40 Useful Words and Phrases For Top

40 Useful Words and Phrases for Top-Notch Essays
25 August, 2014
The secret to a successful essay doesnt just lie in the clever things
you talk about and the way you structure your points.
You should also read
The Complete Guide to English Style for EFL Learners
14 Literary Terms and Techniques to Deepen Your Understanding of English
To be truly brilliant, an essay needs to utilise the right language. You could make a great point, but if
its not intelligently articulated, you almost neednt have bothered. Developing the language skills to
build an argument and to write persuasively is crucial if youre to write outstanding essays every time.
In this article, were going to equip you with the words and phrases you need to write a top-notch
essay, along with examples of how to utilise them. Its by no means an exhaustive list, and there will
often be other ways of using the words and phrases we describe that we wont have room to include,
but there should be more than enough below to help you make an instant improvement to your essaywriting skills whether youre a native English speaker or taking your first steps into writing essays in
English.
General explaining
Lets start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.
1. In order to
Usage: In order to can be used to introduce an explanation for the purpose of an argument.
Example: In order to understand X, we need first to understand Y.
2. In other words
Usage: Use in other words when you want to express something in a different way (more simply), to
make it easier to understand, or to emphasise or expand on a point.
Example: Frogs are amphibians. In other words, they live on the land and in the water.
3. To put it another way

Usage: This phrase is another way of saying in other words, and can be used in particularly complex
points, when you feel that an alternative way of wording a problem may help the reader achieve a
better understanding of its significance.
Example: Plants rely on photosynthesis. To put it another way, they will die without the sun.
4. That is to say
Usage: That is and that is to say can be used to add further detail to your explanation, or to be
more precise.
Example: Whales are mammals. That is to say, they must breathe air.
5. To that end
Usage: Use to that end or to this end in a similar way to in order to or so.
Example: Zoologists have long sought to understand how animals communicate with each other. To
that end, a new study has been launched that looks at elephant sounds and their possible meanings.
Adding additional information to support a point

Students often make the mistake of using synonyms of and each time they want to add further
information in support of a point theyre making, or to build an argument. Here are some cleverer
ways of doing this.
6. Moreover
Usage: Employ moreover at the start of a sentence to add extra information in support of a point
youre making.
Example: Moreover, the results of a recent piece of research provide compelling evidence in support
of
7. Furthermore
Usage:This is also generally used at the start of a sentence, to add extra information.
Example: Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest that
8. Whats more
Usage: This is used in the same way as moreover and furthermore.
Example: Whats more, this isnt the only evidence that supports this hypothesis.
9. Likewise
Usage: Use likewise when you want to talk about something that agrees with what youve just
mentioned.
Example: Scholar A believes X. Likewise, Scholar B argues compellingly in favour of this point of
view.
10. Similarly
Usage: Use similarly in the same way as likewise.
Example: Audiences at the time reacted with shock to Beethovens new work, because it was very
different to what they were used to. Similarly, we have a tendency to react with surprise to the
unfamiliar.
11. Another key thing to remember

Usage: Use the phrase another key point to remember or another key fact to remember to
introduce additional facts without using the word also.
Example: As a Romantic, Blake was a proponent of a closer relationship between humans and
nature. Another key point to remember is that Blake was writing during the Industrial Revolution,
which had a major impact on the world around him.
12. As well as
Usage: Use as well as instead of also or and.
Example: Scholar A argued that this was due to X, as well as Y.
13. Not only but also

Usage: This wording is used to add an extra piece of information, often something thats in some way
more surprising or unexpected than the first piece of information.
Example: Not only did Edmund Hillary have the honour of being the first to reach the summit of
Everest, but he was also appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
14. Coupled with

Usage: Used when considering two or more arguments at a time.
Example: Coupled with the literary evidence, the statistics paint a compelling view of
15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly

Usage: This can be used to structure an argument, presenting facts clearly one after the other.
Example: There are many points in support of this view. Firstly, X. Secondly, Y. And thirdly, Z.
16. Not to mention/to say nothing of

Usage: Not to mention and to say nothing of can be used to add extra information with a bit of
emphasis.
Example: The war caused unprecedented suffering to millions of people, not to mention its impact
on the countrys economy.
Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast

When youre developing an argument, you will often need to present contrasting or opposing opinions
or evidence it could show this, but it could also show this, or X says this, but Y disagrees. This
section covers words you can use instead of the but in these examples, to make your writing sound
more intelligent and interesting.
17. However
Usage: Use however to introduce a point that disagrees with what youve just said.
Example: Scholar A thinks this. However, Scholar B reached a different conclusion.
18. On the other hand
Usage: Usage of this phrase includes introducing a contrasting interpretation of the same piece of
evidence, a different piece of evidence that suggests something else, or an opposing opinion.
Example: The historical evidence appears to suggest a clear-cut situation. On the other hand, the
archaeological evidence presents a somewhat less straightforward picture of what happened that day.
19. Having said that

Usage: Used in a similar manner to on the other hand or but.
Example: The historians are unanimous in telling us X, an agreement that suggests that this version
of events must be an accurate account. Having said that, the archaeology tells a different story.
20. By contrast/in comparison

Usage: Use by contrast or in comparison when youre comparing and contrasting pieces of
evidence.
Example: Scholar As opinion, then, is based on insufficient evidence. By contrast, Scholar Bs
opinion seems more plausible.
21. Then again

Usage: Use this to cast doubt on an assertion.
Example: Writer A asserts that this was the reason for what happened. Then again, its possible that
he was being paid to say this.
22. That said

Usage: This is used in the same way as then again.
Example: The evidence ostensibly appears to point to this conclusion. That said, much of the
evidence is unreliable at best.
23. Yet
Usage: Use this when you want to introduce a contrasting idea.
Example: Much of scholarship has focused on this evidence. Yet not everyone agrees that this is the
most important aspect of the situation.
Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations
Sometimes, you may need to acknowledge a shortfalling in a piece of evidence, or add a proviso. Here
are some ways of doing so.
24. Despite this

Usage: Use despite this or in spite of this when you want to outline a point that stands regardless
of a shortfalling in the evidence.
Example: The sample size was small, but the results were important despite this.
25. With this in mind

Usage: Use this when you want your reader to consider a point in the knowledge of something else.
Example: Weve seen that the methods used in the 19th century study did not always live up to the
rigorous standards expected in scientific research today, which makes it difficult to draw definite
conclusions. With this in mind, lets look at a more recent study to see how the results compare.
26. Provided that

Usage: This means on condition that. You can also say providing that or just providing to mean
the same thing.
Example: We may use this as evidence to support our argument, provided that we bear in mind the
limitations of the methods used to obtain it.
27. In view of/in light of

Usage: These phrases are used when something has shed light on something else.
Example: In light of the evidence from the 2013 study, we have a better understanding of
28. Nonetheless
Usage: This is similar to despite this.
Example: The study had its limitations, but it was nonetheless groundbreaking for its day.
29. Nevertheless
Usage: This is the same as nonetheless.
Example: The study was flawed, but it was important nevertheless.
30. Notwithstanding
Usage: This is another way of saying nonetheless.
Example: Notwithstanding the limitations of the methodology used, it was an important study in the
development of how we view the workings of the human mind.
Giving examples
Good essays always back up points with examples, but its going to get boring if you use the
expression for example every time. Here are a couple of other ways of saying the same thing.
31. For instance

Example: Some birds migrate to avoid harsher winter climates. Swallows, for instance, leave the UK
in early winter and fly south
32. To give an illustration

Example: To give an illustration of what I mean, lets look at the case of
Signifying importance
When you want to demonstrate that a point is particularly important, there are several ways of
highlighting it as such.
33. Significantly
Usage: Used to introduce a point that is loaded with meaning that might not be immediately apparent.
Example: Significantly, Tacitus omits to tell us the kind of gossip prevalent in Suetonius accounts of
the same period.
34. Notably
Usage: This can be used to mean significantly (as above), and it can also be used interchangeably
with in particular (the example below demonstrates the first of these ways of using it).
Example: Actual figures are notably absent from Scholar As analysis.
35. Importantly
Usage: Use importantly interchangeably with significantly.

Example: Importantly, Scholar A was being employed by X when he wrote this work, and was
presumably therefore under pressure to portray the situation more favourably than he perhaps might
otherwise have done.
Summarising
Youve almost made it to the end of the essay, but your work isnt over yet. You need to end by
wrapping up everything youve talked about, showing that youve considered the arguments on both
sides and reached the most likely conclusion. Here are some words and phrases to help you.
36. In conclusion
Usage: Typically used to introduce the concluding paragraph or sentence of an essay, summarising
what youve discussed in a broad overview.
Example: In conclusion, the evidence points almost exclusively to Argument A.
37. Above all

Usage: Used to signify what you believe to be the most significant point, and the main takeaway from
the essay.
Example: Above all, it seems pertinent to remember that
38. Persuasive
Usage: This is a useful word to use when summarising which argument you find most convincing.
Example: Scholar As point that Constanze Mozart was motivated by financial gain seems to me
to be the most persuasive argument for her actions following Mozarts death.
39. Compelling
Usage: Use in the same way as persuasive above.
Example: The most compelling argument is presented by Scholar A.
40. All things considered

Usage: This means taking everything into account.
Example: All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that

How many of these words and phrases will you get into your next essay? And are any of your
favourite essay terms missing from our list? Let us know in the comments below!
https://www.oxford-royale.co.uk/articles/words-phrases-good-essays.html
The Complete Guide to English Style for EFL Learners

14 June, 2014
When you are getting to grips with English, much of your time will
be taken up with learning the nitty gritty: grammar and vocabulary.
How to Communicate Appropriately in Letters and Emails
14 Key Terms to Enhance Your Understanding of English Literature
These are clearly fundamental, and it is right that so much of your early focus be dedicated to them;
but another important aspect of learning a language that is often neglected is style. Though style is
something that varies from person to person, and from one context to another, each language has its
own overall style, and that means that what sounds good in one language may not work quite so well
in another. In this article, were going to introduce you to various aspects of English style so that you
start to get a sense of how this may differ from your native tongue.
Basic principles
Lets start by looking at a few of the fundamental principles of English style. Its quite a complex topic
and difficult to pinpoint exactly what makes up style, as so much depends on the context, but here are
some of the main points to think about.
Clarity
Dont make your reader struggle through the fog of your writing.
At its best, English style is about communicating clearly and effectively. The Guardian Style Guide
quotes Aristotle on this:
Style to be good must be clear. Clearness is secured by using words that are current and ordinary.
Whether youre writing a formal document or just chatting with a friend, its best to keep your
sentences free from jargon, and to be economical with words that is, not using ten where three will
suffice. You want to be understood, otherwise there would be no point in writing or talking, so as a
general rule of thumb, keep it simple is a good mantra. If only the people who write legal small print
could grasp this!
Syntax
Generally, the more formal writing is, the longer and more sophisticated the sentence structures are.
Using very long sentences in an informal context wont work in English (and therefore the longer
sentences of some other languages wont work well directly translated into English, such as
Portuguese).
Gender-neutral nouns
In many European languages, nouns are either male or female. In English, there is no such distinction.
On a related note, if youre unsure how to refer to someone (if you need to refer to a person whose
gender isnt known), its now common practice to use the plural they (even for a single person) in
place of he or she, as it saves words and its a little more elegant.
Distinction between informal and formal you

Unlike French, we dont make the distinction between the formal vous and the informal tu when
addressing someone in the second person. Everyone is just you. This alleviates the potential offence
of using the wrong one (being too formal or worse, overly familiar)!
Punctuation
More than one exclamation mark will, at best, make you seem overenthusiastic.
There are a few stylistic things to bear in mind in the use of punctuation. Use of more than one
exclamation mark is generally frowned upon and this is only really seen in very informal written
contexts such as social media updates. There are rules which most people arent very familiar with
about whether commas and other punctuation should go inside or outside quotation marks (talked
about in this article, which compares British and American styles). Those who know how to use
English properly use advanced punctuation such as semi-colons, which join two freestanding
sentences together (which sounds more sophisticated than two short sentences). And were quite fond
of rhetorical questions: posing questions for dramatic effect, for which no answer is expected. Why?
Because it makes us sound clever. (We used a rhetorical question just there!)
Formal written English
The flower is pollinated by the bee, or the bee pollinates the flower?
Lets start by looking at the formal English style, as this is the one youll need to get to grips with for
academic purposes. This style is appropriate in a variety of contexts, including:
Examples:
Academic writing
Corporate documents
Formal letters
Some of the common features of formal English are:
Passive sentence structures for example, the flower is pollinated by the bee as opposed to
the bee pollinates the flower
Inanimate nouns as the subject, rather than humans
Verbal nouns nouns formed from verbs, such as The building of the suspension bridge
Well see how these contrast with informal English a little later, but first lets look more closely at two
major examples of situations in which you might find yourself using or encountering formal English.
Academic writing
Textbooks are likely to use formal language.

Examples:
Essays, theses and dissertations
Academic books and textbooks
Journal articles
Academic writing requires a particularly formal written style that leaves rather less room for
individual style. Sentences tend to be longer (with short sentences really only used to make a point
stand out), with more complex structures, and the passive voice is used. Bigger words are used
words that wouldnt normally be used in everyday speech because they would sound too pompous.*
Semi-colons are used more often, and introduce a sense of considered pauses by joining two
freestanding sentences together. Contractions such as couldnt are virtually never used in academic
writing, and the first person pronoun I is kept to a minimum. Sometimes, to avoid using the word
I, we will use the word one as a first or second person pronoun for example, One gets the sense
that instead of I get the sense that or You get the sense that This is therefore used in an
everyman sense to refer to a generic individual, and its seen as a little pompous or posh when
used in informal contexts. Footnotes are used to add additional information and citations, and these
citations are structured in a very formulaic way according to a particular convention, typically using
the surname and initial of the author, publication date, page numbers and so forth.
*Though thats not to say that academic work is free from pomposity in fact many scholarly works
are spectacularly pompous because they deliberately use obscure words when simpler ones would
suffice. They make the person who wrote it feel cleverer, but its bad practice because it alienates some
readers and makes a point more difficult to grasp, which entirely defeats the object of writing in the
first place.
Corporate writing
Broadsheet newspapers follow a style that is intended to be clear, easily comprehensible and
somewhat formal.
Examples:
Newspapers
Business proposals
Press releases and other business communications
Very corporate styles of English, such as those found in business proposals, tend to be littered with
jargon, though, as we saw right at the beginning, this isnt a good thing (clarity and simplicity are by
far the preferable things to aim for, as they allow the reader to understand you immediately which is
the whole point). The corporate world is notorious for using made-up jargon such as blue sky
thinking or end of play, though these are increasingly loathed. Customer-facing corporate styles of
English are often dictated by detailed style guides that outline standardised spellings and tones of
voice, so that work by many writers retains the same unified corporate voice that sounds as though it
was all written by the same person. An example of this is a newspaper; The Guardian, for example,
uses the excellent style guide we referred to earlier. Some customer-facing corporate styles are
informal and chatty, such as that of Innocent Drinks; such styles use short sentences and everyday
language. Theyre designed to be matey with customers and make them feel as though the brand is
their friend.
Informal written English

Most people dont consciously think about writing in a particular style they just write. But they are
almost certainly conforming to the English way of doing things in the kind of language they use and
the way they structure their words.
You can be as informal as you like in a private blog.

Examples of contexts:
Writing a letter or email to someone you know well
A Facebook or Twitter update
A blog post
Basic principles:
Active voice, such as Tom teaches Harry how to play croquet
Humans as the subject
Often addresses the reader as Im addressing you in this article
Uses informal language such as slang and idioms
Uses contractions, such as shouldnt instead of should not (not using contractions when
writing informally comes across as a bit stilted and doesnt read well).
Conversational English
The best way to improve your conversational English is through lots of conversations with English
speakers.
Having covered the various contexts in which you may need to use or read English, the other side to
the language is the way in which it is spoken. Conversational English is your key to communicating
effectively, making friends and becoming more confident in your use of English. The remainder of this
article highlights the main things that make conversational English distinctive.
Contractions
When speaking, we tend to use contracted forms such as shouldnt instead of should not or
dont instead of do not. You would sound quite odd if you didnt use them when speaking, and it
would disrupt the flow of your speech, making it sound laboured.
Informal language
In conversational English there are various ways in which we speak informally without even realising
it. Some of the things that make our language less formal include:
Slang loo instead of toilet, for example, or spuds instead of potatoes.
Idioms and clichs such as Ill not beat about the bush when meaning Ill get straight to
the point.
Sarcasm our sense of humour is often quite sarcastic, so youll find us saying things
sarcastically that we dont really mean (the opposite of what we really mean, in fact). For
example, if we were in a situation that we really werent enjoying, we might say Well this is
pretty much the most fun Ive ever had.
Euphemisms finding a gentler way of saying something potentially offensive or upsetting;

for example, saying that someone passed away rather than died.
Addressing other people

In many other European languages theres a degree of formality in addressing a stranger; in French,
you would address a man as monsieur and in Italian as signor, for example. There is no real
English equivalent of these, as sir and madam are now largely obsolete in conversational English.
However, if you were referring to a stranger in the third person in their presence, youd say this lady
or this gentleman rather than this woman or this man; for example, This lady would like to buy
some oranges.
Exaggeration
It was worth it, but we queued for an eternity

Many of us English speakers are prone to exaggeration in conversational English, as it makes what
were saying sound more impressive or dramatic. We know its not to be taken literally, but well often
say things like I killed a spider last night that was the size of a football, or They kept me waiting
forever.
Tactfulness
A major characteristic of spoken English is the use of tactful, diplomatic language. Because were
generally a polite bunch of people, we dont want to offend anyone, so we often say things indirectly
to take the sting off them or tone things down. This way of speaking is often lost on those who arent
native speakers, and their more direct style may inadvertently offend a British person.
For example, instead of asking someone directly, please do this, we would pad it out with extra
words to tone it down and sound a little more humble; for example: it would be good if you could
or Id really appreciate it if you could We also try to avoid being too negative. Rather than telling
someone, I dont like it, we would turn it around and say something like, Its not quite what I was
hoping for. If were having to give someone bad news, we will try to use language to soften the
blow. For example, rather than saying thats not possible, well say something like, I dont think
were going to be able to do that, unfortunately. Notice how we added the I dont think to this
sentence, just so that it comes across as still a possibility. If youre about to tell someone something
that theyre not going to want to hear, you might want to begin the sentence with the words, Im
afraid. For example, Im afraid you didnt get the job.
Understanding the subtleties of the style element of a language takes time; its not something that can
be easily taught in the way grammar and vocabulary are, but rather something that one gets a feel for
with experience. The best thing you can do to develop a sense of how English is written and spoken is
to read as much English as you can, in a variety of contexts, and to speak English with native speakers.
Little by little, youll pick up English style without even realising it but theres no substitute for
experience.
How to Write Good Letters and Emails: a Guide for Those Who
are New to the English Language
27 May, 2014
When youre learning English, youre likely to be pretty

preoccupied with getting the basics right: learning new vocabulary
and grammar, trying to master the art of conversing in your new
language and perhaps also starting to think about using English in
an academic context, if youre preparing to study at an Englishspeaking school or university.
20 Bizarre English Idioms and Their Origins
15 Common Grammar Mistakes and How to Avoid Them
But one aspect of English you possibly havent thought about yet is how to communicate
appropriately in formal written situations, such as letters. This is a skill youll almost certainly need if
youre in the process of applying to UK schools or universities, so we thought wed give you a handy
guide on how to write formal letters and emails in English. Even if youre a native speaker, this is still
an essential skill to acquire if you havent already, both for university applications and in life beyond
your student years, when youll almost certainly need to write covering letters for job applications,
letters to the bank, emails to customer service departments of companies, and so on. So, if youre not
quite sure how to go about writing a formal letter or email, take heed of the advice in this article and
youll soon be writing professional-sounding communications.
The right way to write a letter
The rules for writing letters in English remain relatively strict.

When it comes to writing a formal letter, there are very clear right and wrong ways of going about it.
To show you the right way of doing it, lets make up a situation and pretend that youre writing a letter
to a university youve applied to, enquiring about the possibility of deferring your course for a year.
Weve written out the letter in full below, so that you can refer to it as you read through the following
points.
Your address: the first thing to write is your own address. This goes at the top right-hand side of the
letter.
Date: Beneath your address, you write the date of the letter. Note how weve formatted the date
here, and left a space between the bottom of the address and the date.
Their address: Next, you write the recipients address. This is left-aligned and placed below the text
of your own address and the date.
Salutation: weve written about these in more detail beneath our example letter, but for the purposes
of this example we are addressing the recipient using Mr and his surname.
Subject line: a bit like an email, a formal letter has a one-line summary after the salutation, which
summarises what the letter is about.
Body text: the main content of the letter. Use spaces to indicate a new paragraph and keep sentences
clear and to the point. Make sure its clear exactly what you want the person to do as an outcome of
your letter. In this example, weve put the direct question on its own separate line to make sure it
stands out.
Sign-off: again, well give you more guidance on how to sign off your letter later in this article. In
this example weve used Yours sincerely, for reasons that will become clear later.
Signature: weve left a gap here, where you would handwrite your signature once youve printed off
your letter ready to send.
Print name: beneath your signature is your name printed in full.
An example of a formal letter
Your Name
Bluebell Cottage
Winchester
Hampshire
SO22 1AA
12 May 2014
Mr John Smith
Admissions Department
Pretend University
Oxford
Oxfordshire
OX1 1BB
Dear Mr Smith,
Deferring course entry for a year
I have a conditional offer for the English and French course at Pretend University
starting in 2014. However, owing to a personal situation within my family, my
circumstances have changed and I would very much appreciate being able to delay
the start of my course to 2015, subject to my attaining the required grades.
Please would you advise me whether or not this would be possible?
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
[signature]
Your Name
Salutations in more detail
Addressing your lecturer informally is a bit like using this card to write to them.
Always begin a formal letter with Dear, rather than hi or any other more informal greeting. First
names are best avoided if you want to be very formal, but may be acceptable in some situations, such
as when youre writing to someone youve met in person and who has encouraged you to address them
by their first name. In terms of more formal greetings, you have the following options:
Sir/Madam you start your letter with Dear Sir or Madam when you dont know to whom your
letter should be addressed; for example, if youre writing to the general university admissions
department and dont know exactly who would be responsible for the handling of your enquiry.
Mr/Mrs/Dr etc when you know the name of the person to whom you are writing, address them
using their surname and title. For men, this should be Mr Smith (unless you know that he has another
title, e.g. Dr Smith or Captain Smith) and for women, this should be Ms Smith unless you know for
sure that she has another title or prefers to use Mrs or Miss.
Signing off a letter

There are several ways of signing off a formal letter. These are:
Yours faithfully, this is used when youve started your letter with Dear Sir or Madam.
Yours sincerely, this is used when youve addressed a named individual in your letter.
Yours truly, this can be used when youre writing to someone you know slightly. This is more
common in America.
These should all have a comma at the end, as in the examples above.
Email
Even in an email, its better to be too formal than not formal enough.
Email is generally considered less formal than a letter, but thats not to say that you can descend into
over-familiarity or slang when youre writing to someone important, such as a university admissions
tutor (who will not be impressed if youre not able to communicate professionally). You must remain
respectful and professional at all times, even in this more informal medium.
You dont need to lay out your email in the style of the letter in the example above, but there are a few
special considerations and things that are done differently in emails as opposed to letters.
The email address you use
For the purposes of emailing important people such as university tutors or potential employers its
best to have a professional-looking email address. Low-quality free email providers such as Hotmail
and Yahoo are best avoided (Gmail is still considered acceptable), and although we probably all have
childish email addresses with silly handles like shopgirl1990 that we set up years ago, they wont
give a very good impression to the person youre emailing. As a general rule,
firstname.lastname@emailprovider.com is a good format for your email address.
To/from field
The email equivalent of putting your address and your recipients address is the To/From field of your
email. This may not seem important, but there are a few things to bear in mind:
Ensure that the From field is properly configured. It should simply be your first and last names,
appropriately capitalised and spelt correctly, with no extra bits like hearts or exclamation marks.
Put your recipients email address in the To field if youre emailing one person.
If theres someone else you think should see the email for their information, but youre not directly
addressing it to them, put their email in the CC field. This stands for Carbon Copy, and it means
that they will see the email but will also see that its not directly addressed to them. Dont use it unless
there is a real need for this person to see the communication.
If youre emailing several people, its bad form to include all their email addresses in the To field.
In this instance, you should put your own email address in the To field and put those of your
recipients into the BCC field. This stands for Blind Carbon Copy, and it means theyll all see the
email but wont see who else youve sent it to.
Subject line
Dont mark things as urgent if theyre not.

Write something descriptive in the subject line that summarises what the email is about. Dont make it
too long. If you were emailing about the query covered in our example letter earlier, for instance, the
subject line could simply be Deferring course entry. A descriptive subject line makes it easier for
people to find an email among a mass of others, and will also ensure that they do bother to read it.
Dont forget, people receive dozens of emails every day, so yours could easily get lost in their inbox if
you put a generic subject line such as Enquiry. Another word of caution: avoid words like Urgent
unless its a genuine emergency (for instance, you could miss a deadline if they dont respond
quickly). Marking something as urgent when it isnt will only annoy the recipient, who has many other
demands on their time. For the same reason, avoid marking the email as important if your email
provider has a dedicated button for this.
Salutation
Email greetings are generally more relaxed than letters, though if you want to be formal then its still
fine to start your email with Dear Mr Smith if youre emailing a named individual or Dear Sir or
Madam if youre emailing a generic email address such as admissions@pretenduniversity.com. If
youve met the person before, or theyve emailed you before, first names are acceptable if this is how
they have signed their emails to you previously. In such a situation, its also acceptable to use a
slightly less formal greeting, such as Hello or even Hi. However, go by how they address you; if
their emails to you start Dear, you reply with Dear; if they start Hi, you can reply with Hi. An
alternative email greeting that lies somewhere between formal and informal is Good morning or
Good afternoon. This is perhaps a little friendlier and more personal than Dear, so if your style is
not naturally very formal then this is an acceptable form of email greeting.
Signing off an email

Again, with email being more informal than a letter, a very formal sign-off such as Yours sincerely
can sound a little odd in an email. If you have started your email in the formal style of a letter then it
makes sense to finish it in this way, but if youve adopted one of the less formal salutations outlined
just now, you have a few different options for how you could sign off. These common conventions
include:
Best wishes,
Kind regards,
Best regards,
All the best,
Thanks,
Thanks in advance,
Many thanks,
The latter three can be used when youve asked for something or asked a question. With all of these,
make sure you have a comma at the end of the line, as in the examples above.
If you have a standard email signature thats included automatically in all your emails, make sure that
its contents are completely appropriate for the person to whom you are sending the email. Jokes, funny
images and such like are not appropriate for a formal email.
Other tips for writing formally
You dont have to use high-quality paper when writing a letter, but it may impress the recipient all the
same.
There are a few more general pointers for writing formally to ensure that you maintain that
professional image with which to impress your recipient.
Never use slang avoid slang and colloquialisms when youre writing formally. It goes without
saying that you should never swear, either.
Dont waffle explain what youre trying to say as clearly and concisely as possible if you expect
them to read it in full. Keep your communication short and to the point.
Always proofread good spelling and grammar are absolutely essential, so check your
communication thoroughly before it gets sent off (the spell check will do for an initial check, but
youll still need to read through it to correct anything that it might not have picked up on). Any errors
will completely shatter your professional image!
In emails, avoid unnecessary attachments, emoticons and so on.
You will undoubtedly have occasion to write a formal letter at some point, and sending emails has
become a daily occurrence for most of us. Taking on board the tips in this article will ensure that you
convey a professional demeanour in your written communications, and this will stand you in good
stead in any number of situations in which you find yourself in the future.
14 Common Grammatical Mistakes in English And How to

Avoid Them
13 February, 2014
If youre currently in the process of learning English, and youre

struggling to get to grips with our grammar, dont take it to heart.
25 Ways to Get Better at English as Quickly as Possible
Homophones: the English Words That Cause Confusion
A huge number of native English speakers make frequent English slip-ups that bring on the wrath of
the UKs army of grammar pedants, and its mainly because they werent taught properly at school.
But for you, help is at hand. So that you can learn the rules from the word go, weve put together this
guide to some of the most common mistakes people make when writing in English. Learn them all,
and youll get your knowledge of English off to a better start than most Brits! Even if youre a native
speaker, you may find some useful advice here to make your use of English the best it can be.
1. Misplaced apostrophes
Apostrophes arent difficult to use once you know how, but putting them in the wrong place is one of
the most common grammar mistakes in the English language. Many people use an apostrophe to form
the plural of a word, particularly if the word in question ends in a vowel, which might make the word
look strange with an S added to make it plural.
The rules:
Apostrophes indicate possession something belonging to something or someone else.
To indicate something belonging to one person, the apostrophe goes before the s. For
instance, The girls horse.
To indicate something belonging to more than one person, put the apostrophe after the s. For
example, The girls horse.
Apostrophes are also used to indicate a contracted word. For example, dont uses an
apostrophe to indicate that the word is missing the o from do not.
Apostrophes are never used to make a word plural, even when a word is in number form, as in
a date.
How not to do it:
The horses are in the field
Pens for sale
In the 1980s
Janes horse is over there
The girls dresses are ready for them to collect
How to do it properly:
The horses are in the field
Pens for sale
In the 1980s
We didnt want to do it
Janes horse is over there
The girls dresses are ready for them to collect
2. Your/youre
We covered this one before in our post on homophones, but its such a widespread problem that theres
no harm in covering it again.
The rules:
Your indicates possession something belonging to you.
Youre is short for you are.
How not to do it:
Your beautiful
Do you know when your coming over?
Can I have one of youre biscuits?
Youre beautiful
Do you know when youre coming over?
Can I have one of your biscuits?
3. Its/its
We said earlier that apostrophes should be used to indicate possession, but there is one exception to
this rule, and that is the word it. Unsurprisingly, this exception gets lots of people confused.
The rules:
Its is only ever used when short for it is.
Its indicates something belonging to something that isnt masculine or feminine (like his
and hers, but used when youre not talking about a person).
If it helps, remember that inanimate objects cant really possess something in the way a human
can.
How not to do it:
Its snowing outside
The sofa looks great with its new cover
Its snowing outside
The sofa looks great with its new cover
4. Could/would/should of
This common mistake arises because the contracted form of could have couldve sounds a bit
like could of when you say it out loud. This mistake is made frequently across all three of these
words.
The rules:
When people write should of, what they really mean is should have.
Written down, the shortened version of should have is shouldve.
Shouldve and Should have are both correct; the latter is more formal.
How not to do it:
We could of gone there today
I would of done it sooner
You should of said
We couldve gone there today
I would have done it sooner
You shouldve said
5. There/their/theyre
Weve met this one before, too; its another example of those pesky homophones words that sound
the same but have different meanings.
The rules:
Use there to refer to a place that isnt here over there.
We also use there to state something There are no cakes left.
Their indicates possession something belonging to them.
Theyre is short for they are.
How not to do it:
Their going to be here soon
We should contact theyre agent
Can we use there boat?
Their is an argument that says
Theyre going to be here soon
We should contact their agent
Can we use their boat?
There is an argument that says
6. Fewer/less
The fact that many people dont know the difference between fewer and less is reflected in the
number of supermarket checkout aisles designated for 10 items or less. The mistake most people
make is using less when they actually mean fewer, rather than the other way round.
The rules:
Fewer refers to items you can count individually.
Less refers to a commodity, such as sand or water, that you cant count individually.
How not to do it:
There are less cakes now
Ten items or less
There are fewer cakes now
Ten items or fewer
Less sand
Fewer grains of sand
7. Amount/number
These two work in the same way as less and fewer, referring respectively to commodities and
individual items.
The rules:
Amount refers to a commodity, which cant be counted (for instance water).
Number refers to individual things that can be counted (for example birds).
How not to do it:
A greater amount of people are eating more healthily
A greater number of people are eating more healthily
The rain dumped a larger amount of water on the country than is average for the month
8. To/two/too
Its time to revisit another common grammar mistake that we also covered in our homophones post, as
no article on grammar gripes would be complete without it. Its easy to see why people get this one
wrong, but theres no reason why you should.
The rules:
To is used in the infinitive form of a verb to talk.
To is also used to mean towards.
Too means also or as well.
Two refers to the number 2.
How not to do it:
Im to hot
Its time two go
Im going too town
He bought to cakes
Im too hot
Its time to go
Im going to town
He bought two cakes
9. Then/than
Confusion between then and than probably arises because the two look and sound similar.
The rules:
Than is used in comparisons.
Then is used to indicate something following something else in time, as in step-by-step

instructions, or planning a schedule (well go there then there).
How not to do it:
She was better at it then him
It was more then enough
She was better at it than him
It was more than enough
Well go to the baker first, then the coffee shop
10. Me/myself/I
The matter of how to refer to oneself causes all manner of conundrums, particularly when referring to
another person in the same sentence. Heres how to remember whether to use me, myself or I.
The rules:
When referring to yourself and someone else, put their name first in the sentence.
Choose me or I by removing their name and seeing which sounds right.
For example, with the sentence John and I are off to the circus, you wouldnt say me is off
to the circus if it was just you; youd say I am off to the circus. Therefore when talking
about going with someone else, you say John and I.
You only use myself if youve already used I, making you the subject of the sentence.
How not to do it:
Me and John are off to the circus
Myself and John are going into town
Give it to John and I to look after
John and I are off to the circus
John and I are going into town
Give it to John and me to look after
Ill deal with it myself
I thought to myself
11. Invite/invitation
This mistake is now so common that its almost accepted as an alternative, but if you really want to
speak English properly, you should avoid it.
The rules:
Invite is a verb to invite. It refers to asking someone if theyd like to do something or go

somewhere.
Invitation is a noun an invitation. It refers to the actual message asking someone if

theyd like to do something or go somewhere.
How not to do it:
I havent responded to her invite yet.
She sent me an invite.
I havent responded to her invitation yet.
She sent me an invitation.
Im going to invite her to join us.
12. Who/whom
Another conundrum arising from confusion over how to refer to people. There are lots in the English
language!
The rules:
Who refers to the subject of a sentence; whom refers to the object.
Who and whom work in the same way as he or him. You can work out which you
should use by asking yourself the following:
Who did this? He did so who is correct. Whom should I invite? Invite him so
whom is correct.
That is often used incorrectly in place of who or whom. When referring to a person, you
should not use the word that.
How not to do it:
Who shall I invite?
Whom is responsible?
He was the only person that wanted to come
Whom shall I invite?
Who is responsible?
He was the only person who wanted to come
13. Affect/effect
Its an easy enough mistake to make given how similar these two words look and sound, but theres a
simple explanation to help you remember the difference.
The rules:
Affect is a verb to affect meaning to influence or have an impact on something.
Effect is the noun a positive effect referring to the result of being affected by something.
There is also a verb to effect, meaning to bring something about to effect a change.
However, this is not very commonly used, so weve left it out of the examples below to avoid
confusion.
How not to do it:
He waited for the medicine to have an affect
They were directly effected by the flooding
He waited for the medicine to have an effect
They were directly affected by the flooding
14. I.e. and e.g.

These two abbreviations are commonly confused, and many people use them interchangeably.
However, their uses are very different.
The rules:
I.e. means that is or in other words. It comes from the Latin words id est.
E.g. means for example. It comes from the Latin words exempli gratia.
Only use i.e. and e.g. when writing informally. In formal documents, such as essays, it is
better to write out the meanings (for example or that is).
How not to do it:
He liked many different cheeses, i.e. cheddar, camembert and brie.
He objects to the changes e.g. he wont be accepting them.
He liked many different cheeses, e.g. cheddar, camembert and brie.
He objects to the changes i.e. he wont be accepting them.
We hope youve found this a useful reference guide as you continue your journey to become fluent in
English. If youd like to learn even more about the ins and outs of English grammar, why not enrol on
one of our English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses this summer?
How to Learn English Faster: 25 Tips for EFL Learners

11 December, 2013
English can be a daunting language to learn.

10 Reasons for Which You Should Learn English
Why I Love the English Language
Full of contradictions and odd rules and pronunciations, its idiosyncrasies are what makes it
interesting, but it can be a challenge if youre new to it and even if youre not! In this article, well
offer some useful tips for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students on how to speed up the
process of learning this complex language, so that youll be fluent before you know it.
Learning on your own

Going it alone when learning a foreign language requires extra hard work and commitment, and the
speaking parts are particularly challenging. Our first set of tips should help make the process a little
easier.
1. Invest in good study materials
Buy notebooks youll want to use.

In addition to a basic learning guide that will provide some structure for your studies, youll need a
good dictionary for translations, and ideally also a dedicated grammar guide. Youll also need a
notebook, lined paper and a lever arch folder for your notes. Get some stationery that you enjoy using,
so that it makes studying more fun!
2. Buy an audio CD or DVD
Audio CDs or DVDs are really useful for learning pronunciations, giving you essential practise that
you wont get otherwise if youre studying on your own. These will also give you practise at saying
the words yourself.
3. Find someone to Skype with
Try to find a native English speaker whos prepared to spend some time speaking with you on Skype.
This will give you valuable practise at conversational English, as well as motivating you to learn more.
Formal English study

Its all very well trying to learn English on your own, but to make real progress and keep your
motivation running high, its strongly advisable to formalise the process of learning the language by
booking yourself onto a dedicated EFL course. This will give you a structured programme to follow
and will force you to keep up with studying, and youll have the added motivation of learning with
other people. Make sure the course you choose is fully accredited e.g. with the British Council and
English UK. Here are some of the options open to you.
4. Go on a summer school
Because summer schools have pupils from all over the world (ORA is expecting 100+ nationalities
this summer), youll hear lots of different accents and get to practise speaking English with non-native
as well as native speakers.
For a really intensive learning environment, you cant do much better than a summer school.
Immersed in academic surroundings with other students who want to learn English as much as you do,
youll make rapid progress. Learn English in Oxford with us!
5. Attend evening classes
If a summer school course isnt an option, or you just want an extra tuition session each week, another
option is evening classes. These are easy to fit alongside other things, such as your full-time studies,
but you still get the benefit of learning with others and following a structured syllabus.
6. Try distance and internet learning
There are plenty of distance learning courses and internet study programmes available to help you
learn English, which typically work out cheaper, but you risk remaining almost as isolated as you
would be if you learned independently. If you do go for this option, try to find English speakers to talk
to via Skype so that you still get the benefit of real conversation and interaction with others.
7. Hire a private English tutor
Another option is to hire a private English tutor, either to take lessons with in person or via Skype.
This gives you the benefit of one-on-one tuition, though youll again be doing most of your studying
by yourself.
Learning the vocabulary

One of the biggest challenges of learning a new language is simply remembering all the words.
Theres a vast number of new words to learn, so its vital to be systematic about it or youll end up
feeling overwhelmed.
Arrange your notes in whatever way helps you learn best.

Have a single place in which you keep a list of all the words youve learned, along with their
translations. Each time you hear a new word, add it to the list, and use this list to refer to when youre
reading, as well as to learn words from memory.
9. Learn variations of words

When you come across a new word, look it up in the dictionary and try to learn any variations. This
way, you could get four or five words for the price of one! For example, the word tidy has variations
including untidy, tidily, tidier, tidiest and tidy up.
10. Get organised
Buy a lever arch folder and use dividers to group your notes logically, for example one divider for
grammar, one for vocabulary, one for assessments and so on. Being organised with your notes will
make it a lot easier to be organised in your mind!
11. Test each other
Get together with a friend and test each other on your English vocabulary. To make it more fun, turn it
into a competition to see who can get the most number of words right the element of competition
will spur you on to do even better.
EFL study tips

To get the most benefit from your studies, its important to have a sensible approach to your day-today learning. Here are some tips to help you study effectively.
12. Set aside time for homework each day
Be regimental in your approach to studying English, and set aside a dedicated amount of time each day
to do homework. Keep away from all distractions, such as the TV, your phone or your computer, and
stick to your allotted time every day.
13. Find a study buddy
As already mentioned, its useful to have a friend studying with you so that you can test each other on
vocabulary. But the benefits of a study partner go further than that. Not only will you be able test each
other on the words youve learned, but youll also be able to practise conversational English together,
set each other quizzes and spur each other on if motivation runs low.
Reading rhyming poetry can also help you practise the rhythms of English, and the rhymes will give
you a clue to pronunciation.
You might feel silly at first, but your pronunciation and confidence will improve tremendously just by
reading English out loud, even when youre on your own. If youre unsure of the pronunciation, there
are plenty of internet sites that will read out the words to you for you to repeat.
15. Record yourself
Nobody likes hearing the sound of their own voice, but we all sound different in our heads to how we
sound out loud. Recording yourself speaking English can highlight words youre not pronouncing
correctly, even if they sound okay in your head. These recordings will be an interesting record to look
back on, too listen to them even a month later and youll be amazed at how much progress youve
made!
Away from the classroom

Some of the most important learning youll do when youre learning English as a Foreign Language
takes place away from the classroom environment, and were not just talking about homework. There
are lots of things you can do to help accelerate your progress without it even seeming too much effort.
16. Make English-speaking friends
Speaking English conversationally is a great way to get your confidence up, and youll pick up new
words and phrases almost without even realising it. Whats more, youll learn the colloquial language
spoken by native Brits every day the constantly evolving slang that language books dont tend to
teach you.
Email is simpler, quicker and certainly cheaper, but you might find the delight of getting airmail letters
helps motivate you to learn.
While real-life English-speaking friends are great for helping you develop your conversational
English skills, corresponding with a pen friend by letter or email will help develop your written
English. Youll get practice at writing about yourself and what youve been up to, and youll also
develop your reading skills when you receive their response.
18. Get a part-time job that involves speaking English
Try getting a job in a touristy place where youre likely to need English skills to talk to visitors for
example, a job as a tour guide around your city, or a job in a restaurant popular with tourists. This will
give you valuable practice at speaking English and will put you in situations in which you have no
choice but to speak it. If thats not possible, you could try volunteering for an English-speaking
helpline or charity.
19. Watch English TV and films

Watching English-speaking television programmes is a fun way of picking up more new words and
phrases at the same time as helping to familiarise yourself with how English sounds (and learning to
understand different dialects). You could start by using subtitles in your own language, and then when
you start picking up more, switch the subtitles off. If youre feeling particularly confident, why not try
a cinema trip to see an English-speaking film? If it helps, try seeing the film in your own language
first, so that you know whats going on, and then youll be able to make more sense of whats being
said in English.
20. Listen to English radio
Having the radio on in the background is a good way of tuning in to the sounds of the English
language, and you may be surprised at how much you can pick up without even realising it. The news
might be a good place to start, particularly if you already know the story, as youll be able to make
sense of what the words mean more easily. The added benefit of listening to the news is its immediacy
if you dont understand it straightaway, the story will come and go before youve had a chance to
digest it.
21. Make the most of your travel time
Invest in an audio English course, such as those designed for iPods, and listen when youre on the bus
or train or in the car. This will help develop your pronunciation skills as well as introducing you to
helpful phrases.
22. Use Google in English
When youre searching for things on the internet, try going to Google.co.uk instead of your native
language. This will force you to find the results youre looking for in English, and using English will
slowly start to become a habit.
23. Adorn your room with flashcards
Decorate your room with flashcards containing things you need to learn, so that youre constantly
exposed to the words, phrases and grammar you should be memorising. On the mirror you use to get
presentable in the morning, on your wardrobe door, next to your bed anywhere youre likely to see
them on a daily basis.
24. Read a favourite book in English before bed
If youre serious about learning English fast, even bedtime can be given over to making progress. Pick
one of your favourite books and buy the English version. Each night when you go to bed, try and read
a few pages, and keep a dictionary next to your bed for any words you dont understand. That way, not
only do you have a head-start because its a book you already love, but English will be the last thing
you think about before you go to sleep and its when youre sleeping that the brain works hard to
store all the new words, phrases and grammar youve picked up, converting this valuable new
knowledge from short-term to long-term memory.
Travel
We think you might like our final tip, so weve saved the best until last.
Why not come and practise your English here in Oxford?

One of the best things you can do to accelerate your progress in learning English is to visit the U.K., or
another English-speaking country such as the U.S.A., Australia or New Zealand. Go for at least a
couple of weeks, see all the famous sights and throw yourself into situations in which youll need to
speak English with the locals, or at least hear and understand it. That could be in restaurants and bars,
going on English-speaking tours of famous landmarks, visiting museums and reading information
about the exhibits in English, going to the cinema you name it. See as much of the country as you
can, and get used to the sounds of different regional dialects.
We hope youve found these tips useful, and that theyll help you make your English studies more
enjoyable as well as advancing your progress. Learning any new language can seem a struggle at
times, but were sure that if you follow our tips, youll soon be speaking English confidently and
fluently.
"Why Should I Learn English?" 10 Compelling Reasons for

EFL Learners
6 February, 2014
English has been described as the language of opportunity, and by

the time you get to the end of this article, were pretty sure youll
agree.
25 Ways to Learn English Faster
20 Weird and Wonderful English Idioms and Their Origins
If youre currently in the throes of trying to pick a language to study at school, or you fancy taking on
a new language in your spare time, were willing to bet that the English speakers of this world would
join us in giving you the following words of advice: if you have to choose one additional language to
learn during the course of your years at school, make it English. Why? Let us count the ways
1. English is one of the most widely spoken languages

Although it comes second to Mandarin in the total number of speakers, English is the language youll
be able to use most widely, as its spoken in more countries than any other language. That means that
English is the language that will give you the best return for your efforts; after all, intellectual
challenge aside, theres little point putting a huge amount of time and effort into learning a language
that youll hardly ever have the opportunity to use.
As well as the UK, a whopping 60 of the worlds 196 countries have English as their official
language: the USA, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, to name but a few. Its the language of
diplomacy and the official language of the European Union, the United Nations, NATO and the
European Free Trade Association, not to mention many Commonwealth countries. Whats more,
English is the commonly adopted second language of people in a great many more countries,
including Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Holland. In total, around 1.5 billion people speak
English worldwide and another billion are in the process of learning it. Will you make this number
even bigger by learning it yourself?
2. English will open up more opportunities for you
Even in countries where English is not an official language, it is often used as a lingua franca.
Being able to speak English allows you to communicate effectively in numerous countries, and this
opens up lots of possibilities for you in terms of the countries you could choose to seek work in one
day not to mention travel to as a tourist. You wont have to worry about getting lost when you travel
to an English-speaking country, as youll easily be able to ask for directions, and taking guided tours,
ordering food and chatting to the locals will no longer be a source of stress.
Whats more, careers that involve lots of travel or international exposure, such as the airline, tourism
and film industries, use English as their official language, and many employers in these sectors are
likely to require evidence of a certain level of proficiency in English before they will consider
employing you. This means that if you can speak English, youll find that you have a greater number
of possible careers to choose from after you finish at university.
3. English will make you more desirable to employers

Being fluent in a second language clearly demonstrates a powerful brain and reflects someone who has
put in the huge amount of time, resources and commitment needed to master another language. But
while being bilingual is impressive full stop, no matter what combination of languages you speak,
adding English to your CV will be particularly useful. Not only is it an especially complex language to
get to grips with, a fact that reflects well on you for having mastered it, but as weve seen, its also an
incredibly useful language to learn because so many countries speak it. Youll be in a much stronger
position to apply for jobs overseas if youve reached a good level of fluency in English.
English has been referred to as the language of business, and its not hard to see why. If you have
ambitions to become an international businessperson, its essential that youre able to speak English
fluently; business conducted internationally is done in English more often than not. Even if youre not
thinking of living and working abroad, that doesnt mean you wont find English a helpful language to
put on your CV. There may well be plenty of English-speaking multinational corporations with offices
in your home country. Whats more, English skills are just as desirable to employers in your own
country and language as they are to employers in English-speaking countries. Here are just three
examples to give you an idea of the kind of situations in which English may come in useful in your
own country:
Business meetings being able to speak English puts you in a position to be able to attend or
hold international business meetings. Where several languages are represented, the chances are
that the meeting will be conducted in English and if youre the only one in your team who
can speak English, you may find yourself being put forward to attend important meetings,
advancing yourself up the career ladder in the process.
Customer service and sales youll be able to help with any English-speaking customers
your employer may have and sell to them. This gives you the chance to build relationships
with overseas customers, and the ability to build relationships is an important business skill
that puts you at an advantage over non-English speaking fellow employees and makes you
more valuable to the company you work for.
Marketing and communications if the company you end up working for markets its
products or services to English-speaking countries, or releases other sorts of communications
such as press releases to these countries, your knowledge of English may come in handy for
translating marketing materials or communications with customers or sales prospects. The
cultural knowledge youll acquire through learning English may also come in handy in
knowing how to pitch products and ideas to English-speaking nations.
4. English gives you access to some of the worlds best

universities
Christ Church, one of the colleges of the University of Oxford.

English is widely regarded as the language of higher education. Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard and MIT
are just a few of the famous universities that occupy the lofty heights of the top of the world education
league tables, and youll need to speak English fluently for access to any of these, as theyre all
English-speaking. It goes without saying that if you are able to study at one of these institutions, youll
start your career with an illustrious name on your CV and the benefits of that speak for themselves.
If English isnt your native language, youll need to take an English test during the admissions process
to prove that your level of English is up to scratch for the demands of the academic environment. If
you have your sights set on a top university, the effort you put in to study English as early as possible
in your school years will be rewarded when it comes to the choice of universities to which you can
apply.
5. English is the language of some of the worlds greatest

literature
If you learn English, youll be able to enjoy works by some of the worlds most famous writers, in the
language in which they were intended to be read or heard. The works of Shakespeare will take on a
new meaning when youre able to speak English, and you can look forward to enjoying such
influential classics as Emily Brontes Wuthering Heights and her sisters Jane Eyre, George Orwells
1984 and Animal Farm, Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice and many, many more. Translation rarely
does a writer true justice, so the only way to appreciate a classic literary work properly is to read it in
its original language. Even better, through doing so, youll deepen your knowledge of English by
enriching it with new words and sentence structures.
6. English allows you to get more from popular culture
Hogwarts Castle at the Wizarding World of Harry Potter, based on the famous English fantasy book
series.
The worlds highest-grossing movies are made in Hollywood, and needless to say, they are made in
English. How many times have you been to see an American blockbuster and been frustrated by
having to keep up with fast-paced subtitles? And how many times have you hummed a favourite pop
song, but not been able to sing along because its in English and you dont know the words? Theres a
solution Kiss those annoying cinema subtitles goodbye and get more out of the music you enjoy by
learning English.
7. English allows you to attend international conferences and

events
Major sporting events such as the Olympics are held in English, and so are international conferences,
so competitors and delegates will need to be able to speak English to be able to get the most out of
taking part. You may find yourself needing to attend conferences as part of your chosen career, so
learning English now will be of enormous benefit to you in years to come. Not only will you be able to
understand the talks, but youll get a lot more out of the networking opportunities that come with such
events if you can talk effectively in English. You never know there may be a new employer or client
among the crowds of fellow delegates, so make sure you can communicate with them!
8. English has a simple alphabet and everyones equal
The Latin alphabet is the most used alphabet in the world.

The English alphabet is straightforward, making it easier to master than the symbols or pictures that
make up some languages. If youve struggled to learn more complex alphabets, you may find you
make more progress with English, which shares an alphabet with many other languages.
There are no complicated symbols and characters to get to grips with in English, either; even in
French, which essentially uses the same alphabet, there are several accents used on certain letters that
alter the pronunciation. Not so in English. Furthermore, not matter how important they are, everyone
is addressed as you there are no polite and informal variants to agonise over (as there are in French
with tu and vous, for instance), so you wont need to worry about inadvertently creating social
awkwardness by being overly familiar. And unlike many European languages, there are no masculine
and feminine words to remember its a dog, not le chien.
9. English gives you wider access to knowledge

Did you know that 55% of the worlds webpages are written in English? This absolutely dwarfs that of
any other language, with the next most widely used language on the internet being Russian (which
constitutes just 6% of pages). Knowledge of English therefore allows you to tap into far more of the
worlds intellectual resources.
English is also the language of science. If you learn English, you wont just have access to a greater
proportion of the vast amount of knowledge available on the web; youll be able to educate yourself
still further by being able to read scientific books and papers. English is, of course, essential if you
intend to pursue a scientific career. Within the Science Citation Index, compiled by the Institute for
Scientific Information, an estimated 95% of articles are written in English despite only around half
being from English-speaking countries. According to the Open University, At Oxford University two
thirds of post-graduate students come from outside the UK. The students in the universitys chemistry
research lab admit that working in English is a key attraction.
10. English is a fantastic intellectual challenge!
Up for a challenge? Learn English.

English is undoubtedly one of the harder languages to learn. Full of nuances, unexpected
pronunciations, odd rules and infuriating exceptions to rules, it takes dedication and perseverance to
reach a good level of fluency. If youre on the lookout for a new challenge, learning English may be
just what youre after. Not only that, but because its so widely spoken, it opens you up to a huge
number of new cultural experiences, which will help you develop life skills, meet new people and
grow your confidence in handling new situations.
Have we convinced you yet? If youve been inspired to learn English, consider enrolling on one of our
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses (for students aged 13-15 or 16-18) and develop your
English skills in the company of like-minded students in the beautiful city of Oxford.
How to Learn English Faster: 25 Tips for EFL Learners

11 December, 2013
English can be a daunting language to learn.

10 Reasons for Which You Should Learn English
Full of contradictions and odd rules and pronunciations, its idiosyncrasies are what makes it
interesting, but it can be a challenge if youre new to it and even if youre not! In this article, well
offer some useful tips for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students on how to speed up the
process of learning this complex language, so that youll be fluent before you know it.
Learning on your own

Going it alone when learning a foreign language requires extra hard work and commitment, and the
speaking parts are particularly challenging. Our first set of tips should help make the process a little
easier.
1. Invest in good study materials
Buy notebooks youll want to use.

In addition to a basic learning guide that will provide some structure for your studies, youll need a
good dictionary for translations, and ideally also a dedicated grammar guide. Youll also need a
notebook, lined paper and a lever arch folder for your notes. Get some stationery that you enjoy using,
so that it makes studying more fun!
2. Buy an audio CD or DVD
Audio CDs or DVDs are really useful for learning pronunciations, giving you essential practise that
you wont get otherwise if youre studying on your own. These will also give you practise at saying
the words yourself.
3. Find someone to Skype with
Try to find a native English speaker whos prepared to spend some time speaking with you on Skype.
This will give you valuable practise at conversational English, as well as motivating you to learn more.
Formal English study
Its all very well trying to learn English on your own, but to make real progress and keep your
motivation running high, its strongly advisable to formalise the process of learning the language by
booking yourself onto a dedicated EFL course. This will give you a structured programme to follow
and will force you to keep up with studying, and youll have the added motivation of learning with
other people. Make sure the course you choose is fully accredited e.g. with the British Council and
English UK. Here are some of the options open to you.
4. Go on a summer school
Because summer schools have pupils from all over the world (ORA is expecting 100+ nationalities
this summer), youll hear lots of different accents and get to practise speaking English with non-native
as well as native speakers.
For a really intensive learning environment, you cant do much better than a summer school.
Immersed in academic surroundings with other students who want to learn English as much as you do,
youll make rapid progress. Learn English in Oxford with us!
5. Attend evening classes
If a summer school course isnt an option, or you just want an extra tuition session each week, another
option is evening classes. These are easy to fit alongside other things, such as your full-time studies,
but you still get the benefit of learning with others and following a structured syllabus.
6. Try distance and internet learning
There are plenty of distance learning courses and internet study programmes available to help you
learn English, which typically work out cheaper, but you risk remaining almost as isolated as you
would be if you learned independently. If you do go for this option, try to find English speakers to talk
to via Skype so that you still get the benefit of real conversation and interaction with others.
7. Hire a private English tutor
Another option is to hire a private English tutor, either to take lessons with in person or via Skype.
This gives you the benefit of one-on-one tuition, though youll again be doing most of your studying
by yourself.
Learning the vocabulary
One of the biggest challenges of learning a new language is simply remembering all the words.
Theres a vast number of new words to learn, so its vital to be systematic about it or youll end up
feeling overwhelmed.
Arrange your notes in whatever way helps you learn best.

Have a single place in which you keep a list of all the words youve learned, along with their
translations. Each time you hear a new word, add it to the list, and use this list to refer to when youre
reading, as well as to learn words from memory.
9. Learn variations of words
When you come across a new word, look it up in the dictionary and try to learn any variations. This
way, you could get four or five words for the price of one! For example, the word tidy has variations
including untidy, tidily, tidier, tidiest and tidy up.
10. Get organised
Buy a lever arch folder and use dividers to group your notes logically, for example one divider for
grammar, one for vocabulary, one for assessments and so on. Being organised with your notes will
make it a lot easier to be organised in your mind!
11. Test each other
Get together with a friend and test each other on your English vocabulary. To make it more fun, turn it
into a competition to see who can get the most number of words right the element of competition
will spur you on to do even better.
EFL study tips

To get the most benefit from your studies, its important to have a sensible approach to your day-today learning. Here are some tips to help you study effectively.
12. Set aside time for homework each day
Be regimental in your approach to studying English, and set aside a dedicated amount of time each day
to do homework. Keep away from all distractions, such as the TV, your phone or your computer, and
stick to your allotted time every day.
13. Find a study buddy

As already mentioned, its useful to have a friend studying with you so that you can test each other on
vocabulary. But the benefits of a study partner go further than that. Not only will you be able test each
other on the words youve learned, but youll also be able to practise conversational English together,
set each other quizzes and spur each other on if motivation runs low.
Reading rhyming poetry can also help you practise the rhythms of English, and the rhymes will give
you a clue to pronunciation.
You might feel silly at first, but your pronunciation and confidence will improve tremendously just by
reading English out loud, even when youre on your own. If youre unsure of the pronunciation, there
are plenty of internet sites that will read out the words to you for you to repeat.
15. Record yourself
Nobody likes hearing the sound of their own voice, but we all sound different in our heads to how we
sound out loud. Recording yourself speaking English can highlight words youre not pronouncing
correctly, even if they sound okay in your head. These recordings will be an interesting record to look
back on, too listen to them even a month later and youll be amazed at how much progress youve
made!
Away from the classroom

Some of the most important learning youll do when youre learning English as a Foreign Language
takes place away from the classroom environment, and were not just talking about homework. There
are lots of things you can do to help accelerate your progress without it even seeming too much effort.
16. Make English-speaking friends
Speaking English conversationally is a great way to get your confidence up, and youll pick up new
words and phrases almost without even realising it. Whats more, youll learn the colloquial language
spoken by native Brits every day the constantly evolving slang that language books dont tend to
teach you.
Email is simpler, quicker and certainly cheaper, but you might find the delight of getting airmail letters
helps motivate you to learn.
While real-life English-speaking friends are great for helping you develop your conversational
English skills, corresponding with a pen friend by letter or email will help develop your written
English. Youll get practice at writing about yourself and what youve been up to, and youll also
develop your reading skills when you receive their response.
18. Get a part-time job that involves speaking English
Try getting a job in a touristy place where youre likely to need English skills to talk to visitors for
example, a job as a tour guide around your city, or a job in a restaurant popular with tourists. This will
give you valuable practice at speaking English and will put you in situations in which you have no
choice but to speak it. If thats not possible, you could try volunteering for an English-speaking
helpline or charity.
19. Watch English TV and films
Watching English-speaking television programmes is a fun way of picking up more new words and
phrases at the same time as helping to familiarise yourself with how English sounds (and learning to
understand different dialects). You could start by using subtitles in your own language, and then when
you start picking up more, switch the subtitles off. If youre feeling particularly confident, why not try
a cinema trip to see an English-speaking film? If it helps, try seeing the film in your own language
first, so that you know whats going on, and then youll be able to make more sense of whats being
said in English.
20. Listen to English radio
Having the radio on in the background is a good way of tuning in to the sounds of the English
language, and you may be surprised at how much you can pick up without even realising it. The news
might be a good place to start, particularly if you already know the story, as youll be able to make
sense of what the words mean more easily. The added benefit of listening to the news is its immediacy
if you dont understand it straightaway, the story will come and go before youve had a chance to
digest it.
21. Make the most of your travel time
Invest in an audio English course, such as those designed for iPods, and listen when youre on the bus
or train or in the car. This will help develop your pronunciation skills as well as introducing you to
helpful phrases.
22. Use Google in English

When youre searching for things on the internet, try going to Google.co.uk instead of your native
language. This will force you to find the results youre looking for in English, and using English will
slowly start to become a habit.
23. Adorn your room with flashcards
Decorate your room with flashcards containing things you need to learn, so that youre constantly
exposed to the words, phrases and grammar you should be memorising. On the mirror you use to get
presentable in the morning, on your wardrobe door, next to your bed anywhere youre likely to see
them on a daily basis.
24. Read a favourite book in English before bed
If youre serious about learning English fast, even bedtime can be given over to making progress. Pick
one of your favourite books and buy the English version. Each night when you go to bed, try and read
a few pages, and keep a dictionary next to your bed for any words you dont understand. That way, not
only do you have a head-start because its a book you already love, but English will be the last thing
you think about before you go to sleep and its when youre sleeping that the brain works hard to
store all the new words, phrases and grammar youve picked up, converting this valuable new
knowledge from short-term to long-term memory.
Travel
We think you might like our final tip, so weve saved the best until last.
Why not come and practise your English here in Oxford?

One of the best things you can do to accelerate your progress in learning English is to visit the U.K., or
another English-speaking country such as the U.S.A., Australia or New Zealand. Go for at least a
couple of weeks, see all the famous sights and throw yourself into situations in which youll need to
speak English with the locals, or at least hear and understand it. That could be in restaurants and bars,
going on English-speaking tours of famous landmarks, visiting museums and reading information
about the exhibits in English, going to the cinema you name it. See as much of the country as you
can, and get used to the sounds of different regional dialects.
We hope youve found these tips useful, and that theyll help you make your English studies more
enjoyable as well as advancing your progress. Learning any new language can seem a struggle at
times, but were sure that if you follow our tips, youll soon be speaking English confidently and
fluently.
20 English Idioms with their Meanings and Origins

23 January, 2014
Theres no doubt about it: English is a challenging language to

learn, and thats largely because its full of bizarre colloquialisms
that, when you stop and think about them, dont appear to make
much sense to anybody.
15 Common Mistakes in English Grammar
25 Ways to Learn Better English Faster
As native speakers, we use them without even thinking about where they come from; but to a student
trying to learn English, they can be deeply confusing. Knowing a bit about the origins of these sayings
is helpful in cementing these language nuggets in the mind. In this article, well look at a number of
these interesting idioms and teach you where the expressions came from and more importantly, how
to use them.
1. Play it by ear
You might also say, lets see how things go.

Meaning: Playing something by ear means that rather than sticking to a defined plan, you will see
how things go and decide on a course of action as you go along.
Example: What time shall we go shopping? Lets see how the weather looks and play it by ear.
Origins: This saying has its origins in music, as playing something by ear means to play music
without reference to the notes on a page. This sense of the phrase dates back to the 16th century, but
the present use only came into being in mid-20th century America, primarily referring to sports. These
days, the expression has lost this focus on sports and can be used in any context.
2. Raining cats and dogs
For this kind of weather, you could also say it was bucketing it down.
Meaning: We Brits are known for our obsession with the weather, so we couldnt omit a rain-related
idiom from this list. Its raining cats and dogs when its raining particularly heavily.
Example: Listen to that rain! Its raining cats and dogs!
Origins: The origins of this bizarre phrase are obscure, though it was first recorded in 1651 in the poet
Henry Vaughans collection Olor Iscanus. Speculation as to its origins ranges from medieval
superstition to Norse mythology, but it may even be a reference to dead animals being washed through
the streets by floods.
3. Cant do something to save my life

Meaning: Cant do something to save your life is a hyperbolic way of saying that youre completely
inept at something. Its typically used in a self-deprecating manner or to indicate reluctance to carry
out a task requested of one.
Example: Dont pick me I cant draw to save my life.
Origins: Anthony Trollope first used this expression, in 1848 in Kellys and OKellys, writing, If it
was to save my life and theirs, I cant get up small talk for the rector and his curate.
4. Turn a blind eye
Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson, 1758-1805 by Lemuel Francis Abbott.

Meaning: To turn a blind eye to something means to pretend not to have noticed it.
Example: She took one of the cookies, but I turned a blind eye.
Origins: Interestingly, this expression is said to have arisen as a result of the famous English naval
hero Admiral Horatio Nelson, who, during the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, is alleged to have
deliberately raised his telescope to his blind eye, thus ensuring that he would not see any signal from
his superior giving him discretion to withdraw from the battle.
5. Fat chance
Meaning: We use the expression fat chance to refer to something that is incredibly unlikely.
Bizarrely, and contrary to what one might expect, the related expression slim chance means the
same thing.
Example: We might win the Lottery. Fat chance.
Origins: The origins of this expression are unclear, but the use of the word fat is likely to be a
sarcastic version of saying slim chance. A similar expression is Chance would be a fine thing,
which refers to something that one would like to happen, but that is very unlikely.
6. Pot calling the kettle black
Meaning: We use this expression to refer to someone who criticises someone else, for something they
they themselves are guilty of.
Example: Youre greedy. Pot calling the kettle black?
Origins: First used in the literature of the 1600s notably Don Quixote by Cervantes this expression
has its origins in the Medieval kitchen, when both pots and kettles were made from sturdy cast iron
and both would get black with soot from the open fire.
7. Once in a blue moon
English has lots of moon-related idioms, including to be over the moon (to be delighted) and to ask
for the moon (make excessive and impossible demands).
Meaning: The phrase refers to something that happens very infrequently.
Example: I only see him once in a blue moon.
Origins: Confusingly, a blue moon doesnt refer to the actual colour of the moon; it refers to when we
see a full moon twice in one month. This happens every two to three years. Its thought that the word
blue may have come from the now obsolete word belewe, which meant to betray; the betrayer
moon was an additional spring full moon that would mean people would have to fast for an extra
month during Lent. The saying in its present meaning is first recorded in 1821.
8. Head in the clouds

Meaning: Used to describe someone who is not being realistic, the expression head in the clouds
suggests that the person isnt grounded in reality and is prone to flights of fancy. The opposite
expression would be something like down to earth, meaning someone who is practical and realistic.
Example: Hes not right for this role, he has his head in the clouds.
Origins: In use since the mid-1600s, the origins of this expression are unclear beyond the obvious
imagery of someone who is a bit of a fantasist (having ones head in the clouds is clearly impossible
or at least it was in the days before aviation!).
9. Mad as a hatter
One of John Tenniels famous illustrations for Lewis Carrolls Alice in Wonderland.
Meaning: Mad as a hatter refers to someone who is completely crazy. A similar expression is mad
as a March hare.
Example: You could ask him, but hes mad as a hatter.
Origins: This is an interesting one. While hatter refers to Lewis Carrolls Mad Hatter character in
Alice in Wonderland, the expression has its origins in the effects of the chronic mercury poisoning
commonly experienced by 18th and 19th century hat manufacturers owing to the use of mercurous
nitrate in felt hats. Mad as a March hare comes from the behaviour of hares during the breeding
season, when they run and leap about the fields.
10. Driving me up the wall

Meaning: This expression is used when something (or someone) is causing extreme exasperation and
annoyance. A similar expression meaning the same thing is driving me round the bend.
Example: That constant drilling noise is driving me up the wall.
Origins: The saying evokes someone trying desperately to escape something by climbing up the
walls. However, its unknown when it was first used.
11. Call it a day

Meaning: This means to stop doing something for the day, for example work, either temporarily or to
give it up completely.
Example: I cant concentrate lets call it a day.
Origins: The expression was originally call it half a day, first recorded in 1838 in a context meaning
to leave ones place of work before the working day was over. Call it a day came later, in 1919.
12. Knight in shining armour
NC Wyeths illustration of Lancelot and Guinevere.

Meaning: A knight in shining armour is a heroic, idealised male who typically comes to the rescue of
a female.
Example: He saved me from humiliation hes my knight in shining armour.
Origins: The phrase harks back to the days of Old England, when popular imagination conjures up
images of chivalry and knights coming to the rescue of damsels in distress. Much of this is likely to be
Victorian fantasy, as this was a period when interest in the legend of King Arthur and the Court of
Camelot was high. The earliest use of the expression was in a poem by Henry Pye in 1790, which
referred to No more the knight, in shining armour dressd.
13. Know the ropes

Meaning: Someone who knows the ropes is experienced at what they are doing. Showing someone
the ropes means to explain to them how something is done.
Example: Ask John, he knows the ropes around here.
Origins: This phrase has its origins in the golden age of sailing, when understanding how to handle
the ropes necessary to operate a ship and its sails was an essential maritime skill. By the mid-19th
century it was a common slang expression, and it survives to this day.
14. Larger than life

Meaning: The phrase larger than life refers to a flamboyant, gregarious person whose mannerisms
or appearance are considered more outlandish than those of other people.
Example: His colourful waistcoats and unusual taste for hats made him a larger-than-life character in
the local community.
Origins: First recorded in the mid-20th century, the phrase was famously used by The New Yorker to
describe wartime Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill.
15. Extend the olive branch
Other idioms with Biblical origins include setting your teeth on edge (feeling intensely
uncomfortable, such as from hearing nails on a blackboard) and escaped by the skin of our teeth
(only just escaped).
Meaning: To extend the olive branch is to take steps towards achieving peace with an enemy (or
simply someone with whom you have fallen out).
Example: I thought it was about time I went over there and extended the olive branch.
Origins: This expression has biblical origins, and was seen as an emblem of peace. In Genesis, a dove
brings an olive branch to Noah to indicate that Gods anger had died down and the flood waters had
abated.
16. A red herring

Meaning: Often used in the context of television detective shows, a red herring refers to something
designed to distract or throw someone off a trail. Hence in a detective show, a clue that appears vital to
solving a mystery is often added to heighten suspense, but may turn out to have been irrelevant; it was
a red herring.
Example: It seemed important, but it turned out to be a red herring.
Origins: A herring is a fish that is often smoked, a process that turns it red and gives it a strong smell.
Because of their pungent aroma, smoked herrings were used to teach hunting hounds how to follow a
trail, and they would be drawn across the path of a trail as a distraction that the dog must overcome.
17. Barking up the wrong tree
Other fun dog-related idioms include a shaggy dog story (a very unlikely, ridiculous story) and
going to see a man about a dog (said when you dont want to tell someone where youre actually
going).
Meaning: If someone is barking up the wrong tree, they are pursuing a line of thought or course of
action that is misguided.
Example: Im certain that he was responsible. I think youre barking up the wrong tree. He was
elsewhere at the time.
Origins: The saying refers to a dog barking at the bottom of a tree under the mistaken impression that
its quarry is up it, suggesting that the phrase has its origins in hunting. The earliest known uses of the
phrase date back to the early 19th century.
18. Bite off more than you can chew

Meaning: If you bite off more than you can chew, you have taken on a project or task that is beyond
what you are capable of.
Example: I bit off more than I could chew by taking on that extra class.
Origins: This saying dates back to 1800s America, when people often chewed tobacco. Sometimes the
greedier people bit off too large a chunk hence the warning not to bite off more than they could
chew.
19. Blow ones own trumpet
Other music-related idioms include music to my ears (usually said of very good news) and to face
the music (facing the consequence of an action, normally a punishment or scolding).
Meaning: Blowing ones own trumpet means to boast about ones own achievements.
Example: Without meaning to blow my own trumpet, I came top of the class.
Origins: Though phrases meaning the same thing had been in use for centuries, the actual expression
is first recorded by Anthony Trollope in his 1873 work Australia and New Zealand.
20. In stitches
Meaning: If youre in stitches, youre laughing so hard that your sides hurt.
Example: He was so funny he had me in stitches all evening.
Origins: Presumably comparing the physical pain of intense laughter with the prick of a needle, in
stitches was first used in 1602 by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night. After this, the expression isnt
recorded again until the 20th century, but its now commonplace.
Though they make it harder to learn, expressions such as those weve covered in this article are also
what make English so much fun. There are many, many more, and if you choose to attend one of our
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses, you can look forward to adding even more English
idioms to your ever-expanding vocabulary.

25 April, 2014
by Emma Bates
English, despite not being the most-spoken language in the world by

some margin, has become an almost universally accepted lingua
franca, and the language of choice for students to learn if they want
to get ahead in life.
14 Literary Terms that Will Deepen Your Understanding of English
25 Ways to Get Better at Learning English Fast!
Yet most of the reasons for this dont have very much to do with what a wonderful language it is. Its
the language of business and finance, mostly thanks to the economic dominance of Britain in the 19th
century and the USA in the 20th. Its the predominant language of film and music, but with lyrics like,
All I wanted was to break your walls/ All you ever did was wreck me appearing in number 1 slots
worldwide, its hard to claim that the linguistic beauty of the English language is responsible. The
endurance of the myth that English only beat German by a single vote to become the official language
of the USA sums up the general attitude to the English language; it has gained global popularity by
chance, not by merit.
Knowing how the English language works is like seeing the complex mechanism behind a clock.
All the same, it is a wonderful language. Anyone who has ever studied Wilfred Owen, made their own
dress or studied cinematography (bear with me here) will understand the loveliness of things that,
when examined and dissected, dont lose their charm but in fact gain something in the greater
understanding, like opening up the back of a pocket watch to see the intricate mechanism inside.
Thats what the English language is like; thats one of the many reasons its so worth studying. Whats
on the surface is pretty enough, but dive in and youll see that theres so much more going on
underneath.
Synonyms galore
Its a clich, and an inaccurate one at that, to say that English has more words than any other language.
Certainly, English has a lot of words, and a friend of mine once won a case of champagne betting that
it had more words than German (which, given that German can get away with magnificent compound
nouns like the famous
Donaudampfschifffahrtselektrizittshauptbetriebswerksbauunterbeamtengesellschaft, is really saying
something). Whats lovely about English, though, is that its huge lexical richness follows certain
deeply satisfying patterns. Unlike other European languages that are essentially just variations on
Latin which does, admittedly, give them an aural prettiness that English could be said to be lacking
English has had multiple waves of influences that makes it something of a mongrel tongue. And as
dog breeders know, mongrels may not be the prettiest, but they are certainly hardier than their
purebred relatives. Unlike other languages, where a loanword often entirely replaces its predecessor
(does anyone in France still say fin de semaine?) English has a habit of adding extra words, until the
language is suffused with synonyms.
Kingly, royal or regal?

Better still, it does so in a particularly elegant way, relating to the three (ish) main sources of words.
Anglo-Saxon words are still, in the main, read as simple, easy to understand, or even crude. French
words are somewhat more sophisticated. Those whod like others to know about their level of
education but cant quite bring themselves to wear their degree classification on a t-shirt will favour
words derived from Latin. Occasionally and delightfully, these three sources will each provide one
word for the same thing, as occurs with kingly (as said by the peasant), royal (as said by the
courtier) and regal (as said by the scholar). Eight hundred years ago, each of these people would be
speaking a different language; now, they use a different vocabulary that nonetheless maps on to almost
exactly the same social distinctions. English history is encoded on the English language, and though it
doesnt say much for social mobility, theres still something pleasing in how it plays out in the
language today.
The tendency of the English language to borrow aggressively from other languages didnt stop with
the Norman invasion. Renaissance scholars added the bulk of the Latin and Greek words in use today,
and the expansion of British trade and the British Empire led to a hugely varied assortment of words
joining the language in subsequent centuries, so that we now have splendid-sounding words like kiosk,
kayak and kangaroo seasoning the broth as well.
Hedgehog sounds like an Anglo-Saxon compound, but in fact appeared relatively late in Middle
English.
One result of having so much vocabulary with so many origins is that English is utterly fantastic for
puns. An American lecturer of mine once referred to Terry Pratchett sharing the English delusion that
puns are funny; perhaps this delusion exists simply because English is such a versatile and fun
language in which to pun. Get four English speakers in a pub, make a comment about fish and see
what happens one of them will be floundering, another cod do batter and a third will be feeling
koi and not join in. Suggest cheese and they wont be able to camembert it and the whole cycle will
start over again. From the cringe-worthy examples above to the elegant winner of the 2009 Edinburgh
Fringes funniest joke why cant hedgehogs just share? the sheer range of homophones and nearhomophones in English makes wordplay a delight. Theres a certain irreverence to all of this; despite
its primary modern use as the language of business, English is at heart a language to have fun with.
A truly democratic language?

The main reason its impossible to say that English has more words than any other language is that no
one knows exactly how many words it actually has. We can count the number of words in various
major dictionaries easily enough, but no dictionary is definitive. Where other languages have
regulators, like the Acadmie franaise or the Rat fr deutsche Rechtschreibung, English has no such
thing. No central body. No one to fix dubious spelling patterns, arbitrate on the acceptability of the
singular they or defend the subjunctive but no one, either, to bar new and useful loanwords from
entering the language, or to prevent English from evolving organically, according to the needs of
English speakers. There is no body of Dumbledoresque old men to control where the language goes
and how it should be spoken and if anyone tried to institute one, it seems likely that the vast majority
of the worlds 1.5 billion English speakers would ignore its pronouncements anyway.
Anyone can influence the English language; no one can dictate its direction.
The consequence of this is that English is more-or-less democratic. Change to the language happens
by consensus, not by decree. And yes, it does mean that were stuck with ridiculousness like i before
e except after c (and also just about every other letter in the alphabet), but it also means that as an
English speaker, I have just about as much influence over the direction of the language as you do, or as
the Merton Professors of English in Oxford do, or even, potentially, as someone who is only just
learning their first few words of English does. The only effective way to influence the language is to
be good at using it and thats why Shakespeare gets the credit for inventing 1,700 English words. If
not truly democratic, English is certainly more meritocratic than many other languages in the world.
This is all the more worthy of note because any time anyone has succeeded in forcing improvements
on the English language in an authoritarian, imposed sort of way, its almost always made things
worse. Think about the utterly unnecessary introduction of the letter b into words like debt and
doubt, not added to give English teachers extra words to add on spelling tests (though it may seem
that way) but in order to give the English words a closer resemblance to their Latin roots. The desire to
make English resemble Latin a language with which it does not have all that much in common
grammatically also gives us the commandment not to split infinitives, which, if obeyed, would have
ruined the opening of Star Trek. Like Einsteins comment on genius if you judge a fish by its ability
to climb a tree, it will live its whole life believing that it is stupid English has often suffered for not
being Latin.
Oscar Wilde wrote that, we have everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course,
language.
Another dismal failure of English language intervention is Noah Websters spelling reforms. Some
have been readily accepted (we no longer listen to musick), some never caught on (we dont suffer a
headake) but the most confusing are the middle ground of changes, accepted on one side of the
Atlantic but not the other. So were stuck with traveler and traveller,color and colour, center and
centre, a source of annoyance for editors everywhere.
This resistance of English to central control is not just one of the reasons its such a widely-spoken
language today; its also central to its development. Received wisdom holds that the clearly Germanic
language of Old English evolved into the hybrid Middle English as a result of the Norman invasion
and the resulting influence of Norman French. That is certainly true, but its also only half of the story.
The three-part division in the language that I spoke about earlier the peasantry speaking English, the
nobility speaking French and the intelligentsia speaking Latin came about at this time, superceding
Anglo-Saxon efforts to make the use of English universal among the different social classes.
English poetry underwent a revival in the 14th century.

That meant that what had previously been a language spoken, written and taught by the most educated
in society as well as the least educated was then handed over almost entirely to the peasantry. English
didnt re-emerge as a language that could acceptably be used by people of status at least until the
Alliterative Revival of the 14th century, and arguably until Chaucer (for which he earns the title of
The Father of English Literature). For around 300 years it was free from interference by the sorts of
people who would seek to preserve its more archaic and clunky structures, and therefore evolved
naturally. I adore Old English, but its a language thats full of redundancies and unnecessary
grammatical complication, such as a strict case system and relatively strict rules on word order one
or the other will do; you dont need both. Those 300 years of French influence and intellectual neglect
stripped English of most of its case system and most of its grammatical gender, as well as simplifying
verb endings and making many strong verbs weak, a process that continues to this day. Like antibioticresistant bacteria, a challenge to the English language that could have resulted in its annihilation
instead just made it stronger.
Its arguable that something similar is happening to English today. The majority of conversations in
English happen without a native speaker present; the rise of ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) means
that use of English internationally is increasingly about finding the most expedient method of
communication rather than any concern about linguistic showiness. English is still shedding
redundancies: the subjunctive really only survives in fossilised forms like God save the Queen, the
possessive apostrophe is looking sickly and some experts are predicting that the third person singular
-s verb ending (e.g. she runs) could be on the way out too. This is where the lack of a centralised
authority is vital to survival. Current English speakers may cringe at the thought of saying he study
hard or similar, but English speakers 400 years ago would probably have mourned the loss of thee
and thou, an egalitarian change to the language that most English speakers nowadays appreciate.
Trying to hold back the organic evolution of language is reminiscent of a primordial fish clinging to
the nascent stub of a tetrapods foot and saying, you know, its a bad idea to go up on land Whats
great about English is that for most of its history, such attempts have failed.
The most beautiful language in the world
Butterfly derives from the Old English buttorfleoge; the idea that the word was once flutterby is a
myth.
Theres a joke that goes like this: theres an English speaker, a French speaker, a Spanish speaker and a
German speaker, and theyre having a conversation about language. English is beautiful, the English
speaker sighs. Listen to this: butterfly! The French speaker nods and says, yes, French is beautiful
too: papillon! The Spanish speaker smiles and says, and Spanish as well: mariposa! The German
speaker huffs and frowns, and eventually says, look, what is your problem with Schmetterling?
I mention this joke not because its particularly funny (unless youre telling it in a large group with
several Germans, in which case its hilarious), but because its one of the few instances I can think of
where English is grouped with the beautiful languages instead of the ugly ones. Its an accepted
truth that French is better for romance and Italian is better for music. It isnt just a Germanic/Romance
distinction, though: Icelandic is very pretty. English seldom gets this kind of praise, and the accents
that make it sound more euphonious often do so because theyre picking up the rhythms and inflection
of a different language and applying it to English, as with Irish pronunciations of words like thirty
and film.
Like the iconic Ikea bookcase, English is what you make of it.
I think thats OK. Many languages that sound beautiful do so because of their consistency Icelandic,
for instance, hasnt changed all that much in a thousand years, whereas one of the key elements that
makes English so wonderful is, as Ive discussed, its sheer mongrel variety. English doesnt have the
beauty of a Chippendale wardrobe; its more the linguistic equivalent of an Ikea Billy bookcase. Its
not superficially attractive, but its also accessible to pretty much anyone, and there are no restrictions
on what you do with it once youve got it. Versatile, rich and democratic, the nature of English allows
any speaker to express themselves more or less any way they want and if that isnt beautiful, I dont
know what is.
Homophones: the Most Confusing Words in English (a List with

Meanings)
30 January, 2014
When youre learning English, it can sometimes feel that this

challenging language is out to get you.
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When you look at the number of homophones, its not difficult to see why so many students get caught
out.
But what exactly is a homophone, I hear you ask? Youre about to find out as we take you through the
meaning of homophony and the word-based conundrums they cause. Dont worry though; well
introduce you to some of the most common ones so that you know to watch out for them!
What is a homophone?
The word homophone is used to describe a word that sounds the same as another word, but that has
a different meaning. It comes from the Greek words homo, meaning same, and phone, meaning
voice. The two (or more) words may be spelled differently, but just to make life difficult, they can
also be spelled the same. The potential for confusion for native and non-native speakers alike is,
unfortunately, great.
Just to confuse you a little more (last time, promise), there are several words that we use to refer to
different types of homophone.
Homophone all words and phrases that sound the same but have different meanings
Homograph words that sound and are spelled the same but have different meanings
Homonym words that have the same spelling but a different meaning
Heterograph words that sound the same, but are spelled differently and have different
meanings
Multinym words that sound the same but have more than two different meanings and
spellings
On the subject of multinyms, it may surprise you to learn that in English, there is one instance of a
multinym with no fewer than seven variations, all sounding the same but meaning different things.
Theres also one instance of six variants, two of five, 24 of four and 88 of three. Some of the variants
are archaic words that arent used anymore, so you neednt concern yourself with them.
Common examples of homophones

Below, we introduce you to some of the most common homophones those that youre likely to meet
with in either day-to-day conversation or in your academic work. There are too many to include all of
them, but these examples should at least help you with some of them and stand as a warning that the
English language has plenty of pitfalls for you to be aware of!
To, two, too
There are two dogs here, which is not too many dogs.
Lots of native English-speakers get confused about this one. Luckily, though, these three words have
very different uses, and the examples below should help you remember them.
To used in the infinitive form of a verb, such as to walk, and also to mean towards.
Too this means as well or also; for example, me too.
Two this is the number; for example, two days ago.
There, their, theyre

Again, even native English-speakers get this one wrong, so dont beat yourself up if youre struggling
with it!
There this refers to a place that is not here; for instance, over there. It can also be used to state
something, such as There is an argument to suggest, or (in a slightly old-fashioned way) to
comfort someone: There there, it will be alright.
Their this indicates possession: something belonging to them. For example, we could use their
boat.
Theyre this is a shortening of they are. For example, Theyre going to be here at 12pm.
Your/youre
If I say your cat, it doesnt mean you are cat.

This has to be one of the most commonly confused aspects of the English language, and the fact that
so many people get it wrong is a pet hate of every grammar purist in the UK. If you can master the
difference, youll be doing better than a lot of Brits!
Your this is the second person possessive form, indicating something belonging to you. For
example, This is your decision.
Youre short for you are, as in Youre amazing.
Bonus: Yore youre not very likely to come across this one, but its an old-fashioned way of
referring to a time long ago. For example, In the days of yore means a similar thing to In olden
times.
By/buy/bye
Another one on the long list of commonly confused words, these three are easily differentiated with
some examples.
By this preposition refers to something beside, near or through. For example, Theres an ice cream
van over there by that tree.
Buy this is a verb meaning to purchase something. For instance, lets go and buy a car.
Bye short for goodbye, this is an expression used to bid someone farewell. Real grammar sticklers
would probably insist on using an apostrophe at the beginning to indicate the absence of the word
good that is, bye but this is old-fashioned, so you dont need to include one.
Stationary/stationery
This stationery is very appealing. It probably wont be stationary for long.

One letter makes a big difference with these two, completely altering the meaning.
Stationary this word is used to describe something that is motionless (not moving). For example,
the cars were stationary in the traffic jam.
Stationery pens, pencils and other things you write with or on, for use in the office or when
studying.
Compliment/complement
The adjective forms of these two words add an extra layer of complexity for you to contend with.
Compliment this is a nice thing you say to someone to flatter them, for example, You look nice
today. The adjective of this is complimentary, which has two meanings. It can refer to something
expressing praise such as He was most complimentary, saying how pretty I looked. But just to add
to the confusion, complimentary can also mean free of charge. For example, the airline provided
complimentary drinks for those delayed.
Complement this is something that goes well with something else. For example, the dress
complemented the colour of her hair. The adjective form is complementary, meaning things that go
together, used as follows: The two of them provided complementary skills; he was good at writing,
while she was good at sales.
Brake/break
We had to take a break from driving because the brakes broke.
Same letters, different order and that makes all the difference!
Brake this spelling refers to the brakes on a car or other vehicle, and in a wider sense to slowing
down. For example, He applied the brakes to slow the car down.
Break confusingly, this spelling this has several meanings.
As a verb, to break means to separate something into parts. For example, Im going to break
this chocolate bar into three so we can share.
As a noun, it can be used to signify a pause or stop, such as a break in the schedule, or you can
take a break, meaning have some time off.
You can also use the word to describe the consequences of the verb when you break
something, it is broken and the site of the separation can be referred to as the break. For instance,
He broke his leg, but the break is mending.
Coarse/course
Walls, of course, can be very coarse.

If youve been browsing our website, youll probably know at least one of these meanings! Here are
all the possible definitions.
Course this has many meanings.
A course is what we offer here at Oxford Royale Academy a programme of educational study.
Of course means naturally. For example, Would you like a chocolate? Of course!
It can also mean direction; for instance, an unexpected course of events describes events
unfolding in an unanticipated direction. You could also say, I dont know what course of action to
take, or The plane took a northerly course.
In sport, it describes an area of land or water set aside for the purpose of a particular activity, such
as a golf course, water skiing course or cross country course.
Another context in which you might hear this word is to describe parts of a meal. For instance, the
main course is the most substantial part of the meal.
Less often heard is the use of this word to describe hunting with dogs, such as hare coursing.
As a verb, to course refers to the movement of liquid, such as water coursing through a
channel.
Coarse this word is used to describe things that are rough or crude. This could be rough in texture
as in sandpaper is very coarse or to describe language, such as His humour was very coarse.
Here/hear
Youll find a cunning way to remember the difference between these two under the definition for
hear below.
Here this refers to something being in ones current location for example, There is a strange smell
here. You can also use it when introducing something, such as Here is something I know youll
like.
Hear this means to detect a sound. If it helps you remember it, consider the fact that the word hear
contains the word ear! You can also say Hear, hear to indicate that you agree with someone. This
bizarre phrase is a shortened form of a 17th century phrase used in Parliament, Hear him, hear him.
Peace/piece
The dove of peace carries a piece of tree.

John Lennon famously sang Give peace a chance. Make sure you dont upset Beatles fans by getting
the spelling right!
Peace this is the absence of war, as referred to by Lennon in 1969. The word also refers more
generally to a feeling of contentment, for example The woods were very peaceful.
Piece spelled this way, the word means a unit or portion of something, such as a piece of cake. To
say your piece means to state your opinion about something, while giving someone a piece of your
mind means to tell them usually in anger exactly what you think of a situation.
Whole/hole
Two words with almost entirely opposite meanings. The W is silent, because the English language
likes to confuse us with apparently unnecessary silent letters.
Whole this means complete or entire used as in the whole story.

Hole a hole indicates a lack of something, as in an opening. For example, the hole in a ring
doughnut is the missing bit in the middle, while a Black Hole is an invisible area of space that
appears to have nothing in it, because its gravity prevents even light from escaping.
Stare/stair
These stairs are beautiful; feel free to stare.

These identical-sounding words both derive from Old English words with Germanic origins.
Stare the verb to stare refers to the act of gazing intently at something. As a noun, it refers to the
look itself for example a long, cold stare.
Stair this refers to a single step, or one of a number of steps, used to connect two different levels,
with variants including staircase (the complete set of steps), stairway (the steps and their
surrounding walls), stairwell (the shaft occupied by the staircase), downstairs (the bottom level)
and upstairs (the upper level).
Know/no
As this example illustrates, its amazing how much difference it makes to put unlikely letters at the
beginning and end of a word.
Know to know means to be aware of something; for example, I know he is afraid. The K at
the beginning is one of a number of instances in the English language of a silent K, so its pronounced
in exactly the same way as no even though if you take the K off, you have the word now, which
is pronounced in a way that rhymes it with how. Just another example of unexpected exceptions to
English language rules!
No the opposite of yes, used to indicate the negative. Bizarrely, no. with a full stop after it is
also used to abbreviate the word number. For example, No. of pages: 150.
Seven meanings sounding like raise
Rays of sunlight raise the soul and rase unhappiness.

To finish, this is the seven-variant multinym we mentioned earlier. Dont worry youre not likely to
come across many of these, but we thought you might like to see it to give you an idea of just how
complex the English language can be!
Raise to lift something up
Rays sunbeams
Rase to erase something
Raze to knock something down
Rehs sodium salt mixtures
Ris plural of real (the currency of Portugal and Brazil)
Res plural of re, as in the musical scale (doh re mi, for fans of The Sound of Music)
If youve enjoyed this introduction to some of the quirks of the English language and youd like to
advance your English skills further by learning some more, why not apply to study on one of our
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) courses?
14 Literary Terms and Techniques to Deepen your

Understanding of English
18 February, 2014
One of the enjoyable challenges youll face as you become

increasingly familiar with English is reading some of the great
works of literature written in this fascinating language.
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Having some understanding of some of the different literary devices an author, poet or playwright has
used will help you gain a deeper appreciation of a work of literature, empowering you with the
knowledge you need to be able to interpret the writers thoughts and ideas. Whats more, by getting to
know some of the more sophisticated ways in which the English language can be used, youll further
develop your own language skills and learn to think more deeply about how subtly words can be used.
And as if that wasnt reason enough, having some literary terms at your disposal is a sure-fire way to
impress your English teachers. Weve compiled this introductory list to help you learn some of the
most common terms, so remember to look out for them next time you reach for a volume of
Shakespeare, Bronte or Keats!
1. Iambic Pentameter
Antony and Cleopatra by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, showing Cleopatra in her barge as Shakespeare
described it.
Made famous by Elizabethan playwrights, notably Shakespeare himself, iambic pentameter is a
particular metre (rhythm) used in the writing of verse. It uses ten syllables with emphasis on every
other syllable, giving it a distinctive, lilting rhythm, sounding like this: de-DUM-de-DUM-de-DUMde-DUM-de-DUM. An example of this is the line, If music be the food of love, play on from
Shakespeares Twelfth Night. Sometimes, poets and playwrights will disrupt this rhythm if they want
to emphasise a particular word, swapping or dropping emphasis of certain syllables unexpectedly, a
device that can feel jarring to the reader. Another famous Shakespearean line does this: Now is the
winter of our discontent. The emphasis on the first two syllables has been swapped around from what
we would expect, so that the word Now is stressed; this heightens the sense of immediacy and
reinforces the idea that its something happening in the present moment.
2. Litotes
Litotes is understatement used for rhetorical effect, and usually makes use of double negatives for
emphasis. For example, rather than stating overt enthusiasm for something, one might say that it was
not bad. Another example might be Hes not unintelligent, as a means of saying that someone is
intelligent (or even a genius). While understatement might at first seem a peculiarly British trait, the
use of litotes is common in a number of European languages, and was a strong feature of Old English
poems and Icelandic sagas. There are also instances of its use in the Bible, and even as far back as
Homers epic The Iliad, in which Achilles is described by Zeus as neither unthinking, nor unseeing.
3. Rhyming couplet
The Ellesmere manuscript of the Canterbury Tales.

A rhyming couplet is two lines of poetry with the words at the end of each rhyming. Typically, a
rhyming couplet summarises a particular thought, but entire works can be written in rhyming couplets,
such as Geoffrey Chaucers Canterbury Tales. Poets often choose the rhyming words very carefully, so
that even these two words encapsulate an idea. Rhyming couplets are used at the end of sonnets; heres
an example from Shakespeares Sonnet 27:
Lo, thus, by day my limbs, by night my mind,
For thee, and for myself, no quiet find.
This summarises the theme of the sonnet, which is that the writer is unable to rest for thinking of the
object of his desire.
4. Personification
Personification is when human qualities are attributed to inanimate objects, animals or even abstract
ideas, such as deities. Another word for this is anthropomorphism, and human traits used can
include emotions, speech and physical actions. An example is the cruel wind and The trees seemed
to wave us goodbye. Personification is a commonly used device in literary works, but were
introduced to the concept from an early age in childrens television and books, which often use
animals or even inanimate objects as characters who can speak and act in human ways.
5. Onomatopoeia
This hard-to-spell word, pronounced on-o-mat-o-pee-a, refers to words that imitate the sound of
what they are referring to. Thump is an example, and so are most of the words we use to describe
animal noises, such as oink, meow or moo. Another example is words associated with
collisions, which often sound like various noises associated with two things colliding; bang, for
instance, or clash, or wallop. In works of literature, particularly poems, onomatopoeia can be used
to evoke certain ideas or to create an atmosphere very concisely, as in Robert Frosts poem Gathering
Leaves:
I make a great noise

Of rustling all day
The word rustling is onomatopoeic, reflecting the sound dried leaves make when they brush gently
together; this evocative word immediately conjures up such images in the readers mind.
6. Alliteration
Alliteration is the use of a sequence of two or more words each beginning with the same letter or
sound. The Automobile Association is a well-known example of alliteration. Alliteration is
commonly used in marketing, branding and newspaper headlines because its memorable, helping
concepts stick in the minds of readers or viewers. In a literary context its often used in poetry to
reflect a particular feeling; for instance, a poem about a snake might make use of words beginning
with S to reflect the sound of the snakes hiss, creating an onomatopoeic effect. Heres an example
from James Joyces The Dead, with the alliterative words underlined:
His soul swooned slowly as he heard the snow falling faintly through the universe and faintly falling,
like the descent of their last end, upon all the living and the dead.
Here the repetition of the s sounds at the beginning of the sentence slow down the rhythm, reflecting
the slowness mentioned. The repeated f sounds are soft, like the gentleness of falling snow. This is
the last line of the story, and the alliteration certainly draws it to a memorable conclusion.
As a side note, closely related to alliteration is assonance, which also involves the repetition of vowel
sounds, and consonance, which involves the repetition of consonant sounds; they differ from
alliteration in that the sounds dont have to be at the beginning of each word.
7. Pathetic fallacy
Heathcliff from Wuthering Heights; engraving by Fritz Eichenberg.

Pathetic fallacy is a literary device in which human emotions are attributed to aspects of nature, such
as the weather. For instance, the weather can be used to reflect a persons mood, with dark clouds or
rain present in a scene involving sorrow. Its a form of personification, a term weve already
encountered earlier in this article. A novel that famously makes use of pathetic fallacy is Wuthering
Heights, by Emily Bronte, the stormy characters and tumultuous relationships of which are reflected in
the novels setting: the bleak Yorkshire Moors. Ferocious thunderstorms mirror Heathcliffs
aggression, and elsewhere reflect the turmoil Cathy must go through in choosing between Edgar and
Heathcliff. Pathetic fallacy is even present in the name of the novel, which is also the name of the
farmhouse in which the story is set; the word wuthering refers to wind so strong that it makes a
roaring sound, or to a place characterised by wind that roars. Such threatening weather is used to
create a sense of foreboding, forming a menacing backdrop to a story populated by characters whose
violent and jealous temperaments are hugely destructive to themselves and others.
8. Metaphor
A metaphor is a type of analogy, used to describe something by comparing it with something
otherwise unrelated. A famous example is Shakespeares Shall I compare thee to a summers day,
and another is Victor Hugos line Laughter is the sun that drives winter from the human face, in Les
Miserables. Metaphors have long been used for effect; take this example from the Greek philosopher
Plato: as poets love their poems and fathers their children, just so do money-makers love their
money.
9. Simile
Pronounced sim-il-ee, this term refers to likening something directly to something else, and its a
form of metaphor used to add colour to writing of any kind from poetry to novels to songs. You can
recognise a simile by spotting the words as or like. For example, bright as a summers day. My
love is like a red red rose is a famous example of a simile, used in the poem of the same name by the
18th century Scottish poet Robert Burns.
10. Aside
An aside is a device that has been used in plays for centuries, involving a character directly addressing
the audience without the other characters being able to hear. Its part of the story, usually kept brief
and often used comically to gossip or make a comment about another character behind their back.
Some films make use of this technique too, with a character looking directly into the camera to address
viewers, known in this context as breaking the fourth wall. This is something Amelie, the eponymous
heroine of the French film that bears her name, does frequently by whispering conspiratorially to the
audience.
11. Allegory
Christian Reading in his Book by William Blake, an illustration for Pilgrims Progress. The weight
on Christians back is the knowledge of his own sin.
An allegory is a kind of story that has a meaning deeper than its obvious one, and its a sort of
extended metaphor. A famous example is Bunyans The Pilgrims Progress, which ostensibly tells the
tale of the journey of its protagonist Christian, but has a symbolic meaning that describes the journey
of a Christian from Earth to Heaven. In Medieval times, allegory was commonly used to communicate
religious messages, but later it became a way of commenting on politics or society. Gullivers Travels
by Jonathan Swift and Animal Farm by George Orwell are both examples of allegories that use bizarre
stories as parallels for real political and social situations; Swift was commenting on everything from
particular politicians to entire countries, while Orwells tale reflects events in the run-up to the 1917
Russian Revolution.
12. Hyperbole
Pronounced hipe-ER-bowl-ee, this term comes from a Greek word meaning excess and describes
exaggeration used for rhetorical effect. Its not meant to be taken literally, but it is used to make a point
particularly forcefully. We often use it in everyday language, for example Ive told you a million
times or I love you to the moon and back. Hyperbole is often used in literature, such as in the
celebrated 20th century Colombian writer Gabriel Garcia Mrquezs Living to Tell the Tale, in which
he writes: At that time Bogota was a remote, lugubrious city where an insomniac rain had been
falling since the beginning of the 16th century. Clearly he doesnt literally mean that it hasnt stopped
raining since the 16th century; hes just exaggerating to show readers that its somewhere in which a
lot of rain falls!
13. Connotation
A word that conjures up other meanings or sparks thoughts of something else has connotations. For
example, the word white has connotations of purity, peace, good, innocence, and cleanliness.
Writers often choose certain words because they know that readers will associate them with other
things, and they can enrich writing with many layers of meaning. An example of connotations used in
literature is George Orwells Animal Farm, in which certain animals have been chosen for particular
characters because of the connotations those animal species have. This applies most especially to the
pigs, who are powerful and corrupt, playing on the idea of greedy pigs. Another example is Boxer
the workhorse, who represents labourers; the image of the working horse has connotations of working
the land, going out and doing an honest days work, physical labour and so on. These associations help
heighten the effectiveness of the allegory in this memorable and influential novel.
14. Stream of consciousness

This literary technique describes a characters interior monologue: a continuous flow of thoughts
going on in the characters mind. Its a technique that came to the fore in the 20th century, famously
championed by Virginia Woolf in To The Lighthouse and, more bafflingly, by James Joyce in his
groundbreaking novel Ulysses, in which the idea of a stream of consciousness is taken to its extreme.
Trying to represent the randomness of human thought processes literally, Joyce penned paragraphs like
this:
My missus just got an. Reedy freckled soprano. Cheesparing nose. Nice enough in its way: for a little
ballad.
If youre currently trying to learn English or develop your existing skills, we suggest you might want
to avoid Ulysses for the time being!
If this list has you itching to find out more about literature and the English Language, why not sign up
for an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) course and learn even more about the language of some
of the worlds most famous writers?
How to Improve Your English Writing Skills: 9 Fun and

Interesting Ways
16 April, 2014
Has your written English reached a plateau?

25 Ways to Speed Up Your Progress in EFL
14 Literary Terms That Will Enhance Your Understanding of English Writing
If you want to improve your standard of writing, but youre struggling to take it to new heights, we
think we may have the answer. Whether youre a native speaker or someone whos learning English as
a foreign language, your standard of written English will benefit enormously simply from you
committing yourself to writing regularly in different styles. Writing in a variety of contexts is a great
way to have fun with English at the same time as improving your writing capabilities, and it will make
you more versatile as a writer. Away from the constraints of a formal academic environment, youre
free to have fun with your writing, and youre able to develop and explore different written styles and
challenges. Whats more, you never know when such skills will come in useful as you pursue your
career.
Its easy to fit in a range of writing activities around your schoolwork, so here are some ideas for ways
in which you can write for fun in your spare time and get better at writing in the process.
1. Start a blog
A really popular blog may even earn you money through advertising or merchandise.
With a number of websites offering free blog facilities, starting a blog is one of the easiest ways to
write regularly and build up an audience for your words. Blogs essentially take two forms: you can
either treat it like a diary, and write about what youve been up to; or you can dedicate your blog to a
certain subject and blog about that. Blogs are particularly good if you prefer writing non-fiction to
creative writing, and in addition to helping you to develop your written English skills, a blog will also
help improve your employability, giving you something extra to put on your UCAS form or CV.
The first step to starting a blog is to decide what you want to write about. This should be something
meaningful to you; if youre into a particular sport, for example, you could devote your blog to that; if
youre passionate about politics, you could offer your political insights. The main thing is to write
about what youre interested in; your enthusiasm will come across to readers and youll find it easier
both to build your audience and to write regular posts. You dont have to be a web designer or
developer to set up a blog. Here are some tips to help you get started:
Platforms such as WordPress and Blogger offer free blogging facilities and templates, so that all you
need to do is customise the colours and photos to suit you. Blogs from these sites have a pre-made,
user-friendly admin area, so that adding a new post is very straightforward.
Blog posts can be whatever length you want; anything between 400 2,000 words is perfectly
acceptable.
Include photos in your posts to make them more interesting.
Link out to other sites on relevant issues; the people who run those sites will become aware of your
blog and may become regular readers.
Build up your audience by wording your titles in a search-friendly way that means the title of your
post should use phrases people might search for in Google; for example, Whats the difference
between X and Y? or How to earn money in your spare time.
Use Twitter and Facebook to share your new blog posts so that people get to know about your blog.
Offer to write posts on other blogs that discuss the same subjects; that way, youll get your blog in
front of the audiences of bigger blogs and you may gain readers.
Having an audience for your writing is an excellent motivation for sharpening up your English skills,
and your blog will prove a satisfying platform for your regular writings as your readership starts to
grow.
2. Write a diary
Writing a diary can be a great confidence-building activity.

If you dont want an audience, you could write a private diary instead. These can be incredibly
therapeutic, helping you order your thoughts and get things off your chest. You can be totally honest in
a diary, because nobody will see it but you, and theyre also a lovely record of what youve been up to
that youll enjoy looking back on in years to come. A diary will get you used to using English to
express your own thoughts clearly, something thats essential in an academic context.
Buy a nice, lined notebook that youll enjoy writing in, and a pen you feel comfortable writing with.
If youre worried about someone finding and reading it, you can get diaries with locks.
Writing your diary by hand will give you valuable practise at handwriting, helping you build up the
strength to write for long periods of time, and allowing you to practise writing neatly. Both these
things will be very useful when it comes to your exams, particularly if you complete most of your
normal essays and note-taking on a computer.
Try to write everyday make a habit of writing in your diary at a certain time of day, perhaps last
thing in the evening.
3. Gain a penpal
Having a penpal makes getting post much more exciting.

Its a sad fact that the art of letter-writing is slowly being lost with the advent of email and social
media. But in some quarters its alive and well, and not just among the older generation, in the form of
penpals. A penpal is someone youve never met before, with whom you exchange letters; you get to
know them during the course of your correspondence. As well as giving you loads of practice at
writing interesting letters, its also wonderful to get a friendly letter by old-fashioned snail mail (if
you opt to correspond in this way you can still do so by email if you really want to), in an age in
which the only things we seem to get in the post are bills or junk mail. Here are a few pointers to get
you started:
A number of websites exist to put you in touch with penpals, such as InterPals Penpals and PenPal
World.
Pick a pen friend who lives in another country itll not only give you practice at writing letters, but
it will also teach you about another culture in a way no tourist trip really can.
Dont put off replying make sure you set aside time soon after you receive a letter to reply to it,
otherwise youll quickly forget to reply and your poor penpal may be waiting weeks or months before
you get round to writing.
If youre over 18, you could even write to a prisoner, which, according to this site, helps inmates
keep a positive attitude and focus on the future.
4. Write for your school newsletter or student newspaper
Getting involved in student journalism is also great work experience for a future career in the media.
Many schools have a school newsletter, and many universities have a student newspaper. Both offer
the perfect opportunity to get some experience writing in a journalistic style, which requires the use of
particular language as well as skills such as uncovering information and ensuring that your facts are
verified. If you opt to write editorial-style articles, or opinion pieces, this will give you practice at
writing in a more persuasive style and youll grow accustomed to using language to convince other
people of a particular argument. In addition to its benefits to your written English skills, getting
involved in the school newsletter or student newspaper will get your writing in front of other people,
giving you all the more reason to take your writing to new heights.
5. Enter a writing competition

If youre someone who enjoys the challenge of creative writing, have you thought about entering your
writing into a competition? There are loads of writing competitions out there, covering many writing
challenges including short stories and poetry. Writing competitions are particularly beneficial if youre
looking to study English Literature at university, as theyre something you can talk about on your
personal statement, but they also benefit you in that they give you the chance to practise different
forms of writing. Each different kind of writing presents its own challenges, and the knowledge that
your work will be judged and compared with that of others will give you added motivation to write to
the best of your abilities. Heres a non-exhaustive list of some short story competitions you could
enter, and here are some poetry competitions.
6. Write poetry
Coleridge described poetry as the best words in their best order.

Poetry is English in its richest, tightest form, and writing it necessitates a great degree of skill. It also
allows you to write from the heart and get a few things off your mind. Writing poetry isnt just about
rhyming (indeed, a poem doesnt have to rhyme at all); its about imbuing your words with layers of
meaning and communicating complex emotions and thoughts in a few carefully chosen words. As well
as enriching your vocabulary, writing poetry yourself will deepen your appreciation of the techniques
used by poets to convey their thoughts, making it a good thing to do if youre studying A-level
English. By writing a poem, you will be better able to understand the work of a poet you may be
studying and the challenges they face in creating such a condensed and deeply meaningful form of
English. There are lots of different kinds of poetry, and youll probably need to do some
experimenting in order to develop your own poetic style.
7. Take part in National Novel Writing Month
Nanowrimo can incorporate meet-ups, so that you and other Nano-ers can cheer each other on.
If youre really up for a challenge, you could have a go at taking part in National Novel Writing Month
(NaNoWriMo). They say that everyone has a novel in them; if thats the case, then this is certainly one
speedy way to get it out. The aim is to write a 50,000 word novel within the space of a month, a
mammoth task that will take all your determination and creativity first of all to come up with a good
plot, and then to see it through to completion.
It takes place in November and 465,000 people took part last year. Its a great way to meet fellow
writers via its forum, but above all, its a fantastic exercise in written English that will give you
experience in character and plot development, writing evocative description and dialogue, and other
skills necessary to writing fiction. All this will stand you in good stead if writing fiction is something
you want to pursue for a career, but even if this isnt your choice of career path, its still a terrific
achievement and one that you can reference in your university personal statement and interviews.
8. Reviews
You may not have thought of reviews as a writing outlet, but hear us out. Theres a big demand for
user reviews in the age of the internet, with many people now checking reviews online for everything
from products theyre about to buy to restaurants theyre thinking of dining at. The most useful
reviews on sites such as Amazon are well-written and balanced, so heres an easy and free way to give
yourself some practice at writing useful pieces that weigh up the pros and cons of something. If you
pick Amazon as your place to write reviews of products youve bought, youll have the motivation of
trying to gain a good reviewer score when users mark your review as useful. Some review sites even
allow you to earn money from your reviews, giving you the added bonus of some extra pocket money.
9. Travel writing
Travel writing can also be a great way to remember a holiday.

Our final nugget of writing inspiration is one youre sure to enjoy: travel writing. Writing evocatively
about places youve visited not only immortalises the memories of your travels; its great for
improving your writing. Trying to summarise the essence of a place in words and do it justice can be
quite a challenge, and finding the right words is a useful writing exercise. You dont have to travel
abroad to indulge in some travel writing; you could equally write about somewhere youve visited in
your local area. When you travel anywhere, take a notepad and jot down your impressions of the place
ready to transform into something longer and more thoughtful when you get home.
We hope youve found this article inspiring and that you enjoy getting to grips with different forms of
written English. The more you write, the better your writing will get so what are you waiting for?
20 Words and Phrases Your Examiners Are Tired of Reading

and What to Say Instead
21 November, 2014
Examiners have to read countless essays each year. When you think
about it from their point of view, they probably get pretty bored of
reading answers to the same questions over and over again.
13 Ways to Make Your Writing More Interesting to Read
How to Crack Down on Wordiness
Youre in with a better chance of impressing them if you avoid using the words and phrases theyve
inevitably read umpteen times before. Today, we take you through some of the commonly used words
and phrases that examiners are sick of reading, and give you some suggestions for what you could
write instead to make your writing stronger and more distinctive.
1. Many ways
Much Ado About Nothing is a much more fun and enjoyable play than the phrase in many ways
might suggest.
Starting an essay is difficult; just as a novelist has to use a compelling opening line to make people
want to keep reading, so the first line of an essay needs to be attention-grabbing. Unfortunately, many
students struggle with writing a strong opening line, and end up with something rather less engaging.
A common one is to state the obvious, or summarise too broadly, and the expression in many ways
crops up frequently. For example, in answer to an essay title of How does Shakespeare show that
Beatrice and Benedick are attracted to each other?, a student might be tempted to begin their essay
with the words, Shakespeare shows the attraction between Beatrice and Benedick in many ways
This in many ways construction is a weak and vague opening, and the essay would be better off
without it. It would be better to be more specific, perhaps by making some opening observations about
the role of this attraction in the play. This introduces the subject of how Shakespeare shows it without
stating the obvious.
2. In this essay
On the subject of weak opening lines, many essays begin by the student saying, In this essay, we will
look at such and such. This is stating the obvious, so the words in this essay are unnecessary.
Incidentally, the use of the royal we as seen in this example is also a clich, and best avoided in an
academic essay if you can.
3. The next point I want to make is that
You may have been told to signpost your essay structure, but a degree of subtlety is desirable.
This phrase is an obvious attempt at padding an essay out to increase the word count. You dont need
to signpost an essay in this way, and whats more, this is a weak way of moving from one argument to
another. Ideally, you should make thematic links between paragraphs or points, moving logically
through your arguments, rather than simply listing them one by one in the manner implied by a phrase
like The next point I want to make. If you can introduce the subject of the next paragraph in the
previous one, as a follow-up to what youve just been saying, then you will avoid the need to make a
jarring leap with a phrase like this.
4. In order to
Simply writing to without the in order almost always results in a more elegantly worded sentence,
and reduces the impression that youre trying to pad out the essay to achieve the desired word count.
5. It is interesting to note that
Larkins poetry is usually written in a straightforward and direct style; aim for your essay to do the
same.
Another reason for students using overly long-winded or clichd phrases in their essays is that they are
often labouring under the misapprehension that certain phrases make their essays sound more
intellectual. Introducing a point with the phrase It is interesting to note that is an example of this.
Students perhaps imagine that it gives of an air of intellectual curiosity, but its really a waste of
words. The sentence will almost certainly work and be stronger without it. For example:
It is interesting to note that Larkin neglects to mention
Its a stronger, more decisive statement if you remove the first few words:
Larkin neglects to mention
An alternative, and more elegant, construction might be: such and such is notable by its absence in
Larkins work.
6. The author uses

Another clich in student essays specifically English essays this time is to make points by saying
the author uses, as in The author uses such and such a literary device to draw the reader in or
The author does such and such to catch the readers attention or The author uses such and such to
show. Simply stating what the technique is and what effect it has will be sufficient; its obvious
that its the author whos using it, so you dont need to say as much.
7. The main way
Another classic example of vagueness is the Bronts were influenced by their upbringing in the
village of Haworth explain how!
The irritating thing about this phrase (for example, The main way in which Bront creates a feeling of
gloom is by) is that it suggests that you dont have a full grasp of the facts. Its implying that there
are other ways too, but that the writer thinks they can get away with not discussing them properly.
Leaving aside this, its still an annoyingly over-used phrased, so if you cant avoid it, replace it with
primarily. Otherwise, try to be more specific.
8. As mentioned earlier in this essay

You should try not to repeat yourself, as implied by mentioning something youve said already; and
ideally you shouldnt refer to this essay at all. If you do need to refer to something youve
mentioned previously, you could use the word aforementioned instead.
9. Situation
The Battle of Actium should not be described merely as a situation.

A staple of History or Politics essays, referring to something happening as the situation weakens
your essay because its too vague. An example would be, The situation in London was no better or
Octavian took stock of the Mark Anthony situation. Its always better to be specific in essays, as
being vague makes it look as though you dont quite know what you want to say, even if you do.
10. Aspects
If you find yourself using the expression various aspects in an essay, remind yourself that this is too
vague and try to qualify what these aspects actually are.
11. You
Theres no place for the second person (for example, you would think that the experiment would
show that) in an essay; academic prose should be written in the third person.
12. I
The focus of the essay should be your thoughts and ideas themselves, not a narrative of how you came
to them.
Its an oft-quoted piece of essay advice, but to a large extent avoiding the first person pronoun I is
also advisable. However, its a balancing act because, for humanities essays at least, its good to
include your own opinion. The trick is not to allow the essay to become dominated by your opinion, or
continually to make comments such as I feel this is because or I think such and such is being
disingenuous. The focus should be on an objective and balanced assessment of the arguments, with
your own opinion included perhaps at the end, as you weigh up what youve been discussing. Its still
possible to include your authorial voice without using the first person pronoun, and even without
saying it seems to me that; simply state it in the third person: The evidence appears to point more
towards such and such
13. Considered to be
Youll almost certainly find that changing considered to be to just considered makes your sentence
flow better.
14. First names

The formal conventions of essay-writing dictate that people (such as other authors, historical
protagonists and so on) are always referred to people by their surnames, so first names are a no-no.
15. Things
Then explain exactly what aspects of quality of life in London were improved by social housing.
Just like aspects, the word things is too vague. If youre tempted to write something like Things
in London had improved, make it more specific: Social housing had improved quality of life in
London, for example.
16. Lots/lots of
On the subject of vagueness, another phrase to look out for is lots or lots of. Its not only vague
its too colloquial. Its better to say much or many if you have to (so there were many reasons
rather than there were lots of reasons, for example). Even better, be specific and include actual
figures; 5,000 more immigrants arrived in the town this year than last is far better than There were
lots more immigrants arriving in the town this year than last.
17. On account of
Using three words when one would suffice is a symptom of not knowing what you want to say, and
thus trying to bolster the word count. Its much better simply to say because rather than on account
of.
18. Additionally
An essay structure shouldnt seem like a mathematical process of adding different points together.
Some students use this word as an alternative to also and as well as. However, used in this context
its weak and it can be a tell-tale sign that youre writing a boring essay that simply lists facts. Better
phrases to use instead include whats more, furthermore or moreover; all these help build an
argument, while additionally makes it look as if youve tagged on an extra fact as an afterthought.
19. Words that imply absolutes

Words such as always, never and everywhere should be avoided because theyre difficult to
defend and imprecise, coming under the category of sweeping generalisations. There are usually
plenty of exceptions when you make a statement such as People everywhere were feeling the effects
of such and such or Never before had such generosity been witnessed. Exact figures are preferable,
and if these arent possible, then at least soften your statement to allow for the possibility of
exceptions.
20. In conclusion
There can be few more hackneyed phrases than in conclusion. Its infantile and puts one in mind of
the essays one wrote years ago when in primary school. We know that the essay is coming to an end
we can see that so we dont need to signpost it by saying in conclusion. Instead, simply launch
straight into your closing arguments.
Other ways to make your essay more original
Strive for originality in your writing.

We end by looking at some more general tips to help you write a more original essay. Its not just
individual words and phrases that examiners are tired of reading; what you write about, and the way in
which you write about it, can also become tedious when everyone writes the same things. The
following tips should help you increase the originality of your essay; youll find more detail on each of
these tips in our article on how to write a more original essay.
Use more advanced language and syntax

Weve already seen how the language you use can make your essay boring, so a more general piece of
advice is to try to use more advanced language and syntax (sentence structures). You could try using
techniques such as analogy to explain complex concepts, as most students will not think to do this.
Providing you can demonstrate a firm understanding of what youre writing about, explaining it
clearly and confidently, it doesnt really matter how you do it, so a well-chosen analogy could work
well.
Write about less well-known aspects of the subject
Using lesser-known concepts and ideas is great, though make sure that they arent lesser known
because theyre incorrect.
Though the essay question will give a pretty good indication of what your examiner wants you to write
about, you can still add more interest to your essay, and make it stand out from the others, by including
some less well-known facts and angles that you might not already have looked at in class. You can get
inspiration by reading more widely around the subject, for example more obscure scholarship, or, for
literature, other works by the same author. You can then make comparisons with other texts, bringing
in opinions that the examiner probably wont be expecting, and your essay will be a lot less
predictable as a result.
Choose a different structure or angle

Finally, a formulaic structure is a sure-fire way to guarantee that youll be writing the same essay as
everyone else. Some of the language we looked at earlier is partly the result of a formulaic structure
(In this essay, the next point I want to make, in conclusion, and so on), and writing an essay that
doesnt send your examiner to sleep might be easier if you try experimenting with a different structure
or approaching the topic from a slightly different angle to the one you think theyll be expecting.
Youll still need some sort of introduction and conclusion, but with a little imagination, you should be
able to produce an essay thats a bit different from the rest.

40 Useful Words and Phrases For Top

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40 Useful Words and Phrases for Top-Notch Essays

The Complete Guide to English Style for EFL Learners

14 Literary Terms and Techniques to Deepen Your Understanding of English

Lets start by looking at language for general explanations of complex points.

3. To put it another way

Adding additional information to support a point

11. Another key thing to remember

13. Not only but also

14. Coupled with

15. Firstly, secondly, thirdly

16. Not to mention/to say nothing of

Words and phrases for demonstrating contrast

18. On the other hand

19. Having said that

20. By contrast/in comparison

21. Then again

22. That said

Adding a proviso or acknowledging reservations

24. Despite this

25. With this in mind

26. Provided that

27. In view of/in light of

31. For instance

32. To give an illustration

Usage: Use importantly interchangeably with significantly.

37. Above all

40. All things considered

Example: All things considered, it seems reasonable to assume that

The Complete Guide to English Style for EFL Learners

How to Communicate Appropriately in Letters and Emails

14 Key Terms to Enhance Your Understanding of English Literature

Distinction between informal and formal you

Formal written English

Some of the common features of formal English are:

Inanimate nouns as the subject, rather than humans

Textbooks are likely to use formal language.

Essays, theses and dissertations

Academic books and textbooks

Press releases and other business communications

Informal written English

You can be as informal as you like in a private blog.

Writing a letter or email to someone you know well

A Facebook or Twitter update

Active voice, such as Tom teaches Harry how to play croquet

Humans as the subject

Often addresses the reader as Im addressing you in this article

Uses informal language such as slang and idioms

Slang loo instead of toilet, for example, or spuds instead of potatoes.

Euphemisms finding a gentler way of saying something potentially offensive or upsetting;

Addressing other people

It was worth it, but we queued for an eternity

When youre learning English, youre likely to be pretty

20 Bizarre English Idioms and Their Origins

15 Common Grammar Mistakes and How to Avoid Them

The right way to write a letter

The rules for writing letters in English remain relatively strict.

An example of a formal letter

Salutations in more detail

Signing off a letter

The email address you use

Dont mark things as urgent if theyre not.

Signing off an email