1.

13 Sediments and Sediment Transport

DJ Sherman and L Davis, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
SL Namikas, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1.13.1
1.13.2
1.13.2.1
1.13.2.2
1.13.2.3
1.13.2.4
1.13.2.5
1.13.3
1.13.3.1
1.13.3.1.1
1.13.3.1.2
1.13.3.2
1.13.3.2.1
1.13.3.2.2
1.13.3.3
1.13.4
1.13.4.1
1.13.4.2
1.13.4.3
1.13.5
1.13.5.1
1.13.5.2
1.13.5.3
1.13.6
References

Introduction
Key Concepts
The Froude Number
The Reynolds Number
The Prandlt and von Karman Boundary-Layer Concepts
Nikuradses Sand Grain Roughness
The Rouse Number
The Properties of Sediment
Particle Size and Its Measurement
Particle-size scales
Particle-size measurement
Particle Shape
Sphericity
Roundness
Sediment Size Distributions
Initiation of Sediment Motion
The Hjulstrom Curve
The Shields Curve
Bagnolds (1936) Equation
Sediment Transport
Grove Karl Gilbert
Ralph Alger Bagnold
Douglas Lamar Inman
Conclusions

Glossary
Capacity The total amount of suspended and bed
sediment a stream is capable of transporting. It is
determined by the available unit stream power and
bed-shear stress distributed across the width of a channel
cross-section. It differs from the total load of a channel
as the load refers to what the stream is actually carrying,
which is dependent on the amount of sediment
supplied from upstream, and this is usually less than the
capacity.
Competence The largest caliber of sediment a stream is
capable of entraining and transporting. Competence is
proportional to flow velocity.
Form ratio The mathematical relationship between
stream channel width and depth, usually expressed as mean
depth/width. Form ratio is often calculated in order to
determine channel cross-sectional area and/or channel
capacity.

234
235
235
235
235
236
237
238
238
238
240
241
241
243
243
245
245
246
248
248
248
251
253
253
253

Law of the wall A deterministic model to describe the

rate of change of fluid velocity in the stress region of a
turbulent boundary layer. The model underpins the use of
measured velocity profiles to estimate shear velocity and
shear stress.
Mixing length A theoretical construct that represents the
scale of eddies that transfer fluid momentum within a
turbulent boundary layer between the surface and the top of
the boundary layer, where the free-stream velocity is
attained. The assumption of a characteristic mixing length is
fundamental to the law of the wall.
Phi-scale The phi-scale is widely used to express the size
of sediment particles or populations. A phi (j) value is the
negative base-2 logarithm of the grain size in millimeters.
Roughness length A scaling parameter used to represent
the magnitude of the influence of a surface on an adjacent
fluid flow. It is commonly expressed as a function of the
grain size of bed sediment. The roughness length is

Sherman, D.J., Davis, L., Namikas, S.L., 2013. Sediments and sediment
transport. In: Shroder, J. (Editor in chief), Orme, A.R., Sack, D. (Eds.),
Treatise on Geomorphology. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, vol. 1, The
Foundations of Geomorphology, pp. 233256.

Treatise on Geomorphology, Volume 1

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374739-6.00013-0

233

234

Sediments and Sediment Transport

sometimes interpreted physically as the height above the

bed at which a fluid flow becomes zero.
Sediment budget A sediment budget comprising the
entire suite of sources and sinks of clastic material that
affect a given location. A positive sediment budget produces
net deposition at that location, whereas a negative budget
results in net erosion and a balanced budget is associated
with no net change.

Settling velocity The rate at which a sediment particle will

fall through a quiescent fluid after the gravity force is
balanced by the drag force so that there is no further
acceleration. Settling velocity, also termed as fall or terminal
velocity, is used as an indicator of the hydrodynamic or
aerodynamic behavior of a particle.

Abstract
Sediment transport is one of the most basic and important processes responsible for shaping the Earths surface, and is thus
of fundamental interest to geomorphologists. Existing landforms are sculpted and altered by the erosion of weathered
sediments, and the subsequent deposition of those materials produces new suites of landforms at other locations. The
purpose of this chapter is to review the development of some key concepts and techniques in sediment transport that have
become part of the repertoire of modern geomorphology. This body of knowledge has grown out of contributions from
many scientific disciplines, including, but not limited to, engineering, geography, geology, geomorphology, hydraulics,
physics, oceanography, and sedimentology. Herein, the authors aim to highlight the especially important advances.

The chapter begins with introductions to key supporting

concepts, mostly drawn from work in fluid mechanics conducted between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries, which were of a nature to change fundamentally the
way that we conceive of the physics of sediment transport.
These include the dimensionless numbers developed by
William Froude and Osborne Reynolds, which remain widely
used to characterize the nature of flows and to establish dynamic similitude in models; the boundary-layer theory and
law of the wall developed by Ludwig Prandtl and his student
Theodore von Karman, which permeate studies of sediment
transport across nearly all environments; the characterization
of the roughness length of sediment surfaces developed by
Johann Nikuradse; and the dimensionless parameter developed by Hunter Rouse that is used to characterize and
normalize profiles of suspended sediment concentration.
The remainder of the chapter addresses three themes representing major subcomponents of sediment transport: (1)
developments in the characterization and measurement of the
size and form of sediments and sediment populations; (2)
major contributions to our understanding of the initiation of
sediment motion, focusing on the contributions of Filip
Hjulstrom, Albert Shields, and Ralph Alger Bagnold; and (3)
major contributions to the study and modeling of sediment
transport in various environments, including Bagnolds classic
aeolian transport model, Grove Karl Gilberts work in fluvial
systems, and Douglas Lamar Inman studies of sediment
transport in coastal environments.

1.13.1

Introduction

A rich heritage of research and discovery concerning sediment

and sediment transport is relevant to geomorphology. This
work directly underpins much of process geomorphology and
is also fundamental to many environmental interpretation
and reconstruction studies. The generation of sediments by

weathering and the subsequent erosion of those sediments

lead to the reshaping of landforms. Similarly, the deposition
of transported sediments leads to the formation and evolution
of a different suite of landforms. Furthermore, the nature of
sediment deposits provides insight to the process environment
that is associated with their transport and deposition. For
these reasons, among others, understanding the fundamentals
of sediments and sediment transport provides the geomorphologist with powerful tools for modeling and interpreting landform evolution. The purpose of this chapter is to
review the development of some of the key concepts and
techniques that have become part of the repertoire of modern
geomorphology. Such classic work comes to us from many
scientific disciplines, including, but not limited to, engineering, geography, geology, geomorphology, physics, oceanography, and sedimentology.
Numerous books have been written concerning particular
aspects of sediment and sediment transport, but there is insufficient space in this chapter to detail all of the important
contributions of even the last century or so. Therefore, the
attention is focused on a selection of key publications organized by three themes: (1) developments in measuring and
characterizing sediments; (2) major contributions to the study
of the initiation of motion, and (3) major contributions to the
study of sediment transport. In each of these sections, a selection of developments is detailed in their historical context
to provide what is hoped to be a deeper appreciation of their
background. Shorter, more general introductions to supporting concepts that contributed each advance, generally
from fluid mechanics, are also included. These concepts were
of a nature to change fundamentally the way in which the
physics of sediment transport is conceived.
In the section characterizing sediments, the classic works of
Wentworth, Wadell, Krumbein, and Folk and Ward are the
focus. For the initiation of motion, the studies by Hjulstrom,
Shields, and Bagnold are discussed. In the section on sediment
transport, the work of Gilbert, Bagnold, and Inman are

Sediments and Sediment Transport

considered. Our coverage is not intended to be comprehensive, but, hopefully, not idiosyncratic. For fuller consideration
of sediments and sediment transport, the reader is referred,
topically, to the following. There are many excellent treatments
of sediment properties, including the classic text by Krumbein
and Pettijohn (1938) and later works by Carver (1971), Folk
(1980), and Tucker (2001). Similar information also appears
in general texts on sedimentology and sedimentary petrology.
For treatments of motion initiation and sediment transport in
various environments, there are again many excellent compendia, including books by Bagnold (1941), Allen (1982),
Graf (1984), and Julien (2010). The Treatise on Geomorphology
also includes several volumes of direct relevance to the principles reviewed in this chapter, notably Volume 9, Fluvial
Geomorphology (Ellen Wohl, Editor); Volume 10, Coastal
Geomorphology (Douglas Sherman, Editor); Chapter 11.1,
and Volume 14, Methods in Geomorphology (Adam Switzer
and David Kennedy, Editors). Also, in Chapter 1.2 of this
volume, The Foundations of Geomorphology, Antony Orme
discusses these principles during geomorphologys formative
years from the Renaissance to the early nineteenth century.

1.13.2

Key Concepts

Much of what we understand concerning sediment transport is

based on a series of fundamental concepts in fluid mechanics.
These reflect ideas explored in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries that were advanced significantly during the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In this chapter, we
examine a particular subset of advances that is believed to be
of special relevance to modern geomorphologists concerned
with, especially, sand transport. These include important
developments by William Froude (1866: the Froude number);
Osborne Reynolds (1883: the Reynolds number); Theodore
von Karman and Ludwig Prandtl (early twentieth century:
boundary-layer theory and the law of the wall); Johann
Nikuradse (1933: equivalent sand grain roughness); and
Hunter Rouse (1938: the Rouse number).

1.13.2.1

The Froude Number

William Froude (18101879) was an English hydrodynamicist

and naval architect with a degree in mathematics from Oxford.
His major contribution to the study of sediment transport in
geomorphology lies in the dimensionless number that bears
his name, although the relation was proposed earlier by JeanBaptiste Belanger (Chanson, 2009). The Froude number (Fr)
can be expressed in several forms, but most generally as:
V
Fr p
gL

235

the hydraulic depth (the cross-sectional channel area divided

by the surface width). In rivers, the Froude number provides
one approach to distinguish between flow regimes. A Froude
number o1 indicates subcritical or tranquil flow. In this state,
flow velocity is smaller than that of a wave propagating on the
surface and gravitational forces are dominant. For Fr 41, the
flow is termed supercritical or rapid, and the inertial forces are
dominant. The Froude number is also useful in establishing
similitude between model and prototype in laboratory studies.

1.13.2.2

The Reynolds Number

Osborne Reynolds (18421912) was an Irish-born, Cambridgeeducated mathematician and engineer. Virtually, his entire
professional career was spent as a Professor of Engineering at
Owens College. The author of more than 70 scholarly publications on topics ranging from fluid mechanics to naval
architecture, and from thermodynamics to civil engineering,
Reynolds many achievements led him to be elected a fellow of
the Royal Society in 1877 (Jackson, 1995).
Reynolds accomplishments in the realm of fluid mechanics include development of the useful concept that has
come to be known as Reynolds-averaging, in which turbulent
flows are characterized through decomposition into mean and
fluctuating components. But he is best known for his studies
of flow in pipes and the quantification of conditions associated with the transition from laminar to turbulent flow, as
characterized by the well-known Reynolds number (Re):
Re

VL
n

2

where n is kinematic viscosity (Reynolds, 1883). This dimensionless number represents the ratio of inertial to viscous
forces. At small values (Re o2300 in pipe flow), viscosity is
dominant and flow will be laminar. At high values (Re 44000
for pipe flow), stronger inertial forces will produce turbulent
flows. A transitional zone exists between the laminar and
turbulent regimes in which either flow condition may prevail
depending on additional factors like surface roughness.
In the original studies, the characteristic length scale (L)
was the pipe diameter, but in later practice, it varied with
application. In the case of open channel flow, for example,
hydraulic depth is generally used. For particles settling in a
fluid, the particle diameter is used for L (and the resulting
quantity is termed the particle Reynolds number). Along with
the Froude number, the Reynolds number provides a key tool
for determining whether dynamic similitude exists between
model and prototype flows (e.g., Middleton and Wilcock,
1994).

1

1.13.2.3
where V is a characteristic velocity, g is the gravitational constant, and L is a characteristic length (Graf, 1984). The Froude
number can be interpreted as the ratio of inertial to gravitational forces, or as the ratio of mean flow velocity to the
celerity of a shallow water surface wave.
In the context of open channel flow, V represents the flow
velocity averaged over the entire channel cross-section and L is

The Prandlt and von Karman Boundary-Layer

Concepts

Every modern textbook on fluid dynamics or mechanics will

include a discussion of boundary-layer concepts based on the
work of Ludwig Prandtl (18751953) and his student,
Theodore von Karman (18811963). The motivation for the
work was the desire to quantify shear stresses across the surfaces of aircraft wings. Because the NavierStokes equations

236

Sediments and Sediment Transport

were intractable, such quantification was impossible before

Prandtls short (10 min) presentation at the Third International Mathematics Congress in Heidelberg in 1904 (see
discussion in Anderson, 2005), when he postulated the presence of a boundary layer within which the flow is influenced
by friction. In the free stream above the boundary layer,
frictional effects are negligible. At the base of the boundary
layer there was hypothesized a no-slip condition where
flow velocity became zero. These concepts revolutionized
the study of flow across a surface. Within a few decades, the
boundary-layer theory found its way into sediment-transport
applications (discussed below), especially with regard to the
development of the law of the wall and the shear velocity
concept. Both of these developments are related through,
among other concepts, the theories of mixing lengths.
For laminar flow in a boundary layer, the change in velocity
from zero at the surface to the free-stream velocity at the top of
the boundary layer is caused by vertical momentum transport
associated with molecular motion along a mean free path. For
turbulent flows, it is assumed that small (relative to boundarylayer thickness) parcels of fluid eddies may behave in an
analogous manner while conserving a characteristic momentum (or other physical property). The distance through
which momentum is conserved is the mixing length. In a
turbulent boundary layer, the mean velocity, u, at an elevation,
y, above the surface is an average of the velocities of the slower
moving eddies arriving from one mixing length, l, below that
elevation and faster moving eddies arriving from one mixing
length above that elevation, as depicted in Figure 1. This is the
key element in Prandtls momentumtransport theory
(Prandtl, 1926, as cited in Vennard and Street, 1982):
t rl2


du 2
dy

3

where t is shear stress and r is the fluid density. He also noted

that l is a function of distance from the boundary: l ky, with
k an empirical constant.
Theodore von Karman (18811963) was a student of
Prandtl at the University of Gottingen, and his PhD, written

about the behavior of solids, was awarded in 1908. His

interests turned to fluid mechanics almost by accident, according to his biographer (Dryden, 1965). However, he was
soon appointed director of the Aerodynamics Institute at the
University of Aachen in 1912, where he honed his interests in
boundary layers. In 1930, he presented his Similarity Theory
for mixing length, arguing that the structure of turbulent eddies is similar at all elevations in the boundary layer, except
that their dimensions scale with elevation, so that there is a
zone of constant shear stress (von Karman, 1930, cited in
Duncan et al., 1970). From his arguments:
 ,

du d2 u 
du


l k
 u =
 dy dy2 
dy

4

p
where u is the shear velocity, defined as u  t=r.
This formulation led to the law of the wall:
uz

 
u
z
ln
z0
k

5

where k (now known as the von Karman constant) 0.4, and

z0 is the surface roughness length. From this relationship,
shear velocity can be estimated using the slope, m, of a loglinear velocity profile: u km.
The law of the wall and its applications are used extensively
in process geomorphology, especially for deriving estimates of
shear velocity. The latter is a critical parameter for estimating
the threshold condition for the movement of sediments, and
also is a common element in models of sediment-transport
rates.
Both Prandtl and von Karman continued to make fundamental contributions to the field of aerodynamics; the former
for Nazi Germany and the latter for the allies. Von Karman
immigrated to USA in 1930 to take up a position at the
California Institute of Technology, where he later helped to
establish the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Both earned many
honors during their lifetimes, but perhaps without recognizing
that their boundary-layer theories would underpin one
element of the discipline of geomorphology.

1.13.2.4

u + l1(du/dy )
l1
u
l1
u l1(du/dy )
y1

u
Figure 1 Schematic of the mixing length concept. The fluid speed u
at elevation y1 is the average of the speeds arriving with eddies from
a mixing length above and below.

Nikuradses Sand Grain Roughness

Johann Nikuradse (18941979) was another of the

notable students who studied at the University of Gottingen
under Ludwig Prandtl. Nikuradse completed his PhD in 1923
and continued at Gottingen for another decade, conducting
extensive research on the nature of flow in pipes and channels
of various types with Prandtl (Hager and Liiv, 2008). His most
important contribution to sediment transport derives from his
classic paper on the nature of turbulent flow in rough pipes
(Nikuradse, 1933).
In a painstaking series of experiments, Nikuradse affixed
uniform coatings of sand grains to the interior of pipes using
thin lacquer. The sand was sieved to a very narrow size range
to produce a uniform surface roughness. He then measured
the influence of various surface roughness lengths (different
grain sizes) on flows across a wide range of Reynolds numbers,
to determine a resistance or friction factor.

Sediments and Sediment Transport

237

1.1
1.0

 =
k
=
=
=
=
=

0.8
0.7

log (100)

0.9

15
30.6
60
126
252
507

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
log Re

0.2
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0
Figure 2 Nikuradses friction factor (l) as a function of Reynolds number (Re) for various relative surface roughness lengths (tpipe radius
and k grain diameter). Reproduced from Nikuradse, J., 1933. Stromungsgesetze in Rauhen Rohren. Forschung auf dem Gebiete des
Ingenieurwesens, Forschungsheft 361, VDI Verlag, Berlin, Germany (English Translation: Laws of Flow in Rough Pipes). Technical Memorandum
1292, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Washington, DC, 1950.

Nikuradse found that at low Reynolds numbers, the friction factor is independent of grain size (surface roughness)
and it decreases as Reynolds numbers increase (Figure 2). This
results from the roughness elements remaining within the
thicker laminar sublayer. As the Reynolds number is increased,
a transitional zone is entered in which the roughness elements
are of approximately the same size as the laminar sublayer and
the friction factor increases with Re. Beyond the transitional
zone, the roughness elements protrude through the laminar
layer and influence the outer flow directly. In this region,
which is characteristic of many natural sediment-transport
situations, the friction factor becomes a constant that is independent of the Reynolds number and controlled by the
surface roughness length (grain size).
Following Nikuradses work, a number of simple expressions have been proposed to relate surface roughness
length, z0, to grain size, d, in studies of sediment transport in
various environments. For example, Bagnold (1941) suggested
z0 d/30, whereas Einstein (1950) used z0 d65/30 (d65 is the
diameter in a grain-size population at which 65% of the grains
are finer). In many cases, the drag imparted on a moving fluid
by surface grains (also referred to as skin drag) is mainly determined by the size of the sediments that comprise that
surface. Other surface irregularities, including bedforms (form
drag) and vegetation, will also contribute to the total drag and
these latter factors may be far more significant, especially in
natural environments.
Rouse (1991) remarked on Nikuradses unusual experimental approach, in which individual measurements were
immediately plotted and subsequently discarded if they deviated significantly from the general trend. Nonetheless, Yang
and Joseph (2009) recently suggested that Nikuradses work
remains the gold standard for experimental studies of flow in

rough pipes, and Hager and Liiv (2008) concluded that

Nikuradses contribution to hydraulic engineering will survive. According to Oswatitsch and Wieghardt (1987), the reports on those experiments were the last substantive pieces of
research Nikuradse published, as he left the Kaiser Wilhelm
Institut after he tried unsuccessfully, with the help of a Nazi
Party official, to replace Prandtl as director.

1.13.2.5

The Rouse Number

Hunter Rouse (19061996) was a pioneer in ythe application of fluid mechanics to hydraulics, fusing theory and
experimental techniques to form the basis for modern engineering hydraulics as recognized in the text of his award by
the American Society of Civil Engineers of the John Frits Medal
in 1991 (Mutel and Ettema, 2010: 229). Among his many
accomplishments was the recognition and quantification of a
characteristic, vertical concentration profile for suspended
sediments, leading to the development of what is now referred
to as the Rouse number.
Rouse (1938) was interested in relationships between turbulence and suspended sediments in water. His reasoning
began with recognition of the basic relationship between
vertical velocities associated with turbulent eddies and the
settling velocity of transported sediments, and the vertical
velocity profile as described by the law of the wall. Using a
blender-like apparatus to suspend particles via vertical oscillation, he was able to produce and measure vertical concentration profiles with four different sediment sizes, ranging
from 0.03 to 0.25 mm in diameter. Results are presented in his
Figure 4, depicting the linear relationship between elevation
and the log of concentration. There was a distinct profile for
each of the grain sizes, but each of the slopes, S, followed the

238

Sediments and Sediment Transport

relationship S 2.3(e/ws), where 2.3 is the ln to log10 conversion, e bu0 l, where b is a constant of proportionality
usually assumed to be 1, u0 is the mean velocity associated
with turbulent fluctuations, and ws is the sediment fall (settling) velocity. The inverse of the term e/ws is now recognized
as the Rouse number, P, but with e parameterized as ku.
The Rouse number is used to normalize suspended sediment concentrations under different flow conditions and with
different grain sizes, to a characteristic form the Rouse
profile:

p
Cs
zh  za a

za h  z
Ca

6

where cs is a reference concentration at elevation z above the

bed, ca is the concentration at elevation za, h is water depth,
and a is a constant of proportionality (b in Rouse, 1938) that
varies from approximately 1.0 for low concentrations of fine
sediments to approximately 10 for medium sands (e.g., Dyer,
1986). Rose and Thorne (2001) found b to range from 0.90 to
2.38 with only relatively small changes in grain size, but
showing a general increase with decreasing shear velocity. The
Rouse profile has been widely used in fluvial and coastal environments. A few examples of river applications include
studies by Li et al. (1998), Duan and Julien (2005), Waeles
et al. (2007), Wiele et al. (2007), Davy and Lague (2009),
Shugar et al. (2010), and Bouchez et al. (2011). In beach and
nearshore work, the Rouse profile concept has been used by
Beach and Sternberg (1992), Hardisty et al. (1993), Osborne
and Greenwood (1993), Vincent and Osborne (1995), Bass
et al. (2002), Vitorino et al. (2002), Nielson and Teakle
(2004), Masselink et al. (2005), van Rijn (2007), or Pacheco
et al. (2011). In estuaries and marshes, it has been employed
by, among many others, Geyer (1993), Murphy and Voulgaris
(2006), Winterwerp et al. (2009), Shi (2010), and Chant et al.
(2011). There has also been more limited application in aeolian studies: in an apparently independent derivation by
Sundborg (1955) and by Udo and Mano (2011) for sand. A
broader literature has occurred for suspended dust, including
work by Anderson (1986), Tsoar and Pye (1987), Scott
(1994), and Duran et al. (2011). Related applications of
Rouses work have also been applied to gravity flows and to
transport processes on other planets. Such has been the importance of the Rouse profile to the study of sediment transport that it places among the leading innovations discussed in
this section.

1.13.3

The Properties of Sediment

The fundamental properties of a sediment particle, especially

with regard to potential transport, are size, shape, and composition. A population of mixed-size particles, typically found
in nature, is usually described in terms of the statistical or
graphical mean, sorting, skewness, and kurtosis of an appropriate sample. In this section, several of the key individuals
and papers that led in the development of: (1) methods of
estimating particle size using manual, mechanical, and visual
analyses, emphasizing methods used for sand-size particles or

larger; (2) descriptive and quantitative approaches developed

to categorize particle sizes; (3) methods of characterizing
particle shape; and (4) methods of describing particle populations are reviewed.
Sediment characteristics can yield a variety of information
about deposition and transport processes, sediment source
areas, and can help reconstruct environmental conditions. But
in order to interpret sediment characteristics and their geomorphic, geologic, and environmental significance, it is first
necessary to describe sediment in some way that allows conclusions and comparisons to be made. Before the nineteenth
century, most geologists and physical geographers used individually developed techniques and nomenclatures to describe
sediment, which, in addition to creating a great deal of confusion, all but excluded the possibility of comparing data and
results between investigators. Some of the major impediments
to the development of standard sediment characterizations
include debate about which characteristics are the most
meaningful, what nomenclature should be used, and the
cumbersome and time-consuming nature of some of the
measurement techniques that hinder reproducibility. Of
the many ways that sediment can be characterized, several
measures or descriptors have survived the passage of time or
have been so seminal that they form the basis for the techniques utilized today. These are the focus of the following
discussion.

1.13.3.1
1.13.3.1.1

Particle Size and Its Measurement

Particle-size scales

Major headway in characterizing sediment occurred in the

early twentieth century as investigators began seeking standard
techniques and nomenclature. In 1922, Chester Wentworth
(18911969) of the State University of Iowa published a
named grade scale for clastic sediments, which as the
UddenWentworth scale (Figure 3) became the universal
standard for describing grain size in sediments and sedimentary rocks (Blair and McPherson, 1999). Wentworths
(1922c) scheme clarified and improved an existing classification scheme developed by Udden (1914). During the later
nineteenth century, many scientists had devised schemes that
divided particles into classes based on the diameter of their
intermediate axis, which was used because it was found to
control how particles pass through, and are thus separated by,
sieve openings. Sieving was then the most widely used technique for particle-size analysis. However, the differing practices and preferences of those who developed these schemes,
and the names they assigned, restricted comparative studies of
sediments.
Wentworth modified Uddens classification scheme by renaming some of the clast grades, including a boulder class
beginning at 256 mm instead of 16 mm, reassigning Uddens
large (128256 mm) and medium boulders (64128 mm) to
cobble gravel (64256 mm), renaming particle classes between 4 and 64 mm as pebble gravel, introducing granule
gravel for medium gravel (24 mm), renaming fine gravel
(12 mm) as very coarse sand, and describing the four silt
classes (1/161/256 mm) collectively as silt, and coarse to fine
clay simply into clay (finer than 1/256 mm) (Figure 3). The

New York city*

aqueduct
commission

K.Keilhack

J.Thoulet

A.W. Grabau

Ortb||

J. S. Diller

United States**
Bureau of soils

H. A. Barker

J. A. Udden

Classification
here proposed
Bowlder gravel

Bowlders
150 mm
Coarse
Cobbles
Gravel

Gravel

50 mm
Very course gravel
25 mm

Gravel
Gravel

Coarse gravel
5 mm
Fine
gravel

Fine gravel

0.1 mm
Superfine sand
0.05 mm

2 mm
Very coarse sand
1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.2 mm
Fine sand
0.1 mm
Superfine sand
0.05 mm

Rock flour

Dust

0.01 mm
Superfine rock flour
0.005 mm

0.01 mm

1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.25 mm
Fine sand

Clay size

Coarse sand
0.89 mm
Medium sand
0.45 mm
Fine sand
0.26 mm
Very fine sand
0.04 mm
Fine-fine sand

5 mm
Fine gravel
2.5 mm
Very coarse sand
1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.25 mm
Fine sand

Gravel
3 mm

2 mm
Fine gravel
1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.25 mm
Fine sand

0.1 mm
Superfine sand
0.05 mm

Fine sand
0.05 mm

2 mm
Fine gravel
1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.25 mm
Fine sand
0.1 mm
Very fine sand
0.05 mm

Rock flour

Dust

Silt

0.01 mm
Superfine rock flour
0.005 mm

0.01 mm

0.01 mm
Finest silt
0.005 mm

0.005 mm

Clay size

Finest dust

Clay

Clay

Very coarse sand

1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.25 mm

0.1 mm
Very fine sand
0.05 mm
Silt

2 mm
Very coarse sand
1 mm
Coarse sand
0.5 mm
Medium sand
0.25 mm
Fine sand
0.1 mm
Coarse silt
0.05 mm
Silt
0.01 mm
Clay

256 mm
Cobble gravel
64 mm

Pebble gravel

4 mm
Granule gravel
2 mm
Very coarse sand
1 mm
Coarse sand
1/2 mm
Medium sand
1/4 mm
Fine sand
1/8 mm
Very fine sand
1/16 mm

Silt

1/256 mm
Clay

* Quoted by A.W. Grabau, Principles of Stratigraphy (1913), 286 pp.

** United States Bureau of Soils, Soil Survey Field Book (1906), pp. 17, 18.
Konrad Keilhack, Lehrbuch der praktischen Geologie (1908), 2le Auflage, Stuttgart, Ferdinand Enke.
H.A. Baker, On the Investigation of the Mechanical Constitution of Loose Arenaceous Sediments by
J. Thoulet, Precis danalyse de fonds sous-marins actuel et anciens, 64 pp. Paris, R. Chapelot and Cie. the Method of Elutriation, with Special Reference to the Thanet Beds of the Southern Side of the London Basin,
2 pp, London, Dulan and Co., 1920.
A.W. Grabau, Principles of Stratigraphy (1913), New York, A.G. Seiler and Company.
J.A. Udden, Mechanical Composition of Clastic sediments, Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. XXV
|| Orth, Beseichnung des Sandes nach der Grsse des Kornes. Neus Jehrbuch fr Mineralogie,
551 pp. Volume for 1875,
(1914), pp. 655744.
J.S. Diller, U.S. Geological Survey of Bulletin 150 (1902), 380 pp.

Figure 3 Table from Wentworth (1922c) showing the UddenWentworth size scale for clastic sediments and several particle size classification schemes that preceded it. Reproduced from Table 2 in
Wentworth, C.K., 1922c. A scale of grade and class terms for clastic sediment. Journal of Geology 30(5), 377392.

Sediments and Sediment Transport

Finest dust

3 mm

256 mm
Large bowlders
128 mm
Medium bowlders
64 mm
Small bowlders
32 mm
Very small bowlders
16 mm
Very coarse gravel
8 mm
Coarse gravel
4 mm
Medium gravel
2 mm
Fine gravel
1 mm
Coarse sand
1/ 2 mm
Medium sand
1/4 mm
Fine sand
1/8 mm
Very fine sand
1/16 mm
Coarse silt
1/32 mm
Medium silt
1/64 mm
Fine silt
1/128 mm
Very fine silt
1/256 mm
Coarse clay
1/512 mm
Medium clay
1/1024 mm
Fine clay
1/2048 mm

239

240

Sediments and Sediment Transport

affix gravel was later dropped but is still used informally, as is

shingle in Britain and elsewhere, for particles in the granule,
pebble, and cobble range.
Although Wentworth renamed the clast grades recognized
by Udden, this revised scheme became more widely used because Wentworth chose class names based on a survey of 28
geologists in the US Geological Survey. Another reason for its
acceptance lay in the geometric progression of Uddens classification, which Wentworth confirmed. Because the intervals
between progressive classes in the UddenWentworth scale
maintain a constant ratio of 1:2 (defined by fractions or
decimals), the scheme preserves equal weighting between fine
and coarse particle sizes when size data are graphically depicted, making graphical displays of data easier to interpret. To
make this scale more mathematically versatile, Krumbein
(1934, 1938) converted it to whole numbers by taking the
negative logarithm to the base-2 of the intermediate particle
axis in millimeter (f  log2 dmm). This phi-scale (f) normalizes the particle-size distribution, making it easier to describe and analyze. It has become customary for the phi-scale
to be converted from base-2 to base-10 logarithms because of
the latters wider application.

1.13.3.1.2

Particle-size measurement

There are many ways to measure the diameter of individual

sediment particles or the size statistics of grain populations
(see Switzer, Chapter 14.19). The most common approach for
the analysis of sand-sized particles has been mechanical sieving. One of the shortcomings of sieving is that for nonspherical particles, it is the intermediate axis that controls the
ability of a particle to pass through a sieve opening. This axis
may or may not be representative of the hydrodynamic or
aerodynamic behavior of a grain. Thus, it has been argued
that the settling velocity of a particle is a more fundamental
dynamic property than any geometrically defined measure of
size (Syvitski et al., 1991: 45). Several approaches have been
adopted to measure the settling velocities of sediments, but
the use of settling tubes (fall columns) is most common.
A century-long tradition of particle sizing has used continuous-weighing settling tubes (Oden, 1915, cited in Gibbs,
1972), although Krumbein (1932, citing Jarilow, 1913) noted
that the principles of grain settling through water were discussed as early as 400 BC. Those principles are relatively
simple. The equilibrium rate at which a single particle will fall
through a given column of water or air is a function of its size,
shape, and density. That equilibrium rate will be obtained if
the length of fall is sufficient to cause the accelerating force of
gravity to be offset by the resisting force of the fluid. The
resulting rate is termed the fall, settling, or terminal velocity of
the grain for a particular medium.
A quantitative relationship for terminal velocity of small
spheres was first proposed by Stokes (1851), and was used to
estimate a hydraulic equivalent grain diameter by Schone
(1867, cited in Krumbein, 1932). The latter was based on the
understanding that natural grains are not spherical, and will
thus behave in a manner not exactly described by Stokes law.
But, according to Krumbein (1932: 108109, and Figure 11), it
was Odens (1915) work that set the stage for modern settlingtube designs by introducing a balance to weigh the sediments
accumulating on the pan as they fell through the water. It was

early recognized that the Stokes equation would not work for
larger (e.g., sand sized) particles. Gibbs et al. (1971) introduced a more general empirical relationship that was valid for
a range of fluid densities and viscosities, and spherical grains
with diameters from 0.1 mm to 6 mm over a range of densities:
ws

3Z 9Z2 gr 2 rf rs  rf 0:015476 0:19481r0:5

rf 0:011607 0:14881r
7

where ws is the fall velocity (centimeter per second) of a sphere

of radius r (centimeter), Z is dynamic viscosity (poise), g is the
gravity constant (centimeter per second), and rf and rs are
fluid and sediment densities (gram per cubic centimeter). For
nonspherical grains, eqn [7] predicts fall velocities faster than
those observed. Baba and Komar (1981) and de Lange et al.
(1997), for example, found that there were differences of 15%
or more between grain diameters calculated from fall velocity
and those found by sieving the same sand samples. Several
empirical relationships have been proposed to equate settling
tube and sieve-derived grain sizes. One of the most commonly
used (because of its simplicity) is the Baba and Komar (1981)
conversion (using centimeter per second):
wm 0:997ws 0:913

8

where wm is the fall velocity measured in a settling tube. A

more accurate expression (determined empirically) is that of
Jimenez and Madsen (2003), simplified from the work of
Dietrich (1982):


ws
B 1
w p A
S
s  1gdn

9

where w is a dimensionless fall velocity, s is rs/r, dn is nominal

grain diameter (diameter of a sphere of volume equivalent to
that of the grain being considered), A and B are empirical
constants, and S is a modification of Madsen and Grants
(1976) fluid-sediment parameter:
S

dn p
S  1gdn
4u

10

with u representing kinematic viscosity. By curve fitting,

Jimenez and Madsen (2003) found that for typical natural
sand grains, dn d/0.9 (where d is particle diameter found via
sieving), A 0.954, and B 5.12. Sieving is still the most
common method for quantifying grain size, whereas fall velocity is increasingly important in geomorphological applications (e.g., Deans parameter for beach morphodynamics
(Wright and Short, 1984) and the Rouse number, described
earlier). Therefore, the above conversion factors remain valuable tools for understanding the dynamic behavior of sediments and sediment transport.
Relatively few studies have been made of the terminal
velocity of sand grains falling through air. Some examples
include Bagnolds (1935) study where he found that the
aerodynamically equivalent diameter, de, of a sphere was
0.750.85 of the sieve diameter. More recently, for natural
sand grains in air, Cui et al. (1983) found that:

Sediments and Sediment Transport

wm 1:10w0:9
s

11

241

I
II
Spherical

I
Disk-shaped
(oblale spheroid)

Malcolm and Raupach (1991) found a simple expression,

similar to Bagnolds (1935), de 0.9d, and Chen and Fryrear
(2001) presented similar data graphically.
2/3

1.13.3.2

Particle Shape

Many approaches have been used to describe the geometric

form of sediment particles, to the degree that there is general
confusion about what is meant by the seemingly interchangeable terms of form, shape, and morphology. This necessitates some clarification of what is meant by these terms.
In a recent review, Blott and Pye (2008) define particle shape
as the broad- and medium-scale components of morphology
and surface texture as characterized by small-scale, particlesurface features. Furthermore, they define shape in terms of
form, roundness, sphericity, and irregularity. The major research works that led to the standard definition of form,
roundness, and sphericity (the three most prevalent measures
of particle shape), are discussed below.
Particle form is important for determining particle settling
velocity and entrainment potential. It is characterized using
ratios of a particles three linear axes: length (L), breadth (I),
and thickness (S), where L is the longest dimension, I is the
longest dimension perpendicular to L, and S is the longest
dimension perpendicular to both L and I (Krumbein, 1941;
Sneed and Folk, 1958). These axes have been notated in other
ways, including D0 , D00 , and D000 (Wentworth, 1922a, b), and a,
b, and c (Zingg, 1935). Wentworth (1922a) made an early
attempt in characterizing particle form by developing a flatness index, expressed as (L I)/2S. However, it seems the ultimate goal of many early particle-form characterization efforts
was to move beyond form indices and devise a singular
graphical tool that could be used to describe particle morphology easily. One of the first of such efforts was a diagram of
pebble shape created by Zingg (1935). This diagram was
divided into four quadrants that consisted of different shape
classes: disc-shaped, spherical, bladed, and rod-like. Each class
was separated based on 2/3 ratios of breadth to length (I/L or
b/a) and thickness to breadth (S/I or c/b) (Figure 4, from
Krumbein, 1941). However, this early effort was quite limited
in that it only represented four possible shapes, underrepresenting rod-like particles, and overrepresenting bladed
particles. To accommodate these three-dimensional shapes,
Sneed and Folk (1958) developed a triangular plot with 10
form categories by dividing the S/L ratio into three parts
(delineated by 0.3, 0.5, and 0.7), and the L/I and L/S ratios
into two parts (delineated by 0.33 and 0.67) (Figure 5, from
Blott and Pye, 2008). The advantage of the Sneed and Folk
triangle over the Zingg diagram is that it represents form more
as a continuum and avoids unequal distributions of one shape
over another.

1.13.3.2.1

IV
Rod-like
(prolate
spheroid)

III
Bladed
(triaxial)

b/a

2/3

c/b
Figure 4 Zingg classification of pebble shapes taken from Krumbein
(1941). Reproduced from Figure 4 in Krumbein, W.C., 1941.
Measurement and geological significance of shape and roundness of
sedimentary particles. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 11(2), 6472.

ways and was once used interchangeably with roundness.

Hakon Wadell of the University of Chicago was among the
first to distinguish between sphericity and roundness (Wadell,
1932, 1933). He defined sphericity as the ratio of the surface
area of a particle to its volume: the smaller the ratio, the closer
the form to a sphere. Because this ratio, c, was difficult to
measure, the actual ratio was refined as follows:
s
Volume of the particle
3
c
Volume of a sphere that can circumscribe the particle
12
Wadells measurement of sphericity required the following
steps: (1) measurement of the volume of the particle (pebbles
or larger); (2) measurement of the particle0 s longest diameter;
(3) calculation of the diameter of a sphere having the same
volume as the pebble or the nominal diameter; and (4) calculation of the ratio expressed above. Because this procedure
was time consuming, a simpler method was developed by
Krumbein (1941), in which the long (a), intermediate (b), and
short axes (c) are measured, and the b/a ratio and c/b ratio
calculated and used to read a sphericity value from a
chart (Figure 6; Krumbein, 1941). These ratios were later
simplified by Pye and Pye (1943) as follows:

c


b  c 1=3
a2

13

Sphericity

Sphericity of sediment particles is significant in that it can be

used to determine sediment-transport distance and the potential for particles to remain transported in suspension
(Bunte and Abt, 2001). Sphericity can be defined in several

Values of sphericity as measured with Krumbeins technique, called intercept sphericity, range from 0 to 1, with 1
being a perfect sphere and 0 representing platy or elongated
shapes. Using graduate student labor, Krumbein (1941) tested

242

Sediments and Sediment Transport

Compact
1.0
0.9
C
0.8
0.7
0.6

CB

CP

CE

S/L 0.5
0.4

0.3
0.2
VP

VE

VB

0.1

0.5

0.4

0.2

0.1

0
0.

(LI)/(LS)

1.

0.9

0.8

0.7

Platy

0.6

0.3

0.0
Elongated

Bladed
Figure 5 Triangular plot for particle size analysis by Sneed and Folk (1958). Reproduced from Figure 2 in Blott, S.J., Pye, K., 2008. Particle
shape: a review and new methods of characterization and classification. Sedimentology 55, 3163.

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.9

0.8

his approach against Wadells method and found good correspondence for average sphericity. Thus, in addition to simplifying sphericity measurements, Krumbein effectively
married Wadells definition of sphericity with Zinggs (1935)
graphical classification of pebble shape.
For estimating transportability (suspension potential and
settling velocity), two other measures of sphericity are now
commonly used: the Corey (1949) shape factor and the Sneed
and Folk (1958) effective settling velocity. The Corey shape
factor is calculated by:

0.4

0.9
0.8

0.8

0.3
0.7

b/a

0.6
0.5

0.6

0.4

0.3

0.4

c
a  b0:5

14

0.2
0.1
0
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
c/b

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Figure 6 Chart for determining intercept sphericity developed by

Krumbein (1941). Reproduced from Figure 5 in Krumbein, W.C., 1941.
Measurement and geological significance of shape and roundness
of sedimentary particles. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 11(2),
6472.

Particles that have been transported far tend to approach a

Corey shape-factor of 1 (a perfect sphere), with 0 being the least
spheroidal shape. The Sneed and Folk effective settling velocity,
a measure of compactness, is designed to capture the tendency
for platy particles to settle more slowly than particles shaped
otherwise (Bunte and Abt, 2001). It is calculated as follows:

c
a

15

Sediments and Sediment Transport

Roundness = 0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

243

0.5
Broken pebbles
0.4
0.3

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.4

0.5
0.4

0.9

Figure 7 Chart for visual analysis of pebble roundness with Wadells original roundness values developed by Krumbein (1941). Reproduced
from Figure 5 in Krumbein, W.C., 1941. Measurement and geological significance of shape and roundness of sedimentary particles. Journal of
Sedimentary Petrology 11(2), 6472.

1.13.3.2.2

Roundness

Particle roundness describes not how circular a particle is, but

how curved its corners and edges are. Roundness is commonly
used to discern the travel distance of particles, with rounder
particles assumed to have travelled farther and thereby become
rounder as their edges are abraded during transport (not always
a valid assumption). Wadell (1932, 1933, 1935) was the first to
develop a technique for measuring roundness, which he defined from the ratio of the curvature of particle corners and
edges to the curvature of the particle as a whole. His method
was arduous, requiring the projection of an image of the particle from which to measure the radii of all corners and the
maximum inscribed circle within the outline. Roundness (P)
was calculated as follows, with r mean size of radii that can be
fitted into corners (corners n), and R radius of the maximum inscribed circle (Bunte and Abt, 2001):
Srn
16
P
nR
Krumbein (1941) developed a chart with drawings of pebbles that had been assigned Wadells original roundness values
(Figure 7; Bunte and Abt, 2001: 91). Krumbeins chart allows
for visual analysis of roundness by comparing a sample to the
drawn images in the chart and reading the corresponding
roundness value under the matching image. Roundness values
range from very angular (0.1) to very smooth (0.9).

1.13.3.3

Sediment Size Distributions

Descriptive statistics are used to interpret particle-size distributions in order to understand what, if anything, these data

may indicate about transport distance and duration, transportation mode, and perhaps transport potential. Statistics
used include the mean (a measure of central tendency), the
standard deviation (SD, the range of values or sorting coefficient), skewness (the symmetry of a distribution), and
kurtosis (the peakedness of a distribution). Two main categories of techniques are used to derive these descriptive
statistics: the graphic method (percentile approach) and the
moment method (frequency distribution approach). These
techniques were developed for sediments earlier in the twentieth century (e.g., Trask, 1932; Krumbein, 1936; Inman,
1952; Folk and Ward, 1957). Table 1 (from Bunte and Abt,
2001) provides an excellent summary of the different methods
most commonly used to determine these statistics by the
above methods. Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938) and Bunte
and Abt (2001) discussed the full suite of these techniques.
This discussion of the principles, assumptions, and differences
between the graphical and moment methods, is based mostly
on the latter.
Graphic and moment methods are applied in different
ways depending on whether the data are in millimeter or j
units. Graphic methods can be applied to particle-size data
measured in millimeter, using a geometric approach, and j
units using an arithmetic approach. The moment method
can be applied to particle-size data measured in j units and in
log-transformed millimeter. Many of the techniques applied
in these methods assume a normal or Gaussian distribution
to the data. Grain-size distributions are generally log-normal,
thus requiring some transformation from size data in millimeter. The j transformation is one such example. The geometric

244

Distribution parameter

Graphic methods

Moment method

Geometric approaches

Mixed approach

Particles sizes in millimeter

Mean (central value)

Kurtosis (peakedness)

Particle sizes in f-units

nth root computation

Log computation

Trask (1932)

Root of percentile product

p
D16  D84

Log of percentile product

D  D
log 16 84
2

Arithmetic mean of 2 or more percentiles

f16 f84
D25 D75
fm
2
2

f16 f50 f84

3

Log of percentile ratio

logD84 =D16
2

Root of percentile ratio Standard deviation

r
f84  f16
D25
sf
2
D75

Weighted percentile difference

f84  f16 f95  f5

4
6:6

Mean/sorting (Fredle Index) Mean/sorting

Mean/mean

Meanmedian sorting meanmedian sorting 3rd Moment

s
D16  D84
D75 =D25

D25  D75
2
D50

Mean1median/
sorting
fm  f50
sf
Mean-sorting/sorting
0:5f95  f5  sf
sf

Sorting/sorting
f95  f5
2:44f75  f25

Sorting (standard deviation) Root of percentile ratio

s
D84
D16
Skewness (symmetry)

Arithmetic approaches

logD16  D84
logD75 =D25

Theoretically: sorting/sorting Theoretically: sorting/sorting Sorting/sorting

s
logD16 =D84
D75  D25
D16 =D84
logD75 =D25
2D90  D10
D75 =D25

Inman (1952)

Folk and Ward (1957)

f16 f84  2f50 f5 f95  2f50

2f84  f16
2f95  f5

1st Moment
P
fci  mi
n
2nd Moment
s
P
mi fci  fm 2
n1

mi fci  fm 3
n  s3

4th Moment
P
mi fci  fm 2
n  s4

Source: Reproduced from Bunte, K., Abt, S.R., 2001 Sampling surface and subsurface particle-size distributions in wadeable gravel- and cobble-bed streams for analyses in sediment transport, hydraulics, and streambed monitoring. General Technical
Report RMRS-GTR-74, US Forest Service, 428 pp.

Sediments and Sediment Transport

Table 1 Summary of methods used for computing particle size distribution mean, standard deviation (sorting), skewness, and kurtosis

Sediments and Sediment Transport

approach differs from the arithmetic approach in how the

mean is determined, which affects other statistics that use the
mean in their derivation. The geometric mean (mg) is calculated from the nth root of the product of n numbers:

mg

3
4696

notable approaches to this problem, the Hjulstrom (1935)

and Shields (1936) curves for fluvial systems and Bagnolds
(1936) equation for wind-blown sand are reviewed. Each
of these developments relied, to different degrees, on advances
in understanding boundary-layer dynamics, described earlier.

17

1.13.4.1
Graphic methods calculate the statistics of particle-size data
using a few percentile values that are derived from a cumulative frequency distribution plotted on arithmetic or probability paper. This approach was common before the
introduction of personal computers. More recently, computers
have been used to determine percentile values by using linear
interpolation of percentile values between adjacent j or logtransformed mm size classes of cumulative frequency distributions:

fx x2  x1 

yx  y1
y2  y1


x1

18

where y2 is the cumulative percent frequency just below the

cumulative frequency of interest, y1 is the cumulative percent
frequency just above the cumulative frequency of interest (yx),
x2 is the j unit associated with y2, and x1 is the j unit associated with y1.
In cases where a sediment population is not log-normally
distributed, the accuracy of the calculated distribution parameters is increased by using a larger number of graphically
obtained j data. Inman (1952) and Folk and Ward (1957)
used j50, j16, and j84 percentiles, which represent 71 SD
from the mean, and the j5 and j95 percentiles, which represent 72 SDs from the mean, to calculate mean, SD, skewness,
and kurtosis. If j units are used to calculate the arithmetic
mean from percentiles, and this mean is converted to millimeter, then it is equal to the geometric mean.
The moment method requires the percentage or the
absolute frequency of all particle-size classes, from fine to
coarse, to be known, and that the size classes be equidistant. It
uses the percentage or absolute frequency of the size classes to
calculate the four moments (roughly speaking shapes created
by the distribution of data points in data space) that correspond to the mean, SD, skewness, and kurtosis. It is not
suitable for use in situations where the percentage or the absolute frequency of all size classes is not known, such as in the
case of having an unsieved component of the sample in the
receiving pan. It has also been shown to over predict SD values
if the sediment is only sieved in a few large sieve classes (Folk,
1966). With widely available software, the derivation of particle-size statistics using the moment method has become
the standard approach for producing sediment-population
statistics.

1.13.4

245

Initiation of Sediment Motion

Fundamental to the accurate prediction of sediment-transport

rates is the specification of a threshold condition for the
initiation of grain movement. Here, three of the most

The Hjulstrom Curve

Filip Hjulstrom (19021982) was a Swedish geomorphologist

whose study of fluvial processes led to his defining dissertation
on the morphological activities of rivers that, among other
things, linked flow conditions quantitatively to sedimenttransport processes. The dissertation is remarkable in several
contexts. It is a very early exercise in what Hjulstrom (1935:
221) termed physiogeographical and geological dynamics
that anticipated Strahlers (1952: 937) dynamic-quantitative
geomorphology. Hjulstrom emphasized that his dissertation
was ywritten with the conviction that the knowledge of
forces at work on the land-surfaces of the earth is quite as
important in geomorphology and physiography as the results
brought about by these forces (Hjulstrom, 1935: 221). His
work inspired a succession of process-oriented geomorphologists who were his students at the (then) Geographical
Institute at the University of Uppsala. Beyond the 5 years of
field measurements made on the River Fyris, his dissertation
presented a state-of-the-art review of fluid mechanics and
sediment dynamics. He displayed a firm grasp of contemporary boundary-layer theory, citing Nikuradse, von Karman, Prandtl, and Leighly (1932, 1934) and used that
knowledge as a starting point for his development of the
Hjulstrom curve.
Hjulstrom completed many laboratory experiments on the
behavior of suspended sediments (using a salt mixture as
surrogate). However, his seminal contribution on the curves
of erosion and deposition of a uniform material is based on
an assessment of the experiments of others. He set out to
analyze those findings to relate the conditions of erosion,
transportation, and deposition of different size sediments to
flow velocity. He recognized that this approach has, to a certain degree, been considered antiquated and out-of-date
(Hjulstrom, 1935: 293), but noted that other approaches,
such as those employing concepts of critical tractive force, had
not been successful. He believed that his velocity-based approach would be successful, and it was.
Although the specification of the Hjulstrom curve itself
was a major accomplishment, it was only possible because
of some foundational work. First, he rationalized different
representations of flow velocity. Some earlier studies had
reported depth-averaged mean flow; others had reported
bottom velocity or surface velocity. Hjulstrom chose to use
the mean flow velocity for his study and corrected bottom
velocities to the mean by increasing their values by 40%,
and he decreased surface velocities by 20% for the same purpose. These corrections were made based on his understanding of the logarithmic distribution of velocities above the
bed. He also recognized that flow depth had an effect on
potential transport conditions so he made velocity adjustments for flow depths less than approximately 0.3 m by
adding 0.2 ms1. His next challenge was rationalizing the

Sediments and Sediment Transport

Velocity in cm/sek

246

1000
500
300
200

Erosion

100
50
30
20
10
a
port
Trans

5
3
2

ti o n

Sedimentation

1
0.5
0.3
0.2
500
300
200

100

50
30
20

10

5
3
2

0.5
0.3
0.2

0.1

0.05
0.03
0.02

0.01

0.005
0.003
0.002

0.001

0.1

Size of particles in mm
Figure 8 Reproduction of Hjulstroms (1935) Figure 18; the classic loglog plot of grain size and flow velocity. Reproduced from Hjulstrom, F.,
1935. Studies of the morphological activity of rivers as illustrated by the River Fyris. Bulletin of the Geological Institute of Uppsala 25, 221527.

different visual observations of flow conditions to allow a

consistent comparison. He did this by careful reading of
the respective reports, although in some cases clast-size information was minimally provided, and the transport observations somewhat vague.
Figure 8 is a reproduction of his now classic Figure 18, in
which velocity (centimeter per second) and particle size (millimeter) were depicted logarithmically (Hjulstrom, 1935: 298).
He explained that the vague nature of the transport data is why
the threshold velocity curve was drawn as a band rather than a
line (Hjulstrom, 1935: 296), although most modern representations of this diagram reproduce the erosiontransportation
boundary as a line rather than a zone (e.g., Schubert, 2006;
Weiss and Bahlburg, 2006; Callow and Smettem, 2007). Furthermore, it is perhaps inevitable that later reproductions of the
curve do not include the parallel straight lines, representing
Hjulstroms interpretation of the erosiontransportation
sedimentation regimes for coarse particles from Owens (1908)
equation.
The Hjulstrom curve is still largely used as he had originally intended, but in applications that might have surprised
him. For example, Weiss and Bahlburg (2006) used it in
their investigation of tsunami sedimentation. Callow and
Smettem (2007) used it to demonstrate the effects of vegetation change on flow velocities and the resulting changes in
sedimentological regime. Abhyankar and Beebe (2007) used it
to explain the settling (and patterning) of cells onto substrate.
Pipan et al. (2010) used the curve to explain possible bias in
sampling because of favorable transport of particular sizes of
copepods. And, of course it is still used to study sediment
transport in fluvial systems and is included in most introductory physical geography and geology textbooks.

1.13.4.2

The Shields Curve

Albert Shields (190874) was an American engineer who

produced one of the landmark concepts in fluvial geomorphology the Shields Curve almost accidentally. According to Kennedy (1995), Shields was deflected from a
planned course of study because of financial constraints when
beginning studies for a Doctor of Engineering degree at the
Technischen Hochschule Berlin in late 1933. A project concerning bedload transport was made available to him at
minimal cost, and he accepted that as his dissertation topic.
He was given access to a flume and other laboratory facilities
at the Prussian Research Institute (PRI), and provided with
some technical support staff. Using data from his experiments
as well as those from his predecessors at PRI, he produced, in
1936, his dissertation, Anwendung der Ahnlichkeitmechanik und
der Turbulenzforschung auf die Geschiebebewegung (Application
of similarity principles and turbulence research to bed-load
movement). The work was in four parts, the second of which
concerned the initiation of bedload motion.
The description of the development of the Shields criterion requires only 11 pages of text (in the translated version). Using similarity arguments and dimensional analysis,
he efficiently laid out the basis for his reasoning. First, the
resistance force, K0, of the grain is proportional to the grain
weight: a2(g1  g)a1d3, where a1 is the influence of grain
shape on porosity, a2 is the influence of grain shape on bedfriction coefficient, g is the specific weight of the fluid, g1 is
specific weight of the grain, and d is mean grain diameter.
Against the resistance force, he balanced the effective force of
the flow: za3d2g(u2c /2g), where z is the grain resistance coefficient at a critical velocity uc, and a3 is decisive grain area

Sediments and Sediment Transport

247

Figure 9 Reproduction of Shields (1936) diagram relating sediment characteristics and fluid and flow characteristics with resulting transport
conditions. Reproduced from Shields, A., 1936. Anwendung Der Aenlichkeitsmechanik und Der Turbulenzforschung Auf Die Geschiebebewegung.
Mitteilungen der Preussischen Versuchsanstalt fur Wasserbau und Schiffbau, Berlin, Germany. California Institute of Technology, Pasadena,
(English translation: Ott, W.P., van Uchelen, J.C.).

(another shape term). Following the work of Nikuradse and

based on the law of the wall, Shields argued:
 
v d
19
uc v fa4
u
where v is shear (friction) velocity (his symbology has been
kept here for coherence with his classic representation of data,
Figure 9), fa4 is another grain shape function, d (in this case) is
grain roughness length, and u is kinematic viscosity. For applicability in the flume experiments, he defined shear velocity
in terms of the characteristics of the channel:
p p
v gRS t=r
20
where R is hydraulic radius, S is slope, t is shear stress, and r is
fluid density. Shields then redefined the grain resistance coefficient as:
 
v d
21
z fa45
u
where again the subscript a indicates grain shape coefficients.
The fluid forcing of the grain could then be rewritten as:
a3 d2 gRSf a6


v d
u

22

Shields then manipulated these relationships, along with

several derivations based on the law of the wall, and
argued that the balance of driving (the two left-hand terms
below) versus resisting forces (the two right-hand terms) at the
initiation of motion must be:
 
 
gRS
t0
v d
d
f a1
23

fa
g1  gd
u
d
g1  gd
where d is the boundary-layer thickness (d C(u/v) (C is
Chezys C; see Orme, Chapter 1.2, this volume). These relationships set the backdrop for Shields flume experiments and
results, including the classic Shields (1936) curve (Figure 9).
Unlike most reconstructions of this diagram, the original depicts the curve as a shaded area rather than a distinct line.
Shields included data from several sources, and described existence regimes for bedforms and saltation.
Shields data and his interpretations came very close to
being lost to the research community. He left Germany shortly
after defending his dissertation (Kennedy, 1995) and put bedload transport behind him, finding employment designing
corrugated-box machinery and winning more than 200 patents.
It was the chance discovery of Shields dissertation by Hunter
Rouse, during a visit to PRI where he had once studied, that led
to the introduction of the work to the fluvial community. Rouse
obtained and studied Shields work, brought it to USA where he

248

Sediments and Sediment Transport

had it translated by two Soil Conservation Service employees,

W.P. Ott and J.C. van Uchelen. Guo (2002) noted the possibility that Rouse saved what might have been the only copy of
Shields dissertation to escape destruction during World War II.
However, Kennedy (1995) reported that Shields himself had
purchased one copy. Presumably, without the intervention of
Rouse, that one copy would be resting in an attic somewhere. It
was not until a round of correspondence between Rouse and
Shields that the latter had any indication that his research was
playing a fundamental role in the study of sediment discharge
in fluvial systems (Kennedy, 1995).

1.13.4.3

This equation is intended to predict the dynamic threshold of

motion, whereby sand transport, once begun, will continue.
Bagnold (1936) also provided the first threshold shear stress,
ut model, written to parallel Jeffreys term:
u2t A0



u2t A rsrr gd

rs r
r

gd

26

And no value is given for A0 . In Bagnold (1937), this

equation is combined with eqn [25] using the law of the wall
to obtain:

Bagnolds (1936) Equation

Ralph Alger Bagnold (18961990) made numerous fundamental contributions to the study of sediments and sand
transport. Trained as an engineer, he traveled extensively in the
deserts of North Africa, sponsored early on by the Royal
Geographical Society. He began publishing, in 1931, a sequence of papers concerning first his expeditions (Bagnold,
1931, 1933) and then changing abruptly to focus on windblown sand and desert dunes (Bagnold, 1935, 1936, 1937a, b,
1938), although his earlier works did include abundant observations of dunes, ripples, and the behavior of sand. Most of
the results published in this latter set of articles were reproduced and expanded on in his classic book on The Physics of
Blown Sand and Desert Dunes (Bagnold, 1941). Here, one of his
most enduring contributions, an equation to predict the initiation of the motion of sand by wind is detailed.
In a series of wind-tunnel studies, Bagnold (1936) carefully
described the behavior of a sand surface as wind speed is
slowly increased from an initially slow flow. His observations
(Bagnold, 1936: 600) included the progression of motions
from the occurrence of sporadic transport disturbances to that
of ya steady sand flow. In particular, he noted the difficulty
in establishing a specific threshold wind speed, but did define
different threshold conditions for static and dynamic surfaces, with the latter requiring a lower wind speed for the
initiation of motion. Later in that same paper, he first formalized his threshold equations in terms of wind speed and
shear velocity (Bagnold, 1936: 607). He began with Jeffreys
(1929) equation for threshold velocity, rewritten as:

r
0:47 rs r
ut
gd
r
5:75

27

and the first term to the right of the equality sign reduces to
0.082. This represents the first value given for Bagnolds A
used for estimating the dynamic (afterward termed impact in
Bagnold, 1941) threshold shear velocity.
The familiar form of Bagnolds threshold shear velocity
equation first appears in Bagnold (1941: 86):
r


rs r
gd
ut A
r

28

Based on his wind-tunnel experiments, he established two

values for A. Where the shear stress is entirely grain borne, he
specified A 0.08 (rounded down from 0.082) as the impact
threshold value. Where the shear stress is entirely wind borne,
he specified A 0.1. The total number of experiments that
Bagnold conducted to determine the threshold shear velocities
(fluid and impact) cannot be determined from reading the
series of his publications. It could be as few as three or four. It
is also difficult to determine exactly what part of his derivations can be credited to the work of Hjulstrom (1935) or
Shields (1936). Both are cited in Bagnolds (1941) chapter on
Threshold Speed and Grain Size, but it is unclear to what
degree the earlier works influenced his findings, if at all.

1.13.5

Sediment Transport

24

where A is a constant (from Jeffreys, 1929, A (1/3 1/

9p2) 1.43). Bagnold recognized (as did Jeffreys) that a
problem with eqn [24] was that velocity is not constant with
elevation above the bed. Jeffreys (1929): 274 specified a velocity at the top of the grain a value impractical to measure.
Bagnold argued that a better representative velocity could be
estimated using the law of the wall to extrapolate the loglinear velocity profile down to the height of k0 , his focus at
3-mm elevation:
r
30k0 rs r
gd
25
ut Alog
r
d
where A 0.43, as determined from his wind-tunnel experiments (note that in Bagnold, 1937, this changes to A 0.47).

The developments discussed earlier, along with a host of related concepts, are of interest to the geomorphologist mainly
as they pertain to sediment transport. This is because it is
sediment transport that has the potential to shape landforms
by either erosion or deposition. From the rich literature describing the results of laboratory, field, and modeling research,
we have chosen here to focus on the key advances made by
three scientists whose contributions represent landmarks
within the respective fields of fluvial, aeolian, and coastal
geomorphology: Grove Karl Gilbert, Ralph Alger Bagnold, and
Douglas Lamar Inman.

1.13.5.1

Grove Karl Gilbert

With the publication in 1914 of his US Geological Survey

Report on The Transportation of Debris by Running Water,

Sediments and Sediment Transport

Grove Karl Gilbert (18431918) produced one of the most

cited works from the geomorphology of the twentieth century
(Leopold, 1980). To date, it remains a foundation for contemporary fluvial geomorphology, contributing toward a better understanding of the mechanics of fluvial systems, the role
of channel slope in system-scale processes, human impacts in
river systems, and sediment transport. The last theme is the
focus here.
Gilberts (1914) report summarized the methods and
findings of a series of flume experiments that he conducted
with Edward Charles Murphy. This study marked a return to
active research for Gilbert, after spending some time in a
largely administrative position as head of the Appalachian
Division of the US Geological Survey (Bourgeois, 1998). The
bulk of Gilberts field career was spent working in the
American West. He was a member of two of the four federal
government survey groups (King, Powell, Wheeler, and Hayden surveys), the latter three of which survived to be merged
into the US Geological Survey in 1879. Gilbert initiated his
experiences in the American West as a member of the
Wheeler Survey from 1871 to 1874, where the goal was to
conduct a geographical survey west of the 100th meridian for
military and engineering purposes. Gilbert was then invited
to join the Powell Survey of the Rocky Mountain region.
Gilberts work as part of these surveys, and then as head of
the short-lived Great Basin Division of the US Geological
Survey, resulted in many physiographic, structural, geophysical, and sediment studies. His flume studies of sediment
transport had their roots in issues that arose during his earlier
field work with the Powell Survey and the US Geological
Survey. Later, Gilbert had been tasked with investigating
issues related to hydraulic mining waste in California rivers,
specifically the problems of the transport capacity of impacted streams (Gilbert, 1914). With this assignment came an
opportunity to conduct experiments that would allow the
largely qualitative and deductive ideas about sediment
transport that Gilbert had published in 1877 to be tested,
and the results used to help understand sediment dynamics
and system responses observed in streams impaired by
hydraulic mining debris.
The experiments took place in a flume that had been
constructed for the project at the University of California,
Berkeley, USA, between 1907 and 1909 (Figure 10, from
Gilbert, 1914). The role that Edward Murphy played in
the research is not generally discussed, but in the preface to
the 1914 report, Gilbert made clear that Murphy played a
large role and by todays standards would most definitely
have shared authorship. Gilbert had to leave the research
project for some time due to illness. Although this was
mentioned in the preface, Gilbert did not disclose the nature
of the illness. In his youth, Gilbert was twice called up for
military service in the Civil War but never drafted. This
event, among others, has been cited as evidence that Gilbert
had a lifelong battle with poor health (Pyne, 1980; Bourgeois, 1998). In light of these issues, Gilberts field activities
in the American West are all the more impressive given the
rigorous and physically demanding nature of the work carried out by the various surveys.
The design of the flume experiments was all of Gilberts
origin, but as a result of his illness, Murphy conducted most of

249

Figure 10 Gilberts flume constructed on the campus of the

University of California Berkeley. Reproduced Gilbert, G.K., 1914. The
transportation of debris by running water. Professional Paper 86, US
Geological Survey.

the experiments on his own and wrote a report of the results,

which he submitted to Gilbert on his return. Gilbert used
Murphys report to make his much cited and respected 1914
report and made clear in its preface the substantial role that
Murphy had in the research:
It will readily be understood from this account that I am responsible for the planning of the experimental work as well as for the
discussion of results here contained, while Mr. Murphy is responsible for the experimental work. It must not be understood, however, that in assuming responsibility for the discussion I also claim
sole credit for what is novel in the generalizations. Many conclusions were reached by us jointly during our association, and others
were developed by Mr. Murphy in his report. These have been incorporated in the present report, so far as they appear to be sustained by the more elaborate analysis, and specific credit is given
only where I find it practicable to quote from Mr. Murphys
manuscript (G.K. Gilbert, 1914: 9).

One can only speculate as to why Murphy was not made

coauthor or his name not associated with the study despite his
contributions beyond that of a technician. Murphys role in
such an important and impressionable work should be
acknowledged.

250

Sediments and Sediment Transport

As for the study itself, Gilberts experiments investigated

three main aspects of sediment transport. The first of these was
competence, where he endeavored to describe the relationships between size-dependent thresholds of entrainment and
the maximum size of sediment that could be transported.
A second focus was capacity, specifically the maximum weight
of load that could be transported for given flow conditions
such as stream energy, channel shape, and particle size. A
third component was to investigate bedform development
and geometries and their relationship to sediment transport.
The experiments consisted of measuring the slopes at
which sediment transport occurred under controlled discharge, sediment load, and width conditions. The experiments
were conducted on two different types of beds: plastic beds,
which consisted of sediment, and rigid beds, which consisted
of the planed wood forming the base of the flumes. Unlike
most flumes constructed today, the slope of Gilberts flume
was fixed, and sediment, which consisted of pre-sieved sands
and gravels of uniform size, was manually fed into the top of
the flume before each run. For each experiment, sediment of a
specific size was fed into a stream of a fixed width and discharge. Once a slope developed from the aggradation of
introduced sediment and sediment transport began down this
slope, the slope was measured. The sediment that accrued at
the lower end of the flume was collected and weighed as a
measure of the amount of sediment transported during the
experiment.
The experiments resulted in three equations that explained
stream capacity, C:
C b1 S  sn

29a

C b3 Q  ko

29b

29c

C b4 F  f

Each equation explains how capacity varies with a change

in one of the controlling variables: slope (S), discharge (Q), or
sediment fineness (F), whereas the other two controlling
variables are held constant. The Greek letters s, k, and j stand
for the threshold values of S, Q, and F, respectively, at which
sediment transport begins to occur. The exponents n, o, and p
can vary with changes in mean velocity and the form factor
R, which is the hydraulic mean depth over width. Although
presented as independent in the above equations, Gilbert
acknowledged interdependency between the variables:
In eqn [10] b1, s, and n are constant so long as Q and F hold the
same values; they do not vary with variation in S. But when the
values of Q and F are changed, those of b1, s, and n are modified
(Gilbert, 1914: 186).

To produce a final, overall equation for stream competence, Gilbert combined eqns [29] and added additional
terms to account for the effects of the form ratio, which was
difficult to control in the experiments. This yielded:


m R m
R
30
C bS  sn Q  ko F  fp 1 
m1 p
The variable p is the optimum form ratio or the value of R
that equals the maximum value of competence. It varies with

changes in all the other controls. The variable m is meant to

account for flow resistance from the channel sides. The distribution of values for R was quite different from those of the other
controlling variables. Instead of increasing from zero to infinity
like the other variables, Gilbert found that the sensitivity of
capacity to changes in R increased to a finite maximum, which
he called p, the optimum form ratio, and then decreased to zero.
Gilbert also developed a system of equations based on
eqns [29] and [30] that show trends of change that occur with
changes in the four independent variables (S, Q, R, and F):

 = f1 (Q, F, R )

n = f5 (Q, F, R)

 = f2 (S, F, R)

o = f6 (S, F, R)

= f3 (S, Q, R )

p = f7 (S, Q, R)

 = f4 (S, Q, F )

m = f8 (S, Q, F )

31

Despite the novelty and important implications of Gilberts

1914 report, it had its limitations. Clifford (2008) pointed out
that Gilbert was aware of the role of fluid motion as an important factor in sediment transport since he qualitatively
discussed the role of turbulence in sediment transport in his
1877 (Gilbert, 1877) work and his peers were publishing on
it, but he did not address turbulence outright in his 1914
report. Leopold (1980) questioned how meaningful some of
results were, given Gilberts use of a flume that required
sediment be fed into it at the start of each experiment, making
sediment an independent variable in the experiment. In contrast, experiments using sediment-recirculating flumes treat
sediment as a dependent variable, and the difference between
dependent or independent variables can affect the interpretations of results. Leopold also worried about Gilberts slope
measurements, which came not from the slope of the water
surface but from the slope of the debris bed, which was
usually graded before measurement by scraping from crests
into adjacent hollows (Gilbert, 1914: 25).
Gilbert himself discussed two specific limitations to his
study. One was his measurement of depth, which was rendered uncertain because the gauge rod interfered with flow
conditions. The other was how transferrable his results were to
natural streams. He believed that the relations he found would
hold true for streams of similar slope, form ratio, and fineness
to that used in his experiments, but he realized that this would
include a very limited number of streams. He was concerned
that the range of discharges and channel shapes experienced in
natural streams precluded comparisons between his flume
observations and most natural streams. Gilbert was also concerned with issues of sediment dynamics that plague sediment
studies to this day, specifically how to address issues of sediment supply. He acknowledged that a streams sediment load
is not just determined by what it can carry but is also a
function of the sediment supplied to it, an aspect of sediment
transport that his study did not address.
Despite its limitations, Gilberts (1914) report remains a
classic piece on sediment transport because of the relationships
it identified, the beautiful simplicity of his experimental design,
and the thoroughness with which he and Edward Murphy
conducted their research. The results of his experiments were
used by Hjulstrom (1935) and Shields (1936) for their seminal

Sediments and Sediment Transport

studies on fluvial transport, and by Bagnold (1966) in his

studies of the fundamentals of sediment transport.

1.13.5.2

Initial

Ralph Alger Bagnold

Ralph Bagnold (18961990) was possibly the most influential

figure in the study of sediment transport during the twentieth
century. The son of a wealthy family with long-standing
military traditions, much of Bagnolds life was spent as an
officer in the Royal Engineers within the British Army, where
he eventually rose to the rank of Brigadier (US Brigadier
General). His advanced education was limited to an undergraduate degree in engineering from Cambridge and he considered himself an amateur at science, but his work in
sediment transport won major honors from the Royal Geographical Society, the US National Academy of Science, the
Geological Society of America, and the International Association of Sedimentologists, and he was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society (Bagnold, 1990).
His initial work on sediment transport in the 1930s focused on the physics of wind-blown sand and desert dunes,
inspired by a fascination with the desert that was engendered
by extensive military service in North Africa that culminated in
several pioneering expeditions to explore uncharted regions of
Libya and the Sudan. Discharged from the military in 1935
due to a misdiagnosed illness, Bagnold returned to London
where he constructed a wind tunnel and a variety of apparatus
to study wind-blown sand in borrowed laboratory space at
Imperial College.
The results of his studies were reported in papers published
in the Proceedings of the Royal Society and The Geographical
Journal, and formed the basis for his classic text (Bagnold,
1941), which has been a standard reference on the subject ever
since. Among many notable advances, Bagnold is probably
best known for developing the first physically based model of
the rate of wind-blown sand transport. Bagnolds approach to
the problem of wind-blown sand was a classic example of
deterministic reductionism. As he opined, it seemed to me
[that] if any advance were to be made in our knowledge of
[sand movement], it must in the first instance be approached
via the study of the behaviour of a single grain in a stream of
wind (Bagnold, 1941: xix).
Bagnold (1941) approached the transport-rate issue by
invoking the notion of a characteristic saltation path.
Recognizing that the trajectories followed by saltating particles
would vary widely in terms of physical dimensions, he simplified the problem by considering a single average trajectory
that would interact with the wind field in a representative
fashion. The behavior of the heterogeneous population of
saltating particles could therefore be represented simply by
scaling up from this characteristic path (Figure 11).
He then considered the change in horizontal momentum
of a single particle during the course of a saltation hop. This
can be represented as:
Mp mp u2  u1

w1

32

where Mp is particle momentum, mp is particle mass, and u2

and u1 are the final and initial horizontal speeds of the particle, respectively. The change in particle momentum is simply
the product of grain mass and the change in horizontal

251

Characteristic path
u2

Final
u1
w
Grain velocities relative to ground 2

L
Figure 11 Schematic of Bagnolds (1937) saltation characteristic
path trajectory model. Reproduced from Bagnold, R.A., 1937a. The
transport of sand by wind. Geographical Journal 89, 409438.

velocity. The momentum that is gained by the particle during

the hop is extracted from the air, a result of the drag exerted on
the wind by the more slowly moving grain.
The momentum transferred to the grain can be converted
to a rate of momentum loss per unit streamwise distance by
dividing the total momentum lost during the hop by the
length of the saltation hop (l). If the single grain is then replaced by some larger mass of sand (q) that moves past a unit
width during a unit time, the total momentum extracted from
the wind per unit area and per unit time would be given as:
qu2  u1 =l

33

This expression is equivalent to a force per unit surface area

(i.e., a shear stress) acting on the wind. Thus
qu2  u1 =l t

34

where t is the drag force acting on the air due to saltating

grains.
Based on wind-tunnel observations that indicated that
grains typically rise almost vertically from the bed, Bagnold
assumed that all horizontal momentum was lost (transferred
to the bed) on impact and that the initial horizontal velocity
of saltating particles is approximately zero. Thus, u1 in eqn
[34] will be approximately zero and can be neglected. His
wind-tunnel measurements also revealed that the wind field
above actively saltating sand was quite different from that
above a fixed bed. From this, he inferred that the drag on the
wind field was entirely due to the saltating grains, so that:
qu2 =l rv02

35

where v0 is the shear velocity above the saltation layer

(keeping Bagnolds original symbology).
Bagnold found that the ratio u2/l was closely approximated
over a wide range of values by g/wi, where wi is the initial
vertical velocity of the particle. Equating the two ratios and
rearranging gives:
l u2 wi =g

36

The ratio wi/g approximates the time required to decelerate

a particle from its initial launch velocity to zero (that is,
the travel time to the top of the trajectory). Assuming that
the particle does not reach terminal fall velocity, the total
travel time would then be 2wi/g. Because the initial horizontal

252

Sediments and Sediment Transport

velocity of the particle is zero, the average horizontal velocity

during the hop is approximately u2/2. The distance traveled
by the particle during the saltation hop (l) is therefore as
given in eqn [36]. Substituting for u2/l in [35] and rearranging
gives:
q r=g v02 wi

blown sand-transport rates, but the model consistently

underpredicted the measured transport rate by approximately
35%. Bagnold hypothesized that this resulted from the inability to control precisely the grain size of the sand employed
in the experiments. Although all calculations had been based
on a characteristic grain diameter of 0.25 mm, the diameter
of the experimental sands actually ranged from 0.18 to
0.30 mm. The largest grains therefore had a mass approximately 4.5 times larger than the smallest, and thus could act as
launch pads, allowing small grains to retain horizontal momentum at impact. This would produce longer saltation paths
and an increased transport rate. Subsequent experiments
confirmed that transport rates did in fact increase with decreased sorting (i.e., larger range of grain sizes). They also
revealed that transport rates at a given shear velocity were
larger for a coarser sand bed than for finer sands, increasing at
a rate that was proportional to the square root of grain size.
Incorporation of these findings led to the final form of
Bagnolds transport-rate model:

37

The typical or characteristic grain is presumed to be launched from the bed by the impact of similar grain. The impacting grain, having traveled through the wind field and
been exposed to a range of wind velocities described by the
shear velocity, was assumed to have an impact velocity that
was proportional to v0. Thus, the impact velocity can be
represented in terms of shear velocity as:
wi Bv0

38

where B is the proportionality coefficient. Substituting into

[37] gives:
q Br=g v03
39

q Cd=D0:5 r=g v03

40

where D is the characteristic grain diameter (0.25 mm), and

C is a sorting coefficient with suggested values ranging from
1.5 for nearly uniform sand to 1.8 for naturally graded sand
(such as dune sand), to 2.8 for poorly sorted sand.
Many later workers proposed additional models for the
rate of aeolian transport (e.g., Kawamura, 1951; Zingg, 1953;
Kadib, 1965; Hsu, 1973; Lettau and Lettau, 1977). Although
these models were typically derived from different assumptions, in form they are striking in the degree to which they
correspond to the Bagnold model (Figure 12). Notably,

Based on calculations of the dimensions of the characteristic path, Bagnold determined a value of B 0.8. Equation
[39] explicitly accounts only for the transport of particles
moving in saltation. Based on wind tunnel and field observations, Bagnold found creep to account for approximately
25% of the total transport, so that a value of B 1.1 could
represent the total transport rate.
Controlled wind-tunnel tests at several shear velocities
showed that eqn [39] provided a good representation of wind-

100

Q (kg1 m1 s)

101

Bagnold (1936)
Kawamura (1951)
Zingg (1953)
Owen (1964)
Kadib (1965)
Hsu (1973)
Lettau and Lettau (1977)
Srensen (2004)

102

103
0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
u* (m/s)

0.6

0.7

0.8

Figure 12 Comparison of different aeolian sand transport models. Reproduced from Sherman, D.G., Jackson, D.W.T., Namikas S.L., Wang J.,
1998. Wind-blown sand on beaches: an evaluation of models. Geomorphology 22, 113133.

Sediments and Sediment Transport

predictions from the Bagnold model tend to fall toward the

middle of the range produced by the suite of alternative
models. Field studies have typically shown that most models
significantly overpredict measured rates of aeolian transport.
This is likely due in part to the many site-specific factors that
inhibit transport in the prototype (e.g., particle cohesion by
moisture, salt crusts, algae, sheltering vegetation, and slope
variability), but are not accounted for in standard transport
models. Comparative studies (e.g., Berg, 1983; Sarre, 1988;
Sherman et al., 1998) have not found any model to provide a
consistent improvement in predictive ability over the Bagnold
model, which remains the most widely used approach to
modeling the rates of aeolian sand transport.

where d is the local water depth, and a is the angle of wave

approach relative to the shoreline. Caldwell (1956) had
quantified a relationship between the alongshore sediment
transport rate and Pl, based on data from two field sites:
q 210p0:8
l

45

Inman and Bagnold (1963) note that eqn [45] is not correct dimensionally, that the empirical constant should include
several parameters that can be specified for a particular environment, and that the transport rate would be more
meaningfully expressed as an immersed weight of sediment:
Il rs  rga0 q KPl

1.13.5.3

253

46

Douglas Lamar Inman

Douglas Inman (1920) and his cadre of graduate students

have made fundamental contributions to the study of beaches
and coasts for almost six decades. Inman received his PhD from
the University of California, Los Angeles, USA, for research he
conducted at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, where
his supervisor was the renowned coastal geologist, Francis
Shepard. From his earliest work, he demonstrated careful and
innovative approaches to sedimentology, coastal processes, and
geomorphological response. His work on the characterization
of sediment populations, discussed earlier, was published while
he was still a graduate student (Inman, 1952). He also published his early work on longshore currents (Inman and Quinn,
1952; Shepard and Inman, 1951) and was a leader in linking
coastal morphology to large scale processes (Inman and
Nordstrom, 1971); in pioneering the application of sediment
budget analysis to coastal change (Bowen and Inman, 1966);
and in the application of radiation stress and edge-wave concepts to nearshore circulations, sand transport, and morphological adjustments (e.g., Bowen et al., 1968; Komar and
Inman, 1970; Inman and Guza, 1982). Of interest here is
Inmans work with Bagnold in developing an immersed-weight
transport model for alongshore sediment transport in the
nearshore zone (Inman and Bagnold, 1963).
The immersed-weight, alongshore sediment-transport rate
model evolved directly from Bagnolds aeolian sand-transport
model. The nearshore model is of the simple form:
Il KPl

41

where Il is the immersed-weight transport rate, K is an empirical constant, and Pl is the longshore component of wave
energy flux (sometimes also referred to as wave power) at the
breakpoint:
Pl ECg sina cosa

43

H is the wave height at the break point and Cg is the local wave
group celerity:
Cg

p
gd

1.13.6

Conclusions

The modern practice of geomorphology depends greatly on

our abilities to understand the sediment and sediment-transport processes that influence landform change. Recognizing,
characterizing, and modeling key parameters in sediment
transport are part of a disciplinary tradition that underpins
much of the scientific basis for geomorphology. Part of that
tradition is celebrated here through our selection of the concepts, histories, and theories summarized in this chapter. It is
obvious that there is much more that could have been included in this review, and some of our choices are subject to
debate. In the field of sediment-transport studies, in particular,
there have been many undiscussed key laboratory and field
experiments. Many of those are discussed in other chapters
and volumes in the Treatise on Geomorphology, where their
value is explicitly recognized. But it would be argued that each
could trace roots to the works on fluid mechanics, sediments,
and sediment transport featured in this chapter.

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42

E is the wave energy density at the breakpoint:

E rgH2

and a0 is a porespace correction (usually approximately 0.6,

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Biographical Sketch
Doug Sherman is a Professor of Geography at the University of Alabama, where he is also Department Chair. His
academic credentials include a PhD in Geography from the University of Toronto and he was a postdoctoral
scholar in the Ocean Engineering Department at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He has been a Professor
of Geography at the University of Southern California and at Texas A&M University. He is a Fellow of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science and Past Chair of the International Geographical Unions
Commission on Coastal Systems. Professor Shermans research expertise is in nearshore processes and sediment
transport in coastal and aeolian systems. He has authored more than 100 scholarly publications, and his research
has been supported by numerous state and federal programs.

M.A. Lisa Davis is an Assistant Professor of Geography at the University of Alabama. She received her PhD in
Geography from the University of Tennessee in 2005 and holds an MPhil in Geography from the University of
Wales, Swansea, and a BA in Geography from the University of Southern Mississippi. Her research specialty is in
fluvial geomorphology, particularly human impacts in river systems, sediment dynamics, and geomorphic
interactions between rivers and other natural systems. Most of her published work to date deals with human
impacts in rivers, specifically geomorphic adjustment to channelization and land-use change.

Steven L. Namikas is an Associate Professor of Geography at Louisiana State University. He received his PhD from
the University of Southern California in 1999. He is the author of approximately 30 research articles dealing with
coastal and aeolian geomorphology. His work focuses on the nature and dynamics of modern processes operating
in these environments, including aeolian sediment transport, beach micrometeorology, and beach hydrology. He
also has ongoing interests in a variety issues related to instrumentation, monitoring, and modeling of processresponse systems.