Chemistry Review

Unit I: Matter and EnergyThe Periodic TableGroups of the Period

Table
Group 1a: Alkali Metals- Lithium, Sodium, Potassium,
Rubidium, Cesium, Francium
Group 2a: Alkaline Earth Metals- Beryllium,
Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium. Barium,Radium
Group 3-12: Transition Metals
Group 13: Boron Family- Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium,
Thallium
Group 14: Carbon Family- Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin,
Lead
Group 15: Nitrogen Family- Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Arsenic,
Antimony, Bismuth
Group 16: Oxygen Family- Oxygen, Sulfur, Selenium,
Tellurium, Polonium
Group 17: Fluorine Family/Halogens- Fluorine, Chlorine,
Bromine, Iodine, Astatine
Group 18: Noble Gases/Inert Gas Group- Helium, Neon,
Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon
Classifying The Elements
I. Demitri Mendeleev (1869)- Russian ScientistConcluded that
physical and chemical properties of elements appear in regular
intervals whenlisted by increasing atomic mass. Not current
classificationII. Henry Mosely (1913)- English ScientistUsed xrays to identify atomic mass.He concluded that physical &
chemical properties of elements were listed by increasing
atomicnumber.Modern classification system

Basic Units of Measurement

Length- Measure distance between two points
a. Basic unit: Meter. Instrument: Meterstick
b. 1 km= 1,000m 1m=100cm 1cm= 10 mm
Mass- Measures the quantity of matter
a. Basic unit: Gram. Instrument: Triple Beam Balance
b. 1 kg=1,000g 1g=1,000 mg
Volume- Measures amount of space occupied by an object
a. Basic unit: Liter Instrument: Graduated Cylinder
b. 1L=1,000mL 1mL= 1cm^3
c. Volume is represented by Length, Width and Height
(V=LWH, for Regular Shape)
d. Vo=Vwto-Vw-Volume for irregular solid; Vw= Initial level
of water, Vwto- Final level of water
Temperature- Measures "hotness" or "coldness:
a. Basic Unit- Degrees Celsius with Thermometer
b. Freezing point H2O- 0C
c. Boiling Point H2O- 100C
d. International Scale (SI) Temperature- Measured with
Kelvin Scale (Based off of absolute zero) - 0C= 273K,
0K=273C
Time - Measures durationa. Basic Unit:
Second with Clock b. 60 Sec= 1 min 60 min=1 hour
Significant Figures
A. All numbers that are actually read plus one estimated guess.

I. Initial zeros are never significant. 0.0203: Only 3 significant

figures
II. All whole numbers are always significant. 2039- 4 significant
figures
II. Zeros are significant if they are between whole numbers.
2004- 4 significant figures
IV. Zero is significant if it's to the right of the whole number and
to the right of the decimal point.0.09036- 4 significant figures
V. Final zeros are ambiguous
VI. For addition and subtraction, the answer can contain as
many decimal places as the leastaccurate value.
VII. For multiplication and division, the answer can only contain
as many significant digits asthe least accurate value.
What is Chemistry?I
. It is the study of:
The composition, structure and properties of matter.
The changes which matter undergoes.
And the energy which occupies these changes.
II. Matter
Anything that has mass and volume
Divided into two classes: Mixtures and Substances

III. Substances
All homogeneous matter
a. Fixed composition
b. Always made of the same amount of matter
2 Types of Substances: Elements and Compounds
I. Elements
Contain all atoms of a single type
Cannot be decomposed
Common elements: Oxygen,Nitrogen,Carbon,Hydrogen
2. Compounds
Contains more than 1 type of element
Chemically combined in fixed ratio
Can be decomposed chemically but not physically
Binary Compounds- 2 Elements, like NaCl
Ternary Compounds- 3 Elements, like KNO
III. Mixtures
Consists of 2 more elements that differ in property and
composition
Substances are physically mixed
The composition/ratio of substances vary
Can be separated physically
2 Types: Homogenous and Heterogenous.
Homogenous- Uniformly mixed throughout the mixture
a. Also called Solutions
i. Dissolved particles in solution (Na in H2O)
ii. Aqueous solution dissolved in water

bb. Distillation - A method used to separate parts of

a homogenous mixture basedon their boiling points.
b. Heterogenous- Multiple components that are randomly
distributed.
c. aa. Filtration is a method of using a filter to physically
separate the mixture
d. i. Material collected ia s filtrate, material left behind is the
residue.
e. bb. Chromatography- Separates part of the mixture
physically as they have adifferent rate of moving up filter
paper.
Properties
Physical Properties
I. A quality of a substance that can be observed or
measured without changing the substance'scomposition.
II. Examples: Color, solubility, odor, hardness, density,
melting point, boiling point, luster (senses).
Chemical Properties
I. The ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction
& to form a new substance
II. A substance must undergo a chemical change to observe
a chemical property
III. Examples: Rust, burn, rot, decompose, ferment,
explode, corrode.

Metallic Properties

I. Luster, good conductors of heat & electricity, malleable

(hammer into shapes), ductile (abilityto be drawn into wires),
hard.
Non-Metallic Properties
I. Dull, brittle, soft (if solid), poor conductors of heat &
electricity, no free electrons.
Metalloids/Semi-Metal Properties
I. Properties of both metals & non metals
II. Shiny, but brittle, like Silicon
Physical vs. Chemical Changes
I. A physical changes in form, but does not become
something new
II. Dissolving, Melting, Boiling, Freezing, Cutting
III.A chemical change forms a new substance, energy
always accompanies a chemical changes
Matter-Continued
I.Solids
Matter is arranged in a regular, rigid pattern
Definite shape and volume
Crystalline structure- crystals arranged in a repeated geometric
pattern (Like ice, strongintermolecular attraction)
II.Liquids
Particles not held as tightly together
Able to move past one another (flow)
Definite volume, no definite shapeI I I . G a s e s
Minimal attractive holding particles together
No definite shape or volume (takes shape and volume of
container)IV.Psuedosolids
Lacks crystalline structure

Supercooled liquids-molecules move over one another in time

Like glass and some plastics
Phase Changes
All phase changes are accompanied with either a loss or gain of
energy
An element, compound or mixture can exist as a solid, liquid or
gas
I.Endothermic Reactions
Phase change that requires the gain of heat
Melting/Fusion- Solid becomes liquid
Evaporation/Boiling/Vaporization- Liquid becomes gas
Sublimation- Solid turns into gas directly (Substances that
sublime have high vapor pressureand low intermolecular forces
of attraction)
II.Exothermic Reactions
All of these changes require the loss or release of energy/heat
Freezing/Solidification-Liquid becomes solid
Condensation- Gaseous substance becomes liquid
Deposition- Gaseous substance turns directly into a solid
Main Types of Energy
I.Kinetic (Ke)- Energy of Motion
II. Potential (Pe) Stored Energy
III. Chemical Energy (Ce)- Energy associated with a
chemical changeA.Ke=1/2mv^2B.Pe=ugh (mass x
distance from the ground x gravity)
IV.Heat Energy

A.Amount of energy transferred from one substance to

another
B.Can be measured using a calorimeter
C. Calories (cal) or Joules (J) measure heat gain or loss
D.To convert from cal or J to Cal or KJ, divide by zero
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy is neither created nor destroyed
Energy can be transferred from one substance to another
Or energy can be transferred into a new form of energy
The total abound of energy will remain the same
Example: Gas burns in engine (Chemical to heat), Car moves
(Mechanical to kinetic)
Thermometry
Temperature- The measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles of a substance
Heat- Flows spontaneously from a hot body to a cold body
Body heat to chair, boiling water to hand, burned hand to
icepack
Temperature Scales
Degree Celsius- Most commonly used, 2 fixed points (0 which
is melting/freezing of water,and 100, which is
boiling/condensation point of water) Values increase by 1
Kelvin- Contains theoretically the lowest possible temperature,
has never been exactlyreached, absence of all kinetic energy
K=C+273, C=K-273
Measurement of Heat Energy
The amount of heat given off or absorbed in areaction can be
calculated by:Q=MCT
--Q=Heat (Joules or calories)

--M=Mass of substance
--C=Specific heat capacity of substance (J/GC)
--T=Temperature Final-Temperature Initial
Q=MCT is used only when there is a change in temperature
Specific Heat Capacity- Amount of heat needed to raise 1g of a
substance by 1C (Water=4.18J/GC)
Heat of Fusion
The amount of heat needed to melt 1g of a substance
Q=MHf is used when calculating how much heat is absorbed
when a substance melts
Remember:
Heat absorbed during melting goes into raising the potential
energy of the Substance
Kinetic energy is constant (constant temperature therefore you
cannot useQ=MCT
The value for heat of fusion is 334 J/G
Heat of Vaporization
The amount of heat needed to vaporize/boil 1g of a substance
Q=MHv is used to calculate how much energy is absorbed
when a substance vaporizes
The heat of vaporization of water is 2260 J/G
Mole Concept-Avogadros Number
Based off of the atomic mass of Carbon
1 Gram of Hydrogen=1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles
12 Grams of Carbon= 1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles
24 Grams of Magnesium= 1 Mole/ 6.02x10^23 amu/particles
Example: Magnesium Nitrate Mg(NO3)2
Mg (1)(24)=24g

 N (2)(14)=28g Mg(NO3)2= 148g = 6.02x1023Particles

O (6)(16)=96g 24+28+96=148
Atoms and molecules are too small to count, so we count
them in liege quantities
The number of atoms of carbon present in 12 grams
The mass of one mole of a substance can be found by
determining its gram-formula mass
To convert grams to moles, use formula found in reference
table
Given Mass/Gram-Formula Mass
Gas-Mole Concept
1 Mole of any gas at STP= 22.4L
1 Mole of H2(g) =22.4 L, 1 mole of Cl2(g)=22.4L
Diatomic molecules that exist in nature=
I2, Br 2, Cl2,F2, O2, N2,H2
I BRought CLay For Our New House
Monoatomic Molecules - Noble Gases- He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
To solve moles for gases- Moles=Given Liters/Liters Per Mole
(22.4 L)
Percent Composition
The percent by mass of each element in the compound.
The percent composition of a compound consists of a percent
value for each different elementin the compound
K 2CrO4
K= 40.3%
Cr=26.8%
O=32.9%

The percents MUST total 100%

The percent by mass of an element in a compound is the
number of grams of the elementdivided by the mass in grams of
the compound, multiplied by 100%
I. K (39)(2)=78g. Cr (1)(52)=52g. O (4)16) = 64 Configur
e Gram-Mass Formula
78+52+64=194g
II.Use proportion
78/194 = 40.3% 52/194=26.8% 64/194= 32.9%
Gas Laws, Matter
Kinetic Molecular Theory for Ideal Gases
Studies of gas behavior have led to a model referred to as the
ideal gas model-based off of several assumptions
A gas is composed of individual particles which are in a
constant, straight line motion
Gas particles are separated great distances relative to their size.
The volume of gas particles arenot considered.
Gas participles are considered as having no attraction to each
other.
The collision theory states that a reaction is most likely to occur
if the reactant particles collidewith proper energy and orientation
(Sufficient amount of energy and proper angle & geometry)
Deviations from the Gas Laws
The ideal gas model does not exactly represent real gases under
all conditions
Hydrogen and Helium are the two most ideal gases- no real
gas follows the ideal model under all conditions of temperature
and pressure

Deviations occur because model is not perfect

This is because gas particles have volume and exert some
attraction for each other
These factors because significant under conditions of high
temperature and low pressure anddecreased velocity due to
increased molecular mass
Conditions of high temperature and low pressure are idealGas
The space between molecules in a gaseous phase is about 1,000
times greater than in liquid or solid phase.
Molecules possess greater kinetic energy and have overcome
the attractive forces that holdthem together.
The density of a gas is lower as compared to solid or liquid
*In the gas phase, molecules vibrate, rotate and translate. This
allows them to fill the volume of the container in which they are
held
High Temperature/Lower Volume= Increased collision, smaller
particles move faster.
High Temperature/Low Pressure= ideal
High Pressure/Low Temperature=real
Gas Laws
I.Boyles Law
Temperature=Constant
P1V1=P2V2
V2=P1V1/P2 PV=Constant
As Volume increases, Pressure decreases (Inverse Proportions)

II.Charles Law
Pressure=Constant
V1/T1=V2/T2
V2=V1/T1
As temperature increases, volume increases
Directly proportional
II.GayLussacsLaw
Volume=Constant
P1/T1=P2/T2
P1T2=P2T1
P2=P1T2/T1
As pressure increases, temperature increases
Directly proportional
Gas Laws for Closed Systems
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 - Charles Law - Temperature always in
Kevin, increased volume in anexpandable container (constant
pressure)
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 Gay-Lussacs Law - Temperature always
in Kelvin, increased pressure in arigid container (constant
volume)
Increase in average kinetic energy causes increase in
momentum, which causes an increasein collision frequency
P1V1/T1=P2V2/T2 - Boyles Law- Temperature always
in Kelvin, Increase in pressure causesa decrease in pressure
(temperature remains constant)

Increase in external pressure causes increase in

external collisions, which causes anexpandable container pushed
into smaller container
Phases in Detail-Gases
Molecules spread out and fill spaces- they are given due to their
weak intermolecular forces of attraction
There are large spaces between gas particles
Evaporation
Takes place at all temperatures on the liquid/vapor boundary
Vapor-A gaseous phase of a substance that is a liquid or solid at
normal conditions
Once liquid particles have absorbed enough energy to
overcome attractive forces, they become vapor
Vapor Pressure- Gas particles exert pressure on the liquid when
they evaporate
In a closed system, the pressure increases
Evaporation increases with an increase in temperature
1 ATM=760 Torr=760 mm Hg, are also values of standard
pressure
Normal Boiling Point= When the vapor pressure=atmosphere
pressure.
When a substance boils, evaporation occurs throughout the
liquid
Also measures the strength of intermolecular forces
*If Vapor Pressure is high, attraction between molecules
is weak
*If Vapor Pressure is low, attraction between is strong

History of the Atom

I.John Daltons Atomic Theory (1803)
All matter is made up of tiny, indestructible particles called
atoms
All atoms of a given element have identical physical &
chemical properties
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed (Law of conservation
of mass)
Atoms of different elements form compounds in while number
ratios
Some of these postulates now have exceptions:
Atoms can be broken apart in nuclear reactions
Atoms of a given element can have different physical and
chemical properties (isotopes)
II.J.J. Thomsons Plum-Pudding Model (1897)
His model portrays the atom as a big ball of positive charge that
contains small particles of negative charge embedded in it.
Discovered the charge of an electron by observing cathode rays
in a cathode ray tube
From his observation, he concluded that cathode rays are
streams of negatively charged particles with mass
Another scientist, Millikan, was able to determine the mass
of an electron based uponThomsons work (1909).
III.Rutherfords Model (1909)
Made two key observations based on his gold foil experiment
He disproved Thomsons model
He bombarded a thin piece of gold foil with positively charged
alpha (positive charge) particles(much smaller than the atom)
Proved the nucleus to be positive
Observations:

I.Almost all the alpha particles passed

through foil without deflection
II.Small percent slightly deflected
III.Some were largely deflected
I V.A f e w e v e n r e f l e c t e d b a c k i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
from where they had came
Conclusion: (1911): Atom is mostly empty space and all of the
positive charge in an atom isconcentrated in a small, dense core
(nucleus).
This area is positive, since positively charged particles were
deflected from it (repelled)
Atomic Mass= Sum of protons and neutrons
Atomic Number= Number of protons
Number of protons=Number of electrons
Last level= Valence electronsIV.Bohr Planetary Model
(1913)
Model displayed electrons traveling in orbits around
the nucleus
Electrons are only found in orbitals (principle energy levels)
not in between
The principle energy levels (PEL) approximates how far
the electrons are from the PEL
unclesPEL Shell Max # Of Electrons
2(N)2 N=PEL1 K 22 L 83 M 1 8 4 N 325 O 506 P 727 Q 98
The electrons distance from the nucleus is related to their
specific amount of energy (quanta)
As you move away from the nucleus, the energy in each PEL
Increases.
Like climbing stairs, further you go=more energy
Ground State-When electrons are in lowest energy level
Quantum Leap- When electrons jump between energy levels

2 electrons can only absorb a fixed amount of energy (quanta)

to move to higher level
Electrons can only jump to levels that arent completely filled
with electrons
Heat, light and electricity are all stimuli that can excite an
electron
Excited State- Electrons are in higher energy levels. Acquired
when an electron absorbs energyand becomes unstable.
Electrons quickly return to ground state, emitting the same
amount of energy absorbed, usually in some form of light.
Every element gives off a unique pattern of colors (line
spectrum) which can be used toidentify the element
Planck s constant,h= 6.63 10-34J s
Electron Conguration
An electron conguration tells you how many electrons there
are in each energy level
1 Mg (2-8-2) has 2 electrons in PEL 1, and 8 electrons in PEL 2
The amount of numbers in each electron conguration tells you
how many electron levels are occupiedwith electrons
2n2- energy levels for max (for max)
2-8-2- Ground State, 2-7-3- Excited State
Last=Valence Electrons
Valence Electrons
The electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom (last # in
the electron conguration)
2-8-3 has 3 valence electrons
Valence electrons can determine the chemical properties of an
element

The Kernel
Includes the nucleus and all non-valence electrons
Quantum Numbers
Schrdinger- Mathematically treated the electron as a wave
The 4 quantum numbers in Schrdingers equation are used in
describing electron behavior
N,L,M,S
Principle Quantum Number- N
Second quantum number indicated by L describes sublevels.
Each energy level (N) has nsublevels.
Level Sublevel
1 1 s2 1,2 s,p3 1,2,3 s,p,d4 1,2,3,4 s,p,d,f
The third quantum number m represents the number of orbitals
in a sublevel
Sublevels- only 1 orbital m=0
Sublevels- 3 orbitals (x,y,z) m=01
Sublevels- 5 orbitals m=012
Sublevels 7 orbitals m=012
Only 2e- in each orbital
Spin Quantum Number- Describes the spin of an atom (Pauli)
clockwise
Paulis Exclusion Principle- No two electrons in an atom can
have the same set of 4 quantumnumbers
Examples:I. Hydrogen- 1s1
II.He 1s2
III.Lithium - 1s22s1
IV.Carbon 1s22s22s2
V. Neon 1s22s22p6
VI.Magnesium - 1s22s22p63s2

BondingIonic Bonding
Compounds composed of cations and anions are called ionic
compounds
Characterized by the transfer of electrons- Representative unit
is the formula unit
Composed of metal cations and nonmetal anions.
Cation- Ion with positive charge
Anion- Ion with negative charge
Anions and cations have opposite charges and attract one
another with electrostatic forces
Properties:
I.Solid at room temperature
II.Have high melting points
III.Conduct an electric current whenDissolved/melted in water
Use brackets diagram to illustrate electrontransfer based off of
oxidation numbers andValence electrons - to satisfy the octet
rule (to obtain 8 valence electrons to achieve stability-likethe
noble gases)
Example: Calcium and Chlorine (Metal and
nonmetal)Calciums electron configuration: 2-8-8-2Chlorines
electron configuration: 2-8-7You need to remove 2 electrons
from calcium to achieve 8 valence electrons*Use Lewis Electron

Dot Diagram* - Depicts valence electronsAnd 2 electrons must

be given to chlorine (Cl is diatomic), so one electron goes to
each chlorine.
Covalent Bonding
Characterized by the share of electrons (like a tug-of-war
between elements) to achieveelectron configuration of noble
gases
Representative unit is a molecule
Nonpolar and Polar
Nonpolar: Bonding electrons are shared equally (Like N2,
O2,Cl2, H2)
Polar: Bonding electrons shared unequally
Polar Molecule*: Asymmetrical molecule, one side is more
negative than the other is positive. (AKA, a dipole)
Nonpolar Molecule*: Symmetrical molecule, charges are
balanced
The more electronegative atom attracts electrons more strongly
and gains a slightlynegative charge. The less electronegative
atom has a slightly positive charge
Use difference of electronegativity to determine most probably
type of bondElectronegativity Difference
Most Probable Bond Example0.0-0.4 Nonpolar Covalent HH (H
2) (0.0)0.4-1.0 Moderately Covalent H-CL (HCl) (0.9)1.0
2.0 Very Polar Covalent H-F (HF) (1.9) 2.0 Ionic Na+Cl
(2.1)
Electronegativity: The ability of an atom to attract electrons
when the atom is in a compound
Single Covalent Bond: Bond formed when when two atoms
share a pair of electrons (LikeH:H)-Depicts the sharing of two
electrons

Double Covalent Bond: A bond in which two atoms hare two

pairs of electrons (like O::O),Oxygen has 6 valence electrons,
and needs 8 to follow octet rule, so oxygen shares two
withoxygen)
Triple Covalent Bond: A bond formed by sharing three pairs of
electrons (like N:::N), Nitrogenhas 5 valence electrons, and
needs 3 more to follow octet rule- so, Nitrogen must share 3
with Nitrogen)
Network Solids/Crystals: Solids in which all of the atoms are
covalently bonded to each other-VERY high melting point.
Examples are Diamonds, Silicon Carbide, Silicon Dioxide
Properties:
I.Low melting/boiling points
II.Tend to be soft, tend to be liquids, gases or soft solids
III.Poor conductors of heat and electricity
IV.Are molecules
V.Are brittle
VI.Nonmetallic
Coordinate Covalent Bonds: A covalent bond in which one
atom contributes both bondingelectrons. (Can depict in
structural formula by drawing an arrow that points from the
atomdonating the pair of electrons to the atom receiving them)
(like CO)
Metallic Bonding
Can be described as a sea of electrons
The valence electrons are mobile and can drift freely from one
part of the metal to another
Metallic bonds consist of the attraction of the free-floating
valence electrons for the positivelycharged metal ions. These

bonds are the forces of attraction that hold metals together

(Cuwould be considered a metallic bond)
Sea of electrons explains physical properties of metals:
Excellent conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable (Can be hammered and shaped)
Ductile (Can be made into wires)
Metal atoms are arranged in very compact and orderly patterns
Hydrogen Bonding
Attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently bonded to a
very electronegative element(Fluorine is most electronegative,
oxygen is second most electronegative) is also weakly bonded to
an unshared electron pair of an electronegative atom.
Like OH, HF, NH (Hydrogen with Oxygen, Fluorine or
Nitrogen)
For a Hydrogen bond to form, there must be a covalent bond
present
Strongest of intermolecular forces
Extremely important of determining the properties of water
and biological molecules, such as proteins
Van der Waals Forces
The two weakest attractions between molecules- named after
Dutch chemist Johannes van der Waals (1837-1923).
Van der Waals forces consist of dipole interactions
and dispersion forces
Dipole interactions occur when polar molecules are attracted to
one another-The electricalattraction involved occurs
betweenthe oppositely charged region of polar
molecules(Like NaCl(Aq), Na+will attach to O-and Cl-will
attach to H+(negative goes to positive, positivegoes to negative)

Dispersion forces are the weakest of all molecular interactions

and are caused by the motion of electrons.
Caused by the electron motion on one molecule affecting the
electron motion on the other through electrical forces (electrons
are negative..when an electron moves, it will repel
another electron)
Trends in Periodic TableI
.Atomic Radii
Trend in Period
Decrease left to right
Increase # of protons, increase attraction. For valence
electrons= smaller radius
Trend in Group
Increase Top to bottom
VI.Metallic vs. Nonmetallic Characteristics
Metallic increases down a group, decreases down a period
Nonmetallic decreases down a group and increases across a
period
Thin black line spirits metals and nonmetals
Metalloids (semimetals) have properties of metals and
nonmetals
Solubility
Solvent- Substance that is present in the larger amount which
does the dissolving (the solventdissolves)
Water is the universal solvent (dissolves most things)

Solute- Substance that is present in smaller amount which gets

dissolved
I.Types
Solid solutions- mixture of 2 or more solids (Sand, metal alloy,
Bronze (Zn+Cu)
Gas solutions- mixture of 2 or more gases (Oxygen, nitrogen,
hydrogen, carbon dioxide)
Liquid solution
Solid in water (Salt water)
Gas in liquid (Carbonated dranks)
Liquid in liquid (water and juice)
Miscible- Liquids that mix in any amount (water and wine)
Immiscible- Liquids that cannot mix in any amounts (oil
and water)
Aqueous
Electrolyte- Salt or ionic compounds that when dissolved in
water will conductelectricity
Non-Electrolyte- Compound when dissolved in water that
wont conduct electricity(Any covalent bond, like sugars)
II.Properties
Homogenous mixtures
Clear, do not disperse light
May have color (transition elements)
Solute will not settle out
Will pass through a filter (filtration cannot separate)
III.Factors
Nonpolar Molecules (fats)
Solvent- Nonpolar
Nonpolar molecule is soluble
Molecules will mix together

Polar solvent (Water)

Nonpolar molecule is insoluble
No attraction between the molecules
Polar Solute
Like Alcohol
Nonpolar solvent (carbon tetrachloride) is insoluble (no
attraction between molecules)
Polar Solvent (Water) is soluble (attraction between molecules)
Ionic Solute
Solvent is nonpolar: insoluble and ions formed cannot attract to
anything in the solvent
Solvent is polar: soluble and ons attract to the positive and
negative ends of the solvent(H2O)
Temperature
As temperature increases:
Solids become more soluble in water and is true in most cases
Gases solubility decrease in liquid (think of soda)
Pressure
As pressure increases, gases become more soluble and has no
effect on solids
To make gases soluble: High pressure and low temperature
Formulas and EquationsChemical Equations
A chemical equation represents the starting and ending
materials as:
Reactants Products
The arrow represents yields or produces
The reactants are the starting material
Products are the ending material
Example: C+O2 =CO2Or Carbon + Oxygen yields Carbon
Dioxide

Carbon and Oxygen are the reactants, Carbon Dioxide is the

product
Endothermic Reaction
Energy is added for reaction to occur and is a reactant
Example: AB+Energy=A + B
Example: Photosynthesis (Sunlight is added)
6CO2+ 6H2O + Energy = C6H12O6+ 6O2
Since energy is absorbed in an endothermic reaction, the
surrounding environment willdecrease in temperature
Exothermic Reactions
Energy is removed/released for a reaction to occur and is a
product
Example: A+B Yields to AB + Energy
Example: Cellular respiration (energy is released as heat, ATP)
C6H12O6+ 6O2=6CO2+ 6H2O + Energy
Since energy is released in an exothermic reaction, the
surrounding environment will increasein temperature
Law of Conservation of Mass
Single Replacement/Displacement: When a single element
switches places with another element in a compound
Always 2 reactants (one single element + one compound) and
always 2 products (onesingle element + one compound)
A+ BC=B + ACMg + 2HCl=H2+ MgCl2
Double Replacement/Displacement: When 2 elements switch
places with other elements
Always 2 reactants (2 compounds) and always 2 products (2
compounds)
Outer 2 pieces come together and inner 2 pieces come together

 NaOH + HCl=NaCl + HOH (H2O)

Identifying Reactions
Single Replacement
Not all reactants will react
To determine if a single replacement reaction will occur:
Determine if the single element on the reactant side is a metal
or nonmental
Then find this element on Table J and compare it to the
corresponding metal or nonmetal of the other reactant
If the single element is higher on Table J than the
metallic/nonmetallic element inthe compound then the reaction
will occur
Being higher means that the element is more reactive and
can thereforereplace the other
Double Displacement
3 Situations in which a double replacement reaction will occur
between two aqueous ioniccompounds
1: If one of the products is insoluble (It doesnt dissolve and
therefore forms a precipitate, and the other is soluble
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl (aq) =AgCl (s) + NaNO3(aq)Smith 26
2: If one of the products is a gas and the other product is
aqueous
Na2S(aq) + 2HCl(aq)=H2S(g) + 2NaCl(aq)
3: If one of the products is water and the other is aqueous
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq)=H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)
A double replacement reaction will not occur if both products
are aqueous
Unknown Reactants and Products
You may have to predict the formula of an unknown reactant or
product

Example : 2Na + 2H2O=X + 2NaOH

To find X:
Tally the amount of atoms you have on either side of the arrow
2 Na 2
4 H 2
2 O 2
It seems that we are missing 2 H atoms
If written correctly, we can find the missing piece (H2)
2Na + 2H2O=H2+ 2NaOH
If its a compound that is missing:
Write the symbols of the element
If ionic: Criss-cross charges to get exact formula
If covalent: think of what common molecule it could be
Kinetics
Studies the rates of chemical reactions and how quickly they
occur
Collision Theory
For a reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide with
Enough energy (activation energy)
Correct spatial orientation
When these conditions are met, an effective collision has
occurred
One that makes new products
In general, as the number of effective collisions between
particles increases, so does reactionrate
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
I. Nature of the Reactants
Covalent or organic (containing C) substances react
slower than ionic

Because they have more bonds that must be broken as

they react
Ionic substances react more quickly
Have no true bonds
Ions held together by electrostatic force
II.Concentration (Mol/L)
Means how much stuff per Liter of space
If concentration is increased, then more collisions
between particles will result
More collisions=faster reaction rate
In general: increase concentration, increase reaction rate
III.Surface Area
Exposing more of a reactants surface area will lead to
faster reactions
This is because there will be more reactant particles
contacting the other reactants
Surface area can be increased by breaking down a
chunk of a reactant into smaller pieces or powder
A powdered form of a substance always gives the most
surface area
IV.Pressure
Only affects reactions involving gases
Increasing pressure increases the concentration of a gas
More in less space or smaller volume
This results in a faster reaction rate
(Only affects gases of different moles)
V.Temperature
Measure of the average kinetic energy of particles
Higher temperatures allow particles to move faster with
more energy

Causes the activated complex and activation energies to

be lower, but does not change thehead of the reaction
If the potential energy diagram is endothermic, the
products will be higher than the reactantsand have more
energy
If the potential energy diagram is exothermic, the
products will be lower than the reactants andwill have
less energy
EntropyS
Measure of randomness or disorder
As entropy increases,S becomes more +
As entropy decreases,S becomes more
Physical Changes
Phase Changes- Endothermic processes and when a substance
dissolves, entropy increases
Free elements are less stable and have more entropy than
compounds
Increase T increases entropy
When 2 different gases mix, entropy increases
Spontaneous Reactions
There is a tendency in nature to favor
Exothermic Reactions
More stable with less energy
Higher entropy
Easier to be disorderly than orderly
Equilibrium

Most reactions can occur in both the forward and reverse

directions
Both reactions will occur at the same rate
This means that the forward reaction (making products) is the
same as the reverse(reforming reactants)
It Does NOT mean that the concentration (amounts) of the
same reactants and products areequal
The concentration of the reactants and products are constant
Equilibrium will only occur if nothing leaves the system
Example: If gas escapes or solid is formed (No equilibrium)
System must be closedPhase Equilibrium
Occurs when a substance is changing its phase of matter
At the melting point
For a short period of time, both the solid and liquid phases of
matter are in equilibrium witheach other
At the boiling point
For a short period of time, both the liquid and gas phases are in
equilibriumSolution Equilibrium
In a saturated solution, the rate of dissolving equals the rate of
recrystallization
A closed soda bottle is also at equilibrium
The rate of the CO2
dissolving in the soda equals the rate of the dissolved CO2
escaping
If pressure is increased on the system, the reaction will shift left
and more of the CO2will stay dissolved
If pressure is decreased on the system, the reaction will shift
right and more of the CO2will escape as gas Le Chateliers
Principle
A system at equilibrium can be disturbed by placing a stress on
it

Include: Change in temperature, concentration, pressure

When a system has a stress placed on it, the reaction shifts to
relieve the stress andreestablishes equilibrium
Concentration Changes:
When the concentration of either a reactant or product is
Increased
Reaction shifts Awayfrom the substance
increased
Decreased
Reaction shifts toward the substance decreased
Temperature Changes
If you increase temperature, the endothermic reaction is favored
and shifts away from heat
If you decrease temperature, the exothermic reaction is favored
and shifts toward heat
Pressure Changes
Only affects gaseous substances
When pressure is increased, reaction shifts toward less moles
When pressure is decreased, reaction shifts toward more moles
When # of moles is the same on both sides, the pressure has
no effect
To determine the # of moles, add the coefficients on the left
side and the right side andcompare
Whatever you do, the reaction does the opposite
Oxidation-Reduction/Redox Reactions
A redox reaction is:
A type of chemical reaction
Both reduction and oxidation occur simultaneously due to a
competition for electrons between atoms
Reduction: Gain of Electrons (GER)

A species (element or ion) gains electrons

Plating (metal spoon plated with silver)
Oxidation: Loss of Electrons (LEO)
A species loses electrons
Corrosion (car rusting - iron is losing electrons)
LEO says GER
Oxidation Numbers
Found in the upper right hand corner of each element on the
reference table (similar to charge)
Describe the number of electrons gained or lost by an atom
Rules for assigning numbers
In an uncombined element, Ox # is 0
Certain metals only have oxidation #
Cathode: Electrode where reduction occurs
Spontaneous Reactions- Voltaic Cells
If a strip of zinc is placed into a solution of lead nitrate, the zinc
will be oxidized and the copper ionswill be reduced
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) -> Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
Zn(s)->Zn2+(aq) + 2eCu2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s)
In a voltaic cell, a salt bridge connects the two containers and
provides a path for a flow of ions between the beakers
In such voltaic cell, when a strip of zinc is located in one
beaker and copper ions are in solution inanother beaker, the
reaction can occur as if the solution were in the same beaker

When electrons are lost during oxidation at the anode, the travel
through the wire to the cathode
The material being reduced gains electrons
E0Cell= E0Reduction-E0Oxidation
Non-Spontaneous Reactions- Electrolysis
Electricity is used to force a chemical reaction
Used to obtain active elements such as sodium and chlorine by
the electrolysis of fused (molten cells)
2NaCl (l) -> 2Na(s) + Cl2(aq)
Used to electroplate metals onto a surface
Have several things in common with a voltaic cell:
Both use redox reactions
The anode is the side of oxidation
The cathode is the site of reduction
The electrons flow through the wire from anode to cathode
Acids, Bases and SaltsI.Theories
I.Arrhenius (1887)
Acid - H+ is released (H2SO4, HCl)
Bases- OH- is released (NaOH, Ca(OH)2
I I . b r nsted-Lowry (1923)
An acid donates a H+ (proton) and is a proton donor
A base accepts a H+ (proton) and is a proton acceptor
HF + H2O -> F-+ H3O+---HF is acid, F is conjugate base,
H2O is base, H3O is conjugate acid.
Conjugate acid is what is formed after a base gains a H+ ion
Conjugate base is what remains after the acid donates its H+
ion.
Base + Acid -> Conjugate Acid + Conjugate Base
Acid becomes conjugate base

Base becomes conjugate acid

III.Lewis Theory (1923)
An acid is any substance that accepts a pair of electrons (2e-)
A base is any substance that donates a pair of electrons
BF3+ :NH3-> H3 N:BF3: = 2 free electrons
BF3- LewisAcid
:NH3- Lewis Base
H3N:BF3- Product
Lewis - contains Bronsted and Arrhenius
Bronsted- Contains Arrhenius
Arrhenius- Does not contain Bronsted and Lewis
A substance that is an acid or base under Arrhenius theory is
also an acid and base under Bronsted-Lowry Theory-Each
succeeding theory is more inclusive.
Aq solutions of acids conduct electric currents (electrolytes)
(strong acid=good conductor)
Strong base=good conductor and a weak base=bad conductor
Polar covalent aids when dissolved can conduct electricity
II. Amphoteric Molecules
Amphoteric molecules are molecules that act as an acid or
base depending on what it is mixed with
HCl + H2O -> H3O++ Cl-Water acts as the base
Water is composed of both H+ and OH NH3 +H2O -> NH4++ OH- Water acts as the acid
Water can ionize H2O (acid) + H2O (base) -> OH- + H3O+
[H3O]+= [OH]-Concentration=Concentration
K eq= Concentration of Products/ Concentration of Reactants0]
= 55.6 Mol/L
K eq= [H3O+][OH-] / [H2O][H2O]
K eq= [10-7][10-7] / [H2O]2

K eq= (55.6)2= [H3O+][OH-]= [10-7][10-7]= 10-14(Where

pH comes from)
K W= K eq(55.6)2= Constant of water
K w=[H+][OH-]= 10-14
III.Ph Scale=Power of Hydrogen
0-14 (Measures H+ Concentration)
pH = -log(H+)
7- Achieved in neutralization reaction of H+OH-(Neutralization
results in production of water and salt)
H++ OH--> H2O Neutralization reaction
High pH- Greater # of OH-ions -> pH+pOH=14
Lower pH- Greater # of H+ions
If -log(H+)=5, what is the pH of the base?
-log(1x105) = pH of 5 14-5= 9 pOH- 9
Scale based on power of 10
Ph of 1 is 10x more acidic than 3
14 is 100x more basic than 12
If pH changes from 6 to 2, what happens? 6-2=4 104= 10,000
more acidic
IV.Titrations
The process of adding measured volumes of an acid or base of
known concentrations to an acid or baseof unknown
concentration until neutralization occurs
Performed to determine the concentration of unknown solution
The solution of known concentration is called the standard
solution
V.Titration Equation
MAVA=MBVB

MA= Molarity of acid/ H+

VA= Volume of acid
MB= Molarity of base/OHVB= Volume of base
In titration (neutralization), must be 1:1 ratio between
H+and OHNuclear Chemistry
I.Stability of Nuclei
Ratio of protons and neutrons that determines stability
Atomic numbers greater than 83 are radioactive (Unstable
isotope=radioisotope)
When an unstable nucleus decays, it emits radiation in the form
of alpha/beta particles, positrons/gamma radiation.
K-Capture Process- When nucleus captures an electron from 1st
energy level, nucleus will beunstable: there is
spontaneous decay.
Alpha Particle- Helium nucleus, 2p, 2n, (+), low penetrating
power
Beta Particle- Electron whose source is an atomic nucleus (-),
moderate penetrating power
Positron- Identical to electron, but with positive charge
Gamma- Similar to X rays, but greater energy - not deflected by
electric field, high penetrating power
II.Alpha Decay
Unstable nucleus emits alpha particle- nucleus is alpha emitter
Characteristic of heavy nuclei
As nucleus emits alpha particle, atomic # decreases by 2, and
mass # decreases by 4
III.Beta Decay

 Nuclear disintegration from electron- undergoes beta decay

and is a beta emitter
Emission of electron during conversion of neutron to proton
(1/0 n -> 1/1 p + 0/-1 e)
When a nucleus emits an electron, the charge of the nucleus
increases by 1, atomic number increases by
1IV.Positron Emission
Production of positron during conversion of proton to a neutron
When a nucleus emits a positron, the charge of the nucleus
decreases by 1, thus the atomicnumber decreases by
1V.Nuclear Equations
Mass and charge MUST balance on both sides (14/7N + 4/2He
-> 17/8O + 1/1H)
of charge of reactants= 9
of mass#=18
Concept of conservation of charge and mass number is used to
identify particle
VI.Transmutation
When the nucleus of one element is changed into the nucleus of
another
Can be either natural or artificial
Natural: One reactant only
Artificial: Two reactants and occurs by bombarding the nucleus
with high energy particlesor by colliding a nucleus with a
neutron
Fission: Reaction that splits a heavy nucleus to produce lighter
ones (Captures a neutron and becomes unstable)

Fusion: Occurs on sun, combines with light nuclei to form

heavier ones (Hydrogen nuclei reactin a series to produce
helium nuclei). Does not occur on Earth because of the
extremely hightemperatures and pressures needed
Organic Chemistry
I.Bonding of Carbon Atoms
The ability of C to form many different compounds is based on
the tendency to covalently bond with other C atoms
One single bone = Saturated
Sharing two e- : double covalent bond Unsaturated
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: hard carbon atoms linked in chain
Aromatic Hydrocarbon: Contains one or more benzene rings
II.Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Alkanes: Single covalent bond- Saturated CNH2N+2
Alkenes: Double covalent bond- Unsaturated CNH2N
Alkynes: Triple covalent bond- Unsaturated CNH2N-2
II.Hydrocarbon Radical
A hydrocarbon molecule from which a hydrogen atom has been
removed-> --> One less hydrogen= Radical (MethyL)
III.Hydrocarbons
Homologous- group of related compounds in which each
member differs from the one before it by the same unit
Alkane- Release energy when burned (CH4, C2H6, C4H10)
(as# of C increases, so does the boiling point because of the
amount of bonds)
Alkenes- 1 Double bond- provide chemists to make other
materials- most important is ethane,ethylene (forms

plastic)
Alkyne- Unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains triple bond
(Ethyne, acetylene, fuels welding torches)
I V.I s o m e r s
Same molecular formula, but different structural formula
MethyL propane C4H10
Butane- has 2 isomers
2,2 Di-MethyL Propane(3 Radicals)V.Alkane- Paraffins
CNH2N
Methane, Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane
Ends in ANE
Single Bond
VI.Alkenes- Olefins- Ethylene Series
CNH2N
Ends in ENE
Ethene, Propene, Butene, Pentene
Double Bond
VII.Alkynes- Acetylene Series
CNH2N-2
Ends in YNE
Ethyne, Propyne, Butyne, Pentyne
Triple Bond
VII.Organic Reactions
Substitution: Reactions in which a H atom of a hydrocarbon is
replaced by another atom or group (Exists only between
alkanes)

Additions: Reactions in which one bond of a double bond is

broken so that atoms may beadded to the hydrocarbon (Will also
occur with one or two bonds breaking in a triple bond)(second
class alkenes)
Elimination- Reactions in which atoms are removed fromA
hydrocarbon to create a double or triple bond
Esterification: formation of an ester by reacting an alcoholWith
an organic acid and removing
Hydrogenation (additions): The addition of H atoms when
a double or triple bond is broken
Combustion: Alkanes burn in air to produce carbon dioxide
and water vapor
Cracking: Process by which complex organic molecules are
broken into simpler molecules;involves heat or heat and a
catalystC3H8(460C ->) C2H4+ CH4
Polymerization: Many single units (called monomers) join
together to make a polymer (breaking double and triple bonds)