/m2) | (t/m2)
(t/m2)
|(t/m2)
Virgin ash bed
30 x30
37.0
12.33
30.0
10.0
Virgin ash bed
45 x 45
36.0
12.0
32.5
10.83
Stabilized with M4*
30 x 30
38.0
12.60
43.0
14.33
Stabilized with M3$
30 x 30
58.0
19.30
43.0
14.33
Stabilized with M2#
30 x 30
72.0
24.00
51.0
17.00
#M2= 15% lime + 35% ash + 25% sand + 25% aggregate & 5% Gypsum
$M3= 15% lime + 65% ash + 20% sand
*M4= 10% lime + 75% ash + 15% sand
Type of Stabilization
Plate Size
location
(cm)
&
TABLE 2 Result of Direct Shear Test of ash (NFL, Panipat)
Sample No
Depth(m)
1
2
3
4
5
1
3
5
7
9
Cohesion c
(Kg/cm2 )
0.162
0.210
0.220
0.224
0.224
Angle of internal
friction I (Deg)
34
34
29.5
35
36
TABLE 3 Geotechnical properties of ash (Renukut)
Grain Size Analysis

Gravel
%
-
Sand
%
Silt
%
Clay
%
62.0
38.0
Shear Parameters
Saturated
C
Kg/cm2
0.05
Proctor
Density Test
OMC
d
%
gm/cc
32
Unsaturated
I
Deg.
37q
C
Kg/ cm2
0.07
I
Deg.
40q
1.22
Permeability
Atterbergs Limit
WL
%
WP
%
WS
%
Consolidation Test
Sp. gr
CV
Cc
Sr
Cm/sec
3.80 x 10-3
Cm2/sec
1.29 x 10-3
0.076
535
536
6th
TABLE 4 Geotechnical properties of Red Mud (Renukut)
Grain Size Analysis

Gravel
%
3.0
Sand
Silt
Clay
%
%
%
19.0
67.0
11.0
Shear Parameters
Saturated
C
Kg/cm2
0.06
Proctor
Density Test
OMC
d
I
Deg.
40q
%
33.20
Unsaturated
C
Kg/ cm2
0.27
I
Deg.
22q
gm/cc
1.55
Permeability
Atterbergs Limit
WL
WP
WS
%
%
30
28.9
Consolidation Test
%
0.35
Sp.gr
CV
Cc
Sr
Cm/sec
Cm2/sec
-
3.19
TABLE 5 Geotechnical properties of Red Mud and ash (50:50)
Grain Size Analysis

Gravel
%
7.5
Sand
Clay
%
%
%
57.5
28.5
6.5
Shear Parameters
Saturated
C
Kg/cm2
0.17
Silt
Proctor
Density Test
OMC
d
I
Deg.
38q
%
28
Unsaturated
C
Kg/ cm2
0.38
I
Deg.
30q
gm/cc
1.49
Permea-bility
K
Cm/sec
1.33 x 10-5
Atterbergs Limit
WL
WP
%
%
30
Consolida-tion
Test
CV
Cc
Cm2/sec
0.74 x 10-3
0.059
WS
%
Sp.gr
Sr
2.74
Variation of pH and Heavy Metal Concentration of Compacted

Fly Ash Under Hydraulic Flow Condition
Kaushik Bandyopadhyay
Department of Construction Engineering,Jadavpur University,
(2nd Campus)Kolkata,India,700098,
E-mail:kb@const.jusl.ac.in
Sunanda Bhattacharjee
Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University
(2nd Campus),KolKata,India,700098,
E-mail: sunando_bhattacharjee2007@rediffmail.com
Chandrima Goswami
(2nd Campus), Kolkata, India, 700098
E-mail: chandrima_goswami@const.jusl.ac.in,
Devaleena Chaudhuri
(2nd Campus), Kolkata, India, 700098
E-mail: devaleena_chaudhuri@const.jusl.ac.in
ABSTRACT: The variation of leachate from coal combustion by product such as flyash used in highway
embankment or subgrade under different mode of compaction and energy level is discussed in this paper. Leaching
characteristics of heavy metals varied from day to day after cured or soaked condition. Metal oxides of flyash
affected the pH of solution. Mode of compaction deliberated encapsulation of heavy metals causing variation of pH.
For static compaction, pH variation was uniform. But for dynamic compaction change of pH or heavy metal
concentration did not follow any particular trend due to varying manual effort during compaction. Mode and duration
of curing or soaking was more important.
INTRODUCTION Fly ash is generated in large

quantities as a by product of burning coal from
thermal power plants. Fly ash is removed from flue
gas by electrostatic precipitators or filter bag house.
Fly ash is disposed in the form of slurry in the ash
ponds within the plant area, called coal combustion
residue. When fly ash is mixed with water,
afterwards it gets hardened and forms high strength
and low permeability material. These properties are
useful for preparation of subgrade and embankment.

The leachates generated from ash pond contain
various heavy metals like Cd,Cr,Pb,Cu,Ni and Zn.
The variation of leachate from any compacted media
depends on mode of compaction, energy level,
permeability, hydraulic conductivity properties, pH
variation and leachate concentration. This variation
also depends on the mode and deviation of curing.
538
6th
OBJECTIVE OF THE WORK

For this paper leachability of several heavy metals
(Cd,Cr,Pb,Ni,Fe & Zn) were analyzed under
hydraulic flow condition. The objective was also to
investigate whether low permeability specimens were
affected more than high permeability specimens with
respect to changes in permeability and leachate
effluent quality. The pH value of pore water was one
of the criteria, controlling the concentration of metals
in leachate. The solubility of metals depend on pH
value. Metals are insoluble in high pH value. In this
study leachate analysis was very important for
simulating field condition in case of fly ash
embankment or subgrade or subbase. When water
will flow through compacted fill layers, percolation
of water depends on permeability and hydraulic
conductivity properties and leachate generation also
depends on compaction quality.
MATERIALS AND TEST METHODS

In this study, fly ash materials used were produced
from Farakka Thermal Power Plant. Permeability
tests were carried out for unsoaked and soaked
condition. After testing at unsoaked condition,
moulds were immersed in water for 7 days soaking.
After 7 days soaked condition permeability tests were
performed for same mould. Leaching of heavy metals
were checked from permeability mould at the time of
testing before soaking. Falling head permeability test
(IS:2720-Part-17) was followed for both permeability
and hydraulic conductivity tests. Compaction of the
mould was done by static and dynamic method.
Moulds were examined by static compaction at 100%
and 97% of maximum dry densities and optimum
moisture contents. Three permeability moulds were
prepared at same density and moisture for
permeability and hydraulic conductivity tests. At first
air dried fly ash specimens were taken at required
weight for maximum dry densities and mixed with
water at specified moisture contents and compacted
in permeability mould 100 mm dia x127.3 mm height
with static and dynamic energy level respectively.
Dynamic energy was imposed for standard (light)
ASTM D698/ IS:2720 (Part7) and modified (heavy)
compaction ASTM D1557/IS:2720(Part8) in
permeability mould. The weight and moisture of the
mould were recorded. For hydraulic conductivity test

three moulds were kept inside the humidity control
chamber at a temperature of 301oC and a relative
humidity > 95% for curing the specimens. The three
test moulds were kept in the humidity control
chamber for 7 days. After 7 days, moulds were fitted
to experimental set up for hydraulic conductivity test
and leachate generation. Hydraulic conductivity test
set up consisted of a PVC tank fitted with regulator
controlled three gate valves at bottom of the tank.
Three pipes were connected with stand pipes from
gate valves. From each stand pipe a PVC pipe was
connected to inlet of hydraulic conductivity mould.
In case of permeability test no tank was required.
Only permeability moulds were connected with stand
pipes. Two metre scales were fitted in between three
stand pipes. Samples were saturated through stand
pipes during seven days under a constant head of
0.7m of water. Single distilled water of pH 7 was
used for permeability and hydraulic conductivity
tests.
LEACHATE COLLECTION
The effluent coming out from outlet of three nos.
permeability mould was collected at the time of
permeability testing before soaking. The effluent was
collected from three nos. hydraulic conductivity
mould during testing after moist curing for 3rd, 5th
and 7th days. The effluent was collected in three
sampling bottles for three moulds washed with acid
and distilled water before collecting the samples for
leachate analysis. After collection in sampling bottles
of hydraulic conductivity tests, approximately 20 ml
were poured in a beaker from sampling bottles for pH
analysis for three samples. The samples were stored
at 4 to10oC for preventing volume change and
evaporation loss until the analyses were done.
Leachate samples were analyzed for change in
concentration of metals e.g., Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb & Zn
for 3rd, 5th and 7th days .The concentration of metals
were
analyzed
by
atomic
absorption
spectrophotometer. Immediately after sample
collection, the pH of the sample was measured using
pH meter fitted with electrode.
Bandyopadhyay et al.
variation of permeability values for unsoaked and 7

days soaked condition for different test parameters.
Table-2 indicated that among the six heavy metals
cadmium and chromium variations were observed
less than 0.01 and 0.05 mg/ lit respectively in case of
the leachate generation from permeability test at
unsoaked condition.
18
16
P e rm e a b ilit y ( X 1 0 E - 0 4 ) ( c m /s e c )
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

Table-1 summarises the results of permeability tests.
Permeability value increased at dynamic compaction
in comparison with static compaction. This was
because in case of dynamic compaction samples were
remoulded due to application of impact energy. Due
to remoulding of sample particle orientation was
broken or changed and more pore space was
appeared due to formation of cracks and more chance
of percolation of water was observed. But in case of
static compaction sample was not remoulded.
Therefore particle orientation was not broken and
sufficient pore space was not developed for
percolation as in dynamic compaction. Therefore
permeability values were lesser compared with the
values of dynamic compaction. Similar trend was
observed for 7 days soaked comdition. At four
density levels for static and dynamic compaction
permeability value increased from 38% t0 240% at
unsoaked and 77% to149% at 7 days soaked
condition.
For both dynamic and static compaction permeability
values increased with decrease of density level and
increase of moisture content in every case. Moreover,
permeability values were greater for 100% MDD
comparing with 97% MDD at static compaction
mode. This was due to increase in pore volume for
lesser density level. Same trend was observed when
density was decreased for 100% MDD, 97% MDD
and dynamic compaction respectively. From change
in static compaction level at 100% MDD to 97%
MDD permeability value increases from 71% to 82%
for unsoaked and 44% to 113% for 7days soaked
condition at each density level except for MDD
=1.145 gm/cc & OMC =36% .
Permeability values were higher at at light standard
compaction energy level compared to heavy modified
compaction for each case. This was also due to
availability of more void or pore spaces in standard
(light) compaction energy level. 7 days soaked
permeability values were higher in comparison with
unsoaked condition for each case. This was due to the
pores became fully saturated during soaked condition
and consequently, as more water is added to the
sample, it came out easily with a little resistance
through a common passage connecting the pores
generated due to saturation. Fig-1 indicated the
539
14
12
10
Before
Soaking
8
6
4
After 7
Days
Soaking
2
0
0
10
11
12
Test Condition
Fig 1. Variation of Unsoaked & 7 Days Soaked

Permeability under Different Test Conditions
From Table-3 it was observed that hydraulic
conductivity more or less decreased from 1st to 4th
day at many cases and from 4th to rest it increased.
The reason was after the sample has been taken out
from the humidity control chamber the degree of
saturation was about 76% and it was not fully
saturated and there were plenty of air voids still
remaining as the hydraulic conductivity test was
started. The initial influent distilled water tried to fill
up the air voids rapidly and due to this a considerable
time was lost in this process. As a result the initial
days from 1st to 2nd day or from 2nd to 3rd day the
permeability got reduced in some of the samples.
As the degree of saturation increased, the
permeability shoot up and finally reaching fully
saturated state, the permeability showed almost a
uniform trend. Fig-2 showed the variation of
hydraulic conductivity values for 1st to7th day under
different test conditions.
6th
16
12
14
10
1st Day
12
2nd Day
10
3rd Day
4th Day
5 th Day
6th Day
4
7th Day
p H V a lu e
Hy draulic Conduc tiv ity ( x 10E -04) (cm/sec )
540
3rd Day
6
5th Day
7th Day
0
0
Test Condition
0
0
Fig 2. Variation of Hydraulic Conductivity for

Different Test Conditions under 1st to 7th day
From Table-4, the effluent pH value showed a

uniform trend, the value hovering between 7.5 to 9.0.
Some higher values were also noticed which was due
to presence of excess of lime which got leached out
from the samples.
In some of the samples it had been noticed that pH
was less than seven. This may be explained from our
earlier comprehension that, at the initial stages the
sample was not fully saturated and as such in some of
the effluent, there was little dissolution of lime from
the samples. Fig-3 indicated pH variations for 3rd, 5
th and 7 th days under different test conditions.
Table-5 presents the variation of leachate metals from
hydraulic conductivity tests for 3rd, 5th and 7th days.
The total amount of a metal in the leachate depends
on the hydraulic conductivity of the material and on
the concentration of the metal in the leachate. The
variation of cadmium and chromium content were
less than 0.01 and 0.05 respectively for each test
conditions. From the study of the literature it was
found that, when the pH range is generally between
6.5 to 8.5 then it is conducive, Sincero &
Sincero(1999)
for precipitation of many cations.
Here in this present investigation, the effluent pH was
found to vary more or less within this range. As a
result presumably there is precipitation of mostly the
as the degree of saturation attained 100%, these metal
ions got washed away along with the effluent liquid.
This gave rise to initial increase of concentration of
Test Condition
Fig-3.Variation 0f pH at 3rd,5th,7th Day under

Different Test Conditions
metal ions in the effluent samples. As more and more
metal ions were leached out from the samples in this
way the concentrations of the effluent showed a
decreasing trend. This phenomenon was evident from
the test results obtained from this investigation.
CONCLUSIONS
Permeability values were higher for dynamic
compaction compared with static compaction.
For 100% of maximum dry density level permeability
values were smaller compared to 97% of maximum
dry density level. In case of light compaction energy,
permeability values were greater compared with
heavy compaction .
Permeability values were higher for 7days soaked
condition compared to unsoaked condition.
Hydraulic conductivity values more or less decreased
from 1st to 4th day for many cases and from 4th to
rest it was almost increased.
In case of Hydraulic conductivity test effluent pH
values were in between 7.5 to 9.0.Some higher values
were observed due to excess of lime leached out from
the samples.
In the leaching experiments, as the degree of
saturation attained 100 % metal ions got washed
away along with the effluent liquid.
541
TABLE 1: Results of Permeability Test for Unsoaked & 7 Days Soaked Condition
Mode
Condition
No
MDD/97%MDD
&
OMC/OMC2%
Of
Compaction
C-1-1
Energy Level
Of
Compaction
For Proctor
Average
Permeability
For
Three Samples
Before
Soaking
(cm/sec)
Average
Permeability
For
Three Samples
After7Days Soaking
(cm/sec)
MDD=1.157,OMC=32%
Static
Modified
(Heavy)
1.136 x 10 -4
2.0730 x 10 -4
C-2-1
MDD=1.145,OMC=36%
Static
Modified
(Heavy)
1.2975 x 10 -4
3.8425 x 10 -4
C-3-1
MDD=1.012,OMC=42%
Static
Standard
(Light)
3.2246 x 10 -4
3.9358 x 10 -4
C-4-1
MDD=0.975 OMC=45%
Static
Standard
(Light)
3.2644 x 10 -4
8.0152 x10 -4
C-5-1
MDD=1.157,
97%MDD=1.122,OMC=32%
Static
Modified
(Heavy)
2.0661 x 10 -4
3.7351 x 10 -4
C-6-1
MDD=1.145,
97%MDD=1.111,OMC=36%
Static
Modified
(Heavy)
2.2460x 10 -4
3.6620 x 10 -4
C-7-1
MDD=1.012,
97%MDD=0.982,OMC=42%
Static
Standard
(Light)
5.5017 x 10 -4
8.3920 x 10 -4
C-8-1
MDD= 0.975
97%MDD=0.946,OMC=45%
Static
Standard
(Light)
5.8030 x 10 -4
11.5241x 10 -4
C-9-1
MDD=1.157,OMC=32%
Dynamic
Modified
(Heavy)
2.4267 x 10 -4
5.1807 x 10 -4
C-10-1
MDD=1.145, OMC=36%
Dynamic
Modified
(Heavy)
3.7828 x 10 -4
6.8143 x 10 -4
C-11-1
MDD=1.012,OMC=42%
Dynamic
Standard
(Light)
4.4342 x 10 -4
8.2323 x 10 -4
C-12-1
MDD=0.975, OMC=45%
Dynamic
Standard
(Light)
11.10 x 10 -4
16.8300 x 10 -4
542
6th
TABLE 2: Results of Leachate Metals from Permeability Test for Unsoaked Condition.
Details
Cadmium
(mg/lit)
Chromium
(mg/lit)
Copper
(mg/lit)
Zinc
(mg/lit)
Nickel
(mg/lit)
Lead
(mg/lit)
100% of 1.157, OMC =32(Static)

100% of 1.145,OMC =36(Static)
100% of 1.012,OMC =42 (Static)
100% of 0.975,OMC =45(Static)
97% of 1.157, OMC =32 (Static)
97% of 1.145 ,OMC =36(Static)
97% of 1.012 ,OMC =42 (Static)
97% of 0.975,OMC =45 (Static)
100% of 1.157,OMC =32 (Dynamic)
100% of 1.145,OMC =36 (Dynamic)
100% of 1.012,OMC =42 (Dynamic),
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
<0.01
<0.05
<0.01
0.014
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.05
<0.05
< 0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.100
0.301
0.037
0.301
0.064
0.236
0.145
0.386
0.141
0.028
0.039
0.097
0.055
0.090
0.057
0.095
0.074
0.074
0.027
0.052
0.074
0.043
<0.05
0.06
<0.05
<0.05
<0.02
0.07
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.115
0.09
0.068
0.827
<0.05
0.327
0.172
0.354
0.160
0.380
0.130
<0.05
<0.05
100% of 0.975,OMC= 45(Dynamic)
<0.01
<0.05
0.025
0.031
<0.05
<0.05
TABLE 3: Results of Hydraulic Conductivity Tests during 7 Days after Curing at Humidity Control Chamber
Condition
No
C-1-3
C-2-3
C-3-3
C-4-3
C-5-3
C-6-3
MDD/97%M
DD
OMC/OMC
2%
MDD=1.145
OMC=36%
MDD=1.145
97%MDD=1.
111
OMC=36%
MDD=1.145
OMC=36%
MDD=0.975
OMC=45%
MDD=0.975
97%MDD=0.
946
OMC=45%
MDD=0.975
OMC=45%
Mode
Of
Comp
action
Static
Energy
Level
Of
Compact
ion
For
Proctor
Modified
(Heavy)
Hydraulic Conductivity(cm/sec)
( x10 -4)
1st
Day
2nd
Day
3RD
Day
4th
Day
5th
Day
6TH
Day
7TH
Day
1.563
1.306
1.425
1.062
1.124
1.147
1.197
Static
Modified
(Heavy)
2.792
2.652
2.635
2.667
2.798
2.824
3.092
Dyna
mic
Modified
(Heavy)
2.674
2.645
2.682
2.616
2.876
2.917
2.929
Static
Standard
(Light)
5.918
5.367
4.347
6.178
6.472
6.517
6.789
Static
Standard
(Light)
12.975
13.462
12.892
12.661
13.272
13.774
13.802
Dyna
mic
Standard
(Light)
9.155
11.192
11.366
11.366
12.113
12.122
12.314
543
TABLE 4: Results of pH Value for Effluent Collected Leachate from Hydraulic Conductivity Test
Sl No
C-1-4
C-2-4
C-3-4
C-4-4
C-5-4
C-6-4
MDD/97%MDD
OMC/OMC2%
MDD=1.145
OMC=36%
MDD=1.145
97%MDD=1.111
OMC=36%
MDD=1.145
OMC=36%
MDD=0.975
OMC=45%
MDD=0.975
97%MDD=0.946
OMC=45%
MDD=0.975
OMC=45%
Mode
Of
Compaction
Energy
Level
Of
Compaction
For Proctor
Static
Static
Dynamic
Static
pH Value Of Effluent From

Hydraulic Conductivity Test
3rd Day
5th Day
7th Day
Modified
(Heavy)
8.56
7.73
7.81
Modified
(Heavy)
9.66
9.34
8.96
6.63
7.08
7.16
9.60
9.30
7.79
Modified
(Heavy)
Standard
(Light)
Static
Standard
(Light)
7.47
8.27
10.32
Dynamic
Standard
(Light)
7.25
7.68
7.65
TABLE 5: Results of Leachate Metals from Hydraulic Conductivity Test at 3rd, 5th & 7th Days
Detail
Days
100%of1.145,
OMC=36%
(Static)
3
5
7
3
5
7
3
5
7
3
5
7
3
5
7
3
5
7
97% of 1.145,
OMC=36%
(Static)
100% of 1.145,
OMC=36%
(Dynamic)
100% of 0.975,
OMC=45%
(Static)
97% of 0.975,
OMC=45%
(Static)
100% of 0.975,
OMC=45%
(Dynamic)
Cadmium
(mg/lit)
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Chromium
(mg/lit)
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
Copper
(mg/lit)
0.161
0.190
<0.025
0.073
0.028
<0.025
0.156
0.094
0.391
0.325
0.165
<0.025
<0.025
<0.025
<0.025
0.330
0.043
0.051
Zinc
(mg/lit)
0.286
0.081
0.015
0.040
0.056
0.029
0.067
0.046
0.048
0.065
0.044
0.026
0.053
0.055
0.059
0.155
0.052
0.059
Nickel
(mg/lit)
0.077
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.100
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.121
<0.05
<0.05
Lead
(mg/lit)
0.120
0.079
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.091
0.096
0.074
0.101
0.091
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
<0.05
0.187
<0.05
<0.05
544
6th
REFERENCES
ASTM (1995). ASTM Standard Test Method for
Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity of Porous
Material Using a Rigid Wall, Compaction-Mold
Permeameter. ASTM D5856-95 (Reapproved 2002)
Ayoda M.G., & Ogunro V.O. (2008). Leachability
of Compacted aged and Fresh Coal Combustion Fly
ash under Hydraulic Flow Condition. GeoCongress
2008, Geotechnic of Waste Management and
Remediation, pp. 692-699.
Edil T.B., Sandstorm L.K., and Berthouex P.M.
(1992). Interaction of Inorganic Leachate with
Compacted Pozzolanic Fly ash. Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.118,NO-9,ASCE, pp.
1410-1430.
Ghosh A., and Subbarao C. (2006). Leaching of
Lime from Fly ash Stabililized with Lime and
Gypsum. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,

Vol.18, NO-1, ASCE, pp. 106-115.
Ghosh A., and Subbarao C. (1998). Hydraulic
Conductivity and Leachate Characteristics of
Stabilized Fly ash. Journal of Environmental
Engineering, Vol.124, NO-9,ASCE, pp. 812-820.
IS: 2720(Part 17)-1986 Method of Test for
Soils:Part17 Laboratory determination of permeability.(first revision).
Sincero, A.P and Sincero, G.A. (1999). Environmental Engineering A Design Approach. Prentice
Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.
Singh G., Gupta S.K., Kumar R. & Sunderarajan M.
(2007). Dispersion Modelling of Leachates from
Thermal Power Plants.Journal of Environmental
Engineering, Vol.133, NO-12, ASCE, pp.1088-1097.
Stabilization of Tailing Sands Using

Chemical Stabilizer
R. Espinace A.
Grupo de Geotecnia, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Valparaso, Chile (respinac@ucv.cl)
J.H. Palma G.
Grupo de Geotecnia, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Valparaso, Chile (jpalma@ucv.cl)
P. Valenzuela T.
Grupo de Geotecnia, Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Valparaso, Chile (pamela.valenzuela@ucv.cl)
ABSTRACT Chile is the main producer of copper, with 37% of the world production. Copper
produced from the flotation process generates residues known as tailings, which are generally
deposited in dams. Aeolian erosion may be significant in tailing dams, thus affecting the operation
of mining works and the environment, especially in nearby populated, industrial or agricultural
areas. This paper presents the preliminary results of investigations directed to develop an efficient
and economical procedure for the use of a chemical stabilizer (MgCl2-6H2O) aimed to minimize the
drag of particles due to aeolian effect on tailing dams.
INTRODUCTION
The development of the mining technology in
Chile has represented a significant growth for the
production of copper concentrate, which is
related with the generation of higher tailing
volumes, a waste resulting from the copper
flotation process. A plant from the mediumscale mining industry alone can produce tailings
exceeding 2,000 ton/day. Most of these tailings
are not reprocessed in the medium term nor they
are reused in the productive process; thus,
deposition seems to be the only plausible
alternative for their management. In Chile,
tailing dams are currently the most common
option; these deposits are superficial and involve
a start wall, which during the subsequent stages
is covered by the process of tailing deposition,
thus spreading the thick fraction (sand) through
the start wall and the finest fraction (slime) at the
basin of the pondage. Separation is done through
hydrocyclons.
In Chile there are regulations controlling the
operation, closure and abandonment of mining
works, which were developed to avoid personal
and environmental risks.

During the operational and abandonment stages,
tailing dams must be capable to resist different
natural events that may pose risks for the
environment and public health. Among the most
important problems the visual impact,
morphological and landscape alterations and
water, air and soil pollution may be stressed. An
agent aggravating the aforementioned impacts is
the erosion phenomenon, which becomes evident
primarily by the water and/or aeolian effect,
consequently
causing
large
mechanical
instability risks when the necessary measures are
not taken to minimize its effects.
Most tailing dams under operation or
abandonment, located in dry areas, become
eroded by wind action. This may become a
significant problem when tailing dams freeboard
loss, variation of the projected geometry and
reduction of the resistant properties of the slope
occur, thus creating instability risks along with
effects on the operation of the mining works and
the environment, especially when there are
populated, industrial and agricultural areas
546
6th
nearby. In Chile such problem is not generally

considered during the design, operation and
closing stages of tailing sand dams.
Aeolian erosion in tailing sand dams refers to a
loss of material resulting from the particle drag
caused by the action of wind, which depends on
three basic variables: wind, soil and height
(Figure 1).
to the minimum velocity causing saltation, i.e.

the movement or uplifting of particles.
The factors affecting the aeolian erosion
magnitude in tailing dams include climate
aridity, wind velocity, tail structure and texture
and soil surface rugosity, which are generally
observed in desert climates characterized by high
radiation and atmospheric stability.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The possibility to chemically stabilize tailing
dams was assessed as an alternative to control
the aeolian erosion. The methodology to assess
the efficacy of a chemical stabilizer as a dust
suppressor on a tailing dam involves the
following aspects:
Fig.1 Aeolian erosion in tailing dams

Wind is mainly defined by the horizontal

component of the air movement that is created by
the difference of pressure between two points of
the earth surface, displacing from high pressure
areas towards low pressure zones. The variation
of the pressure and temperature distribution is
mainly caused by the uneven distribution of the
solar warming of the earth surface. The velocity
of air movement is defined as wind intensity and
depends on the magnitude of the pressure
variation, where the higher the variations, the
bigger the wind intensity. Wind velocity does
not show constant direction or intensity, and
generally suffers fluctuations succeeding each
other in short intervals (few seconds). According
to the movement or flow, two different types of
winds can be distinguished: laminar or turbulent.
The turbulent air flow causes erosion. The
particle transportation is done through
suspension, saltation and surface dragging.
The fluid swell velocity or critical velocity refers
- Tailing dam characteristics: the survey area,

surface,
tailing
density,
granulometry,
meteorology and climate (wind velocity and
direction, temperature, relative humidity) must
be defined.
- Stabilizer characteristics: the feasibility to
apply the stabilizer through irrigation must be
defined, along with the resistance effect to
wind in the tailing particles and its duration.
- In situ assay: the study area is divided into test
zone with stabilized and unstabilized areas as
control. A measurement sector is defined at
the areas, where metallic pickaxes are
vertically and horizontally buried allowing
measuring the effect of wind on the stabilized
and unstabilized surfaces (Figure 2).
- Laboratory assay: simulating the wind
conditions the studied dam is exposed to. The
assay involves the creation of trays with
tailings compacted according to the in situ
density, which must be unstabilized and also
stabilized according to a proportion to be
assayed. These test tubes are located at the real
dip of the slope and exposed to wind velocities
and defined temperatures. The loss of tailings
by the aeolian action on the surface is
determined by weight differences.
- Tabulation and analysis of results.
Espinace A, Palma G and Valenzuela T 547
PRELIMINARY RESULTS
Four different test dumps were defined at the
dam N3 of the Plant M.A. Matta of the Empresa
Nacional de Minera (ENAMI), Copiap, Chile,
each of approximately 3,800 m2.
The
predominant wind velocity and direction at the
dam slope was recorded, and the tailing sand and
slope declivity was determined.
Fig.2 Measurement direction of the pickaxes
established there is erosion and sedimentation in

different areas of the dam, which is caused by the
wind direction and the tailing dragging from the
low unstabilized slope areas.
Figure 3 shows some of the results of the in situ
measurements; it can be observed the treated
area presents a sedimentation and erosion smaller
than 2.5 cm; on the other hand, the unstabilized
area shows erosion close to 14 cm.
The laboratory assay was conducted on a daily
basis for a period of 8 weeks; all data was
processed to establish the tailing or erosion loss
from the test-tubes. During the first 5 days, a
greater weight loss in the stabilized test-tube was
observed; after that period, the weight loss was
minimal. It was concluded the initial loss weight
was related to a loss of humidity and not to
tailings.
Subsequently, when the humidity
conditions were stabilized no weight changes or
significant material loss were recorded.
The stabilizer used in this study was magnesium

chloride (MgCl2-6H2O) supplied by SALMAG
Ltda. This chloride, which is produced in the
Atacama Salt Flat in Chile, involves alloying
properties, high hygroscopy, deliquescence,
evaporation resistance, freezing temperature
equal to -32.8 C and high solubility in water.
Dust emission is controlled by the alloying
properties and the high hygroscopy that allows
attracting and retaining humidity during the night
and the resistance to evaporation during the day.
The product is applied by irrigation.
The odd areas were treated with a 3 kg/m2 dose
of dust suppressor. Then, measurement areas of
33.9 m2 were defined, where metallic pickaxes
were allocated for the in situ erosion assessment.
Monthly measurements were done for an 8
month period, the resulting data was recorded
and a comparative analysis was carried out.
The stabilized areas showed a smaller deviation
than the unstabilized areas; this indicated the
stabilizer improves the resistance properties of
tailings to the effect of wind. It was also
Fig.3 In situ results: a) stabilized area N1, b)

unstabilized area N4.
Figure 4 shows an uneroded humid surface in the
548
6th
test-tube with dust suppressor compared to the

unstabilized control test-tube.
Fig.4 Laboratory assays.

CONCLUSIONS
The effect of magnesium chloride over the a realscale slope at the mailing dam N3 from the Plant
M.A. Matta of ENAMI was studied. The
preliminary results of the in situ and laboratory
measurements to assess the performance of
magnesium chloride as a dust suppressor show
an increase of the superficial resistance of tailing
treated for aeolian erosion at velocities exceeding
the 10 m/s.
This study also allowed the suggestion of an
application procedure for the chemical stabilizer
in tailing dams and a methodology to assess its
performance opposite to wind.
It is necessary to continue the research to
determine how to improve the application
systems of the stabilizer and develop new
assessment techniques used for tailing dams.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude
to the Pontificia Universidad Catlica de
Valparaso and the companies ENAMI and
SALMAG Ltda. for the support and valuable
collaboration during the execution of this study.
REFERENCES
Espinace, R., Palma, J., Valenzuela, P.,
Jaramillo, I., Miranda, A., Salinas, R.,
Bialostoki, J. (2006). Evaluacin del efecto
elico en tranques de relave. XVIII Congreso
Argentino de mecnica de suelos e ingeniera
geotcnica, San Juan, Argentina.
Palma, J., Espinace, R., Valenzuela, P.,
Jaramillo, I., Ovalle, J., Domnguez, F.
(2007). Estabilizacin de taludes de relaves
afectados por la erosin elica. VI Congreso
Chileno de geotecnia. Chile.
Pontificia Universidad Catlica de Valparaso
(2006).
Desarrollo
de
herramientas
biogeotecnolgicas para la estabilizacin de
tranques de relave. Chile
Vergara, K. (2009). Estudio de la aplicacin de
cloruros de magnesio para mejorar las
propiedades fsico mecnicas de las arenas de
un tranque de relave. Tesis de ttulo para
optar al ttulo de Ingeniero Constructor,
Pontificia
Universidad
Catlica
de
Valparaso, Chile.
Particle Characteristics and Static Shear Strength of Clinker Ash

N. Yoshimoto
Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan, (nyoshi@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp)
Y. Wakatsuki
Fukken co., ltd, Hiroshima, Japan, (wakatuki@fukken.co.jp)
M. Hyodo
Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan, (hyodo@yamaguchi-u.ac.jp)
ABSTRACT The design parameter for clinker ash to apply to various geomaterial was experimentally
investigated in this research. As a result, it was clarified that even though the clinker ash is a friability
material, it has a high monotonic shear strength even in loose condition. The secant angle depends upon
the effective confining pressure. In other words, it means that the particle crushing has an influence on
the secant angle. When the effective confining pressure is less than 200kPa, the secant angle remains
secured at more than 35(deg.).
INTRODUCTION
Clinker ash is generated by crushing coal ash that
accumulates in the water tank at the bottom of
coal-fired power station boilers into sand and
gravel sized pieces. It does not require any
special treatment before use. In addition, this
material is light in weight and has a high shear
strength and coefficient of permeability.
Therefore, the use of clinker ash is now
spreading. It has been used in a variety of
applications, including as embankment material,
base course material, and drainage material, but
its overall characteristics have not yet been
clarified sufficiently.
Clinker ash is one of the specified byproducts
which the Law for the Promotion of Effective
Utilization of Resources in Japan requires be put
to effective use as a recyclable resource. The
design parameter for clinker ash to apply to
various
geomaterial
was
experimentally
investigated in this research.
TEST SAMPLES
Clinker ash, used as the test samples (C.A. a a f),
was collected from six power stations in Western
Japan, which are expected to continuously
generate a large amount of clinker ash into the
foreseeable future. Photo 1 shows the typical
configuration of clinker ash. It can be seen in the
Photo 1
A typical clinker ash particle

photo that a clinker ash particle has a large

number of voids. These voids are formed when
the particle cools and hardens rapidly. Hot
particles (about 1400oC) are dropped from the
boiler into the water tank located at the bottom of
the boiler where they cool instantly. The surface
is very angular. This is because solidified clinker
ash blocks are mechanically crushed to a size of
about 20 mm.
The following naturally crushed materials were
used as comparison samples for contrast with
clinker ash: U-Masado (Ube sand), P.I. Masado
(Port Island sand), Silica0.18-2.0 (silica sand), and
Toyoura (Toyoura sand). The silica sand
subscripts (0.18 to 2.0) indicate the size of the
silica sand grains in mm.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND PARTICLE
PROPERTIES
550
6th
Table 1
s
(g/cm3)
C.A. a
1.954
Physical properties of the samples used for this study

s
(g/cm3)
(d 250m)
2.293
d50
(mm)
2.228
Uc
emax
emin
13.8
1.776
0.948
fm(d=1mm)
Ar
Rc
4.08
1.398
1.665
2.004
(MPa)
C.A. b
2.066
2.132
0.562
16.9
1.510
0.860
3.89
1.412
C.A. c
2.079
2.156
1.174
16.5
1.423
0.772
3.69
1.508
1.508
C.A. d
2.092
2.256
2.563
36.4
2.019
1.086
3.69
1.550
1.572
C.A. e
2.197
2.358
1.147
15.2
1.528
0.868
4.99
1.478
1.798
C.A. f
2.240
2.371
1.628
13.5
1.572
0.902
3.89
1.532
1.783
U-Masado
2.587
1.010
9.45
0.932
0.487
28.91
1.445
1.251
P.I.Masado
Silica0.18-2.0
2.624
2.655
0.546
0.736
7.00
2.20
0.967
0.936
0.491
0.588
46.35
1.412
1.281
1.248
1.159
Toyoura
2.643
0.200
1.20
0.973
0.635
1.454
1.203
C.A.: Clinker Ash
Table 1 shows some physical constants for

clinker ash and natural sand. They include the
particle density, average grain size, uniformity
coefficient, maximum and minimum void ratios.
The single particle crush strength is also given,
where d=1 mm is the representative value,
providing an indication of the strength of each
particle. Particle shape is indicated by the
roundness coefficient Rc and aspect ratio Ar
parameters.
density of clinker ash is associated with the

sealed voids inside the particles. However, even
the particles that passed through the 250m sieve
had a relatively low density when compared with
natural sand, suggesting that even particles this
small still contain many voids. However, this
study dealt with the particle density of all clinker
ash samples and thus processed data based on the
density of particles passed through a 9.5-mm
sieve as a reference.
Particle density
The particle density test was performed
according to JIS A 1202, using particles that had
been filtered through a 9.5-mm sieve. The test
results revealed that clinker ash has low particle
density from 1.95 to 2.24 g/cm3, even though its
chemical composition is not very different from
that of natural soil (Wakatsuki et al. 2009a). This
is probably because of the effect of sealed voids
inside the clinker ash particle (i.e., not
communicating with the outside). In addition, a
clinker ash density test was conducted using
particles prepared by grinding clinker ash in a
mortar and filtering the material through a
250m sieve. This test confirmed that all types of
clinker ash which passed through the 250m
sieve that were used in this investigation had
higher particle densities than particles which
were only passed through a 9.5 mm sieve. This
finding allows us to confirm that the low particle
Grain size distribution

Figure 1 shows grain size distribution curves of
all the samples examined. In the figure, the grain
size distribution curves (Wakatsuki et al. 2009a)
shown as dashed lines are from 60 clinker ash
samples collected by the authors from 15
coal-fired power stations across the nation. As
can be seen, the grain size distribution curves of
the samples used in this study fall within the
range of those curves.
Each sample of P.I. Masado was subjected to
particle adjustment by removing any remaining
gravel after passing the material through a 2-mm
sieve, to make it suitable for an element test,
because it was originally collected to evaluate its
characteristics in an indoor element test. Since
clinker ash and U-Masado are both intended to
be used without modification for actual
construction work, the sample sizes used for
element tests were the original grain size.
Yoshimoto, Wakatsuki and Hyodo 551
80
100
C.A.a
C.A.b
C.A.c
C.A.d
C.A.e
C.A.f
Percent finer by weight (%)
Percent finer by weight (%)
100
60
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
10
30
80
U-Masado
P.I.Masado
Silica0.18-2.0
Toyoura
60
40
20
0
0.01
0.1
Grain size (mm)
(a)
Clinker ash
Fig. 1
10
30
Grain size (mm)
(b)
Natural sand
Grain size distribution curves of the samples
Clinker ash is usually classified as gravel or

sandy soil because it contains 28 to 56% gravel
sized grains and 36 to 63% of sand size material.
The uniformity coefficient Uc is in the range
from 13 to 36 and thus it can be said that it has a
wide grain size distribution range. In addition, all
the samples had a comparatively similar grain
size distribution, although the sample C.A. b
contained lots of fine to medium grains as
compared to the other samples.
Single particle crushing strength and particle
shape
The single particle crushing strength and particle
shape of clinker ash have been discussed in detail
by Wakatsuki et al. (2009b). Therefore, they are
only outlined here. In this study, a single particle
crushing test was carried out to investigate the
strength of particles of clinker ash and various
natural sands. The single particle crushing
strength is expressed as f=Ff/d02, where Ff is the
crush load during testing and d0 is the initial
height of the particle (initial grain size). Table 1
shows the single particle crushing strength fm
(d=1mm) of clinker ash and natural sand when d0
= 1mm. As shown in Table 1, the single particle
crushing strength of natural sand is within the
range of 28 to 46 MPa, while that of clinker ash
is within the range of 3 to 5 MPa, indicating that
the single particle crushing strength of clinker
ash is only about 1/10 of that of natural sand.
This is probably because clinker ash particles

have a large number of sealed voids which leave
the internal structure so weak that they can be
easily crushed.
The particle shape of clinker ash and natural sand
was also observed under a microscope. There are
several ways of expressing particle size, but the
method which uses the roundness coefficient (Rc)
and aspect ratio (Ar) proposed by Kato et al.
(2001) was used for this study. The roundness
coefficient (Rc) is expressed as Rc=L2/(4A),
where L is the peripheral length of a projected
image of the particle and A is the cross section of
a projected image of particle. The closer the
roundness coefficient is to zero, the more circular
the shape. The greater the roundness coefficient,
the more angular or flatter the shape. The aspect
ratio is expressed as Ar=b/a (bta), where b is the
length of the long axis of an equivalent ellipse of
a projected particle image (an ellipse having the
same area and the same primary and secondary
moments as the projected particle image) and a is
the length of the short axis. Natural sand had a
roundness coefficient ranging from 1.1 to 1.3 and
an aspect ratio ranging from 1.2 to 1.5. The
roundness coefficient of clinker ash was in a
higher range, at 1.5 to 2.0, than natural sands,
probably because the samples were prepared by
crushing blocks of solidified clinker ash. As seen
in Photo 1, the particles of clinker ash have
complicated shapes. The aspect ratio of clinker
552
6th
ash was in the range of 1.4 to 1.6, which is

greater than that of natural sand.
As mentioned above, the particles of clinker ash
were weaker than natural sand and had a more
complicated shape. These factors seem to have a
large effect on the mechanical properties of the
grains.
SHEAR CHARACTERISTICS
Samples
The samples used were C.A. a a f and natural
sand Silica0.18-2.0, Toyoura and P.I. Masado.
Silica0.18-2.0 and Toyoura were used because they
are widely used for this kind of study in Japan
and P.I. Masado is often used as an embankment
material.
Preparation of specimens and test conditions
It is very difficult to saturate clinker ash because
it has a complicated particle shape and lots of
voids both on the surface and inside the particle.
In this study, the saturated specimens of clinker
ash were prepared as follows: Samples were
immersed in de-aerated water for 2 to 4 days
under negative pressure to attain a B value of
0.96 or more; about 2 cm of de-aerated water was
poured into a mold and then each sample of
clinker ash slurry was poured into the mold
through a funnel, taking care to maintain the
distance between the water level and the surface
of the sample at about 2 cm. In addition,
specimens of Toyoura, P.I Masado and
Silica0.18-2.0 were also prepared in the same
manner. The size of the specimens was 10 cm in
diameter and 20 cm in height.
Table 2 shows the test conditions for each sample.
The density of the clinker ash specimens was
kept as low as possible so that we could observe
the shear behavior of the clinker ash specimens
in their loosest state. Our finding was that a
degree of compaction of Dc=90% or higher could
be achieved by running a vibration roller twice
over the embankment when an experimental
embankment was made using clinker ash. The
clinker ash specimens used for this study were
prepared by compacting with a tamper so that the
Table 2
Sample
C.A. a
C.A. b
C.A. c
Test conditions
Loose
Dense
Dr Dc
d
Dr
d
(g/cm3) (%) (%) (g/cm3) (%)
0.712
4
73
0.867 20 85 0.918 40
0.876
8
77 1.021 59
c'
Dc
(kPa)
(%)
90
90
C.A. d
0.741
21
75
0.893
72
90
C.A. e
0.879
77
C.A. f
0.890
77
P.I.Masado
Silica0.18-2.0
1.518
50
1.473
53
1.636
90
Toyoura
50,
100,
200
100
degree of compaction was Dc= 90%. Specimens

of P.I. Masado and Toyoura were prepared so that
the relative density Dr was about 50%.
Specimens of Silica0.18-2.0 were prepared with a
relative density of 90%.
The consolidated-drained triaxial compression
test was performed according to JGS 0523-2000
using a low-pressure triaxial compression testing
apparatus. The effective confining pressure c of
clinker ash specimens was set to 50, 100, and
200 kPa and the rate of strain to 0.2%/min.
Clinker ash has a maximum particle size of about
19 mm and membrane penetration affects the test
results. Therefore, the membrane penetration into
the specimens was obtained in advance to correct
the diameter of each specimen.
Shear behavior
Figure 2 shows the relationships between stress
ratio and axial strain a, and between
volumetric strain v and axial strain a of clinker
ash (C.A. c), Toyoura, P.I Masado, and
Silica0.18-2.0 under an effective confining pressure
of c=100 kPa. The loose clinker ash and loose
P.I. Masado behaved almost the same as regards
the relationship between stress ratio and strain in
the initial rising part of the curve. The axial strain
at which the peak stress ratio occurs had similar
values, with the loose clinker ash producing a
higher stress ratio than other specimens. Toyoura
had a greater initial stiffness than the loose
clinker ash and P.I Masado, but its peak stress
ratio was slightly lower than that of the loose
2.5
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.0
Volumetric strain H v (%)
0.5
V c '=100kPa
0.0
10
15
C.A. c (Loose)
C.A. c (Dense)
P.I.Masado (Loose)
Silica 0 . 1 8 -2 .0 (Dense)
Toyoura (Loose)
20
25
30
Axial strain H a (%)
-10
-5
0
5
10
10
15
20
25
30
Fig. 2
Relationship between stress ratio,

axial strain and volumetric strain
(C.A. c and natural sand)
clinker ash. It should be noted that the loose

clinker ash specimen had a higher peak stress
ratio than P.I. Masado or Toyoura, whose relative
density was set to about 50%. In addition, the
clinker ash and P.I. Masado had almost the same
trend toward shrinked volumetric strain while
Toyoura had a trend toward expansion. On the
other hand, the relationship between the stress
ratio and the strain of dense specimens were as
follows: the dense clinker ash and dense
Silica0.18-2.0 had similar initial stiffness but the
peak stress ratio of the dense clinker ash was
greater than that of the dense Silica0.18-2.0, whose
relative density Dr was set to 90%. That is,
clinker ash had a higher peak stress ratio than
natural sand no matter what the density.
Figure 3 shows the relationships between the
stress ratio and axial strain a, and between
volumetric strain v and axial strain a of clinker
ash (C.A. c) with an effective confining pressure
of c= 50 kPa and 200 kPa. It can be seen in the
figure that if the effective confining pressures are
the same, the stiffness of the clinker ash becomes
greater with quite different initial stiffness, when
the specimen is dense and the effective confining
pressure is low. In addition, if the densities are
the same, the peak stress ratio occurs at a lower
Stress ratio K
2.5
1.5
1.0
0.5
Volumetric strain H v (%)
Stress ratio K
Yoshimoto, Wakatsuki and Hyodo 553
C.A. c
0.0
10
15
V c '=50kPa (Loose)
V c '=200kPa (Loose)
V c '=50kPa (Dense)
V c '=200kPa (Dense)
20
25
30
25
30
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
10
15
20
Fig. 3
Relationship between stress ratio,

axial strain and volumetric strain
(C.A. c (c = 50 and 200 kPa))
strain level when the effective confining pressure

is lower. However, as the stress ratio approaches
the residual state, no significant difference is
observed even under different effective confining
pressures. The volumetric strain tended to shrink
as the effective confining pressure increased or
the specimen becomes looser.
Relationship between secant angle and
effective confining pressure
Figure 4 shows Mohrs stress circles of loose
clinker ash (C.A. c). The figure shows a rupture
envelope and the secant angle line of each
Mohrs circle. Clinker ash is usually classified as
sandy or gravelly. However, its rupture envelope
does not pass through the origin on the plane
with shear stress and effective stress c,
resulting in apparent cohesion c. The specimen
does not stand alone when the effective confining
pressure is zero and thus clearly it does not have
any cohesion. Therefore, the apparent cohesion c
is produced by the stress dependence of shear
strength (described later). In construction design,
cohesion is a parameter which has a strong effect
on the results of calculations of the stability and
earth pressure of an embankment. Thus
incorporating into the design as a soil constant
6th

60
Shear stress W (kPa)
900
C.A. a(Loose)
C.A. b(Loose)
C.A. c(Loose)
C.A. d(Loose)
C.A. e(Loose)
C.A. f(Loose)
C.A. b (Dense)
C.A. c (Dense)
C.A. d (Dense)
Rupture envelope line

Secant angle line
Secant angle I ' s (deg.)
554
C.A. c (Loose)
s =3 7. 7 r
s =4 0.0 r
600
s =4 3 .4 r
c d =22k Pa, d =35 .3 r
300
0
0
300
600
900
1200
50
40
30
Effective stress V c ' (kPa)
Fig. 4
Mohrs stress circles (C.A.c: loose)
this apparent cohesion, which is obtained as an

effect of crushing clinker ash particles, should be
avoided.
Figure 5 shows the relationship between secant
angle Is and effective confining pressure c of
clinker ash at peak stress. It was found that the
secant angle drops linearly against the effective
confining pressure expressed on a log scale,
probably because the particle of clinker ash was
broken up. In addition, the clinker ash, even
when loose and therefore low in density, have a
secant angle of more than 40o when the effective
confining pressure is 50 kPa. If the density is
high, the clinker ash has a secant angle of more
than 52o. On the other hand, if the effective
confining pressure is 200 kPa, the secant angle is
about 35o when the density is low, and about 40o
when the density is high. Therefore, when
designing an earth structure using clinker ash, it
is rational to consider the stress dependency of
the static shear strength of clinker ash and use the
secant angle corresponding to the effective
confining pressure as the angle of internal
friction.
CONCLUSIONS
The following findings were obtained from this
study:
1) The particle density of the clinker ash is in
the range of 1.95 to 2.24 g/cm3. When
compared with the natural sand, the clinker
ash is light weight. The particles of clinker
0.1
Confining pressure Vc ' (MPa)
Fig. 5
Relationship between secant angle and

effective confining pressure
ash were weaker than the particles of natural

sand. It seemed that the mechanical
characteristics of clinker ash were greatly
affected by its complicated particle shapes.
2) Clinker ash is a crushing material and thus
its secant angle tends to drop if the effective
confining pressure is high. owever, it
maintains a secant angle of more than 40o in
a loose state and a maximum of about 52o in
a dense state, when the effective confining
pressure is 50 kPa. When the effective
confining pressure is 200 kPa, a secant angle
of about 35o is maintained in a loose state
and about 40o in a dense state.
REFERENCE
Y. Wakatsuki, M. Hyodo, N. Yoshimoto, A.
Nakashita, T. Ikeda (2009a) Material
characteristics of clinker ash and examination
of applicability for embankment, Proc. of the
Powders & Grains 2009, pp.177-180.
Y. Wakatsuki, M. Hyodo, N. Yoshimoto, R. Anai,
Y. Yoshinaga, I. Yoshioka, A. Nakashita
(2009b) Particle characteristics and strength,
deformation characteristics of loose clinker
ash, Proc. of the Japan Society of Civil
Engineering C, Vol.65, No.4, pp.897-914.
Y. Kato, Y. Nakata, M. Hyodo, H. Murata (2001)
Geomaterial
single
particle
crushing
characteristics, Proc. of the Japan Society of
Civil Engineering, No.673, III-54, pp.189-194.
CBR Values of Nine Different Indian Class F Fly Ashes
Sujit Kumar Pal

Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology,
Agartala 799 001, India (skrpal@yahoo.co.in)
Ambarish Ghosh
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Bengal Engineering & Science University, Shibpur
700 103, India (ambarish@civil.becs.ac.in)
ABSTRACT: The California bearing ratio (CBR) is one of the vital parameters used in the design of flexible
pavement. To demonstrate the utility of fly ash in road construction, CBR tests have been conducted on fly ash
samples. In the present study, nine fly ash samples collected from different thermal power plants of the Eastern
part of India have been used to study the suitability of fly ash as materials for embankment, subgrade and land
filling. This paper presents CBR values of all the nine fly ash samples, compacted at optimum moisture content
(OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) obtained from standard Proctor (AASHO) and modified Proctor
(modified ASSHO) compaction tests in accordance with ASTM standards. Effects of compactive effort, CaO
and ratio of CaO/SiO2 on CBR values of fly ash samples are discussed herein. It is observed that for all the fly
ash samples the CBR values at 5.0 mm penetration are higher than the CBR values at 2.5 mm penetration.
Hence, CBR values at 5.0 mm penetration are taken as the CBR values of the respective samples. CBR values
compacted with standard Proctor compaction energy are within the range of 7.8131.26 for unsoaked specimens
and those are within the range of 2.7117.58 for soaked specimens. Similarly, CBR values compacted with
modified Proctor compaction energy are within the range of 21.2762.50 for unsoaked specimens and those are
within the range of 5.4424.74 for soaked specimens. It is also found that soaked CBR values are less than
unsoaked CBR values both at standard Proctor compaction and modified Proctor compaction energies. It is
further obtained that CBR values are more at modified Proctor compaction energy than those at standard Proctor
compaction energy, irrespective of soaking conditions and varieties of samples.
INTRODUCTION
California bearing ratio (CBR) is one of the
vital parameters used in the design of flexible
pavement. To demonstrate the utility of fly ash
in road construction, CBR tests for various fly
ash samples are to be conducted. Earlier
researchers conducted CBR tests on mixtures of
soil and fly ash (Edil et al. 2006), fly ash
stabilized with lime alone or in combination
with gypsum (Ghosh and Subbarao 2006) and
clay soil in its natural state as well as mixed
with varying proportions of wood ash (Okagbue
2007).
From the previous studies of literature on
California bearing ratio, it is revealed that there
is paucity of data on strength characteristics of
varieties of fly ash which may find potential
application as embankment material, subgrade
material and fill material. To study the

suitability of fly ash as materials for
embankment, subgrade and land filling nine fly
ash samples collected from different thermal
power plants have been used in the present
study. This study presents California bearing
ratio (CBR) values of the fly ash samples.
Effects of compactive effort, CaO and ratio of
CaO/SiO2 on CBR values of fly ash samples are
discussed herein.
MATERIALS
Nine numbers of class F fly ash samples have
been used in this investigation to study the
suitability of using these materials for
construction of embankment, subgrade and land
filling. The test results on physical properties
(Table 1) and chemical composition (Table 2) of
all the fly ash samples discussed are presented
556
6th
in this paper. The nine fly ash samples used in

this study are designated as follows:
KF: Kolaghat fly ash, from Kolaghat thermal
power plant
KP-1: Kolaghat pond ash, from Ash pond 1 of
Kolaghat thermal power plant
KP-2: Kolaghat pond ash, from Ash pond 2 of
KP-3: Kolaghat pond ash, from Ash Pond 3 of
BBF: Budge Budge fly ash, from Budge Budge
thermal power plant
BBB: Budge Budge bottom ash, from Budge
Budge thermal power plant
BBP: Budge Budge pond ash, from Ash pond
of Budge Budge thermal power plant
BAF: Bandel fly ash, from Bandel thermal
power plant
BAB: Bandel bottom ash, from Bandel thermal
power plant.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
To study the California bearing ratio values of
fly ash samples, California bearing ratio tests
on all the fly ash samples compacted at OMC
and MDD, obtained from standard Proctor
compaction tests and modified Proctor
compaction tests have been conducted in
accordance with ASTM standards (ASTM
D1883-07) and the test results are discussed.
TABLE 1 Physical properties of fly ash samples
Properties of Sample
Specific gravity
Sand size, 4.75-0.075 mm(%)
Silt size, 0.075-0.002 mm (%)
Clay size, <0.002 mm (%)
D10 mm
D30 mm
D60 mm
Uniformity coefficient (Cu)
Coefficient of curvature (Cc)
Group symbol
Group name
Plasticity
Ranges
1.99 2.170
6.930 72.940
26.380 88.170
0.680 6.800
0.006 0.029
0.009 0.084
0.016 0.190
2.422 16.627
0.537 1.957
SM or ML
Silty sand or
Sandy silt
NP
PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS AND

TEST METHODS
The procedure for preparation of specimens and
also the experimental methods of California
bearing ratio test is described in brief in this
section.
The specimen preparation and testing of fly ash
samples for unsoaked and soaked for four days
have been performed in accordance with ASTM
standards (ASTM D1883-07). The specimens
were compacted applying the energies
corresponding to standard Proctor compaction
method (ASTM D698-07) and modified Proctor
compaction method (ASTM D1557-07). The
values of CBR for unsoaked and soaked
specimens are presented in Table 4.
TABLE 2 Chemical compositions and pH values of
fly ash samples
Constituent (%)
Ranges
60.50 66.10
SiO2
7.40 8.80
Fe2O3
11.70 18.20
Al2O3
3.80 6.60
CaO
3.10 5.30
MgO
3.20 3.80
LOI
0.40 1.30
Others
6.90 7.84
pH value
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section presents the test results of
California bearing ratio (CBR) of fly ash
samples. The compaction test results and
chemical compositions of fly ash samples
presented are utilized to explain the effects of
compactive effort, CaO and ratio of CaO/SiO2
on CBR. The effects of various parameters on
CBR of fly ash are discussed in the following
sections.
Experimental Results
Table 4 illustrates California bearing ratio
values of unsoaked and soaked fly ash samples.
The CBR values for both the penetrations of 2.5
mm and 5.0 mm. It is observed that for all the
fly ash samples the CBR values at 5.0 mm
penetration are higher than the CBR values at
2.5 mm penetration, except for one unsoaked
Pal and Ghosh
specimen compacted with modified Proctor

energy. CBR values for unsoaked specimens
compacted with standard Proctor compaction
energy are within the range of 6.8926.50 (2.5
mm penetration) and 7.8131.26 (5.0 mm
penetration). CBR values for soaked specimens
compacted with standard Proctor compaction
energy are within the range of 1.8310.70 (2.5
mm penetration) and 2.7117.58 (5.0 mm
penetration). CBR values for unsoaked
specimens compacted with modified Proctor
compaction energy are within the range of
22.0759.02 (2.5 mm penetration) and 21.27
62.50 (5.0 mm penetration). CBR values for
soaked specimens compacted with modified
Proctor compaction energy are within the range
of 2.8519.71 (2.5 mm penetration) and 5.44
24.74 (5.0 mm penetration). Hence, the CBR
values at 5.0 mm penetration are taken as the
CBR values of the respective samples. It is also
found that soaked CBR values are less than
unsoaked CBR values both at standard Proctor
compaction and modified Proctor compaction
energies. It is further obtained that CBR values
are more at modified Proctor compaction energy
than those at standard Proctor compaction
energy, irrespective of soaking conditions and
varieties of samples.
MDD and OMC of fly ash samples of this study
are lies within 10.5613.12 kN/m3 and
25.6036.87%
for
standard
Proctor
compaction energy and 12.8214.35 kN/m3
and 20.00 26.77% for modified Proctor
compaction energy, respectively (Table 3).
Discussions on Test Results
This section presents the discussion on the CBR
of the fly ash samples of this study. Discussions
are made on the effects of compactive effort,
CaO and ratio of CaO/SiO2 on CBR values are
presented herein, referring the relevant tables.
Effect of compactive effort on California
bearing ratio (CBR) values of fly ash
From Tables 3 and 4 it is observed that
compactive effort plays a vital role in CBR
values. CBR values of specimens compacted
557
applying standard Proctor compaction energy

(595 kJ/m3) are less compared to CBR values of
specimens compacted applying modified
Proctor compaction energy (2674 kJ/m3) in
most of the fly ash samples. It is may be due to
reason that particles of fly ash come closer and
voids between the particles are reduced because
of rearrangement of the particles under heavy
compaction (i.e., modified Proctor compaction
energy) and that is why CBR values are more
for specimens compacted with modified Proctor
compaction energy. In case of modified Proctor,
the value of MDD is more and the value of
OMC is less than those of the respective values
under standard Proctor compaction method.
Osinubi and Nwaiwu (2005) reported that
maximum dry unit weight of the soils tested
increased with higher compactive effort, while
corresponding decreases in optimum water
content were recorded with higher compactive
effort for compacted lateritic soil.
TABLE 3 Compaction test results of fly ash samples
Sample
Standard
Modified Proctor
Proctor
MDD
3
(kN/m )
OMC
(%)
MDD
3
(kN/m )
OMC
(%)
KF
13.12
25.60
14.35
20.00
KP-1
11.68
29.85
12.85
23.68
KP-2
11.47
33.39
12.82
26.57
KP-3
12.03
28.20
13.73
21.55
BBF
11.52
30.65
13.03
25.13
BBB
10.56
36.87
13.03
26.77
BBP
10.93
34.08
12.86
23.95
BAF
12.02
28.91
14.11
21.14
BAB
11.81
28.95
12.91
22.78
Effect of CaO and ratio of CaO/SiO2 on

California bearing ratio (CBR) values of fly
ash
It is observed from the Tables 3 and 4 that in
both unsoaked and soaked conditions, for most
of the cases, as CaO value increases, CBR value
558
6th
also increases both at standard Proctor and

modified Proctor energies. The values of CaO
are within the range of 3.806.60%. Table 4
shows that in most of the fly ash samples as the
ratio of CaO/SiO2 increases, the CBR value also
increases. Ratio of CaO/SiO2 is in the range of
0.0600.100. Edil et al. (2006) also reported
similar effect of the ratio of CaO/SiO2 on CBR
values of soil stabilized with varieties of fly ash.
CBR values as well as MDD values are

less at standard Proctor in comparison
with those at modified Proctor
compaction energy in most of the fly
ash samples.
C.B.R. values indicate that fly ash

samples may be used as sub-surface of
pavement embankment.
TABLE 4 Unconsolidated undrained triaxial test

results
Sample
CaO
Ratio of
(%)
(CaO/
CBR Values
SiO2)
Standard Proctor Method
Modified Proctor Method
Unsoaked
Soaked
Unsoaked
Soaked
Penetration
Penetration
Penetration
Penetration
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
2.5
5.0
2.5
5.0
2.5
5.0
2.5
5.0
KF
5.50
0.086
26.50
31.26
10.70
17.58
59.02
62.50
19.71
24.74
KP-1
4.60
0.072
11.18
21.27
3.06
4.89
26.86
36.25
6.80
9.61
KP-2
4.50
0.073
12.57
21.07
3.20
4.12
29.67
51.85
9.37
14.72
KP-3
4.50
0.074
13.26
19.69
3.26
5.66
38.74
50.74
9.80
20.90
BBF
5.20
0.079
21.07
25.14
4.08
8.20
39.41
52.87
10.47
20.90
BBB
4.80
0.075
18.70
23.10
10.53
14.72
48.80
56.41
15.23
24.50
BBP
3.80
0.060
6.89
7.81
1.83
2.71
22.07
21.27
2.85
5.44
BAF
6.60
0.100
23.79
27.52
8.96
9.53
58.21
73.43
14.40
21.30
BAB
4.10
0.067
10.87
18.93
2.71
4.08
23.56
30.44
5.71
8.01
CONCLUSION
Based on the results and discussions made on
the California bearing ratio of class F fly ash
samples, the following conclusions may be
made:
In general the CaO values and ratio of

CaO/SiO2 are directly proportional to
the CBR values of present fly ash
samples.
REFERENCES
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). (2007). Standard test method for
California bearing ratio of
compacted soils. Designation
Philadelphia.
laboratoryD1883-07,
Amrican Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM). (2007). Standard test methods for
laboratory compaction characteristics of soil
Pal and Ghosh
using modified effort (2674

Designation D1557-07, Philadelphia.
kJ/m3).
American Society for Testing and Materials

(ASTM). (2007). Standard test methods for
laboratory compaction characteristics of soil
using standard effort [12,400 ft lbf/ft3 (600
Kn/m3)]. Designation D698-07, Philadelphia.
Edil, T. B., Acosta, H. A., and Benson, C. H.
(2006). Stabilizing Soft Fine-Grained Soils
with Fly Ash. Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, 18(2), 283 294.
Gandhi, S. R., Dey, A. K., and Seivam, S.
(1999). Densification of pond ash by blasting.
Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
559
Ghosh, A, and Subbarao, C. (2006a). Tensile

strength bearing ratio and slake durability of
class F fly ash stabilized with lime and
gypsum. Journal of Materials in Civil
Okagbue, C. O. (2007). Stabilization of clay
using wood ash. Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, 19(1), 1418.
Osinubi, K. J., and Nwaiwu, C. M. O. (2005).
Hydraulic conductivity of compacted lateritic
soil.
Journal
of
Geotechnical
and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 131(8),
1034 1041.
Retention of Chromium by Low Lime Fly Ashes

P V Sivapullaiah
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India (siva@civil.iisc.ernet.in)
M Arif Ali Baig
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India (reach2arif@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT An attempt has been made to study the technical feasibility of utilisation of fly ash as a lowcost adsorbent for the removal of Chromium in water systems. Two types of low lime fly ashes were used to
study the retention capacities of Chromium. Various parameters like contact time, initial concentration and
pH were varied and their effects on retention mechanism were studied. It is observed that adsorption of
chromium is maximum at lower pH values than that at higher pH levels. First order kinetics and Langmuir
adsorption isotherms revealed that the adsorption of chromium is highly dependent on the pH of the system.
INTRODUCTION
Disposal of large quantities of fly ash generated
in thermal power plants by burning coal to
generate electric power, is assuming serious
concern. To minimize this disposal problem, fly
ash is being used for different applications in
geotechnical engineering in construction
technology. The removal of Cr (VI) from
aqueous solution by batch adsorption technique
using two low lime fly ashes as low-cost
adsorbents is studied.
The demand of chromium is increasing globally
due to its extensive use in various metallurgical,
chemical and leather tanning industries due to its
various physico-chemical properties. The
toxicity of Chromium is a function of oxidation
state which varies from 0 to VI. Among all these
oxidation states, Cr(II) can easily be oxidized to
Cr(III) by air, while Cr(IV) and Cr(V) are
unstable intermediates formed during Cr bearing
reactions. Cr(VI) and Cr(III) are the two stable
ionic forms because of their difference in
oxidation states. Cr(VI) has a high solubility in
soils and groundwater and, as a consequence,
tends to be mobile in the environment; while
Cr(III) is relatively innocuous and immobile.
The speciation or the form of the chromium, and

the phase in which it exists depends on various
geochemical processes. The most important of
these
geochemical
processes
include
oxidation/reduction, adsorption/reduction and
precipitation/dissolution. Contamination of
Cr(VI) and Cr(III) in surface water is of great
environmental concern due to their toxic,
mutagenic and carcinogenic effects on
ecosystems and human beings. The removal of
Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions has been
commonly carried out by several processes like,
chemical precipitation, solvent extraction, ionexchange, reverse osmosis or adsorption.
Among these processes, the adsorption with the
selection of a suitable adsorbent is a simple but
effective technique for the removal of Cr(VI)
from wastewater.
Various kinds of fly ashes have been used as
low-cost sorbents for the removal of Cr(VI)
(Grover and Narayanaswamy, 1982; Panday et
al. 1994; Dasmahapatra et al. 1996; Gupta et al.
1998; Bayat 2002; Rao et al. 2002; Banerjee et
al. 2004) and its dye (Gupta et al. 1988). In this
work, two coal fly ashes originating from two
different thermal power plants were tested for
adsorption of Cr(VI) ions from aqueous
solutions. The adsorption capacities were
determined from the parameters of adsorption
isotherms. Factors affecting sorption, such as pH,
Sivapullaiah and Baig
initial concentration and contact time were also

investigated.
Fly ashes
Two low lime fly ashes collected directly from
the electrostatic precipitators of thermal power
plants located at Neyvelli town of Tamil Nadu
and Muddanur town of Andhra Pradesh, India,
named NFA and MFA respectively have been
used in the present study. The chemical
composition of these fly ashes is presented in
Table 1. These fly ashes have been classified as
F type as per the ASTM classification (ASTM C
618).
TABLE 1 Chemical Composition of NFA and MFA
Constituent
NFA (%)
MFA (%)
Silica (SiO2)
50.97
56.88
Alumina (Al2O3)
18.81
27.65
Ferric (Fe2O3)
16.61
6.28
Calcium (CaO)
9.00
3.62
Magnesium (MgO)
1.41
0.34
Titanium (TiO2)
0.28
0.31
Potassium (K2O)
0.23
0.27
Sodium (Na2O)
0.18
0.19
Loss on ignition
2.60
4.46
Solutions Used
561
sample of 5g was mixed with 100 ml of distilled

water in polyethylene bottles to obtain fly ash
slurry. The pH of the slurry was adjusted to the
desired value in the range of 2 to 8 with 0.1M
HNO3 and NaOH. The slurry was agitated with a
mechanical shaker at room temperature (252C)
for 1 h until the pH was stabilized. Then the
Cr(VI) ions in the form of dichromate salt were
added to the bottles to various concentrations
(10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 mg/l) and the bottles were
further agitated until equilibrium was attained.
The slurry was filtered using Whatman 42
ashless filter paper and the residual concentration
of the chromium ions in the filtered solution was
determined
using
atomic
absorption
spectrophotometry (AAS). The amount of metal
ion adsorbed by fly ash was taken as the
difference between the initial and residual
concentrations of the metal ion. The reported
values of metal ion adsorbed by fly ash in each
test are the averages of at least three
measurements. In order to determine the removal
by hydroxide precipitation at various pH values,
a set of blank tests were also conducted using
solutions maintained at different pH values
without fly ash. The reported values of
chromium metal ions adsorbed by fly ash in each
test are the averages of at least three such trials
carried out.
The amount of chromium metal ion adsorbed is
defined as,
(Co Ct ) V
M
(1)
Standard solutions prepared using analytical

grade potassium dichromate, have been used in
the present study.
where Co and Ct are the initial and final

concentrations of the chromium metal ions in
solution; V the volume (L) and M the weight
(g) of the adsorbent.
Batch Equilibrium Tests
Batch adsorption experiments were carried out

by mechanically shaking series of bottles
containing fly ash samples and Cr(VI) ions using
distilled water at different pH values. Fly ash
The amounts of Cr(VI) ions retained by fly ashes

after reaching equilibrium time are presented in
the fig. The amounts adsorbed vary with the type
of fly ash, metal ion and pH of the solution. It
562
6th
can be seen that the amounts of Cr(VI) retained

by the two fly ashes used, viz., NFA and MFA as
affected by initial concentrations are also
influenced by pH to a great extent.
respectively positively or negatively charged

metal complexes. Hence the pH of the solution
affects the protonation of the function group on
the adsorbent surface of fly ashes as well as the
Cr metal complexation.
Under highly oxidizing conditions, chromium
usually exists in Cr(VI) form. When the pH of
the fly ash slurry is less than 6.3, Cr(VI) exists as
HCrO4- ; hence the amount adsorbed values are
higher as observed from fig. However, at a pH
greater than 6.3, it exists as CrO42(Chinthamreddy and Reddy, 1998). Under low
oxidizing or reducing conditions, chromium
exists as Cr(III). With increase in pH of the fly
ash system, Cr(VI) converts to Cr(III) whose
adsorption increases with increase in pH of the
system. Hence, the increased adsorption levels
even at higher pH conditions particularly at
higher initial concentrations, are due to
adsorption of Cr(III) on the oxide surfaces of fly
ashes. It is observed that the amount of
chromium adsorbed is more in NFA than in
MFA at any given initial concentration and at
any pH. This difference in adsorption capacities
between the two fly ashes is due to their
differences in chemical composition as well as
availability of oxide surfaces for adsorption. The
adsorption kinetics obtained using langrengian
first-order kinetic plots revealed that the rate
constant values increase with increase in pH, as
more amount of solute gets precipitated onto the
fly ash surface particles in both the fly ashes.
Fig. Amount of chromium adsorbed by NFA and

MFA at different initial concentrations with pH
Effect of pH
It is seen from fig that the amount of chromium
metal ion adsorbed varies with pH of the
solution. At low pH values, protons are
exchanged by Cr metal ions at exchange sites on
the mineral surface; desorbing protons leave
negatively charged groups at the surface, which
act as Lewis bases that coordinate metal ions;
adsorbed protons can form proton bonds between
surface groups and metal complexes; and
adsorbed protons can also generate positive
charges at the surface repelling or attracting
TABLE 2 Comparison of Langmuir Constants for Chromium retention by both the fly ashes
pH 2
pH 4
pH 6
pH 7
pH 8
NFA
MFA
NFA
MFA
NFA
MFA
NFA
MFA
NFA
MFA
qm
0.560
0.576
0.540
0.530
0.690
0.410
3.180
0.503
0.600
1.263
K ads
0.200
0.102
0.120
0.074
0.060
0.084
0.005
0.037
0.014
0.007
Sivapullaiah and Baig
563
Adsorption Isotherm
REFERENCES
Equilibrium sorption is best described by a
sorption isotherm. Equation most frequently used,
because of its relative simplicity to describe the
curvilinear sorption behavior of metal ions in fly
ash is the Langmuir equation. The linearised form
of the Langmuir equation is:
(1 / q )
(1/ Ct ) (1/ ( qm )( K ads )) (1/ qm )
(2)
where, Ct is the concentration of the free metal ion

in solution at equilibrium time t , q the quantity of
metal ion retained by fly ash, qm the maximum
sorption capacity of the fly ash and K ads the
coefficient related to bonding energy of the fly ash.
The Langmuir isotherm constants for both the fly
ashes at specific pH conditions determined from
the plots are presented in Table 2. A linear plot
between 1 / q and 1 / Ct obtained at different pH
values, validated the applicability of Langmuir
isotherm for chromium adsorption by fly ashes and
further suggested the formation of monolayer of
chromium around the adsorbate at the outer
surface of the adsorbent. The variations in
adsorption capacities for chromium ion by both the
fly ashes are attributed to their difference in
physico-chemical properties as well as due to the
difference in geochemistry of chromium prevalent
at different pH conditions.
CONCLUSIONS
The study brings out the applicability of low lime
fly ashes as an alternative adsorbent for the
removal of chromium (VI) and chromium (III)
metal ions from wastewater. The adsorption of
chromium is favored at low pH conditions. The
adsorption kinetics revealed that equilibrium times
reduce with increase in pH and increase
considerably with increase in initial concentration.
With increase in pH Cr(VI) transforms to Cr(III)
and gets adsorbed onto the fly ash surfaces. The
equilibrium sorption of chromium metal ion is best
described by Langmuir isotherm.
ASTM C618 (2008) Standard specification for

coal fly ash and raw or Calcined natural
pozzolan for use in concrete. American Society
for Testing and Materials. West Conshohocken,
PA
Banerjee S.S., Joshi M.V. and Jayaram R.V. (2004)
Removal of Cr(VI) and Hg(II) from aqueous
solutions using fly ash and impregnated fly ash.
Sep. Sci. and Tech., 39(7), 1611-1629.
Bayat B. (2002) Comparative study of adsorption
properties of Turkish fly ashes. II. The case of
chromium (VI) and cadmium (II), Jl. Hazard.
Mater., 95, 275290.
Chinthamreddy S. and Reddy K.R. (1998)
Geochemistry of chromium during electrokinetic
remediation. 4th International Sym. on Env.
Geotech. and Global Sustainable Dev., Boston,
Massachusetts, USA, Aug 9 -13.
Dasmahapatra G.P., Pal T.K., Bhadra A.K. and
Bhattacharya B. (1996) Studies on separation
characteristics of hexavalent chromium from
aqueous solution by fly ash, Sep. Sci. Technol.,
31, 20012009.
Grover M. and Narayanaswamy M.S. (1982)
Removal of hexavalent chromium by
adsorption on fly ash, Jl. Inst. Eng. (India), Part
EN: Environ. Eng. Div., 1, 3639.
Gupta G.S., Prasad G., Panday K.K. and Singh
V.N. (1988) Removal of chrome dye from
aqueous solutions by fly ash. Water, Air & Soil
Pollution, 37, 13-24.
Gupta V.K., Mohan D., Sharma S. and Park K.T.
(1998) Removal of chromium(VI) from
electroplating industry wastewater using
bagasse fly asha sugar industry waste
material. The Environmentalist, 19, 129-136.
Pandey K.K., Prasad G. and Singh V.N. (1994)
Removal of Cr(V1) from aqueous solutions by
adsorption on fly ash-wollastonite. Jl. of Chem.
Tech. & Biotech, Chem. Tech., 34(7), 367-374.
Rao M., Parwate A.V. and Bhole A.G. (2002)
Removal of Cr6+ and Ni2+ from aqueous
solution using bagasse and fly ash. Waste
Management, 22, 821-830.
Evaluation of Consolidation Tests for Very Soft Mining and Industrial Wastes to
Predict a Slurry Pond Lifetime
L. F. S. VILLAR
Engineering School, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Minas Gerais, Brazil
(lucio.villar@etg.ufmg.br)
T. M. P de Campos
Department of Civil Engineering, PUC-Rio, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
(tacio@puc-rio.br)
R. F. Azevedo
Department of Civil Engineering, Federal University of Viosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil
J. G. Zornberg
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Texas, USA
ABSTRACT This paper presents consolidation tests results of very soft mining and industrial wastes
obtained using constant rate of strain (CRS). The size and initial conditions of the samples and the
deformation rate were varied to observe their influence upon the results. The motivation was to ascertain if a
simple test could give faster but trustable data to design storage facilities to these wastes. The CRS tests
results were compared to field measurements and to hydraulic consolidation tests (HCT). It was concluded
that the compressibility data got from the CRS test is good but the permeability results it is only reasonable.
INTRODUCTION
One of the cheapest ways to dispose mining and
industrial wastes is to launch them as mud inside
reservoirs. But this technique demands important
environmental issues like to predict the reservoirs
lifetime and the waste consistency at the
beginning of the rehabilitation works. One of the
theories used to do so is the finite strain
consolidation theory (e.g Gibson et al, 1968;
Mikasa, 1965) that depends on the relationships
between the void ratio and effective stress
(compressibility) and between the void ratio and
the permeability coefficient, which can be
obtained by laboratory or field tests.
Many different consolidations tests were
developed through the last decades. Among then,
it can be mentioned those that use constant rate of
strain or deformation, the CRS tests (e.g. Wissa et
al., 1971); those performed using controlled
gradient (e.g. Lowe et al., 1969); those with
constant rate of loading (e.g. Aboshi et al., 1970);
those with restrict flow (e.g. Sills et al, 1986) and
the hydraulic consolidation test (e.g Imai, 1979).
In this research, the CRS test was used to

determine the compressibility and the permeability
of mining waste from bauxite mining in mud form.
This type of test was chosen because it is easier to
perform and cheaper than other like the hydraulic
consolidation test (HCT), which, in turn, is
considered more accurate. A simplified method
was used to analyze the test data. This method was
first proposed by Martinez et al. (1987) and
modified by Lima (1996). It is also presented the
compressibility and permeability results from
another residue, a red mud, the waste from the
Bayer System, a industrial process used to obtain
alumina from bauxite. Consolidation and
permeability tests results got from different types
of experiments (both field and lab procedures)
using these same residues were collected in
literature and compared to those obtained by the
CRS tests. The motivation was to ascertain if a
simple test procedure could give faster and still
reasonably good answers to the mining and
industrial companies to design storage facilities,
including rehabilitation plans.
Villar et al. 565
Compressibility and Permeability Relationships of

Bauxite Wastes
According to Vick (1983), mining wastes are, in
general, less compressible than natural soils in the
same consistency. Particularly in the case of
bauxite mining and their industrial wastes (red
mud), some researchers reported unusual behavior
during the consolidation process. This could be
due some individual particles creep or due some
special bonds developed between them (Somogyi
& Gray, 1997). Rodrigues (1987) said that red
mud use to show lower compressibility in the field
than that predicted theoretically because some
chemical adherence between particles which
prevent settlement and reduces storage capacity.
compressibility. Nowadays, the lab test that best

controls hydraulic gradients is the hydraulic
consolidation test. This test really measures the
permeability but it is expensive and time
consuming. Lapa & Cardoso (1988) presented
some permeability results of mud from the bauxite
washing process from the north of Brazil. They
found values varying from 10-6 to 10-9 m/seg (void
ratios around 10 to 1). Mello & Silveira (1991)
found permeability results to Brazilian red mud in
the same range considering the same void ratio
variation.
Consolidation Tests With Constant Rate Of Strain:
CRS Tests
Because of these facts mentioned before, the

compressibility and permeability of mining wastes
are specific to a place and must be checked
continuously if a good prediction of the storage
facility life time is desired. As consequence, it is
very widespread the use of empirical correlations
to describe both compressibility and permeability.
In the specific case of bauxite wastes, it can be
mentioned the empirical correlations proposed by
Stinson (1981) (red mud) and Mello (1985) (mud
from the ore washing process). Some researchers
(e.g. Somogyi & Gray, 1997 e Elias, 1995)
reported values of red mud compression index
varying between 0.26 to 0.8 for effective stresses
up to 1000kPa and coefficient of consolidation
around 10-3 a 10-2 cm2/seg.
Consolidation tests with constant rate of strain, the

CRS tests, are wide used to determine
compressibility of soils and it is now standardized
by ASTM (D-4386-06). One of the main
difficulties of this experiment is to determine the
correct strain rate to run the test since it can
influences the results. In general, is admitted that
the rate of strain depends on the pore pressure
coefficient, which is the relationship between the
excess pore pressure measured at the base of
sample and the total stress applied that moment. In
the literature, the recommendation about the value
of this coefficient varies a lot. Wissa et al (1971),
for example, recommended that it has to be around
2 to 5%, the same value adopted by the ASTM
D4186-06. In your turn, Smith & Wahls, (1969)
suggested 50%. Sheahan & Watters (1997) tested
a non cemented soil and concluded that there is no
significant dependence on the rate of strain to this
type of material. Industrial and mining wastes
launched in mud form usually do not show
cementation in a short period of time inside the
reservoir. Another discussion about the strain rate
of lab tests is related to the comparison between
lab results and field behavior. Sheahan & Watters
(1997) said that this relationship is also questioned
since the rate used in the lab is much higher than
those that really happen in field.
The permeability function of these residues is very

hard to be determined and demands very well
controlled hydraulic gradient because their low
There are many methods developed to analyze

CRS tests results. Some of them consider
infinitesimal deformations (e.g. Smith & Wahls,
The general field behavior of mining wastes

launched as slurry can vary a lot even inside the
same storage place. This occurs because their
characteristics can change as the mining processes
move forward and, moreover, huge particle
segregation may happen depending on the
deposition method used. From plant to plant,
differences may arise because it is also common to
use not standardized techniques to accelerate the
sedimentation and consolidation process.
566
6th
1969 and Wissa et al., 1971) and others admit

large deformations (e.g. Umehara & Zen, 1980;
Znidarcic et al., 1986 and Mikasa & Takada,
1986). Martinez et al. (1987) presented a
simplified method. They recommend to calculate
the average effective stress considering the area of
the effective stress distribution along the sample.
The coefficient of permeability is calculated using
the Darcy-Gersevanov law and making the
assumption that the velocity of the solids particles
is the average strain rate applied to the test.
According to them, the method would be valid
only to tests with a hydraulic gradient low enough
to keep the sample homogeneous.
characteristics described in Villar & de Campos

(2003) and some basic information is summarized
in Table 1.
TABLE 1 Geotechnical Characteristics of the WM and
NM wastes
GRAINS SIZE RANGE
Smallest grains size
>#60
Alves (1992) compared permeability tests results

of red mud from CRS and column tests, both
analyzed by the simplified test of Martinez et al.
(1987) and they agreed well. Santos (2000) used
results from CRS and HCT tests to compare the
methods proposed by Martinez et al (1987) and
Znidarcic et al. (1986), which is considered more
rigorous. It was found that both methods gave
very similar results to compressibility data no
matter what type of test. But independently of
method used to analyze the permeability data,
Santos (2000) also showed that results of the CRS
test did not compare well to those form HCT test.
The lab tests were carried out in mud from the
washing process of bauxite ore from the north of
Brazil. This material is called here WM (mud
from washing process), and it has only water as
pore fluid. The laboratory results were compared
with those obtained in the field described by Villar
et al (1998). Additional lab and field tests results
were also collected from literature. These
collected data were obtained using another type of
waste, a red mud from an aluminum industry
located in southeastern Brazil. Normally, red mud
from the industrial process called Bayer System
has caustic soda as pore fluid but, the red mud
studied here had sulfuric acid added to keep its pH
neutralized. Because of this, this mud is called in
this research NM, neutralized red mud. These two
residues
have
had
their
geotechnical
Largest grains size
Materia (using water as fluid in (using industrial fluid in

sedimentation tests) (%) sedimentation tests) (%)
l
sand
silt
clay sand
silt
clay
NM
0
49
51
62
30
8
WM
3
17
70
GRAINS DENSITY
SIZE RANGE
Material
> #100 > #200 < #200
Integ
water
liquor
3.66
3.65
3.65
3.57
3.68
3.49
3.49
3.51
3.54
3.39
WM
2.96
2.96
2.92
2.92
2.96
ATTERBERG LIMITS
Integral sample
Grains < #40
Material
(drying path)
LL
PL
PI
LL
PL
PI
water 41.4 32.7
8.7
NW
liquor 33.4
27
6.3 48.8 34
14.8
WM
48.1 23.8 24.3 53.8
25
28.8
NW
One of the test equipments used in this research

was described by Guimares (1990) and is called
here CRS. It uses cylindrical samples, with a
diameter of 20cm and 6 cm in height. It could
apply up to 400kPa of stress, measured by a total
stress transducer located at the base of the
consolidation cell. Pore pressure and displacement
transducers complete the test set. Other
consolidation test equipment was utilized and to
differentiate from the former one described, it is
called here CRS-2. It had smaller dimensions
(diameter of 10cm and height of 4 cm). The
applied stress could reach 2500kPa and it had pore
pressure and displacement transducers too.
The sample preparation technique used was
identical for all tests. The waste was first
homogenized and placed inside the consolidation
cell in layers. At the end of this process, the
sample was once more homogenized and, at this
moment, the moisture content was measured and
considered as the initial value of that test.
Villar et al. 567
Sometimes, at the end of a test performed at the

CRS equipment, the sample was taken from it and
placed in the CRS-2 test equipment to confirm the
continuity of answers. Sometimes, the tests were
started simultaneously in both equipments, with
samples as similar as possible. It was followed the
recommendations of ASTM D-4186 and the
method of analysis was that proposed by Martinez
et al (1987). Tables 2 and 3 summarized all the
initial conditions and some details of tests
performed. The velocity range was chosen
considering the equipment restrictions. Table 3
already shows the results of the pore pressure
coefficient measured during the tests. It can be
noticed in this table that tests 7 and 11 was
performed using remolded samples to check the
influence of structure upon the results.
TABLE 2 Initial conditions and velocity used in the
CRS-2 tests performed using WM wastes
Initial
Initial
Initial
moisture degree of
VELOC.
void ratio
TEST
(mm/min)
content saturation
e0
(%)
(%)
01
0.0219
1.28
44.51
100
02
0.0179
2.69
91.21
100
03
0.0427
2.05
71.5
100
04
0.0862
2.1
76.3
100
05
0.0565
2.87
34
35.13
06
0.1802
1.78
60
100
07
0.0233
1.62
58.25
100
08
0.318
2.13
73.56
100
09
0.4137
2.14
73.9
100
10
0.644
2.15
73.63
100
11
1.0170
1.99
69.46
100
12
0.4386
2.18
72.78
100
13
0.9117
2.08
71.98
100

Figure 1 shows the WM compressibility results
obtained via CRS-2 tests. It can be noticed that
except for three tests (01, 05 and 11), the curves
are similar. There seems to be no influence of the
deformation rate upon the compression index. The
initial moisture content does not seem to influence
this index either. All curves showed two distinct
behaviors. First, for lower values of effective
stress, the relationship is not linear. According to
Bo et al. (2002), a migration of fine particles

towards the drainage of the consolidation cell
would happen when testing very soft materials as
mud. Because of this, a kind of film would be
formed around the porous stone while the soil still
with very low density. After this first stage, the
material inside the consolidation cell behaves
more like a soil and the curve becomes more
linear. Except for the three tests already
mentioned (01, 05 and 11), the curves in this
second stage show similar inclination, indicating
the same rate of volume variation. The average
compression index was calculated to be about 0.50.
TABLE 3 Additional information about test conditions
and values of pore pressure coefficient measured during
the CRS-2 tests performed using WM wastes
Pore pressure
Additional information about
coefficient
TEST
test conditions
'u/Vtotal (%)
Pre consolidated sample
01
2
(300kPa). Submerged.
02
7
not submerged
03
0
not submerged
04
50
submerged
05
2,3
not submerged, unsaturated
06
10
submerged
submerged, slightly
07
15
remolded sample
08
45
not submerged
09
0
not submerged
10
125
not submerged
Not submerged, strongly
11
88
remolded sample
12
70
not submerged
13
0
submerged
The three tests formerly highlighted had initial

conditions very different from the others. The 01
test was run using a sample previously
consolidated to 300 kPa. Its behavior changes only
around this stress value, and after, its compression
index was around 0.30, smaller than the other
samples. The 05 test was performed on a sample
with initial degree of saturation of 35%. We can
see that their behavior is similar to test 01,
indicating that the effect of drying would be
equivalent to load the soil. The sample used for
test 11 had its original structure deliberately
568
6th
disturbed. Furthermore, it was used in this test the

highest deformation rate. Because the combination
of these two factors, this test showed a higher
compressibility than the others.
Fig.1
not identified in none of the tests performed in this

research. In Figure 2, test 2 was that with the
lower deformation rate and this can be the reason
of the difference from the others tests. But it was
not identified any reason to justify the difference
of test 4results.
CRS-2 compressibility results of the WM waste.
Figure 2 shows the permeability results. It can be

seen that they are more scattered and a reason for
that could be the difference between the pore
pressure coefficients of each test. Table 4 shows
only the maximum value of this coefficient
reached during the test, but to obtain good
effective stress results it is important that this
coefficient grows steadily and constantly
throughout the test. It can be noticed that these
permeability curves also have two stages. The
second stage can be considered linear. According
to Bo et al. (2002), the first stage would be the
stage of rearrangement of the grains and the
permeability values calculated during it would be
neither the average permeability of the whole
sample nor the permeability of the film or cake
formed in contact with the porous stone. They
suggested that this value would be the equivalent
permeability that controls the flow process
towards the drainage surface. They also aware that,
in these two stages, the permeability values is
controlled by the material adjacent to the porous
stone but the voids ratio is calculated as an
average of the entire sample. Bo et al. (2002) also
mentioned that a third stage could exist and it
would represent the phase when the mud sample
actually behaves as a soil. In this third stage, the
permeability would be constant and independent
of initial moisture content. This third phase was
Fig.2 CRS-2 permeability results of the WM waste.
Influence of sample size

The WM waste was tested in larger equipment
(CRS) to verify the scale effect. It uses cylindrical
samples, with a diameter of 20cm and 6 cm in
height whereas the CRS-2 uses samples with
diameter of 10cm and height of 4 cm. Samples
with different initial moisture contents were
submitted to the same deformation rates
(0.034mm/min). Another waste from the same
mine but collected from a different place was also
tested. It is called here WM 02. Figure 3 shows
the comparison of compressibility results without
tests 01, 05 and 11. It can be noticed that the
compression index is not influenced by the sample
size because all curves have very similar slope at
the linear stage. The void ratios also tended to
similar values after some stress level.
In Figure 4, it can be seen the permeability results
without tests 1, 5 and 11 and also without those
results with pore pressure coefficients out of the
limit set by ASTM D-4186. The data are more
scattered and the values to the same void ratio
were quite different depending of the type of
equipment. But the slope of the curves was also
similar.
Villar et al. 569
Fig.3
Effect of the sample size on compressibility
results of the WM waste.
Fig.5
Comparison of field and lab tests
compressibility results of the WM waste.
Previously published results of different types of

laboratory and field tests of the NM waste were
put side by side. The compressibility curves are in
Figure 7. It can be seen that the CRS test results
interpreted using the simplified method fit well to
those provided by HCT tests (more rigorous) and
field data. In your turn, Figure 8 shows the
permeability curves and also there is fairly good
fit between the data from field, CRS and HCT
tests.
Fig.4 Effect of the sample size on permeability results

of the WM waste.
Comparison with field tests results and results from

another lab tests
Field tests were performed inside WM reservoirs
(Villar et al, 1998) and compared to those from
the CRS tests. The compressibility curves can be
seen in Figure 5. Again, despite variations of the
initial conditions of laboratory tests and the
heterogeneity that happens in field, the results fit
well for effective stresses greater than 10kPa.
Permeability results from lab and field tests are
put side by side in Figure 6. The data are more
scattered showing that permeability results from
CRS tests must be seen with care.
Fig.6 Comparison of field and lab tests permeability

results of the WM waste.
CONCLUSIONS
This research investigated the quality of responses
provided by CRS consolidation test performed on
570
6th
samples in a mud form of mining and industrial

wastes. This test can be use to furnish
compressibility and permeability data necessary to
predict the life time of reservoirs where these
wastes are launched.
More studies would be necessary to better

establish the permeability function, but that
furnished by the CRS test data and the simplified
analysis can give a good approximation in terms
of pre-design projects.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are thankful for the financial support
given byPRONEX/FAPERJ and FAPEMIG.
REFERENCES
Fig.7
Comparison of field and lab tests
compressibility results of the NM waste.
Fig.8 Comparison of field and lab tests permeability

results of the NM waste.
The CRS test response was compared to other

tests considered more rigorous (and more
expensive and time consuming) and to field
measurements data. It could be concluded that the
compressibility characteristics of the wastes here
studied was very well determined by the CRS tests.
Aboshi, H. et al. (1970). Constant loading rate

consolidation test. Soils and Foundations, 10
(1), 43 56.
Alves, C. M. (1992). Sedimentation and
Consolidation of Red Mud. Doctorial Thesis,
Depart. of Civil Eng., PUC-Rio, in Portuguese.
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112 - 132. In Portuguese.
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Compressibility and permeability of Brazilian
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Mechanical and Chemical Characterization of FBC Ash for Large-Volume

Applications
A M Palomino
Pennsylvania State University, USA (angel.palomino@engr.psu.edu)
B Scheetz
Pennsylvania State University, USA (bscheetz@engr.psu.edu)
N T Plaks
Pennsylvania State University, USA (nickplaks@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to explore the variability in the mechanical and chemical
properties of one type of CCP, fluidized bed combustion (FBC) ash. Testing included material
characterization, unconfined compressive strength measurement, hydraulic conductivity measurement,
material chemical composition analysis, and effluent chemical composition analysis. Results show that
strength increased significantly with curing duration, hydraulic conductivity fluctuates with curing duration,
changes in material strength with curing time can be linked to changes in the chemical constituents of the
FBC ash, and the concentrations of the leachate chemical constituents did not exceed the PA DEP standards.
INTRODUCTION
Coal combustion products (CCPs) are by-products
created when coal is burned for energy production.
These products include fly ash, bottom ash, boiler
by-products, flue gas desulfurization (FGD) byproducts, and others. The amount of CCPs
produced far exceeds the CCPs recycled on an
annual basis. In 2008 alone, the United States
produced in excess of 136 million tons of CCPs.
Despite the fact that approximately 45% of the
CCPs were used beneficially, for example using
fly ash as a supplemental cementitious material in
Portland cement concrete, most of the remaining
percentate of the CCPs were disposed of through
land filling (ACAA 2008).
There are significant advantages to using CCPs for
large volume civil engineering applications such
as mine land reclamation and embankment
structures. Currently, CCPs not beneficially used
are either stockpiled or disposed of in landfills and
slurry ponds. This practice consumes large
quantities of land space. Utilization of CCPs as
opposed to disposal would reserve landfills to be
used for residential waste which currently has no
other viable disposal methods. Another advantage
of using CCPs in large-volume applications is that

the need for natural materials would be greatly
reduced. Costs associated with excavation,
transportation, and installation of natural materials
could potentially be significantly reduced if the
CCPs were obtained from a local coal power plant
(Kumar & Patil 2006). In some cases, CCPs have
even out-performed natural materials (Bacon
1976). Typical intrinsic CCP properties also
present various advantages, including the potential
cementitious nature of CCPs (strength gain with
time), low unit weight, high factor of safety for
slope stability, high shear strength per unit weight
ratio, and the immediate availability of large
volumes of material (ACAA 2008; Butalia &
Wolfe 2001).
The purpose of this study is to explore the
variability in the mechanical and chemical
properties of one type of CCP, fluidized bed
combustion (FBC) ash. Results from this study are
expected to provide insight for the utilization of
FBC ash in large-volume engineering applications.
Testing included material characterization,
unconfined compressive strength measurement,
Palomino, Scheetz and Plaks
573
hydraulic conductivity measurement, material

chemical composition analysis, and effluent
chemical composition analysis.
10 um
Fig.1 SEM of FBC ash.
Percent Finer by Mass
MATERIAL
Fluidized Bed Combustion (FBC) ash is produced
at power plants which typically burn coal mine
refuse. Coal mine refuse, or waste coal, is a low
BTU material typically discarded by the mining
industry (Dalberto et. al. 2004). FBC bottom ash
consists of heavier, courser particles which collect
on the bottom of the combustion chamber and are
removed with a conveyer system, while FBC fly
ash particles are much smaller and are collected
with an electrostatic precipitator. Due to the
quantity of limestone added during the
combustion process, FBC ash typically includes
hydration products, such as anhydrite and lime,
and has been observed to gain strength as a
function of time (Deschamps 1998). The FBC ash
used in this study was obtained in a dry state from
an FBC power plant in western Pennsylvania
(USA), and consisted of 45% bottom ash-55% fly
ash blend by mass.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1000
100
10
0.1
Particle Diameter (um)
METHODS
Fig.2 Particle size distribution of FBC ash.
Material Characterization
Material characterization included measurement
of specific gravity Gs, specific surface Sa using the
BET method (see Table 1), scanning electron
microscopy imaging (Fig.1), and particle size
distribution (Malvern Mastersizer; Fig.2).
TABLE 1 Measured Material Properties of FBC

Property
d50
Gs
Sa
Value
18.2 (Pm)
3.09
7.20 m2/g
Physical and Mechanical Properties

Proctor tests, unconfined compressive strength,
hydraulic conductivity measurements, and XRD
signatures were obtained for the FBC specimens.
Proctor tests were conducted to determine the
optimum moisture content and maximum
achievable dry density.
The unconfined compressive strength was
determined using a Boart Longyear loading
machine on specimens prepared at the optimum
water content and maximum dry density at curing
durations of 1, 3, 7, 14, 28, 56, 90, and 180 days.
However, due to the manual nature of the device a
constant strain rate could not be applied.
Alternatively, a constant loading rate of 6.9 kPa to
20.7 kPa per second (1 psi to 3 psi per second)
was applied until failure was observed.
The hydraulic conductivity of each specimen was

obtained using a pressurized permeameter
specially built for small samples (2.54-cm
diameter) of fine-grained materials. Specimens
were subjected to a confining pressure of 1379
kPa and a driving pressure of 1034 kPa (outlet
pressure = 101 kPa).
The effluent was collected during the hydraulic
conductivity testing from each sample, and the
dissolved chemical constituents were identified
using inductively coupled plasma mass
spectroscopy (ICP-MS; Activation Laboratories,
Ontario, Canada). The concentrations of selected
dissolved species were then compared to the
maximum allowable concentrations set forth by
the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Protection (DEP) which publishes certification
guidelines for the chemical and physical
properties of coal ash beneficially used at mine
sites (DEP 2009)
X-ray diffraction (XRD) signatures were obtained
from samples of the post-failure unconfined
compressive strength specimens. XRD was
utilized to track emergent and reduced
constituents at different curing durations.
Proctor Test Results
Proctor test results are
shown in Fig.3. The optimum water content and
maximum dry density determined from the proctor
curve are wopt = 26% and Ud,max = 1415 kg/m3,
respectively. These values are similar to those
determined by Deschamps (1998): wopt = 23% and
Ud,max = 1529 kg/m3. Note the particle surface
features evident in Fig. 1 do not greatly contribute
to the measured specific surface using a dry
method (BET gas adsorption), but most likely do
contribute to the relatively high moisture content
needed to achieve the maximum dry density.
1450
3
6th
Dry Density (kg/m)
574
1400
1350
1300
1250
0
10
20
30
Moisture Content (%)
40
Fig.3 Proctor test results for FBC ash.
UC and Hydraulic Conductivity Figures 4 and 5

show the measured unconfined compressive (UC)
strength and the hydraulic conductivity (k),
respectively, of the FBC ash with sample curing
duration time. Several salient observations can be
made:
The
unconfined
compressive
strength
increases significantly from the 1-day curing
duration to the 10-day curing duration.
The unconfined compressive strength beyond
the 10 days curing time increase less
significantly. From 10 days to 180 days, the
material reached a maximum of 17225 kPa at
180 days.
Hydraulic conductivity fluctuates with curing
duration time, first decreasing then increasing
as curing time approached 180 days. This
observation is most likely due to differences in
the solubility of various constituents known to
be in the ash, including chloride, sodium,
potassium, and thallium. Further investigation
is needed to confirm the impact of these
dissolved constituents on the measured
permeability.
16000
Intensity (counts)
UC Strength (kPa)
100000
12000
10000
1000
8000
4000
0
100
0.1
10
100
Curing Time (days)
10
1000
Fig.4 Unconfined compressive strength with curing

duration of FBC ash.
20
30
40
50
Two-Theta (deg)
60
70
Fig.6 XRD signature of FBC at 1 day curing time.
16000
Intensity (counts)
1E-04
k (cm/s)
575
1E-05
1E-06
12000
8000
G
4000
E G
1E-07
0.1
10
100
Curing Time (days)
1000
10
30
50
Two-Theta (deg)
70
Fig.5 Hydraulic conductivity with curing duration of

FBC ash.
Fig.7 XRD signature of FBC at 180 days curing time.
XRD Figures 6 and 7 highlight the chemical

evolution of the FBC ash with curing time. The
magnitude of the gypsum (G) and ettringite (E)
peaks increase from curing time 1 day to 180
days. Both of these constituents contribute to the
strength gain of the material. As the quantity of
gypsum increases the anhydrite (A), which is the
parent material of gypsum, decreases accordingly.
Charlesite, a variation of ettringite, was also
present in the FBC ash after curing for 7 days. The
clay minerals muscovite, halloysite, and
phlogopite were found in the FBC ash, and their
quantities also increased with curing time. The
silica found in clay minerals can react with
hydrated lime (Ca(OH2)) to form calcium silicate
hydrate (CSH), a cementitious product (Mitchell

& Dermatas 1992). Thus, the material strength
increases over time.
Effluent Chemical Composition The chemical
composition of the permeability effluent
complements the XRD signature findings in that
changes in material properties may be tracked
through the dissolved species. In addition, the
effluent was analyzed to identify potential
environmentally harmful constituents. While
further analysis is still needed to link the evolution
of the mechanical properties to the dissolved
species concentrations, the chemical constituents
present in the effluent were identified and their
576
6th
concentrations compared to the standards of

environmentally harmful chemicals regulated by
the Pennsylvania DEP. Table 2 lists selected
components along with the maximum observed
concentrations as well as the DEP maximum
acceptable concentrations for leachate from coal
ash beneficially used for mine reclamation. Not all
of the components tested for this study and by the
DEP are listed here due to space limitations. A
detailed list of tested components and their
concentrations can be found in Plaks (2010) and
DEP (2009). None of the components tested were
found to exceed the DEP limits.
formation of gypsum and ettringite and

subsequent loss of anhydrite.
The concentrations of the chemical
components found in the effluent of the FBC
ash during permeability testing were less than
the maximum limits set by the Pennsylvania
DEP.
Further investigation is required to determine the
exact link between the chemical changes seen in
the ash itself and the permeability effluent, as well
as the impact on mechanical properties. The
results of this study will be used to continue
investigation of utilizing FBC ash in large-volume
engineering applications.
TABLE 2 Measured and Acceptable DEP

Leachate Concentrations for Select Components
Component
Arsenic (As)
Chromium (Cr)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Max. Conc. in
FBC (mg/L)a
DEP Max.
Acceptable
Conc. (mg/L)
0.0157 (90)
0.065 (7)
0.0502 (56)
0.00251 (3)
0.002 (1)
0.25
2.50
25.0
0.375
0.050
Numbers in parenthesis indicate the curing time in days

at which the maximum concentration was observed.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, we explore the evolution of
mechanical and chemical properties of one type of
CCP, fluidized bed combustion (FBC) ash.
Testing included material characterization,
unconfined compressive strength, permeability,
material chemical composition, and effluent
chemical composition analysis. Results from this
study show that the tested properties change with
time. In particular:
Strength increased significantly over the first
ten days of curing.
The measured strength beyond the 10 days
curing time increased less significantly.
Hydraulic conductivity fluctuates with curing
duration time, first decreasing then increasing
as curing time approached 180 days.
Changes in material strength with curing time
can be linked to changes in the chemical
constituents of the FBC ash, especially the
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Pennsylvania
Coal Ash Research Group for their financial
support of this research.
REFERENCES
American Coal Ash Association (ACAA) (2008).
2008 Coal Combustion Product (CCP)
Production
&
Use
Survey
Report,
http://acaa.affiniscape.com/associations/8003/fil
es/2008_ACAA_CCP_Survey_Report_FINAL_
100509.pdf, date accessed: March 2009.
Bacon, L.D. (1976). Fly Ash for Construction of
Highway Embankments. Proc. 4th International
Ash Utilization Symposium, Energy Research
and Development Administrations, Report No.
MERC/SP-76/4, Morgantown WV: 262-292.
Butalia, T.S. and Wolfe, W.E. (2001). Utilization
of Coal Combustion Products in Ohio for
Construction and Repair of Highways.
Beneficial Use of Recycled Materials in
Transportation Applications, Proc. of the
International Conf. on Beneficial Use of
Recycled
Materials
in
Transportation
Applications, Washington, DC, Nov. 13-15,
2001: 803-812.
Dalberto, A.D., B.E. Scheetz, R.J. Hornberger, T.C.
Kania, M.J. Menghini, and S.E. Walters (2004).
Chapter 1. Overview: Coal Ash Beneficial Use
at Mine Sites. In: Coal Ash Beneficial Use in
Mine Reclamation and Mine Drainage
Remediation in Pennsylvania, DEP Publication

#5600-UK-DEP3132: 1-19.
DEP (2009). Certification Guidelines for the
Chemical and Physical Properties of Coal Ash
Beneficially Used at Mines, PA Dept. of
Environmental Protection Bureau of Mining
and Reclamation, Doc. No. 563-2112-224,
Interim Final Report, April 2009.
Deschamps. R.J. (1998). Using FBC and Stoker
Ashes as Roadway Fill: A Case Study. J
Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 124(11): 11201127.
Kumar, S. and Patil, C.B. (2006). Estimation of
Resource Savings Due to Fly Ash Utilization in
577
Road Construction. Resources, Conservation,

and Recycling, 48: 125-140.
Mitchell, J.K. and Dermatas, D. (1992). Clay Soil
Heave Caused by Lime-Sulfate Reactions.
Innovations and Uses for lime, ASTM STP
1135, D.D. Walker, Jr., T.B. Hardy, D.C.
Hoffman, and D.D. Stanley, eds., American
society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia:
41-64.
Plaks, N.T. (2010). Test Framework Development
for use of Coal Combustion Products (CCPs) in
Embankment Construction and Mine Land
Reclamation. Masters Thesis, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park, PA, August
2010.
Shear Wave Velocity Measurements at Slurry Deposited Coal Ash

Ponds in Delhi, India
B. Janaki Ramaiah
Research Scholar, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India (janakiramsvu@gmail.com)
Ravi Shankar Jakka
Post-Doc, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India (rsjakka@gmail.com)
G. V. Ramana
Associate Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India (ramana@civil.iitd.ernet.in)
ABSTRACT Reclamation of abandoned ash ponds for construction of engineered facilities like gas based power
plants, light weight structures, or parking lots requires an assessment of liquefaction susceptibility of deposited
ash. Liquefaction susceptibility can be assessed either through the field tests or laboratory tests. Measurement of
shear wave velocity (Vs) profile of coal ash ponds in the field is difficult as compared to that of soil as most ash
in the ponds will be in a loose state and also in swampy conditions. Shear wave velocity at three hydraulically
deposited ash ponds in Delhi were measured using SASW technique and an attempt has been made to develop an
empirical correlation between N value and measured Vs. It is observed that the developed correlation between N
and Vs is well below for those reported for soils.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal power plants are the major sources of
ash generation. In India, about 112 million tons
of ash is being produced annually where as its
utilization is only at about 38 million tons per
year (Dhadse et al., 2008), mainly in the areas
of cement as well as concrete manufacturing,
building products, and to some extent in earth
fills. Routinely, the unutilized volumes of ash
are mixed with large amounts of water and then
disposed off in the ash ponds. These ash ponds
occupy a huge space in the vicinity of the power
plant. Typically, an ash pond spreads over an
area up to 10 km2 for a 500-MW power plant
and is filled with ash up to 10 m in height within
a period of 5 years (Gandhi et al., 1999).
Once the designed life is reached, these ash
ponds are to be closed in compliance with
statutory regulations. The present locked up area
by ash ponds in India is about 58,000 acres and
it is estimated that it will be about 1,50,000
acres by 2012. Besides using the ash in
geotechnical works, it will be ideal if these
ponds can be reclaimed to accept engineered
structures like gas based power plants, light
weight structures, or parking lots, which will

have significant economic value from the view
of exponential increase in the cost of urban land
from day to day (Ramaiah and Ramana 2008).
However, it is well reported in the literature that
coal ash particles are predominantly of silt size
and less permeable compared to silt. Hence, an
assessment of shear strength, compressibility
and liquefaction susceptibility of ash is a
prerequisite for such an exercise. There are
significant studies reported in the literature for
shear strength as well as compressibility
behavior of coal ash (Sridharan et al., 1998;
Trivedi and Sud, 2002; Jakka et al., 2010)
However, there are very limited studies reported
on the liquefaction susceptibility and
engineering measures to improve the use of ash
as a foundation material (Jakka et al., 2010;
Gandhi 1996).
It is widely accepted that shear wave velocity
(Vs) profile is a fundamental parameter to
estimate the site-specific amplification factor of
the ash dyke as well as to assess the liquefaction
susceptibility of the coal ash. Measurement of
shear wave velocity of coal ash ponds in the
field is difficult due to several reasons such as:
Ramaiah, Jakka and Ramana
ASH PONDS SELECTED FOR

MEASURING SHEAR WAVE VELOCITY
Three coal ash ponds have been selected for
measuring shear wave velocity Vs namely, (i)
ash pond at Indraprastha, (2) ash pond at
Badarpur and (3) ash pond at Faridabad. Of
these three, the first two were in operating
conditions where as the third one at Faridabad
has been closed almost 20 years back. Shear
wave velocity has been measured at these sites
using SASW primarily for assessing the
feasibility of reclamation for extension of
existing power plants. As a part of the study, an
attempt has also been made to collect the
measured N values at each site so as to make an
empirical correlation between Vs and N.
In-situ density of the ash at these sites was
found to range from 11.4 kN/m3 to 12.6 kN/m3
and in-situ moisture content ranges from 15% to
20%. The specific gravity of the collected ash
samples was determined in the laboratory and
found to range from 1.98 to 2.10.
Ash pond at Indraprastha
At Indraprastha ash pond, the depth of
hydraulically deposited ash is about 4.0 m and
water table is encountered at a depth 4.3 m
below the ground surface. N values at the site
were found to be ranging from 2 at a depth of
1.5 m to 6 at a depth of 4.0 m indicating that the
ash is in loose condition. Grain size analysis of
ash samples collected from the ash pond from
both inlet (coarse fraction) and outlet (fine
fraction) indicated that ash particles are in the
range of silty sand to sandy silt and are nonplastic. Six SASW tests were conducted at the
site to measure the Vs profile of the ash deposit
and is shown in Fig. 1.
The Vs at the is about 55 m/s at a depth of 1.0
m to about 100 m/s to 120 m/s at a depth of 4.0
m indicating that the ash is in loose condition
and is prone to liquefaction hazard, if saturated

and may also undergo large deformations due to
construction of engineered structures.
Ash pond at Badarpur
The depth of hydraulically deposited ash at
Badarpur ash pond is about 12.0 m. N values at
the site were found to be ranging from 2 at a
depth of 1.5 m to 8 at a depth of 6.0 m to 19 at
depth of 12.0 m indicating that the ash is in
loose condition.
Shear wave velocity (m/s)
20
40
60
80
100
120
0.0
Depth (m)
(i) difficulty in accessibility due to loose state of

deposition, (ii) presence of water, and (iii) type
of the source required to generate the surface
waves.
579
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Test - 1
Test - 4
Fig.1 Shear wave

Indraprastha ash pond
Test - 2
Test - 5
velocity
Test - 3
Test - 6
profile
at
Geotechnical characterization of ash samples

collected from two locations one at the inlet
(coarse fraction) and other from the outlet (fine
fraction) were carried out. The particles of ash
samples lies in the range of fine sand to silt
indicating the potential for undergoing
liquefaction threat during earthquake. Ten
SASW tests were conducted at the site to
measure the Vs profile of the ash deposit and is
shown in Fig. 2.
The Vs at the is about 80 m/s at a depth of 0.6
m to about 170 m/s at a depth of 12.0 m
indicating that the ash is in loose condition and
is prone to liquefaction hazard.
580
6th

Shear wave velocity (m/s)
Shear Wave Velocity (m/s)
20
40
60
80
20
100 120 140 160 180
40
60
80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0.0
0.0
1.5
1.5
3.0
4.5
Depth (m)
Depth (m)
3.0
6.0
7.5
9.0
4.5
6.0
10.5
7.5
12.0
Test
Test
Test
Test
1
4
7
10
Test - 2
Test - 5
Test - 8
Test - 3
Test - 6
Test - 9
9.0
10.5
Fig. 2 Shear wave velocity profile of coal ash

at Badarpur ash pond (For colour figure, refer to CD)
Measured N values at the Ash Ponds

Measured N values of all the three ash ponds are
shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that there is a
significant scatter in the measured N values
Test - 2
Test - 6
Test - 10
Test - 14
Test - 3
Test - 7
Test - 11
Test - 15
Test - 4
Test - 8
Test - 12
Fig. 3 Shear wave velocity profile of coal ash

at Faridabad ash pond (For colour figure, refer to CD)
N - value
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
D e p th (m )
Ash pond at Faridabad

The ash pond at Faridabad has been abandoned
for about 20 years. The depth of the ash was
observed to be varying from 3.0 m at some
locations to 9.0 m at some other locations based
on geotechnical investigation report. The N
value of coal ash deposit was observed to be
ranging from 2 at a depth of 1.5 m to 11 at depth
of 6.0 m to 15 at a depth of 9.0 m. Fifteen
SASW tests were conducted at Faridabad ash
pond to measure the Vs profile of the ash deposit
and is shown in Fig. 3. Most of the tests were
conducted close to the boreholes where the
depth of the ash deposit is large. The Vs at the is
about 85 m/s at a depth of 1.5 m to about 190
m/s at a depth of 9.0 m
Test - 1
Test - 5
Test - 9
Test - 13
0.0
1.5
3.0
4.5
6.0
7.5
9.0
10.5
12.0
13.5
N value
Fig. 4 Measured N values at all three ash

ponds (For colour figure, refer to CD)
pond is limited. Using this limited set of data, a
correlation is developed (Fig. 5) on similar lines
to that of soil as:
CORRELATION BETWEEN VS AND N
Vs = 71.2N0.29
Numerous correlations between Vs and N for

soils were developed by many researchers based
on different type of soils and are compiled in
Rao and Ramana 2004. Paucity of such data
exists for coal ash ponds, as the feasibility of
measuring Vs profile on the slurry deposited ash
For comparison, the Vs and N relationship for

fluvial deposits of Delhi region developed (Rao
and Ramana 2004) is Vs = 82.6N0.43 and is
shown in Fig. 6. It is observed that the shear
wave velocity of the ash is significantly less
compared to soils.
(1)
V s (m /s)
Ramaiah, Jakka and Ramana
200
REFERENCES
175
Dhadse S., Kumari P. and Bhagia L.J. (2008)

Fly ash characterization, utilization and
Government initiatives in IndiaA review.
Jl. of Scientific & Industrial Research
2008; 67:118.
150
125
100
V s = 71.2N 0.29
75
R2 = 0.78
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
N - value
Fig.5 Correlation between Vs and N for Coal
Ash (For colour figure, refer to CD)
500
V s = 82.6N
450
0.43
R = 0.95 (Rao & Ramana (2004)
400
for all soils
350
Vs (m/s)
581
300
250
200
150
V s = 71.2N
100
0.29
Gandhi S.R. (1996) In-situ densification of

deposited ash slurry. Proc. of Ash ponds
and ash disposal systems, Narosa publisng
house, New Delhi, India, 211-221.
Gandhi S.R., Dey A.K. and Selvam S. (1999)
Densification of pond ash by blasting. Jl. of
Geotech. and Geoenviron. Engrg, 125(10),
889-899.
Jakka R.S., Datta M. and Ramana G.V. (2010)
Liquefaction behavior of loose and
compacted pond ash. Jl. Soil Dynamics and
Earthquake Engineering, 30(7), 580-590.
Jakka R.S., Ramana G.V. and Datta M. (2010)
Shear Behaviour of Loose and Compacted
Pond Ash. Jl. Geotech. and Geological
Engrg, (DOI 10.1007/s10706-010-9337-1).
R = 0.78 (present study)

Coal ash
50
0
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
N - value
Coal ash
All Soils
Fig.6 Comparison of developed correlation

with that of soils (For colour figure, refer to CD)
CONCLUSIONS
In-situ density and SPT values from the site
investigation reports indicated that ash deposit
is in loose condition and is prone to liquefaction
when saturated. The same is also corroborated
from the measured Vs profile at these sites. An
empirical correlation has been developed with
limited data available, and it has been observed
that the Vs of coal ash is significantly lower than
that of fluvial soils. However, the proposed
correlation can be further improved with
accumulation of such data.
Ramaiah B.J. and Ramana G.V. (2008)

Geotechnical earthquake characterization of
an abandoned ash dyke for constructing a
power plant. Proc. of National seminar on
Geotechnology
for
Infrastructure
Development (GID 2008), October 31,
2008, Chandigarh, India, 206-213.
Rao
H.Ch., and Ramana

Correlation between shear
and N value for Yamuna
Proc. Int. Conf. Geotech.
262-268.
G.V. (2004)
wave velocity
sand of Delhi.
Engrg., UAE,
Sridharan A., Pandian N.S., and Rao P.S. (1998)

Shear strength characteristics of some
Indian fly ashes. Jl. of Ground
Improvement, Proc. of ICE Geotech., 2(3),
141-146.
Trivedi A., and Sud V.K. (2002) Grain
characteristics and engineering properties
of coal ash. Jl. of Granular Matter, 4(3),
93-101.
Shear Behavior of Impounded Ash

Ravi Sankar Jakka
CiSTUP, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India (jravisankar2002@yahoo.com)
Manoj Datta
PEC University of Technology, Sector 12, Chandigarh 160012, India
(mdatta@civil.iitd.ac.in)
G.V. Ramana
Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016,
India (ramana@civil.iitd.ac.in)
ABSTRACT Ash disposal problem can be minimized by massive utilization of impounded ash (ash from
ash ponds) in large earth works, which however requires thorough understanding of its geotechnical
characteristics, especially strength characteristics under different loading conditions (static and cyclic). A
detailed experimental study carried on the strength characteristics of pond ash samples collected from inflow
and outflow points of two ash ponds in India, using monotonic and cyclic triaxial shear tests is presented
here. Significant differences are observed in the behaviour of ash collected from inflow and outflow points
within the same ash pond. Most importantly, cyclic strengths of the ash samples from outflow point are
observed to be low, particularly in loose state.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal power plants are the major sources of ash
generation in India. Typically, two types of ash
materials, bottom ash and fly ash are produced at the
thermal power plants. Routinely, these two types of
ashes are mixed thoroughly with large quantities of
water and sluiced to on-site storage ponds called ash
impoundments or ash ponds. The process of slurry
deposition causes segregation of ash mixture. Coarser
and heavier particles of ash settle down near the
inflow point. Finer light ash particles are carried
away and settle near the outflow point. Thus rise to
formation of two distinctly different types of
materials at inflow and outflow points within the
same ash. This type of disposal system called wet
disposal system is most commonly followed in India
and most other parts of the world.
The unutilized volumes of ash in India, have
already occupied 65,000 acres of valuable land in
India (Parswal et al. 2003) and many million acres
of land all over the world. This disposal problem
can be minimized by massive utilization of pond
ash in large earthworks for geotechnical
applications like construction of highway
embankments, ash dykes and filling low lying
areas (construction fills). However, with
increasing use of pond ash in geotechnical

engineering applications, there is a need for
thorough understanding of its engineering
behavior.
Geotechnical properties of various types of ash
materials (e.g. fly ash and bottom ash), have been
investigated by many researchers (eg. Seals et al.
1972, Skarzynska et al. 1989, Kim et al. 2005).
However, there are very limited number of studies
on the pond ash and/or mixtures of fly ash and
bottom ash (Kim et al. 2005), particularly
pertaining to their strength characteristics. The
objective of this paper is to present results from a
comprehensive study carried on the static and
cyclic shear strength and other geotechnical
characteristics of pond ash samples to assess the
suitability of pond ash in geotechnical
constructions.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Representative ash samples were collected from
both inflow and outflow points of the two
different ash ponds in India: Indraprastha and
Badarpur, denoted as IP and BP respectively.
Sample representations IP and BP are further
suffixed with C and F to represent ash samples
Jakka, Datta and Ramana
583
TABLE 1 Compaction Characteristics of the Representative Ash Samples

Standard Proctor
Modified Proctor
Material
Specific
gravity
(G)
MDD
(kN/m3)
OMC
(%)
MDD
(kN/m3)
OMC
(%)
BP-C
BP-F
IP-C
IP-F
YS
2.59
2.18
2.50
2.27
2.72
13.3
11.4
12.9
12.1
15.7
27.5
29.9
26.0
29.4
16.2
14.6
12.3
13.7
12.9
16.8
23.1
26.0
23.5
24.0
13.2
Vibratory
Dry condn.
(kN/m3)
Sat. condn.
(kN/m3)
Min.
Density
(kN/m3)
14.8
11.5
13.9
12.3
17.0
15.0
14.3
17.1
10.5
7.0
9.8
7.9
12.9
TABLE 2 Geotechnical Properties of the Representative Ash Samples
Material
BP-C
BP-F
IP-C
IP-F
YS
State
Initial
void
ratio
Initial
Density
(kN/m3)
Coef. of
permeability,
k (m/s)
Loose
1.20
11.54
Dense
Loose
Dense
Loose
Dense
Loose
Dense
Loose
Dense
0.91
1.67
0.97
1.27
0.95
1.63
0.94
0.91
0.71
13.30
7.99
10.84
10.83
12.59
8.45
11.47
13.96
15.58
Peak strength parameters
Compressibility
characteristics
Cohesion,
c c (kPa)
Angle of
friction,
Ic ( 0)
Compress.
Index, Cc
Recompre.
Index, Cr
1.3E-05
33.7
0.057
0.023
3.7E-06
2.1E-06
9.4E-07
6.0E-06
1.4E-06
7.0E-07
3.5E-07
6.0E-05
2.1E-05
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
40.1
32.9
37.0
34.9
41.7
33.1
35.2
33.1
37.2
0.051
0.231
0.089
0.059
0.053
0.246
0.079
0.057
0.052
0.013
0.023
0.018
0.024
0.018
0.021
0.019
0.022
0.014
from Inflow and outflow points respectively. Sand

collected from the Yamuna River (i.e. Yamuna
sand, denoted as YS) was also considered as a
reference material.
Specific gravity values of all the considered
materials are given in the Table 1. It can be
observed that, the specific gravity values of the
samples from the inflow point are higher than
outflow samples for both the ponds. However, the
specific gravity values of all the ash samples are
considerably below the natural soils (e.g Yamuna
sand).
Nature of particles and their grain size distribution
were studied for all the materials and are
discussed in Sections Nature of Particles and
Grain Size Distribution respectively. Further,
important geotechnical characteristics such as
compaction and static strength were also studied

and discussed in the subsequent sections. List of
the other geotechnical properties of the materials
are also provided in the Table 2. Later,
Liquefaction/cyclic strength characteristics of the
materials were studied using stress controlled
cyclic triaxial tests and are discussed in detailed.
NATURE OF PARTICLES
The nature of the particles such as shape and
surface (morphological characteristics) of all the
representative samples were studied using
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) techniques.
The resulted SEM photomicrographs are shown in
the Fig.1. The SEM micrographs of samples from
outflow point (Fig.1(b, d)) show that most of the
fine particles of ash are spherical in shape with
varying sizes. Some larger particles are observed
to be clusters of smaller particles with intra
584
6th
particles voids. The surfaces of the particles are

observed to be smooth. The SEM micrographs of
samples from inflow point (Fig.1(a, c)) indicate
highly porous structure. Presence of intra particle
voids with irregular shapes can also be observed
in these micrographs. Further, the coarse ash
particles are observed to be agglomerations of
smaller particles.
Fig.2 Grain Size Distribution Curves for the

Samples Considered
Fig.1 SEM Micrographs of Ash Samples

GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Grain size distributions of all the materials were
obtained form the results of sieve and hydrometer
analysis. The curves for all the representative ash
samples and Yamuna sand are shown in the Fig.2.
The ash samples collected from the outflow point
of both the ash ponds are in the range of silt size
(hereafter, outflow samples are also referred as
fine ash), where as the ash samples from the
inflow point from both the ponds are in fine sand
range (hereafter, inflow samples are also referred
as coarse ash). Particle size distribution of
Yamuna sand is comparable with the coarse ash
samples from both the ponds. Liquefiable soil
ranges specified by Tsuchida (1970) are also
superimposed on the Fig.2. According to these
ranges, grain size distributions of the ash samples
from the inflow points of both the ash ponds (BPC and IP-C) and Yamuna sand (YS) fall in the
most susceptible liquefaction zone, and the ash
materials from the outflow points of both the ash
ponds (BP-F andf IP-F) fall in the potential
liquefaction zone.
COMPACTION CHARACTERISTICS
Compaction characteristics of all the materials
have been studied using standared Proctor,
modified Proctor and vibratory table tests as per
the Indian standard specifications. Typical
compaction curves for the ash samples from
inflow and outflow points of the Badarpur ash
pond are shown in Fig.3 and the compaction
results for all the ash samples including Yamuna
sand are given in Table 1. It is noted that the
maximum densities from vibratory table tests are
also shown in the figure for comparison. The
values of maximum dry density of all the
compacted ashes are found to be lower than those
of compacted soils because of their lower specific
gravity values and the presence of intraparticle
voids. Further it can be observed that densities of
coarse ash samples are higher than fine ash
samples. The reason can also be attributed to the
higher specific gravity values of coarse ash
samples than fine ash.
Coarse ash samples exhibited similar compaction
beheaviours as that of cohesionless soils. They
exhibited higher maximum dry densities in
vibratory table tests than the Proctor tests. Further,
coarse ash samples exhibited maximum densities
either in completely saturated or in dry conditions.
In Proctor tests, their densities initially fall with
increase in water content as shown in the Fig.3,
due to bulking behavior. Fine ash samples
exhibited behaviour similar to fine grained soils.

Their maximum dry densities in proctor tests are
higher than vibratory table tests.
1.7
Max. Dry Density (g/cc)
1.5
1.1
BP-C_Mod. Proctor
BP-C_Stand. Proctor
BP-F_Mod. Proctor
BP-F_Stand. Proctor
BP-C_VT-Max. Density
BP-F_VT-Max. Density
0.7
0.5
0
10
20
30
behaviours respectively. Similarly the fine ash

materials were tested at 95% and 70% of Proctor
Maximum Dry Density (MDD) to study the
influence of density. All the samples were tested
under different confining pressures of 50, 100, 200,
300 and 400 kPa. Static compaction method was
used for the specimen preparation (Jakka et al.
2010a, b).
Strength parameters from CU tests based on
maximum stress ratio and CD tests are observed to
be comparable. Strength parameters for various
materials in both loose and dense states are
presented in the Table 2. The effective cohesion
intercept ( c c ) for all the ash materials is found to
be zero. The values of angle of shearing resistance
( I c ) of coarse Indraprastha ash are observed to be
1.3
0.9
585
40
Water Content (%)
Fig.3 Compaction Behavior of Badarpur Pond

Ash
Because of the above observed characteristic
behaiour of the coarse and fine ash materials,
further to study the compacted behaiour of these
ash materials, coarse ash samples were compacted
to 70% relative density similar to sandy soils and
fine ash is compacted to 95%MDD of standard
proctor similar to fine grained soils. To study the
ash materials in loose state, they are compacted to
the corresponding field deposited densities.
STATIC STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
Consolidated drained (CD) and undrained triaxial
tests with pore water measurements ( CU ) were
carried out to determine strength characteristics.
Coarse ash materials and Yamuna sand were
tested at relative densities of 30% and 70% to
study loose deposited and dense compacted
marginally higher than coarse Badarpur ash,

whereas for fine ash, the opposite is observed.
However, it is worth noting that strength
parameters of both the coarse ash materials are
higher than those for Yamuna sand. The reason
can be attributed to the interlocking of irregular
shaped coarse ash particles. Fine Badarpur ash
exhibited comparable strengths values with
Yamuna sand in loose and dense states. On other
hand, Indraprastha fine ash exhibited lower
strengths than Yamuna sand and Badarpur fine ash
in dense states, though its strength in loose state is
comparable with Yamuna sand and Badarpur fine
ash.
CYCLIC
SHEAR
/LIQUEFACTION
BEHAVIOUR
Study of cyclic shear behavior is essential to
evaluate its liquefaction susceptibility under
earthquake loading conditions. Cyclic triaxial tests
are most widely performed for evaluating the soil
behavior under seismic loading due to their
simplicity and convenience to use over the other
tests. To study cyclic shear response and the
liquefaction behaviour of ash materials in the
laboratory, undrained stress controlled cyclic
triaxial tests were conducted as per ASTM D5311
on remoulded ash specimens.
586
6th
BP-C_Ds
IP-C_Ls
0.5
BP-C_Ls
YS_Ds
IP-C_Ds
YS_Ls
CSR
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
10
100
No. of cycles
1000
Fig.4 Cyclic Strength Curves for Inflow Ash

Samples
BP-F_Ds
IP-F_Ls
BP-F_Ls
YS_Ds
IP-F_Ds
YS_Ls
0.5
0.4
CSR
also presented in both the Figs.4 and 5 for the

comparison. Results indicated that the increase in
liquefaction resistance with increase in density for
all the ash materials and also for Yamuna sand, as
commonly observed for natural soils.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1
10
100
1000
No. of cycles
Fig.5 Cyclic Strength Curves for Inflow Ash

Samples
Numerous stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests
were conducted on all the four representative ash
samples to investigate liquefaction resistance of
the materials. Some cyclic triaxial tests were also
conducted on Yamuna sand for the comparison of
results. Influence of density, confining pressure
and initial shear stress on the liquefaction
resistance of ash were examined.
Test Results
To assess the effect of density on liquefaction
resistance, tests were conducted at loose and dense
states for all the ash samples and Yamuna sand.
Detailed discussions on the selection of these
densities are presented earlier. Cyclic strength
curves of coarse Badarpur and Indraprastha pond
ash samples are shown in Fig.4. Figure 5 depicts
the cyclic strength curves for fine ash samples
from both the ash ponds. Cyclic strength curves
obtained from cyclic testing of Yamuna sand are
To study the effect of confining pressure on cyclic

strengths, CSR versus number of cycles causing
liquefaction have been developed for confining
pressures of 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and 200 kPa on
specimens of coarse and fine Badarpur ash in
loose and dense states. Resistance to liquefaction
(expressed in terms of CSR) decreases as the
confining pressure increases similar to the
behaviour observed for sands by various other
researchers.
Further to study the effect of initial shear stresses
on the occurrence of liquefaction, cyclic triaxial
tests were conducted on coarse and fine Badarupur
ash specimens in both loose and dense states,
consolidated anisotropically to different initial
static shear stress ratios (ISSR). It is observed that
liquefaction resistance increases with the increase
in initial shear stresses in all the cases except for
fine Badarpur ash tested in loose state where it
decreases with increase in shear stresses. These
observations are also in line with trends observed
for sands in the reported literature wherein dense
and medium dense specimens exhibit increase in
liquefaction strength with increase in initial shear
stresses.
Cyclic strength curves of the samples from inflow
and outflow points of Badarpur and Indraprastha
ash ponds from Figs.4 and 5 are compared to
understand effect of grain size on liquefaction
resistance. From the comparison, it is clear that
fine ash materials exhibit lower strengths than
coarse ash materials in both loose and dense
states, indicating variation of liquefaction
resistance within the same ash pond. This signifies
the importance of liquefaction characterization of
the samples from both inflow and outflow points
before using them in geotechnical constructions.
The other important point is that outflow samples
from both the ponds exhibited significantly low
liquefaction resistance in loose states compared to
the inflow samples in loose states.

Comparison of static and cyclic (liquefaction)
strengths
Specimens of both fine ash samples from
Badarpur and Indraprastha ash ponds, in dense
state exhibit lower cyclic strengths than Yamuna
sand, even though their static strengths
comparable to Yamuna sand. This could be due to
the finner gradation, shape and special nature of
the particles as described in earlier sections.
Badarpur coarse ash and Yamuna sand are
showing almost same cyclic strength in both loose
and dense states, though Badarpur coarse ash has
exhibited higher strengths in static tests. It can be
concluded variation of slopes and patterns of
cyclic strength curves can be ascribed to their
gradation characteristics and particle shapes in
addition to their static strengths.
CONCLUSIONS
Both the types of ash materials (fine and coarse)
exhibit some special morphological characteristics
that are distinctly different from typical soils.
Compacted maximum dry densities of ash samples
from outflow point are lower than the inflow point
for the two considered ash ponds, primarily due to
their lower specific gravity values. Ash samples
from inflow point tested in dense state exhibited
higher static strength than Yamuna sand tested at
the same relative density though their compacted
densities and specific gravity values are lower
than the Yamuna sand. This is due to better
interlocking of the ash particles in dense state, due
to their highly irregular particle shapes.
Both fine ash as well as coarse ash samples
exhibited both the types of liquefaction
phenomenon (i.e. flow type of liquefaction and
cyclic mobility) under undrained cyclic loading,
similar to sandy soils depending upon their density
state. In addition, the influence of confining
pressure, relative density and initial shear stresses
on the cyclic strength of the both types of ash
materials is found to similar to sandy soils.
Cyclic shear strengths of the ash from outflow
point are observed low, particularly in loose state
587
in comparison to the ash from inflow point and

Yamuna sand. This is due to their spherical nature
of the particles and higher compressibility values
(Cc).
Overall, all the ash materials showed responses
similar to the sands under static and cyclic shear
tests. It can also conclude that both the types of
pond ash materials are suitable for geotechnical
earth works constructions under different loading
conditions similar to natural soils. However,
special additional precautions are necessary while
using fine ash to ensure proper compaction, as
nonuniform compaction can easily lead to
liquefaction hazards.
REFERENCES
Jakka, R. S., Datta, M., and Ramana, G. V. (2010).
Liquefaction behavior of loose and compacted
pond ash. Soil Dyn. and Earth. Engg., 30(7): 580590.
Jakka, R. S., Ramana, G. V., and Datta, M. (2010).
Shear strength characteristics of loose and
compacted pond ash. Geotech. and Geological
Engg. (In Press).
Kim, B., Prezzi, M., and Salgado, R. (2005).
Geotechnical properties of fly and bottom ash
mixtures for use in highway embankments. J
Geotech Geoenviron Eng- ASCE, 131(7):914-924.
Parswal, I.S., Makan, O.P., and Atrea, A.K.
(2003). Eco friendly ash management in the form
of ash mounds. Proceedings CBIP 3rd
international conference-fly ash utilizations and
disposal, New Delhi, India, III, 10-16.
Seals, R.K., Moulton L.K., and Ruth B.E. (1972).
Bottom ash: an engineering material. J soil mech
found div-ASCE, 98(4):311-325.
Skarzynska, K.M., Rainbow, A.K.M., Sawisza, E.
(1989). Characteristics of ash in storage ponds.
Proc Twelfth international conference on soil
Mech and Found Eng, Rio de Janerio,3,1915-1918.
Tsuchida,
H.
(1970).
Prediction
and
countermeasure against the liquefaction in sand
deposits. Port Harbour Research Institute, 3.13.33.
Relationship Between Water Transfer and Mechanical Properties of

Cement Solidified Dredged Materials with the Increasing of Curing Time
Chunlei Zhang & Wei Zhu
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource
Development on Shallow Lakes , College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing,
China, 210098 (chunleizhang@hhu.edu.cn & weizhu@hhu.edu.cn)
Abraham C.F. Chiu
Geotechnical Research Institute, Hohai University, Nanjing, China, 210098
(acfchiu@yahoo.com.cn)
ABSTRACT: The paper presents a study of the relationships between water transfer and
mechanical properties of cement solidified dredged materials with the increasing of curing
time. Soil-water can be classified as free water, bound water and hydration water according to
different soil suction potential. The resulting hydrates change the soil-water composition in a
cement-based solidification process and performance on the growth of strength of solidified
specimens. The test results of solidified specimens at the cement content of 100 kg per m3
dredged materials showed that the change of bound water and unconfined compressive
strength with curing time are similar. It is postulated that the change in bound water content
may be used to quantify the effect of hydrates on the strength improvement of cemented DM.
INTRODUCTION
cement treated soil. (Uddin 1997, Lorenzo 2004,
Cement solidification has been widely used to
Chew 2004)
improve the engineering properties of the

dredged materials (DM) in China, since 2002
3
The soil-cement reactions involve hydration of
over 6 million m DM had been solidified and
the cement and pozzolanic reactions of the clay
utilized as filling material near the Taihu Lake.
minerals in the soil. The major hydrates formed
During treatment period, the curing time affect
are calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium
the strength development of the treated DM. It
aluminate hydrate (CAH) and hydrated lime.
has been shown that the strength increases with
Pozzolanic reactions also form additional CSH
curing
types
and CAH. Studies show hydrates produced from
(Kawasaki,1981), the curing time effect on the
the soil-cement reactions attribute the strength
physical properties, unconfined compressive
improvement of the cemented soil (Conner, 1990).
strength and compressibility characteristics of
This soil-cement reactions were not instantaneous,
time
irrespective
of
soil
but rather continuous with curing time, so the
Zhang, Zhu and Chiu 589
amount of hydrates may have direct relationship
mfwo, mbwo, mhwo and mpwo, respectively, where
with mechanical properties. According to Zhu
mpwo is the sum of mfwo and mbwo. After adding the
(2007), the amount of hydrates formed in the
cement, the masses of FW, BW and PW per unit
cement-treated DM can be related to the change
volume of the cemented soil are represented by
in hydration water (HW) and bound (BW)
mfw, mbw and mpw, respectively, where mbw is the
contents.
sum of mbwo and 'mbw, mpw is the sum of mfw and

mbw.
The objectives of the study were to investigate
Cemented
Pre-treated
the effect of curing time on the development of
me
mhw
the resultant hydrates in a solidified DM through

the change in BW content, and develop a method
to quantify such effect on the mechanical
behaviour of solidified DM by correlating the
unconfined compressive strength to the change in
BW content.
mpwo
mfwo
mfw
mbw
mbwo
mbwo
mhwo
mhwo
mpw
Soil mineral
SOIL-WATER CLASSIFICATION AND

DETERMINATION
Fig. 1 Soil water transfer mechanism
Based on the binding forces acting on the water

molecules in the soil matrix, soil water can be
During cement hydration, there is a loss of PW.
classified into: (1) hydration water; (2) bound
The hydration reactions consume part of the PW
water; and (3) free water (Mitchell, 1992).
which becomes the HW bounded into the newly
Hydration water (HW) is chemically bound water
formed hydrates. In addition, some water
which is an integral part of soil minerals. Bound
evaporates by the heat of hydration during the
water (BW) refers to those water molecules
cement reactions. Thus, the loss of PW (mpwo -
physically bound in the vicinity of soil particles
mpw) is balanced by the following equation:
(double layer) by adhesive forces. Free water

(FW) is the loosely held water which is
mhw+me=mpwo-mpw
(1)
controlled by surface tensional forces and gravity.
where 'mhw and me are the change in the mass of
In conventional soil mechanics, pore water (PW)
HW and the mass of water loss in evaporation per
in the soil matrix is comprised of BW and FW.
unit volume of the cemented soil, respectively.
Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of the soil
'mhw is the amount of HW bounded in the
water transfer mechanism for cemented soils. The
hydrates during the cement hydration which may
initial masses of FW, BW, HW and PW per unit
reflect the amount of the hydration products
volume of the pre-treated soil are represented by
found in the cemented soil. In addition, part of
590
6th
the FW is transferred to BW because the

formation of CSH and CAH which can attract
more water around their surface. Thus, the
change in BW content ('mbw) may reflect the
extent of the hydrates (products from hydration
and pozzolanic reactions) developed in the
cemented soil. Thus 'mhw and 'mbw may be
probable parameters to evaluate the amount and
extent of the hydrates developed in the cemented
soil.
LABORATORY STUDIES
In this study the DMs were taken from three

different locations in China: (i) a lake sediment
(L) from Wuxi; (ii) a marine sediment (M) from
Shenzhen; and, (iii) a river sediment (R) from
Guangzhou. The basic physical properties are
summarized in Table 1. According to the Unified
Soil Classification System (USCS), L and M are
classified as clay of high plasticity (CH) and R is
classified as silt of high plasticity (MH).
Mineralogical analysis of X-ray diffraction
Lebedev (1936) suggested to use a pF of 3.8 to

distinguish between BW and FW. pF is defined as
-log(h) where h is the water head expressed in cm.
The centrifuge method was used to determine the
reveals that kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite

are the predominant clay minerals in the DM.
Type I Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used
as the cementing agent.
BW contents (mbw and mbwo). The pF of soil water

under centrifugal force is evaluated by the
TABLE 1 Basic Physical Properties of Tested Materials
following equations:
pF 2 log(n) log(r1 r2 ) log(
r1 r2
) 4.95 (2)
2
where r1 is the radial distance to the free water

surface (cm), r2 is the radial distance to the
midpoint of the soil specimen (cm) and n is the
angular velocity (rpm). Equation (2) shows that
pF is a function of the angular velocity. A
small-scale centrifuge with an operable radius of
98 mm was used in the study. The diameter and
height of the specimen holder is 50 mm and 51
mm,
respectively.
The
specimens
in
the
centrifuge were subjected to angular velocities of

6,000 and 9,000 rpm, which correspond to pFs in
the order of 3.5 and 4, respectively. The BW
content at a pF of 3.8 was determined by linear
interpolation.
Physical index
Initial gravimetric water
108
93
95
74.1
71.8
71.7
Percentage of sand
20
15
Percentage of silt
60
53
65
Percentage of clay
20
32
30
Liquid limit (%)
75
73
62
content (%)
Initial volumetric water
content (%)
Plastic limit (%)
29
32
35
Plastic index
47
41
27
2.65
2.74
2.67
14.0
14.6
14.4
0.45
0.31
0.32
Specific gravity
Bulk
unit
weight
(kN/m )
Organic content (%)
Water was initially added to the slurries of the
three DMs in order to achieve similar initial
normalized change in BW content, 'mbw/'mbw,28d,
volumetric water contents. The specimens were
and the curing period, where 'mbw,28d is the 'mbw
prepared from mixing the slurries of the DM with
value at t= 28 days. It is distinguishable that the
dry cement powder. For a unit volume of slurry,
trend of growth, for a range of t from 7 days to 90
cement content ac was fixed at 100 kg/m , five
days is nearly the same among the three type of
different curing time, t (714285690 days)
soil.
were mixed thoroughly inside a domestic mixing

machine to achieve uniform mixing. The mixing
was done as fast as possible to avoid hardening of
the cement-soil mixture. Six specimens were
prepared for each mix. The mixture was placed
into stainless steel molds 39 mm in diameter and
80 mm in height. The mixing and placing was
completed
at room temperature and took
approximately 20 minutes. The specimens were

wrapped by plastic sheet and put inside an
strength determination. The slurry and cement
Chang in BW contentm bw (kg/m )
were used for water and unconfined compressive

500
400
300
200
Sediment L
Sediment M
Sediment R
100
0
0
40
60
80
100
Curing time t (day)
Fig. 2 Relationship between the change in BW content
environmental chamber for curing where the
20
('m bw) and curing time

ambient temperature and relative humidity were

maintained at 20r2qC and higher than 90%,
respectively. After curing the specimens for 7, 14,
1.5
strengths, PW and BW contents of the specimens

were determined.
change in BW content ('mbw) and curing time for
cement content of 100 kg/m3. 'mbw increases
quick at the initial 7 days, then slow down and
reach a steady value as curing time increase. The
change of 'mbw with time is consistent with the
reaction of cement (Lea 1970), so 'mbw may be
used to represent cement reaction resultants.
m bw /m bw,28d
28, 56, and 90 days, unconfined compressive

1.0
Sediment L
Sediment M
Sediment R
0.5
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Curing time t (day)
Fig. 3 Relationship between 'mbw/'mbw, 28d and curing
time
592
6th
different curing time. The test results of the
normalized unconfined compressive strength,
specimens solidified by 100 kg per m3 sediment
qu/qu,28d, and the curing time t, where qu,28d is the
showed that the normalized change of BW ('mbw)
qu value at t= 28 days. It is perceivable that the
and unconfined compressive strength (qu) by the
increasing modes of three type of soil are also
28 days value showing similar change mode with
similar.
curing time. For 'mbw may reflect the extent of

the hydrates developed in the cemented soils.
As 'mbw reflect the extent of the hydrates
Thus, it is postulated that 'mbw may be used to
(products
quantify the effect of hydrates on the strength of
from
hydration
and
pozzolanic
reactions) developed in the cemented soil, it may
the cemented DMs.
be an appropriate parameters to quantify the

effect of hydrates on the strength of the cemented
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
soils. Thus it is postulated to relate qu to 'mbw as
This study is jointly supported by the Natural
shown in Figure 5. The figure shows that qu
Science Fund of Hohai University through Grant
increases nonlinearly with 'mbw.
No. 2008427611, the Fundamental Research

Funds for the Central Universities through Grant
q u /q u, 28 d
3.0
No. 2009B16514 and the Public welfare industry

Sediment L
Sediment M
Sediment R
2.0
special scientific research fund project of the

Ministry of Water Reseources of China through
grant No. 200801065. Their support is gratefully
acknowledged.
1.0
1000
Sediment L
Sediment M
Sediment R
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Curing time t (day)

Fig. 4 Relationship between qu/qu, 28d and curing time
CONCLUSIONS
In soil-cement reactions with curing time, the
change in bound water content ('mbw) may
reflect the extent of the hydrates developed in the
cemented soils. In this study ordinary Portland
cement was used to treat three DMs with
UCS q u (kPa)
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
-3
Chang in BW content m bw (kg.m )
Fig. 5 Relationship between unconfined compressive

strength (qu) and change in BW content ('mbw)
REFERENCES
Lea F.M. (1970) The chemistry of cement and
Bruce, D.A., Bruce, M.E.C. and DiMillio, A.F.
concrete, 3rd Ed., Edward Arnold Ltd, London.
(1998) Deep mixing method: a global perspective.
Lebedev, A.F. (1936)
Geotechnical Special Publication no.81. Soil
The Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow,
Improvement for Big Digs, Proc. Sessions of
1936. (In Russian)
Geo-Congress 98, Boston, 1-26.
Lorenzo, G.A. and Bergado. D.T. (2004)
Chew, S.H., Kamruzzaman, A.H.M. and Lee, F.H.

(2004)
Physicochemical
and
Soil and Groundwaters,
engineering
behavior of cement-treated clays. J. Geotech.

Geoenviron. Eng. ASCE, 130(7): 696-706.
Connor, J.R. (1990) Chemical fixation and
solidification of hazardous wastes, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York.
Fundamental parameters of cement-admixed clay
new approach, J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.

ASCE, 130(10):1042-1050.
Mitchell, J.K. (1992) Fundamentals of soil
behavior, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York.
Miura, N., Horpibulsuk, S. and Nagaraj, T.S.
(2001)
Engineering
behaviour
of
cement
Dermatas, D., Dutko, P., Balorda-Barone, J. and
stabilized clay at high water content. Soils and
Moon, D.H. (2003) Evaluation of engineering
Foundations. 41(5): 33-45.
properties of cement treated Hudson River

dredged sediments for reuse as fill materials.
Journal of Marine Environmental Engineering,
7(2): 101-123.
Kawasaki, T., Niina, A., Saitoh, S., Suzuki, Y.
and Honjo, Y. (1981) Deep Mixing Method using
Cement Hardening Agent, In Proc. 10th ICSMFE,
New York, 3, 721-724.
Uddin, K., Balasubramaniam A.S. and Bergado

D.T.(1997) Engineering Behaviour of
Cement-Treated Bangkok Soft Clay, Geotech.
Eng., 28(1):89-121.
Zhu, W., Zhang, C.L. and Chiu, A.C.F. (2007)
Soil-Water Transfer Mechanism for Solidified
Dredged Materials. J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng.
ASCE, 133(5): 588-598.
Effects of Mixture Design on the Mechanical Properties of Cement

Treat Granulate Soil
PH. Dong, K. Hayano,
Department of Civil Engineering, Yokohama National University
(d08sc194@ynu.ac.jp, hayano@ynu.ac.jp)
H. Takahashi and Y. Morikawa
Port and Airport Research Institute (takahashi-h@pari.go.jp, morikawa@pari.go.jp)
ABSTRACT Cement Treat Granulate Soil (CTGS), a new approach to utilize waste soil for geomaterial, has
been recently developed by mixing dredged clay with lean mounts of cement and polymer. CTGS has been
expected for practical use since it has competitively high particles strength, and beneficial characteristics of a
granular material. Effects of mixture design on mechanical properties are characterized based on a series of CD
triaxial tests on three types of CTGS produced from different proportion of cement and polymer. Test results
showed that when amounts of cement and polymer increase, stiffness of CTGS are improved associated with a
decrease of particle crushing though the strength parameters are not much increased.
INTRODUCTION
The appreciable increase of soft clay deposited in
marine or coastal area has put more demand on
waste soil disposal sites. However, construction of
inland as well as offshore disposal sites for waste
soils dumping has issued many environmental and
economical problems. On the other hand, costal
construction projects normally need large amount
of sufficient engineering properties soil for the
reclamation, subsoil or backfilling materials, etc.
Therefore, the utilization of locally dredged clay
as construction materials can bring great
advantages.
As a cement-soil mixing method, CTGS can be
produced from the weak and high water content
dredged clay by adding appropriate amount of
cement and polymer. CTGS have much higher
strength than untreated soil and beneficial uses of
granular material, such as easy transportation,
good drainage and ease of field compaction, etc.
CTGS is therefore promising material for
reclamation, back filling or embankment soil, etc.
CTGS was successfully produced by lean-mixed
cement and polymer (Takahashi et al., 2009) in
order to reduce production cost so that it could be
competitive to natural mountainous soil and those
obtained by other stabilization methods. For that

purpose, geotechnical properties of CTGS should
be clearly understood. As a part of ongoing
researches, this paper aims to investigate effects of
cement and polymer on stress-strain behaviors as
well as stiffness and strength of lean-mixture
CTGS. The materials and production method are
also discussed thoroughly.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Materials and mixing procedure
In this study, we selected Kawasaki clay, soft and
low workability clay dominantly deposited in
Kawasaki port, Japan. The normal Portland
cement was used to stabilize and solidify the soft
clay, and Aqupaana (partially neutralized
polyacrylic acid) polymer manufactured by
Sumitomo Seika Company was selected to change
the consistency characteristics of Kawasaki clay.
Table 1 presents some physical properties of
Kawasaki clay.
As the result of a series mixing test on various
water contents and mixture design, a production
method for testing material was herein proposed.
Kawasaki clay was first stirred to be homogeneous
Dong et. al 595
slurry and its water content was adjusted to be

60% (1.2wL), subsequently mixed with the
polymer in trays for two minutes and followed by
five minutes mixing with the cement. This time of
mixing is needed to ensure homogeneous
condition of mixture. The solidification of soft
clay is achieved by binding the soft Kawasaki clay
in a monolithic solid to high structural integrity as
the result of the hydrates generated by hydration
and pozzolanic reactions of cement and water.
Meanwhile, polymer absorbs water from mixture
and plays role as adhesive accumulating the fine
particles of clay as granular particles before the
cementing. The CTGS thereafter was cured in
trays covered by plastic sheet to keep a constant of
water content then achieved a certain strength by
curing time. The detailed mixing procedure can be
seen in Takahashi et al. (2009), Dong et al. (2009).
clay, or cement of 124 kg/m3, polymer of 2.5

kg/m3. These amounts of cement are relatively
smaller than those using in the other cement
treated soil methods for cost reduction. It can be
seen reliable range of particle strength of C1, C2
and C3 are almost similar.
C1
C2
(a)
TABLE 1 Physical properties of Kawasaki Clay
Properties
Plastic limit, wP (%)
Liquid limit, wL (%)
Specific density, Us (g/cm3)
Sand (%)
Silt (%)
Clay (%)
Value
23.0
48.6
2.68
14.0
42.0
44.0
Previous study by Takahashi et al. (2009)

investigated strength of single CTGS particle
produced from various mixture design of cement
and polymer by a series of uniaxial compression
tests on the CTGS particles size in range of about
5 mm, near d50, and found that uniaxial
compressive strength of single CTGS particle
increases with amount of cement and slightly
decreases with amount of polymer as shown in
Fig. 1, based on which we herein selected three
types of CTGS with the portions of cement and
polymer to the wet weight of clay as following: (i)
C1 type: 5% cement, 0.1 % polymer that
corresponds to cement of 45 kg, polymer of 0.89
kg for 1 m3 of wet clay; (ii) C2 type: 10% cement,
0.1% polymer corresponding to cement of 89
kg/m3, polymer of 0.89 kg/m3 and (iii) C3 type:
15% cement, 0.3% polymer to the wet weight of
C3
(b)
Fig. 1 Strength of single CTGS particle at different
percentage of (a) cement with 0.1% of polymer and
(b) polymer with 15% of cement (Takahashi et al.,
2009)
Figure 2 shows photos of Kawasaki clay and

CTGS particles at different mixture designs. It can
be seen based on the size distribution curves (Fig.
3) that the fine particle clay was treated to be
coarse size granular materials. However, the
mixture design does not strongly affect particle
size since the grading curve of C1, C2 and C3 are
not much changed. Based on ASTM system, these
types of CTGS are all grouped into poor grade soil.
Table 2 shows some physical properties of three
types of CTGS. Remarkably, the values of
minimum void ratio were estimated by a vibration
table in this study in order to get a maximum
density avoiding effects of particle crushing.
596
6th
EFFECTS OF MIXTURE DESIGN

STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIORS
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2 (a) Kawasaki clay, (b) C1, (c) C2 and (d) C3.
Fig. 3 Grading curves of Kawasaki clay and CTGS.

TABLE 2 Physical properties of CTGS
Properties
Particle density Us (g/cm3)
Water content w (%)
pH
d50 (mm)
Coefficient uniformity Cc
Minimum void ratio, emin
C1
2.69
44.82
10.64
4.98
3.14
2.44
C2
2.70
44.70
11.05
3.89
2.32
2.19
C3
2.71
39.2
11.34
3.4
2.83
2.23
Specimen preparation
A series of consolidated drained triaxial
compression tests was carried out on loose and
dense specimens having 100 mm in diameter and
200 mm in height. Loose specimens were set up
directly in the triaxial cell using a split mould.
CTGS at natural water content was poured into the
mold by air pluviation using a funnel with zero
drop height. Dense specimens were prepared by
compaction in a steel mold, into which CTGS at
natural water content were poured in three layers
and each layer was compacted with 25 times by
dropping 2.5 kg rammer from 30 cm height,
corresponding compaction energies Ec = 351
kJ/m3. All specimens were saturated to obtain Bvalue t 0.96 then they were isotropically
consolidated under the effective confining
pressure of 100 kPa, 200 kPa and 400 kPa,
followed by the drained shearing with the constant
strain rate of 0.1 %/min. Table 3 shows properties
of specimens at different mixture designs. It can
be realized the void ratio of dense specimens are
lower than the minimum void ratio (shown in
Table2). This indicates a significant particle
crushing induced by compaction.
Stress-strain behaviours
It is observed on relationship of volumetric strain
vs. time during isotropic consolidation that
volumetric strain rapidly becomes stable value
within a few hours in all cases, for example Fig. 4
shows C1 cases, from which the primary
consolidation time is determined by 3t method. It
indicates that long term is not required
TABLE 3 Properties of CTGS specimens
Properties
Water content w (%)
Wet density, Ut (g/cm3)
Dry density,Ud (g/cm3)
Void ratio, e
ON
Loose specimens
Ec = 0 (kJ/m3)
C2
C3
C1
44.70
44.58
40.35
0.982
0.930
0.950
0.679
0.641
0.677
3.19
3.05
2.98
Dense specimens
Ec = 351 (kJ/m3)
C1
C2
C3
44.90
44.58
40.10
1.336
1.321
1.311
0.939
0.918
0.937
1.95
1.94
1.90
Dong et. al
Time (second)
3600
7200
Volumetric strain Hv(%)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Loose
Dense
V'r = 100 kPa

V'r = 200 kPa
V'r = 400 kPa
Fig. 4 Volumetric strain vs. consolidation time, C1
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5 Stress-strain behaviors of CTGS in loose
state.
597
to achieve the end of primary consolidation.

This reveals the good drainage of CTGS. The
stress-strain
behaviors
of
CTGS
are
characterized based on the stress-strain
relationships as shown in Figs. 5 and 6 for loose
and dense states, respectively. The stress-strain
curves of all types of CTGS exhibit similar
manner, i.e., the deviatoric stress-axial strain
curves (Fig. 5.a and Fig. 6.a) are linear at the
initial state of shearing then gradually yielded.
The yielded stress is clearly observed in cases of
high confining pressure especially in dense state.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 6 Stress-strain behaviors of CTGS in dense
state.
6th
In addition, the deviatoric stress-axial strain curves

behave as ductile manner since they do not attain
any obvious peak value but remain essentially
constant with further straining in the wide range of
confining pressures and regardless initial density.
Figures 5.b and 6.b indicate that all specimens
show volumetric contraction with positive
volumetric strain during shearing in the range of
confining pressures even in dense state. Whereas it
has been commonly observed in conventional
granular materials that stress-strain curve exhibits
a clear peak value and stress softening in a postpeak stage, which is normally associated with a
transfer of volumetric contraction to volumetric
positive dilation (e.g. Pender et al., 2006).
increasing tendency of E0.015% to initial dry density

and confining pressure is obviously observed while
Q0.015% decreases with initial dry density and
confining pressure. It is observed that stiffness of
CTGS gradually increases in order of C1, C2 and
C3, especially between C1 and C3.
Young's modulus E0.015%(kPa)
598
2500
Loose Dense
C1
C2
C3
2000
1500
1000
500
0
100
200
300
Confining pressure (kPa)
400
(a)
Deviatoric stress of C3 is relatively higher than the

ones of C1 and C2 at the same strain level with a
decreasing rate to axial strain, especially in cases
of dense state and low confining pressure. At large
strain level, the deviatoric stress in both loose and
dense states shows only a minor change. These
manners reveal that stiffness of the CTGS increase
with amount of cement, and that seems be only
clearly appeared at low strain level and confining
pressure, however, strength is not greatly increased.
In addition, the stress ratio in both loose and dense
states (Figs. 5.c and 6.c) increases with mixture
design at the same strain level that means C3 can
sustain greater shear stress than that of C2 and C1
at the same strain level. It is also seen the stress
ratio decrease with confining pressure that is
normally observed in granular material and
explained as effects of particles crushing at higher
stress level.
Stiffness and strength properties
Since the stress-strain relations are likely linear at
the initial stage of shearing. Stiffness parameters,
Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio, are
evaluated based on slope of the linear part of the
stress-strain curve, herein selected at the axial
strain of about 0.015%. The variations of Youngs
modulus, E0.015% and Poissons ratio, Q0.015% with
the initial dry density of specimens prior to
shearing are presented in Fig. 7. A consistently
Poison's ratio Q0.015%
0.4
0.3
0.2
Loose Dense
0.1
0.0
C1
C2
C3
100
200
300
400
(b)
Fig. 7 (a) E0.015% vs. confining pressure and (b)
v0.015% vs. confining pressure.
Since the peak stress was not obviously appeared

in all cases, the compressive strength, qmax is
defined as the maximum value of deviatoric stress
within a range of 0 < Ha 15 (%), from which the
frictional angle can be derived based on Mohr
circles corresponding to different confining
pressures. If GCTS is considered as a pure
frictional material, the envelope failure line can be
plotted from the origin coordinate point to the
tangent point of each Mohr circle. Figure 8 plots
the variation of frictional angle of CTGS on
confining pressure. The decreasing tendency of
frictional angle of CTGS to confining pressure is
also normally observed in granular material which
is understood as effects of particles crushing (e.g.
Pender et al., 2006). It is observed that shear
strength of CTGS can be effectively improved by
Dong et. al
compaction when there is a considerable increase

of frictional angle between loose state and dense
state, about 5 Co, at the same level of confining
pressure. However, frictional angle of CTGS does
not greatly increase from C1 to C3.
0
Frictional angle I' (C )
40
35
30
25
20
5
0
Loose Dense
C1
C2
C3
100
200
300
400
Fig.8 variation of frictional angle on confining

pressure
Particle crushing
It is found that the CTGS particles are both
deformed and crushed under compressive
pressure. The detailed investigation on
deformation and crushing of the CTGS particles
is out of scope of this study. However, particle
crushing of CTGS particles was investigated
from the change in size of the CTGS particles
before and after testing. The specimens after
testing were carefully separated by hand pressure,
and yielded by sieve analysis. A significant
particle crushing was observed in order particle
shape was vanished in cases of C1 at confining
pressure of 400 kPa.
Fig. 9 Bmarsal versus maximum mean principal stress.
599
Figure 9 shows relation of particle crushing index

BMarsal (Marsal, 1967), which is defined as sum of
the differences between the initial and final grain
size distribution having the same sign, against
maximum mean principal stress imposed on
specimens. It can be seen that the particle crushing
increases with increasing of maximum mean
principal stress. The rate of particle crushing
considerably decreases when amount of cement
increases especially in loose state.
CONCLUSIONS
As the result, the following detailed conclusions
are drawn:
CTGS has high porosity that gives a good
drainage and lightweight material.
The effects of mixture design are not clearly
shown on size, shape and strength of the CTGS
particles. However, it shows an increasing
tendency on stiffness of particle that is associated
with a significant decrease of particles crushing.
A considerable particle crushing was observed.
The particle crushing dominates stress-strain
behaviors of CTGS produced from lean mixture
design since they show a ductile manner and
volumetric contraction during shearing regardless
initial density.
REFERENCES
PH. Dong, K. Hayano, H. Takahashi, Y. Morikawa
(2009). Mechanical properties of granular
cement treated soil from consolidated drained
triaxial tests, 11th JSCE International Summer
Symposium, Tokyo.
Marsal R. J. (1967). Large scale testing of rockfill
materials, Journal of the Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Division, ASCE, 93 (6): 117-141.
Pender M. J., Wesley L. D., Larkin T. J., Pranjoto
S. (2006). Geotechnical properties of a pumice
sand. Soil and Foundations, 46 (1): 69-81.
Takahashi H., Ichikawa E., Okusa Y., Hayano K.,
and Morikawa Y. (2009). Compressive
characteristics of lean-mixing granular cement
treated soil, proceeding of 33rd An. Sym. on
Civil Eng. in the Ocean, CD-ROM (in
Japanese).
Field Performance of a Solidified Dredged Material in Wuxi, China

Abraham C.F. Chiu
Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Geomechanics and Embankment Engineering, Hohai
University, Nanjing, China (acfchiu@yahoo.com.cn)
Wei Zhu
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
(weizhu@hhu.edu.cn)
Ying-hao Huang
Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Geomechanics and Embankment Engineering, Hohai
University, Nanjing, China (ythuangyinghao@163.com)
ABSTRACT Ordinary Portland cement was used to treat a dredged material (DM) in a field pilot study. To assess the
field performance of the cement-based solidification/stabilisation technology, triaxial tests were conducted on fieldcured (two years after treatment) and laboratory-cured samples of the cement-treated DM. The shear strength of the
field-cured samples was substantial lower than that of the laboratory-cured samples. Further the field-cured samples
also exhibit a smaller change in bound water (BW) content than the laboratory-cured samples. It is anticipated that the
reduction in strength may be resulted from the exposed curing conditions in the field which could retard the cement
hydration and lead to a smaller change in BW content.
INTRODUCTION
Taihu, the third largest freshwater lake in China,
is one of the important natural water bodies
around the Yantze river delta. An estimate of
around 30 million m3 of dredged material (DM)
will be produced by a series of environmental
dredging projects in order to improve the water
quality of Taihu. In order to reduce the demand
for new land disposal sites, cement-based
treatment is considered as an alternative option
to utilize DM for beneficial use. Most of the past
studies of cement-treated DM were focused on
the identification of key factors that influence its
mechanical behaviour under the well-controlled
laboratory conditions (Connor 1990). However,
the field performance of cement-based treatment
has been rarely reported in the literature (Tang et
al. 2001).
This study presents the field performance of a
cement-treated DM by comparing the shear
strength of field-cured and laboratory-cured
samples. Further a recent proposed soil water

transfer model (Zhu et al. 2007) is used to
interpret the differences of the test results from
the samples cured under different conditions.
SOIL WATER TRANSFER MECHANISM
IN CEMENT-BASED TREATMENT
Mitchell (1992) classified the soil water into:
hydration water (HW), bound water (BW) and
free water (FW) depending on the energy state of
the water molecules in the soil matrix. HW is
chemically bonded to the soil minerals. BW is
physically attracted to the vicinity of soil
particles by adhesive forces. FW is the loosely
held water mainly controlled by surface tensional
forces and gravity. The soil water transfer
process during the cement hydration can be
illustrated by the differences between the water
retention curves of untreated and cement-treated
soil as shown in Fig.1.
Chiu, Zhu and Huang
pF
7.0
'mbw
5.0
Cement-treated soil
Untreated soil
3.8
'mhw + me
3.0
mbw
mfw
0.0
mbwo
mfwo
Water content
Fig.1 Water retention curves for untreated and cementtreated soil (from Zhu & Chiu, 2009)
For an unit volume of soil, the initial masses of

FW and BW of the untreated soil are represented
by mfwo and mbwo, respectively; the final masses
of FW and BW of the cement-treated soil are
represented by mfw and mbw, respectively; 'mhw
and 'mbw are the changes in the mass of HW and
BW, respectively, of the cement-treated soil; and
me is the mass of water loss in evaporation of the
cement-treated soil. During cement hydration,
part of the FW is transferred to BW because
more water is attracted around the surfaces of the
newly formed amorphous calcium silicate
hydrates (CSH) and calcium aluminate (CAH).
Thus, 'mbw may reflect the extent of the hydrates
(products from cement hydration and pozzolanic
reactions) developed within the cement-treated
soil matrix. This new parameter will be used
later to interpret the field performance of the
cement-treated samples.
FIELD PILOT STUDY
The disposal site is located in the Taihu natural
wetland reserve, which has an area of around 55
hectares. The confined disposal method was
adopted where dikes were constructed around the
perimeters of the site to contain the suspension
flowed into the basin. The DM underwent
sedimentation, self-weight consolidation and
601
drying. About 3.5 million m3 volume of DM

from a series of environmental dredging projects
in Taihu has been disposed since 2002. A pilot
study project was launched in 2006 to treat the
DM by the cement-based solidification/
stabilisation technology. The binding agent was
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and a cement
content (ac) between 80 kg/m3 and 100 kg/m3
was added to the DM at an initial water content
of 80%. The on-site mixing equipments could
handle a maximum of 15 000 m3 volume of DM
per day. After mixing, the cement-treated DM
was pushed into heaps with bulldozers. About
1.8 million m3 volume of DM was treated
between Nov. 2006 and Jan. 2007.
TESTED MATERIAL
Detailed description and classification of the
tested DM are given by Zhu et al. (2007). Its
basic physical properties are summarized in
Table 1. According to the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS), the DM is
classified as clay of high plasticity (CH).
TABLE 1 Basic physical properties of DM
Gs
2.65
LL
(%)
75
PI
(%)
47
Clay content
(%)
20
Organic
content (%)
0.5
Three types of samples were prepared in the

study: (i) field-cured, (ii) laboratory-cured and
(iii) untreated. Field-cured samples are the
undisturbed (block) samples taken from the site
in August, 2008. The curing period is around 20
to 23 months. Laboratory-cured samples were
prepared in the laboratory by mixing the dry
OPC powder with the slurry of DM at initial
water content around 108%. The cement content
(ac) ranges from 50 kg/m3 to 100 kg/m3, which
corresponds to 7% to 15% of the dry weight of
soil. The mixing was carried out as fast as
possible inside a domestic mixer to avoid
hardening of the cement-soil mixture. After
mixing thoroughly, the mixture was placed into
602
6th
stainless steel molds 39 mm in diameter and 80

mm in height. The mixing and placing was
completed at room temperature and took
approximately 20 minutes. The specimens were
wrapped by plastic sheet and put inside an
environmental chamber for curing where the
ambient temperature and relative humidity were
maintained at 20r2qC and higher than 90%,
respectively. Untreated samples were prepared
by consolidating the slurry (a water content of
108%) of DM inside a 1 m long consolidometer
and loaded under one-dimensional condition
with dead weights to a state where test specimens
could be cut without disturbance.
3.5
Field samples
Lab samples, cement content = 50 kg/cu.m
Untreated samples
3.0
2.5
e
,
o
it
2.0
ra
id
o 1.5
V
1.0
0.5
10
100
1000
(K1' + K3')/2 (kPa)
Fig.2 Isotropic compression curves of different

samples of DM
150
)a
100
P
(k
2
/)
'3
#
-'
1 50
#
(
50 (kPa)
80 (kPa)
100 (kPa)
180 (kPa)
Best-fit line (field samples)
Untreated samples
0
0
100
200
300
400
(# 1' + # 3')/2 (kPa)
Fig.3 Failure envelops of different samples of DM
500
LABORATORY TEST PROGRAM AND

TEST PROCEDURES
The
laboratory
test
program includes
measurement of pore water and bound water
contents, and consolidated undrained triaxial
tests. Depending on the soil water potential, the
pore water (PW) can be classified into BW and
FW. The PW content (mpw) was determined by
oven drying the soil specimen to 105qC for at
least 24 hours. Lebedev (1936) suggested that a
soil water potential of 3.8 pF can be used to
distinguish between BW and FW. The BW
content (mbw) was determined by the centrifuge
method (Gardner 1937). Details of the equipment
and test procedures are presented in Zhu et al.
(2007). The triaxial specimen was 39 mm in
diameter and 80 mm in height. Before
compression, the specimen was saturated so that
a minimum B value of 0.97 was achieved.
Isotropic compression test was carried out using
incremental loading. Each loading stage was
terminated after confirming the completion of
consolidation by using the root time method.
Thereafter undrained shear test was conducted at
an axial compression rate of 0.05% per minute.
FAILURE ENVELOPES
Fig.2 shows the isotropic compression curves of
different samples of DM. It is seen that the fieldcured samples are denser (i.e. smaller void ratio)
than the laboratory-cured samples. It is because
evaporation is more significant for field-cured
samples due to the exposed curing condition.
Fig.3 shows the failure envelopes of different
samples of DM. All three samples (field-cured,
laboratory-cured and untreated) exhibit a linear
failure envelope for the range of stress applied in
the study. Despite of the higher density, the
failure envelope of the field-cured samples is
lower than those of the laboratory-cured samples,
i.e. they exhibit lower shear strength. The
measured cohesions are 8 kPa, 15 kPa and 52
Chiu, Zhu and Huang
kPa for field-cured, 7-days laboratory-cured and

28-days laboratory-cured samples, respectively.
DISCUSSION
The enhancement in mechanical properties of the
cement-treated soil can be related to the hydrates
formation in the soil matrix. Past studies on
different cement-treated DM have shown that the
change in BW content ('mbw) may be related to
some mechanical properties, like unconfined
compressive strength, yield stress and cohesion
(Zhu & Chiu 2009). Fig. 4 shows the relationship
between 'mbw and cohesion for both field-cured
and laboratory-cured samples. It is anticipated
that the low cohesion observed from the fieldcured samples is the result of low 'mbw, which
may be resulted from a retarded hydration
process due to the exposed curing condition
experienced by the samples in the field.
CONCLUSIONS
A field pilot study of cement-based treatment for
a high water content dredging material (DM) is
presented. The field performance of the
treatment is investigated by conducting triaxial
tests on field-cured and laboratory-cured
samples. Despite of the low water content (or
high density) and long curing period of the fieldcured samples, they exhibit lower shear strength
than the laboratory-cured samples. Further, the
field-cured samples exhibit smaller change in
bound water content ('mbw) than the laboratorycured samples. As 'mbw may reflect the
development of cement hydrates in the cementtreated DM, the lower strength of the field-cured
samples could be caused by the exposed field
curing condition that retard the cement
hydration.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study is sponsored by the Ministry of Water
Resources
of
China
through
Grant
No.200701045.
603
500
Lab samples
Field samples
400
a)
P
k(
'c 300
,n
ios
eh 200
o
C
c' = e0.014?mbw -1
100
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
?mbw (kg/m3)
Fig.4 Relationship between 'mbw and cohesion for

cement-treated DM
REFERENCES
Connor J.R. (1990). Chemical fixation and
solidification of hazardous wastes. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Gardner R.A. (1937). The method of measuring
the capillary tension of soil moisture over a
wide moisture range. Soil Science 43:277283.
Lebedev A. F. (1936). Soil and Groundwaters.
The Academy of Sciences of the USSR. (In
Russian)
Mitchell J.K. (1992). Fundamentals of soil
behavior. 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York.
Tang Y.X., Miyazaki Y. and Tsuchida T. (2001).
Practices of reused dredgings by cement
treatment. Soils and Foundations 41(5):129143.
Zhu W. and Chiu C.F. (2009). Role of soil water
in cement-based treatment of dredged
materials. Proc. International Symposium on
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Hangzhou,
China, 395-404.
Zhu W., Zhang C.L. and Chiu A.C.F. (2007).
Soil-water transfer mechanism for solidified
dredged materials. J. Geotech. Geoenviron.
Engrg. ASCE 133(5): 588-598.
Avoiding Slurry Ponds: Design and Testing Pastes for
Use as Mine Backfill

S.A. Jefferis
Environmental Geotechnics Ltd
ABSTRACT Tailings ponds are a regular feature of mine workings and similarly lagoons of waste ash can
be found at many power generation stations burning pulverised fuel. The paper presents some of the key
information that is required to enable mine tailings to be returned underground and used in engineering
works rather than being stored in surface ponds. Topics discussed are pumping of the tailings, bleeding and
settlement after placement and the choice of binder.
INTRODUCTION
The mining industry every year disposes of very
large amounts of fine tailings from mine workings.
Indeed 99% or more of the mined material may
end up as waste. Similarly very large quantities of
ash are generated at coal fired power stations using
pulverised coal. Other industries such as ceramic
works also produce large quantities of slurry waste.
A common feature of these waste arisings is that
they are fine materials typically of silt size or finer.
When deposited as slurries they present a number
of problems including:
x they are wastes with no immediate use;
x they settle to form loose, weak sediments
which have to be lagooned or impounded
within tailings dams;
x they show a shallow angle of repose and thus
their storage can require large areas of land;
x they have a high moisture content and are weak
and so sensitivity to liquefaction;
x the water retained in the slurry can have a
negative impact on mine-plant water balances;
x it can be difficult to return closed facilities to
beneficial use or the natural environment.
Mine tailings also may contain acid generating

materials such as pyrite or other environmentally
undesirable species such as heavy metals.
One way to avoid the negative impacts listed
above is the system known in the mining industry
as paste and thickened tailings technology. In this
technology, the slurrified waste is thickened, and
then a small amount of a binder is added to provide
sufficient strength for the material to be used for
engineering works and especially underground
works within a mine. In this way tailings become
an asset rather than a liability and indeed many
current mines could not be operated without the
use of cemented tailings. The principal stages in
the paste process are:
x thickening the tailings, typically in a gravity
thickener, to a solids content of perhaps 60 to
70%;
x mixing of the thickened tailings with an
appropriate binder;
x pumping the paste into the mine where it is
retained behind barricades to set and develop
some hardened strength.
Jefferis
There is a substantial and developing literature on

cemented tailings and this short paper can address
only a few of the issues and therefore the author
has focused on three important design parameters:
x Pumping pressure;
x Bleeding, that is settlement of solids under
gravity with the expulsion of water;
x Binder selection for optimum economy whilst
achieving sufficient strength.
Assessment of Pumping Pressures
Pumping pressure is important as pastes may have
to be pumped over substantial distances and a
further complication is that the mine zone to be
filled with paste may be much below ground level.
There is therefore a risk of cavitation and free fall
of paste in the pipeline if pipe gradients and
pressures are not carefully managed.
Typically when assessing pumping pressures for
particulate systems the material may be assumed to
behave as a Bingham body that is that it can be
described by the two parameter model:
W b P b J
(1)
Where W is the shear stress at strain rate J and Wb

the Bingham yield stress of the material that is
the shear stress necessary to mobilise flow in the
material and Pb is the Bingham or plastic
viscosity (note other models may be used to
describe the flow behaviour and the values
obtained for the parameters will depend on the
form of the model used).
However, as noted above many tailings materials
are of silt size or contain a significant amount of
silt-sized material. Now one of the classic tests for
a silt is to shake a small pat of the material in the
palm of the hand. A silt material will glisten as
water is expelled and the pat slightly densifies.
Thus a silt when subjected to the slight fluctuations
of stress in a pipeline can be expected to segregate
so as to produce a wall layer which is of slightly
higher moisture content than the bulk material
deeper in the core of the flow. There also will be
purely mechanical reasons for the existence of a
605
higher moisture content region at the wall

including localised lift effects (see Wilson et al.,
2006) and because solid particles cannot penetrate
the wall so that the packing density in the wall
region will be lower than in the bulk fluid.
However, the wall layer due to this effect is likely
to be limited to a fraction of a particle diameter in
thickness and thus perhaps of the order of a few
tens of microns and indeed Barnes (2000) suggests
that it may be from 0.1 to 10 microns thick but that
this will depend on the particle size (and floc size
in flocculated systems). For pastes at very high
concentration (and this may be applicable to
thickened tailings) Barnes states that the flow
properties in shear are dominated by the shearing
of the thin slip layer.
The Wall layer
For particulate systems the wall layer is often
assumed to be a Newtonian fluid. However, for
cemented materials when pumping is stopped a
pressure can remain locked in the system, i.e. the
pressure does not return to zero. If a pressure
remains the wall layer cannot be a simple
Newtonian fluid it must have a yield stress.
Sakuta (1981) investigated the pumping of low
water cement ratio cement pastes and found a wall
layer was that significantly thicker than a few
microns. In laboratory tests with pipes of diameter
8 to 16 mm he found a wall layer thickness of the
order of 0.3 to 0.2 mm the thickness tending to
reduce with increasing pipe diameter and the
plastic viscosity of fluid in the wall layer tending
to increase with increasing pipe diameter (for
cement grouts of water cement ratio 0.37 to 0.46).
Despite the relatively thinness of the layer, Sakuta
found that it dominated the flow behaviour.
It follows that when pumping non-cohesive fine
materials a thin wall layer can be expected to form.
This wall layer may have a yield stress and thus
the simplest model for the situation is a Bingham
wall layer with a separate Bingham core material
with distinct fluid properties. For a cohesive
material where water separation is inhibited by the
cohesion, a single Bingham fluid may be sufficient
to describe the basic behaviour of the whole
606
6th
system though this may be complicated by

thixotropy a feature of many cohesive materials.
If a wall layer is present, the flow behaviour of the
fluid in a pipe or coaxial cylinders viscometer
cannot be described by a simple rheological model
such as Equation 1 as the system now consists of
two distinct fluids, a core material and a wall
material. Tests with different geometries (e.g.
pipes of different diameters which produce
different wall layer thicknesses) will show distinct
rheological behaviours for a single paste. This can
be most clearly demonstrated by plotting the
results of pipe-flow tests in terms of consistency
variables shear stress and shear rate. For pipe
flow the shear stress at the wall, Ww is given by:
Ww
Pd
4L
(2)
and the average shear rate in the pipe is:
J
8V
d
(3)
where V is the average flow velocity, P the

pressure drop over length, L in a pipe of diameter,
d.
If a wall layer develops in pipe flow it also will
develop in rotational viscometry and the results of
such studies when plotted as shear stress - shear
rate plots will show distinct curves for different
test geometries.
For a coaxial cylinders rheometer the shear stress,
Wb on the surface of the bob can be calculated from
Equation 4 (for this discussion the bob is assumed
to be the rotating element).
Wb
2M
S h D2
(4)
Where M is the torque on the bob, D its diameter

and h its effective height (allowing, if necessary
for end effects). The average shear rate will be a
function of the rotational speed of the bob, the

radius of the bob and the radius of the zone of fluid
mobilised by the rotation. For fluids which show a
yield stress not all the test fluid may be mobilised
so that the mobilised radius is not equal to the
radius of the outer cylinder (if one is used). In this
situation, it can be difficult to determine the
mobilised radius which leads to uncertainties in the
shear rate. As a result, it can be more difficult to
identify and quantify the effects of wall layers in
rotational viscometry than in pipe flow viscometry.
Unfortunately, identifying that wall slip is
occurring does not provide a method for
accounting for its significance or for scaling-up
laboratory experiments to the field. Of necessity,
the pipes used in laboratory pipeline test rigs will
be of modest diameters and are likely to be much
smaller than full-scale pipelines. Scale-up of wall
layer behaviour presents many difficulties. There
are uncertainties about scaling rules for differing
pipe diameters both as regards the wall layer
thickness and the properties of the fluid within it.
The author has used a simple rotational viscometry
technique to assess pumping pressures in the
presence of a wall layer. For this, the rotational
speed of bob is set so that its peripheral velocity is
equal to the average linear velocity of the paste in
the pipeline. In this situation the wall region at the
surface of the bob sees a velocity comparable to
that in the pipe. The shear stress, Wb obtained from
Equation 4 then can be used as Ww in Equation 2 to
obtain an indication of the pipeline pressure
gradient, P/L (see also Jefferis, 1988 and 1991).
Although this procedure can provide only an
indication of full scale pumping pressures it may
be found useful for scoping trials of different paste
systems or in production situations when there are
day to day variations in tailings properties and
pumpability must be frequently assessed and if
necessary managed. It may be noted that yield
stress determined with a vane in a rotational
viscometer is often used to assess pumpability at
mine sites, see, for example, Jewell et al. (2006).
However, a slowly rotating vane will assess only
yield stress whereas with the peripheral velocity
Jefferis
technique some assessment of viscous effects (the

second term of Equation 1) and the impact of the
wall lubricating layer can be made.
BLEEDING
Bleeding may be defined as the settlement of
solids with the expulsion of water. This will be
undesirable if the released water has to be pumped
from the workings. The associated loss of solid
volume also may be a undesirable if the aim is to
produce a construction material and not just return
the maximum amount solids underground.
Bleeding can be treated as a self-weight

consolidation process and this is discussed in
Doran (1985), Domone & Jefferis (1994) and
Jefferis (2003). The application of consolidation
theory allows a number of significant features of
stiffening grouts and pastes to be analysed.
The stiffening of the paste
For a recently placed paste, the bleeding of water
and settlement of solids will be stopped if the paste
stiffens to the point that the solids can be
supported by the developing interparticle structure.
The strength necessary to prevent bleeding can be
very low. Indeed, for many fine particulate
systems bleed and hence solids settlement can be
stopped by interparticle forces which develop even
without the addition of a binder. This can be
demonstrated by allowing a non-setting slurry such
as a kaolin water mix to settle to equilibrium,
draining off the bleed water and then stirring the
solids once again to break the gel. On standing the
system is likely to settle further and this process
may be repeatable a number of times before a final
settled state is achieved. It is precisely this timedependent bonding that drives the requirement for
stirring in paste thickeners (though note that in a
thickener a flocculant may have been added to
promote interparticle bonding). The important
message is that in many slurry ponds and waste
lagoons the settlement of solids is stopped by
interparticle bonding. As a result, the ultimate
amount of settlement is a function of the depth of
slurry placed deeper layers with slower rates of
consolidation achieve a lower fraction of the
theoretical maximum consolidation before
607
settlement is stopped by interparticle bonding

that is they produce a looser structure.
Loosely packed systems may revert to slurry if
disturbed and this has occurred when tailings dams
have failed. The settled and apparently solid
material in a tailings pond may flow great
distances (consider for example the incident at the
Aznalcllar / Los Frailes mine in April 1998 and
that at Merriespruit in February 1994 though this
was associated with a heavy rainfall incident and
there were other factors see Wagener et al.,
1998). Loose systems also will be vulnerable to
liquefaction under earthquake conditions.
Degree of settlement
Thickened tailings and cement grouts for structural
applications e.g. grouting of pre-stressing tendons)
may seem to be of high solids content. However,
they are actually of relatively high porosity. For
example for a thickened paste of solids content 60
to 70% with solids of specific gravity of 3.0, the
porosity will be in the range 67 to 56%. If there
were no interparticle bonding activity in such a
paste the system could be expected to settle to a
porosity of perhaps 30 to 50%. If a paste of solids
content 60% to 70% settled to an overall porosity
of 40% the amount of water expelled (bleed water)
and hence the amount settlement of the solids
would be 44% to 27% of the original volume of
paste. In practice settlements as high as this are
seldom seen in thickened pastes and low water
cement ratio grouts demonstrating that they are
stopped by interparticle bonding. For pastes used
for underground construction the stopping of
settlement by bonding is an advantage as it ensures
a homogeneous material and avoids the need to
manage bleed water. However, in a slurry lagoon
bonding will be a major disadvantage as it will
lead to a loose, vulnerable, high moisture content
material and also will increase the volume of
storage required.
Channelled bleed
The above findings regarding the influence of
bonding assume that the consolidation process is
significantly slower than the development of
bonding. This is often the situation when drainage
608
6th
of the paste occurs vertically upwards (and also

downwards if there is under-drainage) and there
are no preferential drainage paths. However, such
paths can develop in wetter systems where there is
sufficient bleed water to fracture the paste and
force a channel (blow-hole) upwards through the
paste that is, if self induced hydraulic fracture
can occur an incipient condition in all settling
slurries which can be triggered by local
disturbances. Once formed, a channel acts rather
as a wick drain and greatly increases the local rate
of settlement and hence the total settlement. The
water velocity in the channel may be high enough
to carry fines from the paste and these can be
deposited as volcanoes around the top of the
channel.
Channelled bleed can damage the
integrity and durability of cemented materials. If it
occurs in a mine paste, it may be necessary to redesign the material by reducing the water content,
modifying the particle size distribution or the use
of admixtures. In slurry ponds, channelled bleed
may be an advantage as more rapid settlement can
produce a more compact sediment if channelled
bleed can be induced to occur and to continue.
The zone of consolidation
A feature of self-weight consolidation is that
consolidation first occurs at the base of the layer
(if the drainage is upward only, if there is also base
drainage, consolidation will start at approximately
the mid-height). Consolidation reduces the local
moisture content of the paste and therefore can be
expected to increase the local strength of the
material. Hence in a material where interparticle
bonding has stopped full consolidation, the
maximum extra strength can be expected in the
region most remote from the drainage the base of
the layer if there is no base drainage or near the
mid-height if there is both top and bottom drainage
(a result that may seem counter-intuitive).
The increase in strength from consolidation may

be an advantage but if bleed is low no significant
increase in strength should be expected (as
compared with samples cast into moulds which of
course must be carefully sealed to avoid drainage).
Unfortunately, the escape of water at the top of a
paste layer may lead to a slightly soft laitance layer
which will be undesirable if a further layer of paste

is to be placed on top. A further problem is that
the escaping water can tend to fluidise the material
in the upper regions of a cemented mass so that the
set strength is much reduced a problem that has
occurred in piles when over-wet concrete has been
placed.
SETTING OF CEMENTED PASTES
The strength required for a cemented paste to be
useful as a construction material in the
underground environment of a mine can be quite
modest perhaps 0.5 to 5 MPa. It follows that the
required binder (cementitious material) content is
modest but even at modest dosages the cost of the
binder will be an important economic
consideration as mines are often in remote
locations and long transport distances and hence
high costs can be involved. Binder contents may
be perhaps 3 to 7% by waste of paste. If the paste
is of solids content, s (weight of solids by total
weight of paste) and the fraction of binder is, b by
total weight of paste, then the water: binder ratio is:
(1 - s) / b. Hence for 3 to 7% binder and s = 60%
to 70% the water: binder ratio will be in the range
13 to 4. At these water: binder ratios Portland
cement will not be the optimum binder. Research
on cement-bentonite systems, which has been
confirmed for pastes without bentonite, has shown
that at high water/cement ratios ground granulated
blastfurnace slag (gbs) - Portland cement blends
show much higher strengths (and markedly lower
permeabilities) than pure Portland cement systems
(Jefferis, 1997). Gbs-Portland cement blends
develop a finer and more homogeneous
microstructure which can be seen under the
scanning electron microscope and demonstrated by
mercury intrusion porosimetry. The blends also
develop strength more rapidly than pure Portland
systems it is a common error to add extra
Portland cement when seeking more rapid strength
gain in gbs-cement systems.
However, to achieve these benefits the gbs content

must be at least 60% by total weight of binder and
the strength and rate of hardening will increase
with replacement level to at least to 95% gbs. Gbs
replacement also can help to achieve set in systems
Jefferis
which otherwise might be heavily retarded or

killed by chemicals present in the tailings, for
example lead and zinc. It should be noted that in
the concrete industry both gbs and pulverised fuel
ash (pfa) can be used to replace some of the
cement. However, in high water: cement ratio
systems pfa does not enhance strength and reduce
permeability in the same way as gbs.
A recent complication to the use of gbs - cement
blends is that to lower the environmental impact
(carbon footprint) of Portland cements significant
amounts non-Portland materials may be added to
the cement at the production works. Materials
used in this way are termed additions in the cement
industry. Typical additions are gbs, pfa, silica
fume and limestone powder (see, for example,
Newman & Choo, 2003). If blended cements are
used the effect of the additions must be considered
but as yet there little definitive advice available.
Alternative binders
The relatively low strength required for mine
pastes invites an alternative approach to binder
selection. For mines in remote locations, instead
of using a commercially produced binder such as
Portland cement a binder may be developed and
manufactured using materials local to the mine site
in a kiln working at temperatures comparable to
those of lime kilns and not the much higher
temperatures of Portland cement kilns. Research is
at the early stages of development but initial
results are promising.
CONCLUSIONS
Paste backfill is a developing technology which
enables a waste to become a valuable construction
material. A substantial body of research now
exists but there is still much to learn. It is an
exciting area bridging the disciplines of rheology,
soil mechanics and concrete technology.
REFERENCES
Barnes, H.A. (2000) A handbook of elementary
rheology, Institute of Non-Newtonian Fluid
Mechanics, University of Wales, Wales.
609
Domone, P.L.J. and Jefferis, S.A. Eds (1994)

Structural Grouts, Blackie Academic and
Professional Publishers.
Doran, S.M. (1984) Surface settlement and bleeding
in fresh cement grouts, University of London
PhD thesis.
Jefferis, S.A. (1991) Pumping of cement grouts, in
Rheology of fresh cement and concrete, Banfill,
P.F.G. ed.
Jefferis, S.A. (1997) The origins of the slurry
trench cut-off and a review of cement-bentonite
cut-off walls in the UK, Proc. First
International
Containment
Technology
Conference and Exhibition, Florida.
Jefferis, S.A. (2003) Grouts and grouting, in
Advanced concrete technology, Processes,
Newman J., and Choo, B.S. Eds Elsevier, 12/112/47.
Jefferis, S.A. and Mangabhai, R.J. (1988)
Laboratory measurement of grout pumping
pressures,
Grouts
and
Grouting
for
Construction and Repair of Off-shore
Structures, HMSO Books, 91-110.
Jewell, R., Lawson, S. and Newman, P.
(2006) Paste 2006, Australian Centre for
Geomechanics,
University
of
Western
Australia.
Newman J., and Choo, B.S. Eds (2003) Advanced
concrete technology, Constituent materials,
Elsevier, 3/3-3/59.
Sakuta, M. (1981) The flow of cement pastes and
mortars in a pipeline, University of London PhD
thesis.
Wagener, E.M., Craig, H.J., Blight, G., McPhail,
G., Williams, A.A.B. and Strydom, J.H. (1998)
The Merriespruit tailings dam failure A
review, Proc. Fifth international conference on
tailings and mine waste 98, Balkema,
Rotterdam, 925-952.
Wilson, K.C., Addie, G.R., Sellgren, A. and Clift
R. (2006). Slurry transport using centrifugal
pumps, 3rd ed. Springer.
Hardening Process at the Early Stage of Cement Treated Soils

S. Seng
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan (sochan_seng@eng.hokudai.ac.jp)
H. Tanaka
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan (tanaka@eng.hokudai.ac.jp)
D. Ise
Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan (ise-daisuke@eng.hokudai.ac.jp)
ABSTRACT Bender element, vane shear and fall-cone test were carried out to study the hardening process
of cement treated soil at the early stage and to determine the useful correlation between strength and
stiffness. Results from this study show that the shear wave velocity of treated soil changing from liquid to
solid state is around 5 m/s; the water-cement ratio can be use as a primary parameter for quality control if
the water content is not significantly varied; a linear correlation between shear modulus and shear strength
exists even at the very early stage.
INTRODUCTION
Most areas of Japan are mainly covered by hills
and mountains, which are not suitable for
residential and industrial land use. Thus, coastal
areas have been highly developed and to be used.
The reclamation in these areas was carried out by
filling of sandy soils, but due to environmental
requirements, it is recently very difficult to obtain
such a filling material. On the other hand, large
amount of soft clay or mud with high water
content dredged from navigation channel
maintenance and sewage are produced and it is
necessary to find out places for depositing these
soils. To cope with these problems, soft clay with
high water contents has been gradually used as a
filling material for land reclamation in Japan.
Due to undesirable material properties, for
example, low strength and high compressibility,
soil improvement is necessary such as vertical
drains to reduce residual settlement. However,
such methods are not appropriate because of
difficulty in employing a heavy machine for
installing drains due to very low strength and
requirement of a certain time for consolidation

even after placing vertical drains. Instead of these
vertical drain methods, these clayey soils are in
advance mixed with cement at a plant as well as
in the process of the transportation to filling sites,
whose methods are called Pipe Mixing or
Supper Geo Material (SGM) method. More
detail in these methods may be referred to
Tsuchida (1995), Tsuchida et al. (1996). Another
advantage of such a cement treatment is, due to
high water content, its light unit weight, which
can significantly reduce the lateral earth pressure
to retaining structures and overburden pressure
causing settlements in the original ground.
Properties of cement treated soils have been
extensively studied by many researchers (for
example, Terashi & Tanaka 1981, Terashi et al.
1983). However, these properties are mainly
targeted for materials produced by Deep Mixing
Method, whose treated soil is the in situ
conditions so that water content is relatively
moderate and curing time concerned is rather
longer, say, at least 1 week. On the other hand,
Seng, Tanaka and Ise 611
soils used in Pipe Mixing or SGM method have

large water content, and treated soil at the early
stage should behave as liquid because of its
transfer through a pipe to the construction site.
However, it should avoid that water content is too
high or amount of cement is too small for treated
soil to be solidify.
In this research, the development of strength and
stiffness of cement mixed soils at early curing
time has been studied by carrying out the bender
element (BE), vane shear (VS) and fall-cone (FC)
tests.
SAMPLES AND TESTING METHODS
Samples
Two Japanese commercial clays, Fujinomori,
Kasaoka, and dredged soil from Tokyo Bay were
used for this study. Their fundamental properties
are given in table 1.
any specific time, because of a nondestructive

test. Fig. 1(a) schematically represents the system
of BE in this study. A pair of BE is inserted on
both ends of the soil specimen. The transmitter on
the top is connected to a function generator to
generate the shear wave and an oscilloscope to
record the data. When a driving voltage is applied
to the transmitter BE, it starts to bend and
propagates the shear wave through the specimen.
The receiver element at the pedestal is, then,
reacted by the arrival shear wave and generates a
certain level of voltage. Input as well as received
signals are displayed in a digital oscilloscope, so
that the shear wave is identified and its velocity
can be calculated. The start-to-start method for
defining arrival times, i.e. 't in Fig. 1(b), and
tip-to-tip method for determining travel
distances, i.e. 's in Fig. 1(a), of shear wave were
adopted (for details refer to Kawaguchi et al.,
2001; Yamashita et al., 2009). Shear modulus (G)
can be derived from Vs, through shear wave
propagation in an elastic body theory, as shown in
equation (1):
TABLE 1 Physical Property of Soil Samples

Soil Types
Fujinomori
Kasaoka
Tokyo Bay
Plastic Limit
(%)
26
28
33
Liquid Limit
(%)
51
62
103
Testing specimens were prepared with various

conditions of water content (w) and cement
content (C). In this paper, cement content is
defined as the ratio to the dry weight of soil. Dry
soils were firstly mixed with distilled water until
completely uniform. Then, certain percent of
cement were added and mixed for 10 minutes.
For BE test, the slurry cemented soil was cast into
a plastic mold with 50 mm in diameter and 100
mm in height. Vibration was applied gently to
remove air bubbles in the specimen. Sample for
VS was properly cast into a bucket, whereas FC
sample was put into a steel cup.
Bender Element Test
BE test is suitable to be repeated the measurement
of shear wave velocity (Vs) of the same sample at
G = Vs2
(1)
where U is the mass density of soil.

Vane Shear Test
VS test was employed in this study for measuring
the shear strength (s) since it is a more
appropriate test for measuring low shear strength
material. The shear rate of VS apparatus is
constant, i.e., 6q rotation per minute. To obtain
more accurate result, two different maximum
capacities of load cell, 1 N and 20 N, have been
alternatively used according to the s value of the
material. When using 1 N load cell, the accuracy
of s is as small as 1.7 Pa.
Fall-Cone Test
The s from FC test is determined by using an
empirical formula proposed by Hansbo (1957).
The relationship is functioned with depth of cone
penetration, weight of cone, and cone factor,
which varies with the cone angle (see, for
example, Wood 1985a).
612
6th
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1 (a) Schematic of Bender Element Testing and

Travel Distance Determination, (b) Travel Time
Measurement Method
signal was not able to be detected since the

specimen was as soft as liquid and shear wave
cannot propagate through liquid. At 30 min.,
shear wave started to be observed, but its
amplitude was low. The defined arrival time is
represented by a symbol of in Fig. 2, and the
Vs is around 8.6 m/s at this time. As the curing
time is proceeded, Vs significantly increases.
Throughout the measurement, frequencies of the
input pulse were increased according to increase
in the curing time or soil stiffness. From all tests
in this study, it is found that the minimum Vs
detectable by the BE test is around 5 m/s,
corresponding to G about 30 kPa, indicating that
these values are the boundary between the liquid
and the solid state of the cement treated soil.
Vane and Fall-Cone Tests
Using Kasaoka clay treated with three different
conditions of water and cement contents, a
comparison of shear strengths between VS and
FC tests was conducted. The comparison is
depicted in Fig. 3. It can be seen that both
strengths are very close to each other.
Nevertheless, s from FC appears slightly lower
than those from VS test for all conditions. This
difference might be caused by different shearing
patterns, including rates of shearing, which is
obviously an important factor for governing the
shear strength.
Figure 4 shows how to increase the s value with

curing time. As can be seen from the figures,
shear strengths from both tests show clearly linear
rises with curing time.
Shear Wave Velocity Measurement with

Curing Time
Plots in Fig. 2 show a typical example of increase
in Vs value with curing time from BE
measurement. In this figure, Kasaoka clay was
mixed with w = 80% and C = 4%. The curing
time is defined as the time when the mixing is
completed and the mixed soil is poured in the
mold. Immediately after mixture, about 10 min.
of curing time in this example, the shear wave
Effect of Water to Cement (W/C) Ratio on

Stiffness
In practice, some variation in water content of
dredged soils cannot be avoided, because a large
amount of soil is necessary to be treated. To cope
with such variability in water content, the amount
of cement used is determined based on a
parameter of W/C ratio, where C and W is amount
of cement and water in the soil, respectively. That
is, when water content in soil is larger than the
initial target, the volume of cement is increased.
Kasaoka Clay (w = 80% and C = 4%)

0.05
:1
2
-0.05
0.05
0.00
120 min.
Vs = 44.43 m/s
Input Signal (Sine: f = 3 kHz)
240 min.
Vs = 65.76 m/s

Vs = 70.86 m/s
-0.05
0.05
300 min.
-0.05
0.005
0.010
0.015
Time (s)
A Typical Example of Vs Measurement
1
2
3
4
Shear Strength from VS Test (kPa)
Comparison of Shear Strength from FC and

VS Tests
Fig. 3

T
-0.05
0.05
60 min.
Vs = 24.20 m/s
Shear Strength, s (kPa)
Voltage (mV)
0.00
Fig. 2
30 min.
Input Signal (Sine: f = 0.5 kHz) Vs = 8.57 m/s
-0.05
0.05
0.000
Input Signal (Sine: f = 0.5 kHz)
0.00
0.00
Kasaoka
w:C=140:7
w:C=160:8
w:C=180:9
10 min.
0.00
-0.05
0.05
0.00
Plots in Fig. 6 present Vs values to water content

(w) normalized by liquid limit (wL) at the constant
W/C = 10. It can be seen from the figure that, for
example, for Kasaoka clay, when the water
content were changed from liquid limit to twice
liquid limit, the Vs value decreases from 180 m/s
to 90 m/s. Therefore, it can be concluded that a
concept for W/C ratio to determine the amount of
cement is applicable to a certain range in the
water content.
the unconfined compression test requires a certain

strength whose strength is strong enough to stand,
the lowest s value obtained from this test is about
10 kPa. As far as the s magnitude is greater than
10 kPa, a particular relation between G and s can
be observed, regardless various soil types and
W/C ratios.
Shear Strength from FC Test (kPa)
Figure 5 shows relation between Vs and W/C ratio

of the three mentioned soils, where all Vs values
were measured at 300 min. curing time. As a
general trend, Vs increase inversely with W/C and
form a linear trend. It seems true that the
mechanism of the cement treated soil is governed
by W/C ratio. However, if we look carefully at
W/C = 10, their points are considerably scattered.
4
3
2
1
Relation between Strength and Stiffness

The relation between G and shear strength
attained from unconfined compressive test (s =
qu/2) is plotted in logarithmic scale, in Fig. 7,
together with relation by Terashi et al. (1983). G
value by Terashi et al. was measured by the
resonant column test. It should be noted that since
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Curing Time (min.)
Fig. 4 Variation of s from FC and VS Test of Kasaoka

Clay with Curing Time
614
6th
that in Fig. 7. A wide range of stiffness and

strength relationship from very low magnitude to
the higher one is obtained by the combination of
these two data sets.
Shear Wave Velocity, Vs (m/s)
300
Curing Time = 300 min.

250
Fujinomori
Kasaoka
Tokyo Bay
200
The normalized G/s is plotted with curing time

and shown in Fig. 9, in logarithmic scale. It is
observed that as a general trend, the ratio of G/s
increases with curing time, they are located
between approximately 100 to 1000.
150
100
50
10
15
20
25
W/C Ratio
Fig. 5 Relation between Vs and W/C Ratio Measured

at 300 min. Curing
Shear Wave Velocity, Vs (m/s)
200
W/C Ratio = 10
Kasaoka
Tokyo Bay
150
Shear Modulus, G (kPa)
10
Fujinomori
Tokyo Bay
Terashi et al. (1983)
5
10
10
10 0
10
100
10
10
10
10
Fig. 7
Relationship between G and s of Cement
Treated Soils at High Stiffness and Strength
50
0
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
w/wL Ratio
Fig. 6
Variation of Vs with Normalized w/wL at

W/C = 10
Additionally, in this study the relationship

between G versus s at the early hardening process
is indicated in Fig. 8, in logarithmic space. The s
value was measured by the VS test because the
material remained soft with low strength.
Fujinomori and Kasaoka clay were mixed with
small percent of cement content (from 4% to
10%). It is of interest that G and s also increase
linearly. The slope in Fig. 8 is almost same as
Shear Modulus, G (kPa)
10
10
Fujinomori
w:C = 60:4
w:C = 60:4
w:C = 60:6
w:C = 60:10
w:C = 70:4.7
w:C = 70:4.7
w:C = 70:7
Kasaoka
w:C = 140:7
w:C = 160:8
w:C = 180:9
10
10
10
10 -1
10
10
10
10
Fig. 8
Relationship between G and s of Cement
Treated Soils at Lower Stiffness and Strength

4
monitoring the quality of material in practice,

since shear wave velocity can be easily
investigated by utilizing in situ as well as
laboratory testing methods.
10
G/s Ratio
10
REFERENCES
Hansbo S. (1957) A New Approach to the
Determination of the Shear Strength of Clay
by the Fall-Cone Test, Proc. R. Swed. Geotech.
Inst., No. 14.
10
Fujinomori
Kasaoka
w:C=60:4
w:C=140:7
w:C=60:4
w:C=160:8
w:C=60:6
w:C=180:9
w:C=60:10
w:C=70:4.7 From UCT
w:C=70:4.7
Fujinomori
w:C=70:7
Tokyo Bay
10
10
10
10
10
10
Curing Time (min.)
10
10
Fig. 9 Variation of G/s Ratio with Curing Time
CONCLUSIONS
Hardening process of cement treated soil has been
studied by means of laboratory testing methods,
namely, bender element, vane shear, and fall-cone
tests. Based on experimental results presented in
this paper, conclusions can be drawn as
following:
1) Changes of cement treated soil stiffness at
any states are easily observed by using
bender element test. The transition from
liquid to solid phases for treated soil is
appeared at around 5 m/s of Vs value,
corresponding to G about 30 kPa.
2) W/C ratio can be used as a primary parameter
in controlling the quality of cement treated
soil, but this can be applicable to limited
water conditions.
3) It is found that shear strengths measured by
vane and fall-cone tests are nearly the same.
It is a useful information to determine the
shear strength of the cement mixing soil at
early stage because required time for
fall-cone test is considerably shorter than that
for vane test.
4) A relation between the shear modulus and
shear strength can be recognized, regardless
of the curing time as well as the order of the
strength. This relation serves a useful tool in
Kawaguchi T., Mitachi T. and Shibuya S. (2001)

Evaluation of Shear Wave Travel Time in
Laboratory Bender Element Test, Proc. 15th
ICSMGE, 1, 155-158.
Terashi M. and Tanaka H. (1981) Ground
Improved by Deep Mixing Method, Proc. of
the 10th Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. & Found.
Eng., Stockholm. Vol. 3, pp. 777-780.
Terashi M., Tanaka H., Tsukasa M., Sadakichi H.
and Terumi O. (1983) Fundamental Properties
of Lime and Cement Treated Soils (3rd report),
Report of the Port and Harbor Research
Institute Ministry of Transport, vol. 22, 69-96,
in Japanese.
Tsuchida T. (1995) Super Geo-Material Project in
Coastal Zone, Proc. of Int. Symp. on Coastal
Ocean Space Utilization COSU95, Yokohama,
22-31.
Tsuchida T., Takeuchi D., Okumura T. and
Kishida T. (1996) Development of
Light-weight Fill from Dredgings, Proc. of
Environmental Geotechnics, Balkema, 415420.
Wood D.M. (1985a) Some Fall-Cone Tests,
Gotechnique 35(1), 64-68.
Yamashita S., Kawaguchi T., Nakata Y., Mikami
T., Fujiwara T. and Shibuya S. (2009)
Interpretation of International Parallel Test on
the Measurement of Gmax Using Bender
Element, Soils and Foundations, 49(4),
631-650.
Depositing Maintenance Dredging Material and Inert Waste in Order

to Form New Port Territories
R Ciortan,
Professor, PhD, Correspondent Member of the Romanian
Technical Academy
Conseilor, IPTANA SA
141 Calea Plevnei St., Bucharest, Romania
ciortanromeo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT: The medium- and long-term development strategy of the Port of Constanta provides creation of large
territories dedicated to the performance of port activities. These territories require large amounts of landfills. An
important source of such material is represented by the material dredged during the port aquatorium maintenance
works, as well as the inert solid waste, with which landfills can be executed. Permeable breakwaters have to be
executed on the outline of the area to be filled. The breakwaters layout would have to take into account the general
layout of the future port facilities. Thus, by adequate projects, the economical development of the port is ensured,
while protecting the environment.
INTRODUCTION
Romanian Port of Constantza is located west to
the Black Sea, 179 NM away from Bosphorus
Straits and 85 NM away from Sulina Branch, the
waterway that Danube outlets by to Sea.
able to provide future facilities owing to its greater

area.
The development of modern Constantza Port,

designed as a unitary concept, effectively started
in 1896 and has been extended along some major
stages that feature the following traits (Table 1):
TABLE 1. Characteristic features of Constantza Port
North South
Total
Port
Port
Total Area (ha)
722
2,500
3,222
404
1,300
1,704
x land
318
1,200
1,518
x sea
Breakwaters (km)
6.77
11.45
17.77
Quays (km)
13.4
50
63.4
Berths (no.)
78
200
278
Depths (m
7.2-14.5 7.0-22.5 7.0-22.5
Traffic (mill. tons)
60
180
240
Max.Vessel (dwt)
80
250
250
Constantza Port is today a couple of great
enclosures: Constantza-North that operates all
kind of cargo, gas excepted; Constantza-South
Item
Fig. 1 Constantza Port. General layout

The Port (Figure 1) covers some 10 km of sea
shore and advances seaward for 5.5 km; its area
(some 3,200 ha) includes the outlet to sea of the
Danube-Black Sea Canal that connects to
Cernavoda Port on Danube.
Ciortan
2. REQUISITE FOR RECLAIMED

LAND IN PORT
Constantza Port has been extended seaward, thus
making necessary significant earth filling
volumes. Total area of reclaimed land shall figures
some 1,700 ha; there are some 900 ha
accomplished
until
present
i.e.
some
100 million cubic meters of filling.
In this purpose there have been used materials
originated from dredging, borrow pits, rubble and
from the Danube-Black Sea Canal.
3. SEDIMENTS VOLUME
INSIDE THE PORT
The sediments storage on port basins are relative
decrease and could be between 3.3cm/ year on
Northern port that is well stored to 4.2cm/ year on
Southern port under construction.
These are the effects of the alluvions carried by
the currents, powders carried by the wind, in
wrack materials loss at manipulation etc.. The
deposits supply taken into consideration of 0.5m
allows the storing of these sediments on about 15
years.
The surface of the port basins of 318 ha on
Constantza North Port and almost 1200ha on
Constantza South Port issues an annual sediments
supply of almost 600000 m3.
Taking into consideration the restrictive
conditions regarding the dredging stored materials
are provided being used at fillings execution
developing the future port territory. In this respect,
is provided that inside the port surface the
enclosure of these materials quantity would be
executed.
4. SOLID WASTE COME FROM PORT
ACTIVITY
For a total traffic of 40,000t/ year, port generates
some 50,000 tons/year solid waste with the
following composition: metals 6%; paper, wood
14%; domestic 30%; cement, chemicals 15%;
spoil, rubble 25%; miscellaneous 10%.
617
To estimate future solid waste, it has been correlated

with the total traffic forecast. It revealed a solid
waste to total cargo traffic ratio about 0.125%. For a
total traffic of 50, 000tons/ year and future recover of
some metal, wood and paper and by the
improvement of the working technology solid waste
reduce to some 40,000 tons/year.
The wastes that will be dumped in designated
disposal areas, i.e. decrease to 0.08 % of the total
cargo traffic.
5. THE ENCLOSURE PROVIDED FOR THE
SUPPLIYING OF THE DREDGING
MATERIAL AND WASTES
On base of studies it has therefore been suggested
that solid waste and dredging material shall, latter
to a prior sorting, be used to reclaim land in
addition to other solid materials intended to
fillings to use one area inside the port, bordered by
temporary dykes.
The improvement of the area provided for the
dredging material storage and also taking into
consideration the previsions of the port general
layout and time scheduling. So, in the Central
side, territories designated to the port activities for
the storage and transport will be executed,
resulting a surface of almost 6 ha, of 2000m length
and 300m width (Figure 2).
The Western side of this surface designated for the
activity of the barges convoys : arrival, revealing,
hauling to and from the operations berths, forming
and departure. This requests a water surface of
almost 700 x 700m2.
Figure 2. Enclosure intended to reclaim land
618
6th
These two areas will be marked by a rockfills

dike, which on first stage has a gap allowing the
access of the charged barges used for the transport
of the dredging material.
The area surface is necessary for the next 10 years.
In this situation, the filling area should be
considered as a storage for the inert wastes and
wastes resulted from the port draggers.
dyke avoid washing away of filling material into

port basins due to waves and currents.
7. PROCESSING THE FILLINGS
To transport filling materials there have been used
road trucks, conveyors and barges. In respect of
working area, materials transported to the port
were sand, sandy clay and weathered lime and
solid waste fillings have been accomplished up to
level +5.0 y +6.0 m above sea level without any
special compaction measures provisioned in this
stage.
Further in situ measurements, laboratory tests and
calculations, have estimated the time behavior,
stating settlements down to 50 cm for almost
12,0m thick.
Figure 3. Cross section of submerged dykes and

enclosure intended to reclaim land by solid waste
filling.
In respect of types of future constructions to be

erected it shall be decided the design for
bottoming and there will be further suggested
required strengthening measures.
In this area lime ground at level -14.0 m is

covered by a 5.0 m thick dense clay, then a 3.0 m
thick silt and a last layer of dredging originated
material
and
other
spoil
(Figure 3).
The storing technology of the dragged materials

should be adopted so that the materials could be
stored and up to the water level.
Final level of reclaimed land in aforesaid area

shall be +5.0 to +6.0 m, thus accounting for
5,5 million m3 filling material.
6. DYKES THAT BORDER ENCLOSURES
To restrict scattering of filling materials about
basins there have been previously designed and
built enclosures bordered by permeable dykes,
complying with the general design for Port
development.
Dykes are rubble mould, featuring a core of quarry
run and armours of stone blocks. Economical
reasons decided on "S slope" design, previous
tested on model and proved in situ to be true.
The designed dimensions of cross section and the
granulometry of construction material used in the
8. VERIFICATIONS AND EVALUATIONS

REGARDING THE USAGE OF THE
DRAGED MATERIAL AND OF THE
INERT WASTES ON PORT FILLINGS
In order to realize on the economic mode the port
territories, the usage of the dragged material and
of the inert wastes for fillings are also provided. In
this respect, verifications of the territories of the
pollution and of the water inside the port basins
has been executed.
8.1. Verifications of the pollution on port
territories
Many surfaces of Constantza South port arranged
adjacent to the cliff has been executed both from
the land coming from excavations and also from
solid wastes coming from the port activity.
Verification of the actual level of pollution of the
ground has been executed by physical-chemical
Ciortan
and microbiologic analyses of the soil samples

provided from the different depths.
The pollution limits for the soil and also for the
ground waters has been taken into consideration,
regarding the content of metals, pesticides, etc.
according to the Romanian and international
norms.
From the executed measures results a
concentration of the pollute substances under the
level of the allowed substances such as: Cd, Cr,
Ni, Pb (mg/kg dray product).
8.2. Theoretical analysis of contaminant
transport inside port basin
Takings into consideration that the used materials
could contain accidental pollute substances.
The infiltrations are produced by the outline
breakwater and by the adjacent filling of medium
and small permeability and also by the dike gap
for the barges access. Permeability level has been
considered of 10-2 cm/s (medium permeability)
and 10-4 cm/s (low permeability).
The estimations has been executed taking into
consideration that the separating dam between the
filling area and by the barges basin is not integral
executed, maintaining the gap necessary to the
access for barge carrying the materials for
maintenance dredging having 100m breath and
50m depth. In the last end, to separate filling from
port basin shall obstruct this gap.
First of all results the utility of the enclosure
execution for the materials storage. The outline
breakwaters and the adjacent fillings contribute to
the spread of the polluants and also of the fine
products. In this respect, their concentration inside
the port basin decreased under 20% and develops
on the distance of almost 150,0m.
Wave agitation makes dispersion to increase while
concentration turns to homogenous and dilution;
619
it shall finally get to even lesser concentrations but

mores dispersed over longer contours.
9. CONCLUSIONS
To dispose of solid waste originated from
Constantza Port run, is suggested to use said
waste, in addition to other solid materials intended
to fillings, in reclaiming new land for port use.
The designs drawn up considered both the
economical aspects and the environmental
protection ones, especially protection of port
waters.
It has therefore been designed building of
enclosures bordered by rubble mould dykes of
sorted stone that features low permeability. Inside
these enclosures can be dumped the filling
materials.
Is necessary that the storing technology of the
dragged materials should be adopted so that the
fillings would be executed in the economic mode
and up to the water.
Both in situ tests and theoretical models and
calculations helped in identifying and accounting
pollution effects and ways to restrict them to
permissible levels.
REFERENCES
x Ciortan, R. (1996) Evolution in the
concept of arrangement of the Constantza
Port, International Seminar, 12-13 of
September 1996, Constantza, Romania
x Ciortan, R. (2007) Constantza port
contribution to the development of water
transport in Romania, Ed. Constantza
Port Administration
x The Official Gazette of Romania, Part 1,
No. 303 bis, 6 of October 1997

3-Slurry Ponds, Ash, Tailings and Dredged Sediments

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Raising of Dykes of Ash Slurry Pond - A Case Study

the power plant. Due to land scarcity, the dykes of

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OBSERVATIONS FROM SITE VISIT

Photo 1 Photograph of Ash Pond

in the ash pond. Standard penetration test (SPT) was

On the basis of the laboratory tests, the following

Singh and Datta

Unit weight = 20 kN/cu.m

(c) Outer slopes (both upstream and

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DESIGN: CENTRAL DYKE FOR PIPELINES

(f) To prevent dust emissions, the ash will be covered

Singh and Datta

Fig.1 Raising of Dyke by 3M

Fig 2 Raising of Dyke by 6M

Fig 3 Details of rock toe of raised dyke

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Fig.5 Cross section of Central Dyke

Fig 6 Protection Details of Central Dyke at Inflow Points

The Effects of Iron-waste Samples in the Characterization of Tailings

undisturbed granular iron ore samples is developed.

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

changes in the formed layer. These changes are

two reservoirs and a special pump that promotes the

Fig.1 Schematic drawing of the Hydraulic Deposition

Iron waste of the gua Limpa Complex

Milonas, Ribeiro and Assis 511

Effective diameter; bAverage diameter; cDiameter that

METHODOLOGY FOR OBTAINING

Fig.2 Scheme of the distribution of samples along the

discharge point of the channel. For each point, three

Fig.3 Lateral paring of the core and sample removal

International Congress on Environmental Geotechnics, 2010, New Delhi, India

Concerning the characteristics of the undisturbed

SAMPLE REMOULDING PROCESS

Specific weight of grains (g/cm3); bIron content.

Table 2 displays the results of the geotechnical

However, in the remoulding process, typical depositional

Water content; bNatural specific weight(kN/m3); cApparent

Fig.5 Reconstituted sample (0.1A) submitted to triaxial

Milonas, Ribeiro and Assis 513

The geotechnical properties related to undisturbed

Axial Strain (%)

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 1 Sample 1 -

Grain Size Distribution.

Fig. 7 Response of the undisturbed sample collected at

Axial Strain (%)

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Considering the strength parameters, Table 3

Strength parameters from triaxial tests.

Porosity, b Effective frictional angle

Although the undisturbed samples and their

reinforce the results obtained by Ribeiro (2000),

Milonas, Ribeiro and Assis 515

and creates, as a consequence, a larger link among

Figure 10 represents the response of frictional angle

Relationship between frictional angle and

Head, K.H. (1986) Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing.

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Hernandez, H.M. (2002) Caracterizao Geomecnica

Dissertation, Department of Civil and

Optimization of the Inwash Technology of the Cascade

( P1 P2 ) cosId N 3 sin T ruW3 cosT sin T

l1 u cos T1 l 2 cos T 2 l3 cos T 3 t H / tan E