Shortcircuit IEC

Short-Circuit Analysis
IEC Standard
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC
CORTO CIRCUITO
Caractersticas principales:
Estndar de ANSI/IEEE & IEC.

Anlisis de fallas transitorias
(IEC 61363).
Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E2000)
Integrado con coordinacin de
dispositivos de proteccin.
Evaluacin
dispositivos.
automtica
de
Slide 2
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces
(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
Slide 3
Types of Short-Circuit Faults
Slide 4
Types of Short-Circuit Faults

Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G .87 * I3-phase
In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Slide 5
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
v(t)
i(t)
v(t) Vm Sin( t )
Slide 6
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t) Ri L Vm Sin(t ) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
R
- t
Vm
Vm
i(t)
sin(t - )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z

Steady State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 7
AC Current (Symmetrical) with

No AC Decay
DC Current
Slide 8
AC Fault Current Including the

DC Offset (No AC Decay)
Slide 9
Machine Reactance ( = L I )
AC Decay Current
Slide 10
Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay
Slide 11
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation (IEC 909)
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I"k)
Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current
(Ib)
Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)
Slide 12
IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation Method
Ik = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by
equivalent Z
Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c
factor
XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on
cmax, component Z & operating conditions
Slide 13
Transformer Z Adjustment
KT -- Network XFMR
KS,KSO Unit XFMR for faults on system side
KT,S,KT,SO Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary
system, not between Gen & XFMR
K=1 Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &
XFMR
Slide 14
Syn Machine Z Adjustment

KG Synchronous machine w/o unit XFMR
KS,KSO With unit XFMR for faults on system
side
KG,S,KG,SO With unit XFMR for faults in
auxiliary system, including points between
Gen & XFMR
Slide 15
Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition to which at least
one synchronous machine contributes a
prospective initial short-circuit current which is
more than twice the generators rated current, or
a short-circuit condition to which synchronous
and asynchronous motors contribute more than
5% of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current
( I"k) without motors.
Slide 16
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
Slide 17
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition during which the
magnitude of the symmetrical ac component of
available short-circuit current remains essentially
constant.
Slide 18
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
Slide 19
Factors Used in If Calc

calc ip based on Ik
calc ib for near-to-gen & not meshed network
q calc induction machine ib for near-to-gen & not
meshed network
Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting Ik for
near-to-gen & meshed network
min & max calc ik
Slide 20
IEC Short-Circuit Study Case
Slide 21
When these options
are selected
Maximum voltage factor is used
Minimum impedance is used (all negative
tolerances are applied and minimum
resistance temperature is considered)
Slide 22
When this option is
selected
Minimum voltage factor is used
Maximum impedance is used (all positive
tolerances are applied and maximum
resistance temperature is considered)
Slide 23
Voltage Factor (c)

Ratio between equivalent voltage &
nominal voltage
Required to account for:
Variations due to time & place
Transformer taps
Static loads & capacitances
Generator & motor subtransient
behavior
Slide 24
Calculation Method
Breaking kA is more
conservative if the option
No Motor Decay is
selected
Slide 25
IEC SC 909 Calculation
Slide 26
Device Duty Comparison
Slide 27
Mesh & Non-Mesh If

ETAP automatically determines mesh & nonmeshed contributions according to individual
contributions
IEC Short Circuit Mesh Determination
Method 0, 1, or 2 (default)
Slide 28
L-G Faults
Slide 29
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Slide 30
Sequence Networks
Slide 31
L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
If 3 Ia 0
3 VPr efault
If
Z1 Z 2 Z0
if Zg 0
Slide 32
L-L Fault Sequence Network

Connections
I a 2 I a1
3 VPr efault
If
Z1 Z 2
Slide 33
L-L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
I a 2 I a1 I a 0 0 I a
VPr efault
If
Z0 Z 2
Z1
Z0 Z 2
if Zg 0
Slide 34
Transformer Zero Sequence Connections
Slide 35
Solid Grounded Devices

and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1 Z 2 & Z 0 Z1
If this conditions are true then :
I f3 I f 1
This may be the case if Generators or
Y/ Connected transformer are solidly
grounded.
Slide 36
Zero Sequence Model

Branch susceptances and static
loads including capacitors will be
considered when this option is
checked
Recommended by IEC for
systems with isolated neutral,
resonant earthed neutrals &
earthed neutrals with earth fault
factor > 1.4
Slide 37
Unbalanced Faults Display

& Reports
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults
One-line diagram displayed results that

include:
L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
Sequence voltage and currents
Phase Voltages
Slide 38
Transient Fault Current

Total Fault Current Waveform
Slide 39

Percent DC Current Waveform
Slide 40

AC Component of Fault Current Waveform
Slide 41

Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform
Slide 42

Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform
Slide 43
IEC Transient Fault Current

Calculation
Slide 44

& Reports
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

include:
contributions
Phase Voltages
Slide 45
Slide 46
Slide 47
TEMA 2
Slide 48
Protective Device Coordination

ETAP Star
ETAP START PROTECCION Y COORDINACION

Curvas para
dispositivos.
ms
de
Actualizacin
automtica
Corriente de Corto Circuito.
75,000
de
Coordinacin tiempo-corriente de
dispositivos.
Auto-coordinacin de dispositivos.
Integrados
unifilares.
los
diagramas
Rastreo o clculos en diferentes

tiempos.
Slide 50
Slide 51
Agenda
Concepts & Applications
Star Overview
Features & Capabilities
Protective Device Type
TCC Curves
STAR Short-circuit
PD Sequence of Operation
Normalized TCC curves
Device Libraries
Slide 52
Definition
Overcurrent Coordination
A systematic study of current responsive devices
in an electrical power system.
Slide 53
Objective
To determine the ratings and settings of
fuses, breakers, relay, etc.
To isolate the fault or overloads.
Slide 54
Criteria
Economics
Available Measures of Fault
Operating Practices
Previous Experience
Slide 55
Design
Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the fault
or overload
Provide satisfactory protection for overloads
Interrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as
possible
Comply with all applicable standards and
codes
Plot the Time Current Characteristics of
different PDs
Slide 56
Analysis
When:
New electrical systems
Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits
Coordination failure in an existing plant
Slide 57
Spectrum Of Currents
Load Current
Up to 100% of full-load
115-125% (mild overload)
Overcurrent
Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)
Fault Current
Fault condition
Ten times the full-load current and higher
Slide 58
Protection
Prevent injury to personnel
Minimize damage to components
Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system
Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit
Slide 59
Coordination
Limit the extent and duration of service
interruption
Selective fault isolation
Provide alternate circuits
Slide 60
Coordination
C
t
D B
A
A
C
I
Slide 61
Protection vs. Coordination

Coordination is not an exact science
Compromise between protection and
coordination
Reliability
Speed
Performance
Economics
Simplicity
Slide 62
Required Data
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)
Power Grid Settings
Generator Data
Transformer Data
Transformer kVA, impedance, and connection
Motor Data
Load Data
Fault Currents
Cable / Conductor Data
Bus / Switchgear Data
Instrument Transformer Data (CT, PT)
Protective Device (PD) Data

Manufacturer and type of protective devices (PDs)
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)
Slide 63
Study Procedure
Prepare an accurate one-line diagram (relay
diagrams)
Obtain the available system current spectrum
(operating load, overloads, fault kA)
Determine the equipment protection guidelines
Select the appropriate devices / settings
Plot the fixed points (damage curves, )
Obtain / plot the device characteristics curves
Analyze the results
Slide 64
Time Current Characteristics

TCC Curve / Plot / Graphs
4.5 x 5-cycle log-log graph
X-axis: Current (0.5 10,000 amperes)
Y-axis: Time (.01 1000 seconds)
Current Scaling (x1, x10, x100, x100)
Voltage Scaling (plot kV reference)
Use ETAP Star Auto-Scale
Slide 65
Slide 66
TCC Scaling Example

Situation:
A scaling factor of 10 @ 4.16 kV is selected for
TCC curve plots.
Question
What are the scaling factors to plot the 0.48 kV
and 13.8 kV TCC curves?
Slide 67
TCC Scaling Example

Solution
Slide 68
Fixed Points
Points or curves which do not change regardless
of protective device settings:
Cable damage curves
Cable ampacities
Transformer damage curves & inrush points
Motor starting curves
Generator damage curve / Decrement curve
SC maximum fault points
Slide 69
Capability / Damage Curves

It
2
I2t
I2t
I 2t
2
Motor
Gen
Xfmr
Cable
Slide 70
Cable Protection
Standards & References
IEEE Std 835-1994 IEEE Standard Power Cable
Ampacity Tables
IEEE Std 848-1996 IEEE Standard Procedure for the
Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected
Cables
IEEE Std 738-1993 IEEE Standard for Calculating the
Current- Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors
The Okonite Company Engineering Data for Copper and
Aluminum Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-98
Slide 71
Cable Protection
The actual temperature rise of a cable when exposed to
a short circuit current for a known time is calculated by:
2 t
A
T2 234
0.0297log
T1 234
Where:
A= Conductor area in circular-mils
I = Short circuit current in amps
t = Time of short circuit in seconds
T1= Initial operation temperature (750C)
T2=Maximum short circuit temperature
(1500C)
Slide 72
Cable Short-Circuit Heating Limits

Recommended
temperature rise:
B) CU 75-200C
Slide 73
Shielded
Cable
The normal tape
width is 1
inches
Slide 74
NEC Section 11014 C
(c) Temperature limitations. The temperature rating associated with the

ampacity of a conductor shall be so selected and coordinated as to not exceed
the lowest temperature rating of any connected termination,
termination conductor, or
device. Conductors with temperature ratings higher than specified for
terminations shall be permitted to be used for ampacity adjustment, correction,
or both.
(1) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated 100 amperes or less,
or marked for Nos. 14 through 1 conductors, shall be used only for conductors
rated 600C (1400F).
Exception No. 1: Conductors with higher temperature ratings shall be permitted

to be used, provided the ampacity of such conductors is determined based on
the 6O0C (1400F) ampacity of the conductor size used.
Exception No. 2: Equipment termination provisions shall be permitted to be

used with higher rated conductors at the ampacity of the higher rated
conductors, provided the equipment is listed and identified for use with the
higher rated conductors.
(2) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated over 100 amperes, or
marked for conductors larger than No. 1, shall be used only with conductors
rated 750C (1670F).
Slide 75
Transformer Protection
National Electric Code 2002 Edition
C37.91-2000; IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to Power

Transformers
C57.12.59; IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault Current

Duration.
C57.109-1985; IEEE Guide for Liquid-Immersed Transformer ThroughFault-Current Duration
APPLIED PROCTIVE RELAYING; J.L. Blackburn; Westinghouse Electric

Corp; 1976
PROTECTIVE RELAYING, PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS; J.L.

Blackburn; Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1987
IEEE Std 242-1986; IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and

Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Slide 76
Transformer Category
ANSI/IEEE C-57.109
Slide 77
Transformer Categories I, II
Slide 78
Transformer Categories III
Slide 79
Transformer
FLA
200
t
(sec)
Thermal
I2t = 1250
(D-D LL) 0.87
Infrequent Fault
(D-R LG) 0.58
Frequent Fault
Mechanical
K=(1/Z)2t
Inrush
2.5
Isc
25
I (pu)
Slide 80
Slide 81
Any Location Non-Supervised
Slide 82
Turn on or inrush current
Oil Level
Internal transformer faults
Fans
External or through faults of major

magnitude
Oil Pumps
Repeated large motor starts on the

transformer. The motor represents a
major portion or the transformers KVA
rating.
Pilot wire Device 85
Fault withstand
Thermal protection hot spot, top of oil

temperature, winding temperature
Harmonics
Devices 26 & 49
Over current protection Device 50/51
Reverse over current Device 67
Ground current protection Device

50/51G
Gas accumulation Buckholz relay
Over voltage Device 59
Voltage or current balance Device 60
Tertiary Winding Protection if supplied
Relay Failure Scheme
Breaker Failure Scheme
Differential Device 87
Over or under excitation volts/ Hz

Device 24
Sudden tank pressure Device 63
Dissolved gas detection
Slide 83
Recommended Minimum
Protective system
Winding and/or power system Winding and/or power system

grounded neutral grounded
neutral ungrounded
Up to 10 MVA
Above 10 MVA
Up to 10 MVA
Above
10 MVA
Time over current
Instantaneous restricted
ground fault
Time delayed ground

fault
Differential
Gas detection
Over excitation
Overheating
Slide 84
Question
What is ANSI Shift Curve?
Slide 85
Answer
For delta-delta connected transformers, with
line-to-line faults on the secondary side, the
curve must be reduced to 87% (shift to the
left by a factor of 0.87)
For delta-wye connection, with single line-toground faults on the secondary side, the
curve values must be reduced to 58% (shift
to the left by a factor of 0.58)
Slide 86
Question
What is meant by Frequent and
Infrequent for transformers?
Slide 87
Infrequent Fault Incidence Zones for Category II & III Transformers

Source
Transformer primary-side protective device
(fuses, relayed circuit breakers, etc.) may be
selected by reference to the infrequent-faultincidence protection curve
Infrequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*
Category II or III Transformer

Fault will be cleared by transformer
primary-side protective device
Optional main secondary side protective device.
May be selected by reference to the infrequent-faultincidence protection curve
Fault will be cleared by transformer primary-side
protective device or by optional main secondaryside protection device
Feeder protective device
Frequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*
Fault will be cleared by

feeder protective device
Feeders
* Should be selected by reference to the frequent-fault-incidence protection curve or for

transformers serving industrial, commercial and institutional power systems with secondary-side
conductors enclosed in conduit, bus duct, etc., the feeder protective device may be selected by
reference to the infrequent-fault-incidence protection curve.
Source: IEEE C57
Slide 88
Motor Protection
IEEE Std 620-1996 IEEE Guide for the Presentation

of Thermal Limit Curves for Squirrel Cage Induction
Machines.
IEEE Std 1255-2000 IEEE Guide for Evaluation of

Torque Pulsations During Starting of Synchronous
Motors
ANSI/ IEEE C37.96-2000 Guide for AC Motor

Protection
The Art of Protective Relaying General Electric
Slide 89
Motor Protection
Motor Starting Curve
Thermal Protection
Locked Rotor Protection
Fault Protection
Slide 90
Motor Overload Protection

(NEC Art 430-32 Continuous-Duty Motors)
Thermal O/L (Device 49)

Motors with SF not less than 1.15
125% of FLA
Motors with temp. rise not over 40C

125% of FLA
All other motors

115% of FLA
Slide 91
Motor Protection Inst. Pickup

I
XS X d "
LOCKED
ROTOR
Recommended Instantaneous Setting:
RELAY PICK UP
I
I
PICK UP
1.6 TO 2
LOCKED ROTOR
If the recommended setting criteria cannot be met, or where more sensitive

protection is desired, the instantaneous relay (or a second relay) can be set more
sensitively if delayed by a timer. This permits the asymmetrical starting component
to decay out. A typical setting for this is:
RELAY PICK UP
I
I
PICK UP
1.2 TO 1.2
LOCKED ROTOR
with a time delay of 0.10 s (six cycles at 60 Hz)

Slide 92
Locked Rotor Protection

Thermal Locked Rotor (Device 51)
Starting Time (TS < TLR)
LRA
LRA sym
LRA asym (1.5-1.6 x LRA sym) + 10% margin
Slide 93
Fault Protection
(NEC Art / Table 430-52)
Non-Time Delay Fuses
300% of FLA
Dual Element (Time-Delay Fuses)

175% of FLA
Instantaneous Trip Breaker

800% - 1300% of FLA*
Inverse Time Breakers

250% of FLA
*can be set up to 1700% for Design B (energy efficient) Motor

Slide 94
Low Voltage Motor Protection

Usually pre-engineered (selected from
Catalogs)
Typically, motors larger than 2 Hp are
protected by combination starters
Overload / Short-circuit protection
Slide 95
Low-voltage Motor
Ratings
Continuous amperes
Range of ratings
9-250
Nominal voltage (V)
240-600
Horsepower
1.5-1000
00-9
Types of protection
Quantity
NEMA
designation
Overload: overload
relay elements
OL
Short circuit:
circuit breaker current
trip elements
CB
Fuses
FU
Undervoltage: inherent
with integral control
supply and three-wire
control circuit
Starter size (NEMA)
Ground fault (when

specified): ground relay
with toroidal CT
Slide 96
Minimum Required Sizes of a NEMA

Combination Motor Starter System
Slide 97
Required Data - Protection of a

Medium Voltage Motor
Rated full load current
Service factor
Locked rotor current
Maximum locked rotor time (thermal limit curve) with the motor at ambient and/or
operating temperature
Minimum no load current
Starting power factor
Running power factor
Motor and connected load accelerating time
System phase rotation and nominal frequency
Type and location of resistance temperature devices (RTDs), if used
Expected fault current magnitudes
First cycle current
Maximum motor starts per hour
Slide 98
Medium-Voltage Class E Motor Controller

Ratings
Class El
Class E2 (with
(without
fuses)
fuses)
Nominal system voltage

Horsepower
Symmetrical MVA interrupting
capacity at nominal
system voltage
2300-6900
0-8000
25-75
Types of Protective Devices
Quantity
Overload, or locked Rotor,

or both:
Thermal overload relay
TOC relay
IOC relay plus time delay
2300-6900
0-8000
160-570
NEMA
Designation
Phase Balance
3
3
3
OL OC TR/O
Thermal overload relay
OL
TOC relay
OC
IOC relay plus time delay
TR/OC
Short Circuit:
Fuses, Class E2
IOC relay, Class E1
FU
OC
Ground Fault
TOC residual relay
Overcurrent relay with toroidal
CT
1
1
GP
GP
Current balance relay
BC
Negative-sequence voltage 1
relay (per bus), or both
Undervoltage:
Inherent with integral
control supply and threewire control circuit, when
voltage falls sufficiently to
permit the contractor to
open and break the seal-in
circuit
Temperature:
Temperature relay,
operating from resistance
sensor or thermocouple in
stator winding
NEMA Class E1 medium

voltage starter
UV
OL
NEMA Class E2 medium

voltage starter
Slide 99
Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,

1800 rpm Motor
First half cycle current showing
current offset.
Beginning of run up current

showing load torque pulsations.
Slide 100
Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,

1800 rpm Motor - Oscillographs
Motor pull in current showing motor

reaching synchronous speed
Slide 101
Thermal Limit Curve
Slide 102
Thermal Limit Curve

Typical
Curve
Slide 103
(49)
I2T
O/L
tLR
MCP
(51)
ts
200 HP
Starting Curve
MCP (50)
LRAs
LRAasym
Slide 104
Protective Devices
Fuse
Overload Heater
Thermal Magnetic
Low Voltage Solid State Trip
Electro-Mechanical
Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)
Relay (50/51 P, N, G, SG, 51V, 67, 49, 46, 79, 21, )
Slide 105
Fuse (Power Fuse)

Non Adjustable Device (unless electronic)
Continuous and Interrupting Rating
Voltage Levels (Max kV)
Interrupting Rating (sym, asym)
Characteristic Curves
Min. Melting
Total Clearing
Application (rating type: R, E, X, )

Slide 106
Fuse Types
Expulsion Fuse (Non-CLF)
Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
Electronic Fuse (S&C Fault Fiter)
Slide 107
Total Clearing
Time Curve
Minimum Melting
Time Curve
Slide 108
Current Limiting Fuse

(CLF)
Limits the peak current of short-circuit
Reduces magnetic stresses (mechanical
damage)
Reduces thermal energy
Slide 109
Current (peak amps)
Current Limiting Action

Ip
ta = t c tm
Ip
ta = Arcing Time
tm = Melting Time
ta
tm
Time (cycles)
tc
tc = Clearing Time
Ip = Peak Current
Ip = Peak Let-thru Current
Slide 110
1996-2009
Operation
Inc.
Workshop
Notes: Protective
Device Coordination
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc.Technology,
Workshop
Notes:
Short-Circuit
IEC
Slide 111
Peak Let-Through Amperes
Let-Through Chart
7% PF (X/R = 14.3)
230,000
300 A
100 A
12,500
60 A
5,200
100,000
Symmetrical RMS Amperes

Slide 112
Fuse
Generally:
CLF is a better short-circuit protection
Non-CLF (expulsion fuse) is a better
Overload protection
Electronic fuses are typically easier to
coordinate due to the electronic control
adjustments
Slide 113
Selectivity Criteria
Typically:
Non-CLF:
140% of full load
CLF:
150% of full load
Safety Margin: 10% applied to Min

Melting (consult the fuse manufacturer)
Slide 114
Molded Case CB
Thermal-Magnetic
Magnetic Only
Types
Motor Circuit Protector

(MCP)
Integrally Fused (Limiters)
Poles
Current Limiting
High Interrupting Capacity
Frame Size
Trip Rating
Interrupting Capability
Voltage
Non-Interchangeable Parts
Insulated Case (Interchange
Parts)
Slide 115
MCCB
Slide 116
MCCB with SST Device
Slide 117
Thermal Maximum
Thermal Minimum
Magnetic
(instantaneous)
Slide 118
LVPCB
Voltage and Frequency Ratings
Continuous Current / Frame Size / Sensor
Interrupting Rating
Short-Time Rating (30 cycle)
Fairly Simple to Coordinate
Phase / Ground Settings
Inst. Override
Slide 119
LT PU
CB 2
CB 1
LT Band
CB 2
ST PU
480
kV
CB 1
IT
ST Band
If =30 kA
Slide 120
Inst. Override
Slide 121
Overload Relay / Heater

Motor overload protection is provided by a
device that models the temperature rise of
the winding
When the temperature rise reaches a point
that will damage the motor, the motor is deenergized
Overload relays are either bimetallic, melting
alloy or electronic
Slide 122
Overload Heater (Mfr. Data)
Slide 123
Question
What is Class 10 and Class 20 Thermal
OLR curves?
Slide 124
Answer
At 600% Current Rating:
Class 10 for fast trip, 10
seconds or less
Class 20 for, 20 seconds or
less (commonly used)
20
There is also Class 15, 30

for long trip time (typically
provided with electronic
overload relays)
6
Slide 125
Answer
Slide 126
Overload Relay / Heater

When the temperature at the combination motor starter is more than
10 C (18 F) different than the temperature at the motor, ambient
temperature correction of the motor current is required.
An adjustment is required because the output that a motor can safely
deliver varies with temperature.
The motor can deliver its full rated horsepower at an ambient
temperature specified by the motor manufacturers, normally + 40 C.
At high temperatures (higher than + 40 C) less than 100% of the
normal rated current can be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
At lower temperatures (less than + 40 C) more than 100% of the
normal rated current could be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.
Slide 127
Overcurrent Relay
Time-Delay (51 I>)
Short-Time Instantaneous ( I>>)
Instantaneous (50 I>>>)
Electromagnetic (induction Disc)
Solid State (Multi Function / Multi Level)
Application
Slide 128
1996-2009
Operation
Inc.
Workshop
Notes: Protective
Device Coordination
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc.Technology,
Workshop
Notes:
Short-Circuit
IEC
Slide 129
Time-Overcurrent Unit
Ampere Tap Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x A.T. Setting
Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT
Ratio
Multiples of A.T.
CT
IL
= IR/A.T. Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x A.T. Setting)
IR
51
Slide 130
Instantaneous Unit
Instantaneous Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x IT Setting
Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT
Ratio
Multiples of IT
CT
IL
= IR/IT Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x IT Setting)
IR
50
Slide 131
Relay Coordination
Time margins should be maintained between T/C
curves
Adjustment should be made for CB opening time
Shorter time intervals may be used for solid state
relays
Upstream relay should have the same inverse T/C
characteristic as the downstream relay (CO-8 to
CO-8) or be less inverse (CO-8 upstream to CO-6
downstream)
Extremely inverse relays coordinates very well with
CLFs
Slide 132
Situation
4.16 kV
CT 800:5
50/51
Relay: IFC 53
CB
Cable
CU - EPR
1-3/C 500 kcmil
Isc = 30,000 A
DS
5 MVA
6%
Calculate Relay Setting (Tap, Inst. Tap & Time Dial)

For This System
Slide 133
Solution
Transformer:
5,000kVA
694 A
3 4.16kV
5
IR IL
4.338 A
800
IL
I Inrsuh 12 694 8,328 A

Set Relay:
IL
IR
R
CT
125% 4.338 5.4 A

TAP 6.0 A
TD 1
(6/4.338 1.38)
Inst (50) 8,328
5
52.1A 55 A
800
Slide 134
Question
What T/C Coordination interval should be
maintained between relays?
Slide 135
Answer
B
t
CB Opening Time
+
Induction Disc Overtravel (0.1 sec)
+
Safety margin (0.2 sec w/o Inst. & 0.1 sec w/ Inst.)
I
Slide 136
Recloser
Recloser protects electrical transmission systems from temporary
voltage surges and other unfavorable conditions.
Reclosers can automatically "reclose" the circuit and restore normal
power transmission once the problem is cleared.
Reclosers are usually designed with failsafe mechanisms that prevent
them from reclosing if the same fault occurs several times in
succession over a short period. This insures that repetitive line faults
don't cause power to switch on and off repeatedly, since this could
cause damage or accelerated wear to electrical equipment.
It also insures that temporary faults such as lightning strikes or
transmission switching don't cause lengthy interruptions in service.
Slide 137
Recloser Types
Hydraulic
Electronic
Static Controller
Microprocessor Controller
Slide 138
Recloser Curves
Slide 139
TEMA 3
Slide 140
Transient Stability
Topics
What is Transient Stability (TS)
What Causes System Unstable
Effects When System Is Instable
Transient Stability Definition
Modeling and Data Preparation
ETAP TS Study Outputs
Power System TS Studies
Solutions to Stability Problems
Slide 142
What is Transient Stability

TS is also called Rotor Angle Stability
Something between mechanical system and
electrical system energy conversion
It is a Electromechanical Phenomenon
Time frame in milliseconds
All Synchronous Machines Must Remain in

Synchronism with One Another
Synchronous generators and motors
This is what system stable or unstable means
Slide 143

Torque Equation (generator case)
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
air = air-gap flux

Fr = rotor field MMF
= rotor angle
Slide 144

Swing Equation
= inertia constant
= damping constant
Pmech
= input mechanical power
Pelec
= output electrical power
Slide 145

From Torque Equation
T (prime mover)
Rotor MMF (field winding)
Air-Gap Flux (electrical system)
From Swing Equation

Pmech
Pelec
Different time constants in mechanical and
electrical systems
Slide 146

In real operation
Short-circuit
Loss of excitation
Prime mover failure
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations
Impact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and generation
Slide 147

Swing in Rotor Angle (as well as in V, I, P, Q
and f)
Case 1: Steady-state stable

Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
Slide 148

A 2-Machine
Example
At = -180
(Out-of-Step,
Slip the Pole)
Slide 149

Synchronous machine slip poles
generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
Interruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout

Slide 150

Examine One Generator
Power Output Capability Curve
is limited to 180
Slide 151

Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
After a severe disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
Limit: < 180 during swing
Slide 152

Synchronous Machine
Machine
Exciter and AVR
Prime Mover and Governor / Load Torque
Power System Stabilizer (PSS) (Generator)
Slide 153
Slide 154

Typical synchronous machine data
Slide 155

Induction Machine
Machine
Load Torque
Slide 156

Power Grid
Short-Circuit Capability
Fixed internal voltage and infinite inertia
Slide 157

Load
Voltage dependency
Frequency dependency
Slide 158

Load
Slide 159

Events and Actions
Slide 160

Device Type
Action
Bus
3-P Fault
L-G Fault
Branch
Fraction
Fault
Clear
Fault
PD
Trip
Close
Generator
Droop /
Isoch
Start
Loss Exc.
Grid
P Change
V Change
Delete
Motor
Accelerate
Load
Change
Delete
Lumped Load Load

Change
Clear Fault
P Change
V Change
Delete
Delete
MOV
Start
Wind Turbine
Disturbance
Gust
MG Set
Emergency
Main
Ramp
Slide 161

Fault
3-phase and single phase fault
Clear fault
Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
Critical System Separation Time (CSST)
Bus Transfer
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
Under-frequency
Under-voltage
Motor Dynamic Acceleration

Induction motor
Synchronous motor
Slide 162

Fault
Clear fault Clear fault
1 cycle
1 cycle
unstable
unstable
unstable
stable
CFC
T
Clear fault Clear fault
Cycle
Critical Separation Time (CSST)

Fault
Separation Separation
1 cycle
1 cycle
unstable
unstable
unstable
stable
CSS
T
Separation Separation
Cycle
Slide 163

Fast Bus Transfer
Motor residual voltage
Slide 164

Fast Bus Transfer
ES = System equivalent per unit

volts per hertz
EM = Motor residual per unit per
hertz
ER = Resultant vectorial voltage
in per unit volts per hertz
Ttransfer 10 cycles
90 degrees
ER 1.33 per unit (133%)
Slide 165

Load Shedding
Slide 166

Motor Dynamic Acceleration
Important for islanded system operation
Motor starting impact
Generator AVR action
Reacceleration
Slide 167
Solution to Stability Problems

Improve System Design
Increase synchronizing power
Design and Selection of Rotating

Equipment
Use of induction machines
Increase moment of inertia
Reduce transient reactance
Improve voltage regulator and exciter
characteristics
Slide 168
Solution to Stability Problems

Application of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
Add System Protections
Fast fault clearance
Load shedding
System separation
Out-Of-Step relay
Slide 169
TEMA 4
Slide 171
Harmonic Analysis
ARMONICAS
Exploracin de frecuencia.
Flujo Armnico de Carga.
Dimensionamiento y Diseo de
Filtros.
Evaluacin Automtica del lmite
de distorsin.
Factores de la influencia del
telfono (TIF & I*T)
Slide 173
Slide 174
Types of Power Quality

Problems
Slide 175
Waveform Distortion
Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
DC Offset
Harmonics
Interharmonics
Notching
Noise
Slide 176
Harmonics
One special category of power quality
problems
Harmonics are voltages and/or currents
present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)
Slide 177
Nonlinear Loads
Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor
Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double
Slide 178
Fourier Representation
Any periodic waveform
can be expressed as a
sum of sinusoids
The sum of the
sinusoids is referred to
as Fourier Series (6pulse)
I ac
2 3
1
1
1
1
I d (cost cos 3t cos 7t cos11t cos13t
5
7
11
13
I h cos(ht h )
h 1
Slide 179
Harmonic Sources
Utilities (Power Grid)
Known as Background Harmonic
Pollution from other irresponsible customers
SVC, HVDC, FACTS,
Usually a voltage source
Synchronous Generators
Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractionalpitch winding) and Saturation
Usually a voltage source
Slide 180
Harmonic Sources (contd)

Transformers
Due to magnetizing branch saturation
Only at lightly loaded condition
Usually a current source
Power Electronic Devices

Charger, Converter, Inverter, UPS, VFD, SVC, HVDC,
FACTS (Flexible alternating current transmission systems)
Due to switching actions
Either a voltage source or a current source
Slide 181
Harmonic Sources (contd)

Other Non-Linear Loads
Arc furnaces, discharge lighting,
Due to unstable and non-linear process
Either a voltage source or a current source
In general, any load that is applied to a

power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current
Slide 182
Harmonic I and V
Slide 183
Classification of Harmonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters
Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge
lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)
Slide 184
Phase Angle Relationship

Fundamental Frequency
Slide 185

Third Order
Slide 186

Fifth Order
Seventh Order
Slide 187
Order vs. Sequence
Slide 188
Slide 189
(contd)
Slide 190
Harmonic Spectrum
%
Slide 191
Harmonic-Related Problems
Motors and Generators
Increased heating due to iron and copper losses
Reduced efficiency and torque
Higher audible noise
Cogging or crawling
Mechanical oscillations
Slide 192
(contd)
Transformers
Parasitic heating
Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses
Capacitors (var compensators)

Possibility of system resonance
Increased heating and voltage stress
Shortened capacitor life
Slide 193
(contd)
Power Cables
Involved in system resonance
Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric
failure
Heating and derating
Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)

Overheating
Fuses
Blowing
Slide 194
(contd)
Switchgears
Increased heating and losses
Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
Shortened insulation components life
Relays
Possibility of misoperation
Metering
Affected readings
Slide 195
(contd)
Communication Systems
Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field
Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)

Misoperation
System
Resonance (serial and parallel)
Poor power factor
Slide 196
Parallel Resonance
Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop
Slide 197
Parallel Resonance
Slide 198
Capacitor Banks
Slide 199
Capacitor Banks
Slide 200
Capacitor Banks
Say, Seventh Harmonic Current = 5% of 1100A = 55 A
Slide 201
Capacitor Banks
Resistance = 1% including cable and transformer

CAF = X/R = 7*0.0069/0.0012 =40.25
Resonant Current = 55*40.25 = 2214 A
Slide 202
Parallel Resonance (contd)

Cause:
Source inductance resonates with

capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources
Impacts: 1. Excessive capacitor fuse

operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. Incorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
Slide 203
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor (HDF),
is the most popular index to measure the level of
harmonic distortion to voltage and current
Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
For an ideal system THD = 0%
Potential heating value of the harmonics relative
to the fundamental
Slide 204
Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)
THD
2
F
i
2
F1
Where Fi is the amplitude of the ith harmonic,

and F1 is that for the fundamental component.
Slide 205
Harmonic Distortion
Example
Find THD for this waveform
Slide 206
Harmonic Example
Find THD for this Harmonic Spectrum
Slide 207
Adjustable Speed Drive

Current Distortion
Slide 208
Adjustable Speed Drive

Voltage Distortion
Slide 209
Harmonic Distortion
Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)

- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
Fi
IHD
F1
Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total

- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero
2
RMS
Slide 210
Harmonic Distortion
Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all
components (fundamental and all harmonics)
Directly adds magnitudes of all components to
estimate crest value of voltage and current
Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings
of a device
ASUM Fi
1
Slide 211
Harmonic Distortion
Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
Weighted THD
Weights based on interference to an audio
signal in the same frequency range
Current TIF shows impact on adjacent
communication systems
W F
i
TIF
Slide 212
Harmonic Distortion
I*T Product (I*T)
A product current components (fundamental
and harmonics) and weighting factors

I T
2
(
I
T
)
h h
h 1
where Ih = current component

Th= weighting factor
h = harmonic order (h=1 for fundamental)
H = maximum harmonic order to account
Slide 213
Triplen Harmonics
Odd multiples of the
third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, )
Important issue for
grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
Overloading and TIF problems
Misoperation of devices due to presence of
harmonics on the neutral
Slide 214
Triplen Harmonics
Slide 215
Winding Connections
Delta winding provides ampere turn balance
Triplen Harmonics cannot flow
When currents are balanced Triplens

behave as Zero Sequence currents
Used in Utility Distribution Substations
Delta winding connected to Transmission
Balanced Triplens can flow
Present in equal proportions on both sides
Many loads are served in this fashion
Slide 216
Implications
Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating
when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
Measuring current on delta side will not show the
triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate
isolation transformer connection
Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y
windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
Three legged core transformers behave as if they have
a phantom delta tertiary winding
Slide 217
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
Motors and Machines
Represented by their equivalent negative
sequence reactance
Lines and Cables

Series impedance for low frequencies
Long line correction including transposition and
distributed capacitance
Slide 218
Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis (contd)
Transformers
Leakage impedance
Magnetizing impedance
Loads
Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to
motor inductance
Slide 219
Reducing System
Harmonics
Add Passive Filters
Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
Least expensive
Slide 220
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Increase Pulse Numbers
Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
Limited by practical control problems
Slide 221
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
Using Phase Shifting Transformers
Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation
In ETAP
Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor
Slide 222
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used
Slide 223
Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Add Active Filters
Instantly adapts to changing source and load
conditions
Costly
MVA Limitation
Slide 224
Voltage Distortion Limits

Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE
Bus Voltage
Individual
Total Voltage
519):
Distortion
Distortion
At
(%)
THD (%)
69 kV and below
3.0
5.0
69.001 kV through 161kV
1.5
2.5
161.001 and above
1.0
1.5
PCC
In ETAP:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:
Slide 225
Current Distortion Limits

Recommended Practices for General
Distribution Systems (IEEE 519):
Slide 226
TEMA 5
Slide 227
Motor Starting
Dynamic Acceleration
ARRANQUE DE MOTORES
Aceleracin
motores.
dinmica
de
Parpadeo (Flicker) de tensin.

Modelos dinmicos de motores.
Arranque esttico de motores.
Varios dispositivos de arranque.
Transicin de carga.
Slide 229
Slide 230
Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure that motor will start with voltage drop
If Tst<Tload at s=1, then motor will not start
If Tm=Tload at s<sr, motor can not reach rated speed
Torque varies as (voltage)^2
Ensure that voltage drop will not disrupt other loads

Utility bus voltage >95%
3% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes visible
5% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes irritating
MCC bus voltage >80%
Generation bus voltage > 93%
Slide 231
Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure motor feeders sized adequately
(Assuming 100% voltage at Switchboard or MCC)
LV cable voltage drop at starting < 20%
LV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 5%
HV cable voltage drop at starting < 15%
HV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 3%
Maximum motor size that can be started across the line
Motor kW < 1/6 kW rating of generator (islanded)
For 6 MW of islanded generation, largest motor size < 1 MW
Slide 232
Motor Sizing
Positive Displacement Pumps / Rotary Pumps
p = Pressure in psi
Q = fluid flow in gpm
n = efficiency
Centrifugal Pumps
H = fluid head in feet
Slide 233
Motor Types
Synchronous
Salient Pole
Round Rotor
Induction
Wound Rotor (slip-ring)
Single Cage CKT Model
Squirrel Cage (brushless)

Double Cage CKT Model
Slide 234
Induction Motor Advantages

Squirrel Cage
Slightly higher efficiency and power factor
Explosive proof
Wound Rotor
Higher starting torque
Lower starting current
Speed varied by using external resistances
Slide 235
Typical Rotor Construction
Rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but

skewed
Slide 236
Wound Rotor
Slide 237
Operation of Induction
Motor
AC applied to stator winding
Creates a rotating stator magnetic field in air gap
Field induces currents (voltages) in rotor
Rotor currents create rotor magnetic field in air gap
Torque is produced by interaction of air gap fields
Slide 238
Slip Frequency
Slip represents the inability of the rotor to
keep up with the stator magnetic field
Slip frequency
S = (s-n)/s
where s = 120f/P
n = mech speed
Slide 239
Static Start - Example
Slide 240
Static Start - Example
Slide 241
Service Factor
Slide 242
Inrush Current
Slide 243
Resistance / Reactance
Torque Slip Curve is changed by altering
resistance / reactance of rotor bars.
Resistance by cross sectional area or
using higher resistivity material like brass.
Reactance by placing conductor deeper in
the rotor cylinder or by closing the slot at the
air gap.
Slide 244
Rotor Bar Resistance

Increase Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Full Load Speed
Lower Efficiency
No Effect on Breakdown Torque
Slide 245
Rotor Bar Reactance

Lower Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Breakdown Torque
No effect on Full Load Conditions
Slide 246
Motor Torque Curves
Slide 247
Rotor Bar Design

Cross section Large (low
resistance) and positioned deep in
the rotor (high reactance).
(Starting Torque is normal and
starting current is low).
Double Deck with small conductor
of high resistance. During starting,
most current flows through the
upper deck due to high reactance
of lower deck. (Starting Torque is
high and starting current is low).
Slide 248
Rotor Bar Design

Bars are made of Brass or
similar high resistance
material. Bars are close to
surface to reduce leakage
reactance. (Starting torque is
high and starting current is
low).
Slide 249
Load Torque ID Fan
Slide 250
Load Torque FD Fan
Slide 251
Load Torque C. Pump
Slide 252
Motor Torque Speed Curve
Slide 253
Double Cage Motor
Slide 254
Motor Full Load Torque

For example, 30 HP 1765 RPM Motor
Slide 255
Motor Efficiency
kW Saved = HP * 0.746 (1/Old 1/New)
$ Savings = kW Saved * Hrs /Year * $/kWh
Slide 256
Acceleration Torque
Greater
Acceleration
Torque means
higher inertia
that can be
handled by the
motor without
approaching
thermal limits
Slide 257
Acceleration Torque
Slide 258
Operating Range
Motor, Generator, or Brake
Slide 259
Rated Conditions
Terminal Current
Load(kva)
Constant Power
kvar
0.8
Terminal Voltage
1.0
Ir
L1
0.8 Terminal Voltage
1.0
P = Tm Wm , As Vt ( terminal voltage ) changes from 0.8 to 1.1 pu, Wm

changes by a very small amount. There fore, P is approx constant since
Tm ( wm) is approx. constant
Slide 260
Starting Conditions
Constant Impedance
Starting Conditions
Constant Impedance
It
Kva
LR
I LR
.8 kva
.9 I LR
LR
0.9
Terminal Voltage
1.0
Vt
(pu)
0.9 Terminal Voltage
1.0
Vt
(pu)
KVA LR = Loched - rotor KVA at rated voltage = 2HP

2 Code letter factor Locked rotor KVA HP
Z st = ______
KVA B
KVA LR
KVR = rated voltage
____
KVR
KVB
Pu, Rst = Zst cos st , Xst= Zst sin st
KVB = Base voltage KVAB = Base power
Slide 261
Voltage Variation
Torque is proportional to V^2
Current is proportional to V
I
100% voltage
v1
80% voltage
p
R
ws
0
I
wm
ws
wm
Load
100% V
Tst ( operating
voltage)
_____________
Rated voltage
80% V
Ist ( _____________
operating voltage)
Rated voltage
T st
T st
Slide 262
Frequency Variation
As frequency decreases, peak torque shifts toward lower
speed as synchronous speed decreases.
As frequency decrease, current increases due reduced
impedance.
I
T
em
F1
F1
F2 F1
F2 F1
W3 = 120
___f RPM
P
0
WS1
WS2
Wm
WS1
WS2
Wm
Adjustable speed drive : Typical speed range for variable torque loads such as pumps and fans is 3/1,maximun is 8/1 ( 1.5 to 60 Hz)
Slide 263
Number of Poles Variation
As Pole number increases, peak torque shifts toward lower

speed as synchronous speed decreases.
Nro. of poles variation
T
em
2 P - poles
WS =
P - poles
WS
___
2
Load
WS
WS
Wm
Slide 264
Rotor Z Variation
Increasing rotor Z will shift peak torque towards lower
speed.
Rotor Resistance Variation
r2
r3
r4
r1
P
R
r1 r2 r3 r4
Slide 265
Modeling of Elements
Switching motors Zlr, circuit model, or
characteristic model
Synch generator - constant voltage behind
Xd
Utility - constant voltage behind Xd
Branches Same as in Load Flow
Non-switching Load Same as Load flow
All elements must be initially energized,
including motors to start
Slide 266
Motor Modeling
1. Operating Motor
Constant KVA Load
2. Starting Motor
During Acceleration Constant Impedance
Locked-Rotor Impedance
Circuit Models
Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
Slide 267
Locked-Rotor Impedance
ZLR = RLR +j XLR
(10 25 %)
POWER FACTOR
PFLR is much lower than operating PD.

Approximate starting PF of typical squirrel
cage induction motor:
HORSE POWER RATING

Slide 268
Circuit Model I
Single Cage Rotor
Single1 constant rotor resistance and
reactance
Slide 269
Circuit Model II
Single Cage Rotor
Single2 - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and
reactance vary with speed [Xm is removed]
Slide 270
Circuit Model III

Double Cage Rotor
DB1 integrated rotor cages
Slide 271
Circuit Model IV
Double Cage Rotor
DB2 independent rotor cages
Slide 272
Characteristic Model
Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip
Static Model
Slide 273
Calculation Methods I
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model
Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and
constant kVA load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system
Dynamic Motor Starting

Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model
Slide 274
Calculation Methods II
Slide 275
Static versus Dynamic

Use Static Model When
Concerned with effect of motor starting on other
loads
Missing dynamic motor information
Use Dynamic Model When

Concerned with actual acceleration time
Concerned if motor will actually start
Slide 276
MS Simulation Features
Start/Stop induction/synchronous motors
Switching on/off static load at specified loading category
Simulate MOV opening/closing operations
Change grid or generator operating category
Simulate transformer LTC operation
Simulate global load transition
Simulate various types of starting devices
Simulate load ramping after motor acceleration
Slide 277
Automatic Alert
Starting motor terminal V

Motor acceleration failure
Motor thermal damage
Generator rating
Generator engine continuous
& peak rating
Generator exciter peak rating
Bus voltage
Starting motor bus
Grid/generator bus
HV, MV, and LV bus
User definable minimum time
span
Slide 278
Starting Devices Types

Auto-Transformer
Y/D Winding
Stator Resistor
Partial Wing
Stator Reactor
Soft Starter
Capacitor at Bus
Stator Current Limit
Capacitor at Motor
Terminal
Stator Current Control
Rotor External Resistor
Torque Control
Voltage Control
Rotor External Reactor

Slide 279
Starting Device
Comparison of starting conditions
Slide 280
Starting Device AutoXFMR
C4 and C3 closed initially

C4 opened, C2 is closed with C3 still closed. Finally C3 is open
Slide 281
Starting Device AutoXFMR

Autotransformer starting
EX. 50% Tap
Vmcc
3IST
MCC
line
VMCC
50%
tap
5VMCC
IST
VM
Autotransformer starter
PFST ( with autotransformer) = PFST ( without autotransformer)
Slide 282
Starting Device YD Start
During Y connection Vs = VL / 3
Phase current Iy = Id / 3 and 3 to 1 reduction in torque
Slide 283
Starting Device Rotor R
Slide 284
Starting Device Stator R
Resistor
RL
5VMCC
VMCC
PFST ( with resistor) =
50%
tap
1-[pu tap setting ] * [ 1- (PFST
XL
VM
RLR
XLR
without resistor)]
1- (0.5) * [1-(PFST)]
Slide 285
Starting Device Stator X

Reactor
RL
5VMCC
VMCC
50%
tap
PFST ( with reactor) = [pu tap setting ] * PFST
XL
VM
RLR
XLR
(without reactor)
Slide 286
Transformer LTC Modeling

LTC operations can be simulated in motor
starting studies
Use global or individual Tit and Tot
V limit
Tit
Tot
T
Slide 287
MOV Modeling I
Represented as an impedance load during
operation
Each stage has own impedance based on I, pf, Vr
User specifies duration and load current for each stage
Operation type depends on MOV status

Open statusclosing operation
Close statusopening operation
Slide 288
MOV Modeling II
Five stages of operation
Opening
Closing
Acceleration
Acceleration
No load
No load
Unseating
Travel
Travel
Seating
Stall
Stall
Without hammer blow Skip No Load period

With a micro switch Skip Stall period
Operating stage time extended if Vmtr < Vlimit
Slide 289
MOV Closing
With Hammer Blow- MOV Closing
Slide 290
MOV Opening
With Hammer Blow- MOV Opening
Slide 291
MOV Voltage Limit

Effect of Voltage Limit Violation
I
ACCL
STALL
VMTR < V LIMIT
UNSETTING
TRAVEL
Tacc
Tpos
Travel
Tstl
Slide 292
TEMA 6
Slide 293
Short-Circuit
ANSI Standard
CORTO CIRCUITO
Estndar de ANSI/IEEE & IEC.

Anlisis de fallas transitorias
(IEC 61363).
Efecto de Arco (NFPA 70E2000)
Integrado con coordinacin de
dispositivos de proteccin.
Evaluacin
dispositivos.
automtica
de
Slide 295
Slide 296
Short-Circuit Analysis
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault
Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G .87 * I3-phase
In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition
is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
Slide 297
Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device Interrupting capability
Protect equipment from large mechanical forces
(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
Slide 298
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Power Company Supply
In-Plant Generators
Transformers (using negative tolerance)
Reactors (using negative tolerance)
Feeder Cables and Bus Duct Systems (at
lower temperature limits)
Slide 299
System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Overhead Lines (at lower temperature limit)
Synchronous Motors
Induction Motors
Protective Devices
Y0 from Static Load and Line Cable
Slide 300
Elements That Contribute

Current to a Short-Circuit
Generator
Power Grid
Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines
Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
Slide 301
Elements Do Not Contribute

Current in PowerStation
Static Loads
Motor Operated Valves
All Shunt Y Connected Branches
Slide 302
Short-Circuit Phenomenon
v(t)
i(t)
v(t) Vm Sin( t )
Slide 303
v(t)
i(t)
di
v(t) Ri L Vm Sin(t ) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
R
- t
Vm
Vm
i(t)
sin(t - )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z

Steady State
Transient
(DC Offset)
Slide 304
AC Current (Symmetrical) with

No AC Decay
DC Current
1996-2009Operation
OperationTechnology,
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
1996-2009
Slide 305
AC Fault Current Including the

DC Offset (No AC Decay)
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 306
Machine Reactance ( = L I )
AC Decay Current
Slide 307
Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay
Slide 308
ANSI Calculation Methods

1) The ANSI standards handle the AC Decay by varying
machine impedance during a fault.
ANSI
2) The ANSI standards handle the the dc

offset by applying multiplying factors. The
ANSI Terms for this current are:
Momentary Current
Close and Latch Current
First Cycle Asymmetrical Current
Slide 309
Sources and Models of Fault

Currents in ANSI Standards
Sources
Synchronous Motors & Condensers
Induction Machines
Electric Utility Systems (Power Grids)
Models
All sources are modeled by an internal
voltage behind its impedance.
E = Prefault Voltage
R = Machine Armature Resistance
X = Machine Reactance (Xd, Xd, Xd)
Slide 310
Synchronous Generators are modeled
in three stages.
Synchronous Motors &

Condensers
Act as a generator to supply fault
current. This current diminishes as the
magnetic field in the machine decays.
Induction Machines
Transient Reactance
Treated the same as synchronous

motors except they do not contribute to
the fault after 2 sec.
Subtransient Reactance
Electric Utility Systems
Synchronous Reactance
The fault current contribution tends to

remain constant.
Slide 311
Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current

and protective device duties at the cycle after the fault.
1 to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current
and protective device duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.
30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit
current and settings for over current relays after 30 cycles.
Slide 312
Reactance Representation for

Utility and Synchronous Machine
Utility
Turbo Generator
Hydro-Gen with
Amortisseur
winding
Hydro-Gen without
Amortisseur
winding
Condenser
Synchronous
Motor
Cycle
1 to 4 Cycle
30 Cycle
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
0.75*Xd
0.75*Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
Xd
1.5*Xd
Slide 313
Reactance Representation for

Induction Machine
Cycle
1 to 4
Cycle
>1000 hp , <= 1800

rpm
Xd
1.5*Xd
>250, at 3600 rpm
Xd
1.5*Xd
All others, >= 50 hp
1.2*Xd
3.0*Xd
< 50 hp
1.67*Xd
Note: Xd = 1 / LRCpu
Slide 314
Device Duty and Usage of Fault Currents

from Different Networks
Cycle Currents
(Subtransient
Network)
1 to 4 Cycle
Currents
(Transient Network)
HV Circuit Breaker
Closing and Latching

Capability
Interrupting
Capability
LV Circuit Breaker
Interrupting Capability
---
Fuse
Interrupting
Capability
SWGR / MCC
Bus Bracing
---
Relay
Instantaneous
Settings
---
---
30 Cycle currents are used for determining overcurrent settings.
Slide 315
Momentary Multiplying
Factor
MFm is calculated based on:

Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
Location of fault (Remote / Local generation)
Comparisons of Momentary capability (1/2 Cycle)
SC Current Duty
Device Rating
HV CB
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
C&L RMS
C&L RMS
HV Bus
Asymmetrical RMS
Crest
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS
LV Bus
Crest
Slide 316
Interrupting Multiplying
Factor
MFi is calculated based on:
Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)
Location of Fault (Remote / Local
generation)
Type and Rating of CB
Comparisons of Interrupting Capability (1 to 4

Cycle)
HV CB
LV CB & Fuse
SC Current Duty
Device Rating
Adj. Symmetrical RMS*
Adj. Symmetrical RMS*
Adj. Symmetrical RMS***
Symmetrical RMS
Slide 317
HV CB Closing and
Latching Duty
Calculate Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Calculate X/R ratio and Multiplying factor MFm
Imom, rms, Asym = MFm * Imom, rms, sym
Slide 318
HV CB Interrupting Duty
Calculate 1 to 4 Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Determine Local and Remote contributions (A local contribution is
fed predominantly from generators through no more than one
transformation or with external reactances in series that is less than
1.5 times generator subtransient reactance. Otherwise the
contribution is defined as remote).
Calculate no AC Decay ratio (NACD) and multiplying factor MFi
NACD = IRemote / ITotal
ITotal = ILocal + IRemote
(NACD = 0 if all local & NACD = 1 if all remote)
Calculate Iint, rms, adj = MFi * Iint, rms, Symm
Slide 319
HV CB Interrupting
Capability
CB Interrupting kA varies between Max kA and Rated kA
as applied kV changes MVAsc capability.
ETAPs comparison between CB Duty of Adj.
Symmetrical kA and CB capability of Adjusted Int. kA
verifies both symmetrical and asymmetrical rating.
The Option of C37.010-1999 standard allows user to
specify CPT.
Generator CB has higher DC rating and is always
compared against maximum through SC kA.
Slide 320
LV CB Interrupting Duty
LV CB take instantaneous action.
Calculate Cycle current Irms, Symm (If) from the

cycle network.
Calculate X/R ratio and MFi (based on CB type).
Calculate adjusted interrupting current Iadj, rms, symm =

MFi * Irms, Symm
Slide 321
Fuse Interrupting Duty

Calculate Cycle current Iint, rms, symm from Cycle Network.
Same procedure to calculate Iint, rms, asymm as for CB.
Slide 322
L-G Faults
Slide 323
L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components
Slide 324
Sequence Networks
Slide 325
L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
If 3 Ia 0
3 VPr efault
If
Z1 Z 2 Z0
if Zg 0
Slide 326
L-L Fault Sequence Network

Connections
I a 2 I a1
3 VPr efault
If
Z1 Z 2
Slide 327
L-L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
I a 2 I a1 I a 0 0 I a
VPr efault
If
Z0 Z 2
Z1
Z0 Z 2
if Zg 0
Slide 328
Transformer Zero Sequence Connections
Slide 329
Solid Grounded Devices

and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1 Z 2 & Z 0 Z1
If this conditions are true then :
I f3 I f 1
This may be the case if Generators or
Y/ Connected transformer are solidly
grounded.
Slide 330

& Reports
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

include:
contributions
Phase Voltages
Slide 331
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 332
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 333
SC Study Case Info Page
Slide 334
SC Study Case Standard

Page
Slide 335
SC Study Case Adjustments

Page
Tolerance
Adjustments
Transformer
Impedance
Reactor
Resistance
Overload
Heater
Resistance
Length
Adjustments
Cable Length
Transmission
Line Length
Temperature
Corrections
Adjust Fault
Impedance
Transmission
Line Resistance
L-G fault
Impedance
Cable Resistance
Slide 336
Tolerance Adjustments
Z 'Transforme r Z Transforme r * (1 Tolerance )
Length'Cable LengthCable * (1 Tolerance )
Length'Transmissi onLine LengthTransmissi onLine * (1 Tolerance )
Positive tolerance value is used for IEC Minimum If calculation.
Negative tolerance value is used for all other calculations .
Adjustments can be applied Individually or Globally
Slide 337
Temperature Correction
(234.5 Tc )
R'Copper ' RBASE *
(234.5 Tb)
( 228.1 Tc )
R' Alumi RBASE *
(228.1 Tb)
RBASE Resistance at base tempereature
R' Resistance at operating temperature
Tb Conductor base temperature in C
Tc Conductor temperature limit in C
Temperature Correction can be applied

Individually or Globally
Slide 338
System for SC Study

Power Grid U1
X/R = 55
Transformers
T1 X/R
PS =12
PT =12
ST =12
T2 X/R = 12
Gen1
Voltage Control
Design Setting:
%Pf = 85
MW = 4
Max Q = 9
Min Q = -3
Lump1
Y open grounded
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 339
System for SC Study
Tmin = 40, Tmax = 90
Slide 340
System for SC Study
Slide 341
Short-Circuit Alerts
Bus Alert
Protective Device Alert
Marginal Device Limit
Slide 342
Bus SC Rating
Type of Device
MV Bus (> 1000 Volts)
LV Bus (<1000Volts)
Monitored Parameter
Condition Reported
Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA
Bracing Asymmetrical
Momentary Asymmetrical. crest kA
Bracing Crest
Momentary Symmetrical. rms kA
Bracing Symmetrical
Bracing Asymmetrical
Protective Device Rating

Device Type
ANSI Monitored Parameters
IEC Monitored Parameters
LVCB
Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA
Breaking
Momentary C&L
Making
Momentary C&L Crest kA
N/A
Breaking
Fuse
Breaking
SPDT
Making
SPST Switches
Making
HV CB
Slide 343
3-Phase Duty SC Results

Run a 3-phase Duty SC calculation for a
fault on Bus4. The display shows the
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current.
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 344
Unbalance Fault Calculation
1996-2009
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Short-CircuitIEC
ANSI
Slide 345
TEMA 7
Slide 346
Transient Stability
Time Frame of Power System

Dynamic Phenomena
Slide 348
Introduction
TS is also called Rotor Stability, Dynamic
Stability
Electromechanical Phenomenon
All synchronous machines must remain in
synchronism with one another
TS is no longer only the utilitys concern
Co-generation plants face TS problems
Slide 349
Analogy
Which vehicles will pushed hardest?

How much energy gained by each vehicle?
Which direction will they move?
Height of the hill must they climb to go over?
Slide 350
Introduction (contd)
System protection requires consideration of:
Critical Separation Time (CST)
Fast load transferring
Load Shedding
Slide 351
Causes of Instability
Short-circuits
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations (lines or capacitors)
Impact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and
generation
Slide 352
Consequences of Instability
Synchronous machine slip poles
generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
Interruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout

Slide 353
Synchronous Machines
Torque Equation (generator case)
T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles
air = air-gap flux

Fr = rotor field MMF
= rotor angle
Slide 354
Swing Equation
Slide 355
Synchronous Machines
(contd)
Swing Equation
= inertia constant
= damping constant
Pmech = input mechanical power

Pelec
= output electrical power
Slide 356
Rotor Angle Responses
Case 1: Steady-state stable
Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable
Slide 357
Power and Rotor Angle

(Classical 2-Machine
Example)
Slide 358

(contd)
Slide 359

(Parallel Lines)
Slide 360
Both Lines In Service
Slide 361
One Line Out of Service
Slide 362
Equal Area Criterion
Slide 363
Equal Area Criterion
Slide 364
Equal Area - Stable
Slide 365
Equal Area Unstable
Slide 366
Equal Area - Unstable
Slide 367
Power System Stability

Limit
Steady-State Stability Limit
After small disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady state operating
condition identical or close to the predisturbance
Limit: < 90
Slide 368
Power System Stability

Limit (cond)
Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
After a severe disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism
Limit: < 180 during swing
Slide 369
Generator Modeling
Machine
Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Subtransient Model
Exciter and Automatic Voltage Regulator

(AVR)
Prime Mover and Speed Governor
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
Slide 370
Generator Modeling (cond)

Typical synchronous machine data
Slide 371
Factors Influencing TS
Post-Disturbance Reactance seen from generator.
Reactance Pmax
Duration of the fault clearing time.

Fault time Rotor Acceleration Kinetic Energy
Dissipation Time during deceleration
Generator Inertia.
Inertia Rate of change of Angle Kinetic Energy
Generator Internal Voltage
Internal Voltage Pmax
Slide 372
Factors Influencing TS
Generator Loading Prior To Disturbance
Loading Closer to Pmax. Unstable during acceleration
Generator Internal Reactance

Reactance Peak Power Initial Rotor Angle
Dissipation Time during deceleration
Generator Output During Fault

Function of Fault Location and Type of Fault
Slide 373
Solution to Stability
Problems
Improve system design
Increase synchronizing power
Design and selection of rotating equipment

Use of induction machines
Increase moment of inertia
Reduce transient reactance
Improve voltage regulator and exciter
characteristics
Slide 374
Problems
Reduction of Transmission System
Reactance
High Speed Fault Clearing
Dynamic Braking
Regulate Shunt Compensation
Steam Turbine Fast Valving
Generator Tripping
Adjustable Speed Synchronous Machines
Slide 375
Problems
HVDC Link Control
Current Injection from VSI devices
Application of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
Add system protections
Fast fault clearance
Load Shedding
System separation
Slide 376
TEMA 8
Slide 377
Load Flow Analysis
FLUJO DE CARGA
Clculo de los flujos de potencia.

Diversas representaciones de las
cargas.
Clculo de los perfiles de tensin.
Correccin del factor de potencia.
Diagnstico automtico de equipos.
Correccin automtica de impedancias
por temperatura.
Clculo de prdidas activas y reactivas.
Slide 379
Slide 380
System Concepts
Slide 381
Power in Balanced 3-Phase

S V I
Systems S 3 S
*
LN
3 V LL I *
P jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor
Leading Power Factor
Current and Voltage
Slide 382
Leading & Lagging Power

Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.
Leading
Power
Factor
Lagging
Power
Factor
P jQ
P - jQ
P + jQ
Slide 383
3-Phase Per Unit System

kVA B
IB
3kVB
S 3VI
If you have two bases:
V 3ZI
SB
B
3VB
Then you may calculate the other two

by using the relationships enclosed in
brackets. The different bases are:
2
V
B
Z
B SB
ZB (Base Impedance)
(kVB ) 2
ZB
MVA B
IB (Base Current)
I actual
I pu
IB
Vactual
Vpu
VB
Zactual
Z pu
ZB
Sactual
Spu
SB
VB (Base Voltage)
SB (Base Power)
ETAP selects for LF:
100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.
Slide 384
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied
starting from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
To determine base voltage use:
N1
kV
kVB2
N2
1
B
kVB2
Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find

the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.
X pu
X
R
Z pu
X
R
R pu
x pu
X
R
Slide 385
X pu
0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14) 2
0.06478
R pu
0.06478
0.005336
12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
o
n
o VB
Z pu Z pu n
VB
SnB
13.8 100
o (5.33 10 3 j0.06478)

(0.1115 j1.3538)
13.5 5
SB
% Z 100 Z pu 11.15 j135.38

Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.
kVutility 13.5
VB
4.0695
3.31
N1
N 2
VB2
(4.0695) 2
ZB
0.165608
MVA
100
Slide 386
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Zactual (0.1 j1)

Z pu
(0.6038 j6.0382)
ZB
0.1656
% Z 100 Z pu 60.38 j603.8
The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base
Slide 387
Load Flow Analysis
Slide 388
Load Flow Problem

Given
Load Power Consumption at all buses
Configuration
Power Production at each generator
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Slide 389
Load Flow Studies

Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows
Power Factors
Transformer LTC Settings
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Total Generation & Power Demand
Steady State Stability Limits
MW & Mvar Losses
Slide 390
Size & Determine System

Equipment & Parameters
Cable / Feeder Capacity

Capacitor Size
Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)

Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting
Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.
MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings
Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)
Generators Mvar Demand
Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
Slide 391
Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
Slide 392
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
Slide 393
Load Flow Calculation

Methods
1.
Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method
2.
Low Requirements on initial values,

but slow in
3.
speed.
Newton-Raphson Method
Fast in speed, but high requirement on

initial values.
First order derivative is used to speed up
calculation.
Fast-Decoupled Method
Two sets of iteration equations: real

power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude.
Fast in speed, but low in solution

precision.
Better for radial systems and

systems with long lines.
Slide 394
Load Nameplate Data
kWRated
HP 0.7457
kVARated
PF Eff
PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3
3 kV
kVARated
FLA1
kV
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
loading conditions
kVA (kW ) 2 (kVar ) 2

PF
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
I1 1000
kV
I 3 1000
Slide 395
Constant Power Loads
In Load Flow calculations induction,

synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.
The power output remains constant even

if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).
The lump load power output behaves like

a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.
Slide 396
Constant Impedance Loads

In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.
1996-2008Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Load Flow Analysis
1996-2009
IEC
Slide
Slide 397
397
Constant Current Loads

The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.
Slide 398
Constant Current Loads
Slide 399
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Slide 400
Generator Operation Modes
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Slide 401
Governor Operating Modes

Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generators power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.
Slide 402
Isochronous Mode
Slide 403
Droop Mode
Slide 404
Droop Mode
Slide 405
Droop Mode
Slide 406
Adjusting Steam Flow
Slide 407
Adjusting Excitation
Slide 408
In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating

modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
Droop Mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
Droop Mode
Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
PF Control
Droop Mode
AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
Slide 409
In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

model is changed to a Load Model (P & Q are kept fixed)
Slide 410
Generator Capability Curve
Slide 411
Slide 412
Slide 413
Maximum & Minimum

Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit
Steady State Stability Curve

Armature Winding Heating Limit
Slide 414

Field Winding
Heating Limit
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Steady State Stability Curve
Slide 415
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Slide 416
Power Flow
V1 V1 1
V 2 V2 2
S V*I P jQ
V *V
1 2 *SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2
V2
j
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
V1*V2
*SIN( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V2
V2
Q
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
P
Slide 417
Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are

connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0 , V2 = 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.
V1 V 2 100 j0 (86.6 j50)
X
j5
I 10 j2.68
I
V1I* 100(10 j2.68) 1000 j268

V2 I* (86.6 j50)(10 j2.68) 1000 j268
| I |2 X 10.352 5 536 var
Slide 418
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
( V E)
sin
X
( V E)
cos
X
Power Flow
V

X
2
2
Real Power Flow

Reactive Power Flow
Slide 419
Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated 13.5 kVNo min al 13.8

kVCalculated
V%
100 97.83%
kVNo min al
For Bus5:
kVCalculated 4.03
V%
kVNo min al 4.16
kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 420
Slide 421
Lump Load Negative

Loading
Slide 422
Load Flow Adjustments

Transformer Impedance
Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Transmission Line Length

Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length
variation tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Slide 423
Load Flow Study Case

Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
Individual
Global
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Slide 424
Allowable Voltage Drop

NEC and ANSI C84.1
Slide 425
Load Flow Example 1

Part 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 426
Load Flow Example 1

Part 2
Slide 427
Load Flow Alerts
Slide 428
Equipment Overload Alerts

Bus Alerts
Monitor Continuous Amps
Cable
Reactor
Line
Monitor Line Ampacity
Transformer
Monitor Maximum MVA Output
UPS/Panel
Monitor Panel Continuous Amps
Generator
Monitor Generator Rated MW
Slide 429
Protective Device Alerts

Protective Devices
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
Low Voltage Circuit Breaker
Continuous rated Current
OverLoad
High Voltage Circuit Breaker
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
SPDT / SPST switches
OverLoad
Slide 430
If the Auto Display

feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation
has finished.
1996-2009Operation
Technology,Inc.
Inc.Workshop
WorkshopNotes:
Notes:Short-Circuit
Load Flow Analysis
1996-2009
IEC
Slide
Slide 431
431
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Slide 432
Load Flow Convergence

Negative Impedance
Zero or Very Small Impedance
Widely Different Branch Impedance Values
Long Radial System Configurations
Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values
Slide 433
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
Slide 434
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Change Syn2 Quantity to 6.

(Info Page, Quantity Field)
Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under

Voltage Condition)
Method 1 - Change Xfmr
300 kvar 3 Banks
Method 3 - Change Tap

Place LTC on Primary of T6
Select Bus8 for Control Bus
Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8

MVA, will notice slight
improvement on the Bus8 kV
Select Update LTC in the

Study Case
Too Expensive and time

consuming
Bus Voltage Comes within

specified limits
Run LF
Slide 435
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Method 2 Add Capacitor
Add Switch to CAP1
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run Load Flow
Run LF
Var Contribution from the

Utility reduces
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Method 3 Xfmr MVA

Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
Will notice decrease in the
contribution from the Utility
Slide 436
Panel Systems
Slide 437
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing
power and lighting panels in electrical
systems
Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels
Slide 438
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Slide 439
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Slide 440
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
Slide 441
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage =

Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C:
For load connected to phase B
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Slide 442
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

Slide 443
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type
is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library
Slide 444
Schedule Page
Circuit Numbers
with
Standard Layout
Circuit Numbers
with
Column Layout
Slide 445
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Slide 446
Rating Tab
Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts
for a 3-phase load are
1200, enter W as 400
(=1200/3)
Slide 447
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Slide 448
Protective Device Tab

Library Quick Pick LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or
Library Quick Pick
Fuse
will
appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.
Slide 449
Feeder Tab
Slide 450
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.
Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.
Slide 451
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Code Demand Per Phase and Total
Slide 452
Output Report
Slide 453
Panel Code Factors

The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done
for each types of load separately and then summed up
Slide 454

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