Handout 2

Imperial College of Science, Technology & Medicine

Department of Aeronautics

Third Year
Energy Methods
2. Energy methods for 3D continua
The principles of stationary total potential energy and virtual work, which have been
introduced in Section 1 and illustrated on simple problems with one or two degrees of
freedom, will be now generalised for a case of deformable 3D continuum. We emphasise (i) the equivalence between these energy principles and the (di
erential or algebraic)
equilibrium equations and (ii) the need for having the constitutive and the compatibility
equations dened in either case (see Section 1.3). For that reason, we will rst derive the
constitutive and the compatibility equations for a general 3D continuum case. For future
convenience, we will also derive the di
erential equilibrium equations for that problem.
2.1 Dierential equations of equilibrium
Let us analyse a solid deformable body subject to applied surface loads and boundary
conditions as given in the following gure. The surface S is divided into two parts:

Sp

with prescribed forces and Su with prescribed displacements satisfying

\ Su =  :
Sp  Su = S
Sp

8
<
A distributed surface load P s = :

9
8
=
<
and
a
distributed
volume
load
P
sy
v =

:
sz

9
=
vy

vz

Psx

Pvx

{ 11 {

are assumed to act on Sp and in the interior of the body, respectively. As an example,
we may think of P s as the pressure load and P v as the self-weight. We will analyse how
these loads relate to the stresses in the body and on its surface.

z
Pv
y

Sp

n
dS

Ps

Su

dV

2.1.1 Equilibrium of di
erential volume dV
Let us analyse the forces acting on the di
erential volume dV as shown in the following
gure (to avoid cluttering, the components of the direct stress and the applied volume
load have been separated from the components of the shear stress)
zz dz
z

zz +

xz dz
z

xz+
yz +

xx

yz
dz
z
yx

Pvz

yy

Pvx

Pvy

yy +

xy

yy dy
y

yx + yx dx
x
zx + zx dx
x

y
zz

zx

zy

xx + xx dx
x

xy +

zy +

xy
dy
y
zy
dy
y

xz
yz

Summing all the components of the applied and the internal forces along the co-ordinate
axis x gives

@ xx
@x

dxdydz

+ @@yxy dydxdz + @@zxz dzdxdy + Pvx dxdydz = 0

hence after dividing by dV = dxdydz ,

{ 12 {

+ @@yxy + @@zxz + Pvx = 0:

@ xx
@x

Similarly, summing all the forces in the other two co-ordinate directions gives

@ yx
@x

+ @@yyy + @@zyz + Pvy = 0

and

@ zx
@x

+ @@yzy + @@zzz + Pvz = 0

or in the matrix form

2
4

9 8
38
< @x@@ = <
yz 5
: @y  + :

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

zx

zy

zz

@
@z

9 809
= < =
= :0
vy

0
vz

Pvx
P

(2:1)

The tensor form of (2.1) is

div
t + P v = 0

2
with div
t =
t r = 4

9
38
< @x@@ =
yz 5
: @y .

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

zx

zy

zz

@
@z

(2:2)

An important property of the stress

tensor is deduced from the three moment equations around the axes x, y and z . Summing
all the moments around the x axis gives

Pvz dV

dy

;Pvy dV dz + @ zz dzdxdy dy ; @ yy dydzdx dz + @ zx dxdydz dy ; @ yx dxdydz dz

zy

@z

+ @@yzy dy

@y

dxdzdy

yz

@x

+ @@zyz dz

dxdydz

@x

= 0

which after cancelling higher-order di

erentials leaves yz = zy . Corresponding results
are also obtained from the moment equations around axes y and z , hence

yz

= zy

zx

= xz and
{ 13 {

xy

= yx 

(2:3)

therefore the stress tensor is symmetric. Consequently, div
t can be further transformed
into

2
div
t =
t r = 4

9 2
38
< @x@@ = 6 @x@
yz 5
: @y  = 4 0

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

zx

zy

zz

@
@y

@
@z

0
0

@
@y
@
@x

@
@z

= Dr
= D

@
@z
@
@y

8
>
@ 3>
@z >
<
0 75
>
@
@x >
:

9
>
>
yy >
=
zz
xy >
yz >


xx





zx

(2:4)

where Dr (which will be often denoted simply as D) is a matrix of di
erential operators

and
is the stress vector. Equation (2.2) can be thus written as

D
+ P v = 0

(2:5)

2.1.2 Equilibrium of di
erential surface dS
We analyse equilibrium of a di
erential element under the di
erential surface dS with a
unit normal n as shown in the following gure (for clarity, only the components xx , xy
and xz have been marked). Summing all the forces in the directions x, y and z we obtain
+ xy dSy + xz dSz = Psx dS
yx dSx + yy dSy + yz dSz = Psy dS :
zx dSx + zy dSy + zz dSz = Psz dS

xx dSx

8 9
< x=
z , where n =
: yz , from here we obtain
n

Since dSx = dS nx , dSy = dS ny and dSz = dS n

n
n

2
4

38 9 8
< x= <
yz 5
: yz  = :
zz

9
=
sy

sz

xx

xy

xz

Psx

yx

yy

zx

zy

{ 14 {

which can be written in a tensor and a matrix form as

t n = P s

2
x
with Dn = 4 0

0
0

ny

nz

()

ny

nx

nz

ny

3
0 5.

Dn
= P s on Sp 

nz

(2:6)
(2.7)

nx

dS y

xx Ps

dS x

xy
z

dS
xz
y

dS z

Eqn (2.6) gives the natural (also called force, static, load, inessential or Neumann) boundary condition. In contrast, the boundary conditions on Su are called the essential (also
the displacement, kinematic or Dirichlet) boundary conditions. In order to fully dene the
problem, the equilibrium equation (2.5) and the natural boundary condition (2.6) have
to be coupled with the compatibility (kinematic) equations and the constitutive (stressstrain) equations.
2.2 Compatibility (kinematic) equations
The relationships between the components u, v , w

8 9
< =
of the displacement vector u = : 
u
v

in the co-ordinate directions x, y , z , and the strain vector t = h xx yy zz
where

xx

yy

zz

are the direct strains and

xy

yz

xy yz zx

i,

, zx are the shear strains will be

derived for small deformations. Analysing the deformation of the di

erential segment in
the xy plane, as shown in the gure, the following results can be deduced for the direct
strains
{ 15 {

xx

+ @u
@x dx ; u
dx

= @@ xu

and

yy

= @@ vy :

(2:8)

u+ u
y dy

v+ v dy
y

dy
u+ u dx
x

v+ v dx
x

v
dx

The shear strain

xy

will be dened as the sum of the shearing angles

and

(this is

called the engineering shear strain in the literature there can often be found an alternative,
tensor, denition of the shear strain, which is equal to +2  ), therefore

xy

=+ =

@v
@x dx
dx

@u dy
@y
dy

= @@ xv + @@ uy :

(2:9)

Analysing the deformation in the yz and zx planes, we likewise obtain

zz

@w
@z

yz

= @@wy + @@ vz

and

zx

@w
+
:
@z
@x

@u

(2:10)

Note that (2.8)-(2.10) can be written as

8
>>
><
>>
>:

9 2 @x@
>> 6 0
yy >
= 666 0
zz
= 66 @
xy >
>
64 @y0
yz >


xx





zx

@
@z

@
@y

@
@x
@
@z

3
77 8 9
@ 7< =
@z 7
0 777 : 
@ 5
@y
0
0

u
v

@
@x

with D given in (2.4).

{ 16 {

or simply

 = Dt u

(2:11)

2.3 Constitutive (stress-strain) equations

In this course we will only consider homogeneous and isotropic linear elastic materials
with no stresses in a strain-free state. For such materials it can be shown (we do not
prove this statement here) that the most general relationship between the stress vector

t = h xx yy

zz xy yz zx

i and the strain vector t = h xx yy

zz xy yz zx

i has

only two free parameters and can be written in a form

=  ()

8
>>
><
>>
>:

9 2
>
yy >
>= 66
zz
= 666
xy >
> 4
yz >


xx

+ 2

zx

+ 2

0
0
0

9
0 0 0 38
xx
>
>
0 0 0 77 >
yy >
>
>
0 0 0 77 < zz =  (2:12)

0 0 7 > xy >
>
0 0 5>
yz >
>
:

0 0 zx

0
0
0

+ 2
0
0
0

where  and are the parameters of the material model (called Lame's constants) and 
is the constitutive matrix (or the modulus matrix) of the material. Parameters  and
in the constitutive matrix can be dened from the following experiments.
2.3.1 Pure shear
This state of deformation is dened by presence of only one of the shear strains in the
strain vector , say xy :

xx

= yy = zz = yz = zx = 0

and

xy

6= 0:

(2:13)

Equations (2.12) and (2.13) imply xy = xy or, by also performing the shear test in the
co-ordinate planes yz and zx,

xy

= xy

yz

= yz

and

zx

= zx 

while all the direct stress components are equal to zero. The situation is shown in the
following gure.
{ 17 {

/2 xy
/2+xy
/2+xy
/2xy

y
x

Material parameter (second Lame's constant) is a very important constant in the theory
of elasticity. It is called the shear modulus and is denoted as G:

= :

(2:14)

2.3.2 Pure dilatation (volumetric straining)

In this experiment we assume that there is no shearing in the material and that all the
direct strains are equal:

xx

= yy = zz = 31 V

where, for small strains,

V

xx

and

yz

= zx = xy = 0

(2:15)

+ yy + zz is the volumetric strain, i.e. the specic

change of volume during the deformation. Equations (2.12) and (2.15) now imply

xx

= ( + 2 )xx + (yy + zz ) = ( + 32 )V

= ( + 2 )yy + (xx + zz ) = ( + 2 )V

3
2 ) 
zz = ( + 2 )zz + (xx + yy ) = ( +
3 V
yy

(2:16)

with all the shear stress components being equal to zero and all the direct stress components being equal to each other. Introducing the hydrostatic stress H = 13 (xx +yy +zz ),
{ 18 {

the sum of the three equations in (2.16) gives H =

+ 23

V

. The constant of pro-

portionality between the volumetric strain and the hydrostatic stress is called the bulk
modulus of the material

=  + 2 :
3

(2:17)

Using (2.14) and (2.17), the constitutive equation (2.12) can relate the strain vector to the
stress vector through the bulk and shear moduli of the material. It is often convenient to
express the constitutive matrix  in terms of yet another pair of constants. The meaning
of these new constants will become apparent from the following experiment.
2.3.3 Uniaxial stress state
In this stress state we assume that there is only one non-zero component in the stress
vector and that it is a direct stress, say xx :

yy

= zz = xy = yz = zx = 0

and

xx

6= 0:

Equation (2.12) then turns into

2
4

+ 2



+ 2


+ 2

9 8
38
< xx = <
5 : yy  = :
zz





xx

0
0

9
=


(2:18)

with all the shear strains being identically equal to zero. The di
erence between the last
two equations in (2.18) gives yy = zz and, bearing in mind that in the uniaxial stress
state like this the specimen will laterally shrink when axially stretched, we may state

yy

= zz = ;
xx 
{ 19 {

where the new material parameter

is called the Poisson ratio. Equation (2.18) can now
be rewritten as
( + 2 ; 2
)xx = xx :
 ; 2
( + ) = 0

(2:19)

The second of these equations, along with (2.14) and (2.17), gives the following relation
between the Poisson ratio and Lame's constants (or the bulk and shear moduli)

; 2G
:
= 2( + ) = 36K
K + 2G

(2:20)

The constant of proportionality between the axial strain and stress in the uniaxial case
is called the Young modulus (or the elastic modulus) and is denoted as E . It can be
expressed in terms of Lame's constants (or the bulk and shear moduli) from (2.14), (2.20)
and the rst equation in (2.19):

= 3 + 2 = 9K G :
+
3K + G

(2:21)

Solving (2.20) and (2.21) for  and in terms of E and

gives

= (1 +
E
)(1 ; 2
)

and

= 2(1E+
) 

which gives the widely used form of the constitutive relation between the strains and the
stresses for a homogeneous and isotropic linear elastic material

=    = (1 +
)(1 ; 2

2 1;
66
6
) 664 0
0

1;

0
0
0

{ 20 {

0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0

1;

0 1;22 
0
0 1;22 
0
0
0 1;22 

3
77
77
75

(2:22)