Auto Service and Repair - Martin W. Stockel

:
\o
ililil
auto
servceand repair
SER VIC N G,
LOC A TIN G TR OU B LE ,
R EP AIR IN GMOD E R NA U TOMOBLE
T S,
BASICKNOW-HOW
APPLICABLE
TO
AL L MA K E SA
, LL MOD E LS
oy
M A R TINW .S TOC K E L
Industri alE ducaton
C onsul tant
South Hollond, lllinois
THEGOODHEART-WILLCOX
COMPANY,
INC.
Publishers
INTRODUCTION
This
Repair
text
M oder n
to all models
AUTO
courages
Tells
and Shows How to Serviee,
Aut om obi l e s .
of all makes
SERVI CE
is profusely
SERVICE
illustrated.
Trouble,
is basic, andis
and
applicable
of cars.
AND
the Devel0pment
AUTO
The information
Locate
R E 'A I R
teaches
of Good work
AND
REPAIR
Essential
Habits.
is
skiils:
It Emphasizes
comprehensive,
Many of the drawings
En-
safety.
detailed,
and
were prepared
especialv
instruction
as recom-
for use in this text.

AUTO
sERVicE
AND
mended by the standards
REPAIR
for Automotive
provides
serviee Instructionin
It is intended
for
fundamentals;
also those now engaged in automotive
beginners
who want to increase
their
who need a sound, thorough
skills
and step up their
schools.
foundation
service
earnings.
in
and reoair
CONTENTS
BASICHAND TOOLS
PRECISION
MEASURING TOOLS
25
FASTENE RS,
TOROUEWRENCHES
39
GASKETS,SEALANTS,SEALS
59
TUBINGAND HOSE
73
WIRE AND WRING
93
JACKS,LIFTS,PULLERS,PRESSES,
HOLDNGFIXTURES
107
SOLDERING,BRAZING,WELDINGCRACK
DETECTIONAND REPAIR
119
CLEANINGEOUIPMENTAND TECHNIOUES
139
"E$-
19, FRICTIONBEARINGS
149
11, ANTIFRICTIONBEARINGS
163
12 TENGINEREMOVAL
179
1 s,. i'
,13T
-r+'-tr CYLINDERHEAD,VALVE AND
}
VALVE TRAIN SERVICE
14: CRANKSHAFT,MAIN BEARING,
FLYWHEELSERVICE
185
,....225
15. CAMSHAFT,TIMING GEAR,CHAIN SERVICE
243
16t SERVICINGENGINEBLOCKS,CYLINDERS,RNGS,
coNNECTtNGRODS
261
::> - ,
17) ENGTNELUBRICATION,VENTILATIONSYSTEMS
295
18
ENGINEASSEMBLY,INSTALLATION,BREAK-IN
311
19
COOLINGSYSTEMSERVICE
319
2A
FUEL SYS TEMSERVICE
71
GNITIONSYSTEMSERVICE
22
BATTERY,GENERATOR,REGULATOR,
STARTERSERVICE
431
23
TUNE-UP,ENGINESYSTEMSPROBLEMDIAGNOS]S
485
24
CLUTCHSERVICE
517
25
OVERDRIVE,
MANUAL TRANSMISSION,
DRIVE SERVICE
FOUR-WHEEL
535
26
AUTOMATICTRANSMISSIONSEBVICE
575
27
PROPELLER
SHA FT,UNIVERSALJONTSERVICE
599
28
DIFFERENTIAL,AXLE, SEAL, HOUSINGSERVICE
615
29
BRAKESERVICE
647
30
WHEELS,BEARINGS,TIR ES
689
31
SYSTEMSSERVICE
STEERING.SUSPENSION
719
32
AIR coNDITIONINGSYSTEMSERVICE
763
33
EXHAUSTAND EMISSIONCONTROLSERVICE. . . . .
789t:
34
IN AUTOMOTIVEFIELD
CAREEROPPOR TUNITIES
817
35
METRICTABLES
821
36
GLOSSARYOF TERMS
829
37
INDEX
851
{-
a
o
N
F\
o
o
o
q
o
a
o
o
o
o
o
6
o
-E
(,
o
E
o
]E
)
Chapter1
BASICHANDTOOLS
PROPERCARE IS ESSENTIAL
I-:-:s chapter will c over the identification

*,mri :se of basic hand tools. There are many
r:e: :ools of a rnore specialized nature which
a:e :::ed by' auto meehanics. These willbe illustra;:j
ard discussed in the chapters dealing with
i5e ;e:r:ce
procedures in which they are used.
Fast, efficient
work and confusion cannot
exist together. Keep your tools clean, orderly
type of cabinet, in
and near at hand. A roll
with a tool chest and "tote'l,tray
combination
(a small tray, containing a few selected tools,
that may be placed right at the job) will provide
proper storage and accessibility.
See Fig. 1-1.
TMLS ARE IMPORTANT

=.T:ng available for use when needed, awide
saej:,::-oof quality tools will make your work not
rmir -ore
effective, but faster. The tools will
perform
eumrle you to quickly
any of the great
jobs
r-t,..e- of
encountered by the mechanics.
l1e cost of labor is high, and in fairness to
[,m.-.: c:slomer
and garage, a mechanic cannot
a-ff:r: :o waste time working with an inadequate
$ei*e:c4
of tools.
EiliJNT
TOP OUALITY TOOLS
li c: are, or plan to become a professionatr
m*:::-:c,
rule out inferior tools. The cheaper
,g":ai:s
and
made of poor material,
"re usually
a-e -5ek and thus cumbersome to handle. They
m':-' i='l sooner, slow down your work and, due
i,r ;,:,:r i:rlshing,
will be harder to clean.
T:'c qrality
tools are made of alloy steel
*,md s:e carefully
heat treated to impart great
wl"lre:::h ard long wear. They will be less bulky
mri r:1] have a smooth finish that makes them
e*-r 3n :he hands and quick to clean. The work:mlg s-:rfaces will be made to eloser tolerances.
fr,se:r parts and facilities
will be available and
tine :oois ri.ll be guaranteed.
that
lAe:e
are a number
of manufacturers
prr"scnee excellent
tools. Selection of a specific
lfirrs:l r:st
mechanic.
be left to the individual
good
$'Flm}[BER:
tools
of
The initial
cost
pride of ownership,
m,nr'l'e high but considering
e-mldablty,
life
span and ease of use and
ci.:iqg, they are, in the end, less expensive
rfosr= :ools of low quality.
Fi g. l -1. A good w ay to store rool s..(foo/s ore sfi ow n arronged

lor disploy; normolly they it neotly into drowers.)
(Snop-On fools Corp.)
Place delicate measuring tools in proteetive

cases. Separate cutting tools such as files,
ehisels, drills, etc., topreventdamage tocutting
Auto Service ond Repqir
edges. Tools subject to rusting should be lightly

oiled. Place heavy tools by themselves and in
general, atiempt to keep the most frequently
used tools handy. Keep sets such as sockets,
open end, and box end wrenches together. REMEMBER: THE LITTLE TIME IT TAKES TO
KEEP YOUR TOOLS CLEAN AND ORDERLY
WILL BE GREATLY OFFSET BY THE TIME
SAVED ON THE JOBJ
HA M M E R S
Ball peen, plastic tipped, brass and lead
hammers should be included in everymechanicrs
selection. Various sizes of each are desirable.
The ball peen is used for.general striking,
riveting, gasket cutting, etc., and the plastic,
lead and brass hammers are used to prevent
marring part surfaces. When using a hammer,
grasp the handle firmly, hand near to the handle
end, and strike so the face of the hammer engages the work squarely, Fig. 1-2.
Fi g. l -3. C fi i se/s. 1-H ol l round. 2-D i amond, 3-C ope. 4-Fl ot.
it as far from the top as practieal.

This will
protect your fingers somewhat if the hammer
slips from the chisel head. For heavy hammering, a chisel holder should be used, Fig. 1-4.
Fi g. l -4. C hi sel hol de. l n use te handl e s houl d be k ept ti ght.
Keep the cutting edge sharp and the top

chamfered (edges tapered) to reduce the possibility of small chisel segments breaking off and
flying outward. WEAR GOGGLES WHEN USING
A C H IS E L, Fi g. 1-5.
PUNCHES
Starting, drift and pin punches are essential.
A few sections of round brass stock in varying
F i g . l- 2 . Ha m m e r s. Bo ll p e e n .Plo stic fpped. 8ross.
DANGER.I USE A HAMMER WITH CARE.

DO NOT SWING IT IN A DIRECTiON THAT
WOULD ALLOW IT TO STRIKE SOMEONE IF
IT SLIPPED FROM YOUR GRASP. MAKE
CERTAIN THE HANDLE IS TIGHT IN THE HEAD
AND THAT THE HANDLE IS CLEAN ANDDRY.
CHI S EL S
Chisels are used for jobs such as eutting
off rivet heads, bolts and rusted nuts, Flat,
cape, diamond, half-round and rrrivet bustertt
ehisels should be available, Fig. 1'3.
Hold a chisel seeurely yet not tightly. Grasp
SHARP EN ED
F i s . l - 5 . Clrisel or left is dangerous fo use. Some cfiisel, ofter

chamfering and shorpening, is sfiown ot ri ght.
Bosic Hqnd Tools
diameters
are useful in driving parts that may
be damaged with steel punches.
punch is used to start driving
A starting
rivets,
bolts,
etc., from the hole. Due to its
taper, it may fill the hole before the part is out.
If it does, the job is completed with a drift punch.
A pin punch is similar to a drift punch but has
a smaller
diameter driving shank. Pin punehes
are useful in removing
small pins, bolts, ete.,
F ig. 1 -6.
Fi g. I-7A . A l i gni ng punch. A -R un punch throughhol es os f o os

possi bl e. B -P ul l punch upri ght and orce i nto hol es. Thi s w i l l
couse ports to shilt into olignment,
F ig. l- 6 . P u n c l r e s . l - s to r tin g p u n ch . 2 - Dr ilt p u n "h . 3 - Pin pur.h.
A center punch is neededtomark

workbefore
drilling.
The small V-shaped hole will align the
drill
bit. The center punch is also useful for
marking parts so that they will be assembled in
their original position, Fig. 1-7.
punches. Grind slowly, keeping correct angles,

and quench (dip in cold water) often to prevent
drawing the temper (overheating, turning the
metal blue thus rendering it soft). WEAR-GOGGLES WIIEN GRINDINGJ
FILE S
The most frequently used files are the flat
miLl, round, square, triangular and "point" files.
Many other special shapes are made, Fig. 1-8.
s c3 '3
Fi g. l -8. Fi l e shopes, l -K ni l e. 2-H ol l ound, 3-R ound. 4 tFl ot,
5-Triangle. 6-5Iitting. 7-Pilla. 8-Sguore.
Fig. l:7. Center puncfi. A-Workmokedlor drilling. B-Drill aligned

with pvnch mork,
The aligni.ng punch is very helpful in shifting

parts so that the holes line up, Fig..1-7A.
U s e ear e whe n s h a rp e n i n g
c h i s e l s and
One determination of file cut indicates the

relative size and number of cutting edges per
inch. In general, the softerthe metalthe coarser
the cut needed. Three popular cuts - bastard,
second cut and smooth, are shown in Fig. 1-9.
A file may be either singl.e cut (a single row
of diagonal cutting edges alL at the same angle),
+,
Auto Service ond Repcir
Control the file to prevent roeking (unless

round stock). It takes a great deal of
filing
practice to become expert at filing. A file, in
the hands of a professi.onal, can do amazingly
aecurate work.
Keep the file clean and free of oil. Use a file
eard (special wire brush) occasionally to clean
chalk may be
blackboard
the . teeth. Regular
prevent
clogging.
rubbed into the file to help
Fig . 1 - 9 . T h r e e d ilfe r e n t file cu ts - b ostord,

s eco n d cu f, o n d sm o o fh . lsim o n d s F i l e C o')
F ER R U LE
!:
{
I
,j
ii
Fi g. l -l l ,
Fg. l-10. File cufs. l-Single cut. 2-Dovblecuf. 3'Rosp cut.

Co.)
4-Curvecut. (Ncholson
Typtcol si ngl e cut ni l l (l e.
Use a cut suitable for the work. Coarse cuts

are best for soft metals (aluminum, brass,
lead) and the finer euts work well for use on
steel. Your choice will also depend upon the
finish desired.
or double cut (two rows of diagonalcuttingedges

that cross each other at anangle). Files may also
be ra sp and c ur v e eut , Fig. 1- 10.
A typical single cut mill file is pictured in
Fig. 1-11. Note the handlej BE SURE THE FILE
AI..
WITII A HANDLE
- FIRMLY
IS FITTED
IT.
USING
BEFORE
TANG,
TO THE
FIXED
This will provide a firm grip and will eliminate
the hand,
the danger
of the tang piercing
ru @."-,@
Fig.1 -11 .
USINGTHE FILE
Grasp the file handle with the right hand (for
right-handed persons), holding the tip with the
fingers of the Left. On the forward stroke, bear
down with enough presaure to produce good
cutting. On the return stroke, raise the file to
avoid damaging the cutting edges.
IN VER TED
CONE
BALL
Fi g. l -l l A .
t0
R otory fi l es
Bqsic HqndTools
ROTARYFILES
The rotary
file is chucked
hand dril1. It is very handy for
recesses
where a regular file
Se ve ral u se ful s hapes ar e s hown
in an electric
blind holes or
will not work.
in Fig. 1 - 1 1 A .
R IN D IN GWH E E L
GRINDERS
Fi g. l J3A .
The a uto mec hanic will of t enhav e need t o u s e

a g rind er to s har pen t ools , r ewor k par t s , e t c .
Grinding, like all shop operations, requires skill
and careful handling.
Several types of grinders are found in most
garag es. Yo u s hould be f am iliar wit hallof
them.
H ond pow er yi nder.
(A l bertson ond Co.)
BENCHOR PEDESTALGRINDER
This grinder
is commonly
used to sharpen
tools and remove stock from various parts. It
is often ftted with a grinding wheel onone side,
and a wire wheel for cleaning, on the other. If
rr.rounted on a beneh, it is referred to as a bench
grinder.
If mounted on a stand, it is called a
pede sta l g rind er , Fig. 1- 12.
Fig. l-138. Discsonder.

e t e . , a r e a l s o f o u n d i n a u t o s h o p s . T h e u se o f
t h e s e t o o l s w i l l b e d s c u s s e d i n t h e c h a p te r s
reLating
to the work
they are designed to
perform.
EYESHIEL D
SAFETY RULES FOR GRINDERS,

SANDERS,AND WIRE WHEELS
Grinders,
improperly
u s e d , a r e d a n ge r o u s
a n d a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a n y s e r i o u s a n d l a sti n g
injuries
t o t h e e y e s , h a n d s a n d f a c e . R e a l i zi n g
t h i s , t h e c o m p e t e n t m e c h a n i c w i l l A L WA Y S o b serve the following safety rules:
1. ALWAYS WEAR GOGGLES.
2. KEEP ABRAS]VE
S T O N E S T I G H T , CL EAN
A N D TR U E .
A LLOW TH E GR IN D E R TO R E A C H FULL
R P M B E FOR E U S IN G, S TA N D TOON E SI DE
U N TIL FU LL W H E E L S P E E D IS R E A CHED.
^ K E E P TH E TOOL R E S T, W H E R E USED,
A S C LOS E TO TH E W H E E L A S P OS SI BLE.
STAND TO ONE SIDE OF THE STONE AS
MU C H A S FE A S IB LE .
6 KEEP
P E R S ON S W ITH OU T GOGGLES
AWAY FROM THE TOOL YOU ARE USING.
7. H OLD S MA LL OB JE C TS W ITH V IS E - G RI P
PLIERS RATHER THAN BY HAND TO
AVOID GRINDING YOUR FINGERS OR
HAV]NG THE OBJECT SEIZED BY THE
WHEEL AND THROWN VIOLENTLY.
B . FOR HEAVY GRINDING, WEAR LEATHER
GLOV E S .
F ig . l- 1 2 . Be n ch g r in d e r .
HAND POWERGRINDERAND SANDER

These tools include grindstones, wire wheels
and abrasive discs. They are used in body and
fender work, carbon and rust removal, smoothing and eleaning welds, porting, relieving, etc.
F igs. 1 -13 A an d 1- 138.
OTHER GRINDERS
Other tpes
brake grinders,
of specialized grinders such as

valve grinders, crank grinders,
11
C LEAR AN C EAN
BE CAREFUL NEVER TO STRIKE A GRINDING WHEEL WHILE REVOLVING . IT MAY

SHATTER AND LITERALLY EXPLODE.
t 0 PROTECT YOUR EYES BY WEARING AN
OR
F AC E
SH IE LD
A P P R O V ED -T YP E
GOGGLES.
11
AVOID GRINDING IN THE PRESENCE OF
EXPLOSIVE VAPORS . GASOLINE, PAINT
THINNER, BATTERIES, ETC.
12. WHEN INSTALLING A NEW STONE MAKE
CERTAIN IT IS DESIGNED FOR TITE RPM
OF THE GRINDER.
13. WHENEVER POSSIBLE, HAVE THE GRIND.
ING WHEEL GUARD IN PLACE TO MINIMI.ZE THE DANGER OF FLYING PARTS.
A N D W IR E
14. RE ME M BE R , G R IN D ER S
TOOLS BE
DANGEROUS
WHEELS CAN
USE THEM WITH CARE - ALWAYS:
-f-,t
I2 D EG.
I2 D EG .
point.{Angle
purpose
Fig. I-15. Drill lip ongles.A ond B-Generol
slrownin B is for cleoronce.)D-Focost ironond oluminum.ERubber,wood, F-Hord, fough stee/. Nofe fhot the "bock roke"
ongles
onglesorefhe somein all excep!F' Cleorcnce
or cleoronce
ore shownin block;lip onglesin colo.
3 / B in . o r l a r g e r ,
Now select an old drill,
(goggles on, safety shield in
start the grinder
place) and try sharpening the drill. Remember
to start
at the eutting edge and finish at the
heel. Both cutting lips should be the same length
and angle. The 12 deg. angle, formed between
The
the cutting 1ip and heel, is very important.
to
for
the
drill
in
order
heel must be lower
F
i
g
.
cut.
1-15.
Although drill lip angles are varied forwork
in different metals, the angle s shown in Fig. 1 - 1 5
will produce good all-around eutting.
Grind s1ow1y and frequently quench the drill,
by dipping it into cold water. Avoidoverheating,
Use a
with the carbon steel drills.
especially
simple drill gauge to help you get the proper
angles, Fig.1-16.
DRI LLS
The mechanic has many uses for twist drills.
The better quality drills, made of high-speed
steel, will do a good job of drilling on most parts
of the car and can be readily ground without
drawing their temper. Carbon steel twist drills
are cheaper but require frequent sharpening and
lose their temper if slightly overheated.
A s e t o f fra c ti o n a l s i z e d ri l l s from 1/16 to
t lz n. (2 9 d ri l l s to th e s e t), a s et of number
dr it ls f r o m 1 to 6 0 , p l u s 9 /1 6 ,5 /8 and 3/4 i n.
drills, will handle just about any requirements.
A t y p i c a l tw i s t d ri l l i s i l l u s tra te d i n Fi g. 1-14.
- D R ILL
G AU G E
59 DEG
F ig . l- 1 4 . T yp ico l twist d r ill
SHARPENINGDRILLS
Select a new 1 I 2 n. drill and without starting
place the cutting edge of the lip
the grinder,
either on the side or on the face of the wheel.
Keep the shank lower than the tip. With a slight
pivoting
motion,
eause the drill 1ip
rocking,
surface to slide across the wheel. Always start
at the cutting edge and end at the heel. Keep
trying this until you can go throughthe sharpening motion keeping the lip in proper contact at
all times.
Fi g. I-16. l l si ng o dri l l gouge. T s si mp/e go uge w i l l c hec k

ongl es ond |ength. Li p l engfhs A ond B mu s t 6e fhe s ome.
l2
Bqsic Hqnd Tools
S A FE TY R U LE S FOR TH E U S E OF D R ILLS
If you have sharpened the drill correctl

it
will cut quickly and smoothly. Both lips will be
cutting and an equal amount of chip or curl will
b e e vid en t, Fig. 1- 17.
1. UNPLUG THE CORD BEFORE INSERTING

OR REMOVING A DRILL FROM THE CHUCK.
(If the drill starts while you are holding the
chuck wrench in the chuck, it might rip your
hand badly.)
2. KEEP LOOSE CLOTHING, SLEEVES, TIES,
PANT LEGS, ETC., AWAY FROM THE
DRILL.
3. MAKE CERTAIN THE DRILL IS PROPERLY
E LE C TR IC
DRI LLS
GR OU N D E D .... A LL
PRESENT DANGER OF SHOCK.
4. NEVER USE POWR TOOLS OF ANY KIND
WHILE STANDING IN WATER OR ON WET
GROI'ND.
5. SECI]RE THE WORK TO BE DRILLED. (If
the drill grabs and the work is loose, it can
begin to spin with a vieious cutting force.)
6. WEAR GOGGLES WHEN GRINDING DRILLS.
7. DO NOT USE ANY POWER TOOL IN THE
PRESENCE OF EXPLOSIVE VAPORS.
F i g . l - 1 7 . D r i l l c uttin g p r o p e r ly. Il th e d ill is slr o rpenedcorr e c t l y , e a c h lip will p to d u ce a sim ilo r ly size d chi p.
U S NG DRI LL S
Center punch the spot to be drilled. Chuck
the drill tightly. When drilling cast iron, pot
metal, aluminum and thin body metal, cutting
oil is not neeessary. When drilling steel, a
small quantity of cutting oil will be helpful.
Keep the drill at the proper angle and apply
enough pressure to produee good cutting. Just
before the drill breaks through, ease up on the
pressure to prevent grabbing.
Securely fasten the piece to be drilled. On
thin stock, be careful to hold it down as it has a
tendency to climb up the flutes. Fig. 1- 18 pictures
a t J 4 in. elee tri c h a n d d ri l l . T h e 3 /8 in. hand
drill is handy with medium size drills, while
the tl2 in. size will handle heavy drilling,turni ng c y linder h o n e s , e tc . S e e F i g . 1 -1 8 .
R E A ME R S
Reamers are used to enlarge, shape or
smooth holes. They produce a finish that is
much smoother and more accurate than that
produeed by drilling. Some reamers may be
adjusted and others are of a fixed size. Both
straight and tapered reamers are needed. They
may use ei ther strai ght
f lut es,
or spi ral
Fi g.1-19.
Use cutting oil when reaming. Turn the
reamer in a CLOCKWISE direction only - both
on entering and leaving the hole. Take small
cuts (.001 -.002). R eamers are very har d and
the cutting edges chip readily. Wipe down with
oil and keep them in a protective container.
TA P S A N D D IE S
F i g . I - 1 8 . Ele ctr ic h o n d d r ill.
Taps are used for cutting internal threads.

Dies are used to cut external threads on bolts,
screws, pipe, etc. The mechanic should have a
set of taps and diescoveringthe UnifiedNational
Fine and the Unified National Coarse threads
(these are fully covered in the chapter on
fasteners). This set would have machine screw
sizes 1 through 12, plus the ll4 through 5/8
by si xteenths, pl us a 314, ?/8 and 1 i n. size.
There are many kinds of taps butforgeneral
garage use the taper, plug, bottoming and pipe
taps will do nicely. The taper tap has a long
( Sktl T o o ls,l
t3
..k;
';:.i
t;;*
AutoServiceond Repoir
tl
The pipe tap is tapered over the full length

(about 314 in. per ft.) and is used to tap holes
for pipe fittings.
Taper, plug, bottoming and machine screw
taps are illustrated in Fig. 1-20.
TA P P IN G
determine exactly the number of

First,
threads per inch and the diameter of the screw
that will enter the hole. Referring to a tap drill
si ze chart (Fl g. 1-21), sel ect the pr oper t ap
size drill.
OR K
f-E
it
ct
--l
TAP DRIIJJ SIZES
Roh.dd
MENICAN
NTTIONL
COARSE STNDARD THREID
lor
SCRTW
(N. C.)
TTIREID
PITICHES
SPECIIL
THRETD
N. S.)
:it
2
56
,18
40
4
,O
5
32
32
I
24
l0
24
t2
r 14
20
s/r6 8
318 l6
7116 t4
r12
3
9/16
s/8
ll
314 l 0
718
9
I
I
a
l - r /8
r-r 14
7
Fig. t-19. Reomers. A-Enlorged seclion sfiowing rcamer looth

consfrucfion. B-Reomer tooth removing stock. C-Nonodiustoble,
spirol (lute reome. D-Nonodiustable, straight llute eamer. Edustoble stroight reomer. l, is opened ond closed by removing
th e o d iu stin g n u ts.
chamfer
(about
10
threads)
that
allows
it
to
start easily. It cannot, however, be usedinblind

holes where the thread must run almost to the
bottom. The plug tap has a shorter chamfer
(about 5 threads) and with care, can be started
successfully. It is useful for open holes and for
blind holes. The bottoming tap has a short
chamfer (about 1 thread) and is used in blind
holes to finish the thread to the bottom of the
hole. The plug tap shoutd be used first and when
it strikes bottom, the bottoming tap should be
. us ed.
.66
.099
.l l 2
.125
.138
.164
.190
.216
.zfi
.31?5
.3?5
.{3?5
.500
.5623
.625
.?50
.875
l .@
1.t25
t.250
FINE STANDARD
s
50
a7
43
38
36
a
I
t6
7
0.m
0.0?8!t
0.(E90
0.1013
0.1(b5
0.t360
0.t495
0.17?0
0.2010
r
0.2570
5/16 0.3125
U
0.3680
27lA 0.{2r9
3t/6{ 0.48
r7l& 0.33r2
2r 132 0.656
4916 0.?636
718 0.8?5
63/6{ 0.9843
r-7t64 Ll0s3
THRETT.D (N. F.)
1ir:lii'
0
I
2
80
72
6,1
s6
t8
{{
40
36
32
I
I
r 14
5/r6 2{
24
3/8
7116 20
r12
20
9/16 l 8
l8
s/8
314 l6
718 l {
l{
r - r /8 l 2
t2
l-v4
l0
t2
i--+re
TAPER
.060
J?3
.086
.099
.l l2
st
50
0.0t95
0.07(x)
0.0820
0.0935
0.10,|()
.ls
0.1130
.16{
0.t360
0.1590
.190
0.820
.216
0.2130
.250
o.2720
.3125
0.3it20
.3?S
o
.4:l?5
2s161 0.3906
.sm
?9164 0.4cll
.565 0.8062 0.506?
0.5687 0.5687
.?50
r r /16 0.68?5
.875 0.80m 0.8@o
1.000 o.gna
o.9271
r-3/64 .0468
l .125
.2S0
l-l /64 t.1718
4S
12
37
3i
A
2l
ta
3
Fig. l-21 . Top &ill
{l
{l
el
el
t0
12
l{
t{
!/16
3le
r18
I
36
36
ao
l 30
l &
A
64
t8
|0
32
38
ste
sl9
3/r6 u
3/r6 3[
713 2l
719 9,
rl l
u
rll
27
rl a 3l
5/16 6
s1r6 n
5/r6 3a
3/8 m
3/8 2t
?/16 2l
7lr8 ?:I
t12 t2
r12 2a
r12 27
9/16 27
3/8 t2
sl8 27
r/16 u
rt/16 t6
t2
3lr
314 n
7le 12
7le t8
718 n
I
I
size chart.
tz
n
0.@0
. t t m {5
0.@
.1t20 aa
0.ll!0
.t380 3{
.teo n
0.ta{E
qr',o
.tgm a
.2td) l3
0.18c)
0.t935
.Hin t0
.zan 7
0.2010
.0623
3/6r
0.0a6
.09t8 a9
0.no
.12!n 38
0.10t3
.lsgt
l/8
0.t230
0.t285
.tsdt 30
.18?5 I
0.t470
.18?3 2
0.t$r0
.2r88 t6
0.ri?o
.2188 t2
0.1890
0.2G0
.2to
.29!
3
0.230
713 0.2t8?
.250
.3123
17lil 0.2656
o.zno
.3t25 ,t
913 o .m 2
.3125
2rls 0.3281
.3?5
0.9$0
.3?3 R
0.3970
.43?S x
0.(x0
.$75 Y
nlEa 0.{2t9
.s00
.s00
?rc1 0.1531
r3l9 0.{68:t
.3oo
ru9 0.sitl2
.565
35/64 0.3469
.625
rs13 0.$:7
.62tt
.68?3
r9l3z 0.3git7
s/8 0.6350
.68?5
43l6 0.6?19
.nn
alu 0.?18?
.750
3r/64 0.7969
.8?5
53/8{ 0.828
.8?3
27130.813?
.875
39/64 0.92t9
-000
3rlu 0.9687
l.(m
(South Bend Loth)
For example, say that you desire a threaded

hole for a 7 116 in. screw with 20 threads per
inch. Looking at the ehart, you will find that a
7lt6 in., 20 threads per inch, is a Unified
National Fine size. Going directly across from
the 7116 in. UNF, you will notice a column
marked "Tap Drill Size." In this case, the tap
dri l l si ze for a ?/16 i n. x 20 i sa25 l64 in. dr ill.
What would be the correct tap size drill to
use for a serew 3/8 in. in diameter with 16
PLUG
BOTTOMING
MACHINESCREW
Fig. l-20. Typicol tops. Amounto chomlervoies with eoctype.
l4
F ig . 1 - 2 2 . A ssorted tops ond di es.
threads per inch? Checking the chart, you will

f ind it t o be 5 /1 6 i n ,
Drill the hole with a tap size drill (holes
over I 14 in. should be drilled in at least two
operations - start with a small pilot drillabout
an 1/B in. in diameter, and work up to the tap
drill).
Using a suitable tap wreneh, carefully start
the tap. Cutting oil wilL help when tapping steel.
After running the tap in for one or two turns,
back the tap up about one-half turn to break the
chip. Repeat this proeess until fully tapped. Remember that taps are very brittle. Donot strain
them and be sure to keep the hole from clogging
with chips.
The die is used much like the tap. After
selecting a die of the correct size, place it in
a die stock (handle), apply cutting oil to the bolt
and start the die. Use the same turn and back
method used for tapping.
Dies are often adjustable so the thread fit
can be ehanged. Adjust so that the nut will turn
on smoothly with finger pressure. Keeptaps and
dies clean, oiled, and in a box.
There are many special purpose taps and
TENSI O N
ADJ USTE
Fig. l-23. Hocksow lrome.
Fig. l-24. "Jab"
(S nop-Onfool s)
dies, Fig. 1-22 shows a number of them: A -.

external rethreading set, B - internal thread
r eD -axle
restorer,
restorer,
C -thread
threader which is opened up and placed around
the good threads and backed off, E and F - nut
dies that can be operated with aboxend wrench,
G and H - spark plug hole thread restorers very handy for removing rust and carbon, J combination tap and die set for tube fittings,
K - tap and die set with taphandle anddie stock.
HACKSAWS
A hacksaw is used to cut tubing, bolts, etc.
The mechanic should have blades with 18,24,
and32teethper i nch. The 1B -tooth bl ade is used
for cutting thick metal, the 24-tooth formedium
thickness, and the 32-tooth blade for thin sheet
metal and tubing. The blades should be of high
quality steel as they will cut faster and longer
than low quality blades. Fig. l-23, illustrates a
typicat hacksaw frame. For very thick work,
use a 14-tooth blade.
OTHERHACKSAWS
t'iab saw,rr will
A special hacksaw, termed a
facilitate eutting in tight quarters. A hole saw,
driven with an electric drill, is handy for cutting large holes in sheet metal. See Figs. 1-24
and 1-244.
(Owottono Tool (orp.)
sow, o handy tool in right qeoilerc.
Fig. l-24A. Hole sow. Cutters o voious sizes ore ovoiloble.

(Snop-On fools)
SCREWDRIVERS
The mechanie should own several different
sizes of screwdrivers
of the standard, Reed &
Prince, Phillips and Clutch types; Fig. 1-2?.
The offset screwdriver
shown in Fig. 1-27,
is useful in tight quarters where evenattstubbytt
cannot be used.
0 u
l\lV
t:
F ig . l- 2 5 . T yp ico l b e n cfi vise .
VISE
A vise suitable for automotive work is

pic t ur ed i n F i g . 1 -2 5 . K e e p th e v i s e cl ean, use
c opper ja w e o v e rs fo r w o rk th a tma ybemarred,
oil the working parts and avoid hammering on
the handle or on other surfaees.
!t
PH ILLIPS
\tl
!-7
R EED AN D
PR IN C E
C LU T C H
Fig. l-27, Screwdriver fypes. Wren usng screwdrivers, selecf

the ri ght type ond si ze, A good ossortmenfis es s enti ol .
CLE A NI N G T OOL S
H A N D LIN G S C R E W D R IV E R S
A number of useful cleaning tools are illust r at ed in F i g . 1 -2 6 . H a v i n g a s e l e cti on speeds
up cleaning work. The wire wheel and power
cleaning brushes are mounted in an eleetric
drill. USE GOGGLES WHEN OPERATING THE
WIRE WHEEL AND ALSO WHEN CLEANING
WITH CAUSTIC (WILL BURN SKIN AND EYES)
SOLUTIONS.I
Use a screwdriver in keeping with the job.

Avoid prying with or hammering on the screwdriver. (Some verylarge screwdrivers are made
so that minor prying and hammering will not
harm them.)
When grinding a new tip on the standard tip
screwdriver, maintain the original taper. Do not
grind to a sharp point or to a steep taper as the
tip will either twist off or climb out of the slot.
Avoid overheating. See Fig. 1-28.
CAUTIONj WHEN HOLDING SMALL I]NITS
IN THE HAND, DO NOT SHOVE DOWN ON THE
SCREWDRIVER HANDLE AS IT MAY SLIP AND
A
I
F i g . l - 2 6 . Cle a n in g o o ls. l- Ho llo w co r b o n b r u s h. 2-l l i e bush.
3-Wire weel. 4-Flexible scroper. S-Twisted strond wire bush.
6-Bristle head. 7-Rigid scraper. 8-Cor6on bush. 9-Bisle 6rush
o n d h o l d e r . l0 - A b o fo r wi e wh e e l. Il- Cie o n in g brush w i th nylon 6rst/es. l2-Hond wire scrofcfi brus,
II
Fig. l-28. Correcf sfiorpening is importon. A and B-Font ond

side view of coect sfiope. C-Too sfeep ond sorp. D-Correct
toper ond size. E-Steep angle will "climb our" of screw slot. F.
'
Screwdiver ground too thin; it will twist o|l.
t6
PIERCE YOUR HAND. IF WORKING ON ELEC.

TRICAL EQUIPMENT, SHUT OFF THE CURRENT, USE AN INSULATED (FULL LENGTH)
SCREWDRIVER AND KEEP YOUR HANDS FREE
OF ANY WIRES WHERE IT IS IMPOSSIBLE TO
SHUT OFF THE CURRENT. IF. YOU MUST WORK
AWAY FROM AN OPEN SWITCIT, TAG IT SO
THAT SOMEONE WILL NOT ACCiDENTALLY
TURN IT ONJ
P LI E RS
Pliers are used for cutting wire, holding
parts, crimping
connections, bending cotter
pins, etc. The combination slip joint, vise-grip,
adjustable rib joint, battery, pump, ignition, Long
nose, needle nose, diagonal and side cutter pliers
are most often used. Other, more specialized
pliers such as the snap ring, hose-clamp,brake
spring, will be covered in later chapters. Avoid
cutting hardened objects and never use pliers
to turn nuts, bolts or tubing fittings, Fig. 1-29.
Fi g. l -30, 8ox end w ences. A -D oubl e ofl set. B -1S -deo.offs er.
er swing while the 6-point provides superior

holding power. One design uses a double offset
to give more handle clearance while another
uses the popular 15-deg. offset. Differentlengths
plus a complete range of opening sizes are
needed, Fl gs. 1-30 and 1-31.
q.
Fi g. l -31. B ox end w ench. Slrown is o lS-deg. oflsef, short l ength type. (J. H . Wi l l i ons)
FLARENUTIIEAD
TU B IN GS LIP STH R OU GH
Fig. l-32. Combinaion ilore nut and open end wrench.
F L A RENUTWRE NCH
The flare nut wrench is quite similar to the
box end wrench but has a section cut out so that
it may be slipped around tubing and dropped over
the tubing nut. This wrench has either 6-point or
12-point opening. The flare nut wrenchis amust
for carburetor, vacuum, brakes, etc., fittings,
Fi g.1-32.
R A TC H E T B OX E N D
F i g . l - 2 9 . U s e l u l p lie r s. l- Ne e d le n o se . 2 - Ch a in n o se. 3-E l ect ri c i o n . 4 - D i o g o n o l. 5 - R6 io in t. 6 - lg n iiio n . 7 - Co n b in oti on sl i p
j o i n r . 8 - "Vise - g r ip " o r p lie r wr e n ch .
(Utico ond Proto fools)
BOXEN DWR ENCHE S

Box end wrenches are available with 12-point
or 6-point openings. The 12-point allows a short-
This is a ratcheting tool using a box end design. It is fast to use andhas many applications,
Fi g. 1.-33.
O P E NE NDWRE NCH
The open end rench grasps the nut on only
two flats. Unless it fits well, it is apt to slip
and round off the nut. There are many places,
F i g . l - 33.
Rotcef
6ox end wr ench. 7o rev e s e ofc her

( J. H. V ti l l i ons )
f lip wr ench over .
h o w e v e r , w h e r e t h e y m a y b e u se d sa ti sfa cto r i l y.
Wh e n e v e r p o s s i b l e , u s e a b o x e n d o r so cke t i n
preference to the open end.
Open end wrenches have the head set at an
angle. In tight quarters where the handle swing
is limited,
pul1 the handle as far as it will go,
flip the wrench over and replace on the nut. By
t h i s m e t h o d , t h e o p e n e n d c a n op e r a te i n a
sw i n g
of 30 deg., Fig. 1-34.
oc ti on,
COMBINATIONBOX AND
OPEN END WRENCH
F ig . l- 3 4 . Op e ne n d wr ench.
This tool has a box end on one end and an

open end on the other. Both ends are of the same
size, Fig. 1-35.
Fig.
l- 35.
Com binolion
SOCKETWRENCHES
box ond open end w enc h.
T h e s o c k e t i s o n e o f t h e f a s t esta n d m o st
co n venient of all the wrenches. Sockets are available
i n 6 - p o i n t a n d 1 2 - p o i n t o p e n i n g s a n d i n Il 4 ,3 l B,
ll2,
3 / 4 i n . a n d l a r g e r d r i v e s . D r i ve si ze i n d i cates the size of the square driving hole in the
base of the socket.
The mechanic should have a ll4 in. drivefor
small fasteners,
a 3 l B i n . d r i ve to h a n d l e th e
medium size s and a I 12 and B I 4 in. drive for the
remainder
of the work.
Sockets come in two depths - standard and
deep. Standard sockets will handle the bulk of
the work,
while the extra reach of the deep
s o c k e t i s o c e a s i o n a l l y n e e d e d , Fi g . 1 - 8 6 .
S WI V E LS O CK E T
F i g . l -3 6 . Vo io u s so cke ts. A- 1 2 - 2 o in td e ep socker. B -t2-poi nt

s t o n d o r d so cke,f C- 6 - p o in td e e p so i/< e t.,D--poi nf
stondordsockef.
( Sn o p - Onfo o /s Co p ,)
T h e s w i v e l s o c k e t a l l o w s th e u se r to tu r n
fasteners at an angle and as a result is handy
for many jobs, Fig. 1-3?.
Fi g.1-38. S ocket speed hondl e. (J. H . l ti l ti ons )
F ig . l- 3 7 . 6 a n d l2 - p o in t swive / sockets.
Fi g. l -39. S ocker fl ex hondl e. (Ow ottono Tool C op.)
t8
'
)OCKET HANDLES
The
Se ve ral diffe r ent dr iv e handles ar eus ed.
ha nd le is us ed whenev er pos s ible a s i t
. ::ed
-=:, be turn ed r aPidlY, Fig. 1- 38.
Flex handles of different lengthprovide heavy
: -::,rng le ve rag e and m ay be us ed at m any a n g l e s ,
Fi g. l -43. S ocket rotchefi ng odopter' (J' H ' l l l l i ons )
:. 1-3 9.
The sliding T-handle has some applicatons
=,'..i sh ou ld be i nc luded in a s oc k et s et , Fig. 1 - 4 0 '
Sp inn er h an dles ar e us ed m uc h as s c r e w .,-ers
and will accept all the socket attach-:
: :--:nts, Fig , 1-4 1.
The ratchet handle allows both heavyturning
: ::ce a nd spe ed. The f as t ener c an be t ur n e d i n
a lever on the ratchet. The
_: out by flicking
ra:ch et is a lso us ef ul wher e a lim it ed s w i n g i s
Fig . l- 42.
: :cessa ry,
\ ratcheting adapter can be used with a flex
:.=:d le, T-ha nd le, et c . , t hus m ak ing t hem q u i t e
' .':rsa tlIe, .r1 9, r - + J .
at
driving
joint will permit
The universal
:riferent angles with the various sockethandles,
Fi g. l -44. S ocket uni verso/ i oi nf.
r '-g. L -44 .
drive size can be
Sockets of one particular
another by using
from
handles
the
with
':rned
an ad ap ter, Fig. 1- 45.
CTHER SOCKETATTACHMENTS
drag link and crowfoot socket
Screwdriver,
are a few of the many offered,
=:tachments
|
Fi g, I -45. S ockef odoP fer'
- 4h
F i q . l - 4 0 . So cke t slid in q T - h o n d le '
Fis.
l - 46,
O her s oc k el ol foc hm ents . l - Sc r ew dti v er '

( EonneY T ool s /
3- C r ow l oof.
2 -D ro g l i n k '
F i g. 1 - 41. Sockel sPnner hondle'
Fi g. 1-46A . S ockef exl ensi on bors'
( Owo tto n o T o ol C orP ')

F i q . l - 4 2 . S ocke f r o fch e f h o n d le .
19
(J' H ' Y l i l l i ons )
Auto Service ond Repoir
SOCK E TE X T.E NS IONS

The long, medium and short extensions allow
the user to extend the reach ofhis set. They may
b e used s ingly or s napped t oget he r i f s o d e s i r e d ,
Fio 1 - 46A
1i
rli
.f
FLEX-HEAD WRENCH
The flex-head wrench is a valuable addition
to the tool box as it can be used through various
an gle s and in c r am ped quar t er s , F i g . 1 - 4 7 .
Fig, l-48. Stud wrencfi. llenc/r is droppedover stud ond the locking wedge is slroved in bore uniil if confocfs sud. llhen wrench
i s turned, w edge w i l l om ogoi nst stud. To remov e s tud, i ns ert
wedge os slrown. fo instoll stud, insert wedge lrom opposife side.
F ig . l- 4 7 . F le x- h e o d wr e n ch . ( Snop-Onfool s)
1r
F i g - l - 4 8 A. Stu d w e n c/rtyp e s. A- T h r e e io w. B -Wedgerype si mi l or to Fi g. 1-48. C -R orori ng l ock w heel . D -l l edge ty pe l or ti ght quo' rers .
(Snop-On foo/s Corp.)
STUDWRENCH
Several types of stud wrenches are manufactured.
With any of them, be careful not to
damage the threads
on the stud, Figs. 1-48,
an d 1- 484.
Fi g. l -49. A dj ustobl e w renc fi .
F ig . I- 5 0 . Pi pe w renches, A -Oursi de pi pe w rench. 8-fnsi de pi pe w rench.
20
Bqsic HqndTools
&
''CRESCENT''OR ADJUSTABLEWRENCH
P RO B I NG
TOOLS
The adjustable wrench is a useful toolinthat

its size may be readily adapted to that of the
fastener.
However, it is prone to loosening and
slipping. When other wrenches are available use the m, Fig. 1 - 49.
Mechanical fingers, extension magnets and

mirror
d e v i c e s h e l p t h e m e c h a n i c t o r e t r i e ve
parts and to see in blind areas, Fig. 1-52.
PIPE WRENCHES
( a i r ) i m p a ct
An
electric,
or pneumatic
wreneh, used in conjunctionwith sockets, speeds
up the job a significant amount. Most shops are
now using them, Fig. 1-53.
Th e pip e wrenc h is us ed t o gr as p ir r egu l a r

or round surfaces. It provides great gripping
power. Both inside and outside pipe wrenches
should be available, Fig. 1-50.
POWEROR IMPACT WRENCHES
AL L ENAN DFLUTE DWRE NCHE S

T hes e wr enc h e s a re u s e d to tu rn s e ts c r ew s,
ca p s c r ews , et c . , F i g . 1 -5 1 .
F i g . l - 5 1 . AIle n o n d llu te d wr e n ch e s.
Fi g. l -53. E l ectri c i mpoct w rench. (A l bertson C o. )
BE W A RE J
WHEN USING ANY WRENCH, MAKE CERTAiN THE WRENCH IS THE CORRECT SIZE
AND IS SECURELY ENGAGED, PULL, DO NOT
PUSH. IF PUSHING IS ABSOLUTELY NECES.
SARY, OPEN THE HAND AND PUSH WITHTHE
PALM. BE CAREFUL, IF A WRENCH SLIPS,
YOU CAN GET A SERIOUS CUT:
O T HE RST O F O L L O W
As mentioned
earlier,
many other more
s p e e i a l i z e d t o o l s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s te xt.
When, in your reading, you come across one,
pay particular
attention to the name and how it
is used. Many jobs in the shop can be made
either time consuming and difficult or fast and
easy, depending on an intelligent
selection of
tools. REMEMBER:
PROPER
T O O L S E L EC . L E AR N
TION ANDUSEISVERYIMPORTANT
ALL YOU CAN ABOUT THEMJ
S UG G E S T EADCT I V I T I E S
Fig. l - 5 2 . P r o h i n g t o o ls. A- M e ch o n ico l fin g e r p icku p . B-Tel es c o p i n g mo g n e t. C- T e le sco p in g m ir r o r .
Wrrte to a number of tool manufacturers

and
ask for a copy of their tool catalog, and any
informative
brochure s they may offer concerning
their products. You may find their names and
addresses by looking in automotive trade prye-rs.
After rou have received your material,
btudy
Learn
the names and suggsted
it carefully.
uses of as rnany as you ean. Flick through the
'#
%"
peen hommer'.3'R eedond,P ri ncescew dri verheod' 4' c oe

F ig , 1 - 5 4 . l- M e d iu n le n g ilr so cke t extensi on. 2-C ross
offset box.end' 8A -C ombi nori onbox ondopen end. 7-srondord-l ength,doubl e
p in p u lle r .S- sto n d o r dt"r ".ir ]".r .
socket' l J'S ocke di ve odoptet 1/ 2 i n' to
6-poi
nt
1}-R
egui
or
hondl
e.
rctch*
fio
.k"t
Re g u lo r 1 2 - p o in t
"o "k.r .
hornmer. I5-Job sow n l 6'A l i gni ng bo w i h
3 /g n . l2 - So td e r in g ir o n . l3 - p h ilti ps heod screw dri r.r.i 4-B otl 'peen
sockel exfensi on. 20'socker u ni v es ol
l
9-Long
ti
p.
r o lle r h e o d , I7 - Scr e wd r ive r .o cker,' l 8-srondord screw dri ver
reomer' 24'Sud wench' 25-Socker
23-Acliuslobte
screwdriver.
22-Sondord
socker.
flex
driue iont. 21-12-point
speed hondle' 30-Topered
puller'
29'sockef
28'G"a'
b'ush'
carbon
wire
(lex hondle. 26-Drcg link socket. 27'Smott
re.gulor lip screw'
34-Srubhy
homme'
tip
33'Plostic
mollet'
reome. 31-Clutch type screwdriver tp. 32-Rubber
l 5-de9' 6ox end w rench' 38-P tri l l ps screw dri v er
37'S
hort
extensi
on'
socket
3
6
Short
w
e
n
ch
.
e
n
d
3
5
Op
e
n
d r ive r .
P httP sscew dri ver' 42'l nternolpi pe w rencfi ' 43-S oc k '
tip . 3 9 - F to t n tl lile . O- li- i. ^ de"p ,orkut. ^4t-S fu66y
e tslid in g T - t,o , t..( Bo ,,.y,S nop-on,ow ol fono,|Jti co,Y l i l ton,P roto,andA rmstrongTool s)
.r-q
'ii
u
1i
Fig. 1-55' 44-Point ile. Ai-Flex socket. 46-Rotcfiet 6ox end. 47-Hose clomp plier. Ai-Ratchet open end. 49-Ccii6on scroper. Sl'Linemon plier. 51-Adiustoble wrench. S2-Hacksow lroê, ii-F.ele
gouge, S-Cotcisel. 55I /4 in. elecric drill. 56-Torque wenc. 57-Pipe die. 58-Rtb ioint plier. 59-Center puncfr-.60-Needle nose p/ier.
6 l - C l e a n i n g b r u sh . 6 2 - Stip io in t p lie r . 6 3 - Cr o woot otl ochment, 64-P i pe w rench.'65-D i ogonot pl i er. 66-Ol set
screwdver. 67-Allen wencfi. 68-Broke spring plier. 69-6-point ox end. 7l-Choin nose p/ier. Tl -Storting punch.
7 2 ' C l u c h t i p scr e wd r ive r . 7 3 - 1 2 - p o in ttu b in g wrench. 74-Y i se yi p pl i er.7S -B attery pl i er. 76-Tw i s, d1. 7l -C
clonp. 78'Drih punch. 79-Cylinder heod wrench, 80-Rin9 compressor. 8 I -S/ide hommer puller. 82-5[eer neto/ sn jps.
( B o n ne y,Sn o p .On ,Owo lto n o , Utica , Vlilton, P roto, A rmstrong,V l i l l i ons, Tho ond gurtevont foo/s)
23
1.
:i
Auto Seryice ond Repoir
pages and see how manyyou can identifycorrectly. You will be amazed at the number of automotive tools that are available.
18. A
used to cleanfiles.
-_-is
19. When grinding, never let the tool rest get
close to the wheel. True or False?
20. Give ten important safety rules for the use
of grinders.
21. Better quality drills are made of _
MARKYOURTOOLS
As you procure your tools, mark them with
your name. An electric marking pencil or a
vibrating tool will do a good job. Mark the
tools in an area that willbedifficultto
grind off.
22. What are the drill iip angles for general

purpose cuttingr
23. Give five important safety rules for the use
of electric drills.
24. A reamer should remove about_of
stock each cut.
25. Always turn a reamer in a.direction.
26. D i es are used to cut _threads.
27. Name four kinds of taps.
28. Referring to your tap drill size chartinthis
ehapter, what is the correct tap drill size
for a cap screw 5/B di ame t er wit h llt hr eads
per i nch?
29. An 1B-tooth hacksaw blade is excellent for
cutting tubing. True or False?
30. The teeth on a hacksaw blade should alwavs
face the handle. True or False?
31. Name four cleaning tools.
32. What four kinds of screwdrivers would vou
need ?
33. Pliers are useful to tighten tubing fittings.
True or False ?
34. Name six kinds of plier:s.
35. Describe briefly a box end, open end and
adjustable wrench.
36. Flare nut wrenches should be used on
,j
fittings.
_
OUIZ - ChopterI
1 . C h i s e l s , fi l e s , d ri l l s , e tc., areveryhardand
as a result can all be piled together for
storage. True or False?
2 Present day tools are all rustproof. True or
False ?
3. Explain how YOU will store YOUR tools.
4. Three types of useful hammers would be
th e _ ,_ ,
a n d the_.
5. Give two safety preeautions for the use of
hammers.
6. A diamond point chisel is ideal for cutting
off rivets. True or False?
?. Name three other important chisels.
8. For heavy hammering, hold the chisel very
tightly with the hand. True or False ?
9. Drawing the temper from a tool wilt soften
it. True or False?
10. A pin puneh is ideal to start a rivet from a
hole. True or False?
11. Before drilling a hoIe,_
_the
spot where the drill will start.
12. When grinding tools,_often
to prevent overheating.
13. N a m e fo u r fi l e s h a p e s u s e dbythemechani c.
14. A fil.e with one row of parallel cuttingedges
is known as a
37. What advantage does a 6-point opening have

over a l2-point? The l2-point over the
6 -point ?
38. Sockets are either of the-or
the
_Iength.
39. Name five socket handles.
40. An impact wrench will speed up your work
a eonsiderable amount. True or False ?
41. How many of the tools can you identify in
Fi gs. 1-54, and 1-55?
file.
15. Keep files lightly oiled. True or False?

16. You would use a BASTARD, SECOND CUT,
SMOOTH CUT, to rough file a piece of
alurinum. (Select one.)
17. From a safety standpoint, why should a file
always be used with a handle ?
24
Chapter2
PRECISION
MEASURING
TOOLS
The auto mechanic mustbe thoroughlyfamiliar with the precision
measuring tools used in
his trade. Many of the jobs he is ca1led upon to
perform involve checking sizes, clearances and
alignments.
'i
-A eareless
or inaccurate measurement
can
be eostly, both in money and customer relations to say nothing of damaging the mechanicrs reputation.
After
each use, wipe the tool down with a
lightly oiled, lint-free,
clean cloth. Never dip a
precision measuring tool i.n solvent (unless it is
being completely dismantled) or use an airhose
for cleaning it.
H A N D LIN G
When using a measuring tool, place it in a
clean spot from which it will not fal1 or be struck
by other tools. Never pry, hammer or force the
tools.
REMEMBER:
They are PRECISION
tools - keep them that way,l
O U AL ITYTO OLSIMP ORTA NT

When selecting measui'ing tools that will be
used for a period of years, it pays to buy top
quality tools. The initial cost will obviously be
higher but considering the importance of accuracy, and the longer life span of superior tools,
the extra cost is easily justified.
CHE CKF O RA CCURA CY

It is good practice to occasionally check
precision tools for accuracy. They may be
checked against a tool of known accuraey or by
using special gauges provided for that purpose.
If a tool is accidentally dropped or struckby
some object, immediately check itfor accuracy.
Adjustments for wear or veryminordamage are
provided on many measuring tools. Follow the
manufacturer t s instructions.
STORAGE
It is advisable to keep your measuring tools
in a protective case, in an area that will not be
subjected to excessive moisture or heavy usage,
Fi g . 2- 1.
(outsidel
MICROMETER
The outside micrometer (mike) is used to
check the diameter ofpistons, pins, crankshafts,
etc. The most commonl yusedmi crometer r eads
in one thousandths of an inch. Withthis micrometer it is easy:]o estimate as close as onequarter thousandth.
It is possible to obtain micrometers that can
produce measurements to within one ten-thousandth of an i nch. Thi stypeusesaverni er scale.
A cut-away view of atypical outside micrometer is shown in Fig. 2-2. Be sure to learn the
names of the parts and their relationship to the
operation.
Fig . 2 - 1 . f h i s m c r o me fe rco se p r o vid e s e xce //e n t p r o te cl on o

the tools. (L. S. Sroefi)
25
",
Auto Service ond RePoir
MICROMETERRANGE
is designed to
micrometer
Each individual
produce readings over a range of one fu1l inch'
a set
Ideally, the auto mechanic should obtain
Fig. 2- 2.
They
(twenty-five
thousandths inch) markings'
(
z
e
r
o
i
n
ch ) '
to o n e
will read from .000 to 1.000,
twentyhas
The tapered end of the thimble
0'
five lines marked around it. They will read
co
m
p
l
e
te
o
n
e
I
n
t
h
a
t
2
5
.
etc., up to
!, 2, 3,4,
Cut- owoy view ol on oufs i de m i c r om el er '
edge
moves the thimble
of the thimble
turn
the
sleeve'
'.025,
the
on
or one mark
exactly
readby
determined
distance between marks is
sizes 0- 1 iri"
covering
of six micrometers
5-6 in' Fig'
in. , 4- 5in' , and
in. , 3- 4
1-2 in . , 2- 3
m
icrorneters
t
welv
e
2 -3 shows a c as ed s et of
co ve ring 0- 12 in.
It wuld be less expensive to purchase only
a 0- 4 in. and a 4 - 6 i n ', b o t h
two m ic r om et er s ,
anvils. However, the multiwith interchangeable
more bulky and is less
is
micrometer
range
convenient
Leor n the nom es o the v or i ous por l s '
to use, F9. 2-4-
READINGTHE MICROMETER
Micrometers are made so that every turn of
the thimble will move the spindle.025 in' You will

notice that the sleeve is marked with a series
of line s . Ea c h o f th e s e l i n e s represents ' 025'
Every fourth one of these .025 markings is
? , B , o r 9' These sl eeve
m ar k e d 1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,6 ,
(onenum b e rs i n d i c a te .1 0 0 , .2 0 0 , . 300; etc"
micrometer
The
hundred thousandths, etc.).
sleeve then is marked out for one inch in '025
N ofe the 6ox of

Fi g.2-3. C ssed sef ol 12 outsi de mi crom efers '
"mke'"
of
eocfr
occurocy
lhe
checking
slondords lor
26
Precision MeosuringTools
ing the thimble line that is even with the long

line drawn the length of the sleeve markings.
E a c h l i n e o n t h e t h i m b l e e d g e r e p r e s e n t s .0 0 1
(one thousandth of an inch), Fig. 2-44.
Look at the markings
on the micrometer
section in Fig. 2-5. How many numbers are
v i s i b l e o n t h e s l e e v e ? T h e r e a r e t h r e e . T h is 3
i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e m i k e i s o p e n a t l e a s t .3 0 0
(three hundred thousandths of an inch). you can
see that the thimble edge is actually past the
. 3 0 0 b u t n o t t o t h e . 4 0 0 m a r k . B y e a r e f u l s tu d y
you will see that the thimble edge has moved
exactly two additional marks past the .300. This
ti l i p l e
ro n ge micr ometer . By using the pr oper a nv i l

..o me te r cove s o r onge ol lr om 0 in, to 4 in,
( Lulkin)
L OC KN U T
ANVIL
SP IN D L E
THIMBLE
S LE E V E MA R K S THIMBLE
N U MB E R S
al
ur
l Nts. ,
1 .0 1 1 1
3 .0 9 l? '
5 ,1 5 6
50 :
75
il
25
875
l 6 55
i 8 7:' 5
.Jt 2 5
.43 -
SLEEVE LONG LINE
7 2187
/
9,e81
11.343?
13 .45
15.468?
'---'r&;;
1?.5311
.i
19.593?
Tlu, s.!l dF' ' l Co.
31.656?
.'
ArHr,te!s. *1.4.
23 .7 r &7 ,,'
nt ts u.5..
5g
11
6$75
2 9 .9 U
1 3 .8 1 2 5
1 5 .9 3 7 5 J1 .9 6 8 ?
F ig . 2 - 4 A. 0 - l in . o u sid em icromel er.Studythe morkings

ondport nomes.
means that the thimble edge is lined up two

marks past the .300. As each sleeve mark represents .025, it is obvj.ous that theedgeis actually
s t o p p e d a t . 3 0 0 p l u s . 0 5 0 , o r . 3 5 0 ( t h r e e h u n d r ed
and fifty thousandths
of an inch). In that the
thimble edge 0 marking is aligned with the long
s l e e v e 1 i n e , t h e m i k e i s s e t e x a c t l y o n . 3 5 0 . Th e
reading then, if this were a one inch mike (reads
from 0-1 in.) wouldbe.3S0.Ifthiswere
a 2-3 in.
mike, the actual reading would be two inches
plus .350 or 2.350.
In Fig. 2-6, the micrometer
h a s b e e n o p e ne d
to a wider measurement.
You will see that the
thimble edge is no longer on a sleeve marking
but is somewhere in between.
How many numbers are visible on the sleeve ?
There are five or.500 (five hundredthousandths).
The thimble edge has movedthree marks or.0?5
S L E E V E LONG LINE
SLEEvE
THIMBLE EDGE
" j. . l i l e t h i n b l e e d ge o sm o ve d o c o ss fh e s/e e ve u p to t he 3
- r " : _ s i w o m o es / e eve m o r ks( ,0 5 0 ) . T h e r h in b le 0 m o r kis i n
'. r c ' - e s / e . " e / o n g l in e so t/r e r e o d in g is,.3 0 0 + .0 5 0 + 0 = .j 50.
27
012
3 4 5
seven thousandths of an inch). If this were a

3-4 in. micrometer, the actuaL measurement
w oul .dbe 3.58?.
Study the readings shown in Fig.2-74. Compare your answers with those shown. Make your
readings in four steps. See Fig. 2-?.
1. Read the largest sleeve numberthatisvisible
- each one i ndi cates .100.
, Count the number of full sleeve marks past
thi s number - each one i ndi cat es. 025.
3. Count the number of thimble marks past this
last sleeve number. Each one indicates .001.
If the thimble marks are not quite aligned
with the sleeve long line, estimate the fraction
of a mark.
4. Add the readings in steps 1, 2 and 3. The total
is the correct micrometer reading. Add this
reading to the starting size of the micrometer
being used. If the mike range was 1-2 in., add
the total reading to 1.000 (one inch), F'g.2-7.
F i g . 2 - 6 . T h in b le e d g e h o s m o ve d u p to ffte 5 (.500) pl us three

m o e s l ee ve n o ks ( .0 7 5 ) p lu s l2 lh in b le noks ('012) resul ti ng
in a totol reading ol .587.
ill i
past the .500 mark. This makes a total of .575.

The thimble edge has movedpastthethirdmark.
In that the fourth mark is notvisible, ue know it
is somewhere between the third and fourth
mark, Fig. 2-6.
By examining the thimble edge marks, Fig.
2-6, you will see that the twelfthmarkis aligned
with the sleeve long line. This means that the
thimble edge has moved twelve thimble marks
past the third sleeve mark. In that each thimble
mark equals .001 (one thousandth of an inch) the
thimble has actualtry moved .012 (twelve thousandths of an inch) past the third sleeve mark.
Your reading then would be .500 0argest sleeve
number visible) PLUS .075 (three sleeve marks
past sleeve number) PLUS.012 (twelve thimble
marks past the third sleeve mark) making a
total reading of .587 (five hundred and eighty-
RR A D U A T E D
RE A DI NG
A MI CRO ME T EG
OF AN NCH
I N T E N T HO US A NDT HS
The same reading technique as that just described is used to read this type of micrometer.
Instead, however, of estimating fractions of a
thousandth between thimble marks, a VERNIER
scale on the sleeve makes it possible to accu-
I
I
I
l+.:oo*l
F ig .2 - l.
.oso
--l l+
t+
.012+l
secondreodi ng i nB =.050,th i rdreadfh r e e sfe p s in r e o d ing ffi emi comefer.Fhstreodi ngi nA =.300,
ing in C = .Ot2 = o totol reoding ol ,362 (Three hunded and sixty-two tfrousonds).
0 L2345
F ig .2 - 7 A. = .t7 5 ,8 = .5 9 9 ,C= .2 4 2y2or.2425.N otef[ofi nC rel octi oni none-fhousondti sesti motedos
indicoted by rhe thimbl mark.
28
PrecisionMeosuringToofs
rately divide each thousandth into ten parts or
one ten-thousandth of an inch.
The vernier consists of elevel.l thin tines
scribed parallel to the sleeve long line. They are
roarked 0-10. Whenever the thimble marks donot
fall in line with the long sleeve line thus indicating a fraction of one-thousandth ineh, carelully examine the vernierlines. One of the vernier lines will be aligned with one of the thimble
oarks. When you have diseovered the specific
rernier line that is aligned with athimble mark,
:he number of that particular vernier line will
:ndicate the number of tenthousandthtobe added
Fig, 2-9, ln A, vernier /ine No. 5 is oligned with o thimble mo*;

readi ngw oul d be .075 + ,005 + .0005 = .OOSl n
. B , verni erl i ne N o.
4 i s al i gned; reodi ngw ovl d be .200 + .025 + ,012'+ .0004 = .2374,
thumb and forefinger unti.l the spindle engages

the object. Do not clamp the micrometertight
use only enough pressure on the thimble to
cause the work to ju-El fit between the anvil and
spindle. Slip the objeet inandoutof the micrometer while giving the thimble a final adjustment.
The work must slip throughthe micrometerwith
a qy
ljght force.
When satisfied that your adjustment is correct, read the micrometer setting. BE CAREFUL
THAT YOU DO NOT MOVE THEADJUSTMENT,
Fi g. 2- 10.
o----J_
(o ----_r
__r
co ___r
,',
----+-20
F- F
(,-F
N ---a -------L_
'o futs
--lrlTE
Fig.2-8, Vernie /ines ore sown in colo. Note tot vernier line
{o. 3 is the only one exactly in line with a thimble mork, your
'adins wouldthen6e .100+
:1tr=-.;:li.-
.0003(hreetenthou-
:o vour initial thimble reading, Fig. 2-g.

Examine the readings shown in Fig. 2-9. In
both instances a fraction of a thousandth is obnous by examining the thimble marks. By check'rg the vernier, you can see that one of the ver::er lines is in ali!.nment with a thimble mark
-l's indicating the number of ten thousandth over
--be thimble thousandth reading. Compare your
:eadings with those shown, Fig. 2-g.
LIHENUSINGANY MEASURING
TOOL
Always thoroughly clean the work to be
"easured. This assures you of accurate work
nd reduces wear on the workingtips ofthe tool.
LIsNG
OUTSIDEMICROMETER
Fig. 2J0. Miking a small hole gauge. The heel o{ he ond supporfs tlre micomete frome while the humb ond lorelinger turn
rfie r[in6le.
lL. S. Srorrer)
\\'tren measuring small objects, grasp the

*'erometer
in the right hand, and at the same
:ae insert the object to be measured between
:e anvil and spindle end While holding the work
eainst the anvil, turn the thimble with the
To measure larger objects, grasp the frame

of the micrometer and slip the micrometerover
the work while adjusting the thimble. Slip the
mike back and forth over the work until verv
light resistance is fett, Fig. 2-10A.
29
F ig . 2 -10A . Mi ki ng o conkshol t.N oti ce how the mi ke i s hel d.
2
,!
a' t
F
h,',
i,
t
I'
I
I
I
Some micrometers
have a ratchet
clutch
knob on the end of the thimble to allow the user
to bring the splndle down against the work with
the same amount of tension each time.
As the micrometer
is slipped back and forth
over the work, it should be rocked from side to
side a trifle to make certain the spindle cannot
b e clo s ed an addit ional am ount , F i g . 2 - 1 1 .
PRACTICEIS NECESSARY
Measure objects of a known diameter until
you have mastered the feel of using a micrometer. Keep practicing until you are completely
confident of your readings. REMEMBER - A
MECHANIC MUST BE ABLE TO MAKE ACCURATE MICROMETER READINGS. HANDLE THE
MICROMETER WITH CARE. NEVER STORE A
MIKE WITH THE ANVIL AND SPINDLE TIP
TOUCHING (this encourages rusting between
the tips). CLEAN
YOUR WORK BEFORE
MEASURING.
I
I
I
I
IN S ID E MIC R OME TE R
The inside micrometer is used for making

measurements in cylinder bores, brake drums,
l arge bushi ngs, etc., Fi g.2-L2.
F i g . 2 - l l . ln A, m iu o m e te r is slip p e d b o ck ond l orth over obj ect.

ln B, micrometer is rocked from side to side lo moke certoin the
s m o l l esf d io m e te ris { o u n d . Ro ckin g is o ctuol l y very sl i ght.
Fis. 2-12.l nsi de mi crometu. B y chongi ng ro ds , thi s

sure hom 2 to 8 in,
30
lL. S. Storefi)
s et w i l l meo-
It is read in the same manner as the outside

=Licrometer and the same feel is required. When
:neasurin g, rock t he ins ide m ik e f r om s i d e t o
side at the same time keeping the anvil firmly
against one side of the bore. While the free end
:s be ing ro cked , it m us t als o be t ipped i n a n d
out. The rocking allows you to locate the widest
:art o f th e bo re while t he t ipping as s ur es y o u
:hat the micrometer
is at right angles to the
:or e , Fig .2-1 3.
An extension handle permits
the use of an
in a bor e t oo s m all t o h a n d
-nsid e micro mete r
:o1d the tool.
E, g . 2 - 1 3 . l n s i d e m i cr o m e r e rm u st 6 e r o cke d fr o m sid e fo si de os
- A , w h i l e o l f h e s o m e fim e it m u st b e fip p e d o s sfio wn i n 8.
B o l h m o ve m e n tso r e r e lo tive ly slig h t.
M IC R OM ETER
DE P THGA UGE
This
is a handy tool for reading the depth of

sp
line s, c ou nt e r b o r e s , ho1es , e t c . ,
-.-ots,
.' -2,. 2 -t4.
'j:\
ii'
,.,.$r
2 - 1 4 , M i c r o n e t e r d e p th g o u g e . T h e to n g e co n 6 e n ceosed
b y u sin g lo n g e r r o d s,
To use, the base is pressed against the work

(after cleaning) and the spindle is run down into
the hole to be measured.
It is read lke an outside micrometer,
th e
only difference
being that the sleeve marks
run in a reverse direction, Fig. 2-15.
Fi g.2-15. U si ng the mi crometerdepth gouge. The 6ose i s he/d

l i rnl y ogoi nst the w ork ond the thi mbl e urned unti l l he r od c on.
focl s fhe shou/der.
DI A L G A UG EO R I NDI CA T O R
The dial indicator
is a precision
tool designed to measure movements in thousandths of
an inch. Some common uses are cheeking end
p l a y i n s h a f t s , b a c k l a s h b e t w e e n g e a r s , va l ve
Iift, shaft run-out, taper in cylinders, etc.
Use care in the handling of this tool as it is
sensitive and easily damaged. When not in use
keep in a protective case.
Dial indicator
faces are calibrated in thousandths of an ineh. Various type dial markings
are available. Ranges (distance over which the
indicator
can be used) vary also depending on
the instrument, Fig. 2-16.
Various mounting arms, swivels and adapters
are provided so that the indicator can be used
on various setups.
When using a dial indicator, be certain that
it is firmly
mounted and that the standard
anticipated. Ranges usually run from around

.200, to 1.000 (one i nch) depending on t he instrurnent.
Fi gs. 2-18, 2-184,2-1B B illust r at e t lpical
di al i ndi cator setups.
DIAL INDICATOR
CLAMP BASE
Fig. 2J6,
Diol inicotor ond holdi ng

( L. S. 5to ett)
ottoc hm enl s .
(act uat ing r od) is par allelt ot he

plane (direction)
,
m
eas
ur
ed,
I
.
i
g. 2-I7.
of m ov em ent t o be
Place the rod end against the work to be
toward the
measured,
and force the indicator
work causing the indicator needle to travel far
enough around the dial so that movement in
either direction
can be read. The dial face can
then be turned to line the 0 mark with the indicator needle. Be sure that the indicator range
.
(limit
will
the movement
cover
of travel)
Fi g.2-18. C hecki ng ti mi ng geor 6oc/<l os hw i rh o di ol i ndi c oto.

The i ndcol or rod s ongl ed to pl oce i t in Ii ne w i th geor rotol i on.
(C hevrol et)
IN D IC AT O R
----t
l*'*l
F i g . 2 - 1 7 . ln d ico o rI se f u p is NOT p o r ol l el to movementol shol t.
W h e n sh o lt m o ve s d isfo n ce A, in d ico tor rod moves dstonce C ,
g i v i n g a h lse r e o d in g o r sh o lt e n d p loy, Indi cotor 2 l S porol l el
a n d sh o lt m o ve m e n tA co u se s in d ico to rod to move di stonce B ,
p r o d u cin g o n o ccu r o le reodi ng'
Fi s. 2-18A . U si ng o di ol indicotor lo detetmine

center. ( P & G M l g .C o ')
32
pislon
top deod
F i g . 2 - 1 8 8 . C h e c k i n g co m sh o lt !o h e t ft w r h o io l i ndi cotor,
( Ch e vr o le t)
Fi g.2-20. C yl i nder gouge. Onl y o shof secl i on ol the hondl e i s
show n. l L. 5. S torre*)
OTHER DIAL INDICATORTOOLS

INSIDEAND OUTSIDECALIPERS
Two other valuable measuring toolsutilizing
d ial ind ica tor as par t of t heir c ons t r uc t iona r e
:re out-of-roundness
and cylinder gauges. The
: :t - of-roundne s s gauge is used to check connect-:g rod big end bores. This can be done with an
-rsid e mike bu t t his s pec ial gauge m ak es t h e j o b
: asie r an d faster , Fig. 2- 19.
T h e s e a r e u s e f u l t o o L s f o r q u i c k m e asu r e ments when aecuracy is not critical . I.9. 2-21,

illustrates
a pair of outside calipers.
ADJUST sF ORDIF F ERENTSIZE S
Fig. 2-21. Oursidecoliper.

gouge.
F ig. 2-l 9. Oul-ol-roundness
Fig. 2-22, shows the inside caliper. The ins i d e c a l i p e r i s u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e d i a m e te r o f
To determine
hold the
holes.
the reading,
on an accurate
steel rule. Careful
calipers
gauge makes the checking of

The cylinder
e'Iinder bore size, taper and out-of-roundness
quick a nd a ccur at e, Fig. 2- 20.
OTHER USEFUL MEASURINGTOOLS

In addition to the precision
tools that have
'ceen
discussed,
there are a number of other
tools as described by the following paragraphs,
that a mechanic should own. Keep in mind that
:n your work as an auto mechanic a number of
rreasurements
varying from a few thousandths
:o several feet will be required.
F i g. 2-22. l nsi de co/i per.
33
Auto Servce qnd Repqr
measuring across the points (very light touch)

with an outside micrometer will give a more
ac c u ra te re a d i n g , F i g . 2 -2 2 .
DIV ID E R S
Dividers are somewhat like calipers but
have straight shanks and pointed ends. Theyare
handy for making circles, taking surface meas u re m e n ts , e tc . F i g . 2 -2 3 , i l l ustrates a pai r of
divide rs.
Fi g. 2-25. l l i re gouge sef for check i ng s po pl ug gop.
WI REG A UG E
The w i re gauge i s i neffect at hicknessgauge,
but i.nstead of a thin flat strip of steel, wires of
varying diameter make up the typical set. It is
excellent for checking spark plug gap, distributor
poi nt gap, etc., Fi g. 2-25.
S CRE WP I T CHG A UG E
This is a handy tool for determining the
number of threads per inch on bolts, screws and
studs, I.i g.2-26.
F ig .2 - 2 3 . Divd e s. Po in fs musl e shorp.
FE E LE RGA UGE S
Feeler or thickness gauges are thin strips
of specially hardened and ground steel, with the
thickness marked in thousandths ofaninch. They
a re us ed t o c hec k c lear anc es b e t w e e n t w o p a r t s
sueh as valve gap, piston ring side and end gap
clearance,
etc. They are available in sets as
shown in Fig. 2-24, and also in 12 in. or longer
lengths.
Fi g.2-26. S crew pi fc gouge, The fi st o s mol l numberi ndi c otes

the numher ol threods per inch. Ie second number indicates the
douhle depth ol he threads.
ffry*'***''*
F ig ,2 - 2 4 . F e e /e r g o u g e se f.
Fis. 2-27. Tel escopi ng gouges. The gouges s /row n w i l l c ov e
( Ow ottono Tool s)
range lrom 1/2 ro 2-1/2 in.
34
(L. S. Srorref)
TELESCO PING
GA UGE
The tele scop ing
hook rule with a sliding steel head, marked in

32nds. and 64ths., a combination square made up
of a steel rule, protractor
head, center head
and square; and a ten foot pocket tape rule. See
Fig. 2-28, and 2-284.
gauge is an ac c ur at et oo l f o r
measuring inside bores of connecting rods, main

bearings, etc. To use this too1, the plungers are
HEAD
PROTRACTOR
SQUARE
HEAD
C E N T E RH E A D
Fig. 2-28. Combinotion squore with cenfer heod ond protroctor.

(L. S . S roretr)
compressed
and locked by turning the knurled
screw on the handle. The gauge is placed inside
the bore, and the plungers are released until
t hey con tact the bor e walls . They ar et henloc k e d
and the tool is removed. An outside mierometer
K
HE A D
SPRINGSCALE
T w o s p r i n g s c a l e s , o n e r e a d i n g i n o u n c e sth e
other in pounds, are a "must." These are needed
puII on
to determine
contact point pressure,
feeler strips whenfitti.ngpistons,
etc.,Fig. 2-29.
RULE
-rX
Fi g.2-29. S pri ng scol e' A must i n every tool ki t.
S T E E LS T RA I G HT E DG E
Fi g . 2 - 2 8 A . 6 i n . h o o k r u le wi h slid in g d e p th a n d o n gl e heod.
An accurate steel straightedge longenoughto

span the length of an engine block or head is
essential for checking these parts for warpage.
Be eareful when handling and storing a straightedge so it is not damaged, Fig. 2-30.
is used to measure across the plungers for an

aceurate checking of bore size. Telescoping
gauges have different ranges and may be purehased in sets. The proper feel for using this
tool will be the same as that used with the insi de m ier om et e r, F i g . 2 -2 7 .
TE MP E R A TU R E IS IMP OR TA N T
Many specifications for measurements will
state room temperature, an exact temperature,
engine at normal running temperature, etc. Remember that all metals contract and expand in
STEELRUL ES
Other measuring
tools that can be used to
good advantage include a thin six inch steel
35
r-
AutoServiceond RePoir
f:--rW
i ll ryi
1iri
1i
E . Check the run-out on a camshaft by using a

dial indicator.
F . Measure the inside diameter of a wrist pin
bore using a telescoping gauge and an outside
micrometer.
G. Check the accuracy of an outside micrometer
by using a STANDARD (measuring rod of
exact length) furnished for this purpose.
H. Check the accuracy of aninside mikebyusing
the outside micrometer youhave just checked
with the standard.
I. Check the gap between spark plugelectrodes
by using a wire gauge.
J . Determine the number of threads per inch on
a bolt by using a screw pitch gauge.
K. Determine the tension on a set of distributor
contact points by using a spring scale.
L. With a straightedge, check the surfaee of a
cylinder block for warpage.
ll
!l
t,**-1
'$
- 'l'
r .ii ii
*-J
i:,
-;;
"*
m#bffiffi
J
-"'-'"ttt*c
Fie.2-30. Steel stroigtrtedge. A-sguore edge. 8-Bevel edge. C'

Bevel and ruled edge. These ore ovailable in dierent lengths.
direct proportion to their temperature. This

makes it imperative that temperature specifications be followed when making precision
measurements and settings. Your measuring
tools themselves can be affeeted by extremes of
heat and cold. If your tools must be used when
very cold or very hot, eheck them for accuracy
before using.
ACTIVITIES
SUGGESTED
1. Place a wrist pin in thefreezereompartment
When thoroughly cold, reof a refrigerator.
move, wipe, and quickly measure both the
diameter and length using an outside micrometer. (Hold the wrist pin with a cloth.) Write
down your readings.
Now place the wrist pin in boiling water.
When hot, remove, dry and quickly recheck
diameter and length. Was there adifference?
If so, how much? What does this indicate?
2. Explain how to read a micrometer toafriend
that does not know how. Have himtrya reading and continue to help him until he does it
correctly. By doing this you will reinforce
your own knowledge.
S UM MA R Y
lii
l$
',.i
.il
i
".|
The abitity to select and correctly use the

proper measuring tools to secure highly accurate measurements, is a MUST -for all auto
mechanics.
Preeision tools require cleanliness, careful
handling and proper storage.
The mechanic should own, or have available,
micrometer
outside and inside micrometers,
depth gauge, dial indicator setup, inside and
outside calipers, dividers, feeler gauges, wire
gauge screw pitch gauge, telescoping gauge,
steel rules, straightedge and spring scales.
Other specialized measuring tools may be
acquired as the need dictates.
OUIZ - ChoPter2
1. When using a micrometer, make surethatthe
tool is clamped around the worktightly. True
or False ?
2. Measuring tools are rustproof. True or False ?
should be checked
3. A micrometer
if accidentally dropPed.
is read in the same
4. An inside micrometer
fashion as the outside micrometer. True or
Fa1se?
5. To measure an object 3.500 in diameter, you
with a range of
would use a micrometer
to
SUGGESTED
PRACTICEJOBS
A.'Practice reading a micrometer until youcan
make a correct reading everY time.
B. Use an outside micrometer to measure several objects of known size.
C. Measure the inside diameter of a cylinder of
a cylinder of a known size with your inside
micrometer.
D. Using a depth gauge, measure the distance
from the surface of a cylinder head to the
top of a valve guide. fValve-in-head engine.)
36
5. Name the best tool to handle each one of the

following measurements :
a. Diameter of a wrist pin.
b. Diameter of a cylinder bore.
c. Distance from face of head to valve guide
top.
d. End play in crankshaft.
e. Diameter of wrist pin bore in a piston.
f. Connecting rod big end bore diameter.
g. L ash (free m ov dm ent or play ) bet ween t w o
g ea rs.
h. Teeth per inch on a bolt.
i
Clearance
between the valve stem and
rocker. (Valve-in-head
engi.ne.)
i
Diameter of an exhaust pipe.
k. Spark plug gap.
point contact
1. Tension on the distributor
arm.
m. Length of a muffler.
n. Distance
between
the fan blades
and
radiator.
o. Engine block surface for warpage.
1. Select the correct
deeimal readings for the
following a - i. (Some are incorrect.)
Two inc hes , t hr ee hundr ed andt w e n t y --a.
five thousandths.
Eight hundred and seventy-eight
and
_b.
one-half thousandths.
Four inches, six hundred andthirteen
_ c.
and one quarter thousandths.
Three
and one-half inches.
_d .
One ten-thousandth of an ineh.
One thousandth of an inch.
One hundredth of an inch.
_9.
One tenth of an inch.
_h.
r.
One inch.
2 .3 2 5
1 .00 0
4.6 t3 2 5
.0 0 1
4 .6 1 3 0 2 5
.8785
. 0 0 01
.1 0 0 0
2 .3 0 0 25
.010
3 .0 0 5
.100
3 .5 0 0
.0 1 0 1 0
Select the correct (some are wrong) readings
f or t he f ollow i n g mi c ro me te r s e tti n g s . 0-1i n.
micrometer.
_i.
.359
.376
.349
.286
.3001
.243
.3003
.242
.2994
.299L
WHA TI S Y O URO P I NI O N?
A person has just applied for a job as a mechanic at a garage withareputationfor excellent
-E
37
. +4s.1:
Aqidservice ond Repoir

work. The owner is interested; there is an
opening;.ihe pay is good. So the owner introduces th*e.app$.icantto you, who, as shop supervisor, will be expected to evaluate thispersonts
worth as a mechanic.
You walk to a nearby service bench, open
your tool chest and lay out a selection of
measuring tools. You indicate a specific cylinder bore you would like miked, and inform the
applicant to choose the tools and make the
measurement.
The applicant picks up an inside caliper and
a six inch steel rule, adjusts the caliper in
the bore, then plaees the caliper on the face of
the six inch rule and, after some squinting,

informs you that the bore diameter is "iust a
whisker over four inches."
The actual bore diameter is 4.030. What do
you think of the applicantfs ability? Will you
recommend hiring this person? If ,not, why?
R E ME MB E R :
No one can be termed a top-notch mechanic
who is not fmiliar withandcompetentinthe use
of measuring tools used in the trade. youcan be
proud of your ability to make precision measurements - it is the mark of a fine mechanic,l
SlendardTorque Specficalonsend CapscrewMarkingsChert

SAEGRAOE1 or 2
(Us6dlf,isqutly)
A
CAPSCFEW
HEADMANKINGS
CAPSCBEW
BOOYSrZE
Inches- Thrd
Torque
I /4-20
{l
"t
r.avtY)
3/a'16
. -24
7/16-14
| '24
SAEs
l3
20
37.9629
40.6745
.7/=13
-20
3S
rrr9:]i
5l
5/8-1 1
-18
3/4-10
..
-16
83
95
SAESor?
IGM 260-M)
6,7791
8.13
14.9f40
17.6256
24.4047
27.1164
5./16-18
dto saEGfsdo5.
4r'+r
SAElor2
.{GM 28O-M)
Ft.Lb
t0
7
9
31
35
49
23.0449
25.7605
42.0304
47.4536
r 60
175
235
250
318.6130
338 9500
590
660
(cM 290-M}
Ft- L b .
0 .4 4 6 5
3 .5 5 8 2
75
85
110
r20
150
170
270
295
customary (nch) bolts - tdentifcatonmarks correspondto bott

,t."ngt'rn"r"ing
nu.b"" representncreasingstrength.
fvletrcBolts - ldentficatonclassnumberscorrespondto bolt

strength- Increasingnumbersrepresentncreasng
strength.
34
66,.435I
74.5700
Nm
T,o fq u e
Nm
FI.L b
r 3.5582
t2
25.7605
24
27
16.2698
18.9815
32.5396
36 6071
4 6 .0 9 7 8
74.5100
49
10
66.4351
ro5.7538
01.6863
15.2445
49.1380
62.6960
203.3700
230.4860
366.0660
399.9610
535.541
0
589.7730
7993220
894.8280
(cM 3OO_M}
SAE GR AOE 8
(Usd Ffsquotly)
Torque
Nm
I
10
52.8769
55.5885
69.1467
74.51
112.5329
128.8027
r42.3609
r55.9170
216.9280
231.2650
r05
115
SAE GR AD E 6 o r 7
( U s d .tfi m o s)
Torque
Nm
FI- L b
ilnuladu6r's
mks may vry
Trcelina ma.kings on h6ads.
SAEGRADE5
(Us6dFr6auontlv)
85
1 1 5.2445
120
162.6960
161
226.4186
2AO
3t9.6240
440
596.5520
660
8 9 4 .8 2 8 0
r42.36@
162.6960
210.1490
230.4860
105
120
170
2r0
244
420
605
675
284.7180
325.3920
508.4250
569.4360
820.2590
915.1650
990
l 2 3 3 .7tAQ
| 342.2420
_6.*
*b
STRENGTH
l[tiT
tDENTlFlcATloN
ID EN T IF IC AT IO N M AR KS ( 4}
fig .3 - A. Clr o f sh o ws t ypi col torgue for cop screw s w i th hreods cl eon ond dry, R educe torque by
l0 percent il threods ore oiled; reduce by 20 percent i( new, ploted fosleners ore used lo vorisus
lo sr e n e r sr o d e s. AL WA Y S FOLLOW MA N U FA C .TU R E R 'SIOR QU E S P E C IFIC A TION SFOR TH E
EXACT JOB AT HAND. A -C op screw s, 6ol ts ctd nul s dre morked w i th ei ffi er /i nes or numbetsto
in d iccir e th e i r e lo tive strength. B -C usl omory (i nchl bol t morki ngs. N ote trrot the strength (gro de)
co r r e sp o n d s to th e n u mbe of l i nes. fhere ore ol w ays tw o /i nes l ess hon the octuol grade. Q,M e ic b o lr .m a r kin g s.fh e hi gher.thegrode (cusl omory)or number(mel ri c), the greoteri he sl ren gl h.
(A meri con Motors - Generol Mofors)
38
'li.
Chapfer3
FASTEN
ERS,
TORQUE
WRENCHES
INCREASINGIMPORTANCE
another. When drawn up, the two parts are then

held in firm contact. Fig. 3-1, illustrates the
use of a cap screw (machine screw with a
hexagonal head).
There are many different types of machine
screw s and screw heads. Fi g. g-Z sh ows a
number of those i n common use.
In th e mod er n c ar , ev er iner eas ing h o r s e power

and road speeds subject the various
components
to heavy
loads, high frequency
vibration and severe stress. As a result, fastener (nuts, boLts, screws, etc.) design, material
and torque
settings,
once of relatively
small
interest to the mechanic, have assumed a position of major importance.
It is important that the mechanic familiarize
himself with the various tpes, materials used
in their
construction,
uses, and proper
installation.
ooooooo
HHHHHo
R E A D CA RE F U L L Y
H EX
Be sure to read this chapter carefully. Study

the various fasteners, their markings and uses
until you can recognize them immediately. Pay
particular attention to the section on toroue
w r enc hes .
FLA T
OV A L FILLIS TE RR OU N D C LU TC H FLU TE D
Fi s.3-2.Typi col
mehi ne screw s. Four heods at ri ght i l l us trate

vori ous openi ngsl or l urni ng tool s,
PAN H EAO
R O U N DH EAD
,,_.'f-,
,.'A
HE
M A CHI NE S CR E WS
Machine scre'S are used without nuts. They
are passed through one part and threaded into
EF
CLEARANCEHOLE
Fi g. 3-3, Typi col s eet mefol screw s.
SELF-TAPPINGOR SHEET
METAL SCREWS
TH READ ED
u^t
B
Siireet metal screws are used to fasten thin
met. parts together and for attaehing various
items to ireet metal. They are much faster and
less expensive than bolts, Fig. 3-3.
F ig . 3 - l , C o p s c r e w . Co p scr e w is p o sse d th r o u g h cle o r ancehol e

in port A and threoded into part B,
39
,rl
To use a sheet metal serew, a hole, that is

slightly smaller than the minor diameter (diamet er of th e s c re w i fth e th re a d s w e re ground off),
is either drilled or punched through a piece of
metal. The punched hole provides more threading area and when the screw is drawn up, the
hole attempts to close thus providing greater
grippi.ng power. Fig. 3-4.
5CR EW
Fis' 3-5' studthreadednin"':":
r rt
Ei
rl ,
':"'i;'::':;!over
..ii l
{e ri
i
tfj
lr
stud'nvtptoced
F i g . 3 - 4 , Scr e w p o sse s r e e ly th r o u g h A o n d cuts threods i n

punched hole in B. Wenscew tightens, punched metol draws up
o n d in , p r o vid in g o s cu e g r ip, C .
BOLT
A bolt is a metal rod that has a head at one
end and a screw thread
to take a nut at the
other. The bolt is passed through the parts to
be joined then the nut is installed
and drawn up,
thus holding the parts together, Fig. 3-4A.
and a nut is turned down on the stud to seeure

the part. Studs are available in many lengths
and diameters. Some have a coarse thread on
one end and a fine thread on the other..Others
have the same thread on both ends and in some
eases, this thread may run the full length of
the stud, Fi g. 3-5.
A stud wrench should be used to install or
remove studs. Re careful not to damage the
threads. If no stud wrench is available, plaee
two nuts on the stud and "j"*t'
them together
(turn the top one clockwise, the bottomcounterclockwise until they eome together). place a
wreneh on the lower nut to remove the stud, on
the upper.nut to install, Fig. 3-6.
REMOVING
BROKENSTUDSOR SCREWS
NUf
-
There are several methods that mav be employed. If a fair portion of the stud projects
- BOLT
Fig. 3-4A. Using o bol to hold two ports together,
STUDS
A stud iS a metal rod, threaded onboth ends.
The stud is turned nto a threaded hole in a
part. The other part is slipped over the stud
Fi g.3-6. l Jsi ng i om nuts ond w renchto remov e s fud.
40
FostenersqndTorqueWrenches
above the work, it may be gripped with vise_
grip pliers, or a small pipe wrench and backed
out.
Where the portion protruding is not sufficient
to grasp with pliers or wrench, flat surfaces
may be filed to take a wrench, or a slot may be
eut to allow the use ofa screwdriver, Fig. 3_64
Detail A.
^fu I
B
,-Q
\--2
-----1
.
EXTRACTOR
,Or-ffi
a trifle smaller than the stud minor diameter.

Lightly tap the extractor into the shell that
remains and back it out with a wrench. The
sharp edges on the flutes will grip the shell.
Do not exert enough force on the extractor to
break it as removal of the extractor segmenr
coul d present
a real
probl em, Fi g. 8- 6A,
Detail D.
In the event the methods previously de_
scribed fail, select the proper tap size drill
and after running it through the stub shell, care_
fully tap out the hole. If done properl
the tap
will remove the shell threads leaving the
original threads in the hole undamaged, Fig.
3-64, D etai l E .
When drilling, drilt through the stub only.
Do not drill beyond as you may damage some
part. If working on a setup where metal
ehips
may fall into a housing, eoat the drill and tap
with a heawy eoat of sticky grease so that the
chips will adhere to the tools.
US EP E NE T RA T I NG
OIL
Fg.3-6A. Merodsusedin emovingbrokenstud. A_Srudsrorred

w f iled llot. B-Nut weldedon. C-punchr".d ro "r.w
broken
piece. D-Screwextroctor. E-lJsingo top to removeshell.
-\nother method is to drill a hole in a,section
of f,lat steel, pLace it over the broken stud and
ineld the strip to the stud. A nut large
enough
to fit over the stud can also be welded
on.
,,r,-HEti
WELDING,
BE CAREFUL
OF FIRE AND
D-{I-{GE
TO PARTS. The arc welder does the
job quickly and with a minimal
amount of heat_
ing, Fig. 3-6,4', Detail B.
When the stud is broken off flush or slight_
lv below the surface,
you may use a thin and
sharp pointed punch and try driving the broken
seetion in a counterclockwise
direetion. Some_
times the stub will turn out easily.
If you are
not
getting
results
- stop and try
another
method, Fig. 3-64, Detail C.
A screw extractor
can often be used with
good results. Center puneh in theEXACTcenter
of the stub. Drill through the stub with a small
diameter
drill
then run a drill
through that is
Regardless of the method of removal, it is

a good idea to apply penetrating oil (a special
Iight oil with high penetrating powers used
to
free rusty and dirty parts) to the area and give
it a few minutes to work in. If heat is noiin_
jurious to the part, an applicaton
of heat will
also help. Use caution not to overheat. If in
doubt as to the effects - do hot apply heat.
NEVER USE A TORCH NEAR A GAS TANK,
BATTERY
OR OTHER FLAMMABLE
MATERIALS.
R E P A R IN G TH R E A D S
Occasionally threads, both external and internal, are only partially stripped. In such
cases they can be readily cleaned up through
the use of a thread die or atap, Fig. B-BA.
When threads in holes are damaged beyond
repair, one of three things can be done:
1. The hole may be drilled and tapped to the
next suitable oversize and a larger diameter
cap screw or stud installed. Use a chart to
determine the proper size (tap size) to use.
A clearance or body drill (a drill the size of
the bolts major diameter) must be passed
through the attaching part to al1ow an oversi ze cap screw to be used, Fi g. 3-68.
2. The hole may be drilled and tapped to accepr
a threaded plug. The plug should also be
4l
T HREADSSTRIPPED
NUTS
Fig,3-68.
drilled
A
Nuts are manufactured in a variety of sizes

and styles. Nuts for automotive use are generally hexagonal in shape (six sided). They are used
on bolts and on studs and obviously must be of
the correct diameter and thread pitch (threads
per i nch), Fi g. 3-7.
Re p o ir in g str ip p e d r h r e o d b y d r ill i ng ond |crppi ngto

n e xf o ve r size .
a n d ta p p e d
s p e cia l
to th e
se lf- ta p p in g
o r ig in al
p lu g
a lr eady
screw
si ze.
threaded
to the original size may be used. you merely

drill
a hole to the specified size, run the
threaded plug into the hole by using a cap
serew and jam nut. When fully seated, the
ja m nut is loos ened and t he c a p s c r e w r e moved, Fig. 3- 6C.
+CAP
SCREW
LOCK OR J AM N U T
rffir
\t_J
E2w
-| -l
W IN GN U T
F i g . 3 - 6 C. In se r tin g h e o d e dp lu g to r e p o ir stri ppedrfi reods.
B O L T A NDS CRE W
T E RMI NO L O G Y
3. Another method makes use of a patented
Bolts and screws may be identified by type,

length, major diameter, pitch (threads per
inch), Iength of thread, class or fit, material,
tensi l e
strength, and w rench size needed,
Fi g. 3-8.
coil wire insert called a Heli-Coil. The hole

is drilled then tapped with a speeial tap. A
Heli-Coil is then inserted. This brings the
hole back to its original diameter andthread,
F igs . 3 -6 D a n d 3 -4 0 .
l^*l*l
F i g . 3 - 6 D. Re p o ir in g str ip p e d th r e o d s by.usng o
He li- Co il in sto llo tio n , ( Ch r ysl er)
_T
-Y
ll
BC
YI
REM EMB E R
Whenever removing a broken screw or repairing stripped threads, proceed carefully. A
frantic or careless attempt at repair can often
cause serious and costly trouble.
SPEEDN U T
Fig. 3-7. Common nuts. fhe wing nut is insrol/ed ond removed
wirh the ingers. Ilre speed nut js used in lastening seef mefo/
or other pds not requiring the strength ol the regulor nut,
DRILLED AN D T APPED
THREAD EDPLU G
S L O TTE D H E X
H EX
Fig. 3-8. Bol and scew fermino/ogy. A-Pitch. B-Minor diometer.

C-Moior diometer. D-Threod lengtfi. E-Screw length. F-Theods
per inch. G-Heod size measured ocross t f/ots.
42
Fqstenersond TorqueWrenches
H EADM AR KINGS
Steel bolts and
i the same quality
:he same. Current
--re bolt and screw
cap screws are not all made

rnaterial nor is the tempering
practice utilizes markings on
heads to indicate the tensile
::rength of the fastener. Learn what these impor:alt marks means, Fig. 3-A on page 38.
R ETH READING
tE
fine thread in these materials

will strip more
- easily.
practice
is to use the coarse
The current
thread mcre widely than in the past. The coarse
thread has a larger
and less critical
shoulder
bearing area, screws in and out more quickly
and is less subject to stripping
and gatling.
Galling occurs when the threads ri.p particles
HH
INTERNAL THREAD
CHASE R5
r_
L
HANDT AP
F i g . 3 { .A. Sd m e ffir e o d r e sfo r in g to o r s.
(Deere & Co.)
Fig. 3-88. Using o threod-pitch gouge to defemne the numberol

threods per inch.
UAJOR DIAMETER
of metal from each other, therebydamagingboth

threads
and, in severe
cases,
causing the
fastener to stick tightly.
As a bolt diameter
lncreases,
the size and
pitch of the thread becomes greater.
For example: UNC threads on a Ll4 in. diameter bolt
are smaller
and there are more threads per
inch than UNC threads on a 1/2 in. bolt.
Th is is th e . wides t diam et er
as m ea s u r e d
::o:n the top or crest
of the threads on one
: -de to the cre st of t hos e on t he ot her , Fig. 3 - 8 .
TilINORDIAMETER
This diameter
is determined
by measuring
:::n
the bottom of the threads on one side to
ti: bottom of the threads on the other. If you
;m'-::e to remove all traces of the threads, the
'-=-neter
' -aine ter,
of the portion
Fig. 3- B.
O T HE RT HRE A DS E RI E S
Less commonly used are the UNEF (Unified
National Extra Fine) and the B, 12, and 16-thread
s eries.
The UNEF is a finer thread than the UNF
w h i l e t h e B , 1 2 , a n d 1 6 - t h r e a d s e r i e s a r e c o a r se
threads for large bolts. For example: all bolts
in the 8-thread series, regardless
of diameter,
left would be the minor
PfTCH
pitch is the distance between the
Thread
:rest of one thread to the same spot on the crest
:j :he next thread. The smaller
the pitch, the
sreater number of threads per inch. The pitch
:: number
per inch can best be
of threads
gauge, Figs.
by using a thread-pitch
'e:ermined
1- 3 B a nd 3-8 C.
. ] TH R EAD
SER IE S
Two series of threads in common use are
(UNC - Unified .National Coarse)
coarse
(UNF
the
fine
- Unified National Fine). The
'-d
:3arse
thread is generally used when screws
-:e threaded into cast iron and aluminum as a
e
gouge being
number o{ threads per i nc h.
Fis. 3-8C. Ihreod-pitch
43
used to check nut lo

(Deee E Co.)
Auto Service and Repoir

have 8 threads per inch. The 12-thread series
bolts have 12 threads per inch, etc.
Study the chart in Fig. 3-9. Note that screws
under Ll4 in. in diameter are designated by
number instead of fractional size.
I.l
iii
C LA S S OR FIT
Thread class indicates the operating clear_
ance between the nut internal threads and the
bolt external threads. Classes are divided i.nto
Recommended for
AIIERICAIII NATIONAL scREw THREAD PITCHES
c(,ARsE STANDARD THREAD (N. C.)
SPECTALTHREAD
(N. S.)
Formerly U. S. Standard Thread
lr
Slta.
2
3
.l
li
4
5
6
8
't0
12
Vl
Xt
,l
,r
iii
Kt
+t
Tt
7h
1
1Vs
1V1
Inllact
?..
lc
64
56
48
40
40
32
32
24
24
20
18
16
14
't3
'12
11
10
I
8
7
7
oulda
Dtn!aat
rl Scr.t
frD
Drll
SlrG
.ut
53
.086
50
.099
47
.112
43
.125
38
.138
36
.164
29
.190
25
.216
16
.250
7
.3125 F
.375
4,
.4375
U
n4
.500
3l/
.5625
tu
tr2
.625
,N2
.750
a9/
.875
/u
7ti
1.000
't.125
9(,
1.250
1t1,
I orc|nd
I Eqorrl.nt
LdDrt'l
0.0595
0.0700
0.0785
0.0890
0.1015
0.1065
0.1360
0.1495
o.1770
0.2010
0.2570
0.3125
0.3680
0.4219
0.4843
0.5312
0.6562
0.7656
0.875
0.9843
1.t093
slt.!
1
4
4
6
I
10
12
14
14
X,
Yn
h
Yt
Yt
Xt
Xt
,1,
,r,
V1
1/t
F|NE STANDARD THREAD (N. F.)

Formerly S.A.E. Thread
Slt..
0
1
2
4
5
6
8
10.
12
V1
:i:lta
4a
th
,/
r-ti
46
V2
%t
YB
V
t/a
1
1 Vs
11/t
ii
if
{l
1l
Pat
Inch
72
54
56
48
44
40
36
32
2A
28
24
24
20
20
18
18
16
14
14
12
'12
Vt
Xt
Xt
Xi
,l
,b
,r(,
Equr.lanl
ol Drlll
at
.060
.073
.086
.099
.112
.'125
.138
.164
.190
.2r6
.250
.3125
.375
.4375
.500
.5625
.625
.750
.875
.000
.125
.250
/u
53
50
45
42
37
33
29
21
14
?
o
'7
2l/
0.5062
0.5687
ll,
0.8020
0.9274
1lu
l rY u
0.0595
0.0700
0.0820
0.0935
0.1040
0.1130
0.1360
0.1590
0.1820
0.2130
o,2720
0.3320
0.3906
0.4531
0.s062
0.5687
0.6875
0.8020
0.9274
1.0468
1.17 t8
'rl
f2
V2
y2
X,
5h
Y.
tXt
tXt
Yt
Yt
r/
,h
,h
1
I
r.aar
P
Inch
56
32
36
36
40
30
32
20
24
64
48
40
32
36
24
32
24
32
24
27
32
20
27
32
20
27
24
27
12
24
27
27
12
27
11
16
't2
27
12
18
27
12|
27
guttgt
Olrttat
rl Sc..r
TIP
Drlll
Slras
54
| .0730
45
1.1120
44
1.r120
| .1380 34
.1640
28
I
| .1900 22
| .2160 13
10
| .2420
7
| .2420
yu
| .0625
| .0e38 49
I .12s0 38
Vs
| .1563
| .1563 30
| .187s 26
| .1875 22
I .2188 't6
.2188 12
.250
4
.250
3
,r(,
.250
D4
.3125
.3125
J
.3125
4
2l/
.375
.u
1
.375
R
1
.4375
x
I
1 .4375
n4
1 .500
2%
1 .500
'2
1 .500
I'A
1 .5625
|Yu
.625
1
tb:
1 .625
t162
| .6875
%
| .6,875
ry
| .750
,9r,
1 .750
tt/
.u
1 .875
v
1 .875
,r&
.875
I
tt^
1.000
tlli
11.000
Daclmrl
Equlrrlat
ot Orlll
0.0550
0.0820
0.0860
0.1110
0.1405
0.1570
0.1850
0.1935
0.2010
0.0469
0.0730
0.1015
0.1250
0.1285
0.1470
0.1570
0.1770
0.1890
0.2090
0.2130
0.2187
0.2656
0.2770
o.2812
0.3281
0.3390
0.3970
0.4040
0.4219
0.4531
0.4687
0.5312
0.5469
0.5937
0.5937
0.6250
0.6719
0.7187
0.7969
0.8281
0.8437
0.9219
0.9687
Fi g.3-9. Typi cal screw tfi reod l op si ze chort.

(Peere E f,o.)
NUTS
six categories, 1A, LB, ZA, 28, 3A, and 3I!. The
letter A indicates external threads (bolts, studs,
screws) and the letter B indicates internal
threads (nuts, threaded holes).
This in effect, gives three cLasses. Number
I class is a relatively loose fit and would be
used for ease of assemblyanddisassemblyunder
adverse conditions. Class 2 provides a fairly
Nuts used on bolts which are hexagonal in

shape, have a corresponding number of threads
per inch and with the same major thread diameter. Wrench size (rneasured across flats) is
very much standardized but does varv for
special applications, Fig. 3-10.
Fostenersond TorqueWrenches
accurate fit with only a small amount of cleara:rce, and is the class commonly used for autonotive fasteners. Class B is an extremelyclose
i:t and is used where utmost accuracv is
e s sential.
T OP V IE W
II
passes through the nut, it spreads the segments

apart thus producing a locking action.
Detail C shows a single slotinthe side of the
nut. The slot may be forced open or closed
during manufacture thus destorting upper thread.
This will create a jamming effect when bolt
threads pull nut threads back into alignment.
A crimped nut is shown in Fig. B-40.
cRosssEcTtoN
S E LF-LOC K IN G S C R E W S
Some cap screws have heads that are designed to spring under pressure of tightening
to produce a self-locking effect. Occasionally
the threaded end of a cap screw will be split
and the halves slightly bent outward. When
threaded into a hole, the halves are forced together this creating friction between the threads.
Erg . 3 - 1 0 . T y p i c o l n uf.
A- Size o cr o ss flo fs. B.T h r e o d moj or di omefe. C-ffireod mino diometet.
LOC K W A S H E R S
A lock washer is used under the nut and grips
both the nut and the part surface. The three
basic designs are the internal, external and the
p1ain.
L }NI F I E D
The word UNIFIED, as used in Unified
lfational Coarse and UnifiedNational Fine, indi:ates that this thread eonforms with thread
s--andards as used in the United States, Canada
=-i E ngland.
ffiffiffi
I]-OCKING
DEVICES
!
- \ " s c r ews , b o l ts , n u ts , e tc ., a re s u b j e c t edto

r:nration, expansion and contraction, theytend to
w'srk loose. To prevent this, numerous locking
ieciices have been developed. These maybe an inrcgral part of the screw or nut, or may be a part
:-aced under, through or aroundthe screw or nut.
I?c:ry cement is sometimes used.
SLO T T EDAN D PIN C H ED
D IST OR T EDT H RE A D
ABc
5E.F-LOCKING
NUTS
Fi g.3-l l . S el f-l ocki ng nurs. A -S ofr col l or type. B -Top s ec ri on

slotted and pinched together. C-Stor ro distoii upper thieod areo.
Some nuts are designed to be self-locking.

Th:s is accomplished in various ways but all
share the same principle, that being the cres:iql of friction between the threads of the bolt
rr stud and the nut, Fig. B-11.
In Fig. 3-11, nut A utilizes a collar of soft
=etal, fiber or plastic. As the bolt threads pass
:p through the nut, they must foree their way
:hrough the collar. This jams the collar material
tightly into the threads thus loeking the nut in
place.
In B, the nut upper section is slotted and the
segments are forced together. When the bolt
When using lock washers, especially the

plain, with die cast or aluminum parts, a plain
steel non-locking washer is frequently used
under the lock washer, to prevent damaging the
part, Fi g. 3-12.
P A L NUT
The palnut locking device is constructed of
thin stamped steel and is designed to bind
against the threads of the bolt when installed. In
45
Auto Service ond Repqr

use, t he palnut is s pun downint o c o n t a c t w i t h
the
regular nut (open side of palnut away from the
regular
nut) with the fingers.
Once firmly
in
contact with the nut, it is given one-half turn.
Do not t ight en bey ond O NE- HA L F
TURN as the
EXTERNAL
PLATN
ltl
IN T ER N AL
wl @
rrppeo oe
Fig.3-14. Usesofcotfe pin. A-Linkoge.B-C/evispin. C_Cosrle

nut. D-Typicolcotterpin.
/- - \
\='/
F i g . 3- 1 2 . T yp ico l lo ckwo s e s. No t illustroted i s onol her type
l l r o t use s b o th in te r n o l o n d e xte r n o l { in gers, Ti pped edges provid e g r ip p in g p o we r in lh e "o { 1" di ecti on.
end movement
is present. Splines will allow,
when desired, longitudinal movement while stil1
c a u s i n g t h e p a r t s t o r o t a t e to g e th e r . In so m e
c a s e s p i n s a r e u s e d t o f i x s h afts i n h o u si n g s to
p r e v e n t e n d m o v e m e n t a n d r o ta ti o n , Fi g .
3_15.
L O CK I NG
P L A T E SA NDS A F ET YP t N S
j
i ,
ii
effectiveness
of the palnut will be destroyed.
The one- half t ur n dr aws t he s t ee l f i n g e r s t o w a r d s
th e nut c aus ing t hem t o jam i n t o t h e t h r e a d s ,
Fig. 3- 13.
Locking plates are made of thin sheet metal.

T h e p l a t e i s g e n e r a l l y a r r a n g e d so th a r tw o
or
m o r e s c r e w s p a s s t h r o u g h i t . T h e m e ta l e d g e o r
tab is then bent up snugly against the bolt.
Various patterns are used.
Occasionally
screws
w i l l b e l o cke d w i th
s a f e t y w i r e ( s o f t o r d u c t i l e w i r e ) . Th e w i r e i s
p a s s e d f r o m s c r e w t o s c r e w i n su ch a m a n n e r
as to exert a clockwise pull.
SPRINGSTEEL F IN GER
F i g . 3- 1 3 , Po ln u t. Ho ll- tu r n fo m s sfe e l li ngers ogoi nst teods.
C OTTE RK E YOR P tN
Cotter pins are used both with slotted and
castle nuts as well as on clevis pins, linkage
en ds, et c . Us e as t hic k a c ot t er p i n a s p o s s i b l e .
Cut off the surplus length and bend the ends as
shown. If necessarr, they may be bent around
the sides of the nut. Make certain that the bent
en ds will not int er f er e wit h s om e p a r t , F i g . 3 - 1 4 .
KEY s,S P LTNEASNDP |NS

SPLIN E
Thes e ar e us ed t o at t ac h gea r s , p u l l e y s , e t c . ,
to shafts so that they witl rotate as units. When
a key or pin is used, the unit being attached to
the shaft is generally
fixed so that no end to
l,i
?--
F i s . 3 - 1 5 . K ey, sp/i ne ond pi n. N ote fot the s p/i ne al l ow s end

m O v em ent, The pin fixes the sholt o the housing, ollowing no
m ov em ent. The key is commonly relered to os o woodrul key,
ol so a hol {-moon kev .
46
LOC KIN GPLAT E
Never reuse safety wire and always dispose

cf locking plates on which the tabs are fatigued
/rea dy to crack ) , Fig. 3- 16.
5NAP RINGS
Sna p rin gs ar e us ed t o pos it ion s haf t s , b e a r -::g s, ge ars, et c . Ther e ar e bot h int er na l a n d
external
snap rings
of numerous
sizes and
shap es.
The snap ring is made of spring steel and
=ust either be expanded or contracted, depend-ng on the type, in order tg be removed or in=-talled. Special snap ring pliers are used.
Be careful when installin!
or removing snap
rings because overexpansion or eontractionwill
drstort and ruin them. If a snap ring is sprung
cut of shape - throw it away. NEVER atterrrpi
:o pound one back into shape. Never compress
cr expand snap rings any more than necessary.
-ibove a1l, do not pry one end free of the groove
and slide it along the shaft, as this may ruin
:he ring , Fig. 3 - 17.
I,
I
SAF ET Y W IR E
Fi g. 3-16. Lockng pl ote ond sol ety w i re. Ios musr be bentl i rnIy ogoi nst cop screw l a! l o prevent otal i on.
S ETSCREWS
Setscre ws ar e us ed t o bot h loc k and po s i t i o n
.:lleys and other parts to shafts. The setscrew
--c hardened and is available with different tios
and drive heads.
Keep in mind that setscrews are poordriving
deviees because they often slip on the shaft.
-rihen used in conjunction
with a woodruff key,
:hey merely position the unit. As a general rule,
do not install any unit without a woodruff key.
When a setscrew is used, the shaft will usualXy have a f1a,4 sqot to take the screw tip. Make
certain this 5po/ is aligned before running the
screw up , Fig. 3- 18.
G R O O VE
Fi g.3-17. S nopri ngs. A -Fl ot i nternol type. B -E xrernol . C -R ound

extenol . There oe mony shopes cnd si zes ol ri ngs .
ALLEN H EAD
v/
--<
1.---1
:
RIVETS
PO IN T ED
F LAT O N S H A FT
-Z
Rivets are made of various metals, including

brass, aluminum, soft steel, etc., and find many
applications
on an automobile.
They are installed cold so that there is no contraction that
would allow side movement between the parrs.
F ig. 3-1 9, sho ws s ev er al t y pes of r iv et s .
When using rivets, there are several important considerations.
The two parts to be
joined must be held tightly together before and
during riveting.
The rivet should fit the hole
snugly. The rivet material
must be in i<eeping
with the job to be done. The rivetmust
be.of the
Fi g.3-18. Typi col setscrew s. S efscrew s ore hordenedond they

shou/d e run up very tightly.
ti^t
\.
A.
couNrERsuNK
WWWTY
-/
H O LLO IVOR
T U BU LAR
'SO L D
SPLIT
Fi g. 3-19. S everol fypes of ri vefs.
47
Fis. 3-208.pop Riveroo/in use.
tr
:ri,
,f
:,il
.f l l
,i f i
;ii
; lri
t:
i,'i
+ii
' $ll
correct
typ e
( fla t
b e se t with
head,
a to o l
o v;r !, e tc.) and the ri vet

( r ive t
set) desi gned
for
t he pu rp o s e . F i g . 3 -2 0 , i l l u s tra tes the

setti ng
of a solid and a tubular rivet.
P O P R IVE T S
When one side of the work to be riveted is
inaccessible, pop rivets may be used. They
can
be set from the outside and thus make the use
of blind rivets practical. Fig. 3-20A illustrates
the use of one form of pop rivet.
" i:ti
llr
iij
L*I
:,i
rF
!i'
li.i
t
t.I
3 - 2 0 8 ) i s p l a c e d o v e r t h e r i v e t a n vi l p i n ,
and
when the handles are closed, the
anvil pin is
pulled outward. As the anvil is drawn
outward,
the rivet head is forced against the work
and
t h e h o l l o w s t e m i s s e t . T h e se tti n g p r o ce ss
draws the two parts tightly together. Further
pressure
on the tool handles causes the anvil
pin to snap off just ahead of the anvil.
The anvil
remains in the set area.
F i g . 3 - 2 0 B s h o w s a p o p R i v e to o l b e i n g
u se d
to attach seat back trim.
F i g . 3 - 20 . Se tlin g r ive ts. A- Pie ce s b r o u ght togerher ond ri vet

s e o f e d . 8 - Rive t b u lg e d . C- Rive r cr o wn e dond seJ. D -S et used
fo
t u b ulo ive t, E- Se f lo r ce d d o wn , cr o wn ing i vef os sow n.
should
PfNsNAp s
O T HE RF A S T E NE RS
In addition to fasteners already discussed,
there are numerous other specialized type
fasteners such as hose clamps, C washers,
clevis pins, spring lock pins, etc. Many types
are pictured in Fig. B-40.
ln
IU
F A S T E NE RS
S HO UL D
B E T O RO U E D
1!l
rii
i.
ilt
:l
I
f''j!
ii
1t
ilil
,ili
\.-
THIN AREA
To better
understand
the reason for, and
the proper
application
of, controlled
torque,
the meehanie should be familiar
with several
important
terms.
Read the definitions
which
fo11ow earefully
as these terms will be used a
great deal in this section.
TORQUE: Torque is a turning or twisting

force
exerted upon an object - in this case, the
fastener. It is measured in inch_grams, inch_
ounces, i nch-pounds and foot_pounds, Fig. 3_21.
TENSION; Tension is a pulling force. When
screw is tightened, it actually stretehes
9 ""p
(about.001 per 90,000 l bs. of tensio
duet o t he
tension being applied, Fig. 3-22.
ELASTIC LIMIT: The amount or disrance an
object can be distorted (compressed, bent,
n rv e rs e f
AN YIL R EM AIN S
F i g . 3 - 2 0 A, In sto llin g
d p o p r ive . A_ p o p i vet i n pl oce. B 'lRivetool" hos pu|Ied or"it' pin our*o,i,'oU,ri'irr)r"
rlsethet,
sefiing rivet and snopping off pin,
The pop rivet is inserted through the parts

to be joined, a hand-operatecl setting tool (Fig.
ifl
i'i
1l]i
$1i
ll
.,'.1.",
48
Fqsteners ond TorqueWrenches
stre tch ed ) an d s t ill r et ur nt ot he

s am e dim e n s i o n
whe n the force is r em ov ed, Fig. 3- 23.
DISTORTION:
The normal
shape or configuration
of an object being changed or altered
due to the application of some force or forces,
Fig . 3 -24 .
TENSILE STRENGTH: The amount of pull an
o bje ct will with s t and bef or e br eak ing, Fig . 3 - 2 5 .
RESIDUAL
TENSION: The stress remaining
C A P S CR E W
in an elastic object that h a s b e e n d i s t o r te d a n d

not allowed to return to its original dimension,
Fig. 3-26.
WRENCH
Fi g. 3-24. D i s.torti on.A -H ydroul i c rom oboulto engoger ounds teel

ri ng. B -P ressuel rom am ends o di storts ri ng.
F i g . 3 - 2 1 , T o r q u e . To r q u e o t o twistin g lo r ce b e in g a p pl i ed to o
cop screw with o box end wrench.
\rrr
illtr/
ro*
\\IZ
7/t1rFi g.3-25. Tensi l e strength. A -B sr ol steel i n o test moc i ne.
B -H eovy tensi on oppl i ed exceedi ng el osti c l i mi t, covsi ng bor to
sfelch. C-lnceosed pull {inolly snops or os fensjon exceeds
tensi l e strength.
Fi g . 3 - 2 2 . f e n s i o n . A- Sr e e l 6 o p lo ce din io ws o l o fe sf mocfi i ne.
B - J o w s m o v i n g o p o r t, cr e o l n go p u ll o r fe n sio n o n the bar.
\^z*n'-
\4
B2
Y8 3
Fi g . 3 - 2 3 . E l o s i c Lin it. Bo r s in Al o n d BI o r e st. No fe thot they

te oligned with the black dot. ln A2 he hor is bent within elosfic lnt and when pressure is emoved it springs 6ock to its noml (43) positon. Bo in 82 is bent beyond its elosfic limi ond
rlren pressure s removed, the bor springs only part woy 6ock os
in 8 3 .
Fi g.3-26. R esduol tensi on. A -R u66er band ot est,' no res i duol

lension. B-Bond being pulled (distorted) out to engagespring sfeel
fiook. C-8ond ottempls to rcturn to originol dimensions, creating
o pull (residuol tension) ond bending the hook. Ylithin its elostic
limit, steel is more elosfic than ubber,
49
The ability
of an object to
ELASTICITY:
shape
to its original
distortion,
after
return,
force has
once the distortive
and dimensions
b ee n re m ov ed, Fig. 3- 27.
B
Fig.3-29.
Cold {low. ln A, the nul is nof tight ond fee is no
compressve loce on gos/<el. ln B, nut is tightened, compressing
goskef ond cousing il to llow oulwod os tlre thickness deceoses.
ti
.
;
t-
HIGH PRESSURE LUBRICANT: A lubricant

that continues to reduce friction between two
objects even when they are forced together
under heavy pressure.
i
5
Fig. 3-27. Elasticity. A-Originol position o{ ho. B-Bor delected

by pressure, C-No pressure, and ba eturns to original posifion.
TOROUEFASTENERS
NECESSITY
To understand
of
the VITAL
torquing, we should first establish what we want
to accomplish by tightening fasteners. Orcethis
is clear,
the reason for the use of a torque
wrench become s obvious.
We tighten fasteners to hold parts together.
On the surface this seems like a simple statement but there is more here than meets the eye.
When we say to hold parts together, we are in
effect saying that once together, the parts should
remain that way. When drawn together the parts
-l
-l
-t
0 L b s.
Lbs.
0
Fig.3-28, Compression. A-Obiect ot rest. 8-Object under compression as am builds uP ptessure.
2
3
-0
COMPRESSION: A force tending to compress

or squeeze an object, Fig. 3-28.
COLD FLOW: This refers to the tendency of
an object under compression to expand outward
thus reducing its thickness in the direction of
c om pr e s s i o n , F i g . 3 -2 9 .
HOOKE'S LAW: This law states that the
amount of distortion (lengthening, shortening,
bending, twisting, etc.), as long as it is kept
within the elastic limits of the material, will be
directly proportional to the applied force. This
forms the basis for spring scales' torque
wr enc h e s , e tc ., F i g . 3 -3 0 .
-2
-0
_l
3
Fig. 3-30. Hooke's low. Nofe fot os fe weight on the spring bor
is increosed, tee s o ptoportionole movemenl on tfte scole. T]rs
would conlinue until the bor wos delleced Posl its eloslic limit.
50
Fqsteners qnd TorqueWrenches

should not be distorted; that the fasteners should
not be overtightened
to the. point they will fail
in service; that they have been tightened enough
to prevent them fromworkingloose,
andperhaps
being sheared or pounded apart; andthatoil,gas
and water leaks will not occur.
Letts assume that a t'greenhornrt mechanic
has just completeJ.y assembled an engine with
a "guess and by goshrr method of tightening.
Here is what COULD HAppEN to the engine:
1. Cylinders out-of-round.
2. Connecting rod and mainbearings
egg shaped.
3. Cylinder head warped.
4. Valve guides forced out of alignment.
5. Camshaft bearing centerline out.
6. Crankshaft centerline out.
7. All engine components affected to some extent.
In addition, blown head gaskets, oil, water
and air leaks, broken connecting rods, etc. can
plague the job.
Obviously, the amount of distortion willvary
depending on the stresses
set up within the
assembly but even at best, ring, piston, valve,
and bearing wear will be accelerated
and the
job will fail in service long before it
should.
use a.quality
at least equal to that originally
used. You will find that the more critical
the
(main bearing, connecting rod, etc.)
application
the better the quality.
HOW FASTENERTOROUEIS MEASURED

To secure recommended torque, a measuring
tool called a TOReUE
WRENCH is a "must."
The torque wrench
will measure
the toroue
(twisting
force) that is bei.ng applied to ihe
fastener. Singte round beam, double roundbeam,
and single taperedbeamtype
oftorque wrenches,
are shown in Fg. 3-31.
Handle
Drive
Squar
Beam
or Measuring
Element
@ Rouwoeeeu
Head
Pivoted
Pointer
Handle
Double Beam or
Measuring
Element
FROPER FASTENERTENSION
@ noual e
Force
or Pull
R ouN D B E A M
Pointer
The first thing to keep in mind is that all

car manufaeturers publish torque specifications
and that they should be followed. Each company
bas spent a great deal of time and money de:ermining the fastener torque for theirproducts
'}rat will give the bestresults. Whenusingrorque
eharts make sure they pertain tothe jobat hand.
It has been found that for the vast majority
cf applications a fastener should be tightened
-til it has built up a tension within itself
that
:s around 50 to 60 percent of its elastic limit.
When the fastener has been drawn up to this
roint, it will not be twisted off. It will retain
enough residual tension to continue to exert
sressure on the parts and will resist loosening.
Steel bolts and eap screws will stretch about
.001 for each 30,000 pounds of tension. Like a
rubber band, the tendency to return to their
normal length provides continuous clamping
effect.
Drive
Square
Beam
or Measuring
Element
@ reenaeo BEAM wRENcH

Fi g,3-31. forgue w rencfi es. fese ore ol l beom type w renc hes ,
oll widely used, durcble, ond occurote.
HOWA TOROUEWRENCHWORKS
\
torque wrench uses Hookers law in its

lttr"
c\onstruction,
(bending) a steel
By deflecting
beam (in some cases a eoil spring), the re-
lationship between the puLl onthe handle (torque)

and the amount of beam deflection
is readilv
e stablished
When the head is attached to the fastener
and the handle is pulled, the flexible beam is
bent. The pointer
rod, being attached to the
solid wrench head, is not bent. Since the scale
is attached to the handle element, it follows the
flexible
beam thus moving the scale under the
pointer end. The scale is calibrated so that the
operator
can see how much torque is being
applied.
FASTEN ER
MA TE RIA L
As previously mentioned, most bolts and
screws have radial tines on the head that indicate tensil.e strength. Whenreplaeing afastener,
5l
Auto Serviceond Repoir

If the center of pull on the handle is exactly
one foot from the center ofthe head, a one pound
pul1 on the handle would be ONE FOOT-POUND.
One foot-pound is twelve inch-pounds.
Torque wrenches are available witha sensing
device in addition to the sca1e. This warns the
pounds. For general automotive use, the inchpound and foot-pound torque wrenches are in
common use. R E ME MB E R : To conver t f oot pounds to inch-pounds, multiply the foot-pounds
by 12. To convert inch-pounds to foot-pounds,
divide inch-pounds by 12.
i]
l
FOOI.POUND SCAIE
FUTT WRENCH.I,:NGTH ADAP'ER

,\AULIIPTIES IEADINGS 3Y 2
HAI.F-I.CNGTH ADAPTEP
MutilPuEs
nEAD|NGS 8y lt,/2
OUATTE.TTNGfH ADAPTER
IiUI.TIPTIES EADINGS BY I'
SIANOARD
50cKEf5
OPEN END ,a\
gOX END
IYCID
Effective
Lengfh
of Assembly
(L + A)
\
\-a=
L = t8 ,t
Fig. 3-314. Torque wrench odoplers, (Populor Science Monthly ond P. A. Sfurfevonr Co.)
J.
;l
\rser that a preset torque has been reached.

Various tpes of sensing devices suchas alight,
audible click, etc., are employed so that the
user can tell when the correct torque has been
reached without having to read the scale. \4hen
a torque wrench must be used in a position that
makes reading the scale difficult or impossible,
the sensing device is mighty handy.
TOROUEWRENCHRANGE
.'Torque wrenches are made indifferentsizes
or ranges as well as in different calibrations.
Ideally, the mechanie should have a 0-200 inchpound, a 0-50 foot-pound, a0-100 foot-poundand
a 150 foot-pound torque wrench.
A torque wrench will produce BEST results
if it is used somewhere near the middle half of
its range. For example, a 0-100 foot-pound
.wrench would give the most aecurate readings
from around 25 to ?5 foot-pounds. By having
several ranges of wrenches the meehanie will
TOROUEWRENCH
CALIBRATION
Torque recommendations can range from
inch-grams, ineh-ounces, inch-pounds to foot-
52
Fqsteners ond Torque Wrenches
also find that this will offerhimseverallengths.

The shorter ones can be useful in restricted
quarters.
RANG ECANB E A LTE RE D

B Y USINGAN A DA P TE R
Say you have a 0-100 foot-pound wrench
available and the torque recommendation is
150 foot-pounds. This is obviously beyond the
range of the wrench. It ean stillbe used however
through the use of an adapter to lengthen the
effective range.
If the lever lenlth (distance from the center
of wrench head to pivot point on the handle) is
19 in. and you used an adapter bar of equal
length, the torque being applied would be double
that s hown ont h e s e a l e . If th e l e v e rw a s 9 - 1/2 i n.
or half as long as the lever length, the torque
would be one and one-half times that shown on
the scale. A handy formula to determine applied
torque when using an adapter or extension is
as follows:
and to the area where the nut orcap serew head

contacts the part..
N ever-seez, Fel -P ro C -5, Mol ykot e or a
similar high strength lubricant is suitable.
The use of this lubricant will prevent or reduce the possibility of galling, seizing (sticking)
or stripping, and will assure that the fastener
torque has created the proper tension. It should
be mentioned that the lubricant, while making the
fasteners easier to remove at some future date,
will not (if torqued properly) cause them to
loosen i.n service. Tothe contrary, the increased
tensioning for the same torque reading will
actually cause the fastener to remain more
secure.
US EP RO P E RL O CK I NG
DE V I CE
Unless a self-Iocking
nut or cap screw is
being used, make certai.n the recommendedlock
washer is in place. When running a fastener up
against the softer metals, the use of a plain,
flat washer between the Lockwasher andthe part,
Dial reading x (L + A) =
--t!!- Torque applied to fastener'
L
(L) rs the length j.n inches from the center of the handle pivot to the center of the wrench head.
(A) ^
ID
the length in inches from the center of the wrench head to the end of the adapter. Must
b e measured parallel to the centerline of the wrench.
i.s often specified. This prevents the part from
being "chewed'r up and allows proper"torquing
without crushing the part.
Fig. 3-31A, shows three adapter setups.

Notice that the effective length (L+A) is always
measured parallel to the centerline of the
wrench. REMEMBER: When using adapters or
extensions, be certain of their exact length. Do
no\ forget that length and torque are directly
r 3, lr dt ed,F ig. 3 -3 1 A.
CHECKFASTENERS
Be careful to check fasteners for correct
diameter, threads per inch and length. When
installing cap screws, make certain they will
not bottom (strike bottom of a threaded hole),
in a blind hol.e hole not drilled clear through
part), nor in a through hole protrude into the
housing and damage a part of the unit.
R E ME MB E R :
S tri pped threads, br oken
screws, loose parts and damaged units can result. Be carefuli
In A , Fi g. 3-32, the screw hasbottomedleaving the part loose. Continuedtorquing could twist
off the screw. In B, the screw protruded into
case and damaged gear. In C, coarse thread
screw, jammed into hole with fine threads,
cracked part, Fig. 3-32.
If any fasteners serve an additionalpurpose,
such as a head bolt or cap screu/ that may be
drilled for passage of oil, or a cap screw with
USINGTOROUEWRENCH
After determining the proper torque and
selecting a suitable range torque wrench, you
are ready to proceed. Be sure to observe the
following:
THREADS MUST BE CLEAN: The threads on
the boLt or screw as well as those in the nut or
hole, must be absolutely clean. Rust, carbon,
dirt, etc., will cause galling and improper tension. An accurate torque reading with dirty
threads is impossible.
USE HIGH TEMPERATURE LUBRICANT:
Unless the use of a lubricant is specificallyforbidden (due to the possibility of area contamination or the need of a special sealant) always
apply a high pressure Iubricant to the threads
53
S .
w
It
't.. \'.\.
J!
t"
l,
ID
If
I
I
S
_-----.- - -- 1r'
<--/
-_
,r'
uu
,a
,/
- <--"'
F i g. 3- 34. H eod bol t ti ghteni ng s eguenc e w h e n n o s p e c i o l

m endoti on i s ov oi l ol e.
( Vi c tor G o s k e r C o . )
re c o m-
set up throughout,
at the same time, allowing
t h e p a r t s t o b e d r a w n t o g e t h e r so th a t th e i r
m a t i n g s u r f a c e s w i l l c o n t a c t , F i g. 3 - 3 5 .
FOLLOW RECOMMENDEDSEOUENCE
t-
a thre aded hole in t he head t o w h i c h a n o t h e r

asse mbly is at t ac hed, be c ar ef ul t o i n s e r t t h e m
in th e c or r ec t plac e.
ld
t.
F i g .3 -3 2 .
Check fostener s/ M oke cer toin thot fos tener s o e of
l h e co rrecl diometer , length ond with sullicient th eod ol tfr e c o r ect num ber o{ tee h oe inc h.
Wh er e a num ber of f as t ener s a r e u s e d t o

secure a par t ( s uc h as a c y llnder h e a d ) t h e p r o p e r
seq ue nc e ( or der ) of t ight ening s hou l d b e f o l l o w e d .
trig . 3- 33 illus t r at es
t he head b o l t t i g h t e n i n g
seq ue nc e f or one m odel engine. A l w a y s f o l l o w
eoe nig. 3_33.
th e ma nuf aCt ur er Sr gnenif ior iinnq
r
i,
ln
It
I
o@o@oc oo@o@o
@ @o
@__@_@
Fi g. 3-35. Ti ghteni ng bol ts i n..rr.rl s
s equenc e.
@oooilo ooo@o@
FRONT
Fig,3-33. Cylinderheodbolt tighteningseguence.
(AmericanMofos)
Fig. 3-36. lfrongseguence

in tighleningfosleners.Ihis seguence
wouldproduceo very poorlit!
If no s equenc e c har t c an be o b t a i n e d , i t i s
usually advisable to start in the center and work
ou t toth e ends . The c har t inFig.
3- 3 4 , i l l u s t r a t e s
this technique.
On s om e as s em blies ,
it is ad v i s a b l e r o u s e
a crissc r os s
s equenc e. Alway s a v o i d s t a r t i n g
in one spot and tightening one after another in a
row. Remember that the object is to tighten the
pa rts i n s uc h a m anner t hat an e v e n s t r e s s i s
Would a good fit be acquired if you followed

the sequence shown in Fig. 3-36?
Quite obviously if this sequence is followed,
the two ends would be clamped down first and
when the center bolts were tightened the part
could not flatten out. In order to flatten, it must
spread outward and in order to do this, the ends
must be free.
54
Fqstenersond TorqueWrenches
You witt find that when a fastener has stuck,
the torque required to start lt moving fureakaway torque), is much higher than that required
to keep it moving thus indicating that break-away
torque is not a true picture of actual fastener
torque.
When sticking occurs, run the fastener in an
off-direction (about one-half turn) until it breaks
TO RO UE I N F O U R ST E PS
Always run the fasteners up snug (do not
overtighten) with a regular wrench and then
abserve the following four steps.
i. Run each fastener, in the proper sequence,
up to one-third of the recommended torque
setting.
!. Repeat the process running up to two-thirds
of the setting.
3. Repeat, running every fastener up to full
torque.
4. This is a very importantandfrequentlyoverlooked step - often to the embarrassment of
the meehanic when the unit fails. REPEAT
STEP THREE TO BE POSITIVE YOU HAVE
NOT MISSED A FASTENER:
[n\
n\ rrrn
+)F1 p
tf+ur7
te\l
;\(
All
RIGHT
RIGHT
:\l
HOLDING
THE TOROUEWRENCH
S)*=dtr.)
*
W R ON G
Where possible (it saves skinned knuckles)

PULL on the wrench. Keep your hand on the
handle and if using a pivoted handle, keep the
handle from tipping in against the wrench. This
:s important as the pivot is where the pull
should be for exact readings. Items A and B,
:n Fig. 3-3?, show the correct hand position. In
C, the mechanic has placed his hand on one end
of the handle tipping it and causing interference
sith wrench action; D shows an extension in
place on the handle. This should never be done'
rflva,
'\
WR O N G
Fig.3-37. Grosp te lorque wrench properly.
free, then, with a smooth and steady pull, sweep

the wrench handle around in a tightening directi on. S TOP w hen' the requi red tor que is
reached.
P ULLI NG T HE WR EN C H
When using a beam-type torque wreneh,
especially the single round beam, be careful to
the beam is bent only in
-u11in such a way that
:he direction of travel. If the wrench is bent up
or down while pulling, the indicator point can*
drag on the scale thus impairing the reading.
Plaee the palm of the left hand on the head
of the wrench to counterbalance the pull on the
handle. Allow yolrr palm to turnwiththewrench.
Fig. 3-38, illustrates the use of the lefthand
f or balanc e. I n th i s c a s e ,b o th a n a d a p te ra nd extension are being used.
Fig. 3-38.-'Use the polm ol the hond on the heod ol the wrench to
bolonce the pull on the hondle.
(P. A. Srurrevonr Co.)
TOROUE
RUN-DOWN
Self-locking nuts, slightly damaged threads
material will cause the fastener to
foreign
or
turn with some degree of resistance before it
begins drawing parts together. This is called
run-down torque.
If at all noticeable, add this run-downtorque
to the recommended torque. Determine rundown torque only during the last one or two turns
STICKING
Quite often when nearing full torque value,
you will hear a popping sound and the fastener
will seem to stick and stop turning. If you increase pressure on the wrench, it mayrunup to
full torque without moving the fastener.
55
IF
of the fastener. When a fastener is first

started,
it may show considerable resistance but
by the
time it reaches bottom, this may have
Iessened
or disappeared.
CAUTION:
Whenever a fastener shows undue
resistance
- remove it and make sure it is the
right length, diameter, and has the proper
num_
ber of threads per inch.
-t
RE T O RO UI NG
O n s o m e a s s e m b l i e s , s u c h a s cyl i n d e r h e a d s,
manifolds,
et., all fasteners should be torqued
after a certain period of operation.
Cases such
as these, and the proper, interval, will
be dis_
c u s s e d i n t h e s e c t i o n s ''c o v e r i n g
u n i ts to w h i ch
they apply.
WHENTOROUERECOMMENDATTONS
AR E NOTA V A ILA B LE
SUMMARY
The expert
mechanic
is vitally
concerned
with fastener design, applieation and
torque. He
r e a l i z e s t h a t t o a g r e a t e x t e n t, th e
su e ce ss o r
failure of his work depends upon the proper
use
of fasteners.
There are many types of fasteners;
screws
that thread into a part, bolts that pass
through
the parts and require
nuts, studs that thread
into the part and also use a nut, and
sheet metal
scrws that cut their own threads.
The Unified National Coarse and the
Unified
N a t i o n a l F i n e t h r e a d s e r i e s a r e co m m o n l yu se d .
Threaded fasteners are identified
by material,
thread pitch, diameter,
length of ttrread, type,
etc. Steel bolts and screws use radial
markings
on the head to indicate
material
and tensile
strength.
The removal
of broken fasteners can cause
difficulty unless done properly. Various
methods
are used.
When threads in a hole are damaged beyond
repair,
the hole may be drilled and tappedf----=)
1. To the next suitable
oversize
, nyg),
"r,cap screw installed.
2. To accept a threaded plug.
3. To accept a patented coil wire inserr.
rings,
rivets,
clevis pins, keys and
-.Srap are nonthreaded
splines
fasteners.
Fasteners
tend to loosen in service.
Self_
locking nuts, various lock washers,
safetywire,
locking plates and cotter pins are
some of the
most used methods. of keeping fasteners
tight.
Fastener. tension is important
to prevent
distortion,
to keep fasteneis
tight and to pre_
vent fastener faifure.
To provide proper ten_
sion, fasteners should be torqued.
Several
types of torque wrenches are avail_
abie for
this
purpose.
They mr,rst be used
prcgierly.
The mechanic
should make every endeavor
to secure the car manufacturerrs
recommended
torque for the specific job. If, however,
itis not
available it is wise to consult a chart
such as
the one in Fig. 3-3g, to determne the
tensile
strength of the fasteners being used. you
will
note that by using the head markings
and diam_
eter, an approximate torque setting may
be de_
termined.
Keep in mind that if the fastener is threaded
into aluminum,
brass or thin metal, the torque
figures
rnay have to be reduced to prevent
stripping, Figs. SA and 3-S9.
BOITTOROUE
Size
FL Lbs.
neurton
metres
Ft Lbs.
newton
metres
Ll4-28 95 ln. Lbs. 10.733575

150In. Lbs. 16.947750
5/16-18200In. Lbs. 22.597 270ln. Lbs. 31.207950
5116-24 20
27.tL64
25
33.8955
3/8-16
30
40.6745
40
54.2327
318-24
35
47.4536
45
61.0118
7lI6-t4
50
67.7%9
65
88.12E2
7116-20 55
74.5700
70
94.9073
U2-13
75
101.6864
100
135.582
Ll2-20
85
tL5.2441
110
t49.L40
9ll6-t2
105 142.3611
135
183.0351
9/16-18 115 i55.9191
150
203.373
5/8-11 150 203.373
195
2U.3841
5/8-18
160 216.931
2t0
284.722
314-16 175 237.268I
225
305.0591
sAE CIASSI
F ICA
GRADE 5
GRADE8
M ARKINGS F OUND
ON T OP OF BOIT
HEAD INDICAE
GRADE
Use high pressure

lubricant
on the threads
and under the head or under the
nut area on
fasteners.
Be certain
the fastener
is of the
correct
length, diameter
and has the proper
number of threads per inch.
Fig.3-39. (fiort sfrows torque volues lo

Grode S ond Grode g
fo sfe n e r s. Je e _ p ig . 3 - A
.o r o d d itio r ol ,.oJi ng".
lDodse)
'
,i .:.
"'..*t$,s,
56
Fosteners ond Torque Wrenches
The proper sequence of tightening is very

follow the manufacturerrs
Always
:mportant.
:ecommended torque and sequenee.
ITIE S
S UG GESTEACTIV
D
i
Take a sheet of paper, wad it intoa bal1, pull

it back out and lay it onthe table. If you were
to try'to press it out flat, where would you
place your hands (fastener) first. In what
direction (sequence) would you move them'
Try it. How does this compare to tightening
sequence.
Using a regular wrench, turn up severar
3/8 in. screws to what you would guess to be
15 foot-pounds of torque. Take a torque
wrench and break themloose. Watchthe scale
carefully to determine the toique requiredto
start them. Even though this will be different than true torque, how even were they?
W as it c lose to 1 5 fo o t-Po u n d s ?
3. Place two 1 l4 in. bolts, (one with six radial

lines on the head and the other with none) of
equal length in a vise. Keep them about two
and with the same amount of
apart
inches
jaws. Run the vise up tightly'
in
the
material
torque wrench, turn eachbolt
a
suitable
With
to
untit it snaps. Watch the scale earefully
torque at-the moment of failure'
determine
Was the reading fihe ]ame? If not, why? You
much effort
wiII also note that\doesnottake
to sn ap a 1/ 4 in. bolt .
WRENCH?
WOULDYOUUSEA TOROUE
Le t's sup po s e y ou ar e t obe c ar r ied a l o f t 2 0
stories on a small steel platform. The platform
is attached to the cable with ONE bolt' This
bolt MUST be torqued to 150 FOOT-POUNDS'
and
break in mid-air
-\t 160 foot-pounds it will
a
for
Anybody
slip.
will
i.t
foot-pounds
at 140
torq ue wre nch?????
eMpt\tenR:
MECHANIC CAN
THE GROUND.
RECOMMENDED
WRENCH:
AS A
YouR REPUTATIoN
WELL BE 20 STORIES OFF
KEEP IT SAFE. FOLLOW
TORQUE ANDUSE ATORQUE
i s c o n s i d e r e d s u p e r i o r t o p u n ch i n g
3. Drilling
h o l e s i n w h i c h s h e e t m e t a l s c r e w s a r e to
be inserted. True or False?
4. A stud has-on
-ends.
Tr u e
5. Studs are bet installed with pliers.
or False ?
6 . N a m e f o u r m e t h o d s t h a t m a y b e u s e d to r e move broken screws or studs.
? . H o w c a n a s t r i p p e d h o l e b e r e p a i r e d ? Tw o
methods.
indiB. Three radial lines on the headofabolt
strength
tensile
greater
has
it
cate that
than a bolt with six radial lines. True or
False ?
9. Define the term major dimeter.
10. How can the number of threads per inch on
a screw be determined?
11. Define the term minor diameter.
12. Name the two popular thread series.
to thread class, a 2A would
1 3 . Wh e n r e f e r r i n g
nut with a fairly accuthreaded
apply to a
rate fit. True or False ?
14. The class 2 fit is-usedforautomobile
fasteners.
1 5 . D e s c r i b e t w o k i n d s o f s e l f - l o c k i n g nu ts'
1 6 . N a m e t h e t h r e e b a s i c t y p e s o f l o c k w a sh e r s'
1?. To use the palnut, run it down to the nut,
open side away, and then give it
18. All fasteners have threads. True or False?
19. A spline. and a woodruff key bth act as a
True
or
or device.
mechanism
driving
False ?
20. What is a lock Plate?
21. Snap rings should NEVER be reused' True
:'
or False ?
22. A setscrew usually has a hexagonal head'
True or False ?
23. When a rivet is used, the rivet should be
in the hole, the Parts must
and a--should
-together
be used.
24. Torque and tension are one and the same'
True
or False?
.,r:':
2' DisTorque'
4.
Strength.
Tensile
3.
tortion.
6. Residual Tension. 7. Com5. Tension.
L aw'
9- Hookers
8.. Elasticity.
pression.
10. High Pressure Lubricant.
fastener
for proper
reasons
three
26. List
tension.
27. Proper tension is best,achieved bY using a
25. Define the followirig: 1. Elastic Limit.
OUIZ - ChoPter3
True or
t he us e of . nut s '
1. Scre ws r equir e
Fa lse ?
2. Sheet metal screws should be threaded into
a hole about the size of their major diameter. True or False?
to tighten faste"ers.
28. Why use lubricant on fastener threads?
steps'
90
should be in three initial
Torquing
57
30.
31.
32.
33.
tl
jti
i :i
Fasteners drawn up to_of

reeommended
torque then to-and
finally to-torque.
What is the important fourth step in torquing ?
Indicate your choice of the following range
torque wrenches that you would use totighten
a bolt to 50 foot-pounds. 1. 0-200 inchpound, 0-50 foot-pound, 0-100 foot-pound.
What effect will an adapter have on atorque
wrench reading?
Describe how sticking during the final
torquing should be handled.
34. To allow the user to torque fasteners when

the position makes seeing the scale impossible, a_device
is used.
35. Always PUSH a torque wrench. True or
Fal se ?
36. Once fasteners have been properly torqued,
they will never need to be torqued again.
True or False ?
37. What is a torque chart?
38. Torque, for automotive use, is measured in
and in
-H
,.-)
'11r
,:
I
I
f
ir
l
1!
:it
@ @
{iiii
'l l,
4" N
@^@
i'
I
1 r l,
r:
:
'I
i
li
Fig.340. An ossotment of losfenes. llthough terminology con vory somewof, tfiese ore commonly
u se d d e scr ip fv n o m e si l -Fl angeJock nut. 2-Fi l l i srer heod machi ne scew . 3-B orrel prong nut. 4lling nut. 5-Cop scew. 6-Pol nut. 7-Coioge bol. &-Sping nut. 9-12-point heod bol. l?-Round
h e o d m o ch in e scr e w. ll- Askw -heod bol . l 2-S i ngl e thread nut. I3-Fl onged nut. l 4-C ap screw , 15Ancho nut. l6-Ploin fiex nuf. l7-Hex flange screw. l8-Acorn (cop) nut. I9-Flo heod screw. 20(ec .
Sm a ll lla t lr e o d scr e w. 2l -S peed nut.22-S heet mel ol screw . 23-Locki ng nut.24-K ey.2-Ol l set
centric) stud. 26-Thin nut. 27-Cotte pin. 28-$ocke head bolt. 29-Locking nut. 30-lling nut. 3lSpeciolry nut. 32-Toothed /ock woses. 33-Thunbscrew.. 34-Stud. 35-Snop ringi 36-gpring lock pin.
37-Cross heod mochine screw.38-Ponel nut. 39-Flonged hex slotted freod screw. 4O-gp/it loc/< wosfier.
4 l- He x so cke t fie o d b o l t. 42-l l el ded nut. 43-P l ow bol . 44-C l evi s pi n. 4s-Open top ocom nut. 46Closed rop ocorn nut. 47-Squae fieod cop screw. 48-Woodru( key. 49-Sell+opping screw, 50-Serrored
n u t.5 l- Sio tte d nut. 52-S ef screw . 53-C ostl e nut. 54-Fl of w oshe. 55-C oi rl e nur.
58
Chapter4
SEALANTS,
GASKETS,
SEALS
ANDW IDE LYUS E D
I MPO R TANT
Gaskets and seals are used throughout the
car. They confine gas, oil, water and other
luids, in addition to air and vacuum, to specific
:mits or areas. They exclude the entry of dust,
dirt, water and other foreign materials into
rarious parts and they play an important part
i the proper functioning and service life of all
components.
Unfortunately, the importance of the proper
selection, preparation and installation of gaskets
and seals is not always clearly understood. In
addition to their basic duties as mentioned, they
effect torque and tensibn, part alignment and
elearance, temperature, compression ratios,
lubrication. REMEMBER: TIIE FAILURE, PARTLAL OR COMPLETE, OF AGASKET ORSEAL
CAN CAUSE EXTENSIVE DAMAGE AND EXPENSE. STUDY THE MATERIAL IN THIS CHAPTER CAREFULLY AND APPLY THE INFORTLA.TION TO YOUR WORK:
a seal and yet excessive compressibility will

cause the gaskettoextrude (coldflow - literally
reducing thickness in the direction of compression and flowing outward) or reduce its
thickness beyond a specified point.
G ASKET
\
*.ol L
Fig.4-1. Goskefstops leoks.Assemblyin A has no gosket'Ir,"o,rlailli.r on pdrl motnqsurfoces ollow leokage.ln B, same
o"f..6l) is siwn -but lnh o goskef. lrreguloritiesote litled
ond the leok is stopped'
--/
selected will depend on
The gasket material
tpe of
temperature,
application,
the specifie
fluid to be confined, smoothness of matingparts,
of confined fluid,
pressure
tension,
fastener
of mating parts,
used in construction
material
G ASKET
A gasket is a piece of material placed between two or more parts so that when drawn
(warped
spots,
any irregularities
together,
by the
dents, etc.) will be filled
scratches,
a leakproof
producing
thus
gasket
material
joint, Fig. 4-1 .
AN D C O L D
/,H e,Af
Q,*essu"
S
enosrox
coR R osl oN
oor*rr/
MOIS TU R E
G ASKETM ATERIA LS
Many materials are used in gasket construction. Steel, aluminum, copper, asbestos,
cork, rubber (synthetic), paper, felt, etc. The
materials can be used singly or in combination.
Gasket material eompressibility (how easily
it flattens under pressure) varies widely. The
gasket must compress to some extent to effect
Fi g.4-2. Goskef musf w i thsl ond mony l orces' fhe des r' uc l i ' e
forces slrown, in oddition lo ofhers not illustroted, ore constontly attempling to destroy te gos/<et'
part
affect
59
cl earance
the
choice
rel ati onshi p,

of gasket
etcmaterial
A II
and
of
thes e
design.
Auto Service qnd Repdr
p l a c e d b e t w e e n t w o s h e e t s of steel or copper.
Note that the edges are rolled to produce a
grommet effect.
or selecting gaskets, give

When constructing
careful thought to these factors and choose wisesome of the destructive
ly. Fig. 4-2, illustrates
forces that the gasket must resist in order to
function properly.
GA S K E TCONS TRUCT!ON
Some gaskets are of very simple construction. The engine top water outlet, for example,
treated,
us es a m edium t hic k nes s , c h e m i c a l l y
paper gasket. Unit loading (pressurp'\
fibrous
mating parts) is light, temperatufe-'
between
low and the coolant
medium, coolant pressure
p r es ent s only m ild pr oblem s , F i g . 4 - 3 .
As the sealing task becomes more difficult,
;
I i,
J ir
. Tn
ir
F g. 4- 3. Sim plepopergo s k e t .T h e p o per is soff, toughond woteresistont.

EXHA U S TP I P E
l ri ,
.!
Ii il,
#:'ff
: :i],
! jll
i i fi
iI
li
E*
EXH AU STPIPE
gasket construction becomes more involved. The

exhaust manifold to exhaust pipe gasket, where
usd, is sorrlbwhat more complex. Unit loading
pressure is hilher with corrosive flames, gases
attempting to destroythe
and high temperatures
ga s k et . This gas k et , in t wo b a s i c t y p e s , u s e s
asbes t os and s t eel in it s c ons t r u e t i o n , F i g . 4 '4 .
gasket in
Perhaps
the most eomplicated
terms of materials used and construction techniques, is the cylinder head gasket. Unit prescombustion \emperatures
sure is tremendous,
are very high and the gasket
and pressures
A 5 B E 5 TO 5A N D
S TE E L W I R E
F i g. 4- 4. Ex hous f noni ol d gos k ets . Th e g o s k e t n A h o s o n o s bes fos c enl er w i th o thi n s l ee/ oul er l o y e r. N o t e h o w f h e i n n e
edge s pr otec fed w i th o s teel gr om m e t . Th e g o s k e t i n B i s mo d e
up ol os bes fos ond s tee/ w i r e. A thi n sl e e l o u l e r ri n g c o n o l s o b e
used lor odditionol
sfrengffi.
The single layer beaded or corrugated type

of gasket shown in C, Fig. 4-5, is popular on
engines. A single sheet of
high compression
steel, around .020 thick, is stamped to produce
a beaded edge around combustion chamber and
one is given an
fluid openings. This particular
aluminum coating, about .001thiek, onboth sides
to assist in sealing, and to prevent corrosion,
This type of gasket requires accurate and smooth
coated
surfaces. The aluminum
block-to-head
steel gasket will withstand high temperatures
In addition,
quite successfully.
and pressures
it will not produce torque loss (gasketbecoming
oil and corrosive

must seal against coolant,
g as es .
There are several basic designs in common
steel, copper 7-d.1ubber may
use. Asbestos,
)
be used in their construction.
\
gasketis shownin
One type of multiple-layer
A, Fig. 4- 5. A s t eel c ent er c o r e , p e r f o r a t e d t o
produce tiny gripping hooks, is placed between
two sheets of specially prepared asbestos. Steel
(the material placed around
or copper grommets
the edges of an opening to help strengthen or to
protect the object passing through the hole from
sealing)
a br as ion, or as in t his c as e, t o a s s i s t i n
and
placed
chamber
the
around
combustiorr
are
gasket is then
openings, The entire
coolant
formed into a one-piece uhit.
I n B, Fig. 4- 5, an as best o s c e n t e r c o r e i s
thinner
under eontinued fastener tension therebolt tension and toreue).

,
by reducing
UNI TL O A DI N G
L O CA L I Z E D
To produce higher.unit loading around the
combustion chambers, or any other opening, a
copper wire can be inserted between the top
and bottom layers - near the edge. The re-
ASBESTOS
GROMMET
W I RE
CO PPER
CORRUGATED
GROMMET
(V cto)
F ig . 4 - 5 . So m eo f h e d i$ e r e n t metfi odsenpl oyed i n eod gosket constructi on.
gaskets
necessary in doing a complete engine

c a r b u r e to r ,
overhaul).
Sets for transmission,
are
available
separately.
differential,
etc.,
main de r of the gas k et t ends t o c om pr es s m o r e

t he des ir ed pr e s s u r e
rea dily
thu s c r eat ing
a rou nd th e o pe ning, D, Fig. 4- 5.
Ano the r tec hnique us ed t o pr oduc e loc a l i z e d
u nit pre ssure o r loading is s howninE, Fig . 4 - 5 .
This type uses a copper or soft iron grommet
around the rolled edges.
Coolant
and oil openings are sometimes
pla
c ing s pec ial r ubber or ne o p r e n e
se ale d by
gro mmets
in t he gas k et openings . Thes e a r e
highly resilient and maintain constant pressure
arou nd th e op enings , F, Fig. 4- 5.
G ASKETS
O FT E NCOMEIN S E TS
Gaske ts a re of t en or der ed in s et s . For e n g i n e
gaskets are .available in a HEAD SET
work,
( includ es all gas k et s nec es s ar y t o r em o v e a n d
repla ce th e he ad or heads ) , VALVE G RI N D S E T
( includ es a I1 g as k et s nec es s ar y in doing a v a l v e
SET ( inc lud e s a l l
grin d job ) a nd O VERHAUL
T ERIAL - 7
gosketsef. ffiis set is for o Chevolet

Fiq. 4-58. Engneoverhoul
six cvlinder. (Vctor)
Single gaskets for some specific parts are also

G a s k e t s e t s a l s o i n c l u d e n e ce ssa r y
available.
oil seal replacements.
ST EEL AND A S B E S TOS

T OGE TH ER
G A S K E TI NS T A L A T I O NT E CHNI O UE S
After deciding just what a specific gasketing
situation will call for in the line of gasket maand construction, there are a few important
-terial
of the
Regardless
ihstallation
considerations.
suitability of the gasket, if not properly installed,
fail.
it will ultimately
S P E C I A LA S B E S T O SS H EET
CLO RE
P E R FORATED.ITEE
SHEET
SPECIALASBESTOS
NE V E RRE US EA G A S K E T
Onee a gasket has been in service, it will
and when
Ioose a great deal of its resiliency,
removed will not return to its original thick-
F i g . 4 - 5 A . O n e typ e o h e o d g o ske t co n str u ctio n . (McC ord)
6l
seal
ne ss. I f r eus ed, it will f ail t oc om p r e s s a n d
part
and
to
related
as
cosj*
Gasket
properly.
meprofessional
the
and
sma
is
labor costs,
using old gaskets'
chanic does not ever\consider
how the use of old
4-6, demonstra\es
Fig.
gaskets will
F
:
Produce leaks-
run
may notice that the gasket coolant openings may

be slightly large-r or smaller than the ports in
the block or head. This gasket may be designed
to fit several models or it may be so arranged
to restrict or improve coolant circulation. Check
out these situations carefullY.
Head gaskets for the left and right bank on
some V-8 engines are interchangeable - others
rrff
I
I
?,
F i g . 4- 6 , Use d g o ske ts will n o t wo r k! A u s ed goskef i s posi ti oned

n i. lVlr"n tlre porls ore lightened, B, the old, hordened goske!
c o n n ot co m p r e s' s a n d lll in e g u lo r itie s. The esul ts: LE A K S I
C H ECKMA TINGS URFA CE S

After thorough cleaning, inspect both part
mating surfaces to detect any nicks, dents,
pieces of old gasket or sealer, burrs, dirt, warpage, etc., that may make proper sealing impossible, ig. +'l .
CHE CKTHE GA S K E TFORP RO P E RF I T

Place the gasket on the part to determine if
it fits properly. On the more complicated setups such as cylinder head gaskets, make certain
the gasket is right side up, proper end forward
and that bolt, coolant and other openings are
clear and in proper alignment. Oceasionallyyou
;ii
-'. , , ! j
il
Fig.4-7. Check moting surfoce' Nofice tfiof the cylinder blocL

surfoce s cleon, smooth ond hot all openings ore cleon'
(Chevrolet)
HEADBOLTHOLE
PUSIIRODOPEHIilGS
t;.
rl:
proper li. The dowel pins hold the fieod gosket in ploce ond align the cyl'
' Fig,4-8. Cfiec/<ngo freod gos/<et lor
'
Thi s i s o si nel e l over beadedsree l eos /< er'
t'"ff;:;!:i :menr'
n d .,h e o d r o ifie 6 ,""k:l i ;p";i ne"'o'"
62
Goskets,Seolonts, Seols
or paper gasket usually does not render it useless, but when checking head gaskets BEWARE
of ALL creeses. If bent sharply, do not attempt
to straighten it, as the inner layer may be
separated and cause failure. A gentle bend will
not ruin the gasket - sharp kinks and creases
will. Fig. 4-10, illustrates what happens when
a multiple-layer head gasket is creased andthen
straightened.
are not. Many head gaskets have the word TOP

and occasionally
the word FRONT
stamped on
the g aske t, Fig. 4- 8.
SOMEGASKETS
TENDTO
SHRIN K
O R EX P A ND
Paper and cork type gaskets that have been
stored for some time tend to either lose of pick
:rp moisture depending on storage conditions.
i-oss of moisture ean cause them to shrink,
n,hile excess moisture can expandthem. In either
case, when checking for proper fit, they will
show signs of misalignment.
This condition can be corrected by soaking
shrunken gaskets in water for a few minutes
or by placing expanded gaskets in a warm (not
o v er 150- 200 d e g re e F .) s p o t. C h e c k them
occasionally to prevent overdoing the treatment,
Fi e. 4- 9.
l
I
I
ll
,//t$\
Fi g. 4-10. C eosed gosket. A -Mul ti pl e-l oyerl reod gosket. Gos k et
hos 6een creosed, B, ond the cenfer pocking pulled oport, Gasket
stuoi ghtened,
C , produci ngvoi d. D -Gos/<ethos "bl ow n" i n s erv i c e.
A
MA K I NGA G A S K E T
F i g . 4 - 9 . P o n g o s k e t fio s sh u n k. T h e g a ske t o s d ie d out, pto& t c i n g s h r i n k o g e .N o te in A h o w scr e w h o le s lo il lo m o fch. S ooki n g will so lvo g e f is g o ske t.
A simple paper or combination cork and

rubber gasket can be made either by tracing
and cutting with scissors or by layingthe gasket
material on the part and gently tappingalongthe
edges with a brass hammer. Screw holes can
also be tapped lightly with the peen end of the
ball peen hammer. Do not tap hard enough to
damage the threads. Gasket punches can alsobe
used to make neat screw holes. It will help hold
the material in place if you tap'out the corner
holes and start these screws before tapping
around the edges, Fig. 4-10.A..
CHAM FERING
S CRE WHOLE S
M AY BE NECE S S A RY
When installing head gaskets, examine the
serew holes in the block. Ifthe threads run right
up to the very top, it is a good idea to chamfer
:hem lightly and then run the proper size tap in
and out of the hoLes. The chamfer prevents the
:op thread from being pulled above the block
surface. Blow out the holes with compressed
air. WHEN USING AN AIR HOSE FOR CLEAN:\G, ALWAYS WEAR GOGGLES. SMALL PARTICLES CAN BE THROWN WITH GREAT
O RCE - B E C AR EF U L J
HA NDL EG A f f E T S WI T HCA RE
\
Gaskets sh-uld be stored flat, in their containers and in an area where they will not be
bent or struck with some objeet. Storage space
should not be subjected to extremes of temperature or humidity. Handle gaskets earefully. Do
not attempt to force them to fit. If a gasket is
accidentally cracked or torn - throw it away.
EACHGASKETSHOULDB'ECHECKED
Carefully inspect the gasket itself for dents,
dirt, cracks or folds. A minor crease in a cork
63
B RASS
HAMM ER
not all are highly resistant to oil, water, gas,

grease, antifreeze, mild acid and salt solutions.
Resistance to heat and cold vary, butingeneral,
most sealers are adequate in this respect for
all uses other than exhaust applications.
The mechanic should be thoroughly familiar
w i th seal ers and thei r properti es anduses. The
chart, Fi g. 4-11, l i sts vari ous s ealant s, pr oper ties and recommended uses for one line of
products. Sealant manufacturers will be happy
to provide the mechanic with specific recommendations for using their products.
The use of too much sealer is generally
worse than using none at all. Excess sealer is
squeezed out of the joint and canclogwater, gas
and oil passages. A THIN coat is ample. On some
oil pan gaskets with corners difficult to seal, a
small dab where the gaskets meet is permissible.
In general, a nonhardening, flexible sealer
will produce the desired results.
Some parts with extremely small holes or
ports, such as carburetors, automatic transmi ssi on val ve. bodi es, etc., can be r ender ed
useless if ANY sealant is squeezed into the
openings. In cases such as this, do not use a
sealant.
i
F
trl
s;
,
s:
F i g . 4 - 1 0 A. M o kin g o g o ske r . 7 [e lo u r corne screw s [o/d re

g o s k e l m o te r io l in p lo ce wh ile to p p in g . A bol l peen hommeri s
u se d lo r th e fio /e s.
USE OF SEALANTS
il
* ',r
:il
i - lr
i l1:'
:. ,r'ii
'l
A new gas k et , pr oper ly

inst a l l e d . b e t w e e n
accurate qating surfaces will usually produce a
leakproof joint. However, mating surfaces are
not always true,
present
corners
problems,
torque loss can reduce pressure on the gasket
surface, gaskets often shrink slightlyand minute
part shifting
can break the sea1. For these
re ason s it is gener ally c ons ider ed g o o d p r a c t i c e
to use a sealant on MOST gaskets.
The addition
of a sealant helps hold the
gaskets in place during assembly
and small
cracks, indentations and cornervoids
are sealed.
In short, the use of a good sealant provides
additional assurance that the ioint will be leakproof.
REMEMBER:
A small amount of oil seepage
will,
due to engine heat, spread over a large
area. This produces a messy looking job and is
certain to deposit oil dribbLes onthe customer'rs
garage floor
for
- hardly a good advertisement
any shop.
I-n-aqy specific
&6 manufacturerr
application,
be sure to follow
s rec ommendations.
US I NGRUB B E RG A S K E T S
Rubber gaskets are highly resilent andwill,
in most cases, do a good job of sealing without
the addition of a sealer. In fact, rbber gaskets
tend to extrude (squeeze out) under pressure
when a sealer
is used. Unless a sealant is
specifically
recommended,
gasket
a rubber
should be installed without a sealer.
HO L DT NG
G A S K E TDURT NG
A{SEMBLY
Where a sealant is used, the gasket will
usually stay in place during assembly.
If seal?nt is not being used and the gasket
tends to
gasket can be held in place
{ip, lhe
with a thin\at
of grease. On rubber gaskets
use grease or sealant only at a few small spots.
Some parts, such as oil pans, eanbedifficutt
to assemble without disturbing gasket position.
In some cases, in addition to using a sealant, it
is advisable totiethe gasketwiththin soft string.
The parts may be tightened with the string ir
place. Patented gasket holders are also avail.
able and work well.
SEALA NT
Gasket sealer or sealant, is a liquid or
semiliquid material that is sprayed, brushed or
spread on the gasket surface. Various t4pes,
having different properties, are available. Some
set up hard and others remain pliable. Most, but
64
Gqskets, Seolqnts,Seqls
iaxcE
tfl?.
(DCOTEE3 F.)
AXD
PNODUCT
FORI{'ASTETC
llo. I
I1. Spc. Typ. I
r|rL.S45l80 (Ord.)
TY'E OF
AP"L!C^llo0a
Spraada
c.p.
or
3Dfuh
mchnical
3Dnadar.
FORT{'ASIGO
La2
Spraadar
U|. SpG fyp. ll

rrL.s45l80 (ord.)
mhrnic!l
rpradar.
AYIATION
FOiL{4
llc 3
SrETc
c.p.
spltula or
Bru3h
or Gun
rn33utc
t ltcE
nst3T3
-65 to l0o
5O0Op
a3samblca, c
Pcrmanant
un'
p!. 3lrts,
tiltint,
con'
tnad
avcn sullc6,
battcr6.
n.ctos,
crlckad
lvai.r, t.rm, k.ro!n.,

3raolin., o1,
troas, mld acd, .lkal and sall soluton,
ant.lrcza mx'
aliDhatc hydcrrbon.
tun3.
F3t
/lo0
-65 to
5OOOe
falmbly
Slmi!f,manant
wo.l. Cwat Dttta3, thro.dad
c6nCClOn3.
tnd hG!
W l tar , i ar m , k .r o ana, a ol na, ol l ,

troa!. mild &id, rllal and alt soluton.
mhydrocaron3, antl-fr...
turc3.
-lphrtc
Slow
Wrtar, rt.am, ktro3.n., 3a3olinc, o1,

mild cid, rlklli and srlt sluton3,
!rau,
mrntl.lruzt
hydre.rbon,
tunr.
-lioh.tc
Slry
Gelina, l.roaana. arar3at. o13, w.tar,

ant.lm:a mtura.
Slow
-65 to 4OO
50(xlp3i
Sarllni ot clos! tittna Patt.

o rt!3u1.?
E!3/lo.pply
l1. Spc. Typ! lll

(Ord.)
HlL.S45l8{,
GAISIG CETENT
Brush
DRYS
3Ef3
soLYElfl
USES
-65 to 35o
Vribl.
3cl
urtac!
La33 r..lula.
wo.k
Gan!.tl
n a3$mbly
wor.
rs3ably
H!rd
Alcohol
Fl!blr
Alcohol
Fl.xbl.
Alcohol
Hard
Alcohol
IIDIAN HEAD
e^srEf sHELIc
Bru3h
AI Pi'RPIOSE
CEIEI{f
Tuba
- 65 to 35O
V.ri.bl.
wo.l
and
t3iGmbly
Grnc.al
talt
ol P!P.r,
on t!kat3
.ubbcr nd mtt|.
c..dbord.
Gaslna, k.rcsna,
3r.at.,
ani.trcza mturet.
Gl i to l a3r . a! 3 to
m c tal , Sl !a3 to r ubbar .
hta.,
ola, w!t!r,
Slow
Hrrd
A|cohbl
-40 to 225
polh.t
and claan.6.
Fat
Hrd
Toluan.
JOINf
GOIPIOUND
'IPE
l.o 5r
SIJPER'3OU
FIORTd{ASIGTO
STICK.NSEALO
BrushablC,
vscous
liqud
Irush
or Gun
Brush
or Gun
-65 to too
50OOp3i
- 65 to ,125
5OOOp3i
-tO to 20O
as an
!dhcav!
io 40Oo .i
saalant
Hot nd cold watar, t.m, llum.tn8

ta, tual o13, tc.otcnr, lubrcrtn oil,
c tr ol c un bt . hy dr aul i c l l u d , !nt '
fr r az a m tu." 3.
Sld
work on h<o.
Asscmbly
p.aison
diaal
e!inr3,
gl!ta,
hicovcr
hreds,
suPCtchar'
3DGad turba
tramrutomatc
ftrs,
sions, ta3kctt.
ol tnd lubrctnt3. ict turl3'

Hct.EGnt
loota, mld 3lt
olr, glycol
hG.t tr.slat
hydrc'
lGam, lphlc
wttcr,
oruton,
ani'trcaza
carbon.
dG3tGi lubrcant,
mxturG, patrolaum baa hydtrulic lluid3'
.vi.t'io-tuCl.
Slow
rubba. to rubbar, rubS..l

hysllin8
bcr to mrt.l,
nd t.an3m43on
drulic
olr. corl to at1.
G.solia.
tr.asG,
bonr. antircc:G
holr.
llrnSc.
littn.
Thrcadcd
Crn br applcd ov!? oil rnd
8.ca3a tlm.
hydrc.r'
o13, slph.tc
llcc
mixtur?.
Glycol,
V.rablC
Stff Brush
or Spetulr
- 60 to IOOO
cbla
Thrqadsd cmn6tion3,
nuts
manifold,
lubrc.ton,
rd bolt!, 3liding mctal 3urd3whrr3
facc rspially
P.a.
mcct.
sml.
mGtals
and $izuta.
vant
allin
3t"31.
Erc.ll.nt
on st.inla$
43.t'
d.r8n.d
Pti.ril,
W.t.r,
te.m.
cmPound,
n antiorroaon
ocg
sfArNT t2E2
Sp.tula or
mGchncal
ggrcadar.
- 50 to eoo
p
5()OO
ln"s (.ot c..tyin3

C@llnt
w.ta)
ar condtionc.3,
trcczcrS.
IOO*, chlornated
EitGrs, glycols
-hydro'
tt@n, sulphur dioxdc,
iio.-a;,mmon,
nonll.m'
rcl.g?r.nt5.
ndu3!.ia
cohol.
hydro'
fluidr,
arom.iic
hvd..ulic
m.bl.
-kctonc,
ph6phata
ast!r5.
cbons.
Seolont cort.
{#;
-GUIDE
Fl.lbh
A|cool
fr3t
Flcblc
Mcthyl Ethyl
K.tonc lnd
Toulana
arfir-sEtzE
oorFoultD
rrL-T.5544A (ASG)
Fig. 4-Il.
Fl.bl.
Alcohol
Flcxblt
Kcroanc tnd
lsht
lsbrcatn8
ol
Slow
H.rd
Watcr
(Permatex)
Make certain the gasket is correctly installed

and that it remains in alignment during assb.fnbly.
S ee Fi g. 4-12.
a.
\,
PIN
USEPROPERsEO-UENCE
WRENCH
ANDTOROUE
After running all fasteners up snug, tighten

them in the proper sequence as recommended
in the chapter on fasteners. Firsttightentoonethird torque, second to two-thirds torque, third
to full torque.
Improper sequence and torque, in addition
Fg.1-12. Holding goskel in ploce. It ii importont tfiof gcskets

be held in olignmen! during ossembly.
In other istances, such as cylinder head

:qstal.lation, guide pins are used to hold the
gasket in alignment.
65
AutoServiceond Repair
to snapping fasteners and parts, producing distortion, etc., will very likely cause the gasket to
fail to seaI. Excessive torque ean place the gasket
under too much pressure and cause ittoextrude
badly. Fig. 4-13 shows the results of improper
tightening procedures as related to gasket
sealing.
RE ME MB E R
T HE S ES T E P SI N P R O P E R
G A S K E TI NS T A L L A T I O N
1. Clean parts, fasteners and threaded holes.
2. Remove any burrs, bent edges or excessive
warpage and check for dents, scratches, ete.
3. Select a new gasket of the correct size and
fype.
4. Check the gasket for fit.
5. Where sealant is used, spread a THIN coat
of the correct sealant on one side of the
gasket. Place the gasket withthecoatedside
against the part. Spread a THIN coat on the
uncoated side. Do not slop sealantintoparts.
Wipe off excess.
6. If alignment difficulty is anticipated during
assembly, secure the gasket by additionat
means.
7. Carefully place mating part in place.
8. Coat threads of fasteners with anti-sieze
(unless prohibited), instal.l intheir PROPER
location and run up snug.
9. Torque fasteners in proper seouence.
10. If necessary, retorque after a specified
length of time. (These instances will be
covered in later ehapters.)
H
ri
;1
H
*F
TOO TIGHT.W AR PEDPAN
A NA L Y Z EG. A S K E TF A I L URE
F i g . 4 - 1 3 , Ove r tig h te n in gwll co u se d o m a ge, A -P roper l ostener
fension. B-Excessive tightening hos split cork pon gos/<et. CExcessive fenson os worped oil pan llonge,
When a gasket fails in service, there has to

be a reason for the failure. If you do not detect
the reason, your own installation mightfail a1so.
The following simple steps will hetp you find
the underlying cause of the failure:
1. Ask the owner about any unusual conditions.
Try to determine if the gasket failed suddenly or over a period of time.
2. Before tear-down, cheek fastenertorque with
a torque wrench. You can loosen each one
and notice the reading at break-away. This
will be somewhat less than true torque. Another method is to carefully mark the position
of the head of the screw or nut in relationship
to the part (use a sharp scribe). Backthe nut
off about one-quarter turn and carefully retighten untj.'Ltlle scryibed lines are exactly in
alignment.llf
properly, this will give you
/one
a fair indlCation of torque at the time of
failure.
If the torque is significantly below that
specified, this eould well be the cause of
fail.ure. If torque varies from fastener to
fastener, this too could be the cause.
ALWAYS ALLOW AN ENGINE TO COOL
BEFORE REMOVAL OF A CYLINDER HEAD.
STAMP E D
P A RTSRE OUIRE
E XT RACA RE
Relatively thin stamped parts such as rocker
arm covers, oil pans, some timing covers etc.,
if bent along the engagingedge, mustbe straightened before installation, Place the part edge on
a smooth, solid metal surface and gently tap to
straighten the bent seetions. When installing do
not overtighten as the parts will be bent again,
F ig. 4 -1 4 .
Fig. 4-14. Stroighten warped lange. llorped edges couse leoks.

Stroigfrten them belore instollotion.
66
Goskets, Seolonts,Seols
(A cylinder
head can be warped to the point
of ruin by removing
it when too hot.)
3. Following
tear-down,
carefully
blot off any
grease,
oil,
dirt,
carbon,
etc., from
the
gasket. Do not rub or wash the gasket immediately, as this may remove tell-tale signs.
Inspect the gasket for signs of uneven pressure, burning, corrosion,
cracks, voids, etc.,
that could have caused the failure. Check to
determine if the gasket is of the correctmaterial and type for the job.
4. Inspect the mating parts for warpage, burrs,
etc. ALWAYS TRY Tp FIND THE CAUSE OF
GASKET FAILURE
SO YOU MAY EFFECT A
CORRECTION
WHEN INSTALLING
A NEW
GASKET.
S E A LIN GE I.E ME N T
"*"19
Fig. 4-15. Typicoloi/ seol consrrucrion.(Victor)

In the rubber oil seal, the sealing element
is bonded to the case. The element rubs against
the shaft, the case holds it inplace and in alignm e n t a n d t h e g a r t e r s p r i n g f o r c e s t h e s e al l i p to
conform to minor shaft run-out (wobble) while at
the same time maintaining
constant and cont r o l l e d p r e s s u r e o n t h e l i p . F i g . 4 - 1 5 , i l l u str a te s
typical oil seal construetion.
R ETO R OUE
Constant fastener tension and the expansion
ard contraction
of parts will tend to further
:ompress a gasket. This willleavethe
fasteners
:elow proper torque, and in acritical application
s:ch as a head gasket, can cause gasket failure
:nlsss the fasteners are retorqued after aperiod
f time. Situations requiring
retorque will be
scussed in later chapters.
V A RI O US
DE S I G NS
A RE US E D
Many different element and lip shapes are
p r o v i d e d . E a c h r e p r e s e n t s a n e n d e a v o r to p r o vide the best seal for a specific task. Fig. 4-16,
shows several designs. Notice,-that môre than
one lip can be used and that the foutsi de diilneter,
or one edge, may be coated wr\h-lubber ro provide better OD (outside diameter) sealine.
OIL SEALS
-{n oil seal can be used to confine fluids,
prevent
the entry of foreign
materials,
and
ceparate two different fluids.
-ln oil seal is secured to one part while the
sealing
lip allows the other part to rotate or
(move).
:eciprocate
SH OULD ER SEAL
Oil seals are used throughoutthemeehanical

parts of the car. Engine, transmission,
drive
t'ne,
differential,
wheels,
steering,
brakes,
aceessories,
(use) seals in
etc., all embody
:heir construction.
G AR T ER
SPR ING
O IL SEALCO NS TRUCTION
A NDMA TE RI A L S
IN N ER LIP
Seals are made up of three basic parts. A

metal container
or case, the sealing element
and a small spiral
spring called the GARTER
spring.
Sealing elements
are usually
made of synetie rubber or leather. Synthetic rubber seals
are displacing leathei in most applications. The
r.rbber seal can be made to close tolerances,
can be given special configurations
(shapes) and
specific wear and heat resistant properties
can
be imparted.
OU T E R
Fi g. 4-16. Oi / seol desi gns A .S i ngl e l i p. B -D oubl e Ii p w i th rubber sl roul de seol , l nne l i o contro/s oil ond outer lip keeps out
dust, water, 'efc. C-Dou6le l i o. B ol h l i ps confro/ oi l . D -D oubl e
Iip with ubber outer cool to ossis, oulside diomefe- seoliag.
67
ilr
il
O I L S E A LRE MO V A L
t;
Seals may be removed by pryingdriving,

or
pulling, depending on the location.
7
Before removal, notice the deptfttowhiehthe
seal was installed. As with . g."t
inspectthe
seal after removal for any signs "\
ofunusual wear
o-r hardening. DO NOT REUSE
SEALS, WHEN
IINITS ARE DOWN FOR SERVICE,
REPIJACE
TH E S E A LS . S ee Fi g. 4_18.
S E A L I NS T A L L A T I O N
I N N E RC ASE
O l r . Oth e se o l t- yp e s.A_ M o in b e o r in g( r eor)
seol madeol
l:1.
Both upper ond /o*e, /ro-l"es tit-into
:-":i:t:;-v,i1rn,e.
s,oo"."
r n e o r o c k o n d co p . B- T yp ico l g r e o se
se o / u s i ng
'n
o ert'seori ng
'
r i n g . C - S y nth e tic r u b b e r n o in b J.o r in g
, ilJ.
er O ri ngs
(not shown) oe used ,,
r.y'"^-",i^pt.
,oud
::;;::,,,"^,:1.".
OTHERTY P E SOF OIL A NDGRE AS E

SEALS
Engine rear main bearing oil seals
are constructed in two halves, they may
be rnade of
graphite impregnated asbestos
wicking or sJmthetic rubber. Some grease (not oil)
sJals use a
felt sealing element. Occasionally
a combination
will use an inner rubber seal and
a felt outer
s eal, F ig. 4 -1 2 .
After removing the old seal, carefully

clean
..
the seal recess or counterbore.
Inspect for
nicks or burrs. Compare the old
seal with the
new one to make certain you have
the proper
replacement. The OD must be
the same. The
ID (inside diameter) may be a trifle
smaller in
the new seal as it has notbeenspread
and worn.
The width can vary a titile.
CO A TWI T HNO NHA RDE NI NG

SEALER
Coat the inside of the seal counte?\ore
with
a THIN coat of nonhardening sealer.
If there is
too much sealer, the seal may/dcrape
it off as
enlerS, eausing the surplus (to arlp
down on
il
the shaft and sealing lip. Thian
use seal
fai l ure, Fi g. 4-19.
H OU SIN G
SLID E H AM M ER
PULLER
>
SEAL DRIVER
H EAVY C OAT
OF SEALER
E xcE sssE A LER B
Fi g.4-19,. A ppl y seal er spori ngl y!

A -S eo/ counre r[oe os 6een
given o.heovy coo! of seo/er.
lihen he
into the
cou,nterb,ore,
";l;;-'ei;",
B, fe excess seoler will t. or..
oito the shol
cnd seol l i ps. l n addi ti on to rui n.i ng
""i
fe,seo/, i i "
c l og s ome
opening in the mechonism. "."U
F i g , 4 - 1 8 , S e o/ r e r n o vo /. A- SIid e h o m m e r p u lle r jow s ore pus/red
t h r o u g h t h e s e o l o n d th e n e xp o n d e d .Op e r o tin g siide homner
will
pull seol out. B-A sea! driver con ohen 6e used. C-Mony
seols
con be "popped out" wirh o smoll pinch hor. Wfien o seo/ musf
be removed, while o sfioft is present, a hollow theaded cone s
thcaded into fhe seol. 7[e cone, ofioched to o s/ide hommer,
will wi h d o w fle se o /.
DRI V I NGT HES E A LWI T H

NOS HA F TP RE S E NT
Afte preparing the seal counterbore,
place
..
against rhe opening WTTH THE
1T.:"1:Ouarely
SEAL LIP FACING INWARD ON TOIVEND
THE
Gcskets, Seolants,Seols
AREA IN WHICH THE FLUID IS BEING CONFIIIED. If the lip faces the other way it will
probably leak, Fig. 4-20.
sure the ends are square. If a hammer i7used

to start the seal, followed up with a drift,funch.
Be very careful to strike at differen\ spots
(near the outer edge) each time. If the sel begins to tip, strike the high side. REMEMBER:
A SEAL IS EASILY DAMAGED THROUGII IMPROPER INSTALLATION - BE CAREFUL:
!t
DRI V ES E A LT O P RO P E RDE P T H
If a locating shoulder is used, drive the seal
snugly against it. This is espeeially important
if the seal inner edge has a rubber sealing
compound designed to flatten against the
shoulder. See B, Fig. 4-16.
When no shoulder is used, keep the seal
square and stop at the specifi.ed depth. If you
dri ve i t i n toofar,youmayrui ni t
w hi l e att em pt ing to pull it back.
WHE NS E A LL I P MUS TS L I DEO V E R

S HA F TDURI NGI NS T A L L A T I O N
Fig. 4-20, Seol lip musl foce luid! Seol n A hos 6een nstolled
,hoctwords. Lip foces owoy lrom luid cousing luid I to force seol
Lip hon shoh, cousing leokoge, Seol in I is correcfly installed
with lip ocing lluid. Pressure ot 2 oces seol ogoinsf shot, preventing o leok.
\
When driving a seal that must slip oer a
shaft, use care to see that the seaf$lip
is not
nicked or abraded.
\
If a plain shaft (no keyway, splineb-or holes)
is involved, check the shaft carefull.y for burrs,
nicks, etc. If any are found remove them by
polishing (shoe shine motion) with CROCUS cloth
(a very fine abrasive). Examine the shaft surface
where the sealing lips will operate. It must be
smooth at this point.
If the end of the shaft is chamfered (beveled),
polish the chamfered area and if the chamfer is
too steep (30 aeg. about maximum) either reduce
it or use a mounting bullet or thimble. See
Fi g. 4-23.
Once the shaft is chamfered and free of
scratches, etc., wipe it CLEAN and apply afilm
of oil to the full length. Place a small amunt of
oil or soft grease on the seal lip and inner face.
With the seal lip facing toward the fluid to be
eonfined (counterbore with a thin coat ofsealer)
carefully slip the sealing lips over the chamfer
onto the shaft. Slide the sealalongthe shaft until
it engages the counterbore. Using a suitable
driver, seat the seal, Fig. 4-22.
USESUITAB LEDRV E R
The driver should be just a little smaller
fabout .020) than the seal OD when the seal will
be driven below the surface. If the seal is to be
driven flush (even with surface), the driver can
be somewhat wider. In any case, the driver
should eontact the seal near the outer edge only.
SEVER STRIKE THE INNER PORTION OF A
SEAL. This might bend the flange inward and
d!stort the sealing el.ement, Fig. 4-21.
If a seal driving setis not available, a section
d pipe of the correct diameter canbe used. Make
MO UNT I NG
SLEEVES
A NDB UL L E T S
When driving a seal that must first slide over
a keyway, drilled hole or splines, start on shaft
with a square end, etc., a mounting sleeve or
bullet should ALWAYS be used. This will pre-
Fig.4-21, Donoged seol..Seol cose 6odly dislorted 6y coreless

iastollation. Punch struck cose ot A. AII drivng orce should be
opplied ot B. This seol would leok bodly.
69
F'
vent damage to the seal lip. Fig. 4-23, illusfrates the proper setup. The OD of themounting
sleeve should not be much over tlZZ in. larger
than the shaft or the seal lips will be spread
excessivelY.
C O U N T ER BO R E
SEAL DRIVER
LIP FACES IN
BGULLET
LLE T
MOU
M
OU NNTTIN
IN GBU
S TOC
O C KK
S HIM
SH
IMST
Fi g. 4-24, S fi i m stock movnti ngsl eeve. l -S leev e l ormed ond s ol '

deied. 2-Edge sonded smoot. 3-Sleeve insolled ond leoding
edge crimped. All edges musf 6e smooffi'
F i g . 4 - 2 2. !n sto llin g o se o l o ve r o p lo in sh a lt' Ihe seol w i l l sl orf

shoit end withoul damoge.Sfioft must 6e smoofh,
o"ir.ho^ler.d
cle o n o n d o ile d '
3.
4.
5.
6.
GROOVESAN D
SPLINE
SHAF
?.
with CROCUS cloth. Pay particular attention

to the area where the seal lfp'{X operate.
Check the new seal for correct )size andtype'
Lube the sealing element anQ;;Zraft.
If needed, install mounting tool on shaft.
Push seal, LIP EDGE TOWARD FLUID, up
to counterbore.
Using a suitable driver, seattheseal,making
certain it is inthe proper depth, andis square
with the bore.
IMP OR TA N T
The seal must be a drive fit in the counterbore. A seal that slides in easily will leak.
When the housing has air vents to relieve
pressure build up, make sure they are open. If
clogged, pressure within the housing will force
the lubricant past the best of seals.
If the shaft is installed after the seal, observe
the same precautions against seal damage.
Cleanliness here, as in all automotive ser-
F i g . 4 - 2 3 . ln sto llin g se o / u sin g m o u n tin g.b ul l et' B ul l .etor sl eeve

'is'ploced
or., shoil ond seol con lhen 6e insrolled without lip
domoge bY sPline edges'
In the
one
may
event
be
no mounting
quickly
made
tools
by
ar:e available,
using
shirn
stock
(thin brass sheets in various thicknesses);'

Wrap the stock tightly around the shaft (one
wrap with a small lap) and trim off. Tin the lap
with a soldering iron. File the lapped edge after
soldering and then smooth/with abrasive cloth.
Bend the leading edge inward and it is ready to
use, Fig. 4-24.
,..-'
vice, is important.
If a new seal is improperly installed and
must be removed - throw it away; and use another new seal.
Further specific instructions regarding gaskets, sealants and seals willbe giveninchapters
to which they aPPIY.
THE S ES TE P SIN
R EME MB E R
SEA LINS TA LLA TON
SUMMARY
1. Clean seal counterbo?e, remove nicks,burrs,

etc., and coat with a VERY THIN layer of
nonhardening sealer.
2. Inspect shaft, polish burrs, scratches, etc',
Gaskets and seals are used throughout the

car. Their selection, preparation and installation
can be of critical importance.
79
Goskets, Seolonts,Seols
Gaskets provide leakproof joints. They are

:nade of paper, cork, rubber, asbestos, steel,
copper, etc. Different materials or combinations
of materials are needed for specific applications.
Gaskets are of single layer and multiplelavs sogtruction.
Many use steel or copper
uter
layers with asbestos center. The si.ngle
laver, beaded steel head gasket is popular on
-::gh
compression
engines. Gaskets may have
=.Cditional material
around the sealing edges to
::-crease unit loading at these points.
Gaskets, once used, shouldbe di.searded. Beare of kinked multiple-layer
gaskets.
\tr/here sealant use is recommended,
use
sparingly.
Sealants of many kinds are available
:: both hardening and nonhardeningtypes.
Select
--::e proper type for the job at hand.
\\hen a gasket has failed, try to determine
xhy, so you can correct the condition.
Oil seals are used to confine fluids, prevent
::e
entry
of foreign
material
and often, to
separate two fluids.
Seals are generally
constructed
in three
!."rts - steel case, sealing element and garter
s:ring.
Some specialized
seals use asbestos
;r:cking or sections of synthetic rubber.
Seals use both leather and synthetic rubber
seal-ing elements. Many different
seal lip des:gns are used.
\\hen installing
seals, the shaft must be
s-ooth, the counterbore lightly coated withnon,Lardening sealer,
and the seal driven to the
::oper
depth. The seal lip should face toward
r:e fluid to be confined.
Protect
seal lip when
:-stalling by chamfering or using special mount::g tools. A1ways use a sutable driver. Lubricate
:eal and shaft before installing the seal. Cleanli:ess must be observed at all times.
had happened during service. Whatparteould

the gaskets have playedinthistorque
change?
5. Check this same car for oil, gas and water
leaks. Do not overlookthe transmission,
rear
end and brake lines. Is the car free of leaks?
If leaks are present, what could be the major
cause ?
6. Inspect some used oil seals that have failed
in service. What shape are they in? Whathad
happened to them? Discount damage thatmay
have incurred during removal.
5 0 WHA T ' SA L I T T L E L E A K
You might ask why a chapter is devoted to
such t'trifles"
as gaskets and seals. It might
seem that they are so simple that a passing
mention would be enough. Surely they are not
that important
and if some part leaks a trifle,
well - so whats a little leakj
The facts are that proper gasket and seal
selection
and installations
are actually VERY
IMPORTANT.
Every repair job is made up of
a series of steps or operations
- some large
including
the
and some small.
All operations
little thi.ngs are very important.
Leaks are not only messy and ereat{pogr
relations, they cause part failure''ahd
customer
plus real damage to the
expensive comebacks,
reputation
of both garage and mechanic. In fact,
even a minor leak may cost someoners life!
Letts take the case of mechanic 'lX" (unfortunately,
there are too many mechanics of this
to a brake job, this service
type). Assigned
technician had replaced the master cylinder and
repai.red the front calirear wheel cylinders,
inpers, turned the rear drums and frontdiscs,
stalled new brake shoes and pads and replaced
front wheel seals and rear axle seals.
Upon comp.letion, the technician bled and adjusted the brakes, checked for fluid leaks and,
after road testing, declaredthe job complete. The
customer, a sales rep::esentative, took delivery.
was
Several weeks later, the representative
road was dark.
r.eturning
home. The mountain
in the glare of the
Its wet surface shimmered
headlights. Rounding a curve, a rock slide loomed
out of the night. The representative didnotpanic.
The carrs speed was not excessive and thoughit
to stop.
there
was time
would
be touchy,
Considering the slippery blacktop, the driver
pres sed hard on the brake pedal, but not too hard.
The
The car began to slow, andthenithappened.
left rear wheel grabbed, Iocked up tight, lost
traction and sent the carintoaviolentslide.
SUGGESTED
ACTIVITES
Determine
how many separate gaskets are
:-rsed on a V-B engine. List the materials
used in their construction.
\Iake a gasket by placing the gasket material
over the part and tapping_.,around the edges
an d h ole s.
Secure a head gasket that has BLOWN (failed).
Examine it carefully
and see if you can determine the cause. List some of the possible
eauses of head gasket failure.
(following
\\-ith a torque
wrench,
specifications), go over the fasteners on an engine
that has been in service for some time. Were
:hey torqued to specifications ? If not, what
7l
r
Auto Service qnd Repqir
l
The driver
released
the brake pedal, cut
the wheel, stopped the skid and reapplied the
brakes. Another lockup, another terrifyi.ng skid,
but now it was too late. The car struck the
corner of the rock slide with a sickening thud,
bounced high in an arcing
skid and plunged
off the highway.
The driver
was lucky and lived through the
crash.
Subsequent study by a safety investigator disclosed that mechanic t'Xt' had driven
the left rear axle seal in so that it was cocked
to one side. The axle lube had worked through
and fouled the brake lining.
Being a mechanic takes intelligence, trainitg,
technical
knowledge,
skill
and attention
to details. If you ever hear someone sr,
"So
whatrs a little 1eak,r' - ]IOU TELL THEM:
,j
1
ir
#l
t ;
El,h
In
.
: .
E
f 't
r,,
OUIZ - Chopter4
1. Define the word GASKET.

Give two important reasons for installing
gaskets.
3. List seven materials that are usedingasket
construction.
4. Name four factors that influence the service
life of a gasket.
5. Gaskets are of either_layer
or
layer construction.
6. A gasket that must resist great heat will
often use_in
its constructj.on.
7. Define the term UNIT LOADING.
8. The beaded steel head gasket is used on
2
14. A sharp crease in a multiple-Iayer gasket,

if it is straightened out, will not harm the
gasket. True or False?
15. Of what value is a gasket sealer?
16. S eal ers are of the_or_rype.
1?. When applying sealer, always use a liberal
amount. True or False ?
18. Sealer should ALWAYS BE USED. True or
Fal se ?
19. N ame three w ays of hol di ngagasket inplace
during part assembly.
20. What effect will improper torque and se_
quence have on the gasket sealing proper_
ti es ?
21. Bent mating surfaces on steel stampings
should be
before_.
22. List seven important steps in proper gasket
installation.
23. Why should the mechanic try to determine
the reason for gasket failure ?
24. The typical oil seal is madein--parrs.
25. These parts are the_
- ihc
and the
26. Leather sealing elements are more widely

used than synthetic rubber. True or False?
27. D raw a cross secti on of asi ng lelipoil seal.
28. All oil seal.s are of one piece constr{rgiion.
'//
True or False ?
29. Describe three methods ot ,.*o/ng
an oil
seal.
30. Place a small quantity of nonhardening
sealer on the tips of each seal before in_
stalling. True or False ?
31. Oil seal lip should face the fluid to be con_
fined. True or False ?
32. Describe a suitable oil seal driver.
33. Nicks nd scratches on a shaft should be
removed by polishing with
34. How are seal lips protected when the seal
must slide over a splined, keyed, or drilled
shaft ?
35. Give seven important steps in proper seal
installation.
36. Once a part has been torqued, the pressure
wil.1 always remain constant. True or False ?
-engines.
9. What features in gasket construction provide higher localized unit toading?
10. If you plan a complete engine repair jobyou
would order an_set.
11. Old gaskets generally can be reused with
s uc c e s s . T ru e o r F a l s e ?
L2. Always clean and check both _surfaces
before installing a gasket.
13. A gasket that has shrunk can oftenbe brought
bac k to s i z e b y _ i n _ .
72
{r
Chapfer5
TU BING
A N DH O S E
Tubing and hose are used in many parts of
the car. Brake systems, fuel delivery, vacuum
applic ati on s, air c onditioning, trans mi s si on fluid
cooling, engine cooling, heating, power steering,
lubrication,
instrumentation,
etc., all utilize
either tubing or hose, and in some instances,
both. Selecting,
using and working
with tubing
is a part of most repair jobs. It is imperative
that the mechanic
be thoroughly
familiar
with
the different
types, their application
and proper
installation.
vacuum lines, lubrcation

lines and for other
low pressure applications. Copper is subject
to
work
(the material
hardening
becoming
hard
and brittle
from bending) and should therefore
be protected from excessive vibration. NEVER
USE COPPER TUBING FOR BRAKEORPOWER
STEERING WORKJ
S T E E LT UB I NG
When properly coated to prevent rust, steel
tubing is suitable for almost all automotive
applications. When used for high pressure sys_
tems such as brakes, the steel tubing should be
of the double wrapped, brazed and tin_plated
TU BIN GM ATERIA L
Annealed (soft) copper, half-hard copper,
stee1, aluminum, plastic and stainless steel are
some of the materials used inthe manufacturing
of tubing. Although alt of these are found in the
automotive field, the most commonly usedtpes
are steel and copper.
Copper is more easily bent than steel but
is not as strong. Fig. b-1, shows the amount of
pressure various kinds of 3/16 in. OD (outside
diameter) tubing with a wall thickness of aroud
.020 in. will withstand. These are considered
safe working pressures when a safety factor of
five to one (material five times stronger than
anticipated working pressure) is desired.
After studying Fig. b-1, it becomes obvious
that the mechanic must KNOW what material is
used in the tubing he is working with. He must
also have a fairly accurate knowledge of the
pressures and temperature produced in the
system on which the tubing will be used. Keep
in mind that both the power steeringandbraking
systems can develop pressure in excess of
1 0 0 0 p ounds .
MA TE RIAL
O.D
Pol y ethy l ene *

N y l on
35 A l um i num
5250 A l um i num
Anneol ed C opper
H ol f- hor d C opper
D oubl e W r op, Br oz ed Steel
'l0l 0 Sree
I
Anneol ed Stoi nl es s Steel
4130 Sr eel
l ,/4 tN .
3/l tN .
WA LL
PRESSURE
TH IC K N E S S
LB S.
.062
.023
.0t8
.08
.020
.020
.020
.020
.020
.018
200
300
500
| ,00 0
t.000
2,000
2,000
2,000
3.000
5,000
' = AT 70 D EG. F .
Fig. 5-1. Pressurecorf.Note lhe voiotionin sofe wor/<ing

pres_
surefo the voious moterials.
type. The double wall construction
gives good
strength and makes the tubing easy to bend. The
tinplating protects it from corrosion.
P L A S T I CT UB I NG
Polyethylene
and nylon are two of the materials used in the construction ofplastic tubing.
Soft plastic
tubing has the advantage of flexibility, resistance to corrosion andworkhardening. It will not, however, stand high pressures\
and excess heat. It can be used for fuel, vaeuum I
C O PPERTUBING
Copper tubing i.s rustproof, easy to bend and
forms good joints. It can be used for gas lines,
73

and some lubrcation lines. Special inserrs are
needed to attach the soft plastic to conventional
tube fittings.
REAMER
BLADE
HANDLINGTUBING
When removing tubing from a roll, place the
ro ll on a c lean benc h inanupr ight pos it i o n .

Hold
the free end of the tube with one hand while ro_
tating the roll over the bench with the other.
Never lay the roll fiat and pull the tubing upward
as it will be t wis t ed, Fig. 5- 1A.
'CUTT|NG
ROLLERS
tVHEEL
Fig. 5-3, Tube cutter.Note reomerblodein t/re closedposirion.
(lnperiolMg, Co,)
Although a fine-tooth hacksaw can be usedto
cut tubing, a faster and better method is to
use
a tube cutter, Fig. 5-3.
The cutter
is placed around the tube, the
cutter wheel is brought into firm contactandthe
cutter is revolved around the tubing. After
each
complete revolution,
the cutter wheel is tight_
ened. DO NOT OVERTIGHTEN,I
Repeat this
process until the tubing is cut off, Fig.
b_4.
,/<\
Fig, 5-IA. Propernethodol removing

tubnglromroll.
Avoid working (bending) the tubingmorethan
necessary. Store tubing where no heavy tools
or
parts are liable to cause dents. Keep
the open
end taped to prevent the entry of foreign material.
C U TTl N GTUB ING

Tubing, especially when the ends are to be
flared, must be cut off SQUA3,ELY. Any burrs,
either on the outside or inside, mustbe
"L-olrea,
F ig. 5- 2.
Fis.s-4. ,,n^r.:":,
whet
A by turnins handte
B.
REMOVEBURRS
After cutting, you will probably notice a
burred edge, especially on the inside. Remove
the burr by using the reamer blade onthe cutter
tool. Ream only long enough to removetheburr.
Excessive reaming will ruin the end forflaring,
B, Fig. 5-2. When reaming HOLD THE END OF
THE TUBING DOWNWARD SO THAT THE
CHIPS WILL FALL FREE. See Fig. b-b.
CIT AM F ER
\.c u r
TUBINGCONNECTIONS
or
S QU AR ELY
There
nections the PIPE.
commonly
F i g . 5 - 2 . A - T u b in g cu t o t o n o n g le a n d h e o vily burred.
B _C r
squorely
b u t e o m e de xce ssive ly. C- Cu t sq u r el y ond eomed
p r o p e r ly.
74
are three 'basic types of tube con_

the FLARE, the COMPRESSION, and
All have variations in design and are
use.d.
Tubing qnd Hose
F 'L AR ETYPECONNE CTION

In the flare connection, the end of the tubi.ng
:s spread (flared) outward at an ang1e. The tube
:':tting securely grasps both sides of the
flare
:bus producing
joint.
a leakproof
Fig. b-bA,
:l-lustrates one type of flare connection.
Tw o (l ore onsl es. A -J.l .C . 37 deg. B -S A E 4 5 deg.
Fi s.5-6,
F L A T R E A MER
a r ' r , wr L L F AL L FR E E
Fig. 5-5, Removing bus with c, reomer,
FITTINGBODY
F LARE
Fig. 5-7. A-Sing/e-/op. B-Doob.le-laplore.
U N EVEN
C O C KED
r------1\
Li-l\
F LAR E
SH O U LD ER
Fig . 5 - 5 4 . S A E 4 5 d e g , llo r e co n n e cfio n . No r ice fio w l ore

is
pinched 6etween (itting body ond nut.
There are two flare angles - B? and 4b

you
determine
the
O .K .
-f,1
--..- hjlJ
L.--}.J
|,m
C O N T AC T
FI.ARE ANGLES
Cegrees. Be certain
: eed ed , Fig . 5-6 .
SPLIT
F U LL
C ON T AC T
F LAR E T O O LAR GE
one
Fi g.5-8. Fl ore must 6e sguore w i h the tu6e cenfer l i ne , ond ol

l he correcl si ze.
FLAR ETYPE
w eak
The flare may be SINGLE or DOUBLE-LAP

:ype. WHEN FLARING DOUBLE-WRAPPED,
BR..{ZED STEEL TUBING, ALWAYS USE A
DOUBLE-LAP FLARE. This type of tubing, if
a single-lap is used, will SpLITI See Fig. b_?.
and
uneven
fl ares.
These
will
LEAKI When a flare is made incorrecily,

off and form a new one, Fig. 5-g.
al w ay s
cut it
F O RMI NG
A DO UB L E -L A PF L A RE
After cutting, reaming, and determining the
proper flare angle, insert the tubing in a flaring
tool. The tool shown in Fig. 5-g, wiII produce
either a single or double-lap flare.
Although you should always follow instructions provided by the manufacturer of the tool
FLAR EM U STBE A CCURA TE LY

FORME D
The flare must be smooth and square with
:he centerline of the tubing. Careless cutting or
:rrproper use of the flaring tool will produce
75
F EED SC R EWT IGH T EN EO
fS i l tt*
F0R cE D .
PTERS
"-/'
.{-3
Fi g. 5-l l .
F i g . 5 - 9 . On e typ e o l llo r in g o o l. T h is o ol w i l l produce both
sin g le o n d d o u b le - lo p llo r es.
B el l i ng tube end. Ti ghten cone feed s c rew (l ) unl

odopter sfri kes gri pper bl ock (2).
F IN IS H E DFL A R E
you are using, you will find that in general, the

actual forming process is similar for all t1pes.
Fig . 5 - 9 , a r r a n g e
To us e t he t oolillus t r at edin
the gripping blocks sothatthe correct size tubing
hole is directly beneath the flaring cone. Rotate
the adapter plate until the correct size adapter
is beneath the cone. Shove the tubingthroughthe
gripper blocks until it strikes the adapter. Tighten the block securely so the tubing cannot be
pressure,
downwar d
under f lar ing
forced
3->-
Fig .5-1 0.
CONE FEED SCREW
Fi g. 5-12. Fi ni shed fl ore. A daptersw ung osi de (2) ond c one foc ed
(I) i no bel l ed end.
Turn the flaring cone back, swingthe adapter

out of the way, and run the cone tightly down
into the belled tubins. This willformthe finished
fl are, Fi g.5-12.
REMEMBER - ALWAYS SLIDE THE FITTING NUT ONTHE TUBINGBEFORE FLARING,
Fi g.5-13.
GR IP PER
B L OCK
CL E A NT UB I NG
SERRATIONS
Wtren all cutting,

been accomplished,
reaming
and flaring have
air and
use compressed
Fig. 5-10. lnserting tubing. Push rubing (l ) in until odopter strikes

odopter plote (2). Tghten gripper blocks (3).
Run the flaring cone down until it forces the

adapter against the gripping blcick. This causes
the adapter to BELL the end of the tubing. This
step in doing a double-lap flare,
is the first
NUT
Fig .5-1 1.
Fig.
76
5-13. Slide nuf on tuhe be(ore loring.
Tubing ond Hose
blow out the line to remove any chips or other

Place the tubing in a clean
foreign
material.
spot until ready to install. If, duringinstallation,
there is any chance of dirt or grease being
jammed
into the ends, cover the ends with
masking tape.
AMOUNT
REMEMBER
- THE SLIGHTEST
RUIN THE
MAY
MATERIAL
OF FOREIGN
JOB - KEEP THE TUBING SPOTLESS:
BENDIN G
TU BING
steel tubing in the
Soft copper and thin-wall
used sizes can be bent by
more
commonly
slipping a bending spring over the tubing then
forming the bend with the hands. When using a
make sure it is the correct
bending spring,
size. Bend the tubing a trifle more than needed.
When it is bent back to the exact shape, the
spr ing can the n be r eadily r em ov ed, Fig. 5 - 1 5 .
Fi g. 5-16. Tubi ng i nsertedi n mechoni calbender .
B EN DING
SP RIN G
F i g.5- 17.
Fig. 5-15. Usingo springtubebender.

Stiffer tubing may be handled with a levertype bender. This tool will make uniformbends.
When appearance is important, it is often used
on softer tubing also. Fig. 5-16, shows tubing
marked
inserted in the tool. Note that thetoolis
in degrees to assist in controlling the amount of
N U T F U LLY
R ELEASED
F IT T ING
C O N NEC T EO
ben d, Fig. 5-1 6.

In Fig . 5-1 ?, t he handles hav e been cl o s e d
and the tubing bent. The mechanic has opened
the handles, loosened the holding foot, and is
removing the tubing.
It is often advisable to bend tubing prior to
However, if the bend must be close to
flaring.
the flare, make the flare first so the bend will
with the flaring tool. To facilitate
not interfere
never start the bend too close to the
assembly,
flare. Allow about twice the length of the nut,
l * rw o
ST AR T BEND H E R E
_+ l
N U rr-excrxs
Fi g. 5-18. A Il ow enough spoce befw een fi tti ng ond 6en d s o thof

the nut w i l l s/i de 6oc/<os sl l ow n.
F ig .5-1 8.
TUBING,
BENDING
REMEMBER
- WHEN
AND
KINKS
TO
AVOID
CAREFUL
BE VERY
FLAT
SPOTS: Once kinked or flattened, the
flow and lead to trouble.
restrict
tubing will
ALWAYS USE A SUITABLE BENDING DEVICEJ
F ig.
Bend c om pl eted, hondl es open, l ubi ng beng re mo v e d .

( l nper i ol Br os s M fg. C o.,)
F LAT T EN ED
Fis. 5-18A.Whenbendi ng,
5- 1 BA.
77
ov oi d k i nk i ng or l l ol teni ng
o'K'
lubing.
Auto Service qnd RePqir
INSTALLINGTUBlNG
AVOIDSTRAIGHT
RUNS
Tubing
directions
Straight runs, especially if short, wiII not

work well as the slightest shifting between the
two units will impose a strain on the connections.
They are also difficult to install or remove,
Fi g. 5-19.
must- usually be bent ln one or more

to provide a proper flt. In order to
S U P P OR T LON G R U N S
Tubing can fail if subjected to excessive
vibration. Secure long runs with clips or holddowns. Junction or distribution blocks and other
heavy units must be supported, Fig. 5-20.
T UB I NGE NDSS HO UL D
A L I G NWI T HF I T T I NG S
To prevent cross-threading
(threads sta
and turned in a cocked position thus ruining

threads) and leaks, as well as to facilitate inmake sure tubi.ng ends are n
stallation,
The tubing should NOT have
with the fitting.
be sprung into alignment. Fittings should sta
and run up several turns with finger pressu

only. If they start hard, check for dam
threads, alignment and size. DO NOT CROSSTHREAD THE FITTING. See Fig. 5-21.
DETOURAROUND
HOTSPOTS
Never run tubing too close to the exhau
system. Keep it as far away as possible and
a heat baffle or insulate
necessary, instl[
tubing, Fg. 5"22.
A S S E MB L B
E O T HE NDSB E F O RE
F I NA LT G HT E NI NG
Fig.5-19. Avoidstroightruns - A, B, C, by instollingtubingas

shownin A-l , B-l ond C-l.
Connect the tubing long leg end first. Lea

the fitting
loose so that the other end can'
moved enough to make the connection.
insure
satisfactory
service,
a- few important
rules
should be kept in mind prior to actual
bending.
BOTH connections are made, tighten. Use dis-
M OU N T IN GBOLT
SHUT OFF C O C K
l,touH rtxccl te
Y D IST R IEU T ION
BLOC K
Fig. 5-20. Long tubing uns ond reloted units musf 6e supporfed with mounting clips ond 6olrs.
78
Tubing qnd Hose
::etion
when tightening.
If torque values are
"".-ailable, use them. This chapter will give you
instruetions
i:neral
on the amount of tightening
-edal
REMEMBER: MANY FITTINGS ARE EASY

TO TWIST OFF - BE CAREFUL.SeeFie.S-23.
xur trrLL LIN EuP
FTTINGS
Proper selection of fittings is important. The
:orrect
choice will speed up the job and insure
:roper operation. Fittings are designed tomake
::ther a flared, compression, or pipe connection.
The flare fitting just discussed can be of the
Sin
type,
type, Fig. 5-25, or the INVERTED
5 -26 .
-' -9.
Fig. 5-23.Assembletubinglongleg endlirst os in A. l( shotend

(irst, otherendwill be dilicul to connec|,B.
is ossem/ed
W HENTO USEFLA REFITTINGS
Flared fittings MUST be

lend itself to flaring.
used on high pressure
automotve applications
such as the brakes and power steering.
Flared fittings CAN be used on any type of

::'ring (copper, aluminum,
steeI, etc.) that will
ASSEMBLINGFLARED FITTINGS
Slide the nut, long or short dependingonuse,
on the tubing. Flare the tubing making certain
TUBING
NUT
--CONNECTOR
ffire@
WRONG
F i g . 5 -2 1 , Pr o p e r o lig n m e n !is im p o r t o n t , T h e n u t in A wo u ld c o ss- th e o d .
:00 cLosE
: U B I N GI SH O T
Fi g. 5-25. S A E 45 deg. (l are l i tti ng. The nut theads over the l i ting body. (lleotherheod Co.)
N U T ( SH OR T
a o tta t\
k)
ry
r" @
EX HA U S TP IP E
il4
*'mrd---r| Jm[r,L
llutttt{.,,1
lEtl{q:
Fi g. 5-26. Inverl ed 45 deg. f[are (i tti ng. The nut l hreods i nto fhe
itting body.
Fig. 5-22. Protect tubing lrom heoting A by either instolling o heot

bo # le B o r r e r o u tin g C.
79
tr
'I
ll
SLEEVE PINCHSTUBING
-A
ffiAIil
ffii{iil
\-J
ilm||tt
ffirrl'r$si
(itting. Noficeowupon
Fig.5-27. Seporote
sleevecompression
tightening,tfie sleevepincfiesthe tubing.
Fig.5-28.
Double compression fitting. Vlhen tightened, tfie nose

ol the nut is foced ogoinst ihe tubing.
the flare
is of the correct
angle and width.
Double-flare
aI1 brazed steel tubing, thin-wall
tubing and all high-pressure
applications.
Align the tubing with the fitting.
Shove the
flare against the fitting seat and run the nut up
finger tight. Using a flare nut wrench, bring the
nut up solidly at which point you will feel a firm
metal-to-metal
contact (flare securely pinched
between nut and fitting body). At this point, give
the nut an additional 1 /6 turn.
tubing - one and three-quarter turn and for all

si zes 3/8 to f-i n., tw o and one-qua r t er t ur ns.
WHILE TIGHTENING, HOLD THE TUBING IN
THE FITTING:
The foregoing tightening procedure applies
only to new compression fittings. When assembling USED fittings, bring the nut up firmlywith
no additional ,turns.
FLARELESSCOMPRESSION
TYPE FITTINGS
P LA S TC TU B IN G C OMP R E S S ION FI TTI NG S
A sleeve, either a separate unit or designed

as part ofthe nut, is used in compression fittings.
When the fitting and nut are drawn together, the
sleeve is compressed against the tubing, fitting
and nut. The separate sleeve-type compression
fitting is pictured in Fig. 5-27.
The DOUBLE COMPRESSION type, usingthe
nose of the nut as the sleeve, is shown in
F ig. 5- 28.
When RIGID plastic tubing is used, a regular

separate sleeve compression fittingwill suffice.
However, if the tubing is SOFT, a specialinsert
is placed in the end so the sleeve will not crush
the tube, Fi g. 5-29.
WHENTO USECOMPRESSION
FITTINGS
i
1
lr
Compression fittings may be used on lowpressure applications sueh as vacuum, fuel and
lubrication lines. Since no flaring is required,
connections are quick and easy to make. DO
NOT USE ON BRAKE AND POWER STEERING
SYSTEMS.
Fig.5-29.
Fitting br soft plostic tubing. The insef is needed

to prevent sleeve from crushing tubing,
A S S EM B L IN G C O MP R E SS IO N F IT T NGS
li
Slide the nut, followed by the sleeve, on the

tubing. When the tubing is aligned with the fitting,
insert the tubing as far asitwillgo. While holding the tubing in, run up the nut finger tight.
Using a flare nut wrench, bring the nut up until
the sleeve just grasps the tubing. For tubing
size 1/8, 3/16 and tl4-n., give the nutan additional one and one-quarter turn. For 5/16-in.
Fig. 5-30. Flexible compression fiffing. fe composfion sleeve

ollows heovy vibration without imposing on undue sfroin on le
tubing.
ir
I
Ii
80
Tubing ond Hose
OTHERSPECIA LIZE COMP

D
RE sS ION
TY P E S
PIPE FITTINGS
One type of compression

fitting, designed
for resistance
to extreme vibration,
is shown
in Fig. 5-3 0. I ns t ead of t he c onv ent ional m e t a l
sle eve, a co mpos it ion
s leev e m at er ial is u s e d .
Note how the tube can flex without bending. This
fittin g is for low - pr es s ur e
us e.
Th e Erme to
is a c om pr es s ion
t y pe f i t t i n g
design ed to wi t hs t and high pr es s ur e.
Heavy,
difficult to flare tubing may be handled withthis
desig n, Fig .5-3 1.
The pipe fitting uses a tapered thread that

when fully
tightened
will produce leakproof
joints.
A d e v e l o p m e n t i n p i p e t h r e a d s , ca l l e d
Fi g, 5-33, C ompressi ontype unon usi ng stondord l ength nut
F i g . 5 - 3 1 . E r m e to h ig h - p r e ssu r eco m p e ssio n itting.

( ln p e r io l Br o ss M lg . Co .)
Fi g. 5-34. C ompressi ontype uni on usi ng the l ong l ength nut.
the DRYSEAL
PIPE THREAD,
produces leak_
proof joints without undue turning force. Thisis
accomplished
by a difference
in the truncation
(cutoff point) of the thread root
and crest. As
the fitting is drawn together, the root (bottom)
and crest (top) of the threads come in contact
b e f o r e t h e f l a n k s ( s i d e s ) . F i n a l t i g h t e n i n g c a u se s
metal-to-metal
c o n t a c t b e t w e e n r o o t , c r e st a n d
flank. Fig. 5-36, shows a secti.on of steel pipe
joined to a hex NIPPLE by using a COUpLING.
Note the tapered threads.
Another
compression
type fitting that wiiL
han dle h igh p res s ur e is s hown in Fig. 5- 32 .
N UT L EN GTH
Nuts for both flare and compression
fittings
are a va ilab le in bot h s t andar dandlongv er s ion s .
Where the installation
is subjected to heavy
(itting is designedfor highpressure.

Fig. 5-32, fhis compression
vibration,
use the long nut. This will tend to
support the tubing a greater distance from the
act ual co nn ee tion . Fig. b- 33, illus t r at es
a compression-type
UNION using the standard nut.
The long nut, on a similar
union is used in
F ig.5 -34 .
fI
Il t#l
llililllullilil
'"'t"'t=
L+g=tilillltl=
Fi g. 5-36. P i pe i tti ng. N ofe ropered theods.
(WeorerheodC o.)
81
rerrr
\_/vv\_/
T-FITTIN GS
This is a handy fitting to use where branch
lines are necessary. The two common tpesare
the BRANCH-T and the RUN-T. MaIe andfemale
types are available, Fig. 5-41.
Fig. 5-37. Acluol OD lor pipe itting ends lor tuhing sizes ot s-own
P IP E FITTIN GS
Common pipe fittings are illustrated in
Fig. 5-42. Note that all connections are threaded.
No flare or compression sleeves are needed.
PIPET HRE A DS IZE

Fig. 5-3?, shows the actual diameter
pipe thread ends used on tubing fittings.
of the
ASSEMBLINGPIPE FITTINGS
.i
ii
,ii
ii
il,
providing
the
firm
hand tightening,
After
about three
threads
are clean, give the fitting
additional turns. This wilL lock the threads and
tightening beyond this point will be of no value
and could even split the fitting.
Thread sealing compound (a type compatible
with the system) shouldbe used on critical applications. Use sparingly.
MW
ffi lllHF--l+--'-t
i----+-l--J
w%
Wa
MALE
MALE
lilHHhtf--i
We
FEM AL E
Fi g. 5-38. Typi cal connecfors.(C ompres s i onty pe.)
FITTING DESIGN
There are a number of various shaped fittings
The
designed to handle all types ofinstallations.
with the foll.owing
should be familiar
mechanie
b asic d es gns and t heir us e.
S TR AIGH T
CONNECTORS
Connectors are used to attach the tubing to
a unit such as acarburetor, fuelPumP, oil filter,
et c . T h e y c a n a l s o b e u s e d to c o n n e ctthe threaded
end of a pipe to a flare or compression fitting,
F ig. 5- 3 8 .
BULKHEAD
UNI O N S
cRoss
90 DEG.ELBOW
Fi g, 5-39. Typi col uni ons. (C ompres s i onty pe.,l
A union is designed to connect two or more

sections of tubing. It can be disassembled without turning the tubing, Fig. 5-39.
ELBOWS
When a line must leave the unit at an angle,
male or female elbows are
90 or 4S-degree
used. Female refers to a fitting with aninternal
thread whereas the Male fitting has an external
th rea d, Fig. 5- 40.
90 DEG.
FEMALE
Ww
90 DEG.
MALE
45 DEG.
MALE
90 DEG.
D OU BL E
Fig. 5-40. Typical elAows. (Compression type.)
82
Tubing qnd Hose
sIryIVELFITTINGS
,il
,ll
One end of this type fitting utilizes

a swivel
:r'1. These are available in straight connectors,
lbow s, tee s, etc., Fig. 5- 43.
trl
i{
I
Fi g. 5-44. O R i ng connecto.N ofe strai ght (not pi pe) t/rreods .
O R ING F I T T I NG
,ri
;,
S .A .E . O R IN G B OS S D E S IGN
The O ring fitting uses straight threads and

rh::s depends on an O ring to prevent leaks. A
s:raight O ring connector is shown in Fig.5-44.
Ite elbow design, Fig. 5-45, makes it possible
lto position the elbow at any angle. It is held at
MALE BRANCH
ME TA L
B A C K .U P
WASHER
FEMALEBRANCH
IOC K N U T
.O' R IN G
BOSS
Fig.5-45. 90 deg. O ring odiustobleelbow.

the selected angle and the lock nut tightened.
This crushes the O ring and seals the fitting,
Figs. 5-44 and 5-45.
J UNCT I O N
O R DI S T RI B UT I OBNL O CK S
FEMALERUN
MALE RUN
When several branch lines are served by a

single feeder line, a DISTRIBUTION
BLOCK
can be used. A distributionblockis
usuallvfitted
with a mounting bracket, Fig. 5-46.
F i g . 5 - 4 1 . T - l i t t i n g s. ( Co m p r e ssio nr yp e .)
90 DEG.
E LBOW
4 5 DEG .
STREET
ELBOW
45 DEG .
ELBO W
90 DEG .
STREET
ELBO W
M OU N T IN GBR AC KET
gffiulwiltrrx
C
P LUG
TEE
HEX NI PPLE BUSHI NG
Fig, 5-42. Pipe littinss,

Fi g. 5-46. Typi col di stri buti on bl ocks.
S HUT O F F
A NDDRA I NCO CK S
The SHUTOFF COCK is used to stop flow
through a line. A DRAIN COCK is used to draw
off the contents. When using thesefittings - always install so that when in the off position the
Fig. 5-43. Elbow wirh swivel nut.
83
il-
threadsfluid flow is against the seatandnotthe

in
radiator
espeeially
threads,
prevents
the
This
diffiand
corroded
becoming
from
cocks,
drain
cult to turn, Figs. 5-47, 5-47 A.
EK
RUBBER
P LY
Fis. 5-484.Section of single ply, molded radioto hose.

(Gores R u66er C o.)
F ig .5 - 4 7 . Sh u o llo n d d o in cocks.
R U B B E R S TE E LW IR E
Fis. 5-488.Secrionof t,"i!,,:
ing) types. It often has a built-in spiral of wire

to prevent collapse. The bottom radiator hose
is particularly susceptible to collapse duetothe
vacuum created by the water PumP.
Figs. 5-48A, and 5-488, illustrate the typicamoulded and flexible radiator hose. Fig. 5-49,
an enlarged cutaway, shows the fabric ply and
spiral wire construction.
F i g . 5- 4 7 A. F lo w is o g o in st se o t' Bo th s hutol cocks oe n the

clo se d p o stio n . ( Vle o th e heodC o,)
HOSE
of hose, both low and
sections
Numerous
are used on the modern autohigh-pressure,
They are generally identified by use,
mobile.
and
pressure
capacity, method of construction
materials used.
installed, will withstand viHose, properly
bration and flexing (within limits).
. The cooling, lubrication, fuel, vacuum, steer-.
ing, brake, etc., systems a1l utilize some flexible
meh ose in t heir des ign. I t is im por t a n t t h a t t h e
chanic know what replacement types are needed
and the correct
methods
hose.Notere 6ui/t-i
::!,:;r.or
of installation.
S Y S TE MA NDHE A T E RHO S E
CO OLING
STEELI{IRE
low so the hose

are relatively
Pressures
used in both the cooling and heatlng systems is
generally of a single or doubLe-plyconstruction.
heavier hose is
applieations,
For heavy-duty
Fi g. 5-49. Typi col l l exi bte rodi otortrose c ons fuc l i on. fhe fo6rc
pl y ond spi rol w i re oe mol ded befw een tw o l oy ers o( ubber.
F UE LS Y S T E MHO S E
available.
Radiator hose is available in straight (can
be bent only a trifle), curved (moulded into the
(designed to
shape) and flexible
appropriate
without
collapsbending
withstand considerable
Fuel systems operate on low pressures so a

single-ply synthetic (Neoprene, Buna N) hose is
generally used. Some use is made of plastic
84
Tubing qnd Hose

hose. When used on the vacuum side (between
:':rel pump and tank) the hose must be heavy
:nough to prevent collapse. NEVER USE HOSE
THAT IS NOT SPECIFICALLY DESIGNED TO
,T,ITHSTANDGASOLINE,I See Fig. 5_b0.
'RYU
NBTB
HE
ER
TIC
C OYER
SYNT HET IC
RUBBERT UBE
L UB RI CA T I OHO
N SE
When used, oil flter hoses can either
be
made up or procured
ready made. The filter
h o s e s s h o w n i n F i g . b - b 2 u t i l i z e a s y n th e ti c
rubber hose covered with a soft wire braid
for
pressure
strength.
Fabric
p1y lines are also
used. The hose must be oil resistant, Fig.
b_b2.
NO NRE I NF O RCE
D SE
HO
Many of the smaller diametervacuum, wind_
shield washer, drain and overflow, etc., hoses
are made of rubber with no reinforeing.
R AYONBRAID
a ig , 5 - 5 0 . F u e l s y s t em /r o se
co n sfr u ctio n .Ho se sid e wo lls oe el _
o t i v e l y t h i c k fo p r e ve n t co //o p se u n d e vo cu u m .
(Gores Ru6er Co.)
H OS E E N D FITTIN GS
There are numerous tJ,?es of end fittings.
Fi g. 5-53, pi ctures a number of reusabl e ( can
P OWER
STEERING
A NDB RA K EHOS E
T hes e s y s t em s c re a te p re s s u re s e x c e edi ng
--0 0 pounds pe r s q u a re i n c h (p S I). T h e hose
':sed must be of multiple-ply
construction. Re_
:-acement hoses are readily available. DO NOT
:.:AKE UP HOSES FOR THESE SYSTEMS
- USE
:. E P UT A B LE
F A C T OR Y R EP L AC EME NTS ,
l -e . 5- 51.
{@n
ffi^
ffi
ffm"ffi
ftqDffigtudWffiSR
lF=3F+s*'FA
a@il ffi
hC'@d
Fi g. 5-53. R euso6/e/roseends. t -90 deg. tube

el bow . 2-Mo l e pi pe.
3^-l nvetedl l ore, ri si d. 4-l nverted l l orel S -45
;.;.;;;.
etbow . 6S w i vel . 7-90 deg. e/ow {l oe..g-37 aeg.l .t.C ., ,si j .-l _l O
a "g..t_
bow llare, rigid. (yteoheheod C.)
be taken off and remounted o n n e w h o s e )

h o se
fittings. Notice they include p i p e , 3 7 a n d 4 b - d e g .
flare types.
FABRIC PLIES
Reusable fittings
5-55 are typical.
i. , 5 - 5 1. M u l t i p . l e . - p ly.h ig h - p r e ssuhroese . Ke e p in n in d thot pl y

. k n e s s , m o t e r i o l a n d we o ve m u sf e co n sid e e d
o s we // os the
n u m b e ro l p l i e s i n d e te r m in in gth e wo r kin gp r e ssu r e .
shown i n F i g s .
5-54
and
GRIPPER
SERRATIONS
S O CK E T
5 - 5 2 . O i l f i l r e o se lin e s, No fe th e u se o l o n o u te r co ver o(
soft woven wire to provide strenglh.
( Ed e ln o n n & Co .)
Fi g. 5-54, H i gl r-pressureeuso6/e ose end consrrucfi on,

N ore
how ni ppl e foces hose i nl o gti pperseroti ons.
85
{
c
4.
NUT
F i g . 5 - 55 . L o w- p r e ssu r eh o se e n d co n st u cti on. Tfi e spl i t s/eeve
fo r ce s in sid e o f h o se o g o in st ni ppl e.
1.
2.
3.
HOSEEND INSTALLATION
4.
F ig . 5 -5 6 , d e ta i l A , s h o w s s i mpl e B arbtype.
1. Lubricate the hose and fitting. DO NOT USE
A LUBRICANT THAT WILL ATTACK THE
HOSE OR CONTAMINATE THE SYSTEM:
2. Shove hose eompletely over barbed end.
1.
2.
Hose is shoved against flat surface to seat

insert fully.
Nuts are pushed over insert, hose shoved over
nipple and nuts tightened.
Fi g. 5-56, detai l C .
Air brake hose spring slid over hose.
Hose pushed into socket.
Nipple threaded into socket squeezing hose
between nipple and socket. See Fig. 5-54.
Spring snapped over socket shoulder.
Fi g. 5-56, detai l D .
Hose marked and skived (outer layer of rubber
removed down to first layer of cord). BE
CAREFUL NOT TO CUT CORD.
Skived end shoved into socket.
,#w
w*
4
A
F ig .5 - 56. Generol methodol ol tochi ng vori ous type hose ends.

(l nperi ol B ross Mfg' C o.)
3. Remove by cutting the hose.

Fig . 5- 56, det ail B, illus t r at es a c o m p r e s s i o n
fitting used for wire braid hose.
1. One end of the braid is necked down and the
other flared. The nuts are installed.
2. The hose is installed over the nipple toadapt
Nipple and hose lubricated.
4. Nipple threaded into socket.

Fig.
5-56, detail E.
1. Hose shoved into socket.

(pilot
Mandrel
proper seating)
3. Nipple threaded
4. Mandrel seated
2
it to size, and is then removed.

3. Insert is placed over hose and under braid.
86
to expand hose and assist

lubricated.
in.
and then removed.
1n
Tubing qnd Hose
RIGH
When assembling hose ends, always lubricate

xith water, soap, oil, brake fluid, airconditioning compressor
oil or some other agent that is
given
compatible
with the system. Directions
ior fittings in Fig. 5-56, are general. Always
instruciollow the particular
manufaeturerrs
:ions. A skiving knife and mandrel set are shown
:n Fig. 5-5 6,A'.
FC--Eotr
@-.:rEb
]F
Ff
u*
H
fi
W U
ru
U
,re
h
q
F g . 5 -5 6 A .
lools
f]Fc
S ki v'i n g knile ond mondr el sef. These or e es s enfi ol

for proper inslollolion
ol certoin fype frose ends.
when instructions
mentioned,
call for
a hose be careful not to cut the cord. A
using a skived section is shown in Fig.
The
Skive only that portion necessary.
portion should not extend out ofthe fitting.
F i g. 5- 58.
Inc or ec ! ond c or r ec t hos e i ns tol l oti ons ,
D ou 6 / e 6 e n d s
or e fo be ov oi ded.
that the radius of the bend shuld be AT LEAST

FIVE TIMES the outside diameter of the hose.
F o r e x a m p l e : A h o s e w i t h a n O D o f 1 / 2 i n . sh o u l d
i n . I n o t h e r w o r d s,
have a bend radius of 2-ll2
i f t h e h o s e w e r e p u l l e d a r o u n d a c i r c le , th e
cirele would be at least 5 in. in diameter.
When making straight run connections, allow
some slack to avoid stressing the hose from
pressure, vibration or part shifting.
hose fittings,
tighten the
When tightening
one portion
support
swivel
end last. Always
Avoid sharp or double bends and twisting as

In de:his tends to cause premature
failure.
termining how sharp a hose bend may be, figure
( SKI VED) RUBBER

REMOY ED
LAYER
Hiil
ond tw i s ti na
HOSES
MOUNTING
OUTERLAYER
) (
S KIVEDHO SE
As
skiving
iitting
i-57.
skived
lll=
with one wrench while tightening with another

t o p r e v e n t t w i s t i n g t h e h o s e . U s e f l a r e w r e n ch e s.
Fig. 5-58, illustrates
s o m e t y p l c a l h o se i n stallations. Those in the left column are WRONG.
The correct methods are shown inrightcolumn.
Notice how single, smooth bends, without twsting are made, Fig. 5-58.
FABRI CP L I E S
F i g . 5 - 5 7 , P e r m o ne n(l n o r e u so b le )h o see n d . No te skivedsecti on.
87

If the hose fitting has a raised rib, make
sure the clamp is installed on the fitting side
of the rib. This will prevent the hose from working loose, Fig. 5-59.
methods of attachFig. 5-60 illustratesthree
ing a hose.
is experienced when attempting
If difficulty
to remove an old hose, split the portion of the
hose over the fittings. In short runs it is helpful
to split the ful1 length of the hose.
Keep hoses away from the exhaust system.

If the hose run is long, use clips to secure it in
plaee. On off-highway vehicles,"keep hoses and
tubing well up within the frame to prevent snagging and shield from flying rocks, etc.
HOSECLAMPS
such as
hose installations
In low-pressure
the heater and radiator, the hose is merely slid
over the fitting and a spring or screw-type clamp
HO S ECO NDI T I O N
Any hose that shows signs ofcracking,undue
softness, or swelling, should be replaced. Hoses
often deteriorate inside causing portions to
break loose, producing partial or evencomplete
blockage. CHECK HOSES CAREFULLY AND IF
AT ALL DOUBTFUL, REPLACE.I
S TOR IN G H OS E S U P P LIE S
Store hose in a cool spot. Avoid exposure to
sunlight, fuel, lubricants and chemical compounds.
\
HOSECLAMP
Fig. 5-59.lnstoll hose clampn the(itting sideo the roisedib'
S U MMA R Y
Use a smatl amount of sealer to
is installed.
and to provide extraprotection
ease installation
against leaks. Locate the elamps so that they
Tighten
may be easily reached for tightening.
Copper, steel, aluminum andplastictubingis

used in automotive work. Brake and steering
systems MU S T use doubl e-w rappedbr azed st eel
tubing. Handle tubing carefully.
securely.
F ig .5 - 6 0. H oses attoched by usi ng snop-fyP e spri ng cl omps,

screw-type clomp ond borbed itting with no clomp'
88
Tubing ond Hose
Tubing should be cut with a tube cutter and

bending should be done with either a spring or
mechanical bender. Tubing ends must be square
and all burrs removed.
Connections are made with either flared,
compression or pipe fittings. Flare fitti.ngs, 3Z
and 45-degree, SAE and inverted, use a flare
at must be forrned with a flaring tool. DoubLellare all double-wrapped steel tubing. Doubleflare all high pressure applications.
When installing tubing, avoid straight runs.
Support long runs and related parts. Protect
from heat. Assemble both ends loosely before
final tightening.
Compression
fittings,
sleeve and double
compression tpes, are quick, easy andsuitable.
lor fuel, lubrication, vacuum, etc., lines. When
Cghtening, be sure to hold tubing all the way
:r the fitting. Compression fittings on soft plastic
*bing require a special insert. Both standard
and long nuts are available.
Pipe fittings use a tapered thread. Theyproduce a seal through metal-to-metal
contact
rhen tightened.
Connectors, unions, elbows, tees, O-ring,
Cistribution blocks, shutoff and drain cocks, are
the commonly used fitting t)pes. They are
available for either flared, compression or pipe
connections.
-{utomotive tpe hose uses rubber, Neoprene,
Buna, and other synthetic compounds in its construction. Nonreinforced, single and multipleply'types are needed.
Radiator hose is either straight, molded or
flexible. FueI line hose must be resistant to
Easoline and unless plastic is used, should have
a reinforcing
ply. Lubrication
system hose
nust be reinforced and oil resistant.
Power steering and brake hose uses multipleFlv construction. Do not make up these hoses buy quality replacements.
Vacuum wiper, over-flow, windshield washer, etc., applications often use plain, nonreiniorced hose.
Hose end fittings canbe classed as permanent
or reusable.
Some hoses are attached with clamps. Barb
type fittings, where used, provide sufficient
holding power. Threaded hose fittings can be of
the flare, compression or pipe tpe.
When installing hoses, avoid double bends,
twisting and sharp bends. Protect from heat,
noving parts and road damage.
Sllit old hoses for easy removal (barb and
clamp types).
Both hose and tubing must be clean before

installation.
Where sealant or lubrication
is
used, it must be compatible
with the- system
involved.
Support fittings with a wrench when
tightening connections. Tighten swivel ends last.
Use flare nut wrenches. Always testthe finished
job for leaks or malfunctions.
Protect stored tubing and hose from damage.
ii
li'
t
ir:
SUGGESTED
ACTIVITIES
5
1. Cut off a piece of copper tubingusinga

hacksaw. Cut another piece using a tubing cutter.
Is there a difference
in the appearance ?
Which one made the best cut?
2. Ream and double-flare
the end of a piece of
brazed tubing. Follow the tool manufacturerrs
instructions.
3. Try to mqke a tight 90 deg. bend in a piece
of copper tubing with your hands. Did the
tubing remain round ? Try it with both a spring
and mechanical bender.
4. Carefully go over a car lookingfortubingand
hose fittings.
Make a complete list of the
different
ones - elbows, connectors,
tees,
etc. How many did you find?
5. Check the same car for different types of
hose. List each hose, the system it serves,
type, and method of attachment.
SIMPLE JOBS
Flaring
tubing is a simple job compared to
reboring
an engine. Measuring the diameter of
a crankshaft is a breeze in relation to obtaining
the proper mesh in a set of differential
gears.
Selecting the proper fastener - not very complicated. Picking the right tool - nothing to it.
In that these,
and many other jobs,
are
relatively
simple, students often tend to overIook their
significance
and when studying
a
textbook
or working
in the shop, concentrate
only on what they feel are the IMPORTANT
jobs.
The experienced
mechanic,
who each day
performs
many so-called
simple jobs, witl be
quick however, to inform you that despite being
simple,
they are very important
and that many
major service jobs have failed due to careless
or improper
handling of the simple steps.
As regards the simple job, remember
these
FACTS:
1. They must be done.
2. They must be done CORRECTLY:
3. Somewhere
along the line, you will have to
LEARN HOW TO DO THEMJ
89
flare and an INVERTED flare fitting?
24. Tubing bends should start at least_
of the fitting nut from the actual
connection.
25. Brake line and power steering tubing shoud
be
26. Name two tpes of eompression fitting.
27. Compression fittings are generally used
where_pressures
are encountered.
28. When using a sleeve compression fitting on
soft plastic tubing, an_is
necessary.
29. On a flare fitting, after bringing the nut up
solidly, how much more of a turn of the
w rench i s requi red?
30. On new compression fittings, how much
should the wrench be turned afterthe sleeve
grasps the tubing - for ll8 - | /4 in. for
5/16 i n. and for 3/B to 1 i n.?
31. After firm hand tightening, how many turns
are necessary for pipe fittings ?
32. The _compression
fitting WILL handle
high pressure.
33. As opposed to the standard nut, the long nut
provides better resistance to_.
34. Install drain cocks so that the confinedfluid
rests against the_and
not the_.
35. Pure rubber hose would make a fine fuel
line connection. True or Fa1se?
36. Name three basic types of radiator hose.
37. Double bends will prolong the life of hose.
True or False ?
38. Brake hoses are of_plyconstruction,
39. It is not necessary to secure long runs of
hose. True or Fa1se ?
40. Barb type hose fittings use clamps. True or
Fal se ?
41. What is meant by skiving a hose?
42. In determining how sharp a bend a hose
shoul.d be subjected to, what handy rule would
you use ?
43. If a hose Looks good on the outside, it will
surely be good on the inside. True or False?
44. A small amount of _will
make radiator
hose i nstal l ati on easi er and willhelpt opr event seepage.
45. Describe three types of hose clamps.
46. Hose should be stored in a warm dry area.
True or False ?
When tightening hose or tube fittings, always
^n
fitting body while tightening the
-the
nut.
of the hose lst.
48. Tighten the_end
49. The word DRYSEAL refers to a special pipe
thread sealer. True or False ?
Keep this in mind as you studythis and other

texts. Read EVERYTHING carefully and consider
EVERYTHING you read IMPORTANT. You will
be glad you didl
OUIZ - ChoPter5
1, Tubing is widely used in automobiles. True
or F a l s e ?
2. The two most commonly used tubing materials are-and-.
3. When removing tubing from a r11, lay the
roll flat on the bench and pull the free end
upward. True or False?
4. The more tubing is worked, the softeritbec o m e s . T ru e o r F a l s e ?
5. Double-wrapped, tin-plated brazed steel
tubing is suitable for brake line work. True
False ?
Plastic
tubing cannot be used for any automotive work. True or False ?
7 . Aideal for cutting tubing.
-is
while doing
After cuttrng, remove-and
this, hold the tubing end-.
9. To make satisfactory
connections, tubing
must be cut_.
at
steel
1 0 .Always
-double-wrapped
tubing.
n
il
,
' , ri
l8
t"
'
| 'ir
tB iri.
1l
]!i -fri
lt ' l t
[i ''
11. What are two flare angles?

12. What is the first forming step called when
making a double-lap flare?
13. As long as the flare is the correct angle, it
1^
15.
16.
1?.
I
lir
!rl
,rl
18.
19.
:ii
ii
i
"l
20.
i
t,ll
21.
22.
23.
can be slightly
Fals e ?
The_should
cocked to one side. True
or
be placed on the tube be-
fore flaring.
Tubing can best be bent by using either a
a-bender.
-or
A few particles of dirt, metal, etc., as long
as they are small, can be left in the tubing
without harm. True or False ?
Straight runs of tubing shouldbe made whenev e r p o s s i b l e . T ru e o r F a l s e ?
When installing, connect the-legfirst.
If you force fittings that start hard, youwill
them.
-thread
When fittings are properlyaligned, theymay
turns byhandbefore
be given
a w re n c h i s n e e d e d .
When making long tubing runs, be certainto
tubing.
-the
Always use
tighten tubing
_to
fittings.
W h a t i s th e b a s i c d i ffe re n c e betw eenanS A E
90
Tubing qnd Hose
50. Study the following drawing of a theoretical

tube installation. All fittings are missing.
Can you name the correct fitting for each
c onnection ?
A list is provided. Some are needed, some

are not. Write down the number of eachmissing
fitting and directly opposite it write the name
of the fitting you have chosen to use.
PIPE
(J"',,
E
Mcle Run fee.
Femole Conneclor.
Femole Double 90 deg. Elbow.
Femole 45 deg. Elbow.
Un io n C ross.
45 deg. Street Elbow,
Femole Run fee.
Femole Broncfi Tee.
P i pe C oupl i ng.
Distri6urion Bloc/<.
Bulkheod Union.
Mole 90 deg. Elbow.
Mole 45 deg. Elbow.
Stroight Union.
Mole 8oncfi lee.
Mole Connecto.
Mole Double 90 de7. Elbow,
U ni on Tee.
tt*l
r--llr-l
'rll ll
li l i l
ill il:
-
\\@
\ Ai
UJ
[=l
\#/
\I-L--l
% Nffi
Y)'
q
F ig .5 - 6 1 . l.S.O. r yp e of l l are i s sow n i n A . B and C depi ct

vorious fiose litting mounting lange sopes. (Chevolet)
9l
@)
"r.
v
v i ew
s ec fi ono/
Longi tudi nol
overfieod camshoh
4-cylinder,
of F i ot
engine.
Chapfer6
WIREAND WIRING
New wiring, properly installed, is relatively

trouble free but as the car ages the wires tend
to deteriorate
from exposure to heat, oi1, gas,
fumes, acid, vibration,
etc. Vehicles
damaged
by collision
or fire often require extensive rewiring. The auto mechanic shouldbecomefamiliar with types of wire, sizes, insulation, connections and general installation procedures.
S T RA NDI NG
MA T E RI A L
S oft copper i s w i del yusedforw i re stra nding.
It is an excellent conductor, bends easily and
solders readily. Aluminum also is employed to
some extent. C opper, stai nl ess steel , car bon
impregnated thread and elastomer type conductors are used for secondary wire stranding.
The carbon impregnated thread and elastomer
type (Duoprene G, for example) impart a control l ed resi stance (about 10,000 to 20,00 0 ohm s
per foot) in the secondarycircuitto reduce radio
interference. WHEN WORKING ON THE IGNITION SYSTEM, HANDLE RESISTANCE TYPE
HIGH TENSION WIRES CAREFULLY. SHARP
BENDING AND JERKING ARE APT TO SEPARATE THE CONDUCTOR, THUS RUINING THE
WIRE. WHEN REMOVING OR INSTALLING
SUCH LEADS, GRIP THE INSULATION BOOT NOT THE WIRE:
Resistance trye wires may be identified by
such letters as IRS, TVRS, etc.
Automotive wiring uses stranded (conductor
made up of a number of small wires twisted
together) conductor.
PRIMARY WIRE
The primarywiring
handlesbatteryvoltage
6, 12 a nd in som e c om m er c ialv ehic les , 24v olt s .
It has sufficient insulation to prevent current
loss at these voltages. All wiring circuits inthe
car, with the exception of the ignition high tension circuit,
use primary
wire. NEVER USE
PRIMARY
WIRE FOR SPARK PLUG LEADS.
S EC ONDARY
WIRE
Secondary wire is used in the ignition system high tension circuit
- coil to distributor,
distributor
to plugs. It has a heavy layer of insulation to afford protection
against excessive
(loss of electrons
corona
to the surrounding
air) which could impart
suffi.cient current into
an adjacent wire to cause it to fire a plug. This
action is known as cross-firing.
Even with good
insulation
it i.s important to arrange spark plug
leads so that leads to cylinders
that fire consecutively are separated. Fig. 6-1, shows the
relative
difference
in the amount of insulation
on primary
and secondary wires.
wlREstzE
Each conductor size (do not count the thickness of the insulation)
is assigned a number.
The larger the number', the smaller
the wire.
The Ameriean or Brown and Sharpe wire gauge,
i s t h e c o m m o n l y u s e d s t a n d a r d f o r w i r e si ze ;
To find the gauge of a solid wire, simply
measure it with a micrometer
and locate this
a n s w e r o r n e a r e s t o n e , o n a w i r e g a u g e ch a r t.
Moving across to the wire gauge column, determine the correct wire gauge.
To find the gauge f a stranded conductor,
count the number of strands. With a micrometer, measure
the diameter
of ONE strand.
Square this answer and multiply by the number
of strands. This will giveyouthecross
s e cti o n a l
STRANDING
P RIMA RYWIRE
F i g . 6 - 1 . M o r e i n su lo tio n is r e g u ir e d o n se co n d o r ywi res.
93

properties. Silieone secondarywire insulationis
very heat resistant.
area of the conductor in CIRCULAR MILS. Locate

this (or the nearest one) number on the chart.
Directty across, under the wire gauge column,
determine the gauge. Special steel gauges are
also available for quickly checking wire gauge.
Fig. 6-2, shows a portion of an AWG (American
Wire Gauge) chart.
A ME RICAN
WIR E GAUGE
Wire end terminals (connecting device) are

offered in a myriad of shapes and sizes. In
general, primary terminals may be classified
as spade, lug, flag, ro11, slide, blade, ring and
bullet tpes. They may either be solderable or
solderless. They are generallymade ofcopper often tinplated. See Fig. 6-3.
CRO55 sEC T IO N AL AR EA
IN' CIRC U LAR M ILS
WIRE DIAMETER
IN INCHES
2l l 00
r 7800
133100
I 05500
8390
66370
52640
41740
.400
.40964
.3648
.32486
,2893
.25763
.2 2 9 4 2
.20431
.l8 l9 4
,16202
.12849
.1 0 1 8 9
.0 8 0 8 0 8
.0 4 0 8 4
.0 5 0 8 2
.040303
.0 3 1 9 l
.025347
.0 2 0 t
.0 15 9 4
.012641
.0 10 0 2 5
0000
000
00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
l0
12
t4
l
I8
20
22
24
26
28
30
TERMINAL TYPES
Q? l
B A T T E RYCA B L ET E RMI NA L S
cables (with factory
new battery
Although
are generally used to reinstalled terminals)
useless
place a used cable with a corroded,
it is occasionally desirable toreplace
terminal,
types
A number of different
only the terminal.
Fig.
6-5.
are available,
n?
262s0
0
I 5',I
I 0380
530
4107
2583
1624
1022
642.4
404.0
254.1
I 59.8
I 00.5
F i g . 6 - 2 . Am e ico nYlir e Go u g e Ch o - ( No t ol l si zes ore sfi ow n')
='99'
I NS UL AT ION
&t ert
Plastic of various kinds, is used for' automotive wire insulation. Rubber is sometimes
used. Plastic is highly resistant to heat, cold,
fumes, aging, etc. It strips (peels off) easily
and offers excellent dietectric (non-condueting)
Fig. 6-5. Typicl battery cobles ond teminols. l-Solenodfo storte coble. 2-Bottery ground cable. 3'Engine ground strop' 4-Bottery fo solenoid coble. S-Closed borel terminol. 6'Open'split
borel l ermi nol ,7-C l osed bonel temi nol ' N ore fl ot the ground
coles [ove no insulolion ond are of o woven conslrucfon. Regulor insuloted batlery eoble is olso used lor ground cohles'
ffiffiffiMeW
WWNWNNE
should be
cables
Terminals
on battery
SOLDERED ON. This will insure a good connection with no appreciable voltage drop (lowering of line voltage due toloose, dirty or corroded
It will also protect aga,inst the
connections).
acid and fumes. The soldering
battery
of
entry
technique will be covered later in this chapter.
l0
ll
l2
I3
14
l5
T E RMI NA LB L O CK S
F i g . 6 - 3 ' Co m n o n p r im o r y wir e te m in o l typ es. I-Mol e sl i de. 2Bitlet o sndp-in. 3-Femole snop'on. 4-Butt connectot (must be
crimped), 5-Tfiee woy connector. 6-Female slide. 7-Bullet. 8F e m o l e slid e . 9 - L u g . tl- Rin g . ll- Ho o k. l 2-S pode, l 3-R ol l .
l 4 - F lo g . l5 - F e n o le b u lle f co n n e cfo r . (B el den Mg. C o')
The terminal block is used to supplycurrent

to several cireuits from one feeder source. The
hot wire (wire connected to source of electric-
94
:'ly) is attached to one terminal.

This terminal
:s connected to all others by a bus bar (metal
:1ate ), Fig . 6 -6.
IN S UL A T ING
WA S H E R
BU5 BAR
HOLE FOR
TERMINAL SCREVI
N ONC O N D U C T IVE
BASE
TERM INALSCREYI
,l
Fi g. 6-8. Fuse /ock. Fuse l ocks often contoi no numbero f fus es .

S ee fuse bl ock i n Fi g.6-9.
FUSEBLOCK
BUS BAR
The fuse block is similar

to the junction
block except that a fuse is inserted between the
points.
connecting
This protects each circuit
against electrical
overloads, and groups anumber of fuses in one location, Figs. 6-8and 6-27.
E A S EMA D E
N ON CON
DU CT IV E
M A T ER IA L
WIRINGHARNESS
In an automobile, various sections of wiring
are made up in units withcommonwires
(located
in same area) either pulled through loom (soft
woven insulation tube) or taped or tied together.
This speeds installation,
makes a neat package
and provides proper securing with a greatlyred u c e d n u m b e r o f c l a m p s o r c l i p s . F i g . 6 - g sh o w s
portion of typical wiring harness.
F ig. 6 - 6 , O n e t y p e o l te m in a l 6 /o c/< .No r ice h o w t/r e o n e hot w i re

is ottocfred to fhe 6us bor lhus supplying cuilent to t/re other leods.
JUNCTION
BLOCK
Th e jun ctio n bloc k s er v es as a c om m onc o n nection point for a number of wires. It may be
of the terminal
screw or the plug-in type. Unlike the terminal block, the junction block merely
connects one wire to a corresponding
wire on
the other side. There is no common bus bar,
F ig.6-7 .
a
:.
',i
':
'il
,t
,i
a'
:ll l
11
DIVIDER
rt
i,:
,.1
.
i
Fi g.6-9. Typi col w i ri ng orness.N ol e fhe fuse bl ock ond us e of

pl ug-i n type connectors.
COLORCODING
A11 automotive wiring is color eoded (each
circuit
is given a specifie color or number of
colors) to assist the mechanic intracing various
circuits.
Manufacturers publish wiring diagrams
that show all wires and color or colors of each.
F i g . 6 - 7 . Ju n ctio n 6 lo c/< .( Scr e wr yp e .)
95
After aging or exposure to dirt and oil, some

wires are difficult
to identify by color. In this
c a s e , t r a c e t h e w i r e b a c k t o w h e r e i t e n te r s th e
harness. Then, cut away a small portion of the
harness
T h i s w i l l e xp o se a cl e a n
covering.
portion of the wire so the color may be readily
determined.
WIRINGDIAGRAMS
A wiring
diagram
is a drawing
showing
electrical
units and the wires connecting them.
Such a diagram is helpful when working on the
fig . 6 - 1 0 . Vlir in gd ia g r o m( o r sto r ler system.

lG.M .C.)
F g , 6 - 1 0 A. Qve r o ll wir ing di ogrom for the l ont hol { o{ he cor. f.fol e use ol sym6ol s ond col o
coding, (lmericon llotors)
E L C TR I C
WINOSHIELD
WASHER
W I R E H A R N E S C O N C TO F
A U TO TR A N S N E U TFA L A
BACK UP LIGHTSWITCH
rffi:
;!
6
I 1
o r l PFEssu FE
LJ
;-(JmE$toN 8ac(uP I
)A?ACIIOF CONNECTOR
WAER
fEMPERATURC
TS
ON
G R O MME f
IN F I RE WA ! L
r::l
I
llltffii
lffil
::::.=ffi==
srra F:*w:t*q
L".o"* *rr"_o.
THI+HL l"l"Fffi:iilq{i,,
||| 145#$ii=ii,II
I 'i]'#ffi:
+:-'[
il,;i"'
I
ff_Vfi_*...*,fi_]:__l"l;-31
;: !i \""1
7=ffiil*;."
I
r"Ul:'*:i;l*'*tsi'i'"r!1t"l"1xti"Hf
I# ==
ffirri-
r;-nL---Jt
-t:#
r
il
|
|
L---!9!!!!!4I--J
- V|OL ET w /TR - vtOL ET
- GBAy- cR Ay- a r
K GBEEN - OK
BR OWNWr TA- AR OWN
( BL U E
-.*
LrGE E N -|IS IE E I:.,
""'t;{i-HJL
|
|
w [R _ a Z
GR EEN - AY
W TR - 3 x
D K 8 L U E- C Z
Wiil:7'"
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
Wi re qnd W iring
wiring system. As mentioned, wiring diagrams

are' available in various shop manuals and in
some automotive reference type books. Use
themi Fig. 6-10, shows a typicalwiringdiagram
for a speeifie unit. The modern auto electrical
system is becoming more complicated each
break down the
year. Many manufacturers
diagrams, (Fig.
into
separate
various circuits
6-10), as well as providing an overall diagram
system. Fig.
showing the entire electrical
6-10A shows an overall diagram for the front
h a lf of t he aut o. S e e F i g s . 6 -1 0 a n d 6 -1 0 4 -
_o-
C IR C U IT BR EAKER
<
++
w l R ES C R OSStN GN OT C O N N EC T ED
rvtR E cR
s ossl N G.
C ON
NE C TED
(rdrh)
C O N T AC T POIN T s
;F
LAM P.D O U BLE

F I LAM EN T
frnl
There is a wide variation in the use of automotive electrical symbols. Some companiesuse
their own drawings for sorne units and standard
symbols for others. The units basic internal
circuit is sometimes shown and in other diagrams, symbols are used for all units. Fig.
6-108, illustrates a number of typical symbols
widely used in automotive electriial diagrams.
u.v
LAM P- SIN GLE

F ILAM EN T . IN s U LAT ED
IN D U C TI V E
RE5IST A NC E
tttt
t+
-l
.|lrlrlll|l|lBAT T ER Y. I 2 V O L T
F EM ALE PU 5H .ON
C O N NEC T O R
\_,
W IRINGS Y MB OLS
ELEC TR ICAL
-rTdfor
D IODE
Z EN OR D I O D E
-' <SPAR K G A P
M ALE PU SH .ON
C O N N EC T OR
fooooI
trft
Y
ST AR TE
J U N C T IONBLO C K
G EN ER A T
LAM P- SIN GLE

F I LAM EN T . GR O U ND ED
2 W IR EM ALE
PU SH .ONC O N N EC T OR
T R AN S I S TO R
-4T E R M IN AL
-*-
WIREGA UGE
SEL EC TING
C ORRE CT
PU SH .O NC ON N EC T OR
SPLIC E
4>
swtTcH
Line voltage, electrical load and wire length

are the three important factors in determining
co rr ec t wir e ga u g e o r s i z e .
Keep in mind the fact that as wire length
INCREASES, resistance (with resultant voltage
drop) INCREASES. Resistance causes the conductor to heat. Excessive resistance can heat it
to the point where the insulation will melt and
the wire burn.
A s wir e s ize IN C R EA SE S, re s i s ta n c e D E CREASES. A simple rule then would be to state
:hat to prevent high resistance andvoltage drop,
rvire size must be increased as length is increased. It is obvious then, that with a given
voltage and load, a wire 20 ft. Iong must be of a
Iarger gauge than one 2 ft. long;
The electrical load imposed on a wire is
merely the sum of the individual loads of each
unit serviced by that wire. Common automotive
system voltage is now 12 volts. Some commercial vehicles use 24v. Most carrs produced
a number of years ago used 6v. systems.
Most wire manufacturers furnish charts,
si m ilar t o t hat s h o w n i n F i g . 6 -1 1 , to assi st
the mechanie in proper gauge selection. To use
the chart shown, determine the total length of
the wire needed. The wire lengths shown in the
chart are for a single wire ground return (no
.<
ts
PU SH .PU LLSW IT C H
il'
*re
IN D U C T IO NC O I L
SPR IN GSW IT C H
r-T-r
--a
(u
(Df
C ON D E N S E R
la
t\
F IXED C AP A C I TO R
SOLEN OIDSW IT C H
VAR IABLE C A P A C I TO R
R ESIST O R
R H EO ST AT
]
::
GR O U N D
{AAr
rr
N EGA TI V E
-L
I
PO StT I V E
Fi g. 6-108. E l ectri col sym6o/s commonl yused i n oul omo fi v e

i ng di ograms.
wire needed from the unit as the frame or metal

parts of the ear act as a return ground wire). If
(one wir to the
circuit
installing
a two-wire
unit and another from the unit to ground), count
the length of both wires.
load to
Next compute the total electrical
to
Be
certain
wire
witl
be
subjected.
which the
figure the load of ALL units concerned. If the
use the peak load figure.
fluctuate,
load will
The load may be figured in AMPERES, WATT(Candel.a is the international
AGE or CANDELAterm
for candlepower.)
:
J
97
Auto Service qnd Repqr

When the load is determined, look on the
chart under the correct voltage column for the
nearest listed load. Move across the charthorizontally until under the nearest listed footage.
This will give you the recommended gauge.
For example, say you have a l2v. system, a
computed electrical load of 20 ampereb and a
wire length of 15 feet, Locking on the chart you
will find the recommended gauge to be No. 14.
For the same load and length butwitha 6v. system, the recommended gauge is 10. You will
notice that a 12v. system uses a smaller gauge
wire than a 6v. system.
Using a l.arger gauge than necessary will
cause no particular harm unless the wire being
replaced MUST produce a specific resistance
in t he c ir c u i t, F i g .-6 -1 1 .
0.5
1.0
t.J
1.0
12
t.5
2.O
2.5
12
21
l8
8
l2
l5
20
25
J .J
4.0
5.0
5i5
.0
24
l0
ll
12
18
0
IJ
9.0
l0
tl
12
l5
20
25
75
100
* I 8 AwG
Fig. 6-ll.
20
22
21
30
,t0
50
t00
150
200
JJ
10
15
51
0
66
108
120
t32
111
o
70
80
90
100
'ro
t8
t8
l
21
30
10
50
0
70
80
90
100
120
140
l o
r 80
200
l8
l8
t8
t8
t8
't8
dcot.d obovc lhs linc could be 20 AwG
l8
t8
't8
l8
t8
l8
t8
t8
*t 8
l8
t8
t
t2
t0
lo
S E L E CT I NG
P RO P E RT E RMI NA L S
After the wire gauge is determined, select
the proper size and tpe terminal. The terminal
selected must be suitable for the unit connecting
post or prongs. It must have sufficient current
carrying capacity and should be heavy enough
to prevent breakage through normal wire fLexing
and vibration. Fig. 6-12, shows some common
errors in terminal selection.
Arrange terminals so they have clearance
from metal parts that could ground or short
them out. On critical
applications or where
heavy vibration is present, use a terminal such
as the ring tpe that eompletely encircles the
post. In the event it loosens, the wire will not
fall off.
l8
t8
t8
l8
l8
t8
l8
l8
l8
l8
l8
t8
l8
t8
t8
t8
t
l
'tl
l2
lo
8
cl.clricolly-
l8
t8
l8
l8
l8
t8
l8
t8
t8
l8
l8
t8
l8
t
l
l
t
l
t1
t2
l0
8
8
!8
t8
t8
l8
l8
t8
t8
't8
l8
l8
l8
l8
t8
l8
t8
l8
t8
t8
l8
't6
t2
l6
l
l1
t1
l4
t2
12
l0
'to
t2
to
to
6
l8
t8
l8
l
l
l
l
l,{
t8
t8
I8
't8
t8
't8
8
l8
l
l
t
t1
t1
12
t2
t2
t0
t0
to
't8
t8
I8
l8
t8
't8
t
't
l
't
t1
t1
t2
t2
l0
to
lo
l0
6
1
4
I
8
I
2
2
t8
l8
l8
t8
t8
l8
t6
t
t
t1
11
11
t2
t2
lo
lo
t0
to
8
8
1
2
2
l8
l8
l8
't8
t8
l8
l8
l8
l
11
t4
t1
t2
t2
12
t2
to
to
't0
l
l
l
t1
11
't2
l2
t2
l0
to
lo
't0
l0
6
1
2
I
6
2
I
t0
t0
to
8
6
8
6
6
I
a
2
I
oo
1/o
t8
l8
t
t1
t2
12
t0
t0
to
o
8
8
I
8
6
6
6
1
2
2
0
oo
1/o
| 8 AWG is rcconmendcd for m.choncol tr.ngth.
Wire gauge selecfon chot. Vlire lengtfis sown oe o o single wire ground return,
ffiffi&@
CONNECTOR
EODY
I
8
l8
l8
l
t1
t2
l2
t2
lo
'10
W R O N GST YLE
C O R R EC TST YLE
Fig. 6-12. Some commonerors.in terminol selection.
98
(Belden Mlg. Co.)
TE R MI N A L
. W ire o n dWirin g
TERMINA LS
ATTAC H ING
Terminals maybe either soldered or crimped
in place. Crimping is fast and forms a good
connection. Soldering, if properly done, forms
an excellent connection and, in some cases'
may be desired. It is possible to both solder
and crimp a connection. Solder forms an electrical path and is not depended on for strength'
Aluminum wire requires crimpedterminals'
size for the wire used. NEVER CRIMP A WIRE

WITH THE CUTTING EDGE OF A PAIR OF
PLIERS. This would crimp the barrel but
would also weaken it, Fig. 6-14.
S OLD E R IN G TE R MIN A LS
Terminals do not have to be especiallymade
for soldering but the lip-type terminal tang
lends itself to soldering better than the closed
or open barrel tang, Fig. 6-15r
^-'Y)
CRI M P I NG T E RM IN AL S
will
A crimping tool is shown in Fig' 6-13' it
proper
a
form
as
eut and strip the wire anwell
crimp.
IN SU LAf ION
T AN G
6l
OPEN
BAR R E L
C LO SEDBAR R EL
Fi g' 6'15' Termi nol tangs'
To solder the lip type, strip the wireback as

shown in A, Fig. 6-16. Insert the wire as shown
in B. Crimp the wire hotding lips, one after the
other, tightly over the wire then carefully fold
the insulation tang around the insulated portion
of the wire as in C.
Fig' 6'13' Crimping tool'
IN SU LAT ION
T AN G S
(Cole-Hersee Co'l
M:d
The first step is to strip the insulation back

for a distance equal to the lengthof the terminal
barrel. The wire is then shoved inio the barrel
is
and while being held in, the crimping tool
to
sure
Be
be
crimped'
to
placed over the spot
use the proper crimping edge. The handles are
together and the terminalbarrel firm"qrru"""d
ly crimped to the wire. Follow the tool manufcturers instructions. Use the correct barrel
Eio
^t-fu
Using ROSIN CORE (NOT ACID CORE) wire

solder, pt""" a drop of solder on the holding
tips. Iiot the iron in contact with the drop until
it flows into the lips and wire' Do not hold the
iron in contact with the terminal anylongerthan
necessary as this tends to melt the insulation'
When soldering the open barrel trpe' strip
(coat
as for crimping. Tin the exposed wire end
barrel
the
in
insert
with a thin layer of solder),
heat
and while holding the exposed end upright'
wire
keep
heating,
While
iron.
the
socket with
solder against socket end. Whenthe solder melts'
CR IMP
|NS U L A T |ON
'l;*
Fi g.6-16, S ol deri ng l i p rype termi nal '
INSERTTT IR E
@
tt
W IR EH oLD IN G LIPS
TER$INAL
F i g . 6- 1 4 . Cr in Pin g o te r m in o l'
99
li:

flow it into the barrel.
Make certain a sufficient
amount enters.
Hold the iron in place for a few
seconds longer to allow the solder to bond to
both barrel and wire. Barrel may also be cri.mped
if so desired.
Crimp
before
soldering!
See
Fig.6 - 17.
sT RtP
r
_\
_
t * E ^:
isii:F"ln(-
T tN
T IN N ED
_l
E3
barrel until about one-quarter

futl. While retain_
ing the heat with the torch, force the tinned cable
down into the socket. When it slips in the futl
depth, solder will flow up and over the tip of the
barrel.
Hold the heat, moving the flame around
the terminal
outside, fon a fewsecondslongerro
allow the heavy cable_, heat up andbond firmly
to the barrel. Remov heat andholdcable steady
until solder sets. CooI under a cold tap. .Dry
terminal
and cable insulation
and then apply
plastic
tape as shown in Fg. 6-1g. For open
barrel
termi.nals, tin both cable and inside of
SOLDE R IN G
IRON
U"
Fig.6-17. Solderingborreltype terminoltong,

The closed barrel type should be heated and
a small amount of solder flowed into the hole.
While keeping the barrel
hot, press the tinned
wire into the hole. HoId the iron in place for
several seeonds to insure bonding.
For more complete
instructions
on the use
of the soldering iron, see the chapter on soldering, brazing and welding.
When an insulator
boot is to cover the
terminal
tang
or when attaching
slide type
terminals
that will be snapped back into a
housing, always slide the boot, housing, erc.,
on the wire before soldering.
Fi g.6-18, S ol deri ng o battery termi nol . I- C ut ol c orroded

s ec _
tion. 2-Strip. 3-Tin. 4-Tin borre! and odd solder. S_lnserr
co6le.
6-Tape.
SOLDERINGBATTERY TERMINALS
The common practice is toreplace the entire
battery cable when the terminals
are no longer
fit for use. However, if it becomes necessary
to install
a new terminal,
use the following
pro ce dur e.
res@N
Cut the cable back far enough to remove the

corroded
section.
Peel the insulation
(ground
cables often have none) back equal to the depth
of the terminal
barrel. place the terminal in a
vise, open barrel end up.
Using an acetylene torch (low heat, flame
rich in acetylene) heat the stripped cable end.
Using rosin core wire solder, flowsolderfreely
into the wire until all strands have been tinned.
It may help to rub onalittle rosin tJrye soldering
paste to assist with tinning.
Place a dab of solderingpaste inthe terminal
barrel.
Hedt with the torch (keep flame on outside of terminal).
When hot, flow solder intothe
WwffiW
Fi g.. 6-19. S porkpl ug w i re fermi nol s ond boots . I, 2,7-di s ti butq
end temi nal s. 3, 4, 5, 6,8, l l -spork pl ug e nd terni nol s . 9-R i ght
ongl e di stri butor end 6oot. l I-Fl exi bl e pl ug end 6oor. l 2_s ropi es
{or use w i th esi stonce type w i re. I3-R epl oc emen
t pl ug w i re w i th
.
6oofs 6onded to wie.
t00
SX
barrel
heavily. While heating, slide together as
above. Do not try to solder battery terminals
mith a soldering
not produce
iron - it will
s':fficient heat.
PLU G W IR E
Fi g. 6-20. C fi ooseo l emi nal shope l hot w i l l al l ow the w j re to 6e

al tached w i thout sharpbendi ng, The w i re i n B w i l l soon l oi l,
P LUGWIRETE RMINAL S
ATTAC H N SPARK
G
Fig. 6-19, shows various spark plug wire
:erminals.
The boots shown protect against
noisture
and dirt than can cause flashover
fspark jumping to ground along the outside of
:he plug porcelain top). Ready-made sets often
bond the boots to both the terminal and wire for
added proteetion against flashover.
When Selecting plug end terminals, choose a
shape that will snap on the plug without bending
:he wire sharply. The same applies to distributor
te rmi nals , F ig. 6- 2 0 .
Although some plug end terminals have a
sharp barb that is designed to penetrate the
r.nsulation and contact the wire (as well as providing holding power), it is good practice to
strip the insulation enough to allow the wire to
be bent around and laid against the outside of
'e insulation, This insures a good electrical
contact. See A, Fig. 6-21. Some distributor end
terminals, such as that in B, Fig. 6-21, have the
barbs both at the sides and end. Wire stripping
:s n o t nec es s ar y if th e b a rb i s c a re fu l l y i n s e rte d
irto the wire end. When attaching terminals to
resistance type plug wires, always use staples.
The staple is pushed up into the wire, thus insuring a large contact area withthe specialcond u ctor , C, F ig. 6' 21 .
T E R M IN AL.
-\
e@
/5TR|P
*w
o@r-!
ffi,*
Kr--t-.',
IN SER T
S TA P LE nestsl xce
TY P EWIR E
Fi g. 6-21. A ttachi ng secondory w i re termi nol s. A -A ttaching o
pl ug end l ermi nol to o regul or.(non-resi sfonce)spork pl ug wi re.
B -A ttochi ng o di stri butor end termi nol , C -U si ng o sfop/e wfi en
ottochi ng o termi nol to resi stonce type w i re.
srR tP\-
-\..
- - s- - - - 7r - - - - - - + ]
T W IST
M---
IN S TA LLB OO-T
S TR P _
F--
:-
\-
IN SER TIN C ON N EC T OR
>-^
5--ErE
ALIGN \
BOO T
\
;..--5--E
JEf--l
r illlt t T - _ ]
A
J O I NIN G
WIR EENDS
In addition to the terminal, fuse and junction
blocks, wires may be connected together by
soldering, crimped butt connectors and slide
or bullet-tJpe connectors. If the wire ends are
being joined permanently, soldering orbutt connectors work very weIl, Fig. 6-22.
The slide and the bullet-type connectors are
used where the wires must be separated at some
future time. The appropriate slide or bullet
terminals are crimped or soldered tothewires.
They are then snapped into the connector body
and the two halves plugged together, Fig. 6-23.
Fi g. 6-22, J oi ni ng w i res by sol deri ngA or usi ng o cri mp type butl

connecfor8.
'J " ']:

f_---__--F
3, AT T AC H T ER M IN ALS
AN D C R IM P
4,
T ER M IN ALSSN AP P E D
H
OtJ
SIN G S.
IN T O
H OU SIN GS
PLU G G E D
T O G ET H ER
INSfALLI NG W I RE
Install the wire, make certain terminals and
posts are clean, connet terminals and tighten
securely. Lock washers should be used on screw
I:
Fi g.6-23. Joni ng w i res by usi ng the sl i de ty pe gui c k - c onn e c f .
101
'f1
Auto Serviceond RePoir
w
re^/tg=
rttrz @
ffi
cy's
s_
e*ffi-
*r @E
Fig. 6-24. Yliring instollation hints. A-Connecfions musf 6e CLEAN and BRIGHT. B-Use grommetsto Prolect wire
possing
rhrough-thick metol. C-Tope common wires fogelfier. D-Avoid moving porls when locoting wres' E-Sup'porr
with suitolle clomps. F-AIIow some slcck when wire runs to o unit thot moves. G-Connecforsmusfepusfted
(or the iob, l'Tighten termitogether tightly. H-llse 6oots on terminol tongs and select terminols eovy enough
nil" n o fo";iion AWAy FROM metol - use 6oots olso. J-Hondle resislonce plug wires by grasping tfieboots.
lLi
. rl
$
I
.,)l
:'l'
1l
il
t:
i
used or the popular in-line lfuse canbe installed.

Be sure to inform the owier as to the location
of the new fuse, Fig. 6-25.
NEVER TAP INTO (CONNECT) THE HEADLIGHT CIRCUIT TO POWER AN ACCESSORY.
THIS COULD OVERLOAD THE HEADLIGHT
CIRCIIIT BREAKER AND CAUSE TROUBLE.
If it is desired to have radios, heaters, etc., inopet'ative when the ignition key is in the OFF
position, the unit hot wire must be connected
to the key switch.
and post connections. Stip insulatorboots, where

used, over exposed terminal tang. If of the slide
or bullet tpes, shove together tightly andeheck
to see that the connection is secure.
Keep all wiring away from the exhaust system, bily areas and moving parts. Secure in
place with mounting clips.or clamps. Fasten in
enough spots to prevent excessive vibration and
chafing. Where the wire must pass through a
hole in sheet metal, install a rubber grommet
(see Fig. 6-241. When a wire must pass from the
fender well or splash shield to the engine, leave
enough slack to allow the engine to rock on the
mounts without pulling the wire tight.
Wtren installing spark plugleads, avoidsharp
bends. If the wires pass through a metalconduit
(tube), the conduit should be securely grounded.
Install or remove the plug wires by grasping
the insulation boots and not the wire proper.
snap tightly on the
Make sure the terminals
plugs and that the distributor ends are all the
way in the housing towers. Follow the manuin arranging the plug
instructions
facturers
wires. If two leads are together going to cylinders that fire consecutively (one afterthe other)
- especiallyas
there is a danger ofcrossfiring
the wires age.
If a number of primary wires travel in a
common path, pull them through loom (woven
fiber conduit) or tape them together, Fig. 6-24.
P RI NT E DCI RCUI T S
A number of cars use a printed circuit as
part of the instrument cluster wiring system.
The printed circuit uses a nonconducting panel
upon which certain units are attached. Instead
of connecting the units with wires, they are
connected with thin conductor strips printed
(cemented) on the panel. Such a technique permits a great deal of circuitry in a very small
space.
WI RI NG
CHE CK I NG
Many problems throughout the car can be
traced to faulty wiring. Loose or corroded
frayed and bare spots, oil soaked,
terminals,
broken wires, and cracked andporous insulation
are the most frequent causes.
When troubleshooting a proJrlem, check the
wires, fuses and connections carefully. Remember that wires can separate with no break
in the insulation (especially resistance type
secondary wire). A terminal may be tight and
still be corroded. A fuse link may burn out at
one end instead of in the center where it will
be visible.
FUS EWHE NNE E DE D

When adding accessory units such as spotlights, heaters, etc., and no provision was
made for them in the original wiring, be certain
to place a fuse in the circuit. Fuse as closely
as possible to the electrical source. This will
reduce. the possibility of a short between the
fuse and souree. A small fuse block may be
t2
Wire qnd Wiring
C H ECKING
FORCONTINUITY
O T HE RCHE CK S
A small test light (battery operated) may be

::sed to test wires for internal breaks. The test
point prods can be pushed through the insulation
:i desired (not on plug wires). Hold one prod
e-gainst one end of the wire and place the other
Wires and connections must occasionally be

checked for resistance, voltage drop, short or
near-short circuits. These checks are made
with precision instruments - ohmmeter, voltmeter, etc., and w i l l be di scussedi nthe chapt er s
to which these tests pertain.
S UMMA RY
Primary
wire (copper stranding, relatively
thin insulation)
is used for circuits
handling
battery voltage. Secondary wire (stainless steel,
carbon
impregnated
thread
and
elastomer
stranding wi.th very heavy insulation) is used on
the ignition hightension circuit. Plastic is widely
used for insulation.
AII automotive
wire uses a stranded (not
IN S ULATORTUBE
I N 5 U L A T ING
WASHER
CONTACTTERMIN AL
Ft g. 6 - 2 5 . T y p i c a l i n - lin e u se . F u se o s clo se to ffie so urce os

p r o ciico l.
solid) wire conductor.

The AWG (American
Wire Gauge) is determined by the cross sectional area in circular
mils. The larger the AWG number, the smaller
the size. A microrheter
or wire gauge can be
u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e 'w i r e
size.
Spade, lug, flag, ro11, slide, ring and bullet
terminal types are used.
Terminal
blocks
allow one feeder wire to
service
These can
a number
of other wires.
be of the screw, bullet or slide tJpe.
Junction blocks provide a central connecting
point for a number of wires.
Fuse llocks
give protection
against circuit
overloads.
A wiring harness contains a number ofwires
either
taped together or pulled through loom.
This keeps common wires neatly arranged and
facilitate s installation.
Automotive
electrical
systems
are color
Use an accurate
wiring
coded.
diagram
for
troubleshooting
or replacing wires.
Line voltage, wire length and electrical
load
must be taken into consi.deration when choosing
wire gauge. A wire gauge chart will assist in
making
the right
Remember
selection.
that
undersize
wires
increase
resistance,
r e d u ce
unit efficiency
and can overheat and burn. On
(one wire for ground) count
two-wire
circuits
the length of both wires. A 6v. system requires
heavier gauge wire than the 12v. system.
Be certain that terminals
are of the correct
style and size. They maybe soldered or crimped
;:od against the other end. Ifthe test lamp burns,

:he wire is continuous. This simple test light
:s also handy for checking fuses, shorted field
x:ndings and for tracing wires where there are
::c c olor c odes . F i g .6 -2 6 , i l l u s tra te s s e v eral
: -re c k s .
E. 6 - 2 6 . S o m ew i r i n g ch e cks u sin g o sim p le te st lig h t. A-P rods

n e n d s o w i e . L o mp lig h ts in d ica tin g wir e s co n tin u ous, B e'cd held on the end ol one wire ond the other prod ouched o
, : rio u s w i e e n d s . W [ en lo m p lig h ts p r o p e rwir c e n d is id e nri l i ed.
C-C/recking o fuse. Pdds in ploce, lomp does not light. This int cdtes o loulty luse and in this cose ffie luse will be burnl out
r' tlre end insteod o the usuol norrow cente seclion. D-One prod
'uced to o wire end and the othe prod to ground. Il lamp lights
wire is shorted out.
Battery
to the wire.
replacement
should be soldered. When crimping,
103
terminals
use a suit-
1,
r,f.
able crimping tool. If soldering, use rosin core

wire solder. Always slide insulation boots,
housings, etc., on the'.wire before attaching
terminal.
'Use staples when installing terminals onresistanee trpe secondaryleads. Handle secondary
resistance wire carefully.
.Wire
ends may be joined by soldering, using
butt connectors or by attaching bullet or slide
connectors.
When installing wres, keep away from heat,
oily areas and moving parts. Terminals must
be clean and tight. Use clips to prevent chafing
and excessive vibration.
When adding accessories, fuse the circuit
as close to the source as possible. Do not tap
into the headlight circuit for an accessory.
Clean, tight connections with propet size
wire and good insulation, are imperative. When
troubleshooting, always check connections and
insulation. Replace cracked, spongy or frayed
wir es .
Many wiring checks can be made wth a
simple test light.
Printed circuits find some application onthe
auto.
harness and see how many kinds ofwireclips

and clamps you can find.
5. Study the wiring diagram of a car electrical
qystem. Trace several circuits starting at
the unit and going back to the source. Note
the color coding and use of symbols.
TOOLS A R E IMP OR TA N T
Remember - to do good work, a mechanic
needs a good assortment of tools. To learn, a
student needs a good assortment of words. Words
are very important t'toolstt for learning. When
YOU come across a new word LOOK UP THE
MEANING and add it to your "TOOL CHEST."
OUIZ - ChoPter6
1. Primary wire makes excellent spark plug
leads. True or False?
2. The most commonlyused insulation material
i s-.
3. Resistance tJ@e spark plug wires are used
to provide a hotter spark. True or FaLse ?
4. Name three materials, used for secondary
wire stranding.
5. Stranding for primary
wire is made of
SUGGESTED
ACTIVITIES
1. Using the primary wire size selection chart
in this ehapter, determine the correct size
wire for the following:
A. Load - 100 candela
Wire length - 11 feet
Voltage - 12
Wire gauge should be_.
B . Lod - 50 amperes
Wire length - 2O feet
Voltage - 12
C. Load - 70 watts
Wire length - 15 feet
Voltage - 6
2. Attach several terminals bycrimping. Solder
several.
3. On a damp, dark night, start the engine in a
car (especially one several years oldthathas
been parked outside). Without turning on the
lights, raise the hoodandseeifyoucan detect
the corona effect around the plug wires. DO
.NOT RUN THE CAR IN A CLOSEDGARAGEJ
4. Inspect the wiring on a late model car. What
kinds of terminals are used? Studythe wiring
6. Resistor
spark plug cables are easily
damaged by sharp bends and jerking. True
or False ?
7. All primary automotive wire uses a stranded
conduetor. True or False.
8. The
is the standard
for wire size.
9. The larger the wire number, the larger the
wire. True or False ?
10. Cross sectional area in square mils determines the wire size. True or False ?
11. Name five common primary terminaltypes.
12. Replacement battery cable terminals should
be
13. One feeder wire can service several others

through the use of a_block.
14. A number of wires can be connected together. in a common location by using a
_b1ock.
15. The_protects
a circuit from an
overload.
16. A number of common wires, tapedtogether,
with leads leaving at various spots.i, is referred to as a wiring_.
t7. Automotive wiring is_
coded.
tu
l
Wire qnd Wiring
18. What is a wiring diagram?

19. The three major considerations inselecting
the correct wire gauge for a specific circuit
are
, wire -and
electrical -.
20. An undersize wire will increase
and will_,
2 1 . In computing wire length for a twowire circuit, both wire lengths should be counted.
True or False ?
22. No. 16 wire is smaller than No. 18 wire.
True or False?
term for
the international
23. -is
candlepower.
24. 12 volt wiring is of aheaviergaugethan that
for 6 volt. True or False ?
2 5 . As long as a terminal fits the stud or post,
it is O.K. to use. True or Fa1se?
to the wire is more
terminals
26.
widely used than
.
attaching terminals to
2 7 . Use-when
resistance tpe secondary wire.
28. Copper or stainless steel secondary wire
should have a smalL portion of theinsulation
stripped and the wire bent up andaroundthe
outside of the insulation. True or False ?
2 9 . If, when joining wire ends, it is desirable to
, cf\
2.
,. rlrlrlrlrlrp
'++
4.
t2 .
t3.
-l>
-a,AAr
14.
<A Ar
t5 .
through thin sheet metal. True or False ?

32. When plug leads pass through a metal conduit, the conduit should be_.
33. Wires should be held by
in order to
prevent ehafing and vibration.
wires are
34. Spark plug wires can-if
too close together whentheyserve cylinders
that fire consecutively.
35. As long as the insulation is alright, a wire
can be considered O.K. True or False?
36. A frayed wire can cause a_circuit.
37. A corroded connection will increase_
to electrical flow.
38. The electrical symbols in the left hand
column are all numbered. Write down these
numbers, one beneath the other. The right
hand column lists the items these symbols
stand for. Each item has a letter. Matchthe
items to the symbols by placing the letter of
the item you have chosen beside thenumber
of the matching symbol.
A. Resistor.
l.
B. Cicuit Breofte.
J. Rfieostof.
c. lfires
tI.
-o-
7.
t0 .
^,J
be able to disconnect them at a future date,

a_type
connector would be a good
choice.
30. As long as a connection is tight, it will be a
good conductor. True or False?
31. Grommets are used to proteet wire passing
+
f-
-JI'
Crossing - Not Connected,
S w i tc.
K. Tronsistor.
D. Fuse.
L. Bottery.
E . D i ode.
M. Negofive.
F. lfires Crossing - Connecfed,
G. Posilive.
Temi nol .
N. Condenser,
O. Ground.
minioluized fuse.
Fig.6-27. A-Fuse btocx incorporoting o number o minioluized fuses. B-"Good"
Nofe tot elemenf is sound. Curenl flows lom one blode, lhrough element ond out tfie otfier 6lode.
C-Fuse is "Bod." Elemenf is Aurned in hol, thus opening circvit. (Pontioc-Buick)
It
F
6
F
f
L]
z
J
tu
l*
F
o
U
t-
co
at
!-
J
UJ
v
I
F
ztJ l*
z lz
=
u,
uJ =
L)
J
T
U
F
=
tt
tr
u
u
UJ
F
F
eo
t-
x,
F
z
)
u
E
o
ao
z
CI
;
b
.*.
6
za\
tr
z
U
o
o
o
\
U
o
o
o
)
v)
a
tJ
u,
UJ
F
t)
6
l
v,
v>
u,
*t>
J
o
d
F
./)
J
J
Ij
zd.
co
J
=
u
/\
zY
r .u
v2
=*
a;.
z
6
Ful
I
106
Chapfer7
PULLERS,
LIFTs,
JACKS,
FIXTURES
HOLDING
PRESSES,
A wide assortment of ,pressing, Iifting and
p.;lling equipment is available in most garages.
Proper use of this equipment will both lighten
and speed up repair work.
EX T RE M E CAR E MU ST B E U SE D W IT H ALL
HIGH
OF DEVELOPING
TOOLS CAPABLE
?R,ESSURES,STRESSES AND TENSIONS. NEV=R USE EQUIPMENT WITHOUT FIRST RE:EIVING INSTRUCTIONS FROM SOME PERSON
:.I,IILIAR
WITH ITS USE: THERE ARE MANY
S.iFETY RULES IN THIS CHAPTER. STUDY
:ITEM CAREFULLYJ
PUMPITANDLE
When using, make sure the jack is securely

placed and aligned so that as pressure is developed, it will not slip. Be careful of dropping
as it is quite heavy, Fig. 7-1.
HYDRAULIC
FLOORJACK
A floor jack is usqd to raise a car. It can
raise the entire front, back or side. It is also
handy for maneuvering cars into tight quarters.
The jack is placed under the front or back, the
car lifted and by pulling on the jack in the direction desired, the car can be moved forward,
backward, or sideways.
Floor jacks are available in many sizes with
lifting capacities varying from around one to
twenty tons. Fig. 7-2, illustrates a typical floor
jack.
HANDLE
CONTROL
VALVE
SADDLE
F i g . 7 ' 1 . Hyd r o u lic h o n d io ck'
}IANDJACK
RAPID
RISE
FOOT
PUMP
The hydraulic hand jack is very useful in

rmany applications. It is short, compact and
eapable of producing great pressure. It can be
used to raisg heavy weights, to bend parts, to
p'rll or push parts into alignment. Hydraulic
poffer is quite often used as a power source in
sme1l pr es s es .
Fi g.7-2. H ydroul i c (l oor i ock. B y operoti ng the ropi d ri s e l oot

pump, the soddle s quickly elevoted. Heavy Pressue con then
be developed by wo*ing rhe t\s hondle bock ond lorth'
(Weove)\
107
Fig.7-3. posing
co with lloor iock, Moke cerfoin soddle is

ProPerlY Positioned. (Honda)
You must follow the manufacturerrs specifications carefully. Fig. 7-3 shows a car being
raised by plaeing the saddle under the center
of the differential housing.
NEVER WORK UNDER A VEHICLE SUPPORTED ONLY BY A FLOOR JACK; Once the
car is raised to the desired height, place jack
stands in the desired location, and lower the
weight onto the stands. STANDS MUST BE
PROPERLY AND SECURELY PLACED.
The jack may then be removed if desired,
or if not needed in some other area, it may be
left in position with a very light liftingpressure
exerted to keeP it Positioned.
P RO P E R P L AC EME N T IS IMP O R T AN T
JACKSTANDS
When positioning the jack saddle for lifting,

make certain it is securely engaged. Select a
spot that will be strong enough to support the
Jack stands are made in numerous heights

and are usually adjustable. The stand in Fig.
?-4 is typical. Note the ratchet adjustment.
When inserti.ng jack stands, place them in
contact with some unit capable of supporting
the load. Do not place them in contact with
edges that may cause them to s1ip.
tapered
Make sure they have a secure bite. Fig' 7-5
(often called
stands
of jack
a pair
shows
axle
rear
the
place
under
in
safety stands)
housing.
Note that the stand tops (saddles)
i, l
'1"
ATCHETTE E T H
are properlY
Positioned.
TCHET
F ig .7 ' 4 '
T yp ico l o d iu sto b leio ck slo nd'

Fig.7-5.
load. Never try raising the car by jacking on

the engine pan, cluteh housing, transmission'
tie rods, gas tank, etc.
Proper placement requires care' GET DOWN
AND TAKE A GOOD LOOK, WITH AMPLE
LIGHT, BEFORE RAISING. If the car is part
way up, andthe jack saddle slips, serious damage
can oecur. On some cars, jacking one side of
one end or near the center of the frame on one
side, can cause damage. Car manufacturers
il!.ustrate correct lifting points intheir manuals'
Properly ploced iock sfonds provde sofe supporf'

(Honda)
E NDL I F T S
The end lift can be air (pneumatic) or hyoperated. Two basic designs are
draulically
used, one of which will reach under the car far
enough to contact the rear axle housing, and
the other designed to engage the bumper only'
An air-operated long-reach end lift is pictured in Fig. ?-6. Notice the height to which the
108
7"
FAST, LOW LEVEL AIR LIFT
F i g . 7 - 6 . L o n g r e o ch e n d li( t.
(Hein-Ylerner)
T h e ja ck
may be raised.
sta n d s a r e being
.sitioned
so that when the rear of the c ar i s
:-,;ered, the front will clear the floor.
The bumper lift shown in Fig. 7-7 is also
: : r-ope rate d.
Note t he t win s addle engagem e n t ,
: : r'
A handy, quick-acting
air lift is illustrated
in Fig. 7-8. The car is driven over the lift until
the rear wheel is centered in the frame. A control box actuates the rubber air bellow which in
turn causes the saddle to lift the car. This jack
wheels partially
is useful for washing rear
covered by the body.
Fi g.7-8,
Low l evel , w ash rack /i ff. N ofe rubbe bel l ow s .
SINGLE POST FRAME LIFT

A single post frame lift leaves bothfrontand
rear of the car completely exposed. It does howin the central
ever, create
some obstruction
portion.
F i g . 7 - 9 , s h o w s a c a r i n t h e r a i se d
position on a single post frame lift. Note the lift
points
REMEMBER:
contact
on the frame.
PROPER CONTACT POINTS FOR DIFFERENT
INCARS VARY. FOLLOW MANUFACTURERSI
STRUCTIONS.
F i g . 7 - 7 . R o isin g co r with o b u m p e re n d lft.
-:re distance between saddles mav be varied to

the bumper where desired. Remember
-:gage
::at bumpers,
especially
near the outer ends,
=ay not be particularly
strong. If the bumper
: a be used, prace the saddles at the main bumper
: frame attachment points.
End lifts are generally provided with strong
:.fety locks so the mechanic may safely work
(car
; dt
MAKE
Lllg
without
wrLttvuL
stands.
D
ldrruD.
eneath
the
-=trgd
Lrt
Jiack
du^
:''-T.E THE SAFETY LOCK IS FULLY ENGAGED,

'.\D THAT THE LIFT CONTACT POINTS ARE
SOLID. If there is the slightest doubt, use iack
-.tands for additional protection.
Fi g.7-9. S i ngl e post l one l i l t. N ote coreful pl oci ng o( l i l s odd/es or brockets.
DO UB L EP O S TF RA MEL F T
the
The double post frame lift eliminates
single central post thus leaving the center portion
of the car more accessible. As with the single
post lift, the car must be carefully centered. In
Fig. ?-10, the mechanic hascenteredthecarand
is adjusting the swivel lift arms.
109
Auto Service dnd Repdir
A n a u t o i s s h o w n i n t h e r a i s e d p o si ti o n i n
F i g . 7 - 1 1 . T h e e q u a l i z e r r a c k s i n s u r e th a t b o th
c o l u r n n s w i l l r a i s e a n d l o w e r t o g e t he r .
DOUBLE POSTSUSPENSION
LIFT
F i g . 7 - 1 0 . Ad iu stin g swive / q r m s o n d o u b le P ost l rome l i l l
T h e d o u b l e p o s t l i f t p i c t u r e d i n Fi g . 7 - 1 2 ,
c o n t a c t s t h e f r o n t s u s p e n s i o n a r m s, a n d e i th e r
t h e r e a r a x l e h o u s i n g , o r . r e a r w h e el s. Th e fr o n t
l i f t c o l u m n c a n b e m o v e d f o r w a r d o r b a ckw a r d
t o a d j u s t f o r v a r i o u s w h e e l b a s e l e n g th s. Th i s
type of lift presents a minimal amount of underO n s o m e m o d e l s,
obstruction.
a si n g l e
car
c o l u m n c a n b e r a i s e d t h u s a c t i n s a s a n e n d l i ft
when so desired.
DRIVE-ON LIFT
The drive-on
1 i f t , F i g . 7 - 1 3 , o ffe r s p l a ce m e n t s p e e d b u t d o e s p r e s e n t a r e l a ti ve l y l a r g e
obstruction area.
CHOICEOF LIFTS
st
\- qffi
r- ,
'
u
.y u^"
^ ^ --
L
g
I l d^.'^
v
nFd
Lf i u
su ,
-r r u^f
cech
Ea L
I i ft
offe rs
s ome
advantages and disadvantages, depending on the

Many shops provide
work
to be performed.
the
mechanic will have
types so that
several
to
in
a
lift appropriate
selecting
choice
some
'c
lho
rpnlir
ioh
S A F E T YCO NS I DE RA T I O NS
F i g . 7 -l l .
Double post ( r am e lilt" Co mus! be c ar e{ul l y
c enter ed.
REAR
CONT ACT S
F l o o r j a c k s , e n d I i f t s , t r a m e l i fts, e tc., m u st
a l l b e u s e d w i t h e x t r e m e c a r e . R em e m b e r th a t
many
cars
can weigh TWO TONS or over.
E a c h y e a r a n u m b e r o f m e c h a n i c s a r e ki l l e d o r
injured
by careless
u s e o f l i f t eq u i p m e n t. In
a d d i t i o n t o u s i n g s a f e o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s,
i ti s
imperative
that lift equipment be kept in sound
o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n . C r a c k e d o r b e n t p a r ts, fa u l ty
s a f e t y l o c k s , l e a k i n g c y l i n d e r s , e t c., m u stn o tb e
tolerated,
apply
T h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t o f s a f e t y p r e c a u ti o n s
tn
LU
l i g . 7 - 1 2 . Do u b le p o st su sp e n sio n lih . T h is /i ff creotes Y er Y

l i t t l e u n d e r - ca o b slr u ctio n . ( D.e sse Industri es)
all
drI
t\ac
L.)y!r
nf
lifiino
cnrrinmenf
Lqur[/arvr!.
Sflldv
thcm
earefully, OVER AND OVER, until you remember

each and every one.
l o ca te d a n d
1. Lift saddles must be properly
in secure contact.
2 . \ \ h e n u s i n g a f l o o r j a c k , a l w a ys u se i a ck
stands.
3 . O n c e s a d d l e s a r e l o c a t e d , a p p ly so m e p r e ss u r e , s t o p a n d e x a m i n e t h e m a g a i n b e fo r e
liftinE the car.
110
Jocks, Pullers, Presses, HoldingFixtures
If a n en d lift.
^
--
vuBir
-^,.-L
^*
ur
or f loor
^^r
urL
iac k . is beinp u s e d
qllrfrnp
_
l+h.ie
hr\^-+^
_,cftL5
it fro m ro lling f or war d or bac k war d) r elea s e

-he ha nd b rake and plac e t he t r ans m is s io n
in ne utra l. In t hat eit her t he c ar or t he l i f t
must move a s t he llf t ing or lower ing oc c u r s ,
-his will p revent s addle s lippage.
r\Jlen
r:isino
ihp
eniira
n
rrinh
* . - . ^ fnr
--- any
sld e or o ve rhe ad obs t r uc t ions .
\Iake certa in
t hat t he lif t s af et y loc k i s
se cu rely e ng aged bef or e get t ng under t h e
A D JU S TIN G
B OLTS
\e ve r
remo ve a lif t or jac k f r om anot h e r
me ch an ics se t up wit hout c hec k ing wit h h i m
fi r st.
If
it
i s n e .e ssa rv
to
nh noe
the
ri
sed
hci
!
P U MPH A N D LE
ohi
r 1rL
of th e veh icle dur ing t he job, do not m o v e

it un til all p er s ons ar e "out f r om under . "
-\lwa ys che ck f or equipm ent , par t s or pe r so nn el be ne ath t he c ar bef or e lower ing.
Lo wer SL OWLY and wat c h t he c ar dur i n s
:h e e ntire de sc ent .
Fi g. 7-l 4. Typi col fronsmi ssi onfoc[.
I
F i g . 7 - 1 3. Dr ive - o n li{ t.
( Vle o ve r )
TRANSMISSION
JACKS
jac k is es s ent ial t o t he s a f e ,
-\ tra nsmission
=ificient removal
and installation
of automatic
: : ans mission s.
Th e s addle ut iliz es a s er ies o f
= : apte rs a nd a b inder c hain f or s ec ur e at t ac h : : -ent. The sa dd le c an be r ais ed and lower edhy ::aulically
and tipped in any direction through
. re use of a dju stin g s c r ews . Fig. 7- I 4, s how s a
---oical jack with the t r ans m is s ion
in plac e.
jac k , be c er t a i n
Whe n u sin g a t r ans m is s ion
: : attach th e tra nsm is s ion
s ec ur ely . I t is he a v y
::d if it slip s, it could c aus e s er ious iniur y .
Fi g. 7J 5. Ihe w hee/ dol l y hondl es

heovy w heel ossem6/i es w i th eose.
W H EELD OL L Y
PORTABLE CRANE AND CHAIN HOST
Shops engaging in truck repair find a wheel
iolly helpful in removing
wheel
and installing
assemblies.
Note the use of a hydraulic
hand
' aek o n th e d olly in Fig. 7- 15.
The norfrhle
nrg and the Chain hoist. are
excellent
tools for engine removal.
They can
a l s o b e u s e d t o l i f t h e a v y p a r t s t o b e n c h t o p s,
111
:i:,"$i:::{sw,lryr;
LI FT CHAIN
CF ANE
fig.7J6.
Portoblecronebeingusedto pull on engine,

(GuY-Chart
SYstems)
truck b eds , et c . Fig. 7- 16 depic t s a h e a v y being used to pull an

crane
duty portable
engine.
IMPORTANT
SAFETY RULES T O O B S E R V E
WHEN USING CRANE OR CHAIN HOIST:
1. Sta nd c lear at all t im es .
2. Lo wer t he engine as s oon as it s c l e a r o f
Fi g. 7-17. fhe extensi on j ack i s hol di ng the nu(l e thus l reei ng

both honds.
the ca r .
3. Never r o11 t he c r ane wlt h t he l o a d h i g h i n
fhe :ir
Keen jt ius t c lear of t he f l o o r .
4 . Never leav e t he engine s us pended w h i l e w o r k in g o n it . Lower t o t he f loor o r p l a c e o n a
suitable engine stand.
5. Ne ve r leav e t he c r ane or hois t w i t h t h e l o a d
suspe nded. I f y ou m us t leav e, e v e n t e m p o r e ni 1r
I nrro
RAMHEAD LOCK
CONfROL
VALVES
r
PRESSURE
6AUGE
6. \\hen moving heavy 1oads, alert your fellow

mecha nie s .
? . Never giv e t he load, when s usp e n d e d b y a
ch ain hois t at t ac hed t o an ov e r h e a d t r a c k ,
a h ard s hov e and let it c oas t al o n g . M o v e i t
slowly and s t ay wit h it .
c ables , c hains , bolt s, e t c . , m u s t
B. Atta ch ing
TABLE
WINCH
PUMP
}IANDLE
RAM
WORKTABLE
OR BED
h ave am ple s t r engt h.

9 . Whe n us ing nut s t o at t ac h lif t c a b l e s , t h e n u t
mu st be f ully on. W hen us ing c a p s c r e w s ,
th ey m us t hav e a t hr ead engag e m e n t d e p t h
o ne a nd one- ha1f t im es t he diam e t e r .
More information
on the use of this equipsection
men t fo r engine wor k will be giv enin t h e
o n e ng ine r em ov al and ins t allat ion.
TABLE PINs
AXLE
BEARING
LOWERWORK
TABLE
fABLE PINs
JA CK
EXTENS ION
An extension jack is a valuable tool for exand for holding parts to
erting mild pressure
lea ve bo t h hands f r ee. Suc h a iack , F i g . 7 - 1 ? ,
is shown supporting a muffler while the mechanic
o pe rate s an ex haus t pipe c ut t er .
Fi g.7-18. Typi col l oor model hydroul i c pres s .

(F. A . N ugi er C o')
112
Jocks,Pullers,Presses,H oldingFixtures
H Y D RAU LIC
PR ES S
Removing
bearings,
straightening
shafts,
;ressin g b ushin gs, et e. , ar e jus t a f ew of t h e
-any jobs that can be performed
on a hydraulic
:ress.
The p ress is f ar s uper ior t o s t r ik ing
:oo1s in that the pressure
is smooth and con::olled,
there is no metal "upsetting"
shock,
= :d e no rmou s
p res s ur es
c an be gener at ed .
::g. 7-1 8, illu stra tes
a t y pic al f loor hy dr aulic
;:'ess set up to remove an axlebearing. A wheel
:--;b and drum
assembly
is also in place for
rlieel lug work.
When using a hydraulic
press, make sure
:he table .pins are in place and that the table
:nch is slacke d o ff. Failur et odot his c an
br ea k
::,e winch gear or cable.
CONNECTOR
P O R TABL E
HYD RA ULIC
P OWE RUNIT
Fi g.7-19, P otobl e hydroul i c pow er uni t ond occessores.

(B l ockhow k)
There are many occasions when heavy, con: : olled

pre ssure s
ar e needed f or par t align*ent, body and fender work,
etc. The portable
i-: ; draulic p owe r set s hown in Fig. 7- 19, pr o ides a number of useful adapters that allowthe
.:cl t o be used fo r m any jobs .
set is being us ed, Fig. ?- 20, to
-\ h yd rau lic
:-se
a d ama ge d roo f c or ner pos t s ec t ion.
J F ETY PRECAUT IONS

hydra ulic p res s ing and pulling t ools ar e
-il
: : ntially
d an ge rou s if im pr oper ly
us ed. G en := - sa fety rule s a pplic able t o al1 t y pes ar e:
. : an d free while pr es s ur e is applied.
rpply p ressu re
c om m ens ur at e
wit h t he job .
S hield b rittle p ar t s s uc h as bear ings t o pr o:ect a ga inst flyin g par t s .
, F ngag e ram se cu r ely and in line wit h wor k .'
-ihen
,
an y ch an ce of par t br eak age is pr es ent ,
-. vear g og gle s.
. -f w ork mu st be p er f or m ed while m aint aining
: ressu re,
be ca ref ul t o k eep out of line wit h
:he to ol.
, .3e care ful o f p art s nap- bac k if t he t ool s lips .
Fi g, 7-20, P ortohl e hydroul i c pow er uni t bei ng used to oi se ro of

.
cotner post secton,
HYDRAULICAND MECHANICALPULLERS
THREE TYPES OF PULLING JOBS
A good assortment
of pulling tools is im:ortant. An attempt to "get by" with a few pullers
;r:1I result in a great deal of wasted time and
damaged parts, lVLanyjobs are almost impbssible
-'c'ithout proper pullers.
Pullers can be mechanically or hydraulically
:perated. Both have certain advantages.
All pulling jobs wi.ll be covered in the three

basic setups:
1. Pulling an object (gear, pulley, bearing, retainer, etc.) from a shaft.
2. Pulling a shaft (axle, transmission,
pinion,
etc.) from
il3
an object.
3. Pulling an object (bearing outer ring, cylinder

a
from
et c ' )
bear ings ,
cam s haf t
sle eve,
i
l
l
u
s
?2
3
and
7'
2t
,
7'
22
Figs
.
b
or
e.
h ou sin g
trate the three basic pulling jobs.
'S H A FT
B E A R TN G
R E TR A C
Fi g.7'24. H ydroul i c pul l er remov'

i ng rol l er beori ngrom pi ni on shot'
puller
is shown in
hydraulic
A typical
F9. 1-24.
pullers
mechanical
Several universal-type
F
i
g
.
7
2
5
.
i
n
p
i
c
t
u
r
e
d
are
on a board and keep related
Store pullers
parts and adapters together. Some shops mount
puller sets on "tote" boards so all
indivdual
parts may be carried to the job.
RE P A I RS T A NDS
( g e a r )lrom o sho(!'
F i g . 7 - 2 1 . B a s c P u llin g io b - p u llin g o n o b ie ct
(o.r.c.)
and differEngine block, head, transmission

by using
are greatly facilitated
ential repairs
a repair stand. Many types are available. When
stands, attach the unit securely to
using repair
t h e s t a n d . C a r e l e s s n e s s h e r e c a n b e c o stl y.
Fig. 7'26, shows an engine block mounted in
a stand. Note the crank that allows the engine to
be turned to varous Positions.
stand
mounted in a similar
A transmission
7
F
.
i
g
.
2
7
.
i
n
p
i
c
t
u
r
e
d
is
heads are attached to a bench
Two cylinder
fixture in Fig. ?-28. As with all stands, tighten
holding screws
securelY.
HAND LIFTING
( o xle ) lr om on obi ect'
F i g . 7 - 2 2 . B o s i c p u llin g io b - p u llin g o sh o lt
P R E S S INGA GAINST HOUSINGEND
a mechanic will want to hand

Occasionally
important
There
are several
object.
an
lift
in order to avoid injury.
points to remember
If the object is quite heavy,
1. Never overlift.
ask for helP or use a lift.
2. Keep your back straight and lift with your
l e g s . K e e p l e g s a s c l o s e t o g e t h e r a s p o ssi b l e '
3. Unless you KNOW you can handle the weight,
never hold some part with one hand while you
remove the last fastener with the other'
4. Get a firm grip to prevent dropping the unit
- possiblY
on Your feet.
5. Do not "show off your strength" by attempting
Fg.7-23. Bosic
p u llin g io b - p u llin g o n o b ie cf (seol ) l on o

h o u sin q b o r e '
114
If all a
to lift heavy obiects. Remember:
be
you
could
garage needed was STRENGTH,
replaced with a JACK.
Be careful of sharP edges.
rg
Wr
4tffi\
ff,,g
P\
#?
yoke l or
F i g . 7 - 2 5 . M e ch o n ico l p u lle r s, l- He o vy- d uty, 2-Medi um-duty. 3-S l rde hommer,4-Three-j aw ,5-S pl i t
g r o s p in g b e h in d g e o r s, b e o r in g s, e lc. - Reo w heel hub adopl er, 7-R eor w heel hub pul l er, S -S /otted cross om,
9 - S f i o r slid e h o m n e r o d , l0 - Re ve r sib le p ul l er l ow s. l l -S tep pl atesforpul l i ngondi nstol l i ngbushi ngs,beori ngs,
se o /s, e lc, l2 - T in in g g e or ow s, I3-S i ngl e-l ow . l 4-C Iutch pi l ot beori ngpul l er.
( Poto)
S U P P O R TARM
ENGINE
SUPPORTA R M
Fi g,7-27. Tronsmi ssi on i n repoi r stond.
(o.T.c.)
F i g . 7 - 26 . On e typ e o l e n g in er e p o ir sto n d .
tls
HEAD
MOU N TIN G
BRACKET
ing all types of shop equipment. Study them

and even though your shop may not have all
the different types, you should be ful1y informed as to what is available.
L UCK ?. DO N' TY O UB E L T E V EI T !
F i g . 7 - 2 8 . T he cylin d e r h e o d h o ld in g lixtu r e g reotl y l oci l i toes

r e p o ir wo r k. ( Sto r n - Vu lco n )
SUMMARY
1r
,i i , r
flrai.
! EG
l:t
Me ch an ic s s hould be f am iliar
w i t h varl0us
lifting,
pu11ing, pressing,
etc., tools to make
their work easier and more efficient.
The tools covered in this chapter must be
used with extreme caution. Observe all recommended safety precautions.
Hand jacks have many applications.
jacks are very handy for raising and
Floor
positioning ears. Never get under a car supported
by a floor jack without first placing jack stands.
Be careful
not to damage parts when lifting.
End lifts have a fairly high reach and support
the car safely.
Make sure the safety lock is in
position.
Single and double-post lifts can be designed
to engage either the frame, suspension system
or the tires.
All have advantages and disadvantages.
Cars must be centered on the lift and the
lifting brackets should be properly and securely
p laced .
Use care when determining
tift points to
avoid chassis distortion or parr damage.
Transmission
jacks, wheel dollies and portable cranes, facilitate
the removal and installation of heavy parts.
Hydraulic
presses are superior
to striking
too1s. Use whenever possible and use withcar.e.
The shop should have a wide selection of
pulling equipment.
Repair
stands for engines, transmissions,
etc., make the job faster, safer and easier. Always place unit in stand securely.
The auto shop, by its very nature, presents

nurnerous
hazards.
Despite this, many mechanics work at the trade for a lfetime without
serious injury. Others, however, are frequenily
injured,
some are killed. Is shop safety then,
a matter of luck?
Absolutely
notj The major things that wiLl
keep you in one piece on the job are an understanding of and respect for the dangers involved,
consistently
following all safety rules, and the
development of a "think before you act', attitude.
On each anci every task, apply these suggestions. Apply them over, and over and over
until
they become habits- -habits
which may
someday save you from serious injury or death.
OUIZ - Chopter7
1. A car srrppo"t.i
on a good floor jack, well
placed, is safe to work under.
True or
False ?
2 . J a c k c o n t a c t p o i n t s a r e n o t i m p o r t an ta sl o n g
as the jack gets a good grip. True or False ?
3. End lifts, ifproperlydesigned,
provide holding power sufficient to allow the mechanic to
work beneath the car without iack stands.
True or False ?
4
What type would better tend itself to drive
line work - the single-post
frame or the
double-post frame lift ?
E
T h e d r i v e - o n l i f t i s i d e a l f o r p u l l i ng w h e e l s.
True or False?
Never_a
lift without checking beneath the car.
7
Lift height can safely be varied without getting out from under the car. True or False?
B . Despite the type of lift, always check the
before getting under the car.
_lock
o A lift should be raised and lowered_.
1 0 . Transmissions
are best handled with a
1t
Heavy wheel assemblies are easily handled

with a_
t2. When moving an object with a portable crane,
keep the Load as_as
possible.
13. An engine, suspended from a crane, is safe
to work on. True or False ?
14. When attaching lift chains and cables with
SU GG ES TEADCTIV ITIE S
1. Make it a point to receive instruction
in the
use of, and practice using, all lifting, pressing and pulling equipment in the shop.
2. Maintain a file of up-to-date catalogs cover-
116
Jocks,Pullers,Presses,HoldingFixtures
15.
16.
li.
18.
19.
20.
e t c . , t h e y a r e b e s t p l a c e d o n an appropriate
cap screws, how much thread engagement

is ne ce ssary?
Stand_of
heavy loads.
Of wha t u se is an ex t ens ion jac k ?
Give three reasons why a hydraulic press
is superior to strking tools.
What tool is very helpful in straightening
heavy body sections ?
List the three basic pulling setups.
When working
on engines, transmissions,
2L. Give
three
safety precautions
concerning
hand lifting.
22
List seven safety rules regarding jacks and
lift s.
23. List five safety rules regarding portable
cranes and chain hoists,
24. Give five safety rules to observe whenusing
hydraulic pressing or pulling tools.
.i:
A porrobre
-.""',?l;'";1,:;i;
u7
"
vervhondvtoot'
T ILT sC R
TE LESCOPIN G
RAM
FOOT PUMP LEVER
F
L EVER
REL EASE
SWIV EWH
L E E LMOU N T
Hig h r eoch fonsmsson i ock. Thi s j ock noy o/so be

u se d to l rondl eengi nes thot ore pul l ed l on under the cor,
lr 8
Chapter8
NG,BRAZING,
SOLDERI
WELDING
CRACKDETECTON
AND REPAIR
This chapter
is designed to provde basic
:echniques, machine operations and safety rules
pertai.ning to soldering, welding and brazing.
Most welding and brazing is confined to the
body shop. However,
you will find that welding
skills
jobs.
can be used on many different
Students of auto mechanics should take at least
cne basic course in the welding field.
USE CAI1E WHEN WELDING, HEATING OR
::'TTING.
FiRE O R EXPLO SiO N CAN O C C U R .
:.:EP AWAY F RO M FUEL TANKS, BATTE R I E S
.:.\D OTHER FLAM M ABLE
I TEM S.
Fi g. 8-1. 7e sol de ond metol "ski n" omal gomoteupon c ool i ng

lhus orming o tight bond.
the chart in Fig. 8-2, and note how temperature

and plastic range is affected by alloying in different proportions. A solder that has awideplastic
range is required for ear body work.
s OLDER ING
Soldering-can be defined as the act ofjoining
:wo pieces of metal through the use of a lead and
::n alloy. There is no actual fusion (melting toEether) involved. The solder, when the base metal
:s heated to the correct temperature,
seems to
o'terally dissolve
a minute "skintt on the metal.
--pon eooling, the solder and "skint'amalgamate
rmix together) thus forming atightbond, Fig. 8-1.
In soldering,
the pieces to be joined should
:--t together
as closely as possible. The less
solder separating
the parts, the stronger the
- oint.
TIN-LEAD FUSIONDIAGRAM
',2f
621
''r +
-EAD+
\
r
o/
/eo
?a/
/3a
\a/
/7o
t76"
tu
136'
4a/
/6a
/5o
I
I
i
]".
.a/
/aa
70,
/ra
ao
/2a
so/ +
/ a +
\I
&
S O LDER
Solder is a mixture of lead and tin plus
'ninute traces of zinc, copper, aluminum, etc.
The proportion of tin to lead affects both the
:oelting point (poi.nt at which solder becomes a
i':11 liquid) and the plastic range (temperature
span from the lowest point at which the solder
becomes mushy or plastic, to the highest point
;ust before the plastic mixture liquifies).
You will note from Fig. 8-2, that pure lead
:nelts at 621 deg. F. and pure tin melts at 450
Ceg. F.. A mixture of about 63 percent tin to
7 percent lead will melt at 361 deg. F. Study
Fi g.8-2.
PLASTIC
399.
-Fâ
UID
}\
t\
,35.
rr
Q10"-
{t
PLAfiTrcf
Ti n-l eod ol l oy pl osti c ronge ond mel ti ng po i nt c hort.

(K este)
C o m r t r o n l y u s e d s o l d e r s a r e 4 0 l 6 0 ( 40 p e r c e n t t i n , 6 0 p e r c e n t l e a d ) , 5 0 / S O a n d 6 0 /4 0 .
Solder is available in bars or ingots for plumbing, and body and fender work. Flux core wire
solder (wire solder with a hollow center fi11ed
with flux), solid wire solder, and solder ground
into fine grains, and mixed with flux, are used
for general soldering.
lt 9
36r'
F g . 8 - 3 . H on d y size so ld e r n g ir o n s. A' L ig h t duty' B -Medi um

d u ty. Q,' He o vyd u ty. ( Sn o p - Onfo ol s)
SOLDERINGFLUX
Soldering obviously heats the metal andin so
(surface
of the
oxidization
doing accelerates
metal combining with the oxygeninthe air). This
leaves a thin film of oxide on the surface that
tends to reject solder. It is the job of the flux to
remove this oxide, andprevent the reoccurrence
d urin g th e s older lng Pr oc es s .
Chtoride or acid flux is excellent for use on
ra dia tors and ot her s older ing wher e a c o r r o s i v e
and electrical conductive residue (f1ux remaining
on the work after soldering) is not harmful. Hot
water should be used for cleanup after soldering. BE SURE TO KEEP ACID FLUX OIIT OF
YOUR EYES.
Organic flux is somewhat like the acid type,
and t he f lux r e s i d u e b e b ut is les s c or r os iv e
comes flakey and soft, and can be readily reor wiping with a
moved by dusting, tumbling
da mp clo t h. I t s ef f ec t iv enes s is los t i f s u b j e c t e d
to su sta ined high t em Per at ur es .
Ro sin or r es in t y pe f lux M US T B E U S E D
WORK. The residue
ELECTRICAL
FOR ALL
nor will it conduct
corrosion,
will not cause
be rernoved with
may
The
residue
electricity.
kero se ne or t ur pent ine.
for soldering
A special flux is required
aluminum.
SOLDERINGIRONS
Th e s older ing ir on, s om et im es c a l l e d a c o p per, should be of ample size for the job. An
excessive
iron that is too 9ma1l will require
time to heat the work and may never heat it
The proper siz iron will bring the
properly.
rnetal up to the correct soldering heat (around
and will produce a
525-575 deg. F.) quickly
good job.
Plain irons or coppers (must be placed in a
furnace to heat)
gas flame
or in an electric
work,
range in si.ze from around 1/2 lb. forlight
up tci several pounds for heavier tasks.
irons are fast and efficient. A 100Electric
wa tt siz e is r ec om m ended f or light w o r k , a 2 O O watt size for medium work and a 35O-watt iron
work. (Wattage will vary - these
for heavier
gun suchos ?hiswoksfosf'

Fig.8-4. A solderng
(SnoP'On
Tools)
See
size recommendations.)
are approximate
Fig. B-3.
gun as
a soldering
wiring
For electrical
s h o w n i n F i g . 8 - 4 i s i d e a l . T h e ti p r e a ch e s
soldering heat in a matter of a few seconds.
CL E A NI NG
WO RK
A 1 l t r a c e s o f p a i n t , r u s t , g r e a s e , sca l e , e tc',
wheel, wire
The grinding
must be removed.
file, steel wool, emery c1oth, cleaning
brush,
the
solvent etc., are all useful in preparing
that GOOD
Remember
surface for soldering.
WEL L CLEAN,
REQUIRES
SOLDERING
FITTED
SURFACES.
TINNINGTHE IRON
The soldering iron tip is made of copper'
and will through the solvent action of solder and
prolonged heating, pit and corrode. An oxidized
transfer
or corroded tip will not satisfactorily
heat from the iron to the work, and should be
cle-aned and tinned. Use a file and dress the tip
File the surfaces
down to the bare copper.
smooth and f1at. See Fie. B-5.
\
T IP BAD LY
C O R R O D ED
Fis.8-5.
F ILED C L E A N
AN D SMO O TH
F i l e ti p s ur foc es l l ot ond s mo o f f r.
Then, plug the iron in. When the tip color

begins to change to brown and li'ght purple, dip
the tip in and out of a can of soldering flux
(rosin core) and quickly apply rosin core wir
120
Soldering,Brozing' Welding,Crqck RePoir
solder to all surfaces. If no paste flux is availab1e, rosin core wire solder will do' However'
and usually
a faster
the tip provides
dipping
better tinning job.
The iron must be at operating heat to tin
When the iron is at the proper temproperly.
and flow
melt quickly
will
solder
perature,
THE
UNTIL
TO
SOLDER
TRY
freely. NEVER
If
8-6'
Fig'
See
TINNED.
IRON IS PROPERLY
to
adheres
solder
of
surplus
a
tinning,
during
the tip, wipe off the excess with a rough textured cotton rag.
W IR E
SO LD ER
fr
Fis. 8-8. Apply soldet . tT""'J;01
the iron whereif conrocts
the flux where it will do the most good' Flowing

solder at this point will also provide a mechanical bond between iron and work that will speed
up heat transfer, Fig. 8-8.
WORKMUSTBE HOT
CORRECTLYTINNED
Fig.8'6. The tip mustbe properlylinned'

Some shops use a block of sal ammoniac to
The hot iron is rubbed on the
aid in tinning.
block as solder is aPPlied.
HOLDINGTHE IRON
The iron must be held so that the flat surface
work' This
of the tip is in full contact with the
Fig' B-7'
heat,
of
will permit a maximumtransfer
A PPLYSOL DE RTO E DGEOF IRON

Apply the wire
where it contacts
solder at the edge of the iron

the work. This will release
should be
Pieces to be joined by soldering
in the
heat
heated so the solder is melted by
is
this
When
to be soldered together.
metals
job
good
a
and
done, solder will flow readily
is
will result. If the solder melts slowly and
If
hot
enough'
not
is
work
the
pasty looking,
be
careful
parts,
the
heat
to
using a gas flame
to avoid overheating
S WE A T I NG
T w o p i e c e s m a y b e j o i n e d b y t i n n i n g th e '
contact surface of each, placing them together
and applying heat. When the tinning metal melts'
T h i s p r oce ss
the pieces are held infirmcontact.
union' if
a
strong
produces
called sweating,
B
9
.
F
i
g
.
S
e
e
d
o
n
e
.
properlY
SOLDERINGWRE SPLICES
Apply the tip flat against the splice' Apply
core wire solder to the flat of the iron
rosin
where it contacts the wire. As the wire heats'
t h e s o l d e r w i l l f l o w t h r o u g h t h e s p l i c e , F i g ' B- 1 0 '
DO t{OT lvlOVEWORKUNTIL COOL
TIP IN FULL CONTAC I

W ITH WORK
RIGHT
F i g . 8 - 7 . Ho ld th e tip llo t o g o in sr th e wo r k'
When joining two or more pieces by soldering'

be careful not to disturb them until the solder
has set (cooled to the solid state)' If they are
moved rvhile the solder is still in a pasty state'
fracture lines wil'I be set up that will produce
a weak joint.
121
t
u
x
point high enough to melt the brazing material

but not the work itself. Steel, for e*ample, is
brought to a dull red heat. A suitable brazing
rod is brought into contact with the heated joint
and melted. Capillary
action (attraction between a solid and a liquid) draws the brazing
alloy into the joint.
The work must be clean, properly fluxedand
brought to the coruect temperature. Parts should
be held together securely during the operation
and while cooling, to avoid internal fractures.
B RA Z EWE L DI NG
F i g . 8 - 9 , "Swe o fin g " fwo p ie ce s o l m e o l together. A -Ti nni ng

ports. B-Place together an heot. C-Hold tightly logether until
so /d e se ts.
Braze welding is quite simr'lar to brazing

exeept that the joint between the parts is of a
poorly fitted type. Brazing
rod is actually
flowed into the joint and built up until the joint
has sufficient strength. See Fig. 8-11.
B RA Z I NGRO D
(brazing with
Brazing
and silver
soldering
a filler rod of silver alloy) rods come in a wide
variety of alloys. A regularbronzeor
manganese
bronze rod is fine for average garage use on
steel, cast iron
and malleable
iron. Melting
temperature
is around 1,625 deg. F. with a
(bonded to steel) of around
tensile
strength
40,000 psi.
WIRESPL IC E
F ig . 8 - 1 0 . So ld e r in go wir e sp li ce.
RUL E SFORGOODS OLDE RING

1. Cle an ar ea t o be s older ed.
2. Parts should fit closely together.
3. Iron must be of sufficient
size and must
be hot.
4. Iron tip must be tinned.
5. Apply full surface of tip flat to work.
6. Heat metal to be joined until solder flows
readily.
7. Use proper
solder and flux for job at hand.
B. Apply enough solder to form a secure bond
but do not waste.
9. Do not move parts until solder sets.
10. Place hot iron in a stand or on a protective
pad.
11. Unplug electric iron as soon as finished.
Fi g. 8-l I.
B ozed ond braze w el ded j oi nts ,
B RA Z I NGF L UX
Numerous
fluxes are. avai.lable. Choose one
compatible
with the brazing
rod being used.
Rods are available
with ftux coatings.
Flux in
both powder and liquid form is commonly used.
The uncoated bronze rod is heated (the tip) and
dipped into the flux. Enough will adhere to phovide proper
fluxing
for a short while. The flux
helps to remove oxides, and keeps oxides from
f o r m i n g d u r i n g t h e b r a z i n g p r o c e s s.
BRAZING
In brazing
the temperatures
involved are
higher than in soldering (above 800 deg. F.).
Brazing
consists
of heating the work to a
122
Soldering,Brozing, Welding,Crqck Repoir
SOURCES
OF HEAT FOR BRAZING
A Bu nsen b ur ner , blowt or c h, pr opane to r c h ,
:xyacetylen e
tor c h,
c ar bon ar c , et c . , wil l a 1 l
:rod uce
su ffieie nt heat f or br az ing and b r a z e
',relding.
torches
Propane
an-d oxyacetylene
rre well suite d f or t he job and ar e gene r a l l y
:i'ai.lable in the shop.
The a ce tyle ne t or c h, Fig. B- 12, is s im i l a r
:o a p rop an e tor c h. A r egulat or
is at t ac h e d t o
a tank of gas, the tank valve is opened and set
:cr th e de sire d
f low. As t his t or c h ut i l i z e s
rxygen from the air, only one tank (acetylene)
FLAMECONTROL
TANK
CONNECTION
:s req uire d. Se v er al t ip s iz es ar e av ailable .

A regular
oxyacetylene
outfit (uses a tank
:1 oxygen and a tank of acetylene) is shown in
aig. B-13 . Oxyac et y lene
f lam e t em per atu r e s
: rce ed 6 ,00 0 de g. F. See Fig. B- 13.
Fi g. 8-12. S o/de- broze ki t.
YG ENCYLI NDERG AU G E
(Morquette)
TIP PRESSURE
A C E T Y L E N EG A
ETY LEN E
I N D E RGAU GE
LIGHTER
TANKCO NNECT I O N
ACETY LEN E
R E G U L ATOR
ADJ UST
PRESSURE
M I X E RV A LVE
GOGGLES
TIP CLEANER
BRAZINGAN D W E
TIP ATTACH M ENTS
I T T I N GT O ATTAC H
T O M I X E RHAN D L E
ATTACHMENO
T X Y GEN
C O N T R O LV A L Y E
C U T T I N GA T T A C H M E N T
C U T T I N GT I P
F ig . 8 - 1 3 . Oxyo ce tyle n ew el di ng, brozi ng ond cutti ng outl i t.
123
(Morquel te)
I
BRAZINGTE CHNIOUE
Select a tip size appropriate tothe work. The
size chart, Fig. B-14, will give you an in_
dication of size in relation to metal thickness.
Note the recommended gas pressures.
tip
APPROXIMATE GAS PRE5SURES FOR

OPERATINC
AIRCO WELDING TORCHES
Tip
000
No.
M ix er
Thic k nes s
M et al
00- t
00- l
t/64
t/32
1231561
t- 7
1- 7
t- 7
1-7
l./8
3/16
t- 7
TIP DISTANCEAND ANGLE IS IMPORTANT

t_7
- 10
of
( I n. )
Oxygen
Pr es s ue
( ps i)
Pr es s u e
( ps i)
l/16
3/32
1./1 5/16
3/B
7
5
F ig .8 J4 ,
and clear; a trifle more heat will be sufficientTouch the filler

wire to the work. When the
heat is eorrect,
it will melt and tin the parts.
Use the tip to guide the flow of metal (tinning
action follows the heat). Make sure the filler
enters
the joint full length and that it tins
properly.
Iip size o n d p r e ssu r ec hor!.
The distance the torch tip is held from the

work
affects
the rate and extent
of heating.
Parts
with a low melting
point will require
holding the tip further
from
the area to be
brazed, Fig. 8-1?.
By holding the tlp at an angle, trig. B_1g,
the work is kept at brazing temperatur
with
minirnum
danger of overheating.
Note how the
distance is varied to suit the work, while
the
angle is maintained.
A CE TYLEN E
F E A THE R
K E E PT I P I N MO T I O N
Keep the tip in motion to spread the heat. If
the flame
is kept in one spot too long, over_
heating may result.
A circular
motion, Fig.
B - 1 9 , i s d e s i r a b l e . T h e s i z e o f t h e ci r cl e
sh o u l d
be decreased as the joint becomes heated.
When
brazing
temperature
is reached,
the circles
should be quite small. Using a zigzag motion
during the application of the welding rod is
also
satisfaetory.
o xtDtzrN c
fiir
NEUTRAL
F i g . 8- 1 5 . Co r b u r izin g , n e u t o l o n d o xid i zi ng l ames.
Adjust the torch to produce a neutral or

stightly carburizing (excess acetylene) flame,
F ig. 8- 15 .
With the parts CLEAN, CLOSELY FITTED
( ideal jo i n t g a p fo r b ra z i n g i s
.0 015 - .003),
FLUXED and FIRMLY HELD, apply heat to the
joint. Use a brushing motion of the torch
tip as
s hown in F i g . B-1 6 .
Watch the flux. Wben it starts to turn watery
OXY - ACETYLENE
TORCH
B RA Z EWEL DI NGT E CHNI O UE

In braze welding, a groove, fillet or slot is
filled
with nonferrous
filler
metal,
having a
melting point below that of the base metals,
but
above 800 deg. F. The filler
metal is not dis_
tributed by capillary attraction.
The technique used for braze welding is
similar
to brazing.
Once the brazing rod has
flowed out and the parts tinned, the heat
should
be carefully
controlled
so the braze metal can
be built up to the desired thickness.
The rod
meta1, as it is fed, must mixwiththat
added be_
fore but must not cause the buildup to flow.
See
Fig. B-20.
BRUSH MOTIO N
OF TORCH
FIL LER M ET AL
AP PLIEO F R OM
S EN O OF J O IN T ,
TORCH M OVEO
IN TH IS D IR EC T ION .
JOINT
RUL E SF O RG O O DB RA Z I NG
F i g . 8 - 1 6 . H e o t jo in t p r io r to o p p lyin g b r a zin g m ateri al . When

hot,
stort opplying liller metal from one edge and use rfie brushing
motion of the llome to drow materiol olong ond nto the
oint.
( AT RCO)
1. Work must be clean and well fitted.

2 . U s e a t i p a n d g a s p r e s s u r e s i n k e e p i n g w i th
the job.
124
Soldering, Brozing, Welding,Crqck Repoir
3. Use a neutral or slightly reducing (carburizing) flame.

4. Keep tip in motion.
5. Hold the tip at an angle to the work.
6. Heat may be controlled bychangingdistance
from tip to work.
7. Braze metal should be suited to the job.
8. Use a good flux.
9. Braze
metal must penetrate the joint and
tin the surfaces.
10. Parts must be held in position and not disturbed until braze metal sets.
11. Avoid overheatins,
F i g . 8 - 1 7 , f l r e d i s fo n ce r o m tip to wo r k o ( e cts h e o t tonsl er.
G A SWE L DI NG
Unlike brazing, welding is a fusion process.
A portion of the metal of eaeh part is melted.
The melted areas flow together and upon cooling form
one solid part.
Filler
rod is often
added during the process.
PREPARINGTHE JOINT
Fig. 8-18. Hold toch tip ot on ongle to the work. (Brozing.)
Thin metal, ll32 in. or less, is oftenflanged

to protect against heat warpage - A, Fig. B-21.
P a r t s n o t e x c e e d i n g 1 / B i n . m a y b e w e l de d b y
using a square edge-butt joint - B. When -metal
t h i c k n e s s r a n g e s f r o m a r o u n d 1 / 8 - 3 / B i n ., a
V-joint
is used - C. Parts
o v e r 3 / 8 i n. a r e
prepared
usually
with a double V-joint
- D,
Fig. B-21.
Both the joint and the immediate area must
be cleaned of rust, scale, paint, etc.
COR RE C T
W RONG.
ia)
\
rt
rl
IJ
htt
tfi
t{i
)fd.
F LAN G E
J OIN T
B U TT
!--::--/::
F i g . 8 - 1 9 . K ee p t e to r ch tip in m o tio n .( Br o zin g .)
ilb
O. K.- LESs HEAT
FLAM E TOO HOT

AND TOO CLOSE
Fi g, 8-21. Y l el d oi nt preparoti oni n voi ous thi cknesses o l meol .
USE NEUTRAL FLAME
B RA Z E MATERIAL
B U IL DIGUP
IN JOIN T
Use a neutral flame for gas weldi.ng. The

neutral flame will permit smooth, dense welds
of high strength.
There
will
be no foaming,
sparking, etc.
A carburizing
flame (excess acetylene) wiII
cause molten metal to pick up carbon from the
flame. This causes the metal to boil and upon
cooling, to become brittle.
ERAZE BUILDUP
FLOWINGTHRO U GH
JOINT
F;s.8-20.Broze welding.
A-Corect. 8-7oo ot. Nofe fiow 6roze

m e lo l 6 o se so o s.
t25
Auto Service ond Repqr
(excess of oxygen) will

flame
An oxidizing
cause the metal to foam and send off a shower
of sparks. The excess oxygen combines withthe
porous,
steel causing it to burn. The weldwillbe
weak and brittle.
ing rod can be moved from side to side, in

small circles or in half-circles. THE WELD
SHOULD PENETRATE THROUGH THE JOINT.
Fig. 8-22 shows both the forehand, and backhand, techniques.
TIP SIZES E LE CTION
OXYACETYLENE
CUTTINGTORCH
Torch tip size must be suited to the job.

Fig. 8-14, gives typical tip sizes and gas pressures for different metal thicknesses.
The cutting torch finds many uses in the

auto shop. In an oxyacetylene eutting torch, a
preheating flame is maintained,at the tip through
small orifices or openings around the center
orifice. The preheating flame is held close to
the work at the point where the cut is to start.
When the spot has been heated to a bright
eherry red or hotter, depress the oxygen jet
lever. When the stream of pure oxygen strikes
the heated area, it will cut (burn) through the
steel.
As soon as the cut starts, move the torch
along the work. Move as rapidty as the cutting
will allow. Keep the oxygen lever fully depressed. If the cutting action stops, release the
oxygen lever and with the preheat flames (they
burn continuously), preheat again. Holdthe toreh
tip at right angles to the work with the preheat
flames just clear of the surface, Fig. 8-23.
WELDINGTE CHNIOUE
METHOD
BACKHAND
back into the
The tip should be directed
molten puddle, away fromthe direction of travel.
The rod is held between the flame and weld.
PR EHEAT IN G
T H E ED GE
+
PR EH EAT F LAM ES
J U ST C LEAR
WORK
ACKHAND
Fig. 8-22. Forehondond hoclchond

weldingtecnigues.
lAiRCO)
C U TTI N G S TR E A T
(metal
When the base metal
of parts
being
joined) melts and forms a puddle, the filler rod
is added as the weld progresses.
MELT
THE
ROD BY
INSERTING
THE END INTO
THE
PUDDLE.
Do not hoLd the rod above the puddle
and allow it to melt and drip n.
THE
INNER
FLAME
CONE MUST NOT
TOUCH EITHER
THE ROD OR THE PUDDLE.
Move the flame
along the weld in a steady
fashion, causing the base metal to reach the
fusion state just ahead of the puddle. The weld-
Jr
{
ill
Fig. 8-23. Hold he cutting tip at right ongles to tlre work so

preheot flomes just clear the work.
Note how the eutting toreh removesanarror

kerf (cut) and how the molten metal (stag) is
blown out from beneath the work, Fg. 8-24.
126
Soldering,Brozing, Welding,Crock Repoir
E OUIP ME N T
SETTIN G
UP O XY A CE TY LE NE
Keep both the acetylene and oxygencylinders
supported securely. The acetylene cylinder
should be in the upright position to prevent loss
of acetone (acetylene cylinder is filled with
acetone soaked porous filler material). Keep

cylinders away from heat and flames. Protective tank valve caps must be in place when
cylinders are stored. Mark empty tanks with
the letters MJ tsig.;8-24AA, id.ustrptes how
tankS or ,cynders are--attached to the welding
setup.
RE G UL A T O RS
The oxygen regulator has a right-handthread
and the acetylene a left-hand thread. This preon the wrong
vents instaliing the regulators
cylinders.
F i g . 8 - 2 4 , T o r c h c u ttin g o cfio n . No le u se o f g lo ve s.
( L i n co ln Ele ctr c Co .)
OXYGEN HOSE
CONNECTION
WELDING TORCH
L I N D E RC O N N EC TION
(RIGHT.HAND
THREAD)
CYTINDERPRESSURE
GAUGE
WORKING PRESSURE
GAUGE
WORKING
PRESSURE
GA U G E
CYTINDERPRESSURE
GAUGE
OXYGEN
HOSE
ACETYLENE
VALVE
WRENCH
OXYGEN
REGUTAIOR
u
ACETYLENE
HOSE
=
J
APPARATUS
IVTENCH
rKR
EE
rruK
S StU R E
TIrrI P P
C ON TR OLH A N DLE
ACEIYTENE
REGUTATOR
A
3E:3
i i rl i _.i IX OTH R E A D )
Fi g.8-24A . Typi col oxygen regul olor. Nole high reoding cylinder gouge.
tr=-p
sP^.RKLIGHTER
H OS E C ON N E C TION
z
u
o
x
o
u
z
U
J
TWIN HOSE
F
E
I
Fig. 8-24AA. Oxyocetylene weldng sefup.
(ATRCO)
The regulators reduee cylinder pressures

to a controlled and useable amount. Figs-8-?44'
and 8-248, illustrate typical regulators; Note
the cylinder and hose fittings. The right-hand
gauges read cylinder pressure, while the lefthand gauges indicate tip operatingpressure. Tip
pressure is varied by adjusting the handles.
Before attaching regulators to cylinders,
crack (open slightly) the valve on each cylinder
a small amunt for a second to blow out dust or
other foreign material. Do not crack the acetylene near any open flames or near a welding
operation. Attach the regulators to their respective tanks. Tighten gently. NEVER USE
127
TYL ENE
CYLINDER
P RE S S U R E
GAUGE
ATTACH TORCH MIXING HANDLE

The torch mixing handle should be attachec
t o t h e h o s e e n d . D o n o t o v e r t i g h t e n e i th e r m i xend hose connections.
ing handle or regulator
Wh e r e r u b b e r O - r i n g s e a l s a r e u s e d, h a n d ti g h tNote the oxygen and acetening is sufficient.
ylene mixing valves, Fig. B-25.
CYLI NDE RC O N N E E T I O N
( LEFT- H A N DT H R E A D )
TIP PRESSUR E
GAUGE
ADJUSTINGGAS PRESSURE
TIP
PRESSURE
CONTROL
HANDLE
HOSECONN ECTI O N
(L EFT.HANDTHREAD)
Fig. 8-248. Typcol ocetyleneregulotor.Note
l et- hond
thr es d
connectlons.
DO NOT HANDLE GAS

OIL ON REGULATORS.
ORGREASY
WELDING EQ UI PM ENTW I THO I LY
AND DO NOT WEAR OIL SOAKED
HANDS,
CLOTHING. OiI, in the presence of pure oxygen,
becomes highly flammable.
Back out t he pr es s ur e c ont r ol ha n d l e o n e a c h
re gu lato r ( c ount er c loc k wis e)
unt il fr e e .
ATTACH HOSE
Atta ch hos es t o t he r egulat or s . T h e a c e t y l e n e
ho se is nor m ally
r ed and t he ox y g e n g r e e n .
fittings are left-hand threads while
Aeetylene
A f t e r i n s t a l l i n g t h e d e s i r e d t i p , M AKE SU R E
PRESSURE CONTROL HANTHE REGULATOR
( C O U N T E R CL OC KWISE
DLES ARE BACKED
O F F . T H E T A N K V AL VESM Al COMPLETELY
T H E N B E O P E N E D - V E R Y S L O WL Y. Op e n th e
VALVE
about ONE TURN. Ope:
ACETYLENE
the OXYGEN valve ALL THE WAY in order tc
prevent leakage around the valve stem. Leave
WR E N C H i n p l a c e o n th e va l ve
the ACETYLENE
to facilitate an emergency shutoff - if requirec
at any time.
mixing valve. OPE\
SHUT the ACETYLENE
the OXYGEN mixing valve. Turn the OXYGE\
regulator handle in (clockwise) until the desirec
w o r k i n g p r e s s u r e i s o b t a i n e d ( r e a d l o w p r e ssu r e
gauge). PURGE (clear the hose of air or othe:
gases) the oxygen hose line by allowing oxyge:.
to flow from the hose momentarily.
SHUT of:
the oxygen mixing valve.
OPEN the acetylene
mixing valve (oxyger.
valve off) and adjust acetylene regulator to des i r e d p r e s s u r e . F o l l o w i n g p u r g i n g , cl o se a ce tylene mixer valve.
LINES
IS VERY
IMPORTANT.
PURGING
F A I L U R E T O D O S O C A N A L L O WA C E TYL EN E
TO ENTER
THE OXYGEN HOSE AND VICE-
M IXERVALVE
F ig . 8-25. Torch ni xi ng hondl e w i th o ti p ottoched.

(Morquetl e)
V E R S A . TH IS OF C OU R S E , C R E ATES A CO M BUSTIBLE MIXTURE TNSIDE THE HOSE AND

CAN CAUSE A FLASHBACK (FIRE BURNING
INSIDE THE HOSE).
When using the

oxygen fittings are right-hand.
e qu ipme nt , k eep hos es away f r om h o t s p a r k s ,
flame, o1, grease, etc. Avoid kinking, and coil
when finished workins.
128
Soldering, Brozing, W el di ng, C rqck R epoi r
LIGHTINGTOR CH
Open the acetylene mixer valve a small
amount while operating a seratcher or spark
lighter in front of the tip. KEEP THE TIP
FACING IN A SAFE DIRECTION. HAVE YOUR
WE L DI NG
G OGG L E S IN POS IT IO N .. S eE
Fi g. 8- 26.
minutes, hang the torch up out of the way. If it

will be some time before the torch is needed,
drain the lines.
To drain the lines, shut offboththe acetylene
and oxygen cylinder valves. Open one mixer
valve at a time until the 1ow pressure gauge
indicates there is no pressure left in that line.
Back off the regulator adjuster handle. Close
the mixer valve. Repeat on the other line.
L I G HT I NG
CUT T I NGT O RCH
pressure.
to give required
Set regulators
oxygen valve. Open
Close the cutting attachment
the mixer
oxygen valve all the way. Open the
mixer valve and light the torch. Open
acetylene
oxygen valve and adjust preheat
attachment
flames to neutral. Depress oxygen jet lever and
if preheat flames are altered, readjust. These
are for a cutting attachment - shown
directions
i n F i g . B - 1 3 . G f a n o t h e r c u t t i n g t o r c h i s u se d ,
instructions.)
follow the manufacturer's
moveso flinfocoss
Fig. 8-26. Sparklighter,
thehondle
Sgueezing
o roughmelol surlocethvs producingo showerof spor/<s.
When the acetylene ignites, adjust the flame
:til it is hovering
about 1/B in. from the tip]
open the oxygenvalv
-{, Fig. 8-2?.{Immediately
and adjust th flame. By starting with a carburizing fiam$
slowly closing the acety^9,a.ta
Lene valvr C,ia neutral flame may be aequired,.
D. Wateh the yellowish acetylene feather to tell
wh en th e n ertra l f lam e is r eac hed/ Fig.
B- 2 ? . .
BASICSAFETY RULES FOR

OXYACETYLENE EOUIPMENT
We a r p r o t e c t i v e g o g g l e s .
Wear protective gloves and clothing.
Keep all oil and grease away from equipment.
Never use equipment with greasy hands or
when wearing greasy garments.
Have ample ventilation.
Do not cut, we1d, or braze fuel tanks, until
special precautions have been taken.
n Do not work in an explosive atmosphere.
8. Always have a fire extinguisher on the job.
o Open eylinder valves slowly.
10. Maintain good hoses and fittings.
11. Purge lines before lighting.
'1,
Never use defective regulators.
13. Inspect hose for damage following a flash1.
2.
3.
4.
r} r}D D
t / ,ll/ ,l l/ Dll/
ûl / r/ / t/ / r/ /
,,# p ,
,t
llh
fil lK/
rcn|lY
lr"tr
A l///\ \
/,,;t;:'l
l'A
I:"':;':':"'
l/ \
l,'.i',1.,.,,;'l,l'l
l/
1,,:',,fl
-/
\
-,t:" ;,',,t,1
l/l;,'A"Xl
z Y\
l/ \
I
\
'*rr'.or\
t x oFEA T H E R )
\
sLrcHrLycaRBURrzrNG
( s HoRrFEATHER)
HEAVILY caRBURlzlNG
(LoNG
AcETYLENE
FEATHER)
back.
fi;'.'*'
14. Never try to repair hose with tape. If a

hose l eaks, di scard i t.
15. S tand to one si de of regul atorsw henopening
cylinder valves.
16. Open acetylene cylinder valve no more than
ONE turn.
1?. N ever use acetyl ene at pressuresexce eding
15 psi .
18. When adjusting either oxygen or acetylene
pressures, make certain the other mixer
. valve is closed. This willpreventflashbacks.
19. Hold torch in a safe direction whenlighting.
Fig. 8-27. Adlusting to o neutrol flome. Note ocefylene "eather'"
SHUTTING
OFF TORCH
Close the acetylene mixer va1ve. The oxygen
ill blow ut the flame at once. Then, shut off
-Jre oxygen 'mixer valve. When using this tech*'que of shutting off the flame, make certain
-Jre acetylene valve is not leaking.
If you will be welding again within a few
129
20. Know what you are cutting or welding. Some

coatings produce deadly gases when heted'
THERE ARE MANY MORE SPECIFIC SAFETY
RULES. PROCURE A BOOKLET ON SAFE
PRACTICES FROM ONE OF THE COMPANIES
HANDLING GAS WELDING EQUIPMENT. HAVE
AN EXPERIENCED OPERATOR ASSIST YOU
UNTIL YOU HAVE MASTERED SETTING UP,
A N D U S IN G T H E EQ I P ME N T
LI G HT I NG
,t,
SAFELY.
AR CWELDING
with the str.aight (negative) symbol (-). For a

reversed polarity hookup, plug the rod holder
cable into the crossed (positive) symbot (+).
Polarity is not a factor in AC welding as the
current is constantly reversing itself (60 times
per second), Fi g. 8-30.
WE L DI NGS E T UP
Study Fig. 8-31. This setup shows the welding machine, rod holder, ground clamp andconnecting cables.
By utitizing the intense heat (6,000 - 10,000

deg. F.) generated by an electric arc between
the end of the welding rod and the work, both
rod quickly reach the
base metal and filler
fusion state. As the work puddles, the rod end
melts and flows into the molten base metal. The
so-called arc force actually causes the molten
globules of rod metal to travel through the arc
to the puddle. This allows the arc welder to be
used for overhead welding. See Fig. 8-28.
T Y P E O F MA C H IN E
Basically an arc welding machine may be an
AC (alternating current) or DC (direct current)
machine. Combination AC - DC machines are
also available.
The AC or AC - DC machine is generally a
that alters the incoming
power transformer
(utility
line voltage) to a lowvolt220-440 volts
age, high amperage current for welding. Atypical
AC - DC machine is pictured in Fig. 8-29'
The DC machine is usually motor (electric
or gas engine) driven. Both types have certain
advantages and disadvantages. Machines are
rated by maximum output in amperes. Thehigher the output, the heavier wetding the machne
will perform.
M O LT EN R O D
Fig. 8-28. lJsing the elecfric orc lor welding. Note molten globule
tuoveling lrom od to Puddle.
stLtoN
RECTIFIERS
FAN
COOLING
D, C. ELECTRODE
ANDGROUND
OUTLETS
D. C. REACTOR
col L
TRANSFORMER
P O LA RI T Y
INSULATED
GROUND
fAPS
FORHEAT
SELECTION
A. C. HEAT
RANGETAPS
D. C. HEAT
RANGETAPS
Two common terms used in DC arc welding

are STRAIGHT POLARITY and REVERSE POLARITY. Reverse polarity means the currentis
traveling from the work, up through the arc to
the rod and rod holder. Straight polarity means
that the. current travels from the rod holder
(often called a stinger) through the rod, across
the arc, to the work. For a straight polarity
hookup, merely plug (unless a polarity switchis
used) the rod holder cable into the hole marked
PROfECTIVE
Fi g. 8-29. C ombi noi onA C -D C orc w el di ng m oc hi ne'

(Morquette)
r30
R ODSIZE
Welding rods (electrodes) usually t2 - L4 in.
length, are available in many sizes (diameters)
starting at 1/16 in. For general auto shop use,
a n as s or t m ent in s i z e s 1 l t6 ,3 l 3 2 ,L l 8 ,5 l 3 2 a nd
3 /16 in. will or d i n a ri l y b e a d e q u a te .
D A R K GLA 55
H ELM ET \I
1-,
I,' ,.
I
TO (+)
S T RA IGH T
P OL A R IT Y
LE A TH E R
JA C KE T
I
I
TO (+)
FR9M ( _)
Fie. 8-30. Curenl
WORK
trovel with straight and with reyesed
Fi g. 8-32. P rofecti ve equi pmenti s o musf,
polority,
PROTECTIVEEQUIPMENT
EL ECT RODEHOL DE R
-- rl-=-
EL ECT RODE
IIIIELDIII{GMACHINE
Always
wear a welding helmet to protect
your face and eyes. A helmet has a dark glass
window that will allow the operator to watch the
blinding arc without eye strain or damage.
L e a t h e r o r a s b e s t o s g l o v e s s h o u l d b e u se d to
protect
your hands from
radiation
and from
spatter (flying bits of molten metal) burns.
Clothing must be heavy and of ahardfinished
cotton (no wool or synthetics) to shed sparks
and spatter without igniting. Overhead andhorizontal welding can cause a rain of hot spatter
to fall on your arms and shoulders. In these
c a s e s , a l e a t h e r j a c k e t s h o u l d b e w o r n . S ee Fi g .
8 . 3 2 . P o c k e t s m u s t n o t b e o p e n t o r e c e i ve r e d
hot drops.
Shoes must have leather tops and
should be high enough to prevent the entry of
Do not rilear a ring as it is possible,
sparks.
with heavy welding currents,
to inadvertently
ground the ring between the work and the rod.
This can heat the ring to a high temperature
very quickly.
P O W ER GROUNDCL AM P
PLUG
--_.-,_
STEEL
TABLE TOP
ELECT R OD E
HOLDE R
CA
F i g . 8 -3 1 . T yp ico l a r c we ld in g se tu p ,
( L in co ln Ele c r ic Co .)
R ODTYPE
Welding rods are usually coated to provide a
gaseous shield around the arc. Thisshieldhelps
:emove impurities
and prevents oxidization. A
special self-starting,
rod is ofself-spacing
fered. The coating is kept in contact with the
Tork
thus maintaining
distance
the corrct
irom rod to.work.
Rods are available for welding mild steel,
carbon steel, cast iron, cast iron to steel, alu*inurrl,
etc. Select a rod suited to the welding
both
in diameter and rod material.
"ob
CAUTION,I
Your eyes can suffer severe burn damage
from rays produced during arc welding. NEVER
WATCH
THE An,C (PVEM FOR A SECOND)
WITHOUT
THE USE OF'A HELMET
OR FACE
MASK. Never strike an arc when another person
f3t
I
I
.i
l
" w x r e "Ro Do u r r o
F ig .8 ' 3 3 '
T H | S POS I TI O N
Str ikin g a n o r c'
prois standing nearby unless he is wearing

in
that
sneaky
are
tective gojgfes. Eye burns
exthe
follow
immediately
the pain does not
posure.
UP TO WE LD
SETT NG
Attach the ground clamp securely to a spot
After
on the work that is free ofpaint, rust, etc'
set
rod'
of
tpe
and
size
correcl
the
selecting
rnachine
Turnthe
recommended.
as
the machine
on (make sure rod holder 'is not contacting
holder
work), insert a rod in the rodholder' The
an
provide
to
jaws must grip the uncoated end
3trike
and
on
Llectrical path. Turn the machine
an ar c .
PU D D LE
(rod)'
Fig, 8-34. Welding with o whipping motion o( he electode
5 - 15 deg'
with the top of the rod tilted
work
8-34'
Fig.
travel,
of
toward the direction
Whipping should be done by flexing the wrist'
of
a series
produces
motion
The whipping
It will
weld'
the
of
top
the
along
ridges
circular
for a while, to maintain correct arc
be difficult,
will enable you to
practice
Length. Continued
machine
develop skill. Always use recommended
settings.
a weaving motion will be reOccasionally
help to bridge wider gaps and
will
quired. This
metal over a wider surfaee'
weld
*i11 d.posit
8-34,4..
Fig.
S T RI K I NG A N A R C
START
work
Strike the end of the rod against the
arc
the
When
with a short, scratehing motion.
recommended
forms, Pull the rod awaY the
distance, Fig. B- 3 3 .
srARr-D
WELDING
(melts)' move
When the base metal puddles
may be held
the rod forward slowly. Some rods
motion'
steady while others require a whipping
molten
the
of
move the rod out
When whipping,
(solidify
freeze
to
puddle ,rtttii ttt. puddle starts
dutl sheen)
- it trtrr" from a shiny wet look toa
intothe
back
way
part
it
move
then immediately
the
hold
again'
fluid
is
puddle
the
puddle. When
it out
whip
then
second
a
split
for
place
rod ln
top'
again. Repeat this process. Viewedfromthe
straight
a
the whipping process can form either
depending on the need'
line or . C
"tt"pu,
Whipping is handy in c ontrolling burn-through
wide gaps'
in thin metal, or when working with
to the
angles
right
at
The rod should be held
srARr-N
/r-ggTto
oF WELD
Fig. 8-34tA. WeovingPottetns or orc welding'

(Moguefre)
S tudy
are
type
show n.
and
*fai"g
effects.
132
Fi g.
8-35,
A I1 w el ds
si ze
in
w hi ch
w ere
el ectrodes.
a seri es
made
Machi ne
w i th
of w el ds
the
s etti ngs
s ame
and
speeds were varied to demonstrate the
,\.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Chip the slag (brittle eoating left on the weld

from the rod coating material)
from the bead
job
and use a wire brush tocompletethecleanup
before making the next pass (bead). Some thick
p a r t s r e q u i r e a n u m b e r o f p a s s e s . I f t h e sl a g i s
not removed the joint may be full of slag inclus i o n s {p a r t i c l e s )
a n d b l o w h o l e s ( a i r p o cke ts) .
WHEN
CHIPPING
OR WIRE
BRUSHING,
WEAR PROTECTIVE
GOGGLES UNLESS YOUR
HELMET
I S D E S I G N E D T O T l P U P T H E D AR K
G L A S S A N D P E R M I T Y O U T O L O O K T H R OU GH
THE CLEAR
GLASS. GETTING
A P I E C E OF
SLAG IN YOUR EYE CAN BE EXCEEDINGLY
SERIOUS.
A good, smooth weld. Note the even whip

marks and lack of spatter.
Machine settings too low. The wetd is narrow
with little penetration. It is piled high.
Machine
too high. Note excessive
settings
width, blowholes and heavy spatter.
Se tting s O.K . but ar c t oo s hor t .
Settings O. K. but arc too 1ong.
Settin g O. K. , ar c O . K. but s peed t oo sl o w .
Arc O. K., set t ings O . K. but s peed t oo f a s t .
BASICSAFETY RULES FOR ARC WELDING

1 . N e v e r l o o k a t t h e a r c u n l e s s w e ar i n g a
suitable helmet or face shield.
2. Do not permit bystanders,
unless they are
wearing protective gear.
3 . We a r g o g g l e s w h e n c h i p p i n g o r w i r e b r u sh ing.
4 . We a r p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g a n d g l o v e s .
5. Make certain the welding machine is properlrr
cn"-AoA
6. Never
..t^* ^
weld
while
standins
in water
or
on
^- ^,,-
7. Never
t r g. 8 -3 5 . fh e e ffe cts ol vor ious m ochine seffings, or c Iengths
o n d w e l d i n g sp e e ds. Rod r ype ond size r em oined constont.
( Lincoln E/ectr ic Co.)
B.
9.
10.
The sound of the arc is helpful in determining

-h en it is th e c or r ec t lengt h and of t he p r o p e r
:-eat, A good arc has a steady "bacon frying 1n
:ie pan" sound. A short arc will make popping
---o ise s a nd will t end t o c aus e t he r od t o s ti c k t o
:re work. Excessive
arc length will cause a
:--gh, humming noise with a lot of spatter. The
=r'c also tends to go out.
11.
c a r e l e s s l y s t r i k e a n a r c o n a ca r g a s
tank, or on eompressed gas cylinders.
D o n o t s t r i k e a r c o n a u t o m o b i l e b r a k e l i n e sgas lines, etc.
Have adequate ventilation.
Be careful when weldingmetalwithcoatings
such as zinc, cadmium, beryllium,
e tc, Th e
fumes may be deadly.
Disconneet the welding
m a c h i n e b e fo r e
attempting any repairs.
H O R I ZO N TA L
ED G E W ELD
MANYTYPESOF W E LDS
Weld po sitio n and wor k s et - up c an be q u i t e
'.-aried. This will requre ski1l inflat, horizontal,
' "-ertie al an d o v er head welding. See Fig. B - 3 6 .
WORKSHOULDBE CLEAN
Despite the fact that a good welder ean run
= b ea d.th rou gh
r us t , pai. nt , m ois t ur e,
et c . , a l l
neld are as sho uld be dr y and c lean. The w e l d
arll go faster, look better and will. be stronger.
B U TT WE LD
D OUB LEB U TT
WE LD
Fi g. 8-36. D i l hent w e/ds ond w el di ng posi l i ons .
t33
Auto Service qnd Repoir
G ENER ALCA UTIONS

1. Do not adjust machine settings or attempt
to change polarity while the machine is
under load (wetding). To do so will damage
the switch contacts.
2. Keep the ground clampandtoolholderapart.
Never start the machine until certain the
rod holder is not touching the work.
3. Keep cables tight in the sockets, clamp and
rod holder. This will prevent excessive resistance and overheating.
4. Protect paint, glass, upholstering, etc., from
hot spatter.
5. Keep cables coiled when not in use.
6. Do not attach ground clamp to bumpers or
other chrome parts. Any looseness will
cause arcing that will pit the chrome.
AL WAYSCHE CKFORP A RTCRA CK I NG
hi
,t ':
t,
r.i' '
l:,
Many parts of the automobile, suchasengine

blocks, pistons, crankshaftsr g4rs, axles, wheel
spindles, etc., can crack during service.
During overhauls, parts shouldbe thoroughly
cleaned and visually inspected for signs of
cracking. Pay particular attention to suchareas
as cylinder head valve ports, cylinder walls,
bloc k wat e r j a c k e ts , P i s to n s , e tc .
Critical parts such as wheel spindles, steering gears, axles, etc. should be checked with
special detection equiPment.
Cracks or fractures may be groupedinthree
types: Cracks plainly visible to the eye, cracks
so fine as to be invisible without deteetion
equpment and internal cracks that do not reach
the surface.
ME THODS
CRAC KDE TE CTION
the feet of the magnet becomes heavily magnetized. A crack will interrupt or break this
magnetic field enough to cause the iron powder
to collect along the crack. The magnet should
be moved into different positions as the process works best when the crack is at right angles
to the magnetic field.
Fig. 8-3?, illustrates the use of a powerful
permanent magnet. Note the crack (in eolor)
that has been exposed by iron powder collecting
along the entire length. The poles of the magnet
are at right angles to the crack.
F I E L DWI T HF L I J O RES C E N T
MA G NE T I C
MA G NE ITC P A RTI CL E S
F E RRO
This method also requires that a strong magnetic field be set up in the part. A special
soLution that contains fluorescent ferromagnetic
particles is then sprayed on the area to be
tested. Fig. 8-38 shows a crankshaft being
checked for cracks. Note the ring magnet and
black light lamp.
As with iron powder, the ferromagnetic
particles are attracted to and held along the
crack line. When exposed toblack light (invisible
ultraviolet rays) the particles packed along the
craek line will glow white while the remainder
of the part will remain blue-black. Black light
(ultraviolet rays) is not harmful to skinoreyes.
The erankshaft in Fig. 8-39, has two cracks
along the journal edges. Note that the cracks
are cleprly visible under black light.
NOTE: Magnetic crack finding will work
ONLY ON MATERIALS THAT MAY BE MAGNETIZED. Nonferrous metals such as copper,
aluminum, bronze, etc., cannot be magnetized.
If in doubt, apply a magnet to the questionable
metal. If the magnet sticks to the metal, it can
be checked magnetically.
There are a number of techniques used to

check for the presence of cracking ineluding
X ray, magnetic, fl'uorescent, dye p,enetrants and
(The X ray
of these techniques.
combinations
expensive equipment and is
technique requires
not often used n other than large speeialty
FLIJOR E S C EN T P E N E TR A N T
This method involves the use of a special
fluorescent penetrant 0iquid that readily enters
even the finest cracks). The area to be checked
is first cleaned with a patented cleaner. See
Fi g. 8-40.
Then the fluorescent penetrant is sprayed
over the area, Fi g. 8-41.
A small amount of cleaner is sprayed on the
gear and the excess penetrant wiped off with a
cl ean cl oth, Fi g. 8-42.
The part is then sprayed with a developing
sho ps.)
FIE LDW ITH IRONP OWDE R

M AG N ETIC
A powerful' magnet (can be a permanent or an
electromagnet) is placed across an area suspeeted of eontaining a craek. A fine ironpowder
is then dusted over the area. The metal under
134
F i g.8- 40.
I R O NP O W D E RP OWERF UL CRACK
DUSTER
P E RM ANENT
MAGNET
F ig . 8 - 3 7 . C r o c k i n cylin d e r e o d is e xp o se d th r o u g h the use ol
a powerlul mognet ond iron powder. (Storm-yulcon
C l eani ng
s ec ti on of l ar ge geor i l i ot
penelron!,
lluoescent
to oppl i c o t i o n
ol
l
Fi g. 8-41. A ppl yi ng l l uorescent penetrcnt.
(Mo9no(l ux)
F i g . 8 - 3 8 . Ch e ckin g cr o n ksh o { tlo r u o cks.

Fi g. 8-42, R emovi ngexcess penetront.
Fi g. 8-43. A ppl yi ng deve/opersol ufi on.
Fg-8-39.Crocksin cronkshoftore ploinly visihle underblock

light. (Mosnollux)
solution. The developer will draw the penetrant

:o the surface of the cracks, if any, Fig. B-43.
The gear is ex4mined
under a lamp that
e:nits black light. If any cracks are present, the
developed
penetrant
will glow quite visibly,
F rg . B-44 .
Fi g.8-44. E xami ni ng the port under bl ock Ii ght. N ote tl e c oc k .
.
ii
iij
,t
135
fr
i'
/'::,
DYE PE NE TRA NT
Th is t ec hnique ut iliz es a s pec i a l p e n e t r a n t
that when exposed to a developer, will show as a
bright
red stain line against a whitish background, The part is cleaned, penetrant applied,
penet r ant
surp lus
r em ov ed
and developer
sprayed on. Note the red stain lines indicating
crae ks bet ween t he gear t eet h, Fig . B - 4 5 .
NOT E:
The penet r ant m et hods w i I I w o r k o n
both ferrous and nonferrous materials.
Fi g.8-47. C rock repoi red by pi nni ng. E och pi n s houl d s l i ghtl y

overl op l he precedi ng pi n. B roken /i ne i ndic otes c roc k Ii ne.
U s e s p e c a l , t h r e a d e d , t a p e r p i n s d e si g n e i
for crack repair. Start by drilling and tapping a
hole (drill tap must be right for the pins to be
u s e d ) t h a t c e n t e r s o n t h e c r a c k l i ne , j u stb e yo n c
the end of the erack. Thread a pin (pin may be
c o a t e d w i t h s p e c i a l h e a t p r o o f s e a l a n t i fd e si r e d ,
into the hoLe. When tight, noteh the pin, abou:
1 / 8 i n . a b o v e t h e c a s t i n g , u s i n g a .sh a r p ch i se a n d t w i s t o f f t h e e x c e s s . I n s o m e ca se s a h a cksaw may be used to cut the pin.
Drill and tap for the next pin sothe hole jus:
cuts through the threads of the first pin. Install
p l u g a n d t w i s t o f f e x c e s s . R e p e a t th i s p r o ce ss
until the fu11 length of the crack is pinned. EACIi
PiN MUST CUT PART WAY INTO THE PRECEDING PIN. See Fig. B-4?.
If steel pins are used, they should be lightl
peened.
Grind pins nearly flush with work and finisl:
with a clean, sharp mi11 file. If the area canno:
be filed, grind flush.
Wh e n a c r a c k p a s s e s o v e r a n e d g e ( su ch a s
across the head and down into the combustior_
chamber)
insert
pins in the order
shown ir
Fig. B-48.
'i
j
{
(crs
,j
.*
,a-::i!
'l
.s
. i"$
,+
.{
F i g . 8 -45.
Dya penetr on! exposed these cr oc k s i n thi s Q eor ,
CRACK REPAIR
Cra c k s in t he c y linder head or b l o c k e a n o f t e n
be repaire d by e ithe r br azing, we lding or pinning.
Some tim es s older c an be us ed on w a t e r j a c k e t
cracks.
The us e of t hr eaded pins is qui t e p o p u l a r b e cau se no heat is r equir ed ( noc hanc e o f w a r p a g e ) .
IF THE PI NS ARE TO BE EFFECT I V E ,
THEY
MUST REACH SLIGHTLY PAST THE ENDS OF
THE CRACK. I f t hey do not r eac h t h e e n d s , t h e
craek will likely continue to lengthen. Further
cracking
can generally be halted by drilling a
ho le at t he end of t he c r ac k . See F i g . 8 - 4 6 .
SUMMARY
F i g . 8 - 4 6 . No te c o ck- 1 .Ho le s h o ve e e n d r illed ot the very ends-2.

T l r i s p r e v e n fs lu r th e cr o ckin g . Ho le d r ille d in l om the ends-3,
o llo ws c o ckin g to co n lin u e -4.
136
S o l d e r i s a m i x t u r e o f l e a d a n dti n i n va r yi n g
amounts. Joints to be soldered must fit well,
as solder in itself, has but little strength. Wire
solder with flux-filled
c e n t e r c o r e , i s d e si r a b l e .
Flux, (organic, acid and rosin) helps remove
oxides and also prevents the formationofoxides
while soldering.
Be sure to use solder witl:
ROSIN core ONLY on ELECTRICAL
work.
K e e p t h e s o l d e r i n g i r o n c l e a n an d w e l l ti n n e d .
Use an iron large enough for the job.
The joint to be soldered must be clean anC
dry. Lay the flat tip of the iron against the work
and apply wire solder where the iron and work
contact. Solder must run and tin freely. Do not
move work while it i.s cooling.
Brazing takes place above a temperature
of
Foll.ow all safety precautions

in setting up
equipment, lighting torch and in welding.
Arc welding is fast and applies a minimum
amount of heat to the work. Although the arc
temperature
i s h i g h , t h e w e l d i n g p r o c e s s i s so
rapid that the work remains relatively coo1. This
helps control warpage.
Select appropriate rod size and t1pe.
Adjust machine to correct polarity and curTip the top of the rod in the
rent settings.
( 5 - 1 5 d e g . ) . A w h i p pi n g
direction
of travel
motion will help control the heat, direction and
penetration of the weld.
The bead should be smooth, even, with good
penetration and should be free of slag andblowholes. Remove slag from a bead before welding
another pass over the original bead.
Follow
all safety rules in setting up and
operating.
Cracks can be detected by using a magnetic
technique involving iron powder or fluorescent
300 deg. F. The work must be clean. Flux work,

ad heat until brazing rod will melt when in
eontact with the parts.
action will
Capillary
Craw the brazing material into the joints. Donot
ryverheat.
Braze welding requires tinning the work with
braze material
and then building up to fill joint
:rregularities,
and to provide strength.
Bronze brazing
rod may be used on cast
:ron, malleable iron and steel.
Either a propane or an oxyacetylene torch
:ray be used.
niz.B/t
liquid,
or, by using either dye or fluorescent
penetrants.
Cracks in engine blocks and heads can often
be repaired by pinning. Use tapered, threaded
pins. Pins should overlap slightly and must run
full length of the crack.
MANY SKILLS ARE REOUIRED

Fig.8-48. lnserlpins in the odeshown.Pin 6 will lock pin 5 in
placein cosepin 7 doesnot properlyoverlap.
The top-leve1 mechanic, capable of handling

must
the many phases of automotive repair,
skills
have a number of talents. Numerousbasic
not all. of which are commonly
are required,
associated with auto work.
Being a successful mechanic involves much
inspection, part
more than mere disassembly,
replacement
and reassembly.
Quite often parts
must be rebuilt,
altered, adapted, welded, etc.
To cope successfully with allthese demands upon
his skills, the mechanie must have some knowledge of machine shop, welding andbrazing, sheet
metal work, electricity,
etc.
When you, in your work as a mechanic, meet
you do not
a situation
that calls for skills
possess,
DEVELOP
THEM. Night sehool, exbooks,
tension courses,
on the job training,
manuals, trade journals and magazines, allprofor you to learn.
vide opportunities
Remember
that each year sees changes in
design, the introduction ofnew units, new service
techniques,
service
equipment and materials.
Be sure to develop a regular program of reading and study, so you are always UP-TO-DATE.
It will pay big dividends.
Choose a torch tip appropriate for the work.

as recommended by the
Set the gas pressures
f lam e
Us e a neut r al
torch
ma nu factur er .
(approximately
one-to-one mixture of acetylene
flame (oneand oxygen) to slightly carburizing
give
excess of
to
mixture
is varied
to-one
acetylene). Hold the tip at an angle to the work.
Vary the distance from tip to work as needed.
Keep tip in motion to avoid localized overheating.
(melting
and
fusion
Gas welding involves
mixing)
of the metals to be joined. The work
should be clean and dry. Thick metals shouldbe
beveled. Select a torch tip of the size recomSet gas pressures
mended by the manufacturer.
flame.
to
a
neutral
for selected tip. Adjust
keep the inner flame from
When welding,
rod or puddle. Bring the
touching either filler
work to the molten state and, if required, add
filler
rod. The weld must penetrate the work
and should be solid ad free of slag and blowholes.
Cutting is fast
cutting torch.
and easy
with
oxyacetylene
;i
ii
ii
iir
ili
ii
lll
iii:
ti
rli
ilI
ii
137
ir
iii
ln
li
ri
Auto Service qnd RePqr
OUIZ - ChcPter 8
1. Soldering involves fusion. True or False?
soldering.
2. Joints should be wellfittedbefore
Tru e or F a1s e?
3. So lde r is a m ix t ur e of - and- .
used solder alloys are 40/60,
4. Commonly
^-^
5. Flux is used in soldering to:a. Clean the metal.
b. Prevent overheating of metal.
c. Cement Parts together'
d. Prevent rusting.
6. Three kinds of flux are:
7.
B.
9.
10.
1
s
]F
il
11.
12.
13.
should be used on all electrical

-flux
work.
The tip of the iron should be well-.
When applying solder, touch the wire:
a. To toP of iron.
b. To work away from iron.
c. To iron where it contacts work.
d. To side of iron.
Brazing involves temperatures above:
a. 1800 F .
b. 450 F.
c . 800 F.
d. 3000 F .
Brazing and braze welding are one and the
.same. True or False ?
F lux is r e q u i re d fo rb ra z i n g . T ru e o rFal se?
When using an oxyacetylene torch for brazslightly
ing, the flame should be-to
14. The torch tip shouLd be held at right angles

to give better penetration whenbrazing. True
or False ?
15. For brazng, tip size and gas pressures are
True or False ?
not too imPortant.
the parent metal be
that
requires
16. Brazing
True or False?
point.
fusion
to
the
brought
be--.
should
welding
for
The
flame
1?.
18. The inner flame cone-touch
the weld puddle or rod tiP.
19. Add filler metal to the weld bY:
a. Touching rod to Puddle.
b. Holding rod above puddle and allowing it
to driP in.
c. Laying a length of rod flat on the joint.
drops of rod all
and depositing
d. Melting
along the joint before puddling the base
pr o20. The cutti ng torch uses a j et of-to

duce the cutting action.
21. Hold the cutting torch at a sharp angle to
the work. True or False?
22. Acetylene tanks should be used in aposition.
23. The oxygen regulator has a
thread.
24. Open tank valves
a n d- _
25. Always wear-,-'
when welding, brazing or cutting.
26. Before opening tank valves, regulator handles should be:
a. Removed.
b. Backed out until free.
c. Tightened securelY.
d. Baeked half waY out.
2 ? . O i l a n d g r e a s e s h o u l d b e k e p t a w a y fr o m g a s
welding equiPment. True or False ?
28. Before lighting the torch,-bothlines.
29. The aeetylene tank should be opened:
a. All the waY.
b. Four turns.
c. One turn.
d. 1/16 turn.
30. Some coatings will give off poisonous fumes
when heated. True or False?
3 1 . N e v e r u s e a c e t y l e n e p r e s s u r e s i n e xce ss o f
psi .
32. Arc welders can be either-or
or a combination of both.
33. Arc welding imparts less heat to the work
(overall) than gas welding. True or False?
five welding electrode sizes suitable
List
34.
for garage use.
35. Welding rods are usually coated. True or
False ?
36. Watching the arc without protective equipment can cause serious eye damage. True
or False ?
be in keePing
3?. Rod-and-must
with the job.
38. The hotterthe arc, thebetter. True or False?
39. Deseribe the sound of a proper arc.
40. Never weld, braze or solder fuel tanks until
special precautions have been taken. True
or False?
41. Describe four methods of craik detection.
42. Cracks can often be repaired without heat
metal.
t38
Chapfer9
EQUIPMENT
CLEANING
AND TECHNIQUES
on the car or off, can be a
Cleaning parts,
slow, tedious job unless the proper equipment
Onmany jobs,
is available and is usedcorrectly.
the cleaning portion, using the best equipment,
can account for nearly one -half the time involved.
To use even more time because of poor equipment and techniques will run the repaircharges
up to the point where the sbop will be hard
pressed to offer competitive repair price schedules. Time is like money - it must not be wasted.
BE THOROUGH
On an in-car engine clean, or an under-body
ttholidays" (missed spots)
clean j ob, leaving a few
but mechanieally
will displease the customer,
On the other hand,
nill not prove disastrous.
eareless cleaning of parts during engine, transm ission,
re ar e nd , et c . , t ear downs , m ay r uin
:he job, and cause expensive combacks andpoor
customer
The only safe course is to be absolutely

Remove
ALL
in your
cleaning.
meticulous
from
the part and protect
foreign
materials
against contamination during subsequent storage
and handling.
TYPES
NUMEROUS
'
The equipment and techniques vary with the

size and type of job involved. You are obviously
clean one
not going to fire up a steamcleanerto
universal joint when solvent, brush and airhose
will handle the task quickly. On the other hand,
to attempt to clean the outside of an engine
with a brush and solvent,
prior to disassembly,
would be equatly foolish. You must tailor the
equipment and solution to the job at hand.
This chapter will deal with the widely used
techniques.
Study them carefully so you will be
able to choose wisely.
relations.
WI T HWI RE
CL E A NI NG
B RUS HA NDS CRA P E R
chambers, piston heads.
Valves, combustion
and grooves, etc., are subject to accurnulations
of hard carbon. If they are not soakedin powerful cleaners, they must be cleanedwith scrapers
and power brushes.
The heavy deposits can be knocked off with
scraping tools and a power wire wheel, or, a
rotary brush may be used for final
drill-driven
Fig.9-1.
Removing com6uslion chamber deposifs with o rolory

wie wheel. (Albettson & Co.)
cleaning.
Clean dry. After thorough carbon removal,
the part should be washed in solvent and blown
dry. NEVER USE A POWER BRUSH ON SOFT
ARTICLES SUCH AS PISTONS, CARBURE TORS,
Fig.
9 - 1 s h o ws
ETC.
INSERTS,
BEARING
car:bon deposits in a cylinder head combustion
chamber bing removed with a rotarywirebrush
drill.
chucked in an air-operated
139
GET AD VIC E
A number of companies offer various types of
cleaning equipment and solutions designed to
perform tasks such as car body washing, in-car
Lngine cleaning, carburetor cleaning, block
are
clning, hard carbon removal, etc' There
and
high-pressure
hot solutions, cold solutions,
many
So
etc'
agitators,
low-pressure sprays,
are available that it can cause confusion toanya
one not an expert in the field. When choosing
is
it
equipment'
piece
of
or
solution
cleaning
wise to consult other shops or mechanics for
their reactions and also to discuss the problem
with sales representatives from reliable companies offering products in this field'
CA NB E DA NGE ROUS
S OL UTIONS
(poisonMany cleaning solutions are TOXIC
Be
eyes)'
(wiil
skin,
burn
ous) and CAUSTIC
follow
and
using
you
are
certain you know WHAT
recommended handling prothe manufacturerst
ce du res.
cleaning
safety rules concerning
General
are:
solutions
area'
1. Use in a welL-ventilated
2. Never use gasoline for cleaning'
3. We.ar goggles or face shield when working
with the Powerful tYPes.
4. Keep away from sparks and open flame'
5. Do not smoke around solutions'
Keep
6. Ke ep solu t ions c ov er edwhennot inus e'
in la be led c ont ainer s .
n solvenf'
Fig. 9-3. Ploceportsin bosketond submerge
flash
high
with relatively
?. Use solutions
will
vapors
(temperature
which
at
points
ignite when brought into contact with an open
flame).
unless specifically
solutions
heat
B. Never
recommended.
9. Avoid dampening clothing with solvent'
10. Always READ and FOLLOWmanufacturers'
instructions.
11. When brushing parts in sol'vent, use a nylon
or brass bristle brush to avoid sparks'
12. A large tank of solvent should have a lid
that is held open by a fusible link &olding
device that will melt and drop the lid in the
event of fire).
13. Wash hands and arms thoroughly when cleaning job is comPlete.
14. Avoid prolonged skin exposure to aII types
of solvents.
Sofry Covcr
PARTS WASHER
Porls Cleoning
Bruh Rocl
Col'ol Swit
Groyillt
Pumping Unl
I/25 HP-Abrosiv. Proo.
PLbl G.ip
Sook Tonk
Fl$h Nozzl
Fis. 9 -2 . T yp ica l co ld so lu tio n p o r ls wo sher'

( Gr cYm ills)
Although small parts can be cleaned incans'

buckets, etc., a far faster and more efficient
job can be accomplished by using a regular cold
solution Parts washer.
The better parts washers hold considerable
solvent, have soaking trays, solvent agitation
from the
and a filter to remove impurities
solvent for rinsing. Fig. 9-2, illustrates atypical
parts washer. They are available in many different si zes.
To use the parts washer, the heaviest deposits ean be quickly removed with a scraper'
On large units such as engines, steam clean
before disassemblY.
The parts are placed in the basket and submerged in the solution. Parts with hollow areas
140
:t '
rl
should have the hollows facing up so that an air

trap will not prevent.soLution entry, Fig. 9-3.
The solution is then agitated (shaken) by air
pressure
or the solution passing, under pressure, through nozzles.
The washer shown in
Fig. 9-4, has a separate compartment
that is
air agitated while the main tank i.s used for
soaking, brushing and rinsing.
Fi g.9-6, Gi vi ng porl s o l i nol i nse i n l i l teed sol venf. S ol v ent

musr be C LE A N I
Fol l ow i ng
F ig. 9 - 4 . P o t s w o s h e r wilh b o th o ir o g itu r e d o n d so o kin g fonks.

( KIe e r - F lo )
ri nsi ng,
l et
parts
dran
and then
blow
If there is a possibility
dry.
of rust
formation,
oil or grease the part. Keep parts
covered until ready to use.
Some garages utilize portable parts washers
that may be wheeled to the job, Fig. 9-?.
' ' HO TT A NK ' 'CL E A NI NG

Large
building,
garages or shops specializing in reusually

have a "hot tank" for heavy
Fig. 9-5. Mechonic

rinsingsomeportswhileotherswosh.
During the agitation
cycle, some washers
have a separate basket that will hold a few of
the parts for brushing or rinsing while the remainder
are still. washing. Fig. 9-5, shows a
mechanic
brushing
and rinsing
a few parts
while others are soaking.
After thorough cleaning, the parts should be
given a final rinse. The machine shown in Fig.
9-6, has both a soft rinse and hard spray rinse.
The mechanic is giving the parts a final rinse.
The solution from both nozzles is filtered.
Fi g,9-7. H ondy portobl eports w osher.

(K IeenFIo)
141

a water pump forces water,
In operation,
amount of cleaning solution,
with a metered
through a pipe formed into a number of coils.
th r o u g h
A heat source (oiL orgas)passesheatup
generating steam pressure.
the coils quiekly
From the coils the superheated water is passed
into a flexible steam hose that is attached to a
steam gun. The gun has a heatproof handle anC
some transmission
blocks,
Engine
cleaning.
quic
k ly and t h o r o u g h ar
e
cases, rad iat or s , et c . ,
hot
tank.
in
the
ly cleaned
The hot tank usually uses a strong alkaline
compound mixed with water to form a solution.
r uns bet ween 180 and 2 1 0 d e g . F .
Temp era tur e
The tank may have an agitatortospeedcleaning.
Most parts are clean in thi.rty minutes or less,
strength,
on tank design, solution
depending
and Part load.
temperature,
The alkaline solution is CAUSTIC and when
cleaning aluminum parts, the solution must be
inhibited (weakened) to prevent surface erosion.
When the parts are removed from the tank,
washed, preferably
they should be thoroughly
to flush out oil
Be careful
hot water.
with
ga llerie s, wat er jac k et s , et c . Par t s o r s u r f a c e s
adjustable nozzle.
Some units feed the cleaning solutionintothe
gun instead of the water supply. Fig. 9-9, shows
a typical portable steam cleaner.
subjeet to rusting should be oiled.

WHEN USING
CAREFUL
BE EX TREM ELY
I'HOT TANK. ' '
O BSERVE AL L S A F E T Y
THE
HAVE SOMEONE SKILLED IN
PRECAUTIONS.
ITS USE, G I VE YO U I NSTRUCTI O NS B E F O R E
USING.
F*
lowered
Fig. 9- 8, s hows anenginebloc k bein g
into a hot tank. Note the hydraulic crane attached
to the tank.
STEAMCLE A NING
is excellent for many
The steam cleaner
engine, transUnder-car,
types of cleaning.
etc., cleaning are a1l handled quickly
mission,
and thoroughly.
Fi g. 9-9, P ortobl e sl eom cl eone. S teomIose ond gun nol s how n

(H omeseodY ol ve)
N ES
G E NE RA LO P E RA T ORUL
F O RS T E A MCL E A NE RS
on the
of cleaners
There
are a number
inmarket and as always, the manufacturersr
specific
regarding
followed
structions should be
There are
steps and maintenance proeedures.
steps tha:
of operational
a number
however,
are common to alrnost all steam cleaners, anc
these will be discussed.
STARTINGTHE CLEANER
The steam cleaner, if operated inside, mus:
The machine shouli
have adequate ventilation.
be properly grounded e1ectrically.
Turn on the water source. The water pump
should then be switched on. In a short time yo';
F i g . 9 - 8 . En g in e b lo ck b e in g lo we r e d in to o "hot tonk."
( Sto n ' Yu lco n )
will
142
notiee
a stream
of water
fLowing from
the
Fis.9-l l. Steomcleonins
":.:r":;;:t.
ronsmission
priorto dis-
hold the gun nozzle from one tofour inches from

t h e s u r f a c e . I f t h e n o z z l e i s t o o f a r f r o m th e
w o r k , c l e a n i n g i s s l o w e d d o w n c o n s i d r a b l y.
T h e s t e a m s h o u l d b e " w e t " ( a m p l e h o t w a te r
along with steam) as dry steam will not clean or
flush surfaces wellAvoid oversteaming
t h e t i e r o d , s u s p e n si o n
knuckles
and other under-car
b e a r i n g ar e a s.
Excessive
steaming will melt the lubricant as
well as damage the seals. Do not drive dirt
a n d g r e a s e f r o m t h e b r a k e b a c k i n g p l a t e s i n to
the brake drum. Take it easy on brake lines
and flex hose.
Remember
t h a t s t e a m c a u s e s c o n d e n s a ti o n .
Do not operate in a poorly-ventilated
area as
part and tool rusting
wiil
occur.
Fig. 9_10,
shows an operator steam cleanng the underside
of a car.
Fig.9-10. Usingsfeomcleoneron under-body

cleaning.
(ClaytonMonuhcturing
Co.)
gun. This indicates that the heating coils are
::lled with water and that the burner can be
:snited without burning the coils.
Ignite the burner.
When the gun begins to
?:rrit steam, adjust the fuel valve to bring the
ressu re to th e des r ed lim t .
If the machine utilizes
an integral solution
:.nk , che ck to see if enough s olut ion is pr es e n t .
l"Iix the solution by opening the stiring valve
:cr ab ou t 3 0 se co nds . I f no s t ir r ing pr ov is io n i s
:resent,
place the gun nozzle into the solution
:-:rd agitate it with steam pressure. If solution
rs desired, open the solution valve.
S HUT T I NG
DO WNS T E A MCL E A NE R
When finished
with the cleaner, first shut
off the solution control valve. AlLow the cleaner
to operate a short time and then shut off the
fuel valve. Keep the water pump running until
there is no sign of steam vaporcomingfrom
th e
gun. The pump maythenbe shut down. By following this procedure, all solution is removedfrom
the water in the coils. The coils will be cooled
down before the water flow has stopped thus pre venting possible burning and scaling.
Arrange the steam hose so that it is out of
the way and will not be kinked or run over. If
the surrounding
temperature
will drop below
freezing, the machine should be drained. Fig.
9- 11, illustrates
h o w t h e a u t o m a t i c t r a n s m i s si o n
is steam cleaned prior to disassembly.
USINGSTEAM CLEANER
Cover
fenders
and windshi.el.d area when
ioi.ng an engine or under-hood job. Remember
:hat the cleaning solution can spot paint. When
i:rished,
flush all painted surfaces with clean
;ater.
Cover carburetor,
generator
or alter:ator,
and distributor.
Avoid prolonged steam_:g of wiring.
Keep away from air conditioning
-:nes. Avoid close up or prolonged steaming of
:.11e lectrica l un it s .
Depending on the nozzle design, type of dirt
: c be re moved a nd s hape of objec t belngc leaned ,
S A F E T YRUL E SF O RS T E A MCL E A NI NG
1. Do not operate without proper burner ventilation.
143
Auto Service ond Repor
As with steam cleaning, whendoing anunderhood cleani.ng job, cover fenders and windshield
a h i gh - p r e ssu r e
areas. Fig. 9-12, illustrates
spr:ay
Note
different
machine.
the
cleaning
patterns available.
Stea mer m us t hav e a good elec t r ic a l g r o u n d .

Ke ep pr es s ur e wit hin s pec if ied lim i t s .
A
We ar a f ac e s hield t o k eep s pla t t e r s f r o m
the eyes .
Ke ep o t her per s onnel away f r o m t h e i m and when swinging the gun
mediate vicinity
of any unexp e c t e d b y be
c
ar
ef
ul
a rou nd ,
stan de r s ,
6. If the machine does not ignite readily, shut
off the fuel valve and have a qualified reparman check the burner fuel and ignition system.
I
Re ad t he m ac hine ins t r uet ion boo k c a r e f u l l y
a nd ge t "c hec k ed out " by an e x p e r i e n c e d
S P RA YCL E A NI N G
L O W. P RE S S URE
involving the use
This is another technique
mixing gun. As air passes
of an air-operated
through the gun, it draws in a meter:ed amount
of cleaning solution and sprays it with force on
the object being cleaned. After waiting for deposits to soften, the object can be either washed
down with a hose or the cleaning gun suction
hose can be dropped in a container of water,
cleaning solvent, etc., depending on the need.
generally
are
solutions
Special
cleaning
added to water, kerosene or cleaning solventfor
the initial cleaning spray. NEVER USE GASOLINE OR ANY LOW FLASH POINT SOLVENT.
THUS
THE SOLVENT
ATOMIZES
SPRAYING
SEE
EXPLOSIVE.
IT
HIGHLY
RENDERING
Fig.9-13.
op era tor .
B. If the m ac hine m us t be light ed by h a n d , k e e p
face and body away from burner opening.
SPRAYCL EANING
HIGH.PRESSURE
Effective cleaning can be aecomplished
through the use of cold tap water, under highpressure, into whieh a cleaning solution is injec t ed. P r e s s u re a t th e n o z z l e ru n s uptoaround
500 psi (pounds per square inch).
By adjusting the gun, a soft mist, containing
a. detergent solution, is sprayed over the objeet
to be cleaned until thoroughly saturated. Following a short waiting period to allow the deposits
SOLV.ENT
ltoSE
AtRllosE
CONNEC
Fi g.9-13. Low -pressure sprdy gun, H ose i s pl oc ed i n c onl oi ner

of sol venf. (l mpei ol B ross)
CA B L E
RE MO V EB A T T E RYG RO UND
Whenever doing under-hood cleaning, it is a
good idea to remove the battery ground cable.
This prevents possible short circuits that could
be caused by grounding a hot wire or terminal
with the cleaning gun.
'
);'^11i--rSPRAY
ANDSO LUTI O N
W ATER
I NLETHO SE
CO L DS O A K . CL E A NI NG
sproycleoner'
Fig. 9-l 2, High-pressure
(L & A Producrs)
For soak-cleaning, the part or parts are

placed in a basket and lowered into the cleaning
solution. Following a period of fromtentothirty
minutes, the parts are removed and rinsed in
solvent or water. They are then blown dry with
an air gun.
to soften, a fine, hard, fan-shaped stream of

plain water is used to lift off the dirt. For hard
the spray can be adjusted to
to clean corners,
narrow stream.
a high velocity,
t4
CleoningEquipment,Techniques
S olutio ns of va rious k inds f or s pec if ic appli :at ions such as carb ur et or ,

pis t on, et c . , c lean .ng, ar e a va ilab le. M os t of t he s olut ions ar e ex : remely
ca ustic.
KEEP
AW AY FRO M SKIN
iN D EYES]
T he so lutio ns g ener ally c om e in a s pec ia l
aiI or d rum th at inc iudes a par t s bas k et . Th e
solution i.s far enough from the top so that a
: ormal loa d of p arts will not dis plac e enough to
:ause sp illag e. A spec ial s ealing s olut ion f loat s
3n t op to pre ve nt ev apor at ion
and ex c es s iv e
:dor. Whe n p lacing par t s in t he c ont ainer , m ak e
' ert nin th ev :rp n nr nnlet elv qr hm er oed and ar e
:el.ow the spe cia l
s eal s olut ion.
Fig. 9- 14,
: epicts a typical six gallon pail of s oak - c leaning
-. o1ution . Notice th e par t s bas k et .
F i g.9- 15.
that are prolonged or produce much dust, wear

a breathing mask also.
Never sand blast around a repair area as the
abrasive will contaminate parts - with disastrous results.
Fig. 9-16 shows sand blasting a
we1d.
PARTSBASKET
QAKIff
Yopor c l eoni ng unt. U s e onl y r ec om m ended s al v e n t .

( AC R A El ec tr i c )
PAI L CO NTAI NI NG
CLEANI NGSO LUTI O N
$rg--q"t
A B R A S IY E
C ON TA INE R
,i
= ig, 9-14 , S o o k - c l e o n i n gkft. T h is p o r ticu lo r so /u iio n is e sp e ci ol ly d e s i g n e d l o r g u m , va r n ish o n d h o r d co r b o nr e m o vo l.

( Oo k e )
VAPORCLEANING
T he cle an er illus t r at ed in Fig. 9- 15, c lean s
:art s b yh ea ting a Per c hlor et hy lene
s olut in. Th e
: esultan t vap ors re m ov e depos it s on t he par ts
suspend ed in th e m et al bas k et . The s olut ion i s
::onflammab le, Fig . 9- 15.
l;**, ro,,
SANDBLAST CLEANING
Fi g.9-16. S ondbl osti nga w el d to remove s/og.
With the exception of spark plugs, automotive

:arts are rarely
sand blasted. The body shop
and welding shop has occasional use for a sand
'ilaster, for quickly removing paint, rust, weld'no
snnle
(A .L.C . C o .)
SUMMARY
Automotive repair and maintenance work require considerable
u s e o f c l e a n i n g t e c h n i q u e s,
equipment and solutions.
The mechanic wlll do faster and better work
if he is able to selectthebestcleaning
p r o c e d u re
for the job at hand. As with all work, cleaning
must be THOROUGH.
e fn
A sp ecial bla st g un, oper at ing under air pr es sure of a rou nd 5 0 to 200 ps i, dr aws in a m et er ed
(alumi.num oxide,
amount of abrasive material
silica san d, meta l
s hot , et c . ) and pr opels i t
against the object with great force.
Always wear a face shield and in situations
t45
Ao Service ond RePeir
occasionally
Hand brushes and scrapers are
of
removal
for
are fine
useful. Power brushes
hard carbon from some Parts'
are
that many cleaning solutions
Remember
with
handled
be
must
and
both toxic and caustic
care.
is excellentfor
A cold solution parts washer
carbon' Parts
hard
with
coated
not
many parts
solution' brushed'
are soaked in an agitated
rinsed and blown drY'
are hard to
For larger ob3ects or parts that
alkaline
strong
a
a hot tank containing
clean,
will not
parts
Aluminum
sotlrtor,, is desirable.
solutions'
tank
hot
stand full strength
is a fast and efficient
The steam cleaner
good for removing
is
especially
and
cleaning tool
Under-hood and
deposits'
grease
and
heavy dirt
accomplished'
,rrrd""-body cleaning is easily
cleaning handles dirt
High-pressrrt"
"ptty Large
areas may be
and grease very well.
cleaned quicklY.
on
spray cleaning is effective
Low-pressure
somewhatslowerthan
generally
many jobs. It is
or using the high-pressure
steaming
either
washer'
'Ldelyused
solutions are wl
Cold soak-cleaning
and hard carbon. removal'
for gum, varnish,
transmisand automatic
carburetors
PistJns,
A
cleaner'
a
such
in
cleaned
sions are usually
pail
or
the
with
furnished
parts basket can be
drum of solution.
and
has some advantages
cleaning
Vapor
parts'
well on certain
works particularly
is useful for paint' rust
cleaning
blast
Sand
Do not operate a sand
and weld scale removal'
blaster near a rePair area'
Observe
Cleaning solutions canbe dangerous'
all safetY rules.
in the use of' and use' the
Get instructions
in your
pieces of cleaning equipment
various
garages
many
as
visit
shop. If you are a student'
and observe the cleaning techniques
io""itl"
""
ask the shop foreman or service
,r""d. Al*tys
Do not
to visit'
manager first for permission
avoid
and
to"ch equipment
get in"the way, do
"ot
thank
leaving'
Upon
unnece ssary conversation'
well as the manager'
as
concerned
mechanics
the
LOOK''5HARP''
There is no
Obviously mechanics get dirty'
At the end of
need however, of staying- dirty'
of ihe
each working day, a thorough cleansing
hand
hands with one of the many industrial
relative
to
hands
cleaners will restore your
cleanliness.
-etc')
tt".r. your uniforms (coat' coveralls'
shave
daily
haircut'
neat
A
cleaned rlgularly.
andfreshuni formw i l l keepyoul ooki ng' ' shar p. ''
public
must be concerned about its
A garage
-Tn"
and
floors
rritaing, equipment,_
',imag?."
appearpersJnrret must all present a favorable
ance. Do Your Part.
OUIZ - ChoPter9
1l5ot L12
1. C l eani ng often accounts for 1/10 '
time'
of the total rePair
doesnot
2. A shop with a steam cleaner really
equipment'
cleaning
of
type
other
need any
True or False ?
cleaned with
3. Piston ring grooves are best
False?
or
True
the Power wire wheel'
should be
that
4. List ten safety precautions
solutions'
cleaning
observed when using
of the de5. Cleaning means: 1' Getting most
single bit
every
Getting
2'
posits removed.
correct
of foreign material removed' Circle
answer.
effective for
6. A cold solution parts washer is
False?
or
hard carbon removal' True
an airtlght
?. When submerging a part with
place the
always
compartment or hollow'
will
solution
the
that
so
hollow
enrer.
for cleaning
B. The "hot tank" is excellent
False?
or
True
bloeks.
engine
cleaning is
9. The solution used for hot tank
False?
or
both toxic and caustic' True
done in a cLosed
10. Steam cleaning should be
area. True or False?
beforelighting
11. Always start the water pump
True or
cleaner'
steam
a
the burner on
?
False
shut offthe water
12. To stop the steam cleaner'
fromthe gun'
comes
pump and when nowater
False?
or
True
the burner'
about one to four
"trrt-ott
13. Keep the steam nozzle
False?
inches from the work' True or
the
------areas
14. Cover the-and
hood'
before steaming under the
observe when using
15. List six safetylules to
the steam cleaner'
spray cleaning will doagood
16. High-pt""""t"
146
TI
Cleoning Equipment, Techniques
job of removing
dirt and grease. True or
False ?
1n
Gasoline, or any flammable,
low flash point
solvent, if used for cleaning, canverylikely
cause a serious fire or explosion. True or
False ?
L8. It is a good idea to removethe
I
I
cleaning under thc hood, to pre-when

vent accidental short circuits.
19. Carburetors
are best cleaned in a strong
alkaline solution such as that used in some
cold soak-cleaning pails. True or False?
20. Engine parts may be cleaned satisfactorily
with the sand blaster. True or False ?
fl
plynoulh lour speed ovedive fonsmisson. ln flris fonsmission, no plonetary geors ore used to pro'
du." on overdrive eect. Fourth geot, as with the offier free speeds, utilizes convenlionol geors.
.67,3rd-l .00and4h-.73to|.
@ e o r r o tio s fo r th e vo r io u s g e o r sorei Is.3.09toI,2nd-l
147
Engine employing a double overheod comsolf setup.

Note lremispfiericol combuslion chomber, (Fiot)
Chapter10
FRICTION
BEARINGS
DEFINITION
B e arin gs can b e c las s if ied as FRI CTI O N o r
.:.\TIFRICTION.
The friction
bearing contact
irea SLIDES (sliding friction) against the bear(that portion of a shaft designed to
:rg journal
The antifriction
accept the bearing)
surface.
(rolling friction) utilizes ball or roller
:earing
:iements
that ROLL against the contact area
:hus reducing fuut not eliminating)
friction.
Both types
are used in the automobile.
l,Iajor use of the friction bearing is confined to
:he engine while the antifriction
bearing is used
:l such a rea s a s the t r ans m is s ion,
dr iv e line s ,
: : iferentia l,
etc., Fig. 10- 1.
p o u r e d i n t o t h e b e a r i n g a r e a . I t w a s t h e n c ar e fully bored to a specified size, Shims (thin strips

o f s t e e l o r b r a s s ) w e r e o f t e n p l a c e d b e t w e e n th e
two halves so that as the bearing became worn,
t h e y c o u l d b e r e m o v e d t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e c l ea r a n c e . F i g . 1 0 - 2 , s h o w s a t y p i c a l c a s t b a b b i tte d
c o n n e c t i n g r o d b i g e n d b e a r i n g . N o t e t h a t th e
i s b o n d e d ( a c t u a 1 1 y a d h e r e s)
bearng material
to thêrod. See Figs. 10-2, and 10-2-A.
' As engine horsepower
and rpm was inc r e a s e d , t h e c a s t b a b b i t t e d r o d f a i l e d t o p r o v id e
':r.
o
ta,
<.
,.
{J
F RICTION
$.'
<-
-t- 3
zd
E=
Fig. 10 - 1 . T h e l r i c t i o n b e o r in g u se s o slid in g co n to c! wh ile the

o n t i { r i c t i o n b e a r in g u tilize s o r o llin g co n fo ct.
Fi g. I0-2. C osr bo66i rted connecti ngrod.
L A Y E R SH E L D T O G E T H E R
B Y A . T H I NC O A T
OF SOLDER
ALONG
ENGINEFRICTIONBEARINGS
The camshaft, crankshaft and connecting rods
all u se friction -typ e bear ings . Ant if r ic t ionbear ing application in these areas is largelyconfined
h igh s peed engines us ed f or boa t s ,
t o s mall,
chain saws, e tc.
C ASTORSPU NBA B B ITTE DB E A RINGS

rnost automobile engines
For many years
The babbitt
used the cast babbitted bearing.
(tin, antimony, copper) metal was melted and
INATIONS.
Fis.
l 0- 2A.
T y pi c ol
s hi m poc k s l or fhe c onnec l i ng

( C /ev i te Ser v i c e)
beor i ngs .
149
r od ond mo n
rrFFr
-'-\
BAEElrr
ST EEL
ST EEL
I lutltxulr I llur'rxulr
C O PPE RA L L O Y
frffi(ffir
\\N\\)
proper strength and wear c-haracteristics. Rebabbitting was expensive and adjustment by the
use of shims was time consuming and unless
done most carefully, often produced poor fits.
Today, babbitt bearings have been largely replaced by PRECISION INSERT bearings.
BABBIT I
/
-
B A R R TE R
?LATE
B A B B I TT
Fig, 10-5.Someinserfbeoringlining com6inotions.
P RE CI S I O N IN S ER T BE AR IN GS
flash plated over the entire bearing (sides, back,

etc.). The flash tin prevents rusting and oxidization of the steel back and parting surfaces
(edges where the bearing halves come together).
Other bearing lining combinati.ons are shown
in Fig. 10-5.
The precision insert bearing is light, strong,

possesses excelLent bearing characteristics, is
available in a wide iange ofsizes, andis quickly
replaced. It does however, demand care in
handling and installation. These bearings are
made in both one and two-piece tpes.
Most insert bearings utilize a steel (low
earbon) back upon which one or more layers of
other materials such as lead-tin babbitt, copper
alloy and aluminum alioy, are bonded.
A lead-copper alloy can be affixed to the
steel back by a process known as sintering. The
lead and copper are melted togetherandthrough
a process of atomization, this mixture is reduced
to very tiny (.002 ' .005) particles. This powder
is then spread on the steel and by heating, and
rolling under pressure it is compressed into a
relatively solid layer that adheres to the steel,
F ig. 10- 3.
THRUSTFLANGE
Whenever an insert bearing must control
thrust (pressure parallel to the shaft centerline)
forces, a thrust flange is incorporated on one or
both sides of the bearing. The thrust faces are
Iined with bearing material such as used on the
bearing proper. Some thrust flanges are not
part of the bearings, but are inserted as separate
R i ecel Fi g. l 0-6.
IN S E R T MU S T FIT H OU S IN G P R OP E RLY
In order to provide adequate support and
proper heat transfer, as well as accurate alignment, it is essential that the insert contact the
housing or cap properly. Inserts are manufactured to produce proper fit by incorporating
bearing spread and crush in the design.
B E A R IN G S P R E A D
The insert diameter aiross the partingedges
is slightly (.005 - .030) larger than the bore.
This makes it necessary to force or snap the
insert into the bore by applying thumb pressure
to the parting edges. DO NOT FORCE THE
INSERT INTO PLACE BY PRESSING ON THE
CENTER. THIS COULD WARP THE INSERT.
Spread also helps hold the bearing in place
during assembly operations.
Ol der Ford V -B engi nes (1932 - 1948) useda
"floatingtt insert lined with bearing material on
both sides. These inserts utilized a negative
spread to prevent insert parting edges from
hooking against rod bore parting edges. Fig.
10-7, il.lustrates positive bearing spread.Fig.
1O-?A, shows the early Ford "floating" insert
setup.
Fig. l0-3. Five loyer(counting

steel6ocft)insertbearing.
In Fig. 10-3, the steel back is covered with
copper all.oy lining. A barrier plate (to prevenr
the tin in the overplate from enteringthecopper
alloy) about .000075 thick is plated over the
copper alloy. A thin overplate (about .001) of
tin-lead alloy is applied to the barrier plate. A
final coating, extremely thin, of pure tin is
t50
Friction Beorings
B E A RI NG
CRUS H
The insert is
is snapped into
protrude a slight
edge. In effect,
larger than a full
also designed so that after it

p l a c e , t h e p a r t i n g e d g e s w il l
amount above the bore parting
each insert
half is slightly
half circle, Fig. 10-8.
PAR T IN GED GES
Fig. l0-6. Cronkshoft moin beoring with thusl llonges.

(Clevie Service)
Fi g. l 0-8. B eori ng C R U S H . N ofe fhot 6ofh i nsert porti ng edges
(exoggeroted for emphosis) protrude slightly oove tfie cop.
When the bearing

is bolted together,
the
crush area touches first.
As tightening prog r e s s e s , t h e c r u s h a r e a i s f o r c e d b e n e a t h t he
bore parting edges thus creating a tight insert
to bore
through radial pressure,
contact
Fig.10-9.
NEVER FILE BEARING CAPS OR CRUSH.
TO DO SO MAY RUIN THE BEARING.
Fg. l0-7. Posiive beoring spreod. Nofe fol diamete A ocoss
porling surfoce is o trille lorger thon bore diomere B.
INSERTMUST NOT TURN

With the exception of the floating insert
mentioned, inserts are provided with locating
lugs or dowels to prevent the insert from turning. WHEN INSTALLING INSERTS, BE CERTAIN THE LUGS ARE PROPERLY ALIGNED
WITH THE SLOTS IN THE HOUSING. DOWELS
MU S T E N TE R TH E IR H OLE S . S ee Fi s. 10-9 A.
I NS E RTA NDHO US I NG
B O REMUS T
B E S MO O T H
A NDCL E A N
The housing bore and insert back and parting
surfaces, must be free of nicks, burrs or
foreign material. If the insert is prevented
from making perfect contact, pressure spots,
misalignment and overheating will result. ALWAYS CAREFULLY
CHECK THE HOUSING
BORE AND INSERT BACK TO MAKE CERTAIN
THEY ARE SMOOTH AND CLEAN. DONOTOIL
THESE SURFACES.
,
F,g" I0-7A. This eorly Ford Y-8 connecting rod beoring u i lized
o negolive bearing spreod.
t5l
HOUSING
BOREHALVESMUSTBE ALIGNED
sert
still
Even though bore and insert

are clean, inspread and crush correct, the bearing will
be ruined if the upper and lower (in the
WAYS MARK THE UPPER AND LOWER HALVES

(BEFORE
REMOVAL)
PREFERABLY
WITII
NUMBERS SO THAT YOU MAY REPLACE THE
C A P IN ITS OR IGIN A L pOS ITIO N.
See
Fi g.10-10.
CRUSHHEIGHT
EACH HALF
BEARING
PRESSURE
i
Fig' l0-9. llhen od ond cop ore drawn together as in B, the beoring crusfi, os sown in A,
produces rodiol pressure lorcing,izsed tightly against the bore.
LOCATINGLUG
The inserts should always be saved for

study. If they appear usable, mark them on the
back with a fine scribe. If plans include replacement, you may mark them on the bearing
surface.
W R E N C H S ID E P R E S S U R E C A N A LS O
DE S T RO CA
Y P A L I G NME NT
Thick wrenches can create'enough pressure

against the cap to shift it out of alignment' Use
correct size socket and tighten by alternating
from one bolt or nut to the other. WHEN CAp
IS JUST SNUG, TAPLIGHTLYWITIIAPLASTIC
HAMMER TO ASSIST CAP ALIGNMENT. USING
A TORQI]E WRENCH, TORQUE THE FASTENE R S TO TH E R E C OMME N D E D
VALUE,
Fi g. 10-11.
Fig. l0-9A, Locoting lugs ond dowels fteep re insert lrom turniig.
HOUSING
BORESMUSTBE ROUND
case of split bearings) bore halves are not

properly aligned., It is possible to reverse
some bearing caps 0ower halves). This will
shift the upper and lower bores out ofalignment.
WHEN DISASSEMBLING BEARING CAPS, AL-
The heavy stresses

within the engine can
cause the housing bores to elongate. When the
insert is installed in such a bore, it will conform to the bore elongation
thus providing
an
152
COR RE C T
CAP REVERSED
I
C ON N EC T IN GR O D
BEAR IN GIN S E R T
Fig. 10-10. Reversing beoring cops will shir upperond lower bore
fiolves ouf ol alignment.
EXC E55tVE
C LEAR AN C E
Fi g. I0-12. E l ongotedrcd beori ng 6ore. N ote l fi e excessi v e c l eoronce ol l l re top ond bol tom w hi l e zero cl eoonceexi sl s ol the s i des .
The i nsert l i e w oul d 6e sfi ort.
BO W EDC R AN KC ASE
SHIFT ED
CAP
INT ERFERENCE
Fig . t 0 - t l .
T h i c k w o ll so cke f h o s e xe r fe dsid e p r e ssu r etfius sfi i fting cap to one side.
Fi g. t0-13. A ow ed cronkcose w i l l shi { the moi n beori n g 6ores

out o( olignnen+:with thei lue cenle line.
bution or spreader grooves are often incorpoor grooved,

are drilled
rated. Not all inserts
Fig. 10- 14.
If one of the insert halves is drilled and the
other is not, be certain to place the drilled half
its
bore so it may accomplish
in the drilled
in one
egg-shaped bearing surface. Clearance
will be excessive while clearance in
direction
the other will be nonexistent causing extreme
and wear. Such bores must be reeondifriction
t ione d, Fig.
1 0-1 2.
ALL BO R ESM US TB E A LIGNE D

The block, through the effects of heating and
cooling, can become distorted. This will throw
the camshaft and crankshaft bearing bores'out
the
force
will
in turn,
This,
of alignment.
out of alignment thus
and crankshaft
eamshaft
and uneven
loading
heavy bearing
creating
st r e ssing , Fig.1 0- 13.
;i-
:,',{
:.1 . :
D O NO TM IX BE A RINGHA LV E S
Insert halves come in pairs. It is important
that they are not mixed.
ANDHOLES
OIL GROOVES
The insert is often drilled to permit oil to
enter freely; in other cases to allow oilpassage
to other areas. Annular, thumbnail and distri-
Fi g. l 0-14. Typi col i nserl beori ng oi l grooves. Ths portc ul or

moi n beori ng uses seporote thrust l onges'
(C l evi te S evi ce)
ls3
t,
I
ti
,i
purpose. Neglecting to do this can cause immediate bearing

failure.
full
When installing
round inserts,
such as the camshaft bearings,
make sure the oil holes are aligned, Fig. 10-15.
Fortunately,
many split bearings are manufactured with both halves drilled to prevent improper asse mbly.
WHEN INSTALLING INSERT BEARINGS,

ALWAYS FOLLOW THE ENGINE MANUFACTURES RECOMMENDED BEARING CLEARANCES.
The chart in Fig. 10-16, shows AVERAGE
MINIMUM CLEARANCES for engine bearings
of different sizes and types. The chart is intended to indicate average clearances only, and
should not be used when engine manufacturersl
recommendations are available.
CHE CK I NG
B E A RI NG
CL E A RA NCE
INSERT
O I L H OL E
D O W NO. I L B L OCKED
F ig. l 0 - 1 5 . A l i g n i n s e r t o il with o i/ p o sso g e . A- ln se r t o il hol e
lros 6 e e n p l a c e d d o w n l h u s cu ttin g o ll o il su p p ly. 8 - ln se r f oi l hol e
o l i g n e d w i l p o s s og e wo y, Pr o p e r lu b r ico tio n will r e su l.
BEAR ING
OIL CLE A RA NCE
The precision
must have
insert
bearing
enough clearance to allow oil to penetrate and
form
film. The clearance
must
a lubrieating
be sufficient to provide proper flow through the
bearing to aid in cooling and passage to other
critical
areas receiving
their lubrieation
via
a partieular
bearing.
On the other hand, too much clearance will
allow an oil fLow that can lower oil pressure,
eause excessive "throw off" (oil running from
bearings
at
and being thrown off the crankshaft
high veloeity) that in turn will flood the cylinder
walls beyond the capacity of the piston rings to
Excessive
will
control.
clearance
also allow
parts
movement
between
sufficient
enough to
pound the bearing to pieces.
literally
Approximate
clearance
of engine bearings
can be determined by attaching an engine "pt"(air pressure operated oil tank) and
lubricator"
observing
the amount of oil dripping
from the
This is often done after the pan is
bearings.
removed, but before disconnecting any bearings
to give the mechanic
idea of
an approximate
The prelubricator
bearing
is used
condition.
again after engine assembly primarilyto
charge
the lubrieation
system with oil but will at the
same time, provide a final visualcheck onbearing clearances.
- -,-/
One of the most widely used methods of obis the
taining precise clearance measurements
(trade name
plastic
use of a special
wire
Plastigage).
A section is placed either on the
journal or on the i.nsert, the bearing is tightened, then removed. The plastic willbe flattened
and !y using a paper gauge supplied with the
wire, the width of the wire can be accurately
related to clearance in thousandths of an inch,
Fig.10-17.
PAPER
GAU G E
RtcotttilDEo0[. Gtttnil{cts
s8
CA
AP&CP
AI
(Copper (0verplated umtnu
(Hghlead
bearng) Alloy)
SHAFf-SIZT or tin base) Alloy)
.0010
.mm
.0010
2 t%-3 V z
0015
0025
0015
0030
3e/rs-4h
0020
.0030
0020
0037
-2lt
F LAT T EN ED
PLAST IG AG E
.0025
Fig. l0-17. Clrecfti;g beoring cleoronce with Pldstigage. Beoring
os .003 cleoonce.
mininum
diamelral
clearances.
For
NOTI:Chartaboveindicates
permissble
maximum
clearance,
add.001"
Complete instruction on the use of the prelubricator and Plastigage will be given n the
chapter on engine overhaul.
F i g . l 0 - 1 6 . Typ ico l o ve o g e m in im u m cle o r onces for engine eorings. (Federol-Mogul)
154
Friction Beorings
F ig . l0 - 1 8 . T yp ico l c amshoti nserl beori ngs. (C l evi te S ervi ce)
U ND ERSIZE
BEA RINGS
In order to compensate for wear, inserts are
available in a serles of undersizes. If the journal
wear is slight, the recommended clearance can
often be obtained through the use of inserts
.001 or.0 02 u nd er s iz e. The s haf t m us t bec a r e ful1y measured and the largest diameter compared to the original size in order to determine
t he co rrect u nd er s iz e.
Wh en jo urn al wear is s ev er e or whenjour n a l s
are scored or egg shaped, inserts are available
in.01 0, .02 0, .03 0, et c . , under s iz e. The s h a f t i s
ground to one of these undersizes thus bringing
the bearing condition and clearance up to acceptable standards.
(greatly underOccasionally
semifinished
size) inserts a r e bor ed out t o a s pec if ied s i z e .
c i r c l e w i t h e i t h e r a b u t t o r b u t t a n d c l i n c h j o i n t.
The bearing
material
is usually
b a b b i tt,
Fig.10-18.
BUSHINGS
Bushings
are full round bearings,
usually
made of solid bearing bronze (mixture of copp e r , l e a d , t i n , z i n c , e t c . ) . T h e y c a n a l so b e
made by the sintering process. Although some
a p p l i c a t i o n s u s e s t e e l b a c k p r e c i s i o n b u s hi n g s;
i n g e n e r a l p r a c t i c e , t h e b u s h i n g i s p r e s s e d i n to
p l a c e a n d e i t h e r b o r e d , r e a m e d o r h o n e d t o si ze .
Bushings are usually of smaller diameter than
bearings and are used for slower speed applications, Fig.10-19.
quite
The camshaft bearing is constructed
like the connecting rod and crankshaft inserts
except being of one piece design.
The camshaft bearing must be pressed into
p1 a ce . In a dd ition t o t he s t andar d s iz es , t heya r e
to permit line
in large undersi2es
available
boring (attaching a cutter to a long, rigid steel
bar and passing it through the bearings one after
the other thus boring them in line with each
is affixed to steel
is rolled into a full
Ii
{:
fl
fil
f
{'
PRECSIONFULL ROUND
CAMSHAFTBEARINGS
other) after installaticin.

The bearing
material
strio
stock and the stock
h
l
Fi g.10-19. Typi col A ushi ngs' These ore the stee/ boc k ed preci si on fY P e.
r55
Auto Serviceqnd Repqir

ROU ND
'N"H
A
the maximum depth is g0 micro inches, the

measuring device would indieate a finish of 30
micro inches.
SfRAIGHT
AB
r \ \ ll/ /
HA NDL I NG
B E A RI NG S
' HM
AAB
E G GS H A P E
T APERED
SCORE D
Fig. I0-l 9A. Beoring lournols musl be round, straight, ond smooth.
Precision insert bearings are just what the

name implies - they are PRECISION units and
should be handled with utmost care. Do not mix
halves, protect from dirt and physical damage.
Keep fingers from bearing surface as finger
marks can cause fine surface corrosion..
When installing, never force or pound into
place. Make certain bore and insert'is spotless.
Locating lugs (sometimes called tangs) should
be in place. After installing, coatbearing surface
with CLEAN engine oil. Never file an insert.
Always check for proper clearance.
B E A RI NGF A I L URE
A bearing of the correct size and tnpe,
properly fitted to an accurate housing bore and
operating against a smooth, round shaft, will
under normal operating conditions, last in excess of 50,000 road mi l es.
There are however, many things or comtrination of things, that will cause premature
failure. It is important that the mechanic understand the most signifieant ones as well as being
familiar with the visual effects these have onthe
bearing insert. In this way, by close study of the
damaged bearing, the cause witl often be apparent. In any case, whenever an engine is torn
down, bearings should always be cleaned and
carefully inspected.
BEARINGJOURNALS
The section of a shaft that contactsthebearing surface is termed a JOURNAL. It must be
RO UND,
S M O OT H a n d S T R A IG H T. N i cks,
scratches, etc., will ruin the bearing inaterial,
F ig. 10- 19. A .
It is recommended that a surface finish of
16 micro inches or smoother be attained. The
micro inch (one-millionth 0.000001 of an inch)
is used as a measurement of surface finish. To
measure a surface finish in micro inches, tests
are made to determine the depths of allgrooves
or scratches. The RMS (root-mean-square) or
AA (arithmetical average) is used to find the
AVERAGE depth. For practical purposes, this
amounts to about one-third of the maximum
depth. In Fig. 10-20, you will note that the red
line indicates one-third the maximum depth. If
D A N GE R S IGN A LS
Bearing failure is generally preceded by a
lowering of oil pressure due toincreasedclearance. The engine oil consumption will rise from
excessive oi1 throw off and finally as the clearanee increases, the bearings will starttoknock.
DI RT ,T HE NUMB E RO NECA US E
O F B E A RI NGF A I L URE
Field and laboratory
studies, over a period
of many years, have been summed up relative
to the causes of bearing failure and the pereentage of failures
attributed
to each cause.
From the results of these studies, Fig. 10-21,
you will note that DIRT is by far the most frequent cause of failure.
Fig, l0-20. Determining surloce linish rn MICRO ,NCHES.
l5
Friction Beorings
DIR T
of parts. Keep clean parts covered until ready

for installation. Work in a CLEAN area, protected from windborne dust. When not working
on a part, even for a few minutes, throw a cover
over it. Keep hands and tools (especially sockets)
free of dirt when assembling parts. Avoid the
use of the air gun, sandblaster or steam cleaner
near open engines or other units.
The word dirt, as used to describe foreign

particle damage to moving parts, includes sand,
cast iron and steel chips, pieces of bronze,
grinding stone grit, etc. NORMAL engine wear
will produce fi.ne parti.cles worn fromthe various
parts. Normally these are removed via the oil
filtration system. They DO contribute to engine
wear but at present will not be emphasized.
A B NO RM A L
e n g i n e w e a r w i l l produce
LARGE bits of dirt that will greaily accelerate
the wear process.
DIRT FROMEXTERNALSOURCES
Once the engine is assembled and plaeed in
serviee, dirt can still enter. Some of the most
eommon sources are through the air cleaner,
breather
system, fuel system, cooling system,
dip stick and lubrication
system. The vacuum
lines can also be offenders.
Cover carburetors
when the eleaner is removed. Keep air cleaners elean and properly
serviced. CIean and properly service crankcase
br:eather systems. Maintain a good filter in the
fuel system. Check for coolant leaks into the
(ethylene glycol antifreeze
cylinders
forms a
gummy residue in the bearings and rings and
will cause serious problems).
Never lay a dip
stick on a dirty surface. Wipe both stick and
area around stick entry hole before returning.
When changing oil filters,
wipe contact area
thoroughly.
Oil filler
cans and spouts should
be cleaned and stored to prevent contamination.
When removing
drain plugs, clean them thoroughly before
replacing.
Keep ''bulk oil tanks
clean.
Wipe the surface
of oil cans before
puncturing.
Check filler
tube for dirt before
adding oil.
Why such a fuss about dirt? Once again:
DIRT IS THE MECHANICS
WORST ENEMY.
GET IT OUT OF THE UNIT AND USE EVERY
PRECAUTION
TO KEEP
IT OUT. Study the
bearings
s h o w n i n F i g . L 0 - 2 2 . E a c h o ne w a s
damaged by dirt.
DIR T FRO MRE CONDITTONING

Valve grinding, cylinder boring and honing,
shaft grinding, etc., deposit metal andcorundum
(abrasive particles). These MUST be removed
by thorough cleaning. (See chapter on cleaning
processes.) There is always the possibility of
machined particles being present innew engines
also.
DIR TFRO MCLE A NING

A sloppy job of cleaning oftenloosenscarbon
and other deposits but fails to completely remove them. Once the engine is assembled and
put into operation, the washing and cleaning
action of the oil will cause these deposits to
reaeh the bearings. REMEMBER: DO NOT EXPECT OIL FILTERS, EVEN THE FULL-FLOW
TYPE,
TO COMPLETELY
PROTECT THE
BEARINGS. THEY CAN CLOG, THUS FORCING
THE BYPASS OPEN AND CHANNEL LARGE
CHUNKS OF DIRT DIRECTLY INTO THE
BEARINGS. Final rinsing in dirty solvents
often contaminates parts.
DIRT FROMPOORWORKAND
STORAGE
CONDITIONS
The engine may be contaminated by working
under dusty conditions or by careless handling
B E A RI NGL UB RI CA T I OF
NA I L URE
Low oi l pressure caused by w orn bear ings,
faulty pump, clogged pi.ckup screen or an insufficient supply of oi1 will cause rapid failure.
Dry starts (engine overhauled and started
without charging the oil system with oil under
pressure thus allowing the bearings to operate
until pump forces oil throughout the system)
can eause initial damage that will cut down the
life expectaney of the bearings.
Loss of oil through damage to the pan,
C AUSES OF BEARING FAILURE

D i rt....
.,.....42.90%
fn su ffi ci enlLubr icotion
.,.,15.30%
Mi so sse mbfy
.....13.40%
Mi so l i g n nent
.....9.80%
Ove rl o o ding.
,....
8,7O%
Co rro si o n
.......4.507"
5.40%
In d e te rminqfe ond Other Couses. ...,
F i g . 10- 21. Couses of beor ing ailue ond the percenloge of occurence.
t57
l0-22. D i r t r v i n s b e o r i ng s - F AST I A' Dir t e n b e d d e d

plate d b e o r i n g , B - D r t in p r e g n o te d b a b b tt b e o r in g .
wffi
ffi
F g, 10- 248. N i c k ed qnd dented c op bor e w i l l tr ons l er m or k s l o

the 6oc k o the ns er t fhus c ous i ng l oc ol i z ed hi gh pr es s ur e or eos .
OIL HOLE
.r,)a
W:
=' t .
1 0 - 2 3 . A l u mi n vm
- rk pn
nrrmn
b e o ri ngs r uined lr om
( F e der ol- M ogul )
o r I i n e . le a kn g
Iock o Iubr icotion.
sa ske t.
b - - _ _ - ',
o- - r
OIL PA5SA:lrlilri
I M P R ESSIC) \i i l
I N S E RTB I,
f a ilu r e
: . re p l a c e plug af t er d ra i n i n g , w i l l c a u s e s u d d e n
: a rl u re , F ig. 10- 23.
B EARING F A I LURE F R OM
IMPR O P E R A S S E M BL Y
\s alr eady m en ti o n e d , d i rt o n th e i n s e rt
.:ck, i ns uf f ic ient c l e a ra n c e , re v e rs i n g c a p s,
i a ci n g a lower inse rt i n th e u p p e r p o s i ti o n ,
io* ,e d c r ank c as e, s p ru n g s h a ft o r ro d s , e tc .,
',r-1 1ca us e bear ing f a i l u re . F l g s . 1 0 -2 4 A , B , C ,
l, E, F, G , illus t r at e th e re s u l ts .
Fi g. 10-24C . The upper i nsert, w i th oi l hol e, w os i nstol /ed i n fhe

boftom posi ti on, The l ow er i nsert (see ol possogew oyi mpressi o n
on back) 6l ocked the l l ow ol oi l to the beorng.
i
I
F A I L U R EA R E A
rt
F i g.
F g. 1 0 - 2 4 A . B e a r i n gdo m o g elr o m to p e r e dh o u sin g b o r e .
1s8
l 0- 24D ,
A ni s ol i gned c onnec ti ng r od pl oc ed one s i de of thi s

ns e l under P es s ur e. N ofe l oi l ur e o eq.
q
'rq
ilrd
Fi q. l 0-25A . E xcessi ve i dl i ng w i l l produce beari ngs /i ke r/rs
= :. 10-24E , A b o w e d c o n k c oser u in e d h is
se t o f m o in 6 e o in q s.
Fi g. l 0-258. R i di ng (hol di ng {oot on the cl utch ol l the ti me) the

c/ufcl r p/oces the moi n beori ng thrust l l onge underprol ongedl oodi ng. N ofe rui ned thust surfoce. (C l evi te S evi ce)
-'t
i
: :
i 0-24F. A r o u g ho n d s c o r e djo u r n o l co u se dth is b e o r in gto fu il.
DI RTB E H IN DC A P
RUI NE D
T H ISA R E A
F g. 10- 25C .
Anti - l r eez e l eok i ng i nto the pon w i l l c ontom i note

N or e r he gum m y depos i ts on tes e i ns er fs . D epos i fs
c on bui l d up ond el i m i nate oi / c /eor onc e - w i th di s os tr ous r es u/ts .
( F eder ol - M ogul )
beor i ngs .
: :
iA -24G . A p o r r i c l e o l d i r t b e twe e nth e in se r t o n d 6 o r e co u se d

o f iig p r e s s u r e o r e o t h a t d o m o g e dth is b e o r in g .
:PERATIONAL FAULTS
(pulling hard at low engine rpm),
Lugging
( f ir ing
: : t ressive
sp ark
a dvanc e
t oo s oon) ,
r::cnation
or spark knock (too rapid burning of
, . 1 charge cau se d b y a s ec ondar y f lam e f r ont ) ,
(fuel eharge firing before ptug fires

preignition
- usually from overheated plug, glowing carbon
or overheated
thin valve rnargin),
prolonged
slow idling, and excessive rpm will aII place
(and other parts) under a heavy
the bearings
Ioad. This can easily lead to premature failure.
Wh e n b e a r i n g c o n d i t i o n i n d i c a t e s s u c h p r o b l e m s ,
a couple of friendly tips (make certain they are
friendly)
to the owner would be in order. Fios1o-254, B, C.
159
Auto Service qnd R epqr
Bearing failures are most often caused by

dirt. Low oil pressure, excessive oil consumption and knocking, are danger signals that
indicate excessive bearing wear.
Dirt enters the engi.ne from normal. wear,
reconditioning, cleaning, poor work and storage
conditions, through the fue1, cooling, lubrication,
vacuum and ventilation systems.
Inadequate lubrication, improper assembly,
and improper driving habits also cause bearing
failure s..
ADDITIONALINFORMATION
determinng
bearing
clearance,
Checking
prestart lubrication,
bearing size requirements,
etc., will be
and torquing,
bearing installation
in detail in the chapter on engine
discussed
overhaul. Steel and rubber suspension system
to
in the chapters
be covered
will
bushings
which they pertain.
SUMMARY
SUGGESTED
ACTIVITIES
bearing operates with sliding

The friction
to acceptable
Friction
is reduced
friction.
limits by a film of oil.
Most modern bearings are of the precision
insert
type. They can be of the full round or
type. They utilize steel backs that
split-halves
can be faced with lead-tin babbitt, copper alloys
alloy. The bearing haterial is often
or aluminum
Some bearings have several
by
sintering.
affixed
is
End thrust
materials.
of different
layers
on one
thrustflanges
controlled by incorporating
using
in a bearing,
1. Check the clearance
Plastigage.
.
and
failures
a number of bq4|ing
2. Examine
see if you can determine the cause or combinaton of causes.
both main and rod
3. Mike a used crankshaft,
journals.
specificaUsing manufacturerrs
the amount of wear. Would
tions, determine
the shaft accept a standard undersize ? Check
the journals for nicks and scoring.
4. Make a collection of bushings, full-roundand
and see if you
split. Study their construction
the type of beari.ng material.
can determine
or more bearings.
The insert must have intimate (close) contact
with the housing bore. Bearing spread, crush
and cleanliness assure a proper fit.
Ne ve r f ile bear ing ins er t s or c a p s .
Locating lugs should be in the proper slots.
Bearing back and'bore ,must be clean and free
of nicks op foreign material.
Never reverse or mix bearing caps. Tighten
properly
using a torque wrench. Check bores
il
:j
I
WHOTSLAUGHING?
Your favorite suit has just been returned
from the cLeanersin time for "thet' dange.Upon
removing the garment cover, you discover abig
grease stain on the lapel. Are you happy?
engagement. On
Or, you have an important
the way, to look your best, you stop for a quick
haircut. The barber drips hair oildownthefront
of your shirt. Are you happy?
as the
about as "happy"
You are probably
and
customer who picks up his cr atthegarage
grease on the seat, smudges on the
discovers
steering wheel and chipped paint on the fenders.
He may be slow in leaving
fte will probably
thousand well chosen words to
hve several
he leaves),
deliver to the scrvice managerbefore
and you can rst assured he will be a lot longer
for alignment.
Oil grooves
and holes are vithl. They must
inserts.
properly
when instlling
be located
Bearing clearance is critical. An average clearance would be around .002. Follow nanufacturerrs recommendations.
{
must be fitted
Worn or reground journals
Common undersizes
bearings.
with undersize
are : .00 1, . 002, . 003, . 010, . 020, .0 3 0 a n d . 0 4 0 .
Se mifinished ins er t s m ay be bor e d t o a s p e c i fied size.
Be ar ing c lear anc e
tic wire (Plastigage).
is bes t c hee k e d w i t h p l a s -
Camshaft bearings are of the full-roundtype,

usually babbitt lined.
or bronze-faced
Bushings are usuallybronze
steel, and are bored, reaied or honed to size.
Journals must be round, straight and smooth.
used
The micro inch is a unit of measurement
in describing surface finish. A microinchfinish
of 16 or better is required for journals.
Handle bearings carefully.
coming back.
Remember:
Regardless of age or condition,
always treat your customerrs car with real respect. Use fender and seat covers. Never rest
tools on the top, hood, etc. Do not place your
feet on the bumpers nor lean against the body.
Watch door panels when entering or leaving.
When finished,. wipe the steering wheel and check
l 0
Friction Beorings
upper
halves and to use the lower halfinthe
"
bore. True or False ?
14. All bearing inserts must have oil grooves.
True or False ?
w o u ld 'b e
bearing
clearanee
15. An average
around-.
carefully for finger prints. These precautions,

i n good s hops , a re a m a tte r o f s ta n d a rd
p ro c edur es .
OUZ - ChoPterl0
16. When journals are worn or reground,inserts are required.

17. Describe a bushing.
18. Bearing journals must be
bearing.
1. Define the term friction
2. The castbabbitt bearing is-widelyused today.
True or False ?
usuallYhas
3. The precisiona-b ack.
4. Name three popular bearing materials.
flanges are used to control end
5.
and smooth
finish is the newest type of bearing
True or False ?
material.
prints
Finger
on insert bearing surfaces
20.
can and-do cause_.
2t. Snap inserts into place by shoving on the
19. A micro
play in the shaft.

6. Define beafing spread.
i:::'*'
assures a tight contact
?. Bearing
between the insert and housing.
the insert from
B. Locating-prevent
with your_.
,2
23.
turning.
A few nicks in the insert housing bore are
not harmful. True or False ?
1 0 . Reversing or mixing bearing caps will cause
the bores to become misaligned. True or
False ?
11
A bearing cap can be shifted out of alignment by using athick wrench. True or False ?
distorting the
t2. Blocks often-thus
main bearing 1 3. It is always permissible to mix bearing
o
24.
25.
26.
27.
List three danger signals thatcouldindicate

imminent bearing failure.
Oil filters will always screen outallforeign
particles. True or False?
List four
What ean cause poor lubrication?
reasons.
List four assembly mistakes that will ruin
the bearings.
(driving) faults that
List three operational
will cause bearing dainage.
from
external
ways
dirt,
Describe
five
sources,
can enter an engine after it has
been placed in service.
:r
FT
'
ffi ffif
W
n
ffi
ffi ffi
ffi
u&
BEARING
T H R U ST
A set of engine moin 6eorngs. Nofe fust flanges on 6ot sides

cenler moin.
t6l
'
x$$e
ril$
L6HT PAIT:EN N :AES AN'} RLLTFS CAUSD
SY TINE AARASIVS,
LA! ALL PAR:S AI!T} HO|.JSINES'CHECK SEALS
,{NO RflAc Bealf{es lF R$usl"l0R N0lsY.
fi
ll
INOINTATIONI
wrAn {AJoR}
wrAR {$INOR}
HAVY PATfRN ON AC3 ANO OLLERS CAUSE'

AY FI'$EABRASVES.
CLAN AL! PAFTS AND HOUS'NGS.CHCT gAL$
ANO RPLACEgARINCS iF ROU6H OA NO$Y.
SUEFACE OPRSSIOI{$OftI ACE A|\| NOLLEFS

SAUSD AY HAi' PASTiTLS OF FOgICi
iATR IJIL.
CLAN ALL FAfiTS AIiD I{OU9II{G', CHICK SSALS
anto RaLA6e gsaRles lF RcusH oR nrolsY.
tfi$$
$$$$
I.
i"
8nr{ELuNc
DOUBLEEDGI PITINS
IIHI TDGF PTING

FLAKG SURFACEMTAL NSUI"ING FAOM
rATl*{JE. {JSUALLYA! CT EO 8F RACE AND
{}LLE*S.
FIAXING OF SURSACEMTAL RSULfING FROM

fATIGU. USUALLY A1 BOH EDGESOF 8AC
AND ROLLERS.
SURFAC: iNOEN}ATINS IN NACIYAY CII!,SE BY

NOLLRS EIHER UNDR IMFAEf LOADINC OR
VISR.'ION WHILE TH BEARINE IS NOf ROfA}ING.
PLACI BARI}E '' CL.q}ALL RELATSD FARTS
REPLACEST.A*ING '' CLEAN ALL RLATEOPAFTS'
FEPLACTAEANING IF ROUGF OA NOISY.
tl*
***
rti-B
tlltffi
* **4
r'*
qsIs
rg&$*w GGiN
FRETTAGg
,ti$sAusN*1T
:IFLACBAF!NG AND TiA'{S S$RE RACS AR
*FisLY igATe0.
RFPLACI S}14 IF AAR!}G OPqRAIINC SURACE
GIMA*'I}.
"""
**#i.?",tr1"*s5l+X:
:,?i?**
CHECX
REPTAC6EARING.CLEAN RILAf ED PAqTS'
slais ro csrcx FOF PRopER r ll AND LUBRI
cAlroN,
RFLACE S}IAFf IF OAMA6ED.
F g. 1i- A.
Jome fypicol
r ol l er beor i ng ond ox l e s hot w eo Pol ter ns '
162
5MARS
stEARlNe oi MFIAL DUE fo sLlpP^GE. SLIPPAGE

CAN A CAUSED gY POOR FITS. L{JBRICATION,
OVERHATING.OVTRLOAOSOR HANNLIN6 OAM.
AG.
RTPLACEBEARINGS,CLEAN RELATEO PARIS AND
.}IECK FOR PROER FT AND LARTEATIOII'
REPLAC SIAFT IF DAMAGD.
( C hev r ol et)
Chapter11
ANTIFRICTION
BEARINGS
CONSTRUCTION
each other. In the case of separable (can b e

taken apart) bearings, the cage prevents the
loss of the elements.
The antifriction
type bearing utilizes rolling
(ba1ls or rollers)
elements
to reduce friction
:hrough rolling
contact. In most applications,
:he rollers
or balls are placed between inner
The balls or rollers as well as the inner and

outer rings, are hardened and ground to assure
proper contact and clearance.
Needle bearings (long, thin rollers) oftenuse
only an outer shell. In some needle roller applications, the bore and shaft are hardened then
ground and pLaced in direct contact with the
rollers.
T HRE EB A S I CT Y P E S
Bearings
are commonly
divided into three
types: BALL,
ROLLER,
and NEEDLE.
Each
tpe has certain
applications
it serves best.
The ball bearing produces the least amount of
friction but for a given size, does nothave quite
the load carrying ability of the roller. Al1 three
type.s are used in automotive construction. Figs.
1 1 - 1 , 1 1 - 1 A a n d 1 1 - 1 8 i l l u s t r a t e t h e t h r e e t J p e s.
Learn the names of the parts.
!
T
I
I
3
l
L O A DI NG
DE S I G N
{f,Bearings are designed to handle RADIAL,
THRUST, or a combination
of both radial and
thrust
loads. Radial designs handle loads at
right angles to the axis of the bearing. Thrust
designs handle loads parallel
to the axis while
combination
designs
handle loads from
any
direction. Fig. 11-2, shows the loading designs.
V A RI A T I O NS
F i' g. 11 - 1 . T y p i c o l b o l l b e o r in g co n str u ctio n . No te h o w th e coge

keeps 6olls even/y spoced. fNce)
There are many variations of thethreebasic

tpes. Each different design attempts f.o meet a
specific demand. The installation
may call-for
light or heavy loads, high or low speeds, radial,
thrust
or a combination
loading.
By understanding the proble.m involved
and the type of
sd outer rings. The rolling elements are

separated by a cage or separator generally
rade of steel by stamping. The cage prevents
te elements from bunching and sliding against
t3
C - C ombi noti on
Fi'rodal
g. 11-2. Loodngdesi gns. A -R odi ol ' B 'Thrust'
o l ood'
ondffi rusl . A rrow s i n col or i ndi cote di rec'ion
e
lJ
F
UI
-l *'ointsO.D .C OR N E R
= ul=
6
u
6
F
3
R OLLER
lt
E
fnr,**,,o
1r
'\L- BOR E
CORNER
LO AD
OU TSDI E
D IA ME TE R
ER5
o
F
u
o
SE PA R A TO R
l!
li_
b e a r ing utl i zes the

F o . l l ' l A . R o lle r 6 e o r in g ' T h s p o r tcu lo r
(S K FJ
t o p e r e dr o l le r d e sg n ' T h e o u te r in g is se p o r ate
I-
RETAI
LIP
ro.t
lo rodiollood onlv
F i s ' 1t-3. Stroightroller beorng'Designed
(AFBMA)
SPHER IC AL
R O LLER
LENG TH- {
OU TS ID E
ROLLE
th e rol l ers operol e

F i o , l l - 1 8 . Ne e d fe 6 e o r in g' ln th is b e o r n g
ond
' " r t t i , r t r ' r " . r i "t
t "ll .o n n d i' "t' co n lo ci wilh o hodened
M fr s ' A ssn' A FB MA )
Be
o
r
n
g
(
An
liF
clio
n
o r o u n ds h o l t su r fo ce '
Fis'
164
l 1- 4,
Spher c ol r ol l er beor i ng' N ofe " 6o el "
(SKF)
s h o p e o ( ro l l e rs
i --l
li ll
ll
Antifriction Beorings
bearing be st suite d, t he m ec hanic will be gr ea t Iy aide d in a ll b ea ring wor k .

Some of the more common variations are the
st raight ro ller, sph er ic al r oller , t aper ed r oller ,
deep groove ba11, angular contact ba11, multiple
row , se lf-alig nin g,
et c .
OUTERRINGOR
a11ows the roller to follow the taperedraceways

w i t h n o b i n d o r s k i d d l n g . C o m m o n p r a c t i c e i s to
secure the rollers to the cone with asteel cage.
The cone raceway is indented thus forming a
lip that keeps the rollers centered. The cup is
then separable, Figs. 11-14, and 11-5.
INN E R R IN G OR
CUP RACEWA Y
ROLLERS
'il\
CAGEORSEPARATOR
Fig,
l 1 -5 .
fo per ed
r oller beor ing por ls. Once ossem bl ed,
thi s por ti c ul or beor i ng w l l

but the r oller s, cog e ond i nner r ng w i l l be one uni t.
hov e o s epor obl e
STRAIGHTROLLER
DE E PG RO O V E
BALL
T he straig ht
r oller
is des igned t o hand l e
aeavy RADIAL
loa ds . I n m os t des igns it w i l l
: : andle little or n o t hr us t , Fig. 11- 3.
The
HEAVY
Neither
Fig. 1 1-
SPHERICALROLLER
T h e ro llers in t his bear ing ar e of c ur v ed o r
shape. It will handle HEAVY radial
--:herical
lcads an d MODERATE
t hr us t 1oads . I t is s el f = lignin g (to a de gre e) , Fig. 11- 4.
outer r i ng
deep groove ball bearing will handle

radial
and MODERATE
thrust loads.
the inner or orrler rino.iq
" o p a r a b l e,
6.
ANGULARCONTACT BALL
T h i s b a l l b e a r i n g w i l l h a n d l e b o t h H E A VY
thrust and radial loads. The balls are contained
within a cage, and both inner and outer rings are
separable, Fig. 11-7.
TAP.EREDROLLER
MULTIPLE ROWBEARING
T h e tap ere d roll er is t he m os t widely us edof

.he ro lle r b ea ring s as it will c ar r y bot hHEAVY
:hrust and radial loads. The apex of the angles
icrmed
by b oth the r oller s
and r ac eway s , i f
: xt ende d, wou ld me et on a c om m on ax is . Th i s
Bearings can employ two or more rows of

bal1s or rollers
so that heavier
l o a d s , b o th
r:dil
erd ihrnsf
onn lre c:rried
T h e v c a n a l so
be designed to provide for thrust loads inBOTH
directions, Fig. 11-8.
165
VY RADIALLOAD
MODER AT E
TO
LIGHT
THRUST
LOAD
THRUSTDIRECTION
will note that several of the bearings
ONE direction on1-y'
shown will sustain thrust in
would force the
Thrust in the opposite direction
bearings'
more
apart. By using two or
rings
in either
thrust
facing in opposite directions,
1
1
9
'
F
i
g
'
direciion can be handled,
You
T H R U s T F O R C ES
BEAR IN GT OG ET H ER
DEEP GROOVES
OR RACEI{AYS
T H R U STF O R C ES
BEAR IN GAPAR T
Nole the use of s eol s on

F i g . 1 1 ' 6 - D e e P g r o o ve boll beor ng,
6of sdes.
BEAR IN GSF AC IN G IN O PPO s IT E
D IR EC T ION S.T H R U STC ON T R OLLED I
THRUST
LOAD
ER RING
di ec l i on
l hust i n
Fi q, 1l -9. B y usi ng l w o beari ngs'
.ei the.r
.onotted. A row s i ndi col e l hrusf di recton'
-to,o*tnr*
--t'/Rlno
CASE
b e a r in g ' T h is typ e i s often used

F i q . 1 1 - 7 . A n g u lo r co n to ct b o ll
o s co r lr o n t wh e e l b e o r in g s'
LUBRICA
PASSAGE
OUTER
RING
OR C U P
INN ER
RIN G
OR
CON E
thrus! beori ng'

Fi g. l 1'9A . Typi col l opered rol l er
OR
A R AT OR
T HRUS TB E A RI NG
shown in Fig'
The bearing
forces
THRUST
signed to handle
fH RU S T
D IRE C T ION
1 1 - 9A'
only'
is
de-
SELF.AL IGNINGBEARINGS
is apossibiliWhen, during operation, there
of perdesirability'
a
ty, or in some instances,
a
misalignment'
shaft
or
either housing
ittirrg
RADIALLOAD
b e o r in g ' T he oul er ri ng i s
F i g ' 1 l - 8 . D ou b le r o w, to p e r e d r o lle r
se
p o r o te ' ( Ti mken)
o
r
e
r
in
g
s
in
n
e
r
o n e p i e ce , th e
166
N O SEALS
self-aligning
bearing is used. This bearing will
'11ow a degree of tilt without distortingthebear:ng elements. Both internal
and external selfaligning bearings are shown in Fig. 11-10.
OUTER RING
F i g. l IJ l .
IN T ERN A L
Beor i ng s eo/ c ons l r uc l i on
EXTERNAL
F ig. lI - 1 0 . l n t e , r n a o
l n d exle r n o l se l- o lig n in g b e o r in g s.No fe how
* e s o f i i s l e e t o t i p . T h e e xfe n o l d e sig n will h a n d le h e ovi er
Joods os the boll hos o wider contoct oreo with the outer rinq.
t s E ARIN G
IDEN T IFICA TION
All bearings are marked with part number,
lsually on the face of the rings, for ease of rel.acement.
If necessary,
replacement
bearing
size can be checked by careful measuring.
BEARINGSEALS
Bearings can be open on both sides or sealed
on one or both. Sealing on one side is often used
:o help confi.ne lubricant and topreventthe
entry
cf dirt. When both sides are sealed, the bearing
:s lubricated
during assembly and no lubricant
can be ad de d in the f ield, Fig. 11- 11.
R E M O VIN G
BEARINGS
Fig. lI-12. Removingdilerentiolpinion shalt beoringwith hydroulic puller. (O.T.C.)

There are some instances, as you will see later,
that require
force on either the free ring or
rolling elements. However, WHENEVER POSSIEXERT
BLE,
THE FORCE
ON THE TIGHT
RING ONLY.
Fig. 11-13, shows both the right and wrong
way of applying pulling force. Note that in A,
puller
plate rests on the free
the supporting
Prior to pullingbearings,
clean the surround:ng area to prevent contamination.
Bearings
are generally best removed with
srechanical or hydraulic pushing or pullingtools,
w hich e xe rt
f or c e ,
a h eav y and STEADY
F ig. 1 1- 12 .
In the absence of such pullers, or in cases
'where their use is impossible
or undesired, a
suitable hammer
in combination with soft steel
drifts,
will handle
sleeves and cup drivers,
many jobs.
a bearing by
Any attempt
to pull or install
exerting
force on the freg (not tight) ring is apt
The ring itself
ro chip the bal1s or rollers.
eould crack and fly apart inadangerousfashion.
PRESB
SED
Fi g. l l -13. P ul l i ng setups. A -V l rongos force i s oppl i ed th rov gh
lree oule ring ond rolling elements. 8-Correct. Force is ffirough
ti ght ri ng onl y.
167
outer ring. In B, the plate supports the inner

ring only, thus avoiding damage to the outer
ring and rolling elements.
WHENINNE RRINGCA NNOTB E GRA S P E D

Occasionally
is
the
bearing
inner
ring
pressed against a shoulder that is as wide or
wider than the ring. In the case of the tapered
roller
bearing, a special segmented (made in
parts) adapter ring ean be used. It applies the
pulling
force to the ends of the rollers
whl1e
forcing them against the cone. This allows the
wit hout
b ea ring
t o be r em ov ed
damage,
Fig . 11 - 1 4.
Another type of puller especially adaptedfor

axle shaft bearing
work,
is pictured in Fig"
11-144.
A split sleeve, with pulling rings, i*q
used. The axle shaft passes up throughasectior:
of tubing. The puller sleeve grasps bothbearing
and tubing. The top section of the tubing is
fastened to a heavy plate onthe bed of the press.
As pressure
is applied to the shaft end, it is
forced through the tube thus pulling the bearing.
Note that the entire bearing
is shrouded or
shieLded thus protecting the operator from flying
parts if the bearing should explode. This puller
will remove both tapered roller and ball bearings, Fig. 11-14A.
WHEN BEARINGCANNOTBE GRASPED

PRESSRAM
PULLERSEG M E N T S
ADAPTORR I N G
1,1
PRES SB E D
ir
li
There
are instances
in which a retaining
plate, dust shield, etc., is so close to, or surrounding,
the bearing that it is impossible
to
g r a s p i t . I n t h e s e c a s e s , i t i s n e c e s s a ryto
grind
away a portion of the inner ring (protect the
shaft with a metal sleeve), cut out the cage ani
remove the elements.
The outer ring can then
be removed
thus exposing the inner ring for
grasping.
Unhardened retaining
rings are sometimes
used to hold bearings in place. They are best
removed by notching with a sharp chisel. This
will loosen them enough to be easily removed,
Fie. 11-15.
l;
F i g . 1 l - 1 4 . P u llin g b e a r in g b y o p p lyin g p r e ssu r e through rol l ers.
The nognilied porlion at lhe lowe rigfit sows how lhe end o( the
r o l l e r i s g r o sp e d b y th e p u lle r se g m e n ts. ( Ti nken)
R ET AIN IN GR IN G
S PL IT
S L EE YE
ST EEL B L O C K
ring by notchingwith o
Fiq. ll-15. Removngbeoring.rctoi.ning
F i g . l l - 1 4 A . Re m o vin g o xle sh o { t b e o r in g with speci ol pul l er.
Inner bearing rings can also be removed by

grinding
partial
or by cutting part way through
torch.
WRAP TIIE
with an acetylene
cutting
168
SHAFT, ON BOTH SIDES OF THE BEARING,

WITH WET CLOTHS TO PREVENT HEATING.
CUT ONLY PART WAY THROUGH. The ring
is then squeezed tightly in a vise and struck
smartly with a hammer where indicated by the
a rr ows in F ig. 1 1 -1 5 A . T h i s w i l l c ra c k th e ri ng
and allow it to be pulled. WEAR SAFETY
GOGGLES \A/HEN STRIKING BEARING PARTS.
Always pull bearings whenever possible.
AVOID GR,INDING AND ESPECIALLY USE OF
THE CUTTING TORCH, IINLESS ABSOLUTELY
NECESSARY.
Fg. II-16. Troy l ul l ol beori ngs bei ng pl oced i n keros ene.
ING. WEAF, SAFETY GOGGLES. KEEP OTHER

PERSONNEL AWAY FROM WORK AREA.
C LE A N IN G B E A R IN GS
F ig. I l - 1 5 A . B e o r i n g in n e r r in g p o r tio lly cu l o n d tfie n sgueezed

in o vise. Srrike with a hommer where indicoted by orrows.
When the bearing is removed, wipe off all

surpl us grease or oi l . S oak i n kerosene or
cleaning solvent. A regular cleaning tank with
tray and solvent hose, is ideal. If none is availabl e a cl ean bucket w i l l suffi ee, Fi g. 11-16.
K EEPBEAR ING
P A RTSTOGE THE R
CAUTION:
When a separable bearing is removed, keep
the parts together.
Under no circumstances
should bearing elements be mixed.
G EN ERALR U LE SFORB E A RINGRE MOV A L

1
2
,
A
Exert force, where possible, onthe tight ring.

Use pullers of the correct size and shape.
Mount puller to exert force in a line parallel
to the b ea ring ax is .
Use unhardened, mild steel drifts and sleeves.
Never strike the outer or free ring.
Use care to avoid damage to the shaft or
housing.
If ne ce ssary t o ham m er a s haf t , us e abr a s s ,
Iead or plastic hammer.
Keep all parts of one bearing together.
WATCH OUT:
PULLING BEARINGS, BOTH WITH PRESSURE OR STRIKING TOOLS, CAN BE A DANGEROUS OPERATION. BEARINGS UNDER SUCH
PRESSURE CAN SHATTER AND SEND PIECES
FLYING OUTWARD WITH LETHAL FORCE"
WHENEVER POSSIBLE, SHIELD TITE BEAR-
NEVER USE GASOLINE OR OTHER VOLATILE FLUIDS FOR CLEANING AS THEY ARE
ROUGH ON HANDS AND WILL'IG}TITE READILY. DO NOT USE CARBON TETRACHLORIDE
AS IT PRODUCES POISONOUS FUMES.
W hi l e some beari ngs are soaki ng,brusheach
in turn with a nylon bristle brush and blow out
the worst of the grease. Continue soaking and
brushing until bearing looks clean. Blow the
bearing out again. If any sign of grease is visible,
soak, brush and blow out once more.
DO NOT SPIN:
NEVER SPIN A BEARING WITH AIR PRESSURE. NOT ONLY WILL IT DAMAGE THE
BEARINGS, IT CAN ALSO BE DANGEROUS.
WHEN THE OUTER RING OF A SEPARABLE
BEARING IS REMOVED, THE ROLLING ELE.
MENTS ARE HELD TO THE CENTER RING
WITH THE CAGE. IF TIIE CAGE ANDROLLERS
ARE SPUN, THE TREMENDOUS CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE GENERATED CAN CAUSE ONE OR
MORE ELEMENTS TO FLY OUTWARD WITH
VIOLENT FORCE.
169
r\
,r,:;,rl
*;3:r,
BEARING
B EARI NG
cle on ,dr y o r , blow beor ingdr y ' Do not o l l o w
F ig.
- ll-17 , Usin g
t o s Pin' ( Tim k en)
b eo r ng
\ \-h en ce rtain t he bear ing is CLEAN, r in s e
of CLtrAN kerosene and blow
:l a container
ir\ ' , Fig. 1 1- 17 .
DEFECTS
to discussing checking procedures, it

Prior
yourself with some of the
familiarize
to
wise
is
that will be
defects
bearing
common
most
cause for rejection. Fig. tl-32.
As is the case with friction bearings, DIRT
one enemy of ball and roller
is the number
pitting and
It will cause scratching,
bearings.
include
defects
common
Other
wear.
rapid
rings,
cracked
overheating,
spalling, brinetling,
c
o
r
r
o de d
a
n
d
s
e
a
l
s
d
a
m
a
g
e
d
c
a
g
e
s
,
broken
areas.
USECLEAN, DRY AIR
SPAL L ING
s y s t em s ar e equip p e d
Nlost a ir comp r es s or
Service them
-,','ith filter
trap.
and moisture
int o a wh i t e
air
of
s
t
r
eam
a
cf t en . Directing
pr
es
ent
'
is
oiI
or
dir
t
lf
clot h will sho w
overloading and norrnal

particles,
Foreign
a n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d c a n l e a d to
over
wear
s p a l l i n g . S p a l l i n g s t a r t s w h e n t i n y a r e a s f r a c t ur e
and flake off. These sma11 flakes are carried
around in the bearing causing more flaking'
Advanced flaklng or spalling will prodr'rce large
D O N OTWASHS E A LE DB E A RINGS
Wh en a be arin g is f ac t or y pac k ed and c o m pletely sea led on bot h s ides , it m us t no t b e
t' ashed . Wip e off t he out s ide r v it h a c lean' d r y
clot h. Wa sh ing will dilut e t he lubr ic ant and l e a d
to early fa ilure .
craters,
Fig.
11-18.
CLEAN WORK AREA IS A MUST

ar e c leaned and dr i e d '
On ce th e b ea r ings
take the m to a CLEAN wor k ar ea. I t is a g o o d
idea to reserve a s ec t ion wher e t his as s em b l y
area will b e fre e of dus t y air , gr inding m a pic t u r e s
chine s, ste am cleaning, et c . Fig' 11- 1?'
this
near
as
y
our
s
Keep
sec
t
ion.
wo
rk
an id ea l
as p ossib le. See Fig. 11- 174'
F i g . 1 1 - 1 8 .B o d l y s p o l I e di n n e rr i n g '
(AFBMA)
BRINELLING
i s t h e t e r m u s e d t o d e s c r i be a
Brinelling
b o th
series of dents or grooves worn in one or
and
r
a
c
e
w
a
y
t
h
e
a
c
r
o
s
s
r
u
n
g
r
o
o
v
e
s
T
h
e
rings.
On ce
i
n
t
e
r
v
a
l
s
'
r
e
g
u
l
a
r
a
t
s
p
a
c
e
d
u
s
u
a
l
l
y
are
starts (often from inadequate lubribrinelling
i r o n o x i d e p o w d er i s
cation) a fine reddish
a r o u nd ' i t
As the powder is carried
formed.
1
1
1
B
A
' shows a
F
i
g
.
increases the wear rate.
s
h
e
l
l
.
badly brinelled outer
OVERHEATING
down the physical
will break
Overheatlng
failure'
oroperties of the bearing and cause rapid
F g . 1 l -1 7 A. ld e a l b e o r in g wor r ( oleo.
( SKF )
170
CRACKEDRINGS
One or both rings may be cracked. Improper
removal or assembly techniques and wrongbore
o r s h a f t s l z e a r e c o m m o n c a u s e s , F i g . 1 1 -2 0 .
BR IN E L L
B RO K E NO R DE NT E DCA G E
I m p r o p e r r e m o v a l a n d a s s e m b l y p r o c e du r e s
w i l l o f t e n r e s u l t i n a d e n t e d o r b r o k e n ca g e .
P i e c e s o f d i r t a n d m e t a l c h i p s w i l l a l s o ca u se
cage breakage, Fig. II-21.
Fig. ll-1 8A. B inelledneedlebeor inqs hell_

im pr oper lubr ic at ion, p o o r
-ack o f lu bricatio n,
= djustmen t, e tc., ar e t he pr inc ipal c aus es . T h e
:earin g ring s an d r olling elem ent s whic h h a v e
:een o ve rhe ate d, will hav e a blue or br owni s h :iue disco lora tion ,
Fie. 11- 1g.
F i g.
l l _21. gr o/<en c oge.
DENTED SHIELDS
A s w i t h a b r o k e n c a g e , c a r e l e s s a s s e mb l y
o f t e n p r o d u c e s d e n t e d s h i e l d s . T h i s c o u l d a l so
damage the eage as well as cause binding
and
lubricant loss, Fig. IL-22.
F i g . l l -1 9 .
Ove rheoted beor ing - note disco/o or ion.
Fig. ll-20.
Fi g. l l -22. B odl y dented6eori ng shi el d or seol

(N ew D eporture)
Cr o cke d in n e r tn o .
171
Auto Serviceond RePoir
coRRosloN
(often from the air
The entry of moisture
lubr i c a n t , s t o r a g e
c
ont
am
inat
ed
ho se ), wr ong or
c an p r o d u c e c o r et
c
.
,
v
apor
s
,
n ea r c or r os iv e
remaining
A
bear
in g
bear
ing.
in
t
he
rosion
static (not being rotated) for an extended time,
o ften c or r odes , Fig. t t - 23.
"ji
Fi g. 1l -23A . R ol l er donoge. A 'C orosi on' B -E l ec trc ol pi tti ng

C -P oor l ubri coti on ond di rt' (S l (F)
S NORMAL
SOME LOOSENESS
C OR R OD E D
AREAS
F ig . 1 I - 2 j. Co r r o d e db e o r ing'
A n e w b e a r i n g o f t e n f e e l s r a th e r l o o se sc
d o n o t a s s u m e l o o s e n e s s a s a si g n o f w e a r '
When either raceways or rolling elements are
w o r n e n o u g h t o p r o d u c e l o o s e ne ss, i t w i l l b e
evident by examining the surfaces. One or more
of the conditions mentioned above willbe visible'
BEARINGINSPECTION
n o n s e p a r a b l e b e a r i n g s,
Wh e n i n s p e c t i n g
hand through the center'
one
of
place the fingers
r
o
t a t e t h e o u te r r i n g w i tl
a
n
d
F
i
g
.
1
l
2
4
,
ring,
DIR TW E A R
If the dirt is very fine, it will have a lapping
(removal of surface metal through fine abrasive
action) effect that will leave the rolling elements
and raceways with a dull, matte (nonrefleeting)
produce
will
particles
dirt
Larger
finish.
scra tc hes
and Pit s .
ELECTRICAL PITTING
or generator bearings are
motor
Electric
pitted by the passage of current
sometimes
(from an internal short or from static electricThe minute arcing
ity) through the bearing.
Fig. 11-234,
pit s .
t iny
num er ous
p rod uc es
pitting, dirt,
the effect of electrical
illustrates
corrosion
and poor lubrication
Fg.11-24. H ol di ng beori ng {or i ns pec ton'
on rollers.
17?
-he other, The bearing should revolve smoothly

;-th no catching
(stopping momentarily)
or
: cughness. If e ithe r c ondit ion is pr es ent , r ins e
blow dry again. If the symptoms still per-rd
= :st, disca rd th e be ar ing. Als o c hec k f or s igns
:i overheating and wear on the outer surfaces
:l both rings. A bearing that has been loose in
::re bore, or on the shaft, will have highly
- clished are as sh ow ing.
For separable bearings, carefullyinspect
the
::ceways
a nd rollin g elem ent s . They s hould b e
::solutely
smooth and free ofheat discoloration.
-:-spect EACH ball or roller, as quite often only
:1e or two may be damaged. When satisfied as
,o condition, place the elements together. While
Jrreing them together, rotate the bearing. The
-r?eration should be smooth.
When revolving bearings, do so a number of
rmes, as a single damaged ball or roller may
:ct "catchrr the first few times around. When
:hecking thrust bearngs, place one side on a
.clid surface. Press down on the other with the
:-ee1 of your hand and while maintaining pres..:re, rota te. KEEP HANDS CLEAN, DRY AND
'''{Y
FROM
RAC EW AYS
AND
RO LLI NG
a- E MENTS. Se e Fis . t t - 24,
Fi g. I I -25. B eori ngscl eoned,ol ed

ond pl oced i n protecfi ve contdi ne.
future
rotate
date.
When
toi nsure
coati ng
proper
beari ngs
penetrati on
for
storage,
and coverage,
Fi g.11-26.
P A CK I NG
WI T HG RE A S E
Wh e n a b e a r i n g c a l 1 s f o r g r e a s e ( s p e c i f i c
recommendations
for each type will be given in
the section to which they pertain), use abearing
D ON OTSAVEONEP A RT
If any part, outer or inner ring or rolling
:-ements
are da mag ed, dis c ar d
t he ENTI RE
iearing. Ne ve r re pla c e a par t of a bear ing.
Before
discarding,
write
down the part
:-:lmber. It is a good idea to wire the parts to:ether
and keep for comparison
with the re:Lacemen t be arin g. M ar k as DEFECTI VE.
B EAR ING
L UBR ICA TION
If the bearing will be placed into service at
:nce, it may be packed with the proper grease
rr it may be oiled, depending upon the need.
Cover with a clean cloth until ready to install.
-l it will be stored for a few days, coat with oil
:nd place in a clean box or container.
At any
:ate,
IMMEDIATELY
FOLLOWING
INSPECTION, COAT WITH THE DESIRED LUBRICANT
TO PREVENT
THE FORMATION
OF RUST
>ee Fig. Ll-25.
If the bearing will be stored for an extended
reriod, coat with light grease, wrap in oilproof
_aper and place in a clean box. Be sure to
:dentify the bearings to prevent opening a number
of them when looking for a specific one at some
F i g.
l l - 26.
Beor i ngs gr eos ed ond w r opped l or ex tended s tor oge.
packer. If no packer is available, place a "gob"

of grease (hands clean and dry) on the palm of
one hand. With the other press the edge of the
b e a r i n g i n t o t h e g r e a s e ( n e a r t h e e d g e ) . R e p e at
this until grease flows out the top. Move around
to different
sections until the bearing is fully
packed. Separable rings should be coated also.
See Fig. LL-27.
P RO T E CTL UB RI CA NT S
All grease and oil in the shop should be kept
in clean containers and kepttightlyeovered
when
not in use. When opening, wipe dirt off li.d and
avoid dusty areas. An open can of grease near a
grinder, cutting torch, etc., is anopeninvitation
to disaster.
173
CONTACTAREA
B EARING
WH E E LH U B
TA P E R E D
I
LUBRICA N T
FORCED
II:f! BEARING
F i g . I t ' 2 7 . A b e o r in g r Po cke r fu st o n d e licient'

r is
CHEC KSEA LS
Fi g. 11-28. R emovi ng burrs hom oxl e shol t beori ng oreo w i l h o

l i ne ooth fi l e-
T O E A S EA S S E MB LY
US EL UB RI CA NT
The use of a thin film of oil or micronized
graphite (finely powdered) will ease installation,
prevent corrosion around ring contact area, and
d a te ,
at some future
removal
facilitate
Fig. 1 1-2 9.
If any oil or grease seals are related to the

job a t h an d, ins pec t and if nec es s ar y r ep l a c e a t
be inths time . In s om e ins t anc es s eals m us t
sta lled a fter t he bear ings .
BEAR INGINS TA LLA TION

calls for care and inBearing installation
good
telligent use of tools. Many an otherwise
job h as b ee n r uined by c ar eles s ins t allat i o n '
M AKECER T A INY OUHA V E

B E A RING
TH E C ORRE CT
(but not exact) in
Bearings are often similar
installation'
attempting
Before
size.
and
type
make ce rtain y ou ar e ins t alling t he c or r e c t o n e '
wit h new r epla c e m e n t
c ar ef ul
Be e sp eciall y
b ea ring s. Chec k num ber s and m eas ur em e n t s '
CLEAN BORESAND SHAFTS

an d s h a f t s
hous ing bor es
Cle an b ear ing
etc', with
burrs,
nicks,
any
Remove
thoroughly.
spot)'
flat
a
file
not
(be
do
careful,
file
a fine
Following filing, polish with very fine emery or
is
crocus cloth. On a shaft where the inner ring
aroundthe
(creeping
movement
designed to walk
If
shaft) inspect carefully. Polish if necessary'
are
areas
shaft
press-fit
or
the counterbores
wo rn fro m ring s lippage, do not c ent er p u n c h o r
kn url (cro sshat c h pat t er npr es s ed int ot h e m e t a l )
will
in atte mpt to inc r eas e s iz e. Suc hpr oc edu r e s
o nly re su lt in f ailur e as t he bear ing, und e r l o a d '
will quickly flatten these raised areas' The area
(spraying molten
should be built up by metallzing
to the correct
ground
metal onto shaft) and then
s plin e s ' e t c "
t
hr
eads
,
in
dir
t
size. Wa tch f or
Fie . 11 -28 .
Fi g. tl '29. l Jse l ubri conl o l oci l i ote ossem 6l y '
HE A TA NDCO L DHE L P S
large
assembly jobs, primarily
In difficult
or in
ice
dry
in
ring
bearings, placing the outer
help
and
diameter
the
reduce
a deep freeze will
(NEVER
heated
be
can
rings
Inner
installation.
F.) in clean oil. Use a
275 DEG.
ABOVE
bearings with atorch'
heat
Never
thermometer.
See Fig.
11-294.
POSITIONPROPERLYAND
START SOUARELY
correct installation posiAfter determlning
or fail to put
(do
backwards
press
on
not
tion
must go on
that
etc.,
rings,
snap
any retainers,
first, in place), start the bearing or ring with
the fingers. Attach puller or set up inpress and
IT
lorce bearing into place. MAKE CERTAIN
FULL
THE
TO
AND
GOES ON SQUARELY
whenApp1y pressure
DISTANCE REQUIRED.
puIlin
As
ring'
tight
the
to
ever possible, only
ing, observe safetY Precautions.
174
-5'
S HA F TA NDHO US I NG
B O RE S
MUS TB E T RUE
SIMPLE TOOLSWILL OFTEN SUFFICE

If regular pressing tools are not available,
simple driving tools will handle many jobs in a
satisfactory
manner. Make sure they are clean.
Strike the tight ring on1y. Use soft steel tools.
Brass
tools tend to mushroom
and chip thus
cont amina ting the bear ings .
A s p r u n g s h a f t o r b e n t h o u s i n g w i l l c a u s e t he
bearing to operate in a distorted position, thus
greatly
shortening
its life. For those jobs in
which the bearing failed in a short time, despite
proper installation,
lubrication
and adjustment,
always check shaft and housing for any warpage
or other misalignment.
BEARINGADJUSTMENT
Some bearings require adjustment after inProper
depends on the
adjustment
stallation.
application.
Some require a specific amount of
f r e e p l a y a n d o t h e r s r e q u i r e p r e l o a d i n g ( p l a ci n g
so that when a
under pressure
the bearing
driving force is applied to the parts, they will
As the various
not spring
out of alignment).
a r e d e s c r i b e d t h r o u g h th e
service
operations
will
book, general adjustment recommendations
be given.
Fig. l1 - 2 9 A . H e a l i n g o b e o r in g in o il. Ho o k ke e p s b e o r in g l rom

touching boltom of confoiner.
GENERAL RULES FOR

BEARING INSTALLATION
1 . C l e a n a l l c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s a n d r e m o v e b u rr s,
nicks, etc.
2
Install parts that precede bearing.
Lubricate for easy installation.
I f h e a t i s r e q u i r e d , d o n o t e x c e e d 2 T 5 d e g . tr .
Start bearing squarely.
Align tools so that bearing will be forced
h
nn
qnrraralr
7. For driving tools, use soft steel.

B. When possible,
applying pressure
avoid
through balls or rollers.
9 . I f a v i s e i s n e e d e d , u s e p r o t e c t i v e j a w c o v er s.
tools must have smooth,
square
10. Driving
cut ends.
11. Do not mar shaft or bore surfaces.
12. Use safety precautions.
13. Press on the full distance required.
Fig. 11-30, illustrates
a f e w d o r s a n d d o n r ts
b
e
a
r
i
n
g
a
s
s
e
m
b
l
y
.
regarding
SUMMARY
Bearings
c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e b a si c
R O L L E R , a n d N E E D L E . Th e
types; the BALL,
bearing usually consists of an
ball and roller
inner and outer ring with the rolling elements
p l a c e d b e t w e e n t h e m a n d p o s i t i o n e d w i t h a ca g e
The needle bearing can use an
or separator.
R, iS.ll - 3 0 .
B e o r i n g i n sto llo tio n Iin r s. A- Do n o l str ike o eori ng

* it h o h a m m e r .B - D o n o l u se wid e p u n c e so n b e o r in g s. C- Doappl y
rc e l o t i g h t r i n g ( l ) a n d h o ve cle o o n ce ( 2 ) h r sh o f . D-U se
ariv er w i t h s m o o l h ,s g u o r e cu f e n d s th o sr r ike tig h t r in g , E- C l eon
'eor n g r i n g r e c e s s ( 5 ) a nd lo r ce r in g to fu ll d e p lh . F - Blo ck p loced
ffi open pipe driver ollows driving force to be centralized. Use
p r o t e c t i v e v ise jo w co ve s ( 6 ) . ( AF BM A)
t75
placed in direct contact

outer shell, or can be
and shaft'
hardened and ground bore
*irt
either
c ar r y
"
t
o
ar e des igned
Bea ring s
loads'
combination
or
thrrist, radial
and tapered roller'
"ttJghi
spherical
The straight,
contact ball' and
the deep groove bal1, angular
are the common
of both types'
"it-.rii"I"g
variations.
are marked with part number'
Bearings
or both
are often sealed on one
Bearings
sides'
onboth
sealed
sides. Uerr-er wash bearings
striking
or
puller
mechanical
Hydraulic,
bearings' All must
tools can be used to remove
and
hydraulic
be used with care' If available'
mechanical pullers are recommended'
ring
possible'bythe
PuIl bearings, whenever
for
available
are
Speeial tools
that is tight.
balls
the
pressureby-exerting
p"irt"e
lhr?ue:
not mar
Avoid the use of heat' Do
toir""".
it
removed'
is
Whenbearing
bore or shaft surfaces'
parts together'
if separable, keep a1l
Blow dry' rinse
kerosene'
in
Clean bearings
dry again' Do not
in fresh kerosene and blow
be clean and dry'
spin the bearing. Air should
If
bearing'
inspect
in a clean area'
Working
once'
at
grease
with
satisfac-tory, oil or pack
Rejected
to install'
Keep covered until ready
with
comparison
size
for
bearings may be kept
but MARK them as REJECTS'
replaclments
cor'S"t"t"ted,
spalled' brinelled'
pitted,
plus
bearings'
roded, cracked, and overheated
shields
dented
or
with damaged cages
it.""
Never replace onepartof
MUST be REJECfBD.
a
- bearing.
not in use'
lubricants covered when
f.ep"atl
with
lubing
is handy for
packer
A bearing
gre ase.
or oil seals' Clean
Replace defective grease
any
and install
burrs
bore and shaft, remove
bearing'
parts that must Precede
.
L ub rica t ebear ings eat ar ea' pos it ionbea r i n g

press' or drive
and start Uyttana' PulI'
correctly
square at all
fulIy into pi"ce kt"ping
bearing
or bore' Installation
times. Do.not aamage shaft
In difficult
clean'
be sploltessty
must
tools
(carefully
heat
of both
assembly jobs, th use
installation'
ease
controlld) and cold will
bearing'
If necessary, carefully adjust
l.secure an um ber of dam agedballandr olle r
one and
Clean and inspect each
bearingsto find
Try
identify the cause of rejection'
defect'
typlcat
one good example of each
properly' inspect
Remove a bearing' clean
the bearing
Install
grease'
and pack with
recommendations'
followng all
exact
as closely as possible' the
3. "t""*irr",
bearings
of ba1l, roller and needle
;;;;"t
in ALL
a specific car' Count them
1.,
t""A
rear
line'
drive
areas, clutch, transmission'
and
motors
pumps'
end, wheels, steering,
other accessori es.
HONESTY!
feel (with
Unfortunately, many car owners
service
garages'
justification in some cases) that
really
not
are
etc"
station repair centers,ttpadt'
time'
mechanics
honest, that they often
perform
and
installed'
charge for parts not
that were
(or claim to have performed) repairs
unnecessary.
things dohappen
There is no doubt that these
of COMPLETE
occasionally. The importance
th" mech-anic and
HONESTY on the p"tt of
Customer
cannot be tveremphasized'
;;;;e",
rnake or
can
they
that
relations are vital in
an EXACT
give
ALWAYS
break a business'
ONLY REQUIRED
record of labor, perform
some essential re(if
encounter
you
repairs
with
covlred in an estimate' consult
p"i"
charge
".,
before proceeding). -1"u
it
"lr"to-er
"
ACTUALLY INSTALLED'
parts
for
OUI,V
good business
If this basic foundation of
folscrupulously
is
(trrJ gooa living) practice
of
trust
and
respect
the
lowed, you wiII earn
no
is
that there
your customers. Remember
than a SATISFIED
effective
more
advertisement
customer.
OUIZ - ChoPterll
bearings are used
and
in automotive construction'
designs'
2. Name three bearing load
bearings'
3. List three tryes of roller
will handle
bearing
ball
4. The deep groove
False?
or
True
HEAVY thrust loads.
by the selfis offered
advantage
5. What
aligning bearing?
a bearing sealed onboth sides'
A Naver
pullers
or mechanical
are hydraulic
Z. Wty
for
tools
to striking
superior
generally
bearing work?
foree to the free ring'
B. Always apply pulling
True or False ?
it is persome circumstances'
9. Under
I
176
10.
11.
12.
1 3.
14.
15.
16.
17.
missible to apply pulling pressure through

the rolling elements. True or False ?
Bearings, under pulling pressure, canliterally explode. True or False?
When heat must be applied toabearingring,
it should not exceed_deg.
F.
Name two safety devices used when pulling
bearings.
I f a bear ing i s s ta rte d i n a ttc o c k e d " posi tion, it will line up under pressure. True
or F als e ?
AU pulling tools (striking type) should be of
soft steel. True or False ?
In that bearings are hardened, a little fine
dirt will not hurt them. True or False ?
I t is per m iss i b l e to mi x b e a ri n g p a rts i ft hey
are in good shape. True or False ?
B ear ings a re b e s t c l e a n e d i n
or
to
List 10 general rules regarding bearing installation

and removal.
30. Write down the numbers of the bearings
illustrated
in Fig.11-31.
O p p o s i t e e a ch
number,
write
the letter
of the correct
name.
Some of the following
names
are
wrong:
A. Single row, deep groove ball.
B. SeIf-aligning thrust.
C. Single row, tapered roller.
D. Angular contact ball.
E. SeIf-aligning ball.
F. Self-aligning
roller
G. Spherical roller.
H. Double row, deep groove ball.
I . Ball thrust.
J. Straight roller.
K. Needle.
18. When blowing dry, never_a

bearing.
19. If you could only use one word to describe
a proper bearing work area, that one word
would be
20. List six common bearing defects.
21. A bearing showing some looseness should
always be rejected. True or False ?
22. AI bearings before inspecting. True or
F als e ?
23. It is important, on a separable beari.ng, to
inspect EVERY batl or roller. True or
FaIse ?
24. When bearings wilt be storedfor sometime,
they should be coated with_.
25. Always keep bearings_until
ready
t o us e.
26. Immediately following inspection, bearings
should be--.
2?. Keep fingers away from_elements
n l
28. Before
instalting
and wear.
and -for
a bearing,
inspect
both
nicks, burrs,
Fi g. l l -31, N ome tese beori ngs. (S r(F)
177
Auto Service ond Repqir
* -+ff i
S T E PWT A R
W EAR
wtK%
*,'
tfl
INDTilTATIONS
FRfTTlf.lC
ll5AllGNneENT
S TA N D IS C OIOR A fION
T R A C K T I N N T R R A {T
HrAl $r5e* l*ReTi{}r"
ffi;
*8thCtt,l.{;
TAIIGU SPAIIING
TTCHIN6
F ig . ll - 3 2 , So me commonrol l er beori ng defecfs. B eori ngs show i ng
th e se s9ns musf 6e di scorded. (C odi l l oc)
178
SMTAR;
ll
ri
i;:
l"
Chapter12
REMOVAL
ENGINE
R EM O VA LP ROCE DURE
GEN ER AL
in engine reThere are many variations
body
clearance,
and
Frame
=roval procedures.
removing
of
possibility
:ccessory
equipment,
:ransmission
attached to engine, etc., must be
shop
for each job. Manufacturersr
:onsidered
speeific
anuals
will be helpful in determining
=teps for specific engines.
of engines are pulled upThe vast majority
Different
rard
out of the engine compart'ment.
when the engine must be
is required
rocedure
: e moved fro m b elo w, Fig. 12- 1.
al1or the removal of the
Some installations
to
the engine while others
:ransmission
attached
:equire
it to be separated and the engine pulLed
Fig. l2-I.
by itself.
Mecfionic removing engine lrom beneofh cor' Nofe fhe

hydrou Ii c exfension iocft .
(WeoverJ
SUPPORTTRANSMISSION
SC R IBEAR OU N D
T H ESE ED GES
If the engine alone is to be pulled, be certain

:: provide proper support for the transmission.
.he drive plate (provides drive from the crankshaJt to the torque converter) will not support a
is not properly
laad and if the transmission
Serious damage can be done. An
s:pported.
cross
=djustable
stand or a special frame
support maY be used.
-ember
IKIAKEROOM
pads. If the
Cover fenders with protective
rood hinge attaching point is adjustable, scribe
aound the hinge with a sharp pointed tool. The
lines will speed up hood alignment when
'cribe
replacing , Fig. 1 2-1 A.
lift off hood and
hinge fasteners,
Remove
area. Place
PROTECTED
in
a
upright
-ore
f=.steners
back so they will not be lost.
Drain the cooling system and remove hose
core. Handle radiator core cares:d radiator
51ly and protect during storage.
Remove the battery and battery
cables.
Fi g. l 2-1 A . S cri bi ng oroundthe edges of the hood hi nge ottochi ng

p/ole will moke hood alignment easy during reossem6ly'
(Chevrol et)
WRI NG ,
A L L A T T A CHE D
DI S CO NNE CT
ANDCONTROLS
TUBING,HOSES
and
lead, starter
coil primary
Disconnect
wires, oil pressure and temperature
generator
wires,
engine ground strap and any
indicator
179
other accessory wires. As the wires are removed, they should be marked with masking tape
for correct installation, Fig. t2-2'
Disconnect gas tanktofuelpump line, vacuum
lines, oil pressure gauge line (if used) and any
other line attached to the engine.
Remove the air cleaner and cover carburetor
with a plastic bag.
linkage and transDisconnect carburetor
(throttle
valve) rod where used'
mission T.V.
pipe
at exhaustmanifold'
Diseonnect exhaust
transmis s ion c onand
linkage
Di sc onnect clutch
be pulled with
will
(if
transmission
trol rods
engine).
Disconnect speedometer cable to transmission connection. Drairi engine and transmission. Remove oil filter. On automatictransmi.ssion, remove fluid cooler lines' Tape lines
to prevent entry of drt. Disconneet propeller
shaft and wire out of the waY.
Where used, remove transmission parking
brake controls.
Remove any exhaust pipe, fuel or brake line
support brackets attached to engine or transmission.
Remove the starter and alternator if necesto
sary. Power steering pump may be moved
be
must
one side on some models, on others it
removed.
Check to make certain all necessary items
have been removed.
A VOIDPAR TDA MA GE
\ft-renpulling tubing, hose, etc', back out of
the way, be careful not to kink or damage them
in any way. Cover the ends of hose and tubing
with tape to prevent the entry of dirt'
R EPLAC EFAS TE NE RS
It is good practice, once a wire, controlrod'
etc,, has been removed, to put the fasteners
baek into place. This will speed up reassembly
placing of fasteners'
and avoid improper
A TTAC HLIFT INGDE V ICE

Attach the puLler cable, strap or bar to a
suitable spot. Eyebolts may be used or head
cap screws may be removed, placed throughthe
prrit"" brackets and reinstalled' Some engines
have specific attachment points' Consult manual'
Regardless of the attachment point' make
certain that the eyebolt, cap screw, bolt, etc"
Fig. l2-2, Morking wires wt tope will locilitote installotion'
H OISTH O O K
EYE BO LT .
bolt
Fig. l2-3. The puller losfener nusl hove omple threa' Eye
dstonce into fe hole ond will very likely
in'A thteods o
".ry "hort
os in B'
,:ip out unde, pullng pressu,e. By using o longer eye bolt
omPle threod is ossued'
is
threaded
into
the
hole
for
a distance
of at
least one and one-half times its diameter' This

See
w i l l assure proper hol di ng strength'
Fi g. 12-3.
P UL L E RB RA CK E TMUS TB E
SNUGAGAINSTENGINE
Occasionally the head or heads have been
removed from the block. Never use the head
cap screws or studs toattachthe pullerbrackets
unless they are shimmed to force the strap
against the block. Failure to do this will place
. h"".ty side pull onthefastenerthatcould cause
it to fail. This same principle applies to any
fastener that is too long, Fig. t2-4'
When attaching puller brackets, select fasteners of sufficient strength, threadedintoareas
that will withstand the pressure of lifting'
B A L A NCEP O I NT
S E L E CTP RO P E R
Attach the puller so that the weight of the
will be
engine, or engine and transmission,
dothis
to
FaiLure
balanced at the angle desired.
parts
and
spring
could
that
will cause tipping
Fig.
12-5'
difficult,
make removal
180
Engine Rernovql
PUL L P O I NT M UST N OT SL IP
Make certain that the pull point (point of
attachment on the puller) cannot slip under pres_
sure. Fig. 12-6, shows what can happen when a
chain hook is placed on a plain cable pulling
strap.
The puller s t r ap i n F i g . 1 2 -? , a l l o w s th e p u l l
point to be moved along the length of the cable,
but under pressure the hoist bracket will bind
against the cable thus preventing slippage,
Fi g . l 2- 7.
{
PU LLER ST R AP
POSITI O N LI F T
After the pulling device is firmly attached,
move the lift into a position that will raise the
engine without causing any undesirable side or
fore and aft pressures. Insert the lift hook into
the puller and place a light lifting strain on the
engine. Remove the engine mount bolts.
Fi g. l 2-5. E ngi ne can be l fed i n o l evel posi fi on by orrongi ng

pul l poi nt os i n A . tn B , ti l ti ng ongl e i s ai tered by novi ng pul l
poi nl tow ords {ront ol engi ne. A ny numbero ongl es ore poss;6/e.
H OT STH oO K
SLID IN GU P C ABLE
'
Fig, l2-4. In A, puller ockers (t) ond (2) hove slid up the cop
screws. Wenoist exerts force on the puller coble, puller bocket
(3.) will loce cop screw sidewoys cousing i o break
or 6end os
slrown in B. ln C,6rocket s held against block by o sorf secton
pipe
of
to prcvent cop screw damoge,D illustois o typicol puller 6o. Note odjusfmenf oles.
Fi g. 12-6. E ngi ne w os bei ng l i l red by pl oci ng hoi st hook orou nd

o.pl oi n cobl e pul l er strop. The reor ol the engi ne ti pped dow n ond
tfie oisf /roo/<slid to the on end o the coble. Tie eor ol the
engine is now folling downwod with dongerousfoce. MAKE CERTA IN P U LL P O'N I C A N N OT S L'P .
t8t
SAFETY RULES FOR PULLING
HO lST
BRACKET
ATTACHING
BRACKETS
balance
1. Attach lift strap or bar at correct
point.
thread
Z. Lift strap fasteners must have ample
with
and strap brackets should be in contact
screw
cap
engine - not on the end of a long
or stud.
at all
3. Wateh hands and keep clear of engine
time s.
4. Lower as soon as engine is removed'
5. Do not use a rope as an engine sling'
Bolt it
6. Do not depend on a knot in a chain'
together.
wide
?. If a chain is used as a strap, use heavy'
to
fastener
the
washers under the head of
through
pulling
from
prevent the fastener head
the link.
B. Make sure the pulling point cannot slip'
Th.e lr.ois-t6 o c k e t
Fo. 12-7. Coble tvpe engine pulling slrop'
'"ii""l-,r,
will bind under lifting pressure
hut
od"ro6le
i,
,.,r,
-""""''ri
( Sn o p - Onfo o ls)
o r " v e nl p ' u ll p o in l ch o n g e '
LIFT ENGINE
for
the engne while checking
Start raising
liftingangle'
the
proper clearance. Be careful of
balance angle'
wrong
the
assumes
engine
the
If
either the
change
lower back into position and
of the
location
the
or
pull point on the puller
puller brackets.
i.t forward
As the engine begins to rise' Pull
(when transtransmission
the
free of
until
As lifting promission will be left in place)'
plate (autobe careful that the drive
g"""""",
does not hang up'
atic transmission)
with engine' the
transmission
If removing
steep
relatively
a
unit will often have to assume
order
in
12-8'
Fig'
in
angle, such as that shown
to clear.
continues, give the engine an
As the pulling
This will
motion'
rocking
gentle
occasional
stops
that it is free. If the engine
ascertain
another'
at
moving at one point and continues
Continue
check for an obstruction'
stop d
hands
the
with
wnite guiaing the engine
""i"tbY altering lift Position
and
clear the car'
Raise to a height sufficient to
until just
lower
immediately
Remove engine an
Move to the cleaning area
of the floor.
clear
(if
transmission
Remove
clean.
and steam
repair
in a suitable
attached) and place engine
stand.
S UMMA RY
pulted with
Determine if transmission willbe
remove
engine. Cover fenders, scribe hinge s and
hood.
If
Drain water, remove hose and radiator.
desired, drain engine and transmission.
and conDisconnect aI1 wiring, tubing, hose
to
necessarY,
if
and
engine
attached to
trols
transmission.
LIFTTN G B A R
\)
\|
{i
lr
'
\/
\ ,i:
E N D E RC O V E R S
P R OTE C TIVFE
' Fi't'o.l'-2'8,-
t82
hoi sf' N ote s teep

P ul l i ng an engne w tfi a chai n
cl eoronc e'
provi
de
to
n"t"""oty
o9l
t
ti rnn
EngineRernovol
A
to properly
puller
strap securely
Attach
balance assembly.
PulI engine slowly, checking to make certain
all parts are free. When high enough to clear,
remove and lower. Steam clean and place in a
repair stand.
Be very careful.
t ime s.
Keep clear
5.
of engine at a1l
6.
n
OUIZ - Chopter12
1
2
a
(-).
Engines must always be pulledwith:
attached.
a. Transmission
removed.
b. Transmission
c. Varies - sometimes attached, sometimes
8.
removed.
hood hinges beIf adjustabl, -oround
fore removal.
always-fastenWhenever practical,
ers after part is removed.
Tronsverse
cross-sectiono/
9.
10.
view ol an overheod comshah,
wire ends after removal to facilitate reassembLy.

Engine angle duringlifting
shouldbe (-).
a. Level.
b. Back tipped down.
c. Front tipped down.
d. Depends on job at hand.
As soon as the engine will clear the car,
and
will help to deA gentle_motion
termine if engine is clear during pulling.
shouldbe attached
Lift strap or barbrackets
to: (_).
a. Head bolts.
b. Intake manifol.d.
c. Exhaust manifold.
d. Depends on situation.
When pulling tubing free of e n g i n e , b e ca r e ful to avoid
List seven safety rules for engine pulling.
6-cylinder,
t93
uel
injected gos engine.
(Mercedes'Benz)
Curowoy
view
of a
six
cylinder
engine in which
( Pl y m outh)
s l onted fo one s i de.
184
the 6/oc/< is
Chapfer13
CYLINDER
HEAD,VALVEAND
VALVETRAINSERVICE
CYLINDER HEAD REMOVAL
&-ooJUsrNG
Never remove a cylinder head until the engine has cooled. Removal while hot will very
Iik ely ea use the head t o war p upon c ooling .
Remove intake and exhaust manifolds (when
req uire d), spa rk plugs , wir es , r oc k er ar m c o v er a nd an y a cces s or y unit s at t ac hed t o t he h e a d .
W - BALL
NUr
SwtvEL
ROCKERARM
REMOVINGROCKERARM ASSEMBLY
PUSH
Remo ve the r oc k er ar m as s em bly by s t a r t ing at o ne en d, and loos ening eac h s uppor t br a c k e t
bolt, one after the other, a couple of turns. Repeat u ntil th e as s em bly is f r ee. I f eac h br a c k e t
bolt is comp lete ly r em ov ed bef or e m ov ingto t h e
next, the last br ac k et c ould be dam aged b y t h e
valve spring pressure
pushing the free portion
of th e sh aft up war d, Fig. 13- 1.
SUPPORTBRACKET CAP SCREWS
Fig. l3-2. Loosenodfusfingnul enoughto ollow rockerormto

swive/sidewoyst6usc/eoringpushrod. (G.M.C.)
In cases where rocker arm shaft support

brackets
are an integral part of the head, the
h e a d m a y b e p u l l e d b e f o r e s t i d i n g t h e ro cke r
shaft out of the brackets.
REMOVEPUSHRODS
F i g . l 3 -1 ,
L o o se n
o cke otm suppott br ocket cop scr ew s ,

o l te the othe , a little ot o tine.
( Plynouth)
R e m o v e a n d p l a c e e a c h p u s h r o d i n a m a r ke d
holder so it can be replacedinthe
o r i g i n a l p o si tion. A holder such as shown in Fig. 13-3, will
suffice.
one
LOOSENCYLINDER HEAD FASTENERS
On engines using ball stud type rocker arms,

loose n e ach b all nut unt il t he r oc k er ar m c a n b e
swive led
sideway s t o c lear t he pus h r o d ,
F ig .13 -2.
U s i n g t h e r e c o m m e n d e d t i g h t e n i n g s e q ue n ce ,
r e v e r s e t h e o r d e r a n d c r a c k ( j u s t b r e a k l o o se )
e a c h h e a d c a p s c r e w . O n c e a I I h a v e b e e n l o o sened, they may be removed. If lengthvaries or if
18s
KEEP VALVES IN ORDER

MA R K SF OR LEFT
A ND RIGHT BANKs
As they are removed, place valves in a rack

s o t h e y m a y b e r e p l a c e d i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l g u i d e s.
U s e a r a c k s i m i l a r t o t h a t s h o w n i n F ig . 1 3 - 3 .
V A L V E ST E L L A S T O RY
'Y::2222
I DIC A T E S
F RON T OF EGINE
F i g ,1 3 -3 ,
P l oce push r ods in o m qr ked holder -
in pr oper or der '
passa cap scre w is dr illed or m ac hinedf or o i l

Fig.
1
3
4
.
loc
at
ion,
t
he
c
or
r
ec
t
ag e, no te
If th e c y linder head is s t uc k , us e pr y b a r s o r a
le ad h amrn er . Be c ar ef ul not t odam age t h e h e a d .
I n s p e c t e a c h v a l v e f o r s i g n s o f b u r n i n g , p i tti n r
Burned or pittec
deposits.
and heavy carbon
s t i c k i n g i n g u i d e svalves can be causedbyvalves
w e a k sp r i n g s,
tappet clearance,
insufficient
c l o g g e d c o o l a n t p a s s a g e , w a r p e d va l ve ste m ,
i m p r o p e r i g n i t i o n o r v a l v e t i m i n g , e t c .,Fi g . 1 3 - 8 .
H e a v y c a r b o n d e p o s i t s , e s p e c i a l l y u n d e r th e
head of the intake valve, indicates worn valve
g u i d e s , d a m a g e d s e a 1 s , w o r n r o c k e r a r m b u sh clogged oil drairings allowing overlubrication,
i
I
.1,
Fi g. l 3-5. R emovn9cyl nder heod' N ote Ii broc k ets .

(G.M.C .)
rl
C Y L I N D E RH E A D
ASSEMBLY
Fg. 13-4. "Crock" cylinderheodcop screwsloose' Removein

the reverseodero tghtening. (Plymouth)
SPL IT KEEP
r1
Avoid ja m m ing any t aper ed objec t be t w e e n h e a d

and block mating surfaces as the slightest nick
or de nt m ay c aus e s er ious dam age' W h e n h e a d i s
loo se , rem ov e, YFig. 13- 5.
R E P A I RS T A N D
PLACE CYLINDER HEAD

IN HOLDINGFIXTURE
l-o llow ing r em ov al, plac e t he c y l i n d e r h e a d
in a suitable repair stand. Compress the valve
sprin gs, r em ov e t he s plit k eeper s , s p r i n g a n d
sp ring ret ainer as s em bly , Fig. 13- 6 .
Fi g. l 3-6. R emovi ng spl l v ol v e k eep e rs .

(C hrysl er)
18
Fig , l3-8 , A b ur nedv olv eindic olespr oblem s .

(A/betson'Sioux)
holes in he ad , rocke r ar r n s haf t oil holes f ac in g
-i-: rvron g d irection , et c . , Fig. 13- 9.
Dis ca rd all b ad ly bur ned, c r ac k ed or war pe d
' . ' alves. Th e g rind ing nec es s ar y t o c leant hem up
' , i.11le ave in su fficie nt v alv e m ar gln, Fig. 13- 94 .
S P LITKEEPERGROOVE
F i q,
l 3- 10.
U s i ng o w i r e w heel , m ounted on o gr nder m ol or , t o

( Bl oc k ond D ec k er )
c l eon c o bon {r om o v ol v e.
To
nrowide
f s t i n i t i a l s e a t i n o . i t i s o f te n
p
r
a
c t i c e t o g r i n d t h e 3 0 d e g . v a lve
recommended
to 29 deg. and the 45 to44 deg. This provides an
interference fit that produces a hairlinecontact
between the valve face and the top of the valve
seat. Some manufacturers
f e e l t h a t d u e t o v a lve
design and material, the valve when heated, will
then form a perfect fit, Fig. 13-11.
l3- 9 , H e o v y c o r b o n de p o sifs u n d e r volve Ir eods indicote ex c e s s o i l c o n s u m p to nth r o u g h volve guides.

( Cle vte )
VALVE T OU C H ESs EAT H ERE
:,1
,;
rf
i
l,
'ft
MARG I N
FACESTI LL PI TT E D
F i g.13- Il .
l nte {er enc e ongl e. }.{ote the ON E deg. di l er e n c e
i n ongl es and how v al v e l ac e c ontoc fs T OP edge of s eof. O n e
m onul oc tu er r ec om m ends o T YIO deg. di l l e enc e on one s pec i f i c
engi ne.
3 i g . 1 3-9 A , T h e o mo u n l ol gr lnding r equir ed to cleon up o volve i n

' r i s c o n d i ti o n w i l l re mo ve the m or qin ond r ender the volve usele s s .
V A L V EG RI NDE R
is shown
valve grinder
A typical
13-12. Study the names of the parts.
CLEAN VALVES THOROUGHLY

U sin g a p owe r wir e wheel, br us h all t r ac es o f
larbon from va lve head and s t em . Following wi r e
: rushin g,
in s olv ent andblow
dr y ,
rin se
irg. 1 3 - 10 .
in Fig.
DRESSSTONES
A valve grinder
will only perform
a job in
direct
relation to the condition of the stones.
(tTued up) TO
THEY
MUST
BE
DRESSED
THE CORRECT
ANGLE AND KEPT IN THAT
d r e s s ed ,
A good stone, properly
CONDITION.
will do better and faster work.
Put the diamond tipped dressing tool into
position,
tighten
securely,
start machine and
GRINDVALVES
Determine
the correct
valve face angle. On
some e ng ine s, bo th int ak e and ex haus t angles a r e
:he sa me, on oth ers , t hey ar e dif f er ent . Com m o n
a.ngles are 3 0 an d 45 deg.
187
CHUCK
cltucK
SWIVE L
NUT
CHUCK
AN6LE
ALIGNME}I
WHE
EL
CARRIAGE
ANGLE
CHUCKSWIVEL
NUT
SADDLE LOCKING
TRAYELLEVER
F g . 13- 12. A typicol
volve gr inding mac hi ne.
toward the diamond.

advance stone SLOWLY
Wh en th e diam ond jus t t ouc hes , t u r n o n t h e
coolant and move the diamond back and forth
across the stone until the stone is smooth, clean
and true. Several VERY FINE cuts may be req uire d. M ov e t he diam ond s 1ow1y , Fi g . 1 3 - 1 3 .
l 3- 14.
F i g.
Setfi ng v ol v e c huc k to the des i re d o n g l e '
P L A CEV A L V EI N CHUCK
Place the valve in the chuck. Various grippin;
r e cd e v i c e s a r e u s e d s o f o l 1 o w m a n u f a c tu r e r r s
Make sure the valve is in th=
ommendations.
)
'{}A
I
DIAMONDTIP
Fi s .
l 3- 15.
l n A, the v ol v e pr otr udes l oo {ar out o l l h e c h u c k o r:

c hotter . In B, the v ol v e depl h i s co rre c l .
will
Fig.
l 3 -1 3 ,
Dr essng
the gr inding
wheel with a di om ond dr es s er .
SETC H UCKA NGLE

Loosen chuck swivel nut and swing chuck to
the proper angle. Adjust the chuck alignlng edge
to the selected angle marking very carefully.
angle setting,
Lock
nut and recheck
swivel
Fig. 1 3- 1 4.
Fi g. l 3-16. A di usti ng vol ve stem depth i n he c huc k .
r88
Cylinder Heod,Volve, Vqlve Trqin Service
chuck far enough so an excessive amount does

not protrude
and cause chatter (valve vibrating
durin g g rind ing ), Fig. 13- 15.
Fi.g. 1 3-1 6, s hows a v alv e being plac edi n t h e
chuck. Close chuck tightly.
A
VALVE F AC E
ffi;l'ffi-,
z>
t
CHECKFORRUNOUT
PARALLE L
Turn on the chuck and watch the valve as it

rotates. If a noticeable amount of runout (wobble)
is pre se nt, sto p t he c huc k , loos enandr epos iti o n
the valve. If excessive runout is stil1 present, a
warped stem is indicated. If warped to the point
that grinding will leave insuffi.cientmargin,
discar d th e valve, F ig. 13- 1?.
zi1
N OT PAR A L L E L
Fi g. l 3-18. l l he chuck i s sel ot the properongl e, the vol v e ac e

ond sl one w i l l be porol l el os i n A ,
ST ON E
MARGIN
WARPEDSTEM
Y\
I
M ARG IN
t_
F i g . I3 -1 7 .
NO M ARGIN
E xce ssi ve volve "wobble"

- A, will couse fh e v ol v e
morgin to 6e removed on one edge, B.
G R INDVAL VEFA CE
Move the chuck saddle until the valve is in
front of (not touching) the stone. Turn on the
machine, engage chuck drive to spin valve, turn
on the coolant and advance the wheel toward the
valve. The valve face and stone shouldbeparal1 el if y ou hav e s e l e c te d th e p ro p e r
a n gl e,
Fi g. 13- 18.
If parallel, slowly aovance the stone (make
sure valve is turning) until it just starts to cut.
Move the valve face back and forth across the
stone. NEVER RUN THE VALVE OFF TIIE
ST O NE , F ig. 13 -1 9 .
If your machine has a micrometer feed, set
it to zero at the point where the stone just starts
:o cut. Advance the stone against the valve
around .001 to .002 at a time. Watch the valve
face and as soon as all dark spots disappear,
center the valve face n the stone, allow the
Fig. I3-19. llhengrinding,movelhe vo/ve6ockond lorth keeping

the volve foce in ull confoctwilfi fe sfone.
stone to run a few seconds without advancing it,

then carefullyback
the stone awayfrom the valve.
Disengage the chuck drive
and rotate the
valve by hand while examining closely for any
remaining pits, burns, etc. The valve face should
be bright, smooth and free of ALL defects. The
margin should be ample 132 in. or more). If
the valve is not cleaned up, repeat the process.
When finished, inspect the micrometer
feed dial
and mark down the amount of material removed
from the valve. Return the valve to the holder.
Using the same procedure, grindthe remaining valves. Do not forget to ehange angles if intake and exhaust are different.
WHEN FIRST USING A VALVE
GRINDER,
PROCEED
MANY BEGINNERS
INSLOWLY.
THE
FEED
ADVERTENTLY
TURN
STONE
WHEEL THE WRONG WAY OR TOO FAST AND
JAM IT AGAINST THE VALVE. IF THE CUT IS
TOO HEAVY, DO NOT PANIC AND
SUDDENLY
C R A N K T H E WI E E L
- Y O U M A Y T U R N I T T HE
OFF AND
WRONG WAY. SHUT THE MACHINE
WHEN STOPPED MOVE STONE AWAY.
189
Auto Servceond Repqr
in Fig. 13- 20, is gr indi n g a

The op era tor
Notice
how the stone feed wheel is
face.
valve
grasped. Even though it has a crank knob, once
the stone is close to the valve, holdit as shown.
smoother and rnore
This method will permit
accu rate a dju stm ent s .
SADDL E
CHUCK
Fi g. l 3-21. Trui ng the vol ve sfem end.

(V on N orman)
ST
If
move
F i g . l 3 -2 0 . Gr in d in g th e vo lve ( o ce .
( Al6 e tso n - Sio u x,)
the
machi ne
enough
to
has
no mi crometer
produce
smooth
feed ,
square
reend,
Fig.13-21.
When using a plain V-block, in which the valve
must be hand held, make certain the block is
close to the wheel to prevent the valve stem
from
and pulling the valve between
catching
block and wheel. Position the valve stem in the
block, hold down firmly and advance stem against
wheel, Fig.13-22.
GRINDVALVE STEM END

Th e valve stem end s houldalway s bet r ued u p
and smoothed by grinding. If you have marked
down the amount removed from each valve face,
it is recommended that you remove a comparable
amount from the stem. This will help in mainHowever,
tappet
taining
original
clearance.
(up
to about
never remove an excessive amount
is
not
t
oodee
p on
har
dening
as
th
e
surfac
e
.010 )
If ground below the hardening,
some valves.
rapid wear will result.
Dress the s ide of t he wheel us ed f or s t e m
grinding. Chuck the valve in the V-blockholder,
and run it in until it just touches the stone. If so
f eed dial t o z e r o .
equ ipp ed , set the m ic r om et er
Back off the valve, start the wheel, turn on the
coolant and advance the stem against the wheel.
Continue
advancing with light cuts until the
that you have remicrometer
dial indicates
moved the same amount as was taken from the
face. As with valve face grinding, direct a good
of coolant on the portion of the valve
stream
being ground.
V BLOC K H OLD ER
F-- t
Fi g. 13-22. K eep V -6l ock cl ose to the gri ndi ng w heel os i n A .
The setup i n B i s dongerous'
t90
Cylinder Heod,Volve, Vqlve Troin Service
C H AM FERVALV ES TE ME ND
If much of the chamfer on the valve stem
: nd has be en rem ov ed t hr ough wear and r e _
iacing, th e ch amfe r m ay be r enewedby gr inding.
?Iace the valve in the V-b1ock, set the holder
at
i5 de g. a nd a dju st s t op t o gr ind about a ll32 i n .
: hamfe r, Figs. 1 B- 23 and 13- 23A.
R E MA IN INGC HAMFER
ORIGINAL CHAMFER
r /32 tN.
NEWCHA^{ F
_l_/
b u r n i n g . V a l v e s t e m w e a r m u s t n o t b e e x c e s si ve
a n d t h e s t e m s h o u l d b e f r e e o f n i c k s , s c r a t c h e s,
e t c . , . t h a t c o u l d c a u s e e v e n t u a l b r e a k a g e o r s t i c k_
ing. Keeper grooves must be undamaged. Valve
stem end must be smooth, squared and lightty
chamfered.
CAUTION:
SOME
VALVES
USE
A
SPECIAL
COATING
SUCH AS NICKELCHROME,
ETC.,
O N T H E F A C E A R E A AN D
ONLY
A LIMITED
AMOUNT
C A N B E REMOVEDI Check manufacturerrs
s p e c i f i c a t i o ns.
Fig. 13-24 illustrates
t w o v a l v e s : o n e i s a c_
ceptable, the other is not.
Tffiffiil'
flliit
taRG|N GooD
z.-/
l i]lfl
|rr]HIU
f'lT--------tn
l l l l i l ,l l l l i l
illlillru
B
I 3 - 2 3 , V o l v e s t e m e n d in A h o s ch o m ( e rwo n ol(. The some

B , o { t e r e n e win g th e ch o m le r ,
sEAL GROOVE
KEEPERGROOVE
ExcEss
EXCESSIYE
lK"'^'
Ll
KEEPEI
KEEPER
G R O OVE
ffi*-..-SlilXi
DAMAGED
,* oor n/
R.oor,
*o"*
Fi g. l 3-24. Y ol ve A i s occeprobl e. V ol ve B i s nor.
WASHAND STORE
Following
the final inspection,
each valve
must be thor oughly
washe d (check keeper
grooves
carefully)
and blown dry. place in a
clean rack and cover until readv to use.
CL E A NCY L I NDE RHE A D
F i g . I 3-2 3 A .
If the cylinder head coolant passages are badIy clogged, give the head an initial cleaning in a
"hot tank." Remove all carbon from the combustion chambers and valve ports. Wire brushes
i n a h a n d d r i l l w i l l d o n i c e l y . C l e a n t h e h e a d to
b l o c k s u r f a c e w i t h a s c r a p e r . B e c a r e f u l n o t to
put scratches in the surface, Fig. 13-25.
Run a spring-type
valve guide cleaner up
and down through
each guide to remove the
carbon, Fig.13-26.
Gri n d i n g o new chom le on the valve stem end.
EACH VALVE MUST PASSINSPECTION

I nspe ct ea ch val v e f ac e. I t m us t be s m ooth
and f ree of a1 l pits, gc r at c hes , bur ns , et c . Ther e
rrust be ample margin
remaining
to prevent
t9l
ports
and guides. Push a clotl:,
chambers,
through all the valve
solvent,
with
moistened
NO foreign materiaguides to make certain
remains. This is very important because if some
check wi'is left in the guide, the stemclearance
not be accurate and when the seat grinding pilc:
is inserted, it will be tipped and throwthe valv:
seat out of ali.gnment.
F i g , l 3 - 2 5 . R e m o vin g co r b o nlr o m cylin d e r h e o d .co mbusti onchombe r s o n d Po r ts. ( Blo ck o n d De cke r )
CHE CKV A L V ES T E MT O
G UI DECL E A RA NCE
When deciding whether or not to use the o1i
about toc
valve guides, you are not'coneerned
(unless
new oversize stemValves
1itt1e clearance
are being installed). Excesive clearance wiloften be present. ihis will promote oil consumFtion, poor seating and possible valve breakage,
Fis.13-28.
F
I
l
..1
VALVE
G U ID E
,#
: .,
;i
HEAD
corbonlrom lhe volveguides'

Fig' l3'26, Removing
Follow the valve guide cleaner with a valve
guide bristle brush to remove all loosened carb on , Fig . 13- 27.
Blow all dust and carbon from the combustion
V A LV EG UI D E
B RI S T LEB RU S H
H A N DD R IL L
LAR GE G AP
ST R I K E SH E R E
Fig. t3-28. Excessivevolveguideweowill cousefroule'

fo r
T w o m e t h o d s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d t o ch e ck
gauge
hole
A
small
excessive stem clearance.
(some valve seat grinder pitots can be usedtool
fitted to the largest valve guide
is carefully
diameter (do not measure exhaust guide counterbores), removed and measured with an outside
The valve stem is then miked at a
micrometer.
wear area, and the difference
corresponding
computed, Fig. 13-29.
method is to drop the valve into
Another
position with the head just free of the seat. It
can be heLd in this position by a special insert
F i g . 1 3 - 2 7. Re m o vin g lo o se n e d co r b o nr o m o vol ve gude'

( Bla ck o n d De cke r /
192
Cylinder Heod,Volve, Volve Troin Service
to determine
the travel
in thousandths.
Re member that the reading will not be the actual
c l e a r a n c e b e c a u s e t h e m e a s u r i n g p o i n t i s a b o ve
the guide. The tipping effect will magnify the
Follow
reading.
the manufaeturerrs
r e co m mendations for maximum
allowable
sh a ke ,
Fig.13-31.
E X CE S S I VCL
E E A RA NCE
Engine design, type of oi1 sea1, amount of
I u b r i c a t i o n , e t c . , a l 1 d e t e r m l n e a c c e p t a b l e cl e a r ance. Follow
manufacturerrs
s p e c i f i c a ti o n s.
Generally,
w h e n t h e a c t u a l c l e a r a n c e e xce e d s
.005 to.006, it is considered excessive.
R e m e m b e r t h a t b o t h t h e g u i d e a n d s t em w e a r
less in the center. Even though a stem-to-guide
clearance at the center is correct,
t h e cl e a r a n c e a t t h e e n d s m a y b e e x c e s s i v e a n d ca u se
tipping, Fig.13-32.
Fig. l3-29. Usingo smollholegaugeto meosurevolve guideinside diomerer._ er{;ct Circl:)

-f
r- l
,'
-or by slipping a piebe of rubber tubing of the
co rrect len gth ov er t he v alv e s t em , Fig. 1 3 - 3 0 .
A dial indicator is then clamped to the head.
The indicator
stem is placed against the valve
margin. Without raising the valve, move it back
and forth against the stem. Watch the indicator
tll
VALVE ST EM
G U ID E
C EN T ER C LEAR ANC EO . K ,
EN D C LEAR AN C E
EXC ESSIVE
(((,
Fis. l 3 -3 0 .
P o si ti o n ing volve pr ior to checking stem lo gui de c l eor ( Chr ysler )

o n ce wi lh o diol indicoto .
F i g.
l 3- 32,
be w i hi n
i:-'\\)
Sten to gui de c /eor onc e neor the end ol he g u i d e mu s t

N ote l hat c or ec ! c l ear onc e i n l he guid e c e n l e r
w l l not pr ev enl ti ppi ng.
/i m i fs .
When an excessive stern to guide clearance

is present, the valve guides (if removable) may
be replaced. When the guides are integral (part
o f t h e h e a d ) , t h e y m a y b e r e a m e d t o o ve r si ze ,
and new valves with oversize
stems installed,
Fig.13-33.
RE P L A CI NG
V A L V EG UDE S
F is. l 3 - 3 1 . C h e ckin g vo lve
The guides may either be driven or pressed

out. The punch should have a pilot section extendi.ng into the guide. The pilot should be a few
thousandths smaller than the guide hole to pre-
stem sho/<e fo dele mine s fem
lo g u id e cleor once.
193
redue to guide hole diameter

vent binding,
duction when using the punch for installation.
The main body of the punch shouldbe a trifle
guide
smaller than the guide so it willfollowthe
through the hole. Contact edge should be smooth
and square with punch centerline.
P ORT
HEAD
VALVE SEAT
Fi g.13-34A , Gui de deprh, i n thi s engi ne, i s m eos ured l rom the
valve spring seof sufoce. (Chevrolet)
Place the punch in the guide, and whileholding the punch in firm contact (guides are brittle
and may crack if punch is loosely held), drive
the guide from the hole, Figs. 13-35 and 13-354.
T N T E GRAL/
GIDE
'
R EPLAC EABLE
GU ID E
VALVE G U I D E P U N C H
volve guides'
Fig. l3-33. lntegralond replaceoble
l*:i
lj
'4
li'
Before driving out the guides, make anote of

the distance from the surface of the head io the
face of the guide as well as the shape of the end
that extends into the combustion chamber. Identi-
tf
,li
r1
l:
li
ll
iii
I
' ll
EX HAUST
CO UNTERBO RE
I
:ti
Fig. l3-35. One lom o volve guide punch,
I NS T A L L I NG
G UI DE S
The guide holes must be SPOTLESSLY
or freezer is handy,
CLEAN. If a refrigerator
th guides may be placed in the freeze box long
enough to thoroughly chill them. The resultant
reduction in diameter will aid in their installation.
Give the guide and hole a thin coat of hypoid
lubricant, (Lubriplate, etc.). Insert the proper
end in the correct guide hole, and drive to the
specified depth. DO NOT DRIVE PAST THE
REQUIRED DEPTH. A stop on the tool may be
used or a punch mark, Fig. 13-36, may be used
to provide a means of measuring from a given
surface.
Fig. 13-34, Guide depth in tlrs cose is reosued lrom lhe surfoce on the volve seof side. Note te shope ol the ends ocing
(AMC Jeep)
ffie seofs.
fy exhaust from intake shapes. By doing this, it

will be possible to get the correct guide for each
hole, proper end up, and driven intothe correct
dept h, F i g s . 1 3 -3 4 a n d 1 3 -3 4 4 .
t94
CYlinder Heqd,Volve, Vqlve Trqin Service
E:AMING GUIDESAFTER INSTALLATION

Some guides are factory reamed and f ollowing
I f t he guid e s
-. : . llatio n,
req uir e no r eam ing'
use a special valve guide
:- *;: be reamed,
-; : r: r er o f the exaet s iz e. St ar t t he r eam er c a r e '---',- and turn it clockwise both while entering
to
and leaving the guide. Ream dry' Be careful
Allow
reamer'
the
on
avoid any side pressure
the pilot portion to guide it through' A properly
s t e m to
r e a m e d g u i d e w i l l p r o v i d e a r o u n d '0 0 2
s p e cs) '
(
s
e
e
m
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
e
r
r
s
guide clearance
Fis.13-3?.
Volve Guide Remover

:nd Replocer-KF
volve gv i de'
I 3 - 3 5 A . U s i n g o m e ch a n ico l Pu lle r to r emove o
( AM C Je e P)
Fi g. l 3-37. R eomng the val ve gui de'
,$
\'!$
'
rerlox txsenr
SEAL OUTER COVER
PR
PUNCH MARK ON TOOL

ALIGNED WITH STRAIGHTED G E
PLACED ACROSSFACE OF
CYLINDER HEAD
Fi g. t3'38. Tefl on vol ve gui de oi l seol '
G UI DE S
WO RNI NT E G RA L
head' it
When the guide is cast as part ofthe
wear'
ofthe
is necessary to determine the extent
oversuitable
a
If excessive, a new valve with
is
then
guide
worn
The
size stem is selected.
oversizes
Stem
stem'
reamed to fit the valve
delemine when guide

F i g . 1 3 - 3 6 . l J s n g o p u n ch m o r k o n lo o l lo
( Kelsey- HoYes )
depth'
proper
the
lo
driven
hos 6een
t9s
fr
tl
Auto Serviceond Repdir

PREPARINGVALVE GUIDE FOR OIL SEAL
S o m e g u i d e s a r e d e s i g n e d t o a c c e pt sp e ci a l
o i l s e a l s ; o t h e r s a r e n o t . F i g . 1 3 - 3 8 , sh o w s o n e
is altype of guide seal. The guide illustrated
ready machined to fit the Teflon seal.
Bcth integral
and removable guides may be
a
p r e p a r e d f o r t h i s s e a l . F i g . 1 3 - 3 9 , i l l u str a te s
machining an integral guide in
special cutter
preparation for seal installation.
To install this particular seal, the valve stem
end is covered with a protective plastic cap. The
seal i.s then pressed over the end and down the
stem, Fi"g. 13-40.
The seal is forced over the machined section
of the guide as far as possible with the fingers.
T o c o m p l e t e t h e s e a t i n g , a s p e c i a l t o o l i s u se d
the seal and force it fully down,
to grasp
Fig. 13-41.
T UI DE S
B O T HNT A K EA ND E X HA US G
N MBER
A DMI TO I L T O CO MB US T I OCHA
t1
Atthough oil is somewhat more likelytopass

through the intake guide due to the strong vacuum in the cylinders during the intake stroke, the
exhaust valve is also subjected to a mild vacuu m c a u s e d b y t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s r u s h i n g o ve r th e
head of the guide.
As the overhead valve design dominates the
fie1d, oil control through the guides is critical.
Great quantities of oil are pumped to the rocker
arms and a considerable amount finds itswayto
the valve stem end.
The combined forces of gravity, inertia and
vacuum, attempt to draw the oil downthroughthe
k
li
Fig.
l 3 -3 9 .
Mochining a volve guide for seo/ inslol l oti on.

( Per ect Cr cle)
ge ne rally a r e av ailable in . 003, . 015 a n d . 0 3 0 .

As with re mov able guides , us e aSHARP r e a m e r
of the CORRE CT s iz e. Following r eam in g , w a s h
guides and blow dry.
guides, Fig.13-41A..
In addition to the special guide seal shown,
and neoprene
protective shields or "umbrellas"
rings are often used on the valve stem end to
prevent oil from flowing down the stem to the
guide. Valve guides are often cut to an angle to
prevent oil from puddling on the top.
When installing the valve assembly,be careful to avoid daimage to any seals used. Occasionally only the intake valves are protected with
guide seals, tapered guide heads and stem end
,l
shields. Make sure they are correctlyinstalled,

Fig.13-42.
V A L V ES E A T S
CHE CK I NG
F i g . t3 -4 0 ,
P re ssng seol ove pr ofeclve
Inspect eaeh valve seatfor signs ofexcessive

burning or cracking. If the seat is of the insert
cop on volv e s tem end'
196
Cytinder Heod,Volve, Volve Trqin Service

type (special steel ring pressed into head) and
looseness, burning or cracking is present, it
must be removed and replaced with a new ring.
If the seat is of the integral tpen and is
cracked or badly burned, it must be cut out and
an insert installed.
V A L V ES E A TI NS E RT
RE MO V I NG
A special chisel or mechanicalpullermaybe
used to pull the seat. When removing, be careful
not to damage the seat recess, Fig. 13-43.
F i g . 1 3 - 4 1 . Se a r in gth e va lve g u id e se o l'

i'i
:
i.-1
t4t
L 1
>
o lL \
/\o tL
./\./
R emovi ngvol ve seol i nserfs'

Fs.13-43.
A 'speci of chs el ' B ' Me-
choni col P ul l er'

----4.
,- - - 1
|
--?-
- '- i i
INSTALLINGVALVE SEAT INSERT
EXHAUSTSTROKE
INT A K E S TROKE
Make certain you have the correct size indiamsert. Outside diameter, depth and inside
rebeing
insert
eter should match that of the
placed, Fig.
13-44.
p oss oi l '
F i g . l 3 - 4 1 A . B o th in to ke o n d e xh o u stg u id e s will
D E P TH
i:lf
fl--'.o.----*l
o,D . l <F i g. t3- 44.
GUIDE
T APERED
PUDDLE
through the,
F i g . 1 3 - 4 2 . D e v c e s u se d fo Pr e ve n lo l.co n su m tio n
gudes. A-Guide seol. B-Neoprene seo-l ond-shield' C'Topered
gui.dein D ollows oil to pud'
itia. rop. Note how rlr. "gror" cut
dle ond run through the guide'
T-_!
lt
R epl oc em ent
s eof ns er t m us l be of l he c ore c f s i z e '
inserts were cast iron' cast

If the original
can be used. If a hard type
iron replacements
steel such as
(special
resistant
heat
insert
type'
Stellite) is removed, replaee with a similar
of
nicks
The recess must be clean and free
pilot in the
and dents. Place a special driver
onthedriver'
head
valve guide. Install a driving
than the
smaller
Head should be just a little
ipsert OD.
the
Lay the insert, beveled edge down, over
assist
and
OD
the
reduce
will
Freezing
recess.
Slide driver over pilot and start ininstallation.
As the insert nears
sert with several firmblows.
197
Auto Service qnd RePqr

the bottom, reduce the strength of the hammer
blows. By listening to the sound of hammering,
you can tell when the insert is fully seated. DO
NOT CONTINUE POUNDING AFTER FULLY
S E A T E D. F i g . 1 3 -4 5 , s h o w s a c ro s s secti onof a
typical insert driver set up for work.
I
I
a small chamfer on the upper OD into which the

head metal is forced.
For peening, a pilot is placed in the valve
guide, and a special peening toolbodyis dropped
over the pilot. The peen is adjusted so it contacts the head metal along the edge of the inert.
the
By turning and at the same time hammering
wiII
be
upset
bulged).
peening tool, the metal
to swage
Other toots apply a rolling pressure
the metal into the chamfer, Fig. 13-46.
Fi g. I3-4. l !si ng o speci ol fool l o "peen" he mel ol oound the

inserf edge. Note fiow the metal is forced ogoinsf ilre inserf.
Fig, l3-45. lnstollingvslve seol insertwith o specio/pilot ond

driver combination.
S EA T
F O RI NS E RT
CUT T I NGRE CE S S
I
I
,Fi
I
I
il.
:r
The insert OD will be one ortwothousandths

than the recess. This will produce an
larger
(tight) fit to assist in securing the
interference
insert as well as producing good heat tranSfer
from insert to head or block.
If the inserts have been chilled in Drylce or
remove them one at a time and
in the freezer,
they will warm up
If all are removed
install.
Where no insert was used and the integral

.seat is damaged beyond repair by grinding, a
recess may be cut and an insert seat installed.
In cases where an insert is used but is loose, a
recess may be cut for an insert of slightly
larger OD.
before installation.
Soft gray cast iron inserts have the same
of expansion as the head metal (when
coefficient
fitted will not have to
if properly
and
iron)
cast
be peened (upsetting the head metal around the
insert OD to hold it in place). Many mechanics
peen ALL types of inserts to provide an extra
measure
of safetY.
PEENINGINSERT
The head metal around the OD of the insert
or swaged
may be either peened (hammered)
(upset by a rolling
or rubbing action). All hard
inserts, and all inserts set in an aluminumhead
must be peened or swaged. The insert will have
Fig, 13-47. lnstalling volve seof inserf recess cutter on o pilot'

lA 16ertson-Sioux,l
198
SELEC TPILO TANDCUTTE R

(guide should
Select a pilot that fits the guide
be in good shape) as recommended by the tool
Choose a cutter of the correct
manufacturer.
size a nd in sta 11 , Fig. 13- 4?.
INSTALL PILOT, ALIGN AND SECURETOOL

The pilot assembly is fitted to the guide and
pilot ' A 1 1
the bo dy o f th e to ol is dr oppedov er t he
1oose.
be
alignment screws must
The anchor bolt slot is placed over a coninvenient head bolt hole and the anchor bolt
motion
shaking
slight
toolbodya
the
stalled. Give
(a11 screws loose) to allow it to align with the
pi1ot.
Lock the anchor bolt securely' Lockthe other
When
screws in the o rder s hown in F g' 13- 48'
with
revolve
all are secured, the cutter should
I
oos
en
pr
es
ent
,
is
I f binding
iinge r p ressu re.
l fi e w or k '
F i g' 13- 48. $ec ur i nq the r ec es s c utl e l ool l o
s to
screws, readjust and retighten. The object
secure
mechanism
drive
have the tool body and
without binding the pllot and cutter assembly,
Fis.13-48.
F ig . 1 3 - 4 9 . Ad ivsti ng cul ti ng depth for recess cul l er'
$
C U TTE RS LE E V E
F E E D S C R E WL O C K
S T O PC O L L A R
STOPBLOCK
J U ST
C U T T ER
T OU C H INWGOR K
ADJUST
CUTTINGDE P TH
VALVE SEAT
With the cutter just touching the work, place

the insert ring on the stop block. Run the stop
collar down until it touches the ring. Lock the
feed screw to the cutter sleeve and remove the
ring. The cutter will then cut to the exact depth
of t he r ing, F i g . 1 3 -4 9 .
The valve seat must be cut at correct angle,

be smooth, clean and free of cracks, nicks, pits,
etc. It must bethe correctwidth, andengage face
of valve near central portion.
Common seat angles are 45 and 30 deg. Where
an interference fit is desired, the interference
angle may be ground on either the seat or the
valve. Follow manufacturerts specs.
Seat widthvaries (see manufacturerts specs.)
but wilL average around 1/16 in. for both intake
pound
and exhaust. A seat that istoonarrowwill
out of shape more easily. It will also fail to
dissipate enough heat from the valve face. A seat
that is too wide will tend to collect carbon, thus
eventually preventing a good seal with resultant
val ve overheati ng and burni ng, Fi g . 13- 51.
CUT RECESS
Make certain all alignment screws are tight.
Use either a ratchet handle, or a power drive
mechanism to rotate the cutter.
With the cutter just clearing the work, start
turning. Feed the cutter into the workbyturning
the knur:led stop collar. Do not force the cutter.
Give several turns, and thenrunthe cutterlightly down. Repeat this process until stop col1ar
engages the stop block. At this point, give the
tool a few additionl turns to produce a smooth
seat for the insert. Run the cutter outof the recess and remove tool.
Fig. 13-50, shows the mechanic mong the
cutter into the work by turning the stop collar.
= j{3, i t)
C O R R EC T .SEATST R IKES
C EN T ER OF VALVE F AC E
frxr::'
WW%7W
T OO N AR R O W
T OO W ID E
T OO LOW
TOO HIGH
Fig, I3-51. Coreclond incorecfvolve seofs.Nofe ffie inleerenceonglesin B ond C.
of stock
When refacing
a seat, the removal
specifiwill widen the seat beyond original
cations. It must be narrowed by removing metal
from the upper portion, Fig. 13-514.
In cases where the valve port walls narrow,
or are uneven, metal will have to be removed
from the bottom also. If the walls are smooth
and of constant diameter, only a veryLIGHTcut
with a 60 - ?0 deg. stone should be taken. If inserts are used, the bottom cut is notnecessary,
Fig.13-52.
The light bottom cut will produce a seat that
is the same width at all spots.
F i g , 1 3 - 5 0 . Cu ttin g th e in se f e ce ss.
200
Cylinder Heod, Volve, Vqlve Trqin Service
REFACIN G
VA LV ES E A T
ST ON E
SLEEVE
After alt valve guide and insert work is

complete, the valve seats are readytobe refaced.
The seat must be free of carbon, oil, dirt, etc.,
as the grinding stone will quickly load (pores of
stone fill up with carbon, dirt, etc.) thus ruining
:he cutting action.
_
| .t f_
--l t:,r-{
ST O N E
ST O N E
C LEAR S
trt fffi!!*ffi'lt
rroRN
sEAr !ll49l9
T OO W|DE
I
ST ON E
ST R IKES
vNd -r# \
Y2 \tn-
EN C AG ESSEAT
PR OPER LY
S TO NE
TO O W I D E
SLEEVE PILO T
/coRREcrwrDrH
S TO N E TO O
NA R R O W
Wdru)W
F ; g .,1 3 -5 1 A . No rro w i ng the volve seat width
oter r eh c i ng. A
J U d e g . sfo n e s o ccosiono//y used lo nor r ow 45
deg. seor s , onc e
i n o while, o llat stone is r equir ed.
Fi g. I3-53. S tone musr 6e of coect w i dr. A -S rone O,K . g-foo

wide. C-foo wide. ltill produceo horizonto/ step of bofiom ofseot.
D-Too norow. ,o0".
ol step at the rop ol re seor.
":::.rr"
"5 DE G,
f i ^ R ROW|NGCU T
:- ;-.-, .
S E LE C T P R OP E R S TON E
BASICSEAT TOO
WIDEON THIS SIDE
S E AT
S OOT H, C ONS T A NT
D IA T 4 E T E R
WA L L
ii
Seat stones are available in various widths.

Coarse textured roughing stones are usedforthe
initial or roughing cut on steel seats. The fine
textured finishing stone is used for the last cutting on steel seats. The east iron block or head
requires only the use of the finishing stone. For
grinding Stellite and other hard seat inserrs, a
special stone is available.
The stone must be a little wider than the
finished seat in order to prevent counterboring.
It must not be so wide as to strike other parts
of the combustion chamber. Fig. 13-b3, illustrates how various widths affect the job.
WALL CURVESIN CA U ST N G
SEAT TO WTDENON ON E SID E
BASICSEAT WID T H
K. ON ALL 5ID E5
O OEG. BOTOM
NARROWING
CUT
DRESSING
STONE
ROU GHWA L L
SMoOTH
EDGE
H EA' Y
O DEG.
CUT WRONG
After selecting a stone ofthe correct size and

texture, screw the stone snugly on the stone
ROUGH
WALL
L IGHT
0 o EG.
CUTRIGHT
5LE EVE
Fig.. 13-52. Nonowing tfie volve seor. A-15 deg. cut lrom
top
sftes o good seol when port wolls oe smoorh lnd of consron,
Jicmeter. B-Roug woll leoves o rcgged lower edge on seot.
C_
-lower
Havy. bottom cut prouces smootlr
seot ejge but widens
srot diometer, D-Curved port wolls produceon un.i.n seot width,
E-Eotfom cut produces on even width, F-yery light botron cut
saootlrs seot edge without opprc:b,t:cr"o""
i, seot diometer.
-L--tl
'-,
.1
5 DEG.
The valve guides

b' bpoit'esry cleanto
-ubt
allow the pilot to properly
align with the guide
hole.
Fig. 13-54. Some stones can hove on ongle dressed on ot ends.

A.Stone with 45 deg. ongle down. B-Some sfone, reversed, wif
l5 deg. ongle down.
l
,l
201
1
il
,a
US ET WOO R MO RES L E E V E 5
h oL de r or s leev e. I f one is av ailab l e , s e l e c t a

angle. This will save
stone with the correct
prolong the life of the
will
and
time in dressing
so that an
c
ons t r uc t e d
ar
e
s
t
ones
M
any
sto ne .
angle may be ground on both ends, Fig' 13-54'
Pla ce s t one s leev e on t he dr e s s i n g s t a n d
pilot. Adjust the stand diamond holder to the
seat angle stone on one

Mount the correct
s l e e v e a n d t h e 1 5 d e g . a n d 7 0 d e g . sto n e s o n
two other sleeves, This will a11ow you to grind
and narrow the seat without removing and changing stones. Once the pilot is inserted, finish the
seat operation before moving to the
complete
angle. Loc k all adjus t m ent s '

core ct
stone' Engage
away from
diamond
Back
Run the
stone'
spin
and
sleeve drive motor
stone'
the
of
face
full
the
diamond tip across
Ta ke light c ut s unt il t he angle is c o r r e c t a n d t h e
fu 1l sto ne J ac e is c lean and t r ue, F i g ' 1 3 - 5 5 "
next one.
D RIYEM OT OR
ST ONE
SLE
D IA MONHDA SFA LLE NOU TI

IDE ST OP
s ti k e s l eei
Fi g. I3-56, D o not rui n the di onond' A 'H eovy c ul w i l l
thot
buon di oônd. B 'Foi l ure to dress l ul t w i dth l eov es o l edge
the
beneoth
rh
e
s
teel
C
-When
di
amond.
beneoth
con srri ke steel
di onond i s undercut,the di onond ti p w l l ol l out'
HOLD E RA N GLE
DIAM OND
LOC KS C R E W
T OOL
DIAM OND
5 L EEYE
P IL OT
PIL OT HEIGH T
L OCKSCR E W
sl ond'
F i-g . 1 3 -5 5 . Dr e ssin g fh e slo n e u sn g o typcol dressi ng
( Alb e fso n - Sio u x)
B Y UNDE RCUT T I NG
DO N OTRUINDIA MOND
Use ear e when dr es s ing t o s e e t h a t t h e f i r s t
must
cut is not too heavy. The ful1 stone angle
diamond'
also b e dr es s ed t o pr ev ent injur y t oth e
t he ef f e c t s o f b o t h a n
Fig. 13- 56, illus t r at es
heavy cut and failure to dress the full
initial
wid th.
INSTALL STONESLEEVE PILOT

There are basically two types of stonepilots
tlpe that is
in use. One is the ADJUSTABLE
The
slipped, into the guide and then expanded'
is
that
CONSTRUCTION
other s of TAPERED
and
guide
the
between
secured through friction
a ta pe r ed s ec t ion.
of the type used, make sure that
Regardless
Wipe off the pilot with a clean'
is
clean.
guide
the
rag and insert the pilot. The pilot
ghify-oiled
mu st be RI G I D. See Fig. 13- 57.
Fi g. l 3-57' l nstal l i ng on odi u s tobl e pi l ot'
20?
CylinderHeod,Volve,Vqlve Trqin Service

G R INDIN SE
G AT
Using a clean, dressed stone, place the sleeve
on the pilot. The stone should contact the seat,
F ig.1 3-5 8.
and pol i sh up the seat. R E ME MB E R : THE

FINISHED SEAT WILL BE ONLY AS ACCURATE
A S TH E S TON E , Fi g. 13-59.
*r,
CONT ACTS
SEAT
PROPERL Y
Fi g. l 3-59. Gri ndi ng the vol ve seof. N ofe how operotors upports
w ei ght o( dri ve moto w i rh l et hond.
I
NARROWING
SEAT
Using a 60 - 70 deg. stone, grind until the
60 - 70 deg. angle touches the basic 30 - 45 deg.
seat surface all the way around. This 60 - ?0 deg.
stone cuts very quiekly. Do not applydownpressure and cut for only about two seconds before
checking, Fig. 13-60.
F i g. l 3 -5 8 ,
S fo n e o nd s/eeve in ploce on pilot, Note cor r ec t s eol

( Black ond Decker )
co ntocf.
Insert drive motor head into end of sleeve.

Tilt motor up, down and sideways to feel for a
nonbinding,
central position. While supporting
weight of motor, engage switch. AIIow stone to
grind for a few seconds, then stop and remove
motor, raise sleeve and examine seat. Repeat
until seat is smooth, clean and free of burns,
REMOVE ONLY ENOUGH
pits, etc. CAUTION:
S TOCK TO CL EAN SEATJ I F I NTEG RAL S E A T
CAN
EXCESSIVE
GRINDING
IS HARDENED,
CUT THROUGH THE HARDENED AREA. ChCCK
manufacturerrs
specifications.
dress stone several times
On hard inserts,
for each seat. NEVER CONTINUE
GRINDING
WHEN STONE SURFACE NEEDS DRESSING,
stone, stop when the
If using a roughing
seat is cleaned up. Switch to a finishing stone
Fi g. 13-60. Toki ng o LIGH T cut on ffi e bofl om of tfi e seot w i th o

60-70 dea. stone.
With the 15 - 30 deg. stone, (see mgnufacturerrs spees.) remove stock until the seat is
dow n to the speci fi ed w i dth, Fi g. 13-61.
A small measuring tool such as shown in
Fi g. 13-62, w i l l assi st i n a careful me asur ement of seat width. Use a light and be aecurate.
A triek often used for seat grinding is to
mark the seat (after grinding the basic angle)
203
i
I
{
I
r--_
V A L V ES E A T
T E S T I NG
F s ' l 3 -6 1 .
Nonowng lhe seof fo specified w dth by r em ov i ng

m etol lr on the top with o l5 deg. stone.
(true
To test a valve seat for concentricity
roundness) place a special valve seat dial indicator on the pilot. Adjust the indicator bar so
that it contacts the center of the valve seat. The
dial needle should travel about a half turn when
the bar length is correct. Set the dial to 0. Hold
the upper dial section and slowlyturnthebottom
completely
section around so the bar travels
will
indicate
needle
The
dial
seat.
around the
be
should
The
seat
entire
present.
runout
any
within.002.
I f r u n o u t e x c e e d s . 0 0 2 , c h e c k t he se tu p ca r e ful1y bar tip should be in the center of the seat)
and try again. If runout still prevails, regrind
the seat, Fig.
rX
lE6.
'_f
F'
''1
'o-
I
bi.
.:
13-64.
INDICATOR
NEEDLE SETAT O
"ia
G
-.i$
**3,i
.INDICATOR
&\
Fig. l3- 62. A hondys eotwidf hm eos u r i nlgo o / '
(Storre)
with a series of soft pencil marks across the
r.vidth. When removing
stock from above and
below the seat, the pencil marks will clearly
sho w wh at is lef t of t he bas ic angle , F i g . 1 3 - 6 3 .
INDICATOR
PENCIL M ARKS
REMAININGPORTIO N
OF PENCIL MARKS
F i g. I 3- 64.
C hec k ngv ol v e
s eof c onc entr i c i ty
w i t h o d i o l i n d i c o t o '
VALVE LAPPING
'15D E G'
There are two schools of thought regarding

lapping the valve into the seat withlappingcompound (fine abrasive powder). Some feel that it
F i g . l 3 - 6 3. lJsin g p e n cl m o r ks lo h e lp d e te rmi new i dth o( bosi c

3 0 o 4 5 d e g . se o t.
2U

produces a more accurate seal between valve
and seat while others contend that it is of no
value.
Many authorities
agree that when modern
valve grinding equipment, in good condition, is
properly
used, that lapping is NOT necessary.
Lapping when an interference
fit is desired, can
actually damage the seal.
ROCKER
A R MB A L L S T U D
P U L L IN G
S L EEVE
F I NALC H ECKFORCONCE NTRICITY

O F BO THSEATA NDV A LV EFA CE
Rub a very thin film of prussian
blue on the
-;alve face. Place the valve in position.
While
pressing (in the center) against the seat, rotate
:he valve about one-fourth
turn to the right and
:hen back to the point of beginning. Remove the
-;alve and examine the seat. It should be marked
-ith blue around its entire circumference.
The
-<eat should mark the valve face nearthecenter.
Pencil marks, about 1/4 in. apart aroundthe
;alve faie will also provide a check. The onelourth turn to the right and then to left should
i'ipe out all marks. Before checking by placing
'.'alves in the guides, the head and the guides
should be thoroughly washed, flushed and blown
:ry, Fig. 13 -65 .
Fig. l3-66. Pulling a rocke orm stud.
rc.M.C.)
Iarger oversize is needed, ream the hole in two
s t e p s - u s e t h e s m a l l e r o v e r s i z e r e a m e r fi r st,
then finish with one of the desired
si ze ,
Fig. 13-67.
t:. :
l1
ii
I
I
r
ti
i*
li
t,
]t'
P E N CIL
MA R K S
PORTIONOF
PENCIL M ARKS
W IPEDOFF
F ig. 1 3 - 6 5 , P e n c i l m o ks o n vo lve lo ce will d e te m in evo lve foce

lo seot dccurocy. A-Morks opplied. B-Poion al moks wiped oll
b y p l a c i n g v o l v e i n se o f o n d g ivin g it o n e - q u o d e rtu tn.
Fig. l3-67. Reomingfhe ockeom stud hole.

Thread the replacement
stud in the driver.
Coat the plain
end with hypoid lubricant
or
Lubriplate.
Place over the hole and drive down
until driver body touches stud boss. This willbe
the
correct
depth.
Remove driver
to o l ,
Fig.13-68.
R E PLAC ING
R OCK E R
A RMS TUD
If the cylinder
head uses individual rocker
arm ball studs, check them for signs of damage
or looseness. If a replacement is necessarydue
to breakage, a standard size replacement will
suffiee. If the stud is loose, the hole will have to
be reamed for one of several available oversizes.
To remove the stud (if brokenoff atthe boss,
drill and remove with a studextractor)placethe
pulling sleeve over the stud. Run the nut down
against the sleeve. Continue turning to pull the
stud, Fig. 13 -66 .
If an oversize stud is required, reamthe hole
with a special reamer of the correct size. If the
CL E A NI NG
V A L V ES P RI NG S
Valve springs
should be soaked in solvent,
brushed
and thoroughly
rinsed.
Never clean
springs that are painted, in strong cleaners as
the paint will be removed.
The paint and other
coatings prevent rust. Wire power wheels will
also remove this protective coating and spring
life will be shortened.
205
1
i
STUDDRIVER
DRIVEUN T IL
STUDDRIVER
STUD
ENGAGES
BOSS
difference between top and bottom) you can

assume that the spring is square' Place on the
opposite end and check it for squareness'
Fi g. 13-68B
sTt D BOSS
IN S P E C T S P R IN G FOR E TC FIIN G
O R O T HE RDA MA G E
ploce'
Fig. l3-68. Driving rocker om stud into
Check the spring for any signs of rusting'

etc'
corrosive etching and for scratches' nicks'
TE NS ION
C H ECKSPRING
,l
i'
l
li
ii
i
After extended service, valve springstendto

lose tension. Since correct tension is important
valve action, each spring must be
to proper
retested to make certain it meets minimum
specificaprovide
Manufaeturers
quirements.
pounds'
tions listing the amount of pressure, in
compressed
when
that a given spring should exert
C H E C K D A MP E R S P R IN GS A N D C LIP S
to a speeific length.
an appr opr iate m e a s The sp ringis plac edin
to the specified
compressed
device,
uring
determined'
pounds
in
pressure
the
and
length,
Fig. 1 3-6 8A . .
P OOR S P R IN 6
(used inside the

Inspect damper springs
and
regular spring to reduce spring vibration)
worn
are
that
damper clips if used. Discard any
or fail to meet sPecs.
Reject springs that fail to meet specified

compressed pressure, free length, squareness'
or that shows signs of rusting, etc'
(valve
A weak spring will cause valve float
camshaft
the
closing so slowly that the lobe on
seated)'
starts to open it againbeforeithasfully
causing
guides
the
in
Valves may start sti.cking
andbroken
burning
missing,
heavy tappet noise,
valves.
Remember that using poor valve springs can
be expensive. New springs are inexpensive and
will certainly raise the level of reliability and
SC ALE
iii
POIN T ER PAD
bl-
ilil
R;E
tirl
tl
il:
ti
SPR ING
LEVER
\\
B ASE
l 'j
aid performance.
D IAL
CY L I NDE RHE A DF O RW A R P A G E
CHE CK I NG
[ l ,i
l; I
l, til
i il
i r 'i '
I
t:
Bl'
', r.
i1
i!
ii
l
il
i
!,
A R E E X P E N S IV E
pl oc ed
Fis. l3-684. Testing volve spr ing tension' Spr ing s

6ose,Whenl e ver is pulled down, poinler pod compr es s es
pounds .
to specifiedd i stonce on te scole. Tension, in
on
s pttng
i s l hen
r eod on he d ol.
C H ECKVALV ES P RINGFRE E
L EN GTHANDS OUA RE NE S S
To insure the close fit necessary between

for
head and block. the head should be checked
in any six
around
warpage,
Some
warpage.
'003
Distortion
inches or.006 overall, is permissible'
grinding
by
be
conected
point
should
this
beyond
See
surface'
the
a small amount from
or milling
to
amount
permissible
manufacturerr s specs for
be removed.
Removal of metal from the headorblockwill
cha'mber (in
reduce the size of the combustion
the compression
engines) thus raising
most
length
effective
the
change
also
will
It
ratio.
On an overfrom the lifters to the rocker arrns'
chain length
engine, the timing
head camshaft
Slide a
Place the spring on a flat surface''
not tip
filo
spring
the
to
up
square
combination
measure
blade'
the
on
scale
the
Using
spring).
is not under
ttre t"ee length (length when spring
p ressu re). I t s hould m eet s Pec s '
spring
Carefully sight between the edge ofthe
to
parallel
be
should
and the blade. The spring
and
turn
partial
a
the blade. Give the spring
indicate that the
If both sightings
check again.
-is
(not more than 1/ 16 in'
parallel
spring
be altered.
Special head gaskets, thicker than standard'
and workare available to maintain compression
removed
been
has
stock
when
ing dimensions
block.
or
from head
will
206
VALV E
SPRI N G
COMBINATION
MAXIMUMMEASUREA4ENT
Fig. l3-70. Checking
volve stemheight.
(Dodse)
F i g . l 3 - 6 8 8 . C h eckin g sp r in g lr e e le n g th o n d sg u o r e ness.
( Plym o u th )
to this change, malfunctions

can result. If the
height of the stem is excessive, the valve must
be removed and the stem end ground down the
p r o p e r a m o u n t . C h e c k a l l v a l v e s , F i g . 1 3 - 7 0.
While holding the valve in place, install stem
t o g u i d e o i l s e a l , i f u s e d . I f r e q u i r e d , p l a c e ste e l
washer around guide and in contact with head.
Place spring or springs, closed coil end (one
STRAIGHTEDGE
odi, ; Do@ .
fD .@ E.ffi .ffi .
F i s . l 3 - 6 9 . C h e ckin e cyli
su r flce ( o .r - wo rpose.
:e r fe ld
'.-:,
'-.
Fig . 13 -69 , s hows t he us e of a s t r aighte d g e

for checking cylinder head surface aceuracy. The
st r aig hte dg e is plac ed ac r os s t heheadas s h o w n .
Sight along the edge to detect any warpage. If
any, slide a feeler gauge between straightedge
and head to determine the amount. Head surface
rnust also be free of nicks, scratches,
gasket
: eme nt, e tc.
end of the spring may have the coils spaced

c l o s e r t o g e t h e r - t h i s i s c a l l e d t h e c l o s e d co i l
end) toward the head, over the stem and in
contact with the head, Fig. 13-71.
I f d u a l c o i l s , o r a d a m p e r s p r i n g , a r e u se d ,
s p a c e c o i l e n d s p e r m a n u f a c t u r e r r s i n s t r u cti o n s
(usually about 180 deg. apart).
Install shield or umbrella and retainer over
the spring. Using a spring compressor,
co m p r e s s t h e s p r n g j u s t f a r e n o u g h t o e x p o se th e
S l i p t h e s e a l i n to th e
stem oil seal groove.
RETAINER
SPRING
VALVE
CUPSEAL
INSTALLING VALVES,SEALS
AND SPRINGASSEMBLIES
With the cylinder head in a suitable fixture,
firead must be spotlessly clean) oil the valve
guides. Select the proper valve, oil the stemand
insert into the guide.
On engines that do not have provisions for
adju stin g ro cker ar m t o pus h r od c lear anc e , t h e
height of the valve stem from the head should be
checked. In that removal of metalfromthe
valve
iace and seat will allow the stem to protrude
further,
the rocker
arm will be tipped down on
the push rod side, thus forcing the hydraulic
lifter plunger near the bottom of its travel. If
orovisions
are not built into the lifter to adjust
Fi g. l 3-71. Gui de seo/ (cup seol ) i nstol l ed, spri ng ond retai net
bei ng pl oced i n posi fi on. (C hrysl er)
207
q
{
groove. Make sure it is properly positioned and

is no t t wis t ed. I ns er t t he s plit k ee p e r s o r l o c k s
an d s1ow1y r eleas e t he s pr ing. A s t h e s p r i n g
rise s, guide t he r et ainer s oit is c e n t e r e d a r o u n d
th e kee per s . W hen f u1ly r eleas ed, c h e c k k e e p e r s
to mak e c er t ain
t hey ar e f ully e n g a g e d . i F
KEEPER S ARE NO T LO CKED I NT O P O S I T I O N ,
THEY CAN SLI P AND FLY O UT WI T H D A N GEROUS FO RCE. KEEP YO UR F A C E T O O N E
SIDE, Fig. L3- 72.
are
differences
between
intake and exhaust
springs and retainers.
Be careful to assemble
t h e m i n t h e p r o p e r l o c a t i o n s . F i g . 1 3 - ? 3 , sh o w s
a tlpical
valve stem assemblv. Note the stem
SCAI.
T E S TS T E MS E A L
When a stem seal i.s employed, it may be
tested by placing a small suction cup over the
retainer.
Squeeze the bulb while holding the cup
against the sssembly. When the bulb is released,
it should stay compressed
thus indicating an
airtight
seal.
Such a test tool is shown in
Fig.13-?4.
Fs.13- 74.
Yal v e s fem s eo/ l es f f o o l .

(Chevolet)
CHE CK I NG
INSTALLEDHEIGHT
O F V A L V ESPRING
F i g . I 3 - 72 , Co m p r e ssin gvo lve sp r in go n d in s tol l i ng sp/i t keepers.

( Ch e vr o le )
Each
va lve
from
wh ich
guide
or
it
va lve
sh o u ld
wa s
is
be
in sta lle d
r e m o ve d
n e w.
On
in
u n less
so m e
the
ei ther
engi nes
port
the
there
As with the valve stem end, removal

of
stock from valve faee and seat will allow the
keeper grooves to protrude higher above the
head. This will increase the installed length of
the spring, thus reducing spring tension. Using
specs, measure
the installed
height of each
spring, Fig. 13-75.
I f t h e h e i g h t i s e x c e s s i v e , i t m u st b e co r rected by removing
the spring, .and placing a
s p e c i a l s t e e l w a s h e r o r i n s e r t b e t w ee n th e
sp r i n g
and the head. These washers are available in
different thicknesses. Donot install washers that
are too thick, as the spring pressure ean be increased to the point of causing rapid lifter and
c a m s h a f t w e a r . F i g . 1 3 - 7 6 , i l l u s t r a te s
o n e typ e
o f w a s h e r u s e d t o c o m p e n s a t e fo r e xce ssi ve
stem length.
INSTALLNGCYLINDER HEAD
When the ball joint rocker
arms are used,
the rockers
may be attached loosely
to the
rocker
studs and left in this position while the
head is installed. Generally the roeker shaft and
arm assembly is installed after the head is in
position and has been torqued.
F ig . l3 - 7 3 . T yp ico l vo lve sp r in g ossembl y.
208
\.-
Cylinder Heod,Volve, Volve Trqin Service
by cutting off the head and fi.ling screwdriver

slots in the top. Taper the cut end so it will enter
the head easily. Screw them into the block, one
near each end.
Place the cylinder head gasket on the block,
right side up, front end to front of engine, and
c h e c k t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t a l l p a s s a g e s a r e e x p o se d ,
and that the gasket fits properly.
Lay the gasket, upper surface down, on a
clean surface. Coat the gasket with a thin coat
of suitable gasket cement. Place the cemented
side against the block, and carefully coatthetop
l e t c em e n t
side. Use a THIN coat onlyanddonot
run into passageways or cylinders.
Some gaskets come with a special coating that
provides a seal as soon as the engine is warmed
up the first time. Cement is not required on this
specs.
type of gasket. See manufacturerrs
Place the head into position and lower over
g u i d e p i n s . F i g s . 1 3 - 7 ? a n d 1 3 - ? 8 , i l l u s t r a t e th e
us of guide pins to align cylinder head, gasket
Fig. l3-75. Checkingvolve springinstolledheight.
and block
surfaces.
The block must be within acceptable dis'::::on

the surface absolutely
measurements,
:,:an an d fre e of nic k s , dent s , et c . Allhead b o l t
-: les sho uld b e c lean.
If the block does not have built-in guide pins,
:--:.ke them out of old cvlinder head cap screws
Fi g. l 3-77. Low eri ng cyl i nder heod i no posi l i on. N ofe pe rmonenf
shon gui de pi ns. (G.M.C .)
i. l 3 - 7 6 . C o r r e c l i ng .e xce ssvevo lve sp r in g in sto lle d hei ght by

r: , : i n g o w o s e 6 e f w e e n h e o d o n d sp r in g e n d . E' Am o u n t ol metol
' mo v e d b y g r i n d i n g vo lve o n d se o t. H- Wo sh e r tfr ickn ess comporoble to E. (Dodge)
Fi g. l 3-78. l nstol l i ng heod usi ng l emP orotyl ong gvi de pi ns .
209
Coat the head cap screw threads (after wire

with a suitable thread compound. The
brushing)
sealing
compound should have the necessary
when cap screws.thread
properties,
especially
into a hole that enters the water.jacket.
Insert the cap screws in their proper locations, (watch for different lengths). If one of
the eap screws is designed to pass oil from the
block through the head to the rocker assembly,
be certain it is placed in the correct spot.
Run all bolts down until they just engage the
head. Remove guide pins and install bolts in
these holes.
Fig. l3-81. Grindingrocke orm end. Removeno morestoc/<fhon

absolutelynecessory: (Al6errson-Sioux,l
clearance
Excessive
rocker-arm-to=shaft
will. permit
a heavy flow of oil that could flood
valve stems and increase oil consumption.
TOROUEHEADBOLTS
the
wrench
and following
Using a torque
sequence, bring all bolts up to
recommended
one third torque. Go over them againbringingto
two thirds torque. They should then be brought
to full torque. A fourth time over will make sure
none have been missed. Remember that proper
torque is a MUST. Excessive or uneventightening will distort cylinders, valve guides andvalve
se ats, Fig . 13- 79.
GRINDROCKERARM
The rocker
arm valve stem end should be
ground to a smooth even curve. Using a valve
mount the rocker arrn so the end is
grinder,
parallel
to the stone. Adjust the swivel attachment in such a way that the rocker arm end
curve will be maintained. Dress the wheel. With
one hand operating the swivel arm, andthe other
arm against the stone, wet
holding the rocker
grind until the surface is clean andtrue. Remove
no more stock than necessary, Fig. 13-81.
Check the push rod end of the rocker. On the
there wiLl be a swivel
nonadjustable versions,
pocket in the end. It must be smooth and free
from galling. When an adjusting screw is provided, check the ball,
Fig.
13-82.
R OC KERAR M T O
VALVE ST EM PAD
R O C KERAR M T O
SH AF T BEAR IN G
PU SHR O D
SO C KET
PU SHR OD BALL EN D
Fig. I3-79. Tor.-qu.h"od cop screws in proper seguence.
R O C KERPU SHR OD BALL
ROCKERARM AND SHAFT SERVICE
PU SHR OD SOC KETEN D
Clean each rocker arm shaft. Pay speeial

attention to the hollow center. Examine for signs
of wear and scoring. Replace if necessary.
Check the condition of the rocker-arm-toshaft bearing surface. Ifbushings are used, wear
can b e co r r ec t ed by r ebus hing andho n i n g t o s i z e .
Fi g. 13-82. C heck rocker om sockef ond 6ol l . Tfi es e mus t be

srnoot ond fee of excessive w e or.
210
I NS P E CT P U S H R OD S
Push rods should be straight and both ends
must be smooth. If the push rod is designed to
carry oil through the hollow section, be certain
to clean the inside and blow dry.
IND IC AT OR
Fi g. l 3-85. R esurfoci ng vol ve l i l er end.

(Yon Nomon)
Fig. l3-83. Checkingpushrod sfroighrness

with V-blockson o
diol indicotor.
Rod straightness
can be checked with Vblocks and a dial indicator. Maximum allowable
runout will vary. See specs. See Fig. 13-83.
M EC H ANICALIFTE
L
RSOR TA P P ET S
Clean lifter. Inspeet push rod socket for signs
of wear or galling. The lifter-to-camshaft
surface should be smooth and free of cam wear,
grooving, chipping and galling, Lifters
showing
heavy camshaft wear or worn sockets, shouldbe
replaced. If the wear is minor, the tappet may
be resurfaced
on the valve grinding machine.
L ifter we ar pat t er ns ar e s hown in Fig. 1 3 - 8 4 .
Tappet adjusting screws, such as shown in
F, Fig . 13 -84, m ay als o be r es ur f ac edpr o v i d i n g
the valve stem has not worn below the hardened
portion.
o. K.
ZA
@
t-1L--/
\-,J
\^r/
GALLED
?-'
Zg,'
@
f.---=-'1
\-_-,
\-^,
.I
,b
M
\J
Fig. I 3-84. Lilter weor potterns. A,B,C,E, - Consha(t end ol liler.

D-Push rod end ol I iler. F -T oppetodi ust ing screw (L-H eod engi ne).
GRINDINGMECHANICALLIFTERS
Dress the wheel surface. Secure the lifter in
the V-block
holder. While applying a stream of
coolant to the lifter
end, advance the lifter
a g a i n s t t h e s t o n e . C u t s s h o u l d n o t e xce e d .0 0 2 .
Move the lifter back and forth over the stone
surface.
Do not remove any more stock than
absolutely necessary. At the end of the last cut,
continue to move the lifter back and forth until
the cutting action stops. This witl produce a
smooth finish. If both ends of the lifter are adaptable to grinding, reverse and repeat the process,
Fig. 13-85.
When lifter
wear is pronounced, or galling
and chipping are present, check the cam lobe'b
carefully as they may also be damaged.
O v e r s i z e l i f t e r s m a y b e u s e d t o c o r re ct l i fte r
to bore
clearance.
Wh e n c l e a r a n c e
e xce e d s
. 0 0 5 - . 0 0 6 , r e p l a c e m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y . Th e b o r e s
should be reamed to the exact oversize needed.
SERVICINGHYDRAULICLIFTERS
The portion of the lifter body that protrudes
below the guide bore is often coated with gum
and varnish. This make s removal diffi.cult unle ss
a special tool is used to grasp the lifter. The
tool is engaged and the lifter pulled upwardwith
a twisting motion, Fig. 13-86.
KEEP LIFTERS IN ORDER

Each lifter
s h o u l d b e p l a c e d i n a m a r ke d
holder so it may be returned to the guide bore
from which it was removed. Ablock of wood with
two rows of holes, each row representing
one
bank of lifters, will do.
211
a n d a s s u c h , m u s t b e k e p t t o g e t h e r . F i g . 1 3 - 8 7 .A,
The check valve
lifter.
shows a disassembled
spring and valve are stil1 in place on
retainer,
the plunger.
place the
is disassembled,
As each lifter
parts in individual, MARKED traYs.
LIFTE R B OD Y
Fi g . 1 3 - 8 6 . l J s n g o sp e cio l p u lle r to r e m o ve o h yd r o ul i c l i her'
(c,M.c.)
PLU N G ER SPR IN G
LIFTER
DISASSEMBLING
C H EC K VALVE C AG E OR R E TA I N E R ,
H OU SIN GC H EC K VALVE AND S P R I N G
Place the lifter body, right side up, on a clean

board. Using a push rod, depress the plunger
a nd s nap out t he re ta i n i n g ri n g , F i g . 1 3 -8 7.
TAPPETPLUNGER
PushRod
F is.
CLEANNGLIFTERS
A special eleaning station, such as shown in
F i g . 1 3 - 8 8 , i s d e s i r a b l e . N o t e t h e c o m p a r t me n te d
tray in which lifter parts are kept together. The
a special cleaning
tray on the left contains
solvent designed to dissolve gum, varnish, etc.
The central
tray eontains clean kerosene for
F i g . 1 3 - 8 7 . Re m o vin g lih e r p lu n g e r r e to in in gr ing.
( Ch e r o le t)
on the plunger and guide

Release pressure
out of lifter body. If the plunger sticks, and it
often will, it may be removed with a tool designed for this purpose. One such tool operates
body in the tool and then
by placing the lifter
plunger
end down, against a
tooL,
the
striking
block of wood.
K EEPPAR TSOF LIFTE RSTOGE THE R

close
parts
are made to extremely
Lifter
(.0001)
is
selectively
plunger
and the
tolerances
(several
until one fits
tried
plungers
fitted
AND
PLUNGER
THE
body.
the
to
perfectly)
BODY ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE
LiFTER
Fi g. l 3-88. A good sefup or cl eoni ng hydtoul i c votrv el i l ters '
212
Cylinder Heqd,Vqlve, Vqlve Troin Service
:-nsing. The small tray contains cleankerosene

rinse. A clean work area is also
i:r a FINAL
::ovided, Fig .13 -BB.
lifters
Due to the close working tolerances'
assemand
CLEANED
:-:rst be THOROUGHLY
The SLIGHT:led in a SPOTLESS CONDITION'
:S T TRACE of g rit , dus t , lint , et c ' , will c au s e
i=::1ty operation.
are dismantled, rinse each
-\fter alL lifters
USE
of parts in clean kerosene' DO NOT
first
This
IN THE TRAYS'
-oup
fnnOSENE
:rr
sludge'
::::se is merelyto remove most of the oil'
cleaning
special
::c,, so the useful life of the
-.h'ent will
be prolonged.
5OAK IN SOLVENT
the initial rinse, plaee the tray
Following
intothe cleaning solvent' Lay
:n::h compartments
the
and lifter bodies on their sides so
:l:ngers
one
about
for
soak
to
Allow
=olvni will enter.
:::ur. Exact soaking time will depend onthetype
used, and condition
-i solvent used, how often
OF CLEANING
OUT
HANDS
KEEP
:i lifters.
:,')1-UTION AND AVOID SPLASHING' ITISWISE
:f
USE RUBBER GLOVES WHILE CLEANING
--:T ERS.
the
\\rhen the soak cycle is completed' elevate
empty
to
side
to
side
::ay. After tipping from
suspend the tray over the
of solvent,
:arts
solvent hasdrippedoff'
excess
:lution until the
RINSEIN KEROSENE
place tray in the
drained'
When thoroughly
Agitate the tray
kerosene'
rinse
;"n of initial
Remove
lowering'
and
lifting
times by
=ut"."l
the
remove
wiLl
rinse
This
drain.
=::d allow to
oftheloosened
:1.eaning solvent and a great deal
ieposits.
surfaces with a clean' lintWipe all lifter
all
actiontoremove
l:ee cioth. Use afirmwiping
be
should
brush
bristle
gum. A soft
:emaining
plunger
and
lifter
the
of
':sed for the inside
have been cle-aned' place
': odie s. When all lifters
container of kerosene'
center
the
:he tray in
to drain' Blow all
allow
and
remove
-lgltate,
;arts drY.
INSPECTLIFTER PARTS
Use a magnifying glass to in(PLUNGER):
nicks'
check valve' seat for
spect plunger
body
plunger
seratches and wear. Inspect outer
eitherthe
on
ior signs of galling. Any scratches
be felt with
check seat or plunger body that can
Ignore the
rejection'
for
are cause
the fingernail
exp^lunger
the
where
occur
may
slight edge that
the
of
surface
working
inner
the
ter'r"as Ueyond
quite sharp'
is
edge
if
this
However,
body.
lifter
the plunger must be considered defective'
(LIFTER BODY): Check the lifterbodyinner
be smooth and
and outer surfaces. They must
lobe surface
free of scoring. The lifter-to-eam
g
a
l
l
i
n g ' c h i p p in g
o
f
must also be smooth andfree
( l i f te r
r
o
u
n
d
w
e
a
r
p
a
t
t
ern
A
and excessive wear.
(lifter
pattern
wear
square
a
or
was rotating)
is smooth
not rotating) as long as the pattern
is
accePtable'
wear,
free
of
and
body that
of the lifter
The outer portion
show
usually
will
contacts the lifter guide bore
side
load
cam
by
a distinct wear pattrn caused
can
pronounced'
or
scored
thrust. It too, unless
be considered accePtable'
(PUSH RoD SEAT): If the push rod seat is
scored or badlY worn, rePlace'
OR VALVE DISC): Examine
(CHECK BALL
glass' Any
the cheek ball with the magnifying
it
render
will
etc',
dents, scratches,
nicks,
usele s s.
(BALL
will
The ball retainer
RETAINER):
check
the
it
contacts
where
show a bright spot
A pounded area or any
ball. This is normal.
rejection'
for
cause
be
cracks will
(SPRINGS): Inspect both plunger and check
or other
valve springs for signs of distortion
damage. RePlace if necessarY'
RING): Diseard any
(p,t-UNCnn RETAINER
out of shape'
bent
retainer rings that are
REPLACINGPARTS
the
Some garages replace, when required'
check
push rod seat, retainer ring, ball retainer'
baII or disc and the sPrings'
Other garages, when any part shows damage'
school of
This
assembly'
the entire
discard
(and
is a good
it
practice employs the argument
comsmall
is
lifters
new
one) that the cost of
some
from
comeback
possible
a
pared to that of
;i
faihrfe'
lifter
premature
whenthere
There are also garages that will'
not even
is considerable mileage on the engine'
autoare
They
clean and inspect the tifters'
Disones'
new
of
discarded in favor
matically
reasqeminspection'
plus
assembly and cleaning
If the cost of
bLy and testing take some time'
price of new
the
from
deducted
this labor is
faetor'
reliability
increased
the
plus
lifters,
there is much to be said for replacement'
213
,II
i
I
'i;
i'
i
s;,
II
l
I
1
I
i
l1
I
I
ONEA T A T I ME
A NDA S S E MB LE
IN SPECT
have been
After all the parts of one lifter
replaced, they
and where required,
inspected
should be rinsed in the central tray ofkerosene'
small
blown dry and thenthoroughlyrinsedinthe
pan of kerosene. Each part, as it is assembled,
must be put through this sequenss. One entire
lifter should be inspected and assembled before
going on to the next.
LIFTER ASSEMBLY
push rod
held vertically,
With the plunger
seat in place, check valve seat up, place the
check ball or check disc on the seat. Set the
spring over the valve. Place the
check valve
over the spring and snap down
valve retainer
into plunger recess. The plunger spring is then
placed over the ball retainer and the lifter body
PrshRod
Oil Gallery
Lter Body
Camshaft
Valve Spring
Plunger Spriag
Yalve Ball
I
I Plunger
I Push Rod Set
10 Reiainer Ring
1
2
3
4
5
6
ir,
vol ve'
F i g . 1 3 - 89 . Hyd r o u lc lilte r u tilizin g o b o ll check
lowered down over the Plunger.

Turn the lifter body right side up, dpress
the push rod seat and install the retainer ring'
Wrap assembly in cLean, slickpaper andproceed
to the next lifter. ALL LIFTER PARTS SHOI"ILD
BE ASSEMBLED WET WITHRINSE KEROSENE.
DO NOT WIPE OR BLOW DRY.
F i g s . 1 3 - 8 9 a n d 1 3 - 9 0 , i l l u s t r a t e tw o typ i ca l
One uses a round
assemblies.
lifter
hydraulic
flat
check disc. Note
a
other
the
check ball,
respective
Position
of all Parts.
PUSH
ROD
t
I
i'
PUSHROD FORCES
AGAINSI
ll
li
StIGHf LEAKAGE
PAS PIUNGER
VALVE D ISC
VAI- VEDISC
cr-osED
lI
i
vol ve'
F -g . l3 - 9 0. H ydrovl i c l i l tet uti l i zi ng o di sc check
(Li ncol n)
214
CylinderHeod,Volve,Vqlve Trqin Service

Cf I EC K N G
L EAKD OW N
RA TE
Each lifter
must possess the correct leak:c',vn rate characteristic.
Leakdown rate is the
of
time
it
takes
for
a specified weight to
-:rgth
(lifter
the plunger
filled with test fluid)
-ove
j:om the top of its travel, a measured distance,
::in'ard the bottom.
If a t est to ol similar t o t hat in Fig. 13- 91, is
test the leakdown rate as follows:
'-;ailable,
::ise the weight arm and ram. Place the lifter
::: the special sleeve inside the test cup. The
::p must have sufficient CLEAN test fluid to
:ompletely eover the lifter.
Lower
the ram against the push rod seat.
weight
the
arm down on the ram and de-<xing
plunger. Work the weight arm up
;ress lifter
::d down to completefy
fill the lifter with fLuid.
i:'ter a number of strokes you willnotice a firm
:esistanee
on the compresSion stroke. Give the
:sr 8 or 10 additional fast pumps to make certain
:rr the air is expelled.
Raise the wight arm and allow the plunger
: rise against the stop ring. Using awatch with
' second hand, place the weight on the ram. The
:::stant the indicator needle begins to move, ob:erve the time. Give the cup lever a complete
Tjrn every two seconds while the plunger is
:eing depressed. When the indicator needle has
::aveled the prescribed
distanee, check to see
:ow many seconds have elapsed.
See manui.cturersr
specs for acceptable leakdown rate,
guide bore. Rub a small amount of Lubriplate or

rear axle lubricant onboththe camlobe and push
rod ends of the lifter.
Install the lifter
in the
hole from which it was removed.
When lifters
have been installed
without
filling with oil, the engine rpm upon starting,
should not exceed a fast idle until all lifters are
pumped up (fil1ed with oil).
IN D TC A TOR
Fi g. l 3-91. Testi ng l eokdow n rote.

(Chevrolet)
Ii.
j * !',
1.
l ,: I
,i
j,
i',,
lr
]'.
Another
is shown in Fig.
leakdown tester
- : g .13-91.
and
\ 3 -92. T o u se , the pu sh r od s eat is r em ov ed
e lifter
is submerged in elean kerosene. Deress
the eheck valve with a elean, soft rod.
Itris
When
will allow the bottom area to fill.
push
filled,
install
rod
remove
and
eompletely
seat. The test pliers are engaged as shown and
--he handles squeezed. The plunger should slowis rapid,
disly move downward.
If travel
Make
assemble, clean, eheck and reassemble.
filled with kerosure the lifter
is eompletely
sene prior to testing, Fig. 13-92.
i:
i
ir
Ii ,,
ll
Fi g. l 3-92. Tesfi ng l eokdow n ote w i th speci ol test p/i ers.

' (D odse)
ROCKERARM AND SHAFT ASSEMBLY

AND INSTALLATION
LIFTER INSTALLATION
Lifters may be filled with 10W engine oil by
The rocker arms, spacers, springs, etc.,
removing the push rod seat and draining out the

kerosene. Fill the plunger body with CLEAN oil.
"Tiggle the check valve open to allow oil to fill
:he lower eompartment.
When this is full, fill
:he plunger body and replace push rod seat.
Lubricate the outside of the lifterbodyandlifter
following
should be
cleaning and inspection,
lubricated
and assembled on the shaft. Be very
Iocareful to install the arms in the correct
cations and facing in the right direction. They
placed in relation to the
must also be correctly
215
fron t o f th e s haf t . Fig. 13 - I 3, s hows t h e i n stalla tion of r oc k er ar m s on a s haf t t h a t s l i d e s

nto stru ts that ar e an int egr al par t of t h e h e a d .
I
nja+,,aA
L ur
differcnt
j-
sfwle
Fjx
r o c k e r a r m a sse m b l y i s
Note the flat onthe front
6f
12-95.
Y'v
end of the rocker
shaft.
ROCKERSHAFT
FIA T ON R OC K TRS H A FT
ARM
W;*o'o'*
-* u *
sPqcER-/
, a -,*%a
R TA IN TR :*
30rT
II
*
./,
.\
,*
RO C KE R
S HA FTS TRUT
qr m s. Noie
ho his s hoft s l i des

( Chr ysler )
th ro u g h integr al b ockets or sf uis.
F i g , l 3 -9 3 ,
l n stollng
r ocke
Fi g, I 3-95, A nothe styl e rockerormossem6/y.N ote us e of s poc ers

betw eenrockets,
ROCKERARM SHAFT POSITIONING

The a ssem bled r oc k er ar m s and s p r i n g s a r e
sh own in Fi g. 13- 94. Not e t he dif f er en t a n g l e s
o n th e inta k e and ex haus t r oc k er s . The s h a f t i s
h eld in po sitlon by t he loc k plug.
I n t h a t t h e h o l l o w r o c k e r s h a f t c a r r ie s a su p nlv nf njl tn thc rnnkers

i f r s i m n o r f n n f th a t th e
support bracket
A RM
INTAK ERO CK E R
designed totransfer
EXHAUSTROCKER
ARM
ROCK E R
SHA F TL O CKP L UG
*,
A DJUS TING
S CRE W
INTAKEPASSAGES
.
EXHAUST
CROSSOVER
PASSAGE
INTAKEPASSAGES
Fig.
l3 - 94.
R oc k er or m os s em bl y c om p/efed.
216
o il fr o m th e
fr
The individual rocker oil passages are generally positioned so they face toward the head.
This provides positive lubrication for the heavily
s t r e s s e d l o w e r r o c k e r b e a r i n g a r ea , a n d a l so
permits
l e s s o i l f l o w d u e t o t h e r e du ce d cl e a r ance between the rocker and the bottom of the
s h a f t . I f t h e o i l p a s s a g e s w e r e t u r n e d up w a r d ,
an
head to the shaft, be properly located.

cylinder
Fig . 13 -96, s hows t wo m et hods of c a r r y i n g o i l
via support brackets.
To assure that the oil supply opening in the
bracket, make
shaft indexes- with the correct
end, (flat or notch) faces
sure that the marked
the specified end of the engine. The notch or flat
c AP SC R EW S
CAP SC R EW
R OC KERAR M
SH AF T
ROCKER ARM
SHAFT
R OC KERAR M
SH AF T BR AC KET
R O C KER AR M
SH AF T BR AC KET
CYLINDERHEAD
F ig . 1 3 - 9 6 . T wo m e th odso( suppl yi ng oi l to the rocker shot vo fhe supporf brockets.
must also be positioned, (up, down, to the side)

Fig. 13- 9?, illu s t r a t e s
the
as recorn m ended.
marked ends and the various positions forthese
pa.rticular assemblies.
F i g . l3 - 9 7 . Ro cke r o r m sh o lt p o silio n in g morks.
e x c e s s i v e a m o u n t o f o i l w o u l d b e p a sse d . Th i s
would overlubricate
the valves with resultant
h e a v y o i L c o n s u m p t i o n . F i g . 1 3 - 9 8 , i l lu str a te s th e
u s u a l p o s i t o n i n g o f t h e s e o i l p a s s a g es. N o te th a t
l e s s c l e a r a n c e e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e bo tto m o f th e
shaft and the rocker arm.
The individual
ball stud rocker
arms are
lubricated
by a metered flow of oi1 delivered
through hollow push rods.
Shaft mounted rocker
arms are drilled in
various ways to facilitate the flow of oil to both
s t e m a n d p u s h r o d e n d s . Fi g . 1 3 - 9 9 ,
valve
shows one method.
ROCKERARM SHAFT
ROCKERARMSHAFT BR AC KET
LUBR IC AT ION
otL
ROCKER
ARM
MAXIMUM
CLEAR AN C E
M INIM U M
CLEAR AN C E
OIL PASSAGE
ALVE ASSEM BLY
PUSHROD
Fs. l 3-99.
F i g . l 3 - 9 8 , Ro cke o r m o il p o sso g e s in th e sh ol t generol l y l oce

toword he heod.
217
R ocker orm dri l l ed {or o i l .

(B ui ck)
INS TA LLA T I O N
ARMA S S E MB LY
RO C KER
On some engines, the push rodsareinstalled
before the rocker assembly. On others the rocker
assembly is installed, the push rods placed in
the lifters and thevalve springcompressed, thus
tipping the rocker high enough to plaee the push
rod under the rocker ball end.
T he engine i n F i g . 1 3 -1 0 0 , h a s th e p ushrods
installed. Note the special installing rod that
Fig. 13-101. Torquing ocke arm shoft brocftet cop screws'

(Sturevont)
If an oil overflow line is incorporated in the

assembly, make sure it is installed
rocker
properIY.
ossembly
Fg,13-100'Pvsh rods held in posifionlo .rockearm
installotionwit[ specol instolling rods' (Plynourh)
so
holds the push rod lrOO"" ends in alignment
they
installed'
is
assembly
rocker
the
that when
will all line uP.
or some other
A small amount of Lubriplate
should be applied to each end
suitable lubricant,
of the push rod before installing'
SHAFTBRACKETS
TIGHTENROCKER
S
LOWLY
EVENL YAND
V A L V EL A S HO RCL E A R A N C E
A DJ US T I NG
(HY DRA UL ILCI F T E RS )
Hydraulic lifters are used primarily to eLiminate the need for lash or clearance between the
end of the valve stem and the rocker arm' When
the parts heat up and elongate, the lifter will
leak down. Any shortening will cause the lifter
to pump up. In this way, zero clearance is constantly maintained.
Unfite conventional lifters that necessitate
periodic valve clearance adiustments, once set'
l i fter requi res no f ur t her
i tru hydraul i c
adjustment.
Some engines have no provision for adjustment on the rocker arms. VaLve stem length
above the head, head gasket thickness, push rod
and rocker wear, etc., all become critical onan
installation of this type. However, pushrods are
available in different lengths, to compensate for
small ehanges needed.
The object in adjusting hydraulie lifters isto
place the lifter plunger somewhere near the
center of its stroke. This will allow changes as
needed, inboth directions. Ifthe plunger is forced
If
to the bottom, it will act as a sold lifter'
allowed to remain at the top, it cannot compensate for wear and temperature contractions'
up
Lubrieate bracket cap screws and run
the
after
finger tight, Give each bracket bolt, one
If the
oth"er, a couple of turns. Proceed slowly'
shaft
andthe
oil,
hydraulic lifiers are filled with
bent
head'
againstthe
assembty is drawn rapidly
stems
valve
warped
oush rodq; bulged lifters,
sp*urrg rockers can result. By drawing the
"rra
assembly own slowly, the lifters willhavetime
to leak down without undue strain on the various
parts.
The rocker adjusting screws, where used'
should be backed off before tightening the assembly. This applies to conventional lifter setups
the
too. When the brackets are snugged against
F
i
g
.
1
3
-1
0
1
'
p
e
r
s
p
e
c
s
,
head, t or que a s
218
=l
PU SHR O D
L I FTERM USTBE ONCA M

L O BEBASECIRCLE
Rotate the engine until the cam lobe nose
jaees directly
away from the lifter. The lifter
-nrll then rest
on the base circle.
There are several ways of determiningwhen
:he lobe is in this position. On some engines, such
as the overhead eamshaft
type, the lobe is
-isible. If the engine is inthe car and the
ignition
:s properly
timed,
the engine can be slowly
::lrned over until the plug lead to the cylinder
:oncerned, fires. At this instant, bothvalves are
:losed and the lobes are in the proper position
jor Iash setting.
By slowly eranking the engine until a particular valve
is fully opened and then giving the
aRANKSHAFT
exactly
(mark
one full
turn
jamper
with chalk) the cam lobe will be turned
rne-half
revolution
thus placing the lobe nose
ryposite the lifter.
When a piston is brought to TDC (top dead
:enter) on the compression
stroke (both valves
:iosed) the lobes are in the correct position for
:iat cylinder.
-{no the r techn ique
inv olv es div iding t h e
l=.mper, with chalk marks,
into three 120 deg.
sections (six cylinder), or four g0 deg. sections
-;-8). One of the marks is on the timing notch,
:-:-d the others are related in degrees, to this
*"rk.
By cranking the engine, in various se_
::ences,
until the marks index with the timing
it is possible to set certain valves and
;cinter,
:l:s reduce the amount of eranking required,
LIF T ER C AM BASE C IRC L E
C AM SH AF T
C AM F LAN K
C AM N O SE
F i g.
l 3- 102.
7o s er v ol v e /os [
or c l eor onc e,
on t/re cqm 6os e c i r c /e.
the l i l te m us t re s t
AD J U ST IN GN U T
R O C KERAR M
I
I
I
'l
tr+ii
rl
R O C KERST U D
PLU N GERST OP R IN G
-:g. 13 -10 2.
LIF T ER BO D Y
TI FTERPL UNGE RMUS TB E

AT T OPOF TR AV E L
PLU N G ER
EALL C AG E
The rocker arm

adjustment should be
l:osened so the lifter plunger travels to the top
j its stroke. At this point, the push rod can be
':g g l ed" s ideway s a n d u p a n d d o w n , F i g . 1 3 -1 03.
Grasp the push rod concerned withthethumb
:nd forefingers. While genily shaking it siderrays, slowly tighten the rocker arm adjustment.
-r-s the rocker arm push rod end moves downard, the amount of shake will be reduced. Stop
:: the instant all play or shake is gone. At this
;oint the lifter is resting onthe cambase circle,
:b.e plunger is at the top of its travel, and no
lash is present between valve stem and rocker
:r rocker and push rod.
Following manufacturerts specs, give the
PLU N GERSPR IN G
C AM BASE C IR C LE
C AA.T SH AF T
Fi g. I3-103. H ydraul i c Ii l ter pl unger ogoi nsf fhe stop ri ng, roc k er om bocked ofi unil push rod soke is evident.
rocker arm adjustment an additional number of

turns (1-1/Z typi cal ). Thi s w i l l forcethepl unger
down to the midpoint of its stroke ortravel. Re-
219
--"1
-***"
F i g .1 3 J0 4 ,
s{
rk
i\
ROD
Re mo vi ng pus r od shoke pr ior to linol

(h vdr aulic llter s) .
( G.M .C.l
od i us l m enl
b y fe e l e r
as determined
clearanee,
correct
b
e
t
w
e e n va l ve
gauges or a dial indicator, exists
stem and rocker arm.
or a
A feeler gauge of the exact thickness
stepped GO - NO GO blade (GO = .001 below
s p e c s ) ( N O G O = . 0 0 1 a b o v e s p e c s ) s h o u l d p a ss
and valve stem (hold push rod
between rocker
end down) with a slight drag, Fig. 13-105.
Fig. 13 - 106, illustrates valve clearance being
c h e c k e d w i t h a d i a l i n d i c a t o r . T h i s d e v i c e g i ve s
highly accurate settings.
peat this p roces s on all r oc k er s . Fig. 13 - 1 0 4 ,

sh ows a me ch anic s hak ing t he pus h r od a s h e
downwar d t o t he po i n t a l l
dr a ws the rock er
W
her e adjus t m ent is n o t p r o cle ara nce is go ne.
and c hec k pus h r o d t o
lif
t
er
vid ed , comp res s
s pec s . I ns t all l o n g e r
agains
t
cle
ara
nc
e
ro cker
or sho rter
p ush r od if nec es s ar Y.
ADJUSTINGVALVE LASH
(MECHANICALLIFTERS}
A ce rtain a m ount of las h or c lear anc e b e twe en th e valve s t em and t he r oc k er ar m i s a
are employed.
lifters
MUST when mechanical
The exact amount will vary from engine to engine
dep en din g o n the us e, des ign and c ons t r u c t i o n .
Always use the amount specified by the manufacturer, for the engine at hand.
t appet c lear anc e will c aus e n o i s y
Exce ssive
operation, late valve opening and early closing,
lowe red va lve lif t , ex c es s iv e wear and p o s s i b l e
valve breakage. Insufflcient clearance will cause
early opening, higher lift, late closing andvalve
burning.
As with the hydraulic lifter, the mechanical
The
must re s t on t he c am bas e c ir c le .
lifter
the
t
h
a
t
s
o
adjus t ed
arm i s c ar ef ully
r o cker
F i g ,1 3 -1 0 5 .
Checking
volve cleor once wilh o feele r gauge'
c.)
tc.M.
Fi g.13-106. U si ng o speci of di ol i ndcotorsetup i o ch ec k toppet

c/eoronce. The adi ustmentscrew s fi ove o Iock nut'
(P ond G C o.)
COLD AND HOT CLEARANCESETTINGS

(MECHANICALLIFTERS}
an initial or
When an engine is reassembled,
i s n e ce sv
a
l
v
e
c
l
e
a
r
a
n
c
e
t
h
e
o
f
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
COLD
setting the
sary. For a flnal HOT clearance
e n g i n e m u s t b e u p t o n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g te m p e r Th i s
a t u r e ( o i l a s w e l l a s w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e ).
mnutes of warrnup
about thirty
will require
operation.
IS IM CLEARANCE
VALVE
ACCURATE
is
hot and
the
engine
Make certain
PORTANT.
e
x
a
c
t
.
a
r
e
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
s
that clearance
ROCKERARM ADJUSTINGSCREWS
S o m e r o c k e r a r m a d j u s t i n g s c r e w s a r e se l flocking. A specified amount of torque rnust be
a p p l i e d t o m o v e t h e m , I f t h e 'r b r e a k a w a y " to r q u e

-_= below accepted limits, change the screw
F.g. 105) or the nut (Fig. 104)
as the case
:nay be.
If a lock nut adjusting screw is used,
loosen
.
:he nut, adjust the screw, and while
hotding the
screw, firmly tighten the nut. After
tightening,
r ec hec k v alv e c l e a ra n c e , F i g . 1 3 _ 1 0 ? .
Reface a1l valves. Reject

any that will not
clean up and those with insufficilnt
margin. An
interference
angle may be used. Dress stones,
Smooth and chamfer
stem end. Stem musr not
be worn beyond limits.
Check valve stem to guide clearance.
If ex_
cessive, replace guides or ream for
an oversize
sJem. When replacing guides,
be certain to get
the proper guide, right side
up, in the correct
hole. Drive in to the specifieJ
distance. Some
guides require reaming after
installation.
To prevent excessive oil consumption,
seals
are often used on the guides, and
on ihe stem of
both intake and exhaust valves.
Cracked or burned seats can
be repaired by
installing
a valve seat insert. Grind vlve
seat,
at eorrect
angle, until cleaned up. Narrow
seat
to specified width by using
a 15 _ 30 deg. stone
on the top and in some
cases, a 60 _ ?0 deg.
stone on the bottom. Test seatforconcentricity.
Keep stones properly dressed.
Remove no more
metal than necessary.
F i , g . l 3 - 1 0 7 . A d j u s t vo lve c/e o o n ce .
No r e u se o lo c k nuts on
a d j u s f m e n fs c e w s . f e scr e wd r ive r
e n g o g e st[e o Jfu sr ment screw
w h i l e h e w r e n ch g r o sp s h e l ci n u .
l".r ""1
CHANGINGVALVE SPRINGHEAD ON ENGINE

Bring the piston to TDC on the compression
stroke (both valves closed). Remove
the spark
:1ug and insert an air hose adapter. Admit
full
='r pressure to the cylinder.
A_fter moving the
:ocker arm out of the way, the spring
may be
:ompressed and the keepers removed.
A new
or a valve guide sea1, may be installed.
_a1"g
I{EEP AIR PRESSURE TO TIIi
CYLINDER
;-]\-TIL THE VALVE
SPRING IS REPLACED
-L\D TIIE KEEPERS INSTALLED, Fig. 18_108.
S UM M A RY
Never remove a cylinder head when hot.
Re_
=:ove rocker arm assembly brackets
evenly, a
couple of turns on one, the same on the others.
Loosen head bolts a titile at a time in the
reverse
order of the tightening sequence.
Keep lifters, push rods, valves and
rocker
arms in order so that they may be replaced
in
:fie same location.
Head, valves, guides, etc., mustbethorough_
-l.- cleaned. Do
not scratch aluminum head
surface s.
Fi g. l 3-108.. R ernovi ngvol ve spri ng cssembl y

w i th the heod on
engi ne. N ote use o oi r hose odopfer i n the
spork pl ug hol e,
(G.M.c.)
Replace broken, loose or damaged

r o cke r
arm studs. If loose, ream and install
a n o ve r _
size stud.
C h e c k v a l v e 's p r i n g s
f o r s q u a r e n e s s , t e n si o n ,
rust
or nicks.
Replace
any that
show the
SLIGHTEST defect.
Using an accurate straightedge,
c h e c k cyl i n _
der head for warpage.
Lubricate
and install
valves.
C h e c k ste m
height above head. Install .springs,
closed coil
end against head. Check installed
spring height.
Add insert under spring against
head, iineeed.
Check stem seal with suction
cup.
Block surface must be clean
a n d a c cu r a te .
221
G--
with a THIN coat of

Coat gasket, Ilen-reguired,
end forcement. Place right side up, correct
ward, on bloek. Using guide pins, lowerheadinto
position. Head bolts and holes in block must be
clean and coated with thread compound. Torque
head.
arm ends that contact valve.
Grind rocker
shaft. Inspect ball or cup
Check fit on rocker
end. Push rods must be clean, straight and
smooth on the ends.
True up mechanical lifters on a valve grinder.
clean, inspect and reassemble
Disassemble,
the parts
When assembling,
lifters.
hydraulic
Lubricate
andinstall.
Lubricate
must be CLEAN.
and install rocker arms on shaft. Make certain
and that rocker
end forward
shaft has correct
oil holes face towards the head (usual). Tighten
shaft brackets slowly and evenly. This will allow
to leak down. Rocker arm
lifters
the hydraulic
screws should be
adjustment
valve clearance
backed off. Use atorque wrenchforfinaltightening. The ends ofthe lifters, pushrods, and rocker
arms should be lightly coated with lubricant'
When an adjustment isprovided, centerlifter
adjust valve
lifters,
With mechanical
plunger.
In both cases,
arm clearance.
stem to rocker
must be on cam base circle. When engine
lifter
head should be retorqued
warm,
is thoroughly
and the valve clearance reset.
Aecurate angles, clearances andfits, coupled
with absolute cleanliness, are absolutely essential to a top notch valve service job.
athorCHECK LIST: If you have performed
ough job, you will be able to answer each of the
following questions with a definite YES.
VALVE:
1. Is the valve face clean, smooth and correctly angled?
2 . Is the m ar gin 7132 n. or lar ge r ?
3. Is the stem smooth and free of excessive
wear, nicks, etc. ?
Is the stem endground square and slightly chamfered?
5. Are the keeper grooves cleanandingood
shape ?
6. Is all earbon,
gum, etc-, removed?
SEAT:
1. Is the seat smooth, clean and correctly
angled ?
2. Is the seat width as specified by manufacturer ?
3. Does the seat contact the eenter of the
valve face ?
with the guide ?
4. Is the seat concentric
5.. Is seat runout within .002?

th e h e a d ?
6. If an insertisused,isittightin
?. Is the seat width constant all the way
around ?
HEAD:
after cooling
1. Was the head removed
down?
Is the head immaculately clean, inside

and out?
a
Is any di.stortion within limits ?
4. Is the head to block surface free of
scratches, dents, etc. ?
5. Is the head free of cracks? If any were
found, were they rePaired?
Is the head gasket correctly installed?
7. If cement was used, was a THIN coat
applied ?
B. Is the head proPerlY torqued?
GUIDES:
1. Is guide wear within limits?
2. If guide was replaced, was it correctly
installe d ?
3. If guide was reamed, does it have the
correct cl earance?
4. If guide seals were used, are theyproperl y i nstal l ed?
ROCKER ARMS:
1. Is the end contacting the valve stem
smooth and accuratelY ground?
oil holes are used, aretheyopen?
Where
-2.
3. Is the rocker shaft or ball stud bearing
surface smooth and within wear limits ?
4. Is the push rod ball or socketendsmooth
and free of wear?
5. Is the rocker correctlyinstalled and does
it contact the valve ProPerlY?
6. ls the rocker clean?
ROCKER SHAFT AND BALL STUDS:
1. Is the rocker shaft clean - inside and out?
2. Are the rocker armbearing areas smooth
and within limits ?
3. Is the correct end of the shaft forward?
4. Do the rocker arm oil holes face in the
eorrect direction?
Are the shaft brackets in the correctloeation, torqued and free of cracks ?
o. Is ample oil reaching the assemblY?
7. If an overflow pipe is used, is it correctly located?
B . Are the ball studs tight in the head?
q
Are the ball stud adjusting nut threads
in good shape ?
the ball stud nuts within breakaway
Are
10.
specs ?
t
222
rocker
arm valve
11. Are the self-locking
clearance adjusting screws within breakawa y spe c s ?
PUSH RODS:
1
Are the rods straight?
2
Are rod ends smooth and free of exces-
sive wear ?
If the rods camy oil, is the hollow section thoroughly clean?
4
Is the correct end uP?
Are bo th ends in pr oper c ont ac t ?
o . Are the rods, if no elearance adjustment
is provided, the correct length?
LIF TERS:
been trued
1. Have the mechanical lifters
b. Loosening each bracket, in turn, a 1ittle

until all are loose.
c. Loosening the front end first.
d. Leaving one bracket tight until all others
have been loosened.
Remove cylinder head bolts in the reverse
order of the tghtening sequence. True or
False ?
I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o k e e p a l l p a r t s i n or d e r
because: (Circle best answer)
a. They may be lost.
b. They can be kept in a smaller area.
c. It is important they be returned to their
original positions.
d. It is just a good habit.
with:
stones are dressed
Valve grinding
(Circle best answer)
on the grinder?
Are ends and side smooth and free of
wear, galling, etc. ?
bore clearance
to lifter
3. Is the lifter
co rrect ?
immaculately
lifters
4. Are the hydraulic
clean and in good condition?
5. Have the hydr:aulie lfters been checked
for leakdown?
VALVE LASH OR CLEARANCE:
are used, is the
lifters
1. If mechanical
valve stem to rocker arm clearance as
specified ?
2. Was the clearance rechecked afterthorough engine warmup and head retorquing ?
3 . Was the lif t er on t hebas ec ir c lewhent h e
clea ran ce was s et ?
4. Are all adjustment screws and locknuts
tight ?
are used, were they
lifters
5. If hydraulic
set so that the plungers are near the
center of their travel?
G E NERAL :
1. When possible, were all parts replaced
in the locations from which they were
2.
a. A fi1e.
b. Another stone.
c. A diamond.
d. A hardened steel rod.
to keep wheels dressed
o. It is most important
because: (Circle best answer)
a, They cut faster.
b. They will produce accurate angles.
c. They wear longer.
d. They look better.
7. When the valve is groundatasllghtlydifferent angle (about one degree) than the seat,
is produced.
an--fit
8. When grinding the valve face: (Circle best
answer)
a. Keep the valve in the center of the stone.
b. Move the valve back and forth - staying
on the stone.
- off both
c. Move the valve back and forth
sides of the stone.
d. Keep the valve on the right hand side of
the stone.
9. To control stem height above the head, it is
end.
necessary to grind the
10. Explain how valve stem to guide clearance
removed?
2. Were all parts thoroughly cleaned?
3. Were allparts properlylubricatedbefore
assembly.
is checked.
valve stem to guide clearby
it may be corrected
an
or by-for
-guides
stem.
* -valve
12. Seals are often used on both the-ahd
the valve_,
13. Exeessive exhaust valve to guide clearance
oil consumption.
will
cause considerable
False
?
True or
t4. A cracked valve seat can often be repaired
11. Where excessive

ance
OUIZ - ChoPter13
Cylinder heads should be HOT, COLDbefore
removing. Circle one.
arm assembly by: (Circle
Remove rocker
best answer)
a. Loosening each bracket allthe waybefore
going to the next one.
is
present,
by installing
223
an---
15. Common
valve
26. To facilitate accurate head, gasket andblock

alignment,
used
_shouldbe
when installng the head.
27. The rocker arm end that contacts the valve
should be ground smooth and FLAT. True
or Fal se?
2R Hydraulic lifter parts are all very accurately
made and are thus all interchangeable. True
or Fal se?
29. Following cleaning and reassembly, hydraulic lifters should be tested for_.
30. All valves, lifters, push rods, rockers, etc.,
should always be installed in the same spot
from which removed. True or False ?
31. The rocker arm brackets, once the push
rods are installed, should be drawn down to
the head as rapidly as possible. True or
False ?
32. Rocker shaft rocker arm oil holes usually
face: (Circle best answer)
a. Away from the head.
b. Toward the head.
c. Sideways.
33. Hydraulic Iifter plungers should be about in
the center of their travel when properly installed and adjusted. True or False?
34. When adjusting valve clearance, the lifter
should be on the nose of the cam. True or
False ?
35. Excessive valve clearance will: (Circle best
answer)
a. Increase horsepower.
b. Cause early valve opening.
c. Prolong the life of the valve.
d. Cause late valve opening and alowerlift.
36. Valve clearance ean be checked with a
or a_
seat angles are-and
-d eg r ees .
16. A valve seat that is too wide will: (Circle
be st ans wer )
a. Pack with carbon, start to leak andburn.
b. Run too co1d.
c. Break the valve stem.
d. Be hard to open.
1?. The valve seat should engage the valve face
near the
18. To narrow a valve seat, metal
moved from the top witha
shouldbe re-
or
degree stone.
19. Once the valve seat stone is dressed,
approximately twelve seats may be ground
before dressing again. True or False?
t(r The pilot for the seat stone sleeve shouldfit
the guide
.
2t. The valve seat must be concentric with the
guide ho1e. True or False ?
2 2 Seat runout should be kept within: (Circle
Ir
1.,
:,,,
best answer)
a. . 0 0 2 .
b. . 00 6 .
c..020.
d. . 0 0 0 3 .
23. Vatve springs should be tested for
a nd - .
24. Excessive
valve spring installed height can
cause: (Circle best answer)
a. Heavy spring tension.
b. Valve float.
c. SIow valve timing.
d. Seal damage.
.
/5. Gasket cement must ALWAYS be applied to
the head gasket. True or False?
TE LE S C OP IN G
VALVE
GA U GE
GUIDE
3/8-tNCH
mml
Fi s. l 3-110.
Fig. l3-109. l!sing o dial indicotor to cf,eck volve lift
m e o su r e m e n l. lAm e ico n M o tors)
224
C l recki ng vol ve gui de i nsi de d i ameter w i th o tel escoping gouge. lAmeicon llotos)

Auto Service and Repair - Martin W. Stockel

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Auto Service and Repair - Martin W. Stockel

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

:

South Hollond, lllinois

and Shows How to Serviee,

Many of the drawings

for use in this text.

mended by the standards

also those now engaged in automotive

who want to increase

who need a sound, thorough

and step up their

WIRE AND WRING

15. CAMSHAFT,TIMING GEAR,CHAIN SERVICE

FUEL SYS TEMSERVICE

DIFFERENTIAL,AXLE, SEAL, HOUSINGSERVICE

I-:-:s chapter will c over the identification

TMLS ARE IMPORTANT

Fi g. l -1. A good w ay to store rool s..(foo/s ore sfi ow n arronged

Place delicate measuring tools in proteetive

Auto Service ond Repqir

edges. Tools subject to rusting should be lightly

it as far from the top as practieal.

Fi g. l -4. C hi sel hol de. l n use te handl e s houl d be k ept ti ght.

Keep the cutting edge sharp and the top

F i g . l- 2 . Ha m m e r s. Bo ll p e e n .Plo stic fpped. 8ross.

DANGER.I USE A HAMMER WITH CARE.

F i s . l - 5 . Clrisel or left is dangerous fo use. Some cfiisel, ofter

Bosic Hqnd Tools

Fi g. I-7A . A l i gni ng punch. A -R un punch throughhol es os f o os

F ig. l- 6 . P u n c l r e s . l - s to r tin g p u n ch . 2 - Dr ilt p u n "h . 3 - Pin pur.h.

A center punch is neededtomark

punches. Grind slowly, keeping correct angles,

Fig. l:7. Center puncfi. A-Workmokedlor drilling. B-Drill aligned

The aligni.ng punch is very helpful in shifting

One determination of file cut indicates the

Auto Service ond Repcir

Control the file to prevent roeking (unless

Fig . 1 - 9 . T h r e e d ilfe r e n t file cu ts - b ostord,

Fg. l-10. File cufs. l-Single cut. 2-Dovblecuf. 3'Rosp cut.

Typtcol si ngl e cut ni l l (l e.

Use a cut suitable for the work. Coarse cuts

or double cut (two rows of diagonalcuttingedges

The a uto mec hanic will of t enhav e need t o u s e

H ond pow er yi nder.

(A l bertson ond Co.)

Fig. l-138. Discsonder.

SAFETY RULES FOR GRINDERS,

HAND POWERGRINDERAND SANDER

of specialized grinders such as

BE CAREFUL NEVER TO STRIKE A GRINDING WHEEL WHILE REVOLVING . IT MAY

F ig . l- 1 4 . T yp ico l twist d r ill

Fi g. I-16. l l si ng o dri l l gouge. T s si mp/e go uge w i l l c hec k

Bqsic Hqnd Tools

If you have sharpened the drill correctl

1. UNPLUG THE CORD BEFORE INSERTING

F i g . I - 1 8 . Ele ctr ic h o n d d r ill.

Taps are used for cutting internal threads.

The pipe tap is tapered over the full length

determine exactly the number of

TAP DRIIJJ SIZES

COARSE STNDARD THREID

Fig. t-19. Reomers. A-Enlorged seclion sfiowing rcamer looth

start easily. It cannot, however, be usedinblind

THRETT.D (N. F.)

Fig. l-21 . Top &ill