— Electrical - Power System Design Tig M V DeshpandeELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM DESIGN M V DESHPANDE Formerly Professor & Head, Electrical Engineering, L D College of Engineering, Ahmedabad and College of Engineering, Pune and Principal, College of Engineering Amravati Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited NEW DELHITata McGraw-Hill © 1984, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited 26" reprint 2006 RZDYCRYKRXLYZ No part of this publication can be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publishers This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-451575-6 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at S P Printers, E-120, Sector 7, NOIDA USC LaeContents Preface vit 1___ Constants of Overhead Transmission Lines 1 1.2_ Resistance of overhead transmission line 1.3 Inductance and reactance of overhead transmission line 3 1.4_General expression for inductance ofa group of paral Wins @ L5__Induetance of two parallel wires with single-phase circu 17 1.6 Inductance of a three-phase Tine 14 1,7. Reactance of transmission lines Ji 1.8 Capacitance of overhead transmission lines 20 2 Characteristics and Performance of Transmission Line 31 22 General relations for the analysis of a transmission-line 32 23 Performance of transmission lines 38 2.4 Circle diagrams 47 2.5 Modification and use of power circle diagrams 52 2.6 Bundled conductors 58 3: Design of Transmission Lines 62 3.1__Requirements of transmission lines 62 3.2. Selection of voltage for high-voltage transmission-lines 63 3.3 Choice of conductors 64 3.4 Spacing of conductors 67 3.5 Corona 68 3.6 Insulators 71 3.7 Specifications of transmission lines 73 3.9 Electrical design of transmission lines _74 3.10 Main considerations in the mechanical design of transmission lines 91 3.11 Sag-tension relation 9¢ 3.12 Stringing of transmission lines 96 3.13 Towers 99x Contents 4 Power System Operation and Analysis 109 4.1 Representation of a power system 109 4.2 Power-system operation studies 112 4.3 Load-flow studies 1/3 4.4 ati |-flow studi 4.5 Iterative computation of non-linear algebraic equations 124 4.6 Gauss-Siedel_method of solution of load-flow problems on digital computers 128 4.7__Newton-Raphson method 129 4.8 Comparison of load flow methods _13/ 4.9 Sequence components of power system network 132 4.10 Representation of power system by sequence component networks 135 4.11 Short-circuit studies on power systems 136 4.12 Power-system stability _/46 4.13 Steady-state stability 148 4.14 Transient stability 150 4.15 Inertia constant 1/52 4.16 Equal-area criterion 153 5 Switchgear 163 5:1. Principles of circuit interruption 163 “5.2 Types of circuit breakers and switchgears 163 5.3 _ Specifications of circuit breakers and their selection 165 5.4 Rating of circuit-breakers 166 5.5 Testing of switchgears 169 5.6 Vacuum switches for power system 175 $.7 SF Power circuit breakers 177 5.8 Power-System transients 179 5.9 Switching transients 182 5.10 Measures to prevent overvoltages 183 6 Design of EHV Transmission Lines 186 6.1 Transmission of electric power at extra-high-voltage 186 6.2 Design considerations of EHV lines 187 6.3 Selection and spacing of conductors 189 6.4 Corona 193 6.5 Radio and television interference 196 6.6 Insulation co-ordination 199 6.7 Towers 201 7 High Voltage DC Transmission Lines 205 7.1 Introduction 205 7.2 Limitations of high voltage ac transmission 205Contents xt 7.3 Advantages of HVDC transmission 206 7.4 Limitations of HVDC transmission 208 7.5 Principal parts and requirements of high-voltage de trans- mission 208 7.6 Principles of control of HVDC transmission 2/2 7.7 Applications of HVDC systems 2/2 7.8 A few HVDC transmission projects 2/7 8 Design of Power System 220 8.1 Introduction 220 &.2 Selection of sizes and location of generating stations 220 8.3 Selection and specifications of transmission lines 223 8.4 Sizes and location of substations 223 8.5 Interconnection 226 8.6 Use of ac network analysers and computers 228 9 — Power-System Control and Line-Compensation 232 91 Introduction 232 9.2 Voltage control 232 9.3 Power-system control 237 9.4 Control of reactive power and power factor 243 9.5 Interconnected control and frequency ties 244 96 Supervisory control 246 9.7 Line compensation 247 9.8 Series compensation 248 9.9 Series and shunt-compensation schemes for ac transmission systems 25] 10 Design of Distribution Systems 256 10.1 Development of a distribution plan 256 10.2. Transmission and distribution systems 257 10.3 Types of distribution-system arrangements 258 10.4 Types of cable 262 10.5 Primary distribution design 265 106 Secondary distribution design 269 10,7 Distribution substations 272 10.8 Calculation of distribution sizes: voltage drops 275 10.9 Voltage regulation 280 10,10 Lamp flicker 282 10,11 Protection of distribution systems 284 10.12 Design of rural distribution 285 10.13 Planning and design of town electrification schemes 290 10.14 Design of industrial distribution systems 292xii Contents 11 —_ Economics of Distribution Systems 301 11.1 Comparison of overhead-transmission and distribution systems 30] 11.2 Effect of voltage 304 11.3 Selection of equipment in power systems 307 11.4 Economic size of power factor improvement apparatus 309 11.5 Economic selection of a distribution system 310 11.6 Electric power transmission and distribution costs 310 117 Energy losses in a distribution system 315 12 Power System Improvement 319 12.1 Introduction 319 12.2. Methods of power system improvement 320 12.3 Power system improvement scheme 321 12.4 Determination of voltage regulation and losses in a power system 32] 12.5 Shifting of distribution transformer centre 325 12.6 Financial aspects of the rower system improvement scheme 325 13 Power System Planning 328 13.1 Introduction 328 13.2 Methods of power system planning 328 13,3. Forecasting load and energy requirements 329 13.4 Generation planning 332 13,5 Transmission system planning 333 13.6 Distribution system planning 334 13.7 Reliability of electrical power systems 338 13.8 Methods of measuring power system reliability 339 13.9 Trends in power system planning in India 340 Appeniices a7 A Conductor tables 348 B Current ratings 354 Index 359| Constants of Overhead Transmission Lines 1.1 Main Parts of Overhead Transmission Lines ‘An overhead transmission line mainly consists of a set of conductors of proper size suitably spaced with respect to each other and insulated from the supporting poles or towers. They are held with proper tension so that they are above the ground at the required clearance for safety. The line is protected by means.of earth wires, earthing devices for towers, lightning arresters and other protective devices. Poles or towers, insulators, etc. form a part of the transmission line construction. The main electrical part of the line is, however, the conductor. Types of conductors commonly used for transmission lines are hard- drawn copper conductors or ACSR (aluminium-core steel-reinforced) con- ductors. Sometimes, for rural clectrification, all-aluminium conductors are used. Steel wires are used as earthing wires for overhead transmission lines. ‘A transmission line can be represented by an equivalent circuit for the solution of its performance under different operating conditions, when the constants of the line are calculated or known per unit length. The main constants required are resistance, inductance and the corresponding induc- tive reactance, and capacitance and corresponding capacitive reactance. These depend on the type of conductors used, and their spacing with respect to each other. 1.2 Resistance of Overhead Transmission Line The resistance of a conductor is given by Ohms law as = elo Ma R=", dt) where R = resistance, / = length (m), A = area of cross-section of the conductor (m*) and p is the resistivity of the material (Q-m). In case of annealed copper conductors of 100 per cent conductivity, e = 1.724 x 10% Q-m at 20°C.2 ELEctricaL Power SYSTEM Design For hard-drawn copper, the conductivity is 97.3 per cent and the resis- tivity, p = 1.78 10-8 Q-m at 20°C For aluminium conductors, the conductivity is 61 per cent of that of copper and the resistivity, p = 2.86x 10-* Q-m at 20°C, The resistivity of iron or steel wires is, p = 12.2 10-8 Q-m approximately. 1.2.1 Effect of Temperature on Resistance The resistance of a transmission line increases with temperature. The lines are subject to temperature variations corresponding to the location and the variation of temperature due to seasonal and climatic changes. The rise in resistance will depend on the temperature coefficient of the conduc- tor material of the lines. The resistance temperature coefficient for annealed copper is dy = 0.004 26 per degree centigrade at 0°C; for hard-drawn copper, Gq = 0.0041 per degree centigrade at 0°C; for aluminium a» = 0.0038 per degree centigrade at 0°C; and for iron 0.006 57 per degree centi- grade at 0°C. If the resistance of a conductor Rr, at temperature 1,°C is known, its resistance Ry, at temperature #,°C can be found out by the expression Rte _ Men + te Ri Web a2 This is obtained from the relation Ry = Ry (lt a 1) a3) where R, is the resistance of the conductor at the temperature °C, R, is the resistance at temperature 0°C and a» is the temperature coefficient of the conductor at 0°C, 1.2.2 Skin Effect on Conductors Due to Frequency When alternating current is passing through conductors, there is an unequal distribution of current in any cross-section of the conductor, the current density at the surface being higher than the current density at the centre of the conductor. This causes larger power loss for a given rms alternating current than the loss when the same value of direct current is flowing in the conductor. The current path ina circular conductor of cross-sectional area zr? is embraced by a greater flux in inverse proportion to ar*. This has the effect of increasing the self-inductance as the centre of the conductor is approached. The variation of current is opposed by inductance. As the seff-inductance is greater near the centre of the conductor, a greater por- tion of the alternating current flows near the surface of the conductor. Thus, the effective cross-section of the conductor is reduced with the result that the resistance of the conductor to the ac is greater than its resistance to de.CONSTANTS OF OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINES 3 The effective ac resistance R of a conductor is defined as the average power loss in the conductor divided by the mean square current or the in-phase component of the voltage drop divided by the current, average power loss Ru oF a4) or R= PR Grop 5) The skin effect resistance ratio given by R/R, is R effective ac resistance Re dc resistance (1.6) ‘The skin effect resistance ratio increases with the permeability, area of cross-section of the conductor and the frequency of the supply. The skin effect ratio can be calculated by the use of Besse! functions. For wires of circular cross-section, the ratio is given by R_mr_ (vei)’ mr ber mr — (ber)' mr (bei) mr 1 Ro 2 (bei)? mr + (ber)!mr a7 radius of the wire (metres), Table 1.1 ; 2 = permeability of mr Rk = _® the wire, o = 27 f, p = resistivity Ot 1.00000 of the wire (Q-m), bei and ber are a8 1.00032 Bessel functions, ’ indicates deri- is ieee vatives with respect to mr in 20 1.07816 Eq. (1.7). 2.5 1.17538 oe NS In case of power frequencies (e.g. 50 Hz, 60 Hz), the effect is small. The trend may bé seen from the Table 1.1 (Ref. 1.2), 113 Inductance and Reactance of Overhead Transmission Lines The inductance of a transmission line depends on the arrangement of con- ductors and their size. The conductors can be solid or stranded; the single-phase or three-phase lines can consist of conductors of uniform size; the arrangement of the conductors can be symmetrical and equidistant or the spacing of the conductors can be unequal; each phase can have one or more conductors with suitable spacing or the lines can have multicir- cuit arrangement on the same pole or tower, etc. In each case, the induc- tance would differ and a general approach is necessary to calculate it for the different arrangements. We can start with the definition of the induc- tance in relation to flux linkages, develop thé idea of self-geometric mean distance (self-GMD) and geometric mean distance (GMD) between the conductors and obtain the general expression for the inductance of the line.4 Evectricat Power SYSTEM Destin When a single, long conductor carries current, magnetic field or lines of flux are produced by the current in concentric circles around the conductor. The field intensity H at a distance x from the centre of the conductor when the conductor is carrying current / A is obtained by, _ H = aa A turns/m (1.8) and the magnetic flux density along this path in free space is given by, 2 Bam 2X10! Woimt (Ls) The flux density thus diminishes away from the conductor. If the flux lines inside the conductor are also considered, part of the current enclosed by the circle of radius x corresponding to the inside distance would also have to be considered for the determination of flux density. Therefore, H= + A turns/m (1.10) and the flux density in a non-magnetic conductor materia) is given by, Ba 2X 107k ro Wo/m* (ul) where r is the radius of the conductor in metres. The distribution of the flux density inside and outside the conductor is shown in Fig. 1.1, Fig. 1.1. Magnetic fux density versus distance 1.3.1 Inductance of a Single-Phase Circuit with Two Parallel Wires Figure 1.2 shows a circuit of two parallel conductors each of radius rm and separated by a distance D m. The flux per metre length of each con- ductor consists of the flux in the conductor and the external flux causedCONSTANTS OF OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION Lints 5 by the conductor. Considering the flux linkages inside the conductor, the flux per metre length in a ring of radial thickness dx and radius x is 2 x 1077 x dx =a given by, Wb/m in non-magnetic materials and this flux 2 surrounds the fraction ae of the total current. The flux linkages due to this internal flux are, therefore, given by, r j 2% 107 de de - + X 10-7 / linkages per metre (1.12) 0 The flux linkages due to the flux outside the wire are given by, D “1 [2 a x107 rn 2 tinkages per metre (1.13) r The total linkages per metre about one wire is given by the sum of Eqs. (1.12) and (1.13). -. Total flux linkage per metre = 10-7 7(2 In 2 + +) (1.14) The inductance is defined as the flux linkages per ampere. The inductance L per metre for one wire is, therefore, given by, * L=10"(2 In 2 +5) Him (1.15) Fig. 1.2 A circuit of two parallel conductors h—-——p If the conductor is magnetic, and its permeability is » then its relative Permeability is -°-, ive, the ratio of the actual permeability of the conductor u to that of the permeability of free space 4. The inductance L for one wire is then given by, L=107(2n 24) #) pm (116) r try If the inductance is considered for both the conductors, and the second conductor is taken as the return path, the flux produced by the two con- ductors add up and the linkages are doubled,6 Evectaicat Power System DestGN The inductance of the two conductors is then given by, D L=107 (4 mn 24 £) H/m (1.17) 13.2 Geometric Mean Radius or Self-Geometrie Mean Distance of a Conductor and Inductance in Terms of Self-GMD Equation (1.15) gives the inductance per metre of the conductor. The first term of this expression gives the inductance due to external flux linkages, and the second term gives the inductance due to the partial flux linkages caused by the internal flux in the conductor, The expression can be written in a simpler form by replacing the solid conductor by a hollow tube of such a small thickness that there are no internal flux linkages. Equation (1.15) can be written as £= 107 x 2(in 240.25) Hifm of wire (1.18) D or | L= 10x 2(Ia af ) H/m (1.19) ye jg the geometric mean radius (GMR) or the self-geometric mean distance (Self-GMD) of a solid circular conductor. The value of this is equal to 0.779 r. 1.4 General Expression for Inductance of a Group of Parallel Wires Consider a group of n parallel conductors of circular cross-section carrying current and completing the circuit. Their inductance can be found by considering the flux linkages about the conductor due to the current in the conductor itself and the flux linkages about the conductor due to currents in other conductors, Figure 1.3 shows the arrangement of a number of conductors a, b ...j,k,.... The reference axis is drawn through the conductor a and the flux linkages about the conductor a due to currents in all the conductors determined. Fig. 1.3. A group of n parallel conductorsConstants OF OVERHEAD TRaNsMission Lints 7 Consider a point X¥ on the x-axis at a long distance from a compared to the distance from other conductors. The flux linkages about the conductor a due to its own current 7, and produced by the lines of flux that cross the x-axis between the origin and X are given by, Dux 10 ( ft + f is) ‘ Que x =107( 2 Dar ii =10 *( Que + 2, in a ) linkages per metre (1.20) where r, is the radius of the conductor a in metres and D,x is the distance in metres between the conductor @ and the point X on the x-axis, In the same way, the flux linkages about the conductor a by the. currents in all other conductors should be determined. For example, the flux linkages about the conductor a due to current /, in conductor k produced by the lines of flux which cross the x-axis between the origin and the point X are given by, Dix 107 j 24% 22 x 107 fin PY linkages per metre (1,21) a Dia The total linkages about the conductor @ due to currents in the various conductors a, b, ...j, k, «.m are given by the sum of the Eq. (1.20) and expressions similar to Eq, (1.21), a (tat Dex 9 7 tq Dat Dix 10 (# $2 Moin SEE DH In BE to +2 yin DL se $2 dq In Be ) (1.22) As the conductors form a closed circuit, the sum of the currents in all the conductors is zero, i.e. Lathtu th tw th=0 (1.23) Using Eqs. (1.22) and (1.23), the resultant flux linkages can be expressed as follows :— Resultant flux linkages Ag = 10-7 (# +2 dyin Po x Dax 249 Ta Dix +24 In Pe x Bet + «) linkages per metre (1.24) when X approaches infinity, the terms such as pet approach unity, Separating the common factor in the numerator D,,, in the logarithmic term, and applying Eq. (1.23), the terms could be combined into a singleaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONSTANTS OF OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION Lines 9 where r, is the equivalent radius if the element is not circular in section, and D denotes the distance between the small elements indicated by the corresponding subscripts of D. Similarly, expressions can be written for the flux linkages about the small elements of the conductor 1, 2, 3, ...2, The sum of all such linkages would give the number of linkages about the conductor of irregular size. If the linkages are to be considered with respect to the entire conductor this expression, viz. sum of the linkages with respect to elements of the conductor carrying t current, will haye to be multiplied by a factor i. The linkages about the conductor are, therefore, given by, 2x07 a 1 1 1 {eemta + tiny linkages per metre (1.28) The same expression can be expressed as, 1 2 i npg 2x 10 fe linkages per metre (1.29) If the limit of » is taken as infinity, the term i is negligible and ap- proaches zero. The term in the numerator, under the logarithmic sign, approaches the geometric-mean distance from all parts of one conductor to all parts of the other conductor or the geometric-mean distance between the two conductors. The term in the denominator approaches the geometric-mean distance between the various parts or small elements1 Exectricat Power System Design considered in the conductor on the left. Thus, this is the geometric-mean distance to the conductor itself. This is defined as the self-geometric-mean distance (self-GMD), These distances are represented as Dn and D, and the expression for the flux linkages about the conductor then simplifies to A=2x 1077 In pe linkages per metre (1.30) and the inductance of the conductor would be given by, L=2x 1077In De H/m (1.31) This gives a very handy general expression for determining the induc- tance of a number of parallel conductors of any configuration by working out the mutual-GMD between the conductors and the self-GMD between parts of the same conductor. This expression can, therefore, be applied with ease to a number of systems and even to systems of conductors of irregular sizes and shapes. 1,5 Inductance of Two Parallel Wires with Single-Phase Circuit Using the general expression of inductance derived in Eq. (1.31), we can write the expression for the inductance of a single-phase circuit consisting of two parallel wires as Du si 7 L=2x 10-7In D, Him (1.31) If the distance between the two parallel conductors is Dm, the mutual- GMD in this case is also D. If the radius of each conductor is r m, the self-GMD r exp (—0.25) of each conductor is given by re~%25. Jf this expression is substituted for D,, Eq. (1.31) reduces to Eq. (1.19) and gives the inductance per metre length of each conductor. If the radii of the two conductors are not equal or if they differ in size, the radius of one being r, and that of the other r, m, the inductance of the single-phase circuit can be found out by calculating the inductance of each wire or conductor separately, by using Eq. (1.31) and substituting the correct values of GMD. The inductance of a circuit consisting of the two conductors a and b would be given by the sum of the inductances of the conductors, i.e. L=L, + Ly H/m of the line (both conductors) (1.32) 1.5.1 Inductance of Single-Phase Line with Multi-Conductors When the current carrying capacity of a line is to be extended, one of the ways to do this would be to use lines with multi-conductor arrangement, €.g. a single-phase line may consist of two conductors to supply the load and two conductors as return circuit. This could be considered as aCONSTANTS OF OVERHEAD TRansmissios Lines 41 double-circuit single-phase line also. Figure 1.5 shows an arrangement having two conductors a and 6 supplying the load while the other two conductors x and y form the return circuit. If ra, tas Pa ry are the geo- metric-mean radii of the respective conductors, and the distance between the different conductors is indicated as shown in the figure, an expression for the GMD Dm between the conductors and the sclf-GMD D, between the parallel conductors belonging to the same part of the circuit carrying the current can be worked out. Then the inductance of the circuit cain be worked out by the use of the general expression of the inductance already derived in Eq. (1.31). Fig. 1.5 Double-circuit single-phase line The self-GMD of the left hand side conductors D, = WrerpDavDur If re — ry =n the self-GMD D, = V7 Das The self-GMD of the right hand side conductors D, = /raryDuxDay Ifr, = ry = 7 the self-GMD D, = Vr Day If Day = Duy» then D, of the conductors on the left hand side as well as on the right hand side is equal. The mutual-GMD between the conductors is Dia = WY Dox Dav Doe Diy If the distance between the conductors is found out, Dm is known, The inductance of each side of conductors is given by, Du dD, L=2x 107ln H/m (1.31) The arrangement for the multi-circuit single-phase line could be diffe- rent from that shown in the figure. The conductors can be arranged in a different configuration, The inductance can be found out by a similar procedure. If there are more than two conductors per side for the lead and the return circuit, the same procedure holds good for the calculation of the inductance of the multi-conductor line. 1.5.2 Inductance of Stranded Conductors Stranded conductors are often used for overhead transmission lines. The inductance of such conductors can be found out by the use of similar procedure as in Sec. 1.5.1. Figure 1.6(a) shows a 3-stranded cable and Fig. 1.6(b) shows a 7-stranded cable.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.14 Etectricat Power SystEM Deston strands. Consider the resistivity or conductivity of aluminium and steel and then proceed as in the case of composite conductor. Steel has about 16 per cent the conductivity of aluminium. 1,6 Inductance of a Three-Phase Line Ifa three-phase transmission line is balanced, the reactance voltage drop per phase is equal and there is no interference with any adjoining circuits. One of the most nA common arrangements to balance a three- / o\ phase transmission line is to place the con- \ ductors for the three phases in the form of an 2 equilateral triangle. Figure 1.8 shows the arrangement of equilateral spacing of a three- phase balanced transmission line with cone © & ductors 4, B, C of equal size, which has the o distance befwect the conductors D. Fig. 18 A three-phase line with ‘The flux Jinkages about the conductor A are equilateral spacing given by, #~ 20K is 2x 10 (4 In 5 where D, is the self-GMD of the conductor A and Iu J), J, are the currents in phases 4, B and C respectively. This is obtained by using Eq. (1.25) for the three conductors, For a balanced three-phase line, [,+/,-+/,=0 and Eq. (1.38) can be written as, I ' a a + hint hela 5) (1.38) A=2 x 10-7 Jain 2 linkages per metre (1,39) The inductance of the three-phase balanced line can then be obtained. For conductor A, the inductance L, is given by, Ly = 2X 107 In H/m (1.40) It is seen that this inductance per conductor per metre length is the same as the inductance per conductor per metre for a single-phase line with the same spacing and the same size of conductor. If the spacing of the transmission line conductors is not symmetrical, the linkages for different conductors would be different and unbalanced voltages would be produced under load conditions. The unbalanced con- dition causes unequal reactances which cause inductive interference with parallel communication circuits and also result in unbalanced-phase charging currents, To reduce these ill effects, the three-phase lines with unequal spicing are transposed. This is done by arranging the positions of conductors as shown in Fig. 1.9. Each phase occupies equal parts of the length of the line in three different positions.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.18 Etectricat. Power System DESIGN The following table shows the calculation of inductance for the conduc- tor with different spacing. Table 1.4 Diameter of 0.779 r Dd D/O.77 r Lin H/km. conductor in incm incm cm 10 0.3895 80 206 10.65% 10% 1.0 0.3895 100 257 1.0 0.3895 120 308 10 0.3895 140 360 11.75% 10-4 It is seen that for the same conductor size, the inductance increases with increase in the distance between the conductors. The effect is shown in Fig. 1.13. texto £ = -h Ex Sn & 10x 10 y a 3 axw = it ap py mo 30 100 150 DISTANCE Diem Fig. 1.13 Inductance versus distance of separation between conductors Example 1.3 A single-phase line consists of two conductors @ and a’ in parallel forming one connection and conductors b and 8’ forming return connection. The distance between a@ and a’ is 1 metre and between a and b is 2 metres as shown in Fig. 1.14. The arrangement is symmetrical. Calculate the induct- ance of the line (lead and return) per kilometre. The diameter of each conductor is 2.6 cm. Solution: ; ‘The arrangement of the conductors on both sides being symmetrical, the self-GMD of each side a, a’ or b, b’ would be given by, Di= V1 Daw = V OFT X 13 X 100 = 10.05 em é; 78 The mutual-GMD $ 5 Dy = V Das Dar Bin Dow DIAMETER tm L =VIXVETEX vEPE x2 em =212m. 2G Los Pe Hjm (1.31) Fit. 144 Arrangement of con. ductors in Example 1.3 L=2x 107Inaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.22 Exectricat Power System DrsiGn ‘The potential between the two conductors is given by, Eye = 18x10" (qain 2+ g9n-F) V ast) and qa + qp=0 Solving the two equations, a= Eas 5 fm 26 x 10° In - and the capacitance between the conductors A and B is given by, 1 F/m (1.52) Coe 36 x 10° Ia 2 If the capacitance between any one conductor and neutral is to be found out, it would be the charge on the conductor divided by half the voltage or Cay = ——-—p Fm (1.53) 8 x 10m 1.9 Capacitance of Three-Phase Line If the three-phase line is balanced and the spacing of the conductors is equilateral, the capacitance of the line to neutral can be found out from the fundamental A relations relating the potential or voltage between the conductors in terms of the charges ° ° and the fact that the sum of the three charges is equal to zero. Figure 1.18 shows the spacing of the conductors for sucha line. If Eaw, Eau, B é and Ecw are the voltages of the phases A, B and C to neutral and being balanced each equal D to E, the line voltages Exe = 3 £ (30° and Exc = V3 E j=30°. Also qa + ga + qe = 0. Fig. 1.18 A three-phase line . c . Expressing the voltages in terms of charges as with equilateral spacing in Sec. 1.8.1, and solving, ua E p- Cin (1.54) 18 x 10° In = and the capacitance of line-to-neutral is given by, 1 Can = ——— p> Fim (1.55) 18 x 10% In —aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.26 EvectricaL Power System DtsiGN The charging current per phase = —/— = V x 2 fC A (6) 7 where V is the voltage of the line per phase. Example 1.7 Calcuiate the capacitance per 100 km of a single-phase overhcad-line having copper conductors at a distance of 1 m and the diameters of 1 em each. Find out the capacitance if the diameters of the conductor were 1.2 cm, 1.4 cm, 1.6 cm, 1.8 cm and 2 cm. Plot a curve showing the effect on capacitance of conductor size, Solution: Both the conductors are circular and their radii would be used in the expression for the capacitance. The distance of separation D between the two conductors is 1m. If the conductors are denoted by A and B, the capacitance Cyn between them is given by Eq. (1.52), 100 x 10 x 1000 36 x 10° x In = Can = BF per 100 km The following table shows the calculation of capacitance of the line per 100 km for different sizes of conductors in the Example. Table 15 Radius of D Dir Canin gE conductor inem per 100 km in cm 0.5 100 200 0.525 0.6 100 166.6 0.545 07 100 142.5 0.562, 0.8 100 125 0.876 09 100 M1 0.390 1.0 100 100 0.605 Figure 1.23 shows the plot of the curve. It is seen that for the same spacing, the capacitance increases as the size of the conductor increases, This is the reverse of what happens for an inductance. hig. 1.23 Capacitance versus diameter of conductoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 19 COonSTANTS OF OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION Lines 29 Prove that the inductance of a group of parallel wires carrying current can be represented in terms of their geometric distances. Explain the meaning of the terms ‘self-GMD" and ‘mutual-GMD". (@) Write expression for inductance of a single-phase transmission line per km per conductor and (b) per km of the loop (both conductors), Find the inductance of a single-phase overhead-transmission line 10 km long. The line has conductors each of diameter 1.5 cm and spaced 2 m apart, Find the reactance of the loop of both the conductors at $0 Hz. (Ans. X = 7.32.Q) What is the effect of conductor size and spacing between the conductors on the reactance of an overhead-transmission line? Explain by an example. Explain the method of finding out the self-GMD of stranded conductors. Prove the values of the self-GMD of stranded and hollow conductors mentioned in Table 1.2. A single-phase line consists of two circuits in parallel as shown in Fig. 1.26, where, a, a’ pertain to the lead and b, b' pertain to the return conductors. Find the inductance and reactance of the line per 10 km of both the circuits including lead and return, The frequency of the supply is $0 Hz. The diameter of each conductor is 0.9 em. (Ans. Inductance 14.9 mH ; reactance 4.69 Q) -4425cmse—— 1m os a a o ov Fig. 1.26 Line for Problem 1.7 A three-phase three-wire transmission line has conductors each of 2 cm diameter and they are located at the corners of a triangle with sides 3 m, 4m and 6 m. The conductors are transposed and the line carries a balanced load. Find the reactance of the line per phase per 100 km at 50 Hz. (Ans, 39.5 &) A three-phase double-circuit line is as shown in Fig, 1.27. The diameter of each conductor is 2.5m. The line is transposed and carries a balanced load. Find the inductance and reactance of the line per 100 km per phase at 50 Hz. (Ans. Inductance 56.8 mH ; reactance 17,8 Q) ) O TO OO Fig. 1.27 Double-circuit line for Problem 1.9 1.10 Derive an expression for the capacitance of a single-phase transmission line in terms of the spacing of the ccnductors and the conductor diameter. How does the self-GMD differ in the expression’ for the capacitance compared to the expres sion for inductance when using round conductors ? Explain the effect of conductor size and the spacing between conductors on the capacitance of a transmission line. Illustrate by examples. What is the effect of earth on the capacitance of the line? Derive an expression for the capacitarice ofa single-conductor line with earth return, Explain the method of images for the solution of such a problem.30 Evectricat Power System DESIGN 1.12 Caleulate the capacitance of a single-phase line per 100 km of both the lead and return having conductor size of 1.00 cm diameter and spacing between the con- ductors in air being 2m, (Ans. 0.463 uF) 1.13 Find the capacitance of phase-to-neutral of a three-phase transmission line per 100 km having conductors each of 1.8cm diameter and located at the corners of a triangle with sides 4m, 5 m and 6 m respectively. The line is transposed and carries balanced load, (Ans. 0.88 ¢F) 1,14. Find the capacitance of phase-to-neutral of the overhead-iransmission line shown in Fig. 1.27 in Problem 1.9, If the length of the fine is 100 km and the voltage is thrve-phase 110 KV, at 50 Hz, find the charging current, with both cireuits of the line open-circuited. (Ans. 2. uF ; charging current per phase 40 A) 1.15 Compare the expressions for the inductance and the capacitance for an overhead- tran mission line. How do they relate to the velocity of light ? 1.16 A multi-conductor single-phase line has three conductors for lead and three con- ductors for return circuit, The arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.28, Derive an expression for the inductance of the line in henrys per kilometre. Oo Oo O oO oO. .|0U°# . z Fig. 1.28 Line for Problem 1.16 Dar Dyer conductors. Das, Day. ete. represent the distances between the respective2 Characteristics and Performance of Transmission Lines 2.1 Transmission Lines Transmission lines carry power from generating stations to receiving stations or transmission substations. They also interconnect a number of power stations and receiving stations when forming a grid or a large power system. The lines are at high voltage and are not tapped in-between, The main function of transmission lines is to transmit power over a required distance economically. The main points to be considered would be the voltage, current, power and power factor at the sending-end and receiving- end. The receiving-end requirements will be dictated by the load condi- tions. The difference between the sending-end and receiving-end voltages is defined as the regulation of the transmission line. If V, is the sending-end voltage and V, the receiving-end voltage, the percentage regulation is given by, Percentage regulation =" x 100 2) Loss in the transmission lines is given by, Loss = 3 x FR (2.2) where, R= the resistance of the transmission line per phase, and J = the receiving-end current per phase, Efficiency of transmission line = See oe (2.3) The transmission line has to be chosen so that losses are as low as possible and the efficiency high under the operating conditions. Voltage regulation has to be within the limits prescribed. In the case of three-phase lines, it is better to work out the numerical performance-calculations in terms of the per-phase values. The perfor- mance of lines will mainly depend on the circuit arrangements and the32% ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM DesIGn circuit ‘constants, The method of calculating the circuit constants of transmission lines is explained in-Chapter 1. The constants are the resis- tance, inductance and inductive reactance, capacitance and capacitive reactance. The variations in the values of these constants per unit length from point-to-point of the line are called distributed parameters. If the constants are assumed for the whole length of the line and then consi- dered at suitable places for solving the circuit they are then known as lumped constants. Transmission lines are classified into three types, viz. short transmission lines, medium transmission lines and long transmission lines. Transmission lines having a length less than 80 km are termed as short transmission lines. In the case of short transmission lines, the effect of the capacitance of the lines is negligible and is not taken into account in the calculation of their performance. Lines that have a length between 80 and 240 km are termed as medium transmission lines. [In the case of a medium trans- mission line, the effect of its capacitance on its performance is considered by assuming the capacitance of the whole line C, as a lumped constant located at the centre of the line or half the capacitance C/2 located at each of the two ends of the line.] Transmission lines having length more than 240 km are termed as long transmission lines and, in this case, the distributed constants per unit length of the line are considered for work- ing out the performance of the lines. The inductance and the capacitance per phase-to-neutral are worked out by considering the conductor size and spacing of the conductors as explained in Chapter 1. The circuit of trans- mission lines can then be represented by an equivalent circuit and the performance calculated. It is preferable to first work out the general expression for the performance conditions of the line. The particular cases with lumped constants can then be derived as corollaries. 2.2 General Relations for the Analysis of a Transmission Line If a transmission line is long, it could be considered as a circuit with distributed constants; the constants being the resistance per unit length of the line, and the inductive reactance per unit length of the line forming a series circuit. The capacitive reactance and the conductance due to leakage form the shunt-circuit per unit length of the line. V, and J, are the voltage and current at the receiving-end. These are dictated by the load characteristics, V, and /, are the sending-end voltage and current, These are affected by the constants of the line. The series circuit has an impe- dance r + jx per unit length and shunt-circuit admittance is represented by G + jB per unit length. This is shown in Fig 2.1. The analysis of the condition of voltage and current at any point on the line can be worked out by developing equations showing the relation between the condition at the point in comparison to that at the receiving- end and/or the sending-end. Figure 2.2 shows such a section of the line.CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION Lines 33 The point P is at a distance x from the receiving-end. The voltage at the point is assumed to be ¢ and the current i. The point Q is at a distance x + dx from the receiving-end. The voltage at the point Q is e + de and 1 5 o wy L, o —< LOAD NEUTRAL Fig. 2.1. Long-transmission line with distributed constants current at the point Q is i + di. The section between points P and @ is of length dx and has impedance equal to z dx where z is the impedance of the line per-unit length. et x | itd) —— al adxjp—i | @ Fig. 2.2. A section of a long-transmission line The following notation may be used in addition to the terms mentioned above: a= yiy; Z = R 4 jX impedance per phase ¥=y!l=G + jB admittance of the line per phase 1 = length of the line @=al= VIZ Characteristic impedance Z= Also 1/Z, = Ye a= V 2p is numeric per unit length of the line. « is a complex number, the real component of which is defined as the attenuation constant and the imaginary component as the phase constant. « is termed propogation constant,% = =EectricaL Power SYSTEM Desion The quantity VZ/¥ is an impedance and is defined as the line surge impedance or characteristic impedance Zo. If the load impedance is equal to the characteristic impedance Zo, then the impedance, at any point along the line, seen by the voltage Vis Vv e Z- 7G 7% Comparing the conditions at points P and Q, the following relations can be written, et+de=e+izdx (2.4) or te nis dx i+di=iteydx (2.5) or @ we y dx Alo SE = HE meyraste 2.6) and Hay ayiza vi (2.7) The solution of Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7) is as follows: e = Acosh ax + B sinh «x (2.8) and i = Ccosh ax + Dsinh ax (2.9) where A, B, C and D are constants. If the receiving-end conditions are put in these equations, e = V, cosh ax + /,Zy sinh ax (2 10) f= 7, cosh ax + aaa sinh ax Qu) 0 In the same way, the equations may be written in terms of the sending- end conditions, if necessary. Normally, the relation between the terminal conditions is required, i.e, if the operating conditions at the receiving-end are known, it is necessary to find the conditions of operation at the sending-end. Substituting Z/g for Z, and Y/9 for 1/Z, the relations between voltages and currents can be written as, V, =V, cosh 9 + 1,Z sinh v 2.12) I= F,cosh 9 + ¥,¥ SR a (2.13) V,=V,coshg — 1,z Sho y (2.14) 0CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION Lints 33. 1, = [cosh 0—Vy Sh2 4 (2.15) If A, B, Cand D are defined by, A=cosh0; B=Z AMMO 5 = cosh; Cus y SEBO then Eqs. (2.12) - (2.15) become V,= AV, + BI, (2.16) = CV, + Di, 2.17) V, = DV, — BI, (2.18) =Al,+CV, (2.19) As a check, AD—BC = | because cosh® g—sinh? @ = 1, The cosh x and sinh x functions can be expressed by the scrics cosh x = 1 + oy + 5 ae et on 2.20) a. st shyt +S + H+. (2.21) Using these series, and substituting in equations above, the constants A, B, Cand D can be expressed in terms of YZ and in form of the series as follows: yz , y:z? , yazs anpn (1424 eet) (2.22) YZ riz yz poz (1472 OF + ot) (2.23) YZ y*zs yz cay (1472 + 3 + So +») (2.24) The values for ¥ and Z can be calculated knowing the conductor size and spacing. These are complex functions and their components should be taken into calculations with the correct phase angles. 2.2.1 Short Transmission Lines After deriving the general expressions and relations of the transmission lines, the particular cases can be considered as their corollaries. In the case of the short-transmission line, the capacitance is negligible and hence ¥=O, and the values of the constants of the line simplify to, A=D=1;B=Z;C = Oand Eqs. (2,16) and (2.17) reduce to, Vi=v, + he (2.25) Lot (2.26)36 Evecrrtcat Power System Desion This reduces to a simple series circuit and is shown in Fig. 2.3(a) and its phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 2.3(b). R uw No Ix ° § mR i I "ty Fig. 2.3(a) Equivalent circuit of () Phasor diagram for short-transmission line line in Fig. 2.3(a) (phase-to-neutral) ‘The circuit has resistance R in series with reactance X per phase. If the load and the power factor at the receiving-end are given, the current per phase at the receiving-end can be found out. If V; is phase-io-neutral voltage at the receiving-end, the active power of the load at the receiving- end, Pr = 3V, 1008 gy (2.27) The sending-end current is the same as the receiving-end current. The relation between V,, V, and J is shown in the phasor diagram (all phasor quantities). If / lags behind the voltage V, by an angle ¢,, from the phasor diagram, (Vr cos pp + TRY + (V; sin g, + IX =a V2 (2.28) and if ¢, is the angle between V, and J, V, sin be + 1X iad, = Vecos 6 FIR (2.29) where, cos ¢... is the power factor at the sending-end, The effect of loading the line is to produce a phase shift between the sending-end and the receiving-end voltages, In this case, $,— ¢, is the phase difference between V, and V,. The regulation of the transmission line is given by the arithmetic differ- ence between the voltages at the two ends. The percentage regulation is given by Eq. (2.1.) A similar phasor diagram can be drawn for the load at unit power factor and leading power factor at the receiving-end. It would be scen that the regulation at lagging power factor is large and as the power factor becomes smaller, it becomes larger. If taken very approximately, the regulation is ([R cos g, 4- 1X sin ¢,). In case of the unit power factor load, the regulation of the iine is only JR. For leading power factor load, the regulation is (JR cos ¢, — IX sin ¢,). In this case, the voltage at the receiving-end may be larger than the sending-end voltage.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.38 Evecrricat Power System DEStuN Once the circuit constants of the line are determined and the equivalent circuit developed, the performance of the line regarding regulation, losses, efficiency, phase displacement, etc. car be worked out. 2.2.3 Medium Transmission Lines—Solution by Nominal » Method Another method of obtaining simplified solution of the performance of medium transmission lines is to use the nominal a method and assume half the capacitance of the line as located at each end of the line. Also, neglect the conductance due to the leakage. In this case, the constants corres- ponding to 4, B, C and D reduce to, A=D=1+ y¥Z;B—Zandc— (14 1 vz) and the circuit reduces to a simple circuit as shown in Fig. 2.5(a) and its phasor diagram represenation as in Fig. 2.5(b). The current Jz, through the line is /,, the current at the receiving-end plus the current in half the capacitance at the end of the line. The sending-end conditions can be worked out by solving the circuit using the circuit theory or by using of the equivalent values of the A, B, C and D constants in the general expres- sions correlating the sending-end and the receiving-end conditions. Fig, 2.5(b) Phasor diagram for Fig. 2.5(a) Equivalent circuit of line in Fig. 2.5(a) medium-transmission line by nominal r method If we substitute the values of the constants for nominal # method, general solution from Egs. (2.16) and (2.17), is given by, Y= V, (+ 3 vz) +1,Z (2.32) l= vy (1+ 4 ¥2) +] (14 ¥2) (2.33) 2.3 Performance of Traasmission Lines In checking the performance of transmission lines at various loading conditions, e.g. no load or open-circuit and under fault conditions, or short-circuit conditions, etc. the main points to be considered are theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.42° Evecraicat Power System Deston The expression in the bracket in B and C is YZ yez* yz 14-6 + a0 + S040 jo-4 . =1 440" (1355 +5337) + a (180 — j 95.8) + $y (-20.2 + 718.2) The last term is negligible. Hence, the expression becomes, 1 4 10-* (226 4 7 56.2) + 10-4 (1.5 — j 0.8) = 0.9775 + j 0.005 54 = 0.9775 | 0.33° Then, B= 93| 76° x 0.9775 | 0.33° = 90.9 | 76.33 and C= 0.0015 | 90° x 0.9775 |.0.33° = 0.001 465 | 90,33° (a) The constants of the line are, therefore, given by, A =D = 0,933 | 1° B = 90.9 76.33° C = 0.001 465 | 90.33° The receiving-end voltage per phase is _ 110 x 1000 = 3 or V; = 63 500 | 0° V taking V, as reference The receiving-end current, /,, is given by 7 — 40.000 x 1000 ro 3 x 110 x 1000 x 0.8 The sending-end voltage, V.=A4 V,+B I, Vs = 0.933 | 1° x 63 500] 0° 4. 90.9 76.33° x 263 |—36.87° = 59 300 | 1° + 23 900 | 39.46° = 59 288 + j 1940 + 18 500 + j 15 200 = 77 788 + j 16 240 V, = 79 600| 11.8° V (6) The sending-end voltage per phase, V, = 79 600 V and has 11,8° as phase displacement between the receiving-end voltage and itself. The sending-end line-to-line voltage = 3 x 79 600 = 138 000 V or 138 kV. (c) The sending-end current is, 1,= CV, + DI, = 263 |—36.87°aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.46 ExectRIcat Power System: DEsiGN (b) The sending-end voltage per phase, ¥,=79 100 V and has a phase displacement of 11.36° with respect to the receiving-end voltage, V,. Sending-end voltage line-to-line = 3 x 79 100 V = 137000 V or 137 kV The sending-end current, J, = CV, + DI, J, = 0.0015 | 90" x 63 500 | O° + 0.9323 | 1.03 x 263 |—36.87° = 95.2 | 90° -+ 245 | —35.84° = j95.2 + 199 — J 144 (0) I, = 204 | —13.8° (d) The angle between /, and V, = 13.8° + 11,36" = 25.16° ‘The power factor at the sending-end = cos 25.16 = 0.906 lagging (&) The sending-end kVA, P, = 3,1," P, = 3 x 79 100 | 11.36? X 204.5 | 13.8° . 3.x 79 100 f ° =o 25.16! = 700 x 204.5 | = 48 500 (0.996 + j 0.4253) 43.900 + j 20 650 The active power at the sending-end is 43900 kW and the reactive power is 20 650 kvar lagging. Transmission linc loss = sending-end active power—receiving-end active power == 43 900 — 40 000 = 3900 kW Comparison of results by the three methods of solution Nominal x method Nominal T method Exact method ve (phase) 79 700 | 11.92" 79 100 | 11.36" 79 600 ji18° ¥, (line-to-line) 138 100 137 000 138 000 L 204.3 |-14.7° 204.5 |—13.8° 204.5|—-14.47 cos bs cos 26.62 cos 25.16 = 0.895 lagging = 0.906 laging = 0.8973 lagging V, (phase) 63 500 40° 63 500 | 0° 63 500 | 0° V, (line-to-line) 110 000 110 600 110 000 i 263 | 36.87° 263 |~36.87" 263 |—36.87" P, 40.000 +7 30000 © 40000 + 30000 = 40.000 + 30 000 P 43800 +/22000 439004720650 44.000 + f 21 650 Voltage regulation 25.55% 24.6% 25.4% Transmission Joss 3800 kW 3900 kW 4000 kW Transmission efficiency 91.4% 91.2% 90.9.%aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.30 ELectRicat Power System DEsion The graphical representation of the Eq. (2.18) is shown in the Fig. 2.8(a). IfV, is taken as the reference phasor, DV, is at an angle , ahead of V,, V_ may lag behind V, by an angle 0 for a particular operating condition. [eeaenve POWER VOLT AMPERE (LAGGING) is Bt 1a, ACTIVE POWER VOLT AMPERE (LEA EADING ) ici Fig. 2.8 (a) Representation of equation Vy = DY, ~ BI, (©) Representation of current I, (c) Sending-end power circle diagram O” is centre of sending-end power circle diagram Dividing Eq. (2.18) by B and rearranging D ¥, L=3u- (2.18) ye and J, lie on a circle, as shown in Fig. 2.8(b). Taking the complex conjugate of Eq. (2.18) " * Ita 5 vee (2.36) ‘The power at the sending-end is given by, P+iQ=n 1"