Science 10 Unit C - BIOLOGY

C1.1 - A window on a new world

The microscope:

Early microscopes & lenses

o

a better understanding of cells and the structure of living things came hand-in-hand with

before the 1500s, scientists could only observe

in the 1500s, the

these theories allowed scientists to invent tools that

The Janssen brothers

invented the first microscope in 1595

the brothers were Dutch eye-glass makers

considered to be a compound microscope because

Robert Hooke
o

in 1660, improved on the Janssens design by adding:

used his microscope to observe

made detailed drawings of his observations and published them in a

book called Micrographia (Latin for a record very small objects)

Hooke observed a cross-section of cork, which

observing that it was full of empty air chambers, he called these tiny chambers cells

these chambers turned out to be

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

working around the same time as Hooke

the first person to observe

Leeuwenhoeks microscope only had a single lens called a

the lenses were of much higher quality, and allowed him to magnify objects

Skills in microscopy

Magnification:
o

magnification = (power of the objective lens) x (power of the eyepiece)

eyepiece lens always 10X

objective lens

low power: 4X

medium power: 10X

high power: 40X

Practice problems

What is the
magnification of a
microscope with a

Field of view:
o

field of view can be described in terms of

when the lens power increases, field of view

the field diameter on low power can be measured by placing a ruler

10X ocular
(eyepiece) lens, and
a 10X objective
lens?

under the microscope

o

How much more

powerful is the
magnification on
high power

the field diameter on high power can be calculated using this formula:
high-power field diameter
low-power field diameter

low-power magnification
high-power

magnification

compared to low

Practice problems
power?
The image to the right is the view through low power.

What is the field diameter of this microscope?

What is the field diameter on high power?

How many times smaller is the field diameter on high power as on low power?

Scale:
o

to calculate it, compare the diameter of the circle in the drawing with the diameter of the field of view you
calculated previously

e.g. a drawing with a diameter of 90mm done from low power would roughly have a scale of 90mm:29mm
or 3:1.

Actual size
o

once you know the field diameter, you can estimate an objects size by noting how much of the field of
view it occupies

this can be done by estimating how many times across the object would fit

e.g. if it would fit 10 times across, it takes up 1/10 th of the field of view

e.g. if the field of view is 29mm and a cell takes up about 1/3 of the field of view, its actual size is about
10mm

Practice problems
The field of view on high power was found to be 2.9mm.

What is the actual size of this cell, as viewed under high power?
What is its size in micrometers? (hint: 1 mm = 1000 m)

Homework:
1. Check and reflect- p. 246 #1-3
2. Prepare for microscope lab by completing microscope prelab

Microscope Prelab
Label the microscope and complete the following table using

Microscope Part

Function

Eyepiece or Ocular
Coarse adjustment
knob
Fine adjustment
knob
Revolving
nosepiece
Objective lenses
Stage
Stage clips
Diaphragm
Lamp or Mirror
Arm
Base
Define
1. Field of view
2. Magnification
3. Field diameter
4. Field area
5. Actual size
6. Scale
Observing the ruler
Low-power objective lens (4X)
Eyepiece lens (10X)
1. What is the magnification of the image on low power?
2. What is the field diameter?
3. What is the magnification of the image on high power (objective lens 40X)?
4. What is the field diameter on high power?
4

Observing the letter e

A cut-out from a newspaper of the letter e on low power. The letter is place on a slide just as you would read it (e)
What do you observe on the slide?
How many times will this letter e fit across the field of view?
Divide your field diameter by this number. What is the actual size of the letter e?
What is the scale of your diagram (diagram : actual)
Observing the onion cell
Observe the unstained onion skin on low power on the smart board.
Draw and describe what you see in the circle to the right.
Changing magnification
Elodea (a water weed) viewed under low, medium, and high power.
Besides a difference in size, what differences do you notice between the three images?

C1.2 - Development of cell theory

When science contradicts belief:

o

sometimes, despite scientific evidence to the contrary, people find it hard to accept new ideas

as a result, scientific advancement is sometimes slowed

Galileo
o

imprisoned in 1630s by the Catholic Church for claiming that

the Church took exception to this idea because they believed that since God created man,

despite being correct, Galileo was forced to recount his findings and spent his last years on house arrest

October 31, 1992 Pope John Paul II issued a papal pardon,

Spontaneous Generation

another idea that was believed for hundreds of years despite scientific evidence to the contrary

spontaneous generation is the belief that

widely accepted until the 19th century

5

people believed there was a life force that caused non-living things to birth living things

two photos
the first is the imprint of a fossilized plant in a rock

the second is a moldy sandwich

How do we explain these two photos?

prior to the 19th century, people would have explained these two situations differently

the plant: they would assume

the sandwich: a non-living thing, would give the mold

Francisco Redi
o

set up an experiment to illustrate that maggots, (a living thing) did not grow spontaneously out of raw
meat (a non-living thing)

set out two flasks

only the flask open to air (and flies) had evidence of maggots

Redi thought this disproved spontaneous generation, but other scientists said

John Needham
o

performed another experiment, and claimed that

boiled chicken broth (to kill bacteria)

put it in a sealed flask

found that
likely because broth wasnt heated

Lazzaro Spallanzani
o

repeated Needhams experiment, but in a vacuum

this removed

no microorganisms appeared

despite this evidence, Needham still maintained this only proved

Louis Pasteur
o

his experiment in 1864 was finally the decisive proof the scientific community needed

Pasteur set up two flasks, each with the same meat broth
he heated them both to sterilize them
the flasks he used had bent necks, so that they were

initially, neither broth became cloudy with microbial growth

In experiment 1, Pasteur broke off the neck of the flask,

dust now had access to flask 1, while it got trapped in the neck of flask 2

over time, microorganisms

o

this proved that microorganisms are not generated by the broth, but rather

Experimental variables
Whenever performing an experiment, a scientist must decide what he or she is testing for

some variables will change from trial to trial,

some variables will stay the same so the scientist knows that

Manipulated variable
7

the variable that

in Pasteurs experiment, the manipulated variable was

Responding variable

the responding variable is

in Pasteurs experiment, the responding variable was

Controlled variables
o

the controls are

in Pasteurs experiment, the controls were:

In each of the experiments described below, identify the manipulated, responding, and at least two controlled variables:
1. A science student wants to know if the amount of water given to a plant affects how tall it will grow
M:

R:

C:
2. A pharmaceutical company wants to know if a new drug is effective in treating migraines
M:

R:

C:
3. A car company wants to know if the type of brake pads in a car affects stopping distance
M:

R:

C:

 Practice problems

Cell theory

Robert Brown

with improvements in lens technology came a new understanding of the cell

in 1833, identified the nucleus of the cell as

Schleiden & Schwann

made observations on plant and animal cells

together, proposed that

described cells as

Rudolf Virchow
o

expanded on Schleiden and Schwanns theories on cells

theorized that all cells arise only from pre-existing cells

Summary of cell theory

o

all living things are made up of one or more cells and

all life functions take place in cells, making them

all cells are produced from pre-existing cells

Homework
1.

Check and Reflect page 252 #2-4

C1.3 & C1.4 - Development in imaging, staining, and cell research

Factors affecting the quality of an image in microscopy:

Magnification
o

improved with advancements in lens-making

light microscopes used in labs today can now magnify

Contrast
o

refers to

it is contrast that allows the human eye to focus on different aspects of the image and

cells by themselves are mostly colorless

image quality has improved with:

Resolution
o

the ability to

the human eye is capable of resolving objects that are

the higher the resolution of a microscope,

similar to the resolution capabilities of a digital camera

Fluorescent microscopy

fluorescent stains called GFP (green fluorescent protein) are introduced to the specimen

different cell structures absorb stains in different amounts

the specimen is subjected to UV light

depending on the type of dye, the cell glows either

unlike conventional staining,

Types of microscopy:

Brightfield microscopes

light

fixing and staining process kills the specimen

you cant view

limited resolution

you cant get any higher resolution than

Confocal technology
o

uses lasers and computers to focus the light

the later reflects off the object and back to the

eyepiece

you see

computer software can be used to

fluorescent stains work better with confocal

microscopes because

Electron microscopy
o

uses a fine beam of electrons instead of light

the electrons pass through different materials at different rates, due to

instead of lenses, EMs use

Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

o electrons
o 100X better magnification and resolution than light microscope
o difficult to
o specimens are fixed and stained, so

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

o

good for observing

the specimen is

the electrons reflect off the gold and

2X better image quality than the TEM

uses computes to

new SEMs permit the use of

Gene mapping
o

with new imaging techniques comes new possibilities for

gene mapping refers to

an organisms genome refers to all the information contained

in 2001, the Human Genome Project published a

could help us understand where cancer and other diseases

also allows us to

ethical arguments arise about the dangers of

Cell communication
o
cells are open systems, meaning
o

hormones are chemicals produced in one part of your body

for example, the hormone adrenaline is produced in your brain, but acts all over your body

hormones and other transmitter chemicals form part of your cells communication system
receptors on the surface of the cells allow transmitters to attach to the cell and carry out their function

only transmitters
similar to a
certain viruses and bacteria can trick the cells by

in order for your immune system to fight off invaders, it must first

better understanding of cell communication allows scientists and research companies to:
diagnose diseases
diagnose diseases

make

Homework
1. Page 264 #1, Page 265 #10, 11
2. Complete the following table:
Feature

Light microscope

Electron microscope

illumination
focused by
how image is viewed
advantages

disadvantages

Science 10: Biology Microscope Lab

Name: _____________________________
Lab Partners: ____________________________

Part A: Estimating an Objects Size with the Microscope

The Question: It is often difficult to know the actual size of the object being observed under a microscope as a
result of the magnification. How can the compound microscope be used to estimate the size of microscopic
specimens?

Hypothesis: If the diameter of the field of view is known, then the size of an object can be estimated.

Procedure:

1. Set-up your microscope and place a transparent metric ruler on the stage so it runs across the diameter of the
field of view.

2. Observe the ruler under low power. Adjust the ruler so that you are measuring the diameter of the low power
field of view.

3. Fill in the data table: (1 mm = 1000 m)

Field

Magnification

Field Diameter

Field Diameter
(mm)

(m)

high power

4. Explain how you determined the high power field diameter.

lower power

5. How many times greater is the diameter of the low power field of view than the high power field of view?

Part B: Preparing a Wet Mount

Purpose: To learn proper techniques for preparing a wet mount and using the microscope to observe an image.

Pre-lab:

Read the information on preparing a wet mount, and on drawing scientific diagrams in your textbook on page 480481.

Procedure:

1. Prepare a wet mount of the letter e cut from a newspaper. Make sure to mount the letter e on the
microscope slide as you would read it on a page (not inverse nor upside down).

2. Observe the letter using the low power objective.

3. Draw and describe what you see:

4. Record the magnification used to make your drawing:

5. Estimate how many letter es will fit across the field of view:

6. Record the scale used to make your drawing:

(diagram size: actual size, example 10:1)

7. Move the slide up and down and from left to right. Describe what happens:

8. Adjust the iris diaphragm and describe what happens:

Part C: Staining an Onion Cell

Purpose: To learn the proper technique for staining an onion cell and to observe the onion cell in different levels
of power.

Procedure:
1. Remove the dry, outermost layers from an onion and use a thin, transparent layer for the onion to get one layer
of cells.
2. Stain the onion with iodine using the proper procedures outlined on page 480.

3. Draw and describe what you see using the low-power objective:

Practice problem 1:

what type of system

would a house be if
the windows and
doors were open?

what about just the

_________________
_________________

4. Draw and describe what you see using the medium or high power
objectives:

windows?

Magnification:
Scale:

what if they were

both closed?

Practice problem 2:

name two types of

matter the human

body takes in

name two types of

matter the human

body gets rid of

name a type of

Magnification:
Scale:

_________________
_________________

If time permits, observe other prepared specimens provided.

C2.1 - The cell as an open system

Systems

A system refers to

three types, depending on what is exchanged with the surrounding environment

open system exchanges

energy the human

body takes in

closed system exchanges

isolated system exchanges

name a type of
energy the human
body produces

A cell is an open system

because it exchanges both matter and energy with its surroundings,

COMING IN:

GOING OUT:

Human survival needs & the organ systems that meet those needs:
o

intake and use of nutrients

movement & growth

response to stimuli

exchange of gases

waste removal

reproduction

The cell has tiny organs, called

each organ in your body, (e.g. your heart or lungs) is part of an organ systems (e.g. circulatory,
respiratory)

in a similar way, the organelles in your cells can be divided into groups according to major function:

Parts of the cell- Structure and support

o

cell membrane

acts as

allows for

because its outer layer has receptor proteins, it is

cell wall

found only

a rigid frame that gives plant cells

is part of what allows plants to

cytoplasm
a gel-like substance that
the organelles are
and can move around through the process of

stores nutrients until organelles are ready to use them

cytoskeleton
filaments inside the cytoplasm

similar to the role that your skeleton plays in your body

Control and cell management

o

nucleus

contains

directs

surrounded by the

Storage and transport

o

vacuole
membrane-bound structures that

turgor pressure makes the plant cell firm (or turgid)

if the vacuole is not full, the cells become weak and

vesicles

small bubbles

transport substances throughout the cell

Golgi apparatus

flat discs involved in

receives the products assembled in the ER and

Protein synthesis

endoplasmic reticulum
o

series of tubes

rough ER
o

has a grainy appearance due to

responsible for synthesizing proteins

ribosomes

granules attached to the ER

take amino acid building blocks and

Fat synthesis
o

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

has a smooth appearance

takes lipid building blocks and assembles

Defense
o

lysosomes

membrane-bound sacs containing

kill

if a cell malfunctions, its lysosomes will burst and kill the cell before an infection spreads

and destroy

sometimes called

Energy conversion
o

chloroplasts

found only

contain a green pigment called

site of

converts the suns energy into

mitochondria

site of

chemical energy (glucose) is converted into

cells with higher energy needs (e.g.

with mitochondria

Practice problem

Name five differences between plant and animal cells.

Chemical composition of cells

all cells are made up of organic compounds, which have

other common elements found in organic compounds are

) are packed

different combinations of these four elements give us four major groups of organic compounds
o

lipids -

carbohydrates -

protein

nucleic acids - make up our DNA (

Homework

1. Label the plant and animal cell diagrams below. Refer to page 270 for help.

2. Record the letter of the corresponding function next to the label.

3. Come up with an analogy for each organelle (e.g. the nucleus is like the brain of the cell)

4. Complete Check & Reflect p.273 #2, 5, 8

FUNCTIONS:

Cell Structure

Cell membrane

Nucleus

A the site of photosynthesis

Cytoplasm

B gel-like substance where streaming occurs

Cell Wall

C sacs containing digestive enzymes

Chloroplasts

D protective barrier for the cell

Vacuoles and

E a rigid frame that provides support

F the site of lipid production

G receives cell products and ships them out

H the control centre for the cell

Ribosomes

I granules that assemble proteins

Golgi apparatus

J a storage site for water and nutrients

Mitochondria

K the site of protein production

L the site of cellular respiration

Vesicles

Lysosomes

Endoplasmic

reticulum

Analogy

C2.2 - The Role of the Cell Membrane in Transport

Importance of the cell membrane

structure
equilibrium (balance)
communication
protection & defense
transportation

Fluid Mosaic Model

the accepted model for

o

fluid, because

mosaic, because

as the name implies, the membrane is made of

Particle model of matter

particles:
o

include any individual molecules of

the particles of a substance are always moving

how far and how fast they move depends on:

Particle model of matter

o

solids:
have a definite

do not flow or compress readily

have

, mainly only vibrational

liquids:
take the shape

do not compress readily but flow readily

have some vibrational, rotational and translational motion

gases:
take both

highly compressible and flow readily

have

, mainly translational

Four main points:

o

All matter is made of particles, but they may be

The particles are

Heating particles makes them

The particles of matter are

Particles have spaces between them, and are typically

, and move
.

Concentration gradient

concentration refers to the amount of a substance

dissolved in a solvent, usually water

a concentration gradient exists when

solutes naturally move down the gradient, which means

from

recall, according to the particle model,

when the concentration of solute is equal on both sides of the membrane,

o

this does not mean that the particles stop; it means the net movement is zero

Semi-permeable membranes

the cell membrane is referred to as semi-permeable because

sometimes also called
Diffusion

method of transport for molecules that are fat-soluble, or very small

molecules like O2 and CO2

because these molecules can dissolve or pass right through the barrier,

diffusion is classified as passive transport because

passive transport is like

Osmosis

another form of passive transport

osmosis is similar to diffusion, except deals solely with

osmosis occurs when there is a solute concentration difference,

because the solute is not free to move,

on either side of the
membrane

when there is a movement of water, the volume of solution on either side of the membrane changes - this can
have

Tonicity

refers to

three types:
isotonic solution: concentration

when a cell is placed in an isotonic solution, there is no net movement of water in and out
of the cell

that means

this cell will appear

animal cells will appear normal
plant cells will appear slightly limp

hypotonic: the concentration of solutes outside the cell is

hypo = lower (e.g. hypothermia = low body temperature)

in an effort to find equilibrium,

the cell becomes bloated and overfull and

water is flowing into the cell

animal cells will appear swollen, and may burst
plant cells will appear turgid, and

hypertonic: the concentration of solutes outside the cell is

hyper = higher (e.g. hyperactive = high energy levels)

in an effort to find equilibrium,

the cell becomes shriveled and dried up

water is flowing out of the cell
animal cells will appear shriveled, and may die
plant cells membrane will

Facilitated Diffusion

as it loses turgidity, the plant will appear

the word facilitate means to assist

o

facilitated diffusion is diffusion that is

it is still a form of passive transport like

facilitated diffusion is for substances that are water soluble, so they cant pass through

two types of proteins assist in this process:

channel proteins

shaped like tubes

form tunnels through the membrane

carrier proteins

attach to larger molecules that cant fit through the protein

channels

the protein will attach to the molecule on the outside of the cell,

Active transport
in some cases, it is necessary for the cell to move molecules

it is called active transport because it requires extra work and energy by the cell
o

like

it is accomplished by the channel proteins, which pump the molecules

the energy that is supplied to the proteins to carry out this task is produced in the
mitochondria
o

created through

this energy is packaged into a substance called ATP (adenosine

triphosphate)

 Endocytosis

even with the help of proteins, some molecules are simply too big to fit through the
membrane

instead, the cell will use a process called endocytosis

in endocytosis,
o

the vesicle has the same phospholipid structure

because it requires rearranging the cell membrane,

Exocytosis

the reverse of endocytosis (exo = out)

used when a cell

a vesicle formed by the

surrounds the molecule and

transports it to the membrane

the vesicle merges with the membrane,

HOMEWORK:
1. Check and Reflect p. 283 #1, 2, 3, 5, 7
2. Complete the following table:
Type of molecules

Type of transport

transported?

Requires ATP?

With or against the

Requires membrane

gradient?

proteins?

Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport

Osmosis, Tonicity and Diffusion Demonstration

Osmosis and Tonicity (Hypertonic versus Hypotonic solutions)

Experimental design: 2 celery stalks will be placed overnight in either a beaker containing 150.0mL of a salt
solution or in 150.0 mL of distilled water. Observations will be made before the experiment commences and the
following day, at the beginning of class.

Experimental Variables:
Manipulated variable:
Responding variable:

Controls:

Hypothesis:
What will happen to the shape of the celery stalk when it is placed in distilled water?

What will happen to the shape of the celery stalk when it is placed in a salt water solution?

Observations:

Before
Soaking In
Water
Height:

Width:

Drawing

After Soaking In
Distilled Water

Before Soaking
In Water

After Soaking in Salt

Water

Height:

Height:

Height:

Width:

Width:

Width:

Drawing of movement
into or out of the cell

Drawing

Drawing of movement
into or out of the cell

Questions:

Hypertoni
c solution

Celery in
distilled
water or
celery in
a salt
solution

Concentrati
on of
solutes
(circle the
correct
answer)

Higher or
lower than
inside of the
cell

Concentration
gradient (circle
the correct
answer)

Net movement
into or out of the
cell

Result in the cell

(circle the
correct answer)

Exhibits turgidity
or plasmolysis
occurs

Hypotoni
c solution

Higher or
lower than
inside of the
cell

Net movement
into or out of the
cell

Exhibits turgidity
or plasmolysis
occurs

Diffusion (Aerosol and Food Colouring demo)

Hypothesis: Will the food colouring spread faster in the water or will the odor spread faster throughout the room
(assume same volume of water and air in a room) Provide reasoning for your prediction
__________________________________________________________________________________________
_______

Observations:
1. Do gas particles or liquid particles move faster?

2. Compare the movement of the food colouring molecules in water to the movement of odor molecules in the
air.___________________________________________________________________________________________

3. How can the rate of diffusion be increased in either case?

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Questions
1. Why do grocery stores spray their fresh produce with water?

2. If a shipwrecked crew drank salt water, they could die. Explain why.

3. If a bowl of fresh strawberries is sprinkled with sugar, a few minutes later they will be covered with juice.
Explain why this happens.

C2.3 - Applications of Cellular Transport in Industry and Medicine

Recognition Proteins

on the outside of the cell membrane, there are sugar and protein complexes called recognition proteins

in order for some substances to enter the cell, they

like a lock-and-key mechanism

if the shape of the molecule does not fit with the receptor,

Receptor proteins

in contrast, receptor proteins will

the pharmaceutical industry is interested in these receptor molecules because medication cannot work unless

the closer the match between the shape of the medication and the receptor
molecule,

for example, new pain relievers that

Viruses

some viruses, like HIV, gain access to the cell by

they bind to the receptor proteins and trick it into gaining access to the cell

by discovering the shape of the viruses protein coat, researchers can produce medication which

the reason HIV is so hard to treat is because

new research looks at blocking off the receptor proteins on the human cells to cover the keyhole

Cancer

common treatments for cancer do not target only the cancerous cells,

new research looks at ways to identify only the cancerous cells and

this would also provide the immune system with a way of

Synthetic membrane technology

liposomes

a form of medication that surrounds a fluid-filled sac

this mimics a vesicle produced by the cell the medicine is able to

liposome medication can be introduced intravenously and are able to deliver the medication much quicker

Transport of hormones

hormones are chemical messages produced by one part of the body

insulin is produced by the pancreas, and acts on all body cells to tell them

diabetics are either not able to produce insulin, or it is not properly used by the body

by understanding how hormones are transported and used by cells, diabetes treatments are
improved

synthetic insulin can now be produced that mimics the shape of human insulin, as an alternative to
pig or cow insulin

Dialysis

dialysis treatments are used by patients who have

your kidneys filter your blood and remove excess water and waste, which is then removed from the body

when a patient has kidneys that dont work, their blood needs to be filtered artificially

Peritoneal dialysis

a catheter is inserted into the abdominal cavity

a sterile fluid containing

the concentration of waste in the blood is much higher than in the dialysate fluid

the dirty fluid is pumped back out of the body and disposed of

is pumped into the cavity

Hemodialysis
a patients blood is physically removed from the body,
this procedure is much more invasive and requires

C2.4 Is bigger better?

Questions to answer:

Is there a survival advantage for a cell to be large or small?

If a large cell is able to pull in more nutrients through its membrane, why are most cells small?

Surface area

the surface area of a cell refers to the

a cell with a large surface area will have more membrane in contact with the ECF, so

calculating surface area involves adding up the area of all sides of the cell

typically we assume cells are cubes or rectangular prisms for ease of calculation

Practice problem

What is the surface area of the following cells?

Cell 1

Cell 3

Cell 2

Cell 4

Cell volume

the volume of a cell refers to

a larger cell has a larger volume, which means

to calculate volume, multiply the dimensions of the sides

Practice problem

What is the volume of the following cells?

Cell 1

Cell 3

Cell 2

Cell 4

4
1


Surface area to volume ratio

a larger cell has a larger surface area but also a larger volume

though it can take in more nutrients,

though it can get rid of waste faster,

to predict which cell is favored for survival, you have to look at

Practice problems
What is the surface area to volume of the previous cells?
Cell 1

Cell 3

Cell 2

Cell 4

Which one is most likely to survive?

generally speaking, a smaller cell will

however, in multicellular organisms, some cells perform specialized functions that

Maximizing potential

multicellular organisms have several strategies for maximizing their chance of survival

internal transport system

blood in animals and xylem/phloem in plants designed to deliver nutrients to all cells

specialized structures that increase surface area

plants

in areas where there is lots of sunlight, plant leaves are

root hairs

animals

HOMEWORK:
1. Check and Reflect

page 288 #1, 4 page 293 #1-5

2. CHAPTER REVIEW: page 294 #2-8, 16-17, 20

brain folding, small intestines, alveoli in lungs